California Mathematics: Course One and Course Two: Student Textbook

CGP

Education

California

Mathematics Course One

Student Textbook California Standards-Driven Program

California

Mathematics Course One

Student Textbook California Standards-Driven Program

Contents This Textbook provides comprehensive coverage of all the California grade 6 Standards. The Textbook is divided into seven Chapters. Each of the Chapters is broken down into small, manageable Lessons and each Lesson covers a specific Standard or part of a Standard.

California Standard

Chapter 1 — Ordering and Manipulating Numbers

NS 1.1 NS 2.3

Section 1.1 — Integers and the Number Line Exploration Zero Pairs ............................................................................................................................. 2 Lesson 1.1.1 Comparing Integers .............................................................................................................. 3 Lesson 1.1.2 Adding and Subtracting Integers .......................................................................................... 6

NS 2.3

Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division by Integers Exploration Multiplication with Integer Tiles ............................................................................................. Lesson 1.2.1 Multiplying with Integers ....................................................................................................... Lesson 1.2.2 Dividing with Integers ............................................................................................................ Lesson 1.2.3 Integers in Real Life ..............................................................................................................

NS 1.1

Section 1.3 — Decimals Exploration A Decimal Strip ..................................................................................................................... 22 Lesson 1.3.1 Decimals ............................................................................................................................... 23 Lesson 1.3.2 Ordering Decimals ................................................................................................................ 26

MR 2.1 MR 2.3 MR 2.6

Section 1.4 — Estimation Lesson 1.4.1 Rounding Numbers ............................................................................................................... Lesson 1.4.2 Using Rounded Numbers ..................................................................................................... Lesson 1.4.3 Estimation ............................................................................................................................. Lesson 1.4.4 Using Estimation ...................................................................................................................

9 10 14 18

29 32 35 38

Chapter 1 — Investigation Populations .............................................................................................................................................. 41

Chapter 2 — Expressions and Equations

ii

AF 1.2 AF 1.3 AF 1.4

Section 2.1 — Expressions Exploration Algebra Tile Expressions ...................................................................................................... Lesson 2.1.1 Variables ............................................................................................................................... Lesson 2.1.2 Expressions .......................................................................................................................... Lesson 2.1.3 Multi-Variable Expressions ................................................................................................... Lesson 2.1.4 Order of Operations ..............................................................................................................

43 44 48 51 55

AF 1.1

Section 2.2 — Equations Exploration Equations with Algebra Tiles ................................................................................................ Lesson 2.2.1 Equations .............................................................................................................................. Lesson 2.2.2 Manipulating Equations ........................................................................................................ Lesson 2.2.3 Solving + and – Equations .................................................................................................... Lesson 2.2.4 Solving × and ÷ Equations .................................................................................................... Lesson 2.2.5 Graphing Equations ..............................................................................................................

59 60 63 66 69 72

California Standard

Chapter 2 — Continued

AF 1.2 AF 1.3 AF 3.1 AF 3.2 MR 1.3

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions Lesson 2.3.1 Expressions About Length .................................................................................................... Lesson 2.3.2 Expressions About Area ....................................................................................................... Lesson 2.3.3 Finding Complex Areas ........................................................................................................ Lesson 2.3.4 The Distributive Property ...................................................................................................... Lesson 2.3.5 Using the Distributive Property ............................................................................................. Lesson 2.3.6 Squares and Cubes .............................................................................................................. Lesson 2.3.7 Expressions and Angles .......................................................................................................

MR 1.1 MR 1.3 MR 2.2 MR 2.4 MR 2.5 MR 2.7

Section 2.4 — Problem Solving Lesson 2.4.1 Analyzing Problems .............................................................................................................. 97 Lesson 2.4.2 Important Information ........................................................................................................... 100 Lesson 2.4.3 Breaking Up a Problem ......................................................................................................... 104

75 79 82 85 88 90 94

Chapter 2 — Investigation Design a House ............................................................................................................................................ 108

Chapter 3 — Fractions and Percentages

NS 1.1

Section 3.1 — Fractions Lesson 3.1.1 Understanding Fractions ....................................................................................................... Lesson 3.1.2 Improper Fractions ................................................................................................................ Lesson 3.1.3 More on Fractions ................................................................................................................. Lesson 3.1.4 Fractions and Decimals ........................................................................................................

110 114 118 121

NS 2.1 NS 2.2

Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions Exploration Multiplying Fractions: an Area Model .................................................................................... Lesson 3.2.1 Multiplying Fractions by Integers ........................................................................................... Lesson 3.2.2 More on Multiplying Fractions by Integers ............................................................................ Lesson 3.2.3 Multiplying Fractions by Fractions .........................................................................................

124 125 129 133

NS 2.1 NS 2.2

Section 3.3 — Dividing Fractions Lesson 3.3.1 Dividing by Fractions ............................................................................................................. 136 Lesson 3.3.2 Solving Problems by Dividing Fractions ................................................................................ 140

NS 1.1 NS 2.1 NS 2.4

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions Exploration Adding Fractions: an Area Model .......................................................................................... Lesson 3.4.1 Making Equivalent Fractions ................................................................................................. Lesson 3.4.2 Finding the Simplest Form .................................................................................................... Lesson 3.4.3 Fraction Sums ....................................................................................................................... Lesson 3.4.4 Fractions with Different Denominators .................................................................................. Lesson 3.4.5 Least Common Multiples ...................................................................................................... Lesson 3.4.6 Mixed Numbers and Word Questions ...................................................................................

144 145 149 152 155 160 163

NS 1.4

Section 3.5 — Percents Exploration Percents with a Double Number Line ................................................................................... Lesson 3.5.1 Fractions and Percents ......................................................................................................... Lesson 3.5.2 Percents and Decimals ......................................................................................................... Lesson 3.5.3 Percents of Numbers ............................................................................................................ Lesson 3.5.4 Circle Graphs and Percents .................................................................................................. Lesson 3.5.5 Percent Increase ................................................................................................................... Lesson 3.5.6 Percent Decrease ................................................................................................................. Lesson 3.5.7 Simple Interest ......................................................................................................................

167 168 171 174 177 181 185 189

iii

Contents California Standard

Chapter 3 — Continued Chapter 3 — Investigation Wildlife Trails .............................................................................................................................................. 193

Chapter 4 — Ratio, Proportion and Rate

NS 1.2 NS 1.3

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion Exploration Billboard Ratios ..................................................................................................................... Lesson 4.1.1 Ratios .................................................................................................................................... Lesson 4.1.2 Equivalent Ratios .................................................................................................................. Lesson 4.1.3 Proportions ........................................................................................................................... Lesson 4.1.4 Proportions and Cross-Multiplication ....................................................................................

NS 1.2 NS 1.3

Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry Lesson 4.2.1 Similarity ............................................................................................................................... 209 Lesson 4.2.2 Proportions and Similarity ..................................................................................................... 213 Lesson 4.2.3 Scale Drawings ..................................................................................................................... 217

AF 2.1 MR 3.1

Section 4.3 — Converting Units Exploration Plotting Conversions ............................................................................................................. Lesson 4.3.1 Customary and Metric Units ................................................................................................. Lesson 4.3.2 Conversions and Proportions ............................................................................................... Lesson 4.3.3 Converting Between Unit Systems ....................................................................................... Lesson 4.3.4 Other Conversions ................................................................................................................

221 222 226 229 233

AF 2.2 AF 2.3

Section 4.4 — Rates Exploration Running Rates ...................................................................................................................... Lesson 4.4.1 Rates .................................................................................................................................... Lesson 4.4.2 Using Rates .......................................................................................................................... Lesson 4.4.3 Finding Speed ....................................................................................................................... Lesson 4.4.4 Finding Time and Distance ................................................................................................... Lesson 4.4.5 Average Rates ......................................................................................................................

236 237 240 244 247 250

195 196 199 202 205

Chapter 4 — Investigation Sunshine and Shadows ................................................................................................................................ 253

Chapter 5 — Data Sets

SDP 1.1 SDP 1.3 SDP 1.4

iv

Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures Exploration Estimation Line-Up ............................................................................................................... Lesson 5.1.1 Median and Mode ................................................................................................................. Lesson 5.1.2 Mean and Range .................................................................................................................. Lesson 5.1.3 Extreme Values ..................................................................................................................... Lesson 5.1.4 Comparing Data Sets ...........................................................................................................

255 256 259 262 265

California Standard

Chapter 5 — Continued

SDP 1.1 SDP 1.2

Section 5.2 — Adding Extra Data Lesson 5.2.1 Including Additional Data: Mode, Median, and Range .......................................................... 268 Lesson 5.2.2 Including Additional Data: The Mean .................................................................................... 272

SDP 1.1 SDP 2.3

Section 5.3 — Data Displays Lesson 5.3.1 Analyzing Graphs ................................................................................................................. 275 Lesson 5.3.2 Finding the Mean and Median from Graphs ......................................................................... 279 Lesson 5.3.3 Other Types of Graph ........................................................................................................... 282

SDP 2.1 SDP 2.2 SDP 2.4

SDP 2.3 SDP 2.5

Section 5.4 — Sampling Exploration Sampling Survey ................................................................................................................... Lesson 5.4.1 Using Samples ...................................................................................................................... Lesson 5.4.2 Convenience, Random, and Systematic Sampling ............................................................... Lesson 5.4.3 Samples and Accuracy ......................................................................................................... Lesson 5.4.4 Questionnaire Surveys .........................................................................................................

286 287 290 293 296

Section 5.5 — Statistical Claims Lesson 5.5.1 Evaluating Claims ................................................................................................................. 300 Lesson 5.5.2 Evaluating Displays .............................................................................................................. 304 Chapter 5 — Investigation Selling Cookies ............................................................................................................................................. 309

Chapter 6 — Probability

SDP 3.1

Section 6.1 — Outcomes and Diagrams Lesson 6.1.1 Listing Possible Outcomes .................................................................................................... 311 Lesson 6.1.2 Tree Diagrams ...................................................................................................................... 314 Lesson 6.1.3 Tables and Grids ................................................................................................................... 317

SDP 3.1 SDP 3.3 SDP 3.4

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability Exploration Heads or Tails ....................................................................................................................... Lesson 6.2.1 Probability ............................................................................................................................. Lesson 6.2.2 Expressing Probability .......................................................................................................... Lesson 6.2.3 Counting Outcomes .............................................................................................................. Lesson 6.2.4 Probability of an Event Not Happening ................................................................................ Lesson 6.2.5 Venn Diagrams ..................................................................................................................... Lesson 6.2.6 Combining Events .................................................................................................................

320 321 324 327 330 333 336

SDP 3.4 SDP 3.5

Section 6.3 — Dependent and Independent Events Exploration Pick a Card ........................................................................................................................... Lesson 6.3.1 Independent and Dependent Events .................................................................................... Lesson 6.3.2 Events and Probabilities ....................................................................................................... Lesson 6.3.3 Calculating Probabilities of Independent Events ..................................................................

339 340 343 346

SDP 3.2

Section 6.4 — Experimental Probability Exploration Shooting Baskets .................................................................................................................. 349 Lesson 6.4.1 Relative Frequency ............................................................................................................... 350 Lesson 6.4.2 Making Predictions ............................................................................................................... 353 Chapter 6 — Investigation A Game of Chance ....................................................................................................................................... 356

v

Contents California Standard

Chapter 7 — Geometry

AF 3.1 AF 3.2 MG 1.1 MG 1.2

Section 7.1 — Circles Exploration Circle Ratios ......................................................................................................................... 358 Lesson 7.1.1 Parts of a Circle .................................................................................................................... 359 Lesson 7.1.2 Circumference and p ......................................................................................................................... 362 Lesson 7.1.3 Area of a Circle ..................................................................................................................... 366

MG 2.1 MG 2.2

Section 7.2 — Angles Exploration Folding Angles ...................................................................................................................... Lesson 7.2.1 Describing Angles ................................................................................................................. Lesson 7.2.2 Pairs of Angles ..................................................................................................................... Lesson 7.2.3 Supplementary Angles ......................................................................................................... Lesson 7.2.4 The Triangle Sum .................................................................................................................. Lesson 7.2.5 Complementary Angles ........................................................................................................

369 370 374 377 381 384

MG 2.3

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures Exploration Sorting Shapes ..................................................................................................................... Lesson 7.3.1 Classifying Triangles by Angles ............................................................................................ Lesson 7.3.2 Classifying Triangles by Side Lengths .................................................................................. Lesson 7.3.3 Types of Quadrilaterals ........................................................................................................ Lesson 7.3.4 Drawing Quadrilaterals .........................................................................................................

388 389 393 398 402

MG 1.3

Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures Exploration Building Cylinders ................................................................................................................. Lesson 7.4.1 Three Dimensional Figures ................................................................................................... Lesson 7.4.2 Volume of Rectangular Prisms ............................................................................................. Lesson 7.4.3 Volume of Triangular Prisms and Cylinders .......................................................................... Lesson 7.4.4 Volume of Compound Solids ................................................................................................

405 406 410 413 416

MR 1.2 MR 3.1 MR 3.2 MR 3.3

Section 7.5 — Generalizing Results Lesson 7.5.1 Generalizing Results ............................................................................................................. 419 Lesson 7.5.2 Proving Generalizations ........................................................................................................ 424 Chapter 7 — Investigation Reclining Chairs ............................................................................................................................................ 427

Additional Questions Additional Questions for Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 5 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 6 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 7 ...............................................................................................................

428 431 438 445 451 457 462

Appendixes Glossary .............................................................................................................................................. 471 Formula Sheet .............................................................................................................................................. 473 Index .............................................................................................................................................. 475

vi

California Grade Six Mathematics Standards The following table lists all the California Mathematics Content Standards for grade 6 with cross references to where each Standard is covered in this Textbook. Each Lesson begins by quoting the relevant Standard in full, together with a clear and understandable objective. This will enable you to measure your progression against the California grade 6 Standards as you work your way through the Program. California Standard

Number Sense

1.0

Students compare and order positive and negative fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers. Students solve problems involving fractions, ratios, proportions, and percentages:

Chapters 1, 3, 4

1.1

Compare and order positive and negative fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers and place them on a number line.

Chapters 1, 3

1.2

Interpret and use ratios in different contexts (e.g., batting averages, miles per hour) to show the relative sizes of two quantities, using appropriate notations (a/b, a to b, a:b).

Chapter 4

1.3

Use proportions to solve problems (e.g., determine the value of N if = , find the length of a side of 7 21 a polygon similar to a known polygon). Use cross-multiplication as a method for solving such problems, understanding it as the multiplication of both sides of an equation by a multiplicative inverse.

Chapter 4

1.4

Calculate given percentages of quantities and solve problems involving discounts at sales, interest earned, and tips.

Chapter 3

2.0

Students calculate and solve problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division:

Chapters 1, 3

2.1

Solve problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of positive fractions and explain why a particular operation was used for a given situation.

Chapter 3

2.2

Explain the meaning of multiplication and division of positive fractions and perform the calculations

Chapter 3

4

(e.g.,

N

5 15 5 16 2 ÷ = × = ). 8 16 8 15 3

2.3

Solve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems, including those arising in concrete situations, that use positive and negative integers and combinations of these operations.

Chapter 1

2.4

Determine the least common multiple and the greatest common divisor of whole numbers; use them to solve problems with fractions (e.g., to find a common denominator to add two fractions or to find the reduced form for a fraction).

Chapter 3

California Standard

Algebra and Functions

1.0

Students write verbal expressions and sentences as algebraic expressions and equations; they evaluate algebraic expressions, solve simple linear equations, and graph and interpret their results:

Chapter 2

1.1

Write and solve one-step linear equations in one variable.

Chapter 2

1.2

Write and evaluate an algebraic expression for a given situation, using up to three variables.

Chapter 2

1.3

Apply algebraic order of operations and the commutative, associative, and distributive properties to evaluate expressions; and justify each step in the process.

Chapter 2

1.4

Solve problems manually by using the correct order of operations or by using a scientific calculator.

Chapter 2

2.0

Students analyze and use tables, graphs, and rules to solve problems involving rates and proportions:

Chapter 4

2.1

Convert one unit of measurement to another (e.g., from feet to miles, from centimeters to inches).

Chapter 4

2.2

Demonstrate an understanding that rate is a measure of one quantity per unit value of another quantity.

Chapter 4

2.3

Solve problems involving rates, average speed, distance, and time.

Chapter 4

vii

California Grade Six Mathematics Standards 3.0

Students investigate geometric patterns and describe them algebraically:

3.1

Use variables in expressions describing geometric quantities (e.g., P = 2w + 2l, A = bh, C = pd — the 2 formulas for the perimeter of a rectangle, the area of a triangle, and the circumference of a circle, respectively).

Chapter 2, 7

3.2

Express in symbolic form simple relationships arising from geometry.

Chapter 2, 7

California Standard

1

Measurement and Geometry

1.0

Students deepen their understanding of the measurement of plane and solid shapes and use this understanding to solve problems:

Chapter 7

1.1

Understand the concept of a constant such as p; know the formulas for the circumference and area of a circle.

Chapter 7

1.2

Know common estimates of p (3.14; ) and use these values to estimate and calculate the 7 circumference and the area of circles; compare with actual measurements.

Chapter 7

1.3

Know and use the formulas for the volume of triangular prisms and cylinders (area of base × height); compare these formulas and explain the similarity between them and the formula for the volume of a rectangular solid.

Chapter 7

2.0

Students identify and describe the properties of two-dimensional figures:

Chapter 7

2.1

Identify angles as vertical, adjacent, complementary, or supplementary and provide descriptions of these terms.

Chapter 7

2.2

Use the properties of complementary and supplementary angles and the sum of the angles of a triangle to solve problems involving an unknown angle.

Chapter 7

2.3

Draw quadrilaterals and triangles from given information about them (e.g., a quadrilateral having equal sides but no right angles, a right isosceles triangle).

Chapter 7

California Standard

viii

Chapter 2, 7

22

Statistics, Data Analysis and Probability

1.0

Students compute and analyze statistical measurements for data sets:

Chapter 5

1.1

Compute the range, mean, median, and mode of data sets.

Chapter 5

1.2

Understand how additional data added to data sets may affect these computations.

Chapter 5

1.3

Understand how the inclusion or exclusion of outliers affects these computations.

Chapter 5

1.4

Know why a specific measure of central tendency (mean, median) provides the most useful information in a given context.

Chapter 5

2.0

Students use data samples of a population and describe the characteristics and limitations of the samples:

Chapter 5

2.1

Compare different samples of a population with the data from the entire population and identify a situation in which it makes sense to use a sample.

Chapter 5

2.2

Identify different ways of selecting a sample (e.g., convenience sampling, responses to a survey, random sampling) and which method makes a sample more representative for a population.

Chapter 5

2.3

Analyze data displays and explain why the way in which the question was asked might have influenced the results obtained and why the way in which the results were displayed might have influenced the conclusions reached.

Chapter 5

2.4

Identify data that represent sampling errors and explain why the sample (and the display) might be biased.

Chapter 5

2.5

Identify claims based on statistical data and, in simple cases, evaluate the validity of the claims.

Chapter 5

3.0

Students determine theoretical and experimental probabilities and use these to make predictions about events:

Chapter 6

3.1

Represent all possible outcomes for compound events in an organized way (e.g., tables, grids, tree diagrams) and express the theoretical probability of each outcome.

Chapter 6

3.2

Use data to estimate the probability of future events (e.g., batting averages or number of accidents per mile driven).

Chapter 6

3.3

Represent probabilities as ratios, proportions, decimals between 0 and 1, and percentages between 0 and 100 and verify that the probabilities computed are reasonable; know that if P is the probability of an event, 1 – P is the probability of an event not occurring.

Chapter 6

3.4

Understand that the probability of either of two disjoint events occurring is the sum of the two individual probabilities and that the probability of one event following another, in independent trials, is the product of the two probabilities.

Chapter 6

3.5

Understand the difference between independent and dependent events.

Chapter 6

California Standard

Mathematical Reasoning

1.0

Students make decisions about how to approach problems:

1.1

Analyze problems by identifying relationships, distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information, identifying missing information, sequencing and prioritizing information, and observing patterns.

1.2

Formulate and justify mathematical conjectures based on a general description of the mathematical question or problem posed.

1.3

Determine when and how to break a problem into simpler parts.

2.0

Students use strategies, skills, and concepts in finding solutions:

2.1

Use estimation to verify the reasonableness of calculated results.

2.2

Apply strategies and results from simpler problems to more complex problems.

2.3

Estimate unknown quantities graphically and solve for them by using logical reasoning and arithmetic and algebraic techniques.

2.4

Use a variety of methods, such as words, numbers, symbols, charts, graphs, tables, diagrams, and models, to explain mathematical reasoning.

2.5

Express the solution clearly and logically by using the appropriate mathematical notation and terms and clear language; support solutions with evidence in both verbal and symbolic work.

2.6

Indicate the relative advantages of exact and approximate solutions to problems and give answers to a specified degree of accuracy.

2.7

Make precise calculations and check the validity of the results from the context of the problem.

3.0

Students move beyond a particular problem by generalizing to other situations:

3.1

Evaluate the reasonableness of the solution in the context of the original situation.

3.2

Note the method of deriving the solution and demonstrate a conceptual understanding of the derivation by solving similar problems.

3.3

Develop generalizations of the results obtained and the strategies used and apply them in new problem situations.

Illustrated in Chapters 1, 2, and 7, and throughout Program

Shows key standards

ix

Published by CGP Education Editor: Andy Park Core material written by: Harold I. Lawrance and Bonnie Spence Harold is a freelance mathematics consultant after working as a High School Math teacher in California for fourteen years. Bonnie worked as a writer on the STEM Project through the University of Montana and previously worked as a Middle School Math teacher in Oklahoma and Colorado. California General Advisor: Marcia Lomneth Marcia has worked in several mathematics education positions, including staff support and curriculum development. She now works as a California Mathematics Consultant. Section Exploration Writer: Alex May Alex is a science teacher in Colorado. He previously worked as Co-Director of the Irvine Mathematics Project at the University of California. California English Language Learner Advisor: Judith A. McGinty Judith is a Middle School Math teacher in Oakland Unified School District, California. She has vast experience of teaching English Language Leaners and holds a CLAD certificate (Cross-cultural Language and Academic Development). California Advanced Learner Advisor: William D. Nolan William is a Middle School Math teacher in New York State and is experienced in delivering math courses to diverse student groups. Additional Writers: Cristina M. Dube and Heather M. Heise Cristina is a freelance math consultant and test item writer, and has previously worked as an Elementary Math and General Education teacher in Texas. Heather is a freelance math consultant and test item writer, and previously worked as an Elementary Math teacher in Minnesota and Texas. Additional Contributors: Paul R. Allrich and Darrell Dean Ballard Supporting Editors: Tim Burne Mary Falkner Tom Harte Sarah Hilton Kate Houghton Paul Jordin

Sharon Keeley John Kitching Simon Little Tim Major Ali Palin

Glenn Rogers Emma Stevens Ami Snelling Claire Thompson Julie Wakeling

Proofreading: Joiclyn Austin, Heather M. Heise, and Jeff Probst Graphic Design: Caroline Batten, Russell Holden, Jane Ross and Ash Tyson

Mathematics Content Standards for California Public Schools reproduced by permission, California Department of Education, CDE Press, 1430 N Street, Suite 3207, Sacramento, CA 95814. ISBN 13: 978 1 60017 034 8 website: www.cgpeducation.com Printed by Elanders Hindson Ltd, UK and Johnson Printing, Boulder, CO Clipart sources: CorelDRAW and VECTOR. Text, design, layout, and illustrations © CGP, Inc. 2007 All rights reserved.

x

Chapter 1 Ordering and Manipulating Numbers Section 1.1

Exploration — Zero Pairs .............................................. 2 Integers and the Number Line ....................................... 3

Section 1.2

Exploration — Multiplication with Integer Tiles.............. 9 Multiplication and Division with Integers ..................... 10

Section 1.3

Exploration — A Decimal Strip .................................... 22 Decimals ...................................................................... 23

Section 1.4

Estimation.................................................................... 29

Chapter Investigation — Populations .................................................. 41

1

Section 1.1 introduction — an exploration into:

Zer oP air s Zero Pair airs Lots of math involves adding and subtracting with positive and negative numbers. Positive and negative numbers “cancel each other out” — for example, if you add the numbers 1 and –1, you get zero. You can use this fact to add and subtract other numbers too. 5

You can represent positive and negative integers using blue and red tiles. Each blue tile represents 1. So the number 5 would be shown using 5 blue tiles. Each red tile represents –1. So the number –3 would be shown using 3 red tiles.

–3

A red and a blue tile together make zero. This is called a zero pair.

1 + (–1) = 0

Because zero pairs have a value of zero, they do not affect the value of other groups of tiles. Example 5

Add 5 + (–3) with integer tiles. Solution

Take 5 blue tiles, and add 3 red tiles. You can remove the zero pairs. This leaves 2 blue tiles. So 5 + (–3) = 2.

+ –3

Removing the zero pairs leaves 2 blue tiles.

Example The total value of the tiles is still 4.

Subtract 4 – (–2) with integer tiles. Solution

Take 4 blue tiles. To subtract –2, you need to remove 2 red tiles. But there are no red tiles. However, you can add two zero pairs — zero pairs do not change anything.

=

Now you can remove 2 red tiles. This leaves 6 blue tiles. So 4 – (–2) = 6.

Exercises 1. Use integer tiles to model and solve each of the following: a. –6 + 5 b. –2 + (–7) c. 8 + (–3) d. 5 – 7

e. –3 – 2

f. 2 – (–3)

2. How can 4 – (–6) be solved using red and blue tiles? Show how removing 6 red tiles has the same effect as adding 4 blue tiles.

Round Up You can use tiles to represent lots of addition and subtraction problems. To do an addition, you need to add tiles. To do a subtraction, you need to remove tiles. But remember, you can always add or remove a zero pair without affecting anything. 2

Section 1.1 Explor a tion — Zero Pairs Explora

Lesson

Section 1.1

1.1.1

Comparing Integers

California Standard:

This Lesson is about some of the different kinds of numbers you need to use, and how you can use the number line to put them in order. The number line shows whether numbers are greater than or less than each other.

Number Sense 1.1 Compare and order positive and negative fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers and place them on a number line.

The Number Line Shows the Order of Numbers

What it means for you: You’ll be able to arrange positive and negative numbers on the number line, and you’ll learn about different types of numbers.

Key words: • • • • • • •

natural number whole number integer origin number line greater than less than

The number line is a useful diagram that shows how numbers are ordered. Numbers to the right of 0 are positive and numbers to the left of 0 are negative. Example

Positive numbers are to the right of 0

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

1

2

3 4

5

6

0 is called the origin

1

Arrange the numbers 2, 8, and 12 on the number line. Solution

Don’t forget: 0 isn’t positive or negative.

Negative numbers are to the left of 0

8

2

0

12

Just count to the right of 0 by 2, 8, and 12 steps.

You always count steps from 0, but if it’s a negative number then remember to count to the left.

Don’t forget: Negative and positive versions of the same number are the same distance from the origin. For example, 3 and –3 are both 3 steps away from 0 on the number line, but in different directions. The negative side of the number line is like a mirror image of the positive side.

Example

2

Arrange the numbers –3, –5, 3, and 7 on the number line. Solution

–5

–3

0

3

7

Remember that –3 and –5 are to the left of 0.

Guided Practice 1. Arrange the numbers 3, 4, –1, and 8 on the number line. Say which side of the origin the numbers in Exercises 2–5 would go on. 2. –23 4. 6

3. 9 5. –1

Section 1.1 — Integers and the Number Line

3

The Number Line Lets You Compare Numbers Check it out: The further to the right on a number line, the greater a number is. It doesn’t matter which side of the origin the numbers are.

If two numbers are plotted on the number line, then the number to the left is less than the number to the right. You could also say that the number to the right is greater than the number to the left. There are two important symbols used to order and compare two numbers. The symbol > means “greater than” and the symbol < means “less than.”

Example Check it out: –4 is less than –2, even though 4 is greater than 2. That’s because –4 goes on the left of –2 on the number line.

3

By placing them on the number line, show that 1 is greater than –4. Solution

1 is to the right of –4, so 1 > –4. –4

0 1

Guided Practice Write these numbers with the correct < or > symbol, then use the number line to say which number in each Exercise is greater. 6. 7, 3 8. –1, 10 10. –9, –11

7. 2, 3 9. –8, 0 11. –1, 1

Whole and Natural Numbers Are Types of Integers You’ve already been dealing with a few different types of numbers on the number line — now it’s time to learn their names. Check it out: If you’re just counting objects, you use natural numbers to say how many you have.

Check it out: For example, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, and 3 are all integers but –0.5 is not an integer.

4

Natural numbers are also called counting numbers because they are the numbers used to count with — 1, 2, 3, and so on.

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

Whole numbers are like the natural numbers except that they include the number zero.

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

Integers include all the natural numbers, the negative versions of them, and zero.

Section 1.1 — Integers and the Number Line

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

1

2

3 4

5

6

Natural numbers

1

2

3 4

5

6

Whole numbers

1

Integers

2

3 4

5

6

Example Check it out: Natural numbers and whole numbers have something in common — numbers less than zero are not included.

4

Describe the following numbers as natural, whole, or integer. There may be more than one answer for each. 1. 1

2. 0

3. –3

Solution

1. 1 is greater than zero so it is a natural number. All natural numbers are also whole numbers and integers. Don’t forget: 0 is a whole number but not a natural number.

2. 0 is not a natural number, but it is a whole number. As it is a whole number it is also an integer. 3. –3 is less than zero so it is not a natural number and not a whole number. But it is an integer.

Guided Practice Describe each number as a natural number, a whole number, or an integer. There may be more than one answer for each number. 12. 7

13. –9

14. –400

15. 1

16. 55

17. 0

18. 26

19. –16

20. –32

21. 3.2

Independent Practice 1. Place 3, 1, 5, and –2 on a number line. Now try these: Lesson 1.1.1 additional questions — p428

Answer each of Exercises 2–9 as true or false. 2. 4 < 9 3. 23 > –40 4. 0 < –1 5. –1 > –2 6. 4 > –5 7. 0 is a positive number. 8. Whole numbers can be negative. 9. All integers are whole numbers. 10. Hector is thinking of a number that is a whole number but is not a natural number. What number is Hector thinking of? Exercises 11–13 make use of the number line shown below. 11. How many natural numbers are between –3 and 5? 12. How many whole numbers are between –3 and 5? 13. How many integers are between –3 and 5? –3

0

5

Round Up Thinking in terms of the number line is a good way to compare integers so you can say which is greater than the other. It also helps you to understand what happens when you add positive and negative numbers, which is all part of the next Lesson. Section 1.1 — Integers and the Number Line

5

Lesson

1.1.2 California Standard: Number Sense 2.3 Solve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems, including those arising in concrete situations, that use positive and negative integers and combinations of these operations.

What it means for you: You’ll learn to add positive and negative numbers to integers.

Key words: • positive • negative • integer

Adding and Subtracting Integers You’ve met positive and negative numbers, and you know how to arrange them on the number line. This Lesson covers addition and subtraction of integers, including negative numbers.

Adding a Positive Moves Right on the Number Line In the last Lesson, you saw that numbers on the number line are greater the farther to the right they are. When you add a positive integer to any number, you’re making it greater, so you move to the right. To add a positive integer, move that number of positions to the right on the number line. It doesn’t make any difference whether the original number is positive or negative — you always move to the right. Example

1

Using the number line, add 9 to –4. Don’t forget:

Solution +1

Integers include all the natural numbers, the negative versions of them, and zero. So –2, –1, 0, 1, and 2 are all integers.

+2

+3

+4

+5

–4 –3 –2 –1 0

+6

1

+7

2

+8

+9

4

3

5

Counting 9 spaces to the right of –4 on the number line shows that the answer is 5.

Adding a Negative Moves Left on the Number Line When you add a negative integer, move that number of positions to the left on the number line. Example

2

Using the number line, add –6 to 5. Solution 6

–1 0

5

4

1

3

2

2

3

1

4

5

Counting 6 spaces to the left of 5 on the number line shows that the answer is –1.

6

Section 1.1 — Integers and the Number Line

When you’re adding a negative number, it doesn’t matter whether you’re adding it to a positive or negative number — you always move to the left. Example

3

Using the number line, add –5 to –1. Solution 5

4

3

2

1

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

Counting 5 spaces to the left of –1 on the number line shows that the answer is –6.

Guided Practice Answer the following Exercises without using a calculator. Use a number line to help. 1. 7 + 3 2. –2 + 2 3. –8 + 4 4. 1 + 3 5. –81 + 8 6. –9 + 11 7. 9 + (–2) 8. 35 + (–10) 9. –5 + (–1) 10. 0 + (–5) 11. 36 + (–10) 12. –15 + (–7)

Subtracting a Positive is Like Adding a Negative You already know that to add a negative integer, you move that number of positions to the left on the number line. The method for subtracting a positive integer is exactly the same. Example

4

Using the number line, calculate 8 – 2. Solution

The 2 tells you that you need to move 2 steps, and the “–” sign tells you that you need to move left. So the answer is 6.

2

6

1

8

Guided Practice Answer the following Exercises without using a calculator. Use a number line to help. 13. 7 – 3 14. –1 – 10 15. 8 – 8 16. 3 – 8 17. –2 – 9 18. 1 – 10 Section 1.1 — Integers and the Number Line

7

Subtracting a Negative Is Like Adding a Positive You’ve already seen that adding a negative means you move left on the number line. So subtracting a negative must mean you move right on the number line. Another way of saying this is that subtracting a negative is the same as adding a positive. Example

5

Calculate 8 – (–3). Solution

8 – (–3) The – sign means "go left on the number line"...

...but this – sign reverses the direction again

You end up moving 3 steps right on the number line. So you can just write 8 – (–3) as 8 + 3 = 11.

1

8

2

3

9 10 11

Guided Practice Write Exercises 19–24 as additions, then find the solutions. 19. 14 – (–9) 21. –9 – (–15) 23. –4 – (–8)

20. 23 – (–10) 22. 4 – (–4) 24. –26 – (–17)

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 1.1.2 additional questions — p428

1. The water level of a lake in early April was 3 inches above normal. The water level had dropped to –4 inches below normal by early May. What integer can be added to 3 to get the water level, in inches, in early May? Write each of Exercises 2–5 as an addition problem. 2. 4 – 3 3. 7 – 8 4. –1 – 26 5. 4 – 5

5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

Normal water level

Write each of Exercises 6–9 as a subtraction problem. 6. 5 + (–9) 7. 1 + (–3) 8. 2 + (–1) 9. 433 + (–348) Find the answer to each of Exercises 10–13. 10. 4 + (–15) 11. 18 – 9 12. 23 + 6 13. 15 – (–3)

Round Up Adding to and subtracting from integers is a matter of deciding which direction to move, then moving the correct distance. When you’re deciding whether to go left or right you only need to think about whether you’re adding a positive or negative number — it doesn’t matter what you’re adding it to. 8

Section 1.1 — Integers and the Number Line

Section 1.2 introduction — an exploration into:

Multiplica tion with Inte ger Tiles Multiplication Integ You can use colored tiles to show what happens when you multiply numbers together. Multiplication is really just the same as doing lots of addition — for example, 3 × 2 is the same as 2 + 2 + 2, or even 3 + 3. In this Exploration, blue tiles show positive numbers, while red tiles show negative numbers. For example, the number 5 is represented by 5 blue tiles, and –4 is represented by 4 red tiles. A blue and a red tile together have a total value of zero, and are called a zero pair. You can multiply numbers by adding together equal groups of tiles.

1 + (–1) = 0

Example Find 3 × (–4) using integer tiles. 3 groups of –4 (12 red tiles in total)

Solution

This multiplication problem means: “Make 3 groups of –4.” So 3 × (–4) = –12.

Making 3 groups of something is easy to think about — it involves adding things together. Making –4 groups of something is harder to understand, but it involves subtracting. Example 12 zero pairs: total value = 0

Find –4 × 3 using integer tiles. Solution

This multiplication problem means: “Make –4 groups of 3.” Making –4 groups of 3 is the same as subtracting 4 groups of 3 blue tiles. But before you can do this, you need some blue tiles. Use zero pairs. Start with 12 zero pairs. Now remove 4 groups of 3 blue tiles, or 12 blue tiles. That leaves 12 red tiles, or –12. So –4 × 3 = –12.

Remove 12 blue tiles

Exercises 1. Use integer tiles to model and solve each of the following: a. 5 × 3

b. 2 × (–6)

c. 4 × (–3)

d. –4 × 2

e. –3 × (–2)

f. –2 × (–5)

2. Use your results to find a rule for the product of a positive and a negative number. 3. Use your results to find a rule for the product of two negative numbers.

Round Up Multiplying using red and blue tiles can help you work out the answers to some difficult questions. In this Section, you’ll see other ways of thinking about multiplication with negative numbers. But the answers will always be the same as you get with tiles. Section 1.2 Explor a tion — Multiplication with Integer Tiles Explora

9

Lesson

Section 1.2

1.2.1

Multiplying with Integers

California Standard:

You’ve seen how to use a number line to show what happens when you add or subtract positive and negative integers. In this Lesson you’ll see how it can be useful for doing multiplication problems too.

Number Sense 2.3 Solve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems, including those arising in concrete situations, that use positive and negative integers and combinations of these operations.

What it means for you: You’ll see what happens when you multiply positive and negative whole numbers.

Key words: • integer • product • factor

Multiplication Is All About Grouping Things Multiplication is really a way of adding together groups of objects. For instance, 2 × 3 just means “2 groups of 3.”

+

Doing “3 groups of 2” gives the same result.

+

There are 6 blocks in total, so 2 × 3 = 6.

=

+

There are still 6 blocks, so 3 × 2 = 6.

=

You can do the same kind of grouping and counting on the number line. Example

1

Show the answer to 2 × 3 using a number line. Don’t forget: You can work out the product of two numbers in either order — a × b = b × a. This is called the commutative property of multiplication — see Lesson 2.3.2 for more.

Solution

You can show the answer with 2 arrows, each of length 3: 3 3 2 × 3 is twice as far from 0 as 3 is

0

4

2

6

8

You could also show the same answer with 3 arrows of length 2: 2 2 2 0

4

2

6

8

3 × 2 is three times as far from 0 as 2 is

Guided Practice Don’t forget:

What multiplication is shown on each number line?

The answer to a multiplication is called a product. The numbers being multiplied together are called factors.

1. 7

0

14

21

2. 0

2

4

6

8 10 12 14 16 18 20

3. 0

10

4

8

Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

12

16

Multiplying by a Negative Changes the Direction Even if you’re multiplying by a negative, you’re still dealing with groups. So 3 × (–2) still means “3 groups of –2.” Don’t forget: On the number line, positive numbers are on the right, negative numbers are on the left.

Just like in Example 1, there are 3 arrows of length 2 on the number line, but this time the negative sign means they’re pointing left. –2 –2 –2 You can see from this number line that 3 × (–2) = –6. –6 0 –4 –2 Example

2

Calculate 4 × (–1). Solution –1 –4

–1 –3

–1 –2

Example

–1 –1

You can see from this number line that 4 × (–1) = –4.

0

3

The outside temperature at midnight was 0 °F. Every hour after that, the temperature dropped by 3 °F. What was the temperature at 5 a.m.? Solution

The change in temperature is –3 °F each hour for five hours, so you need to solve 5 × (–3).

–3

–15

–3

–12

–3

–9

–3

–6

–3

–3

0

This shows that 5 × (–3) = –15, so at 5 a.m. the temperature was –15 °F.

Guided Practice What multiplication is shown on each number line? 4.

5. –40

–30

–20

–10

0

–40

–32

–24

–16

–8

0

6. What conclusion can you make from Exercises 4 and 5? Check it out: A negative change such as in Exercises 11–13 usually shows something’s getting smaller or lower.

Calculate the following multiplications: 7. 7 × (–4) 8. –7 × 3 9. 30 × (–2)

10. –2 × 30

11. A submarine changes its depth in the water by –25 feet per minute. What is its total change in depth in four minutes? 12. A bird is flying toward the ground. Its height changes by –16 feet per second. What is the bird’s total change in height in 5 seconds? 13. The amount of fuel in a racing car changes by –6 gallons per lap. What is the change in its fuel load over 7 laps? Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

11

A Negative Times a Negative Equals a Positive On the last page you saw that multiplying a positive integer by a negative integer results in a negative solution. But if you multiply one negative number by another, their “–” signs cancel each other out. Example

4

Calculate –3 × (–2). Solution

You know that 3 × (–2) means “3 groups of –2”, and 3 × (–2) = –6. The extra negative sign in –3 × (–2) just changes the sign again. The answer must be positive: –3 × –2 = 6

If you’ve got several negative integers to multiply, you can do it bit by bit. Example

5

Calculate –3 × (–2) × (–5). Solution

[–3 × (–2)] × –5 Work it out in smaller parts = 6 × (–5)

First multiply two of the numbers: –3 × (–2) = 6

= –30

Now, positive × negative = negative

So you can multiply any two integers using these rules:

Rules for multiplying integers positive × positive = positive positive × negative = negative negative × positive = negative negative × negative = positive

You can still use these rules even if you’re multiplying more than two numbers together. Just count the number of “–” signs in the question. If there’s an even number of negative factors, they’ll cancel out in pairs, and the answer will be positive. If there’s an odd number of negative factors, you’ll end up with one that doesn’t cancel out, so the final answer will be negative.

12

Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

Example

6

Solve –2 × 5 × (–4) × (–10). Solution

There are three minus signs. This is an odd number, so the answer will be negative. Work out the “size” of the number by finding: 2 × 5 × 4 × 10 = 400 So the answer must be –400. To prove it, break the question down into smaller parts: –2 × 5 × (–4) × (–10) = –10 × (–4) × –10

Negative × positive = negative

= 40 × (–10)

Negative × negative = positive

= –400

Positive × negative = negative

Guided Practice Say whether the following will give positive or negative answers. (You don’t need to work out the actual solutions.) 14. –8 × (–3) 15. –2 × 9 16. 2 × (–3) × (–5) 17. –27 × (–13) × (–7) × (–17) 18. –6 × 11 × (–19) × (–83) 19. –1 × 2 × (–3) × 4 × (–5) 20. 225 × (–311) × (–277) × (–1008) × 47 × (–119)

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 1.2.1 additional questions — p428

In Exercises 1–6, use a number line to solve the multiplication. 1. 5 × 7 2. –3 × 12 3. 11 × 4 4. 6 × (–6) 5. 21 × (–2) 6. –8 × (–3) 7. Ms. Ross is overdrawn on her bank account. Her balance is –$30. Mr. Banks is overdrawn on his bank account by 5 times the amount Ms. Ross is overdrawn. What is Mr. Banks’s account balance? 8. Sara multiplied two negative integers together. She then multiplied her answer by another negative number. Is her final result positive or negative? 9. Pablo multiplied two integers together. The answer that he got was –28. What integers might he have multiplied together?

Round Up It’s important to know what happens when you multiply by negative integers, because they appear in lots of math topics. You’ll need the rules for multiplying again when you learn about dividing with negative integers in the next Lesson. Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

13

Lesson

1.2.2

Dividing with Integers

California Standard:

You already know how to divide by positive whole numbers. Now you’re going to see how a number line can be helpful in answering division questions with positive and negative integers. This is similar to what you saw in the previous Lesson with multiplication.

Number Sense 2.3 Solve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems, including those arising in concrete situations, that use positive and negative integers and combinations of these operations.

Division Means Breaking a Number into Equal Parts “Divide” is another way of saying “share out equally.”

What it means for you: You’ll learn what to do when you see positive and negative integers in division questions.

Key words: • integer • quotient • positive • negative

Example

1

A large bag contains 12 apples. The apples are shared equally among 4 students. How many apples does each student get? Solution

You can see from the picture that if the apples are shared out equally, each student will get 3 apples.

You can also think of division as the opposite of multiplication. Example 1 is asking you to find 12 ÷ 4. You can rewrite that as 12 ÷ 4 = ? which is the same as saying 4 × ? = 12 Check it out: When you do a division, the result is called the quotient.

Then you can use “guess and check” to work out what the question mark must represent: 4 × 1 = 12 8 4 × 2 = 12 8 4 × 3 = 12 9

Try substituting 1: Try substituting 2: Try substituting 3:

Guided Practice Solve without a calculator: 1. 18 ÷ 3 4. 26 ÷ 2 7. 88 ÷ 11

14

2. 21 ÷ 7 5. 100 ÷ 4 8. 70 ÷ 5

Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

3. 12 ÷ 6 6. 54 ÷ 9 9. 48 ÷ 12

Division Can Also Be Shown on a Number Line Below is a number line showing the multiplication 4 × 6 = 24. Check it out:

6

One-half of a number means dividing it by 2. One-third of a number means dividing it by 3. One-fourth of a number means dividing it by 4. And so on...

0

6

6

6

12

6

24

18

You can think about this line in another way. It shows that the number 24 can be divided into 4 equal parts, each of size 6. It also shows that the number 6 is one-fourth of the way from 0 to 24. So the number line also shows that 24 ÷ 4 = 6

Check it out: There are two ways of using a number line to represent a division like 35 ÷ 5.

Example

Use the number line below to solve 35 ÷ 5.

1) You can do it as in Example 2, by saying “35 ÷ 5 means you have to divide 35 into 5 equal parts.” 2) Or you can say “35 ÷ 5 means working out how many 5s there are in 35.” This gives you a slightly different number line, as shown below.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

2

0

7

14

21

28

35

Solution

The number line shows the line from 0 to 35 divided into 5 equal parts. You can see that 7 is one-fifth of the way from 0 to 35, so the answer must be 35 ÷ 5 = 7.

35

Both ways are equally good, but in this book, we’ve used approach 1) above.

Guided Practice Use the number line below to answer Exercises 10–12:

0

17

10. 102 ÷ 2

34

51

11. 102 ÷ 3

68

85

102

12. 85 ÷ 5

Use the number line below to answer Exercises 13–18:

0

13. 24 ÷ 4 16. 36 ÷ 2

6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60

14. 60 ÷ 5 17. 36 ÷ 3

15. 54 ÷ 3 18. 48 ÷ 4

Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

15

Negative Numbers Can Be Used in Division Dividing with negative integers is similar to dividing with positive integers. You still have to work out how many equal parts go into the number. Example

3

Calculate –42 ÷ 7 using the number line. Solution

Check it out: Another way of thinking about Example 3 is to say that –42 can be split into 7 equal groups of –6.

–36

–42

–30

–24

–18

–12

–6

0

The number –6 is one-seventh of the way from 0 to –42 on the number line. So the answer is –6. You can check this by working out 7 × (–6) = –42

Guided Practice Use the number line below to answer Exercises 19–22:

-64

-48

-56

-40

19. –64 ÷ 8 21. –40 ÷ 5

-32

-24

-16

-8

0

20. –64 ÷ 2 22. –48 ÷ 3

The rules for dividing integers are really similar to the multiplication rules you saw in the last Lesson.

Rules for dividing integers positive ÷ positive = positive positive ÷ negative = negative negative ÷ positive = negative negative ÷ negative = positive Example

4

Check it out: Another way of thinking about Example 4 is to say that –42 ÷ (–7) means “how many equal groups of –7 are in –42?”.

16

Calculate –42 ÷ (–7). Solution

You can use a number line to work out that 42 divides into 7 equal 0 6 12 18 24 groups of 6, so 42 ÷ 7 = 6. Then using the above rules, you can see that –42 ÷ (–7) = 6

Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

30

36

42

Example

5

Calculate –120 ÷ (–40). Solution

You can use the rules for dividing integers instead of the number line. You are dividing a negative by a negative, so the answer is positive. The answer will be the same as 120 ÷ 40. –120 ÷ (–40) = 120 ÷ 40 = 3 Check: –40 × 3 = –120

Guided Practice Say whether the following will give positive or negative answers. (You don’t need to work out the actual solutions.) 23. –18 ÷ 3

24. –27 ÷ (–9)

25. –17 ÷ (–1)

26. 625 ÷ (–25)

27. –363 ÷ 11

28. –1008 ÷ (–24)

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 1.2.2 additional questions — p429

Solve: 1. 16 ÷ 2 4. 66 ÷ (–11)

2. 45 ÷ 5 5. –27 ÷ (–9)

Use a number line to solve: 7. 63 ÷ 7 8. 371 ÷ 7 10. –126 ÷ 6 11. 188 ÷ (–4)

3. –36 ÷ 12 6. –126 ÷ 9 9. 40 ÷ (–5) 12. –64 ÷ (–4)

13. The Garcias are going to the store. Mrs. Garcia is going to divide $42 equally among her three children so they have pocket money. How much money does each child get? 14. A submarine is –400 m from the surface of the ocean. It rises to half of this depth. At what depth is the submarine now? 15. Emma’s bank account is overdrawn. Her balance is –$240. She pays some money into the account so that her overdraft is reduced to one-third of the old balance. What is the new balance on Emma’s account?

Round Up You’ve now learned rules for adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing integers. In the next Lesson, you’ll see these rules applied in real-life situations. Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

17

Lesson

1.2.3

Integers in Real Life

California Standard:

Now you’ve learned about positive and negative integers, and how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide them. In this Lesson you’ll use what you have learned in real-life problems.

Number Sense 2.3 Solve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems, including those arising in concrete situations, that use positive and negative integers and combinations of these operations.

What it means for you: You’ll answer real-life questions that involve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Real Situations Often Involve Addition and Subtraction You always need to read the problem and identify the operations being used — either add, subtract, multiply, or divide. Then you should always rewrite the question in math language to help you solve it. Example

1

At 10 a.m. the outside temperature was 70 °F. It was 5 °F warmer by midday. What was the midday temperature? Key words: • integer • range • operation

Solution

The question involves adding 5 °F to 70 °F, which is written 70 + 5. So the midday temperature was 70 + 5 = 75 °F.

Check it out: Remember to write the solution as an answer to the original question — for instance, in Example 1 you must remember to add the °F symbol.

Integer subtraction can be used to find out how much a quantity has changed. It can also be used to calculate the range of a set of numbers. Example

2

A student in Ms. Chang’s English class scored 12 points on a quiz. Another scored 27 points. What is the range of those scores? Check it out:

Solution

To find the range of a set of numbers, you subtract the least from the greatest.

The range is found by subtracting 12 from 27. So the answer is 27 – 12 = 15.

Guided Practice 1. Jerry has 23 ballpoint pens. His friend George gives him 16 more pens. How many pens does Jerry have now? 2. One day there are 32 passengers on a bus. The next day there are 67. What is the range of these two numbers? 3. A scuba diver is 16 meters below sea level. How far below sea level is the diver if she goes 15 meters lower?

18

Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

4. Althea has 37 bags of potato chips. She gives 10 to Jackie. How many bags does Althea have now? 5. In one day, Isaac runs the 400 m and 1600 m races. How many meters has he run during these two races? 6. After a drought, the water level of Lake Pinebrook was 19 inches below normal. After a long rainy season, the water level rose to 22 inches above normal. Find the range of the water levels.

Watch Out for Multiplication and Division Problems Look out for words like “times” or “double” or “triple” — these words are clues that the problem will involve multiplication. Example

3

A small fish is swimming 5 feet below the surface of the ocean. A larger fish is swimming at 12 times the depth of the small fish. How far below the surface is the larger fish? Solution

The question tells you how deep the small fish is. You need to find 12 times that figure, so you need to multiply. Written as a multiplication problem, the question is 5 × 12 = 60. The larger fish is 60 feet below the surface of the ocean. Division problems often have the word “divided” in them, or they may have a fraction written out in words. Example

4

A large fish is swimming 145 feet below the surface of the ocean. A smaller fish is swimming at one-fifth the depth of the large fish. How far below the surface is the smaller fish? Solution

This time you need to find one-fifth of 145, so you need to divide. Written as a division problem, the question is 145 ÷ 5 = 29. The smaller fish is 29 feet below the surface of the ocean.

Guided Practice 7. Kia tripled her CD collection this year. She started with 36 CDs. How many does she have now? 8. It takes Marcus 2.5 hours to paint his bathroom, but 5 times longer to paint his hall. How long does he spend painting the hall? 9. A hot-air balloon is 96 feet from the ground. It then sinks to one-quarter of that height. What is the new height of the balloon? Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

19

Some Questions Involve More Than One Operation Sometimes you’ll need to carry out more than one operation to find the answer to a question. If that happens, you will need to break the question up into parts, then solve them in the right order. Check it out: Watch out for clue words that will help you figure out what to do to solve the question. Here are some examples of clue words: Add – sum, total, increase, more than Subtract – take away, fewer, difference, decrease, less than Multiply – times, product, double, triple Divide – share, quotient, split, one-half, one-third

Example

5

A bird is flying 25 feet above the ground. The bird triples its height, and then drops 60 feet to meet another bird. How high above the ground are the birds when they meet? Solution

This question has two parts. “The bird triples its height” means you need to multiply by 3: 25 × 3 = 75 feet. A drop of 60 feet means subtract 60: 75 – 60 = 15 The birds are 15 feet above the ground when they meet.

Guided Practice For Exercises 10–13, decide what operations are needed, then write out the question as a math problem and solve it. 10. Rory is driving his car at a speed of 40 mph. Before getting on the highway, he reduces his speed by one-half, then triples his speed when he gets on the highway. What is Rory's speed on the highway? 11. Kelly has $12. Her friend Elena lends her another $28. Kelly then spends one-fourth of her money on a book. How much does the book cost? 12. After low sales in January, a clothing store was overdrawn and had a bank balance of –$2400. In February, the store was overdrawn by one-third of what it was in January. In March, the overdraft was onefourth of what it was in February. What was the balance in March? 13. A fire truck holds 500 gallons of water. A hose attached to the truck uses 12 gallons of water each minute to put out a fire. The hose was turned on for 8 minutes to put out a fire. How much water is left in the fire truck after the fire?

20

Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

Independent Practice 1. Jermaine is baking. He makes an extra-large pie by multiplying the amounts of ingredients in the recipe by three. If the original recipe says to use 350 grams of apples, how many grams of apples does Jermaine use? 2. A bank clerk notices two accounts that are overdrawn. Account 1 has a balance of –$24, and account 2 is overdrawn 3 times that amount. What is the balance of account 2? Now try these: Lesson 1.2.3 additional questions — p429

3. On Monday, Laura rides 21 miles on her bike. On Tuesday, she rides one-third the distance she did on Monday. On Wednesday, she rides for 10 miles more than on Tuesday. How far did Laura ride on Wednesday? 4. Three boats set out from a harbor. Boat A travels 112 miles. Boat B travels 45 miles less than boat A. Boat C travels 5 times as far as boat B. How far did boat C travel? 5. Karl has 99 red balloons. He gives one-third to Libby, then another 20 each to Billy and Rosario. How many balloons does Karl have left? 6. Manuel plants a 4-foot-tall tree in his backyard. Ten years later, the tree is five times as tall as when he planted it. The tree is then struck by lightning, and the top half breaks off exactly halfway up the trunk. How tall is the tree after it is struck by lightning? 7. Susan, Stephanie, Connor, and Gino open a store together. The business is not successful and makes a loss of $19,500. After Paul buys their stock for $1500, the rest of the loss is split between the partners. How much money has each partner lost? 8. The water level in a lake drops during the summer to 23 inches below its normal level. During a period of heavy rain, the water level rises again by 5 inches per day. After 7 days of rain, how far above the normal level is the water in the lake? 9. Ms. Alano has a box of 100 paper clips. She gives 3 to each of her students, and then has 10 left over. How many students does Ms. Alano have? 10. Doug and Jim are playing golf. They both start off 300 yards away from the hole. Jim’s ball lands 175 yards from the hole. Doug’s ball lands half as far away as Jim’s, but then rolls down a slope which takes it 30 yards farther away from the hole. How far from the hole does Doug’s ball finish up?

Round Up Remember to read the question carefully, think about what you’re being asked, and convert everything into math language to help you solve it. The more you practice, the better you’ll get at spotting the different clue words for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Section 1.2 — Multiplication and Division with Integers

21

Section 1.3 introduction — an exploration into:

A Decimal Strip In this Exploration, you’re going to measure things in meters. You can measure any length in meters. Big things (like a classroom) might be many meters long. But small things (like your pencil) probably measure much less than one meter — this is where decimals are useful. length = 1

Look at your meter strip — its length in meters is 1. To measure the length of the classroom, you could lay several strips end to end. The length of the classroom would be the number of strips you use. But you need a different method for things less than a meter long.

length = 5

Example Show how you could measure the length of your pencil using your meter strip. Solution

You could divide your strip into smaller sections. If you divide the strip into ten equal sections, each section will be one tenth, or 0.1, of a meter. Fold your strip into ten equal parts. Label each of the folds using tenths: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, ..., 1.0 Now you can use your meter strip to measure things to the nearest tenth of a meter.

0 0. 1

0. 2 0. 3 0. 4 0. 5 0. 6 0. 7 0. 8 0. 9 1.0 This pencil is 0.2 meters long (to the nearest tenth of a meter).

Exercises 1. Using your strip, measure five objects in the classroom to the nearest tenth of a meter. Example Show how you could make your strip even more accurate for measuring. Solution

This is 0.21 meters long (to the nearest hundredth of a meter).

0

0. 1

0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28

0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19

Divide your strip like this one, using a ruler. Label each mark as shown.

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

You can divide each small section on your strip into ten smaller equal parts. This means the whole strip is in 100 parts. Each part is one hundredth, or 0.01, of a meter.

0. 2

Now you can use your meter strip to measure things to the nearest hundredth of a meter.

Exercises 2. Measure the same five objects as in Exercise 1, but to the nearest hundredth of a meter.

Round Up Each hundredth of your strip was one centimeter long. You could divide each centimeter into ten smaller parts. Then each part would be 0.001 (one thousandth) of a meter long (a millimeter). 22

Section 1.3 Explor a tion — A Decimal Strip Explora

Lesson

Section 1.3

1.3.1

Decimals

California Standard:

You’ve seen decimals in earlier grades — but now you’re going to deal with different place values and negative decimals too.

Number Sense 1.1 Compare and order positive and negative fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers and place them on a number line.

What it means for you: You’ll learn more about the place values of decimals.

Key words: • • • •

decimal point tenth hundredth thousandth

Decimals Are Numbers Between Integers Decimals are used to represent numbers between integers. Digits after the decimal point represent part of an integer. Each one on the number line is divided into 10 tenths. 0.8 means “0 plus 8 tenths,” and 1.4 means “1 plus 4 tenths.” Each tenth is then divided into 10 hundredths. In other words, each one is divided into 100 hundredths.

0.8 0

1.4 1

2

1.4

1.5

1.44

Similarly, each one on the number line is divided into 1000 thousandths. Check it out: To read a decimal number, say the whole-number part in the normal way — and then add the part after the decimal point, reading it as the number of tenths, or the number of hundredths, or similar. Also, say the word “and” to make it clear where the decimal place is. For example, 5.7 is read “five and seven tenths,” while 12.75 is read “twelve and seventy-five hundredths.”

Example

1

Explain the meaning of each of the digits in the number 6.582. Between which two integers does the number 6.582 lie? Solution

• The number 6.582 means: 6 ones plus 5 tenths plus 8 hundredths plus 2 thousandths. • The number 6.582 is 6 ones plus numbers after a decimal point. So the number 6.582 lies between 6 and 7. Example

2

David spent 1 hour and 30 minutes playing basketball. Express this number of hours as a decimal. Solution

• 30 minutes is 0.5 of an hour, so David played basketball for 1 whole hour plus an extra 0.5 hours. • Putting those together, David played basketball for 1.5 hours.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, first say which digit is in the hundredths place, then which digit is in the thousandths place. 1. 34.251 2. 128.734 3. 0.163 4. 3514.902 5. A runner completed a marathon in 4 hours and 15 minutes. Express this number as a decimal. Section 1.3 — Decimals

23

Decimals Can Be Shown on the Number Line Check it out: The numbers 1.230 and 1.23 are the same because the 0 on the end of 1.230 just means “1.23 and then 0 thousandths extra.” For the same reason, any number of 0s can be added or removed if they come at the very end of a number after a decimal point.

To put a decimal on the number line, read it as an instruction. For example, with the number 2.68: • first move 2 ones along the number line, • then move 6 tenths in the same direction, • then move 8 hundredths in the same direction.

0

If the number line is only divided into tenths, you’ll have to estimate the hundredths position by placing the cross between the two lines.

1

2

3

× 2.68

Example Check it out:

2 ones + 6 tenths + 8 hundredths

2.68 equals

3

Put 1.43 on the number line. Solution

1.43 is 1 along the number line, then 4 tenths, and then 3 hundredths. 0

1

2

3

× 1.43

You can plot negative decimals in the same way. But this time you always move in the negative direction — to the left. Example

4

Put –1.27 on the number line. Solution

–1.27 is 1 along the number line in the negative direction, and then 2 tenths in the same direction, and then 7 hundredths in the same direction. –1

0

1

× –1.27

Guided Practice Place the numbers in Exercises 6–9 onto a number line. 6. 1.4 7. –2.8 8. 6.3 9. –0.5

24

Section 1.3 — Decimals

Draw Zoomed-in Number Lines to Be More Accurate It is hard to show thousandths on a normal number line accurately. Instead, you can draw a zoomed in number line. This one has a scale marked in tenths rather than integers, with divisions for hundredths. –0.2

Example

–0.1

0

0.1

0.2

5

Put –0.183 on the number line. Check it out: Example 5 uses a “close up” number line that only shows the origin and a small section of the number line immediately to the left. It’s as though someone has zoomed in on the number line, allowing you to see the really small hundredth marks.

Solution

–0.183 is 1 tenth along the number line in the negative direction, and then 8 hundredths in the same direction, and then 3 thousandths in the same direction. –0.2

–0.1

0

× –0.183

Guided Practice Place the numbers in Exercises 10–13 onto a number line. 10. –1.73 11. –5.78 12. –5.624 13. 0.597

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 1.3.1 additional questions — p429

1. The temperature in Celsius of a substance during a science experiment is twelve and twenty-three hundredths below zero. Represent this temperature using a decimal. Place the numbers in Exercises 2–5 onto a number line. 2. 23.5 3. –2.28 4. –19.23 5. 3.246

Round Up Decimals look complicated, but they can be broken up into tenths, hundredths, and thousandths, and put on the number line. In the next Lesson you’ll see how that helps you put decimals in order. Section 1.3 — Decimals

25

Lesson

1.3.2

Ordering Decimals

California Standard:

Now it’s time to learn how to order decimals. If you’re given two decimals, you need to be able to say which is greater.

Number Sense 1.1 Compare and order positive and negative fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers and place them on a number line.

What it means for you: You’ll learn two different methods for ordering decimals.

Key words: • greater than (>) • less than (<)

There are a couple of ways of ordering decimals — either using the trusty number line or without it.

The Number Line Shows the Order of Decimals In Lesson 1.1.1 you saw that if any two integers are plotted on the number line, the number to the left is less than the number to the right. The same thing applies to decimals — and it doesn’t make any difference whether the numbers are positive or negative. The symbol < is used to mean “less than” and the symbol > is used to mean “greater than.”

Don’t forget: You saw the “<“ and “>” symbols in Lesson 1.1.1, when you were comparing integers.

Example

1

Using the number line, explain why the statement –1.7 > 1.2 is not true. Solution

Place –1.7 and 1.2 on a number line: –1.7

1.2

×

×

–2

–1

0

1

2

–1.7 is to the left of 1.2, so –1.7 is less than 1.2. So –1.7 < 1.2, which means it is false to say that –1.7 > 1.2.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, use a number line to say which number is greater. 1. 23.45, 10.2 3. 8.163, 8.162

2. –2.3, 1.9 4. –1.2, –0.8

Use a number line to say whether each statement in Exercises 5–8 is true or false. 5. 3.9 < 3.14 7. 0.5 < –1.5

26

Section 1.3 — Decimals

6. 2.1 > 2.09 8. –1.3 > –1.2

Positive Decimals Can Be Compared Digit by Digit You can also compare decimals without using the number line. Example Don’t forget: Adding 0s to the end of decimals doesn’t change the value at all. It just means “...and no extra tenths, hundredths, or thousandths.”

2

Without using the number line, say whether 23.52 is greater than 23.5. Solution

Before you compare, make sure the decimal points line up. Add zeros to the end of either decimal to make them the same length.

Line up the

23.52 decimal points zeros 23.50 Add at the end

23.52 23.50

Work from left to right and compare each of the digits. same different The first three digits are the same in both numbers. The digits in the hundredths column are different, so use them to find the answer. 2 is greater than 0, so 23.52 is greater than 23.5.

Guided Practice In Exercises 9–12, say which is the lesser number. 9. 0.23, 0.24 11. 2.5, 2.23

10. 3.5, 13.5 12. 0.1, 0.01

13. By comparing each with the others, put these decimals in order, from the least to the greatest: 23.45, 0.356, 3829.34, 7.5, 0.2

Negative Decimals Can Be Compared Too Comparing negative decimals is the same as comparing positive decimals. Example

3

Without using the number line, say which of –0.3 and –0.317 is greater. Solution

Don’t forget:

Add zeros to –0.3 to make it the same number of decimal places as –0.317, then compare each digit starting from the left.

0 isn’t positive or negative.

–0.317 –0.300 same

different

The first two digits are the same in both numbers. The digits in the hundredths column are different, so they can be used to find the answer. But remember that these digits are all negative. 0 is greater than –1, so –0.3 is greater than –0.317. Section 1.3 — Decimals

27

Don’t forget: Negative numbers always go on the left of the origin, and positive numbers always go on the right of the origin. So, positive numbers are always greater than negative numbers, whether they are decimals or not.

Guided Practice In Exercises 14–17, say which is the greater number. 14. –0.003, –0.017 15. –2.1, 13.5 16. –18.9, –25.73 17. –0.01, –0.001 18. By comparing each with the others, put these decimals in order, from the least to the greatest: –2.0, –12.7, –194.644, –0.5, –7.0

Independent Practice 1. Explain why you can say that –3.234 is less than 2.855 without using a number line or comparing any digits.

Now try these: Lesson 1.3.2 additional questions — p430

Say whether each statement in Exercises 2–7 is true or false. 2. 23.3 > 23.25 3. 4.83 > 4.9 4. –34.234 > –2.334 5. –4.234 < 0.001 6. 14.2 < 19.3 7. 15.345 < 393.3 8. By comparing each with the others, put these decimals in order: –3.344, 28.0, –0.7, 0.523, 0.001, 18.534, –3.345, 0.01 9. Adan works for a delivery company. A customer comes in with a package that weighs 1.023 pounds. Adan knows that packages that weigh less than 1.7 pounds cost $2 but packages that weigh 1.7 pounds or more cost $3. How much should he charge the customer? 10. Helen and Morty go scuba diving. Helen swims down 10.9 m below the surface of the water. Morty swims to 10.28 m. Who is lower? 11. Annie is teaching Alvy how to drive. He looks at the fuel gauge to check if they need to stop for gasoline, and sees this: E 1 2 3 4 The gauge shows how much gasoline is left in gallons. How much is left? Exercises 12–14 make use of the table below. Mrs. Bueller is observing a substance Day as part of a biotech experiment at Monday work. The table shows the Tuesday temperatures of the substance on Wednesday Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday.

Temperature –20.3 ºC 21.5 ºC 19.8 ºC

12. On what day was the temperature the coldest? 13. On what day was the temperature the warmest? 14. The temperature was 2 and 25 hundredths warmer on Thursday compared to Wednesday. What was the temperature of the substance on Thursday?

Round Up Comparing decimals can be tricky. Just make sure that before you compare numbers digit by digit, you make sure the decimal points are correctly lined up. 28

Section 1.3 — Decimals

Lesson

Section 1.4

1.4.1

Rounding Number s Numbers

California Standard:

Rounding involves replacing one number with another number that’s easier to work with. You’ll use rounded numbers in the next couple of Lessons to check and to estimate answers.

Ma thema tical R easoning 2.1 Mathema thematical Reasoning Use estima tion to vverify erify the estimation reasona b leness of easonab calcula ted rresults esults calculated esults..

What it means for you: You’ll learn about rounding exact figures to make them easier to work with.

Suppose you wanted to find 18 × 43, but had lost your calculator. You could find an answer close to 18 × 43 by rounding to the nearest ten. “Rounding to the nearest ten” means replacing a number with the nearest multiple of 10. Replacing a number with a higher number is called rounding up. Replacing a number with a lower number is called rounding down.

Key words: • • • • • •

Rounded Number s Can Be Easier To Use Numbers

rounding place value digit decimal tenth hundredth

Example

1

Round 18 and 43 to the nearest ten. Don’t forget: A multiple of ten is any number that ends in 0: 10, 20, 100, 2500, 58 340, and so on.

Check it out: If you place 18 on the number line, you can see that it’s nearer to 20 than 10. So 20 is the nearest ten to 18.

20

10

×

8 away from 10

Solution

You need to decide whether to round up or down. Look at the digit in the ones place: • If the ones digit is 5 or more, round up. • If the ones digit is 4 or less, round down. Start with 18:

The digit in the ones place is 8. 8 is more than 5, so round up. 18 rounded up to the nearest ten is 20.

Next, 43:

The digit in the ones place is 3. 3 is less than 4, so round down. 43 rounded down to the nearest ten is 40.

18 2 away from 20

43 is nearer to 40 than 50. So 40 is the nearest ten to 43.

50

40

By rounding, you can replace 18 × 43 with 20 × 40. This is much easier to solve: 20 × 40 = 800 800 is fairly close to the real answer: 18 × 43 = 774

×

43 3 away 7 away from 40 from 50

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–8, round the numbers to the nearest ten. 1. 36 2. 84 3. 199 4. 4006 5. 267 6. 7161 7. 2994 8. 2995 9. During a science experiment, a group of students observed that there were 415 ants in a colony. Round this amount to the nearest ten.

Section 1.4 — Estimation

29

You Can R ound to Dif ent Place Values Round Difffer erent You can round numbers to place values other than tens. Write the number. Underline the digit in the position you want to round to. • If the digit to the right of the underlined digit is 5 or more, round up. • If the digit to the right of the underlined digit is 4 or less, round down. Example

2

Round 25,281 to the nearest hundred. Solution

Write the number, and underline the hundreds digit:

25,281

You’re rounding to the nearest hundred, so that’s going to be either 25,200 or 25,300. The digit to the right of the underline is 8. That’s greater than 5, so round up.

25,300

So 25,281 rounds up to 25,300, to the nearest hundred.

Guided Practice In Exercises 10–13, round the numbers to the nearest hundred. 10. 38,383 11. 5756 12. 8128 13. 40,079 In Exercises 14–17, round the numbers to the nearest thousand. 14. 11,905 15. 8117 16. 2,599,582 17. 464,333 18. Clara lives in a city that has a population of 82,458 people. Write this population rounded to the nearest thousand.

Don’t forget: The positions after the decimal point have special names.

You Can R ound Decimals JJust ust Lik e Whole Number s Round Like Numbers You round decimals in the same way as whole numbers. Instead of rounding to the nearest ten, hundred, and so on, you round to the nearest one, tenth, hundredth, or any other number of decimal places. Example

3

Round 0.0815 to the nearest thousandth. See Lesson 1.3.1 for more about decimals.

Solution

Write the number, and underline the thousandths digit: Check it out: If you’re rounding decimals, don’t add zeros to the right of the underlined digit. So 0.83 rounded to the nearest tenth is 0.8, not 0.80.

30

Section 1.4 — Estimation

0.0815

The nearest thousandth will be either 0.081 or 0.082. Look to the right of the underline. The digit to the right is 5, so round up. So 0.0815 rounds up to 0.082, to the nearest thousandth.

0.082

Guided Practice Check it out: Always read the question carefully. Don’t mix up hundreds and hundredths, or thousands and thousandths.

In Exercises 19–22, round the numbers to the nearest tenth. 19. 28.0634 20. 2.247 21. 5.78 22. 6.892 In Exercises 23–26, round the numbers to the nearest hundredth. 23. 0.1066 24. 15.596 25. 409.4902 26. 7.734 In Exercises 27–30, round the numbers to the nearest thousandth. 27. 9.46071 28. 1.7254 29. 5.226822 30. 3.1007 31. A distance of 1 mile is equal to 1.609344 km. Write this to the nearest hundredth of a kilometer. Exercises 32–34 are about Malik, who has $12.57 in his pocket. 32. How much money does Malik have to the nearest dollar? 33. How much money does Malik have to the nearest dime? 34. How much money does Malik have to the nearest quarter?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–5, round the number 94,521.8375: 1. to the nearest hundred 3. to the nearest thousandth 5. to the nearest one Now try these: Lesson 1.4.1 additional questions — p430

2. to the nearest hundredth 4. to the nearest thousand

6. The number 3478 was rounded to 3480. To what place value was the number rounded? 7. Raul’s thermometer shows that the temperature is 91.5 °F. What is the temperature to the nearest degree? 8. Mount Whitney is 14,505 feet high. Write this figure to the nearest hundred feet. 9. The average distance from the Earth to the Moon is 238,857 miles. What is this distance to the nearest thousand miles? 10. The speed of light is 299,792,458 meters per second. What is this to the nearest million m/s? 11. Jessica has $17.33. What is this amount to the nearest quarter? 12. A square inch is equal to 6.4516 cm². Convert 6 in² to cm², then round your answer to the nearest hundredth.

Round Up Rounding numbers makes them easier to deal with. You can use rounded numbers to quickly find an approximate answer when you don’t need an exact one. They can also help you to check your work, by letting you get an idea of how big your answer should be. Section 1.4 — Estimation

31

Lesson

1.4.2

Using R ounded Number s Rounded Numbers

California Standards:

This Lesson will tell you more about using rounded numbers. You’ll think about how much certain numbers should be rounded. You’ll also see how rounded numbers are useful for checking your work.

Ma thema tical R easoning 2.1 Mathema thematical Reasoning Use estima tion to vverify erify the estimation reasona b leness of easonab calcula ted rresults esults calculated esults.. Ma thema tical R easoning 2. 6 Mathema thematical Reasoning 2.6 Indica te the rrela ela ti ve Indicate elati tiv ad v anta ges of e xact and adv antag exact a ppr oxima te solutions to ppro ximate pr ob lems and gi ve ans wer s prob oblems giv answ ers to a specified de g r ee of deg accur ac y. accurac acy

What it means for you: You’ll learn when it’s a good idea to use rounding, and how to check your answers using rounded numbers.

Key words: • • • • • •

rounding place value accuracy check reasonable estimate

Check it out: The important thing when you choose how much to round is how much information you need to give. If you don’t round enough, the number might give details that aren’t useful. If you round too much, you might give information that is misleading.

Sometimes You Need to Choose Ho w Muc h to R ound How Much Round People round numbers to different place values depending on what the numbers are being used for. Example

1

Below are three situations connected with the distance between Town A and Town B. Match each situation to the most suitable level of rounding. Situation A road sign in Town A shows the distance to Town B. Jada lives in Town B. She tells a friend from another state how far away she lives from Town A.

Distance 203.56 miles 204 miles 200 miles

A mapping company is making an accurate map of the area.

Solution

A road sign wouldn’t give distances to the nearest hundredth of a mile. The road sign would give the distance as 204 miles. This is accurate enough, and can be read easily by a passing driver. Jada’s friend would only want a rough idea of how far away Town A is. Jada could tell her friend that she lives 200 miles from Town A. The exact distance doesn’t matter to someone who lives far away. The mapping company needs to know exact distances to draw an accurate map. They would use the figure of 203.56 miles.

Guided Practice Exercises 1–4 give three figures: one exact and two rounded numbers. Choose which you think is most suitable, and explain your choice. (In each case, the first figure given is the exact answer.) 1. Ana Lucia writes in a history essay: Thomas Jefferson lived to the age of 83 / 80 / 100. 2. On a form, Gavin gives his height as 160.67 cm/161 cm/200 cm. 3. A school records how many students are in school each day. Today there are 3914/3900/4000 students attending. 4. Mr. Anderson returns from a vacation in England with £10 left over from his extra cash. £1 is worth $1.85965. He changes the money at the bank and receives $18.5965/$18.60/$19.

32

Section 1.4 — Estimation

The Amount of R ounding Af ac y Rounding Afffects the Accur Accurac acy If you use rounding to estimate a sum, be careful how much you round. Rounding to higher place values usually gives an estimate farther from the actual answer than rounding to lower place values. Example

2

Check it out: Using rounded numbers to check your answer won’t ever tell you that your answer is definitely right, only whether it is reasonable. Your answer might be close to the real answer but could still be wrong.

Lucas wants to add 3439 and 5482. He doesn’t need an exact answer, so he decides to use rounding. Look at Lucas's work below. How could he have found a more accurate answer? 3000 + 5000 8000

Solution

Lucas rounded to the nearest thousand, so he got an estimate of 8000. If he had rounded to the nearest hundred, he would have gotten 3400 + 5500 = 8900, which is much closer to the actual answer of 8921.

Guided Practice 5. Estimate 962 – 246 by rounding to the nearest hundred. 6. Estimate 962 – 246 by rounding to the nearest ten. 7. Calculate 962 – 246 exactly. Which of your two estimates was closer to the actual result?

Rounded Number s Can Be Used to Chec k Wor k Numbers Check ork Many times you’ll want to check your work without doing the calculation all over again. Rounding is a way to see if your answer is reasonable. Example

3

Calculate 2343 + 5077. Then check your work by rounding to the nearest hundred. Solution

Actual sum: 2343 + 5077 7420

Rounded sum: 2300 + 5100 7400

These are rounded to the nearest hundred

The answer to the rounded sum is close to the answer to the actual sum, so the answer to the actual sum is reasonable.

Section 1.4 — Estimation

33

Example

4

Martin is trying to solve 29.6 × 9.8. He gets the answer 192.08. Check Martin’s answer by rounding to the nearest ten. Solution

Rounded sum:

30 × 10 = 300

Martin’s answer is a long way from the rounded answer, so it looks like his answer of 192.08 might be wrong. In fact

29.6 × 9.8 = 290.08

This is much closer to the rounded estimate.

Guided Practice In Exercises 8–15, check the answers given by rounding to the place value shown in parentheses. Say whether the answers are reasonable. 8. 1818 + 700 = 3918 (hundred) 10. 490 + 770 = 1260 (hundred) 12. 2.85 × 52.1 = 96.385 (one) 14. 32.815 + 84.565 = 117.38 (ten) 15. 10.48 × 67.02 = 902.3696 (one)

9. 22 × 79 = 738 (ten) 11. 642 – 369 = 273 (ten) 13. 68 × 47 = 5032 (ten)

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 1.4.2 additional questions — p430

In Exercises 1–6, use rounding to check the answers given, and say whether or not you think they are reasonable: 1. 6898 + 517 = 7415 2. 97 × 411 = 13,677 3. 547 × 695 = 527,855 4. 74,861 – 2940 = 65,621 5. 96 × 7973 = 526,218 6. 4362 – 1855 = 2507 7. Darnell is trying to work out the answer to 52 + 871. Darnell thinks the answer is 923. He asks Zoe and Enrique if his answer looks about right. Zoe thinks the answer should be near to 1000. Enrique thinks the answer should be about 920. Why might Zoe and Enrique have gotten different answers? 8. In the Olympic 100 meters final, the first three athletes finish the race in times of 9.89 seconds, 9.94 seconds, and 9.99 seconds, to the nearest hundredth of a second. Why would it not be a good idea to round these times any further? 9. Town C is putting up a new sign showing its population. The population is 45,691 people, but this figure is changing all the time so the town decides to use a rounded figure. What figure do you think they should use: 45,690, 45,700, 46,000, or 50,000? Explain your answer.

Round Up Remember that a rounded number is usually not the same as the real figure. It only gives you a guide to how big the real number is. 34

Section 1.4 — Estimation

Lesson

1.4.3

Estimation

California Standard:

Estimation means “making a good guess.” You can use it if you don’t need to know an exact answer, or if a question has no exact right answer.

Mathematical Reasoning 2.3 Estimate unknown quantities graphically and solve for them by using logical reasoning and arithmetic and algebraic techniques.

What it means for you: You’ll practice working out an approximate answer when you can’t find, or don’t need, an exact one.

Key words: • estimate • compare • exact answer

You Can Estimate When There’s No Exact Answer Sometimes in math there is no exact right answer. You can use the information you do have to make an estimate. Example

1

Carla has a tall bookshelf and a short bookshelf. When full, the tall bookshelf can hold about 60 books. Estimate from the picture how many books the small bookshelf will hold. Solution

There is no exact number of books you can fit on a bookshelf, because not all books are the same size. To estimate the answer, compare the bookshelves. The tall one has 3 shelves, and the small one only 2. All the shelves are the same size, so the small bookshelf will hold around two-thirds the number of books. So you can estimate that the small bookshelf will hold about 40 books. Check it out: Use rounding to work out rough amounts — see Lessons 1.4.1 and 1.4.2 for more on rounding.

Guided Practice 1. This crate is partially filled with 18 apples. Estimate the total number of apples the crate can hold. 2. Mr. Lawrence is loading rolls of carpet of varying thickness into his van. He has put 5 in so far. Estimate how many rolls he will get in the van in total. 3. Jermaine collects seashells, and gets two new cases to display some of them. He has filled the smaller one with 19 shells. Estimate how many will fit in the larger case. Section 1.4 — Estimation

35

You Can Estima te If You Don wer Estimate Don’’ t Need an Exact Ans Answ You don’t always need to use an exact figure. Sometimes an estimate is enough. 2

This graph shows how many people visited a theme park last week. The manager only wants a rough idea of how many visitors there were each day. Estimate the total number of people who visited the park over Friday and Saturday. Solution

25,000

Number of visitors

Example

20,000 15,000 10,000 5000 0

M

T

W F Th Day of week

S

Sun

The value for Friday is about halfway between 15,000 and 20,000 on the vertical axis, so a good estimate for Friday would be about 17,500 people. A good estimate for Saturday might be 21,000, because the value for Saturday is just above 20,000. This gives an estimate of 21,000 + 17,500 = 38,500 for the total number of people visiting the park over Friday and Saturday.

Guided Practice 4. Use the graph from Example 2 to estimate the number of theme park visitors on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Sunday. 5. This car is 20 feet long. Estimate the length of the bicycle.

6. The house in this picture is 30 feet tall. Estimate the height of the tree.

7. Carlos spent a total of 50 minutes doing his English and math homework. The circle graph shows how much of the time he spent on math and how much on English. Estimate how many minutes Carlos spent doing his math homework.

36

Section 1.4 — Estimation

Math

8. This bar graph shows the number of points scored by four students in a math test. Alex scored 40 points. Estimate the number of points scored by Lupe, Aisha, and Joe.

40

Alex

English

Lupe

Aisha

Joe

Independent Practice 1. George has two sunflowers in his garden, shown in the picture. The taller flower is 62 inches tall. Estimate the height of the shorter sunflower. 2. Casey is baking cookies. She has put 9 cookies on the cookie sheet as shown. Estimate the total number of cookies Casey can fit on this tray. 3. Ms. Marquez is putting up pictures the students in her art class have painted. Her display boards are shown below. She has put up 7 pictures on the smaller board. Estimate how many pictures she can fit on the larger board.

The bar graph shows the number of 6th grade boys and girls who went on a trip to the museum. 4. Estimate how many girls went to the museum. 5. Estimate how many boys went to the museum.

30 15

Girls

Now try these: Lesson 1.4.3 additional questions — p431

Boys

6. The circle graph shows how many soccer balls, footballs, and basketballs a sports store has in stock. The total number of balls in stock is 60. Estimate how many of each type of ball are in stock.

Number of sales

The graph below shows the sales of sunglasses from one store for six months of the year. 500 Use it to answer Exercises 7–9. 400 7. Estimate the number of pairs of 300 sunglasses sold in April. 200 8. Estimate the total number of pairs of sunglasses sold in June, July, and August. 100 9. Estimate the average monthly sales for 0 Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep the period. Month of year

Round Up Some estimates are better than others, but remember there’s often no exact answer when you’re giving an estimate. Make sure you always check your answer to make sure the estimate is reasonable. Section 1.4 — Estimation

37

Lesson

1.4.4

Using Estima tion Estimation

California Standards:

Estimation is really useful in a lot of real-life situations, where you might not be able, or don’t need, to do an exact calculation. There are other times when it’s better to figure out the exact answer.

Ma thema tical R easoning 2. 1 Mathema thematical Reasoning 2.1 Use estima tion to vverify erify the estimation reasona b leness of easonab calcula ted rresults esults calculated esults.. Ma thema tical R easoning 2. 6 Mathema thematical Reasoning 2.6 Indica te the rrela ela ti ve Indicate elati tiv ad vanta ges of e xact and adv antag exact a ppr oxima te solutions to ppro ximate pr ob lems and gi ve ans wer s prob oblems giv answ ers to a specified de g ree of deg accur ac y. accurac acy

What it means for you: You’ll learn when it’s a good idea to use estimation in calculations, and when it’s not. You’ll also learn about another type of estimation, called front-end estimation.

Estima tes Ar en ways a Good Idea Estimates Aren en’’ t Al Alw There are some situations where you definitely shouldn’t use an estimate. Example

1

Dr. Brown is giving medication to a patient. He needs to give 1.5 milligrams of the medicine for every pound that the patient weighs. Is it appropriate for Dr. Brown to estimate the amount of medicine for a particular patient? Solution

Dr. Brown needs to make precise measurements of the amount of medicine — it’s very important that he gives the correct dose.

Key words: • estimate • precise • front-end estimation

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–7, say whether each situation needs a precise figure, or if an estimate would be more suitable, and give a reason for your answer: 1. Mr. Bishop is deciding how much gas to put in his car at the start of a long journey. 2. Mrs. Suarez is figuring out how much wallpaper she needs for her bedroom. 3. Sasha’s pumpkin is weighed for the annual “heaviest pumpkin” competition. 4. Professor Elliott is finding the heights of a class of children for a scientific study. 5. Peter is calculating how many wins and losses his baseball team had this season. 6. Susie is deciding how many sandwiches to make for a party. 7. Ms. Ryan is figuring out the grade point averages of the students in her class.

38

Section 1.4 — Estimation

Front-End Estima tion Is Another Kind of R ounding Estimation Rounding Another type of estimate is front-end estimation. To do this, you add the first digit in each number, and then make a rough estimate of the value of the remaining digits. Example

2

Manuel is standing in line in the cafeteria. He wants to buy a sandwich, some soup, and a salad, but he only has a $10 bill. Check it out: Front-end estimation is most often used to figure out prices. It’s a type of estimation that people often do in their heads in stores and restaurants.

Use front-end estimation to estimate how much Manuel’s lunch will cost. Solution

MENU (All prices inc lude tax.) include

Sandwich Salad Soup French fries Soda Water

$4.49 $1.79 $3.69 $1.10 $1.29 $1.15

Manuel wants to estimate $4.49 + $3.69 + $1.79. Add the frontend digits:

Then estimate 4.49 the rest: 3.69 + 1.79 + 8 about

4.49 3.69 1.79 2.00

And add the two parts:

8.00 + 2.00 10.00

Front-end estimation gives an estimated cost of $10 for Manuel’s meal. He should calculate the exact total to see if he can buy the 3 items. $4.49 + $3.69 + $1.79 = $9.97, so he can buy all 3 items — but the estimate was too close to be sure.

Guided Practice In Exercises 8–12, use the menu shown in Example 2. Estimate each total using front-end estimation. 8. A sandwich, a bowl of soup, and a water. 9. A salad and two bags of French fries. 10. A bag of French fries, a soda, and two salads. 11. Two bowls of soup, two bags of French fries, and two sodas. 12. A salad, a bowl of soup, two sandwiches, three bags of French fries, and a water. 13. Which of the sums from Exercises 8–12 would you calculate exactly to see if you could afford them if you only had $10?

Section 1.4 — Estimation

39

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, say whether each situation needs a precise figure, or if an estimate would be more suitable, and give a reason for your answer: 1. Dr. Burke is taking the temperature of a patient with a fever. 2. Ms. Bennett is figuring out how long it will take her to grade the homework from her math class. 3. Clifton is weighing his suitcase before he goes on vacation to make sure he doesn’t have to pay for excess baggage. 4. The police tell news reporters the height of a suspect based on descriptions from witnesses. 5. A biologist is figuring out the size of the population of wild rabbits in California. 6. A butcher is figuring out how much to charge for 4 pounds of steak. 7. Max wants to buy 3 books, priced $7.95, $6.45, and $8.88. Estimate the total cost of the books using front-end estimation. 8. Julieta wants to buy a scarf for $9.29, a pair of gloves for $8.59, and 2 hats for $5.85 each. Use front-end estimation to estimate how much money she will need.

Now try these: Lesson 1.4.4 additional questions — p431

9. Mr. Benitez owns a pet store. He aims to make $1000 every 3 days. The receipts for the last 3 days came to $370, $365, and $397. Estimate the total receipts for these 3 days by front-end estimation. 10. Shantice is eating in a restaurant. Her appetizer costs $6.95, the main course is $15.20, and the dessert costs $9.65. Use front-end estimation to find the approximate cost of Shantice’s meal. To the right is a price list of items from a sporting goods store. Use front-end estimation to estimate the cost of the following combinations of items:

Baseball bat Baseball Basketball Football Football helmet Hockey stick

$46.50 $11.49 $32.69 $52.99 $89.99 $63.49

11. A football and a football helmet. 12. A hockey stick and a baseball bat. 13. A baseball, a basketball, and a football. 14. 2 baseball bats and 2 baseballs. 15. One of everything on the list.

Round Up Estimating can be a really useful method, but you shouldn’t use it all the time. You always need to decide whether estimating will give you an answer that’s useful for solving the problem — and sometimes you need to figure out the precise solution even after you’ve tried doing an estimation. 40

Section 1.4 — Estimation

Chapter 1 Investigation

Popula tions opulations You’ve been asked to write a report about the population of nine different counties in California. The table below contains some data you will find useful — it shows the population of the nine counties on a particular day in two different years. Part 1: You have been asked to include some specific information in your report:

County Alpine

• Lists of the counties in order of population: (i) in 2004 (ii) in 2005. • A list showing the counties’ population change between 2004 and 2005. Include comments on which counties’ populations increased and decreased most.

Population (2004) 1,274

Population (2005) 1,242

Number of births 11

Amador

37,552

38,221

271

Lassen

35,325

35,696

312

Modoc

9,828

9,813

92

Colusa

20,663

21,315

359

Plumas

21,378

21,557

181

Mono

13,529

13,512

179

Sierra

3,537

3,514

19

Trinity

13,826

14,025

117

• A bar graph showing the populations in each year. Before plotting the bar graph, each figure must be rounded to the nearest hundred. The vertical axis of your graph should be labeled from 0 to 40, and must show the populations in “numbers of thousands.” Part 2: If the number of births in each county remained the same for the next 10 years, and nothing else happened to cause a change in the population, what would the population of each county be in: (i) 2008 (ii) 2015? Do you think these predictions are realistic? Explain your answer. Extension • Order all nine counties in order of their numbers of births, from least to greatest. How does this list compare to the lists that you obtained in Part 1? Describe some similarities and differences. • A county's birthrate is the number of births per thousand people. To find it, divide the number of births by the population (in 2005), and then multiply the result by 1000. How does the list of birthrates compare to the list of numbers of births?

Open-ended Extension Write the report on the populations in the nine counties. You may need to do some further research. • You should include all the information you’ve found out so far. • Include any other information or graphs you think are useful. • You may also extend the report to include information about other counties.

Round Up The number skills you used in this Investigation are ones that you may use every day for the rest of your life. For example, when you add up prices in a store, these are exactly the skills you use. Cha pter 1 In vestig a tion — Populations Chapter Inv estiga

41

Chapter 2 Expressions and Equations Section 2.1

Exploration — Algebra Tile Expressions ..................... 43 Expressions ................................................................. 44

Section 2.2

Exploration — Equations with Algebra Tiles ............... 59 Equations .................................................................... 60

Section 2.3

Geometrical Expressions ............................................ 75

Section 2.4

Problem Solving .......................................................... 97

Chapter Investigation — Design a House ........................................ 108

42

Section 2.1 introduction — an exploration into:

Alg ebr a Tile Expr essions Alge bra Expressions You can represent values using blue and red tiles — blue tiles represent positive values, while red tiles represent negative values. But it’s not just numbers like 3, 4, or –5 that you can show. Tiles can also be used to show more complicated expressions involving variables — such as x + 5. In this Exploration, blue square tiles have a value of +1, and red square tiles have a value of –1. You can use these tiles to represent numbers, like 3, 4, or –5. Variables are things whose value you don’t know. They are usually given names like x or y. These funny-shaped tiles show the variables x and –x.

=1

= –1

=x

= –x

Example Show the expression x + 5 with algebra tiles. Solution

The blue shape represents the variable x, and the 5 blue tiles represent +5. Together the group of tiles shows the expression x + 5.

x

+

5

Example This also represents x + (–2). x – 2 and x + (–2) mean the same thing.

Show the expression x – 2 with algebra tiles. Solution

The blue shape represents the variable x, and the 2 red tiles represent –2. Together the group of tiles shows the expression x – 2.

x

–

2

Example Show the expression –3x with algebra tiles. Solution

The expression –3x means the same as “3 groups of –x,” or (–x) + (–x) + (–x). So the tiles on the right show the expression –3x.

–3x

Exercises 1. Use algebra tiles to model each of these expressions: a. x + 7 d. 4x

b. x – 4 e. –2x

c. –x + 2 f. 2x – 1

2. Write the expression represented by the diagram.

Round Up In math, expressions with variables are really useful because you can use them to represent just about anything. The next few Lessons show you how to write down many different amounts as mathematical expressions. Section 2.1 Explor a tion — Algebra Tile Expressions Explora

43

Lesson

Section 2.1

2.1.1

Varia bles ariab

California Standard:

One difficulty with math problems is that you can’t get started if you’re not given all the numbers for a problem. For instance, you can’t work out the area of a rectangle unless you’re given the width and height. That’s where variables come in.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.2 Alge bra Write and evaluate an alg ebr aic e xpr ession ffor or a alge braic expr xpression gi ven situa tion, using giv situation, up to thr ee vvaria aria bles three ariab les..

What it means for you: You’ll learn a way of using letters or symbols in place of numbers that you don’t yet know.

Key words: • variable • unknown

A Varia ble Is an Unkno wn Amount ariab Unknown Sometimes you need to write out a math problem but you don’t know all the numbers. All you need to do is write a letter or symbol to represent each unknown number. The letters or symbols are called variables. You can use any letter or symbol as a variable — but the most common variable is x. Example

1

You are trying to write out a math problem that involves the length of a line. However, you don’t know the length of the line. What can you do? Solution

You can replace the number you don’t know with a variable. You can use whatever letter or symbol you like to represent the unknown length. For example, you might choose x. You can write the problem out with an x where the length of the line should be.

Example Check it out: Try to choose sensible letters for variables — letters that will make it easy to remember what they represent. For example, w is a good letter to use for the amount of money owned by Mr. Wilson. But r would be better if the person was Mrs. Richards. This is especially important if you need to use more than one variable — see Lesson 2.1.3.

44

Section 2.1 — Expressions

2

Mr. Harris has $7.50 more than Mr. Wilson. What extra information do you need to find out how much money Mr. Harris has? How could you represent this unknown variable? Solution

You need to know how much money Mr. Wilson has. In the problem, you’re not told how much Mr. Wilson has, so it’s an unknown amount. That means you need a variable to represent “the amount of money Mr. Wilson has.” Pick a variable that will be easy to remember, and then write a sentence like: Let w represent the amount of money Mr. Wilson has.

Guided Practice Identify an unknown in Exercises 1–4 that could then be used to find the required quantity. Choose a letter to represent this quantity. 1. Emilio and James started doing their homework at the same time. Emilio finished 10 minutes after James. You want to know how long Emilio spent on his homework. 2. Julianne finished a test at 2:45 p.m. You want to know the time when she started the test. 3. Mr. Mason’s truck weighs 4 times as much as his car. You want to know the weight of Mr. Mason’s truck. 4. Adam finished the race 2 seconds before Juan. You want to know how long it took Adam to finish the race.

Varia bles Wor k JJust ust Lik e Nor mal Number s ariab ork Like Normal Numbers You can add and subtract with variables just like you would with normal numbers. Example

3

4 is added to the variable, x. Show this on a number line. Check it out: This is exactly the same kind of picture that you saw in Section 1.1 — only with variables instead of numbers.

Solution

To add 4 to x, start at x and then move 4 to the right. It doesn’t matter that you don’t know exactly where x is on the number line. You just need to show what you would do if someone told you what x represents. Move 4 to the right

x

Example

x+4

4

10 is subtracted from the variable, y. Show this on a number line. Solution

To subtract 10 from y, start at y and then move 10 to the left. Move 10 to the left

y – 10

y

Section 2.1 — Expressions

45

Guided Practice Show the sums in Exercises 5–16 on number lines. 5. x + 2 6. x – 3 7. x – (–3) 8. y + (–5) 9. y – 9 10. y + 14 11. z + (–15) 12. z + 23 13. z – (–2) 14. a + 3 – 1 15. a + 6 + 5 16. a – 9 – (–7)

Don’t forget: Look at the diagrams in Section 1.1 if you’re not sure what these should look like.

You Can Multipl y and Di vide with Varia bles Too Multiply Divide ariab When you multiply or divide with variables, you could be multiplying or dividing by either positive or negative numbers. This might seem to make things complicated, but you just have to remember that the variable will still behave like any other number. Example Check it out: In this example, the variable y is a positive number. You need to remember that if the variable is negative, the arrows on the number lines would all point in the opposite direction. For example, if y is negative, 3 × y looks like this:

5

Use a number line to show the following operations with the positive variable y: y multiplied by 3 y multiplied by –3 y divided by 4 y divided by –4 Solution

3×y

3y

3 × y looks like this:

3×y 3y y

0

0

y ÷ (–4) looks like this:

y For 3 × y, you move a distance of y three times.

y ÷ (–4)

y

–3 × y looks like this: 0

–3 × y

–y

–3y

–3 × y is just like 3 × y, except the negative sign means the result is on the opposite side of 0.

y

0

Check it out: Notice how –3 × y is the same as 3 × (–y). And y ÷ (–4) is the same as –y ÷ 4.

y÷4

y ÷ 4 looks like this:

y

0

For y ÷ 4, you move a fourth of the distance to y.

y ÷ (–4) looks like this: –y

y ÷ (–4)

y

0

y ÷ (–4) is just like y ÷ 4, except the negative sign means the result is on the opposite side of 0.

46

Section 2.1 — Expressions

Guided Practice Don’t forget: Look at the diagrams in Example 5 if you’re not sure what these should look like.

Represent these calculations on number lines. Do each problem twice — once for a positive variable, and once for a negative. 17. q × 6 18. q × 5 19. q × (–2) 20. r ÷ 3 21. r ÷ (–3) 22. r ÷ 5 23. s × 2 24. s × (–5) 25. s ÷ 1

Independent Practice Identify an unknown in Exercises 1–9 that could then be used to find the required quantity. Choose a letter to represent this unknown. 1. Karen eats 5 more cookies than Lupe. You want to know how many cookies Karen has eaten. 2. Laura and Kenny set up lemonade stands. On the first day, Laura sells five more cups of lemonade than Kenny. You want to know how many cups of lemonade Laura sold. Now try these: Lesson 2.1.1 additional questions — p431

3. Deandre gets 36% more than Ana on a history test. You want to know Deandre’s score. 4. Madison measures her arm with a piece of string. It is exactly 5 times as long as the string. You want to know the length of Madison’s arm. 5. Gregory has 25 cakes. He shares them equally between his friends. You want to know how many cakes each friend gets. 6. Carolyn takes one-fourth as long as Nina to do her homework. You want to know how long Nina takes. 7. Tanya is selling some old toys that she no longer plays with and Imelda buys half of them. You want to know how many toys Imelda bought. 8. A rectangle has one side of length 5 inches. You want to know the area of the rectangle. 9. Tim has one-fourth of the amount of money that he had last week. You want to know how much money Tim has. Show the sums in Exercises 10–15 on a number line. 10. h + 7 11. h – 1 12. h – 2 13. m + (–5) 14. m – (–3) 15. m + 3 Draw the calculations in Exercises 16–21 on the number line. Show the cases both where the variable is positive, and where it is negative. 16. v × 5 17. v × 2 18. v × (–3) 19. w ÷ 9 20. w ÷ 3 21. w ÷ (–4)

Round Up At first it can look kind of confusing if you see a sum with letters in it — but just remember that the letters are just standing in for unknown numbers. Section 2.1 — Expressions

47

Lesson

2.1.2

Expr essions Expressions

California Standard:

Variables are all well and good, but they’re only useful when you use them to solve math problems. You can use variables and numbers to describe a problem in math terms — it’s called an expression.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.2 Alge bra valua te an ev aluate Write and e alg ebr aic e xpr ession ffor or a alge braic expr xpression gi ven situa tion giv situation tion, using up to three variables.

What it means for you: You’ll practice how to make your own expressions, and how to work out the value of an expression once you’re told the values of the variables.

An Expr ession Is a Pr ob lem Written in Ma th Ter ms Expression Prob oblem Math erms Expressions are used to write word problems in math terms. Expressions are like instructions that tell you what you have to do to a number or variable.

Key words: • variable • expression • evaluate

Check it out: Mathematical expressions can be numerical or algebraic. Numerical expressions only contain numbers — for example, 2 + 4, 3 × 4 – 7, and so on. Algebraic expressions contain at least one variable — for example, x + 4, 3x – 7.

In Words

Expression

A number, x, is increased by 7

x+7

A number, y, is decreased by 7

y–7

A number, a, is multiplied by 7

a×7

A number, k, is divided by 7

k÷7

Sometimes you might have to describe a real-life situation using a mathematical expression. You need to imagine what would happen to a quantity, and write that down using variables, and +, –, ×, and ÷. Example

1

Peter has $165 in his savings account. Lottie has x more dollars than Peter. Write an expression for the amount of money that Lottie has. Solution

Lottie has more money than Peter. To find how much she has, you need to add $x to the amount Peter has. So the expression for the number of dollars Lottie has is 165 + x.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, write an expression for each word problem. 1. A number, x, is decreased by 10. 2. A number, q, is increased by 27. 3. The variable w is multiplied by 20.

48

Section 2.1 — Expressions

Don’t forget: You have to calculate things in parentheses before any other parts of the expression.

4. A computer repairman charges $25 per hour to fix computers. How many dollars should he charge for h hours of work? 5. Aisha’s jump rope is 2 feet shorter than Lisa’s. If y represents the length of Lisa’s rope in feet, then write an expression to represent the length of Aisha’s rope (also in feet). 6. Describe the expression 100 – (4 × z) in your own words.

You Can Ev alua te if You Kno w the Value of the Varia ble Evalua aluate Know ariab If you’re given a value to use for a variable, you can work out the value of the expression. It’s called evaluating the expression. Example

2

Evaluate the expression 7 × h, if the value of h is 6. Solution

Start with 7 × h. But h = 6, so replace h with the number 6: 7 × 6 This means evaluating the expression gives 7 × 6 = 42 Example

3

The expression 120 – s is used to find out how many seats are available in a movie theater after s people are already seated. How many seats are available if 73 people are already seated? Solution

Start with 120 – s. You’re told that s = 73, so replace s with the number 73 This means that 120 – 73 = 47 seats are available.

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions given in Exercises 7–12. 7. t + 28, given that t = 19 8. y – 7, given that y = 5 9. d × 9, given that d = 3 10. g ÷ 5, given that g = 25 11. x + (–15), given that x = 13 12. c – (–3), given that c = 10 13. The expression 15 + t gives Earl’s height in centimeters, where t is his friend Tony’s height in cm. If Tony is 135 cm tall, how tall is Earl? 14. The amount of money made by a hot dog stand is $2.5h, where h is the number of hot dogs sold. How much money does the stand make if it sells 271 hot dogs in one day? Section 2.1 — Expressions

49

Ther e Ar e Thr ee w ays of Writing Multiplica tion here Are hree wa Multiplication Check it out: Watch out — the • can be a bit confusing because it looks like a decimal point. The • sign just means “multiplied by.”

In an expression, there are three ways of writing a multiplication. The first is to use the × sign.

4×p

Sometimes a raised period, •, is used instead of ×.

4•p

If you’re just multiplying a variable by a number, then you can leave out the symbol completely.

4p

They all mean the same thing

Guided Practice Rewrite Exercises 15–18 using • as a multiplication symbol. 15. 5 × i 16. 12 × t 17. 8r 18. –9k Rewrite Exercises 19–22 using × as a multiplication symbol. 19. 11•d 20. 4•q 21. 4q 22. 53z Rewrite Exercises 23–26 without a multiplication symbol. 23. 7•w 24. 13 × t 25. –3 × y 26. 4•c

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, evaluate the expression 19 – y for each value of y. 1. y = 11 2. y = –11 3. y = 26 4. y = 19 5. y = 0 6. y = –8 7. A variable, d, is multiplied by 15. Write this as an expression. Evaluate the expression for d = 4. 8. One palm tree is sixteen feet taller than another. Write an expression for the height of the shorter palm tree. 9. Jessica shares q potato chips between 12 friends. Write an expression for the number of potato chips received by each friend. Evaluate the expression if q = 96.

Now try these: Lesson 2.1.2 additional questions — p432

Exercises 10 and 11 are about Manuel, the manager at a restaurant. 10. Manuel collected t dollars in tips and wants to share it equally among his n employees. Write an expression that can be used to calculate how much each employee will get in tips. You can assume that Manuel does not get any tips. 11. If there are 5 employees and Manuel collected $90 in tips, use your expression from Exercise 10 to calculate how much each employee will get. Rewrite Exercises 12–14 to show all three ways of writing multiplication. 12. 3 × w 13. 7•t 14. –9r

Round Up To evaluate an expression, you just need to substitute numbers in place of variables. They take some getting used to, but expressions are a really good way to write down and then solve math problems. 50

Section 2.1 — Expressions

Lesson

2.1.3

Multi-V aria ble Expr essions Multi-Varia ariab Expressions

California Standard:

Some expressions contain more than one variable — you’ve met some of those before but there are plenty more in this Lesson. You’ll also get some more practice substituting values for variables.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.2 Alge bra valua te an ev aluate Write and e alg ebr aic e xpr ession ffor or a alge braic expr xpression gi ven situa tion, using up to giv situation, thr ee vvaria aria bles three ariab les..

What it means for you: You’ll see expressions containing two or three variables.

Some Expr essions Use Two Varia bles Expressions ariab If there are two numbers you don’t know, that’s not a problem. You can use two different variables, one for each unknown number.

Key words: • • • •

variable expression evaluate term

Remember these key words: sum — this means you have to add two or more numbers dif ence — this means you difffer erence have to subtract one number from another pr oduct — this means you product have to multiply two or more numbers quotient / rra a tio — both these words mean you have to divide one number by another

If part of an expression is written in parentheses, you should always work out that part first.

The sum of a and b

a+b

The product of v and w

v × w, v•w, or vw

p is subtracted from 9q

9q – p

1

DeAndre, Kia, and Anthony each thought of a number. DeAndre’s number was twice as big as the sum of Kia and Anthony’s numbers. Write an expression for DeAndre’s number. Solution

Represent Kia’s number by k, and Anthony’s number by a. Then DeAndre’s number is 2 × (k + a). Evaluating expressions with two or more variables is the same as for one variable. Just substitute the numbers you’re given and find the result. Example

Don’t forget:

Expression

You can use expressions with two (or more) variables to represent situations with more than one unknown quantity. Example

Check it out:

In Words

2

Evaluate the expression x – y for x = 20 and y = 8. Solution

Replace x with 20 and y with 8. That means that x – y becomes 20 – 8, so the answer is 12. Example

3

Evaluate the expression (15 – f ) × (7 + z) for f = 2 and z = 3. Solution

Replace f with 2 and z with 3. The expression becomes (15 – 2) × (7 + 3) = 13 × 10 = 130.

Section 2.1 — Expressions

51

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, evaluate the expressions for the values given. 1. e + f when e = 5 and f = 7 2. q ÷ s when q = 18 and s = 3 3. y – (5t) when y = 10 and t = 1 4. (k × 9) + z when k = 11 and z = 6 Write an expression for each of Exercises 5–7. 5. w is divided by v. 6. r is multiplied by t. 7. k is multiplied by 3, t is divided by 4, then the results are added together.

Some Expr essions Use Thr ee Varia bles Expressions hree ariab If a calculation contains three unknowns then you’ll need to include three variables in your expression. Example

4

Wesley has w cookies and Maribel has m cookies. They decide to eat c cookies between them. Write an expression for the total number of cookies left. Solution

The number of cookies Wesley and Maribel have before they eat any is w+m So once they have taken away c by eating them, there will be w+m–c

Guided Practice In Exercises 8–12, evaluate the expression z + y – x for the values given. 8. x = 5, y = 5, z = 2 9. x = 1, y = 1, z = 1 10. x = 2, y = 3, z = –2 11. x = 9, y = –3, z = 1 12. x = 2, y = 0.5, z = 3

Check it out: In an expression without parentheses such as ab – c, always carry out the multiplication before the addition. So here, multiply a by b, then subtract c from the result.

52

Section 2.1 — Expressions

13. An elevator leaves the first floor and goes up x floors. The elevator then goes down y floors, then goes up another z floors. Write an expression for the floor that the elevator is on now. 14. The amount that Mr. Jackson is paid each week is calculated by first multiplying his hours worked: 24 hourly wage, a, by the number of hours he worked that week, b. Then the amount, c, that hourly wage: he owes in taxes is subtracted from this amount. $9.10 This is represented by the expression ab – c. taxes: Use the chart on the right to calculate the $39.80 amount of Mr. Jackson’s paycheck this week.

Expr essions Ar e Made Up of Ter ms Expressions Are erms Check it out: In an expression, any quantity that isn’t a variable is called a constant.

Parts of an expression that are separated only by + or – are called terms. Each “+” or “–” belongs to the term that follows. Example

5

What are the terms in the expression 3 × l – 2 × m + n – 7? Solution

Check it out: “+ n” is the same as “n.”

Terms are separated by + or – signs, so the terms are: (i) 3 × l, (ii) –2 × m, (iii) n, and (iv) –7.

When you evaluate multi-variable expressions with more than one term, it makes sense to evaluate each term individually first. Check it out: Evaluating terms individually (and writing down the results) also makes it easier to find any mistakes you make along the way.

Example

6

Evaluate 5a + 3b + 2c, when a = 2, b = 3, c = 5 Solution

First, you need to put the values of a, b, and c into the expression: (5 × 2) + (3 × 3) + (2 × 5) You can now evaluate each term: 10 + 9 + 10 Finally, you can evaluate the simplified sum: 10 + 9 + 10 = 29

Guided Practice Identify the terms in Exercises 15–20. 15. v – 16 16. d + 22 18. x – (–2) + y 19. m – 14 + 2n

17. f + (–g) 20. 13b + 5c – d

In Exercises 21–26, evaluate the given expressions by first evaluating the terms. 21. r + 4s + 3t, when r = 1, s = –4, t = 7 22. 3r – 3s + 5t, when r = 5, s = 8, t = 2 23. 5r + 10s – 2t, when r = 6, s = –3, t = 15 24. r + s + st, when r = 2, s = 9, t = 5 25. 6 + rs + 7t, when r = 10, s = 11, t = 0 26. 200 – 4rs – 3st – 2rt – rst, when r = 5, s = 1, t = 7

Section 2.1 — Expressions

53

Independent Practice Evaluate the expression xy using the values of x and y given in Exercises 1–6. 1. x = 0.5 and y = 20 2. x = –6 and y = –3 3. x = 0 and y = 5 4. x = –1 and y = 1 5. x = –10 and y = 10 6. x = 0.75 and y = 4 Now try these: Lesson 2.1.3 additional questions — p432

Exercises 7 and 8 are both about the same Math Club. 7. The Math Club had $160 in its treasury. The club raised another j dollars from selling hot dogs after school and k dollars from selling snacks during school. Write an expression that represents how much money the Math Club has now. 8. Use your expression from Exercise 7 to work out how much money the Math Club have if they raised $25 selling hot dogs and $45 selling snacks. Exercises 9 and 10 are both about Mrs. Roca. 9. Mrs. Roca took $50 with her to the movies. She spent x dollars on tickets and y dollars on food. Write an expression that represents how much money Mrs. Roca had after the movie. 10. She spent $18 on tickets and $10 on food. Use your expression from Exercise 9 to calculate how much money she had left over after the movie. Write an expression for each of Exercises 11–15. 11. d is divided by g. 12. The sum of r, s, and t. 13. k is subtracted from the sum of w and p. 14. The product of x, y, and z. 15. 2a is added to the product of b and c.

Don’t forget: The perimeter is the distance all the way around a shape.

Exercises 16–17 use the diagram to the right, showing the field that will be used to keep a horse. 16. Write an expression for the perimeter of the p field. 17. Use your expression to calculate the 30 ft. q perimeter of the field when p = 42 feet, r q = 38 feet, and r = 32 feet. 18. Jeff is moving his desk, TV, and couch to his new apartment. His desk weighs x pounds, his TV weighs y pounds, and his couch weighs z pounds. He loads all three items into the back of his truck. His truck can carry up to 1000 pounds. Write an expression that represents how much more weight the truck can carry after the three items are loaded in the truck.

Round Up No need to panic — when you’re dealing with expressions that contain more than one variable, the rules are just the same as for single-variable expressions. 54

Section 2.1 — Expressions

Lesson

2.1.4

Or der of Oper a tions Order Opera

California Standards:

Sometimes you’ll meet expressions containing different combinations of operations (such as ×, ÷, +, and –). When you do, you need to be sure to do all of them in the right order.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.3 Alge bra der of pply alge braic order A ppl y alg ebr aic or oper a tions and the opera commutative, associative, and distributive properties to evalua te e xpr essions; and aluate expr xpressions; justify eac h ste p in the each step pr ocess process ocess.. Alg ebr a and Functions 1.4 Alge bra Solv e pr ob lems man uall y Solve prob oblems manuall ually by using the cor der corrrect or order of oper a tions or by using a opera scientific calculator.

What it means for you: You’ll see that it matters in which order you evaluate an expression, and you’ll learn the correct order.

The Or der In Whic h You Ev alua te Mak es a Dif ence Order hich Evalua aluate Makes Difffer erence The expression 2 + 3 × 7 looks like it could give two different answers, depending on how you work it out. For example, working out “2 + 3” first gives: 2 + 3 × 7 = 5 × 7 = 35, while working out “3 × 7” first gives: 2 + 3 × 7 = 2 + 21 = 23. To avoid this situation, the following rule is used for all math expressions: Always do multiplication before addition, unless parentheses tell you to do otherwise. Example

1

Evaluate 2 + 3 × 7, and (2 + 3) × 7. Solution

Key words: • • • • • •

parentheses exponent multiply and divide add and subtract expression evaluate

2 + 3 × 7 = 2 + 21 = 23

Wor k out the m ultiplica tion fir st ork multiplica ultiplication first

(2 + 3) × 7 = 5 × 7 = 35

The par entheses tell yyou ou to do the ad dition fir st parentheses addition first

In fact, you do all multiplications and divisions before additions and subtractions (unless parentheses tell you otherwise). Example

2

Evaluate: (i) 32 – 3 × 8,

(ii) 56 – 8 ÷ 2.

Solution

(i) 32 – 3 × 8 = 32 – 24 =8

Wor k out the m ultiplica tion fir st ork multiplica ultiplication first

(ii) 56 – 8 ÷ 2 = 56 – 4 = 52

Wor k out the di vision fir st ork division first

You do multiplications and divisions working from left to right. You also do additions and subtractions from left to right — after you’ve finished all the multiplications and divisions. Example

3

Evaluate: 45 + 34 ÷ 17 – 2 × 3. Solution

45 + 34 ÷ 17 – 2 × 3 = 45 + 2 – 2 × 3 = 45 + 2 – 6 = 47 – 6 = 41

× and ÷ fir st, fr om left to right first, from Then + and –, fr om left to right from Section 2.1 — Expressions

55

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions shown in Exercises 1–8. 1. 4 + 2 × 5 2. 3 + 7 × 4 3. 12 ÷ 2 + 4 4. 8 × 7 + 1 5. 11 – 1 × 4 6. 88 + 20 ÷ 2 7. (88 – 3) ÷ 5 8. 8 + 9 ÷ 3 × 5 – 3 Don’t forget: Here, exponents means expressions like 45, y2, x3, and so on — they show repeated multiplication. The exponent is actually the little number written above and to the right of a larger number (or variable) called the base. The exponent shows the number of bases you need to multiply together. So y3 = y × y × y.

Remember... multiplications and divisions before additions and subtractions — unless parentheses tell you otherwise. More generally, the order you should perform operations is as follows:

Check it out: An easier way to remember the order of operations is to remember the word PEMD AS PEMDAS AS, which stands for: 1. P arentheses 2. E xponents Division 3. M ultiplication / D 4. A ddition / S ubtraction

Order of Operations: ()[]

1. Evaluate anything inside parentheses (or brackets)

y2

2. Evaluate exponents

×÷

3. Multiply and divide from left to right

+–

4. Add and subtract from left to right

Example

4

Evaluate: 32 × 5 – (20 – 2) ÷ 32. Solution

32 × 5 – (20 – 2) ÷ 32 = 32 × 5 – 18 ÷ 32 = 9 × 5 – 18 ÷ 9 = 45 – 18 ÷ 9 = 45 – 2 = 43

Example

Par entheses fir st arentheses first Then e xponents exponents × and ÷, from left to right + and –, from left to right

5

Alan and Jessica are each trying to calculate the expression 24 ÷ 3 – 22. Their work is shown below. Who has the correct answer? Alan: 24 ÷ 3 – 22 = 8 – 22 = 62 = 36

Jessica: 24 ÷ 3 – 22 = 24 ÷ 3 – 4 =8–4 =4

Solution

Alan performed the division, then the subtraction, then evaluated the exponent. That is incorrect — he should have found the exponent first. Jessica evaluated the exponent first, then performed the division, then the subtraction. This is the right order, so Jessica has the right answer. 56

Section 2.1 — Expressions

Guided Practice Check it out: Use the same order of operations inside parentheses as well. For example: 10 – (42 + 2 × 3) You need to evaluate the parentheses first, and you follow the normal PEMDAS rules to do that. So evaluate 42 + 2 × 3 in this order: exponent, multiplication, addition. Therefore 10 – (42 + 2 × 3) 16 + 2 × 3) = 10 – (16 = 10 – (16 + 6 ) = 10 – 22 = –12

Evaluate the expressions shown in Exercises 9–18. 9. 8 + (10 – 2) ÷ 4 10. 4 – 2 × 16 11. 5 × 7 + 7 × 5 12. 7 × 3 – 8 ÷ 2 + 6 14. 23 – 9 ÷ 3 13. 32 + 4 × 9 16. 3 × (42 – 5) + 11 15. (4 + 1)2 – 12 ÷ 4 – 1 17. (62 – 32) ÷ (6 – 3)2 18. (15 ÷ 3 – 2) × (33 – 5 × 4)

Or der R ules Also A ppl y to Expr essions with Varia bles Order Rules pply Expressions ariab The order rules apply to all types of expressions, including those with variables. Example

6

Evaluate x + yz when x = –3, y = 9, and z = 10. Solution

Substitute in your values for x, y, and z

–3 + 9 × 10

There are no parentheses or exponents

–3 + 9 × 10

Carry out the multiplication

–3 + 90

Carry out the addition, giving the answer

87

Example

7

Evaluate 19 – f 2 × (w + q) when f = 3, w = 5, and q = 2. Solution

Substitute in your values for f, w, and q

19 – 32 × (5 + 2)

Evaluate the parentheses

19 – 32 × 7

Evaluate the exponents

19 – 9 × 7

Carry out the multiplication

19 – 63

Carry out the subtraction, giving the answer

–44

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions shown in Exercises 19–21, given that f = 2, j = 3, and g = 19. 19. g – j × 8 20. (f + g) × j + 4 21. (j 2 – f 2) ÷ 5 Evaluate the expressions shown in Exercises 22–24, given that s = 10, k = 3, and q = 1. 22. s × k + qs + 23 23. (k 2 – 1) ÷ 4q 24. q – sk 3 Section 2.1 — Expressions

57

Independent Practice Evaluate Exercises 1–4, given that w = 2, b = 8, c = –0.5. 1. b × (w – c) 2. w × b + w × c 2 3. (6 – w) 4. (b + w + 2 × c) ÷ (b – 2 × c) 5. Felipe and Sylvia are trying to evaluate the expression 2 × 18 – 6.

Don’t forget: If there are no parentheses, evaluate multiplications and divisions from left to right.

Felipe: 2 × 18 – 6 Sylvia: 2 × 18 – 6 = 36 – 6 = 2 × 12 = 30 = 24 Who is correct? What has the other person done wrong? Which of the expressions in Exercises 6–11 are true, and which are false? For those that are false, explain what is wrong. 6. (2 + 3) × 6 = 2 + 3 × 6 7. (7 + 5) – 3 = 7 + 5 – 3 8. (100 ÷ 2) ÷ 25 = 100 ÷ 2 ÷ 25 9. 10 ÷ 2 × 5 = 10 ÷ (2 × 5) 10. 3 + (6 × 9) = 3 + 6 × 9 11. 6 × 52 = (6 × 5)2 12. Carly wants to exercise for a total of 50 hours this month. She exercised 1.5 hours for each of the first eight days. Then, she exercised 2 hours for each of the next four days. Write and evaluate an expression for the remaining number of hours she has to exercise.

Now try these: Lesson 2.1.4 additional questions — p432

13. Mr. Chang earns $12 per hour baking bread at the bakery. He worked 7 hours on Thursday and c hours on Friday. Write an expression of the form a × (b + c) that can be used to calculate how much Mr. Chang earned on Thursday and Friday. 14. Given that Mr. Chang worked for 8.5 hours on Friday, find the value of the expression you wrote for Exercise 13. Which of the expressions in Exercises 15–19 are true, and which are false? For those that are false, explain what is wrong. 15. h – r + q = h – (r + q) 16. a × (5 + g) = a × 5 + g 17. 16 × f ÷ 3 + 2 = 16 × f ÷ (3 + 2) 18. 5 + j – w = (5 + j) – w 19. 18y – 2j = (18 – 2) × (y – j)

Round Up Hopefully you can now see how important the order of operations is when evaluating expressions. You’ll need to be able to get the order right from now on — so make sure you memorize it. 58

Section 2.1 — Expressions

Section 2.2 introduction — an exploration into:

Equa tions with Alg ebr a Tiles Equations Alge bra You can use red and blue tiles to represent math equations. Equations show that two things are “balanced,” and you’re not allowed to do anything that might make them unbalanced. This means you can add or remove tiles, as long as you do the same to both sides. You can use tiles to represent equations. These tiles show that x + 2 = 5.

=

When you have an equation, you can add or remove tiles — as long as you add or remove exactly the same tiles on both sides. Remove 2 squares from If you can get x by itself, you can find its value. Here, x = 3.

=

both sides sides.

Example Show the equation x + 3 = 5 with algebra tiles, and then find the value of x. Solution

The equation x + 3 = 5 looks like the picture on the right.

=

Remove 3 squares from both sides to get x by itself. This tells you that x = 2. Remove 3 tiles from both sides sides. For some equations, you need to use zero pairs before you can get x by itself. Example Show x – 4 = 7 with tiles, and find the value of x. =

Solution

Add 4 to both sides and remove zero pairs.

The equation x – 4 = 7 looks like this.

Add 4 tiles to both sides, and then remove zero pairs. This leaves x on one side of the equation, and 11 blue tiles on the other side. So x = 11. Example Show 3x = –15 with tiles, and find the value of x. Solution

=

3x = –15 looks like the picture on the right. Put the x’s in a line, and then put the same number of tiles next to every x. For every x, there are 5 red tiles. This tells you that x = –5.

Exercises 1. Use algebra tiles to model each of these equations, and then find the value of x. a. x + 6 = 9

b. x – 3 = 8

c. x + 2 = –5

d. 2x = 10

2. Write the equation that is represented by these tiles. Then solve the equation to find the value of x.

e. 3x = –12 =

Round Up Keeping equations balanced by doing the same to both sides is one of the most important things you’ll ever learn in math. There will be a lot more about this in the next Section. Section 2.2 Explor a tion — Equations with Algebra Tiles Explora

59

Lesson

2.2.1

Equations

California Standard:

You’ve done plenty of work with expressions — now it’s time to tackle equations. They’re both quite similar — both involve variables, numbers, and combinations of the usual +, –, ×, and ÷ operations.

Algebra and Functions 1.1 Write and solve one-step linear equations in one variable.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about equations and how they’re related to expressions.

Key words: • equation • guess and check • solve

An Equation Tells You That Two Things are Equal An equation tells you that something is equal to something else. These are all examples of equations: 14 + 6 = 20 9–3=4+2 4y + x = x – 7 Writing an equation is similar to writing an expression. It may involve a real-life problem, and you may have to use variables to represent unknown values. Example

Check it out: An equation involving variables can be true for all values of the variable — for example, y + y = 2y (this kind of equation is usually called an identity). Or it can be true for only particular values of the variable — for example, 2y + 3 = 11, which is true only if y = 4. Finding the values that make an equation true is called solving the equation, and there’s more about this later. (The equations in Examples 1 and 2 are only true for particular values.)

1

Richard spent $3.50 on fruit and $7.26 on vegetables. He then spent $x on meat, making a total of exactly $20. Write an equation to represent this. Solution

Richard spent 3.50 + 7.26 + x dollars, which is equal to $20. Writing this as an equation, 3.50 + 7.26 + x = 20. This can be simplified to 10.76 + x = 20. Example

2

Edward and Bianca each wrote a story in English class. Bianca’s story has 31 words more than Edward’s. Write an equation to represent this. Solution

Create variables — call the number of words in Bianca’s story b and the number of words in Edward’s story e. Although both b and e are unknown amounts, the question says that b is 31 greater than e. So, a possible equation is e + 31 = b. You could also have written b – 31 = e. Both equations show that b is 31 greater than e.

Guided Practice Write equations to represent the situations described in Exercises 1–6. 1. Jose scored 10 percent more than William on a class test. 2. Theresa owns two pairs of shoes more than Kimberly. 60

Section 2.2 — Equations

3. Richard and Tim each bake cakes. Richard notices that Tim’s cake is three times as heavy as his. 4. Isaac goes to the county fair. Because he has been saving up, he has seven times as much money as his sister to spend on rides. 5. Laura’s dad runs a newsstand that sells bottles of water. Laura knows that five small bottles of water contain the same amount as two large bottles. 6. Monica has a candy bar that is a third the size of Julio’s.

Equations Can Be Used to Find the Value of Variables Equations like y + 6 = 16 tell you enough information to find out y. One way to find y is to guess at it again and again until you find the right answer. Sometimes this is called the “guess and check” method. Check it out: Using an equation to find the value of an unknown variable is sometimes called solving the equation.

Example

3

Find the value of y if y + 6 = 16. Solution

First you need to guess a value for y. Then you can use it in the equation and check if it makes the equation true. Try y = 5:

5 + 6 = 16 is not true. In fact, 5 + 6 = 11, which is too small.

Try y = 12: 12 + 6 = 16 is also not true. In fact, 12 + 6 = 18, which is too big. Try y = 10: 10 + 6 = 16, which is true. So y does equal 10. This means the solution to the equation is y = 10. Check it out: As shown in Example 4, one way of doing “guess and check” is thinking of the equation as a question. Once you can answer “yes” to the question “7h = 56?”, you’ve got the right value of h.

Example

4

Julia uses the expression 7h to find out how many dollars she earned doing yard work. h represents the number of hours she worked. If Julia earned $56, then how many hours did she work? Solution

An equation for the situation is 7h = 56. Try guessing different values of h, then see if they’re right. h

7h

7h = 56?

7

49

No

10

70

No

8

56

Yes

If Julia worked for 7 hours, she would have earned only $49, which is too little. If Julia worked for 10 hours, she would have earned $70, which is too much.

Julia must have worked for 8 hours — because when h = 8, the equation 7h = 56 is true. Section 2.2 — Equations

61

Guided Practice Use “guess and check” to solve the equations in Exercises 7–10. 7. x + 14 = 30 8. 2z + 16 = 38 9. 9a – 12 = 69 10. 3z ÷ 7 = 6 11. Luis uses the expression $3 × m to work out how much money he spends calling his relatives in Europe for m minutes. His last phone call cost $60. Write an equation to represent this situation and then find out how long he spoke for. 12. Pedro works out how much he must pay toward a food bill by using the formula d – $3.24, where d is the cost of the entire bill. He ends up paying $2.97. Write an equation for this situation and then find out how much the food bill must have been. 13. What value of y satisfies the equation 111 = 19y + 16?

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 2.2.1 additional questions — p433

Use “guess and check” to solve the equations in Exercises 1–4. 1. a + 20 = 57 2. 3b + 9 = 15 3. 7c – 22 = 20 4. 12d ÷ 8 = 6 5. Brandon has $t in his savings jar. He puts in an extra $12. If the total amount in the jar is n, write an equation linking n and t. 6. Solve the equation you wrote for Exercise 5 when n = 48. 7. Cody is playing an old video game. In it you get 400 points every time you collect a ring and 800 points every time you collect an egg. Write an equation about p, the total number of points you get for collecting r rings and e eggs. 8. Guadalupe has started going to dance class. Each class costs $3 and she spent $23.50 on dance shoes. Including the shoes, she has spent $71.50 in total. Write an equation for this and solve it to find out how many lessons Guadalupe has been to. 9. It takes 2 eggs to make 20 cookies, and 4 eggs to make 40 cookies. Which equation best describes the number of eggs, x, that it takes to make y cookies? y = 10x x = 10y y + x = 10 y – x = 10

Round Up Equations look like expressions, but they contain a “=” — which tells you that something is equal to something else. Don’t worry if you’re not 100% comfortable with equations yet — all of the Lessons in this Section are about equations, so you’ll have many chances to practice.

62

Section 2.2 — Equations

Lesson

2.2.2

Manipulating Equations

California Standard:

Now that you’ve met equations, it’s time to look at the things you can do to change an equation without making it untrue.

Algebra and Functions 1.1 Write and solve one-step linear equations in one variable.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about how to manipulate linear equations, which you’ll use in Lessons 2.2.3 and 2.2.4 when you’re solving them.

Key words: • equation • manipulate

You Have to Keep Equations Balanced An equation is like a scale. The bit before the equals sign has the same value as the bit after the equals sign, so the scale is balanced.

5+4

When manipulating equations, you have to keep the scale balanced. You can’t take 4 from one side and not from the other because then the two sides aren’t equal.

5

The only way to keep the scale balanced is to always do the same thing to both sides.

=

3+6

3+6

Here’s another way to show the same thing:

5+4

=

3+6

= If you take any 3 boxes from the left-hand side, you also need to take 3 boxes from the right-hand side to keep the equation balanced.

There are a total of 9 boxes on each side of the equals sign — so the equation is balanced.

= Both sides still have the same total number of colored boxes.

You still have to keep both sides of an equation balanced when there are variables involved. Example

1

The variables x and y are linked by the equation x + y = 10. Show how to keep the equation balanced if: (i) 3 is added to the left-hand side, (ii) y is subtracted from the right-hand side. Solution

(i) If 3 is added to the left-hand side, then you also have to add 3 to the right-hand side. This gives: x + y + 3 = 10 + 3, which can be simplified to x + y + 3 = 13. Check it out: Notice how x + y – y can be simplified to just x. The “+ y – y” part cancels out.

(ii) If y is subtracted from the right-hand side, then you also have to subtract y from the left-hand side. This gives: x + y – y = 10 – y, which can be simplified to x = 10 – y.

Section 2.2 — Equations

63

Example Check it out: Notice how the “+ 7 – 7” part cancels out.

2

Subtract 7 from both sides of the equation x + 7 = 23. What does the result tell you about the value of x? Solution

Check it out: Notice how you’ve found the value of x by subtracting something from both sides of the equation.

So So

x + 7 = 23 x + 7 – 7 = 23 – 7 x = 16.

Example

3

Felipe has the equation j + 26 = 32. He subtracts 26 from the left-hand side to get j = 32. Is that the right value for j? Solution

Felipe has changed one side of the equation without changing the other in the same way. It is no longer balanced. This value for j won’t make the equation true. He should have done the same to both sides. j + 26 = 32 j + 26 – 26 = 32 – 26 Subtract 26 from both sides j=6 Then simplify to get j on its own

Guided Practice Fill in the missing parts of Exercises 1–6. w = 23 y=3 1. 2. w×6=? y+5=? 4.

b=7 b+9 = ?

5.

x = 15 x ÷5 = ?

3.

a = 27 a÷9=?

6.

h = 12 h× 4 = ?

Equations can involve more than one variable. As always, keep both sides of the equation balanced, by doing the same to both sides of the equation. Example

4

Adriana buys 3 wrenches and 2 screwdrivers. Each wrench costs $w and each screwdriver $s. She spends $15.66, so she writes 3w + 2s = 15.66. Check it out: Notice that $46.98 is the cost of 3 lots of “3 wrenches and 2 screwdrivers” — which is the same as 9 wrenches and 6 screwdrivers.

64

Section 2.2 — Equations

She decides to work out the cost of three times as many wrenches and screwdrivers by multiplying the left-hand side of the equation by 3. What must she do to work out the right-hand side? Solution

She needs to multiply the right-hand side by 3. 3 × (3w + 2s) = 3 × 15.66, or 3 × (3w + 2s) = 46.98

Check it out: When you’re manipulating equations, write the different stages down the page, lining them up by their = signs. That makes it easier to see what operations have been carried out on each side.

Guided Practice Fill in the missing parts of Exercises 7–12. 7.

u=f+2 u–5=?

10.

6=q 6 −19 = ?

8.

9. r + j = 9 (r + j )×15 = ?

j = z + 26 j – 26 = ?

11. f = b fz = ?

12. ? = m + 3 2=m

Explain what step of the work is incorrect in Exercises 13–18. 13. f = z + 19 f=z

14.

t = 3k t–3=k

15. 6 + g = 7 5+g=8

16. p = 7 2p = 27

17.

h = 11 + j h – 11 = j – 11

18. 15q = 9 q = 9 × 15

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 2.2.2 additional questions — p433

1. Joshua and Ashley both try manipulating the same equation. Their work is shown below. Have either of them made a mistake? If so, what have they done wrong?

Joshua

Ashley

9w = 27 9w + 16 = 27 ÷ 16

9w = 27 9w + 16 = 43

2. Vanessa notices that the cost of a big bag of oranges, b, is exactly $0.45 less than the cost of a sandwich, s. Write an equation involving subtraction to represent this. 3. Add 0.45 to both sides of your equation from Exercise 2. 4. Using your answer for Exercise 3, if a big bag of oranges costs $2.25, then what does a sandwich cost? Fill in the missing parts of Exercises 5–10. 5.

w + p = 22 w+p+9=?

6. 16 – h = 5 ?=5+h

7.

8.

h÷3=4 3×h÷3=?

9. w + j = 4 ?=4+w+j

10. m × 2 = 4 m=?

9h = 9 9h ÷ 9 = ?

Round Up The concepts here are really important — in the next Lesson, you’ll manipulate equations to solve them. Remember — you must do exactly the same thing to both sides of the equation. Always. Section 2.2 — Equations

65

Lesson

2.2.3

Solving + and – Equations

California Standard:

As you might have guessed, all that manipulating equations was leading up to something, and this is it. This Lesson is about a fast way of solving equations by manipulating sides.

Algebra and Functions 1.1 Write and solve one-step linear equations in one variable.

What it means for you: You’ll manipulate + and – equations to solve them without using “guess and check.”

Key words: • equation • solve

Manipulating Is Faster Than Guess and Check You can use an equation to find out the value of a variable. You’ve done this already using “guess and check,” but a quicker way is to manipulate the equation. An equation like y + 9 = 16 is balanced just like one with only numbers. To find the value of y, you need to get the variable alone on one side of the equals sign. If the variable has something added to it, use subtraction to get it on its own. In y + 9 = 16, subtract 9 from both sides to get y on its own.

y+9

=

16

y

=

16 – 9

You can do exactly the same thing without drawing the scales. y + 9 = 16 y + 9 – 9 = 16 – 9 y=7

The “+ 9” and “– 9” cancel each other out.

