Contem porary Public Administration (IDEAS AND ISSUES)
Dr. P.B. Rathod
rml ~
ABD PUBLISHERS JAIPUR
(INDIA)
ABO PUBLISHERS, B-46, Natraj Nagar, Imliwala Phatak, Jaipur - 302 005 (Rajasthan) INDIA Phone: 0141-2594705,Fax:0141-2597527 e-mail:
[email protected] website: www.abdpublishers.com
© Author
No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any information, storage and retrieval systemwithout permission in writing from the publishers. ebook EDITION :2010
ISBN : 978-81-89011-09-3
Contents
1. Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance of Public Administration
1
2. Environmental Influences on Public Administration 3. Relations of Public Administration with other Social Sciences 4. Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
5. Organisation and Its Principles 6. Organisation and Its Theories 7. Management 8. Financial Administration
9. Public Relations 10. Personnel Administration
21 41 56 76 97 122 139 155 166
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
1 Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance of Public Administration
Background Public administration, which is concerned primarily with the execution of government policy, is a branch of political science. Political Science teaches us that man is a gregariollS animaL He is wedded to the company of his fellows. He can fulfil himself only in society. Gone are the days of Police State. 1 That does not mean there was no administration. But the scope of administration was too limited, too narrow and too restricted as the sphere of the state activity was limited~ In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the motto was "less government in business and more business in government." It was said that "government is the best which governs the least." This is no longer accepted today. The sphere of state activity has been continuously expanding and so in the scope of public administration. Over the years, the scope of public administration has considerably increased.
2
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Modern states are welfare states. 2 The modern state has a number of activities to undertake, multifarious functions to perform and various duties to discharge. The activities of t1:).e state are fast increasing in a response due to the growing needs, problems and complexities of man's life. The state has been playing a positive, effective and dynamic role in the life of man. The activities, duties and functions of modern welfare state have been fast expanding and increasing in terms of its laws, policies, decisions and programmes. So, the need of administration has been felt and realised as an urgent necessity to implement, enforce and execute the laws, policies and programmes of a welfare state so as to realise the goals of such state. So, the scope of public administration and its importance has been increasing and expanding correspondingly to the increase of state activities. So, today, there is no any single activity left untouched or uncovered either by the state or by public administration. In fact, there is no aspect of life which public administration does not touch. If the government of the state makes laws, policies, plans, decisions and programmes, it is the administrative machinery which implements, enforces and executes those plans, policies, laws, decisions and programmes of the state so that the end of the state i.e. welfare of the people is achieved and realised. As the state is permanent so also administration is permanent. Old government may go and new government may come but administration is always there as permanentl machinery of the state.
Meaning Administration is derived from the Latin root "administrate," which means "to assist or to direct." Public administration has been a subject of controversy for the last 50 years. Defining the subject is not a "rewarding enterprise" in the
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance ...
3
sense that there cannot be an all satisfying explanation of the discipline "public administration."4 An attempt to define public administration is always fraught with difficulties. The nature of the subj~ct eludes an accur~te explanation. Although defining of the term is not rewarding, it is still worth attempting. Caiden says "No one has yet produced a simple definition of public administration that is fully acceptable to both practitioners and scholars." Further, he says that the subject matter of public administration and its nature is "indeterminate." In order to learn what public administration is about, one has to study its contents. It is not easy and convenient to precisely explain what public administration is. It is an activity as well as a subject matter of study. Thus, public administration has a dual character. It is both process and the subject of study in colleges and universities. Thus, it is a "subject" matter of study, teaching and research in colleges and universities. Further, it is regarded as a profession or practice. As a subject of study public administration means rather different things to different groups of students. Public administration is a subject for academics, administrators and citizens. 5 As an academic subject, public administration students try to understand how a country's administration is organised and how it functions. As a field of study, public administration is mainly concerned with the means for implementing political values. It may be defined as the coordination of individual and group effects to carry out public policy. It is mainly occupied with the routine work of government. Professor Ridley considers public administration as a cross-road science because numerous approaches form a part of the discipline. 6 He says that public administration has become a true cross-roads science, so inter-disciplinary that links with political science and also links with other
4
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
disciplines. Paul H. Appleby regards administration as a broad term involving policy making as well as execution. Administration according to Professor L.D. White means "managing the aff~irs, organising the state. Administration is a process common to all group efforts, public or private, civil or military." In administrative behaviour, Simon describes "administration as the art getting things done." To Prof. Wilson it "is detailed and systematic application of law." According to dictionary, administration is the management of affairs. It is concerned with the implementation of public policy laid down by men in power and authority. Bertram M. Gross thinks that administration may convey the following: Managin'g Administering Governing Guiding Coordinating Integrating Running Directing Supervising Controlli~g
An organisation. The activities of the organisation. Organised human behaviour. An enterprise. An undertaking. A group of people. People. The activities of the people. Subordinates. The use of resources.
From the different perspectives, we can define administration as a process or function. It is planning, organising, leading and evaluating of others so as to achieve specified ends. Administration is the world of the official, who is concerned with facts, execution, means, accountability methods, laws and structures. The essence of administration is concerned with the goals. Public administration fs the accomplishment of politically determined objectives. Public administration is one of the aspects of the larger field of
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance ...
5
administration. There is an element of inseparability between government and public administration. We cannot study the public administration of a country without understanding its governmental system. There is a fundamental organic unity between government and public administration which no specialised study should ignore. In a behavioural sense, both are people in action? Public administration is concerned with the past. Its concern with the past is only in terms of its lessons for the future. It is creative, all the time it has to dream, imagine and create, it looks out for opportunities and it acts on all fronts. It is today a multi-dimensional study. Public administration is a philosophy in action. Administrative activity is assessed against three major goal-criteria-efficiency, economy and effectiveness. Public administration as a discipline belongs to the biggest family of social sciences. The other social sciences are psychology social psychology, sociology, social anthropology, geography, history, economics, etc. But public administration is a new science of social or human relations. In short, the important branches of public administration consist of maintenance of law and order, regulation and currency, coinage, maintenance of land records, promotion of agriculture, education, health, social welfare and services.
Summary of Public Administration (1)
(2) (3) (4) (5)
Public administration is an administration in the public sector. It is the administration by the state. Public administration is governmental administration. It is the administration of the public authorities. Public administration should be the study of administration descriptive, theoretical and normative.
6
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues (6) It is multi-dimensional in nature. (7) Public administration is the accomplishment of politically determined' objectives. (8) It is concerne<;i or related to the effectiveness, efficiency and economy with which all the services are provided to the people by the government. (9) Public administration is a coherent well-knit and integrated discipline like other disciplines of social sciences. (0) Public administration is a science in the same sense as political science is a science or economic is treated as a science in a broader general sense, rather than a 'pure' or exact science like physics, chemistry or biology. (11) Public administration is not only a profession but is also an academic discipline. The subject of public administration was originally considered to be a branch of the discipline of political science. It has now emerged as an independent discipline in several Jndian universities-which confer graduate and postgraduate, degree in public administration. The Indian Institute of Public Administration established in the year 1954 is engaged in training, study and research in public administration. (2) 'Public administration has theories to explain administrative phenomenon. (3) Public administration has principles. (4) Public administration is an independent discipline, not only independent of the domain of political science but independent of the other social science disciplines. Thus, it is an independent and integrated discipline. 8
Nature of Public Administration Is it a science? Should we call public administration a
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance ...
7
science? Political science has struggled hard to be described as a science. 9 But it had failed to be pure or exact or hard or natural or physical science. Public administration is a growing discipline. As a discipline it belongs to the biggest family of social sciences. Public administration can be described as a scientific discipline for the purpose of study, teaching and research. Public administration is a social science like economics, sociology, psychology and the science of management. As in the case of these inexact social sciences, public administration can safely claim the status of a social science. All social sciences including public administration are "inexact" because they deal with the human element and human behaviours. So, the task of explaining and predicting a phenomenon is not so exact. IO Public administration can be studied systemically and scientifically. It uses the scientific method in collection, verification of the data. Data are tabulated, analysed and compared, to hypothesise and finally hypothesis support or negated.
Is it an Art? Public administration is an art. It is not only an art but a skilful art or a fine art. Talented persons becomes administrators. The profession of public administration is learnt as an art. With the rich experience of practice and discipline, public administration is scientific in nature. It is a systematic practice. Public administration has been recognised and practised as an art. As a matter of fact, public administration may be called as the highest of 'Arts' as politics was claimed by Aristotle to be the highest or supreme or the master science. II Thus, public administration is really a fine and supreme art.
8
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Scope of Public Administration Several definitions of Public Admin.istration have, however, created problems. The:re are many scholars who take wider or broader view of the scope of public administration. But there are other scholars who have taken the narrow view about the scope of public administration. Thus, when comes to the scope of public administration one really is faced with the problem as to whether the scope of the subject is wide or narrow. There are wide varying different views. According to one view the subject includes all governmental activities, whereas other view is that it concerns merely with the implementation of the policies and not their formulation. The first view very much widens the scope of the subject and the second very much narrows it down but makes it more scientific. It does not keep it ambiguous. The very word scope means the subject matter or boundary or jurisdiction of a subject. The study of public administration is ever widening. The scope of public administration is wide enough. It is a wider term. Public administration has its own scope or boundary. The scope of public administration is wide or extensive. Its scope has immensely increased. Its scope has considerably widened public administration is a very complex and complicated affair and day-by-day its complexity is very much increasing. The scope of the public administration has been broadening and widening or increasing day by day. Its scope goes on increasing due to the emergence of the new problems in public administration. Thus, the scope of public administration is wide and comprehensive. 13 Some writers confine the scope of public administration to integral view. Others confine to managerial view.
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance .,.
9
Luther Gulick confines the scope of public administration to his 'POSDCORB'. In other words he has given 'POSDCORB' idea of public administration. Each letter covers one aspect of administration. (1) P-stands for planning-It means public administra-
(2)
(3) (4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
tion must plan and prepare outlines for policies to be followed. O-from 0 he means-Organising-making arrangements to carryout the work. It means specifying duties of all departments. S-denotes staffing-It should decide the strength of the staff in each department. D-indicates Directing-It means giving proper and continuous directions, instructions, guidance for all those responsible for planning and organisation. Co-conveys-co-ordinating-Without co-ordination there is bound to be chaos and disorder. Public administration ensure co-ordination of activities of different departments. R-implies-Reporting-It should act as an agency to report to the executive honestly, obediently and regularly the position and working of departments under their control. B-stands for-Budgeting-It denotes that public administration should help in the preparation of the budget and thus maintain financial stability.
Professor Pfiffner divides the scope of public tration into two categories: (1) Principles of Public Administration.
(2) Sphere of Public Administration.
admini~
10
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Under the first category public administration studies the following topics: Organisation: This is the institutional structure of public administration. It refers to the static pattern of administration which may be called the anatomy of administration. (2) Management of personnel: This is the dynamic aspect of public administration. It is a process of leading, coordinating, directing, controlling individuals in an organisation to achieve public policy. (3) Method and procedure: This is how of administration, its techniques and process of working. (4) Material and supply: This refers to the tools of public administration like pencils, paper, ink, furniture, pen, cabin, tag, card-board and so on. Through these materials the administrative work is carried out. (5) Public finance: This is the fuel or oil of the engine of public administration. Without finance or money no administrative work can be performed. (6) Administrative accountability: This includes the internal control as well as the external, responsibility of public administration to the legislature, the judiciary and the executive. Public administ.ration is always subject to law.B The administrators are never above law. They are always responsible to the people and to the courts. (7) General administration: This includes direction, supervision and control over administration. (8) The sphere of Public Administration: According to Professor Walker the subject matter or the scope of Public Administration has two aspects: (1)
Theoretical or administrative theory: It implies that public administration is concerned only with administration. (i)
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance ...
11
This theory includes or covers the topics like organisation, personnel, corporations, management leadership, decisionmaking, public relations, planning etc. (ii) Practical or applied administration: According to this theory, public administration has nothing to do with the theory of administration, but its scope is confined to application of administrative decisions. It is technically known as theory of applied administration. Applied administration deals with the following topics. (a) Political administration: It includes or covers the topics such as the relationship between the political and permanent executives i.e., ministers and the secretaries relationships. (b) Legislative administration: It covers delegated legislation, preparatory work done by the officials in drafting of bills for enactments. (c) Financial administration: It includes the whole of financial administration i.e., preparation, enactment and execution of the budget. (d) Defensive administration: This covers the study of defence or military administration. (e) Educational administration: It covers all aspects of educational administration. (f) Social administration: It covers all the social activities connected with food, housing, social security etc. (g) Economic administration: It is concerned with the protection and encouragement of industries, agriculture, foreign trade, commerce, public enterprises, import, export and so on. (h) Foreign administration: It covers the conduct of foreign or external affairs such as foreign ministry, diplomacy, international law, international relations, international organisation and co-operation.
12
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
(i) Imperial administration: This includes the domination of the one nation over the other nation. It studies the domination of one country over the other country. DQmination of the strong nation over the weqker nations. Domination of one nation over the other nation by force, revolt, might, war etc., (j) Local administration: It is concerned with the activities of the local bodies. It covers the local administration such as village panchayat, Block Samitis, Zilla Panchayats etc., (k) Health administration: This covers all aspects relating to health administration. (1) Revenue administration: This covers all topics relating to revenue administration. (m) Police administration: It covers such topics such as maintenance of law and order, internal security, peace etc. (n) National administration: It includes the whole aspects of national administration. It also includes the study of administrative systems in different' countries and under different philosophies of government. Apart from these the scope of public administration also includes-methods and approaches, theories of Public Administration, Public Administration and other social sciences. Thus, is the scope or subject matter of Public Administration.
Importance of Public Administration Public administration is the marshalling of men, materials and money in a joint endeavour to achieve the ends of public policy. It works not for profit but for public welfare. It preserves national integrity and protects it from both external invasion and internal disturbance. It is also an agent of economic and social change.1 4 It engineers the orderly
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance ...
13
transformation of a traditional developing, society into a modern, developed society. It works in a particular environment. Public administration must cater to the public interest. It is hedg~d in legal safeguards. Government officials function within a framework of general and specific laws which circumscribe their freedom of action. Their actions have a wider impact. Further, public administration is subject to external financial control. It cannot collect and spend money as it pleases. It is subject to the appropriation act which the legislature has to pass. The importance of Public Administration may be studied under four heads: (1) It is an Instrument of Providing Services
Public administration is a subject of growing importance in modern times. It occupies a central place in our modern society. Hence, its study as an aspect of governmental activity and an academic discipline is worthwhile.1 5 Public administration protects the life and property of the people. It defends the nation against external enemies. 16 It provides a number of services for the people such as education, public health, social security etc. It holds a very important place in the life of the people. It is government in action. It has very important place in the life of the people. From cradle to grave we are concerned with the public administration. Its contents are more positive in nature. It is engaging to meet the needs of human life. It is, therefore, a creative factor. Its motto being the welfare of man. From morning till evening we use the services of public administration. Public administration is a pivotal importance in developing countries like India. A country's progress is thus, largely determined by the quality of its public administration. I? In the final analysis, administration is a
14
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
moral act and administrator is moral agent. Administration is a human necessity and good administration is a blessing to humanity. It is the well wisher of the public. (2) It is as the Basis of Government Professor Appleby says without administration government would be a discussion club. It maintains stability of social institutions. It is a stabilising force in society. It maintains social unity and harmony by solving social problems. Public administration is a permanent force in the life of the nation. It is possible for a state to exist without a legislature, or an independent judiciary, but it is difficult for it to exist without administration. It is independent of the executive and legislature in its day-to-day working. Administration is there under all situations. There would be no existence without administration. In the past society was simple. Man lived in huts. Man has advanced today. He lives in multistoreyed building. Science has done wonders and brought about a revolutionary change in the field of society. The world has become too complicated. In every direction, the range of public administration is being extended. Public administration is a great stabilising force in the society. Administrators are the stabilisers of society and guardians of tradition. 1s Public administration today not only protects us from internal and external dangers, but also protect us from disease, insecurity, scarcity, calamities, epidemics and war. (3) Its Role in a Democracy In a democracy, the importance of public administration is all the more great. The ideals of democracy i.e. the welfare of the people, sovereignty of the people, progress, prosperity and protection of common men can be obtained only through
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance ...
15
impartial, honest and efficient administration. Democracy stands for the liberty and equality. If the nations have democratic ideology or philosophy, the system of administration is also democratic in nahue. If democracy is defined as the government of the people, by the people and for the people, the system of administration must be democratic to uphold democratic ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity. Democracy has replaced the previous forms of government like aristocracy, feudalism, monarchy, autocracy and despotism. It has become the best alternative to all the previous forms of government. It is the only alternative, possible and available form of government. Democracy is a government by discussion and criticism. Though, the people do not directly govern in democracy, but they elect their representatives to govern. Through their representatives, they express their grievances. To realise the ideal of democracy i.e. liberty and equality, an administrative system is all the more important. Though, democracy is criticised as a rule by average men, the fools, the idiots and an unscientific dogma, still democracy is the only alternative from of government. If the government is democratic, the administrator must be of democractic outlook, must follow democratic norms and amicable means and methods to implement the laws, policies and decisions of the government. An administrator must be above selfish interest, corruption, nepotism, favouritism etc. For the successful accomplishment of the goals and ideals of democracy, an administrator, must be a man of integrity, honesty, devotion, dedication, high morale, discipline, high standards and efficiency so as to execute the policies and decisions of the government. He should be above communal, sectional, caste and regional feelings. He should respect the rule of law, liberty, equality and fraternity,
16
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
which are the ideals of democracy. He should keep in mind the ends of the state and devise the means to achieve the same. Administratio!1 should have broad based approval in which there should not be any place for the domination of any single individual or community. It should have the national image, serving always in the interests of the general public. Though, in democracy, policies and decisions are made in accordance with the wishes and aspirations of the people, but people's hopes will be dupes, if there is no democratic system of administration. There should be proper balance to be maintained between policy formulation and policy implementation. The success or failure of democracy, depends on the type of administrative system, a country has. 19 From what has been said above, it is clear that public administration is a great social force in the life of the nation. Ramsay Muir to remark that in England the minister is a tool in the hands of the permanent executive. "While governments may come and governments may go, ministries may rise and ministries may fall, the administration of a country goes on forever. No revolution can change it and no upheaval can uproot it." Systems of government may come and go, constitutions can be made and unmade but administration goes on forever.
(4) It is an Instrument of Public Policy Public policy is an important branch of the study of public administration. In a democracy, the policies are decided by the political leadership, but the effective execution depends upon the competence and the dedication of administrators. Public administration plays greater role not only in the management of men and material but also in policy enforcing.
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance ...
17
Public administration is responsible for the proper execution of policies. It is concerned with the essence of policy framed by the executive. Public administration is there to implement the policies. Determination or frpming of the policy is the function of the minister. The minister and the civil servants are concerned with the execution of the policies. 2o Therefore, public administration is an instrument of implementing the policies of the government. These are, the civil servants who translate laws into action. Administrative problems today have become too difficult, complex and complicated that ministers being ignorant to understand those problems. Ministers are not scholars, specialists and experts in administrative, legal and technical matters or problems. They are amateur, unfamiliar, unschooled, untrained and unversed, to understand those problems. Hence, they have to depend more and more upon the permanent officials.
(5) An Instrument of Social and Economic Development Public administration is the key instrument of social and economic development. In order to play their role in a meaningful way, the civil servants have to develop greater skills and capabilities in dealing with the citizens. Public administration acts as an instrument of socio-economic development. Public administration today is not only the protector of its citizens from internal disorder and the external dangers, but it has become our helper, servant, educator, manufacturer, distributor in different directions. It oils the machinery of politics.
(6) Its Importance as a Subject of Study Public administration is a subject of growing importance. It is emerging as a new subject or discipline. Its study has become more and more inter-disciplinary. As an academic
18
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
subject or discipline it is being studied and taught in most of the Indian and foreign universities. In some universities there is a separate department in public administration. Its study cannot be ignored by the students 9f public administration. It is said that lithe students of today are the administrators of tomorrow. 2111 The study of public administration prepares them into better administrators. Public administration is a universal and interesting subject. That is why, at B.A. and M.A. level the students are offering it in greater and greater number. Notes and References 1. International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. 5-6, 1968-72,
pp. 22. In the past police state were concerned only with the maintenance or law and order and the collection of revenue. 2. Fred, W. Riggs, Administration in Developing Countries, The Thfory of Prismatic Society, Boston, Houghton Miffin Co., 1964. p.73. Modern states are positive and they not only to maintain the law and order but also, to look after health, education, social security, food, shelter, clothing etc. 3. J.M. Pfiffner and Presthus, Public Administration (New York, The Ronald Press Company, 1960), p. 3. Like state, administration is permanent only the changes occurs in the systems of government. Old government may be replaced by a new government. Therefore, government is temporary where as public administration is the permanent machinery of the state. 4. F.e. Nosher, "Research in Public Administration", Public Administration Review, 16, Summer, 1956. 5. L.D. White, Introduction to the Study of Public Administrations, fourth ed., 1955. p. 1.
6. Administrative Action, Prentice Hall, New Delhi. Public administration is a cross road and interdisciplinary subject because it is related or connected with other social sciences.
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance ...
19
7. Simon, Smithburg and Thompson, Public Administration Government. Public Administration is concerned with the welfare of the people. They are on the operating line. 8. Gladden, Student Guide to Public Administration, Vol. t Stapless Press London, 1972, p. 3. Public Administration unites and integrates all social sciences including physical sciences. 9. Stephen, P. Robbins, The Administrative Process Integrating
10.
11.
12. 13.
14.
15.
16.
Theory and Practice, Prentice-Hall, New Delhi, 1970. Science means a systematic study of knowledge. It is a systematic and scientific study of knowledge. F.F. Ridley, The Study of Government-Political Science and Public Administration. Like all other social sciences public administration is inaccurate, and not exact because public administration deals with human beings. So the prediction of human behaviour is very difficult. Aristotle said, "Political science is supreme science. n Not in the sense that it includes all other social sciences, but in the sense it gives preference to all other social sciences which deals with human society. RJ.S. Baker, Administrative Theory and Public Administration, Hutchinson, London. Ordway Tead, The Art of Administration, McGraw Hill, N.Y. 1951. p. 10l. Public administration is not above and over the law. It cannot cross the law also. It has to work within the framework of law. Simon, Smithburg and Thompson, Public Administration. It is said that public administration is the vehicle of change i.e. social, political, economic, technological etc. Ordway Tead, The Art of Administratwn, McGraw Hill, N.Y. 1951, p. 101. Public administration is an academic subject which is being studied in the various colleges and also in the universities (India and Foreign). Paul, H. Appleby, Policy Administration, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1970, p. 24.
20
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues Public administration protects the nation and its people from both the internal and external dangers.
17. Keith Henderson, Emerging Synthesis in American Public Administration, Asia Publishing House, New Delhi, 1966, p. 4 18. Stephen. P. Robbins, Adininistrative Process, p. 15. Administrators are the defenders and protectors of the society's traditions, cultures, customs, folkways etc. 19. Central Government Administration, 1972, p. 3. The image, improvement of the nation depends upon the quality of administration. The success and failure of democracy also depends upon it.
20. Gullick Luther, The Elements of Administration, Sir, Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd., London, 1956, p. 16. For example, policy drafting is the job of the government, while implementing is the job of administrators or civil servants. 21. Arthur, W. Macamahon, article entitled Approaches to Administratiorl, (ed.) , Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1964, p. 19. U
2 Environmental Influences on Public Administration
Introduction Public administration has its own set of environment. An administrative system is surrounded by political, social, economic, legal, technical sets of environment.IAs public employee whether chief secretary or chowkidar (watchman) operates or performs his public duties functioning in different sets of environment. The nearest set of environment in which a public servant functions is the environment of administration i.e., the administrators group, employee'S groups, administrative rules and regulations administrative patterns of behaviour and the administrative culture. The role of an administrator is, thus, performed in an inseparable environmental setting of which the employee himself is part as contributor to that administrative system. An administrative system is not exclusive.2 It depends on the other sub-systems of the society for the performance of various functions. The sub-systems of the society are political,
22
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
legal, economic, cultural, technological and social systems. There is complete interdependence of all these systems. All these systems are the sub-systems of the bigger social systems.
1. Social Environment and Public Administration Social system is a comprehensive term which includes in its fold· many other sub-systems like economic system, political system etc. It also includes administrative system. Social change social reform etc. can be brought about by the social policies. Social policies have to be implemented by administrators. Many social problems are the challenges to the administrator. So administrator has to face all those emerging challenges social problems like poverty, beggary, untouchability, unemployment, racial discrimination, dowry system, prostitution, delinquency and other anti-social activities require proper policies to be framed by the government. Society is suffering from moral degradation to degeneration. All these policies should be effectively implemented by efficient administration. Social conflicts or quarrels or disputes arise in society due to the scarcity of resources. Social conflicts will be increasing. Resources are not sufficient and adequate. The administrator should have sufficient knowledge of such conflicts and he should seek the means to resolve or manage those conflicts. Social conflicts arise due to the social political, economical, technological changes in the environment. Administrator has to see that sO.<:iety is not attacked by evils like casteism, communalism, regionalism, sectionalism, linguism, separatism, terrorism and so on. Society is crisis-ridden. These are all the setious or severe problems. Society requires a new brand of administrator "to deal with these problems." The quality of administrator should be high. Implementation of laws and
Environmental Influences on Public Administration
23
policies with regard to social problems is a great task before the administrative machinery.3 The problems of society in every country whether qemocratic or communistic are too complex an<;l complicated. Every person has to lie in society as a civilised member. But due to the developments made in science and technology and growing population, society has been facing many problems. Society is getting divided into haves and havenots, poor and rich, landlords and landless, workers and capitalists. To remove all these social evils and the ills, administrator needs to be a man of integrity and character. All people are not equal with regard to the resources, facilities and other opportunities. Most of the people are poor who are unable to make their both ends meet. The gap or the gulf between rich and poor is increasing. It is the administrators duty to reduce such a gap. Poor people are not in a position to get their basic minimums. They are illiterate and ignorant about the politica set-up, economic set-up, social set-up and administrative-set-up. Social conflicts or quarrels are increasing day-by-day. There is no peace and harmony in the members of the society. The people are forced to engage in anti-social activities like theft, rapism, looting, demonstrations, murdering and so on. 4 All this they do because, they (both men and women) have been facing the problems of poverty, hungry, unemployment and so on. Sometimes some people are forced to commit crimes knowingly or unknowingly due to the pressing of time and circumstances. Womens are suffering from the evil practices of the society like Devadasi system i.e, dedication of the girls and women's to god and godesses, divorce, dowry and other problems. All these various evils, issues and problems of the society require the passing of proper laws and formulation of proper policies by government. That is why, in many
24
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
democratic countries like India, the government has formulated many plans and launched many progammes for the welfare of the people. Indian society can be described as a "Prismatic Society" having the "said" pattern of administration. The Indian society could be divided into numerous classes on the basis of the following criteria. Economic basis. (2) Caste or communal or religious basis. (3) Professional basis.
(1)
As a matter of fact, there are three major categories or classes of people distinguished on the basis of annual income i.e., Upper Class. (2) Middle Class. (3) Lower Class.
(1)
Unfortunately the caste criteria identifies classes of lower grade and upper grade as well i.e., the upper caste also belongs to the upper classes and the lower caste or communities are poorer as well. The social stratification scheme in India is responsible for the economic exploitation of the lower caste people and kept them subdued for centuries together. Harijans, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, farm labourers from down trodden communities still live like "bonded labour". Previously higher caste and upper caste people were those who occupied positions of honour, respect and prestige in society as well as in government. But now with the change in the policies of the Government of India people from lower castes or lower communities of Indian society have also started entering the All India competitive examinations.
