PREFACE This is the first edition of the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics for the 21st Century (as “century” is officially defined). Few would dispute that the 20th Century was the century of science; major paradigm shifts took place first in physics and chemistry and, in the second half of the century, in biology. The “Rubber Handbook”, socalled after the original name of its publisher, the Chemical Rubber Company, was a fixture for almost all of that eventful century. When the first edition appeared in 1913, the electron had been known for only 17 years, there were 81 elements, and the Bohr theory of the hydrogen atom was still in press. The Handbook was a significant innovation. While systematic compilation of data from the chemistry and physics literature had begun earlier, especially in Germany, the massive tomes that were published by Beilstein, Gmelin, and Landolt-Börnstein were strictly for libraries. The Rubber Handbook appears to have been the first compact, low-price volume of reference data suitable for students and individual researchers to keep on their desk or laboratory bench. It quickly became a standard and grew from its original 116 pages to the present size of over 2500 pages. Generations of students have relied on the CRC Handbook as a resource in their studies, but the impact has been much broader. Senior research scientists, engineers, and workers in other fields have used the book extensively. Linus Pauling, perhaps the most influential chemist of the 20th century, made the following comments a few years before his death: “People who have interviewed me have commented on the extensive knowledge that I have about the properties of substances, especially inorganic compounds, including minerals. I attribute this knowledge in part to the fact that I possessed the Rubber Handbook. I remember clearly the five summers, beginning in 1919, when I worked as a paving-plant inspector, supervising the laying of bituminous pavement in the mountainous region of southern Oregon. For much of the time I was free to read, just keeping an eye on the operation of the paving plant. I remember the book that I read over and over was the Rubber Handbook. I puzzled over the tables of properties - hardness, color, melting and boiling point, density, magnetic properties, and others - trying to think of reasonable explanations of the empirical data. Only in the 1920s and 1930s did I have some success in this effort.” Pauling’s “success” was the first step in our ability to relate the physical and chemical behavior of bulk materials to their molecular structure in a quantitative manner. One factor in the success of the Handbook has been its annual revisions. This practice, followed throughout the century except for a few wartime years, permitted the replacement of old data with new and more accurate values, as well as the introduction of new topics that became important as science moved forward. This policy has helped the Handbook meet the needs of the scientific community in a timely fashion.
The 82nd Edition continues the tradition of updates and improvements. The major change is a revised and expanded table of Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds. The number of compounds has been increased by 12%, the format improved, and the constants updated. In addition, quantitative data on solubility in water are now included in the table, and a formula index has been added. Other tables that have been expanded and updated include: • Critical Constants • Aqueous Solubility and Henry’s Law Constants of Organic Compounds • Chemical Carcinogens • Threshold Limits for Airborne Contaminants • Nomenclature for Organic Polymers • Standard Atomic Weights • Atomic Masses and Abundances • Table of the Isotopes New topics covered in this edition include: • Surface Tension of Aqueous Mixtures • Viscosity of Carbon Dioxide along the Saturation Line • Gibbs Energy of Formation for Important Biological Species • Optical Properties of Inorganic and Organic Solids • Interstellar Molecules • Allocation of Frequencies in the Radio Spectrum • Units for Magnetic Properties This electronic version of the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics contains all the material from the print version of the 82nd Edition, as well as some additional data that could not be accommodated in the printed book. Powerful search capabilities, which are explained in the Help messages, greatly facilitate the task of locating the data. The Editor will appreciate suggestions on new topics for the Handbook and notification of any errors. Address all comments to Editor, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, Inc., 2000 Corporate Blvd. N. W., Boca Raton, FL 33431. Comments may also be sent by electronic mail to
[email protected]. The Handbook of Chemistry and Physics is dependent on the efforts of many contributors throughout the world. I appreciate the valuable suggestions that have come from the Editorial Advisory Board and from many users. I should also like to thank Susan Fox and the rest of the production team at CRC Press for their excellent support. David R. Lide January 1, 2001 This Edition is Dedicated to the Memory of David Reynolds Lide (1901-1976) and Kate Simmons Lide (1896-1991)
This work contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot accept responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.
© Copyright CRC Press LLC 2002
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL CONSTANTS Peter J. Mohr and Barry N. Taylor These tables give the 1998 self-consistent set of values of the basic constants and conversion factors of physics and chemistry recommended by the Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA) for international use. The 1998 set replaces the previous set of constants recommended by CODATA in 1986; assigned uncertainties have been reduced by a factor of 1/5 to 1/12 (and sometimes even greater) relative to the 1986 uncertainties. The recommended set is based on a least-squares adjustment involving all of the relevant experimental and theoretical data available through December 31, 1998. Full details of the input data and the adjustment procedure are given in Reference 1. The 1998 adjustment was carried out by P. J. Mohr and B. N. Taylor of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) under the auspices of the CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants. The Task Group was established in 1969 with the aim of periodically providing the scientific and technological communities with a self-consistent set of internationally recommended values of the fundamental physical constants based on all applicable information available at a given point in time. The first set was published in 1973 and was followed by a revised set first published in 1986; the current 1998 set first appeared in 1999. In the future, the CODATA Task Group plans to take advantage of the high level of automation developed for the current set in order to issue a new set of recommended values at least every four years. At the time of completion of the 1998 adjustment, the membership of the Task Group was as follows: F. Cabiati, Istituto Elettrotecnico Nazionale “Galileo Ferraris,” Italy E. R. Cohen, Science Center, Rockwell International (retired), United States of America T. Endo, Electrotechnical Laboratory, Japan R. Liu, National Institute of Metrology, China (People’s Republic of) B. A. Mamyrin, A. F. Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute, Russian Federation P. J. Mohr, National Institute of Standards and Technology, United States of America F. Nez, Laboratoire Kastler-Brossel, France B. W. Petley, National Physical Laboratory, United Kingdom T. J. Quinn, Bureau International des Poids et Mesures B. N. Taylor, National Institute of Standards and Technology, United States of America V. S. Tuninsky, D. I. Mendeleyev All-Russian Research Institute for Metrology, Russian Federation W. Wöger, Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Germany B. M. Wood, National Research Council, Canada REFERENCES 1. Mohr, Peter J., and Taylor, Barry N., J. Phys Chem. Ref. Data 28, 1713, 1999; Rev. Mod. Phys. 72, 351, 2000. The 1998 set of recommended values is also available at the Web site of the Fundamental Constants Data Center of the NIST Physics Laboratory: http://physics.nist.gov/constants.
Fundamental Physical Constants Quantity
Symbol
Value
Unit
Relative std. uncert. u r
UNIVERSAL m s−1 N A−2 N A−2 F m−1
(exact)
ε0
299 792 458 4π × 10−7 = 12.566 370 614... × 10−7 8.854 187 817... × 10−12
Z0
376.730 313 461...
(exact)
G G/c h
6.673(10) × 10−11 6.707(10) × 10−39 6.626 068 76(52) × 10−34 4.135 667 27(16) × 10−15 1.054 571 596(82) × 10−34 6.582 118 89(26) × 10−16
m3 kg−1 s−2 (GeV/c2 )−2 Js eV s Js eV s
1.5 × 10−3 1.5 × 10−3 7.8 × 10−8 3.9 × 10−8 7.8 × 10−8 3.9 × 10−8
2.1767(16) × 10−8 1.6160(12) × 10−35 5.3906(40) × 10−44
kg m s
7.5 × 10−4 7.5 × 10−4 7.5 × 10−4
speed of light in vacuum magnetic constant
c, c0 µ0
electric constant 1/µ0 c2 characteristic√impedance of vacuum µ0 /0 = µ0 c Newtonian constant of gravitation Planck constant in eV s h/2π in eV s Planck mass (c/G)1/2 Planck length /m P c = (G/c3 )1/2 Planck time lP /c = (G/c5 )1/2
mP lP tP
(exact) (exact)
ELECTROMAGNETIC elementary charge
e e/ h
1.602 176 462(63) × 10−19 2.417 989 491(95) × 1014
C A J−1
3.9 × 10−8 3.9 × 10−8
magnetic flux quantum h/2e conductance quantum 2e2/ h inverse of conductance quantum Josephson constanta 2e/ h von Klitzing constantb h/e2 = µ0 c/2α
0 G0 G −1 0 KJ
2.067 833 636(81) × 10−15 7.748 091 696(28) × 10−5 12 906.403 786(47) 483 597.898(19) × 109
Wb S Hz V−1
3.9 × 10−8 3.7 × 10−9 3.7 × 10−9 3.9 × 10−8
RK
25 812.807 572(95)
3.7 × 10−9
Bohr magneton e/2m e in eV T−1
µB
927.400 899(37) × 10−26 5.788 381 749(43) × 10−5 13.996 246 24(56) × 109 46.686 4521(19) 0.671 7131(12)
J T−1 eV T−1 Hz T−1 m−1 T−1 K T−1
4.0 × 10−8 7.3 × 10−9 4.0 × 10−8 4.0 × 10−8 1.7 × 10−6
5.050 783 17(20) × 10−27 3.152 451 238(24) × 10−8 7.622 593 96(31) 2.542 623 66(10) × 10−2 3.658 2638(64) × 10−4
J T−1 eV T−1 MHz T−1 m−1 T−1 K T−1
4.0 × 10−8 7.6 × 10−9 4.0 × 10−8 4.0 × 10−8 1.7 × 10−6
µB / h µB / hc µB /k nuclear magneton e/2m p in eV T−1
µN µN / h µN / hc µN /k
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR General fine-structure constant e2/4π0 c inverse fine-structure constant
α α−1
7.297 352 533(27) × 10−3 137.035 999 76(50)
3.7 × 10−9 3.7 × 10−9
Fundamental Physical Constants Quantity
Rydberg constant α2 m e c/2h
Symbol
Unit
Relative std. uncert. u r
R∞ R∞ c R∞ hc
10 973 731.568 549(83) 3.289 841 960 368(25) × 1015 2.179 871 90(17) × 10−18 13.605 691 72(53)
m−1 Hz J eV
7.6 × 10−12 7.6 × 10−12 7.8 × 10−8 3.9 × 10−8
a0
0.529 177 2083(19) × 10−10
m
3.7 × 10−9
Eh
4.359 743 81(34) × 10−18 27.211 3834(11) 3.636 947 516(27) × 10−4 7.273 895 032(53) × 10−4
J eV m2 s−1 m2 s−1
7.8 × 10−8 3.9 × 10−8 7.3 × 10−9 7.3 × 10−9
GeV−2
8.6 × 10−6
R∞ hc in eV Bohr radius α/4π R∞ = 4π0 2/m e e2 Hartree energy e2/4πε0 a0 = 2R∞ hc = α2 m e c2 in eV quantum of circulation
Value
h/2m e h/m e
Electroweak Fermi coupling constantc weak mixing angled θW (on-shell scheme) 2 ≡ 1 − (m /m )2 sin2 θW = sW W Z
G F /(c)3
1.166 39(1) × 10−5
sin2 θW
0.2224(19)
8.7 × 10−3
Electron, e− 9.109 381 88(72) × 10−31
kg
7.9 × 10−8
c2
5.485 799 110(12) × 10−4 8.187 104 14(64) × 10−14 0.510 998 902(21)
u J MeV
2.1 × 10−9 7.9 × 10−8 4.0 × 10−8
electron-muon mass ratio electron-tau mass ratio electron-proton mass ratio electron-neutron mass ratio electron-deuteron mass ratio electron to alpha particle mass ratio
m e /m µ m e /m τ m e /m p m e /m n m e /m d m e /m α
4.836 332 10(15) × 10−3 2.875 55(47) × 10−4 5.446 170 232(12) × 10−4 5.438 673 462(12) × 10−4 2.724 437 1170(58) × 10−4 1.370 933 5611(29) × 10−4
electron charge to mass quotient electron molar mass NA m e Compton wavelength h/m e c λC /2π = αa0 = α2/4π R∞ classical electron radius α2 a0 Thomson cross section (8π/3)re2
−e/m e M(e), Me λC re σe
−1.758 820 174(71) × 1011 5.485 799 110(12) × 10−7 2.426 310 215(18) × 10−12 386.159 2642(28) × 10−15 2.817 940 285(31) × 10−15 0.665 245 854(15) × 10−28
C kg−1 kg mol−1 m m m m2
4.0 × 10−8 2.1 × 10−9 7.3 × 10−9 7.3 × 10−9 1.1 × 10−8 2.2 × 10−8
µe µe /µB µe /µN
−928.476 362(37) × 10−26 −1.001 159 652 1869(41) −1 838.281 9660(39)
J T−1
4.0 × 10−8 4.1 × 10−12 2.1 × 10−9
ae ge
1.159 652 1869(41) × 10−3 −2.002 319 304 3737(82)
3.5 × 10−9 4.1 × 10−12
µe /µµ
206.766 9720(63)
3.0 × 10−8
electron mass in u, m e = Ar (e) u (electron relative atomic mass times u) energy equivalent in MeV
electron magnetic moment to Bohr magneton ratio to nuclear magneton ratio electron magnetic moment anomaly |µe |/µB − 1 electron g-factor −2(1 + ae ) electron-muon magnetic moment ratio
me
me
C
3.0 × 10−8 1.6 × 10−4 2.1 × 10−9 2.2 × 10−9 2.1 × 10−9 2.1 × 10−9
Fundamental Physical Constants Quantity electron-proton magnetic moment ratio electron to shielded proton magnetic moment ratio (H2 O, sphere, 25 ◦ C) electron-neutron magnetic moment ratio electron-deuteron magnetic moment ratio electron to shielded helione magnetic moment ratio (gas, sphere, 25 ◦ C) electron gyromagnetic ratio 2|µe |/
Symbol
Value
Unit
Relative std. uncert. u r
µe /µp
− 658.210 6875(66)
1.0 × 10−8
µe /µ p
− 658.227 5954(71)
1.1 × 10−8
µe /µn
960.920 50(23)
2.4 × 10−7
µe /µd
−2 143.923 498(23)
1.1 × 10−8
µe /µ h
864.058 255(10)
1.2 × 10−8
γe γe /2π
1.760 859 794(71) × 1011 28 024.9540(11)
s−1 T−1 MHz T−1
4.0 × 10−8 4.0 × 10−8
1.883 531 09(16) × 10−28
kg
8.4 × 10−8
0.113 428 9168(34) 1.692 833 32(14) × 10−11 105.658 3568(52)
u J MeV
3.0 × 10−8 8.4 × 10−8 4.9 × 10−8
kg mol−1
3.0 × 10−8 1.6 × 10−4 3.0 × 10−8 3.0 × 10−8 3.0 × 10−8
Muon, µ− muon mass in u, m µ = Ar (µ) u (muon relative atomic mass times u) energy equivalent in MeV
mµ
mµ
c2
muon-electron mass ratio muon-tau mass ratio muon-proton mass ratio muon-neutron mass ratio muon molar mass NA m µ
m µ /m e m µ /m τ m µ /m p m µ /m n M(µ), Mµ
206.768 2657(63) 5.945 72(97) × 10−2 0.112 609 5173(34) 0.112 454 5079(34) 0.113 428 9168(34) × 10−3
muon Compton wavelength h/m µ c λC,µ /2π muon magnetic moment to Bohr magneton ratio to nuclear magneton ratio
λC,µ
µµ µµ /µB µµ /µN
11.734 441 97(35) × 10−15 1.867 594 444(55) × 10−15 −4.490 448 13(22) × 10−26 −4.841 970 85(15) × 10−3 −8.890 597 70(27)
aµ gµ
1.165 916 02(64) × 10−3 −2.002 331 8320(13)
5.5 × 10−7 6.4 × 10−10
µµ /µp
−3.183 345 39(10)
3.2 × 10−8
muon magnetic moment anomaly |µµ |/(e/2m µ ) − 1 muon g-factor −2(1 + aµ ) muon-proton magnetic moment ratio
C,µ
m m J T−1
2.9 × 10−8 2.9 × 10−8 4.9 × 10−8 3.0 × 10−8 3.0 × 10−8
Tau, τ − tau massf in u, m τ = Ar (τ) u (tau relative atomic mass times u) energy equivalent in MeV
mτ
mτ
c2
3.167 88(52) × 10−27
kg
1.6 × 10−4
1.907 74(31) 2.847 15(46) × 10−10 1 777.05(29)
u J MeV
1.6 × 10−4 1.6 × 10−4 1.6 × 10−4
Fundamental Physical Constants Quantity
Symbol
tau-electron mass ratio tau-muon mass ratio tau-proton mass ratio tau-neutron mass ratio tau molar mass NA m τ
m τ /m e m τ /m µ m τ /m p m τ /m n M(τ), Mτ
tau Compton wavelength h/m τ c λC,τ /2π
λC,τ C,τ
Unit
Relative std. uncert. u r
3 477.60(57) 16.8188(27) 1.893 96(31) 1.891 35(31) 1.907 74(31) × 10−3
kg mol−1
1.6 × 10−4 1.6 × 10−4 1.6 × 10−4 1.6 × 10−4 1.6 × 10−4
0.697 70(11) × 10−15 0.111 042(18) × 10−15
m m
1.6 × 10−4 1.6 × 10−4
1.672 621 58(13) × 10−27
kg
7.9 × 10−8
1.007 276 466 88(13) 1.503 277 31(12) × 10−10 938.271 998(38)
u J MeV
1.3 × 10−10 7.9 × 10−8 4.0 × 10−8
C kg−1 kg mol−1
2.1 × 10−9 3.0 × 10−8 1.6 × 10−4 5.8 × 10−10 4.0 × 10−8 1.3 × 10−10
Value
Proton, p proton mass in u, m p = Ar (p) u (proton relative atomic mass times u) energy equivalent in MeV
mp
mp
c2
proton-electron mass ratio proton-muon mass ratio proton-tau mass ratio proton-neutron mass ratio proton charge to mass quotient proton molar mass NA m p
m p /m e m p /m µ m p /m τ m p /m n e/m p M(p), Mp
1 836.152 6675(39) 8.880 244 08(27) 0.527 994(86) 0.998 623 478 55(58) 9.578 834 08(38) × 107 1.007 276 466 88(13) × 10−3
proton Compton wavelength h/m p c λC,p /2π proton magnetic moment to Bohr magneton ratio to nuclear magneton ratio proton g-factor 2µp /µN
λC,p µp µp /µB µp /µN gp
1.321 409 847(10) × 10−15 0.210 308 9089(16) × 10−15 1.410 606 633(58) × 10−26 1.521 032 203(15) × 10−3 2.792 847 337(29) 5.585 694 675(57)
µp /µn µ p
−1.459 898 05(34) 1.410 570 399(59) × 10−26
µ p /µB µ p /µN
1.520 993 132(16) × 10−3 2.792 775 597(31)
1.1 × 10−8 1.1 × 10−8
σp
25.687(15) × 10−6
5.7 × 10−4
γp γp /2π
2.675 222 12(11) × 108 42.577 4825(18)
s−1 T−1 MHz T−1
4.1 × 10−8 4.1 × 10−8
γp
2.675 153 41(11) × 108
s−1 T−1
4.2 × 10−8
γp /2π
42.576 3888(18)
MHz T−1
4.2 × 10−8
proton-neutron magnetic moment ratio shielded proton magnetic moment (H2 O, sphere, 25 ◦ C) to Bohr magneton ratio to nuclear magneton ratio proton magnetic shielding correction 1 − µ p /µp (H2 O, sphere, 25 ◦ C) proton gyromagnetic ratio 2µp / shielded proton gyromagnetic ratio 2µ p / (H2 O, sphere, 25 ◦ C)
C,p
Neutron, n
m m J T−1
J T−1
7.6 × 10−9 7.6 × 10−9 4.1 × 10−8 1.0 × 10−8 1.0 × 10−8 1.0 × 10−8 2.4 × 10−7 4.2 × 10−8
Fundamental Physical Constants Quantity
Symbol
Value
Unit
Relative std. uncert. u r
mn
1.674 927 16(13) × 10−27
kg
7.9 × 10−8
m n c2
1.008 664 915 78(55) 1.505 349 46(12) × 10−10 939.565 330(38)
u J MeV
5.4 × 10−10 7.9 × 10−8 4.0 × 10−8
neutron-electron mass ratio neutron-muon mass ratio neutron-tau mass ratio neutron-proton mass ratio neutron molar mass NA m n
m n /m e m n /m µ m n /m τ m n /m p M(n), Mn
1 838.683 6550(40) 8.892 484 78(27) 0.528 722(86) 1.001 378 418 87(58) 1.008 664 915 78(55) × 10−3
kg mol−1
2.2 × 10−9 3.0 × 10−8 1.6 × 10−4 5.8 × 10−10 5.4 × 10−10
neutron Compton wavelength h/m n c λC,n /2π neutron magnetic moment to Bohr magneton ratio to nuclear magneton ratio
λC,n µn µn /µB µn /µN
1.319 590 898(10) × 10−15 0.210 019 4142(16) × 10−15 −0.966 236 40(23) × 10−26 −1.041 875 63(25) × 10−3 −1.913 042 72(45)
gn
−3.826 085 45(90)
2.4 × 10−7
µn /µe
1.040 668 82(25) × 10−3
2.4 × 10−7
µn /µp
−0.684 979 34(16)
2.4 × 10−7
µn /µ p
−0.684 996 94(16)
2.4 × 10−7
γn γn /2π
1.832 471 88(44) × 108 29.164 6958(70)
neutron mass in u, m n = Ar (n) u (neutron relative atomic mass times u) energy equivalent in MeV
neutron g-factor 2µn /µN neutron-electron magnetic moment ratio neutron-proton magnetic moment ratio neutron to shielded proton magnetic moment ratio (H2 O, sphere, 25 ◦ C) neutron gyromagnetic ratio 2|µn |/
C,n
m m J T−1
7.6 × 10−9 7.6 × 10−9 2.4 × 10−7 2.4 × 10−7 2.4 × 10−7
s−1 T−1 MHz T−1
2.4 × 10−7 2.4 × 10−7
3.343 583 09(26) × 10−27
kg
7.9 × 10−8
2.013 553 212 71(35) 3.005 062 62(24) × 10−10 1 875.612 762(75)
u J MeV
1.7 × 10−10 7.9 × 10−8 4.0 × 10−8
kg mol−1
2.1 × 10−9 2.0 × 10−10 1.7 × 10−10
Deuteron, d deuteron mass in u, m d = Ar (d) u (deuteron relative atomic mass times u) energy equivalent in MeV
md
md
c2
deuteron-electron mass ratio deuteron-proton mass ratio deuteron molar mass NA m d
m d /m e m d /m p M(d), Md
3 670.482 9550(78) 1.999 007 500 83(41) 2.013 553 212 71(35) × 10−3
deuteron magnetic moment to Bohr magneton ratio to nuclear magneton ratio
µd µd /µB µd /µN
0.433 073 457(18) × 10−26 0.466 975 4556(50) × 10−3 0.857 438 2284(94)
µd /µe
−4.664 345 537(50) × 10−4
1.1 × 10−8
µd /µp
0.307 012 2083(45)
1.5 × 10−8
deuteron-electron magnetic moment ratio deuteron-proton magnetic moment ratio
J T−1
4.2 × 10−8 1.1 × 10−8 1.1 × 10−8
Fundamental Physical Constants Quantity deuteron-neutron magnetic moment ratio
Symbol
Value
µd /µn
Unit
Relative std. uncert. u r
2.4 × 10−7
−0.448 206 52(11) Helion, h
helion masse in u, m h = Ar (h) u (helion relative atomic mass times u) energy equivalent in MeV helion-electron mass ratio helion-proton mass ratio helion molar mass NA m h shielded helion magnetic moment (gas, sphere, 25 ◦ C) to Bohr magneton ratio to nuclear magneton ratio shielded helion to proton magnetic moment ratio (gas, sphere, 25 ◦ C) shielded helion to shielded proton magnetic moment ratio (gas/H2 O, spheres, 25 ◦ C) shielded helion gyromagnetic ratio 2|µ h |/ (gas, sphere, 25 ◦ C)
mh
mh
c2
5.006 411 74(39) × 10−27
kg
7.9 × 10−8
3.014 932 234 69(86) 4.499 538 48(35) × 10−10 2 808.391 32(11)
u J MeV
2.8 × 10−10 7.9 × 10−8 4.0 × 10−8
kg mol−1 J T−1
2.1 × 10−9 3.1 × 10−10 2.8 × 10−10 4.2 × 10−8
m h /m e m h /m p M(h), Mh µ h
5 495.885 238(12) 2.993 152 658 50(93) 3.014 932 234 69(86) × 10−3 −1.074 552 967(45) × 10−26
µ h /µB µ h /µN
−1.158 671 474(14) × 10−3 −2.127 497 718(25)
1.2 × 10−8 1.2 × 10−8
µ h /µp
−0.761 766 563(12)
1.5 × 10−8
µ h /µ p
−0.761 786 1313(33)
4.3 × 10−9
γh
2.037 894 764(85) × 108
s−1 T−1
4.2 × 10−8
γh /2π
32.434 1025(14)
MHz T−1
4.2 × 10−8
6.644 655 98(52) × 10−27
kg
7.9 × 10−8
4.001 506 1747(10) 5.971 918 97(47) × 10−10 3 727.379 04(15)
u J MeV
2.5 × 10−10 7.9 × 10−8 4.0 × 10−8
kg mol−1
2.1 × 10−9 2.8 × 10−10 2.5 × 10−10
Alpha particle, α alpha particle mass in u, m α = Ar (α) u (alpha particle relative atomic mass times u) energy equivalent in MeV alpha particle to electron mass ratio alpha particle to proton mass ratio alpha particle molar mass NA m α
mα
mα
c2
m α /m e m α /m p M(α), Mα
7 294.299 508(16) 3.972 599 6846(11) 4.001 506 1747(10) × 10−3
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL Avogadro constant atomic mass constant 1 m u = 12 m(12 C) = 1 u = 10−3 kg mol−1/NA energy equivalent in MeV Faraday constantg NA e
NA , L
6.022 141 99(47) × 1023
mol−1
7.9 × 10−8
mu
1.660 538 73(13) × 10−27
kg
7.9 × 10−8
m u c2
1.492 417 78(12) × 10−10 931.494 013(37) 96 485.3415(39)
J MeV C mol−1
7.9 × 10−8 4.0 × 10−8 4.0 × 10−8
F
Fundamental Physical Constants Quantity
molar Planck constant molar gas constant Boltzmann constant R/NA in eV K−1
molar volume of ideal gas RT / p T = 273.15 K, p = 101.325 kPa Loschmidt constant NA /Vm T = 273.15 K, p = 100 kPa Sackur-Tetrode constant (absolute entropy constant)h 5 2 3/2 kT / p ] 1 0 2 + ln[(2πm u kT1 / h ) T1 = 1 K, p0 = 100 kPa T1 = 1 K, p0 = 101.325 kPa Stefan-Boltzmann constant (π 2 /60)k 4/3 c2 first radiation constant 2πhc2 first radiation constant for spectral radiance 2hc2 second radiation constant hc/k Wien displacement law constant b = λmax T = c2 /4.965 114 231...
Value
Unit
Relative std. uncert. u r
k/ h k/ hc
3.990 312 689(30) × 10−10 0.119 626 564 92(91) 8.314 472(15) 1.380 6503(24) × 10−23 8.617 342(15) × 10−5 2.083 6644(36) × 1010 69.503 56(12)
J s mol−1 J m mol−1 J mol−1 K−1 J K−1 eV K−1 Hz K−1 m−1 K−1
7.6 × 10−9 7.6 × 10−9 1.7 × 10−6 1.7 × 10−6 1.7 × 10−6 1.7 × 10−6 1.7 × 10−6
Vm n0 Vm
22.413 996(39) × 10−3 2.686 7775(47) × 1025 22.710 981(40) × 10−3
m3 mol−1 m−3 m3 mol−1
1.7 × 10−6 1.7 × 10−6 1.7 × 10−6
S0 /R
−1.151 7048(44) −1.164 8678(44)
σ c1 c1L c2
5.670 400(40) × 10−8 3.741 771 07(29) × 10−16 1.191 042 722(93) × 10−16 1.438 7752(25) × 10−2
W m−2 K−4 W m2 W m2 sr−1 mK
7.0 × 10−6 7.8 × 10−8 7.8 × 10−8 1.7 × 10−6
b
2.897 7686(51) × 10−3
mK
1.7 × 10−6
Symbol
NA h NA hc R k
3.8 × 10−6 3.7 × 10−6
a See the “Adopted values” table for the conventional value adopted internationally for realizing representations of the volt using the Joseph-
son effect. b See the “Adopted values” table for the conventional value adopted internationally for realizing representations of the ohm using the quantum Hall
effect. c Value recommended by the Particle Data Group, Caso et al., Eur. Phys. J. C 3(1-4), 1-794 (1998). d Based on the ratio of the masses of the W and Z bosons m /m recommended by the Particle Data Group (Caso et al., 1998). The value for W Z sin2 θW they recommend, which is based on a particular variant of the modified minimal subtraction (MS) scheme, is sin2 θˆW (MZ ) = 0.231 24(24). e The helion, symbol h, is the nucleus of the 3 He atom. f This and all other values involving m are based on the value of m c2 in MeV recommended by the Particle Data Group, Caso et al., Eur. Phys. τ τ J. C 3(1-4), 1-794 (1998), but with a standard uncertainty of 0.29 MeV rather than the quoted uncertainty of −0.26 MeV, +0.29 MeV. g The numerical value of F to be used in coulometric chemical measurements is 96 485.3432(76) [7.9×10−8 ] when the relevant current is measured in terms of representations of the volt and ohm based on the Josephson and quantum Hall effects and the internationally adopted conventional values of the Josephson and von Klitzing constants K J−90 and RK−90 given in the “Adopted values” table. h The entropy of an ideal monoatomic gas of relative atomic mass A is given by S = S + 3 R ln A − R ln( p/ p ) + 5 R ln(T/K). r r 0 0 2 2
Fundamental Physical Constants — Adopted values Relative std. uncert. u r
Quantity
Symbol
Value
Unit
molar mass of 12 C molar mass constanta M(12 C)/12 conventional value of Josephson constantb conventional value of von Klitzing constantc standard atmosphere standard acceleration of gravity
M(12 C) Mu
12 × 10−3 1 × 10−3
kg mol−1 kg mol−1
(exact) (exact)
K J−90
483 597.9
GHz V−1
(exact)
RK−90
25 812.807 101 325 9.806 65
Pa m s−2
(exact) (exact) (exact)
gn a The relative atomic mass A (X) of particle X with mass m(X) is defined by A (X) = m(X)/m , where m = m(12 C)/12 = M /N = 1 u is r r u u u A the atomic mass constant, NA is the Avogadro constant, and u is the atomic mass unit. Thus the mass of particle X in u is m(X) = A r (X) u and the molar mass of X is M(X) = Ar (X)Mu . b This is the value adopted internationally for realizing representations of the volt using the Josephson effect. c This is the value adopted internationally for realizing representations of the ohm using the quantum Hall effect.
Energy Equivalents J
kg
m−1
Hz
1J
(1 J) = 1J
(1 J)/c2 = 1.112 650 056 × 10−17 kg
(1 J)/hc = 5.034 117 62(39) × 1024 m−1
(1 J)/h = 1.509 190 50(12) × 1033 Hz
1 kg
(1 kg)c2 = 8.987 551 787 × 1016 J
(1 kg) = 1 kg
(1 kg)c/ h = 4.524 439 29(35) × 1041 m−1
(1 kg)c2 / h = 1.356 392 77(11) × 1050 Hz
1 m−1
(1 m−1 )hc = 1.986 445 44(16) × 10−25 J
(1 m−1 )h/c = 2.210 218 63(17) × 10−42 kg
(1 m−1 ) = 1 m−1
(1 m−1 )c = 299 792 458 Hz
1 Hz
(1 Hz)h = 6.626 068 76(52) × 10−34 J
(1 Hz)h/c2 = 7.372 495 78(58) × 10−51 kg
(1 Hz)/c = 3.335 640 952 × 10−9 m−1
(1 Hz) = 1 Hz
1K
(1 K)k = 1.380 6503(24) × 10−23 J
(1 K)k/c2 = 1.536 1807(27) × 10−40 kg
(1 K)k/ hc = 69.503 56(12) m−1
(1 K)k/ h = 2.083 6644(36) × 1010 Hz
1 eV
(1 eV) = 1.602 176 462(63) × 10−19 J
(1 eV)/ hc = (1 eV)/c2 = 1.782 661 731(70) × 10−36 kg 8.065 544 77(32) × 105 m−1
1u
(1 u)c2 = 1.492 417 78(12) × 10−10 J
(1 u) = 1.660 538 73(13) × 10−27 kg
(1 u)c/ h = 7.513 006 658(57) × 1014 m−1
(1 u)c2 / h = 2.252 342 733(17) × 1023 Hz
1 Eh
(1 E h ) = 4.359 743 81(34) × 10−18 J
(1 E h )/c2 = 4.850 869 19(38) × 10−35 kg
(1 E h )/ hc = 2.194 746 313 710(17) × 107 m−1
(1 E h )/ h = 6.579 683 920 735(50) × 1015 Hz
(1 eV)/ h = 2.417 989 491(95) × 1014 Hz
Derived from the relations E = mc2 = hc/λ = hν = kT , and based on the 1998 CODATA adjustment of the values of the constants; 1 m(12 C) = 10−3 kg mol−1/N , and E = 2R hc = α 2 m c2 is the Hartree energy (hartree). 1 eV = (e/C) J, 1 u = m u = 12 ∞ e A h
Energy Equivalents K
eV
u
Eh
1J
(1 J)/k = 7.242 964(13) × 1022 K
(1 J) = 6.241 509 74(24) × 1018 eV
(1 J)/c2 = 6.700 536 62(53) × 109 u
(1 J) = 2.293 712 76(18) × 1017 E h
1 kg
(1 kg)c2/k = 6.509 651(11) × 1039 K
(1 kg)c2 = 5.609 589 21(22) × 1035 eV
(1 kg) = 6.022 141 99(47) × 1026 u
(1 kg)c2 = 2.061 486 22(16) × 1034 E h
1 m−1
(1 m−1 )hc/k = 1.438 7752(25) × 10−2 K
(1 m−1 )hc = (1 m−1 )h/c = (1 m−1 )hc = −6 −15 1.239 841 857(49) × 10 eV 1.331 025 042(10) × 10 u 4.556 335 252 750(35) × 10−8 E h
1 Hz
(1 Hz)h/k = (1 Hz)h = 4.799 2374(84) × 10−11 K 4.135 667 27(16) × 10−15 eV
(1 Hz)h/c2 = (1 Hz)h = 4.439 821 637(34) × 10−24 u 1.519 829 846 003(12) × 10−16 E h
1K
(1 K) = 1K
(1 K)k = 8.617 342(15) × 10−5 eV
(1 K)k/c2 = 9.251 098(16) × 10−14 u
(1 K)k = 3.166 8153(55) × 10−6 E h
1 eV
(1 eV)/k = 1.160 4506(20) × 104 K
(1 eV) = 1 eV
(1 eV)/c2 = 1.073 544 206(43) × 10−9 u
(1 eV) = 3.674 932 60(14) × 10−2 E h
1u
(1 u)c2/k = 1.080 9528(19) × 1013 K
(1 u)c2 = 931.494 013(37) × 106 eV
(1 u) = 1u
(1 u)c2 = 3.423 177 709(26) × 107 E h
1 Eh
(1 E h )/k = 3.157 7465(55) × 105 K
(1 E h ) = 27.211 3834(11) eV
(1 E h )/c2 = 2.921 262 304(22) × 10−8 u
(1 E h ) = 1 Eh
Derived from the relations E = mc2 = hc/λ = hν = kT , and based on the 1998 CODATA adjustment of the values of the constants; 1 m(12 C) = 10−3 kg mol−1/N , and E = 2R hc = α 2 m c2 is the Hartree energy (hartree). 1 eV = (e/C) J, 1 u = m u = 12 ∞ e A h
STANDARD ATOMIC WEIGHTS (1997) This table of atomic weights is reprinted from the 1997 report of the IUPAC Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances. The Standard Atomic Weights apply to the elements as they exist naturally on Earth, and the uncertainties take into account the isotopic variation found in most laboratory samples. Further comments on the variability are given in the footnotes. The number in parentheses following the atomic weight value gives the uncertainty in the last digit. An entry in brackets indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of an element that has no stable isotopes and for which a Standard Atomic Weight cannot be defined because of wide variability in isotopic composition (or complete absence) in nature. REFERENCE Vocke, R. D. (for IUPAC Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances), Atomic Weights of the Elements 1997, Pure Appl. Chem., 71, 1593, 1999.
Name Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine
Symbol
At. no.
Atomic Weight
Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cu Cm Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I
89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 4 83 107 5 35 48 20 98 6 58 55 17 24 27 29 96 105 66 99 68 63 100 9 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 2 67 1 49 53
[227] 26.981538(2) [243] 121.760(1) 39.948(1) 74.92160(2) [210] 137.327(7) [247] 9.012182(3) 208.98038(2) [264] 10.811(7) 79.904(1) 112.411(8) 40.078(4) [251] 12.0107(8) 140.116(1) 132.90545(2) 35.4527(9) 51.9961(6) 58.933200(9) 63.546(3) [247] [262] 162.50(3) [252] 167.26(3) 151.964(1) [257] 18.9984032(5) [223] 157.25(3) 69.723(1) 72.61(2) 196.96655(2) 178.49(2) [269] 4.002602(2) 164.93032(2) 1.00794(7) 114.818(3) 126.90447(3)
1-12
Footnotes
g g
g
r
m
r
g g g g
r
m
r
g g g
g
g g
r m
r
STANDARD ATOMIC WEIGHTS (1997) (continued)
Name
Symbol
At. no.
Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten
Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lu Mg Mn Mt Md Hg Mo Nd Ne Np Ni Nb N No Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W
77 26 36 57 103 82 3 71 12 25 109 101 80 42 60 10 93 28 41 7 102 76 8 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 65 81 90 69 50 22 74
Atomic Weight 192.217(3) 55.845(2) 83.80(1) 138.9055(2) [262] 207.2(1) 6.941(2)* 174.967(1) 24.3050(6) 54.938049(9) [268] [258] 200.59(2) 95.94(1) 144.24(3) 20.1797(6) [237] 58.6934(2) 92.90638(2) 14.00674(7) [259] 190.23(3) 15.9994(3) 106.42(1) 30.973761(2) 195.078(2) [244] [209] 39.0983(1) 140.90765(2) [145] 231.03588(2) [226] [222] 186.207(1) 102.90550(2) 85.4678(3) 101.07(2) [261] 150.36(3) 44.955910(8) [266] 78.96(3) 28.0855(3) 107.8682(2) 22.989770(2) 87.62(1) 32.066(6) 180.9479(1) [98] 127.60(3) 158.92534(2) 204.3833(2) 232.0381(1) 168.93421(2) 118.710(7) 47.867(1) 183.84(1)
1-13
Footnotes
g g g g g
g g g
m
m
r r
m
g
r
g g g
r
g
g g g
r g g g
g
g g
r r
STANDARD ATOMIC WEIGHTS (1997) (continued) Name Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium * g m r
Symbol
At. no.
Atomic Weight
U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr
92 23 54 70 39 30 40
238.0289(1) 50.9415(1) 131.29(2) 173.04(3) 88.90585(2) 65.39(2) 91.224(2)
Footnotes g
m
g g
m
g
Commercially available Li materials have atomic weights that are known to range between 6.939 and 6.996; if a more accurate value is required, it must be determined for the specific material. geological specimens are known in which the element has an isotopic composition outside the limits for normal material. The difference between the atomic weight of the element in such specimens and that given in the table may exceed the stated uncertainty. modified isotopic compositions may be found in commercially available material because it has been subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic fractionation. Substantial deviations in atomic weight of the element from that given the table can occur. range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial material prevents a more precise atomic weight being given; the tabulated atomic weight value should be applicable to any normal material.
1-14
ATOMIC MASSES AND ABUNDANCES This table lists the mass (in atomic mass units, symbol u) and the natural abundance (in percent) of the stable nuclides and a few important radioactive nuclides. A complete table of all nuclides may be found in Section 11 (“Table of the Isotopes”). The atomic masses are based on the 1995 evaluation of Audi and Wapstra (Reference 2). The number in parentheses following the mass value is the uncertainty in the last digit(s) given. Natural abundance values are also followed by uncertainties in the last digit(s) of the stated values. This uncertainty includes both the estimated measurement uncertainty and the reported range of variation in different terrestrial sources of the element (see Reference 3 and 4 for more details). The absence of an entry in the Abundance column indicates a radioactive nuclide not present in nature or an element whose isotopic composition varies so widely that a meaningful natural abundance cannot be defined. An electronic version of these data is available on the Web site of the NIST Physics Laboratory (Reference 5). REFERENCES 1. Holden, N. E., “Table of the Isotopes”, in Lide, D. R., Ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 82nd Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton FL, 2001. 2. Audi, G., and Wapstra, A. H., Nucl. Phys., A595, 409, 1995. 3. Rosman, K. J. R., and Taylor, P. D. P., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 27, 1275, 1998. 4. R. D. Vocke (for IUPAC Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances), Pure Appl. Chem., 71, 1593, 1999. 5. Coursey, J. S., and Dragoset, R. A., Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions (version 2.1). Available: http://physics.nist.gov/Compositions/ National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD. Z 1
Isotope 1H 2D 3T
2
3He 4He
3
6Li 7Li
4 5
9Be 10B 11B
6
12C 13C
7
14N 15N
8
16O 17O 18O
9 10
19F 20Ne 21Ne 22Ne
11 12
23Na 24Mg 25Mg 26Mg
13 14
27Al 28Si 29Si 30Si
15 16
31P 32S 33S 34S 36S
17
35Cl 37Cl
18
36Ar 38Ar
Mass in u 1.0078250321(4) 2.0141017780(4) 3.0160492675(11) 3.0160293097(9) 4.0026032497(10) 6.0151223(5) 7.0160040(5) 9.0121821(4) 10.0129370(4) 11.0093055(5) 12.0000000(0) 13.0033548378(10) 14.0030740052(9) 15.0001088984(9) 15.9949146221(15) 16.99913150(22) 17.9991604(9) 18.99840320(7) 19.9924401759(20) 20.99384674(4) 21.99138551(23) 22.98976967(23) 23.98504190(20) 24.98583702(20) 25.98259304(21) 26.98153844(14) 27.9769265327(20) 28.97649472(3) 29.97377022(5) 30.97376151(20) 31.97207069(12) 32.97145850(12) 33.96786683(11) 35.96708088(25) 34.96885271(4) 36.96590260(5) 35.96754628(27) 37.9627322(5)
Abundance in %
Z
Isotope 40Ar
99.9850(70) 0.0115(70)
19
39K 40K 41K
0.000137(3) 99.999863(3) 7.59(4) 92.41(4) 100 19.9(7) 80.1(7) 98.93(8) 1.07(8) 99.632(7) 0.368(7) 99.757(16) 0.038(1) 0.205(14) 100 90.48(3) 0.27(1) 9.25(3) 100 78.99(4) 10.00(1) 11.01(3) 100 92.2297(7) 4.6832(5) 3.0872(5) 100 94.93(31) 0.76(2) 4.29(28) 0.02(1) 75.78(4) 24.22(4) 0.3365(30) 0.0632(5)
20
40Ca 42Ca 43Ca 44Ca 46Ca 48Ca
21 22
45Sc 46Ti 47Ti 48Ti 49Ti 50Ti
23
50V 51V
24
50Cr 52Cr 53Cr 54Cr
25 26
55Mn 54Fe 56Fe 57Fe 58Fe
27 28
59Co 58Ni 60Ni 61Ni 62Ni 64Ni
29
63Cu 65Cu
30
64Zn 66Zn 67Zn
1-15
Mass in u 39.962383123(3) 38.9637069(3) 39.96399867(29) 40.96182597(28) 39.9625912(3) 41.9586183(4) 42.9587668(5) 43.9554811(9) 45.9536928(25) 47.952534(4) 44.9559102(12) 45.9526295(12) 46.9517638(10) 47.9479471(10) 48.9478708(10) 49.9447921(11) 49.9471628(14) 50.9439637(14) 49.9460496(14) 51.9405119(15) 52.9406538(15) 53.9388849(15) 54.9380496(14) 53.9396148(14) 55.9349421(15) 56.9353987(15) 57.9332805(15) 58.9332002(15) 57.9353479(15) 59.9307906(15) 60.9310604(15) 61.9283488(15) 63.9279696(16) 62.9296011(15) 64.9277937(19) 63.9291466(18) 65.9260368(16) 66.9271309(17)
Abundance in % 99.6003(30) 93.2581(44) 0.0117(1) 6.7302(44) 96.941(156) 0.647(23) 0.135(10) 2.086(110) 0.004(3) 0.187(21) 100 8.25(3) 7.44(2) 73.72(3) 5.41(2) 5.18(2) 0.250(4) 99.750(4) 4.345(13) 83.789(18) 9.501(17) 2.365(7) 100 5.845(35) 91.754(36) 2.119(10) 0.282(4) 100 68.0769(89) 26.2231(77) 1.1399(6) 3.6345(17) 0.9256(9) 69.17(3) 30.83(3) 48.63(60) 27.90(27) 4.10(13)
ATOMIC MASSES AND ABUNDANCES (continued) Z
Isotope 68Zn 70Zn
31
69Ga 71Ga
32
70Ge 72Ge 73Ge 74Ge 76Ge
33 34
75As 74Se 76Se 77Se 78Se 80Se 82Se
35
79Br 81Br
36
78Kr 80Kr 82Kr 83Kr 84Kr 86Kr
37
85Rb 87Rb
38
84Sr 86Sr 87Sr 88Sr
39 40
89Y 90Zr 91Zr 92Zr 94Zr 96Zr
41 42
93Nb 92Mo 94Mo 95Mo 96Mo 97Mo 98Mo 100Mo
43
97Tc 98Tc 99Tc
44
96Ru 98Ru 99Ru 100Ru 101Ru 102Ru 104Ru
45 46
103Rh 102Pd 104Pd 105Pd
Mass in u 67.9248476(17) 69.925325(4) 68.925581(3) 70.9247050(19) 69.9242504(19) 71.9220762(16) 72.9234594(16) 73.9211782(16) 75.9214027(16) 74.9215964(18) 73.9224766(16) 75.9192141(16) 76.9199146(16) 77.9173095(16) 79.9165218(20) 81.9167000(22) 78.9183376(20) 80.916291(3) 77.920386(7) 79.916378(4) 81.9134846(28) 82.914136(3) 83.911507(3) 85.9106103(12) 84.9117893(25) 86.9091835(27) 83.913425(4) 85.9092624(24) 86.9088793(24) 87.9056143(24) 88.9058479(25) 89.9047037(23) 90.9056450(23) 91.9050401(23) 93.9063158(25) 95.908276(3) 92.9063775(24) 91.906810(4) 93.9050876(20) 94.9058415(20) 95.9046789(20) 96.9060210(20) 97.9054078(20) 99.907477(6) 96.906365(5) 97.907216(4) 98.9062546(21) 95.907598(8) 97.905287(7) 98.9059393(21) 99.9042197(22) 100.9055822(22) 101.9043495(22) 103.905430(4) 102.905504(3) 101.905608(3) 103.904035(5) 104.905084(5)
Abundance in %
Z
Isotope 106Pd
18.75(51) 0.62(3) 60.108(9) 39.892(9) 20.84(87) 27.54(34) 7.73(5) 36.28(73) 7.61(38) 100 0.89(4) 9.37(29) 7.63(16) 23.77(28) 49.61(41) 8.73(22) 50.69(7) 49.31(7) 0.35(1) 2.28(6) 11.58(14) 11.49(6) 57.00(4) 17.30(22) 72.17(2) 27.83(2) 0.56(1) 9.86(1) 7.00(1) 82.58(1) 100 51.45(40) 11.22(5) 17.15(8) 17.38(28) 2.80(9) 100 14.84(35) 9.25(12) 15.92(13) 16.68(2) 9.55(8) 24.13(31) 9.63(23)
108Pd 110Pd
47
107Ag 109Ag
48
106Cd 108Cd 110Cd 111Cd 112Cd 113Cd 114Cd 116Cd
49
113In 115In
50
112Sn 114Sn 115Sn 116Sn 117Sn 118Sn 119Sn 120Sn 122Sn 124Sn
51
121Sb 123Sb
52
120Te 122Te 123Te 124Te 125Te 126Te 128Te 130Te
53 54
127I 124Xe 126Xe 128Xe 129Xe 130Xe 131Xe 132Xe 134Xe 136Xe
55 56
133Cs 130Ba 132Ba
5.54(14) 1.87(3) 12.76(14) 12.60(7) 17.06(2) 31.55(14) 18.62(27) 100 1.02(1) 11.14(8) 22.33(8)
134Ba 135Ba 136Ba 137Ba 138Ba
57
138La 139La
58
136Ce 138Ce 140Ce
1-16
Mass in u 105.903483(5) 107.903894(4) 109.905152(12) 106.905093(6) 108.904756(3) 105.906458(6) 107.904183(6) 109.903006(3) 110.904182(3) 111.9027572(30) 112.9044009(30) 113.9033581(30) 115.904755(3) 112.904061(4) 114.903878(5) 111.904821(5) 113.902782(3) 114.903346(3) 115.901744(3) 116.902954(3) 117.901606(3) 118.903309(3) 119.9021966(27) 121.9034401(29) 123.9052746(15) 120.9038180(24) 122.9042157(22) 119.904020(11) 121.9030471(20) 122.9042730(19) 123.9028195(16) 124.9044247(20) 125.9033055(20) 127.9044614(19) 129.9062228(21) 126.904468(4) 123.9058958(21) 125.904269(7) 127.9035304(15) 128.9047795(9) 129.9035079(10) 130.9050819(10) 131.9041545(12) 133.9053945(9) 135.907220(8) 132.905447(3) 129.906310(7) 131.905056(3) 133.904503(3) 134.905683(3) 135.904570(3) 136.905821(3) 137.905241(3) 137.907107(4) 138.906348(3) 135.907140(50) 137.905986(11) 139.905434(3)
Abundance in % 27.33(3) 26.46(9) 11.72(9) 51.839(8) 48.161(8) 1.25(6) 0.89(3) 12.49(18) 12.80(12) 24.13(21) 12.22(12) 28.73(42) 7.49(18) 4.29(5) 95.71(5) 0.97(1) 0.66(1) 0.34(1) 14.54(9) 7.68(7) 24.22(9) 8.59(4) 32.58(9) 4.63(3) 5.79(5) 57.21(5) 42.79(5) 0.09(1) 2.55(12) 0.89(3) 4.74(14) 7.07(15) 18.84(25) 31.74(8) 34.08(62) 100 0.09(1) 0.09(1) 1.92(3) 26.44(24) 4.08(2) 21.18(3) 26.89(6) 10.44(10) 8.87(16) 100 0.106(1) 0.101(1) 2.417(18) 6.592(12) 7.854(24) 11.232(24) 71.698(42) 0.090(1) 99.910(1) 0.185(2) 0.251(2) 88.450(51)
ATOMIC MASSES AND ABUNDANCES (continued) Z
Isotope 142Ce
59 60
141Pr 142Nd 143Nd 144Nd 145Nd 146Nd 148Nd 150Nd
61
145Pm 147Pm
62
144Sm 147Sm 148Sm 149Sm 150Sm 152Sm 154Sm
63
151Eu 153Eu
64
152Gd 154Gd 155Gd 156Gd 157Gd 158Gd 160Gd
65 66
159Tb 156Dy 158Dy 160Dy 161Dy 162Dy 163Dy 164Dy
67 68
165Ho 162Er 164Er 166Er 167Er 168Er 170Er
69 70
169Tm 168Yb 170Yb 171Yb 172Yb 173Yb 174Yb 176Yb
71
175Lu 176Lu
72
174Hf 176Hf 177Hf 178Hf 179Hf 180Hf
Mass in u 141.909240(4) 140.907648(3) 141.907719(3) 142.909810(3) 143.910083(3) 144.912569(3) 145.913112(3) 147.916889(3) 149.920887(4) 144.912744(4) 146.915134(3) 143.911995(4) 146.914893(3) 147.914818(3) 148.917180(3) 149.917271(3) 151.919728(3) 153.922205(3) 150.919846(3) 152.921226(3) 151.919788(3) 153.920862(3) 154.922619(3) 155.922120(3) 156.923957(3) 157.924101(3) 159.927051(3) 158.925343(3) 155.924278(7) 157.924405(4) 159.925194(3) 160.926930(3) 161.926795(3) 162.928728(3) 163.929171(3) 164.930319(3) 161.928775(4) 163.929197(4) 165.930290(3) 166.932045(3) 167.932368(3) 169.935460(3) 168.934211(3) 167.933894(5) 169.934759(3) 170.936322(3) 171.9363777(30) 172.9382068(30) 173.9388581(30) 175.942568(3) 174.9407679(28) 175.9426824(28) 173.940040(3) 175.9414018(29) 176.9432200(27) 177.9436977(27) 178.9458151(27) 179.9465488(27)
Abundance in %
Z
11.114(51) 100 27.2(5) 12.2(2) 23.8(3) 8.3(1) 17.2(3) 5.7(1) 5.6(2)
73
Isotope 180Ta 181Ta
74
180W 182W 183W 184W 186W
75
185Re 187Re
76
184Os 186Os 187Os
3.07(7) 14.99(18) 11.24(10) 13.82(7) 7.38(1) 26.75(16) 22.75(29) 47.81(3) 52.19(3) 0.20(1) 2.18(3) 14.80(12) 20.47(9) 15.65(2) 24.84(7) 21.86(19) 100 0.06(1) 0.10(1) 2.34(8) 18.91(24) 25.51(26) 24.90(16) 28.18(37) 100 0.14(1) 1.61(3) 33.61(35) 22.93(17) 26.78(26) 14.93(27) 100 0.13(1) 3.04(15) 14.28(57) 21.83(67) 16.13(27) 31.83(92) 12.76(41) 97.41(2) 2.59(2) 0.16(1) 5.26(7) 18.60(9) 27.28(7) 13.62(2) 35.08(16)
188Os 189Os 190Os 192Os
77
191Ir 193Ir
78
190Pt 192Pt 194Pt 195Pt 196Pt 198Pt
79 80
197Au 196Hg 198Hg 199Hg 200Hg 201Hg 202Hg 204Hg
81
203Tl 205Tl
82
204Pb 206Pb 207Pb 208Pb
83 84
209Bi 209Po 210Po
85
210At 211At
86
211Rn 220Rn 222Rn
87 88
223Fr 223Ra 224Ra 226Ra 228Ra
89 90
227Ac 230Th 232Th
91 92
231Pa 233U 234U 235U
1-17
Mass in u 179.947466(3) 180.947996(3) 179.946706(5) 181.948206(3) 182.9502245(29) 183.9509326(29) 185.954362(3) 184.9529557(30) 186.9557508(30) 183.952491(3) 185.953838(3) 186.9557479(30) 187.9558360(30) 188.9581449(30) 189.958445(3) 191.961479(4) 190.960591(3) 192.962924(3) 189.959930(7) 191.961035(4) 193.962664(3) 194.964774(3) 195.964935(3) 197.967876(4) 196.966552(3) 195.965815(4) 197.966752(3) 198.968262(3) 199.968309(3) 200.970285(3) 201.970626(3) 203.973476(3) 202.972329(3) 204.974412(3) 203.973029(3) 205.974449(3) 206.975881(3) 207.976636(3) 208.980383(3) 208.982416(3) 209.982857(3) 209.987131(9) 210.987481(4) 210.990585(8) 220.0113841(29) 222.0175705(27) 223.0197307(29) 223.018497(3) 224.0202020(29) 226.0254026(27) 228.0310641(27) 227.0277470(29) 230.0331266(22) 232.0380504(22) 231.0358789(28) 233.039628(3) 234.0409456(21) 235.0439231(21)
Abundance in % 0.012(2) 99.988(2) 0.12(1) 26.50(16) 14.31(4) 30.64(2) 28.43(19) 37.40(2) 62.60(2) 0.02(1) 1.59(3) 1.96(2) 13.24(8) 16.15(5) 26.26(2) 40.78(19) 37.3(2) 62.7(2) 0.014(1) 0.782(7) 32.967(99) 33.832(10) 25.242(41) 7.163(55) 100 0.15(1) 9.97(20) 16.87(22) 23.10(19) 13.18(9) 29.86(26) 6.87(15) 29.524(14) 70.476(14) 1.4(1) 24.1(1) 22.1(1) 52.4(1) 100
100 100 0.0055(2) 0.7200(51)
ATOMIC MASSES AND ABUNDANCES (continued) Z
Isotope
236U 238U
93
237Np 239Np
94
238Pu 239Pu 240Pu 241Pu 242Pu 244Pu
95
241Am 243Am
96
243Cm 244Cm 245Cm 246Cm 247Cm 248Cm
97
247Bk
Mass in u
236.0455619(21) 238.0507826(21) 237.0481673(21) 239.0529314(23) 238.0495534(21) 239.0521565(21) 240.0538075(21) 241.0568453(21) 242.0587368(21) 244.064198(5) 241.0568229(21) 243.0613727(23) 243.0613822(24) 244.0627463(21) 245.0654856(29) 246.0672176(24) 247.070347(5) 248.072342(5) 247.070299(6)
Abundance in %
Z
Isotope
249Bk
99.2745(106)
98
249Cf 250Cf 251Cf 252Cf
99 100 101
252Es 257Fm 256Md 258Md
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111
259No 262Lr 261Rf 262Db 263Sg 264Bh 265Hs 268Mt 269Uun 272Uuu
*Mass values derived not purely from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends.
1-18
Mass in u
249.074980(3) 249.074847(3) 250.0764000(24) 251.079580(5) 252.081620(5) 252.082970(50) 257.095099(7) 256.094050(60) 258.098425(5) 259.101020(110)* 262.109690(320)* 261.108750(110)* 262.114150(200)* 263.118310(130)* 264.124730(300)* 265.130000(320)* 268.138820(340)* 269.145140(310)* 272.153480(360)*
Abundance in %
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF NEUTRAL ATOMS IN THE GROUND STATE Atomic no.
n= Element
K 1 s
L 2 s
p
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
s
M 3 p d
s
N 4 p d
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
1 2 3 5* 5 6 7 8 10* 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
1-13
1 2 4* 5 5 7 8 10* 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
O 5 f
s
p
d
f
s
1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 6 6
1 2
P 6 p d
Q 7 s
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF NEUTRAL ATOMS IN THE GROUND STATE (continued) Atomic no. 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 *
n= Element
K 1 s
L 2 s
p
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
s
M 3 p d
s
N 4 p d
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
O 5 f
s
1* 3 4 5 6 7 7 9* 10 11 12 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
p 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
d
f
s
2* 3 4 6* 7 7* 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 14
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
P 6 p d
1 2 3 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Note irregularity.
REFERENCE W. L. Wiese and G. A. Martin, in A Physicist’s Desk Reference, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1989, 94.
1-14
1 2 1 1 1
1
1 2
Q 7 s
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
INTERNATIONAL TEMPERATURE SCALE OF 1990 (ITS-90) B. W. Mangum A new temperature scale, the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90), was officially adopted by the Comité International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM), meeting 26—28 September 1989 at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM). The ITS-90 was recommended to the CIPM for its adoption following the completion of the final details of the new scale by the Comité Consultatif de Thermométrie (CCT), meeting 12—14 September 1989 at the BIPM in its 17th Session. The ITS-90 became the official international temperature scale on 1 January 1990. The ITS90 supersedes the present scales, the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68) and the 1976 Provisional 0.5 to 30 K Temperature Scale (EPT-76). The ITS-90 extends upward from 0.65 K, and temperatures on this scale are in much better agreement with thermodynamic values that are those on the IPTS-68 and the EPT-76. The new scale has subranges and alternative definitions in certain ranges that greatly facilitate its use. Furthermore, its continuity, precision, and reproducibility throughout its ranges are much improved over that of the present scales. The replacement of the thermocouple with the platinum resistance thermometer at temperatures below 961.78°C resulted in the biggest improvement in reproducibility. The ITS-90 is divided into four primary ranges: 1. Between 0.65 and 3.2 K, the ITS-90 is defined by the vapor pressure-temperature relation of 3He, and between 1.25 and 2.1768 K (the λ point) and between 2.1768 and 5.0 K by the vapor pressure-temperature relations of 4He. T90 is defined by the vapor pressure equations of the form: 9
[(
)
T90 / K = A0 + ∑ Ai ln( p/ Pa ) – B / C i =1
]
i
The values of the coefficients Ai, and of the constants Ao, B, and C of the equations are given below. 2. Between 3.0 and 24.5561 K, the ITS-90 is defined in terms of a 3He or 4He constant volume gas thermometer (CVGT). The thermometer is calibrated at three temperatures — at the triple point of neon (24.5561 K), at the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K), and at a temperature between 3.0 and 5.0 K, the value of which is determined by using either 3He or 4He vapor pressure thermometry. 3. Between 13.8033 K (–259.3467°C) and 1234.93 K (961.78°C), the ITS-90 is defined in terms of the specified fixed points given below, by resistance ratios of platinum resistance thermometers obtained by calibration at specified sets of the fixed points, and by reference functions and deviation functions of resistance ratios which relate to T90 between the fixed points. 4. Above 1234.93 K, the ITS-90 is defined in terms of Planck’s radiation law, using the freezing-point temperature of either silver, gold, or copper as the reference temperature. Full details of the calibration procedures and reference functions for various subranges are given in: The International Temperature Scale of 1990, Metrologia, 27, 3, 1990; errata in Metrologia, 27, 107, 1990.
Defining Fixed Points of the ITS-90 Materiala
Equilibrium stateb
Temperature T90 (K)
He e-H2 e-H2 (or He) e-H2 (or He) Nec O2 Ar Hgc H2O Gac Inc Sn Zn Alc Ag Au
VP TP VP (or CVGT) VP (or CVGT) TP TP TP TP TP MP FP FP FP FP FP FP
Cuc
FP
3 to 5 13.8033 ≈17 ≈20.3 24.5561 54.3584 83.8058 234.3156 273.16 302.9146 429.7485 505.078 692.677 933.473 1234.93 1337.33 1357.77
1-15
t90 (°C)
–270.15 to –268.15 –259.3467 ≈ –256.15 ≈ –252.85 –248.5939 –218.7916 –189.3442 –38.8344 0.01 29.7646 156.5985 231.928 419.527 660.323 961.78 1064.18 1084.62
INTERNATIONAL TEMPERATURE SCALE OF 1990 (ITS-90) (continued) Defining Fixed Points of the ITS-90 (continued) a
b
c
e-H2 indicates equilibrium hydrogen, that is, hydrogen with the equilibrium distribution of its ortho and para states. Normal hydrogen at room temperature contains 25% para hydrogen and 75% ortho hydrogen. VP indicates vapor pressure point; CVGT indicates constant volume gas thermometer point; TP indicates triple point (equilibrium temperature at which the solid, liquid, and vapor phases coexist); FP indicates freezing point, and MP indicates melting point (the equilibrium temperatures at which the solid and liquid phases coexist under a pressure of 101 325 Pa, one standard atmosphere). The isotopic composition is that naturally occurring. Previously, these were secondary fixed points.
Values of Coefficients in the Vapor Pressure Equations for Helium Coef.or constant A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 B C
3He 0.65—3.2 K
4He 1.25—2.1768 K
1.053 447 0.980 106 0.676 380 0.372 692 0.151 656 –0.002 263 0.006 596 0.088 966 –0.004 770 –0.054 943 7.3 4.3
1.392 408 0.527 153 0.166 756 0.050 988 0.026 514 0.001 975 –0.017 976 0.005 409 0.013 259 0 5.6 2.9
1-16
4He 2.1768—5.0 K
3.146 631 1.357 655 0.413 923 0.091 159 0.016 349 0.001 826 –0.004 325 –0.004 973 0 0 10.3 1.9
CONVERSION OF TEMPERATURES FROM THE 1948 AND 1968 SCALES TO ITS-90 This table gives temperature corrections from older scales to the current International Temperature Scale of 1990 (see the preceding table for details on ITS-90). The first part of the table may be used for converting Celsius temperatures in the range -180 to 4000°C from IPTS-68 or IPTS-48 to ITS90. Within the accuracy of the corrections, the temperature in the first column may be identified with either t68, t48, or t90. The second part of the table is designed for use at lower temperatures to convert values expressed in kelvins from EPT-76 or IPTS-68 to ITS-90. The references give analytical equations for expressing these relations. Note that Reference 1 supersedes Reference 2 with respect to corrections in the 630 to 1064°C range. REFERENCES 1. Burns, G. W. et al., in Temperature: Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 6, Schooley, J. F., Ed., American Institute of Physics, New York, 1993. 2. Goldberg, R. N. and Weir, R. D., Pure and Appl. Chem., 1545, 1992. t/°C
t90-t68
t90-t48
t/°C
t90-t68
t90-t48
t/°C
t90-t68
t90-t48
-180 -170 -160 -150 -140 -130 -120 -110 -100 -90 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260
0.008 0.010 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.013 0.013 0.012 0.012 0.011 0.010 0.009 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0.000 -0.002 -0.005 -0.007 -0.010 -0.013 -0.016 -0.018 -0.021 -0.024 -0.026 -0.028 -0.030 -0.032 -0.034 -0.036 -0.037 -0.038 -0.039 -0.039 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040
0.020 0.017 0.007 0.000 0.001 0.008 0.017 0.026 0.035 0.041 0.045 0.045 0.042 0.038 0.032 0.024 0.016 0.008 0.000 -0.006 -0.012 -0.016 -0.020 -0.023 -0.026 -0.026 -0.027 -0.027 -0.026 -0.024 -0.023 -0.020 -0.018 -0.016 -0.012 -0.009 -0.005 -0.001 0.003 0.007 0.011 0.014 0.018 0.021 0.024
270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610 620 630 640 650 660 670 680 690 700 710
-0.039 -0.039 -0.039 -0.039 -0.039 -0.039 -0.040 -0.040 -0.041 -0.042 -0.043 -0.045 -0.046 -0.048 -0.051 -0.053 -0.056 -0.059 -0.062 -0.065 -0.068 -0.072 -0.075 -0.079 -0.083 -0.087 -0.090 -0.094 -0.098 -0.101 -0.105 -0.108 -0.112 -0.115 -0.118 -0.122 -0.125 -0.11 -0.10 -0.09 -0.07 -0.05 -0.04 -0.02 -0.01
0.028 0.030 0.032 0.034 0.035 0.036 0.036 0.037 0.036 0.035 0.034 0.032 0.030 0.028 0.024 0.022 0.019 0.015 0.012 0.009 0.007 0.004 0.002 0.000 -0.001 -0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.002 0.007 0.011 0.018 0.025 0.035 0.047 0.060 0.075 0.12 0.15 0.19 0.24 0.29 0.32 0.37 0.41
720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 810 820 830 840 850 860 870 880 890 900 910 920 930 940 950 960 970 980 990 1000 1010 1020 1030 1040 1050 1060 1070 1080 1090 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
0.00 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 -0.02 -0.03 -0.05 -0.06 -0.08 -0.10 -0.11 -0.13 -0.15 -0.16 -0.18 -0.19 -0.20 -0.22 -0.23 -0.23 -0.24 -0.25 -0.25 -0.25 -0.26 -0.26 -0.26 -0.30 -0.35 -0.39 -0.44 -0.49 -0.54
0.45 0.49 0.53 0.56 0.60 0.63 0.66 0.69 0.72 0.75 0.76 0.79 0.81 0.83 0.85 0.87 0.87 0.89 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.99 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.05 1.07 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.17 1.19 1.20 1.20 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.1
1-17
CONVERSION OF TEMPERATURES FROM THE 1948 AND 1968 SCALES TO ITS-90 (continued) t/°C
t90-t68
t90-t48
T/K
1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000 3100 3200 3300 3400 3500 3600 3700 3800 3900 4000
-0.60 -0.66 -0.72 -0.79 -0.85 -0.93 -1.00 -1.07 -1.15 -1.24 -1.32 -1.41 -1.50 -1.59 -1.69 -1.78 -1.89 -1.99 -2.10 -2.21 -2.32 -2.43 -2.55
2.2 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.7 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.1 5.3 5.5 5.8 6.0 6.3 6.6 6.8
T/K
T90-T76
T90-T68
-0.0001 -0.0002 -0.0003 -0.0004 -0.0005 -0.0006 -0.0007 -0.0008 -0.0010 -0.0011 -0.0013 -0.0014 -0.0016 -0.0018 -0.0020 -0.0022 -0.0025 -0.0027 -0.0030 -0.0032 -0.0035 -0.0038 -0.0041
-0.006 -0.003 -0.004 -0.006 -0.008 -0.009 -0.009 -0.008 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.005 -0.004 -0.004
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
T90-T76
1-18
T90-T68
T/K
-0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008 -0.008 -0.007 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.008
77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 273.16 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
T90-T76
T90-T68 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.012 0.011 0.010 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.005 0.003 0.001 0.000 -0.006 -0.031 -0.040 -0.040 -0.055 -0.089 -0.124
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) 1 SI base units Table 1 gives the seven base quantities, assumed to be mutually independent, on which the SI is founded; and the names and symbols of their respective units, called ``SI base units.' ' Definitions of the SI base units are given in Appendix A. The kelvin and its symbol K are also used to express the value of a temperature interval or a temperature difference.
Table 1. SI base units SI base unit Base quantity length mass time electric current thermodynamic temperature amount of substance luminous intensity
Name
Symbol
meter kilogram second ampere kelvin mole candela
m kg s A K mol cd
2 SI deriived units Derived units are expressed algebraically in terms of base units or other derived units (including the radian and steradian which are the two supplementary units – see Sec. 3). The symbols for derived units are obtained by means of the mathematical operations of multiplication and division. For example, the derived unit for the derived quantity molar mass (mass divided by amount of substance) is the kilogram per mole, symbol kg/mol. Additional examples of derived units expressed in terms of SI base units are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Examples of SI derived units expressed in terms of SI base units SI derived unit Derived quantity area volume speed, velocity acceleration wave number mass density (density) specific volume current density magnetic field strength amount-of-substance concentration (concentration) luminance
2.1
Name
Symbol
square meter cubic meter meter per second meter per second squared reciprocal meter kilogram per cubic meter cubic meter per kilogram ampere per square meter ampere per meter
m2 m3 m/s m/s 2 m21 kg/m 3 m 3 /kg A/m 2 A/m
mole per cubic meter candela per square meter
mol/m 3 cd/m 2
SI derived units with special names and symbols
Certain SI derived units have special names and symbols; these are given in Tables 3a and 3b. As discussed in Sec. 3, the radian and steradian, which are the two supplementary units, are included in Table 3a.
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) (continued) Table 3a. SI derived units with special names and symbols, including the radian and steradian SI derived unit Derived quantity
Special name
plane angle solid angle frequency force pressure, stress energy, work, quantity of heat power, radiant flux electric charge, quantity of electricity electric potential, potential difference, electromotive force capacitance electric resistance electric conductance magnetic flux magnetic flux density inductance Celsius temperature(a) luminous flux illuminance (a) (b)
Special symbol
Expression in terms of other SI units
Expression in terms of SI base units
radian steradian hertz newton pascal
rad sr Hz N Pa
N/m2
m ? m21 = 1 m 2 ? m22 = 1 s21 m ? kg ? s22 m21 ? kg ? s22
joule watt
J W
N?m J/s
m2 ? kg ? s22 m2 ? kg ? s23
coulomb
C
volt farad ohm siemens weber tesla henry degree Celsius lumen lux
V F V S Wb T H 8C lm lx
s?A W/A C/V V/A A/V V?s Wb/m2 Wb/A cd ? sr lm/m2
m2 ? kg ? s23 ? A21 m22 ? kg21 ? s4 ? A2 m2 ? kg ? s23 ? A22 m22 ? kg21 ? s3 ? A2 m2 ? kg ? s22 ? A21 kg ? s22 ? A21 m2 ? kg ? s22 ? A22 K cd ? sr (b) m22 ? cd ? sr (b)
See Sec. 2.1.1. The steradian (sr) is not an SI base unit. However, in photometry the steradian (sr) is maintained in expressions for units (see Sec. 3).
Table 3b. SI derived units with special names and symbols admitted for reasons of safeguarding human health (a) SI derived unit Derived quantity
Special name
Special symbol
Expression in terms of other SI units
Expression in terms of SI base units
activity (of a radionuclide)
becquerel
Bq
absorbed dose, specific energy (imparted), kerma
gray
Gy
J/kg
m2 ? s22
dose equivalent, ambient dose equivalent, directional dose equivalent, personal dose equivalent, equivalent dose
sievert
Sv
J/kg
m2 ? s22
(a)
s21
The derived quantities to be expressed in the gray and the sievert have been revised in accordance with the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU).
2.1.1 Degree Celsius In addition to the quantity thermodynamic temperature (symbol T ), expressed in the unit kelvin, use is also made of the quantity Celsius temperature (symbol t ) defined by the equation t = T2T 0 , where T 0 = 273.15 K by definition. To express Celsius temperature, the unit degree Celsius, symbol 8C, which is equal in magnitude to the unit kelvin, is used; in this case, ``degree Celsius' ' is a special name used in place of ``kelvin.' ' An interval or difference of Celsius temperature can, however, be expressed in the unit kelvin as well as in the unit degree Celsius. (Note that the thermodynamic temperature T0 is exactly 0.01 K below the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.)
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) (continued) 2.2
Use of SI derived units with special names and symbols
Examples of SI derived units that can be expressed with the aid of SI derived units having special names and symbols (including the radian and steradian) are given in Table 4. Table 4. Examples of SI derived units expressed with the aid of SI derived units having special names and symbols SI derived unit Derived quantity angular velocity angular acceleration dynamic viscosity moment of force surface tension heat flux density, irradiance radiant intensity radiance heat capacity, entropy specific heat capacity, specific entropy specific energy thermal conductivity energy density electric field strength electric charge density electric flux density permittivity permeability molar energy molar entropy, molar heat capacity exposure (x and g rays) absorbed dose rate (a)
Name
Symbol
Expression in terms of SI base units
radian per second radian per second squared pascal second newton meter newton per meter
rad/s rad/s 2 Pa ? s N?m N/m
m ? m 21 ? s 21 = s 21 m ? m 21 ? s 22 = s 22 m21 ? kg ? s21 m 2 ? kg ? s22 kg ? s22
watt per square meter watt per steradian watt per square meter steradian joule per kelvin joule per kilogram kelvin joule per kilogram watt per meter kelvin joule per cubic meter volt per meter coulomb per cubic meter coulomb per square meter farad per meter henry per meter joule per mole
W/m 2 W/sr
kg ? s23 m 2 ? kg ? s 23 ? sr 21 (a)
W/(m 2 ? sr) J/K
kg ? s 23 ? sr 21 (a) m 2 ? kg ? s22 ? K21
J/(kg ? K) J/kg W/(m ? K) J/m 3 V/m C/m 3 C/m 2 F/m H/m J/mol
m 2 ? s22 ? K21 m 2 ? s22 m ? kg ? s23 ? K21 m21 ? kg ? s22 m ? kg ? s23 ? A21 m23 ? s ? A m22 ? s ? A m23 ? kg21 ? s4 ? A2 m ? kg ? s22 ? A22 m 2 ? kg ? s22 ? mol21
joule per mole kelvin coulomb per kilogram gray per second
J/(mol ? K) C/kg Gy/s
m 2 ? kg ? s22 ? K21 ? mol21 kg21 ? s ? A m 2 ? s23
The steradian (sr) is not an SI base unit. However, in radiometry the steradian (sr) is maintained in expressions for units (see Sec. 3).
The advantages of using the special names and symbols of SI derived units are apparent in Table 4. Consider, for example, the quantity molar entropy: the unit J/(mol ? K) is obviously more easily understood than its SI base-unit equivalent, m 2 ? kg ? s 22 ? K 21 ? mol 21. Nevertheless, it should always be recognized that the special names and symbols exist for convenience; either the form in which special names or symbols are used for certain combinations of units or the form in which they are not used is correct. For example, because of the descriptive value implicit in the compound-unit form, communication is sometimes facilitated if magnetic flux (see Table 3a) is expressed in terms of the volt second (V ? s) instead of the weber (Wb). Tables 3a, 3b, and 4 also show that the values of several different quantities are expressed in the same SI unit. For example, the joule per kelvin (J/K) is the SI unit for heat capacity as well as for entropy. Thus the name of the unit is not sufficient to define the quantity measured. A derived unit can often be expressed in several different ways through the use of base units and derived units with special names. In practice, with certain quantities, preference is given to using certain units with special names, or combinations of units, to facilitate the distinction between quantities whose values have identical expressions in terms of SI base units. For example, the SI unit of frequency is specified as the hertz (Hz) rather than the reciprocal second (s 21 ), and the SI unit of moment of force is specified as the newton meter (N ? m) rather than the joule (J).
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) (continued) Similarly, in the field of ionizing radiation, the SI unit of activity is designated as the becquerel (Bq) rather than the reciprocal second (s 21 ), and the SI units of absorbed dose and dose equivalent are designated as the gray (Gy) and the sievert (Sv), respectively, rather than the joule per kilogram (J/kg). 3 SI supplementary units As previously stated, there are two units in this class: the radian, symbol rad, the SI unit of the quantity plane angle; and the steradian, symbol sr, the SI unit of the quantity solid angle. Definitions of these units are given in Appendix A. The SI supplementary units are now interpreted as so-called dimensionless derived units for which the CGPM allows the freedom of using or not using them in expressions for SI derived units.3 Thus the radian and steradian are not given in a separate table but have been included in Table 3a together with other derived units with special names and symbols (seeSec.2.1). This interpretation of the supplementary units implies that plane angle and solid angle are considered derived quantities of dimension one (so-called dimensionless quantities), each of which has the which has the unit one, symbol 1, as its coherent SI unit. However, in practice, when one expresses the values of derived quantities involving plane angle or solid angle, it often aids understanding if the special names (or symbols) ``radian' ' (rad) or ``steradian' ' (sr) are used in place of the number 1. For example, although values of the derived quantity angular velocity (plane angle divided by time) may be expressed in the unit s21, such values are usually expressed in the unit rad/s. Because the radian and steradian are now viewed as so-called dimensionless derived units, the Consultative Committee for Units (CCU, Comité Consultatif des Unités) of the CIPM as result of a 1993 request it received from ISO/TC12, recommended to the CIPM that it request the CGPM to abolish the class of supplementary units as a separate class in the SI. The CIPM accepted the CCU recommendation, and if the abolishment is approved by the CGPM as is likely (the question will be on the agenda of the 20th CGPM, October 1995), the SI will consist of only two classes of units: base units and derived units, with the radian and steradian subsumed into the class of derived units of the SI. (The option of using or not using them in expressions for SI derived units, as is convenient, would remain unchanged.) 4 Decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units: SI prefixes Table 5 gives the SI prefixes that are used to form decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units. They allow very large or very small numerical values to be avoided. A prefix attaches directly to the name of a unit, and a prefix symbol attaches directly to the symbol for a unit. For example, one kilometer, symbol 1 km, is equal to one thousand meters, symbol 1000 m or 103 m. When prefixes are attached to SI units, the units so formed are called ``multiples and submultiples of SI units' ' in order to distinguish them from the coherent system of SI units.
Note:
3
Alternative definitions of the SI prefixes and their symbols are not permitted. For example, it is unacceptable to use kilo (k) to represent 2 10 = 1024, mega (M) to represent 2 20 = 1 048 576, or giga (G) to represent 2 30 = 1 073 741 824.
This interpretation was given in 1980 by the CIPM . It was deemed necessary because Resolution 12 of the 11th CGPM, which established the SI in 1960 , did not specify the nature of the supplementary units. The interpretation is based on two principal considerations: that plane angle is generally expressed as the ratio of two lengths and solid angle as the ratio of an area and the square of a length, and are thus quantities of dimension one (so-called dimensionless quantities); and that treating the radian and steradian as SI base units – a possibility not disallowed by Resolution 12 – could compromise the internal coherence of the SI based on only seven base units. (See ISO 31-0 for a discussion of the concept of dimension.)
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) (continued) Table 5. SI prefixes Factor
Prefix
10 24 10 21 10 18 10 15 10 12 10 9 10 6 10 3 10 2 10 1
= = = = = = = =
(10 3 ) 8 (10 3 ) 7 (10 3 ) 6 (10 3 ) 5 (10 3 ) 4 (10 3 ) 3 (10 3 ) 2 (10 3 ) 1
5
Units Outside the SI
Symbol
yotta zetta exa peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deka
Y Z E P T G M k h da
Factor 1021 1022 1023 1026 1029 10212 10215 10218 10221 10224
= = = = = = = =
Prefix
Symbol
deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto zepto yocto
(10 3 ) 21 (10 3 ) 22 (10 3 ) 23 (10 3 ) 24 (10 3 ) 25 (10 3 ) 26 (10 3 ) 27 (10 3 ) 28
d c m m n p f a z y
Units that are outside the SI may be divided into three categories: –
those units that are accepted for use with the SI;
– those units that are temporarily accepted for use with the SI; and – those units that are not accepted for use with the SI and thus must strictly be avoided. 5.1
Units accepted for use with the SI The following sections discuss in detail the units that are acceptable for use with the SI.
5.1.1
Hour, degree, liter, and the like
Certain units that are not part of the SI are essential and used so widely that they are accepted by the CIPM for use with the SI. These units are given in Table 6. The combination of units of this table with SI units to form derived units should be restricted to special cases in order not to lose the advantages of the coherence of SI units. Additionally, it is recognized that it may be necessary on occasion to use time-related units other than those given in Table 6; in particular, circumstances may require that intervals of time be expressed in weeks, months, or years. In such cases, if a standardized symbol for the unit is not available, the name of the unit should be written out in full.
Table 6. Units accepted for use with the SI Name
Symbol
6 6
minute hour time day degree minute plane angle second liter metric ton (c)
min h d 8 ' " l, L (b) t
Value in SI units 1 min 1h 1d 18 1' 1" 1L 1t
= = = = = = = =
60 s 60 min = 3600 s 24 h = 86 400 s (p/180) rad (1/60)8=(p/10 800) rad (1/60)' =(p/648 000) rad 1 dm3 = 1023 m3 10 3 kg
(b)
The alternative symbol for the liter, L, was adopted by the CGPM in order to avoid the risk of confusion between the letter l and the number 1 . Thus, although both l and L are internationally accepted symbols for the liter, to avoid this risk the symbol to be used in the United States is L . The script letter , is not an approved symbol for the liter.
(c)
This is the name to be used for this unit in the United States; it is also used in some other English-speaking countries. However, ``tonne' ' is used in many countries.
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) (continued) 5.1.2
Neper, bel, shannon, and the like
There are a few highly specialized units not listed in Table 6 that are given by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) or the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and which are also acceptable for use with the SI. They include the neper (Np), bel (B), octave, phon, and sone, and units used in information technology, including the baud (Bd), bit (bit), erlang (E), hartley (Hart), and shannon (Sh).4 It is the position of NIST that the only such additional units that may be used with the SI are those given in either the International Standards on quantities and units of ISO or of IEC . 5.1.3
Electronvolt and unified atomic mass unit
The CIPM also finds it necessary to accept for use with the SI the two units given in Table 7. These units are used in specialized fields; their values in SI units must be obtained from experiment and, therefore, are not known exactly.
Note :
In some fields the unified atomic mass unit is called the dalton, symbol Da; however, this name and symbol are not accepted by the CGPM, CIPM, ISO, or IEC for use with the SI. Similarly, AMU is not an acceptable unit symbol for the unified atomic mass unit. The only allowed name is ``unified atomic mass unit' ' and the only allowed symbol is u.
Table 7. Units accepted for use with the SI whose values in SI units are obtained experimentally Name electronvolt unified atomic mass unit (a)
Symbol eV u
Definition (a) (b)
The electronvolt is the kinetic energy acquired by an electron in passing through a potential difference of 1 V in vacuum; 1 eV = 1.602 177 33310219 J with a combined standard uncertainty of 0.000 000 49310219 J . The unified atomic mass unit is equal to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of the nuclide 12 C; 1 u = 1.660 540 23 10227 kg with a combined standard uncertainty of 0.000 001 0310227 kg .
(b)
5.1.4
Natural and atomic units
In some cases, particularly in basic science, the values of quantities are expressed in terms of fundamental constants of nature or so-called natural units.The use of these units with the SI is permissible when it is necessary for the most effective communication of information. In such cases, the specific natural units that are used must be identified. This requirement applies even to the system of units customarily called ``atomicunits' ' used in theoretical atomic physics and chemistry, inasmuch as there are several different systems that have the appellation ``atomic units.'' Examples of physical quantities used as natural units are given in Table 8. NIST also takes the position that while theoretical results intended primarily for other theorists may be left in natural units, if they are also intended for experimentalists, they must also be given in acceptable units.
4
The symbol in parentheses following the name of the unit is its internationally accepted unit symbol, but the octave, phon, and sone have no such unit symbols. For additional information on the neper and bel, see Sec. 0.5 of ISO 31-2. The question of the byte (B) is under international consideration.
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) (continued) Table 8. Examples of physical quantities sometimes used as natural units Kind of quantity
Physical quantity used as a unit
action electric charge energy length length magnetic flux magnetic moment magnetic moment mass mass speed
Planck constant divided by 2p elementary charge Hartree energy Bohr radius Compton wavelength (electron) magnetic flux quantum Bohr magneton nuclear magneton electron rest mass proton rest mass speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum
5.2
Symbol
h e Eh a0 lC F0 mB mN me mp c
Units temporarily accepted for use with the SI
Because of existing practice in certain fields or countries, in 1978 the CIPM considered that it was permissible for the units given in Table 9 to continue to be used with the SI until the CIPM considers that their use is no longer necessary. However, these units must not be introduced where they are not presently used. Further, NIST strongly discourages the continued use of these units except for the nautical mile, knot, are, and hectare; and except for the curie, roentgen, rad, and rem until the year 2000 (the cessation date suggested by the Committee for Ineragency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination or CIRRPC, a United States Government interagency group). 5 Table 9. Units temporarily accepted for use with the SI (a) Name nautical mile knot ångström are(b) hectare(b) barn bar gal curie roentgen rad rem (a) (b) (c)
Symbol
Å a ha b bar Gal Ci R rad (c) rem
Value in SI units 1 nautical mile = 1852 m 1 nautical mile per hour = (1852/3600) m/s 1 Å = 0.1 nm = 10210 m 1 a = 1 dam2 = 10 2 m2 1 ha = 1 hm2 = 10 4 m2 1 b = 100 fm2 = 10228 m2 1 bar=0.1 MPa=100 kPa=1000 hPa=10 5 Pa 1 Gal = 1 cm/s 2 = 1022 m/s 2 1 Ci = 3.731010 Bq 1 R = 2.5831024 C/kg 1 rad = 1 cGy = 1022 Gy 1 rem = 1 cSv = 1022 Sv
See Sec. 5.2 regarding the continued use of these units. This unit and its symbol are used to express agrarian areas. When there is risk of confusion with the symbol for the radian, rd may be used as the symbol for rad.
5 In 1993 the CCU (see Sec. 3) was requested by ISO/TC 12 to consider asking the CIPM to deprecate the use of the units of Table 9 except for the nautical mile and knot, and possibly the are and hectare. The CCU discussed this request at its February 1995 meeting.
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) (continued)
Appendix A. A.1
Definitions of the SI Base Units and the Radian and Steradian
Introduction
The following definitions of the SI base units are taken from NIST SP 330; the definitions of the SI supplementary units, the radian and steradian, which are now interpreted as SI derived units (see Sec. 3), are those generally accepted and are the same as those given in ANSI/IEEE Std 268-1992. SI derived units are uniquely defined only in terms of SI base units; for example, 1 V = 1 m 2 ? kg ? s 23 ? A 21. A.2
Meter (17th CGPM, 1983)
The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second. A.3
Kilogram (3d CGPM, 1901)
The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. A.4
Second (13th CGPM, 1967)
The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium- 133 atom. A.5
Ampere (9th CGPM, 1948)
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 3 10 27 newton per meter of length. A.6
Kelvin (13th CGPM, 1967)
The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. A.7
Mole (14th CGPM, 1971)
1. The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12. 2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles. In the definition of the mole, it is understood that unbound atoms of carbon 12, at rest and in their ground state, are referred to. Note that this definition specifies at the same time the nature of the quantity whose unit is the mole. A.8
Candela (16th CGPM, 1979)
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 3 10 12 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of ( 1/ 683) watt per steradian. A.9
Radian
The radian is the plane angle between two radii of a circle that cut off on the circumference an arc equal in length to the radius. A.10
Steradian
The steradian is the solid angle that, having its vertex in the center of a sphere, cuts off an area of the surface of the sphere equal to that of a square with sides of length equal to the radius of the sphere.
CONVERSION FACTORS The following table gives conversion factors from various units of measure to SI units. It is reproduced from NIST Special Publication 811, Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). The table gives the factor by which a quantity expressed in a non-SI unit should be multiplied in order to calculate its value in the SI. The SI values are expressed in terms of the base, supplementary, and derived units of SI in order to provide a coherent presentation of the conversion factors and facilitate computations (see the table “International System of Units” in this Section). If desired, powers of ten can be avoided by using SI Prefixes and shifting the decimal point if necessary. Conversion from a non-SI unit to a different non-SI unit may be carried out by using this table in two stages, e.g., 1 calth = 4.184 J 1 BtuIT = 1.055056 E+03 J Thus, 1 BtuIT = (1.055056 E+03 ÷ 4.184) calth = 252.164 calth Conversion factors are presented for ready adaptation to computer readout and electronic data transmission. The factors are written as a number equal to or greater than one and less than ten with six or fewer decimal places. This number is followed by the letter E (for exponent), a plus or a minus sign, and two digits which indicate the power of 10 by which the number must be multiplied to obtain the correct value. For example: 3.523 907 E-02 is 3.523 907 × 10-2 or 0.035 239 07 Similarly: 3.386 389 E+03 is 3.386 389 × 103 or 3 386.389 A factor in boldface is exact; i.e., all subsequent digits are zero. All other conversion factors have been rounded to the figures given in accordance with accepted practice. Where less than six digits after the decimal point are shown, more precision is not warranted. It is often desirable to round a number obtained from a conversion of units in order to retain information on the precision of the value. The following rounding rules may be followed: (1) If the digits to be discarded begin with a digit less than 5, the digit preceding the first discarded digit is not changed. Example: 6.974 951 5 rounded to 3 digits is 6.97 (2) If the digits to be discarded begin with a digit greater than 5, the digit preceding the first discarded digit is increased by one. Example: 6.974 951 5 rounded to 4 digits is 6.975 (3) If the digits to be discarded begin with a 5 and at least one of the following digits is greater than 0, the digit preceding the 5 is increased by 1. Example: 6.974 851 rounded to 5 digits is 6.974 9 (4) If the digits to be discarded begin with a 5 and all of the following digits are 0, the digit preceding the 5 is unchanged if it is even and increased by one if it is odd. (Note that this means that the final digit is always even.) Examples: 6.974 951 5 rounded to 7 digits is 6.974 952 6.974 950 5 rounded to 7 digits is 6.974 950
REFERENCE Taylor, B. N., Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI), NIST Special Publication 811, 1995 Edition, Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, 1995.
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Factors in boldface are exact To convert from
to
Multiply by
abampere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ampere (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 abcoulomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . coulomb (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
E+01 E+01
abfarad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . farad (F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 abhenry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . henry (H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 abmho. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . siemens (S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
E+09 Eⴚ09 E+09
abohm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ohm (⍀) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 abvolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . volt (V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 acceleration of free fall, standard (g n ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second squared (m/s 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65 acre (based on U.S. survey foot)9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter (m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.046 873
Eⴚ09 Eⴚ08
acre foot (based on U.S. survey foot)9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.233 489 ampere hour (A ⭈ h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . coulomb (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6
E+03 E+03
ångstro¨ m (Å) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ångstro¨ m (Å) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nanometer (nm). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . are (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter (m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . astronomical unit (AU). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . atmosphere, standard (atm). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . atmosphere, standard (atm). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . atmosphere, technical (at) 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eⴚ10 Eⴚ01 E+02 E+11 E+05 E+02
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.495 979 1.013 25 1.013 25
9.806 65 atmosphere, technical (at) 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65
bar (bar). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bar (bar). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . barn (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter (m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . barrel [for petroleum, 42 gallons (U.S.)](bbl) . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . barrel [for petroleum, 42 gallons (U.S.)](bbl) . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . biot (Bi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ampere (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unit IT (BtuIT )11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unit th (Btuth )11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unit (mean) (Btu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unit (39 ⬚F) (Btu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unit (59 ⬚F) (Btu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unit (60 ⬚F) (Btu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT foot per hour square foot degree Fahrenheit [BtuIT ⭈ ft/(h ⭈ ft2 ⭈ ⬚F)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per meter kelvin [W/(m ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth foot per hour square foot degree Fahrenheit [Btuth ⭈ ft/(h ⭈ ft2 ⭈ ⬚F)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per meter kelvin [W/(m ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . . . .
E+03
E+04 E+01
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.589 873 1.589 873 1.0 1.055 056
E+05 E+02 Eⴚ28 E⫺01 E+02 E+01 E+03
1.054 350 1.055 87 1.059 67 1.054 80 1.054 68
E+03 E+03 E+03 E+03 E+03
1.730 735
E+00
1.729 577
E+00
British thermal unitIT inch per hour square foot degree Fahrenheit [BtuIT ⭈ in/(h ⭈ ft2 ⭈ ⬚F)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per meter kelvin [W/(m ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.442 279 British thermal unitth inch per hour square foot degree Fahrenheit [Btuth ⭈ in/(h ⭈ ft2 ⭈ ⬚F)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per meter kelvin [W/(m ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.441 314 British thermal unitIT inch per second square foot degree Fahrenheit [BtuIT ⭈ in/(s ⭈ ft2 ⭈ ⬚F)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per meter kelvin [W/(m ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.192 204
9
E+00
E⫺01 E⫺01 E+02
The U.S. survey foot equals (1200/3937) m. 1 international foot = 0.999998 survey foot. One technical atmosphere equals one kilogram-force per square centimeter (1 at = 1 kgf/cm 2 ). 11 The Fifth International Conference on the Properties of Steam (London, July 1956) defined the International Table calorie as 4.1868 J. Therefore the exact conversion factor for the International Table Btu is 1.055 055 852 62 kJ. Note that the notation for International Table used in this listing is subscript ‘‘IT’’. Similarily, the notation for thermochemical is subscript ‘‘th.’’ Further, the thermochemical Btu, Btu th , is based on the thermochemical calorie, cal th , where cal th = 4.184 J exactly. 10
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
To convert from
to
British thermal unitth inch per second square foot degree Fahrenheit [Btuth ⭈ in/(s ⭈ ft2 ⭈ ⬚F)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per meter kelvin [W/(m ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per cubic foot (BtuIT /ft3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per cubic meter (J/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per cubic foot (Btuth /ft3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per cubic meter (J/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per degree Fahrenheit (BtuIT / ⬚F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kelvin (J/ k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per degree Fahrenheit (Btuth /⬚F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kelvin (J/ k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per degree Rankine (BtuIT /⬚R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kelvin (J/ k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per degree Rankine (Btuth /⬚R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kelvin (J/ k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per hour (BtuIT /h) . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per hour (Btuth /h). . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per hour square foot degree Fahrenheit [BtuIT /(h ⭈ ft2 ⭈ ⬚F)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter kelvin [W/(m2 ⭈ K)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per hour square foot degree Fahrenheit [Btuth /(h ⭈ ft2 ⭈ ⬚F)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter kelvin [W/(m2 ⭈ K)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per minute (Btuth /min) . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per pound (BtuIT /lb). . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram (J/kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per pound (Btuth /lb) . . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram (J/kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per pound degree Fahrenheit [BtuIT /(lb ⭈ ⬚F)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram kelvin (J/(kg ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per pound degree Fahrenheit [Btuth /(lb ⭈ ⬚F)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram kelvin [J/(kg ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per pound degree Rankine [BtuIT /(lb ⭈ ⬚R)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram kelvin [J/(kg ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per pound degree Rankine [Btuth /(lb ⭈ ⬚R)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram kelvin [J/(kg ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per second (BtuIT /s) . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per second (Btuth /s) . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per second square foot degree Fahrenheit [BtuIT /(s ⭈ ft2 ⭈ ⬚F)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter kelvin [W/(m2 ⭈ K)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per second square foot degree Fahrenheit [Btuth /(s ⭈ ft2 ⭈ ⬚F)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter kelvin [W/(m2 ⭈ K)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per square foot (BtuIT /ft2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per square meter (J/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per square foot (Btuth /ft2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per square meter (J/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per square foot hour [(BtuIT /(ft2 ⭈ h)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter (W/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per square foot hour [Btuth /(ft2 ⭈ h)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter (W/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per square foot minute [Btuth /(ft2 ⭈ min)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter (W/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitIT per square foot second [(BtuIT /(ft2 ⭈ s)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter (W/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per square foot second [Btuth /(ft2 ⭈ s)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter (W/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . British thermal unitth per square inch second [Btuth /(in2 ⭈ s)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter (W/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Multiply by 5.188 732
E+02
3.725 895
E+04
3.723 403
E+04
1.899 101
E+03
1.897 830
E+03
1.899 101
E+03
1.897 830 2.930 711
E+03 E⫺01
2.928 751
E⫺01
5.678 263
E+00
5.674 466 1.757 250
E+00 E+01
2.326 2.324 444
E+03 E+03
4.1868
E+03
4.184
E+03
4.1868
E+03
4.184 1.055 056 1.054 350
E+03 E+03 E+03
2.044 175
E+04
2.042 808
E+04
1.135 653
E+04
1.134 893
E+04
3.154 591
E+00
3.152 481
E+00
1.891 489
E+02
1.135 653
E+04
1.134 893
E+04
1.634 246
E+06
To convert from
to
Multiply by 3
bushel (U.S.) (bu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.523 907
E⫺02
bushel (U.S.) (bu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.523 907
E+01
calorie IT (calIT) 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorie th (calth) 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorie (cal) (mean) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorie (15 ⬚C) (cal 15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorie (20 ⬚C) (cal 20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1868 4.184
E+00 E+00
4.190 02 4.185 80 4.181 90
E+00 E+00 E+00
4.1868 4.184 4.190 02
E+03 E+03 E+03
4.184 4.1868 4.184
E+02 E+03 E+03
4.1868
E+03
4.184 4.1868 4.184 6.973 333 4.184 4.184
E+03 E+03 E+03 E⫺02 E+00 E+04
6.973 333
E+02
4.184 1.550 003 2.0 2.0 1.333 22 1.333 22 1.333 224 1.333 224 9.806 38
E+04 E+03 Eⴚ04 Eⴚ01 E+03 E+00 E+03 E+00 E+01
9.806 65 1.0 1.0 2.011 684 5.067 075 5.067 075 1.55 3.624 556 2.831 685 4.719 474 4.719 474 2.831 685
E+01 Eⴚ03 Eⴚ06 E+01 E⫺10 E⫺04 E⫺01 E+00 E⫺02 E⫺04 E⫺01 E⫺02
calorieIT , kilogram (nutrition) 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorieth , kilogram (nutrition) 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorie (mean), kilogram (nutrition) 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorieth per centimeter second degree Celsius [calth /(cm ⭈ s ⭈ ⬚C)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per meter kelvin [W/(m ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . calorieIT per gram (calIT /g). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram (J/kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorieth per gram (calth /g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram (J/kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorieIT per gram degree Celsius [calIT /(g ⭈ ⬚C)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram kelvin [J/(kg ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . calorieth per gram degree Celsius [calth /(g ⭈ ⬚C)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram kelvin [J/(kg ⭈ K)]. . . . . . . . . . calorieIT per gram kelvin [cal IT /(g ⭈ K)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram kelvin [J / (kg ⭈ K)] . . . . . . . . . calorieth per gram kelvin [cal th / (g ⭈ K)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per kilogram kelvin [J / (kg ⭈ K)] . . . . . . . . . calorieth per minute (calth /min). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorieth per second (calth /s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorieth per square centimeter (calth /cm2). . . . . . . . . . . joule per square meter (J/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorieth per square centimeter minute [calth /(cm2 ⭈ min)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter (W/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calorieth per square centimeter second [calth /(cm2 ⭈ s)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter (W/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . candela per square inch (cd/in2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . candela per square meter (cd/m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . carat, metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . carat, metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gram (g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centimeter of mercury (0 ⬚C) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centimeter of mercury (0 ⬚C) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centimeter of mercury, conventional (cmHg) 13 . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centimeter of mercury, conventional (cmHg) 13 . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centimeter of water (4 ⬚C) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centimeter of water, conventional (cmH 2 O) 13 . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centipoise (cP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal second (Pa ⭈ s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centistokes (cSt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter squared per second (m2 /s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chain (based on U.S. survey foot) (ch)9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . circular mil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter (m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . circular mil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square millimeter (mm2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . clo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter kelvin per watt (m2 ⭈ K /W). . . . . . . cord (128 ft 3 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m 3 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic foot (ft3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic foot per minute (ft3 /min) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter per second (m3 /s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic foot per minute (ft3 /min) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter per second (L / s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic foot per second (ft3 /s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter per second (m3 /s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The kilogram calorie or ‘‘large calorie’’ is an obsolete term used for the kilocalorie, which is the calorie used to express the energy content of foods. However, in practice, the prefix ‘‘kilo’’ is usually omitted. 13 Conversion factors for mercury manometer pressure units are calculated using the standard value for the acceleration of gravity and the density of mercury at the stated temperature. Additional digits are not justified because the definitions of the units do not take into account the compressibility of mercury or the change in density caused by the revised practical temperature scale, ITS-90. Similar comments also apply to water manometer pressure units. Conversion factors for conventional mercury and water manometer pressure units are based on ISO 31-3.
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
To convert from
to
Multiply by
cubic inch (in3) 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.638 706 cubic inch per minute (in3 /min). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter per second (m3 /s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.731 177 cubic mile (mi3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.168 182 cubic yard (yd3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.645 549
E⫺05 E⫺07 E+09 E⫺01
cubic yard per minute (yd3 /min) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter per second (m3 /s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.274 258 cup (U.S.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m 3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.365 882 cup (U.S.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.365 882
E⫺02 E⫺04 E⫺01
cup (U.S.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milliliter (mL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.365 882 curie (Ci) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . becquerel (Bq) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7
E+02 E+10
darcy15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter squared (m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.869 233 day (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.64
E⫺13 E+04
day (sidereal). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.616 409 debye (D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . coulomb meter (C ⭈ m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.335 641
E+04 E⫺30
degree (angle) (⬚). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . radian (rad) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.745 329 E⫺02 degree Celsius (temperature) (⬚C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kelvin (K). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T / K = t / ⬚C+273.15 degree Celsius (temperature interval) (⬚C) . . . . . . . . . . kelvin (K). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 E+00 degree centigrade (temperature) 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . degree Celsius (⬚C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t / ⬚C ≈ t / deg. cent. degree centigrade (temperature interval) 16 . . . . . . . . . . degree Celsius (⬚C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 E+00 degree Fahrenheit (temperature) (⬚F). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . degree Celsius (⬚C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t / ⬚C = (t / ⬚F ⫺ 32) / 1.8 degree Fahrenheit (temperature) (⬚F). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kelvin (K). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T / K = (t / ⬚F + 459.67)/1.8 degree Fahrenheit (temperature interval)(⬚F) . . . . . . . . degree Celsius (⬚C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.555 556 E⫺01 degree Fahrenheit (temperature interval)(⬚F) . . . . . . . . kelvin (K). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.555 556 E⫺01 degree Fahrenheit hour per British thermal unit IT (⬚F ⭈ h / Btu IT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kelvin per watt (K / W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.895 634 E+00 degree Fahrenheit hour per British thermal unit th (⬚F ⭈ h / Btu th). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kelvin per watt (K / W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.896 903 E+00 degree Fahrenheit hour square foot per British thermal unitIT (⬚F ⭈ h ⭈ ft2 /BtuIT). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter kelvin per watt (m2 ⭈ K /W) . . . . . . 1.761 102 E⫺01 degree Fahrenheit hour square foot per British thermal unitth (⬚F ⭈ h ⭈ ft2 /Btuth) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter kelvin per watt (m2 ⭈ K /W) . . . . . . 1.762 280 E⫺01 degree Fahrenheit hour square foot per British thermal unitIT inch [⬚F ⭈ h ⭈ ft2 /(BtuIT ⭈ in)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter kelvin per watt (m ⭈ K /W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.933 472 E+00 degree Fahrenheit hour square foot per British thermal unitth inch [⬚F ⭈ h ⭈ ft2 /(Btuth ⭈ in)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter kelvin per watt (m ⭈ K /W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.938 112 E+00 degree Fahrenheit second per British thermal unit IT (⬚F ⭈ s / Btu IT). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kelvin per watt (K / W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.265 651 E⫺04 degree Fahrenheit second per British thermal unit th (⬚F ⭈ s / Btu th) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kelvin per watt (K / W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.269 175 E⫺04 degree Rankine (⬚R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kelvin (K). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .T / K = (T / ⬚R) / 1.8 degree Rankine (temperature interval) (⬚R) . . . . . . . . . kelvin (K). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.555 556 E⫺01 denier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per meter (kg/m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.111 111 E⫺07 denier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gram per meter (g/m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.111 111 E⫺04 dyne (dyn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Eⴚ05
dyne centimeter (dyn ⭈ cm). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton meter (N ⭈ m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 dyne per square centimeter (dyn/cm2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Eⴚ07 Eⴚ01
electronvolt (eV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.602 177
E⫺19
EMU of capacitance (abfarad) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . farad (F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 EMU of current (abampere). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ampere (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 EMU of electric potential (abvolt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . volt (V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
E+09 E+01 Eⴚ08
EMU of inductance (abhenry) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . henry (H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Eⴚ09
14
The exact conversion factor is 1.638 706 4 E⫺05. The darcy is a unit for expressing the permeability of porous solids, not area. 16 The centigrade temperature scale is obsolete; the degree centigrade is only approximately equal to the degree Celsius. 15
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
To convert from
to
Multiply by
EMU of resistance (abohm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ohm (⍀) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Eⴚ09
erg (erg). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Eⴚ07
erg per second (erg/s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Eⴚ07
erg per square centimeter second |1obrkt㜸1ru|/ (cm2 ⭈ s)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter (W/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ESU of capacitance (statfarad) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . farad (F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ESU of current (statampere) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ampere (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ESU of electric potential (statvolt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . volt (V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ESU of inductance (stathenry) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . henry (H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ESU of resistance (statohm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ohm (⍀) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.0
Eⴚ03
1.112 650 3.335 641 2.997 925 8.987 552 8.987 552
E⫺12 E⫺10 E+02 E+11 E+11
faraday (based on carbon 12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . coulomb (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.648 531 fathom (based on U.S. survey foot)9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.828 804 fermi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 fermi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . femtometer (fm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 fluid ounce (U.S.) (fl oz). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.957 353 fluid ounce (U.S.) (fl oz). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milliliter (mL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.957 353 foot (ft) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.048 foot (U.S. survey) (ft)9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.048 006
E+04
footcandle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lux (lx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.076 391 footlambert. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . candela per square meter (cd/m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.426 259 foot of mercury, conventional (ftHg) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.063 666
E+00 Eⴚ15 E+00 E⫺05 E+01 Eⴚ01 E⫺01 E+01 E+00
4.063 666 2.988 98
E+04 E+01 E+03
2.988 98 2.989 067 2.989 067 8.466 667 5.08 3.048
E+00 E+03 E+00 E⫺05 Eⴚ03 Eⴚ01
3.048 4.214 011 1.355 818 3.766 161 2.259 697 1.355 818
Eⴚ01 E⫺02 E+00 E⫺04 E⫺02 E+00
8.630 975 franklin (Fr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . coulomb (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.335 641
E⫺03 E⫺10
gal (Gal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second squared (m/s2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gallon [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (gal) . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gallon [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (gal) . . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gallon (U.S.) (gal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.0 4.546 09 4.546 09
Eⴚ02 Eⴚ03 E+00
3.785 412 3.785 412 4.381 264 4.381 264
E⫺03 E+00 E⫺08 E⫺05
1.410 089 gallon (U.S.) per horsepower hour [gal / (hp ⭈ h)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter per joule (L / J) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.410 089 gallon (U.S.) per minute (gpm)(gal / min) . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter per second (m3 /s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.309 020 gallon (U.S.) per minute (gpm) (gal / min) . . . . . . . . . . . liter per second (L / s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.309 020
E⫺09
foot of mercury, conventional (ftHg) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot of water (39.2 ⬚F) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot of water (39.2 ⬚F) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot of water, conventional (ftH 2 O) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot of water, conventional (ftH 2 O) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot per hour (ft/h). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second (m/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot per minute (ft/min) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second (m/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot per second (ft/s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second (m/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot per second squared (ft/s2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second squared (m/s2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot foot foot foot foot foot
poundal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound-force (ft ⭈ lbf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound-force per hour (ft ⭈ lbf/h). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound-force per minute (ft ⭈ lbf/min) . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound-force per second (ft ⭈ lbf/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to the fourth power (ft 4) 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter to the fourth power (m4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
gallon (U.S.) (gal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gallon (U.S.) per day (gal / d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter per second (m3 /s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gallon (U.S.) per day (gal / d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter per second (L / s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gallon (U.S.) per horsepower hour [gal / (hp ⭈ h)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter per joule (m3 /J) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 This is a unit for the quantity second moment of area, which is sometimes called the ‘‘moment of section’’ or ‘‘area moment of inertia’’ of a plane section about a specified axis.
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
E⫺06 E⫺05 E⫺02
To convert from
to
Multiply by
gamma (␥) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tesla (T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Eⴚ09
gauss (Gs, G) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tesla (T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Eⴚ04
gilbert (Gi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ampere (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gill [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (gi) . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gill [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (gi) . . . . . . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gill (U.S.) (gi). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gill (U.S.) (gi). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gon (also called grade) (gon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . radian (rad) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gon (also called grade) (gon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . degree (angle) (⬚) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . grain (gr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . grain (gr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milligram (mg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . grain per gallon (U.S.) (gr / gal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.957 747 1.420 653 1.420 653 1.182 941 1.182 941 1.570 796 9.0 6.479 891 6.479 891
E⫺01 E⫺04 E⫺01 E⫺04 E⫺01 E⫺02 Eⴚ01 Eⴚ05 E+01
1.711 806 grain per gallon (U.S.) (gr / gal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milligram per liter (mg / L). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.711 806 gram-force per square centimeter (gf / cm 2). . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65 gram per cubic centimeter (g / cm 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
E⫺02 E+01 E+01
hectare (ha) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter (m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . horsepower (550 ft ⭈ lbf/s) (hp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . horsepower (boiler) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . horsepower (electric). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . horsepower (metric). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . horsepower (U.K.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . horsepower (water). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hour (h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hour (sidereal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hundredweight (long, 112 lb). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hundredweight (short, 100 lb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.0 7.456 999 9.809 50 7.46 7.354 988 7.4570 7.460 43 3.6 3.590 170 5.080 235 4.535 924
E+04 E+02 E+03 E+02 E+02 E+02 E+02 E+03 E+03 E+01 E+01
inch (in) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inch (in) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . centimeter (cm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inch of mercury (32 ⬚F) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inch of mercury (32 ⬚F) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inch of mercury (60 ⬚F) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inch of mercury (60 ⬚F) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inch of mercury, conventional (inHg) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inch of mercury, conventional (inHg) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inch of water (39.2 ⬚F) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inch of water (60 ⬚F) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inch of water, conventional (inH 2 O) 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.54 2.54 3.386 38 3.386 38 3.376 85
Eⴚ02 E+00 E+03 E+00 E+03
3.376 85 3.386 389 3.386 389 2.490 82 2.4884
E+00 E+03 E+00 E+02 E+02
2.490 889 inch per second (in/s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second (m/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.54 inch per second squared (in/s2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second squared (m/s2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.54 inch to the fourth power (in4) 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter to the fourth power (m4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.162 314
E+03
E+02 Eⴚ02 Eⴚ02 E⫺07
E+02 kayser (K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reciprocal meter (m ⫺1 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 kelvin (K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . degree Celsius (⬚C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t / ⬚C = T / K ⫺ 273.15 E+03 kilocalorieIT (kcalIT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1868 E+03 kilocalorieth (kcalth) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.184 kilocalorie (mean) (kcal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.190 02 E+03 E+01 kilocalorieth per minute (kcalth /min) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.973 333 kilocalorieth per second (kcalth / s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.184 E+03 kilogram-force (kgf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65 kilogram-force meter (kgf ⭈ m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton meter (N ⭈ m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
E+00 E+00
To convert from
to
Multiply by
kilogram-force per square centimeter (kgf/cm 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65
E+04
kilogram-force per square centimeter (kgf/cm 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65
E+01
kilogram-force per square meter (kgf/m2). . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65
E+00
kilogram-force per square millimeter (kgf/mm 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65
E+06
kilogram-force per square millimeter (kgf/mm 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . megapascal (MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65
E+00
kilogram-force second squared per meter (kgf ⭈ s 2 /m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65
E+00
kilometer per hour (km/h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second (m/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.777 778 kilopond (kilogram-force) (kp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65
E⫺01 E+00
kilowatt hour (kW ⭈ h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6
E+06
kilowatt hour (kW ⭈ h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . megajoule (MJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 kip (1 kip=1000 lbf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.448 222
E+00 E+03
kip (1 kip=1000 lbf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilonewton (kN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.448 222
E+00
kip per square inch (ksi) (kip/in2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.894 757 kip per square inch (ksi) (kip/in2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.894 757 knot (nautical mile per hour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second (m/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.144 444
E+06 E+03 E⫺01
lambert 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . candela per square meter (cd/m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.183 099 langley (cal th /cm 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule per square meter (J/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.184 light year (l.y.)19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.460 73 liter (L) 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
E+03 E+04 E+15 Eⴚ03
lumen per square foot (lm/ft 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lux (lx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.076 391
E+01
maxwell (Mx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . weber (Wb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 mho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . siemens (S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Eⴚ08 E+00
microinch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.54 microinch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . micrometer (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.54 micron () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
Eⴚ08 Eⴚ02 Eⴚ06
micron () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . micrometer (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 mil (0.001 in). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.54 mil (0.001 in). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . millimeter (mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.54
E+00 Eⴚ05 Eⴚ02
mil (angle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . radian (rad) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.817 477 mil (angle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . degree (⬚) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.625 mile (mi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.609 344
E⫺04 Eⴚ02 E+03
mile (mi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilometer (km). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.609 344 mile (based on U.S. survey foot) (mi) 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.609 347 mile (based on U.S. survey foot) (mi) 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilometer (km). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.609 347
E+00 E+03
E+00 mile, nautical 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.852 E+03 mile per gallon (U.S.) (mpg) (mi/gal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per cubic meter (m/m 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.251 437 E+05 mile per gallon (U.S.) (mpg) (mi/gal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilometer per liter (km /L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.251 437 E⫺01 mile per gallon (U.S.) (mpg) (mi/gal) 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter per 100 kilometer (L/100 km) . . . . . . . .divide 235.215 by number of miles per gallon mile per hour (mi/h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second (m/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4704 Eⴚ01 mile per hour (mi/h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilometer per hour (km/h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.609 344 E+00
18
The exact conversion factor is 10 4 /. This conversion factor is based on 1 d = 86 400 s; and 1 Julian century = 36 525 d. (See The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 1995 , page K6, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1994). 20 In 1964 the General Conference on Weights and Measures reestablished the name ‘‘liter’’ as a special name for the cubic decimeter. Between 1901 and 1964 the liter was slightly larger (1.000 028 dm3); when one uses high-accuracy volume data of that time, this fact must be kept in mind. 21 The value of this unit, 1 nautical mile = 1852 m, was adopted by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference, Monaco, 1929, under the name ‘‘International nautical mile.’’ 22 For converting fuel economy, as used in the U.S., to fuel consumption. 19
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
To convert from
to
Multiply by
mile per minute (mi/min) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second (m/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.682 24
E+01
mile per second (mi/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter per second (m/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.609 344 millibar (mbar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
E+03 E+02
millibar (mbar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 1.333 224 9.806 65
Eⴚ01 E+02 E+00
2.908 882 6.0
E⫺04 E+01
minute (sidereal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.983 617
E+01
oersted (Oe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ampere per meter (A/m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.957 747 ohm centimeter (⍀ ⭈ cm). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ohm meter (⍀ ⭈ m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
E+01 Eⴚ02
ohm circular-mil per foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ohm meter (⍀ ⭈ m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.662 426
E⫺09
ohm circular-mil per foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ohm square millimeter per meter (⍀ ⭈ mm 2 / m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.662 426
E⫺03
ounce (avoirdupois) (oz). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (avoirdupois) (oz). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gram (g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (troy or apothecary) (oz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (troy or apothecary) (oz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gram (g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E⫺02 E+01 E⫺02 E+01
millimeter of mercury, conventional (mmHg)13 . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . millimeter of water, conventional (mmH 2 O)13 . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . minute (angle) (') . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . radian (rad) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . minute (min) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.834 952 2.834 952 3.110 348 3.110 348
ounce [Canadian and U.K. fluid (Imperial)] (fl oz). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.841 306 ounce [Canadian and U.K. fluid (Imperial)] (fl oz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milliliter (mL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.841 306
E+01
ounce (U.S. fluid) (fl oz). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.957 353 ounce (U.S. fluid) (fl oz). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . millimeter (mL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.957 353
E⫺05 E+01
ounce (avoirdupois)-force (ozf). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (avoirdupois)-force inch (ozf ⭈ in) . . . . . . . . . . . . newton meter (N ⭈ m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (avoirdupois)-force inch (ozf ⭈ in) . . . . . . . . . . . . millinewton meter (mN ⭈ m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (avoirdupois) per cubic inch (oz / in3) . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (avoirdupois) per gallon [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (oz / gal). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (avoirdupois) per gallon [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (oz / gal). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gram per liter (g / L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (avoirdupois) per gallon (U.S.)(oz / gal) . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (avoirdupois) per gallon(U.S.)(oz / gal). . . . . . . . gram per liter (g / L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (avoirdupois) per square foot (oz / ft2). . . . . . . . . kilogram per square meter (kg/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (avoirdupois) per square inch (oz / in2) . . . . . . . . kilogram per square meter (kg/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . ounce (avoirdupois) per square yard (oz / yd2) . . . . . . . . kilogram per square meter (kg/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.780 139 7.061 552 7.061 552 1.729 994
E⫺01 E⫺03 E+00 E+03
6.236 023
E+00
6.236 023 7.489 152 7.489 152 3.051 517
E+00 E+00 E+00 E⫺01
4.394 185 3.390 575
E+01 E⫺02
parsec (pc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . peck (U.S.) (pk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . peck (U.S.) (pk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pennyweight (dwt). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pennyweight (dwt). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gram (g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . perm (0 ⬚C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per pascal second square meter [kg/(Pa ⭈ s ⭈ m2)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . perm (23 ⬚C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per pascal second square meter [kg/(Pa ⭈ s ⭈ m2)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . perm inch (0 ⬚C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per pascal second meter [kg/(Pa ⭈ s ⭈ m)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . perm inch (23 ⬚C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per pascal second meter [kg/(Pa ⭈ s ⭈ m)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.085 678 8.809 768 8.809 768 1.555 174 1.555 174
E+16 E⫺03 E+00 E⫺03 E+00
5.721 35
E⫺11
5.745 25
E⫺11
1.453 22
E⫺12
1.459 29
E⫺12
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
E⫺05
To convert from
to
phot (ph) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lux (lx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pica (computer) (1/6 in) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pica (computer) (1/6 in) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . millimeter (mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pica (printer’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multiply by 1.0 4.233 333 4.233 333 4.217 518
E+04 E⫺03 E+00 E⫺03
pica (printer’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . millimeter (mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.217 518 pint (U.S. dry) (dry pt). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.506 105 pint (U.S. dry) (dry pt). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.506 105 pint (U.S. liquid) (liq pt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.731 765
E+00
pint (U.S. liquid) (liq pt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.731 765 point (computer) (1/72 in). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.527 778 point (computer) (1/72 in). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . millimeter (mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.527 778
E⫺04 E⫺01 E⫺04 E⫺01 E⫺04 E⫺01
point (printer’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . point (printer’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . millimeter (mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . poise (P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal second (Pa ⭈ s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound (avoirdupois) (lb)23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.514 598 3.514 598 1.0
E⫺04 E⫺01 Eⴚ01
4.535 924 pound (troy or apothecary) (lb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.732 417 poundal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.382 550 poundal per square foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.488 164
E⫺01 E⫺01 E⫺01 E+00
poundal second per square foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal second (Pa ⭈ s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound foot squared (lb ⭈ ft2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram meter squared (kg ⭈ m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound-force (lbf)24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound-force foot (lbf ⭈ ft) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton meter (N ⭈ m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound-force foot per inch (lbf ⭈ ft/in) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton meter per meter (N ⭈ m/m) . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.488 164
E+00
4.214 011 4.448 222 1.355 818 5.337 866
E⫺02 E+00 E+00 E+01
pound-force inch (lbf ⭈ in). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton meter (N ⭈ m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.129 848 pound-force inch per inch (lbf ⭈ in/in) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton meter per meter (N ⭈ m/m) . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.448 222 pound-force per foot (lbf/ft) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton per meter (N/m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.459 390
E⫺01 E+00 E+01
pound-force per inch (lbf/in). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton per meter (N/m). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.751 268 pound-force per pound (lbf/lb) (thrust to mass ratio) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton per kilogram (N/kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.806 65 pound-force per square foot (lbf/ft2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.788 026 pound-force per square inch (psi) (lbf/in2 ) . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.894 757
E+02
pound-force per square inch (psi) (lbf/in2 ) . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound-force second per square foot (lbf ⭈ s/ft2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal second (Pa ⭈ s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound-force second per square inch (lbf ⭈ s/in2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal second (Pa ⭈ s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound inch squared (lb ⭈ in2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram meter squared (kg ⭈ m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound per cubic inch (lb/in3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound per cubic yard (lb/yd3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound per foot (lb/ft) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per meter (kg/m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound per foot hour [lb/(ft ⭈ h)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal second (Pa ⭈ s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.894 757
E+00
4.788 026
E+01
6.894 757
E+03
2.926 397 1.601 846
E⫺04 E+01
2.767 990 5.932 764 1.488 164 4.133 789
E+04 E⫺01 E+00 E⫺04
pound per foot second [lb/(ft ⭈ s)]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal second (Pa ⭈ s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.488 164 pound per gallon [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (lb/gal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.977 637 pound per gallon [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (lb/gal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per liter (kg/L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.977 637 pound per gallon (U.S.) (lb/gal). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.198 264
E+00
E+00 E+01 E+03
E+01 E⫺02
pound per gallon (U.S.) (lb/gal). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per liter (kg/L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.198 264
E+02 E⫺01
pound per horsepower hour [lb/(hp ⭈ h)] . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per joule (kg/J) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.689 659 pound per hour (lb/h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per second (kg/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.259 979
E⫺07 E⫺04
23
The exact conversion factor is 4.535 923 7 E⫺01. All units that contain the pound refer to the avoirdupois pound.
24
If the local value of the acceleration of free fall is taken as g n= 9.806 65 m / s 2 (the standard value), the exact conversion factor is 4.448 221 615 260 5 E+00.
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
To convert from
to
Multiply by
pound per inch (lb/in). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per meter (kg/m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.785 797 pound per minute (lb/min) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per second (kg/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.559 873
E+01 E⫺03
pound per second (lb/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per second (kg/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pound per square foot (lb/ft2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per square meter (kg/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . pound per square inch (not pound-force) (lb/in2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per square meter (kg/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . pound per yard (lb/yd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per meter (kg/m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . psi (pound-force per square inch) (lbf/in 2) . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . psi (pound-force per square inch) (lbf/in 2) . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.535 924 4.882 428
E⫺01 E+00
7.030 696 4.960 546 6.894 757 6.894 757
E+02 E⫺01 E+03 E+00
quad (10 15 Btu IT ) 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.055 056 quart (U.S. dry) (dry qt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.101 221 quart (U.S. dry) (dry qt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.101 221 quart (U.S. liquid) (liq qt). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.463 529 quart (U.S. liquid) (liq qt). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . liter (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.463 529
E+18
rad (absorbed dose) (rad) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gray (Gy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rem (rem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sievert (Sv) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . revolution (r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . radian (rad) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . revolution per minute (rpm) (r/min). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . radian per second (rad/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rhe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reciprocal pascal second [(Pa ⭈ s) ⫺1 ]. . . . . . . . . . . rod (based on U.S. survey foot) (rd)9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . roentgen (R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . coulomb per kilogram (C/kg). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rpm (revolution per minute) (r/min). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . radian per second (rad/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.0 1.0 6.283 185 1.047 198 1.0 5.029 210 2.58 1.047 198
Eⴚ02 Eⴚ02 E+00 E⫺01 E+01 E+00 Eⴚ04 E⫺01
second (angle) (") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . radian (rad) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (sidereal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . shake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . shake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nanosecond (ns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . slug (slug). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . slug per cubic foot (slug/ft 3 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . slug per foot second [slug/(ft ⭈ s)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal second (Pa ⭈ s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square foot (ft2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter (m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square foot per hour (ft2 /h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter per second (m2 /s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square foot per second (ft2 /s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter per second (m2 /s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square inch (in2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter (m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square inch (in2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square centimeter (cm2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square mile (mi2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter (m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square mile (mi2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square kilometer (km2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square mile (based on U.S. survey foot) (mi 2)9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter (m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square mile (based on U.S. survey foot) (mi 2)9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square kilometer (km2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square yard (yd2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . square meter (m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . statampere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ampere (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.848 137 9.972 696 1.0 1.0 1.459 390 5.153 788 4.788 026 9.290 304 2.580 64
E⫺06 E⫺01 Eⴚ08 E+01 E+01 E+02 E+01 Eⴚ02 Eⴚ05
9.290 304 6.4516 6.4516 2.589 988 2.589 988
Eⴚ02 Eⴚ04 E+00 E+06 E+00
2.589 998
E+06
2.589 998 8.361 274 3.335 641
E+00 E⫺01 E⫺10
statcoulomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . coulomb (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.335 641 statfarad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . farad (F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.112 650
E⫺10 E⫺12
stathenry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . henry (H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . statmho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . siemens (S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . statohm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ohm (⍀) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . statvolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . volt (V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . stere (st) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . stilb (sb). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . candela per square meter (cd/m2). . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E+11 E⫺12 E+11 E+02 E+00
8.987 552 1.112 650 8.987 552 2.997 925 1.0
1.0 stokes (St) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter squared per second (m2 /s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
E⫺03 E+00 E⫺04 E⫺01
E+04 Eⴚ04
To convert from
to
Multiply by
tablespoon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.478 676
E⫺05
tablespoon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milliliter (mL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.478 676
E+01
teaspoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m 3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.928 922
E⫺06
teaspoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milliliter (mL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per meter (kg/m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . therm (EC)25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . therm (U.S.)25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.928 922 1.0 1.055 06
E+00 Eⴚ06 E+08
1.054 804 2.916 667 2.916 667 8.896 443 8.896 443 1.016 047
E+08 E⫺02 E+01 E+03 E+00 E+03
1.328 939 1.0 1.0
E+03 E+03 E+03
3.516 853 4.184
E+03 E+09
2.831 685 9.071 847 1.186 553 2.519 958 1.333 224
E+00 E+02 E+03 E⫺01 E+02
unit pole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . weber (Wb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.256 637
E⫺07
watt hour (W ⭈ h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square centimeter (W/cm2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter (W/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square inch (W/in2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt per square meter (W/m2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt second (W ⭈ s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6
E+03
1.0 1.550 003 1.0
E+04 E+03 E+00
yard (yd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meter (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . year (365 days). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . year (sidereal). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . year (tropical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . second (s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.144 3.1536 3.155 815 3.155 693
Eⴚ01 E+07 E+07 E+07
ton, assay (AT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton, assay (AT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gram (g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton-force (2000 lbf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newton (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton-force (2000 lbf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilonewton (kN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton, long (2240 lb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton, long, per cubic yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton , metric (t). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tonne (called ‘‘metric ton’’ in U.S.) (t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton of refrigeration (12 000 Btu IT /h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . watt (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton of TNT (energy equivalent) 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joule (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton, register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cubic meter (m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton, short (2000 lb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram (kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton, short, per cubic yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ton, short, per hour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram per second (kg/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . torr (Torr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pascal (Pa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25 The therm (EC) is legally defined in the Council Directive of 20 December 1979, Council of the European Communities (now the European Union, EU). The therm (U.S.) is legally defined in the Federal Register of July 27, 1968. Although the therm (EC), which is based on the International Table Btu, is frequently used by engineers in the United States, the therm (U.S.) is the legal unit used by the U.S. natural gas industry. 26 Defined (not measured) value.
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
CONVERSION OF TEMPERATURES From
To
Celsius
Fahrenheit Kelvin Rankine
tF/˚F = (9/5) t/˚C + 32 T/K = t/˚C + 273.15 T/˚R = (9/5) (t/˚C + 273.15)
Fahrenheit
Celsius Kelvin Rankine
t/˚C = (5/9) [(tF/˚F) - 32] T/K = (5/9) [(tF/˚F) - 32] + 273.15 T/˚R = tF/˚F + 459.67
Kelvin
Celsius Rankine
t/˚C = T/K - 273.15 T/˚R = (9/5) T/K
Rankine
Fahrenheit Kelvin
tF/˚F = T/˚R - 459.67 T/K = (5/9) T/˚R
Definition of symbols: T = thermodynamic (absolute) temperature t = Celsius temperature (the symbol θ is also used for Celsius temperature) tF = Fahrenheit temperature
DESIGNATION OF LARGE NUMBERS 106 109 1012 1015 1018
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
U.S.A. million billion trillion quadrillion quintillion
Other Countries million milliard billion billiard trillion
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR ENERGY UNITS If greater accuracy is required, use the Energy Equivalents section of the Fundamental Physical Constants table.
v: 1 cm-1 v: 1 MHz
Wavenumber v cm-1 ⬟1 ⬟ 3.33564 × 10-5
Frequency v MHz 2.997925 × 104 1
Energy E aJ 1.986447 × 10-5 6.626076 × 10-10
Energy E eV 1.239842 × 10-4 4.135669 × 10-9
Energy E Eh 4.556335 × 10-6 1.519830 × 10-10
Molar energy Em kJ/mol 11.96266 × 10-3 3.990313 × 10-7
Molar energy Em kcal/mol 2.85914 × 10-3 9.53708 × 10-8
Temperature T K 1.438769 4.79922 × 10-5
1 aJ E: 1 eV Eh
⬟ 50341.1 ⬟ 8065.54 ⬟ 219474.63
1.509189 × 109 2.417988 × 108 6.579684 × 109
1 0.1602177 4.359748
6.241506 1 27.2114
0.2293710 3.674931 × 10-2 1
602.2137 96.4853 2625.500
143.9325 23.0605 627.510
7.24292 × 104 1.16045 × 104 3.15773 × 105
Em: 1 kJ/mol 1 kcal/mol
⬟ 83.5935 ⬟ 349.755
2.506069 × 106 1.048539 × 107
1.660540 × 10-3 6.947700 × 10-3
1.036427 × 10-2 4.336411 × 10-2
3.808798 × 10-4 1.593601 × 10-3
1 4.184
0.239006 1
120.272 503.217
T: 1 K
⬟ 0.695039
2.08367 × 104
1.380658 × 10-5
8.61738 × 10-5
3.16683 × 10-6
8.31451 × 10-3
1.98722 × 10-3
1
Examples of the use of this table:
1 aJ ⬟ 50341 cm-1 1 eV ⬟96.4853 kJ mol-1
The symbol ⬟ should be read as meaning “corresponds to” or “is equivalent to”. E = hv = hcv = kT; Em = NAE ; Eh is the Hartree energy
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR PRESSURE UNITS Pa Pa kPa MPa bar atmos Torr µmHg psi
1 1000 1000000 100000 101325 133.322 0.133322 6894.757
kPa 0.001 1 1000 100 101.325 0.133322 0.000133322 6.894757
MPa 0.000001 0.001 1 0.1 0.101325 0.000133322 1.33322 × 10–7 0.006894757
bar 0.00001 0.01 10 1 1.01325 0.00133322 1.33322 × 10–6 0.06894757
atmos
Torr
µmHg
9.8692 × 10–6 0.0098692 9.8692 0.98692 1 0.00131579 1.31579 × 10–6 0.068046
0.0075006 7.5006 7500.6 750.06 760 1 0.001 51.7151
7.5006 7500.6 7500600 750060 760000 1000 1 51715.1
psi 0.0001450377 0.1450377 145.0377 14.50377 14.69594 0.01933672 1.933672 × 10–5 1
To convert a pressure value from a unit in the left hand column to a new unit, multiply the value by the factor appearing in the column for the new unit. For example: 1 kPa = 9.8692 × 10–3 atmos 1 Torr = 1.33322 × 10–4 MPa
1-34
Notes: µmHg is often referred to as “micron” Torr is essentially identical to mmHg psi is an abbreviation for the unit pound–force per square inch psia (as a term for a physical quantity) implies the true (absolute) pressure psig implies the true pressure minus the local atmospheric pressure
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY UNITS MULTIPLY ↓ by appropriate factor to OBTAIN→
BtuIT h-1 ft-1 °F-1
BtuIT in. h-1 ft-2 °F-1
Btuth h-1 ft-1 °F-1
Btuth in. h-1 ft-2 °F-1
calIT s-1 cm-1 °C-1
calth s-1 cm-1 °C-1
kcalth h-1 m-1 °C-1
J s-1 cm-1 K-1
W cm-1 K-1
W m-1 K-1
mW cm-1 K-1
BtuIT h-1 ft-1 °F-1 BtuIT in. h-1 ft-2 °F-1 Btuth h-1 ft-1 °F-1 Btuth in. h-1 ft-2 °F-1 calIT s-1 cm-1 °C-1 calth s-1 cm-1 °C-1 kcalth h-1 m-1 °C-1 J s-1 cm-1 K-1 W cm-1 K-1 W m-1 K-1 mW cm-1 K-1
1 8.33333 × 10-2 0.999331 8.32776 × 10-2 2.41909 × 102 2.41747 × 102 0.671520 57.7789 57.7789 0.577789 5.77789 × 10-2
12 1 11.9920 0.999331 2.90291 × 103 2.90096 × 103 8.05824 6.93347 × 102 6.93347 × 102 6.93347 0.693347
1.00067 8.33891 × 10-2 1 8.33333 × 10-2 2.42071 × 102 2.41909 × 102 0.671969 57.8176 57.8176 0.578176 5.78176 × 10-2
12.0080 1.00067 12 1 2.90485 × 103 2.90291 × 103 8.06363 6.93811 × 102 6.93811 × 102 6.93811 0.693811
4.13379 × 10-3 3.44482 × 10-4 4.13102 × 10-3 3.44252 × 10-4 1 0.999331 2.77592 × 10-3 0.238846 0.238846 2.38846 × 10-3 2.38846 × 10-4
4.13656 × 10-3 3.44713 × 10-4 4.13379 × 10-3 3.44482 × 10-4 1.00067 1 2.77778 × 10-3 0.239006 0.239006 2.39006 × 10-3 2.39006 × 10-4
1.48916 0.124097 1.48816 0.124014 3.60241 × 102 3.6 × 102 1 86.0421 86.0421 0.860421 8.60421 × 10-2
1.73073 × 10-2 1.44228 × 10-3 1.72958 × 10-2 1.44131 × 10-3 4.1868 4.184 1.16222 × 10-2 1 1 1 × 10-2 1 × 10-3
1.73073 × 10-2 1.44228 × 10-3 1.72958 × 10-2 1.44131 × 10-3 4.1868 4.184 1.16222 × 10-2 1 1 1 × 10-2 1 × 10-3
1.73073 0.144228 1.72958 0.144131 4.1868 × 102 4.184 × 102 1.16222 1 × 102 1 × 102 1 0.1
17.3073 1.44228 17.2958 1.44131 4.1868 × 103 4.184 × 103 11.6222 1 × 103 1 × 103 10 1
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY UNITS To convert from multiply by appropriate factor to Obtain
↓
→
abohm centimeter microohm centimeter ohm centimeter statohm centimeter (esu) ohm meter ohm circular mil per foot ohm inch ohm foot
abΩ cm 1 103 108 8.987 × 1020 1011 1.662 × 102 2.54 × 109 3.048 × 1010
µΩ cm
Ω cm
1 × 10–3 1 106 8.987 × 1017 108 1.662 × 10–1 2.54 × 106 3.048 × 107
10–9 10–6 1 8.987 × 1011 102 1.662 × 10–7 2.54 3.048 × 10–1
StatΩ cm 1.113 × 10–21 1.113 × 10–18 1.113 × 10–12 1 1.113 × 10–10 1.850 × 10–19 2.827 × 10–12 3.3924 × 10–11
Ωm 10–11 10–6 1 × 10–2 8.987 × 109 1 1.662 × 10–9 2.54 × 10–2 3.048 × 10–1
Ω cir. mil ft–1 6.015 × 10–3 6.015 6.015 × 106 5.406 × 1018 6.015 × 108 1 1.528 × 107 1.833 × 108
Ω in. 3.937 × 10–10 3.937 × 10–7 3.937 × 10–1 3.538 × 1011 3.937 × 101 6.54 × 10–6 1 12
Ω ft 3.281 × 10–11 3.281 × 10–6 3.281 × 10–2 2.949 × 1010 3.281 5.45 × 10–9 8.3 × 10–2 1
1-36
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR IONIZING RADIATION CONVERSION BETWEEN SI AND OTHER UNITS
Expression in SI units
Special name for SI units
s–1 J kg–1 J kg–1 s–1
becquerel gray
1-39
Activity Absorbed dose Absorbed dose rate
A D D·
Average energy per ion pair Dose equivalent Dose equivalent rate
W
Electric current Electric potential difference Exposure Exposure rate
I U, V
Fluence Fluence rate
φ Φ
Kerma Kerma rate
K K·
Lineal energy
y
coulomb per kilogram coulomb per kilogram second 1 per meter squared 1 per meter squared second joule per kilogram joule per kilogram second joule per meter
Linear energy transfer
L
joule per meter
J m–1
Mass attenuation coefficient Mass energy transfer coefficient Mass energy absorption coefficient Mass stopping power
µ/ρ
m2 kg–1
S/ρ
Power Pressure
P p
Radiation chemical yield Specific energy
G
meter squared per kilogram meter squared per kilogram meter squared per kilogram joule meter squared per kilogram joule per second newton per meter squared mole per joule
mol J–1
z
joule per kilogram
J kg–1
H H·
X X·
µtr/ρ µen/ρ
1 per second joule per kilogram joule per kilogram second joule
Expression in symbols for SI units
joule per kilogram joule per kilogram second ampere watt per ampere
Symbols using special names Bq Gy Gy s–1
J J kg–1 J kg–1 s–1
Conventional units
Symbol for conventional unit
Value of conventional unit in SI units
curie rad rad
Ci rad rad s–1
3.7 × 1010 Bq 0.01 Gy 0.01 Gy s–1
electronvolt
eV
1.602 × 10–19 J
sievert
Sv Sv s–1
rem rem per second
rem rem s–1
0.01 Sv 0.01 Sv s–1
volt
V
ampere volt
A V
1.0 A 1.0 A
C kg–1 C kg–1 s–1
roentgen roentgen
R R s–1
2.58 × 10–4 C kg–1 2.58 × 10–4 C kg–1 s–1
m–2 m–2 s–1
cm–2 cm–2 s–1
1.0 × 104 m–2 1.0 × 104 m–2 s–1
Gy Gy s–1
1 per centimeter squared 1 per centimeter squared second rad rad per second
rad rad s–1
0.01 Gy 0.01 Gy s–1
keV µm–1
1.602 × 10–10 J m–1
keV µm–1
1.602 × 10–10 J m–1
cm2 g–1
0.1 m2 kg–1
cm2 g–1
0.1 m2 kg–1
cm2 g–1
0.1 m2 kg–1
MeV cm2 g–1
1.602 × 10–14 J m2 kg–1
W Pa
kiloelectron volt per micrometer kiloelectron volt per micrometer centimeter squared per gram centimeter squared per gram centimeter squared per gram MeV centimeter squared per gram watt torr
W torr
1.0 W (101325/760)Pa
molecules (100 eV)–1 rad
1.04 × 10–7 mol J–1
Gy
molecules per 100 electron volts rad
A W A–1
J kg–1 J kg–1 s–1
gray
J m–1
m2 kg–1 m2 kg–1 J m2 kg–1 J s–1 N m–2
watt pascal
gray
0.01 Gy
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR IONIZING RADIATION (continued)
Quantity
Symbol for quantity
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR IONIZING RADIATION (continued) CONVERSION OF RADIOACTIVITY UNITS FROM MBq TO mCi AND µCi MBq
mCi
MBq
7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 900 800 700 600
189. 162. 135. 108. 81. 54. 27. 24. 21.6 18.9 16.2
500 400 300 200 100 90 80 70 60 50 40
mCi 13.5 10.8 8.1 5.4 2.7 2.4 2.16 1.89 1.62 1.35 1.08
MBq
µCi
MBq
µCi
30 20 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
810 540 270 240 220 189 162 135 108 81 54
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
27 24 21.6 18.9 16.2 13.5 10.8 8.1 5.4 2.7
CONVERSION OF RADIOACTIVITY UNITS FROM mCi AND µCi TO MBq mCi
MBq
mCi
MBq
200 150 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20
7400 5550 3700 3330 2960 2590 2220 1850 1480 1110 740
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
370 333 296 259 222 185 148 111 74.0 37.0
µCi
MBq
µCi
MBq
1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 90
37.0 33.3 29.6 25.9 22.2 18.5 14.8 11.1 7.4 3.7 3.33
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 2 1
2.96 2.59 2.22 1.85 1.48 1.11 0.74 0.37 0.185 0.074 0.037
CONVERSION OF RADIOACTIVITY UNITS 100 TBq (1014 Bq) 10 TBq (1013 Bq) 1 TBq (1012 Bq) 100 GBq (1011 Bq) 10 GBq (1010 Bq) 1 GBq (109 Bq) 100 MBq (108 Bq) 10 MBq (107 Bq) 1 MBq (106 Bq)
= = = = = = = = =
2.7 kCi (2.7 × 103 Ci) 270 Ci (2.7 × 102 Ci) 27 Ci (2.7 × 101 Ci) 2.7 Ci (2.7 × 100 Ci) 270 mCi (2.7 × 10–1 Ci) 27 mCi (2.7 × 10–2 Ci) 2.7 mCi (2.7 × 10–3 Ci) 270 µCi (2.7 × 10–4 Ci) 27 µCi (2.7 × 10–5 Ci)
100 kBq (105 Bq) 10 kBq (104 Bq) 1 kBq (103 Bq) 100 Bq (102 Bq) 10 Bq (101 Bq) 1 Bq (100 Bq) 100 mBq (10–1 Bq) 10 mBq (10–2 Bq) 1 mBq (10–3 Bq)
CONVERSION OF ABSORBED DOSE UNITS SI Units 100 Gy (102 Gy) 10 Gy (101 Gy) 1 Gy (100 Gy) 100 mGy (10–1 Gy) 10 mGy (10–2 Gy) 1 mGy (10–3 Gy) 100 µGy (10–4 Gy) 10 µGy (10–5 Gy) 1 µGy (10–6 Gy) 100 nGy (10–7 Gy) 10 nGy (10–8 Gy) 1 nGy (10–9 Gy)
CONVERSION OF DOSE EQUIVALENT UNITS 100 Sv (102 Sv) 10 Sv (101 Sv) 1 Sv (100 Sv) 100 mSv (10–1 Sv) 10 mSv (10–2 Sv) 1 mSv (10–3 Sv) 100 µSv (10–4 Sv) 10 µSv (10–5 Sv) 1 µSv (10–6 Sv) 100 nSv (10–7 Sv) 10 nSv (10–8 Sv) 1 nSv (10–9 Sv)
Conventional = = = = = = = = = = = =
10,000 rad (104 rad) 1,000 rad (103 rad) 100 rad (102 rad) 10 rad (101 rad) 1 rad (100 rad) 100 mrad (10–1 rad) 10 mrad (10–2 rad) 1 mrad (10–3 rad) 100 µrad (10–4 rad) 10 µrad (10–5 rad) 1 µrad (10–6 rad) 100 nrad (10–7 rad)
2.7 µCi (2.7 × 10–6Ci) 270 nCi (2.7 × 10–7 Ci) 27 nCi (2.7 × 10–8 Ci) 2.7 nCi (2.7 × 10–9 Ci) 270 pCi (2.7 × 10–10 Ci) 27 pCi (2.7 × 10–11 Ci) 2.7 pCi (2.7 × 10–12 Ci) 270 fCi (2.7 × 10–13 Ci) 27 fCi (2.7 × 10–14 Ci)
= = = = = = = = =
1-40
= = = = = = = = = = = =
10,000 rem (104 rem) 1,000 rem (103 rem) 100 rem (102 rem) 10 rem (101 rem) 1 rem (100 rem) 100 mrem (10–1 rem) 10 mrem (10–2 rem) 1 mrem (10–3 rem) 100 µrem (10–4 rem) 10 µrem (10–5 rem) 1 µrem (10–6 rem) 100 nrem (10–7 rem)
VALUES OF THE GAS CONSTANT IN DIFFERENT UNIT SYSTEMS In SI units the value of the gas constant, R, is: R =8.314510 Pa m3 K-1 mol-1 = 8314.510 Pa L K-1 mol-1 = 0.08314510 bar L K-1 mol-1 This table gives the appropriate value of R for use in the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT, when the variables are expressed in other units. The following conversion factors for pressure units were used in generating the table: 1 atm = 101325 Pa 1 psi = 6894.757 Pa 1 torr (mmHg) = 133.322 Pa [at 0°C] 1 in Hg = 3386.38 Pa [at 0°C] 1 in H2O = 249.082 Pa [at 4°C] 1 ft H2O = 2988.98 Pa [at 4°C] The advice of Prabir K. Chandra is appreciated.
V
Units of V, T, n T n
ft3
K °R
cm3
K °R
L
K °R
m3
K °R
mol lb⋅mol mol lb⋅mol mol lb⋅mol mol lb⋅mol mol lb⋅mol mol lb⋅mol mol lb⋅mol mol lb⋅mol
kPa 0.2936241 133.1857 0.1631245 73.99204 8314.510 3771398 4619.172 2095221 8.314510 3771.398 4.619172 2095.221 0.008314510 3.771398 0.004619172 2.095221
atm
psi
0.00289785 1.31444 0.00160991 0.730245 82.0578 37220.8 45.5877 20678.2 0.0820578 37.2208 0.0455877 20.6782 0.0000820578 0.0372208 0.0000455877 0.0206782
0.0425866 19.3169 0.0236592 10.7316 1205.92 546995 669.954 303886 1.20592 546.995 0.669954 303.886 0.00120592 0.546995 0.000669954 0.303886
1-40
Units of P mmHg 2.20237 998.978 1.22354 554.987 62364.1 28287900 34646.7 15715500 62.3641 28287.9 34.6467 15715.5 0.0623641 28.2879 0.0346467 15.7155
in Hg
in H2O
ft H2O
0.0867074 39.3298 0.0481708 21.8499 2455.28 1113700 1364.04 618720 2.45528 1113.70 1.36404 618.720 0.00245528 1.11370 0.00136404 0.618720
1.17882 534.706 0.654903 297.059 33380.6 15141200 18544.8 8411770 33.3806 15141.2 18.5448 8411.77 0.0333806 15.1412 0.0185448 8.41177
0.0982355 44.5589 0.0545753 24.7549 2781.72 1261770 1545.40 700982 2.78172 1261.77 1.54540 700.982 0.00278172 1.26177 0.00154540 0.700982
1-33
NOMENCLATURE OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) maintains several commissions that deal with the naming of chemical substances. In general, the approach of IUPAC is to present rules for arriving at names in a systematic manner, rather than recommending a unique name for each compound. Thus there are often several alternative “IUPAC names”, depending on which nomenclature system is used, each of which may have advantages in specific applications. However, each of these names will be unambiguous. Organizations such as the Chemical Abstacts Service and the Beilstein Institute that prepare indexes to the chemical literature must adopt a system for selecting unique names in order to avoid excessive cross referencing. Chemical Abstracts Service uses a system which groups together compounds derived from a single parent compound. Thus most index names are inverted (e.g., Benzene, bromo rather than bromobenzene; Acetic acid, sodium salt rather than sodium acetate). In this Handbook the CAS Index Names are used only in the table “Physical Constants of Organic Compounds”. Other tables use more familiar names which, with a few possible exceptions, conform to one of the IUPAC naming systems. Recommended names for the most common substituent groups, ligands, ions, and organic rings are given in the two following tables, “Nomenclature for Inorganic Ions and Ligands” and “Organic Substituent Groups and Ring Systems”. For the basics of macromolecular nomenclature, see “Naming Organic Polymers” in Section 13. Some of the most useful recent guides to chemical nomenclature, prepared by IUPAC and other organizations such as the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB) and the American Chemical Society are listed below . These books contain citations to the more detailed nomenclature documents in each area.
Inorganic Chemistry International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Recommendations 1990, edited by Leigh, G.J., Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1990. Block, B.P., Powell, W.H., and Fernelius, W.C., Inorganic Chemical Nomenclature, Principles and Practice, American Chemical Society, Washington, 1990.
Organic Chemistry International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, A Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds, Recommendations 1993, edited by Panico, R., Powell, W.H., and Richer, J.-C., Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1993. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Glossary of Class Names of Organic Compounds and Reactive Intermediates Based on Structure, edited by Moss, G.P., Smith, P.A.S., and Tavernier, D., Pure & Appl. Chem, 67, 1307, 1995. Rhodes, P.H., The Organic Chemist’s Desk Reference, Chapman & Hall, London, 1995. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Basic Terminology of Stereochemistry, edited by Moss, G.P., Pure & Applied Chemistry, 68, 2193, 1966.
Macromolecular Chemistry International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Compendium of Macromolecular Nomenclature, edited by, Metanomski, W.V., Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1991. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Glossary of Basic Terms in Polymer Science, edited by Jenkins, A.D., Kratochvil, P., Stepto, R.F.T., and Suter, U.W., Pure & Appl. Chem, 68, in press.
Biochemistry International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biochemical Nomenclature and Related Documents, 2nd Edition, 1992, Portland Press, London, 1993; includes recommendations of the IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature. International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992, Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 1992. IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature, Nomenclature of Carbohydrates, Recommendations 1996, edited by McNaught, A.D., Pure & Appl. Chem., 68, 1919, 1996.
General Chemical Abstracts Service, Naming and Indexing Chemical Substances for Chemical Abstracts, Appendix IV, Chemical Abstracts 1994 Index Guide.