You can check that y = 7 is the correct solution by substituting it back into the original equation: 7 + 9 = 16 — this is true, so y = 7 is correct. Example

1

Alicia and Paula are each solving the equation x + 19 = 37. Their work is shown below. Who solved the problem correctly? Alicia

Check it out: The “+ 19 – 19” is crossed out because the values cancel. It’s okay to cross things out — but do it lightly, so that all your work can still be seen.

x + 19 = 37 x + 19 – 19 = 37 x = 37

Paula

x + 19 = 37 x + 19 – 19 = 37 – 19 x = 18

Solution

Paula is correct. She has remembered to subtract 19 from both sides of the equation. Alicia’s solution doesn’t make sense — she’s subtracted 19 from one side of the equation, but not the other.

66

Section 2.2 — Equations

Guided Practice

Check it out: Don’t let decimals or negative numbers put you off. Just do exactly the same as you have been doing and you’ll still get the right answer.

Solve the equations given in Exercises 1–14. 1. x + 11 = 17 2. x + 10 = 20 3. k + 75 = 200 4. 14 + x = 14 5. y + 191 = 87 6. w + 8 = –1 7. 3.8 + y = 19.1 8. 33.4 + z = 47.2 9. 1.3 = y + 0.5 10. q + 18 = 20.2 11. g + (–8) = 13 12. –9 = f + 9 13. v + 23 = –10 14. i + (–9) = 10 15. Yesenia is given two new video games for her birthday. She now has 18. Write an equation for this, using v for the number of video games she had before her birthday. Solve it to find v. 16. Alejandro puts $14.50 into his bank account. He now has a total of $34.15. Write an equation for this, using m for the amount he had in the bank before the deposit. Then solve it to find m.

Subtraction Equations Can Be Solved with Addition If the variable has something subtracted from it, then you need to add to both sides. This way, you can get the variable on its own. Taking something away and then giving it back is the same as not doing anything at all. q – 5 = –3 Add 5 to both sides q – 5 + 5 = –3 + 5 Then simplify q=2 Example

2

George and Kayla are each solving the equation u – 23 = 19. Their work is shown below. Who solved the problem correctly? George Kayla u – 23 = 19 u – 23 = 19 u – 23 + 23 = 19 + 23 u – 23 + 23 = 19 u = 42 u = 19 Solution

George is correct. He has remembered to add 23 to both sides of the equation. Kayla’s solution doesn’t make sense — she has added 23 to one side of the equation, but not the other. Example

3

Solve the equation x – (–9) = –14.3. Solution

Don’t forget: There’s more about solving this kind of equation in Lesson 2.2.5.

x – (–9) = –14.3 x – (–9) + ( –9) = –14.3 + ( –9) x = –14.3 + ( –9) x = –23.3 Section 2.2 — Equations

67

Guided Practice Solve the equations given in Exercises 17–30. 17. q – 5 = 12 18. q – 6 = –3 19. x – 3 = 0 20. w – 3 = 6 21. n – 2 = 13 22. x – 12 = 14 23. 12 = h – 6 24. j – 6 = 5 25. 19 = r – 15 26. b – 11 = 2.7 27. g – 0.1 = 0.9 28. y – (–2) = 8 29. e – 0.3 = 1.9 30. 9 = v – 0 31. Ted is playing a game of snap. So far he has put down 5 cards, leaving him holding 7. Write an equation for this, using n for the number of cards Ted had at the start of the game. Solve it to get n.

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 2.2.3 additional questions — p433

Solve the equations given in Exercises 1–8. 1. 14 + k = 15 2. 11 = t + 3 3. j + 1 = 3.9 4. 15 = p + 16 5. c – 3 = 0 6. 1.5 = k – 1.5 7. f – 0.6 = 10.2 8. 1.3 = a – 2.8 In Exercises 9–16, write an equation for the situation described and then solve it. Use x to represent the variable. 9. When eight is subtracted from a number, the result is 25. 10. Three plus a number is 30. 11. Nine more than a number is twenty-three. 12. When a number is decreased by 8.9, the result is 41.4. 13. A number increased by 9.8 is equal to 17. 14. A number decreased by forty-two is equal to ten. 15. Twenty is the sum of a number and three. 16. When 5.6 is subtracted from a number, the result is 17.2. 17. Mr. Jenkins lost 14 pounds on a diet. He now weighs 210 pounds. Write a subtraction equation for this situation, using w to represent his weight before the diet. Then solve the equation to find w. 18. Monique’s hair has grown by an inch and a half since it was last cut and it is now 11 inches long. Write an addition equation to represent this situation. Use h to represent the length of hair right after the last haircut. Then solve the equation to find h. 19. Karen is 61 inches tall, which is 8 inches shorter than her mother. Which equation can be used to represent her mother’s height, h? h + 61 = 8 h = 61 – 8 h – 8 = 61 h = 8 × 61

Round Up In the world of equation manipulation, “+” gets rid of “–”, and “–” gets rid of “+.” There’s really not much more to it than that, as long as you play by the rules — you must always do exactly the same thing to both sides. 68

Section 2.2 — Equations

Lesson

2.2.4

Solving × and ÷ Equations

California Standard:

More equations, but this time with multiplication and division in them. The same rules as last Lesson apply — you need to get the variable alone on one side of the equals sign.

Algebra and Functions 1.1 Write and solve one-step linear equations in one variable.

Divide to Cancel Out a Multiplication

What it means for you: You’ll do more equations, this time dealing with equations containing multiplications and divisions.

To solve equations like 5t = –20, you still need to get the variable, t, on its own. The variable has been multiplied by a number, 5 — so you can get the variable on its own by dividing. In this case, you need to divide by 5. 5t = –20 5t ÷ 5 = –20 ÷ 5 t = –20 ÷ 5 t = –4

Key words: • equation • solve

Don’t forget: 5t ÷ 5 = t

Example

divide both sides by the same thing the variable is multiplied by

1

Solve the equation 7r = 42. Solution

7r = 42 7r ÷ 7 = 42 ÷ 7 r = 42 ÷ 7 r=6

Divide both sides by 7, then simplify to work out r.

Exactly the same rule works if the variable has been multiplied by a negative number. Example

2

Solve the equation –6q = 54. Solution

–6q means –6 × q, so you need to divide by –6. –6q = 54 Divide both sides by –6, –6q ÷ (–6) = 54 ÷ (–6) then simplify to work out q. q = 54 ÷ (–6) q = –9

Don’t forget: “•” just means “multiply.” The phrase “5 multiplied by k” can be written as “5•k” or “5 × k” or just “5k.”

Guided Practice Solve the equations given in Exercises 1–8. 1. 3t = 27 2. 16w = 48 3. 7x = 28 4. r × 6 = 7.2 5. 12y = 13.2 6. –9p = –72 7. –5•k = 30 8. h × 8 = –56 Section 2.2 — Equations

69

Multiply to Cancel Out a Division Division and multiplication cancel each other out, so you can use multiplication to solve division equations. m ÷ 11 = 6 m ÷ 11 × 11 = 6 × 11 m = 6 × 11 m = 66

Don’t forget: Division and multiplication are “opposites” — see Lesson 1.2.2 to remind yourself why.

Example

multiply both sides by the same thing the variable is divided by

3

Solve the equation q ÷ 5 = 7. Solution

q÷5=7 q÷5×5=7×5 q=7×5 q = 35

Example

Multiply both sides by 5 then simplify to work out q.

4

Sienna and Raoul are each solving the equation p ÷ 6 = 12. Their work is shown below. Who solved the problem correctly? Raoul Sienna p ÷ 6 = 12 p ÷ 6 = 12 p ÷ 6 × 6 = 12 + 6 p ÷ 6 × 6 = 12 × 6 p = 18 p = 72 Solution

Sienna is correct. Raoul has not done the same to both sides of the equation. He has multiplied the left-hand side by 6, but added 6 to the right-hand side.

Guided Practice Solve the equations given in Exercises 9–20. 9. t ÷ 2 = 3 10. w ÷ 5 = 11 11. q ÷ 4 = 13 12. u ÷ 8 = 5 13. x ÷ 1.5 = 3 14. p ÷ 5 = 2.7 15. g ÷ –3 = 9 16. s ÷ –7 = 6 17. d ÷ –6 = –12 18. j ÷ 13 = –15 19. y ÷ 0.9 = 9.1 20. e ÷ 1.2 = –2.3 21. A builder wants to buy a pipe that is long enough to cut into four 30-inch pieces, as shown below. Write and solve a division equation that can be used to find the length of the pipe, p, that the builder should buy.

70

Section 2.2 — Equations

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 2.2.4 additional questions — p434

Solve the equations given in Exercises 1–8. 1. 7x = 28 2. 0.5s = 10 3. w ÷ 8 = 1 4. 34p = 0 5. 5•r = –10 6. t ÷ 0.5 = 10 7. 7 = z ÷ –8 8. –7.2 = –6y 9. Juan likes to swim laps at the local pool. The pool has a length of 25 meters. Juan wants to swim 350 meters. Write and solve a multiplication equation to find out how many lengths Juan needs to swim. 10. Taylor earned $94.50 last week at her job, where she earns $6.75 an hour. Solve the equation 94.50 = 6.75h to find out how many hours, h, she worked.

Don’t forget: To check that an answer is correct, put it back into your original equation. If you put 9 back into the equation 3x = 12, you can see right away that it doesn’t make sense.

11. When Ross solved the equation 12 = 3x, he made a mistake. His work is shown below. What mistake did Ross make? 3x = 12 3x – 3 = 12 – 3 x=9

12. A poster has an area of 800 square inches, and a length of 40 inches. Write and solve a multiplication equation that can be used to find the width. 13. A farmer has a rectangular plot of land that he divides into four smaller plots, each with an area of 5000 square yards. Write and solve a division equation to find the area of the original plot. Solve the equations given in Exercises 14–21. These will give you practice on both “+” and “–” questions and “×” and “÷” questions. 14. f + 9 = 3 15. 12k = 288 16. –7 = n ÷ 4 17. b – 23 = 2.1 18. q – 0.23 = 1.66 19. –2d = 8 20. 4.2 = m ÷ 3 21. y ÷ 5 = –80 In Exercises 22–27, write an equation for the situation described and then solve it. Use x to represent the variable. 22. A number divided by seven is equal to fifteen. 23. The product of a number and three is equal to negative nine. 24. A number multiplied by 2 is equal to 8.4. 25. A number added to 9 is 37. 26. A number divided by negative three is equal to five. 27. Negative fifteen taken away from a number is 6.2.

Round Up By now you should be used to always doing the same thing to both sides of an equation. The main thing from this Lesson is that you can undo multiplication with division and you can undo division with multiplication. Just keep practicing... Section 2.2 — Equations

71

Lesson

2.2.5

Graphing Equations

California Standard:

Solving equations is one of the most important things you do in math. That means you need plenty of practice at it. And you need to understand exactly why this method works. This Lesson starts with a summary of things you’ve seen in the previous Lessons in this Section.

Algebra and Functions 1.1 Write and solve one-step linear equations in one variable.

What it means for you: You’ll see how what you’ve learned about equations matches up to the number line, and you’ll practice deciding what sort of equation you’re dealing with.

Key words: • equation • graph • number line

There Are Different Types of One-Step Equations A one-step equation is one that can be solved in one step by either adding, subtracting, multiplying by, or dividing by one thing. There are four main types. For example: (i) a + 3 = 4.2 — solve by subtracting 3 from both sides to get a = 1.2 (ii) s – 7 = 12 — solve by adding 7 to both sides to get s = 19 (iii) 9m = 27 — solve by dividing both sides by 9 to get m = 3 (iv) d ÷ 8 = 2 — solve by multiplying both sides by 8 to get d = 16 Before you can solve an equation, you must be able to spot what kind of equation you have. Example

Don’t forget: –7y = 14 means –7 × y, so it’s a multiplication equation that you solve by dividing. (It is not the same as y – 7, or 7 – y.)

Don’t forget: Adding a negative number is the same as subtracting a positive number. And subtracting a negative number is the same as adding a positive number.

Don’t forget: Notice how closely addition and subtraction are linked. Addition problems can be turned into subtraction problems. Similarly, subtraction problems can be turned into addition problems.

1

Explain how you would solve each of the following equations. (i) x + 12 = 4.2, (ii) –7y = 14, (iii) a – 87 = 1 Solution

(i) x + 12 = 4.2 (ii) –7y = 14

Solve by subtracting 12 from both sides: x = –7.8

Solve by dividing both sides by –7: y = –2

(iii) a – 87 = 1 Solve by adding 87 to both sides: a = 88 Sometimes you can look at an equation in more than one way. Example

2

Solve n + (–2) = 6.3. Solution

There are two ways to think about n + (–2) = 6.3. (i) You can say that “n has –2 added to it, so solve the equation by subtracting –2 from both sides.” This gives n + (–2) – (–2) = 6.3 – (–2). But 6.3 – (–2) is the same as 6.3 + 2, so this gives n = 8.3 (ii) Or you can rewrite the equation before solving it, using the fact that adding a negative is the same as subtracting a positive: n – 2 = 6.3. You can solve this by adding 2 to both sides. This gives n – 2 + 2 = 6.3 + 2, which gives n = 8.3 Whichever method you use, it all comes down to the same thing.

72

Section 2.2 — Equations

Equations with division come in two forms. You may see the ÷ written in or you may see the equation written as though it is a fraction. Example 3 h =7. Solve −9 Solution

This is the same as h ÷ (–9) = 7. Solve by multiplying by –9. h ÷ (–9) × (–9) = 7 × (–9), which gives h = 7 × (–9) = –63.

Guided Practice Identify the type, and solve the equations in Exercises 1–12. 1. 3t = 27

2. –4 + q = 11

3. g × 2.4 = 4.8

4. –8 + z = 8 u =3 7. 2.9 10. n ÷ 7 = 4

5. d × 19 = 95

6. –4j = 20

8. b – (–3) = –9

9. 12 + j = 9 p = 8.2 12. 12

11. k + (–3) = 14

Show Your Solutions on the Number Line Sometimes in math, you need to draw your solutions on a graph. For the equations in this Lesson, that means drawing a number line. Example

4

Solve the equation n + 5 = 42 and graph your result. Solution

Don’t forget: There’s a lot more information about the number line in Chapter 1.

Solve the equation in the normal way. Here, you need to subtract 5 from both sides to get n = 37. n Now graph this solution 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 on a number line.

×

But notice also that a number line can help you solve an equation. Example

5

Check it out:

Solve the equation n + 5 = 42.

This isn’t a new way to solve an equation — it’s just a different way of thinking about the method you’ve already seen. Solving n + 5 = 42 by subtracting 5 from both sides is equivalent to moving 5 places to the left on a number line.

Solution

The equation n + 5 = 42 tells you that there is a position on the number line, n, and that 42 is 5 places to the right of it. That means that n is 5 places to the left of 42. That can be written as n = 42 – 5. So n = 37.

n+5 n 37

42 38

39

40

41

42 – 5 = 37

Section 2.2 — Equations

73

Example

6

Solve the equation 6x = 18 and graph your result. Solution

You can divide both sides by 6 to find the solution x = 3. x

Graphing the result means you have to draw a number line.

× 3

0

If you like, you can even use the number line to solve the equation. The equation 6x = 18 tells you that 18 is 6 times further away from 0 on the number line than x.

6

9

12 15 18

6x x 0

×3 18 ÷ 6 = 3

18

Guided Practice Solve the equations in Exercises 13–18, and graph your results. 13. m + 10 = 9 14. t – 3 = 2 15. 4x = 16 16. r – 3 = –3 17. n + (–1) = 36.5 18. y ÷ 9 = 12 Write an equation represented by each of the number lines in Exercises 19–20. Find the solution to each equation. 19.

w ÷ (–5)

w + 25

20. –9

–2

0

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 2.2.5 additional questions — p434

Solve the equations in Exercises 1–12. Show your results on a number line. 1. d – 1 = 2

3. b + 62 = –189

7. 8g = 64

2. h•2.5 = 10 g =6 5. −8 8. v – 0.25 = 1.5

10. r ÷ –12 = –3

11. j + 23 = 26

12. z – (–2) = 6

4. 11 = 12 + k

6. 6 × p = 174 9. 15 = 5k

13. During the week, Ramon drives t miles to school. On the weekend, he drives three times as far to a tennis club. The tennis club is 18 miles away. Write an equation for this and solve it to find out how far Ramon lives from school.

Round Up Equations become much easier to deal with if you practice — solving the equation just means working out how to get the variable alone. In the next Section, you’ll be using expressions and equations to describe real-life situations. 74

Section 2.2 — Equations

Lesson

Section 2.3

2.3.1

Expressions About Length

California Standards:

You’ve seen lots of mathematical expressions — things like x + 4, or y – 7. You’ve also seen equations, and learned how to solve them — things like x + 2 = 6, for example.

Algebra and Functions 1.2 Write and evaluate an algebraic expression for a given situation, using up to three variables. Algebra and Functions 1.3 Apply algebraic order of operations and the commutative, associative, and distributive properties to evaluate expressions; and justify each step in the process. Algebra and Functions 3.1 Use variables in expressions describing geometric quantities (e.g., P = 2w + 2l, A = ½bh, C = pd — the formulas for the perimeter of a rectangle, the area of a triangle, and the circumference of a circle, respectively). Algebra and Functions 3.2 Express in symbolic form simple relationships arising from geometry.

What it means for you: You’ll practice using expressions to represent the length and perimeter of objects.

Now you need to apply what you know to other situations.

Expressions Can Describe Length If you don’t know the length of something, use a variable to represent it. Example

1

Write an expression for the total height of the window on the right.

? in.

35 in. Solution

Choose a letter to represent the unknown height — w, say. Then the total height of the window is (35 + w) inches. Pictures can help you understand questions. So if there’s no picture in a question, you should draw one yourself. Example

2

Imelda’s brother is 56 inches tall. The top of his head comes to Imelda’s shoulders. Write an expression for the height of Imelda. Solution

x

Draw a picture — a simple one will do fine. Key words: • • • • •

length perimeter expression commutative associative

Don’t forget: Always check whether you need to include units in your answer — for example, inches, yards, miles...

The unknown length is the height of Imelda’s head. So choose a letter to represent it — x, say. Then Imelda’s height is (56 + x) inches.

56 in. Imelda’s brother

Imelda

Guided Practice 1. Write an expression for the length of these boxes. 5 yds 5 yds ? yds 2. Susan’s backyard has a swimming pool at the end. She measures the distance from the house to the swimming pool as 50 meters. By choosing a letter to represent the length of the swimming pool, write an expression for the length of the entire yard. Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

75

Perimeter Means the Distance Around a Shape The perimeter is the distance around the outside of a shape. You find a shape’s perimeter by adding together the lengths of its sides. If you don’t know the length of a side, use a variable. Example

3

Write an expression for the perimeter of the shape below. The two unknown sides have the same length, y inches. 14 in. y in.

11 in. y in.

Don’t forget:

Solution

You can simplify expressions by combining terms that contain the same variables. So 7 + x + x + x can be simplified to 7 + 3x.

The perimeter is found by adding the lengths of all the sides together. So, the perimeter of the shape is 11 + 14 + y + y. This can be simplified to (25 + 2y) inches.

When you write an expression for the perimeter of a rectangle, there could be two unknown lengths — the length and the width. So you might need to use two variables. Example

4 l

Write an expression for the perimeter of the rectangle on the right.

w

w l

Solution

The perimeter of the shape is w + l + w + l = 2w + 2l. Or you could write this expression as 2l + 2w. It means exactly the same. Check it out: You use the associative and commutative properties all the time in math. Most times, you probably do it almost without thinking — for example, when you work out 10 + 3 instead of 3 + 10 (an example of the commutative property of addition being used). But now you need to be able to recognize when you do it. There’ll be many examples pointed out throughout this book.

76

Add Numbers Together in Any Order When you add the lengths together to find the perimeter of a shape, you can add numbers together in any order. This is because addition is commutative and associative. Commutative Property of Addition: Associative Property of Addition:

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

x+y=y+x

(x + y) + z = x + (y + z)

Guided Practice 3. Find the perimeter of a rectangle with length 8 inches and width 5 inches. 4. Write and simplify an expression for the perimeter of the shape shown below. 18 cm 13 cm 11 cm ? cm

5. A triangle has one side of length 3 inches, one side of length 4 inches, and a third side of length q inches. Write and simplify an expression for the perimeter of this triangle.

Solve Geometry Equations by Manipulating Them If you’re given enough information, you can set up an equation to find a missing length or a perimeter. Example

5

Write an expression for the perimeter of the shape below. If the full perimeter is 100 inches, find the length of the unknown side. 19 in. 26 in.

15 in.

? in.

16 in.

Solution

The perimeter is the distance all the way around the outside. Using the picture, this is (15 + 19 + 26 + 16 + x) inches, where x is the length of the unknown side. This can be simplified to 76 + x inches. Don’t forget: You could use the “guess and check” method to solve this equation. But “guess and check” only works well for finding integers.

Now you can write an equation using the other information in the question — the fact that the full perimeter is 100 inches. So 76 + x = 100. You can then solve this equation by subtracting 76 from both sides. x + 76 = 100 76 + x is the same as x + 76 x = 100 – 76 Subtract 76 from both sides, and simplify. x = 24 So the length of the unknown side is 24 inches.

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

77

Guided Practice 6. By first writing an expression, find the unknown length on the shape shown below, which has a perimeter of 60 m. 11 m

9 m 13 m

? m

5 m

7. Liz knows that the perimeter of her kitchen is 50 yards. She knows from measuring that three of its four walls have a combined length of 32 yards. What is the length of the remaining wall?

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 2.3.1 additional questions — p434

1. Write an expression for the length of the piece of wood shown below.

20 in.

? in.

2. Use “guess and check” to find the unknown length in Exercise 1 if the total length of the wood is 32 inches. Write an expression for the perimeter of each shape given in Exercises 3–4. 3.

23 cm

4.

13 cm ? cm

25 cm

? yds 15 yds

8 yds In Exercises 5–6, form and solve an equation to find the unknown length, given that the perimeter of each shape is 100 inches. 31 in. 6. 5. 18 in. 31 in. ? 35 in.

29 in.

?

Round Up Dealing with expressions about lengths isn’t harder than dealing with expressions in any other situation. The main thing is to remember how to make an expression in the first place. Once you’ve mastered that, you should be ready to tackle area... 78

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

Lesson

2.3.2

Expressions About Area

California Standards:

You’ve used expressions to represent lengths and perimeters, but they can be used to represent just about anything else as well.

Algebra and Functions 1.2 Write and evaluate an algebraic expression for a given situation, using up to three variables. Algebra and Functions 1.3 Apply algebraic order of operations and the commutative, associative, and distributive properties to evaluate expressions; and justify each step in the process. Algebra and Functions 3.1 Use variables in expressions describing geometric quantities (e.g., P = 2w + 2l, A = ½bh, C = pd — the formulas for the perimeter of a rectangle, the area of a triangle, and the circumference of a circle, respectively). Algebra and Functions 3.2 Express in symbolic form simple relationships arising from geometry.

What it means for you:

In this Lesson, they’re used to describe areas. The good thing is that all the ideas about variables and solving equations work exactly the same as before.

Expressions Can Describe Area You’ve already seen the formula for the area of a rectangle — area = base × height. But if you don’t know one or both of these measurements, you have to use variables. Example

1

Write an expression for the area of the rectangle on the right. Then use it to find the area when j = 4. Solution

6 cm

Area = base × height = 6 × j = 6j cm2. Evaluating this for j = 4 gives an area of 6 × 4 = 24 cm2. If there are two unknowns, you need two variables. Example

2

You’ll practice using expressions to represent the area of objects.

Write an expression for the area of the rectangle on the right.

Key words:

Solution

• • • • •

Call the height of the rectangle h, and the base b.

length area expression commutative associative

j cm

height = ?

base = ? Both the base and the height are unknown, so you need to use variables for both of them.

Then the area of the rectangle is b × h, or bh. Check it out: The formula for the area of a rectangle: “Area = base × height,” is often shortened to just “A = bh.”

Guided Practice 1. Write an expression that represents the area of a rectangle with base b cm and height 4 cm. 2. Write an expression that represents the area of a rectangle with base 12 inches and height f inches. 3. Evaluate your expression from Exercise 2 to find the area of the rectangle when the height is 3 inches. Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

79

The Area of a Triangle is Half the Area of a Rectangle Check it out: Notice that the area of a triangle is half the area of the rectangle with the same base and height measurements. 2

h

1 2

1

You’ve seen the formula for the area of a triangle before: 1 area = ×base× height. Just like with rectangles, if you don’t know the 2 length of the base or the height, you’ll need to use a variable. Example

3

Write an equation describing the area of the triangle shown below. Then use your equation to find the triangle’s area if its height is 3 inches and its base is 8 inches.

b In this diagram, the areas marked 1 are equal, and the areas marked 2 are equal. The white triangle has half the area of the rectangle.

height = h base = b

Solution

There are two unknowns, so your expression will need to include two variables — the height h and the base b. 1 2

1 2

Use these variables in the triangle area formula: Area = × b × h = bh Check it out: The formula for the area of a triangle is usually shortened 1 to just “A = 2 bh.”

Use this equation to find the triangle’s area when b = 8 and h = 3. 1 2

1 2

Area = bh = ×8×3 = 12 in 2

Multiply Numbers Together in Any Order Check it out: As with the equivalent properties for addition in the previous lesson, you probably use the associative and commutative properties for multiplication all the time without thinking — for example, when you work out 2 × 9 instead of 9 × 2 (this uses the commutative property of multiplication). Examples of these properties being used will be shown throughout this book.

Like addition, multiplication is also commutative and associative. Commutative Property of Multiplication:

xy = yx

So the area of the rectangle in Example 2 could have been written hb. Associative Property of Multiplication:

(xy)z = x(yz)

This means you don’t need parentheses in the formula for the area of a triangle to show the order of the multiplications.

( 12 ×b)×h is the same as 12 ×(b×h). Guided Practice 4. Write an expression that represents the area of a triangle of height 2 inches and base y inches. 5. Evaluate your expression from Exercise 4 to find the area of the triangle when the base is 7 inches. 6. Write an expression that represents the area of a triangle with base x cm and height y cm.

80

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

Use Equations to Find Missing Lengths Equations can be used to find missing lengths. First you have to write an equation to describe the situation. Then you can solve it to find the missing value. Example

4

The area of the rectangle shown is 36 in2. Find the length of the unknown side.

3 in. ? in.

Solution

First write an equation linking the different quantities in the question. These are: • the side you know the length of (3 in.), • the side whose length you need to find out — call this b, • the area of the triangle (36 in2). The equation linking these three quantities is: area = base × height, or A = bh. Substituting in the values you know, this gives 36 = 3 × b, or 3b = 36. Don’t forget: The method for solving equations like these was explained in Lesson 2.2.4.

Now solve this equation: 3b = 36 Divide both sides by 12. b = 12 This means the length of the unknown side is 12 inches.

Guided Practice 7. A rectangle has area 12 in2 and its base is 3 inches. Form and solve an equation to find its height. 8. A triangle has area 25 in2 and its height is 5 inches. Form and solve an equation to find the length of its base.

Independent Practice Now try these:

1. Write an expression for the area of a square with side length b cm.

Lesson 2.3.2 additional questions — p435

2. Write an expression for the area of a triangle with base 6 inches and height h inches. 3. Evaluate your expression from Exercise 2 to find the area of the triangle when the height is 3 inches. 4. By breaking it into simple shapes, write an expression for the area of the shape shown to the right.

h in.

8 in.

b in.

Round Up Expressions for areas of triangles have that tricky ½ — so they can be awkward. Focus on working out each little bit of the expression in turn — that’s the best way to avoid mistakes. Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

81

Lesson

2.3.3

Finding Complex Areas

California Standards:

Finding the area of a rectangle or a triangle is one thing. But once you can do that, you can start to find out the areas of some really complicated shapes using those very same techniques.

Algebra and Functions 3.1 Use variables in expressions describing geometric quantities (e.g., P = 2w + 2l, A = ½bh, C = pd — the formulas for the perimeter of a rectangle, the area of a triangle, and the circumference of a circle, respectively). Mathematical Reasoning 1.3 Determine when and how to break a problem into simpler parts.

What it means for you: You’ll see how you can use the formulas for the areas of rectangles and triangles to find areas of much more complex shapes too.

This is an important idea in math — using what you know about simple situations to find out about more complex ones.

Find Complex Areas by Breaking the Shape Up There’s no easy formula for working out the area of a shape like this one.

10 in. 4 in. 8 in.

But you can find the area by breaking the shape up into two smaller rectangles. Example

6 in.

1 10 in.

Find the area of the shape above. 4 in.

Solution

Key words: • complex shape

8 in.

Divide the shape into two rectangles, as shown.

6 in.

h

Area of large rectangle = 10 × 4 = 40 in2. b

Now you need the dimensions of the small rectangle, b and h. b = 10 – 6 = 4 in. And h = 8 – 4 = 4 in. So the area of the small rectangle = bh = 4 × 4 = 16 in2. Check it out: There’s often more than one way you can break a complicated shape up. Try to spot the way that will make your calculations as easy as possible.

So the total area of the shape is 40 + 16 = 56 in2. You don’t always have to break a complicated shape down into rectangles. You just have to break it down into simple shapes that you know how to find the area of. Example

2 9 in.

Find the area of the shape on the right. 4 in. Solution

4 in.

Divide the shape into a rectangle and a triangle. 9

Area of rectangle = 9 × 4 = 36 in2.

3 in.

4

1 2

Area of triangle = × 4 ×3 = 6 in 2 . So the total area of the shape is 36 + 6 = 42 in2.

82

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

4 3

Guided Practice Check it out: These problems can look tough, so take it step by step. Work out the area of each rectangle or triangle in the shape in turn. Don’t try to do the whole calculation at once.

Find the areas of the shapes below. 3 in. 3 in.

1.

6 cm

2. 2 cm 2 in.

4 in.

4 cm 3 cm

3.

12 cm

4.

8 in. 8 in.

6 cm

6 in.

8 in.

6 in.

6 cm

6 in.

4 cm

4 cm

Complex Areas Can Involve Variables Sometimes you have to use variables for the unknown lengths. But you can write an expression in just the same way. Example

3 x

Find the area of the shape on the right. y Solution

Divide the shape into two rectangles. Area of the large rectangle = xy. Area of the small rectangle = ab.

b

x a

y b

So the total area of the shape is xy + ab.

a

Guided Practice

Check it out: If you’re finding questions 6–8 tough, then look back at Exercises 2–4 above. The shapes are exactly the same, only this time the lengths are variables instead of numbers. Work out the areas in just the same way.

Find the areas of the shapes below. x 5. 6. x

x y b

x

a

x 7.

b b

a

8.

b

b

a a

b

a c

c

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

83

Check it out: You can divide the shape up differently and get the same answer. For example, you could divide it into two rectangles: q q

You Can Subtract Areas As Well Sometimes it’s easier to find the area of a shape that’s too big, and subtract a smaller area from it. Example

4

q

Calculate the area of the shape on the right.

q

q

q

p

Then the total area is pq + q(p – q). Using the distributive property (covered in the next lesson), you’ll see that this gives exactly the same answer as in Example 4. pq + q(p – q) = pq + qp – q2 = 2pq – q2 Look for another way to divide up the shape, and check that it gives the same expression for the area.

q

p

Solution

q

This time it’s easier to work out the area of the rectangle with the red outline, and subtract the area of the gray square.

q p

Area of red rectangle = p × 2q = 2pq. Area of gray square = q × q = q2. So area of original shape = 2pq – q2.

Guided Practice Use subtraction to find the areas of the shapes below. a 16 in. 9. 10.

6 in.

c

b

5 in.

c

5 in.

Independent Practice Find the areas of the shapes below. Now try these:

1.

5 cm

2.

Lesson 2.3.3 additional questions — p435

4 cm

5 cm 5 cm

4 cm 9 cm

2a

7 cm

2 in.

3.

4. 1 in.

b 3b

4 in.

2a 8 in.

4a

Round Up Remember that it doesn’t matter whether your lengths are numbers or variables — you treat the problems in exactly the same way. That’s one of the most important things to learn in algebra. 84

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

Lesson

2.3.4

The Distributive Property

California Standard:

The distributive property is the name given to a way of breaking up certain types of multiplication. It can help a lot with math once you understand it properly.

Algebra and Functions 1.3 Apply algebraic order of operations and the commutative, associative, and distributive properties to evaluate expressions; and justify each step in the process.

Use the Distributive Property to Remove Parentheses Look at the shape on the right. a

What it means for you: You’ll learn about the distributive property, which allows certain types of multiplication to be rewritten in other ways and helps simplify mental math.

Key words: • distributive property • multiplication • parentheses

b You can work out its total area in two different ways.

c

• You can find the areas of the two smaller rectangles and add them. Total area = area of 1st rectangle + area of 2nd rectangle = ab + ac. • Or you can find the total width of the whole rectangle by adding b and c, and then multiply by the height. Total area = a(b + c). But these two expressions must be the same, since they both represent the same area. This is an example of the distributive property. Distributive Property:

Example

a(b + c) = ab + ac

1

Check it out:

Verify the distributive property in the case where a = 7, b = 5, and c = 3.

“Verify” means “Check that something is true.” So here, you just put the numbers in the distributive property equation and check that it “works.”

Solution

• First work out ab + ac. This is (7 × 5) + (7 × 3) = 35 + 21 = 56 • Next work out a(b + c). This is 7 × (5 + 3) = 7 × 8 = 56 Both sides are equal, and so the distributive property holds.

The distributive property means you can remove parentheses from an expression. Example Check it out: For an alternative way to do this Example, see Exercise 1 in the next Guided Practice.

2

Remove the parentheses from the expression p(q + r). Solution

Using the distributive property: p(q + r) = pq + pr

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

85

Guided Practice 1. Verify the distributive property by calculating the area of this rectangle in two different ways.

Don’t forget: a × (b + c) is exactly the same as a(b + c).

q

r

p

Draw a picture as in Exercise 1 to represent the expressions in Exercises 2–5. In each case, verify the distributive property by finding the area in two ways. 2. 2 × (7 + 9) 3. 20 × (9 + 4) 4. h × (3 + h), for h = 10 5. g × (y + d), for g = 3, y = 9, d = 5.

Don’t forget:

Remove the parentheses from the expressions in Exercises 6–8. 6. p × (q + r) 7. r × (s + t) 8. b × (c + d)

Using the commutative property of addition, you can write (q + r) × m as m × (q + r).

Remove the parentheses from the expressions in Exercises 9–11. 9. (q + r) × m 10. (a + b) × c 11. (e + f) × g

The Distributive Property Works with Subtraction Too If the parentheses contain a subtraction, then when you remove the parentheses, the expression will still contain a subtraction.

a(b – c) = ab – ac Example

3

Verify the distributive property for 2 × (6.5 – 0.5). Solution

(2 × 6.5) – (2 × 0.5) = 13 – 1 = 12 2 × (6.5 – 0.5) = 2 × 6 = 12 This rule works for any numbers — even negative ones. Remember to be extra careful if negative numbers are involved. Example

4

Verify the distributive property for –2 × (6.5 – 0.5). Solution

(–2 × 6.5) – (–2 × 0.5) = –13 – (–1) = –13 + 1 = –12 –2 × (6.5 – 0.5) = –2 × 6 = –12

86

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

Guided Practice 12. Verify the distributive property equation a(b – c) = ab – ac by calculating the area of the shaded rectangle in two different ways.

b a c

Use the distributive property to evaluate the expressions in Exercises 13–20. Show your work. 13. 4 × (8 – 2) 14. 9 × (15 – 8) 15. –5 × (–7 – 5) 16. 9 × (8 – 15) 17. –6(23 – 18) 18. –2(–2 – 6) 19. 3 × (17 – p), given that p = 7 20. m × (n – p), given that m = 8, n = 7, p = 5 Remove the parentheses from the expressions in Exercises 21–23. 21. r × (s – t) 22. a × (b – c) 23. m × (n – p) Say whether each of Exercises 24–27 is true or false. 24. y × (2 – 3) = y × 2 – y × 3 25. f × (g – u) + y = f × g + f × u + f × y 26. k × (l – 12) = k – 12 27. t × 9 = t × 10 – t

Independent Practice Use the distributive property to evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–8. Show your work. 1. 2 × (6 – 3) 2. 4 × (22 – 14) 3. –4 × (–2 – 8) 4. 2 × (6 – 23) 5. –6 × (–23 + 8) 6. –3 × (–8 – 1) 7. q × (17 – q), given that q = 3 8. b × (c – d), given that b = 10, c = 6, d = 8 Remove the parentheses from the expressions in Exercises 9–11. 9. t × (d – r) 10. (y – h) × z 11. (9 – s) × 3

Now try these: Lesson 2.3.4 additional questions — p436

Say whether each of Exercises 12–15 is true or false. 12. v × (5 – e) = 5v – 5e 13. p × (q – 3) + 7 = pq – 3p + 7p 14. (2 – m) × n = 2n – mn 15. –d × (–9 – r) = 9d + dr

Round Up The distributive property is very useful in math — it comes up again and again. So learn it now... Practice writing it down a few times until you can do it without thinking. It’ll definitely be useful in the next Lesson. Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

87

Lesson

2.3.5

Using the Distributive Property

California Standard: Algebra and Functions 1.3 Apply algebraic order of operations and the commutative, associative, and distributive properties to evaluate expressions; and justify each step in the process.

The distributive property is incredibly useful — not only when you’re doing algebra, but also when you’re trying to work out complicated sums in your head.

What it means for you:

The distributive property can help with mental math.

You’ll learn how to use the distributive property for mental math problems and problems involving patterns.

The idea is to split complicated numbers into numbers that are easy to multiply in your head.

The Distributive Property Makes Mental Math Easier

Example Key words: • distributive property • multiplication • expression

1

Calculate 7 × 14 without using a calculator. Solution

7 × 14 = 7 × (10 + 4) = (7 × 10) + (7 × 4) = 70 + 28 = 98 Example

Write 14 as 10 + 4 Use the distributive property

2

Calculate 5 × 107 without using a calculator. Solution Write 107 as 100 + 7 5 × 107 = 5 × (100 + 7) = (5 × 100) + (5 × 7) Use the distributive property = 500 + 35 = 535

Sometimes it’s easier to use a subtraction. Example

3

Calculate 6 × 29 without using a calculator. Solution

6 × 29 = 6 × (30 – 1) = (6 × 30) – (6 × 1) = 180 – 6 = 174

Write 29 as 30 – 1 Use the distributive property

Guided Practice Don’t forget: Use the commutative property of multiplication to rewrite these Exercises in the easiest order. For example, 21 × 8 is the same as 8 × 21.

88

Using the distributive property, do Exercises 1–8 as mental math. 1. 6 × 13 2. 7 × 21 3. 2 × 17 4. 21 × 8 5. 11 × 13 6. 16 × 5 7. 3 × 33 8. 15 × 9

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

The Distributive Property Is Used All the Time The distributive property can be used to rewrite expressions from all areas of math. Example

4

This triangle is made out of 2 red sticks and 1 blue stick. The total length of the sticks in one triangle is given by 2r + b, where r is the length of a red stick and b is the length of a blue stick.

Don’t forget: It’s always a good idea to check your answers. Here, you could count the number of red and blue sticks in the final diagram, and see if it matches your expression.

Write an expression for the total length of sticks in the pattern on the right. Solution

The pattern is made up of 6 of the small triangles. So the total length of red and blue sticks is 6 × (2r + b). Using the distributive property, this can be rewritten: 6 × (2r + b) = (6 × 2r) + (6 × b) = 12r + 6b

Guided Practice Exercises 9–11 are about the diagram on the right. 9. Write an expression for the total length of the sides, if each purple side has length p and each green side has length g. 10. Write an expression for the total length of the sides, if 3 of these shapes are arranged in a pattern as shown. Write your expression in two different ways, using the distributive property. 11. Write two expressions for the length of the sides if 100 of the shapes are arranged in a similar pattern.

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 2.3.5 additional questions — p436

1. Carl is at the store to buy school supplies. Pens cost $1.15 each and a package of computer paper costs $3.75. He wants to buy two pens and two packages of paper. Write an expression of the form a × (b + c) that can be used to represent this situation. 2. Use the distributive property to calculate the money Carl spent. Use the distributive property to do Exercises 3–8 as mental math. 3. 9 × 29 4. 14 × 12 5. 19 × 7 6. 17 × 7 7. 15 × 11 8. 9 × 31 Rewrite Exercises 9–12 using the distributive property. 9. a × (11 – b) 10. j × (g + k) 11. 7 × (3 + s) 12. 15 × (q – w)

Round Up This mental math technique might seem hard to begin with, but can be really useful once you’ve had some practice. And if you can manage it, it’s a trick that’ll impress all your friends. Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

89

Lesson

2.3.6

Squares and Cubes

California Standards:

This is mostly a Lesson on things you’ve seen before — expressions, equations, order of operations... But everything comes about from looking at (and thinking about) squares and cubes.

Algebra and Functions 1.2 Write and evaluate an algebraic expression for a given situation, using up to three variables. Algebra and Functions 3.1 Use variables in expressions describing geometric quantities (e.g., P = 2w + 2l, A = ½bh, C = pd — the formulas for the perimeter of a rectangle, the area of a triangle, and the circumference of a circle, respectively). Algebra and Functions 3.2 Express in symbolic form simple relationships arising from geometry.

What it means for you: You’ll practice using expressions to represent areas and volumes of objects.

Key words: • • • • • • • •

square cube edge face expression power area volume

Squares Are a Special Sort of Rectangle You’ve already seen that you can write the formula for the area of a rectangle as A = bh. But a square is just a rectangle whose sides all s have the same length — call it s. So the formula for the area becomes: s A = s × s or A = s2 Remember — s2 (“s squared”) means exactly the same as s × s. Example

Write an expression for the total area of 4 identical squares with sides of length d. Evaluate your expression in the case where d = 3 in. Solution

The area of one square is given by d2. So the area of 4 identical squares is given by 4d2. You now have to evaluate this expression for d = 3. The total area will be 4 × 32 — but remember to evaluate exponents before multiplication. So the total area is 4 × 32 = 4 × 9 = 36 in2.

You can use “guess and check” to find the length of a side if you know the area. Example

Don’t forget: Evaluate exponents before doing multiplication — see PEMDAS in Lesson 2.1.4.

Don’t forget: 32 can be said out loud as either “3 squared” or “3 to the second power.” Both mean exactly the same thing.

90

1

2

A square has area 36 in2. What is the length of its sides? Solution

You need to solve the equation 36 = s2. That means you need to find a value for s that gives 36 when you square it. Use “guess and check”: • Try s = 10. Here s2 comes to 10 × 10 = 100, which is much too large. • Try s = 5. Now s2 comes to 5 × 5 = 25, which is too small. • Try s = 6. Now s2 comes to 6 × 6 = 36. So the square must have sides of length 6 inches.

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

Guided Practice 1. Write an expression for the area of a square with side length z. Don’t forget: Units such as in2 should be read as “square inches.”

2. A square has area 81 cm2. What is the length of its sides? 3. A square has area 49 in2. What is the length of its sides? 4. A square has area 16 yd2. What is the length of its sides? 5. A square has area 64 m2. What is the length of its sides? 6. A square has area 121 in2. What is the length of its sides?

Check it out: The straight lines that run along the side of faces are known as edges. They are shown red on the diagram on the right — 9 are visible, but there are 12 altogether. See Section 7.4 for more information.

Cubes Are “Three-Dimensional Squares” A cube is a three-dimensional solid with six square faces. Its surface area is the total area of all 6 of its faces. As each face is a square, the formula for surface area of a cube is: A = 6s2

Edge Edge s s

Example

s

3

Without using a calculator, find the surface area of a cube whose edges have length 9 cm. Solution

The surface area of the cube is given by 6s2. If s = 9, this is 6 × 92 = 6 × 81 Calculate the exponent first. Rewrite 81 as 80 + 1. = 6 × (80 + 1) = 6 × 80 + 6 × 1 Use the distributive property. Evaluate × before +. = 480 + 6 2 = 486 cm . Or you might have to solve equations to do with cubes. Example

4

The surface area of a cube is 54 in2. Use “guess and check” to find the length of the cube’s edges. Solution

The surface area of the cube is given by the expression 6s2. You need to find s such that 6s2 = 54. Use “guess and check.” • Try s = 4. Here 6s2 comes to 6 × 42 = 6 × 16 = 96, which is too large. • Try s = 2. Now 6s2 comes to 6 × 22 = 6 × 4 = 24, which is too small. • Try s = 3. Now 6s2 comes to 6 × 32 = 6 × 9 = 54, which is perfect. So the lengths of the cube’s edges must be 3 inches.

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

91

Guided Practice 7. Write an expression for the surface area of a cube with edge length k. 8. A cube has surface area 96 in2. What is the length of its edges? 9. A cube has surface area 216 cm2. What is the length of its edges? 10. A cube has surface area 150 yd2. What is the length of its edges?

Volume Is a Measurement of 3-D Space Check it out: The volume of a unit cube is always 1 cubic unit (1 unit3). This is because, for a unit cube, s = 1, and so s3 = 1 × 1 × 1 = 1. But notice that if you use different units, your unit cube changes too. For example, if you’re using yards, then your unit cube has sides of length 1 yard, and so its volume is 1 yd3. However, if you’re measuring things in centimeters, then a unit cube will have sides of length 1 cm, and a volume of 1 cm3.

Volume is a measurement of the amount of space inside a three-dimensional object. It’s measured in cubic units and equals the 1 number of unit cubes (cubes whose edges have length 1) that fit inside the object. 1 In the diagram on the right, each side has a s length of 2 units, so two unit cubes fit along 1 each side. (One unit cube is shaded blue.) You can calculate the volume of a cube using the formula:

V=s×s×s Example

or

s

s (= 2 here)

V = s3

5

Draw a picture to show the unit cubes in a cube with edge length 3 cm. Find the volume of the cube by counting unit cubes. Then verify your answer using the equation V = s3. Solution

1 cm

The edges have length 3 cm, so 3 unit cubes (using units of cm) will fit along each edge.

1 cm

3 cm 1 cm Count the unit cubes in layers, starting at the front. 3 cm There are 9 unit cubes in the front layer. 3 cm And there are 3 layers altogether, which means there are 9 × 3 = 27 unit cubes altogether. And since each unit cube has a volume of 1 cm3, the volume must be 27 cm3. Now use the equation V = s3 with s = 3 to check the result. V = 33 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 27 cm3.

92

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

Guided Practice 11. Using the formula, find the volume of a cube with edges 6 meters long. 12. By counting the number of unit cubes inside, work out the volume of a cube with edges 3 inches long. 13. Use “guess and check” to find the edge length of a cube with a volume of 64 cubic yards.

Independent Practice 1. Find the area of a square whose sides have length 5 in. 2. Find the volume of a cube whose sides have length 7 in. In Exercises 3–7, find the value of p. 3.

4.

p in.

p in.

Check it out: Another way to write 24 in2 is 24 sq. in. They both mean “24 square inches.”

p in.

p in. Area = 144 in2

Area = 36 in2 5.

6.

4 ft. 4 ft. 4 ft.

Now try these: Lesson 2.3.6 additional questions — p436

Volume = p ft3

Edge Length = p cm 2 Surface Area = 150 cm

7.

Edge Length = p in. Volume = 729 in3

Round Up There were a few formulas in this Lesson, but in the end it always comes down to two skills — being able to substitute values into a formula, and being able to work backward to find out what values need to be substituted. Keep practicing those skills. Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

93

Lesson

2.3.7

Expressions and Angles

California Standards:

More expressions, but this time about angles. Some of this you’ll have seen last year, but now you can apply your knowledge of expressions.

Algebra and Functions 1.2 Write and evaluate an algebraic expression for a given situation, using up to three variables. Algebra and Functions 3.1 Use variables in expressions describing geometric quantities (e.g., P = 2w + 2l, A = ½bh, C = pd — the formulas for the perimeter of a rectangle, the area of a triangle, and the circumference of a circle, respectively).

As with the earlier Lessons, expressions are used as a shorthand way of explaining how to work something out. In the world of angles, that usually means many pictures of triangles...

Angles Are Measured Between Two Lines Whenever two lines meet, you get an angle. The first thing you need to know about angles is how to label them. The diagrams below show two different ways of identifying angles: A

Algebra and Functions 3.2 Express in symbolic form simple relationships arising from geometry.

What it means for you:

Here, the marked angle could be called “the angle ABC.” If you follow the path “A then B then C,” you trace out the angle. Or it could simply be called “the angle at B.”

B

r°

More expressions practice — this time with angles.

C

On this diagram, the size (or measure) of the angle has been labeled with the variable r.

Key words: • angle • triangle • expression

Example

1

C

Write an expression for the measure of angle CAT.

80° x°

A Solution

The angle CAT is made up of two parts — an 80° angle and then a further angle of x°.

T

So, the angle CAT must be (80 + x)°.

Guided Practice Don’t forget: The little square symbol in the corner of the angle MED ( ) means that corner is a right angle. A right angle has a measure of 90°.

Exercises 1–2 make use of the diagram on the right.

M L

1. Write an expression for the measure of angle LED if MED = 90° and MEL = r°.

r°

2. Evaluate your expression to find the measure of angle LED when r = 30. E

94

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

D

The Angles in a Triangle Always Add Up to 180° Check it out: There’s a lot more about angles in triangles in Section 7.2. But for now, just remember that the measures of the angles in a triangle add up to 180°.

The measures of the angles in a triangle always add up to 180°. You can use this fact to make expressions for unknown angles. Example

2

Use the diagram below to write an equation involving x. Solve it, given that j = 70.

j° 80° x° Check it out:

Solution

There are other correct equations you could have, but they would all be equivalent to j + x = 100. For example, you could have: 80 + j + x = 180 x = 100 – j

Use the fact that the angle measures in a triangle add up to 180°. In the form of an equation, this is: 80 + j + x = 180 Or, subtracting 80 from both sides, you get: j + x = 100 To solve this, put j = 70. Then your equation becomes: 70 + x = 100 Now you can subtract 70 from both sides to get x = 30º.

Example

3

Find the values of x and y in the diagrams below. 1

x° x°

2

2y° y°

Solution

There’s a right angle (90°) in the first triangle, so x + x + 90 = 180. This means: x + x = 90, or 2x = 90. Divide both sides of this equation by 2 to get x = 45. This means the two equal angles in the first triangle are 45°. There’s also a right angle (90°) in the second triangle, so y + 2y + 90 = 180. This tells you: 2y + y = 90, or 3y = 90 Divide both sides of this equation by 3 to get y = 30. So the unknown angles in the second triangle measure 30° and 60°.

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

95

Guided Practice 3. Write an equation for c in the triangle on the right. Then use your equation to find c.

c°

4. Mark draws a triangle and starts measuring the angles. The first angle he measures is 70°. 40º He labels the other two angles’ measures q and w. Write an equation involving q and w. 5. Mark measures w and finds out that it is 50. Use your expression from Exercise 4 to find the value of q.

Independent Practice Write an equation for v in each of Exercises 1–2. Now try these: Lesson 2.3.7 additional questions — p437

1.

2. L The measure of angle PQR = 120° R eº vº aº vº P A Q Exercises 3–4 are about this regular hexagon.

G

3. By considering the shaded triangle, write an equation containing a. Use your equation to find a.

bº

aº 4. Write an equation linking a and b. aº aº Use this equation and your answer to Exercise 3 to find the value of b. Exercises 5–6 are about the triangle on the right. 5. Omar measures the angle LQP and finds that it is 100°. He next measures the angle QLP, and calls it w. Write an equation for m, the measure of angle LPQ.

L w° m° 100°

6. Omar finds that w = 20°. Use your answer to Exercise 5 to find the size of angle LPQ.

Q

Exercises 7–8 are about the ladder shown below. 7. Jasmine leans a ladder against a wall, and sees a right triangle. She measures the angle the ladder makes with the ground, g°. Write an equation for k in terms of g. 8. The angle with measure g° turned out to be 75º. Use your equation from Exercise 7 to find k.

k°

g°

Round Up The facts about angles inside a triangle often provide an excuse for some expression work. The technique is the same as for every other expression question — make an expression then you’ll probably have to work something out using it. 96

Section 2.3 — Geometrical Expressions

P

Lesson

Section 2.4

2.4.1

Analyzing Problems

California Standards:

Part of math is being able to apply it to the real world. That means spotting what math to use and when to use it. Sometimes problems can be reduced to equations, other times you just need to think logically.

Mathematical Reasoning 1.1 Analyze problems by identifying relationships, distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information, identifying missing information, sequencing and prioritizing information, and observing patterns. Mathematical Reasoning 2.4 Use a variety of methods, such as words, numbers, symbols, charts, graphs, tables, diagrams, and models, to explain mathematical reasoning.

Some Problems Involve Patterns When analyzing a problem, you need to try to figure out what is happening. Sometimes this means spotting a pattern in the results. Example

1

Find the next pattern in this sequence: ?

What it means for you: You’ll practice two of the fundamental math skills — being able to identify what is happening in different situations and how to use the information you’re given.

Solution

The shape is rotated clockwise by 90° every time. So the next one is

Example

Key words: • pattern • sequence • relationship

.

2

Find the next pattern in this sequence: ?

Check it out: This is an example of two patterns being combined. The first pattern is that the square rotates, so that the dots are on the next side in the clockwise direction. The second pattern is that the number of dots alternates — 1, then 2, then 1, and so on.

Solution

The pattern alternates between squares with two dots and squares with one dot. So the next square should have two dots. Every two squares, there is a rotation clockwise by 90°, so the next square should have its dots along the left edge of the square. So the next one is

.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–2, find the next shape in the pattern. 1. 2.

? ? Section 2.4 — Problem Solving

97

Patterns Can Be Number Based Patterns don’t just crop up in questions with pictures — they can occur in questions with numbers too. Example

3

Find the next number in this sequence: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, ... Solution

Each number is 2 more than the one before it. So the next number must be 13.

Example

4

Find the next number in this sequence: Check it out: It’s always worth looking at the differences between consecutive numbers in a sequence like this. Write the differences down — it can make a pattern easier to spot. So in Example 4, you’d write down 2, 3, 4, 5...

1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ... Solution

Between the first number and the second, 2 is added. Between the second number and the third, 3 is added. Between the third number and the fourth, 4 is added. Between the fourth number and the fifth, 5 is added. So, you should add 6 to get from the fifth number to the sixth. That means that the sixth number is 15 + 6 = 21.

Guided Practice

Check it out: Sometimes it’s not the value of the numbers that’s important, but the pattern they make. Look at Exercise 9, for example.

98

In Exercises 3–10, find the next number in the pattern. 3. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ... 4. 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, ... 5. 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, ... 6. 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, ... 7. 1, 11, 111, 1111, 11,111, ... 8. 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, ... 9. 1, 16, 161, 1616, 16,161, ... 10. 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, ...

Section 2.4 — Problem Solving

Some Problems Ask Things in a Strange Order Some problems might look complicated, even though the math behind them is actually quite simple. Example

5

On his birthday, Scott wonders how old the public library was the year he was born. Scott is now 12 and he knows that the public library was 50 years old, 9 years ago. How old was the library when Scott was born? Solution

Check it out: The only math this question asks you to do is adding and subtracting integers. But the way it asks the question is very complicated — and you need to think about it very logically and carefully.

The question gives you two pieces of information about two different times: • Now: Scott is 12. • 9 years ago: The library was 50 years old. You need to work out how old the library was when Scott was born. From your first piece of information, you can see this was 12 years ago. You now need to work out how old the library was 12 years ago. From the second piece of information, you can see it was 50 years old 9 years ago. So 12 years ago it must have been 47 years old.

Guided Practice 11. Eduardo needs another $17 to be able to afford a new video game that costs $40. Yesterday he spent $10 on comic books. How much did he have before he bought the comic books?

Now try these: Lesson 2.4.1 additional questions — p437

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–2, find the next shape in the pattern. 1. 2.

? ?

In Exercises 3–5, find the next number in the pattern. 3. 1, 2, 3, 11, 12, 13, 21, 22, 23, ... 4. 1, 10, 100, 1000, ... 5. 25, 27, 23, 25, 21, 23, 19, 21, 17, ... 6. Mayra has 16 oranges. Her father eats 4 of them, then she shares the rest equally between herself and her two brothers. How many do they get each?

Round Up Analyzing problems is an important part of math and an important thing in real life. Ask yourself what is going on and what information you have, then try to combine the two. It can be difficult to put all the pieces together, but just take it slowly and don’t panic. Section 2.4 — Problem Solving

99

Lesson

2.4.2

Important Information

California Standard:

Sometimes solving a problem might be hard because you have a lot of information, including some that you don’t need. Other times, solving a problem might be hard (or even impossible) because you don’t have enough information. This Lesson is a chance to practice dealing with both kinds of problems.

Mathematical Reasoning 1.1 Analyze problems by identifying relationships, distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information, identifying missing information, sequencing and prioritizing information, and observing patterns.

What it means for you: This Lesson is all about questions that don’t contain the right amount of information. You’ll practice identifying information that doesn’t matter and information that is missing.

Sometimes You Have Too Much Information Sometimes a math problem may try to confuse you by giving information that you don’t need. You need to be able to figure out what information is important and what isn’t. Example

1 Menu Sandwich Salad Drink French fries

The price list for items sold at the school Snack Bar is shown on the right. Maria has $10 and buys a sandwich and a drink. How much change should she get?

$3.55 $2.25 $1.35 $0.90

Solution

Key words: • important • missing • information

Maria has spent $3.55 + $1.35 = $4.90. As she started with $10, she should have $10 – $4.90 = $5.10 change. Although the question shows the price of salad and French fries, Maria doesn’t buy either of those, so you have to ignore that information. Example

2

What is the measure of the angle ABC? A 15°

C 23°

Solution

The measure of angle ABC is 23° + 15° = 38°.

B

D

The question also tells you that angle CBD is a right angle. But you don’t need that information, so you can ignore it.

Guided Practice

Don’t forget: Read the question carefully... Here, you just have to spot the unimportant pieces of information — you don’t have to solve the problems themselves.

100

In Exercises 1–3, identify any pieces of information that aren’t needed. 1. Find the area of a rectangle which is sized 6 inches by 3 inches and has a perimeter of 18 inches. 2. Deidra earns $5 an hour as a babysitter and $6.50 as a lifeguard. Last weekend, she babysat for 4 hours. Mr. Smith’s Bills How much did she earn? $700.00 Rent 3. Mr. Smith’s monthly bills are shown on the right. How much did he spend on rent and groceries?

Section 2.4 — Problem Solving

$58.00 Phone Utilities $75.00 Groceries $186.00

Some Problems Don’t Give Enough Information Sometimes you’ll have a problem that you can’t answer because you haven’t been told enough. When that happens you need to be able to figure out what information is missing. Example

3

Raul is at the store to buy cheese, walnuts, and grapes. He wants to buy one pound of cheese and 1.5 pounds each of grapes and walnuts. If cheese costs $1.75 per pound, how much will Raul spend altogether? Solution

You would need to know the cost of walnuts and the cost of grapes to answer this question. Example

4

The local park has a triangular garden area, as shown on the right. What is the value of x?

x°

55°

Solution

There is not enough information to solve this problem. You need to know the measures of two angles in a triangle to find the measure of the third angle. But the measure of only one angle is given.

Guided Practice In Exercises 4–6, identify the piece of important information not given. 4. Mr. Mendoza is building a rectangular play yard for his children. The length of the play yard is 8 meters. What is the area? 5. Ronald earned $175.00 working at the grocery store last week. How much does he earn per hour working at the grocery store? 6. Bill weighs 10 pounds more than his sister. What does Bill weigh?

It Can Be Hard to Tell If You Have Enough Information Sometimes it’s not obvious if you have enough information or not. You have to start a problem and see where you can get to. Sums to 15

These next examples are about “magic squares.” A magic square is a 3 × 3 grid containing the numbers 1 to 9, where each row, column, and diagonal adds up to the same number (in these examples, 15).

Sums to 15 Sums to 15 Sums to 15 All columns sum to 15

Sums to 15

Section 2.4 — Problem Solving

101

Example

5

9 2 5

Complete the magic square shown. All the rows, columns, and diagonals must sum to 15. Don’t forget:

Solution

Rows go across (they’re horizontal).

The numbers 2, 5, and 9 have already been used. That means you have to put the numbers 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 8 in the grid, making sure that all rows, columns, and diagonals sum to 15.

row row row

Columns go down (they’re vertical).

There are a lot of gaps. At this stage, you can’t be 100% sure you have enough information. But you can make a start... First of all, you can fill in the numbers shown in red. But then you have enough information to fill in the numbers in green.

columns

And finally, you can fill in the number in the center-right box. It must be 7.

This must be 15 – (9 + 2), using the top row. This must be 15 – (2 + 5), using one of the diagonals.

4 9 2 3 5 7 8 1 6 This must be 15 – (9 + 5), using the middle column.

So here, you did have enough information.

Example

6

Do you have enough information to complete this magic square? All the rows, columns, and diagonals must sum to 15.

9 5 3

Solution

You can work out the numbers in red straightaway. But then there’s no easy way to carry on. It looks like you don’t have enough information. But... if you try to put the next number in, you discover something. You can’t put “8” in any of the colored squares. • If you put it in the green square, then the top row sums to more than 15. • If you put it in the blue square, then the top row also sums to more than 15. • If you put it in the red square, then the left-hand column will sum to more than 15 (you can’t use 0). So “8” has to go in the bottom-right square. And then you can fill in all the others.

9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1

2 9 4 7 5 3 6 1 8

So you did have enough information, but you had to think hard about it. 102

Section 2.4 — Problem Solving

Guided Practice 7. Do you have enough information to complete the magic squares on the right? All the rows, columns, and diagonals must sum to 15. What do you discover when you try to complete the second magic square?

2 5 9

5 9 4

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, say whether you have too much or too little information to answer the question. If you have too much information, then say which information you don’t need. If you have too little, then say what information you would need. Now try these: Lesson 2.4.2 additional questions — p437

1. At 4:00 p.m., the temperature was 45° Fahrenheit. Each hour, the temperature dropped by the same amount. What was the temperature at 7:00 p.m.? 2. Damian is ten minutes late for school. He set off at 8:30 a.m. and it took him 40 minutes to get to school. During that time he had a 5-minute stop to buy a drink. What time does school start? 3. Marissa is a doctor. On Tuesday, she sees 12 patients in the morning, and in the afternoon she sees a further 10. To help out another doctor, Jorge, she agrees to see 3 of his patients on Wednesday. How many patients did she see in total on Tuesday? 4. The Coleman family goes to the movies. Adult tickets sell for $4.50 and children’s tickets sell for $2.00. How much will the Coleman family pay for tickets? 5. Mario needs to buy 120 meters of pipe, which he intends to divide into 8 equal parts. Pipe costs $10/meter. How much money does he need to buy the pipe? 6. Joshua is playing a game of tic-tac-toe against Luis. Luis says that for every game he loses, he will buy Joshua a soda. In the end, Luis loses four games. How much money must he spend on soda? 7. Do you have enough information to complete the magic squares on the right? All the rows, columns, and diagonals must sum to 15.

5 9 4

4 9 5

Round Up Being able to tell the difference between information that matters and information that doesn’t matter is important in math and in real life. The main thing is not to panic. Just go through each fact and decide whether it is important or not. When you get to the end, see if you have enough information to answer the question. Section 2.4 — Problem Solving

103

Lesson

2.4.3

Breaking Up a Problem

California Standards:

This Lesson is about some very general ideas that you can use in all the other math lessons you do this year, next year, the year after that, and so on. The idea is to make the most of every little bit of math knowledge you have — a very useful thing to be able to do.

Mathematical Reasoning 1.3 Determine when and how to break a problem into simpler parts. Mathematical Reasoning 2.2 Apply strategies and results from simpler problems to more complex problems. Mathematical Reasoning 2.4 Use a variety of methods, such as words, numbers, symbols, charts, graphs, tables, diagrams, and models, to explain mathematical reasoning. Mathematical Reasoning 2.5 Express the solution clearly and logically by using the appropriate mathematical notation and terms and clear language; support solutions with evidence in both verbal and symbolic work. Mathematical Reasoning 2.7 Make precise calculations and check the validity of the results from the context of the problem.

What it means for you: This is about being smart.

Key words • question technique • units • reasonable

Check it out: Write the numbers in rows of 4 until you’ve got 20 of them. 3, 9, 7, 1 3, 9, 7, 1 3, 9, 7, 1 3, 9, 7, 1 3, 9, 7, 1

Don’t forget: 32 means the same thing as 3 × 3. 33 means the same thing as 3 × 3 × 3, and so on. The small raised number is called the exponent.

104

Don’t Do More Work Than You Need to Sometimes solving a problem directly is very difficult. In those cases, look for any clever shortcuts you can to make things easier. Example

1

Linda is working on an extra-credit assignment. Her teacher wants her to find the last digit of 320 without using a calculator. Linda is, however, allowed to use the table below. How can Linda find the answer most efficiently? n

3n

Last Digit of 3n

n

3n

Last Digit of 3n

1

3

3

6

729

9

2

9

9

7

2187

7

3

27

7

8

6561

1

4

81

1

9

19,683

3

5

243

3

10

59,049

9

Solution

One way would be to work out more and more powers of 3. So she could work out 311 by calculating 59,049 × 3. Then she could find 312 by multiplying this answer by 3, and so on until she got to 320. But it would take a long time, and it would be very easy to make a mistake. However, Linda spots a pattern in the final digits. They go 3, 9, 7, 1, and then repeat. So by writing down 3, 9, 7, 1 again and again until she reaches the 20th number, Linda works out that the last digit of 320 must be 1.

Guided Practice 1. By making a table for small exponents, find the last digit of 430. 2. Marissa is asked to add up every number from 1 to 100. To try to find a pattern, she paired up the numbers in the sum. She added the first number (1) to the last (100), the second number (2) to the second to last (99), and so on. She found that each pair added up to 101. She then realized that she could find the answer by doing just one multiplication. What multiplication should she do?

Section 2.4 — Problem Solving

The next example has been broken up into several stages. It’s not the problem itself that’s the important thing here, but the approach to completing the task.

Break Problems Up into Smaller Parts Sometimes a big, complicated problem is easier if you split it up. So you take your big, complicated problem and break it up into many smaller, simpler problems that you can solve. Example

2

The diagram below shows a backyard with a swimming pool. What area of the backyard is grass? 80

15

Don’t forget: There will often be different ways to break the problem up. Try to look for the way that will make things easiest for you.

40

All lengths are in yards.

15 Solution — Part 1

You’ve actually seen a similar kind of problem already — in Section 2.3. What you did then was to break the big, complicated problem up into smaller, easier-to-solve problems. That’s all you’re doing here too. To find the area of the grass, you can: • Find the total area of the backyard. • Find the area of the swimming pool. • Subtract the area of the swimming pool from the area of the backyard.

Always Show How You’re Solving the Problem When you solve a problem in math, you should always explain how you got your answer. Use any method that explains your reasoning — for example words, numbers, symbols, charts, tables, graphs... Example

2 (continued)

Look again at the problem in Example 2 above. Solution — Part 2

Check it out: Doing this will help your teacher follow your work. But it will also help you when you check your work.

You should always write down exactly how you’re going to find your answer. So here, you could write: Area of grass = Total area of backyard – Area of swimming pool Or you could draw a diagram:

80 15 15

80 40

=

40

–

15 15

Section 2.4 — Problem Solving

105

Always Show Your Work Even if you use a calculator to do the actual calculations, it’s best to write down all the different answers you found on the way. Example

2 (continued)

Check it out:

Look again at the problem in Example 2 on the previous page.

If you write all your intermediate answers down, then it’s easier to spot mistakes when you check your work.

Solution — Part 3

Total area of backyard = 80 × 40 = 3200 Area of swimming pool = 15 × 15 = 225 So area of grass = 3200 – 225 = 2975

Write Your Answer Clearly, and Remember Units There’s still something missing from the above answer. As it stands, it’s not clear if the answer is 2975 m2, 2975 in2, 2975 yd2, or something entirely different. Example

2 (continued)

Look again at the problem in Example 2 on the previous page. Solution — Part 4

Always check the question to see if you should include units. Area of grass = 3200 – 225 = 2975 yd2.

Check Your Answers You’ve found an answer. But you should always check it — it’s easy to press the wrong button on a calculator, for example. Example

2 (continued)

Look again at the problem in Example 2 on the previous page. Solution — Part 5

Suppose your calculator gave you an answer of 31,775 yd2. You can quickly check if it’s reasonable. Don’t forget: You can use rounding to check your answer — see Section 1.4.

106

The area of grass has to be less than the total area of the backyard. The total area of the backyard was 80 × 40 yd2 = 3200 yd2, so the answer has to be less than this. So the answer of 31,775 must be wrong. It looks like you pressed the calculator’s zero button too many times, giving 32,000 – 225 instead of 3200 – 225.

Section 2.4 — Problem Solving

Guided Practice 3. Tyler and Ashlee both tried to multiply 1.3 by 2 and both got the wrong answer. Their work is shown below. Identify the error each made, if possible. Tyler: 1.3 × 2 = 9.3 Ashlee: 1.3 × 2 = 2 × (1 + 0.3) = (2 × 1) + (2 × 0.3) = 2 + 0.5 = 2.5 4. At the amusement park, the roller coaster ride takes 2 minutes and the merry-go-round takes 3.5 minutes. Gabriela rode the roller coaster two times and the merry-go-round three times. What is the total amount of time that she spent on rides?

Check it out: Check your answers to Exercises 6–9 by substituting your answer back into the original equation.

5. A half-gallon container of orange juice sells for $3.75, and a half-gallon container of apple juice sells for $2.85. Mr. Gonzales buys three containers of orange juice, and Ms. Chung buys two containers of apple juice. How much more than Ms. Chung did Mr. Gonzales spend? Solve the equations given in Exercises 6–9 and check your answer. 6. y ÷ 3 = –16 7. r × 9 = 72 8. p × 11 = –66 9. q ÷ 6 = 6

Independent Practice Find the white shaded areas of the shapes given in Exercises 1–3. All measurements are given in inches. 1. Now try these: Lesson 2.4.3 additional questions — p438

3

2.

2 7

3. 10

7

11 45

4

10 10

4. By making a table for small exponents, find the last digit of 720. 5. Jim is selling necklaces at $1 per necklace. Erin buys 4 and Olivia buys 6. Madison buys half of Erin’s for $1.50 per necklace. How much more did Olivia spend than Madison? 6. Manuel is trying to find out if 174 467 093 477 549 819 816 can be divided exactly by 4. He notices that 12, 112, 212, 312, and 412 can all be divided exactly by 4. What pattern has he noticed? Find a pattern to help decide whether the large number can be divided exactly by 4.

Round Up So you see... most of this is common sense. Always show your work, check your answers, and so on. But it’s small things like this that really help you to get more questions right, more of the time, and that can’t be a bad thing. Section 2.4 — Problem Solving

107

Chapter 2 Investigation

Design a House

Write an expression for the area of each of the 5 rooms in the house. Things to think about:

x

y

Bedroom #1

Bathroom

Part 1:

15 feet

You’re an architect. Your clients know the layout they want in their new home, but they haven’t yet decided on the exact measurements of all the rooms. So some variables have been used in the floorplan below.

Kitchen

Combined Hall

4 feet

15 feet

and

• To check your answers, think about what these areas should add up to.

Living room Bedroom #2

Part 2:

45 feet

On the right is a price list for carpets and floor tiles. The bedrooms and hall/living room are to be carpeted, but the bathroom and kitchen will be tiled. Write an expression for the total cost of carpets and floor tiles.

Carpet: $2 per square foot Tiles: $3 per square foot Start by writing an expression for each room.

Extension 1) Write an expression for the perimeter of each room. 2) If the height of all the rooms is 9 feet, and all the house’s windows and doors have a total area of 162 ft2, write an expression for the total internal wall area. 3) All the internal walls are to be painted, and paint costs $0.20 for each square foot of wall. How much will the paint cost for all the internal walls? 4) The clients decide that the floor area of the bedrooms is to be 270 square feet each. Use this information to find x. Can you find the final costs of paint and floor coverings? Open-ended Extension Explore different floor layouts for a house. Start with a one-room house. You want your house to have a floor area of 400 square feet. However, you want to do as little building as possible, so you want the total length of walls to be as small as possible. 1) What shape should your house be? 2) Would you get a different answer if the walls didn’t have to be straight? 3) What if you want your house to have three rooms, each with an area of 400 square feet? What is the best layout if you want the total length of walls to be as short as possible?

Round Up Remember... If you don’t know the value of something, you can just give it a variable name instead. You might be able to work it out later, when you’ve found out some more information. pter 2 In vestig a tion — Design a House Chapter Inv estiga 108 Cha

Chapter 3 Fractions and Percentages Section 3.1

Understanding Fractions ....................................................... 110

Section 3.2

Exploration — Multiplying Fractions: an Area Model............. 124 Multiplying Fractions .............................................................. 125

Section 3.3

Dividing Fractions .................................................................. 136

Section 3.4

Exploration — Adding Fractions: an Area Model .................. 144 Adding and Subtracting Fractions ......................................... 145

Section 3.5

Exploration — Percents with a Double Number Line ............ 167 Percents ................................................................................ 168

Chapter Investigation — Wildlife Trails ......................................................... 193

109

Lesson

Section 3.1

3.1.1

Understanding Fractions

California Standard:

You’ve worked with fractions in earlier grades and so you should already have a good idea of what they represent. This Lesson reviews some of those concepts and introduces the idea of negative fractions.

Number Sense 1.1 Compare and order positive and negative fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers and place them on a number line.

What it means for you:

Fractions Can Show a Part of the Whole A fraction can represent a part of a single object. For example: The spinner has been divided into seven equal parts (sevenths), and one of these parts is green.

You’ll first review what fractions show. Then you’ll mark positive and negative fractions that fall between –1 and +1 on a number line.

Key words: • • • •

1 7 3 7

(one-seventh) of a spinner is green. (three-sevenths) of the spinner is red.

A fraction can also represent a certain number of a set of objects. For example: 3 10

denominator equivalent fraction numerator negative

(three-tenths) of a set of

ten bowling pins is still standing. 7 10

(seven-tenths) of the set has

been knocked down.

Don’t forget: You can think of the number on the bottom as how many parts there are in all. Then the number on the top is how many of those parts you are talking about.

Fractions Can Be Expressed in Different Ways 2 8

of this circle is shaded. You can see that this is the same 1

as one quarter ( 4 ).

2 8

and

1 4

are equivalent fractions.

Equivalent fractions have the same value. If you have 30 students in your math class and 15 are boys, you could say that

15 30

of the students are boys. However, you could also say that

the students are boys.

15 30

and

1 2

are equivalent fractions.

Guided Practice 1. What fraction of the spinner above is blue? 2. 17 out of the 24 students in a class have a pet dog. Express the number that have a dog as a fraction. 3. What fraction of this triangle is blue? Give a fraction that is equivalent to this. 4. You invite 8 friends to a party, but two of them can’t come. What fraction of your 8 friends can’t come? Give a fraction that is equivalent to this. 110

Section 3.1 — Fractions

1 2

of

Don’t forget: The numerator is on the top of the fraction. The denominator is on the bottom.

3 4

Two-Halves and Three-Thirds Both Equal 1 Whole If the numerator and the denominator of a fraction are the same, the fraction is equal to 1.

2 3 6 10 54 = = = = =1 2 3 6 10 54

So, for example:

numerator denominator

The circle below is divided into thirds. Each segment is circle. Two segments make up segments make

3 3

2 3

1 3

of the whole

of the whole circle, and all three of the

of the circle — which is equivalent to the whole circle.

1 3

whole circle

3 3

2 3

= whole circle

Fractions Can Be Shown on a Number Line Just like integers, fractions can be shown at positions on the number line. Think of 1 on the number line as representing one whole. Positive fractions with a numerator smaller than the denominator, like

1 2

or

4 , 5

represent parts of a whole. This means they are between 0

and 1 on the number line. Example Show

1 10

1

and

3 10

on a number line.

Solution

The number 1 on the number line represents 1 whole. It could also be written as

10 . 10

So divide the distance between 0 and 1 into 10 equal parts (tenths). 1 1 1 10 10 10

1

0

-1 1 10

is one-tenth of

1 3 10 10

the way from 0 to 1.

3 10

2

10 10

is three-tenths of the way from 0 to 1.

Guided Practice Mark the fractions in Exercises 5–9 on a number line. 5.

1 4

6.

1 5

7.

1 8

8.

2 10

9.

8 10

10. Which of the two fractions above are at exactly the same position? Section 3.1 — Fractions

111

Fractions Can Be Negative Too °C

Imagine at 9 p.m. the temperature is 1 °C. 1 2 1 is 2

It then falls by At 10 p.m. it

–1 2

°C, then at 11 p.m. it is at 0 °C.

Over the next hour it falls by another This takes it to

1

1 –2

1 2

1 2 °C

1 2

a degree every hour until midnight.

1 2 °C

0

1 2 °C

–1

degree.

°C at midnight.

This illustrates that just like integers, fractions can be negative. 1

51

So you can have values such as – 2 , – 4 , or – 73 . 5

Negative Fractions Can Be Shown on the Number Line Negative fractions are hard to picture in the same way as positive fractions. They can be shown on the number line though. Like negative integers, they are positioned to the left of zero. A negative fraction with a numerator smaller than the denominator will always be between 0 and –1 on the number line. Negative fractions Positive fractions Part of this number line has been divided into fourths. 1 2 3 − , − , and − are all 4 4 4 between 0 and –1.

–1 4

-1

–3 4

There’s lots more information about positive and negative integers in Section 1.1.

–1 4

0

–1 4

–2 4

–4 4

Don’t forget:

–1 4

–1 4

1

Negative integers decrease in value the further to the left you go. The same is true of negative fractions. So the further to the right on the number line a negative fraction lies, the greater it is. 1

3

On the number line above, you can see that – 4 is greater than – 4 , as it lies further to the right. You can write Example 1

1 3 − >− , 4 4

or

3 1 − <− . 4 4

2 5 6

Show – 6 and – on a number line. Which is greater? Solution

Divide the distance between 0 and –1 into 6 equal parts (sixths). –1 6

–

5 is five-sixths of 6

the way from 0 to –1.

–1

–5 6

–1 6

–1 6

–1 6

–1 6

–1 6

1

0 –

1 is one-sixth of the way from 0 to –1. 6

– 1 lies further to the right, so it is greater, or 6

112

Section 3.1 — Fractions

1 5 − >− . 6 6

Guided Practice Mark each pair of fractions in Exercises 11–13 on a number line. Say which of each pair is greater. 11. – 4 , – 1 5

12. – 1 , – 5

5

8

13. –

8

1 , 10

–

7 10

14. What do you notice about the positions on the number line of the following pairs of fractions: – 1 and 4

Check it out: Absolute value is the size of a number, ignoring any minus signs. For example, the absolute value of 4 is 4, but the absolute value of –4 is also 4. The absolute value of both 0.5 and –0.5 is 0.5.

1 , 4

– 4 and 5

4 ? 5

Negative Fractions Behave Like Negative Integers When you add together a positive fraction and a negative fraction with the same absolute value, you get back to zero. Example

3

Use a number line to find

1 2

1

+ (– 2 ).

Solution

Start at

1 . 2

When you added a negative integer you moved to the left.

You add a negative fraction in the same way. So move

1 2

a space to

1 2

the left. –1

1 2

0

1

2

The solution is 0.

Guided Practice Use a number line to find the values of the following: 15. – 4 + 5

4 5

16. – 1 + 8

1 8

17.

7 10

+ (–

7 ) 10

Independent Practice 1. Draw a rectangle. Shade and label Now try these: Lesson 3.1.1 additional questions — p438

3 5

of it.

2. Tim has visited 13 out of the 50 states. Express this as a fraction. What fraction of the states has he not visited? 3. 26 out of 52 playing cards are black. Express this as a fraction. What simpler fraction is this equal to? Mark the fractions in Exercises 4–6 on number lines. 4.

2 3

2

and – 3

5.

2 5

2

and – 5

6.

1 9

1

and – 9

Round Up The fractions you’ve looked at in this Lesson are mainly proper fractions — where the numerator is smaller than the denominator. In the next Lesson you’ll look at improper fractions. In these, the numerator is bigger than (or equal to) the denominator. Section 3.1 — Fractions

113

Lesson

3.1.2

Improper Fractions

California Standard:

In the last Lesson, the positive fractions you looked at mainly lay between 0 and +1 on the number line — they had numerators that were smaller than their denominators. In this Lesson, you’ll look at improper fractions. In these, the numerator is bigger than or equal to the denominator.

Number Sense 1.1 Compare and order positive and negative fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers and place them on a number line.

Improper Fractions — They’re “Top-Heavy” What it means for you: You’ll develop techniques for dealing with improper fractions. This will give you the skills needed to place such fractions on the number line.

Key words: • • • • •

denominator improper fraction numerator proper fraction mixed number

An improper fraction is one whose numerator is greater than or equal to the denominator.

This is only true for positive numbers.

Some examples of improper fractions are shown below: 5 2

(five-halves)

circles are shaded. 4 3

(four-thirds)

triangles are shaded.

6 6

(six-sixths) of a

hexagon is shaded.

Don’t forget: You met fractions in which the numerator is equal to the denominator in the last 6

Lesson (like ) — they are 6 always equivalent to 1.

Mixed Numbers — Whole Numbers Plus Fractions A mixed number is one that shows the sum of a whole number and a fraction. Here are some examples of mixed numbers: 3

1 4

(three and one-quarter)

squares are shaded. 1

There are 2 3 (two and one-third) glasses of water.

1

1 (one and one-eighth) 8 large cubes are shaded.

114

Section 3.1 — Fractions

Mixed Numbers Have Equivalent Improper Fractions The diagrams shown on the previous page can be represented by both mixed numbers and improper fractions. For example: 5 2

shaded circles is the same as saying 2 1 shaded circles. 2

2 whole circles and one half-circle are shaded.

1 4

13 4

3 squares are shaded is the same as saying

squares are shaded. Thirteen quarter-squares are shaded.

Guided Practice Represent the shaded fraction of these groups of shapes using a mixed number and an improper fraction. 2.

1.

Converting Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions Suppose you need to convert 2 1 to an improper fraction. You could draw 4

a diagram. The mixed number 2 1 can be represented by this diagram: 4

Check it out: In this method, you’re working out the number of fourths in 1 4

2 . There are 2 × 4 = 8 fourths in two. 1 4

1 4

1 4

1 4

1 4

1 4

1 4

1 4

Then there is also one extra fourth that was expressed as the fraction part.

The diagram shows that 2 1 consists of a total of 9 quarters, or 4

But you don’t really need a diagram — you can work out the numerator and the denominator without one. The new denominator in the improper fraction is always the same as in the equivalent mixed number. A quick way of calculating the new numerator is to multiply the whole number part by the denominator and add the old numerator.

1 4

8 fourths, plus 1 fourth equals 9 fourths, also written as the improper fraction,

9 . 4

Mixed number

1

( 2 × 4) + 1

4

4

2 =

=

9

Improper fraction

4

9 . 4

the denominator remains the same.

Section 3.1 — Fractions

115

Example

Don’t forget: There are 4 × 6 = 24 sixths in four.

1

5

Write 4 6 as an improper fraction. Solution

1 6

1 6

1 1 6 6 1 1 6 6 1 1 6 6 1 1 6 6

1 6

1 6

1 1 6 6

1 6

1 1 6 6 1 1 6 6

1 6

1 1 6 6

1 6

1 1 6 6 1 6

( 4 × 6) + 5

6

6

4 = =

1 6

Then there are also an extra five sixths that were expressed as a fraction before. 1 6

5

29 6

To find the improper fraction’s numerator, multiply the whole number part by the denominator, then add the original numerator to this.

29

Keep the denominator the same.

6 5

is an improper fraction equal to 4 6 .

Guided Practice 1 6

So there are (4 × 6) + 5 = 29 sixths in total.

Write the following mixed numbers as improper fractions. 1

3

3. 5 4

3

4. 4 5

2

4

7. 8 3

1

5. 1 8

6. 10 10

3

8. 7 5

7

9. 2 7

10. 9 8

Converting Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers Now suppose you need to convert 7 3

7 3

to a mixed number. The improper

fraction is seven-thirds. But to make a whole, you only need three-thirds. Seven-thirds can be split up like this: three-thirds + three-thirds + one-third = seven-thirds

From the diagram, you can see that

7 3

1

is the same as 2 3 .

A faster way of doing this is by division. To get the whole number part, you need to find out how many times the denominator of the improper fraction is contained in the numerator of the improper fraction. The remainder (the number of parts left over) becomes the numerator of the fraction in the mixed number. This is the whole number part of the mixed number.

7 3 116

Section 3.1 — Fractions

Divide the numerator by the denominator.

The remainder is the numerator in the mixed number.

2 R1 3 7 –6 1

)

2 The denominator remains the same.

1 3

Example 59 4

Write

2

as a mixed number.

Solution

14 R 3 59 → 4 59 4 –4 19 – 16 3

)

→ 14

Divide the numerator by the denominator.

3 4

59 3 is written as 14 4 as a mixed number. 4

Guided Practice Write the following improper fractions as mixed numbers. 11.

8 5

12.

9 4

13.

11 8

14.

12 11

15.

16 13

16.

21 2

17.

23 7

18.

91 8

Independent Practice Represent the shaded fraction of the groups of shapes in Exercises 1–2 by both a mixed number and an improper fraction. 1.

2.

Convert the mixed numbers in Exercises 3–10 to improper fractions. 5

1

3. 2 7

4. 4 6 1

Now try these: Lesson 3.1.2 additional questions — p438

7. 27 2

6

8. 12 7

7

5. 1 11 2

9. 19 3

9

6. 8 13 11

10. 6 14

Convert the improper fractions in Exercises 11–18 to mixed numbers. 11.

87 43

12.

12 7

13.

37 8

14.

53 4

15.

53 6

16.

61 9

17.

30 7

18.

72 5

Round Up After this Lesson, you should be able to convert improper fractions to mixed numbers. This is important for placing fractions on the number line — you’ll see this in the next Lesson. You should also be able to convert mixed numbers to improper fractions. You’ll use this skill in adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing fractions. Section 3.1 — Fractions

117

Lesson

3.1.3

More on Fractions

California Standard:

In this Lesson, you’ll practice putting improper fractions and mixed numbers on the number line. You’ll also look at negative improper fractions and place them on the number line.

Number Sense 1.1 Compare and order positive and negative fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers and place them on a number line.

What it means for you: You’ll mark positive and negative fractions on the number line using the techniques you practiced for dealing with improper fractions.

Placing Positive Mixed Numbers on a Number Line When placing a positive mixed number on a number line, first find the position of the whole number. Then move the value of the fraction to the right. This is more easily shown with an example. Example 1

Place 2 4 on the number line. Solution

Key words: • • • • •

1 Split the distance between 2 and 3 into four equal parts. These are quarters.

2 is the whole number

denominator improper fraction numerator proper fraction mixed number

1

1 1 , so 2 4 4

1 4

3

2

1

0

-1

24 =2+

2

2 41

is placed one-quarter to the right of 2.

It’s a good idea to check that your answer is sensible. 1

Don’t forget: Numbers further to the right on the number line are greater. For example: 2

1 4

is greater

than 2 so it is placed further to the right.

Convert Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers First 11

7

It’s very difficult to place an improper fraction, like 3 or 4 , on the number line. The best thing to do is convert the improper fraction to a mixed number and then place it on the number line.

Don’t forget: Convert an improper fraction to a mixed number by dividing.

2 4 is greater than 2 but less than 3. It is also closer to 2 than to 3. This matches the position marked on the number line.

3 R2 3 11

)

−9 2

Example Place

11 3

2

on the number line. Convert to a mixed number, then place it on the number line and check.

Solution

2 3

3

11 3

=

2 33,

so... 0

1

2

4

3

3 32 = 11 3

Guided Practice Place the following fractions on the number line. 1

1. 5 4 4. 118

Section 3.1 — Fractions

8 3

3

2. 4 5 5.

7 5

3

3. 1 8 6.

23 4

Placing Negative Mixed Numbers on a Number Line Like all negative numbers, negative mixed numbers are placed to the left of zero on the number line. However, it’s not always obvious exactly where they should be placed. Example

3

7

Place –3 10 on the number line. Solution

Check it out:

7

7

–3 10 can be thought of as being

7 10

“more negative” 7

than –3, or as –3 + (– 10 ). So it’s

7 10

further left on the

number line than –3.

7

–3 10 lies the same distance to the left of zero as 3 10 lies to the right. So to place it on the number line, you do exactly as you would for a positive number, but to the left instead of the right. Split the distance between –3 and –4 into tenths.

–3 is the whole number

–3

– 107 –4

–3

1

0

–1

–2

7 –3 10 7

Then a quick check: –3 10 is between –3 and –4. It’s closer to –4 than to –3. This matches the position marked on the number line.

Guided Practice Place the following mixed numbers on the number line. 1

1

3

8. –4 3

7. –2 2

1

10. –10 5

9. –1 8 3

11. –4 4

4

12. –1 5

Change Negative Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers First

Just like with positive improper fractions, it is easiest to convert negative improper fractions to mixed numbers before you place them on the number line.

You convert negative improper fractions to mixed numbers in exactly the same way as positive improper fractions, but remember the negative sign. The example on the next page shows this.

Section 3.1 — Fractions

119

Example −

Write

47 3

4

as a mixed number and place it on a number line.

Solution

First find

47 3

15 47 → 3 47 3 3 17 15 2

)

by dividing the

numerator 47 by the denominator 3. Check it out: 47 − can also be written as 3 47 −47 or . −3 3

But remember the negative sign. So

−

47 3

2

is –15 3 as a mixed number.

R2

→ 15

2 3

Put it on the number line as usual. –2 3

–16 –47 3 =

–17

–15

–15 –15 32

–13

–14

Guided Practice Write the following improper fractions as mixed numbers and place them on a number line. 39

7

13. – 4

33

14. – 5

17

15. – 8

21

66

16. – 6

17. – 10

18. – 2

Independent Practice Convert the improper fractions in Exercises 1–3 to mixed numbers. 1.

27

13 5

2. − 4

3. −

36 7

State which one of each pair of fractions in Exercises 4–6 is greater. Now try these Lesson 3.1.3 additional questions — p439

4. −4 3 , − 4 6 7

7

5.

6. –12 7 ,

28 29 , 6 6

8

−

101 8

Show the fractions in Exercises 7–9 on a number line. 5

1

7. 18 6 , 18 6

14

8. − 3

,

−

13 3

5

9. −17 9 , −

153 9

Round Up After this Lesson, you should be able to place any positive or negative fraction or mixed number on the number line. Placing fractions on the number line is one way of comparing fractions with different denominators, but in the next Lesson you’ll learn a quicker method, involving converting them to decimals. 120

Section 3.1 — Fractions

Lesson

3.1.4

Fractions and Decimals

California Standard:

In this Lesson, you’ll learn how to convert fractions to their equivalent decimals. This allows you to decide whether a fraction or a decimal is greater.

Number Sense 1.1 Compare and order positive and negative fractions, decimals, and mixed numbers and place them on a number line.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to compare a fraction with a decimal by first converting the fraction to a decimal.

Every Fraction Has an Equivalent Decimal Every fraction has an equivalent decimal. A fraction and its equivalent decimal lie at the exact same point on the number line. Mixed numbers also have equivalent decimals. For example: – 1 1 = –1.2 5

– 1 = –0.125 8

1 = 0.5 2

1

1 4 = 1.25

Key words: • • • • • • •

decimal denominator equivalent numerator terminating decimal repeating decimal improper fraction

Don’t forget: 1.3 means “1 plus 3 tenths” or 1

3 . 10

See Section 1.3 for

–2

–1

– 1 3 = –1.6 5

2

1

3

1 4 = 1.75

Fractions represent division. You can write a fraction as a decimal by dividing the numerator by the denominator. For example:

Example Make sure you do the division the correct way around. You are finding out how many times the bottom number goes into the top number.

3 = 0.3 10

Convert Fractions to Decimals by Division

more information.

Don’t forget:

0

Write

5 8

1 2

= 1 ÷ 2 = 0.5

7 4

= 7 ÷ 4 = 1.75

1

as a decimal.

Solution

Divide the numerator by the denominator. 0.625 8 goes into 50 six times... Æ 8 5.000 8 6 × 8 = 48... –48 20 8 goes into 20 twice... 2 × 8 = 16... – 16 40 8 goes into 40 five times... 5 × 8 = 40... – 40 there’s no remainder, so the division is finished. 0 5

Don’t forget: Doing the division on a calculator will give the same answer.

5 8

is 0.625 as a decimal. Section 3.1 — Fractions

121

Convert Improper Fractions in the Same Way This example shows that improper fractions are converted to decimals in the same way. Example Don’t forget: When you convert an improper fraction to a decimal, you get a decimal greater than 1 or less than –1.

Write

9 5

2

as a decimal.

Solution

Divide the numerator by the denominator. 1.8 5 goes into 9 once... 9 → 5 9.0 5 –5 1 × 5 = 5... 5 goes into 40 eight times... 40 –40 5 × 8 = 40... 0 there’s no remainder, so the division is finished.

)

9 5

Check it out: To convert a mixed number to a decimal, just convert the fraction part and add it to the whole number part. For example: 1

22 = 2 +

1 2

is 1.8 as a decimal.

Guided Practice Convert these fractions to decimals without using a calculator. 1.

1 4

= 2 + 0.5 = 2.5

2.

1 8

3. 7

3

5. 2 4

8 5

4. 6

6. 4 8

7. 9 15

11 10

6

8. 4 10

A Fraction Might Become a Repeating Decimal Check it out: When you divide 1 by 7 on your calculator, you see 0.1428571 on the screen. This doesn’t look like a repeating decimal, but it is. The digits 142857 repeat over and over again, so you could write

1 7

= 0.142857 .

Check it out: A fraction can be converted to either: i) a terminating decimal ii) a repeating decimal There are no other possibilities.

122

Section 3.1 — Fractions

The fractions you have used so far this Lesson all have a terminating decimal equivalent. The decimals stop after a certain number of digits. Other fractions have repeating decimal equivalents. These go on forever, repeating the same digits. For example:

1 3

= 0.3333333...,

1 11

= 0.09090909...

Repeating decimals are often written with a bar over the repeated digits. So 0.333333... can be written as 0.3 , and 0.09090909... as 0.09 .

Guided Practice Convert these fractions into decimals using a calculator. 9.

2 3

10.

7 9

11.

6 11

12.

5 6

Comparing a Fraction with a Decimal It is difficult to compare a fraction with a decimal directly. It’s best to convert the fraction to a decimal and then compare the two decimals. This might be necessary if you need to plot two numbers on a number line. Check it out: Sometimes you don’t need to do a division to compare an improper fraction with a decimal. Converting the improper fraction to a mixed number may be enough. For example: Which is greater: 13 5

13 5

or 1.9? 3 5

is equivalent to 2 .

You can easily see that this is greater than 1.9.

Example

3 6 5

Which is greater:

or 1.15?

Solution

1.2 → 5 6.0 5 –5 10 – 10 0

Convert 5 into a decimal.

1.2 is greater than 1.15.

Compare the decimal produced with the decimal in the question.

)

6

6

Guided Practice Which is the greater in each of these pairs? 13.

7 8

or 0.85

14.

8 5

or 1.7

15.

6 32

or 0.2

Independent Practice Convert the fractions in Exercises 1–4 to decimals without using a calculator. 1.

3 5

2. 3 7 8

3.

3 10

4. 2 4

5

Convert the fractions in Exercises 5–8 to decimals using a calculator. 5. Now try these: Lesson 3.1.4 additional questions — p439

3

3 11

6. 2 9

1

7. 3 6

8.

8 11

Put the sets of numbers in Exercises 9–10 in order, from least to greatest. 9. 4.32,

39 , 8

4

45

2

5

10. 6.7, 6 8 , 6 3

11. Miranda needs a piece of pipe 6.81 meters long. 3

7

13

The store stocks the following sizes: 6 4 m, 6 8 m, 6 16 m. Which size should she buy so that she has the least waste?

Round Up After this Lesson, you should be able to convert fractions to terminating decimals using long division. This is really handy if you’re doing a calculation that involves both a fraction and a decimal. Section 3.1 — Fractions

123

Section 3.2 introduction — an exploration into:

Multipl ying F ea Model Multiplying Frractions: an Ar Area Multiplying fractions has a lot in common with multiplying integers. For example, 3 × ½ means “3 groups of ½,” in the same way that 3 × 4 means “3 groups of 4.” You can show this using graph paper. In fact, using graph paper you can work out all kinds of fraction multiplications. 1 You can show fractions on graph paper. Here’s one fourth, or . 1 4 4 To multiply this, you need to make groups. You can use graph paper. 1

Example 1 Use graph paper to multiply 3× . 4 Solution

1 Draw and shade rectangles to show 3 groups of . 4 1 3 Using the picture, you can see that 3× = . 4 4

=

3 groups of

1 4

=

3 4

Exercises 1. Do these multiplications by drawing rectangles on graph paper to represent the fractions. 2 1 a. 2× b. 3× 7 3 You can even multiply two fractions together using graph paper. Example Use graph paper to multiply Solution

1 3 × . 2 5

2 and 5 are the fractions’ denominators.

Draw a rectangle on graph paper that is 2 squares wide by 5 squares tall. 3 Shade in 3 of the 5 rows to show of the whole rectangle. 5

3 shaded 5

3 3 1 of shaded = 10 5 2

1 3 1 3 Now shade 1 of the 2 shaded columns in a different color to show of , or × . 2 5 2 5 1 3 3 1 3 The part shaded both colors shows × . You can see × = . 2 5 10 2 5

Exercises 2. Do these multiplications by drawing rectangles on graph paper to represent the fractions. 5 3 2 1 a. × b. × 6 4 5 3

Round Up Using graph paper like this is a good way to see what it actually means when you multiply fractions. In the next few Lessons, you’ll learn a way to multiply fractions more quickly. a tion — Multiplying Fractions: an Area Model Explora 124 Section 3.2 Explor

Section 3.2

Lesson

Multipl ying F Multiplying Frractions by Inte ger s Integ ers

3.2.1

California Standard: Number Sense 2.1 volving Solve prob oblems inv Solv e pr ob lems in addition, subtraction, multiplica tion ultiplication tion, and division of positi ve fr actions and positiv fractions explain why a particular operation was used for a given situation.

What it means for you: You’ll learn the skills needed to multiply fractions by positive and negative integers.

You’ve already practiced placing fractions in their correct positions on number lines. In this Lesson you’ll use the number line to see how multiplying fractions by integers relates to multiplying two integers.

Multipl ying F ger s on the Number Line Multiplying Frractions and Inte Integ ers To multiply the fraction

integer fraction numerator denominator proper fraction improper fraction mixed number

1

by the integer 2, think of it as “2 groups of 3 .”

You can then model the calculation on a number line: 1 3

2×

1 3

1 3

2 3

0

Key words: • • • • • • •

1 3

From the number line you can see that 2 × In a similar way, 3 ×

2 can be modeled: 5 2 5

3×

2 5

0

Don’t forget: Integers are numbers like: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4..., or –1, –2, –3, –4...

2 5

1

2

1 2 = . 3 3 2 5

1

6 5 or (1 51 )

Again, using the number line you can see that 3 ×

2

2 6 = . 5 5

In each example, the numerator of the fraction has been multiplied by the integer, while the denominator has stayed the same.

To multiply a fraction by an integer: multiply the numerator by the integer and keep the denominator the same. Don’t forget: To convert an improper fraction to a mixed number, divide the top number by the bottom number using long division. 15 For example: 4 3R3 4 15 The remainder – 12 becomes the 3 numerator of the fraction.

)

3 So 15 is equivalent to 3 .

4

4

Example

1

What is 5 ×

3 ? 4

Solution

Multiply the numerator 3 by 5, and keep the denominator as 4. 5×

5× 3 3 = 4 4 =

15 3 or 3 4 4 Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions

125

Example What is

It doesn’t matter in which order you multiply two values. You always get the same answer — this is the commutative property of multiplication. So,

5

4 × 10? 5

Solution

Don’t forget:

Multiply the numerator 4 by 10, and keep the denominator as 5. 4 4 ×10 × 10 = 5 5

=

4

4

× 10 = 10 ×

2

5

.

40 =8 5

Simplify yyour our ans wer answ

5 divides into 40 exactly 8 times. There is no remainder, so an integer rather than a mixed number.

40 5

is equivalent to

Guided Practice Evaluate the following. 1. 6 ×

1 7

2.

2 ×4 9

3. 12 ×

1 6

4. 15 ×

2 5

Multipl y Fraction s by Ne ga ti ves in the Same Way Multiply actions Neg tiv You saw in Chapter 1 that multiplying a positive number by a negative number gives a negative result. The same rule holds when one of the numbers is a fraction. For example, take the following multiplication: –5 ×

3 4

3 , you multiply the numerator of the 4 fraction (3) by the integer (5), and keep the denominator the same.

You’ve seen that to find 5 ×

3 15 3 = = 3 . 4 4 4 Then using the “negative × positive = negative” rule,

This gives 5 ×

–5 ×

15 3 3 =– = –3 . 4 4 4

Multiplying a positive fraction by a negative integer gives a negative result.

126

Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions

Example

3 2

What is –5 × 7 ? 8 Solution

Don’t forget: Use the same method to convert negative improper fractions to mixed numbers as you used for positive improper fractions — remember the minus sign, though.

Multiply the numerator by 5, keep the denominator as 8, and remember the negative sign. –5 ×

5× 7 7 =– 8 8 35 3 =– or – 4 8 8

Guided Practice Evaluate the following. 5. –5 ×

1 6

6.

2 × –1 9

7. –8 ×

2 23

5 8. 16 × –3

Evaluate the following. Give your answer as an integer or mixed number. 9. –12 ×

2 3

10. –8 ×

1 11. 6 × –24

2 5

12. 13 ×

3 8

Multipl ying Mix ed Number s b y Inte ger s Multiplying Mixed Numbers by Integ ers Multiplying mixed numbers by integers is a very similar process — you just need to write the mixed number as an improper fraction before you multiply the numerator by the integer. Example

4 2

Evaluate 4 × 1 3 . Solution 2

4 × 13 = 4 × =4× =

(1× 3) + 2 3

Con ver ed n umber to an Conv ertt mix mixed number impr oper fr action improper fraction

5 3

Multipl y inte ger b y n umer a tor Multiply integ by numer umera

20 2 or 6 3 3

Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions

127

Multiplying mixed numbers by negative integers works in the same way. Example

5

3

Evaluate 2 5 × (–10). Solution 3

2 5 × (–10) = = Don’t forget:

( 2 × 5) + 3 × (–10) 5

Con ver ed n umber Conv ertt mix mixed number to an impr oper fr action improper fraction

13 × (–10) 5

Multipl y inte ger b y n umer a tor by numer umera Multiply integ

130 5 = –26

Simplify

=–

5 divides into 130 exactly 26 times — there’s no remainder, 130

so 5 simplifies to just 26.

Guided Practice Evaluate the following. Give your answers as mixed numbers or integers. 3

13. –5 × 2 4

3

1

14. 1 15 × (–1)

2

15. 3 × 3 8

16. 4 3 × (–3)

Independent Practice Multiply the fractions given in Exercises 1–4. 1. 3 ×

2 2. 5 × 2

3 16

3. –1 ×

1 6

4. –5 ×

3 16

Evaluate the expressions given in Exercises 5–12. Leave your answer as an integer or mixed number.

Now try these: Lesson 3.2.1 additional questions — p439

4 ×3 3

5. 10 ×

1 2

6.

9. –7 ×

5 33

10.

7. –4 ×

2 ×8 5

3 8

11. –13 ×

4 5

8. –40 ×

5 8

12. –5 ×

14 67

Evaluate the expressions given in Exercises 13–21. 1

13. –2 × 2 3 16. –4 ×

6 5

2

15. –1 × 7 2

17. –1 3 × 5

18. 8 × 1 11

4

5

19. –2 × 1 9

1

14. 1 5 × 3

1

20. 3 × 3 7

1

3

21. 7 × 1 10

Round Up So that’s the basic method for multiplying fractions by integers. Many word problems that you’ll come across will make you put this skill to use — there are some in the next Lesson. It’s also important for simplifying or solving algebraic equations. 128

Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions

Lesson

Mor e on Multipl ying More Multiplying Fractions b y Inte ger s by Integ ers

3.2.2

California Standards: Number Sense 2.1 volving Solve prob oblems inv Solv e pr ob lems in addition, subtraction, multiplica tion ultiplication tion, and division of positi ve fr actions and positiv fractions explain w hy a par ticular wh particular oper a tion w as used ffor or a opera was gi ven situa tion. giv situation. Number Sense 2.2 Explain the meaning of multiplica tion and division of ultiplication positi ve fr actions and positiv fractions perf or m the calcula tions perfor orm calculations (e .g ., (e.g .g.,

5 8

÷

15 16

=

5 8

×

16 15

=

2 ). 3

What it means for you: You’ll review the skills needed to multiply fractions by integers. You’ll also develop an understanding of how multiplication relates to problems involving fractions.

Key words: • • • • •

integer fraction denominator numerator mixed number

Don’t forget: When you multiply a fraction by an integer, the denominator stays the same.

In this Lesson, you’ll start by reviewing the skills learned last Lesson. Then you’ll see how multiplication of fractions and integers can be used in real-life problems.

Solving Pr ob lems b y Multipl ying F y Inte ger s Prob oblems by Multiplying Frractions b by Integ ers Think about the problem “How many toes do 5 people have altogether, assuming they each have 10 toes?” The question is asking how many there are in 5 sets of 10. To solve it, you multiply 5 by 10 to get 50. You can do problems of this type that contain fractions in the same way. Example

1

Three people each ate

2 5

of a pizza at a buffet.

How much pizza did they eat altogether? Solution

Multiply 3 by the fraction 3×

2 3× 2 = 5 5

2 . 5

Multipl y the inte ger b y the n umer a tor Multiply integ by numer umera

6 1 Conv ver ed n umber ertt to a mix mixed number = 1 5 Con 5 1 They ate 1 5 pizzas altogether. =

You might come across a similar problem involving mixed numbers. Example Example

4 2 3

Pedro is making paper chains for a party. He needs 1 8 packs of paper Don’t forget: Make sure that you read what the question is asking. If it had asked, “How many packs will Pedro have to buy?”, the answer would be 10 packs. This is because the store is 5 unlikely to sell him of a 8 pack, so he’d have to round the number up.

strips for each chain and needs to make 7 chains. How many packs of paper strips will he use? Solution 3

3

Multiply 7 by 1 8 , since the question is asking you to find 7 sets of 1 8 . 3

7 × 18 = 7 ×

11 8

=

7 ×11 8

=

77 5 = 98 8

Con ver ed n umber to an Conv ertt the mix mixed number impr oper fr action improper fraction a tor Multipl y the inte ger b y the n umer integ by numer umera Multiply 5

He uses 9 8 packs of paper strips. Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions

129

Guided Practice 1. Some motorbikes are going to be transported in a trailer. Each motorbike weighs 2. My dog is

3 10

1 3

of a ton. What do four motorbikes weigh?

of a meter tall.

I’m five times taller than my dog. How tall am I? 3. In a relay race, four athletes each run around a track once. The track is 87

1 4

meters long. What is the total distance run?

There’s another type of problem that can be solved by multiplying fractions and integers together. It’s less obvious that this type can be solved by multiplication, so it’s really important that you learn to spot them.

Find a F ger b y Multipl ying Frraction of an Inte Integ by Multiplying If you’re asked to find a fraction of an integer, you multiply the fraction and the integer together. Example 4 3 4 A rectangular garden border is 5 m long by 1 m wide. Three-quarters of the border has grass planted on it. 5m What is the area of the grass? 1m Solution

Find the area of the rectangular border using the formula: area = length × width. Check it out: Area is covered in more detail in Section 2.3. For now, you just need to understand what it means when something is multiplied by a fraction.

Check it out: When you have to find a fraction of something, you can replace “of” with a 3 multiplication. So of 5 4 3 × 5, and so on. means 4

So the area of the border is 5 × 1 = 5 m2 “

3 4

of ” this area is 3 4

×5 = =

3 4

× 5 m2.

3× 5 2 m 4 15 4

3

m2 = 3 4 m2

It’s easier to visualize why multiplying works for a problem like this by using a diagram. Imagine that the area planted with grass was along one side. 5m 3 4

m

1 m2 1 m2 1 m2 1 m2 1 m2

The grass area is

3 4

Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions

1m

of 5 m2. You could work it out using the area formula:

area = length × width. So 130

3

So, the area of the grass = 3 4 m2

3 4

of 5 m2 =

3 4

× 5 m2.

Another Way to Look a ... att This his... 1 3

From the previous page, you know that

× 2 is the same as

1 3

of 2.

You can also show this on a number line: 1 ×2 3

1 3

1 of 2 3

1 3

0

1 1 3

1 3

of 2

of 2

2 1 3

of 2

The examples below ask you to find a fraction of a number. Example

4

Shatika, Jose, Kim, and Dan have 5 meters of beading wire. They want to cut it up so that they all have equal lengths. How many meters do they each get? Give your answer as a mixed number. Solution

They each get 1 4

Don’t forget:

×5 = =

You need to include the correct units in your answer. In this example, it’s meters.

1 4

of 5 meters. So multiply

1 4

by 5.

1× 5 4

Multipl y the n umer a tor b y the inte ger Multiply numer umera by integ

5 4

Con ver ed n umber Conv ertt to a mix mixed number 1

= 1 4 meters

Example

5 2

When comparing test scores, Michael noticed that his score was

7 8

of

Janelle’s score. If Janelle’s score was 88, what was Michael’s score?

Check it out: To find

7 8

of a number you

could instead find 1 of it and

Solution

You need to find out

8

multiply it by 7. 1 8

of 88 is 88 ÷ 8 = 11.

7 8

of 88 is 7 × 11 = 77.

7 8

× 88 = =

7 ×88 8 616 8

7 8

of 88. So multiply

7 8

by 88.

umer a tor b y the inte ger Multipl y the n umera by integ Multiply numer Simplify the ans wer answ

= 77

Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions

131

Guided Practice 4. One palm tree is 25 feet tall. Another tree is

3 4

of its height.

Find the height of the shorter tree. 5. Amber is baking bread. The recipe calls for 800 g of flour, but Amber wants to make her loaf

5 8

the size of the one in the recipe.

How much flour should she use?

Independent Practice Evaluate Exercises 1–3. 1

1

1. 4 × 5 7

2. 2 13 × –6

1

3. 10 × 1 10

4. Aisha is painting a wall. After the first hour, she has painted

2 15

of

the wall. How much of the wall will she have painted after 4 hours, assuming she continues painting at the same hourly rate? 5. A summer camp knows that each camper will eat sandwiches made 3 16

from an average of

of a loaf of bread. How many loaves of bread

should be used to make sandwiches for 121 campers? 1

6. Adult guinea pigs consume approximately 2 10 ounces 2

of dried food and 6 3 tablespoons of water each day. How much dried food and water would you expect three adult guinea pigs to consume each day? Don’t forget:

7. Juan and Kate are each knitting a scarf. Juan’s scarf is 24 inches long

You need to include units for the answers to Exercise 6–9.

so far. If Kate’s scarf is

3 5

of the length of Juan’s, how long is it?

8. Connor has 25 liters of water for a six-day camping trip. He wants to drink

1 6

of the water each day. How much is this?

Now try these:

9. Chang weighed 7 pounds when he was born. His younger brother

Lesson 3.2.2 additional questions — p440

weighed

7 9

of this. How much did Chang’s brother weigh?

10. Paul’s top pinball score is 87,000. Juanita tells him she scored

3 8

of his score. What was Juanita’s score?

Round Up In earlier grades you spotted repeated-addition problems and solved them by multiplication. Now you have to also watch out for “a fraction of a number” type problems and solve them by multiplication too. Next Lesson, you’ll multiply fractions by other fractions and see how this applies to real life. 132

Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions

Lesson

Multipl ying F Multiplying Frractions by F Frractions

3.2.3

California Standards: Number Sense 2.1 volving Solve prob oblems inv Solv e pr ob lems in addition, subtraction, multiplica tion ultiplication tion, and division of positi ve fr actions and positiv fractions explain why a particular operation was used for a given situation. Number Sense 2.2 Explain the meaning of multiplica tion and division of ultiplication positi ve fr actions and positiv fractions perf or m the calcula tions perfor orm calculations (e .g ., (e.g .g.,

5 8

÷

15 16

=

5 8

×

16 15

=

2 ). 3

What it means for you: You’ll learn the skills needed to multiply fractions by other fractions. You’ll also solve some real-life problems that involve doing this.

This Lesson is about multiplying one fraction by another. Not only do you need to know how to do this, but you also have to be able to understand when a problem can be solved by this method.

Multipl y Both Tops and Bottoms of F Multiply Frractions To multiply one fraction by another, you just multiply the numerators together, then multiply the denominators together. This gives you the numerator and denominator of the product. For example: 2 × 5 = 2 × 5 = 10 3 7 3× 7 21

When multiplying two fractions:

Example Evaluate

Key words: • • • • • •

45 iii) 5 9 5× 9 × = = 7 11 7×11 77

Example

So multiplying a fraction by an integer can also be thought of as a fraction-by-fraction multiplication.

Solution

3 4 3 × 4 12 × = = . 5 1× 5 1 5

This is what you were doing in Lessons 3.2.1 and 3.2.2.

iii)

5 9 × 7 11

Multiply both of the n umer a tor s umera tors to g ether , then together, multiply both of the s denomina tor denominator tors to g ether ether.. tog

If you’re asked to multiply a mixed number, just convert it to an improper fraction first.

Evaluate

=

2 4 × 3 7

8 ii) 2 4 2× 4 × = = 21 3 7 3× 7

5 For example, 3 = 3 , and 5 = . 1 1

4 5

ii)

35 i) 7 5 7 × 5 × = = 48 8 6 8×6

A product is the result of multiplying numbers together.

So, 3 ×

7 5 × 8 6

Solution

Don’t forget:

Any integer divided by 1 is equivalent to the integer itself.

1 i)

integer fraction denominator numerator improper fraction mixed number

Check it out:

a c a×c × = b d b×d

multiply both numerators together and both denominators together.

2

3 1 × 24. 5

3 ( 2 × 4) + 1 3 1 × 24 = × 4 5 5 =

3 9 3× 9 × = 4 5 5× 4

=

27 7 , or 1 20 20

Con ver ed n umber Conv ertt the mix mixed number oper fr action. improper fraction. to an impr Multipl y the n umer a tor s to gether Multiply numer umera tors tog and the denomina tor s to gether denominator tors tog ether..

Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions

133

Guided Practice Evaluate the following. 1.

3 4

4. 2

× 2 3

1 7

×

5 7

11 10

2.

4 9

×

7 13

3.

5.

7 2

×

7 5

6. 1 3 × 1 13

×

7 9

1

2

Multipl y to Find a F Multiply Frraction of a F Frraction In the previous Lesson, you found a fraction of an integer by multiplying the fraction and integer together. You can use multiplication in the same way to find a fraction of a fraction. Example

3

You have half a pie left and want to split it into thirds to share with your two friends. What fraction of the original whole pie do you each get? Solution

This diagram shows you what’s going on in this problem: Check it out: This works the same with sets of objects as with shapes. For example, if

1 2

1 6

1 3

the original pie

of the

1 2

pie =

1 of the original pie 6

of your class 1

went on a canoe trip, and of 3 these students got wet, 1 1 × 2 3

1 2

= of then your class got wet on the trip.

But you don’t need to draw a diagram. You can find what fraction each person gets, by multiplying 1 3

×

1 2

=

1×1 3× 2

=

1 6

So you each get

1 6

1 3

by

1 . 2

Multipl y the n umer a tor s to gether Multiply numer umera tors tog and the denomina tor s to gether tors tog denominator

of the original pie.

To find a fraction of a mixed number, just change the mixed number to an improper fraction first.

134

Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions

Example

4

You have two and a half grapefruits and are making four fruit salads. You want to put one-quarter of the total amount of grapefuit you have into each fruit salad. How much grapefruit should you put in each? Solution 1

1 4

of 2 2 . So multiply these numbers together.

=

1 4

=

1× 5 4×2

=

5 8

So you should put

5 8

You want to find 1 4

1

× 22

×

5 2

Con ver ed n umber to an Conv ertt the mix mixed number impr oper fr action improper fraction Multipl y the n umer a tor s to gether Multiply numer umera tors tog and the denomina tor s to gether denominator tors tog

of a grapefruit in each fruit salad.

Guided Practice 7. It takes half an hour for Elise to practice her musical instrument. She spends one-quarter of that time warming up. What fraction of an hour does she spend warming up? 8. Marsha's creative writing story was one and a half pages long. David's story was two-thirds of the length of Marsha's story. How long was David's story?

Independent Practice Evaluate Exercises 1–6. 1.

3 8

× 1

Now try these: Lesson 3.2.3 additional questions — p440

3 4

4. 2 5 ×

1 4

7. Lola drank

3 4

2.

2 5

×

5.

4 7

× 17

4 31 4

3.

2 9

6.

8 15

×

2 3 7

× 18

1

of a cup of tea. The cup of tea contained 1 4

teaspoons of sugar. How much sugar did Lola consume? 1 3

8. Arthur finished his assignment in 4 hours. His classmate finished in half the time that Arthur did. How much time did it take his classmate to finish? 3

9. A sponsored walk is 9 4 miles. There are refreshments provided two-thirds of the way along the route. After how many miles is this?

Round Up Multiplying fractions by fractions is a skill that you’ll use time and time again in solving real-life problems and in simplifying algebraic expressions — so it’s worth making sure you know how to do it. Section 3.2 — Multiplying Fractions

135

Section 3.3

Lesson

3.3.1

Dividing by Fractions

California Standards:

The last few Lessons were all about multiplying fractions. Dividing by fractions is really closely related to this — to be able to divide by fractions, you actually use the skills you learned for multiplication. Also, before you start dividing by fractions, you need to know about reciprocals, so that’s where this Lesson starts.

Number Sense 2.1 Solve problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of positive fractions and explain why a particular operation was used for a given situation. Number Sense 2.2 Explain the meaning of multiplication and division of positive fractions and perform the calculations (e.g.,

5 8

÷

15 16

=

5 8

×

16 15

=

Reciprocals Multiply Together to Give 1 Two numbers that multiply together to give 1 are known as reciprocals of each other. Another name for a reciprocal is a multiplicative inverse. Here are some examples of multiplicative inverses:

2 ). 3

2 3

and

3 2

2 3 2×3 6 × = = = 1 3 2 3× 2 6

4 5

and

5 4

4 5 4 ×5 20 = = 1 × = 5 4 5× 4 20

What it means for you: You’ll learn what it means when you divide by a fraction, and why you can use multiplication to do this. You’ll also learn what reciprocals are, because you need to use them to divide by fractions.

You might have noticed that you “flip” or “invert” a fraction to get its reciprocal. The numerator becomes the denominator and the denominator becomes the numerator.

4 5

Key words: • • • • •

denominator divide multiply numerator reciprocal

The reciprocal of

An integer can be written as a fraction with a denominator of 1. 7

7 1

Similarly, the reciprocal of 12 is

Check it out: To find the reciprocal of a mixed number, first convert it to an improper fraction. For example: =

25 11

So the reciprocal of 2

136

1

For example, 7 can be written as 1 . So its reciprocal is 7 .

7 1 7 ×1 7 × = = =1 1 7 1× 7 7

=

b a is , for a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0. a b

Write Integers as Fractions — Then Find the Reciprocals

Check your reciprocals by multiplying. You should always get a product of 1:

(2×11) + 3 11

3 2

2 3

So, in mathematical terms:

Don’t forget:

3 2 11

5 4

3 11

is

11 . 25

1 7

1 1 , and the reciprocal of 5 is . 12 5

Guided Practice Write down the reciprocals of the following. Show that they are reciprocals by multiplying. 1.

7 8

Section 3.3 — Dividing Fractions

2.

9 7

3. 8

4. 14

1

5. 1 3

3

6. 3 4

To Divide by Any Fraction, Multiply by the Reciprocal The general rule for dividing by a fraction is to multiply by the reciprocal of the fraction. So, in math language:

Example

1

What is 2 ÷

1 ? 4

Solution

1 , 4

To divide 2 by 2÷

Check it out: Interpret the division in the same way that you might if it contained integers. For instance: 9 ÷ 3 can be interpreted as asking how many 3s there are in 9.

c d a a ÷ = × d c b b

multiply 2 by the reciprocal of

1 =2×4 4 =8

The division 2 ÷

1 4

The reciprocal of

1 4

1 . 4

is 4.

is asking how many quarters there are in 2.

Each circle represents one whole unit.

1 4

1 4

1 4

1 4

1 4

1 4

1 4

1 4

There are 4 quarters in each whole unit, so in 2 whole units there are 2 × 4 = 8 quarters. Example

2

1

What is 4 2 ÷

3 ? Draw a diagram to show what this problem means. 4

Solution 3 4

1

42 ÷

3 4

3 4

3 4

3 4

3 4

3 4

1

3

means how many 4 s there are in 4 2 .

The diagram shows that there are 6. Don’t forget: When you multiply a mixed number, change it to an improper fraction first. So, 4

1 = 2

( 4 × 2) + 1 2

1

3

You can also get this answer by multiplying 4 2 by the reciprocal of 4 : 1

42 ÷

4 4 1 3 9 =4 × = × 3 3 2 4 2

Reciprocal of

3 4

9× 4 = 2×3 =

Change the division to multiplication by the reciprocal. Multiply the fractions.

36 =6 6 Section 3.3 — Dividing Fractions

137

Guided Practice Draw a diagram to represent each of the divisions in Exercises 7–10. Then find the answers. 7. 5 ÷

5 9

1

8. 3 2 ÷

1 4

1

9. 2 4 ÷

3 8

5 6

1

10. 2 2 ÷

The Solution May Be a Fraction When you divide by a fraction, you might get a bit left over. 1

For example, think about the division 2 2 ÷

21 2

÷

3 5 = ÷ 4 2 5 = × 2 20 = 6 10 = 3 1 = 3 3

3 4 4 3

1 4 1

3 s, 4

What is

and also

3

1 2 ÷ ? 3 2

Solution

by

something bigger than

1 2

3 2 1 1 ÷ = × 3 2 2 2

— so the answer is less than 1.

=

Multiply by the reciprocal of the fraction you are dividing by.

1× 3 3 = 2×2 4

Divide a fraction by an integer in exactly the same way — multiply by its reciprocal. Check it out: 1

1 4

Example

÷ 4 could be pictured as

sharing out

1 1 4

pies between

four people. Each person gets 5 16

of a pie.

5 16

138

4

1

What is 1 4 ÷ 4? Solution

5 1 14 ÷ 4 = 4 ÷ 4

5 16 5 16

1 3

of 1 3

3 4

of

3 . 4

You could, of course, have done this division by multiplying by the reciprocal. The examples below are done in this way.

Check it out: 1 2

left over — that’s

The diagram shows that 2 2 contains three complete 3 1 1 So 2 2 ÷ = 3 3 . 4

Example

You’re dividing

3 4

3 4

3 4

Check it out:

3 : 4

=

1 5 × 4 4

=

5×1 5 = 4 × 4 16

5 16

Section 3.3 — Dividing Fractions

Convert the mixed number to an improper fraction. Multiply by the reciprocal of the integer you are dividing by.

Guided Practice Draw diagrams to show the divisions in Exercises 11–13.

1 1 1 ÷3 12. ÷2 13. 1 3 ÷ 3 4 2 Use multiplication to find the solutions to Exercises 14–19. 11.

1 2 15. 15 ÷ 7

1 1 14. 3 ÷ 2 17.

2 1 ÷ 22 7

2

7

18. 3 3 ÷ 3 8

16.

7 3 ÷ 8 7

19.

1 ÷2 15

Independent Practice Give the reciprocals of the numbers given in Exercises 1–8. 1. Check it out: Make sure you don’t multiply the reciprocals of both fractions together — it’s only the divisor that becomes its reciprocal.

7 11

2.

7 3 3

5. 13

6. 3 4

8 9

1 6 1

8. 7 6

2 1 1 1 10. 6 ÷ 11. 2 4 ÷ 5 3 8 Use multiplication to find the solutions to Exercises 12–17.

9. 4 ÷

1 5

3 3 15. 4 ÷ 8

Lesson 3.3.1 additional questions — p440

7. 1

4.

Draw diagrams to represent the problems in Exercises 9–11.

12. 8 ÷

Now try these:

3. 3

13. 12 ÷ 1

2 3

2

14. 1 3 ÷

1

16. 5 3 ÷ 1 2

17.

5 6

3 ÷4 10

18. Is it possible to divide a mixed number by an integer to produce: a) a number greater than 1? b) 1? c) a number less than 1? Explain your reasoning and give an example of each where possible. 19. Write the expression y ÷ z as a product. 20. When Nancy divided a fraction by 2, she got

1 16

for her answer.

What fraction was she dividing? 21. When Ken divided

7 8

by an integer, he got

7 . 32

What integer was he dividing by?

Round Up After this Lesson, you should be able to understand what divisions involving fractions mean — this’ll help you recognize when you should divide by a fraction in real-life problems. You’ll meet some of these in the next Lesson. Section 3.3 — Dividing Fractions

139

Lesson

3.3.2

Solving Problems by Dividing Fractions

California Standard: Number Sense 2.1 Solve problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of positive fractions and explain why a particular operation was used for a given situation.

What it means for you: You’ll practice solving lots of real-life problems that involve dividing fractions.

In the last Lesson, you practiced doing divisions involving fractions and mixed numbers. In this Lesson, you’ll use these skills to tackle real-life word problems. It’s really important that you learn to recognize the types of problems that use division of fractions.

Division Problems Often Involve Partitioning Something If you come across a problem that involves splitting something up into equal parts, it often means you have to use division to solve it. Example

1

1

A pipe 7 2 feet long is divided into sections Key words:

How many sections are made from the pipe?

• divide • multiply • reciprocal

Solution

3 4

1

Divide 7 2 by

ft

3 4

ft

3 4

ft

3 4

ft

3 4

3 4

of a foot long. 3 4

ft

ft

3 4

ft

3 4

ft

3 4

ft

3 4

3 : 4 1

1

72 ÷

3 4

Check it out: Don’t be scared by the fractions in these problems. If these problems had contained whole numbers, you’d solve them in exactly the same way — by division. For instance, imagine Example 1 had involved an 8-foot pipe being divided into sections 2 feet long. You’d work out the number of sections you’d get by calculating 8 ÷ 2.

=

( 7 × 2) + 1 2

=

15 2

÷

3 4

=

15 2

×

4 3

=

15× 4 2×3

=

÷

7 2 feet

3 4

Convert the mixed number to an improper fraction.

Multiply by the reciprocal of the fraction you are dividing by. 60 6

= 10

So you get 10 sections of pipe. Example

2

7

Ben has 1 8 quarts of motor oil. He puts half of it in his car. How much oil did he put in his car?

OIL

2Q

uar

ts

Solution 7

You have to find out what half of 1 8 quarts is. So you divide it by 2. 7

18 ÷ 2 =

140

Section 3.3 — Dividing Fractions

(1×8) + 7 8

=

15 8

÷2

=

15 8

×

1 2

=

15×1 8× 2

=

÷2

Convert the mixed number to an improper fraction. Multiply by the reciprocal of the integer you are dividing by.

15 16

quarts

ft

Guided Practice 1. Dolores had

2 3

of a gallon of apple juice.

She shares it equally between herself and two friends. What fraction of a gallon does each person get? 2. TJ is knitting squares that will be sewn together to make blankets for 3

an overseas charity. He has set aside 18 hours over the next month to 4 1 knit squares. It takes him 1 hours to knit one square. 4

How many squares will he have time to knit?

Division Can Be Used for Repeated Subtraction Too Another type of division problem is the repeated subtraction type. Example

3

A large water tank contains 600 gallons of water. The tank has a leak and loses

2 3

of a gallon of water each day.

After how many days will the tank be empty? Solution 2

You need to figure out how many “ 3 of a gallon” there are in the tank. So divide the number of gallons in the tank by 600 ÷

2 3

= 600 × =

Check it out: “Repeated subtraction” and “partitioning” problems are very similar. Exactly the same methods are used to solve them.

2 . 3

Multiply by the reciprocal of the fraction you are dividing by.

3 2

600 × 3 2

= 900 The tank will be empty after 900 days.

Guided Practice 3. A bowl contains 4 liters of fruit punch. 1

How many students can fill 5 -liter cups from the bowl? Check it out: Think carefully about the answer to Guided Practice Exercise 4. The question asks, “How many cabins?” It wouldn’t make sense to have a fraction of a cabin in your answer.

4. The campers in each cabin at a summer camp want to make a 1

welcome sign. There is a roll of paper with 14 2 meters of paper on it. 1

How many 1 5 -meter-long signs can be made from the roll?

Section 3.3 — Dividing Fractions

141

Don’t Forget — Division Is the Inverse of Multiplication Some problems might be tricky to spot as divisions immediately. It could be easier to write a multiplication equation containing a variable, and then solve it. Example

4

1

After 7 3 miles on a sponsored dog walk, there is a stand giving out dog cookies. This is

3 4

of the way along the route.

How long is the whole route? Solution — Method 1

Let d represent the length of the whole route. Don’t forget: To find a fraction of a number, you multiply the fraction by the number.

3 4

1

of d = 7 3 miles 3 4

So,

1

× d = 73

To solve this equation, you divide both sides by 1

d = 73 ÷

3 4

d=

(7 × 3) + 1 3

d=

22 3

×

d=

88 9

= 99

3 4

to get d by itself.

Get the variable d by itself.

÷

3 4

=

22 3

÷

Convert the mixed number to an improper fraction.

3 4

4 3

Multiply by the reciprocal of the fraction you are dividing by.

7

7

The route is 9 9 miles long. 1

Another way to do this would be to find out how many miles 4 of the route is, then multiply this distance by four to find the length of the whole route.

Solution — Method 2 1

7 3 miles is equal to So Don’t forget: This method involves multiplying a fraction by an integer. You do this by multiplying the numerator by the integer and keeping the denominator the same.

142

1 4

3 4

of the route.

1

of the route = 7 3 ÷ 3 =

22 3

÷3

=

22 3

×

1 3

=

22 9

miles

The whole route is equal to four-quarters. So the whole route =

Section 3.3 — Dividing Fractions

22 9

×4=

22 × 4 9

=

88 9

7

= 9 9 miles

Guided Practice 5. After canoeing 19 miles down the river, I was disappointed to find out that I was only

4 9

of the way to my destination. How far was I

expecting to canoe in total? 1

6. A fish tank has 13 3 gallons of water emptied into it. This makes it

3 8

full. How many gallons of water does the tank hold altogether?

Independent Practice Which of the problems in Exercises 1–2 would you solve by division? Explain your answers. 1. Mrs. Garcia assigned 8 math problems for homework. 1

Each problem takes about 2 2 minutes to solve. How long might it take for a student to complete all eight problems? 1

2. The art teacher has 8 2 pounds of clay that he wants to distribute evenly to 12 students. How much clay will each student get? 3. A very tall building has an elevator which is 41 of a mile above the ground when it is at the top floor. What fraction of a mile above the ground is the elevator when it is halfway up the building? 1

4. Judy fills 2 2 buckets with sand. It takes a total of 30 shovel-scoops of sand to do this. What fraction of a bucketful of sand does her shovel hold? 2

5. Mr. Ruiz has exactly 1 3 cups of coffee. He drank the entire amount in 19 sips. What was the average amount of coffee in each sip? 3

Now try these: Lesson 3.3.2 additional questions — p441

6. A wall is 4 feet long. The wall is to be divided up into 4 3 equal sections that will each be painted a different color. How wide will each section be? 1

7. DeAndre was running in a race. After he had run 4 2 miles, he was 3 8

of the way to the finish. How long was the race?

Round Up So that’s how division of fractions can be used to solve some types of real-life problems. You’ve now finished looking at multiplication and division of fractions. In the next few Lessons, you’ll learn the techniques for adding and subtracting fractions and how to give answers in their simplest forms. Section 3.3 — Dividing Fractions

143

Section 3.4 introduction — an exploration into:

Ad ding F ea Model Adding Frractions: an Ar Area Graph paper is very useful when you are doing fraction addition. The squares on the graph paper let you make realistic “models” of fractions, which you can then add by counting squares. It’s a good way to see what it actually means to add fractions. To add two fractions, start by drawing three identical rectangles: — the heights of the rectangles should be equal to one of the denominators, — the widths should be equal to the other denominator.

The denominator is the number on the bottom of a fraction.

Example Use graph paper to add

2 1 + . 5 3

Solution

+

=

• Draw three rectangles on graph paper, 5 squares high and 3 squares wide. 2 2 1 • Show in the first rectangle by shading 2 of the 5 rows. 5 5 3 1 6 5 11 + = • Show in the next rectangle by shading 1 of the 3 columns. 15 15 15 3 • Count the total number of shaded boxes in the first two rectangles. Shade this number of boxes in the third rectangle. number of shaded boxes • Rewrite each of the three fractions using the following formula: total number of boxes You can use exactly the same method to add fractions that sum to more than 1. Example Use graph paper to add

3 2 + . 7 3

Solution

Do everything exactly as before, but draw an extra rectangle if your answer does not fit. You can write your answer as: 23 , • an improper fraction — such as 21 2 • a mixed number — such as 1 .

21

= squares

+

shaded

3 7 9 21

+

2 3 14 21

=

23 or 21

+2 extra squares shaded

1 212

21

Exercises 1. Do these additions by drawing rectangles on graph paper to represent the fractions. 1 2 3 2 5 1 1 2 a. + b. + c. + d. + 2 5 4 5 6 3 4 3

Round Up Drawing pictures of fractions on graph paper is a good way to add them. Think about these pictures while you’re learning about the ideas and methods in this Section. a tion — Adding Fractions: an Area Model Explora 144 Section 3.4 Explor

Lesson

Section 3.4

3.4.1

Making Equivalent Fractions

California Standard:

You’ve met equivalent fractions before — they’re the ones that look different but sit at the same place on the number line. This Lesson is all about how you can make new equivalent fractions.

Number Sense 2.1 Solve problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of positive fractions and explain why a particular operation was used for a given situation.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to make new equivalent fractions — including ones that are simpler.

Make Equivalent Fractions by Multiplying by 1 Equivalent fractions look different but have the same value, like

• • • • •

equivalent fraction simpler factor cancel prime factorization

and

3 6

You form equivalent fractions by multiplying by a fraction equal to 1 — that is, by a fraction whose numerator and denominator are equal. Example

1

By multiplying by a suitable fraction, show that Key words:

1 2

3 6

is equivalent to

1 2

.

Solution

Any fraction with the same numerator and denominator is equal to 1. 1 3 This means you can multiply 2 by 3 and get a fraction with equal value. 1 3 1×3 3 × = = 2 3 2× 3 6

So the two fractions are equivalent.

Example

2

Find three fractions equivalent to

3 . 4

Solution

Don’t forget: You can check the value of a fraction by doing a division — either on a calculator or by using long division. 6 = 6 ÷ 8 = 0.75 8 9 = 9 ÷ 12 = 0.75 12 24 = 24 ÷ 32 = 0.75 32

Pick any three fractions equivalent to 1, for example 3 Then multiply 4 by each of them in turn. 1.

3 2 3× 2 6 × = = 4 2 4× 2 8

2.

3 3 3×3 9 × = = 4 3 4 ×3 12

3.

3 8 3×8 24 × = = 4 8 4 ×8 32

2 3 , , 2 3

8

and 8 .

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

145

.

You sometimes have to choose your fractions very carefully. Example

3

Fill in the missing numbers in these fractions:

1 a 32 = = 2 8 b

Solution

To get 8 as the denominator in 1 4 1× 4 4 × = = , so a = 4. 2 4 2× 4 8

a 1 , 8 2

32

To get 32 as the numerator in b , 1 32 1×32 32 × = = , so b = 64. 2 32 2×32 64 So

4

must have been multiplied by 4 .