Environmental Influences on Public Administration
25
Thanks to the quota system for the SC/ST, there is an enormous impact on a fraction of people belonging to these classes. The reservation policy of the Government of India has resulted in class mobility particularly in the case of people belonging to the SC and ST. Now-a-days in every profession we can find workers belonging to the down trodden classes. 5 The administrative system in India has been tremendously influenced because of the changing character and complexion of the classes in Indian society land reform administration and reVenl.le administration have been tremendously influenced the changing class structure. The Government of India has come out with immediate legislative measures to protect the landless peasants against the zamindars, jagirdars and other rich peasants.6 In India Dowry Prohibition Act has been passed and anti-poverty programmes have been launched towards the goal of welfare state. Some sort of social policy or social legislation has been passed and introduced. Still the problems are not completely solved. Whether it is social law, a social policy or social legislation it should be effectively and timely implemented. The implementation of social legislation or social policy or law is the job of administration. The problems of society can only be solved by the administrative system of the country. Public administration should be concerned with discrimination against women, blacks, untouchables and tribals in matter of recruitment and promotion7 . Administrators should act as guide philosopher, teacher and friends of the people. Administrators needs to be resultoriented rather than routine process and procedure-oriented. Public administration needs to be dynamic honour. Unless and until there is an efficient, honest, non-corrupt and well-trained administrative machinery to implement
26
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
social policies, plans, programmes and laws there is no social justice or social welfare. So the ideals of social justice or social welfare can be realised only when there is good administration. 8 Many sociologists like Weber, Simon, comte have contributed a lot to the study of public administration. Public administration owes much to sociology which has broadened and expanded the scope of public administration. That is why, we give utmost importance to inter-disciplinary approach which is an off-shoot of behaviouralism.
2. Political Environment and Public Administration An administrative system is very close to a political system. It is an almost extension of it. An administrative system is completely dependent upon the political-system. Therefore, political-factor influences the structure and functioning of an administrative system to a larger extent. The political-influence on public administration is very great. No aspect of public administration can be studied without political influence. Politics influences almost every aspect of public administration. The whole field of public administration operates in the political environment. Politics influences the administration through the following ways or methods: (1) Planning. (2) Policy making. (3) Budgeting. (4) Administrative rules, regulations and codes.
The administrative rules are framed by the ministers or the political executive, constituent assemblies, state legislative assemblies, operate on political considerations. All
Environmental Influences on Public Administration
27
programmes, projects and works are executed by the permanent bureaucrats under the strict supervision of a political supervisor. Every aspect of public administration is influenced by politics. It is not exaggeration to say that All public administration is politicised." 9 Public administrators, their activities and actions are politically directed and controlled. Political-process and administrative process although distinct, different but still they are inter-related, inter-linked, inter-connected and inter-woven. II
What is politics? Politics is a word of everyday use. The question is what is politics? The answer ranging from the most simple to the most complex. Politics is the art of possible. Every thing is possible in politics. Every thing is possible through politics. Nothing is impossible in politics. Politics a dirty game or business. It is self-seeking behaviour, hypocrisy or conspiracy. Politics is a dirty game which gentleman should not play. Accordingly, people often distrust and dislike politicians. Politics is the study of the state government and administration. Struggle for the capture of the state power is the whole process of politics. Politics is the study of power. Politics is behaviourat empirical and politics is defined in the content of power relations. Politics as a struggle to acquire power, reaction power and expand power. Politics as the study of power. lO Power is the central theme. Politics is a very complex of interaction by which power is acquired, transferred and exercised. Power is the central topics of politics. Power is the heart of politics. Power is the capacity to secure the dominance of ones values or goals. Prof. Lord Action's famous saying
28
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
"Power corrupts and absolute or all power corrupts absolutely." Power resides in some person or office. The net work of interactions by which power is acquired, transferred and exercised upon others is called p9litics. Politics is a set of power-relationships as said by Harold Lasswell, Kaplan, Russel, Morgenthau etc. These writers regarded that politics is concerned with how to acquire power and how to maintain it? What is the basis of power, its forms and scope? What is the object of power and how is it lost? Politics is nothing but a continuous struggle for power in the society. For example, Harold Lasswell defined politics as power-oriented or power perspective. It is concerned with the acquisition and retention of power. Harold Lasswell put the position of power in his book Politics in a Dramatic Way "who gets what, when and how". Politics is a process by which power and influence is acquired and exercised. Politics is the struggle for the control of the public policy. Policy-making is the concern of politics. Simon defines politics in terms of decision-making process. Politics is the art of manipulating the things. Politics has a mischievous definition. It is the" art of governing mankind by deceiving them". It is a negative colour or aspect of politics. At its worse politics is the struggle for power, glory and riches. It is a dirty politics, bloody politics, third rate third class politics and achieving the goal either by hook or crook. At its best, politics is the best means for achieving law, order, justice, equality and happiness. It is both worst and good. It is more worse than good. In every corner of the world politics is evident. Public policy formation should be the concern of politics. It is a practical affair open to all. Politics is found at all levels. Merkl Dr. Johnson views
Environmental Influences on Public Administration
29
politics as the last resort of scoundrels. ll In profit-loss terms politics is the mandness of many for the benefit of the few. In the class room, politics means an academic disciplines to be studied systematically and scientifically both by te~chers and the students at the various educational institutions, colleges and universities. There is a continuous interacts or relations between the political system and the administrative system. In fact, politics and administration are inseparable. These two systems constihlte two fundamental instruments of social and political change. Administration influences and is influenced by politics. They are interrelated. The administration is a branch of politics. They are co-relative. Policy formulation is the job of politics, where policy enforcing is the job of administration. The impact of politics on administration is at once direct and immediate. Government lays down the policies and administration implements it. Ministers may change but the civil servants goes on.
3. Cultural Environment and Public Administration Culture is the most important possession of each society. There are forces which are acting and counter-acting on our cultural heritage. Its impact is quite direct on administration. 12 It has good as well as bad impacts. The culture refers the traditions, flokways, mores, customs of the society. The culture of a county finds expression through the medium of languages, art, philosophy, religion, education, science, films, newspapers, radio, TV, etc. Administration renders various services to the people. Prof. Waldo says that administration is a part of the cultural complex. Developing countries all over the world are facing common problems like poverty, over-population, ignorance, diseases and underdevelopment.
30
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Culture is a concept of power. Culture denotes the entire complex of beliefs and ways of doing things in a society. Administrative system is always cultural denotes the entire complex of beliefs and ,ways of doing things in a society. Administrative system is always cultural bound. It is a part of cultural complex. Administration system has a philosophy of its own. Culture affects the administration. It affects social change. Administration is bound by people's culture. To a social thinker culture is a dynamic concept. It is the influencing instrument. The various developmental policies and programmes of the government have a cultural dimensions. Culture and administration acts as an instrument of social change. Administration keeps the fabric of the society intact. Administration should be culturally sensitive. Culture acts as an instrument of modernisation and social change.
Indian culture (norms, values etc) and public administration Indian culture is a composite one. "Social Justice" and "equality" are new values in Indian Society.1 3 And these values and norms have influenced the administrative system to a great extent. The other new values of modern India are: Secularism. (2) The economic upliftment of scheduled castes and tribes. (3) Socio-economic justice. (4) Respect for women recently advocated value. (5) Women's emancipation. (6) Women's equality with men. (7) Women's education. (8) Women's empowerment.
(1)
Environmental Influences on Public Administration
31
It was considered natural and proper for men to be born
unequal and enjoy unequal rights and privileges. These inequalities were given birth to the system of "Dharma and Karma". Inequalities were natural. Thi~ type of inequalities in due course of time give birth to caste system and untouchability. The caste system broken up the unity of Indian life and it was a great obstacle of the nation development. It continues to be a powerful force still.
Women's upliftment, Dowry buming and Judicial administration The social context of public administration is very wide. Every activity of a public administration is directed towards citizens who are members of a social group like the family, neighbourhood, or they are directed towards social organisation or institutions. Public administration in India is continuously and regularly involved in providing "social justice" and "social equality" to the under-privileged and disadvantaged sections of society. Women are the most exploited segment of society after bonded labourers. Women upliftment is, thus, a major function of public administration in India 14 • After independence the Indian government has introduced the following measures to bring women at par with their menfolk in almost all walks of life. (1) Equal right of inheritance in the property of the
father. (2) Equal pay for similar work. (3) Equal opportunity for employment. Until and unless women are educationally at par with men, there cannot be social equality. Similarly, women are being subjected to severe hardships
32
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
because of dowry. Dowry-burning cases are increasing. Women are subjected to harassment by their in-laws. Dowry has become a grave problem. Dowry system is horrible. It is an evil. Edu<;:ated and cultured girls have fallen victims _ due to the dowry system. Weddings of unsuitable boys and girls are arranged. Dowry system spoiled the whole society. Now-a-days children marriages are arranged for the sake of dowry. Whether the boys and girls are good or bad, matching each other or not, parents of the bridegroom are not much concerned, but in reality they are much concerned for dowry. The young boys do not know whether they are getting suitable bride or not. They obey their parents. The caste system in India has increased. Modern age is material age. Money is very important factor with the consequence moneyed people purchase the best boys of the caste. As such beauty, culture and modesty of girls are given no consideration. Several young girls are married to old men for want of dowry. Thousands of girls remain unmarried as their parents or gauradians have no money to pay in dowry. Dowry system has become a great liability to their parents. If a daughter is born in a family, parents are not happy. It is due to dowry system. If the families of bridegrooms are not satisfied with the dowry that they received as a result, the quarrel between bride and bridegroom starts. As a result the sweet relations turn in to bitter criticism and hatred, that often end into divorce. It is due to dowry system several brides are committed suicide and have burnt themselves. Dowry destroyed the married life. 15
The plan to root out dowry If this problem is solved many other problems of females would be solved by themsevles. People must be properly
Environmental Influences on Public Administration
33
educated to eradicate the dowry system. All the educated boys and girls must work together to root out the evil system. For ending dowry, education to girls is essential. Women would be well educate9., self-reliant and thus would be able to choose the life partner by herself. In 1961, Anti-Dowry Act was passed by the government but that also had no serious effect on the society. Raja Rammohan Roy condemned the system of "Sati" (committing suicide by burning on the pyre of her husband) and M.K. Gandhi struggled hard to eradicate untouchability and caste ism prevalent in India. Severe punishment i.e., life imprisonment and non bailable arrest warrants for suspects are recommended in this regard. Those culprits whose involvement is proved should not go unpunished. Bride burning amounts to committing murder, suicide. The judicial administration needs reform. All burning cases do not require human evidence to prove the involvement of the in-laws. Witness should be sufficient to punish the culprits. Women judges in every district should be appointed to hear cases of crimes against women like rape, assault and bride-burning.
Social evils as Bigamy or Polygamy and public administration Public administration has not been successful as yet in eradicating social evils like bigamy and polygamy. In Himachal Pradesh, many cases have been reported in the press against government officers, members of the legislative assemblies and teachers of colleges and universities who are leading very secretive relations with more than one wife. Law is ineffective in Himachal Pradesh with regard to those who lead lives with two wives without the consent of the first. There are many MLAs, Ministers and even lAS officers,.
34
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
who live with their second wife as "friends" and go scot free. Public administration has, therefore, a special responsibilities towards women who are denied their basic rights by their husbands. Bigamy and polygamy have created most unwanted domestic relations. 16 Such government servants who keep more than one wife need to be warned and they should get the consent of the first wife to marry the second one. Social evils need to be eradicated not only at the social level, but also· at the political level and administrative level. Public administration can do much for society in the eradication of these evils.
4. Economic Environment and Public Administration Economics covers almost every aspect of human life. The money transactions, capital exchange taxation policies, the saving capacity of common men, purchase capacity of all these have a bearing on public administration of a country. To Proferssor Fred. W. Riggs economic productivity is the most obvious characteristic which has influenced public administration. In other words, production and consumption of material goods affect the nature and characteristics of public administration of the country. The mode of prodution and production relations determine almost every human activity. Public administration is influenced by the "mode of production" and "production relations" without doubt.
Indian planning commission and economics of public administration The level of economic activity can be influenced by money and finance. Economic growth and development is considerably influenced by the finances made available to the states for the purposes of fund projecting etc. Availability
Environmental Influences on Public Administration
35
of finances is one of the most important potential factor to influence the economy of the country. The policy of planning, resource mobilisation and resource utilisation are, thus, the function of public administratton. The political life i.e., the influential members of the cabinet, the permanent secretaries, the personal staff of the prime-minister and his secretariat are the makers of policies for the planning of the economic growth and development of the country. Capital formation is the most significant outcome of the entire activity of the planning and the financial system. The purpose of the financial system is maximisation of production. Planning in India was intended to promote a rapid rise in the standard of living of the people increasing of production, offering opportunities to all for employment in the service of the community. In India the "Mixed economy" model is practised. That means encouraging both the private as well as public sectors of the Indian economy. As an instrument of development central planning is accepted in order to bring about a socialistic pattern of society. The pattern of distribution of income and wealth in India has not yet been restructured by the planning commission. There is still a wide disparity between the rich and the poor sections of the society.17 It means acceleration of economic inequalities. Planning process is unable to control population explosion. Family planning and welfare programmes have failed. The per capita income comes down because of the rise in population despite the rise in national income. Administration will lead to plan success. Planning is incomplete without strong public administration to implement plans and projects. The public sector 'cannot improve without improving public administration.
36
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Budgets and the economic context of public administration The organisation and administration of national finances re-quire budgets as'lnstrument of policy and control. It is the most convenient and advantageous method of administering national finances. Budgets provide a co-ordinated map of public policy. The budget is planned by career officials. The Finance Ministry and particularly the Bureau of Budget, thus, perform economic policy functions. Economic policy making is essentially a function of the Council of Ministers where the prime minister and the finance minister play an active role. The Bureau of Budget under the broad guidelines or instructions of the prime minister and the cabinet prepares a blueprint of the entire economic policy. The budget department consisting of public administrators, can thus provide a major thrust to the entire economic structure of the country. Public administrators, thus, influence the following aspects of the country's administrative system while formulating the budget: (1)
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Economic policy function. Budget planning function. Purchasing policy. Taxation policy. Accounting system. Efficiency Audit. Personnel control. Organisational change.
It is never wrong to say that budget is the heart of public
administration. Budget is a major instrument of administration. It is no exaggeration to say that budget is the principal of economic aspects of public administration. It is
Environmental Influences on Public Administration
37
the instrument of administering the "mixed economy" enterprises in India through fiscal policies. The budget is formulated in close co-operation with the finance ministry .imd planning commission. It constitutes a plan of public production and a design for income redistribution. It reflects the dominant, political ideologies, party compromises and electional promises. It is an administrative device for improving administration and public policy making. It informs the public about the economy, new governmental programmes, debt management, economic objective and resource allocation between public and private sectors. I8 Performance budgeting made the method of legislative scrutiny easier, more convenient and quicker. It is necessary that public administration plays a direct and continuous role in shaping and carrying out public policies. Public administrators remain in the political, administrative system with permanent tenure. They have expertise, continuity and a representative equality. Thus public administrators perform a key role in the budgetary process of a country. The economic context of public administration is thus socio-economic planning, taxation policy' of the government, to bridge a gap between the rich and the poor. The other economic context of public administration is the investment patterns in public sector, import and export policies to encourage external trade etc. Lastly, budgeting is a process intended to influence almost every aspect of human life. Public administration has more to do with the policies of a government including planning, programming and budgeting is commonly felt.
Constitutional Environment and Public Administration The administration of a country operates in the context of
38
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
socio-political and constitutional framework. Some aspects of administrative behaviour can be best understood if one has the thorough knowledge of social environment. Certain subiects of administration are the products of so<;ial milieu. The legal and constitutional framework under which public administration functions do not give a total picture of actual reality of functioning of administration. The various problems like corruption, inefficiency, lack of integrity, low morale, lack of code of conduct, lack of discipline, lack of honesty, devotion and dedication in administration can be better understood in the context of how the society is. The constitution whether written or unwritten provides a broad framework for the administrative machinery in terms of its structure, powers and functions. So the administration has to carry out its functions in accordance with the constitutional provisions. The constitution is the basis and foundation for administration.1 9 Whatever is enshrined and embodied in the constitution, has to be translated into reality. This is done by administration. Any administrative system has to function within the framework of the constitution. The constitution is supreme and sovereign. It is the supreme law of the land. It implies freedom from control of any kind either external or internal. Democracy emphasises liberty, Justice, equality and fraternity. These are four pillars of the Indian constitution. The Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of the State Policy are the guidelines of administration. Thus, the administration is always subject to the constitution, its laws, its rules and its regulations. Administrator has to work with a missionary zeal and spirit. He is bound by rules and regulations. 2o Administration is responsible to the legislature, executive and judiciary and to the public at large. It is responsible to
Environmental Influences on Public Administration
39
law and the people. It is not above and over the law and the people. Thus, constitutional aspect provides a broad frame work for the structure, organisation and functions of the administrative m,achinery. The government has the responsibility of formulating policies and the administration has the responsibility of implementing those policies for public welfare. 21 This is in short the constitutional environment of public administration. Notes and References 1. William.. L. Morrow, Public Administration Politics, Policy and the Political System, Random House, 1975-89, pp. 3-6. 2. Pfiffner and Sherwood, Administrative Organisation, PrenticeHall, New Jersey, 1960, p. 77. Public administration is not an independent system. It depends upon other systems of the society. 3. Pfiffner and Sherwood, op. cit., p. 311. 4. Delbert C. Miller and William Form, Industrial Psychology, Harper, New York, 1951, p. 229. Poverty is the root cause of all the ills and evils. Hence, government should launch or formulate proper plans and policies to root it out. 5. William L. Morrow, op. cit., p. 80. 6. F.W. Riggs, The Ecology of Public Administration, Asia, New Delhi, 1961, pp. 4-5. 7. B. Kumar, Planning, Poverty and Economic Development, p.113. 8. L.M.Bhole, Financial Markets and Institutions Growth Structure Innovations, Tata McGraw, 1982, p. 3. 9. Fourth Five Year Plan, 1969-74, Planning Commission Government of India pp. 2-3. Now-a-days politics and administration are admixtured. It is very difficult to divorce one from the other. It is very difficult to say from where politics starts and administration ends. 10. B. Kumar, Planning, Poverty and Economic Development, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1984, p. 53.
40
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
We cannot think of politics without power. Power and politics are interrelated. Power is the heart and soul of politics. 11. Mainstream, 16 Nov. 1974, p. 33. Politics is a very dirty game and the gentlemen shy from it. 12. Economic Survey, Government of India, 1984-85. p. 29.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18. 19. 20.
21.
For example, culture and administration. are inter-dependent. Robert Pres thus, Public Administration. Liberty, equality, fraternity, and justice are the new values of Indian democracy and society. Gerald Caiden, The Dynamics of Public Administration, Holt Rinehart, 1971, p. 188. Women's empowerment in all fields is the need of the hour i.e., political, economic, social etc., Daniel, E. Griffiths, Administrative Theory, Prentice-Hall, Indian Edition, 1987, p. 27. Bigamy-A Person who has married more than one wife is known as bigamy and a person who has married more than two is called as polygamy. Paul, A. Appleby, Policy and Administration, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., 1948, 1970. Indian ed., pp. 27-29. Equal distribution of wealth among all sections of the society is the only solution to remove the povery. B. Gay Peters, The Politics of Bureaucracy, A Comparative Perspective. Henry Fayol-Constitution is the Law of the land. It is supreme. We cannot violate the rules of the constitution and the courts. Terry and 0 Donnell, Principles of Management, 1976. Administration is accountable to all these organs of the government besides public. Wallace, S. Sayre, "Comments on Waldos paper" in James C. Charlesworth, I, pp. 29, 30. Government formulates the plans, policies and it is the administrative machinery which implements them.
3 Relations of Public Administration with other Social Sciences
We cannot understand public administration without the knowledge of the allied sciences. To understand the proper role of public administration in society, a student should study its relationship to other social sciences. Public administration is a social science like other social sciences and it deals with one aspect of human behaviour i.e., administrative, just as other social sciences deals with certain other aspects of human behaviour. As such it is closely related to other social sciences as much as other social sciences are related to it. Not only this, public administration scores over other social sciences because of its relationship with pure sciences like statistics, technology, biology etc. If various social sciences are studied in isolation, their understanding will be incomplete, one sided and faulty.! Many of the problems are of the common concern of all the social sciences each approaching th~m from its own point of view. We shall discuss here briefly the relationship of public administration with certain specific subjects.
42
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Public Administration and Political Science Public administration is very closely related to the study of political science. In fact, public administration originated in political science. 2 One depends upon the other. There is inter-relationship between politics and administration. The relationship between the two is very intimate. Both are complementary and compatible. They are interdependent. The fact is that, public administration is a part or branch of political science. Politics and administration are interdependent. It is still a fact that an understanding of politics is the key to an understanding of public administration. 3 In fact, they go together. They go hand-in-hand or side-by-side. Politics and administration are the two sides of the same coin. Most of the authoritative writers on the subject have found it difficult to make distinction between politics and administration. The close relationship is also evident from the fact that no nation can afford to think of successful of implementation of policies by public administrator as is framed by the politician unless both work together. Both in the national and international fields policies and their execution must go hand-in-hand. Both the politicians and public administrators come very close and near to each other may that be national regional or local leveL Politics and administration are the two parts of the same thing.4 One part representing political science which deals with the theory of state and government, other part representing public administration deals with government in action. Both are supportive to each other. There is much give and take between the two. In fact, they are inseparable. It is realised that the theories of political science and public administration cannot be very much differentiated from each other. A public administrator cannot success in his life 'tUlless he has /I
Relaions of Public Administration with other. ..
43
thorough knowledge of politics and political problems with which he is confronted. International politics, i.e., diplomacy is a part of politics is also now under the influence of public administration. Politicians and administrators meet both in organisation, management etc. In the field of constitutional law and local administration also political science and public administration come nearer to each other. In fact, there is always a fusion of principles of constitution and administration. Similarly local government always draws greater co-operation and collaboration of politicians and administrators. Prof. Pfiffner rightly said that in some cases politics and administration are so interrelated that a clear distinction is very difficult. No clear-cut lines of distinction can be drawn to say that here politics ends, administration begins. Hence, political science and public administration meets so closely. However, some writers made a sharp distinction between politics and administration. They developed the dichotomy between politics and administration. To them both subjects are different, distinct and separate. Political system formulates the policies and administrative system implements the policies. Woodrow Wilson made a dogmatic distinction between politics and administration in the 1880s. He was the first writer who draw aline of distinction between politics and administration. In his Article on the 'study of Administration' he said administration lies out side the sphere of politics. Politics is the concern of the politicians, while administration is the concern of administrators. Administrative questions are not political questions. Prof. Goodnow in 1900 made a technical distinction between politics and administration by saying, "Politics is the expression of the will of the state and administration is the enforcement or execution of that will." Willoughby had
44
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
tried to give administration a more separate status by calling it as the fourth branch of government, the other three being legislative, executive and judicial. Herbert Simon said policy making is the ,heart of politics, while policy enforcing is th~ heart of administration. Politics is concerned with laying down of the policies, administration is concerned with enforcing of these policies efficiently and economically.s Thus, the important writers who made the distinction between politics and administration are Wilson, Goodnow, Willoughby and Simon. Among the modern writers Pfiffner's enumeration of the points of distinction between political and administrative officers is very interesting. These are: Sl. No. 1.
2.
3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Political Officers
Amateur Non-technical Partisan Temporary More public contacts More legislative contacts More policy formulating More co-ordination Influenced by popular opinion
Administrative Officers
Professional Technical Non-partisan Permanent Less public contacts Less legislative contacts Less policy formulating More performance Influenced by Technical data collected from study and research
But this kind of distinction or difference between the duties of the political officers and administrative officers is one of degree rather than a kind. If we look to the top administrators we will find that most of what they do is political in nature. Although policy making is the function of the ministers and the legislatures, yet most of the groundwork
Relaions of Public Administration with other...
45
is done by the administrators behind the curtain or scenes. In 1920s the earlier assumption that politics and administration were separate began to be questioned. The dogma of difference between politics imd administration has been rejected or refuted. Public administration is a part of political process. Administrators act politically. Pfiffner while rejecting the dichotomy of politics and administration remarked that they cannot be always separated and isolated. Luther Gulick questioned the wisdom of taking administration out of politics. In the sense neither politics can be taken out of administration nor administration out of politics. Prof. Appleby in his book Policy Making and Administration observes that government operates through the political processes. He destroys the myth that politics can some how be taken out of public administration and establish the idea that politics and administration are intimately linked or connected. Prof. Dwight Waldo includes that the separation between politics and administration has become an outdated concept. There is no wall of separation between politics and administration. Scholars like Herring, Dimock, Friedricks, Charles Merriam, H.A. Simon, Kingslay and Waldo declare that politics and administration dichotomy is misleading distinction. However, dichotomy between public administration and political science started fading with the realisation that policy formulation and its implementation cannot be separated. But of late, this dichotomy between politics and administration has ended in happy re-union. Policy science closed the gap between politics and administration. It will, thus, be observed that there is very close relationship between the two, but all the same these cannot be merged in one another, both have their separate existence, entities and are being studied accordingly.
46
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Though there is much differences between the two subjects which indicates that public administration has an identity of its own. But it has been said that complete politics-administration dichotomy is not.good. It has already done some harm. Though there are some differences in the spheres of activities of the two, yet it is in the interest of both the subjects that no extreme view should be taken. It will be better if some healthy traditions are developed between the politician and the administrator.
Public Administration and Economics The close relationship between economics and public administration was fully realised by Greek political thinkers who believed that economics was an art of collecting finances for the state. In our modern times the concept of welfare state is becoming more and more popular, both these subjects are corning still closer and nearer to each other. For the advancement of the people-administrative and the economic activities must keep in close touch with each other. American War of Independence, French Revolution or Russian Revolution though primarily political happenings, took place only with economic background. Poverty and employment, though economic in nature, have a very close relationship with government and state policies. Thus, public administration is affected, influenced and guided by economic considerations alone. Machiavelli and Marx are of the opinion that public administration by and large is influenced and affected by economics and economic considerations. Public administration has much in common with economic. s During the eighteenth century and the early years of the nineteenth centuries the scope of public administration
Relaions of Public Administration with other. ..
47
was confined only to the maintenance of law and order and the administration of justice. But the Industrial Revolution and the numerous problems that followed on account of it, compelled. the state to interfere in the economic and indu~trial fields. Laws were framed to regulate hours of work, condition of service etc. of the workers. As such it is being realised that those who are entering government services must have a background of economics. The problems of financial administration e.g. budgeting, execution of the budget, accounts and audit, banking, insurance, commerce, revenue, posts, telegraphs and railways all these have a special bearing on public administration. 6 The topics of public finance, banking and currency and financial administration are of common interest to both the administrator and the economist. Economic administration has recently included in the syllabus of public administration. Not only that, public administration has borrowed a great deal of techniques and terminology from business administration. The new economic developments have influenced the structure and methods of public administration. Thus, public administration is deeply indebted to economics for many of its principles and practices. We, in India, have taken to planning as a means to establish socialistic pattern of society. It implies that whatever we plan be must implemented most efficiently. Now, who has implemented the programmes as outlined in the five year plans? This is the take of administrators. If our administrators and administration fails, our planning fails? The economic functions of public administration are increasing every day. The administration has been called upon to run factories, handle agriculture, banking and insurance. One of the foremost duties of an administrator today is to understand fully the economic problems of the country.