2-22
NOMENCLATURE FOR INORGANIC IONS AND LIGANDS See the table Nomenclature of Chemical Compounds for references. The assistance of Warren H. Powell in preparing this list is gratefully acknowledged. Group H F Cl Br I ClO C1O2 ClO3 C1O4 IO IO2 O O2 HO HO2 S HS S2 SO SO2 SO3 HSO3 S2O3 SO4 Se SeO SeO2 SeO3 SeO4 Te CrO2 UO2 NpO2 PuO2 AmO2 N N3 NH NH2 NHOH N2H3 NO NO2 ONO NS NO3 N2O3 P PO PO2 PS PH2O3 PHO3
As prefix in organic compounds
As cation
As anion
As ligand
hydrogen fluorine chlorine bromine iodine chlorosyl chloryl perchloryl
hydride fluoride chloride bromide iodide hypochlorite chlorite chlorate perchlorate hypoiodite
hydrido fluoro chloro bromo iodo hypochlorito chlorito chlorato
fluoro chloro bromo iodo chlorosyl chloryl perchloryl
oxide peroxide (O22-) hyperoxide (O2-) hydroxide hydrogen peroxide sulfide hydrogen sulfide disulfide
oxo peroxo
iodoso iodyl; iodoxy oxo peroxy
iodosyl iodyl
sulfinyl; thionyl sulfonyl; sulfuryl
hydroxo hydrogen peroxo thio; sulfido thiolo disulfido
hydroxy hydroperoxy thio; thioxo mercapto sulfinyl sulfonyl
sulfoxylate sulfite hydrogen sulfite thiosulfate sulfate selenide
sulfito hydrogen sulfito thiosulfato sulfato seleno
selenite selenate telluride
selenito selenato telluro
nitride azide imide amide hydroxylamide hydrazide
nitrite
nitrido azido imido amido hydroxylamido hydrazido nitrosyl nitro nitrito
nitrate hyponitrite phosphide
nitrato hyponitrito phosphido
seleninyl selenonyl
seleno; selenoxo seleninyl selenonyl
telluro; telluroxo
chromyl uranyl neptunyl plutoryl americyl
nitrosyl nitryl
imino amino hydroxyamino hydrazino; diazanyl nitroso nitro
thionitrosyl
phosphoryl phospho thiophosphoryl
phosphinidyne phosphoroso; phosphinylidyne phosphinothioylidyne; thiophosphorozo
hypophosphite phosphite
2-23
hypophosphito phosphito
NOMENCLATURE FOR INORGANIC IONS AND LIGANDS (continued) Group PO4 AsO4 VO CO CS CH3O C2H5O CH3S C2H5S CN OCN SCN SeCN TeCN CO3 HCO3 C2O4
As cation
As anion phosphate arsenate
As prefix in organic compounds
phosphato arsenato
vanadyl carbonyl thiocarbonyl
cyanogen
As ligand
carbonyl methanolate ethanolate methanethiolate ethanethiolate cyanide cyanate thiocyanate selenocyanate tellurocyanate carbonate hydrogen carbonate oxalate
2-24
methoxo ethoxo methanethiolato ethanethiolato cyano cyanato thiocyanato selenocyanato tellurocyanato carbonato hydrogen carbonato oxalato
carbonyl thiocarbonyl methoxy ethoxy methylthio ethylthio cyano cyanato thiocyanato selenocyanato tellurocyanato carboxycarbonyl
ORGANIC SUBSTITUENT GROUPS AND RING SYSTEMS The first part of this table lists substituent groups and their line formulas. A substituent group is defined by IUPAC as a group that replaces one or more hydrogen atoms attached to a parent structure. Such groups are sometimes called radicals, but IUPAC now reserves the term radical for a free molecular species with unpaired electrons. IUPAC does not recommend some of these names, which are marked here with asterisks (e.g., amyl*), but they are included in this list because they are often encountered in the older literature. Substituent group names which are formed by systematic rules (e.g., methyl from methane, ethyl from ethane, etc.) are included here only for the first few members of a homologous series. In the second part of the table a number of common organic ring compounds are shown, with the conventional numbering of the ring positions indicated. The help of Warren H. Powell in preparing this table is greatly appreciated. Pertinent references may be found in the table Nomenclature of Chemical Compounds. SUBSTITUENT GROUPS acetamido (acetylamino) acetoacetyl acetonyl acetyl acryloyl* (1-oxo-2-propenyl) alanyl (from alanine) β-alanyl allyl (2-propenyl) allylidene (2-propenylidene) amidino (aminoiminomethyl) amino amyl* (pentyl) anilino (phenylamino) anisidino anthranoyl (2-aminobenzoyl) arsino azelaoyl (from azelaic acid) azido azino azo azoxy benzal* (benzylidene) benzamido (benzoylamino) benzhydryl (diphenylmethyl) benzoxy* (benzoyloxy) benzoyl benzyl benzylidene benzylidyne biphenylyl biphenylene butoxy sec-butoxy (1-methylpropoxy) tert-butoxy (1,1-dimethylethoxy) butyl sec-butyl (1-methylpropyl) tert-butyl (1,1-dimethylethyl) butyryl (1-oxobutyl) caproyl* (hexanoyl) capryl* (decanoyl) capryloyl* (octanoyl) carbamido (carbamoylamino) carbamoyl (aminocarbonyl) carbamyl (aminocarbonyl) carbazoyl (hydrazinocarbonyl) carbethoxy (ethoxycarbonyl) carbonyl carboxy cetyl* (hexadecyl) chloroformyl (chlorcarbonyl) cinnamoyl cinnamyl (3-phenyl-2-propenyl) cinnamylidene cresyl* (hydroxymethylphenyl) crotonoyl crotyl (2-butenyl)
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
CH3CONHCH3COCH2COCH3COCH2CH3COCH2=CHCOCH3CH(NH2)COH2N(CH2)2COCH2=CHCH2CH2=CHCH= H2NC(=NH)H2NCH3(CH2)4C6H5NHCH3OC6H4NH2-H2NC6H4COAsH2-OC(CH2)7CON3=N-N= -N=N-N(O)=NC6H5CH= C6H5CONH(C6H5)2CHC6H5COOC6H5COC6H5CH2C6H5CH= C6H5C= C6H5C6H5-C6H4-C6H4C4H9OC2H5CH(CH3)O(CH3)3COCH3(CH2)3CH3CH2CH(CH3)(CH3)3CCH3(CH2)2COCH3(CH2)4COCH3(CH2)8COCH3(CH2)6COH2NCONHH2NCOH2NCOH2NNHCOC2H5OCO=C=O HOOCCH3(CH2)15ClCOC6H5CH=CHCOC6H5CH=CHCH2C6H5CH=CHCH= HO(CH3)C6H4CH3CH=CHCOCH3CH=CHCH2-
cyanamido (cyanoamino) cyanato cyano decanedioyl decanoyl diazo diazoamino disilanyl disiloxanyloxy disulfinyl dithio enanthoyl* (heptanoyl) epoxy ethenyl (vinyl) ethynyl ethoxy ethyl ethylene ethylidene ethylthio formamido (formylamino) formyl furmaroyl (from fumaric acid) furfuryl (2-furanylmethyl) furfurylidene (2-furanylmethylene) glutamoyl (from glutamic acid) glutaryl (from glutaric acid) glycylamino glycoloyl; glycolyl (hydroxyacetyl) glycyl (aminoacetyl) glyoxyloyl; glyoxylyl (oxoacetyl) guanidino guanyl (aminoiminomethyl) heptadecanoyl heptanamido heptanedioyl heptanoyl hexadecanoyl hexamethylene (1,6-hexanediyl) hexanedioyl hippuryl (N-benzoylglycyl) hydrazino hydrazo hydrocinnamoyl hydroperoxy hydroxyamino hydroxy imino iodoso* (iodosyl) iodyl isoamyl* (isopentyl; 3-methylbutyl) isobutenyl (2-methyl-1-propenyl) isobutoxy (2-methylpropoxy) isobutyl (2-methylpropyl) isobutylidene (3-methylpropylidene) isobutyryl (2-methyl-1-oxopropyl)
NCNHNCONC-OC(CH2)8COCH3(CH2)8CON2= -NHN=NH3SiSiH2H3SiOSiH2O-S(O)S(O)-SSCH3(CH2)5CO-OCH2=CHHC≡CC2H5OCH3CH2-CH2CH2CH3CH= C2H5SHCONHHCO-OCCH=CHCOOC4H3CH2OC4H3CH= -OC(CH2)2CH(NH2)CO-OC(CH2)3COH2NCH2CONHHOCH2COH2NCH2COHCOCOH2NC(=NH)NHH2NC(=NH)CH3(CH2)15COCH3(CH2)5CONH-OC(CH2)5COCH3(CH2)5COCH3(CH2)14CO-(CH2)6-OC(CH2)4COC6H5CONHCH2COH2NNH-HNNHC6H5(CH2)2COHOOHONHHOHN= OIO2I(CH3)2CH(CH2)2(CH3)2C=CH(CH3)2CHCH2O(CH3)2CHCH2(CH3)2CHCH= (CH3)2CHCO-
ORGANIC SUBSTITUENT GROUPS AND RING SYSTEMS (continued) isocyanato isocyano isohexyl (4-methylpentyl) isoleucyl (from isoleucine) isonitroso* (hydroxyamino) isopentyl (3-methylbutyl) isopentylidene (3-methylbutylidene) isopropenyl (1-methylethenyl) isopropoxy (1-methylethoxy) isopropyl (1-methylethyl) isopropylidene (1-methylethylidene) isothiocyanato (isothiocyano) isovaleryl* (3-methyl-1-oxobutyl) lactoyl (from lactic acid) lauroyl (from lauric acid) lauryl (dodecyl) leucyl (from leucine) levulinoyl (from levulinic acid) malonyl (from malonic acid) mandeloyl (from mandelic acid) mercapto mesityl methacryloyl (from methacrylic acid) methallyl (2-methyl-2-propenyl) methionyl (from methionine) methoxy methyl methylene methylthio myristoyl (from myristic acid) myristyl (tetradecyl) naphthyl naphthylene neopentyl (2,2-dimethylpropyl) nitramino (nitroamino) nitro nitrosamino (nitrosoamino) nitrosimino (nitrosoimino) nitroso nonanoyl (from nonanoic acid) oleoyl (from oleic acid) oxalyl (from oxalic acid) oxo palmitoyl (from palmitic acid) pentamethylene (1,5-pentanediyl) pentyl tert-pentyl phenacyl phenacylidene phenethyl (2-phenylethyl) phenoxy phenyl phenylene (benzenediyl) phosphino* (phosphanyl) phosphinyl* (phosphinoyl) phospho phosphono phthaloyl (from phthalic acid)
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
OCNCN(CH3)2CH(CH2)3C2H5CH(CH3)CH(NH2)COHON= (CH3)2CH(CH2)2(CH3)2CHCH2CH= CH2=C(CH3)(CH3)2CHO(CH3)2CH(CH3)2C= SCN(CH3)2CHCH2COCH3CH(OH)COCH3(CH2)10COCH3(CH2)11(CH3)2CHCH2CH(NH2)COCH3CO(CH2)2CO-OCCH2COC6H5CH(OH)COHS2,4,6-(CH3)3C6H2CH2=C(CH3)COCH2=C(CH3)CH2CH3SCH2CH2CH(NH2)COCH3OH3CH2C= CH3SCH3(CH2)12COCH3(CH2)13(C10H7)-(C10H6)(CH3)3CCH2O2NNHO2NONNHONN= ONCH3(CH2)7COCH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7CO-OCCOO= CH3(CH2)14CO-(CH2)5CH3(CH2)4CH3CH2C(CH3)2C6H5COCH2C6H5COCH= C6H5CH2CH2C6H5OC6H5-C6H4H2PH2P(O)O2P(HO)2P(O)1,2-C6H4(CO-)2
picryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenyl) pimeloyl (from pimelic acid) piperidino (1-piperidinyl) pivaloyl (from pivalic acid) prenyl (3-methyl-2-butenyl) propargyl (2-propynyl) 1-propenyl 2-propenyl (allyl) propionyl* (propanyl) propoxy propyl propylidene pyrryl (pyrrolyl) salicyloyl (2-hydroxybenzoyl) selenyl* (selanyl; hydroseleno) seryl (from serine) siloxy silyl silylene sorboyl (from sorbic acid) stearoyl (from stearic acid) stearyl (octadecyl) styryl (2-phenylethenyl) suberoyl (from suberic acid) succinyl (from succinic acid) sulfamino (sulfoamino) sulfamoyl (sulfamyl) sulfanilyl [(4-aminophenyl)sulfonyl] sulfeno sulfhydryl (mercapto) sulfinyl sulfo sulfonyl (sulfuryl) terephthaloyl tetramethylene thienyl (from thiophene) thiocarbonyl (carbothionyl) thiocarboxy thiocyanato (thiocyano) thionyl* (sulfinyl) threonyl (from threonine) toluidino [(methylphenyl)amino] toluoyl (methylbenzoyl) tolyl (methylphenyl) α-tolyl (benzyl) tolylene (methylphenylene) tosyl [(4-methylphenyl) sulfonyl)] triazano trimethylene (1,3-propanediyl) trityl (triphenylmethyl) valeryl* (pentanoyl) valyl (from valine) vinyl (ethenyl) vinylidene (ethenylidene) xylidino [(dimethylphenyl)amino] xylyl (dimethylphenyl) xylylene [phenelenebis(methylene)]
2,4,6-(NO2)3C6H2-OC(CH2)5COC5H10N(CH3)3CCO(CH3)2C=CHCH2HC≡CCH2-CH=CHCH2 CH2=CHCH2CH3CH2COCH3CH2CH2OCH3CH2CH2CH3CH2CH= C3H4N2-HOC6H4COHSeHOCH2CH(NH2)COH3SiOH3SiH2Si= CH3CH=CHCH=CHCOCH3(CH2)14COCH3(CH2)17C6H5CH=CH-OC(CH2)6CO-OCCH2CH2COHOSO2NHH2NSO24-H2NC6H4SO2HOSHSOS= HO3S-SO21,4-C6H4(CO-)2 -(CH2)4(C4H3S)=CS HOSCNCS-SOCH3CH(OH)CH(NH2)COCH3C6H4NHCH3C6H4COCH3C6H4C6H5CH2-(CH3C6H3)4-CH3C6H4SO2H2NNHNH-(CH2)3(C6H5)3CCH3(CH2)3CO(CH3)2CHCH(NH2)COCH2=CHCH2=C= (CH3)2C6H3NH(CH3)2C6H3-CH2C6H4CH2-
ORGANIC SUBSTITUENT GROUPS AND RING SYSTEMS (continued) ORGANIC RING COMPOUNDS H 5
1 3
2
1
3
Spiropentane
2
4
2
4
Cyclopropane
1
1
5 4
3
Cyclobutane
N
N
1
5
2 3
4
1
3
4
4
1
H
N 5 4
2
5
3
4
5 4
5
3
4
N
2 3
5
1
Pyrazole (1,2-Diazole)
N 2H-Imidazole (1,3-Diazole)
N 1,2,3-Triazole
N 1,2,4-Triazole
1,2-Dithiole
O
O
S
S
O
O
1
1
1
5
2
N
3
4
3
4
5
3
4
5 4
N
Thiazole (1,3-Thiazole) O 1 5 2O 3
4
N
1,2,3,5-Oxatriazole
2 3
4
N
Oxazole (1,3-Oxazole) O N 5 1 2N
N
1,2,3,4-Oxatriazole
2 3
4
Isoxazole (1,2-Oxazole) O 1 5 2N N
5
N
3H-1,2,3-Dioxazole
1
6
2 3
5
1
6
2 3
5
5
3
Isothiazole (1,2-Thiazole) O 1 5 2O H
5
1
6
2 3
5
1
2N
5
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
O
N
1,3,2-Dioxazole
O
1
1
3
2 3
2H-Pyrrole (2H-Azole)
5
1
O 2
5
2S 3
4 S 1,3-Dithiole
3H-1,2-Oxathiole
O
O
N5
2N
1
1
4
1
N 2
5
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
2
N N N N 1,2,3-Oxadiazole 1,2,4-Oxadiazole 1,2,5-Oxadiazole 1,3,4-Oxadiazole (Furazan) O O O O 1 1 1 H N 5 1 2S 5 2N H 5 2 5 2
3
4
N
1,2,4-Dioxazole
O 6
2N
5 4
3
3H-Pyrrole (3H-Azole) 1
1
2
S 2S 3
4
N
Pyrrole (Azole)
S
1
N
2 3
2
Thiophene
N
1 2 3
1
H 1 5 4
3
N
1
Furan
N N
2
5
S
Cyclopentane
H
5
2
O
O 2
6
3
5
1
O
1,3,4-Dioxazole
5H-1,2,5-Oxathiazole
O 2
O
6
3
1
5
O 2
6
3
5
1
S
1,3-Oxathiole
O 2O
6
3
5
1
2 3
O
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
Benzene
Cyclohexane
2H-Pyran
4H-Pyran
2H-Pyran-2-one (2-Pyrone)
O 4H-Pyran-4-one (4-Pyrone)
1,2-Dioxin
1,3-Dioxin
H N
N
1
1
6 5
2
6 5
3 4
2N
N
N
1
1
6 5
3 4
2 3
4
6 5
N
N 6
2
1
5
3
N 3
4
4
N
N
N
Pyridazine
Pyrimidine
Pyrazine
H Piperazine
O
O
O
O
O
1
1
1
6
2N
5
3
6 5
4
2 3
4
6 5
N
2 3
4
6 5
N
2
1
N
6 5
3 4
6 5
N 1
2 3
4
6 5
N
1 6 5
2
2H-1,3-Oxazine 6H-1,3-Oxazine O O 1 1 N H 2 6 2 6 5
3 4
3
5
4
3
N
4
N
N
1,4-Oxazine
H 4H-1,4-Oxazine
2H-1,2-Oxazine
5
2
2
6 5
3
4
N
1,2,3-Triazine (v-Triazine) O 1 S
3
N
4
2H-1,2-Oxazine O 1 2N 6 5
3 4
1,2,5-Oxathiazine
3
2
6 5
3 4
N
6 5
2N
4
2
6 5
3 4
1,4-Oxazine O 1 N 2S
3
3
1,3,5-Triazine 1,2,4-Triazine (s-Triazine) (as-Triazine) O O 1 1 N H
4
6H-1,2-Oxazine O 1 6 2S
1 6 5
4
N 4H-1,2-Oxazine O
N 2N
N
Pyridine
1
1
2
H 4H-1,4-Oxazine 1,2,5-Oxathiazine O O 1
3
N
4
6 5
3 4
1
2
6 5
N
2 3
4
N
N
1,2,6-Oxathiazine 1,2,4-Oxadiazine 1,3,5-Oxadiazine
Morpholine
H N
O
1
7
2
6
3 5
S
1
7
2
6
4
Azepine
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
3 5
4
Oxepin
N
1
7
2
6
3 5
4
Thiepin
1
7
2
6
N
3 5
4
4H-1,2-Diazepine
1
7 6 5
4
Indene
O 2 3
6 5
7
1
4
2H-Indene (Isoindene)
2 3
6 5
7
1
4
Benzofuran
2 3
6 5
7
1
2O 3
4
Isobenzofuran
ORGANIC SUBSTITUENT GROUPS AND RING SYSTEMS (continued) ORGANIC RING COMPOUNDS (continued) H S 6 5
7
N
1 2
6 5
3
4
Benzo[b]thiophene
1 2S 3
7 4
1
7
6 5
N 2 3
4
Benzo[c]thiophene
1
7
6 5
N 2 3
4
2N 3
3 2
4
3H-Indole
Indole
1
7
6 5
5
4
6 7
1
N Cyclopenta[b]pyridine
1H-Indole
H N 6 5
7
O
1 2N
6 5
3
4
Indazole
O
1 2N
7
3
4
Benzisoxazole (Indoxazine)
3
4
N
Benzoxazole
1 2O 3
7
6 5
7 6
4
2,1-Benzisoxazole
8
1
5
4
2 3
7 6
Naphthalene
O 8 5
O
1 2 3
7 6
4
5
2H-1-Benzopyran (2H-Chromene) 8 5
1
O
2 3
1
8
7 6
4
5
4
2
1
8
7 6
3
5
2O
4
1
8
7 6
3
5
2O 3
4
7 6
O
O
2H-1-Benzopyran-2-one 4H-1-Benzopyran-4-one 1H-2-Benzopyran-1-one 3H-2-Benzopyran-1-one (Coumarin) (Chromen-4-one) (Isocoumarin) (Isochromen-3-one)
N 7 6
O
1
8
N N
2 3
7 6
4
N
N
8
1
5
4
1
8
2 3
5
7 6
N
4
N N
2 3
7 6
8
1
5
4
8
1
7
1
2 3
4
Pyrano[3,4-b]pyrrole
5
4
8
1
5
4
7 6
8
1
5
4
7
3
6
2 3
8
1
5
4
7 6
8
1
5
4
7 6
N
8
1
5
4
3
2N 3
Isoquinoline
N 2 3
2
Octahydronaphthalene (Decalin)
Quinoline
N 2 3
2
1,2,3,4-Tetrahydronaphthalene (Tetralin) N
O 7 6
6 5
N
1 2
7
6 5
O
O 2 3
7 6
8
1
5
4
2 3
N
N Cinnoline
Quinazoline
1,8-Naphtyridine
1,7-Naphtyridine
1,5-Naphtyridine
O 7 6
8
1
5
4
1,6-Naphtyridine
O 2 3
7 6
8
1
5
4
O
2 3
6 7
N
5
4
8
1
O
3 2
N
7 6
8
1
5
4
1H-2,3-Benzoxazine
7 6
8
1
5
4 3
N
4H-3,1-Benzoxazine
3 2
4
N H
2 3
N
2H-1,4-Benzoxazine
O
N H
2H-1,2-Benzoxazine
1
2
4H-1,4-Benzoxazine
3
1 7 6
5
1
9
8
6 7
2 3
10
4
Anthracene
5 8
9
4
9 8
10
7
Phenanthrene
9
8
7 6
6 5
1 2 3
5
Phenalene
4
Fluorene
H N
N 7 6
9
8
1 2 3
5
7 6
4
1
9
8 5
5 2 3
10
4
6 7
10
8
9
O Carbazole
Xanthene
Acridine R´´
4 1
3 2
3 4
2 1 5
R
N N
1 2
6 3
5
7
4
N 7H-Purine
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
H
N
14 8 H H 7
10
2 3 4
17
16 15
9
1 8 9
11
12 13
5
6
H
Steroid ring system
7 6
Norpinane (Bicyclo[3.1.1]heptane)
R´
H
2
R = Nearly always methyl R´ = Usually methyl R´´ = Various groups
2H-1,3-Benzoxazine
SCIENTIFIC ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS This table lists some symbols, abbreviations, and acronyms encountered in the physical sciences. Most entries in italic type are symbols for physical quantities; for more details on these, see the table “Symbols and Terminology for Physical and Chemical Quantities” in this section. Additional information on units may be found in the table “International System of Units” in Section 1. Many of the terms to which these abbreviations refer are included in the tables “Definitions of Scientific Terms” in Section 2 and “Techniques for Materials Characterization” in Section 12. Publication practices vary with regard to the use of capital or lower case letters for many abbreviations. An effort has been made to follow the most common practices in this table, but much variation is found in the literature. Likewise, policies on the use of periods in an abbreviation vary considerably. Periods are generally omitted in this table unless they are necessary for clarity. Periods should never appear in SI units. The SI prefixes (m, k ,M, etc.) are not listed here, since they should never be used alone, but selected combinations with SI units (e.g., mg, kV, MW) are included. Abbreviations are listed in alphabetical order without regard to case. Entries beginning with Greek letters fall at the end of the table. a a0 A Å A AH Ar AAS Abe abs ac Ac AcOH ACT ACTH Ade ADP ads ae AES AF AFM AI AIM Al Ala alc aliph. alk. All Alt am Am AM AMP amu anh, anhyd antilog AO AOM Api APS APW aq Ar Ara Ara-ol Arg
absorption coefficient, acceleration, activity Bohr radius ampere, adenine (in genetic code) ångstrom absorbance, area, Helmholtz energy, mass number Hall coefficient atomic weight (relative atomic mass) atomic absorption spectroscopy abequose absolute alternating current acetyl acetic acid activated complex theory adrenocorticotropic hormone adenine adenosine diphosphate adsorption eon (109 years) atomic emission spectroscopy, Auger electron spectroscopy audio frequency atomic force microscopy artificial intelligence atoms in molecules Alfen number alanine alcohol aliphatic alkaline allose altrose amorphous solid amyl amplitude modulation adenosine 5'-monophosphate atomic mass unit (recommended symbol is u) anhydrous antilogarithm atomic orbital angular overlap model apiose appearance potential spectroscopy augmented plane wave aqueous aryl arabinose arabinitol arginine
as, asym ASCII ASE Asn Asp at atm ATP ATR at.wt. AU av avdp b B bar bbl bcc BCS BDE Bé BET BeV Bhn Bi BN BNS BO BOD bp bpy Bq BRE BSSE Btu bu Bu Bz Bzl c c c0 C °C C ca. cal
2-29
asymmetrical (as chemical descriptor) American National Standard Code for Information Interchange aromatic stabilization energy asparagine aspartic acid atomization standard atmosphere adenosine 5'-triphosphate attenuated total internal reflection atomic weight astronomical unit average avoirdupois barn magnetic flux density, second virial coefficient, susceptance bar (pressure unit) barrel body centered cubic Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (theory) bond dissociation energy Baumé Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (method) billion electronvolt Brinell hardness number biot bond number nuclear backscattering spectroscopy bond order, Born-Oppenheimer (approximation) biochemical oxygen demand boiling point 2,2'-bipyridine becquerel bond resonance energy basis set superposition error British thermal unit bushel butyl benzoyl benzyl combustion reaction amount concentration, specific heat, velocity speed of light in vacuum coulomb, cytosine (in genetic code) degree Celsius capacitance, heat capacity, number concentration approximately calorie
SCIENTIFIC ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS (continued) calc CARS CAS RN CAT CBS cc CCD cd c.d. CD CDP CEPA cf. cfm cgs CHF Ci CI CIDEP CIDNP cir CKFF CL cm c.m. c.m.c. CMO CMP CN CNDO Co COD conc const cos cosh COSY cot coth cp cP Cp CP CPA cpd cps CPT CPU cr, cryst CRU csc ct CT CTEM CTP CTR cu CV CVD cw
calculated coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number clear-air turbulence, computerized axial tomography complete basis set cubic centimeter charge-coupled device candela, condensed phase current density circular dichroism cytidine 5'-diphosphate couplet electron pair approximation compare cubic feet per minute centimeter-gram-second system coupled Hartree-Fock (method) curie configuration interaction, chemical ionization chemically induced dynamic electron polarization chemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization circular Cotton-Kraihanzel force field cathode luminescence centimeter center of mass critical micelle concentration canonical molecular orbital cytidine 5'-monophosphate coordination number complete neglect of differential overlap Cowling number chemical oxygen demand concentrated, concentration constant cosine hyperbolic cosine correlation spectroscopy (in NMR) cotangent hyperbolic cotangent candle power centipoise cyclopentadienyl chemically pure coherent potential approximation contact potential difference cycles per second charge conjugation-space inversion-time reversal (theorem) central processing unit crystalline (phase) constitutional repeating unit cosecant carat charge transfer conventional transmission electron microscopy cytidine 5'-triphosphate controlled thermonuclear reaction cubic cyclic voltammetry chemical vapor deposition continuous wave
cwt Cy cyl Cys d d D D
hundredweight (112 pounds) cyclohexyl cylinder cysteine day, deuteron distance, density, dextrorotatory debye unit diffusion coefficient, dissociation energy, electric displacement Da dalton DA donor-acceptor (complex) dB decibel dc direct current DE delocalization energy dec decomposes deg degree den density det determinant dev deviation DFT density functional theory diam diameter dil dilute, dilution DIM diatomics in molecules dm decimeter dmf, DMF N,N-dimethylformamide dmso, DMSO dimethylsulfoxide DNA deoxyribonucleic acid DNase deoxyribonuclease DNMR dynamic nuclear magnetic resonance DOS density of states doz dozen d.p. degree of polymerization dpl displacement dpm disintegrations per minute dps disintegrations per second dr dram dRib 2-deoxyribose DRIFT diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform DRS diffuse reflectance spectroscopy DSC differential scanning calorimetry DTA differential thermal analysis dyn dyne e electron, base of natural logarithms e elementary charge, linear strain E electric field strength, electromotive force, energy, modulus of elasticity, entgegen (trans configuration) Eh Hartree energy EA electron affinity EAN effective atomic number ECP effective core potential ECR electron cyclotron resonance ED electron diffraction, effective dose EDS energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy EDTA ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid EELS electron energy loss spectroscopy EFFF energy factored force field EHMO extended Hückel molecular orbital EHT extended Hückel theory emf electromotive force emu electromagnetic unit system en ethylenediamine
2-30
SCIENTIFIC ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS (continued) ENDOR EOS EPMA EPR eq, eqn eqQ erf erg ESCA e.s.d. ESD ESR est esu Et ET Et2O e.u. Eu eV EWG EXAFS EXELFS exp expt ext f f F °F F FAD fcc FEL FEM FEMO FET fid FIM FIR fl FM Fo fp fpm fps Fr Fr Fru FSGO ft ft-lb FT FTIR Fuc Fuc-ol fus g g
electron-nuclear double resonance equation of state electron probe microanalysis electron paramagnetic (spin) resonance equation quadrupole coupling constant error function erg electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis estimated standard deviation electron stimulated desorption electron spin resonance estimate, estimated electrostatic unit system ethyl electron transfer, ephemeris time diethyl ether entropy unit Euler number electronvolt electron withdrawing group extended x-ray absorption fine structure extended energy loss fine structure exponential function experimental external formation reaction activity coefficient, aperture ratio, focal length, force constant, frequency, fugacity farad degree Fahrenheit Faraday constant, force, angular momentum flavin adenine dinucleotide face centered cubic free electron laser field emission microscopy free electron molecular orbital field effect transistor free induction decay field ion microscopy far infrared fluid (phase) frequency modulation Fourier number freezing point feet per minute feet per second, foot-pound-second system franklin Froude number fructose floating spherical Gaussian orbitaì foot foot pound Fourier transform Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy fucose fucitol fusion (melting) gram, gas acceleration due to gravity, degeneracy, statistical weight, Landé g-factor
G G gal Gal GalN GC GC-MS GDMS gem GeV GIAO gl GLC Glc GlcN Glc-ol Gln Glu Gly GMP GMT gpm gps gr Gr GTO Gua Gul GUT GVB GWS Gy h h H H H0 ha Ha Hacac HAM hav Hb hcp Hea HEIS HEP HF hfs Him His HMO HOMO hp HPLC Hpz hr HREELS HREM HSAB
2-31
gauss, guanine (in genetic code) electrical conductance, Gibbs energy, gravitational constant, sheer modulus gallon gal, galileo, galactose galactosamine gas chromatography gas chromatography-mass spectrometry glow discharge mass spectroscopy geminal (on the same carbon atom) gigaelectronvolt gauge invariant atomic orbital glacial gas-liquid chromatography glucose glucosamine glucitol glutamine glutamic acid glycine guanosine 5'-triphosphate Greenwich mean time gallons per minute gallons per second grain Grashof number gaussian type atomic orbital guanine gulose grand unified theory generalized valence bond Glashow-Weinberg-Salam (theory) gray, gigayear helion, hour Planck constant henry enthalpy, Hamiltonian function, magnetic field Hubble constant hectare Hartmann number acetylacetone hydrogenic atoms in molecules haversine hemoglobin hexagonal closed packed ethanolamine high energy ion scattering high energy physics high frequency hyperfine structure imidazole histidine Hückel molecular orbital highest occupied molecular orbital horsepower high-performance liquid chromatography pyrazole hour high resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy high resolution electron microscopy hard-soft acid-base (theory)
SCIENTIFIC ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS (continued) HSE Hz i I IAT i-Bu IC ICP ICR id ID Ido IDP IE i.e.p. IEPA IF IGLO Ile Im imm IMPATT in. INDO INS int I/O IP IPN i-Pr IPR IPTS IR IRAS IRC isc ISE ISS ITP ITS IU j J J k K K kb kcal KE keV kg kgf kJ km Kn
homodesmotic stabilization energy hertz square root of minus one electric current, ionic strength, moment of inertia, nuclear spin angular momentum, radiant intensity international atomic time isobutyl integrated circuit inductively coupled plasma ion cyclotron resonance ideal (solution) inside diameter idose inosine 5'-diphosphate ionization energy isoelectric point independent electron pair approximation intermediate frequency individual gauge for localized orbitals isoleucine imaginary part immersion impact ionization avalanche transit time inch intermediate neglect of differential overlap inelastic neutron scattering, ion neutralization spectroscopy internal input/output ionization potential interpenetrating polymer network isopropyl isotopic perturbation of resonance International Practical Temperature Scale infrared reflection-absorption infrared spectroscopy intrinsic reaction coordinate intersystem crossing isodesmic stabilization energy ion scattering spectroscopy inosine 5'-triphosphate International Temperature Scale (1990) international unit angular momentum, electric current density joule angular momentum, electric current density, flux, Massieu function absorption index, Boltzmann constant, rate constant, thermal conductivity, wave vector kelvin absorption coefficient, bulk modulus, equilibrium constant, kinetic energy kilobar, kilobase (DNA or RNA) kilocalorie kinetic energy kiloelectronvolt kilogram kilogram force kilojoule kilometer Knudsen number
kPa kt kV kva kW kwh l l L L lat. lb lbf lc LC LCAO LD Le LED LEED LEIS Leu LFER lim LIMS liq lm ln LNDO log long. LST LT LTE LUMO lut lx ly l.y. Lys Lyx m m M M Mr Ma Man MASNMR max MBE MBPT MC MCD MCPF MCSCF
2-32
kilopascal karat kilovolt kilovolt ampere kilowatt kilowatt hour liquid, liter angular momentum, length, levorotatory liter, lambert Avogadro constant, inductance, Lagrange function latitude pound pound force liquid crystal liquid chromatography linear combination of atomic orbitals lethal dose Lewis function light emitting diode low-energy electron diffraction low energy ion scattering leucine linear free energy relationship limit laser ionization mass spectroscopy, laboratory information management system liquid lumen logarithm (natural) local neglect of differential overlap logarithm (common) longitude local sidereal time local time local thermodynamic equilibrium lowest unoccupied molecular orbital lutidine lux langley light year lysine lyxose meter, molal (as in 0.1 m solution), metastable (isotope) magnetic dipole moment, mass, molality, angular momentum component, meta (as chemical descriptor) molar (as in 0.1 M solution), metal (in chemical formulas) magnetization, molar mass, mutual inductance, torque, angular momentum component molecular weight (relative molar mass) Mach number mannose magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance maximum molecular beam epitaxy many body perturbation theory Monte Carlo (method) magnetic circular dichroism modified couple pair functional multi-configurational self-consistent field
SCIENTIFIC ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS (continued) MD Me MEP MERP Mes MESFET Met meV MeV MF mg MHD mi MIM min MINDO MIR misc MKS MKSA mL, ml mm MM mmf mmHg MO mol mol.wt. mon MOS MOSFET mp MPa MPA Mpc MRI mRNA ms MS MSL Mur mV mW MW Mx n n
N N NA NE NAA NAD NADH NADP NAO NBO nbp Neu
molecular dynamics methyl molecular electrostatic potential minimum energy reaction path mesityl metal-semiconductor field-effect transistor methionine millielectronvolt megaelectronvolt molecular formula milligram magnetohydrodynamics mile molecules-in-molecules minimum, minute modified intermediate neglect of differential overlap mid-infrared miscible meter-kilogram-second system meter-kilogram-second-ampere system milliliter millimeter molecular mechanics magnetomotive force millimeter of mercury molecular orbital mole molecular weight monomeric form metal-oxide semiconductor metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor melting point megapascal Mulliken population analysis megaparsec magnetic resonance imaging messenger RNA millisecond mass spectroscopy mean sea level muramic acid millivolt milliwatt megawatt, microwave, molecular weight maxwell neutron amount of substance, number density, principal quantum number, refractive index, normal (in chemical formulas) newton angular momentum, neutron number Avogadro constant density of states neutron activation analysis nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide reduced NAD nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate natural atomic orbital natural bond order normal boiling point neuraminic acid
NEXAFS ng NIR nm NMR NNDO NO NOE NPA NQR NRA ns NTP Nu Nu o obs, obsd OD Oe ORD oz p p P P Pa PA PAS pc PCR PD pdl pe Pe PES PET peth pf pg pH Ph Phe pI pip pK pm PMO PNDO PNRA pol ppb ppm PPP ppt Pr Pr PRDDO Pro ps PS
2-33
near-edge x-ray absorption fine structure nanogram near infrared nanometer nuclear magnetic resonance neglect of nonbonded differential overlap natural orbital nuclear Overhauser effect natural population analysis nuclear quadrupole resonance prompt nuclear reaction analysis nanosecond normal temperature and pressure nucleophile Nusselt number ortho (as chemical descriptor) observed optical density, outside diameter oersted optical rotatory dispersion ounce proton dielectric polarization, electric dipole moment, momentum, pressure, para (as chemical descriptor) poise power, pressure, probability, sound energy flux pascal proton affinity photoacoustic spectroscopy parsec polymerase chain reaction potential difference poundal probable error Péclet number photoelectron spectroscopy positron emission tomography petroleum ether power factor picogram negative log of hydrogen ion concentration phenyl phenylalanine isoelectric point piperidine negative log of ionization constant picometer perturbational molecular orbital partial neglect of differential overlap prompt nuclear reaction analysis polymeric form parts per billion parts per million Pariser-Parr-Pople (method) parts per thousand, precipitate propyl Prandtl number partial retention of diatomic differential overlap proline picosecond photoelectron spectroscopy
SCIENTIFIC ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS (continued) PSD Psi psi psia psig pt PVT py q Q QCD QED Q.E.D. QSAR QSO qt quad Qui q.v. r r R °R R RA rad RAIRS RAM RBS RE Re RED REM rem RF Rha RHEED RHF RIA Rib Ribulo rms RNA RNase rRNA ROHF ROM RPA rpm rps RRK RRKM RRS RS Ry s s
photon stimulated desorption psicose pounds per square inch pounds per square inch absolute pounds per square inch gage pint pressure-volume-temperature pyridine electric field gradient, flow rate, heat, wave vector (phonons) electric charge, heat, partition function, quadrupole moment, radiant energy, vibrational normal coordinate quantum chromodynamics quantum electrodynamics quod erat demonstrandum (which was to be proved) quantitative structure-activity relationship quasi-stellar object (quasar) quart quadrillion Btu (= 1.0551018 J) quinovose quod vide (which you should see) reaction position vector, radius roentgen, alkyl radical (in chemical formulas) degree Rankine electrical resistance, gas constant, molar refraction, Rydberg constant right ascension radian reflection-absorption infrared spectroscopy random access memory Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy resonance energy real part radial electron distribution reflection electron microscopy roentgen equivalent man radiofrequency rhamnose reflection high-energy electron diffraction restricted Hartree-Fock (theory) radioimmunoassay ribose ribulose root mean square ribonucleic acid ribonuclease ribosomal RNA restricted open shell Hartree-Fock read only memory random phase approximation revolutions per minute revolutions per second Rice-Ramsperger-Kassel (theory) Rice-Ramsperger-Kassel-Marcus (theory) resonance Raman spectroscopy Raman spectroscopy rydberg second, solid path length, solubility, spin angular momentum, symmetry number, symmetrical (as stereochemical descriptor)
S S SALC SALI SAM SANS Sar sat, satd SAXS s-Bu Sc SCE SCF SCR sd sec sec SEELFS SEM sepn Ser SERS SET SEXAFS Sh SI SIMS sin SINDO sinh SIPN SLAM sln SMO SMOW SNMS SNU SO sol soln SOMO Sor sp gr SPM sq sr Sr SSMS St St std, stnd STEM STM STO STP sub Sv t t T
2-34
siemens area, entropy, probability current density, Poynting vector, symmetry coordinate, spin angular momentum symmetry adapted linear combinations surface analysis by laser ionization scanning Auger microscopy small angle neutron scattering sarcosine saturated small angle x-ray scattering sec-butyl Schmidt number saturated calomel electrode self-consistent field silicon-controlled rectifier standard deviation secant, second secondary (in chemical name) surface sensitive energy loss fine structure scanning electron microscope separation serine surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy single electron transfer surface extended x-ray absorption fine structure Sherwood number International System of Units secondary ion mass spectroscopy sine symmetrically orthogonalized INDO method hyperbolic sine semi-interpenetrating polymer network scanning laser acoustic microscopy solution semiempirical molecular orbital Standard Mean Ocean Water sputtered neutral mass spectroscopy solar neutrino unit spin orbital soluble, solution solution singly occupied molecular orbital sorbose specific gravity scanned probe microscopy square steradian Strouhal number spark source mass spectroscopy stoke Stanton number standard (state) scanning transmission electron microscope scanning tunneling microscopy Slater type orbital standard temperature and pressure sublimation, sublimes sievert metric tonne, triton Celsius temperature, thickness, time, transport number tesla
SCIENTIFIC ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS (continued) T Tag Tal tan tanh t-Bu TCA TCE tcne TCSCF TE TED TEM temp tert TFD TGA theor thf, THF Thr Thy TL TLC TM Tol Torr tRNA Trp trs TS tsp Tyr u u U U UDP UHF UMP uns, unsym UPES UPS ur Ura USP UT UTP UV v V V Val vap VB VCD VHF
kinetic energy, period, term value, temperature (thermodynamic), torque, transmittance tagatose talose tangent hyperbolic tangent tert-butyl trichloroacetic acid trichloroethylene tetracyanoethylene two configuration self-consistent field transverse electric transmission electron diffraction, transferred electron device transmission electron microscopy, transverse electromagnetic temperature tertiary (in chemical name) Thomas-Fermi-Dirac (method) thermo-gravimetric analysis theoretical tetrahydrofuran threonine thymine thermoluminescence thin-layer chromatography transverse magnetic tolyl torr transfer RNA tryptophan transition transition state teaspoon tyrosine unified atomic mass unit Bloch function, electric mobility, velocity uracil (in genetic code) electric potential difference, internal energy uridine 5'-diphosphate ultrahigh frequency, unrestricted Hartree-Fock (theory) uridine 5'-monophosphate unsymmetrical (as chemical descriptor) ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy urea uracil United States Pharmacopeia universal time uridine 5'-triphosphate ultraviolet reaction rate, specific volume, velocity, vibrational quantum number, vicinal (as chemical descriptor) volt electric potential, potential energy, volume valine vaporization valence band, valence bond vibrational circular dichroism very high frequency
vic VIS vit VSEPR VSLI VUV v/v w W W WAXS Wb We WKB wt w/v w/w x X X XAFS XANES XPES XPS XRD XRF XRS Xyl y, yr Y yd z Z
ZDO ZPE, ZPVE ZULU α α β γ γ Γ δ ∆ ε η θ Θ
2-35
vicinal (on adjacent carbon atoms) visible region of the spectrum vitreous valence shell electron pair repulsion very large scale integrated (circuit) vacuum ultraviolet volume per volume (volume of solute divided by volume of solution, expressed as percent) energy density, mass fraction, velocity, work watt radiant energy, statistical weight, work wide angle x-ray scattering weber Weber number Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin (method) weight weight per volume (mass of solute divided by volume of solution, generally expressed as g/100 mL) weight per weight (mass of solute divided by mass of solution, expressed as percent) mole fraction X unit, halogen (in chemical formula) reactance x-ray absorption fine structure x-ray absorption near-edge structure x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy x-ray diffraction x-ray fluorescence x-ray spectroscopy xylose year admittance, Planck function, Young’s modulus yard charge number (of an ion), collision frequency factor atomic number, compression factor, collision number, impedance, partition function, zusammen (cis configuration) zero differential overlap zero point vibrational energy Greenwich mean time alpha particle absorption coefficient, degree of dissociation, electric polarizability, expansion coefficient, fine structure constant beta particle photon activity coefficient, conductivity, magnetogyric ratio, mass concentration, ratio of heat capacities, surface tension Gruneisin parameter, level width, surface concentration chemical shift, Dirac delta function, Kronecker delta, loss angle inertia defect, mass defect emittance, Levi-Civita symbol, linear strain, molar absorption coefficient, permittivity overpotential, viscosity Bragg angle, temperature, scattering angle, surface coverage quadrupole moment
SCIENTIFIC ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS (continued) κ λ Λ µ µ
µF µg µm µs ν νe π Π
compressibility, conductivity, magnetic susceptibility, molar absorption coefficient, transmission coefficient absolute activity, radioactive decay constant, thermal conductivity, wavelength angular momentum, ionic conductivity muon chemical potential, electric dipole moment, electric mobility, friction coefficient, Joule-Thompson coefficient, magnetic dipole moment, mobility, permeability microfarad microgram micrometer microsecond frequency, kinematic velocity, stoichiometric number, wavenumber neutrino pion osmotic pressure, Peltier coefficient
ρ σ τ φ Φ χ χe ψ ω Ω Ω
2-36
density, reflectance, resistivity electrical conductivity, cross section, normal stress, shielding constant (NMR), Stefan-Boltzmann constant, surface tension transmittance, chemical shift, shear stress, relaxation time electrical potential, fugacity coefficient, osmotic coefficient, quantum yield, volume fraction, wavefunction magnetic flux, potential energy, radiant power, work function magnetic susceptibility, electronegativity electric susceptibility wavefunction circular frequency, angular velocity, harmonic vibration wavenumber, statistical weight ohm axial angular momentum, solid angle
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS Brief definitions of selected terms of importance in chemistry, physics, and related fields of science are given in this section. The selection process emphasizes the following types of terms: • Physical quantities • Units of measure • Classes of chemical compounds and materials • Important theories, laws, and basic concepts. Individual chemical compounds are not included. Definitions have taken wherever possible from the recommendations of international or national bodies, especially the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO). For physical quantities and units, the recommended symbol is also given. The source of such definitions is indicated by the reference number in brackets following the definition. In many cases these official definitions have been edited in the interest of stylistic consistency and economy of space. The user is referred to the original source for further details. * An asterisk following a term indicates that further information can be found by consulting the index of this handbook under the entry for that term. REFERENCES 1. ISO Standards Handbook 2, Units of Measurement, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 1992. 2. Quantities, Units, and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, Second Edition, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1993. 3. Compendium of Chemical Terminology, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1987. 4. A Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1993. 5. Glossary of Class Names of Organic Compounds and Reactive Intermediates Based on Structure, Pure and Applied Chemistry, 67, 1307, 1995. 6. Compendium of Analytical Nomenclature, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1987. 7. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1990. 8. Glossary of Basic Terms in Polymer Science, Pure and Applied Chemistry, 68, 2287, 1996. 9. The International Temperature Scale of 1990, Metrologia, 27, 107, 1990. 10. Compilation of ASTM Standard Definitions, American Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1990. 11. ASM Metals Reference Book, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1983.
Ab initio method - An approach to quantum-mechanical calculations on molecules which starts with the Schrödinger equation and carries out a complete integration, without introducing empirical factors derived from experimental measurement. Absorbance (A) - Defined as -log(1-α) = log(1/τ), where α is the absorptance and τ the transmittance of a medium through which a light beam passes. [2] Absorbed dose (D) - For any ionizing radiation, the mean energy imparted to an element of irradiated matter divided by the mass of that element. [1] Absorptance (α) - Ratio of the radiant or luminous flux in a given spectral interval absorbed in a medium to that of the incident radiation. Also called absorption factor. [1] Absorption coefficient (a) - The relative decrease in the intensity of a collimated beam of electromagnetic radiation, as a result of absorption by a medium, during traversal of an infinitesimal layer of the medium, divided by the length traversed. [1] Absorption coefficient, molar (ε) - Absorption coefficient divided by amount-of-substance concentration of the absorbing material in the sample solution (ε = a/c). The SI unit is m2/mol. Also called extinction coefficient, but usually in units of mol-1dm3cm-1. [2] Acceleration - Rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Acceleration due to gravity (g)* - The standard value (9.80665 m/s2) of the acceleration experienced by a body in the earth’s gravitational field. [1] Acenes - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons consisting of fused benzene rings in a rectilinear arrangement. [5]
Acid - Historically, a substance that yields an H+ ion when it dissociates in solution, resulting in a pH<7. In the Brönsted definition, an acid is a substance that donates a proton in any type of reaction. The most general definition, due to G.N. Lewis, classifies any chemical species capable of accepting an electron pair as an acid. Acid dissociation constant (Ka)* - The equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an acid HA through the reaction HA + H2O 1 A- + H3O+. The quantity pKa = -log Ka is often used to express the acid dissociation constant. Actinides - The elements of atomic number 89 through 103, e.g., Ac, Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No, Lr. [7] Activation energy* - In general, the energy that must be added to a system in order for a process to occur, even though the process may already be thermodynamically possible. In chemical kinetics, the activation energy is the height of the potential barrier separating the products and reactants. It determines the temperature dependence of the reaction rate. Activity - For a mixture of substances, the absolute activity λ of substance B is defined as λB = exp(µB/RT), where µB is the chemical potential of substance B, R the gas constant, and T the thermodynamic temperature. The relative activity a is defined as aB = exp[(µB-µB°)/RT], where µB° designates the chemical potential in the standard state. [2] Activity coefficient (γ)* - Ratio of the activity aB of component B of a mixture to the concentration of that component. The value of γ depends on the method of stating the composition. For mole fraction xB, the relation is aB = γB xB; for molarity cB, it is aB = γB cB/c°, where c° is the standard state composition (typically chosen as 1 mol/L); for molality
2-38
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) mB, it is aB = γBmB/m°, where m° is the standard state molality (typically 1 mol/kg). [2] Activity, of radioactive substance (A) - The average number of spontaneous nuclear transitions from a particular energy state occurring in an amount of a radionuclide in a small time interval divided by that interval. [1] Acyl groups - Groups formed by removing the hydroxy groups from oxoacids that have the general structure RC(=O)(OH) and replacement analogues of such acyl groups. [5] Adiabatic process - A thermodynamic process in which no heat enters or leaves the system. Admittance (Y) - Reciprocal of impedance. Y = G + iB, where G is conductance and B is susceptance. [1] Adsorption - A process in which molecules of gas, of dissolved substances in liquids, or of liquids adhere in an extremely thin layer to surfaces of solid bodies with which they are in contact. [10] Albedo* - The ratio of the light reflected or scattered from a surface to the intensity of incident light. The term is often used in reference to specific types of terrain or to entire planets. Alcohols - Compounds in which a hydroxy group, -OH, is attached to a saturated carbon atom. [5] Aldehydes - Compounds RC(=O)H, in which a carbonyl group is bonded to one hydrogen atom and to one R group. [5] Aldoses - Aldehydic parent sugars (polyhydroxyaldehydes H[CH(OH)]nC(=O)H, n>1) and their intramolecular hemiacetals. [5] Aldoximes - Oximes of aldehydes: RCH=NOH. [5] Alfvén number (Al) - A dimensionless quantity used in plasma physics, defined by Al = v(ρµ)1/2/B, where ρ is density, v is velocity, µ is permeability, and B is magnetic flux density. [2] Alfven waves - Very low frequency waves which can exist in a plasma in the presence of a uniform magnetic field. Also called magnetohydrodynamic waves. Alicyclic compounds - Aliphatic compounds having a carbocyclic ring structure which may be saturated or unsaturated, but may not be a benzenoid or other aromatic system. [5] Aliphatic compounds - Acyclic or cyclic, saturated or unsaturated carbon compounds, excluding aromatic compounds. [5] Alkali metals - The elements lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium. Alkaline earth metals - The elements calcium, strontium, barium, and radium. [7] Alkaloids - Basic nitrogen compounds (mostly heterocyclic) occurring mostly in the plant kingdom (but not excluding those of animal origin). Amino acids, peptides, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acids, and amino sugars are not normally regarded as alkaloids. [5] Alkanes - Acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having the general formula CnH2n+2, and therefore consisting entirely of hydrogen atoms and saturated carbon atoms. [5] Alkenes - Acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having one carbon-carbon double bond and the general formula CnH2n. Acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having more than one double bond are alkadienes, alkatrienes, etc. [5] Alkoxides - Compounds, ROM, derivatives of alcohols, ROH, in which R is saturated at the site of its attachment to oxygen and M is a metal or other cationic species. [5] Alkyl groups - Univalent groups derived from alkanes by removal of a hydrogen atom from any carbon atom: CnH2n+1-. The groups derived by removal of a hydrogen atom from a terminal carbon atom of unbranched alkanes form a subclass of normal alkyl (n-alkyl) groups. The groups RCH2-, R2CH-, and R3C- (R not equal to H) are primary, secondary, and tertiary alkyl groups, respectively. [5] Alkynes - Acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having a carbon-carbon triple bond and the general formula CnH2n-2, RC≡CR′.
Acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having more than one triple bond are known as alkadiynes, alkatriynes, etc. [5] Allotropy - The occurrence of an element in two or more crystalline forms. Allylic groups - The group CH2=CHCH2- (allyl) and derivatives formed by substitution. The term ‘allylic position’ or ‘allylic site’ refers to the saturated carbon atom. A group, such as -OH, attached at an allylic site is sometimes described as “allylic”. [5] Amagat volume unit - A non-SI unit previously used in high pressure science. It is defined as the molar volume of a real gas at one atmosphere pressure and 273.15 K. The approximate value is 22.4 L/ mol. Amides - Derivatives of oxoacids R(C=O)(OH) in which the hydroxy group has been replaced by an amino or substituted amino group. [5] Amine oxides - Compounds derived from tertiary amines by the attachment of one oxygen atom to the nitrogen atom: R3N+-O-. By extension the term includes the analogous derivatives of primary and secondary amines. [5] Amines - Compounds formally derived from ammonia by replacing one, two, or three hydrogen atoms by hydrocarbyl groups, and having the general structures RNH2 (primary amines), R2NH (secondary amines), R3N (tertiary amines). [5] Amino acids* - Compounds containing both a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) and an amino group (-NH2). The most important are the αamino acids, in which the -NH2 group in attached to the C atom adjacent to the -COOH group. In the ß-amino acids, there is an intervening carbon atom. [4] Ampere (A)* - The SI base unit of electric current. [1] Ampere’s law - The defining equation for the magnetic induction B, viz., dF = Idl × B, where dF is the force produced by a current I flowing in an element of the conductor dl pointing in the direction of the current. Ångström (Å) - A unit of length used in spectroscopy, crystallography, and molecular structure, equal to 10-10 m. Angular momentum (L) - The angular momentum of a particle about a point is the vector product of the radius vector from this point to the particle and the momentum of the particle; i.e., L = r × p. [1] Angular velocity (ω) - The angle through which a body rotates per unit time. Anilides - Compounds derived from oxoacids R(C=O)(OH) by replacing the -OH group by the -NHPh group or derivative formed by ring substitution. Also used for salts formed by replacement of a nitrogenbound hydrogen of aniline by a metal. [5] Anion - A negatively charged atomic or molecular particle. Antiferroelectricity* - An effect analogous to antiferromagnetism in which electric dipoles in a crystal are ordered in two sublattices that are polarized in opposite directions, leading to zero net polarization. The effect vanishes above a critical temperature. Antiferromagnetism* - A type of magnetism in which the magnetic moments of atoms in a solid are ordered into two antiparallel aligned sublattices. Antiferromagnets are characterized by a zero or small positive magnetic susceptibility. The susceptibility increases with temperature up to a critical value, the Néel temperature, above which the material becomes paramagnetic. Antiparticle - A particle having the same mass as a given elementary particle and a charge equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. Appearance potential* - The lowest energy which must be imparted to the parent molecule to cause it to produce a particular specified parent ion. This energy, usually stated in eV, may be imparted by electron impact, photon impact, or in other ways. More properly called appearance energy. [3] Appearance potential spectroscopy (APS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Are (a) - A unit of area equal to 100 m2. [1]
2-39
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) Arenes - Monocyclic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. See aromatic compounds. [5] Aromatic compounds - Compounds whose structure includes a cyclic delocalized π-electron system. Historical use of the term implies a ring containing only carbon (e.g., benzene, naphthalene), but it is often generalized to include heterocyclic structures such as pyridine and thiophene. [5] Arrhenius equation - A key equation in chemical kinetics which expresses the rate constant k as k = Aexp(-Ea/RT), where Ea is the activation energy, R the molar gas constant, and T the temperature. A is called the preexponential factor and, for simple gas phase reactions, may be identified with the collision frequency. Arsines - AsH3 and compounds derived from it by substituting one, two or three hydrogen atoms by hydrocarbyl groups. RAsH2, R2AsH, R3As (R not equal to H) are called primary, secondary and tertiary arsines, respectively. [5] Aryl groups - Groups derived from arenes by removal of a hydrogen atom from a ring carbon atom. Groups similarly derived from heteroarenes are sometimes subsumed in this definition. [5] Astronomical unit (AU)* - The mean distance of the earth from the sun, equal to 1.49597870 × 1011 m. Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Atomic mass* - The mass of a nuclide, normally expressed in unified atomic mass units (u). Atomic mass unit (u)* - A unit of mass used in atomic, molecular, and nuclear science, defined as the mass of one atom of 12C divided by 12. Its approximate value is 1.66054 × 10-27 kg. Also called the unified atomic mass unit. [1] Atomic number (Z) - A characteristic property of an element, equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. Atomic weight (Ar)* - The ratio of the average mass per atom of an element to 1/12 of the mass of nuclide 12C. An atomic weight can be defined for a sample of any given isotopic composition. The standard atomic weight refers to a sample of normal terrestrial isotopic composition. The term relative atomic mass is synonymous with atomic weight. [2] Attenuated total reflection (ATR) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Auger effect - An atomic process in which an electron from a higher energy level fills a vacancy in an inner shell, transferring the released energy to another electron which is ejected. Aurora - An atmospheric phenomenon in which streamers of light are produced when electrons from the sun are guided into the thermosphere by the earth’s magnetic field. It occurs in the polar regions at altitudes of 95—300 km. Avogadro constant (NA)* - The number of elementary entities in one mole of a substance. Azeotrope - A liquid mixture in a state where the variation of vapor pressure with composition at constant temperature (or, alternatively, the variation of normal boiling point with composition) shows either a maximum or a minimum. Thus when an azeotrope boils the vapor has the same composition as the liquid. Azides - Compounds bearing the group -N3, viz. -N=N+=N-; usually attached to carbon, e.g. PhN3, phenyl azide or azidobenzene. Also used for salts of hydrazoic acid, HN3, e.g. NaN3, sodium azide. [5] Azines - Condensation products, R2C=NN=CR2 , of two moles of a carbonyl compound with one mole of hydrazine. [5] Azo compounds - Derivatives of diazene (diimide), HN=NH, wherein
both hydrogens are substituted by hydrocarbyl groups, e.g., PhN=NPh, azobenzene or diphenyldiazene. [5] Balmer series - The series of lines in the spectrum of the hydrogen atom which corresponds to transitions between the state with principal quantum number n = 2 and successive higher states. The wavelengths are given by 1/λ = RH(1/4 - 1/n2), where n = 3,4,... and RH is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen. The first member of the series (n = 2 1 3), which is often called the Hα line, falls at a wavelength of 6563 Å. Bar (bar) - A unit of pressure equal to 105 Pa.´ Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory - A theory of superconductivity which is based upon the formation of electron pairs as a result of an electron-lattice interaction. The theory relates the superconducting transition temperature to the density of states and the Debye temperature. Barn (b) - A unit used for expressing cross sections of nuclear processes, equal to 10-28 m2. Barrel - A unit of volume equal to 158.9873 L. Baryon - Any elementary particle built up from three quarks. Examples are the proton, neutron, and various short-lived hyperons. Baryons have odd half-integer spins. Base - Historically, a substance that yields an OH- ion when it dissociates in solution, resulting in a pH>7. In the Brönsted definition, a base is a substance capable of accepting a proton in any type of reaction. The more general definition, due to G.N. Lewis, classifies any chemical species capable of donating an electron pair as a base. Becquerel (Bq)* - The SI unit of radioactivity (disintegrations per unit time), equal to s-1. [1] Beer’s law - An approximate expression for the change in intensity of a light beam that passes through an absorbing medium, viz., log(I/I0) = -εcl, where I0 is the incident intensity, I is the final intensity, ε is the molar (decadic) absorption coefficient, c is the molar concentration of the absorbing substance, and l is the path length. Also called the BeerLambert law Binding energy* - A generic term for the energy required to decompose a system into two or more of its constituent parts. In nuclear physics, the binding energy is the energy difference between a nucleus and the separated nucleons of which it is composed (the energy equivalent of the mass defect). In atomic physics, it is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom. Biot (Bi) - A name sometimes used for the unit of current in the emu system. Birefringence - A property of certain crystals in which two refracted rays result from a single incident light ray. One, the ordinary ray, follows the normal laws of refraction, while the other, the extraordinary ray, exhibits a variable refractive index which depends on the direction in the crystal. Black body radiation* - The radiation emitted by a perfect black body, i.e., a body which absorbs all radiation incident on it and reflects none. The wavelength dependence of the radiated energy density ρ (energy per unit volume per unit wavelength range) is given by the Planck formula 8πhc ρ= λ5 e hc / λkT – 1
(
)
where λ is the wavelength, h is Planck’s constant, c is the speed of light, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the temperature. Black hole - A very dense object, formed in a supernova explosion, whose gravitational field is so large that no matter or radiation can escape from the object. Bloch wave function - A solution of the Schrödinger equation for an electron moving in a spatially periodic potential; used in the band theory of solids. Bohr magneton (µB)* - The atomic unit of magnetic moment, defined as
2-40
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) eh/4πme, where h is Planck’s constant, me the electron mass, and e the elementary charge. It is the moment associated with a single electron spin. Bohr, bohr radius (a0)* - The radius of the lowest orbit in the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, defined as εoh2/πmee2, where εo is the permittivity of a vacuum, h is Planck’s constant, me the electron mass, and e the elementary charge. It is customarily taken as the unit of length when using atomic units. Boiling point - The temperature at which the liquid and gas phases of a substance are in equilibrium at a specified pressure. The normal boiling point is the boiling point at normal atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa). Boltzmann constant (k)* - The molar gas constant R divided by Avogadro’s constant. Boltzmann distribution - An expression for the equilibrium distribution of molecules as a function of their energy, in which the number of molecules in a state of energy E is proportional to exp(-E/kT), where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature. Bond strength - See Dissociation energy. Born-Haber cycle* - A thermodynamic cycle in which a crystalline solid is converted to gaseous ions and then reconverted to the solid. The cycle permits calculation of the lattice energy of the crystal. Bose-Einstein distribution - A modification of the Boltzmann distribution which applies to a system of particles that are bosons. The number of particles of energy E is proportional to [e(E-µ)/kT-1]-1 , where µ is a normalization constant, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the temperature. Boson - A particle that obeys Bose-Einstein Statistics; specifically, any particle with spin equal to zero or an integer. This includes the photon, pion, deuteron, and all nuclei of even mass number. Boyle’s law - The empirical law, exact only for an ideal gas, which states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at constant temperature. Bragg angle (θ) - Defined by the equation nλ = 2dsinθ, which relates the angle θ between a crystal plane and the diffracted x-ray beam, the wavelength λ of the x-rays, the crystal plane spacing d, and the diffraction order n (any integer). Bravais lattices* - The 14 distinct crystal lattices that can exist in three dimensions. They include three in the cubic crystal system, two in the tetragonal, four in the orthorhombic, two in the monoclinic, and one each in the triclinic, hexagonal, and trigonal systems. Breakdown voltage - The potential difference at which an insulating substance undergoes a physical or chemical change that causes it to become a conductor, thus allowing current to flow through the sample. Bremsstrahlung - Electromagnetic radiation generated when the velocity of a charged particle is reduced (literally, “braking radiation”). An example is the x-ray continuum resulting from collisions of electrons with the target in an x-ray tube. Brewster angle - The angle of incidence for which the maximum degree of plane polarization occurs when a beam of unpolarized light is incident on the surface of a medium of refractive index n. At this angle, the angle between the reflected and refracted beams is 90°. The value of the Brewster angle is tan-1n. Brillouin scattering - The scattering of light by acoustic phonons in a solid or liquid. Brillouin zone - A region of allowed wave vectors and energy levels in a crystalline solid, which plays a part in the propagation of waves through the lattice. British thermal unit (Btu) - A non-SI unit of energy, equal to approximately 1055 J. Several values of the Btu, defined in slightly different ways, have been used. Brownian motion - The random movements of small particles suspended in a fluid, which arise from collisions with the fluid molecules.
Brunauer-Emmett-Teller method (BET) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Buffer* - A solution designed to maintain a constant pH when small amounts of a strong acid or base are added. Buffers usually consist of a fairly weak acid and its salt with a strong base. Suitable concentrations are chosen so that the pH of the solution remains close to the pKa of the weak acid. Calorie (cal) - A non-SI unit of energy, originally defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C. Several calories of slightly different values have been used. The thermochemical calorie is now defined as 4.184 J. Candela (cd)* - The SI base unit of luminous intensity. [1] Capacitance (C) - Ratio of the charge acquired by a body to the change in potential. [1] Carbamates - Salts or esters of carbamic acid, H2NC(=O)OH, or of Nsubstituted carbamic acids: R2NC(=O)OR′, (R′ = hydrocarbyl or a cation). The esters are often called urethanes or urethans, a usage that is strictly correct only for the ethyl esters. [5] Carbenes - The electrically neutral species H2C: and its derivatives, in which the carbon is covalently bonded to two univalent groups of any kind or a divalent group and bears two nonbonding electrons, which may be spin-paired (singlet state) or spin-non-paired (triplet state). [5] Carbinols - An obsolete term for substituted methanols, in which the name carbinol is synonymous with methanol. [5] Carbohydrates - Originally, compounds such as aldoses and ketoses, having the stoichiometric formula Cn(H2O)n (hence “hydrates of carbon”). The generic term carbohydrate now includes mono-, oligo-, and polysaccharides, as well as their reaction products and derivatives. [5] Carboranes - A contraction of carbaboranes. Compounds in which a boron atom in a polyboron hydride is replaced by a carbon atom with maintenance of the skeletal structure. [5] Carboxylic acids - Oxoacids having the structure RC(=O)OH. The term is used as a suffix in systematic name formation to denote the -C(=O)OH group including its carbon atom. [5] Carnot cycle - A sequence of reversible changes in a heat engine using a perfect gas as the working substance, which is used to demonstrate that entropy is a state function. The Carnot cycle also provides a means to calculate the efficiency of a heat engine. Catalyst - A substance that participates in a particular chemical reaction and thereby increases its rate but without a net change in the amount of that substance in the system. [3] Catenanes, catena compounds - Hydrocarbons having two or more rings connected in the manner of links of a chain, without a covalent bond. More generally, the class catena compounds embraces functional derivatives and hetero analogues. [5] Cation - A positively charged atomic or molecular particle. Centipoise (cP) - A common non-SI unit of viscosity, equal to mPa s. Centrifugal distortion - An effect in molecular spectroscopy in which rotational levels are lowered in energy, relative to the values of a rigid rotor, as the rotational angular momentum increases. The effect may be understood classically as a stretching of the bonds in the molecule as it rotates faster, thus increasing the moment of inertia. Ceramic - A nonmetallic material of very high melting point. Cerenkov radiation - Light emitted when a beam of charged particles travels through a medium at a speed greater than the speed of light in the medium. It is typically blue in color. Cgs system of units - A system of units based upon the centimeter, gram, and second. The cgs system has been supplanted by the International System (SI). Chalcogens - The Group VIA elements (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium). Compounds of these elements are called chalcogenides. [7]
2-41
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) Chaotic system - A complex system whose behavior is governed by deterministic laws but whose evolution can vary drastically when small changes are made in the initial conditions. Charge - See Electric charge. Charles’ law - The empirical law, exact only for an ideal gas, which states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature at constant pressure. Charm - A quantum number introduced in particle physics to account for certain properties of elementary particles and their reactions. Chelate - A compound characterized by the presence of bonds from two or more bonding sites within the same ligand to a central metal atom. [3] Chemical potential - For a mixture of substances, the chemical potential of constituent B is defined as the partial derivative of the Gibbs energy G with respect to the amount (number of moles) of B, with temperature, pressure, and amounts of all other constituents held constant. Also called partial molar Gibbs energy. [2] Chemical shift* - A small change in the energy levels (and hence in the spectra associated with these levels) resulting from the effects of chemical binding in a molecule. The term is used in fields such as NMR, Mössbauer, and photoelectron spectroscopy, where the energy levels are determined primarily by nuclear or atomic effects. Chiral molecule - A molecule which cannot be superimposed on its mirror image. A common example is an organic molecule containing a carbon atom to which four different atoms or groups are attached. Such molecules exhibit optical activity, i.e., they rotate the plane of a polarized light beam. Chlorocarbons - Compounds consisting solely of chlorine and carbon. [5] Chromatography* - A method for separation of the components of a sample in which the components are distributed between two phases, one of which is stationary while the other moves. In gas chromatography the gas moves over a liquid or solid stationary phase. In liquid chromatography the liquid mixture moves through another liquid, a solid, or a gel. The mechanism of separation of components may be adsorption, differential solubility, ion-exchange, permeation, or other mechanisms. [6] Clapeyron equation - A relation between pressure and temperature of two phases of a pure substance that are in equilibrium, viz., dp/dT = ∆trsS/∆trs V, where ∆trs S is the difference in entropy between the phases and ∆trsV the corresponding difference in volume. Clathrates - Inclusion compounds in which the guest molecule is in a cage formed by the host molecule or by a lattice of host molecules. [5] Clausius (Cl) - A non-SI unit of entropy or heat capacity defined as cal/K = 4.184 J/K. [2] Clausius-Clapeyron equation - An approximation to the Clapeyron equation applicable to liquid-gas and solid-gas equilibrium, in which one assumes an ideal gas with volume much greater than the condensed phase volume. For the liquid-gas case, it takes the form d(lnp)/ dT = ∆vap H/RT2, where R is the molar gas constant and ∆vap H is the molar enthalpy of vaporization. For the solid-gas case, ∆vap H is replaced by the molar enthalpy of sublimation, ∆sub H. Clausius-Mosotti equation - A relation between the dielectric constant εr at optical frequencies and the polarizability α: ε r – 1 ρN A α = ε r + 2 3Mε 0
where ρ is density, NA is Avogadro’s number, M is molar mass, and ε0 is the permittivity of a vacuum. Clebsch-Gordon coefficients - A set of coefficients used to describe the vector coupling of angular momenta in atomic and nuclear physics. Codon - A set of three bases, chosen from the four primary bases found
in the DNA molecule (uracil, cytosine, adenine, and guanine), which specifies the production of a particular amino acid or carries some other genetic instruction. For example, the codon UCA specifies the amino acid serine, CAG specifies glutamine, etc. There are a total of 64 codons. Coercive force - The magnetizing force at which the magnetic flux density is equal to zero. [10] Coercivity* - The maximum value of coercive force that can be attained when a magnetic material is symmetrically magnetized to saturation induction. [10] Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Colloid - Molecules or polymolecular particles dispersed in a medium that have, at least in one direction, a dimension roughly between 1 nm and 1 µm. [3] Color center - A defect in a crystal that gives rise to optical absorption, thus changing the color of the material. A common type is the F-center, which results when an electron occupies the site of a negative ion. Compressibility (κ)* - The fractional change of volume as pressure is increased, viz., κ = -(1/V)(dV/dp). [1] Compton wavelength (λC)* - In the scattering of electromagnetic radiation by a free particle (e.g., electron, proton), λC = h/mc is the increase in wavelength, at a 90° scattering angle, corresponding to the transfer of energy from radiation to particle. Here h is Planck’s constant, c the speed of light, and m the mass of the particle. Conductance (G)* - For direct current, the reciprocal of resistance. More generally, the real part of admittance. [1] Conductivity, electrical (σ)* - The reciprocal of the resistivity. [1] Conductivity, thermal - See Thermal conductivity. Congruent transformation - A phase transition (melting, vaporization, etc.) in which the substance preserves its exact chemical composition. Constitutional repeating unit (CRU) - In polymer science, the smallest constitutional unit, the repetition of which constitutes a regular macromolecule, i.e., a macromolecule with all units connected identically with respect to directional sense. [8] Copolymer - A polymer derived from more than one species of monomer. [8] Coriolis effect - The deviation from simple trajectories when a mechanical system is described in a rotating coordinate system. It affects the motion of projectiles on the earth and in molecular spectroscopy leads to an important interaction between the rotational and vibrational motions. The effect may be described by an additional term in the equations of motion, called the Coriolis force. Cosmic rays* - High energy nuclear particles, electrons, and photons, originating mostly outside the solar system, which continually bombard the earth’s atmosphere. Coulomb (C)* - The SI unit of electric charge, equal to A s. [1] Coulomb’s law - The statement that the force F between two electrical charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is F = (4πε0)-1q1q2/r2, where ε0 is the permittivity of a vacuum. Covalent bond - A chemical bond between two atoms whose stability results from the sharing of two electrons, one from each atom. Cowling number (Co) - A dimensionless quantity used in plasma physics, defined by Co = B2/µρv2, where ρ is density, v is velocity, µ is permeability, and B is magnetic flux density. [2] CPT theorem - A theorem in particle physics which states that any local Lagrangian theory that is invariant under proper Lorentz transformations is also invariant under the combined operations of charge conjugation, C, space inversion, P, and time reversal, T, taken in any order. Critical point* - In general, the point on the phase diagram of a two-phase system at which the two coexisting phases have identical properties
2-42
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) and therefore represent a single phase. At the liquid-gas critical point of a pure substance, the distinction between liquid and gas vanishes, and the vapor pressure curve ends. The coordinates of this point are called the critical temperature and critical pressure. Above the critical temperature, it is not possible to liquefy the substance. Cross section (σ)* - A measure of the probability of collision (or other interaction) between a beam of particles and a target which it encounters. In rough terms it is the effective area the target particles present to the incident ones; however, the precise definition depends on the nature of the interaction. A general definition of σ is the number of encounters per unit time divided by nv, where n is the concentration of incident particles and v their velocity. Crosslink - In polymer science, a small region in a macromolecule from which at least four chains emanate, and formed by reactions involving sites or groups on existing macromolecules or by interactions between existing macromolecules. [8] Crown compounds - Macrocyclic polydentate compounds, usually uncharged, in which three or more coordinating ring atoms (usually oxygen or nitrogen) are or may become suitably close for easy formation of chelate complexes with metal ions or other cationic species. [5] Crust* - The outer layer of the solid earth, above the Mohorovicic discontinuity. Its thickness averages about 35 km on the continents and about 7 km below the ocean floor. Cryoscopic constant (Ef)* - The constant that expresses the amount by which the freezing point Tf of a solvent is lowered by a non-dissociating solute, through the relation ∆Tf = Ef m, where m is the molality of the solute. Curie (Ci) - A non-SI unit of radioactivity (disintegrations per unit time), equal to 3.7 × 1010 s-1. Curie temperature (TC)* - For a ferromagnetic material, the critical temperature above which the material becomes paramagnetic. Also applied to the temperature at which the spontaneous polarization disappears in a ferroelectric solid. [1] Cyanohydrins - Alcohols substituted by a cyano group, most commonly, but not limited to, examples having a CN and an OH group attached to the same carbon atom. They are formally derived from aldehydes or ketones by the addition of hydrogen cyanide. [5] Cycloalkanes - Saturated monocyclic hydrocarbons (with or without side chains). See alicyclic compounds. Unsaturated monocyclic hydrocarbons having one endocyclic double or one triple bond are called cycloalkenes and cycloalkynes, respectively. [5] Cyclotron resonance - The resonant absorption of energy from a system in which electrons or ions that are orbiting in a uniform magnetic field are subjected to radiofrequency or microwave radiation. The resonance frequency is given by ν = eH/2πm*c, where e is the elementary charge, H is the magnetic field strength, m* is the effective mass of the charged particle, and c is the speed of light. The effect occurs in both solids (involving electrons or holes) and in low pressure gasses (involving ions) Dalton (Da) - A name sometimes used in biochemistry for the unified atomic mass unit (u). De Broglie wavelength - The wavelength associated with the wave representation of a moving particle, given by h/mv, where h is Planck’s constant, m the particle mass, and v the velocity. De Haas-Van Alphen effect - An effect observed in certain metals and semiconductors at low temperatures and high magnetic fields, characterized by a periodic variation of magnetic susceptibility with field strength. Debye equation* - The relation between the relative permittivity (dielectric constant) εr, polarizability α, and permanent dipole moment µ in a dielectric material whose molecules are free to rotate. It takes the
form
εr –1 ρN A = ε r + 2 3Mε 0
µ2 α + 3kT
where ρ is density, NA is Avogadro’s number, M is molar mass, and ε0 is the permittivity of a vacuum. Debye length - In the Debye-Hückel theory of ionic solutions, the effective thickness of the cloud of ions of opposite charge which surrounds each given ion and shields the Coulomb potential produced by that ion. Debye temperature (θD)* - In the Debye model of the heat capacity of a crystalline solid, θD = hνD/k, where h is Planck’s constant, k is the Boltzmann constant, and νD is the maximum vibrational frequency the crystal can support. For T << θD, the heat capacity is proportional to T3. Debye unit (D) - A non-SI unit of electric dipole moment used in molecular physics, equal to 3.335641 × 10-30 C m. Debye-Waller factor (D) - The factor by which the intensity of a diffraction line is reduced because of lattice vibrations. [1] Defect - Any departure from the regular structure of a crystal lattice. A Frenkel defect results when an atom or ion moves to an interstitial position and leaves behind a vacancy. A Schottky defect involves either a vacancy where the atom has moved to the surface or a structure where a surface atom has moved to an interstitial position. Degree of polymerization - The number of monomeric units in a macromolecule or an oligomer molecule. [8] Dendrite - A tree-like crystalline pattern often observed, for example, in ice crystals and alloys in which the crystal growth branches repeatedly. Density (ρ)* - In the most common usage, mass density or mass per unit volume. More generally, the amount of some quantity (mass, charge, energy, etc.) divided by a length, area, or volume. Density of states (NE, ρ) - The number of one-electron states in an infinitesimal interval of energy, divided by the range of that interval and by volume. [1] Dew point* - The temperature at which liquid begins to condense as the temperature of a gas mixture is lowered. In meteorology, it is the temperature at which moisture begins to condense on a surface in contact with the air. Diamagnetism - A type of magnetism characterized by a negative magnetic susceptibility, so that the material, when placed in an external magnetic field, becomes weakly magnetized in the direction opposite to the field. This magnetization is independent of temperature. Diazo compounds - Compounds having the divalent diazo group, =N +=N-, attached to a carbon atom, e.g., CH 2=N 2 diazomethane. [5] Dielectric constant (ε)* - Ratio of the electric displacement in a medium to the electric field strength. Also called permittivity. [1] Dienes - Compounds that contain two fixed double bonds (usually assumed to be between carbon atoms). Dienes in which the two double-bond units are linked by one single bond are termed conjugated. [5] Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Diffusion* - The migration of atoms, molecules, ions, or other particles as a result of some type of gradient (concentration, temperature, etc.). Diopter - A unit used in optics, formally equal to m-1. It is used in expressing dioptic power, which is the reciprocal of the focal length of a lens. Dipole moment, electric (p,µ)* - For a distribution of equal positive and
2-43
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) negative charge, the magnitude of the dipole moment vector is the positive charge multiplied by the distance between the centers of positive and negative charge distribution. The direction is given by the line from the center of negative charge to the center of positive charge. Dipole moment, magnetic (m,µ) - Formally defined in electromagnetic theory as a vector quantity whose vector product with the magnetic flux density equals the torque. The magnetic dipole generated by a current I flowing in a small loop of area A has a magnetic moment of magnitude IA. In atomic and nuclear physics, a magnetic moment is associated with the angular momentum of a particle; e.g., an electron with orbital angular momentum l exhibits a magnetic moment of -el/ 2me where e is the elementary charge and me the mass of the electron. [1] Disaccharides - Compounds in which two monosaccharides are joined by a glycosidic bond. [5] Dislocation - An extended displacement of a crystal from a regular lattice. An edge dislocation results when one portion of the crystal has partially slipped with respect to the other, resulting in an extra plane of atoms extending through part of the crystal. A screw dislocation transforms successive atomic planes into the surface of a helix. Dispersion - Splitting of a beam of light (or other electromagnetic radiation) of mixed wavelengths into the constituent wavelengths as a result of the variation of refractive index of the medium with wavelength. Dissociation constant* - The equilibrium constant for a chemical reaction in which a compound dissociates into its constituent parts. Dissociation energy (De)* - For a diatomic molecule, the difference between the energies of the free atoms at rest and the minimum in the potential energy curve. The term bond dissociation energy (D0), which can be applied to polyatomic molecules as well, is used for the difference between the energies of the fragments resulting when a bond is broken and the energy of the original molecule in its lowest energy state. The term bond strength implies differences in enthalpy rather than energy. Domain - A small region of a solid in which the magnetic or electric moments of the individual units (atoms, molecules, or ions) are aligned in the same direction. Domain wall - The transition region between adjacent ferromagnetic domains, generally a layer with a thickness of a few hundred ångström units. Also called Bloch wall. Doppler effect - The change in the apparent frequency of a wave (sound, light, or other) when the source of the wave is moving relative to the observer. Dose equivalent (H) - The product of the absorbed dose of radiation at a point of interest in tissue and various modifying factors which depend on the type of tissue and radiation. [1] Drift velocity - The velocity of charge carriers (electrons, ions, etc.) moving under the influence of an electric field in a medium which subjects the carriers to some frictional force. Dyne (dyn) - A non-SI (cgs) unit of force, equal to 10-5 N. Ebullioscopic constant (Eb)* - The constant that expresses the amount by which the boiling point Tb of a solvent is raised by a nondissociating solute, through the relation ∆Tb = Eb m, where m is the molality of the solute. Eddy currents - Circulating currents set up in conducting bulk materials or sheets by varying magnetic fields. Effinghausen effect - The appearance of a temperature gradient in a current carrying conductor that is placed in a transverse magnetic field. The direction of the gradient is perpendicular to the current and the field. Eigenvalue - An allowed value of the constant a in the equation Au = au, where A is an operator acting on a function u (which is called an
eigenfunction). In quantum mechanics, the outcome of any observation is an eigenvalue of the corresponding operator. Also called characteristic value. Einstein - A non-SI unit used in photochemistry, equal to one mole of photons. Einstein temperature (θV) - In the Einstein theory of the heat capacity of a crystalline solid, θV = hν/k, where h is Planck’s constant, k is the Boltzmann constant, and ν is the vibrational frequency of the crystal. Einstein transition probability - A constant in the Einstein relation Aij + Bijρ for the probability of a transition between two energy levels i and j in a radiation field of energy density ρ. The Aij coefficient describes the probability of spontaneous emission, while Bij and Bji govern the probability of stimulated emission and absorption, respectively (Bij = Bji). Elastic limit - The greatest stress which a material is capable of sustaining without any permanent strain remaining after complete release of the stress. [10] Elastic modulus - See Young’s modulus. Electric charge (Q) - The quantity of electricity; i.e., the property that controls interactions between bodies through electrical forces. Electric current (I) - The charge passing through a circuit per unit time. [1] Electric displacement (D) - A vector quantity whose magnitude equals the electric field strength multiplied by the permittivity of the medium and whose direction is the same as that of the field strength. Electric field strength (E) - The force exerted by an electric field on a point charge divided by the electric charge. [1] Electric potential (V) - A scalar quantity whose gradient is equal to the negative of the electric field strength. Electrical conductance - See Conductance Electrical resistance - See Resistance Electrical resistivity - See Resistivity. Electrochemical series* - An arrangement of reactions which produce or consume electrons in an order based on standard electrode potentials. A common arrangement places metals in decreasing order of their tendency to give up electrons. Electrode potential* - The electromotive force of a cell in which the electrode on the left is the standard hydrogen electrode and that on the right is the electrode in question. [2] Electrolysis - The decomposition of a substance as a result of passing an electric current between two electrodes immersed in the sample. Electromotive force (emf) - The energy supplied by a source divided by the charge transported through the source. [1] Electron* - An elementary particle in the family of leptons, with negative charge and spin of 1/2. Electron affinity* - The energy difference between the ground state of a gas-phase atom or molecule and the lowest state of the corresponding negative ion. Electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Electron spin (s) - The quantum number, equal to 1/2, that specifies the intrinsic angular momentum of the electron.
2-44
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) Electron stimulated desorption (ESD) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Electron volt (eV)* - A non-SI unit of energy used in atomic and nuclear physics, equal to approximately 1.602177 × 10-19 J. The electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy acquired by an electron upon acceleration through a potential difference of 1 V. [1] Electronegativity* - A parameter originally introduced by Pauling which describes, on a relative basis, the power of an atom or group of atoms to attract electrons from the same molecular entity. [3] Electrophoresis - The motion of macromolecules or colloidal particles in an electric field. [3] Emissivity (ε)* - Ratio of the radiant flux emitted per unit area to that of an ideal black body at the same temperature. Also called emittance. [1] Emu - The electromagnetic system of units, based upon the cm, g, and s plus the emu of current (sometimes called the abampere). Enantiomers - A chiral molecule and its non-superposable mirror image. The two forms rotate the plane of polarized light by equal amounts in opposite directions. Also called optical isomers. Energy (E,U)* - The characteristic of a system that enables it to do work. Energy gap* - In the theory of solids, the region between two energy bands, in which no bound states can occur. Enols, alkenols - The term refers specifically to vinylic alcohols, which have the structure HOCR′=CR2. Enols are tautomeric with aldehydes (R′ = H) or ketones (R′ not equal to H). [5] Enthalpy (H)* - A thermodynamic function, especially useful when dealing with constant-pressure processes, defined by H = E + PV, where E is energy, P pressure, and V volume. [1] Enthalpy of combustion* - The enthalpy change in a combustion reaction. Its negative is the heat released in combustion. Enthalpy of formation, standard* - The enthalpy change for the reaction in which a substance is formed from its constituent elements, each in its standard reference state (normally refers to 1 mol, sometimes to 1 g, of the substance). Enthalpy of fusion* - The enthalpy change in the transition from solid to liquid state. Enthalpy of sublimation - The enthalpy change in the transition from solid to gas state. Enthalpy of vaporization* - The enthalpy change in the transition from liquid to gas state. Entropy (S)* - A thermodynamic function defined such that when a small quantity of heat dQ is received by a system at temperature T, the entropy of the system is increased by dQ/T, provided that no irreversible change takes place in the system. [1] Entropy unit (e.u.) - A non-SI unit of entropy, equal to 4.184 J/K mol. Ephemeris time - Time measured in tropical years from January 1, 1900. Epoxy compounds - Compounds in which an oxygen atom is directly attached to two adjacent or non-adjacent carbon atoms of a carbon chain or ring system; thus cyclic ethers. [5] Equation of continuity - Any of a class of equations that express the fact that some quantity (mass, charge, energy, etc.) cannot be created or destroyed. Such equations typically specify that the rate of increase of the quantity in a given region of space equals the net current of the quantity flowing into the region. Equation of state* - An equation relating the pressure, volume, and temperature of a substance or system. Equilibrium constant (K)* - For a chemical reaction aA + bB 1 cC + dD, the equilibrium constant is defined by: K=
aC c ⋅ a D d aA a ⋅ aB b
where ai is the activity of component i. To a certain approximation, the activities can be replaced by concentrations. The equilibrium constant
is related to ∆rG°, the standard Gibbs energy change in the reaction, by RT lnK = -∆rG°. Equivalent conductance - See Conductivity, electrical Erg (erg) - A non-SI (cgs) unit of energy, equal to 10-7 J. Esters - Compounds formally derived from an oxoacid RC(=O)(OH) and an alcohol, phenol, heteroarenol, or enol by linking, with formal loss of water from an acidic hydroxy group of the former and a hydroxy group of the latter. [5] Esu - The electrostatic system of units, based upon the cm, g, and s plus the esu of charge (sometimes called the statcoulomb or franklin). Ethers - Compounds with formula ROR, where R is not equal to H. [5] Euler number (Eu) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Eu = ∆p/ρv2, where p is pressure, ρ is density, and v is velocity. [2] Eutectic - The point on a two-component solid-liquid phase diagram which represents the lowest melting point of any possible mixture. A liquid having the eutectic composition will freeze at a single temperature without change of composition. Excitance (M) - Radiant energy flux leaving an element of a surface divided by the area of that element. [1] Exciton - A localized excited state consisting of a bound electron-hole pair in a molecular or ionic crystal. The exciton can propagate through the crystal. Exosphere - The outermost part of the earth’s atmosphere, beginning at about 500 to 1000 km above the surface. It is characterized by densities so low that air molecules can escape into outer space. Expansion coefficient - See thermal expansion coefficient. Extended electron energy loss fine structure (EXELFS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Extinction coefficient - See Absorption coefficient, molar F-Center - See Color center Fahrenheit temperature (°F) - The temperature scale based on the assignment of 32°F = 0°C and a temperature interval of °F =(5/9)°C; i.e., t/°F = (9/5)t/°C + 32. Farad (F)* - The SI unit of electric capacitance, equal to C/V. [1] Faraday constant (F)* - The electric charge of 1 mol of singly charged positive ions; i.e., F = NAe, where NA is Avogadro’s constant and e is the elementary charge. [1] Faraday effect* - The rotation of the plane of plane-polarized light by a medium placed in a magnetic field parallel to the direction of the light beam. The effect can be observed in solids, liquids, and gasses. Fatty acids - Aliphatic monocarboxylic acids derived from or contained in esterified form in an animal or vegetable fat, oil, or wax. Natural fatty acids commonly have a chain of 4 to 28 carbons (usually unbranched and even-numbered), which may be saturated or unsaturated. By extension, the term is sometimes used to embrace all acyclic aliphatic carboxylic acids. [5] Fermat’s principle - The law that a ray of light traversing one or more media will follow a path which minimizes the time required to pass between two given points. Fermi (f) - Name sometimes used in nuclear physics for the femtometer. Fermi level - The highest energy of occupied states in a solid at zero temperature. Sometimes called Fermi energy. The Fermi surface is the surface in momentum space formed by electrons occupying the Fermi level. Fermi resonance - An effect observed in vibrational spectroscopy when an overtone of one fundamental vibration closely coincides in energy with another fundamental of the same symmetry species. It leads to a splitting of vibrational bands. Fermi-Dirac distribution - A modification of the Boltzmann distribu-
2-45
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) tion which takes into account the Pauli exclusion principle. The number of particles of energy E is proportional to [e(E-µ)/kT+1]-1 , where µ is a normalization constant, k the Boltzmann constant, and T the temperature. The distribution is applicable to a system of fermions. Fermion - A particle that obeys Fermi-Dirac statistics. Specifically, any particle with spin equal to an odd multiple of 1/2. Examples are the electron, proton, neutron, muon, etc. Ferrimagnetism* - A type of magnetism in which the magnetic moments of atoms in a solid are ordered into two nonequivalent sublattices with unequal magnetic moments, leading to a nonzero magnetic susceptibility. Ferrite - A ferrimagnetic material of nominal formula MFe2O4, where M is a divalent metal; widely used in microwave switches and other solid state devices. Ferroelectricity* - The retention of electric polarization by certain materials after the external field that produced the polarization has been removed. Ferromagnetism* - A type of magnetism in which the magnetic moments of atoms in a solid are aligned within domains which can in turn be aligned with each other by a weak magnetic field. Some ferromagnetic materials can retain their magnetization when the external field is removed, as long as the temperature is below a critical value, the Curie temperature. They are characterized by a large positive magnetic susceptibility. Fick’s law - The statement that the flux J of a diffusing substance is proportional to the concentration gradient, i.e., J = -D(dc/dx), where D is called the diffusion coefficient. Field - A mathematical construct which describes the interaction between particles resulting from gravity, electromagnetism, or other physical phenomena. In classical physics a field is described by equations. Quantum field theory introduces operators to represent the physical observables. Field emission microscopy (FEM) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Field ion microscopy (FIM) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Fine structure - The splitting in spectral lines that results from interactions of the electron spin with the orbital angular momentum. Fine structure constant (α)* - Defined as e2/2hcε0, where e is the elementary charge, h Planck’s constant, c the speed of light, and ε0 the permittivity of a vacuum. It is a measure of the strength of the electromagnetic interaction between particles. First radiation constant (c1)* - Constant (= 2πhc2) in the equation for the radiant excitance Mλ of a black body: Mλ =
c1λ–5 ∆λ
e c2 / λT – 1
where λ is the wavelength, T is the temperature, and c2 = hc/k is the second radiation constant. Flash point - The lowest temperature at which vapors above a volatile combustible substance will ignite in air when exposed to a flame. [10] Fluence (F) - Term used in photochemistry to specify the energy per unit area delivered in a given time interval, for example by a laser pulse. [2] Fluorocarbons - Compounds consisting solely of fluorine and carbon. [5] Fluxoid - The quantum of magnetic flux in superconductivity theory, equal to hc/2e, where h is Planck’s constant, c the velocity of light, and e the elementary charge. Force (F) - The rate of change of momentum with time. [1] Force constants (f, k)* - In molecular vibrations, the coefficients in the expression of the potential energy in terms of atom displacements from their equilibrium positions. In a diatomic molecule, f = d2V/dr2, where V(r) is the potential energy and r is the interatomic distance. [2]
Fourier number (Fo) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Fo = at/l2, where a is thermal diffusivity, t is time, and l is length. [2] Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) - A technique for obtaining an infrared spectrum by use of an interferometer in which the path length of one of the beams is varied. A Fourier transformation of the resulting interferogram yields the actual spectrum. The technique is also used for NMR and other types of spectroscopy. Fractals - Geometrical objects that are self-similar under a change of scale; i.e., they appear similar at all levels of magnification. They can be considered to have fractional dimensionality. Examples occur in diverse fields such as geography (rivers and shorelines), biology (trees), and solid state physics (amorphous materials). Franck-Condon principle - An important principle in molecular spectroscopy which states that the nuclei in a molecule remain essentially stationary while an electronic transition is taking place. The physical interpretation rests on the fact that the electrons move much more rapidly than the nuclei because of their much smaller mass. Franklin (Fr) - Name sometimes given to the unit of charge in the esu system. Fraunhofer diffraction - Diffraction of light in situations where the source and observation point are so far removed that the wave surfaces may be considered planar. Fraunhofer lines - Sharp absorption lines in the spectrum of sunlight, caused by absorption of the solar blackbody radiation by atoms near the sun’s surface. Free radical - See Radicals. The term “free radical” is often used more broadly for molecules that have a paramagnetic ground state (e.g., O2) and sometimes for any transient or highly reactive molecular species. Freezing point - See Melting point Frequency (ν)* - Number of cycles of a periodic phenomenon divided by time. [1] Fresnel diffraction - Diffraction of light in a situation where the source and observation point are sufficiently close together that the curvature of the wave surfaces must be taken into account. Froude number (Fr) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Fr = v/(lg)1/2, where v is velocity, l is length, and g is acceleration due to gravity. [2] Fugacity (fB) - For a gas mixture, the fugacity of component B is defined as the absolute activity λB times the limit, as the pressure p approaches zero at constant temperature, of pB/λB. [2] Fullerenes - Compounds composed solely of an even number of carbon atoms, which form a cage-like fused-ring polycyclic system with twelve five-membered rings and the rest six-membered rings. The archetypal example is [60]fullerene, where the atoms and bonds delineate a truncated icosahedron. The term has been broadened to include any closed cage structure consisting entirely of three-coordinate carbon atoms. [5] Fulvalenes - The hydrocarbon fulvalene and its derivatives formed by substitution (and by extension, analogues formed by replacement of one or more carbon atoms of the fulvalene skeleton by a heteroatom). [5] Fulvenes - The hydrocarbon fulvene and its derivatives formed by substitution (and by extension, analogues formed by replacement of one or more carbon atoms of the fulvene skeleton by a heteroatom). [5] Fundamental vibrational frequencies* - In molecular spectroscopy, the characteristic vibrational frequencies obtained when the vibrational energy is expressed in normal coordinates. They determine the primary features of the infrared and Raman spectra of the molecule. γ - Name sometimes used for microgram. γ-rays* - Electromagnetic radiation (photons) with energy greater than about 0.1 MeV (wavelength less than about 1 pm). g-Factor of the electron* - The proportionality factor in the equation
2-46
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) relating the magnetic moment µ of an electron to its total angular momentum quantum number J, i.e., µ = -gµBJ, where µB is the Bohr magneton. Also called Landé factor. Gal - A non-SI unit of acceleration, equal to 0.01 m/s. Also called galileo. Gallon (US) - A unit of volume equal to 3.785412 L. Gallon (UK, Imperial) - A unit of volume equal to 4.546090 L. Gauss (G) - A non-SI unit of magnetic flux density (B) equal to 10-4 T. Gaussian system of units - A hybrid system used in electromagnetic theory, which combines features of both the esu and emu systems. Gel - A colloidal system with a finite, but usually rather small, yield stress (the sheer stress at which yielding starts abruptly). [3] Genetic code* - The set of relations between each of the 64 codons of DNA and a specific amino acid (or other genetic instruction). Gibbs energy (G)* - An important function in chemical thermodynamics, defined by G = H-TS, where H is the enthalpy, S the entropy, and T the thermodynamic temperature. Sometimes called Gibbs free energy and, in older literature, simply “free energy”. [2] Gibbs phase rule - The relation F = C - P + 2, where C is the number of components in a mixture, P is the number of phases, and F is the degrees of freedom, i.e., the number of intensive variables that can be changed independently without affecting the number of phases. Glass transition temperature* - The temperature at which an amorphous polymer is transformed, in a reversible way, from a viscous or rubbery condition to a hard and relatively brittle one. [10] Glow discharge mass spectroscopy (GDMS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Gluon - A hypothetical particle postulated to take part in the binding of quarks, in analogy to the role of the photon in electromagnetic interactions. Glycerides - Esters of glycerol (propane-1,2,3-triol) with fatty acids, widely distributed in nature. They are by long-established custom subdivided into triglycerides, 1,2- or 1,3-diglycerides, and 1- or 2monoglycerides, according to the number and positions of acyl groups. [5] Glycols - Dihydric alcohols in which two hydroxy groups are on different carbon atoms, usually but not necessarily adjacent. Also called diols. [5] Grain (gr) - A non-SI unit of mass, equal to 64.79891 mg. Grain boundary - The interface between two regions of different crystal orientation. Grashof number (Gr) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Gr = l3gα∆Tρ2/η2, where T is temperature, ρ is density, l is length, η is viscosity, α is cubic expansion coefficient, and g is acceleration of gravity. [2] Gravitational constant (G)* - The universal constant in the equation for the gravitational force between two particles, F = Gm1m2/r2, where r is the distance between the particles and m1 and m2 are their masses. [1] Gray (Gy)* - The SI unit of absorbed dose of radiation, equal to J/kg. [1] Gregorian calendar - The modification of the Julian calendar introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory XII which specified that a year divisible by 100 is a leap year only if divisible by 400. Grignard reagents - Organomagnesium halides, RMgX, having a carbon-magnesium bond (or their equilibrium mixtures in solution with R2Mg + MgX2). [5] Gruneisen parameter (γ) - Defined by γ = αV/κ cV ρ, where αV is the cubic thermal expansion coefficient, κ is the isothermal compressibility, cV is the specific heat capacity at constant volume, and ρ is the mass density. γ is independent of temperature for most crystalline solids. [1] Gyromagnetic ratio (γ) - Ratio of the magnetic moment of a particle to its angular momentum. Also called magnetogyric ratio. Hadron - Any elementary particle that can take part in the strong
interaction. Hadrons are subdivided into baryons, with odd half integer spins, and mesons, which have zero or integral spin. Hall effect* - The development of a transverse potential difference V in a conducting material when subjected to a magnetic field H perpendicular to the direction of the current. The potential difference is given by V = RH BJt, where B is the magnetic induction, J the current density, t the thickness of the specimen in the direction of the potential difference, and RH is called the Hall coefficient. Halocarbon - A compound containing no elements other than carbon, hydrogen, and one or more halogens. In common practice, the term is used mainly for compounds of no more than four or five carbon atoms. Halogens - The elements F, Cl, Br, I, and At. Compounds of these elements are called halogenides or halides. [7] Hamiltonian (H) - An expression for the total energy of a mechanical system in terms of the momenta and positions of constituent particles. In quantum mechanics, the Hamiltonian operator appears in the eigenvalue equation Hψ= Eψ, where E is an energy eigenvalue and ψ the corresponding eigenfunction. Hardness* - The resistance of a material to deformation, indentation, or scratching. Hardness is measured on various scales, such as Mohs, Brinell, Knoop, Rockwell, and Vickers. [10] Hartmann number (Ha) - A dimensionless quantity used in plasma physics, defined by Ha = Bl(κ/η)1/2, where B is magnetic flux density, l is length, κ is electric conductivity, and η is viscosity. [2] Hartree (Eh)* - An energy unit used in atomic and molecular science, equal to approximately 4.3597482 × 10-18 J. Hartree-Fock method - A iterative procedure for solving the Schrödinger equation for an atom or molecule in which the equation is solved for each electron in an initial assumed potential from all the other electrons. The new potential that results is used to repeat the calculation and the procedure continued until convergence is reached. Also called self-consistent field (SCF) method. Heat capacity* - Defined in general as dQ/dT, where dQ is the amount of heat that must be added to a system to increase its temperature by a small amount dT. The heat capacity at constant pressure is Cp = (∂H/ ∂T)p; that at constant volume is CV = (∂E/∂T)V , where H is enthalpy, E is internal energy, p is pressure, V is volume, and T is temperature. An upper case C normally indicates the molar heat capacity, while a lower case c is used for the specific (per unit mass) heat capacity. [1] Heat of formation, vaporization, etc. - See corresponding terms under Enthalpy. Hectare (ha) - A unit of area equal to 104 m2. [1] Heisenberg uncertainty principle - The statement that two observable properties of a system that are complementary, in the sense that their quantum-mechanical operators do not commute, cannot be specified simultaneously with absolute precision. An example is the position and momentum of a particle; according to this principle, the uncertainties in position ∆q and momentum ∆p must satisfy the relation ∆p∆q ≥ h/4π, where h is Planck’s constant. Heitler-London model - An early quantum-mechanical model of the hydrogen atom which introduced the concept of the exchange interaction between electrons as the primary reason for stability of the chemical bond. Helicon - A low-frequency wave generated when a metal at low temperature is exposed to a uniform magnetic field and a circularly polarized electric field. Helmholz energy (A) - A thermodynamic function defined by A = E-TS, where E is the energy, S the entropy, and T the thermodynamic temperature. [2] Hemiacetals - Compounds having the general formula R2C(OH)OR′ (R′ not equal to H). [5] Henry (H)* - The SI unit of inductance, equal to Wb/A. [1]
2-47
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) Henry’s law * - An expression which applies to an ideal dilute solution in which one or more gasses are dissolved, viz., pi = Hixi, where pi is the partial pressure of component i above the solution, xi is its mole fraction in the solution, and Hi is the Henry’s law constant (a characteristic of the given gas and solvent, as well as the temperature). Hermitian operator - An operator A that satisfies the relation ∫ um*Aundx = (∫ un*Aum dx)*, where * indicates the complex conjugate. The eigenvalues of Hermitian operators are real, and eigenfunctions belonging to different eigenvalues are orthogonal. Hertz (Hz) - The SI unit of frequency, equal to s-1. [1] Heterocyclic compounds - Cyclic compounds having as ring members atoms of at least two different elements, e.g., quinoline, 1,2-thiazole, bicyclo[3.3.1]tetrasiloxane. [5] Heusler alloys - Alloys of manganese, copper, aluminum, nickel, and sometimes other metals which find important uses as permanent magnets. Holography - A technique for creating a three-dimensional image of a object by recording the interference pattern between a light beam diffracted from the object and a reference beam. The image can be reconstructed from this pattern by a suitable optical system. Homopolymer - A polymer derived from one species of (real, implicit, or hypothetical) monomer. [8] Hooke’s law - The statement that the ratio of stress to strain is a constant in a totally elastic medium. Horse power - A non-SI unit of energy, equal to approximately 746 W. Hubble constant - The ratio of the recessional velocity of an extragalactic object to the distance of that object. Its value is about 2 × 10-18 s-1. Huckel theory - A simple approximation for calculating the energy of conjugated molecules in which only the resonance integrals between neighboring bonds are considered. Also called CNDO method (complete neglect of differential overlap). Hume-Rothery rules - A set of empirical rules for predicting the occurrence of solid solutions in metallic systems. The rules involve size, crystal structure, and electronegativity. Hund’s rules - A series of rules for predicting the sequence of energy states in atoms and molecules. One of the important results is that when two electrons exist in different orbitals, the state with their spins parallel (triplet state) lies at lower energy than the state with antiparallel spins (singlet). Hydrazines - Hydrazine (diazane), H2NNH2, and its hydrocarbyl derivatives. When one or more substituents are acyl groups, the compound is a hydrazide. [5] Hydrocarbon - A compound containing only carbon and hydrogen. [5] Hydrolysis - A reaction occurring in water in which a chemical bond is cleaved and a new bond formed with the oxygen atom of water. Hyperfine structure - Splitting of energy levels and spectral lines into several closely spaced components as a result of interaction of nuclear spin angular momentum with other angular momenta in the atom or molecule. Hysteresis* - An irreversible response of a system (parameter A) as a function of an external force (parameter F), usually symmetric with respect to the origin of the A vs. F graph after the initial application of the force. A common example is magnetic induction vs. magnetic field strength in a ferromagnet. Ideal gas law - The equation of state pV = RT, which defines an ideal gas, where p is pressure, V molar volume, T temperature, and R the molar gas constant. Ideal solution - A solution in which solvent-solvent and solvent-solute interactions are identical, so that properties such as volume and enthalpy are exactly additive. Ideal solutions follow Raoult’s law, which states that the vapor pressure pi of component i is pi = xipi*, where xi is the mole fraction of component i and pi* the vapor pressure of the pure substance i.
Ignition temperature* - The lowest temperature at which combustion of a material will occur spontaneously under specified conditions. Sometimes called autoignition temperature, kindling point. [10] Imides - Diacyl derivatives of ammonia or primary amines, especially those cyclic compounds derived from diacids. Also used for salts having the anion RN2-. [5] Impedence (Z) - The complex representation of potential difference divided by the complex representation of current. In terms of reactance X and resistance R, the impedance is given by Z = R + iX. [1] Index of refraction (n)* - For a non-absorbing medium, the ratio of the velocity of electromagnetic radiation in vacuo to the phase velocity of radiation of a specified frequency in the medium. [1] Inductance - The ratio of the electromagnetic force induced in a coil by a current to the rate of change of the current. Inductive coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICPMS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Inertial defect - In molecular spectroscopy, the quantity Ic-Ia-Ib for a molecule whose equilibrium configuration is planar, where Ia, Ib, and Ic are the effective principal moments of inertia. The inertial defect for a rigid planar molecule would be zero, but vibration-rotation interactions in a real molecule lead to a positive inertial defect. Insulator - A material in which the highest occupied energy band (valence band) is completely filled with electrons, while the next higher band (conduction band) is empty. Solids with an energy gap of 5 eV or more are generally considered as insulators at room temperature. Their conductivity is less than 10-6 S/m and increases with temperature. Intercalation compounds - Compounds resulting from reversible inclusion, without covalent bonding, of one kind of molecule in a solid matrix of another compound, which has a laminar structure. The host compound, a solid, may be macromolecular, crystalline, or amorphous. [5] International System of Units (SI)* - The unit system adopted by the General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960. It consists of seven base units (meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, candela), plus derived units and prefixes. [1] International Temperature Scale (ITS-90)* - The official international temperature scale adopted in 1990. It consists of a set of fixed points and equations which enable the thermodynamic temperature to be determined from operational measurements. [9] Ion - An atomic or molecular particle having a net electric charge. [3] Ion exchange - A process involving the adsorption of one or several ionic species accompanied by the simultaneous desorption (displacement) of one or more other ionic species. [3] Ion neutralization spectroscopy (INS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Ionic strength (I) - A measure of the total concentration of ions in a solution, defined by I = 1/2Σi zi2mi, where zi is the charge of ionic species i and mi is its molality. For a 1-1 electrolyte at molality m, I = m. Ionization constant* - The equilibrium constant for a reaction in which a substance in solution dissociates into ions. Ionization potential* - The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an isolated atom or molecule (in its vibrational ground state) in the gaseous phase. More properly called ionization energy. [3] Irradiance (E) - The radiant energy flux incident on an element of a surface, divided by the area of that element. [1] Isentropic process - A thermodynamic process in which the entropy of the system does not change. Ising model - A model describing the coupling between two atoms in a ferromagnetic lattice, in which the interaction energy is proportional to the negative of the product of the spin components along a specified axis.
2-48
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) Isobar - A line connecting points of equal pressure on a graphical representation of a physical system. Isochore - A line or surface of constant volume on a graphical representation of a physical system. Isoelectric point* - The pH of a solution or dispersion at which the net charge on the macromolecules or colloidal particles is zero. In electrophoresis there is no motion of the particles in an electric field at the isoelectric point. Isomers - In chemistry, compounds that have identical molecular formulas but differ in the nature or sequence of bonding of their atoms or in the arrangement of their atoms in space. In physics, nuclei of the same atomic number Z and mass number A but in different energy states. [3] Isomorphs - Substances of different chemical nature but having the same crystal structure. Isotactic macromolecule - A tactic macromolecule, essentially comprising only one species of repeating unit which has chiral or prochiral atoms in the main chain in a unique arrangement with respect to its adjacent constitutional units. [8] Isotherm - A line connecting points of equal temperature on a graphical representation of a physical system. Isothermal process - A thermodynamic process in which the temperature of the system does not change. Isotones - Nuclides having the same neutron number N but different atomic number Z. [3] Isotopes - Two or more nuclides with the same atomic number Z but different mass number A. The term is sometimes used synonymously with nuclide, but it is preferable to reserve the word nuclide for a species of specific Z and A. [3] Jahn-Teller effect - An interaction of vibrational and electronic motions in a nonlinear molecule which removes the degeneracy of certain electronic energy levels. It can influence the spectrum, crystal structure, and magnetic properties of the substance. Johnson noise - Electrical noise generated by random thermal motion of electrons in a conductor or semiconductor. Also called thermal noise. Josephson effect - The tunneling of electron pairs through a thin insulating layer which separates two superconductors. When a potential difference is applied to the superconductors, an alternating current is generated whose frequency is precisely proportional to the potential difference. This effect has important applications in metrology and determination of fundamental physical constants. Joule (J)* - The SI unit of energy, equal to N m. [1] Joule-Thomson coefficient (µ) - A parameter which describes the temperature change when a gas expands adiabatically through a nozzle from a high pressure to a low pressure region. It is defined by µ = (∂T/ ∂p)H, where H is enthalpy. Julian calendar - The calendar introduced by Julius Caeser in 46 B.C. which divided the year into 365 days with a leap year of 366 days every fourth year. Julian date (JD) - The number of days elapsed since noon Greenwich Mean Time on January 1, 4713 B.C. Thus January 1, 2000, 0h (midnight) will be JD 2,451,543.5. This dating system was introduced by Joseph Scaliger in 1582. Kaon - One of the elementary particles in the family of mesons. Kaons have a spin of zero and may be neutral or charged. Kelvin (K)* - The SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature. [1] Kepler’s laws - The three laws of planetary motion, which established the elliptical shape of planetary orbits and the relation between orbital dimensions and the period of rotation. Kerr effect* - An electrooptical effect in which birefringence is induced in a liquid or gas when a strong electric field is applied perpendicular to the direction of an incident light beam. The Kerr constant k is given by n1-n2 = kλE2, where λ is the wavelength, E is the electric field
strength, and n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction of the ordinary and extraordinary rays, respectively. Ketenes - Compounds in which a carbonyl group is connected by a double bond to an alkylidene group: R2C=C=O. [5] Ketones - Compounds in which a carbonyl group is bonded to two carbon atoms: R1R2C=O (neither R may be H). [5] Kilogram (kg)* - The SI base unit of mass. [1] Kinetic energy (Ek, T) - The energy associated with the motion of a system of particles in a specified reference frame. For a single particle of mass m moving at velocity v, Ek = 1/2mv2. Kirchhoff’s laws - Basic rules for electric circuits, which state (a) the algebraic sum of the currents at a network node is zero and (b) the algebraic sum of the voltage drops around a closed path is zero. Klein-Gordon equation - A relativistic extension of the Schrödinger equation. Klein-Nishima formula - An expression for the scattering cross section of a photon by an unbound electron, based upon the Dirac electron theory. Knight shift - The change in magnetic resonance frequency of a nucleus in a metal relative to the same nucleus in a diamagnetic solid. The effect is due to the polarization of the conduction electrons in the metal. Knudsen number (Kn) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Kn = λ/l, where λ is mean free path and l is length. [2] Kondo effect - A large increase in electrical resistance observed at low temperatures in certain dilute alloys of a magnetic metal in a nonmagnetic material. Kramers-Kronig relation - A set of equations relating the real and imaginary parts of the index of refraction of a medium Lactams - Cyclic amides of amino carboxylic acids, having a 1azacycloalkan-2-one structure, or analogues having unsaturation or heteroatoms replacing one or more carbon atoms of the ring. [5] Lactones - Cyclic esters of hydroxy carboxylic acids, containing a 1oxacycloalkan-2-one structure, or analogues having unsaturation or heteroatoms replacing one or more carbon atoms of the ring. [5] Lagrangian function (L) - A function used in classical mechanics, defined as the kinetic energy minus the potential energy for a system of particles. Lamb shift - The small energy difference between the 2S1/2 and 2P1/2 levels in the hydrogen atom, which results from interactions between the electron and the radiation field. Laminar flow - Smooth, uniform, non-turbulent flow of a gas or liquid in parallel layers, with little mixing between layers. It is characterized by small values of the Reynolds number. Landé g-factor - See g-Factor of the electron Langevin function - The mathematical function L(x) = (ex+e-x)/(ex-e-x)1/x, which occurs in the expression for the average dipole moment of a group of rotating polar molecules in an electric field: µav = µL(µE/ kT), where µ is the electric dipole moment of a single molecule, E is the electric field strength, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the temperature. Lanthanides - The elements of atomic number 57 through 71, which share common chemical properties: La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu. [7] Larmor frequency (νL) - The precession frequency of a magnetic dipole in an applied magnetic field. In particular, a nucleus in a magnetic field of strength B has a Larmor frequency of γB/2π, where γ is the magnetogyric ratio of the nucleus. Laser* - A device in which an optical cavity is filled with a medium where a population inversion can be produced by some means. When the resonant frequency of the cavity bears the proper relation to the separation of the inverted energy levels, stimulated emission occurs, producing a highly monochromatic, coherent beam of light.
2-49
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) Laser ionization mass spectroscopy (LIMS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Lattice constants* - Parameters specifying the dimensions of a unit cell in a crystal lattice, specifically the lengths of the cell edges and the angles between them. Lattice energy* - The energy per ion pair required to separate completely the ions in a crystal lattice at a temperature of absolute zero. Laue diagram - A diffraction pattern produced when an x-ray beam passes through a thin slice of a crystal and impinges on a detector behind the crystal. Lenz’s law - The statement that the current induced in a circuit by a change in magnetic flux is so directed as to oppose the change in flux Leonard-Jones potential - A simple but useful function for approximating the interaction between two neutral atoms or molecules separated by a distance r by writing the potential energy as U(r) = 4ε{(r0/r)12 (r0/r)6}, where ε and r0 are adjustable parameters. In this form the depth of the potential well is ε and the minimum occurs at 21/6r0 . The (1/r)12 term is often replaced by other powers of 1/r. Lepton - One of the class of elementary particles that do not take part in the strong interaction. Included are the electron, muon, and neutrino. All leptons have a spin of 1/2. Lewis number (Le) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Le = a/D, where a is thermal diffusivity and D is diffusion coefficient. [2] Ligand field theory - A description of the structure of crystals containing a transition metal ion surrounded by nonmetallic ions (ligands). It is based on construction of molecular orbitals involving the d-orbitals of the central metal ion and combinations of atomic orbitals of the ligands. Light year (l.y.) - A unit of distance used in astronomy, defined as the distance light travels in one year in a vacuum. Its approximate value is 9.46073 × 1015 m. Lignins - Macromolecular constituents of wood related to lignans, composed of phenolic propylbenzene skeletal units, linked at various sites and apparently randomly. [5] Ligroin - The petroleum fraction consisting mostly of C7 and C8 hydrocarbons and boiling in the range 90-140°C; commonly used as a laboratory solvent. Lipids - A loosely defined term for substances of biological origin that are soluble in nonpolar solvents. They consist of saponifiable lipids, such as glycerides (fats and oils) and phospholipids, as well as nonsaponifiable lipids, principally steroids. [5] Lipoproteins - Clathrate complexes consisting of a lipid enwrapped in a protein host without covalent binding, in such a way that the complex has a hydrophilic outer surface consisting of all the protein and the polar ends of any phospholipids. [5] Liter (L)* - A synonym for cubic decimeter. [1] Lithosphere* - The outer layer of the solid earth, extending from the base of the mantle to the surface of the crust. Lorentz contraction - The reduction in length of a moving body in the direction of motion, given by the factor (1-v2/c2)1/2 , where v is the velocity of the body and c the velocity of light. Also known as the FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction. Lorentz force - The force exerted on a point charge Q moving at velocity v in the presence of external fields E and B. It is given (in SI units) by F = Q(E + v × B). Loss angle (δ) - For a dielectric material in an alternating electromagnetic field, δ is the phase difference between the current and the potential difference. The function tan δ is a measure of the ratio of the power dissipated in the dielectric to the power stored. Low energy electron diffraction (LEED) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1.
Lumen (lm)* - The SI unit of luminous flux, equal to cd sr. [1] Luminous flux (Φ) - The intensity of light from a source multiplied by the solid angle. The SI unit is lumen. [1] Lux (lx)* - The SI unit of illuminance, equal to cd sr m-2. [1] Lyddane-Sachs-Teller relation - A relation between the phonon frequencies and dielectric constants of an ionic crystal which states that (ωT/ωL)2 = ε(∞)/ε(0), where ωT is the angular frequency of transverse optical phonons, ωL that of longitudinal optical phonons, ε(0) is the static dielectric constant, and ε(∞) the dielectric constant at optical frequencies. Lyman series - The series of lines in the spectrum of the hydrogen atom which corresponds to transitions between the ground state (principal quantum number n = 1) and successive excited states. The wavelengths are given by 1/λ = RH(1-1/n2), where n = 2,3,4,… and RH is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen. The first member of the series (n = 1↔2), which is often called the Lyman-α line, falls at a wavelength of 1216 Å, and the series converges at 912 Å, the ionization limit of hydrogen. Mach number (Ma) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Ma = v/c, where v is velocity and c is the speed of sound. [2] Macromolecule - A molecule of high relative molecular mass (molecular weight), the structure of which essentially comprises the multiple repetition of units derived, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass [8] Madelung constant* - A constant characteristic of a particular crystalline material which gives a measure of the electrostatic energy binding the ions in the crystal. Magnetic field strength (H) - An axial vector quantity, the curl of which is equal to the current density, including the displacement current. [1] Magnetic induction (B) - An axial vector quantity such that the force exerted on an element of current is equal to the vector product of this element and the magnetic induction. [1] Magnetic moment - See Dipole moment, magnetic. Magnetic susceptibility (χm, κ)* - Defined by χm = (µ-µ0)/µ0, where µ is the permeability of the medium and µ0 the permeability of a vacuum. [1] Magnetization (M) - Defined by M = (B/µ0)-H, where B is magnetic induction, H magnetic field strength, and µ0 the permeability of a vacuum. [1] Magnetogyric ratio (γ) - Ratio of the magnetic moment of a particle to its angular momentum. Also called gyromagnetic ratio. Magneton - See Bohr magneton, Nuclear magneton. Magnetostriction* - The change in dimensions of a solid sample when it is placed in a magnetic field. Magnon - A quantum of magnetic energy associated with a spin wave in a ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic crystal. Mantle - The layer of the earth between the crust and the liquid outer core, which begins about 2900 km below the earth’s surface. Maser - A device in which a microwave cavity is filled with a medium where a population inversion can be produced by some means. When the resonant frequency of the cavity bears the proper relation to the separation of the inverted energy levels, the device can serve as an amplifier or oscillator at that frequency. Mass (m)* - Quantity of matter. Mass can also be defined as “resistance to acceleration”. Mass defect (B) - Defined by B = Zm(1H) + Nmn - ma, where Z is the atomic number, m(1H) is the mass of the hydrogen atom, N is the neutron number, mn is the rest mass of the neutron, and ma is the mass of the atom in question. Thus Bc2 can be equated to the binding energy of the nucleus if the binding energy of atomic electrons is neglected. [1] Mass excess (∆) - Defined by ∆ = ma - Amu, where ma is the mass of the
2-50
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) atom, A the number of nucleons, and mu the unified atomic mass constant (mu = 1 u). [1] Mass fraction (wB) - The ratio of the mass of substance B to the total mass of a mixture. [1] Mass number (A) - A characteristic property of a specific isotope of an element, equal to the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Mass spectrometry - An analytical technique in which ions are separated according to the mass/charge ratio and detected by a suitable detector. The ions may be produced by electron impact on a gas, a chemical reaction, energetic vaporization of a solid, etc. [6] Massieu function - A thermodynamic function defined by J = -A/T, where A is the Helmholz energy and T the thermodynamic temperature. [2] Matthiessen’s rule - The statement that the electrical resistivity ρ of a metal can be written as ρ = ρL+ρi, where ρL is due to scattering of conduction electrons by lattice vibrations and ρi to scattering by impurities and imperfections. If the impurity concentration is small, ρi is temperature independent. Maxwell (Mx)* - A non-SI unit of magnetic field strength (H) equal to 10-8 Wb. [1] Maxwell’s equations - The fundamental equations of electromagnetism. In a form appropriate to SI units, they are: curl H = ∂D/∂t + j div B = 0 curl E = -∂B/∂t div D = ρ where H is the magnetic field strength, B the magnetic induction, E the electric field strength, D the electric displacement, j the current density, ρ the charge density, and t is time. Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution - An expression for the fraction of molecules f(v) in a gas that have velocity v within a specified interval. It takes the form 2 3/ 2 f (v) = 4 π( M / 2 πRT ) v 2 e – Mv / 2 RT where M is the molar mass, R the molar gas constant, and T the temperature. Mean free path* - The average distance a gas molecule travels between collisions. Meissner effect - The complete exclusion of magnetic induction from the interior of a superconductor. Melting point* - The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are in equilibrium at a specified pressure (normally taken to be atmospheric unless stated otherwise). Mercaptans - A traditional term abandoned by IUPAC, synonymous with thiols. This term is still widely used. [5] Meson - Any elementary particle that has zero or integral spin. Mesons are responsible for the forces between protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Mesosphere - The part of the earth’s atmosphere extending from the top of the stratosphere (about 50 km above the surface) to 80-90 km. It is characterized by a decrease in temperature with increasing altitude. Metal - A material in which the highest occupied energy band (conduction band) is only partially filled with electrons. The electrical conductivity of metals generally decreases with temperature. Metallocenes - Organometallic coordination compounds in which one atom of a transition metal such as iron, ruthenium or osmium is bonded to and only to the face of two cyclopentadienyl ligands which lie in parallel planes. [5] Meter (m)* - The SI base unit of length. [1] Methine group - In organic compounds, the -C= group. [5] Mho - An archaic name for the SI unit siemens (reciprocal ohm).
Micelle - A particle formed by the aggregation of surfactant molecules (typically, 10 to 100 molecules) in solution. For aqueous solutions, the hydrophilic end of the molecule is on the surface of the micelle, while the hydrophobic end (often a hydrocarbon chain) points toward the center. At the critical micelle concentration (cmc) the previously dissolved molecules aggregate into a micelle. Micron (µ) - An obsolete name for micrometer. Mie scattering - The scattering of light by spherical dielectric particles whose diameter is comparable to the wavelength of the light. Milky way - The band of light in the night sky resulting from the stars in the galactic plane. The term is also used to denote the galaxy in which the sun is located. Miller indices (hkl) - A set of indices used to label planes in a crystal lattice. [2] Millimeter of mercury (mmHg) - A non-SI unit of pressure, equal to 133.322 Pa. The name is generally considered interchangeable with torr. Mobility (µ)* - In solid state physics, the drift velocity of electrons or holes in a solid divided by the applied electric field strength. The term is used in a similar sense in other fields. Molality (m) - A measure of concentration of a solution in which one states the amount of substance (i.e., number of moles) of solute per kilogram of solvent. Thus a 0.1 molal solution (often written as 0.1 m) has m = 0.1 mol/kg. Molar mass - The mass of one mole of a substance. It is normally expressed in units of g/mol, in which case its numerical value is identical with the molecular weight (relative molecular mass). [1] Molar quantity - It is often convenient to express an extensive quantity (e.g., volume, enthalpy, heat capacity, etc.) as the actual value divided by amount of substance (number of moles). The resulting quantity is called molar volume, molar enthalpy, etc Molar refraction (R) - A property of a dielectric defined by the equation R = Vm[(n2-1)/(n2+2)], where n is the index of refraction of the medium (at optical wavelengths) and Vm the molar volume. It is related to the polarizability α of the molecules that make up the medium by the Lorenz-Lorentz equation, R = NAα/3ε0 , where NA is Avogadro’s constant and ε0 is the permittivity of a vacuum. Molarity (c) - A measure of concentration of a solution in which one states the amount of substance (i.e., number of moles) of solute per liter of solution. Thus a 0.1 molar solution (often referred to as 0.1 M) has a concentration c = 0.1 mol/L. Mole (mol)* - The SI base unit of amount of substance. [1] Mole fraction (xB) - The ratio of the amount of substance (number of moles) of substance B to the total amount of substance in a mixture. [1] Molecular orbital - See Orbital. Molecular weight (Mr)* - The ratio of the average mass per molecule or specified entity of a substance to 1/12 of the mass of nuclide 12C. Also called relative molar (or molecular) mass. [1] Moment of inertia (I) - The moment of inertia of a body about an axis is the sum (or integral) of the products of its elements of mass and the squares of their distances from the axis. [1] Momentum (p) - The product of mass and velocity. [1] Monomer - A substance consisting of molecules which can undergo polymerization, thereby contributing constitutional units to the essential structure of a macromolecule. [8] Monosaccharides - A term which includes aldoses, ketoses, and a wide variety of derivatives. [5] Mössbauer effect - The recoilless emission of γ-rays from nuclei bound in a crystal under conditions where the recoil energy associated with the γ emission is taken up by the crystal as a whole. This results in a very narrow line width, which can be exploited in various types of precise measurements.
2-51
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) Muon* - An unstable elementary particle of spin 1/2 and mass about 200 times that of the electron. Naphtha - The petroleum fraction consisting mostly of C6 to C8 hydrocarbons and boiling in the range 80-120°C. Solvents derived from this fraction include ligroin and petroleum ether. Nautical mile - A non-SI unit of length, equal to exactly 1852 m. Navier-Stokes equations - A set of complex equations for the motion of a viscous fluid subject to external forces. Néel temperature (TN)* - The critical temperature above which an antiferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic. [1] Nernst effect - The production of an electric field in a conductor subject to an applied magnetic field and containing a transverse temperature gradient. The electric field is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the temperature gradient. Network - In polymer science, a highly ramified macromolecule in which essentially each constitutional unit is connected to each other constitutional unit and to the macroscopic phase boundary by many permanent paths through the macromolecule, the number of such paths increasing with the number of intervening bonds. The paths must on the average be coextensive with the macromolecule. [8] Neutrino - A stable elementary particle in the lepton family. Neutrinos have zero (or at least near-zero) rest mass and spin 1/2. Neutron* - An elementary particle on spin 1/2 and zero charge. The free neutron has a mean lifetime of 887 seconds. Neutrons and protons, which are collectively called nucleons, are the constituents of the nucleus. Neutron activation analysis (NAA) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Neutron number (N) - A characteristic property of a specific isotope of an element, equal to the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Newton (N)* - The SI unit of force, equal to m kg s-2. [1] Nitriles - Compounds having the structure RC≡N; thus C-substituted derivatives of hydrocyanic acid, HC≡N. [5] Nitrosamines - N-Nitroso amines: compounds of the structure R2NNO. Compounds RNHNO are not ordinarily isolatable, but they, too, are nitrosamines. The name is a contraction of N-nitrosoamine and, as such, does not require the N locant. [5] Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)* - A widely used technique in which the resonant absorption of radiofrequency radiation by magnetic nuclei in a magnetic field is measured. The results give important information on the local environment of each nucleus. Nuclear magneton (µN)* - The unit of nuclear magnetic moment, defined as eh/4πmp, where h is Planck’s constant, mp the proton mass, and e the elementary charge. Nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Nuclear spin (I) - The quantum number that specifies the intrinsic angular momentum of a particular nucleus. The magnitude of the angular momentum is given by [I(I+1)]1/2 h/2π, where h is Planck’s constant. Nucleic acids* - Macromolecules, the major organic matter of the nuclei of biological cells, made up of nucleotide units, and hydrolyzable into certain pyrimidine or purine bases (usually adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, uracil), D-ribose or 2-deoxy-D-ribose. [5] Nucleon - A collective term for the proton and neutron. Nucleosides - Ribosyl or deoxyribosyl derivatives (rarely, other glycosyl derivatives) of certain pyrimidine or purine bases. They are thus glycosylamines or N-glycosides related to nucleotides by the lack of phosphorylation. [5] Nucleotides - Compounds formally obtained by esterification of the 3′ or
5′ hydroxy group of nucleosides with phosphoric acid. They are the monomers of nucleic acids and are formed from them by hydrolytic cleavage. [5] Nuclide - A species of atoms in which each atom has identical atomic number Z and identical mass number A. [3] Nusselt number (Nu) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Nu = hl/k, where h is coefficient of heat transfer, l is length, and k is thermal conductivity. [2] Nyquist theorem - An expression for the mean square thermal noise voltage across a resistor, given by 4RkT∆f where R is the resistance, k the Boltzmann constant, T the temperature, and ∆f the frequency band within which the voltage is measured. Octanol-water partition coefficient (P)* - A measure of the way in which a compound will partition itself between the octanol and water phases in the two-phase octanol-water system, and thus an indicator of certain types of biological activity. Specifically, P is the ratio of the concentration (in moles per liter) of the compound in the octanol phase to that in the water phase at infinite dilution. The quantity normally reported is log P. Oersted (Oe) - A non-SI unit of magnetic field (H), equal to 79.57747 A/m. Ohm (Ω)* - The SI unit of electric resistance, equal to V/A. [1] Ohm’s law - A relation among electric current I, potential difference V, and resistance R, viz., I = V/R. The resistance is constant at constant temperature to high precision for many materials. Olefins - Acyclic and cyclic hydrocarbons having one or more carboncarbon double bonds, apart from the formal ones in aromatic compounds. The class olefins subsumes alkenes and cycloalkenes and the corresponding polyenes. [5] Oligomer - A substance consisting of molecules of intermediate relative molecular mass (molecular weight), the structure of which essentially comprises the multiple repetition of units derived, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass. In contrast to a polymer, the properties of an oligomer can vary significantly with the removal of one or a few of its units. [8] Oligopeptides - Peptides containing from three to nine amino groups. [5] Onsager relations - An important set of equations in the thermodynamics of irreversible processes. They express the symmetry between the transport coefficients describing reciprocal processes in systems with a linear dependence of flux on driving forces. Optical rotary power - Angle by which the plane of polarization of a light beam is rotated by an optically active medium, divided by path length and by concentration of the active constituent. Depending on whether mass or molar concentration is used, the modifier “specific” or “molar” is attached. [2] Orbital - A one-electron wavefunction. Atomic orbitals are classified as s-, p-, d,- or f-orbitals according to whether the angular momentum quantum number l = 0, 1, 2, or 3. Molecular orbitals, which are usually constructed as linear combinations of atomic orbitals, describe the distribution of electrons over the entire molecule. Oscillator strength (f) - A measure of the intensity of a spectroscopic transition, defined by 2 8π 2 Meν µ ij f= 2 3he where ν is the frequency, µij the transition dipole moment, me the mass of the electron, e the elementary charge, and h Planck’s constant. Osmosis - The flow of a solvent in a system in which two solutions of different concentration are separated by a semipermeable membrane which cannot pass solute molecules. The solvent will flow from the side of lower concentration to that of higher concentration, thus tending to equalize the concentrations. The pressure that must be
2-52
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) applied to the more concentrated side to stop the flow is called the osmotic pressure. Osmotic coefficient (φ) - Defined by φ = ln aA/(MAΣmB), where MA is the molar mass of substance A (normally the solvent), aA is its activity, and the mB are molalities of the solutes. [1] Osmotic pressure (Π) - The excess pressure necessary to maintain osmotic equilibrium between a solution and the pure solvent separated by a membrane permeable only to the solvent. In an ideal dilute solution Π = cBRT , where cB is the amount-of-substance concentration of the solute, R is the molar gas constant, and T the temperature. [1,2] Ostwald dilution law - A relation for the concentration dependence of the molar conductivity Λ of an electrolyte solution, viz., 1 1 Λc = + Λ Λo K Λo
( )
2
where c is the solute concentration, K is the equilibrium constant for dissociation of the solute, and Λ° is the conductivity at cΛ = 0. Ounce (oz) - A non-SI unit of mass. The avoirdupois once equals 28.34952 g, while the troy ounce equals 31.10348 g. Overpotential (η) - In an electrochemical cell, the difference between the potential of an electrode and its zero-current value. Oximes - Compounds of structure R2C=NOH derived from condensation of aldehydes or ketones with hydroxylamine. Oximes from aldehydes may be called aldoximes; those from ketones may be called ketoximes. [5] Oxo compounds - Compounds containing an oxygen atom, =O, doubly bonded to carbon or another element. The term thus embraces aldehydes, carboxylic acids, ketones, sulfonic acids, amides and esters. [5] Ozonides - The 1,2,4-trioxolanes formed by the reaction of ozone at a carbon-carbon double bond, or the analogous compounds derived from acetylenic compounds. [5] Pair production - A process in which a photon is converted into a particle and its antiparticle (e.g., an electron and positron) in the electromagnetic field of a nucleus. Paraffins - Obsolescent term for saturated hydrocarbons, commonly but not necessarily acyclic. Still widely used in the petrochemical industry, where the term designates acyclic saturated hydrocarbons, and stands in contradistinction to naphthenes. [5] Paramagnetism* - A type of magnetism characterized by a positive magnetic susceptibility, so that the material becomes weakly magnetized in the direction of an external field. The magnetization disappears when the field in removed. In the simplest approximation (Curie’s law) the susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature. Parity - The property of a quantum-mechanical wave function that describes its behavior under the symmetry operation of coordinate inversion. A parity of +1 (or even) is assigned if the wave function does not change sign when the signs of all the coordinates are changed; the parity is -1 (or odd) if the wave function changes sign under this operation. Parsec (pc) - A unit of distance defined as the distance at which 1 astronomical unit (AU) subtends an angle of 1 second of arc. It is equal to 206264.806 AU or 3.085678 × 1016 m. Particle induced x-ray emission (PIXE) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Partition function (q, z) - For a single molecule, q = Σi giexp(εi/kT), where εi is an energy level of degeneracy gi, k the Boltzmann constant, and T the absolute temperature; the summation extends over all energy states. For a system of N non-interacting molecules which are indistinguishable, as in an ideal gas, the canonical partition function Q = qN/ N!. Pascal (Pa)* - The SI unit of pressure, equal to N/m2. [1]
Paschen series - The series of lines in the spectrum of the hydrogen atom which corresponds to transitions between the state with principal quantum number n = 3 and successive higher states. The wavelengths are given by 1/λ = RH(1/9-1/n2), where n = 4,5,6,… and RH is the Rydberg constant. The first member of the series (n = 3↔4), which is often called the Pα line, falls in the infrared at a wavelength of 1.875 µm. Paschen-Back effect - In atomic spectroscopy, the decoupling of electron spin from orbital angular momentum as the strength of an external magnetic field is increased. Pauli exclusion principle - The statement that two electrons in an atom cannot have identical quantum numbers; thus if there are two electrons in the same orbital, their spin quantum numbers must be of opposite sign. Pearson symbol - A code for designating crystallographic information, including the crystal system, the lattice type, and the number of atoms per unit cell. Péclet number (Pe) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Pe = vl/a, where v is velocity, l is length, and a is thermal diffussivity. [2] Peltier effect - The absorption or generation of heat (depending on the current direction) which occurs when an electric current is passed through a junction between two materials. Peptides - Amides derived from two or more amino carboxylic acid molecules (the same or different) by formation of a covalent bond from the carbonyl carbon of one to the nitrogen atom of another with formal loss of water. [5] Permeability (µ) - Magnetic induction divided by magnetic field strength; i.e. µ = B/H. The relative permeability µr = µ/µ0, where µ0 is the permeability of a vacuum. [1] Permittivity (ε) - Ratio of the electric displacement in a medium to the electric field strength. Also called dielectric constant. [1] Peroxides - Compounds of structure ROOR in which R may be any organic group. In inorganic chemistry, salts of the anion O2-2 [5] Peroxy acids - Acids in which an acidic -OH group has been replaced by an -OOH group; e.g. CH3C(=O)OOH peroxyacetic acid, PhS(=O)2OOH benzeneperoxysulfonic acid. [5] Petroleum ether - The petroleum fraction consisting of C5 and C6 hydrocarbons and boiling in the range 35-60°C; commonly used as a laboratory solvent. pH* - A convenient measure of the acid-base character of a solution, usually defined by pH = -log [c(H+)/mol L-1)], where c(H+) is the concentration of hydrogen ions.The more precise definition is in terms af activity rather than concentration. [2] Phenols - Compounds having one or more hydroxy groups attached to a benzene or other arene ring. [5] Phonon - A quantum of energy associated with a vibrational mode of a crystal lattice. Phosphines - PH3 and compounds derived from it by substituting one, two or three hydrogen atoms by hydrocarbyl groups. RPH2, R2PH and R3P (R not equal to H) are called primary, secondary and tertiary phosphines, respectively. [5] Phosphonium compounds - Salts (and hydroxides) [R4P]+X- containing tetracoordinate phosphonium ion and the associated anion. [5] Phosphonium ylides - Compounds having the structure R3P+-C -R 2 1 R3P=CR 2. Also known as Wittig reagents. [5] Phosphoresence - The process by which a molecule is excited by light to a higher electronic state and then undergoes a radiationless transition to a state of different multiplicity from which it decays, after some delay, to the ground state. The emitted light is normally of longer wavelength than the exciting light because vibrational energy has been dissipated.
2-53
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) Photoelectric effect - The complete absorption of a photon by a solid with the emission of an electron. Photon - An elementary particle of zero mass and spin 1/2. The photon is involved in electromagnetic interactions and is the quantum of electromagnetic radiation. Photon stimulated desorption (PSD) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Pinacols - Tetra(hydrocarbyl)ethane-1,2-diols, R2C(OH)C(OH)R2, of which the tetramethyl example is the simplest one and is itself commonly known as pinacol. [5] Pion - An elementary particle in the family of mesons. Pions have zero spin and may be neutral or charged. They participate in the strong interaction which holds the nucleus together. pK* - The negative logarithm (base 10) of an equilibrium constant K. For pKa, see Acid dissociation constant. Planck constant (h)* - The elementary quantum of action, which relates energy to frequency through the equation E = hν. Planck distribution - See Black body radiation Planck function - A thermodynamic function defined by Y = -G/T, where G is Gibbs energy and T thermodynamic temperature. [2] Plasma - A highly ionized gas in which the charge of the electrons is balanced by the charge of the positive ions, so that the system as a whole is electrically neutral. Plasmon - A quantum associated with a plasma oscillation in the electron gas of a solid. Point group* - A group of symmetry operations (rotations, reflections, etc.) that leave a molecule invariant. Every molecular conformation can be assigned to a specific point group, which plays a major role in determining the spectrum of the molecule. Poise (P) - A non-SI unit of viscosity, equal to 0.1 Pa s. Poiseuille’s equation - A formula for the rate of flow of a viscous fluid through a tube:
(
)
p12 – p2 2 πr 4 dV = 16lηp0 dt where V is the volume as measured at pressure p0; p1 and p2 are the pressures at each end of the tube; r is the radius and l the length of the tube; and η is the viscosity. Poisson ratio (µ) - The absolute value of the ratio of the transverse strain to the corresponding axial strain resulting from uniformly distributed axial stress below the proportional limit (i.e., where Hooke’s law is valid). [10] Polariton - A quantum associated with the coupled modes of photons and optical phonons in an ionic crystal. Polarizability (α)* - The change in dipole moment of a molecule produced by an external electric field; specifically, α ab = ∂p a / ∂E b , where p a is the dipole moment component on the a axis and E b is the component of the electric field strength along the b axis. [2] Polymer - A substance composed of molecules of high relative molecular mass (molecular weight), the structure of which essentially comprises the multiple repetition of units derived, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass. A single molecule of a polymer is called a macromolecule. [8] Polypeptides - Peptides containing 10 or more amino acid residues. See also Peptides. [5] Polysaccharides - Compounds consisting of a large number of monosaccharides linked glycosidically. This term is commonly used only for those containing more than ten monosaccharide residues. Also called glycans. [5] Porphyrins - Natural pigments containing a fundamental skeleton of four pyrrole nuclei united through the α-positions by four methine groups
to form a macrocyclic structure (porphyrin is designated porphine in Chemical Abstracts indexes). [5] Positron - The antiparticle of the electron. It has the same mass and spin as an electron, and an equal but opposite charge. Positronium - The hydrogen-like “atom” formed from a positron nucleus and an electron. Its lifetime is very short because of annihilation of the positron and electron. Potential - See Electric potential Potential energy (Ep, V, U) - The portion of the energy of a system that is associated with its position in a force field. Pound (lb) - A non-SI unit of mass, equal to 0.4535924 kg. Power (P) - Rate of energy transfer. For electrical circuits, this is equal to the product of current and potential difference, P = IV. [1] Poynting vector (S) - For electromagnetic radiation, the vector product of the electric field strength and the magnetic field strength. [1] Prandtl number (Pr) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Pr = η/ρa, where η is viscosity, ρ is density, and a is thermal diffusivity. [2] Pressure* - Force divided by area. [1] Proteins - Naturally occurring and synthetic polypeptides having molecular weights greater than about 10,000 (the limit is not precise). See also Peptides. [5] Proton* - A stable elementary particle of unit positive charge and spin 1/2. Protons and neutrons, which are collectively called nucleons, are the constituents of the nucleus. Pulsar - A neutron star which rotates rapidly and emits electromagnetic radiation in regular pulses at a frequency related to the rotation period. Purine bases* - Purine and its substitution derivatives, especially naturally occurring examples. [5] Pyrimidine bases* - Pyrimidine and its substitution derivatives, especially naturally occurring examples. [5] Q-switching - A technique for obtaining very high power from a laser by keeping the Q factor of the laser cavity low while the population inversion builds up, then suddenly increasing the Q to initiate the stimulated emission. Quad - A unit of energy defined as 1015 Btu, equal to approximately 1.055056 × 1018 J. Quadrupole moment - A coefficient of the third term (after monopole and dipole) in the power series expansion of the electric potential of an array of charges. A nucleus of spin greater than 1/2 has a nonvanishing nuclear quadrupole moment which can interact with the electric field gradient of the surrounding electrons. Molecular quadrupole moments have an influence on intermolecular forces. Quality factor (Q) - The ratio of the absolute value of the reactance of an electrical system to the resistance; thus a measure of the energy stored per cycle relative to the energy dissipated. Quantum yield - In photochemistry, the number of moles transformed in a specific process, either physically (e.g., by emission of photons) or chemically, per mole of photons absorbed by the system. [3] Quark - An elementary entity which has not been directly observed but is considered a constituent of protons, neutrons, and other hadrons. Quasar - An extragalactic object emitting electromagnetic radiation at a very high power level and showing a very large red shift, thus indicating that the object is receding at a speed approaching the speed of light. Quasicrystal - A solid having conventional crystalline properties but whose lattice does not display translational periodicity. Quaternary ammonium compounds - Derivatives of ammonium compounds, NH4+ Y-, in which all four of the hydrogens bonded to nitrogen have been replaced with hydrocarbyl groups. Compounds having a carbon-nitrogen double bond (i.e. R2C=N+R2Y-) are more accurately called iminium compounds. [5]
2-54
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) Quinones - Compounds having a fully conjugated cyclic dione structure, such as that of benzoquinones, derived from aromatic compounds by conversion of an even number of -CH= groups into -C(=O)- groups with any necessary rearrangement of double bonds. [5] Racemic mixture - A mixture of equal amounts of a pair of enantiomers (optical isomers); such a mixture is not optically active. Rad - A non-SI unit of absorbed dose of radiation, equal to 0.01 Gy. Radiance (L) - The radiant intensity in a given direction from an element of a surface, divided by the area of the orthogonal projection of this element on a plane perpendicular to the given direction. [1] Radiant intensity (I) - The radiant energy flux leaving an element of a source within an element of solid angle, divided by that element of solid angle. [1] Radicals - Molecular entities possessing an unpaired electron, such as ·CH3, ·SnH3, ·Cl. (In these formulas the dot, symbolizing the unpaired electron, should be placed so as to indicate the atom of highest spin density, if this is possible). [5] Raman effect - The inelastic scattering of light by a molecule, in which the incident photon either gives up to, or receives energy from, one of the internal vibrational modes of the molecule. The scattered light thus has either a lower frequency (Stokes radiation) or higher frequency (anti-Stokes radiation) than the incident light. These shifts provide a measure of the normal vibrational frequencies of the molecule. Rankine cycle - A thermodynamic cycle which can be used to calculate the ideal performance of a heat engine that uses a condensable vapor as the working fluid (e.g., a steam engine or a heat pump). Rankine temperature - A thermodynamic temperature scale based on a temperature interval °R = (5/9) K ; i.e., T/°R = (9/5)T/K = t/°F + 459.67. Raoult’s law - The expression for the vapor pressure pi of component i in an ideal solution, viz., pi = xi pi0, where xi is the mole fraction of component i and pi0 the vapor pressure of the pure substance i. Rare earth elements - The elements Sc, Y, and the lanthanides (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu). [7] Rayleigh number (Ra) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Ra = l3gα∆Tρ/ηa, where l is length, g is acceleration of gravity, α is cubic expansion coefficient, T is temperature, ρ is density, η is viscosity, and a is thermal diffusivity. [2] Rayleigh scattering - The scattering of light by particles which are much smaller than the wavelength of the light. It is characterized by a scattered intensity which varies as the inverse fourth power of the wavelength. Rayleigh wave - A guided elastic wave along the surface of a solid; also called surface acoustic wave. Reactance (X) - The imaginary part of impedance. For an inductive reactance L and a capacitive reactance C in series, the reactance is X = Lω-1/(Cω), where ω is 2π times the frequency of the current. [1] Red shift - A displacement of a spectral line toward longer wavelengths. This can occur through the Doppler effect (e.g., in the light from receding galaxies) or, in the general theory of relativity, from the effects of a star’s gravitational field. Reflectance (ρ) - Ratio of the radiant or luminous flux at a given wavelength that is reflected to that of the incident radiation. Also called reflection factor. [1] Reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Relative humidity* - The ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in air to the saturation vapor pressure of water at the same temperature, expressed as a percentage. [10] Relative molar mass - See Molecular weight. Rem - A non-SI unit of dose equivalent, equal to 0.01 Sv. Resistance (R) - Electric potential difference divided by current when there is no electromotive force in the conductor. This definition applies
to direct current. More generally, resistance is defined as the real part of impedance. [1] Resistivity (ρ) - Electric field strength divided by current density when there is no electromotive force in the conductor. Resistivity is an intrinsic property of a material. For a conductor of uniform cross section with area A and length L, and whose resistance is R, the resistivity is given by ρ = RA/L. [1] Reynolds number (Re) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Re = ρvl/η, where ρ is density, v is velocity, l is length, and η is viscosity. [2] Rheology - The study of the flow of liquids and deformation of solids. Rheology addresses such phenomena as creep, stress relaxation, anelasticity, nonlinear stress deformation, and viscosity. Ribonucleic acids (RNA) - Naturally occurring polyribonucleotides. See also nucleic acids, nucleosides, nucleotides, ribonucleotides. [5] Ribonucleotides - Nucleotides in which the glycosyl group is a ribosyl group. See also nucleotides. [5] Roentgen (R) - A unit used for expressing the charge (positive or negative) liberated by x-ray or γ radiation in air, divided by the mass of air. A roentgen is defined as 2.58 × 10-4 C/kg. Rotational constants - In molecular spectroscopy, the constants appearing in the expression for the rotational energy levels as a function of the angular momentum quantum numbers. These constants are proportional to the reciprocals of the principal moments of inertia, averaged over the vibrational motion. Rutherford back scattering (RBS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Rydberg constant (R∞)* - The fundamental constant which appears in the equation for the energy levels of hydrogen-like atoms; i.e., En = hcR∞ Z2µ/n2, where h is Planck’s constant, c the speed of light, Z the atomic number, µ the reduced mass of nucleus and electron, and n the principal quantum number (n = 1, 2, …). Rydberg series - A regular series of lines in the spectrum of an atom or molecule, with the spacing between successive lines becoming smaller as the frequency increases (wavelength decreases). The series eventually converges to a limit which usually corresponds to the complete removal of an electron from the atom or molecule. Sackur-Tetrode equation* - An equation for the molar entropy Sm of an ideal monatomic gas: Sm = Rln(e5/2 V/NAΛ3), where R is the molar gas constant, V is the volume, and NA is Avogadro’s number. The constant Λ is given by Λ = h/(2πmkT)1/2, where h is Planck’s constant, m the atomic mass, k the Boltzmann constant, and T the temperature. Salinity (S)* - A parameter used in oceanography to describe the concentration of dissolved salts in seawater. It is defined in terms of electrical conductivity relative to a standard solution of KCl. When expressed in units of parts per thousand, S may be roughly equated to the concentration of dissolved material in grams per kilogram of seawater. Salt - An ionic compound formed by the reaction of an acid and a base. Scanned probe microscopy (SPM) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Scanning laser acoustic microscopy (SLAM) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Schiff bases - Imines bearing a hydrocarbyl group on the nitrogen atom: R2C=NR′ (R′ not equal to H). Considered by many to be synonymous with azomethines. [5]
2-55
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) Schmidt number (Sc) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Sc = η/ρD, where η is viscosity, ρ is density, and D is diffusion coefficient. [2] Schottky barrier - A potential barrier associated with a metal-semiconductor contact. It forms the basis for the rectifying device known as the Schottly diode. Schrödinger equation - The basic equation of wave mechanics which, for systems not dependent on time, takes the form: –(h / 2 m)∇ 2 ψ + Vψ = Eψ
where ψ is the wavefunction, V is the potential energy expressed as a function of the spatial coordinates, E is an energy eigenvalue, ∇2 is the Laplacian operator, \ is Planck’s constant divided by 2π, and m is the mass. Second (s)* - The SI base unit of time. [1] Second radiation constant (c2)* - See First radiation constant. Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Seebeck effect - The development of a potential difference in a circuit where two different metals or semiconductors are joined and their junctions maintained at different temperatures. It is the basis of the thermocouple. Selenides - Compounds having the structure RSeR (R not equal to H). They are thus selenium analogues of ethers. Also used for metal salts of H2Se. [5] Semicarbazones - Compounds having the structure R2C=NNHC(=O)NH2, formally derived by condensation of aldehydes or ketones with semicarbazide [NH2NHC(=O)NH2]. [5] Semiconductor - A material in which the highest occupied energy band (valence band) is completely filled with electrons at T = 0 K, and the energy gap to the next highest band (conduction band) ranges from 0 to 4 or 5 eV. With increasing temperature electrons are excited into the conduction band, leading to an increase in the electrical conductivity. Semiquinones - Radical anions having the structure -O-Z-O⋅ where Z is an ortho- or para-arylene group or analogous heteroarylene group; they are formally generated by the addition of an electron to a quinone. [5] SI units* - The International System of Units adopted in 1960 and recommended for use in all scientific and technical fields. [1] Siemens (S)* - The SI unit of electric conductance, equal to Ω-1. [1] Sievert (Sv)* - The SI unit of dose equivalent (of radiation), equal to J/ kg. [1] Silanes - Saturated silicon hydrides, analogues of the alkanes; i.e. compounds of the general formula SinH2n+2. Silanes may be subdivided into silane, oligosilanes, and polysilanes. Hydrocarbyl derivatives are often referred to loosely as silanes. [5] Silicones - Polymeric or oligomeric siloxanes, usually considered unbranched, of general formula [-OSiR2-]n (R not equal to H). [5] Siloxanes - Saturated silicon-oxygen hydrides with unbranched or branched chains of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms (each silicon atom is separated from its nearest silicon neighbors by single oxygen atoms). [5] Skin effect - The concentration of high frequency alternating currents near the surface of a conductor. Slater orbital - A particular mathematical expression for the radial part of the wave function of a single electron, which is used in quantummechanical calculations of the energy and other properties of atoms and molecules. Small angle neutron scattering (SANS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Snell’s law - The relation between the angle of incidence i and the angle
of refraction r of a light beam which passes from a medium of refractive index n0 to a medium of index n1, viz., sin i/sin r = n1/n0. Solar constant* - The mean radiant energy flux from the sun on a unit surface normal to the direction of the rays at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. The value is approximately 1373 W/m2. Solar wind - The stream of high velocity hydrogen and helium ions emitted by the sun which flows through the solar system and beyond. Soliton - A spatially localized wave in a solid or liquid that can interact strongly with other solitons but will afterwards regain its original form. Solubility* - A quantity expressing the maximum concentration of some material (the solute) that can exist in another liquid or solid material (the solvent) at thermodynamic equilibrium at specified temperature and pressure. Common measures of solubility include the mass of solute per unit mass of solution (mass fraction), mole fraction of solute, molality, molarity, and others. Solubility product constant (Ksp)* - The equilibrium constant for the dissolution of a sparsely soluble salt into its constituent ions. Space group* - A group of symmetry operations (reflections, rotations, etc.) that leave a crystal invariant. A total of 230 space groups have been identified. Spark source mass spectroscopy (SSMS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Specific gravity - Ratio of the mass density of a material to that of water. Since one must specify the temperature of both the sample and the water to have a precisely defined quantity, the use of this term is now discouraged. Specific heat - Heat capacity divided by mass. See Heat capacity. Specific quantity - It is often convenient to express an extensive quantity (e.g., volume, enthalpy, heat capacity, etc.) as the actual value divided by mass. The resulting quantity is called specific volume, specific enthalpy, etc. Specific rotation [α]θλ- For an optically active substance, defined by [α]θλ = α/γl, where α is the angle through which plane polarized light is rotated by a solution of mass concentration γ and path length l. Here θ is the Celsius temperature and λ the wavelength of the light at which the measurement is carried out. Also called specific optical rotatory power. [2] Spin (s, I)* - A measure of the intrinsic angular momentum of a particle, which it possesses independent of its orbital motion. The symbol s is used for the spin quantum number of an electron, while I is generally used for nuclear spin. Spiro compounds - Compounds having one atom (usually a quaternary carbon) as the only common member of two rings. [5] Stacking fault - An error in the normal sequence of layer growth in a crystal. Standard mean ocean water (SMOW) - A standard sample of pure water of accurately known isotopic composition which is maintained by the International Atomic Energy Agency. It is used for precise calibration of density and isotopic composition measurements. Standard reduction potential (E°) - The zero-current potential of a cell in which the specified reduction reaction occurs at the right-hand electrode and the left-hand electrode is the standard hydrogen electrode. Also called Standard electrode potential. Standard state - A defined state (specified temperature, pressure, concentration, etc.) for tabulating thermodynamic functions and carrying out thermodynamic calculations. The standard state pressure is usually taken as 100,000 Pa (1 bar), but various standard state temperatures are used. [2] Stanton number (St) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by St = h/ρvcp, where h is coefficient of heat transfer, ρ is
2-56
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) density, v is velocity, and cp is specific heat capacity at constant pressure. [2] Stark effect - The splitting of an energy level of an atom or molecule, and hence a splitting of spectral lines arising from that level, as a result of the application of an external electric field. Statistical weight (g) - The number of distinct states corresponding to the same energy level. Also called degeneracy. Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ)* - Constant in the equation for the radiant exitance M (radiant energy flux per unit area) from a black body at thermodynamic temperature T, viz. M = σT4. [1] Stibines - SbH3 and compounds derived from it by substituting one, two or three hydrogen atoms by hydrocarbyl groups: R3Sb. RSbH2, R2SbH, and R3Sb (R not equal to H) are called primary, secondary and tertiary stibines, respectively. [5] Stochastic process - A process which involves random variables and whose outcome can thus be described only in terms of probabilities. Stoichiometric number (ν) - The number appearing before the symbol for each compound in the equation for a chemical reaction. By convention, it is negative for reactants and positive for products. [2] Stokes (St) - A non-SI unit of kinematic viscosity, equal to 10-4 m2/s. Stokes’ law - The statement, valid under certain conditions, that the viscous force F experienced by a sphere of radius a moving at velocity v in a medium of viscosity η is given by F = -6πηav. Strain - The deformation of a body that results from an applied stress. Stratosphere - The part of the earth’s atmosphere extending from the top of the troposphere (typically 10 to 15 km above the surface) to about 50 km. It is characterized by an increase in temperature with increasing altitude. Stress - Force per unit area (pressure) applied to a body. Tensile stress tends to stretch or compress the body in the direction of the applied force. Sheer stress results from a tangential force which tends to twist the body. Strong interaction - The short range (order of 1 fm) attractive forces between protons, neutrons, and other hadrons which are responsible for the stability of the nucleus. Strouhal number (Sr) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by Sr = lf/v, where l is length, f is frequency, and v is velocity. [2] Structure factor - In x-ray crystallography, the sum of the scattering factors of all the atoms in a unit cell, weighted by an appropriate phase factor. The intensity of a given reflection is proportional to the square of the structure factor. Sublimation pressure - The pressure of a gas in equilibrium with a solid at a specified temperature. Sulfides - Compounds having the structure RSR (R not equal to H). Such compounds were once called thioethers. In an inorganic sense, salts or other derivatives of hydrogen sulfide. [5] Sulfones - Compounds having the structure, RS(=O)2R (R not equal to H), e.g. C2H5S(=O)2CH3, ethyl methyl sulfone. [5] Sulfonic acids - HS(=O)2OH, sulfonic acid, and its S-hydrocarbyl derivatives. [5] Sulfoxides - Compounds having the structure R2S=O (R not equal to H), e.g. Ph2S=O, diphenyl sulfoxide. [5] Superconductor - A material that experiences a nearly total loss of electrical resistivity below a critical temperature Tc. The effect can occur in pure metals, alloys, semiconductors, organic compounds, and certain inorganic solids. Superfluid - A fluid with near-zero viscosity and extremely high thermal conductivity. Liquid helium exhibits these properties below 2.186 K (the λ point). Supernova - A star in the process of exploding because of instabilities which follow the exhaustion of its nuclear fuel.
Surface analysis by laser ionization (SALI) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Surface tension (γ,σ)* - The force per unit length in the plane of the interface between a liquid and a gas, which resists an increase in the area of that surface. It can also be equated to the surface Gibbs energy per unit area. Surfactant - A substance which lowers the surface tension of the medium in which it is dissolved, and/or the interfacial tension with other phases, and accordingly is positively adsorbed at the liquid-vapor or other interfaces. [3] Susceptance (B) - Imaginary part of admittance. [1] Svedberg - A non-SI unit of time, used to express sedimentation coefficients, equal to 10-13 s. Syndiotactic macromolecule - A tactic macromolecule, essentially comprising alternating enantiomeric configurational base units which have chiral or prochiral atoms in the main chain in a unique arrangement with respect to their adjacent constitutional units. In this case the repeating unit consists of two configurational base units that are enantiomeric. [8] Tacticity - The orderliness of the succession of configurational repeating units of a macromolecule or oligomer molecule. In a tactic macromolecule essentially all the configurational repeating units are identical with respect to directional sense. See Configurational repeating unit, Isotactic, Syndiotactic. [8] Tautomerism - Isomerism of the general form G-X-Y=Z 1 X=Y-ZG, where the isomers (called tautomers) are readily interconvertible; the atoms connecting the groups X, Y, Z are typically any of C, H, O, or S, and G is a group which becomes an electrofuge (i.e., a group that does not carry away the bonding electron pair when it leaves its position in the molecule) or nucleofuge (a group that does carry away the bonding electrons when leaving) during isomerization. The commonest case, when the electrofuge is H+, is also known as prototropy. A common example, written so as to illustrate the general pattern given above, is keto-enol tautomerism, such as H-O-C(CH3)=CH-CO2Et (enol) 1 (CH3)C(=O)-CH2-CO2Et (keto) In some cases the interconversion rate between tautomers is slow enough to permit isolation of the separate keto and enol forms. [5] Tensile strength* - In tensile testing, the ratio of maximum load a body can bear before breaking to original cross-sectional area. Also called ultimate strength. [11] Terpenes - Hydrocarbons of biological origin having carbon skeletons formally derived from isoprene [CH2=C(CH3)CH=CH2]. [5] Terpenoids - Natural products and related compounds formally derived from isoprene units. They contain oxygen in various functional groups. The skeleton of terpenoids may differ from strict additivity of isoprene units by the loss or shift of a methyl (or other) group. [5] Tesla (T)* - The SI unit of magnetic flux density (B), equal to V s/m2. [1] Thermal conductivity* - Rate of heat flow divided by area and by temperature gradient. [1] Thermal diffusivity - Thermal conductivity divided by density and by specific heat capacity at constant pressure. [1] Thermal expansion coefficient (α)* - The linear expansion coefficient is defined by αl = (1/l)(dl/dT); the volume expansion coefficient by αV = (1/V)(dV/dT). [1] Thermionic emission - The emission of electrons from a solid as a result of heat. The effect requires a high enough temperature to impart sufficient kinetic energy to the electrons to exceed the work function of the solid. Thermodynamic laws - The foundation of the science of thermodynamics:
2-57
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) First law: The internal energy of an isolated system is constant; if energy is supplied to the system in the form of heat dq and work dw, then the change in energy dU = dq + dw. Second law: No process is possible in which the only result is the transfer of heat from a reservoir and its complete conversion to work. Third law: The entropy of a perfect crystal approaches zero as the thermodynamic temperature approaches zero. Thermoelectric power - For a bar of a pure material whose ends are at different temperatures, the potential difference divided by the difference in temperature of the ends. See also Seeback effect. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Thermosphere - The layer of the earth’s atmosphere extending from the top of the mesosphere (typically 80-90 km above the surface) to about 500 km. It is characterized by a rapid increase in temperature with increasing altitude up to about 200 km, followed by a leveling off in the 300-500 km region. Thiols - Compounds having the structure RSH (R not equal to H). Also known by the term mercaptans (abandoned by IUPAC); e.g. CH3CH2SH, ethanethiol. [5] Thomson coefficient (µ, τ) - The heat power developed in the Thomson effect (whereby heat is evolved in a conductor when a current is flowing in the presence of a temperature gradient), divided by the current and the temperature difference. [1] Tonne (t) - An alternative name for megagram (1000 kg). [1] Torque (T) - For a force F that produces a torsional motion, T = r × F, where r is a vector from some reference point to the point of application of the force. Torr - A non-SI unit of pressure, equal to 133.322 Pa. The name is generally considered interchangeable with millimeter of mercury. Townsend coefficient - In a radiation counter, the number of ionizing collisions by an electron per unit path length in the direction of an applied electric field. Transducer - Any device that converts a signal from acoustical, optical, or some other form of energy into an electrical signal (or vice versa) while preserving the information content of the original signal. Transistor - A voltage amplifier using controlled electron currents inside a semiconductor. Transition metals - Elements characterized by a partially filled d subshell. The First Transition Series comprises Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu. The Second and Third Transition Series include the lanthanides and actinides, respectively. [7] Transition probability* - See Einstein transition probability. Transmittance (τ) - Ratio of the radiant or luminous flux at a given wavelength that is transmitted to that of the incident radiation. Also called transmission factor. [1] Tribology - The study of frictional forces between solid surfaces. Triple point* - The point in p,T space where the solid, liquid, and gas phases of a substance are in thermodynamic equilibrium. The corresponding temperature and pressure are called the triple point temperature and triple point pressure. Troposphere - The lowest part of the earth’s atmosphere, extending to 10-15 km above the surface. It is characterized by a decrease in temperature with increasing altitude. The exact height varies with latitude and season. Tunnel diode - A device involving a p-n junction in which both sides are so heavily doped that the Fermi level on the p-side lies in the valence band and on the n-side in the conduction band. This leads to a currentvoltage curve with a maximum, so that the device exhibits a negative resistance in some regions. Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1.