1 2

must have been multiplied by

32 . 32

1 4 32 = = 2 8 64

Guided Practice 3

1. Find three fractions equivalent to 5 . 2. By multiplying by a suitable fraction, show that

1 5

and

7 35

are equal.

Fill in the missing numbers in Exercises 3–4. 3.

2 4 ? ? 10 12 ? = = = = = = 3 6 9 12 ? ? 900

4.

4 8 ? 48 ? 480 = = = = = 5 10 15 ? 300 ?

Make Fractions Simpler by Canceling Canceling is a way of making equivalent fractions that are simpler. Instead of multiplying the top and bottom lines by the same number, canceling involves dividing them. Example Check it out: When you cancel a fraction, the numbers get smaller in size and easier to use.

Don’t forget: A factor of a number divides evenly into that number. For example, 5 is a factor of 10.

146

4

Form a simpler fraction equal to

10 . 15

Solution

To cancel a fraction, you need to look for numbers that are factors of both the numerator and denominator. 10 2×5 Here, 5 divides into the numerator and denominator: = 15 3×5 2×5 2 You can cancel common factors — so = 3×5 3

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Guided Practice 6

5. By canceling, find a simpler fraction equivalent to 8 . Cancel the fractions in Exercises 6–11 to find simpler forms. 6.

14 16

7.

15 35

9.

14 21

10.

8.

9 15

44 55

11.

26 39

You Can Cancel More Than One Common Factor Don’t forget: A prime factorization is when you write a number as a product of prime factors, for example: 10 = 5 × 2 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23

You can cancel as many common factors as you can find. Example

5

Simplify the fraction

24 . 30

Solution

There are different ways to do this. Check it out: 12 In fact, the fraction is a 15 24 simpler form of , and so is 30 a possible answer in Example 5. But it’s not the simplest form — and usually, the simpler the fraction, the better. There’s more about the simplest form in Lesson 3.4.2.

• You can look for the biggest common factor, then cancel it.

24 4 ×6 4 = = 30 5×6 5

• You can write down the prime factorizations of the numerator and denominator and cancel all the common factors.

24 2× 2× 2×3 4 = = 30 5× 2×3 5

24 12× 2 12 • You can do it in stages. = = You can cancel one common factor first. 30 15× 2 15 12 4 ×3 4 Then you can cancel another common factor. = = 15 5×3 5

All three methods give the same answer.

Guided Practice 12. Find two simpler fractions that are equivalent to 13. By canceling, find a simpler fraction equivalent

8 . 48 21 to 56 .

Fill in the missing numbers in Exercises 14–18. 14.

80 40 ? 4 = = = 60 30 15 ?

15.

150 ? 15 5 = = = 270 135 ? ? Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

147

16.

108 36 12 ? = = = 126 ? ? 7

17.

420 60 ? ? = = = 490 ? 14 7

18.

180 60 ? 4 = = = 225 ? 25 ?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–8, find two fractions equivalent to the one given. Now try these: Lesson 3.4.1 additional questions — p441

1.

1 9

2.

3 4

3.

6 7

4.

1 3

5.

2 3

6.

4 7

7.

1 11

8.

5 8

Fill in the missing numbers in Exercises 9–15. 9.

7 14 21 ? ? = = = = 12 ? ? 48 60

10.

? 2 ? 36 ? = = = = 8 4 2 ? 80

11.

18 6 9 ? = = = 72 ? ? 4

12.

6 ? 18 2 54 = = = = 9 18 ? ? ?

13.

? 10 50 2 = = = 120 ? ? 3

14.

40 ? 8 ? ? 32 128 96 = = = = = = = ? 18 9 63 27 ? ? ?

15.

? ? 20 95 10 ? 15 5 = = = = = = = 63 42 ? ? ? 35 ? 7

Round Up There are two tricks to finding equivalent fractions. The first is easy — pick any integer and multiply the top and bottom lines of the fraction by it. The second is harder — you have to find something that both parts of the fraction can be divided by. But if you can, then you’ll be rewarded with a simpler fraction. 148

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Lesson

3.4.2

Finding the Simplest Form

California Standard:

Last Lesson you saw how to make equivalent fractions and how some fractions can be made simpler. This Lesson is all about taking “simpler fractions” as far as you possibly can — to find the simplest form.

Number Sense 2.4 Determine the least common multiple and the greatest common divisor of whole numbers; use them to solve problems with fractions (e.g., to find a common denominator to add two fractions or to find the reduced form for a fraction).

What it means for you: You’ll learn about the simplest form of a fraction and see a couple of ways of finding it.

Fractions Have a Simplest Form A fraction like

1 2

can’t be made any simpler because there isn’t anything

that both 1 and 2 can be divided by. When a fraction can’t be made any simpler, it is in its simplest form. One way to find the simplest form is to keep making a fraction simpler until you can’t go any further. Example

1

Key words:

Find the simplest form of

• simplify • greatest common divisor • prime factorization

Solution

66 . 99

Both 66 and 99 have a factor of 3, so

But 22 and 33 both divide by 11, so Check it out: Some people say “reduced form” instead of “simplest form.”

66 22×3 22 = = 99 33×3 33

22 2×11 2 = = 33 3×11 3

Since nothing divides both 2 and 3, the simplest form of Example

66 99

2

is 3 .

2

Find the simplest form of

84 . 126

Solution

Just keep looking for factors of both the numerator and denominator. 84 42× 2 42 14 ×3 14 2× 7 2 = = = = = = 126 63× 2 63 21×3 21 3× 7 3

Guided Practice Find the simplest form of the fractions given in Exercises 1–8. 1.

4 6

2.

20 35

3.

9 81

4.

12 30

5.

75 90

6.

32 176

7.

135 195

8.

19 133

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

149

Greatest Common Divisor Is a Faster Way to Simplify The greatest common divisor of two numbers is the greatest number that they can both be divided by. Don’t forget: A prime factorization is when you “break a number down” into its prime factors. For example, 15 can be broken down like this: 15 = 5 × 3. But it can’t be broken down any further because both 5 and 3 are prime — nothing divides into 5 except 5 and 1, and nothing divides into 3 except 3 and 1.

To find the greatest common divisor, turn both numbers into prime factorizations. Then identify any numbers that are in both factorizations. 24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 84 = 7 × 2 × 2 × 3

24 and 84 both have factors of 2 (twice) and 3

Multiply the common factors together to get the greatest common divisor. So the greatest common divisor of 24 and 84 is 2 × 2 × 3 = 12. Example

3

Find the greatest common divisor of 30 and 42. Solution

30 = 2 × 3 × 5 42 = 2 × 3 × 7

30 and 42 both have factors of 2 and 3

So the greatest common divisor of 30 and 42 is 2 × 3 = 6.

Dividing the numerator and denominator of a fraction by their greatest common divisor is the same as canceling all the common factors at once. Check it out:

This means you can reduce a fraction to its simplest form in a single step.

After you divide two numbers by their greatest common divisor, there is nothing else you can divide both by.

From above, 12 is the greatest common divisor of 24 and 84. So

24 2×12 2 = = , and this must be the simplest form of 84 7×12 7

Example

24 . 84

4

Find the simplest form of: a)

30 270 , b) . 720 42

Solution

a) From above, the greatest common divisor of 30 and 42 is 6. So

30 30 5×6 5 = = has simplest form: 42 42 7×6 7

b) First find the greatest common divisor of 270 and 720. and

270 2 × 3× 3× 3× 5 = 720 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3× 3× 5

270 and 720 both have factors of 2, 3 (twice), and 5.

So the greatest common divisor is 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 = 90. Therefore 150

270 3× 90 3 270 = = has simplest form: 720 720 8× 90 8

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Guided Practice Find the greatest common divisor for each pair of numbers given in Exercises 9–16. 9. 25, 15 10. 38, 42 11. 60, 42 12. 49, 35 13. 27, 99 14. 66, 15 15. 55, 45 16. 47, 37 Find the simplest form of the fractions given in Exercises 17–24. 17.

2 12

18.

14 21

19.

18 24

20.

42 70

21.

33 15

22.

24 30

23.

147 231

24.

30 105

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 3.4.2 additional questions — p441

Find the greatest common divisor for each pair of numbers given in Exercises 1–8. 1. 33, 42 2. 38, 57 3. 42, 70 4. 39, 65 5. 8, 52 6. 36, 90 7. 18, 27 8. 40, 16 9. Simplify the following fractions. Then arrange them in order of size from least to greatest. 10 4 8 30 15 18 20 165 10. Which fraction shown below is in its simplest form? 12 11 3 16 38 14 21 46 Write each of the fractions given in Exercises 11–18 in its simplest form. 11.

8 28

12.

14 30

13.

16 32

14.

9 33

15.

68 110

16.

2 186

17.

58 78

18.

120 180

19. Juan scored 22 out of 26 possible points on his history quiz. What is his score as a reduced fraction?

Round Up All fractions have a simplest form, and one way to find it is with the greatest common divisor. Finding a fraction’s simplest form can seem like a lot of trouble. However, one you’ve done it, the numbers are smaller. That makes it easier to use in other calculations. Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

151

Lesson

3.4.3

Fraction Sums

California Standard:

Adding and subtracting fractions can involve a little more work than multiplying them. This Lesson is about adding and subtracting fractions with the same denominator.

Number Sense 2.1 Solve problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of positive fractions and explain why a particular operation was used for a given situation.

What it means for you: As an introduction to adding and subtracting fractions you’ll see how to add and subtract fractions with the same denominator.

Add or Subtract Numerators If Denominators Are Equal The denominator of a fraction is similar to the units in a measurement — it tells you what type of quantity you are dealing with. Then the numerator tells you how many you have. For example, 2 means: (i) you are dealing with fifths, and (ii) you have two of them. 5 Treating fractions like this can make adding and subtracting them easier. Example

Key words: • • • •

fraction add subtract denominator

Check it out: If you’re finding it difficult to understand the logic here, imagine the question was different — for example: “If you have two pens and you add an extra one pen, then how many pens do you end up with?” You’d have 3 pens, just like you have 3 fifths in the example.

Find

1

2 1 + . 5 5

Solution 2

1

The sum + is asking: “If you have two fifths and you add an extra 5 5 one fifth, then how many fifths do you end up with?” 3 The answer is , as you can see in the diagram. 5 +

=

You can write this as math:

2 1 3 + = 5 5 5

You add or subtract fractions with the same denominator by adding or subtracting the numerators, while keeping the denominator the same. For example, Example

4 1 4 +1 5 4 1 4 −1 3 + = = and − = = . 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 2

Find: (i) the sum

6 2 6 2 + , and (ii) the difference − . 11 11 11 11

Solution

(i)

152

6 2 6+2 8 + = = 11 11 11 11

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

(ii)

6 2 6−2 4 − = = 11 11 11 11

Guided Practice Work out the sums and differences in Exercises 1–8.

Check it out: Do additions and subtractions from left to right — just like with integers. See Lesson 2.1.4 for more information.

1.

2 1 + 7 7

2.

19 11 − 29 29

3.

50 15 − 6 6

4.

6 9 + 17 17

5.

26 15 + 62 62

6.

31 16 − 14 14

7.

29 13 1 − − 4 4 4

8.

6 6 6 − + 7 7 7

You May Need to Simplify Afterwards Don’t forget: See Lesson 3.4.2 to remind yourself about how to simplify fractions.

Even if you add two fractions that are in their simplest form, you might be able to simplify the answer. Example Find

3

1 1 + . Give your answer in its simplest form. 4 4

Solution

Add the fractions: Simplify the result:

Example

1 1 1 +1 2 + = = 4 4 4 4 2 1× 2 1 = = 4 2× 2 2

4

33 37 + ? Simplify your answer by finding the greatest 105 105 common divisor of the resulting fraction’s numerator and denominator.

What is

Solution

Add the numerators and keep the denominator the same. 33 37 33 + 37 70 + = = 105 105 105 105 Don’t forget: See Lesson 3.4.2 for more about greatest common divisors.

To simplify, find the greatest common divisor of 70 and 105. Since 70 = 2 × 5 × 7 and 105 = 3 × 5 × 7, the greatest common divisor of 70 and 105 is 5 × 7 = 35. So divide the numerator and denominator by 35 to find the simplest form. 70 2×35 2 = = 105 3×35 3

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

153

Guided Practice Work out the sums and differences in Exercises 9–20, giving your answers in their simplest form. 9.

7 5 − 8 8

10.

1 1 + 2 2

11.

5 10 + 20 20

12.

5 4 − 11 11

13.

5 1 − 6 6

14.

13 3 − 14 14

15.

7 3 − 4 4

16.

2 4 + 9 9

17.

9 5 + 7 7

18.

8 3 − 15 15

19.

9 27 + 18 18

20.

7 8 + 25 25

Independent Practice Now try these:

Work out the sums and differences in Exercises 1–6.

Lesson 3.4.3 additional questions — p442

1.

1 2 + 4 4

4.

126 119 − 3 3

2.

7 5 − 3 3

5.

3.

6 9 + 14 14

2 3 + 11 11

6.

9 25 + 35 35

Work out the sums and differences in Exercises 7–18. Give your answers in their simplest form. 7.

5 9 + 42 42

8.

12 15 + 66 66

9.

97 52 − 20 20

10.

15 5 − 15 15

11.

20 12 − 18 18

12.

21 1 − 7 7

13.

14 10 − 12 12

14.

8 4 + 9 9

15.

9 5 + 21 21

16.

10 1 3 + − 2 2 2

17.

1 2 3 + + 3 3 3

18.

19 10 6 − + 8 8 8

Round Up Adding and subtracting fractions with the same denominator is all about understanding the question.

2 5 + 3 3

just means “two-thirds and then five-thirds more,” so the result must be

The result won’t always be in its simplest form, but you’ve already seen how to fix that. 154

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

7 . 3

Lesson

3.4.4

Fractions with Dif ent Denomina tor s Difffer erent Denominator tors

California Standards: Number Sense 1.1 Compar e and order positi ve Compare positiv and ne ga ti ve fr actions neg tiv fractions actions,, decimals, and mixed numbers and place them on a number line.

After the last Lesson on adding fractions with the same denominator, this one is about adding fractions with different denominators. The idea here is to turn them both into fractions with the same denominator and then do exactly what you did in the last Lesson...

Number Sense 2.1 Solv e pr ob lems in volving Solve prob oblems inv ad dition, subtr action, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of positi ve fr actions and positiv fractions explain why a particular operation was used for a given situation.

Ev er yP air of Number s Has a Common Multiple Ever ery Pair Numbers

What it means for you: In this Lesson, you’ll learn about one way of adding and subtracting fractions with different denominators.

Key words: • • • •

equivalent fraction denominator common multiple cross-multiply

A common multiple of two numbers is a number that is a multiple of both of them. Take the numbers 2 and 3, for example: Multiples of 2: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14... Multiples of 3: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15... The numbers 6 and 12 appear in both lists, so 6 and 12 are both common multiples of 2 and 3. Example

1

Which of the following numbers are common multiples of 4 and 5? 8, 15, 20, 30, 32, 100 Solution

Common multiples will be multiples of 4 and multiples of 5. From the list, the multiples of 4 are: 8, 20, 32, and 100. From the list, the multiples of 5 are: 15, 20, 30, and 100. So the common multiples of 4 and 5 are 20 and 100.

Don’t forget: A multiple of a number is that number multiplied by an integer.

A quick way to find a common multiple of two numbers is to multiply them together. So 2 × 3 = 6 must be a common multiple of 2 and 3. Example

2

Find a common multiple of 11 and 13. Solution

One common multiple is given by 11 × 13 = 143.

Multiplying numbers together like this will always produce a common multiple. But it might not be the smallest common multiple. Check it out: You’ll learn a method for finding the least common multiple in the next Lesson.

Example

3

Find a common multiple of 12 and 24. Solution

One common multiple is given by 12 × 24 = 288. However, 24 is already a multiple of 12, so another possible answer is 24. Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

155

Guided Practice Find a common multiple of each pair of numbers in Exercises 1–8. Try to find the smallest common multiples you can. 1. 1, 3 2. 5, 8 3. 10, 2 4. 6, 7 5. 11, 5 6. 3, 4 7. 5, 7 8. 8, 4

Common Multiples Mak e Common Denomina tor s Make Denominator tors Look at the fraction sum

1 4 + . 3 7

This time, you can’t just add the

Check it out:

numerators because the two fractions have different denominators.

When two fractions have the same denominator, you can say that they have a common denominator.

So you need to find two fractions with a common denominator — one 1 4 fraction that is equivalent to 3 and another that is equivalent to 7 . This common denominator has to be a common multiple of 3 and 7. Example

Don’t forget: To find an equivalent fraction, multiply by a fraction equivalent to 1. See Lesson 3.4.1 for a reminder.

4

Find fractions equivalent to

1 3

and

4 7

Use your equivalent fractions to find

that share a common denominator. 1 4 + 3 7

.

Solution

You need to find any common multiple of 3 and 7. The easiest one to use is 3 × 7 = 21. Now find fractions equivalent to

1 3

and

1 1 7 1× 7 7 = × = = 3 3 7 3× 7 21 Then add these equivalent fractions:

4 7

that have a denominator of 21. 4 4 3 4 × 3 12 = × = = 7 7 3 7 × 3 21

1 4 7 12 7 + 12 19 + = + = = 3 7 21 21 21 21

Example Find

1 1 + 2 3

5

.

Solution

1

1

First, make fractions equivalent to 2 and 3 that share a denominator. Use 2 × 3 = 6 as the common denominator. 1 1 3 3 1 1 2 2 = × = = × = 2 2 3 6 3 3 2 6 1 1 3 2 3+ 2 5 Then add the new fractions: + = + = = 2 3 6 6 6 6

156

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Use exactly the same method for subtracting fractions. Example What is

6

3 1 − 4 9

?

Solution

Use a common denominator of 4 × 9 = 36. Your equivalent fractions are: 3 9 27 × = 4 9 36

1 4 4 × = 9 4 36

3 1 27 4 23 − = − = . 4 9 36 36 36

So

Guided Practice Don’t forget: “Finding a difference” means doing a subtraction.

Work out the sums and differences in Exercises 9–17. Give your answers in their simplest form. 9.

Check it out: The results of sums with different denominators may need simplifying just like sums with same denominators.

1 1 + 6 5

10.

1 1 − 5 6

11.

2 1 + 3 4

12.

1 1 + 9 3

13.

1 1 − 3 10

14.

1 1 − 2 4

15.

5 4 + 6 20

16.

7 6 + 9 11

17.

6 2 − 13 9

A Common Denomina tor Allo ws Comparison Denominator Allows Check it out: It’s difficult to say which fraction is greater if the denominators are different.

You can compare two fractions with a common denominator by comparing their numerators. Example

7

Which is greater:

7 9

5

or 6 ?

Solution

Find equivalent fractions with a common denominator. Use a common denominator of 9 × 6 = 54. Then:

7 6 42 × = 9 6 54

Check it out You could use a common denominator of 18.

5 15 7 14 = and = . 9 18 6 18

5 9 45 × = 6 9 54

These fractions have the same denominator, so compare the numerators. 42 < 45, so

42 45 < . 54 54

That means that

7 5 < 9 6

.

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

157

Check it out: You’ll use cross-multiplication in another context later in the book. Cross-multiplication is also used to solve proportions (as you’ll see in Lesson 4.1.4).

Cross-multiplication is also a way to compare fractions. It gives exactly the same results as you saw in the previous example, but it’s possibly slightly easier to remember. Look at the fractions in the previous example again:

7 9

5

and 6 .

Cross-multiplication involves multiplying the numerator of each fraction by the denominator of the other.

7 9

42 = 7 × 6

5 6

9 × 5 = 45

You can see that these two numbers are the same as the numerators in the fractions you found in Example 7. 7 7×6 42 = = 9 9×6 54

Don’t forget: Think of cross-multiplication as an easy way to remember which numbers to multiply together when you put fractions over a common denominator. It’s not really a brand new method.

5 5× 9 45 = = 6 6 × 9 54

and

So to compare two fractions, you can cross-multiply, and compare the results. Example

8

Which is greater:

3 5

or

2 3

?

Solution

Cross-multiply:

9=3×3

3 5

2 3

5 × 2 = 10

These are the numerators of equivalent fractions, which both have a common denominator of 5 × 3 = 15. So

3 9 2 10 = . And = . 5 15 3 15

This means

Example

2 3 > . 3 5

9

Which is greater:

6 7

or

13 15

?

Solution

Cross-multiply: 90 = 6 × 15 This means: Don’t forget: “>” means “is greater than.” “<” means “is less than.”

158

6 7

13 15

7 × 13 = 91

91 6 6 ×15 90 and 13 13× 7 = = = = 15 15× 7 105 7 7×15 105

So 13 > 6 or 6 < 13 . 15 7 7 15

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Guided Practice Say which of the two numbers given in each of Exercises 18–25 is greater. 18.

19 17 , 10 20

19.

3 2 , 5 3

20.

5 6 , 9 11

21.

17 4 , 13 3

22.

4 5 , 15 19

23.

5 11 , 7 15

24.

9 4 , 21 9

25.

15 8 , 9 5

Independent Practice Find two common multiples of the numbers in Exercises 1–4. 1. 4 and 9

2. 3 and 12

3. 20 and 6

4. 7 and 1

5. Find a common multiple of 5 and 9 by multiplying these numbers together. 1

4

6. Write 5 and 9 as equivalent fractions, using your answer to Exercise 5 as a common denominator. 1 4 7. Using your answer to Exercise 6, find + . 5 9 Work out the sums and differences in Exercises 8–15. Give your answers in their simplest form. 8.

4 2 + 3 6

9.

1 5 + 5 9

10.

5 8 + 7 5

11.

4 2 − 3 6

1 3 7 2 1 1 5 2 + 13. − 14. − 15. − 2 8 8 3 6 9 6 3 Say which of the two numbers given in each of Exercises 16–19 is greater. 17 8 6 9 5 2 10 3 , , , 16. 17. , 18. 19. 19 9 13 19 21 8 23 7

12.

Now try these: Lesson 3.4.4 additional questions — p442

7

3

20. Andre and Amy both try to work out 1 + 2 , but come up with 8 4 different answers. Identify who got it right and find the mistake that the other made. Andre Amy 7 3 1 +2 8 4 15 11 = + 8 4 15 11 = + 8 8 26 = 8 13 = 4

7 3 1 +2 8 4 15 11 = + 8 4 15 22 = + 8 8 37 = 8

Round Up You can sidestep the problem of adding fractions with different denominators by turning them into fractions with the same denominator. Of course, you have to turn them into equivalent fractions, or you’ll end up answering a different question entirely. Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

159

Lesson

3.4.5

Least Common Multiples

California Standards:

The last Lesson showed you how to add and subtract fractions with different denominators. This Lesson is about the same thing, but this time using the least common multiple. It’s pretty similar to the method in the last Lesson, but it means you don’t end up having to multiply really big numbers if you don’t need to.

Number Sense 2.1 Solve problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of positive fractions and explain why a particular operation was used for a given situation. Number Sense 2.4 Determine the least common multiple and the greatest common divisor of whole numbers; use them to solve problems with fractions (e.g., to find a common denominator to add two fractions or to find the reduced form for a fraction).

The Least Common Multiple Is Less Than the Others You can always find a common multiple of two numbers by multiplying them together. But this method doesn’t always give you the least common multiple (LCM). One way to find the least common multiple is to compare lists of multiples and find the first number in both lists. Take 6 and 9, for example. Some multiples of 6: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48... Some multiples of 9: 9, 18, 27, 36, 45, 54... So the least common multiple of 6 and 9 is 18.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to find the lowest number that two numbers both divide into exactly. You’ll also see how this can help you with adding and subtracting fractions.

Key words: • least common multiple • greatest common divisor

Check it out: The least common multiple of 16 and 28 is 112. This is a lot less than their product, which is 16 × 28 = 448.

Example

1

Find the least common multiple of 16 and 28. Solution

Multiples of 16: 16, 32, 48, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128... Multiples of 28: 28, 56, 84, 112... So the least common multiple of 16 and 28 is 112. The least common multiple isn’t always less than the result of multiplying the numbers together. Example

2

Find the least common multiple of 9 and 7. Solution

Check it out: Notice how you don’t have to continue either of these lists beyond 63. This is because you know that 9 × 7 = 63 is a common multiple, so you’re only using these lists to see if you can find one that’s smaller.

Multiples of 9: Multiples of 7:

9, 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63... 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, 63...

So the least common multiple of 9 and 7 is 63.

Guided Practice Find the least common multiple of the pairs of numbers given in Exercises 1–12. 1. 2, 3 2. 4, 3 3. 12, 9 4. 10, 4 5. 6, 8 6. 15, 35 7. 30, 45 8. 4, 12 9. 14, 21 10. 25, 30 11. 6, 7 12. 55, 33

160

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Check it out:

Prime Factorization Can Get the LCM More Quickly

Sometimes GCD is used for “greatest common divisor.”

You can find the least common multiple of two numbers by multiplying them together, then dividing by the greatest common divisor. Example

3

Find the least common multiple of 12 and 44. Solution

Don’t forget: For more information about prime factorization and finding the greatest common divisor, see Lesson 3.4.2.

First use prime factorization to find the greatest common divisor. 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 44 = 2 × 2 × 11 Greatest common divisor = 2 × 2 = 4. So the least common multiple of 12 and 44 is: 12 × 44 ÷ 4 = 132

Guided Practice Use prime factorization to find the LCM of the pairs of numbers given in Exercises 13–20. 13. 6, 8 14. 9, 12 15. 4, 6 16. 10, 15 17. 39, 15 18. 34, 32 19. 60, 45 20. 27, 45

The LCM Is a Good Choice for Common Denominator Remember, when you need to add or subtract fractions with different denominators, you must put both fractions over a common denominator. This means you need to find a common multiple of the denominators. Using the least common multiple means that you can work with smaller numbers. Don’t forget: See Lesson 3.4.4 to remind yourself about using common multiples when adding fractions.

Example What is

4

1 1 + 12 30

?

Solution

Check it out: If you’d used a common multiple of 12 × 30 = 360, the numbers you’d need to use would be much bigger, and much easier to make mistakes with. And you’d definitely need to simplify your answer. 1 1 30 12 42 + = + = 12 30 360 360 360 7 = 60

• 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 30 = 2 × 3 × 5 So the greatest common divisor of 12 and 30 = 2 × 3 = 6. • Least common multiple of 12 and 30 is 12 × 30 ÷ 6 = 60. • Now find fractions equivalent to denominator of 60. 1 1 5 5 = × = 12 12 5 60

1 12

and

1 30

which have a common

1 1 2 2 = × = 30 30 2 60

Now you can add the fractions together. 1 1 5 2 5+ 2 7 + = + = = 12 30 60 60 60 60 Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

161

Guided Practice Work out the sums and differences in Exercises 21–29. Give your answers in their simplest form. Check it out: Leave any fractions greater than 1 as improper fractions.

21.

13 9 + 10 15

22.

4 5 + 9 6

23.

1 5 + 6 10

24.

5 1 − 6 8

25.

3 2 + 15 20

26.

13 5 + 42 14

27.

4 2 − 6 8

28.

7 1 − 24 16

29.

2 7 − 9 33

Independent Practice Find the least common multiple of the pairs of numbers given in Exercises 1–12. 1. 2, 9 2. 5, 7 3. 19, 3 4. 6, 10 5. 5, 35 6. 15, 21 7. 6, 33 8. 35, 55 9. 30, 66 10. 42, 28 11. 39, 12 12. 24, 16

Now try these: Lesson 3.4.5 additional questions — p442

Check it out: Leave any fractions greater than 1 as improper fractions.

13. Find the prime factorizations of 6 and 4. 14. Calculate the LCM of 6 and 4 5 1 15. Write and , using the LCM of 6 and 4 as a common 6 4 denominator. 5 1 16. Find − 6 4 Work out the sums in Exercises 17–31. Give your answers in their simplest form. 17.

2 1 − 3 4

18.

3 1 − 4 2

19.

1 2 + 9 7

20.

2 15 + 10 25

21.

8 5 − 9 6

22.

13 3 − 12 4

23.

8 18 + 11 44

24.

13 12 + 15 18

25.

9 9 − 10 14

26.

7 15 + 75 35

27.

4 1 − 27 45

28.

1 15 + 24 56

29.

10 6 + 49 21

30.

7 1 + 9 30

31.

31 10 − 42 56

Round Up Pausing for a second to find the least common multiple before trying to add or subtract two fractions with different denominators is a good way to avoid having to deal with really big numbers. Smaller numbers also make simplifying at the end easier. 162

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Lesson

3.4.6

Mixed Numbers and Word Questions

California Standards: Number Sense 2.1 Solve problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of positive fractions and explain why a particular operation was used for a given situation. Number Sense 2.4 Determine the least common multiple and the greatest common divisor of whole numbers; use them to solve problems with fractions (e.g., to find a common denominator to add two fractions or to find the reduced form for a fraction).

What it means for you: You’ll apply all of the skills you’ve learned so far in this Section to mixed number questions and questions written in words.

Key words • mixed number • improper fraction • fact

This Lesson combines two different parts — the first is about how to deal with mixed number sums and the second is about how to make sense of sums written in words.

Mixed Numbers Are Like Sums 3

Mixed numbers are like sums. 1 means “one and three-fifths,” and so is 5 3 the same as 1 + . One way to deal with questions that use mixed 5 numbers is just to replace all the mixed numbers with this kind of sum. Example

1

3 5

1 5

What is 1 + 2 ? Solution 3 5

1 5

3 5

1 5

1 + 2 = (1 + ) + ( 2 + ) 3 5

= 1+ 2 + + = 3+ =3

1 5

4 5

4 5

This method works quite well for simple additions. But there’s a better way of doing it for more complicated sums and differences.

Don’t forget: You can do additions in any order because of the commutative and associative properties of addition. See Lesson 2.3.1 to remind yourself about the commutative property of addition.

Mixed MixedNumber NumberSums SumsCan can Be be Done Done with WithFractions Fractions A more reliable way of doing mixed number sums is to convert all the mixed numbers to improper fractions before you start. Then you can use the addition and subtraction methods covered in the previous Lessons. Using improper fractions, the above example would become: Example

Don’t forget: To convert a mixed number to an improper fraction, multiply the whole number part by the denominator and add it to the numerator. See Lesson 3.1.2 for more details.

3 5

2 1 5

What is 1 + 2 ? Solution

8 11 8 + 11 19 3 1 4 1 +2 = + = = =3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

163

If the fraction parts of the mixed numbers have different denominators, you’ll need to find a common denominator. Example 3 7

3 2 3

Find 4 − 1 . Solution

• First form improper fractions. ( 4 × 7) + 3 28 + 3 31 3 4 = = = 7 7 7 7

2 3

1 =

3+ 2 5 = 3 3

• Now you need to find a common denominator, so you have to find a common multiple of 7 and 3. Use 7 × 3 = 21. 31 31 3 93 5 5 7 35 = × = = × = 7 7 3 21 3 3 7 21 • Finally, you can subtract the fractions. 3 7

2 3

4 −1 =

Example 1 4

93 35 93 − 35 58 − = = 21 21 21 21

4 1 3

What is 4 + ? Give your answer as a mixed number. Solution 1 4

4 =

16 + 1 17 17 1 1 1 = , so you can rewrite the sum as 4 + = + . 4 3 4 4 4 3

The least common denominator of 3 and 4 is 12. 51 4 55 1 1 17 1 So 4 + = + = + = 4 3 4 3 12 12 12

And as a mixed number this is 4

7 . 12

Don’t forget: There’s more information about improper fractions and mixed numbers in Lesson 3.1.2.

Guided Practice Work out the sums in Exercises 1–12. 1 3

1. 1 +

2 3

1 2

4. 4 + 5 7. 8 − 3 1 5

1 9

1 3

10. 6 − 3 164

2. 2 + 3

1 3

1 3

3. 1 + 6

5. 7 + 1

3 4

3 5

6. 5 −

2 3

1 2

9. 6 − 6

8. 7 − 5 4 5

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

11. 26

19 10 −2 30 12

2 3

2 3

4 5

12. 8

2 3

1 3 1 6

11 7 −3 20 16

Word Questions Can Be Broken into Facts Some math questions look complicated but become easier if you break them down into pieces. Example

5

Jose and Stephanie are climbing a mountain. Jose climbs up 1 Stephanie climbs up

1 2 4

miles but then climbs back down

2 3

1 4

miles.

of a mile.

Who is further up the mountain? Solution

First separate out the facts you’ve been given.

Jose and Stephanie are climbing a mountain. Jose climbs

up 1

1 4

1 4

miles. Stephanie climbs up 2 miles but then climbs

back down

2 3

of a mile. Who is further up the mountain?

Then put the facts together again as math. Jose and Stephanie are climbing a mountain.

Jose climbs up 1

1 4

miles.

1 4

1 miles

Stephanie climbs up 2

1 4

1 2 4

miles.

But then climbs back down 2 3

miles

2 3

of a mile.

of a mile

Who is further up the mountain? If you turn the mountain on its side then the edge is like a number line. 1 1 4

So the question is asking whether 2 − Don’t forget: When fractions have the same denominator, you can compare them by comparing their numerators. See Lesson 3.4.4 to remind yourself about comparing fractions.

1 4

2 3

9 4

2 3

is greater than

15 , 12

2 − = − = 19 12

27 8 − 12 12

=

19 12

2 3

1 4

1 2 4 3 1 1 . 4

2 −

is greater than 1 4

5 4

1 = =

15 12

so:

Stephanie is further up the mountain than Jose. Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

165

Guided Practice 1

13. A recipe requires 2 cups of flour, 1 cup of milk, and 4 cup of vegetable oil. How many cups of ingredients are needed in total? 14. Two years ago, Eric was 4

1 6

feet tall. Now, he is 5

1 3

feet tall.

How much has he grown? 15. Cody has 2

1 2

pounds of bananas, but sells 1

Elizabeth buys a further

2 3

1 4

pounds to Elizabeth.

pounds from the store. How many pounds

of bananas do Cody and Elizabeth end up with? 16. Carlos is doing a science experiment, and puts a beaker containing 1 24

puts

1 8

1 5

liter of water into

liter of vinegar. He mixes them together and

liter into a test tube. How much is left in the beaker?

Independent Practice Worktry outthese the sums in Exercises 1–9. Now Give your Page x, Qu x-xanswers as mixed numbers. 1 2

1. 1 − 4 6

1 2

4. 5 + 2 7. 12

1 2

2. 1 + 1 9

5. 3

1 6 − 11 6 15

1 2

1 2

3. 2 + 3

1 8 −1 3 21

8. 19

1 5 − 10 16 8

6. 7

2 3

1 17 −6 4 18

9. 12

1 3 + 16 11 17

10. Several students are having a race. Each contestant has to run 100 meters then cycle 1000 meters. Their times are shown below. How long did each student take to finish, and who finished first?

Running

Now try these:

Cycling

Lesson 3.4.6 additional questions — p443

Karina

T.J.

Emily

Kyle

1 4 2 3 3

1 3 9 2 10

3 10 3 2 5

1 5 2 3 9

(all times measured in minutes) 11. Laura and Juan are at a water fountain. Laura drinks water, and Juan drinks 1 5

3 10

1 8

gallon of

gallon. Laura is still thirsty, so she drinks

gallon of fruit juice. Who drank more? How much more did that

person drink?

Round Up Sometimes it can be difficult to make sense of long word problems, but just remember the key steps — break up the question and separate all the facts from one another. Then take each one individually and figure out what it means in math. 166

Section 3.4 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Section 3.5 introduction — an exploration into:

Per cents with a Doub le Number Line ercents Double Percents can seem complicated. This is because they are an alternative way to describe an amount. For example, suppose you have 20 apples and then eat half of them. You’ve eaten 10 apples, but this is the same as 50%. One way to see the link is to use a double number line. A double number line shows percents next to actual values. You can use it to estimate solutions. Example Use a double number line to estimate 30% of 40. Solution

Draw a double number line. Label one side of the number line from 0% to 100%, and the other side from 0 to 40.

0%

100%

0

40

You can use some easy-to-find points on the double number line to estimate the value of x. • 50% is halfway between 0% and 100%. 30% Its value is half of 40, which is 20. 0% 25% 50% 100% • 25% is halfway between 0% and 50%. Its value is half of 20, which is 10.

10

0

30% is a bit more than 25%. You can see that 30% is between 10 and 20, but closer to 10. In fact, it looks like 30% of 40 is about 12.

x

20

40

Here, the unknown amount has been labelled x.

Example 160 is what percent of 180? Use a double number line to find an estimate. This time, the unknown is the percent percent.

Solution

Draw a double number line, and mark on 180 (= 100%). Now mark in some other important percents. • 50% is halfway between 0% and 100%. Its value is half of 180, which is 90.

x% 0%

50%

75%

0

90

135

• 75% is halfway between 50% and 100%. Its value is halfway between 90 and 180, or 135. You can see that x is between 75% and 100%. In fact, it looks about 85-90%.

100% 180 160

Exercises 1. Draw a double number line to estimate the solution to these percent problems. a. What is 40% of 80? b. What is 60% of 250? c. 105 is what percent of 150? d. 64 is 20% of what number?

Round Up This method will only give you an estimate of the answer — it probably won’t be exact. But estimates can be really useful for checking your work, or getting a rough idea of the answer. Section 3.5 Explor a tion — Percents with a Double Number Line 167 Explora

Lesson

Section 3.5

3.5.1

Fractions and P er cents Per ercents

California Standard:

Percents are another way of writing fractions, and they’re used a lot in real life. You might have percents as test scores, or on a sale poster in a store. In this Lesson, you’ll see how to turn a fraction into a percent.

Number Sense 1.4 te gi ven Calculate giv Calcula per centa ges of quantities percenta centag and solve problems involving discounts at sales, interest earned, and tips.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about percents as another way to write fractions.

Per cents Ar e a Dif ent Way to Write F ercents Are Difffer erent Frractions Percents are a way to write a fraction as a single number. One percent is the same as the fraction

Percents are written using the symbol %. For example:

Key words: • percent • fraction • numerator • denominator • equivalent fraction • greatest common divisor

1 . 100

23 percent

is written

23% 23 . 100

and means Example

1

An auto dealership has 100 cars for sale. 32 of the cars are red. What percent of the cars are red? Solution

The fraction of the cars that are red is

32 . 100

Written as a percent, that is 32%. Of course, fractions don’t always come in hundredths. To turn a fraction into a percent, you can use equivalent fractions. Example Write

4 5

2

as a percent.

Solution

Rewrite Don’t forget: The numerator is on the top of the fraction. The denominator is on the bottom. For example:

3 4

numerator denominator

4 5

in hundredths:

80 4 8 = = = 80% 5 10 100

You can find the same answer using algebra. You need to multiply a fraction equivalent to 1 to make the denominator 100. Multiply

4 5

by

n . n

Denominator of the result = 5 × n = 100 So

n = 100 ÷ 5 = 20

So to make the denominator 100, multiply

4 5

by

20 : 20

80 4 4 20 4 × 20 = × = = = 80% 5 5 20 5 × 20 100 168

Section 3.5 — Percents

4 5

by

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, write each fraction as a percent. 1.

65 100

2.

1 4

3.

21 50

4.

3 25

5.

11 20

6.

9 25

7. A bag contains 50 marbles, 27 of which are green. What percent of the marbles are green? 8. There are 20 students riding the bus, and 14 of them are girls. What percent of the students are girls?

Ther e Is Another Way to Con ver er cents here Conv ertt F Frractions to P Per ercents There is an alternative method for converting a fraction to a percent. You can just do the division shown by the fraction, then multiply by 100. Example Write

1 8

3

as a percent.

Solution

Do the division shown by the fraction (here, 1 ÷ 8), and then multiply by 100. So 1 ÷ 8 = 0.125. Then multiply by 100 to get: 0.125 × 100 = 12.5, so 0.125 = 12.5%. Whether you convert a fraction to hundredths, or do the division and then multiply by 100, the answer should come out the same. Example

4

Main Street Park has 64 trees. Of those, 28 are pine trees. What percent of the trees are pine? Solution

Write the answer as a fraction: Don’t forget:

28 64

of the trees are pine.

n 28 n ? × = : n 64 n 100 Looking at the denominators, you can see that 64 × n = 100. This means n = 100 ÷ 64 = 1.5625. 28 ×1.5625 28 28 1.5625 43.75 So = × = = = 43.75%. 64 ×1.5625 64 64 1.5625 100

1. You can convert this to hundredths by multiplying by

You need to understand both methods, but you can use whichever method you prefer.

2. Or you can find: 28 ÷ 64 = 0.4375. Then multiply by 100: 0.4375 × 100 = 43.75, so 0.4375 = 43.75%.

Guided Practice In Exercises 9–12, write each fraction as a percent. 9.

929 1000

10.

23 200

11.

17 40

12.

3 8

Section 3.5 — Percents

169

You Can Tur naP er cent into a F urn Per ercent Frraction It’s straightforward to turn a percent into a fraction. Don’t forget to rewrite the fraction in its simplest form. Don’t forget: For a reminder about finding the greatest common divisor and the simplest form of a fraction, see Lesson 3.4.2.

Example

5

Write 40% as a fraction in simplest terms. Solution

40% is the same as

40 . 100

The greatest common divisor of 40 and 100 is 20. 40 100

=

2 × 20 5 × 20

=

2 5

, so 40% =

2 5

Guided Practice In Exercises 13–20, write the percent as a fraction in its simplest form. 13. 39% 14. 38% 15. 50% 16. 75% 17. 5% 18. 98% 19. 35% 20. 16%

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, write each fraction as a percent. 1.

77 100

2.

1 10

3.

16 25

4.

7 8

5.

23 40

6.

111 500

Write each of the following percents as a fraction in its simplest form. 7. 9% 8. 20% 9. 70% 10. 86% 11. 95% 12. 92% 13. Cora buys 16 apples at the store. She buys 4 red and 12 green apples. What percent of Cora’s apples are green? 14. DaMarcus recorded the weather on 80 days last winter. It snowed on 4 of those days. On what percent of the days did it snow? Now try these: Lesson 3.5.1 additional questions — p443

15. Out of 250 grade 6 students, 150 have brown eyes. What percent of the students have brown eyes? 16. Seth is practicing his baseball skills. He hits 880 out of 1000 pitches. What percent of the balls does he hit? Miguel and Claire go to the park to play tennis. There are 25 tennis courts at the park. When Miguel and Claire get there, 5 courts are available. 17. What percent of the tennis courts are available? 18. What percent of the tennis courts are not available?

Round Up Percents are often easier to work with than fractions. For example, comparing percents is usually more straightforward than comparing fractions. A percent is one number, so there aren’t any numerators and denominators to worry about. 170

Section 3.5 — Percents

Lesson

3.5.2

Per cents and Decimals ercents

California Standard:

You can rewrite fractions as percents to make them easier to compare and use. Percents can be converted to decimals too, and this sometimes helps when you’re using them in calculations.

Number Sense 1.4 ven Calculate giv Calcula te gi per centa ges of quantities percenta centag and solve problems involving discounts at sales, interest earned, and tips.

What it means for you: You’ll see how to rewrite percents as decimals, and decimals as percents.

Key words: • • • •

percent decimal hundredth order

Per cents Can Be Tur ned into Decimals ercents urned You’ve seen that percents are basically the same as hundredths. You’ve also seen that one-hundredth is the same as the decimal 0.01. So

1 100

= 1% = 0.01.

This means that you can rewrite any percent as a decimal by dividing by 100. Example

1

Write 5% and 10% as decimals. Solution

5% =

5 100

= 5 ÷ 100 = 0.05

10% =

10 100

= 10 ÷ 100 = 0.1

Guided Practice Don’t forget: You can leave out any extra zeros on the right-hand side of a decimal number. So 0.10 is written as 0.1.

In Exercises 1–8, write each percent as a decimal. 1. 18% 2. 99% 3. 9% 5. 20% 6. 50% 7. 23.2%

4. 2% 8. 61.78%

Decimals Can Be Tur ned into P er cents urned Per ercents It’s also straightforward to turn a decimal into a percent. Example

2

Write 0.04 and 0.82 as percents. Solution

0.04 = 4 hundredths =

4 100

= 4%

0.82 = 82 hundredths =

82 100

= 82%

Notice that this time, you’ve multiplied by 100.

Guided Practice In Exercises 9–16, write each decimal as a percent. 9. 0.35 10. 0.81 11. 0.9 12. 0.06 13. 0.6 14. 1.0 15. 0.195 16. 0.001 Section 3.5 — Percents

171

You Should Become F amiliar with Common P er cents Familiar Per ercents The table below shows some fractions, decimals, and percents that are equal to each other. The table will be useful for solving some questions. You might already be familiar with some of these values. Table of Common Percents and their Equivalents

Fraction

Decimal

Percent

1 100

0.01

1%

1 10

0.1

10%

1 5

0. 2

20%

1 4

0.25

25%

1 2

0.5

50%

3 4

0.75

75%

1

1

100%

Check it out: This table will help you to answer some of the questions you’ll see in the next few Lessons.

Example

3

There are 32 students in Mr. Baker's art class, and 8 of them are in the school play. What percent of Mr. Baker's art students are in the play? Solution

First, you can represent this as a fraction: Writing in simplest terms,

8 32

=

1 4

8 32

Looking at the table above, you can see that

1 4

is equal to 25%.

So, 25% of Mr. Baker's students are in the play.

Guided Practice In Exercises 17–20, use the table above to find the right percent. 17. In a class of 30 students, 3 have pet cats. What percent of the class have cats? 18. Angela has 20 pens. 5 of them are blue. What percent of Angela’s pens are blue? 19. Tony travels 15 miles to get home. He goes 12 miles by bus, then walks 3 miles. What percent of the journey does Tony walk? 20. Donna buys 13 apples and 13 oranges. What percent of Donna’s fruit is apples? 172

Section 3.5 — Percents

Per cents Mak e It Easier to Place Number s in Or der ercents Make Numbers Order Sometimes you can’t tell right away which of two numbers is greater. They might be fractions with different denominators, or you might have one fraction and one decimal. Changing everything into percents makes things easier to put in order. Example

4

Order the following from least to greatest: 2 5

0.5

35%

Solution

The table on the previous page tells you that So Check it out: You may find decimals easier to understand than percents. If you do, it’s okay to answer this type of question by turning all the numbers into decimals instead.

2 5

=2×

1 5

1 5

= 20%.

= 2 × 20% = 40%.

And 0.5 = 50 hundredths =

50 100

= 50%.

Now you can see that 35% < 40% < 50%. So 35% <

2 5

< 0.5.

Guided Practice In Exercises 21–24, order each set of numbers from least to greatest. 21. 72%,

7 , 10

0.82

23. 45%,

0.4,

12 , 25

1 , 20

3%,

0.09

24. 0.9,

17 , 20

88%,

22. 23 50

3 4

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, write each percent as a decimal. 1. 54% 2. 3% 3. 70%

4. 2.5%

In Exercises 5–8, write each decimal as a percent. 5. 0.84 6. 0.3 7. 0.08

8. 0.172

In Exercises 9–12, order each set of numbers from least to greatest. 9. 0.2, 18%, Now try these: Lesson 3.5.2 additional questions — p443

11.

3 5,

33 50 ,

1 4

0.65,

10. 63%

11 20 ,

12. 39%,

54%, 9 25 ,

0.5 21 50 ,

0.35

13. A box contains 50 red pens and 150 blue pens. What percent of the pens in the box are blue? 14. There are 4 red and 16 blue marbles in a bag. What percent of the marbles are blue?

Round Up The table showing the common percents, fractions, and decimals is really useful. It will help you answer percent questions more quickly. You should try to memorize it if you can. Section 3.5 — Percents

173

Lesson

3.5.3

Per cents of Number s ercents Numbers

California Standard:

You saw earlier in this Chapter how to multiply whole numbers by fractions. A percent is another way to write a fraction, so you can multiply whole numbers by percents too. This is called finding a percent of a number.

Number Sense 1.4 te gi ven Calculate giv Calcula per centa ges of quantities percenta centag and solve problems involving discounts at sales, interest earned, and tips.

Multipl y to Find a P er cent of a Number Multiply Per ercent

What it means for you:

You’ve already practiced multiplying fractions by integers.

You’ll learn how to find a certain percent of a number.

Finding a percent of a number is similar because, for example, “1% of 250” means 1% × 250 = 0.01 × 250 =

Key words: • • • •

percent multiply fraction decimal

1 100

× 250.

So it usually helps to convert the percent to a fraction or decimal first.

Example

1

What is 25% of 140? Solution

There are a number of ways you can solve this problem. Check it out:

Written as a fraction, 25% =

Use a fraction:

You can find the fraction and decimal equivalents of 25% in the table of common percents and equivalents from Lesson 3.5.2.

1 4

× 140 =

1 . 4

140 4

= 35 Written as a decimal, 25% = 0.25.

Use a decimal:

0.25 × 140 = 35 1% of 140 = 140 ÷ 100 = 1.4

Find 1% first: So

25% of 140 = 25 × (1% of 140) = 25 × 1.4 = 35

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–12, find the following percents: 1. 10% of 100 2. 2% of 50 3. 20% of 3000 4. 80% of 50 5. 12% of 750 6. 44% of 800 7. 95% of 80 8. 4% of 950 9. 35% of 80 10. 15% of 240 11. 85% of 130 12. 29% of 250

174

Section 3.5 — Percents

Real-lif e Situa tions Can In volv e P er cents of Number s eal-life Situations Inv olve Per ercents Numbers You can often find a percent of a number in real-world situations. Check it out: You can solve this type of question using either fractions or decimals. You can normally solve the questions more quickly using the decimal method with a calculator. But you should get some practice with the fraction method too.

Example

2

In a survey of 200 people leaving a movie theater, 65% said that they enjoyed the movie. How many people in the survey enjoyed the movie? Solution

The problem is asking you to find 65% of 200. 65% of 200 = 0.65 × 200 = 130 So 130 of the people in the survey enjoyed the movie.

Guided Practice 13. Carla has 12 friends at school, and 50% of them ride on the same bus as she does. How many friends ride on the same bus as Carla? 14. A mixture of 30 liters of soap and water contains 10% soap. How many liters of the mixture is soap? 15. A school football team has won 70% of their last 60 games. How many of those games did they win? 16. A parking lot contains 150 cars, and 18% of them are blue. How many blue cars are in the parking lot?

Some Questions Wor k the Other Way Ar ound ork Around If you know a percent of a number you can find the number itself. Example

3

25% of the animals in a pet store are dogs. There are 10 dogs. How many animals are there in the store? Solution

25% of the number of animals is 10.

Check it out: You can use this algebraic approach using decimals: 25% = 0.25, and 0.25 × n = 10, so n = 10 ÷ 0.25 = 40.

You can write this as: 25% × the number of animals = 10 Or: 0.25 × the number of animals = 10 So: the number of animals = 10 ÷ 0.25 = 40. Or you can do this using algebra... 1

Call the number of animals n. Since 25% = 4 , you know This means n = 10 ÷

1 4

1 4

× n = 10.

= 10 × 4 = 40. There are 40 animals.

Section 3.5 — Percents

175

Guided Practice Solve Exercises 17–21, using either fractions or decimals. 17. 50% of a number is 13. What is the number? 18. Nancy has 27 green marbles. If 75% of Nancy’s marbles are green, how many marbles does Nancy have in total? 19. 4% of the trees in a park are oak trees. If there are 7 oak trees in the park, how many trees are there altogether? 20. 25% of a number is 30. What is 75% of the number? 21. In a survey of favorite animals, 2% of people answered ducks, and 10% said elephants. 14 people said their favorite animals are ducks. How many said their favorite animals are elephants?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, find the following percents: 1. 70% of 20 2. 3% of 600 3. 25% of 1200 4. 45% of 220 5. Darnell has 200 baseball cards. He gives 20% of his collection to his friend Kenny. How many cards does Darnell give to Kenny? 6. There are 25 pet cats living on 7th Street. Mrs. Delgado owns 16% of them. How many cats does Mrs. Delgado own? 7. Mr. Jones plants 80 daffodil bulbs in his garden. 85% of them grow successfully. How many daffodil plants does Mr. Jones end up with? 8. A zoo has 425 animals, and 4% of them are penguins. How many penguins does the zoo have? 9. The school soccer team scored 75 goals last season. Luisa scored 36% of the goals. How many goals did Luisa score last season? Use either fractions or decimals to solve Exercises 10–14. 10. 10% of what number is 12? 11. 220 is 80% of what number? 12. 50% of a number is 8. Calculate 25% of the number. Now try these: Lesson 3.5.3 additional questions — p444

13. In the class elections, 20% of the students voted for Elena. If Elena received 54 votes, how many students voted in total? 14. Phoebe is counting the vehicles that pass her house. 10% of them are motorcycles and 50% are cars. If Phoebe counts 6 motorcycles, how many cars does she count?

Round Up It’s really important that you understand this Lesson. In the rest of this Section, you’ll learn about circle graphs, percent increase and decrease, and simple interest. All of these will involve finding percents of numbers. 176

Section 3.5 — Percents

Lesson

3.5.4

Cir c le Gr a phs and P er cents Circ Gra Per ercents

California Standard:

You’ll have seen circle graphs before in earlier grades. They’re often used to compare different percents. Circle graphs are useful because they show clearly how the size of one group relates to another.

Number Sense 1.4 ven Calculate giv Calcula te gi per centa ges of quantities percenta centag and solve problems involving discounts at sales, interest earned, and tips.

100% is Equal to the Whole Amount 100% of something is all of it.

What it means for you: You’ll use circle graphs to compare different percents.

It’s important to remember this when you’re looking at questions about percents. Example

Key words: • • • •

percent circle graph 100% compare

1

Yesenia has a number of marbles. 65% of the marbles are red. The rest are all blue. What percent of Yesenia’s marbles are blue? Solution

All the marbles are either red or blue. So

(percent of red marbles) + (percent of blue marbles) = all marbles 65%

+

percent of blue marbles = percent of blue marbles = =

100% 100% – 65% 35%

So 35% of Yesenia’s marbles are blue.

Guided Practice 1. 47% of students in a school are boys. What percent are girls? 2. A store took a survey of customers’ ages. 29% said they were under 15. What percent were aged 15 or over? 3. 18% of a class of 6th graders have a pet dog. What percent of the class don’t have a dog? 4. A bag contains a number of colored counters. All the counters are either blue, green, or yellow. 30% of the counters are blue, and 40% of the counters are green. What percent of the counters are yellow? 5. Mrs. Goldman’s garden has only red, white, and blue flowers. 37% of the flowers are red, and 39% of the flowers are white. What percent of the flowers are blue? Action

27%

Comedy

41%

Romance

?

6. Visitors to a movie theater were asked which of 3 types of movie they liked best. This table shows the results. What is the missing percent? Section 3.5 — Percents

177

Cir c le Gr a phs Ar e Often Di vided into P er cents Circ Gra Are Divided Per ercents Circle graphs show how a total splits into different parts. This graph represents a math class split into boys and girls. The whole circle represents the whole class. The two sections represent the boys and the girls.

Boys

Girls

The girls section is larger. This means the class has more girls than boys. When a circle graph shows percents, the whole circle represents 100%. A section that represents a certain percent fills that percent of the circle. Example

2

This circle graph shows the results of a survey to find which out of apples, bananas, and oranges students liked best. What percent of the students like bananas best? Solution

Apples Bananas 25% ?% Oranges 35%

The whole circle represents 100%, so the total value of all the sections must be 100%. Call the percent of students who like bananas best b%. Then

25 + 35 + b = 100 60 + b = 100 b = 100 – 60 = 40

The total of all sections is 100% 25 + 35 = 60 Subtr act 60 fr om both sides Subtract from

So 40% of the students like bananas best.

Guided Practice In Exercises 7–10, find the missing value in each circle graph. 7. 8. 9. 10. 30%

?%

?% 34%

?%

50% 55%

?%

31%

21% 24%

Don’t forget: In Exercises 11–15, the numbers on the circle graphs aren’t percentages, but actual quantities.

178

Section 3.5 — Percents

19%

A survey asked people which of three drinks they prefer. Juice This graph shows the number of people who said they 20 prefer each drink. Water 10 11. How many people answered the survey? Milk 20 12. What fraction of these people preferred each drink? 13. What percent of these people preferred each drink? This graph shows the number of insects a scientist Wasps Crickets 75 counted for a study. 125 Bees 14. How many insects were there in total? Butterflies 125 15. What percent of each type of insect were there? 175

You Can Tur nP er cents on Cir c le Gr a phs into Number s urn Per ercents Circ Gra Numbers If you know how many units make up the full 100% of a circle graph, then you can work out how many each section represents. Example

3

Chris, Martina, and D’Andre each ran for student body president. A total of 150 students voted in the election, and the outcome of the election is shown in the circle graph. How many students voted for Martina?

D’Andre 38% Chris 22%

Martina 40%

Solution

The circle graph tells you that 40% of the students voted for Martina. You know that the whole circle graph represents 150 students. So the number of students who voted for Martina is 40% of 150 = 0.4 × 150 = 60 A total of 60 students voted for Martina.

Guided Practice Use the graphs provided to answer Exercises 16–19. 16. This graph shows the results of a survey of students’ favorite school subjects. 80 students were surveyed. Find the number of students that liked each subject best.

Won 60%

Lost 25% Tied 15%

17. The percents of games won, lost, and tied by a soccer team out of their last 40 games are shown on this graph. How many of the games did they win, lose, and tie?

18. This graph shows the percent of each color of balloon at a party. There were a total of 200 balloons at the party. Find how many of each color of balloon there were at the party. Rat Goldfish 18% 24% Cat 28%

Dog 30%

Science 25% English Math 30% 45%

Red 48% Blue 25%

White 27%

19. 300 people were surveyed as to which of 4 types of animals they liked the best. This graph shows the results. How many people in the survey liked each type of animal?

Section 3.5 — Percents

179

Independent Practice 1. A group of sixth-grade students each go to one of 5 clubs after school on Tuesdays. The table shows what percent of the students go to each club. What percent of the students go to the reading club? Explain your answer.

Acting Club Reading Club

?

Debate Club

10%

Music Club

40 %

Recycling Club

10%

2. A group of people were asked which of 3 vegetables they like best. This graph shows the results. Calculate the missing percent. 3. 300 people were questioned. Find the number of people who said they like each vegetable. Washington 36% Lincoln Cleveland 26% ?%

Cabbage ?% Carrots 33% Spinach 42%

4. A town held a vote to decide who to build a statue of. The results are shown on this graph. Find the missing percent. 5. 250 people voted. Figure out how many people voted for each choice.

6. This graph shows the colors of cars in the school parking lot. What percent of the cars are red? 7. If there are 175 cars in the lot, how many of each color are there? Winter Spring ?% 28% Fall Summer 16% 32%

15%

Blue 24%

Red ?%

Other Silver 20% 28%

8. This graph shows the results of a survey asking people about their favorite season. Figure out the missing percent. 9. The survey questioned 325 people. How many said they like each season the best?

Mr. Benson has 300 acres of land on his farm. He grows corn, lettuce, and tomatoes. There are 60 acres of lettuce and 90 acres of tomatoes. 10. How many acres of corn are there? The graph shows how the land on the farm is divided A between the three crops. C 11. Which section of the graph represents each crop? B Explain your answer. 12. What percent of the land is used for each crop? Now try these: Lesson 3.5.4 additional questions — p444

Swimming 175 Running Tennis 150 75 Cycling ?

500 sixth-graders were asked which of four sports they liked best. This graph shows the results. 13. How many students said they liked cycling best? 14. Write down what fraction of the sixth-graders preferred each sport. 15. What percent of the students preferred each sport?

Round Up Circle graphs are useful for giving out information. People who don’t know much about math can still understand what it means when one part of the circle is bigger than another. 180

Section 3.5 — Percents

Lesson

3.5.5

Per cent Incr ease ercent Increase

California Standard:

One real-world use of percents is to describe how certain numbers have changed. People say something has increased or decreased by a certain percent. In this Lesson, you’ll learn about percent increase.

Number Sense 1.4 ven Calculate giv Calcula te gi per centa ges of quantities percenta centag and solv e pr ob lems solve prob oblems in volving discounts at sales, inv interest earned, and tips tips.

What it means for you: You’ll solve problems where percents are used to describe how much a number has increased.

You Can Incr ease a Number b y a Cer tain P er cent Increase by Certain Per ercent When you add to a number, percent increase is a way to describe how much it’s changed. The percent increase is the amount of the increase, written as a percent of the original number. Example

1

Increase 200 by 25%. Solution

Key words: • • • • •

percent increase add tips sales tax

“Increase by 25%” means “add on 25% of the original number.” 25%

+

+

25%

100%

25%

+

25%

=

+

25%

=

100%

125%

The amount of the increase is 200 × 25% = 200 × 0.25 = 50 So to increase 200 by 25%, add 50. 200 + 50 = 250 Don’t forget: You convert a percent to a decimal by dividing by 100.

There’s another, slightly quicker way to find this answer. The answer is 125% of the original amount, so you want 200 × 125% = 200 × 1.25 = 250

Guided Practice Don’t forget: Check that all your answers are reasonable.

In Exercises 1–6, calculate the total after the increase. 1. Increase 100 by 12%. 2. Increase 50 by 20%. 3. Increase 160 by 25%. 4. Increase 60 by 5%. 5. Increase 185 by 60%. 6. Increase 275 by 30%.

Section 3.5 — Percents

181

Tips Ar e Calcula ted Using P er cents Are Calculated Per ercents

Check it out: In real life, people often estimate the right percent to tip, or round the amount up. But in math you should work out the exact tip, and only round to the nearest cent, unless an exercise tells you to do otherwise.

When people eat at a restaurant, they often tip the person who waited on them, or served their food. People often work out how much to tip by finding a percent of the bill. Example

2

Victor goes out to lunch. The bill comes to $14.00, and Victor wants to leave a 20% tip for the waiter. How much tip should he leave? Solution

Victor wants to leave a 20% tip, so he should multiply the dollar amount by 20%. 20% × $14.00 = 0.2 × $14.00 = $2.80 So Victor should leave a tip of $2.80.

Example

3

Aisha buys a meal in a restaurant. The meal costs $25.00, and Aisha decides to leave an 18% tip. How much does Aisha pay in total? Solution

The amount of the increase is

$25.00 × 18% = $25.00 × 0.18 = $4.50.

So the total Aisha pays is $25.00 + $4.50 = $29.50.

Guided Practice 7. Rick is at a cafe. The bill for his meal is $10. If Rick leaves a 20% tip, how much does he pay in total? 8. Dolores is buying breakfast. It costs $21, and Dolores leaves a 19% tip. How much does she leave as a tip? 9. The Jackson family goes out for a meal. The bill comes to $150, and Mrs. Jackson leaves a 15% tip. How much does she leave as a tip? 10. Wayne’s restaurant bill is $120. If Wayne leaves a tip of 25%, how much does he pay in total? 11. Francine is a waitress. A customer adds a 22% tip to his $42 bill. How much of a tip does he leave for Francine? 12. The cost of Phil’s meal is $64. Phil wants to leave a tip of 18%. How much should he pay in total?

182

Section 3.5 — Percents

You Can Figur e Out the P er cent Incr ease Figure Per ercent Increase If you know the original number, and you know what it’s been increased to, you can find the percent increase. Example

4

50 is increased to 58. What is the percent increase? Solution

You could solve this by guess and check: 50 × 110% = 50 × 1.1 = 55 50 × 120% = 50 × 1.2 = 60 50 × 115% = 50 × 1.15 = 57.5 50 × 116% = 50 × 1.16 = 58

Try 10% Try 20% Try 15% Try 16%

— too small — too large — too small — correct

Increasing 50 to 58 is an increase of 16%. You can also use algebra: original amount × percent increase = amount of increase The original amount is 50, and the amount of the increase is 58 – 50 = 8. So

50 × p = 8 p = 8 ÷ 50

Call the per cent incr ease p percent increase Di vide both sides b y 50 Divide by

= 0.16 = 16% So increasing 50 to 58 is an increase of 16%.

Example

5

Lucy’s restaurant bill came to $200. She paid $238. What percent tip did Lucy leave? Solution

The amount of the increase is

$238 – $200 = $38

So

Call the per cent incr ease p percent increase

200 × p = 38 p = 38 ÷ 200

Di vide both sides b y 200 Divide by

= 0.19 = 19% So Lucy left a tip of 19%.

Section 3.5 — Percents

183

Guided Practice In Exercises 13–18, work out the percent increase. 13. 100 increased to 142. 14. 25 increased to 30. 15. 160 increased to 184. 16. 36 increased to 63. 17. 45 increased to 49.5. 18. 260 increased to 377. 19. Wanda buys lunch for $15.00 plus a tip. If the total she pays is $18.00, what percent tip has she left? 20. Guillermo pays $41.30 for his meal, including a tip. The original bill was $35. What percent did Guillermo tip? Check it out:

21. Diana is paying for a meal. The bill is $25.00, and Diana wants to tip at least 18%. If she pays $30, has she left enough as a tip?

Sales tax is calculated in the same way as tips – as a percent of the price before the tax is added.

22. AJ spends $59.40 on a pair of sneakers. The price without sales tax is $55. What percent sales tax does AJ pay?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, find the total after the increase. 1. Increase 50 by 40%. 2. Increase 220 by 5%. 3. Increase 70 by 17%. 4. Increase 56 by 65%. In Exercises 5–8, work out the percent increase. 5. 110 increased to 121. 6. 60 increased to 75. 7. 350 increased to 427. 8. 12 increased to 14.4. 9. Corey’s bill for lunch is $25. He decides to tip 16%. How much does Corey leave as a tip? 10. After sales tax, Mr. Johnson paid $535 for a dishwasher that cost $500 before sales tax. What percent did he pay in sales tax? 11. Ms. Connor gave the hairstylist $50. Her haircut cost $40. What percent of the bill did Ms. Connor leave as a tip for the stylist? 12. Justin is buying a football. The cost before sales tax is $30. If the sales tax is 8%, how much does Justin pay in total? 13. With sales tax, the cost of Gavin’s new hat is $21.50. If the sales tax is 7.5%, what is the cost of the hat, not including tax? Now try these: Lesson 3.5.5 additional questions — p444

14. Mrs. Gomez takes a cab to the airport. The fare is $85.47, and she pays $100. What percent tip does Mrs. Gomez give the cab driver? 15. Zina, Adriana, and Raymond all buy dinner in the same restaurant. Zina’s bill is $28.50, and she leaves a 20% tip. Adriana’s bill is $30. She leaves a tip of 18%. Raymond adds a 22% tip to his bill of $27. How much do they each pay in total? Who pays the most?

Round Up Percent increases are one-half of the story. Next Lesson, you’ll learn about percent decreases. The math you’ll need for that is almost identical to what you’ve learned in this Lesson. 184

Section 3.5 — Percents

Lesson

3.5.6

Per cent Decr ease ercent Decrease

California Standard:

In the last Lesson, you saw how to use percents to describe the change when you add to a number. When you subtract from a number, you can describe the change in a similar way. This is percent decrease.

Number Sense 1.4 ven Calculate giv Calcula te gi per centa ges of quantities percenta centag and solv e pr ob lems solve prob oblems in volving discounts a inv att sales sales, interest earned, and tips.

What it means for you: You’ll solve problems where percents are used to describe how much a number has decreased.

You Can Decr ease a Number b y a Cer tain P er cent Decrease by Certain Per ercent You can use percents to describe what happens when you decrease a number. Percent decrease is the amount of change, described as a percent of the original number. Example

1

Key words:

Decrease 200 by 25%.

• • • •

Solution

percent decrease subtract discount

The amount of the decrease is 200 × 25% = 200 × 0.25 = 50 So to decrease 200 by 25%, take away 50. 200 – 50 = 150

Check it out: The way you calculate percent decrease is just like what you saw last Lesson for percent increase. The only difference is that this time the original number is getting smaller, not bigger.

You can also say that if you take away 25%, then you’re left with 100% – 25% = 75% of the original number. 75% of 200 = 75% × 200 = 0.75 × 200 = 150

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, calculate the total after the decrease. 1. Decrease 100 by 15%. 2. Decrease 150 by 50%. 3. Decrease 80 by 20%. 4. Decrease 132 by 25%. 5. Decrease 300 by 35%. 6. Decrease 125 by 6%. 7. A number is decreased by 44%. What percent of the number is left? 8. A number is decreased by 75%. What fraction of the number is left?

Section 3.5 — Percents

185

Per cent Decr ease Is Used to Describe Discounts ercent Decrease Percent decrease is often used to describe the discount when the price of an item that’s for sale is lowered. Example

2

A store discounts a coat by 20%. The coat originally cost $90. What is the discounted price of the coat? Check it out: You could also work this out using the fact that if the discount is 20%, the new price is 100% – 20% = 80% of the old price. You can work this out as: $90 × 80% = $90 × 0.8 = $72.

Solution

The amount of the decrease is $90 × 20% = $90 × 0.2 = $18 So the discounted price is $90 – $18 = $72

Guided Practice 9. Kitty buys some pens. They were originally priced at $3, but now there is a 50% discount. How much does Kitty pay for the pens? 10. This table shows some items on sale at a sporting goods store. Calculate the sale price of each item. Which item has the lowest price after the discount?

Item

Original price

Percent discount

Basketball

$50

18%

Hockey stick

$60

30%

Skateboard

$ 70

40%

11. A travel agent offers Mrs. Winters a discount of 17% on a vacation. If the original price was $3500, how much does Mrs. Winters pay? 12. Juliana buys a clock that originally cost $24, but now has a 5% discount. How much does Juliana pay for the clock? Three cars are shown below with the original price and the discount available for each car. 13. Find the price of each car after the discount. 14. Which car has the lowest price after the discount?

A.

,000

0

$20

B.

15% off

C.

,00

8 $1

$19,000

10% dis

count

186

Section 3.5 — Percents

ount

Disc

5%

You Can Figur e Out the P er cent Decr ease Figure Per ercent Decrease Finding the percent decrease is like finding the percent increase. Example

3

If 45 is decreased to 27, what is the percent decrease? Solution

original amount × percent decrease = amount of decrease The original amount is 45. The amount of the decrease is 45 – 27 = 18. So

45 × p = 18 p = 18 ÷ 45

Call the per cent decr ease p percent decrease Di vide both sides b y 45 Divide by

= 0.4 = 40% So decreasing 45 to 27 is a decrease of 40%.

Example

4

A table originally priced at $210 has been discounted to $189. What is the percent discount? Solution

The amount of the decrease is $210 – $189 = $21 Now find what percent of $210 is equal to $21. Call that percent p. 210 × p = 21 p = 21 ÷ 210 = 0.1 = 10% So the discount is 10%.

Guided Practice In Exercises 15–20, work out the percent decrease. 15. 200 decreased to 180. 16. 120 decreased to 90. 17. 55 decreased to 11. 18. 160 decreased to 152. 19. 500 decreased to 60. 20. 325 decreased to 286. 21. Denzel goes to the bookstore. He buys a book for $15 that has been discounted from $20. What is the percent discount? 22. Brian buys a sweater that has been reduced from $20 to $11. What is the percent discount?

Section 3.5 — Percents

187

Independent Practice 1. The stationery store is selling everything for 40% off. Michael buys a pencil sharpener that originally cost $1. How much does he pay? 2. Mykelti buys a pair of pants in a sale. They have been discounted from $22 to $11. What percent discount is this? 3. Lauren buys a pair of boots which originally cost $68. The store gives a discount of 25%. How much does Lauren pay? 4. Ms. Dominguez is buying a set of golf clubs. They have been reduced from $400 to $320. What is the percent discount? 5. Donny’s new bike has a 35% discount on it. If the original price was $260, what is the discounted price? 6. Tina wants to buy a new scarf. She sees one that is reduced by 40% from $16. What is the new price? 7. Kia is buying a couch for her apartment. The furniture store is offering a discount on one couch from $800 to $700. What percent discount is this? Luther is eating at a restaurant. His bill comes to $50, and he uses a coupon to get a discount of 20%. 8. What is the cost of the meal after the discount has been taken off? 9. Luther decides to leave a tip of 25% of the bill, after the discount has been taken off. How much does he pay in total? 10. These three watches have all been reduced. The labels show the original prices and the percent discount. Find the discounted price of each watch, and say which costs the least after the discount.

$100

A.

Discount 35% $120

20% off

$150 40%

C.

$1200

B.

A.

t

iscoun

20% d

$1350

12% off

Now try these: Lesson 3.5.6 additional questions — p445

C.

D.

$1150

Discount

10%

30% off

B.

$1500

disc

oun

t

11. The labels on these couches show the original prices and the percent discounts. Find the discounted price of each couch, and say which has the lowest price after the discount.

Round Up The topics of percent increase and percent decrease are very similar. Once you’ve got the hang of one, the other should make sense too. Practice plenty of both types of questions until you’re comfortable with them. 188

Section 3.5 — Percents

Lesson

3.5.7

Simple Inter est Interest

California Standard:

Banks pay people when they put their money into savings accounts. But if someone borrows money, they usually have to pay back some extra on top of what they borrow. These are both examples of interest. In this Lesson, you’ll learn about one type of interest.

Number Sense 1.4 ven Calculate giv Calcula te gi per centa ges of quantities percenta centag and solv e pr ob lems solve prob oblems in volving discounts at sales, inv inter est ear ned interest earned ned, and tips.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about simple interest, which is a common use of percents.

Key words: • • • •

percent simple interest principal rate

Inter est Is Ad ded to Loans or Sa vings Interest Added Savings If you borrow money, you usually have to repay more than you borrowed. The extra money you pay is interest. If you save money in the bank, the bank pays you to save your money with them. The extra money you receive is also called interest. Example

1

Pablo borrowed $1000 to buy a car. One year later, he repaid $1050. How much interest did Pablo pay? Solution

The interest is the difference between what Pablo borrowed and what he paid back. So Pablo paid $1050 – $1000 = $50 interest.

When you’re dealing with interest, the time is usually given in years. The original amount that is borrowed or saved is called the principal.

Guided Practice Sara puts $200 in a savings account. After 1 year, the interest has increased it to $210. 1. How much interest did Sara’s money earn? 2. What was the principal? Matthew borrows $500. He repays the loan over 24 months. The total he pays back is $560. 3. What was the principal? 4. How many years did it take Matthew to repay his loan? 5. How much interest did Matthew pay? Omar puts $400 into a savings account. He leaves the money in the account for 48 months. The account pays $25 interest each year. 6. What is the principal? 7. How many years did Omar leave his money in the account for? 8. How much interest did he earn in this time? Section 3.5 — Percents

189

Simple Inter est Is One Type of Inter est Interest Interest Simple interest is when the interest paid each year is a certain percent of the principal. The percent that’s added is called the interest rate. Example

2

Lakeesha puts $300 into an account with a simple interest rate of 8%. How much interest will the bank pay in one year? Solution

The amount of simple interest the bank will add on each year is 8% of the principal of $300 that Lakeesha has paid in. 8% of $300 = 0.08 × 300 = 24 The bank will pay $24 into the account in one year.

Check it out: Annual (as in annual interest rate) is another word for yearly.

The amount of simple interest paid in a certain length of time = (the amount of interest paid in one year) × (the number of years) = (the principal) × (the interest rate) × (the number of years) You can rewrite this as a mathematical formula:

I = Prt Where

I = interest (the amount of interest paid) P = principal (the original amount borrowed or saved) r = rate (the annual interest rate, written as a decimal) t = time (the time in years you’re calculating interest for)

Example Don’t forget: For a reminder of how to work with expressions, see Chapter 2.

3

Patrick borrows $350 at a simple interest rate of 4%. He repays the loan after 6 months. How much interest will he pay? Solution

You can use I = Prt:

So

P = $350 r = 4% = 0.04 t = 6 months = 0.5 years

I = Prt = 350 × 0.04 × 0.5 = 7

Patrick will pay $7 in simple interest at the end of 6 months.

190

Section 3.5 — Percents

Guided Practice Don’t forget: To work out the total someone owes or the balance in their savings account, add the interest to the principal.

Exercises 9–16 are about simple interest. Use the formula I = Prt to answer them. 9. Christina puts $100 in a 5% savings account for 3 years. How much interest does she earn? 10. Dan borrows $125 for 2 years. The interest rate is 20%. How much will he have to pay in total? 11. Bonnie saves $600 in an account with an interest rate of 4%. After 4 years, how much interest will she have earned?

Check it out: When you use I = Prt, remember that t is always the number of years. So if you’re dealing with a period of 6 months, put that into the equation as half a year, or 0.5 years.

12. Hernan puts $350 into a bank account paying 6% interest. What will be the total in his account in 2 years? 13. Sally borrows $400, with an annual interest rate of 8%. She repays the loan after 3 months. How much interest does she pay? 14. Keisha puts $200 into a savings account. How much interest will she earn in 6 months if the interest rate is 10%? 15. Steve takes out a loan of $150. The interest rate is 12%. How much does Steve owe in total after 4 months? 16. Tyreese saves $240. If his account pays 15% interest, how much interest will he receive in 3 years?

Rear e I = Prt to Solv e Other Pr ob lems earrrang ange Solve Prob oblems By rearranging I = Prt, you can solve other problems involving simple interest. Example

4

Dawn paid $200 into a savings account. After 3 years, she had earned $30 simple interest. What is the yearly interest rate? Solution

You can use I = Prt. You know that I = 30, P = 200, and t = 3. Now you want to find r. I = Prt

Write out the ffor or mula orm

30 = 200 × r × 3

Put in vvalues alues ffor or I,, P, and t

30 = 600r

200 × 3 = 600

r =

30 = 0.05 = 5% 600

Di vide both sides b y 600 Divide by

The annual interest rate on Dawn’s savings account is 5%.

Section 3.5 — Percents

191

Guided Practice Use the formula I = Prt to answer Exercises 17–22. 17. Joanna puts $100 into a savings account. In 4 years, she receives $28 interest. What is the interest rate on Joanna’s account? 18. Cleavon saves $200, with an interest rate of 6%. How long does it take Cleavon to earn $60 interest? 19. Simon borrows some money with a 10% interest rate. After 3 years, he has repaid the loan with $36 interest. How much did Simon borrow? 20. Rosa borrows $50 at an interest rate of 12%. She repays the loan with $12 interest. How long does it take Rosa to repay the loan? 21. Kate’s savings account has a 10% interest rate. In 6 months, she receives $55 interest. How much money did Kate put in the account? 22. John puts $250 in his savings account. In 2 years, he earns $25 interest. What is the interest rate?

Independent Practice Exercises 1–8 are all about simple interest. 1. Winnie borrows $700, at an interest rate of 13%. How much interest does she owe after 2 years? 2. Jorge puts $1700 in a savings account. If the interest rate is 5%, how much interest does Jorge get in 3 years? 3. Aleesha saves $1200. Her bank pays her an interest rate of 7%. How much interest does Aleesha receive in 4 months? 4. Martin borrows $245 for 6 months. How much interest does he pay, if the interest rate is 10%? 5. Chloe borrows $300, and pays 15% interest on the loan. She owes $180 interest after how many years? 6. In 1 year, Aurelia earns $14 interest on her savings. If the interest rate is 8%, how much did she save? 7. Caleb’s savings of $80 earn $36 interest over 5 years. What is the interest rate on Caleb’s account? Now try these: Lesson 3.5.7 additional questions — p445

8. Austin put $260 in a savings account at a simple interest rate of 8.5% for 4 years. Joe put $325 in a savings account at a simple interest rate of 8% for 4 years. Who earned the most in interest at the end of 4 years?

Round Up In real life, it’s useful to be able to understand interest. People who understand interest rates can make sure they get a good deal when they want to save or borrow money. Banks often use a more complicated type of interest, called compound interest. You won’t be learning about that in grade 6, but you might see it in math lessons in later grades. 192

Section 3.5 — Percents

Chapter 3 Investigation

Wildlif e Trails ildlife You’re a park ranger responsible for the trails at a nature park. A colleague has suggested organizing a Park Fun Run, and you need to help her plan it. Use the map and the additional information below.

921 miles Adam’s Bluff

2 21 miles 5 miles

Echo Canyon

Deer Run

Bird Park

Cornerstone

334 miles

Part 1: How long are the trails from: • Bird Park to Deer Run? • Deer Run to Cornerstone?

Additional Informatio n: • The distance from De er Run to Bird Park is half a mile shorter th an the distance from Bird Park to Corne rstone. • The distance from De er Run to Cornerstone is one-thir d of the distance from Bird Park to Corne rstone. • The distance from Ec ho Canyon to Deer Run is 5% shorter than the distance from Echo Canyon to Adam 's Bluff.

• Echo Canyon to Deer Run?

Part 2: Your colleague wants the Park Fun Run to cover all the trails once. • Is this possible? Where could it start and finish? • How long would the Park Fun Run be? Extensions • Mark wants to hike from Adam's Bluff to Bird Park along the shortest route. What route should he take? What is the length of this route in miles? • A new trail is being planned between Echo Canyon and Bird Park. 1 The trail will be exactly 2 2 times the length of the trail from Deer Run to Cornerstone. (i) What is the length, in miles, of the new trail? (ii) With this new trail, will it still be possible to organize a Park Fun Run that covers all the trails once? If possible, describe a suitable new route. Open-ended Extension • The organizers of the Park Fun Run need to provide drinks for the runners. Drinks stations can be placed at the above locations, and should be as evenly spaced as possible. Find the best locations for them (assuming no new trails have yet been built). • An additional trail from Deer Run to Cornerstone has been suggested. How will this affect the route of the Park Fun Run?

Round Up Being able to use fractions is an incredibly useful skill. Buy two drinks for a dollar and a half each, and you’ll be adding fractions to work out the total. Cha pter 3 In vestig a tion — Wildlife Trails 193 Chapter Inv estiga

Chapter 4 Ratio, Proportion and Rate Section 4.1

Exploration — Billboard Ratios ................................. 195 Ratio and Proportion ................................................. 196

Section 4.2

Proportions in Geometry ........................................... 209

Section 4.3

Exploration — Plotting Conversions .......................... 221 Converting Units ........................................................ 222

Section 4.4

Exploration — Running Rates ................................... 236 Rates ....................................................................... 237

Chapter Investigation — Sunshine and Shadows ............................. 253

194

Section 4.1 introduction — an exploration into:

Billboar d R a tios Billboard Ra Photographs don’t usually show objects at their actual size. However, some things are the same on a photograph as they are in real life. For example, if a person’s shoulders are actually 3 times wider than their head, then this will also be true in a photo. This is what you are going to explore... Body measurement height

You need a recent photograph of yourself. With a partner measure: (i) yourself, and (ii) the picture of yourself.

head width arm span

The measurements you need are shown in this table. Make a copy of the table to record your measurements.

2

Picture

Real life

12 1.5

160 20

1 2

5 3

3

leg length

4

shoulder width

5

1 4

Use centimeters for all your measurements. Also, make the measurements in real life and on the picture in the same way (for example, measure your arm span fingertip to fingertip). Example Find the ratios of the measurements on the picture to the real-life measurements. Solution

Add an extra column to your table. To work out the ratios, divide each measurement on the picture by the corresponding real-life measurement.

Ratio picture ÷ real life

0.075 = 12 ÷ 160

Exercises 1. What do you notice about your ratios? How do you explain this? Example Your picture is used on a billboard poster. In this picture you are 10 meters (1000 cm) tall. Use ratios to determine the width of your head on the poster. Solution

billboard height 1000 = = 6.25 real-life height 160 billboard head width billboard head width This is the same for all measurements, so: = = 6.25 real-life head width 20 This tells you that on the billboard, your head would be 6.25 × 20 cm = 125 cm wide. The ratio of height on the billboard to real-life height is:

Exercises 2. Calculate each of your measurements for a billboard on which you will be 10 meters tall. 3. Calculate your measurements if your picture were put on a postage stamp. On the postage stamp, you will be only 1.5 cm tall.

Round Up This was all about ratios. You saw that the ratio of measurements on a picture to measurements in real life is the same, no matter what you measure. Very useful... as you’ll see later in the Section. Section 4.1 Explor a tion — Billboard Ratios 195 Explora

Lesson

Section 4.1

4.1.1

Ratios

California Standard:

You’ve probably come across ratios before — for example, making orange drink by diluting about one part concentrated drink with about four parts water. This way of stating how the amount of one thing compares with the amount of another thing is called a ratio.

Number Sense 1.2 Interpret and use ratios in different contexts (e.g., batting averages, miles per hour) to show the relative sizes of two quantities, using appropriate notations (a/b, a to b, a:b).

What it means for you: You’ll learn what ratios are and the different ways you can represent them.

Ratios Are a Way of Comparing Amounts of Things A ratio is the amount of one thing compared with the amount of another thing. In the diagram, the ratio of rabbits to cats is 5 to 3. This is because there are 5 rabbits but only 3 cats.

Key words: • ratio • fraction

Example

1

What is the ratio of carrots to hamsters in the picture below? And what is the ratio of hamsters to carrots?

Solution

Count the number of carrots. There are 3 carrots. Count the number of hamsters. There are 2 hamsters. Make sure you get the order of the numbers right. The ratio of carrots to hamsters has the number of carrots first. The ratio of carrots to hamsters is 3 to 2. In the same way, the ratio of hamsters to carrots is 2 to 3.

Guided Practice 1. What is the ratio of tennis rackets to tennis balls in the picture opposite? 2. What is the ratio of tennis balls to tennis rackets in the picture? 3. There are ten people on a basketball court and two baskets. What is the ratio of people to baskets on the court?

196

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

There Are Three Ways of Writing a Ratio The previous examples used words like “5 to 3” to write a ratio. But there are other ways to write ratios, and they all mean the same thing. There are three ways you need to know about. Check it out: A ratio is really just another name for a fraction.

The c olon “:: ” is another way o ” in ratios. of writing “ tto You’d still say this “5 to 3.”

Example

This fraction tells you that there are 5 of one thing for every 3 of another.

5 3

5 to 3 5:3

2

The ratio of dogs to cats in the picture below is 4 to 3. How else could you write this ratio? Write the ratio of cats to dogs in three different ways.

Check it out: Notice that forming a ratio basically involves dividing one number by another. Writing a ratio as a fraction shows this most clearly.

Solution

There are three ways of writing ratios. 4 You could also write the ratio of dogs to cats as 4 : 3 or . 3 3 The ratio of cats to dogs is 3 to 4, or 3 : 4, or . 4

Guided Practice 4. The ratio of cars to people on a street is 1 : 2. How else can you represent this ratio? 2

5. The ratio of boys to girls in a class is . 3 Express the ratio of girls to boys in three different ways. 6. What is the ratio of the width of the first rectangle shown below to the second?

4 yards

3 yards

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

197

Ratios Don’t Have Any Units Ratios don’t have any units. A ratio is just one number compared with another, such as “3 to 2.” Usually, ratios compare things measured in the same units. Then, the units cancel out when you divide the two quantities. Example

3

What is the ratio of the area of the big square on the right to the smaller one?

Area 2 = 4 cm

Solution

Don’t forget: Ratios can be written as fractions.

To form the ratio of the areas, divide one by the other. 7 cm 2 7 = Ratio of big area to small area = 4 cm 2 4

Area 2 = 7 cm

But if the units are different, the description of what the ratio shows is usually a bit more detailed. Example Don’t forget: See also Lesson 4.4.1 — where rates are covered.

4

A walker hikes 7 miles in 3 hours. What is the ratio of the distance walked in miles to the time taken in hours? Distance walked in miles

Solution

Ratio of the distance walked in miles to the time taken in hours = Time taken in hours

7 . 3

Guided Practice Jess makes purple paint using 4 cans of blue paint to 1 can of red. It takes her 3 hours to paint her bedroom, and she uses all her paint. 7. What is the ratio of cans of blue paint to cans of red paint? 8. What is the ratio of cans of paint used to the time taken in hours?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, write the ratio shown in two equivalent ways. 11 1. 7 : 6 2. 3 to 8 3. 4. 7 : 11 7

Now try these: Lesson 4.1.1 additional questions — p445

Exercises 5–7 are based on the the circle graph on the right. It shows the professions of 24 former pupils of a school.

Working, but profession unknown: 3

Teachers: 6 Civil servants: 4

Unemployed: 2 Business people: 9

5. What is the ratio of people working in business to civil servants? 6. What is the ratio of unemployed people to people in business? 7. What is the ratio of people who are working and whose professions are known, to working people whose professions are unknown?

Round Up You’ve now met all of the basics of ratios. Next, you’ll see how to use ratios in real life and how to simplify them to make your calculations easier. 198

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

Lesson

4.1.2

Equivalent Ratios

California Standard:

In real life, you might have to scale ratios up or down — like when you change a cake recipe from serving 4 people to serving 8 people. In this Lesson you’ll learn how to find equivalent ratios that allow you to scale quantities. It’s very similar to making equivalent fractions, so some of this might seem familiar to you.

Number Sense 1.2 Interpret and use ratios in different contexts (e.g., batting averages, miles per hour) to show the relative sizes of two quantities, using appropriate notations (a/b, a to b, a:b).

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to form different ratios with the same value, and to find the simplest form of a ratio.

Equivalent Ratios Show the Same Thing 2

Equivalent ratios are the same kind of thing. Example

Key words: • simplifying • equivalent

1

Fractions like 4 and 2 are different, but they represent the same thing. They’re called equivalent fractions.

1

What is the ratio of red squares to blue squares in the pattern on the right? Solution

There are different answers to this question. Altogether, there are 12 red squares and 24 blue squares, so one answer is 12 : 24. But you can also say that the ratio of red to blue squares is 1 : 2. This is because there is 1 red square for every 2 blue squares. The ratios 12 : 24 and 1 : 2 are equivalent ratios. Don’t forget: You simplify ratios in exactly the same way as you simplify fractions. For example,

12 1×12 1 = . = 24 2 ×12 2 Look back to Lessons 3.4.1 and 3.4.2 for more information.

If you have two equivalent ratios, then you can say that the one that uses smaller numbers is simpler. So 1 : 2 and 12 : 24 are equivalent ratios, but 1 : 2 is simpler. In fact, 1 : 2 is in its simplest form, since no other equivalent ratio uses smaller numbers. To simplify a ratio, divide both parts by the same number. For example, to simplify 12 : 24, divide both sides by 12 to get 1 : 2. Example

2

Andrew has a bag of marbles. The bag contains 4 blue and 14 black marbles. What is the ratio of blue to black marbles in its simplest form? Solution

There are 4 blue marbles, and 14 black marbles. So the ratio of blue to black marbles is 4 : 14. But you can simplify the ratio 4 : 14 to 2 : 7.

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

199

Guided Practice Simplify the ratios in Exercises 1–6. 1. 7 to 14 2. 3 : 9 3. 5 : 50 3 4. 5. 16 : 18 6. 24 to 15 18 7. There are 12 socks in Ryan’s drawer. There are 9 black socks, and the rest are white. What is the ratio of black to white socks? Give your answer in its simplest form. 8. Chad works in a grocery store. He sells 22 apples in the same time that he sells 8 oranges. What is the ratio of apples to oranges sold? Give your answer in its simplest form.

You Can Simplify Ratios in Stages Don’t forget: A common factor is a number that divides evenly into two (or more) other numbers. For example, 12 is a common factor of 24 and 36.

You can find the simplest form of a ratio in different ways. One way to do this is to make the ratio simpler in stages. Example

3

Find the simplest form of the ratio 105 : 70. Solution

Just keep looking for numbers that divide into both sides of the ratio (common factors). Don’t forget: You must remember to do the same thing to both sides of the ratio.

105 and 70 both divide evenly by 5, so 105 : 70 is equivalent to 21 : 14. 21 and 14 both divide evenly by 7, so 21 : 14 is equivalent to 3 : 2. Nothing divides into both 3 and 2, so 3 : 2 is in its simplest form. So the simplest form of 105 : 70 is 3 : 2.

Don’t forget: You can find the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two numbers by finding their prime factorizations. 105 = 3 × 5 × 7 70 = 2 × 5 × 7 Then multiply the common factors (5 and 7) together to find the greatest common divisor. So the GCD of 105 and 70 is 5 × 7 = 35.

Another way is to find the greatest common divisor of the numbers in the ratio. Example

4

Find the simplest form of the ratio 105 : 70. Solution

The greatest common divisor of 105 and 70 is 35. So divide both sides of the ratio by 35. This means that the simplest form of 105 : 70 is 3 : 2.

Guided Practice Find the simplest form of the ratios in Exercises 9–14. 9. 18 to 12 10. 6 : 9 11. 25 : 75 24 12. 13. 72 : 56 14. 70 to 98 96 200

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

Ratios Can Contain Variables Ratios can include variables as well as numbers. Example

5

Find a number, x, so that the ratio 7 : 2 is equivalent to x : 4 Solution

You need to compare the ratios 7 : 2 and x : 4. If you write the ratios as fractions, it’s easier to compare them directly. The two ratios are equivalent, so the fractions must be equal. 7 x x stands for any number. You have to find what x is. = 2 4 The denominator of the second ratio is twice as big as the denominator of the first ratio. Since the fractions are equal, the numerator of the second ratio must also be twice as big as the numerator of the first. So x = 2 × 7 = 14. This means 7 : 2 is equivalent to 14 : 4.

Guided Practice 15. Find the number x, so that the ratio 9 : 3 is equivalent to 3 : x. 16. Find the number y, so that the ratio 14 : 44 is equivalent to y : 66.

Independent Practice 1. Mr. Jefferson has 7 boys in his science class, and 19 girls. What is the ratio of boys to girls? 2. There are 10 sculptures and 16 paintings in a room at the art museum. What is the ratio of sculptures to paintings? Give your answer in its simplest form. Now try these: Lesson 4.1.2 additional questions — p446

In Exercises 3–6, write each ratio in its simplest form. 18 6. 48 to 33 3. 5 to 10 4. 80 : 60 5. 20 7. Find a number y, so that the ratio 1 : 9 is equivalent to y : 18. 8. Find a number z, so that the ratio 5 : 6 is equivalent to z : 30. For Exercises 9–10, give your answers in the simplest form. A bag contains 40 beads, 25 coins, and 10 keys. 9. What is the ratio of beads to coins? 10. What is the ratio of keys to other objects in the bag?

Round Up So now you know how to find equivalent ratios, and how to simplify ratios. The next step is to write proportions, which is what you’ll learn all about in the next Lesson. Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

201

Lesson

4.1.3

Proportions

California Standard:

Equivalent ratios are ones that can be simplified to be the same thing. In this Lesson, you’ll learn that if two ratios are equivalent ratios, then you can write them as a proportion.

Number Sense 1.3 Use proportions to solve problems (e.g., determine the value of N if 4/7 = N/ 21, find the length of a side of a polygon similar to a known polygon). Use cross-multiplication as a method for solving such problems, understanding it as the multiplication of both sides of an equation by a multiplicative inverse.

What it means for you:

A Proportion Is an Equation of Equivalent Ratios A proportion is an equation showing two equivalent ratios. For example, the ratios 1 : 2 and 3 : 6 are equivalent. 1 3 So you can write the proportion: = 2 6 Example

1

You’ll learn what proportions are, how to write them in math, and how to solve them.

To paint one wall, Gabrielle uses three cans of blue paint, and one can of white paint. To cover the room’s four walls, she uses twelve cans of blue paint and four cans of white paint.

Key words:

Write a proportion arising from this situation.

• proportion • equivalent ratios

Solution

Check it out: You can check whether your proportion is correct by simplifying both fractions until they are in their simplest form, and checking that they are equal.

To write a proportion, you need two equivalent ratios. The first ratio comes from the paint Gabrielle used to paint one wall. She used 1 can of white and 3 cans of blue. 1 This gives a ratio of white to blue of 1 : 3, or . 3 The other ratio comes from the paint used to paint the entire room. 4 . The ratio of white to blue for four walls is 4 : 12, or 12 1 4 You can write these two equivalent ratios as a proportion: = 3 12 Example

2

Pattern 2 consists of four tiles like Pattern 1.

1

2

Write a proportion involving the numbers of black dots and red dots in Patterns 1 and 2. Solution

Pattern 1 contains 2 black dots and 5 red dots. This gives a ratio of

2 . 5

Pattern 2 must contain 4 × 2 = 8 black dots and 4 × 5 = 20 red dots. 8 This gives a ratio of . 20 2 8 These ratios must be equivalent, so you can write the proportion = . 5 20 202

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

Guided Practice Don’t forget: Remember that you can write a proportion for any two ratios that are equivalent. You can’t write proportions if the ratios aren’t equivalent.

1. The ratio of boys to girls in a class is 5 : 6. The ratio of boys to girls in the whole school is 100 : 120. Can these two ratios be written as a proportion? Explain your answer. 2. Can the ratios 3 : 7 and 5 : 21 be written as a proportion? Explain your answer. 3. The second pattern below is made up of three tiles like the first pattern. Write a proportion using the numbers of black dots and red dots in the two patterns.

Proportions Can Involve Variables In the last Lesson, you saw that ratios can involve variables. The same is true of proportions. Example

3

The ratios 3 : 4 and x : 12 are equivalent. Write a proportion involving x. Solution

Just treat x like you would any other number. 3 x So you can write the proportion = . 4 12 You may have to make a proportion describing a word problem. Example

4

Meredith likes to mix her apple juice with a little water. She uses a ratio of 1 part water to 4 parts apple juice. If x is the number of cups of apple juice she would need to mix with 2 cups of water, write a proportion involving x. Solution

Don’t forget: The ratios “1 : 4,” “1 to 4,” and 1

“ 4 ” all mean the same thing.

You need two ratios to write a proportion. Since Meredith needs to mix 2 cups of water with x cups of apple juice, one ratio of water to apple juice you can use is 2 to x. You also know Meredith wants a ratio of water to apple juice of 1 : 4. 2 1 Use these two ratios to write a proportion: = x 4

Guided Practice To make smoothies, Joshua uses a ratio of oranges to strawberries of 1 : 6. One morning, Joshua makes a smoothie using 3 oranges. 4. Call the number of strawberries Joshua uses x. Write a proportion involving x. Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

203

If you have a proportion containing a variable, you can solve it. Check it out: This is exactly the same as Example 4 on the previous page, but this time you have to find x — not just write a proportion.

Example

5

Meredith likes to mix her apple juice with a little water. She uses a ratio of 1 part water to 4 parts apple juice. If x is the number of cups of apple juice she would need to mix with 2 cups of water, find x. Solution

There are different ways to solve this... (i) You can reason it out. If the ratio of water to apple juice is 1 : 4, then there will be 4 times as much apple juice as water. Since there are 2 cups of water, there will be 8 cups of apple juice. 2 1 = . x 4 The numerator on the right is half the numerator on the left. So the denominator on the right must be half the denominator on the left. This means x = 4 × 2 = 8, and Meredith needs 8 cups of apple juice.

(ii) Or you can use your proportion:

Guided Practice 5. Write and solve a proportion for the equivalent ratios x : 6 and 4 : 12. To make smoothies, Joshua uses a ratio of oranges to strawberries of 1 : 6. One morning, Joshua makes a smoothie using 3 oranges. 6. Solve your proportion from Exercise 4 to find x.

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, decide whether the ratios are equivalent. For those ratios that are equivalent, write a proportion. 1. Now try these: Lesson 4.1.3 additional questions — p446

2 4 and 3 6

4. 5 : 9 and 25 : 45

2.

3 5 and 5 3

5. 4 : 2 and 2 : 1

3.

4 and 2 : 9 21

6. 9 : 12 and 81 : 108

A recipe for carrot cake needs a ratio of carrots to walnuts of 2 : 3. 7. If 6 cups of walnuts are used with c cups of carrots, write a proportion involving c. 8. Solve your proportion to find c.

Round Up Proportions can be useful in everyday life — you’ll come across them countless times when you’re cooking and painting, and so on. Next Lesson, you’ll see another way to solve them to find unknowns. 204

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

Lesson

4.1.4

Proportions and Cross-Multiplication

California Standard: Number Sense 1.3 Use proportions to solve problems (e.g., determine the value of N if 4/7 = N/21, find the length of a side of a polygon similar to a known polygon). Use cross-multiplication as a method for solving such problems, understanding it as the multiplication of both sides of an equation by a multiplicative inverse.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about the cross-multiplication method for solving problems involving proportions with a missing variable.

Key words: • proportion • cross-multiplication • multiplicative inverse • reciprocal • ratio

In this Lesson, you’ll learn a good way to solve proportions — the method of cross-multiplication. Most of the ideas in this Lesson apply to fraction equations too, so it’s worth concentrating extra hard during this Lesson.

Multiply the Diagonals in Cross-Multiplication 2 6 = . 3 9 If you multiply the numerator of each fraction by the denominator of the other, you get two products. (This is called cross-multiplication.) Take this proportion:

2 6 = 3 9

3 × 6 = 18 2 × 9 = 18

For any proportion, these two products are always equal. Example

1

2 8 Use cross-multiplication to check that the ratios and are 5 20 equivalent. Solution

If the two ratios are equivalent, then you can write them as a proportion. Then you can check that the products of the two diagonals are equal. 2 8 5 × 8 = 40 = 2 × 20 = 40 5 20 Both products are equal, so the ratios are equivalent.

Cross-multiplication gives:

Example

2

The ratios 1 : 9 and 4 : a are equivalent. Use cross-multiplication to find the value of a. Solution

1 4 = 9 a Now cross-multiply, and remember that the products will be equal. 1 4 9 × 4 = 36 = 1×a=a 9 a So a = 36.

The two ratios are equivalent, so write them as a proportion:

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

205

Guided Practice Don’t forget: If cross-multiplication gives you two different numbers, then the ratios are not equivalent.

In Exercises 1–6, use cross-multiplication to decide whether the ratios are equivalent. 4 20 2 8 1. and 2. and 3. 9 : 12 and 12 : 16 5 25 3 14 4 7 4. 8 to 9, and 9 to 8 5. 15 : 18 and 20 : 24 6. and 3 5 In Exercises 7–9, use cross-multiplication to find the variable in the proportions. 1 9 z 7 3 1 7. = 8. = 9. = 9 g 6 1 c 8

Use Cross-Multiplication to Solve Any Proportion Sometimes cross-multiplication is just the first step on the way to finding the value of an unknown. Example

3

Solve the proportion

2 3 = for y. y 12

Solution

Cross-multiply to find: 2 × 12 = 3 × y. You can write this more simply as 3y = 24. This is an equation like you saw in Lesson 2.2.4. So divide both sides by 3 to find y. 3 y = 24 3 y ÷ 3 = 24 ÷ 3 y=8 Example

4

Solve the proportion

5 b = for b. 16 8

Solution

Cross-multiply to find: 5 × 8 = 16 × b, or more simply, 16b = 40. Now divide both sides by 16 to find b. 16b = 40 b = 2.5

Guided Practice Find the missing variable in Exercises 10–13. 10.

206

3 9 = y 18

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

11.

4 1 = 24 x

12.

8 c = 15 90

13.

16 h = 8 2

You Can Solve Real-Life Problems Using This Method Example

5

The ratio of the mass of sand to cement in a particular type of concrete is 4.8 : 2. If 6 kg of sand are used, how much cement is needed? Solution

You need to write a proportion, so you need two ratios of sand : cement. The first ratio is given in the question, 4.8 : 2. The second ratio will involve a variable, c, which represents the mass of cement needed. So the other ratio is 6 : c. 4.8 6 = Write a proportion: 2 c Cross-multiply: 4.8 × c = 2 × 6, or more simply, 4.8c = 12. Solve your equation for c: c = 12 ÷ 4.8, which gives c = 2.5. So 2.5 kg of cement are needed.

You can see why cross-multiplication actually works by using multiplicative inverses. Example

6

3 a = , then 3b = 4a. 4 b Show every step of your work. Do not use cross-multiplication. Show that if

Don’t forget: There’s more information in Lesson 3.3.1 about multiplicative inverses (also called reciprocals). The important fact is that when you multiply a number by its multiplicative inverse, you get 1.

Solution

This involves a little bit of algebra... a 1 3 1 Remember that = 3× , and = a × . (See Lesson 3.2.1.) b b 4 4 1 1 So the original equation is the same as 3× = a × . 4 b • Multiply both sides of this equation by 4 (the multiplicative inverse of

1 1 So 4 × =1 and b × = 1 . 4 b

Don’t forget: Rearranging the order of things that are multiplied together uses the associative and commutative properties of multiplication. See Lesson 2.3.2 for more information

• •

1 ) 4

and b (the multiplicative inverse of

1 ). b

1 1 This gives: 4 × b ×3× = 4 × b × a × . 4 b 1 1 You can rearrange this as: 4 × × b ×3 = b × × 4 × a 4 b 1 1 But 4 × = 1 and b × = 1 , so this simplifies to b × 3 = 4 × a. 4 b

And that’s it... you’ve shown that 4a = 3b.

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

207

Guided Practice 14. Lois is mixing up purple paint in the ratio 5 parts blue to 3 parts pink. If Lois uses 15 cans of pink paint, how many cans of blue paint will she need to mix the correct purple? 15. A new school is due to open. In total, it will need to employ 2 staff members for every 28 pupils. The school is predicted to have 2744 pupils. How many staff members will it need to employ?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, say which ratios are equivalent by using cross-multiplication. 3 48 1. 5 : 8 and 20 : 32 2. and 4 60 7 49 3. and 4. 8 to 3, and 6 to 2 5 35 In Exercises 5–12, solve the proportions using cross-multiplication. Now try these: Lesson 4.1.4 additional questions — p446

6 x = 1 2 9 3 = 9. 117 x

5.

4 16 = y 4 5 10 = 10. 35 x

6.

x 6 = 7 21 2 4 11. y = 76

7.

2 9 = x 36 y 1 12. = 6 3

8.

13. Roberta is going on vacation. She needs to take 3 skirts for each week’s vacation. Is she right in taking 8 skirts for a 3-week vacation? 14. Eva notices that she is taught by 3 male teachers and 4 female. If this ratio is true for the whole school, how many male teachers would there be if there are 52 female teachers altogether? Exercises 15–17 apply to Jose, who is making a fruit salad for his friends, using 7 oranges, 14 pears, 14 apples, 98 grapes, and 28 cherries. An average portion of fruit salad contains 7 grapes. 15. How many pears are in an average portion? 16. How many oranges are in an average portion? 17. How many cherries are in an average portion? a c 18. If = , then what can you say about ad and bc? b d Show every step of your work. Do not use cross-multiplication.

Round Up In this Lesson, you’ve learned how to solve proportion equations using cross-multiplication. The next Section uses this to solve proportion problems in geometry. 208

Section 4.1 — Ratio and Proportion

Section 4.2

Lesson

4.2.1

Similarity

California Standard:

This Lesson is about similarity in geometry. If two figures are similar, they are the same shape, though they don’t have to be the same size. You’re going to use proportions to find out more about similar shapes.

Number Sense 1.3 Use proportions to solve problems (e.g., determine the value of N if 4/7 = N/21, find the length of a side of a polygon similar to a known polygon). Use cross-multiplication as a method for solving such problems, understanding it as the multiplication of both sides of an equation by a multiplicative inverse.

Similar Figures Are the Same Shape Figures that have exactly the same shape (but could be different sizes) are called similar figures. Example

1

Which of the shapes below are similar to Figure A? 2

What it means for you:

3

1

You’ll learn about similar shapes and be able to express relationships in geometry using ratios.

4 5

Figure A

6

7

Solution

Key words: • corresponding sides/angles • similar • proportion • ratio

Check it out: If two figures are the same shape, and the same size, then they are called congruent.

Shapes 2, 3, and 7 don’t have 3 sides, so they’re not similar to Figure A. Shape 6 doesn’t have a right angle, so that’s not similar to Figure A. Shape 4 has two sides the same length, so that’s not similar to Figure A. Shape 1 is smaller than Figure A, but is the same shape. Shape 5 is bigger than Figure A and has been rotated, but it is also the same shape. Shapes 1 and 5 are similar to Figure A. To say whether two shapes are similar, you need to look at their angles and side lengths. Example

2

Which one of the shapes on the right is similar to Figure B below? Check it out: Any two triangles whose angles have the same measures are similar. However, this doesn’t work for other shapes — all three shapes below have the same angles, for example. 120° 120° 60°

60° 120° 60°

70°

70° 110° Figure B

110° 1

110°

117°

70° 2

70° 63°

3

110° 4

Solution

Shape 3 has different angles from Figure B, so that isn’t similar. Shape 1 has the same angles, but it’s been stretched in only one direction, making it a different shape, and not similar to Figure B. Shape 4 has the same angles, but the two right angles are opposite each other — different from Figure B. So Figure B and Shape 4 are not similar. Shape 2 has the same angles and the same side lengths. It could be cut out and placed exactly over Figure B. Shape 2 is similar to Figure B. Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

209

Guided Practice 1. Which one of the shapes 1–4 below is similar to Figure C? Explain your answer. 1 2 30°

4

3 60°

60°

60°

30°

Figure C

Check it out: Basically, similar shapes are enlargements or reductions of each other (but can be reflected and rotated too).

Sides of Similar Shapes Give the Same Ratios The two triangles below are similar. Look at the ratios of the lengths of corresponding sides.

3 cm 1 = , Shortest sides: 6 cm 2

Check it out: This ratio of

1 2

means that the

lengths of the sides in Triangle 1 are

1 2

as big as the

corresponding sides in Triangle 2.

medium sides:

Triangle 2 Triangle 1 5 cm

8 cm

10 cm

3 cm

4 cm 6 cm

4 cm 1 5 cm 1 = , and longest sides: = . 8 cm 2 10 cm 2

The ratios of the lengths of corresponding sides are equal. This is true for all similar shapes. Example

3

All these triangles are similar. Find the ratios of the lengths of 2.4 in. corresponding sides between 1.5 in. 1 in. 1 3 Figure D and: 1.2 in. 2 in. 1.8 in. 2 in. (i) Shape 1 4 in. 6 in. (ii) Shape 2 (iii) Shape 3 2 3 in. Figure D

4.5 in.

3 in.

Solution

Don’t forget: An equation showing that two ratios are equal is a proportion. Here, you have lots of ratios equal to each other, so there are lots of proportions. 4 in. 5 = is a For example, 2.4 in. 3 proportion.

210

Since all the shapes are similar, the ratios of all corresponding side lengths will be equal. (i) For Shape 1:

2 in. 3 in. 4 in. = = =2 1 in. 1.5 in. 2 in.

(ii) For Shape 2:

2 in. 3 in. 4 in. 2 = = = 3 in. 4.5 in. 6 in. 3

(iii) For Shape 3:

2 in. 3 in. 4 in. 5 = = = 1.2 in. 1.8 in. 2.4 in. 3

Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

Example Check it out: This time, you can’t use the fact that similar shapes have identical angles. You have to use what you know about corresponding sides of similar shapes — that they all give the same ratio.

4 4 in.

Are the two shapes below similar? Explain your answer. 2.5 in.

3.9 in.

2 in. 2.4 in.

1.6 in. 2 in. 1.6 in.

Solution

Work out the ratios of the lengths of corresponding sides. If the shapes are similar, all the ratios will be equal. Shortest sides:

1.6 in. = 0.8 2 in.

Longest sides:

2.5 in. = 0.625 4 in.

You don’t have to work out the ratio for the other sides — these two ratios are different, so you know the shapes aren’t similar.

The ratios of the lengths of the sides are not all equal, so the shapes are not similar.

Guided Practice All these triangles are similar. Find the ratios of the lengths of corresponding sides between Figure E and: 2. Shape 1 3. Shape 2 2 in.

5 in.

2.4 in.

0.8 in. 2 in. 2 1.6 in.

6 in. 1

4 in. Figure E

4.8 in.

4. Which two shapes below are similar? Explain your answer. 1.32 cm 2

3 cm 2.2 cm

1

1.2 cm

1.8 cm 3.6 cm

2 cm 2.4 cm

3

2.5 cm

Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

211

Example Don’t forget: If you find it easier to think about pictures, draw some. A quick sketch of two triangles with the lengths of the sides marked in can be much easier to think about than a description.

5

Two triangles are similar. The first triangle has sides of length 7 in., 8 in., and 9 in. The second triangle has sides of length 14 in. and 16 in., but the length of the longest side is unknown. Calculate the ratio between the lengths of corresponding sides. Use this ratio to find the length of the missing side. Solution

Work out the side-length ratios of the bigger triangle to the smaller triangle. Using the shortest sides:

14 in. =2 7 in.

So sides in the bigger triangle are twice as long as in the smaller triangle. So the length of the longest side of the bigger triangle must be 2 × 9 in. = 18 inches.

Guided Practice In Exercises 5–6, the shapes in each pair are similar. Find the missing lengths by working out the ratios of the corresponding side lengths. 10 cm 5. 6. 16 cm 16 cm cm 4 cm 4 4 in. 2 in. 4 in. 2 in. 4 cm 4 cm 1.3 in. 16 cm 16 cm 10 cm

Independent Practice Now try these:

1. Show that triangles 2 and 4 are 17 in. 12 in. similar to each other, but that triangles 1 1 and 3 are not similar to any others. 12 in. 28 cm

Lesson 4.2.1 additional questions — p447

20 cm

a°

124° d

9 in.

b°

c°

103° 24 cm

e

14 cm 124° 134° 105° 14 cm 12 cm 74° 103° 22 cm

44 cm

12 in. 2 15 in.

Now you know how to recognize similar figures, and work out missing angles and lengths. Next Lesson, you’ll use proportions to solve more problems with similar shapes. Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

5 in.

4 4 in. 3 in.

2. Fill in the missing lengths and angles in the similar pentagons on the left.

Round Up

212

17 in. 6 in. 3 9 in.

Lesson

4.2.2 California Standard: Number Sense 1.3 Use proportions to solve problems (e.g., determine the value of N if 4/7 = N/21, find the length of a side of a polygon similar to a known polygon). Use cross-multiplication as a method for solving such problems, understanding it as the multiplication of both sides of an equation by a multiplicative inverse.

What it means for you: You’ll use proportions to find missing lengths in similar shapes.

Key words: • proportion • similar shapes • ratio • corresponding sides

Proportions and Similarity Last Lesson, you learned about similar shapes. You saw that if you take two similar triangles and work out the ratio of corresponding sides, you always get the same answer. This Lesson, you’re going to use proportions to find missing lengths. But first, a bit about notation...

You Can Use Proportions to Find Missing Lengths S Look at these similar blue and yellow shapes. C To name a particular side, you write the 2 in. B 10 in. P letters at either end with a bar over A 5 in. them. So the longest side of the yellow 2 in. 4 in. D Q shape is CD , while the corresponding 6 in. side of the blue shape is RS . R The lengths of sides are written in the same way, but without the bar. So the length of CD is written CD.

You’ve seen that for similar shapes, the ratio of the lengths of any two corresponding sides is equal. You can use this to write a proportion. Example

1

Look at the blue and yellow shapes above. Write a proportion using the ratios AB : PQ and BC : QR. Solve your proportion to find the missing length BC.

Don’t forget: These ratios can be written in different ways. (i) AB : PQ (ii) AB to PQ AB (iii) PQ

Don’t forget: The ratio of the length of corresponding sides in similar triangles will always be the same. But you must make sure you get the numbers in the right order. In Example 1, the yellow triangle’s sides are always on the top.

Check it out: This is the same method as was used in Example 5 of the previous Lesson, only written down using proportions.

Solution

These are similar shapes, so the ratios of the lengths are the same. AB BC = This means . PQ QR 2 in. z in. = If the length of the missing side is z inches, then , 4 in. 6 in. 2 z or more simply, = . 4 6 Cross-multiplication then gives 4z = 6 × 2, or 4z = 12. Now you can divide both sides by 4 to get z = 12 ÷ 3 = 4. The length of side BC is 4 inches.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–2, the shapes in each pair are similar. Find the missing lengths using proportions. F Q 1. 2. B 8 cm A

x

12 cm

D 3c

7 cm

m C

7.5 cm

15 ft X

P

H E

b 67.5 ft

12 ft

z

Y

y

G

a

R

63 ft

Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

Z

213

There are other ratios you can use to find missing lengths in similar shapes. Example

2 S

Look at the shapes on the right. Calculate the ratios

AB CD

and

PQ RS

C

2 in. B A 2 in. D

.

What do you notice? Solution

10 in.

4 in. Q

Now look at the blue shape:

6 in.

R

Here, you’re working out ratios of two sides on the same shape. First look at the yellow shape:

P

5 in.

AB 2 in. 2 = = CD 5 in. 5 PQ 4 in. 4 2 = = = RS 10 in. 10 5

The two ratios are equal.

This is always true for similar shapes. If you work out the ratio of the lengths of two sides in one shape, then the ratio of the corresponding pair of sides in any similar shape will be the same. Example

3

Look at these similar shapes. Write a proportion using the ratios AB : CD and WX : YZ. Solve your proportion to find p.

A 4 cm

D

Z

W

7 cm 6 cm

p cm

B C

X Y

Solution

4 cm 4 = . This is the ratio of the lengths of the The ratio AB : CD is 7 cm 7 parallel sides on the green trapezoid.

Check it out: Similar shapes are sometimes described as being “in proportion.”

Since the purple shape is similar, the ratio of the lengths of its parallel 6 4 4 sides will also equal 7 . So = . p 7 Now solve your proportion using cross-multiplication: 4p = 42, which gives p = 10.5.

Guided Practice For Exercises 3–6, use the similar shapes in the diagram below. A D W 3. What is the ratio AB : BC? 7 in. 4. What is the ratio YZ : XY? 5. Use your answers from Exercises B 9 in. 3 and 4 to set up a proportion. C 6. Solve your proportion to find the length YZ. X

214

Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

Z d Y 17 in.

In questions about lengths, make sure you remember about units. Example

4

The two shortest sides of a right triangle are in the ratio 4 : 3. How long is the shortest side of a similar triangle, if its second shortest side is 17.5 miles long? Solution

Here, the question doesn’t give you a picture. In cases like this, it’s a good idea to draw one yourself. Here’s a right triangle whose two shortest sides are in the ratio 4 : 3. You know that the second shortest side of a similar triangle is 17.5 miles long. Call the length you need to find z miles.

4 3

17.5 miles

z miles Now you can set up a proportion. You have a choice which ratios to use, but the math is the same. 17.5 z (i) You can either use corresponding sides: = 4 3 Cross-multiply: 3 × 17.5 = 4z Divide both sides by 4 to get: z = 52.5 ÷ 4 = 13.125

(ii) Or you can use the ratio 17.5 4 = of the two short sides in each triangle: z 3 Cross-multiply: 3 × 17.5 = 4z Divide both sides by 4 as before to get: z = 13.125 Don’t forget the units. Your final answer is that the shortest side of the triangle has length 13.125 miles.

Guided Practice An architect designs a building with a triangular wall. The ratio of the lengths of the two shortest sides of the triangle is 2 : 5. On the model of the building, the shortest side has length 8 cm. Don’t forget: If there’s no picture in the question, you should probably draw one yourself.

7. What is the length of the second shortest side on the model? 8. On the actual building, the length of the shortest side of the triangular wall is 4 m. Write and solve a proportion to find the length of the second shortest side of the wall.

Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

215

Don’t forget: Use what you know about one triangle to help you find out about the other.

Don’t forget: If you’re not sure where to start a question, write down some information about the triangles. Include a diagram, plus ratios of corresponding sides. Remember, if shapes are similar, there will be some equal ratios.

Independent Practice Exercises 1–3 are about the two similar triangles below. 1. Find the angle at S. K 2. Find the length SR. C 9 in. 3. Find the length CE. 10 in. 62° E

4. The ratio of the corresponding sides of these two squares is 4 : 3. Find the length XY.

28° 8 in. A

D S

R

12 cm

B

D

Now try these:

C

These two triangles are similar. 5. Find the length of the missing side x. 6. Determine the measure of the angle at C. 7. What is the measure of the angle at M?

W

X

Z

Y T

A

3 cm

Lesson 4.2.2 additional questions — p447

15 in.

M

x cm 3 cm

2 cm

C

R

70° 6 cm

S

8. The ratio of corresponding sides of two similar shapes is 7 : 10. If the smaller shape has a side of length 21 in., find the length of the corresponding side in the larger shape. 9. One sheet of paper is 8.5 inches by 11 inches. Another sheet of paper is 16 inches by 22 inches. Are the two sheets of paper similar? 10. Alisha has a picture that is 12 cm wide and 18 cm long. She makes a poster that is similar to the original picture, but has a width of 30 cm. What is the length of the poster? 11. A quadrilateral has a perimeter of 7 inches. The ratio of the length of the sides in this quadrilateral and a similar one is 14 : 37. What is the perimeter of the second quadrilateral?

Round Up That’s it for similar shapes. Next, you’ll be looking at scale drawings, which will use what you know about similar shapes and proportion and link it to real-life things such as maps. 216

Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

Lesson

4.2.3

Scale Drawings

California Standards:

In this Lesson, you’ll learn about scale drawings. Scale drawings are really just similar shapes. Any kind of object, from a huge airplane to a tiny mechanical component, can be drawn to scale. This is useful when an object is just too big or too small to draw life-size.

Number Sense 1.2 Interpret and use ratios in different contexts (e.g., batting averages, miles per hour) to show the relative sizes of two quantities, using appropriate notations (a/b, a to b, a:b ). Number Sense 1.3 Use proportions to solve problems (e.g., determine the value of N if 4/7 = N/21, find the length of a side of a polygon similar to a known polygon). Use cross-multiplication as a method for solving such problems, understanding it as the multiplication of both sides of an equation by a multiplicative inverse.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to make a scale drawing, and use scales to find real lengths from a scale drawing, and vice versa.

Scale Is a Kind of Ratio Scale drawings are used when an object is too large or too small to draw full-size. The scale is the ratio of any length in the drawing to the corresponding length in real life. So the scale tells you how much bigger or smaller the drawing is than the real object. Sometimes the scale can be given using units. Example

1

An architect made a scale drawing of a recreation center, using a scale of 1 cm : 3 meters. In the drawing, the swimming pool is 2 cm wide. How wide is the actual pool? Solution

The scale is 1 cm : 3 meters. So 1 cm on the drawing represents 3 meters in real life. This means that if the pool is 2 cm wide on the drawing, the real pool will be 6 meters wide.

Key words: • scale • ratio • proportion • map • dimensions

2 cm

Sometimes the ratio involves just numbers. Example

2

The same architect has drawn a scale drawing of another recreation center. This time, she used a scale of 1 : 500. The center’s pool is 50 m long. How long is the pool in the drawing? The pool is tiled. If the actual length of each tile is 15 inches, how long would each tile be drawn? Solution

This time the scale is 1 : 500. So 1 cm on the drawing represents 500 cm in real life, and so on. If the actual pool is 50 meters long, then the drawing will be: (50 ÷ 500) meters = 0.1 m = 10 cm long. The scale of 1 : 500 also means 1 inch on the drawing represents 500 inches in real life. So if a tile is 15 in. long, then in the drawing they would be: (15 ÷ 500) inches = 0.03 inches long.

Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

217

Guided Practice Lenny has a drawing of a boat, made with a scale of 1 inch : 15 feet. 1. The length of the boat in the drawing is 4 inches. What is the length of the real boat? 2. The real boat is 30 feet wide. How wide is the boat in the drawing? 3. The real boat’s mast is 20 feet high. How high is the mast in the drawing?

Check it out: In Exercise 6, the scale drawing is bigger than the actual component. Remember, a scale is written in the order “drawing : real-life.”

Mr. Michael’s house is drawn using a scale of 1 : 144. In the drawing, a rectangular window is 0.25 in. by 0.5 in. 4. What are the dimensions of the actual window in inches? 5. How tall is an actual door if it’s drawn 0.05 feet tall? 6. A computer contains a tiny component 0.1 mm long. If a drawing is made of this component using a scale of 100 : 1, how long will the component be in the drawing? Just like with other ratios, you can use proportions to find missing lengths. You have to be really careful with units though. One way to deal with units is to multiply and divide by them as though they are numbers. Example

3

This is a scale drawing of the side of a house. It is drawn using a scale of 2.5 inches : 24 feet. Find the actual width of the side of the house. (Each square on the paper is 0.25 inches wide.) 1.78 inches

Solution

Call the actual width of the house w.

Don’t forget: You solved proportions last Section. If you can’t remember the cross-multiplication method, go back to 4.1.3 and recap.

To make a proportion, you need two ratios. 2.5 inches . You can always use the scale for one of these ratios: 24 feet For the other ratio, you need to use any measurement on the drawing, and the corresponding measurement in real life. Here, you’re interested in the width of the house, so that’s the measurement to use. Ratio of width in drawing to width in real life is Use your two ratios to write a proportion:

1.78 inches . w

1.78 inches 2.5 inches = w 24 feet

Now cross-multiply, treating the units as though they are numbers. w × 2.5 inches = 1.78 inches × 24 feet w × 2.5 = 1.78 × 24 feet Divide both sides by “inches” 2.5w = 42.72 feet Multiply out 1.78 × 24 w = 42.72 feet ÷ 2.5 Divide both sides by 2.5 w = 17.088 feet 218

Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

Guided Practice 7. Find the actual height of the house from Example 3. Miguel makes a drawing of an aircraft for a school project. The scale of the drawing is 3 inches : 10 feet. The length of the aircraft in Miguel’s drawing is 14.7 inches. 8. Let the length of the real aircraft be z. Write a proportion involving z. 9. Solve your proportion to find z. 10. If the actual aircraft is 44.5 feet wide, use a proportion to find how wide the aircraft will be in the drawing. Don’t forget: To use a proportion to find a missing length, you need two equivalent ratios. Use the scale as one ratio.

Sarah has made a scale drawing of a house using a scale of 1 : s. The height of the house in the drawing is 4 inches. The height of the actual house is 28 feet. 11. Find the number s. 12. If the actual height of the front door is 7 feet, use a proportion to calculate how tall the front door is in the drawing.

A Map Is a Scale Drawing of an Area A map is another example of a scale drawing. Example

4

Write and solve a proportion to find the distance between the library and the hospital.

Library

Hospital

The scale of the map is 1 grid square : 4 miles.

4 miles

Solution

To write a proportion, you need two ratios. From the scale,

1 grid square — use this as one of your ratios. 4 miles

Call the actual distance d. Then Your proportion is then:

2.5 grid squares is an equivalent ratio. d

1 grid square 2.5 grid squares = 4 miles d

d × 1 grid square = 4 miles × 2.5 grid squares Cross-multiply Divide both sides by the units “grid square” d × 1 = 4 miles × 2.5 Simplify the equation d = 10 miles The distance between the library and the hospital is 10 miles.

Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

219

Guided Practice Exercises 13–15 are about the same map. On this map, the distance between town A and town B is 4 inches. The actual distance between the towns is 8 miles. 13. What is the scale of the map in the form 1 in. : x miles? 14. If the real distance between towns C and D is 17 miles, how far apart would they be on the map? 15. If the distance between towns E and F on the map is 0.5 inches, how far apart are they in real life? 16. The actual distance from Green City to Blue River is 160 miles. The distance between these cities on a map is 2.5 inches. If the distance on the same map between Blue River and Yellow Grove is 3 inches, what is the actual distance between these two places?

Independent Practice 1. Miguel makes a model of an aircraft for a school project. The scale of the model is 1 inch : 10 feet. If the length of Miguel’s model is 20 inches, what is the length of the actual aircraft? Now try these: Lesson 4.2.3 additional questions — p448

Jenna is taking a car trip from Forest Bear Lake Forest Park Park to Bear Lake. The grid squares on the map measure 1 inch × 1 inch. 2. How many inches on the map is Forest Park from Bear Lake? 1 inch = 4 miles Give the straight-line distance. 3. What is the straight-line distance of Bear Lake from Forest Park in real life? 4. The actual length of the road between the two places is 37 miles. On the map, how long is the line representing the road? Use a proportion to calculate your answer. The length of a tiny organism is 0.4 mm. The length of a scale drawing of the same organism is 3.2 cm. 5. The scale of the drawing is p : 1. Find p. 6. If the actual organism has a width of 0.2 mm, what is the width of the organism on the scale drawing? 7. Harriet has two maps of the same city. The first map has a scale of 1 inch : 2 miles, and the second map has a scale of 1 inch : 3 miles. The distance from City Hall to the Lake on the first map is 2.5 inches. What is this distance on the second map?

Round Up This is all useful information. You’ll almost certainly need to use these skills again — whenever you’re reading a map, for instance. Next Lesson, you’ll look at using ratios to convert between different units. 220

Section 4.2 — Proportion in Geometry

Section 4.3 introduction — an exploration into:

Plotting Con ver sions Conv ersions How tall is your textbook? There are different answers. You could say that it’s about 8.5 inches. Your friend might say that it’s almost 22 centimeters. Someone else might say that it’s about 0.00013 miles. That’s what this Exploration is all about — measurements and units. Choose five objects in the classroom that are no more than 3 feet long.

Length in inches 8.6 5.3 28

Object

Measure the exact length of each object twice: (i) in inches, and (ii) in centimeters. Record your measurements in a chart like this one.

Textbook Pen Height of desk

Length in centimeters 22 13.5 71

90

Now draw a coordinate grid like this one. Make sure that your axes are long enough to show your measurements.

80

(28, 71)

centimeters

×

70

Plot each object’s measurements as a point on the grid. • Plot the number of inches along the x-axis (the horizontal axis). • Plot the number of centimeters up the y-axis (the vertical axis).

60 50 40 30

×

You should be able to draw a straight line though the points.

20

0 0

×

10

(8.6, 22) (5.3, 13.5) 5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Now you can use your graph to convert measurements in inches to centimeters, and measurements in centimeters to inches.

inches

Example (i) 30 cm to inches, (ii) 5 inches to centimeters.

Solution

(i) First find 30 on the centimeters axis (the vertical axis). Go across to your plotted line, and down to the inches axis. This tells you that 30 centimeters is about 12 inches. (ii) This time find 5 on the inches axis (the horizontal axis). Go up to your plotted line, and across to the centimeters axis. This tells you that 5 inches is about 12.5 centimeters.

(i) 30

centimeters

Use your graph to convert:

20

12.510 0 0

(ii) 5

10

inches 12

Exercises 1. Use your graph to convert these measurements from inches to centimeters, and from centimeters to inches. a. 45 cm b. 34 inches c. 10 cm d. 10 inches

Round Up You can do the same thing for other units too. For example, you could find the mass of a few different objects in both grams and ounces, plot the results on a graph, and then use your graph to convert other masses from one set of units to the other. You’ll see lots about units in this Section. Section 4.3 Explor a tion — Plotting Conversions 221 Explora

Lesson

Section 4.3

4.3.1

Customary and Metric Units

California Standards:

This Lesson, you’ll learn how to convert between units in either the customary or the metric system. So you take a length in inches, say, and convert it to feet. Or maybe you know a length in centimeters and you need to convert it to kilometers. That kind of thing...

Algebra and Functions 2.1 Convert one unit of measurement to another (e.g., from feet to miles, from centimeters to inches). Mathematical Reasoning 3.1 Evaluate the reasonableness of the solution in the context of the original situation.

What it means for you: You’ll see how to convert between different units within the customary or metric systems. For example, feet to inches, or meters to kilometers.

Customary Lengths Are Inches, Feet, Yards, and Miles The customary system of lengths is the system that uses inches, feet, yards, and miles. This conversion table shows how many of one unit make up another kind of unit.

Customary Lengths 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in.) 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft) 1 mile (mi) = 1760 yards (yd)

You can use it to convert a measurement in one unit to a measurement in another unit. The numbers in a conversion table (12, 3, and 1760 in the above table) are sometimes called conversion factors. Example

1

A vase is 1 yard tall. What is its height in: (i) feet? (ii) inches? 1 yd

Solution

(ii) If 1 foot is 12 inches, then 3 feet must be 3 × 12 = 36 inches. Notice that when you convert to a smaller unit, the number gets bigger. This makes sense... the smaller each unit, the more of them you need to cover the same distance.

1 inch

Check it out: Since 1 yard = 36 inches, the conversion factor between inches and yards is 36.

Check it out: You should memorize the conversion factors in the table above.

1 yard

• conversion • customary system • metric system • unit • conversion table • conversion factor

1 foot 1 foot 1 foot

Key words:

(i) Using the conversion table, you can see that 1 yard is 3 feet.

In fact, if your conversion factor is greater than 1: • you multiply by it to convert to a smaller unit, since this gives you a bigger number. • you divide by it to convert to a bigger unit, since this gives you a smaller number. Example

2

Convert: (i) 3 miles to yards, (ii) 7920 yards to miles. Solution

There are 1760 yards in a mile, so use 1760 as your conversion factor. (i) Yards are smaller than miles, so 3 miles = 3 × 1760 = 5280 yd (ii) Miles are bigger than yards: 7920 yd = 7920 ÷ 1760 = 4.5 miles 222

Section 4.3 — Converting Units

This diagram summarizes how to convert between customary lengths. Don’t forget: Always check that your answers are sensible. If you’re converting 7 miles to yards, say, you’d expect your answer to be a very big number. You could use estimation to check your answers (see Section 1.4 for more information). For example, if you’re converting 7 miles to yards, you’d expect an answer bigger than 7 × 1000 = 7000, but less than 7 × 2000 = 14,000.

Check it out: Dekameters and hectometers aren’t used very much at all. You also don’t see decimeters very often.

To get from miles to inches, first × by 1760, then × by 3, then × by 12.

× 12

INCH

×3

FOOT

÷ 12

× 1760

÷3

YARD

To get from inches to miles, first ÷ by 12, then ÷ by 3, then ÷ by 1760.

÷ 1760

MILE

Guided Practice Convert: 1. 7 miles to yards 3. 72 inches to feet 5. 5 feet to inches 7. 1 mile to feet 9. 2 miles to inches

2. 8800 yards to miles 4. 12 feet to yards 6. 9 yards to inches 8. 8 yards to inches 10. 100,000 inches to miles

11. If Letitia cycles 3 miles, how many feet has she cycled? 12. Mount Whitney is 14,494 feet tall. How many miles is this?

Check it out: In the metric system, you can work out how big a unit is by its prefix. The prefix “kilo-” means thousand, so 1 kilometer is 1000 meters. “deka-” means ten, “hecto-” means hundred, “kilo-” means thousand, “deci-” means tenth, “centi-” means hundredth, “milli-” means thousandth. This system works for other kinds of metric units too, not just for units of length. For example, 1 kilogram is 1000 grams. You should memorize these prefixes and what they mean — especially: “kilo-”, “centi-”, and “milli-”.

The Metric System Is Based on the Meter The metric system for lengths is based on the meter. All metric units for length contain the word “meter” — millimeter, centimeter, decimeter... Here’s a conversion table. Metric Lengths 1 dekameter (dam) = 10 meters (m) 1 hectometer (hm) = 100 meters 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters

1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 meters 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 meters 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 meters

Dekameters, hectometers, and kilometers are all bigger than meters.

Decimeters, centimeters, and millimeters are all smaller than meters.

Notice in this table that some of the conversion factors are less than one. Example

3

Convert 120 meters to millimeters. Solution

Don’t forget: 1 1000

Dividing by 0.001 (= ) is the same as multiplying by 1000. See Lesson 3.3.1 for more information.

You’re converting from a big unit (meters) to a smaller one (millimeters), so the number needs to be bigger. The conversion factor from the table is 0.001. This is less than 1, so to make a bigger number, you need to divide by the conversion factor. 120 m = 120 ÷ 0.001 = 120 × 1000 = 120,000 mm Section 4.3 — Converting Units

223

Example

4

A pencil is 10 cm long. How long is the pencil in kilometers? Solution

Don’t forget: A bigger unit means a smaller number.

First, convert 10 cm to meters by multiplying by 0.01. This gives a smaller number: 10 centimeters = 10 × 0.01 = 0.1 m Next, convert 0.1 m to kilometers by dividing by 1000. This also gives a smaller number: 0.1 m = 0.1 ÷ 1000 = 0.0001 km

This diagram summarizes how to convert between metric lengths.

MILLIMETER

Check it out: Notice that: (i) there are always two conversion factors. This is because 1 cm = 0.01 m (giving a conversion factor of 0.01), but 1 m = 100 cm (giving a conversion factor of 100), and (ii) these conversion factors always multiply together to give 1 (for example, 0.01 × 100 =1).

Multiply by 10 to convert one step smaller. Multiply by 100 to convert two steps smaller, etc...

× 10

CENTIMETER

÷ 10

× 10

DECIMETER

× 10

÷ 10 Divide by 10 to convert one step bigger. Divide by 100 to convert two steps bigger, etc...

÷ 10

METER ÷ 10

÷ 10 This means that, to convert meters to centimeters, you can either: (i) multiply by 100, or (ii) divide by 0.01.