48
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Differences Of course, there is a close relationship between economics and public administration. But it is wrong to belive that the both have been completely merged with each other. The differences between them still exist. Firstly, economics is primarily deals with wealth. It is a just a part of human life, whereas public administration deals with all the aspects of human life including his economic aspect. Secondly, economists are primarily concerned with the data, whereas public administration not only interpret the data, but it also covered with verification, investigation, tabulation etc. Thirdly, economics measures every human activity in terms of wealth. It has nothing to do with loyalties, commitment, dedication and devotion of the people towards administration and towards nation. Fourthly, economics sees man as going ahead economically, but public administration wants a man to see going ahead not only economically, but also administratively, culturally and socially. Fifthly, another difference between the two is that economics is concerned with the commodities, whereas public administration deals with the human beings. In other words, if one deals with prices the other deals with the values attached to those prices and thus both have altogether different areas to cover. In other words, economics and public administration in spite of their close relationship will continue to maintain their separate identity.
Public Administration and History History is one of the oldest subjects in social sciences and
Relaions of Public Administration with other. ..
49
public administrator is to learn much from what the history teaches. It is from the study of history that we come to know what was the system of public administration in the past and to what extent it was a succ~ss or a failure. s History provides both example and warning. Kautilya's Arthasastra, Machiavelli's Prince all tell us something about the administration of those days. It is history tells us about the evolution of administration. The administrative records are very carefully studied, preserved and researched. Even today all administrative decisions are fully recorded and preserved for further use. These are needed for guidance and also for formulation of policies. 19 These are also needed to set the records right and maintain links with the past. In public administration experimental method is not appropriate, but historical method is very appropriate for it. Biographies form a good part of history and occupy very importa;"t place in the study of public administration. A good administrator will always try to study the past before taking steps for any future activity. Thus, history supplies very valuable material to the study of public administration. The study of the administrative system of any country would not be complete without a proper knowledge of the historical background. History is a good guide for future actions. It is a record of past events, incidents and movements. It not only studies the past, but also supplies the valuable material for the future. History informs that how administrative problems were solved or tackled in the past. Of late, the students of public administration have started taking to reserach in the historical past of public administration. History helps us in the understanding of administrative instit~tions. American writers have largely concentrated on the writing of recent administrative history. Books from 1.0. Whites, Jefferson's
50
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
etc. are remarkable books on the administrative history of the USA. A knowledge of the past not only helps us to understand the present but also supplies basis for the future. Although it is a sad commentary ilnd fact that history in the past has been mainly concerned with the record of battles, warfares and stories of dynasties. lO The historians in the past did not pay much attention to the social, political and economic developments of the states. Of late, this approach has changed and the historians have started taking keen interest of almost all the aspects of social life.
Differences But in spite of this both still differ. History deals only with the past events but public administration deals not only the past but also the present and future events. History narrates all events whether they have relevance in public administration or not. On the other hand public administration is not concerned with such events as wars, dynasties which have nothing to do with administration still another difference history is all theory, but public administration is all practice.
Public Administration and Statistics Public administration in these days is very much depending on mathematics and statistics. It is an important source of administrative investigation. To Zendroff-statistics is one of the social sciences. Statistics is a means through which administrative conditions can be easily obtained. Statistics also provides material for inductive studies without which administrative investigator would often be helpless. Today each government collects statistical data and information about political, economical and social conditions of the people and keeps that in a very systematic manner.
Relaions of Public Administration with other. ..
51
Though figures, data and statistics are essential in public administration and help the administrators in taking decisions, yet differences between two exists. Figures collected are pnly a means to an end and these are not en.d in themselves. Figures are useless unless there is a mind and brain to use it. Public administration is an end in itself and it is not merely means to an end.
Public Administration and Sociology Sociology is the study of society. It is the web of social relationships. It studies the social structure and different aspects of social life. Public administration deals with the administrative aspect of the society, and thus both are closely related. Sociology is the study of human behaviour in a group. It studies various types of groups and how they influence human instincts and activity.ll Sociology provides to administration very useful information about the groups, how they function and how they influence social life. Some of the recent studies of sociology in the field of status, class, power, occupation, family, caste, etc. are of special interest to public administration. Max Webers treatise on "bureaucracy" is a valuable contribution to the study of public administration. His study has proved of immense value in studying power relationships in an organisation. Modern administrators have to face a lot of trade-union activities. Strikes, lock-outs and demonstrations are the order of the day. The administrators must know how to deal with mobs and crowds and this is a matter that is related to the field of sociology. The administrators are concerned with the problems of organisation. Sociology, while dealing with associations. And institutions, also lays emphasis on the need of organisation. The concept of power, authority, etc. relate
52
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
to the field of sociology as well as to public administration. 12 Lastly, public administration has to be studied in the environmental context and for this the knowledge of sociology can be of cmctal significance.
Public Administration and Psychology Public administration draws heavily from psychology. Psychology deals with the human behaviour. In other words, psychology studies human behaviour. Psychology deals with the personal system as sociology deals with the social system. Psychology is the study of mind. It attempts to determine how far the conduct is rational instinctive or traditional. As Barker writers "if our forefathers thought biologically, we think psychologically" P Administration also studies the human behaviour. Behaviour is caused. It is motivated. It is goal directed. Motives are the internal determinants of behaviour. Motives are of two types: (1)
Primary and Secondary
Primary motive is one which is unlearned and it is fully resist to change. Safety is an example of such a motive. Secondary motives are not internal or innate. But they are acquired through learning and socialisation. Power is an example of secondary motive. An administrator must be a psychologist. Today much emphasis is laid on the human aspect of public administration. This human aspect involves deep knowledge of psychology. Today it is the top most quality of an administrator that he must be capable of understanding human behaviour in different situations. Psychological approach must be adopted in matter of communications, morale, recruitment, promotion, etc. An administrator to be successful, must encourage team
Relaions of Public Administration with other. ..
53
work. Team work is possible only when team-spirit is created among the subordinates. Now if an administrator has to create team-spirit among his employees, he must have a sound knowledge of psychplogy.14 In the industrial field, the psychological research, the psychological methods and intelligence tests are being used for several purposes. Intelligence tests are used particularly in relation to recruitment to different public services. They help in finding out the right type of candidates. A large number of books and research articles have been written by eminent psychologists in India and abroad. Prof. Maslow identifies five important needs of a man: (1)
Psychological Needs
This need is at the lowest level. It is a basic need. It motivates human beings to seek food, clothing and shelter. (2) Safety Needs
At the second level are the safety needs. This includes the need for emotional security as well as physical safety. (3)
Belonging and Social Needs
Maslow calls the third level of needs the belongingness and love needs.
(4) Esteem and States Needs At the fourth level is the need fer esteem I.e., status, respect, admiration.
(5) Self-Actualisation and Fulfilment Needs At the fifth level is the need for self-actualisation. Maslow characterises the self achtalised person as one who has an· exceptional, extraordinary, rare ability. He refers that the first four needs are deficit needs. When
54
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
the need for safety and food are satisfied, one is driven to seek love, friendship and company. When the drive for love is fulfilled or satisfied the individual begins to seek esteem. Only the fifth. need is permanent i.e. self actualisationY' Notes and References 1. Dimock and Dimock, Public Administration, p. 47. All social sciences are related to each other in one way or the other. Many of the social problems of the society cannot be solved without studying all social science subjects. 2. See A. Lepawsky, AdministratIOn, p. 50. Public administration is the part and parcel of political science. We cannot understand them in isolation. 3. "Trends in the theory of Public Administration", Public Administration Review, 10 (1950), p. 161. Politics is the base or the source to understand, Public Administra tion. 4. Pfiffner, J.M., Public Administration, p. 9. Political science and public administration are the two parts of the same coin. One part studies about the state, government etc. and the other part studies about the public policy, planning, decision-making, etc. 5. Urwick, The Elements of Administration, p. 118. Politics formulates the polices and the administrations implements it. 6. Simon, Smithburg and Thompson, Public Administration, p. 4. 7. Vishnoo Bhagwan and Vidya Bhushan, P"ilblic Administration, p.40. 8. Wilson, The Study of Administration, p. 497. 9. Appleby, Morality and Administration, p.68. History is a guide for the future. The pas'! knowledge of history is necessary to understand the present and also to predict the future. 10. Simon, Herbert, A., Administrative Behaviour: A Study of Decisionmaking Processes in Administrative Organisations, New York, 1947, Ch. IX,
Relaions of Public Administration with other ...
55
11. Herbert Simon's article entitled, "The Criterion of Efficiency" in Ideas and Issues in Public Administration, McGraw Hill, 1953, pp.414-415. 12. Caiden Gerald, The Dynamics of Public Administration, Op. Cit. p.123. The concepts like legitimacy influence, power and authority are studied both in sociology and in public administration. 13. Rumki Basu, Public Administration, Concepts and Theories. This statement is taken from the above book, pp. 115-120. 14. Shukla, M.e., Business Organisation and Management, p. 359. Without team work or the team spirit the organisation cannot achieve its goals or targets. 15. M.G. Chagla, Hindustan Times, dated 14-2-58.
4 Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
Meaning By an approach we mean the point of view from which a particular subject is shldied. 1 Since the emergence of public administration as a separate field of study, various prominent thinkers, writers and scholars have been developed. Several approaches to study public administration systematically and scientifically. Most of these approaches ensure 'efficient and effective administration.' The approaches adopted to study public administration is to describe explain and predict the behaviour, subject matter, areas and boundaries of the discipline. The administrative organisations and behaviour of the people can be described from various angles and perspectives. Public administrators are those who perform such functions as required by the people's government. This is purely "Public Administration Approach" to public administration. Let us now discuss what others say about approaching the study of public administration. Prof. E.N. Gladden says,
Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
57
there are many text-books on public administration, but no one with an accepted approach. Gladden accepts the historical, process-oriented, legal and activities-oriented approaches to be currently available in the literature of public administration chapter we shall briefly examine the following important approaches.
Classical Approach This is one of the important approach to the study of public classical administration. This approach is historical, prescriptive normative, and ideological. It is also called as efficiency-oriented, value-oriented and value-directed. The stress was on the essence of value and norms relating to administration. Administration was approached from ethical and valuational standards. Traditional approach to administration was confined to formal relationships of the organisation. It deals with the formal aspect of the organisation. 2 This approach was developed by some writers such as Frank. J. Goodnow, Taylor, Henry Fayol, L.D. White, W.F. Willoughby, Luther Gulick, J.D. Mooney and Urwick. These writers or scholars viewed public administration as nonpolitical and technological organisation. It is based on certain scientific principles such as hierarchy, span of control, unity of command and communication. They believed that public administration has nothing to do with politics and policy making. Its main business is to carry out politically determined policies effectively and efficiently. These thinkers holds the view that politics should be separated from administration. The advocates of this approach assert that administration is separate from politics. They laid emphasis on the dichotomy between politics and administration. So politics and administration are dichotomous. Traditionalists
58
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
make sharp distinction between politics and administration. A line of distinction is drawn between politics and administration. Politics is concerned with the question "what is to be done?" A~ministration is concerned with the question "How to do things?" So, policy making is the field of politics and policy enforcing is the field of administration. But this politics and administration distinction or dichotomy has been criticised, condemned and rejected by the students of public administration. Administrator has to take part in policy formulation. The theory of delegated legislation disapproves the distinction between politics and administration. Thus, the old distinction between politics and administration of "you-go-your way and I-will-gomine" has been rejected as out of date impracticable concept. There is an inter-mingling of politics and administration. They are mutually inter-dependent, complementary and contributory to each other. 3
Criticisms However, the classical theorists are criticised on the ground that these principles are not applicable to all organisations. These principles have neither empirical validity nor universal applicability. Simon called these principles as precepts or proverbs. These principles lack the behavioural sensitivity. Simon dubbed these principles as sayings. No principles are precise. "They are footless and baseless", said Simon. The principles developed by the classical thinkers tends to be prescriptive rather than descriptive. The classical approach gives too much importance to the formal aspect rather than informal aspect of administrative organisations. It neglects or ignores the human aspects of work. This approach is, therefore, one sided and fails to give us the complete picture of how an organisation functions actually.
Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
59
Ecological Approach Ecology is a branch of biology. The word ecology is borrowed from biology. In biology the term. ecology means the scientific study of the living things i.e. plants, animals, and people in relation to each other and their environment. The term ecology suggests the relations and interdependence between living organisms and their environment. 4 Ecology refers to the mutual relations between organism and their environment. Ecology deals with the organic life on the earth. It explains the interaction between the living organism and its environment. Animals, plants and men are conditioned by their environment. The study of the public administration includes ecology. The ecological approach is based on the view that an administrative system may not act as an independent variable in all situations. This approach is very useful to the study of public administration. The main advocates, proponents or contributors to the ecological approach to public administration are John A. Gaus, Robert A. Dahl and F.W. Riggs. But the most notable contribution to the ecology was made by F. W. Riggs. Riggs was prominent among the advocates of the ecological approach to the study of public administration. Riggs wrote a book known as The Ecology of Public Administration in 1961. Riggs was an administrative ecologist. Riggs in his book stressed the relationship between public administration and its environment. Riggs was one of the sophisticated advocates of the ecological perspective. His main ecological emphasis is not on physical or biological aspect but rather on the human social system itself.5 Riggs said that the fusion or mixture of old and new produces a hybid which differs from its parents. Where old and new, bullockcart and motor car, yvooden plough and
60
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
tractor co-exists, Riggs call "Prismatic. 6 " Man is the product of his environment and so are his institutions social, political, economic and others. Riggs views administrative process as a system having an environment w.:ith which it interacts and in which it operates. Administrative system acts, interacts and operates in an environment. Riggs has been primarily interested in analysing the interaction between the administrative sub-system on the one hand and the political, social, cultural and economic sub-systems of the society on the other. This speaks of his basic orientation which is termed as ecological. Riggs has developed his wellknown models of (1) fused, (2) prismatic, (3) refracted (Later changed to defracted) societies. The other well known models of Riggs are (4) agraria (5) industria, and (6) transitia. Riggs selected certain "Functional Requisites" that have universal applicability. He said these requisites are performed in the undifferentiated and in the differentiated, in the simples and in the amplex societies. Riggs identifies five functional\ requisites for any society. These are: Economic (Fiscal systems). (2) Social (Family, caste, sects). (3) Symbolic (Consensus and equality). (4) Communicational (i.e., literacy, newspaper, circulation, common language, Radio, TV, linguistic, sectional and religious homogeneity). (5) Political (Changes in the political regime and personality of political leaders).
(1)
He has applied these functional requisites to the ~tudy of administrative sub-system. Further Rigg's said the administrative ecology consists of ten basic dimensions namely:
Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
61
(1)
Economic dimension Communication dimension Socio-cultural dimension Political dimension Modernisation dimension Democratisation dimension Political stability dimension Cultural integrity dimension Ethnic diversity dimension (10) Ideological systemic dimension.
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
To sum up The ecological approach is scientific and empirical. It is applicable to real situations. This approach is inter-disciplinary or pan-disciplinary. Its orientation is cross-cultural. It is therefore very useful in the study of comparative public administration.
System Approach According to Oxford Dictionary "A system is a group of parts or things working together in a regular relation?" A system is a unified whole-having a number of interdependent parts and its has identifiable boundaries. It has been defined as a complex whole, a set of connecting things or parts. Thus, system includes sub-systems, sub-parts, subsets or sub-collections. System approach was developed systematically, scientifically and empirically only after Second World War. Then onwards it was systematically and scientifically studied. A system approach is a sub-approach of behavioural approaches. What is central to a concept of system is the behavioural dimension. It is the behaviour which attracts attention rather than the structure or instihltion. A system
62
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
can be formally defined as a set of interacting elements in a state of mutual dependence. The system parts are mutually dependent in the sense, a change in one part leads to the change in other parts of _the system. All systems are denoted by specific boundaries and are I composed of elements which are mutually dependent in the sense, that a change in one part of the system unavoidably changes some other part of the system. In simple words, a \System is a collection of inter-related parts. A system parts are constantly in a state of interaction which is dynamic and ever-changing. 8 The system are of various types: (1)
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Ecological system. Biological system. Personality system. Social system. International political systems. International ecological systems. International social systems.
Further, the system model or approach is abstract9 (in that symbols stands for reality), the system model is holisticlO (in that struchlre is unimportant). The system model is pragmatic l l (related to the practical world). While advocating the system approach to the study of public administration, Ira Sharkansky says that her book focuses on the following aspects: (1) (2) (3) (4)
As Environment Inputs. Outputs. A conversion process that transforms (converts) inputs into outputs.
Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
63
(5) Feedback. (6) Boundaries. All these features interact with one another.
Human Relations Approach This approach views management as a complex of interpersonal relationships. It lays greater emphasis on human behaviour rather than on the formal structure of the organisation. 12 The proponent of this school argue that the study of management must be centred on inter-personal relations. The scholars of this school have a heavy orientation to social psychology. Their primary focus is the individual as a socio-psychological being and what motivates him. In this school are those who emphasise human relations as an art that the manager should"advantageously understand and practice. Some behaviouralists focus attention on the manager as a leader and sometimes equate management to leadership. The thinkers of human relations school gave emphasis to informal organisation. The human relations school challenged the separateness of science and art. Another contribution of human relations school is the study of management by case study method. Some important thinkers of this humanistic school are Robert K. Merton, Alex Bavels, Davis, A.H. Maslow, D. Cartwright, Sayles and Argyros. Humanists gave greater emphasis to the study of major psychological processes such as perception, learning and motivation, which put together leads to total development of personality.13 The concept of leadership also has been given importance by the humanists.
Decision-making Approach Herbert A. Simon was the chief advocate of this approach.
64
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
It is the most important activity of administration. He declared that decision-making should be studied since the deciding comes before the doing. Simon criticised the traditionalists and lebelled the "Principles"14" as "Proverbs". He recommended an empirical approach in administration. Many advocates of decision-making school concentrate on rational approach to decision. It lays emphasis on the study of human psychology and behavioural patterns. This approach also gives importance to "empirical behavioural patterns". This approach also gives importance to "empirical case studies" .15 Herbert Simon does not subscribe to the assumption that man is totally rational while making decisional choices. Man is intendedly rational and therefore is generally unable to achieve the maximum utility out of his decisions. Further, man is only a 'satisficing' man and not a maximising man. He stops deciding at a point when a particular action or choice seems to satisfy him. 16 Simon observed that all decisional processes have three activities or stages viz., (1) Intelligence activity, (2) Design activity, (3) Choice activity.
Development Administration Approach Development administration is also a new branch of public administration. Development administration was propounded by Prof. Weidner. Now, many scholars in public administration are showing much interest in the study of development administration. Development administration is closely related to comparative administration. Comparative administration focuses mainly on development administration. Like comparative administration, development administration is also empiri- . cal. 17 Again like comparative administration, development administration gives more attention to ecological factors.
Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
65
Thus, there is much overlapping between the two branches of public administration. It is also often argued that development administration is something completely different from non-development administration. Some scholars argue that development administration is related with developing countries and it has no relevance to developed countries. It is a wrong conception. Even developed countries do perform certain development functions. The concept of new public administration developed in the USA is essentially related to development administration.
Comparative Public Administration Approach Comparative administration is a new branch of public administration. It has become popular in the USA American scholars contributed a lot to comparative administration. In 1887, a young American Political Scientist Woodrow Wilson stressed the need for comparative study of public administration. Later on Robert A. Dahl emphasised the utility of comparative administration in 1947. Riggs is an eminent scholar in the field of comparative administration. Comparative administration is given impetus with the emergence of new nations in Asia, Africa and Latin America. IS Comparative administration seeks to compare the administrative structures of different nations with different cultural settings. Comparative administration is nothing but the study of administration comparative basis. The main advocates of this approach believe that public administration is conditioned by the environment in which it operates. The social, political, economic and cultural environment of one nation differs from that of another. Comparative administration studies can be conducted at three analytical levels.
66
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues (1) Macro, (2) Middle-range, and (3) Micro.
Macro studies focus on the comparisons of whole administrative systems in their proper ecological contexts. For instance, a macro study would involve a comparison of the administrative systems of India and the USA. It will comprise detailed analyses of all important aspects and parts of the administrative systems of the two nations. Generally the relationship between an administrative system and its external environment is highlighted in the macro level studies. The middle-range studies are on certain important parts of an administrative system that are sufficiently large in size and scope of functioning. For instance, a comparison of the structure of higher bureaucracy of two or more nations, or a comparison of local government in different countries will form a part of middle-range studies. Micro studies relate to comparisons of an individual organisation with its counterparts in other settings. A microstudy might relate to an analysis of a small part of an administrative system, such as the recruitment or training system in two or more administrative organisations. 19 Micro studies are more feasible to be undertaken and a large number of such studies have been conducted by scholars of public administration. In the contemporary comparative public administration, all the three types of studies co-exist.
Structural-Functional Approach This is the another important approach to the study of public administration. This approach studies public administration in terms of its structure and functions. This approach is empirical in nature. The important followers of this approach are Almond, David Apter, Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton, F.W. Riggs, W.F. Willoughby and L.o. White. The structural firmsis
Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
67
of structures-functional approach signifies in simple terms, the study and analysis of structures and their functioning. The term structure may by defined as a pattern i.e. an observable uniformity, in terms of which actipn or operation takes place. A structure is not only composed of people and things alone and exclusively but it is inclusive of actions. 2o Riggs that states a structure "does not include all actions but only those actions which are related to the goals." Riggs cites the example of Bureau as a structure. Structures are forms with area dimensions, occupying a space composed of whether animate or inanimae entitles or persons. All social structures perform some social functions. The governmental structures perform clearly demarcated or assigned functions. Functions involve a pattern of interdependence between two or more structures, a relationship between variables. It refers to any consequences of a structure, they affect other structures or the total system of which they are a part." Simply speaking, structural-functional anaysis consists of nothing more complicated than empirical questions. The concepts of structure and functions fall into a peculiar set of concepts. What is function from One point of view is a structure from another. In the case of structural functional analysis, One determines the important structures and the other determines important functions of those structures. It is difficult to presume that particular structures with more or less similar features will perform the same functions. These are termed "misconceptions" by F.W. Riggs. A social stnicture may perform more than One function, and like wise, a function may be performed by more than one structure. There are still some "requisites" and "pre-requisites" for the survival of health of society conforming to structures and functions. 21 In public administration structural functional analysis is most commonly applied with particular reference to
68
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
bureaucratic or administrative structures i.e., the civil services, federal services, national! state administrative machinery.
Structures of Administrative System The most commonly available' structures in public administration are ministries or departments at the federal national as well as the state level. At the national level, the important form of organisational structures are commission-s, boards or authorities: commissions, boards and authorities are also formed at the state level. Commissions may be formed for more than one state. In India below state level, we have corporations for urban areas and district administrative systems. There are Zilla Parishads, Panchayat Samitis, Cooperative Societies and Village Panchayats. All these form the public administrative system. Functional analysis has been adopted in public administration from sociology and biology. Even in political science students have borrowed structural-functional analysis from sociology. Structural functional analysis which influence and are, in tum, influenced by the environment. For Almond there is a "legitimate force" present throughout a political system which binds it together. A political system can, thus, be characterised by comprehensiveness, interdependence and existence of boundaries. Interaction, which takes place, is not between individual, but the roles the individuals adopt. These are the basic units of structural-functional analysis. This is in brief structural-functional approach and political machines. Thus, Prof. Goodnow, Prof. Wilson, Prof. Willoughby, Prof. LD. White all these university professors had introduced a new approach in public administration which could be described as structural organisational approach.
Functional Context of Administrative Organisation That in all types of societies the administrative structures
Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
69
and functions exhibit some "requisites" and "pre-requisites" which are necessary for the very existence and survival of these societies has already been pointed out. The whole ~tructural-functional approach in public admiJ),istration rests on this belief. Assistance of this assumption makes research easier i.e., all structures exhibit certain requisites. F.W. Riggs has identified five functional requisites for any societyeconomic, social, communicational, symbolic and political. The same set of functional requisites applies to an administrative sub-system. The structural-functional approach in social sciences, particularly in public administration was generally drawn from the biological science with the efforts of Henderson, Cannon, Talcott Parsons and Marion Levy. Waldo first suggested it in 1955. Administrative systems considered as system. In the administrative organisations the policy process or decisionmaking process, the policy structures automatically get transformed into "systems".22
Behavioural Approach It is one of the important methodological approach to the
study of public administration. This is a new approach to the study of public administration. This approach has been developed, invented and introduced by American scholars, writers and political scientists. Thanks to the American political scientists who by their sincere attempts and efforts have contributed to the development of behavioural approach in recent times. 23 This approach was developed and enunciated by Robert, A. Dahl, Miss M.P. Follett, Barnard, Simon and others. The behavioural approach is mainly concerned with the scientific study of human behaviour in various social settings.24
70
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
This approach developed as a protest against the traditional approachs which gave emphasis on descriptive analysis rather than substantive one. In public administration the behavioural~sm started in 1930s with the human relations movement and was later developed by Barnard, Simon and others. Simon observed that Administrative Behaviour" is a part of the behavioural science movement and the only difference lies in the subject matter of the various disciplines. The behavioural approach in administrative studies is descriptive and analytical rather than prescriptive. 25 It is largely concerned with quantification, mathematisation and formal theory construction. It is inter-disciplinary in character. It is based on field observation, controlled field experiments and laboratory studies etc. The scholars in the field of public administration have made cross structural cross-national and cross-cultural studies of administrative behaviour by using scientific research methods as a result of the impact of behaviouralism. This has helped in the development of the knowledge of public administration in a comparative context. In India a number of scholars have used the behavioural research techniques. Among them the studies of c.P. Bhambhri, Kuldeep Mathur, V.A. Pai Panandikar, Ramashray Roy and Shanti Kothari are quite prominent. /I
Features of Behavioural Approach The behavioural approach in administrative studies has certain features . .(1) It is behavioral: It is behavioural becomes it studies the actual behaviour of the persons and social groups rather than structures, ideological, events and institutions. It studies the real behaviour of the individual whether political or administrative. This approach is mainly concerned with the
Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
71
scientific study of the human behaviour in various social settings. 26 It is a new approach to the study of public administration. Organisation is a group of behaving and a student of public administr.ation should study these behaviours. (2) It is positive: Because it studies the things as they are. It is concerned with the question as they are, but not with the question "What ought to be" of public administration. (3) It is Inter-disciplinary: Behaviouralism is essentially an inter-disciplinary approach.27 The behaviouralists conceive administration as a study embracing many disciplines especially sociology, psychology, social psychology, anthropology, economics etc. It borrows from other social sciences. It also takes its source from physical sciences as well-like statistics, matnematics in terms of theories, methods and approaches. It cannot be studied in isolation. It embraces many subjects. (4) It is empirical: Behavioural approach is descriptive, factual and, therefore; empiricaL It is based upon observation, experience and evidence. It studies the facts as they are. It is concerned with the study of facts. 28 In short, the behaviouralists sought to adopt an integrated and inter-disciplinary approach, for according to them all human actions are motivated by social, economic, political or psychological environment from which they come. It is empirical and realistic. It also emphasise a scientific approach to the study of administrative problems and their solution.
Historical Approach The historical approach is essentially based on the belief that knowledge of history is absolutely essential for an indepth study of any subject. For the proper understanding of the subject the study of public administration of the past in
72
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
particular periods is necessary to link up with the present administrative systems. 29 For example, for the proper understanding of the background and growth of administration.in India, a historical perspective is essential.. To understand the evolution of the administrative system in India, the characteristics of British Indian administration and cJso the pre-British period have to be stp.died. Whites two volumes, the Federalists (1948) and the Jeffersons (1951) are important studies of the federal administration of the USA during the early years of the Republic. 3D Biographical and autobiographical studies are also closely related to the historical approach.31 Several volumes in the rulers of India series and specialised studies dealing with tenures of particular governor generals during the British era, are important to the study of Indian administration of these periods.