Umklapp process - A process involving the interaction of three or more waves (lattice or electron) in a solid in which the sum of the wave vectors does not equal zero. Unified atomic mass unit (u)* - A unit of mass used in atomic, molecular, and nuclear science, defined as the mass of one atom of 12C divided by 12. Its approximate value is 1.66054 × 10-27 kg. [1] Universal time (tU , UT) - Mean solar time counted from midnight at the Greenwich meridian. Also called Greenwich mean time (GMT). The interval of mean solar time is based on the average, over one year, of the time between successive transits of the sun across the observer’s meridian. Vacancy - A missing atom or ion in a crystal lattice. Van Allen belts - Two toroidal regions above the earth’s atmosphere containing protons and electrons. The outer belt at about 25,000 km above the surface is probably of solar origin. The inner belt at about 3000 km contains more energetic particles from outside the solar system. Van der Waals’ equation* - An equation of state for fluids which takes the form: 1 a pVm = RT – 2 V b V – m m where p is pressure, Vm is molar volume, T is temperature, R is the molar gas constant, and a and b are characteristic parameters of the substance which describe the effect of attractive and repulsive intermolecular forces, respectively. Van der Waals’ force - The weak attractive force between two molecules which arises from electric dipole interactions. It can lead to the formation of stable but weakly bound dimer molecules or clusters. Van’t Hoff equation - The equation expressing the temperature dependence of the equilibrium constant K of a chemical reaction: d ln k ∆ r H o = dT RT 2
where ∆rH° is the standard enthalpy of reaction, R the molar gas constant, and T the temperature. Also called van’t Hoff isochore. Vapor pressure* - The pressure of a gas in equilibrium with a liquid (or, in some usage, a solid) at a specified temperature. Varistor - A device that utilizes the properties of certain metal oxides with small amounts of impurities, which show abrupt nonlinearities at specific voltages where the material changes from a semiconductor to an insulator. Velocity (v) - Rate of change of distance with time. Verdet constants (V)* - Angle of rotation of a plane polarized light beam passing through a medium in a magnetic field, divided by the field strength and by the path length. Virial equation of state* - An equation relating the pressure p, molar volume Vm, and temperature T of a real gas in the form of an expansion in powers of the molar volume, viz., pVm= RT(1+BVm-1+CVm-2+ …), where R is the molar gas constant. B is called the second virial coefficient, C the third virial coefficient, etc. The virial coefficients are functions of temperature. Viscosity (η)* - The proportionality factor between sheer rate and sheer stress, defined through the equation F = η A(dv/dx), where F is the tangential force required to move a planar surface of area A at velocity v relative to a parallel surface separated from the first by a distance x. Sometimes called dynamic or absolute viscosity. The term kinematic viscosity (symbol ν) is defined as η divided by the mass density. Volt (V)* - The SI unit of electric potential, equal to W/A. [1] Volume fraction (φj) - Defined as Vj/ΣiVi, where Vj is the volume of the specified component and the Vi are the volumes of all the components of a mixture prior to mixing. [2]
2-58
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS (continued) Watt (W)* - The SI unit of power, equal to J/s. [1] Wave function - A function of the coordinates of all the particles in a quantum mechanical system (and, in general, of time) which fully describes the state of the system. The product of the wave function and its complex conjugate is proportional to the probability of finding a particle at a particular point in space. Weak interaction - The weak forces (order of 10-12 of the strong interaction) between elementary particles which are responsible for beta decay and other nuclear effects. Weber (Wb)* - The SI unit of magnetic flux, equal to V s. [1] Weber number (We) - A dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics, defined by We = ρv2l/γ, where ρ is density, v is velocity, l is length, and γ is surface tension. [2] Weight - That force which, when applied to a body, would give it an acceleration equal to the local acceleration of gravity. [1] Wiedeman-Franz law - The law stating that the thermal conductivity k and electrical conductivity σ of a pure metal are related by k = LσT, where T is the temperature and L (called the Lorenz ratio) has the approximate value 2.45 × 10-8 V2/K2. Wien displacement law - The relation, which can be derived from the Planck formula for black body radiation, that λmaxT = 0.0028978 m K, where λmax is the wavelength of maximum radiance at temperature T. Wigner-Seitz method - A method of calculating electron energy levels in a solid using a model in which each electron is subject to a spherically symmetric potential. Wittig reagents - See phosphonium ylides. Work (W) - Force multiplied by the displacement in the direction of the force. [1] Work function (Φ)* - The energy difference between an electron at rest at infinity and an electron at the Fermi level in the interior of a substance. It is thus the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the interior of a solid to a point just outside the surface. [1]
X unit (X) - A unit of length used in x-ray crystallography, equal to approximately 1.002 × 10-13 m. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) - See Techniques for Materials Characterization, page 12-1. Yield strength - The stress at which a material exhibits a specified deviation (often chosen as 0.2% for metals) from proportionality of stress and strain. [11] Young’s modulus (E) - In tension or compression of a body below its elastic limit, the ratio of stress to corresponding strain. Since strain is normally expressed on a fractional basis, Young’s modulus has dimensions of pressure. Also called elastic modulus. [11] Zeeman effect - The splitting of an energy level of an atom or molecule, and hence a splitting of spectral lines arising from that level, as a result of the application of an external magnetic field. Zener diode - A control device utilizing a p-n junction with a well defined reverse-bias avalanche breakdown voltage. Zeotrope - A liquid mixture that shows no maximum or minimum when vapor pressure is plotted against composition at constant temperature. See Azeotrope. Zero-point energy - The energy possessed by a quantum mechanical system as a result of the uncertainty principle even when it is in its lowest energy state; e.g., the difference between the lowest energy level of a harmonic oscillator and the minimum in the potential well. Zeta potential (ζ) - The electric potential at the surface of a colloidal particle relative to the potential in the bulk medium at a long distance. Also called electrokinetic potential. Zwitterions - Neutral compounds having formal unit electrical charges of opposite sign. Some chemists restrict the term to compounds with the charges on non-adjacent atoms. Sometimes referred to as inner salts, dipolar ions (a misnomer). [5]
2-59
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS The basic physical constants for over 12,000 organic compounds are presented in this table, along with structures and references to other sources of information. An effort has been made to include the compounds most frequently encountered in the laboratory, the workplace, and the environment. The selection was based mainly on the appearance of the compounds in various specialized tables in this Handbook and in other widely used reference sources, such as the Merck Index and the DIPPR Database of Pure Compound Properties. The occurrence of a compound on regulatory lists of hazardous chemicals was also taken into consideration, as was the availability of reliable physical constant data. Clearly, criteria of this type are somewhat subjective, and compounds considered important by some users have undoubtedly been omitted. Suggestions for additional compounds or other improvements are welcomed. The data in the table have been taken from many sources, including both compilations and the primary literature. Where conflicts were found, the value deemed most reliable was chosen. Some of the useful compilations of physical property data are listed at the end of this introduction. In the default listing, the table is arranged alphabetically by the substance name which, in most cases, is either an IUPAC systematic name or, in the case of pesticides and pharmaceuticals, a simple trivial name. Synonyms are given in the column following the primary name. The explanation of the data columns follows: • • • • • •
•
•
Mol. Form.: The molecular formula written in the Hill convention. CAS Reg. No.: The Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number assigned by CAS as a unique identifier for the compound. Merck 12 Ed.: Monograph Number in The Merck Index, Twelfth Edition. It should be noted that this is not a unique identifier for a single compound, since several derivatives or isomers of a compound may be included in the same Monograph. Beilstein Ref.: Citation to the Beilstein Handbook of Organic Chemistry. An entry of 5-1811-01234, for example, indicates that the compound may be found in the 5th Series, Volume 18, Subvolume 11, page 1234. Mol. Wt: Molecular weight (relative molar mass) as calculated with the 1991 IUPAC Standard Atomic Weights. mp: Normal melting point in °C. A value is sometimes followed by “dec”, indicating decomposition is observed at the stated temperature (so that it is probably not a true melting point). The notation “tp” indicates a triple point, where solid, liquid, and gas are in equilibrium. nbp: Normal boiling point in °C. This is the temperature at which the liquid phase is in equilibrium with the vapor at a pressure of 760 mmHg (101.325 kPa). When a notation such as “dec” or “exp” (explodes) follow the value, the temperature may not be a true normal boiling point. The notation “sub” indicates the solid has a significant sublimation pressure at ambient temperatures. Other bp: A boiling point at reduced pressure. The pressure in mmHg is indicated by a superscript.
•
• •
ρ: Density (mass per unit volume) in g/cm3. The temperature in °C is indicated by a superscript. Values are given only for the liquid and solid phases, and all values are true densities, not specific gravities. The number of decimal places gives a rough estimate of the accuracy of the value. nD: Refractive index, at the temperature indicated in the superscript. Unless otherwise indicated, all values refer to a wavelength of 589 nm (sodium D line). Values are given only for liquids and solids. Solubility: Qualitative indication of solubility in common solvents. Abbreviations are: i insoluble sl slightly soluble s soluble vs very soluble msc miscible dec decomposes
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Ac ac Ac2O ace AcOEt alk anh aq Bu BuOH bz chl con, conc ctc cy, cyhex dec dil diox DMF DMSO Et EtOH eth exp gl HOAc hp
acetyl acid acetic anhydride acetone ethyl acetate alkali anhydrous aqueous butyl 1-butanol benzene chloroform concentrated carbon tetrachloride cyclohexane decomposes dilute dioxane dimethylformamide dimethylsulfoxide ethyl ethanol diethyl ether explodes glacial acetic acid heptane
hx i iso lig liq Me MeCN MeOH misc mp nbp org os peth Ph PhCl PhNH2 PhNO2 Pr PrOH py pyr, pyrim reac s sat sl solv sub sulf tfa thf, THF tol undil unst v vap wr xyl
hexane insoluble isooctane ligroin liquid methyl acetonitrile methanol miscible melting point normal boiling point organic organic solvents petroleum ether phenyl chlorobenzene aniline nitrobenzene propyl 1-propanol pyridine pyrimidine reacts soluble saturated slightly solvent sublimes sulfuric acid trifluoroacetic acid tetrahydrofuran toluene undiluted unstable very vapor warm xylene
REFERENCES 1.
Lide, D. R., and Milne, G. W. A., Editors, Handbook of Data on Organic Compounds, Third Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1993. 2. Luckenbach, R., Editor, Beilstein Handbook of Organic Chemistry, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg. Data can also be accessed through the online Beilstein Database. 3. Budavari, S., Editor, The Merck Index, Twelfth Edition, Merck & Co., Rahway, NJ, 1996. 4. Daubert, T. E., Danner, R. P., Sibul, H. M., and Stebbins, C. C., Physical and Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Compounds: Data Compilation, extant 1994 (core with 4 supplements), Taylor & Francis, Bristol, PA (also available as database). 5. TRC Thermodynamic Tables, Thermodynamic Research Center, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX. 6. Riddick, J. A., Bunger, W. B., and Sakano, T. K., Organic Solvents, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1986. 7. Physical Constants of Hydrocarbon and Non-Hydrocarbon Compounds, ASTM Data Series DS 4B, ASTM, Philadelphia, 1988. 8. Stevenson, R. M., and Malanowski, S., Handbook of the Thermodynamics of Organic Compounds, Elsevier, New York, 1987. 9. Buckingham, J., Editor, Dictionary of Organic Compounds, Fifth Edition (and Supplements), Chapman and Hall, New York, 1982-1993. 10. Lide, D. R., and Kehiaian, H. V., Handbook of Thermophysical and Thermochemical Data, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1994.
DIAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SELECTED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS When a material is placed in a magnetic field H, a magnetization M is induced in the material which is related to H by M = κH, where κ is called the volume susceptibility. Since H and M have the same dimensions, κ is dimensionless. A more useful parameter is the molar susceptibility χm , defined by χm = κVm = κ M/ρ where Vm is the molar volume of the substance, M the molar mass, and ρ the mass density. When the cgs system is used, the customary unit for χm is cm3 mol-1; the corresponding SI unit is m3 mol-1. Substances with no unpaired electrons are called diamagnetic; they have negative values of χm. This table gives values of the diamagnetic susceptibility for about 400 common organic compounds. All values refer to room temperature and atmospheric pressure and to the physical form that is stable under these conditions. Substances are arranged by molecular formula in Hill order. A more extensive table may be found in Reference 1. In keeping with customary practice, the molar susceptibility is given here in units appropriate to the cgs system. These values should be multiplied by 4π to obtain values for use in SI equations (where the magnetic field strength H has units of A m-1).
REFERENCES 1. Landolt-Börnstein, Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology, New Series, II/16, Diamagnetic Susceptibility, Gupta, R. R., Ed., Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1986. 2. Barter, C., Meisenheimer, R. G., and Stevenson, D. P., J. Phys. Chem. 64, 1312, 1960. 3. Broersma, S., J. Chem. Phys. 17, 873, 1949.
Molecular Formula
Compound
CBrCl3 CBr4 CClF3 CClN CCl2F2 CCl2O CCl3F CCl3NO2 CCl4 CHBrCl2 CHBr3 CHCl3 CHI3 CH2BrCl CH2Br2 CH2Cl2 CH2I2 CH2N2 CH2O CH2O2 CH3Br CH3Cl CH3F CH3I CH3NO CH3NO2 CH4 CH4N2O CH4O CH5N CI4 CN4O8 C2ClF3 C2Cl4 C2Cl6 C2HCl3
Bromotrichloromethane Tetrabromomethane Chlorotrifluoromethane Cyanogen chloride Dichlorodifluoromethane Carbonyl chloride Trichlorofluoromethane Trichloronitromethane Tetrachloromethane Bromodichloromethane Tribromomethane Trichloromethane Triiodomethane Bromochloromethane Dibromomethane Dichloromethane Diiodomethane Cyanamide Formaldehyde Formic acid Bromomethane Chloromethane Fluoromethane Iodomethane Formamide Nitromethane Methane Urea Methanol Methylamine Tetraiodomethane Tetranitromethane Chlorotrifluoroethylene Tetrachloroethylene Hexachloroethane Trichloroethylene
-χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1 73.2 93.7 45.3 32.4 52.2 47.9 58.7 75.3 66.8 66.3 82.6 58.9 117.1 55.1 65.1 46.6 93.1 24.8 18.6 19.9 42.8 32.0 17.8 57.2 23.0 21.0 17.4 33.5 21.4 27.0 136 43.0 49.1 81.6 112.8 65.8
Molecular Formula
Compound
C2HCl3O C2HCl3O C2HCl3O2 C2HCl5 C2HF3O2 C2H2 C2H2Br4 C2H2Cl2 C2H2Cl2 C2H2Cl2 C2H2Cl4 C2H3Cl C2H3ClO C2H3N C2H4 C2H4Br2 C2H4Cl2 C2H4Cl2 C2H4O C2H4O C2H4O2 C2H4O2 C2H5Br C2H5Cl C2H5I C2H5NO C2H5NO2 C2H5NO2 C2H6 C2H6O C2H6O C2H6O2 C2H6S C2H6S C2H8N2 C2N2
Trichloroacetaldehyde Dichloroacetyl chloride Trichloroacetic acid Pentachloroethane Trifluoroacetic acid Acetylene 1,1,2,2-Tetrabromoethane 1,1-Dichloroethylene cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane Chloroethylene Acetyl chloride Acetonitrile Ethylene 1,2-Dibromoethane 1,1-Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane Acetaldehyde Ethylene oxide Acetic acid Methyl formate Bromoethane Chloroethane Iodoethane Acetamide Nitroethane Glycine Ethane Ethanol Dimethyl ether Ethylene glycol Ethanethiol Dimethyl sulfide 1,2-Ethanediamine Cyanogen
3-737
-χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1 73.0 69.0 73.0 99.1 43.3 20.8 123.4 49.2 51.0 48.9 89.8 35.9 39.3 27.8 18.8 78.9 57.4 59.6 22.2 30.5 31.8 31.1 78.8 69.9 69.1 33.9 35.4 39.6 26.8 33.7 26.3 38.9 47.0 44.9 46.5 21.6
DIAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SELECTED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (continued) Molecular Formula
Compound
C3H4 C3H4O2 C3H5Br C3H5Cl C3H5Cl C3H5N C3H6 C3H6 C3H6O C3H6O C3H6O C3H6O C3H6O2 C3H6O2 C3H7Br C3H7Br C3H7Cl C3H7I C3H7N C3H7NO2 C3H7NO2 C3H7NO2 C3H8 C3H8O C3H8O C3H8O2 C3H8O2 C3H8O3 C4H2O3 C4H4N2 C4H4N2 C4H4O C4H4O3 C4H4O4 C4H4O4 C4H4S C4H5N C4H6 C4H6 C4H6O2 C4H6O3 C4H6O4 C4H6O4 C4H7N C4H8 C4H8 C4H8 C4H8 C4H8 C4H8O C4H8O C4H8O C4H8O C4H8O2 C4H8O2 C4H8O2 C4H8O2 C4H8O2
Allene Vinyl formate 3-Bromopropene 2-Chloropropene 3-Chloropropene Propanenitrile Propene Cyclopropane Allyl alcohol Propanal Acetone Methyloxirane Propanoic acid Ethyl formate 1-Bromopropane 2-Bromopropane 1-Chloropropane 1-Iodopropane Allylamine 1-Nitropropane 2-Nitropropane Ethyl carbamate Propane 1-Propanol 2-Propanol 1,3-Propylene glycol Dimethoxymethane Glycerol Maleic anhydride Pyrazine Pyrimidine Furan Succinic anhydride Maleic acid Fumaric acid Thiophene Pyrrole 1,2-Butadiene 1,3-Butadiene Vinyl acetate Acetic anhydride Succinic acid Dimethyl oxalate Butanenitrile 1-Butene cis-2-Butene trans-2-Butene Isobutene Cyclobutane Ethyl vinyl ether 1,2-Epoxybutane Butanal 2-Butanone Butanoic acid 2-Methylpropanoic acid Propyl formate Ethyl acetate Methyl propanoate
-χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1
Molecular Formula
Compound
25.3 34.7 58.6 47.8 47.8 38.6 30.7 39.2 36.7 34.2 33.8 42.5 43.2 42.4 65.6 65.1 56.0 84.3 40.1 45.0 45.4 57.0 38.6 44.8 45.7 50.2 47.3 57.1 35.8 37.8 43.1 43.1 47.5 49.6 49.1 57.3 48.6 35.6 32.1 46.4 52.8 58.0 55.7 50.4 41.0 42.6 43.3 40.8 40.0 47.9 54.8 45.9 45.6 55.2 56.1 55.0 54.1 54.5
C4H8O2 C4H9Br C4H9Br C4H9Cl C4H9Cl C4H9I C4H9N C4H9NO C4H10 C4H10 C4H10O C4H10O C4H10O C4H10O C4H10O C4H10O2 C4H10O2 C4H10S C4H11N C4H11N C4H11N C5H4O2 C5H5N C5H6O2 C5H7NO2 C5H8 C5H8O C5H8O2 C5H8O2 C5H10 C5H10 C5H10 C5H10O C5H10O C5H10O C5H10O C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O3 C5H11N C5H12 C5H12 C5H12 C5H12O C5H12O C5H12O2 C5H13N C6Cl6 C6H4ClNO2 C6H4ClNO2 C6H4ClNO2 C6H4Cl2
1,4-Dioxane 1-Bromobutane 1-Bromo-2-methylpropane 1-Chlorobutane 2-Chlorobutane 1-Iodobutane Pyrrolidine Morpholine Butane Isobutane 1-Butanol 2-Butanol 2-Methyl-1-propanol 2-Methyl-2-propanol Diethyl ether 1,3-Butanediol 1,4-Butanediol 1-Butanethiol Butylamine Isobutylamine Diethylamine Furfural Pyridine Furfuryl alcohol Ethyl cyanoacetate 2-Methyl-1,3-butadiene Cyclopentanone Methyl methacrylate 2,4-Pentanedione 1-Pentene 2-Methyl-2-butene Cyclopentane Cyclopentanol Pentanal 2-Pentanone 3-Pentanone Pentanoic acid 3-Methylbutanoic acid Butyl formate Isobutyl formate Propyl acetate Isopropyl acetate Ethyl propanoate Tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol Diethyl carbonate Piperidine Pentane Isopentane Neopentane 1-Pentanol 2-Pentanol 1,5-Pentanediol Pentylamine Hexachlorobenzene 1-Chloro-2-nitrobenzene 1-Chloro-3-nitrobenzene 1-Chloro-4-nitrobenzene o-Dichlorobenzene
3-738
-χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1 52.2 77.1 79.9 67.1 67.4 93.6 54.8 55.0 50.3 50.5 56.4 57.6 57.6 56.6 55.5 61.8 61.8 70.2 58.9 59.8 56.8 47.2 48.7 61.0 67.3 46.0 51.6 57.3 54.9 54.6 54.7 56.2 64.0 57.5 57.5 57.7 66.5 67.7 65.8 66.8 65.9 67.0 66.3 69.4 75.4 64.2 61.5 63.0 63.0 67.0 69.1 73.5 69.3 147.0 75.5 77.2 74.7 84.4
DIAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SELECTED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (continued) Molecular Formula
Compound
C6H4Cl2 C6H4Cl2 C6H4O2 C6H5Br C6H5Cl C6H5ClO C6H5ClO C6H5ClO C6H5F C6H5I C6H5NO2 C6H5NO3 C6H5NO3 C6H5NO3 C6H6 C6H6ClN C6H6ClN C6H6ClN C6H6N2O2 C6H6N2O2 C6H6N2O2 C6H6O C6H6O2 C6H6O2 C6H6O2 C6H7N C6H7N C6H8 C6H8N2 C6H8N2 C6H8N2 C6H10 C6H10 C6H10 C6H10O C6H10O3 C6H10O4 C6H12 C6H12 C6H12 C6H12 C6H12O C6H12O C6H12O C6H12O C6H12O C6H12O2 C6H12O2 C6H12O2 C6H12O2 C6H12O3 C6H14 C6H14 C6H14 C6H14 C6H14 C6H14O C6H14O
m-Dichlorobenzene p-Dichlorobenzene p-Benzoquinone Bromobenzene Chlorobenzene o-Chlorophenol m-Chlorophenol p-Chlorophenol Fluorobenzene Iodobenzene Nitrobenzene o-Nitrophenol m-Nitrophenol p-Nitrophenol Benzene o-Chloroaniline m-Chloroaniline p-Chloroaniline o-Nitroaniline m-Nitroaniline p-Nitroaniline Phenol p-Hydroquinone Pyrocatechol Resorcinol Aniline 4-Methylpyridine 1,4-Cyclohexadiene o-Phenylenediamine m-Phenylenediamine p-Phenylenediamine 1,5-Hexadiene 1-Hexyne Cyclohexene Cyclohexanone Ethyl acetoacetate Diethyl oxalate 1-Hexene 2,3-Dimethyl-2-butene Cyclohexane Methylcyclopentane Hexanal 2-Hexanone 3-Hexanone 4-Methyl-2-pentanone Cyclohexanol Hexanoic acid Isopentyl formate Isobutyl acetate Propyl propanoate Paraldehyde Hexane 2-Methylpentane 3-Methylpentane 2,2-Dimethylbutane 2,3-Dimethylbutane 1-Hexanol 4-Methyl-2-pentanol
-χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1
Molecular Formula
Compound
84.1 81.7 36 78.4 69.5 77.3 77.6 77.7 58.4 92.0 61.9 68.9 65.9 66.9 54.8 79.5 76.6 76.7 67.4 69.7 68.0 60.6 64.7 68.2 67.2 62.4 59.8 48.7 72.5 70.4 70.7 55.1 64.5 58.0 62.0 71.7 81.7 66.4 65.9 68 70.2 69.4 69.2 69.0 69.7 73.4 78.1 78.4 78.7 77.7 86.1 74.1 75.3 75.5 76.2 76.2 79.5 80.4
C6H14O C6H14O2 C6H14O2 C6H14O6 C6H15N C7H5N C7H6O C7H6O2 C7H6O3 C7H7Br C7H7Cl C7H7Cl C7H7Cl C7H7Cl C7H7NO C7H7NO2 C7H7NO2 C7H7NO2 C7H8 C7H8O C7H8O C7H8O C7H8O C7H8O C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H9NO C7H12O4 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O2 C7H14O2 C7H14O2 C7H14O2 C7H14O2 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16O C7H16O C8H4O3 C8H6O4 C8H6O4 C8H6O4 C8H7N
Dipropyl ether 1,6-Hexanediol 1,1-Diethoxyethane D-Glucitol Triethylamine Benzonitrile Benzaldehyde Salicylaldehyde Salicylic acid p-Bromotoluene o-Chlorotoluene m-Chlorotoluene p-Chlorotoluene (Chloromethyl)benzene Benzamide o-Nitrotoluene m-Nitrotoluene p-Nitrotoluene Toluene o-Cresol m-Cresol p-Cresol Benzyl alcohol Anisole o-Methylaniline m-Methylaniline p-Methylaniline N-Methylaniline 2,4-Dimethylpyridine 2,6-Dimethylpyridine o-Methoxyaniline [o-Anisidine] Diethyl malonate 1-Heptene Cycloheptane Methylcyclohexane 1-Heptanal 2-Heptanone 3-Heptanone 4-Heptanone 2,4-Dimethyl-3-pentanone Heptanoic acid Pentyl acetate Isopentyl acetate Butyl propanoate Ethyl 3-methylbutanoate Heptane 3-Ethylpentane 2,2-Dimethylpentane 2,3-Dimethylpentane 2,4-Dimethylpentane 3,3-Dimethylpentane 1-Heptanol 4-Heptanol Phthalic anhydride Phthalic acid Isophthalic acid Terephthalic acid Benzeneacetonitrile
3-739
-χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1 79.4 84.3 81.4 107.8 83.3 65.2 60.7 66.8 75 88.7 82.4 79.7 80.3 81.6 72.0 72.2 72.7 73.3 65.6 73.3 72.2 72.4 71.8 72.2 74.9 74.6 72.5 74.1 71.3 72.5 79.1 92.6 77.8 73.9 78.9 81.0 80.5 80.7 80.5 81.1 89.0 88.9 89.4 89.1 91.1 85.2 86.2 87.0 87.5 87.5 89.5 91.7 92.1 66.7 83.6 84.6 83.5 76.9
DIAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SELECTED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (continued) Molecular Formula C8H7N C8H8 C8H8O C8H8O2 C8H8O2 C8H8O2 C8H8O2 C8H8O2 C8H8O3 C8H10 C8H10 C8H10 C8H10 C8H10O C8H11N C8H11N C8H11N C8H14O4 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16O2 C8H16O2 C8H17Cl C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18O C8H19N C9H7N C9H7N C9H8 C9H10 C9H10O2 C9H10O2 C9H12 C9H12 C9H12 C9H18 C9H18O C9H20 C10H7Br C10H7Cl C10H8 C10H8 C10H8O C10H8O C10H9N C10H9N
Compound Indole Styrene Acetophenone o-Toluic acid m-Toluic acid p-Toluic acid Benzeneacetic acid Methyl benzoate Methyl salicylate Ethylbenzene o-Xylene m-Xylene p-Xylene Phenetole N-Ethylaniline N,N-Dimethylaniline 2,4,6-Trimethylpyridine Ethyl succinate 1-Octene Cyclooctane Octanoic acid Hexyl acetate 1-Chlorooctane Octane 4-Methylheptane 3-Ethylhexane 3,4-Dimethylhexane 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 2,3,4-Trimethylpentane 1-Octanol Dibutylamine Quinoline Isoquinoline Indene Isopropenylbenzene Ethyl benzoate Benzyl acetate Propylbenzene Isopropylbenzene [Cumene] 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene [Mesitylene] 1-Nonene 2,6-Dimethyl-4-heptanone Nonane 1-Bromonaphthalene 1-Chloronaphthalene Naphthalene Azulene 1-Naphthol 2-Naphthol 1-Naphthalenamine 2-Naphthalenamine
-χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1 85.0 68.2 72.5 84.3 83.0 82.4 82.4 81.6 86.6 77.3 77.7 76.4 77.0 84.5 85.6 85.1 83.1 105.0 88.8 85.3 99.5 100.9 114.9 96.6 97.3 97.8 99.1 99.1 99.8 101.6 103.7 86.1 83.9 83 80.0 93.8 93.2 89.1 89.5 92.3 100.1 104.3 108.1 123.6 107.6 91.6 123.7 96.2 96.8 92.5 98.0
Molecular Formula C10H10O2 C10H10O4 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14O C10H15N C10H16 C10H16 C10H16 C10H16O C10H18 C10H18 C10H22 C11H10 C11H10 C11H24 C12H8 C12H9N C12H10 C12H10 C12H10N2 C12H11N C12H14O4 C12H18 C12H24O2 C13H9N C13H10O C13H12 C13H28 C14H8O2 C14H10 C14H10 C14H10 C14H10O2 C14H12O2 C14H14 C14H28O2 C14H30 C16H10 C16H32O2 C16H34 C16H34O C18H12 C18H14 C18H14 C18H14 C18H34O2 C18H36O2 C20H12
3-740
Compound
-χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1
Safrole Dimethyl terephthalate Butylbenzene tert-Butylbenzene Isobutylbenzene p-Cymene 1,2,4,5-Tetramethylbenzene p-tert-Butylphenol N,N-Diethylaniline d-Limonene α-Pinene β-Pinene Camphor, (+) cis-Decahydronaphthalene trans-Decahydronaphthalene Decane 1-Methylnaphthalene 2-Methylnaphthalene Undecane Acenaphthylene Carbazole Acenaphthene Biphenyl Azobenzene Diphenylamine Diethyl phthalate Hexamethylbenzene Dodecanoic acid Acridine Benzophenone Diphenylmethane Tridecane 9,10-Anthracenedione Anthracene Phenanthrene Diphenylacetylene Benzil Benzyl benzoate 1,2-Diphenylethane Tetradecanoic acid [Myristic acid] Tetradecane Pyrene Hexadecanoic acid [Palmitic acid] Hexadecane 1-Hexadecanol Chrysene o-Terphenyl m-Terphenyl p-Terphenyl cis-9-Octadecenoic acid [Oleic acid] Octadecanoic acid [Steric acid] Perylene
97.5 101.6 100.7 101.8 101.7 102.8 101.2 108.0 107.9 98.0 100.7 101.9 103.0 107.0 107.6 119.5 102.9 102.7 131.8 111.6 119.9 109.9 103.3 106.8 108.4 127.5 122.5 113.0 118.8 109.6 116.0 153.7 113.0 129.8 127.6 116 106.8 132.2 127.8 176.0 166.2 147 198.6 187.6 183.5 148.0 150.4 155.5 156.0 208.5 220.8 167.5
THE ELEMENTS C. R. Hammond One of the most striking facts about the elements is their unequal distribution and occurrence in nature. Present knowledge of the chemical composition of the universe, obtained from the study of the spectra of stars and nebulae, indicates that hydrogen is by far the most abundant element and may account for more than 90% of the atoms or about 75% of the mass of the universe. Helium atoms make up most of the remainder. All of the other elements together contribute only slightly to the total mass. The chemical composition of the universe is undergoing continuous change. Hydrogen is being converted into helium, and helium is being changed into heavier elements. As time goes on, the ratio of heavier elements increases relative to hydrogen. Presumably, the process is not reversible. Burbidge, Burbidge, Fowler, and Hoyle, and more recently, Peebles, Penzias, and others have studied the synthesis of elements in stars. To explain all of the features of the nuclear abundance curve — obtained by studies of the composition of the earth, meteorites, stars, etc. — it is necessary to postulate that the elements were originally formed by at least eight different processes: (1) hydrogen burning, (2) helium burning, (3) χ process, (4) e process, (5) s process, (6) r process, (7) p process, and (8) the X process. The X process is thought to account for the existence of light nuclei such as D, Li, Be, and B. Common metals such as Fe, Cr, Ni, Cu, Ti, Zn, etc. were likely produced early in the history of our galaxy. It is also probable that most of the heavy elements on earth and elsewhere in the universe were originally formed in supernovae, or in the hot interior of stars. Studies of the solar spectrum have led to the identification of 67 elements in the sun’s atmosphere; however, all elements cannot be identified with the same degree of certainty. Other elements may be present in the sun, although they have not yet been detected spectroscopically. The element helium was discovered on the sun before it was found on earth. Some elements such as scandium are relatively more plentiful in the sun and stars than here on earth. Minerals in lunar rocks brought back from the moon on the Apollo missions consist predominantly of plagioclase {(Ca,Na)(Al,Si)O4O8} and pyroxene {(Ca,Mg,Fe)2Si2O6} — two minerals common in terrestrial volcanic rock. No new elements have been found on the moon that cannot be accounted for on earth; however, three minerals, armalcolite {(Fe,Mg)Ti2O5}, pyroxferroite {CaFe6(SiO3)7}, and tranquillityite {Fe8(Zr,Y)Ti3Si3O2}, are new. The oldest known terrestrial rocks are about 4 billion years old. One rock, known as the “Genesis Rock,” brought back from the Apollo 15 Mission, is about 4.15 billion years old. This is only about one-half billion years younger than the supposed age of the moon and solar system. Lunar rocks appear to be relatively enriched in refractory elements such as chromium, titanium, zirconium, and the rare earths, and impoverished in volatile elements such as the alkali metals, in chlorine, and in noble metals such as nickel, platinum, and gold. Even older than the “Genesis Rock” are carbonaceous chondrites, a type of meteorite that has fallen to earth and has been studied. These are some of the most primitive objects of the solar system yet found. The grains making up these objects probably condensed directly out the gaseous nebula from which the sun and planets were born. Most of the condensation of the grains probably was completed within 50,000 years of the time the disk of the nebula was first formed — about 4.6 billion years ago. It is now thought that this type of meteorite may contain a small percentage of presolar dust grains. The relative abundances of the elements of these meteorites are about the same as the abundances found in the solar chromosphere. The X-ray fluorescent spectrometer sent with the Viking I spacecraft to Mars shows that the Martian soil contains about 12 to 16% iron, 14 to 15% silicon, 3 to 8% calcium, 2 to 7% aluminum, and one-half to 2% titanium. The gas chromatograph — mass spectrometer on Viking II found no trace of organic compounds that should be present if life ever existed there. F. W. Clarke and others have carefully studied the composition of rocks making up the crust of the earth. Oxygen accounts for about 47% of the crust, by weight, while silicon comprises about 28% and aluminum about 8%. These elements, plus iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium, account for about 99% of the composition of the crust. Many elements such as tin, copper, zinc, lead, mercury, silver, platinum, antimony, arsenic, and gold, which are so essential to our needs and civilization, are among some of the rarest elements in the earth’s crust. These are made available to us only by the processes of concentration in ore bodies. Some of the so-called rare-earth elements have been found to be much more plentiful than originally thought and are about as abundant as uranium, mercury, lead, or bismuth. The least abundant rare-earth or lanthanide element, thulium, is now believed to be more plentiful on earth than silver, cadmium, gold, or iodine, for example. Rubidium, the 16th most abundant element, is more plentiful than chlorine while its compounds are little known in chemistry and commerce. It is now thought that at least 24 elements are essential to living matter. The four most abundant in the human body are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. The seven next most common, in order of abundance, are calcium, phosphorus, chlorine, potassium, sulfur, sodium, and magnesium. Iron, copper, zinc, silicon, iodine, cobalt, manganese, molybdenum, fluorine, tin, chromium, selenium, and vanadium are needed and play a role in living matter. Boron is also thought essential for some plants, and it is possible that aluminum, nickel, and germanium may turn out to be necessary. Ninety-one elements occur naturally on earth. Minute traces of plutonium-244 have been discovered in rocks mined in Southern California. This discovery supports the theory that heavy elements were produced during creation of the solar system. While technetium and promethium have not yet been found naturally on earth, they have been found to be present in stars. Technetium has been identified in the spectra of certain “late” type stars, and promethium lines have been identified in the spectra of a faintly visible star HR465 in Andromeda. Promethium must have been made very recently near the star’s surface for no known isotope of this element has a half-life longer than 17.7 years. It has been suggested that californium is present in certain stellar explosions known as supernovae; however, this has not been proved. At present no elements are found elsewhere in the universe that cannot be accounted for here on earth. All atomic mass numbers from 1 to 238 are found naturally on earth except for masses 5 and 8. About 285 relatively stable and 67 naturally radioactive isotopes occur on earth totaling 352. In addition, the neutron, technetium, promethium, and the transuranic elements (lying beyond uranium) have now been produced artificially. Scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, in June 1999, reported they had found evidence of an isotope of Element 118 and its immediate decay products, Element Nos. 116 and 114. The sequence of events tend to reinforce the theories that have predicted, since the 1970s, an “island of stability” for nuclei with approximately 114 protons and 184 neutrons. This “island” refers to nuclei in which the decay lasts for a period of time instead of a decay that occurs instantly. Laboratory processes have now extended the radioactive element mass numbers beyond 238 to 293. Each element from atomic numbers 1 to 110 is known to have at least one radioactive isotope. As of December 1999, 3288 isotopes and isomers were thought to be known and recognized. Many stable and radioactive isotopes are now produced and distributed by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn., U.S.A., to customers licensed by the U.S. Department of Energy.
4-1
THE ELEMENTS (continued) The nucleus of an atom is characterized by the number of protons it contains, denoted by Z, and by the number of neutrons, N. Isotopes of an element have the same value of Z, but different values of N. The mass number A, is the sum of Z and N. For example, Uranium-238 has a mass number of 238, and contains 92 protons and 146 neutrons. There is evidence that the definition of chemical elements must be broadened to include the electron. Several compounds known as electrides, have recently been made of alkaline metal elements and electrons. A relatively stable combination of a positron and electron, known as positronium, has also been studied. In addition to the proton, neutron, and electron, there are considerably more than 100 other fundamental particles which have been discovered or hypothesized. The majority of these fall into one of two classes, leptons or hadrons. The leptons comprise just four known particles, the electron, the muon (µ meson), and two kinds of neutrinos. The muon is essentially similar to the electron and has a charge of –1, but it is 200 times heavier. The neutrino is either of two stable particles of small (probably zero) rest mass, carrying no charge. Also there are four antileptons, identical to the corresponding leptons in some respects, such as mass, but they have properties exactly opposite those of the leptons. The positron, for example, is an antilepton, with a charge of +1. Leptons cannot be broken into smaller units and are considered to be elementary. On the other hand, hadrons are complex and thought to have internal structure. Protons and neutrons, which make up atomic nuclei, are hadrons. Elementary particle physics is not yet clearly understood, but groupings and arrangements of these particles have been made resembling the periodic table of chemical elements. This has led to the speculation that hadrons are composed of simpler components called quarks. Quarks are presumed to be elementary particles. Quarks come in a variety of “flavors”. Two kinds of quarks — up and down — combine to form the protons and neutrons of ordinary matter. Three other quarks, known as {strange”, “charm”, and “bottom”, are found in particle accelerators, and one of these may exist in the center of very dense, massive stars. Theorists have thought that a sixth “top” quark, much more massive than the others, should exist to complete the quark family of sub-atomic particles. In 1994, scientists using Fermilab’s Tevatron accelerator may have “glimpsed” the top quark. There is presently no evidence that quarks exist in isolation. Many physicists now hold that all the matter and energy in the universe is controlled by four fundamental natural forces: the electromagnetic force, gravity, a weak nuclear force, and a strong nuclear force. Each of these natural forces is passed back and forth among the basic particles of matter by unique force-carrying particles. The electromagnetic force is carried by the photon, the weak nuclear force by the intermediate vector boson, and gravity by the gravitron. There is now evidence of the existence of a particle, known as the gluon, that binds quarks together by carrying the strong nuclear force. Hadrons are thought to be particles composed of quarks and gluons. The available evidence leads to the conclusion that elements 89 (actinium) through 103 (lawrencium) are chemically similar to the rare-earth or lanthanide elements (elements 57 to 71, inclusive). These elements therefore have been named actinides after the first member of this series. Those elements beyond uranium that have been produced artificially have the following names and symbols: neptunium, 93 (Np); plutonium, 94 (Pu); americium, 95 (Am); curium, 96 (Cm); berkelium, 97 (Bk); californium, 98 (Cf); einsteinium, 99 (Es); fermium, 100 (Fm); mendelevium, 101 (Md); nobelium, 102 (No); and lawrencium, 103 (Lr). It is now claimed that Elements 104 through 112 have been produced and identified. More recently, Elements 118, 116, and 114 are now thought to be found. In August 1997, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) gave final approval to the following names for Elements 104 to 109: Element 104 — rutherfordium (Rf); Element 105 — dubnium (Db); Element 106 — seaborgium (Sg); Element 107 — bohrium (Bh); Element 108 — hassium (Hs); and Element 109 — meitnerium (Mt). The recently discovered elements 110, 111, 112, 114, 116, and 118 have not yet been named, but may carry temporary names as designated by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. IUPAC recommends that until the existence of a new element is proven to their satisfaction, the elements are to have names and symbols derived according to these precise and simple rules: The name is based on the digits in the element’s atomic number. Each digit is replaced with these expressions, with the end using the usual –ium suffix as follows: 0 nil, 1 un, 2 bi, 3 tri, 4 quad, 5 pent, 6 hex, 7 sept, 8 oct, 9 enn. Double letter i’s are not used, as for example Ununbiium, but would be Ununbium. The symbol used would be the first letter of the three main syllables. For example, Element 126 would be Unbihexium, with the symbol Ubh. It is thought there is a good possibility of producing elements beyond Element 118, and discovering, in the near future, Elements 117, 115, and 113 by altering the beams of ions and the targets from those now being used. There are many claims in the literature of the existence of various allotropic modifications of the elements, some of which are based on doubtful or incomplete evidence. Also, the physical properties of an element may change drastically by the presence of small amounts of impurities. With new methods of purification, which are now able to produce elements with 99.9999% purity, it has been necessary to restudy the properties of the elements. For example, the melting point of thorium changes by several hundred degrees by the presence of a small percentage of ThO2 as an impurity. Ordinary commercial tungsten is brittle and can be worked only with difficulty. Pure tungsten, however, can be cut with a hacksaw, forged, spun, drawn, or extruded. In general, the value of a physical property given here applies to the pure element, when it is known. Many of the chemical elements and their compounds are toxic and should be handled with due respect and care. In recent years there has been a greatly increased knowledge and awareness of the health hazards associated with chemicals, radioactive materials, and other agents. Anyone working with the elements and certain of their compounds should become thoroughly familiar with the proper safeguards to be taken. Information on specific hazards and recommended exposure limits may also be found in Section 16. Reference should also be made to publications such as the following: 1. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, Labor. With additions found in issues of the Federal Register. 2. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10, Energy. With additions found in issues of the Federal Register. (Published by the U.S. Government Printing Office. Supt. of Documents.) 3. Occupational Safety and Health Reporter (latest edition with amendments and corrections), Bureau of National Affairs, Washington, D.C. 4. Atomic Energy Law Reporter, Commerce Clearing House, Chicago, IL. 5. Nuclear Regulation Reporter, Commerce Clearing House, Chicago, IL. 6. TLVs® Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents is issued annually be the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, Ohio. 7. The Sigma Aldrich Library of Regulatory and Safety Data. Vol. 3, Robert E. Lenga and Kristine L. Volonpal, Sigma Chemical Co. and Aldrich Chemical Co., Inc. 1993. 8. Hazardous Chemicals Desk Reference, Richard J. Lewis, Sr., 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, Dec. 1997.
4-2
THE ELEMENTS (continued) The prices of elements as indicated in this article are intended to be only a rough guide. Prices may vary, over time, widely with supplier, quantity, and purity. Actinium — (Gr. aktis, aktinos, beam or ray), Ac; at. wt. (227); at. no. 89; m.p. 1051°C, b.p. 3200 ± 300°C (est.); sp. gr. 10.07 (calc.). Discovered by Andre Debierne in 1899 and independently by F. Giesel in 1902. Occurs naturally in association with uranium minerals. Thirty four isotopes and isomers are now recognized. All are radioactive. Actinium-227, a decay product of uranium-235, is an alpha and beta emitter with a 21.77-year halflife. Its principal decay products are thorium-227 (18.72-day half-life), radium-223 (11.4-day half-life), and a number of short-lived products including radon, bismuth, polonium, and lead isotopes. In equilibrium with its decay products, it is a powerful source of alpha rays. Actinium metal has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor at about 1100 to 1300°C. The chemical behavior of actinium is similar to that of the rare earths, particularly lanthanum. Purified actinium comes into equilibrium with its decay products at the end of 185 days, and then decays according to its 21.77-year half-life. It is about 150 times as active as radium, making it of value in the production of neutrons. Actinium-225, with a purity of 99%, is available from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory to holders of a permit for about $500/millicurie, plus packing charges. Aluminum — (L. alumen, alum), Al; at. wt. 26.981539(5); at. no. 13; f.p. 660.323°C; b.p. 2519°C; sp. gr. 2.6989 (20°C); valence 3. The ancient Greeks and Romans used alum in medicine as an astringent, and as a mordant in dyeing. In 1761 de Morveau proposed the name alumine for the base in alum, and Lavoisier, in 1787, thought this to be the oxide of a still undiscovered metal. Wohler is generally credited with having isolated the metal in 1827, although an impure form was prepared by Oersted two years earlier. In 1807, Davy proposed the name alumium for the metal, undiscovered at that time, and later agreed to change it to aluminum. Shortly thereafter, the name aluminium was adopted to conform with the “ium” ending of most elements, and this spelling is now in use elsewhere in the world. Aluminium was also the accepted spelling in the U.S. until 1925, at which time the American Chemical Society officially decided to use the name aluminum thereafter in their publications. The method of obtaining aluminum metal by the electrolysis of alumina dissolved in cryolite was discovered in 1886 by Hall in the U.S. and at about the same time by Heroult in France. Cryolite, a natural ore found in Greenland, is no longer widely used in commercial production, but has been replaced by an artificial mixture of sodium, aluminum, and calcium fluorides. Bauxite, an impure hydrated oxide ore, is found in large deposits in Jamaica, Australia, Suriname, Guyana, Russia, Arkansas, and elsewhere. The Bayer process is most commonly used today to refine bauxite so it can be accommodated in the Hall-Heroult refining process, used to make most aluminum. Aluminum can now be produced from clay, but the process is not economically feasible at present. Aluminum is the most abundant metal to be found in the earth’s crust (8.1%), but is never found free in nature. In addition to the minerals mentioned above, it is found in feldspars, granite, and in many other common minerals. Twenty-two isotopes and isomers are known. Natural aluminum is made of one isotope, 27Al. Pure aluminum, a silvery-white metal, possesses many desirable characteristics. It is light, nontoxic, has a pleasing appearance, can easily be formed, machined, or cast, has a high thermal conductivity, and has excellent corrosion resistance. It is nonmagnetic and nonsparking, stands second among metals in the scale of malleability, and sixth in ductility. It is extensively used for kitchen utensils, outside building decoration, and in thousands of industrial applications where a strong, light, easily constructed material is needed. Although its electrical conductivity is only about 60% that of copper, it is used in electrical transmission lines because of its light weight. Pure aluminum is soft and lacks strength, but it can be alloyed with small amounts of copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and other elements to impart a variety of useful properties. These alloys are of vital importance in the construction of modern aircraft and rockets. Aluminum, evaporated in a vacuum, forms a highly reflective coating for both visible light and radiant heat. These coatings soon form a thin layer of the protective oxide and do not deteriorate as do silver coatings. They have found application in coatings for telescope mirrors, in making decorative paper, packages, toys, and in many other uses. The compounds of greatest importance are aluminum oxide, the sulfate, and the soluble sulfate with potassium (alum). The oxide, alumina, occurs naturally as ruby, sapphire, corundum, and emery, and is used in glassmaking and refractories. Synthetic ruby and sapphire have found application in the construction of lasers for producing coherent light. In 1852, the price of aluminum was about $1200/kg, and just before Hall’s discovery in 1886, about $25/kg. The price rapidly dropped to 60¢ and has been as low as 33¢/kg. The price in December 1999 was about $1.50/kg. Americium — (the Americas), Am; at. wt. 243; at. no. 95; m.p. 1176°C; b.p. 2011°C; sp. gr. 13.67 (20°C); valence 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. Americium was the fourth transuranium element to be discovered; the isotope 241Am was identified by Seaborg, James, Morgan, and Ghiorso late in 1944 at the wartime Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago as the result of successive neutron capture reactions by plutonium isotopes in a nuclear reactor: 239
Pu( n, γ )→ 240 Pu( n, γ )→ 241 Pu β→ 241 Am
Since the isotope 241Am can be prepared in relatively pure form by extraction as a decay product over a period of years from strongly neutronbombarded plutonium, 241Pu, this isotope is used for much of the chemical investigation of this element. Better suited is the isotope 243Am due to its longer half-life (7.37 × 103 years as compared to 432.2 years for 241Am). A mixture of the isotopes 241Am, 242Am, and 243Am can be prepared by intense neutron irradiation of 241Am according to the reactions 241Am (n, γ) → 242Am (n, γ) → 243Am. Nearly isotopically pure 243Am can be prepared by a sequence of neutron bombardments and chemical separations as follows: neutron bombardment of 241Am yields 242Pu by the reactions 241Am (n, γ) → 242Am → 242Pu, after chemical separation the 242Pu can be transformed to 243Am via the reactions 242Pu (n, γ) → 243Pu → 243Am, and the 243Am can be chemically separated. Fairly pure 242Pu can be prepared more simply by very intense neutron irradiation of 239Pu as the result of successive neutron-capture reactions. Seventeen radioactive isotopes and isomers are now recognized. Americium metal has been prepared by reducing the trifluoride with barium vapor at 1000 to 1200°C or the dioxide by lanthanum metal. The luster of freshly prepared americium metal is white and more silvery than plutonium or neptunium prepared in the same manner. It appears to be more malleable than uranium or neptunium and tarnishes slowly in dry air at room temperature. Americium is thought to exist in two forms: an alpha form which has a double hexagonal close-packed structure and a loose-packed cubic beta form. Americium must be handled with great care to avoid personal contamination. As little as 0.03 µCi of 241Am is the maximum permissible total body burden. The alpha activity from 241Am is about three times that of radium. When gram quantities of 241Am are handled, the intense gamma activity makes exposure a serious problem. Americium dioxide, AmO2, is the most important oxide. AmF3, AmF4, AmCl3, AmBr3, AmI3, and other compounds have been prepared. The isotope 241Am has been used as a portable source for gamma radiography. It has also been used
4-3
THE ELEMENTS (continued) as a radioactive glass thickness gage for the flat glass industry, and as a source of ionization for smoke detectors. Americum-243 (99%) is available from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory at a cost of about $750/g plus packing charges. Antimony — (Gr. anti plus monos — a metal not found alone), Sb; at. wt. 121.760(1); at. no. 51; m.p. 630.63°C; b.p. 1587°C; sp. gr. 6.691 (20°C); valence 0, –3, +3, or +5. Antimony was recognized in compounds by the ancients and was known as a metal at the beginning of the 17th century and possibly much earlier. It is not abundant, but is found in over 100 mineral species. It is sometimes found native, but more frequently as the sulfide, stibnite (Sb2S3); it is also found as antimonides of the heavy metals, and as oxides. It is extracted from the sulfide by roasting to the oxide, which is reduced by salt and scrap iron; from its oxides it is also prepared by reduction with carbon. Two allotropic forms of antimony exist: the normal stable, metallic form, and the amorphous gray form. The so-called explosive antimony is an ill-defined material always containing an appreciable amount of halogen; therefore, it no longer warrants consideration as a separate allotrope. The yellow form, obtained by oxidation of stibine, SbH3, is probably impure, and is not a distinct form. Natural antimony is made of two stable isotopes, 121Sb and 123Sb. Forty five other radioactive isotopes and isomers are now recognized. Metallic antimony is an extremely brittle metal of a flaky, crystalline texture. It is bluish white and has a metallic luster. It is not acted on by air at room temperature, but burns brilliantly when heated with the formation of white fumes of Sb2O3. It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity, and has a hardness of 3 to 3.5. Antimony, available commercially with a purity of 99.999 + %, is finding use in semiconductor technology for making infrared detectors, diodes, and Hall-effect devices. Commercial-grade antimony is widely used in alloys with percentages ranging from 1 to 20. It greatly increases the hardness and mechanical strength of lead. Batteries, antifriction alloys, type metal, small arms and tracer bullets, cable sheathing, and minor products use about half the metal produced. Compounds taking up the other half are oxides, sulfides, sodium antimonate, and antimony trichloride. These are used in manufacturing flame-proofing compounds, paints, ceramic enamels, glass, and pottery. Tartar emetic (hydrated potassium antimonyl tartate) has been used in medicine. Antimony and many of its compounds are toxic. Antimony costs about $140/kg or about $12/g (99.999%). Argon — (Gr. argos, inactive), Ar; at. wt. 39.948(1); at. no. 18; m.p. –189.35°C; b.p. –185.85°C; tc -122.28; density 1.7837 g/l. Its presence in air was suspected by Cavendish in 1785, discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in 1894. The gas is prepared by fractionation of liquid air, the atmosphere containing 0.94% argon. The atmosphere of Mars contains 1.6% of 40Ar and 5 p.p.m. of 36Ar. Argon is two and one half times as soluble in water as nitrogen, having about the same solubility as oxygen. It is recognized by the characteristic lines in the red end of the spectrum. It is used in electric light bulbs and in fluorescent tubes at a pressure of about 400 Pa, and in filling photo tubes, glow tubes, etc. Argon is also used as an inert gas shield for arc welding and cutting, as a blanket for the production of titanium and other reactive elements, and as a protective atmosphere for growing silicon and germanium crystals. Argon is colorless and odorless, both as a gas and liquid. It is available in high-purity form. Commercial argon is available at a cost of about 3¢ per cubic foot. Argon is considered to be a very inert gas and is not known to form true chemical compounds, as do krypton, xenon, and radon. However, it does form a hydrate having a dissociation pressure of 105 atm at 0°C. Ion molecules such as (ArKr)+, (ArXe)+, (NeAr)+ have been observed spectroscopically. Argon also forms a clathrate with β-hydroquinone. This clathrate is stable and can be stored for a considerable time, but a true chemical bond does not exist. Van der Waals’ forces act to hold the argon. Naturally occurring argon is a mixture of three isotopes. Seventeen other radioactive isotopes are now known to exist. Commercial argon is priced at about $70/300 cu. ft. or 8.5 cu. meters. Arsenic — (L. arsenicum, Gr. arsenikon, yellow orpiment, identified with arsenikos, male, from the belief that metals were different sexes; Arabic, Az-zernikh, the orpiment from Persian zerni-zar, gold), As; at. wt. 74.92160(2); at. no. 33; valence –3, 0, +3 or +5. Elemental arsenic occurs in two solid modifications: yellow, and gray or metallic, with specific gravities of 1.97, and 5.73, respectively. Gray arsenic, the ordinary stable form, has a triple point of 817°C and sublimes at 614°C and has a critical temperature of 1400°C. Several other allotropic forms of arsenic are reported in the literature. It is believed that Albertus Magnus obtained the element in 1250 A.D. In 1649 Schroeder published two methods of preparing the element. It is found native, in the sulfides realgar and orpiment, as arsenides and sulfarsenides of heavy metals, as the oxide, and as arsenates. Mispickel, arsenopyrite, (FeSAs) is the most common mineral, from which on heating the arsenic sublimes leaving ferrous sulfide. The element is a steel gray, very brittle, crystalline, semimetallic solid; it tarnishes in air, and when heated is rapidly oxidized to arsenous oxide (As2O3) with the odor of garlic. Arsenic and its compounds are poisonous. Exposure to arsenic and its compounds should not exceed 0.2 mg/m3 as elemental As during an 8-h work day. These values, however, are being studied, and may be lowered. Arsenic is also used in bronzing, pyrotechny, and for hardening and improving the sphericity of shot. The most important compounds are white arsenic (As2O3), the sulfide, Paris green 3Cu(AsO2)2 · Cu(C2H3O2)2, calcium arsenate, and lead arsenate; the last three have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons. Marsh’s test makes use of the formation and ready decomposition of arsine (AsH3). Arsenic is available in high-purity form. It is finding increasing uses as a doping agent in solid-state devices such as transistors. Gallium arsenide is used as a laser material to convert electricity directly into coherent light. Natural arsenic is made of one isotope 75As. Thirty other radioactive isotopes and isomers are known. Arsenic (99%) costs about $175/kg. Purified arsenic (99.9995%) costs about $3.50/g. Astatine — (Gr. astatos, unstable), At; at. wt. (210); at. no. 85; m.p. 300°C (est.); valence probably 1, 3, 5, or 7. Synthesized in 1940 by D. R. Corson, K. R. MacKenzie, and E. Segre at the University of California by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles. The longest-lived isotope, 210At, has a half-life of only 8.1 hours. Thirty-six other isotopes and isomers are now known. Minute quantities of 215At, 218At, and 219At exist in equilibrium in nature with naturally occurring uranium and thorium isotopes, and traces of 217At are equilibrium with 233U and 239Np resulting from interaction of thorium and uranium with naturally produced neutrons. The total amount of astatine present in the earth’s crust, however, is probably less than 1 oz. Astatine can be produced by bombarding bismuth with energetic alpha particles to obtain the relatively long-lived 209–211At, which can be distilled from the target by heating it in air. Only about 0.05 µg of astatine has been prepared to date. The “time of flight” mass spectrometer has been used to confirm that this highly radioactive halogen behaves chemically very much like other halogens, particularly iodine. The interhalogen compounds AtI, AtBr, and AtCl are known to form, but it is not yet known if astatine forms diatomic astatine molecules. HAt and CH3At (methyl astatide) have been detected. Astatine is said to be more metallic that iodine, and, like iodine, it probably accumulates in the thyroid gland. Workers at the Brookhaven National Laboratory have recently used reactive scattering in crossed molecular beams to identify and measure elementary reactions involving astatine. Barium — (Gr. barys, heavy), Ba; at. wt. 137.327(7), at. no. 56; m.p. 727°C; b.p. 1897°C; sp. gr. 3.5 (20°C); valence 2. Baryta was distinguished from lime by Scheele in 1774; the element was discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1808. It is found only in combination with other elements, chiefly in barite or heavy spar (sulfate) and witherite (carbonate) and is prepared by electrolysis of the chloride. Large deposits of barite are found in China, Germany, India, Morocco, and in the U.S. Barium is a metallic element, soft, and when pure is silvery white like lead; it belongs to the alkaline earth group, resembling calcium chemically. The metal oxidizes very easily and should be kept under petroleum or other suitable oxygen-free liquids to
4-4
THE ELEMENTS (continued) exclude air. It is decomposed by water or alcohol. The metal is used as a “getter” in vacuum tubes. The most important compounds are the peroxide (BaO2), chloride, sulfate, carbonate, nitrate, and chlorate. Lithopone, a pigment containing barium sulfate and zinc sulfide, has good covering power, and does not darken in the presence of sulfides. The sulfate, as permanent white or blanc fixe, is also used in paint, in X-ray diagnostic work, and in glassmaking. Barite is extensively used as a weighting agent in oilwell drilling fluids, and also in making rubber. The carbonate has been used as a rat poison, while the nitrate and chlorate give green colors in pyrotechny. The impure sulfide phosphoresces after exposure to the light. The compounds and the metal are not expensive. Barium metal (99.2 + % pure) costs about $3/g. All barium compounds that are water or acid soluble are poisonous. Naturally occurring barium is a mixture of seven stable isotopes. Thirty six other radioactive isotopes and isomers are known to exist. Berkelium — (Berkeley, home of the University of California), Bk; at. wt. (247); at. no. 97; m.p. 1050°C; valence 3 or 4; sp. gr. 14 (est.). Berkelium, the eighth member of the actinide transition series, was discovered in December 1949 by Thompson, Ghiorso, and Seaborg, and was the fifth transuranium element synthesized. It was produced by cyclotron bombardment of milligram amounts of 241Am with helium ions at Berkeley, California. The first isotope produced had a mass number of 243 and decayed with a half-life of 4.5 hours. Thirteen isotopes are now known and have been synthesized. The existence of 249Bk, with a half-life of 320 days, makes it feasible to isolate berkelium in weighable amounts so that its properties can be investigated with macroscopic quantities. One of the first visible amounts of a pure berkelium compound, berkelium chloride, was produced in 1962. It weighed 3 billionth of a gram. Berkelium probably has not yet been prepared in elemental form, but it is expected to be a silvery metal, easily soluble in dilute mineral acids, and readily oxidized by air or oxygen at elevated temperatures to form the oxide. X-ray diffraction methods have been used to identify the following compounds: BkO2, BkO3, BkF3, BkCl, and BkOCl. As with other actinide elements, berkelium tends to accumulate in the skeletal system. The maximum permissible body burden of 249Bk in the human skeleton is about 0.0004 µg. Because of its rarity, berkelium presently has no commercial or technological use. Berkelium most likely resembles terbium with respect to chemical properties. Berkelium-249 is available from O.R.N.L. at a cost of $185/µg plus packing charges. Beryllium — (Gr. beryllos, beryl; also called Glucinium or Glucinum, Gr. glykys, sweet), Be; at. wt. 9.012182(3); at no. 4; m.p. 1287°C; b.p. 2471°C; sp. gr. 1.848 (20°C); valence 2. Discovered as the oxide by Vauquelin in beryl and in emeralds in 1798. The metal was isolated in 1828 by Wohler and by Bussy independently by the action of potassium on beryllium chloride. Beryllium is found in some 30 mineral species, the most important of which are bertrandite, beryl, chrysoberyl, and phenacite. Aquamarine and emerald are precious forms of beryl. Beryllium minerals are found in the U.S., Brazil, Russia, Kazakhstan, and elsewhere. Colombia is known for its emeralds. Beryl (3BeO · Al2O3 · 6SiO2) and bertrandite (4BeO · 2SiO2 · H2O) are the most important commercial sources of the element and its compounds. Most of the metal is now prepared by reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium metal. Beryllium metal did not become readily available to industry until 1957. The metal, steel gray in color, has many desirable properties. It is one of the lightest of all metals, and has one of the highest melting points of the light metals. Its modulus of elasticity is about one third greater than that of steel. It resists attack by concentrated nitric acid, has excellent thermal conductivity, and is nonmagnetic. It has a high permeability to X-rays, and when bombarded by alpha particles, as from radium or polonium, neutrons are produced in the ratio of about 30 neutrons/ million alpha particles. At ordinary temperatures beryllium resists oxidation in air, although its ability to scratch glass is probably due to the formation of a thin layer of the oxide. Beryllium is used as an alloying agent in producing beryllium copper which is extensively used for springs, electrical contacts, spot-welding electrodes, and nonsparking tools. It has found application as a structural material for high-speed aircraft, missiles, spacecraft, and communication satellites. It is being used in the windshield frame, brake discs, support beams, and other structural components of the space shuttle. Because beryllium is relatively transparent to X-rays, ultra-thin Be-foil is finding use in X-ray lithography for reproduction of microminiature integrated circuits. Natural beryllium is made of 9Be and is stable. Eight other radioactive isotopes are known. Beryllium is used in nuclear reactors as a reflector or moderator for it has a low thermal neutron absorption cross section. It is used in gyroscopes, computer parts, and instruments where lightness, stiffness, and dimensional stability are required. The oxide has a very high melting point and is also used in nuclear work and ceramic applications. Beryllium and its salts are toxic and should be handled with the greatest of care. Beryllium and its compounds should not be tasted to verify the sweetish nature of beryllium (as did early experimenters). The metal, its alloys, and its salts can be handled safely if certain work codes are observed, but no attempt should be made to work with beryllium before becoming familiar with proper safeguards. Beryllium metal is available at a cost of about $4.50/g (99.5% pure). Bismuth — (Ger. Weisse Masse, white mass; later Wisuth and Bisemutum), Bi; at. wt. 208.98038(2); at. no. 83; m.p. 271.4°C; b.p. 1564°C; sp. gr. 9.747 (20°C); valence 3 or 5. In early times bismuth was confused with tin and lead. Claude Geoffroy the Younger showed it to be distinct from lead in 1753. It is a white crystalline, brittle metal with a pinkish tinge. It occurs native. The most important ores are bismuthinite or bismuth glance (Bi2S3) and bismite (Bi2O3). Peru, Japan, Mexico, Bolivia, and Canada are major bismuth producers. Much of the bismuth produced in the U.S. is obtained as a by-product in refining lead, copper, tin, silver, and gold ores. Bismuth is the most diamagnetic of all metals, and the thermal conductivity is lower than any metal, except mercury. It has a high electrical resistance, and has the highest Hall effect of any metal (i.e., greatest increase in electrical resistance when placed in a magnetic field). “Bismanol” is a permanent magnet of high coercive force, made of MnBi, by the U.S. Naval Surface Weapons Center. Bismuth expands 3.32% on solidification. This property makes bismuth alloys particularly suited to the making of sharp castings of objects subject to damage by high temperatures. With other metals such as tin, cadmium, etc., bismuth forms low-melting alloys which are extensively used for safety devices in fire detection and extinguishing systems. Bismuth is used in producing malleable irons and is finding use as a catalyst for making acrylic fibers. When bismuth is heated in air it burns with a blue flame, forming yellow fumes of the oxide. The metal is also used as a thermocouple material, and has found application as a carrier for U235 or U233 fuel in atomic reactors. Its soluble salts are characterized by forming insoluble basic salts on the addition of water, a property sometimes used in detection work. Bismuth oxychloride is used extensively in cosmetics. Bismuth subnitrate and subcarbonate are used in medicine. Natural bismuth contains only one isotope 209Bi. Forty-four isotopes and isomers of bismuth are known. Bismuth metal (99.5%) costs about $250/kg. Bohrium — (Named after Niels Bohr [1885-1962], Danish atomic and nuclear physicist.) Bh; at.wt. [262]. at.no. 107. Bohrium is expected to have chemical properties similar to rhenium. This element was synthesized and unambiguously identified in 1981 using the Universal Linear Accelerator (UNILAC) at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (G.S.I.) in Darmstadt, Germany. The discovery team was led by Armbruster and Münzenberg. The reaction producing the element was proposed and applied earlier by a Dubna Group led by Oganessian in 1976. A target of 209Bi was bombarded by a beam of 54Cr ions. In 1983 experiments at Dubna using the 157-inch cyclotron, produced 262107 by the reaction 209Bi + 54Cr. The alpha decay of 246Cf, the sixth member in the decay chain of 262107, served to establish a 1-neutron reaction channel. The IUPAC adopted the name Bohrium with the symbol Bh for Element 107 in August 1997. Five isotopes of bohrium are now recognized. One isotope of bohrium appears to have
4-5
THE ELEMENTS (continued) a relatively long life of 15 seconds. Work on this relatively long-lived isotope has been performed with the 88-inch cyclotron at the Lawrence-Berkeley National Laboratory. Boron — (Ar. Buraq, Pers. Burah), B; at. wt. 10.811(7); at. no. 5; m.p. 2075°C; b.p. 4000°C; sp. gr. of crystals 2.34, of amorphous variety 2.37; valence 3. Boron compounds have been known for thousands of years, but the element was not discovered until 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy and by Gay-Lussac and Thenard. The element is not found free in nature, but occurs as orthoboric acid usually in certain volcanic spring waters and as borates in borax and colemanite. Ulexite, another boron mineral, is interesting as it is nature’s own version of “fiber optics.” Important sources of boron are the ores rasorite (kernite) and tincal (borax ore). Both of these ores are found in the Mojave Desert. Tincal is the most important source of boron from the Mojave. Extensive borax deposits are also found in Turkey. Boron exists naturally as 19.9% 10B isotope and 80.1% 11B isotope. Ten other isotopes of boron are known. High-purity crystalline boron may be prepared by the vapor phase reduction of boron trichloride or tribromide with hydrogen on electrically heated filaments. The impure, or amorphous, boron, a brownish-black powder, can be obtained by heating the trioxide with magnesium powder. Boron of 99.9999% purity has been produced and is available commercially. Elemental boron has an energy band gap of 1.50 to 1.56 eV, which is higher than that of either silicon or germanium. It has interesting optical characteristics, transmitting portions of the infrared, and is a poor conductor of electricity at room temperature, but a good conductor at high temperature. Amorphous boron is used in pyrotechnic flares to provide a distinctive green color, and in rockets as an igniter. By far the most commercially important boron compound in terms of dollar sales is Na2B4O7 · 5H2O. This pentahydrate is used in very large quantities in the manufacture of insulation fiberglass and sodium perborate bleach. Boric acid is also an important boron compound with major markets in textile fiberglass and in cellulose insulation as a flame retardant. Next in order of importance is borax (Na2B4O7 · 10H2O) which is used principally in laundry products. Use of borax as a mild antiseptic is minor in terms of dollars and tons. Boron compounds are also extensively used in the manufacture of borosilicate glasses. The isotope boron-10 is used as a control for nuclear reactors, as a shield for nuclear radiation, and in instruments used for detecting neutrons. Boron nitride has remarkable properties and can be used to make a material as hard as diamond. The nitride also behaves like an electrical insulator but conducts heat like a metal. It also has lubricating properties similar to graphite. The hydrides are easily oxidized with considerable energy liberation, and have been studied for use as rocket fuels. Demand is increasing for boron filaments, a highstrength, lightweight material chiefly employed for advanced aerospace structures. Boron is similar to carbon in that it has a capacity to form stable covalently bonded molecular networks. Carboranes, metalloboranes, phosphacarboranes, and other families comprise thousands of compounds. Crystalline boron (99.5%) costs about $30/g. Amorphous boron (94–96%) costs about $1.50/g. Elemental boron and the borates are not considered to be toxic, and they do not require special care in handling. However, some of the more exotic boron hydrogen compounds are definitely toxic and do require care. Bromine — (Gr. bromos, stench), Br; at. wt. 79.904(1); at. no. 35; m.p. –7.2°C; b.p. 58.8°C; tc 315°C; density of gas 7.59 g/l, liquid 3.12 (20°C); valence 1, 3, 5, or 7. Discovered by Balard in 1826, but not prepared in quantity until 1860. A member of the halogen group of elements, it is obtained from natural brines from wells in Michigan and Arkansas. Little bromine is extracted today from seawater, which contains only about 85 ppm. Bromine is the only liquid nonmetallic element. It is a heavy, mobile, reddish-brown liquid, volatilizing readily at room temperature to a red vapor with a strong disagreeable odor, resembling chlorine, and having a very irritating effect on the eyes and throat; it is readily soluble in water or carbon disulfide, forming a red solution, is less active than chlorine but more so than iodine; it unites readily with many elements and has a bleaching action; when spilled on the skin it produces painful sores. It presents a serious health hazard, and maximum safety precautions should be taken when handling it. Much of the bromine output in the U.S. was used in the production of ethylene dibromide, a lead scavenger used in making gasoline antiknock compounds. Lead in gasoline, however, has been drastically reduced, due to environmental considerations. This will greatly affect future production of bromine. Bromine is also used in making fumigants, flameproofing agents, water purification compounds, dyes, medicinals, sanitizers, inorganic bromides for photography, etc. Organic bromides are also important. Natural bromine is made of two isotopes, 79Br and 81Br. Thirty-four isotopes and isomers are known. Bromine costs about $100/kg. Cadmium — (L. cadmia; Gr. kadmeia — ancient name for calamine, zinc carbonate), Cd; at. wt. 112.411(8); at. no. 48; m.p. 321.07°C; b.p. 767°C; sp. gr. 8.65 (20°C); valence 2. Discovered by Stromeyer in 1817 from an impurity in zinc carbonate. Cadmium most often occurs in small quantities associated with zinc ores, such as sphalerite (ZnS). Greenockite (CdS) is the only mineral of any consequence bearing cadmium. Almost all cadmium is obtained as a by-product in the treatment of zinc, copper, and lead ores. It is a soft, bluish-white metal which is easily cut with a knife. It is similar in many respects to zinc. It is a component of some of the lowest melting alloys; it is used in bearing alloys with low coefficients of friction and great resistance to fatigue; it is used extensively in electroplating, which accounts for about 60% of its use. It is also used in many types of solder, for standard E.M.F. cells, for Ni-Cd batteries, and as a barrier to control atomic fission. The market for Ni-Cd batteries is expected to grow significantly in the next few years. Cadmium compounds are used in black and white television phosphors and in blue and green phosphors for color TV tubes. It forms a number of salts, of which the sulfate is most common; the sulfide is used as a yellow pigment. Cadmium and solutions of its compounds are toxic. Failure to appreciate the toxic properties of cadmium may cause workers to be unwittingly exposed to dangerous fumes. Some silver solders, for example, contain cadmium and should be handled with care. Serious toxicity problems have been found from long-term exposure and work with cadmium plating baths. Cadmium is present in certain phosphate rocks. This has raised concerns that the long-term use of certain phosphate fertilizers might pose a health hazard from levels of cadmium that might enter the food chain. In 1927 the International Conference on Weights and Measures redefined the meter in terms of the wavelength of the red cadmium spectral line (i.e. 1 m = 1,553,164.13 wavelengths). This definition has been changed (see under Krypton). The current price of cadmium is about $2/g (99.5%). It is available in high purity form for about $300/kg. Natural cadmium is made of eight isotopes. Thirty four other isotopes and isomers are now known and recognized. Calcium — (L. calx, lime), Ca; at. wt. 40.078(4); at. no. 20; m.p. 842°C; b.p. 1484°C; sp. gr. 1.55 (20°C); valence 2. Though lime was prepared by the Romans in the first century under the name calx, the metal was not discovered until 1808. After learning that Berzelius and Pontin prepared calcium amalgam by electrolyzing lime in mercury, Davy was able to isolate the impure metal. Calcium is a metallic element, fifth in abundance in the earth’s crust, of which it forms more than 3%. It is an essential constituent of leaves, bones, teeth, and shells. Never found in nature uncombined, it occurs abundantly as limestone (CaCO3), gypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2O), and fluorite (CaF2); apatite is the fluorophosphate or chlorophosphate of calcium. The metal has a silvery color, is rather hard, and is prepared by electrolysis of the fused chloride to which calcium fluoride is added to lower the melting point. Chemically it is one of the alkaline earth elements; it readily forms a white coating of oxide in air, reacts with water, burns with a yellow-red flame, forming largely the oxide. The metal is used as a reducing agent in preparing other metals such as thorium, uranium, zirconium, etc., and is used as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, and inclusion modifier for various ferrous and nonferrous alloys. It is also used as an alloying agent for aluminum,
4-6
THE ELEMENTS (continued) beryllium, copper, lead, and magnesium alloys, and serves as a “getter” for residual gases in vacuum tubes, etc. Its natural and prepared compounds are widely used. Quicklime (CaO), made by heating limestone and changed into slaked lime by the careful addition of water, is the great cheap base of chemical industry with countless uses. Mixed with sand it hardens as mortar and plaster by taking up carbon dioxide from the air. Calcium from limestone is an important element in Portland cement. The solubility of the carbonate in water containing carbon dioxide causes the formation of caves with stalactites and stalagmites and is responsible for hardness in water. Other important compounds are the carbide (CaC2), chloride (CaCl2), cyanamide (CaCN2), hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2), nitrate (Ca(NO3)2), and sulfide (CaS). Calcium sulfide is phosphorescent after being exposed to light. Natural calcium contains six isotopes. Sixteen other radioactive isotopes are known. Metallic calcium (99.5%) costs about $225/kg. Californium — (State and University of California), Cf; at. wt. (251); m.p. 900°C; at. no. 98. Californium, the sixth transuranium element to be discovered, was produced by Thompson, Street, Ghioirso, and Seaborg in 1950 by bombarding microgram quantities of 242Cm with 35 MeV helium ions in the Berkeley 60-inch cyclotron. Californium (III) is the only ion stable in aqueous solutions, all attempts to reduce or oxidize californium (III) having failed. The isotope 249Cf results from the beta decay of 249Bk while the heavier isotopes are produced by intense neutron irradiation by the reactions: 249
followed by
Bk( n, γ )→ 250 Bk β→ 250 Cf and 250
249
Cf ( n, γ )→ 250 Cf
Cf ( n, γ )→ 251 Cf ( n, γ )→ 252 Cf
The existence of the isotopes 249Cf, 250Cf, 251Cf, and 252Cf makes it feasible to isolate californium in weighable amounts so that its properties can be investigated with macroscopic quantities. Californium-252 is a very strong neutron emitter. One microgram releases 170 million neutrons per minute, which presents biological hazards. Proper safeguards should be used in handling californium. Twenty isotopes of californium are now recognized. 249Cf and 252Cf have half-lives of 351 years and 900 years, respectively. In 1960 a few tenths of a microgram of californium trichloride, CfCl , 3 californium oxychloride, CfOCl, and californium oxide, Cf2O3, were first prepared. Reduction of californium to its metallic state has not yet been accomplished. Because californium is a very efficient source of neutrons, many new uses are expected for it. It has already found use in neutron moisture gages and in well-logging (the determination of water and oil-bearing layers). It is also being used as a portable neutron source for discovery of metals such as gold or silver by on-the-spot activation analysis. 252Cf is now being offered for sale by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (O.R.N.L.) at a cost of $60/µg and 249Cf at a cost of $185/µg plus packing charges. It has been suggested that californium may be produced in certain stellar explosions, called supernovae, for the radioactive decay of 254Cf (55-day half-life) agrees with the characteristics of the light curves of such explosions observed through telescopes. This suggestion, however, is questioned. Californium is expected to have chemical properties similar to dysprosium. Carbon — (L. carbo, charcoal), C; at. wt. 12.0107(8); at. no. 6; sublimes at 3642°C; triple point (graphite-liquid-gas), 4492°C at a pressure of 101.325 kPa; sp. gr. amorphous 1.8 to 2.1, graphite 1.9 to 2.3, diamond 3.15 to 3.53 (depending on variety); gem diamond 3.513 (25°C); valence 2, 3, or 4. Carbon, an element of prehistoric discovery, is very widely distributed in nature. It is found in abundance in the sun, stars, comets, and atmospheres of most planets. Carbon in the form of microscopic diamonds is found in some meteorites. Natural diamonds are found in kimberlite or lamporite of ancient formations called “pipes,” such as found in South Africa, Arkansas, and elsewhere. Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope. About 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now made synthetically. The energy of the sun and stars can be attributed at least in part to the well-known carbon-nitrogen cycle. Carbon is found free in nature in three allotropic forms: amorphous, graphite, and diamond. A fourth form, known as “white” carbon, is now thought to exist. Graphite is one of the softest known materials while diamond is one of the hardest. Graphite exists in two forms: alpha and beta. These have identical physical properties, except for their crystal structure. Naturally occurring graphites are reported to contain as much as 30% of the rhombohedral (beta) form, whereas synthetic materials contain only the alpha form. The hexagonal alpha type can be converted to the beta by mechanical treatment, and the beta form reverts to the alpha on heating it above 1000°C. In 1969 a new allotropic form of carbon was produced during the sublimation of pyrolytic graphite at low pressures. Under free-vaporization conditions above ~2550 K, “white” carbon forms as small transparent crystals on the edges of the basal planes of graphite. The interplanar spacings of “white” carbon are identical to those of carbon form noted in the graphitic gneiss from the Ries (meteoritic) Crater of Germany. “White” carbon is a transparent birefringent material. Little information is presently available about this allotrope. Of recent interest is the discovery of all-carbon molecules, known as “buckyballs” or fullerenes, which have a number of unusual properties. These interesting molecules, consisting of 60 or 70 carbon atoms linked together, seem capable of withstanding great pressure and trapping foreign atoms inside their network of carbon. They are said to be capable of magnetism and superconductivity and have potential as a nonlinear optical material. Buckyball films are reported to remain superconductive at temperatures as high as 45 K. In combination, carbon is found as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the earth and dissolved in all natural waters. It is a component of great rock masses in the form of carbonates of calcium (limestone), magnesium, and iron. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are chiefly hydrocarbons. Carbon is unique among the elements in the vast number and variety of compounds it can form. With hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements, it forms a very large number of compounds, carbon atom often being linked to carbon atom. There are close to ten million known carbon compounds, many thousands of which are vital to organic and life processes. Without carbon, the basis for life would be impossible. While it has been thought that silicon might take the place of carbon in forming a host of similar compounds, it is now not possible to form stable compounds with very long chains of silicon atoms. The atmosphere of Mars contains 96.2% CO2. Some of the most important compounds of carbon are carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon disulfide (CS2), chloroform (CHCl3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), methane (CH4), ethylene (C2H4), acetylene (C2H2), benzene (C6H6), ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH), acetic acid (CH3COOH), and their derivatives. Carbon has fifteen isotopes. Natural carbon consists of 98.89% 12C and 1.11% 13C. In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis for atomic weights. Carbon-14, an isotope with a half-life of 5715 years, has been widely used to date such materials as wood, archeological specimens, etc. A new brittle form of carbon, known as “glassy carbon”, has been developed. It can be obtained with high purity. It has a high resistance to corrosion, has good thermal stability, and is structurally impermeable to both gases and liquids. It has a randomized structure, making it useful in ultra-high technology applications, such as crystal growing, crucibles for high-temperature use, etc. Both Types 1 and 2 glassy carbon are available at a cost of about $35/10gms.
4-7
THE ELEMENTS (continued) Cerium — (named for the asteroid Ceres, which was discovered in 1801 only 2 years before the element), Ce; at. wt. 140.115(4); at. no. 58; m.p. 798°C; b.p. 3424°C; sp. gr. 6.770 (25°C); valence 3 or 4. Discovered in 1803 by Klaproth and by Berzelius and Hisinger; metal prepared by Hillebrand and Norton in 1875. Cerium is the most abundant of the metals of the so-called rare earths. It is found in a number of minerals including allanite (also known as orthite), monazite, bastnasite, cerite, and samarskite. Monazite and bastnasite are presently the two most important sources of cerium. Large deposits of monazite found on the beaches of Travancore, India, in river sands in Brazil, and deposits of allanite in the western United States, and bastnasite in Southern California will supply cerium, thorium, and the other rare-earth metals for many years to come. Metallic cerium is prepared by metallothermic reduction techniques, such as by reducing cerous fluoride with calcium, or by electrolysis of molten cerous chloride or other cerous halides. The metallothermic technique is used to produce high-purity cerium. Cerium is especially interesting because of its variable electronic structure. The energy of the inner 4f level is nearly the same as that of the outer or valence electrons, and only small amounts of energy are required to change the relative occupancy of these electronic levels. This gives rise to dual valency states. For example, a volume change of about 10% occurs when cerium is subjected to high pressures or low temperatures. It appears that the valence changes from about 3 to 4 when it is cooled or compressed. The low temperature behavior of cerium is complex. Four allotropic modifications are thought to exist: cerium at room temperature and at atmospheric pressure is known as γ cerium. Upon cooling to –16°C, γ cerium changes to β cerium. The remaining γ cerium starts to change to α cerium when cooled to –172°C, and the transformation is complete at –269°C. α Cerium has a density of 8.16; δ cerium exists above 726°C. At atmospheric pressure, liquid cerium is more dense than its solid form at the melting point. Cerium is an iron-gray lustrous metal. It is malleable, and oxidizes very readily at room temperature, especially in moist air. Except for europium, cerium is the most reactive of the “rare-earth” metals. It slowly decomposes in cold water, and rapidly in hot water. Alkali solutions and dilute and concentrated acids attack the metal rapidly. The pure metal is likely to ignite if scratched with a knife. Ceric salts are orange red or yellowish; cerous salts are usually white. Cerium is a component of misch metal, which is extensively used in the manufacture of pyrophoric alloys for cigarette lighters, etc. Natural cerium is stable and contains four isotopes. Thirty-two other radioactive isotopes and isomers are known. While cerium is not radioactive, the impure commercial grade may contain traces of thorium, which is radioactive. The oxide is an important constituent of incandescent gas mantles and it is emerging as a hydrocarbon catalyst in “self-cleaning” ovens. In this application it can be incorporated into oven walls to prevent the collection of cooking residues. As ceric sulfate it finds extensive use as a volumetric oxidizing agent in quantitative analysis. Cerium compounds are used in the manufacture of glass, both as a component and as a decolorizer. The oxide is finding increased use as a glass polishing agent instead of rouge, for it is much faster than rouge in polishing glass surfaces. Cerium compounds are finding use in automobile exhaust catalysts. Cerium is also finding use in making permanent magnets. Cerium, with other rare earths, is used in carbon-arc lighting, especially in the motion picture industry. It is also finding use as an important catalyst in petroleum refining and in metallurgical and nuclear applications. In small lots, cerium costs about $5/g (99.9%). Cesium — (L. caesius, sky blue), Cs; at. wt. 132.90545(2); at. no. 55; m.p. 28.44°C; b.p. 671°C; sp. gr. 1.873 (20°C); valence 1. Cesium was discovered spectroscopically by Bunsen and Kirchhoff in 1860 in mineral water from Durkheim. Cesium, an alkali metal, occurs in lepidolite, pollucite (a hydrated silicate of aluminum and cesium), and in other sources. One of the world’s richest sources of cesium is located at Bernic Lake, Manitoba. The deposits are estimated to contain 300,000 tons of pollucite, averaging 20% cesium. It can be isolated by electrolysis of the fused cyanide and by a number of other methods. Very pure, gas-free cesium can be prepared by thermal decomposition of cesium azide. The metal is characterized by a spectrum containing two bright lines in the blue along with several others in the red, yellow, and green. It is silvery white, soft, and ductile. It is the most electropositive and most alkaline element. Cesium, gallium, and mercury are the only three metals that are liquid at room temperature. Cesium reacts explosively with cold water, and reacts with ice at temperatures above –116°C. Cesium hydroxide, the strongest base known, attacks glass. Because of its great affinity for oxygen the metal is used as a “getter” in electron tubes. It is also used in photoelectric cells, as well as a catalyst in the hydrogenation of certain organic compounds. The metal has recently found application in ion propulsion systems. Cesium is used in atomic clocks, which are accurate to 5 s in 300 years. A second of time is now defined as being the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyper-fine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom. Its chief compounds are the chloride and the nitrate. Cesium has 52 isotopes and isomers with masses ranging from 112 to 148. The present price of cesium is about $65/g (99.98%) sealed in a glass ampoule. Chlorine — (Gr. chloros, greenish yellow), Cl; at. wt. 35.4527(9); at. no. 17; m.p. –101.5°C; b.p. –34.04°C; tc 143.8°C; density 3.214 g/l; sp. gr. 1.56 (–33.6°C); valence 1, 3, 5, or 7. Discovered in 1774 by Scheele, who thought it contained oxygen; named in 1810 by Davy, who insisted it was an element. In nature it is found in the combined state only, chiefly with sodium as common salt (NaCl), carnallite (KMgCl3 · 6H2O), and sylvite (KCl). It is a member of the halogen (salt-forming) group of elements and is obtained from chlorides by the action of oxidizing agents and more often by electrolysis; it is a greenish-yellow gas, combining directly with nearly all elements. At 10°C one volume of water dissolves 3.10 volumes of chlorine, at 30°C only 1.77 volumes. Chlorine is widely used in making many everyday products. It is used for producing safe drinking water the world over. Even the smallest water supplies are now usually chlorinated. It is also extensively used in the production of paper products, dyestuffs, textiles, petroleum products, medicines, antiseptics, insecticides, foodstuffs, solvents, paints, plastics, and many other consumer products. Most of the chlorine produced is used in the manufacture of chlorinated compounds for sanitation, pulp bleaching, disinfectants, and textile processing. Further use is in the manufacture of chlorates, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and in the extraction of bromine. Organic chemistry demands much from chlorine, both as an oxidizing agent and in substitution, since it often brings desired properties in an organic compound when substituted for hydrogen, as in one form of synthetic rubber. Chlorine is a respiratory irritant. The gas irritates the mucous membranes and the liquid burns the skin. As little as 3.5 ppm can be detected as an odor, and 1000 ppm is likely to be fatal after a few deep breaths. It was used as a war gas in 1915. Natural chlorine contains two isotopes. Twenty other isotopes and isomers are known. Chromium — (Gr. chroma, color), Cr; at. wt. 51.9961(6); at. no. 24; m.p. 1907°C; b.p. 2671°C; sp. gr. 7.18 to 7.20 (20°C); valence chiefly 2, 3, or 6. Discovered in 1797 by Vauquelin, who prepared the metal the next year, chromium is a steel-gray, lustrous, hard metal that takes a high polish. The principal ore is chromite (FeCr2O4), which is found in Zimbabwe, Russia, South Africa, Turkey, Iran, Albania, Finland, Democratic Republic of Madagascar, the Philippines, and elsewhere. The U.S. has no appreciable chromite ore reserves. The metal is usually produced by reducing the oxide with aluminum. Chromium is used to harden steel, to manufacture stainless steel, and to form many useful alloys. Much is used in plating to produce a hard, beautiful surface and to prevent corrosion. Chromium is used to give glass an emerald green color. It finds wide use as a catalyst. All compounds of chromium are colored; the most important are the chromates of sodium and potassium (K2CrO4) and the dichromates (K2Cr2O7) and the potassium and ammonium chrome alums, as KCr(SO4)2 · 12H2O. The dichromates are used as oxidizing agents in quantitative analysis, also in tanning leather.
4-8
THE ELEMENTS (continued) Other compounds are of industrial value; lead chromate is chrome yellow, a valued pigment. Chromium compounds are used in the textile industry as mordants, and by the aircraft and other industries for anodizing aluminum. The refractory industry has found chromite useful for forming bricks and shapes, as it has a high melting point, moderate thermal expansion, and stability of crystalline structure. Chromium is an essential trace element for human health. Many chromium compounds, however, are acutely toxic, chronically toxic, and may be carcinogenic. They should be handled with proper safeguards. Natural chromium contains four isotopes. Twenty other isotopes are known. Chromium metal (99.95%) costs about $600/kg. Commercial grade chromium (99%) costs about $75/kg. Cobalt — (Kobald, from the German, goblin or evil spirit, cobalos, Greek, mine), Co; at. wt. 58.93320(1); at. no. 27; m.p. 1495°C; b.p. 2927°C; sp. gr. 8.9 (20°C); valence 2 or 3. Discovered by Brandt about 1735. Cobalt occurs in the mineral cobaltite, smaltite, and erythrite, and is often associated with nickel, silver, lead, copper, and iron ores, from which it is most frequently obtained as a by-product. It is also present in meteorites. Important ore deposits are found in Congo-Kinshasa, Australia, Zambia, Russia, Canada, and elsewhere. The U.S. Geological Survey has announced that the bottom of the north central Pacific Ocean may have cobalt-rich deposits at relatively shallow depths in waters close to the Hawaiian Islands and other U.S. Pacific territories. Cobalt is a brittle, hard metal, closely resembling iron and nickel in appearance. It has a magnetic permeability of about two thirds that of iron. Cobalt tends to exist as a mixture of two allotropes over a wide temperature range; the β-form predominates below 400°C, and the α above that temperature. The transformation is sluggish and accounts in part for the wide variation in reported data on physical properties of cobalt. It is alloyed with iron, nickel and other metals to make Alnico, an alloy of unusual magnetic strength with many important uses. Stellite alloys, containing cobalt, chromium, and tungsten, are used for high-speed, heavy-duty, high temperature cutting tools, and for dies. Cobalt is also used in other magnet steels and stainless steels, and in alloys used in jet turbines and gas turbine generators. The metal is used in electroplating because of its appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation. The salts have been used for centuries for the production of brilliant and permanent blue colors in porcelain, glass, pottery, tiles, and enamels. It is the principal ingredient in Sevre’s and Thenard’s blue. A solution of the chloride (CoCl2 · 6H2O) is used as sympathetic ink. The cobalt ammines are of interest; the oxide and the nitrate are important. Cobalt carefully used in the form of the chloride, sulfate, acetate, or nitrate has been found effective in correcting a certain mineral deficiency disease in animals. Soils should contain 0.13 to 0.30 ppm of cobalt for proper animal nutrition.Cobalt is found in Vitamin B-12, which is essential for human nutrition. Cobalt of 99.9+% purity is priced at about$500/kg. Cobalt-60, an artificial isotope, is an important gamma ray source, and is extensively used as a tracer and a radiotherapeutic agent. Single compact sources of Cobalt-60 vary from about $1 to $10/curie, depending on quantity and specific activity. Thirty isotopes and isomers of cobalt are known. Columbium — See Niobium. Copper — (L. cuprum, from the island of Cyprus), Cu; at. wt. 63.546(3); at. no. 29; f.p. 1084.62 °C; b.p. 2562°C; sp. gr. 8.96 (20°C); valence 1 or 2. The discovery of copper dates from prehistoric times. It is said to have been mined for more than 5000 years. It is one of man’s most important metals. Copper is reddish colored, takes on a bright metallic luster, and is malleable, ductile, and a good conductor of heat and electricity (second only to silver in electrical conductivity). The electrical industry is one of the greatest users of copper. Copper occasionally occurs native, and is found in many minerals such as cuprite, malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite, and bornite. Large copper ore deposits are found in the U.S., Chile, Zambia, Zaire, Peru, and Canada. The most important copper ores are the sulfides, oxides, and carbonates. From these, copper is obtained by smelting, leaching, and by electrolysis. Its alloys, brass and bronze, long used, are still very important; all American coins are now copper alloys; monel and gun metals also contain copper. The most important compounds are the oxide and the sulfate, blue vitriol; the latter has wide use as an agricultural poison and as an algicide in water purification. Copper compounds such as Fehling’s solution are widely used in analytical chemistry in tests for sugar. High-purity copper (99.999 + %) is readily available commercially. The price of commercial copper has fluctuated widely. The price of copper in December 1999 was about $1.75/kg. Natural copper contains two isotopes. Twenty-six other radioactive isotopes and isomers are known. Curium — (Pierre and Marie Curie), Cm; at. wt. (247); at. no. 96; m.p. 1345°C; sp. gr. 13.51 (calc.); valence 3 and 4. Although curium follows americium in the periodic system, it was actually known before americium and was the third transuranium element to be discovered. It was identified by Seaborg, James, and Ghiorso in 1944 at the wartime Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago as a result of helium-ion bombardment of 239Pu in the Berkeley, California, 60-inch cyclotron. Visible amounts (30 µg) of 242Cm, in the form of the hydroxide, were first isolated by Werner and Perlman of the University of California in 1947. In 1950, Crane, Wallmann, and Cunningham found that the magnetic susceptibility of microgram samples of CmF3 was of the same magnitude as that of GdF3. This provided direct experimental evidence for assigning an electronic configuration to Cm+3. In 1951, the same workers prepared curium in its elemental form for the first time. Sixteen isotopes of curium are now known. The most stable, 247Cm, with a half-life of 16 million years, is so short compared to the earth’s age that any primordial curium must have disappeared long ago from the natural scene. Minute amounts of curium probably exist in natural deposits of uranium, as a result of a sequence of neutron captures and β decays sustained by the very low flux of neutrons naturally present in uranium ores. The presence of natural curium, however, has never been detected. 242Cm and 244Cm are available in multigram quantities. 248Cm has been produced only in milligram amounts. Curium is similar in some regards to gadolinium, its rareearth homolog, but it has a more complex crystal structure. Curium is silver in color, is chemically reactive, and is more electropositive than aluminum. CmO2, Cm2O3, CmF3, CmF4, CmCl3, CmBr3, and CmI3 have been prepared. Most compounds of trivalent curium are faintly yellow in color. 242Cm generates about three watts of thermal energy per gram. This compares to one-half watt per gram of 238Pu. This suggests use for curium as a power source. 244Cm is now offered for sale by the O.R.N.L. at $185/mg plus packing charges. 248Cm is available at a cost of $160/µg, plus packing charges, from the O.R.N.L. Curium absorbed into the body accumulates in the bones, and is therefore very toxic as its radiation destroys the red-cell forming mechanism. The maximum permissible total body burden of 244Cm (soluble) in a human being is 0.3 µCi (microcurie). Deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen — see Hydrogen. Dubnium — (named after the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia). Db; at.wt. [262]; at.no. 105. In 1967 G. N. Flerov reported that a Soviet team working at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna may have produced a few atoms of 260105 and 261105 by bombarding 243Am with 22Ne. Their evidence was based on time-coincidence measurements of alpha energies. More recently, it was reported that early in 1970 Dubna scientists synthesized Element 105 and that by the end of April 1970 “had investigated all the types of decay of the new element and had determined its chemical properties.” In late April 1970, it was announced that Ghiorso, Nurmia, Harris, K. A. Y. Eskola, and P. L. Eskola, working at the University of California at Berkeley, had positively identified Element 105. The discovery was made by bombarding a target of 249Cf with a beam of 84 MeV nitrogen nuclei in the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (HILAC). When a 15N nuclear is absorbed by a 249Cf nucleus, four neutrons are emitted and a new atom of 260105 with a half-life of 1.6 s is formed. While the first atoms of Element 105 are said to have been detected conclusively
4-9
THE ELEMENTS (continued) on March 5, 1970, there is evidence that Element 105 had been formed in Berkeley experiments a year earlier by the method described. Ghiorso and his associates have attempted to confirm Soviet findings by more sophisticated methods without success. In October 1971, it was announced that two new isotopes of Element 105 were synthesized with the heavy ion linear accelerator by A. Ghiorso and co-workers at Berkeley. Element 261105 was produced both by bombarding 250Cf with 15N and by bombarding 249Bk with 16O. The isotope emits 8.93-MeV α particles and decays to 257Lr with a half-life of about 1.8 s. Element 262105 was produced by bombarding 249Bk with 18O. It emits 8.45 MeV α particles and decays to 258Lr with a half-life of about 40 s. Nine isotopes of Dubnium are now recognized. Soon after the discovery the names Hahnium and Joliotium, named after Otto Hahn and Jean-Frederic Joliot and Mme. Joliot-Curie, were suggested as names for Element 105. The IUPAC in August 1997 finally resolved the issue, naming Element 105 Dubnium with the symbol Db. Dubnium is thought to have properties similar to tantalum. Dysprosium — (Gr. dysprositos, hard to get at), Dy; at. wt. 162.50(3); at. no. 66; m.p. 1412°C; b.p. 2567°C; sp. gr. 8.551 (25°C); valence 3. Dysprosium was discovered in 1886 by Lecoq de Boisbaudran, but not isolated. Neither the oxide nor the metal was available in relatively pure form until the development of ion-exchange separation and metallographic reduction techniques by Spedding and associates about 1950. Dysprosium occurs along with other so-called rare-earth or lanthanide elements in a variety of minerals such as xenotime, fergusonite, gadolinite, euxenite, polycrase, and blomstrandine. The most important sources, however, are from monazite and bastnasite. Dysprosium can be prepared by reduction of the trifluoride with calcium. The element has a metallic, bright silver luster. It is relatively stable in air at room temperature, and is readily attacked and dissolved, with the evolution of hydrogen, by dilute and concentrated mineral acids. The metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided. Small amounts of impurities can greatly affect its physical properties. While dysprosium has not yet found many applications, its thermal neutron absorption cross-section and high melting point suggest metallurgical uses in nuclear control applications and for alloying with special stainless steels. A dysprosium oxide-nickel cermet has found use in cooling nuclear reactor rods. This cermet absorbs neutrons readily without swelling or contracting under prolonged neutron bombardment. In combination with vanadium and other rare earths, dysprosium has been used in making laser materials. Dysprosium-cadmium chalcogenides, as sources of infrared radiation, have been used for studying chemical reactions. The cost of dysprosium metal has dropped in recent years since the development of ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques, and the discovery of large ore bodies. Thirty two isotopes and isomers are now known. The metal costs about $5/g (99.9% purity). Einsteinium — (Albert Einstein [1879–1955]), Es; at. wt. (252); m.p. 860°C (est.); at. no. 99. Einsteinium, the seventh transuranic element of the actinide series to be discovered, was identified by Ghiorso and co-workers at Berkeley in December 1952 in debris from the first large thermonuclear explosion, which took place in the Pacific in November 1952. The isotope produced was the 20-day 253Es isotope. In 1961, a sufficient amount of einsteinium was produced to permit separation of a macroscopic amount of 253Es. This sample weighed about 0.01 µg. A special magnetic-type balance was used in making this determination. 253Es so produced was used to produce mendelevium. About 3 µg of einsteinium has been produced at Oak Ridge National Laboratories by irradiating for several years kilogram quantities of 239Pu in a reactor to produce 242Pu. This was then fabricated into pellets of plutonium oxide and aluminum powder, and loaded into target rods for an initial 1-year irradiation at the Savannah River Plant, followed by irradiation in a HFIR (High Flux Isotopic Reactor). After 4 months in the HFIR the targets were removed for chemical separation of the einsteinium from californium. Nineteen isotopes and isomers of einsteinium are now recognized. 254Es has the longest half-life (276 days). Tracer studies using 253Es show that einsteinium has chemical properties typical of a heavy trivalent, actinide element. Einsteinium is extremely radioactive. Great care must be taken when handling it. Element 93 — See Neptunium. Element 94 — See Plutonium. Element 95 — See Americium. Element 96 — See Curium. Element 97 — See Berkelium. Element 98 — See Californium. Element 99 — See Einsteinium. Element 100 — See Fermium (unnilnilium). Element 101 — See Mendelevium (unnilunium). Element 102 — See Nobelium (unnilbium). Element 103 — See Lawrencium (unniltrium). Element 104 — See Rutherfordium (unnilquadium). Element 105 — See Dubnium (unnilpentium). Element 106 — See Seaborgium (unnilhexium). Element 107 — See Bohrium (unnilseptium). Element 108 — See Hassium (unniloctium). Element 109 — See Meitnerium (unnilennium). Element 110 — In 1987 Oganessian, et al., at Dubna, claimed discovery of this element. Their experiments indicated the spontaneous fissioning nuclide 272110 with a half-life of 10 ms. More recently a group led by Armbruster at G.S.I. in Darmstadt, Germany, reported evidence of 269110, which was produced by bombarding lead for many days with more than 1018 nickel atoms. A detector searched each collision for Element 110’s distinct decay sequence. On November 9, 1994, evidence of 110 was detected. Berkeley scientists, in 1991, performed similar experiments and reported evidence of 110, but this was not confirmed. Workers at Dubna have experiments underway to produce 273110 by bombarding plutonium with sulfur atoms. Other experiments at G.S.I. and elsewhere are now searching for heavier isotopes. Five isotopes of Element 110 are now recognized. Several years ago the IUPAC suggested the use of the temporary name ununnilium, with the symbol Uun, for Element 110 when it was found. Element 111 — On December 20, 1994, scientists at GSI Darmstadt, Germany announced they had detected three atoms of a new element with 111 protons and 161 neutrons. This element was made by bombarding 83Bi with 28Ni. Signals of Element 111 appeared for less than 0.002 sec, then decayed into lighter elements including Element 268109 and Element 264107. These isotopes had not previously been observed. A name for Element 111 has not been suggested although IUPAC has suggested a temporary name of Unununium, with the symbol Uuu. Element 111 is expected to have properties similar to gold.
4-10
THE ELEMENTS (continued) Element 112 — In late February 1996, Siguard Hofmann and his collaborators at GSI Darmstadt announced their discovery of Element 112, having 112 protons and 165 neutrons, with an atomic mass of 277. This element was made by bombarding a lead target with high-energy zinc ions. A single nucleus of Element 112 was detected, which decayed after less than 0.001 sec by emitting an α particle, consisting of two protons and two neutrons. This created Element 110273, which in turn decayed by emitting an α particle to form a new isotope of Element 108 and so on. Evidence indicates that nuclei with 162 neutrons are held together more strongly than nuclei with a smaller or larger number of neutrons. This suggests a narrow “peninsula” of relatively stable isotopes around Element 114. GSI scientists are experimenting to bombard targets with ions heavier than zinc to produce Elements 113 and 114. A name has not yet been suggested for Element 112, although the IUPAC suggested the temporary name of ununbium, with the symbol of Uub, when the element was discovered. Element 112 is expected to have properties similar to mercury. Element 113 — (ununtrium) As of December 1999 this element remains undiscovered. Element 114 — (ununquadium) Symbol Uuq. Element 114 is the first new element to be discovered since 1996. This element was found by a Russian–American team, including Livermore researchers, by bombarding a sheet of plutonium with a rare form of calcium hoping to make the atoms stick together in a new element. Radiation showed that the new element broke into smaller pieces. Data of radiation collected at the Russian Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in November and December 1998, were analyzed in January 1999. It was found that some of the heavy atoms created when 114 decayed lived up to 30 seconds, which was longr than ever seen before, for such a heavy element. This isotope decayed into a previously unknown isotope of Element 112, which itself lasted 15 minutes. That isotope, in turn, decayed to a previously undiscovered isotope of Element 108, which survived 17 minutes. Isotopes of these and those with longer life-times have been predicted for some time by theorists. It appears that these isotopes are on the edge of the “island of stability”, and that some of the isotopes in this region might last long enough for studies of their nuclear behavior and for a chemical evaluation to be made. No name has yet been suggested for Element 114; however, the temporary name of ununquadium with symbol Uuq may be used. In June 1999 it was announced that Elements 118 and 116 had been discovered. These disintegrated into Element 114 and other elements. See under Element 118. Element 115— (ununpentium) As of December 1999, this element remains undiscovered. Element 116— (ununhexium) Symbol Uuh. This element was discovered along with Element 118 in June 1999. See under Element 118. Element 117— (ununseptium) As of December 1999, this element remains undiscovered. Element 118— (ununoctium) Symbol Uuo. Victor Nonov of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory led a team of university and government scientists in experiments that led to the discovery of Elements 118 and 116 in June 1999. A lead target was bombarded for more than 10 days with roughly 1 quintillion krypton ions. The team made three atoms of Element 118, which quickly decayed into Elements 116, 114, and other elements. The isotopes of Element 118 lasted only about 200 microseconds, while the isotope of Element 116 lasted only 1.2 milliseconds. Investigations seem to indicate that the investigations are converging on a cluster of very stable super-heavy isotopes, some of which may survive for very long times. Researchers at GSI, in Russia at Dubna, or at the Berkeley Laboratory may soon fire krypton at bismuth to make Element 119, which would decay into the yet-undiscovered Elements 117, 115, and 113. Erbium — (Ytterby, a town in Sweden), Er; at. wt. 167.26(3); at. no. 68; m.p. 1529°C; b.p. 2868°C; sp. gr. 9.066 (25°C); valence 3, Erbium, one of the so-called rare-earth elements of the lanthanide series, is found in the minerals mentioned under dysprosium above. In 1842 Mosander separated “yttria,” found in the mineral gadolinite, into three fractions which he called yttria, erbia, and terbia. The names erbia and terbia became confused in this early period. After 1860, Mosander’s terbia was known as erbia, and after 1877, the earlier known erbia became terbia. The erbia of this period was later shown to consist of five oxides, now known as erbia, scandia, holmia, thulia and ytterbia. By 1905 Urbain and James independently succeeded in isolating fairly pure Er2O3. Klemm and Bommer first produced reasonably pure erbium metal in 1934 by reducing the anhydrous chloride with potassium vapor. The pure metal is soft and malleable and has a bright, silvery, metallic luster. As with other rare-earth metals, its properties depend to a certain extent on the impurities present. The metal is fairly stable in air and does not oxidize as rapidly as some of the other rare-earth metals. Naturally occurring erbium is a mixture of six isotopes, all of which are stable. Twenty-seven radioactive isotopes of erbium are also recognized. Recent production techniques, using ion-exchange reactions, have resulted in much lower prices of the rare-earth metals and their compounds in recent years. The cost of 99.9% erbium metal is about $10/g. Erbium is finding nuclear and metallurgical uses. Added to vanadium, for example, erbium lowers the hardness and improves workability. Most of the rare-earth oxides have sharp absorption bands in the visible, ultraviolet, and near infrared. This property, associated with the electronic structure, gives beautiful pastel colors to many of the rare-earth salts. Erbium oxide gives a pink color and has been used as a colorant in glasses and porcelain enamel glazes. Europium — (Europe), Eu; at. wt. 151.964(1); at. no. 63; m.p. 822°C; b.p. 1596°C; sp. gr. 5.244 (25°C); valence 2 or 3. In 1890 Boisbaudran obtained basic fractions from samarium-gadolinium concentrates which had spark spectral lines not accounted for by samarium or gadolinium. These lines subsequently have been shown to belong to europium. The discovery of europium is generally credited to Demarcay, who separated the rare earth in reasonably pure form in 1901. The pure metal was not isolated until recent years. Europium is now prepared by mixing Eu2O3 with a 10%-excess of lanthanum metal and heating the mixture in a tantalum crucible under high vacuum. The element is collected as a silvery-white metallic deposit on the walls of the crucible. As with other rare-earth metals, except for lanthanum, europium ignites in air at about 150 to 180°C. Europium is about as hard as lead and is quite ductile. It is the most reactive of the rare-earth metals, quickly oxidizing in air. It resembles calcium in its reaction with water. Bastnasite and monazite are the principal ores containing europium. Europium has been identified spectroscopically in the sun and certain stars. Europium isotopes are good neutron absorbers and are being studied for use in nuclear control applications. Europium oxide is now widely used as a phosphor activator and europium-activated yttrium vanadate is in commercial use as the red phosphor in color TV tubes. Europium-doped plastic has been used as a laser material. With the development of ion-exchange techniques and special processes, the cost of the metal has been greatly reduced in recent years. Natural europium contains two stable isotopes. Thirty five other radioactive isotopes and isomers are known. Europium is one of the rarest and most costly of the rare-earth metals. It is priced at about $50/g (99.9% pure). Fermium — (Enrico Fermi [1901–1954], nuclear physicist), Fm; at. wt. [257]; at. no. 100; m.p. 1527°C. Fermium, the eighth transuranium element of the actinide series to be discovered, was identified by Ghiorso and co-workers in 1952 in the debris from a thermonuclear explosion in the Pacific in work involving the University of California Radiation Laboratory, the Argonne National Laboratory, and the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. The isotope produced was the 20-hour 255Fm. During 1953 and early 1954, while discovery of elements 99 and 100 was withheld from publication for security reasons, a group from the Nobel Institute of Physics in Stockholm bombarded 238U with 16O ions, and isolated a 30-min α-emitter, which
4-11
THE ELEMENTS (continued) they ascribed to 250100, without claiming discovery of the element. This isotope has since been identified positively, and the 30-min half-life confirmed. The chemical properties of fermium have been studied solely with tracer amounts, and in normal aqueous media only the (III) oxidation state appears to exist. The isotope 254Fm and heavier isotopes can be produced by intense neutron irradiation of lower elements such as plutonium by a process of successive neutron capture interspersed with beta decays until these mass numbers and atomic numbers are reached. Twenty isotopes and isomers of fermium are known to exist. 257Fm, with a half-life of about 100.5 days, is the longest lived. 250Fm, with a half-life of 30 min, has been shown to be a product of decay of Element 254102. It was by chemical identification of 250Fm that production of Element 102 (nobelium) was confirmed. Fermium would probably have chemical properties resembling erbium. Fluorine — (L. and F. fluere, flow, or flux), F; at. wt. 18.9984032(5); at. no. 9; m.p. –219.62°C (1 atm); b.p. –188.12°C (1 atm); tc -129.02°C; density 1.696 g/L (0°C, 1 atm); liq. den. at b.p. 1.50 g/cm3; valence 1. In 1529, Georigius Agricola described the use of fluorspar as a flux, and as early as 1670 Schwandhard found that glass was etched when exposed to fluorspar treated with acid. Scheele and many later investigators, including Davy, Gay-Lussac, Lavoisier, and Thenard, experimented with hydrofluoric acid, some experiments ending in tragedy. The element was finally isolated in 1886 by Moisson after nearly 74 years of continuous effort. Fluorine occurs chiefly in fluorspar (CaF2) and cryolite (Na2AlF6), but is rather widely distributed in other minerals. It is a member of the halogen family of elements, and is obtained by electrolyzing a solution of potassium hydrogen fluoride in anhydrous hydrogen fluoride in a vessel of metal or transparent fluorspar. Modern commercial production methods are essentially variations on the procedures first used by Moisson. Fluorine is the most electronegative and reactive of all elements. It is a pale yellow, corrosive gas, which reacts with practically all organic and inorganic substances. Finely divided metals, glass, ceramics, carbon, and even water burn in fluorine with a bright flame. Until World War II, there was no commercial production of elemental fluorine. The atom bomb project and nuclear energy applications, however, made it necessary to produce large quantities. Safe handling techniques have now been developed and it is possible at present to transport liquid fluorine by the ton. Fluorine and its compounds are used in producing uranium (from the hexafluoride) and more than 100 commercial fluorochemicals, including many well-known high-temperature plastics. Hydrofluoric acid is extensively used for etching the glass of light bulbs, etc. Fluorochloro hydrocarbons have been extensively used in air conditioning and refrigeration. However, in recent years the U.S. and other countries have been phasing out ozone-depleting substances, such as the fluorochloro hydrocarbons that have been used in these applications. It has been suggested that fluorine might be substituted for hydrogen wherever it occurs in organic compounds, which could lead to an astronomical number of new fluorine compounds. The presence of fluorine as a soluble fluoride in drinking water to the extent of 2 ppm may cause mottled enamel in teeth, when used by children acquiring permanent teeth; in smaller amounts, however, fluorides are said to be beneficial and used in water supplies to prevent dental cavities. Elemental fluorine has been studied as a rocket propellant as it has an exceptionally high specific impulse value. Compounds of fluorine with rare gases have now been confirmed. Fluorides of xenon, radon, and krypton are among those known. Elemental fluorine and the fluoride ion are highly toxic. The free element has a characteristic pungent odor, detectable in concentrations as low as 20 ppb, which is below the safe working level. The recommended maximum allowable concentration for a daily 8-hour time-weighted exposure is 1 ppm. Fluorine is known to have fourteen isotopes. Francium — (France), Fr; at. no. 87; at. wt. [223]; m.p. 27°C; valence 1. Discovered in 1939 by Mlle. Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute, Paris. Francium, the heaviest known member of the alkali metal series, occurs as a result of an alpha disintegration of actinium. It can also be made artificially by bombarding thorium with protons. While it occurs naturally in uranium minerals, there is probably less than an ounce of francium at any time in the total crust of the earth. It has the highest equivalent weight of any element, and is the most unstable of the first 101 elements of the periodic system. Thirty-six isotopes and isomers of francium are recognized. The longest lived 223Fr(Ac, K), a daughter of 227Ac, has a half-life of 21.8 min. This is the only isotope of francium occurring in nature. Because all known isotopes of francium are highly unstable, knowledge of the chemical properties of this element comes from radiochemical techniques. No weighable quantity of the element has been prepared or isolated. The chemical properties of francium most closely resemble cesium. In 1996, researchers Orozco, Sprouse, and co-workers at the State University of New York, Stony Brook, reported that they had produced francium atoms by bombarding 18O atoms at a gold target heated almost to its melting point. Collisions between gold and oxygen nuclei created atoms of francium-210 which had 87 protons and123 neutrons. This team reported they had generated about 1 million francium-210 ions per second and held 1000 or more atoms at a time for about 20 secs. in a magnetic trap they had devised before the atoms decayed or escaped. Enough francium was trapped so that a video camera could capture the light given off by the atoms as they fluoresced. A cluster of about 10,000 francium atoms appeared as a glowing sphere about 1 mm in diameter. It is thought that the francium atoms could serve as miniature laboratoires for probing interactions between electrons and quarks. Gadolinium — (gadolinite, a mineral named for Gadolin, a Finnish chemist), Gd; at. wt. 157.25(3); at. no. 64; m.p. 1313°C; b.p. 3273°C; sp. gr. 7.901 (25°C); valence 3. Gadolinia, the oxide of gadolinium, was separated by Marignac in 1880 and Lecoq de Boisbaudran independently isolated the element from Mosander’s “yttria” in 1886. The element was named for the mineral gadolinite from which this rare earth was originally obtained. Gadolinium is found in several other minerals, including monazite and bastnasite, which are of commercial importance. The element has been isolated only in recent years. With the development of ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques, the availability and price of gadolinium and the other rare-earth metals have greatly improved. Thirty-one isotopes and isomers of gadolinium are now recognized; seven are stable and occur naturally. The metal can be prepared by the reduction of the anhydrous fluoride with metallic calcium. As with other related rare-earth metals, it is silvery white, has a metallic luster, and is malleable and ductile. At room temperature, gadolinium crystallizes in the hexagonal, close-packed α form. Upon heating to 1235°C, α gadolinium transforms into the β form, which has a body-centered cubic structure. The metal is relatively stable in dry air, but in moist air it tarnishes with the formation of a loosely adhering oxide film which spalls off and exposes more surface to oxidation. The metal reacts slowly with water and is soluble in dilute acid. Gadolinium has the highest thermal neutron capture cross-section of any known element (49,000 barns). Natural gadolinium is a mixture of seven isotopes. Two of these, 155Gd and 157Gd, have excellent capture characteristics, but they are present naturally in low concentrations. As a result, gadolinium has a very fast burnout rate and has limited use as a nuclear control rod material. It has been used in making gadolinium yttrium garnets, which have microwave applications. Compounds of gadolinium are used in making phosphors for color TV tubes. The metal has unusual superconductive properties. As little as 1% gadolinium has been found to improve the workability and resistance of iron, chromium, and related alloys to high temperatures and oxidation. Gadolinium ethyl sulfate has extremely low noise characteristics and may find use in duplicating the performance of amplifiers, such as the maser. The metal is ferromagnetic. Gadolinium is unique for its high magnetic moment and for its special Curie temperature (above which ferromagnetism vanishes) lying just at room temperature. This suggests uses as a magnetic component that senses hot and cold. The price of the metal is about $12/g (99.9% purity).
4-12
THE ELEMENTS (continued) Gallium — (L. Gallia, France; also from Latin, gallus, a translation of Lecoq, a cock), Ga; at. wt. 69.723(1); at. no. 31; m.p. 29.76°C; b.p. 2204°C; sp. gr. 5.904 (29.6°C) solid; sp. gr. 6.095 (29.6°C) liquid; valence 2 or 3. Predicted and described by Mendeleev as ekaaluminum, and discovered spectroscopically by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875, who in the same year obtained the free metal by electrolysis of a solution of the hydroxide in KOH. Gallium is often found as a trace element in diaspore, sphalerite, germanite, bauxite, and coal. Some flue dusts from burning coal have been shown to contain as much as 1.5% gallium. It is the only metal, except for mercury, cesium, and rubidium, which can be liquid near room temperatures; this makes possible its use in high-temperature thermometers. It has one of the longest liquid ranges of any metal and has a low vapor pressure even at high temperatures. There is a strong tendency for gallium to supercool below its freezing point. Therefore, seeding may be necessary to initiate solidification. Ultra-pure gallium has a beautiful, silvery appearance, and the solid metal exhibits a conchoidal fracture similar to glass. The metal expands 3.1% on solidifying; therefore, it should not be stored in glass or metal containers, as they may break as the metal solidifies. Gallium wets glass or porcelain, and forms a brilliant mirror when it is painted on glass. It is widely used in doping semiconductors and producing solid-state devices such as transistors. High-purity gallium is attacked only slowly by mineral acids. Magnesium gallate containing divalent impurities such as Mn+2 is finding use in commercial ultraviolet activated powder phosphors. Gallium nitride has been used to produce blue light-emitting diodes. Blue LED’s used in compact disc applications can be used to store a 2-h movie, for example, on one 5-in. diameter disc. Extensive use of gallium has found recent application in the Gallex Detector Experiment located in the Gran Sasso Underground Laboratory in Italy. This underground facility has been built by the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare in the middle of a highway tunnel through the Abruzzese mountains, about 150 km east of Rome. The experiment is shielded by a 3300-m water-equivalent of rock. In this experiment, 30.3 tons of gallium in the form of 110 tons of GaCl3-HCl solution are being used to detect solar neutrinos. The production of 71Ge from gallium is being measured.Gallium arsenide is capable of converting electricity directly into coherent light. Gallium readily alloys with most metals, and has been used as a component in low-melting alloys. Its toxicity appears to be of a low order, but should be handled with care until more data are forthcoming. Natural gallium contains two stable isotopes. Twenty-six other isotopes, one of which is an isomer, are known. The metal can be supplied in ultrapure form (99.99999+%). The cost is about $5/g (99.999%). Germanium — (L. Germania, Germany), Ge; at. wt. 72.61(2); at. no. 32; m.p. 938.25°C; b.p. 2833°C; sp. gr. 5.323 (25°C); valence 2 and 4. Predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as ekasilicon, and discovered by Winkler in 1886. The metal is found in argyrodite, a sulfide of germanium and silver; in germanite, which contains 8% of the element; in zinc ores; in coal; and in other minerals. The element is frequently obtained commercially from flue dusts of smelters processing zinc ores, and has been recovered from the by-products of combustion of certain coals. Its presence in coal insures a large reserve of the element in the years to come. Germanium can be separated from other metals by fractional distillation of its volatile tetrachloride. The tetrachloride may then be hydrolyzed to give GeO2; the dioxide can be reduced with hydrogen to give the metal. Recently developed zone-refining techniques permit the production of germanium of ultra-high purity. The element is a gray-white metalloid, and in its pure state is crystalline and brittle, retaining its luster in air at room temperature. It is a very important semiconductor material. Zone-refining techniques have led to production of crystalline germanium for semiconductor use with an impurity of only one part in 1010. Doped with arsenic, gallium, or other elements, it is used as a transistor element in thousands of electronic applications. Its application in fiber optics and infra-red optical systems now provides the largest use for germanium. Germanium is also finding many other applications including use as an alloying agent, as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, and as a catalyst. Germanium and germanium oxide are transparent to the infrared and are used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment, including extremely sensitive infrared detectors. Germanium oxide’s high index of refraction and dispersion has made it useful as a component of glasses used in wide-angle camera lenses and microscope objectives. The field of organogermanium chemistry is becoming increasingly important. Certain germanium compounds have a low mammalian toxicity, but a marked activity against certain bacteria, which makes them of interest as chemotherapeutic agents. The cost of germanium is about $10/g (99.999% purity). Thirty isotopes and isomers are known, five of which occur naturally. Gold — (Sanskrit Jval; Anglo-Saxon gold), Au (L. aurum, gold); at. wt. 196.96654(3); at. no. 79; m.p. 1064.18°C; b.p. 2856°C; sp. gr. ~19.3 (20°C); valence 1 or 3. Known and highly valued from earliest times, gold is found in nature as the free metal and in tellurides; it is very widely distributed and is almost always associated with quartz or pyrite. It occurs in veins and alluvial deposits, and is often separated from rocks and other minerals by sluicing and panning operations. About 25% of the world’s gold output comes from South Africa, and about two thirds of the total U.S. production now comes from South Dakota and Nevada. The metal is recovered from its ores by cyaniding, amalgamating, and smelting processes. Refining is also frequently done by electrolysis. Gold occurs in sea water to the extent of 0.1 to 2 mg/ton, depending on the location where the sample is taken. As yet, no method has been found for recovering gold from sea water profitably. It is estimated that all the gold in the world, so far refined, could be placed in a single cube 60 ft on a side. Of all the elements, gold in its pure state is undoubtedly the most beautiful. It is metallic, having a yellow color when in a mass, but when finely divided it may be black, ruby, or purple. The Purple of Cassius is a delicate test for auric gold. It is the most malleable and ductile metal; 1 oz. of gold can be beaten out to 300 ft2. It is a soft metal and is usually alloyed to give it more strength. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and is unaffected by air and most reagents. It is used in coinage and is a standard for monetary systems in many countries. It is also extensively used for jewelry, decoration, dental work, and for plating. It is used for coating certain space satellites, as it is a good reflector of infrared and is inert. Gold, like other precious metals, is measured in troy weight; when alloyed with other metals, the term carat is used to express the amount of gold present, 24 carats being pure gold. For many years the value of gold was set by the U.S. at $20.67/troy ounce; in 1934 this value was fixed by law at $35.00/troy ounce, 9/10th fine. On March 17, 1968, because of a gold crisis, a two-tiered pricing system was established whereby gold was still used to settle international accounts at the old $35.00/troy ounce price while the price of gold on the private market would be allowed to fluctuate. Since this time, the price of gold on the free market has fluctuated widely. The price of gold on the free market reached a price of $620/ troy oz. in January 1980. More recently, the U.K. and other nations, including the I.M.F. have sold or threatened to sell a sizeable portion of their gold reserves. This has caused wide fluctuations in the price of gold. Because this has damaged the economy of some countires, a moretorium for a few years has been declared. This has tended to stabilize temporarily the price of gold. The most common gold compounds are auric chloride (AuCl3) and chlorauric acid (HAuCl4), the latter being used in photography for toning the silver image. Gold has forty-eight recognized isotopes and isomers; 198Au, with a half-life of 2.7 days, is used for treating cancer and other diseases. Disodium aurothiomalate is administered intramuscularly as a treatment for arthritis. A mixture of one part nitric acid with three of hydrochloric acid is called aqua regia (because it dissolved gold, the King of Metals). Gold is available commercially with a purity of 99.999+%. For many years the temperature assigned to the freezing point of gold has been 1063.0°C; this has served as a calibration point for the International Temperature Scales (ITS-27 and ITS-48) and the International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS-
4-13
THE ELEMENTS (continued) 48). In 1968, a new International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS-68) was adopted, which demanded that the freezing point of gold be changed to 1064.43°C. In 1990 a new International Temperature Scale (ITS-90) was adopted bringing the t.p. (triple point) of H2O (t90 (°C)) to 0.01°C and the freezing point of gold to 1064.18°C.The specific gravity of gold has been found to vary considerably depending on temperature, how the metal is precipitated, and cold-worked. As of December 1999, gold was priced at about $300/troy oz. ($9.50/g). Hafnium — (Hafnia, Latin name for Copenhagen), Hf; at. wt. 178.49(2); at. no. 72; m.p. 2233°C; b.p. 4603°C; sp. gr. 13.31 (20°C); valence 4. Hafnium was thought to be present in various minerals and concentrations many years prior to its discovery, in 1923, credited to D. Coster and G. von Hevesey. On the basis of the Bohr theory, the new element was expected to be associated with zirconium. It was finally identified in zircon from Norway, by means of X-ray spectroscopic analysis. It was named in honor of the city in which the discovery was made. Most zirconium minerals contain 1 to 5% hafnium. It was originally separated from zirconium by repeated recrystallization of the double ammonium or potassium fluorides by von Hevesey and Jantzen. Metallic hafnium was first prepared by van Arkel and deBoer by passing the vapor of the tetraiodide over a heated tungsten filament. Almost all hafnium metal now produced is made by reducing the tetrachloride with magnesium or with sodium (Kroll Process). Hafnium is a ductile metal with a brilliant silver luster. Its properties are considerably influenced by the impurities of zirconium present. Of all the elements, zirconium and hafnium are two of the most difficult to separate. Their chemistry is almost identical, however, the density of zirconium is about half that of hafnium. Very pure hafnium has been produced, with zirconium being the major impurity. Natural hafnium contains six isotopes, one of which is slightly radioactive. Hafnium has a total of 41 recognized isotopes and isomers. Because hafnium has a good absorption cross section for thermal neutrons (almost 600 times that of zirconium), has excellent mechanical properties, and is extremely corrosion resistant, it is used for reactor control rods. Such rods are used in nuclear submarines. Hafnium has been successfully alloyed with iron, titanium, niobium, tantalum, and other metals. Hafnium carbide is the most refractory binary composition known, and the nitride is the most refractory of all known metal nitrides (m.p. 3310°C). Hafnium is used in gas-filled and incandescent lamps, and is an efficient “getter” for scavenging oxygen and nitrogen. Finely divided hafnium is pyrophoric and can ignite spontaneously in air. Care should be taken when machining the metal or when handling hot sponge hafnium. At 700°C hafnium rapidly absorbs hydrogen to form the composition HfH1.86. Hafnium is resistant to concentrated alkalis, but at elevated temperatures reacts with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, boron, sulfur, and silicon. Halogens react directly to form tetrahalides. The price of the metal is in the broad range of $1/g to $5/g, depending on purity and quantity. The yearly demand for hafnium in the U.S. is now in excess of 50,000 kg. Hahnium — A name previously used for Element 105, now named dubnium. Hassium — (named for the German state, Hesse) Hs, at.wt. [265]; at.no. 108. This element was first synthesized and identified in 1964 by the same G.S.I. Darmstadt Group who first identified Bohrium and Meitnerium. Presumably this element has chemical properties similar to osmium. Isotope 265108 was produced using a beam of 58Fe projectiles, produced by the Universal Linear Accelerator (UNILAC) to bombard a 208Pb target. Discovery of Bohrium and Meitnerium was made using detection of isotopes with odd proton and neutron numbers. Elements having even atomic numbers have been thought to be less stable against spontaneous fusion than odd elements. The production of 265108 in the same reaction as was used at G.S.I. was confirmed at Dubna with detection of the seventh member of the decay chain 253Es. Isotopes of Hassium are believed to decay by spontaneous fission, explaining why 109 was produced before 108. Isotope 265108 and 266108 are thought to decay to 261106, which in turn decay to 257104 and 253102. The IUPAC adopted the name Hassium after the German state of Hesse in September 1997. Helium — (Gr. helios, the sun), He; at. wt. 4.002602(2); at. no. 2; m.p. below — 272.2°C (26 atm); b.p. — 268.93°C; tc -267.96°C; density 0.1785 g/l (0°C, 1 atm); liquid density 7.62 lb/ft3 at. b.p.; valence usually 0. Evidence of the existence of helium was first obtained by Janssen during the solar eclipse of 1868 when he detected a new line in the solar spectrum; Lockyer and Frankland suggested the name helium for the new element; in 1895, Ramsay discovered helium in the uranium mineral clevite, and it was independently discovered in cleveite by the Swedish chemists Cleve and Langlet about the same time. Rutherford and Royds in 1907 demonstrated that α particles are helium nuclei. Except for hydrogen, helium is the most abundant element found throughout the universe. Helium is extracted from natural gas; all natural gas contains at least trace quantities of helium. It has been detected spectroscopically in great abundance, especially in the hotter stars, and it is an important component in both the proton-proton reaction and the carbon cycle, which account for the energy of the sun and stars. The fusion of hydrogen into helium provides the energy of the hydrogen bomb. The helium content of the atmosphere is about 1 part in 200,000. It is present in various radioactive minerals as a decay product. Much of the world’s supply of helium is obtained from wells in Texas, Colorado, and Kansas. The only other known helium extraction plants, outside the United States, in 1999 were inPoland, Russia, China, Algeria, and India. The cost of helium has fallen from $2500/ft3 in 1915 to about 2.5¢/cu.ft. (.028 cu meters) in 1999. Helium has the lowest melting point of any element and has found wide use in cryogenic research, as its boiling point is close to absolute zero. Its use in the study of superconductivity is vital. Using liquid helium, Kurti and co-workers, and others, have succeeded in obtaining temperatures of a few microkelvins by the adiabatic demagnetization of copper nuclei, starting from about 0.01 K. Liquid helium (He4) exists in two forms: He4I and He4II, with a sharp transition point at 2.174 K (3.83 cm Hg). He4I (above this temperature) is a normal liquid, but He4II (below it) is unlike any other known substance. It expands on cooling; its conductivity for heat is enormous; and neither its heat conduction nor viscosity obeys normal rules. It has other peculiar properties. Helium is the only liquid that cannot be solidified by lowering the temperature. It remains liquid down to absolute zero at ordinary pressures, but it can readily be solidified by increasing the pressure. Solid 3He and 4He are unusual in that both can readily be changed in volume by more than 30% by application of pressure. The specific heat of helium gas is unusually high. The density of helium vapor at the normal boiling point is also very high, with the vapor expanding greatly when heated to room temperature. Containers filled with helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be treated as though they contained liquid helium due to the large increase in pressure resulting from warming the gas to room temperature. While helium normally has a 0 valence, it seems to have a weak tendency to combine with certain other elements. Means of preparing helium diflouride have been studied, and species such as HeNe and the molecular ions He+ and He++ have been investigated. Helium is widely used as an inert gas shield for arc welding; as a protective gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, and in titanium and zirconium production; as a cooling medium for nuclear reactors, and as a gas for supersonic wind tunnels. A mixture of helium and oxygen is used as an artificial atmosphere for divers and others working under pressure. Different ratios of He/O2 are used for different depths at which the diver is operating. Helium is extensively used for filling balloons as it is a much safer gas than hydrogen. One of the recent largest uses for helium has been for pressuring liquid fuel rockets. A Saturn booster such as used on the Apollo lunar missions required about 13 million ft3of helium for a firing, plus more for checkouts. Liquid helium’s use in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) continues to increase as the medical profession accepts and develops new uses for the equipment. This equipment is providing accurate diagnoses of problems where exploratory surgery has previously been required to determine problems. Another medical application that is being developed uses MRI to determine by blood analysis whether a patient has any form of cancer. Lifting gas applications are increasing. Various
4-14
THE ELEMENTS (continued) companies in addition to Goodyear, are now using “blimps” for advertising. The Navy and the Air Force are investigating the use of airships to provide early warning systems to detect low-flying cruise missiles. The Drug Enforcement Agency has used radar-equipped blimps to detect drug smugglers along the southern border of the U.S. In addition, NASA is currently using helium-filled balloons to sample the atmosphere in Antarctica to determine what is depleting the ozone layer that protects Earth from harmful U.V. radiation. Research on and development of materials which become superconductive at temperatures well above the boiling point of helium could have a major impact on the demand for helium. Less costly refrigerants having boiling points considerably higher could replace the present need to cool such superconductive materials to the boiling point of helium. Natural helium contains two stable isotopes 3He and 4He. 3He is present in very small quantities. Six other isotopes of helium are now recognized. Holmium — (L. Holmia , for Stockholm), Ho; at. wt. 164.93032(2); at. no 67; m.p. 1474°C; b.p. 2700°C; sp. gr. 8.795 (25°C); valence + 3. The spectral absorption bands of holmium were noticed in 1878 by the Swiss chemists Delafontaine and Soret, who announced the existence of an “Element X”. Cleve, of Sweden, later independently discovered the element while working on erbia earth. The element is named after Cleve’s native city. Pure holmia, the yellow oxide, was prepared by Homberg in 1911. Holmium occurs in gadolinite, monazite, and in other rare-earth minerals. It is commercially obtained from monazite, occurring in that mineral to the extent of about 0.05%. It has been isolated by the reduction of its anhydrous chloride or fluoride with calcium metal. Pure holmium has a metallic to bright silver luster. It is relatively soft and malleable, and is stable in dry air at room temperature, but rapidly oxidizes in moist air and at elevated temperatures. The metal has unusual magnetic properties. Few uses have yet been found for the element. The element, as with other rare earths, seems to have a low acute toxic rating. Natural holmium consists of one isotope 165Ho, which is not radioactive. Holmium has 49 other isotopes known, all of which are radioactive. The price of 99.9% holmium metal is about $35/g. Hydrogen — (Gr. hydro, water, and genes, forming), H; at. wt. 1.00794(7); at. no. 1; m.p. –259.34°C; b.p. –252.87°C; tc -240.18; density 0.08988 g/l; density (liquid) 70.8 g/l (–253°C); density (solid) 70.6 g/l (–262°C); valence 1. Hydrogen was prepared many years before it was recognized as a distinct substance by Cavendish in 1766. It was named by Lavoisier. Hydrogen is the most abundant of all elements in the universe, and it is thought that the heavier elements were, and still are, being built from hydrogen and helium. It has been estimated that hydrogen makes up more than 90% of all the atoms or three quarters of the mass of the universe. It is found in the sun and most stars, and plays an important part in the proton-proton reaction and carbon-nitrogen cycle, which accounts for the energy of the sun and stars. It is thought that hydrogen is a major component of the planet Jupiter and that at some depth in the planet’s interior the pressure is so great that solid molecular hydrogen is converted into solid metallic hydrogen. In 1973, it was reported that a group of Russian experimenters may have produced metallic hydrogen at a pressure of 2.8 Mbar. At the transition the density changed from 1.08 to 1.3 g/cm3. Earlier, in 1972, a Livermore (California) group also reported on a similar experiment in which they observed a pressure-volume point centered at 2 Mbar. It has been predicted that metallic hydrogen may be metastable; others have predicted it would be a superconductor at room temperature. On earth, hydrogen occurs chiefly in combination with oxygen in water, but it is also present in organic matter such as living plants, petroleum, coal, etc. It is present as the free element in the atmosphere, but only to the extent of less than 1 ppm by volume. It is the lightest of all gases, and combines with other elements, sometimes explosively, to form compounds. Great quantities of hydrogen are required commercially for the fixation of nitrogen from the air in the Haber ammonia process and for the hydrogenation of fats and oils. It is also used in large quantities in methanol production, in hydrodealkylation, hydrocracking, and hydrodesulfurization. It is also used as a rocket fuel, for welding, for production of hydrochloric acid, for the reduction of metallic ores, and for filling balloons. The lifting power of 1 ft3 of hydrogen gas is about 0.076 lb at 0°C, 760 mm pressure. Production of hydrogen in the U.S. alone now amounts to about 3 billion cubic feet per year. It is prepared by the action of steam on heated carbon, by decomposition of certain hydrocarbons with heat, by the electrolysis of water, or by the displacement from acids by certain metals. It is also produced by the action of sodium or potassium hydroxide on aluminum. Liquid hydrogen is important in cryogenics and in the study of superconductivity, as its melting point is only a 20°C above absolute zero. Hydrogen consists of three isotopes, most of which is 1H. The ordinary isotope of hydrogen, H, is known as protium. In 1932, Urey announced the discovery of a stable isotope, deuterium (2H or D) with an atomic weight of 2. Deuterium is present in natural hydrogen to the extent of 0.015%. Two years later an unstable isotope, tritium (3H), with an atomic weight of 3 was discovered. Tritium has a half-life of about 12.32 years. Tritium atoms are also present in natural hydrogen but in much smaller proportion. Tritium is readily produced in nuclear reactors and is used in the production of the hydrogen bomb. It is also used as a radioactive agent in making luminous paints, and as a tracer. Deuterium gas is readily available, without permit, at about $1/l. Heavy water, deuterium oxide (D2O), which is used as a moderator to slow down neutrons, is available without permit at a cost of 6c to $1/g, depending on quantity and purity. About 1000 tons (4,400,000 kg) of deuterium oxide (heavy water) are now in use at the Sudbury (Ontario) Neutrino Observatory. This observatory is taking data to provide new revolutionary insight into the properties of neutrinos and into the core of the sun. The heavy water is on loan from Atomic Energy of Canada, Ltd. (AECL). The observatory and detectors are located 6800 ft (2072 m) deep in the Creighton mine of the International Nickel Co., near Sudbury. The heavy water is contained in an acrylic vessel, 12 m in diameter. Neutrinos react with the heavy water to produce Cherenkov radiation. This light is then detected with 9600 photomultiplier tubes surrounding the vessel. The detector laboratory is immensely clean to reduce background radiation, which otherwise hide the very weak signals from neutrinos. Quite apart from isotopes, it has been shown that hydrogen gas under ordinary conditions is a mixture of two kinds of molecules, known as ortho- and para-hydrogen, which differ from one another by the spins of their electrons and nuclei. Normal hydrogen at room temperature contains 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form. The ortho form cannot be prepared in the pure state. Since the two forms differ in energy, the physical properties also differ. The melting and boiling points of parahydrogen are about 0.1°C lower than those of normal hydrogen. Consideration is being given to an entire economy based on solar- and nuclear-generated hydrogen. Located in remote regions, power plants would electrolyze sea water; the hydrogen produced would travel to distant cities by pipelines. Pollution-free hydrogen could replace natural gas, gasoline, etc., and could serve as a reducing agent in metallurgy, chemical processing, refining, etc. It could also be used to convert trash into methane and ethylene. Public acceptance, high capital investment, and the high present cost of hydrogen with respect to present fuels are but a few of the problems facing establishment of such an economy. Hydrogen is being investigated as a substitute for deep-sea diving applications below 300 m. Hydrogen is readily available from air product suppliers. Indium — (from the brilliant indigo line in its spectrum),In; at. wt. 114.818(3); at. no. 49; m.p. 156.60°C; b.p. 2072°C; sp. gr. 7.31 (20°C); valence 1, 2, or 3. Discovered by Reich and Richter, who later isolated the metal. Indium is most frequently associated with zinc materials, and it is from these that most commercial indium is now obtained; however, it is also found in iron, lead, and copper ores. Until 1924, a gram or so constituted the world’s supply of this element in isolated form. It is probably about as abundant as silver. About 4 million troy ounces of indium are now produced annually in the Free World. Canada is presently producing more than 1,000,000 troy ounces annually. The present cost of indium is about $2 to $10/g, depending on quantity and purity. It is available in ultrapure form. Indium is a very soft, silvery-white metal with a brilliant luster. The pure metal gives a high-
4-15
THE ELEMENTS (continued) pitched “cry” when bent. It wets glass, as does gallium. It has found application in making low-melting alloys; an alloy of 24% indium-76% gallium is liquid at room temperature. Indium is used in making bearing alloys, germanium transistors, rectifiers, thermistors, liquid crystal displays, high definition television, batteries, and photoconductors. It can be plated onto metal and evaporated onto glass, forming a mirror as good as that made with silver but with more resistance to atmospheric corrosion. There is evidence that indium has a low order of toxicity; however, care should be taken until further information is available. Seventy isotopes and isomers are now recognized (more than any other element). Natural indium contains two isotopes. One is stable. The other, 115In, comprising 95.71% of natural indium is slightly radioactive with a very long half-life. Iodine — (Gr. iodes, violet), I; at. wt. 126.90447(3); at. no. 53; m.p. 113.7°C; b.p. 184.4°C; tc 546°C; density of the gas 11.27 g/l; sp. gr. solid 4.93 (20°C); valence 1, 3, 5, or 7. Discovered by Courtois in 1811. Iodine, a halogen, occurs sparingly in the form of iodides in sea water from which it is assimilated by seaweeds, in Chilean saltpeter and nitrate-bearing earth, known as caliche in brines from old sea deposits, and in brackish waters from oil and salt wells. Ultrapure iodine can be obtained from the reaction of potassium iodide with copper sulfate. Several other methods of isolating the element are known. Iodine is a bluish-black, lustrous solid, volatilizing at ordinary temperatures into a blue-violet gas with an irritating odor; it forms compounds with many elements, but is less active than the other halogens, which displace it from iodides. Iodine exhibits some metallic-like properties. It dissolves readily in chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, or carbon disulfide to form beautiful purple solutions. It is only slightly soluble in water. Iodine compounds are important in organic chemistry and very useful in medicine. Forty two isotopes and isomers are recognized. Only one stable isotope, 127I is found in nature. The artificial radioisotope 131I, with a half-life of 8 days, has been used in treating the thyroid gland. The most common compounds are the iodides of sodium and potassium (KI) and the iodates (KIO3). Lack of iodine is the cause of goiter. Iodides, and thyroxin which contains iodine, are used internally in medicine, and a solution of KI and iodine in alcohol is used for external wounds. Potassium iodide finds use in photography. The deep blue color with starch solution is characteristic of the free element. Care should be taken in handling and using iodine, as contact with the skin can cause lesions; iodine vapor is intensely irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes. Elemental iodine costs about 25 to 75¢/g depending on purity and quantity. Iridium — (L. iris, rainbow), Ir; at. wt. 192.217(3); at. no. 77; m.p. 2446°C; b.p. 4428°C; sp. gr. 22.42 (17°C); valence 3 or 4. Discovered in 1803 by Tennant in the residue left when crude platinum is dissolved by aqua regia. The name iridium is appropriate, for its salts are highly colored. Iridium, a metal of the platinum family, is white, similar to platinum, but with a slight yellowish cast. It is very hard and brittle, making it very hard to machine, form, or work. It is the most corrosion-resistant metal known, and was used in making the standard meter bar of Paris, which is a 90% platinum-10% iridium alloy. This meter bar was replaced in 1960 as a fundamental unit of length (see under Krypton). Iridium is not attacked by any of the acids nor by aqua regia, but is attacked by molten salts, such as NaCl and NaCN. Iridium occurs uncombined in nature with platinum and other metals of this family in alluvial deposits. It is recovered as a by-product from the nickel mining industry. The largest reserves and production of the platinum group of metals, which includes iridium, is in South Africa, followed by Russia and Canada. The U.S. has only one active mine, located at Nye, MT. The presence of iridium has recently been used in examining the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary. Meteorites contain small amounts of iridium. Because iridium is found widely distributed at the K-T boundary, it has been suggested that a large meteorite or asteroid collided with the earth, killing the dinosaurs, and creating a large dust cloud and crater. Searches for such a crater point to one in the Yucatan, known as Chicxulub. Iridium has found use in making crucibles and apparatus for use at high temperatures. It is also used for electrical contacts. Its principal use is as a hardening agent for platinum. With osmium, it forms an alloy which is used for tipping pens and compass bearings. The specific gravity of iridium is only very slightly lower than that of osmium, which has been generally credited as being the heaviest known element. Calculations of the densities of iridium and osmium from the space lattices gives values of 22.65 and 22.61 g/cm3, respectively. These values may be more reliable than actual physical measurements. At present, therefore, we know that either iridium or osmium is the densest known element, but the data do not yet allow selection between the two. Natural iridium contains two stable isotopes. Forty-five other isotopes, all radioactive, are now recognized. Iridium (99.9%) costs about $100/g. Iron — (Anglo-Saxon, iron), Fe (L. ferrum); at. wt. 55.845(2); at. no. 26; m.p. 1538°C; b.p. 2861°C; sp. gr. 7.874 (20°C); valence 2, 3, 4, or 6. The use of iron is prehistoric. Genesis mentions that Tubal-Cain, seven generations from Adam, was “an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron.” A remarkable iron pillar, dating to about A.D. 400, remains standing today in Delhi, India. This solid shaft of wrought iron is about 71/4 m high by 40 cm in diameter. Corrosion to the pillar has been minimal although it has been exposed to the weather since its erection. Iron is a relatively abundant element in the universe. It is found in the sun and many types of stars in considerable quantity. Its nuclei are very stable. It has been suggested that the iron we have here on earth may have originated in a super-nova. Iron is a very difficult element to produce in ordinary nuclear reactions, such as would take place in the sun. Iron is found native as a principal component of a class of iron-nickel meteorites known as siderites, and is a minor constituent of the other two classes of meteorites. The core of the earth, 2150 miles in radius, is thought to be largely composed of iron with about 10% occluded hydrogen. The metal is the fourth most abundant element, by weight, making up the crust of the earth. The most common ore is hematite (Fe2O3). Magnetite (Fe3O4) is frequently seen as black sands along beaches and banks of streams. Lodestone is another form of magnetite. Taconite is becoming increasingly important as a commercial ore. Iron is a vital constituent of plant and animal life, and appears in hemoglobin. The pure metal is not often encountered in commerce, but is usually alloyed with carbon or other metals. The pure metal is very reactive chemically, and rapidly corrodes, especially in moist air or at elevated temperatures. It has four allotropic forms, or ferrites, known as α, β, γ, and δ, with transition points at 700, 928, and 1530°C. The α form is magnetic, but when transformed into the β form, the magnetism disappears although the lattice remains unchanged. The relations of these forms are peculiar. Pig iron is an alloy containing about 3% carbon with varying amounts of S, Si, Mn, and P. It is hard, brittle, fairly fusible, and is used to produce other alloys, including steel. Wrought iron contains only a few tenths of a percent of carbon, is tough, malleable, less fusible, and has usually a “fibrous” structure. Carbon steel is an alloy of iron with carbon, with small amounts of Mn, S, P, and Si. Alloy steels are carbon steels with other additives such as nickel, chromium, vanadium, etc. Iron is the cheapest and most abundant, useful, and important of all metals. Natural iron contains four isotopes and isomers. Twenty-six other isotopes and isomers, all radioactive, are now recognized. Krypton — (Gr. kryptos, hidden), Kr; at. wt. 83.80(1); at. no. 36; m.p. –157.36°C; b.p. –153.22 ± 0.10°C; tc -63.74°C; density 3.733 g/l (0°C); valence usually 0. Discovered in 1898 by Ramsay and Travers in the residue left after liquid air had nearly boiled away. Krypton is present in the air to the extent of about 1 ppm. The atmosphere of Mars has been found to contain 0.3 ppm of krypton. It is one of the “noble” gases. It is characterized by its brilliant green and orange spectral lines. Naturally occurring krypton contains six stable isotopes. Thirty other unstable isotopes and isomers are now recognized. The spectral lines of krypton are easily produced and some are very sharp. In 1960 it was internationally agreed that the fundamental unit of length, the meter, should be defined in terms of the orange-red spectral line of 86Kr. This replaced the standard meter of Paris, which was defined in terms of a bar made of a platinum-iridium alloy. In October 1983 the meter, which originally was defined as being one ten millionth of a quadrant
4-16
THE ELEMENTS (continued) of the earth’s polar circumference, was again redefined by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures as being the length of path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second. Solid krypton is a white crystalline substance with a face-centered cubic structure which is common to all the “rare gases”. While krypton is generally thought of as a rare gas that normally does not combine with other elements to form compounds, it now appears that the existence of some krypton compounds is established. Krypton difluoride has been prepared in gram quantities and can be made by several methods. A higher fluoride of krypton and a salt of an oxyacid of krypton also have been reported. Molecule-ions of ArKr+ and KrH+ have been identified and investigated, and evidence is provided for the formation of KrXe or KrXe+. Krypton clathrates have been prepared with hydroquinone and phenol. 85Kr has found recent application in chemical analysis. By imbedding the isotope in various solids, kryptonates are formed. The activity of these kryptonates is sensitive to chemical reactions at the surface. Estimates of the concentration of reactants are therefore made possible. Krypton is used in certain photographic flash lamps for high-speed photography. Uses thus far have been limited because of its high cost. Krypton gas presently costs about $690/100 l. Kurchatovium — See Rutherfordium. Lanthanum — (Gr. lanthanein, to lie hidden), La; at. wt. 138.9055(2); at. no. 57; m.p. 918°C; b.p. 3464°C; sp. gr. 6.145 (25°C); valence 3. Mosander in 1839 extracted a new earth lanthana, from impure cerium nitrate, and recognized the new element. Lanthanum is found in rare-earth minerals such as cerite, monazite, allanite, and bastnasite. Monazite and bastnasite are principal ores in which lanthanum occurs in percentages up to 25 and 38%, respectively. Misch metal, used in making lighter flints, contains about 25% lanthanum. Lanthanum was isolated in relatively pure form in 1923. Ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques have led to much easier isolation of the so-called “rare-earth” elements. The availability of lanthanum and other rare earths has improved greatly in recent years. The metal can be produced by reducing the anhydrous fluoride with calcium. Lanthanum is silvery white, malleable, ductile, and soft enough to be cut with a knife. It is one of the most reactive of the rare-earth metals. It oxidizes rapidly when exposed to air. Cold water attacks lanthanum slowly, and hot water attacks it much more rapidly. The metal reacts directly with elemental carbon, nitrogen, boron, selenium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and with halogens. At 310°C, lanthanum changes from a hexagonal to a face-centered cubic structure, and at 865°C it again transforms into a body-centered cubic structure. Natural lanthanum is mixture of two isotopes, one of which is stable and one of which is radioactive with a very long half-life. Thirty other radioactive isotopes are recognized. Rare-earth compounds containing lanthanum are extensively used in carbon lighting applications, especially by the motion picture industry for studio lighting and projection. This application consumes about 25% of the rare-earth compounds produced. La2O3 improves the alkali resistance of glass, and is used in making special optical glasses. Small amounts of lanthanum, as an additive, can be used to produce nodular cast iron. There is current interest in hydrogen sponge alloys containing lanthanum. These alloys take up to 400 times their own volume of hydrogen gas, and the process is reversible. Heat energy is released every time they do so; therefore these alloys have possibilities in energy conservation systems. Lanthanum and its compounds have a low to moderate acute toxicity rating; therefore, care should be taken in handling them. The metal costs about $2/g (99.9%). Lawrencium — (Ernest O. Lawrence [1901–1958], inventor of the cyclotron), Lr; at. no. 103; at. mass no. [262]; valence + 3(?). This member of the 5f transition elements (actinide series) was discovered in March 1961 by A. Ghiorso, T. Sikkeland, A. E. Larsh, and R. M. Latimer.A 3-µg californium target, consisting of a mixture of isotopes of mass number 249, 250, 251, and 252, was bombarded with either 10B or 11B. The electrically charged transmutation nuclei recoiled with an atmosphere of helium and were collected on a thin copper conveyor tape which was then moved to place collected atoms in front of a series of solid-state detectors. The isotope of element 103 produced in this way decayed by emitting an 8.6-MeV alpha particle with a half-life of 8 s. In 1967, Flerov and associates of the Dubna Laboratory reported their inability to detect an alpha emitter with a halflife of 8 s which was assigned by the Berkeley group to 257103. This assignment has been changed to 258Lr or 259Lr. In 1965, the Dubna workers found a longer-lived lawrencium isotope, 256Lr, with a half-life of 35 s. In 1968, Ghiorso and associates at Berkeley were able to use a few atoms of this isotope to study the oxidation behavior of lawrencium. Using solvent extraction techniques and working very rapidly, they extracted lawrencium ions from a buffered aqueous solution into an organic solvent, completing each extraction in about 30 s. It was found that lawrencium behaves differently from dipositive nobelium and more like the tripositive elements earlier in the actinide series. Ten isotopes of lawrencium are now recognized. Lead — (Anglo-Saxon lead), Pb (L. plumbum); at. wt. 207.2(1); at. no. 82; m.p. 327.46°C; b.p. 1749°C; sp. gr. 11.35 (20°C); valence 2 or 4. Long known, mentioned in Exodus. The alchemists believed lead to be the oldest metal and associated it with the planet Saturn. Native lead occurs in nature, but it is rare. Lead is obtained chiefly from galena (PbS) by a roasting process. Anglesite (PbSO4), cerussite (PbCO3), and minim (Pb3O4) are other common lead minerals. Lead is a bluish-white metal of bright luster, is very soft, highly malleable, ductile, and a poor conductor of electricity. It is very resistant to corrosion; lead pipes bearing the insignia of Roman emperors, used as drains from the baths, are still in service. It is used in containers for corrosive liquids (such as sulfuric acid) and may be toughened by the addition of a small percentage of antimony or other metals. Natural lead is a mixture of four stable isotopes: 204Pb (1.4%), 206Pb (24.1%), 207Pb (22.1%), and 208Pb (52.4%). Lead isotopes are the end products of each of the three series of naturally occurring radioactive elements: 206Pb for the uranium series, 207Pb for the actinium series, and 208Pb for the thorium series. Forty-three other isotopes of lead, all of which are radioactive, are recognized. Its alloys include solder, type metal, and various antifriction metals. Great quantities of lead, both as the metal and as the dioxide, are used in storage batteries. Lead is also used for cable covering, plumbing, and ammunition. The metal is very effective as a sound absorber, is used as a radiation shield around X-ray equipment and nuclear reactors, and is used to absorb vibration. Lead, alloyed with tin, is used in making organ pipes. White lead, the basic carbonate, sublimed white lead (PbSO4), chrome yellow (PbCrO4), red lead (Pb3O4), and other lead compounds are used extensively in paints, although in recent years the use of lead in paints has been drastically curtailed to eliminate or reduce health hazards. Lead oxide is used in producing fine “crystal glass” and “flint glass” of a high index of refraction for achromatic lenses. The nitrate and the acetate are soluble salts. Lead salts such as lead arsenate have been used as insecticides, but their use in recent years has been practically eliminated in favor of less harmful organic compounds. Care must be used in handling lead as it is a cumulative poison. Environmental concern with lead poisoning has resulted in a national program to eliminate the lead tetraethyl in gasoline. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has recommended that industries limit airborne lead to 50 µgms/cu. meter. Lead is priced at about 90¢/kg (99.9%). Lithium — (Gr. lithos, stone), Li; at. wt. 6.941(2); at. no. 3; m.p. 180.5°C; b.p. 1342°C; sp. gr. 0.534 (20°C); valence 1. Discovered by Arfvedson in 1817. Lithium is the lightest of all metals, with a density only about half that of water. It does not occur free in nature; combined it is found in small amounts in nearly all igneous rocks and in the waters of many mineral springs. Lepidolite, spodumene, petalite, and amblygonite are the more important minerals containing it. Lithium is presently being recovered from brines of Searles Lake, in California, and from Nevada, Chile, and Argentina. Large deposits of spodumene are found in North Carolina. The metal is produced electrolytically from the fused chloride. Lithium is silvery in appearance,
4-17
THE ELEMENTS (continued) much like Na and K, other members of the alkali metal series. It reacts with water, but not as vigorously as sodium. Lithium imparts a beautiful crimson color to a flame, but when the metal burns strongly the flame is a dazzling white. Since World War II, the production of lithium metal and its compounds has increased greatly. Because the metal has the highest specific heat of any solid element, it has found use in heat transfer applications; however, it is corrosive and requires special handling. The metal has been used as an alloying agent, is of interest in synthesis of organic compounds, and has nuclear applications. It ranks as a leading contender as a battery anode material as it has a high electrochemical potential. Lithium is used in special glasses and ceramics. The glass for the 200-inch telescope at Mt. Palomar contains lithium as a minor ingredient. Lithium chloride is one of the most hygroscopic materials known, and it, as well as lithium bromide, is used in air conditioning and industrial drying systems. Lithium stearate is used as an all-purpose and high-temperature lubricant. Other lithium compounds are used in dry cells and storage batteries. Seven isotopes of lithium are recognized. Natural lithium contains two isotopes. The metal is priced at about $1.50/g (99.9%). Lutetium — (Lutetia, ancient name for Paris, sometimes called cassiopeium by the Germans), Lu; at. wt. 174.967(1); at. no. 71; m.p. 1663°C; b.p. 3402°C; sp. gr. 9.841 (25°C); valence 3. In 1907, Urbain described a process by which Marignac’s ytterbium (1879) could be separated into the two elements, ytterbium (neoytterbium)and lutetium. These elements were identical with “aldebaranium” and “cassiopeium,” independently discovered by von Welsbach about the same time. Charles James of the University of New Hampshire also independently prepared the very pure oxide, lutecia, at this time. The spelling of the element was changed from lutecium to lutetium in 1949. Lutetium occurs in very small amounts in nearly all minerals containing yttrium, and is present in monazite to the extent of about 0.003%, which is a commercial source. The pure metal has been isolated only in recent years and is one of the most difficult to prepare. It can be prepared by the reduction of anhydrous LuCl3 or LuF3 by an alkali or alkaline earth metal. The metal is silvery white and relatively stable in air. While new techniques, including ion-exchange reactions, have been developed to separate the various rare-earth elements, lutetium is still the most costly of all rare earths. It is priced at about $100/g (99.9%). 176Lu occurs naturally (97.41%) with 175Lu (2.59%), which is radioactive with a very long half-life. It is radioactive with a half-life of about 4 × 1010 years. Lutetium has 50 isotopes and isomers that are now recognized. Stable lutetium nuclides, which emit pure beta radiation after thermal neutron activation, can be used as catalysts in cracking, alkylation, hydrogenation, and polymerization. Virtually no other commercial uses have been found yet for lutetium. While lutetium, like other rare-earth metals, is thought to have a low toxicity rating, it should be handled with care until more information is available. Magnesium — (Magnesia, district in Thessaly) Mg; at. wt. 24.3050(6); at. no. 12; m.p. 650°C; b.p. 1090°C; sp. gr. 1.738 (20°C); valence 2. Compounds of magnesium have long been known. Black recognized magnesium as an element in 1755. It was isolated by Davy in 1808, and prepared in coherent form by Bussy in 1831. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the earth’s crust. It does not occur uncombined, but is found in large deposits in the form of magnesite, dolomite, and other minerals. The metal is now principally obtained in the U.S. by electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride derived from brines, wells, and sea water. Magnesium is a light, silvery-white, and fairly tough metal. It tarnishes slightly in air, and finely divided magnesium readily ignites upon heating in air and burns with a dazzling white flame. It is used in flashlight photography, flares, and pyrotechnics, including incendiary bombs. It is one third lighter than aluminium, and in alloys is essential for airplane and missile contruction. The metal improves the mechanical, fabrication, and welding characteristics of aluminum when used as an alloying agent. Magnesium is used in producing nodular graphite in cast iron,and is used as an additive to conventional propellants. It is also used as a reducing agent in the production of pure uranium and other metals from their salts. The hydroxide (milk of magnesia), chloride, sulfate (Epsom salts), and citrate are used in medicine. Dead-burned magnesite is employed for refractory purposes such as brick and liners in furnaces and converters. Calcined magnesia is also used for water treatment and in the manufacture of rubber, paper, etc. Organic magnesium compounds (Grignard’s reagents) are important. Magnesium is an important element in both plant and animal life. Chlorophylls are magnesium-centered porphyrins. The adult daily requirement of magnesium is about 300 mg/day, but this is affected by various factors. Great care should be taken in handling magnesium metal, especially in the finely divided state, as serious fires can occur. Water should not be used on burning magnesium or on magnesium fires. Natural magnesium contains three isotopes. Twelve other isotopes are recognized. Magnesium metal costs about $1.70/kg (99.8%). Manganese — (L. magnes, magnet, from magnetic properties of pyrolusite; It. manganese, corrupt form of magnesia), Mn; at. wt. 54.938049(9); at. no. 25; m.p. 1246°C; b.p. 2061°C; sp. gr. 7.21 to 7.44, depending on allotropic form; valence 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or 7. Recognized by Scheele, Bergman, and others as an element and isolated by Gahn in 1774 by reduction of the dioxide with carbon. Manganese minerals are widely distributed; oxides, silicates, and carbonates are the most common. The discovery of large quantities of manganese nodules on the floor of the oceans holds promise as a source of manganese. These nodules contain about 24% manganese together with many other elements in lesser abundance. Most manganese today is obtained from ores found in the Ukraine, Brazil, Australia, Republic of So. Africa, Gabon, China, and India. Pyrolusite (MnO2) and rhodochrosite (MnCO3) are among the most common manganese minerals. The metal is obtained by reduction of the oxide with sodium, magnesium, aluminum, or by electrolysis. It is gray-white, resembling iron, but is harder and very brittle. The metal is reactive chemically, and decomposes cold water slowly. Manganese is used to form many important alloys. In steel, manganese improves the rolling and forging qualities, strength, toughness, stiffness, wear resistance, hardness, and hardenability. With aluminum and antimony, especially with small amounts of copper, it forms highly ferromagnetic alloys. Manganese metal is ferromagnetic only after special treatment. The pure metal exists in four allotropic forms. The alpha form is stable at ordinary temperature; gamma manganese, which changes to alpha at ordinary temperatures, is said to be flexible, soft, easily cut, and capable of being bent. The dioxide (pyrolusite) is used as a depolarizer in dry cells, and is used to “decolorize” glass that is colored green by impurities of iron. Manganese by itself colors glass an amethyst color, and is responsible for the color of true amethyst. The dioxide is also used in the preparation of oxygen and chlorine, and in drying black paints. The permanganate is a powerful oxidizing agent and is used in quantitative analysis and in medicine. Manganese is widely distributed throughout the animal kingdom. It is an important trace element and may be essential for utilization of vitamin B1. Twenty-seven isotopes and isomers are known. Manganese metal (99.95%) is priced at about $400/kg. Metal of 99.6% purity is priced at about $60/kg. Meitnerium — (named for Lise Meitner [1878–1968], Austrian-Swedish physicist and mathematician), Mt; at. wt [266]; at. no. 109. On August 29, 1992, Element 109 was made and identified by physicists at the Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (G.S.I.), Darmstadt, Germany, by bombarding a target of 209Bi with accelerated nuclei of 58Fe. The production of Element 109 has been extremely small. It took a week of target bombardment (1011 nuclear encounters) to produce a single atom of 109. Oganessian and his team at Dubna in 1994 repeated the Darmstadt experiment using a tenfold irradiation dose. One fission event from seven alpha decays of 109 was observed, thus indirectly confirming the existence of isotope 266109. In August 1997, the IUPAC adopted the name meitnerium for this element, honoring L. Meitner. Four isotopes of meitnerium are now recognized. Mendelevium — (Dmitri Mendeleev [1834–1907]), Md; at. wt. (258); at. no. 101; m.p. 827°C; valence +2, +3. Mendelevium, the ninth transuranium element of the actinide series to be discovered, was first identified by Ghiorso, Harvey, Choppin, Thompson, and Seaborg early in 1955
4-18
THE ELEMENTS (continued) as a result of the bombardment of the isotope 253Es with helium ions in the Berkeley 60-inch cyclotron. The isotope produced was 256Md, which has a half-life of 78 min. This first identification was notable in that 256Md was synthesized on a one-atom-at-a-time basis. Nineteen isotopes and isomers are now recognized. 258Md has a half-life of 51.5 days. This isotope has been produced by the bombardment of an isotope of einsteinium with ions of helium. It now appears possible that eventually enough 258Md can be made so that some of its physical properties can be determined. 256Md has been used to elucidate some of the chemical properties of mendelevium in aqueous solution. Experiments seem to show that the element possesses a moderately stable dipositive (II) oxidation state in addition to the tripositive (III) oxidation state,which is characteristic of actinide elements. Mercury — (Planet Mercury), Hg (hydrargyrum, liquid silver); at. wt. 200.59(2); at. no. 80; t.p. –38.83°C; b.p. 356.73°C; tc 1447°C; sp. gr. 13.546 (20°C); valence 1 or 2. Known to ancient Chinese and Hindus; found in Egyptian tombs of 1500 B.C. Mercury is the only common metal liquid at ordinary temperatures. It only rarely occurs free in nature. The chief ore is cinnabar (HgS). Spain and China produce about 75% of the world’s supply of the metal. The commercial unit for handling mercury is the “flask,” which weighs 76 lb (34.46 kg). The metal is obtained by heating cinnabar in a current of air and by condensing the vapor. It is a heavy, silvery-white metal; a rather poor conductor of heat, as compared with other metals, and a fair conductor of electricity. It easily forms alloys with many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, which are called amalgams. Its ease in amalgamating with gold is made use of in the recovery of gold from its ores. The metal is widely used in laboratory work for making thermometers, barometers, diffusion pumps, and many other instruments. It is used in making mercury-vapor lamps and advertising signs, etc. and is used in mercury switches and other electrical apparatus. Other uses are in making pesticides, mercury cells for caustic soda and chlorine production, dental preparations, antifouling paint, batteries, and catalysts. The most important salts are mercuric chloride HgCl2 (corrosive sublimate — a violent poison), mercurous chloride Hg2Cl2(calomel, occasionally still used in medicine), mercury fulminate (Hg(ONC)2), a detonator widely used in explosives, and mercuric sulfide (HgS, vermillion, a high-grade paint pigment). Organic mercury compounds are important. It has been found that an electrical discharge causes mercury vapor to combine with neon, argon, krypton, and xenon. These products, held together with van der Waals’ forces, correspond to HgNe, HgAr, HgKr, and HgXe. Mercury is a virulent poison and is readily absorbed through the respiratory tract, the gastrointestinal tract, or through unbroken skin. It acts as a cumulative poison and dangerous levels are readily attained in air. Air saturated with mercury vapor at 20°C contains a concentration that exceeds the toxic limit many times. The danger increases at higher temperatures. It is therefore important that mercury be handled with care. Containers of mercury should be securely covered and spillage should be avoided. If it is necessary to heat mercury or mercury compounds, it should be done in a well-ventilated hood. Methyl mercury is a dangerous pollutant and is now widely found in water and streams. The triple point of mercury, – 38.8344°C, is a fixed point on the International Temperature Scale (ITS-90). Mercury (99.98%) is priced at about $110/kg. Native mercury contains seven isotopes. Thirty-six other isotopes and isomers are known. Molybdenum — (Gr. molybdos, lead), Mo; at. wt. 95.94(1); at. no. 42; m.p. 2623°C; b.p. 4639°C; sp. gr. 10.22 (20°C); valence 2, 3, 4?, 5?, or 6. Before Scheele recognized molybdenite as a distinct ore of a new element in 1778, it was confused with graphite and lead ore. The metal was prepared in an impure form in 1782 by Hjelm. Molybdenum does not occur native, but is obtained principally from molybdenite (MoS2). Wulfenite (PbMoO4) and powellite (Ca(MoW)O4) are also minor commercial ores. Molybdenum is also recovered as a by-product of copper and tungsten mining operations. The U.S., Canada, Chile, and China produce most of the world’s molybdenum ores. The metal is prepared from the powder made by the hydrogen reduction of purified molybdic trioxide or ammonium molybdate. The metal is silvery white, very hard, but is softer and more ductile than tungsten. It has a high elastic modulus, and only tungsten and tantalum, of the more readily available metals, have higher melting points. It is a valuable alloying agent, as it contributes to the hardenability and toughness of quenched and tempered steels. It also improves the strength of steel at high temperatures. It is used in certain nickel-based alloys, such as the “Hastelloys®” which are heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant to chemical solutions. Molybdenum oxidizes at elevated temperatures. The metal has found recent application as electrodes for electrically heated glass furnaces and forehearths. The metal is also used in nuclear energy applications and for missile and aircraft parts. Molybdenum is valuable as a catalyst in the refining of petroleum. It has found application as a filament material in electronic and electrical applications. Molybdenum is an essential trace element in plant nutrition. Some lands are barren for lack of this element in the soil. Molybdenum sulfide is useful as a lubricant, especially at high temperatures where oils would decompose. Almost all ultra-high strength steels with minimum yield points up to 300,000 psi(lb/in.2) contain molybdenum in amounts from 0.25 to 8%. Natural molybdenum contains seven isotopes. Thirty other isotopes and isomers are known, all of which are radioactive. Molybdenum metal costs about $1/g (99.999% purity). Commercial molybdenum metal (99.9%) costs about $300/kg. Neodymium — (Gr. neos, new, and didymos, twin), Nd; at. wt. 144.24(3); at. no. 60; m.p. 1021°C; b.p. 3074°C; sp. gr. 7.008 (25°C); valence 3. In 1841, Mosander, extracted from cerite a new rose-colored oxide, which he believed contained a new element. He named the element didymium, as it was an inseparable twin brother of lanthanum. In 1885 von Welsbach separated didymium into two new elemental components, neodymia and praseodymia, by repeated fractionation of ammonium didymium nitrate. While the free metal is in misch metal, long known and used as a pyrophoric alloy for light flints, the element was not isolated in relatively pure form until 1925. Neodymium is present in misch metal to the extent of about 18%. It is present in the minerals monazite and bastnasite, which are principal sources of rare-earth metals. The element may be obtained by separating neodymium salts from other rare earths by ion-exchange or solvent extraction techniques, and by reducing anhydrous halides such as NdF3 with calcium metal. Other separation techniques are possible. The metal has a bright silvery metallic luster. Neodymium is one of the more reactive rare-earth metals and quickly tarnishes in air, forming an oxide that spalls off and exposes metal to oxidation. The metal, therefore, should be kept under light mineral oil or sealed in a plastic material. Neodymium exists in two allotropic forms, with a transformation from a double hexagonal to a body-centered cubic structure taking place at 863°C. Natural neodymium is a mixture of seven isotopes, one of which has a very long half-life. Twenty seven other radioactive isotopes and isomers are recognized. Didymium, of which neodymium is a component, is used for coloring glass to make welder’s goggles. By itself, neodymium colors glass delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm gray. Light transmitted through such glass shows unusually sharp absorption bands. The glass has been used in astronomical work to produce sharp bands by which spectral lines may be calibrated. Glass containing neodymium can be used as a laser material to produce coherent light. Neodymium salts are also used as a colorant for enamels. The element is also being used with iron and boron to produce extremely strong magnets having energy densities as high as 27 to 35 million gauss oersteds. These are the most compact magnets commercially available. The price of the metal is about $4/g. Neodymium has a low-to-moderate acute toxic rating. As with other rare earths, neodymium should be handled with care. Neon — (Gr. neos, new), Ne; at. wt. 20.1797(6); at. no. 10; t.p. –248.59°C; b.p. –246.08°C; tc -228.7°C (1 atm); density of gas 0.89990 g/l (1 atm, 0°C); density of liquid at b.p. 1.207 g/cm3; valence 0. Discovered by Ramsay and Travers in 1898. Neon is a rare gaseous element present in the atmosphere to the extent of 1 part in 65,000 of air. It is obtained by liquefaction of air and separated from the other gases by fractional distillation. Natural
4-19
THE ELEMENTS (continued) neon is a mixture of three isotopes. Fourteen other unstable isotopes are known. It is very inert element; however, it is said to form a compound with fluorine. It is still questionable if true compounds of neon exist, but evidence is mounting in favor of their existence. The following ions are known from optical and mass spectrometric studies: Ne+, (NeAr)+, (NeH)+, and (HeNe+). Neon also forms an unstable hydrate. In a vacuum discharge tube, neon glows reddish orange. Of all the rare gases, the discharge of neon is the most intense at ordinary voltages and currents. Neon is used in making the common neon advertising signs, which accounts for its largest use. It is also used to make high-voltage indicators, lightning arrestors, wave meter tubes, and TV tubes. Neon and helium are used in making gas lasers. Liquid neon is now commercially available and is finding important application as an economical cryogenic refrigerant. It has over 40 times more refrigerating capacity per unit volume than liquid helium and more than three times that of liquid hydrogen. It is compact, inert, and is less expensive than helium when it meets refrigeration requirements. Neon costs about $800/80 cu. ft. (2265 l). Neptunium — (Planet Neptune), Np; at. wt. (237); at. no. 93; m.p. 644°C; sp. gr. 20.25 (20°C); valence 3, 4, 5, and 6. Neptunium was the first synthetic transuranium element of the actinide series discovered; the isotope 239Np was produced by McMillan and Abelson in 1940 at Berkeley, California, as the result of bombarding uranium with cyclotron-produced neutrons. The isotope 237Np (half-life of 2.14 × 106 years) is currently obtained in gram quantities as a by-product from nuclear reactors in the production of plutonium. Twenty-three isotopes and isomers of neptunium are now recognized. Trace quantities of the element are actually found in nature due to transmutation reactions in uranium ores produced by the neutrons which are present. Neptunium is prepared by the reduction of NpF3 with barium or lithium vapor at about 1200°C. Neptunium metal has a silvery appearance, is chemically reactive, and exists in at least three structural modifications: α-neptunium, orthorhombic, density 20.25 g/cm3, β-neptunium (above 280°C), tetragonal, density (313°C) 19.36 g/cm3; γ-neptunium (above 577°C), cubic, density (600°C) 18.0 g/cm3. Neptunium has four ionic oxidation states in solution: Np+3 (pale purple), analogous to the rare earth ion Pm+3, Np+4 (yellow green); NpO+ (green blue); and NpO++ (pale pink). These latter oxygenated species are in contrast to the rare earths which exhibit only simple ions of the (II), (III), and (IV) oxidation states in aqueous solution. The element forms tri- and tetrahalides such as NpF3, NpF4, NpCl4, NpBr3, NpI3, and oxides of various compositions such as are found in the uraniumoxygen system, including Np3O8 and NpO2. Nickel — (Ger. Nickel, Satan or Old Nick’s and from kupfernickel, Old Nick’s copper), Ni; at. wt. 58.6934(2); at. no. 28; m.p. 1455°C; b.p. 2913°C; sp. gr. 8.902 (25°C); valence 0, 1, 2, 3. Discovered by Cronstedt in 1751 in kupfernickel (niccolite). Nickel is found as a constituent in most meteorites and often serves as one of the criteria for distinguishing a meteorite from other minerals. Iron meteorites, or siderites, may contain iron alloyed with from 5 to nearly 20% nickel. Nickel is obtained commercially from pentlandite and pyrrhotite of the Sudbury region of Ontario, a district that produces much of the world’s nickel. It is now thought that the Sudbury deposit is the result of an ancient meteorite impact. Large deposits of nickel, cobalt, and copper have recently been developed at Voisey’s Bay, Laborador. Other deposits of nickel are found in Russia, New Caledonia, Australia, Cuba, Indonesia, and elsewhere. Nickel is silvery white and takes on a high polish. It is hard, malleable, ductile, somewhat ferromagnetic, and a fair conductor of heat and electricity. It belongs to the iron-cobalt group of metals and is chiefly valuable for the alloys it forms. It is extensively used for making stainless steel and other corrosion-resistant alloys such as Invar®, Monel®, Inconel®, and the Hastelloys®. Tubing made of a copper-nickel alloy is extensively used in making desalination plants for converting sea water into fresh water. Nickel is also now used extensively in coinage and in making nickel steel for armor plate and burglar-proof vaults, and is a component in Nichrome®, Permalloy®, and constantan. Nickel added to glass gives a green color. Nickel plating is often used to provide a protective coating for other metals, and finely divided nickel is a catalyst for hydrogenating vegetable oils. It is also used in ceramics, in the manufacture of Alnico magnets, and in the Edison® storage battery. The sulfate and the oxides are important compounds. Natural nickel is a mixture of five stable isotopes; twenty-five other unstable isotopes are known. Nickel sulfide fume and dust is recognized as having carcinogenic potential. Nickel metal (99.9%) is priced at about $1.25/g or less in larger quantities. Nielsbohrium — See Bohrium. Niobium — (Niobe, daughter of Tantalus), Nb; or Columbium (Columbia, name for America); at. wt. 92.90638(2); at. no. 41; m.p. 2477°C; b.p. 4744°C, sp. gr. 8.57 (20°C); valence 2, 3, 4?, 5. Discovered in 1801 by Hatchett in an ore sent to England more that a century before by John Winthrop the Younger, first governor of Connecticut. The metal was first prepared in 1864 by Blomstrand, who reduced the chloride by heating it in a hydrogen atmosphere. The name niobium was adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1950 after 100 years of controversy. Many leading chemical societies and government organizations refer to it by this name. Most metallurgists, leading metal societies, and all but one of the leading U.S. commercial producers, however, still refer to the metal as “columbium”. The element is found in niobite(or columbite), niobite-tantalite, pyrochlore, and euxenite. Large deposits of niobium have been found associated with carbonatites (carbon-silicate rocks), as a constituent of pyrochlore. Extensive ore reserves are found in Canada, Brazil, Congo-Kinshasa, Rwanda, and Australia. The metal can be isolated from tantalum, and prepared in several ways. It is a shiny, white, soft, and ductile metal, and takes on a bluish cast when exposed to air at room temperatures for a long time. The metal starts to oxidize in air at 200°C, and when processed at even moderate temperatures must be placed in a protective atmosphere. It is used in arc-welding rods for stabilized grades of stainless steel. Thousands of pounds of niobium have been used in advance air frame systems such as were used in the Gemini space program. It has also found use in super-alloys for applications such as jet engine components, rocket subassemblies, and heat-resisting equipment. The element has superconductive properties; superconductive magnets have been made with Nb-Zr wire, which retains its superconductivity in strong magnetic fields. This type of application offers hope of direct large-scale generation of electric power. Natural niobium is composed of only one isotope, 93Nb. Forty-seven other isotopes and isomers of niobium are now recognized. Niobium metal (99.9% pure) is priced at about 50¢/g. Nitrogen — (L. nitrum, Gr. nitron, native soda; genes, forming, N; at. wt. 14.00674(7); at. no. 7; m.p. –210.00°C; b.p. –198.79°C; tc -146.94°C; density 1.2506 g/l; sp. gr. liquid 0.808 (–195.8°C), solid 1.026 (–252°C); valence 3 or 5. Discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, but Scheele, Cavendish,Priestley, and others about the same time studied “burnt or dephlogisticated air,” as air without oxygen was then called. Nitrogen makes up 78% of the air, by volume. The atmosphere of Mars, by comparison, is 2.6% nitrogen. The estimated amount of this element in our atmosphere is more than 4000 trillion tons. From this inexhaustible source it can be obtained by liquefaction and fractional distillation. Nitrogen molecules give the orange-red, blue-green, blue-violet, and deep violet shades to the aurora.The element is so inert that Lavoisier named it azote, meaning without life, yet its compounds are so active as to be most important in foods, poisons, fertilizers, and explosives. Nitrogen can be also easily prepared by heating a water solution of ammonium nitrite. Nitrogen, as a gas, is colorless, odorless, and a generally inert element. As a liquid it is also colorless and odorless, and is similar in appearance to water. Two allotropic forms of solid nitrogen exist, with the transition from the α to the β form taking place at –237°C. When nitrogen is heated, it combines directly with magnesium, lithium, or calcium; when mixed with oxygen and subjected to electric sparks, it forms
4-20
THE ELEMENTS (continued) first nitric oxide (NO) and then the dioxide (NO2); when heated under pressure with a catalyst with hydrogen, ammonia is formed (Haber process). The ammonia thus formed is of the utmost importance as it is used in fertilizers, and it can be oxidized to nitric acid (Ostwald process). The ammonia industryis the largest consumer of nitrogen. Large amounts of gas are also used by the electronics industry, which uses the gas as a blanketing medium during production of such components as transistors, diodes, etc. Large quantities of nitrogen are used in annealing stainless steel and other steel mill products. The drug industry also uses large quantities. Nitrogen is used as a refrigerant both for the immersion freezing of food products and for transportation of foods. Liquid nitrogen is also used in missile work as a purge for components, insulators for space chambers, etc., and by the oil industry to build up great pressures in wells to force crude oil upward. Sodium and potassium nitrates are formed by the decomposition of organic matter with compounds of the metals present. In certain dry areas of the world these saltpeters are found in quantity. Ammonia, nitric acid, the nitrates, the five oxides (N2O, NO, N2O3, NO2, and N2O5), TNT, the cyanides, etc. are but a few of the important compounds. Nitrogen gas prices vary from 2¢ to $2.75 per 100 ft3 (2.83 cu. meters), depending on purity, etc. Production of elemental nitrogen in the U.S. is more than 9 million short tons per year. Natural nitrogen contains two isotopes, 14N and 15N. Ten other isotopes are known. Nobelium — (Alfred Nobel, discoverer of dynamite), No; at. wt. [259]; at. no. 102; valence +2, +3. Nobelium was unambiguously discovered and identified in April 1958 at Berkeley by A. Ghiorso, T. Sikkeland, J. R. Walton, and G. T. Seaborg, who used a new double-recoil technique. A heavy-ion linear accelerator (HILAC) was used to bombard a thin target of curium (95% 244Cm and 4.5% 246Cm) with 12C ions to produce 102254 according to the 246Cm (12C, 4n) reaction. Earlier in 1957 workers of the U.S., Britain, and Sweden announced the discovery of an isotope of Element 102 with a 10-min half-life at 8.5 MeV, as a result of bombarding 244Cm with 13C nuclei. On the basis of this experiment the name nobelium was assigned and accepted by the Commission on Atomic Weights of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. The acceptance of the name was premature, for both Russian and American efforts now completely rule out the possibility of any isotope of Element 102 having a half-life of 10 min in the vicinity of 8.5 MeV. Early work in 1957 on the search for this element, in Russia at the Kurchatov Institute, was marred by the assignment of 8.9 ± 0.4 MeV alpha radiation with a half-life of 2 to 40 sec, which was too indefinite to support claim to discovery. Confirmatory experiments at Berkeley in 1966 have shown the existence of 254102 with a 55-s half-life, 252102 with a 2.3-s half-life, and 257102 with a 25-s half-life. Twelve isotopes are now recognized, one of which — 255102 has a half-life of 3.1 min. In view of the discover’s traditional right to name an element, the Berkeley group, in 1967, suggested that the hastily given name nobelium, along with the symbol No, be retained. Osmium — (Gr. osme, a smell), Os; at. wt. 190.23(3); at. no. 76; m.p. 3033°C; b.p. 5012°C; sp. gr. 22.57; valence 0 to +8, more usually +3, +4, +6, and +8. Discovered in 1803 by Tennant in the residue left when crude platinum is dissolved by aqua regia. Osmium occurs in iridosmine and in platinum-bearing river sands of the Urals, North America, and South America. It is also found in the nickel-bearing ores of Sudbury, Ontario, region along with other platinum metals. While the quantity of platinum metals in these ores is very small, the large tonnages of nickel ores processed make commercial recovery possible. The metal is lustrous, bluish white, extremely hard, and brittle even at high temperatures. It has the highest melting point and the lowest vapor pressure of the platinum group. The metal is very difficult to fabricate, but the powder can be sintered in a hydrogen atmosphere at a temperature of 2000°C. The solid metal is not affected by air at room temperature, but the powdered or spongy metal slowly gives off osmium tetroxide, which is a powerful oxidizing agent and has a strong smell. The tetroxide is highly toxic, and boils at 130°C (760 mm). Concentrations in air as low as 10–7 g/m3 can cause lung congestion, skin damage, or eye damage. The tetroxide has been used to detect fingerprints and to stain fatty tissue for microscope slides. The metal is almost entirely used to produce very hard alloys, with other metals of the platinum group, for fountain pen tips, instrument pivots, phonograph needles, and electrical contacts. The price of 99.9% pure osmium powder — the form usually supplied commercially — is about $100/g, depending on quantity and supplier. Natural osmium contains seven isotopes, one of which, 186Os, is radioactive with a very long half-life. Thirty four other isotopes and isomers are known, all of which are radioactive.The measured densities of iridium and osmium seem to indicate that osmium is slightly more dense than iridium, so osmium has generally been credited with being the heaviest known element. Calculations of the density from the space lattice, which may be more reliable for these elements than actual measurements, however, give a density of 22.65 for iridium compared to 226.61 for osmium. At present, therefore, we know either iridium or osmium is the heaviest element, but the data do not allow selection between the two. Oxygen — (Gr. oxys, sharp, acid, and genes, forming; acid former), O; at. wt. 15.9994(3); at. no. 8; t.p. –218.79°C; tc -118.56°C; valence 2. For many centuries, workers occasionally realized air was composed of more than one component. The behavior of oxygen and nitrogen as components of air led to the advancement of the phlogiston theory of combustion, which captured the minds of chemists for a century. Oxygen was prepared by several workers, including Bayen and Borch, but they did not know how to collect it, did not study its properties, and did not recognize it as an elementary substance. Priestley is generally credited with its discovery, although Scheele also discovered it independently. Oxygen is the third most abundant element found in the sun, and it plays a part in the carbon-nitrogen cycle, one process thought to give the sun and stars their energy. Oxygen under excited conditions is responsible for the bright red and yellow-green colors of the aurora. Oxygen, as a gaseous element, forms 21% of the atmosphere by volume from which it can be obtained by liquefaction and fractional distillation. The atmosphere of Mars contains about 0.15% oxygen. The element and its compounds make up 49.2%, by weight, of the earth’s crust. About two thirds of the human body and nine tenths of water is oxygen. In the laboratory it can be prepared by the electrolysis of water or by heating potassium chlorate with manganese dioxide as a catalyst. The gas is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. The liquid and solid forms are a pale blue color and are strongly paramagnetic. Ozone (O3), a highly active compound, is formed by the action of an electrical discharge or ultraviolet light on oxygen. Ozone’s presence in the atmosphere (amounting to the equivalent of a layer 3 mm thick at ordinary pressures and temperatures) is of vital importance in preventing harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun from reaching the earth’s surface. There has been recent concern that pollutants in the atmosphere may have a detrimental effect on this ozone layer. Ozone is toxic and exposure should not exceed 0.2 mg/m3 (8-hour time-weighted average — 40-hour work week). Undiluted ozone has a bluish color. Liquid ozone is bluish black, and solid ozone is violet-black. Oxygen is very reactive and capable of combining with most elements. It is a component of hundreds of thousands of organic compounds. It is essential for respiration of all plants and animals and for practically all combustion. In hospitals it is frequently used to aid respiration of patients. Its atomic weight was used as a standard of comparison for each of the other elements until 1961 when the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry adopted carbon 12 as the new basis. Oxygen has thirteen recognized isotopes. Natural oxygen is a mixture of three isotopes. Oxygen 18 occurs naturally, is stable, and is available commercially. Water (H2O with 1.5% 18O) is also available. Commercial oxygen consumption in the U.S. is estimated to be 20 million short tons per year and the demand is expected to increase substantially in the next few years. Oxygen enrichment of steel blast furnaces accounts for the greatest use of the gas. Large quantities are also used in making synthesis gas for ammonia and methanol, ethylene oxide, and for oxy-acetylene welding. Air separation plants produce about 99% of the gas, electrolysis plants about 1%. The gas costs 5¢/ft3 ($1.75/cu. meters) in small quantities.