DEKAMETER

÷ 10

HECTOMETER KILOMETER

× 10

× 10 × 10

Don’t forget: Check that all your answers are sensible.

Guided Practice Convert: 13. 7 kilometers to meters 15. 85 mm to cm 17. 180 m to km 19. 0.1 km to m

14. 8700 meters to kilometers 16. 120 cm to mm 18. 15,000 m to km 20. 160 mm to cm

21. A snail moves 3 m. How many cm is this?

224

Section 4.3 — Converting Units

Independent Practice There are 12 inches in 1 foot, meaning the conversion factor is 12. 1. Would you divide by 12 or multiply by 12 when converting from feet to inches? 2. Would you divide by 12 or multiply by 12 when converting from inches to feet? 3. How would you convert from yards to miles? In Exercises 4–9, find the missing values in the conversions. 4. 36 in. = ? yd 5. 144 in. = ? yd 6. 27 ft = ? yd 7. 100 yd = ? ft 8. 99 ft = ? yd 9. 0.25 mi = ? ft 10. TJ’s guitar is 3.5 ft long. What is the length of the guitar in inches? 11. Would you divide by 100 or multiply by 100 when converting from meters to centimeters? 12. There are 1000 millimeters in a meter, and 100 meters in a hectometer. What is the conversion factor when converting millimeters to hectometers? 13. Would you multiply or divide by this conversion factor when converting millimeters to hectometers? Find the missing value in Exercises 14–19. 14. 30 m = ? cm 15. 2 km = ? m 17. 0.5 cm = ? m 18. 4 dam = ? dm

16. 250 mm = ? cm 19. 0.37 dm = ? mm

20. An Olympic swimming pool has a length of 50 meters. What is this distance in kilometers? The length of the wingspan of an airplane is 40 m. 21. Find the wingspan of this airplane in centimeters. 22. Find the wingspan of this airplane in kilometers. A compact disc has a diameter of 120 millimeters. 23. What is the diameter of a compact disc in centimeters? 24. What is the diameter of a compact disc in decimeters? 25. Ying and Carol jog exactly 2 miles together every Saturday. They both guess how many inches their jog is. Ying guessed 100,000 inches and Carol guessed 10,000 inches. Whose guess is closer to the actual amount? Now try these: Lesson 4.3.1 additional questions — p448

Micrometers are metric units that can be used to measure very small objects. In fact, 1 millimeter is equal to 1000 micrometers. 26. How many micrometers are in 0.25 millimeters? 27. How many micrometers are in 1 kilometer?

Round Up So to convert something from one unit to another, you need to make the number either bigger (if you’re converting to a smaller unit) or smaller (if you’re converting to a bigger unit). Conversion factors are useful, but you have to use them sensibly. There’s more on conversions next Lesson. Section 4.3 — Converting Units

225

Lesson

4.3.2 California Standard: Algebra and Functions 2.1 Convert one unit of measurement to another (e.g., from feet to miles, from centimeters to inches).

What it means for you: You’ll convert measurements from one unit to another using proportions.

Key words: • proportion • conversion • ratio

Conversions and Proportions Last Lesson, you saw that to convert between different units you can multiply or divide by a conversion factor. But you can also think about conversion factors as ratios. And where there are ratios, proportions can’t be far behind. This Lesson is all about doing conversions using proportions.

A Conversion Table Is a Set of Ratios A ratio is a way of comparing two quantities. But you’ve seen that ratios can also be used for converting quantities from one measuring system to another (think back to scale drawings, for example, where you saw things like “1 centimeter represents 10 meters”). In fact, you can think of the conversion tables you saw last Lesson as a table of ratios. For example, you can say the ratio of inches to feet is 12 : 1. Example

1

What is the ratio of: (i) feet to yards? (ii) yards to feet? Solution

There are 3 feet in a yard. (i) This means the ratio of feet to yards is 3 : 1. (ii) Remember... the order of the quantities in a ratio is important. If the ratio of feet to yards is 3 : 1, then the ratio of yards to feet must be 1 : 3.

Don’t forget: You could also write these ratios as “3 feet : 1 yard,” “1 m : 100 cm,” and so on.

Example

2

What is the ratio of: (i) meters to centimeters? (ii) centimeters to meters? Solution

There are 100 centimeters in a meter. (i) The ratio of meters to centimeters is 1 : 100. (ii) The ratio of centimeters to meters is 100 : 1.

Guided Practice What is the ratio of: 1. meters to kilometers? 3. inches to yards? 5. millimeters to centimeters? 7. miles to feet?

226

Section 4.3 — Converting Units

2. kilometers to meters? 4. yards to inches? 6. centimeters to millimeters? 8. feet to miles?

You Can Use Proportions to Convert Between Units You can use proportions to solve problems involving conversions. Check it out: The advantage of using proportions rather than multiplying or dividing by a conversion factor is that the method is exactly the same whether you’re converting to a smaller unit or a larger unit.

The method is exactly the same as the method you’ve seen in earlier Lessons. You find two equivalent ratios, write a proportion, then solve it using cross-multiplication. Example

3

The length of a bird is 8.5 cm. Use a proportion to find the length of the bird in millimeters. Solution

8.5 cm

You need two ratios to write a proportion. • Don’t forget: You must write both ratios the same way around — either both cm : mm, or both mm : cm.

Check it out: Notice that the effect is that you multiply the number of centimeters by 10 — just like in the previous Lesson.

•

The first ratio is the ratio of centimeters to millimeters. 1 This is 1 : 10, or . 10 The second ratio involves the length of the bird. The length in centimeters is 8.5 cm. Call its length in millimeters d. 8.5 . Then your second ratio is 8.5 : d, or d

Now you can write and solve your proportion: d × 1 = 8.5 × 10 d = 85

1 8.5 = 10 d

Cross-multiply Simplify

This means that the bird is 85 mm long. Use exactly the same method for converting millimeters to centimeters. Example

Check it out: This method is an alternative method to the method you used last Lesson, but you’ll see that you end up with exactly the same answers.

4

Convert 125.7 mm to centimeters. Solution

As always, find two ratios. • •

1 . 10 The second ratio involves the length you’re converting. Call the length in centimeters d. d Then your second ratio is d : 125.7, or . 125.7 The first ratio is the ratio of cm : mm, which is

Now write and solve a proportion:

1 d = 10 125.7

Cross-multiply d × 10 = 1 × 125.7 10d = 125.7 Simplify d = 12.57 Divide both sides of the equation by 10 So 125.7 mm = 12.57 cm. Section 4.3 — Converting Units

227

Guided Practice Check it out: You could even use d cm here as your 125.7 mm second ratio. Then when you write your proportion and cross-multiply, you get:

1 cm d cm = 10 mm 125.7 mm or d cm ×10 mm = 1 cm ×125.7 mm Now you can divide both sides by “cm” and “mm” to find: d × 10 = 1 × 125.7, or d = 12.57 The only difference is that you’ve canceled the units and so you have to add them back in when you write your final answer. The point is... as long as you don’t do something really bad (like write one ratio with cm on top and the other with mm on top, or forget how to cross-multiply), you should get the correct answer.

Use proportions to carry out the conversions in Exercises 9–11. 9. What is 48 inches in feet? 10. What is 500 km in centimeters? 11. Convert 14 inches into feet. In Examples 3 and 4, the ratios were written without units. But if you prefer, you can include units in your ratios, just like you saw with scale drawings. The method works exactly the same. Example

5

Convert 125.7 mm to centimeters. Solution

Your first ratio is the ratio of centimeters to millimeters:

1 cm 10 mm

Call the distance you need to find d. d Then your second ratio is: 125.7 mm 1 cm d = This gives you a proportion: 10 mm 125.7 mm Solve by cross-multiplication in the usual way. Cross-multiply d × 10 mm = 125.7 mm × 1 cm d × 10 = 125.7 × 1 cm Divide both sides of the equation by “mm” 10d = 125.7 cm Simplify d = 12.57 cm Divide both sides of the equation by 10

Guided Practice 12. What is the ratio of feet to miles? 13. Convert 9000 feet into miles using your ratio from Exercise 12.

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 4.3.2 additional questions — p448

1. What is the ratio of yards to miles? 2. What is the ratio of miles to yards? 3. What is the ratio of centimeters to meters? 4. What is the ratio of meters to centimeters? Use proportions to find the answers to Exercises 5–8. 5. Convert 7515 yards to miles. 6. Find 0.006 kilometers in millimeters. 7. Jonny needs 69 yards of fencing for his garden. What is this in feet? 8. An Egyptian camel trek is 8.75 km. How far is this in meters?

Round Up In this Lesson, you’ve learned to convert between units using proportions. You can use either method from the last two Lessons to solve conversion problems — you should get the same answer. 228

Section 4.3 — Converting Units

Lesson

4.3.3 California Standard: Algebra and Functions 2.1 Convert one unit of measurement to another (e.g., from feet to miles, from centimeters to inches).

Converting Between Unit Systems So far, you’ve converted metric units to other metric units, and customary units to other customary units. This Lesson, you’ll use conversion tables for converting between the two unit systems. You’ll see that all the techniques from the previous Lessons work in exactly the same way in this Lesson too.

What it means for you: You’ll convert between the customary and metric unit systems.

Key words: • customary system • metric system • conversion

Check it out: Notice that the numbers in one table are the reciprocals of the numbers in the other table.

Use the Conversion Tables to Help You The tables below show conversion factors you can use to convert between customary and metric units. Customary to Metric 1 inch (in.) = 2.54 cm 1 foot (ft) = 30.48 cm 1 yard (yd) = 0.91 m 1 mile (mi) = 1.61 km

Metric to Customary 1 cm = 0.39 inches (in.) 1 cm = 0.033 feet (ft) 1 m = 1.09 yards (yd) 1 km = 0.62 miles (mi)

You can convert feet to centimeters by multiplying by 30.48 (to give you a bigger number, since feet are bigger than centimeters). But you can also convert feet to centimeters by dividing by 0.033 (which also gives you a bigger number, since 0.033 is less than 1). So you only really need one of the above tables. If you know the conversion factors in one table, you can use them to convert from metric to customary or from customary to metric.

Don’t forget: Dividing by a number gives the same result as multiplying by its reciprocal. And multiplying by a number gives the same result as dividing by its reciprocal. See Lesson 3.3.1 for more information.

Check it out: This may seem more complicated, but there’s no new math here. The only difference between this stuff and the calculations between units from the past two Lessons, is that you’re using a different conversion table.

Example

1

Convert 10 km to miles. Solution

There are two ways you could use the tables to get your answer. (i) Multiply by 0.62 (to get a smaller number, since miles are a bigger unit than kilometers). So 10 km = 10 × 0.62 miles = 6.2 miles. (ii) Divide by 1.61. So 10 km = 10 ÷ 1.61 miles = 6.21 miles (to 2 decimal places) Example

2

Convert 1 mile to meters. Solution

From the table, you can see that 1 mile is 1.61 km. And you’ve already seen that to convert kilometers to meters you multiply by 1000. So 1 mile = 1.61 × 1000 meters = 1610 meters.

Section 4.3 — Converting Units

229

The diagram below might be helpful for some conversion questions. × 10

MILLIMETER × 2.54 or ÷ 0.36

CENTIMETER

÷ 10

× 12

INCH ÷ 2.54 or × 0.36 ÷ 12 ÷ 1.09 or × 0.91

FOOT ÷3

÷ 1000

YARD ×3

METER

÷ 1.61 or × 0.62

KILOMETER MILE

× 1.09 or ÷ 0.91 × 1000

× 1.61 or ÷ 0.62

Most of the conversion factors for converting between metric and customary systems are only approximations. Most of them are only given to two decimal places. This means your answer won’t always be exact. You can sometimes get slightly different answers if you do the question in different ways. Example

Check it out: 1 inch = 2.54 cm is actually an exact conversion, so 0.9144 meters is the correct answer in this Example.

3

Convert 1 yard into meters by: (i) converting yards to inches, inches to centimeters, and then centimeters to meters, (ii) using the conversion factor 0.91, (iii) using the conversion factor 1.09. Comment on your answers. Solution

(i) Do the conversion in three stages. 1) yards to inches: 1 yard = 36 inches 2) inches to cm: 36 inches = 36 × 2.54 cm = 91.44 cm 3) centimeters to meters: 91.44 cm = 91.44 ÷ 100 m = 0.9144 m (ii) 1 meter is slightly bigger than a yard, so multiply by 0.91 to make your number smaller. 1 yard = 1 × 0.91 m = 0.91 m Check it out: The various answers in Example 3 are different, but only slightly different.

230

(iii) Divide by 1.09 to make the number bigger. 1 yard = 1 ÷ 1.09 m = 0.91743... m The answers are slightly different. This is because the conversion factors used are only approximations.

Section 4.3 — Converting Units

Guided Practice Don’t forget: Depending on how you do these conversions, you might get slightly different answers.

Convert the following: 1. 6 meters to yards 3. 3 feet to centimeters 5. 2 kilometers to yards 7. 9 yards to centimeters

2. 18 yards to meters 4. 2 miles to meters 6. 6 inches to millimeters 8. 24 feet to dekameters

9. Josh runs a marathon of 26 miles and 385 yards. How far is this in kilometers? 10. A boat race is 4 miles and 374 yards. How long is the race in meters?

You Can Use Proportions Too The examples so far have been done by reasoning whether to multiply or divide by the conversion factor. But you could do them using proportions if you prefer. Just use the numbers in the conversion tables as ratios. Example

4

Convert 10 km to miles. Don’t forget:

Solution

You could include units in your ratios too, if you prefer. See Lesson 4.3.2 for some examples.

This is the same as Example 1, but this time it’s done with proportions. As always when using proportions, you need two ratios. •

The first ratio of miles to kilometers comes from the table. 1 This is 1 : 1.61, or . 1.61 • The second ratio involves the measurement you want to convert. Call the converted distance d miles. Then your second ratio is d d : 10, or . 10 1 d = . Now write a proportion and solve by cross-multiplication: 1.61 10 Cross-multiply 1.61d = 10. Divide both sides by 1.61 d = 10 ÷ 1.61 d = 6.21 miles (to 2 decimal places)

Guided Practice Convert the following using proportions: 11. 10 meters to yards 12. 3 yards to meters 13. 3.7 feet to centimeters 14. 5.1 miles to meters

Section 4.3 — Converting Units

231

Convert Weight and Time in Exactly the Same Way So far, you’ve only looked at converting lengths. But you can convert time and weight (and most other kinds of quantities) in exactly the same way. You just need to know the conversion factor. Example

5

Convert 1 hour to seconds. Solution

Do this in two stages — hours to minutes, and then minutes to seconds. There are 60 minutes in an hour, and 60 seconds in a minute, so the conversion factor for both stages is 60. 1) Minutes are a smaller unit than hours, so multiply by 60 to get a bigger number: 1 hour = 1 × 60 = 60 minutes 2) Seconds are a smaller unit than minutes, so again multiply by 60: 60 minutes = 60 × 60 = 3600 seconds

Guided Practice Use the information below to convert the quantities that follow. 1 kg = 2.2 lb 1 gallon = 3.79 liters 15. 3 kg to lb 16. 16 lb to kilograms 17. 7 gallons to liters 18. 44 liters to gallons

Independent Practice Don’t forget: Depending on how you do these conversions, you might get slightly different answers.

In Exercises 1–6, find the missing length. Give your answers to 2 decimal places. 1. 4.5 in. = ? cm 2. 100 mm = ? in. 4. 0.5 m = ? in. 5. 500 cm = ? yd

3. 14 yd = ? m 6. 45 ft = ? m

7. The length of a model plane is 56 inches. How long is the model in meters? Now try these: Lesson 4.3.3 additional questions — p449

8. Michaela and Ricky are each trying to guess how many feet are in a kilometer. Michaela guessed 3000 and Ricky guessed 3500. Whose guess was closest to the correct number of feet? 10. The dimensions of Zak’s bedroom are 5 ft × 8 ft. What are the dimensions of his room in meters?

5 ft

9. How many kilometers are there in 215,820 inches?

8 ft

Round Up You’ve now seen how to convert between different unit systems of length. And if you can do that, you can also convert pretty much anything else you want. For example, you might want to convert dollars to some other currency if you travel overseas. 232

Section 4.3 — Converting Units

Lesson

4.3.4

Other Conversions

California Standard:

You’ve seen now how to convert all sorts of things between different units. And you’ve seen two different techniques for carrying out these conversions — multiplying or dividing by a conversion factor, or solving a proportion. But these methods don’t work for all conversions, unfortunately.

Key words: • conversion • unit • conversion table • proportional

Some Units Are More Complicated to Convert The methods you’ve seen so far will work for most conversions you might meet, but not all of them. For example, converting degrees Fahrenheit (°F) to degrees Celsius (°C) is a little more complicated. Looking at some graphs should help you see the difference. These first three graphs show various quantities you’ve already seen.

Check it out:

inches

You can use this kind of graph to do conversions. You find a length on one scale (1.5 feet, say). Then you go up to the line and across to the other scale. For example: 24 1.5 feet 18 is the same as 12 18 inches. 6 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 feet

12 0 0

km against miles

200

24

Check it out: For all the conversions you’ve seen in previous Lessons, zero using one scale (inches, say) was always zero using the other scale too. This is why the first three graphs go through the point (0, 0). For example, 0 km = 0 miles, 0 cm = 0 km, and so on.

cm against m

inches against feet

1 feet

2

3.2 kilometers

You’ll see how to convert between different units where you can’t use a simple conversion factor. There’s also some information on using calculators.

centimeters

What it means for you:

inches

Algebra and Functions 2.1 Convert one unit of measurement to another (e.g., from feet to miles, from centimeters to inches).

100 00

1 2 meters

1.6 0 0

1

2 miles

They are all slightly different, but they are all straight lines and they all go through the origin, the point (0, 0). The math term for this is to say that the quantities on each graph are proportional. Now look at the graph showing degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and degrees Celsius (°C). This graph is a straight line, but it doesn’t go through the point (0, 0). And this means you can’t use a simple conversion factor, or proportions, to do the conversion. In other words, °F and °C are not proportional.

°F 35.6 33.8 32 0 0

1

2

°C

Guided Practice Using the graphs in Exercises 1–4, say which pairs of quantities are proportional.

x

4. s

3. n

2. q

1. y

p

m

Section 4.3 — Converting Units

r

233

Check it out: You don’t have to learn the formulas for converting Fahrenheit to Celsius, and vice versa.

To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit (or Fahrenheit to Celsius), you have to use a formula. F = 1.8C + 32 C = (F – 32) ÷ 1.8

If F is a temperature in Fahrenheit, and C is a temperature in Celsius, then:

Notice how you don’t just multiply or divide by a conversion factor. The formula for F involves a multiplication and an addition. The formula for C involves a division and a subtraction.

Check it out: You can write the conversion factors you’ve seen before as a formula. For example, if m is a length in miles and y is the same length in yards, then y = 1760m, where 1760 is the conversion factor.

Example

1

Convert 98.6 °F to degrees Celsius. Solution

The formula you need to use is: Substitute in your value for F:

C = (F – 32) ÷ 1.8. C = (98.6 – 32) ÷ 1.8.

When you have a formula with more than one operation, you do anything in parentheses first. So C = (98.6 – 32) ÷ 1.8 = 66.6 ÷ 1.8 = 37 Check it out: Remember PEMDAS in Lesson 2.1.4. 1. Parentheses 2. Exponents 3. Multiplication / Division 4. Addition / Subtraction

This means that 98.6 °F is equal to 37 °C.

Example

2

Convert 240 °C to degrees Fahrenheit. Solution

The formula you need to use is: Substitute in your value for C:

F = 1.8C + 32. F = 1.8 × 240 + 32.

When you have a formula with multiplication and addition, you do the multiplication first. So F = (1.8 × 240) + 32 = 432 + 32 = 464 This means that 240 °C is equal to 464 °F.

Guided Practice Convert the following: 5. 32 °F to °C 7. 50 °F to °C 9. 45.2 °C to °F

234

Section 4.3 — Converting Units

6. 100 °C to °F 8. –40 °C to °F 10. –428.8 °F to °C

The final part of this Lesson (about calculators) is relevant to everything in this book — not just converting between units.

Be Car eful If You’ tor Careful ou’rre Using a Calcula Calculator You can use a calculator for expressions like the ones on the previous page. However, you have to be really careful — different calculators do operations in different orders. Don’t forget: You have to work out the things in parentheses first. See Lesson 2.1.4 for more information.

For example, if you press the buttons shown on the right, some calculators will do operations in the 8 + 2 × 5 = order you type them (and give the answer 50). But other calculators do operations in the PEMDAS order (and give the answer 18). When in doubt about what order your calculator will do operations, use parentheses buttons to force your calculator to do what you want. Example

3

Show how to use parentheses to find 12.5 + 8.2 × 8 on a calculator. Solution

1 2

·

5 + (

8

·

2 × 8 (

=

Don’t forget: To enter a negative number, –11 for example, you normally need to press

(–( 1 1 .

But on some calculators you need to press

1 1 +– .

Independent Practice Which of these pairs of quantities on these graphs are proportional? 1. b

2. y

3. g

4. t s

Make sure you know how to do this on your calculator.

a

Now try these: Lesson 4.3.4 additional questions — p449

Convert the following: 5. 1445 °F to °C 7. 111 °C to °F

x

f

6. 855 °C to °F 8. 16 °F to °C

Evaluate Exercises 9–14 using a calculator. 9. 8g + 3.3, when g = 9.2 10. 52 × 7 + f, when f = 0.251 11. 1 – 11(k + 2.5), when k = 1.7 12. 24 – (–8 + 6m), when m = 3 13. 6n × (11 + 7n) + 2n, when n = 4 14. –12.6h – (–11.9h – h2)2, when h = –3 15. Joseph tries to calculate 18 ÷ 9 + 4 × 4 on a borrowed calculator. He types 1 8 ÷ 9 + 4 × 4 . Why can he not be sure that the calculator will give the correct result? What should he have typed?

Round Up This Lesson covered the idea of proportionality, which shows when you can use the conversion methods from previous Lessons. It also reviewed some of the work from earlier in the book about substituting values into formulas, and how to evaluate formulas using a calculator. Section 4.3 — Converting Units

235

Section 4.4 introduction — an exploration into:

Running R a tes Ra You’re going to work out how fast the different members of your group can move — either walking, running, hopping, skipping, or crawling. Then you’re going to work out how far they could go in different amounts of time, or how long it would take them to cover a particular distance. Work in groups of 4 or 5. Each person chooses a different method to move from place to place. You can choose from: walking, running, hopping, skipping, or crawling. Now measure and mark out distances of: (i) 20 feet, (ii) 50 feet, (iii) 70 feet. Each person is going to cover all three distances in their chosen way, while someone times them. Record your results in a chart like this one.

Time in seconds taken to move: Person Method 20 feet 50 feet 70 feet Tim Running 2.1 5.6 8.0 3.4 8.5 12.0 Carleen Walking

After each person’s 20-foot “run,” predict how long their 50-foot and 70-foot “runs” will take. Now you can use your results to make a graph. +

70

Example 60

Label each line clearly with the person’s name and their method of traveling traveling.

Who traveled faster? How can you tell this from the graph? Solution

For Tim, plot the three points (2.1, 20), (5.6, 50), (8.0, 70). For Carleen, plot the points (3.4, 20), (8.5, 50), (12, 70). Then draw best-fit lines for each person through (0, 0) and the three points.

+

+

50

Distance in feet

Plot the results from the table above, and draw best-fit lines.

+

Tim: running

40

Carleen: walking

30

+ +

20 10

The lines go through (0, 0), since they both

0 0

2

4 6 8 Time in seconds

10

12

Using the graph, you can see that Tim traveled faster, as his line is steeper.

Exercises 1. Use your graph to answer the following questions about the people in your group. a. Who moved the fastest and who moved the slowest? How does your graph show this? b. Use your graph to predict how long each person would need to go 30 feet. c. How far could each person go in 6 seconds? 2. After each person in your group had done their first “runs” of 20 feet, how did you make your predictions about the time they would need to go 50 feet and 70 feet?

Round Up Distance, time, and speed are closely linked. The slope of your graphs showed speed, and you could use those graphs to work out how long someone would need to cover a certain distance, or how far they would get in a particular time. There’s more about speed in this Section... a tion — Running Rates Explora 236 Section 4.4 Explor

Lesson

Section 4.4

4.4.1

Ra tes

California Standard:

You’ve already seen ratios in Section 4.1. A rate is like a ratio in some ways — it compares two quantities. But unlike ratios, rates have units too — this is the big difference between ratios and rates.

Alg ebr a and Functions 2.2 Alge bra Demonstr a te an Demonstra under standing tha a te is a understanding thatt rra measur e of one quantity measure per unit vvalue alue of another quantity quantity..

What it means for you: You’ll learn about what rates are, and how you can use them to compare two quantities.

Key words: • rate • per • ratio

AR a te Compar es Two Quantities Ra Compares In Section 4.1, you saw that a ratio compares two quantities, and you formed a ratio by dividing. A rate is a special kind of ratio. It also compares two quantities, and it’s also formed by dividing. But a rate always has units, because the quantities you divide are measured in different units. Speed is a good example of a rate. It’s often measured in units of “meters per second” or “miles per hour.” A rate can be written as a whole number, a decimal, or a fraction. Example

Check it out: The word “per” is a division word. It tells you to divide the thing before it by the thing after it.

Check it out: If you walked 8 miles in 2 hours, you could say your rate is “8 miles per 2 hours.” However, it’s far more useful (and usual) to say that your rate is “4 miles per hour” — this is an example of a unit rate. Unit rates are probably the most useful kind of rates. They tell you how much one quantity changes when the other changes by one unit (1 hour, say). Unit rates are easier to compare. For example, it’s clear that “8 miles per hour” is faster than “7 miles per hour.” But it’s not so obvious that “64 miles per 8 hours” is faster than “35 miles per 5 hours.”

1

Mike wants to know the rate at which his pinwheel turns in a gentle wind. He counts that it does 18 turns in 9 seconds. What rate is the pinwheel turning at? Solution

To find the rate that the pinwheel turns at, you need to divide the number of turns it completes by the time that it does them in. Rate = 18 turns ÷ 9 seconds The “/” is pronounced “per”. It means “each.” 18 turns per second = 9 = 2 turns per second (or 2 turns/second)

Rates are useful for comparing how quickly something is happening. Example

2

Nicole read 25 pages in 50 minutes, while Santos read 20 pages in 32 minutes. Who read faster? Solution

First work out both of their reading rates. Nicole: 25 pages ÷ 50 minutes = 0.5 pages/minute Santos: 20 pages ÷ 32 pages = 0.625 pages/minute You can see that Santos read more pages per minute. So Santos read faster than Nicole.

Section 4.4 — Rates

237

Guided Practice Find each of the specified rates in Exercises 1–3. 1. Find the “number of gallons of water per tank” if there are 25 gallons in 5 tanks. 2. Find the “distance traveled per gallon of fuel” if a car travels 120 miles using 8 gallons of fuel. 3. Find the “distance traveled per minute” if a cyclist travels 3 km in 10 minutes. Vikram paid $2.44 for four pens. Bob paid $3.90 for six pens. 4. Calculate “how many cents per pen” Vikram paid. 5. Calculate “how many cents per pen” Bob paid. 6. Who got the better deal, assuming all the pens are identical?

The R a te De pends on Whic h Way Ar ound You Di vide Ra Depends hich Around Divide When you work out a rate, you always divide one quantity by another. This means you can make two different rates using the same quantities. It depends which way around you do the division. Check it out: You can do something similar using speed. If you took 4 hours to walk 8 miles: • The rate you walked at 8 would be 4 miles per hour, or 2 miles/hour. • But you could also say that the rate you walked at was 4 8

hours per mile, or 0.5 hours/mile. Both answers are correct. One tells you how far you walk in each hour, the other tells you how long it takes to walk each mile.

Example

3

There are US $9.40, to every British £5. Work out the exchange rate in: (i) the number of dollars per pound (ii) the number of pounds per dollar Solution

(i) To work out the exchange rate in dollars per pound, divide the number of dollars by the number of pounds. $9.40 dollars per pound = = 1.88 $/£ £5 You do the same to the units as to the numbers. Here, you divided dollars by pounds, so the units of the rate are dollars per pound ($/£). (ii) This time, you need the exchange rate in pounds per dollar. So divide the number of pounds by the number of dollars. £5 pounds per dollar = = 0.53 £/$ $9.40 Notice that this time the units are pounds per dollar (£/$). Example

Check it out: “Weight per unit cost” means you divide the weight by the cost to find the weight per dollar, or weight per cent.

238

Section 4.4 — Rates

4

At the movie theater, Sanjay buys a 15 oz bag of popcorn for $4. Find: (i) the number of ounces of popcorn per dollar, (ii) the number of dollars per ounce of popcorn. Solution

These are the two ways of expressing this rate. (i) weight per unit cost: 15 oz ÷ $4 = 3.75 oz/$ (ii) cost per unit weight: $4 ÷ 15 oz = 0.27 $/oz (to 2 decimal places)

Don’t forget: The two different rates must be reciprocals. You use the same two quantities to work them out, but the numerator of one rate is the denominator of the other, and vice versa. For example: pounds pounds per dollar = dollars but dollars dollars per pound = pounds There’s more information about reciprocals in Lesson 3.3.1.

The two ways of expressing a rate are reciprocals of one another. 1 1 = 0.53 £/$, and = 1.88 $/£ For example 1.88 $ / £ 0.53 £ / $ Notice how taking a reciprocal of a quantity swaps its units around too. Example

5

Car A does 18 miles per gallon, while Car B does 0.05 gallons per mile. Which car is more efficient? Solution

To convert gallons per mile into miles per gallon, form the reciprocal. 1 miles per gallon, or 20 miles per gallon 0.05 gallons per mile = 0.05 Now you can compare the two quantities: Car B is more efficient, as it drove more miles per gallon of fuel used.

Guided Practice Check it out: If time is involved in a rate, it is usually the denominator. Think about it — miles/hour, words/minute, $/hour. Also, if you are comparing two times (for example the number of hours you are at school every week), the larger unit usually goes on the bottom — hours/week, for example.

Find the rates in Exercises 7–10. Explain what each of the quantities actually means. 7. 27 boats ÷ 3 lakes 8. 10 meters ÷ 10 seconds 9. 16 oranges ÷ 8 people 10. 150 words ÷ 3 minutes Express the rates in Exercises 11–14 in two different ways. You must include units in each of your answers. 11. A woman uses 2 gallons of gas driving 50 miles. 12. A store sells 5 ounces of parsley for $2. 13. A man takes 1 hour to drive 30 miles. 14. A rabbit hops 10 meters in 4 seconds.

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 4.4.1 additional questions — p449

In Exercises 1–4, work out two unit rates using the given quantities. 1. 12 ducks on 3 ponds. 2. 150 gallons in 50 seconds. 3. 5 apples between 2 people. 4. 1360 km in 20 hours. In Exercises 5–8, say what units the rates will have. 5. 4 miles ÷ 8 minutes. 6. 3 dollars ÷ 7 ounces. 7. 2 liters ÷ 5 glasses. 8. 21 carrots ÷ 7 rabbits. 9. Kevin walked 6 feet in 4 seconds, while Aretha walked 10 feet in 5 seconds. Who was walking faster? 10. Cedro bought 10 ounces of Cereal A for $2.25. Then he bought 15 ounces of Cereal B for $3.30. Which cereal is less expensive?

Round Up Both rates and ratios involve dividing one quantity by another, but with rates you have to remember to include the units as well. You see rates all the time in real life — they’re incredibly important. Section 4.4 — Rates

239

Lesson

4.4.2

Using R a tes Ra

California Standards:

In the last Lesson, you saw how to form a rate by dividing two quantities. In this Lesson, you’re going to see how you can use a rate to work out what one of those two quantities must have been.

Alg ebr a and Functions 2.2 Alge bra Demonstr a te an Demonstra under standing tha a te is a understanding thatt rra measur e of one quantity measure per unit vvalue alue of another quantity quantity.. Alg ebr a and Functions 2.3 Alge bra Solv e pr ob lems in volving Solve prob oblems inv ra tes ver a ge speed, tes,, a av era distance distance,, and time time..

What it means for you: You’ll learn about how to use rates to find other quantities.

It’s like doing the last Lesson again, only backward.

Multipl yb y the R a te to Find One of the Quantities Multiply by Ra A rate explains the connection between two quantities. So if you know a rate and one of the quantities, you can work out the value of the other. For example, if you know that a car can travel 150 miles on 3 gallons of fuel, you can work out its fuel efficiency in miles per gallon. Miles per gallon =

Miles traveled 150 miles = = 50 miles per gallon Gallons used 3 gallons

Key words: • rate • per

Now suppose the same car did another journey, and used 6 gallons of fuel. For every 1 gallon of fuel, it would travel 50 miles. So if it used 6 gallons of fuel, it must have traveled 6 × 50 = 300 miles.

Check it out: You’ll see this idea again in later Lessons in connection with speed.

Check it out: value of X . value of Y This means: value of X = value of Y ×( X per Y )

1 gallon used 50 miles

1 gallon used 50 miles

1 gallon used 50 miles

Number of Miles =

1 gallon used 50 miles

1 gallon used 50 miles

1 gallon used 50 miles

Miles × Number of Gallons Gallons

The same idea works for all rates. If you multiply a rate “X per Y” by a value of Y, you find the corresponding value of X.

X per Y =

To see why, multiply both sides of the first equation by the value of Y.

Check it out: If the rate is in “dollars per ounce,” then you multiply by the number of ounces to find the cost in dollars.

240

Section 4.4 — Rates

Example

1

Thalia goes to the health-food store to buy 10 ounces of granola. Granola costs $0.25 per ounce. How much will the granola cost? Solution

number of dollars number of ounces So to find the cost, you need to multiply the rate “$0.25 per oz” by the weight of granola that Thalia is buying “10 oz”.

This rate means:

0.25 dollars per ounce =

Number of dollars = 0.25 dollars/ounce × 10 ounces = 2.5 dollars The granola will cost her $2.50.

Example Check it out: Remember... value of X = rate (X per Y) × value of Y Here, the rate is “days per room,” meaning: X is “days,” and Y is “rooms.” So you have to multiply the rate by number of rooms to get the time in days.

2

A painter paints at a rate of 2 days per room. How long will she need to paint 9 rooms? Solution

This rate means:

2 days per room =

number of days number of rooms

So to find the number of days she will need, multiply “2 days per room” by the number of rooms. Number of days = 2 days/room × 9 rooms = 18 days She will need 18 days.

Guided Practice 1. The math teacher gives out 2 exercise books per student. If she has 24 students, how many exercise books will she need? 2. The manufacturing cost of baseballs is 32¢ per ball. How much would it cost to manufacture 88 baseballs? Check it out: For Exercise 4, remember to use the number of seconds, because the rate is given in “joules per second.” (A “joule” is a unit of energy.)

3. A particular kind of carpet costs $9 per square yard. What would it cost to carpet a room with a floor area of 16 yd2? 4. A car travels 11 miles per liter of fuel. How far will the car be able to travel on 7 liters of fuel? 5. An electric heater gives out heat at the rate of 3000 joules per second. If the heater is on for 30 minutes, how many joules of heat will be given out altogether?

Di vide b y the R a te to Find the Other Quantity Divide by Ra Think back to the example of a car with a fuel efficiency of 50 miles per gallon. If that car now goes on a journey of 250 miles, you can use its fuel efficiency to find the amount of fuel used. Check it out: value of X . value of Y This means: value of Y = value of X ÷ ( X per Y ) X per Y =

To see why, multiply both sides of the first equation by the “value of Y,” and then divide by the rate “X per Y.”

50 miles 1 gallon used

50 miles 1 gallon used

50 miles 1 gallon used

50 miles 1 gallon used

50 miles 1 gallon used

Number of Gallons = Number of Miles ÷

Miles Gallons

The same idea works for all rates. If you divide a value of X by a rate “X per Y,” you find the corresponding value of Y. Section 4.4 — Rates

241

Example Check it out: Remember... value of Y = value of X ÷ rate (X per Y) Here, the rate is “dollars per ounce,” meaning: X is “dollars,” and Y is “ounces.” So you have to divide the number of dollars by this rate to find the weight in ounces.

3

Thalia goes to the health-food store with $4. Granola costs $0.25 per ounce. How much granola can she buy? Solution

number of dollars number of ounces So to find the number of ounces of granola, you need to divide the number of dollars “$4” by the rate “$0.25 per oz.”

This rate means:

0.25 dollars per ounce =

Number of ounces = 4 dollars ÷ 0.25 dollars/ounce = 16 ounces Thalia can buy 16 oz of granola.

Example

4

A painter paints at a rate of 2 days per room. How many rooms will she be able to paint in 38 days? Solution

This rate means:

2 days per room =

number of days number of rooms

So to find the number of rooms she can paint, divide the number of days by the rate “2 days per room.” Number of rooms = 38 days ÷ 2 days/room = 19 rooms She will be able to paint 19 rooms.

Guided Practice 6. The math teacher gives out 3 exercise books per student. If she has 39 books, how many students will she have enough books for? 7. The manufacturing cost of basketballs is $1.14 per ball. How many balls could be manufactured for $136.80? 8. A particular kind of carpet costs $11 per square yard. What area of floor could be carpeted for $264? 9. A car travels 12 miles per liter of fuel. How much fuel would be used on a journey of 192 miles? 10. An electric heater gives out heat at the rate of 3500 joules per second. If 4,200,000 joules of heat have been given out, for how long has the heater been on?

242

Section 4.4 — Rates

Don’t forget: You can treat units like numbers. If there is a unit on the top line of a fraction, and the same one on the bottom line of it, you can cancel them out, just like numbers.

Independent Practice 1. Joe types at a rate of 150 words per minute. If he has typed 1500 words, how long has he been typing for? 2. Terrence buys some soil for his garden. It costs $90/m3. He spends $225. How many m3 of soil did he buy? 3. The city bus uses gasoline at a rate of 15 miles/gallon. How far can the bus go on 3 gallons of fuel?

Check it out: You need to think carefully about whether you’re being asked for the higher or lower unit rate. Words like “faster” and “most” are usually telling you to look for the higher unit rate. Words like “slower” and “least” are usually telling you to look for the lower unit rate.

4. Jen drinks 8 glasses of water per day. How many days will it take her to drink 28 glasses of water? 5. Letitia is selling her 28 baseball cards. Todd offers her $0.25 per card. Daria offers $1.50 per 7 cards. Who is offering to pay more? 6. Find the distance traveled per hour if a person runs 8 miles in 2.5 hours. 7. The rate at which water comes out of a faucet is 6 liters per minute. How long would it take to fill a bath with a capacity of 130 liters? 8. Water comes out of a faucet at a rate of 0.85 liters per second. How much water will be supplied if the faucet is left on for 3 minutes? 9. An aircraft is traveling at 900 miles per hour. The pilot sees a mountain when he is 50 miles away. How many minutes will it be before the aircraft reaches the mountain? 10. Mr. Clark’s car holds 12 gallons of gasoline when the tank is full. Starting with a full tank, he drove 153 miles, and used 25% of the gas. How many miles to the gallon does his car get? 11. At a health-food store, breakfast cereal is sold by the weight. If you can normally buy 2 lb of cereal for $3, then how much could you buy for $4 if there is a sale and the price of everything in the store is reduced to 50% of its normal price?

Now try these: Lesson 4.4.2 additional questions — p450

12. At 50 miles per hour, a car can travel 600 miles on a full tank of 15 gallons of fuel. At 30 miles per hour, the car can travel 30% further for each gallon of fuel. If the car travels 250 miles at 30 miles per hour, how many gallons of fuel would it use? And how long would the journey take?

Round Up Now you know how to use a rate to calculate another quantity. But you have to be sure you use the rate in the correct way. In the last Lesson, you saw that rates were important in real life. Well... in the next Lessons, you’ll be thinking about one rate in particular — speed. And speed is one of the most common rates you’ll ever come across. You might even have to use it every day. Section 4.4 — Rates

243

Lesson

4.4.3

Finding Speed

California Standards:

The rate that you’ll come across most often in everyday situations is speed. Speed is a rate because to find it you divide a distance by a time. It’s a measure of the rate that an object moves at.

Alg ebr a and Functions 2.2 Alge bra Demonstr a te an Demonstra under standing tha a te is a understanding thatt rra measur e of one quantity measure per unit vvalue alue of another quantity quantity.. Alg ebr a and Functions 2.3 Alge bra Solv e pr ob lems in volving Solve prob oblems inv ra tes ver a ge speed, tes,, a av era distance distance,, and time time..

What it means for you: You’ll see how to use measurements of distances and times to calculate speeds.

Speed Is a R a te Ra A rate compares two quantities. You’ve seen in the last two Lessons that to find a rate you divide one quantity by another. Think about a car — you would usually talk about the speed that the car was going in miles per hour. That’s a rate, because you’re dividing the number of miles the car has gone by the number of hours it took. Speed = 30 miles per hour 30 miles

Key words: • • • • •

rate speed distance time average

Check it out: A speed in miles/hour is a measure of the distance that the car would cover if it carried on traveling exactly at that speed for a whole hour.

Speed =

Distance Time

Use the F or mula to Calcula te Speeds For orm Calculate You can use the formula Speed = Distance ÷ Time to calculate the speed at which an object is traveling. Example

1

Will walked for 2 hours at a constant speed up a mountain trail that is 6 miles long. What was Will’s hiking speed? Solution

Distance = 6 miles Time = 2 hours

Speed =

6 miles Distance = = 3 miles/hour 2 hours Time

Guided Practice 1. Feo’s solar-powered lawn mower is set to travel at a constant speed. If it covers 1 mile in 2 hours, what speed is it traveling at? 2. A satellite is orbiting the earth at a constant speed. It takes 2 hours and 20 minutes to complete an orbit of length 56,280 km. What is its speed in km/min? 3. A plane travels at a constant airspeed. It covers a distance of 375 km in 3 hours. What is the plane’s airspeed? 4. Light travels at a constant speed. Calculate the speed of light, given that it travels 74,948,114.5 m in 0.25 seconds. 244

Section 4.4 — Rates

Ther e Ar e Man y Dif ent Units of Speed here Are Many Difffer erent There are a number of common units of speed, and some less common ones. To compare speeds, you need them to be in the same units. Example

2

Joshua is driving at a speed of 40 miles/hour. His friend is driving at a speed of 17 yards/second. Who is traveling more quickly? Solution

Don’t forget: You need to know a few conversion factors for questions like this. 1 mile = 1760 yards 1 mile = 1.61 km 1 km = 1000 meters 1 hour = 60 × 60 = 3600 s. You saw some of these in Lesson 4.3.3

To compare the speeds, you need them to be in the same units. Joshua’s friend is driving at 17 yards/second, so he travels 17 yards each second. So in 1 minute he travels 17 × 60 = 1020 yards. And in 1 hour he travels 1020 × 60 = 61,200 yards. So you could say his speed is 61,200 yards per hour. But 61,200 yards = 61,200 ÷ 1760 = 34.77 miles. So you could also say his speed is 34.77 miles per hour. Now that both speeds have the same units, you can compare them directly. Joshua is traveling at 40 miles/hour, while his friend is traveling at 34.77 miles/hour, so Joshua is travelling more quickly.

Guided Practice The fastest bird in the world is the peregrine falcon. This bird can reach speeds of 300 kilometers/hour when it swoops. 5. What is this in miles/hour? 6. What is this in meters/second? The peregrine falcon’s cruising speed is 24.6 meters/second. 7. What is this speed in miles per hour? 8. How far could it fly in 3 hours? 9. The fastest fish in the world is the sailfish. Its top speed is about 68 miles/hour. How fast is this in meters/second?

This F or mula Gi ves You the Aver a ge Speed For orm Giv era Suppose a car goes on a journey. Its speed will vary all the time. It may stop at a crosswalk or traffic lights, but then it will go faster on open roads. Check it out: If an object is traveling at a constant speed, then its speed at any moment will be exactly the same as its average speed.

If you work out the car’s speed by dividing the total distance it went by the time it took, you are calculating its average speed over the whole journey. This doesn’t mean the car was always traveling at that average speed. It just means that if it did travel at that speed for the journey time, it would cover the same distance as the actual journey.

Section 4.4 — Rates

245

The car’s speedometer tells the driver how fast it is traveling at any instant in time — not the average speed.

The blue line shows speedometer readings. The red line shows the average speed.

Speed

Check it out:

This graph shows the actual and average speeds for a car journey.

Actual speed Average speed

Time

Guided Practice 10. A fish swims from one end of a lake to the other in 2 hours. The lake is 12 km long. What is the average swimming speed of the fish?

Check it out: There’s more information about average speeds in Lesson 4.4.5.

A skydiver jumped out of a plane at 10,800 feet. He fell for 50 seconds before his parachute opened at 3000 feet. It took a further 200 seconds for him to reach the ground. 11. What was his average speed with his parachute closed? 12. What was his average speed with his parachute open? 13. What was his average speed over the whole drop?

Independent Practice 1. A sprinter completes the 100 m dash in 10 seconds. What is his average speed over the course of the race? 2. Shona is riding her scooter. She covers 4 blocks in 10 minutes. How fast is she traveling? Give your answer in blocks/minute. Don’t forget: Always remember that the units of an answer should match the units in the question. For a reminder, see Lesson 4.4.1.

3. A hockey player shoots the puck a distance of 51 m in 1.5 s. What is the average speed of the puck? 4. A cheetah runs one mile at constant speed. It takes 1 minute. What is the cheetah’s speed in miles per hour? 5. Ryan rides his bike along the edge of the park, taking the route shown in the diagram. It takes him 4 hours. What is his average speed?

15 km 5 km

6. A sailing boat travels a distance of 2 miles in 15 minutes. What is its average speed in meters/second? Now try these: Lesson 4.4.3 additional questions — p450

Laura is standing 255 m away from Ervon. When she rings a bell, he hears the sound of the bell 0.75 seconds later. 7. What is the speed of sound in air in meters per second? 8. What is the speed of sound in air in miles per hour? 9. A raindrop forms in a cloud at an altitude of 1750 m. It takes 250 seconds to fall to Earth. What is its average speed?

Round Up You can work out an object’s speed by dividing the distance it traveled by the time it took. Unless the speed of the object is constant, that speed will be an average speed over the whole journey. In the next Lesson, you’ll see how to rearrange the formula that you’ve learned — and use speeds to work out times and distances. 246

Section 4.4 — Rates

Lesson

4.4.4

Find ing Time And Distance Finding

California Standards:

In the last Lesson, you saw how to use the formula “Speed = Distance ÷ Time” to work out the speed of an object. In this Lesson, you’ll see how to use the formula to work out the distance an object has traveled or the time it took when you’re given its speed. It’s really just a “special case” of what you saw in Lesson 4.4.2.

Alg ebr a and Functions 2.2 Alge bra Demonstr a te an Demonstra under standing tha a te is a understanding thatt rra measur e of one quantity measure per unit vvalue alue of another quantity quantity.. Alg ebr a and Functions 2.3 Alge bra Solv e pr ob lems in volving Solve prob oblems inv ra tes ver a ge speed, tes,, a av era distance distance,, and time time..

What it means for you: You’ll see how to use speeds to calculate distances and times.

Use Speed and Time to Find Distances An ordinary garden snail moves at an average rate of 40 meters per hour. Suppose you want to find out how far it would travel in 2 hours. 2 hours

Speed = 40 meters per hour

Key words: • • • •

rate speed distance time

?m

Check it out: A rate that is describing how far an object moves in a certain time is a speed.

In one hour, it will move 40 m. So in two hours it will move 2 × 40 = 80 m. The rate has been multiplied by the time it took. If you know the rate at which an object is traveling and the time that it is traveling for, you can work out the distance it travels using this formula:

Distance = Speed × Time

Check it out: This is a rearrangement of the formula “Speed = Distance ÷ Time.” Speed = Distance ÷ Time. multiply both sides by “Time” Speed × Time = Distance.

Example

1

Mrs. Jackson walks at an average speed of 2 miles per hour. If she walks for 3 hours, how far will she go? Solution

Distance = Speed × Time = 2

Example

miles × 3 hours = 6 miles hours

2

Mr. Jackson walks at an average speed of 0.4 meters per second. If he walks for 9850 seconds, how far will he go? Solution

Distance = Speed × Time = 0.4

meters × 9850 seconds = 3940 meters second

These two Examples show that the units of the final answer depend on the units of the other quantities. If you use a speed in meters per second and a time in seconds, the distance you find would be in meters. Section 4.4 — Rates

247

Guided Practice 1. Raymon drives his car at an average speed of 40 miles/hour for 3 hours. What distance will he cover? 2. Alice wins a race on field day in a time of 50 seconds. Her average speed is 8 m/second. Which length race did she win? 3. A sunflower grows at a rate of half a centimeter a day. How tall will it be after 30 days? 4. A stone falls off a cliff. It hits the ground after 3 seconds. The stone traveled at an average speed of 14.7 m/second. How high is the cliff?

Use Speed and Distance to Find Times Think about the snail again. This time you know that it’s gone 80 meters, but you don’t know how long it took. ? hours

Speed = 40 meters per hour

80 m

To find the time that it took the snail to travel 80 m, you can divide the distance it traveled by the speed it moves at. Time taken = 80 ÷ 40 = 2 hours. Check it out:

If you know the speed at which an object is traveling, and the time that it is traveling for, you can work out the distance that it travels using this formula:

This is a rearrangement of the formula “Speed = Distance ÷ Time.”

Time =

Distance Speed

Speed = Distance ÷ Time. multiply both sides by “Time” Speed × Time = Distance divide both sides by “Speed” Time = Distance ÷ Speed

Example

3

A pro baseball pitcher pitched a baseball at a speed of 151.1 feet per second. How long did it take the ball to travel the 60.5 feet from the pitcher’s mound to home plate? Solution

Time =

distance speed

feet = 60.5 feet ÷ 151.1 second

= 0.400 seconds (to 3 decimal places)

248

Section 4.4 — Rates

Pitcher’s Mound 60.5 feet Home Plate

Guided Practice 5. A bird flies at an average speed of 22 miles/hour. It covers a distance of 11 miles. How long was it flying for? 6. Eddie’s house is 3.4 km away from his school. He cycles to school every morning. His average speed is 0.2 km/minute. How long will it take him to get to school? 7. A caterpillar eats leaves at a rate of 11 leaves/hour. How long will it take it to eat 55 leaves? 8. A train travels a distance of 581 miles at an average speed of 83 miles per hour. How long will it take to do this?

Independent Practice Don’t forget: “meters per second” is often written as “m/s.”

Don’t forget: These average speeds are unit rates. For a reminder on comparing unit rates, see Lesson 4.4.1.

1. Caryne, Reese, and Katia ran a 100 m race. Caryne’s average speed was 8.52 m/s, Reese’s was 9.11 m/s, and Katia’s was 9.02 m/s. Who won the race? 2. A horse trots at a speed of 9 miles/hour. How much ground will the horse cover in 3 hours? 3. A hot-air balloon goes up at a speed of 50 feet/minute. It rises to a height of 1100 feet. How long will it take to reach this height? 4. Fayard watches a raindrop run down a window. The window is 150 cm tall. The drop runs at an average speed of 2 cm/second. How long will it take to reach the bottom of the window? 5. Dulcie has a model plane that flies at a constant speed of 1.5 m/s. If it is airborne for 30 seconds, how far will it go? 6. A roller-coaster ride lasts 90 seconds. The roller-coaster train travels at an average speed of 50 km/hour. How far does it travel? 7. A train leaves the city at 10 a.m. It travels at an average speed of 93 miles/hour. The next stop is 62 miles away. At what time will it reach the next stop? 8. Town A is 4 miles from Town B. A bus leaves Town A for Town B

Now try these:

traveling at an average speed of

Lesson 4.4.4 additional questions — p450

Town B. He lives speed of

1 28

1 4

1 2

mile/minute. Mr. Jones lives in

mile from the bus stop, and walks at an average

mile/minute. Mr. Jones leaves his house to catch the bus at

the same time the bus leaves Town A. Will he catch the bus or miss it?

Round Up In the same way that you can use a time and a distance to find a speed, you can use a speed to find a time or distance. It’s just a case of rearranging the formula and putting the numbers in.

Section 4.4 — Rates

249

Lesson

4.4.5

Aver a ge R a tes era Ra

California Standards:

You’ve already seen the formulas linking average speed, distance, and time. In this Lesson, you’ll get a lot of practice using them.

Alg ebr a and Functions 2.2 Alge bra Demonstr a te an Demonstra under standing tha a te is a understanding thatt rra measur e of one quantity measure per unit vvalue alue of another quantity quantity.. Alg ebr a and Functions 2.3 Alge bra Solv e pr ob lems in volving Solve prob oblems inv ra tes ver a ge speed, tes,, a av era distance distance,, and time time..

Al ways Use Your Thr ee F or mulas Alw hree For orm A F aster Travels Fur therdistance, P er Hour Faster Further Per You’ve seen Object three formulas linking time, and speed. Speed =

Key words: • • • • •

rate speed distance time average

Time =

Distance Speed

Distance = Speed × Time

What it means for you: You’ll see how to work out average speeds over a whole journey.

Distance Time

You need to use these formulas for all questions involving time, distance, and speed. Don’t try to take any shortcuts. Example

1

A cyclist travels at 18 miles per hour for one hour, and for another hour at 32 miles per hour. What is her average speed for the whole journey? Solution

To find her average speed for the whole journey, you need the total distance and the total time. The question tells you that the total time is 2 hours.

Check it out: The answer to Example 1 is the average of the two speeds. But you should never assume that things will be that easy. Look at Example 2.

To find the total distance, break the journey into two parts, and use one of the above formulas for each part. For the first part: distance = 18 miles per hour × 1 hour = 18 miles. For the second part: distance = 32 miles per hour × 1 hour = 32 miles. So the total distance = 18 + 32 = 50 miles. Now find the average speed for the whole journey. Average speed = 50 miles ÷ 2 hours = 25 miles per hour Now look at this next example. Example

2

Joshua walks for 1 mile at 4 miles per hour, and for another mile at 2 miles per hour. What is his average speed for the whole journey? Solution

Check it out: The answer to Example 2 is not the average of the two speeds. The “obvious” answer of “3 miles per hour” would have been wrong.

Do the question in two parts again. This time, the total distance is 2 miles. For the first part: time = 1 mile ÷ 4 mph = 0.25 hours. For the second part: time = 1 mile ÷ 2 mph = 0.5 hours. So the total time = 0.25 + 0.5 = 0.75 hours. This means the average speed is 2 ÷ 0.75 = 2.67 miles per hour.

250

Section 4.4 — Rates

Guided Practice Work out the average speed of the entire journey in Exercises 1–4. 1. Eloise rides her bike for 2 hours. For the first hour, her average speed is 10 km/h. For the second hour, her average speed is 8 km/h. 2. Orlin rows upstream for 20 minutes at a speed of 0.1 km/min. Then for 10 minutes he rows downstream at 0.4 km/min. 3. Vanessa rides on an elephant for 2 hours (average speed 4.5 miles/hour) and a camel for 1 hour (average speed 3 miles/hour). 4. Brian pulls his sled up a hill in 120 s at a speed of 0.6 m/s. Then he slides back down in 30 s at a speed of 2.4 m/s.

Al ways R el y on Those Same Thr ee F or mulas Alw Rel ely hree For orm You can use those formulas to solve some very complex problems. You just have to take things one step at a time. Example

3

A ball is dropped vertically from a platform 45 meters above the ground. It falls for 3 seconds before it hits the ground. The ball then bounces vertically, and rises for 2 seconds at an average speed of 10 m/s. What is the ball’s average speed as it falls? How high does the ball rise? What is the ball’s average speed over the two parts of the journey? Solution

Don’t forget: This example looks very complex. But you just have to keep using those same three formulas. For each part of the journey, there are 3 quantities — distance, time, and speed. Write down the two quantities you know, then use the formula that will tell you the other one.

This looks pretty difficult. Just work slowly and carefully, and it might also help if you draw some simple diagrams. For the first part — as the ball is falling. Distance = 45 meters. Time = 3 seconds. So its average speed as it falls = 45 m ÷ 3 s = 15 m/s For the second part — as the ball is rising. Average speed = 10 m/s. Time = 2 seconds. So the distance it rises = 10 m/s × 2 s = 20 m

45 meters 3 seconds

2 seconds 10 m/s

To find the average speed for the whole journey, you need the total distance traveled and the total time taken. Total distance traveled = 45 m + 20 m = 65 m. Total time taken = 3 s + 2 s = 5 s. So the overall average speed = 65 m ÷ 5 s = 13 m/s.

Section 4.4 — Rates

251

Guided Practice Work out the average speed of the entire journey in Exercises 5–8. 5. A duck swims 50 m at a speed of 5 m/s, then flies 550 m at a speed of 11 m/s. 6. Glover walks 1 mile to the station to catch a train. He walks at 2 miles/hour. He gets the train for 20 miles. Its speed is 80 miles/hour. 7. Diana drives 5 km at a speed of 15 km/h, then 10 km at a speed of 30 km/h. 8. Justin is in a circus parade. He walks 50 m at a speed of 1 m/s. Then he puts on stilts, and walks another 140 m at a speed of 0.7 m/s.

Independent Practice Work out the average speed of the entire journey in Exercises 1–7. 1. Keshila jogs for 2 hours at a speed of 3 miles/hour, and then walks for 2 hours at a speed of 2 miles/hour. 2. Wayan drives for 100 miles at a speed of 50 miles/hour, then for 50 miles at 25 miles/hour. 3. A farmer drives his combine for 5 hours at an average speed of 15 km/h. Then he drives his tractor for 3 hours at an average speed of 10 km/h. Now try these: Lesson 4.4.5 additional questions — p451

4. Hannah is doing the long jump. Her run up is 24 m and her run-up speed is 8 m/s. She jumps 6 m. Her jump speed was 6 m/s. 5. A rose grows at a speed of 0.5 mm/day for 4 days. Then it rains. For the next 6 days, the rose grows at the faster speed of 1 mm/day. 6. A spider climbs upward for 90 cm at a speed of 2 cm/s. Then it drops back down 50 cm at a speed of 10 cm/s. 7. Dan competes in a triathlon. He does the 2 km swim at an average 2

Check it out: Even when a journey is split into more than two parts the method is still the same. Work out the time and distance of each part, add them together, and put them into the formula.

speed of 2 3 km/h. His 40 km bike ride has an average speed of 6

22 7 km/h. His 10 km run is at an average speed of 20 km/h. 8. A skydiver jumps out of a plane and falls for 43 seconds at an average speed of 190 feet per second before his parachute opens. He then drops the next 2850 feet at 15 feet per second, until he lands. How high was the plane when he jumped, and how long did it take him to reach the ground?

Round Up For nearly all “speed questions,” you’ll be given two bits of information and you’ll need to work out the third using one of the formulas at the beginning of this Lesson. The question might look complicated, and it might be in many parts, but the basic idea will be the same. You use two quantities and one of the formulas to find out the other quantity. 252

Section 4.4 — Rates

Chapter 4 Investigation

Sunshine and Shadows Shadows change length and direction as the Sun moves across the sky. The picture below shows a tree and a statue on a sunny day. Their shadows at various times of day are shown. The two red triangles in the diagram are similar, as are the two yellow triangles. Part 1: • At 7 am, the tree casts a shadow that is 41 feet long. Find the length of the shadow of the statue at 7 a.m. 18 feet

• At 10 am, the statue casts a shadow that is 3.7 feet long. Find the length of the shadow of the tree at 10 a.m. 6 feet midday

Things to think about:

7 am 10 am

midday

3.7 feet

41 feet 10 am

7 am

• How can you use proportions with similar triangles?

Part 2: • At midday, the shadows are at their shortest. The ratio of the height of the objects to the length of their shadows is 1 : 0.28. Find the lengths of the shadows of both objects at midday.

Extension • Find the average rate that the length of the statue’s shadow shrinks between 7 a.m. and 10 a.m. Give your answer in feet per hour. • Between the hours of midday and 6 p.m., the tree’s shadow increases in length at an average rate of 9.6 feet per hour. Find the length of the tree’s shadow at 6 p.m. Open-ended Extension • Devise a method for finding the height of a local statue, tree, building, or other landmark, based on similar triangles. You should work out what equipment you would need, and how it would be used (including any preparations that you may need to make). • Once you have devised your method, try it. Does your method work? How accurate was your result? What problems did you encounter?

Round Up This Investigation shows one example of where similar triangles occur in nature. Similar shapes appear elsewhere too — for example, when you make a copy of a picture. Cha pter 4 In vestig a tion — Sunshine and Shadows 253 Chapter Inv estiga

Chapter 5 Data Sets Section 5.1

Exploration — Estimation Line-up ............................. 255 Statistical Measures .................................................. 256

Section 5.2

Adding Extra Data ..................................................... 268

Section 5.3

Claims and Data Displays ......................................... 275

Section 5.4

Exploration — Sampling Survey ............................... 286 Sampling ................................................................... 287

Section 5.5

Statistical Claims ....................................................... 300

Chapter Investigation — Selling Cookies .......................................... 309

254

Section 5.1 introduction — an exploration into:

Estima tion Line-Up Estimation This Exploration is all about jellybeans. Remember it’s math though... so actually you have to analyze a list of guesses about the number of jellybeans in a big jar. You have to estimate how many jellybeans there are in a jar. Write your estimate in large numbers on a sticky note.

It might help to stick all the estimates to a wall.

The whole class should arrange their sticky notes in order — from smallest to biggest. This Exploration is about using your list of numbers to answer these questions: • Are the guesses all quite similar? Or all very different? • Are the guesses mostly too high? Or mostly too low? Example What is the range of this class’s estimates?

208 260 270 310 310

Solution

The RANGE is the difference between the smallest estimate and the largest estimate. So subtract the smallest estimate from the largest. For these numbers, the range = 310 – 208 = 102.

The range tells you how different the guesses are. A large range means that the guesses are very different different. A smaller range means that they are more similar similar.

Example What is the mode of this class’s estimates?

208 260 270 310 310

Solution

The MODE is the number that was guessed most often. For these numbers, the mode = 310. Example What is the median of this class’s estimates?

You might have more than one mode. The mode and median are both “typical values.” They tell you if most typical values guesses were too high high, or too low low.

208 260 270 310 310

Solution

The MEDIAN is the number in the middle of the ordered list. For the numbers above, the median = 270. With an even number of estimates, the median is midway between the middle two. So for the numbers on the right, the median = 265.

205 208 260 270 310 310 Median is midway between 260 and 270 270.

Exercises 1. For your class’s estimates, find the:

a. range, b. median, c. mode

2. Make some statements about your class’s estimates. Use the range, mode, and median.

Round Up These statistics are ways to summarize a whole list of numbers — there’s more in this Section. Section 5.1 Explor a tion — Estimation Line-Up 255 Explora

Lesson

5.1.1 California Standard: Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Compute the range, mean, median, and mode of data sets.

Section 5.1

Median and Mode The median and mode are both intended to “summarize” a whole data set in a single number. They should show some kind of “most usual” or “middle” value of a set of data. But although they’re similar in some ways, they’re worked out very differently. This Lesson is about how to find them.

What it means for you:

Data Sets Can Contain All Sorts of Values

You’ll learn to find the median and mode for sets of data.

Data sets often contain numerical values. For example, the data set below represents the number of hours eight adults said they slept last night.

Key words: • • • • •

central tendency data median mode values

{12, 8, 7, 8, 8.5, 8, 9, 6}

Braces “{“ and “}” are used to show that values are grouped together in a set.

Data sets can contain other types of information too. For example, the data set below represents the hair color of five students. {blonde, brunette, red, blonde, black}

If there are two items the same, they’re listed twice.

Data sets can contain huge amounts of data, and it’s very likely that most people won’t be interested in reading every single value. So, often a value that represents a typical value for the set is used. These typical values are often referred to as measures of central tendency.

The Median Is a Measure of Central Tendency The Median The median of a data set is a value that divides the set into two equal groups — one group containing values bigger than the median, the other containing smaller values.

Check it out: You can only find the median of data sets where you can put the values in order.

So the median is the middle value when a set of values is put in order. If you have an odd number of values, the median is fairly easy to find. Example

1

Find the median of the following data set: {3, 2, 6, 8, 2, 10, 6, 4, 9} Solution

First, arrange the values in order: {2, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 8, 9, 10} There are nine values, so the median is the fifth value. There are four values less than the median...

{2, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 8, 9, 10}

The median of the data set is 6.

256

Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

median

... and four values greater than the median.

If there’s an even number of values, then finding the median is slightly trickier because there are two middle numbers. Here, you find the value exactly midway between the two middle numbers. Example

2

Find the median of this data set: {4.6, 8.9, 9, 10, 10, 14.7} Solution

The values in this data set are already in order from least to greatest. There are six values in the set — the median lies midway between the third and fourth values. Median = 9.5 There are three values below the median...

{4.6, 8.9, 9, 10, 10, 14.7}

... and three values above the median.

The third and fourth values are 9 and 10 — so the median is 9.5.

Guided Practice

Check it out: It’s easy to leave out a value when you’re rewriting the data set in order. It’s safer to copy the data in the original order first, then cross out the values as you rewrite them.

Find the median of each of the following data sets. 1. {12, 8, 10, 19, 21, 7, 14} 2. {$101, $201, $150, $198, $300} 3. {5, 8, 3, 6, 12, 9, 5, 5, 4, 11} 4. {–6, –3, 7, 4, –2, –2, 5, 2} 5. {–2.1, 5.7, 8.1, –10.2, –100, 42.778}

The Mode Is Another Measure of Central Tendency Check it out:

The Mode

The mode is sometimes called the modal value. So in Example 3, the modal value is 2.

The mode of a data set is the value that occurs most often. To find the mode of a data set, look for the value that’s listed more than any other value. Example

Check it out: To find the mode, you don’t have to write the values out in order. However, you might still find it useful to do this, as it makes it easier to see which value is repeated most.

3

Find the mode of the data set: {17, 2, 6, 8, 2, 10, 4, 35, 10, 7, 2} Solution

The number 2 occurs three times — this is more than any other value in the set. {17, 2, 6, 8, 2, 10, 4, 35, 10, 7, 2} So the mode is 2.

Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

257

Some Data Sets Have No Modes — Others Have Many Data sets don’t always have one mode — as these examples show. Example Check it out: The mode is a good measure of central tendency to use if your data set contains nonnumerical values.

4

Find the mode of this set of data: {brown, blue, green, blue, yellow, brown, orange, white} Solution

Blue and brown both appear twice. No other color appears more often. So the data set has two modes, blue and brown. Example

5

Find the mode of this set of data: {3, 5, 19, 5, 3, 19} Solution

Each number occurs twice — no value occurs more often than the others. So this data set has no modes.

Guided Practice Give the mode(s) of the following data sets. 6. {$12, $8, $7.50, $7.50, $10, $8, $8, $9.50} 2 1 1 3 7. { , , , 1, } 8. {0, 1, –3, 5, 1, 0, –3, –3, 0} 5

2

2

4

Independent Practice Give the median and mode(s) of the data sets in Exercises 1–4. 1. {42, 56, 73, 64, 42} 2. {2, 5, 7, 3, 8, 10, 14} 3. {$16, $28, $20, $15}

4. {0.1, 0.4, 0.7, 0.4, 0.5, 0.7}

5. Write a set of data for which the mode and the median are the same.

Now try these: Lesson 5.1.1 additional questions — p451

Exercises 6–7 are about Rick’s survey of car colors. 6. Rick listed the colors of the 25 cars in a parking lot. The mode for his list is blue. What does this tell you? 7. There are only 5 car colors on Rick’s list: white, red, black, blue, and green. The mode is blue. What can you say about the possible minimum and maximum number of blue cars? Explain your answer. In Exercises 7–10, find a number for each blank so the median is 12. 8. {42, 2, 5, 7, 36, __} 9. {4, 12, 18, __} 10. {2, 5, 14, 12, __} 11. {6, 6, 7, 9, 11, 17, 17, 20, 23, __} Decide whether each statement is true or false. Explain your answers. 12. The median of a data set always equals one of the data values. 13. Not all data sets have a median.

Round Up These typical values beginning with “m” can get confusing. The median is the middle number when they’re arranged in order, and the mode is the most common value. There’s another similar “m” coming up in the next Lesson too — the mean. 258

Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

Lesson

5.1.2

Mean and Range

California Standard:

The mean (like the mode and median) is another way of finding a “typical value” of a data set.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Compute the range, mean, median, and mode of data sets.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to find the mean and range for a set of data. Then you’ll see how the mode, mean, and median don’t all make sense in every situation.

The range, on the other hand, gives a different kind of information — it tells you how spread out the data is.

The Mean Is Also a Measure of Central Tendency The mean is often referred to as the average. You have to do a calculation to find it: The Mean The mean of a data set is found by: (i) adding up all the items in a data set, and then (ii) dividing by the number of items in the data set.

Key words: • • • • • •

mean measure of central tendency sum range mode median

Don’t forget: Finding the sum of a set of numbers means adding them all up.

Example

1

Find the mean of the data in the set {2, 7, 4, 8, 10, 24, 57, 39, 8}. Solution

First, find the sum of the numbers in the set: Sum = 2 + 7 + 4 + 8 + 10 + 24 + 57 + 39 + 8 = 159 Next divide the sum by the number of values in the set. Mean = 159 ÷ 9

Don’t forget: There’s more about rounding in Section 1.4.

There are 9 values in the set.

= 17.7 The exact answer was 17.666666... (You often have to round mean values to a sensible level of accuracy.)

Guided Practice Calculate the mean of each data set in Exercises 1–4. Round your answers to the nearest hundredth. 1. {34, 67, 65, 45, 78, 35, 90} 2. {2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 4} 3. {4.2, 4.5, 4.8, 4.9, 4.5} 4. {12, 12, 24, 23, 26, 32, 14, 18, 18}

Check it out: The mean is also used to calculate a student’s GPA (grade point average).

5. In a college course, a student’s final score is the mean of three tests. To earn a B grade, students need a final score of at least 80. A student earns 78, 91, and 73 points on the three tests. Will this student get a B?

Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

259

Use the Mean to Find Missing Values On its own, the mean doesn’t tell you anything about individual values in a data set. But you can use it to find one missing value if you know the rest. Suppose you’ve taken five tests, but can’t find one result. If you know your mean score, you can use it to figure out the missing grade. Example

2

After taking five tests, Tiffany earns a grade average of 85%. She can only find four of her test papers. On these, she scored 90%, 82%, 87%, and 98%. Use the mean to find out her missing test score. Solution

You have to work backward to solve this sort of problem.

Check it out: You can use a variable such as x to stand for the missing score. 90 + 82 + 87 + 98 + x = 425 So 357 + x = 425, which means x = 425 – 357 = 68. See Lesson 2.2.3 for more information about solving this kind of equation.

You know that the mean is the total of all five test scores divided by the number of tests (5). In other words: mean = sum of all five scores ÷ 5 mean = 85 This means you can multiply 85 by 5 to find the sum of the 5 scores. Sum of all five scores = 85 × 5 = 425 Now compare this sum to the sum of the four test scores she already knows: 90 + 82 + 87 + 98 = 357 357 is 68 less than 425. So the missing test score is 68%.

Guided Practice 6. The mean of two numbers is 76. If one number is 15, what is the second number? 7. Max’s final grade is the mean of four tests. He wants to earn a final grade of 90. He got 83, 95, and 88 on the first three tests. What must he get on the fourth test to earn an average of 90?

The Range: Subtract the Least from the Greatest The range tells you how spread out the data is. A set of data that has a big difference between the highest and lowest values will have a much bigger range than one in which the values are all fairly similar. The Range The range of a data set is the difference between the greatest and least values in the set.

260

Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

Example

3

Find the range of heights of these basketball players: Player 1: 195 cm; Player 2: 210 cm; Player 3: 202 cm; Player 4: 180 cm Solution

Subtract the least value from the greatest: 210 cm – 180 cm = 30 cm The range of the heights is 30 cm. Example Check it out: If the highest value is 11 and the lowest is 2, then for the range to stay as 9, the other data values must not be greater than 11 or less than 2.

Check it out: There are many possible answers to Example 4, since you can pick any value to use as the greatest value. So another possible answer is {14, 5, 7, 8, 6, 10, 10}.

4

A data set contains 7 values. The range of these values is 9. Suggest a data set that meets this description. Solution

You know that the difference between the highest and lowest values is 9. Pick any number for the highest value — 11, say. Then the lowest value must be 11 – 9 = 2. But you can pick any other values for the remaining 5 items, as long as none of them is less than 2 or greater than 11. There are many So one possible set of values is {11, 8, 3, 3, 2, 2, 4}. different possibilities.

Guided Practice Calculate the range of the data sets in Exercises 8–9. 8. {90, 120, 80} 9. {1.2, 1.4, 1.1, 2.5, 3, 2.2} 10. The range of the set of ages of people at a party is 12. Suggest possible ages for the youngest person and the oldest.

Independent Practice Calculate the mean and range for each data set in Exercises 1–2. 1. {5, 9, 3, 12} 2. {–5, 7, 18, –1, 6} Now try these: Lesson 5.1.2 additional questions — p451

For Exercises 3–5, use the data set {19, 13, 7, 2, 1, 1, 25, 4}. State how many values in the set are: 3. greater than the mean. 4. less than the mean. 5. equal to the mean. Each set in Exercises 6–9 has a mean of 5. Find the missing values. 6. Set A {1, 9, 7, 8, 2, __} 7. Set B {1, 4, 10, 5, 6, __} 8. Set C {5, 4, 6, 5, 4, __} 9. Set D {10, –2, 0, __} 10. The range of a data set is 12. If the greatest value is 188, what is the least value? 11. Which one data value could be removed from the data set below to give it a range less than 9? {1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 7, 9, 11}

Round Up Now you know about the range and three measures of central tendency — mean, mode, and median. You’ve also seen a measure of spread — the range. There’s more about these next Lesson. Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

261

Lesson

5.1.3 California Standards: Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Compute the range, mean, median, and mode of data sets. Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.3 Understand how the inclusion or exclusion of outliers affects these computations. Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.4 Know why a specific measure of central tendency (mean, median) provides the most useful information in a given context.

What it means for you: You’ll see how extreme values can affect calculations of the mean, mode, and median, and why this is important.

Key words: • • • • • •

mean measure of central tendency sum range mode median

Check it out: The range would also be heavily affected by an outlier.

Extreme Values The last two Lessons have looked at the median, mode, and mean. These are “typical values” — values that fall somewhere in the middle of your data. This Lesson is about values that are “right at the end” of your data — these are called extreme values.

Extreme Values Are Sometimes Called Outliers An outlier is a data value that is much greater than or much less than other values in the data set. For example, the following set of numbers contains an outlier: {9.99, 10.03, 10.08, 10.09, 10.10, 10.12, 10.19, 13.01}. The value 13.01 is a lot higher than all the others. There are various reasons why some values might lie far from the others. (i) Sometimes measurements are made incorrectly (for example, if someone used the wrong end of a ruler to measure something). (ii) Sometimes the measurement is “unfair” in some way, because of a problem, perhaps. For example, the eight numbers in the set above are times of athletes running a 100-meter race. The first seven athletes finished in times very close to 10 seconds. Unfortunately, the final athlete fell over, tore a muscle, and limped to the end of the race. (iii) Sometimes the reading is a genuinely unusual, but correct, value. For example, some people are much taller than average, while others are much shorter. Outliers can have a really dramatic effect when you calculate a mean value. In cases (i) and (ii) above, it would probably be best to ignore them in your calculation. In case (iii) though, you shouldn’t really just ignore them — they’re as genuine as any other value. Example

1

This data set shows the times in seconds that it took for a ball to fall through a tube in a science experiment: {2.1, 2.3, 2.5, 2.5, 2.6, 7} Identify the outlier. Then calculate the mean with and without the outlier, and suggest which would be better to use as a typical value. Solution

The outlier is 7 seconds. It’s much bigger than the others. The mean with the outlier is: (2.1 + 2.3 + 2.5 + 2.5 + 2.6 + 7) ÷ 6 = 19 ÷ 3 = 3.2 seconds The mean without the outlier is: (2.1 + 2.3 + 2.5 + 2.5 + 2.6) ÷ 5 = 12 ÷ 5 = 2.4 seconds Check it out: Always try to find out the possible reason for an outlier before you ignore it.

262

Here, the measurement of 7 seconds probably happened because there was either: a problem carrying out the experiment (maybe the ball got stuck), or a problem with the measurement (maybe the stopwatch was started early accidentally). So the mean of 2.4 s is probably more appropriate.

Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

Example

2

This data set shows the weights in pounds (lb) of six dogs brought into a veterinary practice: {8, 22, 25, 33, 36, 42}. (All the weights are genuine.) Identify the outlier. Then calculate the mean with and without the outlier, and suggest which would be better to use. Check it out: The very low weight might be from a different breed, and so perfectly normal.

Solution

The outlier is 8 lb. It’s much smaller than the others. The mean with the outlier is: 166 ÷ 6 = 27.7 lb The mean without the outlier is: 158 ÷ 5 = 31.6 lb Here, it’s probably best to include the outlier. It’s a small data value, but it’s a genuine weight of one of the dogs. So the mean of 27.7 lb is probably more appropriate.

Guided Practice 1. In which set or sets from A to D might 99 be considered an outlier? A: {0, –3, 8, 99} C: {88, 100, 99, 104, 89, 91} B: {99, 106.4, 99.8, 99.95, 101.6} D: {413, 99, 526, 480, 475} Use the following data set for Exercises 2–5: {12, 15, 19, 20, 200} 2. Find the mean of the data set with the outlier included. 3. Find the mean of the data set without the outlier included. Say which of these answers is appropriate to use if the data shows: 4. the correctly measured lengths of different sea snakes, which are to be used by the makers of snake antivenom. 5. the distances a javelin was thrown by members of a sports club, though the final value was the result of a person typing the result into a computer incorrectly.

Choose the Best Measure for the Situation You’ve seen that outliers can have a big effect on the mean. Sometimes, outliers can make the mean unrepresentative of the rest of the data set. Example

3

A doctor sees 15 patients during the morning. The length of time he spent with each patient is recorded below to the nearest minute. {5, 7, 3, 3, 78, 11, 10, 8, 6, 3, 3, 8, 9, 8, 11} Find the mean. Suggest a problem with using this as a typical time. Solution

Check it out: If a few values are very different from the majority, they’ll often cause the mean value to not be representative.

Mean = Sum of all 15 times ÷ 15 = 173 ÷ 15 = 11.5 minutes. The mean is greater than all but one of the values in the data set. The very high value of 78 “pulls” the mean upward, so it is not very typical of the values in the data set. Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

263

Check it out: There’s more about how the mean is affected by extreme values in Lesson 5.2.2.

This is a problem with using the mean as a typical value — it’s heavily affected by extreme values. One solution is to use a different measure of central tendency. Example

4

Using the same data set as in Example 3, find the median and mode. Choose the best measure(s) of central tendency for this data. Solution

The data set is: {5, 7, 3, 3, 78, 11, 10, 8, 6, 3, 3, 8, 9, 8, 11} Mode: The number 3 occurs more than any other number, so the mode = 3 minutes. Median: the values written in order are: 3, 3, 3, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11, and 78. The median is the middle value, so the median = 8 minutes. The mode is equal to the lowest value, and you’ve already seen that the mean is higher than all but one value, so neither of these is very typical of the data set. The median is the most representative measure of central tendency.

Guided Practice For each data set below, find (where possible) the mean, median, and mode. Then say which would be the most suitable measure of central tendency to use, and explain why. 6. Math test scores: {75, 84, 88, 72, 64, 10, 92, 87}. The outlier was scored by someone new to the town, who had not been to a lesson in this school before. 7. Weekly allowance: {$10, $15, $10, $10, $7, $50}. This data is to be used to see how many weeks it will take a group of students to raise enough money to throw a birthday party. Check it out: If you can’t put the data into any sensible kind of order, the mode is the only measure of central tendency that’s possible.

Now try these: Lesson 5.1.3 additional questions — p452

Independent Practice 1. In which data set(s) below might –4 be considered an outlier? W: {0, –6, 2, 12, –3, –8, 11} Y: {–3.8, –4.2, –3.3, –5.1, –2.7} X: {29.4, 33.7, 39.4, 28.9, 31.1} Z: {3.8, 4.2, 3.3, 5.1, 2.7} For each data set below, find (where possible) the mean, median, and mode. Then say which would be the most suitable measure of central tendency to use, and explain why. 2. Shoe sizes: {5, 7, 6, 7, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7} 3. Age of party guests: {14, 18, 17, 13, 14, 11, 14, 14, 73} 4. Pets owned: {dog, rabbit, dog, cat, gerbil, dog, cat, dog}

Round Up In some cases, you can just ignore outliers — they’re sometimes just “mistakes.” But you shouldn’t just ignore outliers because they’re inconvenient — that’s “fiddling your data.” You can always use the median or the mode if you want a typical value that isn’t heavily affected by extreme values. 264

Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

Lesson

5.1.4

Comparing Data Sets

California Standard:

You’ve seen how to find the mean, median, mode, and range of a data set. The next step is to see how you can use them to compare data sets.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Compute the range, mean, median, and mode of data sets.

What it means for you:

Two Key Concepts: “Typical Value” and “Spread”

You’ll see how you can use the mean, median, mode, and range to compare data sets.

With any data set, there are two basic things you’ll really need to know: 1) a “typical value,” 2) how spread out the values are.

Key words:

You’ve seen that you can find a typical value in different ways — you can use either the mean, median, or mode.

• • • • • •

measure of central tendency mean mode median spread range

You’ve also seen that you can describe how spread out your data is, using the range. Example

1

Give a description of the data set below. {4, 6, 3, 4, 5, 2, 9, 8, 2, 6, 6} Solution

There are 3 types of typical values — the mean, the median, and the mode. Don’t forget: There’s a lot more about how to work out the mean, median, mode, and range in Lessons 5.1.1 and 5.1.2.

Check it out: The spread of a data set means how spread out (or how close together) all the values are.

4 + 6 + ... + 6 + 6 55 = =5 11 11 Median... put the data in order first: 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 8, 9. There are 11 values, so the median is the 6th value, which is 5. Mode = 6

Mean =

Then you can describe how spread out your data is by looking at the range. Here, the range = 9 – 2 = 7.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–5, give a summary of each data set. 1. {8, 4, 7, 4, 5, 4} 2. {21, 11, 22, 14, 17, 13} 3. {–12, –15, –15, –11, –9, –10} 4. {1, 5, 2, 7, 3, 7, 4, 5, 9, 10, 14, 3, 2, 5, 13} 5. {–5, 5, 2, 7, 3, 7, 4, 5, 9, 10, 20, 3, 2, 5, 13} 6. What do you notice about the sets in Exercises 4 and 5?

Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

265

Compare Data Sets Using Typical Value and Spread If you have two sets of data, you may want to compare them. For each set, work out a “typical value,” and how spread out the data is. Example

2

Alfredo and Joel are both on a long jump team. During the course of the season, they each do a series of jumps. Alfredo’s jumps (in meters): 5.1, 5.42, 6.01, 4.46, 5.33, 5.12, 4.42, 6.02. Joel’s jumps (in meters): 5.23, 5.15, 5.3, 5.33, 5.22, 5.18, 5.3. Compare their performances over the course of the season. Solution

Work out the mean, median, mode, and range for both jumpers.

Don’t forget: The mean, median, and range are all different kinds of “typical value.” The range is a measure of spread.

Alfredo first: 5.1 + ... + 6.02 41.88 = = 5.235 meters Mean = 8 8 Median... put the data in order first: 4.42, 4.46, 5.1, 5.12, 5.33, 5.42, 6.01, 6.02 So the median is 5.225 meters. All the values are different, so there is no mode. Range = 6.02 – 4.42 = 1.6 meters. Now Joel: 5.23 + ... + 5.3 36.71 = = 5.244 meters (to 3 decimal places) Mean = 7 7 Median... put the data in order first: 5.15, 5.18, 5.22, 5.23, 5.3, 5.3, 5.33 The median is 5.23 meters. The mode = 5.3 meters. Range = 5.33 – 5.15 = 0.18 meters.

Don’t forget: A large range might mean that all the values are very spread out. Or it might mean that there are one or two outliers. Look at the actual values to check.

You can see that for both jumpers, the mean and the median are very similar. Both have a “typical jump” of about 5.22–5.24 meters. However, the big difference is in the boys’ ranges. Alfredo’s range is much greater than Joel’s. This means that Joel is a lot more consistent than Alfredo, or Alfredo’s jumps are a lot more variable than Joel’s.

Guided Practice Compare the pairs of data sets in Exercises 7–8. 7. {6, 8, 9, 5, 7, 8, 5} and {1, 4, 7, 9, 3, 4} 8. {7, 4, 5, 7, 2, 8} and {28, 34, 33, 29, 33, 34} 9. Sam and Eddy each have a collection of earthworms. Sam’s worms have lengths (in cm) of 5.2, 8.3, 4.4, 6.7, 9.2, and 10.1. Eddy’s worms have lengths (in cm) of 4.6, 6.3, 5.5, 6.6, 6.9, and 7.1. Compare the two collections. 266

Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

Example

3

Ryan and Hap scored the following points in 10 games of basketball. Ryan: 10, 5, 6, 14, 3, 2, 8, 4, 16, 6 Hap: 8, 7, 8, 10, 6, 8, 9, 4, 10, 8 (i) If the team is behind by 8 points, why might the coach put Hap in? (ii) If the team is behind by 14 points, why might the coach put Ryan in? Solution

Compare the two sets of data. Ryan: mean = 7.4; median = 6; mode = 6; range = 14 Hap: mean = 7.8; median = 8; mode = 8; range = 6

Don’t forget: A small range shows consistency — with no really big or really small values. A bigger range shows there are some much bigger or some much smaller values.

(i) Hap has a median of 8, meaning he has scored 8 in at least half the games he has played. Ryan’s median is 6, which means he scored 6 points or fewer in half of his games. (ii) Hap’s range is much lower, meaning he is more consistent. But his highest score is only 10, showing that he may not be able to score really highly in a single game. Ryan, however, has a range of 14, showing that he has scored at least 14 points in a game before.

Guided Practice One-day first aid courses are taught on Wednesdays and Saturdays. The age of the participants in each course is summarized below. Wednesday class: mean = 39.75; median = 36; mode = 28; range = 42 Saturday class: mean = 23.25; median = 21.5; mode = 13; range = 30 10. Students in school are unable to attend one of the classes. Using the statistics, which would you say students cannot attend? 11. What are the maximum possible ages of the people in each class?

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 5.1.4 additional questions — p452

Give a summary of each data set in Exercises 1–3. 1. {56, 78, 45, 66, 49, 71} 2. {111, 124, 109, 105, 122, 106, 99, 96} 3. {2.31, 2.43, 2.54, 2.12, 2.54, 2.33, 2.65} Compare the data sets in Exercises 4–5. 4. {82, 63, 71, 78, 58} and {152, 133, 141, 148, 128} 5. {1.2, 1.7, 1.4, 1.6} and {0.7, 2.2, 0.9, 2.1} 6. A research company reported that the typical teacher in the U.S. is a 43-year-old female. What measure of central tendency might the company have used to determine that the typical teacher was female? Does this mean there are no male teachers? Explain your answers.

Round Up The mean, median, mode, and range are used all the time in real life to summarize the results of surveys. It’s important you understand what each piece of information tells you. Section 5.1 — Statistical Measures

267

Lesson

5.2.1 California Standards: Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Compute the range, mean, median, and mode of data sets.

Section 5.2

Including Additional Data: Mode, Median, and Range The mode, median, mean, and range of a data set can change as new data is added. Adding just one extra number to the data set might (or might not) be enough to change any of them. This Lesson looks at how including new data can affect the mode, median, and range.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.2

Adding Data Values Can Change the Mode

Understand how additional data added to data sets may affect these computations.

The mode of a data set is the item that occurs most often. New data can cause the most common value to change.

What it means for you:

Example

1

You’ll see how the mode, median, and range of a data set change if extra values are included.

Joe has conducted a survey asking the number of TVs in people’s households. The data set is shown below. {0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 7}

Key words:

The next day, three more completed surveys arrive in the mail. The new responses are {1, 3, 3}.

• • • •

data set mode median range

Find the mode of the data set: (i) not including the extra responses, (ii) including the extra responses. What effect do the extra responses have on the mode?

Check it out:

Solution

If you had a huge data set, containing hundreds and hundreds of values, then it would be far less likely that an extra three responses would change the mode.

(i) The mode of the original data set is 2 (there are eight values of 2). (ii) The mode of the new data set is 3 (there are now nine values of 3, but still only eight of 2). Here, the extra data increased the mode from 2 to 3. If the three extra responses in Example 1 had been different, the mode may not have been affected. For example, the responses {0, 2, 5} would not have changed the mode.

Guided Practice Don’t forget: The mode is sometimes called the modal value.

268

1. If 9 is added to the data set {1, 5, 5, 5, 7, 9, 9, 10, 15}, how is the mode affected? The number of actors needed for six short plays are 4, 6, 4, 5, 6, and 6. 2. What is the modal (most common) number of actors? 3. Three more plays are added to the list. The numbers of actors needed are 4, 4, and 5. What is the modal number of actors now? 4. The data set is now {4, 6, 4, 5, 6, 6, 4, 4, 5}. Could a single number be added that would change the mode? Explain your answer.

Section 5.2 — Adding Extra Data

Check it out:

Adding Data Values Can Also Change the Median

If there are an odd number of values in the data set, the median is the actual value in the middle of the ordered data set. If there are an even number of values, then the median is midway between the middle two values. See Lesson 5.1.1 for more information.

The median is the middle value when all the values of a data set are arranged in order. Adding a new value can easily change the median. Example

2

The heights of four friends are 156 cm, 157 cm, 164 cm, and 168 cm. Another friend joins them. His height is 207 cm. How does adding this friend’s height affect the median? Solution

First, you need to find the original median. So arrange the original data set in order. Original data set: {156, 157, 164, 168} Old median = 160.5 cm

Check it out: The extra height is greater than the old median, so the new median is greater than the old one.

The original median is halfway between 157 cm and 164 cm (the 2nd and 3rd values).

Now insert the additional data value into the set, keeping the heights in order. Next, find the new median and compare it to the original. new value

New data set: {156, 157, 164, 168, 207} Check it out: Notice how the increase in the median is only a few centimeters, even though the new friend is much taller than the other friends.

New median = 164 cm

The median is now the 3rd value, 164 cm.

The median increased from 160.5 cm to 164 cm. Example

3

Another friend joins the friends from Example 2. Her height is 146 cm. How is the median affected now? Solution

Check it out:

Now the ordered data set is: {146, 156, 157, 164, 166, 168}.

This time, the new height is less than the previous median of 164 cm, so the median has fallen. Actually, the median has returned to its original value of 160.5 cm. This is because the two new heights were added to “either end” of the data set, meaning the middle value has remained unchanged.

There are 6 values, so the new median is midway between the 3rd and 4th values. The new median is 160.5 cm.

Guided Practice 5. What is the median of the data set {8, 3, 4, 9, 12, 14}? 6. If a value of 1 is added to the data set in Exercise 5, how is the median affected? 7. Choose another number that could have been added for the median to have changed as you described in your answer to Exercise 6? 8. You add two new values to a data set — one less than the old median and one greater than the old median. What happens to the median? Section 5.2 — Adding Extra Data

269

Check it out:

New Data Values Can Increase the Range

Notice that adding new data points can only increase the range — never decrease it. The only way to decrease the range would be to remove the greatest or least data point.

The range is the difference between the greatest and least values. If a new data point is either bigger than the greatest value or smaller than the least value, then the range will increase.

Check it out: You can add as many values as you like without changing the range as long as the values are no less than the original least value and no greater than the original greatest value.

Example

4

Would the range of the data set {2, –5, 4, 9, 10, 12} change if: (i) the value 15 were added? (ii) the value 7 were added? Solution

The current range is 12 – (–5) = 17. (i) 15 is greater than the current greatest value, so the range will increase. In fact, the new range will be 15 – (–5) = 20. (ii) 7 is not greater than the current greatest value or less than the current least value, so the range will not change.

Example

5

In a race, the first runner completes the course in 3 hours 10 minutes. The cut-off time, after which no further times are recorded, is 5 hours. Several racers finish at 5 hours and have their times recorded. Find the range of recorded race times. How would the range be affected if there were no cut-off time and other, slower, racers had their finish times recorded? Solution

The range is: 5 hrs – 3 hrs 10 mins = 1 hr 50 mins If there were no cut-off time, and the slowest recorded time was greater than 5 hours, then the range would increase.

The range can also be affected if data sets are combined. Example

6

The results of a shorter race for under 20s are shown below. Age group

Check it out: In Example 6, even though both original ranges were 7 minutes, the range increased to 11 minutes when the data was combined.

270

Race times (minutes)

Range

Age 10–14

45

43

50

50 – 43 = 7 minutes

Age 15–19

39

46

—

46 – 39 = 7 minutes

As there were so few runners, race officials decide to combine the runners into one category for the awards. How does the range change? Solution

The new data set is: {45, 43, 50, 39, 46} So the new range = 50 – 39 = 11 minutes.

Section 5.2 — Adding Extra Data

Guided Practice For each set in Exercises 9–12, decide whether adding the value 5 to the set will change the range. If the range does change, explain how. 9. Set A {0, 2, 2, 7} 10. Set B {13, 7, 9} 11. Set C {–6, 2, 5, 3} 12. Set D {11, 9, 14, 18, 9} 13. One data value is added to the set {48, 51, 68, 73} and it doubles the range. Name the two possible values that were added.

Independent Practice For each set in Exercises 1–4, decide whether adding the value 16 will change the mode. If the mode does change, explain how. 1. Set A {4, 10, 16, 11} 2. Set B {400, 30, 30, 16} 3. Set C {6.3, 1.4, 15.6, 12.7, 12} 4. Set D {7, 9, 7, 7, 16} In Exercises 5–8, use the data set {15, 17, 17, 15, 15, 19}. 5. Find the mode of the data set. 6. Name a data value that could be added to the set so that the mode remains the same. 7. How many data values must be added to change the mode to 17? Name the values. 8. What is the least number of data values that must be added to change the mode to 19? Name the values. Determine whether the statements in Exercises 9–12 are true or false. 9. Adding a data value to a set of data will always change the mode. 10. For the mode to remain the same, you must add a data value that is equal to the mode. 11. Adding a value to a set may cause that set to have an extra mode. 12. Adding a value bigger than the greatest value of a data set will change the range. Now try these: Lesson 5.2.1 additional questions — p452

Don’t forget: Values in data sets don’t always have to be integers.

The ages of children on two different trips to the beach are listed below. Trip 1 ages: {7, 7, 8, 10, 10, 10, 11} Trip 2 ages: {7, 7, 9, 11, 12, 12, 12, 13, 13} 13. Find the mode and range for each group. 14. If the two trip groups were combined, what would the new mode and range be? Use the data set {6, 7, 19} for Exercises 15–16. 15. Add the value 1 to the set. How does this change the median? 16. Add the value 7 to the original set. How does the median change? 17. Give an example of a data set with a range of 15 that changes to 21 when three data values are added. Show the original set and the new set that includes three added values.

Round Up Adding numbers to data sets might (or might not) change the mode, median, or range — it depends on what you add. It’s safest to find the measures from scratch using the new data set. Section 5.2 — Adding Extra Data

271

Lesson

5.2.2 California Standards: Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Compute the range, mean, median, and mode of data sets. Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.2 Understand how additional data added to data sets may affect these computations.

What it means for you: You’ll see how the mean of a data set changes if extra data is included.

Key words: • data set • mean

Including Additional Data: The Mean Last Lesson you saw how the mode, median, and range of a data set changed if new values were added. The next thing to think about is what happens to the mean if you add in extra values to your data set.

Adding Data Points Can Change the Mean Remember... you find the mean by adding all the values of a data set together, and dividing this total by the number of values you have. Adding extra values to a data set usually affects the mean. Example

1

The heights of four friends are 156 cm, 157 cm, 164 cm, and 168 cm. What is their mean height? Another friend who is 158 cm tall joins them. How does his height affect the mean height? Solution

First calculate the original mean: Original mean = (156 + 157 + 164 + 168) ÷ 4 = 645 ÷ 4 = 161.25 cm Don’t forget: The mean is often called the “average.”

Now include the extra height of 158 cm, and calculate the new mean. New mean = (645 + 158) ÷ 5 = 803 ÷ 5 = 160.6 cm You can add the new value to the original sum.

Remember to divide by 5, since there are now 5 heights in the data set.

Adding the new height decreased the mean. This is because the extra height was less than the old mean. New data values will usually affect the mean, but not always. Example

2

Find the mean of the data set {8, 17, 36, 15}. How is the mean affected if an extra value of 19 is added? Solution

The mean of the data set is:

8 + 17 + 36 + 15 76 = = 19 4 4

Now add the new value of 19 and find the new mean. This is:

76 + 19 = 19 5

This time, adding the extra value didn’t affect the mean because the new value was equal to the old mean.

272

Section 5.2 — Adding Extra Data

When you combine data sets, find the new mean carefully. Example Don’t forget: You could find the new mean by adding the old totals, and then dividing by 6: (52 + 36) ÷ 6 = 88 ÷ 6 = 14.67

Check it out: Calculate the new mean properly — by adding up all the values, and dividing by how many there are. Don’t assume the new mean is midway between the two old means.

3

Find the mean of the data set {5, 4, 18, 25}, and the mean of the data set {24, 12}. What is the mean of the combined data set {5, 4, 18, 25, 24, 12}? Solution

5 + 4 + 18 + 25 52 = = 13 4 4 24 + 12 36 The mean of {24, 12} is: = = 18 2 2 Now combine the data sets and find the new mean.

The mean of {5, 4, 18, 25} is:

This is:

5 + 4 + 18 + 25 + 24 + 12 88 = = 14.67 (to 2 decimal places) 6 6

Guided Practice The weights of four friends are 132 lb, 155 lb, 147 lb, and 151 lb. 1. Find the mean weight of the four friends. 2. Find the new mean if a friend weighing 140 lb joins the group. A data set has a mean of 109.2. A new data value is then added. State whether the mean of the data set would increase or decrease if the new data value is: 3. 119 4. 96.7 5. 115 6. 107 7. Find the mean of the data set {125, 165, 133, 129, 100}. 8. This data set is combined with the set {43, 44, 27}. Find the mean of the combined set.

Different Values Affect the Mean to Different Extents Adding data points near the original mean won’t change the mean too much. But adding values that are further away has more effect. Check it out: Notice that when 40 is added, the new mean becomes higher than any of the data set’s original values. The mean is no longer very representative of the data set.

Example

4

How is the mean of the data set {12, 12, 15} affected if you include i) the number 14? ii) the number 40? Solution

The mean of the original data set is (12 + 12 + 15) ÷ 3 = 39 ÷ 3 = 13 Don’t forget: The extra value 40 is an outlier for this data set. Outliers can have a drastic effect on the mean (see Lesson 5.1.3).

i) The new mean = (39 + 14) ÷ 4 = 53 ÷ 4 = 13.25 The mean isn’t changed much, since 14 is close to the old mean. ii) This time, the new mean = (39 + 40) ÷ 4 = 79 ÷ 4 = 19.75 The mean is quite different this time. This is because the extra value is so far away from the old mean (it’s an outlier).

Section 5.2 — Adding Extra Data

273

Means Found Using Many Values Are Affected Less Something else also affects how much a new value will change a set’s mean — the number of values used to work out the mean originally. Example

5

Find the mean of each of the following data sets. How is the mean of these sets affected if an extra value of 13 is added to each one? (i) {7, 9, 13, 11}, (ii) {7, 9, 12, 8, 9, 13, 12, 10, 8, 12, 6, 14, 11, 9}.

Solution

7 + 9 + 13 + 11 40 = = 10 4 4 53 = 10.6 If the value 13 is added, the new mean is: 5 So adding the new value increases the mean by 0.6.

(i) The mean of the first set is:

Check it out: The more values that are used to calculate a mean, the less it will be affected by a single new value.

7 + 9 + ... + 11 + 9 140 = = 10 14 4 153 = 10.2 If the value 13 is added, the new mean is: 15 So this time, adding the new value increases the mean by just 0.2.

(ii) The mean of the second set is:

Guided Practice Use the data set {6, 7, 19} for Exercises 9–10. 9. Find the mean of the original set. 10. Adding which value would affect the mean most: 7, 10, or 11? 11. Leonora asked 3 people how many pets they own. The mean was 2. Esteban did a similar survey of number of pets owned by 40 people, and also found that the mean number was 2. Whose result would be affected more if a person owning 18 pets was included in their data?

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 5.2.2 additional questions — p453

The masses in grams of eight mice were recorded as 22, 25, 24, 22, 26, 25, 21, and 25. 1. What is the mean mass of the mice? 2. A ninth mouse, with a mass of 45 grams, was included in the data set. What is the new mean? 3. A researcher finds data for 100,000 mice from all over the country. The mean was 23 grams. How would including the 45-gram mouse affect this mean?

Round Up Adding values to data sets will usually change the mean. The more extreme the new value is, and the fewer values used to find the mean in the first place, the greater the effect. 274

Section 5.2 — Adding Extra Data

Lesson

Section 5.3

5.3.1

Analyzing Graphs

California Standards:

When you have lots of data in a long list, it’s not always easy to figure out what it means. That’s why it’s often converted into a graph or chart. These can show you what the spread of the data is like, and which value is most common.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.3 Analyze data displays and explain why the way in which the question was asked might have influenced the results obtained and why the way in which the results were displayed might have influenced the conclusions reached.

Data Can Be Recorded on a Frequency Table Frequency is the number of times something happens. A frequency table is a way to record and organize data. This frequency table shows the results of a survey. A group of students was asked how many movies they each saw last month. Number of movies seen

What it means for you: You’ll meet some useful types of graphs. You’ll see how to take information from those graphs, including finding the mode and range of the data set shown.

Key words: • • • • • • •

data set frequency table bar graph line plot pictograph mode range

Check it out: Frequency tables are sometimes called tally charts.

Check it out: Bar graphs are sometimes drawn the other way around, with bars going across, and the scale along the bottom.

As each student is questioned, one tally mark is added in the row that matches their answer.

Tally

Frequency

None

III I

2

One

IIII IIII

9

Two

IIII

4

Three

I

1

Four

IIII

5

Five S ix

er The t otal numb number of students who gave each answer is added up when the survey is complete. This total is the fr equen frequen equencc y .

0

I

1

You can use graphs and charts to show frequency data. On a bar graph, each bar has a label which tells you what group that bar represents. The size of a bar tells you how large that group is. 10 9 8

ale shows that the The sc scale height of the bars represents er of students the numb number students.

Number of students

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Compute the range, mean, median, and mode of data sets.

1

7 6 5 4 3 2

2

None The height of the bar labeled “None None” is 2 . vies last month. So 2 students saw no mo movies

3

1 0

ne

No

o e ee our Five Tw Thr On F Number of movies seen

Six

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Section 5.3 — Data Displays

275

A line plot uses crosses marked above a number line to represent the data.

X X X X X X X X X X X

For any number on the number line, each X above it represents one student in the survey who saw that number of movies.

ne

No

e

On

5 students saw four m oovies vies vies, so there are 5 Xs above four on the line plot.

X X X X X ree

o Tw Th

X X X X X r

u Fo

X e Fiv

Six

Number of movies seen

A pictograph uses pictures or symbols to show the data.

Each symbol on this pictograph students. represents 2 students

None Number of movies seen

On a pictograph, each symbol often has a value of more than one unit. You need to look at the key before you can read the graph.

One

Only 1 student saw three movies. ol One half-symb half-symbol is used to show 1 student in that row.

Two Three Four Five Six Key:

= 2 students

Guided Practice

Wed Thu Fri Key:

= 10 pumpkins

In a survey, some students were asked which of six colors they like best. This bar graph shows the results. 7. Which color was the favorite of 3 students? 8. Which two colors were the least popular? 9. How many students said their favorite color was either red, yellow, or blue? 276

Section 5.3 — Data Displays

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 d ra ng e Ye llo w G re en Bl ue Pu rp le

Tue

This pictograph shows the number of pumpkins sold by a grocery store during five days in November. 4. When were the most pumpkins sold? 5. How many pumpkins were sold on Wednesday? 6. On which day were exactly 30 pumpkins sold?

Re

Mon

O

In Exercises 1–3, remember... the number of goals scored is the number underneath the number line. The amount of crosses above each number represents the number of matches in which that many goals were scored.

This line plot shows the number of goals scored in the soccer matches played by a school team this year. X 1. In how many matches did the team X score 0 goals? X X 2. In how many matches did the team X X X score 2 or more goals? X X X X X 3. How many matches did the team play 0 1 2 3 4 5 this year? Number of goals scored

Number of students

Check it out:

A Graph Can Tell You the Range and Mode The mode of a data set is the value that occurs most often. Don’t forget: For a reminder about the mode of a data set, see Lesson 5.1.1. For the range, see Lesson 5.1.2.

So if a data set is made into a line plot, bar graph, or pictograph, the mode is the value with the most crosses, the biggest bar, or the most symbols. Example

1

What is the mode of the data set shown on this line plot?

X X X X X X X X

Solution

X X X X X X X X X X X

The mode is the value on the line plot that has the greatest number of Xs above it. The number 19 has the most Xs above it. So the mode is 19.

15 16 17 18 19 20

The range of a data set is the difference between the greatest and least values in the set. So it’s easier to find the range from a graph than from the raw data set because you can clearly see the least and greatest values. Example

2 6

What is the range of the data set shown on this bar graph?

To work out the range, you need to look at the highest and lowest of the actual values — not how often they occurred.

4 3

Solution

2

The different values in the data set are the labels on the bars of the graph.

1 0

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

So the least value in the data set is 25, and the greatest is 31. 31 – 25 = 6, so the range = 6.

Guided Practice This pictograph shows the ages of the cars parked in a parking lot, to the nearest year. 10. What is the mode of the ages of the cars? 11. Find the range of the ages of the cars.

10 9 8

Age of car in years

Don’t forget:

5

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Key:

= 2 cars

Section 5.3 — Data Displays

277

Number of students

The graph below shows the points out of 20 that the students in one class scored on a 8 7 math quiz. 12. What was the mode for the quiz scores? 13. What is the range of quiz scores?

Don’t forget: Make sure you read from the correct scale. For example, Exercises 12 and 13 are asking for actual scores, not the number of people who achieved that score.

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Quiz score

Independent Practice

0 1 2 3 = 2 dog owners

Key:

1. How many dog owners took their dog to the vet exactly once? 2. How many dog owners were interviewed in total? 3. What is the mode of the data? 4. What is the range?

The bar graph on the right shows the number of lunches sold each day by a restaurant. 5. Find the mode of the data. 6. Find the range of the data. 7. For how many days was this data collected?

Number of days

Number of visits

A number of dog owners were asked how many times they had taken their dog to the veterinarian in the past month. The results are shown on the pictograph below.

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

Number of lunches sold

Which of the line plots below have: 8. a range of 8? 9. a mode of 2? X X X X X X

A Now try these: Lesson 5.3.1 additional questions — p453

1

C

2

X X

3

X X X X X X X X X X X X X 4

5

X X

6

7

8

X X

22

9 10

X

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

X X X X X

X

X X X

24

26

X X X X 28

X

B

32

30

X X

X X

D

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

10. Explain the advantages of looking at data on a line plot instead of in a data set.

Round Up You should be able to see how useful these graphs can be. They make it much easier to spot the mode and find the range of a data set. Not only that, they organize the data. As you’ll see in the next Lesson, that can help you to find the mean and the median of the data set too. 278

Section 5.3 — Data Displays

Lesson

5.3.2

California Standards:

Finding the Mean and Median fr om Gr a phs from Gra

Sta tistics ta Anal ysis Statistics tistics,, Da Data Analysis ysis,, and Pr oba bility 1.1 Proba obability

In the last Lesson, you saw how to find the mode and the range of a data set from a line plot, bar graph, or pictograph.

Compute the range, mean, ta data median, and mode of da sets sets..

That’s not all you can do with these graphs. You can use them to find the mean and the median too.

Sta tistics ta Anal ysis Statistics tistics,, Da Data Analysis ysis,, and Pr oba bility 2.3 Proba obability

You Can Use a Gr a ph to Find the Median Gra

Anal yz e da ta displa ys and Analyz yze data displays explain why the way in which the question was asked might have influenced the results obtained and why the way in which the results were displayed might have influenced the conclusions reached.

What it means for you: You’ll see how bar graphs, line plots, and pictographs can make it easier for you to find the mean and median of data sets.

The median is the middle value when a set of values is put in order. A graph can give you the information you need to find the median of a data set. Example

1

What is the median of the data set shown on this line plot?

X X X X X X X X

Solution

Remember that each X on the line plot represents one item in the data set.

X X

9 10 11 12 13

So you can turn the plot back into a set of data: Key words: • • • • • •

data set bar graph line plot pictograph mean median

{9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 11, 13, 13} There are ten values in the set, so the median is midway between the fifth and sixth values. The fifth and sixth values are 10 and 11, so the median is 10.5.

Guided Practice Don’t forget:

In Exercises 1–4, find the median of the data set shown on each graph.

For more about the median of a data set, see Lesson 5.1.1.

1.

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

2.

6 5 4 3 2 1

19 20

3.

21 22 23

0

4.

4 5 6 7

Key:

= 2 units

5

6

7

X X X X X X X X X X 0

1

2

8

9

X X X X X X X X X X 3

4

5

6

7

Section 5.3 — Data Displays

279

You Can Use a Graph to Find the Mean

Don’t forget: See Lesson 5.1.2 for more about the mean of a data set.

The mean of a data set is the sum of all the values, divided by the number of items in the data set. There are a couple of ways that you can use a graph to find the mean of a data set. Example

2

X X X X X X X X

What is the mean of the data set shown on this line plot? Check it out: Some graphs organize the data into intervals of values. So a bar graph might have bars representing 1–5, 6–10, 11–15, and so on.

This is the same graph as in Example 1. So the data set is:

X X

9 10 11 12 13

{9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 11, 13, 13} The mean is the sum of these values, divided by the number of values.

4 3

(9 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 11 + 11 + 11 + 13 + 13) ÷ 10 = 108 ÷ 10 = 10.8

2 1 0

Solution

1–5

6–10 11–15 16–20

You can’t tell from these graphs exactly what the values in the original data set were, so you can’t use them to find the exact median or mean.

Example

3 10

What is the mean of the data set shown on this bar graph?

9 8 7

Solution

6

The scale tells you that there are 5 items of data with a value of 1, 8 items with a value of 2, and so on. You can turn this into a multiplication to find the sum of all the values in the data set.

5 4 3 2 1 0

Check it out: Finding the mean by multiplication is often much quicker than writing out the data set, especially if there are a lot of items in the data set. And it’s easy to make a mistake when you have to write out a long list of values.

The data set has: 5 items with the value 1 8 items with the value 2 5 items with the value 3 9 items with the value 4 3 items with the value 5 30

5×1 8×2 5×3 9×4 3×5

1

2

= = = = =

5 16 15 36 15 87

The sum of the values is 87, and there are 30 values. So the mean is 87 ÷ 30 = 2.9.

280

Section 5.3 — Data Displays

3

4

5

Guided Practice 5. Find the mean of each of the data sets shown on the graphs in Exercises 1–4. In Exercises 6–7, find the mean of the data set shown on each graph. 6.

7.

28

41

29

42

30

43

31

44

32

45 0

1

3

2

5

4

6

Key:

= 2 units

Independent Practice Which of the line plots below have: 1. a median of 32.5? 2. a mean less than 12? X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

A 1

C

2

X X

3

4

5

X X

6

7

8

22

9 10

X X

X X X X X

X

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

X

X X X

24

26

X X X X 28

X

B

32

30

X X

X X

D

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

All the classes in an elementary school have from 25 to 31 students. This pictograph shows the class sizes.

25 26 27 3. How many classes are there in this school? 28 4. Find the median and mean number of students 29 in each class. 30 31 Key:

Now try these: Lesson 5.3.2 additional questions — p454

= 2 classes

5. Which one of the graphs below represents a data set that has the same mean, median, and mode? A

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

5

B4

C

3 2 1 0 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104

4 3 2 1 0

15 16 17 18 19 20

39 40 41 42

Round Up The types of graphs you’ve used to find the mean, median, mode, and range of a data set are all similar types of graphs. Bar graphs, line plots, and pictographs all show the same sort of information. There are other types of graphs that can show data in different ways. You’ll see a couple of these in the next Lesson. Section 5.3 — Data Displays

281

Lesson

5.3.3

Other Types of Graphs

California Standards:

You’ve now seen how to get information from line plots, bar graphs, and pictographs. In this Lesson, you’ll learn about a couple of other types of graphs that can show information in different ways.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.3 Analyze data displays and explain why the way in which the question was asked might have influenced the results obtained and why the way in which the results were displayed might have influenced the conclusions reached.

Circle Graphs Show Proportions Circle graphs divide data into different groups or categories. The whole circle represents all the data in a data set. Circle graphs can show how different groups compare to each other, but they don’t always give detailed numerical information.

What it means for you:

Example

You’ll see some of the information you can get from circle graphs and line graphs, and how these types of graphs can help you to compare two data sets.

1

Three students ran in the election for class president. This circle graph shows what proportion of the votes each candidate received.

Cesar Taisha

List the three candidates in order of the number of votes they received, from most to least. Key words: • • • •

Solution

data set circle graph line graph compare

The circle graph doesn’t tell you how many votes, or even what percent the students got. You can still tell that Taisha got the most votes, because her part of the circle is the largest. Matt’s part of the circle is smallest, so he got the least votes.

Don’t forget:

The result of the election was:

See Lesson 3.5.4 for more about circle graphs.

Check it out:

1st — Taisha 2nd — Cesar 3rd — Matt

Guided Practice

If you didn’t know that the graphs represented the same number of students, you couldn’t do Exercises 3–5, as circle graphs show proportions. However, because the graphs for Class A and Class B both represent the same number of students, each slice represents actual numbers of students too. Think about this... 10% of 1000 students would be quite a small slice of a circle graph, but represents 100 students. But 50% of 20 students would be half a circle graph, and yet only represents 10 students.

282

Matt

Section 5.3 — Data Displays

Class A Baseball Basketball Football

The students in a 6th grade class were asked which of three sports they like best. This circle graph shows the results of the survey. 1. Which sport was most popular with Class A? 2. Which sport was least popular with Class A? Class B

The same number of students in another 6th grade class were asked the same question. This circle graph was drawn using their answers.

Baseball Basketball Football

3. Which class has more students who like baseball best? 4. Which class has more students who like basketball best? 5. Which class has more students who like football best?

Check it out: Don’t mix up line plots and line graphs. The names are similar, but the two types of graphs are very different.

Line graphs show how two measures are related. They’re often used to show how a measure changes as time passes. Example

2

This line graph shows the monthly sales of winter coats from one store over a period of six months. What happened to the sales of winter coats from October to December? What happened to the sales of winter coats from December to March?

160 140

Number of sales

Usually, one of the quantities on a line graph is time. So the line graph would show how some quantity changes as time passes.

A Line Graph Can Show Changes Over Time

120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar

Solution

In October, 110 coats were sold. In December, 140 coats were sold. The sales of coats increased from October to December. You can tell this from the graph, because the line is sloping upward as you look from left to right. From December to March, the line on the graph slopes downward, because the sales of winter coats decreased during this period from 140 in December to 30 in March.

Guided Practice The line graph below shows the temperature recorded by a weather station at several points during the same morning.

Temperature in °C

Check it out:

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

3 a.m. 4 a.m. 5 a.m. 6 a.m. 7 a.m. 8 a.m. 9 a.m. 10 a.m. 11 a.m.

Time

6. What was the temperature at 10 a.m.? 7. At what time was the temperature 6 °C? 8. During which hours did the temperature fall? 9. What was the change in temperature between 7 a.m. and 8 a.m.? 10. Describe the overall change in temperature during the time period shown on the graph. Section 5.3 — Data Displays

283

You Can Compare Two Data Sets on One Graph With a line graph, you can show information about two data sets at once. This makes the data easier to compare. Example

3

The line graph below shows the annual sales in one store of two different products over a period of 6 years. Describe the information shown on the graph. 1600

Number of sales

1400

Product A

1200 1000 800 600 400

Product B

200 0

2001

Solution

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Year

At the start of the period, the sales of product A were much higher than the sales of product B. Over the 6 years, sales of product A decreased and sales of product B increased. By 2006, the sales figures for the two products were very similar. If the pattern of sales shown here continued, you would expect sales of product B to overtake sales of product A in the next few years.

You could put the same information on a line plot or pictograph, using different colors or symbols for the different products.

1600

Number of sales

You can show information about two data sets on other types of graphs. This double bar chart uses the same data as the line graph in Example 3.

1400

Product A

1200

Product B

1000 800 600 400 200 0

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Year

Guided Practice Use the graph shown in Example 3 to answer Exercises 11–14. 11. What was the difference in sales between product A and product B in 2005? 12. Which year had the greatest difference in sales between the two products? 13. In which years were sales of product B double what they had been the year before? 14. In which year were sales of product B the same as they had been the year before? 284

Section 5.3 — Data Displays

Independent Practice 1. Which of the circle graphs below shows the same data set as the bar graph to the right? Explain your answer. A

C

B

D

This circle graph shows results of a survey recording the number of hours worked in one week by a group of volunteers. 2. How many people worked for a total of 17 hours? 16 h 3. What is the lowest number of hours worked? 12 h 4. What is the highest number of hours worked? 25 h 5. What is the range of the data set? 21 h 6. What is the mode of the data set?

18 h

Number of sales

This graph shows how many customers bought frozen yogurt from a particular store during two different weeks.

Now try these: Lesson 5.3.3 additional questions — p454

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Week 1

Week 2

Mo

Tu

We

Th

Fr

Sa

Su

7. How many people bought frozen yogurt on Thursday in week 1? 8. How many customers bought frozen yogurt on Friday in week 2? 9. How many customers in total bought frozen yogurt during the two weeks? 10. What was the range of sales in week 1? 11. What was the range of sales in week 2? 12. In one of the two weeks, the weather started out cool, but got warmer by the end of the week. Which week do you think that was? Explain your answer.

Round Up You should now have an idea of the kind of information you can read or display using different types of graphs. Later in this Chapter, you’ll see how the way a graph is drawn can affect what people think when they see it. Section 5.3 — Data Displays

285

Section 5.4 introduction — an exploration into:

Sampling Sur vey Surv You need to find out something about the students in your school. Think of ways you could try and find out this information. You could try and ask everybody, but that might take a very long time. Another way is to ask just a small selection of people — a sample. Work in groups of four students. Your group must first decide what to find out. You must then write a survey question, such as: • “How many pets do you have?” or • “How many minutes does it take you to get to school?” Do NOT ask EVERYONE in the class (or the school) the survey question. Each person in the group will only ask a selected group of students — this is called sampling. Each person in your group must use a different sampling method. Choose from the methods below: 1

One person should ask for volunteers to participate in the survey. That person must ask the survey question to the first eight students who volunteer.

2

One person should ask the survey question to the eight students sitting closest to your group.

3

One person should ask the survey question to the person in each of the other groups whose first name comes last alphabetically.

4

One person should write the names of every student in the class on a piece of paper. That person must put all the names in a container. They must then choose eight names without looking. They must then ask the question to the eight students whose names they chose.

Do not ask members of your group.

Exercises 1. Were the results of each survey method the same? If not, describe the differences. 2. Which of the four methods best represents the answers from your class? Explain your thoughts to one of your classmates. 3. Think of some reasons why it is sometimes necessary to collect information from a small sample of people, instead of asking everyone in a school/city/country. 4. Now imagine you are going to select a sample of students from the whole school. Which sampling method would you use? Why?

Round Up Organizations everywhere always need information from large groups of people, and this is exactly how they find it — by using small samples. But not all samples are equally good — you probably saw that for yourself. This Section tells you all you need to know about sampling. a tion — Sampling Survey Explora 286 Section 5.4 Explor

Lesson

Section 5.4

5.4.1

Using Samples

California Standard:

You’ve seen lots of ways to analyze data sets, but this Section is about where that data comes from in the first place. For example, to find out how much time people in California spend watching TV, you could (in theory) ask them all. But it’s much cheaper and easier to ask just some of them instead. The difficult thing is to know who to ask.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.1 Compare different samples of a population with the data from the entire population and identify a situation in which it makes sense to use a sample. Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.4 Identify data that represent sampling errors and explain why the sample (and the display) might be biased.

What it means for you: You’ll learn what a sample is and why you might sometimes need to use one. You’ll also see some things that you have to watch out for when using samples.

Key words: • • • •

population sample bias claim

Data Is Sometimes Collected from a Whole Population A population is the group of people or objects you want to gather information about. It could be everyone in your class, all the cars in California, all children in the U.S.A., or maybe all the animals in the world. If a population is small, you could collect data about every person or object. For example, if you wanted to know how long each student in a class of 35 watched TV for one evening, you could ask every student in your population of 35.

Sometimes a Sample Is Used If the population is big, it would be very time consuming and expensive to examine the whole population. Sometimes the size of a population isn’t even known and it would be impossible to find every member. For example, if you wanted to know how long each student in all of California watched TV for one evening, you couldn’t ask every member of your population — you’d need to find every student in California. What you can do is use a smaller part of the population called a sample. A sample is part of a population. The idea is that the sample will give you the same sort of information that the entire population would have given if you’d asked.

Check it out: To survey the entire population, the bank would need to wait until every single customer had used an ATM machine — which is likely to be a long time. Also, there would be so much data produced that it could be expensive to analyze.

Example

1

A bank would like to find out what new services its 20 million customers would like it to offer. The bank programs its ATM machines one Saturday morning with a questionnaire customers must complete before they can get any money. Identify the population of this survey and the sample used. Solution

The population is all 20 million of the bank’s customers — these are the people the bank wants to know about. The sample consists of the customers who want to withdraw money from ATM machines on that Saturday morning — these are the people the bank actually asks. Section 5.4 — Sampling

287

Guided Practice For each situation, identify the population and the sample. 1. A researcher wants information about the giardia present in streams in Orange County. He takes 8 one-liter containers of water from a stream in Santa Ana to conduct some tests on the giardia present. 2. To find out about the behavior of black bears in northern Washington, some were captured and fitted with radio collars. These bears were then released back into the wilderness and their movements tracked by monitoring the radio collars. 3. A person planning a party is looking for a band. To decide whether one particular band is suitable, she listens to 10 songs at random from the 50 songs the band play on occasions such as weddings.

Samples Should Represent the Entire Population Check it out: You have to make sure your sample is big enough too. Generally, bigger is better — a sample of 6 people out of a population of 10,000 won’t give very useful results.

A sample should be representative of the entire population. This means it should contain the same kinds of people or objects as the population. That way, you should get the same information from the sample as you would have gotten from the population. A sample that doesn’t contain certain types of people or objects that do exist in the population is biased. Example

2

An experiment into how children react to a certain vitamin supplement was conducted using 5000 boys from all over the USA. Explain why this study is biased. Solution

The sample contains only boys, but the population contains both boys and girls. The sample is not representative of the population. Example Check it out: The population in this study is all the residents in the town. The sample used is the people who returned their form.

3

A study is carried out to discover whether residents of a town think a road should be widened. A questionnaire was mailed to every household in the town, and 97% of the replies were against the road widening. Explain why this study may be biased. Solution

Check it out: This kind of sample is called self-selecting. The people in the sample have chosen to be in it.

288

Section 5.4 — Sampling

It’s impossible to tell if the sample is representative of the whole town. People with strong views (such as those who live on the road to be widened) are more likely to reply to this kind of survey. People with less strong views may be less likely to respond, but they are still part of the population, and so their views are still important.

Claims made about the population based on biased samples are invalid. Example

4

A country music radio station in California wants to find out what kind of music Californians prefer to listen to. It asks listeners to call in and vote for their favorite type of music. Later in the day, the radio DJ announces, “Californians’ favorite music is country music.” Explain why the DJ’s claim is not valid. Solution

The population is all Californians. The sample consists of people who are listening to that particular country music station (who are likely to be country music fans). People who dislike country music are probably not represented in the sample, making the sample biased. Results from this sample cannot be applied to all Californians, and so the claim is invalid.

Guided Practice 4. A survey is conducted to find out how Americans spend their leisure time. A sample of 1000 people are telephoned on a Saturday evening. It’s found that the majority of people spend their leisure time watching TV at home. Describe why this sample is biased. 5. A study into the jobs of Californian people was carried out by knocking on all the doors on three Sacramento streets one Monday sometime between 8 a.m. and 5 p.m. and interviewing the householder. Describe why the results of the study would be invalid.

Independent Practice 1. Explain how a sample is different from a population.

Now try these: Lesson 5.4.1 additional questions — p455

In the studies described in Exercises 2–4, explain whether you would collect data from the entire population or a sample. 2. A study to find the average salary of workers in the United States. 3. A study to find the median height of students in a class. 4. A study to find the price of movie tickets in the United States. Identify part(s) of the population underrepresented in these situations. 5. A survey collects responses on an internet website. 6. Data on traveling habits is collected at train and bus stations. 7. To gather opinions about a concert, the first 25 people leaving the hall were interviewed. Explain why claims based on this sample about what the whole audience thought would not be valid.

Round Up If the population is big, it makes sense to use a sample. But you have to take care how you select your sample — there are different ways of doing this, and they’re not all equally good in all situations. Section 5.4 — Sampling

289

Lesson

5.4.2

Convenience, Random, and Systematic Sampling

California Standard: Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.2 Identify different ways of selecting a sample (e.g., convenience sampling, responses to a survey, random sampling) and which method makes a sample more representative for a population.

If your population is too big to gather data about each member, you need to use a sample. The idea of sampling is to learn about a whole population by studying only a part of it. So it’s important that a sample is chosen so that it accurately represents the population.

Convenience Sampling — Not Usually Representative Convenience sampling is used because it’s easy — not because it’s best.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.4 Identify data that represent sampling errors and explain why the sample (and the display) might be biased.

What it means for you: You’ll find out about some methods of selecting a sample of a population, and think about the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Key words: • • • • •

population sample convenience sampling random sampling systematic sampling

Check it out: In Example 1, recording the ages of the first 100 people to board might produce a biased sample too. Certain age groups might be more likely to arrive at the ship in good time and board earlier.

Check it out: Many businesses use convenience sampling because it is easy to sample their own customers. And researchers collecting information from people at the mall often choose the easiest subjects — approaching those that walk nearest them and appear to be friendly.

290

Section 5.4 — Sampling

Convenience Sampling In convenience sampling, each person or object is chosen because they are easy to access. For example, you might want to find out what people in California think about an issue. One way to get some answers would be to go to your local mall and ask some friendly-looking people some questions. This is convenience sampling. It might be a useful way to get a few opinions, but the sample won’t be representative of people in California. That’s the disadvantage of this method — samples aren’t representative of the population, meaning you can’t apply results to the whole population. Example

1

A tour company wants to know how satisfied passengers on its cruise are. It interviews 100 passengers sitting in the ship’s bar one lunchtime. What kind of sampling is this? Describe the advantages and disadvantages. Solution

This is convenience sampling. The sample will be easy to find but biased, since the bar will be more attractive to certain people — such as those without children. This means the company couldn’t claim that the results apply to the population (all the passengers).

Guided Practice Exercises 1–2 describe convenience sampling. Give one example of how each sample may be biased. 1. A running club wants to know the median age of runners across the USA. It finds the median age of its members. 2. A teacher wishes to find the average height of 6th grade students in a school. She asks the first 20 students to arrive for her class.

Random Sampling — Should Be Representative Random Sampling In random sampling, each person or object in the population has an equal chance of being selected. Random sampling is difficult because, for large populations, it’s very hard to make sure that every member of the population could be selected. For example, one way to get a random sample of people in California would be to get a list of everybody in California. Then you’d need to randomly pick people on that list. Then you’d need to go and talk to them — no matter where they lived. You couldn’t decide not to visit someone because they lived a long way away, or because they didn’t want to talk to you. That would mean the sample wasn’t random. Don’t forget: The size of a sample is important too.

But... the big advantage of random sampling is that as long as your sample is big enough, it should be representative of the population. Example

2

A hotel wants to see if, in general, its customers are satisfied with the service they receive. They devise two possible ways to obtain a sample. Method 1: Interview the guests staying in the rooms nearest the lobby. Method 2: Select guests at random and interview these people. Say whether each method is convenience sampling or random sampling. Which method do you think would be better to use, and why? Solution

Method 1 is convenience sampling. The sample may be biased. The area near the lobby area may be very noisy, for example. This will mean the hotel will get more complaints than is representative of the whole hotel (or fewer, if the area near the lobby is very quiet). Method 2 is random sampling. Each customer has an equal chance of being selected — it doesn’t matter where in the hotel they have stayed. This method would be the better one to use, as the sample should be representative of all the hotel’s guests at that time.

Guided Practice 3. Which one of the following is true of random sampling? A. Random sampling is a quick way to obtain data. B. It should produce samples that are representative of the population. C. It is easy and quick to do. 4. Describe how random sampling could be used to select a representative sample of 50 of a school’s 6th grade students.

Section 5.4 — Sampling

291

Systematic Sampling Means Using a Set Pattern Systematic Sampling In systematic sampling, people or objects are chosen by a set pattern. An example of systematic sampling would be collecting data from every fifth student entering the auditorium. It’s usually a good way to pick a sample, but it has a big disadvantage... Suppose every 100th item on a factory assembly line is faulty because of a computer glitch. And suppose that the factory’s quality-control team uses systematic sampling, and tests every 300th item produced. There are two possibilities: (i) a faulty item is never checked, or (ii) the only items checked are faulty. Neither of these would give a true picture of the actual situation. But in many situations, systematic sampling is usually easy and effective.

Independent Practice 1. What is the convenience sampling method? 2. What does it mean if a sample is collected using random sampling? 3. The manager of a clothes store wants to know how much the store’s customers spend on clothes each month. He interviews the first 100 shoppers in line for a sale. What kind of sampling is this? 4. Which of the following is NOT one of the reasons why you might want to use convenience sampling? A. The data is easily available. B. It can be less expensive than some other sampling methods. C. Convenience sampling can be a way to quickly obtain data. D. It always produces samples that accurately represent the populations. 5. What is systematic sampling? Now try these: Lesson 5.4.2 additional questions — p455

6. The math teacher has told students to take a sample from a population of 150 items. What type of sampling does each student use? Sarah writes the numbers 1–150 on slips of paper and puts them in a paper bag. She then draws out the numbers 32, 26, 116, 53, and 141, so she uses the 32nd, 26th, 116th, 53rd, and 141st items for her sample. th m in Micah uses every 10 ite mple. the population for her sa

Miguel chooses the first 10 items in the population.

Round Up So now you have seen three methods of selecting a sample from a population — convenience, random, and systematic. There are advantages and disadvantages to each, of course. 292

Section 5.4 — Sampling

Lesson

5.4.3

Samples and Accuracy

California Standards:

When you select a sample, you need it to be as representative as possible of the whole population. A sample that’s representative should have a similar mean, mode, median, and range to the population. Most likely, they won’t be exact matches, of course — but they should be pretty close.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.1 Compare different samples of a population with the data from the entire population and identify a situation in which it makes sense to use a sample. Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.4 Identify data that represent sampling errors and explain why the sample (and the display) might be biased.

What it means for you: You’ll see that no matter how carefully you select your sample, it’s unlikely to represent the population totally accurately.

Key words: • • • •

population sample mean sampling error

Sampling Errors Should Hopefully Be Small Collecting data from a sample is usually easier and cheaper than collecting data from an entire population. But you need your sample to represent the population as accurately as possible. You can check how accurately your sample represents the population by checking its statistics — for example, the mean, mode, median, and range. A sampling error for the mean is the difference between the mean of the sample and the mean of the population. You can also find sampling errors for measures such as the mode and median. The smaller the sampling error, the more accurately the sample represents the population. Example

1

A state with 50 gymnastics teams reports the number of medals they each won in state competitions this year. Medals won: 1, 12, 3, 16, 20, 9, 8, 5, 2, 7, 36, 7, 7, 9, 19, 7, 8, 27, 2, 6, 4, 9, 7, 8, 7, 6, 8, 6, 9, 10, 8, 19, 12, 8, 9, 9, 2, 5, 8, 10, 7, 2, 6, 6, 7, 6, 29, 8, 5, 5

Don’t forget: You find the mean of a data set by adding up all the values and dividing the total by the number of values. See Lesson 5.1.2 for more information.

A sample of 5 was randomly selected from the population. Find the sampling error for the mean. Sample: {10, 16, 8, 8, 7} Solution

First, you need the population mean. This is

1 + 12 + ... + 5 + 5 456 = = 9.12 medals. 50 50

Next, find the sample mean. This is

10 + 16 + 8 + 8 + 7 49 = = 9.8 medals. 5 5

So the sampling error is 9.8 – 9.12 = 0.68 medals.

Section 5.4 — Sampling

293

Example

2

Find the sampling error of the median number of medals won (using the data in Example 1) if the following sample is used: {8, 27, 6, 8, 9}. Solution

To find the population median, you have to put all 50 values in order. Then the median will be midway between the 25th and 26th values. In fact, the median for the population is 7.5 medals. Don’t forget: Subtract the population median from the sample median to get the sampling error.

Now you need the sample median. So put the values in order: 6, 8, 8, 9, 27. The median is the middle value — this is 8. So the sampling error for the median is 8 – 7.5 = 0.5 medals.

Guided Practice Below is a list of the distances (in miles) traveled to school by students in a class of 28 students. 1, 8, 3, 5, 2, 5, 3, 3, 2, 7, 4, 2, 4, 3, 5, 6, 1, 1, 5, 3, 2, 3, 2, 1, 4, 1, 2, 1 The following sample is used: {4, 1, 8, 2, 3, 6, 3, 4} 1. What is the population mean? 2. What is the sample mean? 3. What is the sampling error for the mean? 4. What is the population median? 5. What is the sample median? 6. What is the sampling error for the median? 7. Repeat Exercises 2–6 for the sample {5, 4, 2, 6, 1, 3, 2, 4, 1}. Comment on your results.

Different Samples Give Different Sampling Errors If you take different samples from the same population, then you’ll probably get different sampling errors. Example

3

Find the sampling errors for the mean using the data in Example 1, if the following two samples are used. Sample 1: {5, 5, 2, 20, 8}, Sample 2: {9, 8, 6, 8, 27} Solution

Don’t forget: It’s completely normal to get different sampling errors from different samples — it’s not a mistake.

5 + 5 + 2 + 20 + 8 40 = =8. 5 5 This gives a sampling error of 8 – 9.12 = –1.12 medals.

For Sample 1, the sample mean is

9 + 8 + 6 + 8 + 27 58 = = 11.6 . 5 5 This gives a sampling error of 11.6 – 9.12 = 2.48 medals.

For Sample 2, the sample mean is

294

Section 5.4 — Sampling

Check it out: There are many different factors that can affect the sampling error — the size of the sample is just one of them. You can still have a large sample that’s biased and unrepresentative. However, using a fairly large, randomly selected sample should reduce the risk of this.

Check it out: In Example 4, the larger sample gave a smaller sampling error. But notice that the smaller samples used in Examples 1 and 3 gave smaller sampling errors. That’s statistics for you. If you picked lots of small samples and lots of big samples, then you’d generally expect the bigger samples to have smaller sampling errors. But it’s still possible that you could pick a few small samples with really small sampling errors, or a few big samples with quite big sampling errors.

The aim when you pick a sample is to make your sampling errors as small as possible. Generally, the bigger your sample, the smaller your sampling error is likely to be. (However, the bigger your sample, the more expensive and difficult it is to collect the data.) Example

4

For the data in Example 1, find the sampling errors for the mean if the following randomly generated samples are used. Sample 1: {2, 6, 6, 8, 9}, Sample 2: {2, 2, 2, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 12, 19, 19, 29, 36}. Solution

2 + 6 + 6 + 8 + 9 31 = = 6.2 . 5 5 This gives a sampling error of 6.2 – 9.12 = –2.92 medals.

For Sample 1, the sample mean is

2 + 2 + ... + 29 + 36 211 = = 10.55 . 20 20 This gives a sampling error of 10.55 – 9.12 = 1.43 medals.