Institutional Approach The institutional approach is linked to the study of formal government structure. It deals with various parts and organs of the state viz. the executive, the legislative sub-system, the departments the Budgetary system and the personnel. This approach is described as institutional realism. Realism implies the attempt to study improvements in organisation and procedures. In this approach there is greater concern for the specific parts or organs of particular governments. There is stress on the laws, rules, codes and regulations altogether. Institutional realism pays only limited attention to the universal features of administration. 32 In public administration institutional realism interacts with what is now-a-days called the scientific movement and managerial structural relationships. Woodrow Wilson was the first man who introduced institutional realism in public
Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
73
administration. Wilson wrote an article entitled "The Study of Administration" in 1887. In this article Wilson tries to explain that politics is distinctively separate from public administration. Frank. J. Goodnow, a professor of administrative law at Columbia University earned the title of "Father of Public Administration" Because of his deep interest in the law of politics and administration. He was the doyen, the pioneer in the instruction of the discipline of public administration in the USA. This approach is closely connected with legal approach. This approach is largely based on legal rights and obligations of government. This approach intended to emphasise formal relationships and the separation of powers among the three branches of government. This approach was not very much concerned with methodological questions. 33 Notes and References 1. S.P. Naidu, T. Apparao and M. Mallikarjumayya, Elements of
2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
Modern Public Administration, pp. 10-15. E.N. Gladden, Approach to Public Administration, Staple Press, London, 1966, p.20. Robert Presthus, Public Administration, Sixth ed, 1975. p. 7. Fred. W. Riggs, Administration in Developing Countries, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1964. See John, D. Montgomery and William J. Siffin (ed) Approaches to Development, Politics, Administration and Change, McGraw Hill, New York, 1966. F.W. Riggs, op. cit. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1964, and The Ecology of Public Administration, Asia Publishing House, Mumbai, 1962. C. West Churchman, The Systems Approach, Dell, New York, 1968.
74
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues 8. J.M. Gaus, Reflections of Public Administration, University of Alabama Press, 1947. 9. Herbert Simon, Administrative Behaviour, Macmillan, New York, 1989.
10. Robert Pres thus, Public Administration, Sixth ed, 1975. p. 7. 11. Arthur, W. MacMohan, International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, op. cit., p. 7. 12. Wilson, The Study of Administration. p. 497. 13. The Indian Journal of Public Administration, Jan.-March, 1955, p. 1.
14. H.A. Simon, Administrative Behaviour, Growell, Collier and Macmillan, New York, 1947. Simon termed and described the classical principles of the organisation as sayings. 15. R.A. Dahl "The Science of Public Administration three problems", Public Administration Review, (1947), pp. 1-11. 16. International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, p. 8. 17. R.K. Sapro Development Administration, p. 7-9. 18. For a detailed discussion see Rumki Basu Book entitled Public Administration-Concepts and Theories, p. 211-269. 19. Political Science Quarterly, June, 1887. 20. Frank, J. Goodnow, New York, MacMillan, 1900. 21. The entire discussion is based on Ferrel Heady a book Public Administration-A Comparative Perspective, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1979, pp. 198-212. 22. For a detailed discussion see Gordan Smith, Public Policy and Administration, New York, 1980. pp. 1-14. 23. Ibid., p. 30. 24. Gabriel, A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1963. p. 8. 25. Robert, A. Dahl, Modern Political Analysis, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi 1978, pp. 69-73. 26. Dr. H.R. Mukhi, SBD Publishers Distribvtors 4075, Nai Sarak, Delhi-11 0006. p. 74-78. 27. Ibid., pp. 80-83.
Approaches to the Study of Public Administration
75
28. Ibid., pp. 85-89. 29. Hoshiar Singh and Mohinder Singh, Public Administration in India (Theory and Practice), Sterling Publishers Privated Limited Bangalore, p. 1-10. 30. Ibid., pp. 15:20. 31. Ibid., pp. 21-23. 32. V.A. Pai Panandikar and 55. Kshirsagar, Bureaucracy and Development Administration, New Delhi, 1978. 33. T.N. Chaturvedi, "Forward" in A.R. Tyagi (ed.), The Civil Service i11 a Deve/(lping S(lciety, Delhi, 1960.
5 -Organisation and Its Principles
Meaning and Nature of Organisation Meaning Organisation is prior to all administration. The term organisation is used in three different contexts-The act of designing the structure, both designing and building; the structure; the administrative structure itself. But others do not accept this engineering view or approach to the concept of organisation. They say organisation not only consists of a structure. It also embraces human beings.l Our society is an organised society. We are born and brought up in an organisation. When we die state must issue death certificate. Organisation is nothing but a co-operative effort to achieve the goals. Organisation is as old as human society itself. The word organisation springs from organism which means a structure with parts or components. When two or more people join hands to achieve a common goal there arises the need for an organisation. Common goal is
Organisation and Its Principles
77
the essence of an organisation. We are living in a world of organisation. Modern society is a complex structure. The people who work together is known as organisation. It is a forum of every hu~an association for the attainment of a common goal. Weber defined organisation as a corporate group. Its orders are enforced by the specific individuals. The focus is on legitimate interation of parts. 2 Grouping is given top priority. The individuals to whom the functions are entrusted come later. Organisations are social units, human groupings deliberately constructed or reconstructed to seek specific objectives or goals or sub-goals. Organisations are characterised by division of labour, the presence of one or more power centres, substitution of personnelunsatisfactory person can be removed and others can be assigned their tasks. Organisations are social institutions. They are natural communities. They are called as social systems. Just as biological structures are composed of all parts in an organic whole so are organisations composed of human beings. It refers to the complete body with all its co-related functions. It is an interaction and inter-relationship of people to achieve some goals.
Characteristics Organisation have five important features: (1) Membership
It comprises a group of persons. Membership may be voluntary or involuntary. Belongingness is an important criteria membership as such is an important feature of an organisation.
(2) Consciously Purposive They are seems to be consciously purposive i.e., they do
78
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
something positive for their members. It is a purposive creation. That is all organisations have some objectives or set of objectives. (3)
Fonnal Structure
A third and very important feature of organisation is the structure. It refers the functions in an organisation.
(4) Elusive It means ideology or a set of ideas. That ideology affects their
life and structure. Political and religious organisation fall in this category. But administrative and econpmic organisations such as public bureaucracies and business organisations are ideologically neutral as far as their internal affairs are concerned. However, all organisational life implies some reasonably value system. 3
(5) Corporate Status The last, ultimate and final feature of an organisation, may be described as its corporate statues. Organisations always have legal status, legally established. Thus, they can be treated as legal and social bodies or entities.
Nature of Organisation Organisation as Machine They have most usefully described as a machine. Its purpose is to do work. Through its work processes it transforms inputs. It is nothing but a system of interrelated parts.
Organisation as Structure It is a formal structur.e of a plan, like the plan of a building
prepared in advance by the architect according to some principle. It is established and supported by authority.4 It
Organisation and Its Principles
79
can be set out on a chart or a diagram. It is normally a set of dominant work relationships. As a structure an organisation has three essentials: 0) It has some common goals. (2) It works in a systematic manner. (3) It has cluster of posts and positions on these three factors on which organisation is based. Organisation as a Process In this sense, it is an ongoing process. It goes on structuring or arranging the parts of an organisation. If a person has to take work from a hundred persons he has to organise them systematically.5 By organisation, we mean that it has to divide work and distribute it to each one of them. He has to make group and sub-groups. As a process several fundamentals must be considered. In the first place, it reflects the objectives and the· pans. In the second place it must reflect the authority. In the third place, it must reflect its environment. It depends on the situation first, it is staffed with people. Organisation as a Need and Responses The functionalist approach concentrates on needs and responses to needs. The function of a respons is to fulfil a need. Needs may be defined in terms of the goals. Organisation as a whole society itself, it is a unit. It operates in the context of its environment.It responds or reacts or is connected to its environment. Adjustment is the key-idea. Organisation as Society It contains persons or groups with different political interests.
The central problem of organisation is to blend those interests into a coherent whole. 6 Organisations change or move or
80
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
react to their social environment. When organisations lose contact with their environment pressure for change arises. Pressures may come from inside or outside, but the consequence is the same in both cases. The most impressive and influential writer who elaborate the theory of society and organisations is the Talcott Persons. His social analogy is quite convincing.
The Organisation as a System It is a system because it constantly influences and is also influenced by its environment? It is an adoptive and open system. It has usual features ,of a system viz. input, output, throughput, 'environment. It receives inputs from society in the form of raw materials, labour, capital produces outputs sends outputs in the form of materials, services and information to the environment consists and environment of many changing factors such as economic, political, social, technological, legal etc.,
Principles of the Organisation Principles are the basic doctrines of the organisation. Every organisation needs to be based on certain principles. Many dismiss these principles as myths or sayings or proverbs or precepts. Then which principles to follow? No principles are accurate, definite and precise. But many regard these principles as necessary to the achievement of the goals of public administration. Now what are these goals-public welfare, social security, full employment, social welfare etc. The end of Public administration is maximum common good or public welfare at minimum cost. 8 The principles of public administration are not like the laws of physical sciences inflexible or invariable in their operation. But on the other hand they are flexible and dynamic.
Organisation and Its Principles
81
1. Hierarchy Hierarchy is a principle which is quite fundamental to any organisation. 9 Hierarchy means the rule or the control of the higher over the lower. It also means graded organisations. In an organisation there are people who occupy different positions and have been given power and authority. In an organisation all are not equal. On the one hand are those who give orders and commands on the other are those who are expected to obey commands issued to them. Thus, whole system is based on the principle of high and low, the officer and the subordinate. The rule through proper channel occupies upper place in hierarchy. In every large scale organisation there are few who command and there are others, who are commanded.1O In the sense some have authority to command and the others must obey them. Thus, it creates the superior and the subordinate relationships. In hierarchy the authority, the command and the control flows from the top to the bottom-slowly, gradually or step-bystep. The structure of an army is the best example of a hierarchy. All large scale organisations follows the same pattern. Hirerachy is a universal phenomena. Every person or position in the hierarchy finds its appropriate place. The lines of authority and responsibility flow along the path of hierarchy. Links after links are there. Every organisation looks like a paramidical or triangle in its structure. A paramidical structure is sharp at the top and broad at the bottom. Every organisation is like a ladder. A person desirous of going to the roof will have to climb all the steps of the ladder, if he misses any step in the middle, he is likely to falldown. Similarly, in the organisation there are various levels. Hierarchy in other words is also called as a scalar process which means ladder with several steps. In
82
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
the organisation everything must move through proper channel. For exp.mple, the secretary of the department will have to deal with the joint secretary, joint-secretary, in turn shall, deal with the deputy secretary. Qeputy-secretary shall, in turn deal with Assistant Secretary who further shall, deal with the under-secretary, the under-secretary shall, in turn deal with the section officer-who in turn, shall deal with the assistants, clerks etc. Similarly, the line of upward communication shall be exactly the same when the section officer deals with the higher officers. The struchue and the functioning of a hierarchical organisation may be examined and explained by the following diagram: A
c D E
H I
J
FL------------~K
The above diagram is like a triangle or a pyramidical structure. In this diagram, A is at the top F and K are at the bottom. A is the highest officer. A is the head of the organisation. F and K are the lowest officers. B is directly subordinate to A. B is A's immediate subordinate. Similarly D is mediately subordinate to A through C and B. If D has to say something to A that must go through C and B. Thus, like a chain the line of authority runs upwards and down wards step-by-step. Similarly, E cannot approach A directly. He will have to go through DCB. Every order or communication should move through proper channel. The
Organisation and Its Principles
83
same process is found in the other side of the organisation. The line of authority flows from A to F one end and A to K at another end. The line of authority flows downwards when Ajssues orders. But it flows upwards when papers are submited to A for final decision. In this organisation the line of authority is an unbroken chain. The papers are moving through all the levels of the organisation and so it is known as proper channel.
Functions The functions of the hierarchy are numerous. (1) It is a channel of command.
(2) It is a channel of communication down ward and upward-along with information, advice, specific instructions, warnings etc. (3) It is the channel for the delegation of authority. (4) It is a channel of internal control. (5) It is the means of clarifying responsibilities and defining relations.
2. Span of Control The second principle of the organisation is the principle of span of control. It refers to the number of subordinates, a supervisor can supervise effectively. By span of control we mean the number of subordinates an officer can effectively supervise. l1 The span of control is the limit of attention or the scope of attention which one superior officer can pay towards his subordinates. It is the optimum limit of attention which can be exercised by one superior officer over the subordinates. The problem of span of control is a natural out-flow of the principle of scalar system. As we studied earlier, scalar
84
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
organisation involves a number of steps one above the other in an organisation, each step is headed by a single person. Now the question arises as to how many persons should work under his control and supervision at the particular level. There is a great deal of disagreement among the writers on the administration about the exact limit of the span of control. The experts are sharply divided over the views regarding the span of control. One school of thought holds the view that eight to ten subordinates can be supervised by one superior officer. Other school holds the view that four to six subordinates can be supervised by one superior officer. Still others restrict it to 20 and so on. There is no unanimity or oneness of opinion as regards to the exact number. But the main idea behind this problem is the effectiveness of supervision. The supervision has both qualitative and quantitative aspects. Hence, quality is to be accompanied by quantity is an important factor. In an organisation a superior officer is expected to exercise control over subordinates. The number of subordinates to be supervised differs from one organisation to another organisation. So, a span of control universally exists and it cannot be exceeded without the danger of break down. Of late, the UGC in India has been studying the problem of span of control and the attention in the college class rooms. It has drawn the conclusion that a teacher can teach and supervise 10 to 12 shldents most effectively.
Factors which Influence the Span of Control At present, we can only discuss some of the factors which can determine or influence the span of control. These factors are:
Organisation and Its Principles (1)
8!,)
Nature of work
Where the nature of work is of repetitive, measurable and homogeneous character, the span of control is more than where the- work is of heterogeneous in character. 12 - For example, it is easier to supervise a large number of typists because of the measurable nature of their work, but this will not be so if the nature of work is of intellectual type. (2)
Leadership
The span of control increases or decreases depending upon the qualities of the supervisor. If he is wise, clever, shrewd and tactful, he can supervise a large number of persons. The span of control increases if he is fair, considerable and truthful towards the subordinates. If he is through in his dealings, if he has general outlook, teaching ability, then he can inspire the loyalty of his subordinates. On the other hand, if he is weak, less intelligent and floppish, he may not be in a position to supervise even the few persons effectively. It may also be pointed out that much depends on the competence and calibre of the subordinates also. If they are untrained and incompetent, they are liable to make mistakes and, hence, needs closer supervision. (3)
Age of the agency
Supervision is more easy and the span of control increases if the organisation has been long in existence. In the old
established organisations the work goes on smoothly. In new organisations new problems constantly arrive which very often demand reference of the superiors.
(4) Location of the organisational units Supervision becomes easier when the subordinates work under the same roof where the supervisor sits. If they work
86
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
in different rooms or at a distance from the supervisor, supervision becomes difficult because they escape his penetrating eyeP The.principle of span of control is good as a general guiding principle in administrative organisation. But it cannot be caught in mathematical terms. Thus, we conclude by saying that the principle of span of control cannot be applied in a rigid way. The span of control varies with the four factors mentioned above.
Span of Control under Revision The idea of span of control has come under revision during the recent years, Thus, the old pattern of organisation is gradually under going a change. The well-known concept of superior-subordinate relationship is facing a challenge. Thus, bossing is being replaced by persuasion and negotiation. The job of the chief executive is now more of co-ordination than of supervision and control.
3. Unity of Command The third principle of the organisation is the principle of unity of command. By unity of command means that all the employees in the organisation must be subordinate and subjected to the orders of the one superior officer. Each individual employee shall have only one man as his "boss" and shall receive orders only from him. If they are subjected to two different superiors, it leads to diversity of command. If he gets orders from more than one officer, it may become difficulty, highly impossible for him to discharge his duties. He will be put in a very ackward and confusing position, if he receives conflicting orders from his superiors. The diversity of command is the dislocation of the authority. I .. If the employees receive orders from only one superior officer,
Organisation and Its Principles
87
they can faithfully carry out his orders. The employees have to obey the orders of only superior officer. Nobody can serve two masters at one and the same time. If they are made to serve two masters, the.r:e will be confusion and chaos in the organisation. All this may result confusion and chaos in administration. In order to avoid such a conflict in an organisation, it has been suggested by the experts that there must be unity of command. It may be illustrated by the following examples.
Unity In the department of public instruction, there is a unity of command. The department has hierarchical set-up consisting of officials known as the director, deputy director, joint director, assistant directors, educational officers and inspector of schools. All these officials receive commands from the head of the department. The line of authority flows continuously, regularly in an unbroken chain. They will easily obey the orders of the superiors.
Diversity of command If the subordinate officers are subjected to the different
masters, they will be receiving conflicting orders from their masters. 1S This will lead to confusion in the minds of the employees. They will find it difficult to obey the orders of any superior authority. It is usually seen that individual employee particularly in the professional fields, is subject to a dual or double command. He gets orders not only from the administrative side but also from the professional or technical side. He gets orders from both the sides i.e., administrative side and the technical side. For example, administratively, a doctor employed in a local body is under the administrative control of the chairman
88
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
of the local body, but professionally and technically, he is under the control of the state director of public health. Similar is the case with regard to all organisations employees, tec.hnical personnel's. In the National Extension Service Block, the BDO is the chief executive officer who is expected to co-ordinate all the activities of the extension officers working under his control. The extension officers belongs to different departments. Hence, they will have to be loyal to their parent departments in respect of all technical matters. There are extension officers for co-operation, animal husbandry, and veterinary services, agriculture, horticulture, sericulture, fishries, industries, commerce, health and social education. These extension officers are under the administrative control of the BDO but they are technically controlled by the respective heads of the departments. Thus, they are subjected to two different masters, and they find it difficult to obey the orders of both the masters.
4. Morale The fourth important principle of the organisation is the principle of morale. Good morale is vital to efficient organisation. It is an intangible concept. It is an inner possession of an individual or a group. It is a state of mind or attitude. It is a reflection of physical, mental, moral and emotional health of an individual and the group. It reflects a social and psychological situation. 16 Thus, it is an individual as well as a group concept each interacting upon the other. It has both individual and social aspect. Morale is the mental and moral condition with respect to cheerfulness, confidence and zeal. Morale is a constant state of mind. It is more than mere enthusiasm. Enthusiasm is momentary, it vanishes after a while. Enthusiasm, however, be an index of good
Organisation and Its Principles
89
morale. The individual must take pride in his work. He must identify himself with the group. He must have a sense of belonging to it. Satisfaction is an important element in morale. Morale .is a social utility. It has democratic implications. Morale depends on the environment. 17 The secret of the outstanding success of the British Civil Service is its high morale built up by the civil servants themselves. Morale adds force and energy which make for achievement. A wholesome morale stimulates loyalty, cooperation and team work all of which are so essential for the smooth co-ordination of many individuals in a single organisation. Thus, the importance of high morale to a service cannot be over-emphasised. Its presence leads to all-round efficiency and success and its absence to inefficiency and failure. "Good Morale is to a service, what good health is to a body" .18 When an employee has few frustrations, dissatisfactions, discontents, disregards he has high morale and when he has many disappointments frustrations or deep frustrations, he has low or poor morale. A favourable attitude towards the job, the group, the boss and the company reflects the good or high morale and an unfavourable attitude powers the job, the group the boos and the company reflects the low or poor morale. The group, certain co-worker, pays other benefits to employees family life, his social life, his community life, his friends and his union have impact on employees morale. If the employee has nagging wife or if he is harassed by his debtors his morale may be low.1 9
Good morale and its effects Good or high morale among the employees is likely to bring the following good results: Job satisfaction. (2) Higher productivity.2o (1)
90
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
(3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Higher profits. Better wages. Employment stability. Employees initiative, regl~larity and punctuality. To show great loyality to the boss and the company.
Poor or low morale and its effects Poor or low morale among the employees is likely to bring the following bad results: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18)
Apathy and non-involvement. Fatigue and monotony. Labour turnove. Work stoppages. Absenteeism. Discipliriary problems. Labour unrest. Increased difficulties. They make all the money for themselves. They believe that they have all the answers. They benefit when we work hard. They may fire us if we increase output. They want to introduce changes all the time at our expense. They are fallible and neglectful. They don't care. They hire and fire as they please. They don't share. They think we are stupid and dumb.
Employee's with low morale tend to show the least interest in their jobs and in what they are doing. Work is drudgery and misery to them. They are generally dissatisfied. They show their dissatisfactions in various ways by being
Organisation and Its Principles
91
irregular to work, by taking leave often, by pleading sickness, by not putting forth their best, by criticising foremen and their boss etc.
How to build up morale? Morale has both an intellectual as well as an emotional quality and, therefore, both the minds and the emotions of the employees should be trained. In the first place, it is important that the employee should have a knowledge of the purposes and objectives which the organisation seeks to achieve. He may have a sympathy with the objects he serves. This knowledge will help him to realise the worthwhileness of his work. A work done only to earn a livelihood somehow does not provide positive satisfaction in the performance. A high morale is essential. Secondly, confidence of the rank and good intent of their superiors is an important element for boosting morale. Nothing is more demoralising than a suspicion of unfairness on the part of ones higher officers or fear of victimisation from them. The entire organisation falls low in public eyes. The higher officers should be fair, impartial and honest. They should not succumb to low practices, corruption and undesirable political influence. If the higher officers are corrupt, the rumour spreads through the organisation like a poison and the lower ranks also lose their morale. Thirdly, a sense of sharing in policy-making and running of his organisation heightens the morale of the employees. They should be given as far as possible as share in the formulation of work programme. Every effort should be made to create a feeling among the employees that they think of the service as a whole rather than of their personal interests. They should not be dubbed as bureaucrats or
92
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
hirelings of the government but be regarded as part of the people co-operating in the building up of the country21. Any idea or suggestion for improvement if put by any employee should be sympath.eticalJy considered by his superiors. That will develop in them a sense of belongingness to the government. The old concepts of hierarchy and chain of command must give place to co-operation and partnership. The directing head should be more of a leader than a boss. Fourthly, stimulating leadership can greatly help in building up of morale. The leader must be the men of ideas. Leader should be there to lead and guide. He should maintain good character. The leader should set an example through his behaviour. The organisation must possess the good leaders.
5. Communication The fifth and the last principle of the organisation is the principle of communication. The communication is derived from the Latin word "communis". It means common. When we communicate we are trying to establish a commonness with someone. Here we are speaking communication in the context of an organisation. It is the basic principle of an organisation. The success of organisation depends on efficient and effective communication. Without communication there can be no organisation. 22 It occupies central place in any organisation. Effective administration depertds to a great extent upon an effective system of communication. It plays a central role in public administration. The essence is not information but understanding. The success of any planning depends on an efficient net work of communication. It is the basis of decision-making. Communication and decision making are inseparable. The data and information supplied
Organisation and Its Principles
93
by the organisational communication system constitute the raw material of decision-making. Therefore, a complete information as far as possible should be available to decision-makers. Communications are also essential for effective performance of the organisation. A decision may be sound, yet if it is communicated poorly, the desired results will not be obtained Lack of proper communications would result in confusion and friction in the organisation. 23 Herbert Simon, a noted writer, stresses the role of communication in administration. He says, it is obvious that without communication there can be no organisation. In the opinion of the above writer, communication occupies a central place in any administrative organisation. Herbert Simon views communication as a process through which decisions are transmitted from one member of an organisation to another. L.A. Appleby has defined communication as "that process whereby one person makes his idea and feelings known to another". Thus, the purpose of communication is to convey some idea by one person to another person. Such an idea is communicated by the use of words, letters, symbols etc. However, for communications to be successful, the idea conveyed must be understood otherwise the very purpose of communication is lost. Another aspect of communication is that it is basically an interaction and hence two or more persons are involved 24 in it. For the operation of communications, at least, there must be two persons-one the sender and other receiver. Thus, communication is an instrument of co-ordination. It is the transmitting of instructions and information to all interested parties. The aim of communication is sending of ideas of what one thinks and feels. It is nothing but sending and receiving of ideas. It is an instrument of employer and employees co-ordination. 25
94
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Principles of Communication To maintain communication system effective, following principles need to be adopted:
Clarity The instructions to be given should be clear. It should have a definite meaning. Moreover, the language to be used should be easy. It should be easy to understand. The information transferred must be understandable to the receiver. The informations should be brief, simple, clear and precise.
Consistency Instructions, guidelines, messages and orders should be consistent with one another. Orders should be consistent.
Adequacy Information should be as less as possible. The information should not be of lengthy and complex.
Acceptance The purpose of communication is to secure a positive response. The persons communicated to should accept the information in a positive sense.
Timeliness The instructions given by the higher authorities should reach the filed agency promptly and at proper time. So also, communication from field staff should reach at higher level at proper time. If this is not followed, out of date information becomes historical documents and it becomes the worst kind of information.
Organisation and Its Principles
Notes and References 1. L.D. White, fntmduction to the Study of Public Administration, 1955, p. 41. 2. Appleby, P.H., -Policy and Administration, the University of Alabama Press, Alabama, 1949, pp. 72-73. The various parts operating in the organisation are having legitimate or legal sanction. Authority is the base of legitimacy. 3. Dimock, M.E. and Dimock, e.O., Public Administration, Rinehart and Co., New York, 1959, p. 110. Organisation always works on the basis of some doctrines or principles or values. Efficiency is an important value in organisation. 4. See Gulick, L. and Urwick L. (Ed.) Papers on the Science of Administration, Institute of Public Administration, Columbia University, New York, 1937, pp.184-85. Authority is the base of all organisations. Authority always operates on the road of values. 5. Seckler-Hudson, c., op. cit., p. 51. 6. Willoughby, W.F., op. cit, p. 85. 7. W.H. Newman, Administrative Action, Prentice Hallinc, New York 1953, p. 403. Organisations are described as the open systems and they interacts with environment. 8. Dwight Waldo, International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, 1968, Volume 13. The Macmillan Company and the Free Press, p.146. 9. Charles, A. Beard, Public Policy and the General Welfare, Rinehart and Company inc, 1941, pp. 148, 158- 60. Through proper channel means never supersede or bypass the people in between. 10. Gulick and Urwick, Papers on the Science of Public Administration, Columbia University Press, 1937, p. 40. In the hierarchy there are some people who issue the orders, and others will receive or obey the orders. It implies superiorsubordinate relationships.
96
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
11. L.D. White, Public Administration, p. 36. 12. Homogeneity means similar type of work and heterogeneity means diversity. 13. L.D. White, introduction to THE study of Public Administration, p.24. 14. James, D. Mooney, the Principles of Organisation, pp. 22-23. Diversity of command means division or decentralisation of authority. 15. Pfiffner and Presthus, Public Administration, p. 216. 16. P. Sharan Modern Public Administration, Meenakshi Prakashan, Meerut, 1981, p. 437.
17. Ibid., p. 440. 18. F.M. Marx, Elements of Public Administration, Meenakshi Prakashan, Meerut, 1981. 19. J.e. Charlesworth, Governmental Administration, Harper and Brothers, New York, 1951, p. 207. 20. Fatigue means tiredness or laziness. Monotony meanssameness. 21. Dennis, A. Rondinelli and G. Shabbir Cheema, Decentralisation and Development, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, 1983, p. 10. 22. Ibid., pp. 14-18. 23. W.P. Willoughby, Principles of Public Administration, p. 139. 24. Terry, G.R. Principles of Management (1954d), pp. 410-13. 25. Richard and Nielander, Readings in Management, pp. 101-153.
6 Organisation and Its Theories
There are several theories of the organisation. The term theories of the organisation has become a popular one. The organisation is not merely a structure. In fact, it embraces structure as well as human beings. Here we shall consider important theories of the organisa tion.