4-21
THE ELEMENTS (continued) Palladium — (named after the asteroid Pallas, discovered about the same time; Gr. Pallas, goddess of wisdom), Pd. at. wt. 106.42(1) at. no. 46; m.p. 1554.9°C; b.p. 2963°C; sp. gr. 12.02 (20°C); valence 2, 3, or 4. Discovered in 1803 by Wollaston. Palladium is found along with platinum and other metals of the platinum group in deposits of Russia, South Africa, Canada (Ontario), and elsewhere. Natural palladium contains six stable isotopes. Twenty-nine other isotopes are recognized, all of which are radioactive. It is frequently found associated with the nickel-copper deposits such as those found in Ontario. Its separation from the platinum metals depends upon the type of ore in which it is found. It is a steel-white metal, does not tarnish in air, and is the least dense and lowest melting of the platinum group of metals. When annealed, it is soft and ductile; cold working greatly increases its strength and hardness. Palladium is attacked by nitric and sulfuric acid. At room temperatures the metal has the unusual property of absorbing up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen, possibly forming Pd2H. It is not yet clear if this a true compound. Hydrogen readily diffuses through heated palladium and this provides a means of purifying the gas. Finely divided palladium is a good catalyst and is used for hydrogenation and dehydrogenation reactions. It is alloyed and used in jewelry trades. White gold is an alloy of gold decolorized by the addition of palladium. Like gold, palladium can be beaten into leaf as thin as 1/250,000 in. The metal is used in dentistry, watchmaking, and in making surgical instruments and electrical contacts. Palladium recently has been substituted for higher priced platinum in catalytic converters by some automobile companies. This has caused a large increase in the cost of palladium. The price of the two metals are now, in 1999, about the same. Palladium, however, is less resistant to poisoning by sulfur and lead, than platinum, but it may prove useful in controlling emissions from diesel vehicles. The metal sells for about $425/tr. oz. ($13/g). Phosphorus — (Gr. phosphoros, light bearing; ancient name for the planet Venus when appearing before sunrise), P; at. wt. 30.973762(4); at. no. 15; m.p. (white) 44.15°C; b.p. 280.5°C; sp. gr. (white) 1.82 (red) 2.20, (black) 2.25 to 2.69; valence 3 or 5. Discovered in 1669 by Brand, who prepared it from urine. Phosphorus exists in four or more allotropic forms: white (or yellow), red, and black (or violet). White phosphorus has two modifications: α and β with a transition temperature at –3.8°C. Never found free in nature, it is widely distributed in combination with minerals. Twenty-one isotopes of phosphorus are recognized. Phosphate rock, which contains the mineral apatite, an impure tri-calcium phosphate, is an important source of the element. Large deposits are found in the Russia,China, Morocco, and in Florida, Tennessee, Utah, Idaho, and elsewhere. Phosphorus in an essential ingredient of all cell protoplasm, nervous tissue, and bones. Ordinary phosphorus is a waxy white solid; when pure it is colorless and transparent. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in carbon disulfide. It takes fire spontaneously in air, burning to the pentoxide. It is very poisonous, 50 mg constituting an approximate fatal dose. Exposure to white phosphorus should not exceed 0.1 mg/m3 (8-hour time-weighted average — 40-hour work week). White phosphorus should be kept under water, as it is dangerously reactive in air, and it should be handled with forceps, as contact with the skin may cause severe burns. When exposed to sunlight or when heated in its own vapor to 250°C, it is converted to the red variety, which does not phosphoresce in air as does the white variety. This form does not ignite spontaneously and it is not as dangerous as white phosphorus. It should, however, be handled with care as it does convert to the white form at some temperatures and it emits highly toxic fumes of the oxides of phosphorus when heated. The red modification is fairly stable, sublimes with a vapor pressure of 1 atm at 417°C,and is used in the manufacture of safety matches, pyrotechnics, pesticides, incendiary shells, smoke bombs, tracer bullets, etc. White phosphorus may be made by several methods. By one process, tri-calcium phosphate, the essential ingredient of phosphate rock, is heated in the presence of carbon and silica in an electric furnace or fuel-fired furnace. Elementary phosphorus is liberated as vapor and may be collected under water. If desired, the phosphorus vapor and carbon monoxide produced by the reaction can be oxidized at once in the presence of moisture to produce phosphoric acid, an important compound in making super-phosphate fertilizers. In recent years, concentrated phosphoric acids, which may contain as much as 70 to 75% P2O5 content, have become of great importance to agriculture and farm production. World-wide demand for fertilizers has caused record phosphate production. Phosphates are used in the production of special glasses, such as those used for sodium lamps. Bone-ash, calcium phosphate, is also used to produce fine chinaware and to produce mono-calcium phosphate used in baking powder. Phosphorus is also important in the production of steels, phosphor bronze, and many other products. Trisodium phosphate is important as a cleaning agent, as a water softener, and for preventing boiler scale and corrosion of pipes and boiler tubes. Organic compounds of phosphorus are important. Amorphous (red) phosphorus costs about $80/kg (99.5%). Platinum — (It. platina, silver), Pt; at. wt. 195.078(2); at. no. 78; m.p. 1768.4°C; b.p. 3825°C; sp. gr. 21.45 (20°C); valence 1?, 2, 3, or 4. Discovered in South America by Ulloa in 1735 and by Wood in 1741. The metal was used by pre-Columbian Indians. Platinum occurs native, accompanied by small quantities of iridium, osmium, palladium, ruthenium, and rhodium, all belonging to the same group of metals. These are found in the alluvial deposits of the Ural mountains and in Columbia. Sperrylite (PtAs2), occurring with the nickel-bearing deposits of Sudbury, Ontario, is a source of a considerable amount of metal. The large production of nickel offsets there being only one part of the platinum metals in two million parts of ore. The largest supplier of the platinum group of metals is now South Africa, followed by Russia and Canada. Platinum is a beautiful silvery-white metal, when pure, and is malleable and ductile. It has a coefficient of expansion almost equal to that of soda-lime-silica glass, and is therefore used to make sealed electrodes in glass systems. The metal does not oxidize in air at any temperature, but is corroded by halogens, cyanides, sulfur, and caustic alkalis. It is insoluble in hydrochloric and nitric acid, but dissolves when they are mixed as aqua regia, forming chloroplatinic acid (H2PtCl6), an important compound. Natural platinum contains six isotopes, one of which, 190Pt, is radioactive with a long half-life. Thirty-seven other radioactive isotopes and isomers are recognized. The metal is extensively used in jewelry, wire, and vessels for laboratory use, and in many valuable instruments including thermocouple elements. It is also used for electrical contacts, corrosion-resistant apparatus, and in dentistry. Platinum-cobalt alloys have magnetic properties. One such alloy made of 76.7% Pt and 23.3% Co, by weight, is an extremely powerful magnet that offers a B-H (max) almost twice that of Alnico V. Platinum resistance wires are used for constructing high-temperature electric furnaces. The metal is used for coating missile nose cones, jet engine fuel nozzles, etc., which must perform reliably for long periods of time at high temperatures. The metal, like palladium, absorbs large volumes, of hydrogen, retaining it at ordinary temperatures but giving it up at red heat. In the finely divided state platinum is an excellent catalyst, having long been used in the contact process for producing sulfuric acid. It is also used as a catalyst in cracking petroleum products. There is also much current interest in the use of platinum as a catalyst in fuel cells and in its use as antipollution devices for automobiles. Platinum anodes are extensively used in cathodic protection systems for large ships and ocean-going vessels, pipelines, steel piers, etc. Pure platinum wire will glow red hot when placed in the vapor of methyl alcohol. It acts here as a catalyst, converting the alcohol to formaldehyde. This phenomenon has been used commercially to produce cigarette lighters and hand warmers. Hydrogen and oxygen explode in the presence of platinum. The price of platinum has varied widely; more than a century ago it was used to adulterate gold. It was nearly eight times as valuable as gold in 1920. The price in December 1999 was about $460/ troy oz. ($15/g), somewhat higher than the price of gold. Plutonium — (Planet pluto), Pu; at. wt. (244); at. no. 94; sp. gr. (α modification) 19.84 (25°C); m.p. 640°C; b.p. 3228°C; valence 3, 4, 5, or 6. Plutonium was the second transuranium element of the actinide series to be discovered. The isotope 238Pu was produced in 1940 by Seaborg, McMillan,
4-22
THE ELEMENTS (continued) Kennedy, and Wahl by deuteron bombardment of uranium in the 60-inch cyclotron at Berkeley, California. Plutonium also exists in trace quantities in naturally occurring uranium ores. It is formed in much the same manner as neptunium, by irradiation of natural uranium with the neutrons which are present. By far of greatest importance is the isotope Pu239, with a half-life of 24,100 years, produced in extensive quantities in nuclear reactors from natural uranium: 238
U( n, γ )→ 239 U β→ 239 Np β→ 239 Pu
Nineteen isotopes of plutonium are now known. Plutonium has assumed the position of dominant importance among the transuranium elements because of its successful use as an explosive ingredient in nuclear weapons and the place which it holds as a key material in the development of industrial use of nuclear power. One kilogram is equivalent to about 22 million kilowatt hours of heat energy. The complete detonation of a kilogram of plutonium produces an explosion equal to about 20,000 tons of chemical explosive. Its importance depends on the nuclear property of being readily fissionable with neutrons and its availability in quantity. The world’s nuclear-power reactors are now producing about 20,000 kg of plutonium/yr. By 1982 it was estimated that about 300,000 kg had accumulated. The various nuclear applications of plutonium are well known. 238Pu has been used in the Apollo lunar missions to power seismic and other equipment on the lunar surface. As with neptunium and uranium, plutonium metal can be prepared by reduction of the trifluoride with alkaline-earth metals. The metal has a silvery appearance and takes on a yellow tarnish when slightly oxidized. It is chemically reactive. A relatively large piece of plutonium is warm to the touch because of the energy given off in alpha decay. Larger pieces will produce enough heat to boil water. The metal readily dissolves in concentrated hydrochloric acid, hydroiodic acid, or perchloric acid with formation of the Pu+3 ion. The metal exhibits six allotropic modifications having various crystalline structures. The densities of these vary from 16.00 to 19.86 g/cm3. Plutonium also exhibits four ionic valence states in aqueous solutions: Pu+3(blue lavender), Pu+4 (yellow brown), PuO+ (pink?), and PuO+2 (pink orange). The ion PuO+ is unstable in aqueous solutions, disproportionating into Pu+4 and PuO+2. The Pu+4 thus formed, however, oxidizes the PuO+ into PuO+2, itself being reduced to Pu+3, giving finally Pu+3 and PuO+2. Plutonium forms binary compounds with oxygen: PuO, PuO2, and intermediate oxides of variable composition; with the halides: PuF3, PuF4, PuCl3, PuBr3, PuI3; with carbon, nitrogen, and silicon: PuC, PuN, PuSi2. Oxyhalides are also well known: PuOCl, PuOBr, PuOI. Because of the high rate of emission of alpha particles and the element being specifically absorbed by bone marrow, plutonium, as well as all of the other transuranium elements except neptunium, are radiological poisons and must be handled with very special equipment and precautions. Plutonium is a very dangerous radiological hazard. Precautions must also be taken to prevent the unintentional formation of a critical mass. Plutonium in liquid solution is more likely to become critical than solid plutonium. The shape of the mass must also be considered where criticality is concerned. Plutonium-239 is available to authorized users from the O.R.N.L. at a cost of about $4.80/mg (99.9%) plus packing costs. Polonium — (Poland, native country of Mme. Curie [1867–1934]), Po; at. wt. (209); at. no. 84; m.p. 254°C; b.p. 962°C; sp. gr. (alpha modification) 9.32; valence –2, 0, +2, +3(?), +4, and +6. Polonium was the first element discovered by Mme. Curie in 1898, while seeking the cause of radioactivity of pitchblende from Joachimsthal, Bohemia. The electroscope showed it separating with bismuth. Polonium is also called Radium F. Polonium is a very rare natural element. Uranium ores contain only about 100 µg of the element per ton. Its abundance is only about 0.2% of that of radium. In 1934, it was found that when natural bismuth (209Bi) was bombarded by neutrons, 210Bi, the parent of polonium, was obtained. Milligram amounts of polonium may now be prepared this way, by using the high neutron fluxes of nuclear reactors. Polonium-210 is a low-melting, fairly volatile metal, 50% of which is vaporized in air in 45 hours at 55°C. It is an alpha emitter with a half-life of 138.39 days. A milligram emits as many alpha particles as 5 g of radium. The energy released by its decay is so large (140 W/g) that a capsule containing about half a gram reaches a temperature above 500°C. The capsule also presents a contact gamma-ray dose rate of 0.012 Gy/h. A few curies (1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 Bq) of polonium exhibit a blue glow, caused by excitation of the surrounding gas. Because almost all alpha radiation is stopped within the solid source and its container, giving up its energy, polonium has attracted attention for uses as a lightweight heat source for thermoelectric power in space satellites. Thirty-eight isotopes and isomers of polonium are known, with atomic masses ranging from 192 to 218. All are radioactive. Polonium-210 is the most readily available. Isotopes of mass 209 (half-life 102 years) and mass 208 (half-life 2.9 years) can be prepared by alpha, proton, or deuteron bombardment of lead or bismuth in a cyclotron, but these are expensive to produce. Metallic polonium has been prepared from polonium hydroxide and some other polonium compounds in the presence of concentrated aqueous or anhydrous liquid ammonia. Two allotropic modifications are known to exist. Polonium is readily dissolved in dilute acids, but is only slightly soluble in alkalis. Polonium salts of organic acids char rapidly; halide amines are reduced to the metal. Polonium can be mixed or alloyed with beryllium to provide a source of neutrons. It has been used in devices for eliminating static charges in textile mills, etc.; however, beta sources are more commonly used and are less dangerous. It is also used on brushes for removing dust from photographic films. The polonium for these is carefully sealed and controlled, minimizing hazards to the user. Polonium-210 is very dangerous to handle in even milligram or microgram amounts, and special equipment and strict control is necessary. Damage arises from the complete absorption of the energy of the alpha particle into tissue. The maximum permissible body burden for ingested polonium is only 0.03 µCi, which represents a particle weighing only 6.8 × 10–12 g. Weight for weight it is about 2.5 × 1011 times as toxic as hydrocyanic acid. The maximum allowable concentration for soluble polonium compounds in air is about 2 × 1011 µCi/cm3. Polonium-209 is available on special order from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory at a cost of $3600/µCi plus packing costs.. Potassium — (English, potash — pot ashes; L. kalium, Arab. qali, alkali), K; at. wt. 39.0983(1); at. no. 19; m.p. 63.38°C; b.p. 759°C; sp. gr. 0.862 (20°C); valence 1. Discovered in 1807 by Davy, who obtained it from caustic potash (KOH); this was the first metal isolated by electrolysis. The metal is the seventh most abundant and makes up about 2.4% by weight of the earth’s crust. Most potassium minerals are insoluble and the metal is obtained from them only with great difficulty. Certain minerals, however, such as sylvite, carnallite, langbeinite, and polyhalite are found in ancient lake and sea beds and form rather extensive deposits from which potassium and its salts can readily be obtained. Potash is mined in Germany, New Mexico, California, Utah, and elsewhere. Large deposits of potash, found at a depth of some 1000 m in Saskatchewan, promise to be important in coming years. Potassium is also found in the ocean, but is present only in relatively small amounts, compared to sodium. The greatest demand for potash has been in its use for fertilizers. Potassium is an essential constituent for plant growth and it is found in most soils. Potassium is never found free in nature, but is obtained by electrolysis of the hydroxide, much in the same manner as prepared by Davy. Thermal methods also are commonly used to produce potassium (such as by reduction of potassium compounds with CaC2, C, Si, or Na). It is one of the most reactive and electropositive of metals. Except for lithium, it is the lightest known metal. It is soft, easily cut with a knife, and is silvery in appearance immediately after a fresh surface is exposed. It rapidly oxidizes in air and should be preserved in a mineral oil. As with other metals of the alkali group, it decomposes in water with the evolution
4-23
THE ELEMENTS (continued) of hydrogen. It catches fire spontaneously on water. Potassium and its salts impart a violet color to flames. Twenty one isotopes, one of which is an isomer, of potassium are known. Ordinary potassium is composed of three isotopes, one of which is 40K (0.0117%), a radioactive isotope with a halflife of 1.26 × 109 years. The radioactivity presents no appreciable hazard. An alloy of sodium and potassium (NaK) is used as a heat-transfer medium. Many potassium salts are of utmost importance, including the hydroxide, nitrate, carbonate, chloride, chlorate, bromide, iodide, cyanide, sulfate, chromate, and dichromate. Metallic potassium is available commercially for about $1200/kg (98% purity) or $55/g (99.95% purity). Praseodymium — (Gr. prasios, green, and didymos, twin), Pr; at. wt. 140.90765(2); at. no. 59; m.p. 931°C; b.p. 3520°C; sp. gr. 6.773; valence 3. In 1841 Mosander extracted the rare earth didymia from lanthana; in 1879, Lecoq de Boisbaudran isolated a new earth, samaria, from didymia obtained from the mineral samarskite. Six years later, in 1885, von Welsbach separated didymia into two others, praseodymia and neodymia, which gave salts of different colors. As with other rare earths, compounds of these elements in solution have distinctive sharp spectral absorption bands or lines, some of which are only a few Angstroms wide. The element occurs along with other rare-earth elements in a variety of minerals. Monazite and bastnasite are the two principal commercial sources of the rare-earth metals. Ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques have led to much easier isolation of the rare earths and the cost has dropped greatly in the past few years. Thirty-seven isotopes and isomers are now recognized. Praseodymium can be prepared by several methods, such as by calcium reduction of the anhydrous chloride of fluoride. Misch metal, used in making cigarette lighters, contains about 5% praseodymium metal. Praseodymium is soft, silvery, malleable, and ductile. It was prepared in relatively pure form in 1931. It is somewhat more resistant to corrosion in air than europium, lanthanum, cerium, or neodymium, but it does develop a green oxide coating that spalls off when exposed to air. As with other rare-earth metals it should be kept under a light mineral oil or sealed in plastic. The rare-earth oxides, including Pr2O3, are among the most refractory substances known. Along with other rare earths, it is widely used as a core material for carbon arcs used by the motion picture industry for studio lighting and projection. Salts of praseodymium are used to color glasses and enamels; when mixed with certain other materials, praseodymium produces an intense and unusually clean yellow color in glass. Didymium glass, of which praseodymium is a component, is a colorant for welder’s goggles. The metal (99.9% pure) is priced at about $5/g. Promethium — (Prometheus, who, according to mythology, stole fire from heaven), Pm; at. no. 61; at. wt. (145); m.p. 1042°C; b.p. 3000°C (est.); sp. gr. 7.264 (25°C); valence 3. In 1902 Branner predicted the existence of an element between neodymium and samarium, and this was confirmed by Moseley in 1914. Unsuccessful searches were made for this predicted element over two decades, and various investigators proposed the names “illinium”, “florentium”, and “cyclonium” for this element. In 1941, workers at Ohio State University irradiated neodymium and praseodymium with neutrons, deuterons, and alpha particles, resp., and produced several new radioactivities, which most likely were those of element 61. Wu and Segre, and Bethe, in 1942, confirmed the formation; however, chemical proof of the production of element 61 was lacking because of the difficulty in separating the rare earths from each other at that time. In 1945, Marinsky, Glendenin, and Coryell made the first chemical identification by use of ionexchange chromatography. Their work was done by fission of uranium and by neutron bombardment of neodymium. These investigators named the newly discovered element. Searches for the element on earth have been fruitless, and it now appears that promethium is completely missing from the earth’s crust. Promethium, however, has been reported to be in the spectrum of the star HR465 in Andromeda. This element is being formed recently near the star’s surface, for no known isotope of promethium has a half-life longer than 17.7 years. Thirty five isotopes and isomers of promethium, with atomic masses from 130 to 158 are now known. Promethium-145,with a half-life of 17.7 years, is the most useful. Promethium-145 has a specific activity of 940 Ci/g. It is a soft beta emitter; although no gamma rays are emitted, X-radiation can be generated when beta particles impinge on elements of a high atomic number, and great care must be taken in handling it. Promethium salts luminesce in the dark with a pale blue or greenish glow, due to their high radioactivity. Ion-exchange methods led to the preparation of about 10 g of promethium from atomic reactor fuel processing wastes in early 1963. Little is yet generally known about the properties of metallic promethium. Two allotropic modifications exist. The element has applications as a beta source for thickness gages, and it can be absorbed by a phosphor to produce light. Light produced in this manner can be used for signs or signals that require dependable operation; it can be used as a nuclear-powered battery by capturing light in photocells which convert it into electric current. Such a battery, using 147Pm, would have a useful life of about 5 years. It is being used for fluorescent lighting starters and coatings for self-luminous watch dials. Promethium shows promise as a portable X-ray source, and it may become useful as a heat source to provide auxiliary power for space probes and satellites. More than 30 promethium compounds have been prepared. Most are colored. Promethium-147 is available upon special order from the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID, or from the Westinghouse Hanford Co., Richland, WA. Protactinium — (Gr. protos, first), Pa; at. wt. 231.03588(2); at. no. 91; m.p. 1572°C; sp. gr. 15.37 (calc.); valence 4 or 5. The first isotope of element 91 to be discovered was 234Pa, also known as UX2, a short-lived member of the naturally occurring 238U decay series. It was identified by K. Fajans and O. H. Gohring in 1913 and they named the new element brevium. When the longer-lived isotope 231Pa was identified by Hahn and Meitner in 1918, the name protoactinium was adopted as being more consistent with the characteristics of the most abundant isotope. Soddy, Cranson, and Fleck were also active in this work. The name protoactinium was shortened to protactinium in 1949. In 1927, Grosse prepared 2 mg of a white powder, which was shown to be Pa2O5. Later, in 1934, from 0.1 g of pure Pa2O5 he isolated the element by two methods, one of which was by converting the oxide to an iodide and “cracking” it in a high vacuum by an electrically heated filament by the reaction 2 PaI 5 → 2 Pa + 5I 2
Protactinium has a bright metallic luster which it retains for some time in air. The element occurs in pitchblende to the extent of about 1 part 231Pa to 10 million of ore. Ores from Congo-Kinshasa have about 3 ppm. Protactinium has twenty-eight isotopes and isomers, the most common of which is 231Pr with a half-life of 32,500 years. A number of protactinium compounds are known, some of which are colored. The element is superconductive below 1.4 K. The element is a dangerous toxic material and requires precautions similar to those used when handling plutonium. In 1959 and 1961, it was announced that the Great Britain Atomic Energy Authority extracted by a 12-stage process 125 g of 99.9% protactinium, the world’s only stock of the metal for many years to come. The extraction was made from 60 tons of waste material at a cost of about $500,000. Protactinium is one of the rarest and most expensive naturally occurring elements. Radium — (L. radius, ray), Ra; at. wt. (226); at. no. 88; m.p. 700°C; sp. gr. 5; valence 2. Radium was discovered in 1898 by M. and Mme. Curie in the pitchblende or uraninite of North Bohemia (Czech Republic), where it occurs. There is about 1 g of radium in 7 tons of pitchblende. The element was isolated in 1911 by Mme. Curie and Debierne by the electrolysis of a solution of pure radium chloride, employing a mercury cathode; on distillation in an atmosphere of hydrogen this amalgam yielded the pure metal. Originally, radium was obtained from the rich pitchblende ore found at Joachimsthal, Bohemia. The carnotite sands of Colorado furnish some radium, but richer ores are found in the Republic of Congo-Kinshasa and the
4-24
THE ELEMENTS (continued) Great Bear Lake region of Canada. Radium is present in all uranium minerals, and could be extracted, if desired, from the extensive wastes of uranium processing. Large uranium deposits are located in Ontario, New Mexico, Utah, Australia, and elsewhere. Radium is obtained commercially as the bromide or chloride; it is doubtful if any appreciable stock of the isolated element now exists. The pure metal is brilliant white when freshly prepared, but blackens on exposure to air, probably due to formation of the nitride. It exhibits luminescence, as do its salts; it decomposes in water and is somewhat more volatile than barium. It is a member of the alkaline-earth group of metals. Radium imparts a carmine red color to a flame. Radium emits alpha, beta, and gamma rays and when mixed with beryllium produce neutrons. One gram of 226Ra undergoes 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per s. The curie (Ci) is defined as that amount of radioactivity which has the same disintegration rate as 1 g of 226Ra. Thirty-six isotopes are now known; radium 226, the common isotope, has a half-life of 1599 years. One gram of radium produces about 0.0001 ml (stp) of emanation, or radon gas, per day. This is pumped from the radium and sealed in minute tubes, which are used in the treatment of cancer and other diseases. One gram of radium yields about 4186 kJ per year. Radium is used in producing self-luminous paints, neutron sources, and in medicine for the treatment of disease. Some of the more recently discovered radioisotopes, such as 60Co, are now being used in place of radium. Some of these sources are much more powerful, and others are safer to use. Radium loses about 1% of its activity in 25 years, being transformed into elements of lower atomic weight. Lead is a final product of disintegration. Stored radium should be ventilated to prevent build-up of radon. Inhalation, injection, or body exposure to radium can cause cancer and other body disorders. The maximum permissible burden in the total body for 226Ra is 7400 becquerel. Radon — (from radium; called niton at first, L. nitens, shining), Rn; at. wt. (222); at. no. 86; m.p. –71°C; b.p. –61.7°C; tc 104°C; density of gas 9.73 g/l; sp. gr. liquid 4.4 at –62°C, solid 4; valence usually 0. The element was discovered in 1900 by Dorn, who called it radium emanation. In 1908 Ramsay and Gray, who named it niton, isolated the element and determined its density, finding it to be the heaviest known gas. It is essentially inert and occupies the last place in the zero group of gases in the Periodic Table. Since 1923, it has been called radon. Thirty-seven isotopes and isomers are known. Radon-222, coming from radium, has a half-life of 3.823 days and is an alpha emitter; Radon-220, emanating naturally from thorium and called thoron, has a half-life of 55.6 s and is also an alpha emitter. Radon-219 emanates from actinium and is called actinon. It has a half-life of 3.96 s and is also on alpha emitter. It is estimated that every square mile of soil to a depth of 6 inch contains about 1 g of radium, which releases radon in tiny amounts to the atmosphere. Radon is present in some spring waters, such as those at Hot Springs, Arkansas. On the average, one part of radon is present to 1 × 1021 part of air. At ordinary temperatures radon is a colorless gas; when cooled below the freezing point, radon exhibits a brilliant phosphorescence which becomes yellow as the temperature is lowered and orange-red at the temperature of liquid air. It has been reported that fluorine reacts with radon, forming radon fluoride. Radon clathrates have also been reported. Radon is still produced for therapeutic use by a few hospitals by pumping it from a radium source and sealing it in minute tubes, called seeds or needles, for application to patients. This practice has now been largely discontinued as hospitals can order the seeds directly from suppliers, who make up the seeds with the desired activity for the day of use. Care must be taken in handling radon, as with other radioactive materials. The main hazard is from inhalation of the element and its solid daughters, which are collected on dust in the air. Good ventilation should be provided where radium, thorium, or actinium is stored to prevent build-up of this element. Radon build-up is a health consideration in uranium mines. Recently radon build-up in homes has been a concern. Many deaths from lung cancer are caused by radon exposure. In the U.S. it is recommended that remedial action be taken if the air from radon in homes exceeds 4 pCi/l. Rhenium — (L. Rhenus, Rhine), Re; at. wt. 186.207(1); at. no. 75; m.p. 3186°C; b.p. 5596°C; sp. gr. 21.02 (20°C); valence –1, +1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Discovery of rhenium is generally attributed to Noddack, Tacke, and Berg, who announced in 1925 they had detected the element in platinum ores and columbite. They also found the element in gadolinite and molybdenite. By working up 660 kg of molybdenite they were able in 1928 to extract 1 g of rhenium. The price in 1928 was $10,000/g. Rhenium does not occur free in nature or as a compound in a distinct mineral species. It is, however, widely spread throughout the earth’s crust to the extent of about 0.001 ppm. Commercial rhenium in the U.S. today is obtained from molybdenite roaster-flue dusts obtained from copper-sulfide ores mined in the vicinity of Miami, Arizona, and elsewhere in Arizona and Utah. Some molybdenites contain from 0.002 to 0.2% rhenium. It is estimated that in 1999 about 16,000 kg of rhenium was being produced. The total estimated world reserves of rhenium is 11,000,000 kg. The total estimated Free World reserve of rhenium metal is 3500 tons. Natural rhenium is a mixture of two isotopes, one of which has a very long half-life. Thirty nine other unstable isotopes are recognized. Rhenium metal is prepared by reducing ammonium perrhenate with hydrogen at elevated temperatures. The element is silvery white with a metallic luster; its density is exceeded only by that of platinum, iridium, and osmium, and its melting point is exceeded only by that of tungsten and carbon. It has other useful properties. The usual commercial form of the element is a powder, but it can be consolidated by pressing and resistance-sintering in a vacuum or hydrogen atmosphere. This produces a compact shape in excess of 90% of the density of the metal. Annealed rhenium is very ductile, and can be bent, coiled, or rolled. Rhenium is used as an additive to tungsten and molybdenum-based alloys to impart useful properties. It is widely used for filaments for mass spectrographs and ion gages. Rheniummolybdenum alloys are superconductive at 10 K. Rhenium is also used as an electrical contact material as it has good wear resistance and withstands arc corrosion. Thermocouples made of Re-W are used for measuring temperatures up to 2200°C, and rhenium wire has been used in photoflash lamps for photography. Rhenium catalysts are exceptionally resistant to poisoning from nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, and are used for hydrogenation of fine chemicals, hydrocracking, reforming, and disproportionation of olefins. Rhenium has recently become especially important as a catalyst for petroleum refining and in making super-alloys for jet engines. Rhenium costs about $16/g (99.99% pure). Little is known of its toxicity; therefore, it should be handled with care until more data are available. Rhodium — (Gr. rhodon, rose), Rh; at. wt. 102.90550(3); at. no. 45; m.p. 1964°C; b.p. 3695°C; sp. gr. 12.41 (20°C); valence 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Wollaston discovered rhodium in 1803-4 in crude platinum ore he presumably obtained from South America. Rhodium occurs native with other platinum metals in river sands of the Urals and in North and South America. It is also found with other platinum metals in the copper-nickel sulfide ores of the Sudbury, Ontario region. Although the quantity occurring here is very small, the large tonnages of nickel processed make the recovery commercially feasible. The annual world production of rhodium in 1999 was only about 9000 kg. The metal is silvery white and at red heat slowly changes in air to the sesquioxide. At higher temperatures it converts back to the element. Rhodium has a higher melting point and lower density than platinum. Its major use is as an alloying agent to harden platinum and palladium. Such alloys are used for furnace windings, thermocouple elements, bushings for glass fiber production, electrodes for aircraft spark plugs, and laboratory crucibles. It is useful as an electrical contact material as it has a low electrical resistance, a low and stable contact resistance, and is highly resistant to corrosion. Plated rhodium, produced by electroplating or evaporation, is exceptionally hard and is used for optical instruments. It has a high reflectance and is hard and durable. Rhodium is also used for jewelry, for decoration, and as a catalyst. Fifty-two isotopes and isomers are now known. Soluble salts should not exceed 0.01 mg/m3. Rhodium metal (powder) costs about $180/g (99.9%).
4-25
THE ELEMENTS (continued) Rubidium — (L. rubidus, deepest red), Rb; at. wt. 85.4678(3); at. no. 37; m.p. 39.31°C; b.p. 688°C; sp. gr. (solid) 1.532 (20°C), (liquid) 1.475 (39°C); valence 1, 2, 3, 4. Discovered in 1861 by Bunsen and Kirchoff in the mineral lepidolite by use of the spectroscope. The element is much more abundant than was thought several years ago. It is now considered to be the 16th most abundant element in the earth’s crust. Rubidium occurs in pollucite, carnallite, leucite, and zinnwaldite, which contains traces up to 1%, in the form of the oxide. It is found in lepidolite to the extent of about 1.5%, and is recovered commercially from this source. Potassium minerals, such as those found at Searles Lake, California, and potassium chloride recovered from brines in Michigan also contain the element and are commercial sources. It is also found along with cesium in the extensive deposits of pollucite at Bernic Lake, Manitoba. Rubidium can be liquid at room temperature. It is a soft, silvery-white metallic element of the alkali group and is the second most electropositive and alkaline element. It ignites spontaneously in air and reacts violently in water, setting fire to the liberated hydrogen. As with other alkali metals, it forms amalgams with mercury and it alloys with gold, cesium, sodium, and potassium. It colors a flame yellowish violet. Rubidium metal can be prepared by reducing rubidium chloride with calcium, and by a number of other methods. It must be kept under a dry mineral oil or in a vacuum or inert atmosphere. Thirty five isotopes and isomers of rubidium are known. Naturally occurring rubidium is made of two isotopes, 85Rb and 87Rb. Rubidium-87 is present to the extent of 27.83% in natural rubidium and is a beta emitter with a half-life of 4.9 × 1010 years. Ordinary rubidium is sufficiently radioactive to expose a photographic film in about 30 to 60 days. Rubidium forms four oxides: Rb2O, Rb2O2, Rb2O3, Rb2O4. Because rubidium can be easily ionized, it has been considered for use in “ion engines” for space vehicles; however, cesium is somewhat more efficient for this purpose. It is also proposed for use as a working fluid for vapor turbines and for use in a thermoelectric generator using the magnetohydrodynamic principle where rubidium ions are formed by heat at high temperature and passed through a magnetic field. These conduct electricity and act like an armature of a generator thereby generating an electric current. Rubidium is used as a getter in vacuum tubes and as a photocell component. It has been used in making special glasses. RbAg4I5 is important, as it has the highest room conductivity of any known ionic crystal. At 20°C its conductivity is about the same as dilute sulfuric acid. This suggests use in thin film batteries and other applications. The present cost in small quantities is about $80/g (99.8% pure). Ruthenium — (L. Ruthenia, Russia), Ru; at. wt. 101.07(2); at. no. 44, m.p. 2334°C; b.p. 4150°C; sp. gr. 12.41 (20°C); valence 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Berzelius and Osann in 1827 examined the residues left after dissolving crude platinum from the Ural mountains in aqua regia. While Berzelius found no unusual metals, Osann thought he found three new metals, one of which he named ruthenium. In 1844 Klaus, generally recognized as the discoverer, showed that Osann’s ruthenium oxide was very impure and that it contained a new metal. Klaus obtained 6 g of ruthenium from the portion of crude platinum that is insoluble in aqua regia. A member of the platinum group, ruthenium occurs native with other members of the group in ores found in the Ural mountains and in North and South America. It is also found along with other platinum metals in small but commercial quantities in pentlandite of the Sudbury, Ontario, nickel-mining region, and in pyroxinite deposits of South Africa. Natural ruthenium contains seven isotopes. Twenty-eight other isotopes and isomers are known, all of which are radioactive. The metal is isolated commercially by a complex chemical process, the final stage of which is the hydrogen reduction of ammonium ruthenium chloride, which yields a powder. The powder is consolidated by powder metallurgy techniques or by argon-arc welding. Ruthenium is a hard, white metal and has four crystal modifications. It does not tarnish at room temperatures, but oxidizes in air at about 800°C. The metal is not attacked by hot or cold acids or aqua regia, but when potassium chlorate is added to the solution, it oxidizes explosively. It is attacked by halogens, hydroxides, etc. Ruthenium can be plated by electrodeposition or by thermal decomposition methods. The metal is one of the most effective hardeners for platinum and palladium, and is alloyed with these metals to make electrical contacts for severe wear resistance. A ruthenium-molybdenum alloy is said to be superconductive at 10.6 K. The corrosion resistance of titanium is improved a hundredfold by addition of 0.1% ruthenium. It is a versatile catalyst. Hydrogen sulfide can be split catalytically by light using an aqueous suspension of CdS particles loaded with ruthenium dioxide. It is thought this may have application to removal of H2S from oil refining and other industrial processes. Compounds in at least eight oxidation states have been found, but of these, the +2. +3. and +4 states are the most common. Ruthenium tetroxide, like osmium tetroxide, is highly toxic. In addition, it may explode. Ruthenium compounds show a marked resemblance to those of osmium. The metal is priced at about $30/g (99.95% pure). Rutherfordium — (named for Ernest Rutherford [1871–1937], New Zealand, Canadian, and British physicist); Rf; at. wt. [261]; at. no. 104. In 1964, workers of the Joint Nuclear Research Institute at Dubna (Russia) bombarded plutonium with accelerated 113 to 115 MeV neon ions. By measuring fission tracks in a special glass with a microscope, they detected an isotope that decays by spontaneous fission. They suggested that this isotope, which has a half-life of 0.3 ± 0.1 s, might be 260104, produced by the following reaction: 242 Pu + 22 Ne→ 260 104 94 10
+ 4n
Element 104, the first transactinide element, is expected to have chemical properties similar to those of hafnium. It would, for example, form a relatively volatile compound with chlorine (a tetrachloride). The Soviet scientists have performed experiments aimed at chemical identification, and have attempted to show that the 0.3-s activity is more volatile than that of the relatively nonvolatile actinide trichlorides. This experiment does not fulfill the test of chemically separating the new element from all others, but it provides important evidence for evaluation. New data, reportedly issued by Soviet scientists, have reduced the half-life of the isotope they worked with from 0.3 to 0.15 s. The Dubna scientists suggest the name kurchatovium and symbol Ku for Element 104, in honor of Igor Vasilevich Kurchatov (1903—1960), late Head of Soviet Nuclear Research. The Dubna Group also has proposed the name dubnium for Element 104. In 1969, Ghiorso, Nurmia, Harris, K. A. Y. Eskola, and P. L. Eskola of the University of California at Berkeley reported they had positively identified two, and possibly three, isotopes of Element 104. The group also indicated that after repeated attempts so far they have been unable to produce isotope 260104 reported by the Dubna groups in 1964. The discoveries at Berkeley were made by bombarding a target of 249Cf with 12C nuclei of 71 MeV, and 13C nuclei of 69 MeV. The combination of 12C with 249Cf followed by instant emission of four neutrons produced Element 257104. This isotope has a half-life of 4 to 5 s, decaying by emitting an alpha particle into 253No, with a half-life of 105 s. The same reaction, except with the emission of three neutrons, was thought to have produced 258104 with a half-life of about 1/100 s. Element 259104 is formed by the merging of a 13C nuclei with 249Cf, followed by emission of three neutrons. This isotope has a half-life of 3 to 4 s, and decays by emitting an alpha particle into 255No, which has a half-life of 185 s. Thousands of atoms of 257104 and 259104 have been detected. The Berkeley group believe their identification of 258104 was correct. Eleven isotopes of Element 104 have now been identified. The Berkeley group proposed for the new element the name rutherfordium (symbol Rf), in honor of Ernest Rutherford. This name was formally adapted by IUPAC in August 1997.
4-26
THE ELEMENTS (continued) Samarium — (Samarskite a mineral), Sm; at. wt. 150.36(3); at. no. 62; m.p. 1074°C; b.p. 1794°C; sp. gr (α) 7.520 (25°C); valence 2 or 3. Discovered spectroscopically by its sharp absorption lines in 1879 by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in the mineral samarskite, named in honor of a Russian mine official, Col. Samarski. Samarium is found along with other members of the rare-earth elements in many minerals, including monazite and bastnasite, which are commercial sources. The largest producer of rare earth minerals is now China, followed by the U.S., India, and Russia. It occurs in monazite to the extent of 2.8%. While misch metal containing about 1% of samarium metal, has long been used, samarium has not been isolated in relatively pure form until recent years. Ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques have recently simplified separation of the rare earths from one another; more recently, electrochemical deposition, using an electrolytic solution of lithium citrate and a mercury electrode, is said to be a simple, fast, and highly specific way to separate the rare earths. Samarium metal can be produced by reducing the oxide with barium or lanthanum. Samarium has a bright silver luster and is reasonably stable in air. Three crystal modifications of the metal exist, with transformations at 734 and 922°C. The metal ignites in air at about 150°C. Thirty-three isotopes and isomers of samarium are now recognized. Natural samarium is a mixture of seven isotopes, three of which are unstable but have long half-lives. Samarium, along with other rare earths, is used for carbon-arc lighting for the motion picture industry. The sulfide has excellent high-temperature stability and good thermoelectric efficiencies up to 1100°C. SmCo5 has been used in making a new permanent magnet material with the highest resistance to demagnetization of any known material. It is said to have an intrinsic coercive force as high as 2200 kA/m. Samarium oxide has been used in optical glass to absorb the infrared. Samarium is used to dope calcium fluoride crystals for use in optical masers or lasers. Compounds of the metal act as sensitizers for phosphors excited in the infrared; the oxide exhibits catalytic properties in the dehydration and dehydrogenation of ethyl alcohol. It is used in infrared absorbing glass and as a neutron absorber in nuclear reactors. The metal is priced at about $3.50/g (99.9%). Little is known of the toxicity of samarium; therefore, it should be handled carefully. Scandium — (L. Scandia, Scandinavia), Sc; at. wt. 44.955910(8); at. no. 21; m.p. 1541°C; b.p. 2836°C; sp. gr. 2.989 (25°C); valence 3. On the basis of the Periodic System, Mendeleev predicted the existence of ekaboron, which would have an atomic weight between 40 of calcium and 48 of titanium. The element was discovered by Nilson in 1878 in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite, which had not yet been found anywhere except in Scandinavia. By processing 10 kg of euxenite and other residues of rare-earth minerals, Nilson was able to prepare about 2 g of scandium oxide of high purity. Cleve later pointed out that Nilson’s scandium was identical with Mendeleev’s ekaboron. Scandium is apparently a much more abundant element in the sun and certain stars than here on earth. It is about the 23rd most abundant element in the sun, compared to the 50th most abundant on earth. It is widely distributed on earth, occurring in very minute quantities in over 800 mineral species. The blue color of beryl (aquamarine variety) is said to be due to scandium. It occurs as a principal component in the rare mineral thortveitite, found in Scandinavia and Malagasy. It is also found in the residues remaining after the extraction of tungsten from Zinnwald wolframite, and in wiikite and bazzite. Most scandium is presently being recovered from thortveitite or is extracted as a by-product from uranium mill tailings. Metallic scandium was first prepared in 1937 by Fischer, Brunger, and Grieneisen, who electrolyzed a eutectic melt of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides at 700 to 800°C. Tungsten wire and a pool of molten zinc served as the electrodes in a graphite crucible. Pure scandium is now produced by reducing scandium fluoride with calcium metal. The production of the first pound of 99% pure scandium metal was announced in 1960. Scandium is a silver-white metal which develops a slightly yellowish or pinkish cast upon exposure to air. It is relatively soft, and resembles yttrium and the rare-earth metals more than it resembles aluminum or titanium. It is a very light metal and has a much higher melting point than aluminum, making it of interest to designers of spacecraft. Scandium is not attacked by a 1:1 mixture of conc. HNO3 and 48% HF. Scandium reacts rapidly with many acids. Twenty-three isotopes and isomers of scandium are recognized. The metal is expensive, costing about $200/g with a purity of about 99.9%. About 20 kg of scandium (as Sc2O3) are now being used yearly in the U.S. to produce high-intensity lights, and the radioactive isotope 46Sc is used as a tracing agent in refinery crackers for crude oil, etc. Scandium iodide added to mercury vapor lamps produces a highly efficient light source resembling sunlight, which is important for indoor or night-time color TV. Little is yet known about the toxicity of scandium; therefore, it should be handled with care. Seaborgium — (named for Glenn T. Seaborg [1912–1999], American chemist and nuclear physicist). Sg; at. wt. [263]; at no. 106. The discovery of Seaborgium, Element 106, took place in 1974 almost simultaneously at the Lawrence-Berkeley Laboratory and at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna, Russia. The Berkeley Group, under direction of Ghiorso, used the Super-Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (Super HILAC) as a source of heavy 18O ions to bombard a 259-µg target of 249Cf. This resulted in the production and positive identification of 263106, which decayed with a halflife of 0.9 ± 0.2 s by the emission of alpha particles as follows: 263
α α α 106 → 259 104 → 255 No →.
The Dubna Team, directed by Flerov and Organessian, produced heavy ions of 54Cr with their 310-cm heavy-ion cyclotron to bombard 207Pb and 208Pb and found a product that decayed with a half-life of 7 ms. They assigned 259106 to this isotope. It is now thought seven isotopes of Seaborgium have been identified. Two of the isotopes are believed to have half-lives of about 30 s. Seaborgium most likely would have properties resembling tungsten. The IUPAC adopted the name Seaborgium in August 1997. Normally the naming of an element is not given until after the death of the person for which the element is named; however, in this case, it was named while Dr. Seaborg was still alive. Selenium — (Gr. Selene, moon), Se; at. wt. 78.96(3); at. no. 34; m.p. (gray) 221°C; b.p. (gray) 685°C; sp. gr. (gray) 4.79, (vitreous) 4.28; valence –2, +4, or +6. Discovered by Berzelius in 1817, who found it associated with tellurium, named for the earth. Selenium is found in a few rare minerals, such as crooksite and clausthalite. In years past it has been obtained from flue dusts remaining from processing copper sulfide ores, but the anode muds from electrolytic copper refineries now provide the source of most of the world’s selenium. Selenium is recovered by roasting the muds with soda or sulfuric acid, or by smelting them with soda and niter. Selenium exists in several allotropic forms. Three are generally recognized, but as many as six have been claimed. Selenium can be prepared with either an amorphous or crystalline structure. The color of amorphous selenium is either red, in powder form, or black, in vitreous form. Crystalline monoclinic selenium is a deep red; crystalline hexagonal selenium, the most stable variety, is a metallic gray. Natural selenium contains six stable isotopes. Twenty-nine other isotopes and isomers have been characterized. The element is a member of the sulfur family and resembles sulfur both in its various forms and in its compounds. Selenium exhibits both photovoltaic action, where light is converted directly into electricity, and photoconductive action, where the electrical resistance decreases with increased illumination. These properties make selenium useful in the production of photocells and exposure meters for photographic use, as well as solar cells. Selenium is also able to convert a.c. electricity to d.c., and is extensively used in rectifiers. Below its melting point selenium is a p-type semiconductor and is finding many uses in
4-27
THE ELEMENTS (continued) electronic and solid-state applications. It is used in Xerography for reproducing and copying documents, letters, etc., but recently its use in this application has been decreasing in favor of certain organic compounds. It is used by the glass industry to decolorize glass and to make ruby-colored glasses and enamels. It is also used as a photographic toner, and as an additive to stainless steel. Elemental selenium has been said to be practically nontoxic and is considered to be an essential trace element; however, hydrogen selenide and other selenium compounds are extremely toxic, and resemble arsenic in their physiological reactions. Hydrogen selenide in a concentration of 1.5 ppm is intolerable to man. Selenium occurs in some soils in amounts sufficient to produce serious effects on animals feeding on plants, such as locoweed, grown in such soils. Selenium (99.5%) is priced at about $250/kg. It is also available in high-purity form at a cost of about $750/kg (99.999%). Silicon — (L. silex, silicis, flint), Si; at. wt. 28.0855(3); at. no. 14; m.p. 1414°C; b.p. 3265°C; sp. gr. 2.33 (25°C); valence 4. Davy in 1800 thought silica to be a compound and not an element; later in 1811, Gay Lussac and Thenard probably prepared impure amorphous silicon by heating potassium with silicon tetrafluoride. Berzelius, generally credited with the discovery, in 1824 succeeded in preparing amorphous silicon by the same general method as used earlier, but he purified the product by removing the fluosilicates by repeated washings. Deville in 1854 first prepared crystalline silicon, the second allotropic form of the element. Silicon is present in the sun and stars and is a principal component of a class of meteorites known as “aerolites”. It is also a component of tektites, a natural glass of uncertain origin. Natural silicon contains three isotopes. Twenty-four other radioactive isotopes are recognized. Silicon makes up 25.7% of the earth’s crust, by weight, and is the second most abundant element, being exceeded only by oxygen. Silicon is not found free in nature, but occurs chiefly as the oxide and as silicates. Sand, quartz, rock crystal, amethyst, agate, flint, jasper, and opal are some of the forms in which the oxide appears. Granite, hornblende, asbestos, feldspar, clay mica, etc. are but a few of the numerous silicate minerals. Silicon is prepared commercially by heating silica and carbon in an electric furnace, using carbon electrodes. Several other methods can be used for preparing the element. Amorphous silicon can be prepared as a brown powder, which can be easily melted or vaporized. Crystalline silicon has a metallic luster and grayish color. The Czochralski process is commonly used to produce single crystals of silicon used for solid-state or semiconductor devices. Hyperpure silicon can be prepared by the thermal decomposition of ultra-pure trichlorosilane in a hydrogen atmosphere, and by a vacuum float zone process. This product can be doped with boron, gallium, phosphorus, or arsenic to produce silicon for use in transistors, solar cells, rectifiers, and other solid-state devices which are used extensively in the electronics and space-age industries. Hydrogenated amorphous silicon has shown promise in producing economical cells for converting solar energy into electricity. Silicon is a relatively inert element, but it is attacked by halogens and dilute alkali. Most acids except hydrofluoric, do not affect it. Silicones are important products of silicon. They may be prepared by hydrolyzing a silicon organic chloride, such as dimethyl silicon chloride. Hydrolysis and condensation of various substituted chlorosilanes can be used to produce a very great number of polymeric products, or silicones, ranging from liquids to hard, glasslike solids with many useful properties. Elemental silicon transmits more than 95% of all wavelengths of infrared, from 1.3 to 6.7 µm. Silicon is one of man’s most useful elements. In the form of sand and clay it is used to make concrete and brick; it is a useful refractory material for high-temperature work, and in the form of silicates it is used in making enamels, pottery, etc. Silica, as sand, is a principal ingredient of glass, one of the most inexpensive of materials with excellent mechanical, optical, thermal, and electrical properties. Glass can be made in a very great variety of shapes, and is used as containers, window glass, insulators, and thousands of other uses. Silicon tetrachloride can be used to iridize glass. Silicon is important in plant and animal life. Diatoms in both fresh and salt water extract silica from the water to build up their cell walls. Silica is present in ashes of plants and in the human skeleton. Silicon is an important ingredient in steel; silicon carbide is one of the most important abrasives and has been used in lasers to produce coherent light of 4560 Å. A remarkable material, first discovered in 1930, is Aerogel, developed and now used by NASA in their Stardust mission, which is expected to encounter Comet Wild 2 in 2004, returning cometary and interplanet dust to Earth in 2006. Aerogel is a highly insulative material that has the lowest density of any known solid. One form of Aerogel is 99.9% air and 0.1% SiO2, by volume. It is 1000 times less dense than glass. It has been called “blue smoke” or “solid smoke”. A block of Aerogel as large as a person may weigh less than a pound and yet support the weight of 1000 lbs (455 kg). This material is expected to trap cometary particles traveling at speeds of 32 km/sec. Aerogel is said to be non-toxic and non-inflammable. It has high thermal insulating qualities that could be used in home insulation. Its light weight may have aircraft applications. Regular grade silicon (99.5%) costs about $160/kg. Silicon (99.9999%) pure costs about $250/kg; hyperpure silicon is available at a higher cost. Miners, stonecutters, and other engaged in work where siliceous dust is breathed in large quantities often develop a serious lung disease known as silicosis. Silver — (Anglo-Saxon, Seolfor siolfur), Ag (L. argentum), at. wt. 107.8682(2); at. no. 47; m.p. 961.78°C; b.p. 2162°C; sp. gr. 10.50 (20°C); valence 1, 2. Silver has been known since ancient times. It is mentioned in Genesis. Slag dumps in Asia Minor and on islands in the Aegean Sea indicate that man learned to separate silver from lead as early as 3000 B.C. Silver occurs native and in ores such as argentite (Ag2S) and horn silver (AgCl); lead, lead-zinc, copper, gold, and copper-nickel ores are principal sources. Mexico, Canada, Peru, and the U.S. are the principal silver producers in the western hemisphere. Silver is also recovered during electrolytic refining of copper. Commercial fine silver contains at least 99.9% silver. Purities of 99.999+% are available commercially. Pure silver has a brilliant white metallic luster. It is a little harder than gold and is very ductile and malleable, being exceeded only by gold and perhaps palladium. Pure silver has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of all metals, and possesses the lowest contact resistance. It is stable in pure air and water, but tarnishes when exposed to ozone, hydrogen sulfide, or air containing sulfur. The alloys of silver are important. Sterling silver is used for jewelry, silverware, etc. where appearance is paramount. This alloy contains 92.5% silver, the remainder being copper or some other metal. Silver is of utmost importance in photography, about 30% of the U.S. industrial consumption going into this application. It is used for dental alloys. Silver is used in making solder and brazing alloys, electrical contacts, and high capacity silver-zinc and silver-cadmium batteries. Silver paints are used for making printed circuits. It is used in mirror production and may be deposited on glass or metals by chemical deposition, electrodeposition, or by evaporation. When freshly deposited, it is the best reflector of visible light known, but is rapidly tarnishes and loses much of its reflectance. It is a poor reflector of ultraviolet. Silver fulminate (Ag2C2N2O2), a powerful explosive, is sometimes formed during the silvering process. Silver iodide is used in seeding clouds to produce rain. Silver chloride has interesting optical properties as it can be made transparent; it also is a cement for glass. Silver nitrate, or lunar caustic, the most important silver compound, is used extensively in photography. While silver itself is not considered to be toxic, most of its salts are poisonous. Natural silver contains two stable isotopes. Fifty-six other radioactive isotopes and isomers are known. Silver compounds can be absorbed in the circulatory system and reduced silver deposited in the various tissues of the body. A condition, known as argyria, results with a greyish pigmentation of the skin and mucous membranes. Silver has germicidal effects and kills many lower organisms effectively without harm to higher animals. Silver for centuries has been used traditionally for coinage by many countries of the world. In recent times, however, consumption of silver has at times greatly exceeded the output. In 1939, the price of silver was fixed by the U.S. Treasury at 71¢/troy oz., and at 90.5¢/troy oz. in 1946. In November 1961 the U.S. Treasury suspended sales of nonmonetized silver, and the price stabilized
4-28
THE ELEMENTS (continued) for a time at about $1.29, the melt-down value of silver U.S. coins. The Coinage Act of 1965 authorized a change in the metallic composition of the three U.S. subsidiary denominations to clad or composite type coins. This was the first change in U.S. coinage since the monetary system was established in 1792. Clad dimes and quarters are made of an outer layer of 75% Cu and 25% Ni bonded to a central core of pure Cu. The composition of the one- and five-cent pieces remains unchanged. One-cent coins are 95% Cu and 5% Zn. Five-cent coins are 75% Cu and 25% Ni. Old silver dollars are 90% Ag and 10% Cu. Earlier subsidiary coins of 90% Ag and 10% Cu officially were to circulate alongside the clad coins; however, in practice they have largely disappeared (Gresham’s Law), as the value of the silver is now greater than their exchange value. Silver coins of other countries have largely been replaced with coins made of other metals. On June 24, 1968, the U.S. Government ceased to redeem U.S. Silver Certificates with silver. Since that time, the price of silver has fluctuated widely. As of December 1999, the price of silver was about $5.20/troy oz. (17¢/g); however the price has fluctuated considerably due to market instability. The price of silver in 1999 was only about five times the cost of the metal about 150 years ago. This has largely been caused by Central Banks disposing of some of their silver reserves and the development of more productive mines with better refining methods. Also, silver has been displaced by other metals or processes, such as digital photography. Sodium — (English, soda; Medieval Latin, sodanum, headache remedy), Na (L. natrium); at. wt. 22.989770(2); at. no. 11; m.p. 97.80°C; b.p. 883°C; sp. gr. 0.971 (20°C); valence 1. Long recognized in compounds, sodium was first isolated by Davy in 1807 by electrolysis of caustic soda. Sodium is present in fair abundance in the sun and stars. The D lines of sodium are among the most prominent in the solar spectrum. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element on earth, comprising about 2.6% of the earth’s crust; it is the most abundant of the alkali group of metals of which it is a member. The most common compound is sodium chloride, but it occurs in many other minerals, such as soda niter, cryolite, amphibole, zeolite, sodalite,etc. It is a very reactive element and is never found free in nature. It is now obtained commercially by the electrolysis of absolutely dry fused sodium chloride. This method is much cheaper than that of electrolyzing sodium hydroxide, as was used several years ago. Sodium is a soft, bright, silvery metal which floats on water, decomposing it with the evolution of hydrogen and the formation of the hydroxide. It may or may not ignite spontaneously on water, depending on the amount of oxide and metal exposed to the water. It normally does not ignite in air at temperatures below 115°C. Sodium should be handled with respect, as it can be dangerous when improperly handled. Metallic sodium is vital in the manufacture of sodamide and esters, and in the preparation of organic compounds. The metal may be used to improve the structure of certain alloys, to descale metal, to purify molten metals, and as a heat transfer agent. An alloy of sodium with potassium, NaK, is also an important heat transfer agent. Sodium compounds are important to the paper, glass, soap, textile, petroleum, chemical, and metal industries. Soap is generally a sodium salt of certain fatty acids. The importance of common salt to animal nutrition has been recognized since prehistoric times. Among the many compounds that are of the greatest industrial importance are common salt (NaCl), soda ash (Na2CO3), baking soda (NaHCO3), caustic soda (NaOH), Chile saltpeter (NaNO3), di- and tri-sodium phosphates, sodium thiosulfate (hypo, Na2S2O3 · 5H2O), and borax (Na2B4O7 · 10H2O). Seventeen isotopes of sodium are recognized. Metallic sodium is priced at about $130/kg (99.95%). On a volume basis, it is the cheapest of all metals. Sodium metal should be handled with great care. It should be kept in an inert atmosphere and contact with water and other substances with which sodium reacts should be avoided. Strontium — (Strontian, town in Scotland), Sr; at. wt. 87.62(1); at. no. 38; m.p. 777°C; b.p. 1382°C; sp. gr. 2.54; valence 2. Isolated by Davey by electrolysis in 1808; however, Adair Crawford in 1790 recognized a new mineral (strontianite) as differing from other barium minerals (baryta). Strontium is found chiefly as celestite (SrSO4) and strontianite (SrCO3). Celestite is found in Mexico, Turkey, Iran, Spain, Algeria, and in the U.K. The U.S. has no active celestite mines. The metal can be prepared by electrolysis of the fused chloride mixed with potassium chloride, or is made by reducing strontium oxide with aluminum in a vacuum at a temperature at which strontium distills off. Three allotropic forms of the metal exist, with transition points at 235 and 540°C. Strontium is softer than calcium and decomposes water more vigorously. It does not absorb nitrogen below 380°C. It should be kept under mineral oil to prevent oxidation. Freshly cut strontium has a silvery appearance, but rapidly turns a yellowish color with the formation of the oxide. The finely divided metal ignites spontaneously in air. Volatile strontium salts impart a beautiful crimson color to flames, and these salts are used in pyrotechnics and in the production of flares. Natural strontium is a mixture of four stable isotopes. Thirty-two other unstable isotopes and isomers are known to exist. Of greatest importance is 90Sr with a half-life of 29 years. It is a product of nuclear fallout and presents a health problem. This isotope is one of the best long-lived high-energy beta emitters known, and is used in SNAP (Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power) devices. These devices hold promise for use in space vehicles, remote weather stations, navigational buoys, etc., where a lightweight, long-lived, nuclear-electric power source is needed. The major use for strontium at present is in producing glass for color television picture tubes. All color TV and cathode ray tubes sold in the U.S. are required by law to contain strontium in the face plate glass to block X-ray emission. Strontium also improves the brilliance of the glass and the quality of the picture. It has also found use in producing ferrite magnets and in refining zinc. Strontium titanate is an interesting optical material as it has an extremely high refractive index and an optical dispersion greater than that of diamond. It has been used as a gemstone, but it is very soft. It does not occur naturally. Strontium metal (99% pure) costs about $220/kg. Sulfur — (Sanskrit, sulvere; L. sulphurium), S; at. wt. 32.066(6); at. no. 16; m.p. 115.21°C; b.p. 444.60°C; tc 1041°C; sp. gr. (rhombic) 2.07, (monoclinic) 1.957 (20°C); valence 2, 4, or 6. Known to the ancients; referred to in Genesis as brimstone. Sulfur is found in meteorites. A dark area near the crater Aristarchus on the moon has been studied by R. W. Wood with ultraviolet light. This study suggests strongly that it is a sulfur deposit. Sulfur occurs native in the vicinity of volcanoes and hot springs. It is widely distributed in nature as iron pyrites, galena, sphalerite, cinnabar, stibnite, gypsum, Epsom salts, celestite, barite,etc. Sulfur is commercially recovered from wells sunk into the salt domes along the Gulf Coast of the U.S. It is obtained from these wells by the Frasch process, which forces heated water into the wells to melt the sulfur, which is then brought to the surface. Sulfur also occurs in natural gas and petroleum crudes and must be removed from these products. Formerly this was done chemically, which wasted the sulfur. New processes now permit recovery, and these sources promise to be very important. Large amounts of sulfur are being recovered from Alberta gas fields. Sulfur is a pale yellow, odorless, brittle solid, which is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide. In every state, whether gas, liquid or solid, elemental sulfur occurs in more than one allotropic form or modification; these present a confusing multitude of forms whose relations are not yet fully understood. Amorphous or “plastic” sulfur is obtained by fast cooling of the crystalline form. X-ray studies indicate that amorphous sulfur may have a helical structure with eight atoms per spiral. Crystalline sulfur seems to be made of rings, each containing eight sulfur atoms, which fit together to give a normal X-ray pattern. Twenty-one isotopes of sulfur are now recognized. Four occur in natural sulfur, none of which is radioactive. A finely divided form of sulfur, known as flowers of sulfur, is obtained by sublimation. Sulfur readily forms sulfides with many elements. Sulfur is a component of black gunpowder, and is used in the vulcanization of natural rubber and a fungicide. It is also used extensively is making phosphatic fertilizers. A tremendous tonnage is used to produce sulfuric acid, the most important manufactured chemical. It is used in making sulfite paper and other papers, as a fumigant, and in the bleaching of dried fruits. The element is a good electrical insulator. Organic compounds containing
4-29
THE ELEMENTS (continued) sulfur are very important. Calcium sulfate, ammonium sulfate, carbon disulfide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide are but a few of the many other important compounds of sulfur. Sulfur is essential to life. It is a minor constituent of fats, body fluids, and skeletal minerals. Carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide should be handled carefully. Hydrogen sulfide in small concentrations can be metabolized, but in higher concentrations it quickly can cause death by respiratory paralysis. It is insidious in that it quickly deadens the sense of smell. Sulfur dioxide is a dangerous component in atmospheric air pollution. In 1975, University of Pennsylvania scientists reported synthesis of polymeric sulfur nitride, which has the properties of a metal, although it contains no metal atoms. The material has unusual optical and electrical properties. Tantalum — (Gr. Tantalos, mythological character, father of Niobe), Ta; at. wt. 180.9479(1); at. no. 73; m.p. 3017°C; b.p. 5458°C; sp. gr. 16.654; valence 2?, 3, 4?, or 5. Discovered in 1802 by Ekeberg, but many chemists thought niobium and tantalum were identical elements until Rose, in 1844, and Marignac, in1866, showed that niobic and tantalic acids were two different acids. The early investigators only isolated the impure metal. The first relatively pure ductile tantalum was produced by von Bolton in 1903. Tantalum occurs principally in the mineral columbite-tantalite (Fe, Mn)(Nb, Ta)2O6. Tantalum ores are found in Australia, Brazil, Rwanda, Zimbabwe, Congo-Kinshasa, Nigeria, and Canada. Separation of tantalum from niobium requires several complicated steps. Several methods are used to commercially produce the element, including electrolysis of molten potassium fluorotantalate, reduction of potassium fluorotantalate with sodium, or reacting tantalum carbide with tantalum oxide. Thirty four isotopes and isomers of tantalum are known to exist. Natural tantalum contains two isotopes, one of which is radioactive with a very long half-life. Tantalum is a gray, heavy, and very hard metal. When pure, it is ductile and can be drawn into fine wire, which is used as a filament for evaporating metals such as aluminum. Tantalum is almost completely immune to chemical attack at temperatures below 150°C, and is attacked only by hydrofluoric acid, acidic solutions containing the fluoride ion, and free sulfur trioxide. Alkalis attack it only slowly. At high temperatures, tantalum becomes much more reactive. The element has a melting point exceeded only by tungsten and rhenium. Tantalum is used to make a variety of alloys with desirable properties such as high melting point, high strength, good ductility, etc. Scientists at Los Alamos have produced a tantalum carbide graphite composite material, which is said to be one of the hardest materials ever made. The compound has a melting point of 3738°C. Tantalum has good “gettering” ability at high temperatures, and tantalum oxide films are stable and have good rectifying and dielectric properties. Tantalum is used to make electrolytic capacitors and vacuum furnace parts, which account for about 60% of its use. The metal is also widely used to fabricate chemical process equipment, nuclear reactors, and aircraft and missile parts. Tantalum is completely immune to body liquids and is a nonirritating metal. It has, therefore, found wide use in making surgical appliances. Tantalum oxide is used to make special glass with high index of refraction for camera lenses. The metal has many other uses. The price of (99.9%) tantalum is about $2/g. Technetium — (Gr. technetos, artificial), Tc; at. wt. (98); at. no. 43; m.p. 2157°C; b.p. 4265°C; sp. gr. 11.50 (calc.); valence 0, +2, +4, +5, +6, and +7. Element 43 was predicted on the basis of the periodic table, and was erroneously reported as having been discovered in 1925, at which time it was named masurium. The element was actually discovered by Perrier and Segre in Italy in 1937. It was found in a sample of molybdenum, which was bombarded by deuterons in the Berkeley cyclotron, and which E. Lawrence sent to these investigators. Technetium was the first element to be produced artificially. Since its discovery, searches for the element in terrestrial materials have been made without success. If it does exist, the concentration must be very small. Technetium has been found in the spectrum of S-, M-, and N-type stars, and its presence in stellar matter is leading to new theories of the production of heavy elements in the stars. Forty-three isotopes and isomers of technetium, with atomic masses ranging from 86 to 113, are known. 97Tc has a half-life of 2.6 × 106 years. 98Tc has a half-life of 4.2 × 106 years. The isomeric isotope 95mTc, with a half-life of 61 days, is useful for tracer work, as it produces energetic gamma rays. Technetium metal has been produced in kilogram quantities. The metal was first prepared by passing hydrogen gas at 1100°C over Tc2S7. It is now conveniently prepared by the reduction of ammonium pertechnetate with hydrogen. Technetium is a silvery-gray metal that tarnishes slowly in moist air. Until 1960, technetium was available only in small amounts and the price was as high as $2800/g. 99Tc is now commercially available to holders of O.R.N.L. permits at a price of $83/g plus packing charges. 99Tc is available at a cost of $1.56/µCi. The chemistry of technetium is said to be similar to that of rhenium. Technetium dissolves in nitric acid, aqua regia, and conc. sulfuric acid, but is not soluble in hydrochloric acid of any strength. The element is a remarkable corrosion inhibitor for steel. It is reported that mild carbon steels may be effectively protected by as little as 55 ppm of KTcO4 in aerated distilled water at temperatures up to 250°C. This corrosion protection is limited to closed systems, since technetium is radioactive and must be confined. 99Tc has a specific activity of 6.2 × 108 Bq/g. Activity of this level must not be allowed to spread. 99Tc is a contamination hazard and should be handled in a glove box. The metal is an excellent superconductor at 11°K and below. Tellurium — (L. tellus, earth), Te; at. wt. 127.60(3); at. no. 52; m.p. 449.51°C; b.p. 988°C; sp. gr. 6.24 (20°C); valence 2, 4, or 6. Discovered by Muller von Reichenstein in 1782; named by Klaproth, who isolated it in 1798. Tellurium is occasionally found native, but is more often found as the telluride of gold (calaverite), and combined with other metals. It is recovered commercially from the anode muds produced during the electrolytic refining of blister copper. The U.S., Canada, Peru, and Japan are the largest Free World producers of the element. Crystalline tellurium has a silverywhite appearance, and when pure exhibits a metallic luster. It is brittle and easily pulverized. Amorphous tellurium is formed by precipitating tellurium from a solution of telluric or tellurous acid. Whether this form is truly amorphous, or made of minute crystals, is open to question. Tellurium is a ptype semiconductor, and shows greater conductivity in certain directions, depending on alignment of the atoms. Its conductivity increases slightly with exposure to light. It can be doped with silver, copper, gold, tin, or other elements. In air, tellurium burns with a greenish-blue flame, forming the dioxide. Molten tellurium corrodes iron, copper, and stainless steel. Tellurium and its compounds are probably toxic and should be handled with care. Workmen exposed to as little as 0.01 mg/m3 of air, or less, develop “tellurium breath,” which has a garlic-like odor. Forty two isotopes and isomers of tellurium are known, with atomic masses ranging from 106 to 138. Natural tellurium consists of eight isotopes, two of which are radioactive with very long halflives. Tellurium improves the machinability of copper and stainless steel, and its addition to lead decreases the corrosive action of sulfuric acid on lead and improves its strength and hardness. Tellurium catalysts are used in the oxidation of organic compounds and are used in hydrogenation and halogenation reactions. Tellurium is also used in electronic and semi-conductor devices. It is also used as a basic ingredient in blasting caps, and is added to cast iron for chill control. Tellurium is used in ceramics. Bismuth telluride has been used in thermoelectric devices. Tellurium costs about 20¢/g, with a purity of about 99.5%. The metal with a purity of 99.9999% costs about $6/g. Terbium — (Ytterby, village in Sweden), Tb; at. wt. 158.92534(2); at. no. 65; m.p. 1356°C; b.p. 3230°C; sp. gr. 8.230; valence 3, 4. Discovered by Mosander in 1843. Terbium is a member of the lanthanide or “rare earth” group of elements. It is found in cerite, gadolinite, and other minerals along with other rare earths. It is recovered commercially from monazite in which it is present to the extent of 0.03%, from xenotime, and from euxenite,
4-30
THE ELEMENTS (continued) a complex oxide containing 1% of more of terbia. Terbium has been isolated only in recent years with the development of ion-exchange techniques for separating the rare-earth elements. As with other rare earths, it can be produced by reducing the anhydrous chloride or fluoride with calcium metal in a tantalum crucible. Calcium and tantalum impurities can be removed by vacuum remelting. Other methods of isolation are possible. Terbium is reasonably stable in air. It is a silver-gray metal, and is malleable, ductile, and soft enough to be cut with a knife. Two crystal modifications exist, with a transformation temperature of 1289°C. Forty-two isotopes and isomers are recognized. The oxide is a chocolate or dark maroon color. Sodium terbium borate is used as a laser material and emits coherent light at 0.546 µm. Terbium is used to dope calcium fluoride, calcium tungstate, and strontium molybdate, used in solid-state devices. The oxide has potential application as an activator for green phosphors used in color TV tubes. It can be used with ZrO2 as a crystal stabilizer of fuel cells which operate at elevated temperature. Few other uses have been found. The element is priced at about $40/g (99.9%). Little is known of the toxicity of terbium. It should be handled with care as with other lanthanide elements. Thallium — (Gr. thallos, a green shoot or twig), Tl; at. wt. 204.3833(2); at. no. 81; m.p. 304°C; b.p. 1473°C; sp. gr. 11.85 (20°C); valence 1, or 3. Thallium was discovered spectroscopically in 1861 by Crookes. The element was named after the beautiful green spectral line, which identified the element. The metal was isolated both by Crookes and Lamy in 1862 about the same time. Thallium occurs in crooksite, lorandite, and hutchinsonite. It is also present in pyrites and is recovered from the roasting of this ore in connection with the production of sulfuric acid. It is also obtained from the smelting of lead and zinc ores. Extraction is somewhat complex and depends on the source of the thallium. Manganese nodules, found on the ocean floor, contain thallium. When freshly exposed to air, thallium exhibits a metallic luster, but soon develops a bluish-gray tinge, resembling lead in appearance. A heavy oxide builds up on thallium if left in air, and in the presence of water the hydroxide is formed. The metal is very soft and malleable. It can be cut with a knife. Forty-seven isotopes of thallium, with atomic masses ranging from 179 to 210 are recognized. Natural thallium is a mixture of two isotopes. The element and its compounds are toxic and should be handled carefully. Contact of the metal with skin is dangerous, and when melting the metal adequate ventilation should be provided. Thallium is suspected of carcinogenic potential for man. Thallium sulfate has been widely employed as a rodenticide and ant killer. It is odorless and tasteless, giving no warning of its presence. Its use, however, has been prohibited in the U.S. since 1975 as a household insecticide and rodenticide. The electrical conductivity of thallium sulfide changes with exposure to infrared light, and this compound is used in photocells. Thallium bromide-iodide crystals have been used as infrared optical materials. Thallium has been used, with sulfur or selenium and arsenic, to produce low melting glasses which become fluid between 125 and 150°C. These glasses have properties at room temperatures similar to ordinary glasses and are said to be durable and insoluble in water. Thallium oxide has been used to produce glasses with a high index of refraction. Thallium has been used in treating ringworm and other skin infections; however, its use has been limited because of the narrow margin between toxicity and therapeutic benefits. A mercury-thallium alloy, which forms a eutectic at 8.5% thallium, is reported to freeze at –60°C, some 20° below the freezing point of mercury. Thallium metal (99.999%) costs about $2/g. Thorium — (Thor, Scandinavian god of war), Th; at. wt. 232.0381(1); at. no. 90; m.p. 1750°C; b.p. 4788°C; sp. gr. 11.72; valence +2(?), +3(?), +4. Discovered by Berzelius in 1828. Thorium occurs in thorite (ThSiO4) and in thorianite (ThO2 + UO2). Large deposits of thorium minerals have been reported in New England and elsewhere, but these have not yet been exploited. Thorium is now thought to be about three times as abundant as uranium and about as abundant as lead or molybdenum. The metal is a source of nuclear power. There is probably more energy available for use from thorium in the minerals of the earth’s crust than from both uranium and fossil fuels. Any sizable demand for thorium as a nuclear fuel is still several years in the future. Work has been done in developing thorium cycle converter-reactor systems. Several prototypes, including the HTGR (hightemperature gas-cooled reactor) and MSRE (molten salt converter reactor experiment), have operated. While the HTGR reactors are efficient, they are not expected to become important commercially for many years because of certain operating difficulties. Thorium is recovered commercially from the mineral monazite, which contains from 3 to 9% ThO2 along with rare-earth minerals. Much of the internal heat the earth produces has been attributed to thorium and uranium. Several methods are available for producing thorium metal: it can be obtained by reducing thorium oxide with calcium, by electrolysis of anhydrous thorium chloride in a fused mixture of sodium and potassium chlorides, by calcium reduction of thorium tetrachloride mixed with anhydrous zinc chloride, and by reduction of thorium tetrachloride with an alkali metal. Thorium was originally assigned a position in Group IV of the periodic table. Because of its atomic weight, valence, etc., it is now considered to be the second member of the actinide series of elements. When pure, thorium is a silvery-white metal which is air-stable and retains its luster for several months. When contaminated with the oxide, thorium slowly tarnishes in air, becoming gray and finally black. The physical properties of thorium are greatly influenced by the degree of contamination with the oxide. The purest specimens often contain several tenths of a percent of the oxide. High-purity thorium has been made. Pure thorium is soft, very ductile, and can be cold-rolled, swaged, and drawn. Thorium is dimorphic, changing at 1400°C from a cubic to a body-centered cubic structure. Thorium oxide has a melting point of 3300°C, which is the highest of all oxides. Only a few elements, such as tungsten, and a few compounds, such as tantalum carbide, have higher melting points. Thorium is slowly attacked by water, but does not dissolve readily in most common acids, except hydrochloric. Powdered thorium metal is often pyrophoric and should be carefully handled. When heated in air, thorium turnings ignite and burn brilliantly with a white light. The principal use of thorium has been in the preparation of the Welsbach mantle, used for portable gas lights. These mantles, consisting of thorium oxide with about 1% cerium oxide and other ingredients, glow with a dazzling light when heated in a gas flame. Thorium is an important alloying element in magnesium, imparting high strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures. Because thorium has a low work-function and high electron emission, it is used to coat tungsten wire used in electronic equipment. The oxide is also used to control the grain size of tungsten used for electric lamps; it is also used for high-temperature laboratory crucibles. Glasses containing thorium oxide have a high refractive index and low dispersion. Consequently, they find application in high quality lenses for cameras and scientific instruments. Thorium oxide has also found use as a catalyst in the conversion of ammonia to nitric acid, in petroleum cracking, and in producing sulfuric acid. Thorium has not found many uses due to its radioactive nature and its handling and disposal problems. Thirty isotopes of thorium are known with atomic masses ranging from 210 to 237. All are unstable. 232Th occurs naturally and has a half-life of 1.4 × 1010 years. It is an alpha emitter. 232Th goes through six alpha and four beta decay steps before becoming the stable isotope 208Pb. 232Th is sufficiently radioactive to expose a photographic plate in a few hours. Thorium disintegrates with the production of “thoron” (220Rn), which is an alpha emitter and presents a radiation hazard. Good ventilation of areas where thorium is stored or handled is therefore essential. Thorium metal (99.8%) costs about $25/g. Thulium — (Thule, the earliest name for Scandinavia), Tm; at. wt. 168.93421(3); at. no. 69; m.p. 1545°C; b.p. 1950°C; sp. gr. 9.321 (25°C); valence 3. Discovered in 1879 by Cleve. Thulium occurs in small quantities along with other rare earths in a number of minerals. It is obtained commercially from monazite, which contains about 0.007% of the element. Thulium is the least abundant of the rare earth elements, but with new sources recently discovered, it is now considered to be about as rare as silver, gold, or cadmium. Ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques have recently permitted
4-31
THE ELEMENTS (continued) much easier separation of the rare earths, with much lower costs. Only a few years ago, thulium metal was not obtainable at any cost; in 1996 the oxide cost $20/g. Thulium metal powder now costs $70/g (99.9%). Thulium can be isolated by reduction of the oxide with lanthanum metal or by calcium reduction of the anhydrous fluoride. The pure metal has a bright, silvery luster. It is reasonably stable in air, but the metal should be protected from moisture in a closed container. The element is silver-gray, soft, malleable, and ductile, and can be cut with a knife. Forty-one isotopes and isomers are known, with atomic masses ranging from 146 to 176. Natural thulium, which is 100% 169Tm, is stable. Because of the relatively high price of the metal, thulium has not yet found many practical applications. 169Tm bombarded in a nuclear reactor can be used as a radiation source in portable Xray equipment. 171Tm is potentially useful as an energy source. Natural thulium also has possible use in ferrites (ceramic magnetic materials) used in microwave equipment. As with other lanthanides, thulium has a low-to-moderate acute toxic rating. It should be handled with care. Tin — (anglo-Saxon, tin), Sn (L. stannum); at. wt. 118.710(7); at. no. 50; m.p. 231.93°C; b.p. 2602°C; sp. gr. (gray) 5.75, (white) 7.31; valence 2, 4. Known to the ancients. Tin is found chiefly in cassiterite (SnO2). Most of the world’s supply comes from China, Indonesia, Peru, Brazil, and Bolivia. The U.S. produces almost none, although occurrences have been found in Alaska and Colorado. Tin is obtained by reducing the ore with coal in a reverberatory furnace. Ordinary tin is composed of ten stable isotopes; thirty-six unstable isotopes and isomers are also known. Ordinary tin is a silver-white metal, is malleable, somewhat ductile, and has a highly crystalline structure. Due to the breaking of these crystals, a “tin cry” is heard when a bar is bent. The element has two allotropic forms at normal pressure. On warming, gray, or α tin, with a cubic structure, changes at 13.2°C into white, or β tin, the ordinary form of the metal. White tin has a tetragonal structure. When tin is cooled below 13.2°C, it changes slowly from white to gray. This change is affected by impurities such as aluminum and zinc, and can be prevented by small additions of antimony or bismuth. This change from the α to β form is called the tin pest. Tin-lead alloys are used to make organ pipes. There are few if any uses for gray tin. Tin takes a high polish and is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion or other chemical action. Such tin plate over steel is used in the so-called tin can for preserving food. Alloys of tin are very important. Soft solder, type metal, fusible metal, pewter, bronze, bell metal, Babbitt metal, White metal, die casting alloy, and phosphor bronze are some of the important alloys using tin. Tin resists distilled sea and soft tap water, but is attacked by strong acids, alkalis, and acid salts. Oxygen in solution accelerates the attack. When heated in air, tin forms SnO2, which is feebly acid, forming stannate salts with basic oxides. The most important salt is the chloride (SnCl2 · H2O), which is used as a reducing agent and as a mordant in calico printing. Tin salts sprayed onto glass are used to produce electrically conductive coatings. These have been used for panel lighting and for frost-free windshields. Most window glass is now made by floating molten glass on molten tin (float glass) to produce a flat surface (Pilkington process). Of recent interest is a crystalline tinniobium alloy that is superconductive at very low temperatures. This promises to be important in the construction of superconductive magnets that generate enormous field strengths but use practically no power. Such magnets, made of tin-niobium wire, weigh but a few pounds and produce magnetic fields that, when started with a small battery, are comparable to that of a 100 ton electromagnet operated continuously with a large power supply. The small amount of tin found in canned foods is quite harmless. The agreed limit of tin content in U.S. foods is 300 mg/kg. The trialkyl and triaryl tin compounds are used as biocides and must be handled carefully. Over the past 25 years the price of commercial tin has varied from 50¢/lb ($1.10/kg) to its present price of about $9/kg as of December 1999. Titanium — (L. Titans, the first sons of the Earth, myth.), Ti; at. wt. 47.867(1); at. no. 22; m.p. 1668°C; b.p. 3287°C; sp. gr. 4.54; valence 2, 3, or 4. Discovered by Gregor in 1791; named by Klaproth in 1795. Impure titanium was prepared by Nilson and Pettersson in 1887; however, the pure metal (99.9%) was not made until 1910 by Hunter by heating TiCl4 with sodium in a steel bomb. Titanium is present in meteorites and in the sun. Rocks obtained during the Apollo 17 lunar mission showed presence of 12.1% TiO2. Analyses of rocks obtained during earlier Apollo missions show lower percentages. Titanium oxide bands are prominent in the spectra of M-type stars. The element is the ninth most abundant in the crust of the earth. Titanium is almost always present in igneous rocks and in the sediments derived from them. It occurs in the minerals rutile, ilmenite, and sphene, and is present in titanates and in many iron ores. Deposits of ilmenite and rutile are found in Florida, California, Tennessee, and New York. Australia, Norway, Malaysia, India, and China are also large suppliers of titanium minerals. Titanium is present in the ash of coal, in plants, and in the human body. The metal was a laboratory curiosity until Kroll, in 1946, showed that titanium could be produced commercially by reducing titanium tetrachloride with magnesium. This method is largely used for producing the metal today. The metal can be purified by decomposing the iodide. Titanium, when pure, is a lustrous, white metal. It has a low density, good strength, is easily fabricated, and has excellent corrosion resistance. It is ductile only when it is free of oxygen. The metal burns in air and is the only element that burns in nitrogen. Titanium is resistant to dilute sulfuric and hydrochloric acid, most organic acids, moist chlorine gas, and chloride solutions. Natural titanium consists of five isotopes with atomic masses from 46 to 50. All are stable. Eighteen other unstable isotopes are known. The metal is dimorphic. The hexagonal α form changes to the cubic β form very slowly at about 880°C. The metal combines with oxygen at red heat, and with chlorine at 550°C. Titanium is important as an alloying agent with aluminum, molybdenum, manganese, iron, and other metals. Alloys of titanium are principally used for aircraft and missiles where lightweight strength and ability to withstand extremes of temperature are important. Titanium is as strong as steel, but 45% lighter. It is 60% heavier than aluminum, but twice as strong. Titanium has potential use in desalination plants for converting sea water into fresh water. The metal has excellent resistance to sea water and is used for propeller shafts, rigging, and other parts of ships exposed to salt water. A titanium anode coated with platinum has been used to provide cathodic protection from corrosion by salt water. Titanium metal is considered to be physiologically inert; however, titanium powder may be a carcinogenic hazard. When pure, titanium dioxide is relatively clear and has an extremely high index of refraction with an optical dispersion higher than diamond. It is produced artificially for use as a gemstone, but it is relatively soft. Star sapphires and rubies exhibit their asterism as a result of the presence of TiO2. Titanium dioxide is extensively used for both house paint and artist’s paint, as it is permanent and has good covering power. Titanium oxide pigment accounts for the largest use of the element. Titanium paint is an excellent reflector of infrared, and is extensively used in solar observatories where heat causes poor seeing conditions. Titanium tetrachloride is used to iridize glass. This compound fumes strongly in air and has been used to produce smoke screens. The price of titanium metal (99.8%) is about $800/kg. Tungsten — (Swedish, tung sten, heavy stone); also known as wolfram (from wolframite, said to be named from wolf rahm or spumi lupi, because the ore interfered with the smelting of tin and was supposed to devour the tin), W; at. wt. 183.84(1); at. no. 74; m.p. 3422°C; b.p. 5555°C; sp. gr. 19.3 (20°C); valence 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. In 1779 Peter Woulfe examined the mineral now known as wolframite and concluded it must contain a new substance. Scheele, in 1781, found that a new acid could be made from tung sten (a name first applied about 1758 to a mineral now known as scheelite). Scheele and Berman suggested the possibility of obtaining a new metal by reducing this acid. The de Elhuyar brothers found an acid in wolframite in 1783 that was identical to the acid of tungsten(tungstic acid) of Scheele, and in that year they succeeded in obtaining the element by reduction of this acid with charcoal. Tungsten occurs in wolframite, (Fe, Mn)WO4; scheelite, CaWO4; huebnerite, MnWO4; and ferberite, FeWO4. Important deposits of
4-32
THE ELEMENTS (continued) tungsten occur in California, Colorado, Bolivia, Russia, and Portugal. China is reported to have about 75% of the world’s tungsten resources. Natural tungsten contains five stable isotopes. Thirty two other unstable isotopes and isomers are recognized. The metal is obtained commercially by reducing tungsten oxide with hydrogen or carbon. Pure tungsten is a steel-gray to tin-white metal. Very pure tungsten can be cut with a hacksaw, and can be forged, spun, drawn, and extruded. The impure metal is brittle and can be worked only with difficulty. Tungsten has the highest melting point of all metals, and at temperatures over 1650°C has the highest tensile strength. The metal oxidizes in air and must be protected at elevated temperatures. It has excellent corrosion resistance and is attacked only slightly by most mineral acids. The thermal expansion is about the same as borosilicate glass, which makes the metal useful for glass-to-metal seals. Tungsten and its alloys are used extensively for filaments for electric lamps, electron and television tubes, and for metal evaporation work; for electrical contact points for automobile distributors; X-ray targets; windings and heating elements for electrical furnaces; and for numerous spacecraft and high-temperature applications. High-speed tool steels, Hastelloy®, Stellite®, and many other alloys contain tungsten. Tungsten carbide is of great importance to the metal-working, mining, and petroleum industries.Calcium and magnesium tungstates are widely used in fluorescent lighting; other salts of tungsten are used in the chemical and tanning industries. Tungsten disulfide is a dry, high-temperature lubricant, stable to 500°C. Tungsten bronzes and other tungsten compounds are used in paints. Zirconium tungstate has found recent applications (see under Zirconium). Tungsten powder (99.999%) costs about $2900/kg. Uranium — (Planet Uranus), U; at. wt. 238.0289(1); at. no. 92; m.p. 1135°C; b.p. 4131°C; sp. gr. ~18.95; valence 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. Yellow-colored glass, containing more than 1% uranium oxide and dating back to 79 A.D., has been found near Naples, Italy. Klaproth recognized an unknown element in pitchblende and attempted to isolate the metal in 1789. The metal apparently was first isolated in 1841 by Peligot, who reduced the anhydrous chloride with potassium. Uranium is not as rare as it was once thought. It is now considered to be more plentiful than mercury, antimony, silver, or cadmium, and is about as abundant as molybdenum or arsenic. It occurs in numerous minerals such as pitchblende, uraninite, carnotite, autunite, uranophane, davidite, and tobernite. It is also found in phosphate rock, lignite, monazite sands, and can be recovered commercially from these sources. Large deposits of uranium ore occur in Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Canada, and elsewhere. Uranium can be made by reducing uranium halides with alkali or alkaline earth metals or by reducing uranium oxides by calcium, aluminum, or carbon at high temperatures. The metal can also be produced by electrolysis of KUF5 or UF4, dissolved in a molten mixture of CaCl2 and NaCl. High-purity uranium can be prepared by the thermal decomposition of uranium halides on a hot filament. Uranium exhibits three crystallographic modifications as follows: °C °C α 688 → β 776 →γ
Uranium is a heavy, silvery-white metal which is pyrophoric when finely divided. It is a little softer than steel, and is attacked by cold water in a finely divided state. It is malleable, ductile, and slightly paramagnetic. In air, the metal becomes coated with a layer of oxide. Acids dissolve the metal, but it is unaffected by alkalis. Uranium has twenty three isotopes, one of which is an isomer and all of which are radioactive. Naturally occurring uranium contains 99.2745% by weight 238U, 0.720% 235U, and 0.0055% 234U. Studies show that the percentage weight of 235U in natural uranium varies by as much as 0.1%, depending on the source. The U.S.D.O.E. has adopted the value of 0.711 as being their “official” percentage of 235U in natural uranium. Natural uranium is sufficiently radioactive to expose a photographic plate in an hour or so. Much of the internal heat of the earth is thought to be attributable to the presence of uranium and thorium. 238U with a half-life of 4.46 × 109 years, has been used to estimate the age of igneous rocks. The origin of uranium, the highest member of the naturally occurring elements — except perhaps for traces of neptunium or plutonium — is not clearly understood, although it has been thought that uranium might be a decay product of elements of higher atomic weight, which may have once been present on earth or elsewhere in the universe. These original elements may have been formed as a result of a primordial “creation,” known as “the big bang,” in a supernova, or in some other stellar processes. The fact that recent studies show that most trans-uranic elements are extremely rare with very short half-lives indicates that it may be necessary to find some alternative explanation for the very large quantities of radioactive uranium we find on earth. Studies of meteorites from other parts of the solar system show a relatively low radioactive content, compared to terrestrial rocks. Uranium is of great importance as a nuclear fuel. 238U can be converted into fissionable plutonium by the following reactions: 238
U( n, γ )→ 239 U β→ 239 Np β→ 239 Pu
This nuclear conversion can be brought about in “breeder” reactors where it is possible to produce more new fissionable material than the fissionable material used in maintaining the chain reaction. 235U is of even greater importance, for it is the key to the utilization of uranium. 235U, while occurring in natural uranium to the extent of only 0.72%, is so fissionable with slow neutrons that a self-sustaining fission chain reaction can be made to occur in a reactor constructed from natural uranium and a suitable moderator, such as heavy water or graphite, alone. 235U can be concentrated by gaseous diffusion and other physical processes, if desired, and used directly as a nuclear fuel, instead of natural uranium, or used as an explosive. Natural uranium, slightly enriched with 235U by a small percentage, is used to fuel nuclear power reactors for the generation of electricity. Natural thorium can be irradiated with neutrons as follows to produce the important isotope 233U. 232
Th( n, γ )→ 233 Th β→ 233 Pa β→ 233 U
While thorium itself is not fissionable, 233U is, and in this way may be used as a nuclear fuel. One pound of completely fissioned uranium has the fuel value of over 1500 tons of coal. The uses of nuclear fuels to generate electrical power, to make isotopes for peaceful purposes, and to make explosives are well known. The estimated world-wide production of the 437 nuclear power reactors in operation in 1998 amounted to about 352,000 Megawatt hours. In 1998 the U.S. had about 107 commercial reactors with an output of about 100,000 Megawatt-hours. Some nuclear-powered electric generating plants have recently been closed because of safety concerns. There are also serious problems with nuclear waste disposal that have not been completely resolved. Uranium in the U.S.A. is controlled by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, under the Department of Energy. Uses are being found for the large quantities of “depleted” uranium, now available, where uranium-235 has been lowered to about 0.2%. Depleted uranium has been used for inertial guidance devices, gyrocompasses, counterweights for aircraft control surfaces, ballast for missile reentry vehicles, and as a shielding material for tanks, etc. Concerns, however, have been raised over its low radioactive properties. Uranium metal is used for X-ray targets for production
4-33
THE ELEMENTS (continued) of high-energy X-rays. The nitrate has been used as photographic toner, and the acetate is used in analytical chemistry. Crystals of uranium nitrate are triboluminescent. Uranium salts have also been used for producing yellow “vaseline” glass and glazes. Uranium and its compounds are highly toxic, both from a chemical and radiological standpoint. Finely divided uranium metal, being pyrophoric, presents a fire hazard. The maximum permissible total body burden of natural uranium (based on radiotoxicity) is 0.2 µCi for soluble compounds. Recently, the natural presence of uranium and thorium in many soils has become of concern to homeowners because of the generation of radon and its daughters (see under Radon). Uranium metal is available commercially at a cost of about $6/g (99.7%) in air-tight glass under argon. Unilnilium, Unnilbium, etc. — See under the opening paragraphs of this article and also under Elements 110 to 118. Vanadium — (Scandinavian goddess, Vanadis), V; at. wt. 50.9415(1); at. no. 23; m.p. 1910°C; b.p. 3407°C; sp. gr. 6.11 (18.7°C); valence 2, 3, 4, or 5. Vanadium was first discovered by del Rio in 1801. Unfortunately, a French chemist incorrectly declared del Rio’s new element was only impure chromium; del Rio thought himself to be mistaken and accepted the French chemist’s statement. The element was rediscovered in 1830 by Sefstrom, who named the element in honor of the Scandinavian goddess Vanadis because of its beautiful multicolored compounds. It was isolated in nearly pure form by Roscoe, in 1867, who reduced the chloride with hydrogen. Vanadium of 99.3 to 99.8% purity was not produced until 1927. Vanadium is found in about 65 different minerals among which are carnotite, roscoelite, vanadinite, and patronite important sources of the metal. Vanadium is also found in phosphate rock and certain iron ores, and is present in some crude oils in the form of organic complexes. It is also found in small percentages in meteorites. Commercial production from petroleum ash holds promise as an important source of the element. China, South Africa, and Russia supply much of the world’s vanadium ores. High-purity ductile vanadium can be obtained by reduction of vanadium trichloride with magnesium or with magnesium-sodium mixtures. Much of the vanadium metal being produced is now made by calcium reduction of V2O5 in a pressure vessel, an adaption of a process developed by McKechnie and Seybolt. Natural vanadium is a mixture of two isotopes, 50V (0.25%) and 51V (99.75%). 50V is slightly radioactive, having a long half-life. Twenty other unstable isotopes are recognized. Pure vanadium is a bright white metal, and is soft and ductile. It has good corrosion resistance to alkalis, sulfuric and hydrochloric acid, and salt water, but the metal oxidizes readily above 660°C. The metal has good structural strength and a low fission neutron cross section, making it useful in nuclear applications. Vanadium is used in producing rust resistant, spring, and highspeed tool steels. It is an important carbide stabilizer in making steels. About 80% of the vanadium now produced is used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive. Vanadium foil is used as a bonding agent in cladding titanium to steel. Vanadium pentoxide is used in ceramics and as a catalyst. It is also used in producing a superconductive magnet with a field of 175,000 gauss. Vanadium and its compounds are toxic and should be handled with care. Ductile vanadium is commercially available. Vanadium metal (99.7%) costs about $3/g. Wolfram — see Tungsten. Xenon — (Gr. xenon, stranger), Xe; at. wt. 131.29(2); at. no. 54; m.p. –111.79°C; b.p. –108.12°C; tc 16.62°C; density (gas) 5.887 ± 0.009 g/l, sp. gr (liquid) 3.52 (–109°C); valence usually 0. Discovered by Ramsay and Travers in 1898 in the residue left after evaporating liquid air components. Xenon is a member of the so-called noble or “inert” gases. It is present in the atmosphere to the extent of about one part in twenty million. Xenon is present in the Martian atmosphere to the extent of 0.08 ppm. The element is found in the gases evolved from certain mineral springs, and is commercially obtained by extraction from liquid air. Natural xenon is composed of nine stable isotopes. In addition to these, thirty five unstable isotopes and isomers have been characterized. Before 1962, it had generally been assumed that xenon and other noble gases were unable to form compounds. Evidence has been mounting in the past few years that xenon, as well as other members of the zero valence elements, do form compounds. Among the “compounds” of xenon now reported are xenon hydrate, sodium perxenate, xenon deuterate, difluoride, tetrafluoride, hexafluoride, and XePtF6 and XeRhF6. Xenon trioxide, which is highly explosive, has been prepared. More than 80 xenon compounds have been made with xenon chemically bonded to fluorine and oxygen. Some xenon compounds are colored. Metallic xenon has been produced, using several hundred kilobars of pressure. Xenon in a vacuum tube produces a beautiful blue glow when excited by an electrical discharge. The gas is used in making electron tubes, stroboscopic lamps, bactericidal lamps, and lamps used to excite ruby lasers for generating coherent light. Xenon is used in the atomic energy field in bubble chambers, probes, and other applications where its high molecular weight is of value. The perxenates are used in analytical chemistry as oxidizing agents. 133Xe and 135Xe are produced by neutron irradiation in air cooled nuclear reactors. 133Xe has useful applications as a radioisotope. The element is available in sealed glass containers for about $20/l of gas at standard pressure. Xenon is not toxic, but its compounds are highly toxic because of their strong oxidizing characteristics. Ytterbium — (Ytterby, village in Sweden), Yb; at. wt. 173.04(3); at. no. 70; m.p. 819°C; b.p. 1196°C; sp. gr (α) 6.903 (β) 6.966; valence 2, 3. Marignac in 1878 discovered a new component, which he called ytterbia, in the earth then known as erbia. In 1907, Urbain separated ytterbia into two components, which he called neoytterbia and lutecia. The elements in these earths are now known as ytterbium and lutetium, respectively. These elements are identical with aldebaranium and cassiopeium, discovered independently and at about the same time by von Welsbach. Ytterbium occurs along with other rare earths in a number of rare minerals. It is commercially recovered principally from monazite sand, which contains about 0.03%. Ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques developed in recent years have greatly simplified the separation of the rare earths from one another. The element was first prepared by Klemm and Bonner in 1937 by reducing ytterbium trichloride with potassium. Their metal was mixed, however, with KCl. Daane, Dennison, and Spedding prepared a much purer form in 1953 from which the chemical and physical properties of the element could be determined. Ytterbium has a bright silvery luster, is soft, malleable, and quite ductile. While the element is fairly stable, it should be kept in closed containers to protect it from air and moisture. Ytterbium is readily attacked and dissolved by dilute and concentrated mineral acids and reacts slowly with water. Ytterbium has three allotropic forms with transformation points at –13° and 795°C. The beta form is a room-temperature, face-centered, cubic modification, while the high-temperature gamma form is a body-centered cubic form. Another body-centered cubic phase has recently been found to be stable at high pressures at room temperatures. The beta form ordinarily has metallic-type conductivity, but becomes a semiconductor when the pressure is increased above 16,000 atm. The electrical resistance increases tenfold as the pressure is increased to 39,000 atm and drops to about 80% of its standard temperature-pressure resistivity at a pressure of 40,000 atm. Natural ytterbium is a mixture of seven stable isotopes. Twenty six other unstable isotopes and isomers are known. Ytterbium metal has possible use in improving the grain refinement, strength, and other mechanical properties of stainless steel. One isotope is reported to have been used as a radiation source as a substitute for a portable X-ray machine where electricity is unavailable. Few other uses have been found. Ytterbium metal is available with a purity of about 99.99% for about $20/g. Ytterbium has a low acute toxic rating, but may present a carcinogenic hazard. Yttrium — (Ytterby, village in Sweden near Vauxholm), Y; at. wt. 88.90585(2); at. no. 39; m.p. 1522°C; b.p. 3345°C; sp. gr. 4.469 (25°C); valence 3. Yttria, which is an earth containing yttrium, was discovered by Gadolin in 1794. Ytterby is the site of a quarry which yielded many unusually minerals
4-34
THE ELEMENTS (continued) containing rare earths and other elements. This small town, near Stockholm, bears the honor of giving names to erbium, terbium, and ytterbium as well as yttrium. In 1843 Mosander showed that yttria could be resolved into the oxides (or earths) of three elements. The name yttria was reserved for the most basic one; the others were named erbia and terbia. Yttrium occurs in nearly all of the rare-earth minerals. Analysis of lunar rock samples obtained during the Apollo missions show a relatively high yttrium content. It is recovered commercially from monazite sand, which contains about 3%, and from bastnasite, which contains about 0.2%. Wohler obtained the impure element in 1828 by reduction of the anhydrous chloride with potassium. The metal is now produced commercially by reduction of the fluoride with calcium metal. It can also be prepared by other techniques. Yttrium has a silvermetallic luster and is relatively stable in air. Turnings of the metal, however, ignite in air if their temperature exceeds 400°C, and finely divided yttrium is very unstable in air. Yttrium oxide is one of the most important compounds of yttrium and accounts for the largest use. It is widely used in making YVO4 europium, and Y2O3 europium phosphors to give the red color in color television tubes. Many hundreds of thousands of pounds are now used in this application. Yttrium oxide also is used to produce yttrium-iron-garnets, which are very effective microwave filters. Yttrium iron, aluminum, and gadolinium garnets, with formulas such as Y3Fe5O12 and Y3Al5O12, have interesting magnetic properties. Yttrium iron garnet is also exceptionally efficient as both a transmitter and transducer of acoustic energy. Yttrium aluminum garnet, with a hardness of 8.5, is also finding use as a gemstone (simulated diamond). Small amounts of yttrium (0.1 to 0.2%) can be used to reduce the grain size in chromium, molybdenum, zirconium, and titanium, and to increase strength of aluminum and magnesium alloys. Alloys with other useful properties can be obtained by using yttrium as an additive. The metal can be used as a deoxidizer for vanadium and other nonferrous metals. The metal has a low cross section for nuclear capture. 90Y, one of the isotopes of yttrium, exists in equilibrium with its parent 90Sr, a product of atomic explosions. Yttrium has been considered for use as a nodulizer for producing nodular cast iron, in which the graphite forms compact nodules instead of the usual flakes. Such iron has increased ductility. Yttrium is also finding application in laser systems and as a catalyst for ethylene polymerization.It has also potential use in ceramic and glass formulas, as the oxide has a high melting point and imparts shock resistance and low expansion characteristics to glass. Natural yttrium contains but one isotope, 89Y. Fortythree other unstable isotopes and isomers have been characterized. Yttrium metal of 99.9% purity is commercially available at a cost of about $3/g. Zinc — (Ger. Zink, of obscure origin), Zn; at. wt. 65.39(2); at. no. 30; m.p. 419.53°C; b.p. 907°C; sp. gr. 7.133 (25°C); valence 2. Centuries before zinc was recognized as a distinct element, zinc ores were used for making brass. Tubal-Cain, seven generations from Adam, is mentioned as being an “instructor in every artificer in brass and iron.” An alloy containing 87% zinc has been found in prehistoric ruins in Transylvania. Metallic zinc was produced in the 13th century A.D. in India by reducing calamine with organic substances such as wool. The metal was rediscovered in Europe by Marggraf in 1746, who showed that it could be obtained by reducing calamine with charcoal. The principal ores of zinc are sphalerite or blende (sulfide), smithsonite (carbonate), calamine (silicate), and franklinite (zinc, manganese, iron oxide). Canada, Japan, Belgium, Germany, and The Netherlands are suppliers of zinc ores. Zinc is also mined in Alaska, Tennessee, Missouri, and elsewhere in the U.S. Zinc can be obtained by roasting its ores to form the oxide and by reduction of the oxide with coal or carbon, with subsequent distillation of the metal. Other methods of extraction are possible. Naturally occurring zinc contains five stable isotopes. Twenty-five other unstable isotopes and isomers are recognized. Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous metal. It is brittle at ordinary temperatures but malleable at 100 to 150°C. It is a fair conductor of electricity, and burns in air at high red heat with evolution of white clouds of the oxide. The metal is employed to form numerous alloys with other metals. Brass, nickel silver, typewriter metal, commercial bronze, spring brass, German silver, soft solder, and aluminum solder are some of the more important alloys. Large quantities of zinc are used to produce die castings, used extensively by the automotive, electrical, and hardware industries. An alloy called Prestal®, consisting of 78% zinc and 22% aluminum is reported to be almost as strong as steel but as easy to mold as plastic. It is said to be so plastic that it can be molded into form by relatively inexpensive die casts made of ceramics and cement. It exhibits superplasticity. Zinc is also extensively used to galvanize other metals such as iron to prevent corrosion. Neither zinc nor zirconium is ferromagnetic; but ZrZn2 exhibits ferromagnetism at temperatures below 35 K. Zinc oxide is a unique and very useful material to modern civilization. It is widely used in the manufacture of paints, rubber products, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, floor coverings, plastics, printing inks, soap, storage batteries, textiles, electrical equipment, and other products. It has unusual electrical, thermal, optical, and solid-state properties that have not yet been fully investigated. Lithopone, a mixture of zinc sulfide and barium sulfate, is an important pigment. Zinc sulfide is used in making luminous dials, X-ray and TV screens, and fluorescent lights. The chloride and chromate are also important compounds. Zinc is an essential element in the growth of human beings and animals. Tests show that zinc-deficient animals require 50% more food to gain the same weight as an animal supplied with sufficient zinc. Zinc is not considered to be toxic, but when freshly formed ZnO is inhaled a disorder known as the oxide shakes or zinc chills sometimes occurs. It is recommended that where zinc oxide is encountered good ventilation be provided. The commercial price of zinc was roughly 60¢/lb ($1.30 kg). Zinc metal with a purity of 99.9999% is priced at about $6/g. Zirconium — (Syriac, zargun, color of gold), Zr; at. wt. 91.224(2); at. no. 40; m.p. 1855°C; b.p. 4409°C; sp. gr. 6.506 (20°C); valence +2, +3, and +4. The name zircon may have originated from the Syriac word zargono, which describes the color of certain gemstones now known as zircon, jargon, hyacinth, jacinth, or ligure.This mineral, or its variations, is mentioned in biblical writings. These minerals were not known to contain this element until Klaproth, in 1789, analyzed a jargon from Sri Lanka and found a new earth, which Werner named zircon (silex circonius), and Klaproth called Zirkonerde (zirconia). The impure metal was first isolated by Berzelius in 1824 by heating a mixture of potassium and potassium zirconium fluoride in a small iron tube. Pure zirconium was first prepared in 1914. Very pure zirconium was first produced in 1925 by van Arkel and de Boer by an iodide decomposition process they developed. Zirconium is found in abundance in S-type stars, and has been identified in the sun and meteorites. Analyses of lunar rock samples obtained during the various Apollo missions to the moon show a surprisingly high zirconium oxide content, compared with terrestial rocks. Naturally occurring zirconium contains five isotopes. Thirty-one other radioactive isotopes and isomers are known to exist. Zircon, ZrSiO4, the principal ore, is found in deposits in Florida, South Carolina, Australia, South Africa, and elsewhere. Baddeleyite, found in Brazil, is an important zirconium mineral. It is principally pure ZrO2in crystalline form having a hafnium content of about 1%. Zirconium also occurs in some 30 other recognized mineral species. Zirconium is produced commercially by reduction of the chloride with magnesium (the Kroll Process), and by other methods. It is a grayish-white lustrous metal. When finely divided, the metal may ignite spontaneously in air, especially at elevated temperatures. The solid metal is much more difficult to ignite. The inherent toxicity of zirconium compounds is low. Hafnium is invariably found in zirconium ores, and the separation is difficult. Commercial-grade zirconium contains from 1 to 3% hafnium. Zirconium has a low absorption cross section for neutrons, and is therefore used for nuclear energy applications, such as for cladding fuel elements. Commercial nuclear power generation now takes more than 90% of zirconium metal production. Reactors of the size now being made may use as much as a half-million lineal feet of zirconium alloy tubing. Reactor-grade zirconium is essentially free of hafnium. Zircaloy® is an important alloy developed specifically for nuclear applications. Zirconium is exceptionally resistant to corrosion by many common acids and alkalis, by sea water, and by other agents. It is used extensively by the chemical
4-35
THE ELEMENTS (continued) industry where corrosive agents are employed. Zirconium is used as a getter in vacuum tubes, as an alloying agent in steel, in surgical appliances, photoflash bulbs, explosive primers, rayon spinnerets, lamp filaments, etc. It is used in poison ivy lotions in the form of the carbonate as it combines with urushiol. With niobium, zirconium is superconductive at low temperatures and is used to make superconductive magnets, which offer hope of direct large-scale generation of electric power. Alloyed with zinc, zirconium becomes magnetic at temperatures below 35 K. Zirconium oxide (zircon) has a high index of refraction and is used as a gem material. The impure oxide, zirconia, is used for laboratory crucibles that will withstand heat shock, for linings of metallurgical furnaces, and by the glass and ceramic industries as a refractory material. Its use as a refractory material accounts for a large share of all zirconium consumed. Zirconium tungstate is an unusual material that shrinks, rather than expands, when heated. While this compound has been known for more than 30 years, it is only now that it is being studied to determine the nature of this unusual behavior. A few other compounds are known to possess this property, but they tend to shrink in one direction, while they stretch out in others in order to maintain an overall volume. Zirconium tungstate shrinks in all directions over a wide temperature range of from near absolute zero to +777°C. This material is being considered for use in very small computer chips, which are subject to severe temperature changes. It is also being considered for use in composite materials where thermal expansion may be a problem. Zirconium of about 99.5% purity is available at a cost of about $2100/kg or about $3/g.
4-36
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS The compounds in this table were selected on the basis of their laboratory and industrial importance, as well as their value in illustrating trends in the variation of physical properties with position in the periodic table. An effort has been made to include the most frequently encountered inorganic substances; organometallics are not covered, with the exception of metal salts of organic acids. Many, if not most, of the compounds that are solids at ambient temperature can exist in more than one crystalline modification. The information given here applies to the most stable or common crystalline form. In cases where two or more forms are of practical importance, separate entries will be found in the table. In the default listing, the compounds are arranged primarily in alphabetical order by the most commonly used name. However, adjustments are made in many instances in order to bring closely related compounds together. For example, hydrides of elements such as boron, silicon, and germanium are grouped together immediately following the entry for the parent element, since they would otherwise be scattered throughout the table. Likewise, the oxoacids of an element are given in one group when a strict alphabetical order would separate them (e.g., sulfuric acid and fluorosulfuric acid). The data fields in the table are described below. • • •
•
•
• •
Name: Systematic name for the substance. The valence state of a metallic element is indicated by a Roman numeral, e.g., copper in the +2 state is written as copper(II) rather than cupric. Synonym: Another name in common use. Formula: The formula as most commonly written (generally, not in Hill order). The formula given does not necessarily specify the actual structure of the compound. For example, aluminum chloride is designated as AlCl3, even though a more accurate representation of the structure in the solid phase (and, under some conditions, in the gas phase) is Al2Cl6. A few exceptions are made, such as the use of Hg2+2 for the mercury(I) ion. CAS Reg. No.: Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number. An asterisk* following the CAS RN for a hydrate indicates that the number refers to the anhydrous compound. In most cases the generic CAS RN for the compound is given rather than the number for a specific crystalline form or mineral. Mol. Wt.: Molecular weight (relative molar mass) as calculated with the 1997 IUPAC Recommended Atomic Weights. The number of decimal places corresponds to the number of places in the atomic weight of the least accurately known element (e.g., one place for lead compounds, two places for compounds of selenium, germanium, etc.); a maximum of three places is given. For compounds of radioactive elements for which IUPAC makes no recommendation, the mass number of the isotope with longest half-life is used, and the result is rounded to the nearest integer. Physical Form: The crystal system is given, when available, for compounds that are solid at room temperature, together with color and other descriptive features. mp: Normal melting point in °C. The notation “tp” indicates the temperature where solid, liquid, and gas are in equilibrium at a pressure greater than one atmosphere (i.e., the normal melting point does not exist). When available, the triple point pressure is listed.
•
• • •
bp: Normal boiling point in °C (referred to 101.325 kPa or 760 mmHg pressure). The notation “sp” following the number indicates the temperature where the pressure of the vapor in equilibrium with the solid reaches 101.325 kPa. See Reference 8, p. 23, for further discussion of sublimation points and triple points. A notation “sub” without a temperature being given indicates that there is a perceptible sublimation pressure above the solid at ambient temperatures. ρ: Density. Values for solids and liquids are given in g/cm3 and can be assumed to refer to temperatures near room temperature unless otherwise stated. Values for gases are the calculated ideal gas densities in g/L at 25°C and 101.325 kPa. Sol. Aqueous solubility expressed as the number of grams of the compound (excluding any water of hydration) that will dissolve in 100 g of water. The temperature in °C is given as a superscript. Qualitative Sol: Qualitative information on the solubility in various solvents is given. The abbreviations are: i insoluble sl slightly soluble s soluble vs very soluble reac reacts LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Ac ace acid alk amorp anh aq blk brn bz chl col conc cry cub cyhex dec dil diox eth EtOH exp flam
acetyl acetone acid solutions alkaline solutions amorphous anhydrous aqueous black brown benzene chloroform colorless concentrated crystals, crystalline cubic cyclohexane decomposes dilute dioxane ethyl ether ethanol explodes, explosive flammable
gl grn hc hex hp hex hyd hyg i liq MeOH mono octahed oran orth os peth pow prec pur py reac refrac rhom s silv sl soln sp stab subl temp tetr thf tol tp trans tricl trig unstab viol visc vs wh xyl yel
glass, glassy green hydrocarbon solvents hexagonal heptane hexane hydrate hygroscopic insoluble in liquid methanol monoclinic octahedral orange orthorhombic organic solvents petroleum ether powder precipitate purple pyridine reacts with refractory rhombohedral soluble in silvery slightly soluble in solution sublimation point stable sublimes temperature tetragonal tetrahydrofuran toluene triple point transition, transformation triclinic trigonal unstable violet viscous very soluble in white xylene yellow
REFERENCES 1. Phillips, S. L., and Perry, D.L., Handbook of Inorganic Compounds, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1995. 2. Trotman-Dickenson, A. F., Executive Editor, Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry, Vol. 1-5, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1973. 3. Greenwood, N. N., and Earnshaw, A., Chemistry of the Elements, Second Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1997. 4. Budavari, S., Editor, The Merck Index, Twelfth Edition, Merck & Co., Rahway, NJ, 1996. 5. GMELIN Handbook of Inorganic and Organometallic Chemistry, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg. 6. Chase, M.W., Davies, C.A., Downey, J.R., Frurip, D. J., McDonald, R.A., and Syverud, A.N.; JANAF Thermochemical Tables, Third Edition, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, Vol. 14, Suppl. 1, 1985; Chase, M. W., NIST-JANAF Thermochemical Tables, Fourth Edition, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, Monograph No. 9, 1998. 7. Donnay, J.D.H., and Ondik, H.M., Crystal Data Determinative Tables, Third Edition, Volumes 2 and 4, Inorganic Compounds, Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards, Swarthmore, PA, 1973. 8. Lide, D. R., and Kehiaian, H.V., CRC Handbook of Thermophysical and Thermochemical Data, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1994. 9. Kirk-Othmer Concise Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1985. 10. Dictionary of Inorganic Compounds, Chapman & Hall, New York, 1992. 11. Massalski, T. B., ed., Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd Edition, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1990. 12. Landolt-Börnstein, Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology, Sixth Edition, II/4, Caloric Quantities of State, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1961. 13. Deer, W. A., Howie, R.A., and Zussman, J., An Introduction to the Rock-Forming Minerals, 2nd Edition, Longman Scientific & Technical, Harlow, Essex, 1992. 14. Carmichael, R. S., Practical Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks and Minerals, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1989. 15. Dinsdale, A.T., "SGTE Data for Pure Elements", CALPHAD, 15, 317-425, 1991. 16. Madelung, O., Semiconductors: Group IV Elements and III-IV Compounds, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1991. 17. Daubert, T.E., Danner, R. P., Sibul, H.M., and Stebbins, C.C., Physical and Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Compounds: Data Compilation, extant 1994 (core with 4 supplements), Taylor & Francis, Bristol, PA. 18. Lidin, R. A., Andreeva, L. L., and Molochko, V. A., Constants of Inorganic Substances, Begell House, New York, 1995. 19. Gurvich, L. V., Veyts, I. V., and Alcock, C. B., Thermodynamic Properties of Individual Substances, Fourth Edition, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., New York, 1989. 20. The Combined Chemical Dictionary on CDROM, Chapman & Hall / CRC Press, Boca Raton & London, 2000.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE RARE EARTH METALS K.A. Gschneidner, Jr. Table 1 Data for the Trivalent Ions of the Rare Earth Elements Electronic configuration for R3+ Rare earth
Symbol
Scandium Yttrium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
Sc Y La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Atomic no. 21 39 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Atomic wt.a
No. 4f electrons
44.955910 88.90585 138.9055 140.115 140.90765 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.965 157.25 158.92534 162.50 164.93032 167.26 168.93421 173.04 174.967
0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
S
L
J
Spectroscopic ground state symbol
— — — 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2 3 7/2 3 5/2 2 3/2 1 1/2 —
— — — 3 5 6 6 5 3 0 3 5 6 6 5 3 —
— — — 5/2 4 9/2 4 5/2 0 7/2 6 15/2 8 15/2 6 7/2 —
— — — 2F 5/2 3H 4 4I 9/2 5I 4 6H 5/2 7F 0 8S 7/2 7F 6 6H 15/2 5I 8 4I 15/2 3H 6 2F 7/2 —
Note: For additional information, see Goldschmidt, Z.B., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 1, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1978; DeLaeter, J.R., and Heumann, K.G., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 20, 1313 , 1991; Pure Appl. Chem., 66, 2423, 1994.
a
1993 standard atomic weights.
Table 2 Crystallographic Data for the Rare Earth Metals at 24°C (297 K) or Below Rare earth metal αSc αY αLa αCeb βCe γCec αPr αNd αPm αSm Eu αGd α′Tbe αTb α′Dyf αDy Ho
Crystal structurea hcp hcp dhcp fcc dhcp fcc dhcp dhcp dhcp rhombd bcc hcp ortho hcp ortho hcp hcp
ao 3.3088 3.6482 3.7740 4.85b 3.6810 5.1610 3.6721 3.6582 3.65 3.6290d 4.5827 3.6336 3.605e 3.6055 3.595f 3.5915 3.5778
Lattice constants(Å) bo — — — — — — — — — — — — 6.244e — 6.184f — —
co 5.2680 5.7318 12.171 — 11.857 — 11.8326 11.7966 11.65 26.207 — 5.7810 5.706e 5.6966 5.678f 5.6501 5.6178
4-112
Metallic radius CN = 12 (Å)
Atomic volume (cm3/mol)
Density (g/cm3)
1.6406 1.8012 1.8791 1.72b 1.8321 1.8247 1.8279 1.8214 1.811 1.8041 2.0418 1.8013 1.784e 1.7833 1.774f 1.7740 1.7661
15.039 19.893 22.602 17.2b 20.947 20.696 20.803 20.583 20.24 20.000 28.979 19.903 19.34e 19.310 19.00f 19.004 18.752
2.989 4.469 6.146 8.16b 6.689 6.770 6.773 7.008 7.264 7.520 5.244 7.901 8.219e 8.230 8.551f 8.551 8.795
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE RARE EARTH METALS (continued) Table 2 Crystallographic Data for the Rare Earth Metals at 24°C (297 K) or Below (continued) Rare earth metal Er Tm αYbg βYb Lu
Crystal structurea
Lattice constants(Å) bo
ao
hcp hcp hcp fcc hcp
3.5592 3.5375 3.8799g 5.4848 3.5052
— — — — —
co 5.5850 5.5540 6.3859g — 5.5494
Metallic radius CN = 12 (Å)
Atomic volume (cm3/mol)
Density (g/cm3)
1.7566 1.7462 1.9451g 1.9392 1.7349
18.449 18.124 25.067g 24.841 17.779
9.066 9.321 6.903g 6.966 9.841
Note: For additional information, see Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Calderwood, F.W., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 8, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1986; Gschneidner, K.A., Jr., Pecharsky, V.K., Cho, Jaephil and Martin, S.W., Scripta Mater., 1996, to be published. a
b c d d f g
hcp = hexagonal close-packed; P63/mmc, hP2, A3, Mg-type; dhcp = double-c hexagonal close-packed; P63/mmc, hP4, A3′, αLa-type; fcc = facecentered cubic; Fm3m, cF4, A1, Cu-type; rhomb = rhombohedral; R3m, hR3, αSm-type; bcc = body-centered cubic; Im3m, cI2, A2, W-type; ortho = orthorhombic; Cmcm, oC4, α′ Dy-type. At 77 K (–196°C). Equilibrium room temperature (standard state) phase. Rhombohedral is the primitive cell. Lattice parameters given are for the nonprimitive hexagonal cell. At 220 K (–53°C). At 86 K (–187°C). At 23°C.
Table 3 Crystallographic Data for Rare Earth Metals at High Temperature Rare earth metal
Structure
βSc βY βLa γLa δCe βPr βNd βPm βSm
bcc bcc fcc bcc bcc bcc bcc bcc hcp
γSm βGd βTb βDy γYb
bcc bcc bcc bcc bcc
Lattice parameter (Å) 3.73 (est.) 4.10a 5.303 4.26 4.12 4.13 4.13 4.10 (est.) a = 3.6630 c = 5.8448 4.10 (est.) 4.06 4.07a 4.03a 4.44
Metallic radius CN = 8 CN = 12 (Å) (Å)
Temp. (°C)
Atomic volume (cm3/mol)
Density (g/cm3)
1337 1478 325 887 757 821 883 890 450b
1.62 1.78 — 1.84 1.78 1.79 1.79 1.78 —
1.66 1.83 1.875 1.90 1.84 1.84 1.84 1.83 1.8176
15.6 20.8 22.45 23.3 21.1 21.2 21.2 20.8 20.450
2.88 4.28 6.187 5.97 6.65 6.64 6.80 6.99 7.353
922 1265 1289 1381 763c
1.77 1.76 1.76 1.75 1.92
1.82 1.81 1.81 1.80 1.98
20.8 20.2 20.3 19.7 26.4
7.25 7.80 7.82 8.23 6.57
Note: The rare earths Eu, Ho, Er, Tm, and Lu are monomorphic. For additional information, see Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Calderwood, F.W., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 8, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1986, 1. a
b c
Determined by extrapolation to 0% solute of a vs. composition data for R-Mg alloys at 24°C and corrected for thermal expansion to temperature given. The hcp phase was stabilized by impurities and the temperature of measurement was below the equilibrium transition temperature (see Table 4). The bcc phase was stabilized by impurities and the temperature of measurement was below the equilibrium transition temperature (see Table 4).
4-113
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE RARE EARTH METALS (continued) Table 4 High Temperature Transition Temperatures and Melting Point of Rare Earth Metals
Transition I (α – β)a
Rare earth metal
Temp. (°C)
Sc Y Lab Cec,d Pr Nd Pm Sme Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Transition II (β – γ)a Temp. (C°)
Phases
1337 1478 310 139 795 863 890 734 — 1235 1289 1381 — — — 795 —
hcp 1 bcc hcp 1 bcc dhcp → fcc dhcp → fcc (β - γ) dhcp 1 bcc dhcp 1 bcc dhcp 1 bcc rhom → hcp — hcp 1 bcc hcp 1 bcc hcp 1 bcc — — — fcc 1 bcc (β - γ) —
— — 865 726 — — — 922 — — — — — — — — —
Melting point (C°)
Phases — — fcc 1 bcc fcc 1 bcc (γ - δ) — — — hcp 1 bcc — — — — — — — — —
1541 1522 918 798 931 1021 1042 1074 822 1313 1356 1412 1474 1529 1545 819 1663
Note: For additional information, see Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Calderwood, F.W., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 8, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1986; Gschneidner, K.A., Jr., Pecharsky, V.K., Cho, Jaephil and Martin, S.W., Scripta Mater., 34, 1717, 1996. a b c d e
For all the transformations listed, unless otherwise noted. On cooling, fcc → dhcp (β → α), 260°C. The β 1 γ equilibrium transition temperature is 10 ± 5°C. On cooling, fcc → dhcp (γ → β), –16°C. On cooling, hcp → rhomb (β → α), 727°C.
Table 5 Low Temperature Transition Temperatures of the Rare Earth Metals Rare earth metal Ce
Tb Dy Yb
Cooling Transformation
°C
K
γ → βa γ→α β→α α → α′ α→ α′ β→α
–16 –172 –228 –53 –187 –13
257 101 45 220 86 260
Rare earth metal Ce
Yb
Heating Transformation α→β α→β+γ β → γa α→β
°C
K
–148 –104 139 7
125 169 412 280
Note: For additional information, see Beaudry, B.J. and Gschneidner, K.A., Jr., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 1, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1978, 173. Koskenmaki, D.C. and Gschneidner, K.A., Jr., 1978, in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 1, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1978, 337. Gschneidner, K.A., Jr., Pecharsky, V.K., Cho, Jaephil and Martin, S.W., Scripta Mater., 34, 1717, 1996. a
The β 1 γ equilibrium transition temperature is 10 ± 5°C (283 ± 5K).
4-114
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE RARE EARTH METALS (continued) Table 6 Heat Capacity, Standard Entropy, Heats of Transformation, and Fusion of the Rare Earth Metals Rare earth metal
Heat capacity at 298 K (J/mol K)
Sc Y La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
25.5 26.5 27.1 26.9 27.2 27.5 27.3a 29.5 27.7 37.0 28.9 27.7 27.2 28.1 27.0 26.7 26.9
Standard entropy S°298 (J/mol K)
trans. 1 α 1 α 1 α 1 β 1 α 1 α 1 α 1 α 1 — α 1 α 1 α 1 — — — β 1 —
34.6 44.4 56.9 72.0 73.2 71.5 71.6a 69.6 77.8 68.1 73.2 75.6 75.3 73.2 74.0 59.9 51.0
Heat of transformation (kJ/mol) ∆Htr1 trans. 2
β β β γ β β β β
4.00 4.99 0.36 0.05 3.17 3.03 3.0a 0.2a — 3.91 5.02 4.16 — — — 1.75 —
β β β
γ
Heat of fusion (kJ/mol)
∆Htr2
— — β 1 γ γ 1 δ — — — β 1 γ — — — — — — — — —
— — 3.12 2.99 — — — 3.11 — — — — — — — — —
14.1 11.4 6.20 5.46 6.89 7.14 7.7a 8.62 9.21 10.0 10.79 11.06 17.0a 19.9 16.8 7.66 22a
Note: For additional information, see Hultgren, R., Desai, P.D., Hawkins, D.T., Gleiser, M., Kelley, K.K., and Wagman, D.D., Selected Values of the Thermodynamic Properties of the Elements, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1973; Wagman, D.D., Evans, W.H., Parker, V.B., Schumm, R.H., Halow, I., Bailey, S.M., Churney, K.L., and Nuttall, R.L., The NBS Tables of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, Vol. 11, Suppl 2, 1982; Amitin, E.B., Bessergenev, W.G., Kovalevskaya, Yu. A., and Paukov, I.E., J. Chem. Thermodyn., 15, 181, 1983; Amitin, E.B., Bessergenev, W.G., Kovalevskaya, Yu. A., and Paukov, I.E., J. Chem. Thermodyn., 15, 181, 1983. a
Estimated.
Table 7 Vapor Pressures, Boiling Points, and Heats of Sublimation of Rare Earth Metals Rare earth metal
10–8 atm (0.001 Pa)
Sc Y La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
1036 1222 1301 1290 1083 955 — 508 399 1167 1124 804 845 908 599 301 1241
Temperature in °Ca for a vapor pressure of 10–6 atm 10–4 atm (0.101 Pa) (10.1Pa) 1243 1460 1566 1554 1333 1175 — 642 515 1408 1354 988 1036 1113 748 400 1483
1533 1812 1938 1926 1701 1500 — 835 685 1760 1698 1252 1313 1405 964 541 1832
10–2 atm (1013 Pa) 1999 2360 2506 2487 2305 2029 — 1150 964 2306 2237 1685 1771 1896 1300 776 2387
Boiling pointa (°C) 2836 3345 3464 3443 3520 3074 3000b 1794 1529 3273 3230 2567 2700 2868 1950 1196 3402
Heat of sublimation at 25°C (kJ/mol) 377.8 424.7 431.0 422.6 355.6 327.6 348b 206.7 175.3 397.5 388.7 290.4 300.8 317.1 232.2 152.1 427.6
Note: For additional information, see Hultgren, R., Desai, P.D., Hawkins, D.T., Gleiser, M., Kelley, K.K., and Wagman, D.D., Selected Values of the Thermodynamic Properties of the Elements, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1973 and Beaudry, B.J. and Gschneidner, K.A., Jr., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 1, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1978, 173. a b
International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) values. Estimated.
4-115
Table 8 Magnetic Properties of the Rare Earth Metals χA × 106 at 298 K (emu/mol)
αSc αY αLa βLa γCe βCe αPr αNd αPm αSm Eu αGd αTb α′Tb αDy α′Dy Ho Er Tm βYb Lu
295.2 187.7 95.9 105 2,270 2,500 5,530 5,930 — 1,278d 30,900 185,000e 170,000 — 98,000 — 72,900 48,000 24,700 67d 182.9
Effective magnetic moment Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic at ~298 K at ~0 K Obs. Theoryb Obs. Theorya — — — — 2.54 2.54 3.58 3.62 2.68 0.85 7.94 7.94 9.72 — 10.64 — 10.60 9.58 7.56 — —
— — — — 2.52 2.61 3.56 3.45 — 1.74 8.48 7.98 9.77 — 10.83 — 11.2 9.9 7.61 — —
— — — — 2.14 2.14 3.20 3.27 2.40 0.71 7.0 7.0 — 9.0 — 10.0 10.0 9.0 7.0 — —
— — — — — — 2.7c 2.2c — 0.5c 5.9 7.63 — 9.34 — 10.33 10.34 9.1 7.14 — —
Easy axis — — — — — — a b — a <110> 30° to c — b — a b 30° to c c — —
Néel temp. TN (K) Hex Cubic sites sites
Curie temp. TC (K)
— — — — — 13.7 0.03 19.9 — 109 — — 230.0 — 180.2 — 132 85 58 — —
— — — — — — — — — — — 293.4 — 219.5 — 90.5g 19.5 18.7 32.0 — —
— — — — 14.4 12.5 — 7.5 — 14.0 90.4 — — — — — — — — — —
θp (K) |c — — — — — — — 0 — — — 317 195 — 121 — 73.0 61.7 41.0 — —
⊥c — — — — — — — 5 — — — 317 239 — 169 — 88.0 32.5 –17.0 — —
Polycryst. or avg. — — — – –50 –41 0 3.3 — — 100 317 224 — 153 — 83.0 42.2 2.3 — —
Note: For additional information, see McEwen, K.A., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 1, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1978, 411 and Legvold, S., in Ferromagnetic Materials, Vol. 1, Wohlfarth, E.P., Ed., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1980, 183; Pecharsky, V.K., Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Fort, D., Phys. Rev. B, 47, 5063, 1993; Pecharsky, V.K., Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Fort, D., 1996, to be published; Steward, A.M. and Collocott, S.J., J. Phys.: Condens. Matter, 1, 677, 1988. a b c d e g
g[J(J + 1)]1/2. gJ. At 38 T and 4.2 K. At 290 K. At 350 K. On cooling TC = 89.6 K and on warming TC = 91.5 K.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE RARE EARTH METALS (continued)
4-116
Rare earth metal
Table 9 Room Temperature Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, Thermal Conductivity, Electrical Resistance, and Hall Coefficient
αa
αSc αY aLa bCe γCe αPr αNd αPm αSm Eu αGd αTb αDy Ho Er Tm βYb Lu
7.6 6.0 4.5 — 6.3 4.5 7.6 9b 9.6 35.0 9.1c 9.3 7.1 7.0 7.9 8.8 26.3 4.8
Expansion αi × 106) (°C–1) αc αpoly 15.3 19.7 27.2 — — 11.2 13.5 16b 19.0 — 10.0c 12.4 15.6 19.5 20.9 22.2 — 20.0
10.2 10.6 12.1 — 6.3 6.7 9.6 11b 12.7 35.0 9.4c 10.3 9.9 11.2 12.2 13.3 26.3 9.9
Thermal conductivity (W/cm-K) 0.158 0.172 0.134 — 0.113 0.125 0.165 0.15b 0.133 0.139b 0.105 0.111 0.107 0.162 0.145 0.169 0.385 0.164
ρa
Electrical resistance (µΩ⋅cm) ρc
70.9 72.5 — — — — — — — — 135.1 123.5 111.0 101.5 94.5 88.0 — 76.6
26.9 35.5 — — — — — — — — 121.7 101.5 76.6 60.5 60.3 47.2 — 34.7
ρpoly 56.2a 59.6 61.5 82.8 74.4 70.0 64.3 75b 94.0 90.0 131.0 115.0 92.6 81.4 86.0 67.6 25.0 58.2
Ra
Hall coefficient (Ri × 1012) (V⋅cm/A⋅Oe) Rc
Rpoly
— –0.27 — — — — — — — — –10 –1.0 –0.3 +0.2 +0.3 — — +0.45
— –1.6 — — — — — — — — –54 –3.7 –3.7 –3.2 –3.6 — — –2.6
–0.13 — –0.35 — +1.81 +0.709 +0.971 — –0.21 +24.4 –4.48d — — — — –1.8 +3.77 –0.535
Note: For additional information, see Beaudry, B. J. and Gschneidner, K.A., Jr., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 1, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1978, 173 and McEwen, K.A., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 1, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1978, 411. a b c d
Calculated from single crystal values. Estimated. At 100°C. At 77°C.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE RARE EARTH METALS (continued)
4-117
Rare earth metal
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE RARE EARTH METALS (continued) Table 10 Electronic Specific Heat Constant (γ), Electron-Electron (Coulomb) Coupling Constant (µ*), ElectronPhonon Coupling Constant (λ), Debye Temperature at 0 K(θD), and Superconducting Transition Temperature Rare earth metal
γ (mJ/mol⋅K2)
µ*
λ
αSc αY αLa βLa αCe αPr αNd αPm αSm Eu αGd α′Tb α′Dy Ho Er Tm αYb βYb Lu
10.334 7.878 9.45 11.5 12.8 20 f — 8.1 ± 1.5g f 4.48 3.71 4.9 2.1 8.7 f 3.30 8.36 8.194
0.16 0.15 0.08 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 0.14
0.30 0.30 0.76 — — 1.07d 0.86d — 0.81d — 0.30 0.34d 0.32d 0.30d 0.33d 0.36d — — 0.31
θD (K) from Heat Elastic capacity constants 345.3 244.4 150 140 179 155e 157e 159e 162e,f f 169 169.6 192 175e 176.9 179e 117.6 109 183.2
— 258 154 — — 153 163 — 169 118 182 177 183 190 188 200 118 — 185
Superconducting temperature (K) 0.050a 1.3b 5.10 6.00 0.022c — — — — — — — — — — — — — 0.022h
Note: For additional information, see Sundström, L.J., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 1, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr., and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1978, 379, Scott, T., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 1, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1978, 591, Probst, C. and Wittig, J., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 1, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1978, 749, and Tsang, T.-W.E., Gschneidner, K.A., Jr., Schmidt, F.A., and Thome, D.K., Phys. Rev., B, 31, 235, 1985. Collocott, S.J., Hill, R.W. and Stewart, A.M., J. Phys. F, 18, L223, 1988. Hill, R.W. and Gschneidner, K.A., Jr., J. Phys. F, 18, 2545, 1988. Skriver, H.L. and Mertig, I., Phys. Rev. B, 41, 6553, 1990. Collocott, S.J. and Stewart, A.M., J. Phys.: Condens. Matter, 4, 6743, 1992. Pecharsky, V.K., Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Fort, D., Phys. Rev. B, 47, 5063, 1993. a b c d e f
g h
At 18.6 GPa. At 11 GPa. At 2.2 GPa. Calculated value. Estimated. Heat capacity results have been reported, but the resultant γ and θD values are unreliable because of the presence of impurities and/or there was no reliable procedure or model to correct for the magnetic contribution to the heat capacity. Based on the values reported for the purer Sm sample (IV). At 4.5 GPa.