For Sample 2, the sample mean is

Notice that the larger sample gave a smaller sampling error.

Guided Practice 8. Find the median of the samples given in Example 4. 9. What is the sampling error for each of these samples? 10. Is this what you would have expected? Explain your answer.

Independent Practice A scientist measures the lengths of 300 fish, before dropping them into a pond. Later, three different samples of the fish are measured (in cm). Sample A: {4, 5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5} Sample B: {3, 5, 5.5, 5.5, 6, 6, 7.5, 8, 11} Sample C: {4.5, 5, 5, 5.5, 7, 7.5, 7.5, 8, 10, 11} Now try these: Lesson 5.4.3 additional questions — p455

1. Find the mean of each of the three samples. 2. The mean length of the population of fish is 5.99 cm. Find the sampling error for each sample based on the mean. 3. Which sample most accurately represents the population? Is this what you would have expected? Explain your answer. 4. Another sample of the fish is chosen using the first ten fish the keeper manages to catch. What type of sampling is this? Would you expect this sample to accurately represent the population? Explain.

Round Up Sampling isn’t likely to give you absolutely perfect results, but if it’s done carefully, then it’s good enough for most purposes. In real life, picking a sample is a compromise — a bigger sample should make for a smaller sampling error, but bigger samples are more expensive and difficult to use. Section 5.4 — Sampling

295

Lesson

5.4.4

Questionnaire Surveys

California Standard:

You can get lots of data from people by asking them questions, but only if they choose to answer them. This isn’t perfect, but it’s the only way of getting some types of information.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.2 Identify different ways of selecting a sample (e.g., convenience sampling, responses to a survey, random sampling) and which method makes a sample more representative for a population. Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.3 Analyze data displays and explain why the way in which the question was asked might have influenced the results obtained and why the way in which the results were displayed might have influenced the conclusions reached.

What it means for you: You’ll find out some good and bad points of surveys, and some ways to make your data as useful as possible.

Key words: • • • • • •

population sample survey self-selected sampling convenience sampling random sampling

Check it out: When a survey is sent out in the mail, very few people will probably respond.

Check it out: Surveys can be used to collect data on pretty much anything — such as age, gender, household income, number of cars owned, number of family members...

296

Section 5.4 — Sampling

People Have to Choose to Answer a Survey A lot of information is collected by contacting people by phone, mail, or in person and asking them to provide some data. This is sometimes called self-selected sampling, because the people must agree to give the information. Self-selected samples aren’t always ideal — a random sample might be better in some ways. But you can’t force people to answer questions if they don’t want to. Even though it’s not a perfect way to gather information, this kind of self-selected sample can still provide a lot of very useful information. Example

1

A company wants to find out which cleaning products are used in California households. It sends out questionnaires in the mail to all the customers listed in their database. Identify the population and the sample used. What are the benefits and problems of collecting data in this way? Solution

Population: All the households in California. Sample: Those people listed in the company’s database who choose to fill in and return the questionnaire. Benefits: The company learns useful information such as which products are most popular, and the location of customers who purchase certain products. It also learns which households are more likely to complete other surveys in the future. Possible problems: Because the sample is self-selecting, and because the only people in the sample are previous customers of the company, the sample is unlikely to be representative of the population. Also, the costs of printing and mailing are likely to be high, and a lot of this money will be wasted, given that most people will probably not respond. Instead of sending out questionnaires, a lot of organizations these days use the internet to gather information. As with any method, there are benefits and disadvantages.

Example

2

The same company as in Example 1 decides to use the internet to gather the information it needs. It sends e-mails to all the customers whose e-mail addresses it has. The e-mail tells customers that if they fill in an online questionnaire, they have a chance to win $1000. Identify the population and the sample used. What are the benefits and problems associated with collecting data in this way? Solution

Population: All the households in California. Sample: The customers who: (i) have made a purchase from the company, (ii) gave their e-mail address, and (iii) who responded to the e-mail. Benefits: The survey provides the company with information at very little cost — there are no mailing costs, and the data can be automatically analyzed by computer. Possible problems: The sample won’t be representative of the population. The sample is self-selecting (so is likely to include a lot of people with strong opinions), and won’t include people who don’t have access to the internet.

Guided Practice A campaign group wants to find out if taxpayers would be willing to pay higher taxes if a new community swimming pool were promised for their area. 1. Describe how information could be gathered from local taxpayers. 2. What would the population and sample be in your example? 3. Describe some advantages and disadvantages of your method(s). A car dealer wants to collect data about when local people are planning to buy a new car. She organizes a prize drawing, which people enter by filling out a form with their name, address, and when they expect to buy a new car. 4. What are the population and sample in this example? 5. Describe some advantages and disadvantages of this method.

Questions Can Be Biased Too Surveys can give inaccurate information if a sample is biased. But information collected by asking people questions can also be biased if the questions encourage the person to give a particular answer. Check it out: Biased questions are also called “leading questions.”

A biased question is one that encourages people to answer in a particular way.

Section 5.4 — Sampling

297

Check it out: When a claim is based on the responses to biased questions, it is invalid. The claim can’t be trusted, since there is no real, unbiased evidence to back it up. See Lesson 5.5.1 for more information about claims.

People often ask biased questions if they are collecting data to try to back up one of their opinions. For example, suppose someone is in favor of banning smoking from public parks... Example

3

Explain why the following question is biased. Shouldn't smoking stinky cigars and unhealthy cigarettes be banned from all public parks? Solution

The question is worded so that the strong negative opinion about smoking in public makes it difficult for a person to disagree. These are called leading questions. They lead the person answering toward a particular reply. Example

4

Explain why the following questions are biased. (i) Experts say that you should chew your food slowly and take at least 30 minutes for a meal. How much time do you think students should get for lunch break? (ii)

A lot of models and movie stars have a yoga instructor. Don't you think it would be better to offer yoga instead of basketball in middle school?

Solution

(i) A response of at least 30 minutes or more is encouraged by stating a related "fact." (Beware... it may not be a genuine fact. It doesn’t say who the experts are, or if any other people disagree. Only one opinion is given.) (ii) Many people think models and movie stars are attractive and successful. This question suggests that yoga is one of the causes of their success. This may make people more likely to agree that yoga should be offered instead of basketball.

Guided Practice Explain why the questions below are biased. 6. “Don't you think we should brighten up the halls by painting over that boring tan color?” 7. “Painting the school will cost a lot of money that could be spent on more important things. Don't you agree that painting the school can wait for another couple of years?” 298

Section 5.4 — Sampling

Write Survey Questions So They’re Not Biased You need to write survey questions so that they don’t suggest that a certain reply is correct. You shouldn’t reveal your opinions (or anyone else’s) when asking questions. Here are the questions from earlier, written in a less biased way. Are you for or against banning smoking in public parks? How much time do you think students should get for lunch break?

Do you think it would be better to offer yoga or basketball in middle school?

Guided Practice A school committee is surveying students about whether a salad bar should be added to the cafeteria. 8. Write a biased question in favor of adding a new salad bar. 9. Write a biased question against adding a new salad bar. 10. Write an unbiased question to gather opinions on a new salad bar.

Independent Practice For Exercises 1–2, explain why each sample may not be representative of a population consisting of all the adults in a particular town. 1. A researcher asks shoppers entering or leaving a grocery store if they can answer some questions about their purchases. 2. A receipt from a department store gives a website where customers can go online to complete a questionnaire about public transportation.

Now try these: Lesson 5.4.4 additional questions — p456

For Exercises 3–6, decide whether the question is biased. If it is biased, explain why and suggest a better way of asking the question. 3. “Should the driving age in California be raised to 21?” 4. “Should we reduce the number of car accidents by fining drivers who talk on their cell phones while driving?” 5. “A community center would give our children a safe place to play. Can we count on your vote this Tuesday for keeping our children safe?” 6. “Do you think mining companies should be allowed to ruin our wilderness areas and kill innocent animals?” 7. 300 middle school students were asked, “Isn’t it unfair that people under 18 can’t vote for president?” As a result, it was claimed that 95% of middle school students thought the voting age should be lowered. Is this claim valid? Explain.

Round Up Surveys are a good way of collecting data from people. You’ve got to be really careful how you word the questions, though. You also have to make your sample as representative as possible — this isn’t always easy, since the way you carry out your survey means certain people are more likely to provide information than others. But even though it’s difficult, surveys like this can be incredibly useful. Section 5.4 — Sampling

299

Lesson

Section 5.5

5.5.1

Evaluating Claims

California Standard:

You’re likely to be bombarded by claims every day. Claims are presented as facts — but they might not be. For instance, advertisements often claim that one product is better than another.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.5 Identify claims based on statistical data and, in simple cases, evaluate the validity of the claims.

What it means for you: You’ll look at data intended to support claims and decide if the claim is valid.

Key words: • • • •

You can only really tell whether a claim is true or not if you examine the evidence.

A Claim Is a Statement Presented as a Fact Claims are often reported in newspapers and on television and radio. These are examples of claims:

The average American eats pizza at least once a week.

claim opinion valid invalid

More people choose this toothpaste than any other. In 100 years, there won’t be any glaciers left on Earth.

Claims are different from opinions. A claim is presented as a true fact. An opinion is just someone saying what they believe, such as “I think this brand of cola tastes best.”

Claims Are Often Supported by Data Data is often used to provide evidence for a claim. You need to look carefully at the data to see if it supports the claim. Example

1

A grocery-store owner claims that $20 is the amount most often withdrawn from the ATM outside his store during one month. Don’t forget: The modal amount (or the mode) is the amount that occurs most frequently. See Lesson 5.1.1 for more information.

Does this circle graph from the bank’s monthly report, which shows data about that ATM, support his claim?

$20 $40

$100 $80 $60

Solution

This circle graph does show that the modal amount withdrawn was $20. So the circle graph does support the store owner’s claim. This doesn’t show that $20 is always the amount withdrawn most often. Next month’s data might be different. So if the store owner had claimed that $20 was always the amount most frequently withdrawn, then you would need to look at more evidence.

300

Section 5.5 — Statistical Claims

Example

2

A different store owner claims that $20 is the mean amount withdrawn from the ATM outside her store during the same month.

$20

Does this circle graph from the bank’s monthly report, which shows data about that ATM, support her claim? Don’t forget:

Solution

Remember... In Example 2, values higher than $20 will push the mean up. And there are no values less than $20 to bring the mean back down. See Lesson 5.2.2 for more information.

You need to read the claim very carefully.

$10

$40

0

$60

$80

This time, the claim is that $20 is the mean amount. This can’t be true, since $20 is the smallest amount withdrawn, and all the other amounts will make the mean amount greater than $20. So the circle graph does not support this store owner’s claim.

Guided Practice 1. Is this statement a claim or an opinion? "I think the red team is a better team than the blue team." Explain your answer. 2. It’s claimed that most families using a swimming pool on a Saturday morning have exactly 2 children. Does the line plot on the right support this claim? 3. Give one example of a claim that would be supported by the line plot.

X X X X X X X 0

X X X X X X X X X X

Each cross represents one family.

X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X

X

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Number of children

8

Sometimes the Evidence Is Not Clear Sometimes, some statistics may support a particular claim, but other statistics will not. People trying to convince or persuade someone will very often use just the statistics that support their claim. They may ignore statistics that don’t support their claim, or which make their claim look untrue.

Don’t forget: Measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode. See Lessons 5.1.1 and 5.1.2 for more information.

For example, companies make claims to try to persuade you to buy their products. They’ll want to use statistics to make their product look like it’s better than the competitors’. One way of doing this is by using a particular measure of central tendency, depending on what claim you want to make. Maybe they want to make the typical value sound high. Or maybe they want to make it sound low.

Section 5.5 — Statistical Claims

301

Example

3

A newly opened health club wants to attract some new young members. Its current members’ ages are: 25, 25, 37, 45, 53, 54, 55, 57, 63, 67. It wants to advertise, making the claim that the typical age of its current members is low. To achieve this, its advertisement makes the claim that “There are more 25-year-olds at the club than any other age.” Does the data support this claim? Comment on the claim generally. Solution

The modal age is 25, so the data does support the claim.

25 + 25 + ... + 63 + 67 481 = = 48.1 . 10 10 And the median age is 53.5. However... the mean age is

So if the health club had used any other measure of central tendency, the typical age would have sounded a lot higher. Here, the health club wanted to make the typical age of its members sound low in the advertisement, so used the only measure of central tendency that would do this. The club’s claim is not untrue, but it probably is misleading. Statistics aren’t always used in deliberately misleading ways. Sometimes, whether a claim is supported by data can be unclear for different reasons. Example

4

At the swim meet, the team swam in three relay races. The times for each team member in each race are shown below. Lucas claims that he’s the fastest Race 1 Race 2 Race 3 swimmer in the relay swim team. L uc a s 22.5 s 25.7 s 19.5 s His sister, Sam, claims that Lucas is Latoya 23.0 s 19.7 s 22.1 s not the fastest. Whose claim do the results support?

Jorge

27.5 s

26.2 s

27.4 s

Anna

23.1 s

20.2 s

21.4 s

Solution

Don’t forget: See Lesson 5.1.4 for more information about comparing data sets.

It’s hard to tell just by looking at these results if Lucas is the fastest. He swam fastest in Race 1 and Race 3, but not in Race 2. One way to analyze the results is to find each person’s mean time. Lucas: (22.5 + 25.7 + 19.5) ÷ 3 = 22.6 s Latoya: (23.0 + 19.7 + 22.1) ÷ 3 = 21.6 s Jorge: (27.5 + 26.2 + 27.4) ÷ 3 = 27.0 s Anna: (23.1 + 20.2 + 21.4) ÷ 3 = 21.6 s Both Latoya and Anna had faster average times than Lucas. So Sam could say that the results support her claim. On the other hand, no one swam faster than Lucas’s time of 19.5 s. So Lucas could say that the results support his claim.

302

Section 5.5 — Statistical Claims

In cases like this, it’s not clear whose claim the data supports. The best thing is probably to say whether you’re interested in the fastest average time, or the fastest single time. Or you could look more closely at the data. Did something happen to Lucas in the second race to slow him down? Or perhaps he was doing a different stroke — maybe Lucas is fastest at one stroke, but not at another.

Guided Practice A babysitting company has six sitters of ages 13, 13, 14, 15, 15, and 45. Use this information for Exercises 4–7. 4. Find the mean, median, mode, and range of the babysitters’ ages. 5. The company claims that the typical age of its babysitters is 19. Which measure of central tendency supports this claim? 6. The claim in Exercise 5 is valid, but why is it misleading? 7. Make two claims that better represent the typical babysitter’s age.

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 5.5.1 additional questions — p456

Use the terms data, valid, invalid, or claim to complete the sentences in Exercises 1–3. 1. A __________ is a statement that is presented as a fact. 2. A claim is considered ______ if the _____ is incorrectly interpreted. 3. A claim is usually _________ if there is no ________ to support it. 4. Someone reading the circle graph on the right made 40-49 this claim: "Most people on the Ages of School 30-39 50-59 school board are aged 40–49." Board Members Explain why this claim is invalid. 20-29 60-69 Suggest why the person may have thought that this claim was true. Here are the ages of the counselors at a summer camp: {19, 20, 22, 23, 20, 55, 20} 5. Find the mode, median, and mean for this data set. Use your statistics from Exercise 5 to say whether the claims in Exercises 6–10 are valid or invalid. For each valid claim, say which statistic supports the claim. Are any of these claims valid but misleading? Explain your answer. 6. Most counselors are aged 24. 7. The typical age of the counselors is over 25. 8. Half the counselors are older than 24. 9. Half the counselors are 20 or younger. 10. More than 14% of the counselors are over 30.

Round Up People often make claims. Often their claims are valid and backed up by data. But sometimes the data doesn’t support the claims or has been misinterpreted. Either way, the claim won’t be valid. Section 5.5 — Statistical Claims

303

Lesson

5.5.2

Evaluating Displays

California Standard:

If people want to convince you of something, then they will probably present their data in such a way that it emphasizes what they want you to believe. One way to do this is with graphs and charts.

What it means for you: You’ll see how data can be displayed in ways that may mislead people.

Key words: • • • • • • •

data set display line plot mean median mode range

Check it out: A “break in the scale” means the numbering on the axis doesn’t start at zero. In the first graph in Example 1, the numbering starts at 70.

A Break in the Axis Can Create a Visual Effect Putting a break in the vertical axis of a graph can change the impression given by a graph. Example

1

At a school-board meeting, a member claims that electricity costs in local high schools are much higher than for elementary and middle schools. He uses the graph below to 78 support his claim. 76 Electricity costs (in thousands of dollars)

Analyze data displays and explain why the way in which the question was asked might have influenced the results obtained and why the way in which the results were displayed might have influenced the conclusions reached.

Why might someone complain that the graph is misleading?

74 72 70 0

Solution

The break in the vertical scale makes the bar on the right appear much longer than the other bars.

Elementary Middle School School

High School

Elementary Middle School School

High School

80 Electricity costs (in thousands of dollars)

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 2.3

If the vertical scale starts at zero, the difference appears to be much less dramatic. The break in the scale on the first graph emphasized the difference in height of the bars.

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

The same idea can make things look like they’re rising or falling very quickly.

Data can also be displayed as circle graphs, line graphs, or bar graphs.

Which of these graphs makes it look like electricity costs are rising more quickly?

Graph B

80

78

Electricity costs (in thousands of dollars)

Don’t forget:

2 Electricity costs (in thousands of dollars)

Example

Graph A

76 74 72 70 0

2004

2005

2006

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

2004

2005

2006

Solution

Graph A, because the difference in height between the bars is emphasized by the break in the scale. This makes it look like costs are rising quickly, and is possibly misleading.

304

Section 5.5 — Statistical Claims

Using a different scale can achieve the same effect. Example

3

Graph A

76 74 72 70 0

2005

2004

2006

85

Electricity costs (in thousands of dollars)

78

Electricity costs (in thousands of dollars)

Electricity costs (in thousands of dollars)

Which graph makes electricity costs look to be rising most quickly?

Graph B

80 75 70 0

2004

2005

78 76

Graph C

74 72 70 0

2006

2005

2004

2006

Solution

This time, the effect is achieved by using different scales on the vertical axis. (All three graphs have vertical scales starting at 70.) Graph B looks like it’s rising least quickly. This is because its vertical scale is marked in intervals of 5, rather than in intervals of 2 as in Graphs A and C. Graph C looks like it’s rising most quickly, because it is marked in intervals of 2, and it has been stretched vertically.

The next example shows how the spacing on the horizontal axis can be changed to emphasize a particular viewpoint. Example

4

4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50

Graph A

4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50

Graph B

2005

2000

1995

1990

1985

1980

2005 2000 1995 1990 1985 1980

Year

Lunch cost (in $)

Lunch cost (in $)

Which of these graphs might someone use to support the claim that school lunch prices have risen steeply in the past 25 years? Explain.

Year

Solution

Graph A — it appears much steeper than Graph B. Graph A gives the impression of a greater rate of increase because the line is steeper. In Graph B the line appears flatter, so the increase in prices does not appear to be so drastic. Both graphs are drawn from the same data, but the years on the horizontal axis of Graph B are spread further apart.

Section 5.5 — Statistical Claims

305

This graph shows the number of bags of popcorn sold by students in grades 6, 7, and 8 to raise money for a charity. The graph was produced by grade 6. 1. Students in grade 7 thought this graph was misleading. Suggest why. 2. Draw a graph to show the same information more clearly.

Number of bags sold

Guided Practice 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 0

6th

7th Grade

8th

3. Which graph below makes the price of a school carnival ticket appear to increase more dramatically? Explain why. 4 Price (in $)

Price (in $)

3

Graph A 2 1

Graph B

2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000

2006

2005

Year

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

0

2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0

Year

4. Suggest how someone could avoid getting the wrong impression from a graph.

Things Can Be Emphasized in Other Ways Too You’ve seen circle graphs before. Like any other kind of graph, the way they are presented can emphasize a particular viewpoint. Blue 25%

Red 25%

Other Silver 25% 25%

For example, take this circle graph showing how common different colors of cars are. All the different categories (blue, red, silver, and other) are equally popular.

But if you draw this in three dimensions, things look a little different. Suddenly, silver looks (at first glance, anyway) to be Blue the most popular color, because more of the diagram is Other Red silver than any other color. The three-dimensional Silver effect emphasizes the amount of silver cars.

306

Section 5.5 — Statistical Claims

You can do the same thing with bar graphs. You can emphasize some bars but not others by using a three-dimensional graph. 50 40 30 20 10 0

Look at this graph showing how old the students who play basketball at one particular club are. There’s a good mix of ages — you can see this from a quick glance at the graph. 12

13

14

Now look at the same graph drawn in three dimensions. Check it out: The colors of the other bars have also been made less bright. This also helps to emphasize the amount of red on the graph.

50 40 30 20 10 0

Suddenly, red is the dominant color — you can see the whole volume of the red bar, but not of the others.

12

13

14

The grouping of data values can also give a misleading impression. For example, look at the graph below. 800

This graph shows the number of students of different ages who voted in the last election for the student council.

700 600 500 400

It looks like there is a good mix of students of different ages voting — none of the bars are much taller than the others, and none are much shorter.

300 200 100 0

12 15 6-18 101 13-

600

Age

500 400

But look what happens if you now draw one bar for each year of age.

300

It’s now clear that the vote was dominated by 12- and 16-year-olds.

100

200

0

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age

Guided Practice 5. Why might the manufacturer of Brand A want to use a graph like this one to compare how popular different makes of cars are? 6. Why might someone claim that this graph was misleading? 7. Redraw the graph to show the same information in a clearer way.

Brand D Brand B

Brand C

Brand A

Section 5.5 — Statistical Claims

307

Independent Practice 50

Number of Cyclists

For an annual children’s bicycle race, the participants enter by age categories. Graph 1 on the right shows this year’s entries.

Graph 1

40 30 20

Number of Cyclists

1. Which age interval has the 10 greatest number of participants? Age 0 2. Why can’t you tell from the 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 graph if any 19-year-olds entered? Graph 2 below shows the same data, but with the ages grouped in a different way. Graph 2

30 20 10 0

0-3

4-6

7-9 10-12 3-15 1

Age

3. How do the new intervals used in Graph 2 change the overall impression of the ages of the competitors, compared to Graph 1?

Graph 1 appeared in the newspaper with the headline “5 through 9 year olds dominate the event.” 4. What headline might have appeared if Graph 2 was printed in the newspaper instead? 5. Give an example of a claim for which you would want to exaggerate the difference between the lengths of the bars of a bar graph. 6. Give an example of a claim which you would want to support by a line graph in which there appears to be less dramatic change over time.

Now try these: Lesson 5.5.2 additional questions — p457

Number of People

Number of People

The graph on the right appeared in the school newspaper in an article about the popularity of spring sports. It shows the attendance at school sporting events during different seasons. 7. Approximately how much more popular do sporting events in the spring seem to be, Fall Winter Spring Seasons compared with sporting events in the fall? 8. How does your answer to this question differ if you use the graph below, which shows actual data values too? 180 Explain why this is. 170 160 9. Redraw the bar graph using a vertical 150 140 scale from 0 to 200 in increments of 50 130 without any break in the scale. 120 110 10. Describe the impression given by the 100 0 Fall Winter Spring graph you have drawn. Seasons

Round Up When you’re looking at a data display, take care — it might be drawn in a misleading way. Always check the scales and think about how the data would appear if the display was drawn differently. 308

Section 5.5 — Statistical Claims

Chapter 5 Investigation

Selling Cookies You work for a supermarket. A team of sales people from Company A are visiting. They say their cookies cost a little more than Company B’s brand, but they sell far better. Below are parts of a report from Company A, and some sales data. Sales Data

Brand Company A Company B

4300

Company A 4250 Company B

4100 4075

4200 4150 4050

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Feb 4136 4198

Mar 4208 4106

Apr 4220 4123

May 4240 4100

Jun 4222 4200

• Typical monthly sales for Company A are 100 greater than for Company B. • In every month since March, Company A cookies have sold more than Company B. • According to our survey, 88% of people prefer Company A’s cookies, and feel they are just as healthy as any other brand.

4100 4000

Packs of Cookies sold in 6 months from Jan-Jun Jan

Jun

Part 1: Look at the graph taken from the Company A report and the sales data. The sales people explain that the graph shows Company A’s cookies selling in far greater quantities than Company B’s. What advice would you give to your manager about the graph? Part 2: Now look at the above excerpt from the Company A report, the sales data, and the questions asked in the Company A survey (on the right). Are the claims in the report in any way misleading?

Appendix: Company A’s Survey Questions 1) Would you agree that Company A’s cookies are the tastiest cookies you can buy? 2) Our experts say that Company A’s cookies are just as healthy as any other cookies. Do you agree that Company A’s cookies are no less healthy than any other brand?

Extension Your supermarket wants to do its own research, rather than trust Company A. 1) Describe two ways your company could use sampling to collect this information. Which method would you recommend? Why? 2) Write three unbiased survey questions that could be used. Open-ended Extension Conduct a survey to find out people’s favorite: food OR sport OR type of music. 1) Write an unbiased survey question for your topic. Ask 20 people the same question. 2) Now reword your question to favor a particular response. Ask a different set of 20 people the new question. Did your question affect the responses? 3) Describe the sample of people chosen to answer each question, and the population they represent. Do you think your samples were representative of the population? Explain.

Round Up Statistics can be used accurately, or they can be used in ways that may mislead people. Even if you’d never mislead anyone, it’s good if you can see when other people are trying to mislead you. Cha pter 5 In vestig a tion — Selling Cookies 309 Chapter Inv estiga

Chapter 6 Probability Section 6.1

Outcomes and Diagrams .......................................... 311

Section 6.2

Exploration — Heads or Tails .................................... 320 Theoretical Probability ............................................... 321

Section 6.3

Exploration — Pick a Card ........................................ 339 Dependent and Independent Events ......................... 340

Section 6.4

Exploration — Shooting Baskets ............................... 349 Experimental Probability ........................................... 350

Chapter Investigation — A Game of Chance ................................... 356

310

Lesson

Section 6.1

6.1.1

Listing Possible Outcomes

California Standard:

You might have played probability games or board games at school or at home. If you have, then even if you didn’t realize it at the time, you’ve worked with events and outcomes.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 3.1 Represent all possible outcomes for compound events in an organized way (e.g., tables, grids, tree diagrams) and express the theoretical probability of each outcome.

What it means for you: You’ll think about actions that can have more than one possible result. You’ll list all the possible outcomes for particular situations.

An Outcome Is the Result of an Action or Experiment Many situations have more than one possible outcome. Example

1

Sarah and her brother Nathaniel are trying to decide who gets to drive the car tonight. They decide to toss a coin. How many different outcomes are possible when they toss the coin? Solution

Key words: • • • • •

outcome event action experiment combine

Possible Outcomes:

Heads is one possible outcome. Tails is one possible outcome.

H

T

These are the only possible results. There are a total of 2 possible outcomes for the action of tossing a coin.

An event is a description that matches one or more possible outcomes. Example

Check it out: Think of an outcome as any possibility, and an event as a set of outcomes matching a particular condition.

2

At a carnival, kids spin the wheel shown to win a prize. How many possible outcomes match the following events? Event A: winning a flashlight Event B: winning a magnet Event C: winning coloring pencils Solution

There are 8 sections on the wheel, so there are 8 possible outcomes. There is 1 section of the wheel that will let you win a flashlight, so 1 outcome matches event A. You can win a magnet by spinning either of 2 sections. So 2 outcomes match event B. There are 3 ways to win coloring pencils, so 3 outcomes match event C. Two of the outcomes (the ball and the yo-yo) don’t correspond to any of events A, B, or C.

Section 6.1 — Outcomes and Diagrams

311

Guided Practice This picture shows a bag containing 5 marbles. Exercises 1–3 are about picking marbles from the bag. How many outcomes match the following events? 1. Picking a red marble 2. Choosing a green marble 3. Choosing a marble that is not green Exercises 4–6 are about the four spinners shown below. 3. 4. 1. 2.

4. Which spinner has the most possible outcomes? 5. Which spinner has the least possible outcomes? 6. Latisha is looking at events that describe spinning a particular color (for example, “spinning red” or “spinning yellow”). Which spinner has the most possible events like this? Which has the least?

An Event Can Match Very Different Outcomes Sometimes very different outcomes match the same event. Example

Check it out: The word “die” is the singular of dice.

3

Eduardo rolls a normal 6-sided die. How many possible outcomes match the event “rolling an even number”? Solution

All possible outcomes: Possible even numbers:

1

2 2

3

4 4

5

There are 6 possible outcomes of rolling the die. Only 3 of those match the event “rolling an even number.”

Guided Practice Exercises 7–12 give possible events for rolling a die. List all the possible outcomes that match each event. 7. Event: rolling an odd number 8. Event: rolling a number less than 3 9. Event: rolling a number greater than 6 10. Event: rolling a number other than 5 11. Event: rolling a multiple of 3 12. Event: rolling a negative number 312

Section 6.1 — Outcomes and Diagrams

6 6

You Can Combine Outcomes of Different Actions Events can be made up of outcomes from different actions. Example Check it out: Once you combine outcomes of different actions, you can have many more events. Events for the combined action in Example 4 might include “heads and any color,” “yellow and any result of the coin toss,” or “yellow and heads.” These types of events are called compound events.

4

Kiona tosses a coin, and her friend Daniel spins the spinner shown. List all the possible outcomes of this combined action. Solution

The outcomes are made up of the result of one toss of the coin, plus the result of one spin of the spinner. There are 6 possible outcomes: Yellow and Heads Blue and Heads Yellow and Tails Blue and Tails

Red and Heads Red and Tails

Guided Practice A two-digit number is chosen by picking one number from Box A and one number from Box B. The digit from Box A is recorded in the tens place. The digit from Box B is recorded in the ones place.

Box B

Box A 8 3 5 7 1

2

3

4

1

13. List all the possible two-digit numbers beginning with a 3 that could be drawn from the boxes using this method. 14. Which of the following is NOT a possible outcome of this method? 53 54 51 57 15. List all the possible outcomes for the event: “drawing a two-digit number less than 20.”

Independent Practice

$100 $2 00

0 50 $1 0 $200

Lesson 6.1.1 additional questions — p457

$900 $100 0

Now try these:

For each of Exercises 1–3, sketch a spinner like this one. Color or label the sections so that the spinner has exactly: 1. 2 possible outcomes matching the event “spinning blue” 2. 3 possible outcomes matching the event “spinning red” 3. 4 possible outcomes matching the event “spinning green”

00 $5 $600 $700 $8 00

$300 $400

This spinner is used on a game show to determine how much money a contestant wins. Name an event using the spinner with exactly 4. 1 possible outcome. 5. 2 possible outcomes. 6. 3 possible outcomes. 7. 12 possible outcomes.

Round Up It’s easy to list all the possible outcomes of most of the examples in this Lesson, because there aren’t many to choose from. For more complicated situations, you’ll need better ways to organize the information. You’ll learn about some ways to do that in the next two Lessons. Section 6.1 — Outcomes and Diagrams

313

Lesson

6.1.2

Tree Diagrams

California Standard:

Making a list of possible outcomes is straightforward for simple actions like rolling dice or spinning a spinner. For more complicated situations, it can be hard to know for sure that you’ve listed all the possible outcomes.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 3.1 Represent all possible outcomes for compound events in an organized way (e.g., tables, grids, tree diagrams) and express the theoretical probability of each outcome.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about tree diagrams, and how you can use them to find all the possible outcomes of a situation.

Key words: • outcome • event • tree diagram

A tree diagram can help you organize your work and help you check that your list is complete.

Tree Diagrams Show All Possible Outcomes A tree diagram uses branches to show the different possible outcomes of each of a set of actions that take place.

Outcome 1 Outcome 2

To create a tree diagram, think about the possible outcomes for each different stage of the experiment. Use these outcomes to build the branches. Example

Outcome 3

1

Make a tree diagram to show all the possible outcomes for the experiment of tossing a coin twice in a row.

Check it out: Not all tree diagrams are drawn going across the page — sometimes the branches go down the page instead.

Solution

Step 1: Draw a branch for every possible outcome on the first toss of the coin.

Coin toss 1 H

T

H

H

T

T

H

T

Step 2: From each possible outcome of coin toss 1, draw branches for all the possible outcomes of coin toss 2.

Coin toss 1

Coin toss 2 H H T H T

Check it out: A tree diagram can show as many stages of an experiment as you want. The diagram in this example could be extended to show 10, 20, or 100 coin tosses – but it would get very large and complicated if it did.

Check it out: You have to read descriptions of events carefully... notice how there are 2 outcomes that match the event “a head and a tail in any order.”

314

T

Step 3: Follow along each branch, starting at the left and finishing at the right. At the end of each branch, list the outcomes that led to that point.

Coin toss 1

Coin toss 2

Outcomes H

HH

T H

HT TH

T

TT

H

T

From the tree, you can see that there are 4 possible outcomes. There’s 1 outcome that matches the event “two heads.” There’s 1 outcome that matches the event “two tails.” There’s 1 outcome that matches the event “first a head, then a tail,” and 1 outcome that matches the event “first a tail, then a head.”

Section 6.1 — Outcomes and Diagrams

Guided Practice This tree diagram shows the ways lights in three rooms of a house can be either off or on. 1. Copy and finish the tree diagram to represent all the possible outcomes for the lights. 2. Use your tree diagram to list all the possible outcomes for the lights in the three rooms.

Hall

Kitchen

Bedroom

ON ON OFF

ON

ON OFF

Use your tree diagram to list all the possible outcomes for each of the following events: 3. lights are on in exactly two of the rooms 4. lights are off in exactly two of the rooms 5. lights are on in the hall only 6. Explain why for this situation, the outcome of “on–off–off ” is different from “off–off–on.”

You Can Combine Any Actions Using Tree Diagrams You can use a tree diagram to show a combination of different actions. Example Check it out: You could draw the tree diagram for Example 2 by starting with the branches for tossing the coin, then adding the branches for rolling the die. You’d still get the same number of outcomes.

H

2

Guadalupe and Kareem are playing a game. Guadalupe rolls a die, and Kareem tosses a coin. Use a tree diagram to show all the possible outcomes of rolling one die and tossing one coin. Solution

Step 1: Draw a branch for each possible outcome of rolling the die. Step 2: Add branches from each possible outcome of rolling the die, showing the possible outcomes of tossing the coin. Step 3: List the outcomes at the end of each branch.

T

Roll die

Toss coin

Outcomes H

1H

T

1T 2H

H T H T H T H

2T 3H 3T 4H 4T 5H

H

5T 6H

T

6T

T

Section 6.1 — Outcomes and Diagrams

315

Guided Practice Kim is choosing what to wear to school. She has three shirts and two pairs of pants. The shirts are white, blue, and red. The pants are black and brown. 7. Draw a tree diagram to show the different outfits Kim can wear. Begin your tree with the branches for the shirts first. 8. List all the possible outcomes. How many different outfits of one shirt and one pair of pants can Kim make? 9. Redraw the tree diagram from Exercise 7, beginning with the branches for the pants first. 10. Compare the two tree diagrams. How does changing the order affect the number of outcomes?

Independent Practice Three different-color chips are placed in a bag. One is picked, recorded, then put back for the second pick. First Pick Second Pick Use this tree diagram of the possible outcomes to do Exercises 1–5. 1. List all the possible outcomes for picking two chips. (“Blue, red” is considered different from “red, blue.”) 2. List all the possible outcomes for the event “picking a second chip the same color as the first one.” 3. List all the possible outcomes for “picking two chips where the first chip drawn is blue.” 4. List all the possible outcomes for the event “picking two chips where a blue chip is never picked.” 5. Suppose after the second draw, the color is recorded and the chip is replaced in the bag for a third draw. How many outcomes showing different orders of chips would there be? Why? Now try these: Lesson 6.1.2 additional questions — p458

6. A bag contains 3 marbles: one purple, one yellow, and one green. In one experiment, a marble is picked and then placed back in the bag before the second marble is picked. In another experiment, a marble is picked and then kept out of the bag while the second marble is chosen. Use tree diagrams to compare the possible outcomes of drawing two marbles for each experiment.

Round Up Tree diagrams can be very useful for showing all the possible outcomes of a situation. But remember to draw them neatly so you can see what’s going on. Make the first branches quite spread out, so that the later branches don’t get all squashed up. 316

Section 6.1 — Outcomes and Diagrams

Lesson

6.1.3

Tables and Grids

California Standard:

Last Lesson you learned how to use tree diagrams to help you organize your information about the possible outcomes of a situation. In this Lesson, you’ll see some other ways to organize this type of information.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 3.1 Represent all possible outcomes for compound events in an organized way (e.g., tables, grids, tree diagrams) and express the theoretical probability of each outcome.

Tables Can Help You to Organize Your Information Tables and grids use rows and columns to show all the possible outcomes for a combination of two actions.

What it means for you:

Key words: • • • • • • •

outcome combination table grid cell row column

Check it out: The individual boxes in a grid or table are called cells.

Example

1

Use a table to find the possible outcomes for tossing a coin twice. Solution

1st coin toss

Step 1: Write the possible outcomes for the first toss of the coin in a row along the top of your table. Step 2: Write the possible outcomes for the second toss of the coin in a column down the side of your table.

Heads 2nd coin toss

You’ll see how to use a grid to find all the possible outcomes of a situation.

Ta i l s

Heads Ta i l s

Step 3: Use the rows and columns to make a grid of cells. Step 4: Fill in each cell of the grid by combining the outcomes listed on the row and column of that cell. 1st coin toss

When you fill in a table with letter codes like this, the first letter represents the first action (the first toss of the coin in this case), and the second letter comes from the second action.

Ta i l s

Heads

HH

TH

Ta i l s

HT

TT

This cell represents getting T ails on the first toss and H eads on the second toss, so the cell contains T H .

The grid shows the 4 possible outcomes for tossing a coin twice: HH, HT, TH, TT.

Guided Practice 1st child

1. A family is chosen at random from all the families in California that have 2 children. Copy and complete the table to show all the possible combinations of boys and girls the family could have.

Boy 2nd child

Check it out:

2nd coin toss

Heads

G irl

Boy G irl

Section 6.1 — Outcomes and Diagrams

317

2nd pick

The cells in the table below represent the outcomes for drawing a marble from a bag, recording it, and drawing another marble. 1st pick 2. Copy the table and fill in ? ? ? the color of marble that belongs in place of each G re e n WG GG BG question mark. ? WW GW BW 3. How many possible outcomes match the event ? WB GB BB “picking at least one blue Key: B = blue G = green W = white marble”? 4. How many possible outcomes match the event “not picking any green marbles”?

Tables Are Useful in Situations Involving Numbers It can be especially helpful to use a table when you need to do calculations with numbers in the rows and columns of the table. Example

2

Two dice are rolled. Find all the possible outcomes that match the event “a sum of 7 is rolled.” Solution

Step 1: Find the possible outcomes for the first die: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. Write these in a row along the top of your table. Step 2: Find the possible outcomes for the second die: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. Write these in a column down the side of your table.

1st die rolled

Step 3: Create a grid of cells inside the table.

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

5 You can look at the column and 6 row of each of these 6 cells and write the outcomes with a sum of 7: (1, 6), (2, 5), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 2), (6, 1).

6

7

8

9

10

11

7

8

9

10

11

12

Step 4: Fill in each cell of the grid by adding the outcomes listed on that row and column. In this case, the grid shows there are 6 possible outcomes that have a sum of 7.

2nd die rolled

1

(1, 6) means 1 on the first roll, 6 on the second roll. 318

Section 6.1 — Outcomes and Diagrams

Guided Practice Exercises 5–7 are about outcomes for rolling two dice and adding the results together. Use the grid from Example 2 to find the answers. 5. List all the possible outcomes with a sum of 4. 6. How many possible outcomes are there for the event “a sum of 6”? 7. Describe an event that has only one possible outcome. Two dice are rolled. The number on the second die is subtracted from the number on the first die. The result is called n. 8. Draw a grid showing all the possible outcomes of this experiment. 9. How many possible outcomes match the event “n = 2”? 10. How many possible outcomes match the event “n is negative”?

Independent Practice 1. An ice-cream truck sells 4 flavors of ice cream: vanilla, chocolate, mint, and strawberry; and 3 ice cream toppings: marshmallows, sprinkles, and whipped cream. Create a table of the possible outcomes for choosing 1 ice cream flavor with 1 ice cream topping. Exercises 2–3 are about a computer game that allows you to choose the hair and eye color of a character. Hair color choices are: brown, black, and blond. Eye color choices are: brown, green, and blue. 2. Draw a table that shows all the possible hair and eye color outcomes. (Tip: use Br, Bk, and Bd for the hair color abbreviations, and Br, G, and Bl for eye color.) 3. How would adding red hair and hazel eyes to the choices affect the number of possible outcomes? Exercises 4–9 are about a math game. Two dice are rolled and the numbers on the dice are multiplied. 4. Create a table to show all the possible products of the two dice.

Now try these: Lesson 6.1.3 additional questions — p458

Use your table from Exercise 4 to find all the possible outcomes matching each of the following events: 5. A product of 12 6. A product of 4 7. A product greater than 20 Use your table from Exercise 4 to name the following: 8. An event that has exactly 1 outcome. 9. An event that has at least 20 outcomes.

Round Up Tables and grids are most useful for combining two actions that both have a few possible outcomes. A grid can show that sort of situation much more clearly than a tree diagram with lots of branches. But the problem with grids is that they can’t show combinations of more than two actions. Section 6.1 — Outcomes and Diagrams

319

Section 6.2 introduction — an exploration into:

Heads or Tails If you were to toss a coin, what’s the probability that it will land on heads? The answer is 0.5 — but what does that actually mean? That’s what this Exploration is all about. If you flip a coin 24 times, how many times do you predict it will land on heads? Write down your prediction. You’re now going to try it for real... Flip a coin 24 times. Record your results in a chart like this one. After each flip, calculate the fraction of your total flips so far that landed on heads. Write your result in the last column. 1.0

++

0.9

Fraction of heads

0.8 0.7

0.6 0.5

+ +

+

+

+++

+++++

++

++

++++++

Flip # H or T? H 1 H 2 T 3 T 4 H 5 H 6 H 7

Fraction of heads 1 1 =1.0 2 2 =1.0 2 3 =0.67 2 4 =0.5 3 5 =0.6 4 6 =0.67 5 7 =0.71

Divide the number of heads by the total flips so far. Then convert to a decimal using a calculator.

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

0.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Flip #

Show your information on a graph like this one. • Plot the flip number along the horizontal axis. • Plot the fraction of heads on the vertical axis.

Example 1. Use the above graph to say what fraction of the flips were heads after: a. 8 flips, b. 24 flips. 2. What happens to the line on the graph as you move to the right? Solution

1. The fraction of heads was: a. 0.75 after 8 flips, b. 0.53 after 24 flips. 2. The graph seems to be approaching 0.5, and is zig-zagging a lot less than at the start.

Exercises 1. Compare your graph to another student’s. Describe any similarities and differences. 2. After 24 flips, what fraction of your flips were heads? Subtract one from the other. Find the difference between this fraction and 0.5. 3. If you flipped the coin 50 times, do you think your answer to Exercise 2 would change? Explain your answer using your graph and what you know about probability. 4. Now combine your data with the data from the rest of the class. Find: (i) the total number of times a coin was flipped, and (ii) the total number of heads. Find the fraction of heads, and the difference between this fraction and 0.5. How does this compare with your answer to Exercise 2? 5. What would you expect if you flipped a coin 1000 times? 10,000 times?

Round Up For the first few flips, your graph may have zig-zagged up and down a bit. But as you did more flips, things should have settled down somewhere near 0.5, since that’s the theoretical probability. The idea of what probability actually means is tricky, but you’ll see more about it in this Section. a tion — Heads or Tails Explora 320 Section 6.2 Explor

Lesson

Section 6.2

6.2.1

Pr oba bility Proba obability

California Standard:

A lot of the time, you can’t say for sure whether or not one particular event will happen. But you can often say how good the chances are. Probability is a way of using numbers to describe the chance of an event happening.

Sta tistics ta Anal ysis Statistics tistics,, Da Data Analysis ysis,, and Pr oba bility 3.3 Proba obability Repr esent pr oba bilities as present proba obabilities opor tions tios,, pr propor oportions tions,, ra tios decimals betw een 0 and 1, between and per centa ges betw een 0 percenta centag between and 100 and vverify erify tha thatt the pr oba bilities computed ar e proba obabilities are reasona ble easonab le; know that if P is the probability of an event, 1–P is the probability of an event not occurring.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about using probability as a way to describe how likely events are to happen.

Key words: • • • • • •

probability chance likely percent fraction decimal

Some Ev ents Ar e Mor e Lik el y to Ha ppen Than Other s Events Are More Likel ely Happen Others People often talk about things that might happen, using words like “chance,” “likely,” and “probability”: “What is the probability it will snow today?” “How likely is it that the school football team will win its next game?” “What is the chance that you will go to a movie this weekend?” Look at the line below and think about where your answer would be for each of these questions.

Impossible

Very unlikely

Fairly unlikely

Even chance

Quite likely

Certain

Very likely

Guided Practice Decide where you would put the chances of the following events happening on the scale above. 1. Leaves falling from the trees next fall. 2. Finding a live elephant in your bedroom when you get home. 3. Winning a raffle if you have 1 out of 100 tickets. 4. Winning a raffle if you have 99 out of 100 tickets. 5. Winning a raffle if you have 1 out of 1,000,000 tickets. 6. A tossed coin landing on heads. 7. Put the events named in Exercises 1–6 in order, from most likely to least likely.

Pr oba bility Is a Way to Sa y Ho w Lik el y an Ev ent Is Proba obability Say How Likel ely Event In math, probability is a way of describing the chance that an event will occur. Probability can be written using fractions, decimals, or percents. Check it out: The closer the probability gets to 1, the more likely the event is to happen. The closer the probability is to 0, the less likely the event is.

You can replace the words on the line above with numbers that represent how likely an event is to occur. 0% 0

50%

100%

1 2

1

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

321

Check it out:

A probability of 0 (or 0%) means that there is no chance.

If you did a very large number of experiments with 2 outcomes that each have a probability of 50% (tossing a coin, for example), then you would expect that about half the experiments would have one outcome (heads, say), and about half the experiments would have the other outcome (tails).

A probability of 1 (or 100%) means that the event will definitely happen. A probability of

1 2

(or 50%) means that the event might happen, but

there’s an equal chance that it won’t.

Guided Practice Estimate the probability that each of the following things will happen. Write your answers as percents. 8. It will go dark tonight. 9. Your math teacher will turn into a pineapple. 10. A 6th-grader from California chosen at random will be a girl. Use the list of probabilities below to answer Exercises 11–12.

1 5 0 10 2 8 25 10 11. Which of the probabilities above represents an impossible event? 12. Which of the probabilities above represents a certain event?

Don’t forget:

Pr oba bility Is Usuall y Calcula ted Exactl y Proba obability Usually Calculated Exactly

Calculating an exact probability isn’t the same as saying whether an event will definitely (or definitely not) happen. See Lesson 6.4.2 for examples of where you can’t find an exact probability.

There are many situations where you can say exactly what the probability of an event is. Example

1

What is the probability of spinning the color red on this spinner? What is the probability of spinning the color blue? Solution

Spinning the color red is certain, so the probability is 1. Spinning the color blue is impossible, so the probability is 0.

Example

2

What is the probability of spinning the color blue on this spinner? Check it out: By looking at the spinner, you can see that there’s a 1 in 4 chance of spinning the color blue. A chance of 1 in 4 is written mathematically as a probability of 1 = 0.25 = 25%. 4

322

Solution

The blue section is one-fourth of the spinner. So the probability of spinning the color blue is 1 = 0.25 = 25% 4

If you spun the spinner many times, about one-fourth of the spins would land on blue.

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

Guided Practice Exercises 13–15 are about the spinner shown. Find the probability of spinning the colors below. Write your answers as decimals. 13. Blue 14. Yellow 15. Pink In Exercises 16–18, find the probability of spinning the color yellow on each of the following spinners. Write your answers as fractions. 16. 17. 18.

Independent Practice Each set of cards shown below is turned over and shuffled, then one card is picked. For each set, find the probability of picking 1. a triangle card 2. a star card

Don’t forget: For more information about fractions, percents, and decimals, see Chapter 3.

A.

B.

C.

D.

A bag has 1 red, 1 blue, and 2 yellow marbles in it. 3. How many marbles are in the bag? 4. How many marbles are red? What is the probability of drawing a red marble? 5. How many marbles are blue? What is the probability of drawing a blue marble? 6. How many marbles are yellow? What is the probability of drawing a yellow marble? 3

7. The probability of an event occurring is 8 . Which two values below represent this same probability? 0.375

Now try these: Lesson 6.2.1 additional questions — p458

375%

0.375%

37.5%

3 % 8

8. The probability of an event occurring is 55%. Which two values below represent this same probability? 55

5.5

0.55 100

55 100

11 20

9. In a tiled hallway, kids are jumping from one tile to the next. The probability of landing on a green tile is 60%. What fraction of the hallway area is covered with green tiles?

Round Up Probability is useful because you can use it to compare the chances of different events happening. The event with the highest probability is the most likely to occur. Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

323

Lesson

6.2.2

Expr essing Pr oba bility Expressing Proba obability

California Standard:

In this Lesson, you’ll learn how to find the probability of an event by looking at all the possible outcomes. There’s a handy formula you can use to do this.

Sta tistics ta Anal ysis Statistics tistics,, Da Data Analysis ysis,, and Pr oba bility 3.3 Proba obability Repr esent pr oba bilities as present proba obabilities opor tions tios,, pr propor oportions tions,, ra tios decimals betw een 0 and 1, between and per centa ges betw een 0 percenta centag between and 100 and vverify erify tha thatt the pr oba bilities computed ar e proba obabilities are r easona ble easonab le; know that if P is the probability of an event, 1–P is the probability of an event not occurring.

What it means for you: You’ll meet and use an important formula that will help you to work out probabilities.

You Can Calcula te Pr oba bilities b y Counting Outcomes Calculate Proba obabilities by There’s some special probability notation you’ll need to know. “P(A)” means “the probability that event A will happen.” So for tossing a coin, you can write “the probability of getting heads is as “P(Heads) =

1 .” 2

You can often find probabilities by thinking about the possible outcomes of the situation. P(event) =

Number of favorable outcomes Number of possible outcomes

Key words: • • • •

probability event outcome favorable

Favorable outcomes are the outcomes that match the event. Example

Another way to think of probability is as a ratio. The probability of an event is the ratio of favorable outcomes to possible outcomes.

Solution

Check it out:

So

This formula only works if all the possible outcomes are equally likely. For the actions in this Section, this is the case (for example, when you roll a die, all the different numbers are equally likely).

Don’t forget: It’s usually a good idea to write fractions in their simplest form. For example, a probability of 40 100

2

can be written as 5 — see Lesson 3.4.2 for more information.

324

1

Find the probability of rolling a 2 on a standard 6-sided die.

Check it out:

1 ” 2

The possible outcomes are: The favorable outcomes are:

1

2

3

4

5

6

2

There are 6 possible outcomes, and 1 favorable outcome. P(2) =

1 6

Guided Practice Write the answers to Exercises 1–7 as fractions. Jaden has a bag containing 100 marbles. There are 50 red marbles, 30 blue marbles, and 20 green marbles. He picks out one marble. Find the probability that the marble is: 1. Red 2. Blue 3. Green There are 50 socks in Jasmine’s drawer. There are 25 black socks, 10 blue socks, 10 orange socks, and 5 striped socks. Jasmine picks a sock without looking. Find the probability that the sock is: 4. Black 5. Blue 6. Orange 7. Striped

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

Read the Description of an Ev ent Ver y Car efull y Event ery Carefull efully Always read the situation carefully. And then think very carefully too. Example Don’t forget: A standard pack contains 52 cards. There are 4 suits: hearts, clubs, spades, and diamonds. Hearts and diamonds are red, while clubs and spades are black. Each suit has 13 cards: the numbers from 1–10 (1 is usually called an “ace”), plus the jack, queen, and king (these are called “face cards”).

Don’t forget: A prime number can’t be divided evenly by any other numbers except itself and 1. (The number 1 isn’t prime.)

2

What is the probability of picking a queen out of a standard pack of 52 playing cards? Solution

There are 52 possible outcomes. The pack of cards contains 4 queens. So

P(queen) =

4 1 = 52 13

Guided Practice Find the probability of the following events when rolling a die once. Give your answers as fractions in their simplest form. 8. Rolling an odd number 9. Rolling an even number 10. Rolling a number more than 2 11. Rolling a prime number Find the probability of the following events when picking one card from a standard pack of 52. 12. Picking the jack of diamonds 13. Picking a seven 14. Picking a club 15. Picking a black card

Pr oba bility Can Gi ve You Inf or ma tion About Outcomes Proba obability Giv Infor orma mation If you know the probability of an event, you might be able to figure out numbers of outcomes. Example

3

The probability of picking a red marble out of a bag is 25%. There are 20 marbles in the bag. How many red marbles are there? Solution

P(red) = 25% =

Number of favorable outcomes 1 = Number of possible outcomes 4 1 Number of favorable outcomes There are 20 = marbles in total 4 20

Number of favorable outcomes = 20 ×

1 4

Multipl y both sides b y 20 Multiply by

=5 So there are 5 red marbles. Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

325

Guided Practice Exercises 16–21 are about picking one marble (without looking) from a bag full of marbles. Each exercise is about a different bag. 1

16. P(picking yellow) = 2 , and there are 11 yellow marbles. How many marbles are there altogether? 17. If there are 100 marbles, and P(picking red) = 10%, how many red marbles are there? 18. P(picking blue) = 25%, and there are 8 blue marbles. How many marbles are there in total? 1

19. P(picking black) = 3 . If there are 10 black marbles, how many marbles are there in total? 3

20. There are 80 marbles in the bag in total. P(picking silver) = 4 . How many silver marbles are in the bag? 21. There are 5 green marbles in the bag. What is the total number of marbles if P(picking green) = 20%?

Independent Practice 1. The winning contestant on a game show picks one of 80 boxes to find out what prize they win. 1 box contains $1,000,000 4 boxes contain vacation tickets 10 boxes contain cameras 15 boxes contain $10 20 boxes contain a pair of socks 30 boxes contain signed photos of the game show host Find the probability of winning each prize as a fraction. Sixty-four raffle tickets have been sold. Maria bought 5 of the tickets and her friend Kyle bought 10. Write the probabilities of the following events in fraction form:

Now try these: Lesson 6.2.2 additional questions — p459

2. Maria will win the raffle. 3. Kyle will win the raffle. 4. Someone other than Maria or Kyle will win the raffle. 5. If Maria wanted to have a 25% chance of winning, how many of the 64 tickets would she need to purchase? Destiny buys 20 tickets, so that 84 tickets have now been sold. 6. How does this affect Kyle's and Maria's chances of winning? Use percents rounded to the nearest whole percent to compare the probability of winning before and after Destiny's purchase.

Round Up Counting outcomes is fairly straightforward in simple situations like these. But for more complicated sets of events and outcomes, you’ll need to organize your information. 326

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

Lesson

6.2.3

Counting Outcomes

California Standards:

Last Lesson, you saw how to find probabilities with a formula. But to use it, you need to know how many possible and favorable outcomes there are. Luckily, you learned two ways to do that a few Lessons ago. Now you’ll see just how useful tables, grids, and tree diagrams can be.

Repr esent all possib le present possible or compound outcomes ffor events in an or ganiz ed w ay org anized wa (e .g ., ta bles rids ee (e.g .g., tab les,, g grids rids,, tr tree dia g rams) and e xpr ess the diag expr xpress theor etical pr oba bility of theoretical proba obability eac h outcome each outcome.. Sta tistics ta Anal ysis Statistics tistics,, Da Data Analysis ysis,, and Pr oba bility 3.3 Proba obability Repr esent pr oba bilities as present proba obabilities opor tions tios,, pr propor oportions tions,, ra tios decimals betw een 0 and 1, between een 0 and per centa ges betw percenta centag between and 100 and vverify erify tha thatt the pr oba bilities computed ar e proba obabilities are reasona ble easonab le; know that if P is the probability of an event, 1–P is the probability of an event not occurring.

What it means for you: You’ll see how ways of counting outcomes such as grids and tree diagrams can help you work out probabilities of events.

Key words: • • • • • •

probability outcome event grid table tree diagram

Ta bles and Grids Help to Calcula te Pr oba bilities Calculate Proba obabilities You know that:

P(event) =

Number of favorable outcomes Number of possible outcomes

So if you can make an organized list of possible outcomes, it makes it easier to find probabilities. Example

1

Two dice are rolled. Find the probability that the sum of the numbers rolled is: (i) 8, and (ii) greater than 8. Solution

1st die rolled

(i) This table shows all the possible outcomes for the sum of the numbers rolled on two dice. All you need to do is count how many possible and favorable outcomes there are, and put them into the formula. There are 5 ways to roll 8, and there are 36 possible outcomes altogether. So, P(rolling 8) =

2nd die rolled

Sta tistics ta Anal ysis Statistics tistics,, Da Data Analysis ysis,, and Pr oba bility 3.1 Proba obability

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

5 Number of favorable outcomes = 36 Number of possible outcomes

Don’t forget:

(ii) The favorable outcomes for the event “rolling a sum greater than 8” are the outcomes 9, 10, 11, and 12. In total, this makes 10 outcomes.

The table used here is the same as the one from Example 2 of Lesson 6.1.3.

So, P(rolling over 8) =

5 Number of favorable outcomes 10 = = 36 18 Number of possible outcomes

Guided Practice Don’t forget: To find the probability of rolling a sum less than 6, count how many outcomes of 2, 3, 4, and 5 there are.

Use the table above to find the probability of each of the following events when rolling two dice: 1. Rolling a sum of 9 2. Rolling a sum of 10 3. Rolling a sum of 2 4. Rolling a sum less than 6 5. Rolling a sum of 17 6. Rolling a sum that is a prime number Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

327

The table below lists the number of students at a middle school by grade and gender.

Check it out: The easiest way to tackle Exercises 7–16 is to start each answer by writing a ?

fraction of the form 300 . Then you can convert to percents by multiplying by 100.

One student is chosen at random. Determine the probability of choosing each type of student listed in Exercises 7–16. Write each probability as a percent. 7. P(girl) 9. P(6th grader) 12. P(6th grade boy) 15. P(9th grader)

Boys

Gi r l s

To t al s

G r ad e 6

57

51

108

Gr ad e 7

42

57

99

Gr ad e 8

45

48

93

To t al s

144

156

3 00

8. P(boy) 10. P(7th grader) 11. P(8th grader) 13. P(7th grade girl) 14. P(8th grade boy) 16. P(6th, 7th, or 8th grade student)

Tree Dia g rams Can Sho w You All P ossib le Outcomes Diag Show Possib ossible Tree diagrams can help you find probabilities too. Example

2

A coin is tossed three times. Find the probability of getting tails on exactly two of the three tosses. Solution

This tree diagram shows all the possible outcomes for tossing a coin three times.

Coin toss 1 H

T

Coin toss 2 H

H

T

There are 8 possible outcomes.

T

Coin toss 3 H

Outcomes

So

HHH

T

H

HHT HTH

T

H

HTT THH

P(exactly 2 tails) =

T

H

THT TTH

T

TTT

There are 3 outcomes that have exactly two tails: HTT, THT, and TTH.

3 Number of favorable outcomes = 8 Number of possible outcomes

Guided Practice Write your answers to Exercises 17–21 as decimals. Use the tree diagram above to find the probability of each of the following events for tossing a coin three times: 17. Heads on exactly 2 tosses 18. Tails on 2 or more tosses 19. Tails on fewer than 2 tosses 20. The coin landing on the same side all 3 tosses 21. The first and third coins landing on the same side 328

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

Independent Practice Exercises 1–12 are about the color spinner shown below. The spinner is spun once. Find the following probabilities. 1. P(green) 2. P(yellow) 3. P(white) 4. P(not purple) 5. The spinner is spun twice. Make a tree diagram or a table that shows all the possible outcomes. Use the abbreviations R for red, Y for yellow, G for green, and B for blue. Use your diagram from Exercise 5 to answer Exercises 6–12. 6. How many possible outcomes are there? 7. How many ways can you get 2 spins of the same color? Find the following probabilities. Write your answers as fractions in their lowest terms. 8. P(2 spins the same color) 9. P(one blue and one green in any order) 10. P(blue first, then green) 11. P(exactly one spin is red) 12. P(at least one spin is red) Don’t forget: The product of two numbers is the result of multiplying them together.

Contestants on a game show spin a wheel twice. If the product of the numbers is odd, they win a prize. The numbers on the wheel are 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6. 13. Make a table with a grid that shows all the possible products from any two spins of the wheel. 14. What is the probability that a contestant will win? 15. What is the probability that a contestant will lose? The wheel in Exercises 13–15 had two odd numbers and three even numbers on it.

Now try these: Lesson 6.2.3 additional questions — p459

16. Design a new wheel that has an equal number of odd and even numbers on it. 17. Use your new wheel. Determine which probability is greater, P(even product) or P(odd product). 18. If your wheel in Exercise 16 had a different number of integers on it (but half of those integers were still even, with the rest being odd), would your answer to Exercise 17 have been different? Explain your answer.

Round Up The most important use of tree diagrams and tables of outcomes is in finding probabilities. Look back at Lessons 6.1.1–6.1.3 if you need a reminder about anything to do with listing possible outcomes. Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

329

Lesson

6.2.4

California Standards: Sta tistics ta Anal ysis Statistics tistics,, Da Data Analysis ysis,, and Pr oba bility 3.3 Proba obability Repr esent pr oba bilities as present proba obabilities opor tions tios,, pr propor oportions tions,, ra tios decimals betw een 0 and 1, between and per centa ges betw een 0 percenta centag between and 100 and vverify erify tha thatt the pr oba bilities computed ar e proba obabilities are reasona ble w tha easonab le; kno know thatt if P is the pr oba bility of an proba obability event, 1– oba bility 1–P is the pr proba obability of an e vent not occur ring ev occurring ring..

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to find the probability that a particular event does not happen.

Pr oba bility of an Ev ent Proba obability Event Not Ha ppening Happening The probabilities you’ve seen so far represent the chances that an event will happen. In this Lesson, you’ll learn how to find the probability that an event doesn’t happen. You’ll be pleased to know that the math you’ll need to do isn’t much different from what you’ve been doing so far in this Section.

Find Pr oba bilities b y Counting Outcomes Proba obabilities by So far you have worked out probabilities of events happening. You can also find the probability that an event doesn’t happen by counting the number of outcomes that don’t match the event. Example

1 Ruben spins this spinner.

Key words: • • • •

Find the probability that Ruben spins the color yellow. What is the probability that Ruben does not spin the color yellow?

probability event outcome favorable

Solution

There are 3 possible outcomes: red, yellow, and blue. 1 3 If he doesn’t spin yellow, Ruben must spin either red or blue. So there are 2 favorable outcomes for not spinning yellow.

So

P(Yellow) =

So

P(Not yellow) = P(Red or blue) =

2 3

Guided Practice Check it out:

In Exercises 1–8, determine each probability for one spin of the spinner shown below. Give your answers as simplified fractions.

In some situations, P(not event A) can also be written as P(event B). For example, for tossing a coin, P(not tails) is the same as saying P(heads).

330

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

1. P(Green) 3. P(Yellow) 5. P(Red) 7. P(Orange)

2. P(Not green) 4. P(Not yellow) 6. P(Not red) 8. P(Not orange)

You Can Find P(not A) b y Counting Outcomes by

Two events are said to be complementary if between them they cover all the possible outcomes and if only one of them can happen. So “A” and “not A” are complementary (since an event has to either happen or not happen). “Not A” is called the complement of “A.”

Example

2

Mario is playing a game using the spinner shown below. He spins it twice, and adds the numbers he spins to get his score.

1

3

7

5

If A is the event “Mario scores 8,” then find: (i) P(A), (ii) P(not A).

What do you notice about P(A) + P(not A)? Check it out: If event A is “Mario scores 8,” then event not A is “Mario does not score 8.”

2nd spin

This table gives the possible outcomes.

1st spin

Check it out:

You can use the probability that event A will happen to find the probability that A won’t happen.

Solution

1

3

5

7

1

2

4

6

8

3

4

6

8

10

5

6

8

10

12

7

8

10

12

14

(i) The table shows there are 16 possible outcomes. And there are 4 possible outcomes where Mario does score 8. 1 4 So P(Mario scores 8) = = (or 25%). 16 4 (ii) But if there are 4 possible outcomes where Mario does score 8, then there must be 16 – 4 = 12 outcomes where Mario does not score 8. 12 3 = (or 75%). So P(Mario does not score 8) = 16 4 Notice that P(A) + P(not A) = 1 (or 100%).

You Can Also Find P(not A) If You Kno w P(A) Know Check it out:

The result about P(A) and P(not A) adding up to 1 is always true. P(event A happening) + P(event A not happening) = 1 = 100%

You can write this rule as: P(A) + P(not A) = 1.

Example

3

The weather channel says there is a 30% chance of rain today. What is the probability that it will not rain today? Solution

so

P(rain) + P(not rain) = 100% 30% + P(not rain) = 100%

This means P(not rain)

= 100% – 30% = 70%

Guided Practice Exercises 9–16 give P(A). Find P(not A) in each case. 9. P(A) =

3 4

13. P(A) = 0.9

10. P(A) = 0.58 11. P(A) = 11% 12. P(A) = 43% 14. P(A) =

11 12

15. P(A) = 1

16. P(A) = 0

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

331

Guided Practice Find the following probabilities for Mario’s game from Example 2. Write your answers as decimals 17. P(Mario scores 14) 18. P(Mario doesn’t score 14) 19. P(Mario scores 6) 20. P(Mario doesn’t score 6) 21. P(Mario scores less than 10) 22. P(Mario doesn’t score less than 10) 23. P(Mario scores 7) 24. P(Mario doesn’t score 7) 25. Jenna rolls a die. Event A is “rolling a number greater than 4.” Event B is “rolling a number less than 4.” Jenna claims that P(event A) + P(event B) = 1. Explain to Jenna why this is not true.

Independent Practice 1. The probability of an event occurring is 0.6. Explain why the probability of the event not occurring cannot be 0.2. 2. P(A occurring) and P(A not occurring) are the same. Find P(A). 3. P(A occurring) is twice P(A not occurring). Find P(A). Cynthia picks one card from a standard pack of 52 cards. She makes a note of the suit, then replaces the card and picks another one. The tree diagram below shows the possible outcomes. Card 1

Card 2 Outcomes

Now try these: Lesson 6.2.4 additional questions — p459

DD DC DH DS CD CC CH CS HD HC HH HS SD SC SH SS

D, C, H, and S represent diamonds, clubs, hearts, and spades. Calculate P(A) and P(not A), where event A is Cynthia picking the following: 4. At least one heart 5. Two diamonds 6. At least one red card 7. One heart and one club 8. Two cards the same suit

Round Up The rule P(A) + P(not A) = 1 is very useful and important. If you need to find a complicated-looking P(not A), the first thing you should think is “Is it easier to find 1 – P(A)?” The answer is quite often yes. 332

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

Lesson

6.2.5

Venn Dia g rams Diag

California Standard:

It’s often tricky to figure out in your head how different events and outcomes are related. A Venn diagram is a way to show how different events are related, and they can make probabilities easier to visualize.

Sta tistics ta Anal ysis Statistics tistics,, Da Data Analysis ysis,, and Pr oba bility 3.1 Proba obability Repr esent all possib le present possible or compound outcomes ffor events in an or ganiz ed w ay org anized wa (e.g., tables, grids, tree diagrams) and express the theoretical probability of each outcome.

A Venn Dia g ram Is a Way to R epr esent Ev ents Diag Re present Events One outcome will often match more than one event. You can show situations where one or more outcomes match more than one event using a Venn diagram.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about Venn diagrams, which are useful in helping you to understand how different events relate to each other.

All the possible outcomes are inside the rectangle.

Event A

Event B

The circles represent events. All the outcomes that match an event are inside that event’s circle.

Key words: • Venn Diagram • outcome • event

The area where two circles overlap contains all the outcomes that match both events.

The next example should make the usefulness of a Venn diagram clearer. Example

1

The following are two events for rolling a die once: Event A: Rolling an even number Event B: Rolling a number less than 4 Use a Venn diagram to show how many outcomes match both events. Solution

The rectangle represents all possible outcomes. This means rolling 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. The blue circle represents event A, rolling an even number.

The red circle represents event B, rolling a number less than 4. The outcome “rolling a 2” is in both circles. The circles have to overlap, so that 2 can be in both at the same time. There is 1 outcome that matches both event A and event B. There is also 1 outcome (5) that matches neither event A nor event B. Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

333

Guided Practice Andres picks a card from a standard pack. Event A is “picking a spade.” Event B is “picking an ace.” Check it out: Many Venn Diagrams don’t show all the actual outcomes on the diagram. They often just show the circles representing the events.

1

In which section of this Venn diagram do the following outcomes belong? 1. Ace of clubs 2. King of hearts 3. Ace of spades 4. Three of spades

A B 2 3 4

5. Sketch a Venn diagram showing the events below if an integer from 1 to 25 is picked at random. Place the integers 1 to 25 in the correct areas of the Venn diagram. Event A: the number picked is a multiple of 4 Event B: the number picked is a multiple of 6

The Cir c les on a Venn Dia g ram Don ways Ov er la p Circ Diag Don’’ t Al Alw Over erla lap Venn diagrams can show some other situations: The circles don’t overlap at all if no outcomes match both event A and event B. Example

B

A

2

Draw a Venn diagram showing the following events for rolling one die: Event A: Rolling an even number Event B: Rolling an odd number Solution

The outcomes 2, 4, and 6 match event A. The outcomes 1, 3, and 5 match event B.

B

A

No outcomes match both events, so the circles don’t overlap.

In this diagram, all the outcomes matching event B also match event A. Some outcomes match A, but not B. Example

A

B

3

Draw a Venn diagram showing the following events for rolling one die: Event A: Rolling an odd number

Event B: Rolling less than 6

Solution A

B

The outcomes 1, 3, and 5 match event A. The outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 match event B. All the outcomes matching event A also match event B. The circle representing event A is completely inside the one for event B.

334

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

Guided Practice Use the Venn diagrams below to answer Exercises 6–11 1.

2.

A B

3.

A

B

4.

A B

A

B

Which diagram could show each of the following pairs of events for picking a number at random from 1 to 100? 6. Event A: odd Event B: even 7. Event A: less than 50 Event B: even 8. Event A: less than 50 Event B: less than 20 9. Event A: greater than 39 Event B: less than 74 10. Event A: greater than 86 Event B: less than 17 11. Event A: a multiple of 6 Event B: a multiple of 3

Independent Practice This Venn diagram shows two events when a number from 1 through 20 is chosen at random. 5 11 A B Use it to answer Exercises 1–6. Find how many outcomes match 1. event A 2. event B 3. both event A and event B 4. at least one of events A and B

Now try these: Lesson 6.2.5 additional questions — p460

14 20 6 18 9 19 4 8 15 16 12 1 10 2 3 7 13

17

5. Which of the following could be event A: A. multiple of 4 B. number less than 16

C. even number

6. Which of the following could be event B: A. multiple of 3 B. number less than 18

C. odd number

Sketch Venn diagrams for the following pairs of events. Place the integers from 1 to 12 in the correct areas of the Venn Diagram. 7. Event A: choosing an odd number Event B: choosing a multiple of 4 8.

Event C: choosing a number less than 6 Event D: choosing a prime number

9.

Event E: choosing a number greater than 4 Event F: choosing a multiple of 5

Round Up Venn diagrams often don’t give enough information on their own to figure out probabilities, but they can still be useful. In the next Lesson, you’ll see that when you combine events, a Venn diagram can help you to understand the situation better. Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

335

Lesson

6.2.6

Combining Ev ents Events

California Standards:

The words “and” and “or” are simple little words people use all the time, but in probability they’re very important. In this Lesson, you’ll see how they describe different probabilities when two events are combined.

Sta tistics ta Anal ysis Statistics tistics,, Da Data Analysis ysis,, and Pr oba bility 3.4 Proba obability

What it means for you: You’ll work out the probability of combinations of events.

Some probabilities combine two events. P(A and B) means “the probability that event A and event B both happen.” Example

1

This spinner is spun once.

10

Event A is spinning an even number Event B is spinning a number less than 7. Find P(event A and event B) Solution

Possible outcomes

1

Event A and Event B

3

2

Event A Event B

2

1

2 2

4

5

4 3

4

6

7

6 5

4

So P(A and B) = P(even number and less than 7) =

You can use a Venn diagram to help you understand what’s going on in Example 1.

7

1 4

3 = 30% 10

Exercises 1–4 use the spinner from Example 1. For one spin of the spinner, find P(event A and event B) for the following pairs of events: 1.

Event A: Spinning an odd number Event B: Spinning a number greater than 7

2.

Event A: Spinning a prime number Event B: Spinning a number less than 4

3.

Event A: Spinning a number greater than 2 Event B: Spinning a multiple of 3

4.

Event A: Spinning an odd number Event B: Spinning an even number

9 3

5

Event A is the green circle, event B is the purple circle. The outcomes that match both events are in the area where the circles cross.

336

10

Guided Practice

Check it out:

10 6

10

6

• • • • •

2

9

6

There are 10 possible outcomes. There are 3 outcomes that match both events A and B.

8

8 8

Key words: probability event outcome and or

1 2

3 4

Under stand tha Understand thatt the pr oba bility of either of tw o proba obability two disjoint e vents occur ring is ev occurring the sum of the tw o two indi vidual pr oba bilities and individual proba obabilities that the probability of one event following another, in independent trials, is the product of the two probabilities.

“And” Means “Both Ev ents Ha ppen” Events Happen”

8 9

Repr esent pr oba bilities as present proba obabilities opor tions tios,, pr propor oportions tions,, ra tios decimals betw een 0 and 1, between and per centa ges betw een 0 percenta centag between and 100 and vverify erify tha thatt the pr oba bilities computed ar e proba obabilities are r easona ble w tha easonab le; kno know thatt if P is the pr oba bility of an proba obability event, 1– oba bility 1–P is the pr proba obability of an e vent not occur ring ev occurring ring..

5 6 7

Sta tistics ta Anal ysis Statistics tistics,, Da Data Analysis ysis,, and Pr oba bility 3.3 Proba obability

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

“Or” Means ““At At Least One Ev ent Ha ppens” Event Happens” Check it out: P(A or B) means the probability that either A happens, B happens, or they both happen.

P(A or B) means “the probability that at least one of event A and event B happens.” Example

2

This spinner is spun once.

10

3 4

8 9

Event A is spinning an even number Event B is spinning a number less than 7. Find P(event A or event B)

1 2

5 6 7

Solution

Possible outcomes Event A

Check it out: In this example, we are looking for the outcomes that are in either of the two circles in the Venn Diagram.

8 7

1

2

10 6

4

1

5

9 3

2

3

2

4

5

4

6 6

Event B

1

2

3

4

5

6

Event A or Event B

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

8

10

8

10

There are:

10 possible outcomes altogether, 5 favorable outcomes for event A, 6 favorable outcomes for event B. But you can’t add 5 to 6 to find the number of favorable outcomes for A or B. This is because 3 outcomes match both events, and you don’t count these twice. In fact there are 8 favorable outcomes — 2 match event A only, 3 match event B only, and 3 match both events. 8 So P(even number or less than 7) = = 80% 10

Guided Practice 5. Using the pairs of events from Exercises 1–4 for the spinner shown above, find P(event A or event B).

Venn Dia g rams Can Sho w You Ho w to Find P(A or B) Diag Show How You might find it helpful to use Venn diagrams to picture what happens when you combine outcomes. To find P(A), you count all the outcomes in circle A.

A

B

A

B

To find P(A and B), you count all the outcomes that are in both circles at the same time.

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

337

Check it out: If the events have no outcomes in common, there is no overlap.

To find P(A or B) you count any outcomes that are in either circle, but you only count the outcomes in the overlap once. So

B

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)

=

B

A

A

+

–

because P(A) + P(B) counts the overlap twice — once in A and once in B. So P(A and B) = 0 and P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

Check it out: You can use the rule above to show that the formula you met in the last Lesson is true: “P(A) + P(not A) = 1.” (i) P(A OR not A) = 1 (since an event either happens or it doesn’t). (ii) P(A AND not A) = 0 (since an event can’t both happen and not happen). Substitute these numbers into P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B) using “not A” as event B. You get: 1 = P(A) + P(not A) – 0. Or 1 = P(A) + P(not A). The Venn diagram would look like this:

A

Guided Practice Aisha takes a standard pack of 52 playing cards. She picks one card at random. Calculate the following probabilities. 6. P(red) 7. P(5) 8. P(red and 5) 9. P(red or 5) 10. P(black) 11. P(face card) 12. P(black and a face card) 13. P(black or a face card) 14. P(hearts) 15. P(clubs) 16. P(hearts and clubs) 17. P(hearts or clubs) 18. For two events, A and B, P(A) = 25%, P(B) = 30%, and P(A or B) = 50%. Are there any outcomes that match both events? Explain your answer.

Independent Practice Bernardo picks one of the cards shown here at random. Calculate the following probabilities. Write your answers as decimals.

not A

Now try these: Lesson 6.2.6 additional questions — p460

1

2

3

4

5

6

11

12

13

14

15

16 17

1. P(odd) 2. P(even) 3. P(red) 4. P(blue) 6. P(odd and blue) 8. P(red and yellow) 10. P(yellow and even) 12. P(red and a multiple of 4) 14. P(yellow or less than 10)

7

8

9

10

18 19

20

5. P(yellow) 7. P(odd or blue) 9. P(red or yellow) 11. P(yellow or even) 13. P(blue and prime)

15. Sally spins the spinner shown in Examples 1 and 2. She calculates P(even or less than 5) = 90%. What mistake has Sally made? What is P(even or less than 5)?

Round Up The tricky thing to remember from this Lesson is what “or” means in probability. “A or B” doesn’t mean “either A or B” — it means “either A or B or both.” If you forget about that “or both” bit, you’ll wind up getting questions wrong. 338

Section 6.2 — Theoretical Probability

Section 6.3 introduction — an exploration into:

Pic k a Car d Pick Card You’re going to conduct two probability experiments with cards. The experiments are very similar, but there’s one big difference between them. As you do the Exploration, think about that difference, and the effects it has on your two sets of results. Before you do your two experiments, you need to create a table to record your results. Copy the table on the right. You need the Ace-King of Now you need some playing cards. any suit. You will need one complete suit of 13 playing cards. Shuffle them, and put them in a pile (with the cards face down).

A

A

Experiment 1 1) Choose one card from the pile. You can choose any card you like. 2) Record the result in your table. 3) Now put that card to one side. Do not put it back in the pile. 4) Repeat steps 1–3 until you have picked 13 times. There will be one less card to choose from each time. For your final pick, there will only be one card left.

Pick # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Card Card

Experiment 2 Use the same set of 13 cards. Shuffle them, and place them face down in a pile. 1) Choose one card from the pile. You can choose any card you like. 2) Record the result in your table. 3) Put the card back in the pile and reshuffle the cards. 4) Repeat steps 1–3 until you have picked 13 times. There will always be 13 cards to choose from.

Exercises 1. Did you pick the same card twice during either experiment? Explain why/why not. 2. Now think about the probabilities of choosing cards in Experiment 1. a. What was the probability you would choose the Ace on your 1st pick? b. If you had chosen the Ace on your 1st pick, what was the probability you would choose the Ace on your 2nd pick? And on the 3rd pick? On the 8th pick? On the 13th pick? 3. Now think about the probabilities of choosing cards in Experiment 2. a. What was the probability you would choose the Ace on your 1st pick? b. If you had chosen the Ace on your 1st pick, what was the probability you would choose the Ace on your 2nd pick? And on the 3rd pick? On the 8th pick? On the 13th pick?

Round Up This Exploration was all about how events can be dependent or independent — it’s a really important idea in probability. You’re going to learn much more about it in this Section. Section 6.3 Explor a tion — Pick a Card 339 Explora

Lesson

6.3.1 California Standard: Statistics, Data Analysis and Probability 3.5 Understand the difference between independent and dependent events.

Section 6.3

Independent and Dependent Events In Section 6.2, you came across the idea that you can figure out the probability that an event will happen. This Lesson is all about how different events can affect each other — how one event happening can affect the probability of another event happening.

What it means for you:

One Event Happening Can Affect Later Probabilities

You’ll learn the difference in math between events that don’t affect what happens later, and those that do.

A really important idea in probability is whether events are independent or dependent. Imagine Luis and Gabrielle both belong to a gym...

Key words: • • • •

independent events dependent events probability event

(i) Each morning when he wakes up, Luis decides completely at random whether he’ll go to the gym that day or not. Every day, the probability that Luis will go to the gym is 0.7. (ii) Gabrielle has a different system. If Gabrielle has been to the gym the previous day, she is less likely to want to go the next day too. If she went to the gym yesterday, the probability she will go to the gym today is 0.1. But if she didn’t go to the gym yesterday, then the probability she will go today is 0.8. Other events do not affect the probability that Luis will go to the gym, so this event is independent of others. However, the probability of the event “Gabrielle will go to the gym today” is dependent on the event “Gabrielle went to the gym yesterday.”

Check it out: In the gym example, Luis decided at random what to do. Events that happen at random are always independent.

Independent Events Two events are independent if one event happening doesn’t affect the probability of the other event happening. In other words, independent events have no influence on each other.

Example

1

Which of the following pairs of events are independent, and which are dependent? (i) “Throwing a head on a coin,” and “throwing a 6 on a die.” (ii) “Throwing a head on a coin on the first spin,” and “throwing a head on a coin on the second spin.” Solution

(i) The result of the coin toss doesn’t affect the result of throwing the die, so these events are independent. (ii) The result of the first coin toss doesn’t affect the result of the second toss, so these events are also independent.

340

Section 6.3 — Dependent and Independent Events

Guided Practice Check it out: For events to be independent, the result of the first should have no effect at all on the result of the second.

1. Mr. Garcia has an apple, a banana, and a peach. He randomly picks one piece of fruit and eats it. Then he picks another and eats it. Are the events “eats the apple first” and “eats the apple second” independent? Explain your answer. 2. Every day after school Dominic goes running, cycling, or swimming. He chooses randomly which activity to do. Are the events “Dominic runs on Monday” and “Dominic runs on Tuesday” independent? Explain your answer. 3. The basketball squad need to choose a captain and a co-captain. They pick a captain from the team. From the remaining players, they then select a co-captain. Are the events “Letisha becomes captain” and “Letisha becomes co-captain” independent? Explain your answer.

Coins and Spinners Give Independent Events Events based on tossing coins and spinning spinners are always independent. The result of one coin toss, or one spin on a spinner, doesn’t affect what happens on later tosses or spins. Example Check it out: The example talks about a fair coin. This means it’s just as likely to land on heads as tails. It’s not biased in any way.

2

You toss a fair coin three times. On your first toss, it lands on heads. What is the probability of the coin landing on heads with: (i) your second toss? (ii) your third toss? Solution

Coin tosses are always independent. This means that the result of one coin toss doesn’t affect the probability of any of the later results. Whenever you toss a fair coin, heads and tails are both equally likely. So for a fair coin, P(heads) = 0.5 and P(tails) = 0.5. (i) This means that for your second toss: P(heads) = 0.5. (ii) This also means that for your third toss: P(heads) = 0.5.

Example Check it out: Here, the events “spinner lands on blue” and “spinner lands on green” are not equally likely. However, they are independent — the result of one spin does not affect the probability of getting blue or green on later spins.

3

You spin the spinner shown on the right two times. The probability of the spinner landing on blue is 0.35. The first two spins land on blue. What is the probability that the third spin also lands on blue? Solution

The spins of a spinner are independent. So it doesn’t matter what the first two results were, the probability of it landing on blue with the third spin must be 0.35. Section 6.3 — Dependent and Independent Events

341

Guided Practice Say whether Events A and B in Exercises 4–7 are independent. 4. Kalisa tosses a coin twice. Event A: She tosses a head with her first throw. Event B: She tosses a tail with her second throw. 5. Jordan rolls a number cube twice. Event A: He throws a 2 on the first throw. Event B: He throws a number less than 3 on the second throw. 6. Madison spins the spinner shown two times and gets purple on both spins. He then spins the spinner two further times. Event A: He gets purple with his third spin. Event B: He gets purple with his fourth spin. 7. Ethan has two bags, each with 5 numbered chips in it. He picks one chip from each bag. Event A: He picks the chip numbered 2 from the first bag. Event B: He picks the chip numbered 2 from the second bag.

Independent Practice Explain your answer to each of Exercises 1–3.

Now try these: Lesson 6.3.1 additional questions — p460

1. Maria likes both fish and carrots, but she never eats them in the same meal. Are the events “eats fish for her evening meal” and “eats carrots with her evening meal” independent? 2. You spin a spinner numbered 1–10, then toss a coin, and then roll a number cube. Are the events “spin a 7,” “throw a tail,” and “throw a 4” independent? 3. There are 23 instruments. The 23 class members take it in turn to pick an instrument each to play. Are the events “the first student picks a drum” and “the second student picks a flute” independent? Say whether Events A and B in Exercises 4–5 are independent. 4. You toss a coin 10 times. Event A: the 9th toss is a head. Event B: the 10th toss is a head. 5. Ted has five different-colored pens. Each day, he picks one to take to school, but he never takes the same pen more than once in a week. Event A: He takes the red pen on Monday. Event B: He takes the blue pen on Tuesday.

Round Up If one event has no effect at all on the probability of another event, then they are independent of each other. It doesn’t mean that the probabilities have to be equal — remember the spinner in Example 3 — they just have to be unaffected by what’s gone before. There’s more about this next Lesson. 342

Section 6.3 — Dependent and Independent Events

Lesson

6.3.2 California Standard: Statistics, Data Analysis and Probability 3.5 Understand the difference between independent and dependent events.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to recognize when events are affecting each other by looking at probabilities.

Key words: • • • • •

dependent event independent event outcome probability replacement

Don’t forget: You saw in Section 6.2 that the formula for calculating the probability of an event happening is: Favorable outcomes Probability = Possible outcomes

If you need a reminder, you can see more about this in Lesson 6.2.2.

Events and Probabilities In the last Lesson, you saw that some events affect what happens later, while others don’t. This Lesson talks about dependent and independent events in a bit more detail.

Probabilities of Independent Events Don’t Change To decide if events are independent, you can look at probabilities. If one event’s probability is affected by another event, they’re dependent. Example

1

There are 2 red marbles and 1 blue marble in a bag. You pick a marble, put it to one side, and then pick another. Show that the events “picking a red marble with the first pick” and “picking a red marble with the second pick” are dependent. Solution

Suppose you pick a red marble with your first pick. Then there is one red marble and one blue marble 1 left in the bag. So P(pick red with second pick) = . 2 Now suppose you don’t pick a red marble with your first pick. This means there are two red marbles left in the bag. So P(pick red with second pick) = 1. Whether the first event happens or not affects the probability of the second event. So the two events are dependent. This next example is identical, except the first marble is put back. Example

2

There are 2 red marbles and 1 blue marble in a bag. You pick a marble, put it back, and then pick another. Show that the events “picking a red marble with the first pick” and “picking a red marble with the second pick” are independent. Solution

Suppose you pick a red marble with your first pick, then put it back. There will still be two red marbles and one blue 2 marble in the bag. So P(pick red with second pick) = . 3 Now suppose you pick the blue marble with your first pick, then put it back. There will still be two red marbles and one

2 . 3 Whether the first event happens or not does not affect the probability of the second event. So the two events are independent.

blue marble in the bag. So P(pick red with second pick) =

Section 6.3 — Dependent and Independent Events

343

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–3, calculate the probability of Event B twice: (i) when Event A has happened, and (ii) when Event A did not happen. Use your answers to decide whether Events A and B are dependent. 1. Calvin has a bag with six counters in it, numbered 1–6. He pulls out a counter and puts it to one side. Then he pulls out another counter. Event A: He pulls out the counter numbered 1 on his first pick. Event B: He pulls out the counter numbered 1 on his second pick. 2. Madison spins the spinner shown on the right 2 times. Event A: She spins purple with her first spin. Event B: She spins green with her second spin. 3. Jordan rolls a number cube twice. Event A: He gets a 4 with his first roll. Event B: He gets an odd number with his second roll.

Selection with Replacement Gives Independent Events

Don’t forget: Examples 1 and 2 also show how replacing (or not replacing) the first item affects probabilities for the second pick.

A lot of the probability situations you’ll meet in this grade are connected with selecting various objects at random. Once you’ve made your first pick, there are two things you can do before you make your second pick: (i) you can put the first object back, or (ii) you can make your second pick without putting the first pick back. Putting the first pick back means your two selections are independent. Example

3

Kalisa picks a card from a standard deck, and then puts it back. She then picks another card. Show that the events “picking a red card with her first pick,” and “picking a black card with her second pick,” are independent. Solution

Since Kalisa has replaced her first card, it doesn’t matter what she got with her first pick. Either way, the deck will contain exactly the same cards for her second pick. Since there are 52 cards in total, and 26 of them are black, the probability that she gets a black card with her second pick is: 26 1 = P(black) = 52 2

26

26

If the first card is not put back, then the deck has changed for the second pick. This means that the probabilities for the second pick will change. So not replacing your first pick will always lead to dependent events. 344

Section 6.3 — Dependent and Independent Events

Example

4

Kalisa picks a card from a standard deck, and then puts it to one side. She then picks another card. Check it out: If the first selection is not replaced, this affects what you can choose from for your second pick. This means probabilities for your second pick are affected by what happens with your first pick, which makes events dependent.

Show that the events “picking a red card with her first pick,” and “picking a black card with her second pick,” are dependent. Solution

Suppose Kalisa picks a red card with her first pick. For her second pick, there will now be 51 cards 26 — 26 black and 25 red. So P(black) = . 51 But if she picks a black card with her first pick, then for her second pick, there will still be 51 cards

26

25

25

26

25 . 51 As these probabilities are different, the two events must be dependent.

— but this time, 25 black and 26 red. So P(black) =

Guided Practice Don’t forget: Vowels are A, E, I, O, and U. All other letters are consonants.

4. Kadema has 26 cards in a bag, each marked with a different letter of the alphabet. He picks one letter, puts it to one side, then draws out a second letter. Show that the events “picks a vowel with first pick” and “picks a consonant with second pick” are dependent. In Exercises 5–6, say whether the selections are independent. 5. Melisenda picks a four-digit combination for her school locker. She chooses each digit at random. 6. Corran also picks a four-digit combination for his locker. He decides not to use each digit more than once.

Independent Practice 1. Necie has a bag with six counters in it, numbered from 1 to 6. He pulls out a counter, keeps it and then pulls out another. By calculating probabilities, show that the events “picks odd number with first pick” and “picks even number with second pick” are dependent. Now try these: Lesson 6.3.2 additional questions — p461

In Exercises 2–3, say whether the selections are dependent. 2. Each month, the class picks a different student to be a hall monitor. 3. Jessica is holding three long straws and one short straw. The ends are hidden so that nobody can see which is the shortest. One at a time, Jessica’s four friends draw a straw until Jessica has no straws left. 4. When you pick items at random from a selection, why do they have to be put back in for the events to be independent?

Round Up To decide whether events are dependent or independent, you have to look at probabilities. But... there’s sometimes a shortcut — selecting without replacement always leads to dependent events. Section 6.3 — Dependent and Independent Events

345

Lesson

6.3.3

Calculating Probabilities of Independent Events

California Standard: Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 3.4 Understand that the probability of either of two disjoint events occurring is the sum of the two individual probabilities and that the probability of one event following another, in independent trials, is the product of the two probabilities.

What it means for you: You’ll see that there’s a formula you can use to figure out the probability that two events will both happen.

You’ve already seen in Section 6.2 how to figure out the probability that an event will happen. And you saw in the last Lesson how you can use those probabilities to show that two events are independent. In this Lesson, you’ll see a formula to work out the probability that two independent events happen in a row.

You Can Show Outcomes for Two Actions in a Table Think about rolling two dice. What’s the probability of rolling two numbers higher than 3? Example

3

1 5

1

You have a red die and a blue die. Draw a table showing all the possible outcomes of rolling these two dice. Shade the outcomes that show rolling two numbers higher than 3. What is the probability of rolling higher than 3 on both dice? Solution

• • • •

First draw your table. Blue die

Key words: independent event probability outcome

2

Don’t forget:

1 2 3 4 5 6

The purple boxes show outcomes greater than 3 on both rolls.

(1,1)(1,2) (1,3)(1,4) (1,5) (1,6) (2,1)(2,2) (2,3)(2,4) (2,5) (2,6) (3,1)(3,2) (3,3)(3,4) (3,5) (3,6) (4,1)(4,2) (4,3)(4,4) (4,5) (4,6) (5,1)(5,2) (5,3)(5,4) (5,5) (5,6) (6,1)(6,2) (6,3)(6,4) (6,5) (6,6)

}

Bottom 3 rows show a number greater than 3 on blue die.

}

Example 1 uses the same method as Section 6.2.

Red die 1 2 3 4 5 6

3 columns on the right show a number greater than 3 on red die.

The probability of rolling greater than 3 on both dice is: P(red die > 3 and blue die > 3) =

# favorable outcomes 9 1 = = # possible outcomes 36 4

Guided Practice 1. How many ways can you score over 3 using a single die? 2. How many ways can you get two scores over 3 using two dice? 3. What is the probability of scoring over 3 using a single die? 4. What is the probability of getting two scores over 3 using two dice? 5. When you roll two dice, are the events “roll over 3 on die 1” and “roll over 3 on die 2” independent? Justify your answer. 6. What do you notice about your answers to Exercises 1 and 2? And what do you notice about your answers to Exercises 3 and 4? 346

Section 6.3 — Dependent and Independent Events

Multiply Probabilities If Events Are Independent There’s actually a quicker way to work out the probability in Example 1. It means you don’t have to draw a table.

The probability of getting more than 3 on the blue die is

Don’t forget: 1 P(get over 3 on a die) = . 2

blue die

red die 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 . 2

blue die

To begin with, just imagine the table showing all the possible results for red die throwing the two dice. 1 2 3 4 5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6

The probability that any of these rolls will be 1 followed by more than 3 on the red die is also 2 .

To find the fraction of the possible outcomes that show over 3 on both dice, you’ve found

1 2

of

1 . 2

over 3 on both dice must be

This means that the probability of getting 1 1 1 × = 2 2 4

— you’ve multiplied probabilities.

In fact, for any two independent events...

P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B) Don’t forget: These events are independent. Look back to Example 1 of Lesson 6.3.1 if you don’t remember what this means.

Example

2

What is the probability of: (i) Throwing a head on a coin, and then throwing a 6 on a die? (ii) Throwing a head on a coin on the first toss, and then throwing another head on the coin on the second toss? Solution

1 1 , and P(6 on a die) = . 2 6 1 1 1 So P(head and a 6) = × = 2 6 12 1 1 1 1 (ii) P(head on a coin) = , so P(a head on two tosses) = × = 2 2 2 4 (i) P(head on a coin) =

Sometimes, you have to use the formula the “wrong way around.” Example

3

The probability of a spinner landing on red is 0.25. The probability of spinning red and then green is 0.0625. What is the probability of spinning green? Solution

Use a variable (x, say) for the probability of the spinner landing on green. This means P(green) = x, and P(red) = 0.25. These events are independent, so P(red, then green) = 0.25x. But you also know that P(red, then green) = 0.0625. Put these together and you find that 0.25x = 0.0625. So x = 0.0625 ÷ 0.25 = 0.25 Divide both sides by 0.25 to find x. So the probability of spinning green is 0.25. Section 6.3 — Dependent and Independent Events

347

Guided Practice Exercises 7–14 are about the bag of marbles on the right. You draw a marble from the bag shown, note its color, and replace it. Then you draw another one. 7. Will the result of the first pick affect the probability of picking a particular color with the second pick? Explain your answer. 8. Are the two draws independent or dependent? In Exercises 9–14, find the probabilities of the given events. 9. P(pick green) 10. P(pick blue) 11. P(pick red) 12. P(pick green, then red) 13. P(red, then green) 14. P(blue, then red, then green) Check it out: In Exercise 15, you know P(A and B), and you have to find P(B).

15. Pepe picks a hat and scarf to wear at random from his drawer. The probability he picks a red hat is 0.4. The probability he picks a red hat and a blue scarf is 0.1. Find the probability he picks a blue scarf.

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, find the probability of rolling the numbers shown on two number cubes. 1. P(6 and 6) 2. P(1 then 6) 3. P(even number, then odd number) 4. P(odd number, then less than 3) 5. P(less than 6, then less than 2) 6. P(more than 2, then less than 4) 7. Noah picks a red card from a standard deck. He keeps it and picks 1 1 1 another, which is also red. He says the probability of this is 2 × 2 = 4 . Is he correct? Explain your answer. 8. Ceri draws a marble from one bag, and a shape from another bag. The probability of picking a green marble and then a square is 5

Now try these: Lesson 6.3.3 additional questions — p461

5 . 24

If the probability of picking a green marble is 6 , what is the probability of picking a square? 9. Dominique has a bag of nine marbles, of which two are red. She draws a blue marble, puts it back, and then draws a red marble. 8 The probability of this combination of events was 81 . Calculate the number of blue marbles in the bag.

Round Up If two events are independent, then you can find the probability that they both happen by multiplying probabilities together. This can save you lots of time, because it means you don’t have to draw tables or tree diagrams. 348

Section 6.3 — Dependent and Independent Events

Section 6.4 introduction — an exploration into:

Shooting Bask ets Baskets You can use the past to predict the future — that much is almost common sense. But doing it accurately is where you need math. That doesn’t mean you can say for sure exactly what’s going to happen in the future, but it does mean you don’t have to make a wild guess. For this Exploration you need to work in teams. Your team is going to try to score “baskets” by throwing balls of paper into the trashcan from: (i) 2 meters, and (ii) 5 meters. First, the team will take a total of 20 shots from each distance. Before starting to throw, everyone has to make a prediction of how many shots the team will make. Record your predictions in a table like this one.

So if there are 4 people in your team, each person takes 5 shots shots.

Distance from trash can 2 meters 5 meters

Prediction for 20 shots

Actual result for 20 shots

The team should now take 20 shots from each distance. Record the results in your table.

Exercises 1. Calculate: a. the fraction of baskets that you predicted the team would make, Divide the number of baskets predicted/made by 20 20. b. the fraction of baskets that the team actually made. 2. How close was your prediction?

Subtract the percent made from the percent predicted predicted.

The team is now going to take 30 extra shots from: (i) 2 meters, and (ii) 5 meters. Before throwing, each person must again predict Prediction for Actual result how many baskets the team will make. 30 shots for 30 shots Use your data from the first 20 shots at each distance to help. Extend your table to record your predictions and the results. The team should now take 30 shots from each distance. Record the results in your table.

Exercises 3. Explain how you used the data from the first 20 shots to make predictions for 30 shots. 4. Subtract the fraction made from the fraction predicted to see how good the predictions were. 5. How many shots would you predict the team would make if it took 100 shots? You can use the data from your tables. Explain how you made your estimate this time.

Round Up Did the data from the first 20 shots help you to make a better prediction of what would happen on the next 30? Even if you didn’t predict exactly what would happen on the 30 shots, making the second prediction was hopefully easier than the first (which was probably just a guess). Section 6.4 Explor a tion — Shooting Baskets 349 Explora

Lesson

6.4.1

Relative Frequency

California Standard:

In Section 6.2, you saw how to work out the probability that an event will happen by looking at how likely different possible outcomes are. Relative frequency is another kind of probability measure — but it’s based on looking at outcomes from the past.

Statistics, Data Analysis and Probability 3.2 Use data to estimate the probability of future events (e.g., batting averages or number of accidents per mile driven).

What it means for you: You’ll see how to use the results of experiments that you’ve already done to predict the results of future experiments.

Relative Frequency Shows Past Results If you repeat an action such as tossing a coin or spinning a spinner a number of times, you can look at how often one particular outcome occurs. This is called the relative frequency of the outcome. You calculate relative frequency by dividing the number of times you saw one outcome by the number of times that you did the experiment. Relative Frequency:

Key words: • • • •

Relative Frequency =

relative frequency experimental probability outcome trial

Example Check it out: The word “trial” means an action. So tossing a coin once is one trial, tossing a coin twice is two trials, and so on. The word “experiment” can also be used.

number of times outcome occurred number of trials

1

You toss a coin 100 times. It lands heads 47 times, and tails 53 times. Find the relative frequency of the coin landing on tails. Solution

number of times outcome occurred number of trials 53 = 100

Relative Frequency =

Check it out: Like a probability, relative frequency can be a fraction, a decimal, or a percentage. So you could write the answer to Example 1 as 53%.

53 100

Example

2

You roll a number cube 500 times. You get the following results. Score

1

2

3

4

5

6

Frequency

89

82

85

77

88

79

, 0.53, or

Calculate the relative frequency of each score to 3 decimal places. Solution

Check it out: If you work out the relative frequencies of all the possible results, then they should add up to 1 — just like probabilities.

350

To calculate a score’s relative frequency, divide the frequency by the total number of rolls. 89 For example, the relative frequency of 1 is = 0.178 500 Doing the same for the other scores gives the following: Score

1

2

3

4

5

6

Relative Frequency

0.178

0.164

0.170

0.154

0.176

0.158

Section 6.4 — Experimental Probability

Guided Practice Find the relative frequencies described in Exercises 1–3. 1. You toss a coin 56 times. Heads comes up 23 times. Find the relative frequencies of heads and tails. 2. A 3-section spinner was spun 99 times. Blue came up 37 times, red 58 times, and green the remainder. Find the relative frequency of each color. 3. For a probability experiment, Tim picked a card from a standard deck, recorded the suit, and then replaced the card. He then repeated this until he had picked a total of 200 times. His results are shown in the table. Find the relative frequency of each suit.

Hearts

58

Diamonds

43

Clubs

51

Spades

48

Relative Frequency Can Be Used as a Probability Check it out: A theoretical probability is one that you work out by comparing how likely it is that each possible outcome of a trial will happen. You can say that, since a coin has two sides, the theoretical probability of a tail is 0.5. An experimental probability is one that you calculate by working out how often an outcome has occurred in past experiments — its relative frequency. You can say that if you flip a coin 100 times and get 52 tails, the experimental probability of a tail is 0.52.

Relative frequency can be used to estimate probability. When you do this, you’re using the past to predict the future. This kind of probability is called an experimental probability. Example

3

The spinner on the right was spun 1000 times. The results are shown in the table. Use these results to estimate the probability of the next spin landing on: (i) red, (ii) green. Solution

Red

514

Green

2 21

Relative frequency can be used as a probability. Blue 265 (i) Use the relative frequency of red. So the experimental probability of red is 514 ÷ 1000 = 0.514. (ii) Use the relative frequency of green. So the experimental probability of green is 221 ÷ 1000 = 0.221. Relative frequency can be used as a probability in all sorts of situations. Example

4

In a medical study of 1000 people suffering from a particular condition, 630 patients saw an improvement after taking a new drug. Based on these results, estimate the probability that another patient with the same condition will see an improvement after taking the new drug. Solution

Use relative frequency as a measure of probability. Relative frequency =

Number of people improved 630 = = 0.63 Number of people in study 1000

P(another patient improving) = 0.63 Section 6.4 — Experimental Probability

351

Guided Practice 4. A school is looking at the data concerning where its pupils live. The school has 1121 pupils altogether, and 267 of them come from Town A. Based on this, what is the probability that the next student to enroll at the school will live in Town A? 5. A school wants to start a new sports club. It takes a poll of the students to see which sport is most popular. The numbers of votes so far for each sport are shown in the table on the right. One more student is still to vote. Use the results to find the probability this student will vote for each sport.

Spor t

Votes

Tae kwon do 219 Lacrosse

11 3

Surfing

37 5

6. The Green Club asks members how many aluminium cans their families had bought and how many of these they had recycled, during the past month. They found that 247 cans had been bought, of which 229 had been recycled, the rest thrown away. Estimate the probability that the next can bought by a member will be thrown away.

Independent Practice 1. A spinner is spun 100 times, and lands on red 27 times. Calculate the relative frequency of landing on red. 2. You plan to toss a coin 25 times. What should you do to find the relative frequency of heads? Don’t forget: The frequency of an outcome is just how many times it happens. So if you see 5 red cars in an hour, you can say that the frequency of red cars in your survey is 5.

Now try these: Lesson 6.4.1 additional questions — p461

3. Peppa spins a triangular spinner 20 times. It lands on red 7 times and lands 5 times on blue. If Peppa spins the spinner again, estimate the probability that it will land on its third side – green. 4. Pepe does a survey of the color of cars that pass his house in one hour. His data is shown in the table on the right. Calculate the relative frequency of each car color.

Car Color

Frequency

Red

23

Blue

7

Silver

16

5. A factory randomly tests its goods for faults. The whole day’s output is tested if the probability of getting a faulty item is greater than 0.02. On day A, 21 items out of 948 randomly tested were faulty. On day B, 14 out of 999 tested were faulty. Does the whole day’s output for either of these days need to be tested again? If yes, then which day(s)? Color

Frequency Relative Frequency

Green

12%

Orange

60%

Purple

28%

6. A 3-section spinner was spun 25 times, giving the results shown in the table on the left. Fill in the frequency of each color.

Round Up You can use relative frequency as a measure of how likely something is to happen. And you can use it for events where you couldn’t work out a probability in other ways. It’s a way of using your experience of the past to predict an outcome in the future. You’ll see more about all this in the next Lesson. 352

Section 6.4 — Experimental Probability

Lesson

6.4.2

Making Predictions

California Standard:

Experimental probability is all about using the relative frequency of an outcome to work out the probability that the same outcome will happen again. Like all probability, it’s about making predictions.

Statistics, Data Analysis and Probability 3.2 Use data to estimate the probability of future events (e.g., batting averages or number of accidents per mile driven).

What it means for you: You’ll see how to use the results of experiments that you’ve already done to predict the results of future experiments.

Key words: • • • •

experimental probability theoretical probability relative frequency estimate

Check it out: If a die is “biased,” it means it doesn’t behave like a die should — for example, maybe it comes down on “1” much more often than you’d expect. In the same way, a coin that landed on heads 80 times out of 100 is probably biased — you’d expect about 50 heads, and 80 is a lot more than this. A coin/die that isn’t biased is usually described as either “fair” or “unbiased.”

Don’t forget: This is the same as with theoretical probability — multiply the number of trials by an event’s probability to predict the number of times that event will happen. Experimental probability is useful in areas like business and sports — where theoretical probability is tricky to calculate and lots of old data is available.

Create Your Own Data to Estimate Probability You can use experimental probability to predict the outcome of an experiment when you can’t use theoretical probability. For example, using experimental probabilities might be the only way you can make predictions about a biased die. Example

1

Pepe has an odd-shaped die, which he thinks will be biased. Describe how he could find the probability of scoring a 3 using this die. Solution

3

1 2

Pepe would need to undertake some trials. He should roll the die, say, 100 times, and count the number of times he scored 3. He can then work out the relative frequency. For example, if he scores 3 on 40 occasions, he would 40 2 = say that the probability of scoring 3 in the future would be: 100 5

Guided Practice 1. Sandi rolled a biased die 150 times and found that it landed on the number 4 a total of 40 times. What is the experimental probability that the coin will land on 4 with the next throw? 2. Juan stuck some modeling clay to one side of a coin and tossed it 20 times. He found that it landed on heads 15 times. Find the experimental probability that the coin will land on heads next time.

Use Experimental Probabilities with Real-Life Events You can use relative frequency to estimate the number of times something will happen in the future. Example

2

At a factory, the relative frequency of tires failing a safety test is 0.01. Estimate how many tires will fail the test in a batch of 4000. Solution

The experimental probability that a tire will fail is 0.01. Multiply the number of tires by this probability to estimate the number that will fail: 4000 × 0.01 = 40 tires Section 6.4 — Experimental Probability

353

Don’t forget: To work out a batting average, divide the number of hits by the number of times at bat.

Baseball batting averages are examples of relative frequency, or experimental probability. Example

3

Barry has had 15 hits in 50 times at bat. What is his batting average? If he has the same batting average for his next 30 at bats, how many hits will he get? Solution

Batting average = Hits ÷ Number of at bats = 15 ÷ 50 = .300 To find the number of hits in Barry’s next 30 at bats, multiply 30 by his batting average: 30 × .300 = 9 hits

Guided Practice 3. On the basketball court, Kobe made 17 shots out of 20. Use relative frequency to estimate how many baskets he will make in 300 shots. 4. In a survey of 50 students, 23 said that they rode the bus to school. If these 50 students are representative of the whole school, how many students out of 1350 would you estimate will ride the bus to school? 5. In the past, School A’s football team has beaten School B’s team in 40% of their games. Based on these results, how many of next season’s 5 games would you estimate School A will win?

The More Data You Have, the Better When you work out experimental probability, the more trials that you do, the more accurate your estimate is likely to be. A probability based on 1000 trials is likely to be more accurate than one based on 10. Example

Don’t forget: To work out the experimental probability of rolling a 6, divide the number of favorable outcomes by the total number of possible outcomes. See Lesson 6.2.2 for more information.

4

Alan rolls a fair number-cube 10 times, and records the scores. He then rolls it a further 90 times and records these scores too. Calculate the experimental probability of Score 1 2 3 4 each score based on: In 10 rolls 2 0 1 3 (i) 10 rolls, (ii) 100 rolls. In 100 rolls 19 17 15 14

5

6

3

1

17 18

Which set of probabilities is likely to give more accurate predictions? Solution

You can use a table. 1

2

3

4

5

6

Relative Frequency after 10 rolls

Score

2÷10 = 0.2

0÷10 = 0

1÷10 = 0.1

3÷10= 0.3

3÷10 = 0.3

1÷10 = 0.1

Relative Frequency after 100 rolls

19÷100 = 0.19

17÷100 = 0.17

15÷100 = 0.15

14÷100 = 0.14

17÷100 = 0.17

18÷100 = 0.18

The probabilities based on 100 rolls are likely to give better predictions. 354

Section 6.4 — Experimental Probability

Example

5

Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 Alan then rolls his number In 1000 rolls 171 164 166 170 161 168 cube a further 900 times. He now has a total of 1000 results. How do his results for 10 rolls, 100 rolls, and 1000 rolls compare with the theoretical probability for each score?

Solution

Find the experimental probabilities for 1000 rolls in exactly the same way as for Example 4. Score

Check it out: As you get more and more data, your experimental probabilities should get closer and closer to the theoretical probabilities.

Relative Frequency after 1000 rolls

1

2

3

4

5

6

0.171

0.164

0.166

0.17

0.161

0.168

The theoretical probability of each score is 1 ÷ 6 = 0.1666... = 0.166 . The greater the number of rolls, the closer most of the experimental probabilities are to the theoretical probability.

Guided Practice Sarah has a fair five-color spinner, as shown. 6. What is the theoretical probability of it landing on each color? 7. She spins it 12 times and gets the results in the table. Colour Frequency

Don’t forget: You can use experimental probability to predict the outcome of any event. But it’s most useful when you’re looking at real-life events whose theoretical probabilities are impossible to calculate.

Now try these: Lesson 6.4.2 additional questions — p462

Red

Blue

Yellow

Purple

Green

1

1

3

2

5

Find the experimental probability for each color, using these results. 8. How would you expect her experimental probabilities to change if she spun the spinner 1000 times?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, use the relative frequency given to estimate the number of times that event A will occur in 20 trials. 1. P(A) = 0.2 2. P(A) = 30% 1 3. P(A) = 5 4. P(A) = 0 Manny has a batting average of .350. Use this to find: 5. the expected number of hits if he batted 100 times. 6. the expected number of hits if he batted 40 times. 7. the expected number of hits if he batted 220 times. 8. Mrs. Hill cycles to work. She notes what color the traffic lights are when she reaches them. She finds they are red on two-fifths of the times she reaches them. Based on these figures, how many times in 20 trips are the lights likely to be red when she arrives?

Round Up You can use experimental probability to predict the outcome of an event based upon data you’ve collected previously. This is all about using information from the past to predict the future. Section 6.4 — Experimental Probability

355

Chapter 6 Investigation

A Game of Chance The producers of a new TV game show, “Wheel of Dollars,” need a wheel for contestants to spin. The wheel will be divided up into equally-sized sections, and each section marked with a prize. Part 1: The producers need the wheel to be designed so that the llars $$$ heel of Do W $ $ $ probabilities of winning the amounts shown below are: $100 • P(win $100) = 0.35 • P(win $200) = 0.3 • P(win $300) = 0.2 • P(win $500) = 0.1 • P(win $1000) = x (There are no other possible outcomes.) 00 $1

2

$

$100

0 0

$500

Design a wheel for use on the game show.

Remember... each section on the wheel must be the same size.

Things to think about: Clue: write P(win $1000) as a fraction. • What is the probability of winning $1000? • What is the minimum number of sections your wheel will need? Part 2: There will be 26 programs in the game show’s first season. In each show, the wheel is spun a total of 15 times. How much should the producers expect to pay out in prizes? Things to think about: • How many times would you expect each event to occur? Extension To increase the excitement, one “$100” section is made into a “Bankrupt” section. If a contestant spins “Bankrupt,” they leave, and lose all the prizes they had won to that point. If they don’t spin “Bankrupt,” they can either spin again, or keep their prizes and leave. • What is the probability of landing on the “Bankrupt” section on your wheel? • What is the probability that a contestant will land on “Bankrupt” in 2 spins? In 3 spins? Open-ended Extensions 1) The producers want to make the show even more exciting for the viewers. • How could you arrange the prizes on your wheel to make it as exciting as possible? • How could you change the rules of the game to make the show more exciting? 2) Select a simple card game, game show, board game, or computer game that is based on chance. Describe the game, the outcomes, and the number of ways to obtain each outcome. Calculate the theoretical or experimental probability of each outcome. Does the game try to make it appear that there is a good chance of winning? How?

Round Up Lots of games are based on chance. That’s where probability can be very important. You might not be able to say for certain what will happen, but you can say what’s likely. pter 6 In vestig a tion — A Game of Chance Chapter Inv estiga 356 Cha

Chapter 7 Geometry

Section 7.1

Exploration — Circle Ratios ...................................... 358 Circles ....................................................................... 359

Section 7.2

Exploration — Folding Angles ................................... 369 Angles ....................................................................... 370

Section 7.3

Exploration — Sorting Shapes .................................. 388 Two-Dimensional Figures .......................................... 389

Section 7.4

Exploration — Building Cylinders .............................. 405 Three-Dimensional Figures ....................................... 406

Section 7.5

Generalizing Results ................................................. 419

Chapter Investigation — Reclining Chairs ........................................ 427

357

Section 7.1 introduction — an exploration into:

Cir c le R a tios Circ Ra Circles are everywhere. For example, wheels are circular. So are CDs. So are some mugs, trashcans, tables, plates, pies... Even the Earth is circular when you look at it from space. It’s no wonder you have to learn about them. But there’s a lot you can work out for yourself. First, there are two technical words about circles you need to know: • The distance all the way around the outside of a circle is called the circumference. • The distance through the center from one side of a circle to the other is called the diameter. Now find 5 circular objects of various sizes.

circumference

diameter

For example, a trashcan, a cup, a plate, a CD... anything anything.

You need to measure their circumference and diameter as accurately as possible. 1) Measure the diameter of each of your circles using a meter stick or a ruler. 2) Use some string to find the circumference of each circle. • Loop the string around the the object. • Mark the length needed to go all the way around. • Now measure this length, and record the result.

Object Mug Plate

Diameter (cm) Circumference (cm) 9.2 28.9 24.3 76.6

3) Record your measurements in a table like this one. Example For each of your circles, find the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. Solution

Divide the bigger

Add an extra column to your table. number by the smaller smaller. Divide each circle’s circumference by its diameter. Record the result as a decimal, to the nearest hundredth. Use a calculator.

Ratio: circumference ÷ diameter 3.14 3.15

Exercises 1. Is there a pattern to the ratios in the third column of your table? 2. Compare your results with a partner. Are they similar? Or different? What about the results of the rest of the class? Are they similar or different? 3. Use your results to complete this sentence: For any circle, the ratio of the circumference to the diameter ___________________. 4. A regulation basketball hoop has a diameter of 18 inches. Find its circumference.

Hint... Use your result from Exercise 3.

Round Up The link between a circle’s circumference and its diameter is one of the most important results in math. And if this Exploration went well, then you’ve just worked it out for yourself. There’s a lot more information about circles in this Section of this book. a tion — Circle Ratios Explora 358 Section 7.1 Explor

Lesson

Section 7.1

7.1.1

Parts of a Circle

California Standards:

Circles are all around you. They’re an important type of shape because they have some special features that other shapes just don’t have. You’re going to learn about these special features in this Lesson.

Algebra and Functions 3.1 Use variables in expressions describing geometric quantities (e.g., 1 P = 2w + 2l, A = bh, C = pd 2 — the formulas for the perimeter of a rectangle, the area of a triangle, and the circumference of a circle, respectively). Algebra and Functions 3.2 Express in symbolic form simple relationships arising from geometry.

All Circles Have Certain Features in Common The parts of a circle have special names. The center of a circle is the point in the middle that is an equal distance from all points of the circle. The red dot in this picture is at the center.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about the parts of a circle, including how some of them relate to each other.

The radius of a circle is the distance from the center to the edge of the circle. It is shown by a straight line from anywhere on the edge to the center of the circle.

Key words: • • • •

The blue line in this picture represents the radius of the circle.

circle center radius diameter

The diameter of a circle is the greatest distance from one edge of the circle to the other. It is shown by a straight line that passes through the center. The green line in this picture represents the diameter of the circle.

Example

Check it out:

1

Which letters show: • a radius of this circle? • a diameter?

The plural of radius is radii.

Solution

Lines A and C are both radii of the circle. Line B is a diameter of the circle. Notice that half of line B, from either edge to the center, would also be a radius.

Section 7.1 — Circles

359

Guided Practice 1. On which of these pictures does the blue line show the radius? Why do the others not?

A

B

C

D

2. On which of these pictures does the red line show the diameter? Why do the others not?

A

B

C

D

3. Mrs. Batalles is buying a circular tablecloth for her kitchen table. The tabletop is circular with a diameter of 60 in. She wants the tablecloth to hang down over the table about another 3 in. all around. Which of these tablecloths should she buy? Explain your answer. a. 66 in. diameter b. 180 in. diameter c. 63 in. diameter d. 33 in. diameter 4. This figure shows concentric circles. Use the diagram to complete this definition: Concentric circles are circles that share the same _____.

The Diameter of a Circle Is Double Its Radius The diameter of a circle is twice its radius. Example

2

A circle has a radius of 8 inches. What is its diameter? Solution

The diameter is twice the radius. So the diameter of the circle is 8 × 2 = 16 inches

In math, the letter r is often used to represent the radius. And d is used for the diameter. So you can write “the radius is 5 cm” as “r = 5 cm,” and “the diameter is 10 cm” as “d = 10 cm.” Don’t forget: The letters r and d are variables in this formula. That means they’re standing in for numbers you don’t know yet.

360

Section 7.1 — Circles

“The diameter is 2 times the radius” can be written as the formula

d = 2r

Example

3

A circle has a diameter of 22 feet. What is its radius? Solution

You can use the formula d = 2r here. d = 2r

Write out the formula

22 = 2r

Substitute d = 22

r = 22 ÷ 2

Divide by 2

r = 11 feet

Guided Practice 5. A circle has diameter 40 inches. What is its radius? 6. A circle has radius 7 cm. What is its diameter? 7. A circle has radius 3 feet. What is its diameter? 8. A circle has diameter 25 inches. What is its radius? In Exercises 9–14, find the missing measure: 9. r = 30 cm, d = ? 10. d = 30 in., r = ? 11. r = 4.6 m, d = ?

12. d =

13. d = 6.7 cm, r = ?

14. r =

2 3 2 3

yd, r = ? ft, d = ?

Independent Practice 1. A circle has radius 17 cm. What is its diameter? Now try these: Lesson 7.1.1 additional questions — p462

2. A circle has diameter 9 yards. What is its radius? In Exercises 3–6, find the missing measure: 3. r = 49 ft, d = ? 4. r = 11.5 m, d = ? 5. d = 63 in., r = ?

6. d =

4 9

yd, r = ?

7. Mr. Rodriguez has a circular clock on his wall. The minute hand reaches exactly from the center of the face to the edge, and is 6 inches long. What is the diameter of the clock face? 8. Russell is standing at the edge of a circular lake. Looking straight across the center of the lake, he sees his friend Salvador on the other side. They are 35 yards apart. What is the radius of the lake?

Round Up The radius and diameter are really important, because we can use them to work out things like the area and circumference of a circle. Make sure you know what each one means, because you will see them again soon. Section 7.1 — Circles

361

Lesson

7.1.2

Circumference and p

California Standards:

In this Lesson, you’ll learn about the distance around the outside of a circle, which is called the circumference. There is a clever way to work out the circumference if you know the radius or diameter of the circle, and it involves a special number.

Algebra and Functions 3.2 Express in symbolic form simple relationships arising from geometry. Measurement and Geometry 1.1 Understand the concept of a constant such as p ; know the formulas for the circumference and area of a circle. Measurement and Geometry 1.2

The Circumference Is Another Important Measurement The distance around the edge of a circle is called the circumference.

Circu

m

Imagine that a circle is like a loop of string. If you cut the string and laid it out flat, you could measure the length of the string.

ence fer

Algebra and Functions 3.1 Use variables in expressions describing geometric quantities (e.g., 1 P = 2w + 2l, A = bh, C = p d 2 — the formulas for the perimeter of a rectangle, the area of a triangle, and the circumference of a circle, respectively).

If you could cut a circle and lay it out in the same way, the length you measured would be the circumference.

Know common estimates of p (3.14; 22/7) and use these values to estimate and calculate the circumference and the area of circles; compare with actual measurements.

Norman is walking around the edge of a large, circular rug. By the time he is one-third of the way around it, he has walked 8 feet. What is the circumference of the rug?

What it means for you:

Solution

You’ll learn about a special number which you can use in a formula to find the circumference of a circle.

The circumference is the distance all the way around the rug.

Example

1

Norman has walked one-third of the way around, so the circumference is 3 times the distance he has walked. 3 × 8 = 24

Key words: • • • • •

circumference diameter radius pi (p) estimate

The circumference of the rug is 24 feet.

Guided Practice 1. Jack is running around a circular track. When he is halfway around, he has run 150 yards. What is the circumference of the track? 2. Judy’s scarf is 60 cm long. The scarf will go around a telephone pole exactly 3 times. What is the circumference of the pole? 3. Jorge is riding his bicycle. When he travels 5 m, his front wheel goes around 5 times. What is the circumference of the wheel?

362

Section 7.1 — Circles

Circumference Is Related to Diameter You’ve seen that the diameter is always twice the radius. Diameter and circumference are related too — the circumference of a circle is always just over three times its diameter. The diameter of this circle is 1. Its circumference is about 3.14. 1

If the diameter is doubled, the circumference also doubles.

3.14 2

6.28

In fact, circumference ÷ diameter for any circle is always 3.1415926535897... This number is very important in math. The full version of it is a never-ending decimal. There’s a special symbol mathematicians use instead of writing out the full number. The symbol is a Greek letter called pi (pronounced “pie”). It looks like this:

p

p is kind of tricky — it’s a symbol, so it looks like a variable. This is one time where a symbol doesn’t stand for an unknown. It’s just the name of a special number.

You Can Use p in a Formula to Find Circumference Using C for circumference and d for diameter, you can use p to make a formula for the circumference of a circle: Check it out: These formulas are the same because d = 2r, so p × d = p × 2r =2×p×r

C = pd This formula is often written using r for radius, like this:

C = 2p 2pr

Section 7.1 — Circles

363

Example

2

A circle has a diameter of 12 inches. What is its exact circumference? Solution

You can use the formula C = p d to solve this question. C

= p × 12 p in. = 12p

You can leave p in an exact answer, because it is a number.

Guided Practice Don’t forget: To get an exact answer, you’ll need to leave p in your answer.

In Exercises 4–9, find the exact circumference of a circle with the given diameter or radius. 4. d = 20 in. 5. d = 13 ft. 6. d = 3.5 m 7. r = 5 ft. 8. r = 26 cm 9. r = 6.3 cm

You Can Often Use a Rounded Value of p If an exercise asks you to give the exact circumference, you should always leave p in the answer. Numbers with p in them are not very easy to work with, so it is more usual to estimate the circumference by using a rounded value of p. If the radius or diameter is given as a decimal, you should use 3.14 or 3.142 as the value of p. Check it out: If you need to use an estimate of p in a question, you will usually be told what value you should use.

If the question uses fractions, you should use

22 . 7

You should normally use a rounded value of p in real-life situations.

Example

3

Alicia has a circular swimming pool. The diameter of the pool is 30 ft. What is the circumference of Alicia’s pool? Solution

Using the formula C = p d, and estimating p as 3.14, you can solve the question: C = 3.14 × 30 = 94.2 The circumference of Alicia’s pool is 94.2 ft.

364

Section 7.1 — Circles

Example

4

T.J. is cutting a circle of paper to use on a poster for a math project. 1

The circle has a radius of 3 4 in. What is its circumference? Solution

You can use the formula C = 2p 2pr, and estimate p as 22 7 22 7

C =2× =2× Check it out: Be careful when you are answering circumference questions. Make sure that you check whether the question gives the radius or the diameter.

=

572 28

= 20

=

1

22 : 7

× 34 ×

13 4

143 7

3 7

So the circumference of the circle is 20

3 7

in.

Guided Practice In Exercises 10–21, calculate the circumference of a circle with the given diameter or radius. Use p = 3.14 for Exercises 10–15. 10. d = 15 cm 11. r = 11 yd 12. d = 42 in. 13. r = 6 m 14. d = 9.2 ft 15. r = 13.5 m 22 7

Use p = 16. r =

1 3

for Exercises 16–21.

yd

19. r = 12 3 m 7

17. d =

5 8

m

20. d = 9 1 ft 9

18. r =

4 11

21. d = 1

in.

5 17

ft

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 7.1.2 additional questions — p462

In Exercises 1–9, use a suitable estimate of p to find the circumference of a circle with the given diameter or radius: 1. r =

5 6

ft

2. r = 2.75 cm

3. d = 6.3 m

4. d = 13 in.

5. r =

7 11

m

6. d = 0.75 yd

7. r = 3.3 ft

8. d =

4 3

m

9. r = 8.1 in.

10. Complete the sentence by filling in the blanks. p is the ratio of a circle's c _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ to its d _ _ _ _ _ _ _. 11. A good estimate of the height of an elephant from its foot to its shoulder is twice the circumference of its (roughly circular) foot. A zoologist in Africa finds an elephant footprint with a 12-inch diameter. Estimate how tall the elephant that left the footprint is.

Round Up p is a really useful and important number. It might look a little strange, but remember, it is just a fixed number. You will see p again many times in math, including in the next Lesson of this book. Section 7.1 — Circles

365

Lesson

7.1.3

Area of a Circle

California Standards:

You’ve already worked out the circumference of a circle using p. You might need to find the area of a circle too.

Measurement and Geometry 1.1 Understand the concept of a constant such as p; know the formulas for the circumference and area of a circle. Measurement and Geometry 1.2 Know common estimates of p (3.14; 22/7) and use these values to estimate and calculate the circumference and the area of circles; compare with actual measurements.

What it means for you: You’ll learn a formula that will help you find the area of a circle. You’ll use the formula with exact and estimated values of p.

There are a couple of ways of working out the area of a circle. You can either estimate it, or you can work it out using a formula that uses the radius and a value of p. That’s what this Lesson is about.

The Area of a Circle Is Measured in Square Units The area of a circle refers to the number of square units inside the circle. Example

1

Estimate the area of a circle with a radius of 2. Solution

Draw the circle on grid paper and count the squares inside the circle. There are 4 squares completely inside the circle. There are 8 squares almost completely inside the circle.

Key words: • • • • •

area radius diameter pi (p) estimate

There are 4 squares that are about one-quarter inside the circle. Estimated area = 4 + 8 + (4 ×

1 ) 4

= 13.

So the area is about 13 square units.

Don’t forget: One square unit is the amount of space taken up by a square with a side length of one unit.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–2, find the area of each circle by counting squares. 1. 2.

In Exercises 3–6, find the area of each circle by drawing the circle and counting squares. 3. r = 6 4. r = 4 5. r = 3.5 6. d = 10 366

Section 7.1 — Circles

You Can Find the Area of a Circle Using a Formula

Don’t forget:

Counting squares is okay if the circle is small, but not if the circle is large. There is a formula you can use to find the area of a circle. The formula for the area of a circle is:

A = p r2 where r is the radius of the circle. For more about parts of a circle, see Lesson 7.1.1

Example

2

Find the area of a circle with a diameter of

2 3

mile.

Solution

First find the radius. r =

2 3 1 3

1 2 1 × = 2 3 3

Since the radius is a fraction, use a fraction estimate for p. A = pr2 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

2

=

22 7

=

22 1 × 7 9

Simplify exponents first.

=

22 63

Then multiply out.

Substitute

1 3

for r and substitute

The area of the circle is approximately

22 63

22 7

for p .

square miles.

Don’t forget: If you use an estimated version of p (such as 3.14 ), then the answer is only or 22 7 an estimate too. If an exercise asks for an exact area, you just need to leave p in the answer.

Guided Practice In Exercises 7–15, find the estimated area of each circle with the given radius or diameter. Use p = 3.14. 7. r = 11 in. 8. r = 2.1 cm 9. d = 14 yd 10. d = 20 m 11. r = 6.4 m 12. d = 42.2 cm 13. d = 16.1 yd 14. d = 40 m 15. d = 86.4 m In Exercises 16–24, find the exact area of each circle with the given radius or diameter. 16. r = 8 in. 17. r = 7.1 cm 18. d = 44 yd 19. d = 19 m 20. r = 9 m 21. d = 21.4 cm 22. d = 12.5 yd 23. d = 16.4 m 24. d = 99.6 m

Section 7.1 — Circles

367

Use a Rounded Value of p in Real-Life Situations When you’re applying the area formula in real-life situations, you usually need to use a rounded value of p. Example

3

A weed-control company charges $1.25 a square foot to spray for weeds. If a circular flower garden has a radius of 7 ft, how much will the company charge to spray it for weeds? Solution

A = pr2 = 3.14 × r2 = 3.14 × 72 = 3.14 × 49 = 153.86

First substitute p for a rounded value. Substitute 7 for r. Simplify all exponents.

The approximate area is 153.86 ft2. Now work out the cost: Cost = (Area in square feet) × (Cost per square foot) = 153.86 × 1.25 = 192.325. Rounded to the nearest cent, the company will charge $192.33.

Guided Practice 25. A water sprinkler can be set to rotate in a full circle. If the radius of the spray is 5 ft, how many square feet of grass will the sprinkler cover in one full rotation? 26. A dessert plate has a radius of 3 in. A dinner plate has a radius of 5 in. How many more square inches of area does a dinner plate have?

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 7.1.3 additional questions — p463

Check it out: A semicircle is half a circle:

In Exercises 1–5, find the estimated area of each circle. Use p = 3.14. 1. r = 8 in. 2. r = 3.2 cm 3. d = 12 yd 4. d = 18 m 5. r = 5.8 m 6. Paint is purchased in 1-quart cans. A quart of paint covers between 110 and 125 square feet. If you need to paint four circles that are 6 feet in diameter, how many cans of paint should you buy? 7. If you order two 12-in.-diameter pizzas, is this the same amount of pizza as one 24-in.-diameter pizza? Explain your answer. 8. Write a formula that could be used to find the area of a semicircle.

Round Up This is another example of how useful p is. Using the formula makes calculating the area of a circle a whole lot easier than if you tried to count squares on graph paper. Later in this Chapter, you’ll use the circle area formula as a first step in calculating the volume of a cylinder. 368

Section 7.1 — Circles

Section 7.2 introduction — an exploration into:

Folding Ang les Angles This Exploration is all about angles and triangles. The first part of the Exploration involves making all the angles and triangles you’re going to need by folding a sheet of paper. Do this as carefully as you can or the second part of the Exploration will become much more difficult. For this exploration you’ll need a square sheet of paper. You need to fold your sheet of paper by carefully following the directions below. 1) Fold the paper in half lengthwise. Unfold the paper.

3) Fold the left edge of the paper down, so that it meets the other folded edge. Then unfold your paper.

2) Fold the bottom-right corner of the square to the center line — with the fold going through the bottom-left corner.

4) Repeat steps 2 and 3, but this time fold the bottom-left corner to the middle, then the right edge over. Now unfold your paper, and make pencil lines along each fold. Use a ruler ruler.

Example obtuse angle

Identify one of each of the following types of angle: • right (= 90°), • acute (less than 90°), • obtuse (greater than 90°). Solution

acute angle right angle

See the diagram.

Exercises 1. What is an equilateral triangle? Identify any equilateral triangles formed by the folds. 2. Identify as many types of triangles and other shapes formed by the folds as you can. 3. Identify the measures of as many angles formed by the folds as you can. Say whether each angle is acute, obtuse, or right. Justify your answers.

Work them out. Don’t use a protractor.

Round Up You’ll see lots about angles and their properties in this Section. Once you’ve studied the Section, look back at this Exploration and see if you can identify any special pairs of angles. Section 7.2 Explor a tion — Folding Angles 369 Explora

Lesson

Section 7.2

7.2.1

Describing Angles

California Standards:

Whenever two straight lines meet at a point, there is an angle between them. This Lesson is about describing angles by naming the different types and by measuring them.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.1 Geometry Identify ang les as vertical, angles adjacent, complementary, or ovide supplementary and pr pro descriptions of these terms. Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.2 Geometry Use the properties of complementary and supplementary angles and the sum of the angles of a e pr ob lems triangle to solv solve prob oblems in volving an unkno wn inv unknown ang le angle le.

Ang les Ar e Measur ed in De g rees Angles Are Measured Deg You can measure how large the angle between two straight lines is. The angle is measured at the point where the lines meet. The units used to measure an angle are called degrees. The symbol ° means degrees. A right angle measures exactly 90° and looks like the corner of a square or rectangle.

What it means for you:

An angle measuring between 0° and 90° is called an acute angle.

You’ll learn about angles – some names for different types, how to measure them, and how to draw them.

An angle measuring between 90° and 180° is called an obtuse angle.

Key words: • • • • • • •

angle acute right angle obtuse protractor ray vertex

Because you know exactly what a 90° right angle looks like, you can use it to estimate the measure of other angles. Example

Don’t forget: An angle is an amount of a turn, for example,

45°

90° 180°

1

Estimate the sizes of angles A and B shown on the right. Are theses angles acute, obtuse, or right angles?

B A

Solution

Check it out: An angle that measures 180° would be a straight line.

The small squares on the picture show where there are right angles, which you know are 90°. You can use this to estimate angles A and B. It looks like angle A is about one-third as big as the right angle shown on the left. So 90 ÷ 3 = 30° might be a good estimate for angle A.

Check it out: Right angles are usually marked by a little square at the corner.

370

Section 7.2 — Angles

Angle B looks like it is about half the other right angle shown. So a good estimate of the size of angle B might be 90 ÷ 2 = 45°. Both angles are less than 90°, so they are both acute.

Guided Practice Use the diagram to answer Exercises 1–6: 1. Which of the angles shown are acute and which are obtuse?

1 5

2. Estimate the size of angle 1. 2

3. Estimate the size of angle 3.

3

4

4. Estimate the size of angle 4. 5. Esteban estimates that the size of angle 2 is about 45°. Is this a reasonable estimate? Give a reason for your answer. 6. Abigail estimates that the size of angle 5 is about 175°. Is this a reasonable estimate? Give a reason for your answer.

A Pr otr actor Can Be Used to Measur e Ang les Protr otractor Measure Angles Check it out:

40 0

14

90

100

90

80

110 70

12 0

60

13 0 50

30 15 0

30

10

170

0

180

0

170 10

180

20 160

160 20

2

Use a protractor to measure the size of this angle. Solution

Place the bottom line on the protractor directly over one of the rays of the angle. The point marking the center should be above the vertex of the angle.