1. Scientific Management Theory The first systematic theory of organisation was formulated in the early years of the present century by F.W. Taylor (18561915), an engineer by profession, who is regatded as the father of scientific management. He was the first to advocate the adoption of scientific methods in the field of industrial work processes and management to promote industrial efficiency and economy. The scientific management is also known as Taylorism. It is also known as time and motion studies. Scientific management was started as a movement. But it was an active movement. At that time the working conditions in
98
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
the factories were Chaotic. At the same time the conditions in the factories were rather unplanned worst, bad and miserable. Factory workers were not given sufficient instructions. Workers were not being managed. They were managing themselves. The work methods, tools and procedures were neither standardised nor planned for efficiency. Choice of methods of work was mainly left to the workers themselves resulting in considerable ad hoc planning and inefficiency. The workers were left entirely themselves in the matter of choosing the work and the methods to be employed for doing the work. Choice of the work was mainly left to the workers. Not only this, they even used to bring their own tools, materials, articles for doing the work. Whether these methods were efficient ones or whether the tools were of right kinds, it is none of the responsibilities of the management. The management was unconcerned for methods and tools of work. The managerial and supervisory roles of today were largely absent in those days. Their superiors were unable to tell the workers how to do the work efficiently. This was a sort of disorder which was sought to be replaced by orderliness the keystone of Taylorian management thought. Taylor lived at a time when both management and labour could not understand their proper roles and responsibilities. Taylor regarded the prevailing system as irrational and highly inefficient. Taylor wrote a book known as The Principles and Methods of Scientific Management. As a result this, inefficient system prevailing in factories, scientific management theory was emerged as a new philosophy of management. Taylor advocated this theory. This theory was first of all developed or formulated or propunded by F.W. Taylor. Taylor was the first management thinker. He was rightly regarded as the founder of Scientific Management. Taylor was an American engineer. Credit goes to Taylor because he made management a respectable science.
Organisation and Its Theories
99
He is universally acclaimed as the Father of Management. He employed scientific methods to the problems of management. He came into prominence towards the end of nineteenth ceI}tury. Taylor served in different capacities as an apprentice, as a mechanist, as a shop-clerk, as an operator, as a gang boss, as a foremen and as a chief engineer, as a consultant. He points out that management is a true science depending upon clearly fixed laws, rules and principles. He argued that management comprised a number of principles. The overall goal of scientific management is the higher industrial productivity and efficiency. Taylor had several objectives. But the main objective of scientific management is the standardisation of work methods. Taylor's principles of scientific management were scientific to the extent that they were based on first hand experimentation in, and observation of work procedures and conditions in industrial enterprises. Taylor used scientific techniques. Taylor who gave general frame work so that they could become widely accepted and available. He emphasised the need for professional management. In short, according to Taylor scientific management is meant: (1) Science not rule of thumb,
(2) (3) (4) (5)
Harmony not disorder, Co-operation not individualism, Maximum output in place of restricted output, and The development of each man to his greatest efficiency and prosperity.
Basic Principles of Scientific Management The main principles of scientific management are in other words, scientific management stands for:
100
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Standardisation of Work Methods Taylors first principle relates to the improvement of work methods. The focus is on work and worker itself. He wanted scientific management. The good workers is one who accepts orders. Each worker must be assumed as an economic man. He said workers shquld work in a systematic, scientific or in a planned way. The objective or the goal or the target of management should be higher productivity. When Taylor's methods were applied production increased manifold. He was the first to conduct researches in highly scientific way through time and motion study. He was of the view that the worker has to be told what he has to do and how he has to do. To achieve the goal, the management must pay high or handsome wages to workers. Higher wages lead to higher productivity. If the output of the worker is achieved maximum or an optimum level such worker should be rewarded. High performer should be rewarded. He said rewards should be quick. He who does the work earlier must be rewarded with bonus. If a worker shows excellence in production he should be rewarded or awarded. But if a worker does not show excellence in production such a worker should be penalised or punished or in other words, if he failed in increasing his output or production, penalty should be imposed on him. Those who do not produce to the level he should be thrown out. Management encourages higher performer at the expense or cost of the lazy. He also stressed that the industry should believe that the higher performer should stay whereas lower performer should go. Thus, Taylor gave the concept of reward and punishment. It is only through enforced standardisation of methods, enforced adoption of the best implement and working conditions and enforced co-operation, that this faster work
Organisation and Its Theories
101
can be assumed. Taylor in his book The Principles and Methods of Scientific Management made certain fundamental assumptions. They were: (1)
Industrial processes can be made open for scientific observation and experimentation. The work procedures of labour can be reduced to basic motions to ascertain the longest, shortest and average time needed for each motion.
(2) The standard time prescribed for each operation can be produced at a designated standard of efficiency and economy. (3) The workers can be trained in the best methods for achieving the industrial objectives by the management.
Scientific Selection and Training of Workers His second principle relates to the scientific selection, placement and training cf workers in a scientific manner. Standardisation of working conditions will be crucially served by selecting and placing workers on jobs for which they are best suited by their physical and intellectual abilities. Moreover, it is the duty of the management to train workers for their tasks and provide them all facilities for development of their personalities. Management must appoint at least literate or educated workers in the factories or industries. Management should run on scientific principles. The management,should train the workers so that they adopt the scientific methods of work for maximum production.
Equal Division of Work between Management and Workers Taylor'S third principle was an open advocacy of an equal
102
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
division of work and responsibility between management and workers. Taylor has noted in his observations the unhealthy trend of the managers to place increasing burden on the workers while assuming f9r themselves only minimum responsibilities. In the context, Taylor advised that half of the workers work should be taken over by the management. The management should undertake the functions for which it was best suited i.e., planning, organising, controlling and determining the methods of work.
Mutual Collaboration of the Workers and Management Another Taylorian principle was that there should be active co-operation and cordial relations between management and workers. There should be mutual faith and trust. Efficiency and productivity can be best promoted by creating a healthy and congenial environment in the organisation which is the joint responsibility of both workers and the management. By maximising the productive efficiency of each worker, scientific management would also maximise the earnings of workers and employers. Hence, all conflict between capital and labour would be resolved by the findings of science.
Replacing Rule of Thumb Methods by the Scientific Methods and Procedures of Work The rule of thumb methods should be replaced by scientific methods. The rule of thumb methods should be vanished, removed banished or abolished. Workers should think rationally and scientifically.
Separation of Planning from Performance The planning should be separated or divorced from performance. Planning should be the responsibility of
Organisation and Its Theories
103
management while performance should be the responsibility of the workers. Management should plan the work on the basis of time shldies. Work should be decided on scientific basis and classified systematically.
Improving Organisational Efficiency and Productivity Production of the organisation should be improved. It must be standardised, and are of high quality.
Five Postulates of Management Taylor was the first management thinker. Besides the above mentioned principles, Taylor has introduced and stressed five postulates of management. These are: (1) Research,
(2) (3) (4) (5)
Standards, Planning, Control, and Mutual co-operation or collaboration between labour and management.
These five principles arr postulated form of the crux of every successful management.
Criticisms The scientific management movement aroused much criticism and apprehensions in various quarters. It has been alleged that the movement was mainly concerned with organisational efficiency viewed in purely mechanical terms. Scientific management concerned itself mainly with production, efficiency and managerial problems, without touching on the psychological and emotional problems of workersthe routine and monotony of their work, uncertainly of employment etc. The general allegation that Taylor had
104
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
neglected the human factor in management led to a series of psychological and sociological studies with special reference to this factor. The scientific .management views organisation mechanically. It neglects human factor. It lays emphasis on mechanical efficiency. This is wrong. Further Taylor and his followers considered or equated man to the machine. This is wrong assumption. The very word man as a machine as said by Taylor was bitterly criticised. Man is not a slave of the machine. He is a human being. He operates the machine. Taylor's assumption is that what is good for management is also good for the worker. This is not accepted. Sometimes good for the management turns bad to the workers. The food of one may be turned into the poison to the other. The focus ofthis theory is very narrow, limited and restricted. Taylor was not interested in the deep study of whole organisation. It fails to take into account the influence of the environment in the organisation. However, the significance and importance of the theory of scientific management cannot be under-estimated by the above criticisms. Its true worth can be measured by the growth of the science of management through the application of scientific methods. In the early years of the twentieth century, scientific management had a snow balling impact on administrative thought and practice in the United States. It permeated not only industrial enterprises but business establishments and also government organisations. In 1910, the scientific management movement manifested itself in the establishment of the commission on economy and efficiency under President Taft. The recommendations of this commission further popularised the scientific management movement. Taylor's advocacy of the one best way to do each work-productive or managerial was equally implemented in industrial and governmental business and management.
, Organisation and Its Theories
105
Thus, the scientific technology of Taylorism besides the democratic principle, comprised the twin elements of American Public Administration. The popularity and impact of the scientific management movement can be further gauged from the fact that it gained considerable significance in industrial management in the Soviet Union. Taylor combined theory and practices, thought and experiment, doing and teaching all in one person and in one life. Taylor's scientific management had a major influence on the reforms and economy movements. It is hoped that the industrial problems could be resolved through these principles. Lenin had exhorted Russian industrial managers, as early as 1920, to apply the principles of scientific management for increasing production. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s great efforts were made to increase the productivity and efficiency in Soviet industries through the application of the principles of scientific management. It would be important to remember that in Taylor's work the human relations aspect of organisations was under emphasised but certainly not entirely neglected. As stated earlier, he recognised the importance of mutual collaboration of workers and management as one of the essential principles for raising industrial efficiency. Besides, improvement of the working conditions of labour was his chief concern. One of the main by products of Taylorism that the workers came to be paid and trained better, besides working in more congenial conditions than before. However, the essence of his theory that the speed, cost and quality of goods and services were dependent variables, and they could be maximised by the adjustment of independent variables such as division of labour, method of supervision, financial incentives, flow of materials and lastly, physical methods and condition are still true to a great extent.
106
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Conclusion The combination of the above principles constituted the base of scientific management. Viewed in the context, of its own times, scientific management was a revolutiona-ry concept. It brought a drastic change in the whole approach to industrial management. Through it wastage of human and material resources was greatly minimised affecting a better and efficient utilisation of labour and material. It helped the standardisation of work procedures and improvement of working conditions in factories. Labour was greatly benefited by higher wages, better placements and training, limiting of working hours and the general improvement in working facilities. The scientific management movement provided effective guidelines to the management to develop an effective organisa tion.
2. Classical Theory The next important theory of the organisation is known as Classical Theory. It has been called classical. This is a dominant theory. This theory is also known as the Normative and Structural Theory. Its proponents or advocates or the notable persons have been Henry Fayol, Luther Gulick, L.F. Un-vick, J.D. Mooney, A.c. Reiley, M.P. Follett, R. Shelton and Syndall U rwick. The important concern of the classical theory is a formulation of certain universal principles of the organisation. It deals primarily with formal organisational structure. The theory assumes that there are certain fundamental principles on the basis of which an organisation can be established to achieve a specific objective. The watch-words of this theory are efficiency and economy as it conceives that these principles, if fully adopted, can lead to maximum organisational efficiency
Organisation and Its Theories
107
and economy. The structuralists were chiefly concerned with discovering the true basis On which work can be divided in an organisation and devising proper methods of bringing about effective organisational co-ordination. The classical thinkers perceive organisation as a formal structure of plan created in accordance with certain accepted principles. Henry Fayol (1841-1925) is considered the father of administrative management. His focus is on the development of broad administrative principles. Fayol was a French engineer, a leading industrialist and successful manager. He was a chief executive, great writer on the theory of management. Fayol was concerned with the management and the tasks of the manager. He wrote a great book entitled Industrial and General Administration. Fayol divided all the activities in the organisation under six groups: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Technical, Commercial, Financial, Security, Accounting, and administrative.
Further, Fayol also presented and propounded 14 principles of organisation and they are listed below.
Fayol's Principles of Administrative Management F.W. Taylor is considered as the father of scientific management, while Henry Fayol (1841-1925) is considered a the father of administrative management. His focus is on the developm~nt of broad administrative principles. Fayol was a French man, French engineer. He was a leading industrialist and successful manager. He was the chief executive. He was a great writer on the theory of management.
108
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Fayol was concerned with the management and the tasks of the manager. He wrote a great book entitled Industrial and General Administration. He defined management in terms of five functions. (1) Planning,
(2) (3) (4) (5)
Organising, Commanding, Co-ordinating, and Controlling.
Fayol also presented 14 principles of management as general guides to the management process and management practice. The most well known principles of Henry Fayol are the following: Division of work: This process produces more and better work with the same effort. Various functions of the management like planning, organising, co-ordinating, controlling cannot be performed by a single individual or by group of directors. They must be entrusted to specialists in related fields. (2) Authority and responsibility: Authority is the right ~o issue orders which the subordinates are bound to obey. Authority and responsibility go side by side or hand in hand. The managers should have the right to give orders and power to exact obedience. A manager may exercise, formal authority and also personal authority. Formal authority is derived from his official position while personal authority is the result of the intelligence, experience, moral worth, ability to lead, past service etc. Responsibility is closely related to authority and it arises wherever authority is exercised. Authority should be equal to responsibility. (3) Discipline: It is absolutely essential for the smooth (1)
Organisation and Its Theories
109
running of management. By discipline we mean the obedience to authority, observance of rules of service, respect for agreements, respect for superiors etc. The means of discipline is the jQdicious application of penalties. (4) Unity of command: This principle requires that each employee should receive instructions from one superior only. Fayol believed that if an employee was to report to more than one superior he would be confused due to conflict in instructions and it would be difficult for him to carry out the responsibilities. (5) Unity of Direction: It means that there should be one head, one plan and having the same objectives. Unity of direction is concerned with the functioning of a body corporate, the department, the sub-departments. For every category of work there should be one plan of action and it should be executed under the overall control and supervision of one head or one superior. (6) Subordination of individual interest to general interest: It means the interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over the common interest. If there is disagreement between two superiors on any matter the management should settle, solve or reconcile the differences so as to conduct the overall operations of the enterprise smoothly. Remuneration: The wages and salaries of the employees should be fair: Employees who are paid decent or handsome wages or salary will have a high morale and their efficiency will be high. Contented or satisfied staff is a property or asset to the firm. The rate of remuneration paid should be based on general business conditions, cost of living, productivity of the concerned employees and the capacity of the firm to pay. (7)
110
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
(8) Centralisation: If subordinates are given more role and importance in the management, it is decentralisation. But if they are given less role and importance it is centralisation. The management has to decide the degree of centralisation and decentralisation. (9) Scalar chain: It means the hierarchy of authority from highest executive to the lowest one. It indicates superior subordinate relationship. As per this principle the order or communications should pass through the proper channels. (10) Order: "Right man in the right place". This is how Fayol defined order. The principle of "right place for everything and for every man" should be observed by the management. (11) Equity: It means justice. Impartial dealing means fair dealing. It also means equality of treatment. Equity results a combination of kindness and justice. Employees expect equity from the management. The managerial treatment of the subordinates should be free from influence of prejudices and personal likes and dislikes. Equity ensures healthy relations between the management and the labour which is essential for the successful working of the enterprise. Managers sacrifice their vanity and to inspire the confidence from the lower ranks so that all levels show initiative. (12) Stability of tenure of personnel or employees: In order to motivate workers to do more and better work, it is necessary that they should be assured security of job by the management. If they have fear of insecurity of job their morale will be low and they cannot give more and better work. Further, they will not have any sense of feeling or attachment to the management and they will always be on the look out for a job for else where.
Organisation and Its Theories
111
(13) Initiative: It means freedom to think out and execute a plan. Managers should give to their employees sufficient scope to show their initiative. Employees should be encour(!ged to carry out their plans, even when spme mistakes result. (14) Esprit de-corps: Since "Union is strength", the management should create team spirit among the employees. Harmony and unity among the staff are a great source of strength to the undertaking. The management should not follow the policy of "Divide and Rule" and it should strive to maintain unity among the staff. If there is any difference or misunderstanding or symptom of distrust the management should take steps in time to eliminate them. Luther Gulick developed "POSDCORB" formula and each letter of the word stands for a different technique such as planning, organising, staffing, directing, co-ordinating, reporting and budgeting. Prof. Mooney and Reily's "Onward Industry" as a pioneering work on the development of organisational theory and is considered the first coherent approach to find organisation universals. Mooney argued that all organisation structures are based on a system of superior subordinate relationships arranged in a hierarchical order. This he termed as "Scalar Principles". According to this principle in every organisation there is a grading of duties in varying degrees of authority and corresponding responsibility. The scalar chain constitutes the universal process of co-ordination, through which the supreme co-ordinating authority becomes effective throughout the entire structure. The scalar process has its own principle, process and effect. These may term as leadership, delegation and functional definition. This theory is marked by four features: (1)
Impersonality,
112
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
(2) Specialisation, (3) Efficiency, and (4) Hierarchy. Further the classical theory is marked by the following five philosophical principles.
(1) It is atomistic: In the sense, it sees the individual in isolation and not as a social beings. It views man as a single animal not a group animaL (2) It is mechanistic: It does not explain the dynamics of organisational behaviour. (3) It is static: In the sense, it is not influenced by external environment. That is why it is static, stagnant, constant and rigid. (4) It is voluntaristic: It is voluntary and optionaL In the sense, individuals are free from the control either by the groups or social factors. (5) It is highly Rationalistic: It focus on charts, rule books, manuals, bye-laws and procedures. That is why it is rationalistic. Following are the basic beliefs of the classical theory: (1) According to the classical thinkers, organisation is
the formal administrative structure. The formal structure consists of several hierarchical levels. Each level of the organisation is clearly defined and described. (2) The followers of the classical theory or school considers "Efficiency and Economy" as the most important value. The various parts of the organisation must be properly arranged and adjusted. (3) The advocates of the classical theory believe that the design of the administrative structure is primary. It comes first.
Organisation and Its Theories
113
(4) Another belief of the classical theory is that organisation should be structured according to four Ps or bases. Those four Ps are: (1) Purpose (They serve).
(2) Process (They use). (3) Persons (Things worked with). (4) Place (Where the work is done). The choice of anyone criterion depends on specific conditions. Generally organisations are the admixture of all the four Ps. (5) The subscribers or the scholars or the thinkers of the classical theory believe in the existence of certain universal principles of the administration. Such as hierarchy, span of control, unity of command, delegation, communication, centralisation versus decentralisation, power, authority, morale, unity of control. (6) Another doctrine of classical theory relates to the sharp distinction between line (operating) activities and staff (advisory) activities. In the classical theory of the organisation a sharp distinction between line and staff activities is maintained. The differences between line and staff agencies may be listed as follows: 1. Line performs operating activities, whereas staff performs assisting functions to facilitate the work of the line officials. Therefore, line commands whereas staff advises only. 2. Line agencies render Services to the people and, therefore, come into contact with the public. Staff services benefit the line agencies and hence the staff officials do not come into contact with the people.
114
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
3. Line is hierarchical, staff is collateral. 4. Line agencies are organised on the basis of the purpose principle, whereas staff agencies are established on the basis of the proce~s principle. In the opinion of Pfiffner and Presthus, the distinction between line and staff agencies follows that between direct, and indirect, labour the direct being line and the indirect being staff. (7) Because of their belief in the existence of some of the universal principle of administration, they argue that administration is found everywhere and anywhere. It is universal. It may be noted here that there is no unanimity or oneness of opinion among the classical theorists as regards to the principles of the organisation.
Criticisms of the Classical Theory An important contribution of the classical theorists in general is their attempt to find certain universal principles of organisation. However, the classical theorists are criticised on the ground that each principle has been proved to be neither empirically valid in organisational functioning nor universally applicable which has led Herbert Simon to dub them as "proverbs". Another criticism often levelled is the classicists lack of behavioural analysis and neglect of the human factor in administration. Their methods tend to be prescriptive rather than descriptive. They also led greater emphasis on or overemphasis on the formal structure rather than the informal aspects of organisational dynamics. The theory is marked by an undue concern for the problems of the structure in relation to roles. Stress is laid not on human beings (rc:le
Organisation and Its Theories
115
occupants) as such, but on the role as it relates to other roles in the broader context of organisational goals. Further, it is atomistic and voluntaristic in the sense that it fails to view indiyiduals from an integrated perspective i.e. it ignores the "Social aspect" of man and the influence of the social environment on his work. The classical theory treats organisation as "closed system" completely unconnected with or uninfluenced by the external environment. Its obsession with the normative aspect of the functioning of organisations leads to its neglect of the study of an actual and informal behavioural patterns in the formal organisational struchlre.
3. Systems Theory It is the another important theory of the organisation. It has its own pecular feahlres. It considers organisation as a system with its parts. Organisation functions through its parts. It views organisation as an adaptive and open system. If it is to survive, it must adjust to the changes in the environment. Organisation and its environment as interdependent. Each depends on the other for resources. Here the examples of the open system are men, animals, plants etc. But on the other hand a closed system does not interact with its environment or to put it differently the operation of a closed system remains unaffected by its environment. For example, A machine organisation as a system is dependent upon its parts for effective functioning. Such parts are called as sub-systems. Each sub-system performs a series of needed activities. Organisation as a system generally consisting of inputs, outputs feedback or throughput, and environment. This theory views organisation as a system made up of interdependent factors. As a system, organisation receives inputs from its environment and transforms them into outputs.
116
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
This process of conversion of inputs into outputs is also known as throughput. Further the systems have boundaries or jurisdictions. An organisation is looked uPQn as a system comprising parts each of which makes a contribution to the operation of the organisation and each of them is dependent on others for its own needs. System parts are self-adjusting. Mainly the sub-systems or sub-parts of the organisation are: 1. Production or technical sub-systems: They are called as operations or technical core. They transform inputs into the outputs of the organisation. 2. Supportive sub-systems: The parts of the organisation support and supplement each other. They keep the organisation itself functioning. It produces raw materials, disposal of goods and services. 3. Maintenance sub-systems: This ensures the necessary inp~ts of human skills for personnel functioning of all kinds. 4. Adaptive sub-systems: These help to adjust and respond to the changing environmental conditions and demands, for example, planning units, reserach and development units. 5. Managerial sub-systems: They are called the administrative structure. These co-ordinate inter-relate the other sub-systems. They resolve the conflicts between units.
Parts of the Systems Theory 1. The individual and the personality structure: As already mentioned, a system comprises parts. The first basic part of the systems theory of organisation is the individual and the personality structure. An individual's personality includes motives and attitudes. 2. Formal organisation: The second part of the system is the formal organisation. Formal organisation is the formal
Organisation and Its Theories
117
arrangement of functions that made up the structure of a system. F.W. Taylor, Henry Fayol contributed a lot to development of the formal theory of the organisation. Formal theory is also called as the mechanistic or structural theory. Formal organisation is concerned with the discovering the principles of organisation. Indeed, it rests on four key pillars. These are: Division of labour, (2) The scalar or fU!lcJional processes, (3) The structure, and (4) The span of control. (1)
Among these the division of labour is the cornerstone, the remaining three are its corollaries. 3. Informal organisation: The third part of the systems theory of organisation is the informal organisation. In an organisation continuity occurs, interactions, contacts and relationships which are not part of or governed by formal organisation. These contacts may be incidental or accidental to organised activities. These contacts may arise from some personal desire or gregarious instincts. Contacts may be friendly or hostIle. These contacts make an informal organisation. An important attribute of an informal organisation is that it is indefinite, structureless and has no definite division. Informal organisations are necessary for the operation of the formal organisation. Informal organisation serves to: help in attaining personal objectives, (2) provide social satisfaction, (3) communication, and (4) social control of behaviour.
(1)
4. Physical setting: The fourth component of the systems
theory is the physical setting in which the job is performed.
118
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
The psychological, social and physiological characteristics of people in the work environment have to be taken into account and accommodated. Machine and processes should be designed to fit the psychological and physiological properties of men rather than hiring men to fit machines. Organisation, moreover, do not exist in vacuum. They are subject to pressures or forces from outside word such as culture technological change, education, politics, natural and human resources as well as economic frame work. All these constitute external environment. An essential feature of a system, as already mentioned, is the inter-relatedness of its parts. This implies that parts must interact with each other. The question then is what are the processes to achieve this desired interaction. These processes called the linking processes, they are three namely, communication, balance and decision-making. The reader is familiar with the meaning, importance and mechanisms of communication and no more on it need to be said here. The concept of baiance refers equilibrium mechanisms whereby the various parts of the system are maintained in a hamoniously structured relationship with each other. Finally, decision-making necessarily covers a very wide field of topics in the system and it keeps the various parts of the system energised and activated.
4. The Human Relations Theroy This is a behavioural theory. It is a new theory of the organisation. This theory is also termed as socio-economic theory or humanstic theory. This theory focuses on what is called as informal organisation. This theory is customary. It is not enacted, written and manualised. It is not formalised. It is not subject to neat diagrams. It is not shown in charts.
Organisation and Its Theories
119
It is more subtle or skilled. It develops through custom. This
theory lays emphasis on multi-dimensional nature of man. It deals with concrete human behaviour. This theory does not always conform to rule of .thumb. It is rooted in
psychology and applied to the field of public administration. The chief exponents of human relations theory are: Elton Mayo, Miss M.P. Follet, Bernard, Waldo, Herbert Simon etc. Credit goes to Elton Mayo for their contribution to the improvell"\ent of human relations in any enterprise. The human relations theory lays greater stress on people on human motivation, on informal group functioning. The human relations theory of organisation rejects the formal institutionalism. It assumes the organisational behaviour is quite complex from all directions. A human problem requires a human solution. This theory is more subtle in the sense, as it reflects such matters as social and economic status, race or language difference educational levels, personal likes and dislikes. An organisation is an essence of social system. A group of people behvaing in a particular way. Workers 'formed their own groups different from those of management. And this gives rise to human relations theory. The formal organisation tends to be relational and impersonal, whereas informal organisation tends to be emotional and personal. The two usually overlap. According to humanists there are various types of overlays (refers to contacts) in the informal organisation, such as: (1)
(2) (3) (4) (5)
The socio-metric overlay, The functional overlay, The decision overlay, The power overlay, and The communication overlay.
120
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
But the main defect or the deficiencies or the weaknesses of the informal organisation is its instability. It goes on changing and its behaviour cannot be predicted.
The Essentials of Human Relations Theory The essentials of the human relations theory may be summarised as follows: 1. According to this theory, an organisation is a complex social system comprising individuals, informal groups, and group relationships. It takes into consideration as to how the employees of an organisation actually behave their work habits. The human relations theory is concerned with the life of individual workers within the organisation. Thus, the advocates of this theory do not accept the view of the classical writers that an organisation is merely a formal structure. 2. The Human relations theorists argue that the efficiency and productivity of an organisation do not entirely depend upon economic factors (e.g. monetary rewards). Workers are not machines. They are human beings having sentiments, emotions, beliefs, values and opinions. All these informal socio-psychological factors affect the productivity and efficiency of an organisation. In their view both, economic rewards and socio-psychological satisfactions are essential for the effective functioning of an organisation. It is based on the belief that happy workers are more productive and unhappy workers less productive. Happiness is not merely a matter of material rewards. It is more a matter of interpersonal relations. If proper harmony is maintained between the formal
Organisation and Its Theories
3.
4.
5. •
121
and informal organisations, an organisation will realise its goals of efficiency and productivity. The advocates of the human relations theory have attacked the so-called princ.iples of administration expounded by the classical writers. According to humanists these principles are not scientific principles and they are not empirically tested. They are nothing but commonsense conclusions derived from experience. Herbert Simon compared those principles to maxims and mutually contradictory. They have reinterpreted the meaning of authority. The classical writers believed informal authority which is derived from the formal position one holds. Another idea associated with the human relations school is the concept of participatory management. . The proponents of this theory or school believe that workers should be allowed to participate in making decisions that affect their working conditions.