4-118
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE RARE EARTH METALS (continued) Table 11 Room Temperature Elastic Moduli and Mechanical Properties Mechanical properties (MPa) Elastic moduli (GPa) Rare earth metal
Young’s (elastic) modulus
Shear modulus
Bulk modulus
Poisson’s ratio
Sc Y αLa βCe γCe αPr αNd αPm αSm Eu αGd αTb αDy Ho Er Tm βYb Lu
74.4 63.5 36.6 — 33.6 37.3 41.4 46b 49.7 18.2 54.8 55.7 61.4 64.8 69.9 74.0 23.9 68.6
29.1 25.6 14.3 — 13.5 14.8 16.3 18b 19.5 7.9 21.8 22.1 24.7 26.3 28.3 30.5 9.9 27.2
56.6 41.2 27.9 — 21.5 28.8 31.8 33b 37.8 8.3 37.9 38.7 40.5 40.2 44.4 44.5 30.5 47.6
0.279 0.243 0.280 — 0.24 0.281 0.281 0.28b 0.274 0.152 0.259 0.261 0.247 0.231 0.237 0.213 0.207 0.261
Yield strength 0.2% offset 173a 42 126a 86 28 73 71 — 68 — 15 — 43 — 60 — 7 —
Ultimate tensile strength 255a 129 130 138 117 147 164 — 156 — 118 — 139 — 136 — 58 —
Uniform elongation (%) 5.0a 34.0 7.9a — 22.0 15.4 25.0 — 17.0 — 37.0 — 30.0 — 11.5 — 43.0 —
Reduction in area (%) 8.0a — — 24.0 30.0 67.0 72.0 — 29.5 — 56.0 — 30.0 — 11.9 — 92.0 —
Recryst. temp. (°C) 550 550 300 — 325 400 400 400b 440 300 500 500 550 520 520 600 300 600
Note: For additional information, see Scott, T., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 1, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1978, 591. a b
Value is questionable. Estimated.
4-119
Table 12 Liquid Metal Properties Near the Melting Point
4-120
Sc Y La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Density (g/cm3) 2.80 4.24 5.96 6.68 6.59 6.72 6.9b 7.16 4.87 7.4 7.65 8.2 8.34 8.6 9.0b 6.21 9.3
Surface tension (N/m) 0.954 0.871 0.718 0.706 0.707 0.687 0.680b 0.431 0.264 0.664 0.669 0.648 0.650 0.637 — 0.320 0.940
Viscosity (centipoise) — — 2.65 3.20 2.85 — — — — — — — — — — 2.67 —
Heat capacity (J/mol K)
Thermal conductivity (W/cm K)
44.2b 43.1 34.3 37.7 43.0 48.8 50b 50.2b 38.1 37.2 46.5 49.9 43.9 38.7 41.4 36.8 47.9b
— — 0.238 0.210 0.251 0.195 — — — 0.149 — 0.187 — — — — —
Magnetic susceptibility χ × 104 (emu/mol) — — 1.20 9.37 17.3 18.7 — 18.3 97 67 82 95 88 69 41 — —
Electrical resistivity (µΩ⋅cm) — — 133 130 139 151 160b 182 242 195 193 210 221 226 235b 113 224
∆VL→sa (%) — — –0.6 +1.1 –0.02 –0.9 — –3.6 –4.8 –2.0 –3.1 –4.5 –7.4 –9.0 –6.9 –5.1 –3.6
Spectral emittance at λ = 645 nm ε Temp. range (%) (°C) — 36.8 25.4 32.2 28.4 39.4 — 43.7 — 34.2 — 29.7 — 37.2 — — —
— 1522–1647 920–1287 877–1547 931–1537 1021–1567 — 1075 — 1313–1600 — 1412–1437 — 1529–1587 — — —
Note: For additional information, see Van Zytveld, J., in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, Vol. 12, Gschneidner, K.A., Jr. and Eyring, L., Eds., North-Holland Physics, Amsterdam, 1989, 357. Stretz, L.A. and Bautista, R.G., in Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 4, part I, H.H. Plumb, Ed., Instrument Society of America, Pittsburgh, 1972, 489. King, T.S., Baria, D.N., and Bautista, R.G., Met. Trans. B, 7, 411, 1976. Baria, D.N., King, T.S., and Bautista, R.G., Met. Trans. B, 7, 577, 1976. a b
Volume change on freezing. Estimated.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE RARE EARTH METALS (continued)
Rare earth metal
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE RARE EARTH METALS (continued) Table 13 Ionization Potentials (Electronvolts)
Rare earth
I Neutral atom
II Singly ionized
III Doubly ionized
IV Triply ionized
V Quadruply ionized
Sc Y La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
6.56144 6.217 5.5770 5.5387 5.464 5.5250 5.554 5.6437 5.6704 6.1500 5.8639 5.9389 6.0216 6.1078 6.18431 6.25416 5.42585
12.79967 12.24 11.060 10.85 10.55 10.73 10.90 11.07 11.241 12.09 11.52 11.67 11.80 11.93 12.05 12.1761 13.9
24.75666 20.52 19.1773 20.198 21.624 22.1 22.3 23.4 24.92 20.63 21.91 22.8 22.84 22.74 23.68 25.05 20.9594
73.4894 60.597 49.95 36.758 38.98 40.41 41.1 41.4 42.7 44.0 39.79 41.47 42.5 42.7 42.7 43.56 45.25
91.65 77.0 61.6 65.55 57.53 — — — — — — — — — — — 66.8
Note: For references, see the table “Ionization Potentials of Atoms and Atomic Ions” in Section 10.
Table 14 Effective Ionic Radii (Å)a Rare earth ion
CN = 6
CN = 8
CN = 6
R3+ CN = 8
CN = 12
CN = 6
CN = 8
Sc Y La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
— — — — — — — 1.19 1.17 — — — — — — 1.00 —
— — — — — — — 1.27 1.25 — — — — — — 1.07 —
0.745 0.900 1.045 1.010 0.997 0.983 0.97 0.958 0.947 0.938 0.923 0.912 0.901 0.890 0.880 0.868 0.861
0.87 1.015 1.18 1.14 1.14 1.12 1.10 1.09 1.07 1.06 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97
1.116 1.220 1.320 1.290 1.286 1.276 1.267 1.260 1.252 1.246 1.236 1.228 1.221 1.214 1.207 1.199 1.194
— — — 0.80 0.78 — — — — — 0.76 — — — — — —
— — — 0.97 0.96 — — — — — 0.88 — — — — — —
R2+
R4+
Note: For additional information, see Shannon, R.D. and Prewitt, C.T., Acta Cryst., 25, 925, 1969 and Shannon, R.D. and Prewitt, C.T., Acta Cryst., 26, 1046, 1970. a
Radius of O2– is 1.40 Å for a coordination number (CN) of 6.
4-121
MELTING, BOILING, AND CRITICAL TEMPERATURES OF THE ELEMENTS This table summarizes the melting point tm, normal boiling point tb, and critical temperature tc (on the ITS-90 scale) for the elements for which data are available. A “tp” after a value indicates a solid-liquid-gas triple point, and “sp” indicates a sublimation point, where the vapor pressure of the solid phase reaches 101.325 kPa (1 atm). Transition temperatures between allotropic forms are included for several elements. References may be found in the tables Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds and Critical Constants. Name
tm/°C
tb/°C
Actinium 1051 3198 Aluminum 660.32 2519 Americium 1176 2011 Antimony 630.63 1587 Argon -189.35 -185.85 Arsenic (gray) 817 tp (3.70 MPa) 603 sp Astatine 302 Barium 727 1897 Berkelium (α form) 1050 Berkelium (β form) 986 Beryllium 1287 2471 Bismuth 271.40 1564 Boron 2075 4000 Bromine -7.2 58.8 Cadmium 321.07 767 Calcium 842 1484 Californium 900 Carbon (graphite) 4489 tp (10.3 MPa) 3825 sp Carbon (diamond) 4440 (12.4 GPa) Cerium 798 3443 Cesium 28.5 671 Chlorine -101.5 -34.04 Chromium 1907 2671 Cobalt 1495 2927 Copper 1084.62 2562 Curium 1345 ≈3100 Dysprosium 1412 2567 Einsteinium 860 Erbium 1529 2868 Europium 822 1529 Fermium 1527 Fluorine -219.67 tp -188.12 Francium 27 Gadolinium 1313 3273 Gallium 29.771 tp 2204 Germanium 938.25 2833 Gold 1064.18 2856 Hafnium 2233 4603 Helium -268.93 Holmium 1474 2700 Hydrogen -259.34 -252.87 Indium 156.60 2072 Iodine 113.7 184.4 Iridium 2446 4428 Iron 1538 2861 Krypton -157.38 tp (73.2 kPa) -153.22 Lanthanum 918 3464 Lawrencium 1627 Lead 327.46 1749 Lithium 180.50 1342 Lutetium 1663 3402 Magnesium 650 1090 Manganese 1246 2061 Mendelevium 827 Mercury -38.837 tp 356.73
tc/°C
Name
-122.28 1400
315
1665 143.8
-129.02
-267.96 -240.18 546
-63.74
2950
1477
4-132
tm/°C
Molybdenum 2623 Neodymium 1021 Neon -248.59 Neptunium 644 Nickel 1455 Niobium 2477 Nitrogen -210.00 Nobelium 827 Osmium 3033 Oxygen -218.79 Palladium 1554.9 Phosphorus (white) 44.15 Phosphorus (red) 590 tp Phosphorus (black) 610 Platinum 1768.4 Plutonium 640 Polonium 254 Potassium 63.5 Praseodymium 931 Promethium 1042 Protactinium 1572 Radium 700 Radon -71 Rhenium 3186 Rhodium 1964 Rubidium 39.30 Ruthenium 2334 Samarium 1074 Scandium 1541 Selenium(vitreous) 180 (trans to gray) Selenium (gray) 220.5 Silicon 1414 Silver 961.78 Sodium 97.80 Strontium 777 Sulfur (rhombic) 95.3 (trans to mono) Sulfur (monoclinic) 119.6 Tantalum 3017 Technetium 2157 Tellurium 449.51 Terbium 1356 Thallium 304 Thorium 1750 Thulium 1545 Tin (gray) 13.2 (trans to white) Tin (white) 231.93 Titanium 1668 Tungsten 3422 Uranium 1135 Vanadium 1910 Xenon -111.79 tp (81.6 kPa) Ytterbium 819 Yttrium 1522 Zinc 419.53 Zirconium 1855
tb/°C
tc/°C
4639 3074 -246.08
-228.7
2913 4744 -195.79
-146.94
5012 -182.95 2963 280.5 431 sp 3825 3228 962 759 3520 3000
-61.7 5596 3695 688 4150 1794 2836 685 685 3265 2162 883 1382 444.60 444.60 5458 4265 988 3230 1473 4788 1950 2602 2602 3287 5555 4131 3407 -108.12 1196 3345 907 4409
-118.56 721 721
1950
104
1820
1493
2300 1041 1041
16.62
HEAT CAPACITY OF THE ELEMENTS AT 25°C This table gives the specific heat capacity (cp) in J/g K and the molar heat capacity (Cp) in J/mol K at a temperature of 25°C and a pressure of 100 kPa (1 bar or 0.987 standard atmospheres) for all the elements for which reliable data are available.
Name Actinium Aluminum Antimony Argon Arsenic Barium Beryllium Bismuth Boron Bromine (Br2) Cadmium Calcium Carbon (graphite) Cerium Cesium Chlorine (Cl2) Chromium Cobalt Copper Dysprosium Erbium Europium Fluorine (F2) Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Helium Holmium Hydrogen (H2) Indium Iodine (I2) Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Mercury
cp J/g K
Cp J/mol K
0.120 0.897 0.207 0.520 0.329 0.204 1.825 0.122 1.026 0.226 0.232 0.647 0.709 0.192 0.242 0.479 0.449 0.421 0.385 0.170 0.168 0.182 0.824 0.236 0.371 0.320 0.129 0.144 5.193 0.165 14.304 0.233 0.145 0.131 0.449 0.248 0.195 0.129 3.582 0.154 1.023 0.479 0.140
27.2 24.200 25.23 20.786 24.64 28.07 16.443 25.52 11.087 36.057 26.020 25.929 8.517 26.94 32.210 33.949 23.35 24.81 24.440 27.7 28.12 27.66 31.304 37.03 25.86 23.222 25.418 25.73 20.786 27.15 28.836 26.74 36.888 25.10 25.10 20.786 27.11 26.650 24.860 26.86 24.869 26.32 27.983
Name Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Nickel Niobium Nitrogen (N2) Osmium Oxygen (O2) Palladium Phosphorous (white) Platinum Potassium Praseodymium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium Samarium Scandium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur (rhombic) Tantalum Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin (white) Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium
4-123
cp J/g K
Cp J/mol K
0.251 0.190 1.030 0.444 0.265 1.040 0.130 0.918 0.246 0.769 0.133 0.757 0.193 0.094 0.137 0.243 0.363 0.238 0.197 0.568 0.321 0.705 0.235 1.228 0.301 0.710 0.140 0.202 0.182 0.129 0.113 0.160 0.228 0.523 0.132 0.116 0.489 0.158 0.155 0.298 0.388 0.278
24.06 27.45 20.786 26.07 24.60 29.124 24.7 29.378 25.98 23.824 25.86 29.600 27.20 20.786 25.48 24.98 31.060 24.06 29.54 25.52 25.363 19.789 25.350 28.230 26.4 22.75 25.36 25.73 28.91 26.32 26.230 27.03 27.112 25.060 24.27 27.665 24.89 20.786 26.74 26.53 25.390 25.36
VAPOR PRESSURE OF THE METALLIC ELEMENTS C. B. Alcock This table gives coefficients in an equation for the vapor pressure of 65 metallic elements in both the solid and liquid state. Vapor pressures in the range 10-10 to 102 Pa (10-15 to 10-3 atm) are covered. The equation is: for p in pascals: log (p/Pa) = 5.006 + A + BT-1 + ClogT + DT-3 for p in atmospheres: log(p/atm) = A + BT-1 + ClogT + DT-3, where T is the temperature in K This equation reproduces the observed vapor pressures to an accuracy of ±5% or better. Reprinted with permission of the publisher, Pergamon Press. REFERENCE Alcock, C. B., Itkin, V. P., and Horrigan, M. K., Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 23, 309, 1984. Element, state Li sol Li liq Na sol Na liq K sol K liq Rb sol Rb liq Cs sol Cs liq Be sol Be liq Mg sol Ca sol Sr sol Ba sol Ba liq Al sol Al liq Ga sol Ga liq In sol In liq Tl sol Tl liq Sn sol Sn liq Pb sol Pb liq Sc sol Sc liq Y sol Y liq La sol La liq Ti sol Ti liq Zr sol Zr liq Hf sol V sol
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
A 5.667 5.055 5.298 4.704 4.961 4.402 4.857 4.312 4.711 4.165 8.042 5.786 8.489 10.127 9.226 12.405 4.007 9.459 5.911 6.657 6.754 5.991 5.374 5.971 5.259 6.036 5.262 5.643 4.911 6.650 5.795 9.735 5.795 7.463 5.911 11.925 6.358 10.008 6.806 9.445 9.744
B -8310 -8023 -5603 -5377 -4646 -4453 -4215 -4040 -3999 -3830 -17020 -15731 -7813 -9517 -8572 -9690 -8163 -17342 -16211 -14208 -13984 -12548 -12276 -9447 -9037 -15710 -15332 -10143 -9701 -19721 -17681 -22306 -20341 -22551 -21855 -24991 -22747 -31512 -30295 -32482 -27132
C
D
-0.4440 -0.8253 -1.4030 -1.1926 -2.2890 -0.7927
-0.3413
0.2885 -0.8705 -0.3142 -1.3376 -0.7890 -0.6735 -0.5501
-0.3663
Temperature range 298-m.p. m.p.-1000 298-m.p. m.p.-700 298-m.p. m.p.-600 298-m.p. m.p.-550 298-m.p. m.p.-550 298-m.p. m.p.-1800 298-m.p. 298-m.p. 298-m.p. 298-m.p. m.p.-1200 298-m.p. m.p.-1800 298-m.p. m.p.-1600 298-m.p. m.p.-1500 298-m.p. m.p.-1100 298-m.p. m.p.-1850 298-m.p. m.p.-1200 298-m.p. m.p.-2000 298-m.p. m.p.-2300 298-m.p. m.p.-2450 298-m.p. m.p.-2400 298-m.p m.p.-2500 298-m.p. 298-m.p.
VAPOR PRESSURE OF THE METALLIC ELEMENTS (continued) Element, state V liq Nb sol Ta sol Cr sol Mo sol W sol W sol Mn sol Re sol Fe sol Fe liq Ru sol Os sol Co sol Co liq Rh sol Rh liq Ir sol Ni sol Ni liq Pd sol Pd liq Pt sol Pt liq Cu sol Cu liq Ag sol Ag liq Au sol Au liq Zn sol Zn liq Cd sol Cd liq Hg liq Ce sol Ce liq Pr sol Pr liq Nd sol Nd liq Sm sol Eu sol Gd sol Gd liq Tb sol Tb liq Dy sol Ho sol Er sol Er liq Tm sol Yb sol Lu sol Lu liq Th sol Th liq Pa sol
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
A 6.929 8.822 16.807 6.800 11.529 2.945 -54.527 12.805 11.543 7.100 6.347 9.755 9.419 10.976 6.488 10.168 6.802 10.506 10.557 6.666 9.502 5.426 4.882 6.386 9.123 5.849 9.127 5.752 9.152 5.832 6.102 5.378 5.939 5.242 5.116 6.139 5.611 8.859 4.772 8.996 4.912 9.988 9.240 8.344 5.557 9.510 5.411 9.579 9.785 9.916 4.668 8.882 9.111 8.793 5.648 8.668 -18.453 10.552
B -25011 -37818 -41346 -20733 -34626 -44094 -57687 -15097 -40726 -21723 -19574 -34154 -41198 -22576 -20578 -29010 -26792 -35099 -22606 -20765 -19813 -17899 -29387 -26856 -17748 -16415 -14999 -13827 -19343 -18024 -6776 -6286 -5799 -5392 -3190 -21752 -21200 -18720 -17315 -17264 -15824 -11034 -9459 -20861 -19389 -20457 -18639 -15336 -15899 -16642 -14380 -12270 -8111 -22423 -20302 -31483 -24569 -34869
C
-0.2575 -3.2152 0.4391 -1.1331 1.3677 -12.2231 -1.7896 -1.1629 0.4536
D
0.7437 -0.4094
-0.5846
-0.4723 -0.3896 -1.0280 -0.7068 -0.7500 -0.8717 -0.9258 1.1039 -0.7317 -0.7845 -0.7479
-0.9512 -0.9519 -1.3287 -1.1661 -0.5775 -0.9247 -1.1114 -1.1753 -1.2154 -0.9564 -1.0849 -0.6200 -0.5288 6.6473 -1.0075
-0.4527
Temperature range m.p.-2500 298-2500 248-2500 298-2000 298-2500 298-2350 2200-2500 298-m.p. 298-2500 298-m.p. m.p.-2100 298-m.p. 298-2500 298-m.p. m.p.-2150 298-m.p. m.p.-2500 298-2500 298-m.p. m.p.-2150 298-m.p. m.p.-2100 298-m.p. m.p.-2500 298-m.p. m.p.-1850 298-m.p. m.p.-1600 298-m.p. m.p.-2050 298-m.p. m.p.-750 298-m.p. m.p.-650 298-400 298-m.p. m.p.-2450 298-m.p. m.p.-2200 298-m.p. m.p.-2000 298-m.p. 298-m.p. 298-m.p. m.p.-2250 298-m.p. m.p.-2200 298-m.p. 298-m.p. 298-m.p. m.p.-1900 298-1400 298-900 298-m.p. m.p.-2350 298-m.p. m.p.-2500 298-m.p.
VAPOR PRESSURE OF THE METALLIC ELEMENTS (continued) Element, state Pa liq U sol U liq Np sol Np liq Pu sol Pu sol Pu liq Am sol Cm sol Cm liq
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
A 6.177 0.770 20.735 19.643 10.076 26.160 18.858 3.666 11.311 8.369 5.223
B -32874 -27729 -28776 -24886 -23378 -19162 -18460 -16658 -15059 -20364 -18292
C
2.6982 -4.0962 -3.9991 -1.3250 -6.6675 -4.4720 -1.3449 -0.5770
D
-1.5471
Temperature range m.p.-2500 298-m.p. m.p.-2500 298-m.p. m.p.-2500 298-600 500-m.p. m.p.-2450 298-m.p. 298-m.p. m.p.-2200
DENSITY OF MOLTEN ELEMENTS AND REPRESENTATIVE SALTS This table lists the liquid density at the melting point, ρm , for elements that are solid at room temperature, as well as for some representative salts of these elements. Densities at higher temperatures (up to the tmax given in the last column) may be estimated from the equation ρ(t) = ρm - k(t-tm) where tm is the melting point and k is given in the fifth column of the table. If a value of tmax is not given, the equation should not be used to extrapolate more than about 20°C beyond the melting point. Data for the elements were selected from the primary literature; the assistance of Gernot Lang in compiling these data is gratefully acknowledged. The molten salt data were derived from Reference 1. REFERENCE 1. Janz, G. J., Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Molten Salts: Correlation Equations for Critically Evaluated Density, Surface Tension, Electrical Conductance, and Viscosity Data, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 17, Suppl. 2, 1988. 2. Nasch, P. M., and Steinemann, S. G., Phys. Chem. Liq., 29, 43, 1995. Formula Ag AgBr AgCl AgI AgNO3 Ag2SO4 Al AlBr3 AlCl3 AlI3 As Au B Ba BaBr2 BaCl2 BaF2 BaI2 Be BeCl2 BeF2 Bi BiBr3 BiCl3 Ca CaBr2 CaCl2 CaF2 CaI2 Cd CdBr2 CdCl2 CdI2 Ce CeCl3 CeF3 Co Cr Cs CsBr CsCl CsF CsI
Name Silver Silver(I) bromide Silver(I) chloride Silver(I) iodide Silver(I) nitrate Silver(I) sulfate Aluminum Aluminum bromide Aluminum chloride Aluminum iodide Arsenic Gold Boron Barium Barium bromide Barium chloride Barium fluoride Barium iodide Beryllium Beryllium chloride Beryllium fluoride Bismuth Bismuth bromide Bismuth chloride Calcium Calcium bromide Calcium chloride Calcium fluoride Calcium iodide Cadmium Cadmium bromide Cadmium chloride Cadmium iodide Cerium Cerium(III) chloride Cerium(III) fluoride Cobalt Chromium Cesium Cesium bromide Cesium chloride Cesium fluoride Cesium iodide
tm/°C
ρm/g cm–3
961.78 432 455 558 212 652 660.32 97.5 192.6 188.32 817 1064.18 2075 727 857 962 1368 711 1287 415 552 271.40 218 230 842 742 775 1418 783 321.07 568 564 387 799 817 1430 1495 1907 28.44 636 645 703 621
9.320 5.577 4.83 5.58 3.970 4.84 2.375 2.647 1.302 3.223 5.22 17.31 2.08 3.338 3.991 3.174 4.14 4.26 1.690 1.54 1.96 10.05 4.76 3.916 1.378 3.111 2.085 2.52 3.443 7.996 4.075 3.392 4.396 6.55 3.25 4.659 7.75 6.3 1.843 3.133 2.79 3.649 3.197
4-126
k/g cm–3 °C–1
tmax
0.0009 0.001035 0.00094 0.00101 0.001098 0.001089 0.000233 0.002435 0.002711 0.0025 0.000544 0.001343
1500 667 627 802 360 770 1340 267 296 240
0.000299 0.000924 0.000681 0.000999 0.000977 0.00011 0.0011 0.000015 0.00135 0.002637 0.0023 0.000230 0.0005 0.000422 0.000391 0.000751 0.001218 0.00108 0.00082 0.001117 0.000710 0.00092 0.000936 0.00165 0.0011 0.000556 0.001223 0.001065 0.001282 0.001183
1200 1550 900 1081 1727 975 473 850 800 927 350 1484 791 950 2027 1028 500 720 807 700 1460 950 1927 1580 2100 510 860 906 912 907
DENSITY OF MOLTEN ELEMENTS AND REPRESENTATIVE SALTS (continued) Formula CsNO3 Cs2SO4 Cu CuCl Dy DyCl3 Er Eu Fe FeCl2 Ga GaBr3 GaCl3 GaI3 Gd GdCl3 GdI3 Ge Hf HgBr2 HgCl2 HgI2 Ho In InBr3 InCl3 InI3 Ir K KBr KCl KF KI KNO3 La LaBr3 LaCl3 LaF3 LaI3 Li LiBr LiCl LiF LiI LiNO3 Li2SO4 Lu Mg MgBr2 MgCl2 MgI2 Mn MnCl2 Mo Na NaBr Na2CO3 NaCl NaF NaI
Name Cesium nitrate Cesium sulfate Copper Copper(I) chloride Dysprosium Dysprosium(III) chloride Erbium Europium Iron Iron(II) chloride Gallium Gallium(III) bromide Gallium(III) chloride Gallium(III) iodide Gadolinium Gadolinium(III) chloride Gadolinium(III) iodide Germanium Hafnium Mercury(II) bromide Mercury(II) chloride Mercury(II) iodide Holmium Indium Indium(III) bromide Indium(III) chloride Indium(III) iodide Iridium Potassium Potassium bromide Potassium chloride Potassium fluoride Potassium iodide Potassium nitrate Lanthanum Lanthanum bromide Lanthanum chloride Lanthanum fluoride Lanthanum iodide Lithium Lithium bromide Lithium chloride Lithium fluoride Lithium iodide Lithium nitrate Lithium sulfate Lutetium Magnesium Magnesium bromide Magnesium chloride Magnesium iodide Manganese Manganese(II) chloride Molybdenum Sodium Sodium bromide Sodium carbonate Sodium chloride Sodium fluoride Sodium iodide
tm/°C
ρm/g cm–3
414 1005 1084.62 430 1411 680 1529 822 1538 677 29.76 121.5 77.9 212 1314 609 925 938.25 2233 236 276 259 1472 156.60 420 583 207 2446 63.38 734 771 858 681 337 920 788 859 1493 778 180.5 552 610 848.2 469 253 859 1663 650 711 714 634 1246 650 2623 97.80 747 858.1 800.7 996 660
2.820 3.1 8.02 3.692 8.37 3.62 8.86 5.13 6.98 2.348 6.08 3.116 2.053 3.630 7.4 3.56 4.12 5.60 12 5.126 4.368 5.222 8.34 7.02 3.121 2.140 3.820 19 0.828 2.127 1.527 1.910 2.448 1.865 5.94 4.933 3.209 4.589 4.29 0.512 2.528 1.502 1.81 3.109 1.781 2.003 9.3 1.584 2.62 1.68 3.05 5.95 2.353 9.33 0.927 2.342 1.972 1.556 1.948 2.742
4-127
k/g cm–3 °C–1
tmax
0.001166 0.00095 0.000609 0.00076 0.00143 0.00068 0.00157 0.0028 0.000572 0.000555 0.00062 0.00246 0.002083 0.002377
491 1530 1630 585 1540 987 1700 980 1680 877 400 135 141 252
0.000671 0.000908 0.00055
1007 1032 1600
0.003233 0.002862 0.003235
319 304 354
0.000836 0.0015 0.0021 0.0015
500 528 666 360
0.000232 0.000825 0.000583 0.000651 0.000956 0.000723 0.00061 0.000096 0.000777 0.000682 0.001110 0.00052 0.000652 0.000432 0.000490 0.000917 0.000546 0.000407
500 930 939 1037 904 457 1600 912 973 2177 907 285 739 781 1047 667 441 1214
0.000234 0.000478 0.000271 0.000651 0.00105 0.000437
900 935 826 888 1590 850
0.00023 0.000816 0.000448 0.000543 0.000636 0.000949
600 945 1004 1027 1097 912
DENSITY OF MOLTEN ELEMENTS AND REPRESENTATIVE SALTS (continued) Formula NaNO3 Na2SO4 Nd Ni NiCl2 Os Pb PbBr2 PbCl2 PbI2 Pd Pr PrCl3 Pt Pu Rb RbBr Rb2CO3 RbCl RbF RbI RbNO3 Rb2SO4 Re Rh Ru S Sb SbCl3 SbCl5 SbI3 Sc Se Si Sm Sn SnCl2 SnCl4 Sr SrBr2 SrCl2 SrF2 SrI2 Ta TaCl5 Tb Te ThCl4 ThF4 Ti TiCl4 Tl TlBr TlCl TlI TlNO3 Tl2SO4 Tm U UCl3
Name Sodium nitrate Sodium sulfate Neodymium Nickel Nickel(II) chloride Osmium Lead Lead(II) bromide Lead(II) chloride Lead(II) iodide Palladium Praseodymium Praseodymium chloride Platinum Plutonium Rubidium Rubidium bromide Rubidium carbonate Rubidium chloride Rubidium fluoride Rubidium iodide Rubidium nitrate Rubidium sulfate Rhenium Rhodium Ruthenium Sulfur Antimony Antimony(III) chloride Antimony(V) chloride Antimony(III) iodide Scandium Selenium Silicon Samarium Tin Tin(II) chloride Tin(IV) chloride Strontium Strontium bromide Strontium chloride Strontium fluoride Strontium iodide Tantalum Tantalum(V) chloride Terbium Tellurium Thorium chloride Thorium fluoride Titanium Titanium(IV) chloride Thallium Thallium(I) bromide Thallium(I) chloride Thallium(I) iodide Thallium(I) nitrate Thallium(I) sulfate Thulium Uranium Uranium(III) chloride
tm/°C
ρm/g cm–3
307 884 1016 1455 1009 3033 327.46 371 501 410 1554.9 931 786 1768.4 640 39.31 682 837 715 833 642 305 1050 3186 1964 2334 115.21 630.63 73.4 4 168 1541 221 1414 1072 231.93 247 -33 777 657 874 1477 538 3017 216 1359 449.51 770 1110 1668 -25 304 460 430 441.8 206 632 1545 1135 837
1.90 2.069 6.89 7.81 2.653 20 10.66 5.73 4.951 5.691 10.38 6.50 3.23 19.77 16.63 1.46 2.715 2.84 2.248 2.87 2.904 2.519 2.56 18.9 10.7 10.65 1.819 6.53 2.681 2.37 4.171 2.80 3.99 2.57 7.16 6.99 3.36 2.37 6.980 3.70 2.727 3.470 4.085 15 2.700 7.65 5.70 3.363 6.058 4.11 1.807 11.22 5.98 5.628 6.15 4.91 5.62 8.56 17.3 4.84
4-128
k/g cm–3 °C–1
tmax
0.000715 0.000483 0.00076 0.000726 0.00066
370 1077 1350 1700 1057
0.00122 0.00165 0.0015 0.001594 0.001169 0.00093 0.00074 0.0024 0.001419 0.000451 0.001072 0.000640 0.000883 0.00102 0.001143 0.001068 0.000665
700 600 710 697 1700 1460 977 2200 950 800 907 1007 923 1067 902 417 1545
0.000895
2200
0.00080 0.00067 0.002293 0.001869 0.002483
160 745 77 77 322
0.000936
1500
0.000601 0.001253 0.002687
1200 480 138
0.000745 0.000578 0.000751 0.000885
1004 1037 1927 1026
0.004316
457
0.00035 0.0014 0.000759
600 847 1378
0.001735 0.00144 0.001755 0.0018 0.001761 0.001873 0.00130 0.00050
137 600 647 642 737 279 927 1675
0.007943
1057
DENSITY OF MOLTEN ELEMENTS AND REPRESENTATIVE SALTS (continued) Formula UCl4 UF4 V W Y YCl3 Yb Zn ZnBr2 ZnCl2 ZnI2 ZnSO4 Zr ZrCl4
Name Uranium(IV) chloride Uranium(IV) fluoride Vanadium Tungsten Yttrium Yttrium chloride Ytterbium Zinc Zinc bromide Zinc chloride Zinc iodide Zinc sulfate Zirconium Zirconium chloride
tm/°C
ρm/g cm–3
590 1036 1910 3422 1526 721 824 419.53 394 290 446 680 1855 437
3.572 6.485 5.5 17.6 4.24 2.510 6.21 6.57 3.47 2.54 3.878 3.14 5.8 1.643
4-129
k/g cm–3 °C–1
tmax
0.001945 0.000992
667 1341
0.0005
845
0.0011 0.000959 0.00053 0.00136 0.00047
700 602 557 588 987
0.007464
492
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE ELEMENTS AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS When a material is placed in a magnetic field H, a magnetization (magnetic moment per unit volume) M is induced in the material which is related to H by M = κH, where κ is called the volume susceptibility. Since H and M have the same dimensions, κ is dimensionless. A more useful parameter is the molar susceptibility χm , defined by χm = κVm = κ M/ρ where Vm is the molar volume of the substance, M the molar mass, and ρ the mass density. When the cgs system is used, the customary units for χm are cm3 mol-1; the corresponding SI units are m3 mol-1. Substances that have no unpaired electron orbital or spin angular momentum generally have negative values of χm and are called diamagnetic. Their molar susceptibility varies only slightly with temperature. Substances with unpaired electrons, which are termed paramagnetic, have positive χm and show a much stronger temperature dependence, varying roughly as 1/T. The net susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is the sum of the paramagnetic and diamagnetic contributions, but the former almost always dominates. This table gives values of χm for the elements and selected inorganic compounds. All values refer to nominal room temperature (285 to 300 K) unless otherwise indicated. When the physical state (s = solid, l = liquid, g = gas, aq = aqueous solution) is not given, the most common crystalline form is understood. An entry of “Ferro.” indicates a ferromagnetic substance. Substances are arranged in alphabetical order by the most common name, except that compounds such as hydrides, oxides, and acids are grouped with the parent element (the same ordering used in the table “Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds”). In keeping with customary practice, the molar susceptibility is given here in units appropriate to the cgs system. These values should be multiplied by 4π to obtain values for use in SI equations (where the magnetic field strength H has units of A m-1).
REFERENCES 1. Landolt-Börnstein, Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology, New Series, II/16, Diamagnetic Susceptibility, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1986. 2. Landolt-Börnstein, Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology, New Series, III/19, Subvolumes a to i2, Magnetic Properties of Metals, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1986-1992. 3. Landolt-Börnstein, Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology, New Series, II/2, II/8, II/10, II/11,and II/12a, Coordination and Organometallic Transition Metal Compounds, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1966-1984. 4. Tables de Constantes et Données Numérique, Volume 7, Relaxation Paramagnetique, Masson, Paris, 1957.
Name Aluminum Aluminum trifluoride Aluminum oxide Aluminum sulfate Ammonia (g) Ammonia (aq) Ammonium acetate Ammonium bromide Ammonium carbonate Ammonium chlorate Ammonium chloride Ammonium fluoride Ammonium iodate Ammonium iodide Ammonium nitrate Ammonium sulfate Ammonium thiocyanate Antimony Stibine (g) Antimony(III) bromide Antimony(III) chloride Antimony(III) fluoride Antimony(III) iodide Antimony(III) oxide Antimony(III) sulfide Antimony(V) chloride Argon (g) Arsenic (gray)
Formula Al AlF3 Al2O3 Al2(SO4)3 NH3 NH3 NH4C2H3O2 NH4Br (NH4)2CO3 NH4ClO3 NH4Cl NH4F NH4IO3 NH4I NH4NO3 (NH4)2SO4 NH4SCN Sb SbH3 SbBr3 SbCl3 SbF3 SbI3 Sb2O3 Sb2S3 SbCl5 Ar As
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1 +16.5 -13.9 -37 -93 -16.3 -18.3 -41.1 -47 -42.5 -42.1 -36.7 -23 -62.3 -66 -33 -67 -48.1 -99 -34.6 -111.4 -86.7 -46 -147.2 -69.4 -86 -120.5 -19.32 -5.6
Name Arsenic (yellow) Arsine (g) Arsenic(III) bromide Arsenic(III) chloride Arsenic(III) iodide Arsenic(III) oxide Arsenic(III) sulfide Barium Barium bromide Barium bromide dihydrate Barium carbonate Barium chloride Barium chloride dihydrate Barium fluoride Barium hydroxide Barium iodate Barium iodide Barium iodide dihydrate Barium nitrate Barium oxide Barium peroxide Barium sulfate Beryllium Beryllium chloride Beryllium hydroxide Beryllium oxide Beryllium sulfate Bismuth
4-130
Formula As AsH3 AsBr3 AsCl3 AsI3 As2O3 As2S3 Ba BaBr2 BaBr2·2H2O BaCO3 BaCl2 BaCl2·2H2O BaF2 Ba(OH)2 Ba(IO3)2 BaI2 BaI2·2H2O Ba(NO3)2 BaO BaO2 BaSO4 Be BeCl2 Be(OH)2 BeO BeSO4 Bi
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1 -23.2 -35.2 -106 -72.5 -142.2 -30.34 -70 +20.6 -92 -119.3 -58.9 -72.6 -100 -51 -53.2 -122.5 -124.4 -163 -66.5 -29.1 -40.6 -65.8 -9.0 -26.5 -23.1 -11.9 -37 -280.1
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE ELEMENTS AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS (continued) Name Bismuth tribromide Bismuth trichloride Bismuth fluoride Bismuth hydroxide Bismuth triiodide Bismuth nitrate pentahydrate Bismuth oxide Bismuth phosphate Bismuth sulfate Bismuth sulfide Boron Diborane (g) Boric acid (orthoboric acid) Boron trichloride Boron oxide Bromine (l) Bromine (g) Bromine trifluoride Bromine pentafluoride Cadmium Cadmium bromide Cadmium bromide tetrahydrate Cadmium carbonate Cadmium chloride Cadmium chromate Cadmium cyanide Cadmium fluoride Cadmium hydroxide Cadmium iodate Cadmium iodide Cadmium nitrate Cadmium nitrate tetrahydrate Cadmium oxide Cadmium sulfate Cadmium sulfide Calcium Calcium bromide Calcium carbonate Calcium chloride Calcium fluoride Calcium hydroxide Calcium iodate Calcium iodide Calcium oxide Calcium sulfate Calcium sulfate dihydrate Carbon (diamond) Carbon (graphite) Carbon monoxide (g) Carbon dioxide (g) Cerium (β) Cerium(II) sulfide Cerium(III) chloride Cerium(III) fluoride Cerium(III) sulfide Cerium(IV) oxide Cerium(IV) sulfate tetrahydrate
Formula
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1
BiBr3 BiCl3 BiF3 Bi(OH)3 BiI3 Bi(NO3)3·5H2O Bi2O3 BiPO4 Bi2(SO4)3 Bi2S3 B B2H6 H3BO3 BCl3 B2O3 Br2 Br2 BrF3 BrF5 Cd CdBr2 CdBr2·4H2O
-147 -26.5 -61.2 -65.8 -200.5 -159 -83 -77 -199 -123 -6.7 -21.0 -34.1 -59.9 -38.7 -56.4 -73.5 -33.9 -45.1 -19.7 -87.3 -131.5
CdCO3 CdCl2 CdCrO4 Cd(CN)2 CdF2 Cd(OH)2 Cd(IO3)2 CdI2 Cd(NO3)2 Cd(NO3)2·4H2O CdO CdSO4 CdS Ca CaBr2 CaCO3 CaCl2 CaF2 Ca(OH)2 Ca(IO3)2 CaI2 CaO CaSO4 CaSO4·2H2O C C CO CO2 Ce CeS CeCl3 CeF3 Ce2S3 CeO2 Ce(SO4)2·4H2O
-46.7 -68.7 -16.8 -54 -40.6 -41 -108.4 -117.2 -55.1 -140 -30 -59.2 -50 +40 -73.8 -38.2 -54.7 -28 -22 -101.4 -109 -15.0 -49.7 -74 -5.9 -6.0 -9.8 -21.0 +2500 +2110 +2490 +2190 +5080 +26 -97
Name Cesium Cesium bromate Cesium bromide Cesium carbonate Cesium chlorate Cesium chloride Cesium fluoride Cesium iodide Cesium superoxide Cesium sulfate Chlorine (l) Chlorine trifluoride (g) Chromium Chromium(II) chloride Chromium(III) chloride Chromium(III) fluoride Chromium(III) oxide Chromium(III) sulfate Chromium(VI) oxide Cobalt Cobalt(II) bromide Cobalt(II) chloride Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate Cobalt(II) cyanide Cobalt(II) fluoride Cobalt(II) iodide Cobalt(II) sulfate Cobalt(II) sulfide Cobalt(II,III) oxide Cobalt(III) fluoride Cobalt(III) oxide Copper Copper(I) bromide Copper(I) chloride Copper(I) cyanide Copper(I) iodide Copper(I) oxide Copper(II) bromide Copper(II) chloride Copper(II) chloride dihydrate Copper(II) fluoride Copper(II) fluoride dihydrate Copper(II) hydroxide Copper(II) nitrate trihydrate Copper(II) nitrate hexahydrate Copper(II) oxide Copper(II) sulfate Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate Copper(II) sulfide Dysprosium (α) Dysprosium(III) oxide Dysprosium(III) sulfide Erbium Erbium oxide Erbium sulfate octahydrate Erbium sulfide
4-131
Formula
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1
Cs CsBrO3 CsBr Cs2CO3 CsClO3 CsCl CsF CsI CsO2 Cs2SO4 Cl2 ClF3 Cr CrCl2 CrCl3 CrF3 Cr2O3 Cr2(SO4)3 CrO3 Co CoBr2 CoCl2 CoCl2·6H2O
+29 -75.1 -67.2 -103.6 -65 -56.7 -44.5 -82.6 +1534 -116 -40.4 -26.5 +167 +7230 +6350 +4370 +1960 +11800 +40 Ferro. +13000 +12660 +9710
Co(CN)2 CoF2 CoI2 CoSO4 CoS Co3O4 CoF3 Co2O3 Cu CuBr CuCl CuCN CuI Cu2O CuBr2 CuCl2 CuCl2·2H2O CuF2 CuF2·2H2O Cu(OH)2 Cu(NO3)2·3H2O Cu(NO3)2·6H2O
+3825 +9490 +10760 +10000 +225 +7380 +1900 +4560 -5.46 -49 -40 -24 -63 -20 +685 +1080 +1420 +1050 +1600 +1170 +1570 +1625
CuO CuSO4 CuSO4·5H2O CuS Dy Dy2O3 Dy2S3 Er Er2O3 Er2(SO4)3·8H2O Er2S3
+238 +1330 +1460 -2.0 +98000 +89600 +95200 +48000 +73920 +74600 +77200
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE ELEMENTS AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS (continued) Name Europium Europium(II) bromide Europium(II) chloride Europium(II) fluoride Europium(II) iodide Europium(II) sulfide Europium(III) oxide Europium(III) sulfate Gadolinium (350 K) Gadolinium(III) chloride Gadolinium(III) oxide Gadolinium(III) sulfate octahydrate Gadolinium(III) sulfide Gallium Gallium suboxide Gallium(II) sulfide Gallium(III) chloride Gallium(III) sulfide Germanium Germane (g) Germanium(II) oxide Germanium(II) sulfide Germanium(IV) chloride Germanium(IV) fluoride Germanium(IV) iodide Germanium(IV) oxide Germanium(IV) sulfide Gold Gold(I) bromide Gold(I) chloride Gold(I) iodide Gold(III) chloride Hafnium Hafnium oxide Helium (g) Holmium Holmium oxide Hydrazine (l) Hydrogen (l, 20.3 K) Hydrogen (g) Hydrogen chloride (l) Hydrogen chloride (aq) Hydrogen fluoride (l) Hydrogen fluoride (aq) Hydrogen iodide (s, 195 K) Hydrogen iodide (l, 233 K) Hydrogen iodide (aq) Hydrogen peroxide (l) Hydrogen sulfide (g) Indium Indium(I) chloride Indium(II) chloride Indium(II) sulfide Indium(III) bromide Indium(III) chloride Indium(III) oxide Indium(III) sulfide Iodine
Formula Eu EuBr2 EuCl2 EuF2 EuI2 EuS Eu2O3 Eu2(SO4)3 Gd GdCl3 Gd2O3 Gd2(SO4)3·8H2O Gd2S3 Ga Ga2O GaS GaCl3 Ga2S3 Ge GeH4 GeO GeS GeCl4 GeF4 GeI4 GeO2 GeS2 Au AuBr AuCl AuI AuCl3 Hf HfO2 He Ho Ho2O3 N2H4 H2 H2 HCl HCl HF HF HI HI HI H2O2 H2S In InCl InCl2 InS InBr3 InCl3 In2O3 In2S3 I2
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1 +30900 +26800 +26500 +23750 +26000 +23800 +10100 +10400 +185000 +27930 +53200 +53280 +55500 -21.6 -34 -23 -63 -80 -11.6 -29.7 -28.8 -40.9 -72 -50 -171 -34.3 -53.9 -28 -61 -67 -91 -112 +71 -23 -2.02 +72900 +88100 -201 -5.44 -3.99 -22.6 -22 -8.6 -9.3 -47.3 -48.3 -50.2 -17.3 -25.5 -10.2 -30 -56 -28 -107 -86 -56 -98 -90
Name Iodic acid Iodine pentoxide Iodine chloride Iodine trichloride Iodine pentafluoride Iridium Iridium(III) chloride Iridium(IV) oxide Iron Iron(II) bromide Iron(II) carbonate Iron(II) chloride Iron(II) chloride tetrahydrate Iron(II) fluoride Iron(II) iodide Iron(II) oxide Iron(II) sulfate Iron(II) sulfate monohydrate Iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate Iron(II) sulfide Iron(III) chloride Iron(III) chloride hexahydrate Iron(III) fluoride Iron(III) fluoride trihydrate Iron(III) nitrate nonahydrate Krypton (g) Lanthanum (α) Lanthanum oxide Lanthanum sulfate nonahydrate Lanthanum sulfide Lead Lead(II) acetate Lead(II) bromide Lead(II) carbonate Lead(II) chloride Lead(II) chromate Lead(II) fluoride Lead(II) iodate Lead(II) iodide Lead(II) nitrate Lead(II) oxide Lead(II) phosphate Lead(II) sulfate Lead(II) sulfide Lithium Lithium bromide Lithium carbonate Lithium chloride Lithium fluoride Lithium hydride Lithium hydroxide (aq) Lithium iodide Lithium sulfate Lutetium Magnesium Magnesium bromide Magnesium carbonate Magnesium chloride
4-132
Formula HIO3 I2O5 ICl ICl3 IF5 Ir IrCl3 IrO2 Fe FeBr2 FeCO3 FeCl2 FeCl2·4H2O FeF2 FeI2 FeO FeSO4 FeSO4·H2O FeSO4·7H2O FeS FeCl3 FeCl3·6H2O FeF3 FeF3·3H2O Fe(NO3)3·9H2O Kr La La2O3 La2(SO4)3·9H2O La2S3 Pb Pb(C2H3O2)2 PbBr2 PbCO3 PbCl2 PbCrO4 PbF2 Pb(IO3)2 PbI2 Pb(NO3)2 PbO Pb3(PO4)2 PbSO4 PbS Li LiBr Li2CO3 LiCl LiF LiH LiOH LiI Li2SO4 Lu Mg MgBr2 MgCO3 MgCl2
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1 -48 -79.4 -54.6 -90.2 -58.1 +25 -14.4 +224 Ferro. +13600 +11300 +14750 +12900 +9500 +13600 +7200 +12400 +10500 +11200 +1074 +13450 +15250 +13760 +7870 +15200 -29.0 +95.9 -78 -262 -37 -23 -89.1 -90.6 -61.2 -73.8 -18 -58.1 -131 -126.5 -74 -42 -182 -69.7 -83.6 +14.2 -34.3 -27 -24.3 -10.1 -4.6 -12.3 -50 -41.6 +182.9 +13.1 -72 -32.4 -47.4
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE ELEMENTS AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS (continued) Name Magnesium fluoride Magnesium hydroxide Magnesium iodide Magnesium oxide Magnesium sulfate Magnesium sulfate monohydrate Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate Manganese Manganese(II) bromide Manganese(II) carbonate Manganese(II) chloride Manganese(II) chloride tetrahydrate Manganese(II) fluoride Manganese(II) hydroxide Manganese(II) iodide Manganese(II) oxide Manganese(II) sulfate Manganese(II) sulfate monohydrate Manganese(II) sulfate tetrahydrate Manganese(II) sulfide (α form) Manganese(II) sulfide (β form) Manganese(II,III) oxide Manganese(III) fluoride Manganese(III) oxide Manganese(IV) oxide Mercury (s, 234 K) Mercury (l) Mercury(I) bromide Mercury(I) chloride Mercury(I) fluoride Mercury(I) iodide Mercury(I) nitrate Mercury(I) oxide Mercury(I) sulfate Mercury(II) bromide Mercury(II) chloride Mercury(II) cyanide Mercury(II) fluoride Mercury(II) iodide Mercury(II) nitrate Mercury(II) oxide Mercury(II) sulfate Mercury(II) sulfide Mercury(II) thiocyanate Molybdenum Molybdenum(III) bromide Molybdenum(III) chloride Molybdenum(III) oxide Molybdenum(IV) bromide Molybdenum(IV) chloride Molybdenum(IV) oxide Molybdenum(V) chloride
Formula
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1
MgF2 Mg(OH)2 MgI2 MgO MgSO4 MgSO4·H2O
-22.7 -22.1 -111 -10.2 -42 -61
MgSO4·7H2O
-135.7
Mn MnBr2 MnCO3 MnCl2 MnCl2·4H2O
+511 +13900 +11400 +14350 +14600
MnF2 Mn(OH)2 MnI2 MnO MnSO4 MnSO4·H2O
+10700 +13500 +14400 +4850 +13660 +14200
MnSO4·4H2O
+14600
MnS
+5630
MnS
+3850
Mn3O4 MnF3 Mn2O3 MnO2 Hg Hg Hg2Br2 Hg2Cl2 Hg2F2 Hg2I2 Hg2(NO3)2 Hg2O Hg2SO4 HgBr2 HgCl2 Hg(CN)2 HgF2 HgI2 Hg(NO3)2 HgO HgSO4 HgS Hg(SCN)2 Mo MoBr3 MoCl3 Mo2O3 MoBr4 MoCl4 MoO2 MoCl5
+12400 +10500 +14100 +2280 -24.1 -33.5 -105 -120 -106 -166 -121 -76.3 -123 -94.2 -82 -67 -57.3 -165 -74 -46 -78.1 -55.4 -96.5 +72 +525 +43 -42.0 +520 +1750 +41 +990
Name Molybdenum(VI) fluoride Molybdenum(VI) oxide Neodymium (α) Neodymium fluoride Neodymium oxide Neodymium sulfate Neodymium sulfide Neon (g) Neptunium Nickel Nickel(II) bromide Nickel(II) chloride Nickel(II) chloride hexahydrate Nickel(II) fluoride Nickel(II) hydroxide Nickel(II) iodide Nickel(II) nitrate hexahydrate Nickel(II) oxide Nickel(II) sulfate Nickel(II) sulfide Nickel(III) sulfide Niobium Niobium(V) oxide Nitrogen (g) Nitric acid (l) Nitrous oxide (g) Nitric oxide (s, 90 K) Nitric oxide (l, 118 K) Nitric oxide (g) Nitrogen dioxide (g, 408 K) Nitrogen trioxide (g) Nitrogen tetroxide (g) Osmium Oxygen (s, 54 K) Oxygen (l, 90 K) Oxygen (g) Ozone (l) Palladium Palladium(II) chloride Phosphorus (white) Phosphorus (red) Phosphine (g) Phosphoric acid (aq) Phosphorous acid (aq) Phosphorus(III) chloride (l) Platinum Platinum(II) chloride Platinum(III) chloride Platinum(IV) chloride Platinum(IV) fluoride Plutonium Plutonium(IV) fluoride Plutonium(IV) oxide Plutonium(VI) fluoride Potassium Potassium bromate Potassium bromide Potassium carbonate
4-133
Formula
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1
MoF6 MoO3 Nd NdF3 Nd2O3 Nd2(SO4)3 Nd2S3 Ne Np Ni NiBr2 NiCl2 NiCl2·6H2O
-26.0 +3 +5930 +4980 +10200 +9990 +5550 -6.96 +575 Ferro. +5600 +6145 +4240
NiF2 Ni(OH)2 NiI2 Ni(NO3)2·6H2O NiO NiSO4 NiS Ni3S2 Nb Nb2O5 N2 HNO3 N2O NO NO NO NO2 N2O3 N2O4 Os O2 O2 O2 O3 Pd PdCl2 P P PH3 H3PO4 H3PO3 PCl3 Pt PtCl2 PtCl3 PtCl4 PtF4 Pu PuF4 PuO2 PuF6 K KBrO3 KBr K2CO3
+2410 +4500 +3875 +4300 +660 +4005 +190 +1030 +208 -10 -12.0 -19.9 -18.9 +19.8 +114.2 +1461 +150 -16 -23.0 +11 +10200 +7699 +3449 +6.7 +540 -38 -26.66 -20.77 -26.2 -43.8 -42.5 -63.4 +193 -54 -66.7 -93 +445 +525 +1760 +730 +173 +20.8 -52.6 -49.1 -59
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE ELEMENTS AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS (continued) Name Potassium chlorate Potassium chloride Potassium chromate Potassium cyanide Potassium ferricyanide Potassium ferrocyanide trihydrate Potassium fluoride Potassium hydrogen sulfate Potassium hydroxide (aq) Potassium iodate Potassium iodide Potassium nitrate Potassium nitrite Potassium permanganate Potassium sulfate Potassium sulfide Potassium superoxide Potassium thiocyanate Praseodymium (α) Praseodymium chloride Praseodymium oxide Praseodymium sulfide Protactinium Rhenium Rhenium(IV) oxide Rhenium(IV) sulfide Rhenium(V) chloride Rhenium(VI) oxide Rhenium(VII) oxide Rhodium Rhodium(III) chloride Rhodium(III) oxide Rubidium Rubidium bromide Rubidium carbonate Rubidium chloride Rubidium fluoride Rubidium iodide Rubidium nitrate Rubidium sulfate Rubidium superoxide Ruthenium Ruthenium(III) chloride Ruthenium(IV) oxide Samarium (α) Samarium(II) bromide Samarium(III) bromide Samarium(III) oxide Samarium(III) sulfate octahydrate Samarium(III) sulfide Scandium (α) Selenium Selenium dioxide Selenium bromide Selenium chloride (l) Selenium hexafluoride (g) Silicon
Formula
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1
KClO3 KCl K2CrO4 KCN K3Fe(CN)6 K4Fe(CN)6·3H2O
-42.8 -38.8 -3.9 -37 +2290 -172.3
KF KHSO4 KOH KIO3 KI KNO3 KNO2 KMnO4 K2SO4 K2S KO2 KSCN Pr PrCl3 Pr2O3 Pr2S3 Pa Re ReO2 ReS2 ReCl5 ReO3 Re2O7 Rh RhCl3 Rh2O3 Rb RbBr Rb2CO3 RbCl RbF RbI RbNO3 Rb2SO4 RbO2 Ru RuCl3 RuO2 Sm SmBr2 SmBr3 Sm2O3 Sm2(SO4)3·8H2O
-23.6 -49.8 -22 -63.1 -63.8 -33.7 -23.3 +20 -67 -60 +3230 -48 +5530 +44.5 +8994 +10770 +277 +67 +44 +38 +1225 +16 -16 +102 -7.5 +104 +17 -56.4 -75.4 -46 -31.9 -72.2 -41 -88.4 +1527 +39 +1998 +162 +1278 +5337 +972 +1988 +1710
Sm2S3 Sc Se SeO2 Se2Br2 Se2Cl2 SeF6 Si
+3300 +295.2 -25 -27.2 -113 -94.8 -51 -3.12
Name Silane (g) Disilane (g) Tetramethylsilane (l) Tetraethylsilane (l) Tetrabromosilane (l) Tetrachlorosilane (l) Silicon carbide Silicon dioxide Silver Silver(I) bromide Silver(I) carbonate Silver(I) chloride Silver(I) chromate Silver(I) cyanide Silver(I) fluoride Silver(I) iodide Silver(I) nitrate Silver(I) nitrite Silver(I) oxide Silver(I) phosphate Silver(I) sulfate Silver(I) thiocyanate Silver(II) oxide Sodium Sodium acetate Sodium bromate Sodium bromide Sodium carbonate Sodium chlorate Sodium chloride Sodium dichromate Sodium fluoride Sodium hydrogen phosphate Sodium hydroxide (aq) Sodium iodate Sodium iodide Sodium nitrate Sodium nitrite Sodium oxide Sodium peroxide Sodium sulfate Sodium sulfate decahydrate Sodium sulfide Sodium tetraborate Strontium Strontium bromide Strontium bromide hexahydrate Strontium carbonate Strontium chlorate Strontium chloride Strontium chloride hexahydrate Strontium chromate Strontium fluoride Strontium hydroxide Strontium iodate Strontium iodide Strontium nitrate
4-134
Formula
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1
SiH4 Si2H6 (CH3)4Si (C2H5)4Si SiBr4 SiCl4 SiC SiO2 Ag AgBr Ag2CO3 AgCl Ag2CrO4 AgCN AgF AgI AgNO3 AgNO2 Ag2O Ag3PO4 Ag2SO4 AgSCN AgO Na NaC2H3O2 NaBrO3 NaBr Na2CO3 NaClO3 NaCl Na2Cr2O7 NaF Na2HPO4 NaOH NaIO3 NaI NaNO3 NaNO2 Na2O Na2O2 Na2SO4 Na2SO4·10H2O Na2S Na2B4O7 Sr SrBr2 SrBr2·6H2O
-20.4 -37.3 -74.80 -120.2 -126 -87.5 -12.8 -29.6 -19.5 -61 -80.90 -49 -40 -43.2 -36.5 -80 -45.7 -42 -134 -120 -92.90 -61.8 -19.6 +16 -37.6 -44.2 -41 -41 -34.7 -30.2 +55 -15.6 -56.6 -15.8 -53 -57 -25.6 -14.5 -19.8 -28.10 -52 -184 -39 -85 +92 -86.6 -160
SrCO3 Sr(ClO3)2 SrCl2 SrCl2·6H2O
-47 -73 -61.5 -145
SrCrO4 SrF2 Sr(OH)2 Sr(IO3)2 SrI2 Sr(NO3)2
-5.1 -37.2 -40 -108 -112 -57.2
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE ELEMENTS AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS (continued) Name Strontium oxide Strontium peroxide Strontium sulfate Sulfur (rhombic) Sulfur (monoclinic) Sulfuric acid (l) Sulfur dioxide (g) Sulfur trioxide (l) Sulfur chloride (l) Sulfur dichloride (l) Sulfur hexafluoride (g) Thionyl chloride (l) Tantalum Tantalum(V) chloride Tantalum(V) oxide Technetium Tellurium Tellurium dibromide Tellurium dichloride Tellurium hexafluoride (g) Terbium (α) Terbium oxide Thallium Thallium(I) bromate Thallium(I) bromide Thallium(I) carbonate Thallium(I) chlorate Thallium(I) chloride Thallium(I) chromate Thallium(I) cyanide Thallium(I) fluoride Thallium(I) iodate Thallium(I) iodide Thallium(I) nitrate Thallium(I) nitrite Thallium(I) sulfate Thallium(I) sulfide Thorium Thorium(IV) oxide Thulium Thulium oxide Tin (gray) Tin(II) chloride Tin(II) chloride dihydrate Tin(II) oxide Tin(IV) bromide Tin(IV) chloride (l) Tin(IV) oxide Titanium Titanium(II) bromide Titanium(II) chloride Titanium(II) iodide Titanium(II) sulfide Titanium(III) bromide Titanium(III) chloride Titanium(III) fluoride Titanium(III) oxide Titanium(IV) chloride Titanium(IV) oxide
Formula SrO SrO2 SrSO4 S S H2SO4 SO2 SO3 SSCl2 SCl2 SF6 SOCl2 Ta TaCl5 Ta2O5 Tc Te TeBr2 TeCl2 TeF6 Tb Tb2O3 Tl TlBrO3 TlBr Tl2CO3 TlClO3 TlCl Tl2CrO4 TlCN TlF TlIO3 TlI TlNO3 TlNO2 Tl2SO4 Tl2S Th ThO2 Tm Tm2O3 Sn SnCl2 SnCl2·2H2O SnO SnBr4 SnCl4 SnO2 Ti TiBr2 TiCl2 TiI2 TiS TiBr3 TiCl3 TiF3 Ti2O3 TiCl4 TiO2
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1 -35 -32.3 -57.9 -15.5 -14.9 -39 -18.2 -28.54 -62.2 -49.4 -44 -44.3 +154 +140 -32 +115 -38 -106 -94 -66 +170000 +78340 -50 -75.9 -63.9 -101.6 -65.5 -57.8 -39.3 -49 -44.4 -86.8 -82.2 -56.5 -50.8 -112.6 -88.8 +97 -16 +24700 +51444 -37.4 -69 -91.4 -19 -149 -115 -41 +151 +720 +484 +1790 +432 +660 +1110 +1300 +132 -54 +5.9
Name Tungsten Tungsten carbide Tungsten(II) chloride Tungsten(IV) oxide Tungsten(IV) sulfide Tungsten(V) bromide Tungsten(V) chloride Tungsten(VI) chloride Tungsten(VI) fluoride (g) Tungsten(VI) oxide Uranium Uranium(III) bromide Uranium(III) chloride Uranium(III) hydride Uranium(III) iodide Uranium(IV) bromide Uranium(IV) chloride Uranium(IV) fluoride Uranium(IV) oxide Uranium(VI) fluoride Uranium(VI) oxide Vanadium Vanadium(II) bromide Vanadium(II) chloride Vanadium(III) bromide Vanadium(III) chloride Vanadium(III) fluoride Vanadium(III) oxide Vanadium(III) sulfide Vanadium(IV) chloride Vanadium(IV) oxide Vanadium(V) oxide Water (s, 273 K) Water (l, 293 K) Water (l, 373 K) Water (g, 373 K)) Xenon (g) Ytterbium (β) Yttrium (α) Yttrium oxide Yttrium sulfide Zinc Zinc carbonate Zinc chloride Zinc cyanide Zinc fluoride Zinc hydroxide Zinc iodide Zinc oxide Zinc phosphate Zinc sulfate Zinc sulfate monohydrate Zinc sulfate heptahydrate Zinc sulfide Zirconium Zirconium carbide Zirconium nitrate pentahydrate Zirconium(IV) oxide
4-135
Formula W WC WCl2 WO2 WS2 WBr5 WCl5 WCl6 WF6 WO3 U UBr3 UCl3 UH3 UI3 UBr4 UCl4 UF4 UO2 UF6 UO3 V VBr2 VCl2 VBr3 VCl3 VF3 V2O3 V2S3 VCl4 VO2 V2O5 H2O H2O H2O H2O Xe Yb Y Y2O3 Y2S3 Zn ZnCO3 ZnCl2 Zn(CN)2 ZnF2 Zn(OH)2 ZnI2 ZnO Zn3(PO4)2 ZnSO4 ZnSO4·H2O ZnSO4·7H2O ZnS Zr ZrC Zr(NO3)4·5H2O ZrO2
χm/10-6 cm3 mol-1 +53 +10 -25 +57 +5850 +270 +387 -71 -53 -15.8 +409 +4740 +3460 +6244 +4460 +3530 +3680 +3530 +2360 +43 +128 +285 +3230 +2410 +2910 +3030 +2757 +1976 +1560 +1215 +99 +128 -12.63 -12.96 -13.09 -13.1 -45.5 +67 +187.7 +44.4 +100 -9.15 -34 -55.33 -46 -34.3 -67 -108 -27.2 -141 -47.8 -63 -138 -25 +120 -26 -77 -13.8
INDEX OF REFRACTION OF INORGANIC LIQUIDS This table gives the index of refraction n of several inorganic substances in the liquid state at specified temperatures. The measurements refer to ambient atmospheric pressure except for substances whose normal boiling points are greater than the indicated temperature; in this case the pressure is the saturated vapor pressure of the substance. All values refer to a wavelength of 589 nm unless otherwise indicated. Entries are arranged in alphabetical order by chemical formula as normally written. Data on the index of refraction at other temperatures and wavelengths may be found in Reference 1. REFERENCES 1. Wohlfarth, C., and Wohlfarth, B., Landolt-Börnstein, Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology, New Series, III/38A, Martienssen, W., Editor, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1996. 2. Francis, A.W., J. Chem. Eng. Data, 5, 534, 1960. Formula
Name
Ar AsCl3 BBr3 BrF3 BrF5 Br2 COS CO2 CS2 C3O2 Cl2 CrO2Cl2 Fe(CO)5 GeBr4 GeCl4 HBr HCN HCl HClO4 HF HI HNO3 H2 H2O H2O2 H2S
Argon Arsenic(III) chloride Boron tribromide Bromine trifluoride Bromine pentafluoride Bromine Carbon oxysulfide Carbon dioxide Carbon disulfide Carbon suboxide Chlorine Chromyl chloride Iron pentacarbonyl Germanium(IV) bromide Germanium(IV) chloride Hydrogen bromide Hydrogen cyanide Hydrogen chloride Perchloric acid Hydrogen fluoride Hydrogen iodide Nitric acid Hydrogen Water Hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen sulfide
H2SO4 H2S2 He Kr NH3
Sulfuric acid Hydrogen disulfide Helium Krypton Ammonia
NO N2 N2H4 N2O O2 PBr3 PCl3 PH3 P2O3 S SCl2 SF6 SOCl2 SO2 SO2Cl2
Nitric oxide Nitrogen Hydrazine Nitrous oxide Oxygen Phosphorus(III) bromide Phosphorus(III) chloride Phosphine Phosphorus(III) oxide Sulfur Sulfur dichloride Sulfur hexafluoride Thionyl chloride Sulfur dioxide Sulfuryl chloride
4-136
t/°C
n
-188 16 16 25 25 15 25 24 20 0 20 23 14 26 25 10 20 18 50 25 16 25 -253 20 28 -80 20 20 20 -269 -157 -77 20 -90 -196 22 25 -183 25 21 17 27 125 14 25 10 25 12
1.2312 1.604 1.312 1.4536 1.3529 1.659 1.3506 1.6630 1.62774 1.453 1.3834 1.524 1.523 1.6269 1.4614 1.325 1.26136 1.3287 a 1.3819 1.1574 1.466 1.393 1.1096 1.33336 1.4061 1.460 1.3682 1.4183 1.630 1.02451 c 1.3032 c 1.3944 b 1.3327 1.330 1.19876 b 1.470 1.238 1.2243 c 1.687 1.5122 1.317 1.540 1.9170 1.557 1.167 1.527 1.3396 1.444
INDEX OF REFRACTION OF INORGANIC LIQUIDS (continued)
a b c
Formula
Name
t/°C
n
SO3 SSCl2 SbCl5 SiBr4 SiCl4 SnBr4 SnCl4 TiCl4 Xe
Sulfur trioxide Sulfur chloride Antimony(V) chloride Tetrabromosilane Tetrachlorosilane Tin(IV) bromide Tin(IV) chloride Titanium(IV) chloride Xenon
20 20 22 31 25 31 25 18 -112
1.40965 1.671 1.5925 1.5685 1.41156 1.6628 1.5086 1.6076 1.3918 c
At 581 nm At 578 nm At 546 nm
4-137
PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS The chemical formula, crystal system, density, hardness, and index of refraction of some common minerals are given in this table. Entries are arranged alphabetically by mineral name. The columns are: • • • • •
Formula: Chemical formula for a typical sample of the mineral. Composition often varies considerably with the origin of the sample. Crystal system: tricl = triclinic; monocl = monoclinic; orth = orthorhombic; tetr = tetragonal; hex = hexagonal; rhomb = rhombohedral; cub = cubic. Density: Typical density in g/cm3. Individual samples may vary by a few percent. Hardness: On the Mohs’ scale (range of 1 to 10, with talc = 1 and diamond = 10). Index of refraction: Values are given for the three coordinate axes in the order of least, intermediate, and greatest index. For cubic crystals there is only a single value. See Reference 1 for details on the axis systems. Variations of several percent, depending on the origin and exact composition of the sample, are common. REFERENCES 1. Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., and Zussman, J., An Introduction to the Rock-Forming Minerals, 2nd Edition, Longman Scientific & Technical, Harlow, Essex, 1992. 2. Carmichael, R.S., Practical Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks and Minerals, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1989. 3. Donnay, J.D.H., and Ondik, H.M., Crystal Data Determinative Tables, Third Edition, Volume 2, Inorganic Compounds, Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards, Swarthmore, PA, 1973.
Name Acanthite Actinolite Aegirine Akermanite Alabandite Albite Allanite Allemontite Almandine Altaite Aluminite Alunite Alunogen Amblygonite Analcite Anatase Andalusite Andesine Andorite Andradite Anglesite Anhydrite Ankerite Anorthite Anorthoclase Anthophyllite Apatite Apophyllite Aragonite Arcanite Argentite Arsenolite Arsenopyrite Atacamite Augelite Augite Autunite Axinite
Formula Ag2S Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH,F)2 NaFe(SiO3)2 Ca2MgSi2O7 MnS NaAlSi3O8 (Ca,Mn,Ce,La,Y,Th)2(Fe,Ti)(Al,Fe) O⋅OH(Si2O7)(SiO4) SbAs Fe3Al2Si3O12 PbTe Al2(SO4)(OH)4⋅7H2O (K,Na)Al3(SO4)2(OH)6 Al2(SO4)3⋅18H2O (Li,Na)Al(PO4)(F,OH) NaAlSi2O6⋅H20 TiO2 Al2OSiO4 NaAlSi3O8·CaAl2Si2O8 PbAgSb3S6 Ca3(Fe,Ti)2Si3O12 PbSO4 CaSO4 Ca(Fe,Mg,Mn)(CO3)2 CaAl2Si2O8 (Na,K)AlSi3O8 (Mg,Fe)7Si8O22(OH,F)2 Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl) KFCa4Si8O20⋅8H2O CaCO3 K2SO4 Ag2S As2O3 FeAsS Cu2(OH)3Cl Al2(PO4)(OH)3 (Ca,Mg,Fe,Ti,Al)2(Si,Al)2O6 Ca(UO22)(PO4)2⋅10H20 (Ca,Mn,Fe)3Al2BO3Si4O12(OH)
Crystal system
Density g/cm3
Hardness
orth monocl monocl tetr cub tricl
7.2 3.23 3.58 2.94 4.0 2.63
2.3 5.5 6 5.5 3.8 6.3
monocl hex cub cub monocl rhomb monocl tricl cub tetr orth tricl rhomb cub orth orth rhomb tricl tricl rhomb hex tetr orth orth orth cub monocl rhomb monocl monocl tetr tricl
3.8 6.0 4.32 8.16 1.74 2.8 1.69 3.1 2.27 4.23 3.15 2.67 5.35 3.86 6.29 2.96 3.0 2.76 2.58 3.21 3.2 2.35 2.83 2.66 7.2 3.86 6.1 3.76 2.70 3.38 3.2 3.31
5.8 3.5 6.8 3 1.5 3.8 1.8 5.8 5.5 5.8 7.5 6.3 3.3 6.8 2.8 3.5 3.8 6.3 6 5.8 5 4.8 3.5
4-141
2.3 1.5 5.8 3.3 4.8 6 2.3 6.8
nα
Index of refraction nβ nγ
1.624 1.763 1.632
1.655 1.800 1.640
1.664 1.815
1.527
1.531
1.538
1.75
1.78
1.80
1.464 1.592 1.47 1.604
1.470
1.830 1.459 1.572 1.467 1.591 1.486 2.488 1.635 1.550
2.561 1.639 1.553
1.887 1.877 1.570 1.529 1.577 1.523 1.645 1.645 1.535 1.531 1.494
1.883 1.575 1.720 1.585 1.528 1.658 1.648 1.536 1.680 1.494
1.478 1.613
1.644 1.557
1.894 1.614 1.590 1.529 1.668
1.686 1.497
1.755 1.831 1.574 1.703 1.553 1.684
1.861 1.576 1.707 1.577 1.691
1.880 1.588 1.738 1.694
PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS (continued) Name Azurite Baddeleyite Barite Benitoite Bertrandite Beryl Beryllonite Biotite Bismuthinite Bixbyite Bloedite Boehmite Boracite Borax Bornite Boulangerite Bournonite Braggite Braunite Bravoite Breithauptite Brochantite Bromyrite Brookite Brucite Bunsenite Cacoxenite Calcite Caledonite Calomel Cancrinite Carnalite Carnotite Cassiterite Celestite Celsian Cerargyrite Cerussite Cervantite Chabazite Chalcanthite Chalcocite Chalcopyrite Chiolite Chlorite Chloritoid Chondrodite Chromite Chrysoberyl Chrysocolla Cinnabar Claudetite Clinohumite Clinozoisite Cobaltite Colemanite Columbite Connellite
Formula Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2 ZrO2 BaSO4 BaTi(SiO3)3 Be4Si2O7(OH)2 Be3Al2(SiO3)6 NaBe(PO)4 K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH,F)2 Bi2S3 (Mn,Fe)2O3 Na2Mg(SO4)2⋅4H2O AlO(OH) Mg3B7O13Cl Na2B4O7⋅10H2O Cu5FeS4 Pb5Sb4S11 PbCuSbS3 PtS (Mn,Si)2O3 (Ni,Fe)S2 NiSb Cu4(SO4)(OH)6 AgBr TiO2 Mg(OH)2 NiO Fe4(PO4)3(OH)3⋅12H20 CaCO3 Cu2Pb5(SO4)3(CO3)(OH)6 Hg2Cl2 (Na,Ca,K)7[Al6Si6O24] (CO3,SO4,Cl,OH)2⋅H20 KMgCl3⋅6H20 K2(UO2)2(VO4)2⋅3H2O SnO2 SrSO4 BaAl2Si2O8 AgCl PbCO3 Sb2O4 Ca[Al2Si4O12]⋅6H2O CuSO4⋅5H2O Cu2S CuFeS2 Na5Al3F14 (Mg,Al,Fe)12(Si,Al)8O20(OH)16 FeAl4O2(SiO4)2(OH)4 Mg(OH,F)2⋅2Mg2SiO4 FeCr2O4 BeAl2O4 CuSiO3⋅2H2O HgS As2O3 Mg(OH,F)2⋅4Mg2SiO4 Ca2Al3Si3O12(OH) CoAsS Ca2B6O11⋅5H2O (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6 Cu19(SO4)Cl4(OH)32⋅3H2O
Crystal system
Density g/cm3
monocl monocl orth rhomb rhomb hex monocl monocl orth cub monocl orth rhomb monocl cub monocl rhomb tetr tetr cub hex monocl cub orth hex cub hex hex rhomb tetr
3.77 5.7 4.49 3.65 2.6 2.64 2.81 3.0 6.78 4.95 2.25 3.44 2.94 1.73 5.07 6.1 5.83 10.2 4.78 4.62 ≈8.7 3.79 6.47 4.23 2.37 6.72 2.3 2.71 5.76 7.16
hex rhomb rhomb tetr orth monocl cub orth orth trig tricl orth tetr tetr monocl monocl monocl cub orth rhomb hex monocl monocl monocl cub monocl rhomb hex
2.42 1.60
4-150
6.85 3.96 3.25 5.56 6.6 6.64 2.08 2.29 5.6 4.2 3.00 3.0 3.66 3.21 5.0 3.65 2.4 8.17 3.74 3.21 3.30 ≈6.1 2.42 5.20 3.36
Hardness 3.8 6.5 3.3 6.3 6 7.8 5.8 2.8 2 6.3 2.8 3.8 7.3 2.3 3 2.8 2.8 6.3 5.8 5.5 3.8 2.5 5.8 2.5 5.5 3.5 3 2.8 1.5 5.5 2.5 1.5 6.5 3.3 6.3 2.5 3.3 4.5 4.5 2.5 2.8 3.8 3.8 2.5 6.5 6.5 5.5 8.5 2 2.3 2.5 6 6.5 5.5 4.5 6 3
nα
Index of refraction nβ nγ
1.730 2.13 1.636 1.757 1.589 1.582 1.552 1.595
1.758 2.19 1.637 1.804 1.602 1.589 1.558 1.651
1.838 2.20 1.648
1.483 1.64 1.66 1.447
1.486 1.65 1.66 1.469
1.487 1.66 1.67 1.472
1.728 2.253 2.583 1.575
1.771
1.800
2.584 1.59
2.700
1.580 1.486 1.818 1.973
1.646 1.658 1.866 2.656
1.495 1.466 1.75 2.006 1.622 1.583 2.071 1.804
1.509 1.475 1.92 2.097 1.624 1.588
1.631 1.594
2.076
2.079
1.537
1.543
1.349 1.62 1.721 1.615
1.62 1.726 1.634
1.482 1.514
1.613 1.561 1.651
1.909
1.494 1.95
1.342 1.61 1.717 1.604 2.16 1.746 1.575 2.814 1.87 1.633 1.693
1.748 1.597 3.143 1.92 1.647 1.700
2.01 1.668 1.712
1.586
1.592
1.614
1.731
1.752
1.756 1.598
PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS (continued) Name Copiapite Coquimbite Cordierite Corundum Cotunnite Covellite Cristobalite Crocoite Cryolite Cryolithionite Cubanite Cummingtonite Cuprite Danburite Datolite Daubreelite Derbylite Diamond Diaspore Digenite Diopside Dioptase Dolomite Douglasite Dyscrasite Eddingtonite Eglestonite Emplectite Enargite Enstatite Epidote Epsomite Erythrite Eucairite Euclasite Eudialite Eulytite Euxenite Fayalite Ferberite Fergussonite Fluorite Forsterite Franklinite Gahnite Galaxite Galena Galenabismuthite Ganomalite Gaylussite Gehlenite Geikielite Gibbsite Glauberite Glauconite Glaucophane Gmelinite
Formula (Fe,Mg)Fe4(SO4)6(OH)2⋅20H2O Fe2(SO4)3⋅9H2O Al3(Mg,Fe)2Si5AlO18 Al2O3 PbCl2 CuS SiO2 PbCrO4 Na3AlF6 Na3Li3Al2F12 CuFe2S3 (Mg,Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2 Cu2O CaSi2B2O8 CaBSiO4(OH) Cr2FeS4 Fe6Ti6Sb2O23 C AlO(OH) Cu2–xS CaMgSi2O6 CuSiO2(ΟH)2 CaMg(CO3)2 K2FeCl4⋅2H2O Ag3Sb BaAl2Si3O10⋅4H2O Hg4OCl2 CuBiS2 Cu3AsS4 MgSiO3 Ca2Al2(Al,Fe)OH(SiO4)3 MgSO4⋅7H2O (Co,Ni)3(AsO4)2⋅8H2O CuAgSe BeAlSiO4(OH) (Na,Ca,Ce)5(Fe,Mn)(Zr,Ti)(Si3O9)2 (OH,Cl) Bi4Si3O12 (Y,Ca,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6 Fe2SiO4 FeWO4 (Y,Er,Ce,Fe)(Nb,Ta,Ti)O4 CaF2 Mg2SiO4 ZnFe2O4 ZnAl2O4 MnAl2O4 PbS PbBi2S4 (Ca,Pb)10(OH,Cl)2(Si2O7)3 Na2Ca(CO3)2⋅5H2O Ca2Al2SiO7 MgTiO3 Al(OH)3 Na2Ca(SO4)2 (K,Na,Ca)1.6(Fe,Al,Mg)4.0Si7.3Al0.7 O20(OH)4 Na2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2 (Ca,Na2)[Al2Si4O12]⋅6H2O
Crystal system
Density g/cm3
Hardness
tricl hex rhomb hex orth hex hex monocl monocl cub rhomb monocl cub rhomb monocl cub rhomb cub orth cub monocl rhomb rhomb orth rhomb rhomb cub rhomb rhomb monocl monocl orth monocl orth monocl
2.13 2.1 2.66 3.97 5.98 4.8 2.33 6.12 2.97 2.77 4.11 3.4 6.0 3.0 2.98 3.81 4.53 3.51 3.4 5.55 3.30 3.5 2.86 2.16 9.74 2.8 8.4 6.38 4.5 3.19 3.44 1.67 3.06 7.7 3.1
2.8 2.5 7 9 2.5 1.8 6.5 2.8 2.5 2.8 3.5 5.5 3.8 7 5.3
1.52 1.54 1.540 1.761 2.199
1.54 1.56 1.549 1.769 2.217
2.260
1.484 2.29 1.338 1.340
1.487 2.36 1.338
2.66 1.339
1.650
1.660
1.676
1.63 1.624
1.63 1.652
1.63 1.668
5 10 6.8 2.8 6 5 3.5
2.45 2.418 1.694
2.45
2.51
1.715
1.741
1.680 1.65 1.500 1.488
1.687 1.70 1.679 1.500
1.708
1.541 2.49
1.553
1.557
1.656 1.733 1.433 1.626
1.662 1.755 1.455 1.661
1.669 1.765 1.461 1.699
1.651
1.655
1.671
hex cub rhomb orth monocl tetr cub orth cub cub cub cub rhomb hex monocl tetr hex monocl monocl
3.0 6.6 5.5 4.30 7.51 5.7 3.18 3.21 5.21 4.62 4.04 7.60 7.04 5.6 1.99 3.04 3.85 2.42 2.80
5.5 4.5 6 6.5 4.3 6 4 7 6 7.8 7.8 2.5 3 3.5 2.8 5.5 5.5 3 2.8
1.623 2.05 2.2 1.827
1.600
1.615
1.869
1.879
1.651
1.670
monocl monocl hex
2.7 3.19 2.10
2 6 4.5
4-151
nα
Index of refraction nβ nγ 1.59 1.553
3.8 2.5 2 3 5.5 6 2.3 2 2.5 7.5
2.1 1.434 1.635 2.36 1.805 1.92 3.91 1.910 1.444 1.658 1.95 1.57 1.515
1.945 1.516 1.669 2.31 1.57 1.535
1.60 1.634 1.477
1.63 1.645 1.485
1.523
1.59 1.536 1.63 1.648
PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS (continued) Name Goethite Goslarite Greenockite Grossularite Gummite Gypsum Halite Hambergite Hanksite Harmotome Hausmannite Haüyne Hedenbergite Helvite Hematite Hemimorphite Hercynite Herderite Hessite Heulandite Hopeite Hornblende Huebnerite Humite Huntite Hydrogrossularite Hydromagnesite Illite Ilmenite Iodyrite Jacobsite Jadeite Jamesonite Jarosite Kainite Kaliophylite Kaolinite Kernite Kieserite Kyanite Lanarkite Lanthanite Laumontite Laurionite Lawsonite Lazulite Lazurite Leadhillite Lepidocrocite Lepidolite Leucite Levyne Litharge Loellingite Maghemite Magnesite Magnetite Malachite Manganite
Formula FeO(OH) ZnSO4⋅7H2O CdS Ca3Al2Si3O12 UO3⋅H2O CaSO4⋅2H2O NaCl Be2(OH)(BO3) Na22K(SO4)9(CO3)2Cl Ba[Al2Si6O16]⋅6H2O Mn3O4 (Na,Ca)4-8Al6Si6O24(SO4,S)1-2 CaFeSi2O6 Mn4Be3Si3O12S Fe2O3 Zn4Si2O7(OH)2⋅H2O Fe(AlO2)2 CaBe(PO4)(Fe,OH) Ag2Te (Ca,Na2,K2)[Al2Si7O18]⋅6H2O Zn3(PO4)2⋅4H2O Ca2(Mg,Fe)4Al(Si7AlO22)(OH)2 MnWO4 Mg(OH,F)2⋅3Mg2SiO4 Mg3Ca(CO3)4 Ca3Al2Si2O8(SiO4)1-m(OH)4m 3MgCO3⋅Mg(OH)2⋅3H2O KAl4[Si7AlO20](OH)4 FeTiO3 AgI MnFe2O4 NaAlSi2O6 Pb4FeSb6S14 KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6 KMg(SO4)Cl⋅3H2O KAlSiO4 Al4Si4O10(OH)8 Na2B4O7⋅4H2O MgSO4⋅H2O Al2OSiO4 Pb2(SO4)O (La,Ce)2(CO3)3⋅8H2O Ca4[Al8Si16O48]⋅16H2O Pb(OH)Cl CaAl2(OH)2Si2O7⋅H2O (Mg,Fe)Al2(PO4)2(OH)2 Na4SSi3Al3O12 Pb4(SO4)(CO3)2(OH)2 FeO(OH) K2(Li,Al)5-6[Si6-7Al2-1O20](OH,F)4 KAlSi2O6 (Ca,Na2)Al2Si4O12⋅6H2O PbO FeAs2 Fe2O3 MgCO3 Fe3O4 Cu2(OH)2(CO3) MnO(OH)
Crystal system
Density g/cm3
orth orth cub cub orth monocl cub rhomb hex monocl tetr cub monocl cub hex rhomb cub monocl orth monocl orth monocl monocl orth trig cub monocl monocl rhomb hex cub monocl monocl rhomb monocl hex tricl monocl monocl tricl monocl rhomb monocl rhomb rhomb monocl cub monocl orth monocl tetr rhomb tetr rhomb cub hex cub monocl monocl
4.3 1.97 4.8 3.59 7.05 2.32 2.17 2.36 2.56 2.44 4.84 2.47 3.53 3.32 5.25 3.45 4.3 2.98 8.4 2.2 3.0 3.24 7.2 3.3 2.70 3.4 2.24 2.8 4.72 5.68 4.87 3.34 5.63 3.09 2.15 2.61 2.65 1.95 2.57 3.59 6.92 2.72 2.3 6.24 3.08 3.23 2.42 6.55 4.26 2.85 2.49 2.10 9.35 7.40 4.88 3.05 5.17 4.05 ≈4.3
4-152
Hardness 5.3 2.3 3.3 6.8 3.8 2 2 7.5 3.3 4.5 5.5 5.8 6 6 6 5 7.8 5.3 2.5 3.8 3.2 5.5 4.3 6 6.8 3.5 1.5 5.5 1.5 7.8 6 2.5 3 2.8 6 2.3 2.5 3.5 6.3 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.3 6 5.8 5.3 2.8 5 3.3 5.8 4.5 2 5.3 7.8 4 6 3.8 4
nα
Index of refraction nβ nγ
2.268 1.457 2.506 1.734
2.401 1.480 2.529
2.457 1.484
1.520 1.544 1.56 1.461 1.506 2.15 1.502 1.721 1.739 2.91 1.614 1.835 1.592
1.525
1.530
1.59 1.481 1.507 2.46
1.63 1.511
1.727
1.746
3.19 1.617
1.636
1.612
1.621
1.498 1.58 1.67 2.17 1.625
1.498 1.59 1.67 2.22 1.636
1.506 1.59 1.69 2.32 1.657
1.70 1.523 1.56
1.527 1.59
1.545 1.59
2.21 2.3 1.649 1.715 1.494 1.532 1.549 1.454 1.520 1.715 1.928 1.52 1.508 2.08 1.655 1.615 1.500 1.87 1.94 1.536 1.510 1.496 2.535 2.63 1.536 2.42 1.655 2.25
2.22 1.654
1.663
1.820 1.505 1.537 1.564 1.472 1.533 1.722 2.007 1.587 1.517 2.12 1.675 1.64
1.565 1.488 1.584 1.731 2.036 1.613 1.519 2.16 1.685 1.650
2.00 2.20 1.565
2.01 2.51 1.566
1.516
1.501 2.665
1.741 1.875 2.25
1.909 2.53
PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS (continued) Name Manganosite Marcasite Marialite Marshite Mascagnite Matlockite Meionite Melanterite Melilite Mellite Mendipite Mesolite Metacinnabar Microcline Miersite Millerite Mimetite Minium Mirabilite Moissanite Molybdenite Monazite Monetite Monticellite Montmorillonite Montroydite Mordenite Muscovite Nantokite Natrolite Nepheline Newberyite Niccolite Norbergite Nosean Oldhamite Oligoclase Olivenite Olivine Opal Orpiment Orthoclase Orthopyroxene Paragonite Parisite Pectolite Penfieldite Pentlandite Percylite Periclase Perovskite Petalite Pharmacosiderite Phenakite Phillipsite Phlogopite Phosgenite Piemontite
Formula MnO FeS2 Na4Al3Si9O24Cl CuI (NH4)2SO4 PbClF Ca4Al6Si6O24CO3 FeSO4⋅7H2O (Ca,Na)2(Mg,Fe,Al,Si)3O7 Al2C12O12⋅18H2O Pb3O2Cl2 Na2Ca2(Al2Si3O10)3⋅8H2O HgS KAlSi3O8 AgI NiS Pb5(AsO4,PO4)3Cl Pb3O4 Na2SO4⋅10H2O SiC MoS2 (Ce,La,Th)PO4 CaHPO4 Ca(Mg,Fe)SiO4 (0.5Ca,Na)0.7(Al,Mg,Fe)4 [(Si,Al)8O20](OH)4⋅nH2O HgO (Na,K,Ca)[Al2Si10O24]⋅7H2O KAl2Si3AlO10(OH,F)2 CuCl Na2Al2Si3O10⋅2H2O Na3KAl4Si4O16 MgHPO4⋅3H2O NiAs Mg(OH,F)2⋅Mg2SiO4 Na8Al6Si6O24SO4 CaS ([NaSi]0.9-0.7[CaAl]0.1-0.3)AlSi2O8 Cu2(AsO4)(OH) (Mg,Fe)SiO4 SiO2⋅nH2O As2S3 KAlSi3O8 (Mg,Fe)SiO3 NaAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 (Ce,La,Na)FCO3⋅CaCO3 Ca2NaH(SiO3)3 Pb4Cl6(OH)2 (Fe,Ni)9S8 PbCuCl2(OH)2 MgO CaTiO3 LiAlSi4O10 Fe3(AsO4)2(OH)3⋅5H2O Be2SiO4 K(Ca0.5,Na)2[Al3Si5O16]⋅6H2O KMg3AlSi3O10(OH,F)2 Pb2(CO3)Cl2 Ca2(Mn,Fe,Al)3O(Si2O7)(SiO4)(OH)
Crystal system
Density g/cm3
Hardness
cub cub tetr cub orth tetr tetr monocl tetr tetr rhomb orth cub monocl hex hex hex tetr monocl hex hex monocl tricl orth
5.37 5.02 2.56 5.67 1.77 7.05 2.78 1.89 3.00 1.64 7.24 2.26 7.70 2.56 5.68 5.5 7.24 8.9 1.46 3.16 5.06 5.2 2.92 3.18
5.5 6.3 5.5 2.5 2.3 2.8 5.5 2 5.5 2.3 2.5 5 3 6.3 2.5 3.3 3.8 2.5 1.8 9.5 1.3 5 3.5 5.5
monocl orth orth monocl cub orth hex orth hex orth cub cub tricl rhomb rhomb amorp monocl monocl rhomb monocl hex tricl hex cub cub cub cub monocl cub rhomb monocl monocl tetr monocl
2.5 11.14 2.13 2.83 4.14 2.23 2.61 2.13 7.77 3.21 2.35 2.59 2.64 4.2 3.81 1.9 3.46 2.56 3.6 2.85 4.42 2.88 6.6 4.8
1.5 2.5 3.5 2.8 2.5 5 5.8 3.3 5.3 6.5 5.5 4 6.3 3 6.8 5 1.8 6 5.5 2.5 4.5 4.8
4-153
3.6 3.98 2.42 2.80 2.98 2.2 2.83 6.13 3.49
3.8 2.5 5.5 5.5 6.5 2.5 7.5 4.3 2.3 2.5 6
nα
Index of refraction nβ nγ
1.541 2.346 1.520 2.006 1.559 1.47 1.639 1.511 2.24 1.506
1.548 1.523 2.145 1.595 1.48 1.645 1.539 2.27
1.533
1.522 2.20
1.526
1.530
2.128
2.147
1.394 2.648
1.396 2.691
1.398
1.787 1.587 1.647
1.789 1.61 1.655
1.840 1.640 1.664
1.55 2.37 1.478 1.563 1.930 1.478 1.534 1.514
1.57 2.50 1.480 1.596
1.57 2.65 1.482 1.602
1.481 1.538 1.517
1.491
1.565 1.495 2.137 1.539 1.77 1.73 1.44 2.40 1.523 1.709 1.572 1.672 1.603 2.13
1.573
1.592
1.543 1.80 1.76
1.547 1.85 1.78
2.81 1.527 1.712 1.602 1.771 1.610 2.21
3.02 1.531 1.723 1.605
2.05 1.735 2.34 1.506 1.690 1.654 1.494 1.560 2.118 1.762
1.511 1.670 1.497 1.597 2.145 1.773
1.49
2.31
1.533
1.639
1.519
1.505 1.598 1.796
PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS (continued) Name
Formula
Pigeonite Pollucite Polybasite Powellite Prehnite Proustite Pseudobrookite Psilomelane Pumpellyite
(Mg,Fe,Ca)(Mg,Fe)Si2O6 CsAlSi2O6 (Ag,Cu)16Sb2S11 Ca(Mo,W)O4 Ca2Al2Si3O10(OH)2 Ag3AsS3 Fe2TiO5 BaMn9O16(OH)4 Ca2Al2(Al,Fe,Mg)[Si2(O,OH)7] (SiO4)(OH,O)3 Ag3SbS3 FeS2 NaCaNb2O6F Mn(OH)2 MnO2 Pb5(PO4,AsO4)3Cl Mg3Al2Si3O12 Al2Si4O10(OH)2 Fe7S8 SiO2 NiAs2 PbWO4 As4S4 MnCO3 (Mn,Fe,Ca)SiO3 Na2Fe5(Si8O22)(OH)2 TiO2 (Co,Fe)As2 (Y,Er,Ce,U,Ca,Fe,Pb,Th) (Nb,Ta,Ti,Sn)2O6 (Mg,Fe)2Al4O6SiO4 (Na,Ca)4Al3(Al,Si)3Si6O24 (Cl,F,OH,CO3,SO4) CaWO4 CaAl2Si3O10⋅3H2O Fe(AsO4)⋅2H2O MgF2 Sb2O3 Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 FeCO3 Al2OSiO4 (Co,Ni)As3 ZnCO3 Na8Al6Si6O24Cl2 PtAs2 Mn3Al2Si3O12 ZnS CaTiSiO4(O,OH,F) MgAl2O4 LiAlSi2O6 Cu2FeSn4 (Fe,Mg,Zn)2(Al,Fe,Ti)9O6 [(Si,Al)O4]4(O,OH)2 Na(NH4)H(PO4)⋅4H2O Sb(Ta,Nb)O4 Sb2S3 NaCa2[Al5Si13O36]⋅14H2O
Pyrargyrite Pyrite Pyrochlore Pyrochroite Pyrolusite Pyromorphite Pyrope Pyrophyllite Pyrrhotite Quartz Rammelsbergite Raspite Realgar Rhodochrosite Rhodonite Riebeckite Rutile Safflorite Samarskite Sapphirine Scapolite Scheelite Scolecite Scorodite Sellaite Senarmontite Serpentine Siderite Sillimanite Skutterudite Smithsonite Sodalite Sperrylite Spessartite Sphalerite Sphene Spinel Spodumene Stannite Staurolite Stercorite Stibiotantalite Stibnite Stilbite
Crystal system
Density g/cm3
Hardness
monocl tetr monocl tetr rhomb rhomb rhomb rhomb
3.38 2.9 6.1 4.35 2.93 5.57 4.36 4.71
6 6.5 2.5 3.8 6.3 2.3 6 5.5
monocl rhomb cub cub hex tetr hex cub monocl hex hex orth monocl monocl hex orth monocl tetr rhomb
3.21 5.85 5.02 5.3 3.26 5.08 7.04 3.58 2.78 4.62 2.65 7.1 8.46 3.5 3.70 3.48 3.3 4.23 7.3
5.5 2.5 6.3 5.3 2.5 6.3 3.8 6.8 1.5 4 7 5.8 2.8 1.8 3.8 6 5 6.2 4.8
rhomb monocl
5.69 3.49
tetr tetr monocl rhomb tetr cub monocl hex rhomb cub rhomb cub cub cub cub monocl cub monocl tetr monocl tricl rhomb orth monocl
4-154
nα
Index of refraction nβ nγ
1.702 1.517
1.703
1.971 1.622 2.792 2.38
1.980 1.628 3.088 2.39
1.688 2.88
1.695 3.08
1.68
1.72
2.048 1.714 1.545
2.058 1.579
1.544
1.553
1.27 2.538 1.597 1.725 1.675 2.609
1.27 2.684 1.816 1.729 1.683 2.900
1.30 2.704
5.5 7.5
2.200 1.709
1.712
1.715
2.64 6.06 2.27 3.28 3.15 5.58 2.55 3.9 3.25 6.8 4.4 2.30 10.58 4.19 4.0 3.50 3.55 3.13 4.4
5.5 4.8 5 3.8 5 2.3 3 4.3 7 5.8 4.3 5.8 6.5 6.8 3.8 5 7.8 6.8 4
1.551 1.920 1.510 1.784 1.378 2.087 1.55 1.635 1.658
3.79 1.62 6.6 4.56 2.2
7.5 2 5.5 2 3.8
1.621 1.485
1.573 1.936 1.518 1.795 1.390 1.56 1.875 1.660
1.728
1.648 2.42
1.705
1.599
1.737 1.694
1.519 1.814
1.56 1.660
1.848
1.800 2.369 1.90 1.719 1.656
1.95
2.03
1.662
1.671
1.743 1.439 2.38
1.747 1.442 2.41
1.755 1.469 2.46
1.492
1.499
1.503
PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS (continued) Name
Formula
(K,Na,Ca)0.6(Fe,Mg)6Si8Al (O,OH)27⋅2H2O Stolzite PbWO4 Strengite FePO4⋅2H2O Strontianite SrCO3 Struvite Mg(NH4)(PO4)⋅6H2O Sulfur S Sylvanite (Ag,Au)Te2 Sylvite KCl Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Tantalite (Fe,Mn)(Ta,Nb)2O6 Tapiolite FeTa2O6 Tellurobismuthite Bi2Te3 Terlinguaite Hg2OCl Tetrahedrite (Cu,Fe)12Sb4S13 Thenardite Na2SO4 Thermonatrite Na2CO3⋅H2O Thomsenolite NaCaAlF6⋅H2O Thorianite ThO2 Thorite ThSiO4 Topaz Al2SiO3(OH,F)2 Torbernite Cu(UO2)2(PO4)2⋅8H2O Tourmaline Na(Mg,Fe,Mn,Li,Al)3Al6Si6O18 (BO3)3 Tremolite Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH,F)2 Trevorite NiFe2O4 Tridymite SiO2 Triphyllite-Lithiophyllite Li(Fe,Mn)PO4 Troegerite (UO2)3(AsO4)2⋅12H2O Troilite FeS Trona Na3H(CO3)2⋅2H2O Turquois Cu(Al,Fe)6(PO4)4(OH)8⋅4H2O Ullmannite NiSbS Uraninite UO2 Uvarovite Ca3Cr2Si3O12 Valentinite Sb2O3 Vanadinite Pb5(VO4)3Cl Variseite-Strengite (Al,Fe)(PO4)⋅2H2O Vaterite CaCO3 Vermiculite (Mg,Ca)0.7(Mg,Fe,Al)6[(Al,Si)8O20] (OH)4⋅8H2O Vesuvianite Ca10(Mg,Fe)2Al4(Si2O7)2(SiO4)5 (OH,F)4 Villiaumite NaF Vivianite Fe3(PO4)2⋅8H2O Wagnerite Mg2(PO4)F Wavellite Al3(OH)3(PO4)2⋅5H2O Whewellite CaC2O4⋅H2O Willemite Zn2SiO4 Witherite BaCO3 Wolframite (Fe,Mn)WO4 Wollastonite CaSiO3 Wulfenite PbMoO4 Wurtzite ZnS Xenotime YPO4 Zeunerite Cu(UO2)2(AsO4)2⋅10H2O Zincite ZnO Zircon ZrSiO4 Zoisite Ca2Al3Si3O12(OH)
Crystal system
Density g/cm3
Hardness
monocl tetr orth orth rhomb orth monocl cub monocl rhomb tetr hex monocl cub orth orth monocl cub tetr rhomb tetr
2.8 8.2 2.87 3.5 1.71 2.07 8.16 1.99 2.71 7.95 7.9 7.74 8.73 4.9 2.7 2.25 2.98 10.0 6.7 3.53 3.22
3.5 2.8 4 3.5 2 2 1.8 2 1 6.5 6.3 1.8 2.5 3.8 2.8 1.3 2 6.5 4.8 8 2.3
1.585 2.19 1.707 1.518 1.495 1.958
1.665 2.27 1.719 1.666 1.496 2.038
1.665
1.490 1.545 2.26 2.27
1.592 2.32 2.42
1.595 2.43
2.35
2.64
2.66
1.468 1.420 1.407 2.200 1.8 1.618 1.582
1.475 1.506 1.414
1.483 1.524 1.415
1.620 1.592
1.627
rhomb monocl cub hex rhomb tetr hex monocl tricl cub cub cub orth hex rhomb hex
3.14 3.0 5.33 2.27 3.46
1.62 1.599 2.3 1.475 1.68 1.59
1.65 1.612 1.476 1.68 1.630
1.479 1.69
4.7 2.14 2.9 6.65 11.0 3.83 5.7 6.8 2.72 2.71
7 5.5 7.8 7 4.5 2.5 4 2.8 5.3 5.3 5.5 6.8 2.8 2.9 4
1.412 1.70
1.492 1.73
1.540 1.75
1.865 2.18 2.350 1.635 1.550
2.35 2.416 1.654 1.645
2.35
monocl
2.3
1.5
1.542
1.556
tetr cub monocl monocl rhomb cub hex orth monocl monocl tetr hex tetr tetr hex tetr rhomb
3.33 2.78 2.58 3.15 2.36 2.2 4.1 4.29 7.3 2.92 6.7 4.09 4.8
6.5 2.3 1.8 5.3 3.6 2.8 5.5 3.5 4.3 4.8 2.9 3.8 4.5
1.73
5.6 4.6 3.26
4 7.5 6
1.72 1.327 1.598 1.568 1.527 1.491 1.691 1.529 2.26 1.628 2.283 2.356 1.721 1.606 2.013 1.94 1.695
nα
Index of refraction nβ nγ
Stilpnomelane
4-155
1.629 1.572 1.535 1.554 1.719 1.676 2.32 1.639 2.403 2.378 1.816 2.029 1.99 1.699
1.741 1.668 1.504 2.245
1.622
1.668
1.556
1.652 1.582 1.553 1.650 1.677 2.42 1.642
1.711
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS (continued) γ
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS
α
β
This table contains x-ray crystallographic data on about 400 common minerals, as well as selected crystalline elements. Entries are arranged alphabetically by mineral name. The columns are: Name: Common name of the mineral. Formula: Chemical formula for a typical sample of the mineral. Composition often varies considerably with the origin of the sample. Crystal system: tricl = triclinic; monocl = monoclinic; orth = orthorhombic; tetr = tetragonal; hex = hexagonal; rhomb = rhombohedral; cubic = cubic. Structure type: Prototype for the structural arrangement of the crystallographic cell. Z: Number of formula units per the unit cell. a, b, c: Lengths of the cell edges in Å (1Å = 10-8 cm). α, β, γ : Angles between cell axes.
b/Å
c/Å
REFERENCES 1. Robie, R.A., Bethke, P.M., and Beardsley, K.M., U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1248, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 2. Donnay, J.D.H., and Ondik, H.M., Crystal Data Determinative Tables, Third Edition, Volume 2, Inorganic Compounds, Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards, Swarthmore, PA, 1973. 3. Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., and Zussman, J., An Introduction to the Rock-Forming Minerals, 2nd Edition, Longman Scientific &
Name
Formula
Crystal system
Structure type
Z
a/Å
Technical, Harlow, Essex, 1992.
4-146
Formula
Crystal system
Acanthite Acmite (Aegirine) Akermanite Alabandite Almandine (Almandite) Altaite Aluminum Alunite Analcite Anatase Andalusite Andradite Anglesite Anhydrite Annite Anorthite Anthophyllite Antimony Aragonite Arcanite Argentite Argentopyrite Arsenic Arsenolite Arsenopyrite Azurite Baddeleyite Banalsite Barite Berlinite Beryl Berzelianite Bismite Bismuth Bismuthinite Bixbyite Boehmite Borax Bornite (metastable) Breithauptite Brochantite Bromargyrite Bromellite Brookite Brucite
Ag2S NaFe(SiO3)2 Ca2MgSi2O7 MnS Fe3Al2Si3O12 PbTe Al KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6 NaAlSi2O6⋅H20 TiO2 Al2OSiO4 Ca3Fe2Si3O12 PbSO4 CaSO4 KFe3[AlSi3O10](OH)2 CaAl2Si2O8 Mg7Si8O22(OH)2 Sb CaCO3 K2SO4 Ag2S AgFe2S3 As As2O3 FeAsS Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2 ZrO2 BaNa2Al4Si4O16 BaSO4 AlPO4 Be3Al2(SiO3)6 Cu2Se Bi2O3 Bi Bi2S3 Mn2O3 AlO(OH) Na2B4O7⋅10H2O Cu5FeS4 NiSb Cu4SO4(OH)6 AgBr BeO TiO2 Mg(OH)2
monocl monocl tetr cubic cubic cubic cubic rhomb cubic tetr orth cubic orth orth monocl tricl orth rhomb orth orth cubic orth rhomb cubic tricl monocl monocl orth orth hex hex cubic monocl rhomb orth cubic orth monocl cubic hex monocl cubic hex orth hex
Structure type diopside melilite rock salt garnet rock salt copper
garnet barite anhydrite 1M mica primitive cell arsenic aragonite arcanite
arsenic diamond
baddeleyite barite α-quartz beryl pseudo-orth arsenic stibnite thallium trioxide lepidocrocite
niccolite rock salt zincite cadmium iodide
Z
a/Å
b/Å
c/Å
4 4 2 4 8 4 4 3 16 4 4 8 4 4 2 8 4 6 4 4 2 4 6 16 4 2 4 4 4 3 2 4 4 6 4 16 4 4 8 2 4 4 2 8 1
4.228 9.658 7.8435 5.223 11.526 6.4606 4.049 6.982 13.733 3.785 7.7959 12.048 8.480 6.991 10.29 8.177 18.61 4.2996 5.741 5.772 4.870 6.64 3.760 11.074 5.760 5.008 5.1454 8.50 8.878 4.942 9.215 5.85 7.48 4.5367 11.150 9.411 2.868 11.858 10.94 3.942 13.066 5.7745 2.6979 5.456 3.147
6.928 8.795
7.862 5.294 5.010
α
β
γ
99.58° 107.42°
17.32
7.8983 5.398 6.996 9.33 12.877 18.01 7.968 10.072 11.47
9.514 5.5583 6.958 6.238 5.39 14.169 5.24 11.2516 4.959 7.483
93.17°
105.1° 115.85°
6.45 10.555
5.690 5.844 5.2075 9.97 5.450
5.785 10.336 5.3107 16.72 7.152 10.97 9.192
8.14 11.300
5.83 11.8383 3.981
12.227 10.674
3.700 12.197
106.68°
9.85
5.155 6.022
103.27°
9.182
91.22°
4.3772 5.143 4.769
90.00°
112.23° 92.45° 99.23°
112.9°
90.00°
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS (continued)
4-147
Name
Name
Crystal system
NiO CaMn(SiO3)2 CdTe CdSe CaCO3 Hg2Cl2 Ca10(PO4)6CO3⋅H2O SnO2 CoS2 SrSO4 BaAl2Si2O8 CeO2 PbCO3 Sb2O4 CuSO4⋅5H2O Cu2S CuFeS2 Ca5(PO4)3Cl AgCl FeAl4O2(SiO4)2(OH)4 MgCl2 2Mg2SiO4⋅MgF2 BeAl2O4 HgS As2O3 PbSe MgSiO3 FeSiO3 4Mg2SiO4⋅MgF2 Ca2Al3(SiO4)3OH Co2SiO4 CoO CoS CoTiO3 CoCO3 CoAsS SiO2 USiO4 Ca2B6O11⋅5H2O HgTe PtS Cu Al2O3 PbCl2 CuS
cubic tricl cubic hex rhomb tetr hex tetr cubic orth monocl cubic orth orth tricl orth tetr hex cubic monocl rhomb monocl orth hex monocl cubic monocl monocl monocl monocl orth cubic cubic rhomb rhomb cubic monocl tetr monocl cubic tetr cubic rhomb orth hex
Structure type rock salt sphalerite zincite calcite apatite rutile pyrite barite fluorite aragonite
apatite rock salt
olivine cinnabar rock salt
olivine rock salt sphalerite ilmenite calcite NiSbS zircon sphalerite face-centered cubic corundum
Z
a/Å
4 6 4 2 6 4 1 2 4 4 8 4 4 4 2 96 4 2 4 8 3 2 4 3 4 4 8 8 2 2 4 4 4 6 6 4 16 4 4 4 2 4 6 4 6
4.177 7.736 6.4805 4.2977 4.9899 4.478 9.436 4.738 5.5345 8.359 8.627 5.4110 6.152 5.424 6.1045 11.881 5.2988 9.629 5.5491 9.48 3.632 7.89 5.4756 4.149 5.339 6.1255 9.620 9.7085 13.68 8.887 4.782 4.260 5.339 5.066 4.6581 5.60 7.152 6.995 8.743 6.4600 3.4699 3.6150 4.7591 4.535 3.792
b/Å
c/Å
7.157
13.824
α 90.52°
β 94.58°
γ 103.87°
7.0021 17.064 10.910 6.883 3.188 5.352 13.045
6.866 14.408
8.436 11.76 10.72 27.323
5.195 4.804 5.949 13.491 10.434 6.777
5.48
101.77°
12.984
18.18 17.795 10.29 4.4267 9.495 4.5405
8.825 9.0872 4.75 5.581 10.301
5.188 5.2284 10.27 10.14 6.003
108.33° 108.43° 100.83° 115.93°
4.743 9.4041
115.20°
97.57°
107.28°
109.03°
94.27°
13.918 14.958 12.379 11.264
7.152 6.263 6.102 6.1098
7.62
12.9894 9.05 16.34
120.00° 110.12°
77.43°
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS (continued)
4-148
Bunsenite Bustamite Cadmium telluride Cadmoselite Calcite Calomel Carbonate-apatite Cassiterite Cattierite Celestite Celsian Cerianite Cerussite Cervantite Chalcanthite Chalcocite Chalcopyrite Chlorapatite Chlorargyrite Chloritoid Chloromagnesite Chondrodite Chrysoberyl Cinnabar Claudetite Clausthalite Clinoenstatite Clinoferrosilite Clinohumite Clinozoisite Cobalt olivine Cobalt oxide Cobalt sulfide Cobalt titanate Cobalticalcite Cobaltite Coesite Coffinite Colemanite Coloradoite Cooperite Copper Corundum Cotunnite Covellite
Formula
Name
SiO2 SiO2 Na3AlF6 CuFe2S3 (Mg,Fe,Mn)7(Si4O11)2(OH)2 Cu2O CaB2Si2O8 CaBSiO4(OH) FeCr2S4 C AlO(OH) Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Cu1.79S CaMg(SiO3)2 CuSiO2(OH)2 Cu2O(SO4) CaMg(CO3)2 NaMg3Al6B3Si6O27(OH)4 NaLiAl7.67B3Si6O27(OH)4 Cu3AsS4 MgSiO3 Ca2Al2(Al,Fe)OH(SiO4)3 MgSO4⋅7H2O Cr2O3 AgCuSe AlBeSiO4(OH) Cu3SbS4 Fe2SiO4 Fe2Al3(AlSi5O18) Ca2Fe2SiO7 Fe2Al3(AlSi5O18) KFeSi2O6 KFeSi3O8 KFeSi3O8 FeAs2.95 FeWO4 KFe3[FeSi3O10](OH)2 FeSe2 Ca2Fe5[Si8O22](OH)2 NaCa2Mg5[AlSi7O22]F2 3Mg2SiO4⋅MgF2 Mg2SiO4⋅MgF2 KMg3[AlSi3O10]F2 Na2CaMg5[Si8O22]F2 Ca2Mg5[Si8O22]F2
Crystal system tetr cubic monocl orth monocl cubic orth monocl cubic cubic orth monocl cubic monocl rhomb monocl rhomb rhomb rhomb orth orth monocl orth rhomb orth monocl tetr orth orth tetr hex tetr tricl monocl cubic monocl monocl orth monocl monocl orth orth monocl monocl monocl
Structure type
tremolite
spinel diamond
deformed fluorite diopside phenacite calcite tourmaline tourmaline
corundum
olivine cordierite melilite beryl
wolframite marcasite tremolite tremolite
1M mica tremolite tremolite
Z
a/Å
4 8 2 4 2 2 4 4 8 8 4 4 4 4 18 4 3 3 3 2 16 2 4 6 10 4 2 4 4 2 2 16 4 4 8 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2
4.971 7.1382 5.40 6.46 9.522 4.2696 8.04 9.62 9.966 3.5670 4.401 5.150 5.5695 9.743 14.61 8.334 4.8079 15.942 15.842 6.426 8.829 8.89 11.86 4.9607 4.105 4.763 5.384 4.817 9.726 7.54 9.860 13.205 8.68 8.689 8.1814 4.732 5.430 4.801 9.97 9.847 10.243 8.727 5.299 9.823 9.781
b/Å
c/Å
α
β
γ
6.918 5.60 11.12 18.223
7.776 6.23 5.332
101.92°
8.77 7.60
7.74 4.84
90.15°
9.421 8.940
2.845 14.736
103.58°
8.923
13.10 13.12
5.251 7.80 7.628 16.010 7.224 7.009 6.144 5.192 10.19 6.858 13.599 6.31 4.618 10.770 6.105 9.287 4.855 9.285 13.970 7.340 7.319
5.708 9.404 5.778 18.34 18.00 20.72 10.271 9.188 17.96 18.01
4.965 10.341 3.587 5.30 5.282 4.735 4.709 10.135 5.268 5.267
6.312
7.422 18.22 5.63 11.99 20.35 14.29 10.477 17.065
90.18°
105.93° 108.4°
115.40°
100.25°
90.75°
116.05° 116.10° 90.00° 100.07° 104.50° 104.83°
99.92° 104.33° 104.52°
86.23°
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS (continued)
4-149
Cristobalite (α) Cristobalite (β) Cryolite Cubanite Cummingtonite Cuprite Danburite Datolite Daubreeite Diamond Diaspore Dickite Digenite Diopside Dioptase Dolerophanite Dolomite Dravite Elbaite Enargite Enstatite Epidote Epsomite Eskolaite Eucairite Euclase Famatimite Fayalite Fe-Cordierite Fe-Gehlenite Fe-Indialite Fe-Leucite Fe-Microcline Fe-Sanidine Fe-Skutterudite Ferberite Ferriannite Ferroselite Ferrotremolite Fluor-edenite Fluor-humite Fluor-norbergite Fluor-phlogopite Fluor-richterite Fluor-tremolite
Formula
Name
Ca5(PO4)3F CaF2 Mg2SiO4 FeTe2 ZnAl2O4 MnAl2O4 PbS Ga2O3 Ca2Al2SiO7 MgTiO3 Cu2(NO3)(OH)3 NiAsS Al(OH)3 CaMnSiO4 (Co,Fe)AsS Na2Mg3Al2[Si8O22](OH)2 Na2Mg3Al2[Si8O22](OH)2 FeO(OH) Au Ca3V2Si3O12 ZnSO4⋅7H2O C CdS Fe3S4 Ca3Al2Si3O12 Fe7[Si8O22](OH)2 FeSbS CaSO4⋅2H2O HfO2 NaCl Be2(OH,F)BO3 Ca2ZnSi2O7 MnS2 Mn3O4 CdS Ni3S2 CaFe(SiO3)2 Fe2O3 Zn4(OH)2Si2O7⋅H2O Fe(AlO2)2 SnS Ag2Te MgSO4⋅6H2O NaAlSi3O8 Ag2S
Crystal system hex cubic orth orth cubic cubic cubic rhomb tetr rhomb orth cubic monocl orth orth monocl monocl orth cubic cubic orth hex hex cubic cubic monocl monocl monocl monocl cubic orth tetr cubic tetr cubic rhomb monocl rhomb orth cubic orth monocl monocl tricl cubic
Structure type apatite fluorite olivine marcasite spinel spinel rock salt corundum melilite ilmenite
olivine tremolite tremolite face-centered cubic garnet epsomite graphite zincite spinel garnet tremolite
baddeleyite rock salt melilite pyrite sphalerite diopside corundum spinel germanium sulfide
Z
a/Å
2 4 4 2 8 8 4 6 2 6 4 4 8 4 24 2 2 4 4 8 4 4 2 8 8 2 8 4 4 4 8 2 4 8 4 3 4 6 2 8 4 4 8 4 4
9.3684 5.4638 4.758 5.265 8.0848 8.258 5.9360 4.9793 7.690 5.054 6.075 5.693 9.719 4.944 6.64 9.748 9.663 4.596 4.0786 12.070 11.779 2.4612 4.1354 9.876 11.851 9.572 10.00 5.68 5.1156 5.6402 9.755 7.87 6.1014 8.136 5.833 5.746 9.854 5.0329 8.370 8.150 4.328 8.13 10.110 8.160 6.269
b/Å
c/Å
α
β
γ
6.8841 10.214 6.265
5.984 3.869
13.812
13.429 5.0675 13.898 5.592
5.0705 11.19 28.39 17.915 17.696 9.957
8.6412 6.529 5.64 5.273 5.277 3.021
12.050
6.822 6.7079 6.7120
18.44 5.93 15.18 5.1722
5.342 6.73 6.29 5.2948
12.201
4.426 5.01
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS (continued)
4-150
Fluorapatite Fluorite Forsterite Frohbergite Gahnite Galaxite Galena Gallium oxide Gehlenite Geikielite Gerhardite Gersdorfite Gibbsite Glauchroite Glaucodot Glaucophane I Glaucophane II Goethite Gold Goldmanite Goslarite Graphite Greenockite Greigite Grossularite Grunerite Gudmundite Gypsum Hafnia Halite Hambergite Hardystonite Hauerite Hausmannite Hawleyite Heazelwoodite Hedenbergite Hematite Hemimorphite Hercynite Herzenbergite Hessite Hexahydrite High albite (Analbite) High argentite
Formula
94.57°
102.78° 103.67°
101.77° 90.00° 113.83° 99.18°
9.422
9.024
7.134 5.263
10.719
5.120
11.190 4.48 7.212 12.870
3.978 8.09 24.41 7.106
104.23° 13.749
93.54°
111.9° 98.30° 116.36°
90.19°
Name
Cu5FeS4 NaAlSiO4 Cu2S MgSiO3 Cu2S GeO2 KAlSi2O6 Ag2Se KAlSi3O8 MnWO4 Mg3Ca(CO3)4 Ca5(PO4)3OH H2O FeTiO3 Mg2Al3(AlSi5O18) AgI Fe MnFe2O4 NaAl(SiO3)2 Ag1.55Cu0.45S CaMn(SiO3)2 KAlSiO4 KAlSiO4 Al2Si2O5(OH)4 V2O3 SiO2 Na2B4O7⋅4H2O CaFeSiO4 CuSe MnFeSiO4 Al2OSiO4 Ca2SiO4 RuS2 FeCl2 CaAl2Si2O7(OH)2⋅H2O Pb MgSO4⋅4H2O FeO(OH) K2Al3Li2AlSi7O20(OH)4 KAlSi2O6 CaO Ca2SiO4 Co3S4 PbO FeAs2
Crystal system cubic cubic hex tricl cubic hex cubic cubic monocl monocl rhomb hex hex rhomb hex hex cubic cubic monocl tetr monocl hex hex tricl rhomb tetr monocl orth hex orth tricl monocl cubic rhomb orth cubic monocl orth monocl tetr cubic orth cubic tetr orth
Structure type
Z
1 4 2 8 4 α−quartz 3 16 2 4 wolframite 2 calcite 3 apatite 2 4 ilmenite 6 beryl 2 zincite 2 body-centered cubic 2 spinel 8 diopside 4 16 diopside 4 54 2 2 corundum 6 12 4 olivine 4 deformed covellite 78 olivine 4 4 4 pyrite 4 3 4 face-centered cubic 4 4 4 2M2 mica 2 16 rock salt 4 olivine 4 spinel 8 2 marcasite 2
a/Å 5.50 7.325 3.961 10.000 5.725 4.987 13.43 4.993 8.615 4.834 9.498 9.418 4.5212 5.093 9.7698 4.5955 2.8664 8.499 9.409 8.673 9.83 26.930 5.1597 5.155 4.952 7.456 7.022 4.886 14.206 4.854 7.123 5.48 5.60 3.593 8.787 4.9505 5.922 3.868 9.2 13.074 4.8108 5.091 9.401 3.9759 5.300
b/Å
c/Å
8.934
6.722 5.170
α
88.27°
β
70.03°
γ
91.01°
5.652
13.031 5.758
7.177 4.999 7.816 6.883 7.3666 14.055 9.3517 7.5005
115.98° 91.18°
8.564
107.50°
10.602 7.848 6.76
5.220 11.756 5.27 8.522 8.7032 7.407 14.002 8.604 15.676 6.434 17.25 6.162 5.564 9.28
5.836
17.58 13.123
9.04
8.959
9.151 11.146
13.604 12.525 5.3
7.905 3.066 20.0 13.738
11.371
6.782
5.981
5.023 2.882
105.00°
91.68°
104.87°
89.93°
108.83°
89.92°
101.25° 94.55°
90.85° 98.00°
105.97°
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS (continued)
4-151
High bornite High carnegeite High chalcocite High clinoenstatite High digenite High germania High leucite High naumanite High sanidine Huebnerite Huntite Hydroxylapatite Ice Ilmenite Indialite (Cordierite) Iodargyrite Iron (α) Jacobsite Jadeite Jalpaite Johannsenite Kaliophilite Kalsilite Kaolinite Karelianite Keatite Kernite Kerschsteinite Klockmannite Knebelite Kyanite Larnite Laurite Lawrencite Lawsonite Lead Leonhardtite Lepidocrocite Lepidolite Leucite Lime Lime olivine Linnaeite Litharge Loellingite
Formula
Name
NaAlSi3O8 Cu5FeS4 Mg2Al3(AlSi5O18) GeO2 NaAlSiO4 Cu3AsS4 FeS Na2Mg3Fe2[Si8O22](OH)2 MgCO3 Fe3O4 Cu2(OH)2CO3 Au2Bi MnS MnS MnO FeS2 CaAl2[AlSi2O10](OH)2 Na4Al3Si9O24Cl CuI (NH4)2SO4 PbO PbClF Ni11As8 Ca4Al6Si6O24CO3 SiO2 FeSO4⋅7H2O NiTe2 HgS AgSbS2 KAlSi3O8 AgI NiS Pb3O4 Fe3Si4O10(OH)2 Na2SO4⋅10H2O Mn2Al3(AlSi5O18) MoS2 Mo MoO3 CdO CaMgSiO4 HgO 2Al2O3⋅SiO2 3Al2O3⋅2SiO2 KAl2AlSi3O10(OH)2
Crystal system tricl tetr orth tetr hex tetr tetr monocl rhomb cubic monocl cubic hex cubic cubic orth monocl tetr cubic orth orth tetr tetr tetr cubic monocl hex cubic monocl tricl cubic rhomb tetr monocl monocl hex hex cubic orth cubic orth orth orth orth monocl
Structure type
rutile
tremolite calcite spinel
zincite sphalerite rock salt marcasite 2M mica sphalerite arcanite
clathrate type cadmium iodide sphalerite
sphalerite
beryl molybdenite
rock salt olivine
2M2 mica
Z
a/Å
4 16 4 2 8 2 2 2 6 8 4 8 2 4 4 2 4 2 4 4 4 2 4 2 46 4 1 4 8 4 4 9 4 4 4 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 6 3 4
8.139 10.94 9.721 4.3963 9.986 5.289 3.675 9.733 4.6330 8.3940 9.502 7.958 3.976 5.611 4.4448 4.443 5.13 12.064 6.0507 7.782 5.489 4.106 6.870 12.174 13.402 14.072 3.869 5.8517 12.862 8.582 6.4963 9.616 8.815 5.4 11.51 9.925 3.1604 3.1653 3.962 4.6953 4.827 6.608 7.5788 7.557 5.203
b/Å 12.788 17.062
17.946
11.974
c/Å 7.160 21.88 9.339 2.8626 8.330 10.440 5.030 5.299 15.016
α 94.27°
β
γ
116.57°
87.68°
103.30°
3.240
98.75°
6.432
5.423 8.92
3.3876 19.50 7.514
5.993 4.755
10.636 5.891 7.23 21.81 7.652
6.503
11.041 5.308
4.111 12.964
13.220 7.222
9.42 10.38
3.152 6.565 19.4 12.83 9.297 12.295
13.858
3.697
11.084 5.518 7.6909 7.6876 8.995
6.376 3.519 2.8883 2.8842 20.030
95.00°
105.57°
90.62°
98.63° 115.92°
100.00° 107.75°
94.47°
87.68°
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS (continued)
4-152
Low albite Low bornite Low cordierite Low germania Low nepheline Luzonite Mackinawite Magnesioriebeckite Magnesite Magnetite Malachite Maldonite Manganese sulfide (γ) Manganese sulfide (β) Manganosite Marcasite Margarite Marialite Marshite Mascagnite Massicot Matlockite Maucherite Meionite Melanophlogite Melanterite Melonite Metacinnabar Miargyrite Microcline Miersite Millerite Minium Minnesotaite Mirabilite Mn-Indialite Molybdenite Molybdenum Molybdite Monteponite Monticellite Montroydite Mullite (2:1) Mullite (3:2) Muscovite
Formula
Name
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 CuCl NaAl3(SO4)2(OH)6 Na2Al2Si3O10⋅2H2O NaMgF3 NiAs2.95 NiAs Ni NiCO3 Ni2SiO4 NiSe2 KNO3 BaMg(CO3)2 CaS As2S3 KAlSi3O8 FeSiO3 CdCO3 BaAl2Si2O8 NaAl2AlSi3O10(OH)2 NiAs2 TeO2 CaSiO3 Ca2NaH(SiO3)3 Fe5.25Ni3.75S8 Fe4.75Ni5.25S8 MgO CaTiO3 LiAlSi4O10 Ag3AuTe2 Be2SiO4 KMg3AlSi3O10(OH)2 MgCr2O4 Ca2Al1.5Mn1.5(SiO4)3OH Pt Ni3S4 Ca(OH)2 CaMoO4 MgSiO3 Ag3AsS3 CaSiO3 Ag3SbS3 FeS2 MnO2 Mg3Al2Si3O12
Crystal system monocl cubic rhomb orth orth cubic hex cubic rhomb orth cubic orth rhomb cubic monocl monocl orth rhomb monocl monocl orth tetr monocl tricl cubic cubic cubic orth monocl cubic rhomb monocl cubic monocl cubic cubic hex tetr orth rhomb tricl rhomb cubic tetr cubic
Structure type sphalerite
perovskite niccolite face-centered cubic calcite olivine pyrite aragonite calcite rock salt
enstatite calcite 2M1 mica
rock salt perovskite
phenacite 1M mica spinel face-centered cubic spinel cadmium iodide scheelite
pyrite rutile garnet
Z
a/Å
b/Å
c/Å
4 4 3 8 4 8 2 4 6 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 16 6 4 4 8 4 12 2 4 4 4 4 2 8 18 2 8 2 4 8 1 4 8 6 24 6 4 2 8
8.909 5.416 6.974 18.30 5.363 8.3300 3.618 3.5238 4.5975 4.727 5.9604 6.431 5.020 5.689 11.49 8.562 9.080 4.9204 8.58 5.13 5.75 4.810 15.417 7.99 10.196 10.095 4.2117 5.3670 11.32 10.38 12.472 5.326 8.333 8.95 3.9231 9.480 3.5933 5.226 9.25 10.816 6.90 11.052 5.4175 4.388 11.459
5.146
15.697
18.63 7.676
16.69 6.60 5.503
α
β
γ
113.70°
5.034
10.121
14.723 5.915
9.164
5.414 16.75
9.59 12.996 18.431
4.25 7.193 5.238 16.298 9.08 19.32 11.428 7.613 7.066 7.02
9.583 8.89 5.82 7.321 7.04
7.6438 5.14
90.45° 116.02°
90.00° 95.17°
90.05°
5.4439 7.62
95.40° 95.27°
105.90°
9.210
8.252 10.311
100.17°
5.70
9.41
115.70°
8.74 11.78
4.9086 11.43 5.32 8.6948 19.65 8.7177 2.865
102.47°
90.00°
90.80°
90.00°
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS (continued)
4-153
Nacrite Nantokite Natroalunite Natrolite Neighborite Ni-Skutterudite Niccolite Nickel Nickel carbonate Nickel olivine Nickel selenide Niter Norsethite Oldhamite Orpiment Orthoclase Orthoferrosilite Otavite Paracelsian Paragonite Pararammelsbergite Paratellurite Parawollastonite Pectolite Pentlandite Pentlandite Periclase Perovskite Petalite Petzite Phenacite Phlogopite Picrochromite Piemontite Platinum Polymidite Portlandite Powellite Protoenstatite Proustite Pseudowollastonite Pyrargyrite Pyrite Pyrolusite Pyrope
Formula
Name
MnTiO3 Al2Si4O10(OH)2 MnFe(SiO3)2 Fe0.980S Fe0.885S SiO2 SiO2 NiAs2 AsS NiSO4⋅4H2O MnCO3 MnSiO3 Na2Fe5FSi8O22(OH)2 TiO2 Co0.5Fe0.5As2 ZnWO4 Mg2Al4O6SiO4 MnCl2 CaWO4 NaFe3Al6B3Si6O27(OH)4 Se SeO2 MgF2 Sb2O3 Ni3Pb2S2 Na2Ca2(CO3)3 FeCO3 Si Al2OSiO4 Ag Ag2Te Ag2Te ZnCO3 NaNO3 NaCaAlSi2O7 PtAs2 Mn3Al2Si3O12 ZnS CaTiSiO5 MgAl2O4 LiAl(SiO3)2 LiAl(SiO3)2 Fe2Al9Si4O22(OH)2 AgFe2S3 Sb2S3
Crystal system rhomb monocl tricl hex hex hex hex orth monocl tetr rhomb tricl monocl tetr orth monocl monocl rhomb tetr rhomb hex tetr tetr cubic rhomb orth rhomb cubic orth cubic cubic cubic rhomb rhomb tetr cubic cubic cubic monocl cubic monocl tetr monocl orth orth
Structure type ilmenite 2M1 mica defect niccolite defect niccolite
marcasite
calcite tremolite marcasite wolframite
scheelite tourmaline
rutile arsenic trioxide
calcite diamond face-centered cubic
calcite calcite melilite pyrite garnet sphalerite spinel diopside
stibnite
Z
a/Å
6 4 7 2 2 3 3 2 16 4 6 10 2 2 2 2 8 3 4 3 3 8 2 16 3 2 6 8 4 4 2 4 6 6 2 4 8 4 4 8 4 4 2 8 4
5.155 5.14 7.56 3.446 3.440 4.9136 4.999 4.757 9.29 6.782 4.7771 7.682 9.729 4.5937 5.231 4.691 9.96 3.711 5.242 16.032 4.3642 8.35 4.621 11.152 5.576 4.961 4.6887 5.4305 7.4843 4.0862 5.29 6.585 4.6528 5.0696 8.511 5.968 11.621 5.4093 7.07 8.080 9.451 7.5332 7.90 11.60 11.229
b/Å 8.90 17.45
5.797 13.53
11.818 18.065 5.953 5.720 28.60
11.03
7.6730
c/Å 14.18 18.55 6.67 5.848 5.709 5.4051 5.4592 3.542 6.57 18.28 15.664 6.707 5.334 2.9618 2.962 4.925 9.85 17.59 11.372 7.149 4.9588 5.05 3.050
α
84.00°
β 99.92° 94.30°
113.70°
106.55°
92.36°
93.95° 103.31°
89.36° 110.5°
13.658 7.12 15.373 5.7711
15.025 16.829 4.809
8.72
6.56
113.95°
8.387
5.208 9.1540 5.63 6.63 3.8389
110.07°
16.65 12.675 11.310
γ
90.00°
105.66°
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS (continued)
4-154
Pyrophanite Pyrophyllite Pyroxmangite Pyrrhotite Pyrrhotite Quartz (α) Quartz (β) Rammelsbergite Realgar Retgersite Rhodochrosite Rhodonite Riebeckite Rutile Safflorite Sanmartinite Sapphirine Scacchite Scheelite Schorl Selenium Selenolite Sellaite Senarmontite Shandite Shortite Siderite Silicon Sillimanite Silver Silver telluride I Silver telluride II Smithsonite Soda niter Sodium melilite Sperrylite Spessartite Sphalerite Sphene Spinel Spodumene Spodumene (β) Staurolite Sternbergite Stibnite
Formula
Name
ZnSe SiO2 PbWO4 Ag0.93Cu1.07S SrCO3 S S S KCl K2Ca(SO4)2⋅H2O CaAl2Si2O8 CaAl2Si2O8 Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Ta PbSnS2 TeO2 Te Bi2Te3 Cu12As4S13 CuO Mn2SiO4 Cu12Sb4S13 Na2SO4 ThO2 ThSiO4 HgSe Sn Ti Ti2O3 Al2(SiO4)(OH) Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2 NiFe2O4 SiO2 CoSe2 FeS CaAl2SiO6 W WS2 CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8⋅4H2O Cu3Se2 UO2 NaCr(SiO3)2 Ca3Cr2Si3O12 CaMg4Al5B3Si6O27(OH)4 NiS2
Crystal system cubic tetr tetr orth orth monocl orth rhomb cubic monocl hex orth monocl cubic orth orth hex rhomb cubic monocl orth cubic orth cubic tetr cubic tetr hex rhomb orth monocl cubic hex cubic hex monocl cubic hex tricl tetr cubic monocl cubic rhomb cubic
Structure type sphalerite rutile scheelite
Z
4 2 4 4 aragonite 4 S8 ring molecules 48 S8 ring molecules 128 S6 ring molecules 18 rock salt 4 2 2 2 2M1 mica 4 tungsten 2 germanium sulfide 2 tellurite 8 selenium 3 3 tetrahedrite 2 4 olivine 4 tetrahedrite 2 thenardite 8 fluorite 4 zircon 4 sphalerite 4 4 2 corundum 6 4 tremolite 2 spinel 8 4 pyrite 4 niccolite 2 diopside 4 2 molybdenite 2 1 2 fluorite 4 diopside 4 garnet 8 tourmaline 3 pyrite 4
a/Å 5.6685 4.1790 5.4616 4.066 6.029 11.04 10.4646 10.818 6.2931 9.775 5.10 8.22 5.287 3.3058 4.266 5.607 4.4570 4.3835 10.190 4.684 4.871 10.327 5.863 5.5952 7.143 6.0853 5.8315 2.953 5.149 8.394 9.840 8.339 5.0463 5.8588 3.446 9.615 3.1653 3.154 7.424 6.402 5.4682 9.550 11.999 15.86 5.6873
b/Å
6.628 8.414 10.98 12.8660
7.156 8.60 9.158
c/Å
α
2.6649 12.046 7.972 5.107 10.92 24.4860 4.280
4.090 5.463 5.9290 30.487
3.425 10.636
5.129 6.232
12.304
9.821
γ
96.73°
6.251 14.72 4.83 18.95
11.419 12.034
β
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS (continued)
4-155
Stilleite Stishovite Stolzite Stromeyerite Strontianite Sulfur (monoclinic) Sulfur (orthorhombic) Sulfur (rhombohedral) Sylvite Syngenite Synthetic anorthite Synthetic anorthite Talc Tantalum Teallite Tellurite Tellurium Tellurobismuthite Tennantite Tenorite Tephroite Tetrahedrite Thenardite Thorianite Thorite Tiemannite Tin Titanium Titanium(III) oxide Topaz Tremolite Trevorite Tridymite (β) Trogtalite Troilite Tschermakite Tungsten Tungstenite Turquois Umangite Uraninite Ureyite Uvarovite Uvite Vaesite
Formula
104.00°
99.50°
99.47°
6.327
8.792 18.052
3.1813 4.729 13.642 4.649 5.275
104.70°
8.2563
8.661
5.877 5.272
7.629
12.362 9.910 4.276
8.712
5.273 7.19
106.12°
68.61°
69.71°
107.44°
65.08°
Name
Sb2O3 MgSO4⋅3Na2SO4 CaCO3 NaF FeNi2S4 Zn2SiO4 BaCO3 Fe0.5Mn0.5WO4 CaSiO3 PbMoO4 ZnS Fe0.953O YPO4 Zn ZnTe ZnO ZnSO4 ZrSiO4 Ca2Al3(SiO4)3OH
Crystal system orth monocl hex cubic cubic rhomb orth monocl tricl tetr hex cubic tetr hex cubic hex orth tetr orth
Structure type antimony trioxide
Z
4 2 6 rock salt 4 spinel 8 phenacite 18 aragonite 4 wolframite 2 6 scheelite 4 zincite 2 defect rock salt 4 zircon 4 hexagonal close pack 2 sphalerite 4 zincite 2 barite 4 zircon 4 4
a/Å 4.914 9.797 7.135 4.6342 9.464 13.94 6.430 4.782 7.94 5.435 3.8230 4.3088 6.885 2.665 6.1020 3.2495 8.588 6.604 16.15
b/Å 12.468 9.217
8.904 5.731 7.32
c/Å 5.421 8.199 8.524
9.309 5.314 4.982 7.07 12.110 6.2565 5.982 4.947
6.740 5.581
α
5.2069 4.770 5.979 10.06
β
γ
113.50°
90.03°
90.57° 95.37°
103.43°
4-156
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DATA ON MINERALS (continued)
Valentinite Vanthoffite Vaterite Villiaumite Violarite Willemite Witherite Wolframite Wollastonite Wulfenite Wurtzite Wustite Xenotime Zinc Zinc telluride Zincite Zinkosite Zircon Zoisite
Formula
CODATA KEY VALUES FOR THERMODYNAMICS The Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA) has conducted a project to establish internationally agreed values for the thermodynamic properties of key chemical substances. This table presents the final results of the project. Use of these recommended, internally consistent values is encouraged in the analysis of thermodynamic measurements, data reduction, and preparation of other thermodynamic tables. The table includes the standard enthalpy of formation at 298.15 K, the entropy at 298.15 K, and the quantity H° (298.15 K)–H° (0). A value of 0 in the ∆fH° column for an element indicates the reference state for that element. The standard state pressure is 100000 Pa (1 bar). See the reference for information on the dependence of gas-phase entropy on the choice of standard state pressure. Substances are listed in alphabetical order of their chemical formulas when written in the most common form. The table is reprinted with permission of CODATA. REFERENCE Cox, J. D., Wagman, D. D., and Medvedev, V. A., CODATA Key Values for Thermodynamics, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., New York, 1989.
Substance Ag Ag Ag+ AgCl Al Al Al+3 AlF3 Al2O3 Ar B B BF3 B2O3 Be Be BeO Br BrBr2 Br2 C C CO CO2 CO2 CO3-2 Ca Ca Ca+2 CaO Cd Cd Cd+2 CdO CdSO4⋅8/3H2O Cl ClClO4Cl2 Cs Cs Cs+
State cr g aq cr cr g aq cr cr, corundum g cr, rhombic g g cr cr g cr g aq l g cr, graphite g g g aq, undissoc. aq cr g aq cr cr g aq cr cr g aq aq g cr g aq
∆fH° (298.15 K) kJ⋅mol-1 0 284.9 ± 0.8 105.79 ± 0.08 -127.01 ± 0.05 0 330.0 ± 4.0 -538.4 ± 1.5 -1510.4 ± 1.3 -1675.7 ± 1.3 0 0 565 ± 5 -1136.0 ± 0.8 -1273.5 ± 1.4 0 324 ± 5 -609.4 ± 2.5 111.87 ± 0.12 -121.41 ± 0.15 0 30.91 ± 0.11 0 716.68 ± 0.45 -110.53 ± 0.17 -393.51 ± 0.13 -413.26 ± 0.20 -675.23 ± 0.25 0 177.8 ± 0.8 -543.0 ± 1.0 -634.92 ± 0.90 0 111.80 ± 0.20 -75.92 ± 0.60 -258.35 ± 0.40 -1729.30 ± 0.80 121.301 ± 0.008 -167.080 ± 0.10 -128.10 ± 0.40 0 0 76.5 ± 1.0 -258.00 ± 0.50
5-1
S° (298.15 K) J⋅K-1⋅mol-1
H° (298.15 K)–H° (0) kJ⋅mol-1
42.55 ± 0.20 172.997 ± 0.004 73.45 ± 0.40 96.25 ± 0.20 28.30 ± 0.10 164.554 ± 0.004 -325 ± 10 66.5 ± 0.5 50.92 ± 0.10 154.846 ± 0.003 5.90 ± 0.08 153.436 ± 0.015 254.42 ± 0.20 53.97 ± 0.30 9.50 ± 0.08 136.275 ± 0.003 13.77 ± 0.04 175.018 ± 0.004 82.55 ± 0.20 152.21 ± 0.30 245.468 ± 0.005 5.74 ± 0.10 158.100 ± 0.003 197.660 ± 0.004 213.785 ± 0.010 119.36 ± 0.60 -50.0 ± 1.0 41.59 ± 0.40 154.887 ± 0.004 -56.2 ± 1.0 38.1 ± 0.4 51.80 ± 0.15 167.749 ± 0.004 -72.8 ± 1.5 54.8 ± 1.5 229.65 ± 0.40 165.190 ± 0.004 56.60 ± 0.20 184.0 ± 1.5 223.081 ± 0.010 85.23 ± 0.40 175.601 ± 0.003 132.1 ± 0.5
5.745 ± 0.020 6.197 ± 0.001 12.033 ± 0.020 4.540 ± 0.020 6.919 ± 0.001 11.62 ± 0.04 10.016 ± 0.020 6.197 ± 0.001 1.222 ± 0.008 6.316 ± 0.002 11.650 ± 0.020 9.301 ± 0.040 1.950 ± 0.020 6.197 ± 0.001 2.837 ± 0.008 6.197 ± 0.001 24.52 ± 0.01 9.725 ± 0.001 1.050 ± 0.020 6.536 ± 0.001 8.671 ± 0.001 9.365 ± 0.003 5.736 ± 0.040 6.197 ± 0.001 6.75 ± 0.06 6.247 ± 0.015 6.197 ± 0.001 8.41 ± 0.08 35.56 ± 0.04 6.272 ± 0.001 9.181 ± 0.001 7.711 ± 0.020 6.197 ± 0.001
CODATA KEY VALUES FOR THERMODYNAMICS (continued)
Substance Cu Cu Cu+2 CuSO4 F FF2 Ge Ge GeF4 GeO2 H H+ HBr HCO3HCl HF HI HPO4-2 HSHSO4H2 H2O H2O H2PO4H2S H2S H3BO3 H3BO3 He Hg Hg Hg+2 HgO Hg2+2 Hg2Cl2 Hg2SO4 I II2 I2 K K K+ Kr Li Li Li+ Mg Mg Mg+2 MgF2 MgO N NH3 NH4+ NO3-
State cr g aq cr g aq g cr g g cr, tetragonal g aq g aq g g g aq aq aq g l g aq g aq, undissoc. cr aq, undissoc. g l g aq cr, red aq cr cr g aq cr g cr g aq g cr g aq cr g aq cr cr g g aq aq
∆fH° (298.15 K) kJ⋅mol-1 0 337.4 ± 1.2 64.9 ± 1.0 -771.4 ± 1.2 79.38 ± 0.30 -335.35 ± 0.65 0 0 372 ± 3 -1190.20 ± 0.50 -580.0 ± 1.0 217.998 ± 0.006 0 -36.29 ± 0.16 -689.93 ± 0.20 -92.31 ± 0.10 -273.30 ± 0.70 26.50 ± 0.10 -1299.0 ± 1.5 -16.3 ± 1.5 -886.9 ± 1.0 0 -285.830 ± 0.040 -241.826 ± 0.040 -1302.6 ± 1.5 -20.6 ± 0.5 -38.6 ± 1.5 -1094.8 ± 0.8 -1072.8 ± 0.8 0 0 61.38 ± 0.04 170.21 ± 0.20 -90.79 ± 0.12 166.87 ± 0.50 -265.37 ± 0.40 -743.09 ± 0.40 106.76 ± 0.04 -56.78 ± 0.05 0 62.42 ± 0.08 0 89.0 ± 0.8 -252.14 ± 0.08 0 0 159.3 ± 1.0 -278.47 ± 0.08 0 147.1 ± 0.8 -467.0 ± 0.6 -1124.2 ± 1.2 -601.60 ± 0.30 472.68 ± 0.40 -45.94 ± 0.35 -133.26 ± 0.25 -206.85 ± 0.40
5-2
S° (298.15 K) J⋅K-1⋅mol-1
H° (298.15 K)–H° (0) kJ⋅mol-1
33.15 ± 0.08 166.398 ± 0.004 -98 ± 4 109.2 ± 0.4 158.751 ± 0.004 -13.8 ± 0.8 202.791 ± 0.005 31.09 ± 0.15 167.904 ± 0.005 301.9 ± 1.0 39.71 ± 0.15 114.717 ± 0.002 0 198.700 ± 0.004 98.4 ± 0.5 186.902 ± 0.005 173.779 ± 0.003 206.590 ± 0.004 -33.5 ± 1.5 67 ± 5 131.7 ± 3.0 130.680 ± 0.003 69.95 ± 0.03 188.835 ± 0.010 92.5 ± 1.5 205.81 ± 0.05 126 ± 5 89.95 ± 0.60 162.4 ± 0.6 126.153 ± 0.002 75.90 ± 0.12 174.971 ± 0.005 -36.19 ± 0.80 70.25 ± 0.30 65.74 ± 0.80 191.6 ± 0.8 200.70 ± 0.20 180.787 ± 0.004 106.45 ± 0.30 116.14 ± 0.30 260.687 ± 0.005 64.68 ± 0.20 160.341 ± 0.003 101.20 ± 0.20 164.085 ± 0.003 29.12 ± 0.20 138.782 ± 0.010 12.24 ± 0.15 32.67 ± 0.10 148.648 ± 0.003 -137 ± 4 57.2 ± 0.5 26.95 ± 0.15 153.301 ± 0.003 192.77 ± 0.05 111.17 ± 0.40 146.70 ± 0.40
5.004 ± 0.008 6.197 ± 0.001 16.86 ± 0.08 6.518 ± 0.001 8.825 ± 0.001 4.636 ± 0.020 7.398 ± 0.001 17.29 ± 0.10 7.230 ± 0.020 6.197 ± 0.001 8.648 ± 0.001 8.640 ± 0.001 8.599 ± 0.001 8.657 ± 0.001
8.468 ± 0.001 13.273 ± 0.020 9.905 ± 0.005 9.957 ± 0.010 13.52 ± 0.04 6.197 ± 0.001 9.342 ± 0.008 6.197 ± 0.001 9.117 ± 0.025 23.35 ± 0.20 26.070 ± 0.030 6.197 ± 0.001 13.196 ± 0.040 10.116 ± 0.001 7.088 ± 0.020 6.197 ± 0.001 6.197 ± 0.001 4.632 ± 0.040 6.197 ± 0.001 4.998 ± 0.030 6.197 ± 0.001 9.91 ± 0.06 5.160 ± 0.020 6.197 ± 0.001 10.043 ± 0.010
CODATA KEY VALUES FOR THERMODYNAMICS (continued)
Substance N2 Na Na Na+ Ne O OHO2 P P P2 P4 Pb Pb Pb+2 PbSO4 Rb Rb Rb+ S S SO2 SO4-2 S2 Si Si SiF4 SiO2 Sn Sn Sn+2 SnO SnO2 Th Th ThO2 Ti Ti TiCl4 TiO2 U U UO2 UO2+2 UO3 U3O8 Xe Zn Zn Zn+2 ZnO
State g cr g aq g g aq g cr, white g g g cr g aq cr cr g aq cr, rhombic g g aq g cr g g cr, alpha quartz cr, white g aq cr, tetragonal cr, tetragonal cr g cr cr g g cr, rutile cr g cr aq cr, gamma cr g cr g aq cr
∆fH° (298.15 K) kJ⋅mol-1 0 0 107.5 ± 0.7 -240.34 ± 0.06 0 249.18 ± 0.10 -230.015 ± 0.040 0 0 316.5 ± 1.0 144.0 ± 2.0 58.9 ± 0.3 0 195.2 ± 0.8 0.92 ± 0.25 -919.97 ± 0.40 0 80.9 ± 0.8 -251.12 ± 0.10 0 277.17 ± 0.15 -296.81 ± 0.20 -909.34 ± 0.40 128.60 ± 0.30 0 450 ± 8 -1615.0 ± 0.8 -910.7 ± 1.0 0 301.2 ± 1.5 -8.9 ± 1.0 -280.71 ± 0.20 -577.63 ± 0.20 0 602 ± 6 -1226.4 ± 3.5 0 473 ± 3 -763.2 ± 3.0 -944.0 ± 0.8 0 533 ± 8 -1085.0 ± 1.0 -1019.0 ± 1.5 -1223.8 ± 1.2 -3574.8 ± 2.5 0 0 130.40 ± 0.40 -153.39 ± 0.20 -350.46 ± 0.27
5-3
S° (298.15 K) J⋅K-1⋅mol-1
H° (298.15 K)–H° (0) kJ⋅mol-1
191.609 ± 0.004 51.30 ± 0.20 153.718 ± 0.003 58.45 ± 0.15 146.328 ± 0.003 161.059 ± 0.003 -10.90 ± 0.20 205.152 ± 0.005 41.09 ± 0.25 163.199 ± 0.003 218.123 ± 0.004 280.01 ± 0.50 64.80 ± 0.30 175.375 ± 0.005 18.5 ± 1.0 148.50 ± 0.60 76.78 ± 0.30 170.094 ± 0.003 121.75 ± 0.25 32.054 ± 0.050 167.829 ± 0.006 248.223 ± 0.050 18.50 ± 0.40 228.167 ± 0.010 18.81 ± 0.08 167.981 ± 0.004 282.76 ± 0.50 41.46 ± 0.20 51.18 ± 0.08 168.492 ± 0.004 -16.7 ± 4.0 57.17 ± 0.30 49.04 ± 0.10 51.8 ± 0.5 190.17 ± 0.05 65.23 ± 0.20 30.72 ± 0.10 180.298 ± 0.010 353.2 ± 4.0 50.62 ± 0.30 50.20 ± 0.20 199.79 ± 0.10 77.03 ± 0.20 -98.2 ± 3.0 96.11 ± 0.40 282.55 ± 0.50 169.685 ± 0.003 41.63 ± 0.15 160.990 ± 0.004 -109.8 ± 0.5 43.65 ± 0.40
8.670 ± 0.001 6.460 ± 0.020 6.197 ± 0.001 6.197 ± 0.001 6.725 ± 0.001 8.680 ± 0.002 5.360 ± 0.015 6.197 ± 0.001 8.904 ± 0.001 14.10 ± 0.20 6.870 ± 0.030 6.197 ± 0.001 20.050 ± 0.040 7.489 ± 0.020 6.197 ± 0.001 4.412 ± 0.006 6.657 ± 0.001 10.549 ± 0.010 9.132 ± 0.002 3.217 ± 0.008 7.550 ± 0.001 15.36 ± 0.05 6.916 ± 0.020 6.323 ± 0.008 6.215 ± 0.001 8.736 ± 0.020 8.384 ± 0.020 6.35 ± 0.05 6.197 ± 0.003 10.560 ± 0.020 4.824 ± 0.015 7.539 ± 0.002 21.5 ± 0.5 8.68 ± 0.05 6.364 ± 0.020 6.499 ± 0.020 11.280 ± 0.020 14.585 ± 0.050 42.74 ± 0.10 6.197 ± 0.001 5.657 ± 0.020 6.197 ± 0.001 6.933 ± 0.040
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES This table gives the standard state chemical thermodynamic properties of about 2400 individual substances in the crystalline, liquid, and gaseous states. Substances are listed by molecular formula in a modified Hill order; all compounds not containing carbon appear first, followed by those that contain carbon. The properties tabulated are: ∆fH° ∆fG° S° Cp
Standard molar enthalpy (heat) of formation at 298.15 K in kJ/mol Standard molar Gibbs energy of formation at 298.15 K in kJ/mol Standard molar entropy at 298.15 K in J/mol K Molar heat capacity at constant pressure at 298.15 K in J/mol K
The standard state pressure is 100 kPa (1 bar). The standard states are defined for different phases by: • The standard state of a pure gaseous substance is that of the substance as a (hypothetical) ideal gas at the standard state pressure. • The standard state of a pure liquid substance is that of the liquid under the standard state pressure. • The standard state of a pure crystalline substance is that of the crystalline substance under the standard state pressure. An entry of 0.0 for ∆fH° for an element indicates the reference state of that element. See References 1 and 2 for further information on reference states. A blank means no value is available. We are indebted to M.V. Korobov for providing data on fullerene compounds. REFERENCES 1. Cox, J.D., Wagman, D.D., and Medvedev, V.A., CODATA Key Values for Thermodynamics, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., New York, 1989. 2. Wagman, D.D., Evans, W.H., Parker, V.B., Schumm, R.H., Halow, I., Bailey, S.M., Churney, K.L., and Nuttall, R.L., The NBS Tables of Chemical of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, Vol. 11, Suppl. 2, 1982. 3. Chase M.W., Davies, C.A., Downey, J.R., Frurip, D.J., McDonald, R.A., and Syverud, A.N., JANAF Thermochemical Tables, Third Edition, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, Vol. 14, Suppl. 1, 1985. 4. Daubert, T.E., Danner, R.P., Sibul, H.M., and Stebbins, C.C., Physical and Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Compounds: Data Compilation, extant 1994 (core with 4 supplements), Taylor & Francis, Bristol, PA. 5. Pedley, J.B., Naylor, R.D., and Kirby, S.P., Thermochemical Data of Organic Compounds, Second Edition, Chapman & Hall, London, 1986. 6. Pedley, J.B., Thermochemical Data and Structures of Organic Compounds, Thermodynamic Research Center, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX, 1994. 7. Dolmalski, E.S., Evans, W.H., Hearing E.D., Heat Capacities and Entropies of Organic Compounds in the Condensed Phase, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, Vol. 13, Suppl. 1, 1984; Vol. 19, No. 4, 881—1047, 1990. 8. Gurvich, L.V., Veyts, I.V., and Alcock, C.B., Thermodynamic Properties of Individual Substances, Fourth Edition, Vol. 1, Hermisphere Publishing Corp., New York, 1989. 9. Gurvich, L.V., Veyts, I.V., and Alcock, C.B., Thermodynamic Properties of Individual Substances, Fourth Edition, Vol. 3, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1994.