60

40 0

14

13 0 50

30

30 15 0

12 0

60

0

160 20

20 160

110 70

15

180

0

170 10

10

100 80

170

90 90

40

0

80 100

0 14

50 0 13

0 12

70 110

180

The lines that form an angle can also be called the rays of the angle. The vertex is another name for the point where the rays meet.

0 12

80 100

0

Check it out:

50 0 13

70 110

15

Example

60

40

A protractor is a tool you can use to measure the size of an angle. The protractor has 180 small marks around its edge, each representing an angle of 1°.

0 14

There are usually two sets of numbers around the edge of a protractor. Make sure you go for the one that makes sense, by thinking about whether the angle is more or less than 90°.

You read the angle at the point where the second ray crosses the curved edge of the protractor. This angle measures 40°.

Section 7.2 — Angles

371

Guided Practice Use the diagram to answer Exercises 7–13. In Exercises 7–11, use a protractor to measure the angles: 7. Angle 1 8. Angle 2 9. Angle 3 10. Angle 4 11. Angle 5

1 6 5

Check it out: The total angle measure going all the way around one point is 360°.

7 2 4 3

12. Michael used a protractor to measure angle 6. His answer was 139°. What did he do wrong? What is the real size of angle 6? 13. Work out the measure of angle 7 from the values of angles 1–6, then check your answer with a protractor.

A Pr otr actor Can Also Be Used to Dr aw Ang les Protr otractor Dra Angles You can use a protractor for drawing angles of a given size. Example

3

Draw an angle that measures 54°. Solution 90 90

100 80

110 70

12 0 60

13 0 50

15

30

160 20

10

170

0

Follow the scale around the protractor until you get to 54°. Make a mark at the 54° point.

Finally, remove the protractor and join the mark up with the end of your original ray. 372

Section 7.2 — Angles

54°

180

0

170 10

180

0

30 15 0

80

100

20 160

70 110

40

14 0

60 0 12 50 0 13

0 14

Line it up with the bottom line on the protractor, with one end of the ray at the center mark of the protractor.

40

Start by drawing a straight line. This will be one of the rays that form the angle.

Guided Practice Use a protractor to draw the following angles: 14. 80° 15. 27° 16. 99° 17. 165° 18. 49° 19. 133°

Independent Practice Exercises 1–6 are about hands on a clock. For each time, say whether the angle made by the clock hands will be acute, obtuse, or right. 1. 3:00 2. 11:00 3. 1:15 4. 9:26 5. 7:30 6. 6:55 7. When cutting paper with a pair of scissors, is the angle between the blades of the scissors usually acute, obtuse, or right? Explain why. a.

8. Without measuring, match each of these angles with its measure. Choose from 15°, 80°, 90°, 105°, or 168°.

b.

c.

d.

e.

In Exercises 9–13, use the protractor to determine the measure of each angle. Say whether each angle is acute, right, or obtuse. 9.

10. 60

90

130 50

14 0 40

0 14 15 0 30

100

80

90

80 100

50 0 13

0 12

70 110

60

0

10 20

180 170 160

30

15 0

20

10 170

180

15 0 30 140 40 50

13

0

60

12

100

110

120

80

70

60

11 0 70

80

90 90

10 0

80 100 90

90

80

100

110 70

12 0

60

13 0 50

60

0

40

0 14

14

90

100

90

80

110 70

12 0

60

13 0 50

40

15 30

40

30 15

10

0

180

170

170 10

0

20 160

160 20

180

0

30 15 0

80 100

0 14

50 0 13

0 12

70 110

50 40 130 0 14 30 0 15

70 110

13.

20

0

10

16 0

0 12

60

Lesson 7.2.1 additional questions — p463

0

40 40 0

170

14

180

0

30 15 0

10 17 0

12.

14

0

0

40

0 1 80

20 160

50 0 13

Now try these:

10

170

180

170 10

30

30 15 0

0

160 20

20 160

160

40 14 0

180 0

90

13

0

0 17 10

11. 180

0

110 70

20

50

13 0 50

70

12 0

80

15

12 0

60

120

0 16

80 0 10 70 0 11

110

60

90

1 00

0

160 20

170 10

0 180

Round Up Angles are useful for describing the different shapes you’ll learn about later in this Chapter. You should be able to picture how big an angle is when you are told its size in degrees. Section 7.2 — Angles

373

Lesson

7.2.2

Pair s of Ang les airs Angles

California Standard:

In the last Lesson, you learned about different types of angles. Sometimes angles come in pairs. In this Lesson, you’ll meet three special types of angle pairs.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.1 Geometry Identify ang les as vver er tical, angles ertical, adjacent, complementary, or ovide supplementary and pr pro descriptions of these ter ms terms ms..

What it means for you: You’re going to learn about some special types of angles.

Key words: • • • • • •

angle adjacent angles linear pair vertical angles ray vertex

Adjacent Ang les Shar e One R ay and Don er la p Angles Share Ra Don’’ t Ov Over erla lap A pair of angles are said to be adjacent if they are found next to each other on either side of one ray. No parts of the angles overlap each other. The two angles shown here are adjacent. The ray marked in red is a ray of both angles, but no parts of the angles themselves are the same. Example

1

In this diagram: • Is angle 1 adjacent to angle 2? • Is angle 1 adjacent to angle 3? Solution

2. 1. 3.

The middle ray forms a side of both angle 1 and angle 2. They have one ray in common and don’t overlap, so angles 1 and 2 are adjacent. Angles 1 and 3 share one ray, on the left-hand side of the diagram. But they aren’t adjacent, because they overlap each other. Don’t forget: The rays are the sides of the angle. The vertex is the point where the rays meet.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–10, say whether the following pairs of angles are adjacent. If they are not, give a reason why. D 1. A and B 2. A and C A 3. C and E 4. C and F C G B 5. D and E 6. A and G E 7. B and E 8. B and G F 9. D and F 10. D and G

A Linear P air Is a Special P air of Adjacent Ang les Pair Pair Angles In a pair of adjacent angles, there are two “outside” rays that are part of only one angle each. When these two rays form a straight line, the pair of angles is called a linear pair. 374

Section 7.2 — Angles

In this picture, the blue ray is part of the angle on the left, and the green ray is part of the angle on the right.

Check it out: The measures of a linear pair of angles always add up to 180°.

Together these rays form a straight line, so the pair of angles is a linear pair. Example

2

Which two angles in this diagram are a linear pair? Solution

V U

Only two rays form a straight line. The two angles formed by one shared ray and two other rays that make the straight line are R and S.

T

R S

So angles R and S form a linear pair.

Guided Practice For Exercises 11–12, use the diagram in the previous Guided Practice. 11. Which one of the following pairs of angles is a linear pair: A and B A and D A and F 12. Give another pair of angles on the diagram that are a linear pair.

Ver tical Ang les Shar e the Same Ver te x ertical Angles Share erte tex

Check it out: Vertical angles are equal, because... 4

1

2

3

... angles 1 and 2 are a linear pair ... angles 1 and 4 are also a linear pair. The measures of a linear pair of angles always add up to 180°, so angles 2 and 4 must have the same measure.

Vertical angles are formed when two straight lines cross. The rays of one angle are opposite the rays of the other angle. A pair of vertical angles share the same vertex and have the same size. In this diagram: 1

• •

4

Angles 1 and 3 are vertical angles. Angles 2 and 4 are also vertical angles. Example

2

3

3

On the diagram below, identify: • the vertical angles

•

the linear pairs

Find the measures of angles 7 and 8. Solution

Angles 5 and 7 are vertical angles. Angles 6 and 8 are also vertical angles.

5 33°

6 147° 7 8

The linear pairs are: Angles 5 and 6, angles 5 and 8, angles 6 and 7, and angles 7 and 8. Vertical angles always have the same measure, so angle 7 measures 33° and angle 8 measures 147°. Section 7.2 — Angles

375

Guided Practice Use the diagram to answer Exercises 13–15. 13. Identify the vertical angles in the diagram. J

I

Angle H measures 28° and angle I measures 152°. 14. Find the size of angle J. 15. What is the size of angle K?

H

K

Use the diagram below to answer Exercises 16–19. 16. Identify the linear pairs and vertical angles in the diagram. Angle S measures 55°. 17. Work out the size of angle Q. 18. Find the size of angle R. 19. Find the size of angle T.

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, say whether the statements are true or false. If false, explain why. 1. A linear pair of angles always forms a straight line. 2. Two adjacent angles can never have equal measures. 3. The angles forming a linear pair are never adjacent. 4. Two adjacent angles can also be vertical angles.

In Exercises 5–7, use the numbered angles on this stained-glass window design to identify each of the following: Now try these: Lesson 7.2.2 additional questions — p464

5. a pair of vertical angles 6. a linear pair of angles 7. a pair of adjacent angles that are not a linear pair

A B D C

4

5 1 2 3

8. Gordon and Ana are looking at this diagram. Gordon claims it is a sketch of vertical angles. Ana says it is a sketch of adjacent angles. Explain why both students are correct.

Round Up You should make sure you know these three types of angle pairs pretty well. Adjacent angles and linear pairs will be particularly important in the rest of this Section. 376

Section 7.2 — Angles

Lesson

7.2.3

Supplementar y Ang les Supplementary Angles

California Standards:

You don’t always have to measure with a protractor to find the size of an angle. There are times when you can figure out the size of one of a pair of angles if you know the size of the other.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.1 Geometry Identify ang les as vertical, angles adjacent, complementary, or supplementar y and pr ovide supplementary pro descriptions of these ter ms terms ms.. Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.2 Geometry Use the pr oper ties of proper operties complementary and supplementar y ang les and supplementary angles the sum of the angles of a e pr ob lems triangle to solv solve prob oblems in volving an unkno wn inv unknown ang le angle le..

Supplementar y Ang les Ad d Up to 180° Supplementary Angles Add Any two angles with measures that add up to 180° are called supplementary angles. Example

1

Angle K measures 65°. Angle M measures 115°. Are angles K and M supplementary? K

M

What it means for you:

Solution

You’ll meet another special type of angle pair, and see how this can be useful for solving problems.

You can add the sizes of two angles together to see if they are supplementary. 65° + 115° = 180° So angles K and M are supplementary.

Key words: • • • •

angle supplementary angles supplement linear pair

When two angles are supplementary, we say that one is the supplement of the other. In Example 1, angle K is the supplement of angle M. Don’t forget: For more about equations, see Section 2.2.

Example

2

Angle S measures 108°. Find the measure of its supplement. Solution

This type of question can be solved using an equation. 108 + n = 180

Let n = the measur e of the supplement to S measure

n = 180 – 108

Subtr act 108 fr om both sides Subtract from

n = 72

Solv e to find n Solve

The supplement of angle S measures 72°.

Section 7.2 — Angles

377

Guided Practice 1. Match the angles below into three supplementary pairs. b

e

20° 160°

a

c

105°

f 45°

d

75°

135°

In Exercises 2–6, find the size of the supplement of an angle with the given measure: 2. 80° 3. 1° 4. 65° 5. 124° 6. 16° 7. 32° 8. Use a protractor to measure the angles on this diagram. Which two angles are a supplementary pair?

Linear P air s Ar e Al ways Supplementar y Pair airs Are Alw Supplementary

Check it out:

Any angle with two rays that make a straight line measures 180°.

The fact that an angle on a straight line measures 180° is very useful and important. Make sure you remember it.

180°

The angles in a linear pair are on a straight line, so added together they must measure 180°. So the angles in a linear pair are always supplementary to each other.

Don’t forget: For more about linear pairs, see Lesson 7.2.2.

Example

3

Angle A measures 30°. Find the size of angle B. Solution

A and B are a linear pair of angles, so together they add up to 180°. You can now use an equation to find the measure of angle B. 30 + n = 180

Let n = the measur e of ang le B measure angle

n = 180 – 30 n = 150 Angle B measures 150°.

378

Section 7.2 — Angles

Guided Practice Find the measure of the missing angles in Exercises 9–11. 9.

10.

11.

Ther e Ar e Two Ways to Dr aw Supplementar y Ang les here Are Dra Supplementary Angles If you’re asked to draw a supplementary angle, there are two ways to do it. Example

4

Angle F measures 140°. Draw an angle that is supplementary to angle F. Solution

Method 1: Work out the angle you need using the fact that supplementary angles add up to 180°. 180 – 140 = 40, so the angle you need to draw is 40°. You can draw this with a protractor. Method 2: You can use a straightedge to extend one of the rays of angle F. This makes a linear pair. You could create either one of the linear pairs shown.

Don’t forget: You’ll need to use a protractor to copy these angles. First you’ll need to measure how big each one is. Then you’ll need to draw an angle that size in your book. See Section 7.2.1 if you’ve forgotten how to do this. Or you could trace the angles instead.

Guided Practice In Exercises 12–15, copy the angle shown, then draw its supplement by adding only one more ray to the sketch. 12.

13.

14.

15.

Section 7.2 — Angles

379

You Can Wor k Out Mor e Than Two Ang les on a Line ork More Angles Using what you’ve learned about supplementary angles and linear pairs, you can solve more complex problems. Example

5

Find the measure of angle Q.

S 80° Q

Solution

34° R

You can break this question into two easier parts. First, imagine combining angles Q and R to make a new angle, T. Angles T and S are a linear pair so their measures add up to 180°. So the measure of angle T is 180° – 80° = 100°. But you know that angle R + angle Q = angle T. So

34 + n = 100 n = 100 – 34 = 66

Let n = the measur e of ang le Q measure angle

The measure of angle Q is 66°.

Guided Practice In Exercises 16–18, calculate the missing angle on each sketch. 16.

17.

18. 49°

50°

45°

77°

33°

135°

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–3, use the diagram shown to calculate the measure of: 1. Angle A 2. Angle B 3. Angle C 4. Can two acute angles be supplementary? Explain your answer. Now try these:

5. Can two obtuse angles be supplementary? Explain your answer.

Lesson 7.2.3 additional questions — p464

6. Can two right angles be supplementary? Explain your answer. 7. Two angles are supplementary. One angle is three times as large as the other. Find the measure of each angle. 8. Two angles are supplementary. One angle measures 30° more than the other angle. Find the measure of each angle.

Round Up Supplementary angles are really useful because you can often use them to find the exact measure of an unknown angle. This is better than using a protractor, because it’s easy to make mistakes with a protractor and be a degree or two out. 380

Section 7.2 — Angles

Lesson

7.2.4

The Triang le Sum riangle

California Standard:

So far you’ve mostly been thinking about angles around a single point. But when you have a drawing of a shape, there’s an angle made at each corner. In this Lesson, you’ll be learning one of the most useful things you’ll ever learn about a triangle.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.2 Geometry Use the pr oper ties of proper operties complementary and supplementary angles and the sum of the angles of a triang le to solv e pr ob lems triangle solve prob oblems in volving an unkno wn inv unknown ang le angle le..

Ang les in a Triang le Ad d Up to 180° Angles riangle Add A triangle is made up of three angles. These angles always add up to 180°.

What it means for you: You’ll learn some useful rules about the angles in a triangle.

11 + 33 + 136 = 180

80°

11°

33° 136°

Key words: • angle • triangle sum • linear pair

Check it out: Cut a triangle out of paper.

Tear off the three angles

50° 50° 50 + 50 + 80 = 180

25° 65° 25 + 65 + 90 = 180

This fact is called the triangle sum. If you have a triangle where one angle is unknown, you can use the triangle sum to work out the missing angle. Example

1 L

Find the measure of the angle at M.

28°

You can place them along a straight line

Solution

This shows that the angles’ measures add up to 180º.

You could try to find the measure using a protractor. But if the diagram isn’t accurate, a protractor is useless.

Check it out:

However, you can work out the exact measure, because you know that all the angles in a triangle add up to 180°.

There are different ways to refer to an angle. In Example 1, you could say the angle is “the angle at point M.” Or you could call it “the angle LMN” (written –LMN), since if you point to points L, M, and N in that order, you trace out the angle at M.

N

46° M

So you can write an equation to solve this problem. x + 28 + 46 = 180

Let x = the measur e of ang le M measure angle

x + 74 = 180 x = 180 – 74 x = 106 So angle M measures 106°.

Check it out: “The triangle with corners L, M, and N” is often written DLMN.

Section 7.2 — Angles

381

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–8, find the missing angle on each sketch. 1.

2.

4.

3.

5. 6.

7.

8.

Sometimes You Can Find Two Missing Ang les Angles Sometimes you’ll only know the measure of one angle inside a triangle. But there might be other information you can use to work out the size of the other two angles. Example

2

Find the values of the angle measures x° and y°.

x°

Solution

Don’t forget: The angles in a linear pair always sum to 180°.

The first step is to find y. The angle of y° makes a linear pair with the 130° angle: y + 130 = 180 y = 180 – 130 y = 50 Now you can use the triangle sum to find x. x + 60 + 50 = 180 x + 110 = 180 x = 180 – 110 x = 70 So x° = 70° and y° = 50°.

382

Section 7.2 — Angles

60°

y° 130°

Guided Practice In Exercises 9–12, find the two missing angles in the triangles shown. 9. 10. 64°

44°

70°

125°

11.

95°

12. 47° 129° 151°

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, find the missing angles. 1. 2. 28°

47°

62°

111° 70°

3.

4.

126°

37°

5. The measures of angles A and B have a sum of 62°. Find the measure of angle C.

116°

C

A

B

6. Which three of the following could be the measures of three angles of a triangle: 155° 25° 10° 20° 15° 100° Now try these:

Exercises 7–8 are about Andrea, who is using her protractor to draw a triangle. She decides to use angles measuring 20°, 85°, and 12°.

Lesson 7.2.4 additional questions — p464

7. Explain to Andrea why the measures she has chosen will not work. 8. If she draws a triangle with angles of 20° and 85°, what must the measure of the third angle be? 9. Gil measured the angles of a triangle and recorded them as 40°, 140°, and 100°. Looking at his notebook, he realized that he used the wrong scale on his protractor when measuring one of the angles. Which angle was wrong and how can you tell?

Round Up This is just one of many math rules to do with triangles that you’ll come across — but it’s one of the most important. You’ll need to use the triangle sum in many areas of math in the future. Section 7.2 — Angles

383

Lesson

7.2.5

Complementar y Ang les Complementary Angles

California Standard:

A couple of Lessons ago, you learned all about supplementary angles, which add up to 180°. Complementary angles are very similar, but they add up to 90°.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.2 Geometry Use the pr oper ties of proper operties complementar y and complementary les and supplementary ang angles the sum of the angles of a e pr ob lems solve prob oblems triangle to solv in volving an unkno wn inv unknown ang le angle le..

What it means for you: You’ll find out about another special type of angle pair.

Complementar y Ang les Ad d Up to 90° Complementary Angles Add Any two angles with measures that add up to 90° are called complementary angles. When two angles are complementary, we can say that each angle is the complement of the other. Example

1

Key words: • • • •

angle complementary angle complement right angle

Which two of these three angles are complementary? 45°

35°

Solution

Complementary angles add up to 90°. 35 + 45 = 80

Not complementar y complementary

45 + 55 = 100

Not complementar y complementary

35 + 55 = 90

Complementar y Complementary

55°

So the angles 35° and 55° are complementary.

Example

2

Angle A is the complement of angle B. Angle B measures 65°. Find the size of angle A. Solution

You know that complementary angles add up to 90°. So you can solve this question using an equation. n + 65 = 90 n = 90 – 65 n = 25 So angle A measures 25°.

384

Section 7.2 — Angles

Let n = the measur e of ang le A measure angle

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–8, find the complement of the given angle. 1. 60° 2. 11° 3. 27° 4. 37° 5. 84° 6. 59° 7. 41° 8. 76° 9. Make three complementary pairs from the angles below.

c

a b

26°

56° d

64°

74°

e

f 16°

34°

Adjacent Complementar y Ang les Mak e a Right Ang le Complementary Angles Make Angle You know that complementary angles have a sum of 90°, and you also know that an angle that measures 90° is a right angle. So if you put a pair of complementary angles together to make an adjacent pair, the two angles together form a right angle.

This can help you to identify complementary angles that are adjacent. Example

3

Identify an angle in the diagram that is complementary to angle 3. Don’t forget: A little square at an angle means it is a right angle, measuring 90°.

Solution

1

2

3 4

There is a right angle identified on the diagram, so you can look for two adjacent angles that form the right angle. Angles 3 and 4 share a common ray and together they form the right angle shown. Angle 4 is the complement of angle 3.

Guided Practice In Exercises 10–13, find the missing angle. 10. 11. 12.

13. 65°

71°

27°

46°

Section 7.2 — Angles

385

Ther e Ar e Two Ways to Dr aw Complementar y Ang les here Are Dra Complementary Angles Example

4

Angle C measures 15°. Draw the complement of angle C. Don’t forget: These are very similar to the methods you saw in Section 7.2.3 for drawing supplementary angles.

Solution

Method 1: You can work out that 90 – 15 = 75, then use a protractor to draw a 75° angle. Method 2: Use a protractor to draw angles of 15° and 90° with the same vertex. You will automatically create an adjacent complement to the 15° angle.

Guided Practice In Exercises 14–19, use a protractor to draw the given angle. Then draw its complement by adding only one ray to the sketch. 14. 58° 15. 7° 16. 42° 17. 76° 18. 19° 19. 36°

Triang les Can Contain Complementar y Ang les riangles Complementary Angles A right triangle always has one right angle (90°). Using the triangle sum, you know that the three angles in a triangle have measures that add up to 180°. So if one of the angles has a measure of 90°, then the other two angles must add up to 180° – 90° = 90°. So if one angle in a triangle is a right angle, the other two angles are complementary angles.

386

Section 7.2 — Angles

Example

Check it out: You could work out the size of the third angle using the triangle sum. The third angle must be 180° – 54° – 67° = 59°. But the question asks you to use complementary angles, so that’s what you have to do.

5

A triangle has two angles that measure 54° and 67°. Use complementary angles to determine whether the third angle of the triangle is a right angle. Solution

If the third angle is a right angle, the measures of the other two angles will have a sum of 90°. 54° + 67° = 121° So the third angle is not a right angle.

Guided Practice Exercises 20–25 give the measures of two angles of a triangle. For each pair, determine whether the third angle is a right angle. 20. 28°, 78° 21. 65°, 35° 22. 13°, 77° 23. 39°, 21° 24. 41°, 49° 25. 69°, 41°

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 7.2.5 additional questions — p465

In Exercises 1–6, find the complement of the given angle. 1. 11° 2. 26° 3. 88° 4. 75° 5. 52° 6. 43° Use the diagram shown to answer Exercises 7–11. Angle 3 and angle 4 are complementary. 3 Find the measure of each angle below. 2 30° 7. Angle 6 8. Angle 4 9. Angle 2 10. Angle 5 6 1 5 11. Angle 1

4

12. Two angles are complementary. The measure of one angle is two times the measure of the other. Find the measure of each angle. 13. Two angles are complementary. The measure of one angle is 50° less than the measure of the other. Find the measure of each angle. 14. Angle R is complementary to angle S. Angle S is complementary to angle T. Is angle R complementary to angle T? Explain your answer.

Round Up All of this stuff about complementary angles should look quite familiar. Most of it’s based on what you’ve already learned in this Section. If there’s anything in this Lesson that you’ve seen before but have forgotten about, go back and take another look at the Lesson it came from to remind yourself. Section 7.2 — Angles

387

Section 7.3 introduction — an exploration into:

Sor ting Sha pes Sorting Shapes In this Exploration, you’ll see that there are many different ways to sort shapes into groups. You’ll get to use your imagination to come up with your own ways to sort them. Your teacher will give you a set of 32 shapes. You’re going to sort them into two groups. Example Sort all 32 shapes into any two groups. What do the shapes in each group have in common? Solution

The shapes on the left have a right angle. The shapes on the right do not have a right angle. Look at your shapes and put the shapes into any two groups — use your imagination. The only thing to remember is that all the shapes in a group must have something in common.

Exercises 1. How did you sort the shapes? What do the shapes in each group have in common? Sort the shapes again, this time sort the shapes by the number of sides.

Exercises 2. What is the name for each group of shapes? Now take the group of shapes with three sides, and sort these shapes into two groups.

Exercises 3. Describe how you sorted the three-sided polygons. 4. Draw a three-sided shape that has two equal sides and a right angle. What is the name of this shape? Now take the group of shapes with four sides, and sort these shapes into two groups.

Exercises 5. Describe how you sorted the four-sided polygons. 6. Draw a shape that is both a rectangle and a rhombus. What is the name of this shape?

A rhombus is a 4-sided shape whose sides are all the same length. Like this, for example.

Round Up There are different ways you can sort shapes — you’ve used a few during this Exploration. Most often in math, you’ll see that polygons are sorted and named using their sides or angles. a tion — Sorting Shapes Explora 388 Section 7.3 Explor

Lesson

7.3.1

Section 7.3

Classifying Triang les b y riangles by Angles

California Standard: Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.3 Geometry Dr aw quadrilaterals and Dra triang les fr om gi ven triangles from giv inf or ma tion a bout them infor orma mation about (e.g., a quadrilateral having equal sides but no right angles, a right isosceles triangle).

What it means for you: You’ll learn one way of naming triangles and how to draw a triangle described in that way.

There are different types of triangles. There are a couple of ways to name the different types, depending on whether you’re looking at the angles or the sides. You’ll learn about the two sets of names over two Lessons. In this Lesson, you’ll learn how to name triangles by looking at their angles.

You Can Identify Triang les b y Their Ang les riangles by Angles Depending on the measures of their angles, you can sort triangles into three types: An acute triangle has three acute angles. These triangles are acute triangles.

Key words: • • • • •

triangle acute angle obtuse angle right angle classify

An obtuse triangle has an obtuse angle. The other two angles are acute. These triangles are obtuse triangles.

Don’t forget: Right angles measure 90°. Acute angles measure less than 90°. Obtuse angles measure more than 90°.

A right triangle has a right angle. The other two angles are acute. These triangles are right triangles.

Example

1

Classify each of these triangles by its angles: Check it out:

1.

A

B

3.

2.

“Classify...” means “name the type of...”

4.

G

D I C

H E

J

K

L

F

Solution

Triangle 1 is an obtuse triangle, because angle A is obtuse. Triangle 2 is an acute triangle, because all three angles are acute. Triangle 3 is an acute triangle, because all three angles are acute. Triangle 4 is a right triangle, because angle J is a right angle. Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

389

Example

2

Below are the measures of the angles of three triangles. Determine whether each triangle is acute, obtuse, or right. E. 20°, 74°, 86°

F. 12°, 16°, 152°

G. 90°, 40°, 50°

Solution

Triangle E is acute, because all three angles are less than 90°. Triangle F is obtuse, because one angle is more than 90°. Triangle G is a right triangle, because one angle is 90°.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, classify each of these triangles as acute, obtuse, or right. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

In Exercises 7–12, the three measures of a triangle are given. Identify whether each triangle is acute, obtuse, or right. 7. 10°, 20°, 150° 8. 18°, 90°, 72° 9. 80°, 80°, 20° 10. 50°, 70°, 60° 11. 34°, 60°, 86° 12. 42°, 42°, 96°

390

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

You Can Dr aw Triang les Using a Pr otr actor Dra riangles Protr otractor Example

3

Use a protractor to draw an acute triangle with angle measures of 60°, 45°, and 75°. Don’t forget: Look back at Lesson 7.2.1 for a reminder of how to use a protractor to draw angles.

Solution

You can start by using your protractor to draw any of the three angles. You can make the sides any length you want — the question only gives you information about the angles.

45°

Now you need to draw the second angle. Use the free end of one of the rays you have already drawn as the vertex for the new angle.

You can now use a straightedge to extend the two rays that are not joined until they meet. You should erase any parts of the rays that extend outside the triangle. Check it out:

The third angle will automatically be the right measure to complete the triangle. In this example, the third angle is 75° since

It’s a useful check to measure the third angle. If that is wrong, then one of the others will also be wrong.

180° – 60° – 45° = 75°.

Example

4

Use a protractor to draw a right triangle with a 25° angle. Solution

You need to draw a right triangle, so you know one of the angles is 90°. You can start by drawing the right angle. Then draw a 25° angle at the end of one of the rays. Check it out: You can use the triangle sum to work out the size of the third angle as 180° – 90° – 25° = 65°

You can now join up the sides of the triangle.

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

391

Guided Practice In Exercises 13–20, use a protractor to draw the triangles with the following angle measures: 13. 50°, 60°, 70° 14. 35°, 55°, 90° 15. 25°, 50°, 105° 16. 44°, 62°, 74° 17. 17°, 68°, 95° 18. 39°, 51° 19. A right triangle with one angle of 77° 20. 122°, 29°

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–8, identify each triangle shown as acute, obtuse, or right. 1.

2.

4.

6.

3.

5.

7.

8. a. b.

Now try these: Lesson 7.3.1 additional questions — p465

For each statement in Exercises 9–11, determine what type(s) of triangle(s) could be being described. 9. A triangle that has exactly one right angle. 10. A triangle that has no more than two acute angles. 11. A triangle that has at least two acute angles. In Exercises 12–13, use your protractor to draw a triangle that satisfies the condition. Then state the type of triangle you’ve drawn, and the measure of the missing angle. 12. Two of the three angles each measure 80°. 13. Two of the three angles each measure 25°.

Round Up This is just one of the ways to sort triangles into different types. The angles of a triangle only tell you part of the story. To know exactly what the triangle looks like, you also need to know about the lengths of the sides. The next Lesson will show you how side lengths are used to name triangles. 392

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

Lesson

7.3.2

Classifying Triang les b y riangles by Side Lengths

California Standard: Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.3 Geometry Dr aw quadrilaterals and Dra triang les fr om gi ven triangles from giv inf or ma tion a bout them infor orma mation about (e .g ., a quadrilateral having (e.g .g., equal sides but no right angles, a right isosceles triangle).

What it means for you: You’ll learn another way of naming triangles and how to draw a triangle described in that way.

You’ll have seen the names equilateral, isosceles, and scalene triangles before in earlier grades. In this Lesson, you’re going to get a reminder of what each of those names means, and you’ll learn how to draw these three types of triangles.

You Can Identify Triang les b y Their Side Lengths riangles by A triangle with all three sides the same length is called an equilateral triangle. A triangle with two sides the same length is called an isosceles triangle. A triangle with no sides the same length is called a scalene triangle.

Key words: • • • • •

triangle equilateral isosceles scalene arc

Check it out: Sides with equal numbers of tick marks are all the same length. For example, all sides with 1 tick mark are the same length, all sides with two tick marks are the same length, and so on.

You can classify a triangle as equilateral, isosceles, or scalene by looking at a sketch. To make this easier, some triangles have little lines called tick marks on their sides. Sides of the same length have matching tick marks.

Example

1

Classify each of these triangles by the length of its sides:

Check it out: The number of sides of equal length in a triangle is the same as the number of angles of equal measure. So all three angles in an equilateral triangle are equal, an isosceles triangle always has two angles the same, and all three angles in a scalene triangle are different.

Solution

Triangle 1 is an equilateral triangle, because all three sides are the same length. Triangle 2 is a scalene triangle, because none of the sides are the same length. Triangle 3 is a scalene triangle, because none of the sides are the same length. Triangle 4 is an isosceles triangle, because two sides are the same length.

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

393

You can also classify a triangle from a list of the lengths of its sides. Example

2

Below are the measures of the side lengths of three triangles. Determine whether each triangle is equilateral, isosceles, or scalene. A. 5 in., 8 in., 5 in.

B. 9.2 cm, 9.2 cm, 9.2 cm

C. 10 ft, 2 ft, 9 ft

Solution

Triangle A is isosceles, since two sides measure the same. Triangle B is equilateral, as all three sides are the same length. Triangle C is scalene, because the sides all have different measures.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, classify each of these triangles as equilateral, isosceles, or scalene. 1. 2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

In Exercises 7–12, the lengths of the sides of triangles are given. Identify whether each triangle is equilateral, isosceles, or scalene. 7. 6 cm, 6.5 cm, 6.1 cm 8. 3 ft, 3 ft, 4 ft 9. 10 in., 20 in., 28 in. 10. 5 yd, 5 yd, 5 yd 11. 0.4 m, 0.4 m, 0.4 m 12. 8 in., 3 in., 6 in. In Exercises 13–16, identify whether the highlighted triangles are equilateral, isosceles, or scalene. 13. 14.

A

15.

394

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

16.

You Can Dr aw Triang les Using a R uler and Compass Dra riangles Ruler In the last Lesson, you used a protractor to draw triangles with certain angle properties. To draw triangles based on the measures of their side lengths, you’ll need different tools. Example Check it out: If you use a compass to draw a curve that is not a full circle, the curve is called an arc.

3

Use a compass and a ruler to draw a scalene triangle with side lengths 7 cm, 3 cm, and 9 cm. Solution

You could try to draw the triangle using just a ruler. After some trial and error, you could probably get it right. By using a compass and a ruler together, you can get the drawing right the first time. Step 1: Use your ruler to measure and draw a line 7 cm long. Step 2: Use the ruler to measure 3 cm between the compass tip and the pencil tip. Step 3: Place the compass tip on one end of the 7 cm line. Use the compass to make an arc.

Step 4: Open the compass to 9 cm. Place the compass tip on the opposite end of the 7 cm line. Make another arc. Continue the arc until it crosses the first arc you made. Step 5: Use the straight edge of your ruler to connect the end points of the 7 cm line to the point where the arcs cross. You now have a scalene triangle with side lengths 7 cm, 3 cm, and 9 cm.

Guided Practice In Exercises 17–22, draw a triangle with the side lengths described. 17. 4 cm, 5 cm, 6 cm 18. 3 in., 3 in., 3 in. 19. 5 cm, 7 cm, 8 cm 20. 5 cm, 5 cm, 8 cm 21. 2 in., 5 in., 5 in. 22. 4 in., 7 in., 5 in. Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

395

Ther e is a Method ffor or Dr awing Eac h Type of Triang le here Dra Each riangle If you are not given specific side lengths, you can still draw an example of each type of triangle. There are slightly different methods for drawing equilateral, isosceles, or scalene triangles. Example

4

Use a compass and ruler to draw an equilateral triangle. Solution

Check it out: You can draw a right isosceles triangle using a method similar to that shown in Example 5. The first step is to draw a right angle. 1) Draw a line. 2) Put the compass tip on one end of the line, and draw two arcs — one either side of the line. 3) Put the compass tip on the other end of the line, and again, draw two arcs — one either side of the line.

Step 1: Draw a straight line. Open your compass and place the compass tip on one end of the line and the pencil tip on the other end. Step 2: With the compass tip still on the end of the line, draw an arc. Step 3: Keep the compass opening the same and place the compass tip on the other end of the line. Draw another arc. Make the arcs long enough so that they cross. Step 4: Use the straight edge of your ruler to connect the ends of the line to the point where the arcs cross.

Step 1

Example

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

5

Use a compass and ruler to draw an isosceles triangle. Solution 4) Join the crossing points of the arcs to form a right angle. 5) Now measure points on the two lines, equal lengths away from your right angle. Joining these gives you a right isosceles triangle.

×

Step 1: Draw a line. Open your compass to any distance more than half the length of the line, but not the same length as it. Step 2: Place the compass tip on one end of the line and draw an arc. Step 3: Keep the compass opening the same and repeat Step 2 from the other end of the line. Make the arcs long enough so that they cross. Step 4: Use the straight edge of your ruler to connect the ends of the straight line to the point where the arcs cross.

×

Step 1

396

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Example

6

Use a compass and ruler to draw a scalene triangle. Solution

Step 1: Draw a line. Open your compass to any distance that is not equal to the length of the original line. Step 2: Place the compass tip on one end of the line and draw an arc. Step 3: Place the compass tip on the other end of the line. Change the compass opening and draw a new arc. The new compass opening can be any length other than the length of the original line, so long as the second arc crosses the first one. Step 4. Use the straight edge of your ruler to connect the ends of the line to the point where the arcs cross.

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Guided Practice 23. Use a compass and a ruler to draw an equilateral, an isosceles, and a scalene triangle, each with a base measuring 4 cm. 24. Leila was using her compass to construct an isosceles triangle, but she was not able to make a triangle. Her work is shown here. Explain what happened and what she should do instead.

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 7.3.2 additional questions — p465

In Exercises 1–4, draw a triangle with the side lengths described. Determine whether each triangle is equilateral, isosceles, or scalene. 1. 6 cm, 6 cm, 6 cm 2. 8 in., 5 in., 6 in. 3. 3 in., 4 in., 5 in. 4. 5 cm, 5 cm, 7 cm 5. Use your compass to construct several equilateral triangles. Measure each angle of your triangles. Look for a pattern in the measures of the angles. 6. Is it possible for a triangle to be an obtuse equilateral triangle? Explain using your answer to Exercise 5.

Round Up This way of naming triangles is quite common, so you should get to know the names equilateral, isosceles, and scalene really well. Practice the methods for drawing the three types of triangles. Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

397

Lesson

7.3.3

Types of Quadrila ter als Quadrilater terals

California Standard:

In the last couple of Lessons, you’ve been looking at triangles. Now you’re going to move on to four-sided shapes. These are also called quadrilaterals.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.3 Geometry Dr aw quadrila ter als and Dra quadrilater terals om gi ven triangles fr from giv inf or ma tion a bout them infor orma mation about (e.g., a quadrilateral having equal sides but no right angles, a right isosceles triangle).

A Quadrila ter al Has F our Sides Quadrilater teral Four Polygons are named by the number of angles or number of sides they have. You know that 3-sided figures with 3 angles are called triangles.

What it means for you: You’ll learn the names and special properties of some four-sided shapes, also known as quadrilaterals.

Key words: • • • • • • •

quadrilateral rectangle square parallelogram rhombus trapezoid isosceles

When a polygon has 4 sides and 4 angles, it is called a quadrilateral. Rectangles are a type of quadrilateral. In a rectangle, the opposite sides are the same length. All the angles in a rectangle measure 90°. A square is a special type of rectangle where all the sides are the same length. So squares are quadrilaterals too.

Don’t forget:

A Quadrila ter al’ s Ang le-Measur es Sum to 360° Quadrilater teral’ al’s Angle-Measur le-Measures

Matching tick marks show sides of the same length.

The angles inside a rectangle have measures that add up to 4 × 90° = 360°. In fact, the angles inside any quadrilateral add up to 360°. Example

1

Find the measure of the missing angle in this quadrilateral. Solution

You know the measures of three of the angles. You also know that the sum of the four angles’ measures is 360°. So you can write an equation to find the missing angle. 50° + 60° + 100° + n = 360°

Let n = measur e of missing ang le measure angle

210° + n = 360° n = 360° – 210°

Rear e the equa tion earrrang ange equation

n = 150°

Solv e to find n Solve

The missing angle measures 150°.

398

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, find the missing angle measure in each quadrilateral. 1.

2.

3.

4.

AP ar allelo g ram Has Two P air s of P ar allel Sides Par arallelo allelog Pair airs Par arallel

Don’t forget:

A parallelogram is any quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides. Parallel sides are often marked with matching arrows.

Parallel lines are lines that always stay the same distance apart.

Opposite sides of a rectangle are parallel. So a rectangle is a special type of parallelogram.

A parallelogram with all four sides the same length is called a rhombus. Check it out:

So a square is a special type of rhombus.

The plural of rhombus is rhombi.

In a parallelogram or rhombus, the measures of the angles at either end of any side add up to 180°. You can see this if you place two identical parallelograms next to each other. Don’t forget: For a reminder about linear pairs of angles, see Lesson 7.2.2.

Where two angles meet, they make a linear pair of angles, so their measures add up to 180°.

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

399

Guided Practice In Exercises 5–8, find the measure of the missing angle. 5. 6. 25° ?

?

7.

8.

84°

?

57°

?

138°

A Tra pe zoid Has Exactl y One P air of P ar allel Sides pez Exactly Pair Par arallel A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of parallel sides. The figure below is a trapezoid. The parallel sides of a trapezoid are called the bases. Check it out: The bases of a trapezoid must be different lengths. If they were the same length, you’d have a parallelogram.

Check it out: An isosceles trapezoid is like an isosceles triangle that’s had the top bit “chopped off” parallel to the base.

The bases of a trapezoid are never the same length. If the nonparallel sides of a trapezoid are the same length, then the trapezoid is called an isosceles trapezoid. The angles at the ends of a base of an isosceles trapezoid have the same measure. The measures of the angles at the ends of a nonparallel side of an isosceles trapezoid add up to 180°. You can see this by putting two isosceles trapezoids together. When the angles at the ends of the nonparallel sides are lined up next to each other, they make a linear pair.

Guided Practice In Exercises 9–14, say which of these shapes are trapezoids. If they are not, give a reason. 9. 10. 11. 12.

13.

14.

15. Which one of the trapezoids above is an isosceles trapezoid? 400

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

In Exercises 16–18, find the missing angle measures in each trapezoid. 16.

17.

18.

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, complete the sentences by filling in the blank with the correct word. 1. A rectangle is a parallelogram with four _____ angles. 2. A rhombus with four right angles is called a ______. 3. A rectangle with four equal-length sides is called a ______. 4. A quadrilateral is a _____ -sided polygon. 5. Isosceles trapezoids have at least __________ sides of equal length. 6. A trapezoid has exactly ____ pair of sides that are parallel. In Exercises 7–9, find the measure of the missing angle. 7. 8. 9.

Now try these: Lesson 7.3.3 additional questions — p466

In Exercises 10–14, say whether the statements are true or false. If false, explain why. 10. A trapezoid is a quadrilateral. 11. A polygon can be both a trapezoid and a parallelogram. 12. In an isosceles trapezoid, the parallel sides can be the same length. 13. A parallelogram cannot have any right angles. 14. A quadrilateral must be either a trapezoid or a parallelogram. 15. If all the angles in a quadrilateral are equal, how much does each angle measure? 16. One side of a parallelogram measures 16 cm. What do you know about the measure of the opposite side? 17. Use the clues below to determine the polygon being described. I have at least 1 pair of parallel sides. I do not have any right angles. My sides are all the same length. What am I?

Round Up The names of the special types of quadrilaterals in this Lesson should be familiar from lower grades. Try to remember the special properties of each type of quadrilateral — they will be useful when you learn how to draw them in the next Lesson. Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

401

Lesson

7.3.4

Dr awing Quadrila ter als Dra Quadrilater terals

California Standard:

In the last Lesson, you met some of the most important of the special types of quadrilaterals. In this Lesson, you’ll learn how to draw them.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.3 Geometry Dr aw quadrila ter als and Dra quadrilater terals om gi ven triangles fr from giv inf or ma tion a bout them infor orma mation about (e .g ., a quadrila ter al ha ving (e.g .g., quadrilater teral having equal sides b ut no right but ang les angles les, a right isosceles triangle).

What it means for you: You’ll find out how to draw the special quadrilaterals you learned about in the last Lesson.

Use a Pr otr actor and R uler to Dr aw R ectang les Protr otractor Ruler Dra Rectang ectangles You can draw rectangles and squares using a protractor and ruler. Example

1

Draw a rectangle measuring 3 cm by 5 cm. Solution

Start by using a protractor to make a right angle.

Key words: • • • • • • •

quadrilateral rectangle square parallelogram rhombus trapezoid isosceles

Then use a ruler to extend the rays to 3 cm and 5 cm.

3 cm

5 cm

Using your protractor again, make new right angles at the free ends of the sides you have drawn.

Check it out: The diagonals from one corner of a rectangle to the other are always the same length. So you can check that you have drawn a true rectangle by measuring the diagonals to make sure they are both the same.

Now extend the new rays until they join up and complete the rectangle.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, draw a rectangle with the measurements described. 1. 2 in. by 5 in. 2. 3 cm by 4 cm 3. 1 cm by 5 cm 4. 4 in. by 4 in. 5. 6 in. by 1 in. 6. 3.5 cm by 8.5 cm

402

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

Use a Pr otr actor and R uler to Dr aw P ar allelo g rams Protr otractor Ruler Dra Par arallelo allelog Example

2

Draw a parallelogram with side lengths 3.6 cm and 4.8 cm. Solution

First, draw one side of the parallelogram. Then draw the second side starting at one end of the first. The angle between the sides can be any size you want. Use a protractor to measure the angle between the sides. Don’t forget:

Now make an angle that is supplementary to the one you’ve measured. In this case, that will measure 180° – 68° = 112°.

Supplementary angles add up to 180°. See Lesson 7.2.3 for more.

Draw the supplementary angle at the free end of either of the sides you have already drawn. 3.6 cm 68°

112°

Then extend the new ray so that it is the same length as the side it is opposite to.

Check it out: You can use exactly the same method to draw a rhombus (a quadrilateral with 4 sides of the same length).

Finally, join up the two remaining free ends. The final side will automatically be parallel to the side it is opposite, and the same length.

Guided Practice Check it out: If you are given the angle measures instead of side lengths, you’ll need to start by using a protractor to draw an angle. Then extend the sides to whatever length you like before drawing the next angle.

In Exercises 7–10, draw a parallelogram with the given measurements. 7. Side lengths 3 in. and 5 in. 8. Side lengths 5.0 cm and 6.0 cm. 9. Angles measuring 77° and 103°. 10. One side of length 4 in. and at least one angle of 65°.

Ther e Ar e Two Ways to Dr aw Isosceles Tra pe zoids here Are Dra pez Example

3

Use a protractor and ruler to draw an isosceles trapezoid. Solution

First draw a line for one of the bases. Use your protractor to create two angles of equal measure from the endpoints of the base. Make the sides the same length, then connect the fourth side. This way the bases will be parallel.

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

403

Example

4

Use a compass and straight edge to draw an isosceles trapezoid. Solution

Begin by constructing an isosceles triangle. Don’t forget: For a reminder of how to construct an isosceles triangle, see Lesson 7.3.2.

Don’t forget:

Measure and mark a point on each of the two equal length sides. Both points should be the same distance from the base of the triangle. Join the points to make a line parallel to the base. Erase the corner opposite the base of the triangle. The remaining figure is an isosceles trapezoid.

You could use the compass to mark points the same distance from the corners.

Guided Practice In Exercises 11–14, draw an isosceles trapezoid that has the given measurements. 11. One base of length 4 cm. 12. Two angles measuring 50°. 13. One base of length 3 in. and two sides of length 2 in. 14. One base of length 4 in. and two angles measuring 102°.

Now try these: Lesson 7.3.4 additional questions — p466

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–8, draw the shapes described. 1. A square with side length 1 in. 2. A rectangle measuring 6.8 cm by 3.9 cm. 3. A parallelogram in which one angle measures 140°. 4. A rhombus in which one of the angles measures 130°. 5. A rhombus with side length 4.4 cm. 6. A parallelogram with one angle measure of 56° and one side length of 5 in. 7. An isosceles trapezoid with two angles measuring 72° and two sides of length 2 in. 8. An isosceles trapezoid with one base of length 4.3 cm and two sides of length 2.6 cm.

Round Up The best way to get the hang of drawing these shapes is to practice doing it. It is important that you understand flat shapes before you move on to 3-D shapes in the next Section of this Chapter. 404

Section 7.3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

Section 7.4 introduction — an exploration into:

Building Cylinder s Cylinders This Exploration involves some light engineering — you’re going to build a cylinder. But it can’t be just any cylinder — it has to be a cylinder with a particular volume. And if that’s too easy, you’ve then got to try and do it using the minimum amount of materials. Just like real engineering.

height

You are going to make some cylinders out of paper. • Roll up a rectangular piece of paper, and tape the edges to form the walls. • Make the bases by carefully drawing round your paper roll onto a sheet of paper. Then cut out these circles, and attach them to the cylinder. diameter Your aim is to build a cylinder with a volume between 460 cm3 and 480 cm3. Example For each cylinder you build, record the relationship between the diameter, height, and volume. Solution

diameter (cm) height (cm) volume (cm3) 5 15 295 10 15 1178 10 5 393

The height and diameter are marked on the diagram above. Use a table to record these for each cylinder you make. To find the volume, fill your cylinder with rice. Then empty the rice into a measuring jug and record the volume of rice.

Exercises 1. Calculate the base area of each of your cylinders. Describe the relationship between the base area, height, and volume.

Use the formulas d “ r = ” and “A = pr2.” 2

Now try to make a cylinder with a volume of 460-480 cm3, but using as little paper as possible. Experiment, by making some different-sized cylinders. Then find their volume and surface area. Add an extra column to your table to record all your results. Example Find the surface area of a cylinder with diameter 8 cm and height 9 cm. radius (r) = 4 cm

Solution

The surface area is the total area of the one rectangular piece of paper, plus the two circular pieces. Work them out like this: So the total surface area is 226 + 50.3 + 50.3 = 326.6 cm2

9 cm

Area = pr2

= 50.3 cm2

Area of rectangular piece = cylinder circumference × height = (p × d) × h 2 = (3.14 × 8) × 9 = 226.0 cm

Exercises 2. What do you think is the least possible surface area of a cylinder with volume 460-480 cm3?

Round Up That was a very difficult task, but it’s a good review of circles. And it did get you working with 3D shapes. That’s good, because there are many more 3D shapes in this Section of the book. Section 7.4 Explor a tion — Building Cylinders 405 Explora

Lesson

Section 7.4

7.4.1

Thr ee-Dimensional Figur es hree-Dimensional Figures

California Standard:

The 3D shapes you’re going to see in this Lesson should be familiar. You’ll have seen them before in math lessons in earlier grades, and also all around you in real life.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 1.3 Geometry Know and use the formulas for the volume of triangular prisms and ccylinder ylinder s (area ylinders of base × height); compare these formulas and explain the similarity betw een them between and the formula for the ectangular volume of a rrectangular solid solid.

What it means for you: You’ll see some examples of 3D figures, with their names. You’ll learn about faces, edges, and vertices of 3D figures.

A Prism Is a Special Type of 3D Figur e Figure A prism is a type of 3D shape that looks like a polygon that’s been stretched out along a straight line. A prism is exactly the same size and shape all the way through. If you cut through a prism in line with one end, the slice is always the same shape and size and the same way around. Example

Polygon Stretched along this line

1

Which of these figures is a prism? Explain why the others are not. Key words: • • • • • • • •

rectangular prism cube triangular prism cylinder face edge vertex polygon

Don’t forget: A polygon is a flat shape with straight sides. Polygons include triangles, rectangles, parallelograms, and trapezoids — plus many other shapes.

A.

B.

C.

D.

Solution

The ends of Figure A have a curved side, so they are not polygons. So Figure A isn’t a prism. Figure B isn’t a prism because the triangles at the front and back of the figure are different sizes. The figure will be the same shape all the way through, but not the same size. Figure C isn’t a prism. If you cut through it as shown here, the slice is the same shape as the end, but not the same way up, so it’s not exactly the same. Figure D is a prism. It’s the same shape, the same size, and the same way around all the way through.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, identify whether or not the shapes are prisms. If they are not, give reasons why. 1.

406

Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Some Prisms Ha ve Special Names Hav The sides of a 3D figure are called faces. The polygons at the ends of a prism are called bases. Check it out: Another name for a rectangular prism is a cuboid.

A 3D figure in which all the faces are rectangles is called a rectangular prism.

A cube is a special type of rectangular prism where all the faces are squares. A triangular prism is a prism in which the bases are triangles. The other faces in the prism are rectangles. This shape isn’t actually a prism, but it’s very similar. A cylinder is a three-dimensional figure with two circular bases that are parallel. But a cylinder is not actually a prism because circles are not polygons.

Guided Practice In Exercises 7–12, name the 3D figures shown. 7.

11.

8.

9.

10.

12.

Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

407

3D Figur es Ha ve F aces es tices Figures Hav Faces aces,, Edg Edges es,, and Ver ertices The line where two faces of a figure meet is called an edge. A point where edges meet is called a vertex. Check it out: A vertex is the mathematical name for what in everyday language we just call a corner point.

Example

2

Name this figure and determine how many faces, edges, and vertices it has. Solution

This is a rectangular prism, since all the faces are rectangles. Check it out: The plural of vertex is vertices.

When you count the faces, edges, and vertices, you need to remember to count the ones you can’t see on the picture, but you know are there. In the picture you can see 3 faces. Each one is opposite a matching face that you can’t see. So there are 6 faces in total. There are 4 edges of length 3.4 cm, 4 of length 5 cm, and 4 of 8 cm.

That makes a total of 12 edges. Finally, the prism has 8 vertices. You can see 7 of them on the original picture. The eighth is on the other side. Example

3

Name this figure and determine how many faces, edges, and vertices it has. Solution

This is a triangular prism. There are 2 parallel triangles and all the other faces are rectangles. It has 5 faces. It has 2 faces that are triangles, and 3 that are rectangles joining the bases together. Each triangle has 3 edges. There are another 3 edges where the rectangular faces meet. So there are 9 edges in total. There are 6 vertices. You can count the 3 vertices on the front triangle and 3 on the back triangle.

408

Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

Guided Practice In Exercises 13–16, say how many vertices each figure has. 13.

15.

14.

16.

17. Charlie is making a cube-shaped box from square panels of wood. How many square panels does she need?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–3, say whether each statement is true or false. If any are false, explain why. 1. The faces of a triangular prism are triangles. 2. A cube is not a rectangular prism. 3. A cylinder is not a prism. In Exercises 4–8, use the word face(s) or base(s). Choose the best word to complete each sentence. 4. Prisms are named by their ______. All the other ______ are rectangles. 5. In a cylinder, the ______ are circles. 6. In a triangular prism, there are three rectangular ______. 7. A ______ is one of the ______. 8. In rectangular prisms, all the ______ are rectangles. 9. Identify which of the figures are rectangular prisms. a. b. c. d. e.

Now try these:

In Exercises 10–15, name the 3D figures shown. 10. 11. 12.

Lesson 7.4.1 additional questions — p466

13.

14.

15.

Round Up You will have seen these special types of 3D figures before in earlier grades. You should make sure you understand all the facts you have seen in this Lesson. They’ll be useful in the next few Lessons as you learn about the volume of 3D figures. Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

409

Lesson

7.4.2

Volumes of R ectangular Rectangular Prisms

California Standard: Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 1.3 Geometry Kno w and use the formulas Know for the volume of triangular prisms and cylinders (area of base × height); compare these formulas and explain the similarity between them or mula ffor or the and the ffor orm volume of a rrectangular ectangular solid solid.

What it means for you: You’ll learn a formula that you can use to work out how much space there is inside a rectangular prism.

It’s really useful to be able to work out the volume of different solid figures. The easiest type of figure to work out the volume of is a rectangular prism. That’s what you’ll learn about in this Lesson.

Volume Is the Amount of Space Inside a Figur e Figure The amount of space inside a 3D figure is called the volume of the figure. Volume is measured in cubic units. One cubic unit is the volume of a unit cube — a cube with a side length of 1 unit.

1

volume rectangular prism cube base area height

1

When you work out the volume of a 3D figure, you are working out how many unit cubes would fit inside it.

Key words: • • • • • •

1

2 cm 1 cm 2 cm 1 cm

1 cm

1 cm

If you put two 1 cm cubes together, you make a rectangular prism with side lengths 1 cm, 1 cm, and 2 cm. The volume of the prism is the total of the two cubes together, 2 cm3.

1 cm 2 cm

1 cm

Guided Practice Check it out: A unit cube could have side lengths of 1 cm, 1 m, 1 yd... it all depends on the units you’re using. For bigger volumes, you need bigger units — you might measure volumes using a 1-meter unit cube.

The rectangular prisms shown in Exercises 1–6 are made up of 1 cm cubes. Find the volume of each prism. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

In Exercises 7-10, choose a reasonable estimate of each volume from the three choices. 7. Volume of a bathroom 13 cm3 9 m3 90 m3 8. Volume of a bar of soap 8 in3 80 in3 0.8 in3 3 3 9. Volume of a bathtub 0.75 yd 7.5 yd 75 yd3 10. Volume of a medicine cabinet 10 in3 900 in3 1 in3 410

Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

You Can Calcula te Volume Using a F or mula Calculate For orm For larger prisms, it isn’t possible to find the volume by counting cubes. It is more convenient to use a formula to work out the volume.

Check it out:

This is the formula you need to find the volume of a rectangular prism.

V = Bh

Area =4×3 2 = 12 units

B represents the area of one of the prism’s bases.

4 layers

Think of it like this... The area of the base (B) is the number of unit cubes in one layer (here, 4 × 3 = 12). The volume V (the total number of unit cubes) is the number of cubes in one layer multiplied by the number of layers.

h stands for the height of the prism. In a rectangular prism, you can pick any pair of parallel faces as the bases. The height is the distance between the bases. Example

1

Find the volume of this rectangular prism. Solution

You need to start by choosing a rectangle as the base.

8 ft

For example, you might choose the 2 ft by 5 ft rectangle as the base, making the height 8 ft. Don’t forget:

5 ft 2 ft

You can now find the volume using the formula V = Bh

The area of a rectangle is given by the formula A = lw where l and w are the length and width of the rectangle.

V = Bh

l

V = (l × w) × h

Replace B with rrectang ectang le ar ea ffor or mula ectangle area orm

V = (2 × 5) × h

Substitute in length and width of base

V = 10 × h

w

V = 10 × 8

Substitute in height of the prism

V = 80 So the volume of the prism is 80 cu. ft, or 80 ft3. Check it out: 1 ft3 or 1 cu. ft is 1 cubic foot — the volume of a unit cube whose sides are 1 foot long.

Guided Practice In Exercises 11–16, use the formula V = Bh to find the volume of each prism. 11.

12.

5m

3m

13.

2m

4 in.

8 ft

4 in.

12 ft

12 ft

3 in.

14.

15.

16. 8m

7 cm

6m

11 cm 9 cm

8 in.

11 in.

17 in.

2.5 m

Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

411

You Can Find the Volume Without a Pictur e Picture You don’t have to have a drawing of a prism to find its volume. You can use the formula V = Bh to find the volume of a rectangular prism when only the lengths of the sides are given. Example

2

Find the volume of a rectangular prism with length of 3.4 cm, width of 5.6 cm, and height of 3 cm. Solution

Check it out: The formula for the volume of a rectangular prism is often written V=l×w×h (or V = lwh) — where l, w, and h are the length, width, and height.

Use the formula V = Bh. V = (l × w) × h

Replace B with rrectang ectang le ar ea ffor or mula ectangle area orm

V = (3.4 × 5.6) × 3

Substitute vvalues alues of l,, w,, and h

V = 19.04 × 3 V = 57.12 The volume of the prism is 57.12 cm3.

Guided Practice Exercises 17–22 each give the length, width, and height of a rectangular prism. Calculate the volume of each prism. 17. 4 cm, 9 cm, 1 cm 18. 3 ft, 7 ft, 10 ft 19. 8 in., 8 in., 11 in. 20. 5.5 cm, 7 cm, 9.5 cm 21. 1.2 m, 5.2 m, 6.9 m 22. 3.25 in., 4.5 in., 6 in.

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–3, find the volume of each rectangular prism. 6 in. 9 in. 1. 2. 3. 5 in.

Now try these: Lesson 7.4.2 additional questions — p467

4 cm

10 ft 13 ft

7 ft

5.5 cm

5.5 cm

4. The area of the base in a rectangular prism is 35 cm2 and the height is 2 cm. What is the volume of the prism? 5. A cube has an edge length of 2.5 ft. What is its volume? 6. A box measures 18 cm by 25 cm by 6 cm. What is the volume of the box? 7. The area of the base of a rectangular prism is 40 m2. Its volume is 120 m3. What is the height of the prism? 8. A cube has a volume of 1728 ft3. Find its length, width, and height.

Round Up The formula V = Bh is one you should learn, because you don’t just use it with rectangular prisms. As you’ll see in the next couple of Lessons, it’s handy for finding the volumes of other 3D figures too. 412

Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

Lesson

Volumes of Triangular Prisms and Cylinder s Cylinders

7.4.3

California Standard: Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 1.3 Geometry Kno w and use the ffor or mulas Know orm for the vvolume olume of triangular prisms and ccylinder ylinder s (ar ea ylinders (area of base × height) height); compare these formulas and explain the similarity between them and the formula for the volume of a rectangular solid.

The formula you used last Lesson, V = Bh, doesn’t just allow you to find the volume of a rectangular prism. In this Lesson, you’ll be using it to find the volumes of triangular prisms and cylinders.

What it means for you:

You can use the same formula to find the volume of a triangular prism.

You’ll use the formula V = Bh to work out the volumes of triangular prisms and cylinders.

Key words: • • • •

V = Bh Can Be Used with Triangular Prisms The formula you used to find the volume of a rectangular prism is V = Bh.

Example

1

Find the volume of this triangular prism. The area of its base is 45 in2. 11 in.

Solution

volume triangular prism cylinder base

You can find the volume using the formula V = Bh V = Bh

Don’t forget: In the formula V = Bh: • B is the area of one of the bases of the prism • h is the height of the prism, or the distance between the two bases.

V = 45 × h

Replace B with ar ea of the base area

V = 45 × 11

Height of prism is distance betw een bases between

V = 495 So the volume of the prism is 495 in3.

Sometimes you’ll need to work out B first.

Check it out:

Example Area = (4 × 3) ÷ 2 2 = 6 units

2

Find the volume of this triangular prism. 4 layers

The formula is the same as the one from the previous Lesson, because, again, the volume is the number of unit cubes in one layer multiplied by the number of layers.

Check it out: The formulas for area of a triangle and volume of a prism both have a lowercase h in them. One is the height of the triangle and one is the height of the prism. Don’t get them mixed up.

Solution

6 cm

You need to find the area of the triangular base first. A=

1 bh 2

A=

1 2

5 cm

7 cm

× 5 × 6 = 15 cm2

You can now find the volume using the formula V = Bh V = Bh V = 15 × 7 V = 105 So the volume of the prism is 105 cm3. Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

413

Guided Practice Find the volume of the triangular prisms shown in Exercises 1–6. 1. 2. 3. 4m Base area = 2 6m

9 in.

Base area 2 = 14 in

10 cm 6 cm

4 cm

4.

5.

17 in.

6. 3 in.

9.5 in.

7 cm

9 ft 8 cm

10.5 ft 13 ft

11 cm

You Can Find the Volume of a Cylinder Using V = Bh The formula V = Bh even works for finding the volume of a cylinder. Example

3

Find the volume of this cylinder. The area of the base is 50.24 in2.

4 in.

Solution

You can find the volume using the formula V = Bh V = Bh V = 50.24 × h

Replace B with ar ea of the base area

V = 50.24 × 4

Height of prism is distance betw een bases between

V = 200.96 So the volume of the prism is 200.96 in 3. Don’t forget: Evaluate exponents before doing any multiplication.

Again, you might need to work out B first. Example

4

Find the volume of this cylinder. Use 3.14 for p. Don’t forget: See Lesson 7.1.3 for how to find the area of a circle.

You need to find the area of the circular base first. B = pr2 B = 3.14 × 32

Check it out: The formula for the volume of a cylinder is often written V = pr2h

Put in vvalues alues ffor or p and r

B = 28.26 ft2 You can now find the volume using V = Bh V = Bh V = 28.26 × 6 = 169.56 So the volume of the cylinder is 169.56 ft3.

414

6 ft

Solution

Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

3 ft

Guided Practice In Exercises 7–12, find the volume of each cylinder. Use 3.14 for p. 7.

8.

2 cm

9.

10 m

3 cm

3 in.

14 m

4.5 in.

Don’t forget: You need the radius of a circle to find its area. If the question gives the diameter instead, then you need to divide that by 2 to get the radius.

10.

11.

12.

6.6 in.

11.4 m 4.2 ft

15 ft

8.1 in.

9.9 m

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, find the volumes of the triangular prisms and cylinders shown. Use 3.14 for p. 10 m 1. 2. 3. 7 m 6 cm 12 in.

12 cm

12 in.

4.

13 m 15 in.

5.

6.

14.1 cm

4.4 in. 5.5 in.

8.1 cm 5.7 ft 7.9 ft 7.3 ft

Now try these: Lesson 7.4.3 additional questions — p467

7. The volume of a triangular prism is 248 in3. The height of the prism is 8 in. What is the area of the base? 8. A swimming pool company makes a 15 ft diameter circular pool that is available in 3 ft, 3.5 ft, and 4 ft depths. Find the approximate number of cubic feet of water needed to fill each pool. 9. A candy company has decided to change the shape of its box. The old box was a rectangular prism with l = 12 cm, w = 6 cm, and h = 2 cm. Instead they will make a triangular prism in which the base of the triangle is 6 cm, and the height of the triangle is 12 cm. The height of the prism is 2 cm. How does this new design change the volume of the box?

Round Up This Lesson shows how useful the formula V = Bh can be. If you learn the formula, and how to use it, you can work out the volume of any prism so long as you can find the area of the base. Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

415

Lesson

7.4.4

Volumes of Compound Solids

California Standard: Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 1.3 Geometry Kno w and use the ffor or mulas Know orm for the vvolume olume of triangular prisms and ccylinder ylinder s (area ylinders of base × height); compare these formulas and explain the similarity between them and the formula for the volume of a rectangular solid.

What it means for you: You’ll use the formula V = Bh to figure out the volumes of more complicated 3D figures.

Key words: • • • • • • •

volume rectangular prism triangular prism cylinder base area height

Now you know how to find the volume of rectangular prisms, triangular prisms, and cylinders. Sometimes you’ll want to find the volume of solid shapes that look complicated, but can be broken down into smaller, simpler shapes.

Sometimes 3D Figur es Need to Be Br ok en Do wn Figures Brok oken Down Example

1 2 in.

Find the volume of this figure. 7 in.

6 in.

Solution

The figure is made up of two rectangular 4 in. prisms. All you need to do is figure out the volume of each prism, then add the two together.

6 in.

The volume of the first prism is V = Bh V = (l × w) × h V=6×4×6 V = 144 in 3

6 in. 4 in. 6 in.

The volume of the second prism is

6 in.

2 in.

V = Bh V = (l × w) × h V=6×7×2 V = 84 in 3

7 in.

So the total volume of the figure is 144 in 3 + 84 in 3 = 228 in 3

Check it out: This is the 3D equivalent of the material in Lesson 2.3.3.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–5, find the volume of each figure. Use 3.14 for p. 12 cm 1. 2. 14 m 1.3 m

8 cm 30 cm

3.

4.

4 ft 8 ft

6.2 m

7.5 m

24 cm

6 cm

5. 3 cm

4.5 in. 4.5 in.

6 cm 3 cm

10 ft

416

Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

11 in.

20 ft

11 in.

Some 3D Figur es Ha ve Holes in Them Figures Hav Example

2

Find the volume of this figure. Use 3.14 for p.

10 ft

Solution 5 ft

The figure is a cylinder with a cylinder-shaped hole through the middle. You first need to find 5 ft the volume that the cylinder would have without the hole. Then you need to find the volume of the hole and take that away. The volume of the full cylinder is 10 ft

V = Bh V = pr 2 × h V = 3.14 × 102 × 5 V = 1570 ft3

5 ft

The volume of the hole is V = Bh V = pr 2 × h V = 3.14 × 52 × 5 V = 392.5 ft3

5 ft 5 ft

So the total volume of the figure is 1570 ft 3 – 392.5 ft 3 = 1177.5 ft 3

Guided Practice In Exercises 6–9, find the volume of each figure. Use 3.14 for p. 11 in. 6. 7. 4.5 in. 8. 7m

11 in.

7 in.

4m 4m

4 in.

9 in.

3m

7m

8 in.

9. 5 cm

4 cm 2 cm

5 cm

10 cm 4 cm 3 cm 25 cm

Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

417

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, find the volume of each figure. Use 3.14 for p. 1.

2.

9 ft

3.

11 in.

23 ft 8 ft

7m

3 in.

13 in.

4m 6m

5 in.

4.

12 cm

30 ft

11 ft

7m

8 in.

8 cm

5.

6. 18 in.

22 cm

7 in.

2 cm

6 in.

12 cm

4 cm

9 in.

15 cm

3 cm

10 cm

15 in.

3 cm

4.5 cm

Don’t forget: If there isn’t a picture in the question, it usually helps to draw one for yourself.

Don’t forget: For questions involving real-life situations, you can take the value of p to be 3.14.

7. A cylinder-shaped bottle of aspirin is packaged inside a box that is a square-based prism. The bottle has radius 2 cm and height 6.6 cm. The box has length 4.5 cm, width 4.5 cm, and height 7 cm. How much empty space is left inside the box once the bottle has been put in it? 8. Mount Prism is a mountain that is shaped like a triangular prism. The size of the mountain is shown in the diagram. A tunnel is built straight through the mountain from one triangular side to the other. The tunnel is circular, with a diameter of 100 ft. What is the approximate remaining volume of the mountain once the tunnel has been dug out?

1400 ft

900 ft 1200 ft

Now try these: Lesson 7.4.4 additional questions — p468

9. This building has a volume of 51.12 m3. What is the length of the longer side?

1.7 m 2.7 m 3.2 m

10. This figure has a volume of 360 in3. How long is the distance marked x?

x

8.5 in. 5 in. 10 in.

6 in.

Round Up If you need to find the volume of a tricky-looking 3D figure, you should always try to split it up into simpler shapes. Remember to look out for any cases where it’s easier to take a shape away rather than add them together. 418

Section 7.4 — Three-Dimensional Figures

Section 7.5

Lesson

7.5.1

Generalizing Results

California Standards:

There are lots of rules and patterns in math. In this Lesson, you’ll learn to think about patterns of numbers in a way that will help you to figure out rules of your own.

Mathematical Reasoning 1.2 Formulate and justify mathematical conjectures based on a general description of the mathematical question or problem posed. Mathematical Reasoning 3.1 Evaluate the reasonableness of the solution in the context of the original situation. Mathematical Reasoning 3.2 Note the method of deriving the solution and demonstrate a conceptual understanding of the derivation by solving similar problems. Mathematical Reasoning 3.3 Develop generalizations of the results obtained and the strategies used and apply them in new problem situations.

To Find Patterns You Need to Collect Information Often in math, you can collect data and look for patterns. This will help you make predictions and develop rules. To look for a pattern, it helps to record your data in an organized way. Example

1

Make a table of the number of diagonals in polygons of 3 to 7 sides. Solution

Number of sides

Polygon

Triangle

0

What it means for you: You’ll see how to use information you have collected to find a rule and make predictions.

3 0

0

Quadrilateral 1

The number at each vertex shows how many new diagonals start there.

4

1+1+0+0=2

5

2+2+1+0+0=5

6

3+3+2+1+0+0=9

7

4 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 0 + 0 = 14

0

rule pattern prediction generalization formula

0

Pentagon 2 1 2

Check it out:

0

0

The examples in this Lesson are all about diagonals of polygons. L

0+0+0=0

1

Key words: • • • • •

Number of diagonals

M

Hexagon

3 2

3

0

1 0

Heptagon P

4

4 3

N

A diagonal of a polygon is a line joining two vertices that aren’t already joined by the sides of the polygon. A rectangle has two diagonals.

0 2 0

1

Section 7.5 — Generalizing Results

419

Guided Practice The numbers represented by this pattern of dots are called square numbers. Exercises 1–2 are about the pattern. 1. Copy and complete the table below. Place in the pattern

Number of dots

1st

1

2nd

4

3rd 4th

2. Draw the 5th and 6th figures in the pattern. Add the number of dots in the 5th and 6th figures to the table.

You Can Make Rules and Predictions When you’ve collected your information, you can look for patterns in the numbers. If you can figure out how the pattern will continue, then you can make a rule. Example

2

Find the number of diagonals in an octagon (8-sided polygon). Solution

You need to look for a pattern in the sums used to find the number of diagonals in Example 1. Check it out: The sketch for an 8-sided polygon is pretty confusing to look at and complicated to draw. For polygons with large numbers of sides, it would be almost impossible to draw a sketch. That’s why it would be useful to find a rule, so you could work out the number of diagonals without having to draw a sketch.

For each shape, the number of diagonals that can be drawn from the first vertex is 3 less than the number of sides. This number is repeated once, then decreased by one until 0 is reached on the last two vertices. So an 8-sided polygon will have 5 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 0 + 0 = 20 diagonals. You can check this with a sketch.

5

5

4 0 3 0 2 1

420

Section 7.5 — Generalizing Results

Example

3

Find the number of diagonals in a 10-sided polygon. Solution

You can find the answer using the same pattern as in Example 2: 7+7+6+5+4+3+2+1+0+0 There is a way to add the numbers up quickly — you can match the numbers into pairs that add up to 7, the first number in the sum.

7+7+6+5+4+3+2+1+0+0 4+3=7 5+2=7 6+1=7 7+0=7 7+0=7

Check it out: With an odd number of vertices, you can still pair up the numbers in the sum. There will be one number left unpaired. The unpaired number is always half the total of each pair of numbers. When you add this half-pair to the others, the number of pairs is still half the number of vertices. Try this for yourself, using the heptagon from Example 1.

Each number in the sum represents one vertex. There are 10 vertices, so there are 10 ÷ 2 = 5 pairs that each add up to 7. So there are 5 × 7 = 35 diagonals in a 10-sided polygon.

Example

4

Find a rule for working out the number of diagonals in a polygon with n sides. Solution

Don’t forget: The letter n is a variable — the letter is just standing in for a number you don’t know yet.

You can say the same things for a polygon with n sides as you said for a polygon with 10 sides in Example 3. Number of vertices

Number of diagonals from f irst vertex

Number of pairs of vertices

10

10 – 3

10 ÷ 2

n

n–3

n÷2

For any n-sided polygon, we can generalize that the number of diagonals is always (n – 3) × (n ÷ 2)

Section 7.5 — Generalizing Results

421

Guided Practice Exercises 3–5 use the table you made in Exercises 1–2. 3. Study the pattern of the numbers of dots. Predict how many dots would be in the 10th figure. 4. How could you predict the number of dots in the 100th figure? 5. Which of the following could be used as a general rule for finding the number of dots in the nth figure of the pattern? (n – 1)(n – 1) 2n n+3 n2

You Need to Test Rules to Make Sure They Work When you figure out a new rule, you need to test it to see if it is true. Example

5

Test the rule for working out the number of diagonals in any polygon. Solution

The rule from Example 4 is that for any n-sided polygon, you can generalize that the number of diagonals is always (n – 3) × (n ÷ 2). Don’t forget: You could check that the rule works for all the polygons you’ve looked at so far — just to make sure.

You can test the generalization on polygons for which you already know the results. The table from Example 1 says a hexagon has 9 diagonals. If the rule works, it will give the answer 9 when n = 6. (n – 3) × (n ÷ 2) = (6 – 3) × (6 ÷ 2) =3×3

Write out the expression Replace n with 6 Simplify

=9 The rule gives the right answer of 9 diagonals.

Guided Practice Exercises 6–7 use the rule you found in Exercises 3–5. 6. Test the rule you chose in Exercise 5 by checking that it gives the same answers as in the table from Exercises 1–2. 7. Use the rule to predict how many dots would be in the 7th figure in the pattern. 8. Draw the 7th figure in the pattern and count the dots to see if your answer to Exercise 7 was right. 422

Section 7.5 — Generalizing Results

Independent Practice The measures of the angles in a triangle always add up to 180°. You can use this fact to make a generalization about the sum of the measures of the angles in any polygon. 1. In the chart below, diagonals are drawn from one vertex of each polygon to divide it into triangles. Copy and complete the chart.

Polygon

Number of sides

Number of triangles

Sum of measures of the angles

3

1

1 × 180° = 180°

4

2

2 × 180° = 360°

5

?

3 × 180° = ?

?

?

? × 180° = ?

Triangle

Quadrilateral

Pentagon

Hexagon

2. Continue your chart for a heptagon (7-sided polygon) and an octagon (8-sided polygon). Remember to draw diagonals from one vertex only to break the polygon into nonoverlapping triangles. 3. Without drawing it, predict the number of triangles and the sum of the measures of the angles in a 10-sided polygon. 4. Study your chart. What is the relationship between the number of sides and number of triangles in a polygon? Now try these: Lesson 7.5.1 additional questions — p468

5. For an 85-sided polygon, which of the following could be used to find the sum of the measures of its angles? 83 × 180° 84 × 180° 85 × 180° 86 × 180° 87 × 180° 6. Describe in words a rule that could be used for finding the sum of the measures of the angles in any polygon. 7. Write a formula for finding the sum of the angle measures in an nsided polygon. Use S to represent the sum of the angle measures. It may help to first complete each column of your table for an n-sided polygon.

Round Up That might seem like a lot to take in, but the Lesson boils down to three basic steps for finding math rules. First, collect and organize your data. Next, look for a pattern and use it to find a rule. Finally, test the rule to make sure it works. Section 7.5 — Generalizing Results

423

Lesson

7.5.2

Proving Generalizations

California Standards:

When you make a generalization, you might not be able to tell if it’s always true. It isn’t true if you can find even one example where the rule doesn’t work. If it is true, there’s always a mathematical reason why.

Mathematical Reasoning 1.2 Formulate and justify mathematical conjectures based on a general description of the mathematical question or problem posed. Mathematical Reasoning 3.2 Note the method of deriving the solution and demonstrate a conceptual understanding of the derivation by solving similar problems. Mathematical Reasoning 3.3 Develop generalizations of the results obtained and the strategies used and apply them in new problem situations.

What it means for you: You’ll find out about using examples to prove when generalizations are not true, and about using math to prove when they are.

Key words: • • • •

generalization prove example test

Generalizations Can Sometimes Be Proved Wrong You might find some information that leads you to make a generalization. But sometimes you’ll then be able to find an example that proves the generalization isn’t true. Example

1

Tara measured the angles of this trapezoid. She then made a generalization that no two angles in a trapezoid ever have the same measure. Give an example of a trapezoid that shows that this generalization is incorrect.

110°

100°

80°

70°

What was wrong with Tara's method of making a generalization? Solution

The trapezoid shown here is one example that proves that Tara’s generalization is wrong. You could show any isosceles or right trapezoid.

110°

110°

70° 70° Tara based her generalization on only one example. If she’d looked at more trapezoids, she might have found one with two angles of the same measure. She didn’t test if she could draw a trapezoid with more than one angle of equal measure.

Guided Practice Don’t forget: A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with only one pair of parallel sides.

In Exercises 1–5, use an example to prove that each generalization is not true. 1. In a right triangle, the two angles that are not right angles always have the same measure. 2. A trapezoid can never contain a right angle. 3. If two sides of a triangle are the same length, the third side is always a different length. 4. Rectangles with different side lengths always have different areas. 5. The two sides of equal length in an isosceles triangle are each always longer than the other side.

424

Section 7.5 — Generalizing Results

You Can Prove a Generalization Using Math Example

2

Is it possible to draw a triangle with two right angles? Solution

If you can draw a triangle with two right angles, then the answer is yes. This attempt has failed because the shape doesn’t close. This attempt has failed because there’s only one right angle. This attempt has failed because there are four sides. Check it out: If you’re using examples, you only need one to prove that something isn’t true. But proving that something is true using examples can be tricky.

It looks like you can make the following generalization: “it’s impossible for a triangle to contain two right angles.” But there’s no way to tell for sure if that’s true by drawing examples — there might be a way to do it that you just haven’t thought of. The way to show a generalization is true is to start with some known facts. Example

3

Use the triangle sum to show that a triangle can’t have two right angles. Solution

A right angle measures 90°. Don’t forget: The triangle sum tells us that the measures of the angles in a triangle add up to 180°.

If a triangle has two right angles, the sum of their measures is 90° + 90° = 180°. For the sum of all three angles to be 180°, the third angle would have to measure 0°. But a triangle can’t contain an angle of 0°, so a triangle can’t have two right angles.

Guided Practice In Exercises 6–9, try to draw a quadrilateral with the following characteristics. 6. Exactly 1 right angle 7. Exactly 2 right angles 8. Exactly 3 right angles 9. Exactly 4 right angles 10. Use math to prove the generalization: “It is not possible to draw a four-sided shape that contains exactly three right angles.”

Section 7.5 — Generalizing Results

425

Independent Practice There are two diagonals that can be drawn in every rectangle. A few examples are shown below. Don’t forget: Matching tick marks show line segments of equal length.

From looking at the examples above, say whether the following generalizations about the diagonals of all rectangles are true. 1. The two diagonals are always the same length. 2. The two diagonals cut each other into equal-length segments. 3. The diagonals intersect at a 90° angle.

Don’t forget: “Rhombi” is the plural of “rhombus.” See Lesson 7.3.3 for more information.

In Exercises 4–7, draw several examples of the given type of quadrilateral. Determine which of the generalizations from Exercise 1–3 are true for all quadrilaterals of that type. 4. Squares 5. Rhombi 6. Parallelograms 7. Trapezoids Use the parallelograms shown below to answer Exercises 8–13. A

D

45°

135°

135° C

45°

B

A

60° D

120°

120°

A 106°

B 60°

C

D

74°

B

A

B

D

C

74°

106°

C

8. Compare the measures of angles A and C in each parallelogram. What generalization can you make about the opposite angles A and C in the parallelograms above? 9. Is this generalization true for opposite angles B and D in each parallelogram above? Now try these:

10. Is it possible to draw a parallelogram where these generalizations are not true? If so, draw it. If not, explain why not.

Lesson 7.5.2 additional questions — p469

11. For each parallelogram, find the sum of angles A and B. 12. What generalization can you make about the neighboring angles A and B in the parallelograms above? 13. There are other pairs of neighboring angles in each of the parallelograms. Is your generalization in Exercise 12 true for the pairs B and C, C and D, and D and A as well?

Round Up Sometimes you can prove a generalization using examples, but usually you’ll need to use the math behind the generalization to show that it is always true. That doesn’t mean that examples aren’t important — they’re often the best way to prove when a generalization isn’t true. 426

Section 7.5 — Generalizing Results

Chapter 7 Investigation

Rec lining Chair s eclining Chairs Reclining lounge chairs at hotel pools can usually be set to recline at various angles. The support bar at the back of the seat is moved into designated slots — like in the picture below. The nearer the slot to the base of the seat, the more upright the back will be. When viewed from the side, the support bar, the back of the seat, and the slotted bar form a triangle, as shown. • The support bar is 10 inches long. • It is permanently attached to the back of the chair at a length of 8 inches from the hinge of the seat. • The support bar can be moved into slots at 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14 inches from the hinge of the seat to create different reclining positions. It can also be laid flat.

8 in.

x°

Part 1: How is the reclining angle x° related to angle 1?

10 in.

2 1

3 6 in.

10 in. 14 in. 8 in. 12 in.

How is angle 1 affected when the support brace is moved into different slots? Part 2: Investigate the different types of triangles that can be created by the support bar, the back of the seat, and the slotted bar. Use a compass and ruler to draw the triangles. Extension The reclining angle (x°) has a special relationship to the other angles in the “support triangle.” • Describe any patterns you notice between x and the measures of angles 1, 2, and 3. Try to make a generalization about any relationships you see. • Test your generalization for other triangles. Is this relationship true of all triangles? If not, explain why not. If so, generalize your findings. Open-ended Extension Create a design for a lounge chair different than the model given. • What reclining angles would your chair have? • Could you use the same basic design? If so, what length would the chair back and support bar be? Why? If not, explain why not, and design an alternative reclining mechanism.

Round Up This is just the kind of thing some engineers have to do. They’re given a specification — a description of something that someone needs, giving information about what it must do. The engineer must then come up with a design that will do all of the things necessary. Cha pter 7 In vestig a tion — Reclining Chairs 427 Chapter Inv estiga

Additional Questions Lesson 1.1.1 — Comparing Integers In Exercises 1–3, say which of the integers is greater. 1. –4, 4 2. 5, –6

3. –2, –4

In Exercises 4–6, list all the numbers from –3 through 4 that are: 4. whole numbers 5. integers

6. natural numbers

The change in the position of a football after Timmy ran it was +2 yards. The last time Jamal ran the football the change of position was –4 yards. –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 7. Circle these two integers on a number line Day A 6 8. Use the correct symbol, “<”, “>”, or “=”, to compare these two integers. When the water level in a hotel pool is below the 0 marker, Andrew needs to add more water. When it is at or above 0 he does not. The water level during two different days is shown on the water meter to the right. 9. Write all the integers between the two levels of water shown. 10. Describe the range of numbers shown on the water meter at which Andrew does not need to add water as natural numbers, whole numbers, or integers.

4 2 0 –2 –4

Day B

–6

Lesson 1.1.2 — Adding and Subtracting Integers In Exercises 1–6, work out the result of each calculation. 1. 8 + 4 2. 6 + (–5) 4. –3 – 2 5. –14 – (–8)

3. –12 + (–3) 6. –9 – (–6)

7. How is subtracting a negative number using the number line different from adding a negative? $14 $12 $10 $8

Mo

nda y Tue sday Wed nesd ay Thu rsda y Frid ay

$6

The graph shows the price of a stock over four days. Use this for Exercises 8–10. 8. Write the integer that represents the change in the price of the stock between Monday and Tuesday. 9. Write the integer that represents the change in the price of the stock between Tuesday and Wednesday. 10. The stock price changed by –$3 overall from Monday to Friday that week. Write the price of the stock on Friday.

Golf Scores Janet played four rounds of golf in a tournament. Her scores for the first three rounds are shown in the table. Use this for Exercises 11–13. Player Rd 1 Rd 2 Rd 3 Rd 4 11. What was Janet’s overall score after round 2? –3 –1 2 Janet 12. Janet’s overall score for all four rounds was –7. –4 1 –1 Melissa What was Janet’s score in round 4? 13. Janet’s overall score after four rounds was 2 lower than Melissa’s. Write Melissa’s score for round 4.

Lesson 1.2.1 — Multiplying with Integers In Exercises 1–3, work out the result of each calculation. 1. –6 × 8 2. –3 × (–5)

3. –12 × (–3) × (–2)

4. Explain why these two expressions have the same value: 6 × 3 and 3 × 6 A cafeteria used five cans of soup every day, for eight days. To work out the change in the number of soup cans in stock, a worker wrote this expression: –5 × 8. 5. Write the value of this expression. 6. The number of cans of soup left at the end of the eight days was 164. How many cans of soup did the cafeteria have at the beginning of the eight days? 428

Additional Questions

Lesson 1.2.2 — Dividing with Integers In Exercises 1–3, work out the result of each calculation. 1. 72 ÷ (–9) 2. –24 ÷ 3

3. –90 ÷ (–5)

Mary did the division, 54 ÷ (–2) and got the answer –26. 4. Describe how Mary could check her result without repeating the division. 5. Say whether –26 is the correct answer to the division. If it isn’t, find the correct answer. 6. Write an expression with a quotient of –12. A worker at a laundromat needed to do 15 basketfuls of laundry for a hotel client. Each basket had 10 pounds of laundry in it. The washers could hold 25 pounds of laundry each. 7. Write the total number of pounds of laundry the worker needed to do. 8. Write the least number of washes the worker could do to complete the order. Malcolm is building a fence. He plans to use 18 fence posts, and to put a topper on every third post. 9. How many toppers will Malcolm need? 1

10. The fence posts are 3 feet high without the toppers. The toppers are 3 the height of the original fence posts. What will be the height of a fence post with a topper added?

Lesson 1.2.3 — Integers in Real Life In Exercises 1–4, work out the result of each calculation. 1. 1.5 miles multiplied by four. 2. 100 people divided into four equal groups 3. 150 feet, dropping by 40 feet 4. $20 plus $134 In Exercises 5–6, use the number line below. –15 –12 –9 –6 –3

0

3

6

9

12 15 18

°C

5. Write an integer to show the temperature change if a thermometer reading goes from –1 °C to –8 °C. 6. Write two integers from the number line with a difference of 21 °C. 7. A deliveryman delivered 20 packages each hour for three hours. After this time he still had 70 packages left to deliver. If he carried on delivering packages at the same rate, how long would it take him in total to deliver all the packages?

Lesson 1.3.1 — Decimals In Exercises 1–3, write the digit in the hundredths place. 1. 152.685 2. 565.642

3. 33.896

The changes in a gymnastic team’s average score after each of four events are shown in the table to the right. 4. The change in the average score after the balance beam was an increase of 3 tenths. Represent this change using a decimal. 5. The change in the average score after the floor exercise was a drop of 5 tenths. Represent this change using a decimal. Package weight

Mailing cost

< 0.5 lb

$2.00

0.5 to 0.999 lb

$4.00

1.0 to 1.499 lb

$6.00

1.5 to 1.999 lb

$8.00

Event

Change in average score

Vault

+0.4

Uneven Bars

+0.1

Balance Beam Floor

Suzanne worked in a mail room. She found the weight of several packages and charged the customers based on that weight as shown in the table to the left. 6. Suzanne weighed a package that was between 0.6 and 0.7 pounds. Find the mailing cost. 7. Suzanne then weighed another package. The cost of mailing the first package (in Exercise 6) and the second package together was $12.00. Write a possible weight for the second package. Additional Questions

429

Lesson 1.3.2 — Ordering Decimals In Exercises 1–2, place the numbers in order of increasing value. 1. –2.67, –0.67, –1.275, 0, –5 2. 0.1, –0.03, –3.2, –3.26, 0.15 3. Explain how to add zeros to compare the decimal numbers 4.52 and 4.5. After a rainstorm a class measured three puddles on the school playground. The width of the first puddle was 21.4 cm. 4. The width of the second puddle was less than the width of the first, but greater than 20 cm. Write a decimal number that could represent the width of the second puddle in centimeters. 5. The third puddle was more than two times wider than the second puddle. Write a decimal number that could represent the width of the third puddle in centimeters.

Lesson 1.4.1 — Rounding Numbers In Exercises 1–3, write the numbers –1001.55, –479.133, and 49.806, to the nearest: 1. one 2. hundred 3. hundredth 4. A scientist showed that the average raindrop measures 0.001655 meters across. What is this to the nearest thousandth of a meter? 5. When Marsha rounded three numbers to the nearest hundredth, she got a result of 0.53 all three times. Two of the numbers were greater than 0.53 and one was less. Write three numbers that could have been the numbers that Marsha rounded. Country

Area (km2)

Russia

8,502,290

Brazil

5,326,884

Canada

2,456,996

United States

2,262,039

China

1,629,600

The table to the left shows the forested area of various countries in the world. Use the table to answer Exercises 6–8. 6. Write the forested area in Russia to the nearest hundred thousand square kilometers. 7. Write the forested area in Canada to the nearest ten thousand square kilometers. 8. When the forested area of the United States was rounded, it came to 2,000,000 km2. What place value was the forested area rounded to?

Lesson 1.4.2 — Using Rounded Numbers In Exercises 1–3, use estimation to find approximate answers 1. 518 + 287 2. 16,994 – 5527

3. 3889 × 689

4. Use the sum 847 + 145 to explain how the place value to which a number is rounded affects the accuracy of the estimation. The table to the right lists the average snowfall in five places in the US. Use this information in Exercises 5–7. 5. List the average snowfalls from the chart, when rounded to the nearest 10. 6. Estimate the difference between the average snows in Valdez, Alaska and Marquette, Michigan. 7. Estimate the total number of inches of snow the people in Yakutat, Alaska should expect during a 9 year period.

Place

Ave. inches snow/year

Valdez, Alaska

326

Mount Washington, NH

260

Blue Canyon, California

240

Yakutat, Alaska

195

Marquette, Michigan

141

8. The greatest TV audience for one program was 114,970,000 people. Write the greatest and least possible audience figures, given that this number is rounded to the nearest 10,000 people.

430

Additional Questions

Pro duc tB

In Exercises 1–3 use the bar graph of sales during September to answer the questions. 1. Estimate the number of times greater the sales for Product A were, than for Product B. 2. Product B had sales of between 200,000 and 250,000. Estimate the sales for Product A 1 3. In the month of October, the sales for each product rose by 4 of the amount they sold in September. Estimate the sales for each product in October.

Pro duc tA

Lesson 1.4.3 — Estimation

The lengths of coastlines in several states are shown on the graph. Alaska has a coastline of 6640 miles. Use these facts to answer Exercises 4–6. 4. Write an estimate for the length of the Californian coastline. Explain your estimate. 5. Write an estimate of the coastline length in Texas. Explain your answer. 6. Write an estimate to describe the difference between the coastline lengths in Texas and Florida. Explain your estimate.

Alaska Florida California Hawaii Louisiana Texas

Lesson 1.4.4 — Using Estimation In Exercises 1–3, say whether a precise answer or an estimate is appropriate. 1. Coach Henderson is measuring the distance jumped by 10 students during a long-jump competition. 2. Pauline is deciding how much paint to buy to paint the outside of her house. 3. Mrs. Jones is making a cake and is measuring the amount of flour she needs. A boat traveling down a river was located at the point marked X after 42.5 hours of travel.

Start

42.5 hours

X

Finish

4. Estimate the total amount of time it will take the boat to travel from start to finish. Explain your estimate. 5. The distance from start to finish was 360 miles. Estimate the distance the boat had left to travel. 6. Say whether or not the boat would be able to travel 500 miles in 100 hours. Explain your answer.

Lesson 2.1.1 — Variables 1. Gina has scored 47 more points this basketball season than Isabella. What letter would be a sensible variable to use to represent the number of points scored by Isabella. In Exercises 2–7, show the expressions on a number line. 2. a – 2 3. r – (–4) 5. s ÷ 5 6. w × 3

4. y + (–6) 7. b ÷ (–2)

In Exercises 8–11, determine whether or not it is necessary to use a variable to describe the problem. 8. Emilio has twice as many spelling awards as Jake. Determine the number of spelling awards that Jake has. 9. Mrs. Gooden planted 3 times the number of daisies that Mr. Kearns planted. Mr Kearns planted 12 daisies. Determine the number of daisies Mrs. Gooden planted. 10. A baker sold 36 more doughnuts than sweet rolls during one day. She wants to know how many doughnuts she sold. 11. Luke pitched 12 baseball games this season. Jose pitched one-third of the number of baseball games that Luke pitched. Their coach wants to know how many baseball games Jose pitched this season. 12. Write a problem in which the h in h ÷ 4 is an unknown quantity in a situation. 13. Write a situation in which the unknown is the number of movies Andre saw last summer. Additional Questions

431

Lesson 2.1.2 — Expressions In Exercises 1–5, write an expression for each situation. 1. A number, p, is increased by 12. 2. A number, y, is multiplied by 7. 3. A number, h, is decreased by 36. 4. A number, w, is divided by 2. 5. A florist divided 64 roses equally between v vases. How many roses were in each vase? Evaluate Exercises 6–8, if the value of a is 9. 6. (a × 2) + 13 7. 55 – (a ÷ 3)

8. (9 ÷ 3) + a

In Exercises 9–11, describe each expression in your own words. 9. ( j × 9) + 5 10. 23 + (d ÷ 2)

11. 15 – (3 × e) + 1

12. The cost of bananas was $0.32p, where p is the number of pounds of bananas sold. How much would 4 pounds of bananas cost? 13. Write an expression in which d is multiplied by 5, and then the product is decreased by 12. 14. Evaluate your expression from Exercise 13 for d = 8.

Lesson 2.1.3 — Multi-Variable Expressions In Exercises 1–3, evaluate the expressions for x = 1 and y = 2. 1. x + 2y 2. (6 – y) + (x × 4)

3. 5 × (y ÷ x) + 3

In Exercises 4–6, write an expression for each situation. 4. c is increased by the product of y and r 5. The ratio of j to k is decreased by the sum of w and z 6. 6m is decreased by the product of g, h, and i 7. There were red, green, and yellow footballs in a P.E. equipment box. There were three times as many red footballs as the difference between the number of green and yellow footballs. Write an expression for the number of red footballs. Exercises 8–9 use the diagram to the right, which shows an amusement park ride that travels up and down. 8. The ride travels straight up to a maximum height of 150 feet off of the ground. From there it drops x feet, and goes up another y feet, then goes down the remaining z feet to the ground. Write an expression to show the total distance, in feet, a person on the ride would travel. 9. Find the total distance, in feet, a person on the ride would travel when x = 70, y = 45, and z = 115.

Lesson 2.1.4 — Order of Operations 1. Rewrite w5 as a repeated multiplication of w. 2. Rewrite the expression b × b × b × b × b × b × b × b in base and exponent form. 3. What does PEMDAS stand for? 4. Explain the order of operations in the expression 15 + (23 ÷ 3 × 4 – 1). 5. Ms. Vaughn is giving 15 questions to every student in each of her three math groups. There are 8 students in one math group, 7 in a second math group, and s students in the third math group. Write an expression that can be used to calculate the total number of questions Ms. Vaughn will have given out. 6. Given that there are 9 students in Ms. Vaughn's third math group, determine the value of your expression from Exercise 5. 432

Additional Questions

Lesson 2.2.1 — Equations 1. What is the main difference between an equation and an expression? 2. Use the guess and check method to solve the equation x – 12 = 10. Give 2 examples of a guess and check, then show the correct value of x. In Exercises 3–5, write down the value of n that satisfies each equation. 3. 100 = 9n + 19 4. n ÷ 6 = 2 5. 5n – 45 = 90 In Exercises 6–9, write an equation that represents each given situation. 6. Aaron is 6 inches taller than Mario. 7. Hailey is 9 years younger than Cassandra. 8. Gavin ate half as many hot dogs as Lin. 9. Trina needs twice as much fabric as Bea. 10. A hairstylist makes $25 per haircut and $80 per color. Write an expression for the total amount of money the hairstylist makes for h haircuts and c colors. 11. On Saturday, the hairstylist gave 7 haircuts and 4 colors. Write an equation for the total amount of money, m, that the hairstylist made that day. Solve your equation for m.

Lesson 2.2.2 — Manipulating Equations 1. When you manipulate equations, what is the only way to keep both sides of the equation balanced? 2. The diagram to the right shows a balanced equation. If you add 5 triangles to the left side of the equation, what has to be done to the right side?

8+7=9+6 =

In Exercises 3–5, fill in the missing parts. 3. d – c = 34 4. 6y = 24 d – c + ? = 44 6y ÷ ? = 12

5. t – l = 64 ? = 64 – 64

In Exercises 6–8, explain what step was done incorrectly. 6. a × b = 130 7. q = 50 a = 130 + b 5q = 10

8. m – 9 = n m + 2 = n – 11

9. Ike saw that Jenna had 32 ¢ more than he did. Write an equation to represent this situation. 10. Using your answer from Exercise 23, if Jenna has 96 ¢, how many cents does Ike have?

Lesson 2.2.3 — Solving + and – Equations Tomas has solved the equation x + 12 = 20 and found that x = 8. 1. Explain how he can check that this answer is correct. 2. Is Tomas's solution to the equation correct? Show your work. Solve the equations in Exercises 3–11 using manipulation. Remember to check your answers. 3. y + 5 = 13 4. 2.2 + y = 5.3 5. –15 = y + 12 6. 75 = y – 25 7. y + 20 = –20 8. y + –6 = –31 9. –17 = y – 9 10. –7 = –7 + y 11. y – 3.7 = 9.8 In Exercises 12–15, write an equation for each situation, then solve it. Use n to represent the variable. 12. Three plus a number is 9. 13. A number decreased by 10 is equal to 91. 14. When five is added to a number the result is 52. 15. A number increased by 0.2 equals 1.8 16. Kelsey's plant has grown 3 inches since last Tuesday and is now 10 inches tall. Write an equation to represent this situation. Use h to represent the height of Kelsey's plant last Tuesday. Then solve your equation to find h. Additional Questions

433

Lesson 2.2.4 — Solving × and ÷ Equations Write down the solution to the multiplication equations in Exercises 1–3. 1. 15a = 90 2. j × 3 = 108 3. 20·q = –480 Write down the solution to the division equations in Exercises 4–6. 4. 12 ÷ h = 4 5. 32 ÷ m = 2

6. g ÷ 5 = –9

7. Ryan made a mistake in solving the equation to the right. What mistake did Ryan make in his work? 8. Solve Ryan's equation correctly.

3t = 27 t = 81

In Exercises 9–12, write an equation for each situation, then solve it. Use y to represent the variable. 9. A number multiplied by seven is equal to 21. 10. A number divided by –5 equals twenty. 11. The product of a number and –3 is eighteen. 12. Four divided by a number equals 16. 13. The Bobcats football team scored 18 points this year from 2-point safeties. Write and solve a multiplication equation that can be used to determine the number of safeties, s, that the Bobcats made this year.

Lesson 2.2.5 — Graphing Equations 1. What is a different way to write the equation b ÷ 5 = 40? 2. What are different ways to write the equation m × 6 = 22? 3. How does the equation x + 3 = 12 explain the location of x on a number line? 4. How does the equation y – 2 = 7 explain the location of y on a number line? In Exercises 5–6, look at the diagram and write down the equation that goes with each. 5.

y

6.

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

y 0

3+7

5

10

15

5×3

In Exercises 7–11, identify the type of equation and solve it. 7. k – 40 = 92 8. 19j = –38 10. a ÷ –7 = 11 11. n × 25 = 200

9. w + 14 = 65

12. Coach Peters had 80 uniforms that are to be shared equally among x players. However, he lost 23 of the uniforms leaving each player with u uniforms. If there are 19 players, calculate how many uniforms each player receives by writing and solving a suitable equation.

Lesson 2.3.1 — Expressions About Length 1. Write down an expression that represents the length of this object.

Diagram not to scale

3m

2m

4m

?m

2. The equation (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) is an example of what property of addition? 3. Prove the equation using x = 7, y = 4 and z = 9. In Exercises 4–6, write down a shape whose perimeter could be represented by the expression 4. 5 + 6 + x 5. 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + x 6. 9 + 12 + 4 + x 7. Malik is cutting balloon strings. The strings that came with the balloons are too long. Each string is i inches long and needs to be exactly 12 inches. Write an expression that could be used to represent the length of the string that has been cut off. 8. Miss Ortiz is arranging desks in her classroom. Each desk is rectangular in shape and has a length of 26 inches and a width of 16 inches. She arranged 6 desks so the widths of the desks were side-byside. Find the perimeter of the row of 6 desks Miss Ortiz arranged.

434

Additional Questions

Lesson 2.3.2 — Expressions About Areas In Exercises 1–6, write an expression for the area of each shape. 7 in 5 cm 1. 2. x in

y cm

4.

k cm j cm

5.

y in

3. 6.

y

7 ft

14 in

z

y ft

In Exercises 7–10, write an expression that represents the area of each rectangle described. 7. Base = 3 cm and Height = h cm 8. Base = d inches and Height = 12 inches 9. Base = m feet and Height = w feet 10. Base = 17 inches and Height = 11 inches 11. The equation (xy)z = x(yz) is an example of what property of multiplication? Show an example using x = 7, y = 4, and z = 9. In Exercises 12–13, find the length of the unknown side when the area of each figure is 48. 13. 12. ? cm ? yd 8 cm

12 yd

14. Aubrey wants to frame a picture that is 8 inches long by 10 inches wide. He wants to use a frame that is 16 inches long by 20 inches wide. Determine the area of the picture and the frame. Find the amount of space inside the frame that will not be occupied by the picture.

Lesson 2.3.3 — Finding Complex Areas 1. Dora and Ben divided the same complex shape differently to determine the area. Their drawings are shown to the right. Explain how Dora and Ben get the same answer for the area when they each divided the shape up differently. In Exercises 2–10, find the area, or an expression for the area, of each figure. 2.

3.

4 cm 8 cm

6.

8 yd

5 in

4 in

b

4 in a

4 in

6 yd

10 yd

19 in c

7.

4 in 4 in

10 yd

5 in

5 in

6 units

5.

Ben’s shape

5 in

4.

2 units 2 units

8 cm

12 cm

Dora’s shape

6 yd

a

6 yd

8.

9.

x

10.

h k

x

k

y

k

a b c

k

c

In Exercises 11–13, use subtraction to determine the area of each figure. 11.

x y

z z z

12.

8 cm

12 cm

13. 2 ft

5 ft 5 ft

5 ft

8 cm 4 cm

12 ft12 ft

14. A gazebo is being built in a park. The floor of the gazebo is shaped like a 12 ft regular hexagon, as pictured to the right. Determine the area of the floor of the gazebo. Explain, in words, how you determined your answer.

12 ft

Additional Questions

435

Lesson 2.3.4 — The Distributive Property 1. The equation a(b + c) = ab + bc is an example of what mathematical property? Verify this property when a = 4, b = 9 and c = 2. 2. Verify the distributive property by finding the area of the figure to the right, in two different ways. In Exercises 3–5, draw a picture to represent each expression. 3. 3 × (4 + 5) 4. 8 × (6 + 7)

a b

c

5. 2 × (9 + y)

Use the distributive property in Exercises 6–8 to determine the value of each expression. 6. 3 × (12 – 9) 7. –1 × (13 + 27) 8. –5 × (–6 – 9) Remove the parentheses from each expression in Exercises 9–11. 9. k × (g – d) 10. (5 – c) × 2

11. (m – v) × x

Lesson 2.3.5 — Using the Distributive Property 1. Explain how the distributive property can help with mental math. Show how you would use the distributive property to solve Exercises 2–7. 2. 7 × 15 3. 4 × 17 4. 18 × 6 5. 17 × 8 6. 14 × 9 7. 23 × 5 8. Deshaun had one dollar, made up of the following coins: 3 quarters, 2 dimes, and 1 nickel. The total number of coins is given by 3q + 2d + n, where q is the number of quarters, d is the number of dimes, and n is the number of nickels. Write an expression for the number of coins Deshaun would have if he had 5 dollars made up of the same combination of coins given above. Rewrite Exercises 9–11 using the distributive property. 9. g × (h + 19) 10. 11 × (4 – w)

11. a × (b + d + f)

12. A sheet of stickers contains dogs, cats, birds, and fish. The total number of stickers on each sheet is given by 3d + 5c + 8b + 4f, where d is the number of dog stickers, c is the number of cat stickers, b is the number of bird stickers, and f is the number of fish stickers. Write two expressions for the total number of stickers on 4 of these sticker sheets. Evaluate your expression for d = 2, c = 6, b = 3, and f = 5.

Lesson 2.3.6 — Squares and Cubes In Exercises 1–4, write an expression for the total area of each figure. 1. A square with sides of length m 2. Three identical squares with sides of length c 3. Two identical rectangles of side lengths b and h 4. Six identical squares with sides of length a In Exercises 5–7, use the distributive property to determine the surface area of a cube whose edges have the given length. 5. Edge length = 4 in 6. Edge length = 7 cm 7. Edge length = 11 yd 8. Using the formula, determine the volume of a cube with edges 10 feet long. In Exercises 9–11, the volume of a cube is given. Determine the length of the edges of each cube. 9. 8 m3 10. 27 yd 3 11. 343 cm3 12. Morgan is designing a water container and he wants it to be big enough for y cm 512 ml water (512 ml water = 512 cm3 water). He decides to make it in the shape of a cube. What is the suface area of the container he designs?

y cm y cm

436

Additional Questions

Lesson 2.3.7 — Expressions and Angles 1. The angles in a triangle always add up to what degree measure? In Exercises 2–3, determine the measure of Angle C inside each triangle. 2. Angle A = 45°, Angle B = 90°, Angle C = ? 3. Angle A = 30°, Angle B = 70°, Angle C = ? Use the diagrams in Exercises 4–5 to write equations involving b. Solve them, given that c = 40. 5. 4. b°

b° c°

25°

39°

c°

In Exercises 6–8, find the value of x in each diagram. 6. x° 7. 2x°

8. 53° x°

41°

x°

In Exercises 9–11, draw a picture to go with the given description of the angles. 9. The measure of angle MNP is 90°. The measure of angle MNR is 90 – y. 10. The measure of angle GHJ is x°. The measure of angle GHK is 45 + x. 11. The measure of angle ABC is 180°. The measure of angle ABD is 90°.

Lesson 2.4.1 — Analyzing Problems In Exercises 1–3, explain what is happening in each pattern. 1.

2.

3.

In Exercises 4–9, draw the next shape in the pattern.

?

?

?

9.

P

In Exercises 10–15, write down the next number in the pattern. 10. 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, … 11. 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, … 13. 91, 82, 73, 64, 55, 46, … 14. 123, 234, 345, 456, 567, …

P

P

7. P

8.

?

5.

P

6.

?

P

4.

?

12. 5, 15, 25, 35, 45, 55, … 15. 96, 84, 72, 60, 48, 36, …

16. Four years ago, Garrison was 6 inches shorter than he is now. At that time, he was 8 inches shorter than his brother. Garrison is now 64 inches tall. How tall was Garrison’s brother four years ago?

Lesson 2.4.2 — Important Information In Exercises 1–4 write down whether you have too much or not enough information to solve each problem. If too much, write down the information you don’t need, and solve the problem. If not enough, write down the information you need. 1. Lisa’s picture frame has a length of 6 inches and a width of 4 inches. The picture Lisa wants to put in the frame has an area of 30 inches. What is the area, in square inches, of Lisa’s picture frame? 2. Each serving in a can of tuna fish contains 60 calories. What is the total number of calories that a can of tuna fish contains? 3. Xavier used a flashlight that provides 12 hours of light. If the flashlight were left on for 12 hours, what time would it be when the flashlight no longer provided light? 4. Melanie and Tara have known each other for 12 years. They were both 3 years-old when they met. They each have a birthday on March 18. How old are Melanie and Tara now? Additional Questions

437

Lesson 2.4.3 — Breaking Up a Problem

2 cm

30

1. Find the last digit of 2 by making a table for small exponents. 9 cm

2. The diagram on the right shows a postage stamp on a postcard. What area of the postcard is NOT covered by the postage stamp?

Hi guys, Wish you were here. We’re having a great time! Tim ‘n’ Amie

2.4 cm Hugo First Rickty Cottage Scare Street Frightsville 91481

16 cm

Determine the area of each of the shapes in Exercises 3–5. All measurements are given in inches. 11

4

3. 2

12

Orangesb 99 ¢/l

4.

11

2

Bananas 33 ¢/lb Apples 1.29 $/lb

5.

11

7

16

14

6. When Jeremy saw the signs on the fruit market store window, he went inside to get some fruit. He bought 3 lb of oranges, 4 lb of apples, and 2 lb of bananas. He had only planned on buying 2 lb of oranges, 2 lb of apples, and 1 lb of bananas. How much additional money did Jeremy end up spending on his fruit?

Lesson 3.1.1 — Understanding Fractions In Exercises 1–3, write down a fraction that is equivalent to the one that is given. 1. 6 2. 1 3. 7 18 3 56 4. Where will a negative fraction with a numerator smaller than the denominator be located on a number line? In Exercises 5–7, mark each fraction on a number line 5. − 3 6. − 1 7. − 2 7 3 5 In Exercises 8–10, write the fraction that is represented on each number line. 8.

9. –1

0

10. 0

1

–1

0

11. Five pairs of Rhonda’s 15 pairs of shoes are brown. Express this as a fraction. What fraction of Rhonda’s shoes are NOT brown?

Lesson 3.1.2 — Improper Fractions In Exercises 1–3, write down the improper fraction and the mixed number each drawing represents. 1. 2. 3. 4. Which part of the improper fraction is always the same as in the mixed number? 5. Which 2 operations are used when converting a mixed number to an improper fraction? In Exercises 6–8, write each mixed number as an improper fraction. 2 6. 8 7. 8. 5 1 8 3 9 3 9 9. Which operation is used to convert an improper fraction to a mixed number? In Exercises 10–12, convert the improper fractions into mixed numbers. 10. 20 11. 11 12. 23 7 6 3 3 3 13. Ramon and his friend ate 2 square cakes. Make a drawing to show 2 cakes. Write a mixed number 3 that means the same as 2 . 438

Additional Questions

Lesson 3.1.3 — More on Fractions 1. When putting

9 8

on a number line, what should you do first?

In Exercises 2–4, convert the improper fractions to mixed numbers. 18 80 3. 4. 36 2. − − 8 7 9 In Exercises 5–7, place the mixed numbers on a number line. 5 2 1 5. 6. 7. 2 −9 −1 7 3 2 3 1 8. Which one of these mixed numbers has the greater value: −6 4 , − 6 4 ? Explain your reasoning. 9. Which one of

−

14 11 ,− 10 10

has the lesser value? Explain your reasoning.

10. Show these fractions on the same number line.

−

1

19 2 , −3 5 5

3

11. On Friday, Jake’s thermometer read −1 3 degrees Celsius. On Saturday, Jake’s thermometer read −1 4 degrees Celsius. On which day was the temperature greater? Explain your reasoning.

Lesson 3.1.4 — Fractions and Decimals Convert each of Exercises 1–3 into decimal numbers. 3 1 1. 2. 3. 13 2 8 12 15 8 4. Where do a fraction and its equivalent decimal lie on a number line? In Exercises 5–7, write each fraction as a decimal, without using a calculator. 5. 3 6. 1 7. 3 5 8 4 8. What does it mean when a decimal is said to be a terminating decimal? Tristan has four drill bits. The drill bit sizes are shown on the diagram using fractions. 9. Convert each of the drill bit sizes in the diagram to decimals. 10. Tristan needs to drill a hole that is a minimum of 27 inches across. 64 3 in. 1 in. 15 in. 7 in. Which of the drill bits could he use? 32 16 8 2

Lesson 3.2.1 — Multiplying Fractions by Integers 1. Explain how to multiply a fraction by an integer. 2. In the problem 7 ×

2 3

which numbers get multiplied?

In Exercises 3–5, evaluate each expression. 3 2 3. 4. 3× 11 × 4 3 6. Write down the symbol that goes in the [space] in this equation:

5. 6 ×9 8

4 4 × 16 [space] 16 × 5 5

In Exercises 7–12, evaluate each expression. Give your answer as an integer or mixed number. 3 1 7. 8. 9. 2 –2 × –9 × × –4 4 2 6 1 10. 11. 1 12. 3 7 × –3 5 ×5 –8 × 1 3 4 7 13. Mr. Harris needs to cut pieces of yarn for all of the students in his art class. Each of his 25 students 3 will receive 6 4 inches of yarn. Write an expression that can be used to determine the total number of inches of yarn that Mr. Harris will cut. Evaluate your expression. Write your answer as an integer or mixed number AND an equivalent decimal. Additional Questions

439

Lesson 3.2.2 — More on Multiplying Fractions by Integers Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–3. 1 1 2. 3. 1. 2 –2 × 4 10 × –5 3 ×5 3 4 3 4. Three friends are equally sharing 37 feet of fishing line. How many feet will each friend receive? 1

5. A rectangular table with a perimeter of 22 feet is placed against a wall. 4 of the table’s perimeter is touching the wall. What is the total length of the sides of the table that are NOT touching the wall. Find the error that was made in working Exercises 6–8. 6. 2×15 = 15 7. − 4 ×3 = − 12 4

7

8 7 =1 8

8.

7

5 =1 7 1

1 12 3 ×8 = ×8 4 4 96 = 4 = 24

9. Avril’s bottle of sunscreen contained 475 milliliters of sunscreen. 5 of the bottle has already been used. Determine the number of milliliters of sunscreen that have already been used. Then, determine the number of milliliters of sunscreen that are left in the bottle.

Lesson 3.2.3 — Multiplying Fractions by Fractions 1. Write down the formula for multiplying fractions using variables a, b, c, d. Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 2–7. 2. 1 8 3. 29 1 × × 4 9 10 3 2 5. 9 6. 2 7 ×1 × 16 5 7 2 3 8. Jenna usually runs for 4 hours. Today she only ran for Jenna run today?

3 2 1 × 5 6 7. 1 3 × 2 8 11 that time. What fraction of an hour did

4.

1 2

In Exercises 9–11, find the error that was made when the fractions were multiplied. 3 9. 1 5 5 10. 1 3 11. 4 2 8 × = × = 1 × = 3 8 11 1 5 3 10 4 8 32 1 12. Becca played 4 of the first 2 of her basketball game. What fraction of the game did Becca play? 5

13. DeShaun’s mom worked 8 6 hours on Friday. On Saturday, she worked How many hours did DeShaun’s mom work on Saturday?

1 3

that many hours.

Lesson 3.3.1 — Dividing by Fractions Use multiplication to solve each of Exercises 1–5. 2 2 1 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 3 ÷ ÷ ÷ 4 3 20 5 3 2 7 5 3 5 4. 5. ÷ 2 ÷2 9 6 4 8 6. Fill in the four blank spaces in this statement. “If two numbers which are reciprocals of one another 4 5 are __________, the answer will always be ___. For example, 5 ___ 4 = ___” 7. What is another name for a reciprocal? In Exercises 8–9 write the following expressions: 1 8. m × as a quotient. n

1 2

9.

d e

as a product.

10. Bret has pound of turkey to use for sandwiches. This is shared between 7 equally sized turkey sandwiches. Write an expression to show this situation and evaluate your expression to give the number of pounds of turkey in each sandwich. 440

Additional Questions

Lesson 3.3.2 — Solving Problems by Dividing Fractions 1. What are the 2 types of division problems? 2.

3 4

of a cup of sugar is shared between 3 people. How much sugar does each person get? 1

3. An 18 3 mile drive is divided into 2 equal-length sections. How long is each section? 4. 50 1 oz of juice is divided equally between 4 glasses. How much juice is put into each glass? 2 1 5. A 14,000 gallon pool is being drained. The pool drains 2 2 gallons of water per minute. How many minutes before the pool is empty? 6. Troy drove from his house to his grandmother’s house. After driving 157 miles, he was there. How many miles is it from Troy’s house to his grandmother’s house?

3 4

of the way

5

7. A gardener collected 120 9 lb of grass clippings. He took the clippings to a compost site in 3 equally-sized truckloads. What was the weight of grass in each truckload? 8. A tunnel is 14 3 feet high. How many sections of 18 in. does this height divide into? 4

Lesson 3.4.1 — Making Equivalent Fractions Find the simplest form of each fraction in Exercises 1–3 by canceling. 1. 8 2. 5 3. 9 12 35 15 4. Equivalent fractions look different but have the same ____________ . 5. Describe what is special about a fraction that’s equal to 1. Give an example. In Exercises 6–8, write down 2 fractions that are equivalent to each given fraction. 6. 3 7. 5 8. 9 7 8 12 18 9. Anastasia got 20 of her spelling words correct on her spelling test. What is a simpler form of the fraction of words Anastasia spelled correctly? Write down the decimal equivalent to this fraction. 1

10. Parker drew a pattern, shown here. Shade 3 of Parker’s diagram. Write down 3 fractions that are equivalent to the part you shaded.

Lesson 3.4.2 — Finding the Simplest Form In Exercises 1–3, find the simplest form of each fraction. 1. 22 2. 5 3. 21 88 13 105 4. Three-sixteenths of the crayons in Kaia’s crayon box are some shade of orange. Write the fraction that means three-sixteenths. Explain whether this is the simplest form of your fraction. In Exercises 5–7, find the greatest common divisor of each pair of numbers. 5. 45, 30 6. 35, 49 7. 200, 26 8. Dividing the numerator and denominator of a fraction by their greatest common divisor is the same as doing what? 9. Write the fraction that means the same as 0.16. What is the simplest form of this fraction? 10. Kobi put 50 staples into his stapler when it was empty. He used 15 of the staples for his homework. What fraction of the staples in the stapler did Kobi use for his homework? Write your answer in its simplest form.

Additional Questions

441

Lesson 3.4.3 — Fraction Sums Find the sum or difference in Exercises 1–6. If possible, simplify your answer. 1 1. 9 2. 5 2 3. 30 29 10 + + − + 12 12 8 8 33 33 33 8 1 2 3 4. 7 5. 2 2 2 6. 7 + − + + − + 14 14 14 9 9 9 16 16 16 Three friends shared an 8-slice pizza. Holly ate 1 slice, Malik ate 3 slices, and Darren ate 2 slices. In Exercises 7–11 write down the simplest form of the fraction of pizza that: 7. each friend ate. 8. Holly and Malik ate. 9. Holly and Darren ate. 10. Malik and Darren ate. 11. all 3 friends ate. 12. Using the fraction of pizza that all 3 friends ate, find the fraction of pizza that was left. Write expressions to represent the following situations, then evaluate your expressions. 3 13. Luis had a full glass of water. He drank 4 of the water in his glass. 14. Luis then took the water in his glass and added another 1 glass to it. 4 15. Finally, Luis drank all of the water in his glass.

Lesson 3.4.4 — Fractions with Different Denominators 1. What is a common denominator? Give an example in your answer. In Exercises 2–7, find a common multiple of each pair of numbers. 2. 3, 5 3. 1, 9 5. 13, 12 6. 5, 18

4. 9, 5 7. 12, 7

In Exercises 8–10, work out the sums and differences. Write your answers in their simplest form. 8. 3 2 9. 9 1 10. 2 1 + − + 7 3 12 4 13 2 11. Explain which of these two fractions has a greater value: 3

13 9 , 7 5

1

12. Khalid has grown 1 4 inches since last year. Jason has grown 2 3 inches since last year. What is the combined growth, in inches, of the two boys since last year? Show your work, and explain each step. 7

13. In Last Thursday’s game, Sherron made 8 of her free throw attempts. Today in practice, she made of her free throw attempts. Explain which is greater, showing what you know about common denominators and comparing fractions.

Lesson 3.4.5 — Least Common Multiples In Exercises 1–6, find the least common multiple (LCM) of the two numbers. 1. 8, 12 2. 4, 12 3. 4, 6 4. 22, 20 5. 10, 17 6. 64, 28 7. What does GCD stand for? Explain how you use it to determine an LCM of two numbers. 8. When adding two fractions, with different denominators, what do you have to do first? Determine the sums in Exercises 9–11. Write your answers in their simplest form. 10. 4 3 11. 5 3 9. 2 3 + + + 5 4 17 8 49 2 21

3

12. Mrs. Greene tried to calculate the sum 10 + 5 , giving her answer in the simplest form. 21 3 42 12 58 + = + = 10 5 20 20 20 What errors did Mrs. Greene make in working this problem? Correct her errors.

442

Additional Questions

2 3

Lesson 3.4.6 — Mixed Numbers and Word Questions 1. What do you do if the fraction parts of the mixed numbers you’re adding have different denominators? 2. When fractions have the same denominators, how can you compare them? In Exercises 3–5, determine the sum or difference. 1 2 5 4. 3. 5 +8 12 − 7 2 3 9

5.

1 3 19 + 12 2 5

In Exercises 6–8, use this diagram of a podium. Give all your answers as simplified fractions. 6. Kyle took 2nd place in a race. How far did he have to 3 climb to get onto his position on the podium? 6 8 in 7. Julio came 1st. How far did he have to climb? 4 52 in 8. Lin came 3rd. What was the difference in height 8 43 in between Lin’s and Julio’s podium positions.

2

1

3

Lesson 3.5.1 — Fractions and Percents 1. Explain how to use equivalent fractions to convert

3 25

into a percent.

In Exercises 2–7, write each fraction as a percent. 2. 19 3. 14 4. 50 50 35 2500 5. 363 6. 13 7. 3 500 40 14 In Exercises 8–10, write each percent as a fraction in its simplest form 8. 40% 9. 65% 10. 22.5% 11. Archie is watching birds for a project. What is this as a percentage?

64 144

of these birds are Northern Mockingbirds.

12. A group of people are kayaking down a river. 37.5% of the group capsized. Write the fraction of the group that capsized in its simplest form. 13. A soccer team has 11 players on the field. One of the players is sent off. Write the fraction and the percentage of the original team that remains on the soccer field.

Lesson 3.5.2 — Percents and Decimals 1. Explain how to write any percent as a decimal. In Exercises 2–7, the values are shown as a percent, a decimal, or a fraction. Write each value in the two forms which are not shown. Give all fractions in their simplest form. 2. 37% 3. 0.64 4. 0.05 8 5. 6. 99.6% 7. 33.8% 42 In Exercises 8–10, order each set of numbers from least to greatest. 8. 2 , 0.637, 65.2% 9. 0.102, 1 , 10 10. 3 , 0.006, 5%, 4 3 8 85 55 70 11. A football team has 46 active players. Only 11 of them are permitted on the field at any one time. What percentage of the players in this team must remain off the pitch? 12. Tommy does a survey of his class on the colour of pens they use. 18 use black pens, 9 use blue pens, 4 use green pens and 1 uses a red pen. What percent of the class use blue pens? Additional Questions

443

Lesson 3.5.3 — Percents of Numbers In Exercises 1–3, find the following percents: 1. 33% of 55 2. 12% of 60 4. 69% of 69 5. 13% of 89

3. 95% of 108 6. 15% of 564

7. It is thought that about 42% of people in California speak languages other than English at home. How many people from a class of 31 would you expect to speak a non-English language at home? 8. Monica takes a 500 ml bottle of water with her on her morning run. When she returns she has 24% of the water remaining. How many ml of water are left in the bottle? 9. Monica’s friend joins her on her run the next day, and returns with 142 ml water in her bottle. This is 25% of the amount she started out with. How much did she have to begin with? 10. Yoshiko did a survey and found that 56% of people said their favorite color was red, and 24% said that their favorite color was blue. If 18 people opted for blue, how many chose red?

Lesson 3.5.4 — Circle Graphs and Percents Exercises 1–5 use the following circle graphs. Graph A

Basketball: 20%

Graph B

Y

Graph C

Fall: 28.4% Summer: 12.5%

Football: 43.1%

Z Baseball

X

Winter: 44%

Spring

1. What are the missing percents in circle graphs A and C? 2. Graph A refers to a group of 65 people who were asked which sport they preferred, from a choice between football, basketball and baseball. How many people said basketball? 3. Graph B gives the results of an environmental traffic survey, detailing the number of people traveling in each car. A total of 492 cars were observed and the following results obtained: 1 person only: 246 cars, 2 people: 153 cars, 3+ people: 93 cars. Which section of the graph represents each group, and what percentage of the total do they each make up? 4. Graph C shows the annual sales made by a shop in each of the four seasons. If the sales made in summer came to a total of $45,843, how much money was taken during the winter season? 5. The following year, the shop took an annual total of $500,000, but the percentage of the takings in each season remained the same. How much more was made in the fall season of this year compared to the previous one?

Lesson 3.5.5 — Percent Increase 1. If you multiplied a number by 1.09, what percentage increase would you be calculating? In Exercises 2–4, calculate the total after the increase: 2. Increase 64 by 25% 3. Increase 140 by 8%

4. Increase 87 by 65%

5. Explain the steps you would take to calculate a 151% increase to a number. In Exercises 6–7, calculate the total after the increase: 6. Increase 35 to 134% of its original value 7. Increase 65 to 245% of its original value. 8. Vincent’s bill at a restaurant is $45, he leaves a 16% tip. How much did he pay in total? 9. DeMorris’s taxi fare came to $13.40, but he rounded up to $15 to include the tip. What percentage tip did DeMorris add to the fare? 10. Sharon pays $65.27 for a meal, including a 22% tip. How much did her meal cost before the tip? 444

Additional Questions

Lesson 3.5.6 — Percent Decrease In Exercises 1–3, calculate the total after the increase: 1. Decrease 64 by 25% 2. Decrease 140 by 8%

3. Decrease 87 by 65%

4. If you multiplied a number by 0.8, what percentage decrease would you be calculating? In Exercises 5–7, work out the percentage decrease from the first number to the second. 5. 178 decreased to 78 6. 18 decreased to 2 7. 579 decreased to 96.5 8. Alison works at a kayak shop and can buy kayaks for trade price. Trade price is 57% of the retail price. If she buys a kayak that should retail at $1049, how much will she actually pay? 9. Three t-shirts are in a sale. Their original price, and the discount are shown in the following table. Write the t-shirts in ascending order of price following the discount.

T-Shirt #

1

2

3

Price

$16

$21

$ 28

Discount

5%

25%

45%

10. Arnold buys a laptop for $599 after negotiating a discount of 26%. How much would it have cost before the discount?

Lesson 3.5.7 — Simple Interest Enoc borrows $800. He makes a $945 payment after 36 months which pays off his loan. 1. What was the Principal? 2. How much interest did he have to pay? 3. How many years did it take Enoc to repay his loan? 4. The formula for simple interest is I=Prt. What do each of the variables mean, and what are the most common units of I, P and t? Use the formula for simple interest from Exercise 4 to answer Exercises 5–8. 5. Simone borrowed $8500. She paid back the interest 18 months later. If the rate she paid interest at was 11.5% per year, how much interest did she have to pay? 6. Elvera puts $1655 into a savings account which pays 8% interest. 48 months later she checks her balance. How much should she have? 7. Benny has $1651 in his bank account. Three years ago he paid in $1300. What is the rate of interest on his account? 8. Juana pays off her loan with a single payment of $998.75. $148.75 of this is interest. If the interest rate was 7%, how long has she had this loan for?

Lesson 4.1.1 — Ratios Chloe has a bag of marbles. The bag contains 7 green marbles, 2 blue marbles, 5 red marbles, 1 orange marble and 4 purple marbles. Write down the ratios of the following colors of marbles: 1. Green to orange 2. Red to purple 3. Orange to blue 4. Purple to green 5. Blue to red In Exercises 6–8, write the ratio 2 other ways than the way it is given. 5 6. 6 to 2 7. 2:1 8. 7 9. There are 4 volleyball players and 3 soccer players in Tim's class. What is the ratio of volleyball players to soccer players? Write your answer three different ways. 10. The ratio of squirrels to acorns is 3:1. Express the ratio of acorns to squirrels in three different ways. Felix wrote the following ratio to compare the length of 2 pencils: 8 inches: 6 inches 11. What mistake did Felix make with his ratio? 12. Write the correct ratio of longer to shorter pencil length in two different ways. Additional Questions

445

Lesson 4.1.2 — Equivalent Ratios In Exercises 1–6, write down an equivalent ratio that is simpler than the given ratio. 10 18 1. 5:15 2. 3. 100 6 4. 90 to 15 5. 13:39 6. 16 to 180 Carlito bought 4 red apples, 8 yellow apples, and 2 green apples at the store. 7. What is the ratio of yellow apples to green apples? Write your answer in its simplest form. 8. What is the ratio of red apples to yellow apples? Write your answer in its simplest form. 9. What is the ratio of red apples to green apples? Abe has 20 CDs. There are 10 pop CDs, 2 rock CDs, 3 rap CDs, and the rest are country CDs. Write the following ratios in their simplest form: 10. pop CDs to rap CDs 11. rock CDs to pop CDs 12. rap CDs to country CDs 13. country CDs to pop CDs 14. Find a number x, so that the ratio 2:7 is equivalent to x :35. 15. Find a number y, so that the ratio 3:13 is equivalent to y :39.

Lesson 4.1.3 — Proportions In Exercises 1–4, write down whether the ratios can be written as proportions. Explain your answer. 1. 4:3 and 8:3 2. 2:5 and 4:10 3. 1:4 and 2:6 4. 6:1 and 18:3 Shawna is tiling the area around a sink, using 6 tiles like the one shown on the right. Write a proportion involving each of the following: 5. The numbers of red squares and purple squares in 1 tile and 6 tiles. 6. The numbers of green squares and pink squares in 1 tile and 6 tiles. 7. The numbers of blue squares and orange squares in 1 tile and 6 tiles. A fruit cup was made using 6 parts strawberries and 5 parts raspberries. 8. Write a proportion involving the number of strawberries and raspberries needed in 1 fruit cup and 8 fruit cups. 9. If s is the number of strawberries needed to mix with 20 raspberries, solve for s. 10. If r is the number of raspberries needed to mix with 36 strawberries, solve for r.

Lesson 4.1.4 — Proportions and Cross-Multiplication 1. Explain what it means to cross multiply. In Exercises 2–4, use cross-multiplication to check if the ratios are equivalent. 2. 2 and 14 3. 3:2 and 21:12 4. 6 to 5 and 42 to 35 35 5 In Exercises 5–7, determine the value of x in each proportion. 42 6 5. 7 = 14 6. x = 36 7. = x 7 2 x 5 10 8. Paul is packing for a trip to a basketball tournament. For each day of the tournament, he needs 2 pairs of socks. Is he correct to pack 8 pairs of socks for a 3-day tournament? Explain your answer. Include a proportion. 9. A baker has 20 cups of flour and 12 cups of sugar to use for muffins. One batch of muffins contains 1 2 cups of flour and 2 cup of sugar. How many batches of muffins can the baker make? Will any flour or sugar be left over? Explain your reasoning. 446

Additional Questions

Lesson 4.2.1 — Similarity Exercises 1–2 each show a pair of shapes. Explain whether the shapes in each pair are similar. Give reasons for your answers. 2.4 m 5 in. 4.2 m 1. 2. 45°

135°

3 in.

5 in.

3 in. 135°

60°

45°

5 in.

120°

3 in.

1.8 m

2.6 m

3.4 m

3 in. 120°

1.8 m

60°

1.8 m

5 in.

3.6 m

3. Explain what ratios have to do with shapes being similar. The triangles below are all similar to each other. Use the diagrams to answer Exercises 4–7. 3 in.

1.5 in.

3 in.

2 in.

A

B

4 in.

4.5 in.

1 in. C

0.75 in.

6 in.

4 in.

D

2 in.

E 1 in. 0.5 in.

6 in. 8 in.

Find the ratios of the length of corresponding sides between each of the following pairs of triangles: 4. A and C 5. D and B 6. E and A 7. B and C In Exercises 8–9, find the missing lengths in each pair of shapes by determining the ratios of the lengths of corresponding sides. 3 ft 8. 1.4 cm 9. 1.4 cm 1 cm

1 cm

5 ft

2 cm

2 cm

5 ft

2 cm 4.5 ft

6 ft

4 cm

Lesson 4.2.2 — Proportions in Geometry C 9 in. A

H 7 in.

y

27 in.

B F

30 in.

Use the diagram on the left to answer Exercises 1–4. 1. Write a proportion using the ratios AC:FH and BC:GH. x 2. Solve your proportion to find x. 3. Write a proportion using the ratios AC:FH and AB:FG. G 4. Solve your proportion to find y.

5. If you know the ratio of the lengths of 2 sides in one shape, what can you say about the ratio of the corresponding sides in any similar shape? X

6. The two figures shown on the right are similar. Use proportions to find the missing lengths a, b and c.

R

9 cm

6 cm 5 cm

Q 2 cm

b

W a

T

c

S

Z

6 cm

Y

7. Carlita has two photos on her wall. One photo measures 5 cm by 8 cm, and the other measures 6 cm by 9 cm. Are the shapes of the two photos similar? Use a proportion in your explanation. 8. Marcus has cut a figure with sides that measure 11 inches, 15 inches, and 17 inches in length. He wants to cut a second figure that is similar to his first figure. The length of the longest side of the new figure is 51 inches. Write and solve a proportion to find the lengths of the other two sides Marcus should cut.

Additional Questions

447

Lesson 4.2.3 — Scale Drawings The map below represents the location of some buildings in a small town. The scale is 0.25 inches = 0.4 miles, and the grid squares on the drawing measure 0.25 in. by 0.25 in. In Exercises 1–6, calculate each of the following distances in miles. 1. From the library to the school. Key G = Grocery store L = Library 2. From the park to the library. P = Park S = School 3. From the movie theatre to the park. M = Movie theater 4. From the grocery store to the movie theatre. 0.25 in. = 0.4 miles 5. From the park to the grocery store. 0.25 in. 6. From the school to the grocery store. Donovin has a drawing of a pencil made with a scale of 1 mm : 0.025 inches. 7. The length of the pencil in the drawing is 240 millimeters. What is the length of the real pencil? 8. The real pencil is 0.25 inches wide. How wide is the pencil in the drawing? 9. The real pencil's eraser is 0.4 inches long. How long is the eraser in the drawing? A builder made a scale drawing of a retail store using a scale, in inches, of 2:y. The height of the store in the drawing is 3 inches. 10. The height of the actual store is 12 feet. Find the value of y. 11. The width of the actual store is 50 feet. Find the width of the store in the drawing.

Lesson 4.3.1 — Customary and Metric Units The length of a painter's ladder is 8 yards. 1. What is the length of the ladder in feet?