7 Management
Meaning Dr. P.A. Appleby remarks the heart of administration is management. Management has many tasks. Those who perform these tasks are called managers. Management is a dynamic aspect. Managers achieve their objectives through the efforts of others. The basic aim of management is to achieve certain objectives or goals or results. The term management has been variously defined. A popular definition is offered by Miss M.P. Follet "Management is the art of getting things done through the people." A short definition is "Management is the art of arranging the things". Management is a co-operative effort for achieving a particular objective. Management and administration are very closely related to each other. Both the words are used in combination. Management means administration and administration means management. But they are not equal in all respects.
Management
123
Administration is wider in scope whereas management is purely an internal concept. Both are distinct and different subjects. Modern states are welfare states aI}d as such the activities of management go on increasing. It is said that someone decides, someone administers, and someone performs. Management is a process of achieving desired goal. Those who perform these important functions are known as managers. Management is primarily the supervision of the work of others. Administration implies both ends and means, but management confines itself to the most efficient and economic means. 1
Nature and Characteristics of Management Management has few important characteristics. These are following: (1)
Universality
The first and foremost feature of management is that it is universal in nature or character. It is found anywhere and everywhere. For example, we can speak of home management, school management, business management, personnel management, university management etc. It is a universal process or activity. It is central activity in economic system. It is the core of all human activities. It is virtually applicable in any and every situation and in all types of organisation. 2 Thus, it is a universal principle.
(2) Management is Dynamic There is nothing static about management. It is dynamic, flexible and changeable. Management has to function in an ever changing set up. It is subject to change. It is the product of continuous change. It is adaptive. There are various ways
124
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
to adapt. But it should adopt to economic changes rapidly, intelligently and rationally. It is not just a creature of economy. It is the creator as well.
(3) Management as a Process The term process refers to a technique of doing things. Management has also been defined as the process of planning, organising, directing and controlling the organisations operation. As a process it is neither the privilege nor the responsibility of the top members in an organisation. It is a work of all people. It is not a product. But it is a process. As a process it goes on functioning operating and working. It is always at work. it is a process to achieve the desired ends, targets, goals, results and objectives. 3
(4) Management is Inexact Management as a systematic branch of knowledge is of recent origin. There is no yet unifying and all pervasive theory of. management. The principles of management are the best guidelines. They can be adopted only in a given situation. That is why management has been termed as situational. The principles of the management are the guides to thought and action. They help us to minimie and avoid mistakes. Management functions in the complex and intricate situation. Mere adoption of scientific methods does not make management an exact science. True nahue of the work of a management can be systematically analysed and classified. In other words, there are distinct professional features and a scientific aspect of management. Its elements and requirements can be analysed, can be organised systematically and can be learned by anyone.
(5) Management is Middle Culture In the sense it is both a science and an art. It is a middle
Management
125
culture which believes in action and takes the help of both science and an art. Management is a science because it is a systematic body of knowle<;tge. It has been studying systematically {lnd scientifically in most of the colleges and in the universities. But it is not an exact or pure or natural science. It is a social science like anthropology, ethics, sociology, political science, geography, history, economics and so on. It is also an art. lt is not merely an art but also a fine or skilful art. Skill is required to manage the affairs. Like medicine, engineering, it is both a science as well as an art4.
(6) Management Deals with Economic Activities Economic performance is the yardstick in management. Economic performance is given the first priority. Management in every action and decision put economic performance first. The justification of the existence of management depends upon the economic results that it produces. Management is not really concerned with a non-economic performance such as happiness, welfare and culhtral upliftment of the workers. Management must produce economic goods and services. If it does not do that it is not management. Every act, every decision and every action of management has an economic dimension. The ultimate test of management is economic performance. Achievement and not knowledge remains the proof and aim of management.
(7) Management Deals with Human Beings Management is a social process and social activity. It is a systematic way of doing things. Managers are social beings who deals with their social beings. So, the process of management is a social process. A manager's actions are often guided by customs and shaped by the traditions of the
126
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
society in which he operates and by the physical environment. Thus, in a word, management deals with human beings. It involves getting things done with and through the people. 5 It has been s~id that manager has to co-ordinate 4 Msmen, money machinery and material. Money, machines and materials are different from men. Manager has to handle money, machines and materials through men. All types of principles, rules, generalisations and concepts can be applied to money, machines, materials. Men are very difficult to handle. Each human being is unique. He is unpredictable. N a two persons are alike and even the same person is not the same all the time. A manager may provide everything to the people working with him. But he may fail to get the best from them because of the external factors or forces influencing the behaviour pattern of his subordinates. And these factors are beyond his control. This is the challenge which a modern manager has to face. It is a part of manager's job to motivate, communicate, train and influence his colleagues and subordinates and provides overall leadership.
(8) Management as a System A system is an organised or complex whole. It is a combination of things or parts forming a complex whole. It covers extremely broad concepts. For example, we have a mountain system, river systems and solar system as part of our physical surroundings. The body itself is a complex organism including skeletan system, circulatory system and the nervous system. Thus, human body can, be looked upon as a system. Its sub-systems are nervous system, the circulatory system, the digestive system. Thus, management is looked upon as a system made up of sub-systems. 6
(9) Management as Power Niccolo Machiavelli was a public administrator. He was a
Management
127
historian, a man of affairs, practical man. He was a futurist, child representative and product of his times. He was a worthy thinker in the history of political thought. He followed historical, scientific, empirical .and realistic approach. He was a great diplomat. He was the founding father of political realism. He is a value-free politician. I lis political philosophy is empirical. He served as a secretary of foreign affairs in flounce for about 14 years. He carried a diplomatic correspondence. He lost his job on account of change in administration. At age of 44 he wrote a book Prince. Prince indicates how to gain or acquire power, how to hold or retain power and how to expand. Power was the centre of his political thought. In his private life he was an upright man. He was also democrat. His political theory is nothing but the theory of power. He expanded the doctrine of power. He related it to religion state success and defence. All men desire power. The exercise of power requires legitimacy. He advised to his prince at least outwardly to appear merciful, faithful, upright, religious and humane. He said that promises were related to circumstances. He said when the security of the state was in danger, then he said to his prince to break your promises not bother and not care of those promises. A ruler is one who can achieve the good of the people by any means. End is more important here. Violence cannot be stopped. Violence, force, fraud duplicity, deceit are the means. All these are the means he favoured. He describes the nature of man in a pessimistic or in a negative terms or uncomplimentary terms. People are the final base of Machinavelli's doctrine of power. He advised the executive or prince to make speeches before the local societies and to give awards to those persons who demonstrating great ability in commerce, agriculture, and to concentrate on one or two achievements. He said that the best executive is one who was
128
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
feared rather than loved but not hated. Man is ready to forget the death of his father rather than his property? Men are selfish, self-centred, egoistic, brutish, and foolish. (10) Management as a Profession
It is being adopted by talented persons. It is a specialised subject. It is an occupation, profession, full time job or career service. It is a profession like that of salesmen, typists. It has been professionalised. Its knowledge is being used in instructing, directing and guiding others. Government and big business have their own paid legal advisers, chartered accountants, and auditors. Managers are like teachers and directly in the operating line.
(11) Management as a Team Work It is a group of persons who exercise authority and responsibility jointly or collectively. Management is more than a single manager or an administrator. It is not just a single individual with the title of superintendent or chief engineer or director or secretary. Management is a group of persons. It is a collective, joint, group, undivided or team work. It is not confined to one particular step or level in an organisation. Management requires a number of competent specialised aSljistants.8 Thus, it is a team work.
(12) Management is Multilayered Management has many layers or steps. Management is hierarchically set up consisting of many layers or steps or gradations-top management, middle management, rank and file. Top management is the administrative class including important administrators. Top management is narrow and restricted one. It includes the head of an agency or unit. It directly takes part in policy-making.
Management
129
Middle management is wide and populated. 9 It is a link between top and base influencing subordinate and influenced by his superior. It is the executive class. Middle management is the agent of top management. It always looking signals from above. Middle management comprises under secretary, section officers of field stations, budget and accounting officers, public relations officers and other supervisory officers. It performs very important functions. It does not directly takes part in policy-making. :r.tJ. aids in policymaking. Middle management influences the policy-making of top management. It translates policies into action. Its main task is to implement the policy. It is a two way traffic. It is, thus, exposed to pressure from both top and bottom. Execution of policy is its main business. It gets the job done. It does not have complete freedom in choosing the personnel or in firing them. It has to get the work fast. It has to run the show. It has to think a plan itself. It is vital to good administration. It is the middle management that controls the operations. It is closer to base. It has negative role of checking slackness, carelessness and bad workmanship. It has positive role. It has to suggest improvements and raise efficiency by encouraging, appreciating and rewarding good work. Middle management looking after the lower management and does the substantive work of the government on behalf of the citizen. Many of the citizens contact is included in this zone. It is itself a career. The spirit and temper of public service is built up here. It is also a training ground for top management. Rink and file comprises supervisors, clerks, assistants, peons etc. It is charged with running of the work. Supervisor is a leader as well as a boss of the rank and file. He is the spokesman carrying upward suggestions, informations, needs and desires.
130
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
(13) Authority as the Basis of Management Authority is the foundation upon which management constructs its efforts. According to Prof. Millett, authority involves the making of a decision 'and execution of a decision.
(14) Accountability of Management Authority is accompanied by responsibility. It must be accountable and f,esponsible. Such responsibility are of three types-political, administrative and professional. If authority is the foundation of management, accountability or responsibility is the justification for the exercise of that authority.
(15) Management is a Technique It is a technique or a distinct skill. As a technique it is universal in nature. The skill is applied for achieving desired objectives. Technical departments are headed by and controlled by technicians. It is a growing science. Its techniques are scientific. Its techniques are of universal applications.
Types of Management (1) Top Management Managers may be classified by the amount of authority and responsibility they have. Those with the greatest amount of authority and responsibility are collectively known as the top management. The top management in government consists of political executives and career executives (higher civil servants).10 In India, for example, the cabinet ministers, ministers of state and deputy ministers on the political side and secretaries, joint secretaries, and deputy secretaries on the administrative side come under top management.
Management
131
Thus, top management comprises political and administrative personnel.
Functions Top management mainly concerned with direction and control. Direction means providing right kind of action. Control means looking towards execution of a policy. (1) It performs managerial functions of direction and
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
control. It prepares notes, reports, and information required for the press, the public and the legislature. It furnishes the minister all sorts of information required by him. It provides the legislature information asked by it in the from of short- notice, questions, and committees. It has to supply information regarding legal matters pending in the law courts. It serves as a co-ordinating body for interdepartmental agencies. It co-ordinates the activities of various departments, commissions, boards, and divisions. It shares with political head the functions of thinking and planning.
1. Qualities of top management 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Open mindedness, Vision, Imagination, Intellect, and Wide experience of men and affaires.
2. Middle management The other managers who are subordinates to the top managers
132
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
are grouped into middle management. In India middle management includes branch officers, section officers, heads of attached offices, and officers of field agencies. The middle managers direct supervisors who have authority over them.
Tasks of Middle Management It performs very important functions: (1)
It aids in policy making
It does not directly take part in policy-making, but it indirectly influences policy-making. It helps or aids the top management. It uses its discretion and in filling in the gaps. It is the agent of top management. It always looking for signals from above. It is a policy-maker to a degree. It
translates strategy into practice. (2)
Its characteristic role is taking orders
It is a two way traffic or thought. It is exposed to pressures from both top and bottom. It moves down by pressure at the
top. (3)
Its real task is to implement policy
Execution of policy is its main business. It gets the job done. It has to get work fast. It does not have complete freedom in choosing the personnel or in firing them. They are bound by hard and fast rules. He has to run the show. Have to report to the top management, about the mission achieved or accomplished. He has to think a plan himself. He is the -chosen instrument to settle details. Middle management is vital to good administration. It must train employees for advancement. It is the middle management that controls operations. At the base is the first line supervisor-supervising his small crew. Its supervision becomes more and more specific in downward general at the top. It tends to become
Management
133
closer at the base. The burden of specific supervision increases as it moves downward. Down below is the doers world. The line operators kingdom. Only he sees the concrete product. He is the mast~r of know-how. Middle manager must extend support staring from the planning stage to the finishing stage. In control of operations, middle management does the tactics of administration, leaving strategy to top management. It has negative role also checking laziness, carelessness, and bad workmanship. It has a positive role. It has to suggest improvement, raise efficiency by rewarding, encouraging and appreciating good work. Many of the citizens contact comes in this zone. It is in itself a career. The spirit and the temper of public service is built up here. It is also the training ground for top management. 12
(4) Repository of information It is keeping records. It is good at record administration.
Qualities of Middle Managers (1) Vocation specialists
If they have to be successful, middle managers should be vocational experts, equipped with professional education.
(2) Knowledge of rules They should be fully aware of law, regulations and rules and regulations affecting government operations generally.
(3) Skilful supervisors They should be perfect in the art of supervision. They must work with close co-operation with supervisors and subordinates. They should have the capacity of leadership.
134
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues.
(4) Long experience The longer is the experience, the better the functioning of middle-managers. For a longer period if he remains in his group, the more he becomes specialist. They come into contact with field workers who deal with the public. Through his band of field workers, taxes are to be collected, law and order is to be maintained, trade and business is to be regulated, social and economic welfare activities are to be carried out. All these functions cannot be performed without co-operation of the public.
(5) Participative management It means workers participation or sharing in decision-making
process of the organisation. The impact of such decisions may be proximate or ultimate. It is a part of the demand of the employees. 1. It tends to increase the degree of 'we feeling'. 2. Removes or soften the feelings of hostility, conflict, and confrontation in employer-employee relations. 3. Promotes mutual understanding. 4. Develops the employees personality and promotes a sense of loyalty. 5. Develop a work climate.
The Tasks of Management It is very difficult to exactly state the tasks of management tasks
are nothing but the functions of management. The primary functions of management according to Henry Fayol are: To (2) To (3) To (4) To (1)
plan, organise, command, co-odinate, and
Management
135
(5) To control. Gulick and Urwick mentioned seven functions of management as "POSDCORD" However, the specific functions of management may be stated as follows:
1. Planning Determination of the goals of the group.
2. Organising Setting up and maintaining a system of authority and responsibility.
3. Mojivating Directing the group at all types by exercisingi leadership.
4. Co-ordinating Arranging the relationship of individuals and activities within the group for achieving efficiency.
5. Controlling Examining critically the achievements of the group and making correction and improvements when found necessary. Terry defines the functions of management as: 0) (2) (3) (4)
Planning, Organising, Actuating, and Controlling.
Seckler Hudson broadens the functions of management so as to include: 0) Policy formation, (2) Securing, (3) Locating,
136
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
(4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Utilising authority, Organising, Budgeting, Staffing, Operating, Reporting, Leading, Directing, and Controlling.
Hudson summarises the role of managers as follows : (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) .(11) (12) (13)
Planning, Setting and communicating goals, Organising, Deciding administrative policy of the organisation, Assigning the general and specific tasks to the various parts of his organisation, Co-ordinating, Examining and approving individual projects, Prescribing budgetary limits, Selecting or approving the selection of the key subordinate personnel, Developing his subordinates, Inspecting, Management improvement, and Participating in and controlling public relations.
Problems of Management Prof. Millett distinguishes substantive or peculiar problems of management from technical or common problems. As regards to the substantive problems, they are peculiar to each individual administrative agency. These problems differ from agency to agency-depending upon the nature
137
Management
of their functions. The problem of police department are different in nature than the problems of army or health departments . . Hence, management must give careful atteption to the peculiar problems for carrying out its particular service. The second set of problems are those which are technical in nature and are common to all large scale organisations. These problems can be studied in many different agencies in this category are included. 1. Problems of work direction include the problems of leadership, planning, communication, supervision, public relations. 2. Problems of work operation includes the problems of organisation, personnel, budget and legal advice. 3. Problems of internal services include house keeping functions like the material supplies, stores, communication and transportation facilities etc. Notes and References 1. Dublin, R. Management : "Meaning, Methods, Motives", Academy of Management Review, Vol. 7, No.3 (July 1982), pp. 1215. 2. Hurst, D.K. "Of Boxes, Bubbles and Effective Management", Harvard Business Review, Vol. 60, No.6, pp. 15-20. 3. Weihrich, H., Management Excellent, New York, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1985. 4. Om Prie Srivastava, Public Administration and Management, Himalaya Publishing House, Dr. Bhalerao Marg, Mumbai, pp 3-10.
5. Hudson, Seckler, Organisation and Management, pp. 12-15. 6. Fayol, General and Industrial Management, p. 6. 7. Amal Kumar Mukhopadhyay, Westcm Political Thollght, K.P. Ragchi and Company, Kolkata, pp. 192-145
138
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
8. Herman Finer, Theory and Practice of Modern Government, (London: Methuen, 1956), p. 723. 9. Mary, C.H. Niles, Middle Management (2nd ed.), 1949. 10. Top management is composed of political leaders and the government servants. 11. Marx, F.M., Elements of Public Administration.
12. Ibid., p. 377.
8 Financial Administration
Introduction Finance occupies a very important place in budgetary process. It is the oil of the engine of administration. 1 No act of government can be performed without money. Government requires money for everything, it does. The government can achieve more if there can be large amount of money. Finance is a life-blood of the government. No government can function without finance just as no motor car can run without petrol. Public finance is, thus, an integral part of administration. Financial administration is concerned with the regulation and distribution of monetary resources. It is an important aspect of public administration and is concerned with all aspects of financial management of the government. In fact, public finance and public administration are inseparable. Every administrative act has its financial implications. The availability of financial resources determines or affects the administrative activity as a whole. The management of fincince
140
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
is, therefore, one of the first and inescapable responsibility of administrators. Financial administration means the management of the finances of a state or. of a public authority endowed with taxing and spending powers. Administration and finance are as substance and shadow inseparable. Finance is the fuel of administration. It fuels the administrative engine. All undertakings depend on finance, it is generalised capital. Sound financial management is the vital to the success of any enterprise. This is all the more so for any government. Government should spend the money efficiently and economically. Efficiency and economy are the two watchwords of public finance. 2 Sound finance is at the core of modern government. Financial administration seeks to raise, spend and account for the funds needed for public expenditure. Financial operations comprise planning, determining, executing and controlling taxation, borrowing, and public spending. Thus, financial administration is one of the most important facets of public administration and as such it is concerned with all the aspects of financial management of the state. It deals with the principles and practice relating to the proper and efficient administration of the finances of the state.
Budget The very word budget was wholly unknown till 1803. The word budget originally meants a bag or pocket attached to a person. The term budget is derived from an old English word "Bougettee". It means a leather bag or a pocket or wallet carrying the official papers. The Chancellor of Exchequer in England used to carry his papers in a leather bag to the House of Commons. He would open it to place the papers containing the financial plan before the parliament or the House. Thus,
Financial Administra tion
141
Budget is British in origin and it has been adopted by other countries from there. Thus, Bougettee in due course of time was called as Budget. In India Budget is called the annual financial statement. 3 It contains the whole income and expenditure of the government. Budget in modern times means a financial, scheme or statement or document which contained the estimate of revenue and expenditure for a year. In simple words, Budget means 'annual financial statement' containing the income and expenditure of a year. Budget is a tool of administration. It is the key-stone of financial administration. It is a tool of management. Budget now-adays is something more than an estimate of revenue and expenditure. It also includes material finances. Budget constitutes the vital part of governmental machinery. Once Prof. George said government is finance. Finaltce and administration are inseparable. Budget is the core or heart of management. It is a scheme of what amount shall be spent on what matters. It is also a tool of legislative control. Legislature is a fund raising and fund granting authority. Budget has so many social and economic implications. It reflects the social and the economic policies of the government. Budget involves government's major decisions. Such decisions show who pays how much and who gets how much. Budget as an instrument for implementing social and economic programmes of the government. It is the very core of democratic government. 4 It is a powerful instrument of social policy. Modern states are welfare states and here budget serves as an instrument for the promotion of welfare objectives. It is a means for the establishment of a socialist pattern of society. It is a major instrument for implementing our plans and policies. It is an instrument for short-term and long-term
142
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
planning. In restricted sense, budgeting means planning. The relationship between planning and budgeting is very close. Budget reflects policy and control. It is the heart of financi(!l management. It is a powerful tool of co-ordination.5 The budget is a statement of expected revenue and proposed expenditure. It is a frame work of reference for financial administration. In fact, it is the instrument of financial administration. It sets forth the manner in which revenue is to be collected and the expenditure incurred. It is the heart of financial administration. 6 Appropriations are valid only for the authorised period at the end of which they lapse. The budget therefore is subject to lapse. Through it the legislature controls the purse, it controls the executive. Budget disciplines and streamlines the administration?
Principles of Budgeting Sound budgeting should conform to a few well recognised principles. Professor Harold. A. Smith explains the principles of budgeting as follows: (1) Publicity: The government budget passes through various stages i.e. preparation, enactment and execution. Through these various stages, budget should be made public. There should not be any secret sessions, of the legislature to consider budget. Publicity of the budget is essential so that all the people and the press of the country may express views concerning various taxes or schemes of expendihlre. (2) Comprehensiveness: It should give the complete picture of government revenues and expenditure. Receipts and approriations should be expressed in detail specifications. Through budget, one should be able to know the entire financial positions of the government. Budget should know the entire financial positions of the government. Budget
Financial Administration
143
should include the complete financial plans and programmes of the government. (3) Clarity: It should be simple. The income and the expendihtre given in the budget should be sufficiently clear, accurate, precise, specific, definite and exact. The informations relating to the income and expenditure given in the budget must be sufficiently accurate. (4) Integrity: It means financial programmes which is to be included in the budget and enacted by the legislature should be carried out as intended by the legislature. (5) Periodicity: Appropriation should be authorised for a definite period of time. An appropriation not used at the end of the period should generally lapse or be reapropriatd with the specific amount and purpose detailed. Other writers also stated with minor differentiation some of the principle of budgeting. Taken together all these principles, they can be summed up as follows. 1. The budget should be balanced: The expenditur for the year must not exceed the total revenues for the year. 2. The estimates should be on cash basis: The budgets should be prepared on what is expected to be actually received during the year and not on demands or liabilities falling due within the year. Both receipts and payments are in cash. The budget is therefore prepared in cash. 3. Budgeting should be gross and not net: Gross budgeting means that all the transactions both of receipts and expenditure should be fully shown and not merely the resultant net position. 4. Estimating should be as close as possible: Overestimating or underestimating should be avoided. Exact or close estimating is necessary. Budget estimates shall be closed. They should be accurate as far as possible. Budget estimates of receipts and expenses shall be as close to actuals as
144
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
possible. Neither revenue shall be underestimated nor expenditure overestimated. The tax payer shall not be made to pay more than· is necessary nor shall the spending departments get more funds than n.ecessary. Lump-sum grants and payments shall be avoided. There shall be detailed specification of receipts and appropriations. Transfers from one head to another shall be permitted only in exceptional cases. 5. The value of lapse should be followed: This means that any part of the grant not spent within the financial year expires at the close of financial year and cannot be kept over for the future. 6. Budget should be comprehensive: The budget is comprehensive. It shows all the financial transactions of the year. It should present a complete financial plan and should be given wide publicity for the benefit of the electorate.
The Budgetary Procedure The system of financial administration or the budgetary procedure consists of three important stages or operations: (1) The preparation of the budget or the act of the
planning. (2) Th enactment of the budget or the act of approval. (3) The execution of the budget or the act of enforcement. Let us discuss all these stages or operations one by one.
I. Preparation of the Budget 1. Preparation of Preliminary Estimates by the Local Officers The work of the preparation of the budget starts or begins or commences in the month of the July or August about six to eight months before the commencement of the next
Financial Administration
145
financial year. Ministry of Kinance sends out printed forms for estimates of revenue and expenditure to the various departments. The heads of departments send those forms to the disbq.rsing officers head of the local offices who prepare the preliminary estimats. The task of preparing the estimates is perhaps the most important one. Every care should, therefore, be taken in the preparation of the estimate. While preparing the estimates the local officers are to fill in the columns of the prescribed forms which relates to: (1) Actuals of the previous year.
(2) Sanctioned estimated for the current year. (3) Revised estimates for the current year. (4) Proposed estimates for the next financial year with explanatory notes for any increase or decrease in estimates. (5) Actuals of the current year.
2. Scrutiny of the Estimates by the Heads of the Departments The local officers send the estimates to the heads of departments i.e. the controlling officers for scrutiny and review. This scrutiny is purely on administrative type. He has the power to accept some of the proposals and reject others. Then he consolidates the estimates for the whole department. The estimates from the various departments are sent to the appropriate ministry. The estimates then are passed on the to the budget division of the ministry of finance.
3. Scrutiny by the Finance Ministry The finance ministry critically examines the estimates of' income and expenditure. Finance department is mainly concerned with economy. The scrutiny of the estimates by
146
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
finance ministry is, thus, made from the financial point of view, that is of economy and of availability of funds. The Ministry of Finance then prepares an estimate of income and expenditure of the Government of India as a whole. On the basis of the estimated expenditure, proposals regarding fresh taxes are made in the budget. In other words the budget is divided into two parts. (1) The income side, and (2) The expenditure side. The budget consolidated in this form is ready by December.
4. Approval by the Cabinet The finance minister examines the budget estimates somewhere in January and in consultation with the Prime Minister prepares his financial policy with regard to taxation etc. After that has been done, the budget is submitted to the cabinet for joint consideration. It is so done, because it is the cabinet which is responsible for laying down the general course of policy. When the cabinet has approved, the budget is ready for being introduced in the parliament.
II. Enactment of the Budget It is the unquestioned right of the parliament not only to
ensure the public funds are raised only with its consent but also to exercise complete control over the way in which the nations revenues are spent by the government. The parliament is, thus, the manager of the national purse. The sanction and approval of the parliament is, thus, necessary to raise or spend public money. Not a single paisa can be spent without the sanction of the legislature. Parliament control over finances. It exercises budgetary control. The control of the parliament over finance is most important and effective. The legislature proceeds to supervise, direct and control the
Financial Administration
147
, finances. It means the parliament should pass the budget and, thus, authorise the government for raising the revenue and expend money. 10 In the parliament, the budget goes through the following stages of enactment namely,
1. Presentation of Budget It has become customary in our country to frame, introduce, present, and pass the budget in the parliament. The budget session of the Indian parliament commences in the midFebruary. The budget is presented to the parliament in two parts 0) The Railway budget, and (2) The General budget. Railway budget is fully, totally, completely or exclusively deals with the receipts and expendihue so of the railways. And it is separately presented, piloted and introduced to the parliament by the Railway Minister. The General budget deals with the estimates of all the departments excluding railways. It is presented to the parliament by the Finance Minister. The procedure followed in case of Railway budget and the General budget is the same. First Railway budget is presented followed by the General budget. The General budget is introduced and presented by the finance minister in the Lok Sabha (House of the people) with a speech called the budget speech. His speech relates to government's economic policy. The finance minister's speech is eagerly awaited by the people of industries, businessmen, and financial circles as it gives them the first intimation of the taxation, the tariff trends and protection of the industries and the general economic and the financial policy of the government for ensuing financial year. The budget speech is a lengthy and comprehensive document. And the copies of the budget together with the finance statement are printed and circulated to all the members for
148
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
their reference. And it reveals what new taxes are to be' imposed and which of the existing taxes are to be increased or decreased or remitted. 2. The General Discussion The general discussion of the annual financial statement or the budget as we call it begins a few days after its presentation. The general discussion does not take place on the day of presentation of the budget. The speaker of the Lok Sabha fixes a date and time on which general discussion takes place. Discussion is confined to the general principles and it involves the review and criticism of the administration and also verification of difficulties of the people. Long dicussion is not allowed. Four or five days are allotted or devoted for the general discussion. The parliament is provided with many occasions for discussions and debates most important of which are the inaugural address by the president, the budget speech of the finance minister. At such occasions government policies and the working of the departments are thoroughly discussed and debated. The members may comment, criticise or praise any aspect of the departments work. In the general discussion government servants efficiency will be discussed. The general discussion covers all items of expenditure. The discussion is more of political rather than of financial nature. The major part of the time is allowed to the opposition to review the work of the government for the year and ventilate the grievances of the people. At this stage, no motions or resolutions can be moved or permitted nor is the budget submitted to the vote of parliament. If the speaker permits the motion, the work of the House is suspended or postponed and a discussion on the matter takes place. Of all the motions, adjournment motion is most important or
Financial Administration
149
common.l1 This motion is intended to draw the attention of the House to some urgent matter of public importance. Here, the grievances of the people will be discussed. It may be mentioned here that the general discus~ion on the budget takes place in both the houses of parliament simultaneously. The finance minister makes a general reply at the end of the discussion. 3. The Voting of Demands After the general discussion is over the Lok Sabha proceeds to the voting of demands. It is exclusively the work of the Lok Sabha. Here departmental-wise discussion takes place. Voting of demands is nothing but the voting of the expenditure is the part of the budget. For that purpose three weeks or twenty-six days are allotted or reserved. Voting of. demands is the exclusive privilege of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha does not take part in it. The speaker in consultation with the leader of the House fixes a time limit for particular demands and for the entire expenditure part of the budget. And as soon as the time limit for any demand is reached, it is immediately put to vote irrespective of the fact whether the discussion on it is complete or not. The members of the opposition then proceeds to criticise the administration of the department to which it relates. The Minister concerned has to defend the administration against all criticism that is levelled against it by the opposition. Due to parliamentary system of government, the reduction of any item of budget it gives chance to opposition tantamounts, to a vote of no confidence. At the end of the discussion of each demand, the demand is put to vote of the House. A demand when duly voted becomes a grant. It may be remembered that the House can only reject or reduce a demand but cannot increase it. If more money is needed for expendihlre,
150
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
it is authorised by the way of supplementary grants or may be spent out of contingency fund.