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Molecular formula
Actinium Silver Silver(I) bromide Silver(I) bromate Silver(I) chloride Silver(I) chlorate Silver(I) perchlorate Silver(I) fluoride Silver(II) fluoride Silver(I) iodide Silver(I) iodate Silver(I) nitrate Disilver Silver(I) chromate Silver(I) oxide Silver(II) oxide Silver(III) oxide Silver(I) sulfate Silver(I) sulfide (argentite) Aluminum Aluminum borohydride Aluminum monobromide Aluminum tribromide Aluminum monochloride Aluminum dichloride Aluminum trichloride Aluminum monofluoride Aluminum trifluoride Sodium tetrafluoroaluminate Aluminum hydride Aluminum hydride Potassium aluminum hydride Lithium aluminum hydride Sodium aluminum hydride Aluminum monoiodide Aluminum triiodide Aluminum nitride Aluminum monoxide Aluminum phosphate Aluminum phosphide Aluminum monosulfide Dialuminum Aluminum hexabromide Aluminum hexachloride
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
0.0 0.0 -100.4 -10.5 -127.0 -30.3 -31.1 -204.6 -360.0 -61.8 -171.1 -124.4
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
366.0 246.0 -96.9 71.3 -109.8 64.5
56.5 42.6 107.1 151.9 96.3 142.0
-66.2 -93.7 -33.4
115.5 149.4 140.9
406.0 284.9
410.0 -731.7 -31.1 -24.3 33.9 -715.9 -32.6 0.0
-527.2
-704.2 -1510.4
330.0 13.0 -4.0 -425.1 -47.7 -331.0 -583.2 -258.2 -1204.6 -1869.0 259.2
-46.0 -183.7 -116.3 -15.5 -313.8 -318.0
65.5 -207.5
145.0
-1431.1
37.0 142.3 65.9 88.0
289.1
164.6 379.2 239.5
131.4 76.5 24.4
35.6 100.6
228.1
66.5
21.4 194.6
35.0 91.1
215.0 277.1 345.7 187.9
75.1
30.0
40.2
-44.7
78.7
83.2
-300.8 -287.0
159.0 20.2
98.7 30.1
31.9 62.6 105.9 29.4
36.0
65.3 -1617.9
200.9 485.9 -970.7 -1290.8
20.8 20.8
257.1
109.3 -283.7 -1188.2 -1827.5 231.2
27.2 25.4 52.4
56.8 102.9 93.1
217.6 121.3 117.0 100.0 200.4 144.0 28.3
-74.1 -628.8
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
50.8
180.2
91.2 -1733.8 -166.5
289.4 147.0 -42.0
Gas 188.1 173.0
358.8 -641.8 -11.2 27.6 121.4 -618.4 -40.7
-16.3
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
218.4 90.8
30.9 93.2
150.1 433.3
230.6 233.2
-1220.4
490.0
33.4 36.4
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
Ac Ag AgBr AgBrO3 AgCl AgClO3 AgClO4 AgF AgF2 AgI AgIO3 AgNO3 Ag2 Ag2CrO4 Ag2O Ag2O2 Ag2O3 Ag2O4S Ag2S Al AlB3H12 AlBr AlBr3 AlCl AlCl2 AlCl3 AlF AlF3 AlF4Na AlH AlH3 AlH4K AlH4Li AlH4Na AlI AlI3 AlN AlO AlO4P AlP AlS Al2 Al2Br6 Al2Cl6
Name
Molecular formula
BF4Na
Crys.
Aluminum hexafluoride Aluminum hexaiodide Aluminum oxide (Al2O) Aluminum oxide (corundum) -1675.7 Aluminum sulfide -724.0 Americium 0.0 Argon Arsenic (gray) 0.0 Arsenic (yellow) 14.6 Arsenic(III) bromide -197.5 Arsenic(III) chloride Arsenic(III) fluoride Gallium arsenide -71.0 Arsine Arsenic acid -906.3 Arsenic(III) iodide -58.2 Indium arsenide -58.6 Arsenic monoxide Diarsenic Arsenic(V) oxide -924.9 Arsenic(III) sulfide -169.0 Astatine 0.0 Gold 0.0 Gold(I) bromide -14.0 Gold(III) bromide -53.3 Gold(I) chloride -34.7 Gold(III) chloride -117.6 Gold(III) fluoride -363.6 Gold hydride Gold(I) iodide 0.0 Digold Boron (rhombic) 0.0 Bromoborane Boron tribromide Chloroborane Chloroxyborane Boron trichloride Cesium metaborate -972.0 Fluoroborane Fluorooxyborane Boron trifluoride Aminetrifluoroboron -1353.9 Trihydro(phosphorus trifluoride)boron Sodium tetrafluoroborate -1844.7
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-2628.0 -516.7 -130.0
Gas
261.0
-130.0 -261.5 -785.8
-259.4 -774.2
216.3 181.2
388.3
326.3
295.0
265.7
-238.5
-387.4
521.0 195.4 -232.5 120.9
38.1 105.8 47.8
80.6
35.0
180.5
25.4
20.8
211.2
5.9 229.7
206.3
153.4 225.0 324.2 213.2
29.2
290.1
104.4
106.7
62.7
80.6
-149.8
200.5
-1119.4
254.4
145.3
36.9 20.8 32.9 67.8 31.7
11.1
29.6
-854.0 -1750.1
79.2 75.7 65.6
116.5 116.3
47.4
-388.7
-915.0
126.6
239.4 105.4 163.6
366.1
-122.2 -607.0 -1136.0
363.9 327.2 289.1 222.8
171.9 -782.3 -168.6
20.8 20.8
24.6
46.2
213.1 75.7
70.0 222.2
-427.2
154.8 174.2
35.1
68.9 -59.4 -53.6
45.7 79.0 105.1
64.2
66.4
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
259.4
-159.0 -248.9 -770.8
-67.8
515.1 565.0 238.1 -205.6 149.5 -314.0 -403.8
Gas
50.9 116.9
0.0 302.5
-239.7
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
-159.0 -1582.3
-305.0 -821.3
Crys.
120.3
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
Al2F6 Al2I6 Al2O Al2O3 Al2S3 Am Ar As As AsBr3 AsCl3 AsF3 AsGa AsH3 AsH3O4 AsI3 AsIn AsO As2 As2O5 As2S3 At Au AuBr AuBr3 AuCl AuCl3 AuF3 AuH AuI Au2 B BBr BBr3 BCl BClO BCl3 BCsO2 BF BFO BF3 BF3H3N BF3H3P
Name
Molecular formula
Boron monohydride Metaboric acid (monoclinic) Borane (3) Boric acid (orthoboric acid) Potassium borohydride Lithium borohydride Sodium borohydride Boron triiodide Potassium metaborate Lithium metaborate Boron nitride Sodium metaborate Boron monoxide Boron dioxide Rubidium metaborate Boron monosulfide Diboron Tetrachlorodiborane Tetrafluorodiborane Diborane Diboron dioxide Boron oxide Boron sulfide Borazine Tetraborane (10) Sodium tetraborate Pentaborane(9) Pentaborane (11) Hexaborane (10) Barium Barium bromide Barium chloride Barium chloride dihydrate Barium fluoride Barium hydride Barium hydroxide Barium iodide Barium nitrite Barium nitrate Barium oxide Barium sulfate Barium sulfide Beryllium Beryllium bromide Beryllium chloride
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas 442.7 -561.9 89.2 -994.1
-794.3 -1094.3 -227.4 -190.8 -188.6
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-723.4
647.5
419.6 -551.0
38.0
-523.0
-1273.5 -240.6
614.5
0.0 -757.3 -855.0 -1456.9 -1207.1 -177.0 -944.7 -602.1 -768.2 -988.0 -548.0 -1473.2 -460.0 0.0 -353.5 -490.4
29.2 42.2 36.0
-464.8
-1194.3
70.8 66.7 59.8 19.7 65.9
29.5
203.5 229.6 94.3
288.8 774.0 -460.6 -1410.4 86.7 -462.3 -832.0
29.2 43.0 74.1
262.3
54.0 100.0
-392.7
216.2 201.9 357.4 317.3 232.1 242.5 279.8
137.7
62.8 111.7
280.3
73.2 103.3 94.6 180.0
189.5 171.8
175.0
146.0 -736.8 -806.7 -1293.2 -1156.8 -138.2
-792.6 -520.3 -1362.2 -456.0 324.0
286.6 -445.6
30.0 30.5 95.4 79.1 56.7 57.3 66.9
199.6
-3096.0 42.7 73.2 56.3
171.9 240.1 188.2
212.3
66.1 -3291.1
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
349.2 80.0 51.5 14.8 73.5
-4.0 -305.9
-541.0
Gas
86.1 96.1 82.6 86.8
20.7 -923.4 -976.1 -228.4 -920.7
-913.0 342.0 830.5 -490.4 -1440.1 36.4 -454.8 -843.8 67.0
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
90.0 106.3 75.9 101.3
25.0 -300.4 -971.0
Crys.
-968.9 -160.3 -125.0 -123.9
71.1 -981.6 -1032.2 -254.4 -977.0
Gas
184.2
62.5 146.0 123.7 203.0 96.4 63.0
214.0 72.1 132.2 78.2 9.5 108.0 75.8
93.2 186.8
280.6 321.0 296.8 170.2
151.1
28.1
99.6 130.3 125.7 20.8
75.1 71.2 46.0
136.3
151.4 47.3 101.8 49.4 16.4 69.4 62.4
20.8
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
BH BHO2 BH3 BH3O3 BH4K BH4Li BH4Na BI3 BKO2 BLiO2 BN BNaO2 BO BO2 BO2Rb BS B2 B2Cl4 B2F4 B2H6 B2O2 B2O3 B2S3 B3H6N3 B4H10 B4Na2O7 B5H9 B5H11 B6H10 Ba BaBr2 BaCl2 BaCl2H4O2 BaF2 BaH2 BaH2O2 BaI2 BaN2O4 BaN2O6 BaO BaO4S BaS Be BeBr2 BeCl2
Name
Molecular formula
Crys.
Beryllium fluoride Beryllium hydroxide Beryllium iodide Beryllium oxide Beryllium sulfate Beryllium sulfide Bismuth Bismuth oxychloride Bismuth trichloride Bismuth hydroxide Bismuth triiodide Dibismuth Bismuth oxide Bismuth sulfate Bismuth sulfide Berkelium Bromine (atomic) Bromine chloride Bromotrichlorosilane Cesium bromide Copper(I) bromide Bromine fluoride Bromine trifluoride Bromine pentafluoride Germanium monobromide Bromogermane Hydrogen bromide Bromosilylene Bromosilane Ammonium bromide Iodine bromide Indium(I) bromide Potassium bromide Potassium bromate Potassium perbromate Lithium bromide Nitrosyl bromide Sodium bromide Sodium bromate Bromine monoxide Bromine dioxide Rubidium bromide Bromosilyldyne Thallium(I) bromide Bromine
-1026.8 -902.5 -192.5 -609.4 -1205.2 -234.3 0.0 -366.9 -379.1 -711.3
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-979.4 -815.0 -580.1 -1093.8 207.1 -265.7
168.2 -322.1 -315.0
-256.0
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
53.4 45.5 121.0 13.8 77.9 34.0 56.7 120.5 177.0
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
187.0
51.8 62.1 71.1 25.6 85.7 34.0 25.5
20.8
358.9
105.0
79.7
-175.3 219.7 -573.9 -2544.3 -143.1 0.0
36.9 -493.7
151.5
113.5
-140.6
200.4
122.2
111.9 14.6 -405.8 -104.6
82.4 -1.0 -391.4 -100.8
-300.8 -458.6
-93.8 -255.6 -428.9 235.6
113.1 96.1 -240.5 -351.8
-36.3 -464.4
175.0 240.1 350.1
-109.2 -229.4 -350.6
20.8 35.0 90.9 52.9 54.7
178.2 225.1
229.0 292.5 320.2
124.6
274.8 198.7
-53.4
262.4 -270.8
-175.2 40.8 -56.9
-175.3 -393.8 -360.2 -287.9 -351.2
82.2 -143.1
-361.1 -334.1
-169.0 -380.7 -271.2 -174.4 -342.0 -349.0 -242.6
125.8 48.5 -394.6 -173.2 0.0
209.0 -37.7 30.9
113.0 3.7 -94.3
82.4 -177.1
52.8 96.0
258.8 259.5
113.0 95.9 149.2 170.1 74.3
36.4 36.7 52.3 105.2 120.2
273.7 241.2
86.8 128.9
108.2
45.5 36.3
51.4
237.6
-381.8
110.0
-167.4
120.5
33.0 66.6 99.6 37.1 56.4 29.1
32.1 52.8 38.6
3.1
152.2
245.5
75.7
36.0
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
BeF2 BeH2O2 BeI2 BeO BeO4S BeS Bi BiClO BiCl3 BiH3O3 BiI3 Bi2 Bi2O3 Bi2O12S3 Bi2S3 Bk Br BrCl BrCl3Si BrCs BrCu BrF BrF3 BrF5 BrGe BrGeH3 BrH BrHSi BrH3Si BrH4N BrI BrIn BrK BrKO3 BrKO4 BrLi BrNO BrNa BrNaO3 BrO BrO2 BrRb BrSi BrTl Br2
Name
Molecular formula
Crys.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
Calcium bromide Cadmium bromide Cobalt(II) bromide Chromium(II) bromide Copper(II) bromide Iron(II) bromide Dibromosilane Mercury(II) bromide Mercury(I) bromide Magnesium bromide Manganese(II) bromide Nickel(II) bromide Lead(II) bromide Platinum(II) bromide Sulfur bromide Selenium bromide Tin(II) bromide Strontium bromide Titanium(II) bromide Zinc bromide Tribromochlorosilane Iron(III) bromide Gallium(III) bromide Tribromosilane Indium(III) bromide Phosphorus(V) oxybromide Phosphorus(III) bromide Platinum(III) bromide Rhenium(III) bromide Ruthenium(III) bromide Antimony(III) bromide Scandium bromide Titanium(III) bromide Germanium(IV) bromide Protactinium(IV) bromide Platinum(IV) bromide Tetrabromosilane Tin(IV) bromide Tellurium tetrabromide Titanium(IV) bromide Vanadium(IV) bromide Zirconium(IV) bromide Phosphorus(V) bromide Tantalum(V) bromide Tungsten(VI) bromide
-682.8 -316.2 -220.9 -302.1 -141.8 -249.8
-663.6 -296.3
130.0 137.2
-238.1
140.6
-170.7 -206.9 -524.3 -384.9 -212.1 -278.7 -82.0
-153.1 -181.1 -503.8
172.0 218.0 117.2
-261.9
161.5
80.1
-697.1
135.1
75.3
-312.1
138.5
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Gas
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Crys.
76.7 79.5
309.7
65.5
-13.0 -21.0 -243.5 -717.6 -402.0 -328.7 -268.2 -386.6
-359.8
180.0
-317.6 -282.0
-336.4
-328.5
248.1
348.6
80.8
-184.5
-139.3
-175.7
-162.8
240.2
359.8 348.1
89.9 76.0
372.9
80.2
-120.9 -167.0 -138.0 -259.4 -743.1 -548.5
-194.6
-239.3
-223.9
-523.8 -347.7
-300.0
-824.0 -156.5 -415.5 -314.6 -549.4 -336.8
207.1 176.6
-331.4
-318.0
-787.8 -457.3
-760.7 -269.9 -598.3 -348.5
95.3
-355.6 -428.9 -458.6
-377.4 -190.4 -616.7
377.1
101.7 280.7
396.2
101.8
277.8
97.1 103.4
234.0
-350.2
-443.9
-431.8 -331.4
264.4
377.9 411.9
-589.5
-568.2
243.5
398.4
131.5
100.8
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
Br2Ca Br2Cd Br2Co Br2Cr Br2Cu Br2Fe Br2H2Si Br2Hg Br2Hg2 Br2Mg Br2Mn Br2Ni Br2Pb Br2Pt Br2S2 Br2Se Br2Sn Br2Sr Br2Ti Br2Zn Br3ClSi Br3Fe Br3Ga Br3HSi Br3In Br3OP Br3P Br3Pt Br3Re Br3Ru Br3Sb Br3Sc Br3Ti Br4Ge Br4Pa Br4Pt Br4Si Br4Sn Br4Te Br4Ti Br4V Br4Zr Br5P Br5Ta Br6W
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Name
Molecular formula
Calcium Calcium chloride Calcium fluoride Calcium hydride Calcium hydroxide Calcium iodide Calcium nitrate Calcium oxide Calcium sulfate Calcium sulfide Calcium phosphate Cadmium Cadmium chloride Cadmium fluoride Cadmium hydroxide Cadmium iodide Cadmium oxide Cadmium sulfate Cadmium sulfide Cadmium telluride Cerium (γ, fcc) Cerium(III) chloride Cerium(III) iodide Cerium(IV) oxide Cerium(II) sulfide Cerium(III) oxide Californium Chlorine (atomic) Cesium chloride Cesium perchlorate Copper(I) chloride Chlorine fluoride Perchloryl fluoride Chlorine trifluoride Sulfur chloride pentafluoride Germanium monochloride Chlorogermane Hydrogen chloride Hypochlorous acid Perchloric acid Chlorosilane Ammonium chloride Ammonium perchlorate Phosphonium chloride Iodine chloride
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
0.0 -795.4 -1228.0 -181.5 -985.2 -533.5 -938.2 -634.9 -1434.5 -482.4 -4120.8 0.0 -391.5 -700.4 -560.7 -203.3 -258.4 -933.3 -161.9 -92.5 0.0 -1060.5 -669.3 -1088.7 -459.4 -1796.2 0.0
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
144.0
-984.8
41.6 108.4 68.5 41.4 83.4 142.0 193.2 38.1 106.5 56.5 236.0 51.8 115.3 77.4 96.0 161.1 54.8 123.0 64.9 100.0 72.0 151.0
-1024.6 -451.5 -1706.2
62.3 78.2 150.6
177.8 -748.8 -1175.6 -142.5 -897.5 -528.9 -742.8 -603.3 -1322.0 -477.4 -3884.7 111.8 -343.9 -647.7 -473.6 -201.4 -228.7 -822.7 -156.5 -92.0 423.0
385.0
121.3 -443.0 -443.1 -137.2
Gas 154.9
167.7
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 25.9 72.9 67.0 41.0 87.5 149.4 42.0 99.7 47.4 227.8 26.0 74.7
20.8
20.8
80.0 43.4 99.6
191.8
26.9 87.4
23.1
61.6 50.0 114.6
105.3 -414.5 -314.3 -119.9
-189.5 -1065.7
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
165.2 101.2 175.1 86.2
21.8 52.5 108.3 48.5
-50.3 -23.8 -163.2
-51.8 48.2 -123.0
217.9 279.0 281.6
32.1 64.9 63.9
155.2
124.2
-92.3 -78.7
-95.3 -66.1
247.0 263.7 186.9 236.7
36.9 54.7 29.1 37.2
-40.6 250.7 -314.4 -295.3 -145.2
-202.9 -88.8 -23.9
17.8
94.6 186.2 -13.6
-5.5
51.0 84.1
135.1
247.6
35.6
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
Ca CaCl2 CaF2 CaH2 CaH2O2 CaI2 CaN2O6 CaO CaO4S CaS Ca3O8P2 Cd CdCl2 CdF2 CdH2O2 CdI2 CdO CdO4S CdS CdTe Ce CeCl3 CeI3 CeO2 CeS Ce2O3 Cf Cl ClCs ClCsO4 ClCu ClF ClFO3 ClF3 ClF5S ClGe ClGeH3 ClH ClHO ClHO4 ClH3Si ClH4N ClH4NO4 ClH4P ClI
Name
Molecular formula
Crys.
Indium(I) chloride -186.2 Potassium chloride -436.5 Potassium chlorate -397.7 Potassium perchlorate -432.8 Lithium chloride -408.6 Lithium perchlorate -381.0 Nitrosyl chloride Nitryl chloride Sodium chloride -411.2 Sodium chlorite -307.0 Sodium chlorate -365.8 Sodium perchlorate -383.3 Chlorine monoxide Vanadyl chloride -607.0 Chlorine dioxide Chlorine superoxide (ClOO) Rubidium perchlorate -437.2 Rubidium chloride -435.4 Chlorosilylidyne Thallium(I) chloride -204.1 Chlorine Cobalt(II) chloride -312.5 Chromium(II) chloride -395.4 Chromyl chloride Copper(II) chloride -220.1 Iron(II) chloride -341.8 Dichlorosilane Mercury(II) chloride -224.3 Mercury(I) chloride -265.4 Magnesium chloride -641.3 Manganese(II) chloride -481.3 Nickel(II) chloride -305.3 Chlorine oxide Thionyl chloride Sulfuryl chloride Uranyl chloride -1243.9 Lead(II) chloride -359.4 Platinum(II) chloride -123.4 Sulfur dichloride Sulfur chloride Tin(II) chloride -325.1 Strontium chloride -828.9 Titanium(II) chloride -513.8 Zinc chloride -415.1 Zirconium(II) chloride -502.0
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas -75.0 -214.6
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-408.5 -296.3 -303.1 -384.4
51.7 12.6
Gas
Crys.
-233.3
82.6 143.1 151.0 59.3
72.1
-262.3 -254.9
123.4 142.3
51.3 100.3 112.4 48.0
36.5
44.7 53.2 50.5
98.1
226.6
31.5
256.8 263.7
42.0 46.0
75.0
102.5 89.1
-579.5
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
261.7 272.2
-384.1
-556.0
Gas 239.1
66.1 54.4
101.8
189.9 -67.8 0.0
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
120.5 105.0 -306.9 -407.8
161.1 95.9
52.4
-184.9
111.3
50.9
-269.8 -356.0
109.2 115.3
36.9 223.1
-538.1
-510.8
-501.6
221.8
-175.7 -302.3
108.1 118.0
-178.6 -210.7 -591.8 -440.5 -259.0
146.0 191.6 89.6 118.2 97.7
33.9 78.5 71.2
329.8
84.5 71.9 76.7
285.7
-245.6 -394.1
80.3 -212.5 -364.0
97.9 -198.3 -320.0
60.5
71.4 72.9 71.7 266.2 309.8 311.9
121.0 134.0
-1146.4 -314.1
150.5 136.0
107.9
-781.1 -464.4 -369.4
114.9 87.4 111.5
75.6 69.8 71.3
-50.0 -59.4
-266.1
45.4 66.5 77.0
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
ClIn ClK ClKO3 ClKO4 ClLi ClLiO4 ClNO ClNO2 ClNa ClNaO2 ClNaO3 ClNaO4 ClO ClOV ClO2 ClO2 ClO4Rb ClRb ClSi ClTl Cl2 Cl2Co Cl2Cr Cl2CrO2 Cl2Cu Cl2Fe Cl2H2Si Cl2Hg Cl2Hg2 Cl2Mg Cl2Mn Cl2Ni Cl2O Cl2OS Cl2O2S Cl2O2U Cl2Pb Cl2Pt Cl2S Cl2S2 Cl2Sn Cl2Sr Cl2Ti Cl2Zn Cl2Zr
Name
Molecular formula
Crys.
Chromium(III) chloride Dysprosium(III) chloride Erbium chloride Europium(III) chloride Iron(III) chloride Gallium(III) chloride Gadolinium(III) chloride Trichlorosilane Holmium chloride Indium(III) chloride Iridium(III) chloride Lanthanum chloride Lutetium chloride Nitrogen trichloride Neodymium chloride Phosphorus(V) oxychloride Vanadyl trichloride Osmium(III) chloride Phosphorus(III) chloride Praseodymium chloride Platinum(III) chloride Rhenium(III) chloride Rhodium(III) chloride Ruthenium(III) chloride Antimony(III) chloride Scandium chloride Samarium(III) chloride Terbium chloride Titanium(III) chloride Thallium(III) chloride Thulium chloride Uranium(III) chloride Vanadium(III) chloride Yttrium chloride Ytterbium(III) chloride Germanium(IV) chloride Hafnium(IV) chloride Protactinium(IV) chloride Lead(IV) chloride Platinum(IV) chloride Tetrachlorosilane Tin(IV) chloride Tellurium tetrachloride Thorium(IV) chloride Titanium(IV) chloride
-556.5 -1000.0 -998.7 -936.0 -399.5 -524.7 -1008.0
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-486.1
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
123.0
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 91.8 100.0
-334.0 -454.8
142.3 142.0
96.7 88.0
-539.3 -1005.4 -537.2 -245.6 -1072.2 -945.6
-513.0
-482.5
-482.0
227.6
313.9
75.8 88.0
-374.0 108.8 -649.0 230.0
-1041.0
113.0 -597.1 -734.7
-558.5 -695.6
-520.8 -668.5
-512.9 -659.3
222.5 244.3
325.5 344.3
-319.7
-287.0
-272.3
-267.8
217.1
311.8
138.8
84.9 89.9
-190.4 -1056.9 -182.0 -264.0 -299.2 -205.0 -382.2 -925.1 -1025.9 -997.0 -720.9 -315.1 -986.6 -866.5 -580.7 -1000.0 -959.8
71.8 100.0
-188.0
123.8
92.4
-323.7
184.1
107.9
-653.5
139.7
97.2
-799.1 -511.2
159.0 131.0
102.5 93.2
-750.2 -531.8
-990.4 -1043.0
-495.8 -884.5
75.0 -462.7
-457.3
-901.3 -953.0
245.6
347.7
190.8 192.0
96.1 120.5
-329.3 -231.8 -687.0 -511.3
-657.0 -471.5
-804.2
-964.4 -763.2
-326.4 -1186.2
-619.8 -440.1
-617.0 -432.2
-737.2
-932.0 -726.3
-1094.1
239.7 258.6
330.7 365.8
252.3
390.7 353.2
190.4
145.3 165.3
90.3 98.3
145.2
107.5 95.4
138.5 120.3
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
Cl3Cr Cl3Dy Cl3Er Cl3Eu Cl3Fe Cl3Ga Cl3Gd Cl3HSi Cl3Ho Cl3In Cl3Ir Cl3La Cl3Lu Cl3N Cl3Nd Cl3OP Cl3OV Cl3Os Cl3P Cl3Pr Cl3Pt Cl3Re Cl3Rh Cl3Ru Cl3Sb Cl3Sc Cl3Sm Cl3Tb Cl3Ti Cl3Tl Cl3Tm Cl3U Cl3V Cl3Y Cl3Yb Cl4Ge Cl4Hf Cl4Pa Cl4Pb Cl4Pt Cl4Si Cl4Sn Cl4Te Cl4Th Cl4Ti
Name
Molecular formula
Crys.
Uranium(IV) chloride Vanadium(IV) chloride Zirconium(IV) chloride Niobium(V) chloride Phosphorus(V) chloride Protactinium(V) chloride Tantalum(V) chloride Uranium(VI) chloride Tungsten(VI) chloride Curium Cobalt Cobalt(II) fluoride Cobalt(II) hydroxide Cobalt(II) iodide Cobalt(II) nitrate Cobalt(II) oxide Cobalt(II) sulfate Cobalt(II) sulfide Cobalt(III) sulfide Cobalt(II,III) oxide Chromium Chromium(II) fluoride Chromium(III) fluoride Chromium(II) iodide Chromium(III) iodide Chromium(IV) oxide Lead(II) chromate Chromium iron oxide Chromium(III) oxide Chromium(II,III) oxide Cesium Cesium fluoride Cesium hydrogen fluoride Cesium hydride Cesium hydroxide Cesium hydrogen sulfate Cesium amide Cesium iodide Cesium nitrate Cesium superoxide Cesium oxide Cesium sulfite Cesium sulfate Cesium sulfide Copper
-1019.2
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
-980.5 -797.5 -443.5 -1145.0 -859.0 -1092.0 -602.5 0.0 0.0 -692.0 -539.7 -88.7 -420.5 -237.9 -888.3 -82.8 -147.3 -891.0 0.0 -778.0 -1159.0 -156.9 -205.0 -598.0 -930.9 -1444.7 -1139.7 -1531.0 0.0 -553.5 -923.8 -54.2 -417.2 -1158.1 -118.4 -346.6 -506.0 -286.2 -345.8 -1134.7 -1443.0 -359.8 0.0
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
-809.6 -525.5
-930.0
-569.4
-703.7 -374.9
-889.9 -683.2
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
-786.6 -492.0
197.1
-503.7
-646.0 -305.0
-1034.0 -1013.0 -513.8
-962.0
Gas
255.0
419.0 362.4 400.6 364.6
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 122.0 96.2 119.8 148.1
285.8
431.0
175.7
380.3
30.0 82.0 79.0
179.5
-647.2 -454.3
24.8 68.8
-214.2 -782.3
53.0 118.0
-774.0 396.6
351.8
102.5 23.8
174.5
123.4 23.4
93.9
78.7
-1343.8 -1058.1
146.0 81.2
133.6 118.7
49.6 -525.5 -858.9
85.2 92.8 135.2
-340.6 -406.5
123.1 155.2
52.8
-308.1
146.9
76.0
-1323.6
211.9
134.9
297.7
33.2
23.0
55.2
-1088.0
76.5
120.8 112.8
238.0 -928.0
424.7
337.4
181.6 210.5
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
175.6
166.4
32.2 51.1 87.3
24.4
20.8
20.8
20.8
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
Cl4U Cl4V Cl4Zr Cl5Nb Cl5P Cl5Pa Cl5Ta Cl6U Cl6W Cm Co CoF2 CoH2O2 CoI2 CoN2O6 CoO CoO4S CoS Co2S3 Co3O4 Cr CrF2 CrF3 CrI2 CrI3 CrO2 CrO4Pb Cr2FeO4 Cr2O3 Cr3O4 Cs CsF CsF2H CsH CsHO CsHO4S CsH2N CsI CsNO3 CsO2 Cs2O Cs2O3S Cs2O4S Cs2S Cu
Name
Molecular formula
Copper(II) fluoride Copper(II) hydroxide Copper(I) iodide Copper(II) nitrate Copper(II) oxide Copper(II) sulfate Copper(II) tungstate Copper(II) sulfide Copper(II) selenide Dicopper Copper(I) oxide Copper(I) sulfide Dysprosium Dysprosium(III) oxide Erbium Erbium fluoride Erbium oxide Einsteinium Europium Europium(III) oxide Europium(II,III) oxide Fluorine (atomic) Gallium monofluoride Germanium monofluoride Fluorogermane Hydrogen fluoride Fluorosilane Ammonium fluoride Iodine fluoride Indium monofluoride Potassium fluoride Lithium fluoride Nitrosyl fluoride Nitryl fluoride Thionitrosyl fluoride (NSF) Sodium fluoride Fluorine monoxide Rubidium fluoride Fluorosilylidyne Thallium(I) fluoride Fluorine Iron(II) fluoride Potassium hydrogen fluoride Difluoramine Sodium hydrogen fluoride
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-542.7 -449.8 -67.8 -302.9 -157.3 -771.4 -1105.0 -53.1 -39.5
Crys.
Gas
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
54.1
-129.7 -662.2
42.6 109.2
42.3
-53.6
66.5
47.8
431.9
290.4
254.4 -1771.5
317.1
280.7 -1808.7
175.3
241.6 93.1 120.9 75.6 149.8 73.2
196.6 195.6
155.6 142.2
-1556.8 -2142.0
77.8 146.0 205.0
188.8
62.3
158.8
-273.3
-275.4
252.8 173.8 238.4
-348.7 -95.7 -203.4
-567.3 -616.0
72.0 -118.5
-537.8 -587.7 -66.5
-576.6
27.7 122.2
20.8
20.8
22.7 33.3 34.7 51.6 47.4
236.2
-51.0
20.8
65.3
66.6 35.7
-546.3
36.6 63.6 76.3 27.7 116.3 28.1 108.5
79.4 -251.9 -33.4
-464.0
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
96.7
-146.0 -86.2
-299.8
Crys.
-69.5
484.2 -168.6 -79.5 0.0 -1863.1 0.0 -1711.0 -1897.9 0.0 0.0 -1651.4 -2272.0
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
33.4 49.0 41.6
248.1 260.4 259.8 51.1
41.3 49.8 44.1 46.9
109.0
105.0
216.8
30.5
7.1 -182.4 0.0
-24.3
225.8
32.6
-557.7 -324.7
202.8
-711.3 -927.7
-668.6 -859.7
87.0 104.3
-920.3
-852.2
90.9
31.3 68.1 76.9
252.8
43.4 75.0
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
CuF2 CuH2O2 CuI CuN2O6 CuO CuO4S CuO4W CuS CuSe Cu2 Cu2O Cu2S Dy Dy2O3 Er ErF3 Er2O3 Es Eu Eu2O3 Eu3O4 F FGa FGe FGeH3 FH FH3Si FH4N FI FIn FK FLi FNO FNO2 FNS FNa FO FRb FSi FTl F2 F2Fe F2HK F2HN F2HNa
Name
Molecular formula
Rubidium hydrogen fluoride Magnesium fluoride Difluoroamidogen cis-Difluorodiazine trans-Difluorodiazine Nickel(II) fluoride Fluorine monoxide Thionyl fluoride Fluorine dioxide Sulfuryl fluoride Uranyl fluoride Lead(II) fluoride Difluorosilylene Strontium fluoride Zinc fluoride Gallium(III) fluoride Gadolinium(III) fluoride Trifluorosilane Holmium fluoride Nitrogen trifluoride Neodymium fluoride Phosphorus(V) oxyfluoride Phosphorus(III) fluoride Antimony(III) fluoride Scandium fluoride Samarium(III) fluoride Thorium(III) fluoride Uranium(III) fluoride Yttrium fluoride Germanium(IV) fluoride Hafnium fluoride Tetrafluorohydrazine Lead(IV) fluoride Sulfur tetrafluoride Tetrafluorosilane Thorium(IV) fluoride Uranium(IV) fluoride Vanadium(IV) fluoride Xenon tetrafluoride Zirconium(IV) fluoride Iodine pentafluoride Niobium(V) fluoride Phosphorus(V) fluoride Tantalum(V) fluoride Vanadium(V) fluoride
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-922.6 -1124.2
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-855.6 -1071.1
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
120.1 57.2
43.1 69.5 82.0 -651.4
Crys.
79.4 61.6
57.8
-604.1
249.9
73.6
24.7
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
41.0
64.1
41.9
247.4 278.7
43.3 56.8
18.0 284.0 -1653.5 -664.0
-1557.4 -617.1
135.6 110.5
-619.0 -1216.3 -764.4 -1163.0
-628.0 -1164.8 -713.3 -1085.3
66.0 103.2
252.7 82.1 73.7 84.0
43.9 70.0 65.7
-1297.0 271.9
60.5
-1707.0 -132.1
-90.6
260.8
53.4
-1254.3 -958.4
-1205.8 -936.9
285.4 273.1
68.8 58.7 67.8
-1657.0
-915.5 -1629.2 -1778.0
-1247.0 -1166.1 -1058.5 -1288.7 -1190.2 -1669.8 -8.4
-1502.1 -1718.8 -1930.5
-1555.6
-1234.0
92.0
300.5
-1433.4 -1644.7
-1160.6 -1051.9 -1277.8 -1150.0
123.4 100.0
339.2 331.9 311.8 301.9
-1830.4
95.1
73.3 74.3 70.3
113.0 79.9
301.2
79.2
-722.0 -1572.8 -1724.0 -1572.7
299.6 282.8 341.7 368.0
77.6 73.6 93.0 91.2
-941.8 -763.2 -1615.0 -1759.0 -1598.7
-2097.8 -1914.2 -1403.3 -261.5 -1911.3
-2003.4 -1823.3
-1809.9 -864.8
-1813.8
-822.5 -1739.7 -1594.4
142.0 151.7
104.6 -751.7 -1673.6 -1520.7
-1699.0
110.7 116.0
103.7 327.7 321.9 300.8
160.2
134.7
99.2 97.1 84.8
-1903.6 -1480.3
-1433.9
-1373.1
-1369.8
175.7
320.9
98.6
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
F2HRb F2Mg F2N F2N2 F2N2 F2Ni F2O F2OS F2O2 F2O2S F2O2U F2Pb F2Si F2Sr F2Zn F3Ga F3Gd F3HSi F3Ho F3N F3Nd F3OP F3P F3Sb F3Sc F3Sm F3Th F3U F3Y F4Ge F4Hf F4N2 F4Pb F4S F4Si F4Th F4U F4V F4Xe F4Zr F5I F5Nb F5P F5Ta F5V
Name
Molecular formula
F6Ir F6K2Si F6Mo F6Na2Si F6Os F6Pt F6S F6Se F6Te F6U F6W Fe FeI2 FeI3 FeMoO4 FeO FeO4S FeO4W FeS FeS2 Fe2O3 Fe2O4Si Fe3O4 Fm Fr Ga GaH3O3 GaI3 GaN GaO GaP GaSb Ga2 Ga2O Ga2O3 Gd Gd2O3 Ge GeH3I GeH4 GeI4 GeO GeO2
Ammonium hexafluorosilicate Iridium(VI) fluoride Potassium hexafluorosilicate Molybdenum(VI) fluoride Sodium hexafluorosilicate Osmium(VI) fluoride Platinum(VI) fluoride Sulfur hexafluoride Selenium hexafluoride Tellurium hexafluoride Uranium(VI) fluoride Tungsten(VI) fluoride Iron Iron(II) iodide Iron(III) iodide Iron(II) molybdate Iron(II) oxide Iron(II) sulfate Iron(II) tungstate Iron(II) sulfide Iron disulfide Iron(III) oxide Iron(II) orthosilicate Iron(II,III) oxide Fermium Francium Gallium Gallium(III) hydroxide Gallium(III) iodide Gallium nitride Gallium monoxide Gallium phosphide Gallium antimonide Digallium Gallium suboxide Gallium(III) oxide Gadolinium Gadolinium(III) oxide Germanium Iodogermane Germane Germanium(IV) iodide Germanium(II) oxide Germanium(IV) oxide
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-2681.7 -579.7 -2956.0 -1585.5
Gas
Crys.
-544.0
-2365.3 -461.6 -2798.6
-1557.7
-2909.6
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-1473.0
Gas
Crys.
-460.0
280.2 247.7 226.0
-1472.2
-2754.2
-2197.0 -1747.7 0.0 -113.0
-1220.5 -1117.0 -1318.0 -2147.4 -1721.7 416.3
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
228.1
259.7
-2063.7 -1632.1 370.7
350.5
169.8
358.1 348.3 291.5 313.9
227.6 251.5 27.3
121.1 120.6
187.1
-1116.5 -1017.0
-1631.4
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
357.8
207.1 246.0 235.6
-2068.5
Gas
377.9 341.1 180.5
120.8 122.8 97.0 110.5 166.8 25.1
129.6 119.0 25.7
71.0 -1075.0 -272.0 -928.4 -1155.0 -100.0 -178.2 -824.2 -1479.9 -1118.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 -964.4 -238.9 -110.5
5.6
272.0
-975.0
129.3
118.5
-820.8 -1054.0 -100.4 -166.9 -742.2 -1379.0 -1015.4
107.5 131.8 60.3 52.9 87.4 145.2 146.4
100.6 114.6 50.5 62.2 103.9 132.9 143.4
0.0 -831.3
279.5 -88.0 -41.8
233.7
95.4 40.8 100.0 205.0
253.5 -38.9
169.0
26.1
25.3
100.0 231.1
76.1
32.1 48.5
438.5 -356.0 -1089.1 0.0 -1819.6 0.0
-141.8 -261.9 -580.0
397.5
-998.3 359.8
85.0 68.1
372.0
331.2
31.1
90.8 -56.9 -46.2
-144.3 -237.2 -521.4
113.4 -106.3 -73.2
271.1 50.0 39.7
194.3 167.9 283.2 217.1 428.9 224.3
92.1 37.0 106.7 23.3
52.1
27.5 30.7 57.5 45.0 104.1 30.9
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
F6H8N2Si
Name
Molecular formula
H2LiN H2Mg H2MgO2 H2N H2NNa H2NRb H2N2O2 H2NiO2
Germanium phosphide Germanium(II) sulfide Germanium(II) telluride Digermanium Digermane Trigermane Hydrogen (atomic) Hydrogen iodide Iodic acid Potassium hydride Potassium hydroxide Potassium hydrogen sulfate Lithium hydride Lithium hydroxide Imidogen Nitrous acid Nitric acid Hydrazoic acid Sodium hydride Sodium hydroxide Sodium hydrogen sulfate Sodium hydrogen phosphate Hydroxyl Rubidium hydroxide Thallium(I) hydroxide Hydroperoxy Metaphosphoric acid Rubidium hydrogen sulfate Perrhenic acid Rubidium hydride Mercapto Silylidyne Tantalum hydride Hydrogen Potassium amide Potassium dihydrogen phosphate Lithium amide Magnesium hydride Magnesium hydroxide Amidogen Sodium amide Rubidium amide Nitramide Nickel(II) hydroxide
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-21.0 -69.0 20.0 137.3 193.7
-230.1 -57.7 -424.6 -1160.6 -90.5 -484.9
Gas
Crys.
92.0
-17.0 -71.5
473.1 162.3 226.8 218.0 26.5
-228.0
-174.1 264.0
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-378.7 -1031.3 -68.3 -439.0
351.5 -79.5 -133.9 294.1
-56.3 -425.6 -1125.5 -1748.1
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
234.0
33.7
416.3
252.8
35.6
203.3 1.7
114.7 206.6
20.8 29.2
Crys.
42.0
63.0 71.0
-229.7
-80.7 327.3
-418.2 -238.9
49.2
181.2 254.1 266.9 239.0
109.9
29.2 45.6 54.1 43.7
36.4 59.5 135.3 183.7
29.9
229.0
34.9
195.7
32.3
88.0 22.6
-656.4
-32.6
64.9 27.9 49.7
40.0 64.5 113.0 150.5
-195.8
142.7 361.0
238.3
155.6 140.6
34.2
10.5 -948.5 -1159.0 -762.3 -52.3
78.9 138.1 20.0 42.8
345.6 -46.0 -73.5 328.1
-33.5 -379.5 -992.8 -1608.2 39.0
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Gas
158.2 113.3
-69.0
79.1
0.0
90.8 130.7
28.8
-128.9 -1568.3 -179.5 -75.3 -924.5
-1415.9
134.9
116.6
-35.9 -833.5
31.1 63.2
35.4 77.0
184.9 -123.8 -113.0 -89.5 -529.7
194.6
195.0
-64.0
76.9
-447.2
88.0
33.9 66.2
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
GeP GeS GeTe Ge2 Ge2H6 Ge3H8 H HI HIO3 HK HKO HKO4S HLi HLiO HN HNO2 HNO3 HN3 HNa HNaO HNaO4S HNa2O4P HO HORb HOTl HO2 HO3P HO4RbS HO4Re HRb HS HSi HTa2 H2 H2KN H2KO4P
Name
Molecular formula
H3P H3Sb H3U H4IN H4N2 H4N2O2 H4N2O3 H4N4 H4O4Si H4O7P2 H4P2 H4Si H4Sn H5NO H5NO3S H5NO4S H6Si2 H8N2O4S H8Si3 H9N2O4P H12N3O4P He
Crys.
Water Hydrogen peroxide Tin(II) hydroxide -561.1 Strontium hydroxide -959.0 Zinc hydroxide -641.9 Metasilicic acid -1188.7 Sulfuric acid Selenic acid -530.1 Hydrogen sulfide Hydrogen disulfide Hydrogen selenide Strontium hydride -180.3 Hydrogen telluride Thorium hydride -139.7 Zirconium(II) hydride -169.0 Iodosilane Ammonia Hydroxylamine -114.2 Hypophosphorous acid -604.6 Phosphorous acid -964.4 Phosphoric acid (orthophosphoric acid) -1284.4 Phosphine Stibine Uranium(III) hydride -127.2 Ammonium iodide -201.4 Hydrazine Ammonium nitrite -256.5 Ammonium nitrate -365.6 Ammonium azide 115.5 Orthosilicic acid -1481.1 Pyrophosphoric acid -2241.0 Diphosphine Silane Stannane Ammonium hydroxide Ammonium hydrogen sulfite -768.6 Ammonium hydrogen sulfate -1027.0 Disilane Ammonium sulfate -1180.9 Trisilane Diammonium hydrogen phosphate -1566.9 Ammonium phosphate -1671.9 Helium
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-285.8 -187.8
-241.8 -136.3
Crys.
Gas
-237.1 -120.4
-228.6 -105.6
Crys.
-491.6
155.0
-553.5 -1092.4
81.2 134.0
-814.0
-18.1
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-690.0 -20.6 15.5 29.7
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
70.0 109.6
188.8 232.7
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 75.3 89.1
156.9 -33.4
138.9 205.8 84.1
15.9
33.6 43.1
219.0
34.2 51.5 34.7
99.6 -100.0 -128.8
50.7 35.0
-45.9
36.7 31.0 270.9 192.8
-16.4
54.4 35.1
-595.4
-1271.7
-1124.3
-1123.6
5.4 145.1
110.5
-72.8 -112.5 50.6
95.4
149.3
159.4
37.1 41.1
238.5
98.9
42.8 49.0
165.6
127.3
48.4
139.3
204.6 227.7
-254.0
-901.7 92.5
121.2
56.9 188.3
80.3
145.0
49.3
151.1 112.5 192.0
20.9 34.3 162.8
-361.2
106.1 210.2 232.8
63.7 117.0
-183.9 274.2 -1332.9 -2231.7 -5.0
150.8
13.4 147.8
154.9
272.7 220.1
80.8 187.5
120.9 188.0 0.0
126.2
20.8
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
H2O H2O2 H2O2Sn H2O2Sr H2O2Zn H2O3Si H2O4S H2O4Se H2S H2S2 H2Se H2Sr H2Te H2Th H2Zr H3ISi H3N H3NO H3O2P H3O3P H3O4P
Name
Molecular formula
Hafnium Hafnium oxide Mercury Mercury(II) iodide Mercury(II) oxide Mercury(II) sulfate Mercury(II) sulfide Mercury(II) telluride Dimercury Mercury(I) iodide Mercury(I) sulfate Holmium Holmium oxide Iodine (atomic) Indium(I) iodide Potassium iodide Potassium iodate Potassium periodate Lithium iodide Sodium iodide Sodium iodate Sodium periodate Iodine monoxide Rubidium iodide Thallium(I) iodide Iodine (rhombic) Magnesium iodide Nickel(II) iodide Lead(II) iodide Tin(II) iodide Strontium iodide Zinc iodide Indium(III) iodide Lanthanum iodide Lutetium iodide Phosphorus(III) iodide Ruthenium(III) iodide Antimony(III) iodide Platinum(IV) iodide Tetraiodosilane Tin(IV) iodide Titanium(IV) iodide Vanadium(IV) iodide Zirconium(IV) iodide Indium
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
0.0 -1144.7
Gas
Crys.
619.2 0.0
61.4
-375.7 -481.6 0.0
576.5
43.6 59.3
31.8
186.9 75.9
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 25.7 60.3
175.0
82.4
48.4
68.2
264.8 -1791.1 -120.5 -324.9 -418.4 -361.4 -270.3 -286.1
70.2 -37.7
-323.0
288.1 233.5 200.7 75.3 158.2 130.0 106.3 151.5 175.7 86.8 98.5
195.6
20.8 28.0
-50.6
300.8
7.1 62.4
Gas
44.1
-111.0 -625.8
106.8 7.5
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
180.0 70.3
175.1 -333.8 -123.8 0.0 -364.0 -78.2 -175.5 -143.5 -558.1 -208.0 -238.0 -668.9 -548.0 -45.6 -65.7 -100.4 -72.8 -189.5
Crys.
-101.7 -58.5
108.8
-116.3 -327.9 -501.4 -467.2 -270.4 -287.8 -481.8 -429.3
Gas
-1088.2
-105.4 -90.8 -707.5 -58.2 -42.0 -121.3 -743.1 0.0 -1880.7
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
20.8
37.4 132.0 27.2 115.0
180.8 267.3
20.8 20.8 36.8
52.9 106.5 51.0 52.1 92.0
163.0 149.8
-328.9 -125.4
245.5
-358.2
118.4 127.6 116.1 129.7
-173.6
174.9
-209.0
161.1
19.3
32.9 53.2
260.7
54.4
36.9
77.4 81.6
-120.5
374.4
-277.8 -122.6 243.3
-371.5
446.1
84.9 125.7
105.4
173.8
26.7
20.8
249.4
208.7
57.8
78.4
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
Hf HfO2 Hg HgI2 HgO HgO4S HgS HgTe Hg2 Hg2I2 Hg2O4S Ho Ho2O3 I IIn IK IKO3 IKO4 ILi INa INaO3 INaO4 IO IRb ITl I2 I2Mg I2Ni I2Pb I2Sn I2Sr I2Zn I3In I3La I3Lu I3P I3Ru I3Sb I4Pt I4Si I4Sn I4Ti I4V I4Zr In
Name
Molecular formula
Indium monoxide Indium phosphide Indium(II) sulfide Indium antimonide Diindium Indium(III) oxide Indium(III) sulfide Iridium Iridium(IV) oxide Iridium(IV) sulfide Iridium(III) sulfide Potassium Potassium permanganate Potassium nitrite Potassium nitrate Potassium sodium Potassium superoxide Dipotassium Potassium oxide Potassium peroxide Potassium sulfate Potassium sulfide Potassium phosphate Krypton Lanthanum Lanthanum sulfide Lanthanum oxide Lithium Lithium nitrite Lithium nitrate Dilithium Lithium oxide Lithium peroxide Lithium metasilicate Lithium sulfate Lithium sulfide Lithium phosphate Lawrencium Lutetium Lutetium oxide Mendelevium Magnesium Magnesium nitrate Magnesium oxide Magnesium sulfate
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
387.0 -88.7 -138.1 -30.5
238.0 344.3 380.9
-925.8 -427.0 0.0 -274.1 -138.0 -234.0 0.0 -837.2 -369.8 -494.6
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
364.4
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
236.5
32.6
-77.0 -131.8 -25.5
59.8 67.0 86.2
45.4
-830.7 -412.5
104.2 163.6 35.5
92.0 118.0 25.1 57.3
665.3
617.9
89.0
60.5 -737.6 -306.6 -394.9
64.7 171.7 152.1 133.1
49.5
193.6
160.3
29.6 117.6 107.4 96.4
20.8
20.8
6.3 -284.9
-239.4 123.7
-361.5 -494.1 -1437.8 -380.7 -1950.2 0.0 -456.0 -1793.7 0.0 -372.4 -483.1
-425.1 -1321.4 -364.0 0.0 431.0 -451.5 -1705.8 159.3
77.5 249.7
102.1 175.6 105.0
393.6
126.6 -302.0 -381.1
215.9 -597.9 -634.3 -1648.1 -1436.5 -441.4 -2095.8 0.0 0.0 -1878.2 0.0 0.0 -790.7 -601.6 -1284.9
116.7 87.5
56.9 73.2 127.3 29.1 96.0 90.0
174.4
37.9
131.5
164.1 182.4
138.8
27.1 59.0 108.8 24.8
197.0 37.6
54.1
-1557.2 -1321.7
79.8 115.1
99.1 117.6
387.8
51.0 110.0
184.8
26.9 101.8
20.9
112.5
32.7 164.0 27.0 91.6
148.6
24.9 141.9 37.2 96.5
20.8
-1789.0 147.1 -589.4 -569.3 -1170.6
20.8
36.1
-561.2
427.6
20.8 22.8
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
InO InP InS InSb In2 In2O3 In2S3 Ir IrO2 IrS2 Ir2S3 K KMnO4 KNO2 KNO3 KNa KO2 K2 K2O K2O2 K2O4S K2S K3O4P Kr La LaS La2O3 Li LiNO2 LiNO3 Li2 Li2O Li2O2 Li2O3Si Li2O4S Li2S Li3O4P Lr Lu Lu2O3 Md Mg MgN2O6 MgO MgO4S
Name
Name
Crys.
MgO4Se MgS Mg2 Mg2O4Si Mn MnN2O6 MnNa2O4 MnO MnO2 MnO3Si MnS MnSe Mn2O3 Mn2O4Si Mn3O4 Mo MoNa2O4 MoO2 MoO3 MoO4Pb MoS2 N NNaO2 NNaO3 NO NO2 NO2Rb NO3Rb NO3Tl NP N2 N2O N2O3 N2O4 N2O4Sr N2O5 N2O6Pb N2O6Ra N2O6Sr N2O6Zn N3Na N4Si3 Na NaO2 Na2
Magnesium selenate Magnesium sulfide Dimagnesium Magnesium orthosilicate Manganese Manganese(II) nitrate Sodium permanganate Manganese(II) oxide Manganese(IV) oxide Manganese(II) metasilicate Manganese(II) sulfide Manganese(II) selenide Manganese(III) oxide Manganese(II) orthosilicate Manganese(II,III) oxide Molybdenum Sodium molybdate Molybdenum(IV) oxide Molybdenum(VI) oxide Lead(II) molybdate Molybdenum(IV) sulfide Nitrogen (atomic) Sodium nitrite Sodium nitrate Nitric oxide Nitrogen dioxide Rubidium nitrite Rubidium nitrate Thallium(I) nitrate Phosphorus nitride Nitrogen Nitrous oxide Nitrogen trioxide Nitrogen tetroxide Strontium nitrite Nitrogen pentoxide Lead(II) nitrate Radium nitrate Strontium nitrate Zinc nitrate Sodium azide Silicon nitride Sodium Sodium superoxide Disodium
-968.5 -346.0
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-341.8
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
50.3
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 45.6
287.7 -2174.0 0.0 -576.3 -1156.0 -385.2 -520.0 -1320.9 -214.2 -106.7 -959.0 -1730.5 -1387.8 0.0 -1468.1 -588.9 -745.1 -1051.9 -235.1
-2055.1 280.7
238.5
-362.9 -465.1 -1240.5 -218.4 -111.7 -881.1 -1632.1 -1283.2 658.1
612.5 -1354.3 -533.0 -668.0 -951.4 -225.9
472.7 -358.7 -467.9
-762.3 -43.1 -451.9 -992.0 -978.2 -483.7 21.7 -743.5 0.0 -260.2
0.0 81.6 86.6 11.1 113.9
178.2 222.0 194.6
93.8 -642.6
96.9 101.3 51.3 115.9
77.0 103.9
45.4 54.1 86.4 50.0 51.0 107.7 129.9 139.7 24.1 141.7 56.0 75.0 119.7 63.6
20.8
20.8 92.9 29.9 37.2 102.1 99.5
209.2
-796.1 -780.0
-218.4
20.8
210.8 240.1
103.7 142.4 99.8 117.1
118.5 26.3
153.3
172.0 147.3 160.7
97.5
107.5 142.1
182.0
87.6 51.3 -306.2 -395.8 -152.4
13.3
59.7 53.1 89.1 78.2 90.8 110.5 163.2 155.6 28.7 159.7 46.3 77.7 166.1 62.6 103.8 116.5
91.3 33.2
50.3 -19.5
173.7
455.5 -284.6 -367.0
-367.4 -495.1 -243.9 -63.0
95.1 32.0
191.6 220.0 314.7 304.4 355.7
142.7 143.1
29.1 38.6 72.7 79.2 95.3
149.9 76.6 153.7 230.2
28.2 72.1
20.8 37.6
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
Molecular formula
Molecular formula
Crys.
Sodium oxide Sodium peroxide Sodium sulfite Sodium metasilicate Sodium sulfate Sodium sulfide Niobium Niobium(II) oxide Niobium(IV) oxide Niobium(V) oxide Neodymium Neodymium oxide Neon Nickel Nickel(II) sulfate Nickel(II) sulfide Nickel(III) oxide Nobelium Oxygen (atomic) Phosphorus monoxide Lead(II) oxide (massicot) Lead(II) oxide (litharge) Palladium(II) oxide Radium oxide Rubidium oxide Rhodium monoxide Sulfur monoxide Selenium monoxide Silicon monoxide Tin(II) oxide Strontium oxide Titanium(II) oxide Thallium(I) oxide Uranium(II) oxide Vanadium(II) oxide Zinc oxide Oxygen Phosphorus dioxide Lead(IV) oxide Rubidium superoxide Rubidium peroxide Ruthenium(IV) oxide Sulfur dioxide Selenium dioxide Silicon dioxide (α-quartz)
-414.2 -510.9 -1100.8 -1554.9 -1387.1 -364.8 0.0 -405.8 -796.2 -1899.5 0.0 -1807.9
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-375.5 -447.7 -1012.5 -1462.8 -1270.2 -349.8 725.9
681.1 -378.6 -740.5 -1766.0
327.6
292.4 -1720.8
0.0 429.7
0.0 -872.9 -82.0 -489.5 0.0
384.5 -759.7 -79.5
249.2 -28.5 -217.3 -219.0 -85.4 -523.0 -339.0
75.1 95.0 145.9 113.9 149.6 83.7 36.4 48.1 54.5 137.2 71.5 158.6 29.9 92.0 53.0
231.7 -51.9 -187.9 -188.9
-280.7 -592.0 -519.7 -178.7
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
69.1 89.2 120.3 128.2 186.3
189.4 146.3 182.2
24.6 41.3 57.5 132.1 27.5 111.3 26.1 138.0 47.1
161.1 222.8 68.7 66.5
348.9
325.9
218.0
385.0 6.3 53.4 -99.6 15.1
-19.9 26.8 -126.4 -8.4
222.0 234.0 211.6 232.1
-251.9 -561.9 -495.0 -147.3
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
57.2 54.4 50.0 126.0
30.2
22.1 20.8 23.4
21.9 31.8 45.8 45.8 31.4
44.3 45.0 40.0
30.2 31.3 29.9 31.6
21.0 -431.8 -350.5
-404.2 -320.5 0.0 -279.9
-277.4 -278.7 -472.0 -305.0 -296.8 -322.0
68.6
-300.1 -856.3
45.4 40.3 205.2 252.1
-281.6 -217.3
-320.5 -225.4 -910.7
38.9 43.7
29.4 39.5 64.6
248.2 41.5
39.9 44.4
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
Na2O Na2O2 Na2O3S Na2O3Si Na2O4S Na2S Nb NbO NbO2 Nb2O5 Nd Nd2O3 Ne Ni NiO4S NiS Ni2O3 No O OP OPb OPb OPd ORa ORb2 ORh OS OSe OSi OSn OSr OTi OTl2 OU OV OZn O2 O2P O2Pb O2Rb O2Rb2 O2Ru O2S O2Se O2Si
Name
Molecular formula
Crys.
Tin(IV) oxide Tellurium dioxide Thorium(IV) oxide Titanium(IV) oxide Uranium(IV) oxide Tungsten(IV) oxide Zirconium(IV) oxide Ozone Lead(II) sulfite Lead(II) metasilicate Praseodymium oxide Rhodium(III) oxide Sulfur trioxide Scandium oxide Strontium metasilicate Samarium(III) oxide Terbium oxide Titanium(III) oxide Thulium oxide Uranium(VI) oxide Vanadium(III) oxide Tungsten(VI) oxide Yttrium oxide Ytterbium(III) oxide Osmium(VIII) oxide Lead(II) sulfate Lead(II) selenate Lead(II) orthosilicate Lead(II,II,IV) oxide Radium sulfate Rubidium sulfate Ruthenium(VIII) oxide Strontium sulfate Thallium(I) sulfate Zinc sulfate Strontium orthosilicate Zinc orthosilicate Zirconium(IV) orthosilicate Antimony(V) oxide Tantalum(V) oxide Titanium(III,IV) oxide Vanadium(V) oxide Vanadium(III,IV) oxide Rhenium(VII) oxide Uranium(IV,VI) oxide
-577.6 -322.6 -1226.4 -944.0 -1085.0 -589.7 -1100.6
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-465.7
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-515.8 -270.3 -1169.2 -888.8 -1031.8 -533.9 -1042.8
-471.5
142.7 -669.9 -1145.7 -1809.6 -343.0 -454.5 -1908.8 -1633.9 -1823.0 -1865.2 -1520.9 -1888.7 -1223.8 -1218.8 -842.9 -1905.3 -1814.6 -394.1 -920.0 -609.2 -1363.1 -718.4 -1471.1 -1435.6 -239.3 -1453.1 -931.8 -982.8 -2304.5 -1636.7 -2033.4 -971.9 -2046.0 -2459.4 -1550.6 -1933.0 -1240.1 -3427.1
Gas
-395.7
-337.2
-1100.0
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
49.0 79.5 65.2 50.6 77.0 50.5 50.4
-374.2 -1819.4 -1549.7 -1734.6 -1434.2 -1794.5 -1145.7 -1139.3 -764.0 -1816.6 -1726.7 -304.9 -813.0 -504.9 -1252.6 -601.2 -1365.6 -1316.9 -152.2 -1340.9 -830.4 -871.5 -2191.1 -1523.2 -1919.1 -829.2 -1911.2 -2317.4 -1419.5 -1803.0 -1066.0 -3242.9
Gas
274.6
-371.1
-292.8
-994.0
61.8 55.0 63.6 56.1 56.2
238.9 109.6
-373.8
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 52.6
163.2 -1062.1
-441.0
Crys.
70.7 77.0 96.7 151.0 78.8 139.7 96.1 98.3 75.9 99.1 133.1 143.9 148.5 167.8 186.6 211.3 138.0 197.4 146.4 117.0 230.5 110.5 153.1 131.4 84.1 125.1 143.1 129.3 131.0 163.0 207.1 250.5
51.4
39.2 90.0 117.4 103.8
113.8
256.8
50.7 94.2 88.5 114.5 115.9 97.4 116.7 81.7 103.2 73.8 102.5 115.4
293.8
74.1 103.2 137.2 146.9 134.1
99.2 134.3 123.3 98.7 135.1 154.8 127.7 452.0
166.1 215.5
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
O2Sn O2Te O2Th O2Ti O2U O2W O2Zr O3 O3PbS O3PbSi O3Pr2 O3Rh2 O3S O3Sc2 O3SiSr O3Sm2 O3Tb2 O3Ti2 O3Tm2 O3U O3V2 O3W O3Y2 O3Yb2 O4Os O4PbS O4PbSe O4Pb2Si O4Pb3 O4RaS O4Rb2S O4Ru O4SSr O4STl2 O4SZn O4SiSr2 O4SiZn2 O4SiZr O5Sb2 O5Ta2 O5Ti3 O5V2 O5V3 O7Re2 O7U3
Name
Molecular formula
Zirconium(IV) sulfate Uranium(V,VI) oxide Uranium(IV,V) oxide Osmium Phosphorus (white) Phosphorus (red) Phosphorus (black) Diphosphorus Tetraphosphorus Protactinium Lead Lead(II) sulfide Lead(II) selenide Lead(II) telluride Palladium Palladium(II) sulfide Promethium Polonium Praseodymium Platinum Platinum(II) sulfide Platinum(IV) sulfide Plutonium Radium Rubidium Rhenium Rhodium Radon Ruthenium Sulfur (rhombic) Sulfur (monoclinic) Silicon monosulfide Tin(II) sulfide Strontium sulfide Thallium(I) sulfide Zinc sulfide (wurtzite) Zinc sulfide (sphalerite) Disulfur Antimony Diantimony Scandium Selenium Strontium selenide Thallium(I) selenide Zinc selenide
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys. -2217.1 -3574.8 -4510.4 0.0 0.0 -17.6 -39.3
0.0 0.0 -100.4 -102.9 -70.7 0.0 -75.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -81.6 -108.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
791.0 316.5
745.0 280.1
144.0 58.9 607.0 195.2
103.5 24.4 563.0 162.2 -98.7 -101.7 -69.5
378.2
339.7 -67.0
Crys. 282.6 334.1 32.6 41.1 22.8
51.9 64.8 91.2 102.5 110.0 37.6 46.0
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
192.6 163.2
218.1 280.0 198.1 175.4
167.1
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 172.0 238.4 293.3 24.7 23.8 21.2
26.4 49.5 50.2 50.5 26.0
187.1 355.6 565.3
320.9 520.5
73.2 41.6 55.1 74.7
189.8 192.4
130.0 53.1 724.6 510.8
71.0 76.8 36.9 31.5
595.8 236.7
28.5 32.1
176.5 170.1 188.9 185.8 176.2 186.5 167.8
-76.1 -99.6 159.0 80.9 769.9 556.9 0.0 642.7 277.2 112.5
0.0 0.0 -385.8 -59.0 -163.0
Gas
-3369.5 -4275.1
-100.0 -472.4 -97.1 -192.6 -206.0 0.0
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
60.9 -98.3 -467.8 -93.7 -201.3
128.6 262.3 235.6 377.8 227.1 -59.0 -163.0
45.7 34.6 42.4 172.0 84.0
20.8
27.2 25.9 43.4 65.9
31.1 25.5 25.0 24.1 22.6
21.4 25.5
20.8 20.8 20.8 21.0 20.8 21.5 23.7 32.3
49.3 48.7
57.7 79.7 222.1 187.0 336.0 187.0
32.1 67.2 22.9 20.8
24.3
223.7 77.0 68.2 151.0
20.8 20.8
46.0 228.2 180.3 254.9 174.8 176.7
25.2 25.5 25.4
32.5 20.8 36.4 22.1 20.8
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
O8S2Zr O8U3 O9U4 Os P P P P2 P4 Pa Pb PbS PbSe PbTe Pd PdS Pm Po Pr Pt PtS PtS2 Pu Ra Rb Re Rh Rn Ru S S SSi SSn SSr STl2 SZn SZn S2 Sb Sb2 Sc Se SeSr SeTl2 SeZn
Name
Molecular formula
CBrCl2F CBrCl3 CBrF3 CBrN CBrN3O6 CBr2ClF CBr2Cl2 CBr2F2 CBr2O CBr3Cl CBr3F
Diselenium Silicon Disilicon Samarium Tin (white) Tin (gray) Strontium Tantalum Terbium Technetium Tellurium Ditellurium Thorium Titanium Thallium Thulium Uranium Vanadium Tungsten Xenon Yttrium Ytterbium Zinc Zirconium Carbon (graphite) Carbon (diamond) Silver(I) cyanide Silver(I) carbonate Barium carbonate Beryllium carbonate Bromochlorodifluoromethane Bromodichlorofluoromethane Bromotrichloromethane Bromotrifluoromethane Cyanogen bromide Bromotrinitromethane Dibromochlorofluoromethane Dibromodichloromethane Dibromodifluoromethane Carbonyl bromide Tribromochloromethane Tribromofluoromethane
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
146.0 450.0 594.0 206.7 301.2
0.0 0.0 0.0 -2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas 96.2 405.5 536.0 172.8 266.2
0.1 164.4 782.0 388.7 678.0 196.7 168.2 602.0 473.0 182.2 232.2 533.0 514.2 849.4 0.0 421.3 152.3 130.4 608.8 716.7
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.9 146.0 -505.8 -1213.0 -1025.0
130.9 739.3 349.7 157.1 118.0 560.7 428.4 147.4 197.5 488.4 754.4 807.1 381.1 118.4 94.8 566.5 671.3 2.9 156.9 -436.8 -1134.4
140.5 32.5
-127.2
-41.1 -648.3 186.2 80.3
-96.2
165.3
-110.9
Crys. 18.8 69.6 51.2 44.1 55.0 41.5 73.2 49.7 51.8 30.7 64.2 74.0 50.2 28.9 32.6 44.4 59.9 41.6 39.0 5.7 2.4 107.2 167.4 112.1 52.0
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas 252.0 168.0 229.9 183.0 168.5 164.6 185.2 203.6 181.1 182.7 268.1 190.2 180.3 181.0 190.1 199.8 182.3 174.0 169.7 179.5 173.1 161.0 181.4 158.1
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 20.0 29.5 27.0 25.8 26.8 25.4 28.9 25.7 27.3 25.0 26.3 27.0 27.7 24.9 24.3 26.5 26.7 25.4 25.4 8.5 6.1 66.7 112.3 86.0 65.0
35.4 22.3 34.4 30.4 21.3 20.8 20.9 24.6 20.8 20.8 36.7 20.8 24.4 20.8 20.8 23.7 26.0 21.3 20.8 25.9 20.8 20.8 26.7 20.8
318.5
74.6
330.6
248.3
80.0 85.3 69.3 46.9
342.8 347.8 325.3 309.1 357.8 345.9
82.4 87.1 77.0 61.8 89.4 84.4
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
Se2 Si Si2 Sm Sn Sn Sr Ta Tb Tc Te Te2 Th Ti Tl Tm U V W Xe Y Yb Zn Zr C C CAgN CAg2O3 CBaO3 CBeO3 CBrClF2
Name
Molecular formula
CCdO3 CClFO CClF3 CClN CClN3O6 CCl2F2 CCl2O CCl3 CCl3F CCl4 CCoO3 CCs2O3 CCuN CFN CF2O CF3 CF3I CF4 CFeO3 CFe3 CH CHBrClF CHBrCl2 CHBrF2 CHBr2Cl CHBr2F CHBr3 CHClF2 CHCl2F CHCl3 CHCsO3 CHFO CHF3 CHI3 CHKO2 CHKO3 CHN CHNO CHNS CHN3O6 CHNaO2
Crys.
Tetrabromomethane 29.4 Calcium carbonate (calcite) -1207.6 Calcium carbonate (aragonite) -1207.8 Cadmium carbonate -750.6 Carbonyl chloride fluoride Chlorotrifluoromethane Cyanogen chloride Chlorotrinitromethane Dichlorodifluoromethane Carbonyl chloride Trichloromethyl Trichlorofluoromethane Tetrachloromethane Cobalt(II) carbonate -713.0 Cesium carbonate -1139.7 Copper(I) cyanide 96.2 Cyanogen fluoride Carbonyl fluoride Trifluoromethyl Trifluoroiodomethane Tetrafluoromethane Iron(II) carbonate -740.6 Iron carbide 25.1 Methylidyne Bromochlorofluoromethane Bromodichloromethane Bromodifluoromethane Chlorodibromomethane Dibromofluoromethane Tribromomethane Chlorodifluoromethane Dichlorofluoromethane Trichloromethane Cesium hydrogen carbonate -966.1 Formyl fluoride Trifluoromethane Triiodomethane -181.1 Potassium formate -679.7 Potassium hydrogen carbonate -963.2 Hydrogen cyanide Isocyanic acid (HNCO) Isothiocyanic acid Trinitromethane Sodium formate -666.5
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
83.9
47.7 -1129.1
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
67.0
212.5 91.7
-1128.2 -669.4
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas 358.1
88.0 92.5
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 144.3 83.5
91.2
82.3 276.7
112.1 -27.1
-301.3 -128.2
-706.3 138.0 18.4 -477.4 -219.1 59.0 -268.3 -95.7
131.0
236.2
52.4 66.9 45.0
-439.4 -204.9
300.8 283.5
72.3 57.7
-236.8
225.4
-1054.3 111.3
121.6 130.7
204.5 84.5
123.9 224.7
-639.8 -477.0 -587.8 -933.6
-464.0
-666.7 20.1
78.1 83.3
41.8 46.8 49.6 70.9 61.1
264.5 307.4 261.6 92.9 104.6
82.1 105.9
595.8
-424.9
-22.3
23.8 -482.6
-5.0
8.0
220.9
-134.1
-102.7
-73.7
6.0
201.7
-863.5 135.1
-32.8
127.6 -0.2
130.7
114.2
246.6 259.7 356.2
-695.4 251.0
108.9
304.3 316.4 295.1 327.7 316.8 330.9 280.9 293.1 295.7
39.9 51.0 75.0
115.5 125.0
124.7
112.8
113.0 -599.9
63.2 67.4 58.7 69.2 65.1 71.2 55.9 60.9 65.7
103.8
201.8 238.0 247.8
70.6
82.7
35.9 44.9 46.9
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
CBr4 CCaO3 CCaO3
Name
Molecular formula
CH5N3 CH5N3S CH5N5O2 CH6ClN CH6N2 CH6Si CHg2O3 CIN
Crys.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate Oxomethyl (HCO) Methylene Bromochloromethane Bromofluoromethane Dibromomethane Chlorofluoromethane Dichloromethane Difluoromethane Diiodomethane Diazomethane Cyanamide Dinitromethane Formaldehyde Paraformaldehyde Formic acid Trithiocarbonic acid Methyl Borane carbonyl Bromomethane Chloromethane Fluoromethane Iodomethane Formamide Nitromethane Methyl nitrite Methyl nitrate Methane Ammonium cyanide Urea Thiourea Nitroguanidine Methanol Methanethiol Methylamine Ammonium hydrogen carbonate Guanidine Hydrazinecarbothioamide 3-Amino-1-nitroguanidine Methylamine hydrochloride Methylhydrazine Methylsilane Mercury(I) carbonate Cyanogen iodide
-950.8
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-851.0
68.5
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
177.8 90.4
95.8
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 87.6
28.0 372.9
-95.4 -452.3 119.5
Gas
101.7
43.1 390.4
-124.2
Crys.
174.1
224.7 194.9 287.6 276.3 293.2 264.4 270.2 246.7 309.7 242.9
101.2 134.0
34.6 33.8 52.7 49.2 54.7 47.0 51.0 42.9 57.7 52.5
58.8 -104.9
-58.9 -108.6
-102.5
218.8
35.4
-177.6 -425.0 24.0
-59.8
-13.6 -254.0 -112.6 -156.3 0.4 -333.1 -89.1 -92.4
-378.7 145.7 -111.2 -35.4 -81.9
129.0 147.9 -92.9 -26.3
14.4 -193.9 -74.3 -66.1 -122.4 -74.6
99.0
163.2
194.2 249.4 246.4 234.6 222.9 254.1
126.0
38.7 59.5 42.4 40.8 37.5 44.1 57.3
-14.4
-6.8
171.8
275.0
106.6
-43.4
-39.2 -50.5
217.1
318.5 186.3
157.3 35.7 134.0
-245.8 22.9 -239.2 -46.7 -47.3
-201.0 -22.9 -22.5
-849.4 -56.0 24.7 22.1 -298.1
-166.6 -7.7 35.7
-162.3 -9.3 32.7
-665.9
54.2 -553.5 166.2
-361.4
94.7
225.5
239.9 255.2 242.9
81.1 90.5 102.1
44.1 50.3 50.1
165.9
278.8 256.5
134.9
71.1 65.9
120.9
180.0 -468.1 185.0
126.8 169.2 150.2
187.0
196.6
180.0 96.2
256.8
48.3
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
CHNaO3 CHO CH2 CH2BrCl CH2BrF CH2Br2 CH2ClF CH2Cl2 CH2F2 CH2I2 CH2N2 CH2N2 CH2N2O4 CH2O (CH2O)x CH2O2 CH2S3 CH3 CH3BO CH3Br CH3Cl CH3F CH3I CH3NO CH3NO2 CH3NO2 CH3NO3 CH4 CH4N2 CH4N2O CH4N2S CH4N4O2 CH4O CH4S CH5N CH5NO3
Name
Molecular formula
C2Br2F4 C2Br4 C2Br6 C2Ca C2CaN2 C2CaO4 C2ClF3 C2ClF5 C2Cl2F4 C2Cl2O2 C2Cl3F3 C2Cl3N C2Cl4
Crys.
Tetraiodomethane Potassium cyanide Potassium thiocyanate Potassium carbonate Lithium carbonate Magnesium carbonate Manganese(II) carbonate Cyanide Sodium cyanide Sodium cyanate Tetranitromethane Sodium carbonate Carbon monoxide Carbon oxysulfide Carbon dioxide Lead(II) carbonate Rubidium carbonate Strontium carbonate Thallium(I) carbonate Zinc carbonate Carbon sulfide Carbon disulfide Carbon diselenide Silicon carbide (cubic) Silicon carbide (hexagonal) Dicarbon Bromopentafluoroethane 1,2-Dibromo-1-chloro1,2,2-trifluoroethane 1,2-Dibromotetrafluoroethane Tetrabromoethylene Hexabromoethane Calcium carbide Calcium cyanide Calcium oxalate Chlorotrifluoroethylene Chloropentafluoroethane 1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane Ethanedioyl dichloride 1,1,2-Trichlorotrifluoroethane Trichloroacetonitrile Tetrachloroethylene
-392.9 -113.0 -200.2 -1151.0 -1215.9 -1095.8 -894.1
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
474.0 128.5 124.3 155.5 90.4 65.7 85.8
437.6
202.6 115.6 96.7
29.2 70.4 86.6
88.3
-1130.7
-1044.4
135.0
-110.5 -142.0 -393.5 -699.1 -1136.0 -1220.1 -700.0 -812.8 234.0 116.7
-65.3 -62.8
64.6
184.0 67.1
-817.7
-789.1
-59.8 -184.5 -1360.6 -522.7
-505.5 -1118.8
-960.2 -367.6
-937.0 -335.8
-745.0
-716.8
79.7 151.3
210.6 237.8
76.4
199.4
43.2
387.1 441.9
102.7 139.3
70.0
62.7
-523.8
322.1
83.9 184.2 111.7
170.1 336.6
-50.6
-10.9
29.8 45.4
26.9 26.7
775.9
-64.9
29.1 41.5 37.1 87.4 117.6 81.4
16.6 16.5
831.9 -1064.4 -656.6
197.7 231.6 213.8 131.0 181.3 97.1 155.2 82.4
-62.8 -60.2
-691.7
112.3
-137.2 -169.2 -394.4 -625.5 -1051.0 -1140.1 -614.6 -731.5
89.0 164.8
95.9 66.3 88.5 114.4 99.1 75.5 81.5
407.5 -76.4 -358.1
38.4
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
391.9 -101.9 -178.3 -1063.5 -1132.1 -1012.1 -816.7
-87.5 -405.4
Gas
3.0
266.9
96.1 143.4
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
CI4 CKN CKNS CK2O3 CLi2O3 CMgO3 CMnO3 CN CNNa CNNaO CN4O8 CNa2O3 CO COS CO2 CO3Pb CO3Rb2 CO3Sr CO3Tl2 CO3Zn CS CS2 CSe2 CSi CSi C2 C2BrF5 C2Br2ClF3
Name
Molecular formula
C2Cl4F2 C2Cl4O C2Cl6 C2F3N C2F4 C2F6 C2HBr C2HBrClF3 C2HBrClF3 C2HCl C2HClF2 C2HCl2F C2HCl2F3 C2HCl3 C2HCl3O C2HCl3O C2HCl3O2 C2HCl5 C2HF C2HF3 C2HF3O2 C2HF5 C2H2 C2H2BrF3 C2H2Br2 C2H2Br2 C2H2Br2Cl2 C2H2Br4 C2H2ClF3 C2H2Cl2 C2H2Cl2 C2H2Cl2 C2H2Cl2O C2H2Cl2O2
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloro-2,2difluoroethane 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloro-1,2difluoroethane Trichloroacetyl chloride Hexachloroethane Trifluoroacetonitrile Tetrafluoroethylene Hexafluoroethane Bromoacetylene 1-Bromo-2-chloro1,1,2-trifluoroethane 2-Bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1trifluoroethane Chloroacetylene 1-Chloro-2,2-difluoroethylene 1,1-Dichloro-2-fluoroethylene 2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1trifluoroethane Trichloroethylene Trichloroacetaldehyde Dichloroacetyl chloride Trichloroacetic acid Pentachloroethane Fluoroacetylene Trifluoroethylene Trifluoroacetic acid Pentafluoroethane Acetylene 2-Bromo-1,1,1trifluoroethane cis-1,2-Dibromoethylene trans-1,2-Dibromoethylene 1,2-Dibromo-1,2dichloroethane 1,1,2,2-Tetrabromoethane 2-Chloro-1,1,1trifluoroethane 1,1-Dichloroethylene cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene Chloroacetyl chloride Dichloroacetic acid
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-489.9
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
-407.0
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
382.9
123.4 173.6
-280.8 -202.8 -820.5
-239.8 -143.6 -497.9 -658.9 -1344.2
-675.3
-644.8
-720.0
-690.4
237.3
-315.5
-43.6 -234.5 -280.4
-9.0 -196.6 -241.0
-187.6
-142.0
198.2
-289.1
228.4
298.1 300.1 332.3 253.7
77.9 80.5 106.7 55.7
242.0
54.3
303.0
72.1
313.9
76.5
352.8 324.8
124.4 151.0
102.5 80.3
-503.3
-1069.9
173.8
-490.5 -1031.4 -1100.4 227.4
209.9
231.7
52.4
200.9
44.0
311.3 313.5
68.8 70.3
-694.5
-36.9 165.7
-23.9 -26.4 -24.3 -283.7 -496.3
2.8 4.6 5.0 -244.8
24.1
25.4
27.3
28.6
201.5 198.4 195.9
326.5 289.0 289.6 290.0
111.3 116.4 116.8
89.1 67.1 65.1 66.7
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C2Cl4F2
Name
Molecular formula
C2H2I2 C2H2O C2H2O2 C2H2O4 C2H2O4Sr C2H2S2 C2H3Br C2H3BrO C2H3Cl C2H3ClF2 C2H3ClO C2H3ClO2 C2H3Cl2F C2H3Cl3 C2H3Cl3 C2H3F C2H3FO C2H3F3 C2H3F3 C2H3F3O C2H3I C2H3IO C2H3KO2 C2H3N C2H3N C2H3NO C2H3NO3 C2H3NS C2H3NaO2 C2H4 C2H4BrCl C2H4Br2 C2H4Br2 C2H4ClF C2H4Cl2 C2H4Cl2
Crys.
2,2,2-Trichloroacetamide 1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 1,1-Difluoroethylene cis-1,2-Difluoroethylene 1,1,1-Trifluoro-2iodoethane cis-1,2-Diiodoethylene Ketene Glyoxal Oxalic acid Strontium formate Thiirene Bromoethylene Acetyl bromide Chloroethylene 1-Chloro-1,1difluoroethane Acetyl chloride Chloroacetic acid 1,1-Dichloro-1fluoroethane 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 1,1,2-Trichloroethane Fluoroethylene Acetyl fluoride 1,1,1-Trifluoroethane 1,1,2-Trifluoroethane 2,2,2-Trifluoroethanol Iodoethylene Acetyl iodide Potassium acetate Acetonitrile Isocyanomethane Methylisocyanate Oxamic acid Methyl isothiocyanate Sodium acetate Ethylene 1-Bromo-2-chloroethane 1,1-Dibromoethane 1,2-Dibromoethane 1-Chloro-1-fluoroethane 1,1-Dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloroethane
-358.0
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-195.0
-67.9 -821.7 -1393.3
-94.1
-223.5 14.6
Gas
Gas
Crys.
-48.3
-932.4
-144.4 -151.3 -138.8 -442.1 -744.6 -730.7 -888.4
-163.5
-126.4
40.6 130.8 -92.0
74.0 163.5
Gas
-208.0
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
356.0 362.8 266.2 268.3
162.3
247.6 109.8
300.0 79.2 -190.4 37.2
-177.4 -190.8
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
246.9
-644.5 -207.4 -47.5 -212.0 -723.7
-242.8 -435.2
-467.2
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-149.2 -335.0
-272.9 -510.5
Crys.
51.8 91.0
275.8 81.8
255.3 275.8
53.6
264.0
-205.8
102.7 100.8 60.1 58.2
54.7 55.5 59.4
53.7
200.8
307.2 295.1
117.0
82.5 67.8
227.4 232.6
320.2 323.1 337.2
144.3 150.9
88.7 93.3 89.0
279.9
78.2
285.0
57.9
-723.0
-661.2 79.4 -708.8
86.5 159.5
91.9 165.7
149.6 159.0
243.4 246.9
91.5
52.2 52.9
-552.3 -607.2
123.0
52.4
79.9
68.4
219.3
42.9 130.1
-66.2 -79.2 -158.4 -166.8
327.7 -37.5 -313.4 -127.7 -126.4
223.3 -73.8
-70.8
211.8
80.8 136.0
305.1 308.4
126.3 128.4
76.2 78.7
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C2H2Cl3NO C2H2Cl4 C2H2Cl4 C2H2F2 C2H2F2 C2H2F3I
Name
Molecular formula
1,1-Difluoroethane 1,2-Diiodoethane Oxamide Ethanedial, dioxime 1,1-Dinitroethane 1,2-Dinitroethane Ethanedithioamide 1H-1,2,4-Triazol-3-amine Acetaldehyde Ethylene oxide Thioacetic acid Acetic acid Methyl formate Thiirane Ethynylsilane Bromoethane Chloroethane Ethylene chlorohydrin Fluoroethane Iodoethane Ethyleneimine Acetamide N-Methylformamide Nitroethane Glycine 2-Nitroethanol Ethyl nitrate Thioacetamide Ethane Dimethyl cadmium Dimethyl mercury N-Methylurea 1,2-Hydrazinedicarboxamide Ethanedioic acid, dihydrazide Ethanol Dimethyl ether Dimethyl sulfoxide Ethylene glycol Dimethyl sulfone Dimethyl sulfite Dimethyl sulfate Ethanethiol Dimethyl sulfide 1,2-Ethanedithiol Dimethyl disulfide
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
-497.0 75.0 -387.1
9.3 -504.4 -90.5
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
282.5
67.8
-148.2 -165.2 -20.8 76.8
83.0 -192.2 -78.0 -216.9 -484.3 -386.1 51.6
-166.2 -52.6 -175.1 -432.2 -357.4 82.0
-127.6 -11.8
-133.0 -13.0
160.2 153.9
263.8 242.5
89.0 88.0
55.3 47.9
-389.9
-374.2
159.8
123.3 119.1
-90.5 -136.8 -295.4
-61.9 -112.1
-25.8 -59.3
-23.9 -60.4
198.7 190.8
283.5 285.3 255.2 269.4 286.7 276.0
100.8 104.3
63.4 64.4 53.3 72.6 64.5 62.8
-40.0 91.9
-8.1 126.5 -238.3
14.7
19.2
211.7
264.5 306.0
115.1
58.6 66.9
-317.0 -143.9 -528.5 -350.7 -190.4 -71.7 63.6 59.8
96.8
115.0
91.3 123.8 134.4
-102.3 -392.1 -154.1 11.4 -84.0 101.6 94.4
139.0 140.3
-32.0 146.9 146.1
201.9 209.0
229.2 303.0 306.0
52.5 132.0 83.3
-332.8 -498.7 -295.2 -277.6 -203.3 -204.2 -460.0 -450.1 -523.6 -735.5 -73.6 -65.3 -54.3 -62.6
-234.8 -184.1 -151.3 -392.2 -373.1 -483.4 -687.0 -46.1 -37.4 -9.7 -24.7
-174.8
-167.9 -112.6
160.7
-99.9 -302.4
188.3 163.2 -272.7
-5.5
-4.8
142.0
207.0 196.4 235.4
281.6 266.4 303.8 310.6
296.2 286.0
112.3 153.0 148.6
117.9 118.1 146.1
65.6 64.4 82.7 100.0
72.7 74.1
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C2H4F2 C2H4I2 C2H4N2O2 C2H4N2O2 C2H4N2O4 C2H4N2O4 C2H4N2S2 C2H4N4 C2H4O C2H4O C2H4OS C2H4O2 C2H4O2 C2H4S C2H4Si C2H5Br C2H5Cl C2H5ClO C2H5F C2H5I C2H5N C2H5NO C2H5NO C2H5NO2 C2H5NO2 C2H5NO3 C2H5NO3 C2H5NS C2H6 C2H6Cd C2H6Hg C2H6N2O C2H6N4O2 C2H6N4O2 C2H6O C2H6O C2H6OS C2H6O2 C2H6O2S C2H6O3S C2H6O4S C2H6S C2H6S C2H6S2 C2H6S2
Name
Molecular formula
C2H8N2 C2H8N2 C2H8N2 C2H8N2O4 C2HgO4 C2I2 C2I4 C2K2O4 C2MgO4 C2N2 C2N4O6 C2Na2O4 C2O4Pb C3F8 C3H2N2 C3H2O2 C3H2O3 C3H3Cl3 C3H3F3 C3H3N C3H3NO C3H3NO C3H4 C3H4 C3H4 C3H4Cl2 C3H4Cl4 C3H4Cl4 C3H4F4O C3H4N2 C3H4N2 C3H4O2 C3H4O2 C3H4O2 C3H4O3 C3H5Br C3H5Br C3H5BrO
Dimethyl zinc Ethylamine Dimethylamine Ethanolamine Dimethylamine hydrochloride 1,2-Ethanediamine 1,1-Dimethylhydrazine 1,2-Dimethylhydrazine Ammonium oxalate Mercury(II) oxalate Diiodoacetylene Tetraiodoethylene Potassium oxalate Magnesium oxalate Cyanogen Trinitroacetonitrile Sodium oxalate Lead(II) oxalate Perfluoropropane Malononitrile 2-Propynoic acid 1,3-Dioxol-2-one 1,2,3-Trichloropropene 3,3,3-Trifluoropropene 2-Propenenitrile Oxazole Isoxazole Allene Propyne Cyclopropene 2,3-Dichloropropene 1,1,1,3-Tetrachloropropane 1,2,2,3-Tetrachloropropane 2,2,3,3-Tetrafluoro-1propanol 1H-Pyrazole Imidazole 1,2-Propanedione Propenoic acid 2-Oxetanone Ethylene carbonate cis-1-Bromopropene 3-Bromopropene Bromoacetone
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
23.4 -74.1 -43.9
53.0 -47.5 -18.8
-63.0 48.9 52.7
-18.0 84.1 92.2
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
201.6 70.0
36.3 68.5
182.3
129.2 130.0 137.7 195.5
283.8 273.1
71.5 70.7
-289.3 206.4
172.6 164.1
198.0
-1123.0 -678.2
226.0 313.1
70.3
241.9
56.8
305.0 -1346.0 -1269.0 285.9 183.7
306.7 -1318.0
-851.4
-750.1
146.0
105.4
-1783.2 265.5
186.4 -193.2 -459.9 -101.8 147.1 -48.0 42.1
-418.6 -614.2 180.6 -15.5 78.6 190.5 184.9 277.1
-73.3 -208.7 -251.8 -1114.9 105.4 49.8 -309.1 -383.8 -329.9 -571.5 7.9 12.2
-1061.3 179.4 132.9 -271.0 -282.9 -508.4 40.8 45.2 -181.0
175.3
145.7 122.1 133.9
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C2H6Zn C2H7N C2H7N C2H7NO C2H8ClN
Name
Molecular formula
C3H6N2O4 C3H6N2O4 C3H6N2O4 C3H6O C3H6O C3H6O C3H6O C3H6O C3H6O2 C3H6O2 C3H6O2 C3H6O2 C3H6O2S C3H6O3 C3H6S C3H6S
2-Chloropropene 3-Chloropropene Epichlorohydrin 2-Chloropropanoic acid 3-Chloropropanoic acid Ethyl chloroformate 1,2,3-Trichloropropane 3-Iodopropene Iodoacetone 3-Iodopropanoic acid Propanenitrile 2-Propyn-1-amine Ethyl isocyanide Nitroacetone Methyl nitroacetate Trinitroglycerol Propene Cyclopropane 1,2-Dibromopropane 1,2-Dichloropropane 1,3-Dichloropropane 2,2-Dichloropropane 2,3-Dichloro-1-propanol 1,3-Dichloro-2-propanol 1,2-Diiodopropane 1,3-Diiodopropane Propanediamide N-(Aminocarbonyl) acetamide 1,1-Dinitropropane 1,3-Dinitropropane 2,2-Dinitropropane Allyl alcohol Propanal Acetone Methyloxirane Oxetane Propanoic acid Ethyl formate Methyl acetate 1,3-Dioxolane Thiolactic acid Trioxane Thiacyclobutane Methylthiirane
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
-21.0 -148.4 -522.5
-107.8 -475.8
-505.3 -230.6 53.7
-462.9 -182.9 91.5 -130.5
15.5 205.7 108.6 -278.6 -464.0 -370.9 4.0 35.2 -113.6 -198.8 -199.9 -205.8 -381.5 -385.3
51.7
125.1 131.6
-549.3 183.6
-460.0 119.3
141.7
-270.9 20.0 53.3 -71.6 -162.8 -159.2 -173.2 -316.3 -318.4 35.6
104.5
237.5
55.6 149.1
-9.0 -546.1 -544.2 -163.2 -207.1 -181.2 -171.8 -215.6 -248.4 -123.0 -110.8 -510.7 -445.9 -333.5 -468.4 -522.5 24.7 11.3
-441.2 -100.7
-124.5 -185.6 -217.1 -94.7 -80.5 -455.7
138.9 -152.7
199.8 196.5
126.3 120.4
191.0
-413.3 -298.0 -465.9 60.6 45.8
304.5 295.3 286.9
152.8 149.3 141.9 118.0
324.4
133.0 107.1
80.7 74.5 72.6
86.0
111.4 184.9
285.0
68.3
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C3H5Cl C3H5Cl C3H5ClO C3H5ClO2 C3H5ClO2 C3H5ClO2 C3H5Cl3 C3H5I C3H5IO C3H5IO2 C3H5N C3H5N C3H5N C3H5NO3 C3H5NO4 C3H5N3O9 C3H6 C3H6 C3H6Br2 C3H6Cl2 C3H6Cl2 C3H6Cl2 C3H6Cl2O C3H6Cl2O C3H6I2 C3H6I2 C3H6N2O2 C3H6N2O2
Name
Molecular formula
C3H8O2 C3H8O3 C3H8S C3H8S C3H8S
1,2-Dithiolane 1,3-Dithiolane 1-Bromopropane 2-Bromopropane 1-Chloropropane 2-Chloropropane 3-Chloro-1,2-propanediol 2-Chloro-1,3-propanediol 1-Fluoropropane 2-Fluoropropane 1-Iodopropane 2-Iodopropane Allylamine Cyclopropylamine N,N-Dimethylformamide Propanamide 1-Nitropropane 2-Nitropropane DL-Alanine D-Alanine L-Alanine β-Alanine N-Methylglycine L-Cysteine Propyl nitrate Isopropyl nitrate DL-Serine L-Serine Propane N-Ethylurea N,N-Dimethylurea N,N’-Dimethylurea Oxymethurea 1-Propanol 2-Propanol Ethyl methyl ether 1,2-Propylene glycol 1,3-Propylene glycol Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether Dimethoxymethane Glycerol 1-Propanethiol 2-Propanethiol Ethyl methyl sulfide
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-121.9 -130.5 -160.5 -172.3 -525.3 -517.5
-66.0 -74.8 -10.0 45.8 -239.3 -338.2 -167.2 -180.3 -563.6 -561.2 -604.0 -558.0 -513.3 -534.1
Gas 0.0 10.0 -87.0 -99.4 -131.9 -144.9
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
47.7 54.7
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
313.5 323.3
86.5 84.7
-285.9 -293.5 -30.0 -40.3 77.0 -192.4 -259.0 -123.8 -138.9
187.7
147.1 150.6
170.3
-465.9 -424.0 -367.3 -214.5 -229.7
-173.9 -191.0
-120.9
-103.8
-302.6 -318.1
193.6 181.1
-501.0 -480.8
-255.1 -272.6 -216.4 -429.8 -408.0
-377.8 -669.6 -99.9 -105.9 -91.6
-348.5 -577.9 -67.8 -76.2 -59.6
244.0 206.3 242.5 233.5 239.1
-739.0 -732.7 -23.4
270.3
73.6
-357.8 -319.1 -312.1 -717.0 322.6 309.2 309.2
143.9 156.5 190.8
171.1 162.0 218.9 144.6 145.3 144.6
85.6 89.3 93.3
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C3H6S2 C3H6S2 C3H7Br C3H7Br C3H7Cl C3H7Cl C3H7ClO2 C3H7ClO2 C3H7F C3H7F C3H7I C3H7I C3H7N C3H7N C3H7NO C3H7NO C3H7NO2 C3H7NO2 C3H7NO2 C3H7NO2 C3H7NO2 C3H7NO2 C3H7NO2 C3H7NO2S C3H7NO3 C3H7NO3 C3H7NO3 C3H7NO3 C3H8 C3H8N2O C3H8N2O C3H8N2O C3H8N2O3 C3H8O C3H8O C3H8O C3H8O2 C3H8O2 C3H8O2
Name
Molecular formula
C3H10N2 C3H10Si C3H12BN C3H12BN C4F8 C4F10 C4H2N2 C4H2O3 C4H2O4 C4H3NO3 C4H4BrNO2 C4H4ClNO2 C4H4N2 C4H4N2 C4H4N2 C4H4N2 C4H4N2O2 C4H4N2O3 C4H4O C4H4O2 C4H4O3 C4H4O4 C4H4O4 C4H4S C4H5N C4H5N C4H5N C4H5N C4H5NO2 C4H5NS C4H5N3O C4H6 C4H6 C4H6 C4H6
1,3-Propanedithiol Trimethyl aluminum Trimethylborane Trimethylchlorosilane Propylamine Isopropylamine Trimethylamine Propylamine hydrochloride Trimethylamine hydrochloride 1,2-Propanediamine, (±)Trimethylsilane Trimethylamine borane Aminetrimethylboron Perfluorocyclobutane Perfluorobutane trans-2-Butenedinitrile Maleic anhydride 2-Butynedioic acid 2-Nitrofuran N-Bromosuccinimide N-Chlorosuccinimide Succinonitrile Pyrazine Pyrimidine Pyridazine Uracil 2,4,6-Trihydroxypyrimidine Furan Diketene Succinic anhydride Maleic acid Fumaric acid Thiophene trans-2-Butenenitrile 3-Butenenitrile Pyrrole Cyclopropanecarbonitrile Succinimide 4-Methylthiazole Cytosine 1,2-Butadiene 1,3-Butadiene 1-Butyne 2-Butyne
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-79.4 -136.4 -143.1 -382.8 -101.5 -112.3 -45.7
-29.8 -74.1 -124.3 -352.8 -70.1 -83.7 -23.6
-97.8
-53.6
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq. -9.9 -32.1 -246.4
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq. 209.4 238.9 278.2
-35.9 -243.5 39.9 32.2
218.3 208.5
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 155.6
314.7 369.1 325.4 312.2 287.1
88.5 164.1 163.8 137.9
91.2 97.5 91.8
-354.7 -282.9 331.0 -142.5 -284.1
70.7 -79.3
117.9
187.0 218.0
-1542.6 127.2 268.2 -469.8 -577.3 -104.1 -335.9 -357.9
340.2 -398.3 -28.8
139.7
209.7 196.1 195.7 278.3 -302.9
191.6
177.0
67.9
-34.8 -190.3 -527.9 -679.4 -675.8 114.9 134.3 159.7 108.2 182.8 -375.4 111.8
138.6 88.5 141.4 119.1
162.3 110.0 165.2 145.7
139.8 145.9 224.9 -429.4 -634.7 -62.3 -233.1 -608.6 -789.4 -811.7 80.2 95.1 117.8 63.1 140.8 -459.0
145.6
120.5 267.2
160.8 168.0 126.1
114.8
65.4
123.8
72.8
137.0 142.0 181.2
278.8
156.4
-221.3
127.7
132.6 199.0
123.6
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C3H8S2 C3H9Al C3H9B C3H9ClSi C3H9N C3H9N C3H9N C3H10ClN C3H10ClN
Name
Molecular formula
C4H8 C4H8 C4H8 C4H8 C4H8 C4H8 C4H8Br2 C4H8Br2 C4H8Br2 C4H8Br2 C4H8Br2 C4H8Cl2 C4H8Cl2 C4H8Cl2O
Cyclobutene 2,5-Piperazinedione Divinyl ether trans-2-Butenal trans-Crotonic acid Methacrylic acid Vinyl acetate Methyl acrylate γ-Butyrolactone Acetic anhydride Propylene carbonate Succinic acid Dimethyl oxalate 2,3-Dihydrothiophene 2,5-Dihydrothiophene 2-Chloroethyl vinyl ether 2-Chlorobutanoic acid 3-Chlorobutanoic acid 4-Chlorobutanoic acid Propyl chlorocarbonate Butanenitrile 2-Methylpropanenitrile 2-Pyrrolidone 2-Methyl-2-oxazoline Iminodiacetic acid Ethyl nitroacetate L-Aspartic acid 4H-Imidazol-4-one, 2-amino-1,5-dihydro-1methyl1-Butene cis-2-Butene trans-2-Butene Isobutene Cyclobutane Methylcyclopropane 1,2-Dibromobutane 1,3-Dibromobutane 1,4-Dibromobutane 2,3-Dibromobutane 1,2-Dibromo-2methylpropane 1,3-Dichlorobutane 1,4-Dichlorobutane Bis(2-chloroethyl) ether
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
156.7 -446.5 -39.8 -138.7
-13.6 -100.6
-349.2 -362.2 -420.9 -624.4 -613.2
-314.4 -333.0 -366.5 -572.5 -582.5 -823.0 -708.9 90.7 86.9 -170.1
161.1
-940.5 -756.3 52.9 47.0 -208.1 -575.5 -556.3 -566.3 -533.4 -5.8 -13.8 -286.2 -169.5
239.5
158.8 141.4 218.6
167.3
153.1
133.5 131.6
303.5 297.1
79.8 83.3
-492.7 33.6 23.4 -130.5
-932.6 -487.1 -973.3
-238.5 -20.8 -29.8 -33.3 -37.5 3.7 1.7 -142.1 -148.0 -140.3 -139.6
0.1 -7.1 -11.4 -16.9 27.7
-87.8 -102.0
-156.6 -237.3 -229.8
-113.3 -195.0 -183.4
227.0 219.9
118.0 127.0
-91.6
220.9
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C4H6 C4H6N2O2 C4H6O C4H6O C4H6O2 C4H6O2 C4H6O2 C4H6O2 C4H6O2 C4H6O3 C4H6O3 C4H6O4 C4H6O4 C4H6S C4H6S C4H7ClO C4H7ClO2 C4H7ClO2 C4H7ClO2 C4H7ClO2 C4H7N C4H7N C4H7NO C4H7NO C4H7NO4 C4H7NO4 C4H7NO4 C4H7N3O
Name
Name
C4H8I2 C4H8N2O2 C4H8N2O2 C4H8N2O3 C4H8N2O3 C4H8N2O4 C4H8O C4H8O C4H8O C4H8O C4H8O C4H8O C4H8OS C4H8O2 C4H8O2 C4H8O2 C4H8O2 C4H8O2 C4H8O2 C4H8O2 C4H8O2S C4H8S C4H8S2 C4H9Br C4H9Br C4H9Br C4H9Cl C4H9Cl C4H9Cl C4H9Cl C4H9ClO C4H9I C4H9I C4H9N C4H9N C4H9NO C4H9NO C4H9NO C4H9NO C4H9NO C4H9NO2 C4H9NO2 C4H9NO2 C4H9NO2 C4H9NO3
1,4-Diiodobenzene Succinamide Dimethylglyoxime L-Asparagine N-Glycylglycine 1,4-Dinitrobutane Ethyl vinyl ether 1,2-Epoxybutane Butanal Isobutanal 2-Butanone Tetrahydrofuran S-Ethyl thioacetate Butanoic acid 2-Methylpropanoic acid Propyl formate Ethyl acetate 1,3-Dioxane 1,4-Dioxane 2-Methyl-1,3-dioxolane Sulfolane Tetrahydrothiophene 1,3-Dithiane 1-Bromobutane 2-Bromobutane 2-Bromo-2-methylpropane 1-Chlorobutane 2-Chlorobutane 1-Chloro-2-methylpropane 2-Chloro-2-methylpropane 2-Chloroethyl ethyl ether 1-Iodo-2-methylpropane 2-Iodo-2-methylpropane Cyclobutanamine Pyrrolidine Butanamide N-Methylpropanamide 2-Methylpropanamide N,N-Dimethylacetamide Morpholine 1-Nitrobutane 2-Nitroisobutane Propyl carbamate 4-Aminobutanoic acid 3-Nitro-2-butanol
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
230.9 246.6
343.7
147.0 163.7
103.4
239.1 204.3
339.9 302.4
158.7 124.0
101.7 76.3
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
-30.0 -581.2 -199.7 -789.4 -747.7 -237.5 -167.4 -168.9 -239.2 -247.3 -273.3 -216.2 -268.2 -533.8
-204.8 -215.7 -238.5 -184.1 -228.1 -475.9
-500.3 -479.3 -379.7 -353.9 -386.9
-462.7 -443.6 -340.6 -315.3 -352.0
-72.9 -143.8 -154.9 -164.4 -188.1 -192.8 -191.1 -211.3 -335.6
-34.1 -10.0 -107.1 -120.3 -132.4 -154.4 -161.1 -159.3 -182.2 -301.3
-107.5 5.6 -41.1 -346.9
-72.1 41.2 -3.6 -282.0
-278.3
-282.6 -228.0
-140.8
222.2
178.6 173.0
257.7
170.7 143.9 152.1
270.2
180.0 45.8 72.4
309.6 333.5
92.5 110.4
162.3
204.1
156.6 179.0
-368.6
-192.5 -217.2 -552.6 -581.0 -390.0
-143.9 -177.1 -471.4 -441.0
175.6 164.8
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
Molecular formula
Molecular formula
Crys.
2-Methyl-2-nitro-1-propanol -410.1 DL-Threonine -758.8 L-Threonine -807.2 Creatine -537.2 Butane Isobutane Diethyl mercury Piperazine -45.6 Trimethylurea -330.5 N-Nitrodiethylamine L-Asparagine, monohydrate -1086.6 1-Butanol 2-Butanol 2-Methyl-1-propanol 2-Methyl-2-propanol Diethyl ether Methyl propyl ether Isopropyl methyl ether Diethyl sulfoxide 1,2-Butanediol, (±)1,3-Butanediol 1,4-Butanediol 2,3-Butanediol 2-Methyl-1,2-propanediol Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether Ethylene glycol dimethyl ether Dimethylacetal tert-Butyl hydroperoxide Diethylene glycol Diethyl sulfite Sulfuric acid, diethyl ester 1-Butanethiol 2-Butanethiol 2-Methyl-1-propanethiol 2-Methyl-2-propanethiol Diethyl sulfide Methyl propyl sulfide Isopropyl methyl sulfide 1,4-Butanedithiol Diethyl disulfide Butylamine sec-Butylamine tert-Butylamine Isobutylamine Diethylamine
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-147.3 -154.2 30.1
-125.7 -134.2 75.3
-106.2
-53.0
-327.3 -342.6 -334.7 -359.2 -279.5 -266.0 -278.8 -268.0 -523.6 -501.0 -505.3 -541.5 -539.7
-274.9 -292.8 -283.8 -312.5 -252.1 -238.1 -252.0 -205.6
-376.6 -420.6 -293.6 -628.5 -600.7 -813.2 -124.7 -131.0 -132.0 -140.5 -119.4 -118.5 -124.7 -105.7 -120.1 -127.6 -137.5 -150.6 -132.6 -103.7
-433.2 -428.7 -482.3
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
140.9 182.8
225.8 214.9 214.7 193.3 172.4 262.9 253.8
359.5 326.7 342.7
223.4
177.2 196.9 181.5 218.6 175.6 165.4 161.9
112.7 113.6 119.5
200.1 213.0 210.8 193.3
-389.7 -245.9 -571.2 -552.2 -756.3 -88.0 -96.9 -97.3 -109.6 -83.5 -82.2 -90.5 -50.6 -79.4 -91.9 -104.6 -121.0 -98.7 -72.2
244.8
171.2
269.3 272.5 263.1 269.3
368.1
171.4 171.6 172.4 171.4 179.2 192.1 183.2 169.2
117.0
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C4H9NO3 C4H9NO3 C4H9NO3 C4H9N3O2 C4H10 C4H10 C4H10Hg C4H10N2 C4H10N2O C4H10N2O2 C4H10N2O4 C4H10O C4H10O C4H10O C4H10O C4H10O C4H10O C4H10O C4H10OS C4H10O2 C4H10O2 C4H10O2 C4H10O2 C4H10O2 C4H10O2 C4H10O2 C4H10O2 C4H10O2 C4H10O3 C4H10O3S C4H10O4S C4H10S C4H10S C4H10S C4H10S C4H10S C4H10S C4H10S C4H10S2 C4H10S2 C4H11N C4H11N C4H11N C4H11N C4H11N
Name
Molecular formula
C4H12BrN C4H12ClN C4H12ClN C4H12IN C4H12N2 C4H12Pb C4H12Si C4H12Sn C4H13N3 C4N2 C4NiO4 C5FeO5 C5H2F6O2 C5H3NO5 C5H4N4 C5H4N4O C5H4N4O2 C5H4N4O3 C5H4O2 C5H4O3 C5H4O3 C5H5F3O2 C5H5N C5H5NO C5H5N5 C5H5N5O C5H6 C5H6 C5H6 C5H6N2O2 C5H6O2 C5H6O4 C5H6S C5H6S C5H7N C5H7N
Crys.
N,N-Dimethylethanolamine Diethanolamine -493.8 2-Amino-2-(hydroxymethyl)1,3-propanediol -717.8 Tetramethylammonium bromide -251.0 Diethylamine hydrochloride -358.6 Tetramethylammonium chloride -276.4 Tetramethylammonium iodide -203.9 2-Methyl-1,2-propanediamine Tetramethyl lead Tetramethylsilane Tetramethylstannane Diethylenetriamine 2-Butynedinitrile Nickel carbonyl Iron pentacarbonyl Hexafluoroacetylacetone -2286.7 5-Nitro-2-furancarboxylic acid -516.8 1H-Purine 169.4 Hypoxanthine -110.8 Xanthine -379.6 Uric acid -618.8 Furfural 2-Furancarboxylic acid -498.4 3-Methyl-2,5-furandione 1,1,1-Trifluoro-2,4pentanedione Pyridine 1H-Pyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde -106.4 Adenine 96.9 Guanine -183.9 cis-3-Penten-1-yne trans-3-Penten-1-yne 1,3-Cyclopentadiene Thymine -462.8 Furfuryl alcohol trans-1-Propene-1,2dicarboxylic acid -824.4 2-Methylthiophene 3-Methylthiophene trans-3-Pentenenitrile Cyclobutanecarbonitrile
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq. -253.7
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
-203.6 -397.1
-133.9 97.9 -264.0 -52.3
-90.3 135.9 -239.1 -18.8
500.4 -633.0 -774.0
529.2 -602.9
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 233.5
-100.0
-99.9
277.3
359.0
204.1
143.9
254.0 -588.2 -705.3
-587.2
313.4 338.1
145.6 161.1 173.2 -201.6 -504.5
-151.0 -390.0 -447.2
-1040.2 100.2
-993.3 140.4
410.6
204.6 240.6
134.5 151.3 166.1 163.2
132.7
205.7
147.0
150.8
-276.2
134.3 -328.7 -211.8
44.6 43.1 80.9 103.0
83.5 82.5 125.7 147.4
226.5 228.2 105.9
204.0
218.5
149.8
145.2
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C4H11NO C4H11NO2 C4H11NO3
Name
Molecular formula
C5H8O2 C5H8O4 C5H9ClO2 C5H9N C5H9N C5H9N C5H9NO C5H9NO C5H9NO2 C5H9NO4 C5H9NO4 C5H10 C5H10 C5H10 C5H10 C5H10 C5H10 C5H10 C5H10 C5H10 C5H10 C5H10
Crys.
1-Methylpyrrole 2-Methylpyrrole 3-Methylpyrrole Ethyl cyanoacetate 1,2-Pentadiene cis-1,3-Pentadiene trans-1,3-Pentadiene 1,4-Pentadiene 2,3-Pentadiene 3-Methyl-1,2-butadiene 2-Methyl-1,3-butadiene Cyclopentene Methylenecyclobutane Spiropentane Pentaerythritol tetranitrate -538.6 Cyclopentanone 4-Pentenoic acid -430.6 Methyl trans-2-butenoate Methyl methacrylate Allyl acetate 2,4-Pentanedione 4-Methyl-gammabutyrolactone Tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-one Glutaric acid -960.0 Propyl chloroacetate Pentanenitrile 2,2-Dimethylpropanenitrile 1,2,5,6-Tetrahydropyridine 2-Piperidinone -306.6 N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone L-Proline -515.2 D-Glutamic acid -1005.3 L-Glutamic acid -1009.7 1-Pentene cis-2-Pentene trans-2-Pentene 2-Methyl-1-butene 3-Methyl-1-butene 2-Methyl-2-butene Cyclopentane Methylcyclobutane Ethylcyclopropane 1,1-Dimethylcyclopropane cis-1,2-Dimethylcyclopropane
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq. 62.4 23.3 20.5
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
103.1 74.0 70.2 220.2 140.7 81.4 76.1 105.7 133.1
101.2 48.2 4.3 93.8 157.5
75.5 34.0 121.6 185.2
-235.9
-192.1
-382.9
-341.9
229.3 201.2
152.6 122.4
193.7
134.5
191.2 184.1 -423.8
-382.0
-461.3 -436.7
-406.5 -379.6
-515.5 -33.1 -39.8 33.5
-467.0 10.5 -2.3
232.0
-262.2
179.4
307.8 -366.2
-46.9 -53.7 -58.2 -61.1 -51.5 -68.6 -105.1 -44.5 -24.8 -33.3 -26.3
-21.1 -27.6 -31.9 -35.2 -27.5 -41.7 -76.4
-8.2
262.6 258.6 256.5 254.0 253.3 251.0 204.5
154.0 151.7 157.0 157.2 156.1 152.8 128.8
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C5H7N C5H7N C5H7N C5H7NO2 C5H8 C5H8 C5H8 C5H8 C5H8 C5H8 C5H8 C5H8 C5H8 C5H8 C5H8N4O12 C5H8O C5H8O2 C5H8O2 C5H8O2 C5H8O2 C5H8O2 C5H8O2
Name
Molecular formula
C5H10Br2 C5H10N2O C5H10N2O2 C5H10N2O3 C5H10O C5H10O C5H10O C5H10O C5H10O C5H10O C5H10O C5H10OS C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O2 C5H10O3 C5H10O3 C5H10O3 C5H10O4 C5H10O5 C5H10O5 C5H10O5 C5H10S C5H10S C5H11Br C5H11Cl C5H11Cl C5H11Cl C5H11Cl C5H11N
Crys.
trans-1,2-Dimethylcyclopropane 1,3-Dibromo-2methylpropane N-Nitrosopiperidine N-Nitropiperidine L-Glutamine -826.4 Cyclopentanol Pentanal 2-Pentanone 3-Pentanone 3-Methyl-2-butanone 3,3-Dimethyloxetane Tetrahydropyran S-Propyl thioacetate Pentanoic acid 2-Methylbutanoic acid 3-Methylbutanoic acid 2,2-Dimethylpropanoic acid -564.5 Butyl formate Propyl acetate Isopropyl acetate Ethyl propanoate cis-1,2-Cyclopentanediol -485.0 trans-1,2-Cyclopentanediol -490.1 4-Methyl-1,3-dioxane -416.1 (Ethoxymethyl)oxirane Tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol Diethyl carbonate Ethylene glycol momomethyl ether acetate Ethyl lactate 1,2,3-Propanetriol, 1-acetate, (±)D-Ribose -1047.2 D-Xylose -1057.8 α-D-Arabinopyranose -1057.9 Thiacyclohexane Cyclopentanethiol 1-Bromopentane 1-Chloropentane 2-Chloro-2-methylbutane 1-Chloro-3-methylbutane 2-Chloro-3-methylbutane Cyclopentylamine
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
-30.7
-31.1 -93.0 -300.1 -267.2 -297.3 -296.5 -299.5 -182.2 -258.3 -294.5 -559.4 -554.5 -561.6
-518.9 -502.7
-137.6 16.6 -44.5 -242.5 -228.4 -258.8 -257.9 -262.6 -148.2 -223.4 -250.4 -491.9
206.3
184.1
266.0 268.5
184.1 190.9 179.9
259.8
210.3
-510.0 -491.3 200.2 196.2 199.4
-481.6 -463.4
-376.9 -296.5 -435.7 -681.5
-369.1 -637.9 310.0 254.0
-909.2
-106.3 -89.5 -170.2 -213.2 -235.7 -216.0 -226.6 -95.1
-63.5 -48.1 -128.9 -174.9 -202.2 -179.7 -185.1 -54.9
53.1
218.2 256.9
241.0
323.0
163.3 165.2
181.2
109.7
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C5H10
Name
Molecular formula
C5H12 C5H12 C5H12 C5H12N2O C5H12N2O C5H12N2O C5H12N2O C5H12N2S C5H12O C5H12O C5H12O C5H12O C5H12O C5H12O C5H12O C5H12O C5H12O C5H12O C5H12O C5H12O2 C5H12O2 C5H12O2 C5H12O2 C5H12O2 C5H12O3 C5H12O3 C5H12O4 C5H12O5 C5H12S C5H12S C5H12S C5H12S C5H12S
Crys.
Piperidine Pentanamide -379.5 2,2-Dimethylpropanamide -399.7 1-Nitropentane DL-Valine -628.9 L-Valine -617.9 5-Aminopentanoic acid -604.1 L-Methionine -577.5 2-Ethyl-2-nitro-1,3propanediol -606.4 Pentane Isopentane Neopentane Butylurea -419.5 tert-Butylurea -417.4 N,N-Diethylurea -372.2 Tetramethylurea -262.2 Tetramethylthiourea -38.1 1-Pentanol 2-Pentanol 3-Pentanol 2-Methyl-1-butanol 3-Methyl-1-butanol 2-Methyl-2-butanol 3-Methyl-2-butanol 2,2-Dimethyl-1-propanol Butyl methyl ether tert-Butyl methyl ether Ethyl propyl ether 1,5-Pentanediol 2,2-Dimethyl-1,3-propanediol -551.2 Diethoxymethane 1,1-Dimethoxypropane 2,2-Dimethoxypropane Diethylene glycol monomethyl ether 2-(Hydroxymethyl)-2methyl-1,3-propanediol -744.6 Pentaerythritol -920.6 Xylitol -1118.5 1-Pentanethiol 2-Methyl-1-butanethiol 3-Methyl-1-butanethiol 2-Methyl-2-butanethiol 3-Methyl-2-butanethiol
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq. -86.4
Gas -47.1 -290.2 -313.1
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
210.0
179.9
260.4
167.2 164.8
-215.4 -455.1 -460.0 -413.5
-173.5 -178.4 -190.2
-351.6 -365.2 -368.9 -356.6 -356.4 -379.5 -366.6 -399.4 -290.6 -313.6 -303.6 -528.8 -450.5 -443.6 -459.4
-146.9 -153.6 -168.0
44.9 -294.6 -311.0 -314.9 -301.4 -300.7 -329.3 -313.5 -258.1 -283.7 -272.0 -450.8
208.1 239.7
247.1
295.3 265.3 295.0
192.7 187.5 197.2
-414.7 -429.9 271.1
-776.7 -151.3 -154.4 -154.4 -162.8 -158.8
-110.0 -114.9 -114.9 -127.1 -121.3
290.1
198.1
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C5H11N C5H11NO C5H11NO C5H11NO2 C5H11NO2 C5H11NO2 C5H11NO2 C5H11NO2S C5H11NO4
Name
Molecular formula
C6ClF5 C6Cl6 C6F6 C6F10 C6F12 C6HF5 C6HF5O C6H2F4 C6H3Cl3 C6H3Cl3 C6H3Cl3 C6H3N3O8 C6H4Cl2 C6H4Cl2 C6H4Cl2 C6H4F2 C6H4F2 C6H4F2 C6H4N2O5 C6H4O2 C6H5Br C6H5Cl C6H5ClO C6H5ClO C6H5F C6H5I C6H5NO2 C6H5NO2 C6H5NO3 C6H5N3 C6H5N3O4 C6H5N3O4 C6H5N3O4 C6H5N3O4 C6H5N3O4 C6H6 C6H6
Crys.
2,2-Dimethyl-1-propanethiol Butyl methyl sulfide tert-Butyl methyl sulfide Ethyl propyl sulfide Ethyl isopropyl sulfide Pentylamine N,N,N′,N′-Tetramethylmethanediamine Chloropentafluorobenzene -858.4 Hexachlorobenzene -127.6 Hexafluorobenzene Perfluorocyclohexene Perfluorocyclohexane Pentafluorobenzene -852.7 Pentafluorophenol -1024.1 1,2,4,5-Tetrafluorobenzene 1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene -70.8 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 1,3,5-Trichlorobenzene -78.4 2,4,6-Trinitro-1,3-benzenediol -467.5 o-Dichlorobenzene m-Dichlorobenzene p-Dichlorobenzene -42.3 o-Difluorobenzene m-Difluorobenzene p-Difluorobenzene 2,4-Dinitrophenol -232.7 p-Benzoquinone -185.7 Bromobenzene Chlorobenzene m-Chlorophenol -206.4 p-Chlorophenol -197.7 Fluorobenzene Iodobenzene Nitrobenzene 3-Pyridinecarboxylic acid -344.9 2-Nitrophenol -202.4 1H-Benzotriazole 236.5 2,3-Dinitroaniline -11.7 2,4-Dinitroaniline -67.8 2,5-Dinitroaniline -44.3 2,6-Dinitroaniline -50.6 3,5-Dinitroaniline -38.9 1,5-Hexadiyne Benzene
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-165.4 -142.9 -157.1 -144.8 -156.1
-129.0 -102.4 -121.3 -104.8 -118.3
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
307.5 276.1 309.5
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C5H12S C5H12S C5H12S C5H12S C5H12S C5H13N C5H14N2
Name
200.9 199.9 198.4 218.0
-51.1
-991.3 -1963.5 -2406.3 -841.8 -1007.7 -683.8 -63.1
-17.5 -20.7 -330.0 -343.9 -342.3
60.9 11.1 -189.3 -181.3 -150.6 117.2 12.5
-18.2 -809.3 -35.5 -955.4 -1932.7 -2370.4 -806.5
260.2
201.2 280.8
221.6
3.8 -8.1 -13.4 30.2 25.7 22.5 -293.8 -309.2 -306.7 -128.1 -122.9
162.4 175.4
147.8 222.6 223.8
159.0 159.1 157.5 129.0
219.2
154.3 150.1
205.9 205.4
146.4 158.7 185.8
52.0
-115.9 164.9 67.5 -221.5 335.5
384.2 49.1
82.9
124.5
129.7
173.4
269.2
136.0
82.4
Molecular formula
C6H6O6 C6H6S C6H7N C6H7N C6H7N C6H7N C6H7N C6H8N2 C6H8N2 C6H8N2 C6H8N2 C6H8N2 C6H8N2S C6H8O4 C6H8O6 C6H8O7 C6H9Cl3O2 C6H9Cl3O2 C6H9N C6H9N C6H9N C6H9NO3 C6H9NO6 C6H9N3O2 C6H10 C6H10 C6H10 C6H10 C6H10
o-Nitroaniline m-Nitroaniline p-Nitroaniline Phenol 2-Vinylfuran p-Hydroquinone Pyrocatechol Resorcinol 1,2,3-Benzenetriol 1,2,4-Benzenetriol 1,3,5-Benzenetriol 3,4-Dimethyl-2,5-furandione cis-1-Propene-1,2,3tricarboxylic acid trans-1-Propene-1,2,3tricarboxylic acid Benzenethiol Aniline 2-Methylpyridine 3-Methylpyridine 4-Methylpyridine 1-Cyclopentenecarbonitrile Adiponitrile o-Phenylenediamine m-Phenylenediamine p-Phenylenediamine Phenylhydrazine Bis(2-cyanoethyl) sulfide Dimethyl maleate L-Ascorbic acid 2-Hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetricarboxylic acid Butyl trichloroacetate Isobutyl trichloroacetate Cyclopentanecarbonitrile 2,4-Dimethylpyrrole 2,5-Dimethylpyrrole Triacetamide Nitrilotriacetic acid L-Histidine 1,5-Hexadiene 3,3-Dimethyl-1-butyne Cyclohexene 1-Methylcyclopentene 3-Methylcyclopentene
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys. -26.1 -38.3 -42.0 -165.1
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq. -9.4 -14.4 -20.7 -10.3
-364.5 -354.1 -368.0 -551.1 -563.8 -584.6 -581.4
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
63.8 58.4 58.8 -96.4 27.8 -265.3 -267.5 -274.7 -434.2 -444.0 -452.9
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 166.0 158.8 167.0 127.4
144.0
136.0
-1224.4 -1232.7 63.7 31.6 56.7 61.9 59.2 111.5 85.1
111.3 87.5 99.2 106.4 103.8 156.5 149.5
-0.3 -7.8 3.0
222.8 -7.0 216.3 209.1
128.7 154.5
141.0 96.3
173.2 191.9 158.6 158.7 159.0
317.9
159.6
202.9
217.0 263.2
-1164.6 -1543.8 -545.8 -553.4 0.7
-492.3 -500.2 44.1
-16.7 -610.5
39.8 -550.1
54.1 78.4 -38.5 -36.4 -23.7
84.2
-422.3
-1311.9 -466.7
-5.0 -3.8 7.4
214.6
148.3
107.9
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C6H6N2O2 C6H6N2O2 C6H6N2O2 C6H6O C6H6O C6H6O2 C6H6O2 C6H6O2 C6H6O3 C6H6O3 C6H6O3 C6H6O3 C6H6O6
Name
Molecular formula
Name
C6H10 C6H10Cl2O2 C6H10O C6H10O C6H10O C6H10O2 C6H10O2
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-17.6 -550.1 -271.2 -265.2
14.6 -497.8 -226.1
-420.0
-375.6
-395.0
-350.2
-679.1
-626.5
-805.5
-742.0
-207.2 -566.5 -537.6 -538.4
-163.7 -513.8 -485.7 -487.4 -239.6
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
182.2 212.5
248.0 -994.3 310.0
-329.4 -293.0 -74.2 -83.9 -85.5 -78.9 -86.1 -90.0 -78.2 -80.0 -94.5 -87.0 -94.6 -91.6 -87.1 -93.2 -87.5 -101.4 -156.4 -137.9 -59.0
-43.5 -52.3 -53.9 -47.6 -54.4 -59.4 -49.5 -51.3 -62.3 -57.5 -63.1 -61.5 -56.0 -62.4 -60.3 -68.1 -123.4 -106.2 -27.5
-96.2 -98.5
-66.9
156.8 295.2
183.3
270.2
174.7 154.9
-1032.7 -348.2 -345.5 -218.8
-286.2
208.2
-182.6
232.0
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
4-Methylcyclopentene Butyl dichloroacetate Cyclohexanone 2-Methylcyclopentanone Mesityl oxide Ethyl trans-2-butenoate Methyl cyclobutanecarboxylate C6H10O3 Ethyl acetoacetate C6H10O3 Propanoic anhydride C6H10O4 Adipic acid C6H10O4 Diethyl oxalate C6H10O4 Ethylene glycol diacetate C6H11Cl Chlorocyclohexane C6H11ClO2 Ethyl 4-chlorobutanoate C6H11ClO2 Propyl 3-chloropropanoate C6H11ClO2 Butyl chloroacetate C6H11NO Caprolactam C6H11NO 1-Methyl-2-piperidinone C6H12 1-Hexene C6H12 cis-2-Hexene C6H12 trans-2-Hexene C6H12 cis-3-Hexene C6H12 trans-3-Hexene 2-Methyl-1-pentene C6H12 C6H12 3-Methyl-1-pentene C6H12 4-Methyl-1-pentene 3-Methyl-cis-2-pentene C6H12 C6H12 4-Methyl-cis-2-pentene C6H12 3-Methyl-trans-2-pentene 4-Methyl-trans-2-pentene C6H12 C6H12 2-Ethyl-1-butene C6H12 2,3-Dimethyl-1-butene 3,3-Dimethyl-1-butene C6H12 C6H12 2,3-Dimethyl-2-butene C6H12 Cyclohexane C6H12 Methylcyclopentane C6H12 Ethylcyclobutane C6H12 1,1,2-Trimethylcyclopropane C6H12 2-Methyl-2-pentene C6H12N2O4S2 L-Cystine C6H12O Cyclohexanol C6H12O cis-2-Methylcyclopentanol C6H12O Butyl vinyl ether
Crys.
Molecular formula
C6H12O2 C6H12O3 C6H12O3 C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C6H12S C6H12S C6H13Br C6H13Cl C6H13N C6H13N C6H13NO C6H13NO C6H13NO2 C6H13NO2 C6H13NO2 C6H13NO2 C6H13NO2 C6H13NO2 C6H13NO2 C6H14 C6H14 C6H14 C6H14 C6H14 C6H14N2 C6H14N2O2 C6H14N4O2 C6H14O
2-Hexanone 3-Hexanone Methyl isobutyl ketone 2-Methyl-3-pentanone 3,3-Dimethyl-2-butanone Hexanoic acid Butyl acetate Isobutyl acetate Ethyl butanoate Methyl pentanoate Methyl 2,2-dimethylpropanoate Diacetone alcohol Ethylene glycol ethyl ether acetate Paraldehyde β-D-Fructose D-Galactose α-D-Glucose D-Mannose L-Sorbose Cyclohexanethiol Cyclopentyl methyl sulfide 1-Bromohexane 2-Chlorohexane Cyclohexylamine (±)-2-Methylpiperidine Hexanamide N-Butylacetamide DL-Leucine D-Leucine L-Leucine DL-Isoleucine L-Isoleucine Norleucine 6-Aminohexanoic acid Hexane 2-Methylpentane 3-Methylpentane 2,2-Dimethylbutane 2,3-Dimethylbutane Azopropane Lysine D-Arginine 1-Hexanol
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-322.0 -320.2
-278.9 -277.6
-325.9 -328.6 -583.8 -529.2
-286.0 -290.6 -511.9 -485.3
-514.2
-471.1
-530.0
-491.2
-673.1
-631.7
-140.7 -109.8 -194.2 -246.1 -147.6 -124.9 -397.9 -380.9
-96.2 -64.7 -148.3 -204.3 -104.0 -84.4 -324.2 -305.9
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 213.3 216.9 213.3
305.3
227.8 233.8 228.0 229.3 257.9 221.3 376.0
-1265.6 -1286.3 -1273.3 -1263.0 -1271.5
-640.6 -637.3 -637.4 -635.3 -637.8 -639.1 -637.3
255.6
192.6
453.0
203.5
-486.8
-198.7 -204.6 -202.4 -213.8 -207.4 11.5
-166.9 -174.6 -171.9 -185.9 -178.1 51.3
-377.5
-315.9
-678.7 -623.5
200.1
195.6 193.7 190.7 191.9 189.7
290.6 292.5 272.5 287.8
250.6
232.0 287.4
240.4
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C6H12O C6H12O C6H12O C6H12O C6H12O C6H12O2 C6H12O2 C6H12O2 C6H12O2 C6H12O2 C6H12O2
Name
Molecular formula
C6H14O2 C6H14O2 C6H14O3 C6H14O3 C6H14O3 C6H14O4 C6H14O4S C6H14O6 C6H14O6 C6H14S C6H14S C6H14S C6H14S C6H14S C6H14S C6H14S2 C6H15B C6H15N C6H15N C6H15N C6H15NO C6H15NO3 C6H18N3OP C6H18OSi2 C6MoO6
2-Hexanol 3-Hexanol 2-Methyl-1-pentanol 3-Methyl-2-pentanol 4-Methyl-2-pentanol 2-Methyl-3-pentanol 3-Methyl-3-pentanol Dipropyl ether Diisopropyl ether Butyl ethyl ether Ethyl tert-butyl ether Dipropyl sulfoxide 1,2-Hexanediol 1,6-Hexanediol Hexylene glycol Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether 1,1-Diethoxyethane 1,2-Diethoxyethane Diethylene glycol monoethyl ether Diethylene glycol dimethyl ether Trimethylolpropane Triethylene glycol Dipropyl sulfate Galactitol D-Mannitol 1-Hexanethiol 2-Methyl-2-pentanethiol 2,3-Dimethyl-2-butanethiol Diisopropyl sulfide Butyl ethyl sulfide Methyl pentyl sulfide Dipropyl disulfide Triethylborane Dipropylamine Diisopropylamine Triethylamine 2-Diethylaminoethanol Triethanolamine Hexamethylphosphoric triamide Hexamethyldisiloxane Molybdenum hexacarbonyl
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq. -392.0 -392.4
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
-333.5 286.2 248.0 275.9 273.0
-394.7 -396.4
-569.9
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C6H14O C6H14O C6H14O C6H14O C6H14O C6H14O C6H14O C6H14O C6H14O C6H14O C6H14O C6H14OS C6H14O2 C6H14O2 C6H14O2 C6H14O2
Name
-328.8 -351.5
-293.0 -319.2
-329.4 -577.1 -548.6
-313.9 -254.9 -490.1 -461.2
293.4 221.6 216.8 159.0
323.9
336.0 281.0 -491.4 -451.4
-453.5 -408.1
259.4 301.0 274.1
-750.9 -804.3 -859.0 -1317.0 -1314.5 -175.7 -188.3 -187.1 -181.6 -172.3 -167.1 -171.5 -194.6 -156.1 -178.5 -127.7 -305.9 -664.2
-129.9 -148.3 -147.9 -142.0 -127.8 -121.8 -118.3 -157.7 -116.0 -143.8 -92.7
313.0
9.4
16.1
336.7
232.0
437.8
-777.7 -912.1
241.2
219.9
-558.3
-815.0 -982.8
-725.0 -792.0
389.0
-541.5 -877.7
-534.5 -856.0
433.8 325.9
535.0 490.0
321.0 311.4 242.3
238.5 205.0
Molecular formula
Tetracyanoethylene Perfluorotoluene Perfluoromethylcyclohexane Perfluoroheptane 2,3,4,5,6-Pentafluorotoluene m-Chlorobenzoyl chloride 3,5-Dinitrobenzoic acid Benzoyl chloride o-Chlorobenzoic acid o-Chlorobenzoic acid p-Chlorobenzoic acid (Trifluoromethyl)benzene Benzonitrile Benzoxazole 2-Nitrobenzoic acid 3-Nitrobenzoic acid 4-Nitrobenzoic acid 1H-Benzimidazole 1H-Indazole Benzaldehyde Benzoic acid 3-(2-Furanyl)-2-propenal Salicylaldehyde Salicylic acid o-Chlorotoluene (Chloromethyl)benzene p-Fluorotoluene Benzamide 2-Aminobenzoic acid Aniline-3-carboxylic acid Aniline-4-carboxylic acid o-Nitrotoluene m-Nitrotoluene p-Nitrotoluene (Nitromethyl)benzene Salicylaldoxime Toluene Phenylurea o-Cresol m-Cresol p-Cresol Benzyl alcohol Anisole Benzylamine o-Methylaniline
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
623.8
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
705.0 -1311.1 -2931.1 -3420.0 -883.8 -189.7
355.5 -2897.2 -3383.6 -842.7
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C6N4 C7F8 C7F14 C7F16 C7H3F5 C7H4Cl2O C7H4N2O6 C7H5ClO C7H5ClO2 C7H5ClO2 C7H5ClO2 C7H5F3 C7H5N C7H5NO C7H5NO4 C7H5NO4 C7H5NO4 C7H6N2 C7H6N2 C7H6O C7H6O2 C7H6O2 C7H6O2 C7H6O3 C7H7Cl C7H7Cl C7H7F C7H7NO C7H7NO2 C7H7NO2 C7H7NO2 C7H7NO2 C7H7NO2 C7H7NO2 C7H7NO2 C7H7NO2 C7H8 C7H8N2O C7H8O C7H8O C7H8O C7H8O C7H8O C7H9N C7H9N
Name
262.3 353.1 419.0 225.8
561.8 306.4
-409.8 -158.0 -404.5 -424.3 -428.9 163.2 -24.2 -378.8 -394.7 -392.2 79.5 151.9
-103.2 -325.0 -342.3 -341.0 215.7 44.8
-385.2 -182.0
181.7 243.0 -36.7 -294.0 -105.9
-589.9
-494.8
-87.0
163.2 188.4 165.2
209.1
221.2
172.0
167.6
146.8 222.0 166.8
-32.5 -186.9 -202.6 -380.4 -389.8 -391.9 -9.7 -31.5 -48.1
18.9 -147.4 -100.9 -296.0 -283.6 -296.7
-22.8
31.0 30.7
12.4
50.5
171.2
172.3
-183.7 -218.6 -204.6 -194.0 -199.3 -160.7 -114.8 34.2 -6.3
-128.6 -132.3 -125.4 -100.4 -67.9 94.4 56.4
157.3 165.4
154.6 212.6
224.9
167.3
150.2 216.7
167.6
217.9
351.0
130.2
Molecular formula
C7H12O C7H12O4 C7H13ClO2 C7H13ClO2 C7H13ClO2 C7H13ClO2 C7H13ClO2 C7H13N C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14
Crys.
m-Methylaniline p-Methylaniline -23.5 N-Methylaniline 1-Cyclohexenecarbonitrile 2,3-Dimethylpyridine 2,4-Dimethylpyridine 2,5-Dimethylpyridine 2,6-Dimethylpyridine 3,4-Dimethylpyridine 3,5-Dimethylpyridine Ethyl 2-pentynoate Methyl 2-hexynoate 3-Methylbutyl trichloroacetate Cyclohexanecarbonitrile Methylenecyclohexane Vinylcyclopentane 1-Ethylcyclopentene Bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane -95.1 1-Methylbicyclo(3,1,0) hexane 2-Methylenecyclohexanol -277.6 Diethyl malonate Butyl 2-chloropropanoate Isobutyl 2-chloropropanoate Butyl 3-chloropropanoate Isobutyl 3-chloropropanoate Propyl 2-chlorobutanoate Heptanenitrile 1-Heptene cis-2-Heptene trans-2-Heptene cis-3-Heptene trans-3-Heptene 5-Methyl-1-hexene 3-Methyl-cis-3-hexene 3-Methyl-trans-3-hexene 2,4-Dimethyl-1-pentene 4,4-Dimethyl-1-pentene 2,4-Dimethyl-2-pentene cis-4,4-Dimethyl-2-pentene trans-4,4-Dimethyl-2-pentene 2-Ethyl-3-methyl-1-butene 2,3,3-Trimethyl-1-butene Cycloheptane Methylcyclohexane
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-8.1
54.6 55.3
48.1 19.4 16.1 18.7 12.7 18.3 22.5 -301.8 -242.7 -580.9 -47.2 -61.3 -34.8 -53.3
101.6 67.1 63.6 66.5 58.1 68.8 72.0 -250.3
-33.2
1.7
-571.7 -603.1 -557.9 -572.6 -630.7 -82.8 -97.9 -105.1 -109.5 -104.3 -109.3 -100.0 -115.9 -112.7 -117.0 -110.6 -123.1 -105.3 -121.7 -114.1 -117.7 -156.6 -190.1
-517.3 -549.6 -502.3 -517.3 -578.4 -31.0 -62.3
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
165.4 167.7
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
352.5 347.0
125.5 126.2 207.1
243.7 248.5 248.8 244.2 240.7 241.7
189.5 184.8 184.7 185.2 191.8 184.5
-523.1 4.8 -25.2 -19.8 -54.8
285.0
-65.7 -79.4 -76.8 -83.8 -81.6 -88.7 -72.6 -88.8 -79.5 -85.5 -118.1 -154.7
327.6
211.8
184.8
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H9N C7H10O2 C7H10O2 C7H11Cl3O2 C7H11N C7H12 C7H12 C7H12 C7H12 C7H12
Name
Molecular formula
C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14 C7H14Br2 C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O C7H14O2 C7H14O2 C7H14O2 C7H14O2 C7H14O2 C7H14O2 C7H14O2 C7H14O6 C7H15Br C7H16 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16 C7H16O C7H16O C7H16O2
Crys.
Ethylcyclopentane 1,1-Dimethylcyclopentane cis-1,2-Dimethylcyclopentane trans-1,2-Dimethylcyclopentane cis-1,3-Dimethylcyclopentane trans-1,3-Dimethylcyclopentane 1,1,2,2-Tetramethylcyclopropane 1,2-Dibromoheptane 1-Heptanal 2-Heptanone 2,2-Dimethyl-3-pentanone 2,4-Dimethyl-3-pentanone cis-2-Methylcyclohexanol trans-2-Methylcyclohexanol cis-3-Methylcyclohexanol trans-3-Methylcyclohexanol cis-4-Methylcyclohexanol trans-4-Methylcyclohexanol Heptanoic acid Pentyl acetate Isopentyl acetate Ethyl pentanoate Ethyl 3-methylbutanoate Ethyl 2,2-dimethylpropanoate Methyl hexanoate α-Methylglucoside -1233.3 1-Bromoheptane Heptane 2-Methylhexane 3-Methylhexane 3-Ethylpentane 2,2-Dimethylpentane 2,3-Dimethylpentane 2,4-Dimethylpentane 3,3-Dimethylpentane 2,2,3-Trimethylbutane 1-Heptanol tert-Butyl isopropyl ether 1,7-Heptanediol
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-163.4 -172.1
-126.9 -138.2
279.9
-165.3
-129.5
269.2
-171.2
-136.6
-170.1
-135.8
-168.1
-133.6
-119.8 -212.3 -311.5
-157.9 -263.8
-356.1 -352.9 -390.2 -415.7 -416.1 -394.4 -413.2 -433.3 -610.2
-313.6 -311.3 -327.0 -352.5 -350.9 -329.1 -347.5 -367.2 -536.2
-553.0 -571.0
-505.9 -527.0
-577.2 -540.2
-536.0 -492.2
-218.4 -224.2 -229.5 -226.4 -224.9 -238.3 -233.1 -234.6 -234.2 -236.5 -403.3 -392.8 -574.2
-167.8 -187.6 -194.5 -191.3 -189.5 -205.7 -198.7 -201.6 -201.0 -204.4 -336.5 -358.1
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
335.4
230.1 232.6
318.0
233.7
265.4 261.0 248.5
323.3
224.7 222.9
314.5 300.3
219.6 221.1
303.2
224.2
292.2
213.5 272.1
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C7H14 C7H14 C7H14
Name
Molecular formula
C8H12 C8H12N4 C8H12O2 C8H14
2,2-Diethoxypropane 1-Heptanethiol Phthalic anhydride 1H-Indole-2,3-dione Phthalic acid Isophthalic acid Terephthalic acid Benzo[b]thiophene 1H-Indole Styrene Phenyl vinyl ether Acetophenone o-Toluic acid m-Toluic acid p-Toluic acid Methyl benzoate Methyl salicylate 1,7-Octadiyne Ethylbenzene o-Xylene m-Xylene p-Xylene o-Ethylphenol m-Ethylphenol p-Ethylphenol 2,3-Xylenol 2,4-Xylenol 2,5-Xylenol 2,6-Xylenol 3,4-Xylenol 3,5-Xylenol Phenetole Veratrole N-Ethylaniline N,N-Dimethylaniline 2,6-Xylidine 1-Octen-3-yne cis-1,2-Divinylcyclobutane trans-1,2-Divinylcyclobutane 2,2′-Azobis[isobutyronitrile] 2,2,4,4-Tetramethyl-1,3cyclobutanedione Ethylidenecyclohexane
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq. -538.9 -200.5
-460.1 -268.2 -782.0 -803.0 -816.1 100.6 86.6 103.8 -26.2 -142.5
Gas -506.9 -149.9 -371.4
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
180.0
160.0
207.9
188.1
-696.3 -717.9 166.3 156.5 147.9 22.7 -86.7
-416.5 -426.1 -429.2
182.0
174.9 163.6 169.0 -343.5 334.4 -12.3 -24.4 -25.4 -24.4 -208.8 -214.3
-224.4 -241.1 -228.7 -246.6 -237.4 -242.3 -244.4 -152.6 -290.3 4.0 47.7
-287.9
221.3 249.0
29.9 19.1 17.3 18.0 -145.2 -146.1 -144.1 -157.2 -163.8 -161.6 -162.1 -157.3 -162.4 -101.6 -223.3 56.3 100.5
183.2 186.1 183.0 181.5
206.9
228.5
238.9 140.7 124.3
166.5
101.3
143.5
-103.5
-307.6 -59.5
228.9 -379.9
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C7H16O2 C7H16S C8H4O3 C8H5NO2 C8H6O4 C8H6O4 C8H6O4 C8H6S C8H7N C8H8 C8H8O C8H8O C8H8O2 C8H8O2 C8H8O2 C8H8O2 C8H8O3 C8H10 C8H10 C8H10 C8H10 C8H10 C8H10O C8H10O C8H10O C8H10O C8H10O C8H10O C8H10O C8H10O C8H10O C8H10O C8H10O2 C8H11N C8H11N C8H11N C8H12 C8H12
Name
Molecular formula
C8H15ClO2 C8H15N C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16 C8H16O C8H16O C8H16O C8H16O2 C8H16O2 C8H16O2 C8H16O2 C8H16O2
Allylcyclopentane Butanoic anhydride 3-Methylbutyl 2chloropropanoate 3-Methylbutyl 3chloropropanoate Octanenitrile 1-Octene cis-2-Octene trans-2-Octene 2,2-Dimethyl-cis-3-hexene 2,2-Dimethyl-trans-3-hexene 3-Ethyl-2-methyl-1-pentene 2,4,4-Trimethyl-1-pentene 2,4,4-Trimethyl-2-pentene Cyclooctane Ethylcyclohexane 1,1-Dimethylcyclohexane cis-1,2-Dimethylcyclohexane trans-1,2-Dimethylcyclohexane cis-1,3-Dimethylcyclohexane trans-1,3-Dimethylcyclohexane cis-1,4-Dimethylcyclohexane trans-1,4-Dimethylcyclohexane Propylcyclopentane 1-Ethyl-1-methylcyclopentane cis-1-Ethyl-2-methylcyclopentane trans-1-Ethyl-2-methylcyclopentane cis-1-Ethyl-3-methylcyclopentane trans-1-Ethyl-3-methylcyclopentane 2-Ethylhexanal 2-Octanone 2,2,4-Trimethyl-3-pentanone Octanoic acid 2-Ethylhexanoic acid Hexyl acetate Propyl pentanoate Isopropyl pentanoate
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq. -64.5
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
-24.1 283.7
-627.3
-575.0
-593.4 -107.3 -121.8 -135.7 -135.7 -126.4 -144.9 -137.9 -145.9 -142.4 -167.7 -212.1 -218.7 -211.8
-539.4 -50.5 -81.3
-89.3 -107.7 -100.3 -110.5 -104.9 -124.4 -171.5 -180.9 -172.1
280.9 267.2 274.1
211.8 209.2 210.2
-218.2 -222.9
-179.9 -184.6
273.2 272.6
209.4 209.4
-215.7 -215.6
-176.5 -176.6
276.3 271.1
212.8 212.1
-222.4 -188.8 -193.8
-184.5 -147.7
268.0 310.8
210.2 216.3
241.0 239.0 239.0
-190.8 -195.1
-156.2
-194.4 -196.0 -348.5
-299.6
-381.6 -636.0 -635.1
-338.3 -554.3 -559.5
-583.0 -592.2
-533.6 -544.9
273.3 297.9 282.8
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C8H14 C8H14O3 C8H15ClO2
Name
Molecular formula
C8H18O3 C8H18O3S C8H18O5 C8H18S C8H18S C8H18S C8H18S C8H18S2 C8H18S2 C8H19N C8H19N
Methyl heptanoate 1-Bromooctane 1-Chlorooctane Octanamide Octane 2-Methylheptane 3-Methylheptane 4-Methylheptane 3-Ethylhexane 2,2-Dimethylhexane 2,3-Dimethylhexane 2,4-Dimethylhexane 2,5-Dimethylhexane 3,3-Dimethylhexane 3,4-Dimethylhexane 3-Ethyl-2-methylpentane 3-Ethyl-3-methylpentane 2,2,3-Trimethylpentane 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 2,3,3-Trimethylpentane 2,3,4-Trimethylpentane 2,2,3,3-Tetramethylbutane Azobutane 1-Octanol 2-Octanol 2-Ethyl-1-hexanol Dibutyl ether Di-sec-butyl ether Di-tert-butyl ether tert-Butyl isobutyl ether 1,8-Octanediol 2,5-Dimethyl-2,5hexanediol Diethylene glycol diethyl ether Dibutyl sulfite Tetraethylene glycol Dibutyl sulfide Di-sec-butyl sulfide Di-tert-butyl sulfide Diisobutyl sulfide Dibutyl disulfide Di-tert-butyl disulfide Dibutylamine Diisobutylamine
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq. -567.1 -245.1 -291.3
Gas
-40.1 -426.5
-515.5 -189.3 -238.9 -362.7 -208.5 -215.3 -212.5 -211.9 -210.7 -224.5 -213.8 -219.2 -222.5 -219.9 -212.8 -211.0 -214.8 -220.0 -224.0 -216.3 -217.3 -226.0 9.2 -355.6
-432.8 -377.9 -401.5 -399.6 -409.1
-365.3 -332.8 -360.6 -362.0 -369.0
-693.1 -981.7 -220.7 -220.7 -232.6 -229.2 -222.9 -255.2 -206.0 -218.5
-625.3 -883.0 -167.7 -167.7 -188.8 -180.5 -160.6 -201.0 -156.6 -179.2
-473.2 -250.1 -255.0 -252.3 -251.6 -250.4 -261.9 -252.6 -257.0 -260.4 -257.5 -251.8 -249.6 -252.8 -256.9 -259.2 -253.5 -255.0 -269.0
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas 285.1
254.6 252.0 250.2 251.1
356.4 362.6
249.2 246.6
239.1 245.6 247.3
329.3 273.7
239.2
347.0
305.2 330.1 317.5 278.2 276.1
-626.6 -681.7 341.4
405.1
428.8 284.3
292.9
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C8H16O2 C8H17Br C8H17Cl C8H17NO C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18 C8H18N2 C8H18O C8H18O C8H18O C8H18O C8H18O C8H18O C8H18O C8H18O2 C8H18O2
Name
Molecular formula
C8H20Pb C8H20Si C9H7N C9H7N C9H7NO C9H8 C9H8O4 C9H10 C9H10 C9H10N2 C9H10O2 C9H10O2 C9H11NO2 C9H11NO3 C9H12 C9H12 C9H12 C9H12 C9H12 C9H12 C9H12 C9H12 C9H12O C9H12O C9H12O C9H12O2 C9H13NO2 C9H13NO2 C9H13NO2 C9H13NO2 C9H14O C9H14O6 C9H15N C9H16O4 C9H17NO C9H18
Tetraethylammonium bromide Tetraethyl lead Tetraethylsilane Quinoline Isoquinoline 2-Hydroxyquinoline Indene 2-(Acetyloxy)benzoic acid Cyclopropylbenzene Indan 2,2′-Dipyrrolylmethane Benzyl acetate Ethyl benzoate L-Phenylalanine L-Tyrosine Propylbenzene Cumene o-Ethyltoluene m-Ethyltoluene p-Ethyltoluene 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Mesitylene 2-Isopropylphenol 3-Isopropylphenol 4-Isopropylphenol Hydroperoxide, 1-methyl1-phenylethyl Ethyl 3,5-dimethylpyrrole2-carboxylate Ethyl 2,4-dimethylpyrrole3-carboxylate Ethyl 2,5-dimethylpyrrole3-carboxylate Ethyl 4,5-dimethylpyrrole3-carboxylate Isophorone Triacetin 3-Ethyl-2,4,5-trimethylpyrrole Nonanedioic acid 2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-4piperidinone Propylcyclohexane
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
-342.7 52.7
109.6
141.2 144.3 110.6
200.5 204.6 -25.5 163.4
100.3 11.5
150.5 60.3
-144.9
464.6
307.4 298.1
216.0
196.2
215.3
186.9
56.0
190.2
-815.6
126.2 148.5 246.0 -466.9 -685.1
-312.9
213.6 214.0
203.0 216.4
-38.3 -41.1 -46.4 -48.7 -49.8 -58.5 -61.8 -63.4 -233.7 -252.5 -265.9
7.9 4.0 1.3 -1.8 -3.2 -9.5 -13.8 -15.9 -182.2 -196.0 -209.4
287.8
214.7 210.7
267.9
216.4 215.0 209.3
-148.3
-78.4
-1330.8
-1245.0
458.3
253.5 384.7
-237.4
-273.4 -192.3
311.9
242.0
-474.5 -463.2 -478.7 -470.3
-89.2 -1054.3 -334.2
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C8H20BrN
Name
Molecular formula
C9H18O C9H18O C9H18O C9H18O2 C9H18O2 C9H18O2 C9H18O2 C9H18O2 C9H19N C9H19N C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20 C9H20N2O C9H20O C9H20O2 C9H21N C10H6N2O4 C10H6N2O4 C10H7Cl C10H7Cl C10H7I C10H7I C10H7NO2 C10H8 C10H8 C10H8O C10H8O C10H9N
1,3,5-Trimethylcyclohexane (1′,3′,5′) 2-Nonanone 5-Nonanone 2,6-Dimethyl-4-heptanone Nonanoic acid Butyl pentanoate sec-Butyl pentanoate Isobutyl pentanoate Methyl octanoate N-Butylpiperidine 2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidine Nonane 2,2-Dimethylheptane 2,2,3-Trimethylhexane 2,2,4-Trimethylhexane 2,2,5-Trimethylhexane 2,3,3-Trimethylhexane 2,3,5-Trimethylhexane 2,4,4-Trimethylhexane 3,3,4-Trimethylhexane 3,3-Diethylpentane 3-Ethyl-2,2-dimethylpentane 3-Ethyl-2,4-dimethylpentane 2,2,3,3-Tetramethylpentane 2,2,3,4-Tetramethylpentane 2,2,4,4-Tetramethylpentane 2,3,3,4-Tetramethylpentane Tetraethylurea 1-Nonanol 1,9-Nonanediol Tripropylamine 1,5-Dinitronaphthalene 1,8-Dinitronaphthalene 1-Chloronaphthalene 2-Chloronaphthalene 1-Iodonaphthalene 2-Iodonaphthalene 1-Nitronaphthalene Naphthalene Azulene 1-Naphthol 2-Naphthol 1-Naphthalenamine
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
-397.2 -398.2 -408.5 -659.7 -613.3 -624.2 -620.0 -590.3 -171.8
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
-212.1 -340.7 -344.9 -357.6 -577.3 -560.2 -573.2 -568.6 -533.9
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
401.4
303.6 297.3 362.4
-206.9 -274.7 -288.1 -282.7 -282.8 -293.3 -281.1 -284.0 -280.2 -277.5 -275.4 -272.7 -269.7 -278.3 -277.7 -280.0 -277.9
-159.9 -228.2
-233.3
278.2
-237.1 -236.9 -241.6 -236.1
271.5
-453.4
-376.5
-207.1
-161.0
54.6
119.8 137.4 233.8 235.1 111.2 150.6 289.1 -30.4 -29.9 132.8
284.4
-242.6
266.3
-403.0 -657.6 29.8 39.7 55.4 161.5 144.3 42.6 78.5 212.3 -121.5 -124.1 67.8
212.6
201.6
224.1
167.4
333.1
165.7 166.9
131.9
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C9H18
Name
Molecular formula
C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14 C10H14O C10H16 C10H16 C10H16 C10H16 C10H16 C10H16 C10H16 C10H16N2O8 C10H16O C10H18 C10H18 C10H18 C10H18O4 C10H19N C10H20 C10H20
Crys.
2-Naphthalenamine 60.2 1,2-Dihydronaphthalene 1,4-Dihydronaphthalene 1-Tetralone -209.6 Dimethyl phthalate Dimethyl isophthalate -730.9 Dimethyl terephthalate -732.6 1,2,3,4-Tetrahydronaphthalene Butylbenzene sec-Butylbenzene tert-Butylbenzene Isobutylbenzene o-Cymene m-Cymene p-Cymene o-Diethylbenzene m-Diethylbenzene p-Diethylbenzene 3-Ethyl-o-xylene 4-Ethyl-1,2-dimethylbenzene 2-Ethyl-1,3-dimethylbenzene 2-Ethyl-1,4-dimethylbenzene 1-Ethyl-2,4-dimethylbenzene 1-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylbenzene 1,2,4,5-Tetramethylbenzene -119.9 Thymol -309.7 cis, cis-2,6-Dimethyl2,4,6-octatriene Dipentene D-Limonene β-Myrcene α-Pinene β-Pinene α-Terpinene Glycine, N,N′-1,2-ethanediylbis[N-(carboxymethyl)- -1759.5 Camphor -319.4 1,1′-Bicyclopentyl cis-Decahydronaphthalene trans-Decahydronaphthalene Sebacic acid -1082.6 Decanenitrile 1-Decene cis-1,2-Di-tert-butylethylene
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
134.3 71.6 84.2 303.1 261.1 -29.2 -63.2 -66.4 -70.7 -69.8 -73.3 -78.6 -78.0 -68.5 -73.5 -72.8 -80.5 -86.0 -80.1 -84.8 -84.1 -87.8
26.0 -11.8 -18.4 -23.0 -21.9
217.5 243.4
321.2
236.4
245.6
215.1
-218.5 -24.0 -50.8 -54.5 14.5 -16.4 -7.7
-2.6
249.4 249.0
28.3 38.7 -20.6
-267.5 -178.9 -219.4 -230.6 -158.4 -173.8 -163.6
-169.2 -182.1 -921.9 -91.5 -123.3
271.2 265.0 264.9
232.0 228.5
425.0
300.8
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C10H9N C10H10 C10H10 C10H10O C10H10O4 C10H10O4 C10H10O4 C10H12
Name
Molecular formula
Butylcyclohexane Decanoic acid Methyl nonanoate 1-Nitrodecane Decane 2-Methylnonane 5-Methylnonane 1-Decanol Dipentyl ether Diisopentyl ether 1,10-Decanediol Ethylene glycol dibutyl ether 1-Decanethiol Dipentyl sulfide Diisopentylsulfide 1-Naphthalenecarboxylic acid 2-Naphthoic acid 1-Methylnaphthalene 2-Methylnaphthalene L-Tryptophan 1,1-Dimethylindan Pentamethylbenzene Spiro[5.5]undecane 1-Undecene Methyl decanoate Undecane 1-Undecanol Trinonafluorobutylamine Acenaphthylene Phenazine Dibenzofuran Dibenzothiophene Thianthrene Carbazole Acenaphthene Biphenyl trans-Azoxybenzene N-Nitrosodiphenylamine Diphenyl ether 1-Naphthaleneacetic acid 2-Naphthaleneacetic acid 2-Aminobiphenyl p-Biphenylamine Diphenylamine p-Benzidine
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys. -713.7
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq. -263.1 -684.3 -616.2 -351.5 -300.9 -309.8 -307.9 -478.1
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
-213.7 -594.9 -554.2
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
345.0
-249.5 -260.2 -258.6 -396.6
271.0
314.4 313.3 314.4 370.6 250.0 379.0
420.1 423.8
-678.9 -309.9
-276.5 -266.4 -281.8
-333.5 -346.1
-211.5 -204.9 -221.5 -223.1 -232.5
56.3 44.9 -415.3
254.8 106.7
-53.6 -144.6 -244.5
350.0 350.4
476.1
220.0 251.0
224.4 196.0 238.1
-1.6 -67.2 -188.3 344.9
-640.5 -327.2 -504.8
-573.8 -270.8
344.9 418.4
186.7 237.0 -5.3 120.0 182.0 101.7 70.3 99.4 243.4 227.2 -32.1 -359.2 -371.9 93.8 81.0 130.2 70.7
259.7 328.8 83.4 205.1 286.0 200.7 156.0 181.4 342.0 -14.9
52.0
184.4 219.3
166.4
188.9 209.4
190.4 198.4
233.9
216.6
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C10H20 C10H20O2 C10H20O2 C10H21NO2 C10H22 C10H22 C10H22 C10H22O C10H22O C10H22O C10H22O2 C10H22O2 C10H22S C10H22S C10H22S C11H8O2 C11H8O2 C11H10 C11H10 C11H12N2O2 C11H14 C11H16 C11H20 C11H22 C11H22O2 C11H24 C11H24O C12F27N C12H8 C12H8N2 C12H8O C12H8S C12H8S2 C12H9N C12H10 C12H10 C12H10N2O C12H10N2O C12H10O C12H10O2 C12H10O2 C12H11N C12H11N C12H11N C12H12N2
Name
Molecular formula
C12H18 C12H18 C12H18 C12H22 C12H22O4 C12H22O11 C12H22O11 C12H24 C12H24O2 C12H24O2 C12H24O12 C12H25Br C12H25Cl C12H26 C12H26O C12H26O3 C12H27N C13H8O2 C13H9N C13H9N C13H9N C13H10N2 C13H10O C13H11N C13H12 C13H24O4 C13H26 C13H26O2 C13H28 C13H28O C14H8O2 C14H8O2 C14H8O4 C14H10 C14H10 C14H10 C14H10O2 C14H12 C14H12
Diethyl phthalate Cyclohexylbenzene Diethyl 3,5-dimethylpyrrole-2,4-dicarboxylate 3,9-Dodecadiyne 5,7-Dodecadiyne Hexamethylbenzene Cyclohexylcyclohexane Dodecanedioic acid Sucrose β-Lactose 1-Dodecene Dodecanoic acid Methyl undecanoate α-Lactose monohydrate 1-Bromododecane 1-Chlorododecane Dodecane 1-Dodecanol Diethylene glycol dibutyl ether Tributylamine Xanthone Acridine Phenanthridine Benzo[f]quinoline 9-Acridinamine Benzophenone 9-Methylcarbazole Diphenylmethane Tridecanedioic acid 1-Tridecene Methyl dodecanoate Tridecane 1-Tridecanol 9,10-Anthracenedione 9,10-Phenanthrenedione 1,4-Dihydroxy-9,10anthracenedione Anthracene Phenanthrene Diphenylacetylene Benzil cis-Stilbene trans-Stilbene
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-776.6 -76.6
-688.4 -16.7
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
425.1
366.1
-916.7 197.8 181.5 -162.4 -273.7
-77.4 -215.7 -976.9
-226.2 -737.9 -665.2
-165.4 -642.0 -593.8
-344.7 -392.3 -350.9 -528.5
-269.9 -321.1 -289.4 -436.6
-1130.0 -2226.1 -2236.7 -774.6
306.3
245.6
484.8
360.7 404.3
-2484.1
375.8 438.1 452.0
-281.6 -191.5 179.4 141.9 150.6 159.2 -34.5 105.5 71.5 -1148.3
273.9 240.5 233.7
89.7
54.9 201.0 139.0
-693.0
-614.9
224.8 239.3 391.8 406.7
-599.4 -188.5 -154.7
-75.7 -46.6
-595.8 129.2 116.2 312.4 -153.9
-471.7 230.9 207.5
183.3 136.9
-55.5 252.3 236.1
207.5 215.1
210.5 220.6 225.9
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C12H14O4 C12H16 C12H17NO4
Name
Molecular formula
Name
Crys.