2. What is the length of the ladder in inches?

3. When you convert to a smaller unit, the number of units gets ____________ . 4. When you convert to a larger unit, the number of units gets _____________ . Convert the values in Exercises 5–9. 5. 12 miles to yards 6. 4 feet to inches 8. 8800 yards to miles 9. 2 miles to inches

7. 144 inches to feet 10. 4500 inches to yards

The height of a tree in Erin’s garden is 2.25 meters. Find the height of the tree in each of the following units: 11. decimeters 12. centimeters 13. millimeters 14. hectometers

Lesson 4.3.2 — Conversions and Proportions 1. What is the ratio of inches to miles? Explain your answer. 2. Convert 342.25 mm to meters. Use a proportion to determine your answer. Keyshawn ran a 1600 meter race. Use proportions to convert the race distance to each of the following: 3. dekameters 4. hectometers 5. kilometers 6. What is the ratio of inches to yards? 7. Convert 9.37 yards into inches using your ratio from Exercise 7. A professional baseball player hit a home run ball 527 feet. Use proportions to calculate the following: 8. the number of inches the ball was hit 9. the number of yards the ball was hit 10. the number of miles the ball was hit

448

Additional Questions

Lesson 4.3.3 — Converting Between Unit Systems A flight from Minnesota to Mexico took 6.25 hours. Convert the length of the flight into each of the following units. Use a proportion for each conversion. 1. minutes 2. seconds 3. days The largest anaconda in the city zoo is 28 feet long. 4. Use a proportion to convert 28 ft to inches. 5. Use a proportion to convert 28 ft to yards. 6. Use the conversion factor 2.54 to convert 28 ft to centimeters. 7. Use a proportion to convert 28 ft to meters. Darla and Rex converted 1 foot into meters. Their work is shown below. Darla's Conversion feet to inches: 1 foot = 12 inches inches to cm: 12 × 2.54 = 30.48 cm cm to m: 30.48 ÷ 100 = 0.3048 m

Rex's Conversion 1 yard = 0.91 meters 1 foot =

1 3

yard

0.91 ÷ 3 = 0.3033 m

8. Explain how Darla did her conversion. Is her conversion correct? 9. Explain how Rex did his conversion. Is his conversion correct? 10. Why are Darla's and Rex's answers close but not equal?

Lesson 4.3.4 — Other Conversions In Exercises 1–3, say which of the temperatures given is higher. 1. 50 °F or 8 °C 2. 5 °F or –10 °C

3. 170 °F or 79 °C

The temperature at 7 a.m. was 12 °C. By 10 a.m. the temperature had increased by 21 °F. 4. What was the temperature at 10 a.m. in °F? 5. What was the temperature at 10 a.m. in °C? Scientists often measure temperature in units called Kelvins (K), instead of °F or °C. If K is a temperature in Kelvin, then: K = C + 273.15 Convert the following: 6. 40 °C to K 7. –116 °C to K 8. 86 °F to K 9. 200.15 K to °C 10. 453.2 K to °C 11. 68 K to °F

Lesson 4.4.1 — Rates In Exercises 1–4, use the given quantities to work out two unit rates. 1. 30 players for 15 basketballs 2. $2.40 for 12 cookies 3. 12 mouse toys for 3 cats 4. 288 dominoes shared between 24 containers 5. Two chefs each bought salmon for their restaurant. Chef Ana got 12 pounds of salmon for $83.88. Chef Todd got 15 pounds of salmon for $95.85. Which Chef got a better price per pound of salmon? Explain your answer. 6. A van owner and a SUV owner were comparing the efficiency of their vehicles. The van drove 108 miles on 9 gallons of gas. The SUV drove 240 miles on 16 gallons of gas. Which vehicle drove more miles per gallon of gas? Show your work and explain your answer. A small gym has 40 45-pound weights, 75 35-pound weights, and 90 25-pound weights that weightlifters can use. There are 5 racks that each hold an equal number of each type of weight. 7. How many of each type of weight are there per rack? 8. What is the total weight in pounds held by each rack? Additional Questions

449

Lesson 4.4.2 — Using Rates 1. Dora made 9 necklaces using 36 beads per necklace. How many beads did Dora use in total? 2. Joey's mom has 6 strings of outdoor lights with 250 lights per string. Find the total number of lights. 3. Judy ran 10.5 miles at a speed of 6 miles/hour. How long, in minutes, was Judy running for? 4. Aaron spent $47.76 on mulch for his yard. If the mulch costs $1.99/yd3, how many yd3 of mulch did Aaron buy? Lyron and Gabriela are each making a car journey. 5. Lyron’s car travels 140 miles in 240 minutes. What is his average speed in miles per hour? 6. Gabriela’s average speed is 40% faster than Lyron’s. What is Gabriela’s average speed? 7. How long would it take Gabriela to travel 180 miles at this speed? 8. How far would Gabriela travel in 90 minutes at this speed?

Lesson 4.4.3 — Finding Speed 1. Victoria rides her bike for half an hour. If she travels a total of 7 miles, what is her average speed? 2. Andres walks a distance of 10 miles in 3 hours. What is his average speed? 3. An airplane cruises at a constant speed for a distance of 1200 miles. What is the speed of the airplane if it takes 2.25 hours to travel this distance? An Indy car once recorded a speed of 239 miles/hour. 4. What is this speed in miles/minute? 5. What is this speed in miles/second? 6. What is this speed in kilometers/hour? (Use the conversion factor 1 mile = 1.61 km) 7. What is this speed in meters/second? 8. A dragonfly flies at a speed of 20 miles per hour. A hornet flies at a speed of 21.5 kilometers per hour. A bee flies at a speed of 4 meters per second. Convert the speeds of the bee and dragonfly to km/hour. Which of these insects flies at the fastest speed? (Use the conversion factor 1 mile = 1.61 km)

Lesson 4.4.4 — Finding Time and Distance 1. How can you find the distance an object travels in a certain amount of time if you know its speed? Malik walks at an average speed of 0.6 meters/second. Jessica walks at an average speed of 3.5 miles/hour. 2. If Malik walks for 9000 seconds, how many meters will he travel? 3. If Jessica walks for 2.5 hours, how many miles will she travel? 4. Which person walked for a longer period of time? Explain your reasoning. 5. Which person walked a greater distance? Explain your reasoning. 6. The data below shows the speed that two toy robots moved at, and the time they traveled for. Explain how you could compare the two distances that could be calculated from the data. You don’t need to work out the actual distances traveled. 56 cm/second for 5 minutes 40 ft/hour for 2 hours Suri set a treadmill to move at a speed of 6.5 miles/hour. She ran on the treadmill at that rate for 45 minutes and 30 seconds. 7. What is the distance Suri ran in miles? 8. Calculate Suri’s speed in meters/second? 9. What is the distance that Suri covered in kilometers? 450

Additional Questions

Lesson 4.4.5 — Average Rates David went on a bike ride. He cycled at an average speed of 29 miles/hour for the first hour. During the next 2 hours, he biked at an average speed of 21 miles/hour. 1. How many miles did David cycle during the first hour? 2. How many miles did he ride during the next two hours? 3. What is the total distance David rode? 4. What was his average speed for the three hours? Carmen ran at a rate of 5.5 miles/hour for 0.75 hours. During the next 0.5 hours, she ran at a rate of 6.5 miles/hour. 5. How far did Carmen run in the first 0.75 hours? 6. How far did Carmen run in the next 0.5 hours? 7. What was the total distance that Carmen ran? 8. What was the total length of time she ran for? 9. What was Carmen's average speed in miles/hour? 10. What was Carmen's average speed in meters/second?

Lesson 5.1.1 — Median and Mode In Exercises 1–2, find the median of each data set. 1. {12, 10, 15, 14, 17, 11, 20}

2. {25, 53, 12, 46, 31, 45, 72, 11}

In Exercises 3–4, find the mode of each data set. 3. {27, 21, 27, 23, 29, 25, 27, 21}

4. {2, 15, 11, 2, 16, 5, 2, 2, 12}

5. Can a data set have 2 modes? Explain your answer. 6. Can a data set have no mode? Explain your answer. Item Soup Salad Sandwich Hot dog Tacos

Price $1.25 $2.00 $1.75 $1.50 $1.50

Use the lunch menu shown on the left for Exercises 7–10. 7. What is the median price on the lunch menu? 8. What is the mode of the prices on the menu? 9. Two other items, "Hamburger and Fries" and "Grilled Cheese and Fries" will be added to the sign tomorrow, each with a price of $2.25. What will be the new median price on the menu? 10. What will be the new mode price on the sign?

Lesson 5.1.2 — Mean and Range In Exercises 1–3, calculate the mean of the data in each set. 1. {6, 1, 3, 2, 9, 14, 11, 20} 2. {14, 14, 11, 9, 4, 7, 13}

3. {60, 12, 15, 57}

4. In his first 5 games, Amare averaged 10.8 rebounds/game. He had the rebounds listed in the data set {9, 12, 7, 15}, but he was missing one of the rebound numbers. Use the mean to determine Amare's missing rebound number. 5. The mean of 5 numbers is 1. Explain why the set of data cannot be {0, 2, 4, 3, 3}. 6. Explain why range is not considered a measure of central tendency. Below is a list of the prices of eight shirts on a clothing store rack: $24.99, $16.99, $15.99, $18.99, $9.99, $8.99, $15.99, $19.99 7. What is the range of shirt prices on the rack? 8. What is the mean shirt price on the rack? 9. What is the median shirt price on the rack? 10. What is the mode shirt price on the rack? 11. Write a data set that meets the following criteria: Mode = 10 Mean = 10.6 Range = 20 Greatest value is 22 5 pieces of data Mode occurs twice in data set

Median = 10

Additional Questions

451

Lesson 5.1.3 — Extreme Values 1. What is an outlier? 2. What can outliers do to the mean of a data set? The data below shows the number of days 7 neighborhood houses were up for sale before they sold. {7, 4, 9, 6, 92, 5, 10} 3. Identify the outlier. 4. Calculate the mean with the outlier. 5. Calculate the mean without the outlier. 6. Explain which mean would be better to use as a typical value. The number of pairs of glasses prescribed by an eye doctor each day for 6 days is shown below. {20, 6, 4, 3, 4, 5} 7. Find the mean. 8. Explain why the mean of this data set is not a good choice as a typical value. 9. Find the mode. 10. Find the median. 11. What is the most representative measure of central tendency for this data set?

Lesson 5.1.4 — Comparing Data Sets Give a summary of each set of data in Exercises 1–3. 1. {2, 18, 15, 8, 15, 20} 2. {14, 8, 8, 8, 4, 15}

3. {6, 17, 1, 17, 3, 4}

The statements in Exercises 4–5 are about the three data sets in Exercise 1–3. Say whether you agree with each statement, and explain your answers. 4. The spread of the data is greatest in Exercise 3. 5. The data set in Exercise 1 has the highest typical value. Two gymnasts' scores for their 4 events at a gymnastics competition are listed below. Katie {8.60, 9.75, 9.15, 9.90} Jazmin {9.85, 9.00, 8.55, 9.20} 6. Find the mean, median, mode, and range of scores for each gymnast. 7. Use your answer to Exercise 5 to compare the sets of scores for the two gymnasts. 8. What does it mean if your data set has a small range? 9. What could it mean if your data set has a very large range?

Lesson 5.2.1 — Including Additional Data: Mode, Median and Range 1. Is there a value that could be added to the data set {5, 3, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 7} to change the mode? Explain your answer. 2. How could you add as many values as you want to a data set without changing the range? The data set below contains the number of brothers and sisters of each student in Terrell's class. {0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 8} 3. What is the mode of this data set? 4. How would the mode be affected if another student with 1 brother were added to the data set? 5. What is the median of this data set? 6. How would the median change if another student with 2 sisters and 1 brother was added? 7. What is the range of this data set? 8. What value could you add to the data set to change the range to 13? Explain your answer. 9. Terrell says that there is no value you could add to the data set to change the range to 5. Is he correct? Explain your answer. 452

Additional Questions

Lesson 5.2.2 — Including Additional Data: Mean 1. What kind of effect does adding values near the original mean have on the mean? 2. What kind of effect can adding an outlier to the data set have on the mean? The grade point averages of the starting players on Lily's basketball team are: {3.25, 3.25, 3.5, 3.75, 4.0} The grade point averages of the 7 reserve players on the team are: {3.0, 3.4, 3.5, 3.67, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0} In Exercises 3–5, find the mean grade point average of the following: 3. The 5 starting players. 4. The 7 reserve players. 5. All 12 players the team? 6. A new reserve player joins the team with a 3.15 grade point average. How does this change the mean grade point average of the reserve players? 7. How does this change the mean grade point average of all players? 8. Was the change you found in Exercise 7 large or small? Explain why adding a value of 3.15 affected the mean in this way. 9. Jordan has been told that the mean of a data set is 15 and the mean of a second data set is 17. He wants to find the mean of the two data sets combined. He decides the mean of the combined set must be (15 + 17) ÷ 2 = 32 ÷ 2 = 16. Is Jordan’s method correct? Explain your answer.

Lesson 5.3.1 — Analyzing Graphs X X X X X X X X

X X X X

X X X X X X X

X X X X X

Use the data display on the left to answer Exercises 1–3. 1. What type of data display is this? 2. What is the mode of the data? 3. What is the range of the data?

11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Use the bar graphs below to answer Exercises 4–8. 4. Which data set has the greatest range? 5. Which data set has a mode of 16? 6. Which data set has more than one mode? 7. Which two data sets have the same range? 8. Which data set has the smallest mode? A6

B 6

4

4

2

2

0

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

0

C6

D 6

4

4

2

2

0

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

0

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Miss Allaire's science class went on a nature walk to collect leaves. The number of leaves each student in the class collected is displayed below. 9. Who collected the most leaves? How many did he/she collect? Student 10. Who collected the least number of leaves? Amir How many did he/she collect? Cecilia 11. Which student collected exactly 7 leaves? Chad 12. What was the total number of leaves collected? Mark 13. What is the mode number of leaves collected? Tawana 14. What is the range in number of leaves collected?

Number of leaves collected

Key:

= 2 leaves

Additional Questions

453

Lesson 5.3.2 — Finding the Mean and Median from Graphs Use the line plot on the right for Exercises 1–2. 1. Find the median of this data set. 2. Determine the mean of this data set. Graph A 11

11

12

12

13

13

14

14

15

15

16

16

17

17

18

X X 5

Graph B

X X X X X X X X X 6

7

8

X X

9 10 11 12 13 14

Use the the bar graphs on the left to answer Exercises 3–6. 3. Which graph has the greatest mode? 4. Which graph has the greatest range? 5. Which graph has the greatest median? 6. Which graph has the greatest mean?

18 0

1

2

3

4

5

0

1

2

3

4

5

Number of students

Hayley collected data from her classmates as to the number of people each student had in their family. She used the data to make the bar graph below. 6 7. What is the mean number of people in the students' families? 5 8. What is the median number of people in the students' families? 4 3 9. What is the range in number of people in the students' families? 2 10. Find the new mean and median if the value 15 is added to 1 Hayley's data set. 0 1

2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Number of people in family

Lesson 5.3.3 — Other Types of Graph Mrs. Martinez asked the girls and boys in her class to choose their favorite from four colors. She made the circle graphs below to display the girls' data and the boys' data. Yellow 1. Which color was most popular among the girls? 2. Which color was most popular among the boys? Yellow 3. Which color was least popular among the girls? Green 4. Which color was least popular among the boys? Green Red Red 5. Which group of students liked yellow more? Blue Blue 6. Which group of students liked green more? 7. Mrs. Martinez asked the class how many girls and boys voted for red. Kirk said 11. Boys Girls Explain the problem with Kirk's answer.

Height (in inches)

60

Abby's mom made the data display on the left to show Abby’s height between the ages of 5 and 12. 8. Identify this type of data display. 9. What was Abby's height at age 5? 10. How old was Abby when her height was exactly 55 in.? 11. How much did Abby grow between the ages 7 of 11? 12. Between which two ages did Abby grow the most?

50 40 30 20 10 0

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Age (in years)

13. Explain the difference between a single bar graph and a double bar graph. 454

Additional Questions

Lesson 5.4.1 — Using Samples 3000 girls were surveyed for a study to determine the number of hours of television teens watch per day. 1. Explain why this study is biased. 2. How could this sample be changed to be more representative of the population? Identify the population and the sample in Exercises 3–5. 3. A uniform company wants to know what style of jerseys college basketball players prefer. The company sent jersey samples to 500 of their college clients to find out which the players liked best. 4. A pool manager needs to determine the amount of chlorine in the adult pool versus the amount of chlorine in the children's pool. A small bottle of water is filled from each of the pools. 5. A veterinary office wants to know whether to add dog grooming services to the list of services they offer. A receptionist calls 50 dog owners who use the vet office to ask if they'd be interested. 6. Explain why a sample of 10 people out of a city of 100,000 won't give very useful results. 7. A meeting was held on Tuesday at 10:00 a.m. to discuss a new school policy on the use of cell phones. People at the meeting were surveyed as to whether they thought cell phones should be allowed on school grounds. Based on these results, a school policy was made banning the use of cell phones on school grounds. Give 3 reasons why this sample may have been biased.

Lesson 5.4.2 — Convenience, Random and Systematic Sampling In Exercises 1–3, identify the type of sampling being used, and give an advantage and a disadvantage of using that type of sampling in the situation described. 1. A mall manager is surveying mall shoppers as to what kind of store they would like to see open in the vacant store area. She interviewed 50 shoppers who walked by her mall office. 2. A TV news station asks random people coming out of a movie theatre grand opening what they think about the theatre. 3. Every 3rd person coming to a bank drive thru between 1–2 p.m. was surveyed as to whether bank hours should be extended. A cell phone store wants to know if customers are pleased with the service plans that are available to them through their company. 4. Give an example of convenience sampling that could be used in this situation. 5. Give an example of random sampling that could be used in this situation. 6. Give an example of systematic sampling that could be used in this situation.

Lesson 5.4.3 — Samples and Accuracy 1. If a sample is representative, what can you say about how it compares to the population? 2. If a sample accurately represents a population, what can you say about the sampling error? The mass of 450 different laboratory mice was determined and recorded. The data below shows the mass in grams of 4 different samples of mice in the laboratory. Sample A: {4.5, 3, 3.2, 5, 2.9} Sample B: {6.1, 4.4, 3, 2.8, 4.6} Sample C: {6.5, 3.1, 4, 3.7, 5} Sample D: {5.9, 3.1, 2.6, 3.8, 4.2} 3. Find the mean of each of the 4 samples. 4. Find the median of each of the 4 samples. The mean mass of the population of mice is 5.75 grams. 5. Find the sampling error for Sample A. 6. Find the sampling error for Sample B. 7. Find the sampling error for Sample C. 8. Find the sampling error for Sample D. 9. The sampling error for the median between Sample A and the population is 1.25 grams . What is the median of the population? 10. Based on your median in Exercise 9, find the sampling error for the median for Samples B, C, and D. Additional Questions

455

Lesson 5.4.4 — Questionnaire Surveys A company wants to collect data on what types of junk foods people in Texas buy at the grocery store. The store surveys shoppers as they are leaving the store, asking about their junk food purchases. 1. What is the population? 2. What is the sample? 3. What are the benefits of collecting data this way? 4. What are the problems with collecting data this way? 5. What is a biased question? 6. When might a biased question be asked? A student council is trying to gather information about whether a school should change its school colors. 7. Write an unbiased question that could be used to gather opinions in the survey. 8. Write a biased question in favor of changing the school colors. 9. Write a biased question against changing the school colors. 200 sixth graders were asked, "Isn't it unfair that teachers aren't graded on their teaching?" As a result a claim was made that 100% of students think that they should get an opportunity to evaluate their teachers' performance. 10. Is this a valid claim? Explain your reasoning. 11. Write an unbiased question that could have been used to gather more valid opinions.

Lesson 5.5.1 — Evaluating Claims Ms. Clark made the line plot on the right to show her students' scores on their last spelling test. She showed the line plot to the class and they discussed their results. X In Exercises 1–6, explain whether the data from the line plot supports each claim. X 1. Martin said, "Most of us scored an 18 on our last test." X X X 2. Trey said, "The mode score on the test was 14 and 20." X X X X X X X X X X 3. Liz said, "At least this time the range of scores was only 6." X X X X X X X 4. Attiana said, "The median score was 17 on this test." 5. Write a different claim that is supported by the data on the line plot. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 6. Write a different claim that is not supported by the data on the line plot. Spelling test scores A teacher made the chart below to show the first 3 test scores of 3 different students in her class. 7. Write a claim about Angelo's test Student Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 scores that can be supported by the data. 8. Write a claim about Angelo's test 89 95 92 Angelo scores that cannot be supported by the data. 9. Write a claim about Brianna's test 94 81 92 Brianna scores that can be supported by the data. 10. Write a claim about Brianna's test 85 89 94 Corinne scores that cannot be supported by the data. 11. Write a claim about Corinne's test scores that can be supported by the data. 12. Write a claim about Corinne's test scores that cannot be supported by the data. 13. Write a claim about all three students' combined scores that can be supported by the data. 14. Write a claim about all three students' combined scores that cannot be supported by the data.

456

Additional Questions

Lesson 5.5.2 — Evaluating Displays The graphs below show the number of students in grades 6 and 7 who play sports. Graph B Number of students

Number of students

Graph A 200 150 100 50 0 Grade 6

190 185 180 175 0

Grade 7

Grade 6

Grade 7

1. Which graph makes it easier to find the exact number of students who play sports? Explain why. 2. What are the exact numbers of students that play sports in grades 6 and 7? Winnie is looking at one of the graphs. She decides that the number of grade 7 students who play sports is double the number of grade 6 students who play sports. 3. Which graph is Winnie looking at? Explain your answer. 4. Is Winnie correct? If not, explain what mistake she has made. 5. Explain how changing the spacing on the horizontal axis of a line graph can change the appearance of the graph.

Number of students

Mrs. Beckman made the graph on the right to display the test scores on last chapter's math test. 6. Give an advantage of grouping the test scores the way 8 Mrs. Beckman did on her graph, instead of plotting each score separately. 6 7. Explain how the grouping of this data could be 4 misleading. 8. Can you use this data display to determine the range of 2 test scores? Explain your answer. 0 9. Can you use this data display to find the mode test score? 60 70 1–80 1–90 –100 50– 8 7 61– 91 Explain your answer. Scores

Lesson 6.1.1 — Listing Possible Outcomes 1. What is the difference between an outcome and an event? 2. Can one outcome match more than one event? Explain your answer using an example. For Exercises 3–5, sketch a spinner with 8 sections. 3. Add squares to the spinner sections so that 3 possible outcomes match the event "spin a square". 4. Add triangles to the spinner sections so that 2 possible outcomes match the event "spin a triangle". 5. Add another shape to the remaining sections. Write an event that matches these outcomes. Mr. Sanchez is making 2 spinners for his students to use to determine the subject and type of project each student must complete. He wants the subject spinner to have 3 events: spinning history, geography, or culture. 6. Sketch a spinner that matches the description of the subject spinner. 7. How many outcomes match the event "does not spin history"? Mr. Sanchez wants the type of project spinner to have 4 events, spinning diorama, poem, art picture, or report. 8. Sketch a spinner that matches the description of the type of project spinner. 9. How many outcomes match the event "does not spin report"? Each student will spin the subject spinner and the type of project spinner. 10. List all the outcomes of spinning both spinners that match the event "does not spin geography". Additional Questions

457

Lesson 6.1.2 — Tree Diagrams 1. Malcolm is using a tree diagram to find how many outcomes there are for spinning a spinner and rolling a die. Explain whether or not it matters which action he puts first in his tree diagram. Elvin is decorating for the school dance. He can choose from the lists of decorations on the right.

Streamer Colors Red

Table Top Decorations

Hanging Decorations Stars

Yellow

Rockets

Moons

Blue

Airplanes

Planets Clouds

2. Make a tree diagram that shows the number of combinations using one color of streamer, one type of hanging decoration and one type of table top decoration. 3. How many outcomes do not include Rockets as a table top decoration? 4. Elvin doesn't have enough clouds to hang over the last 10 tables at the dance. How many outcomes do not include clouds hanging over the table? 5. Elvin doesn’t have enough blue streamers for the last four tables. How many outcomes do not include clouds or blue streamers?

Lesson 6.1.3 — Tables and Grids Oliver is choosing from three different hats, and three different types of nose to put on his snowman. The types of hat are: top hat, cowboy hat, beret. The types of nose are: carrot, button, quarter. 1. Make a table to show all the combinations of one hat and one nose Oliver can make. 2. How many combinations match the event "with a button nose"? 3. List the combinations that match the event "with a cowboy hat". 4. Oliver could not find a quarter. How many possible combinations of hats and noses are there now? Spinner A Spinner B Exercises 5–9 are about the spinners shown on the right. Kayla spins Spinner A once, then spins Spinner B once, 13 3 8 2 and then multiplies the two numbers together. 5 11 5. Make a table to show all the combinations of products 6 4 9 7 Kayla can make with one spin on each spinner. 6. How many combinations match the event "product is an odd number"? 7. How many combinations match the event "product is an even number"? 8. Make a list of all the combinations that match the event "product greater than 60". 9. Make a list of all the combinations that match the event "product greater than 30 but less than 40".

Lesson 6.2.1 — Probability Exercises 1–4 are about the set of cards shown below. The cards are turned over and shuffled, and then one card is picked. Find the probability of each of the following. Write your answer as a decimal. 1. Picking a card with an I 2. Picking a card with an F N I C A L I F R A 3. Picking a card with an A 4. Picking a card with a J O 5. List three ways the probability of an event occurring can be written. 6. Write two fractions that represent the same probability as 30%. Tyrese wants to make a spinner with the following probabilities: • 40% chance of spinning the number 1. • 10% chance of spinning the number 8. • 20% chance of spinning the number 4. • 30% chance of spinning the number 2. 7. Draw a spinner that fits this description. 8. Tyrese is going to spin the spinner once. Find the probability that he spins a number greater than 9. 9. Find the probability that he spins a number greater than 3. 458

Additional Questions

Lesson 6.2.2 — Expressing Probability In Exercises 1–4 write each answer as a fraction in its simplest form. Maggie has a box of 120 envelopes. It contains 40 red envelopes, 30 green envelopes and 50 yellow envelopes. She is going to pick one envelope out. Find: 1. P(Maggie picks a green envelope) 2. P(Maggie picks a red envelope) 3. P(Maggie picks a yellow envelope) 4. P(Maggie picks an envelope that is not yellow) Tracie is playing a game where she mixes up 36 cards and picks one without looking. Each card has a picture of a shape on it. There are 16 circles, 6 squares, 9 triangles, and 5 stars. Write each of the following probabilities as a fraction in its simplest form: 5. P(Tracie picks a circle) 6. P(Tracie picks a square) 7. P(Tracie does not pick a square) Manuel owns a pet store. He sells four types of bird feed. He currently has 144 bags of safflower seed, 24 bags of sunflower seed, 36 bags of cracked corn and 36 bags of Spanish peanuts. Manuel picks a bag of bird feed at random from his stock. Write each of the following probabilities as a percent: 8. P(picking sunflower) 9. P(picking safflower) 10. P(picking cracked corn)

Lesson 6.2.3 — Counting Outcomes Sarah spins each of the spinners shown below and multiplies the two numbers she spins together. 1. Draw a table to show the possible outcomes. 1 2 4 1 8 3 Find the following probabilities, if x is the product of the two numbers spun. 7 4 2. P(x = 32) 3. P(x is less than 10) 3 2 6 5 4. P(x is 20 or greater) 5. P(x is even) When the probability of an event occuring is written as a fraction, what is represented by: 6. the numerator? 7. the denominator? Eldrick is making a pattern out of tiles. For each of three spots he randomly chooses either a green, white or yellow tile. He can use the same color more than once. 8. Draw a tree diagram to show the possible combinations of tiles Eldrick can choose. Use your diagram from Exercise 8 to find the following probabilities. Give each answer as a decimal to the nearest thousandth. 9. P (3 green tiles) 10. P (3 tiles of the same color) 11. P (exactly 2 tiles with the same color) 12. P (the 2nd and 3rd tiles being the same color)

Lesson 6.2.4 — Probability of an Event Not Happening Find P(A) and P(not A) where event A is picking each of the following at random from the cards shown on the right. Write your answers as fractions. 1. a black card 2. a card with a circle 3. a striped card 4. The probability of event B happening is 20%. What is the sum of P (B) and P (not B)?

Shorts

Lionel has 5 T-shirts and 4 pairs of shorts in his drawer. This table shows the combinations of T-shirts and shorts he can choose. Orange Purple Find P(C) and P(not C) where event C is Lionel choosing each of Blue OB PB the following from the drawer. Give your answers as percents. White OW PW 5. Striped shirt 6. Dotted shirt and red shorts Grey OG PG Lionel added a pair of tan shorts to the drawer. OR PR Red 7. What is the new total number of combinations? 8. Explain how your answer to Exercise 6 would change with the tan shorts included. 9. Find the probability that the tan shorts would not be pulled out of the drawer.

T-Shirts Striped Dotted Yellow SB

DB

YB

SW

DW

YW

SG

DG

YG

SR

DR

YR

Additional Questions

459

Lesson 6.2.5 — Venn Diagrams A number spinner is spun twice and the results multiplied. In which section of the Venn Diagram does each of the following outcomes belong? 1. 4 × 4 2. 9 × 2 3. 2 × 6 4. 9 × 9 5. 9 × 1 6. 4 × 2

A

B

C

Greater than 12

D Even

7. Nicole placed an outcome outside of the circles on a Venn Diagram. What does this tell you about the outcome? 8. One circle on a Venn Diagram was placed entirely within another circle. What does this mean? The Venn Diagram on the right shows three events for picking a number from 1 to 200 at random. Event A is greater than 100. Event B is a multiple of 25. Event C is an even number. 9. Copy the diagram and place the numbers 1, 2, 25, 50, 100, 150, 175 and 200 in the A correct sections of the diagram. 10. Name an outcome that would only match event A. 11. Name an outcome that would be placed in the overlapping area between circles A C and C, but not in circle B.

B

Lesson 6.2.6 — Combining Events Exercises 1–7 are about the set of 24 colored and numbered balls shown below. One ball is picked at random from the set. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Calculate each probability and write your answers as percents. 1. P(green) 2. P(green or yellow) 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 3. P(orange and greater than 6) 4. P(red or less than 21) 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Event A is “picking a number greater than 10 and less than 20,” Event B is “picking a purple ball,” and Event C is “picking an even number.” Find the following probabilities: 5. P(Event A and C) 6. P(Event B or C) 7. P(Event A and B and C) 8. Explain how P(A and B) is different from P(A or B). 9. Explain why you can't always just add P(A) to P(B) to finding P(A and B) 10. P(A) is 30% and P(B) is 20% with no overlap between events. What is P(neither A nor B)?

Lesson 6.3.1 — Independent and Dependent Events Sierra and Noah are each choosing a number between 1 and 100. Say whether each of the following pairs of events for picking the numbers are dependent or independent. Explain your answers. 1. Event A: Sierra thinks of a number, but doesn’t tell Noah what it is. Event B: Noah thinks of a number, but doesn’t tell Sierra what it is. 2. Event A: Sierra thinks of a number and tells Noah what she picked. Event B: Noah thinks of a different number. 3. Event A: Sierra randomly picks one of 100 cards numbered 1–100 and keeps it. Event B: Noah picks one of the remaining 99 cards. 4. Event A: Sierra randomly picks one of 100 cards numbered 1–100 and keeps it. Event B: Noah randomly picks one of 100 balls numbered 1–100 out of a bag and keeps it. 5. Event A: Sierra randomly picks one of 100 balls numbered 1–100 out of a bag, then replaces it. Event B: Noah randomly picks one of 100 balls numbered 1–100 out of the same bag. 6. A number cube is rolled, and a number of red counters equal to the number rolled are put into a box with 10 blue counters. Are the events “picking a red counter from the box” and “rolling 6 on the number cube” independent or dependent? Explain your answer. 460

Additional Questions

Lesson 6.3.2 — Events and Probabilities Charles has a box containing the 8 cards shown on the right. He picks one card from the box, and then picks a second card without replacing the first. Find the following, writing your answers as decimals to 3 decimal places: 1. The probability that the first card picked is red 2. The probability that the first card picked is blue 3. The probability that the second card picked is blue, if the first was red 4. The probability that the second card picked is blue, if the first was blue 5. The probability that the first card picked is a circle 6. The probability that the first card picked is a square 7. The probability that the second card picked is a square, if the first was a circle 8. The probability that the second card picked is a square, if the first was a square 9. What would the answers to Exercises 3 and 4 be if Charles put the first card back in the box before he picked the second card? 10. Complete the following sentence: The events “picking a red card on the first pick” and “picking a blue card on the second pick” are ___________ if the first card is replaced and _________ if the first card is not replaced.

Lesson 6.3.3 — Calculating Probabilities of Independent Events In Exercises 1–3, calculate P(A and B). A and B are independent events. 1. P(A) = 0.15; P(B) = 0.5 2. P(A) = 1; P(B) = 0 3. P(A) = 0.99; P(B) = 0.75 4. The probability that it will rain today is 20%. The probability that it will rain tomorrow is 30%. What is the probability that it will rain both today and tomorrow? Each Monday a cooking teacher puts a star under one of six placemats. Six students, three boys and three girls, come in and sit randomly in front of the placemats. Calculate the probabilities of the following events: 5. Amy, a student in the class, will sit at the place with the star the first and second weeks. 6. A boy will sit at the place with the star the first and second week. 7. Amy will sit at the place with the star the first week and a boy will sit at it the second week. 8. Someone other than Amy will sit at the placemat the first week and a boy will sit at it the 2nd week.

Lesson 6.4.1 — Relative Frequency Spinner A has the outcomes X and Y. Spinner B has outcomes 1, 2 and 3. The two spinners were spun 12 times. The results are recorded on the table below. Spinner A Spinner B

Y 2

X 3

X 1

Y 2

X 1

Y Y 1 3

X 2

Y 2

Y 1

Y 3

X 2

Calculate the relative frequency of the following events. Write your answers as fractions. 1. Spinner A landing on Y 2. Spinner B landing on 3. 3. Spinner B landing on 1 or 2. 4. Spinner B not landing on 1 5. Spinner A landing on Y and spinner B landing on 2 6. Explain the difference between theoretical probability and experimental probability. The colors of 120 gumballs that came out of a gumball machine were Number of Relative Color gumballs frequency recorded. The table on the right shows the number and relative frequency of the four colors of gumball. Write the relative frequencies of the Red 26 7 following as fractions in their simplest form: Green 24 7. Blue gumballs 8. Red gumballs 31 Blue 9. How many green gumballs were there? 7 Yellow 30 10. How many yellow gumballs were there? Additional Questions

461

Lesson 6.4.2 — Making Predictions In Exercise 1–3, use the relative frequencies to predict how many times event A will happen in 50 trials. 1. P(A) = 0.8 2. P(A) = 4% 3. P(A) = 34% If the relative frequency of Event A is 0.15, predict how many the event will happen in: 4. 380 trials 5. 640 trials 6. 2000 trials 7. Describe the difference between biased and unbiased experiments. One card from the set shown on the left was picked at random then replaced.

A B C D E F A

B

4

2

C 5

D

E

6

3

F 5

The results of doing this 25 times are shown in the table on the left. 8. Find the experimental probability of each card being pulled.

9. How would you expect the experimental probabilities you calculated in Exercise 8 to be affected if the number of trials was increased to 1000?

Lesson 7.1.1 — Parts of a Circle In Exercises 1–4, choose the correct definition from the table below to match each word. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Diameter Circle Radius Center

A. The set of all points in a plane that are all the same distance from the center B. The distance from the center to the edge of a circle C. The point at the middle of a circle that is an equal distance from all points on the circle D. The distance from one edge of a circle to the other in a straight line through the center

5. The radius of a circle is y inches. Write an expression that could be used to determine the diameter of the circle. Harry is placing equally-sized water bottles into a box as shown in the diagram below. 6. How long is the shortest side of the box? Harry wants to know how many bottles will fit into a box. In Exercises 7–9, find how many water bottles would fit into a box with the following lengths: 7. 84 centimeters 8. 30 centimeters

3.5 cm

9. 68 centimeters

Lesson 7.1.2 — Circumference and p d = 6.1 mm

4

1

5

2

9

6

3

+ -

Vol

8

0

r = 4.1 mm

3. The circumference of the red button is 12.25 mm. What is its diameter?

7

+ -

Ch

Exercises 1–3 are about the remote control shown in the picture. Use 3.14 as p. Find the circumference of: 1. Button number 1 2. The volume button.

4. Kyle says that the value of p changes in every equation. Is he correct? Explain your answer. 5 . The diameter of a large circle was 10 times as long as the diameter of a smaller circle. How many times greater is the circumference of the large circle? A cylindrical container is used to send items back and forth to a drive thru bank teller. 6. The radius of the container’s circular lid is 4.3 inches. Find the circumference of the lid. The container passes through a tube. The diameter of the tube is 2 inches greater than the diameter of the container. 7. Calculate the circumference of a circle with the same diameter as the tube.

462

Additional Questions

Lesson 7.1.3 — Area of a Circle Use 3.14 for p in Exercises 1–7.

9.2 in.

6.1 in.

The diagram on the right is from a poster showing a car wheel. 1. Find the approximate area of the smaller circle. 2. Find the approximate area of the larger circle. 3. What is the approximate area of the part of the diagram between the two circles? Marlene has a rectangular piece of cardboard measuring 16 inches by 8 inches. She wants to cut out 2 circles each with a diameter of 7 inches from the cardboard. 4. Calculate the approximate area of each circle. 5. Find the approximate area of the cardboard that is left after the circles have been cut out. Marcie is making a circular spinner like the one shown in the diagram. The spinner has a radius of 6.25 centimeters. 6. Find the approximate area of the spinner. Round your answer to the nearest tenth. 7. Find the approximate area of the spinner that will be colored yellow.

Lesson 7.2.1 — Describing Angles 1. Copy and complete the following sentence: All right angles have measures _______ than acute angles but _______ than obtuse angles.

le

ap

M Cedar

Elm

Oak

The map on the right shows some of the road in Jamal's hometown. 2. Which two pairs of roads appear to meet at right angles on the map? Measure the angles between them to check this. 3. Which pair of roads appear to meet at an acute angle on the map? Measure the angle that they create. 4. Which two pairs of roads appear to meet at obtuse angles on the map? Measure the angles that they create. 5. Birch Road is under construction and will divide the angle created by Maple and Cedar exactly in half. What will be the measure of the angle created by Birch and Maple road?

In Exercise 6–9, choose the correct definition from the table below to match each word. 6. Angle A. A part of a straight line that has one end point and goes on forever in one direction 7. Protractor B. A point where the two sides of an angle meet 8. Ray C. A figure made when two rays or two line segments meet at the same end point 9. Vertex D. An instrument used to measure angles in degrees

Additional Questions

463

Lesson 7.2.2 — Pairs of Angles Use the diagram on the left to answer Exercises 1–9. Say whether the following pairs of angles are adjacent, linear, vertical, or none of these. 1. Angle 1 and angle 2 2. Angle 1 and angle 7 3. Angle 2 and angle 5 4. Angle 2 and angle 4 5. Angle 6 and angle 7 6. Angle 3 and angle 6

1. 7.

2. 3. 4.

6. 5.

7. Angle 1 measures 121°. What is the measure of angle 4? If angle 3 measures 87°, find the measures of: 8. Angle 6 9. Angle 5

In Exercises 10–12 use the diagram on the right. Steve used chalk to draw the two lines shown on the sidewalk. 11. 8. 10. Name 2 angles that appear to be vertical angles in the sketch. 10. 9. 11. Name 2 angles that appear to be linear angles on the sketch. 12. Jake then added another line to the sketch that divided angle 8 exactly in half. If angle 10 measures 142°, what is the measure of half of angle 8? Explain your answer.

Lesson 7.2.3 — Supplementary Angles 1. Explain how to determine if two angles are supplementary. 2. Marsha said that all linear pairs must be supplementary. Is this true? Explain your answer. 3. Can two angles be supplementary if one is acute and one is right? Explain your answer. Kendra and Alejandro are cutting up a circular pie. The pie is cut exactly in half in a straight line, and they are each given exactly half of the pie to cut into slices. 4. What is the angle measure of each half of the pie? 5. From her half, Kendra cuts one slice of pie with an angle measure of 72º, and one with an angle measure of 45°. What is the measure of the angle made by Kendra’s remaining piece of pie? 6. From the second half of the pie, Alejandro cuts one slice with an angle of 68º, then cuts the remaining piece exactly in half. What is the measure of the angle made by each of the two slices Alejandro makes with his second cut?

Lesson 7.2.4 — The Triangle Sum The angle measures of three triangles were recorded on the table shown on the right. Find: 1. x 2. y 3. z

Triangle A B C

Angle 1 Angle 2 50° y° 6°

Angle 3

60° 31° z°

x° 19° 108°

4. Explain how knowing the measure of a supplementary angle to an angle in a triangle can help determine the measure of the other angles in a triangle. In this diagram, the measures of angles 1 and 2 are equal. The measure of angle 3 is 35°, and angle 5 measures 109°. Find the measure of: 5. Angle 1 6. Angle 2 7. Angle 6 8. Angle 7

464

Additional Questions

5. 6.

1. 3. 2.

4. 7.

Lesson 7.2.5 — Complementary Angles 1. Copy the following sentence and fill in the missing words: __________ angles add up to 90º but __________ angles add up to 180º. 2. If one of the angles in a triangle is a right angle, what does that tell you about the other two angles? 3. Will found that two angles in a triangle are complementary. What is the measure of the third angle? In this diagram, angle 2 measures 12º less than angle 1. 4. Find the measure of angle 2. 5. Find the measure of angle 3.

3.

1. 2.

The top view of a box used to hold chocolates is shown in the diagram on the right. The triangle is an isosceles triangle. 6. Find the measure of angle 5. 7. Find the measure of angle 6. The company that makes the box decides to change the measures of angles 5 and 6 so that they are still complementary, but not equal. The new measure of angle 5 will be 52.5º. 5. 8. Find the measure of angle 6 in the new triangle.

6.

4.

Lesson 7.3.1 — Classifying Triangles by Angles In Exercises 1–4, say whether each sentence is true or false, and explain your answer. 1. In an obtuse triangle, two of the angles must be obtuse. 2. In a right triangle, only one angle can be a right angle. 3. An acute triangle must have 3 angles that are less than 90º. 4. All the angles in an obtuse triangle have greater measures than all the angles in an acute triangle. A design for a stained glass window is shown in the diagram. 5. Find the measure of the missing angle in triangle A. 6. Is triangle A angle right, obtuse or acute? 7. Name two triangles in the picture that appear to be obtuse. 8. If the largest angle in triangle G was 3° larger, it would be a right angle. What is the measure of this angle? 9. The other angles in triangle G are the same size. Find their measures. 10. Is triangle G right, obtuse or acute?

B.

C.

D.

A.

E. 47°

F.

G.

H.

Lesson 7.3.2 — Classifying Triangles by Side Lengths This table has been used to record the side lengths of seven triangles. Are the following equilateral, isosceles or scalene? 1. Triangle A 2. Triangle B 3. Triangle C 4. Triangle D 5. The missing lengths from the last three rows of the table are 2 cm, 3 cm and 6 cm. Match each of these missing length to the correct triangle.

Triangle A B C D E F G

Side 1 9 mm 5.86 m 9.2 ft 1.3 in 4.5 cm 6 cm 2 cm

Side 2 10 mm 12 m 9.2 ft 3.5 in 9 cm 2 cm

Side 3 9 mm 5.9 m 9.2 ft 1.3 in 5.5 cm

Type

Scalene Isosceles Equilateral

6. Linda says that a right triangle could not be an isosceles triangle. Is this true? Explain your answer. 7. Luis says that if you flip an equilateral, isosceles or scalene triangle over to get a mirror image, the new triangle will be the same type of triangle as the original. Is this true? Explain your answer.

Additional Questions

465

Lesson 7.3.3 — Types of Quadrilaterals Quadrilateral Angle 1 Angle 2 Angle 3 Angle 4 a° 50° 55° 226° 1. 115° b° 76° 2. 110° 82° 82° 98° c° 3. e° d° 74° 106° 4. g° f° 35° 35° 5.

This table shows the angle measures of five quadrilaterals. Use it to answer Exercises 1–6. 1. Find a 2. Find b 3. Find c 4. One of quadrilaterals 1, 2 and 3 is an isosceles trapezoid. Which one is it? Explain you answer.

5. Quadrilateral 4 is an isosceles trapezoid. If d > e, find d and e. 6. Quadrilateral 5 is a parallelogram. Find f and g. In Exercises 7–9, use the words below to complete each sentence. Use each word only once. Square Rhombus Trapezoid Parallelogram Rectangle 7. A _________ has 4 sides of equal length, but does not have to have 4 equal angles. 8. A ________ is a _________ with 4 sides the same length. 9. A square is not a _______, but is a ________.

Lesson 7.3.4 — Drawing Quadrilaterals Andrew started drawing a parallelogram as shown on the right. The two sides he has drawn are the correct length. 1. What is the next step Andrew should take to draw the parallelogram? 2. Find the measure of the next angle Andrew will need to draw.

122°

Reggie is making a greeting card for his mom in the shape of an isosceles trapezoid. 3. One angle on the trapezoid must be 130°. Write the measures of the other 3 angles in the trapezoid. 4. The bottom base of the trapezoidal card will be 2 times as long as the top base. Suggest 2 possible measures for the bases. 5. Draw the trapezoid described. Label the angles and the base lengths on the trapezoid you drew. 6. Describe how to draw a rhombus when only 1 side length and 1 angle is known.

Lesson 7.4.1 — Three Dimensional Figures In Exercise 1–4 say whether each sentence is true or false, and explain your answer. 1. The number of edges on a rectangular prism is always 4 more than the number of vertices. 2. A cube and a triangular prism each have 6 faces. 3. A cylinder has 2 circular faces. 4. A triangular prism has 3 fewer edges than a rectangular prism. Exercises 5–10 are about the prisms shown below. A. B.

C.

For each of the prisms shown, find the number of: 5. faces 6. edges 7. vertices If the base of a prism is a polygon with n vertices, find an expression for: 8. The number of faces in the prism 9. The number of edges in the prism 10. The number of vertices in the prism 466

Additional Questions

Lesson 7.4.2 — Volume of Rectangular Prisms In Exercises 1–4 choose a reasonable estimate of the volume of each object. Choose from: 100 cm3, 1000 cm3, 10,000 cm3, or 100,000 cm3 1. Volume of a toybox 2. Volume of a shoe box 3. Volume of a slice of bread 4. Volume of a small loaf of bread 5. List the dimensions of a cube that has a volume of 1 cubic yard. 6. Describe how the volume of a cube changes when 3 cubes of the same size are added to it. A construction worker built a wall with dimensions as shown in the picture. 7. Find the volume of the wall. 8. Find the volume of the wall if the thickness was increased from 0.25 meters to 0.5 meters. Josie had these 2 suitcases available for a trip. 9. Find the volume of Suitcase A. 10. Find the volume of Suitcase B. 11. Find the difference in these volumes.

3m 0.25m

8.75 m

Case A

4 in

Case B

18 in

10 in

12 in

Josie took the suitcase with the bigger volume on her trip. She only filled it

3 4

3 in

20 in

of the way full.

12. Find the volume of empty space left in the suitcase.

Lesson 7.4.3 — Volume of Triangular Prisms and Cylinders In Exercises 1–4, calculate the volume of each figure. Use 3.14 for p. 6.2 m 1. 2. 3.

4. 4.32 m

4.5 m

16 cm

9.8 m

9.93 miles

20 cm 8 cm

5.8 m

3 miles

5. Explain how the volume of a rectangular prism would change if the prism was divided in half. 6. Explain how to find the height of a triangular prism if you know the volume of the prism and the area of its base. 2.8 cm

In Exercises 7–9, use 3.14 for p. The lid on water bottle is pictured in the diagram. 7. Find the volume of the lid. 8. Find the volume of the bottle. 9. Find the difference between these volumes.

12.8 cm

3 cm

19 cm

10. The volume of a triangular prism is 3.5 cm3 and the area of the base is 7.0 cm2. What is the height of the prism? 11. A cylinder has a volume of 366 in3. Find the height of the cylinder if its base has a radius of 4 in. Use 3.14 for p. Additional Questions

467

Lesson 7.4.4 — Volume of Compound Solids Each of the figures below has a hole cut out of them in the shape of a cylinder. Determine the volume of each figure after the hole was cut out. Use 3.14 for p. 1. 2. 3. 20 cm 6 cm

2.5 in

6 in

7.5 m 3m

6 in

2m 6 in

11 cm

28 cm

3.5 in

6 in

4. Describe how the volume of a 3D figure would change if a cube was cut out of the middle of it. In Exercises 5–8, use the diagram on the left. Boxes A, B and C all extend all the way through the cylinder. Allison is practicing pitching. She first tried to pitch into box A as shown in the figure. 5. Find the volume of box A.

9 ft 15 ft

A B 6 ft

2 ft

C

Next, she pitched into box B. The volume of box B is volume of box A. 6. Find the volume of box B.

2 3

of the

Then, Allison pitched into box C. The volume of box B is twice as much as the volume of box C. 7. Find the volume of box C. 8. Find the volume of the cylinder that was left after the 3 boxes were cut out of it. Use 3.14 for p.

Lesson 7.5.1 — Generalizing Results 1. What does the letter n in the expression n + 6 represent? 2. Explain why it is important to test a generalization. This table shows information about the faces, vertices and edges of prisms. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Determine the value of p. Determine the value of q. Determine the value of r. Determine the value of s.

3D Figure

Number of Number of faces vertices

Number of faces Number of edges and vertices

Triangular Prism

5

6

11

9

Rectangular Prism

6

8

14

12

Pentagonal Prism

7

10

17

15

Hexagonal Prism

8

12

20

18

Heptagonal Prism

9

14

p

q

Octagonal Prism

10

16

r

s

7. Write how you could predict the number of edges on a prism if the number of faces was 100 and the number of vertices was 196. 8. Write an equation to find the number of edges on any prism. Use v for the number of vertices, f for the number of faces and e for the number of edges.

468

Additional Questions

Lesson 7.5.2 — Proving Generalizations In Exercises 1–4 use the diagram below, showing four equilateral triangles. 8.27 in 7 cm

3.3 mm

7 cm 8.27 in

8.27 in

11.2 miles

3.3 mm

11.2 miles

3.3 mm 11.2 miles

7 cm Area = 21.2 cm

2

2

Area = 29.6 in

Area = 4.7 mm

2

2

Area = 54.3 miles

Using the equilateral triangles shown above, decide whether the statements in Exercises 1–4 appear to be true or false. If any are false, give an example that proves this. 1. All equilateral triangles have 3 sides the same length. 2. If a line is drawn from any vertex of an equilateral triangle to the midpoint of the side opposite it, 2 right angles are created at the midpoint. 3. The length of any side on an equilateral triangle is always equal to half the perimeter of the triangle. 4. The area of an equilateral triangle is always half as much as the perimeter of the triangle. 5. The area of an equilateral triangle is always more than 3 times the side length of the triangle. 6. Draw several right triangles and use your sketches to decide which of the statements about equilateral triangles from Exercises 1–5 are true for right triangles, and which are false. 7. Andrew said that a total of 2 examples are needed to prove a statement is true. Is Andrew correct? Explain your answer.

Additional Questions

469

Appendixes Glossary

................................................... 471

Formula Sheet ................................................... 473 Index

470

................................................... 475

Glossary Symbols < > £ ≥

is less than is greater than is less than or equal to is greater than or equal to

π N W Z

is not equal to the natural numbers the whole numbers the integers

A adjacent ang les two angles that share a common side and a angles vertex ang le the amount of turn between two straight lines meeting at angle a point; there are 360° in a full turn ar c part of a circle's circumference; can be drawn with a arc compass associa ti ve pr oper ties (of ad dition and m ultiplica tion) associati tiv proper operties addition multiplica ultiplication) for any a, b, c: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c a(bc) = (ab)c

B base in the expression bx, the base is b bias unfair influence on a result

C centr al tendenc y the value of "typical" items in a data set central tendency er ence the distance around the outside of a circle cumf circumf cumfer erence cir common ffactor actor a number or expression that is a factor of two or more other numbers or expressions common m ultiple a multiple of two or more different integers multiple v oper ties (of ad comm uta ti dition and m ultiplica tion) for proper operties addition commuta utati tive pr multiplica ultiplication) any a, b: a + b = b + a and ab = ba complementar y ang les two angles whose measures sum to 90° complementary angles con ver sion ffactor actor the ratio of one unit to another; used for conv ersion converting between units cube a three-dimensional figure with six identical square faces customar y units the system of units that includes: inches, feet, customary yards, miles, ounces, and pounds c ylinder a three-dimensional figure with two circular bases and a constant cross-section

D da ta set a collection of information, often numbers data decimal a number including a decimal point; digits to the right of the decimal point show parts of a whole number denomina tor the bottom expression of a fraction denominator diameter a straight line from one side of a circle to the other, passing through the center ty (of m ultiplica tion o ver ad dition) distrib uti ve pr oper multiplica ultiplication ov addition) distributi utiv proper operty for any a, b, c: a(b + c) = ab + ac

E edg e on a three-dimensional figure, an edge is where two faces edge meet

equa tion a mathematical statement showing that two quantities equation are equal equila ter al triang le a triangle whose sides are all the same equilater teral triangle length equi v alent fr actions fractions are equivalent if they have the equiv fractions same value estima te an inexact judgement about the size of a quantity; an estimate "educated guess" evalua te find the value of an expression by substituting actual aluate values for variables event a description that matches one or more possible outcomes exponent in the expression bx, the exponent is x expr ession a collection of numbers, variables, and symbols xpression that represent a quantity

F face a flat surface of a three-dimensional figure factor a number or expression that can be multiplied to get another number or expression — for example, 2 is a factor of 6, because 2 × 3 = 6 fr equenc y the number of times that something happens frequenc equency

G g rea test common ffactor actor (GCF) the largest expression that is a eatest common factor of two or more other expressions; all other common factors will also be factors of the GCF g rouping symbols symbols that show the order in which mathematical operations should be carried out — such as parentheses and brackets

I impr oper fr action a fraction whose numerator is greater than improper fraction its denominator — for example

7 4

inde pendent e vents events whose probabilities are not independent ev affected by whether the other happens or not inte ger s the numbers 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,...; integ ers the set of all integers is denoted Z inter est extra money you pay back when you borrow money, or interest that you receive when you invest money in ver ses a number’s additive inverse is the number that can be inv erses added to it to give 0; a number’s multiplicative inverse is the number that it can be multiplied by to give 1 isosceles triang le a triangle with two sides of equal length triangle

L least common m ultiple (L CM) the smallest integer that has multiple (LCM) two or more other integers as factors

M manipula te to change an expression or equation manipulate

Glossar y 471 Glossary

Glossary (continued) mean a measure of central tendency; the sum of a set of values, divided by the number of values in the set median the middle value when a set of values is put in order metric the system of units that includes: centimeters, meters, kilometers, grams, kilograms, and liters mix ed n umber a number containing a whole number part and a mixed number fraction part mode the value that occurs most frequently in a set

N na tur al n umber s the set of numbers 1, 2, 3,...; natur tural number umbers the set of all natural numbers is denoted N numer a tor the top expression of a fraction umera numeric e xpr ession a number or an expression containing only expr xpression numbers and operations (and therefore no variables)

O origin on a number line, the origin is at zero outcome a possible result of an experiment

P par allelo g ram a four-sided shape with two pairs of parallel parallelo allelog sides per cent value followed by the % sign; corresponds to the percent numerator of a fraction with 100 as the denominator perimeter the sum of the side lengths of a polygon popula tion the full group that samples can be taken from population wer an expression of the form bx, made up of a base (b) and po pow an exponent (x) prime ffactoriza actoriza tion a factorization of a number where each actorization factor is a prime number, for example 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 umber a natural number that can only be divided by prime n number itself and 1, with exactly 2 factors prism a three-dimensional figure with two identical bases and a constant cross-section pr oba bility a number which shows how likely an event is to proba obability happen, written as a number from 0 to 1, a percent, or a fraction pr oduct the result of multiplying numbers or expressions product together pr opor tion an equation showing that two ratios are equivalent propor oportion

Q quadrila ter al a two-dimensional figure with four straight sides quadrilater teral quotient the result of dividing two numbers or expressions

R radius the distance between a point on a circle and the center of the circle rang e the difference between the lowest and highest values in a ange data set ra te a kind of ratio with units ra tio the amount of one thing compared with the amount of another thing recipr ocal the multiplicative inverse of an expression eciprocal

rela ti ve fr equenc y the number of times an outcome occurred, elati tiv frequenc equency divided by the number of trials rhomb us a two-dimensional figure with four equal-length sides rhombus in two parallel pairs r ounding replacing one number with another number that’s easier to work with; used to give an approximation of a solution

S sample a small part of the population chosen to represent the whole population sampling in convenience sampling, each person or object is chosen because they are easy to access; in random sampling, each person or object in the population has an equal chance of being selected; in systematic sampling, people or objects are chosen by a set pattern; self-selected sampling relies on people choosing to give information sampling er errror a measure of how accurately a sample represents the population; a sampling error for the mean is the difference between the mean of the sample and the mean of the population scalene triangle a triangle with three unequal sides sign of a n umber whether a number is positive or negative number similar two figures are similar if all of their corresponding sides are in proportion and all of their angles are equal simplify to reduce an expression to the least number of terms, or to reduce a fraction to its lowest terms solv e to manipulate an equation to find out the value of a solve variable sum the result of adding numbers or expressions together supplementar y ang les two angles whose measures sum to supplementary angles 180° sur vey information collected by contacting people by phone, surv mail, or in person and asking them to provide some data

T ter ms the parts that are added or subtracted to form an terms expression tr a pe zoid a four-sided shape with exactly one pair of parallel tra pez sides

V varia ble a letter that is used to represent an unknown number ariab Venn dia g ram a diagram showing how different items in sets diag are related, making probabilities easier to visualize ver te x the point on an angle where the two rays meet on a erte tex two-dimensional figure; the point where three or more faces meet on a three-dimensional figure ver tical ang les angles that are opposite each other when two ertical angles lines cross volume a measure of the amount of space inside a three-dimensional figure

W whole n umber s the set of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3,...; number umbers the set of all whole numbers is denoted W

472 Glossar y Glossary

Formula Sheet Order of Operations Perform operations in the following order: 1. Anything in g r ouping symbols — working from the innermost grouping symbols to the outermost. 2. Exponents Exponents. visions tions and di divisions visions, working from left to right. 3. Multiplica Multiplications ditions and subtr actions subtractions actions, again from left to right. 4. Ad Additions

Fractions Adding and subtracting fractions with the same denominator::

a c a+c + = b b b

a c a−c − = b b b

Adding and subtracting fractions with different denominators:

a c ad + bc + = b d bd

a c ad − bc − = b d bd

Multiplying fractions: a ⋅

Dividing fractions:

c ac = d d

and

a c a d ad ÷ = ⋅ = b d b c bc

a c ac ⋅ = b d bd Reciprocals:

d c is the called reciprocal of c d

Rules for Multiplying

Rules for Dividing

positive × positive = positive positive × negative = negative negative × positive = negative negative × negative = positive

positive ÷ positive = positive positive ÷ negative = negative negative ÷ positive = negative negative ÷ negative = positive

Axioms of the Real Number System For any real numbers a, b, and c, the following properties hold: Pr oper ty Name Proper operty Commutative Property: Associative Property: Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition:

Ad dition Addition a+b=b+a (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

Multiplica tion Multiplication a×b=b×a (ab)c = a(bc)

a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca

Applications Formulas In vestments Inv The return (I) earned in t years when p is invested at an interest rate of r (expressed as a fraction or decimal): Speed

speed =

distance time

distance = speed × time

time =

I = prt

distance speed

For m ulas 473 orm

Formula Sheet (continued) Units Lengths in Customar y Units Customary 1 foot (ft) 1 yard (yd) 1 mile (mi)

= 12 inches (in.) = 3 feet (ft) = 1760 yards (yd)

Customar y to Metric Con ver sions Customary Conv ersions 1 inch (in.) 1 foot (ft) 1 yard (yd) 1 mile (mi)

= 2.54 cm = 30.48 cm = 0.91 m = 1.61 km

Lengths in Metric Units 1 dekameter (dam) = 10 meters (m) 1 hectometer (hm) = 100 meters 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters 1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 meters 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 meters 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 meters Metric to Customar y Con ver sions Customary Conv ersions 1 cm 1 cm 1m 1 km

Area

Volume

Area of a rectangle:

A = bh

Area of a triangle:

A=

1 bh 2

where b stands for the length of the base and h stands for the height.

The ratio “a to b” can also be written:

where B represents the area of one of the prism’s bases, and h stands for the height of the prism.

Volume of a cube:

where s represents the length of the side of the faces.

Circles a or a : b b

Probability number of favorable outcomes total number of outcomes P(not A) = 1 – P(A) P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B) P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B), for independent events

474 For m ulas orm

A = 6s 2 V = s3

Surface area of a cube:

Diameter: Circumference: Area:

P(A) =

F = 1.8C + 32 C = (F – 32) ÷ 1.8

Cubes

V = Bh

Ratios

Con ver ting Betw een Conv erting Between Temper a tur es in empera tures Fahr enheit and Celsius ahrenheit

= 0.39 inches (in.) = 0.033 feet (ft) = 1.09 yards (yd) = 0.62 miles (mi)

d = 2r C = pd A = pr2

di

am

et

radius, r

er,

d

Statistics For any numerical data set:

sum of values total number of values Median = middle value if the values are ordered Mode = value that occurs most often Range = maximum value – minimum value Mean =

Index Symbols

B

p 363, 364, 367, 368

balanced equations 63 bar graphs 275, 307 double 284 bases (of prisms) 407 bias and survey questions 297-299 and samples 288-291

A accuracy in predictions 354 in sampling 293-295 acute angles 370, 389 triangles 389 addition 18, 55-57 associative property 76 commutative property 76 of fractions 152, 153, 156, 161, 164 of integers 6, 7 of mixed numbers 163 of negative numbers 6 of variables 45 to solve equations 67 additional data 268-270, 272-274 adjacent angles 374, 385 angle sums quadrilateral 398 triangle 95, 381 angles 94, 370-372, 374, 375, 377-382, 384-391 acute 370 adjacent 374, 385 complementary 384-386 in similar shapes 209 in triangles 95, 381 linear pairs 374, 375, 378, 399, 400 missing 95, 382 obtuse 370 right 370 supplementary 377-380 vertical 375 annual interest rate 190 area 79, 366, 367 expressions for 78 of circles 366, 367 of complex shapes 82-84, 104 of rectangles 79 of squares 90 of triangles 80 associative property of addition 76 of multiplication 80 average 259, 272 rates 250, 251 see also mean, median, mode average speed 245, 246

C calculators 235 canceling fractions 146, 147 central tendency measures of 256 circle graphs 177-179, 282, 306 circles 359-369 area 366, 367 circumference 362, 363 diameter 359, 360, 363 radius 359, 360, 367 circumference 362-364 claims 300-304 and data displays 304-306 invalid 289, 298 common denominators 156, 157, 164 common factors or divisors 146, 147, 150, 200 common multiples 155, 156, 160 least 160, 161 common percents 172 commutative property of addition 76 of multiplication 80 comparison of data sets 265-267, 284 of decimals 26, 27, 123 of integers 4, 123 of fractions 111, 112, 157 compasses 395-397 complementary angles 384-386 complex shapes area 82-84 compound areas 82-84, 104 solids 416, 417 constants 53 convenience sampling 290 conversions 222-224, 226-235 conversion factors 222, 223, 229-231, 233 proportional quantities 226-228 temperatures 234

corresponding sides/angles 209-212 cross-multiplication 228 of fractions 158 with proportions 205-207, 227 cubes 91, 92, 407 volume 92 cubic units 410 cuboids 407 customary units 222, 223 cylinders 407, 414

D data displays 275-277, 279, 280, 282-284, 304-307 data sets 256, 265, 268, 272 combining 270, 273 comparing 265-267 decimals 23-27, 121, 169, 171, 172 comparing 27 plotting on a number line 24, 25 repeating 122 terminating 122 degrees 370 denominators 111, 125, 133, 136, 156, 157, 164, 168, 200, 204, 205 common 156, 157, 164 dependent events 340, 343-345 diameter 359, 360, 363 discounts 186, 187 distributive property 85, 86, 89 and mental math 88 division 10-12, 14-17, 19, 55-57 as division of multiplication 142 of negative numbers 16, 17 of fractions 136-138, 140-142 of mixed numbers 137, 138 of variables 46 to solve equations 69 divisors common 146, 147, 150, 200 greatest common 150, 170, 200 double bar graphs 284

E edges 408 equations 60, 77, 81, 95 graphing 73, 74 manipulating 63, 64 one-step 72 solving 66, 69, 72 by manipulation 66, 67, 69, 70 guess and check 61 equilateral triangles 393, 396

Inde x Index

475

equivalent fractions 110, 145, 168 ratios 199-202 estimation 35, 36, 38 front-end 39 evaluating claims 300-303 displays 304-307 expressions 49, 53 events 311-313, 321, 322, 324, 330, 331, 333, 334, 336, 337 independent/dependent 340, 341, 343-347 exponents 56 expressions 48, 51-53 and angles 94, 95 and areas 79, 81 and lengths 75 evaluating 49, 53 simplifying 76 extreme values 262-264

F

hundredths 171

I improper fractions 114-116, 118-120 converting to mixed numbers 116, 118-120 independent events 340, 341, 343-347 information in questions 100, 101 integers 4, 5, 125 addition 6, 7 division 14-17 multiplication 10-13 subtraction 7, 8 interest 189-191 inverses multiplicative 136, 207 isosceles trapezoids 400 triangles 393, 396

L

faces 91, 407 factors 10 common 146, 147, 150, 200 for conversions 222, 223, 229-231, 233 fractions 110-113, 121, 125, 146, 147, 155, 168-170, 172 addition 152, 153, 164 and ratios 197, 198 canceling 146, 147 converting to decimals 121, 122 converting to percents 168, 169 cross-multiplication 228 division 136-138, 140-142 equivalent 110, 145, 156 improper 114-116, 118, 119, 122 multiplication 125, 126, 129-131, 133-135 ordering 111-113 frequency 275 relative 350, 351 tables 275 front-end estimation 39

G generalizations 419-422, 424, 425 graphs 275-277, 279, 280, 282-284, 304-307 bar graphs 275, 307 double 284 circle graphs 177-179, 282, 306 conversion graphs 233 line graphs 283, 284 line plots 276, 279 pictographs 276 greatest common divisors (GCD) 150, 170, 200 grids (of outcomes) 317, 318, 346, 347

476

H

Inde x Index

leading questions 298 least common multiples 160, 161 lengths expressions for 75, 76 line graphs 283, 284 line plots 276, 279 linear pairs of angles 374, 375, 378, 379, 399, 400 loans 189

multiples common 155, 156 least common 160, 161 multiplication 10-12, 19, 55-57 associative property 80 commutative property 80 of fractions 125, 126, 129-131, 133-135 of integers 10-13 of mixed numbers 127 of negative numbers 11-13 to solve equations 70 ways to write 50 with variables 46 multiplicative inverses 136, 207

N natural numbers 4, 5 negative numbers 3, 6-8, 11, 12, 16 fractions 112, 113, 126 numbers types of 4, 5 number lines 3, 4, 10, 11, 24, 25, 73, 74, 111, 112, 118, 119, 125, 131 and addition 6 and decimals 24-26 and division 15 and fractions 111-113, 118, 119 and multiplication 11, 125 and subtraction 7, 8 numerators 111, 125, 133, 136, 204, 205

O M magic squares 101, 102 manipulating equations 63, 64, 66, 67, 69, 70 maps 219 mean 259, 260, 263, 265-267, 272-274, 280, 293 and extra data 272-274 and graphs 280 and missing values 260 measures of central tendency 256 median 256, 257, 264-269, 279, 294 and extra data 269 and graphs 279 mental math 88 metric units 223, 224 mixed numbers 114-116, 118-120, 163 addition 163, 164 converting to improper fractions 115 division 137, 138 multiplication 127 modal value — see mode mode 257, 258, 264-268, 277 and extra data 268 and graphs 277

obtuse angles 370 obtuse triangles 389 one-step equations 72 order of operations 55-57, 235 ordering numbers 3, 4, 173 decimals 26 fractions 111-113 integers 3, 4 outcomes 311-315, 317, 318, 324, 325, 327, 333, 334 and tables/grids 317, 318, 346, 347 and tree diagrams 314, 315 favorable 324, 327 outliers 262-264

P parallel 399, 400 parallelograms 399, 403 parentheses 55, 56, 76, 80, 85, 86, 235 and calculators 235 and distributive property 85, 86 partitioning 140 patterns 97, 98, 104, 419, 420 PEMDAS 56, 57

percent decrease 185-187 percent increase 181-183 percents 168-175 and circle graphs 177-179 converting to decimals 171 converting to fractions 170 decrease 185-187 discounts 186, 187 increase 181-183 tips 182, 183 perimeter 76 pictographs 276 place values 30, 32 populations 287-290, 293, 297 versus samples 287 positive numbers 3 prime factorization 147, 150, 161 principal 189, 190 prisms 406, 407 bases 407 edges 408 faces 407 rectangular 407 triangular 407, 413 vertices (vertex) 408 probability 311, 321, 322, 324, 325, 327, 328, 330, 331, 340, 343, 346, 351 A and B 336, 347 A or B 337, 338 dependent events 340, 341, 343-345 experimental 351, 353, 354 independent events 340, 341, 343-347 of an event not happening 330, 331 of complement 330, 331 theoretical 322, 351, 355 Venn diagrams 333, 334, 336-338 problem-solving strategies 104, 105, 165 product 10 see also multiplication proportional quantities 233 proportions 202-207, 209, 213, 226-228, 282, 231 and circle graphs 282 and converting units 226-233 and scale drawings 218, 219 cross-multiplication 205-207, 227 solving 204, 206 protractors 371, 372, 391, 402

Q quadrilaterals 398-400, 402-404 angle sum 398 parallelograms 399, 403 rectangles 90, 398, 402 squares 90, 398, 402 trapezoids 400, 403, 404 questions leading 297-299 survey 296-299

questionnaires 296-299 quotient 14 see also division

R radius 359, 360, 367 random sampling 291 range 260, 261, 265-268, 270, 277 and extra data 270 and graphs 277 rates 237-242, 244, 247, 248, 250, 251 average 250, 251 and units 237, 238 speed 244-248 ratios 196-202, 226 and probability 324 and scale 217-219 and similar shapes 210-215 equivalent 199-201 simplifying 199, 200 writing 197 rays 374, 375 reciprocals 136, 239 and division 137 rectangles 90, 398, 402 rectangular prisms 407, 410–412 relative frequency 350, 351 repeated subtraction 141 repeating decimals 122 replacement 344, 345 representative samples 288, 290, 291, 296 rhombi (rhombus) 399 right angles 370, 389 right triangles 389 rounding 29, 30, 32 and accuracy 32, 33 decimals 30 to check work 33, 106

S sample size 295 samples 287-295, 297 accuracy 293-295 bias 288-291 convenience 290 random 291 sampling errors 293-295 self-selecting 288, 296 systematic 292 versus populations 287 sampling errors 293-295 savings 189-191 scale drawings 217-219 and maps 219 and units 217, 218 scalene triangles 393, 397

selection with replacement 343, 344 without replacement 343, 345 self-selected sampling 296 sequences 97, 98 similar shapes 209-210 and proportions 210-215 simple interest 190 simplifying expressions 76 fractions 146, 147, 149, 150 ratios 199, 200 solving equations by manipulation 66, 67, 69, 70 guess and check 61 speed 237, 244-248, 250, 251 and units 247 average 245, 246 spinners 341 squares 90, 398, 402 area 90 subtraction 18, 55-57 of fractions 152 of integers 7, 8 of negative numbers 7, 8 of variables 45 to solve equations 66 supplementary angles 377-380 surface area of cubes 91 surveys bias 297, 298 questionnaires 296-299 systematic sampling 292

T tables of outcomes 317, 318, 346, 347 tally charts 275 temperature conversions 234 tenths 23 terminating decimals 122 terms 53 thousandths 23 tips 182, 183 trapezoids 400, 403, 404 isosceles 400, 403, 404 tree diagrams 314, 315, 328 triangle sum 381, 382 triangles 381, 389, 393 acute 389 area 80 equilateral 393 isosceles 393, 396 obtuse 389 right 386, 389 scalene 393 angle sum 95, 381 triangular prisms 407, 413

Inde x Index

477

U unit cubes 92, 410 units 92, 106 and rates 237-239 and scale 217, 218 converting 222-224, 226, 227, 229-235 customary 222, 223 metric 223, 224

V variables 44-46, 57, 60, 61, 75, 76, 83, 200, 203 Venn diagrams 333, 334, 337, 338 vertical angles 375 vertices (vertex) 408 volume 92, 410-414, 416 of complex shapes 416, 417 of cubes 92 of cylinders 414 of prisms 413

W whole numbers 4, 5 word problems 18-20, 48, 60, 99, 165, 203

Z zero 3, 4

478

Inde x Index

CGP

Education

California

Mathematics Course Two

Student Textbook California Standards-Driven Program

California

Mathematics Course Two

Student Textbook California Standards-Driven Program

i

Contents This Textbook provides comprehensive coverage of all the California Grade 7 Standards. The Textbook is divided into eight Chapters. Each of the Chapters is broken down into small, manageable Lessons and each Lesson covers a specific Standard or part of a Standard.

California Standard

Chapter 1 — The Basics of Algebra

AF 1.1 AF 1.2 AF 1.3 AF 1.4

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions Exploration Variable Tiles ........................................................................................................................ Lesson 1.1.1 Variables and Expressions ................................................................................................... Lesson 1.1.2 Simplifying Expressions ........................................................................................................ Lesson 1.1.3 The Order of Operations ...................................................................................................... Lesson 1.1.4 The Identity and Inverse Properties ...................................................................................... Lesson 1.1.5 The Associative and Commutative Properties ......................................................................

2 3 7 10 13 17

AF 1.1 AF 1.4 AF 4.1 MR 1.1 MR 2.1

Section 1.2 — Equations Exploration Solving Equations ................................................................................................................. Lesson 1.2.1 Writing Expressions .............................................................................................................. Lesson 1.2.2 Equations .............................................................................................................................. Lesson 1.2.3 Solving One-Step Equations ................................................................................................. Lesson 1.2.4 Solving Two-Step Equations ................................................................................................. Lesson 1.2.5 More Two-Step Equations .................................................................................................... Lesson 1.2.6 Applications of Equations ..................................................................................................... Lesson 1.2.7 Understanding Problems ......................................................................................................

20 21 24 28 32 35 38 41

AF 1.1 AF 1.4 AF 1.5

Section 1.3 — Inequalities Lesson 1.3.1 Inequalities ............................................................................................................................ 44 Lesson 1.3.2 Writing Inequalities ............................................................................................................... 47 Lesson 1.3.3 Two-Step Inequalities ........................................................................................................... 50 Chapter 1 — Investigation Which Phone Deal is Best? .......................................................................................................................... 53

Chapter 2 — Rational and Irrational Numbers

ii

NS 1.3 NS 1.4 NS 1.5

Section 2.1 — Rational Numbers Lesson 2.1.1 Rational Numbers ................................................................................................................. 55 Lesson 2.1.2 Converting Terminating Decimals to Fractions ..................................................................... 59 Lesson 2.1.3 Converting Repeating Decimals to Fractions ........................................................................ 62

NS 2.5 AF 1.1

Section 2.2 — Absolute Value Lesson 2.2.1 Absolute Value ...................................................................................................................... 65 Lesson 2.2.2 Using Absolute Value ............................................................................................................ 68

NS 1.1 NS 1.2 NS 2.2

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers Lesson 2.3.1 Adding and Subtracting Integers and Decimals .................................................................... Lesson 2.3.2 Multiplying and Dividing Integers .......................................................................................... Lesson 2.3.3 Multiplying Fractions ............................................................................................................. Lesson 2.3.4 Dividing Fractions ................................................................................................................. Lesson 2.3.5 Common Denominators ........................................................................................................ Lesson 2.3.6 Adding and Subtracting Fractions ......................................................................................... Lesson 2.3.7 Adding and Subtracting Mixed Numbers ..............................................................................

71 75 78 81 84 87 90

California Standard

Chapter 2 Continued Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers Lesson 2.4.1 Further Operations with Fractions ........................................................................................ Lesson 2.4.2 Multiplying and Dividing Decimals ........................................................................................ Lesson 2.4.3 Operations with Fractions and Decimals .............................................................................. Lesson 2.4.4 Problems Involving Fractions and Decimals .........................................................................

93 96 99 102

NS 1.1 NS 1.2 AF 2.1

Section 2.5 — Basic Powers Exploration Basic Powers ........................................................................................................................ Lesson 2.5.1 Powers of Integers ................................................................................................................ Lesson 2.5.2 Powers of Rational Numbers ................................................................................................ Lesson 2.5.3 Uses of Powers .................................................................................................................... Lesson 2.5.4 More on the Order of Operations .........................................................................................

105 106 109 112 116

NS 1.4 NS 2.4 MR 2.7

Section 2.6 — Irrational Numbers and Square Roots Exploration The Side of a Square ........................................................................................................... Lesson 2.6.1 Perfect Squares and Their Roots .......................................................................................... Lesson 2.6.2 Irrational Numbers ................................................................................................................ Lesson 2.6.3 Estimating Irrational Roots ...................................................................................................

119 120 123 126

NS 1.2 NS 2.2 MR 2.2

Chapter 2 — Investigation Designing a Deck .......................................................................................................................................... 130

Chapter 3 — Two-Dimensional Figures

MG 2.1 MG 2.2

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area Exploration Area and Perimeter Patterns ................................................................................................ Lesson 3.1.1 Polygons and Perimeter ........................................................................................................ Lesson 3.1.2 Areas of Polygons ................................................................................................................ Lesson 3.1.3 Circles ................................................................................................................................... Lesson 3.1.4 Areas of Complex Shapes .................................................................................................... Lesson 3.1.5 More Complex Shapes .........................................................................................................

MG 3.2

Section 3.2 — The Coordinate Plane Exploration Coordinate 4-in-a-row ........................................................................................................... 149 Lesson 3.2.1 Plotting Points ....................................................................................................................... 150 Lesson 3.2.2 Drawing Shapes on the Coordinate Plane ............................................................................ 154

MG 3.2 MG 3.3

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem Exploration Measuring Right Triangles .................................................................................................... Lesson 3.3.1 The Pythagorean Theorem ................................................................................................... Lesson 3.3.2 Using the Pythagorean Theorem .......................................................................................... Lesson 3.3.3 Applications of the Pythagorean Theorem ........................................................................... Lesson 3.3.4 Pythagorean Triples & the Converse of the Theorem ...........................................................

158 159 163 167 171

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures Exploration Transforming Shapes ............................................................................................................ Lesson 3.4.1 Reflections ............................................................................................................................ Lesson 3.4.2 Translations ........................................................................................................................... Lesson 3.4.3 Scale Factor .......................................................................................................................... Lesson 3.4.4 Scale Drawings ..................................................................................................................... Lesson 3.4.5 Perimeter, Area, and Scale ................................................................................................... Lesson 3.4.6 Congruence and Similarity ...................................................................................................

174 175 178 182 185 189 192

MG 1.2 MG 2.0 MG 3.2 MG 3.4

132 133 136 139 142 145

iii

Contents California Standard

MG 3.1

AF 1.1 MG 3.3 MR 1.2 MR 2.2 MR 2.4 MR 3.3

Chapter 3 Continued Section 3.5 — Constructions Lesson 3.5.1 Constructing Circles ............................................................................................................. 196 Lesson 3.5.2 Constructing Perpendicular Bisectors ................................................................................... 199 Lesson 3.5.3 Perpendiculars, Altitudes, and Angle Bisectors .................................................................... 202 Section 3.6 — Conjectures and Generalizations Lesson 3.6.1 Geometrical Patterns and Conjectures ................................................................................. 206 Lesson 3.6.2 Expressions and Generalizations ......................................................................................... 210 Chapter 3 — Investigation Designing a House ........................................................................................................................................ 213

Chapter 4 — Linear Functions AF 1.1 AF 1.5 AF 3.3

Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations Exploration Block Patterns ...................................................................................................................... Lesson 4.1.1 Graphing Equations .............................................................................................................. Lesson 4.1.2 Systems of Linear Equations ................................................................................................ Lesson 4.1.3 Slope .....................................................................................................................................

215 216 220 223

AF 3.4 AF 4.2 MG 1.3

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation Exploration Pulse Rates .......................................................................................................................... Lesson 4.2.1 Ratios and Rates .................................................................................................................. Lesson 4.2.2 Graphing Ratios and Rates .................................................................................................. Lesson 4.2.3 Distance, Speed, and Time .................................................................................................. Lesson 4.2.4 Direct Variation .....................................................................................................................

227 228 231 235 238

AF 4.2 MG 1.1 MG 1.3

Section 4.3 — Units and Measures Lesson 4.3.1 Converting Measures ............................................................................................................ Lesson 4.3.2 Converting Between Unit Systems ....................................................................................... Lesson 4.3.3 Dimensional Analysis ............................................................................................................ Lesson 4.3.4 Converting Between Units of Speed ....................................................................................

241 244 248 251

AF 1.1 AF 4.1

Section 4.4 — More on Inequalities Lesson 4.4.1 Linear Inequalities ................................................................................................................. 254 Lesson 4.4.2 More on Linear Inequalities .................................................................................................. 258 Lesson 4.4.3 Solving Two-Step Inequalities ............................................................................................... 261 Chapter 4 — Investigation Choosing a Route ......................................................................................................................................... 264

Chapter 5 — Powers

iv

NS 2.1 NS 2.3 AF 2.1

Section 5.1 — Operations on Powers Lesson 5.1.1 Multiplying with Powers ......................................................................................................... 266 Lesson 5.1.2 Dividing with Powers ............................................................................................................. 269 Lesson 5.1.3 Fractions with Powers ........................................................................................................... 272

NS 1.1 NS 1.2 NS 2.1 AF 2.1

Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation Lesson 5.2.1 Negative and Zero Exponents .............................................................................................. Lesson 5.2.2 Using Negative Exponents .................................................................................................... Lesson 5.2.3 Scientific Notation ................................................................................................................. Lesson 5.2.4 Comparing Numbers in Scientific Notation ...........................................................................

275 278 281 284

California Standard

Chapter 5 Continued

AF 1.4 AF 2.2

Section 5.3 — Monomials Exploration Monomials ............................................................................................................................ Lesson 5.3.1 Multiplying Monomials .......................................................................................................... Lesson 5.3.2 Dividing Monomials ............................................................................................................... Lesson 5.3.3 Powers of Monomials ........................................................................................................... Lesson 5.3.4 Square Roots of Monomials .................................................................................................

287 288 291 294 297

AF 3.1 MR 2.3 MR 2.5

Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions Exploration The Pendulum ....................................................................................................................... Lesson 5.4.1 Graphing y = nx2 .................................................................................................................... Lesson 5.4.2 More Graphs of y = nx2 ......................................................................................................... Lesson 5.4.3 Graphing y = nx3 ....................................................................................................................

301 302 306 309

Chapter 5 — Investigation The Solar System ......................................................................................................................................... 313

Chapter 6 — The Basics of Statistics

SDAP 1.1 SDAP 1.3 MR 2.6

SDAP 1.2 MR 2.3

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data Exploration Reaction Rates ..................................................................................................................... Lesson 6.1.1 Median and Range ............................................................................................................... Lesson 6.1.2 Box-and-Whisker Plots ......................................................................................................... Lesson 6.1.3 More on Box-and-Whisker Plots ........................................................................................... Lesson 6.1.4 Stem-and-Leaf Plots ............................................................................................................. Lesson 6.1.5 Preparing Data to be Analyzed ............................................................................................. Lesson 6.1.6 Analyzing Data ......................................................................................................................

315 316 319 322 325 329 332

Section 6.2 — Scatterplots Exploration Age and Height ..................................................................................................................... Lesson 6.2.1 Making Scatterplots .............................................................................................................. Lesson 6.2.2 Shapes of Scatterplots ......................................................................................................... Lesson 6.2.3 Using Scatterplots ................................................................................................................

335 336 339 342

Chapter 6 — Investigation Cricket Chirps and Temperature ................................................................................................................... 345

Chapter 7 — Three-Dimensional Geometry MG 2.1 MG 2.2 MG 2.3 MG 3.5 MG 3.6 MR 1.3 MR 2.2 MR 3.6

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space Exploration Nets ...................................................................................................................................... Lesson 7.1.1 Three-Dimensional Figures .................................................................................................. Lesson 7.1.2 Nets ...................................................................................................................................... Lesson 7.1.3 Surface Areas of Cylinders and Prisms ................................................................................ Lesson 7.1.4 Surface Areas & Perimeters of Complex Shapes ................................................................. Lesson 7.1.5 Lines and Planes in Space ...................................................................................................

AF 3.2 MG 2.1 MR 2.2 MR 2.3 MR 3.2

Section 7.2 — Volume Exploration Build the Best Package ......................................................................................................... 366 Lesson 7.2.1 Volumes ................................................................................................................................ 367 Lesson 7.2.2 Graphing Volumes ................................................................................................................ 371

347 348 352 356 359 362

v

Contents California Standard MG 1.2 MG 2.1 MG 2.3 MG 2.4

Chapter 7 Continued Section 7.3 — Scale Factors Exploration Growing Cubes ..................................................................................................................... Lesson 7.3.1 Similar Solids ........................................................................................................................ Lesson 7.3.2 Surface Areas & Volumes of Similar Figures ....................................................................... Lesson 7.3.3 Changing Units .....................................................................................................................

374 375 379 383

Chapter 7 — Investigation Set Design .................................................................................................................................................... 387

Chapter 8 — Percents, Rounding, and Accuracy NS 1.3 NS 1.6

Section 8.1 — Percents Exploration Photo Enlargements ............................................................................................................. Lesson 8.1.1 Percents ................................................................................................................................ Lesson 8.1.2 Changing Fractions and Decimals to Percents ..................................................................... Lesson 8.1.3 Percent Increases and Decreases ........................................................................................

389 390 393 396

NS 1.3 NS 1.7

Section 8.2 — Using Percents Exploration What’s the Best Deal? .......................................................................................................... Lesson 8.2.1 Discounts and Markups ........................................................................................................ Lesson 8.2.2 Tips, Tax, and Commission ................................................................................................... Lesson 8.2.3 Profit ..................................................................................................................................... Lesson 8.2.4 Simple Interest ...................................................................................................................... Lesson 8.2.5 Compound Interest ...............................................................................................................

400 401 404 407 410 413

NS 1.3 MR 2.1 MR 2.3 MR 2.7 MR 2.8 MR 3.1

Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy Exploration Estimating Length ................................................................................................................. Lesson 8.3.1 Rounding .............................................................................................................................. Lesson 8.3.2 Rounding Reasonably .......................................................................................................... Lesson 8.3.3 Exact and Approximate Answers .......................................................................................... Lesson 8.3.4 Reasonableness and Estimation ..........................................................................................

416 417 420 423 426

Chapter 8 — Investigation Nutrition Facts .............................................................................................................................................. 429

Additional Questions Additional Questions for Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 5 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 6 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 7 ............................................................................................................... Additional Questions for Chapter 8 ...............................................................................................................

430 435 443 452 457 462 465 470

Appendixes Glossary ........................................................................................................................................................ 475 Formula Sheet ............................................................................................................................................... 478 Index ............................................................................................................................................................. 480

vi

California Grade Seven Mathematics Standards The following table lists all the California Mathematics Content Standards for Grade 7 with cross references to where each Standard is covered in this Textbook. Each Lesson begins by quoting the relevant Standard in full, together with a clear and understandable objective. This will enable you to measure your progression against the California Grade 7 Standards as you work your way through the Program. California Standard

Number Sense

Chapter

1.0

Students know the properties of, and compute with, rational numbers expressed in a variety of forms:

2, 5, 8

1.1

Read, write, and compare rational numbers in scientific notation (positive and negative powers of 10), compare rational numbers in general.

2, 5

1.2

Add, subtract, multiply, and divide rational numbers (integers, fractions, and terminating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers.

2, 5

1.3

Convert fractions to decimals and percents and use these representations in estimations, computations, and applications.

2, 8

1.4

Differentiate between rational and irrational numbers.

2

1.5

Know that every rational number is either a terminating or a repeating decimal and be able to convert terminating decimals into reduced fractions.

2

1.6

Calculate the percentage of increases and decreases of a quantity.

8

1.7

Solve problems that involve discounts, markups, commissions, and profit and compute simple and compound interest.

8

2.0

Students use exponents, powers, and roots and use exponents in working with fractions:

2, 5

2.1

Understand negative whole-number exponents. Multiply and divide expressions involving exponents with a common base.

5

2.2

Add and subtract fractions by using factoring to find common denominators.

2

2.3

Multiply, divide, and simplify rational numbers by using exponent rules.

5

2.4

Use the inverse relationship between raising to a power and extracting the root of a perfect square integer; for an integer that is not square, determine without a calculator the two integers between which its square root lies and explain why.

2

2.5

Understand the meaning of the absolute value of a number; interpret the absolute value as the distance of the number from zero on a number line; and determine the absolute value of real numbers.

2

California Standard

Algebra and Functions

1.0

Students express quantitative relationships by using algebraic terminology, expressions, equations, inequalities, and graphs:

1, 2, 3, 4, 5

1.1

Use variables and appropriate operations to write an expression, an equation, an inequality, or a system of equations or inequalities that represents a verbal description (e.g., three less than a number, half as large as area A).

1, 2, 3, 4

1.2

Use the correct order of operations to evaluate algebraic expressions such as 3(2x + 5)2.

1

1.3

Simplify numerical expressions by applying properties of rational numbers (e.g., identity, inverse, distributive, associative, commutative) and justify the process used.

1

1.4

Use algebraic terminology (e.g., variable, equation, term, coefficient, inequality, expression, constant) correctly.

1, 5

1.5

Represent quantitative relationships graphically and interpret the meaning of a specific part of a graph in the situation represented by the graph.

1, 4

2.0

Students interpret and evaluate expressions involving integer powers and simple roots:

2, 5

2.1

Interpret positive whole-number powers as repeated multiplication and negative whole-number powers as repeated division or multiplication by the multiplicative inverse. Simplify and evaluate expressions that include exponents.

2, 5

2.2

Multiply and divide monomials; extend the process of taking powers and extracting roots to monomials when the latter results in a monomial with an integer exponent.

5

vii

California Grade Seven Mathematics Standards 3.0

Students graph and interpret linear and some nonlinear functions:

4, 5, 7

3.1

Graph functions of the form y = nx2 and y = nx3 and use in solving problems.

5

3.2

Plot the values from the volumes of three-dimensional shapes for various values of the edge lengths (e.g., cubes with varying edge lengths or a triangle prism with a fixed height and an equilateral triangle base of varying lengths).

7

3.3

Graph linear functions, noting that the vertical change (change in y-value) per unit of horizontal change (change in x-value) is always the same and know that the ratio (“rise over run”) is called the slope of a graph.

4

3.4

Plot the values of quantities whose ratios are always the same (e.g., cost to the number of an item, feet to inches, circumference to diameter of a circle). Fit a line to the plot and understand that the slope of the line equals the ratio of the quantities.

4

4.0

Students solve simple linear equations and inequalities over the rational numbers:

1, 4

4.1

Solve two-step linear equations and inequalities in one variable over the rational numbers, interpret the solution or solutions in the context from which they arose, and verify the reasonableness of the results.

1, 4

4.2

Solve multistep problems involving rate, average speed, distance, and time or a direct variation.

4

California Standard

viii

Measurement and Geometry

1.0

Students choose appropriate units of measure and use ratios to convert within and between measurement systems to solve problems:

3, 4, 7

1.1

Compare weights, capacities, geometric measures, times, and temperatures within and between measurement systems (e.g., miles per hour and feet per second, cubic inches to cubic centimeters).

4

1.2

Construct and read drawings and models made to scale.

3, 7

1.3

Use measures expressed as rates (e.g., speed, density) and measures expressed as products (e.g., person-days) to solve problems; check the units of the solutions; and use dimensional analysis to check the reasonableness of the answer.

4

2.0

Students compute the perimeter, area, and volume of common geometric objects and use the results to find measures of less common objects. They know how perimeter, area, and volume are affected by changes of scale:

3, 7

2.1

Use formulas routinely for finding the perimeter and area of basic two-dimensional figures and the surface area and volume of basic three-dimensional figures, including rectangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, squares, triangles, circles, prisms, and cylinders.

3, 7

2.2

Estimate and compute the area of more complex or irregular two- and three-dimensional figures by breaking the figures down into more basic geometric objects.

3, 7

2.3

Compute the length of the perimeter, the surface area of the faces, and the volume of a threedimensional object built from rectangular solids. Understand that when the lengths of all dimensions are multiplied by a scale factor, the surface area is multiplied by the square of the scale factor and the volume is multiplied by the cube of the scale factor.

7

2.4

Relate the changes in measurement with a change of scale to the units used (e.g., square inches, cubic feet) and to conversions between units (1 square foot = 144 square inches or [1 ft.2] = [144 in.2]; 1 cubic inch is approximately 16.38 cubic centimeters or [1 in.3] = [16.38 cm3]).

7

3.0

Students know the Pythagorean theorem and deepen their understanding of plane and solid geometric shapes by constructing figures that meet given conditions and by identifying attributes of figures:

3, 7

3.1

Identify and construct basic elements of geometric figures (e.g., altitudes, midpoints, diagonals, angle bisectors, and perpendicular bisectors; central angles, radii, diameters, and chords of circles) by using a compass and straightedge.

3

3.2

Understand and use coordinate graphs to plot simple figures, determine lengths and areas related to them, and determine their image under translations and reflections.

3

California Grade Seven Mathematics Standards 3.3

Know and understand the Pythagorean theorem and its converse and use it to find the length of the missing side of a right triangle and the lengths of other line segments and, in some situations, empirically verify the Pythagorean theorem by direct measurement.

3

3.4

Demonstrate an understanding of conditions that indicate two geometrical figures are congruent and what congruence means about the relationships between the sides and angles of the two figures.

3

3.5

Construct two-dimensional patterns for three-dimensional models, such as cylinders, prisms, and cones.

7

3.6

Identify elements of three-dimensional geometric objects (e.g., diagonals of rectangular solids) and describe how two or more objects are related in space (e.g., skew lines, the possible ways three planes might intersect).

7

California Standard

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability

1.0

Students collect, organize, and represent data sets that have one or more variables and identify relationships among variables within a data set by hand and through the use of an electronic spreadsheet software program:

6

1.1

Know various forms of display for data sets, including a stem-and-leaf plot or box-and-whisker plot; use the forms to display a single set of data or to compare two sets of data.

6

1.2

Represent two numerical variables on a scatterplot and informally describe how the data points are distributed and any apparent relationship that exists between the two variables (e.g., between time spent on homework and grade level).

6

1.3

Understand the meaning of, and be able to compute, the minimum, the lower quartile, the median, the upper quartile, and the maximum of a data set.

6

California Standard

Mathematical Reasoning

1.0

Students make decisions about how to approach problems:

1.1

Analyze problems by identifying relationships, distinguishing relevant from irrelevant information, identifying missing information, sequencing and prioritizing information, and observing patterns.

1.2

Formulate and justify mathematical conjectures based on a general description of the mathematical question or problem posed.

1.3

Determine when and how to break a problem into simpler parts.

2.0

Students use strategies, skills, and concepts in finding solutions:

2.1

Use estimation to verify the reasonableness of calculated results.

2.2

Apply strategies and results from simpler problems to more complex problems.

2.3

Estimate unknown quantities graphically and solve for them by using logical reasoning and arithmetic and algebraic techniques.

2.4

Make and test conjectures by using both inductive and deductive reasoning.

2.5

Use a variety of methods, such as words, numbers, symbols, charts, graphs, tables, diagrams, and models, to explain mathematical reasoning.

2.6

Express the solution clearly and logically by using the appropriate mathematical notation and terms and clear language; support solutions with evidence in both verbal and symbolic work.

2.7

Indicate the relative advantages of exact and approximate solutions to problems and give answers to a specified degree of accuracy.

2.8

Make precise calculations and check the validity of the results from the context of the problem.

3.0

Students determine a solution is complete and move beyond a particular problem by generalizing to other situations:

3.1

Evaluate the reasonableness of the solution in the context of the original situation.

3.2

Note the method of deriving the solution and demonstrate a conceptual understanding of the derivation by solving similar problems.

3.3

Develop generalizations of the results obtained and the strategies used and apply them to new problem situations.

Illustrated throughout Program

ix

Published by CGP Education Editor: Sharon Keeley Core material written by: William D. Nolan and Raven Deerwater William is a Middle School Math teacher in New York State and is experienced in delivering math courses to diverse student groups. Raven is a freelance math textbook and test item writer and independent tax consultant, and has worked as a math teacher in Illinois and California. California General Advisor: Phyllis Zweig Chinn Phyllis is Director of the Redwood Area Mathematics Project and also Professor at Humboldt State University, Arcata. She is a former elementary, middle and high school math teacher. California English Language Learner Advisor: Judith A. McGinty Judith is a Middle School Math teacher in Oakland Unified School District, California. She has vast experience of teaching English Language Learners and holds a CLAD certificate (Cross-cultural Language and Academic Development). California Advanced Learner Advisor: William D. Nolan Additional Writers: Joiclyn Austin and Ingrid Brown-Scott Joiclyn is an Assistant Curriculum Specialist in Louisiana and has previously worked as a Math Team Leader in public schools in New Orleans. Ingrid is a College math professor in Maryland and has previously worked as a High School Math teacher. Additional Contributors: Paul R. Allrich and Darell Dean Ballard

Supporting Editors: Tim Burne Mary Falkner Tom Harte Sarah Hilton Kate Houghton Paul Jordin John Kitching

Simon Little Tim Major Andy Park Glenn Rogers Emma Stevens Claire Thompson Julie Wakeling

Proofreading: Judith Curran Buck, Ingrid Brown-Scott, and Amanda Jones Graphic Design: Caroline Batten, Russell Holden, Jane Ross and Ash Tyson

Mathematics Content Standards for California Public Schools reproduced by permission, California Department of Education, CDE Press, 1430 N Street, Suite 3207, Sacramento, CA 95814. ISBN 13: 978 1 60017 024 9 website: www.cgpeducation.com Printed by Elanders Hindson Ltd, UK and Johnson Printing, Boulder, CO Clipart sources: CorelDRAW and VECTOR. Text, design, layout, and illustrations © CGP, Inc. 2007 All rights reserved.

x

Chapter 1 The Basics of Algebra Section 1.1

Exploration — Variable Tiles ......................................... 2 Variables and Expressions ............................................ 3

Section 1.2

Exploration — Solving Equations ................................ 20 Equations .................................................................... 21

Section 1.3

Inequalities .................................................................. 44

Chapter Investigation — Which Phone Deal is Best? ......................... 53

1

Section 1.1 introduction — an exploration into:

Alg ebr a Tiles Alge bra You can write expressions using algebra tiles. This shows what an expression actually “looks like,” and how you can simplify it. You’ll be using two types of tile. Their areas represent their values — x-tile: 1

1-tile: 1

x

1

+

Here’s the sum 4 + 3 shown using algebra tiles: 4

= 3

+

=

7

The example below shows how you can simplify algebra expressions by rearranging the tiles. Example Show 3 + x + 1 + 2x using algebra tiles. Rearrange the tiles to simplify the expression. Solution

+

+

+

+

3 + x + 1 + 2x

=

3x + 4

Simplified expression

Exercises 1. Use algebra tiles to model the following addition problems: a. 5 + 2

b. 2 + 1

c. x + 2x

2. Write the algebra expressions that are modeled by these tiles. a.

b.

c.

3. Rearrange these tiles to make a simplified expression:

+

4. Write an algebraic expression to represent the tiles in Exercise 3. Rewrite this as a simplified expression. 5. Write expressions to represent the perimeter and area of these rectangles. a.

+

+

b.

Round Up When you’re simplifying expressions, you have to organize them so the bits that are the same are all grouped together. You can then combine these — so 2x + 3x = 5x, and 1 + 2 = 3. What you can’t do is combine different things together. For example, you could never add 4x and 7. 2

Section 1.1 Explor a tion — Algebra Tiles Explora

Lesson

Section 1.1

1.1.1

Varia bles and Expr essions ariab Expressions

California Standards:

When you write out a problem in math you often need to include unknown numbers. You have to use a letter or symbol to stand in for an unknown number until you figure out what it is — you did this before in earlier grades. That’s what a variable does. And that’s what this Lesson is about.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.1 bra Alge Use vvaria aria bles and ariab appropriate operations to write an expression, an equation, an inequality, or a system of equations or inequalities that represents a verbal description (e.g., 3 less than a number, half as large as area A). Alg ebr a and Functions 1.4 Alge bra Use alg ebr aic ter minolo gy alge braic terminolo minolog (e .g ., vvaria aria ble (e.g .g., ariab le,, equation, ter m, coef ficient term, coefficient ficient, inequality, expr ession, constant) xpression, cor y. corrr ectl ectly

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to use a letter or symbol to stand in for an unknown number, and how it can be exchanged for the real number when you know it.

Key words: • variable • expression • evaluate

A Varia ble R epr esents an Unkno wn Number ariab Re presents Unknown In algebra you’ll often have to work with numbers whose values you don’t know. When you write out math problems, you can use a letter or a symbol to stand in for the number. The letter or symbol is called a variable. Coefficient

2k + 4

Constant

Variable

The number that the variable is being multiplied by is called the coefficient — like the 2 above. Any number not joined to a variable is called a constant — like the 4 above. It’s called that because its value doesn’t change, even if the value of the variable changes. A term is a group of numbers and variables. One or more terms added together make an expression. For example, in the expression above, 2k is one term and 4 is another term. In the expression 3 + 4x – 5wyz, the terms are 3, 4x, and –5wyz.

An Expr ession is a Ma thema tical Phr ase Expression Mathema thematical Phrase Expressions are mathematical phrases that may contain numbers, operations, and variables. The operations act like a set of instructions that tell you what to do with the numbers and variables. For example, 2k + 4 tells you to double k, then add four to it.

Don’t forget: xy means “x multiplied by y.” It’s just the same as writing x × y or x • y.

There are two types of expressions — numeric and variable. • Numeric expressions have numbers in them, and often operations — but they don’t include any variables: Æ 5 + 13 Æ 2•5–6 Æ 8+7÷6 • Variable expressions have variables in them, and may also include numbers and operations: Æ 5h Æ 7x – 2 Æ 2k + 4 Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

3

Guided Practice Say whether the expressions in Exercises 1–8 are numeric or variable. 1. y

2. 4(x – y)

3. 10 – 7

4. 62

5. 8xy

6. 4(3 + 7)

7. 9(5 – y)

8. x2

Expr essions Can Be Described in Wor ds Expressions ords To show you understand an expression you need to be able to explain what it means in words. You can write a word expression to represent the numeric or variable expression. Example

1

Write the variable expression x + 5 as a word expression. Solution

In this question x is the variable. The rest of the expression tells you that five is being added on to the unknown number x. So the expression becomes: “x is increased by five” or “the sum of x and five” or “five more than x.” They all mean the same thing.

When you change a variable expression to a word expression you can say the same thing in several different ways. Check it out: These four groups of phrases are describing the four operations you’ll need: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

+ Instead of “2 added to x” you could say “x increased by 2,” “2 more than x,” or “the sum of x and 2.”

– “2 subtracted from x” means the same as “2 less than x” or “x decreased by 2.”

× “x multiplied by 2” means the same as “the product of x and 2,” “x times 2,” or “twice x.”

÷ And you could say either “x divided by 3” or “one third x.” As long as it matches with the operation that you’re describing, you can use any of the phrases.

4

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

Example

2

Write the variable expression 4(w – 3) as a word expression. Don’t forget:

Solution

You need to do the operations in the correct order. The PEMDAS rule helps you remember this — it tells you that you need to deal with the parentheses first. There’s more on the PEMDAS rule in Lesson 1.1.3.

In this expression w is the variable. The rest of the expression tells you that three is subtracted from w, and the result is multiplied by four. So the expression becomes: “four times the the result of subtracting three from w” or “three subtracted from w, multiplied by four.” They both mean the same thing.

Guided Practice Write a word expression for each of the variable expressions in Exercises 9–14. 9. z – 10 Check it out:

10. 6b

There is more than one possible word expression to describe each of these mathematical phrases. As long as it means the same thing, any variation you use is fine.

11. 12h + 4 12. 5(j + 6) 13. 6(4t) 14. 2c + 4d

When You Ev alua te a p Varia bles ffor or Number s Evalua aluate te,, You Sw Swa ariab Numbers When you’re given the actual numbers that the variables are standing in for you can substitute them into the expression. When you have substituted numbers for all the variables in the expression, you can work out its numerical value. This is called evaluating the expression. Example Don’t forget: Multiplication and division come before addition and subtraction in the order of operations. That’s why you do the multiplication first in this example.

3

Evaluate the expression 6f + 4 when f = 7. Solution

6f + 4 = 6 • 7 + 4 = 42 + 4 = 46

Substitute 7 in place of f Perf or m the m ultiplica tion fir st erfor orm multiplica ultiplication first Then do the addition

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

5

Example

4

Evaluate the expression 11(p – q) when p = 7 and q = 3. Solution

11(p – q) = 11(7 – 3) = 11(4) = 44

Replace p and q with 7 and 3 Do the subtr action subtraction Do the m ultiplica tion to g et the ans wer multiplica ultiplication get answ

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 15–22, given that j = 5 and t = 7. 16. t + j 15. 6t – 4j 17. 3(t – j)

18. 3t + 7j

19. jt

20. 2(j – t)

21. j + tj – 40

22. 3jt – j + 20

Independent Practice Write word expressions for the variable expressions in Exercises 1–3. 1. 6y + 10 2. 3(p – 6) 3. 18t Now try these: Lesson 1.1.1 additional questions — p430

4. Joe and Bonita went fishing. Joe caught j fish and Bonita caught j + 4 fish. Write a sentence that describes the amount of fish Bonita caught compared with Joe. Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 5–7, given that x = 3. 5. 4x 6. 1 – x 7. x2 8. An orchard uses the expression 0.5w to work out how much money, in dollars, it will make, where w = the number of apples sold. How much money does the orchard make if 250 apples are sold? 9. Given that a = –1, b = 3, and c = 2, evaluate the expression a2 + ab + c2 . 10. A car rental company uses the expression $30 + $0.25m to calculate the daily rental price. The variable m represents the number of miles driven. What is the price of a day’s rental if a car is driven 100 miles?

Round Up Variables are really useful — you can use them to stand in for any unknown numbers in an expression. When you know what the numbers are you can write them in — and then evaluate the expression. In Section 1.2 you’ll see how expressions are the building blocks of equations. 6

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

Lesson

1.1.2

Simplifying Expr essions Expressions

California Standards:

When you’re evaluating an expression that’s made up of many terms, it helps to simplify it as much as possible first. The fewer terms you have to deal with, the less likely you are to make a mistake. This Lesson is about two ways that you can simplify expressions.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.3 Alge bra umerical numerical Simplify n expr essions b y a ppl ying xpressions by appl pplying pr oper ties of rra a tional proper operties number s (e .g ., identity, umbers (e.g .g., uti ve, inverse, distrib distributi utiv associative, commutative) and justify the process used. Alg ebr a and Functions 1.4 Alge bra minolo gy alge braic terminolo minolog Use alg ebr aic ter (e .g ., vvaria aria ble (e.g .g., ariab le,, equation, ter m, coef ficient, inequality, term, coefficient, expr ession, constant) xpression, cor y. corrr ectl ectly

What it means for you: You’ll learn about some math techniques that will help you to simplify expressions.

Key words: • like terms • distributive property • simplify

Simplifying an Expr ession Mak es It Easier to Solv e Expression Makes Solve In math you’ll come across some very long expressions. The first step toward solving them is to simplify them. The first way to simplify an expression is to collect like terms. Like terms are terms that contain exactly the same variables. These are like terms because they contain no variables — they’re both constants.

h + 2 + 6h – 4

You need to bring like terms together to simplify the expression. When you do that, the plus or minus sign in front of a term stays with that term as it moves. h + 2 + 6h – 4 First swap the positions of the “+ 2” term and the “+ 6h” term.

Check it out: You can move the terms about because of the commutative and associative properties of addition. There’s more about these in Lesson 1.1.5.

h + 6h + 2 – 4

Example

The minus signs in the expression stay with the 5 and the y they were originally connected to. Remember — you can write subtractions as additions: x – 5 + 2y + 9 – y + 2x = x + (–5) + 2y + 9 + (–y) + 2x This often makes it easier to collect like terms.

Now all the terms containing the variable h are together and all the constants are together. Then simplify the grouped terms.

7h – 2

Check it out:

These are like terms because they both contain the same variable, h.

You can’t simplify this any more because there are no longer any like terms.

1

Simplify the expression x – 5 + 2y + 9 – y + 2x. Solution

x – 5 + 2y + 9 – y + 2x. = (x + 2x) + (2y – y) + (–5 + 9) = 3x + y + 4

Collect to gether the lik e ter ms tog like terms Simplify the par entheses parentheses

Guided Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 1–6 by collecting like terms. 1. a + 4 + 2a 2. 3r + 6 – 5r 3. c – 2 + 4 • c – 3 4. 4x + 5 – x + 4 – 2x 5. 7 – k + 2k + 3 – k 6. m + 4 – n + m – 2 – n Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

7

In an expression like 2(3m + 4) + m the parentheses stop you from collecting like terms. To simplify it any more you first need to remove the parentheses. You can use a property of math called the distributive property to do this.

Use the Distrib uti ve Pr oper ty to R emo ve P ar entheses Distributi utiv Proper operty Remo emov Par arentheses 5

Look at this rectangle. 2

Don’t forget: The formula for the area of a rectangle is: Area = Length × Width

4

You can find its total area in two different ways. • You could find the areas of both of the smaller rectangles and add them. Total area = (5 • 2) + (5 • 4) = 10 + 20 = 30 • Or you could find the total width of the whole rectangle by adding 2 and 4, and then multiply by the height. Total area = 5(2 + 4) = 5(6) = 30 Whichever way you work it out you get the same answer, because both expressions represent the same area. This is an example of the distributive property. So: To use the distributive property you multiply the number outside the parentheses by every term inside the parentheses.

5 • (4 + 2) = (5 • 4) + (5 • 2) = 20 + 10 = 30

Algebraically the property is written as: The Distributive Property a(b + c) = ab + ac

Check it out: No matter what numbers a, b, and c stand for, the rule will always be true.

The Distrib uti ve Pr oper ty and Varia ble Expr essions Distributi utiv Proper operty ariab Expressions Think about what would happen to the problem above if you didn’t know one of the lengths.

5

2

x

Find its total area using the two different methods again. • Adding the area of the two small rectangles: Total area = (5 • 2) + (5 • x) = 10 + 5x • Adding 2 and x to find the width and multiplying by the height: Total area = 5(2 + x) Again, you know that the two expressions have the same value because they represent the same area. So you can say that: 5(2 + x) = 10 + 5x You can use the distributive property to multiply out the parentheses in the first expression to get the second equivalent expression. 8

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

Example

2

Write the expression 5(y – 3) without using parentheses. Solution

5(y – 3) Multipl y both y and –3 b y5 = (5 • y) + (5 • – 3) Multiply by Simplify the m ultiplica tions = 5y – 15 multiplica ultiplications You don’t know what number y is standing in for, so this is the most that you can simplify the expression.

Guided Practice Don’t forget: If you’re multiplying the contents of parentheses by a negative number, remember to include the negative sign when you multiply each term. For example: –3(2 – 1) = (–3 • 2) + (–3 • –1) = –6 + 3 = –3

Write the expressions in Exercises 7–14 in a new form using the distributive property. 7. 6(w + 5) 8. 4(7 – h) 9. –2(d + 2) 10. –3(f – 3) 11. –1(3 – x) 12. –2(–3 – m) 13. y(9 + t) 14. 3(3 + k) + 2(k – 0)

Independent Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 1–3 by collecting like terms. 1. 2p + 5 + 2p 2. 3 + 4x – 5 + x 3. 5h + 7 – h – 3 + 2h 4. Keon and Amy are collecting leaves for a project. On a walk Keon finds k leaves and Amy finds 6. Then Keon finds another 4k leaves, and Amy loses 2. Write an expression to describe how many leaves they ended up with, then simplify it fully. Using the distributive property, write the expressions in Exercises 5–7 in a new form. 5. 8(y + 1) 6. 5(w – 9) 7. –h(t – 4) Now try these: Lesson 1.1.2 additional questions — p430

8. Damian makes $7 an hour working at the mall. Last week Damian worked for 12 hours. This week he will work for x hours. a) Write an expression using parentheses to describe how much money he will have made altogether? b) Given that x = 8, evaluate your expression using the distributive property. Simplify the expressions in Exercises 9–12 as far as possible. 9. 2(m + 1) + 1(3 – m) 10. 3(b + 2 – b) 11. 2(h + 4) – 4(h – 1) 12. x(2 + y) + 3(x + y)

Round Up Collecting like terms and using the distributive property are both really useful ways to simplify an expression. Simplifying it will make it easier to evaluate — and that will make solving equations easier later in this Chapter. Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

9

Lesson

1.1.3

The Or der of Oper a tions Order Opera

California Standards:

When you have a calculation with more than one operation in it, you need to know what order to do the operations in.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.2 Alge bra der of corrrect or order Use the cor oper a tions to e valua te opera ev aluate alg ebr aic e xpr essions suc h alge braic expr xpressions such as 3(2 3(2x + 5)2.

What it means for you:

For example, if you evaluate the expression 2 • 3 + 7 by doing “multiply 2 by 3 and add 7,” you’ll get a different answer from someone who does “add 7 to 3 and multiply the sum by 2.” So the order you use really matters.

You’ll learn about the special order to follow when you’re deciding which part of an expression to evaluate first.

There’s a set of rules to follow to make sure that everyone gets the same answer. It’s called the order of operations — and you’ve seen it before in grade 6.

The Or der of Oper a tions is a Set of R ules Order Opera Rules Key words: • parentheses • exponents • PEMDAS

An expression can contain lots of operations. When you evaluate it you need a set of rules to tell you what order to deal with the different bits in. Order of operations — the PEMDAS Rule ()[]{} Parentheses 2

7

First do any operations inside parentheses.

Check it out:

x y

Exponents

Then evaluate any exponents.

Another way to remember the order of operations is using the GEMA rule: G rouping — any symbol that groups things, like parentheses, fraction bars, or brackets. E xponents. M ultiplication and Division – done from left to right. A ddition and Subtraction – done from left to right. Use either PEMDAS or GEMA — whichever one you feel happier with.

× ÷

Multiplication or Division

Next follow any multiplication and division instructions from left to right.

+ –

Addition or Subtraction

Finally follow any addition and subtraction instructions from left to right.

Check it out: You’ll learn about exponents in Section 2.4.

When an expression contains multiplication and division, or addition and subtraction, do first whichever comes first as you read from left to right. 9 • 4 ÷ 3 Multiply first, then divide. 9 ÷ 4 • 3 Divide first, then multiply. 9 + 4 – 3 Add first, then subtract.

9 – 4 + 3 Subtract first, then add.

Following these rules means that there’s only one correct answer. Use the rules each time you do a calculation to make sure you get the right answer. Example

1

What is 8 ÷ 4 • 4 + 3? Solution

Follow the order of operations to decide which operation to do first. 8÷4•4+3 =2•4+3 =8+3 = 11 10

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

Ther e ar e no par entheses or e xponents here are parentheses exponents You do the division first as it Do the di vision fir st division first comes before the multiplication, Then the m ultiplica tion multiplica ultiplication reading from left to right. Finall y do the ad dition to g et the ans wer Finally addition get answ

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–6. 1. 3 – 2 + 6 – 1 2. 6 ÷ 2 + 1 4. 2 + 5 • 10 5. 40 – 10 ÷ 5 • 6

3. 4 + 3 – 2 + 7 6. 5 + 10 ÷ 10

Al ways Deal with P ar entheses Fir st Alw Par arentheses First When a calculation contains parentheses, you should deal with any operations inside them first. You still need to follow the order of operations when you’re dealing with the parts inside the parentheses. Example

2

What is 10 ÷ 2 • (10 + 2)? Don’t forget: Remember to show all your work step by step to make it clear what you’re doing.

Solution

The order of operations says that you should deal with the operations in the parentheses first — that’s the P in PEMDAS. 10 ÷ 2 • (10 + 2) You do the division = 10 ÷ 2 • 12 Do the ad dition in par entheses first here because it addition parentheses = 5 • 12 Then do the di vision division comes first reading from left to right. Finall y do the m ultiplica tion Finally multiplica ultiplication = 60

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 7–14. 7. 10 – (4 + 3) 8. (18 ÷ 3) + (2 + 3 • 4) 9. 10 ÷ (7 – 5) 10. 41 – (4 + 2 – 3) 11. 10 • (2 + 4) – 3 12. (5 – 7) • (55 ÷ 11) 13. 6 • (8 ÷ 4) + 11 14. 32 + 2 • (16 ÷ 2)

PEMD AS A pplies to Alg ebr a Pr ob lems Too PEMDAS Alge bra Prob oblems The order of operations still applies when you have calculations in algebra that contain a mixture of numbers and variables. Example

3

Simplify the calculation k • (5 + 4) + 16 as far as possible. Solution

k • (5 + 4) + 16 = k • 9 + 16 = 9k + 16

Do the addition within parentheses Then the m ultiplica tion multiplica ultiplication

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

11

Guided Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 15–20 as far as possible. 15. 5 + 7 • x 16. 2 + a • 4 – 1 17. 3 • (y – 2) 18. 10 ÷ (3 + 2) – r 19. 20 + (4 • 2) • t 20. p + 5 • (–2 + m)

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 1.1.3 additional questions — p430

1. Alice and Emilio are evaluating the expression 5 + 6 • 4. Their work is shown below. Alice Emilio 5+6•4 5+6•4 = 11 • 4 = 5 + 24 = 44 = 29 Explain who has the right answer. The local muffler replacement shop charges $75 for parts and $25 per hour for labor. 2. Write an expression with parentheses to describe the cost, in dollars, of a replacement if the job takes 4 hours. 3. Use your expression to calculate what the cost of the job would be if it did take 4 hours. Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 4–7. 4. 2 + 32 ÷ 8 – 2 • 5 5. 4 + 7 • 3 6. 7 + 5 • (10 – 6 ÷ 3) 7. 3 • (5 – 3) + (27 ÷ 3) 8. Paul buys 5 books priced at $10 and 3 priced at $15. He also has a coupon for $7 off his purchase. Write an expression with parentheses to show the total cost, after using the coupon, and then simplify it to show how much he spent. 9. Insert parentheses into the expression 15 + 3 – 6 • 4 to make it equal to 48. Simplify the expressions in Exercises 10–12 as far as possible. 10. x – 7 • 2 11. y + x • (4 + 3) – y 12. 6 + (60 – x • 3)

Round Up If you evaluate an expression in a different order from everyone else, you won’t get the right answer. That’s why it’s so important to follow the order of operations. This will feature in almost all the math you do from now on, so you need to know it. Don’t worry though — just use the word PEMDAS or GEMA to help you remember it. 12

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

Lesson

1.1.4

The Identity and In ver se Inv erse Pr oper ties Proper operties

California Standards: Alg ebr a and Functions 1.3 Alge bra umerical numerical Simplify n expr essions b y a ppl ying xpressions by appl pplying pr oper ties of rra a tional proper operties number s (e .g ., identity umbers (e.g .g., identity,, in ver se inv erse se, distributive, associative, commutative)) and justify the pr ocess process used.

When you’re simplifying and evaluating expressions you need to be able to justify your work. To justify it means to use known math properties to explain why each step of your calculation is valid. The math properties describe the ways that numbers and variables in expressions behave — you need to know their names so that you can say which one you’re using for each step.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to use math properties to show why the steps of your work are reasonable.

The Identity Doesn e the Number Doesn’’ t Chang Change There are two identity properties — one property for addition and one property for multiplication:

Key words: • justify • identity • inverse • reciprocal • multiplicative • additive

The Additive Identity = 0 For any number, a, a + 0 = a. Adding 0 to a number doesn’t change it. For example: 5+0=5 x+0=x This is called the identity property of addition, and 0 is called the additive identity.

The Multiplicative Identity = 1 For any number, a, a • 1 = a. Don’t forget: Writing x is exactly the same as writing 1x or 1 • x.

Multiplying a number by 1 doesn’t change it. For example: 1•7=7 1•x=x This is called the identity property of multiplication, and 1 is called the multiplicative identity.

Guided Practice 1. What do you get by multiplying 6 by the multiplicative identity? 2. What do you get by adding the additive identity to 3y? Complete the expressions in Exercises 3–6. 3. x + __ = x 4. __ + 0 = h 5. k • __ = k

6. 1 • __ = t Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

13

The In ver se Chang es the Number to the Identity Inv erse Changes There are two inverse properties — one for addition and one for multiplication. Different numbers have different additive inverses and different multiplicative inverses.

The Ad diti ve In ver se Ad ds to Gi ve 0 Additi ditiv Inv erse Adds Giv The additive inverse is what you add to a number to get 0.

Don’t forget: Remember — adding a negative number can be rewritten as a subtraction: 2 + –2 = 2 – 2 = 0

The additive inverse of 2 is –2

2 + –2 = 0

The additive inverse of –3 is 3

–3 + 3 = 0

The additive inverse of

1 4

1 4

is – 1

4

+ –1 = 0 4

The Additive Inverse of a is –a. For any number, a, a + –a = 0.

Guided Practice Give the additive inverses of the numbers in Exercises 7–12. 8. 19 7. 6 9. –5 11.

1 7

10. –165 12.

–

2 3

The Multiplica ti ve In ver se Multiplies to Gi ve 1 Multiplicati tiv Inv erse Giv Don’t forget: A multiplicative inverse is sometimes called a reciprocal.

The multiplicative inverse is what you multiply a number by to get 1. So, a number’s multiplicative inverse is one divided by the number. The multiplicative inverse of 2 is 1 ÷ 2 =

1 . 2 1

The multiplicative inverse of 7 is 1 ÷ 7 = 7 . 1 7 •1 7 1 2 •1 2 To check, 2 • = = =1. = = 1 and 7 • = 7 7 7 2 2 2

14

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

The Multiplicative Inverse of a is For any nonzero number, a, a •

1 a

1 . a

= 1.

Guided Practice Give the multiplicative inverses of the numbers in Exercises 13–16. 14. 10 13. 2 16. –5

15. –4

Fractions Ha ve Multiplica ti ve In ver ses Too Hav Multiplicati tiv Inv erses When you multiply two fractions together, you multiply their numerators and their denominators separately. 1 3 1• 3 3 = For example : • = 2 4 2•4 8 If you multiply a fraction by its multiplicative inverse, the product will be 1 — because that’s the definition of a multiplicative inverse. Don’t forget: Any fraction where the numerator is the same as the denominator is equal to 1. So, 12 9 4 1 = = = =1 12 9 4 1

For a fraction to equal 1, the numerator and denominator must be the same. So when a fraction is multiplied by its inverse, the product of the numerators must be the same as the product of the denominators. For example:

3 4 3 • 4 12 • = = =1 4 3 4 • 3 12

You can say that for any two non-zero numbers a and b, So, the multiplicative inverse of

a b

is

a b

•

b a

=

ab ab

= 1.

b . a

The multiplicative inverse, or reciprocal, of a fraction is just the fraction turned upside down. Example

1

Give the multiplicative inverse of

1 . 4

Solution

Don’t forget: Any number divided by one is equal to itself. So any whole number can be written as a fraction by putting it over 1. So 6 =

6 4 and 4 = . 1 1

4 1 , or 4, is the multiplicative inverse of . 1 4

To check your answer multiply it by

1 . 4

1 4 1• 4 4 = =1. • = 4 1 4 •1 4 1

So 4 is the multiplicative inverse of 4 .

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

15

Guided Practice Give the multiplicative inverses of the fractions in Exercises 17–20. 17.

2 5

19.

–

18. 3 4

20.

1 10 1 – 2

You Can Use Ma th Pr oper ties to JJustify ustify Your Wor k Math Proper operties ork To justify your work you need to use known math properties to explain why each step of your calculation is valid. Check it out: To justify a step of your work you can write beside it which of the known math properties you have used.

Example

2

Simplify the expression 4(2 –

1 x). 4

Justify your work.

Solution 1

4(2 – 4 x) =4•2–4• = 8 – 1x =8–x

1 4

x

The distrib uti ve pr oper ty distributi utiv proper operty ver se pr oper ty of m ultiplica tion inv erse proper operty multiplica ultiplication The in The identity pr oper ty of m ultiplica tion proper operty multiplica ultiplication

Guided Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 21–24. Justify your work. 21. m • 1 + 6 1

23. 3 (9 + 3f)

22. d + 0 – d + 9 24. –5(2 – 4 •

1 a) 4

+ 10

Independent Practice Complete the expressions in Exercises 1–4. 1. 1 • __ = 5 2. __ + 0 = –2 3. 2.5 • __ = 2.5 4. –0.5 + __ = –0.5 Now try these: Lesson 1.1.4 additional questions — p431

Give the additive and multiplicative inverses of the numbers in Exercises 5–8. 6. –7 5. 6 7.

8. – 2

5 7

3

Simplify the expressions in Exercises 9–12. Justify your work. 1 9. a + a – a 10. • 4 • d 1 5

11. 5( + 2 – n)

4

1 2

12. 2( x + 4 + 0) – 1(5 – 5 + 7)

Round Up The identity property and the inverse property are two math properties you’ll need to use in justifying your work. Justifying your work is explaining how you know that each step is right. In the next Lesson you’ll cover two more properties that can be used in justifying your work. 16

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

Lesson

1.1.5

The Associa ti ve and Associati tiv Comm uta ti ve Pr oper ties Commuta utati tiv Proper operties

California Standards: Alg ebr a and Functions 1.3 Alge bra umerical numerical Simplify n expr essions b y a ppl ying xpressions by appl pplying pr oper ties of rra a tional proper operties number s (e .g ., identity umbers (e.g .g., identity,, in ver se uti ve , inv erse se,, distrib distributi utiv associa ti ve, comm uta ti ve) associati tiv commuta utati tiv and justify the pr ocess process used used.

There are two more properties you need to know about to help simplify and evaluate expressions. They’re the associative and commutative properties. They allow you to be a little more flexible about the order you do calculations in. You used these properties already in earlier grades. It’s important to know their names and to practice using them to justify your work.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about some more math properties that will help you to justify your work.

The Associa ti ve Pr oper ties Associati tiv Proper operties If you change the way that you group numbers and variables in a multiplication or addition expression, you won’t change the answer.

Key words:

7 + (4 + 2) = (7 + 4) + 2 = 13 4 • (y • 5) = (4 • y) • 5 = 20y

• associative property • commutative property • justify

The numbers and variables don’t move — only the parentheses do.

These are the associative properties of addition and multiplication. In math language they are: The Associative Properties Addition: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) Multiplication:

(ab)c = a(bc)

Sometimes changing the grouping in an expression using the associative property allows you to simplify it. Example

1

Simplify the expression (h + 12) + 13 using the associative property. Solution

(h + 12) + 13 ti ve pr oper ty of ad dition = h + (12 + 13) The associa associati tiv proper operty addition Do the ad dition = h + 25 addition Example

2

Simplify the expression 15(10y) using the associative property. Solution

15 • (10 • y) ti ve pr oper ty of m ultiplica tion = (15 • 10) • y The associa associati tiv proper operty multiplica ultiplication Do the m ultiplica tion = 150y multiplica ultiplication Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

17

Guided Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 1–6. Use the associative property. 1. 10 + (15 + k) 2. 5(7d) 3. (x + 5) + 7 4. –3(4f) 5. (y + 13) + (20 + m) 6. 0.5(3p)

The Comm uta ti ve Pr oper ties Commuta utati tiv Proper operties When you’re adding numbers together it doesn’t matter what order you add them in — the answer is always the same. For example: 10 + 14 = 24

and

14 + 10 = 24

Also, when you’re multiplying numbers it doesn’t matter what order you multiply them in — the answer is always the same. For example: 4 • x • 2 = 8x

and

2 • 4 • x = 8x

The numbers and variables move around, but the answer doesn’t change — these are the commutative properties. Algebraically they’re written as: The Commutative Properties

Check it out: You can’t use the associative or commutative properties on a subtraction or a division problem. But you could use the inverse property to change it into an addition or multiplication problem first. Subtraction is the same as adding a negative number, and division is the same as multiplying by a fraction. x – y = x + –y So 1 . y When they’re expressed in this way, you can use the associative and commutative properties. and

x÷y=x•

Example

Addition:

a+b=b+a

Multiplication:

ab = ba

3

Simplify the expression 18v + 9 + 2v + 4. Justify your work. Solution

18v + 9 + 2v + 4 = 18v + 2v + 9 + 4 = (18v + 2v) + (9 + 4) = 20v + 13 Example

The comm uta ti ve pr oper ty of ad dition commuta utati tiv proper operty addition The associa ti ve pr oper ty of ad dition associati tiv proper operty addition Do the ad ditions additions

4

Simplify the expression 4 • n • 9 using the commutative property. Solution

4•n•9 =4•9•n = (4 • 9) • n = 36n

The comm uta ti ve pr oper ty of m ultiplica tion commuta utati tiv proper operty multiplica ultiplication The associa ti ve pr oper ty of m ultiplica tion associati tiv proper operty multiplica ultiplication Do the m ultiplica tions multiplica ultiplications

Guided Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 7–12. 7. 7 + j + 15 8. 11 • x • 20 9. 3 + 4t + 7 + t 10. 3 • –y • 4 11. 5 + q + 3 + –q 12. –2 • f • –3 18

Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

You Can Use the Pr oper ties to JJustify ustify Your Wor k Proper operties ork Check it out: To justify your work means to use a math property to explain why each step of your calculation is valid.

Don’t forget:

You can use all the properties together to justify the work you do when solving a math problem. Example

5

Simplify the expression 3(x + 5 + 2x). Justify your work.

The math properties that you’ve seen in the last two Lessons are: • the distributive property and the • associative, • commutative, • identity, and • inverse properties of multiplication and addition.

Solution

And you’ve also seen how to collect like terms.

Simplify the expression (x • y) •

3(x + 5 + 2x) = 3x + 15 + 6x = 3x + 6x + 15 = 9x + 15 Example

The distrib uti ve pr oper ty distributi utiv proper operty The comm uta ti v e pr oper ty of ad dition commuta utati tiv proper operty addition Collect lik e ter ms like terms

6

Solution

(x • y) • = x • (y • =x•1 =x

1 y 1 ) y

1 y

. Justify your work.

The associa ti ve pr oper ty of m ultiplica tio n associati tiv proper operty multiplica ultiplicatio tion The m ultiplica ti ve in ver se pr oper ty multiplica ultiplicati tiv inv erse proper operty The identity pr oper ty of m ultiplica tion proper operty multiplica ultiplication

Guided Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 13–16. Justify your work. 1

13. 2( 2 h)

14. (c + –2) + 2

15. 5(1 + t + 3 + 2t)

16. p • 5 •

1 p

•2

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 1.1.5 additional questions — p431

Simplify the expressions below using the associative properties. 1. 55 + (7 + z) 2. 6 • (10 • t) 3. –3(7k) 4. (–22 + q) + (q + 30) Simplify the expressions below. Use the commutative properties. 6. 9 • y • 4 5. 7 + f + 3 + f 8. –3 • c • 4 • –h 7. 2 + a + 18 + b Simplify the expressions in Exercises 9–12. Justify your work. 1 10. (r • 2 ) • 2 9. –5 + m + 5 11. 2(x + 5 + –x)

1

12. ( p • 3) • p • 2(4 + p – 4)

Round Up The associative and commutative properties are two more math properties. They’re all important tools to use when you’re simplifying expressions. By saying which property you are using in each step, you can justify your work. Section 1.1 — Variables and Expressions

19

Section 1.2 introduction — an exploration into:

Solving Equa tions Equations You can use algebra tiles to model algebra equations. You can also use them to model how you solve equations to find the value of x. The tiles on the right will be used to represent algebra equations:

= +1

= –1

=x

Here is the algebra equation 2x + 3 = –5 modeled using algebra tiles: This vertical line represents the equals sign.

To solve an equation, you need to get one green “x” tile by itself on one side of the equation, and only red and yellow tiles on the other. This way you’ll know the value of one green “x” tile. You’ll often need to use the idea of “zero pairs.” A yellow and a red tile together make zero. This is called a zero pair. 1 + (–1) = 0 Example Use algebra tiles to model and solve the equation x + 2 = –3. Solution

x + 2 = –3

x + 2 – 2 = –3 – 2

The answer is x = –5. The zero pairs are removed.

Add two red tiles to each side. zero pairs

Example Use algebra tiles to model and solve the equation 2x = 6. Solution

2x 6 = 2 2

2x = 6 Divide both sides into two equal groups (because there are two “x” tiles).

The answer is x = 3.

Remove one group from each side.

Exercises 1. Use algebra tiles to model these equations. a. x + 3 = 4 b. x – 5 = 3 c. 3x = 9

d. 4x = –8

2. Use algebra tiles to solve the equations above.

Round Up When you solve an equation, the aim is always to get the variable on its own, on one side of the equation. In this Exploration, the variable was the green tile “x.” To get it on its own, you have to do exactly the same to both sides of the equation — or else the equation won’t stay balanced. 20

Section 1.2 Explor a tion — Solving Equations Explora

Lesson

Section 1.2

1.2.1

Writing Expr essions Expressions

California Standards:

You can use both a word expression and a math expression to describe the same situation. In Section 1.1 you practiced changing numeric and variable expressions into word expressions. This Lesson is all about doing the reverse — changing word expressions into math expressions.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.1 Alge bra ariab Use vvaria aria bles and a ppr opria te oper a tions to ppropria opriate opera write an e xpr ession expr xpression ession, an equation, an inequality, or a system of equations or epr esents a inequalities tha thatt rre presents verbal description (e.g., three less than a number, half as large as area A).

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to change word descriptions into math expressions.

Key words: • • • •

addition subtraction product quotient

Varia ble Expr essions Describe Wor d Expr essions ariab Expressions ord Expressions To write an expression to represent a word sentence you need to figure out what the word sentence actually means. Example

1

Write a variable expression to describe the sentence “A number, x, is increased by five.” Solution

The phrase “a number, x” is telling you that x is the variable being used. The words “increased by” are telling you that something is being added on to the variable x. In this case it is the number five. So the sentence “A number, x, is increased by five” translates as x + 5.

Don’t forget: There are lots of different phrases that describe the four operations. You could come across any of them, so you need to remember which of the operations each phrase refers to. For a reminder, see Lesson 1.1.1.

Example

2

Write a variable expression to describe the sentence “Nine is multiplied by a number, k.” Solution

The operation phrase being used is “multiplied by.” The rest of the sentence tells you that it is the number nine and the variable k that are being multiplied together. So “Nine is multiplied by a number, k” translates as 9 • k or 9k.

Guided Practice Write variable expressions to describe the phrases in Exercises 1–5. 1. Six more than a number, h. 2. Seven is decreased by a number, m. 3. A number, g, divided by 11. 4. The product of a number, w, and 10. 5. A number, k, divided into four equal parts.

Section 1.2 — Equations

21

You Need to Sor tant Inf or ma tion Sortt Out the Impor Important Infor orma mation You’ll often need to write a math expression as the first step toward solving a word problem. That might include choosing variables as well as working out what operations the words are describing. Example

3

Carla and Bob have been making buttons to sell at a fund-raiser. Carla made four more than Bob. Write an expression to describe how many buttons they made between them. Solution

First you need to work out what the expression you have to write must describe. In this case the expression must describe the total number of buttons made by Carla and Bob. See if there is an unknown number in the question: you don’t know how many buttons Bob made. You don’t know how many Carla made either, but you can say how many she made compared with Bob, so you only need one variable. Assign a letter or symbol to the unknown number: let b = the number of buttons Bob made. Don’t forget: To simplify this expression you can collect like terms, as you did in Lesson 1.1.2. If you collect the two b terms together you get 2b.

Then you need to identify any operation phrases: “more than” is an addition phrase. Carla made four more buttons than Bob, so she made b + 4 buttons. Which means that together they made b + 4 + b buttons. This expression can be simplified to 2b + 4.

Guided Practice Write variable expressions to describe the sentences in Exercises 6–9. Use x as the variable in each case, and say what it represents. 6. A rectangle has a length of 2 inches. What is its area? 7. Jenny has five fewer apples than Jamal. How many apples does Jenny have in total? 8. The student council is selling fruit juice at the prom for $0.75 a glass. How much money will they take? 9. A gym charges $10 per month membership plus $3 per visit. What is the cost of using the gym for a month?