4. The Consolidated Fund Charges There is one part of the estimate of expenditure which is not submitted to the vote of the House though it can be discussed by it. This part is known as 'consolidated fund charges'. The consolidated fund charges include the salaries and emoluments of the president of the Republic, the judges of the Supreme Court, the speaker of the two Houses and the comptroller and Auditor General etc.
5. Procedure in the (Rajya Sabha) Council of the States After being passed by the Lok Sabha, it is certified by the . speaker as money bill and sent to the Council of the States (Rajya Sabha). The Rajya Sabha has neither the power of amending nor rejecting the financial bill. It has no power of budget rejection. It may give the suggestions. It can make modifications. In the financial field the Rajya Sabha has only little powers. The Rajya Sabha can only discuss the bill and make recommendations within 14 days to the House of People (Lok Sabha) which may accept or reject them just as it pleases. The Rajya Sabha has the power of withholding the financial bill only for 14 days. After the expiry of the period, the Rajya sabha return it to Lok Sabha. In case, the upper house does not make recommendation within the above specified period and remains silent, even then the bill will be deemed to have been passed by the upper house on the expiry of that period.
6. Presidents Assent The appropriation bill is then sent to the president for his assent. It is just a formality because the president cannot
Financial Administration
151
return a money bill for reconsideration. Usually he does not rehlrn the bill to the Lok Sabha. After 14 days of its passage in the Rajya Sabha the president cannot return a money bill for. consideration and his assent to it follows as.a matter of course. Thus, the enactment of the budget is over.
III. Execution of the Budget After enactment of the budget comes the stage of execution. Execution of budget means carrying out of the budget collecting and spending of the money. Enforcement of the budget is the responsibility of the chief executive. It is authorised to collect the taxes. Execution of the budget involves number of operations or multi stages.
1. Assessment and Collection Before taxes are collected they have to be assessed. Assessement means how much amount is to be collected from different individuals according to the authority given by the legislature. It means preparation of the list of the persons liable to pay the tax and also determining how much each has to pay according to the prescribed rates. After assessment the officers of the government proceed to collect the money due to government from the various persons. The mode of collection varies according to the mode of tax. For example, customs payments has to made on the spot. In others bills may be sent to the assessee and he may be asked to pay the amount in the nearest treasury. Income tax is deducted from the pay of the salaried employees. In some cases the agent or officials of the government may approach the tax payer directly and demand payment from him and collection thus, made may subsequently deposit in the treasury. The task of collection
152
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
of revenue should be entrusted to the officials or different set of officials. 2. Custody of Funds All revenue that is collected has to be placed in safe custody. System of cheque has introduced. In the past huge amount of public money were maintained in the treasury. Banking system has developed. Central Banks carries all transactions on behalf of the government. The Reserve and State Bank of India conduct treasury business of Government of India. Government maintains sub treasuries and district treasuries to supervise over them. 3. Disbursement of Funds
Process of withdrawal of money from treasury for payments of various liabilities. Every care should be taken in the work of disbursement against illegal and inaccurate withdrawals or payments. Control is exercised by the ministry of finance over expenditure. Controlling officer sends money to disbursing officers. The basic unit of expenditure control is sub-head. He allotted certain sub-heads of appropriations. He alone can withdraw money from the treasury. It is a great responsibility of a disbursing officer. He should keep the accounts of various transactions. The treasurer I the officer incharge of treasury is also to be equally vigilant while making the payments. He has to see that whether the cheque is signed by competent authority or not and further he has to keep a record of all receipts and payments. The head of department exercises continuous control over the expenditure in the department. The disbursing officers are required to submit monthly accounts to the controlling officer of their departments. Thus, he can get the
Financial Administration
153
accurate and uptodate picture of the financial position of his '" department as a whole. He watches the flow of expenditure • in his department. He exercises necessary control over extravagance or carelessn~ss. 4. Accounting Accounting means keeping systematic record of financial transactions. It is only through account we come to know whether the budget as voted by the legislature have been properly implemented or not, how much has been spent, for what purpose, whether within the budgetary limits or not. Accounting operations helps for policy formulation and programme making. Accurate accounting reports are necessary in order to direct the course of work and future expenditure. Here spending officer justifies his expenditure either to Finance Director or to the Auditor GeneraI. 12 Notes and References 1. C.s. Lall, Financial Administration in India (Delhi, H.P. J. Kapoor, 1969), p. 76. 2. L.D. White, Introduction to the Study of Public Administration (New York: MacMillan Co., 1958), p. 201. 3. Ashok Chanda, Indian Administration (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1958), p. 220.
4. Also read Harold A. Smith, "Budget as an instrument of legislative Control and Executive Management", in Public Administration Review, p. 185. 5. Also refer E.N. Gladden, Central Government Administration (London: Staples Press, 1972), p. 73. 6. For details refer Gladden, op. cit., pp. 115-117. 7. Also read John H. Ferguson and Dean E. Mchenry, The American Federal Government (New York: Mc Graw - Hill Co., 1973), pp. 392,463.
154
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
8. P.K. Wattal, The A.B.C. of Indian Government Finance, p. 34. 9. P.K. Wattal, Parliamentary Financial Control in India (Mumbai: Minerva Book Depot, 1962), pp. 50-5l. 10. E.N. op. cit., p. 208. 11. D.R. Sachdeva and Meena Sogani, Public Administration: Concepts and Application, Associated Publishing House, New Delhi, pp. 424-430. 12. c.P. Bhambari, Public Administration, Jai Prakash Nath and Co., Meerut City (India), pp. 35-40.
9 Public Relations
Meaning The term public relations stands for all relations between government and the people. In a democracy people are the sovereign and the government is their servant. Therefore, the government has to maintain cordial public relations. Public relations is nothing but maintaining relations with the public. Public relations is an essential component of modern public administration. It plays a very important role in administration. Public relation humanises administration. A good public relation removes misunderstandings in the minds of the people about the purposes of government policies and programmes. Public relation is concerned with the survival of old and new government agencies because in the long run an agency cannot endure without specific support. Therefore, public relations aim at ll1aking the ~ureaucracy client-oriented. Public relations connotes muhlal relationship between an organisation and its public. It covers
156
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
every kind of relations in which the various public policies are involved. It is concerned with the study of human factor in both industry and government. It is a sustained effort for mutual understanding. It is not only an important function of management, but also a philosophy management. It is always a two-way communication, approach or traffic. It means a free flow of information from government to the public and a feedback from the public to the government. It is through feedback that the government can see and understand how the people react to the public policies and programmes. Public relation is not an end in itself, it is a means to an end 1 . It is a tool of management. Public relation has two aspects in the sense, it is concerned with the individual as well as people in large numbers. Thus, pUblicity is an important aspect of public relations.
Public Relations and Publicity Public relations and publicity are very often confused. Publicity means to make public. Public relations and publicity are not two different activities. They are closely related. Publicity deals with mass. Whereas public relations deals with the individuals. They are two different aspects or parts of the same thing or coin. Publicity is an important tool or branch of public relations. Publicity is an important instrument of public relations.
Public Relations and Propaganda Public relations is not propaganda. Propaganda is the conscious effort to influence the opinions and actions of others. It often misleads the people by giving false information. But public relations is based on truth and facts and gives correct information. Propaganda is outward directed.
Public Relations
157
Public relations and propaganda are two different terms. Public relations and propaganda are totally two different activities. The main aim of propaganda is to influence the public by spreading information which may be true or false. Propaganda always seeks to serve it own selfish end and no regard is given to public opinion. There is likely to enter falsehood in propaganda. Public relations gives importance to public opinion. People must be supplied with true facts.
They should be not misled The public relations officer cannot be allowed to indulge in propaganda. His job is publicity and not propaganda. The purpose of publicity is to help, guide the people by providing correct information, but the purpose of propaganda is to mislead the people in order to serve its own selfish ends. The aim of public relations is accurate or correct. Hence, these two are distinguished. Public relations is often based on facts whereas propaganda is sinister. It is secret, based on falsehood. The Nazis belief in the big lie was based on propaganda. Public relations is always known, while propaganda is unknown.
Media of Public Relations The following are the important media of public relations.
(1) The Employees Public employees come in contact with a large number of the people from the various walks oUife. They are in a better position to know what the public has to say about the government. Professor L.o. White says in one context, every public official and employee is a public relations man. By
158
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
his conduct, character and contacts with citizens he is creating a public impression about his organisation. Dissatisfied employees create an unfavourble impression of their organisation in the public mind. Satisfied employees on the other hand, can create good and favourable image of their organisation in the minds of the people. Therefore, there is a close relationship exist between the morale of the employees and the reputation of their agency in their community. There are four factors of battle efficiency(1) Numbers, (2) Arms, (3) Training, (4) Morale. Napoleon attributed 75 per cent of value to morale. God is always on the side of the biggest battalions. 2 Good public relations depends upon the politeness dealing of the employees with their public. (2)
Press
Press constitutes the fourth estate. The newspapers, magazines and other periodicals are important and powerful media of public relations. They inform the people about the various activities of the government. They also show to the government what the people want from the government and how they react to the various policies and programmes of the government. They also offer constructive criticisms of the activities of the government through the editorials. The press can play an effective role only when it is completely free. The press serves all those who rule and those who are ruled. 3 The press is helpful to the government to keep in touch with the people. The press gives the written words and this carries much weight. Since the press is powerful instrument of public relations, government makes use of it as an agency for maintaining good relations with the public. The prime minister and other ministers and high officials
Public Relations
159
hold press conferences from time to time. At such conferences they explain to the press correspondents the policy of the government or defend governments stand on some controversial issues of public concern. The government also releases press communiques, press notes, notifications, resolutions etc. to the press. (3)
Radio and television
Radio and television are important media of mass communication today. These two electronics communication media send messages to large numbers of people very quickly. They not only broadcast news but also educate and entertain the people. They are the important sources of popular ideas about national and world affairs. Government make use of these media to popularise among the people their plans, policies and programmes by broadcasting talks, discussions, dramas and features. Thus, they have a powerful impact upon the formation of public opinion. Radio and TV are very effective, easy and important means of public contact and communication. The newspapers and other publications reach only the educated class, while radio can reach every type of persons whether educated or uneducated in any part of the world. As compared to radio, TV has double advantage of listening and observing simultaneousl y. They are very useful in building popular support for government policies both inside and outside the country. Through TV and radio government broadcast, news and views. Government makes use of these machinery for their programmes. Radio and TV educate the public over important matters like the use of fertilizers, saving the crops from insects, safety rules, family planning, the talks broadcast over the radio etc. Air, radio and TV must be interesting, intelligible and informative. 4
160 (4)
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Films
Films are also an important source not only of entertainment, but also of education and information. Government issues "documentaries and newsreels" for exhibition in the theatres. The documentaries inform the people about an important project area or event, while the newsreels depict the various important happening in the country. Thus, the government issues documentaries and newsreels for exhibition in picture talkies. The documentaries and newsreels are exhibited by every cinema house at each show. They are widely used by governments at the national, state and local levels. Documentaries have an educational purpose but the newsreels have essentially a news value. Films are also exhibited even in the villages through mobile vans. A few people read the books and the newspapers, but almost all the people see the films. It is an important and effective instrument to spread the ideas. Films educate and enlighten the people. It is an important source of entertainment. Besides acting as a source of entertainment, films exercise deep influence in moulding the ideas and behaviour of the cinemagoers. 5
(5) Interest groups Interest groups such as labour groups, professional groups, chambers of commerce etc. are organisations formed to pursue certain ends. A government agency and its interest group help each other in furthering a common purpose. Their functions include: (1) publicity and propaganda. (2) contacts with government authorities to achieve their objectives. (3) movements they arrange violent movements and strikes. (4) influencing public opinion.
Public Relations
161
(5) electioneering they conduct electioneering in favour of candidates who, they think will uphold their cause.
(6) Periodic reports In Public administration, public reporting plays a major role in public relations. Every government agency prepares periodic reports which aim at informing the public on its current activities as well as its accomplishments or achievements. Such reports are the raw materials of public relations. It is said that performance plus reporting constitute a fair share of the totality of public relations.
(7) Advisory committees It is the another instrument of public relations. The membership of advisory committees includes knowledge citizens representing different interest groups in the society. They act as a link between the government and the various interest groups in the community. Further, the administrator can obtain co-operation of the people through the use of advisory committees in carrying out his department's policies6 • (8)
The newspapers
The newspapers are important and powerful methods of public relations. They inform the public about the various activities of the government. The newspapers are called the 'Bibles' of democracy. The newspapers supply the news and the views from time to time. They reach four corners of the world.
(9) Public relations department Public relations department performs the advisory functions. It build up the image of the administration. It is an open
162
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
door. In the sense an intention to welcome all to come in and enquire. Its duty is to advise, assist and answer all the enquiries. It should be kept fully briefed on all policy matters. Public, relations department identify noteworthy activities. It has only to explain the policies being pursued by the administration. In short it has to sell the policies to the public. Public relations officer has to sell the policies and programmes of his department. (10)
The legislature
It is regarded as the mirror of public opinion. The legislature is an important part of the public. It makes the laws. It
occupies most important place among the three organs of the government. It is the most powerful organ. It occupies the superior position. It has the power to frame the laws. Its main function is to deliberate, discuss and make laws. It reflects different shades of opinion. Various issues are discussed in the legislature. Debates also took place on various issues. The discussion in the legislature is high. It is the place where public opinion is best reflected. The legislators speak on behalf of their voters. In'the legislahue the most important and burning problems are discussed. The speeches of the members of the government and opposition, the questions, supplementary questions are reported in all the newspapers and these influence the minds of the readers. In the legislature the legislators get many opportunities to inform the government about the aspirations, desires and difficulties of the voters?
(11) Exhibitions Exhibitions offer excellent opportunities for good public relations. They are particularly useful in promoting the arts, industry, trade, commerce and community life. A nation's
Public Relations
163
culture can be easily reflected in the exhibitions. It provides opporhmity of exhibiting the products and having face to tact.' discussions. The exhibitions have now become a big business for which g()\'l'rnments as well?-s private sectors spend huge amounb. 1'L'llP Ie from different walks of life are influenced by the exhibitions. They display the goods for sale.
(12) Advertising Advertising is another effective tool of public relations. For adn.'rtising the government makes use of the newspapers, radio, TV, films, posters etc. For example, we come across advertisements issued by government arts, the announcements of tourist facilities by the department of tourism, advertisements about five year plans, national saving certificates, abolition of untouchability family welfare programmes and so on. It advertises through posters pasted at places like railway stations, busstands, post-offices and market places. s Another example, the revenue departments sign posters advertising "Pay while you earn", "the tax is your contribution to the nation building programme. " (13)
Public speaking
It is an important technique of public relations which is
exploited to the maximum by politicians at the time of elections. But government officials are supposed to be neutral in political matters. They can address people only on a particular official occasion. The leaders establish contacts with the public through the public platform. Political leaders, scholars and other people can express their views at the public meetings and influence public opinion. At the time of elections public platforms are fully exploited. The speaker direct] \' ,1 ppeals to the listeners.
164
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Every speaker puts his view and convince them that his stand or his party is correct and better than that of the opposition parties or individuals. Great leaders, ministers and influencial persons express their views through public platform. The public gets the advantage of the various types of the opinions and viewpoints expressed through public platform. Public speaking is a difficult art to practice, only a few people can be successful speakers. Public speaking is important because it attracts the crowds.
(14) Public opinion polls Public relations is a two-way affair. Public opinions are best reflected at public opinion polls. This technique would be very costly and expensive one. The best and practical way is not to collect the public opinion, but to collect the sample of public opinion from the people belonging to different sections of society. The opinion, thus, collected sometimes shall reflect the opinion of the people as a whole.
(15) Photographs Many persons who do not care even to read a part of the paragraph are interested to look at the picture. It is mainly because of its attractiveness. A photograph attracts the eye of a person. It is the most important tool of public relations. It assumes great importance in public relations.
(16) Political parties Another important techniques of public relations is the political parties. Political party is an association of men having common political ideas or principles. They try to come into power by amicable or peaceful means. They are
Public Relations
165
the essence of the democracy. No parties no democracy. Political parties are the fighting groups. Their main goal is to acquire power, retain power and to expand power. They always attempt to capture power. Actually the fact is that a political party is by nature adaptive.") They are concerned with the goal of attaining political power. They are the brokers of public opinion. They influence the minds of the public in such a way that they are willing to vote for them. They appeal to the voters to stand under its umbrella. Leaders approach the people door-to-door. A lot of propaganda is carried out before the elections to win over the votes. They arrange public meetings, distribute pamphlets and broadcast to the nation. Political parties perform wide variety of functions like educating the public, they aims at social welfare, contacts with the press, they also aims at bringing social consciousness. lO
Notes and References 1. Quoted in Cutlip and Center, Effective Public Relatives,
2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8. 9. 10.
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall, inc., 1971), p. 6. Public relatiuns is a means to attain the goals of public administration. This statement is quoted from the book entitled International Relations written by Vinay Kumar Malhotra, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, pp. 20-31. Press act as a bridge between the people and the government. Refer Sunanda Gupta, Administration of Broadcasting in India, (Delhi Associated, 1978), pp. 257-58. Prof. Charles S. Ascher's Lecture, Human Relati(Jl1 in Public Administration, p. 5. I.I.P.A. Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting, 1960, pp. 21. M.e. Carny, J.L., Government Publicity. Childs, H.L. An Introduction to Public Opinion, p. 2 Rex, F. Harlow, Public Relatiolls in War and Peace, p. 130. David M. Cox, Hmo much Public Rclati(ll1~ in G(Jvernment, p. 140.
10 Personnel Administration
Bureaucracy The permanent civil service of a country is often referred to as Bureaucracy, a term whose origin can be traced to France in the seventeenth century.1 In Erance each minister had a bureau consisting of graded officers, who carried out ministerial instructions. In the bureau the clerks played a vital role particularly because the French government was unstable. The importance of clerks was taken for granted and the critics of the government began to speak in terms of bureaucracy. In modern times, the term is applied to the civil service. Features (1)
Competence
Civil servants of the higher cadres are generally noted for their competence. This is mainly due to their ability, skill and long experience. 2
Personnel Administration (2)
167
Discipline
The members of the civil service are well disciplined. They should carry out the orders of their superiors promptly by and efficiently. It· must take its work seriously. (3)
Satisfaction of public
A good civil service will be able to satisfy the general public. The motto of the civil servant is to serve the people. Nahlrally they will be efficient, impartial and disciplined.:'I
Functions
(1) Execution of laws Civil servants must carry out faithfully the orders of their superiors. They come into close contact with the people and the laws must be explained to them in an effective manner as possible, so that the people may obey the laws willingly. (2)
Advisory
Ministers in general are amateurs. They have to depend more often on the expert advise of their heads of departments. Therefore, it is the duty of these departmental heads to supply all the information and advise the ministers on particulars issues, of course, it is left to the discretion of the ministers to accept or reflect the advice while taking the final decision. The final responsibility for the decisions is that of the ministers. (3)
Delegated legislation
It is the power given by the legislature to the executive to make subsidiary rules.
(4) Action of public complaints Necessary action should be taken against those who are
168
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
habitually negligent and indifferent towards the public in their dealings. They should scrutinise the complaints and take prompt action when the complaints are genuine. 4 (5) -Public
service
They should render service to the people. A government department does not function for its own sake but for meeting the needs and aspirations of the people. Civil servants must discharge their duties assigned to them with a sense of responsibility.
(6) Supervision The superiors supervise the work of their subordinates. Through books, pamphlets, leaflets the policy of the government is explained.
Functions and Role of Civil Servants The civil service has become today one of the most essential and vital parts of the governmental machine. 5 It is important not only for the government but also for the society. Its functions are of varied nature. In the executive branch of the government, there are 2 parts (1) the ministers and (2) the civil servants. The civil servants carry out the orders of the ministers and advise them in policy formulation. The functions of the civil servants are divided into the following categories:
1. Implementation of policies The first important function of the civil servants is to implement or to enforce or to execute or to carry out the policies as passed by the 1egislahlre. It is the civil servants who translates the laws into action. 6 This is the peculiar
Personnel Administration
169
function. They materialise the social and economic goals of the government. The civil servants acts as an instrument in implementing the policies. The minister has no time because he is always busy in party work. Therefore, the civil servants exercises more powers in executing the laws and policies. Administrative problems became so complex complicated and difficult that ministers being ignorant to understand those problems. The politicians or the top level men are unschooled, untrained, unfamiliar, unversed in legal technical and administrative matters. They are not scholars, experts, specialists in these matters. Hence, they have to depend more and more upon the permanent officials. To implement the plans, policies, it requires skills. Who implements the policies-The administrators or civil servants? Still, why they are failing? Many plans and policies in India are failing because today there is no timely implementation of policies. Policies and plans have not been able to reach the targets. 8 Further, if the civil servant thinks that law is unfavourable and unenforceable, he can use his discretion in enforcing it. Sometimes he ignores it. In all these the minister does not interfere and he should not interfere. If the minister interferes, the result will be that the civil servant will not be able to enforce the law according to the circumstances. But one thing is important here, the official must act impartially.9
2. Determination of policy The civil service is a policy maker to a degree. The civil service today takes part in the formation or framing or drafting or determination of the policy of the nation. The civil service has a great influence on the formulation of the national policy. The ministers as the political heads of the department often amateur of administrative work. The civil
170
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
servant recommends policy to the minister and the legislature. The ministers and the legislators are amateurs and they cannot understand the complexities of the public policy and consequently, they act on the advi<;:e of the civil servant. The decisions of the ministers are based upon the information and facts provided by the expert officials. The official sometime suggest and recommend new policies also. The role of civil servant in policy formulation is also very significant. The various legislative bills are drafted by the expert civil servants. He advises the minister in policy formulation. He checks the minister in framing of wrong policies which may have severe and serious consequences. He also gives the minister a programme of action which the minister has not framed. He suggests alternatives to policy which are practically enforceable. This is because he knows how the policy works in practice. Further, the ministers are not permanent. They change with the change of government on the contrary, the civil service is a permanent body which provides continuity of administration. lO
3. Public relations Another important function of the civil servants is to establish sound public relations. Public relations is not a one way traffic. But it is a two way traffic or process or approach or affair or street. It means free flow of information from government to public and from public to government. And here civil servant has to act as a bridge between the government and the public. He has to maintain better public contacts. He should maintain cordial, proper, friendly, excellent, co-operative, healthy and happy relations with the public. His basic must be policy, we are the friends of all, enemies of none.11 He should be the public well wisher, teacher, philosopher, friend and guide. He should be kind,
Personnel Administration
171
polite, sweet, sympathetic with the people. It is said that the "shoe wearer knows where the shoe pinches." In the same way he should know the real difficulties of the people. Anyhow satisfactory contacts or relations must be maintained with the public. Relations with public must be always all fright, OK and not rival and contradictory. He must realise the importance of his contacts with the public.
Recruitment A very important problem of the public personnel is that of recruitment. In the ancient days there was no problem of recruitment as the king himself selected and appointed his employees. The problem, in fact, arose with the expansion of kingdoms into empires, when to carryon large-scale administration employees were required in a greater number. The purpose of recruitment is to find out a suitable person for particular job. China is said to be the first country to develop scientific system of recruitment through competitive examinations as early as 2 B.C. In modern times Prussia first introduced the system of competitive examinations. In India the system was established in 1853. Recruitment in the technical phraseology of administration means attracting the proper and suitable type of candidates for particular jobs. The interests of administration require that only competent and deserving persons with keen intellect and skill should get the public office. 12
The Concept of Negative and Positive Recruitment If the recruitment stands for eliminating the political influence or preventing favouritism or keeping the rascals out, it is termed as a negative concept of recruitment. But recruitment method did not try to secure a competent body of public servants. The emphasis was more on open then on
172
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
competition. This negative or passive approach result in recruitment of mediocrities. With the passage of time the spoils system or negative system had suffere~ a set back. Now the emphasis in recruitment shifted towards securing the best and the most competent persons for public services. Thus, the concept of positive recruitment emerged out. Positive recruitment, therefore, means that the personnel agency will recruit the best, the most talented, and competent personnel. Thus in positive recruitment new techniques will have to be employed to attract the most qualified personnel. In other words, recruitment programme will have to be so devised that the only qualified applicants get a chance to compete.
Methods of Recruitment There are two methods of recruitment. They are: Recruitment from with (by promotion) (2) Recruitment from without (direct recruitment)
(1)
Public personnel are recruited by two methods. One method is to recruit the personnel direct from the open market. It is known as direct recruitment. The other method is to promote the employees from one position to the other. This recruitment is from within the service because in it employees are promoted from one post to the other. This principle of recruitment is mostly applied in the case of superior officials in the public service. Almost all the countries make use of both these methods for the selection of their public employees. In all the democratic countries both the methods of recruitment are followed i.e., through open competition as well as promotion. In India in the income tax department more than 20 per cent of class I posts are filled by promotion.
Personnel Administration
173
In practice, both the systems are followed in most countries
Qualifications of Employees In every country some pre-requisite qualifications are laid down for entry to public service. Some qualifications are always laid down for entry into public service, so that only suitable persons should get chance for a particular post. B Qualifications required for the public servants are both general and specific. In every country some qualifications are laid down for entry into public service. These qualifications are of two types: 0) General, (2) Special or specific.
1. The General The general qualifications required of every public servant are those of
0) Citizenship The first qualification required of a public servant is that he should be citizen of the state. In every country only citizens are appointed to public services. Aliens who do not owe allegiance to the state are appointed only for a short or brief period and as a temporary measure. It is reasonable that all employees of a government should owe allegiance to it. Loyalty and faithfulness to the government are necessary for keeping the secrets of office which has become so vital these days.