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Gas
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
48.7 142.9
-260.2 -788.8 -717.9 -580.6
-174.9 -693.7 -635.3
388.0
-367.3 -811.7 -743.9
-699.0 -656.9
-842.6
289.0 225.7 -750.9
-218.3 -328.7 -838.1 -771.0 -444.5 -456.1
432.0
-138.6 -248.4 -737.1 -680.0 -350.2 -374.8 -517.0
443.3
230.6 224.9
230.2 229.7
587.9 452.4
488.9 460.7
501.6 422.0
-865.6
475.7 293.0 269.8 326.8 577.0 619.0
-884.7 -544.1
-781.2 -446.0 -414.6
501.5 480.2
485.6
264.6
274.9
-433.0 -734.5 -737.0
-775.8
-649.9
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C14H14 1,1-Diphenylethane C14H14 1,2-Diphenylethane 51.5 C14H23N3O10 Glycine, N,N-bis[2[bis(carboxymethyl) amino]ethyl] -2225.2 C14H27N Tetradecanenitrile C14H28O2 Tetradecanoic acid -833.5 C14H28O2 Methyl tridecanoate C14H30O 1-Tetradecanol -629.6 C15H16O2 2,2-Bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) propane -368.6 C15H30 Decylcyclopentane C15H30O2 Pentadecanoic acid -861.7 C15H30O2 Methyl tetradecanoate C15H32O 1-Pentadecanol -658.2 C16H10 Fluoranthene 189.9 C16H10 Pyrene 125.5 C16H22O4 Dibutyl phthalate C16H22O11 α-D-Glucose pentaacetate -2249.4 C16H22O11 β-D-Glucose pentaacetate -2232.6 C16H26 Decylbenzene C16H32 1-Hexadecene C16H32O2 Hexadecanoic acid -891.5 C16H32O2 Methyl pentadecanoate 1-Bromohexadecane C16H33Br C16H34 Hexadecane C16H34O 1-Hexadecanol -686.5 Tetrabutyl ammonium iodide -498.6 C16H36IN C17H34O2 Margaric acid -924.4 C18H12 Benz[a]anthracene 170.8 Chrysene 145.3 C18H12 C18H15N Triphenylamine 234.7 C18H34O2 Oleic acid Dibutyl sebacate C18H34O4 C18H36O2 Stearic acid -947.7 C18H37Cl 1-Chlorooctadecane C18H38 Octadecane -567.4 C18H39N Trihexylamine C19H16O Triphenylmethanol -2.5 C19H36O2 Methyl oleate C19H36O2 Methyl trans-9-octadecenoate C20H12 Perylene 182.8 C20H14O4 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, diphenyl ester -489.2 C20H38O2 Ethyl cis-9-octadecenoate
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Molecular formula
C20H40O2 C22H42O2 C22H42O2 C22H44O2 C24H38O4 C24H51N C26H18 C26H54 C26H54 C28H18 C31H64 C32H66 C60 C70
Ethyl trans-9-octadecenoate Arachidic acid Brassidic acid Butyl oleate Butyl stearate Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate Trioctylamine 9,10-Diphenylanthracene 5-Butyldocosane 11-Butyldocosane 9,9′-Bianthracene 11-Decylheneicosane Dotriacontane Fullerene-C60 Fullerene-C70
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
Crys.
-1011.9 -960.7
∆fH°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
-773.3 -940.0
-812.4
Crys.
∆fG°/kJ mol–1 Liq.
Gas
Crys.
S°/J mol–1 K–1 Liq.
Gas
Cp/J mol–1 K–1 Crys. Liq. Gas
545.1
-816.9 704.7 -585.0 308.7 -713.5 -716.0 326.2 -848.0 -968.3 2327.0 2555.0
465.6 -587.6 -593.4 454.3 -705.8 -697.2 2502.0 2755.0
2302.0 2537.0
2442.0 2692.0
426.0 464.0
544.0 614.0
520.0 650.0
512.0 585.0
STANDARD THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES (continued)
C20H38O2
Name
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE L. V. Gurvich, V. S. Iorish, V. S. Yungman, and O. V. Dorofeeva The thermodynamic properties C° p (T), S° (T), H° (T)-H° (Tr), -[G° (T)-H° (Tr)]/T and formation properties ∆f H° (T), ∆f G° (T), log Kf° (T) are tabulated as functions of temperature in the range 298.15 to 1500 K for 80 substances in the standard state.The reference temperature, Tr, is equal to 298.15 K. The standard state pressure is taken as 1 bar (100,000 Pa). The tables are presented in the JANAF Thermochemical Tables format (Reference 2). The numerical data are extracted from IVTANTHERMO databases except for C2H4O, C3H6O, C6H6, C6H6O, C10H8, and CH5N, which are based upon TRC Tables. See the references for information on standard states and other details. REFERENCES 1. Gurvich, L. V., Veyts, I. V., and Alcock, C. B., Eds., Thermodynamic Properties of Individual Substances, 4th ed., Hemisphere Publishing Corp., New York, 1989. 2. Chase, M. W., et al., JANAF Thermochemical Tables, 3rd ed., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 14, Suppl. 1, 1985.
Order of Listing of Tables No.
Formula
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ar Br Br2 BrH C C C2 C3 CO CO2 CH4 C2H2 C2H4 C2H6 C3H6 C3H8 C6H6 C6H6 C10H8 C10H8 CH2O CH4O C2H4O C2H6O C2H4O2 C3H6O C6H6O CF4 CHF3 CClF3 CCl2F2 CHClF2 CH5N Cl Cl2 ClH Cu Cu CuO Cu2O
Name Argon Bromine Dibromine Hydrogen bromide Carbon (graphite) Carbon (diamond) Dicarbon Tricarbon Carbon oxide Carbon dioxide Methane Acetylene Ethylene Ethane Cyclopropane Propane Benzene Benzene Naphthalene Naphthalene Formaldehyde Methanol Acetaldehyde Ethanol Acetic acid Acetone Phenol Carbon tetrafluoride Trifluoromethane Chlorotrifluoromethane Dichlorodifluoromethane Chlorodifluoromethane Methylamine Chlorine Dichlorine Hydrogen chloride Copper Copper Copper oxide Dicopper oxide
State g g g g cr cr g g g g g g g g g g l g cr, l g g g g g g g g g g g g g g g g g cr, l g cr cr
5-61 5.030 final-473
No.
Formula
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
CuCl2 CuCl2 F F2 FH Ge Ge GeO2 GeCl4 H H2 HO H2O H2O I I2 I2 IH K K K2O KOH KOH KCl KCl N2 NO NO2 NH3 O O2 S S S2 S8 SO2 Si Si SiO2 SiCl4
Name Copper dichloride Copper dichloride Fluorine Difluorine Hydrogen fluoride Germanium Germanium Germanium dioxide Germanium tetrachloride Hydrogen Dihydrogen Hydroxyl Water Water Iodine Diiodine Diiodine Hydrogen iodide Potassium Potassium Dipotassium oxide Potassium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide Potassium chloride Potassium chloride Dinitrogen Nitric oxide Nitrogen dioxide Ammonia Oxygen Dioxygen Sulfur Sulfur Disulfur Octasulfur Sulfur dioxide Silicon Silicon Silicon dioxide Silicon tetrachloride
State cr, l g g g g cr, l g cr, l g g g g l g g cr, l g g cr, l g cr, l cr, l g cr, l g g g g g g g cr, l g g g g cr g cr g
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
1. ARGON 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Cp°
20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786
154.845 154.973 160.953 165.591 169.381 172.585 175.361 177.809 179.999 181.980 183.789 185.453 186.993 188.427
154.845 154.845 155.660 157.200 158.924 160.653 162.322 163.909 165.410 166.828 168.167 169.434 170.634 171.773
0.000 0.038 2.117 4.196 6.274 8.353 10.431 12.510 14.589 16.667 18.746 20.824 22.903 24.982
175.017 175.146 181.126 185.765 189.559 192.776 195.575 198.061 200.302 202.347 204.231 205.980 207.612 209.142
175.017 175.018 175.833 177.373 179.097 180.827 182.499 184.093 185.604 187.034 188.390 189.676 190.900 192.065
245.467 245.690 249.387 256.169 264.406 271.188 276.951 281.962 286.396 290.373 293.979 297.279 300.322 303.146 305.782
kJ/mol ∆fH°
∆fG°
Log Kf
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.038 2.117 4.196 6.277 8.364 10.461 12.571 14.698 16.844 19.010 21.195 23.397 25.615
111.870 111.838 96.677 96.910 97.131 97.348 97.568 97.796 98.036 98.291 98.560 98.844 99.141 99.449
82.379 82.196 75.460 70.129 64.752 59.338 53.893 48.420 42.921 37.397 31.850 26.279 20.686 15.072
–14.432 –14.311 –9.854 –7.326 –5.637 –4.428 –3.519 –2.810 –2.242 –1.776 –1.386 –1.056 –0.772 –0.525
245.467 245.468 245.671 246.892 249.600 252.650 255.720 258.694 261.530 264.219 266.763 269.170 271.451 273.615 275.673
0.000 0.067 1.235 3.711 7.403 11.123 14.862 18.615 22.379 26.154 29.938 33.730 37.532 41.343 45.164
30.910 30.836
198.697 198.698 199.842 202.005 204.436 206.886 209.269
0.000 0.054 2.971 5.903 8.868 11.882 14.957
–36.290 –36.333 –52.109 –52.484 –52.844 –53.168 –53.446
Br2 (g)
36.057 36.074 36.340 36.729 37.082 37.305 37.464 37.590 37.697 37.793 37.883 37.970 38.060 38.158 38.264
4. HYDROGEN BROMIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800
H°-H° (Tr)
Br (g) 20.786 20.786 20.787 20.798 20.833 20.908 21.027 21.184 21.365 21.559 21.752 21.937 22.107 22.258
3. DIBROMINE 298.15 300 332.25 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
Ar (g)
2. BROMINE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
J/K⋅mol S°
29.141 29.141 29.220 29.454 29.872 30.431 31.063
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
3.105 2.933 pressure = 1 bar 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
–0.544 –0.511 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
HBr (g) 198.697 198.878 207.269 213.811 219.216 223.861 227.965
5-62
–53.360 –53.466 –55.940 –56.854 –57.694 –58.476 –59.214
9.348 9.309 7.305 5.939 5.023 4.363 3.866
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued) J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
T/K
4. HYDROGEN BROMIDE 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
31.709 32.335 32.919 33.454 33.938 34.374 34.766
5. CARBON (GRAPHITE) 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
8.536 8.610 11.974 14.537 16.607 18.306 19.699 20.832 21.739 22.452 23.000 23.409 23.707 23.919
6. CARBON (DIAMOND) 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
6.109 6.201 10.321 13.404 15.885 17.930 19.619 21.006 22.129 23.020 23.709 24.222 24.585 24.824
7. DICARBON 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
H°-H° (Tr)
kJ/mol ∆fH°
18.095 21.298 24.561 27.880 31.250 34.666 38.123
∆fG°
Log Kf
–53.677 –53.864 –54.012 –54.129 –54.220 –54.291 –54.348
–59.921 –60.604 –61.271 –61.925 –62.571 –63.211 –63.846
3.478 3.166 2.909 2.696 2.514 2.358 2.223
0.000 0.016 1.054 2.385 3.945 5.694 7.596 9.625 11.755 13.966 16.240 18.562 20.918 23.300
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
HBr (g) (continued) 231.661 235.035 238.145 241.032 243.729 246.261 248.646
211.555 213.737 215.816 217.799 219.691 221.499 223.230
C (cr; graphite) 5.740 5.793 8.757 11.715 14.555 17.247 19.785 22.173 24.417 26.524 28.502 30.360 32.106 33.749
5.740 5.740 6.122 6.946 7.979 9.113 10.290 11.479 12.662 13.827 14.968 16.082 17.164 18.216
C (cr; diamond) 2.362 2.400 4.783 7.431 10.102 12.709 15.217 17.611 19.884 22.037 24.071 25.990 27.799 29.504
2.362 2.362 2.659 3.347 4.251 5.274 6.361 7.479 8.607 9.731 10.842 11.934 13.003 14.047
0.000 0.011 0.850 2.042 3.511 5.205 7.085 9.118 11.277 13.536 15.874 18.272 20.714 23.185
1.850 1.846 1.645 1.507 1.415 1.361 1.338 1.343 1.372 1.420 1.484 1.561 1.646 1.735
2.857 2.863 3.235 3.649 4.087 4.537 4.993 5.450 5.905 6.356 6.802 7.242 7.675 8.103
–0.501 –0.499 –0.422 –0.381 –0.356 –0.339 –0.326 –0.316 –0.308 –0.302 –0.296 –0.291 –0.286 –0.282
197.095 197.365 209.809 218.924 225.966 231.726 236.637 240.943 244.793 248.284 251.484 254.444 257.201 259.785
197.095 197.096 198.802 201.959 205.395 208.758 211.943 214.931 217.728 220.349 222.812 225.133 227.326 229.405
0.000 0.081 4.403 8.483 12.342 16.078 19.755 23.411 27.065 30.728 34.406 38.104 41.824 45.570
830.457 830.506 832.751 834.170 834.909 835.148 835.020 834.618 834.012 833.252 832.383 831.437 830.445 829.427
775.116 774.772 755.833 736.423 716.795 697.085 677.366 657.681 638.052 618.492 599.006 579.596 560.261 540.997
–135.795 –134.898 –98.700 –76.933 –62.402 –52.016 –44.227 –38.170 –33.328 –29.369 –26.074 –23.288 –20.903 –18.839
C2 (g)
43.548 43.575 42.169 39.529 37.837 36.984 36.621 36.524 36.569 36.696 36.874 37.089 37.329 37.589
5-63
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued) C°p
T/K
8. TRICARBON 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
37.135 37.220 41.328 44.627 47.327 49.569 51.442 53.008 54.320 55.423 56.354 57.144 57.818 58.397
11. METHANE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800
H°-H° (Tr)
kJ/mol ∆fH°
237.611 237.872 250.164 260.003 268.322 275.582 282.045 287.876 293.189 298.069 302.578 306.768 310.679 314.346
237.611 237.611 239.280 242.471 246.104 249.807 253.440 256.948 260.310 263.524 266.593 269.524 272.326 275.006
0.000 0.078 4.354 8.766 13.331 18.042 22.884 27.835 32.879 37.999 43.182 48.417 53.695 59.010
197.658 197.659 198.803 200.973 203.419 205.895 208.309 210.631 212.851 214.969 216.990 218.920 220.763 222.527
213.783 214.013 225.305 234.895 243.278 250.747 257.492 263.644 269.299 274.529 279.393 283.936 288.196 292.205
186.369 186.590 197.501 207.202 216.246 224.821 233.008
∆fG°
Log Kf
839.958 839.989 841.149 841.570 841.453 840.919 840.053 838.919 837.572 836.059 834.420 832.690 830.899 829.068
774.249 773.841 751.592 729.141 706.659 684.230 661.901 639.698 617.633 595.711 573.933 552.295 530.793 509.421
–135.643 –134.736 –98.147 –76.172 –61.519 –51.057 –43.217 –37.127 –32.261 –28.288 –24.982 –22.191 –19.804 –17.739
0.000 0.054 2.976 5.930 8.941 12.021 15.175 18.399 21.687 25.032 28.426 31.864 35.338 38.845
–110.530 –110.519 –110.121 –110.027 –110.157 –110.453 –110.870 –111.378 –111.952 –112.573 –113.228 –113.904 –114.594 –115.291
–137.168 –137.333 –146.341 –155.412 –164.480 –173.513 –182.494 –191.417 –200.281 –209.084 –217.829 –226.518 –235.155 –243.742
24.031 23.912 19.110 16.236 14.319 12.948 11.915 11.109 10.461 9.928 9.482 9.101 8.774 8.488
213.783 213.784 215.296 218.280 221.762 225.379 228.978 232.493 235.895 239.172 242.324 245.352 248.261 251.059
0.000 0.069 4.004 8.307 12.909 17.758 22.811 28.036 33.404 38.893 44.483 50.159 55.908 61.719
–393.510 –393.511 –393.586 –393.672 –393.791 –393.946 –394.133 –394.343 –394.568 –394.801 –395.035 –395.265 –395.488 –395.702
–394.373 –394.379 –394.656 –394.914 –395.152 –395.367 –395.558 –395.724 –395.865 –395.984 –396.081 –396.159 –396.219 –396.264
69.092 68.667 51.536 41.256 34.401 29.502 25.827 22.967 20.678 18.803 17.241 15.918 14.783 13.799
186.369 186.370 187.825 190.744 194.248 198.008 201.875
0.000 0.066 3.871 8.229 13.199 18.769 24.907
–74.600 –74.656 –77.703 –80.520 –82.969 –85.023 –86.693
–50.530 –50.381 –41.827 –32.525 –22.690 –12.476 –1.993
8.853 8.772 5.462 3.398 1.975 0.931 0.130
CO (g)
29.141 29.142 29.340 29.792 30.440 31.170 31.898 32.573 33.178 33.709 34.169 34.568 34.914 35.213
10. CARBON DIOXIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
C3 (g)
42.202 42.218 43.383 44.883 46.406 47.796 48.997 50.006 50.844 51.535 52.106 52.579 52.974 53.307
9. CARBON OXIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
J/K⋅mol S°
197.658 197.838 206.243 212.834 218.321 223.067 227.277 231.074 234.538 237.726 240.679 243.430 246.005 248.424
CO2 (g)
CH4 (g)
35.695 35.765 40.631 46.627 52.742 58.603 64.084
5-64
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
11. METHANE 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
T/K
14. ETHANE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
kJ/mol ∆fH°
∆fG°
Log Kf
205.773 209.660 213.511 217.310 221.048 224.720 228.322
31.571 38.719 46.306 54.289 62.630 71.291 80.242
–88.006 –88.996 –89.698 –90.145 –90.367 –90.390 –90.237
8.677 19.475 30.358 41.294 52.258 63.231 74.200
–0.504 –1.017 –1.442 –1.797 –2.100 –2.359 –2.584
200.927 201.199 214.814 226.552 236.842 246.021 254.331 261.947 268.995 275.565 281.725 287.528 293.014 298.218
200.927 200.927 202.741 206.357 210.598 215.014 219.418 223.726 227.905 231.942 235.837 239.592 243.214 246.709
0.000 0.082 4.829 10.097 15.747 21.704 27.931 34.399 41.090 47.985 55.067 62.317 69.721 77.264
227.400 227.397 227.161 226.846 226.445 225.968 225.436 224.873 224.300 223.734 223.189 222.676 222.203 221.774
209.879 209.770 203.928 198.154 192.452 186.823 181.267 175.779 170.355 164.988 159.672 154.400 149.166 143.964
–36.769 –36.524 –26.630 –20.701 –16.754 –13.941 –11.835 –10.202 –8.898 –7.835 –6.950 –6.204 –5.565 –5.013
219.316 219.582 233.327 246.198 258.332 269.770 280.559 290.754 300.405 309.556 318.247 326.512 334.384 341.892
219.316 219.317 221.124 224.864 229.441 234.393 239.496 244.630 249.730 254.756 259.688 264.513 269.225 273.821
0.000 0.079 4.881 10.667 17.335 24.764 32.851 41.512 50.675 60.280 70.271 80.599 91.223 102.107
52.400 52.341 49.254 46.533 44.221 42.278 40.655 39.310 38.205 37.310 36.596 36.041 35.623 35.327
68.358 68.457 74.302 80.887 87.982 95.434 103.142 111.036 119.067 127.198 135.402 143.660 151.955 160.275
–11.976 –11.919 –9.703 –8.450 –7.659 –7.121 –6.734 –6.444 –6.219 –6.040 –5.894 –5.772 –5.669 –5.581
229.161 229.487 246.378 262.344 277.568 292.080 305.904 319.075 331.628 343.597 355.012 365.908 376.314 386.260
229.161 229.162 231.379 235.989 241.660 247.835 254.236 260.715 267.183 273.590 279.904 286.103 292.178 298.121
0.000 0.097 5.999 13.177 21.545 30.972 41.334 52.525 64.445 77.007 90.131 103.746 117.790 132.209
–84.000 –84.094 –88.988 –93.238 –96.779 –99.663 –101.963 –103.754 –105.105 –106.082 –106.741 –107.131 –107.292 –107.260
–32.015 –31.692 –13.473 5.912 26.086 46.800 67.887 89.231 110.750 132.385 154.096 175.850 197.625 219.404
5.609 5.518 1.759 –0.618 –2.271 –3.492 –4.433 –5.179 –5.785 –6.286 –6.708 –7.066 –7.373 –7.640
240.852 248.379 255.607 262.551 269.225 275.643 281.817
C2H2 (g)
44.036 44.174 50.388 54.751 58.121 60.970 63.511 65.831 67.960 69.909 71.686 73.299 74.758 76.077
13. ETHYLENE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
H°-H° (Tr)
CH4 (g) (continued)
69.137 73.746 77.919 81.682 85.067 88.112 90.856
12. ACETYLENE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
C2H4 (g)
42.883 43.059 53.045 62.479 70.673 77.733 83.868 89.234 93.939 98.061 101.670 104.829 107.594 110.018
C2H6 (g) 52.487 52.711 65.459 77.941 89.188 99.136 107.936 115.709 122.552 128.553 133.804 138.391 142.399 145.905
5-65
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
15. CYCLOPROPANE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
298.15 300 400 500
298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
237.488 237.832 256.695 275.637 294.092 311.763 328.564 344.501 359.616 373.961 387.588 400.549 412.892 424.662
237.488 237.489 239.924 245.177 251.801 259.115 266.755 274.516 282.277 289.965 297.538 304.967 312.239 319.344
0.000 0.103 6.708 15.230 25.374 36.854 49.447 62.987 77.339 92.395 108.060 124.257 140.915 157.976
270.313 270.769 294.739 317.768 339.753 360.668 380.528 399.381 417.293 434.321 450.526 465.961 480.675 494.721
270.313 270.314 273.447 280.025 288.162 297.039 306.245 315.555 324.841 334.026 343.064 351.929 360.604 369.080
173.450 174.292 216.837 257.048
269.190 269.700 297.840 326.050 353.360 379.330 403.860 426.970 448.740 469.280 488.690 507.070 524.490 541.040
kJ/mol ∆fH°
∆fG°
Log Kf
53.300 53.195 47.967 43.730 40.405 37.825 35.854 34.384 33.334 32.640 32.249 32.119 32.215 32.507
104.514 104.832 122.857 142.091 162.089 182.583 203.404 224.441 245.618 266.883 288.197 309.533 330.870 352.193
–18.310 –18.253 –16.043 –14.844 –14.111 –13.624 –13.281 –13.026 –12.830 –12.673 –12.545 –12.437 –12.345 –12.264
0.000 0.136 8.517 18.872 30.955 44.540 59.427 75.444 92.452 110.325 128.954 148.241 168.100 188.460
–103.847 –103.972 –110.33 –115.658 –119.973 –123.384 –126.016 –127.982 –129.380 –130.296 –130.802 –130.961 –130.829 –130.445
–23.458 –22.959 15.029 34.507 64.961 96.065 127.603 159.430 191.444 223.574 255.770 287.993 320.217 352.422
4.110 3.997 –0.657 –3.605 –5.655 –7.168 –8.331 –9.253 –10.000 –10.617 –11.133 –11.572 –11.947 –12.272
173.450 173.453 179.082 190.639
0.000 .252 15.102 33.204
49.080 49.077 48.978 50.330
124.521 124.989 150.320 175.559
–21.815 –21.762 –19.630 –18.340
269.190 269.190 272.823 280.658 290.517 301.360 312.658 324.084 335.473 346.710 357.743 368.534 379.056 389.302
0.000 0.153 10.007 22.696 37.706 54.579 72.962 92.597 113.267 134.827 157.137 180.097 203.607 227.607
82.880 82.780 77.780 73.740 70.490 67.910 65.910 64.410 63.340 62.620 62.200 62.000 61.990 62.110
129.750 130.040 146.570 164.260 182.680 201.590 220.820 240.280 259.890 277.640 299.320 319.090 338.870 358.640
–22.731 –22.641 –19.140 –17.160 –15.903 –15.042 –14.418 –13.945 –13.575 –13.184 –13.029 –12.821 –12.643 –12.489
C6H6 (l)
135.950 136.312 161.793 207.599
18. BENZENE
H°-H° (Tr)
C3H8 (g)
73.597 73.931 94.014 112.591 128.700 142.674 154.766 165.352 174.598 182.673 189.745 195.853 201.209 205.895
17. BENZENE
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
C3H6 (g)
55.571 55.941 76.052 93.859 108.542 120.682 130.910 139.658 147.207 153.749 159.432 164.378 168.689 172.453
16. PROPANE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
T/K
C6H6 (g)
82.430 83.020 113.510 139.340 160.090 176.790 190.460 201.840 211.430 219.580 226.540 232.520 237.680 242.140
5-66
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
19. NAPHTHALENE 298.15 300 353.43
165.720 167.001 208.722
353.43 400 470
217.200 241.577 276.409
131.920 132.840 180.070 219.740 251.530 277.010 297.730 314.850 329.170 341.240 351.500 360.260 367.780 374.270
35.387 35.443 39.240 43.736 48.181 52.280 55.941 59.156 61.951 64.368 66.453 68.251 69.803 71.146
22. METHANOL 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
44.101 44.219 51.713 59.800 67.294 73.958 79.838 85.025 89.597 93.624 97.165 100.277 103.014 105.422
kJ/mol ∆fH°
∆fG°
Log Kf
201.585 202.349 224.543
–35.316 –35.232 –33.186
224.543 241.475 266.859
–33.186 –31.533 –29.658
C10H8 (cr, l)
C10H8 (g) 333.150 333.970 378.800 423.400 466.380 507.140 545.520 581.610 615.550 647.500 677.650 706.130 733.110 758.720
21. FORMALDEHYDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
H°-H° (Tr)
167.390 167.390 0.000 78.530 168.419 167.393 0.308 78.466 198.948 169.833 10.290 96.099 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 18.980 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 53.702 J/K⋅mol, cr–l 252.650 169.833 29.270 96.099 280.916 181.124 39.917 96.067 322.712 199.114 58.091 97.012
20. NAPHTHALENE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
333.150 333.157 338.950 351.400 367.007 384.146 401.935 419.918 437.806 455.426 472.707 489.568 506.009 522.019
0.000 0.244 15.940 36.000 59.624 86.096 114.868 145.523 177.744 211.281 245.932 281.531 317.941 355.051
150.580 150.450 144.190 139.220 135.350 132.330 130.050 128.430 127.510 127.100 126.960 127.060 127.390 127.920
224.100 224.560 250.270 277.340 305.330 333.950 362.920 392.150 421.700 450.630 480.450 509.770 539.740 568.940
–39.260 –39.098 –32.681 –28.973 –26.581 –24.919 –23.696 –22.759 –22.027 –21.398 –20.913 –20.482 –20.137 –19.812
218.760 218.761 220.192 223.028 226.381 229.924 233.517 237.088 240.603 244.042 247.396 250.660 253.833 256.915
0.000 0.066 3.789 7.936 12.534 17.560 22.975 28.734 34.792 41.111 47.655 54.392 61.297 68.346
–108.700 –108.731 –110.438 –112.073 –113.545 –114.833 –115.942 –116.889 –117.696 –118.382 –118.966 –119.463 –119.887 –120.249
–102.667 –102.630 –100.340 –97.623 –94.592 –91.328 –87.893 –84.328 –80.666 –76.929 –73.134 –69.294 –65.418 –61.514
17.987 17.869 13.103 10.198 8.235 6.815 5.739 4.894 4.213 3.653 3.183 2.784 2.441 2.142
239.865 239.866 241.685 245.374 249.830 254.616 259.526 264.455 269.343 274.158 278.879 283.497 288.007 292.405
0.000 0.082 4.864 10.442 16.803 23.873 31.569 39.817 48.553 57.718 67.262 77.137 87.304 97.729
–201.000 –201.068 –204.622 –207.750 –210.387 –212.570 –214.350 –215.782 –216.916 –217.794 –218.457 –218.936 –219.261 –219.456
–162.298 –162.057 –148.509 –134.109 –119.125 –103.737 –88.063 –72.188 –56.170 –40.050 –23.861 –7.624 8.644 24.930
28.434 28.216 19.393 14.010 10.371 7.741 5.750 4.190 2.934 1.902 1.039 0.306 –0.322 –0.868
H2CO (g) 218.760 218.979 229.665 238.900 247.270 255.011 262.236 269.014 275.395 281.416 287.108 292.500 297.616 302.479
CH3OH (g) 239.865 240.139 253.845 266.257 277.835 288.719 298.987 308.696 317.896 326.629 334.930 342.833 350.367 357.558
5-67
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued) J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
T/K
23. ACETALDEHYDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800
263.840 263.837 266.147 270.850 276.550 282.667 288.938 295.189 301.431 307.537 313.512 319.350 325.031 330.571
0.000 0.103 6.189 13.345 21.486 30.494 40.258 50.698 61.669 73.153 85.065 97.344 109.954 122.834
281.622 281.623 284.390 290.115 297.112 304.674 312.456 320.276 328.033 335.670 343.156 350.473 357.612 364.571
283.470 283.863 304.404 323.751 341.988 359.162 375.331 390.558 404.904 418.429 431.189 443.240 454.637 465.432
295.349 295.809 319.658 341.916 362.836 382.627 401.246
∆fG°
Log Kf
–166.190 –166.250 –169.530 –172.420 –174.870 –176.910 –178.570 –179.880 –180.850 –181.560 –182.070 –182.420 –182.640 –182.750
–133.010 –132.800 –121.130 –108.700 –95.720 –82.350 –68.730 –54.920 –40.930 –27.010 –12.860 1.240 15.470 29.580
23.302 23.122 15.818 11.356 8.334 6.145 4.487 3.187 2.138 1.283 0.560 –0.050 –0.577 –1.030
0.000 0.122 7.474 16.318 26.487 37.790 50.065 63.185 77.042 91.543 106.609 122.168 138.160 154.531
–234.800 –234.897 –239.826 –243.940 –247.260 –249.895 –251.951 –253.515 –254.662 –255.454 –255.947 –256.184 –256.206 –256.044
–167.874 –167.458 –144.216 –119.820 –94.672 –69.023 –43.038 –16.825 9.539 36.000 62.520 89.070 115.630 142.185
29.410 29.157 18.832 12.517 8.242 5.151 2.810 0.976 –0.498 –1.709 –2.721 –3.579 –4.314 –4.951
283.470 283.471 286.164 291.765 298.631 306.064 313.722 321.422 329.060 336.576 343.933 351.113 358.105 364.903
0.000 0.118 7.296 15.993 26.014 37.169 49.287 62.223 75.844 90.039 104.707 119.765 135.146 150.793
–432.249 –432.324 –436.006 –438.875 –440.993 –442.466 –443.395 –443.873 –443.982 –443.798 –443.385 –442.795 –442.071 –441.247
–374.254 –373.893 –353.840 –332.950 –311.554 –289.856 –267.985 –246.026 –224.034 –202.046 –180.086 –158.167 –136.299 –114.486
65.567 65.100 46.206 34.783 27.123 21.629 17.497 14.279 11.702 9.594 7.839 6.355 5.085 3.987
295.349 295.349 298.498 304.988 312.873 321.470 330.265
0.000 0.138 8.464 18.464 29.978 42.810 56.785
–217.150 –217.233 –222.212 –226.522 –230.120 –233.049 –235.350
–152.716 –152.339 –129.913 –106.315 –81.923 –56.986 –31.673
26.757 26.521 16.962 11.107 7.133 4.252 2.068
C2H5OH (g) 281.622 282.029 303.076 322.750 341.257 358.659 375.038 390.482 405.075 418.892 431.997 444.448 456.298 467.591
C2H4O2 (g)
63.438 63.739 79.665 93.926 106.181 116.627 125.501 132.989 139.257 144.462 148.760 152.302 155.220 157.631
26. ACETONE
kJ/mol ∆fH°
263.840 264.180 281.620 297.540 312.360 326.230 339.260 351.520 363.100 374.040 384.400 394.230 403.570 412.460
65.652 65.926 81.169 95.400 107.656 118.129 127.171 135.049 141.934 147.958 153.232 157.849 161.896 165.447
25. ACETIC ACID 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
H°-H° (Tr)
C2H4O (g)
55.318 55.510 66.282 76.675 85.942 94.035 101.070 107.190 112.490 117.080 121.060 124.500 127.490 130.090
24. ETHANOL
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
C3H6O (g)
74.517 74.810 91.755 107.864 122.047 134.306 144.934
5-68
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
26. ACETONE 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
27. PHENOL 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
T/K
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
H°-H° (Tr)
kJ/mol ∆fH°
418.860 435.513 451.286 466.265 480.491 493.963 506.850
339.141 347.950 356.617 365.155 373.513 381.596 389.533
71.747 87.563 104.136 121.332 139.072 157.314 175.975
314.810 315.450 349.820 383.040 414.450 443.860 471.310 496.950 520.960 543.500 564.720 584.740 603.680 621.650
314.810 314.810 319.278 328.736 340.430 353.134 366.211 379.327 392.302 405.033 417.468 429.568 441.331 452.767
–237.149 –238.404 –239.283 –239.827 –240.120 –240.203 –240.120
–6.109 19.707 45.396 71.463 97.362 123.470 149.369
0.353 –1.030 –2.157 –3.110 –3.912 –4.607 –5.202
0.000 0.192 12.217 27.152 44.412 63.508 84.079 105.861 128.658 152.314 176.703 201.723 227.288 253.325
–96.400 –96.490 –100.870 –104.240 –106.810 –108.800 –110.300 –111.370 –111.990 –112.280 –112.390 –112.330 –112.120 –111.780
–32.630 –32.230 –10.180 12.970 36.650 60.750 85.020 109.590 134.280 158.620 183.350 208.070 233.050 257.540
5.720 5.610 1.330 –1.360 –3.190 –4.530 –5.550 –6.360 –7.010 –7.530 –7.980 –8.360 –8.700 –8.970
261.455 261.456 264.001 269.155 275.284 281.732 288.199 294.542 300.695 306.629 312.334 317.811 323.069 328.116
0.000 0.113 6.822 14.499 22.890 31.801 41.094 50.670 60.460 70.416 80.500 90.687 100.957 111.295
–933.200 –933.219 –933.986 –934.372 –934.490 –934.431 –934.261 –934.024 –933.745 –933.442 –933.125 –932.800 –932.470 –932.137
–888.518 –888.240 –873.120 –857.852 –842.533 –827.210 –811.903 –796.622 –781.369 –766.146 –750.952 –735.784 –720.641 –705.522
155.663 154.654 114.016 89.618 73.348 61.726 53.011 46.234 40.814 36.381 32.688 29.564 26.887 24.568
259.675 259.676 261.807 266.149 271.368 276.917 282.542 288.116 293.572 298.879 304.022 308.997 313.804 318.449
0.000 0.095 5.722 12.275 19.593 27.519 35.930 44.732 53.854 63.240 72.849 82.647 92.607 102.709
–696.700 –696.735 –698.427 –699.715 –700.634 –701.253 –701.636 –701.832 –701.879 –701.805 –701.629 –701.368 –701.033 –700.635
–662.237 –662.023 –650.186 –637.969 –625.528 –612.957 –600.315 –587.636 –574.944 –562.253 –549.574 –536.913 –524.274 –511.662
116.020 115.267 84.905 66.647 54.456 45.739 39.196 34.105 30.032 26.699 23.922 21.573 19.561 17.817
C6H6O (g) 103.220 103.860 135.790 161.910 182.480 198.840 212.140 223.190 232.490 240.410 247.200 253.060 258.120 262.520
61.050 61.284 72.399 80.713 86.783 91.212 94.479 96.929 98.798 100.250 101.396 102.314 103.059 103.671
51.069 51.258 61.148 69.631 76.453 81.868 86.201 89.719 92.617 95.038 97.084 98.833 100.344 101.660
CF4 (g)
261.455 261.833 281.057 298.153 313.434 327.162 339.566 350.842 361.156 370.643 379.417 387.571 395.181 402.313
29. TRIFLUOROMETHANE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Log Kf
C3H6O (g) (continued)
154.097 162.046 168.908 174.891 180.079 184.556 188.447
28. CARBON TETRAFLUORIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
∆fG°
CHF3 (g)
259.675 259.991 276.113 290.700 304.022 316.230 327.455 337.818 347.426 356.370 364.730 372.571 379.952 386.921
5-69
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
C°p
J/K⋅mol S°
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
30. CHLOROTRIFLUOROMETHANE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
66.886 67.111 77.528 85.013 90.329 94.132 96.899 98.951 100.507 101.708 102.651 103.404 104.012 104.512
285.419 285.834 306.646 324.797 340.794 355.020 367.780 379.317 389.827 399.465 408.357 416.604 424.290 431.484
31. DICHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
72.476 72.691 82.408 89.063 93.635 96.832 99.121 100.801 102.062 103.030 103.786 104.388 104.874 105.270
300.903 301.352 323.682 342.833 359.500 374.189 387.276 399.053 409.742 419.517 428.515 436.847 444.602 451.851
32. CHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
55.853 56.039 65.395 73.008 78.940 83.551 87.185 90.100 92.475 94.433 96.066 97.438 98.601 99.593
33. METHYLAMINE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800
50.053 50.227 60.171 70.057 78.929 86.711 93.545
280.915 281.261 298.701 314.145 328.003 340.533 351.936 362.379 371.999 380.908 389.196 396.941 404.206 411.044
H°-H° (Tr)
kJ/mol ∆fH°
0.000 0.124 7.383 15.532 24.314 33.547 43.106 52.903 62.880 72.993 83.213 93.517 103.889 114.316
∆fG°
Log Kf
–707.800 –707.810 –708.153 –708.170 –707.975 –707.654 –707.264 –706.837 –706.396 –705.950 –705.505 –705.064 –704.628 –704.196
–667.238 –666.986 –653.316 –639.599 –625.901 –612.246 –598.642 –585.090 –571.586 –558.126 –544.707 –531.326 –517.977 –504.660
116.896 116.131 85.313 66.818 54.489 45.686 39.087 33.957 29.856 26.503 23.710 21.349 19.326 17.574
0.000 0.134 7.919 16.514 25.663 35.196 44.999 55.000 65.146 75.402 85.745 96.154 106.618 117.126
–486.000 –486.002 –485.945 –485.618 –485.136 –484.576 –483.984 –483.388 –482.800 –482.226 –481.667 –481.121 –480.588 –480.065
–447.030 –446.788 –433.716 –420.692 –407.751 –394.897 –382.126 –369.429 –356.799 –344.227 –331.706 –319.232 –306.799 –294.404
78.317 77.792 56.637 43.949 35.497 29.467 24.950 21.441 18.637 16.346 14.439 12.827 11.447 10.252
280.915 280.916 283.231 287.898 293.448 299.294 305.172 310.956 316.586 322.033 327.289 332.352 337.228 341.923
0.000 0.104 6.188 13.123 20.733 28.867 37.411 46.280 55.413 64.761 74.289 83.966 93.769 103.681
–475.000 –475.028 –476.390 –477.398 –478.103 –478.574 –478.870 –479.031 –479.090 –479.068 –478.982 –478.843 –478.661 –478.443
–443.845 –443.652 –432.978 –422.001 –410.851 –399.603 –388.299 –376.967 –365.622 –354.276 –342.935 –331.603 –320.283 –308.978
77.759 77.246 56.540 44.086 35.767 29.818 25.353 21.878 19.098 16.823 14.927 13.324 11.950 10.759
242.881 242.893 244.975 249.244 254.431 260.008 265.749
0.000 0.091 5.604 12.121 19.579 27.873 36.893
–22.529 –22.614 –26.846 –30.431 –33.364 –35.712 –37.548
32.734 33.077 52.294 72.510 93.382 114.702 136.316
–5.735 –5.759 –6.829 –7.575 –8.129 –8.559 –8.900
CClF3 (g) 285.419 285.421 288.187 293.734 300.271 307.096 313.897 320.536 326.947 333.108 339.013 344.668 350.084 355.273
CCl2F2 (g) 300.903 300.905 303.883 309.804 316.729 323.909 331.027 337.942 344.596 350.969 357.061 362.882 368.445 373.767
CHClF2 (g)
CH5N (g) 242.881 243.196 258.986 273.486 287.063 299.826 311.865
5-70
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
33. METHYLAMINE 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
∆fG°
Log Kf
323.239 334.006 344.233 353.944 363.190 372.012 380.426
271.511 277.220 282.861 288.374 293.775 299.061 304.209
46.555 56.786 67.509 78.685 90.239 102.131 114.326
–38.949 –39.967 –40.681 –41.136 –41.376 –41.451 –41.381
158.138 180.098 201.822 224.240 246.364 268.504 290.639
–9.178 –9.407 –9.584 –9.761 –9.899 –10.018 –10.121
165.190 165.325 171.703 176.752 180.905 184.411 187.432 190.079 192.430 194.542 196.458 198.211 199.826 201.323
165.190 165.190 166.055 167.708 169.571 171.448 173.261 174.986 176.615 178.150 179.597 180.963 182.253 183.475
0.000 0.040 2.259 4.522 6.800 9.074 11.337 13.584 15.815 18.031 20.233 22.423 24.602 26.772
121.302 121.311 121.795 122.272 122.734 123.172 123.585 123.971 124.334 124.675 124.996 125.299 125.587 125.861
105.306 105.207 99.766 94.203 88.546 82.813 77.019 71.175 65.289 59.368 53.416 47.439 41.439 35.418
–18.449 –18.318 –13.028 –9.841 –7.709 –6.179 –5.029 –4.131 –3.410 –2.819 –2.325 –1.906 –1.546 –1.233
33.949 33.981 35.296 36.064 36.547 36.874 37.111 37.294 37.442 37.567 37.678 37.778 37.872 37.961
223.079 223.290 233.263 241.229 247.850 253.510 258.450 262.832 266.769 270.343 273.617 276.637 279.440 282.056
223.079 223.080 224.431 227.021 229.956 232.926 235.815 238.578 241.203 243.692 246.052 248.290 250.416 252.439
0.000 0.063 3.533 7.104 10.736 14.408 18.108 21.829 25.566 29.316 33.079 36.851 40.634 44.426
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
186.902 186.902 188.045 190.206 192.630 195.069 197.435 199.700 201.858 203.912 205.867 207.732 209.513 211.217
0.000 0.054 2.969 5.892 8.835 11.812 14.836 17.913 21.049 24.241 27.488 30.786 34.132 37.522
–92.310 –92.314 –92.587 –92.911 –93.249 –93.577 –93.879 –94.149 –94.384 –94.587 –94.760 –94.908 –95.035 –95.146
–95.298 –95.317 –96.278 –97.164 –97.983 –98.746 –99.464 –100.145 –100.798 –101.430 –102.044 –102.645 –103.235 –103.817
16.696 16.596 12.573 10.151 8.530 7.368 6.494 5.812 5.265 4.816 4.442 4.124 3.852 3.615
Cl2 (g)
36. HYDROGEN CHLORIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
kJ/mol ∆fH°
Cl (g)
21.838 21.852 22.467 22.744 22.781 22.692 22.549 22.389 22.233 22.089 21.959 21.843 21.742 21.652
35. DICHLORINE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
H°-H° (Tr)
CH5N (g) (continued)
99.573 104.886 109.576 113.708 117.341 120.542 123.353
34. CHLORINE
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
29.136 29.137 29.175 29.304 29.576 29.988 30.500 31.063 31.639 32.201 32.734 33.229 33.684 34.100
HCl (g)
186.902 187.082 195.468 201.990 207.354 211.943 215.980 219.604 222.907 225.949 228.774 231.414 233.893 236.232
5-71
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
37. COPPER
24.440 24.460 25.339 25.966 26.479 26.953 27.448 28.014 28.700 29.553 30.617 31.940 32.844
1358 1400 1500
32.800 32.800 32.800
298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
42.300 42.417 46.783 49.190 50.827 52.099 53.178 54.144 55.040 55.890 56.709 57.507 58.288 59.057
40. DICOPPER OXIDE 298.15 300 400 500
H°-H° (Tr)
kJ/mol ∆fH°
∆fG°
Log Kf
33.150 33.150 0.000 0.000 33.301 33.150 0.045 0.000 40.467 34.122 2.538 0.000 46.192 35.982 5.105 0.000 50.973 38.093 7.728 0.000 55.090 40.234 10.399 0.000 58.721 42.322 13.119 0.000 61.986 44.328 15.891 0.000 64.971 46.245 18.726 0.000 67.745 48.075 21.637 0.000 70.361 49.824 24.644 0.000 72.862 51.501 27.769 0.000 74.275 52.443 29.647 0.000 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 13.141 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 9.676 J/K⋅mol, cr–l 83.951 52.443 42.788 0.000 84.950 53.403 44.166 0.000 87.213 55.583 47.446 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
Cu (g) 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.788 20.793 20.803 20.823 20.856
39. COPPER OXIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
Cu (cr, l)
298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1358
38. COPPER
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
62.600 62.721 67.587 70.784
166.397 166.525 172.505 177.143 180.933 184.137 186.913 189.361 191.551 193.532 195.341 197.006 198.548 199.986
166.397 166.397 167.213 168.752 170.476 172.205 173.874 175.461 176.963 178.380 179.719 180.986 182.186 183.325
0.000 0.038 2.117 4.196 6.274 8.353 10.431 12.510 14.589 16.667 18.746 20.826 22.907 24.991
337.600 337.594 337.179 336.691 336.147 335.554 334.913 334.219 333.463 332.631 331.703 330.657 316.342 315.146
297.873 297.626 284.364 271.215 258.170 245.221 232.359 219.581 206.883 194.265 181.726 169.270 157.305 145.987
–52.185 –51.821 –37.134 –28.333 –22.475 –18.298 –15.171 –12.744 –10.806 –9.225 –7.910 –6.801 –5.869 –5.084
42.740 42.741 44.467 47.852 51.755 55.757 59.691 63.491 67.134 70.615 73.941 77.118 80.158 83.070
0.000 0.078 4.564 9.372 14.377 19.526 24.791 30.158 35.617 41.164 46.794 52.505 58.295 64.163
–162.000 –161.994 –161.487 –160.775 –159.973 –159.124 –158.247 –157.356 –156.462 –155.582 –154.733 –153.940 –166.354 –165.589
–134.277 –134.105 –124.876 –115.803 –106.883 –98.102 –89.444 –80.897 –72.450 –64.091 –55.812 –47.601 –39.043 –29.975
23.524 23.349 16.307 12.098 9.305 7.320 5.840 4.695 3.784 3.043 2.429 1.913 1.457 1.044
92.550 92.551 95.078 99.995
0.000 0.116 6.654 13.580
–173.100 –173.102 –173.036 –172.772
–150.344 –150.203 –142.572 –134.984
26.339 26.152 18.618 14.101
CuO (cr) 42.740 43.002 55.878 66.596 75.717 83.651 90.680 97.000 102.751 108.037 112.936 117.507 121.797 125.845
Cu2O (cr) 92.550 92.938 111.712 127.155
5-72
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
40. DICOPPER OXIDE 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
73.323 75.552 77.616 79.584 81.492 83.360 85.202 87.026 88.836 90.636
71.880 71.998 76.338 78.654 80.175 81.056
675 700 800 871
82.400 82.400 82.400 82.400
871 900 1000 1100 1130.75
100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000
140.291 151.764 161.989 171.245 179.729 187.584 194.917 201.808 208.324 214.515
56.814 56.869 58.992 60.111 60.761 61.168 61.439 61.630 61.776 61.900 62.022 62.159 62.325 62.531
43. FLUORINE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
kJ/mol ∆fH°
105.643 111.429 117.121 122.629 127.920 132.992 137.850 142.507 146.978 151.276
20.789 28.235 35.894 43.755 51.809 60.052 68.480 77.092 85.885 94.858
–172.389 –171.914 –171.363 –170.750 –170.097 –169.431 –168.791 –168.223 –194.030 –193.438
∆fG°
Log Kf
–127.460 –120.009 –112.631 –105.325 –98.091 –90.922 –83.814 –76.756 –68.926 –60.010
11.096 8.955 7.354 6.113 5.124 4.317 3.648 3.084 2.572 2.090
–173.826 –173.552 –158.962 –144.765 –130.901 –120.693
30.453 30.218 20.758 15.123 11.396 9.340
–120.693 –117.350 –104.137 –94.893
9.340 8.757 6.799 5.691
–94.893 –91.655 –80.730 –70.144 –66.951
5.691 5.319 4.217 3.331 3.093
CuCl2 (cr, l)
108.070 108.070 0.000 –218.000 108.515 108.071 0.133 –217.975 129.899 110.957 7.577 –216.494 147.204 116.532 15.336 –214.873 161.687 122.884 23.282 –213.182 171.183 127.732 29.329 –211.185 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 0.700 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 1.037 J/K⋅mol, crII–crI 172.220 127.732 30.029 –211.185 175.216 129.375 32.089 –210.719 186.219 135.808 40.329 –208.898 193.226 140.207 46.179 –192.649 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 15.001 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 17.221 J/K⋅mol, crI–l 210.447 140.207 61.180 –192.649 213.723 142.523 64.080 –191.640 224.259 150.179 74.080 –188.212 233.790 157.353 84.080 –184.873 236.547 159.470 87.155 –183.867
42. COPPER DICHLORIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
H°-H° (Tr)
Cu2O (cr) (continued)
41. COPPER DICHLORIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 675
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
CuCl2 (g)
278.418 278.769 295.456 308.752 319.774 329.173 337.360 344.608 351.109 357.003 362.394 367.364 371.976 376.283
278.418 278.419 280.679 285.010 289.911 294.865 299.677 304.274 308.638 312.771 316.685 320.395 323.916 327.265
0.000 0.105 5.911 11.871 17.918 24.015 30.147 36.301 42.471 48.655 54.851 61.060 67.284 73.526
–43.268 –43.271 –43.428 –43.606 –43.814 –44.060 –44.349 –44.688 –45.088 –45.566 –46.139 –46.829 –60.784 –61.613
–49.883 –49.924 –52.119 –54.271 –56.385 –58.462 –60.500 –62.499 –64.457 –66.372 –68.239 –70.053 –71.404 –72.133
8.739 8.692 6.806 5.670 4.909 4.362 3.950 3.627 3.367 3.152 2.970 2.815 2.664 2.512
158.750 158.891 165.394 170.363 174.368 177.717 180.595 183.117
158.750 158.750 159.639 161.307 163.161 165.008 166.780 168.458
0.000 0.042 2.302 4.528 6.724 8.897 11.052 13.193
79.380 79.393 80.043 80.587 81.046 81.442 81.792 82.106
62.280 62.173 56.332 50.340 44.246 38.081 31.862 25.601
–10.911 –10.825 –7.356 –5.259 –3.852 –2.842 –2.080 –1.486
F (g)
22.746 22.742 22.432 22.100 21.832 21.629 21.475 21.357
5-73
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
43. FLUORINE 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
T/K
H°-H° (Tr)
185.362 187.386 189.227 190.917 192.479 193.930
170.039 171.525 172.925 174.245 175.492 176.673
15.324 17.447 19.563 21.675 23.782 25.886
202.790 202.984 212.233 219.739 226.070 231.545 236.365 240.669 244.557 248.103 251.363 254.381 257.191 259.820
202.790 202.790 204.040 206.453 209.208 212.017 214.765 217.409 219.932 222.334 224.619 226.794 228.866 230.843
31.304 31.337 32.995 34.258 35.171 35.839 36.343 36.740 37.065 37.342 37.588 37.811 38.019 38.214
∆fG°
Log Kf
82.391 82.654 82.897 83.123 83.335 83.533
19.308 12.986 6.642 0.278 –6.103 –12.498
–1.009 –0.617 –0.289 –0.011 0.228 0.435
0.000 0.058 3.277 6.643 10.117 13.669 17.279 20.934 24.625 28.346 32.093 35.863 39.654 43.466
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
173.776 173.776 174.919 177.078 179.496 181.923 184.269 186.505 188.626 190.636 192.543 194.355 196.081 197.729
0.000 0.054 2.968 5.884 8.804 11.732 14.676 17.645 20.644 23.680 26.756 29.875 33.037 36.241
–273.300 –273.302 –273.450 –273.679 –273.961 –274.277 –274.614 –274.961 –275.309 –275.652 –275.988 –276.315 –276.631 –276.937
–275.399 –275.412 –276.096 –276.733 –277.318 –277.852 –278.340 –278.785 –279.191 –279.563 –279.904 –280.217 –280.505 –280.771
48.248 47.953 36.054 28.910 24.142 20.733 18.174 16.180 14.583 13.275 12.184 11.259 10.466 9.777
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
F2 (g)
45. HYDROGEN FLUORIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
kJ/mol ∆fH°
F (g) (continued)
21.266 21.194 21.137 21.091 21.054 21.022
44. DIFLUORINE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
29.137 29.137 29.149 29.172 29.230 29.350 29.549 29.827 30.169 30.558 30.974 31.403 31.831 32.250
46. GERMANIUM 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1211.4
23.222 23.249 24.310 24.962 25.452 25.867 26.240 26.591 26.926 27.252 27.571 27.608
1211.4 1300
27.600 27.600
HF (g)
173.776 173.956 182.340 188.846 194.169 198.683 202.614 206.110 209.270 212.163 214.840 217.336 219.679 221.889
Ge (cr, l) 31.090 31.090 0.000 0.000 31.234 31.090 0.043 0.000 38.083 32.017 2.426 0.000 43.582 33.798 4.892 0.000 48.178 35.822 7.414 0.000 52.133 37.876 9.980 0.000 55.612 39.880 12.586 0.000 58.723 41.804 15.227 0.000 61.542 43.639 17.903 0.000 64.124 45.386 20.612 0.000 66.509 47.048 23.353 0.000 66.770 47.232 23.668 0.000 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 37.030 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 30.568 J/K⋅mol, cr–l 97.338 47.232 60.698 0.000 99.286 50.714 63.143 0.000
5-74
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
46. GERMANIUM 1400 1500
30.733 30.757 31.071 30.360 29.265 28.102 27.029 26.108 25.349 24.741 24.264 23.898 23.624 23.426
50.166 50.475 61.281 66.273 69.089 70.974 72.449 73.764 75.049 76.378 77.796 79.332 79.460
1308 1388
80.075 81.297
1388 1400 1500
78.500 78.500 78.500
95.918 96.041 100.750 103.206 104.624 105.509 106.096 106.504 106.799 107.020 107.189 107.320 107.425 107.509
kJ/mol ∆fH°
∆fG°
Log Kf
54.258 57.460
65.903 68.663
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
167.903 168.094 177.025 183.893 189.334 193.758 197.439 200.567 203.277 205.664 207.795 209.722 211.483 213.105
167.903 167.904 169.119 171.415 173.965 176.487 178.882 181.122 183.205 185.141 186.941 188.621 190.192 191.666
0.000 0.057 3.162 6.239 9.222 12.090 14.845 17.501 20.072 22.575 25.025 27.432 29.807 32.159
367.800 367.814 368.536 369.147 369.608 369.910 370.060 370.073 369.969 369.763 369.471 332.088 331.704 331.296
327.009 326.756 312.959 298.991 284.914 270.773 256.598 242.414 228.234 214.069 199.928 188.521 177.492 166.491
–57.290 –56.893 –40.868 –31.235 –24.804 –20.205 –16.754 –14.069 –11.922 –10.165 –8.703 –7.575 –6.622 –5.798
–521.605 –521.242 –501.610 –482.134 –462.859 –443.776 –424.866 –406.113 –387.502 –369.024 –350.671 –329.732 –328.034
91.382 90.755 65.503 50.368 40.295 33.115 27.741 23.570 20.241 17.523 15.264 13.249 13.100
–328.034 –312.415
13.100 11.757
–312.415 –310.228 –292.057
11.757 11.575 10.170
–461.582 –461.343 –448.540 –435.882 –423.347 –410.914 –398.565 –386.287 –374.068 –361.899 –349.772 –334.973 –319.857 –304.771
80.866 80.326 58.573 45.536 36.855 30.662 26.023 22.419 19.539 17.185 15.225 13.459 11.934 10.613
Ge (g)
GeO2 (cr, l)
39.710 39.710 0.000 –580.200 40.021 39.711 0.093 –580.204 56.248 41.850 5.759 –579.893 70.519 46.191 12.164 –579.013 82.872 51.299 18.943 –577.915 93.671 56.597 25.952 –576.729 103.247 61.841 33.125 –575.498 111.857 66.928 40.436 –574.235 119.696 71.819 47.877 –572.934 126.910 76.504 55.447 –571.582 133.616 80.987 63.155 –570.166 139.903 85.279 71.010 –605.685 140.390 85.615 71.646 –584.059 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 21.500 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 16.437 J/K⋅mol, crII–crI 156.827 85.615 93.146 –584.059 161.617 89.858 99.601 –565.504 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 17.200 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 12.392 J/K⋅mol, crI–l 174.009 89.858 116.801 –565.504 174.685 90.582 117.743 –565.328 180.100 96.372 125.593 –563.882
49. GERMANIUM TETRACHLORIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
H°-H° (Tr)
101.331 103.236
48. GERMANIUM DIOXIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1308
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
Ge (cr, l) (continued)
27.600 27.600
47. GERMANIUM 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
348.393 348.987 377.342 400.114 419.067 435.266 449.396 461.917 473.155 483.344 492.664 501.249 509.206 516.621
GeCl4 (g) 348.393 348.395 352.229 359.604 367.980 376.463 384.715 392.611 400.113 407.224 413.961 420.349 426.416 432.185
0.000 0.178 10.045 20.255 30.652 41.162 51.744 62.375 73.041 83.733 94.444 105.169 115.907 126.654
5-75
–500.000 –499.991 –499.447 –498.845 –498.234 –497.634 –497.057 –496.509 –495.993 –495.512 –495.067 –531.677 –531.265 –530.861
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
C°p
50. HYDROGEN 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
53. WATER 298.15 300 373.21
54. WATER 298.15
H°-H° (Tr)
kJ/mol ∆fH°
114.716 114.845 120.824 125.463 129.252 132.457 135.232 137.680 139.870 141.852 143.660 145.324 146.864 148.298
114.716 114.716 115.532 117.071 118.795 120.524 122.193 123.780 125.282 126.700 128.039 129.305 130.505 131.644
0.000 0.038 2.117 4.196 6.274 8.353 10.431 12.510 14.589 16.667 18.746 20.824 22.903 24.982
130.680 130.858 139.217 145.738 151.078 155.607 159.549 163.052 166.217 169.113 171.791 174.288 176.633 178.846
130.680 130.680 131.818 133.974 136.393 138.822 141.172 143.412 145.537 147.550 149.460 151.275 153.003 154.653
183.737 183.922 192.476 199.067 204.445 209.003 212.979 216.522 219.731 222.677 225.406 227.954 230.347 232.606
∆fG°
Log Kf
217.998 218.010 218.635 219.253 219.867 220.476 221.079 221.670 222.247 222.806 223.345 223.864 224.360 224.835
203.276 203.185 198.149 192.956 187.639 182.219 176.712 171.131 165.485 159.781 154.028 148.230 142.393 136.522
–35.613 –35.377 –25.875 –20.158 –16.335 –13.597 –11.538 –9.932 –8.644 –7.587 –6.705 –5.956 –5.313 –4.754
0.000 0.053 2.960 5.882 8.811 11.749 14.702 17.676 20.680 23.719 26.797 29.918 33.082 36.290
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
183.737 183.738 184.906 187.104 189.560 192.020 194.396 196.661 198.810 200.848 202.782 204.621 206.374 208.048
0.000 0.055 3.028 5.982 8.931 11.888 14.866 17.874 20.921 24.012 27.149 30.332 33.562 36.836
39.349 39.350 39.384 39.347 39.252 39.113 38.945 38.763 38.577 38.393 38.215 38.046 37.886 37.735
34.631 34.602 33.012 31.422 29.845 28.287 26.752 25.239 23.746 22.272 20.814 19.371 17.941 16.521
–6.067 –6.025 –4.311 –3.283 –2.598 –2.111 –1.747 –1.465 –1.240 –1.058 –0.906 –0.778 –0.669 –0.575
69.950 70.416 86.896
69.950 69.951 71.715
0.000 0.139 5.666
–285.830 –285.771 –283.454
–237.141 –236.839 –225.160
41.546 41.237 31.513
188.832
188.832
0.000
–241.826
–228.582
40.046
H2 (g)
28.836 28.849 29.181 29.260 29.327 29.440 29.623 29.880 30.204 30.580 30.991 31.422 31.860 32.296
52. HYDROXYL
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
H (g)
20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786
51. DIHYDROGEN 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
J/K⋅mol S°
OH (g)
29.886 29.879 29.604 29.495 29.513 29.655 29.914 30.265 30.682 31.135 31.603 32.069 32.522 32.956
H2O (l) 75.300 75.281 76.079
H2O (g) 33.598
5-76
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued) C°p
T/K
54. WATER 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
H°-H° (Tr)
kJ/mol ∆fH°
189.040 198.791 206.542 213.067 218.762 223.858 228.501 232.792 236.797 240.565 244.129 247.516 250.746
188.833 190.158 192.685 195.552 198.469 201.329 204.094 206.752 209.303 211.753 214.108 216.374 218.559
0.062 3.453 6.929 10.509 14.205 18.023 21.966 26.040 30.243 34.574 39.028 43.599 48.282
180.787 180.915 186.895 191.533 195.323 198.527 201.303 203.751 205.942 207.924 209.735 211.403 212.950 214.392
180.787 180.787 181.602 183.142 184.866 186.594 188.263 189.851 191.352 192.770 194.110 195.377 196.577 197.717
0.000 0.038 2.117 4.196 6.274 8.353 10.432 12.510 14.589 16.669 18.751 20.835 22.921 25.013
∆fG°
Log Kf
–241.844 –242.845 –243.822 –244.751 –245.620 –246.424 –247.158 –247.820 –248.410 –248.933 –249.392 –249.792 –250.139
–228.500 –223.900 –219.050 –214.008 –208.814 –203.501 –198.091 –192.603 –187.052 –181.450 –175.807 –170.132 –164.429
39.785 29.238 22.884 18.631 15.582 13.287 11.497 10.060 8.882 7.898 7.064 6.348 5.726
106.760 106.748 97.974 75.988 76.190 76.385 76.574 76.757 76.936 77.109 77.277 77.440 77.596 77.745
70.172 69.945 58.060 50.202 45.025 39.816 34.579 29.319 24.038 18.740 13.426 8.098 2.758 –2.592
–12.294 –12.178 –7.582 –5.244 –3.920 –2.971 –2.258 –1.702 –1.256 –0.890 –0.584 –0.325 –0.103 0.090
0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
I (g) 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.787 20.789 20.795 20.806 20.824 20.851 20.889 20.936
56. DIIODINE
I2 (cr, l)
298.15 300 386.75
54.440 54.518 61.531
386.75 400 457.67
79.555 79.555 79.555
57. DIIODINE 298.15 300 400 457.67 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
H2O (g) (continued) 33.606 34.283 35.259 36.371 37.557 38.800 40.084 41.385 42.675 43.932 45.138 46.281 47.356
55. IODINE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
J/K⋅mol S°
116.139 116.139 0.000 0.000 116.476 116.140 0.101 0.000 131.039 117.884 5.088 0.000 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 15.665 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 40.504 J/K⋅mol, cr–l 171.543 117.884 20.753 0.000 174.223 119.706 21.807 0.000 184.938 127.266 26.395 0.000
I2 (g)
36.887 36.897 37.256 37.385 37.464 37.613 37.735 37.847 37.956 38.070 38.196 38.341 38.514 38.719 38.959
260.685 260.913 271.584 276.610 279.921 286.765 292.573 297.619 302.083 306.088 309.722 313.052 316.127 318.989 321.668
260.685 260.685 262.138 263.652 264.891 267.983 271.092 274.099 276.965 279.681 282.249 284.679 286.981 289.166 291.245
0.000 0.068 3.778 5.931 7.515 11.269 15.037 18.816 22.606 26.407 30.220 34.047 37.890 41.751 45.635
5-77
62.420 62.387 44.391 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
19.324 19.056 5.447 pressure = 1 bar 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
–3.385 –3.318 –0.711 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
58. HYDROGEN IODIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
298.15 300 336.86
29.600 29.671 32.130
336.86 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1039.4
32.129 31.552 30.741 30.158 29.851 29.838 30.130 30.730 31.053
60. POTASSIUM 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1039.4 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
0.000 0.054 2.977 5.928 8.931 12.002 15.145 18.362 21.646 24.991 28.391 31.839 35.330 38.858
kJ/mol ∆fH°
∆fG°
Log Kf
26.500 26.477 17.093 –5.481 –5.819 –6.101 –6.323 –6.489 –6.608 –6.689 –6.741 –6.775 –6.797 –6.814
1.700 1.546 –6.289 –9.946 –10.806 –11.614 –12.386 –13.133 –13.865 –14.586 –15.302 –16.014 –16.723 –17.432
–0.298 –0.269 0.821 1.039 0.941 0.867 0.809 0.762 0.724 0.693 0.666 0.643 0.624 0.607
0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
K (cr, l) 64.680 64.680 0.000 0.000 64.863 64.681 0.055 0.000 68.422 64.896 1.188 0.000 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 2.321 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 6.891 J/K⋅mol, cr–l 75.313 64.896 3.509 0.000 80.784 66.986 5.519 0.000 87.734 70.469 8.632 0.000 93.283 73.824 11.675 0.000 97.905 76.943 14.673 0.000 101.887 79.818 17.655 0.000 105.415 82.470 20.651 0.000 108.618 84.927 23.691 0.000 109.812 85.847 24.908 0.000
K (g)
20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.789 20.793 20.801
72.000 72.130 79.154 86.178 92.500
206.589 206.589 207.734 209.904 212.348 214.820 217.230 219.548 221.763 223.878 225.896 227.823 229.666 231.430
206.589 206.769 215.176 221.760 227.233 231.965 236.162 239.950 243.409 246.597 249.555 252.314 254.901 257.336
160.340 160.468 166.448 171.086 174.876 178.080 180.856 183.304 185.494 186.297 187.475 189.284 190.948 192.489 193.923
61. DIPOTASSIUM OXIDE 298.15 300 400 500 590
H°-H° (Tr)
HI (g)
29.157 29.158 29.329 29.738 30.351 31.070 31.807 32.511 33.156 33.735 34.249 34.703 35.106 35.463
59. POTASSIUM
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
160.340 160.340 161.155 162.695 164.419 166.148 167.817 169.404 170.905 171.474 172.323 173.662 174.929 176.129 177.268
0.000 0.038 2.117 4.196 6.274 8.353 10.431 12.510 14.589 15.408 16.667 18.746 20.825 22.904 24.983
89.000 88.984 85.598 84.563 83.599 82.680 81.776 80.859 79.897 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
60.479 60.302 51.332 42.887 34.643 26.557 18.601 10.759 3.021 pressure = 1 bar 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
–10.596 –10.499 –6.703 –4.480 –3.016 –1.982 –1.215 –0.624 –0.158 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
K2O (cr, l)
96.000 96.000 0.000 –361.700 96.446 96.001 0.133 –361.704 118.158 98.914 7.698 –366.554 136.575 104.647 15.964 –366.043 151.348 110.662 24.005 –364.204 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 0.700 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 1.186 J/K⋅mol, crIII–crII
5-78
–321.171 –320.920 –306.416 –291.423 –278.079
56.267 55.876 40.013 30.444 24.619
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
J/K⋅mol S°
Cp°
61. DIPOTASSIUM OXIDE 590 600 645
100.000 100.000 100.000
645 700 800 900 1000 1013
100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000
1013 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000
64.900 65.038 72.519 80.000 81.496
520 600 678
79.000 79.000 79.000
678 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
83.000 83.000 83.000 83.000 83.000 83.000 83.000 83.000 83.000 83.000
49.184 49.236 51.178 52.178 52.804 53.296 53.758 54.229 54.713 55.203 55.686 56.153 56.598 57.016
kJ/mol ∆fH°
∆fG°
Log Kf
–278.079 –276.621 –270.109
24.619 24.082 21.874
–270.109 –262.592 –249.183 –236.067 –223.202 –221.546
21.874 19.595 16.270 13.701 11.659 11.424
–221.546 –203.633 –178.740 –154.185 –129.941 –105.986
11.424 9.670 7.780 6.195 4.848 3.691
–378.747 –378.463 –362.765 –347.093 –344.002
66.354 65.895 47.372 36.260 34.555
–344.002 –332.766 –321.998
34.555 28.969 24.807
–321.998 –319.297 –307.206 –295.383 –283.791 –267.780 –249.014 –230.490 –212.184 –194.080
24.807 23.826 20.058 17.143 14.824 12.716 10.839 9.261 7.917 6.758
–229.685 –229.696 –229.667 –229.129 –228.413 –227.562 –226.599 –225.538 –224.388 –218.535 –209.674 –200.826 –191.991 –183.169
40.239 39.993 29.991 23.937 19.885 16.981 14.795 13.090 11.721 10.377 9.127 8.069 7.163 6.378
K2O (cr, l) (continued)
KOH (cr, l)
78.870 78.870 0.000 –424.580 79.272 78.871 0.120 –424.569 99.007 81.512 6.998 –426.094 115.993 86.745 14.624 –424.572 119.159 87.931 16.239 –417.725 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 6.450 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 12.404 J/K⋅mol, crII–crI 131.563 87.931 22.689 –417.725 142.868 94.520 29.009 –416.274 152.523 100.649 35.171 –405.464 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 9.400 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 13.865 J/K⋅mol, crI–l 166.388 100.649 44.571 –405.464 169.038 102.757 46.397 –404.981 180.121 111.750 54.697 –402.808 189.897 119.901 62.997 –400.694 198.642 127.345 71.297 –398.668 206.553 134.192 79.597 –475.618 213.775 140.527 87.897 –472.711 220.418 146.421 96.197 –469.843 226.569 151.929 104.497 –467.011 232.296 157.098 112.797 –464.217
63. POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
H°-H° (Tr)
152.534 110.662 24.705 –364.204 154.215 111.374 25.705 –363.968 161.447 114.618 30.205 –358.901 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 4.000 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 6.202 J/K⋅mol, crII–crI 167.649 114.618 34.205 –358.901 175.832 119.111 39.705 –357.592 189.185 127.054 49.705 –355.224 200.963 134.625 59.705 –352.919 211.499 141.794 69.705 –350.732 212.791 142.697 71.005 –323.459 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 27.000 kJ/mol, ∆trs S =26.654 J/K⋅mol, crI–l 239.444 142.697 98.005 –323.459 247.684 150.679 106.705 –479.439 256.385 159.131 116.705 –475.371 264.389 166.924 126.705 –471.321 271.800 174.154 136.705 –467.287 278.699 180.896 146.705 –463.268
62. POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE 298.15 300 400 500 520
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
238.283 238.588 253.053 264.591 274.163 282.340 289.487 295.846 301.585 306.823 311.647 316.122 320.300 324.220
KOH (g) 238.283 238.284 240.243 243.998 248.251 252.551 256.730 260.730 264.533 268.143 271.570 274.827 277.927 280.884
0.000 0.091 5.124 10.296 15.547 20.853 26.206 31.605 37.052 42.548 48.092 53.684 59.322 65.003
5-79
–227.989 –228.007 –231.377 –232.309 –233.145 –233.934 –234.708 –235.495 –236.322 –316.077 –315.925 –315.764 –315.595 –315.420
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
J/K⋅mol S°
Cp°
64. POTASSIUM CHLORIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1044
51.300 51.333 52.977 54.448 55.885 57.425 59.205 61.361 64.032 65.405
1044 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
72.000 72.000 72.000 72.000 72.000 72.000
36.505 36.518 37.066 37.384 37.597 37.769 37.907 38.041 38.162 38.279 38.401 38.518 38.639 38.761
66. DINITROGEN 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
29.124 29.125 29.249 29.580 30.109 30.754 31.433 32.090 32.696 33.241 33.723 34.147 34.517 34.842
67. NITRIC OXIDE 298.15 300 400 500
29.862 29.858 29.954 30.493
H°-H° (Tr)
kJ/mol ∆fH°
∆fG°
Log Kf
–408.568 –408.395 –398.651 –388.749 –378.960 –369.295 –359.760 –350.360 –341.100 –336.720
71.579 71.107 52.058 40.612 32.991 27.557 23.490 20.334 17.817 16.847
–336.720 –328.790 –314.856 –301.192 –287.778 –274.594
16.847 15.613 13.705 12.102 10.737 9.562
KCl (cr, l)
82.570 82.570 0.000 –436.490 82.887 82.571 0.095 –436.481 97.886 84.605 5.312 –438.463 109.867 88.498 10.685 –437.990 119.921 92.919 16.201 –437.332 128.649 97.413 21.865 –436.502 136.430 101.812 27.694 –435.505 143.523 106.058 33.719 –434.337 150.121 110.138 39.983 –432.981 152.908 111.882 42.830 –485.450 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 26.320 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 25.210 J/K⋅mol, cr–l 178.118 111.882 69.150 –485.450 181.880 115.351 73.182 –483.633 188.145 121.160 80.382 –480.393 193.908 126.537 87.582 –477.158 199.244 131.542 94.782 –473.928 204.211 136.223 101.982 –470.704
65. POTASSIUM CHLORIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
KCl (g)
239.091 239.317 249.904 258.212 265.048 270.857 275.910 280.382 284.397 288.039 291.375 294.454 297.313 299.983
239.091 239.092 240.532 243.267 246.344 249.441 252.441 255.302 258.014 260.581 263.010 265.312 267.496 269.574
0.000 0.068 3.749 7.473 11.222 14.991 18.775 22.572 26.383 30.205 34.039 37.885 41.743 45.613
–214.575 –214.594 –218.112 –219.287 –220.396 –221.461 –222.509 –223.568 –224.667 –304.696 –304.821 –304.941 –305.053 –305.159
–233.320 –233.436 –239.107 –244.219 –249.100 –253.799 –258.347 –262.764 –267.061 –266.627 –263.161 –259.684 –256.199 –252.706
40.876 40.644 31.224 25.513 21.686 18.938 16.868 15.250 13.950 12.661 11.455 10.434 9.559 8.800
191.608 191.788 200.180 206.738 212.175 216.864 221.015 224.756 228.169 231.311 234.224 236.941 239.485 241.878
191.608 191.608 192.752 194.916 197.352 199.812 202.208 204.509 206.706 208.802 210.801 212.708 214.531 216.275
0.000 0.054 2.971 5.911 8.894 11.936 15.046 18.222 21.462 24.759 28.108 31.502 34.936 38.404
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
210.745 210.746 211.916 214.133
0.000 0.055 3.041 6.061
91.277 91.278 91.320 91.340
87.590 87.567 86.323 85.071
–15.345 –15.247 –11.272 –8.887
N2 (g)
NO (g) 210.745 210.930 219.519 226.255
5-80
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued) J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
T/K
67. NITRIC OXIDE 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
37.178 37.236 40.513 43.664 46.383 48.612 50.405 51.844 53.007 53.956 54.741 55.399 55.960 56.446
69. AMMONIA 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
70. OXYGEN 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
H°-H° (Tr)
kJ/mol ∆fH°
∆fG°
Log Kf
NO (g) (continued)
31.243 32.031 32.770 33.425 33.990 34.473 34.883 35.234 35.533 35.792
68. NITROGEN DIOXIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
231.879 236.754 241.081 244.979 248.531 251.794 254.811 257.618 260.240 262.700
216.635 219.168 221.642 224.022 226.298 228.469 230.540 232.516 234.404 236.209
9.147 12.310 15.551 18.862 22.233 25.657 29.125 32.632 36.170 39.737
91.354 91.369 91.386 91.405 91.426 91.445 91.464 91.481 91.495 91.506
83.816 82.558 81.298 80.036 78.772 77.505 76.237 74.967 73.697 72.425
–7.297 –6.160 –5.308 –4.645 –4.115 –3.680 –3.318 –3.012 –2.750 –2.522
240.166 240.397 251.554 260.939 269.147 276.471 283.083 289.106 294.631 299.729 304.459 308.867 312.994 316.871
240.166 240.167 241.666 244.605 248.026 251.575 255.107 258.555 261.891 265.102 268.187 271.148 273.992 276.722
0.000 0.069 3.955 8.167 12.673 17.427 22.381 27.496 32.741 38.090 43.526 49.034 54.603 60.224
34.193 34.181 33.637 33.319 33.174 33.151 33.213 33.334 33.495 33.686 33.898 34.124 34.360 34.604
52.316 52.429 58.600 64.882 71.211 77.553 83.893 90.221 96.534 102.828 109.105 115.363 121.603 127.827
–9.165 –9.129 –7.652 –6.778 –6.199 –5.787 –5.478 –5.236 –5.042 –4.883 –4.749 –4.635 –4.537 –4.451
192.768 192.989 203.647 212.633 220.578 227.781 234.414 240.589 246.384 251.854 257.039 261.970 266.673 271.168
192.768 192.769 194.202 197.011 200.289 203.709 207.138 210.516 213.816 217.027 220.147 223.176 226.117 228.971
0.000 0.066 3.778 7.811 12.174 16.850 21.821 27.066 32.569 38.309 44.270 50.432 56.779 63.295
–45.940 –45.981 –48.087 –49.908 –51.430 –52.682 –53.695 –54.499 –55.122 –55.589 –55.920 –56.136 –56.251 –56.282
–16.407 –16.223 –5.980 4.764 15.846 27.161 38.639 50.231 61.903 73.629 85.392 97.177 108.975 120.779
2.874 2.825 0.781 –0.498 –1.379 –2.027 –2.523 –2.915 –3.233 –3.496 –3.717 –3.905 –4.066 –4.206
161.058 161.194 167.430 172.197 176.060 179.310 182.115 184.584 186.789 188.782 190.599 192.270
161.058 161.059 161.912 163.511 165.290 167.067 168.777 170.399 171.930 173.372 174.733 176.019
0.000 0.041 2.207 4.343 6.462 8.570 10.671 12.767 14.860 16.950 19.039 21.126
249.180 249.193 249.874 250.481 251.019 251.500 251.932 252.325 252.686 253.022 253.335 253.630
231.743 231.635 225.677 219.556 213.319 206.997 200.610 194.171 187.689 181.173 174.628 168.057
–40.600 –40.331 –29.470 –22.937 –18.571 –15.446 –13.098 –11.269 –9.804 –8.603 –7.601 –6.753
NO2 (g)
NH3 (g)
35.630 35.678 38.674 41.994 45.229 48.269 51.112 53.769 56.244 58.535 60.644 62.576 64.339 65.945
O (g) 21.911 21.901 21.482 21.257 21.124 21.040 20.984 20.944 20.915 20.893 20.877 20.864
5-81
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
70. OXYGEN 1400 1500
kJ/mol ∆fH°
193.815 195.254
177.236 178.389
23.212 25.296
205.148 205.330 213.873 220.695 226.454 231.470 235.925 239.937 243.585 246.930 250.019 252.888 255.568 258.081
205.148 205.148 206.308 208.525 211.045 213.612 216.128 218.554 220.878 223.096 225.213 227.233 229.162 231.007
0.000 0.054 3.026 6.085 9.245 12.500 15.838 19.244 22.707 26.217 29.768 33.352 36.968 40.611
∆fG°
Log Kf
253.908 254.171
161.463 154.851
–6.024 –5.392
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
S (cr, l)
298.15 300 368.3
22.690 22.737 24.237
368.3 388.36
24.773 25.180
388.36 400 500 600 700 800 882.38
31.710 32.369 38.026 34.371 32.451 32.000 32.000
73. SULFUR
32.070 32.070 0.000 0.000 32.210 32.070 0.042 0.000 37.030 32.554 1.649 0.000 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 0.401 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 1.089 J/K⋅mol, crII–crI 38.119 32.553 2.050 0.000 39.444 32.875 2.551 0.000 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 1.722 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 4.431 J/K⋅mol, crI–l 43.875 32.872 4.273 0.000 44.824 33.206 4.647 0.000 53.578 36.411 8.584 0.000 60.116 39.842 12.164 0.000 65.278 43.120 15.511 0.000 69.557 46.163 18.715 0.000 72.693 48.496 21.351 0.000
S (g) 23.673 23.669 23.233 22.741 22.338 22.031 21.800 21.624 21.489 21.386 21.307 21.249 21.209 21.186
74. DISULFUR 298.15 300 400 500
H°-H° (Tr)
O2 (g)
29.378 29.387 30.109 31.094 32.095 32.987 33.741 34.365 34.881 35.314 35.683 36.006 36.297 36.567
72. SULFUR
298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
O (g) (continued) 20.853 20.845
71. DIOXYGEN 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
T/K
167.828 167.974 174.730 179.860 183.969 187.388 190.314 192.871 195.142 197.185 199.043 200.746 202.319 203.781
167.828 167.828 168.752 170.482 172.398 174.302 176.125 177.847 179.465 180.985 182.413 183.759 185.029 186.231
0.000 0.044 2.391 4.689 6.942 9.160 11.351 13.522 15.677 17.821 19.955 22.083 24.206 26.325
277.180 277.182 274.924 273.286 271.958 270.829 269.816 215.723 216.018 216.284 216.525 216.743 216.940 217.119
236.704 236.453 222.962 210.145 197.646 185.352 173.210 162.258 156.301 150.317 144.309 138.282 132.239 126.182
–41.469 –41.170 –29.115 –21.953 –17.206 –13.831 –11.309 –9.417 –8.164 –7.138 –6.282 –5.556 –4.934 –4.394
228.165 228.366 237.956 245.686
228.165 228.165 229.462 231.959
0.000 0.060 3.398 6.863
128.600 128.576 122.703 118.296
79.696 79.393 63.380 49.031
–13.962 –13.823 –8.276 –5.122
S2 (g)
32.505 32.540 34.108 35.133
5-82
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
74. DISULFUR 600 700 800 882.38 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
J/K⋅mol S°
C°p
T/K
77. SILICON 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
∆fG°
252.156 257.715 262.589 266.200 266.932 270.852 274.430 277.725 280.781 283.635 286.314
234.800 237.686 240.501 242.734 243.201 245.773 248.218 250.541 252.751 254.856 256.865
10.413 14.020 17.671 20.706 21.358 25.079 28.833 32.620 36.439 40.290 44.173
114.685 111.599 108.841
432.536 433.505 480.190 518.176 550.180 577.948 602.596 624.821 645.067 663.625 680.707 696.480 711.089 724.662
432.536 432.539 438.834 451.022 464.951 479.152 493.071 506.495 519.355 531.639 543.359 554.539 565.206 575.389
0.000 0.290 16.542 33.577 51.137 69.157 87.620 106.494 125.712 145.185 164.817 184.524 204.237 223.909
101.277 101.231 80.642 66.185 55.101 46.349 39.177 –392.062 –387.728 –383.272 –378.786 –374.356 –370.048 –365.905
48.810 48.484 32.003 21.409 13.549 7.343 2.263 6.554 50.614 94.233 137.444 180.283 222.785 264.984
–8.551 –8.442 –4.179 –2.237 –1.180 –0.548 –0.148 –0.380 –2.644 –4.475 –5.983 –7.244 –8.312 –9.227
248.219 248.466 260.435 270.465 279.167 286.859 293.746 299.971 305.646 310.855 315.665 320.131 324.299 328.203
248.219 248.220 249.828 252.978 256.634 260.413 264.157 267.796 271.301 274.664 277.882 280.963 283.911 286.735
0.000 0.074 4.243 8.744 13.520 18.513 23.671 28.958 34.345 39.810 45.339 50.920 56.543 62.203
–296.810 –296.833 –300.240 –302.735 –304.699 –306.308 –307.691 –362.075 –362.012 –361.934 –361.849 –361.763 –361.680 –361.605
–300.090 –300.110 –300.935 –300.831 –300.258 –299.386 –298.302 –295.987 –288.647 –281.314 –273.989 –266.671 –259.359 –252.053
52.574 52.253 39.298 31.427 26.139 22.340 19.477 17.178 15.077 13.358 11.926 10.715 9.677 8.777
18.810 18.933 25.023 30.152 34.537 38.361 41.752 44.802 47.578 50.130 52.493
18.810 18.810 19.624 21.231 23.092 25.006 26.891 28.715 30.464 32.138 33.737
0.000 0.037 2.160 4.461 6.867 9.348 11.888 14.478 17.114 19.791 22.508
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Log Kf
39.842 39.909 43.427 46.490 48.938 50.829 52.282 53.407 54.290 54.993 55.564 56.033 56.426 56.759
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
35.530 22.588 10.060 pressure = 1 bar 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
–3.093 –1.685 –0.657 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
S8 (g)
156.500 156.768 167.125 173.181 177.936 182.441 186.764 190.595 193.618 195.684 196.825 197.195 196.988 196.396
76. SULFUR DIOXIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
H°-H° (Tr)
S2 (g) (continued)
35.815 36.305 36.697 36.985 37.045 37.377 37.704 38.030 38.353 38.669 38.976
75. OCTASULFUR 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
kJ/mol ∆fH°
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
SO2 (g)
Si (cr) 19.789 19.855 22.301 23.610 24.472 25.124 25.662 26.135 26.568 26.974 27.362
5-83
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE (continued)
T/K
77. SILICON 1300 1400 1500
78. SILICON 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Cp°
H°-H° (Tr)
kJ/mol ∆fH°
∆fG°
Log Kf
54.698 56.767 58.719
35.265 36.728 38.130
25.263 28.055 30.883
0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
167.980 168.117 174.416 179.204 183.074 186.327 189.135 191.606 193.815 195.815 197.643 199.329 200.895 202.360
167.980 167.980 168.843 170.456 172.246 174.032 175.748 177.375 178.911 180.358 181.723 183.014 184.236 185.396
0.000 0.041 2.229 4.374 6.497 8.607 10.709 12.808 14.904 17.002 19.103 21.209 23.323 25.446
450.000 450.004 450.070 449.913 449.630 449.259 448.821 448.329 447.791 447.211 446.595 445.946 445.268 444.563
405.525 405.249 390.312 375.388 360.508 345.682 330.915 316.205 301.553 286.957 272.416 257.927 243.489 229.101
–71.045 –70.559 –50.969 –39.216 –31.385 –25.795 –21.606 –18.352 –15.751 –13.626 –11.858 –10.364 –9.085 –7.978
–856.288 –855.951 –837.651 –819.369 –801.197 –783.157 –765.265 –756.747
150.016 149.032 109.385 85.598 69.749 58.439 49.966 46.613
–756.747 –747.587 –730.034 –712.557 –695.148
46.613 43.388 38.133 33.836 30.259
–695.148 –677.994 –660.903 –643.867
30.259 27.242 24.658 22.421
–622.390 –622.143 –608.841 –595.637 –582.527 –569.501 –556.548 –543.657 –530.819 –518.027 –505.274 –492.553 –479.860 –467.189
109.039 108.323 79.505 62.225 50.713 42.496 36.338 31.553 27.727 24.599 21.994 19.791 17.904 16.269
Si (g) 22.251 22.234 21.613 21.316 21.153 21.057 21.000 20.971 20.968 20.989 21.033 21.099 21.183 21.282
44.602 44.712 53.477 60.533 64.452 68.234 76.224 82.967
848 900 1000 1100 1200
67.446 67.953 68.941 69.940 70.947
1200 1300 1400 1500
71.199 71.743 72.249 72.739
SiO2 (cr) 41.460 41.460 0.000 –910.700 41.736 41.461 0.083 –910.708 55.744 43.311 4.973 –910.912 68.505 47.094 10.705 –910.540 79.919 51.633 16.971 –909.841 90.114 56.414 23.590 –908.958 99.674 61.226 30.758 –907.668 104.298 63.533 34.569 –906.310 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 0.411 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 0.484 J/K⋅mol, crII–crII′ 104.782 63.532 34.980 –906.310 108.811 66.033 38.500 –905.922 116.021 70.676 45.345 –905.176 122.639 75.104 52.289 –904.420 128.768 79.323 59.333 –901.382 PHASE TRANSITION: ∆trs H = 2.261 kJ/mol, ∆trs S = 1.883 J/K⋅mol, crII′–crI 130.651 79.323 61.594 –901.382 136.372 83.494 68.742 –900.574 141.707 87.463 75.941 –899.782 146.709 91.248 83.191 –899.004
80. SILICON TETRACHLORIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
-(G°-H° (Tr))/T
Si (cr) (continued) 27.737 28.103 28.462
79. SILICON DIOXIDE 298.15 300 400 500 600 700 800 848
J/K⋅mol S°
90.404 90.562 96.893 100.449 102.587 103.954 104.875 105.523 105.995 106.349 106.620 106.834 107.003 107.141
331.446 332.006 359.019 381.058 399.576 415.500 429.445 441.837 452.981 463.101 472.366 480.909 488.833 496.220
SiCl4 (g) 331.446 331.448 335.088 342.147 350.216 358.432 366.455 374.155 381.490 388.456 395.068 401.347 407.316 413.000
0.000 0.167 9.572 19.456 29.616 39.948 50.392 60.914 71.491 82.109 92.758 103.431 114.123 124.830
5-84
–662.200 –662.195 –661.853 –661.413 –660.924 –660.417 –659.912 –659.422 –658.954 –658.515 –658.107 –657.735 –657.400 –657.104
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SYSTEMS This table contains standard state thermodynamic properties of ions and neutral species in aqueous solution. It includes enthalpy and Gibbs energy of formation, entropy, and heat capacity, and thus serves as a companion to the preceding table, “Standard Thermodynamic Properties of Chemical Substances”. The standard state is the hypothetical ideal solution with molality m = 1 mol/kg (mean ionic molality m± in the case of a species which is assumed to dissociate at infinite dilution). Further details on conventions may be found in Reference 1. Cations are listed by formula in the first part of the table, followed by anions and finally neutral species. All values refer to standard conditions of 25°C and 100 kPa pressure. REFERENCES 1. Wagman, D. D., Evans, W. H., Parker, V. B., Schumm, R. H., Halow, I., Bailey, S. M., Churney, K. L., and Nuttall, R. L., The NBS Tables of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, Vol. 11, Suppl. 2, 1982. 2. Zemaitis, J. F., Clark, D. M., Rafal, M., and Scrivner, N. C., Handbook of Aqueous Electrolyte Thermodynamics, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, 1986. Species
∆fH°/ kJ mol–1
∆fG°/ kJ mol–1
S°/ J mol–1K–1
Cations Ag+ Al+3 AlOH+2 Ba+2 BaOH+ Be+2 Bi+3 BiOH+2 Ca+2 CaOH+ Cd+2 CdOH+ Ce+3 Ce+4 Co+2 Co+3 Cr+2 Cs+ Cu+ Cu+2 Dy+3 Er+3 Eu+2 Eu+3 Fe+2 Fe+3 FeOH+ FeOH+2 Fe(OH)2+ Ga+2 Ga+3 GaOH+2 Ga(OH)2+ Gd+3 H+ Hg+2 Hg2+2 HgOH+ Ho+3 In+ In+2 In+3
105.6 -531.0 -537.6 -382.8
-542.8 -75.9 -696.2 -537.2 -58.2 92.0 -143.5 -258.3 71.7 64.8 -699.0 -705.4 -527.0 -605.0 -89.1 -48.5 -324.7 -290.8
-211.7
-686.0 0 171.1 172.4 -84.5 -705.0
-105.0
77.1 -485.0 -694.1 -560.8 -730.5 -379.7 82.8 -146.4 -553.6 -718.4 -77.6 -261.1 -672.0 -503.8 -54.4 134.0 -292.0 50.0 65.5 -665.0 -669.1 -540.2 -574.1 -78.9 -4.7 -277.4 -229.4 -438.0 -88.0 -159.0 -380.3 -597.4 -661.0 0 164.4 153.5 -52.3 -673.7 -12.1 -50.7 -98.0
72.7 -321.7
21.8
9.6 -129.7
-53.1 -73.2 -205.0 -301.0 -113.0 -305.0 133.1 40.6 -99.6 -231.0 -244.3 -8.0 -222.0 -137.7 -315.9 -29.0 -142.0
-10.5
21.0 21.0 8.0
-331.0
-205.9 0 -32.2 84.5 71.0 -226.8
-151.0
Species
∆fH°/ kJ mol–1
InOH+2 In(OH)2+ K+ La+3 Li+ Lu+3 LuF+2 Mg+2 MgOH+ Mn+2 MnOH+ NH4+ N2H5+ Na+ Nd+3 Ni+2 NiOH+ PH4+ Pa+4 Pb+2 PbOH+ Pd+2 Po+2 Po+4 Pr+3 Pt+2 Ra+2 Rb+ Re+ Sc+3 ScOH+2 Sm+2 Sm+3 Sn+2 SnOH+ Sr+2 SrOH+ Tb+3 Te(OH)3+ Th+4 Th(OH)+3 Th(OH)2+2 Tl+ Tl+3
-370.3 -619.0 -252.4 -707.1 -278.5 -665.0
Cp/ J mol–1K–1
0
17.0
5-85
-466.9 -220.8 -450.6 -132.5 -7.5 -240.1 -696.2 -54.0 -287.9 -619.0 -1.7 149.0
-704.6 -527.6 -251.2 -614.2 -861.5 -691.6 -8.8 -286.2 -545.8 -682.8 -608.4 -769.0 -1030.1 -1282.4 5.4 196.6
∆fG°/ kJ mol–1
S°/ J mol–1K–1
Cp/ J mol–1K–1
-313.0 -525.0 -283.3 -683.7 -293.3 -628.0 -931.4 -454.8 -626.7 -228.1 -405.0 -79.3 82.5 -261.9 -671.6 -45.6 -227.6 92.1
-88.0 25.0 102.5 -217.6 13.4 -264.0
21.8 -13.0 68.6 25.0
-24.4 -226.3 176.5 71.0 293.0 -679.1 254.8 -561.5 -284.0 -33.0 -586.6 -801.2 -497.5 -666.6 -27.2 -254.8 -559.5 -721.3 -651.9 -496.1 -705.1 -920.5 -1140.9 -32.4 214.6
10.5
-138.1 -73.6 -17.0 113.4 151.0 59.0 -206.7 -128.9 -71.0
50.0 79.9 70.3 46.4 -21.0
-184.0
-209.0
-29.0
54.0 121.5 -255.0 -134.0 -211.7 -17.0 50.0 -32.6
-21.0
-226.0 111.7 -422.6 -343.0 -218.0 125.5 -192.0
17.0
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SYSTEMS (continued) Species TlOH+2 Tl(OH)2+ Tm+3 U+3 U+4 Y+3 Y2(OH)2+4 Yb+2 Yb+3 Y(OH)+2 Zn+2 ZnOH+
∆fH°/ kJ mol–1
-697.9 -489.1 -591.2 -723.4
-674.5 -153.9
∆fG°/ kJ mol–1 -15.9 -244.7 -662.0 -476.2 -531.9 -693.8 -1780.3 -527.0 -644.0 -879.1 -147.1 -330.1
S°/ J mol–1K–1
-243.0 -188.0 -410.0 -251.0
Cp/ J mol–1K–1
25.0
-238.0
25.0
-112.1
46.0
Anions AlO2Al(OH)4AsO2AsO4-3 BF4BH4BO2B4O7-2 BeO2-2 BrBrOBrO3BrO4CHOOCH3COOC2O4-2 C2O4HClClOClO2ClO3ClO4CNCO3-2 CrO4-2 Cr2O7-2 FFe(CN)6-3 Fe(CN)6-4 HB4O7HCO3HF2HPO3FHPO4-2 HP2O7-3 HSHSO3HSO4HS2O4HSeHSeO3HSeO4H2AsO3H2AsO4-
-930.9 -1502.5 -429.0 -888.1 -1574.9 48.2 -772.4 -790.8 -121.6 -94.1 -67.1 13.0 -425.6 -486.0 -825.1 -818.4 -167.2 -107.1 -66.5 -104.0 -129.3 150.6 -677.1 -881.2 -1490.3 -332.6 561.9 455.6 -692.0 -649.9 -1292.1 -2274.8 -17.6 -626.2 -887.3 15.9 -514.6 -581.6 -714.8 -909.6
-830.9 -1305.3 -350.0 -648.4 -1486.9 114.4 -678.9 -2604.8 -640.1 -104.0 -33.4 18.6 118.1 -351.0 -369.3 -673.9 -698.3 -131.2 -36.8 17.2 -8.0 -8.5 172.4 -527.8 -727.8 -1301.1 -278.8 729.4 695.1 -2685.1 -586.8 -578.1 -1198.2 -1089.2 -1972.2 12.1 -527.7 -755.9 -614.5 44.0 -411.5 -452.2 -587.1 -753.2
-36.8 102.9 40.6 -162.8 180.0 110.5 -37.2 -159.0 82.4 42.0 161.7 199.6 92.0 86.6 45.6 149.4 56.5 42.0 101.3 162.3 182.0 94.1 -56.9 50.2 261.9 -13.8 270.3 95.0
-141.8
-87.9 -6.3
79.0 135.1 149.4 110.5 117.0
H2PO4H2P2O7-2 IIOIO3IO4MnO4MnO4-2 MoO4-2 NO2NO3N3OCNOHPO4-3 P2O7-4 ReS-2 SCNSO3-2 SO4-2 S2-2 S2O3-2 S2O4-2 S2O8-2 Se-2 SeO3-2 SeO4-2 VO3VO4-3 WO4-2
∆fH°/ kJ mol–1 -1296.3 -2278.6 -55.2 -107.5 -221.3 -151.5 -541.4 -653.0 -997.9 -104.6 -207.4 275.1 -146.0 -230.0 -1277.4 -2271.1 46.0 33.1 76.4 -635.5 -909.3 30.1 -652.3 -753.5 -1344.7 -509.2 -599.1 -888.3
-106.7
-84.0
∆fG°/ kJ mol–1
S°/ J mol–1K–1
-1130.2 -2010.2 -51.6 -38.5 -128.0 -58.5 -447.2 -500.7 -836.3 -32.2 -111.3 348.2 -97.4 -157.2 -1018.7 -1919.0 10.1 85.8 92.7 -486.5 -744.5 79.5 -522.5 -600.3 -1114.9 129.3 -369.8 -441.3 -783.6 -899.0
90.4 163.0 111.3 -5.4 118.4 222.0 191.2 59.0 27.2 123.0 146.4 107.9 106.7 -10.8 -220.5 -117.0 230.0 -14.6 144.3 -29.0 20.1 28.5 67.0 92.0 244.3
Cp/ J mol–1K–1
-142.3
-82.0
-97.5 -86.6
-148.5
-40.2 -293.0
13.0 54.0 50.0
-1075.7
-136.4
91.2 92.5 -33.5 46.0 62.8 139.7 131.8
Species
Neutral species AgBr AgCl AgF AgI AgNO3 Ag2SO4 AlBr3 AlCl3 AlF3 AlI3 Al2(SO4)3 BaBr2 BaCO3 BaCl2 BaF2 Ba(HCO3)2 BaI2 Ba(NO3)2 BaSO4 BeSO4 CCl3COOH CHCl2COOH CHOOCs CHOOH CHOOK
5-86
-16.0 -61.6 -227.1 50.4 -101.8 -698.1 -895.0 -1033.0 -1531.0 -699.0 -3791.0 -780.7 -1214.8 -872.0 -1202.9 -1921.6 -648.0 -952.4 -1446.9 -1292.0 -516.3 -512.1 -683.8 -425.6 -677.9
-26.9 -54.1 -201.7 25.5 -34.2 -590.3 -799.0 -879.0 -1322.0 -640.0 -3205.0 -768.7 -1088.6 -823.2 -1118.4 -1734.3 -663.9 -783.3 -1305.3 -1124.3
155.2 129.3 59.0 184.1 219.2 165.7 -74.5 -152.3 -363.2 12.1 -583.2 174.5 -47.3 122.6 -18.0 192.0 232.2 302.5 29.7 -109.6
-643.0 -351.0 -634.2
226.0 92.0 192.0
-120.1 -114.6 -84.9 -120.5 -64.9 -251.0
-87.9 -66.1
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SYSTEMS (continued) Species CHOONH4 CHOONa CHOORb CH2ClCOOH CH3COOCs CH3COOH CH3COOK CH3COONH4 CH3COONa CH3COORb (COOH)2 (CH3)3N CaBr2 CaCO3 CaCl2 CaF2 CaI2 Ca(NO3)2 CaSO4 CdBr2 CdCl2 CdF2 CdI2 Cd(NO3)2 CdSO4 CeCl3 CoBr2 CoCl2 CoI2 Co(NO3)2 CoSO4 CsBr CsCl CsF CsHCO3 CsHSO4 CsI CsNO3 Cs2CO3 Cs2S Cs2SO4 Cs2Se Cu(NO3)2 CuSO4 DyCl3 ErCl3 EuCl2 EuCl3 FeBr2 FeBr3 FeCl2 FeCl3 FeF2 FeF3 FeI2 FeI3 Fe(NO3)3 FeSO4 Fe2(SO4)3
∆fH°/ kJ mol–1 -558.1 -665.7 -676.7 -501.3 -744.3 -486.0 -738.4 -618.5 -726.1 -737.2 -825.1 -76.0 -785.9 -1220.0 -877.1 -1208.1 -653.2 -957.6 -1452.1 -319.0 -410.2 -741.2 -186.3 -490.6 -985.2 -1197.5 -301.2 -392.5 -168.6 -472.8 -967.3 -379.8 -425.4 -590.9 -950.3 -1145.6 -313.5 -465.6 -1193.7 -483.7 -1425.8 -350.0 -844.5 -1197.0 -1207.1 -862.0 -1106.2 -332.2 -413.4 -423.4 -550.2 -754.4 -1046.4 -199.6 -214.2 -670.7 -998.3 -2825.0
∆fG°/ kJ mol–1
S°/ J mol–1K–1
Cp/ J mol–1K–1
Species
-430.4 -612.9 -635.1
205.0 151.0 213.0
-7.9 -41.4
-661.3 -369.3 -652.6 -448.6 -631.2 -653.3 -673.9 93.1 -761.5 -1081.4 -816.0 -1111.2 -656.7 -776.1 -1298.1 -285.5 -340.1 -635.2 -180.8 -300.1 -822.1 -1065.6 -262.3 -316.7 -157.7 -276.9 -799.1 -396.0 -423.2 -570.8 -878.8 -1047.9 -343.6 -403.3 -1111.9 -498.3 -1328.6 -454.8 -157.0 -679.0 -1059.0 -1062.7
219.7 86.6 189.1 200.0 145.6 207.9 45.6 133.5 111.7 -110.0 59.8 -80.8 169.5 239.7 -33.1 91.6 39.7 -100.8 149.4 219.7 -53.1 -38.0 50.0
-967.7 -286.8 -316.7 -341.3 -398.3 -636.5 -840.9 -182.1 -159.4 -338.3 -823.4 -2242.8
-54.0 27.2 -68.6 -24.7 -146.4 -165.3 -357.3 84.9 18.0 123.4 -117.6 -571.5
GdCl3 HBr HCN HCl HF HI HNO3 HSCN H2SO4 HoCl3 KBr KCl KF KHCO3 KHSO4 KI KNO3 K2CO3 K2S K2SO4 K2Se LaCl3 LiBr LiCl LiF LiI LiNO3 Li2CO3 Li2SO4 LuCl3 MgBr2 MgCl2 MgI2 Mg(NO3)2 MgSO4 MnBr2 MnCl2 MnI2 Mn(NO3)2 MnSO4 NH4Br NH4BrO3 NH4CN NH4Cl NH4ClO3 NH4ClO4 NH4F NH4HCO3 NH4HS NH4HSO3 NH4HSO4 NH4HSeO4 NH4H2AsO3 NH4H2AsO4 NH4H2PO4 NH4H3P2O7 NH4I NH4IO3 NH4NO2
109.0 180.0 -92.0 215.5 189.5 119.2 224.3 264.8 244.3 279.5 209.2 251.0 286.2 193.3 -79.5 -61.9 -75.3
-6.3 15.5 73.6 40.2
-146.9
-152.7 -99.0
-389.0 -389.0 -402.0
5-87
∆fH°/ kJ mol–1 -1188.0 -121.6 150.6 -167.2 -332.6 -55.2 -207.4 76.4 -909.3 -1206.7 -373.9 -419.5 -585.0 -944.4 -1139.7 -307.6 -459.7 -1181.9 -471.5 -1414.0 -1208.8 -400.0 -445.6 -611.1 -333.7 -485.9 -1234.1 -1466.2 -1167.0 -709.9 -801.2 -577.2 -881.6 -1376.1 -464.0 -555.1 -331.0 -635.5 -1130.1 -254.1 -199.6 18.0 -299.7 -236.5 -261.8 -465.1 -824.5 -150.2 -758.7 -1019.9 -714.2 -847.3 -1042.1 -1428.8 -2409.1 -187.7 -354.0 -237.2
∆fG°/ kJ mol–1
S°/ J mol–1K–1
Cp/ J mol–1K–1
-1059.0 -104.0 172.4 -131.2 -278.8 -51.6 -111.3 92.7 -744.5 -1067.3 -387.2 -414.5 -562.1 -870.0 -1039.2 -334.9 -394.5 -1094.4 -480.7 -1311.1 -437.2 -1077.3 -397.3 -424.6 -571.9 -344.8 -404.5 -1114.6 -1331.2 -1021.0 -662.7 -717.1 -558.1 -677.3 -1199.5
-36.8 82.4 94.1 56.5 -13.8 111.3 146.4 144.3 20.1 -57.7 184.9 159.0 88.7 193.7 234.3 213.8 248.9 148.1 190.4 225.1
-410.0 -141.8
-50.0 95.8 69.9 -0.4 124.7 160.2 -29.7 47.3 -96.0 26.8 -25.1 84.5 154.8 -118.0
-490.8
38.9
-222.0
-450.9 -972.7 -183.3 -60.7 93.0 -210.5 -87.3 -87.8 -358.1 -666.1 -67.2 -607.0 -835.2 -531.6 -666.4 -832.5 -1209.6 -2102.6 -130.9 -207.4 -111.6
218.0 -53.6 195.8 275.1 207.5 169.9 275.7 295.4 99.6 204.6 176.1 253.1 245.2 262.8 223.8 230.5 203.8 326.0 224.7 231.8 236.4
-121.0 -243.0 -61.9
-136.4 -106.7 -142.3 -86.6 -40.2 -293.0 -393.0 -120.1 -114.6 -84.9 -63.0 -120.5 -64.9
-251.0 -423.0 -73.2 -67.8 -38.1 -73.6 -18.0 -155.6 -385.0
-56.5
-26.8
-3.8
-62.3 -17.6
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SYSTEMS (continued) Species NH4NO3 NH4OH NH4SCN (NH4)2CO3 (NH4)2CrO4 (NH4)2Cr2O7 (NH4)2HAsO4 (NH4)2HPO4 (NH4)2S (NH4)2SO3 (NH4)2SO4 (NH4)2SeO4 (NH4)3PO4 NaBr NaCl NaF NaHCO3 NaHSO4 NaI NaNO3 Na2CO3 Na2S Na2SO4 Na2Se NdCl3 NiBr2 NiCl2 NiF2 NiI2 Ni(NO3)2 NiSO4 PbBr2 PbCl2 PbF2 PbI2 Pb(NO3)2 PrCl3 RaCl2 Ra(NO3)2
∆fH°/ kJ mol–1 -339.9 -362.5 -56.1 -942.2 -1146.2 -1755.2 -1171.4 -1557.2 -231.8 -900.4 -1174.3 -864.0 -1674.9 -361.7 -407.3 -572.8 -932.1 -1127.5 -295.3 -447.5 -1157.4 -447.3 -1389.5 -1197.9 -297.1 -388.3 -719.2 -164.4 -468.6 -963.2 -244.8 -336.0 -666.9 -112.1 -416.3 -1206.2 -861.9 -942.2
∆fG°/ kJ mol–1
S°/ J mol–1K–1
Cp/ J mol–1K–1
Species
-190.6 -236.5 13.4 -686.4 -886.4 -1459.5 -873.2 -1247.8 -72.6 -645.0 -903.1 -599.8 -1256.6 -365.8 -393.1 -540.7 -848.7 -1017.8 -313.5 -373.2 -1051.6 -438.1 -1268.4 -394.6 -1065.6 -253.6 -307.9 -603.3 -149.0 -268.5 -790.3 -232.3 -286.9 -582.0 -127.6 -246.9 -1072.7 -823.8 -784.0
259.8 102.5 257.7 169.9 277.0 488.7 225.1 193.3 212.1 197.5 246.9 280.7 117.0 141.4 115.5 45.2 150.2 190.8 170.3 205.4 61.1 103.3 138.1
-6.7 -68.6 39.7
RaSO4 RbBr RbCl RbF RbHCO3 RbHSO4 RbI RbNO3 Rb2CO3 Rb2S Rb2SO4 SmCl3 SrBr2 SrCO3 SrCl2 SrI2 Sr(NO3)2 SrSO4 TbCl3 TlBr TlBr3 TlCl TlCl3 TlF TlI TlNO3 Tl2SO4 TmCl3 UCl4 UO2CO3 UO2(NO3)2 UO2SO4 YbCl3 ZnBr2 ZnCl2 ZnF2 ZnI2 Zn(NO3)2 ZnSO4
-37.7 36.0 -15.1 -156.5 93.7 164.0 -108.8 175.3 123.4 -17.2 233.0 303.3 -42.0 167.0 347.0
-133.1
-95.4 -90.0 -60.2 -38.0 -95.8 -40.2
-201.0 -431.0
-439.0
5-88
∆fH°/ kJ mol–1 -1436.8 -372.7 -418.3 -583.8 -943.2 -1138.5 -306.4 -458.5 -1179.5 -469.4 -1411.6 -1193.3 -788.9 -1222.9 -880.1 -656.2 -960.5 -1455.1 -1184.1 -116.2 -168.2 -161.8 -305.0 -327.3 -49.8 -202.0 -898.6 -1199.1 -1259.8 -1696.6 -1434.3 -1928.8 -1176.1 -397.0 -488.2 -819.1 -264.3 -568.6 -1063.2
∆fG°/ kJ mol–1
S°/ J mol–1K–1
-1306.2 -387.9 -415.2 -562.8 -870.8 -1039.9 -335.6 -395.2 -1095.8 -482.0 -1312.5 -1060.2 -767.4 -1087.3 -821.9 -662.6 -782.0 -1304.0 -1045.5 -136.4 -97.1 -163.6 -179.0 -311.2 -84.0 -143.7 -809.3 -1055.6 -1056.8 -1481.5 -1176.0 -1698.2 -1037.6 -355.0 -409.5 -704.6 -250.2 -369.6 -891.6
75.0 203.9 178.0 107.5 212.7 253.1 232.6 267.8 186.2 228.4 263.2 -42.7 132.2 -89.5 80.3 190.0 260.2 -12.6 -59.0 207.9 54.0 182.0 -23.0 111.7 236.8 272.0 271.1 -75.0 -184.0 -154.4 195.4 -77.4 -71.0 52.7 0.8 -139.7 110.5 180.7 -92.0
Cp/ J mol–1K–1
-431.0
-393.0
-385.0
-385.0 -238.0 -226.0 -167.0 -238.0 -126.0 -247.0
HEAT OF COMBUSTION The heat of combustion of a substance at 25°C can be calculated from the enthalpy of formation (∆fH°) data in the table “Standard Thermodynamic Properties of Chemical Substances” in this Section. We can write the general combustion reaction as X + O 2 → CO 2 (g) + H 2 O(l) + other products For a compound containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the reaction is simply
1 1 1 C a H b O c + a + b – c O 2 → a CO 2 (g) + b H 2 O(l) 4 2 2 and the standard heat of combustion ∆cH°, which is defined as the negative of the enthalpy change for the reaction (i.e., the heat released in the combustion process), is given by 1 ∆ c H o = − a∆ t H o (CO 2 , g) − b ∆ t H o (H 2 O, l) + ∆ t H o (C a H b , O c ) 2 = 393.51 a + 142.915 b + ∆ t H o (C a H b , O c )
This equation applies if the reactants start in their standard states (25°C and one atmosphere pressure) and the products return to the same conditions. The same equation applies to a compound containing another element if that element ends in its standard reference state (e.g., nitrogen, if the product is N2); in general, however, the exact products containing the other elements must be known in order to calculate the heat of combustion. The following table gives the standard heat of combustion calculated in this manner for a few representative substances.
Molecular formula
Name
∆cH°/kJ mol–1
Inorganic substances C CO H2 H3N H4N2 N2O
Carbon (graphite) Carbon monoxide (g) Hydrogen (g) Ammonia (g) Hydrazine (g) Nitrous oxide (g)
393.5 283.0 285.8 382.8 667.1 82.1
Hydrocarbons CH4 C2H2 C2H4 C2H6 C3H6 C3H6 C3H8 C4H6 C4H10 C5H12 C6H6 C6H12 C6H14 C7H8 C7H16 C10H8
Methane (g) Acetylene (g) Ethylene (g) Ethane (g) Propylene (g) Cyclopropane (g) Propane (g) 1,3-Butadiene (g) Butane (g) Pentane (l) Benzene (l) Cyclohexane (l) Hexane (l) Toluene (l) Heptane (l) Naphthalene (s)
890.8 1301.1 1411.2 1560.7 2058.0 2091.3 2219.2 2541.5 2877.6 3509.0 3267.6 3919.6 4163.2 3910.3 4817.0 5156.3
Alcohols and ethers CH4O C2H6O C2H6O C2H6O2
Methanol (l) Ethanol (l) Dimethyl ether (g) Ethylene glycol (l)
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
726.1 1366.8 1460.4 1189.2
Molecular formula C3H8O C3H8O3 C4H10O C5H12O C6H6O
Name 1-Propanol (l) Glycerol (l) Diethyl ether (l) 1-Pentanol (l) Phenol (s)
∆cH°/kJ mol–1 2021.3 1655.4 2723.9 3330.9 3053.5
Carbonyl compounds CH2O C2H2O C2H4O C3H6O C3H6O C4H8O
Formaldehyde (g) Ketene (g) Acetaldehyde (l) Acetone (l) Propanal (l) 2-Butanone (l)
570.7 1025.4 1166.9 1789.9 1822.7 2444.1
Acids and esters CH2O2 C2H4O2 C2H4O2 C3H6O2 C4H8O2 C7H6O2
Formic acid (l) Acetic acid (l) Methyl formate (l) Methyl acetate (l) Ethyl acetate (l) Benzoic acid (s)
254.6 874.2 972.6 1592.2 2238.1 3226.9
Nitrogen compounds CHN CH3NO2 CH5N C2H3N C2H5NO C3H9N C5H5N C6H7N
Hydrogen cyanide (g) Nitromethane (l) Methylamine (g) Acetonitrile (l) Acetamide (s) Trimethylamine (g) Pyridine (l) Aniline (l)
671.5 709.2 1085.6 1247.2 1184.6 2443.1 2782.3 3392.8
MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY OF AQUEOUS HF, HCl, HBr, AND HI The molar conductivity Λ of an electrolyte solution is defined as the conductivity divided by amount-of-substance concentration. The customary unit is S cm2mol-1 (i.e., Ω-1 cm2mol-1). The first part of this table gives the molar conductivity of the hydrohalogen acids at 25°C as a function of the concentration in mol/L. The second part gives the temperature dependence of Λ for HCl and HBr. More extensive tables and mathematical representations may be found in the reference. REFERENCE Hamer, W.J., and DeWane, H.J., Electrolytic Conductance and the Conductances of the Hydrohalogen Acids in Water, Natl. Stand. Ref. Data Sys.Natl. Bur. Standards (U.S.), No. 33, 1970. c/mol L–1
HF
HCl
HBr
HI
Inf. dil. 0.0001 0.0005 0.001 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
405.1
426.1 424.5 422.6 421.2 415.7 411.9 398.9 391.1 360.7 332.2 305.8 281.4 258.9 237.6
427.7 425.9 424.3 422.9 417.6 413.7 400.4 391.9 361.9 334.5 307.6 281.7 257.8 236.8
426.4 424.6 423.0 421.7 416.4 412.8 400.8 394.0 369.8 343.9 316.4 288.9 262.5 237.9
c/mol L–1
128.1 96.1 50.1 39.1 26.3 24.3
–20°C
–10°C
0°C
c/mol L–1
HF
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10°C
HCl
HBr
HI
218.3 200.0 183.1 167.4 152.9 139.7 127.7 116.9 107.0 98.2 90.3 83.1 76.6 70.7
217.5 199.4 182.4 166.5 151.8 138.2 125.7 114.2 103.8 94.4 85.8
215.4 195.1 176.8 160.4 145.5 131.7 118.6 105.7
20°C
30°C
40°C
50°C
336.4 312.2 287.5 262.9 239.8 219.3 201.6 185.6 170.6 156.6 143.6 131.5 120.4 110.2 100.9 92.4 84.7 77.8 71.5 65.8 60.7 56.1 51.9 48.0 44.4
386.8 359.0 331.1 303.3 277.0 253.3 232.9 214.2 196.6 180.2 165.0 151.0 138.2 126.4 115.7 106.1 97.3 89.4 82.3 75.9 70.1 64.9 60.1 55.6 51.4
436.9 402.9 371.6 342.4 315.2 289.3 263.9 242.2 222.5 204.1 187.1 171.3 156.9 143.3 131.6 120.6 110.7 101.7 93.6 86.3 79.6 73.6 68.0 62.8 57.9
482.4 445.3 410.8 378.2 347.6 319.0 292.1 268.2 246.7 226.5 207.7 190.3 174.3 159.7 146.2 134.0 123.0 112.9 103.9 95.7 88.4 81.7 75.6 70.0 64.8
HCl 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5
85.5 79.3 73.7 68.5 63.6 58.9 54.4 50.2 46.3 42.7 39.4 36.4 33.6 31.2 28.9 26.8 24.9 23.1 21.4
131.7 120.8 111.3 102.7 94.9 87.8 81.1 74.9 69.1 63.7 58.6 54.0 49.8 45.9 42.3 39.1 36.1 33.4 31.0 28.7 26.7
228.7 211.7 196.2 182.0 168.5 154.6 139.6 129.2 119.5 110.3 101.7 93.7 86.2 79.3 73.0 67.1 61.7 56.8 52.3 48.2 44.5 41.1 38.0 35.3 32.7
283.0 261.6 241.5 222.7 205.1 188.5 172.2 158.1 145.4 133.5 122.5 112.3 103.0 94.4 86.5 79.4 72.9 67.1 61.8 57.0 52.7 48.8 45.3 42.0 39.0
5-90
MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY OF AQUEOUS HF, HCl, HBr, AND HI (continued) c/mol
L–1
–20°C
–10°C
0°C
10°C
20°C
30°C
40°C
50°C
347.0 329.0 298.9 271.8 244.8 222.2 203.2 186.8 171.2 155.7 142.1 129.6 118.0 107.1
398.9 380.4 340.6 314.1 281.7 255.0 234.4 214.2 195.1 178.2 162.8 148.0 134.1 121.4
453.6 418.6 381.8 350.5 316.0 287.8 263.7 239.7 218.8 199.6 181.4 165.4 150.5 136.3
496.8 465.2 421.4 387.4 349.1 318.6 291.9 266.9 242.6 221.3 201.8 183.4 166.3 150.8
HBr 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
84.0 78.0 72.3 67.0 61.8 56.8 51.9
150.8 136.8 125.7 116.1 107.5 99.0 91.4 84.2 77.2 70.7 64.6
240.9 229.6 209.5 188.6 171.7 157.2 144.1 132.3 123.0 112.6 103.1 94.3 86.0 78.4
295.9 276.0 254.9 231.3 208.3 189.5 174.6 160.2 146.4 134.0 122.7 112.0 102.0 92.6
5-91
STANDARD KCl SOLUTIONS FOR CALIBRATING CONDUCTIVITY CELLS This table presents recommended electrolytic conductivity (κ) values for aqueous potassium chloride solutions with molalities of 0.01 mol/kg, 0.1 mol/kg and 1.0 mol/kg at temperatures from 0˚C to 50˚C. The values, which are based on measurements at the National Institute of Standards and Technology, provide primary standards for the calibration of conductivity cells. The measurements at 0.01 and 0.1 molal are described in Reference 1, while those at 1.0 molal are in Reference 2. Temperatures are given on the ITS-90 scale. The uncertainty in the conductivity is about 0.03% for the 0.01 molal values and about 0.04% for the 0.1 and 1.0 molal values. The conductivity of water saturated with atmospheric CO2 is given in the last column. These values were subtracted from the original measurements to give the values in the second, third, and fourth columns. All κ values are given in units of 10-4 S/m (numerically equal to µS/cm). The assistance of Kenneth W. Pratt is appreciated.
REFERENCES 1. Wu, Y.C., Koch, W.F., and Pratt, K.W., J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. 96, 191, 1991. 2. Wu, Y.C., Koch, W.F., Feng, D., Holland, L.A., Juhasz, E., Arvay, E., and Tomek, A., J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. 99, 241, 1994. 104 κ/S m-1 t/˚C
0.01 m KCl
0.1 m KCl
1.0 m KCl
H2O (CO2 sat.)
0 5 10 15 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
772.92 890.96 1 013.95 1 141.45 1 219.93 1 273.03 1 408.23 1 546.63 1 687.79 1 831.27 1 976.62 2 123.43
7 116.85 8 183.70 9 291.72 10 437.1 11 140.6 11 615.9 12 824.6 14 059.2 15 316.0 16 591.0 17 880.6 19 180.9
63 488 72 030 80 844 89 900 —99 170 108 620 118 240 127 970 137 810 147 720 157 670
0.58 0.68 0.79 0.89 0.95 0.99 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.51 1.61
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
EQUIVALENT CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTES IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION Petr Vany´sek This table gives the equivalent (molar) conductivity Λ at 25°C for some common electrolytes in aqueous solution at concentrations up to 0.1 mol/ L. The units of Λ are 10–4 m2 S mol–1. For very dilute solutions, the equivalent conductivity for any electrolyte of concentration c can be approximately calculated using the DebyeHückel-Onsager equation, which can be written for a symmetrical (equal charge on cation and anion) electrolyte as Λ = Λ° – (A + BΛ°)c1/2 For a solution at 25°C and both cation and anion with charge *1*, the constants are A = 60.20 and B = 0.229. Λ° can be found from the next table, “Ionic Conductivity and Diffusion at Infinite Dilution”. The equation is reliable for c < 0.001 mol/L; with higher concentration the error increases.
Concentration (mol/L) Compound
Infinite dilution
0.0005
0.001
0.005
Λ° AgNO3 1/2BaCl2 1/2CaCl2 1/2Ca(OH)2 1/2CuSO4 HCl KBr KCl KClO4 1/3K3Fe(CN)6 1/4K4Fe(CN)6 KHCO3 KI KIO4 KNO3 KMnO4 KOH KReO4 1/3LaCl3 LiCl LiClO4 1/2MgCl2 NH4Cl NaCl NaClO4 NaI NaOOCCH3 NaOH Na picrate 1/2Na2SO4 1/2SrCl2 1/2ZnSO4
133.29 139.91 135.77 258 133.6 425.95 151.9 149.79 139.97 174.5 184 117.94 150.31 127.86 144.89 134.8 271.5 128.20 145.9 114.97 105.93 129.34 149.6 126.39 117.42 126.88 91.0 247.7 80.45 129.8 135.73 132.7
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
121.35 119.03 115.59 214 72.16 407.04 140.41 138.27 127.86 — 122.76 107.17 139.38 114.08 132.34 — — 114.49 115.3 104.60 96.13 109.99 138.25 115.70 106.91 116.64 81.20 — — 106.73 115.48 74.20
115.18 111.42 108.42 — 59.02 398.89 135.61 133.30 121.56 — 107.65 — 134.90 106.67 126.25 — 219 106.40 106.2 100.06 92.15 103.03 133.22 111.01 102.35 112.73 76.88 — 66.3 97.70 108.20 61.17
109.09 105.14 102.41 — 50.55 391.13 131.32 128.90 115.14 — 97.82 — 131.05 98.2 120.34 113 213 97.40 99.1 95.81 88.52 97.05 128.69 106.69 98.38 108.73 72.76 — 61.8 89.94 102.14 52.61
Λ 131.29 135.89 131.86 — 121.6 422.53 149.8 147.74 138.69 166.4 — 116.04 148.2 125.74 142.70 132.7 — 126.03 139.6 113.09 104.13 125.55 147.5 124.44 115.58 125.30 89.2 245.5 78.7 125.68 131.84 121.3
130.45 134.27 130.30 — 115.20 421.15 148.9 146.88 137.80 163.1 167.16 115.28 143.32 124.88 141.77 131.9 234 125.12 137.0 112.34 103.39 124.15 146.7 123.68 114.82 124.19 88.5 244.6 78.6 124.09 130.27 114.47
127.14 127.96 124.19 233 94.02 415.59 146.02 143.48 134.09 150.7 146.02 112.18 144.30 121.18 138.41 — 230 121.31 127.5 109.35 100.52 118.25 134.4 120.59 111.70 121.19 85.68 240.7 75.7 117.09 124.18 95.44
5-92
124.70 123.88 120.30 226 83.08 411.80 143.36 141.20 131.39 — 134.76 110.03 142.11 118.45 132.75 126.5 228 118.49 121.8 107.27 98.56 114.49 141.21 118.45 109.54 119.18 83.72 237.9 73.7 112.38 120.23 84.87
IONIC CONDUCTIVITY AND DIFFUSION AT INFINITE DILUTION Petr Vany´sek This table gives the molar (equivalent) conductivity λ for common ions at infinite dilution. All values refer to aqueous solutions at 25°C. It also lists the diffusion coefficient D of the ion in dilute aqueous solution, which is related to λ through the equation
(
)
D = RT / F 2 (λ / z ) where R is the molar gas constant, T the temperature, F the Faraday constant, and z the charge on the ion. The variation with temperature is fairly sharp; for typical ions, λ and D increase by 2 to 3% per degree as the temperature increases from 25°C. The diffusion coefficient for a salt, Dsalt, may be calculated from the D+ and D– values of the constituent ions by the relation
Dsalt =
(z+ + z– )D+ D– z + D+ + z – D–
For solutions of simple, pure electrolytes (one positive and one negative ionic species), such as NaCl, equivalent ionic conductivity Λ°, which is the conductivity per unit concentration of charge, is defined as
Λ° = λ + + λ – where λ+ and λ– are equivalent ionic conductivities of the cation and anion. The more general formula is Λ° = ν+λ+ + ν−λ− where ν+ and ν− refer to the number of moles of cations and anions to which one mole of the electrolyte gives a rise in the solution. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Gray, D. E., Ed., American Institute of Physics Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972, 2—226. Robinson, R. A., and Stokes, R. H., Electrolyte Solutions, Butterworths, London, 1959. Lobo, V. M. M., and Quaresma, J. L., Handbook of Electrolyte Solutions, Physical Science Data Series 41, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1989. Conway, B. E., Electrochemical Data, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1952. Milazzo, G., Electrochemistry: Theoretical Principles and Practical Applications, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1963.
Ion
λ 10-4 m2 S mol-1
D 10-5 cm2 s-1
Ion
λ 10-4 m2 S mol-1
D 10-5 cm2 s-1
Inorganic Cations Ag+ 1/3Al3+ 1/2Ba2+ 1/2Be2+ 1/2Ca2+ 1/2Cd2+ 1/3Ce3+ 1/2Co2+ 1/3[Co(NH3)6]3+ 1/3[Co(en)3]3+ 1/6[Co2(trien)3]6+ 1/3Cr3+ Cs+ 1/2Cu2+ D+ 1/3Dy3+ 1/3Er3+ 1/3Eu3+ 1/2Fe2+ 1/3Fe3+ 1/3Gd3+ H+ 1/2Hg2+ 1/2Hg2+
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
61.9 61 63.6 45 59.47 54 69.8 55 101.9 74.7 69 67 77.2 53.6 249.9 65.6 65.9 67.8 54 68 67.3 349.65 68.6 63.6
1.648 0.541 0.847 0.599 0.792 0.719 0.620 0.732 0.904 0.663 0.306 0.595 2.056 0.714 6.655 0.582 0.585 0.602 0.719 0.604 0.597 9.311 0.913 0.847
1/3Ho3+ K+ 1/3La3+ Li+ 1/2Mg2+ 1/2Mn2+ NH4+ N2H5+ Na+ 1/3Nd3+ 1/2Ni2+ 1/4[Ni2(trien)3]4+ 1/2Pb2+ 1/3Pr3+ 1/2Ra2+ Rb+ 1/3Sc3+ 1/3Sm3+ 1/2Sr2+ Tl+ 1/3Tm3+ 1/2UO22+ 1/3Y3+ 1/3Yb3+ 1/2Zn2+
66.3 73.48 69.7 38.66 53.0 53.5 73.5 59 50.08 69.4 49.6 52 71 69.5 66.8 77.8 64.7 68.5 59.4 74.7 65.4 32 62 65.6 52.8
0.589 1.957 0.619 1.029 0.706 0.712 1.957 1.571 1.334 0.616 0.661 0.346 0.945 0.617 0.889 2.072 0.574 0.608 0.791 1.989 0.581 0.426 0.550 0.582 0.703
IONIC CONDUCTIVITY AND DIFFUSION AT INFINITE DILUTION (continued) Ion
λ 10-4 m2 S mol-1
D 10-5 cm2 s-1 1/2SeO421/2WO42-
Inorganic Anions Au(CN)2Au(CN)4B(C6H5)4BrBr3BrO3CNCNO1/2CO32ClClO2ClO3ClO41/3[Co(CN)6]31/2CrO42F1/4[Fe(CN)6]41/3[Fe(CN)6]3H2AsO4HCO3HF21/2HPO42H2PO4H2PO2HSHSO3HSO4H2SbO4IIO3IO4MnO41/2MoO42N(CN)2NO2NO3NH2SO3N3OCNODOHPF61/2PO3F21/3PO431/4P2O741/3P3O931/5P3O105ReO4SCN1/2SO321/2SO421/2S2O321/2S2O421/2S2O621/2S2O82Sb(OH)6SeCN-
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
50 36 21 78.1 43 55.7 78 64.6 69.3 76.31 52 64.6 67.3 98.9 85 55.4 110.4 100.9 34 44.5 75 57 36 46 65 58 52 31 76.8 40.5 54.5 61.3 74.5 54.5 71.8 71.42 48.3 69 64.6 119 198 56.9 63.3 92.8 96 83.6 109 54.9 66 72 80.0 85.0 66.5 93 86 31.9 64.7
λ 10-4 m2 S mol-1
Ion
1.331 0.959 0.559 2.080 1.145 1.483 2.077 1.720 0.923 2.032 1.385 1.720 1.792 0.878 1.132 1.475 0.735 0.896 0.905 1.185 1.997 0.759 0.959 1.225 1.731 1.545 1.385 0.825 2.045 1.078 1.451 1.632 1.984 1.451 1.912 1.902 1.286 1.837 1.720 3.169 5.273 1.515 0.843 0.824 0.639 0.742 0.581 1.462 1.758 0.959 1.065 1.132 0.885 1.238 1.145 0.849 1.723
75.7 69
D 10-5 cm2 s-1 1.008 0.919
Organic Cations Benzyltrimethylammonium+ Isobutylammonium+ Butyltrimethylammonium+ Decylpyridinium+ Decyltrimethylammonium+ Diethylammonium+ Dimethylammonium+ Dipropylammonium+ Dodecylammonium+ Dodecyltrimethylammonium+ Ethanolammonium+ Ethylammonium+ Ethyltrimethylammonium+ Hexadecyltrimethylammonium+ Hexyltrimethylammonium+ Histidyl+ Hydroxyethyltrimethylarsonium+ Methylammonium+ Octadecylpyridinium+ Octadecyltributylammonium+ Octadecyltriethylammonium+ Octadecyltrimethylammonium+ Octadecyltripropylammonium+ Octyltrimethylammonium+ Pentylammonium+ Piperidinium+ Propylammonium+ Pyrilammonium+ Tetrabutylammonium+ Tetradecyltrimethylammonium+ Tetraethylammonium+ Tetramethylammonium+ Tetraisopentylammonium+ Tetrapentylammmonium+ Tetrapropylammonium+ Triethylammonium+ Triethylsulfonium+ Trimethylammonium+ Trimethylhexylammonium+ Trimethylsulfonium+ Tripropylammonium+
34.6 38 33.6 29.5 24.4 42.0 51.8 30.1 23.8 22.6 42.2 47.2 40.5 20.9 29.6 23.0 39.4 58.7 20 16.6 17.9 19.9 17.2 26.5 37 37.2 40.8 24.3 19.5 21.5 32.6 44.9 17.9 17.5 23.4 34.3 36.1 47.23 34.6 51.4 26.1
0.921 1.012 0.895 0.786 0.650 1.118 1.379 0.802 0.634 0.602 1.124 1.257 1.078 0.557 0.788 0.612 1.049 1.563 0.533 0.442 0.477 0.530 0.458 0.706 0.985 0.991 1.086 0.647 0.519 0.573 0.868 1.196 0.477 0.466 0.623 0.913 0.961 1.258 0.921 1.369 0.695
Organic Anions Acetatep-Anisate1/2Azelate2BenzoateBromoacetateBromobenzoateButyrateChloroacetatem-Chlorobenzoateo-Chlorobenzoate-
40.9 29.0 40.6 32.4 39.2 30 32.6 39.8 31 30.2
1.089 0.772 0.541 0.863 1.044 0.799 0.868 1.060 0.825 0.804
IONIC CONDUCTIVITY AND DIFFUSION AT INFINITE DILUTION (continued)
Ion 1/3Citrate3CrotonateCyanoacetateCyclohexane carboxylate1/2 1,1-Cyclopropanedicarboxylate2DecylsulfateDichloroacetate1/2Diethylbarbiturate2Dihydrogencitrate1/2Dimethylmalonate23,5-DinitrobenzoateDodecylsulfateEthylmalonateEthylsulfateFluoroacetateFluorobenzoateFormate1/2Fumarate21/2Glutarate2HydrogenoxalateIsovalerate-
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
λ 10-4 m2 S mol-1 70.2 33.2 43.4 28.7 53.4 26 38.3 26.3 30 49.4 28.3 24 49.3 39.6 44.4 33 54.6 61.8 52.6 40.2 32.7
D 10-5 cm2 s-1 0.623 0.884 1.156 0.764 0.711 0.692 1.020 0.350 0.799 0.658 0.754 0.639 1.313 1.055 1.182 0.879 1.454 0.823 0.700 1.070 0.871
Ion IodoacetateLactate1/2Malate21/2Maleate21/2Malonate2MethylsulfateNaphthylacetate1/2Oxalate2OctylsulfatePhenylacetate1/2o-Phthalate21/2m-Phthalate2PicratePivalatePropionatePropylsulfateSalicylate1/2Suberate21/2Succinate2p-Sulfonate 1/2Tartarate2Trichloroacetate-
λ 10-4 m2 S mol-1
D 10-5 cm2 s-1
40.6 38.8 58.8 61.9 63.5 48.8 28.4 74.11 29 30.6 52.3 54.7 30.37 31.9 35.8 37.1 36 36 58.8 29.3 59.6 35
1.081 1.033 0.783 0.824 0.845 1.299 0.756 0.987 0.772 0.815 0.696 0.728 0.809 0.849 0.953 0.988 0.959 0.479 0.783 0.780 0.794 0.932
ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS Petr Vany´sek This table gives mean activity coefficients at 25°C for molalities in the range 0.1 to 1.0. See the following table for definitions, references, and data over a wider concentration range.
AgNO3 AlCl3 Al2(SO4)3 BaCl2 BeSO4 CaCl2 CdCl2 Cd(NO3)2 CdSO4 CoCl2 CrCl3 Cr(NO3)3 Cr2(SO4)3 CsBr CsCl CsI CsNO3 CsOH CsOAc Cs2SO4 CuCl2 Cu(NO3)2 CuSO4 FeCl2 HBr HCl HClO4 HI HNO3 H2SO4 KBr KCl KClO3 K2CrO4 KF K3Fe(CN)6 K4Fe(CN)6 KH2PO4 KI KNO3 KOAc KOH KSCN K2SO4 LiBr LiCl LiClO4 LiI LiNO3 LiOH LiOAc Li2SO4 MgCl2 MgSO4 MnCl2 MnSO4
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.734 0.337 0.035 0.500 0.150 0.518 0.2280 0.513 0.150 0.522 0.331 0.319 0.0458 0.754 0.756 0.754 0.733 0.795 0.799 0.456 0.508 0.511 0.150 0.5185 0.805 0.796 0.803 0.818 0.791 0.2655 0.772 0.770 0.749 0.456 0.775 0.268 0.139 0.731 0.778 0.739 0.796 0.798 0.769 0.441 0.796 0.790 0.812 0.815 0.788 0.760 0.784 0.468 0.529 0.150 0.516 0.150
0.657 0.305 0.0225 0.444 0.109 0.472 0.1638 0.464 0.103 0.479 0.298 0.285 0.0300 0.694 0.694 0.692 0.655 0.761 0.771 0.382 0.455 0.460 0.104 0.473 0.782 0.767 0.778 0.807 0.754 0.2090 0.722 0.718 0.681 0.382 0.727 0.212 0.0993 0.653 0.733 0.663 0.766 0.760 0.716 0.360 0.766 0.757 0.794 0.802 0.752 0.702 0.742 0.398 0.489 0.107 0.469 0.105
0.606 0.302 0.0176 0.419 0.0885 0.455 0.1329 0.442 0.0822 0.463 0.294 0.279 0.0238 0.654 0.656 0.651 0.602 0.744 0.761 0.338 0.429 0.439 0.0829 0.454 0.777 0.756 0.768 0.811 0.735 0.1826 0.693 0.688 0.635 0.340 0.700 0.184 0.0808 0.602 0.707 0.614 0.754 0.742 0.685 0.316 0.756 0.744 0.792 0.804 0.736 0.665 0.721 0.361 0.477 0.0874 0.450 0.0848
0.567 0.313 0.0153 0.405 0.0769 0.448 0.1139 0.430 0.0699 0.459 0.300 0.281 0.0207 0.626 0.628 0.621 0.561 0.739 0.759 0.311 0.417 0.429 0.0704 0.448 0.781 0.755 0.766 0.823 0.725 — 0.673 0.666 0.599 0.313 0.682 0.167 0.0693 0.561 0.689 0.576 0.750 0.734 0.663 0.286 0.752 0.740 0.798 0.813 0.728 0.638 0.709 0.337 0.475 0.0756 0.442 0.0725
0.536 0.331 0.0143 0.397 0.0692 0.448 0.1006 0.425 0.0615 0.462 0.314 0.291 0.0190 0.603 0.606 0.599 0.528 0.739 0.762 0.291 0.411 0.426 0.0620 0.450 0.789 0.757 0.769 0.839 0.720 0.1557 0.657 0.649 0.568 0.292 0.670 0.155 0.0614 0.529 0.676 0.545 0.751 0.732 0.646 0.264 0.753 0.739 0.808 0.824 0.726 0.617 0.700 0.319 0.481 0.0675 0.440 0.0640
0.509 0.356 0.014 0.391 0.0639 0.453 0.0905 0.423 0.0553 0.470 0.335 0.304 0.0182 0.586 0.589 0.581 0.501 0.742 0.768 0.274 0.409 0.427 0.0559 0.454 0.801 0.763 0.776 0.860 0.717 — 0.646 0.637 0.541 0.276 0.661 0.146 0.0556 0.501 0.667 0.519 0.754 0.733 0.633 0.246 0.758 0.743 0.820 0.838 0.727 0.599 0.691 0.307 0.491 0.0616 0.443 0.0578
0.485 0.388 0.0142 0.391 0.0600 0.460 0.0827 0.423 0.0505 0.479 0.362 0.322 0.0181 0.571 0.575 0.567 0.478 0.748 0.776 0.262 0.409 0.431 0.0512 0.463 0.815 0.772 0.785 0.883 0.717 0.1417 0.636 0.626 0.518 0.263 0.654 0.140 0.0512 0.477 0.660 0.496 0.759 0.736 0.623 0.232 0.767 0.748 0.834 0.852 0.729 0.585 0.689 0.297 0.506 0.0571 0.448 0.0530
0.464 0.429 0.0149 0.391 0.0570 0.470 0.0765 0.425 0.0468 0.492 0.397 0.344 0.0185 0.558 0.563 0.554 0.458 0.754 0.783 0.251 0.410 0.437 0.0475 0.473 0.832 0.783 0.795 0.908 0.718 — 0.629 0.618 — 0.253 0.650 0.135 0.0479 0.456 0.654 0.476 0.766 0.742 0.614 — 0.777 0.755 0.852 0.870 0.733 0.573 0.688 0.289 0.522 0.0536 0.455 0.0493
0.446 0.479 0.0159 0.392 0.0546 0.484 0.0713 0.428 0.0438 0.511 0.436 0.371 0.0194 0.547 0.553 0.543 0.439 0.762 0.792 0.242 0.413 0.445 0.0446 0.488 0.850 0.795 0.808 0.935 0.721 — 0.622 0.610 — 0.243 0.646 0.131 0.0454 0.438 0.649 0.459 0.774 0.749 0.606 — 0.789 0.764 0.869 0.888 0.737 0.563 0.688 0.282 0.544 0.0508 0.466 0.0463
0.429 0.539 0.0175 0.395 0.0530 0.500 0.0669 0.433 0.0415 0.531 0.481 0.401 0.0208 0.538 0.544 0.533 0.422 0.771 0.802 0.235 0.417 0.455 0.0423 0.506 0.871 0.809 0.823 0.963 0.724 0.1316 0.617 0.604 — 0.235 0.645 0.128 — 0.421 0.645 0.443 0.783 0.756 0.599 — 0.803 0.774 0.887 0.910 0.743 0.554 0.689 0.277 0.570 0.0485 0.479 0.0439
ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS (continued)
NH4Cl NH4NO3 (NH4)2SO4 NaBr NaCl NaClO3 NaClO4 Na2CrO4 NaF NaH2PO4 NaI NaNO3 NaOAc NaOH NaSCN Na2SO4 NiCl2 NiSO4 Pb(NO3)2 RbBr RbCl RbI RbNO3 RbOAc Rb2SO4 SrCl2 TlClO4 TlNO3 UO2Cl2 UO2SO4 ZnCl2 Zn(NO3)2 ZnSO4
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.770 0.740 0.439 0.782 0.778 0.772 0.775 0.464 0.765 0.744 0.787 0.762 0.791 0.766 0.787 0.445 0.522 0.150 0.395 0.763 0.764 0.762 0.734 0.796 0.451 0.511 0.730 0.702 0.544 0.150 0.515 0.531 0.150
0.718 0.677 0.356 0.741 0.735 0.720 0.729 0.394 0.710 0.675 0.751 0.703 0.757 0.727 0.750 0.365 0.479 0.105 0.308 0.706 0.709 0.705 0.658 0.767 0.374 0.462 0.652 0.606 0.510 0.102 0.462 0.489 0.140
0.687 0.636 0.311 0.719 0.710 0.688 0.701 0.353 0.676 0.629 0.735 0.666 0.744 0.708 — 0.320 0.463 0.0841 0.260 0.673 0.675 0.671 0.606 0.756 0.331 0.442 0.599 0.545 0.520 0.0807 0.432 0.474 0.0835
0.4 0.665 0.606 0.280 0.704 0.693 0.664 0.683 0.327 0.651 0.593 0.727 0.638 0.737 0.697 0.720 0.289 0.460 0.0713 0.228 0.650 0.652 0.647 0.565 0.753 0.301 0.433 0.559 0.500 0.505 0.0689 0.411 0.469 0.0714
0.5
0.6
0.649 0.582 0.257 0.697 0.681 0.645 0.668 0.307 0.632 0.563 0.723 0.617 0.735 0.690 0.715 0.266 0.464 0.0627 0.205 0.632 0.634 0.629 0.534 0.755 0.279 0.430 0.527 — 0.517 0.0611 0.394 0.473 0.0630
0.636 0.562 0.240 0.692 0.673 0.630 0.656 0.292 0.616 0.539 0.723 0.599 0.736 0.685 0.712 0.248 0.471 0.0562 0.187 0.617 0.620 0.614 0.508 0.759 0.263 0.431 — — 0.532 0.0566 0.380 0.480 0.0569
0.7 0.625 0.545 0.226 0.689 0.667 0.617 0.648 0.280 0.603 0.517 0.724 0.583 0.740 0.681 0.710 0.233 0.482 0.0515 0.172 0.605 0.608 0.602 0.485 0.766 0.249 0.434 — — 0.549 0.0515 0.369 0.489 0.0523
0.8 0.617 0.530 0.214 0.687 0.662 0.606 0.641 0.269 0.592 0.499 0.727 0.570 0.745 0.679 0.710 0.221 0.496 0.0478 0.160 0.595 0.599 0.591 0.465 0.773 0.238 0.441 — — 0.571 0.0483 0.357 0.501 0.0487
0.9
1.0
0.609 0.516 0.205 0.687 0.659 0.597 0.635 0.261 0.582 0.483 0.731 0.558 0.752 0.678 0.711 0.210 0.515 0.0448 0.150 0.586 0.590 0.583 0.446 0.782 0.228 0.449 — — 0.595 0.0458 0.348 0.518 0.0458
0.603 0.504 0.196 0.687 0.657 0.589 0.629 0.253 0.573 0.468 0.736 0.548 0.757 0.678 0.712 0.201 0.563 0.0425 0.141 0.578 0.583 0.575 0.430 0.792 0.219 0.461 — — 0.620 0.0439 0.339 0.535 0.0435
MEAN ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF ELECTROLYTES AS A FUNCTION OF CONCENTRATION The mean activity coefficient γ of an electrolyte XaYb is defined as
(
γ = γ a+ γ b–
)
1 / (a+b)
where γ+ and γ– are activity coefficients of the individual ions (which cannot be directly measured). This table gives the mean activity coefficients of about 100 electrolytes in aqueous solution as a function of concentration, expressed in molality terms. All values refer to a temperature of 25°C. Substances are arranged in alphabetical order by formula. REFERENCES 1. Hamer,W. J., and Wu, Y. C., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 1, 1047, 1972. 2. Staples, B. R., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 6, 385, 1977; 10, 767, 1981; 10, 779, 1981. 3. Goldberg, R. N. et al., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 7, 263, 1978; 8, 923, 1979; 8, 1005, 1979; 10, 1, 1981; 10, 671, 1981.
Mean Activity Coefficient at 25°C m/mol kg-1
AgNO3
BaBr2
BaCl2
BaI2
CaBr2
CaCl2
CaI2
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000 10.000 15.000
0.964 0.950 0.924 0.896 0.859 0.794 0.732 0.656 0.536 0.430 0.316 0.181 0.108 0.085
0.881 0.850 0.785 0.727 0.661 0.573 0.517 0.463 0.435 0.470 0.654
0.887 0.849 0.782 0.721 0.653 0.559 0.492 0.436 0.391 0.393
0.890 0.853 0.792 0.737 0.678 0.600 0.551 0.520 0.536 0.664 1.242
0.890 0.853 0.791 0.735 0.674 0.594 0.540 0.502 0.500 0.604 1.125 18.7
0.888 0.851 0.787 0.727 0.664 0.577 0.517 0.469 0.444 0.495 0.784 5.907 43.1
0.890 0.853 0.791 0.736 0.677 0.600 0.552 0.524 0.554 0.729
m/mol kg-1 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000 10.000
Cd(NO2)2 0.881 0.837 0.759 0.681 0.589 0.451 0.344 0.247 0.148 0.098 0.069 0.054
Cd(NO3)2 0.888 0.851 0.787 0.728 0.664 0.576 0.515 0.465 0.428 0.437 0.517
CoBr2 0.890 0.854 0.794 0.740 0.681 0.605 0.556 0.523 0.538 0.685 1.421 13.9
m/mol kg-1
CsCl
CsF
CsI
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100
0.965 0.951 0.925 0.898 0.864 0.805 0.751
0.965 0.952 0.929 0.905 0.876 0.830 0.792
0.965 0.951 0.925 0.898 0.863 0.804 0.749
CoCl2 0.889 0.852 0.789 0.732 0.670 0.586 0.528 0.483 0.465 0.532 0.864
CoI2 0.887 0.849 0.783 0.724 0.661 0.582 0.540 0.527 0.596 0.845 2.287 55.3 196
Co(NO3)2
CsBr
0.888 0.850 0.786 0.728 0.663 0.576 0.516 0.469 0.446 0.492 0.722 3.338
0.965 0.951 0.925 0.898 0.864 0.806 0.752 0.691 0.605 0.540 0.485 0.454
CsNO3
CsOH
Cs2SO4
CuBr2
0.964 0.951 0.924 0.897 0.860 0.796 0.733
0.966 0.953 0.930 0.906 0.878 0.836 0.802
0.885 0.845 0.775 0.709 0.634 0.526 0.444
0.889 0.853 0.791 0.735 0.674 0.594 0.541
5-97
MEAN ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF ELECTROLYTES AS A FUNCTION OF CONCENTRATION (continued) m/mol kg-1
CsCl
CsF
CsI
0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000 10.000
0.691 0.607 0.546 0.496 0.474 0.508
0.755 0.721 0.726 0.803
0.688 0.601 0.534 0.470
CuCl2
Cu(ClO4)2
Cu(NO3)2
0.887 0.849 0.783 0.722 0.654 0.561 0.495 0.441 0.401 0.405 0.453 0.601
0.890 0.854 0.795 0.741 0.685 0.613 0.572 0.553 0.617 0.892 2.445
m/mol kg-1 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000 10.000 15.000
CsNO3
CsOH
Cs2SO4
CuBr2
0.655 0.529 0.421
0.772 0.755 0.782
0.369 0.285 0.233
0.504 0.503 0.591 0.859
FeCl2
HBr
HCl
HClO4
0.888 0.851 0.787 0.729 0.664 0.577 0.516 0.466 0.431 0.456 0.615 2.083
0.888 0.850 0.785 0.725 0.659 0.570 0.509 0.462 0.443 0.500 0.782
0.966 0.953 0.930 0.907 0.879 0.837 0.806 0.783 0.790 0.872 1.167 3.800 33.4
0.965 0.952 0.929 0.905 0.876 0.832 0.797 0.768 0.759 0.811 1.009 2.380 10.4
0.966 0.953 0.929 0.906 0.878 0.836 0.803 0.776 0.769 0.826 1.055 3.100 30.8 323
m/mol kg-1
HF
HI
HNO3
H2SO4
KBr
KCNS
KCl
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000
0.551 0.429 0.302 0.225 0.163 0.106 0.0766 0.0550 0.0352 0.0249 0.0175 0.0110 0.0085 0.0077 0.0075
0.966 0.953 0.931 0.909 0.884 0.847 0.823 0.811 0.845 0.969 1.363 4.760 49.100
0.965 0.952 0.929 0.905 0.875 0.829 0.792 0.756 0.725 0.730 0.788 1.063 1.644 2.212 2.607
0.804 0.740 0.634 0.542 0.445 0.325 0.251 0.195 0.146 0.125 0.119 0.197 0.527 1.077 1.701
0.965 0.952 0.927 0.902 0.870 0.817 0.771 0.772 0.658 0.617 0.593 0.626
0.965 0.951 0.927 0.901 0.869 0.815 0.768 0.716 0.647 0.598 0.556 0.525
0.965 0.951 0.927 0.901 0.869 0.816 0.768 0.717 0.649 0.604 0.573 0.593
m/mol kg-1
KClO3
K2CrO4
KF
KH2PO4*
K2HPO4**
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000
0.965 0.951 0.926 0.899 0.865 0.805 0.749 0.681 0.569
0.886 0.847 0.779 0.715 0.643 0.539 0.460 0.385 0.296 0.239
0.965 0.952 0.927 0.902 0.870 0.818 0.773 0.726 0.670 0.645
0.964 0.950 0.924 0.896 0.859 0.793 0.730 0.652 0.529 0.422
5-98
0.886 0.847 0.779 0.715 0.643 0.538 0.457 0.379 0.283
KI
KNO3
0.965 0.952 0.927 0.902 0.871 0.820 0.776 0.731 0.676 0.646
0.964 0.950 0.924 0.896 0.860 0.797 0.735 0.662 0.546 0.444
MEAN ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF ELECTROLYTES AS A FUNCTION OF CONCENTRATION (continued) m/mol kg-1
KClO3
2.000 5.000 10.000 15.000
m/mol kg-1 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000
K2CrO4
KF
0.199
0.658 0.871 1.715 3.120
KI
KNO3
0.638
0.332
K2SO4
LiBr
LiCl
LiClO4
LiI
LiNO3
0.965 0.952 0.927 0.902 0.871 0.821 0.779 0.740 0.710 0.733 0.860 1.697 6.110 19.9 46.4
0.885 0.844 0.772 0.704 0.625 0.511 0.424 0.343 0.251
0.965 0.952 0.929 0.905 0.877 0.832 0.797 0.767 0.754 0.803 1.012 2.696 20.0 147 486
0.965 0.952 0.928 0.904 0.874 0.827 0.789 0.756 0.739 0.775 0.924 2.000 9.600 30.9
0.966 0.953 0.931 0.908 0.882 0.843 0.815 0.795 0.806 0.887 1.161
0.966 0.953 0.930 0.908 0.882 0.843 0.817 0.802 0.824 0.912 1.197
0.965 0.952 0.928 0.904 0.874 0.827 0.788 0.753 0.726 0.743 0.837 1.298 2.500 3.960 4.970
LiOH
Li2SO4
MgBr2
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000
0.964 0.950 0.923 0.895 0.858 0.794 0.735 0.668 0.579 0.522 0.484 0.493
0.887 0.847 0.780 0.716 0.645 0.544 0.469 0.400 0.325 0.284 0.270
0.889 0.852 0.790 0.733 0.672 0.593 0.543 0.512 0.540 0.715 1.590 36.1
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000
K2HPO4**
KOH
m/mol kg-1
m/mol kg-1
KH2PO4*
MgCl2 0.889 0.852 0.790 0.734 0.672 0.590 0.535 0.493 0.485 0.577 1.065 14.40
MgI2 0.889 0.853 0.791 0.736 0.677 0.602 0.556 0.535 0.594 0.858 2.326 109.8
MnBr2
MnCl2
0.889 0.853 0.791 0.735 0.674 0.595 0.543 0.508 0.519 0.650 1.224 6.697
0.888 0.850 0.786 0.727 0.662 0.574 0.513 0.464 0.437 0.477 0.661 1.539
Mn(ClO4)2
NH4Cl
NH4ClO4
(NH4)2HPO4**
NH4NO3
NaBr
NaBrO3
0.892 0.858 0.801 0.752 0.700 0.637 0.604 0.596 0.686 1.030 3.072
0.965 0.952 0.927 0.901 0.869 0.816 0.769 0.718 0.649 0.603 0.569 0.563
0.964 0.950 0.924 0.895 0.859 0.794 0.734 0.663 0.560 0.479 0.399
0.882 0.839 0.763 0.688 0.600 0.469 0.367 0.273 0.171 0.114 0.074
0.964 0.951 0.925 0.897 0.862 0.801 0.744 0.678 0.582 0.502 0.419 0.303 0.220 0.179 0.154
0.965 0.952 0.928 0.903 0.873 0.824 0.783 0.742 0.697 0.687 0.730 1.083
0.965 0.951 0.926 0.900 0.867 0.811 0.759 0.698 0.605 0.528 0.449
5-99
MEAN ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF ELECTROLYTES AS A FUNCTION OF CONCENTRATION (continued) m/mol kg-1
Na2CO3
NaCl
NaClO3
NaClO4
Na2CrO4
NaF
Na2HPO4*
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000
0.887 0.847 0.780 0.716 0.644 0.541 0.462 0.385 0.292 0.229 0.182
0.965 0.952 0.928 0.903 0.872 0.822 0.779 0.734 0.681 0.657 0.668 0.874
0.965 0.952 0.927 0.902 0.870 0.818 0.771 0.719 0.646 0.590 0.537
0.965 0.952 0.928 0.903 0.872 0.821 0.777 0.729 0.668 0.630 0.608 0.648
0.887 0.849 0.783 0.722 0.653 0.554 0.479 0.406 0.318 0.261 0.231
0.965 0.951 0.926 0.901 0.868 0.813 0.764 0.710 0.633 0.573
0.887 0.848 0.780 0.717 0.644 0.539 0.456 0.373 0.266 0.191 0.133
NaI
NaNO3
NaOH
Na2SO3
Na2SO4
Na2WO4
NiBr2
0.965 0.952 0.928 0.904 0.874 0.827 0.789 0.753 0.722 0.734 0.823 1.402 4.011
0.965 0.951 0.926 0.900 0.866 0.810 0.759 0.701 0.617 0.550 0.480 0.388 0.329
0.965 0.952 0.927 0.902 0.870 0.819 0.775 0.731 0.685 0.674 0.714 1.076 3.258 9.796 19.410
0.887 0.847 0.779 0.716 0.644 0.540 0.462 0.386 0.296 0.237 0.196
0.886 0.846 0.777 0.712 0.637 0.529 0.446 0.366 0.268 0.204 0.155
0.886 0.846 0.777 0.712 0.638 0.534 0.457 0.388 0.320 0.291 0.291
0.889 0.853 0.791 0.735 0.675 0.596 0.546 0.514 0.535 0.692 1.476
m/mol kg-1 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000
m/mol kg-1
NiCl2
Ni(ClO4)2
Ni(NO3)2
Pb(ClO4)2
Pb(NO3)2
RbBr
RbCl
0.889 0.852 0.789 0.732 0.669 0.584 0.527 0.482 0.465 0.538 0.915 4.785
0.891 0.855 0.797 0.745 0.690 0.621 0.582 0.567 0.639 0.946 2.812
0.889 0.851 0.787 0.730 0.666 0.581 0.524 0.481 0.467 0.528 0.797
0.889 0.851 0.787 0.729 0.666 0.580 0.522 0.476 0.458 0.516 0.799 4.043 33.8
0.882 0.840 0.764 0.690 0.604 0.476 0.379 0.291 0.195 0.136
0.965 0.951 0.926 0.900 0.866 0.811 0.760 0.705 0.630 0.578 0.535 0.514
0.965 0.951 0.926 0.900 0.867 0.811 0.761 0.707 0.633 0.583 0.546 0.544
m/mol kg-1
RbF
RbI
RbNO3
Rb2SO4
SrBr2
SrCl2
SrI2
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020
0.965 0.952 0.927 0.902 0.871
0.965 0.951 0.926 0.900 0.866
0.964 0.950 0.924 0.896 0.859
0.886 0.845 0.776 0.710 0.635
0.889 0.852 0.790 0.734 0.673
0.888 0.850 0.785 0.725 0.659
0.890 0.854 0.793 0.740 0.681
0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000 10.000
5-100
MEAN ACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS OF ELECTROLYTES AS A FUNCTION OF CONCENTRATION (continued) m/mol kg-1
RbF
RbI
RbNO3
Rb2SO4
SrBr2
SrCl2
SrI2
0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000
0.821 0.780 0.739 0.701 0.697 0.724
0.810 0.759 0.703 0.627 0.574 0.532 0.517
0.795 0.733 0.657 0.536 0.430 0.320
0.526 0.443 0.365 0.274 0.217
0.591 0.535 0.492 0.476 0.545 0.921
0.569 0.506 0.455 0.421 0.451 0.650
0.606 0.557 0.526 0.542 0.686
m/mol kg-1 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.500 1.000 2.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000
UO2Cl2
UO2(NO3)2
ZnBr2
ZnCl2
ZnI2
0.888 0.851 0.787 0.729 0.666 0.583 0.529 0.493 0.501 0.601 0.948
0.888 0.849 0.784 0.726 0.663 0.583 0.535 0.509 0.532 0.673 1.223 3.020
0.890 0.854 0.794 0.741 0.683 0.606 0.553 0.515 0.516 0.558 0.578 0.788 2.317 5.381 7.965
0.887 0.847 0.781 0.719 0.652 0.561 0.499 0.447 0.384 0.330 0.283 0.342 0.876 1.914 2.968
0.893 0.859 0.804 0.757 0.708 0.644 0.601 0.574 0.635 0.836 1.062 1.546 4.698
* The anion is H2PO4–. ** The anion is HPO4–2.
5-101
ENTHALPY OF DILUTION OF ACIDS The quantity given in this table is –∆dilH, the negative of the enthalpy (heat) of dilution to infinite dilution for aqueous solutions of several common acids; i.e., the negative of the enthalphy change when a solution of molality m at a temperature of 25°C is diluted with an infinite amount of water. The tabulated numbers thus represent the heat produced (or, if the value is negative, the heat absorbed) when the acid is diluted. The initial molality m is given in the first column. The second column gives the dilution ratio, which is the number of moles of water that must be added to one mole of the acid to produce a solution of the molality in the first column. REFERENCE Parker, V. B., Thermal Properties of Aqueous Uni-Univalent Electrolytes, Natl. Stand. Ref. Data Ser. - Natl. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) 2, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965. –∆dilH in kJ/mol at 25°C m 55.506 20 15 10 9 8 7 6 5.5506 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5551 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.0925 0.0793 0.0694 0.0617 0.05551 0.05 0.02775 0.01850 0.01388 0.01110 0.00555 0.00278 0.00111 0.000555 0.000111 0
Dil. ratio 1.0 2.775 3.700 5.551 6.167 6.938 7.929 9.251 10 11.10 12.33 13.88 15.86 18.50 22.20 27.75 37.00 55.51 100 111.0 277.5 555.1 600 700 800 900 1000 1110 2000 3000 4000 5000 10000 20000 50000 100000 500000 ∞
HF
HCl
HClO4
HBr
HI
HNO3
CH2O2
C2H4O2
14.88 14.34 13.87 13.81 13.77 13.73 13.69 13.66 13.62 13.58 13.53 13.47 13.45 13.43 13.40 13.36 13.30 13.22 13.20 13.09 12.80 12.79 12.70 12.61 12.50 12.42 12.24 11.29 10.66 10.25 9.874 8.912 7.531 5.439 3.766 1.255 0
45.61 19.87 15.40 10.24 9.213 8.201 7.217 6.268 5.841 5.318 4.899 4.402 3.958 3.506 3.063 2.623 2.167 1.695 1.234 1.172 0.761 0.556 0.540 0.502 0.473 0.448 0.427 0.406 0.310 0.251 0.226 0.197 0.142 0.105 0.067 0.042 0.021 0
13.81 7.920 2.013 1.280 0.611 0.046 -0.351 -0.490 -0.628 -0.732 -0.787 -0.820 -0.782 -0.724 -0.623 -0.431 -0.201 0.050 0.075 0.247 0.272 0.272 0.272 0.268 0.264 0.259 0.259 0.226 0.197 0.180 0.167 0.126 0.092 0.059 0.042 0.021 0
48.83 19.92 14.29 8.694 7.719 6.786 5.925 5.004 4.590 4.113 3.711 3.330 2.966 2.611 2.301 1.996 1.665 1.314 0.983 0.941 0.649 0.498 0.481 0.452 0.427 0.406 0.385 0.372 0.285 0.234 0.205 0.184 0.130 0.092 0.054 0.038 0.021 0
21.71 14.02 7.615 6.569 5.607 4.728 3.975 3.577 3.197 2.828 2.460 2.105 1.787 1.527 1.318 1.125 0.933 0.736 0.711 0.536 0.439 0.427 0.402 0.385 0.368 0.351 0.339 0.264 0.218 0.192 0.172 0.121 0.084 0.050 0.038 0.021 0
19.73 9.498 6.883 3.933 3.368 2.791 2.251 1.749 1.540 1.310 1.109 0.958 0.791 0.665 0.582 0.527 0.506 0.506 0.502 0.498 0.439 0.372 0.368 0.351 0.339 0.326 0.318 0.305 0.247 0.213 0.192 0.176 0.130 0.096 0.063 0.046 0.021 0
0.046 0.038 0.109 0.205 0.230 0.255 0.272 0.280 0.285 0.289 0.289 0.289 0.289 0.289 0.285 0.276 0.259 0.226 0.184 0.176 0.146 0.134 0.134 0.134 0.130 0.126 0.121 0.121 0.117 0.117 0.113 0.109 0.105 0.096 0.084 0.054 0.038 0
2.167 2.075 1.962 1.824 1.782 1.724 1.648 1.540 1.477 1.393 1.310 1.218 1.121 1.025 0.912 0.803 0.678 0.544 0.423 0.406 0.331 0.289 0.285 0.285 0.280 0.276 0.272 0.272 0.264 0.259 0.259 0.255 0.243 0.230 0.222 0.209 0.167 0
5-102
ENTHALPY OF SOLUTION OF ELECTROLYTES This table gives the molar enthalpy (heat) of solution at infinite dilution for some common uni-univalent electrolytes. This is the enthalpy change when 1 mol of solute in its standard state is dissolved in an infinite amount of water. Values are given in kilojoules per mole at 25°C. REFERENCE Parker, V. B., Thermal Properties of Uni-Univalent Electrolytes, Natl. Stand. Ref. Data Series — Natl. Bur. Stand.(U.S.), No.2, 1965.
Solute
State
∆sol H° kJ/mol
HF HCl HClO4 HClO4 ⋅ H2O HBr HI HIO3 HNO3 HCOOH CH3COOH
g g l c g g c l l l
–61.50 –74.84 –88.76 –32.95 –85.14 –81.67 8.79 –33.28 –0.86 –1.51
NH3 NH4Cl NH4ClO4 NH4Br NH4I NH4IO3 NH4NO2 NH4NO3 NH4C2H3O2 NH4CN NH4CNS CH3NH3Cl (CH3)3NHCl N(CH3)4Cl N(CH3)4Br N(CH3)4I
g c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
–30.50 14.78 33.47 16.78 13.72 31.80 19.25 25.69 –2.38 17.57 22.59 5.77 1.46 4.08 24.27 42.07
AgClO4 AgNO2 AgNO3
c c c
7.36 36.94 22.59
LiOH LiOH ⋅ H2O LiF LiCl LiCl ⋅ H2O LiClO4 LiClO4 ⋅ 3H2O LiBr LiBr ⋅ H2O
c c c c c c c c c
–23.56 –6.69 4.73 –37.03 –19.08 –26.55 32.61 –48.83 –23.26
Solute
State
∆sol H° kJ/mol
LiBr ⋅ 2H2O LiBrO3 LiI LiI ⋅ H2O LiI ⋅ 2H2O LiI ⋅ 3H2O LiNO2 LiNO2 ⋅ H2O LiNO3
c c c c c c c c c
–9.41 1.42 –63.30 –29.66 –14.77 0.59 –11.00 7.03 –2.51
NaOH NaOH ⋅ H2O NaF NaCl NaClO2 NaClO2 ⋅ 3H2O NaClO3 NaClO4 NaClO4 ⋅ H2O NaBr NaBr ⋅ 2H2O NaBrO3 NaI NaI ⋅ 2H2O NaIO3 NaNO2 NaNO3 NaC2H3O2 NaC2H3O2⋅ 3H2O NaCN NaCN ⋅ 0.5H2O NaCN ⋅ 2H2O NaCNO NaCNS
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
–44.51 –21.41 0.91 3.88 0.33 28.58 21.72 13.88 22.51 –0.60 18.64 26.90 –7.53 16.13 20.29 13.89 20.50 –17.32 19.66 1.21 3.31 18.58 19.20 6.83
KOH KOH ⋅ H2O KOH ⋅ 1.5H2O KF KF ⋅ 2H2O
c c c c c
–57.61 –14.64 –10.46 –17.73 6.97
5-103
State
∆sol H° kJ/mol
KCl KClO3 KClO4 KBr KBrO3 KI KIO3 KNO2 KNO3 KC2H3O2 KCN KCNO KCNS KMnO4
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
17.22 41.38 51.04 19.87 41.13 20.33 27.74 13.35 34.89 –15.33 11.72 20.25 24.23 43.56
RbOH RbOH ⋅ H2O RbOH ⋅ 2H2O RbF RbF ⋅ H2O RbF ⋅ 1.5H2O RbCl RbClO3 RbClO4 RbBr RbBrO3 RbI RbNO3
c c c c c c c c c c c c c
–62.34 –17.99 0.88 –26.11 –0.42 1.34 17.28 47.74 56.74 21.88 48.95 25.10 36.48
CsOH CsOH ⋅ H2O CsF CsF ⋅ H2O CsF ⋅ 1.5H2O CsCl CsClO4 CsBr CsBrO3 CsI CsNO3
c c c c c c c c c c c
–71.55 –20.50 –36.86 –10.46 –5.44 17.78 55.44 25.98 50.46 33.35 40.00
Solute
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING The present compilation of kinetic data represents the 12th evaluation prepared by the NASA Panel for Data Evaluation. The Panel was established in 1977 by the NASA Upper Atmosphere Research Program Office for the purpose of providing a critical tabulation of the latest kinetic and photochemical data for use by modelers in computer simulations of stratospheric chemistry. The recommended rate data and cross sections are based on laboratory measurements. The major use of theoretical extrapolation of data is in connection with three-body reactions, in which the required pressure or temperature dependence is sometimes unavailable from laboratory measurements, and can be estimated by use of appropriate theoretical treatment. In the case of important rate constants for which no experimental data are available, the panel may provide estimates of rate constant parameters based on analogy to similar reactions for which data are available. Rate constants are expressed in the form k(T) = A exp(-E/RT), where A is the pre-exponential factor, E the activation energy, R the gas constant, and T the absolute temperature. Uncertainties are expressed by the factor f, e.g., a value of 4.2x10-10 with f = 2 indicates that the true value is believed to lie between 2.1x10-10 and 8.4x10-10. The value of f at other temperatures may be calculated from f(298), given in the last column, by: f(T) = f(298) exp[(∆E/R)(1/T-1/298)] , where ∆E/R is the uncertainty in E/R. Table 1 covers rate constant data on second order reactions, grouped by class, while Table 2 covers association reactions. Relevant equilibrium constant data are given in Table 3. All concentrations are measured in molecules cm-3. Notes on each reaction, as well as related photochemical data, may be found in the reference. The assistance of Robert Hampson is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCE DeMore, W. B., Sander, S. P., Golden, D. M., Hampson, R. F., Kurylo, M. J., Howard, C. J., Ravishankara, A. R., Kolb, C. E., and Molina, M. J., Chemical Kinetics and Photochemical Data for use in Atmospheric Modeling. Evaluation Number 12, Jet Propulsion Laboratory Publication 974, Pasadena CA, 1997. The report is also available at the World Wide Web site < http://remus.jpl.nasa.gov/pub/jpl97>. Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions
Reaction
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
8.0x10-12
2060±250
8.0x10-15
1.15
3.2x10-11 1.2x10-10 1.2x10-10 1.1x10-10 2.2x10-10 1.8x10-11 4.9x10-11 6.7x10-11 2.5x10-10 7.4x10-11 1.5x10-10 1.5x10-10 1.4x10-10 1.5x10-10 2.8x10-10 3.6x10-10 1.9x10-10 7.4x10-11
-(70±100) 0±100 0±100 0±100 0±100 -(110±100) 0±100 0±100 0±100 -(120±100) 0±100 0±100 0±100 0±100 0±100 0±100 0±100 0±100
4.0x10-11 1.2x10-10 1.2x10-10 1.1x10-10 2.2x10-10 2.6x10-11 4.9x10-11 6.7x10-11 2.5x10-10 1.1x10-10 1.5x10-10 1.5x10-10 1.4x10-10 1.5x10-10 2.8x10-10 3.6x10-10 1.9x10-10 7.4x10-11
1.2 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
3.3x10-10 1.8x10-10 2.7x10-10 6.6x10-10
0±100 0±100 0±100 0±100
3.3x10-10 1.8x10-10 2.7x10-10 6.6x10-10
1.2 1.3 1.3 1.5
1.5x10-10
0±100
1.5x10-10
1.2
Ox Reactions O + O3 → O2 + O2 O(1D) Reactions O(1D) + O2 → O + O2 O(1D) + O3 → O2 + O2 → O2 + O + O O(1D) + H2 → OH + H O(1D) + H2O → OH + OH O(1D) + N2 → O + N2 O(1D) + N2O → N2 + O2 → NO + NO O(1D) + NH3 → OH + NH2 O(1D) + CO2 → O + CO2 O(1D) + CH4 → products O(1D) + HCl → products O(1D) + HF → OH + F O(1D) + HBr → products O(1D) + Cl2 → products O(1D) + CCl2O → products O(1D) + CClFO → products O(1D) + CF2O → products O(1D) + CCl4 → products (CFC-10) O(1D) + CH3Br → products O(1D) + CH2Br2 → products O(1D) + CHBr3 → products O(1D) + CH3F → products (HFC-41)
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued)
Reaction O(1D) + CH2F2 → products (HFC-32) O(1D) + CHF3 → products (HFC-23) O(1D) + CHCl2F → products (HCFC-21) O(1D) + CHClF2 → products (HCFC-22) O(1D) + CCl3F → products (CFC-11) O(1D) + CCl2F2 → products (CFC-12) O(1D) + CClF3 → products (CFC-13) O(1D) + CClBrF2 → products (Halon-1211) O(1D) + CBr2F2 → products (Halon-1202) O(1D) + CBrF3 → products (Halon-1301) O(1D) + CF4 → CF4 + O (CFC-14) O(1D) + CH3CH2F → products (HFC-161) O(1D) + CH3CHF2 → products (HFC-152a) O(1D) + CH3CCl2F → products (HCFC-141b) O(1D) + CH3CClF2 → products (HCFC-142b) O(1D) + CH3CF3 → products (HFC-143a) O(1D) + CH2ClCClF2 → products (HCFC-132b) O(1D) + CH2ClCF3 → products (HCFC-133a) O(1D) + CH2FCF3 → products (HFC-134a) O(1D) + CHCl2CF3 → products (HCFC-123) O(1D) + CHClFCF3 → products (HCFC-124) O(1D) + CHF2CF3 → products (HFC-125) O(1D) + CCl3CF3 → products (CFC-113a) O(1D) + CCl2FCClF2 → products (CFC-113) O(1D) + CCl2FCF3 → products (CFC-114a) O(1D) + CClF2CClF2 → products (CFC-114) O(1D) + CClF2CF3 → products (CFC-115) O(1D) + CBrF2CBrF2 → products (Halon-2402)
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
5.1x10-11
0±100
5.1x10-11
1.3
9.1x10-12
0±100
9.1x10-12
1.2
1.9x10-10
0±100
1.9x10-10
1.3
1.0x10-10
0±100
1.0x10-10
1.2
2.3x10-10
0±100
2.3x10-10
1.2
1.4x10-10
0±100
1.4x10-10
1.3
8.7x10-11
0±100
8.7x10-11
1.3
1.5x10-10
0±100
1.5x10-10
1.3
2.2x10-10
0±100
2.2x10-10
1.3
1.0x10-10
0±100
1.0x10-10
1.3
-
-
2.0x10-14
1.5
2.6x10-10
0±100
2.6x10-10
1.3
2.0x10-10
0±100
2.0x10-10
1.3
2.6x10-10
0±100
2.6x10-10
1.3
2.2x10-10
0±100
2.2x10-10
1.3
1.0x10-10
0±100
1.0x10-10
3.0
1.6x10-10
0±100
1.6x10-10
2.0
1.2x10-10
0±100
1.2x10-10
1.3
4.9x10-11
0±100
4.9x10-11
1.3
2.0x10-10
0±100
2.0x10-10
1.3
8.6x10-11
0±100
8.6x10-11
1.3
1.2x10-10
0±100
1.2x10-10
2.0
2x10-10
0±100
2x10-10
2.0
2x10-10
0±100
2x10-10
2.0
1x10-10
0±100
1x10-10
2.0
1.3x10-10
0±100
1.3x10-10
1.3
5x10-11
0±100
5x10-11
1.3
1.6x10-10
0±100
1.6x10-10
1.3
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued)
Reaction O(1D) + CF3CF3 → O + CF3CF3 (CFC-116) O(1D) + CHF2CF2CF2CHF2 → products (HFC-338pcc) O(1D) + c-C4F8 → products O(1D) + CF3CHFCHFCF2CF3 → products (HFC-43-10mee) O(1D) + C5F12 → products (CFC-41-12) O(1D) + C6F14 → products (CFC-51-14) O(1D) + 1,2-(CF3)2c-C4F6 → products O(1D) + SF6 → products
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
-
-
1.5x10-13
1.5
1.8x10-11 -
0±100 -
1.8x10-11 8x10-13
1.5 1.3
2.1x10-10
0±100
2.1x10-10
4
-
-
3.9x10-13
2
-
-
1x10-12
2
-
-
2.8x10-13 1.8x10-14
2 1.5
3.6x10-18 5.2x10-11 2.2x10-11 2.1x10-15 4.2x10-13
220±100 2840±500 0±200 0±200 0±200
<2x10-16 1.7x10-18 3.8x10-15 4.8x10-18 <9x10-17 <10-20 <2x10-20 8x10-14 3.9x10-17 2.2x10-11 5.4x10-12 <10-13 2.1x10-15 4.2x10-13
1.2 1.2 1.5 5.0 1.5 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.2
2.2x10-11 3.0x10-11 1.4x10-12 1.4x10-10 8.1x10-11 1.6x10-12 5.5x10-12 5.0x10-12 4.2x10-12 4.8x10-11 2.9x10-12 1.1x10-14 2.3x10-13 1.7x10-33[M]
-(120±100) -(200±100) 2000±1000 470±200 0±100 940±300 2000±100 2130±200 240±240 -(250±200) 160±100 500± -(600±200) -(1000±400)
3.3x10-11 5.9x10-11 1.7x10-15 2.9x10-11 8.1x10-11 6.8x10-14 6.7x10-15 4.0x10-15 1.9x10-12 1.1x10-10 1.7x10-12 2.0x10-15 1.7x10-12 4.9x10-32[M]
1.2 1.2 2.0 1.25 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3
6.5x10-12 1.0x10-11
-(120±120) 0±150
1.1 1.5
7.8x10-11
3400±750
9.7x10-12 1.0x10-11 <3.0x10-16 <3.0x10-17 8.6x10-16
Singlet O2 Reactions O2(1∆) + O → products O2(1∆) + O2 → products O2(1∆) + O3 → O + 2O2 O2(1∆) + H2O → products O2(1∆) + N → NO + O O2(1∆) + N2 → products O2(1∆) + CO2 → products O2(1Σ) + O → products O2(1Σ) + O2 → products O2(1Σ) + O3 → products O2(1Σ) + H2O → products O2(1Σ) + N → products O2(1Σ) + N2 → products O2(1Σ) + CO2 → products HOx Reactions O + OH → O2 + H O + HO2 → OH + O2 O + H2O2 → OH + HO2 H + O3 → OH + O2 H + HO2 → products OH + O3 → HO2 + O2 OH + H2 → H2O+ H OH + HD → products OH + OH → H2O + O OH + HO2 → H2O + O2 OH + H2O2 → H2O+ HO2 HO2 + O3 → OH + 2O2 HO2 + HO2 → H2O2 + O2 H2O2 + O2 NOx Reactions O + NO2 → NO + O2 O + NO3→ O2 + NO2 O + N2O5 → products O + HNO3 → OH + NO3 O + HO2NO2 → products
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
3.0
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued)
Reaction H + NO2 → OH + NO OH + NO3 → products OH + HONO → H2O + NO2 OH + HNO3 → H2O + NO3 OH + HO2NO2 → products OH + NH3 → H2O + NH2 HO2 + NO → NO2 + OH HO2 + NO2 → ΗΟΝΟ + Ο2 HO2 + NO3 → products HO2 + NH2 → products N + O2 → NO + O N + O3 → NO + O2 N + NO → N2 + O N + NO2 → N2O + O NO + O3 → NO2 + O2 NO + NO3 → 2NO2 NO2 + O3 → NO3 + O2 NO2 + NO3 → NO + NO2 +O2 NO3 + NO3 → 2NO2 + O2 NH2 + O2 → products NH2 + O3 → products NH2 + NO → products NH2 + NO2 → products NH + NO → products NH + NO2 → products O3 + HNO2 → O2 + HNO3 N2O5 + H2O → 2HNO3 N2(A,v) + O2 → products N2(A,v) + O3 → products
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
4.0x10-10
340±300
1.8x10-11 See reference 1.3x10-12 1.7x10-12 3.5x10-12 See reference
390± 1.3 -(380±) 710±200 -(250±50)
1.3x10-10 2.2x10-11 4.5x10-12
1.3 1.5 1.5
4.6x10-12 1.6x10-13 8.1x10-12
1.5 1.2 1.15
3.5x10-12 3.4x10-11 8.5x10-17 <2.0x10-16 3.0x10-11 1.2x10-11 1.8x10-14 2.6x10-11 3.2x10-17
1.5 2.0 1.25
2.3x10-16 <6.0x10-21 1.9x10-13 1.8x10-11 1.9x10-11 4.9x10-11 1.6x10-11 <5.0x10-19 <2.0x10-21 2.5x10-12, v=0 4.1x10-11, v=0
1.5
1.3 10 1.3 1.25 1.25 3 1.25 1.2 1.3
1775±100
1.1x10-10 1.5x10-17 1.4x10-13 1.6x10-13 4.5x10-13 1.0x10-20 1.7x10-18 1.1x10-17 1.5x10-13 x (1+0.6Patm) 6.3x10-15
1950 ± 200 0±200 600±300 -(200±200) 0±200 400±150 1070±100 660±100 -(270±200) 235±100 -(200±400)
5.0x10-15 1.0x10-11 8.9x10-13 7.4x10-12 4.0x10-13 3.1x10-14 2.4x10-13 1.1x10-12 1.4x10-11 3.2x10-12 8.0x10-13
1.15 1.25 1.2 1.5 1.3 3 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3
1.5x10-11
3600±400
2.1x10-11 5.8x10-12 2.0x10-12 1.5x10-11 1.2x10-13 See reference 8.5x10-13
-(100±100) -(220±100) 1400±200 -(170±100) 2450±150
4.3x10-12 4.0x10-12 2.1x10-12 4.9x10-11 3.5x10-13
930±500 -(450±150) -(650±250) 0±300 -(1140±500)
2450±500
1.3 1.5 1.1 1.3 1.15
3.0 1.3 3.0 1.5 2.0
1.5 2.0
Reactions of Organic Compounds O + CH3 → products O + HCN → products O + C2H2 → products O + H2CO → products O + CH3CHO → CH3CO + OH O3 + C2H2 → products O3 + C2H4 → products O3 + C3H6 → products OH + CO → Products OH + CH4 → CH3 + H2O OH + 13CH4 → 13CH3 + H2O OH + CH3D → products OH + H2CO → H2O + HCO OH + CH3OH → products OH + CH3OOH → Products OH + HC(O)OH → products OH + HCN → products OH + C2H6 → H2O + C2H5 OH + C3H8 → H2O + C3H7 OH + CH3CHO → CH3CO + H2O OH + C2H5OH → products OH + CH3C(O)OH → products
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
1.1x10-10 1.0x10-11 3.0x10-11 3.4x10-11 1.8x10-11 1.0x10-14 1.2x10-14 6.5x10-15 1.5x10-13 x (1+0.6Patm) 2.45x10-12 See reference 3.5x10-12 1.0x10-11 6.7x10-12 3.8x10-12 4.0x10-13 1.2x10-13 8.7 x 10-12 1.0 x 10-11 5.6x10-12 7.0x10-12 4.0x10-13
0±250 4000±1000 1600±250 1600±250 1100±200 4100±500 2630±100 1900±200 0±300
1.1
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued)
Reaction OH + CH3C(O)CH3 → CH3C(O)CH2 + H2O OH + CH3CN → products OH+ CH3ONO2 → products OH + CH3C(O)O2NO2 (PAN)→ products OH+ C2H5ONO2 → products HO2 + CH2O → adduct HO2 + CH3O2 → CH3OOH + O2 HO2 + C2H5O2 → C2H5OOH + O2 HO2 + CH3C(O)O2 → products NO3 + CO → products NO3 + CH2O → products NO3 + CH3CHO → products CH3 + O2 → products CH3 + O3 → products HCO + O2 → CO + HO2 CH2OH + O2 → CH2O + HO2 CH3O + O2 → CH2O + HO2 CH3O + NO → CH2O + HNO CH3O+ NO2 → CH2O + HONO CH3O2 + O3 → products CH3O2 + CH3O2 → products CH3O2 + NO → CH3O + NO2 CH3O2 + CH3C(O)O2 → products C2H5 + O2 → C2H4 + HO2 C2H5O + O2 → CH3CHO + HO2 C2H5O2 + C2H5O2 → products C2H5O2 + NO → products CH3C(O)O2 + CH3C(O)O2 → products CH3C(O)O2 + NO → products
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
2.2 x 10-12 7.8x10-13 5.0x10-13
685±100 1050±200 890±500
2.2x10-13 2.3x10-14 2.4x10-14
1.15 1.5 3
8.2x10-13 6.7x10-15 3.8x10-13 7.5x10-13 4.5x10-13
450±300 -(600±600) -(800±400) -(700±250) -(1000±600)
1.4x10-12
1900±300
5.4x10-12 3.5x10-12 9.1x10-12 3.9x10-14 See reference 1.1 x 10-11
220±150 -(140±140) 0±200 900±300
2.5x10-13 3.0x10-12 1.3x10-12
-(190±190) -(280±60) -(640±200)
6.3 x 10-14 6.8x10-14 2.6x10-12
<4 x 10-14 1.8x10-13 5.0x10-14 5.6x10-12 8.0x10-12 1.3x10-11 <4.0x10-19 5.8x10-16 2.4x10-15 <3.0x10-16 2.6x10-12 5.5x10-12 9.1x10-12 1.9x10-15
3 5 2 1.5 2 1.3 1.3 2 1.3 1.3 1.5 5
550±200 0±300 -(365±150)
2.0 x 10-13 <3.0x10-17 4.7x10-13 7.7x10-12 1.1x10-11 <2.0x10-14 1.0x10-14 6.8x10-14 8.7x10-12
2.9x10-12 5.3x10-12
-(500±150) -(360±150)
1.5x10-11 1.8x10-11
1.5 1.4
2.7x10-11 5.0x10-11
0±250 0±250
2.7x10-11 5.0x10-11
3.0 5.0
3.0x10-12
1500±300
2.0x10-14
1.1
1.9x10-12
1550±200
1.0x10-14
1.2
1.0x10-12
2440±200
2.8x10-16 <2x10-17
1.3
7.0x10-12
1100±300
1.7x10-13
1.4
2.4x10-12
1260±200
3.5x10-14
1.2
1.7x10-11
1500±500
1.1x10-13
2.0
1.8x10-12
2170±150
1.2x10-15
1.1
4.0x10-12
1650±300
1.6x10-14
1.5
1.5x10-12
1750±200
4.2x10-15
1.1
1200±600
1.5 1.15 1.5 1.5 2 1.2
FOx Reactions O + FO → F + O2 O + FO2 → FO + O2 OH + CH3F → CH2F + H2O (HFC-41) OH + CH2F2 → CHF2 + H2O (HFC-32) OH + CHF3 → CF3 + H2O (HFC-23) OH + CF3OH → CF3O + H2O OH + CH3CH2F → products (HFC-161) OH + CH3CHF2 → products (HFC-152a) OH + CH2FCH2F → CHFCH2F (HFC-152) + H2O OH + CH3CF3 → CH2CF3 + H2O (HFC-143a) OH + CH2FCHF2 → products (HFC-143) OH + CH2FCF3 → CHFCF3 + H2O (HFC-134a)
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued)
Reaction OH + CHF2CHF2 → CF2CHF2 (HFC-134) + H2O OH + CHF2CF3 → CF2CF3 + H2O (HFC-125) OH + CH3OCHF2 → products (HFOC-152a) OH + CF3OCH3 → CF3OCH2 + H2O (HFOC-143a) OH + CF2HOCF2H → CF2OCF2H (HFOC-134) + H2O OH + CF3OCHF2 → CF3OCF2 + H2O (HFOC-125) OH + CF3CH2CH3 → products (HFC-263fb) OH + CH2FCF2CHF2 → products (HFC-245ca) OH + CHF2CHFCHF2 → products (HFC-245ea) OH + CF3CHFCH2F → products (HFC-245eb) OH + CHF2CH2CF3 → products (HFC-245fa) OH + CF3CF2CH2F → CF3CF2CHF (HFC-236cb) +H2O OH + CF3CHFCHF2 → products (HFC-236ea) OH + CF3CH2CF3 → CF3CHCF3 (HFC-236fa) +H2O OH + CF3CHFCF3 → CF3CFCF3+H2O (HFC-227ea) OH + CHF2OCH2CF3 → products (HFOC-245fa) OH + CF3CH2CF2CH3 → products (HFC-365mfc) OH + CF3CH2CH2CF3 → products (HFC-356mff) OH + CF3CF2CH2CH2F → products (HFC-356mcf) OH + CHF2CF2CF2CF2H → products (HFC-338pcc) OH + CF3CH2CF2CH2CF3 → products (HFC-458mfcf) OH + CF3CHFCHFCF2CF3 → products (HFC-43-10mee) OH + CF3CF2CH2CH2CF2CF3 → (HFC-55-10-mcff) products F + O3 → FO + O2 F + H2 → HF + H F + H2O → HF + OH F + HNO3 → HF + NO3 F + CH4 → HF + CH3 FO + O3 → products FO + NO → NO2 + F FO + FO → 2 F + O2 FO2 + O3 → products FO2 + NO → FNO + O2
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
1.6x10-12
1680±300
5.7x10-15
2.0
5.6x10-13
1700±300
1.9x10-15
1.3
6.0x10-12
1530±150
3.5x10-14
1.2
1.5x10-12
1450±150
1.2x10-14
1.1
1.9x10-12
2000±150
2.3x10-15
1.2
4.7x10-13
2100±300
4.1x10-16
1.2
-
-
4.2x10-14
1.5
2.4x10-12
1660±150
9.1x10-15
1.3
-
-
1.6x10-14
2.0
-
-
1.5x10-14
2.0
6.1x10-13
1330±150
7.0x10-15
1.2
1.5x10-12
1750±500
4.2x10-15
2.0
1.1x10-12
1590±150
5.3x10-15
1.1
1.3x10-12
2480±150
3.2x10-16
1.1
5.0x10-13
1700±300
1.7x10-15
1.1
2.6x10-12
1610±150
1.2x10-14
2.0
2.0x10-12
1750±200
5.7x10-15
1.3
3.0x10-12
1800±300
7.1x10-15
1.3
1.7x10-12
1110±200
4.2x10-14
2.0
7.8x10-13
1530±200
4.6x10-15
1.5
1.2x10-12
1830±200
2.6x10-15
2.0
5.2x10-13
1500±300
3.4x10-15
1.3
2.2x10-11 1.4x10-10 1.4x10-11 6.0x10-12 1.6x10-10
230±200 500±200 0±200 -(400±200) 260±200
1.5 1.5 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4
8.2x10-12 1.0x10-11
-(300±200) 0±250
7.5x10-12
690±400
8.3x10-15 1.0x10-11 2.6x10-11 1.4x10-11 2.3x10-11 6.7x10-11 <1 x 10-14 2.2x10-11 1.0x10-11 <3.4x10-16 7.5x10-13
1.5 1.5 2.0
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued)
Reaction FO2 + NO2 → products FO2 + CO → products FO2 + CH4 → products CF3O + O2 → FO2 + CF2O CF3O + O3 → CF3O2 + O2 CF3O + H2O → OH + CF3OH CF3O + NO → CF2O + FNO CF3O + NO2 → products CF3O + CO → products CF3O + CH4 → CH3 + CF3OH CF3O + C2H6 → C2H5 + CF3OH CF3O2 + O3 → CF3O + 2O2 CF3O2 + CO → CF3O + CO2 CF3O2 + NO → CF3O + NO2
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
3.8x10-11
2040±500
<3 x 10-11 2 x 10-12 3 x 10-12 3.7 x 10-11 See reference
5000 1400±600 >3600 -(110±70)
2.6 x 10-12 4.9 x 10-12
1420±200 400±100
5.4 x 10-12
-(320±150)
<2 x 10-15 2.2 x 10-14 1.3 x 10-12 <3 x 10-15 <5 x 10-16 1.6 x 10-11
3.0x10-11 2.4x10-12 2.7x10-11 1.0x10-11 1.7x10-13 2.9x10-12 2.1x10-12 1.4x10-12 1.1x10-11 4.5x10-13 2.6x10-12 3.0x10-12 2.4x10-12 1.2x10-12 4.0x10-12 3.8x10-12 2.0x10-12 ~1.0x10-12
-(70±70) 960±300 530±150 3300±350 0±300 800±200 4700±1000 900±400 -(120±150) -(800±200) 350±100 500±500 1250±300 330±200 1400±250 1050±150 900±150 >2300
3.8x10-11 1.0x10-13 4.5x10-12 1.5x10-16 1.7x10-13 2.0x10-13 3.0x10-19 <1.0x10-19 6.7x10-14 1.7x10-11 6.8x10-12 8.0x10-13 5.0x10-13 3.6x10-14 3.9x10-13 3.6x10-14 1.1x10-13 1.0x10-13 <5.0x10-16
1.2 2.0 1.3 2.0 3.0 1.5 2.5 1.2 1.5 2.0 1.2 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.2 -
~1.0x10-12
>3700
<5.0x10-18
-
~1.0x10-12
>3600
<6.0x10-18
-
2.8x10-12
1270±200
3.9x10-14
1.2
1.7x10-12
1250±150
2.6x10-14
1.2
1.0x10-12 2.4x10-12
1600±150 360±200
4.7x10-15 7.2x10-13
1.1 3.0
1.8x10-12 4.9x10-13 9.4x10-12 8.2x10-12
1550±150 -(450±200) 1200±200 600±300
1.0x10-14 2.2x10-12 1.7x10-13 1.1x10-12
1.1 1.25
1.7x10-12
1700±150
5.7x10-15
1.2
1.3x10-12
1800±150
3.1x10-15
1.2
4.0x10-14 <5.1x10-16 <2x10-16 <1.5 x 10-18 1.8 x 10-14 <2 x 10-17 5.4 x 10-11
f(298) 2.0
1.3 1.2
1.1 1.2
1.1
ClOx Reactions O + ClO → Cl + O2 O + OClO → ClO + O2 O + Cl2O → ClO + ClO O + HCl → OH + Cl O + HOCl → OH + ClO O + ClONO2 → products O3 + OClO → products O3 + Cl2O2 → products OH + Cl2 → HOCl + Cl OH + ClO → products OH + OClO → HOCl + O2 OH + HCl → H2O + Cl OH + HOCl → H2O + ClO OH + ClNO2 → HOCl + NO2 OH + ClONO2 → products OH + CH3Cl → CH2Cl + H2O OH + CH2Cl2 → CHCl2 + H2O OH + CHCl3 → CCl3 + H2O OH + CCl4 → products OH + CFCl3 → products (CFC-11) OH + CF2Cl2 → products (CFC-12) OH + CH2ClF → CHClF + H2O (HCFC-31) OH + CHFCl2 → CFCl2 + H2O (HCFC-21) OH + CHF2Cl → CF2Cl + H2O (HCFC-22) OH + CH3OCl → products OH + CH3CCl3 → CH2CCl3 + H2O (HCC-140) OH + C2HCl3 → products OH + C2Cl4 → products OH + CCl3CHO → H2O + CCl3CO OH + CH3CFCl2 → CH2CFCl2 + H2O (HCFC-141b) OH + CH3CF2Cl → CH2CF2Cl + H2O (HCFC-142b)
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
1.25
1.5
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued)
Reaction OH + CH2ClCF2Cl → CHClCF2Cl (HCFC-132b) + H2O OH + CHCl2CF2Cl → CCl2CF2Cl (HCFC-122) + H2O OH + CHFClCFCl2 → CFClCFCl2 (HCFC-122a) + H2O OH + CH2ClCF3 → CHClCF3 + H2O (HCFC-133a) OH + CHCl2CF3 → CCl2CF3 + H2O (HCFC-123) OH + CHFClCF2Cl → CFClCF2Cl (HCFC-123a) + H2O OH + CHFClCF3 → CFClCF3 + H2O (HCFC-124) OH + CH3CF2CFCl2 → products (HCFC-243cc) OH + CF3CF2CHCl2 → products (HCFC-225ca) OH + CF2ClCF2CHFCl → products (HCFC-225cb) HO2 + Cl → HCl + O2 → OH + ClO HO2 + ClO → HOCl + O2 H2O + ClONO2 → products NO + OClO → NO2 + ClO NO + Cl2O2 → products NO3 + HCl → HNO3 + Cl HO2NO2 + HCl → products Cl + O3 → ClO + O2 Cl + H2 → HCl + H Cl + H2O2 → HCl + HO2 Cl + NO3 → ClO + NO2 Cl + N2O → ClO + N2 Cl + HNO3 → products Cl + CH4 → HCl + CH3 Cl + CH3D → products Cl + H2CO → HCl + HCO Cl + CH3O2 → products Cl + CH3OH → CH2OH + HCl Cl + C2H6 → HCl + C2H5 Cl + C2H5O2 → ClO + C2H5O → HCl + C2H4O2 Cl + CH3CN → products Cl + CH3CO3NO2 → products Cl + C3H8 → HCl + C3H7 Cl + OClO → ClO + ClO Cl + ClOO → Cl2 + O2 → ClO + ClO Cl + Cl2O → Cl2 + ClO Cl + Cl2O2 → products Cl + HOCl → products Cl + ClNO → NO + Cl2 Cl + ClONO2 → products Cl + CH3Cl → CH2Cl + HCl Cl + CH2Cl2 → HCl + CHCl2 Cl + CHCl3 → HCl + CCl3
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
3.6x10-12
1600±400
1.7x10-14
2.0
1.0x10-12
900±150
4.9x10-14
1.2
1.0x10-12
1250±150
1.5x10-14
1.1
5.2x10-13
1100±300
1.3x10-14
1.3
7.0x10-13
900±150
3.4x10-14
1.2
9.2x10-13
1280±150
1.3x10-14
1.2
8.0x10-13
1350±150
8.6x10-15
1.2
7.7x10-13
1700±300
2.6x10-15
2.0
1.0x10-12
1100±200
2.5x10-14
1.3
5.5x10-13 1.8x10-11 4.1x10-11 4.8x10-13 2.5x10-12 2.9x10-11 3.7x10-11 1.1x10-11 2.4x10-11 See reference 1.1x10-11 8.1x10-11 5.4x10-11 7.7x10-11 1.6x10-11 1.2x10-10 3.4x10-11 2.3x10-10 1.2x10-11 6.2x10-11 2.5x10-12 5.8x10-11 6.5x10-12 3.2x10-11 3.1x10-11 8.2x10-12
1250±200 -(170±200) 450±200 -(700±) 600±300 260±100 2300±200 980±500 0±400
8.3x10-15 3.2x10-11 9.1x10-12 5.0x10-12 <2.0x10-21 3.4x10-13 <2.0x10-14 <5.0x10-17 <1.0x10-21 1.2x10-11 1.6x10-14 4.1x10-13 2.4x10-11
1400±150 30±100 0±250 90±90 2140±300 -(40±250) -(160±200) 0±250 0±250 -(130±130) 130±250 -(100±200) -(135±50) 1250±200 1350±500 1325±300
<2.0x10-16 1.0x10-13 7.4x10-14 7.3x10-11 1.6x10-10 5.4x10-11 5.7x10-11 7.4x10-11 7.7x10-11 1.2x10-14 <1x10-14 1.4x10-10 5.8x10-11 2.3x10-10 1.2x10-11 9.6x10-11 1.0x10-10 1.6x10-12 8.1x10-11 1.0x10-11 4.8x10-13 3.3x10-13 9.6x10-14
1.3
1.5 2.0 1.4 2.0 1.15 1.25 1.5
1.5 1.1 2.0 1.15 1.5 1.5 1.1 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.3 1.25 3.0 3.0 1.2 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.3
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued)
Reaction Cl + CH3F → HCl + CH2F (HFC-41) Cl + CH2F2 → HCl + CHF2 (HFC-32) Cl + CF3H → HCl + CF3 (HFC-23) Cl + CH2FCl → HCl + CHFCl (HCFC-31) Cl + CHFCl2 → HCl + CFCl2 (HCFC-21) Cl + CHF2Cl → HCl + CF2Cl (HCFC-22) Cl + CH3CCl3 → CH2CCl3 + HCl Cl + CH3CH2F → HCl + CH3CHF (HFC-161) → HCl + CH2CH2F Cl + CH3CHF2 → HCl + CH3CF2 (HFC-152a) → HCl + CH2CHF2 Cl + CH2FCH2F → HCl + CHFCH2F (HFC-152) Cl + CH3CFCl2 → HCl + CH2CFCl2 (HCFC-141b) Cl + CH3CF2Cl → HCl + CH2CF2Cl (HCFC-142b) Cl + CH3CF3 → HCl + CH2CF3 (HFC-143a) Cl + CH2FCHF2 → HCl + CH2FCF2 (HFC-143) → HCl + CHFCHF2 Cl + CH2ClCF3 → HCl + CHClCF3 (HCFC-133a) Cl + CH2FCF3 → HCl + CHFCF3 (HFC-134a) Cl + CHF2CHF2 → HCl + CF2CHF2 (HCF-134) Cl + CHCl2CF3 → HCl + CCl2CF3 (HCFC-123) Cl + CHFClCF3 → HCl + CFClCF3 (HCFC-124) Cl + CHF2CF3 → HCl + CF2CF3 (HFC-125) ClO + O3 → ClOO + O2 → OClO + O2 ClO + H2 → products ClO + NO → NO2 + Cl ClO + NO3 → ClOO + NO2 ClO + N2O → products ClO + CO → products ClO + CH4 → products ClO + H2CO → products ClO + CH3O2 → products ClO + ClO → Cl2 + O2 → ClOO + Cl → OClO + Cl HCl + ClONO2 → products
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
2.0x10-11
1200±500
3.5x10-13
1.3
1.2x10-11
1630±500
5.0x10-14
1.5
-
-
3.0x10-18
5.0
1.2x10-11
1390±500
1.1x10-13
2.0
5.5x10-12
1675±200
2.0x10-14
1.3
5.9x10-12 2.8x10-12
2430±200 1790±400
1.7x10-15 7.0x10-15
1.3 2.0
1.8x10-11 1.4x10-11
290±500 880±500
6.8x10-12 7.3x10-13
3.0 3.0
6.4x10-12 7.2x10-12
950±500 2390±500
2.6x10-13 2.4x10-15
1.3 3.0
2.6x10-11
1060±500
7.5x10-13
3.0
1.8x10-12
2000±300
2.2x10-15
1.2
1.4x10-12
2420±500
4.2x10-16
1.2
1.2x10-11
3880±500
2.6x10-17
5.0
5.5x10-12 7.7x10-12
1610±500 1720±500
2.5x10-14 2.4x10-14
3.0 3.0
1.8x10-12
1710±500
5.9x10-15
3.0
-
-
1.5x10-15
1.2
7.5x10-12
2430±500
2.2x10-15
1.5
4.4x10-12
1750±500
1.2x10-14
1.3
1.1x10-12
1800±500
2.7x10-15
1.3
1.0x10-12 ~1.0x10-12 6.4x10-12 4.7x10-13 ~1.0x10-12 ~1.0x10-12 ~1.0x10-12 ~1.0x10-12 3.3x10-12 1.0x10-12 3.0x10-11 3.5x10-13 -
>4000 >4800 -(290±100) 0±400 >4300 >3700 >3700 >2100 115±115 1590±300 2450±500 1370±300 -
2.4x10-16 <1.4x10-17 <1.0x10-18 <1.0x10-19 1.7x10-11 4.7x10-13 <6.0x10-19 <4.0x10-18 <4.0x10-18 <1.0x10-15 2.2x10-12 4.8x10-15 8.0x10-15 3.5x10-15 <1.0x10-20
1.3 1.15 1.5 -
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 -
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued)
Reaction CH2ClO + O2 → CHClO + HO2 CH2ClO2 + HO2 → CH2ClO2H + O2 CH2ClO2 + NO → CH2ClO + NO2 CCl3O2 + NO → CCl2O + NO2 + Cl CCl2FO2 + NO → CClFO + NO2 + Cl CClF2O2 + NO → CF2O + NO2 + Cl
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
-
-
6 x 10-14
5
3.3 x 10-13 7 x 10-12 7.3 x 10-12
-(820±200) -(300±200) -(270±200)
5.2 x 10-12 1.9 x 10-11 1.8 x 10-11
1.5 1.5 1.3
4.5 x 10-12
-(350±200)
1.5 x 10-11
1.3
3.8 x 10-12
-(400±200)
1.5 x 10-11
1.2
1.9x10-11 5.8x10-12 1.2x10-10 4.2x10-11 1.1x10-11 4.0x10-12 2.4x10-12 1.6x10-12 1.1x10-12 2.3x10-12 1.4x10-12 7.2x10-13 1.3x10-12 9.3x10-13 1.5x10-11 3.4x10-12 4.3x10-11 1.5x10-11 6.4x10-12 1.7x10-11 1.0x10-11 1.7x10-11 2.6x10-11 2.1x10-11 ~1.0x10-12 8.8x10-12 1.6x10-12 2.9x10-12 5.8x10-13 1.5x10-12
-(230±150) 1500±200 430±300 0±600 0±250 1470±150 900±300 710±200 1400±200 930±150 1340±200 1110±150 995±150 1250±150 600±600 -(540±200) 1370±500 1060±100 810±100 800±200 >3000 800±200 1300±300 470±150 >3200 -(260±130) -(430±200) -(220±200) -(170±200) -(230±150)
4.1x10-11 3.8x10-14 2.8x10-11 4.2x10-11 7.5x10-11 1.1x10-11 2.9x10-14 1.2x10-13 1.5x10-13 1.0x10-14 1.0x10-13 <1.5x10-16 <5.0x10-16 <1.2x10-16 1.6x10-14 1.8x10-14 4.5x10-14 1.4x10-14 <1.5x10-16 2.0x10-12 2.1x10-11 <1.0x10-16 4.3x10-13 4.3x10-13 4.2x10-13 1.2x10-12 <5.0x10-16 1.6x10-11 1.1x10-12 3.4x10-13 4.3x10-12 3.0x10-12 <2.0x10-17 2.1x10-11 1.0x10-12 6.8x10-12 6.1x10-12 1.0x10-12 3.2x10-12
1.5 1.3 3.0 1.3 3.0 1.2 1.1 1.1 2.0 1.1 1.2
4x10-12
-(300±200)
1.1 x 10-11
1.5
BrOx Reactions O + BrO → Br + O2 O + HBr → OH + Br O + HOBr → OH + BrO OH + Br2 → HOBr + Br OH + BrO → products OH + HBr → H2O + Br OH + CH3Br → CH2Br + H2O OH + CH2Br2 → CHBr2 + H2O OH + CHBr3 → CBr3 + H2O OH + CHF2Br → CF2Br + H2O OH + CH2ClBr → CHClBr + H2O OH + CF2ClBr → products OH + CF2Br2 → products OH + CF3Br → products OH + CH2BrCF3 → CHBrCF3 + H2O OH + CHFBrCF3 → CFBrCF3 OH + CHClBrCF3 → CClBrCF3 + H2O OH + CF2BrCHFCl → CF2BrCFCl + H2O OH + CF2BrCF2Br → products HO2 + Br → HBr + O2 HO2 + BrO → products NO3 + HBr → HNO3 + Br Cl + CH2ClBr → HCl + CHClBr Cl + CH3Br → HCl + CH2Br Cl + CH2Br2 → HCl + CHBr2 Br + O3 → BrO + O2 Br + H2O2 → HBr + HO2 Br + NO3 → BrO + NO2 Br + H2CO → HBr + HCO Br + OClO → BrO + ClO Br + Cl2O → BrCl + ClO Br + Cl2O2 → products BrO + O3 → products BrO + NO → NO2 + Br BrO + NO3 → products BrO + ClO → Br + OClO → Br + ClOO → BrCl + O2 BrO + BrO → products CH2BrO2 + NO → CH2O + NO2 + Br
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
-
1.3
1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 1.5 3.0 1.2 1.2 1.2
2.0 1.3 2.0 1.3 2.0 1.15 3.0 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.15
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued)
Reaction
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
1.4x10-10 1.2x10-10 1.8x10-10 3.0x10-11 7.2x10-14 3.1x10-14 3.8x10-13 8.4x10-11
1.4 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 2.0 1.5
IOx Reactions O + I2 → IO + I O + IO → O2 + I OH + I2 → ΗΟΙ + Ι OH + HI → H2O + I OH + CH3I → H2O + CH2I OH + CF3I → HOI + CF3 HO2 + I → HI + O2 HO2 + IO → HOI + O2 NO3 + HI → HNO3 + I I + O3 → IO + O2 I + BrO → IO + Br IO + NO → I + NO2 IO + ClO → products IO + BrO → products IO + IO → products INO + INO → I2 + 2NO INO2 + INO2 → I2 + 2NO2
1.4x10-10
0±250
3.1x10-12
1120±500
1.5x10-11
1090±500
See reference 2.3x10-11 9.1x10-12 5.1x10-12 1.5x10-11 8.4x10-11 2.9x10-11
870±200 -(240±150) -(280±200) -(500±500) 2620±600 2600±1000
1.2x10-12 1.2x10-11 2.0x10-11 1.3x10-11 6.9x10-11 8.0x10-11 1.3x10-14 4.7x10-15
1.2 2.0 1.2 2.0 1.5 1.5 2.5 3.0
2.7x10-10 9.2x10-12 2.1x10-11 3.2x10-11 1.3x10-11 5.5x10-11 3.0x10-12 6.0x10-12 1.1x10-13 See reference 9.9x10-12 1.2x10-11 6.0x10-11 4.4x10-13 1.9x10-13 1.3x10-12 -
760±250 1800±550 2200±150 650±150 -(410±100) -(250±100) >7000 75±75 1200±500 -(360±100) 260±100 -(400±200) -(210±210) -(500±200) 270±270 -
1.6x10-10 2.1x10-11 2.2x10-14 1.3x10-14 3.6x10-12 5.0x10-11 1.3x10-10 <2.0x10-20 <1.0x10-18 <2.0x10-22 4.7x10-12 1.9x10-15 3.3x10-11 5.0x10-12 2.3x10-10 6.6x10-11 8.6x10-11 <3.0x10-15 <4.0x10-15 <5.0x10-15 <1.0x10-18 <2.0x10-26 <8.0x10-16 <1.0x10-16 <4.0x10-16 8.9x10-13 1.0x10-12 5.3x10-13 <7.0x10-21 <1.0x10-17 <5.0x10-17 2.4.x10-10
5.0 1.1 1.7 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.2 2.0 1.2 1.15 1.2 3.0 2.0 1.25 1.2 1.4 -
SOx Reactions O + SH → SO + H O + CS → CO + S O + H2S → OH + SH O + OCS → CO + SO O + CS2 → CS + SO O + CH3SCH3 → CH3SO + CH3 O + CH3SSCH3 → CH3SO + CH3S O3 + H2S → products O3 + CH3SCH3 → products O3 + SO2 → SO3 + O2 OH + H2S → SH + H2O OH + OCS → products OH + CS2 → products OH + CH3SH → CH3S + H2O OH + CH3SCH3 → H2O + CH2SCH3 OH + CH3SSCH3 → products OH + S → H + SO OH + SO → H + SO2 HO2 + H2S → products HO2 + CH3SH → products HO2 + CH3SCH3 → products HO2 + SO2 → products NO2 + SO2 → products NO3+ H2S → products NO3 + OCS → products NO3 + CS2 → products NO3 + CH3SH → products NO3 + CH3SCH3→ CH3SCH2 + HNO3 NO3 + CH3SSCH3 → products NO3 + SO2 → products N2O5 + CH3SCH3 → products CH3O2 + SO2 → products F + CH3SCH3 → products
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
-
2.0
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued)
Reaction Cl + H2S → HCl + SH Cl + OCS → products Cl + CS2 → products Cl + CH3SH → CH3S + HCl Cl + CH3SCH3 → products ClO + OCS → products ClO + CH3SCH3 → products ClO + SO → Cl +SO2 ClO + SO2 → Cl + SO3 Br + H2S → HBr + SH Br + CH3SH → CH3S + HBr Br + CH3SCH3 → products BrO + CH3SCH3 → products BrO + SO → Br + SO2 IO + CH3SH → products IO + CH3SCH3 → products S + O2 → SO + O S + O3 → SO + O2 SO + O2 → SO2 + O SO + O3 → SO2 + O2 SO + NO2 → SO2 + NO SO + OClO → SO2 + ClO SO3 + H2O → products SO3 + NO2 → products SH + O2 → OH + SO SH + O3 → HSO + O2 SH + H2O2 → products SH + NO2 → HSO + NO SH + Cl2 → ClSH + Cl SH + BrCl → products SH + Br2 → BrSH + Br SH + F2 → FSH + F HSO + O2 → products HSO + O3 → products HSO + NO → products HSO + NO2 → HSO2 + NO HSO2 + O2 → HO2 + SO2 HOSO2 + O2 → HO2 + SO3 CS + O2 → OCS + O CS + O3 → OCS + O2 CS + NO2 → OCS + NO CH3S + O2 → products CH3S + O3 → products CH3S + NO → products CH3S + NO2 → CH3SO + NO CH2SH + O2 → products CH2SH + O3 → products CH2SH + NO → products CH2SH + NO2 → products CH3SO + O3 → products CH3SO + NO2 → CH3SO2 + NO CH3SOO + O3 → products CH3SOO + NO → products CH3SO2+ NO2 → products CH3SCH2 + NO3 → products CH3SCH2O2 + NO → CH3SCH2O + NO2
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
3.7x10-11 1.2x10-10 See reference 2.8x10-11 1.4x10-11 9.2x10-12 See reference 1.5x10-14
-(210±100) -(150±50) 0±50 2750±300 390±100
7.4x10-11 <1.0x10-16 <4.0x10-15 2.0x10-10 <2.0x10-16 9.5x10-15 2.8x10-11 <4.0x10-18 1.4x10-15 2.5x10-12
1.25 1.25 2.0 1.3 2.0 2.0
-(850±200)
2.3x10-12
0±200
2.6x10-13 3.6x10-12 1.4x10-11
2400±500 1100±200 0±50
2.6x10-13 5.7x10-11 6.6x10-16 1.2x10-14 2.3x10-12 1.2x10-11 8.4x10-17 9.0x10-14 1.4x10-11 1.9x10-12 1.0x10-19 <4.0x10-19 3.5x10-12 <5.0x10-15 6.5x10-11 1.7x10-12 7.4x10-11 1.0x10-10 4.0x10-13 <2.0x10-17 1.0x10-13 <1.0x10-15 9.6x10-12 3.0x10-13 4.4x10-13 2.9x10-19 3.0x10-16 7.6x10-17 <3.0x10-18 5.3x10-12 <1.0x10-13 6.1x10-11 6.5x10-12 3.5x10-11 1.9x10-11 5.2x10-11 6.0x10-13 1.2x10-11 <8.0x10-13 1.1x10-11 2.2x10-11 3.0 x 10-10 1.9 x 10-11
1.3 1.4 2.0 1.5 1.2 2.0 2.0 1.2 1.2 3.0 10.0 1.3 1.2 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.3 2.0 3.0 1.2 2.0 3.0
See reference
9.0x10-12
280±200
2.9x10-11 1.7x10-11 2.3x10-11 6.0x10-11 4.3x10-11
-(240±50) 690±200 -(350±200) -(160±160) 1390±200
1.3x10-12
330±200
2.0x10-12
-(290±100)
2.1x10-11
-(320±100)
1.1x10-11 2.2x10-11
0±100 0±100
3.0
1.15 1.15 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.4 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 1. Rate Constants for Second Order Reactions (continued) A cm3 molecule-1 s-1
Reaction
E/R K
k (298 K) cm3 molecule-1 s-1
f(298)
4.6x10-13 1.8x10-11 4.5x10-12
2.0 2.0 2.0
7.3x10-10 <4.0x10-11 1.3x10-12 7.3x10-10 3.7x10-10 1.6x10-10 6.0x10-11 2.6x10-11 2.2x10-10 1.5x10-10 2.8x10-10 2.2x10-11 <10-14 2.3x10-10 2.8x10-10
1.2 1.2 1.3 3.0 1.5 3.0
CH3SS + O3 → products CH3SS + NO2 → products CH3SSO + NO2 → products Metal Reactions Na + O3 → NaO + O2 → NaO2 + O Na + N2O → NaO + N2 Na + Cl2 → NaCl + Cl NaO + O → Na + O2 NaO + O3 → NaO2 + O2 → Na + 2O2 NaO + H2 → NaOH + H NaO + H2O → NaOH + OH NaO + NO → Na + NO2 NaO + HCl → products NaO2 + O→ NaO + O2 NaO2 + NO→ NaO + NO2 NaO2 + HCl→ products NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
1.0x10-9 2.8x10-10 7.3x10-10 3.7x10-10 1.1x10-9 6.0x10-11 2.6x10-11 2.2x10-10 1.5x10-10 2.8x10-10 2.2x10-11 2.3x10-10 2.8x10-10
95±50 1600±400 0±200 0±400 570±300 0±800 0±600 0±400 0±400 0±400 0±600 0±400 0±400
2.0
2.0 4.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 3.0
Table 2. Rate Constants for Association Reactions The values quoted are suitable for air as the third body, M. The integer in parentheses is the power of ten.
Reaction
Low pressure limit k0(T) = k0(300) (T/300)-n cm6 molecule-2 s-1 k0(300) n
High pressure limit k∞ (T) = k∞ (300) (T/300)-m cm3 molecule-1 s-1 k∞ (300) m
Ox Reactions O + O2→ O3
(6.0±0.5) (-34)
2.3±0.5
-
-
O(1D) Reactions O(1D) + N2→ N2O
(3.5±3.0) (-37)
0.6
-
-
HOx Reactions H + O2 → HO2 OH + OH → H2O2
(5.7±0.5) (-32) (6.2±1.2) (-31)
1.6±0.5 1.0
(7.5±4.0) (-11) (2.6±1.0) (-11)
0±1.0 0±0.5
NOx Reactions O + NO → NO2 O + NO2 → NO3 OH + NO → HONO OH + NO2 → HNO3 HO2 + NO2 → HO2NO2 NO2 + NO3 → N2O5 NO3 → NO + O2
(9.0±2.0) (-32) (9.0±1.0) (-32) (7.0±1.0) (-31) (2.5±0.1) (-30) (1.8±0.3) (-31) (2.2±0.5) (-30) See reference
1.5±0.3 2.0±1.0 2.6±0.3 4.4±0.3 3.2±0.4 3.9±1.0
(3.0±1.0) (-11) (2.2±0.3) (-11) (3.6±1.0) (-11) (1.6±0.2) (-11) (4.7±1.0) (-12) (1.5±0.8) (-12)
0±1.0 0±1.0 0.1±0.5 1.7±0.2 1.4±1.4 0.7±0.4
Hydrocarbon Reactions CH3 + O2 → CH3O2 C2H5 + O2 → C2H5O2 OH + C2H2 → HOCHCH OH + C2H4 → HOCH2CH2
(4.5±1.5) (-31) (1.5±1.0) (-28) (5.5±2.0) (-30) (1.0±0.6) (-28)
3.0±1.0 3.0±1.0 0.0±0.2 0.8±2.0
(1.8±0.2) (-12) (8.0±1.0) (-12) (8.3±1.0) (-13) (8.8±0.9) (-12)
1.7±1.7 0±1.0 -2 0
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 2. Rate Constants for Association Reactions (continued) The values quoted are suitable for air as the third body, M. The integer in parentheses is the power of ten.
Reaction
Low pressure limit k0(T) = k0(300) (T/300)-n cm6 molecule-2 s-1 k0(300) n
CH3O + NO → CH3ONO CH3O + NO2 → CH3ONO2 C2H5O + NO → C2H5ONO C2H5O + NO2 → C2H5ONO2 CH3O2 + NO2 → CH3O2NO2 CH3C(O)O2 + NO2 → CH3C(O)O2NO2
High pressure limit k∞ (T) = k∞ (300) (T/300)-m cm3 molecule-1 s-1 k∞ (300) m
(1.4±0.5) (-29) (1.1±0.4) (-28) (2.8±1.0) (-27) (2.0±1.0) (-27) (1.5±0.8) (-30)
3.8±1.0 4.0±2.0 4.0±2.0 4.0±2.0 4.0±2.0
(3.6±1.6) (-11) (1.6±0.5) (-11) (5.0±1.0) (-11) (2.8±0.4) (-11) (6.5±3.2) (-12)
0.6±1.0 1.0±1.0 1.0±1.0 1.0±1.0 2.0±2.0
(9.7±3.8) (-29)
5.6±2.8
(9.3±0.4)(-12)
1.5±0.3
FOx Reactions F + O2 → FO2 F + NO → FNO F + NO2 → FNO2 FO + NO2 → FONO2 CF3 + O2 → CF3O2 CF3O + NO2 → CF3ONO2 CF3O2 + NO2CF3O2NO2 CF3O + CO → CF3OCO CF3O → CF2O + F
(4.4±0.4) (-33) (1.8±0.3) (-31) (6.3±3.0) (-32) (2.6±2.0) (-31) (3.0±0.3) (-29) See reference (2.2±0.5) (-29) (2.5±0.2) (-31) See reference
1.2±0.5 1.0±10 2.0±2.0 1.3±1.3 4.0±2.0
(2.8±1.4) (-10) (2.6±1.3) (-10) (2.0±1.0) (-11) (4.0±1.0) (-12)
0.0±1.0 0.0±1.0 1.5±1.5 1.0±1.0
5.0±1.0 -
(6.0±1.0) (-12) (6.8±0.4) (-14)
2.5±1.0 -1.2
ClOx Reactions Cl + O2 → ClOO Cl + NO → ClNO Cl + NO2 ClONO → ClNO2 Cl + CO → ClCO Cl + C2H2 → ClC2H2 Cl + C2H4 → ClC2H4 Cl + C2Cl4 → C2Cl5 ClO + NO2 → ClONO2 OClO + NO3 → O2ClONO2 ClO + ClO → Cl2O2 ClO + OClO → Cl2O3 OClO + O → ClO3 CH2Cl + O2 → CH2ClO2 CHCl2 + O2 → CHCl2O2 CCl3 + O2 → CCl3O2 CFCl2 + O2 → CFCl2O2 CF2Cl + O2 → CF2ClO2 CCl3O2 + NO2 → CCl3O2NO2 CFCl2O2 + NO2 → CFCl2O2NO2 CF2ClO2 + NO2 → CF2ClO2NO2
(2.7±1.0) (-33) (9.0±2.0) (-32) (1.3±0.2) (-30) (1.8±0.3) (-31) (1.3±0.5) (-33) ((5.9±1.0) (-30) (1.6±1) (-29) (1.4±0.6) (-28) (1.8±0.3) (-31) See reference (2.2±0.4) (-32) (6.2±1.0) (-32) (1.9±0.5) (-31) (1.9±0.1) (-30) (1.3±0.1) (-30) (6.9±0.2) (-31) (5.0±0.8) (-30) (3.0±1.5) (-30) (5.0±1.0) (-29) (3.5±0.5) (-29) (3.3±0.7) (-29)
1.5±0.5 1.6±0.5 2.0±1.0 2.0±1.0 3.8±0.5 2.1±1.0 3.3±1.0 8.5±1.0 3.4±1.0
(1.0±0.5) (-10) (1.0±0.5) (-10) (2.1±0.4) (-10) (3.1±2) (-10) (4.0±1.0) (-11) (1.5±0.7) (-11)
1.0±1.0 1.0±1.0 1.0±0.5 1.0±0.5 1.2±0.5 1.9±1.9
3.1±0.5 4.7±0.6 1.1±1.0 3.2±0.2 4.0±0.2 6.4±0.3 4.0±2.0 4.0±2.0 5.0±1.0 5.0±1.0 6.7±1.3
(3.5±2) (-12) (2.4±1.2) (-11) (3.1±0.8) (-11) (2.9±0.2) (-12) (2.8±0.2) (-12) (2.4±0.2) (-12) (6.0±1.0) (-12) (3±2) (-12) (6.0±1.0) (-12) (6.0±1.0) (-12) (4.1±1.9) (-12)
1.0±1.0 0±1.0 0±1.0 1.2±0.6 1.4±0.6 2.1±0.6 1.0±1.0 1.0±1.0 2.5±1.0 2.5±1.0 2.8±0.7
BrOx Reactions Br + NO2 → BrNO2 BrO + NO2 → BrONO2
(4.2±0.8) (-31) (5.2±0.6) (-31)
2.4±0.5 3.2±0.8
(2.7±0.5) (-11) (6.9±1.0) (-12)
0±1.0 2.9±1.0
IOx Reactions I + NO → INO I + NO2 → INO2 IO + NO2 → IONO2
(1.8±0.5) (-32) (3.0±1.5) (-31) (5.9±2.0) (-31)
1.0±0.5 1.0±1.0 3.5±1.0
(1.7±1.0) (-11) (6.6±5.0) (-11) (9.0±1.0) (-12)
0±1.0 0±1.0 1.5±1.0
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
CHEMICAL KINETIC DATA FOR STRATOSPHERIC MODELING (continued) Table 2. Rate Constants for Association Reactions (continued) The values quoted are suitable for air as the third body, M. The integer in parentheses is the power of ten.
Reaction
Low pressure limit k0(T) = k0(300) (T/300)-n cm6 molecule-2 s-1 k0(300) n
High pressure limit k∞ (T) = k∞ (300) (T/300)-m cm3 molecule-1 s-1 k∞ (300) m
SOx Reactions HS + NO → HSNO CH3S +NO → CH3SNO O + SO2 → SO3 OH + SO2 → HOSO2 CH3SCH2 + O2 → CH3SCH2O2 SO3 + NH3 → H3NSO3
(2.4±0.4) (-31) (3.2±0.4) (-29) (1.3±)(-33) (3.0±1.0) (-31) See reference (3.9±0.8) (-30)
3.0±1.0 4.0±1.0 -3.6±0.7 3.3±1.5
(2.7±0.5) (-11) (3.9±0.6) (-11)
0 2.7±1.0
(1.5±0.5) (-12)
0
3.0±3.0
(4.7±1.3) (-11)
0±1.0
Metal Reactions Na + O2 → NaO2 NaO + O2 → NaO3 NaO + CO2 → NaCO3 NaOH + CO2 → NaHCO3
(3.2±0.3) (-30) (3.5±0.7) (-30) (8.7±2.6) (-28) (1.3±0.3) (-28)
1.4±0.3 2.0±2.0 2.0±2.0 2.0±2.0
(6.0±2.0) (-10) (5.7±3.0) (-10) (6.5±3.0) (-10) (6.8±4.0) (-10)
0±1.0 0±1.0 0±1.0 0±1.0
Table 3. Equilibrium Constants K(T)/cm3 molecule-1 = A exp (B/T) Reaction HO2 + NO2 → HO2NO2 NO + NO2 → N2O3 NO2 + NO2 → N2O4 NO2 + NO3 → N2O5 CH3O2 + NO2 → CH3O2NO2 CH3C(O)O2 + NO2 → CH3C(O)O2NO2 F + O2 → FOO Cl + O2 → ClOO Cl + CO → ClCO ClO + O2 → ClO.O2 ClO + ClO → Cl2O2 ClO + OClO → Cl2O3 OClO + NO3 → O2ClONO2 OH + CS2 → CS2OH CH3S + O2 → CH3SO2
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
[200 < T/K < 300] A/cm3 molecule-1
B/K
2.1x10-27 3.3x10-27 5.2x10-29 2.7x10-27 1.3x10-28
10900±1000 4667±100 6643±250 11000±500 11200±1000
1.6x10-11 2.1x10-20 2.5x10-19 2.9x10-11 2.7x10-12
5 2 2 1.3 2
9.0x10-29 3.2x10-25 5.7x10-25 1.6x10-25 2.9x10-26 1.3x10-27 1.1x10-24 1x10-28 4.5x10-25 1.8x10-27
14000±200 6100±1200 2500±750 4000±500 <3700 8744±850 5455±300 9300±1000 5140±500 5545±300
2.3x10-8 2.5x10-16 2.5x10-21 1.1x10-19 <7.2x10-21 7.2x10-15 9.8x10-17 3.6x10-15 1.4x10-17 2.2x10-19
2 1.0 2 5 1.5 3 5 1.4 1.4
K (298 K)
f (298 K)
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF WATER This table gives the electrical conductivity of highly purified water over a range of temperature and pressure. The first column of conductivity data refers to water at its own vapor pressure. Equations for calculating the conductivity at any temperature and pressure may be found in the reference.
REFERENCE Marshall, W. L., J. Chem. Eng. Data 32, 221, 1987.
Conductivity in µS/cm at the indicated pressure t/°C
Sat. vapor
50 MPa
100 MPa
200 MPa
400 MPa
600 MPa
0 25 100 200 300 400 600
0.0115 0.0550 0.765 2.99 2.41
0.0150 0.0686 0.942 4.08 4.87 1.17
0.0189 0.0836 1.13 5.22 7.80 4.91 0.134
0.0275 0.117 1.53 7.65 14.1 14.3 4.65
0.0458 0.194 2.45 13.1 28.9 39.2 33.8
0.0667 0.291 3.51 19.5 46.5 71.3 85.7
© 2000 by CRC PRESS LLC
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF AIR These tables summarize the thermodynamic properties of air in the liquid and gaseous states, as well as along the saturation line. In the table for the saturation state, P(boil) is the bubble point temperature (i.e., the pressure at which boiling begins as the temperature of the liquid is raised), and P(con) is the dew point temperature (pressure at which condensation begins as the temperature of the gas is lowered). The other properties tabulated are density (ρ), enthalpy (H), entropy (S), and isobaric heat capacity (Cp). More detailed tables may be found in the references. REFERENCES 1. Vasserman, A.A., and Rabinovich, V.A., Thermophysical Properties of Liquid Air and its Components, Izdatel’stvo Komiteta, Standartov, Moscow, 1968. 2. Vasserman, A.A., et al., Thermophysical Properties of Air and Air Components, Izdatel’stvo Nauka, Moscow, 1966. Properties in the saturation state: T K 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 110 120 130 132.55
P(boil) bar
P(con) bar
0.1468 0.3234 0.6366 1.146 1.921 3.036 4.574 6.621 12.59 21.61 34.16 37.69
0.0861 0.2052 0.4321 0.8245 1.453 2.397 3.748 5.599 11.22 20.14 33.32 37.69
ρ (liq) g/cm3
ρ (gas) g/L
0.939 0.917 0.894 0.871 0.845 0.819 0.792 0.763 0.699 0.622 0.487 0.313
0.464 1.033 2.048 3.709 6.258 9.980 15.21 22.39 45.15 87.34 184.33 312.89
Properties of liquid air: P bar
T K
ρ g/cm3
1 5 5 5 5 5 10 10 10 10 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100
75 75 80 85 90 95 75 80 90 100 75 100 125 150 75 100 125 150
0.8935 0.8942 0.8718 0.8482 0.8230 0.7962 0.8952 0.8729 0.8245 0.7695 0.9025 0.7859 0.6222 0.1879 0.9111 0.8033 0.6746 0.4871
H J/g –131.7 –131.4 –122.3 –112.9 –103.3 –93.5 –131.1 –122.0 –103.1 –83.2 –128.2 –81.8 –28.3 91.9 –124.5 –79.4 –31.4 32.8
S J/g K 2.918 2.916 3.031 3.143 3.250 3.356 2.913 3.028 3.246 3.452 2.892 3.415 3.889 4.764 2.867 3.376 3.805 4.271
Cp J/g K 1.843 1.840 1.868 1.901 1.941 1.991 1.836 1.863 1.932 2.041 1.806 1.939 2.614 2.721 1.774 1.852 2.062 2.832
Properties of air in the gaseous state: P bar 1 1 1
T K
ρ g/L
H J/g
S J/g K
Cp J/g K
100 200 300
3.556 1.746 1.161
98.3 199.7 300.3
5.759 6.463 6.871
1.032 1.007 1.007
6-1
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF AIR (continued) P bar
T K
ρ g/L
H J/g
S J/g K
Cp J/g K
1 1 10 10 10 10 100 100 100 100
500 1000 200 300 500 1000 200 300 500 1000
0.696 0.348 17.835 11.643 6.944 3.471 213.950 116.945 66.934 33.613
503.4 1046.6 195.2 298.3 502.9 1047.2 148.8 279.9 499.0 1052.4
7.389 8.138 5.766 6.204 6.727 7.477 4.949 5.486 6.048 6.812
1.030 1.141 1.049 1.021 1.034 1.142 1.650 1.158 1.073 1.151
6-2
PROPERTIES OF WATER IN THE RANGE 0 — 100 °C This table summarizes the best available values of the density, specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp), vapor pressure, viscosity, thermal conductivity, dielectric constant, and surface tension for liquid water in the range 0 — 100 °C. All values (except vapor pressure) refer to a pressure of 100 kPa (1 bar). The temperature scale is IPTS-68.
t
Density g/cm3
Cp J/g K
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.99984 0.99970 0.99821 0.99565 0.99222 0.98803 0.98320 0.97778 0.97182 0.96535 0.95840
Ref.
1—3
°C
Vap. pres. kPa
Visc. µPa s
4.2176 4.1921 4.1818 4.1784 4.1785 4.1806 4.1843 4.1895 4.1963 4.2050 4.2159
0.6113 1.2281 2.3388 4.2455 7.3814 12.344 19.932 31.176 47.373 70.117 101.325
1793 1307 1002 797.7 653.2 547.0 466.5 404.0 354.4 314.5 281.8
2
1, 3
3
Ther. cond. mW/K m
Diel. const.
Surf. ten. mN/m
561.0 580.0 598.4 615.4 630.5 643.5 654.3 663.1 670.0 675.3 679.1
87.90 83.96 80.20 76.60 73.17 69.88 66.73 63.73 60.86 58.12 55.51
75.64 74.23 72.75 71.20 69.60 67.94 66.24 64.47 62.67 60.82 58.91
3
4
5
REFERENCES 1. L. Harr, J. S. Gallagher, and G. S. Kell, NBS/NRC Steam Tables, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., 1984. 2. K. N. Marsh, Ed., Recommended Reference Materials for the Realization of Physicochemical Properties, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1987. 3. J. V. Sengers and J. T. R. Watson, Improved international formulations for the viscosity and thermal conductivity of water substance, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 15, 1291, 1986. 4. D. G. Archer and P. Wang, The dielectric constant of water and Debye-Hückel limiting law slopes, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 19, 371, 1990. 5. N. B. Vargaftik, et al., International tables of the surface tension of water, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 12, 817, 1983.
6-3
ENTHALPY OF VAPORIZATION OF WATER The enthalpy (heat) of vaporization of water is tabulated as a function of temperature on the IPTS-68 scale. REFERENCE Marsh, K. N., Ed., Recommended Reference Materials for the Realization of Physicochemical Properties, Blackwell, Oxford, 1987. t
∆vapH kJ/mol
t
°C
°C
∆vapH kJ/mol
0 25 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
45.054 43.990 43.350 42.482 41.585 40.657 39.684 38.643 37.518 36.304
200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 374
34.962 33.468 31.809 29.930 27.795 25.300 22.297 18.502 12.966 2.066
FIXED POINT PROPERTIES OF H2O AND D2O Temperatures are given on the IPTS-68 scale. REFERENCES 1. Haar, L., Gallagher, J.S., and Kell, G.S., NBS/NRC Steam Tables, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., 1984. 2. Levelt Sengers, J.M.H., Straub, J., Watanabe, K., and Hill, P.G., Assessment of critical parameter values for H2O and D2O, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 14, 193, 1985. 3. Kestin, J. et. al., Thermophysical properties of fluid D2O, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 13, 601, 1984. 4. Kestin, J. et. al., Thermophysical properties of fluid H2O, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 13, 175, 1984. 5. Hill, P.G., MacMillan, R.D.C., and Lee, V., A fundamental equation of state for heavy water, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 11, 1, 1982. Unit Molar mass Melting point(101.325 kPa) Boiling point(101.325 kPa) Triple point temperature Triple point pressure Triple point density(l) Triple point density(g) Critical temperature Critical pressure Critical density Critical specific volume Maximum density(saturated liquid) Temperature of maximum density
g/mol °C °C °C Pa g/cm3 mg/L °C MPa g/cm3 cm3/g g/cm3 °C
6-4
H2O 18.01528 0.00 100.00 0.01 611.73 0.99978 4.885 373.99 22.064 0.322 3.11 0.99995 4.0
D2O 20.02748 3.82 101.42 3.82 661 1.1055 5.75 370.74 21.671 0.356 2.81 1.1053 11.2
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SATURATED H2O AND D2O This table gives the thermal conductivity λ for water (H2O or D2O) in equilibrium with its vapor. Values for the liquid (λl) and vapor (λv) are listed, as well as the vapor pressure. REFERENCES 1. Sengers, J.V. and Watson, J.T.R., Improved international formulations for the viscosity and thermal conductivity of water substance, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 15, 1291, 1986. 2. Matsunaga, N. and Nagashima, A., Transport properties of liquid and gaseous D2O over a wide range of temperature and pressure, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 12, 933, 1983.
t/°C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 250 300 350
P/kPa
H2O λ l /(mW/K m)
0.6 1.2 2.3 4.2 7.4 12.3 19.9 31.2 47.4 70.1 101.3 476 1555 3978 8593 16530
561.0 580.0 598.4 615.4 630.5 643.5 654.3 663.1 670.0 675.3 679.1 682.1 663.4 621.4 547.7 447.6
λ v /(mW/K m) 16.49 17.21 17.95 18.70 19.48 20.28 21.10 21.96 22.86 23.80 24.79 30.77 39.10 51.18 71.78 134.59
P/kPa
1.0 2.0 3.7 6.5 11.1 18.2 28.8 44.2 66.1 96.2 465 1546 3995 8688 16820
D2O λ l /(mW/K m)
575 589 600 610 618 625 629 633 635 636 625 592 541 473 391
λ v /(mW/K m)
17.0 17.8 18.5 19.3 20.2 21.0 21.9 22.8 23.8 24.8 30.8 39.0 52.0 75.2 143.0
STANDARD DENSITY OF WATER This table gives the density ρ of standard mean ocean water (SMOW), free from dissolved salts and gases, at a pressure of 101325 Pa. SMOW is a standard water sample of high purity and known isotopic composition. Methods of correcting for different isotopic compositions are discussed in the reference. The table below is reprinted with the permission of IUPAC. Note that the temperature scale is IPTS-68. REFERENCE Marsh, K. N., Ed., Recommended Reference Materials for the Realization of Physicochemical Properties, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1987.
t68/°C
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
999.8426 999.9015 999.9429 999.9672 999.9750 999.9668 999.9430 999.9043 999.8509 999.7834 999.7021 999.6074 999.4996 999.3792 999.2464 999.1016 998.9450 998.7769 998.5976 998.4073 998.2063 997.9948 997.7730 997.5412 997.2994 997.0480 996.7870 996.5166 996.2371 995.9486 995.6511 995.3450 995.0302 994.7071 994.3756 994.0359 993.6883 993.3328 992.9695 992.5987 992.2204
8493 9065 9461 9687 9748 9651 9398 8996 8448 7759 6932 5972 4882 3665 2325 0864 9287 7595 5790 3877 1856 9731 7503 5174 2747 0223 7604 4891 2087 9192 6209 3139 9983* 6743 3420 0015 6531 2968 9328 5612
8558 9112 9491 9700 9746 9632 9365 8948 8385 7682 6842 5869 4766 3536 2184 0712 9123 7419 5604 3680 1649 9513 7275 4936 2499 9965* 7337 4615 1801 8898 5906 2827 9663* 6414 3083 9671* 6178 2607 8960 5236
8622 9158 9519 9712 9742 9612 9330 8898 8321 7604 6751 5764 4648 3407 2042 0558 8957 7243 5416 3481 1440 9294 7045 4697 2250 9707* 7069 4337 1515 8603 5602 2514 9342* 6085 2745 9325* 5825 2246 8591 4860
ρ/kg m-3 0.4 8683 9202 9546 9722 9736 9591 9293 8847 8256 7525 6658 5658 4530 3276 1899 0403 8791 7065 5228 3282 1230 9073 6815 4456 2000 9447* 6800 4059 1228 8306 5297 2201 9020* 5755 2407 8978* 5470 1884 8221 4483
* The leading figure decreases by 1.
6-5
0.5 8743 9244 9571 9731 9728 9568 9255 8794 8189 7444 6564 5551 4410 3143 1755 0247 8623 6886 5038 3081 1019 8852 6584 4215 1749 9186* 6530 3780 0940 8009 4991 1887 8697* 5423 2068 8631* 5115 1521 7850 4105
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
8801 9284 9595 9738 9719 9544 9216 8740 8121 7362 6468 5443 4289 3010 1609 0090 8455 6706 4847 2880 0807 8630 6351 3973 1497 8925* 6259 3500 0651 7712 4685 1572 8373* 5092 1728 8283* 4759 1157 7479 3726
8857 9323 9616 9743 9709 9518 9175 8684 8051 7279 6372 5333 4167 2875 1463 9932* 8285 6525 4655 2677 0594 8406 6118 3730 1244 8663* 5987 3219 0361 7413 4377 1255 8049* 4759 1387 7934* 4403 0793 7107 3347
8912 9360 9636 9747 9696 9490 9132 8627 7980 7194 6274 5222 4043 2740 1315 9772* 8114 6343 4462 2474 0380 8182 5883 3485 0990 8399* 5714 2938 0070 7113 4069 0939 7724* 4425 1045 7585* 4045 0428 6735 2966
8964 9395 9655 9749 9683 9461 9088 8569 7908 7108 6174 5110 3918 2602 1166 9612* 7942 6160 4268 2269 0164 7957 5648 3240 0735 8135* 5441 2655 9778* 6813 3760 0621 7397* 4091 0703 7234* 3687 0062 6361 2586
VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS This table gives the following properties of aqueous solutions of NaCl as a function of temperature and concentration: Specific volume v (reciprocal of density) in cm3/g Isothermal compressibility κT = -(1/v)(∂v/∂P)T in GPa-1 Cubic expansion coefficient αv = (1/v)(∂v/∂T)P in kK-1 All data refer to a pressure of 100 kPa (1 bar). The reference gives properties over a wider range of temperature and pressure. REFERENCE Rogers, P. S. Z., and Pitzer, K. S., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 11, 15, 1982.
Molality in mol/kg T/°C
0.100
0.250
0.500
0.750
1.000
2.000
3.000
4.000
5.000
0.925426 0.927905 0.930909 0.932590 0.934382 0.938287 0.942603 0.9474 0.9526 0.9581 0.9640 0.9703
0.896292 0.899262 0.902565 0.904339 0.906194 0.910145 0.914411 0.9191 0.9240 0.9293 0.9348 0.9406
0.870996 0.874201 0.877643 0.879457 0.881334 0.885276 0.889473 0.8940 0.8987 0.9037 0.9089 0.9144
0.848646 0.851958 0.855469 0.857301 0.859185 0.863108 0.867241 0.8716 0.8762 0.8809 0.8858 0.8910
0.346 0.341 0.338 0.337 0.337 0.338 0.340 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.38 0.39
0.315 0.313 0.313 0.313 0.313 0.315 0.317 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.37
0.294 0.294 0.294 0.294 0.294 0.296 0.299 0.30 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34
0.313 0.349 0.384 0.401 0.418 0.451 0.484 0.52 0.55 0.58 0.61 0.64
0.355 0.380 0.406 0.420 0.433 0.460 0.486 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.59 0.61
Specific volume v in cm3/g 0 10 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.995732 0.995998 0.997620 0.998834 1.000279 1.003796 1.008064 1.0130 1.0186 1.0249 1.0317 1.0391
0.989259 0.989781 0.991564 0.992832 0.994319 0.997883 1.002161 1.0071 1.0127 1.0188 1.0256 1.0329
0.978889 0.979804 0.981833 0.983185 0.984735 0.988374 0.992668 0.9976 1.0031 1.0092 1.0157 1.0228
0.968991 0.970256 0.972505 0.973932 0.975539 0.979243 0.983551 0.9885 0.9939 0.9999 1.0063 1.0133
0.959525 0.961101 0.963544 0.965038 0.966694 0.970455 0.974772 0.9797 0.9851 0.9909 0.9972 1.0040
Compressibility κT in GPa–1 0 10 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.503 0.472 0.453 0.447 0.443 0.438 0.438 0.44 0.45 0.46 0.47 0.49
0.492 0.463 0.446 0.440 0.436 0.432 0.431 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.48
0.475 0.449 0.433 0.428 0.425 0.421 0.421 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.46 0.47
0.459 0.436 0.422 0.417 0.414 0.411 0.411 0.42 0.42 0.43 0.45 0.46
0.443 0.423 0.411 0.407 0.404 0.401 0.402 0.41 0.42 0.43 0.44 0.45
0.389 0.377 0.371 0.369 0.367 0.367 0.369 0.38 0.38 0.39 0.41 0.42
Cubic expansion coefficient αV in kK–1 0 10 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-0.058 0.102 0.218 0.267 0.311 0.389 0.458 0.52 0.58 0.64 0.69 0.74
-0.026 0.123 0.232 0.278 0.320 0.394 0.460 0.52 0.58 0.63 0.68 0.73
0.024 0.156 0.254 0.296 0.334 0.402 0.464 0.52 0.58 0.63 0.67 0.72
0.069 0.186 0.274 0.312 0.347 0.410 0.467 0.52 0.57 0.62 0.67 0.71
0.110 0.213 0.292 0.327 0.359 0.417 0.470 0.52 0.57 0.61 0.66 0.70
6-6
0.237 0.297 0.349 0.373 0.395 0.438 0.479 0.52 0.56 0.60 0.63 0.66
DENSITY OF D2O Density of liquid D2O in g/cm3 at a pressure of 100 kPa (1 bar). REFERENCE Kirillin, V.A., Ed., Heavy Water: Thermophysical Properties, Gosudarstvennoe Energeticheskoe Izdatel’stvo, Moscow, 1963.
t/°C Density
3.8 1.1053
5 1.1055
10 1.1057
15 1.1056
20 1.105
25 1.1044
30 1.1034
t/°C Density
35 1.1019
40 1.1001
45 1.0979
50 1.0957
55 1.0931
60 1.0905
65 1.0875
t/°C Density
70 1.0847
75 1.0815
80 1.0783
85 1.0748
90 1.0712
95 1.0673
100 1.0635
6-7
VAPOR PRESSURE OF ICE The values of the vapor (sublimation) pressure of ice in this table were calculated from the equation recommended by the International Association for the Properties of Steam (IAPS) in 1993. Temperature values correspond to the ITS-90 temperature scale. The uncertainty in the pressure is estimated to be 0.1% for t > -25°C and 0.5% for t < -25°C. The first entry in the table is the triple point of water. REFERENCE Wagner, W., Saul, A., and Pruss, A., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 23, 515, 1994. t/°C
p/Pa
0.01 0 –1 –2 –3 –4 –5 –6 –7 –8 –9 –10 –11 –12 –13 –14 –15
611.657 611.15 562.67 517.72 476.06 437.47 401.76 368.73 338.19 309.98 283.94 259.90 237.74 217.32 198.52 181.22 165.30
t/°C –16 –17 –18 –19 –20 –21 –22 –23 –24 –25 –26 –27 –28 –29 –30 –31 –32
p/Pa 150.68 137.25 124.92 113.62 103.26 93.77 85.10 77.16 69.91 63.29 57.25 51.74 46.73 42.16 38.01 34.24 30.82
t/°C –33 –34 –35 –36 –37 –38 –39 –40 –45 –50 –55 –60 –65 –70 –75 –80
p/Pa 27.71 24.90 22.35 20.04 17.96 16.07 14.37 12.84 7.202 3.936 2.093 1.080 0.540 0.261 0.122 0.055
VAPOR PRESSURE OF WATER FROM 0 TO 370° C This table gives the vapor pressure of water at intervals of 1° C from the melting point to the critical point. REFERENCE Haar, L., Gallagher, J.S., and Kell, G.S., NBS/NRC Steam Tables, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., New York, 1984. t/°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
P/kPa 0.61129 0.65716 0.70605 0.75813 0.81359 0.87260 0.93537 1.0021 1.0730 1.1482 1.2281 1.3129 1.4027 1.4979 1.5988 1.7056 1.8185 1.9380 2.0644 2.1978 2.3388 2.4877 2.6447 2.8104 2.9850 3.1690 3.3629 3.5670 3.7818 4.0078 4.2455 4.4953 4.7578 5.0335 5.3229 5.6267 5.9453 6.2795 6.6298 6.9969 7.3814 7.7840 8.2054 8.6463 9.1075 9.5898 10.094 10.620 11.171 11.745 12.344 12.970 13.623
t/°C 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105
t/°C
P/kPa 14.303 15.012 15.752 16.522 17.324 18.159 19.028 19.932 20.873 21.851 22.868 23.925 25.022 26.163 27.347 28.576 29.852 31.176 32.549 33.972 35.448 36.978 38.563 40.205 41.905 43.665 45.487 47.373 49.324 51.342 53.428 55.585 57.815 60.119 62.499 64.958 67.496 70.117 72.823 75.614 78.494 81.465 84.529 87.688 90.945 94.301 97.759 101.32 104.99 108.77 112.66 116.67 120.79
106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158
6-8
P/kPa 125.03 129.39 133.88 138.50 143.24 148.12 153.13 158.29 163.58 169.02 174.61 180.34 186.23 192.28 198.48 204.85 211.38 218.09 224.96 232.01 239.24 246.66 254.25 262.04 270.02 278.20 286.57 295.15 303.93 312.93 322.14 331.57 341.22 351.09 361.19 371.53 382.11 392.92 403.98 415.29 426.85 438.67 450.75 463.10 475.72 488.61 501.78 515.23 528.96 542.99 557.32 571.94 586.87
t/°C 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211
P/kPa 602.11 617.66 633.53 649.73 666.25 683.10 700.29 717.83 735.70 753.94 772.52 791.47 810.78 830.47 850.53 870.98 891.80 913.03 934.64 956.66 979.09 1001.9 1025.2 1048.9 1073.0 1097.5 1122.5 1147.9 1173.8 1200.1 1226.9 1254.2 1281.9 1310.1 1338.8 1368.0 1397.6 1427.8 1458.5 1489.7 1521.4 1553.6 1586.4 1619.7 1653.6 1688.0 1722.9 1758.4 1794.5 1831.1 1868.4 1906.2 1944.6
VAPOR PRESSURE OF WATER FROM 0 TO 370° C (continued) t/°C 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252
P/kPa 1983.6 2023.2 2063.4 2104.2 2145.7 2187.8 2230.5 2273.8 2317.8 2362.5 2407.8 2453.8 2500.5 2547.9 2595.9 2644.6 2694.1 2744.2 2795.1 2846.7 2899.0 2952.1 3005.9 3060.4 3115.7 3171.8 3228.6 3286.3 3344.7 3403.9 3463.9 3524.7 3586.3 3648.8 3712.1 3776.2 3841.2 3907.0 3973.6 4041.2 4109.6
t/°C 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293
t/°C
P/kPa
294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334
4178.9 4249.1 4320.2 4392.2 4465.1 4539.0 4613.7 4689.4 4766.1 4843.7 4922.3 5001.8 5082.3 5163.8 5246.3 5329.8 5414.3 5499.9 5586.4 5674.0 5762.7 5852.4 5943.1 6035.0 6127.9 6221.9 6317.0 6413.2 6510.5 6608.9 6708.5 6809.2 6911.1 7014.1 7118.3 7223.7 7330.2 7438.0 7547.0 7657.2 7768.6
6-9
P/kPa
t/°C
P/kPa
7881.3 7995.2 8110.3 8226.8 8344.5 8463.5 8583.8 8705.4 8828.3 8952.6 9078.2 9205.1 9333.4 9463.1 9594.2 9726.7 9860.5 9995.8 10133 10271 10410 10551 10694 10838 10984 11131 11279 11429 11581 11734 11889 12046 12204 12364 12525 12688 12852 13019 13187 13357 13528
335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 373.98
13701 13876 14053 14232 14412 14594 14778 14964 15152 15342 15533 15727 15922 16120 16320 16521 16725 16931 17138 17348 17561 17775 17992 18211 18432 18655 18881 19110 19340 19574 19809 20048 20289 20533 20780 21030 21283 21539 21799 22055
BOILING POINT OF WATER AT VARIOUS PRESSURES Data are based on the equation of state recommended by the International Association for the Properties of Steam in 1984, as presented in Haar, Gallagher, and Kell, NBS-NRC Steam Tables (Hemisphere Publishing Corp., New York, 1984). The temperature scale is IPTS-68. Note that: 1 mbar = 100 Pa = 0.000986923 atmos = 0.750062 mmHg. P/mbar
T/°C
P/mbar
T/°C
P/mbar
T/°C
P/mbar
T/°C
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 905 910
32.88 45.82 53.98 60.07 64.98 69.11 72.70 75.88 78.74 81.34 83.73 85.95 88.02 89.96 91.78 93.51 95.15 96.71 96.87 97.02
915 920 925 930 935 940 945 950 955 960 965 970 975 980 985 990 995 1000 1005 1010
97.17 97.32 97.47 97.62 97.76 97.91 98.06 98.21 98.35 98.50 98.64 98.78 98.93 99.07 99.21 99.35 99.49 99.63 99.77 99.91
1013.25 1015 1020 1025 1030 1035 1040 1045 1050 1055 1060 1065 1070 1075 1080 1085 1090 1095 1100 1150
100.00 100.05 100.19 100.32 100.46 100.60 100.73 100.87 101.00 101.14 101.27 101.40 101.54 101.67 101.80 101.93 102.06 102.19 102.32 103.59
1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150
104.81 105.99 107.14 108.25 109.32 110.36 111.38 112.37 113.33 114.26 115.18 116.07 116.94 117.79 118.63 119.44 120.24 121.02 121.79 122.54
6-10
MELTING POINT OF ICE AS A FUNCTION OF PRESSURE This table gives values of the melting temperature of ice at various pressures, as calculated from the equation for the ice I - liquid water phase boundary recommended by the International Association for the Properties of Steam (IAPS). Temperatures are on the ITS-90 scale. See the Reference for information on forms of ice that exist at higher pressures. The transition points for transformations of the various forms of ice (in each case in equilibrium with liquid water) are: ice I - ice III ice III - ice V ice V - ice VI ice VI - ice VII
209.9 MPa 350.1 632.4 2216
–21.985°C –16.986 0.16 82
REFERENCE Wagner, W., Saul, A., and Pruss, A., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 23, 515, 1994. p/MPa 0.1 1 2 3 4 5 10 20 30
t/°C 0.00 -0.06 -0.14 -0.21 -0.29 -0.36 -0.74 -1.52 -2.32
p/MPa 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
t/°C -3.15 -4.02 -4.91 -5.83 -6.79 -7.78 -8.80 -9.86 -10.95
p/MPa 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
t/°C -12.07 -13.22 -14.40 -15.62 -16.85 -18.11 -19.39 -20.69 -22.00
PROPERTIES OF WATER AND STEAM AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE This table gives properties of compressed water and superheated steam at selected pressures and temperatures. The properties included are density ρ, enthalpy H, entropy S, heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, and static dielectric constant (relative permittivity). The table was generated from the formulation approved by the International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam for general and scientific use. The reference state for this table is the liquid at the triple point, at which the internal energy and entropy are taken as zero. A duplicate entry in the temperature column indicates a phase transition (liquid-vapor) at that temperature; property values are then given for both phases. In the 100 MPa section of the table, an entry is given at the critical temperature, 647.10 K. Temperatures refer to the ITS-90 scale, on which the normal boiling point of water is 373.12 K (99.97°C). REFERENCES 1. Release on the IAPWS Formulation 1995 for the Thermodynamic Properties of Ordinary Water Substance for General and Scientific Use, September 1996; available from Executive Secretary of IAPWS, Electric Power Research Institute, 3412 Hillview Ave., Palo Alto, CA 94304-1395. 2. NIST Chemistry WebBook, NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69, Mallard, W. G., and Linstrom, P. J., Eds., March 1998, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899 (http:// webbook.nist.gov). 3. Pruss, A. and Wagner, W., to be published. 4. Fernandez, D. P., Goodwin, A. R. H., Lemmon, E. W., Levelt Sengers, J. M. H., and Williams, R. C., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 26, 1125, 1997. [Dielectric constant] p/MPa 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
T/K
ρ/kg m-3
H/J g-1
273.16 300 325 350 372.76 372.76 375 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 273.16 300 325 350 375 400 450 453.03 453.03 500
999.84 996.56 987.19 973.73 958.63 0.59034 0.58653 0.54761 0.48458 0.43514 0.39507 0.36185 0.33384 0.30988 0.28915 0.27102 0.25504 0.24085 0.22815 0.21673 0.20640 0.19701 0.18844 0.18058 1000.3 996.96 987.58 974.13 957.43 937.87 890.39 887.13 5.1450 4.5323
0.10 112.65 217.15 321.84 417.50 2674.9 2679.6 2730.4 2829.7 2928.6 3028.1 3128.8 3230.8 3334.4 3439.5 3546.3 3654.8 3765.0 3876.9 3990.7 4106.1 4223.4 4342.3 4463.0 1.02 113.48 217.93 322.56 427.64 533.47 749.20 762.51 2777.1 2891.2
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
S/J g-1K-1 0.0000 0.3931 0.7276 1.0380 1.3028 7.3588 7.3713 7.5025 7.7365 7.9447 8.1344 8.3096 8.4730 8.6264 8.7715 8.9093 9.0408 9.1668 9.2879 9.4045 9.5172 9.6263 9.7321 9.8348 0.0000 0.3928 0.7272 1.0374 1.3274 1.6005 2.1086 2.1381 6.5850 6.8250
Cp/J g-1K-1 4.2194 4.1806 4.1819 4.1945 4.2152 2.0784 2.0686 2.0078 1.9752 1.9813 2.0010 2.0268 2.0557 2.0867 2.1191 2.1525 2.1868 2.2216 2.2568 2.2921 2.3273 2.3621 2.3965 2.4302 4.2150 4.1781 4.1798 4.1925 4.2158 4.2535 4.3924 4.4045 2.7114 2.2795
Diel. const. 87.90 77.75 69.32 61.79 55.61 1.006 1.006 1.005 1.004 1.003 1.003 1.002 1.002 1.002 1.002 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 87.93 77.78 69.36 61.82 55.09 49.06 38.81 38.23 1.042 1.034
PROPERTIES OF WATER AND STEAM AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE (continued) p/MPa
T/K
ρ/kg m-3
H/J g-1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 273.16 300 325 350 375 400 450 500 550 584.15 584.15 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 273.16 300 325 350 375 400 450 500 550 600 647.10 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200
4.0581 3.6871 3.3843 3.1305 2.9140 2.7265 2.5624 2.4174 2.2882 2.1723 2.0678 1.9729 1.8865 1.8074 1004.8 1001.0 991.46 978.09 961.62 942.42 896.16 838.02 761.82 688.42 55.463 49.773 40.479 35.355 31.810 29.107 26.933 25.123 23.580 22.241 21.063 20.017 19.078 18.230 1045.3 1037.2 1026.6 1013.6 998.59 981.82 943.51 899.21 848.78 791.49 730.24 726.21 651.77 568.52 482.23 404.66 343.61 298.61 265.45 240.32 220.62 204.71 191.53
3001.8 3109.0 3215.2 3321.7 3429.0 3537.5 3647.3 3758.5 3871.3 3985.7 4101.8 4219.5 4338.9 4460.0 10.1 121.7 225.6 329.7 434.4 539.6 753.9 977.1 1218 1408 2725 2820 3022 3177 3314 3443 3568 3691 3813 3935 4057 4180 4304 4429 95.4 201.4 301.3 401.7 502.6 603.7 807.8 1015 1228 1448 1665 1679 1925 2188 2466 2742 3000 3231 3440 3631 3809 3979 4142
© 2000 CRC Press LLC
S/J g-1K-1
Cp/J g-1K-1
7.0359 7.2224 7.3925 7.5504 7.6984 7.8384 7.9715 8.0986 8.2206 8.3380 8.4512 8.5608 8.6669 8.7699 0.000 0.390 0.723 1.031 1.320 1.592 2.096 2.566 3.027 3.360 5.616 5.775 6.100 6.330 6.520 6.686 6.838 6.978 7.110 7.235 7.354 7.469 7.579 7.685 -0.008 0.362 0.682 0.979 1.258 1.518 1.999 2.436 2.842 3.225 3.573 3.595 3.958 4.322 4.681 5.016 5.310 5.560 5.774 5.961 6.127 6.278 6.417
2.1647 2.1292 2.1254 2.1368 2.1566 2.1816 2.2098 2.2402 2.2721 2.3048 2.3380 2.3713 2.4044 2.4371 4.173 4.153 4.160 4.173 4.195 4.230 4.355 4.602 5.140 6.123 7.140 5.136 3.396 2.874 2.645 2.531 2.473 2.445 2.436 2.439 2.450 2.466 2.485 2.507 3.905 3.979 4.008 4.025 4.040 4.056 4.110 4.196 4.323 4.501 4.733 4.750 5.083 5.449 5.610 5.380 4.887 4.382 3.978 3.683 3.471 3.319 3.209
Diel. const. 1.028 1.024 1.020 1.017 1.015 1.013 1.012 1.011 1.010 1.009 1.008 1.007 1.007 1.006 88.30 78.11 69.67 62.13 55.40 49.39 39.17 30.79 23.53 18.70 1.404 1.365 1.267 1.214 1.179 1.154 1.134 1.118 1.105 1.095 1.086 1.078 1.072 1.066 91.83 81.22 72.58 64.95 58.19 52.20 42.15 34.15 27.67 22.29 17.97 17.72 13.75 10.34 7.562 5.571 4.284 3.477 2.956 2.601 2.347 2.158 2.011
PERMITTIVITY (DIELECTRIC CONSTANT) OF WATER AT VARIOUS FREQUENCIES The permittivity of liquid water in the radiofrequency and microwave regions can be represented by the Debye equation (References 1 and 2):
ε′ = ε∞ + ε ′′ =
(ε
s
εs − ε∞ 1 + ω2τ2
− ε ∞ )ωτ
1 + ω2τ2
where ε = ε′ + i ε′′ is the (complex) relative permittivity (i.e., the absolute permittivity divided by the permittivity of free space ε0 = 8.854⋅10-12 F m-1 ). Here εs is the static permittivity (see Reference 3 and the table “Properties of Water in the Range 0—100°C” in this Section); ε∞ is a parameter describing the permittivity in the high frequency limit; τ is the relaxation time for molecular orientation; and ω = 2πf is the angular frequency. The values in this table have been calculated from parameters given in Reference 2:
ε∞ τ/ps
0°C
25°C
50°C
5.7 17.67
5.2 8.27
4.0 4.75
Other useful quantities that can be calculated from the values in the table are the loss tangent: tan δ = ε ′′ / ε ′
and the absorption coefficient α which describes the power attentuation per unit length (P = P0 e-αl): α=
πf ε ′′ c ε′
and c is the speed of light. The last equation is valid when ε′′/ε′ << 1. REFERENCES 1. Fernendez, D.P., Mulev, Y., Goodwin, A.R.H., and Levelt Sengers, J.M.H., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 24, 33, 1995. 2. Kaatze, U., J. Chem. Eng. Data, 34, 371, 1989. 3. Archer, D.G., and Wang, P., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 12, 817, 1983.
Frequency 0 1 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz 100 MHz 200 MHz 500 MHz 1 GHz 2 GHz 3 GHz 4 GHz 5 GHz 10 GHz 20 GHz 30 GHz 40 GHz 50 GHz
ε′ 87.90 87.90 87.90 87.90 87.89 87.86 87.65 86.90 84.04 79.69 74.36 68.54 42.52 19.56 12.50 9.67 8.28
0°C
ε′′
ε′
0.00 0.00 0.01 0.09 0.91 1.82 4.55 9.01 17.39 24.64 30.49 34.88 40.88 30.78 22.64 17.62 14.34
78.36 78.36 78.36 78.36 78.36 78.35 78.31 78.16 77.58 76.62 75.33 73.73 62.81 40.37 26.53 18.95 14.64
6-13
25°C
ε′′
ε′
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.38 0.76 1.90 3.79 7.52 11.13 14.58 17.81 29.93 36.55 33.25 28.58 24.53
69.88 69.88 69.88 69.88 69.88 69.88 69.87 69.82 69.65 69.36 68.95 68.45 64.49 52.57 40.57 31.17 24.42
50°C
ε′′ 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.20 0.39 0.98 1.96 3.92 5.85 7.75 9.62 18.05 28.99 32.74 32.43 30.47
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS These tables give thermodynamic and transport properties of some important fluids, as generated from the equations of state presented in the references below. The properties tabulated are density (ρ), energy (E), enthalpy (H), entropy (S), isochoric heat capacity (Cv), isobaric heat capacity (Cp), speed of sound (vs), viscosity (η), thermal conductivity (λ), and dielectric constant (D). All extensive properties are given on a molar basis. Not all properties are included for every substance. The references should be consulted for information on the uncertainties and the reference states for E, H, and S. Values are given as a function of temperature for several isobars. The phase can be determined by noting the sharp decrease in density between two successive temperature entries; all lines above this point refer to the liquid phase, and all lines below refer to the gas phase. If there is no sharp discontinuity in density, all data in the table refer to the supercritical region (i.e., the isobar is above the critical pressure). REFERENCES 1. Younglove, B.A., Thermophysical Properties of Fluids. Part I, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 11, Suppl. 1, 1982. 2. Younglove, B.A., and Ely, J.F., Thermophysical Properties of Fluids. Part II, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 16, 577, 1987. 3. McCarty, R.D., Thermodynamic Properties of Helium, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 2, 923, 1973. Nitrogen (N2) T K
ρ mol/L
E J/mol
H J/mol
S J/mol K
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
η µPa s
λ mW/m K
D
P = 0.1 MPa (1 bar) 70 30.017 77.25 28.881 77.25 0.163 100 0.123 200 0.060 300 0.040 400 0.030 500 0.024 600 0.020 700 0.017 800 0.015 900 0.013 1000 0.012 1500 0.008
–3828 –3411 1546 2041 4140 6223 8308 10414 12563 14770 17044 19383 21786 34530
–3824 –3407 2161 2856 5800 8717 11635 14573 17554 20593 23698 26869 30103 47004
73.8 79.5 151.6 159.5 179.9 191.8 200.2 206.7 212.2 216.8 221.0 224.7 228.1 241.8
28.5 27.8 21.6 21.1 20.8 20.8 20.9 21.2 21.8 22.4 23.1 23.7 24.3 26.4
57.2 57.8 31.4 30.0 29.2 29.2 29.2 29.6 30.1 30.7 31.4 32.0 32.6 34.7
203.9 152.2 5.3 6.8 12.9 18.0 22.2 26.1 29.5 32.8 35.8 38.7 41.5 54.0
143.5 133.8 7.6 9.6 18.4 25.8 32.3 38.5 44.5 50.5 56.3 62.0 67.7 93.3
1.45269 1.43386 1.00215 1.00162 1.00079 1.00053 1.00040 1.00032 1.00026 1.00023 1.00020 1.00017 1.00016 1.00010
P = 1 MPa 70 80 90 100 103.75 103.75 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500
30.070 28.504 26.721 24.634 23.727 1.472 0.614 0.402 0.300 0.240 0.200 0.171 0.150 0.133 0.120 0.080
–3838 –3267 –2685 –2073 –1828 1788 4048 6171 8273 10389 12544 14756 17032 19374 21778 34527
–3805 –3232 –2648 –2032 –1786 2467 5675 8661 11609 14563 17554 20600 23709 26884 30121 47029
73.6 81.3 88.2 94.6 97.1 138.1 160.3 172.5 180.9 187.5 193.0 197.7 201.8 205.6 209.0 222.7
28.9 27.8 26.7 26.2 26.2 24.1 21.0 20.9 20.9 21.3 21.8 22.4 23.1 23.7 24.3 26.4
56.9 57.7 59.4 64.4 67.8 45.0 30.4 29.6 29.5 29.7 30.2 30.8 31.4 32.1 32.7 34.8
205.9 139.5 100.1 73.1 64.8 7.6 13.2 18.1 22.4 26.1 29.6 32.8 35.9 38.8 41.5 54.0
144.1 130.7 115.3 98.5 91.8 12.5 19.3 26.3 32.7 38.8 44.8 50.7 56.5 62.2 67.8 93.4
1.45355 1.42760 1.39824 1.36417 1.34947 1.01954 1.00812 1.00529 1.00395 1.00315 1.00262 1.00224 1.00196 1.00174 1.00157 1.00104
P = 10 MPa 65.32 31.120 100 26.201 200 7.117 300 3.989 400 2.898 500 2.302
–4176 –2328 3037 5667 7941 10148
–3855 –1946 4442 8174 11392 14492
68.6 92.0 136.4 151.7 161.0 167.9
31.8 27.4 22.7 21.4 21.3 21.5
53.8 56.3 45.5 33.4 31.3 30.8
275.7 90.2 17.6 20.1 23.7 27.1
153.8 112.3 30.4 31.9 36.7 42.0
1.47067 1.38942 1.09698 1.05347 1.03860 1.03055
6-14
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS (continued) T K 600 700 800 900 1000 1500
ρ mol/L 1.918 1.647 1.445 1.288 1.162 0.783
E J/mol 12361 14613 16919 19283 21705 34504
H J/mol 17575 20683 23837 27046 30308 47283
S J/mol K 173.5 178.3 182.5 186.3 189.8 203.5
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
η µPa s
λ mW/m K
D
21.9 22.5 23.2 23.8 24.4 26.5
30.9 31.3 31.8 32.4 32.9 34.8
30.4 33.5 36.4 39.3 42.0 54.3
47.4 53.0 58.6 64.1 69.6 94.7
1.02538 1.02175 1.01904 1.01694 1.01526 1.01020
Cp J/mol K
η µPa s
λ mW/m K
D
Oxygen (O2) T K
ρ mol/L
E J/mol
H J/mol
S J/mol K
Cv J/mol K
P = 0.1 MPa (1 bar) 60 40.049 80 37.204 100 0.123 120 0.102 140 0.087 160 0.076 180 0.067 200 0.060 220 0.055 240 0.050 260 0.046 280 0.043 300 0.040 320 0.038 340 0.035 360 0.033 380 0.032
–5883 –4814 2029 2458 2881 3301 3720 4138 4556 4974 5393 5812 6234 6657 7082 7510 7941
–5880 –4812 2840 3442 4035 4624 5210 5796 6381 6966 7552 8138 8726 9316 9908 10503 11100
72.4 87.7 172.9 178.4 182.9 186.9 190.3 193.4 196.2 198.8 201.1 203.3 205.3 207.2 209.0 210.7 212.3
34.9 31.0 21.4 21.0 20.9 20.9 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.9 20.9 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.5 21.6
53.4 53.6 30.5 29.8 29.5 29.4 29.3 29.3 29.3 29.3 29.3 29.4 29.4 29.5 29.7 29.8 30.0
425.2 251.7 7.5 9.0 10.5 11.9 13.3 14.6 15.9 17.2 18.4 19.5 20.6 21.7 22.8 23.8 24.8
188.2 166.1 9.3 11.2 13.1 15.0 16.7 18.4 20.1 21.7 23.2 24.8 26.3 27.8 29.3 30.8 32.2
1.55619 1.51114 1.00146 1.00121 1.00103 1.00090 1.00080 1.00072 1.00065 1.00060 1.00055 1.00051 1.00048 1.00045 1.00042 1.00040 1.00038
P = 1 MPa 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380
40.084 37.254 34.153 1.198 0.950 0.802 0.698 0.620 0.559 0.509 0.468 0.433 0.403 0.377 0.355 0.335 0.317
–5887 –4822 –3741 2163 2683 3151 3598 4035 4466 4894 5321 5748 6174 6602 7032 7463 7898
–5863 –4795 –3712 2997 3735 4398 5030 5647 6255 6858 7458 8056 8654 9252 9851 10452 11056
72.3 87.6 99.7 156.7 162.4 166.8 170.5 173.8 176.7 179.3 181.7 183.9 186.0 187.9 189.7 191.4 193.1
34.9 31.0 28.5 24.0 22.2 21.5 21.2 21.1 21.0 21.0 21.0 21.1 21.1 21.2 21.4 21.5 21.7
53.3 53.5 55.2 40.6 34.4 32.2 31.2 30.6 30.3 30.1 29.9 29.9 29.9 29.9 30.0 30.1 30.2
428.5 253.8 155.6 9.4 10.8 12.2 13.5 14.8 16.1 17.3 18.5 19.6 20.7 21.8 22.8 23.9 24.9
188.4 166.4 137.9 13.9 14.9 16.3 17.7 19.3 20.8 22.3 23.8 25.2 26.7 28.2 29.6 31.1 32.6
1.55674 1.51192 1.46381 1.01429 1.01133 1.00955 1.00831 1.00738 1.00665 1.00606 1.00556 1.00515 1.00479 1.00448 1.00421 1.00397 1.00376
P = 10 MPa 60 40.419 80 37.727 100 34.881 120 31.721 140 27.890 160 22.379 180 13.232 200 8.666
–5931 –4893 –3856 –2796 –1662 -322 1489 2681
–5684 –4628 –3570 –2481 –1304 125 2245 3835
71.5 86.7 98.5 108.4 117.5 127.0 139.5 147.9
35.1 31.6 29.1 27.3 26.2 26.1 26.6 24.0
53.0 52.7 53.4 55.9 62.9 84.8 105.9 60.6
461.8 274.4 171.0 113.0 76.3 48.6 26.2 21.2
189.9 168.6 141.2 115.1 91.8 71.2 46.8 34.0
1.56210 1.51936 1.47500 1.42677 1.36972 1.29037 1.16560 1.10650
6-15
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS (continued) T K
ρ mol/L
220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380
6.868 5.836 5.134 4.613 4.205 3.874 3.598 3.363 3.161
E J/mol 3424 4029 4573 5086 5581 6063 6538 7009 7477
H J/mol 4880 5742 6521 7254 7959 8645 9318 9982 10641
S J/mol K 152.9 156.6 159.7 162.5 164.9 167.1 169.1 171.0 172.8
Cv J/mol K 22.6 22.0 21.8 21.6 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9 22.0
Cp J/mol K
η µPa s
46.4 40.6 37.6 35.8 34.7 33.9 33.4 33.0 32.8
20.5 20.8 21.4 22.1 22.9 23.7 24.6 25.4 26.3
λ mW/m K
D
30.8 30.1 30.2 30.8 31.6 32.6 33.7 34.9 36.1
1.08380 1.07090 1.06219 1.05575 1.05073 1.04667 1.04329 1.04043 1.03796
Hydrogen (H2) T K
ρ mol/L
E J/mol
H J/mol
S J/mol K
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
vs m/s
D
P = 0.1 MPa (1 bar) 15 37.738 20 35.278 40 0.305 60 0.201 80 0.151 100 0.120 120 0.100 140 0.086 160 0.075 180 0.067 200 0.060 220 0.055 240 0.050 260 0.046 280 0.043 300 0.040 400 0.030
–605 –524 491 748 1030 1370 1777 2237 2723 3216 3703 4179 4641 5093 5535 5970 8093
–603 –521 818 1244 1694 2202 2776 3401 4054 4714 5367 6009 6638 7256 7865 8466 11421
11.2 15.8 75.6 84.3 90.7 96.4 101.6 106.4 110.8 114.7 118.1 121.2 123.9 126.4 128.6 130.7 139.2
9.7 11.3 12.5 13.1 15.3 18.7 21.8 23.8 24.6 24.6 24.1 23.4 22.8 22.3 21.9 21.6 21.0
14.4 19.1 21.3 21.6 23.7 27.1 30.2 32.2 33.0 32.9 32.4 31.8 31.2 30.6 30.2 29.9 29.3
1319 1111 521 636 714 773 827 883 940 998 1054 1110 1163 1214 1263 1310 1518
1.24827 1.23093 1.00186 1.00122 1.00091 1.00073 1.00061 1.00052 1.00046 1.00041 1.00037 1.00033 1.00030 1.00028 1.00026 1.00024 1.00018
P = 1 MPa 15 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 400
38.109 35.852 3.608 2.098 1.523 1.204 0.999 0.854 0.747 0.663 0.597 0.543 0.498 0.460 0.427 0.399 0.299
–609 –532 399 697 994 1343 1756 2219 2709 3204 3693 4170 4634 5087 5530 5966 8091
–583 –504 676 1173 1651 2174 2758 3390 4048 4712 5368 6012 6643 7263 7873 8475 11433
10.9 15.5 54.1 64.3 71.1 77.0 82.3 87.1 91.5 95.4 98.9 102.0 104.7 107.2 109.5 111.5 120.1
10.1 11.4 12.9 13.2 15.4 18.8 21.9 23.9 24.7 24.6 24.1 23.5 22.9 22.3 21.9 21.6 21.0
14.1 18.4 28.4 23.5 24.7 27.7 30.6 32.5 33.2 33.1 32.5 31.9 31.2 30.7 30.3 30.0 29.4
1315 1155 498 635 719 779 835 891 949 1006 1063 1118 1171 1222 1271 1317 1525
1.25089 1.23496 1.02209 1.01280 1.00928 1.00733 1.00608 1.00520 1.00454 1.00404 1.00363 1.00330 1.00303 1.00279 1.00259 1.00242 1.00182
P = 10 MPa 20 40 60 80 100
39.669 31.344 21.273 14.830 11.417
–568 –209 255 686 1110
–316 110 725 1360 1986
13.0 27.3 39.7 48.8 55.8
10.9 13.2 13.8 15.9 19.3
15.0 27.0 32.5 31.1 31.9
1458 1171 931 886 904
1.26198 1.20354 1.13527 1.09303 1.07109
6-16
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS (continued) T K 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 400
ρ mol/L 9.357 7.969 6.963 6.195 5.588 5.094 4.683 4.336 4.038 3.780 2.869
E J/mol
H J/mol
S J/mol K
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
vs m/s
D
1571 2068 2583 3099 3604 4094 4569 5030 5481 5924 8073
2640 3323 4020 4713 5393 6057 6704 7336 7958 8570 11559
61.8 67.0 71.7 75.7 79.3 82.5 85.3 87.8 90.1 92.3 100.9
22.4 24.3 25.0 24.9 24.4 23.7 23.1 22.6 22.1 21.8 21.2
33.5 34.6 34.9 34.4 33.6 32.8 32.0 31.3 30.8 30.4 29.6
941 989 1042 1096 1150 1203 1254 1302 1349 1394 1592
1.05801 1.04925 1.04294 1.03814 1.03436 1.03129 1.02874 1.02659 1.02475 1.02315 1.01753
Helium (He-4) ρ mol/L
E J/mol
P = 0.1 MPa (1 bar) 3 35.794 4 32.477 5 2.935 10 1.238 20 0.602 50 0.240 100 0.120 200 0.060 300 0.040 400 0.030 500 0.024 600 0.020 700 0.017 800 0.015 900 0.013 1000 0.012 1500 0.008
–39 –27 52 120 247 623 1247 2494 3741 4988 6236 7483 8730 9977 11224 12471 18707
–36 –24 86 201 413 1039 2079 4158 6237 8315 10394 12472 14551 16630 18708 20787 31179
P = 1 MPa 3 4 5 10 20 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500
39.703 38.210 35.818 15.378 6.067 2.353 1.186 0.597 0.399 0.300 0.240 0.200 0.172 0.150 0.133 0.120 0.080
–42 –34 –22 78 228 617 1245 2495 3742 4990 6237 7485 8732 9979 11227 12474 18710
P = 10 MPa 4 51.978 5 51.118 10 46.872
–24 –18 23
T K
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
vs m/s
η µPa s
9.8 13.3 39.1 55.2 69.9 89.0 103.4 117.8 126.3 132.3 136.9 140.7 143.9 146.7 149.1 151.3 159.7
7.6 9.1 12.7 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
9.4 16.3 27.1 21.7 21.0 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8
222 185 120 185 264 417 589 833 1020 1177 1316 1441 1557 1664 1765 1861 2279
3.85 3.33 1.39 2.26 3.58 6.36 9.78 15.14 19.93 24.29 28.36 32.22 35.89 39.43 42.85 46.16 61.55
1.05646 1.05114 1.00456 1.00192 1.00093 1.00037 1.00019 1.00009 1.00006 1.00005 1.00004 1.00003 1.00003 1.00002 1.00002 1.00002 1.00001
–16 –7 6 143 393 1042 2089 4170 6249 8327 10406 12484 14562 16641 18719 20798 31190
8.6 11.2 14.0 32.2 49.8 69.8 84.3 98.7 107.1 113.1 117.8 121.5 124.7 127.5 130.0 132.2 140.6
7.1 8.3 9.7 12.3 12.6 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
7.8 10.9 15.1 30.5 22.9 21.1 20.9 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8
300 290 269 198 274 428 597 838 1024 1180 1319 1444 1559 1666 1767 1862 2280
5.63 5.01 4.38 3.07 3.94 6.53 9.89 15.21 19.96 24.32 28.38 32.23 35.91 39.44 42.86 46.17 61.55
1.06274 1.06034 1.05650 1.02402 1.00943 1.00365 1.00184 1.00093 1.00062 1.00046 1.00037 1.00031 1.00027 1.00023 1.00021 1.00019 1.00012
169 177 236
6.7 8.5 16.6
6.0 7.9 11.0
7.3 9.3 14.5
586 576 546
24.27 18.16 9.31
1.08262 1.08122 1.07432
H J/mol
S J/mol K
6-17
D
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS (continued) T K
ρ mol/L
E J/mol
20 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500
37.092 19.192 10.525 5.605 3.829 2.908 2.344 1.963 1.689 1.481 1.320 1.189 0.797
154 572 1231 2500 3755 5006 6256 7505 8754 10003 11252 12500 18742
H J/mol
S J/mol K
423 1093 2181 4284 6367 8445 10522 12599 14676 16753 18830 20907 31294
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
vs m/s
η µPa s
12.6 12.9 12.8 12.6 12.6 12.6 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
20.7 22.4 21.3 20.9 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8
498 541 674 889 1063 1212 1346 1467 1580 1685 1784 1877 2289
6.99 8.07 10.93 15.82 20.25 24.54 28.56 32.38 36.04 39.56 42.96 46.26 61.62
29.5 49.9 65.0 79.6 88.0 94.0 98.6 102.4 105.6 108.4 110.9 113.0 121.5
D 1.05854 1.03003 1.01640 1.00871 1.00595 1.00452 1.00364 1.00305 1.00262 1.00230 1.00205 1.00185 1.00124
Argon (Ar) T K
ρ mol/L
vs m/s
λ mW/m K
H J/mol
S J/mol K
Cv J/mol K
P = 0.1 MPa (1 bar) 85 35.243 90 0.138 100 0.123 120 0.102 140 0.087 160 0.076 180 0.067 200 0.060 220 0.055 240 0.050 260 0.046 280 0.043 300 0.040 320 0.038 340 0.035 360 0.033 380 0.032
–4811 1077 1211 1471 1727 1980 2232 2483 2734 2984 3234 3484 3734 3984 4234 4484 4734
–4808 1802 2024 2456 2881 3302 3722 4141 4559 4976 5394 5811 6227 6644 7060 7477 7893
53.6 129.4 131.8 135.7 139.0 141.8 144.3 146.5 148.5 150.3 152.0 153.5 155.0 156.3 157.6 158.7 159.9
23.1 13.1 12.9 12.6 12.6 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
44.7 22.5 21.9 21.4 21.1 21.0 21.0 20.9 20.9 20.9 20.9 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8 20.8
820 174 184 203 220 235 250 263 276 289 300 312 323 333 344 354 363
278.8 7.5 8.2 9.8 11.4 13.0 14.5 16.0 17.5 18.9 20.3 21.6 22.9 24.2 25.4 26.6 27.8
132.4 6.0 6.6 7.8 9.0 10.2 11.4 12.5 13.7 14.8 15.8 16.9 17.9 18.9 19.9 20.8 21.7
P = 1 MPa 85 35.307 90 34.542 100 32.909 120 1.181 140 0.945 160 0.799 180 0.697 200 0.619 220 0.559 240 0.509 260 0.468 280 0.433 300 0.403 320 0.377 340 0.355 360 0.335 380 0.317
–4820 –4598 –4145 1210 1544 1838 2116 2384 2648 2908 3167 3423 3679 3934 4188 4441 4694
–4792 –4569 –4115 2057 2603 3089 3551 3999 4438 4873 5304 5732 6159 6583 7007 7429 7851
53.5 56.1 60.9 114.3 118.5 121.8 124.5 126.9 128.9 130.8 132.6 134.2 135.6 137.0 138.3 139.5 140.6
23.1 21.6 19.9 14.7 13.5 13.0 12.8 12.7 12.6 12.6 12.6 12.6 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
44.6 44.7 46.2 30.1 25.4 23.6 22.7 22.2 21.8 21.6 21.5 21.4 21.3 21.2 21.2 21.1 21.1
823 808 753 189 212 231 247 262 275 288 301 312 324 334 345 355 365
281.3 242.7 185.0 10.3 11.8 13.3 14.8 16.3 17.7 19.1 20.4 21.8 23.1 24.3 25.5 26.7 27.9
133.0 124.2 109.2 9.3 10.1 11.1 12.1 13.2 14.2 15.3 16.3 17.3 18.3 19.2 20.2 21.1 22.0
P = 10 MPa 90 35.208
–4694
–4410
55.0
21.9
43.2
846
265.2
129.5
6-18
Cp J/mol K
η µPa s
E J/mol
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS (continued) T K
ρ mol/L
E J/mol
H J/mol
S J/mol K
Cv J/mol K
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380
33.744 30.525 26.609 20.816 12.296 8.442 6.776 5.787 5.105 4.596 4.195 3.869 3.596 3.364 3.164
–4271 –3396 –2447 –1279 228 1118 1661 2087 2458 2798 3119 3427 3726 4017 4303
–3974 –3069 –2072 –799 1042 2302 3137 3815 4416 4974 5503 6012 6506 6989 7464
59.6 67.8 75.5 83.9 94.8 101.4 105.4 108.4 110.8 112.9 114.7 116.3 117.8 119.2 120.5
20.4 18.8 17.6 17.4 17.3 15.3 14.2 13.7 13.4 13.2 13.1 13.0 13.0 12.9 12.9
Cp J/mol K 44.0 46.9 54.1 78.6 83.6 48.6 36.8 31.6 28.8 27.1 25.9 25.0 24.4 23.9 23.5
vs m/s 800 672 526 357 257 268 284 300 314 327 339 350 361 372 381
η µPa s 205.0 131.2 85.9 51.3 27.8 23.3 22.8 23.2 23.9 24.8 25.7 26.7 27.7 28.7 29.7
λ mW/m K 115.1 92.1 71.7 52.8 32.0 23.6 21.6 21.3 21.4 21.8 22.3 22.9 23.5 24.2 24.9
Methane (CH4) T K
ρ mol/L
E J/mol
H J/mol
S J/mol K
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
η µPa s
λ mW/m K
D
P = 0.1 MPa (1 bar) 100 27.370 125 0.099 150 0.081 175 0.069 200 0.061 225 0.054 250 0.048 275 0.044 300 0.040 325 0.037 350 0.034 375 0.032 400 0.030 425 0.028 450 0.027 500 0.024 600 0.020
–5258 3026 3667 4301 4935 5571 6216 6875 7552 8252 8979 9737 10528 11354 12215 14047 18111
–5254 4039 4896 5743 6587 7434 8288 9156 10042 10951 11887 12853 13852 14886 15956 18204 23101
73.0 156.5 162.7 168.0 172.5 176.5 180.1 183.4 186.4 189.4 192.1 194.8 197.4 199.9 202.3 207.1 216.0
33.4 25.4 25.2 25.2 25.3 25.5 26.0 26.6 27.5 28.5 29.7 30.9 32.3 33.7 35.2 38.0 42.9
54.1 34.6 34.0 33.8 33.8 34.0 34.4 35.0 35.9 36.9 38.0 39.3 40.7 42.1 43.5 46.4 51.3
156.3 5.0 5.9 6.9 7.8 8.7 9.6 10.4 11.2 12.0 12.8 13.5 14.3 15.0 15.7 17.0 19.4
208.1 13.4 16.2 19.1 21.9 24.8 27.8 30.9 34.1 37.6 41.2 45.1 49.1 53.3 57.6 66.5 84.1
1.65504 1.00193 1.00159 1.00136 1.00119 1.00105 1.00095 1.00086 1.00079 1.00073 1.00068 1.00063 1.00059 1.00056 1.00053 1.00047 1.00039
P = 1 MPa 100 27.413 125 25.137 150 0.969 175 0.765 200 0.644 225 0.560 250 0.497 275 0.448 300 0.408 325 0.375 350 0.347 375 0.323 400 0.302 425 0.284 450 0.268 500 0.241 600 0.200
–5268 –3882 3282 4041 4736 5410 6081 6758 7449 8160 8897 9662 10460 11291 12157 13997 18073
–5231 –3842 4315 5348 6289 7197 8093 8991 9901 10829 11781 12760 13770 14814 15892 18153 23070
72.9 85.3 140.9 147.3 152.3 156.6 160.4 163.8 167.0 169.9 172.8 175.5 178.1 180.6 183.1 187.8 196.8
33.4 32.4 27.9 26.4 25.9 25.9 26.2 26.8 27.6 28.6 29.7 31.0 32.4 33.8 35.2 38.1 43.0
54.0 57.4 45.2 38.9 36.8 36.0 35.8 36.1 36.7 37.6 38.6 39.8 41.1 42.4 43.8 46.6 51.4
158.1 89.2 6.2 7.1 8.0 8.9 9.7 10.6 11.4 12.1 12.9 13.6 14.4 15.1 15.7 17.0 19.5
208.9 168.2 18.4 20.6 23.1 25.8 28.7 31.7 34.9 38.3 41.9 45.7 49.6 53.8 58.1 66.9 84.5
1.65617 1.59261 1.01911 1.01507 1.01268 1.01102 1.00979 1.00882 1.00803 1.00738 1.00683 1.00636 1.00595 1.00559 1.00527 1.00474 1.00394
6-19
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS (continued) ρ mol/L
E J/mol
P = 10 MPa 100 27.815 125 25.754 150 23.441 175 20.613 200 16.602 225 10.547 250 7.013 275 5.530 300 4.685 325 4.115 350 3.695 375 3.366 400 3.101 425 2.880 450 2.692 500 2.389 600 1.963
–5362 –4036 –2655 –1175 542 2680 4289 5387 6320 7192 8047 8903 9774 10666 11584 13507 17700
T K
H J/mol –5003 –3648 –2229 –689 1144 3628 5714 7195 8454 9622 10753 11874 12999 14138 15298 17692 22795
S J/mol K
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
η µPa s
72.0 84.1 94.4 103.9 113.6 125.3 134.1 139.8 144.2 147.9 151.3 154.4 157.3 160.0 162.7 167.7 177.0
33.8 32.7 31.4 30.3 30.1 30.8 29.3 28.7 28.9 29.6 30.5 31.7 32.9 34.3 35.7 38.5 43.3
53.2 55.3 58.6 65.5 84.7 102.2 67.4 53.4 48.0 45.8 44.9 44.8 45.2 46.0 46.9 48.9 52.9
175.4 100.4 65.7 44.9 29.4 17.6 14.3 13.8 13.9 14.3 14.7 15.2 15.8 16.3 16.9 18.0 20.2
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
λ mW/m K 217 178.8 144.6 113.4 85.8 61.0 47.6 44.1 44.6 46.6 49.2 52.3 55.7 59.4 63.3 71.6 88.3
D
1.66668 1.60895 1.54553 1.47021 1.36789 1.22352 1.14481 1.11297 1.09513 1.08322 1.07450 1.06773 1.06227 1.05775 1.05392 1.04775 1.03911
Ethane (C2H6) T K
ρ mol/L
E J/mol
H J/mol
S J/mol K
vs m/s
D
P = 0.1 MPa (1 bar) 95 21.50 100 21.32 125 20.41 150 19.47 175 18.49 200 0.062 225 0.054 250 0.049 275 0.044 300 0.040 325 0.037 350 0.035 375 0.032 400 0.030 450 0.027 500 0.024 600 0.020
–14555 –14210 –12468 –10717 –8938 5503 6401 7349 8360 9439 10592 11823 13133 14525 17548 20883 28429
–14550 –14205 –12463 –10712 -8933 7123 8238 9401 10624 11914 13278 14719 16240 17841 21282 25035 33415
80.2 83.8 99.3 112.1 123.1 210.1 215.4 220.3 224.9 229.4 233.8 238.1 242.3 246.4 254.5 262.4 277.6
47.2 47.1 45.0 43.4 42.7 34.5 36.5 38.9 41.6 44.5 47.6 50.7 54.0 57.2 63.6 69.7 80.9
68.7 69.3 69.8 70.4 72.1 43.8 45.5 47.7 50.2 53.1 56.1 59.2 62.4 65.6 72.0 78.1 89.3
1970 1943 1775 1587 1396 258 273 287 300 312 324 335 345 355 375 393 428
1.93480 1.92500 1.87634 1.82726 1.77671 1.00208 1.00183 1.00164 1.00148 1.00136 1.00125 1.00116 1.00108 1.00101 1.00090 1.00081 1.00067
P = 1 MPa 95 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400
–14562 –14217 –12478 –10731 –8957 –7127 –5199 6762 7902 9063 10273 11546 12889 14306
–14515 –14170 –12429 –10679 –8903 –7070 –5137 8534 9949 11363 12815 14321 15893 17534
80.2 83.7 99.2 112.0 123.0 132.7 141.8 198.7 204.1 209.0 213.7 218.1 222.5 226.7
47.3 47.2 45.0 43.4 42.7 42.9 43.8 41.6 43.2 45.5 48.3 51.3 54.4 57.5
68.7 69.3 69.8 70.3 72.0 74.9 80.2 57.5 56.2 57.2 59.1 61.5 64.2 67.1
1972 1946 1778 1592 1402 1209 1008 260 280 297 311 325 337 349
1.93537 1.92560 1.87709 1.82823 1.77800 1.72513 1.66733 1.01909 1.01650 1.01467 1.01327 1.01214 1.01121 1.01043
21.514 21.334 20.427 19.494 18.515 17.464 16.288 0.564 0.489 0.435 0.393 0.360 0.333 0.310
6-20
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS (continued) T K
ρ mol/L
450 500 600
0.272 0.244 0.201
17367 20730 28313
21038 24836 33278
234.9 242.9 258.3
21.624 21.448 20.570 19.678 18.758 17.793 16.760 15.620 14.301 12.666 10.398 7.292 5.182 4.182 3.204 2.677 2.076
–14626 –14286 –12572 –10858 –9130 –7363 –5535 –3609 –1539 757 3443 6643 9419 11577 15379 19135 27160
–14163 –13819 –12086 –10350 –8596 –6801 –4938 –2969 –839 1547 4404 8015 11349 13968 18500 22870 31978
79.5 83.0 98.5 111.1 121.9 131.5 140.3 148.6 156.7 165.0 174.1 184.8 194.1 200.8 211.5 220.7 237.3
P = 10 MPa 95 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 450 500 600
E J/mol
H J/mol
S J/mol K
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
vs m/s
D
63.8 69.9 81.0
73.0 78.9 89.8
370 390 427
1.00917 1.00819 1.00677
47.4 47.4 45.5 43.9 43.3 43.5 44.3 45.8 47.9 50.8 54.7 58.8 60.0 61.4 65.8 71.2 81.8
68.5 69.1 69.3 69.6 70.8 73.0 76.4 81.5 89.4 102.7 129.1 150.1 115.7 96.9 87.5 88.0 94.7
2000 1974 1814 1637 1459 1284 1110 935 758 577 399 290 289 310 347 378 427
1.94104 1.93146 1.88436 1.83753 1.79010 1.74134 1.69017 1.63488 1.57249 1.49740 1.39745 1.26832 1.18570 1.14797 1.11193 1.09288 1.07142
Propane (C3H8) T K
ρ mol/L
E J/mol
H J/mol
S J/mol K
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
vs m/s
D
P = 0.1 MPa (1 bar) 90 16.526 100 16.295 125 15.726 150 15.156 175 14.577 200 13.982 225 13.339 250 0.050 275 0.045 300 0.041 325 0.037 350 0.035 375 0.032 400 0.030 450 0.027 500 0.024 600 0.020
–21486 –20639 –18495 –16319 –14096 –11806 –9395 9194 10691 12297 14019 15862 17827 19912 24441 29428 40677
–21426 –20577 –18432 –16253 –14028 –11735 –9387 11213 12930 14752 16689 18744 20921 23217 28166 33573 45658
87.3 96.2 115.4 131.3 145.0 157.3 168.5 257.6 264.1 270.5 276.7 282.8 288.8 294.7 306.4 317.7 339.7
59.2 59.6 59.2 58.9 59.5 61.0 63.4 57.2 61.6 66.2 71.1 76.0 80.9 85.7 95.2 104.1 120.4
84.5 85.2 86.5 88.0 90.3 93.5 97.9 66.8 70.7 75.1 79.8 84.6 89.5 94.3 103.6 112.6 128.8
2126 2041 1856 1685 1521 1359 1197 228 239 249 259 269 278 286 303 318 347
2.07988 2.05806 2.00674 1.95796 1.91036 1.86300 1.81487 1.00238 1.00215 1.00195 1.00179 1.00166 1.00154 1.00144 1.00128 1.00115 1.00095
P = 1 MPa 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325
–21486 –20639 –18495 –16319 –14096 –11806 –9424 –6919 –4252 –1360 13278
–21426 –20577 –18432 –16253 –14028 –11735 –9349 –6840 –4169 –1270 15614
87.2 96.2 115.3 131.2 144.9 157.2 168.4 179.0 189.1 199.2 255.2
59.3 59.7 59.2 59.0 59.6 61.1 63.4 66.4 70.0 74.1 74.1
84.5 85.2 86.4 88.0 90.2 93.4 97.7 103.3 110.8 121.9 89.6
2128 2043 1859 1690 1526 1365 1205 1045 881 708 233
2.08034 2.05856 2.00736 1.95873 1.91132 1.86421 1.81642 1.76672 1.71316 1.65216 1.02067
16.526 16.295 15.726 15.156 14.577 13.982 13.361 12.696 11.962 11.102 0.428
6-21
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS (continued) T K 350 375 400 450 500 600 P = 10 MPa 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 450 500 600
ρ mol/L
E J/mol
H J/mol
S J/mol K
Cv J/mol K
Cp J/mol K
vs m/s
D
0.383 0.349 0.322 0.279 0.248 0.203
15259 17318 19472 24092 29137 40455
17869 20183 22582 27672 33172 45374
261.9 268.3 274.4 286.4 298.0 320.2
78.0 82.2 86.7 95.7 104.4 120.5
91.2 94.2 97.8 105.9 114.1 129.7
248 261 272 293 312 344
1.01846 1.01678 1.01544 1.01337 1.01184 1.00968
16.590 16.364 15.810 15.259 14.705 14.141 13.562 12.960 12.322 11.631 10.860 9.973 8.905 7.561 4.614 3.241 2.242
–21553 –20714 –18595 –16448 –14261 –12016 –9692 –7268 –4721 –2027 843 3924 7270 10957 18845 25567 38131
–20951 –20103 –17962 –15793 –13581 –11309 –8955 –6496 –3909 –1167 1764 4927 8393 12279 21013 28652 42591
86.5 95.4 114.5 130.3 144.0 156.1 167.2 177.5 187.4 196.9 206.3 215.7 225.2 235.3 255.8 272.0 297.4
59.9 60.1 59.6 59.3 59.9 61.4 63.7 66.7 70.2 74.1 78.4 82.9 87.7 93.0 101.8 107.8 121.7
84.4 85.1 86.1 87.5 89.5 92.4 96.1 100.7 106.4 113.2 121.5 132.0 146.1 165.7 167.8 142.7 140.5
2146 2068 1895 1733 1577 1425 1277 1133 991 851 715 582 455 339 249 276 332
2.08489 2.06350 2.01342 1.96617 1.92048 1.87557 1.83076 1.78529 1.73826 1.68849 1.63437 1.57361 1.50271 1.41671 1.24060 1.16439 1.11122
6-22
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES Henry V. Kehiaian This table gives second virial coefficients of about 110 inorganic and organic gases as a function of temperature. Selected data from the literature have been fitted by least squares to the equation n
[
]
B/ cm 3 mol –1 = ∑ a(i ) (To / T ) – 1 i =1
i–1
where To = 298.15 K. The table gives the coefficients a(i) and values of B at fixed temperature increments, as calculated from this smoothing equation. The equation may be used with the tabulated coefficients for interpolation within the indicated temperature range. It should not be used for extrapolation beyond this range. Compounds are listed in the modified Hill order (see Introduction), with carboncontaining compounds following those compounds not containing carbon. A useful compilation of virial coefficient data from the literature may be found in: J. H. Dymond and E. B. Smith, The Virial Coefficients of Pure Gases and Mixtures, A Critical Compilation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1980.
Compounds Not Containing Carbon Mol. form. Ar
Name
T/K
Argon
a(1) = –16 a(2) = –60 a(3) = –10
BF3
Boron trifluoride
a(1) = –106 a(2) = –330 a(3) = –251 a(4) = –80 ClH
Hydrogen chloride
a(1) = –144 a(2) = –325 a(3) = –277 a(4) = –170
Cl2
Chlorine
6-23
B/cm3 mol–1
100 120 140 160 80 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
–184 –131 –98 –76 –60 –48 –16 –1 7 12 15 18 20 22
200 240 280 320 360 400 440
–338 –202 –129 –85 –56 –37 –23
190 230 270 310 350 390 430 470
–451 –269 –181 –132 –102 –81 –66 –54
210 220
–508 –483
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
Name
T/K
a(1) = –303 a(2) = –555 a(3) = 9 a(4) = 329 a(5) = 68
F2
Fluorine
a(1) = –25 a(2) = 21 a(3) = –185 a(4) = 113 F4Si
Silicon tetrafluoride
a(1) = –138 a(2) = –312
F5I
Iodine pentafluoride
a(1) = –3077 a(2) = –8474 a(3) = –9116
F5P
Phosphorus pentafluoride
a(1) = –186 a(2) = –345
F6Mo
Molybdenum hexafluoride
6-24
B/cm3 mol–1
230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900
–457 –432 –407 –383 –360 –339 –318 –299 –221 –166 –126 –97 –59 –36 –22 –12
80 110 140 170 200 230 260
–386 –171 –113 –73 –47 –32 –25
210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450
–268 –213 –170 –136 –108 –84 –64 –47 –32
320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410
–2540 –2344 –2172 –2021 –1890 –1775 –1674 –1587 –1510 –1443
320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460
–162 –143 –127 –112 –98 –86 –75 –64
300 310 320
–896 –810 –737
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
F6S
Name
T/K
a(1) = –914 a(2) = –2922 a(3) = –4778
330 340 350 360 370 380 390
–677 –627 –586 –553 –527 –506 –491
Sulfur hexafluoride
200 250 300 350 400 450 500
–685 –416 –275 –190 –135 –96 –68
320 340 360 380 400 420 440
–1030 –905 –805 –724 –658 –604 –560
320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460
–641 –578 –523 –473 –428 –387 –350 –317
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400
–230 –151 –108 –82 –64 –52 –42 –35 –24 –16 –11 –7 –3 11 15 18
300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440
–1126 –850 –660 –526 –428 –356 –301 –258
a(1) = –279 a(2) = –647 a(3) = –335 a(4) = –72 F6U
Uranium hexafluoride
a(1) = –1204 a(2) = –2690 a(3) = –2144
F6W
Tungsten hexafluoride
a(1) = –719 a(2) = –1143
H2
Hydrogen
a(1) = 15.4 a(2) = –9.0 a(3) = –0.2
H2O
B/cm3 mol–1
Water
a(1) = –1158 a(2) = –5157 a(3) = –10301 a(4) =–10597 a(5) = –4415
6-25
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
H3N
Name
T/K
Ammonia
a(1) = –271 a(2) = –1022 a(3) = –2715 a(4) = –4189
H3P
Phosphine
a(1) = –146 a(2) = –733 a(3) = 1022 a(4) = –1220
He
Helium
a(1) = 12 a(2) = –1
Kr
Krypton
a(1) = –51 a(2) = –118
6-26
B/cm3 mol–1
460 480 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
–224 –197 –175 –104 –67 –44 –30 –20 –14 –11
290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 400 420
–302 –265 –236 –213 –194 –179 –166 –154 –144 –135 –118 –101
190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290
–457 –404 –364 –332 –305 –281 –258 –235 –213 –190 –166
2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 50 70 90 110 150 250 650 700
–172 –48 –24 –13 –7 –3 –1 1 6 8 10 10 11 12 13 13
110 120 130 140 150
–363 –307 –263 –229 –201
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
NO
Name
T/K
a(3) = –29 a(4) = –5
160 170 180 190 200 250 300 400 500 600 700
–178 –159 –143 –129 –117 –75 –51 –23 –8 2 8
Nitric oxide
120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 230 250 270
–232 –176 –138 –113 –96 –83 –73 –65 –58 –52 –42 –32 –24
75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 400 500 600 700
–274 –161 –104 –71 –49 –34 –24 –15 –4 9 16 21 24
240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
–219 –181 –151 –128 –110 –96 –85 –76 –68
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
–25 –13 –6 –1 2 4 6 7
a(1) = –12 a(2) = –119 a(3) = 89 a(4) = –73
N2
Nitrogen
a(1) = –4 a(2) = –56 a(3) = –12
N2O
Nitrous oxide
a(1) = –130 a(2) = –307 a(3) = –248
Ne
B/cm3 mol–1
Neon
a(1) = 10.8 a(2) = –7.5 a(3) = 0.4
6-27
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
O2
Name
Oxygen
a(1) = –16 a(2) = –62 a(3) = –8 a(4) = –3
O2S
Sulfur dioxide
a(1) = –430 a(2) = –1193 a(3) = –1029
Xe
B/cm3 mol–1
T/K
Xenon
a(1) = –130 a(2) = –262 a(3) = –87
300 400 500 600
11 13 14 15
90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 270 290 310 330 350 400
–241 –161 –117 –88 –69 –55 –44 –36 –29 –23 –18 –14 –10 –7 –1
290 320 350 380 410 440 470
–465 –354 –276 –221 –181 –153 –132
160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 300 350 400 500 600 650
–421 –377 –340 –307 –280 –255 –234 –215 –199 –184 –129 –93 –69 –39 –21 –14
Compounds Containing Carbon Mol. form. CClF3
Name Chlorotrifluoromethane
a(1) = –223 a(2) = –504 a(3) = –340 a(4) = –291
6-28
T/K
B/cm3 mol–1
240 290 340 390 440 490 540
–369 –237 –165 –119 –86 –60 –39
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form. CCl2F2
Name Dichlorodifluoromethane
a(1) = –486 a(2) = –1217 a(3) = –1188 a(4) = –698
CCl3F
Trichlorofluoromethane
a(1) = –786 a(2) = –1428 a(3) = –142
CCl4
Tetrachloromethane
a(1) = –1600 a(2) = –4059 a(3) = –4653 CF4
Tetrafluoromethane
a(1) = –88 a(2) = –238 a(3) = –70
CHClF2
Chlorodifluoromethane
a(1) = –347 a(2) = –575 a(3) = 187 CHCl2F
Dichlorofluoromethane
a(1) = –562 a(2) = –862
CHCl3
Trichloromethane
a(1) = –1193 a(2) = –2936 a(3) = –1751
6-29
T/K
B/cm3 mol–1
250 280 310 340 370 400 430 460
–769 –570 –441 –353 –289 –241 –204 –174
240 280 320 360 400 440 480
–1140 –879 –689 –545 –431 –340 –265
320 340 360 380 400 420
–1345 –1171 –1040 –942 –868 –814
250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800
–137 –87 –55 –32 –16 –4 14 25 33
300 325 350 375 400 425
–343 –298 –257 –221 –188 –158
250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450
–728 –634 –557 –491 –434 –385 –343 –305 –271
320 330 340 350 360 370 380
–1001 –926 –858 –797 –740 –689 –642
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
CHF3
Name
Trifluoromethane
a(1) = –177 a(2) = –399 a(3) = –250
CH2Cl2
Dichloromethane
a(1) = –913 a(2) = –3371 a(3) = –5013
CH2F2
Difluoromethane
a(1) = –321 a(2) = –754 a(3) = –1300
CH3Br
Bromomethane
a(1) = –559 a(2) = –1324
CH3Cl
Chloromethane
a(1) = –407 a(2) = –887 a(3) = –385
CH3F
Fluoromethane
6-30
T/K
B/cm3 mol–1
390 400
–599 –559
200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
–433 –350 –288 –241 –204 –174 –151 –132 –116 –103 –91
320 330 340 350 360 370 380 400 420
–706 –634 –574 –524 –482 –447 –420 –380 –357
280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350
–375 –343 –316 –294 –275 –260 –248 –238
280 290 300 310 320 340 360 380
–645 –596 –551 –509 –469 –396 –332 –274
280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 600
–466 –402 –348 –304 –266 –234 –206 –182 –161 –142 –126 –112 –58
280
–244
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
Name
a(1) = –209 a(2) = –525 a(3) = –365
CH3I
Iodomethane
a(1) = –844 a(2) = –3353 a(3) = –6590
CH4
Methane
a(1) = –43 a(2) = –114 a(3) = –19 a(4) = –7
CH4O
Methanol
a(1) = –1752 a(2) = –4694
CH5N
Methylamine
a(1) = –459 a(2) = –1191 a(3) = –995
CO
Carbon monoxide
a(1) = –9
6-31
T/K
B/cm3 mol–1
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
–205 –174 –150 –129 –112 –99 –87
310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380
–725 –646 –582 –531 –492 –462 –441 –427
110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 250 300 350 400 500 600
–328 –276 –237 –206 –181 –160 –143 –128 –116 –105 –66 –43 –27 –16 0 10
320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
–1431 –1299 –1174 –1056 –945 –840 –741 –646 –557
300 325 350 375 400 425 450 500 550
–451 –367 –304 –257 –220 –192 –170 –140 –122
210 240 270 300
–36 –24 –15 –8
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
Name a(2) = –58 a(3) = –18
CO2
Carbon dioxide
a(1) = –127 a(2) = –288 a(3) = –118
CS2
Carbon disulfide
a(1) = –807 a(2) = –1829 a(3) = –1371 C2Cl2F4
1,2-Dichloro-1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane
a(1) = –812 a(2) = –1773 a(3) = –963
C2Cl3F3
1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane
a(1) = –999 a(2) = –1479
C2H2
Ethyne
a(1) = –216 a(2) = –375 a(3) = –716
6-32
T/K
B/cm3 mol–1
330 360 420 480
–3 1 7 11
220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
–244 –204 –172 –146 –126 –108 –94 –81 –71 –62 –30 –13 –1 7 12 16 19
280 310 340 370 400 430
–932 –740 –603 –504 –431 –375
300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
–801 –695 –608 –536 –475 –423 –379 –341 –307 –279 –253
290 310 330 350 370 390 410 430 450
–1041 –943 –856 –780 –712 –651 –596 –546 –500
200 210 220 230 240 250
–573 –500 –440 –390 –349 –315
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
C2H3N
Name
Ethanenitrile
a(1) = –5840 a(2) = –29175 a(3) = –47611
C2H4
Ethene
a(1) = –140 a(2) = –296 a(3) = –101
C2H4Cl2
1,2-Dichloroethane
a(1) = –1362 a(2) = –3240 a(3) = –2100
C2H4O
Ethanal
a(1) = –1217 a(2) = –4647 a(3) = –5725
C2H4O2
Methyl methanoate
a(1) = –1035 a(2) = –3425 a(3) = –4203
C2H5Cl
Chloroethane
a(1) = –777 a(2) = –2205 a(3) = –1764
6-33
T/K
B/cm3 mol–1
260 270
–287 –263
330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410
–3468 –2971 –2563 –2233 –1970 –1765 –1610 –1499 –1425
240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450
–218 –172 –139 –113 –92 –76 –63 –52
370 390 410 430 450 470 490 510 530 550 570
–812 –716 –635 –566 –508 –458 –416 –379 –347 –319 –295
290 320 350 380 410 440 470
–1352 –927 –654 –482 –375 –314 –283
320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
–821 –744 –677 –620 –571 –528 –492 –461 –435
320 360 400 440 480 520
–634 –450 –330 –249 –195 –157
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
C2H6
Name
Ethane
a(1) = –184 a(2) = –376 a(3) = –143 a(4) = –54
C2H6O
Ethanol
a(1) = –4475 a(2) = –29719 a(3) = –56716
C2H6O
Dimethyl ether
a(1) = –455 a(2) = –965
C2H7N
Dimethylamine
a(1) = –662 a(2) = –1504 a(3) = –667
C2H7N
Ethylamine
a(1) = –785 a(2) = –2012 a(3) = –1397
C3H6
Cyclopropane
6-34
T/K
B/cm3 mol–1
560 600
–131 –114
200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 500 600
–409 –337 –284 –242 –209 –181 –159 –140 –123 –109 –96 –52 –24
320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
–2710 –2135 –1676 –1317 –1043 –843 –705 –622
275 280 285 290 295 300 305 310
–536 –517 –499 –482 –465 –449 –433 –418
310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
–606 –563 –523 –487 –454 –423 –395 –369 –345 –322
300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
–773 –710 –654 –604 –558 –517 –480 –447 –416 –389 –363
300
–383
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
Name
a(1) = –388 a(2) = –861 a(3) = –538
C3H6
Propene
a(1) = –347 a(2) = –727 a(3) = –325
C3H6O
2-Propanone
a(1) = –2051 a(2) = –8903 a(3) = –18056 a(4) = –16448
C3H6O
Ethyl methanoate
a(1) = –1371 a(2) = –4231 a(3) = –4312
C3H6O
Methyl ethanoate
a(1) = –1709 a(2) = –6348 a(3) = –9650
C3H7Cl
1-Chloropropane
a(1) = –1121 a(2) = –3271 a(3) = –3786 a(4) = –1974
6-35
T/K
B/cm3 mol–1
310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
–356 –332 –310 –290 –272 –256 –241 –227 –215 –204
280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
–395 –342 –299 –262 –232 –205 –183 –163 –146 –131 –118 –106
300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480
–1996 –1522 –1198 –971 –806 –683 –586 –506 –437 –375
330 340 350 360 370 380 390
–1003 –916 –839 –771 –712 –660 –614
320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
–1320 –1186 –1074 –980 –903 –840 –789 –749
310 340 370 400 430 460 490
–1001 –772 –614 –501 –417 –352 –302
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
C3H8
Name
Propane
a(1) = –386 a(2) = –844 a(3) = –720 a(4) = –574
C3H8O
1-Propanol
a(1) = –2690 a(2) = –12040 a(3) = –16738
C3H8O
2-Propanol
a(1) = –3165 a(2) = –16092 a(3) = –24197
C3H9N
Trimethylamine
a(1) = –737 a(2) = –1669 a(3) = –986
C4H8
1-Butene
a(1) = –633 a(2) = –1442 a(3) = –932
C4H8O
2-Butanone
a(1) = –2282
6-36
T/K
B/cm3 mol–1
520 550 580
–261 –227 –198
240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 440 480 520 560
–641 –527 –444 –381 –331 –292 –259 –232 –208 –169 –138 –112 –90
380 385 390 395 400 405 410 415 420
–873 –826 –783 –744 –709 –679 –651 –627 –606
380 385 390 395 400 405 410 415 420
–821 –766 –717 –674 –636 –604 –576 –552 –533
310 320 330 340 350 360 370
–675 –628 –585 –547 –512 –480 –450
300 320 340 360 380 400 420
–624 –539 –470 –413 –366 –327 –294
310 320 330 340
–2056 –1878 –1712 –1555
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
C4H8O2
Name
T/K
a(2) = –5907
350 360 370
–1407 –1267 –1135
Propyl methanoate
330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
–1496 –1354 –1231 –1126 –1035 –957 –890 –834
330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
–1543 –1385 –1254 –1144 –1055 –982 –923 –878
330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
–1588 –1444 –1319 –1211 –1117 –1037 –968 –908
330 370 410 450 490 530 570
–1224 –898 –691 –551 –449 –371 –309
250 280 310 340 370 400 430 460 490 520 550
–1170 –863 –668 –536 –442 –371 –315 –270 –232 –199 –171
270 300 330 360 390 420 450
–900 –697 –553 –450 –374 –317 –273
a(1) = –2118 a(2) = –7299 a(3) = –8851
C4H8O2
Ethyl ethanoate
a(1) = –2272 a(2) = –8818 a(3) = –13130
C4H8O2
Methyl propanoate
a(1) = –2216 a(2) = –7339 a(3) = –8658
C4H9Cl
1-Chlorobutane
a(1) = –1643 a(2) = –4897 a(3) = –6178 a(4) = –3718 C4H10
Butane
a(1) = –735 a(2) = –1835 a(3) = –1922 a(4) = –1330
C4H10
B/cm3 mol–1
2-Methylpropane
a(1) = –707 a(2) = –1719 a(3) = –1282
6-37
VIRIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SELECTED GASES (continued) Mol. form.
C4H10O
Name
1-Butanol
a(1) = –2629 a(2) = –6315
C4H10O
2-Methyl-1-propanol
a(1) = –2269 a(2) = –5065
C4H10O
2-Butanol
a(1) = –2232 a(2) = –5