(2) Domicile or residence Along with citizenship sometimes domicile qualifications are required for entering into public services. It is specially so for state services. This qualification began in the USA and has entered in the Indian state services also. In the USA
174
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
residence qualification plays an important part in the personnel system of national government too. Though the law may not require the convention or practice is firmly established that the .offices of postmasters, collectors of revenue etc. shall be filled from persons residing in the state. This is, however, an undersirable practice. It does violence the merit principle. Besides affecting the efficiency and talent adversely it also creates provincialism and narrow outlook in public administration (3) Age
Some countries follow the practice of recruiting persons of young age for public services. In England and India the practice is to recruit young persons at the age of 18, 22 or 25 just after they have left their schools or colleges. Young persons are recruited and they are trained in service for higher positions. In the United States the practice is to recruit trained, experienced and mature persons of advanced age. In the United States the age limit for scientific and professional positions is 35, 45 and 55. Hence the age scale ranges from 18 years to 55 years. America does not follow the British practice. (4) Sex
In few years ago public service was the sole monopoly of man. No women were employed in the government departments specially in the higher services. No women was allowed to appear in the competitive examination held for lAS and other central services. Women as a rule were considered unfit for administrative jobs. But due to the spread of the doctrine of equality and aspiration of women to economic independence, the sex qualification has been removed from recruitment to public services in most countries. About 20,000 women are at present employed in
Personnel Administration
175
the central government most of them holding lower positions. In some years in the lAS and IPS examination they have been topping. W.F. Willoughby is of the opinion that women were unfit for certain responsible position!,. Every man must be suited to his work. There are certain offices e.g. in the armed forces for which women may not be suited at all and reversibly there are certain offices for which women alone are better suited e.g. for nurses, kindergarten teachers, telephone operators etc. Thus it implies that natural capacities of men make men better suited to certain posts for which women are not well-suited. Under the over enthusiasm and sentiment for equality all the posts should not be thrown open equally for men and women. The nature of the work required for the post should be the practical consideration. Women are not well suited for arduous jobS. 14 (2)
SpeciaJ qualifications
(1)
Educational qualifications
The British and the Indian system lays down definite educational qualifications for entrants. Higher Secondary school certificate for clerical jobs graduate degree for executive jobs, B.A. degree for executive positions, and Honours degree for administrative jobs are the qualifications. In India for clerical jobs High School certificate and for higher jobs degree in arts, science and commerce or law is the requisite qualification. In India there is no discrimination between a liberal and scientific education. The subjects of the competitive examination are so broad based as to include every subject.
(2) Experiellce Sometimes the training or experience that a candidate has received in the actual performance of the work is a qualification. By experience is meant the training that a
176
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
person receives in the actual performance of the work. For example, a person who after obtaining a master degree serves as a lecturer in some educational institution for 4 years h.as the teaching experience of four years. In the USA experience is usually required for technical services. In other countries for all public services experience is regarded an additional qualification.
(3) Technical knowledge It means the possession of technical skill required for the proper performance of duties of that particular position. For example to become a Civil Engineer, it is necessary to have a degree in civil engineering. This qualification is essential to fill up technical post such as that of legal experts, doctors and mechanics.
(4) Personal qualifications There qualification are at once the most important and most difficult to determine. The tasks of modern administration require of its employees highly administrative skills. Honesty tact, presence of mind, resourcefulness, reliability persistence, ability to direct and control, punctuality, executive ability and even personal appearance and manner are considered important qualifications for a public employees.
Methods of Detennining Qualifications Above we have specified various qualifications required of the entrants for public services. The purpose of laying down these qualifications is to get the best qualified and most competent men for government service. The question now arises how to determine these qualifications? Upon the proper solution of the question will depend the efficiency of the whole administrative system.
Personnel Administration
177
Generally, the following methods have been adopted to determine the qualifications:
(1) Personal judgement of the appointing officer This is the simplest and oldest method of recruitment. Under it the appointing officers himself determines the qualifications of the candidates. He makes his own personal judgement in making selections. This system is followed in the appointment of top most positions in the official hierarchy in India as well as in other countries. 1S (2)
Certificates of character, ability and previous experience
The value of certificates of character and ability from responsible persons and experience from the previous employer is evident. These certificates are usually secured in all cases. They help to make a preliminary estimate of the candidates capacities and qualities on the basis of which they may be called for interview. (3)
Examinations
Examinations are mainly of two types: (1) Competitive, and (2) Non-competitive. The competitive test h~s to determine which of the candidates meet minimum standards. It has also to determine the grades of the applicants who is the best, the next best the third best and so on. A non-competitive test has to determine only the minimum standards required of the candidates. The noncompetitive test confines itself to determine merely which of the candidates satisfy the minimum standard required. Generally speaking there are three basic types of examinations, namely:
178
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
I. Written examinations Written examinations are generally used in all the countries for judging the qualifications of the candidates. The written examination test is of several kinds. There are five types of written tests: (1) The ability test
The ability tests may be short answer or essay-answer type. Both these tests judge the general or special mental abilities of the candidates, his memory degree of reaction to problems, power of reasoning etc. Besides testing the general ability of the candidates, devices have been devised by experts to test the specific traits of mind. (2) General intelligence test It measures mind through the group tests of mental ability.
(3) Social intelligence test Thruston and his associates devised this test. Such a quality is expected to be found in police officials, railway officers and taxation department. Such a trait of character is measured by means of series of tests given to a group of candidates who are asked to reside together in a camp with a examiner for a fortnight to a month. (4) Unit trait system 1.1. Thruston discovered this system. It identifies unit trains of intelligence i.e., word fluency, memory reasoning ability, deduction perception etc.
5) Mechanical intelligence test This test used in skilled trades and positions which involve use of clerical machines.
Personnel Administration
179
II. Aptitude tests Military service in UK and also some other universities of the UK and the USA have discovered methods of measuring the aptitudes of the candidates. These tests are used for filling up trade and clerical positions. III. Achievement tests
The academic examinations are termed as achievement tests. Certain basic academic qualifications are required for competing in the examinations. A BA degree enables a candidate to compete for lAS and other allied services examinations.
IV. Training Administrative activities are no longer simple. They have become so complex and specialised that mere commonsense is not enough to carry them out. Besides, the nature of administrative activities is constantly changing. Hence, there arises the necessity of both in service and post entry training. However, training has not been given due importance till recently. Its dictionary meaning training is practical education in any profession, art or handicraft. In public administration it means a conscious effort made to improve or increase an employees skill, powers or intelligence and to develop his attihldes and schemes of values in a desired direction. 16 Training to be distinguished from education. It has comparatively narrow scope. Education can be explained as the complete upbringing of the individual from the child hood, the formation of character and of habits and manners and of mental and physical aptitude. No doubt both are closely related to each other and even overlap each other. Dr. White has clearly distinguished between the two. He remarks education is intended to show fitness for appointment but
180
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
training is directed towards individuals who are actually at work.
Objects of Training Training plays a vital part in public administration. It is essential not only for affecting efficiency of administration but also for broadening the vision of the employees. There cannot be an efficient performance of a job without proper training of the employees. That is way that training has been considered the key-note of staff efficiency. It teaches him that precision makes himself reliant and independent and develops in him capacity to take decisions and arrives at judgements. Training has therefore been described as a continuous process. For this reason training like education is a continuous process which should never end because the need always exists. Training improves a mans, capacity, skill and understanding. It also creates capacity in an employee to adjust himself to his new situations. Training must make an employee properly understand and accept the values and goals of the organisation in which he is to work. It creates in an employee the ability to take independent decisions. Training helps the employees to become people-oriented and inculcates in them respect and regard for the general public. It broadens the vision and widens the outlook of the employees. It is vital to a career service. It fits them for advancement which is assured to the employees when they join the government service at young age. It improves the tone and adds to the quality of organisationsP Since it enhances the efficiency of the employees and develops their capacities, the efficiency and prestige of the department goes up. It fosters homogeneity of outlook in the employees. It helps him to adjust his outlook and methods to the new
Personnel Administration
181
needs of new times. He is made aware of his work and the service that he is required to render to his community. It not only enables an individual to perform his current work more .efficiently but also fits him for other duties .. It develops in him capacity for higher work and greater responsibilities that is why training of the public servants is essential. It improves the efficiency of the work. It improves the employees, capacity, ability, skill and understanding.
Types of Training With regard to the types of training experts are divided opinion. They are having divergent views about the training. Broadly there are 5 types of training. (1) Fonnal and informal training
When the training is imparted according to pre-planned scheme it is known as formal training and it is conducted under the expert guidance. It is being increasingly realise that the old thinking Administration is to man as swimming is to a dog" stands exploded. An employee may be given a formal training of the work he has to do. This kind of training is given in the administrative schools or academies. The probationers to higher civil service are given formal training. In a formal paining, there is a regular training programme. The formal training consists of actual instructions in certain skills or procedures. The employee may be instructed as to the procedure of the department, the nature of his duties and the code of conduct which he has to follow in the office. Formal training is carefully pre-arranged and conducted under the expert guidance for the assistance for the employees. When training is imparted without any well thought out scheme or plan it is known as informal training. Informal training is a training by experience which the employees 1/
182
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
himself graudally acquires in the course of actual performance of his work. Until the beginning of the twentieth cenhuy most of the training programmes were informal. Because administrative. machinery has not grown in size and complexity. During the British administration in India the ICS probationers were given informal training. The employee gets training when he acutally comes in the contact with files, papers and officers. It is a self acquired education. Informal training teaches him the techniques or tools or methods of work. This has been the traditional or conventional method of training.
(2) Short-term and long-term training The short-term and the long-term training programmes depend '..Ipon the duration of the training. Broadly it may be stated that a training programme lasting for a period of less than one year is described or designed as short-term training. Any training programme exceeding one year may be treated as long-term training. Generally the clerical employees in the central and the state governments are given short-term training. But the gazetted probationers appointed to the All India Services, central Civil Services and the state civil services are given long-term training. I8 (3)
Pre-entry and post entry training
Pre-entry training as its very name suggests that the training is imparted before the entry of the candidates into the service. It is known as pre-entry training. In this sense, education imparted in schools and colleges or universities is a sort of pre-entry training which fits the individual to seek all sorts of jobs in the government. In a stricter sense, pre-entry training may take the shape of vocational or professional training at technical schools or colleges. The
Personnel Administration
183
products of such technical institutions can be given jobs immediately after their coming out of the portals of these institutions. Pre-entry training is given to a candidate to prepare him to the service. It ~s intended to show fitness to appointment. The USA has made provision of a rather comprehensive scheme of pre-entry training for administrative and managerial positions in the form of internship and apprenticeship. In India, the medical graduates, the engineering graduates and the graduates in commerce and education will get pre-entry training. But when the training is imparted after the appointment it is known as post-entry training. Post-entry training is imparted to the employee during the course of his service. The post-entry training is most popular in most of the countries except France and USA. The post-entry training is aimed to train the individuals who are already in service. It is a training for an employee to know the techniques of his work. This type of training aims at 0) better performance of present work, and (2) preparation for advancement (i.e. higher position). The graduates of the general education belonging to the faculties of arts, science and commerce will receive post-entry training. All the probationers belonging to the All India Service, Central Civil Service, and State Civil Services will have to undergo the post-entry training. This type of training can be given in two ways-(l) through refresher courses, and (2) self efforts.
(4) Departmental and central training When training is given in the department or in the office itself, it is called departmental training, Follo\\'ing arE' the examples of departmental training institutions (1)
Central Secretariat TraiJ1ing School, New IMlii
This school was established in
l\1i1ylg4~
to impi1rt trClining
184
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
to section officers and lower division clerks. The courses of training comprise organisation and methods, office procedure, financial rules and regulations etc. After the end of this training they ar.e posted to different ministries for practical training.
(2) Railway Staff College Vadodara The staff college at Vadodara imparts training to the traffic, transportation, T.T. and commercial department (CD). The course of training has direct bearing on the work of these officers.
(3) Administrative Staff College Hyderabad This training is imparted through group discussions.
(4) Training for Indian Foreign Service The I.F.S. recruits has to undergo a training programme for a period of three years.
(5) Training for Indian Police Service (I.PS) The IPS recruits are trained at the central police training college at Mount Abu. The syllabus comprises studies of crime psychology, scientific aids in direction of crime, methods of combating corruption and fire and emergency relief and studies on drill. After the completion of years of training the probationer has to take an examination conducted by the UPSc. He is then given a post of Asst. Superintendent of Police.
(6) Training for I1ldian Audit and Accounts Services The IA and AS are imparted training at the department training school at Shimla. The courses of study have a direct bearing on the work a member of the IA and AS has to perform. After the completion of this training the probationer
Personnel Administration
185
has to pass departmental examination on the subjects directly linked with his work. After passing the departmental examination, the probationer is posted as an Assistant Accounts Officer.
(7) Training for Income-tax Service The probationers of income-tax service get training at the income-tax training school in Nagpur. The pattern of training in their case is the same as that of the IA and AS. But when training is imparted by the central training institutions, it is called central training. Central training is nothing but the basic or fundamental training scheme which is common for all the probationers. In most of the countries central training is more popular. In India central training is being imparted to the probationers of All India Services, central civil services and the state civil services. All the probationers belonging to the various categories of service are brought together in one central training institute. They are given common training in certain fundamental subjects like general economics, economic planning, Indian administration etc. Mussorie and Mysore are the best examples of central training. After this all the probationers will be sent for departmental training and posted to various departments.
(5) Skill and Background Training When the purpose of training is to instruct the employees in some specialised techniques, it is called skill training. The teachers of nursery, primary and secondary schools are given skill training in the art of teaching. They acquire skill in the techniques of teaching by undergoing the training courses like N.T.O, T.C.H. and B.Ed. The police officers training is primarily in prevention and detection of crimes, the training
186
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
of the craftsman is entirely a skill training. Similarly the medical, the engineering, the agricultural, the commerce, the business management and home science graduates will .acquire skill training during their related couJses. The background training is nothing but the fundamental training which is important to the probationers of All India Services and central civil services. Background training seeks to teach -certain subjects which help the trainee to understand the political, administrative, economic and social background and nature of his work. Its purpose is not to increase the trainee's skill in some particular kind of work but to broaden his mind. Generally, background training is imparted in the National Academy of Administration at Mussorie.
Promotion Meaning and Importance Promotion should not be confused with the annual increase of salary of the employee. It is to be noted that mere increase of pay is not promotion. Real promotion means rising to a higher post carrying a higher grade. 19 Real promotion means rise to a higher grade. The change in duties and responsibilities form the essential characteristics of the promotion process. Promotion means progress from a lower to a higher class leading to the change of duties and responsibilities. If a I lecturer is appointed as the Head of the Department in a college, it is a promotion. Similarly if the Head of the Department is appointed principal it is a promotion because he has gone to the higher class leading to the change of duties and responsibilities. Promotion generally leads to the enhancement of salary also. Increase in salary is subsidiary part of promotion.
Personnel Administration
187
Promotion should be distinguished from advancement or administrative promotion. The employee enters the service in a fixed grade and as he progresses in his service and gains more, experience he is given higher pay scale. This increment, which is annual, is called technically advancement or administrative promotion. It differs from promotion because it does lead to change in status, duties or responsibilities . It is merely an increase of emoluments which is usually automatic. For example, a lecturer has a prescribed scale of pay which starts from Rs. 8,000 per month and goes up to Rs. 10,000. The annual increment of Rs. 200 when he has worked for a year, he earns an increment which means his compensation has been increased or he has received an advancement of payor administrative promotion. But since it does not involve change in his duties status, designation and responsibilities, it is not called promotion proper. Promotion must be distinguished from transfer. An employee is transferred from one place of work to another in the same grade and on the same position, whereas promotion upgrades him and makes him share heavier and greater responsibilities.
Importance Firstly, the existence of a proper promotion system is vital for attracting talented persons to public services and preventing them from migrating to private ones. Secondly, a good promotion system keeps the employees interested in the job. To the employees, promotion is of direct significance as a reward or possible reward. Actual promotion is a reward. Thirdly, the actual promotions given to employees tend to create a contented, stable and efficient personnel. In the
188
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
absence of promotion, ambitious intelligent and capable persons leave the job. The employees remain discontented and dissatisfied. It leads to the general imparement of morale. A proper promotion ?ystem helps in retaining the service of the most capable amongst its employees and also in giving them an impetus to improve their capacities and capabilities and qualifications. Promotion is essential for the efficienecy of the public personnel. The principles of promotion system should be equity, justice and fair play. Essentials of a Proper Promotion System It is essential that promotion system must be based on sound
principles. The influence of a good promotion system is all pervasive. It is an important phase of a career service. The failure to establish a good system of promotion is likely to give rise to a number of evil consequences. Firstly, it would have an adverse effect on recruiting capable persons would not like to enter public services. Secondly, the incentive to good work will be crushed thereby affecting adversely the efficiency of administration. Thirdly, the moral standards of the offices and employees will be lowered. It will make the maintenance of discipline difficult among them. Conditions in India as regards this important aspect of personnel administration are not satisfactory. It is pointed out that promotions on the basis of merit is haphazard and arbitrary often based on prejudice, favourism or coercive influence from outside. The important stalwarts of the political party in power approach the authorities and persuade them to promote their own men. This is, of course, a depressing feature. Moreover, certain officers get angry with some employees on very trifling matters and thereby withhold their promotions. All these factors result in unjust promotions. 20
Personnel Administration
189
Lines of Promotion Normally promotions are departmental i.t'. a vacancy in a higher post in a department is usually filled among the employees of that department within the department. The line of promotion is determined by grades, classes and the services. The employee is promoted from one grade to the next higher grade within the same class i.e., a lecturer in the grade of Rs. 8,000 - 10,000 in class II may be promoted to the grade of Rs. 10,000 - 12,000, within the same class. Interservice promotion is rare. Inter-departmental promotions are rare i.e. a medical officer cannot be promoted to an engineering post. Technical officers although can be transfered and promoted from technical service to administrative service, but this is not very common e.g. an engineer working in the local self government department may be appointed by promotion as secretary in the same department.
Principles of Promotion Writers on public administration has suggested two methods of promotion. Generally speaking, there are two main principles of promotion namely, seniority and merit. The principle of seniority is more popular in governmental organisations. It stands for the principle of "first come first served."21 Historically speaking this is the first principle though it is still prevalent. This means that the length of service determines in making promotion. According to this principle the employee who has longer service to his credit would be entitled to the promotion. By length of service is meant the service in the same grade. Hence, a government servant of a higher grade is always regarded as senior to those in lower grade. It believes that all the employees working in a particular grade are equal in their (1)
190
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
abilities and they are eligible for promotion on the basis of their continuous service. A few years ago, the seniority was determined on the basis of date and time of joining duties by the employees. But this caused inconvenience to the candidates living on different parts of the country. Though they were selected at the same time they were not able to join duties on the same date and time on account of their staying in distant place. The time and distance were the two inconvenient factors for the selected candidates. To avoid inconvenience a rational procedure was adopted. According to this procedure, the seniority is determined on the basis of rank in the order of merit of the selected candidates in a particular batch. But sometimes ranking becomes a difficult task for the selecting authorities. Here determination of seniority is not, however, a simple affair. When two or more candidates secure an equal number of marks in the competitive examinations the determination of their rank becomes difficult. Under such circumstances the marks obtained by those candidates at the degree examination will be taken into account. But if the marks obtained by them in the degree examination are again equal then their date of birth will be taken into consideration. A candidate who is born earlier will become senior to the candidate who is born later. If the date of birth is also similar then their seniority will be decided by the toss of coin. 22 A public servant of a higher grade is senior to those who are in lower grade. Similarly, an employee of a higher class though getting actually less pay is senior to an employee of a lower class getting at the time more pay. For example, a lecturer of class II getting basic pay of Rs. 8000 is senior to a lecturer of class III getting Rs. 9000. Among employees of the same grade one who has been holding a substantive post longer than his rival is senior.
Personnel Administration
191
Advantages 1. It is an objective test. Seniority is a matter of fact which is apt to be accepted. 2. Seniorman is more experienced. Hence enough experience and qualification for promotion. 3. It is a fair and just basis of promotion as every body gets an opportunity for promotion in turn. 4. Interference by politicians can be avoided if this system of promotion is adopted. 5. It keeps the morale of the employees boosted as they are sure of promotion at their turn. 6. Better type of persons may be attrated to the jobs when they are certain of promotions. 7. The old employees in particular, stand for this system of promotion as they have not to be lorded over by the young chaps. 8. According to Dr. Finer is of the opinion, this seniority principle is against favouritism and undue intervention of politicians. The principle of seniority is so simple, clear and objective that there is no cause left for heart-burning or resentment among the employees. The employees naturally favour this principle of promotion. 9. In this principle everyone gets opportunity for promotion step-by-step, slowly, and gradually. Thus it is a fair and just basis of promotion. 10. The basis of seniority leads to automatic promotion. And at the same time the young are not placed over the heads of the old.
Its Drawbacks The principle of seniority has, however, a number of drawbacks.
-192
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
1. There is no guarantee that the senior man will also be more competent or meritorious than his junior one. Promotions should be strictly on merit line. 2. If seniority alone is the basis of prom9tion employee does not make any effort for self-improvement. 3. Seniority alone does not necessarily result in the selection of the most competent. 4. Mediocre and unintelligent persons who cannot compete with the young, meritorious, efficient, and the intelligent are the great supporters of the principle of seniority. Following guidelines may be suggested for the promotion of the employees: 1. The top level posts or higher posts merit alone should be the consideration. They may be filled up by promotion on the basis of merit. 2. The middle may be filled up by promotion on the basis of seniority-cum-merit. Merit should be the primary and seniority as a secondary consideration. 3. The lower posts may be filled up by promotion on the basis of seniority. The lower posts of a routine nature, seniority should carry greater weight.
Merit Principle The principle of merit is just the opposite or rival or contradictory of the principle of seniority. It means that the promotion would be made on the basis of qualifications and achievements of the employee irrespective of his length of service. 23 The term merit refers to the efficiency of the employees working in the organisation. Under this system the most meritorious or the best qualified person would be promoted. This principle secures capable persons to the job. It provides due incentive to the efficient and hard working
Personnel Administration
193
employees. It helps in building up the morale and efficiency of public services. It also increase the efficiency of the department. It would favourably affect the entire personnel system. Merit is, however, a complex concept. It is rather difficult to measure it objectively. Generally speaking there are three methods of judging or testing the merits of the employees or candidates viz.,
(1) Written examination There are three types of written examination: (1)
Open competitive examination
In an open examination, anyone whether in service or not can compete for the post of promotion. Thus, outsiders who are not working in the department can compete for promotional tests. This method is justified on the ground that it widens the range of selection without prejudicing the interests of the existing employees, since they will benefit by the special knowledge of the departmental work. Moreover this system brings a new blpod and fresh ideas in the department. Such a system is, however, rare.
(2) Limited competitive examination Under the limited competition, only those who are in service are allowed to appear for the examination. It is a competition among those who are already in the service. This is also known as closed system. This system is preferred by employees in the lower grades. The central government follows it in regard to the recruitment to the posts of section officers, assistants, stenographers etc. It followed in some of the secretariat services in India. Besides examination, an equal weight is given to the confidential reports of the employees in deciding their overall merit. 24
194
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
(3) Pass examination
The third type of promotional or written examination is the pass examination in which a candidate has just to pass the examination and give a proof of his minimum attainments. The employee will be promoted only if he has passed the pass examination. The employee is promoted if he has passed the departmental examination. This system is followed in India in junior clerical, typist, steno and other mechanical jobs. A list of qualified candidates is maintained and they are promoted on the basis of the list on the occurrence of a vacancy.
(2) Personal judgement of the Head of Department It is a time-honoured system. The determination of merit for promotion may be left to the judgement of head of the office or department concerned who has been in closest contact with the employees and thus is in the best position to know about their qualities. He has the personal knowledge of the various employees at their work in his organisation. Moreover, he being responsible for the discipline and morale of employees working in his department. He must be directly concerned with the conforming of awards, as pronouncing of punishments. This system has the advantage of being both simple and comprehensive. Normally in the private organisations, the employees are under the direct control of the head of the organisation. Their work and conduct are under constant observation of the Head or the boss. The Head of Department knows better about his subordinates than any other outside agency. Hence, he should have discretion or power in the matter. of promotion. But such a system is applicable for top most position at the governmental level. In India r the Head of the Departments
Personnel Administration
195
and secretaries to government are promoted on the basis of the discretion of the Head of the organisation. But there are two serious defects in this system. In large scale organisations, it is rather impossible for the Head of the Department to be in closest touch with all the employees and make a personal judgement of the capacities of each one of them. Secondly, this system is highly subjective and is susceptible to favouritism and extraneous considerations. As such, it may cause suspicion and resentiment among the employees. (3) Efficiency rating
The other system of judging the qualifications of employees for promotion is on the basis of service records which are also sometimes called efficiency rating or service file. The service records are the basis on which the head of the organisation rates of his employees. The maintenance of service records known variously as service book, personal record, personal file or confidential. This method is used in civil service. Such records only furnish the data on the basis of which today efficiency may be evaluated. The size of government organisations is so large that no officer can possibly remember without the efficiency of individual employees working in his department. Therefore, a written record of the service of the employee and his performance is maintained which furnishes a valuable assistance in judging the merits of employees at the time of promotion. 25 In the United States efficiency rating has been made a very elaborate affair. The Americans have attempted to make it mechanical, exact and very objective guide for measuring the average efficiency of their civil servants. 26 The federal government established in 1916 a Bureau of Efficiency for looking after the work of efficiency rating in the different departments.
196
Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Nates and References 1. L.D. White, Introduction to the Study of Public Administration (New York, MacMillan, 1955), p. 380.
2. Ibid., p. 38'5-90. 3. E.N. Gladden, The Civil Service, its Problems and Future, Staples, London, 1948, p. 35.
4. Ibid., pp. 36-40. 5. For details refer the Civil Services (Classification, Control and Appeal) Rules, 1965. 6. W.F. Willoughby, Principles of Public Administration, (Allahabad Central Book Depot, 1958), p. 252. The Civil Service translates the decisions of the government into action. 7. L.D. While, The Civil Service in Modern State, p. 11. 8. A.D. Gorwala's Report on Public Administration, 1957, p. 63. There is a wide gap between policy formulation and policy implementation in India. This gap should be closed. Then only we can hope of the success of the plans and policies. 9. Pfiffner and Presthus, Public Administration, p. 208. 10. Governments may come and go, rise and fall but the country's administration goes on forever. 11: This statement is drawn from the book Dynamics of Diplomacy written by G.U.G. Krishnamurty, p. 130. 12. A.R. Tyagi, Public Administration, pp. 438-440. 13. P.H. Appleby's Report of a Survey of Public Administration in India, 1953, p.11. 14. Lulful Hog Chowathury, "Training for Development" I.I.P.A, Vol. XXVI, 1980, pp. 378-383. 15. Quoted in O. Glenn Stahl, Public Personnel Administration (Ne\-\f York: Harper and Row, 1962), pp. 199-200. 16. Dale Yoder and others, Handbook of Personnel Management and Labour Relations (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958), p. 146. 17. Herman Finer, Theory and Practice of Modern Government, London, Methuen, 1954, p. 849.
Personnel Administration
197
18. Ibid., p. 851. 19. Ibid., p. 861.
20. O.P. Dwivedi and R.B. Jain, India's Administrative State, Citanjali Publishing House, New Delhi, 1985, pp. 72-73. 21. This is the quotation drawn from the book Advanced Public Administration, written by S.D. Sharma, pp. 11-13. 22. The whole idea of this type of promotion is seen in M.K. Chaturvedi, "Comment in Civil Service" ~IIPA, 17 (l97)}, pp.4142.
23. Ibid., pp. 45-48. 24. W.F. Willoughby, Principles of Public Administration, p. 208. 25. A. Awasthi and S. Maheshwari, Public Administration, Lakshmi Narain Agarwal, Agra, 1984, pp. 417-418. 26. For details refer the All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968, refer Government of India, The All India Services Manual PartI (New Delhi, 1975), pp. 75-90.