Some Expr essions Describe Mor e than One Oper a tion Expressions More Opera You can also translate sentences with multiple operations in the same way. You just need to spot all the separate operations and work out what order to write them in.

22

Section 1.2 — Equations

Example

4

Write a variable expression to describe the phrase “ten decreased by the product of a number, y, and two.” Solution

In this question the phrase contains two different operation phrases, so you need to work out which operation is carried out first. The two operations here are “decreased by,” which is a subtraction phrase, and “product,” which is a multiplication phrase. You’re told to subtract the product from 10. So you need to work out the product first — this is the product of y and 2, which is 2y. Now you have to subtract this product, 2y, from 10. So the phrase “ten decreased by the product of a number, y, and 2.” translates as 10 – 2y.

Guided Practice Write variable expressions to describe the phrases in Exercises 10–14. Don’t forget: You might need to include parentheses in your expression to show which operation needs to be done first.

10. Five more than twice a number, q. 11. Sixteen divided by the sum of a number, m, and 7. 12. Twenty decreased by a quarter of a number, j. 13. The product of 7 and six less than a number, t. 14. The product of a number, k, and the sum of 5 and a number, x.

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 1.2.1 additional questions — p431

Write variable expressions to describe the phrases in Exercises 1–5. 1. The product of six and a number, h. 2. A number, y, decreased by eleven. 3. A fifteenth of a number, p. 4. Nine more than twice a number, w. 5. Sixteen increased by the product of a number, k, and three. 6. A pen costs half as much as a ruler. Write an expression to describe how much the pen costs, using r as the cost of the ruler. 7. Peter has three fewer cards than Neva. Write an expression to describe how many cards they have together, using c as the number of cards Neva has.

Round Up Changing word expressions into algebra expressions is all about spotting the operation phrases and working out what order the operations need to be written in. Writing expressions is the first step toward writing equations — a skill that you’ll use when solving problems later in this Section.

Section 1.2 — Equations

23

Lesson

1.2.2

Equa tions Equations

California Standards:

In Lesson 1.1.2 and Lesson 1.2.1 you learned how to write expressions. Writing equations takes writing expressions one step further — equations are made up of two expressions joined by an equals sign.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.4 Alge bra Use alg ebr aic ter minolo gy alge braic terminolo minolog e.g ., variable, equa tion (e .g., equation tion, term, coefficient, inequality, expr ession xpression ession, constant) cor y. corrr ectl ectly

What it means for you: You’ll learn what an equation is, and how it’s different from an expression.

An Equa tion Has an Equals Sign Equation An equation is made up of two expressions joined together by an equals sign. The equals sign is really important — it tells you that the expressions on each side of the equation have exactly the same value.

Key words:

5x + 8 = 10x – 12

• equation • expression • formula

Expression 1... ...is equal to... ...Expression 2.

Numeric Equa tions Contain Onl y Number s Equations Only Numbers Numeric equations contain only numbers and operations. For example, 3 + 2 = 5 and (6 • 4) + 3 = 31 – 4 are both numeric equations. If both sides of the equation do have the same value, then the equation is said to be true, or balanced. Example

1

Prove that (10 • 4) + 4 = (8 • 11) ÷ 2 is a true equation. Solution

Don’t forget: The order of operations is Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication and Division, then Addition and Subtraction — PEMDAS.

To show that this is a true equation, you need to evaluate both sides. Treat them as two expressions, and evaluate them both according to the order of operations. Fir st simplify the par entheses First parentheses (10 • 4) + 4 = (8 • 11) ÷ 2 Then complete the w or k 40 + 4 = 88 ÷ 2 wor ork 44 = 44 Both sides equal 44, so the equation is true.

The numbers and operations are different on the left-hand and right-hand sides of the equation. But the value of both sides is the same.

24

Section 1.2 — Equations

Guided Practice Prove that the equations in Exercises 1–6 are true by evaluating both sides. 2. 4 • 5 = 60 ÷ 3 1. 4 + 5 = 9 + 0 3. 4 + 2 • 3 = 3 • 2 + 4

4. 6 – 4 ÷ 2 = 12 ÷ 2 – 2

5. 8 + 6 • 3 = 2(10 + 3)

6. 20 ÷ 4 – 5 = 14 ÷ 2 – 7

Varia ble Equa tions Contain Number s and Varia bles ariab Equations Numbers ariab Variable equations contain variables as well as numbers and operations. There may be variables on either or both sides of the equation. For example, 2x + 2 = 6 and 3x = 2y are both variable equations.

Don’t forget: x is a variable — that means that it could stand for any number. But this equation is only true when it stands for 2. So x = 2 is called a solution of the equation.

The same rules that apply to numeric equations also apply to variable equations. The expressions that make up the two sides of the equation still have to be equal in value. The two equations above are both true if x = 2 and y = 3. 2x + 2 = 6 2•2+2=6 6=6

3x = 2y 3•2=2•3 6=6

Writing Equa tions In volv es Writing Expr essions Equations Inv olves Expressions To write an equation you write two expressions that have the same value and join them with an equals sign. One of the expressions will often just be a number. Example

2

Write an equation to describe the sentence “Eight increased by the product of a number, k, and two is equal to twenty-four.” Solution

The phrase “is equal to” represents the equals sign. It also separates the two expressions that make up the two sides of the equation. One expression is “Eight increased by the product of a number, k, and two.” This turns into the expression 8 + 2k. The other expression is just a number, 24. So the sentence “Eight increased by the product of a number, k, and two is equal to twenty-four” turns into the equation 8 + 2k = 24.

Section 1.2 — Equations

25

Guided Practice Write an equation to describe each of the sentences in Exercises 7–11. 7. Five less than a sixth of m is equal to 40. 8. Five more than the product of six and d is equal to ten. 9. Four increased by the product of three and t is equal to 40. 10. Nine less than the product of six and r is equal to 11. 11. Two times y is equal to y divided by four.

To Write an Equa tion, Identify the K ey Inf or ma tion Equation, Ke Infor orma mation When math problems are described using words, you’ll often be given lots of extra information as part of the question. You need to be able to extract the important information and use it to set up an equation — just like you set up an expression. Example Check it out: It doesn’t matter exactly what Sarah is selling here, or what she buys with her profit. The important thing is how the numbers in the situation relate to each other — and that’s what the equation is describing.

3

Sarah has been selling lemonade. The lemonade cost her $9 to make, and she sold each glass for $0.75. She made $20 profit, which she is going to use to buy a necklace. Write an equation to describe this information. Use x to represent the number of glasses she sold. Solution

Sarah made $20 profit. So the price of one glass ($0.75) multiplied by the number of glasses she sold (x), minus the amount the lemonade cost her to make ($9), is equal to 20. So you can write 0.75x – 9 = 20.

Guided Practice Write an equation to describe each of the situations in Exercises 12–15. 12. Javier spent $20 at the gas station. He bought a drink for $3 and spent the rest, $d, on gas. 13. Jane is wrapping a parcel. She needs 15 feet of string to tie it up. A roll of string is p feet long. She uses exactly three rolls. 14. Sam takes 12 sheets of paper to write an essay on. The essay is 2h pages long. He has k spare sheets left to put back. 15. A telephone company charges $0.05 a minute for local calls and $0.10 a minute for long-distance calls. Asuncion makes one local and one long-distance call. Each call is y minutes long. Her calls cost a total of $4.

26

Section 1.2 — Equations

AF or mula is an Equa tion Tha tes a R ule For orm Equation hatt Sta States Rule A formula is a specific type of equation that sets out a rule for you. It explains how some variables are related to each other. For example: Area of a rectangle.

Example

A = l•w

Product of length and width.

4

Write a formula for the perimeter of a square. Solution

Check it out: You can use any letters or symbols you like for the variables. But make sure you use the same ones all through your work, and remember to say what they stand for.

To calculate the perimeter of a square you multiply its side length by 4. Choose variables to use: Let P = perimeter of the square, and let s = side length. So the formula becomes P = 4 • s. The formula shows the relationship between a square’s side length and perimeter. The formula works for any square at all — if you are given the value of one of the variables you can always calculate the other.

Guided Practice Use the formula to calculate the missing values in Exercises 16–18. 16. Rectangle area = length • width length = 4 cm, width = 0.5 cm 17. Speed = distance ÷ time

distance = 8 miles, time = 2 h

18. Length in cm = 2.54 • (length in in.)

length in in. = 10

Independent Practice 1. Which of a) and b) is an expression? Which is an equation? How do you know? a) 2w – 6 = 21 b) 5c + 3 Now try these: Lesson 1.2.2 additional questions — p432

2. Given that Distance = Speed • Time, calculate the distance traveled when a car goes 55 mi/h for 8 hours. Write an equation to describe each of the sentences in Exercises 3–5. 3. Six more than x is equal to four. 4. The product of h and two is equal to 40 decreased by h. 5. Ten increased by the result of dividing five by t is equal to nine. 6. Mike earned $100 working for h hours in a restaurant. He earns $10 an hour, and received $30 in tips. Write an equation using this information.

Round Up The equals sign in an equation is very important — it tells you that both sides of the equation have exactly the same value. In the next Lesson you’ll see how to solve an equation that you’ve written. Section 1.2 — Equations

27

Lesson

1.2.3

Solving One-Ste p Equa tions One-Step Equations

CA Standard California Standards: covered:

Solving an equation containing a variable means finding the value of the variable. It’s all about changing the equation around to get the variable on its own.

Alg ebr a and Functions 4.1 Alge bra Solve Solv e two-step linear equa tions and inequalities in equations one vvaria aria ble o ver the ariab ov ra tional n umber s, interpret number umbers the solution or solutions in the context from which they What it means arose, and verify thefor you: You’ll learn whatofanthe equation reasonableness results. is, and how it’s different from an expression. What it means for you: You’ll learn how to solve an equation to find out the value of an unknown variable.

Do the Same to Both Sides and Equa tions Sta y Tr ue Equations Stay The equals sign in an equation tells you that the two sides of the equation are of exactly equal value. So if you do the same thing to both sides of the equation, like add five or take away three, they will still have the same value as each other. 4+6=9+1 Add 5 to both sides. 4+6+5=9+1+5 Then simplify.

Key words:

15 = 15

• solve • isolate • inverse

All three are balanced equations.

You Can Use This to Find the Value of a Varia ble ariab To get a variable in an equation on its own you need to do the inverse operation to the operation that has already been performed on it.

Don’t forget: This is using the inverse properties of addition and multiplication. a + –a = 0 a•

1 a

=1

You came across these in Lesson 1.1.4.

• If a variable has had a number added to it, subtract the same number from both sides. + Æ – • If a variable has had a number subtracted from it, add the same number to both sides. – Æ + • If a variable has been multiplied by a number, divide both sides by the same number. × Æ ÷ • If a variable has been divided by a number, multiply both sides by the same number. ÷ Æ × For example:

y – 5 = 33 y – 5 + 5 = 33 + 5

y has had 5 subtracted from it, so add 5 to both sides.

y + 0 = 38 y = 38 28

Section 1.2 — Equations

You’ve got the variable alone on one side of the equation, so now you know its value.

Rever se Ad dition b y Subtr acting erse Addition by Subtracting When a variable has had something added to it, you can undo the addition using subtraction. Example

1

Find the value of x when x + 15 = 45. Solution

x + 15 = 45 x + 15 – 15 = 45 – 15 x = 30

Subtr act 15 fr om both sides Subtract from Simplify to find x

Rever se Subtr action b y Ad ding erse Subtraction by Adding When a variable has had something taken away from it, you can undo the subtraction using addition. Example

2

Find the value of k when k – 17 = 10. Solution

k – 17 = 10 k – 17 + 17 = 10 + 17 k = 27

Example Check it out: Here the variable is on the right-hand side of the equals sign. But that doesn’t matter — as long as it’s on its own. You’ve still found its value by isolating it.

Add 17 to both sides Simplify to find k

3

Find the value of g when –10 = g – 9. Solution

–10 = g – 9 –10 + 9 = g – 9 + 9 –1 = g

Add 9 to both sides Simplify to find g

Guided Practice Find the value of the variable in Exercises 1–8. 1. x – 7 = 14 2. 70 = t + 41 3. f + 13 = 9 4. g – 3 = –54 5. y – 14 = 30 6. 22 = 14 + d 7. 4.5 = 9 + v 8. –6 = b – 4

Section 1.2 — Equations

29

Rever se Multiplica tion b y Di viding erse Multiplication by Dividing When a variable in an equation has been multiplied by a number, you can undo the multiplication by dividing both sides of the equation by the same number. y has been multiplied by 2, so start by dividing both sides by 2.

2y = 18 2y ÷ 2 = 18 ÷ 2 Then simplify. y=9

Example

4

Find the value of b when 20b = 100. Solution

20b = 100 20b ÷ 20 = 100 ÷ 20 b =5

Di vide both sides b y 20 Divide by Simplify to find b

Rever se Di vision b y Multipl ying erse Division by Multiplying

Check it out: Fractions represent divisions. So 1 ÷ 2 and

1 2

When a variable in an equation has been divided by a number, you can undo the division by multiplying both sides of the equation by the same number. d 2

mean

exactly the same thing. You can write either.

d 2

= 50

d has been divided by 2, so start by multiplying both sides by 2.

• 2 = 50 • 2

Then

simplify.

d = 100 Example

5

Find the value of t when t ÷ 4 = 6. Solution

t÷4 =6 t÷4•4 =6•4 t = 24

30

Section 1.2 — Equations

Multipl y both sides b y4 Multiply by Simplify to find t

Guided Practice Find the value of the variables in Exercises 9–16. 9. 3k = 18

10. b ÷ 3 = 4

11. h ÷ 5 = –3 13. q ÷ 8 =

1 2

15. d ÷ –2 = –4

12. –9y = 99 14. 10t = –55 16. 240 = 8m

Independent Practice 1. The Sears Tower in Chicago is 1451 feet tall, which is 405 feet taller than the Chrysler Building in New York. Use the equation C + 405 = 1451 to find the height of the Chrysler Building. Find the value of the variable in Exercises 2–7. 3. c + 10 = –27 2. k + 7 = 10 5. 70 = 5 + b 4. s + 4 = –7 7. 32 = 11 + a 6. h + 0 = 14 8. The Holland Tunnel in New York is 342 feet longer than the 8216-foot-long Lincoln Tunnel. Use the equation H – 342 = 8216 to find the length of the Holland Tunnel. Find the value of the variable in Exercises 9–14. 9. x – 7 = 13 10. 41 = m – 35 11. p – 13 = –82 12. t – 27 = 37 13. 100 = g – 18 14. –7 = y – 2 15. Marlon buys a sweater for $28 that has $17 off its usual price in a sale. Write an equation to describe the cost of the sweater in the sale compared with its usual price. Then solve the equation to find the usual price of the sweater. Now try these: Lesson 1.2.3 additional questions — p432

Find the value of the variable in Exercises 16–21. 16. 5c = 80 17. v ÷ 7 = 3 18. 22x = –374 19. h ÷ –2 = 4 20. –3k = –24 21. –27 = f ÷ 3 22. The tallest geyser in Yellowstone Park is the Steamboat Geyser. Reaching a height of 380 feet, it is twice as high as the Old Faithful Geyser. Use the equation 2F = 380 to find the height reached by the Old Faithful Geyser.

Round Up Solving an equation tells you the value of the unknown number — the variable. To solve an equation all you need to do is the reverse of what’s already been done to the variable. That way you can isolate the variable. Just remember that you need to do the same thing to both sides. That’s what keeps the equation balanced. Section 1.2 — Equations

31

Lesson

1.2.4

Solving Two-Ste p Equa tions -Step Equations

California Standards:

When you have an equation with two operations in it, you need to do two inverse operations to isolate the variable. But other than that, the process is just the same as for solving a one-step equation.

Alg ebr a and Functions 4.1 Alge bra Solve two-ste o-step Solv e tw o-ste p linear equa tions and inequalities in equations one vvaria aria ble o ver the ariab ov ra tional n umber s , interpret number umbers the solution or solutions in the context from which they arose, and verify the reasonableness of the results..

Two-Ste p Equa tions Ha ve Two Oper a tions o-Step Equations Hav Opera A two-step equation is one that involves two different operations.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to solve an equation that involves more than one operation to find out the value of an unknown variable.

Key words: • solve • isolate • inverse

7 • x + 3 = 17 second operation

first operation

You need to perform two inverse operations to isolate the variable. It’s easiest to undo the operations in the opposite order to the way that they were done. It’s like taking off your shoes and socks. You normally put on your socks first and then your shoes. But when you’re removing them you go in the reverse order — you take your shoes off first, and then your socks. Here x is first multiplied by seven, and then the product has three added to it.

Don’t forget: You need to remember to think of PEMDAS or GEMA. That way you’ll know what order the operations have been done in — and what order to go in to reverse them.

So to isolate the variable, first subtract three from both sides... ...and then divide both sides by seven.

Example

7x + 3 = 17 7x + 3 – 3 = 17 – 3 7x = 14 7x ÷ 7 = 14 ÷ 7 x=2

1

Find the value of d when 4d + 6 = 38. Solution

In the equation 4d + 6 = 38 the variable d has first been multiplied by 4, and 6 has then been added to the product. So to isolate the variable you must first subtract 6 from both sides, and then divide both sides by 4. 4d + 6 = 38 4d + 6 – 6 = 38 – 6 4d = 32 4d ÷ 4 = 32 ÷ 4 d= 8

32

Section 1.2 — Equations

Subtr act 6 fr om both sides Subtract from Di vide both sides b y 4 Divide by

Example

2

Find the value of h when 3h – 11 = 25. Solution

In the equation 3h – 11 = 25 the variable h has first been multiplied by 3, and 11 has then been subtracted from the product. So to isolate the variable you must first add 11 to both sides, and then divide them both by 3. 3h – 11 = 25 3h – 11 + 11 = 25 + 11 3h = 36 3h ÷ 3 = 36 ÷ 3 h = 12

Add 11 to both sides Di vide both sides b y3 Divide by

Guided Practice Find the value of the variables in Exercises 1–6. 1. 2x + 8 = 12

2. 10 + 5y = 25

3. 5t – 6 = 34

4. 7f – 19 = 30

5. 60 = 8b + 12

6. 34 = 4p – 10

Follo w the Same Pr ocedur e with All the Oper a tions ollow Procedur ocedure Opera You can use this method for any two-step equation. Just perform the inverse of the two operations in the opposite order to the order in which they were done. Sometimes the order in which the operations are performed is less obvious, and you’ll need to think more carefully about it. Example

3

Find the value of r when r ÷ 4 – 6 = 13. Solution

Check it out: This equation could have been written as (r ÷ 4) – 6 = 13. But division takes priority over subtraction, so the parentheses aren’t needed.

In the equation r ÷ 4 – 6 = 13, the variable r has first been divided by 4, and 6 has then been subtracted from the quotient. So to isolate the variable you must first add 6 to both sides, and then multiply both sides by 4. r ÷ 4 – 6 = 13 Add 6 to both sides r ÷ 4 – 6 + 6 = 13 + 6 r ÷ 4 = 19 Multipl y both sides b y4 r ÷ 4 • 4 = 19 • 4 Multiply by r = 76

Section 1.2 — Equations

33

Example

4

Find the value of v when (v + 2) ÷ 7 = 3. Check it out: The parentheses are needed here because addition doesn’t take priority over division. If the parentheses were left out, this equation would have a different solution — because of the order of operations rules.

Solution

In the equation (v + 2) ÷ 7 = 3, the variable v and 2 have first been added together, and then their sum has been divided by 7. So to isolate the variable you must first multiply both sides by 7, and then subtract 2 from both sides. (v + 2) ÷ 7 = 3 (v + 2) ÷ 7 • 7 = 3 • 7 v + 2 = 21 v + 2 – 2 = 21 – 2 v = 19

Multiply both sides by 7 Subtr act 2 fr om both sides Subtract from

Guided Practice Find the value of the variables in Exercises 7–12. 7. x ÷ 2 + 8 = 9

8. d ÷ 7 + 4 = 6

9. k ÷ 3 – 15 = 30

10. y ÷ 4 – 3 = 12

11. 9 = g ÷ 2 – 6

12. (j + 20) ÷ 5 = 3

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 1.2.4 additional questions — p432

In Exercises 1–4, say which order you should undo the operations in. 1. x ÷ 3 + 7 = 20 2. 21x – 12 = 44 3. 11 = x ÷ 10 – 5 4. 14 = 2 • (2 + x) Find the value of the variables in Exercises 5–16. 6. 2r + 11 = –13 5. 4h + 2 = 22 8. 5w – 15 = 10 7. 10b – 5 = 55 10. –10 = 2n – 2 9. 14 = 2 + 3c 12. d ÷ 2 + 9 = –9 11. m ÷ 4 + 6 = 11 14. f ÷ 3 – 17 = –20 13. p ÷ 7 – 4 = 2 16. –20 = q ÷ 2 – 12 15. 10 = 5 + a ÷ 10

Round Up Solving a two-step equation uses the same techniques as solving a one-step equation. The important thing to remember with two-step equations is to do the inverse operations in the reverse of the original order. This same method applies to every equation, no matter how many steps it has. Later in this Section you’ll use this technique to solve real-life problems. 34

Section 1.2 — Equations

Lesson

1.2.5

Mor e Two-Ste p Equa tions More o-Step Equations

California Standards:

When you have a fraction in an equation, you can think of it as being two different operations that have been merged together. That means it can be solved in the same way as any other two-step equation.

Alg ebr a and Functions 4.1 Alge bra Solv e tw o-ste p linear Solve two-ste o-step equa tions and inequalities in equations one vvaria aria ble o ver the ariab ov ra tional n umber s , interpret number umbers the solution or solutions in the context from which they arose, and verify the reasona bleness of the easonab r esults esults..

Fractions Can Be R ewritten as Two Se par a te Ste ps Re Separ para Steps Fractions can be thought of as a combination of multiplication and division. You might see what is essentially the same expression written in several different ways. For example:

What it means for you:

3x 4

3 x 4

You’ll learn how to deal with fractions in equations, and how to check that your answer is right.

(3 • x) ÷ 4 1 • 3x 4

Key words: • fraction • isolate • check

3•

1 •x 4

All five expressions are the same.

Deal with a F tion as Two Ste ps Frraction in an Equa Equation Steps Because a fraction can be split into two steps, an equation with a fraction in it can be solved using the two-step method. Using the example above: 3 x 4

Check it out: Another way to do this is to multiply both sides by the reciprocal of the fraction. Multiplying a fraction by its reciprocal gives a product of 1 — so it “gets rid of” the fraction. To find the reciprocal of a fraction you invert it. So the reciprocal of

2 3

is

3 . 2

2 a=6 3 3 2 3 • a= 6 • 2 3 2 a=9

For more on reciprocals see Lesson 1.1.4.

=6

3x ÷ 4 = 6 3x = 24

First split the expression into two separate operations: here x is first multiplied by 3, and then divided by 4. Then solve as a two-step equation.

x=8 Example

1

Find the value of a when

2 a 3

= 6.

Solution 2 a 3

=6

2a ÷ 3 = 6 2a = 18 a= 9

Split the e xpr ession into tw o oper a tions expr xpression two opera Solv e as a tw o-ste p equa tion Solve two-ste o-step equation

Section 1.2 — Equations

35

Don’t forget: The number on top of a fraction is called the numerator. 2 5

Here is another example — this one has a more complicated numerator. Example

2

Find the value of h when Solution

The number on the bottom of a fraction is called the denominator.

h+2 4

=3

(h + 2) ÷ 4 = 3 h + 2 = 12 h = 10

h+2 4

=3

The whole expression h + 2 is being divided by 4 — the fraction bar “groups” it. Put it in parentheses here to show that this operation originally took priority.

Split the e xpr ession into tw o oper a tions expr xpression two opera Solv e as a tw o-ste p equa tion Solve two-ste o-step equation

Guided Practice Find the value of the variables in Exercises 1–6. 1

1. 2 a = 2 2 v 3

=4

5. 6 =

2 s 5

3.

2.

3 q 4

= 33

4

4. 1 r = –8 6.

2c 3

=6

Chec k Your Ans wer b y Substituting It Bac k In Check Answ by Back When you’ve worked out the value of a variable you can check your answer is right by substituting it into the original equation. Once you’ve substituted the value in, evaluate the equation — if the equation is still true then your calculated value is a correct solution. 3x + 2 = 14 3x + 2 – 2 = 14 – 2 If the equation isn’t true when you’ve substituted in your solution, look back through your work to find the error.

3x ÷ 3 = 12 ÷ 3 x=4 Now substitute the calculated value back into the equation.

3x + 2 = 14, 3(4) + 2 = 14 12 + 2 = 14 As both sides are the same, the value of x is correct.

36

Section 1.2 — Equations

First solve the equation to find the value of x.

3x = 12

Don’t forget:

14 = 14

x=4 Then evaluate the equation using your calculated value.

Example

3

Check that c = 8 is a solution of the equation 10c + 15 = 95. Check it out:

Solution

10c + 15 = 95 10(8) + 15 = 95 80 + 15 = 95 95 = 95

It might seem like needless extra work to check your solution, but it’s always worth it just to make sure you’ve got the right answer.

Substitute 8 into the equa tion equation

The equation is still true, so c = 8 is a solution of the equation 10c + 15 = 95.

Guided Practice Solve the equations below and check your answers are correct. 7. 12m + 8 = 56

8. 22 + 3h = 34

9. 56 = 18 + 19v

10. 16 – 4g = –28

11. 3 – 6x = 9

12. 5y – 12 = 28

Independent Practice Find the value of the variables in Exercises 1–6. 4

3

2. 5 k = 8

1. 4 d = 24 3.

–

2 b 3

5. 22 = n • Now try these: Lesson 1.2.5 additional questions — p433

4. 27 =

= 14 2 5

6.

5t 10

3 w 2

=4

Solve the equations in Exercises 7–10 and check your solution. 8. 3r – 6 = –12 7. 2x + 4 = 16 9. 6 = v ÷ 4 + 2 10. 3 c = 15 4

11. For each of the equations, say whether a) y = 3, or b) y = –3, is a correct solution. Equation 1: 10 – 2y = 16 Equation 2:

–

2y 3

= –2

For each equation in Exercises 12–14, say whether the solution given is a correct one. 12. x ÷ 2 + 4 = 9, x = 10. 13. 3x – 9 = 12, x = 4. 14. 8 = 5x – 7, x = 3.

Round Up You can think of a fraction as a combination of two operations. So a fraction in an equation can be treated as two steps. And don’t forget — when you’ve found a solution, you should always substitute it back into the equation to check that it’s right. Section 1.2 — Equations

37

Lesson

1.2.6

A pplica tions of Equa tions pplications Equations

California Standards:

Equations can be really useful in helping you to understand real-life situations. Writing an equation can help you sort out the information contained in a word problem and turn it into a number problem.

Alg ebr a and Functions 4.1 Alge bra Solv e tw o-ste p linear Solve two-ste o-step equa tions and inequalities in equations one vvaria aria ble o ver the ariab ov ra tional n umber s, inter pr et number umbers interpr pret the solution or solutions in om w the conte xt fr hic h the y context from whic hich they ar ose erify the arose ose,, and vverify reasona bleness of the easonab r esults esults.. Ma thema tical R easoning 2.1 Mathema thematical Reasoning erify the estimation Use estima tion to vverify reasona b leness of easonab calcula ted rresults esults calculated esults..

Equa tions Can Describe R eal-Lif e Situa tions Equations Real-Lif eal-Life Situations An equation can help you to model a real-life situation — to describe it in math terms. For example: • You’ve just had your car repaired. The bill was $280. • You know the parts cost $120. • You know the mechanic charges labor at $40 per hour. • You want to know how long the mechanic worked on your car.

What it means for you: You’ll see how to use equations to help solve real-life math problems, and how to check if your answer is sensible.

Key words: • • • •

model check reasonable sensible

Let h = number of hours worked by mechanic. 40h + 120 = 280 40h = 160 h=4

1. Choose a variable. 2. Write an equation. 3. Solve the equation.

So you know the mechanic must have worked on your car for 4 hours. You can use an equation to help you describe almost any situation that involves numbers and unknown numbers. Example

1

At the school supply store, Mr. Ellis bought a notebook costing $3 and six pens. He spent $15 in total. Find the price of one pen, p. Solution

First write out the information you have: Total spent = $15 Cost of notebook = $3 Cost of six pens = 6p

Check it out: When you’ve solved your equation you’ll need to decide if the solution needs units. In this example you’re figuring out the price of a pen in dollars, so your answer is $2. You’ll see more about how to find the right units for your answer in Lesson 1.2.7.

38

Section 1.2 — Equations

You know that six pens and the notebook cost a total of $15. So you can write an equation with the cost of each of the items bought on one side, and the total spent on the other. 6p + 3 = 15 Now you have a two-step equation. You can find the cost of one pen by solving it. 6p + 3 = 15 6p = 12 p=2

One pen costs $2.

Guided Practice Write an equation to describe each of the situations in Exercises 1–3. Then solve it to find the value of the variable. 1. Emily is seven years older than Ariela. The sum of their ages is 45. How old is Ariela? 2. A sale rack at a store has shirts for $9 each. Raul has $50 and a coupon for $4 off any purchase. How many shirts can he buy? 3. The price for renting bikes is $15 for half a day, then $3 for each additional hour. How many hours longer than half a day can you keep a bike if you have $24?

You Need to Chec k Tha wer is R easona ble Check hatt Your Ans Answ Reasona easonab When you’ve solved an equation that describes a real-life problem, you need to look at your answer carefully and see if it is reasonable. Here are two important things to think about:

1) Does Your Ans wer Mak e Sense? Answ Make You must always check that the answer makes sense in the context of the question. For example:

Don’t forget: You might need to round your answer up or down, depending on the question. In this example, you calculate that you can afford 7.5 bags — but you can only buy whole ba gs bags gs. You can’t afford to buy 8 bags — so it’s sensible to round your answer down to 7. If instead you were working out how many bags you needed for a recipe and your answer came out as 7.5, then you would round it up. You would buy 8 bags, because you want a t least 7.5. There’s a lot more about rounding, and how to round reasonably, in Section 8.3.

An orchard charges $1.10 for a pound of apples. You have $8.25. How many pounds of apples can you buy? • Set up an equation to describe the problem: Number of pounds = 8.25 ÷ 1.10 = 7.5 Æ This is a reasonable answer as the orchard will happily sell you half a pound of apples. But if you change the problem slightly: A store charges $1.10 for a bag of apples. You have $8.25. How many bags of apples can you buy? • Number of bags = 8.25 ÷ 1.10 = 7.5. Æ

This is no longer a reasonable answer — the store wouldn’t sell you half a bag of apples. You could only buy 7 bags.

2) Is Your Ans wer About the Right Siz e? Answ Size? The size of your answer has to make sense in relation to the question that is being asked. For example: Æ If you’re finding the height of a mountain, and your answer is 5 feet, it’s not reasonable. Æ If you’re finding the height of a person, and your answer is 5000 feet, that’s not reasonable either. If the size of your answer doesn’t seem reasonable then it’s really important to go back and check your work to see if you’ve made an error somewhere.

Section 1.2 — Equations

39

Example

2

Kea is going to walk 1.5 miles at a steady speed of 3 miles per hour. She works out how long it will take using the work shown. Is her answer reasonable? Check it out: If Kea walked at 3 miles per hour for 1 hour she’d go 3 miles. So to cover half that distance would take her half the time — 0.5 hours.

Distance = 1. 5 miles Speed = 3 mi/hour Time = 1.5 × 3 = 4.5 hours

Solution

Given that Kea’s walk is only 1.5 miles long and she walks at 3 mi/h, 4.5 hours is not a reasonable answer — it is much too long. (Kea multiplied the distance of the walk by her speed. She should divide the distance by the speed instead: Time = 1.5 ÷ 3 = 0.5 hours.)

Guided Practice 4. Pete is buying trading cards. One card costs 20¢. He says 10 cards will cost $20. Is this a sensible answer? Explain why or why not. 5. Six friends earn $87 washing cars. How much will each one get if they split it evenly? Is your answer reasonable in the context of the question? 6. A yard has a 150-foot perimeter. Fencing is sold in 40-foot rolls. Write an equation to describe the number of rolls, n, you need to buy to fence the yard. Solve the equation. Is your answer reasonable in the context of the question? 5

7. Ana is 6 as tall as T.J., who is 174 cm tall. Write an equation to describe Ana’s height, A. Solve it. Is the size of your answer reasonable?

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 1.2.6 additional questions — p433

Write an equation to describe each situation in Exercises 1–2, and solve the equation to answer the question. 1. Don has spent $474 ordering sticks for his hockey team. A stick costs $50. Shipping costs $24. How many did he buy? 2. Tiana is saving up to buy a fishing rod. The rod costs $99 with tax. She already has $27, and can afford to save another $12 each week. How long will it take her to save enough for the rod? 3. Joy went to the fabric store to buy ribbon. She got f feet, and spent $5. The ribbon cost 80¢ a foot. Write an equation to describe how much she got. Solve it. Is your answer reasonable in the context of the question? 1 4. Mike is asked to multiply 5 by 2 . He says the answer is 10. Is this reasonable in the context of the question? Explain why or why not. 5. Two friends run a dog walking service, each walking the same number of dogs. Write and solve an equation to show how many dogs, d, each friend walks if they walk nine dogs between them. Is your answer reasonable?

Round Up Equations can help you to understand situations. They can also help you to describe a real-life math problem involving an unknown number and come up with a solution. But don’t forget to always think carefully about whether the answer is a reasonable one in relation to the question. 40

Section 1.2 — Equations

Lesson

1.2.7

Under standing Pr ob lems Understanding Prob oblems

California Standards:

Math problems are full of all kinds of details. The challenge is to work out which bits of information you need and which bits you don’t need. To be able to do this you need to understand exactly what the question is asking.

Alg ebr a and Functions 4.1 Alge bra Solv e tw o-ste p linear Solve two-ste o-step equa tions and inequalities in equations one vvaria aria ble o ver the ariab ov ra tional n umber s, inter pr et number umbers interpr pret the solution or solutions in hic h the y the conte xt fr om w hich they context from whic ar ose erify the arose ose,, and vverify reasona bleness of the easonab r esults esults.. Ma thema tical R easoning 1.1 Mathema thematical Reasoning Anal yz e pr ob lems b y Analyz yze prob oblems by identifying rrela ela tionships elationships tionships,, distinguishing rrele ele v ant fr om elev from ir v ant inf or ma tion, irrr ele elev infor orma mation, identifying missing inf or ma tion, sequencing infor orma mation, and prioritizing inf or ma tion, infor orma mation, and obser ving pa tter ns observing patter tterns ns..

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to spot which pieces of information are important in answering a question, and how to check that your answer has the correct units.

You Can e a Pr ob lem with Inf or ma tion Missing Can’’ t Solv Solve Prob oblem Infor orma mation Sometimes a piece of information needed to solve a real-life problem will be missing. You need to be able to read the question through and identify exactly what vital piece of information is missing. Example

1

Brian’s mechanic charged $320 to fix his car. The bill for labor was $157.50. How many hours did the mechanic work on the car? Solution

The question tells you that Brian’s total bill for labor was $157.50. But to use this piece of information to work out how many hours the mechanic worked on the car you would also need to know what the mechanic’s hourly rate was, as hours worked = bill for labor ÷ hourly rate. You can’t solve the problem as the mechanic’s hourly rate is missing.

Guided Practice Key words: • relevant • irrelevant • unit

In Exercises 1–4 say what piece of information is missing that you need to solve the problem. 1. Samantha is 20 inches taller than half Adam’s height. How tall is Samantha? 2. A coffee bar charges $2 for a smoothie. Sol buys a smoothie and a juice. How much is his check? 3. Erin has $36 and is going to save a further $12 a week. How many weeks will it take her to save enough for a camera? 4. A box contains 11 large tins and 17 small tins. A large tin weighs 22 ounces. What is the weight of the box?

Some Inf or ma tion in a Question Ma y Not Be R ele vant Infor orma mation May Rele elev You will often come across real-life problems that contain more information than you need to find a solution. Information that you don’t need to solve a problem is called irrelevant information. You need to be able to sort out the information you do need from the information you don’t. A good example of this is a question where you have to pick out the information that you need from a table. Section 1.2 — Equations

41

Example

2

At the hardware store Aura spent $140 on paint. She bought four cans of blue paint and spent the rest of the money on green paint. Use the table below to calculate how many liters of green paint she bought. Aura only bought blue paint and green paint. Æ So you only need the circled data in these two rows to answer Æ the question.

Color of paint

Volume of can (l)

Price of can ($)

Blue

1

20

Yellow

2

35

Red

1

20

Green

1.5

30

Solution

To answer the question you need the price of a can of blue paint, and the volume and price of a can of green paint. The volume of cans of blue paint is irrelevant, as is the information about red and yellow paint. • First work out how much Aura spent on blue paint. You know that she bought four cans of blue paint that cost $20 each. So she spent $80 on blue paint. That means she spent $140 – $80 = $60 on green paint. • Each can of green paint is $30. So she bought $60 ÷ $30 = 2 cans. • A can of green paint is 1.5 liters. So she bought 1.5 • 2 = 3 liters.

Guided Practice Use the table from Example 2 in Exercises 5–7. 5. Eduardo bought one can of yellow paint and three liters of blue paint. How much did he spend? 6. Lamarr bought 2 cans of green paint and some yellow paint. He spent $165. How many liters of yellow paint did he buy? 7. Amber spent $120. She bought twice as much red paint as blue paint. How many cans of red paint did she buy?

Ans wer s Should Al ways Ha ve the Cor Answ ers Alw Hav Corrrect Units When you work out the answer to a problem, you need to think about the right units to use. If you apply the same operations to the units as you do to the numbers, you’ll find out what units your answer should have. Example Check it out: When you’re writing units, remember that km/hour means the same as (km ÷ hours), and person-days means the same as (persons × days).

42

Section 1.2 — Equations

3

Laura drives her car 150 km in 2 hours. Use the formula speed = distance ÷ time to calculate her average speed. Solution

speed = distance ÷ time speed = 150 ÷ 2 = 75 Now do the same operations to the units of the numbers: km ÷ hours = km/hour. So the average speed of the car is 75 km/hour.

You can do this with any calculation to find the correct units for the answer. Example

4

The power consumption of a computer is 0.5 kilowatts. If the computer is running for 4 hours, how much energy will it use? Use the equation: Power Consumption • Time Used = Energy Used. Solution

First do the numerical calculation. Power Consumption • Time Used = Energy Used 0.5 • 4 = 2 Check it out: A kilowatt-hour is a measure of energy consumption.

Then work out the units. kilowatts • hours = kilowatt-hours The computer will use 2 kilowatt-hours of energy.

Guided Practice Check it out: You can use the / symbol to mean “divided by” when you are writing units.

Say what units the answers will have in Exercises 8–11. 8. 40 miles ÷ 2 hours = 20 ? 9. 5 newtons • 3 meters = 15 ? 10. 6 persons • 4 days = 24 ? 11. $25 ÷ 5 hours = 5 ?

Independent Practice 1. The sale bin at a music store has CDs for $4 each. Eric buys four CDs and some posters, and uses a coupon for $2 off his purchase. He pays $26. How many posters did he buy? Say what information is missing from the question that you would need to solve the problem. 2. Liz meets Ana to go ice-skating at 7 p.m. Admission is $8 and coffee costs $1.50. Liz has $14 and wants to buy some $2 bottles of water for her and Ana to drink afterwards. Calculate how many bottles of water Liz can buy. What information are you given that isn’t relevant ?

Now try these: Lesson 1.2.7 additional questions — p433

3. Sean has $60 to buy books for math club. A book costs $9.95. He orders them on a Monday. Shipping costs $10 an order. How many books could he buy? What information are you given that isn’t relevant? Say what units the answers will have in Exercises 4–7. 4. 4 persons • 4 hours = 16 ? 5. 100 trees ÷ 10 acres = 10 ? 6. 6 meters • 7 meters = 42 ? 7. 21 meters/second ÷ 7 seconds = 3 ?

Round Up When you’re solving a math problem, you need to be able to pick out the important information. Then you can use the relevant bits to write an equation and find the solution. Always remember to check what units your answer needs to be written in too. Section 1.2 — Equations

43

Lesson

Section 1.3

1.3.1

Inequalities

California Standards:

Inequalities are a lot like equations. But where an equation has an equals sign, an inequality has an inequality symbol. It tells you that the two sides may not be equal or are not equal — that’s why it’s different from an equation.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.4 Alge bra minolo gy alge braic terminolo minolog Use alg ebr aic ter (e .g ., variable, equation, term, (e.g .g., coefficient, inequality inequality, expression, constant)) cor y. corrr ectl ectly Alg ebr a and Functions 1.5 Alge bra ti ve present quantitati tiv Repr esent quantita r ela tionships g y elationships grra phicall phically and interpret the meaning of a specific part of a graph in the situation represented by the graph.

An Inequality Does Not Ha ve to Balance Hav In the last Section you saw that an equation is a balanced math sentence. The expressions on each side of the equals sign are equal in value. An inequality is a math sentence that doesn’t have to be balanced. The expression on one side does not have to have the same value as the expression on the other.

What it means for you: You’ll learn what an inequality is, and how to show one on a number line.

Key words: • • • •

inequality greater than less than equal to

x £ 5, 10 > 3y, 4h ≥ 19, and k < 5 are all inequalities. Inequalities are made up of two expressions that are separated by one of the four inequality symbols: The Inequality Symbols < means “Less than.”

> £ ≥

means “Greater than.” means “Less than or equal to.” means “Greater than or equal to.”

The symbol that you use explains how the two expressions relate to each other. So 2 < 10 means “two is less than ten” and x ≥ 5 means “x is greater than or equal to five.” The smaller end of the symbol always points to the smaller number. So x < 2 and 2 > x are telling you the same thing — that the variable x is a number less than 2.

Guided Practice Fill in the blanks in the statements in Exercises 1–4.

44

Section 1.3 — Inequalities

1. If a < b then b__a.

2. If m ≥ n then n__m.

3. If c > d then d__c.

4. If j £ k then k__ j.

Plot the Solutions to an Inequality on a Number Line An inequality has an infinite number of solutions. When you solve an inequality you are describing a group or set of solutions. For example, for the inequality x < 9, any number that is less than 9 is a solution of the inequality. The solutions are not limited to just whole numbers or positive numbers. Check it out: A number line is a line that represents every number, with the numbers increasing in value along the line from left to right. To give the line a scale, some numbers are shown as labeled points spaced out evenly along the line.

All the possible solutions of an inequality can be shown on a number line. The following number line shows the solution of the inequality c > 1. The set of possible solutions for c is all the numbers greater than 1. The circle shows the point on the number line where the solution to the inequality starts.

-2 -1 0

1

2

The shading stretches away to infinity in the direction of the arrow. This is showing that c can be any number that’s greater than 1.

3

Here the circle is empty (open), because 1 is not included in the solution.

Don’t forget: It’s important to remember that there are an infinite amount of decimal numbers between each labeled point in the solution set. All of these are solutions too.

The number line below shows the solution of the inequality y £ 2. The set of possible solutions for y is 2 and all the numbers less than 2.

The shading stretches away to infinity in the direction of the arrow. This is showing that y can be any number that’s less than or equal to 2.

The circle shows the point on the number line where the solution to the inequality starts.

-2 -1 0

1

2

3

Here the circle is filled -in (closed), because 2 is included in the solution.

To plot an inequality on a number line: 1) Draw a circle on the number line around the point where the set of solutions starts. It should be a closed circle if the point is included in the solution set, but an open circle if it isn’t. Don’t forget: A ray is just a straight line that begins at a point and goes on forever in one direction.

2) Draw a ray along the number line in the direction of the numbers in the solution set. Add an arrowhead at the end to show its direction (and that it goes on forever).

Section 1.3 — Inequalities

45

Example

1

Plot the solution to the inequality y ≥ –1 on a number line. Don’t forget: If the sign is ≥ or £ then you should use a closed circle to show that the start point is included in the solution. If the sign is > or < then you should use an open circle to show that the start point isn’t included in the solution.

Solution

First place a closed circle at –1 on the number line to show that –1 is included in the solution set. -2 -1 0

1

2

3

y is greater than or equal to –1, so add a ray with an arrowhead pointing along the number line to the right of the circle.

-2 -1 0

1

2

3

Guided Practice Plot the inequalities in Exercises 5–8 on the number line. 5. h < 2

6. –1 < a

7. k ≥ 1

8. t £ 0

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, give a number that is part of the solution set of the inequality. 1. m < –3 2. k £ 12 3. w ≥ 9 4. h > –9 Now try these: Lesson 1.3.1 additional questions — p434

Match the inequalities 5–8 with the number line plots A–D. 5. x > –4 A B 6. x ≥ 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -2 -1 0 1 2 7. x < 1 C D 8. x ≥ –2 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0

1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0

1

9. Explain why the solution of an inequality must be graphed on a number line and not listed. Plot the inequalities in Exercises 10–11 on number lines. 10. –1 £ x 11. x < 0.5

Round Up An inequality is like an unbalanced equation — its two expressions can have different values. You can show all the possible solutions of an inequality by graphing it on a number line. Don’t forget the four symbols — you’ll need them to write and solve inequalities later. 46

Section 1.3 — Inequalities

Lesson

1.3.2

Writing Inequalities

California Standards:

In Lesson 1.2.2 you saw how to write an equation from a word problem. To write an inequality you use exactly the same process — but this time instead of joining the two expressions with an equals sign, you use an inequality symbol.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.1 Alge bra ariab Use vvaria aria bles and a ppr opria te oper a tions to ppropria opriate opera write an expression, an equation, an inequality inequality, or a system of equations or epr esents a thatt rre presents inequalities tha verbal description (e.g., three less than a number, half as large as area A).

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to turn a word problem into an inequality.

Key words: • • • • •

inequality under over minimum maximum

You Need to Spot Whic h Symbol is Being Described hich To write an inequality you write two expressions that have (or can have) different values and join them with one of the four inequality symbols. You need to be able to recognize phrases that describe the four symbols. > means “greater than” or “more than” or “over.” < means “less than” or “under.” ≥ means “greater than or equal to” or “a minimum of ” or “at least.” £ means “less than or equal to” or “a maximum of ” or “no more than.” Example

1

Write an inequality to describe the sentence, “Four times a number, y, is less than 27.” Solution

The phrase “is less than” is represented by the less than symbol, <. It separates the expressions that make up the two sides of the inequality. One expression is “Four times a number, y.” This turns into the expression 4y. Don’t forget:

The other expression is a number, 27.

The inequality 27 > 4y means exactly the same thing as 4y < 27.

So the sentence, “Four times a number, y, is less than 27,” turns into the inequality 4y < 27. Example

2

Write an inequality to describe the sentence, “A number, h, increased by two is at least 16.” Solution

The phrase “at least” is represented by the greater than or equal to symbol, ≥ . One expression is “A number, h, increased by two.” This turns into the expression h + 2. Don’t forget: The inequality 16 £ h + 2 means exactly the same thing as h + 2 ≥ 16.

The other expression is a number, 16. So the sentence, “A number, h, increased by two is at least 16,” turns into the inequality h + 2 ≥ 16. Section 1.3 — Inequalities

47

Guided Practice Write an inequality to describe each of the sentences in Exercises 1–5. 1. A number, x, increased by five is more than 12. 2. Twice a number, k, is greater than or equal to two. 3. Fifteen decreased by a number, g, is no more than six. 4. A number, p, divided by two, is under four. 5. Negative two is less than the sum of a number, m, and five.

Inequalities ar e Often Used in R eal-Lif e Situa tions are Real-Lif eal-Life Situations You’ll come across lots of inequality phrases in real life. ELEVATOR

“Height” > 4 feet

Maximum capacity 10 people

“Number of people” £ 10

You must be over 4 feet tall to ride

Child tickets for 8 years and under.

“Age” £ 8

In math you might be asked to write an inequality to represent the information given in a word problem. Writing inequalities from word problems is a lot like writing equations from word problems. You need to spot key information and use it to write expressions — but you also need to work out which inequality symbol to use. Example

3

Your local conservation group runs a junior award program. To get a gold award you must complete a minimum of 50 hours’ conservation work. You have already done 17 hours. Write an inequality to represent the additional amount of work you need to do to gain your gold award. Solution

First define a variable: let the additional amount of hours you need to complete = H. The amount of hours you need to complete to get your award is 50. So one expression is just 50. The other expression describes the number of hours you have already done plus the additional number you need to spend — the variable H. So the expression is 17 + H. The phrase “minimum” tells you that the number of hours you complete has to be greater than or equal to 50. So the inequality is 17 + H ≥ 50. 48

Section 1.3 — Inequalities

Guided Practice Write an inequality to describe each of the situations in Exercises 6–9. 6. Lauren is three years younger than her friend Gabriela, who is k years old. Lauren is under 20. Don’t forget: You can write all of these inequalities in the reverse direction just by changing the sign you use. For example: a > b is the same as b < a.

7. Erin has visited b states. Kieran has visited two more states than Erin, and figures out that he has visited at least 28. 8. The number of boys enrolled at a university is half the number of girls, g, who are enrolled. The number of boys enrolled is more than 2000. 9. Pedro has set aside a maximum of $100 in order to buy gifts for his family. He wants to spend the same amount, $x, on each of his 3 family members.

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 1.3.2 additional questions — p434

Write an inequality to describe each of the sentences in Exercises 1–5. 1. A number, m, decreased by seven is less than 16. 2. Nine more than a number, d, is at least 11. 3. The product of ten and a number, j, is a maximum of six. 4. Four is more than a number, y, divided by five. 5. The sum of a number, f, and six is less than negative one. 6. Explain whether the two statements “six more than a number is at least four” and “six more than a number is more than four” mean the same. Write an inequality to describe each of the situations in Exercises 7–9. 7. Alex and Mallory both spent time cleaning the house. Alex spent y minutes cleaning. Mallory spent 15 minutes less than Alex, but over 55 minutes, cleaning. 8. Rebecca has a maximum of $40 to spend on her cat. She buys a collar for $17 and then spends $d on cat food. 9. Alejandra’s collection of baseball cards is twice the size of Jordan’s. Alejandra has collected at least 2000 cards, and Jordan has collected c baseball cards. For each sentence in Exercises 10–12 say which inequality symbol would be used. 10. Maximum weight on this bridge is six tons. 11. The play park is for people under ten years old only. 12. This toy is for children aged three years and up.

Round Up When you turn a word problem into an inequality, the key thing is to figure out which of the four inequality symbols is being described. Then just write out the two expressions and join them with the correct symbol. You’ll see how to solve inequalities like the ones you’ve written in Chapter 4.

Section 1.3 — Inequalities

49

Lesson

1.3.3

Two-Ste p Inequalities o-Step

California Standards:

An inequality with two different operations in it is called a two-step inequality. To write a two-step inequality, follow the same steps that you learned in the last Lesson. The only difference this time will be that one of your expressions could have two operations in it.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.1 Alge bra ariab Use vvaria aria bles and a ppr opria te oper a tions to ppropria opriate opera write an expression, an equation, an inequality inequality, or a system of equations or epr esents a thatt rre presents inequalities tha verbal description (e.g., three less than a number, half as large as area A).

Two-Ste p Inequalities Ha ve Two Oper a tions o-Step Hav Opera A two-step inequality is one that involves two different operations.

What it means for you:

inequality symbol

You’ll learn how to turn a word problem into a two-step inequality.

4 ÷ x + 9 > 10 first operation

Key words: • • • • •

inequality under over minimum maximum

second operation

It has the same structure as a two-step equation, but with an inequality symbol instead of an equals sign.

Writing a Two-Ste p Inequality o-Step Writing a two-step inequality is like writing a one-step inequality. You still need to write out your two expressions and join them with the correct inequality symbol — but now one of the expressions will contain two operations instead of one. That also means that you need to remember to use PEMDAS — the order of operations. Example

1

Write an inequality to describe the sentence, “Six more than the product of four and a number, h, is under 42.” Solution

The phrase “is under” represents the less than symbol. It also separates the two expressions that make up the two sides of the inequality. Don’t forget: The four inequality symbols: > is greater than. < is less than. ≥ is greater than or equal to. £ is less than or equal to.

50

Section 1.3 — Inequalities

One expression is, “Six more than the product of four and a number, h.” This tells you to multiply four by h and add six to the product. It turns into the expression 4h + 6. The other expression is the number 42. So the sentence, “Six more than the product of four and a number, h, is under 42,” turns into the inequality 4h + 6 < 42.

Guided Practice Write an inequality to describe each of the sentences in Exercises 1–6. 1. Five increased by the product of ten and a number, m, is more than 11. 2. Two plus the result of dividing a number, k, by six is at least five. 3. One subtracted from the product of a number, y, and nine is less than or equal to 33. 4. Ten subtracted from half of a number, t, is under –1. 5. A third of a number number, r, plus nine, is no greater than –4. 6. Double the sum of a number, x, and two is less than 20.

An Inequality Can Describe a Wor d Pr ob lem ord Prob oblem To write a two-step inequality from a word problem, just follow the same rules as for a one-step inequality: • Identify the important information you have been given. • Spot which operation phrases are being used. • Work out what the two expressions are. • Join them using the correct inequality symbol. Example

2

Hector needs to save at least $250 to buy a new bicycle. He already has $80, and receives $10 each week for mowing the neighbor’s lawn. Write an inequality to represent the number of weeks that Hector will need to save for. Solution

First define a variable: let the number of weeks Hector needs to save for = w. Don’t forget: To make sure your expression is right you can check it with a simple number using mental math. For example: after 2 weeks Hector will have $80 plus two times $10. This is $100. Then put w = 2 into your expression. 80 + 10(2) = 100. So your expression is likely to be right.

The minimum amount of money Hector needs to save is $250. So one expression is just 250. The other expression describes the amount of money he will have after w weeks. This will be the $80 he already has plus the number of weeks multiplied by the $10 he earns each week. So the expression is 80 + 10w. The phrase “at least” is telling you that the amount Hector needs to save has to be greater than or equal to 250. So the inequality is 80 + 10w ≥ 250.

Section 1.3 — Inequalities

51

Guided Practice Write an inequality to describe each of the following situations. 7. Mrs. Clark parks by a meter that charges $2 for the first hour and $0.50 for each additional hour parked. She spends no more than $10, and parks for the first hour and h additional hours. 8. Luis collects seashells. He has four boxes, each containing s shells. He gives 40 shells to Jon, and still has more than 200 shells in his collection. 9. Marcia is buying new shirts that cost $15 each for x people in her Little League team. She has a coupon for $12 off her order, and a maximum of $150 to spend. 10. Daniel’s teacher tells him that to be considered low-fat, a meal must contain less than three grams of fat. Daniel prepares a low-fat breakfast of yogurt topped with pumpkin seeds for a school project. A cup of yogurt contains y grams of fat. Daniel uses half a cup, and tops it with pumpkin seeds containing a total of 1 gram of fat.

Independent Practice Write an inequality to describe each of the sentences in Exercises 1–4. 1. Twenty more than twice a number, f, is less than 35. 2. Fifty subtracted from a quarter of a number, n, is at least 77. 3. Eight increased by the product of four and a number, d, is no more than 13. 4. Negative eighteen is more than a number, a, divided by 41, minus six. Now try these: Lesson 1.3.3 additional questions — p434

5. Vanessa has ordered a meal that costs under $12. She is having a baked potato, costing $7, and d salads costing $2 each. Write an inequality to describe this information. 6. Filipa and her four friends are looking for a house to rent for a vacation. The price of an airplane ticket is $200, and they will split the cost of the house rental, $r. Filipa has budgeted $600 for the airplane ticket and house. Write an inequality to determine the maximum rental price that the house can be. 7. Tom and his two friends run a babysitting service that makes $p a month income. Each month they spend $20 to advertise, then split the remaining money evenly. Tom wants to earn at least $80 a month. Write an inequality to describe how much income the service must make each month for this to happen.

Round Up Writing a two-step inequality is just like writing a one-step inequality. You still need to look for the key information in the question, identify the operation phrases, and spot which inequality symbol is needed. But this time one of the expressions might contain two operations. You’ll see how to solve two-step inequalities in Chapter 4. 52

Section 1.3 — Inequalities

Chapter 1 Investigation

Whic h Phone Deal is Best? hich You can write expressions to model real-life situations. In this Investigation, you’ll write expressions to represent different cell phone plans, and by evaluating your expressions you’ll find out which is the best value plan for different users. Two phone companies are offering different family plan deals to attract new customers. Company A

Company B

$30 a month for 500 minutes $0.02 for each additional minute

$10 a month for 500 minutes $0.04 for each additional minute

Part 1: Write expressions for Companies A and B that could be used to represent the price of one month’s phone bill. Which company offers the better plan for a family using 1000 minutes a month? Part 2: How many minutes does a family have to talk so that Company A offers a better deal than Company B? Things to think about: • How can you compare the prices of both companies for different numbers of minutes? • The basic price for Company B’s plan is $20 more than Company A’s plan. Thinking just about cost, why would a family choose Company A’s plan instead of Company B’s? Extensions 1) Write an inequality that could be used to calculate the number of minutes a family could talk with Company A if they want to spend under $35 a month. 2) The Sutro family uses Company A and talks an average of 800 minutes a month. How much will they save over a year by switching to Company B? Open-ended Extensions 1) Is it possible for the price of Company A’s plan to be double the price of Company B’s plan? Assume calls are charged to the nearest minute. Make an organized list or table to compare them. 2) Company C wants to charge a flat per minute fee and have their price lie between Company A’s and Company B’s prices when between 500 and 750 minutes are used. What per minute fees could Company C charge to accomplish this goal?

Round Up A number that can change is called a variable and is represented with a letter. In the cell phone plans, the variable was the number of minutes used. By evaluating expressions with different values for the variable, you can find the prices when different numbers of minutes are used. Cha pter 1 In vestig a tion — Which Phone Deal is Best? Chapter Inv estiga

53

Chapter 2 Rational and Irrational Numbers Section 2.1

Rational Numbers ....................................................... 55

Section 2.2

Absolute Value ............................................................ 65

Section 2.3

Operations on Rational Numbers ................................ 71

Section 2.4

More Operations on Rational Numbers....................... 93

Section 2.5

Exploration — Basic Powers ..................................... 105 Basic Powers ............................................................. 106

Section 2.6

Exploration — The Side of a Square ........................ 119 Irrational Numbers and Square Roots ...................... 120

Chapter Investigation — Designing a Deck ...................................... 130

54

Lesson

Section 2.1

2.1.1

Ra tional Number s Numbers

California Standards:

Pretty much all the numbers you’ve met so far are rational — positive and negative integers and fractions are all rational, as are most decimals. The only decimals that aren’t rational are the ones that go on and on forever, without having a repeating pattern of digits.

Number Sense 1.3 actions to Conv ertt fr fractions Con ver decimals and percents and use these representations in estimations, computations, and applications. Number Sense 1.4 een Difffer erentia entiate between Dif entia te betw ra tional and ir irrra tional n umber s. umbers Number Sense 1.5 w tha ver y rra a tional Know thatt e ev ery Kno number is either a ter mina ting or a rre epea ting termina minating peating decimal and be able to convert terminating decimals into reduced fractions.

All R a tional Number s Can Be Written as F Ra Numbers Frractions You get all sorts of numbers in the rational set, for example 1.05, 0.3333..., 1 , and 6 are all rational. Rational numbers have all got one thing in 2 common — they can each be written as a simple fraction, with an integer on the top and a nonzero integer on the bottom. In formal math: a

A rational number is a number that can be written as b , where both a and b are integers (and b is not equal to 0).

What it means for you:

There are basically three types of rational numbers.

You’ll meet rational numbers and see which kinds of numbers that you’ve already met fall into this category.

All Inte ger s ar eR a tional Integ ers are Ra Any integer can be written as a fraction over 1.

Key words: • • • • • •

The integers are the numbers in the set {..., –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...}.

rational number irrational number fraction decimal terminating repeating

So integers are all rational. For example: 7 = Example

7 1

−18 =

–18 1

1

Show that 5 is a rational number. Solution 5

5 can be written as 1 . This fits the above definition, so 5 must be rational.

Don’t forget: A fraction can be thought of 5

as a division. So 1 says the same thing as 5 ÷ 1, and when you divide a number by 1, it doesn’t change.

Check it out: In the next Lesson you’ll see how to turn terminating decimals into fractions.

All Ter mina ting Decimals ar e R a tional ermina minating are Ra Numbers like 1.2, 5.689, –3.72, and –0.69245 are known as terminating decimals — they all have definite ends. All terminating decimals can be converted to fractions of the form

a , b

where a and b are both integers. So all terminating decimals are rational. 6

1

For example, 1.2 is equivalent to 5 , 0.125 is equivalent to 8 , 3

and 0.75 is equivalent to 4 .

Section 2.1 — Rational Numbers

55

All R epea ting Decimals ar eR a tional Re peating are Ra Check it out:

0.09090909... is a repeating decimal. It will go on forever repeating the same digits (09) over and over again.

In Lesson 2.1.3 you’ll see how to turn repeating decimals into fractions.

Repeating decimals can always be converted to the form

a b

where a and

b are both integers — so they are always rational. 0.0909090909... =

1 11

Other examples of repeating decimals are: 0.33333...

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ , ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

⎛ 5 ⎞ and 0.045045045... ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ . ⎝111⎠

The usual way to show that decimals are repeating is to put a small bar above them. The bar should cover one complete set of the repeated digits, so 0.15 means 0.151515..., but 0.151 means 0.151151151...

Ne ver -Ending epea ting Decimals ar e Ir Nev er-Ending -Ending,, Nonr Nonre peating are Irrra tional Check it out: Irrational numbers are covered in more detail in Section 2.6.

A number that cannot be written in the form integers is an irrational number.

a b

where a and b are both

Irrational numbers are always nonrepeating, nonterminating decimals. p is an irrational number: p = 3.141592653...

goes on forever, never repeats

Guided Practice Show that the numbers in Exercises 1–6 are rational. 1. 2 2. –8 3. 0.5 4. 0.25 5. –0.1 6. 1.5 7. Luis does a complicated calculation and his 10-digit calculator screen shows the result 1.123456789. Can you say whether the answer of Luis’s calculation is rational? 8. Is 2p rational?

Fractions Can Be Con ver ted into Decimals b y Di vision Conv erted by Division

Check it out: b can’t be zero — you can’t divide by zero; it’s undefined.

56

All integers, terminating decimals, and repeating decimals are rational, so they can be written as fractions. The opposite is also true — every fraction can be converted into an integer, a terminating decimal, or a repeating decimal. a b

can be read as the instruction “a divided by b.”

If you divide the integer a by the integer b you’ll end up with an integer, a repeating decimal, or a terminating decimal.

Section 2.1 — Rational Numbers

AR emainder of Zer o Means a Ter mina ting Decimal Remainder Zero ermina minating When you’re dividing the numerator of a fraction by the denominator, you might get to a point where you have no remainder left — that means that it’s a terminating decimal. Example Convert

7 8

2

into a decimal.

Solution

Don’t forget: When you add 0s to the end of a number after a decimal point, as with the 7 in Example 2, the value of the number doesn’t change. So 7.0000 = 7.0 = 7.

Divide 7 by 8. 0.875 8 7.0000 64 60 56 no remainder left, 40 so this is a 40 terminating decimal 00

So,

7 8

as a decimal is 0.875.

Guided Practice Convert the fractions given in Exercises 9–12 into decimals without using a calculator. 9.

3 6

10.

4 5

11.

6 4

12.

5 32

AR epea ted R emainder Means a R epea ting Decimal Re peated Remainder Re peating If you get a remainder during long division that you’ve had before, then you have a repeating decimal. Don’t forget: The quotient is what you get when you divide one number by another.

repeated remainder

0.13 15 2.000 15 50 45 50

The repeating digits are only the ones that you worked out since the last time you saw the same remainder. repeating digit Æ In this example you’ve had a remainder of 0.13 50 before. Since the last time you had this 15 2.000 remainder, you’ve found the digit 3. 15 50 That means 3 is the repeating part of repeated 45 the decimal. remainder 50 So

2 15

= 0.1333... with the 3 repeating forever.

Which you can write as

2 15

= 0.13 .

Section 2.1 — Rational Numbers

57

Example Convert

5 22

3 into a decimal.

Solution

Divide 5 by 22. repeating digits

repeated remainder

0.227 22 5.000 44 60 44 160 154 60

So,

5 22

as a decimal is 0.227 .

Guided Practice Convert the fractions given in Exercises 13–16 into decimals, without using a calculator. 5 27

13.

14.

6 41

15.

15 7

16.

7 12

Independent Practice 1. Read statements a) and b). Only one of them is true. Which one? How do you know? a) All integers are rational numbers. b) All rational numbers are integers. Now try these: Lesson 2.1.1 additional questions — p435

Show that the numbers in Exercises 2–7 are rational. 2. 4 3. 1 4. –2 5. 0.2 6. 1.25 7. – 0. 3 Convert the fractions given in Exercises 8–13 to decimals without using a calculator. Say whether they are terminating or repeating decimals. 8.

1 9

11.

9. 5 11

8 5

12.

15 8

10.

11 16

13.

5 22

Round Up Rational numbers can all be written as fractions, where the top and bottom numbers are integers, and the bottom number isn’t zero. You already know how to write integers as fractions, and you’ll see how to convert terminating decimals and repeating decimals to fractions in the next two Lessons. 58

Section 2.1 — Rational Numbers

Lesson

Con ver ting Ter mina ting Conv erting ermina minating Decimals to F Frractions

2.1.2

California Standards: Number Sense 1.5 Know that every rational number is either a terminating or a repeating decimal and be a ble to con ver mina ting conv ertt ter termina minating decimals into rreduced educed fr actions fractions actions..

This Lesson is a bit like the opposite of the last Lesson — you’ll be taking decimals and finding their equivalent fractions. This is how you can show that they’re definitely rational numbers.

What it means for you:

If you read decimals using the place-value system, then it’s more straightforward to convert them into fractions. For example, a number

You’ll see how to change terminating decimals into fractions that have the same value.

Decimals Can Be Tur ned into F urned Frractions

like 0.15 is said “fifteen-hundredths,” so it turns into the fraction

15 . 100

You need to remember the value of each position after the decimal point: decimal point

Key words:

0.1234

• fraction • decimal • terminating

tenths hundredths

ten-thousandths thousandths

Then when you are reading a decimal number, look at the position of the last digit. For example: 0.1 is one-tenth, which is the fraction one-hundredth, which is the fraction Example

0.01 is

1

Convert 0.27 into a fraction.

Don’t forget: You can ignore any extra 0s at the end of the decimal, because they don’t change its value. For example: 0.270000 = 0.27 =

1 . 100

1 . 10

27 . 100

Solution

0.27 is twenty-seven hundredths, so it is

Example

27 . 100

2

Convert 0.3497 into a fraction. Solution

0.3497 is 3497 ten-thousandths, so it is

3497 . 10, 000

Guided Practice Convert the decimals in Exercises 1–12 into fractions without using a calculator. 1. 0.1

2. 0.23

3. 0.17

4. –0.87

5. 0.7

6. 0.35

7. 0.174

8. –0.364

9. 0.127

10. 0.9827

11. 0.5212

12. –0.4454

Section 2.1 — Rational Numbers

59

Some F Frractions Can Be Made Simpler When you convert decimals to fractions this way, you’ll often get fractions 5 that aren’t in their simplest form. For instance, could be written more Don’t forget: Dividing the top and bottom of a fraction by the same thing doesn’t change the value of the fraction.

1

simply as 2 , and

75 100

10

3

could be written more simply as 4 .

If an answer is a fraction, you should usually give it in its simplest form. This is how to reduce a fraction to its simplest form: 1) Find the biggest number that will divide into both the numerator and the denominator without leaving any remainder. This number is called the greatest common factor, or GCF. 2) Then divide both the numerator and the denominator by the GCF. Example

3

Convert 0.12 into a fraction. Solution

• 0.12 is twelve-hundredths. As a fraction it is

12 . 100

• The factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. The biggest of these that also divides into 100 leaving no remainder is 4. So the greatest common factor of 12 and 100 is 4. • Divide both the numerator and denominator by 4. 12 ÷ 4 3 = . 100 ÷ 4 25

So 0.12 as a fraction in its simplest form is

3 . 25

If the greatest common factor is 1 then the fraction is already in its simplest form. Example

4

Convert 0.7 into a fraction. Solution

• 0.7 is seven-tenths so, it is

7 . 10

• The greatest common factor of 7 and 10 is 1, so this fraction is already in its simplest form.

Guided Practice Convert the decimals in Exercises 13–20 into fractions and then simplify them if possible. 13. 0.25

14. 0.65

15. –0.02

16. 0.256

17. 0.0175

18. –0.84

19. 0.267

20. 0.866

21. Priscilla measures a paper clip. She decides that it is six-eighths of an inch long. Otis measures the same paper clip with a different ruler and says it is twelve-sixteenths of an inch long. How can their different answers be explained? 60

Section 2.1 — Rational Numbers

Decimals Gr ea ter than 1 Become Impr oper F Grea eater Improper Frractions

Don’t forget: A proper fraction is a fraction whose numerator is smaller than its denominator. For example:

1 2

and

9 . 10

An improper fraction is a fraction whose numerator is equal to or larger than its denominator. For example:

3 2

and

27 . 4

When you convert a decimal number greater than 1 into a fraction it’s probably easier to change it into a mixed number first. Then you can change the mixed number into an improper fraction. Example

5

Convert 13.7 into a fraction. Solution

• Convert 0.7 first — this becomes

7 . 10 7

Don’t forget:

• Add on the 13. This can be written as 13 10 .

A mixed number is a number made up of an integer and a fraction. For example:

• Now turn 13 10 into an improper fraction.

1 2

2 3

4 5

1 , 2 , and 10 .

A mixed number.

7

13 whole units are equivalent to

13 10 130 i = . 1 10 10

⎛13 10 ⎞⎟ 7 130 7 137 ⎜⎜ • ⎟ + = + = ⎜⎝ 1 10 ⎟⎠ 10 10 10 10

So add

7 10

to this:

A quicker way of doing this is: (13i10) + 7 137 = 10 10

Guided Practice Convert the decimals in Exercises 22–33 into fractions without using a calculator. 22. 4.3

23. –1.03

24. 15.98

25. –1.7

26. 9.7

27. –4.5

28. 12.904

29. –13.142

30. –8.217

31. 0.3627

32. 1.8028

33. 4.1234

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 2.1.2 additional questions — p435

Convert the decimals given in Exercises 1–20 to fractions in their simplest form. 1. 0.3

2. 0.2

3. 0.4

4. 0.30

5. 0.26

6. 0.18

7. –0.34

8. –1.34

9. 0.234

10. 2.234

11. 9.140

12. 3.655

13. –0.121

14. –0.655

15. –10.760

16. 5.001

17. 0.2985

18. 2.3222

19. –9.3452

20. –0.2400

Round Up The important thing when converting a decimal to a fraction is to think about the place value of the last digit. Then read the decimal and turn it into a fraction. If the decimal is greater than 1, ignore the whole number until you get the decimal part figured out. Take your time, do each step carefully, and you should be OK. Section 2.1 — Rational Numbers

61

Lesson

2.1.3

Con ver ting R epea ting Conv erting Re peating Decimals to F Frractions

California Standards: You’ve seen how to convert a terminating decimal into a fraction. But repeating decimals are also rational numbers, so they can be represented as fractions too. That’s what this Lesson is all about — taking a repeating decimal and finding a fraction with the same value.

Number Sense 1.5 Kno w tha ver y rra a tional Know thatt e ev ery number is either a ter mina ting or a rre epea ting termina minating peating decimal and be a ble to ab con ver conv ertt terminating decimals into rreduced educed fr actions fractions actions..

Repea ting Decimals Can Be “Subtr acted Away” peating “Subtracted

What it means for you:

Look at the decimal 0.33333..., or 0. 3 .

You’ll see how to change repeating decimals into fractions that have the same value.

Key words: • fraction • decimal • repeating

If you multiply it by 10, you get 3.33333..., or 3. 3 . In both these numbers, the digits after the decimal point are the same. So if you subtract one from the other, the decimal part of the number “disappears.” Example

1

Find 3. 3 − 0. 3 . Solution

Don’t forget: To multiply a decimal by 10, move the decimal point one place to the right. So 0.3333... × 10 = 3.3333...

The digits after the decimal point in both these numbers are the same, since 0. 3 = 0.3333... and 3. 3 = 3.3333... So when you subtract the numbers, the result has no digits after the decimal point. 3.3 3.3333...

−0.3333... 3.0000...

or

−0.3 3.0

So 3.3 − 0.3 = 3 . This idea of getting repeating decimals to “disappear” by subtracting is used when you convert a repeating decimal to a fraction. Example

2

If x = 0. 3 , find: (i) 10x, and (ii) 9x. Use your results to write x as a fraction in its simplest form. Solution

Don’t forget: The greatest common factor of 3 and 9 is 3. So: 3 3÷3 1 = = 9 9÷3 3

62

(i) 10x = 10 × 0. 3 = 3. 3 . (ii) 9x = 10x – x = 3. 3 − 0. 3 = 3 (from Example 1 above). You now know that 9x = 3. So you can divide both sides by 9 to find x as a fraction: 3 1 x = , which can be simplified to x = . 9 3

Section 2.1 — Rational Numbers

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–3, use x = 0.4 . 1. Find 10x. 2. Use your answer to Exercise 1 to find 9x. 3. Write x as a fraction in its simplest form. In Exercises 4–6, use y = 1. 2 . 4. Find 10y. 5. Use your answer to Exercise 4 to find 9y. 6. Write y as a fraction in its simplest form. Convert the numbers in Exercises 7–9 to fractions. 8. 4. 1 9. −2. 5 7. 2. 5

You Ma y Need to Multipl yb y 100 or 1000 or 10,000... May Multiply by If two digits are repeated forever, then multiply by 100 before subtracting. Example

3

Convert 0.23 to a fraction. Solution

Call the number x. There are two repeating digits in x, so you need to multiply by 100 before subtracting.

Don’t forget: This means that

0.23 =

23 99

100x = 23.23 Now subtract: 100x – x = 23.23 – 0.23 = 23. 23 So 99x = 23, which means that x = . 99 If three digits are repeated forever, then multiply by 1000, and so on. Example

Check it out:

4

n

In fact, you multiply by 10 , where n is the number of repeating digits. So where there’s one repeating digit, you multiply by 101 = 10. Where there are two repeating digits, you multiply by 102 = 10 × 10 = 100, and so on.

Convert 1.728 to a fraction in its simplest form. Solution

Call the fraction y. There are three repeating digits in y, so you need to multiply by 1000 before subtracting. 1000y = 1728.728 Now subtract: 1000y – y = 1728.728 – 1.728 = 1727. So 999y = 1727, which means that y =

1727 . 999

Section 2.1 — Rational Numbers

63

Guided Practice For Exercises 10–15, write each repeating decimal as a fraction in its simplest form. 10. 0.09 11. 0.18 12. 0.909 13. 0.123 14. 2.12 15. 0.1234

The Numer a tor and Denomina tor Must Be Inte ger s Numera Denominator Integ ers You won’t always get a whole number as the result of the subtraction. If this happens, you may need to multiply the numerator and denominator of the fraction to make sure they are both integers. Example Check it out: Make the repeating digits line up to make the subtraction easier (and remember that the decimal points have to line up too). So write 10x as 34.33 rather than 34.3 . Then the subtraction becomes: 34.33 −3.43 30.9 Which is an easier subtraction to do than 34.3 − 3.43 .

5

Convert 3.43 to a fraction. Solution

Call the number x. There is one repeating digit in x, so multiply by 10. 10x = 34.33 (using 34.33 rather than 34.3 makes the subtraction easier). Subtract as usual: 10x – x = 34.33 − 3.43 = 30.9 . 30.9 . So 9x = 30.9, which means that x = 9 But the numerator here isn’t an integer, so multiply the numerator and denominator by 10 to get an equivalent fraction of the same value.

x=

30.9×10 309 103 = , or more simply, x = 9×10 90 30

Guided Practice For Exercises 16–18, write each repeating decimal as a fraction in its simplest form. 16. 1.12 17. 2.334 18. 0.54321

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 2.1.3 additional questions — p435

Convert the numbers in Exercises 1–9 to fractions. Give your answers in their simplest form. 1. 0. 8 2. 0. 7 3. 1. 1 4. 0.26 5. 4.87 6. 0.246 7. 0.142857 8. 3.142854 9. 10.0 1

Round Up This is a really handy 3-step method — (i) multiply by 10, 100, 1000, or whatever, (ii) subtract the original number, and (iii) divide to form your fraction. 64

Section 2.1 — Rational Numbers

Lesson

Section 2.2

2.2.1

Absolute Value

California Standards:

You can think of the number “–5” as having two parts — a negative sign that tells you it’s less than zero, and “5,” which tells you its size, or how far from zero it is. The absolute value of a number is just its size — it’s not affected by whether it’s greater or less than zero.

Number Sense 2.5 Understand the meaning of the absolute value of a number; interpret the absolute value as the distance of the number from zero on a number line; and determine the absolute value of real numbers.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to find the absolute value of a number, and use it in calculations.

Key words: • absolute value • distance • opposite

Absolute Value is Distance from Zero

The absolute value of a number is its distance from 0 on the number line. The absolute value of a number is never negative — that’s because the absolute value describes how far the number is from zero on the number line. It doesn’t matter if the number is to the left or to the right of zero — the distance can’t be negative.

Opposites Have the Same Absolute Value Opposites are numbers that are the same distance from 0, but going in opposite directions. Opposites have the same absolute value. –5 and 5 are opposites:

Check it out: Because you want to know the distance from the origin but don’t care about direction, the absolute value of a number is always just the number without its original sign.

Distance of 5

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

Distance of 5

1

2

3

4

5

6

So they each have an absolute value of 5. A set of bars, | |, are used to represent absolute value. So the expression |–10| means “the absolute value of negative ten.” Example

1

What is |3.25|? What is |–3.25|? Solution

3.25 and –3.25 are opposites. They’re the same distance from 0, so they have the same absolute value. Distance of 3.25

Distance of 3.25

Check it out: A number and its opposite (additive inverse) always have the same absolute value. For example: | 2 | = | –2 | = 2

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

So, | 3.25|| = | –3.25|| = 3.25

Section 2.2 — Absolute Value

65

Guided Practice Find the values of the expressions in Exercises 1–8. 1. |12|

2. |–9|

3. |16|

4. |–1|

5. |1.7|

6. |–3.2|

7. |– 2 |

1

8. |0|

In Exercises 9–12, say which is bigger. Check it out:

9. |17| or |16|

10. |–2| or |–5|

Find the value of each absolute value expression, then compare them.

11. |–9| or |8|

12. |–1| or |1|

Absolute Value Equations Often Have Two Solutions Think about the equation |x| = 2. The absolute value of x is 2, so you know that x is 2 units away from 0 on the number line, but you don’t know in which direction. x could be 2, but it could also be –2. You can show the two possibilities like this:

–2 –1

Example

2

Solve |z| = 3. Solution

z can be either 3 or –3. 3 units

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

3 units

1

2

3

4

5

6

Guided Practice Give the solutions to the equations in Exercises 13–16. 13. |a| = 1 14. |r| = 4 15. |q| = 6 16. |g| = 7

Treat Absolute Value Signs Like Parentheses You should treat absolute value bars like parentheses when you’re deciding what order to do the operations in. Work out what’s inside them first, then take the absolute value of that.

66

Section 2.2 — Absolute Value

Example

3

What is the value of |7 – 3| + |4 – 6|? Solution

|7 – 3| + |4 – 6| = |4| + |–2| Simplify whatever is inside the absolute value signs =4+2 Find the absolute values =6 Simplify the expression

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 17–22. Check it out: The absolute value bars only affect whatever’s inside them. So the value of the whole expression can be negative. For example –| a + 7 | will be negative, unless a = –7.

17. |1 – 3| – |2 + 2|

18. |2 – 7| + |0 – 6|

19. –|5 – 6|

20. |–8| × |2 – 3|

21. 2 × |4 – 6|

22. |7 – 2| ÷ |1 – 6|

Independent Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–4? 1. |–45|

2. |6|

5 6

3. |–0.6|

4. | |

5. Let x and y be two integers. The absolute value of y is larger than the absolute value of x. Which of the two integers is further from 0? Show the solutions of the equations in Exercises 6–13 on number lines. 6. | u | = 3

7. | d | = 9

8. | x | = 5

9. | w | = 15

10. | y | = 4

11. | v | = 1

12. | k | = 16

13. | z | = 7

In Exercises 14–19, say which is bigger. 14. |–6| or |–1| 15. |3| or |–5|

16. |2 – 2| or |5 – 8|

17. |6 – 8| or |2 – 1|

19. |11 + 1| or |–2 – 8|

18. |3 – 2| or |–5|

Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 20–25. Now try these:

20. |3 – 5| + |2 – 5|

21. |0 + 5| + |0 – 5|

22. |5 – 10| – |0 – 2|

Lesson 2.2.1 additional questions — p436

23. |–1| × |3 – 3|

24. 8 × |1 – 4|

25. |2 – 8| ÷ |4 – 1|

26. What is the sum of two different numbers that have the same absolute value? Explain your answer. 27. Is it always true that | y | < 2y when y is an integer?

Round Up The absolute value of a number is its distance from zero on a number line. Absolute values are always positive. So if a number has a negative sign, get rid of it; if it doesn’t, then leave it alone. If you see absolute value bars in an expression, work out what’s between them first — just like parentheses. Section 2.2 — Absolute Value

67

Lesson

2.2.2

Using Absolute Value

California Standards:

You use absolute value a lot in real life — often without even thinking about it. For example, if the temperature falls from 3 °C to –3 °C you might use it to find the overall change. This Lesson looks at some of the ways that absolute value can apply to everyday situations.

Number Sense 2.5 Understand the meaning of the absolute value of a number; interpret the absolute value as the distance of the number from zero on a number line; and determine the absolute value of real numbers. Algebra and Functions 1.1 Use variables and appropriate operations to write an expression, an equation, an inequality, or a system of equations or inequalities that represents a verbal description (e.g., three less than a number, half as large as area A).

What it means for you: You’ll use absolute value to find the difference between two numbers and see how absolute values apply to real-life situations.

Key words: • absolute value • comparison • difference

Absolute Values Help Find Distances Between Numbers To find the distance between two numbers on the number line you could count the number of spaces between them.

2

6

Using subtraction is a quicker way — just subtract the lesser number from the greater. 8 – 6 = 2, so 8 and 6 are 2 units apart.

7

8

If you did the subtraction the other way around you’d get a negative number — and distances can’t be negative. But if you use absolute value bars you can do the subtraction in either order and you’ll always get a positive value for the distance. | 6 – 8|| = | –2|| = 2 and ||8 – 6|| = 2

For any numbers a and b: The distance between a and b on the number line is |a – b|. This is particularly useful when you’re finding the distance between a positive and negative number. Example

1

What is the distance between –3 and 5? Solution

The distance between –3 and 5 is | –3 – 5 | = | –8 | = 8. Check it out: If |a – b| is small then a and b are close to each other. If |a – b| is large then a and b are far away from each other. For example, –1 and –3 are closer together than 6 and –6, so you’d expect |(–1) – (–3) | to be smaller than |6 – (–6)|.

Distance of 8

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Guided Practice Find the distance between the numbers given in each of Exercises 1–8. 1. 1, 5 2. –3, –8 3. 6, –9 4. –1, 10 5. 3, –5 6. 5, –1 7. –1.2, 2.3 8. –0.3, 2.7 9. At 1 p.m., Amanda was 8 miles east of her home. She then traveled in a straight line west until she was 6 miles west of her home. How many miles did she travel?

68

Section 2.2 — Absolute Value

Absolute Values are Used to Compare Things You can use absolute values to compare numbers when it doesn’t matter which side of a fixed point they are. Example

2

Find how far point A is above point B.

Point A = 50 m (above sea level)

Sea level = 0 m Point B = –35 m (below sea level)

Solution

It doesn’t matter that B is below sea level and A is above. It’s the distance between them that’s important. You can find this by working out | 50 m – (–35 m)|| = | 85 m|| = 85 m. You’d get the same answer if you did the subtraction the other way around: | –35 m – 50 m|| = | –85 m|| = 85 m.

Guided Practice 10. A miner digs the shaft shown on the right. What distance was he from the top of the crane when he finished digging?

20 ft.

11. The top of Mount Whitney is 14,505 ft above sea level. The bottom of Death Valley is 282 ft below sea level. How much higher is the top of Mount Whitney than the bottom of Death Valley?

0 ft. –10 ft. –20 ft. –30 ft. –40 ft. –50 ft.

Absolute Values Can Describe Limits Another use of absolute values is to describe the acceptable limits of a measurement. It might not be important whether something is above or below a set value, but how far above or below it is. Example

Check it out: If your body temperature goes too far from the normal value in either direction it can be dangerous, so this is an important use of absolute value.

3

The average temperature of the human body is 98.6 °F, but in a healthy person it can be up to 1.4 °F higher or lower. The difference between a person’s temperature, x, and the average healthy temperature can be found using the expression | 98.6 – x |. Aaron is feeling unwell so measures his temperature. It is 100.2 °F. Is Aaron’s temperature within the healthy range? Solution

The difference between Aaron’s temperature and the average healthy temperature is | 98.6 – 100.2 | = | –1.6 | = 1.6 °F. Aaron’s temperature is outside of the normal healthy range.

Section 2.2 — Absolute Value

69

Example Check it out: Lots of manufacturers have tolerance limits for measurements. A tolerance limit is how different in size something is allowed to be from the size it should be. For example, size 6 knitting needles should have a diameter of 4 mm. Only very small differences from this size, such as 0.004 mm, will be allowed.

4

A factory manufactures wheels that it advertises as no more than 1 inch away from 30 inches in diameter. They use the expression |30 – d| to test whether wheels are within the advertised size (where d is the diameter). Apply the expression to wheels of diameters 31, 29, and 35 inches, and say whether they meet the advertised standard. Solution

• Wheel of diameter 31 inches: | 30 – 31|| = ||–1|| = 1 inch. This wheel is within the standard. • Wheel of diameter 29 inches: | 30 – 29|| = ||1|| = 1 inch. This wheel is within the standard. • Wheel of diameter 35 inches: | 30 – 35|| = ||–5|| = 5 inches. This wheel is not within the standard.

Guided Practice 12. The height of a cupboard door should be no more than 0.05 cm away from 40 cm. The expression |40 – h| is used to check whether a door of height h cm fits the size requirement. If a door measures 40.049 cm, is it within the correct range? 13. Ms. Valesquez’s car needs a tire pressure, p, of 30 psi. It should be within 0.5 psi of the recommended value. She uses the expression |30 – p| to test whether the pressure is acceptable. Is a pressure of 29.4 psi acceptable?

Independent Practice Find the distance between the numbers given in each of Exercises 1–4. 1. 9, –9 2. 3, –4 3. 5, 6 4. –32, –52 5. The table below shows the temperature at different times of day. How much did the temperature change by between 7 a.m. and 8 a.m.? Check it out: It might help you to draw diagrams to go with Exercises 5 and 6.

Now try these: Lesson 2.2.2 additional questions — p436

Time

7 a.m.

8 a.m.

Temperature

–5 °C

1 °C

6. A person stands on a pier fishing. The top of their rod is 20 feet above sea level. The line goes vertically down and hooks a fish 13 feet below sea level. How long is the line? 7. Priscilla tries to keep the balance of her checking account, b, always less than $50 away from $200. She uses the expression |200 – b| to check that it is within these limits. Is a balance of $242.50 acceptable?

Round Up Absolute values are used to find distances between numbers. They’re also useful when measurements are only allowed to be a certain distance away from a set value. In these situations, it doesn’t matter if the numbers are above or below the set point — it’s how far away they are that’s important. 70

Section 2.2 — Absolute Value

Lesson

2.3.1

Section 2.3

Ad ding and Subtr acting Adding Subtracting Inte ger s and Decimals Integ ers

California Standards: Number Sense 1.2 Add, subtract, Ad d, subtr act, multiply, and umber s number umbers divide ra tional n inte ger s , fractions, and integ ers (inte ter mina ting decimals termina minating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers.

What it means for you: You’ll practice adding and subtracting integers on a number line, and then you’ll go on to working with decimals.

You’ve had plenty of practice adding and subtracting integers in earlier grades — and you’ve probably done some adding and subtracting of decimals too. The same rules apply to decimals — you just have to be careful where you put the decimal point.

Ad d Inte ger s Using a Number Line Add Integ ers A number line is a really good way to show integers in order. Adding and subtracting just involves counting left or right on the number line. Example

1

Calculate 10 + 2 using a number line. Key words:

Solution

Find the first number on the number line.

• integer • decimal

8

Don’t forget: Integers are all the numbers that don’t involve a decimal or a fraction. They can be positive or negative.

9 10 11 12 13 14

Count the number of positions given by the second number. Go right if it’s a positive number.

8

9 10 11 12 13 14

Then just read off the number you’ve ended up at. So 10 + 2 = 12 If you’re adding a negative number, you count to the left. Example

2

Calculate 2 + (–3) using a number line. Solution

So 2 + (–3) = –1 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

1

2

3

Subtractions can be turned into additions — then you can use the methods above for subtractions. Subtracting a positive number is the same as adding a negative one. For example, 5 – 6 = 5 + (–6) And subtracting a negative number is the same as adding a positive one. For example, 5 – (–6) = 5 + 6 Example

3

Calculate: (i) 2 – 3

(ii) 10 – (–2)

Solution

(i) 2 – 3 is the same as 2 + (–3). So 2 – 3 = –1 (using Example 2). (ii) 10 – (–2) equals 10 + 2. So 10 – (–2) = 12 (using Example 1). Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

71

Guided Practice Don’t forget: a–b a – (–b)

a + (–b) a+b

Use a number line to do the calculations in Exercises 1–8. 1. 10 + 3 2. 6 + 1 3. –3 + 5 4. –9 – 7 5. 7 + (–6) 6. 19 – (–5) 7. 3 + (–2) 8. –1 – (–9)

Decimal Ad dition Needs a Decimal Number Line Addition Addition with decimals isn’t any tougher than with integers — you’ve just got to remember to draw a number line that includes decimals. Example

4

Calculate 0.9 – 0.3 using a number line. Solution

0.9 – 0.3 is a subtraction. But because subtracting a positive number is the same as adding a negative one, it can be written as: 0.9 – 0.3 = 0.9 + (–0.3) You’re dealing with decimals, so you need a number line that shows decimal values. Find 0.9, and count 0.3 to the left because you’re adding a negative number. So 0.9 – 0.3 = 0.6

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Guided Practice Use a number line to do the calculations in Exercises 9–17. 9. 0.6 + 0.4 10. 0.1 + 0.8 11. 1.3 + 0.7 12. 2.3 + (–0.4) 13. 3.1 – 0.7 14. –0.7 – (–0.4) 15. –0.9 – 0.3 16. –1.2 – (–0.5) 17. 0.3 – 0.5

You Don ways Ha ve to Use a Number Line Don’’ t Al Alw Hav It’s hard to add big numbers on a number line, so you need to be able to add and subtract without a number line. Example

5

Calculate 432 + 34 without using a number line. Solution

You can break the calculation down into hundreds, tens, and ones.

432 + 34

Four hundreds Three Two tens ones

You need to add the ones of each number together, then the tens, and so on. Write the numbers on top of each other with the ones lined up. 432 Work out the sum of the ones column first, +34 then the tens, then the hundreds.

466

So 432 + 34 = 466 72

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

Three Four tens ones

432 +34

The last example was easier than some calculations because all the column sums came to less than 10. If they go over 10 then you have to carry the extra numbers to the next column. Example

6

Calculate 567 + 125. Solution

First you need to write the sum out vertically with 567 the ones, the tens, and the hundreds lined up. +125

567 +125 1 2

10 is the same as 1 ten — so carry a 1 to the tens column

The ones calculation is 7 + 5 = 12. 12 is the same as saying “one ten and two ones” — so write 2 under the ones, and carry the 10 to the tens column.

When you add up the next column, remember to add the 1 that you carried. So 567 + 125 = 692

567 +125 1 692

So the tens column is now 6+2+1=9

You can use a similar method for decimals, but there are a few things to remember. The digits after a decimal point show parts of a whole — so 24.56 means “2 tens, 4 ones, 5 tenths, and 6 hundredths.” Don’t forget: “Hundreds,” “tens,” “ones,” “tenths,” “hundredths,” and so on are called place values.

two tens

four units

six hundredths

24.560 five tenths

zero thousandths

You can also add extra zeros onto the end of a decimal and it doesn’t change the value.

You should always only add digits with the same place values. So when you’re adding decimals, line the values up by the decimal point. Example

7

Calculate 13.93 + 5.2. Solution

Write the sum out vertically with the decimal points lined up.

Make sure the decimal points are lined up

13.93 + 5.20

Add zeros to get the same number of decimal places

Then work out the sum of each column in turn, 13.93 starting with the right-hand side. Don’t forget + 5.20 Carry numbers to 1 the next column 19.13 the decimal point in the answer. on the left just like before. So 13.93 + 5.2 = 19.13

Guided Practice Calculate the following sums without using a number line. 18. 210 + 643 19. 613 + 117 20. 1264 + 527 21. 33.7 + 12.4 22. 14.8 + 16.2 23. 55.82 + 34.81 24. 75.1 + 14.31 25. 62.4 + 31.99 26. 2.29 + 9.92 Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

73

Some Subtr actions In volv e “Bor Subtractions Inv olve “Borrr o wing” Doing column subtractions seems tough if the top number in a column is smaller than the number underneath — but there’s a handy method. Example

8

Calculate 30 – 18. Solution

30 If you write this in columns, the upper number in –18 the ones column is smaller than the number below. You can break down 30 into different parts:

30 = 20 + 10 Don’t forget: If you “borrow” a 10 when you’re subtracting, remember that the number you borrowed from will now be 1 ten lower.

You could say this as “2 tens plus 1 ten” or you could say “2 tens plus 10 ones.”

All you’ve done is separate one of the tens from the number. You can show this in column notation: 2 10 “Borrow” 10 from the So 30 – 18 = 12 Example

30 –1 8 12

tens column, so now the column subtractions are 10 – 8 and 2 – 1.

9

Calculate 65.37 – 31.5. Solution

65.37 Add a zero to make them the same number of decimal places: – 31.50

If the top number in a column is smaller than the bottom one, use the same method of “borrowing” from the next column.

4 13

65.37 – 31.50 33.87

You need to borrow from the ones column. A one is ten tenths — so the 3 in the tenths column becomes 13.

So 65.37 – 31.5 = 33.87

Guided Practice Calculate the following sums without using a number line. 27. 50 – 26 28. 62 – 18 29. 76 – 49 30. 941 – 46 31. 62.4 – 31.2 32. 68.83 – 11.3 33. 29.42 – 13.18 34. 46.11 – 21.95 35. 42.38 – 36.45

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 2.3.1 additional questions — p436

Draw number lines to answer Exercises 1–4. 1. 7 + 9 2. 7 – (–9) 3. 9 + 7

4. –9 – 7

Calculate the following without using a number line. 5. 0.99 + 0.45 6. 1.86 + 3.33 7. 15.64 + 3.67 8. 45.64 + 13.88 9. 164.31 + 251.3 10. 32.12 – 12.1 11. 112.13 – 38.7 12. 19.4 – 5.37 13. 64.11 – 44.7

Round Up Adding and subtracting integers and decimals — it sounds like a lot to learn, but you use the same methods over and over. You’ll need to add and subtract decimals when you’re doing real-life math too. 74

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

Lesson

2.3.2

Multipl ying and Di viding Multiplying Dividing Inte ger s Integ ers

California Standards: Number Sense 1.2 y, and Add, subtract, multipl ultiply di vide rra a tional n umber s divide number umbers inte ger s , fractions, and (inte integ ers terminating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers.

What it means for you: You’ll practice multiplying and dividing integers on a number line, and then using other methods.

Multiplying and dividing are important skills, both in math and real life. In this Lesson you’ll see how multiplication and division can be modeled.

Pictur e Multiplica tion and Di vision on a Number Line Picture Multiplication Division A number line is just a way of showing the order of numbers — so you can use it for any kind of calculation, including multiplication and division. Multiplying by positive integers looks like a set of “hops” away from zero. Example

1

Calculate using the number line: Key words:

Solution –2

3 × (–2) –2

(i) 2 × 4, (ii) 3 × (–2) 2×4

–2

4

4

• integer

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1

0 1

2

3 4

5 6 7

8 9

(i) Multiplying 4 by 2 means you need to move 2 groups of 4 away from zero. So 2 × 4 = 8 (ii) Multiplying –2 by 3 means you need to move 3 groups of –2 from zero. So 3 × (–2) = –6 Dividing by a positive integer looks like you’re breaking a number down into equally sized parts. Example

2

Calculate using the number line: Solution –2

–6 ÷ 3 –2

(i) 8 ÷ 2, (ii) –6 ÷ 3 8÷2

–2

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1

4

0 1

2

4

3 4

5 6 7

8 9

(i) Dividing 8 by 2 means finding 8 on the number line, and then splitting the distance between 8 and 0 into 2 equal parts. So 8 ÷ 2 = 4

Don’t forget: You learned about the rules for multiplying by positive and negative numbers in grade 6.

Don’t forget: The “sign” of a number just means whether it is positive or negative.

(ii) Dividing –6 by 3 means you find –6 on the number line, and then split the distance between –6 and 0 into 3 equal parts. So –6 ÷ 3 = –2 Sometimes it’s hard to tell whether your answer will be positive or negative. The table below shows what the sign of the answer will be: positive ×/÷ positive = positive positive ×/÷ negative = negative negative ×/÷ positive = negative negative ×/÷ negative = positive

So for example, 8 ÷ (–2) = –4 while –2 × (–4) = 8

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

75

Guided Practice Use a number line to work out the problems given in Exercises 1–12. 1. 4 × 3 2. 2 × (–5) 3. –4 × 6 4. –4 × (–3) 5. –6 × 4 6. –3 × (–3) 7. 20 ÷ 5 8. 18 ÷ 6 9. 22 ÷ 2 10. –15 ÷ 3 11. 16 ÷ (–4) 12. –14 ÷ (–7)

You Must Kno w Ho w to Multipl y Without a Calcula tor Know How Multiply Calculator You can only really use a number line for simple multiplications. Here are two good ways of multiplying any two numbers together: Example

3

Calculate 12 × 14. Solution

Picture each number as the length of a side of a rectangle — but break each number down into Total length = 14 tens and ones. Then you can do the 10 4 multiplication “part by part.” Total The total area of the rectangle is 10 40 100 12 × 14, and you can see this equals length = 12 100 + 40 + 20 + 8 = 168 20 8 2

4 × 10

4×2

Another method is to write the numbers on top of each other.

14 × 12

First write the numbers as a vertical calculation.

28 + 140

Multiply the top number by the ones digit of the bottom number. 2 × 14 = 28 Then multiply the top number by the tens of the bottom number: 10 × 14 = 140

168

Then add them together, just like in the “rectangle” method. This is known as long multiplication. Notice how the above two methods are very similar. The first line of work in the long multiplication is the same as the area of the bottom part of the rectangle, and the second line of work in the long multiplication is the same as the area of the top part of the rectangle. In both methods you then add these together to get the overall result.

Guided Practice Use the methods in Example 3 for Exercises 13–20. 13. 12 × 13 14. 22 × 16 15. 32 × 18 16. –14 × 37 17. –46 × 42 18. 25 × 58 19. 52 × 67 20. 85 × 95 76

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

Wor k Thr ough Long Di vision fr om Left to Right ork hrough Division from Long division is a good way of writing down and solving tricky division problems. It involves dividing big numbers bit by bit, by breaking them into collections of smaller numbers. Check it out: Long division means breaking a division down into small problems like figuring out that 9 × 5 goes into 46 (with 1 left over). But, in Example 4, remember that the 4 is in the hundreds column and the 6 is in the tens column, so you’re really working out that 90 × 5 goes into 460 (with 10 left over). Long division is just a way of breaking up complicated division problems.

Example

4

Calculate 467 ÷ 5.

9 4 5 6 7 You need to divide the whole of – 45 467 by 5, but you can work through it bit by bit. 17

Solution

The number you’re dividing by goes on the left. Work from the left to find numbers that divide by 5.

93 5 467 – 450 17 Keep going until you’ve divided –15 the whole number. 2

The answer to this division is 93 with remainder 2. The standard way of writing this is 467 = (93 × 5) + 2.

5 doesn't divide into 4, but it divides into 46 (this is actually 460). The maximum number of times 5 divides into 46 is 9, so put 9 in the tens column. You now know that the answer is in the 90s. 9 × 5 = 45, so put 45 underneath, lined up with 46. Subtract 45 from 46, and bring the 7 down to find the amount left. There's 17 remaining. Now divide 17 by 5. 5 goes into 17 a maximum of 3 times. Write this in the units column.

3 × 5 = 15, so put 15 underneath, lining up the units. There's just 2 left. 5 won't go into 2, so it's a remainder.

9 3 R2 5 467

Guided Practice Write out and solve these calculations using long division. 21. 72 ÷ 6 22. 104 ÷ 4 23. 105 ÷ 7 24. 274 ÷ 13 25. 1955 ÷ 8 26. 5366 ÷ 13

Independent Practice Check it out: A quotient is what you get when you divide one number by another. A product is what you get when you multiply numbers.

Now try these: Lesson 2.3.2 additional questions — p437

Show the multiplications in Exercises 1–3 on a number line. 1. 3 × 1 2. 2 × 5 3. 4 × –2 Use the area method to find the products in Exercises 4–6. 4. 13 × 15 5. 12 × 65 6. 33 × 56 Find the products in Exercises 7–12. 7. 11 × 18 8. 13 × 22

9. 25 × 21

10. –33 × 12

12. –23 × –51

11. 16 × –15

Find the quotients in Exercises 13–18. 13. 710 ÷ 5 14. 138 ÷ 6

15. 1248 ÷ –8

16. 190 ÷ 3

18. 172 ÷ 5

17. 274 ÷ 4

Round Up Multiplying and dividing large numbers without a calculator seems like quite a task. But if you break the numbers up into ones, tens, and hundreds, then they’re much simpler to handle. Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

77

Lesson

2.3.3

Multipl ying F Multiplying Frr actions

California Standards:

You’ve multiplied fractions in other grades — but it’s still not an easy topic. In this Lesson you’ll get plenty more practice at it.

Number Sense 1.2 y , and Add, subtract, m ultipl ultiply umber s divide ra tional n number umbers actions (integers, fr fractions actions, and terminating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers.

What it means for you:

Multiplying a fraction by another fraction means working out parts of a part. For example,

×

2 3

means “one-fifth of two-thirds.”

You can show this graphically — it’s called an area model. You need to start by drawing a rectangle. 1 • Shade in

1 5

5

of the rectangle in one direction:

Key words: • area model • mixed numbers

1 5

{

You’ll practice multiplying fractions, and you’ll extend this to multiplying fractions by integers and mixed numbers.

Ar ea Models Sho w F tion Area Show Frraction Multiplica Multiplication

• Then shade in

2 3

of it in the other direction,

2 3

using a different color: 1 5

The part showing

×

2 3

{

is the part that represents one-fifth of two-thirds

— this is the part that’s shaded in both colors. There are 2 squares shaded out of a total of 15, so Example Calculate

3 4

1 5

×

2 3

=

2 15

.

1 ×

1 3

using the area model method.

Solution

You need to work out three-quarters of one-third — so shade in the rectangle in one direction, and

1 3

in the other direction:

The answer here is correct, although it could be simplified. See the next page (or Section 2.1) for more information.

{

Check it out:

3 4

1 3

There are 3 out of 12 squares shaded in both colors, so

3 4

×

1 3

=

3 12

{

.

Guided Practice Calculate these fraction multiplications by drawing area models: 1.

78

1 3

×

2 5

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

2.

3 4

×

1 5

3.

3 4

×

1 6

3 4

of

You Can Multipl y F awing Dia g rams Multiply Frractions Without Dr Dra Diag Don’t forget:

5

denominator

You’ve already seen the area model for

1 5

×

2 3

1 5

{

The top number in a fraction is called the numerator, and the bottom number is called the denominator. 2 numerator

When you draw an area model, the total number of squares is always the same as the product of the denominators of the fractions you’re multiplying. :

2 3

Multiply the denominators: • The total number of squares is 5 × 3 = 15.

{

Also, the number of squares shaded in both colors is always the same as the product of the numerators. Multiply the numerators: • The total number of squares shaded in both colors is 1 × 2 = 2. That means you can work the product out without drawing the area model. Example Calculate

3 4

2 ×

1 3

without drawing a diagram.

Solution

Multiply the numerators: 3 × 1 = 3 Multiply the denominators: 4 × 3 = 12 Now write this as a fraction: 3

12

So

Don’t forget:

3 4

×

1 3

=

3 . 12

The numerator and denominator can both be divided by 3...

That means you could write

A fraction is in its simplest form if 1 is the only number that divides exactly into both the numerator and denominator.

denominator

The solution to Example 2 could be simplified a bit more. Simplifying just means writing the solution using smaller numbers, but so that the fraction still means the same thing.

You can simplify fractions using the greatest common factor (GCF) — there’s a lot more about this in Section 2.1.

Don’t forget:

numerator

3 4

÷3

3 12 ×

÷3 1 3

=

1 4

1

...so 4 represents the same amount, but simplified.

1 . 4

Guided Practice Calculate these fraction multiplications without drawing area models. Simplify your answer where possible. 4.

5 6

×

1 2

5.

2 3

×

1 3

6.

1 3

7.

3 8

×

1 4

8.

5 7

×

3 5

9.

11 12

× ×

6 7 6 7

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

79

Fir st Con ver ed Number s to F First Conv ertt Whole or Mix Mixed Numbers Frractions Don’t forget: A mixed number contains an integer and a fraction. 1

For example, 3 2 is a mixed number.

To multiply fractions by mixed numbers, you can just write out the mixed numbers as a single fraction and carry on multiplying as normal. The same is true if you need to multiply a fraction by an integer — you can write the integer as a fraction and use the multiplication method from before. Example

Don’t forget:

3

The whole number 3 is

Solution

6 2 equivalent to 3 × = 2 . 2

(i) Convert 3

2 2

1 2

Calculate: (i) 3 1 2

×

1 4

,

4 5

(ii) 1 2

×8

(3× 2) +1

7

= 2 2 Then just multiply out the fractions as normal:

is the same as one whole.

3

1 2

×

1 4

=

7 2

to a fraction: 3 =

×

1 4

=

7 8

(ii) The integer 8 can be written as

8 1 4 5

. 4 5

8 1

So you can multiply as normal: ×8 = × =

32 5

Guided Practice Calculate the following, and simplify your solutions where possible. 1 3

×

13. 3 ×

2 7

10. 1

Don’t forget: If you’re multiplying negative numbers, remember the rules on p75 for working out the sign of the answer.

Don’t forget: You should usually write answers as mixed numbers instead of improper fractions — this keeps the numbers simpler.

Now try these: Lesson 2.3.3 additional questions — p437

1 5

11.

1 3

14. 1

×2 1 4

×

1 3 1 5

2 3 5 15. 1 7

12. 1

×

2 3

×1

1 2

Independent Practice Find the product and simplify each calculation in Exercises 1–3. 1.

2 3

×

7 10

2. –

4 9

×

3 15

3. –

5 12

×2

1 3

4. A positive whole number is multiplied by a positive fraction smaller than one. Explain how the size of the product compares to the original whole number. 5. A rectangular patio measures 8 14 feet wide and 12 12 feet long. What is the area of the patio? 6. A recipe for 12 muffins calls for 3 14 cups of flour. How many cups of flour are needed to make 42 muffins?

Round Up Multiplying fractions is OK because you don’t need to put each fraction over the same denominator. If you need to multiply by integers or mixed numbers, just turn them into fractions too. 80

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

Lesson

2.3.4

California Standard:

Di viding F Dividing Frractions Dividing fractions is hard to grasp — but once you learn a couple of useful techniques it’ll all seem a lot easier. The most important thing to learn is how to use reciprocals.

Number Sense 1.2 Add, subtract, multiply, and di vide rra a tional n umber s divide number umbers actions (integers, fr fractions actions, and terminating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers.

You Can Sho w F vision on a Number Line Show Frraction Di Division

What it means for you:

out how many halves are in three.” You can show it on a number line.

You’ll learn about the reciprocal of a fraction and how to use it when dividing by fractions.

A problem like 3 ÷

1 2

1 2

1 2

0

1 2

1 2

1 2

1

can be hard to imagine. In words, it means “work

1 2

2

You can see that So 3 ÷

3

1 2

1 2

fits into 3 six times.

= 6.

Key words:

You can use a number line to show that the number of halves in any number will always be double that number.

• reciprocal • divisor

For example, there are 8 halves in 4, so 4 ÷

1 2

= 4 × 2 = 8.

Di viding is the Same as Multipl ying b y the R ecipr ocal Dividing Multiplying by Recipr eciprocal Don’t forget: The reciprocal (or multiplicative inverse) of a number is what you have to multiply the number by to get 1. There’s more about reciprocals in Lesson 1.1.4.

Multiplication and division are really closely linked. In fact, you can write any division problem as a multiplication problem using a reciprocal. Dividing by a number is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal. The product of a number and its reciprocal is 1. For example, the reciprocal of 2 is by

1 2

1 . 2

This means that dividing something

is the same as multiplying by 2.

Example

1 1 4

Calculate 3 ÷ . Solution

The reciprocal of

1 4

is 4.

So you can rewrite this as a multiplication: 3 ÷ 1 4

So 3 ÷

1 4

= 3 × 4 = 12.

= 12.

Guided Practice Don’t forget: Also, since the reciprocal of 1 2

is 2, dividing something by

2 is the same as multiplying by

Calculate these by converting each division problem into a multiplication problem. Give your solutions in their simplest form.

1 . 2

1. 3 ÷

1 3

2. 8 ÷

4. 3 ÷

3 5

5.

There’s more about

this on the next page.

5 6

1 4

÷5

3. 8 ÷ 6.

11 12

2 3

÷ 11

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

81

Solv e F ecipr ocals Too Solve Frraction ÷ F Frraction Using R Recipr eciprocals You can turn any division into a multiplication using the reciprocal of the divisor (the thing you’re dividing by). It makes dividing fractions by fractions much easier than it seems at first. Example Don’t forget: 1 9 and are reciprocals. 9 1 They multiply to give 1. 1 9 1× 9 9 × = = =1 9 1 9 ×1 9

Don’t forget: To multiply two fractions, you first multiply the numerators to get the numerator of your answer. You then multiply the two denominators, and this becomes the denominator of your answer. See the previous Lesson for more information.

Calculate

2 3

2 1 9

÷ .

Solution

Dividing by a number is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal. The reciprocal of

1 9

9 1

Fraction:

Reciprocal:

1 9

9 1

is 9, or . 2 3

9 1

So you need to work out × . This is

2 9 2× 9 18 × = = =6 3 1 3×1 3 2

1

To convince yourself that ÷ really does equal 6, remember that in 3 9 words, the problem means, “how many ninths are in two-thirds?” Look at the square on the right. Two-thirds of it has been colored in. The square has then been divided into ninths — there are six ninths in the colored two-thirds. In other words,

2 3

÷

1 9

1 9 1 9 1 9

= 6.

1 9 1 9 1 9

1 9 1 9 1 9

Guided Practice Find the reciprocal of the following fractions: 7.

1 5

8.

2 3

9.

5 7

Calculate Exercises 10–15 by converting each division problem into a multiplication problem. Give your solutions in their simplest form.

82

10.

1 3

÷

1 5

11.

2 5

÷

1 6

12.

13.

1 2

÷

3 8

14.

1 3

÷

9 1

15.

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

1 5

6 7

÷ ÷

3 4 1 4

Con ver ed Number s into F Conv ertt Mix Mixed Numbers Frractions Fir st First

If you have a division problem involving mixed numbers, you need to write them out as fractions before you start to divide.

Example

3 6 7

1 6

Calculate −4 ÷ 2 . Solution

Don’t forget: 7 1 can be written as . 7

So 4 is equal to 4 ×

7 . 7

First convert the mixed numbers to fractions. (4×7) + 6 (2×6) +1 13 34 6 1 =− = −4 = − and 2 = 7 6 7 7 6 6 Write the division as a multiplication using the reciprocal of the divisor. The divisor is the number that you’re dividing by. 34 13 34 6 ÷ =− × 7 6 7 13 Do the multiplication in the normal way. −4

−

6 1 ÷2 7 6

=−

34 6 34 ×6 204 22 × =− =− , or −2 91 7 13 7×13 91

Guided Practice Calculate the answers to the following divisions. Write each solution as a mixed number or an integer. 16. 4 ÷ 2

1 2

1 3

17. 5 ÷

4 9

1 2

18. −9 ÷−3

1 8

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 2.3.4 additional questions — p437

Calculate the following. 3 1. ÷ 5 2. 4 1 1 4. ÷ 5. 2 3 1 1 7. 2 3 ÷ 8. 2

2 ÷7 3 2 3 ÷ 5 4 5 4÷ 6

9 ÷2 13 7 2 6. ÷ 9 18

3.

9. 8

9 1 ÷7 10 6

10. A one-pound bag of sugar is equal to 2 25 cups. A recipe for cornbread requires 23 of a cup of sugar. How many batches of cornbread can be made with the bag of sugar? 11. The area of a rectangular floor is 62 43 square feet. The length of the room is 10 14 feet. What is the width of the room?

Round Up The most important thing to remember here is that you can convert any fraction division into a multiplication using the reciprocal. Remember that little fact, and you’ll make your life a lot easier. Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

83

Lesson

2.3.5

Common Denomina tor s Denominator tors

California Standards:

Adding and subtracting fractions isn’t always straightforward. Before you can add or subtract fractions, they need to be over a common denominator, and one way to find a common denominator is to find the least common multiple (LCM) of the denominators.

Number Sense 1.1 Read, write, and compare rational numbers in scientific notation (positive and negative powers of 10), compar e rra a tional n umber s compare number umbers in g ener al. gener eneral. Number Sense 1.2 Add, subtract, Ad d, subtr act, multiply, and umber s divide ra tional n number umbers actions fractions actions, and (integers, fr terminating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers. Number Sense 2.2 Ad d and Add by using common

subtr act fr actions subtract fractions factoring to find denomina tor s. denominator tors

Prime F actoriza tion — the Fir st Ste p to Finding an L CM Factoriza actorization First Step LCM Finding the prime factorization of a number involves writing it as a product of prime factors (prime numbers multiplied together). Example

1

Write 36 as a product of prime factors. Solution

One way to do this is to look for factors of 36, then look for factors of those factors, and then look for factors of those factors, and so on. You can arrange your factors in a “tree.” Break down 36 into two factors and write them underneath. Then look for factors of your factors.

What it means for you:

Key words: • • • •

prime factorization least common multiple common denominator

It doesn’t matter which factors you start with...

36

You’ll learn the first step of adding and subtracting fractions — putting fractions over a common denominator. You’ll also see how this allows you to compare fractions to find which is greater.

4

9

2 2 3 3

36 2

...the numbers at the ends of the branches will always be the same.

18 2

9 3 3

Each branch ends in a prime number — these can’t be broken down further. So the prime factorization of 36 is 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 Example

2

Write the following as products of prime factors: a) 35, b) 37 Solution

Don’t forget: A number that has no factors except itself and 1 is called a prime number.

a)

35 5

7

b) 37 Don’t forget:

5 and 7 are both prime, so the tree stops here. The prime factorization of 35 is 35 = 5 × 7 37 is prime, so the tree has no branches. 37 doesn’t factor.

Factors of a number are any whole numbers that divide exactly into it.

Guided Practice Write the following as products of prime factors. 1. 15 2. 30 3. 17 4. 16 5. 24 6. 50 84

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

Don’t forget:

The L CM is the Least Common Multiple LCM

Multiples are what you get in multiplication tables. For example, the multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18... and so on.

You can use prime factorizations to find the least common multiple of two numbers, which is the smallest number that both will divide into evenly. Example

3

Find the least common multiple of 8 and 14. Solution

There are two ways of doing this. 1. You can start listing all the multiples of each number, and the first one that they have in common is the least common multiple: • Multiples of 8: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72... • Multiples of 14: 14, 28, 42, 56... So the least common multiple is 56. This method is fine, but it can get a bit tedious when the LCM is high. 2. You can first write each number as the product of its prime factors. 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 and 14 = 2 × 7. 8

Check it out: The least common multiple is useful when finding a common denominator for two fractions.

2

2

2

Then make a table showing these factorizations. 14 2 7 Wherever possible, put each factor of the second number in a column with the same factor. Start a new column if the number’s not already there — 8 2 2 2 so in this example, start a new column for the 7. 2 7 14 Now make a new row — the LCM row. LCM 2 2 2 7 For each box in the LCM row, write down the number in the boxes above. Finally, multiply together all the numbers in the LCM row to find the least common multiple. So the least common multiple of 8 and 14 is 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 = 56. Example

4

Find the least common multiple of 10 and 15. Solution

• Prime factorizations: 10 = 2 × 5 and 15 = 3 × 5. • Make a table: • Multiply the numbers in the LCM row. So the least common multiple of 10 and 15 is 2 × 5 × 3 = 30.

10

2

5

15 LCM 2

5 5

3 3

Guided Practice Find the least common multiple of each pair of numbers in Exercises 7–15. 7. 6 and 15 8. 10 and 12 9. 8 and 9 10. 4 and 10 11. 8 and 16 12. 20 and 30 13. 13 and 7 14. 9 and 81 15. 42 and 30 Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

85

Compar e F tor Compare Frractions Using a Common Denomina Denominator Check it out: You don’t have to use the least common multiple here — any common multiple would be fine. For example, you could use 8 × 14 = 112. However, using the least common multiple will mean all the numbers will be smaller, which can be very useful.

Don’t forget: When you multiply both the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same number, you don’t change its value. This is because you are really just multiplying the fraction by 1, since

7 7

=

4 4

= 1.

Least common multiples can be used as common denominators. Example

5

By using a common denominator, find which is greater,

5 9 or . 8 14

Solution

It’s not easy to say which is the larger fraction when they have different denominators. You need to find fractions equivalent to each of these that have a common denominator. You can use any common multiple of 8 and 14 as the common denominator. Here, we’ll use the least common multiple (which is 56 — see Example 3). You need to decide how many 8s and how many 14s make 56 — and then multiply the top and bottom of each fraction by the right number: 9 9× 4 36 5 5× 7 35 = = = = 14 14 × 4 56 8 8× 7 56 36 35 9 5 is greater than . You can now see that is greater than , since 56 56 14 8

Guided Practice In Exercises 16–21, put each pair of fractions over a common denominator to find which is the greater in each pair. 16.

1 2 and 4 10

17.

1 2 and 3 7

18.

3 2 and 10 7

19.

4 5 and 9 11

20.

11 12 and 15 17

21.

6 2 and 9 3

Independent Practice Write the numbers in Exercises 1–6 as products of prime factors. 1. 21 2. 100 3. 32 4. 50 5. 49 6. 132

Now try these:

Find the least common multiple of each pair in Exercises 7–12. 7. 6 and 8 8. 10 and 25 9. 48 and 21 10. 32 and 50 11. 100 and 49 12. 49 and 132

Lesson 2.3.5 additional questions — p438

Find the greater fraction in each pair in Exercises 13–15. 13.

10 51 and 21 100

14.

50 13 and 132 49

16. Order these fractions from least to greatest:

15.

33 32 and 50 49

2 14 13 3 16 , , , , 3 17 16 4 21

Round Up Finding common denominators is something you should get real comfortable with doing, because you need to do it a lot in math — in the next few Lessons, for example. 86

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

Lesson

Ad ding and Subtr acting Adding Subtracting Fr actions

2.3.6

California Standards: Number Sense 1.2 Add, subtract act, multiply, and Ad d, subtr act umber s divide ra tional n number umbers actions (integers, fr fractions actions, and terminating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers. Number Sense 2.2 Ad d and subtr act fr actions Add subtract fractions by using factoring to find common denomina tor s. denominator tors

Adding and subtracting fractions can be quick, or it can be quite a long process — it all depends on whether the fractions already have a common denominator, or whether you have to find it first.

You Can Ad d F tor Add Frractions with a Common Denomina Denominator If fractions have a common denominator (their denominators are the same), adding them is fairly straightforward. To find the numerator of the sum, you add the numerators of the individual fractions. The denominator stays the same. Example

What it means for you: You’ll see how to add and subtract fractions.

Find

1

2 3 + . 7 7

Solution

Key words: • denominator • numerator • common denominator

These two fractions have a common denominator, 7. So 7 will also be the denominator of the sum. The numerator of the sum will be 2 + 3 = 5. So

Don’t forget: The numerator is the top line of a fraction. The denominator is the bottom line of a fraction.

2 3 2+3 5 + = = . 7 7 7 7

You subtract fractions with a common denominator in exactly the same way. Example

Don’t forget: You can think of adding fractions as adding parts of whole shapes.

2 7 2 7

+

3 7 3 7

=

7 2 − . 9 9

Solution

The denominator of the result will be 9 (the fractions’ common denominator). The numerator of the result will be 7 – 2 = 5.

==

+ +

Find

2

5 7 5 7

So

7 2 7−2 5 − = = . 9 9 9 9

Guided Practice Find the sums and differences in Exercises 1–8. 1.

1 2 + 5 5

2.

3 4 + 11 11

3.

4 1 − 5 5

4.

10 2 − 21 21

5.

7 4 + 15 15

6.

23 19 + 50 50

7.

9 7 − 25 25

8.

5 1 + 17 17

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

87

You Ma y Need to Find a Common Denomina tor Fir st May Denominator First Fractions with unlike denominators cannot be directly added or subtracted. You must first find equivalent fractions with a common denominator. Example Find Don’t forget: A fraction whose numerator and denominator are the same is equal to 1 — so multiplying another fraction 6

9

by, say, 6 or 9 doesn’t change its value. This is why you can multiply the numerator and denominator by the same amount, and leave the value of the fraction unchanged.

Don’t forget: To find an LCM, you can use a table like this one. (See Lesson 2.3.5 for more information.)

9 6 2 LCM 2

3

3

3 3

3

Check it out: Again, any common multiple of 15 and 20 can be used as a common denominator — including their product 15 × 20 = 300. But this will mean the numbers in the calculation will be bigger than necessary. For example: 11 113 3 22022045 45 − −= = − − 15 1520 20300300300300 175175 = = 300300 7 7 = = 12 12

Check it out: Even if you use the LCM as your common denominator, you may still be able to simplify the answer at the end.

88

3

7 5 + . 9 6

Solution

The denominators are different here. This means you need to find two fractions equivalent to them, but with a common denominator. The common denominator can be any common multiple of 9 and 6. • You could use 9 × 6 = 54 as your common denominator. Then the equivalent fractions will be: 7 6 7×6 42 × = = 9 6 9×6 54

5 9 5× 9 45 × = = 6 9 6 × 9 54 42 45 87 + = Now you can add these fractions: , which you can 54 54 54 29 simplify to by dividing the numerator and denominator by 3. 18 • Or you could find the LCM (least common multiple) using prime factorizations. Since 9 = 32 and 6 = 2 × 3, the LCM is 2 × 3 × 3 = 18.

This time, the equivalent fractions are:

5 3 5×3 15 7 2 7× 2 14 = . × = = and × = 6 3 6 ×3 18 9 2 9× 2 18 14 15 29 + = . Now you can add these to get 18 18 18 You can use the LCM or any other common multiple as your common denominator — you’ll end up with the same answer. But using the LCM means that the numbers in your fractions are smaller and easier to use. Example

4

By putting both fractions over a common denominator, find

11 3 − . 15 20

Solution

Use a table to find the LCM of 15 and 20 — this is is 5 × 3 × 2 × 2 = 60. Find equivalent fractions with denominator 60: 11 11× 4 44 3 3×3 9 = = = = and 15 15× 4 60 20 20 ×3 60 So rewriting the subtraction gives: This can be simplified to

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

15

5

3

20 5 LCM 5

3

11 3 44 9 35 − = − = 15 20 60 60 60

35 7 = . 60 12

2 2

2 2

Guided Practice Calculate the answers in Exercises 9–11. 14 2 7 2 − + 10. 9. 15 5 10 3

2 4 11. − + 3 7

Be Extr a Car eful if Ther e ar e Ne ga ti ve Signs Extra Careful here are Neg tiv As always in math, if there are negative numbers around, you have to be extra careful. Don’t forget: Remember... subtracting a negative number is exactly the same as adding a positive number.

Don’t forget: You could also swap the terms around to form a subtraction: −3 2 2 3 + = − 5 7 7 5

Don’t forget: −11 11 11 , − , and are all 35 35 −35 equal.

Example

5

3 ⎛ −2 ⎞ Find − − ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ . 5 ⎝ 7 ⎠ Solution

This looks tricky because of all the negative signs. So take things slowly and carefully. −3 2 + — it means exactly the same. This sum can be rewritten as 5 7 The LCM of 5 and 7 is 5 × 7 = 35. So put both these fractions over a common denominator of 35. −3 −3× 7 −21 2 2×5 10 = = = = 5 5× 7 35 7 7×5 35 Now you can add the two fractions in the same way as before. −3 ⎛⎜ −2 ⎞⎟ −21 10 −21 + 10 −11 11 − ⎜ ⎟⎟ = + = = or − 5 ⎜⎝ 7 ⎠ 35 35 35 35 35

Guided Practice Calculate the answers in Exercises 12–14. Simplify your answers.

2 ⎛ 3 ⎞⎟ 12. − − ⎜⎜⎜− ⎟⎟ 3 ⎝ 8⎠

13.

7 ⎛⎜ 4 ⎞⎟ − ⎜− ⎟ 6 ⎜⎝ 9 ⎟⎠

14. –

25 ⎛⎜ 7 ⎞⎟ – ⎜– ⎟ 48 ⎜⎝ 16 ⎟⎠

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 2.3.6 additional questions — p438

Calculate the following. Give all your answers in their simplest form. 1.

2 8 + 7 7

2.

8 2 − 5 5

3.

7 2 − 9 9

5.

19 7 + 30 20

6.

5 5 + 7 8

7. −

3 5 − 16 17

4.

7 3 − 16 8

8.

19 ⎛⎜ 20 ⎞⎟ + ⎜− ⎟ 20 ⎜⎝ 21 ⎟⎠

Round Up Keep practicing this until it becomes routine... (i) find a common denominator, (ii) put both fractions over this denominator, (iii) do the addition or subtraction, (iv) simplify your answer if possible. You’ll see this again next Lesson. Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

89

Lesson

Ad ding and Subtr acting Adding Subtracting Mix ed Number s Mixed Numbers

2.3.7

California Standards: Number Sense 1.2 Add, subtract act, multiply, and Ad d, subtr act umber s divide ra tional n number umbers actions (integers, fr fractions actions, and terminating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers. Number Sense 2.2 Ad d and subtr act fr actions Add subtract fractions by using factoring to find common denomina tor s. denominator tors

What it means for you: You’ll learn to add and

This Lesson covers nothing new — it just combines things that you’ve learned before — converting mixed numbers to fractions, and adding and subtracting fractions. So if they seemed tricky the first time around, this is a good chance to get a bit more practice.

Ad ding Mix ed Number s — Con ver st Adding Mixed Numbers Conv ertt to F Frractions Fir First 1

7

Mixed numbers are things like 4 and − 6 , with both an integer and a 2 8 fraction part. It’s easiest to add the numbers together if you convert them to fractions first. Once they’re written as improper fractions you can add them by finding the least common multiple as before.

1

subtract numbers like 2 2 and 3

5 . 16

Example 1 2

1 2 3

Find 1 + 2 .

Key words:

Solution

• mixed number • common denominator

Convert both the numbers to fractions. (2×3) + 2 8 (1× 2) +1 3 2 1 = 2 = = 1 = 3 2 3 3 2 2 Put both fractions over a common denominator of 2 × 3 = 6. 3 3×3 9 = = 2 2×3 6

Don’t forget: You can convert 2

2 3

to a

fraction by remembering that: (i)

2 means (2 × 1) + 3 . 3 can be written as 3 .

2 2 3

(ii) 1

⎛ 3⎞ 2 2 So 2 = ⎜⎜2 × ⎟⎟⎟ + ⎜⎝ 3 3⎠ 3 2× 3 2 = + 3 3 (2× 3) + 2 = 3

8 8× 2 16 = = 3 3× 2 6

9 16 25 Do the addition: 1 1 + 2 2 = + = 2 3 6 6 6

Example 1 2

2 7 8

Find 4 − 6 . Solution

Convert both the numbers to fractions. (4× 2) +1 9 (6×8) + 7 55 1 7 = = 4 = 6 = 2 8 2 8 2 8 Put both fractions over a common denominator of 8. 9 9× 4 36 55 , and is already over a denominator of 8. = = 2 2× 4 8 8 36 55 36 − 55 19 Do the subtraction: 4 1 − 6 7 = − = =− 2 8 8 8 8 8

90

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

Guided Practice For Exercises 1–6, give your answers as fractions. 1. 3 + 2

3 4

3 4

2. 8 + 1

3 4

3 5

5. 1

4. 2 − 4

1 2

2 3

3. 6

1 5 −2 7 8

2 1 − 3 2 4 5

6. 4 −1

1 6

Tak e Extr a Car e With Ne ga ti ve Signs ake Extra Care Neg tiv If there are a lot of negative signs, you should take extra care. Example 2 3

3

( 67 ) .

Find −3 − −2 Solution

Convert the mixed numbers to fractions. ⎛(3×3) + 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛(2× 7) + 6 ⎞⎟ 11 20 2 6 ⎟⎟ = − ⎟⎟ = − −3 = −⎜⎜⎜ and − 2 = −⎜⎜⎜ 3 7 ⎟ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 7 3 7 ⎠ ⎝⎜ ⎠ Now find a common denominator — you can use 3 × 7 = 21. 11 11× 7 77 20 20 ×3 60 − =− =− and − = − =− 3 3× 7 21 7 7×3 21 Don’t forget: Subtracting a negative number is the same as adding a positive number.

So the calculation becomes 77 ⎛ 60 ⎞ 77 60 −77 + 60 17 − − ⎜⎜− ⎟⎟⎟ = − + = =− 21 ⎜⎝ 21⎠ 21 21 21 21 Also take extra care if the calculation has more than two terms — you have to make sure that all the fractions have the same denominator. Example Find

4

5 3 2 − +2 . 3 3 5

Solution

Don’t forget: Always do additions and subtractions from left to right.

Convert the mixed number to a fraction.

2 3

2 =

(2×3) + 2 3

=

8 3

Now find a common denominator — you can use 5 × 3 = 15. 5 5×5 25 3 3×3 9 8 8×5 40 = = = = = = 3 3×5 15 5 5×3 15 3 3×5 15 So the calculation becomes

25 9 40 25 − 9 + 40 56 − + = = 15 15 15 15 15

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

91

Guided Practice Do each of the calculations in Exercises 7–9. Give your answers as fractions. 7. −4

5 2 −2 6 3

8. −5

(

5 11 − −4 6 12

)

1 5 1 9. 2 2 − + 1 12 6

Simplify Your Ans wer s if P ossib le Answ ers Possib ossible It’s usually a good idea to simplify your answers if possible. Example 2 3

5 5 6

Find 1 + 2 . Solution

Convert the mixed numbers to fractions. (1×3) + 2 5 (2×6) + 5 17 2 5 = and 2 = = 1 = 3 6 3 6 3 6 You can use 6 as a common denominator. Find a fraction equivalent to Don’t forget: To simplify a fraction you divide the numerator and denominator by the same number (a common factor).

2 3

5 6

Do the addition: 1 + 2 =

5 3

with a denominator of 6:

5 5× 2 10 = = . 3 3× 2 6

10 17 10 + 17 27 + = = 6 6 6 6

Simplify this to get your final answer:

27 9 Di vide the n umer a tor Divide numer umera = tor b y 3 by denominator 6 2 and denomina

Guided Practice For Exercises 10–12, give your answers in their simplest form. 3 8

10. 2 + 3

5

1 8

1

11. 3 16 −1 16

12. 1

3 5 +2 8 10

Independent Practice Calculate the following. Give all your answers in their simplest form. Now try these: Lesson 2.3.7 additional questions — p438

1. 2

2 1 +3 3 3

5. 5

7 3 −12 8 16

2. 3

1 1 −1 4 2

6. 8

3. 2 1 7 −1 4 11

2 4 −1 7 5

4. 2 7. 2

3 2 3 +3 −5 4 3 8

Round Up You can hopefully see how you can use the same old routine over and over... Convert mixed numbers to fractions, find a common denominator, do the calculation. 92

Section 2.3 — Operations on Rational Numbers

3 4 −9 5 15

Lesson

2.4.1

Section 2.4

Fur ther Oper a tions with Further Opera Fr actions

California Standards: Number Sense 1.2 ultipl y, and Add, subtract, multipl ultiply Ad d, subtr act, m di vide rra a tional n umber s divide number umbers (inte ger s, fr actions (integ ers fractions actions, and terminating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers. Number Sense 2.2 Ad d and subtr act fr actions Add subtract fractions by using factoring to find common denomina tor s. denominator tors

The problems start to get more and more complicated now. There are all kinds of calculations in this Lesson. But you just have to remember what you’ve learned before, and use it carefully.

Or der of Oper a tions: Multiplica tion Bef or e Ad dition Order Opera Multiplication Befor ore Addition Math problems with fractions can involve combinations of operations — for example, you might need to do a multiplication and addition. Example

What it means for you: You’ll see how doing complex calculations involving fractions uses exactly the same ideas you’ve seen earlier in this Section.

Key words: • order of operations • common denominator

Don’t forget: LCM means least common multiple — see Lesson 2.3.5.

Don’t forget: You can use PEMDAS to help you remember the correct order of operations. Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication and Division, Addition, and Subtraction.

Calculate

1

2 5 7 + × . 5 2 3

Solution

Remember — if there are no parentheses, you do multiplication before addition. So this calculation becomes 5× 7 2 35 2 + = + 2×3 5 6 5 The LCM of 6 and 5 is 6 × 5 = 30. Use this as the common denominator. 35 35×5 175 2 2×6 12 = = and = = 6 6 ×5 30 5 5×6 30 Find the result. 175 12 175 + 12 187 + = = 30 30 30 30 Example Find

2

30 2 3 ÷ −1 . 4 45 3

Solution

Don’t forget: Dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal.

Don’t forget: A raised dot . means multiplication. 4 5

So 2 ⋅ 2 = 2

4 ×2 5

Do the division first.

30 2 30 3 30 ×3 90 ÷ = × = = =1 45 3 45 2 45× 2 90

Then the subtraction.

4 7 4−7 3 3 1 −1 = − = =− 4 4 4 4 4

Guided Practice Calculate the following. Simplify your answers where possible. 1.

1 3 5 + × 2 2 6

3

2. 4 4 ÷ 2 −

1 8

7 8

3. 1 ⋅ 2 + 2

4 ⋅2 5

Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

93

Remember PEMD AS with R eall y Comple x Expr essions PEMDAS Reall eally Complex Expressions With calculations that look complicated, take things slowly. Example

(

3 2

1

)

1

Calculate 4 3 + 2 × 6 . Solution

First convert the mixed number to a fraction so that you can do the calculation more easily. 2 3

4 =

(4×3) + 2 3

=

14 3

Then calculate the sum inside the parentheses using 6 as the common denominator. ⎛14 1 ⎞⎟ 1 ⎛ 28 3 ⎞⎟ 1 ⎜⎜ + ⎟ × = ⎜⎜ + ⎟ × ⎜⎝ 3 2 ⎟⎠ 6 ⎜⎝ 6 6 ⎟⎠ 6 ⎛ 31⎞ 1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ × ⎜⎝ 6 ⎠ 6 Finally, do the multiplication. 31 1 31 × = 6 6 36

Example

4

⎛ 3 1⎞ 1 Calculate ⎜⎜⎜3 4 + ⎟⎟⎟ − 3 ⋅ ⎝ 4⎠ 4 Solution

Don’t forget: It’s a good idea to simplify fractions whenever you can — don’t wait until you’ve got your final answer. This way, you’re making the numbers smaller and easier to use in the rest of the calculation.

94

(3× 4) + 3

15 4 4 1 15 1 16 3 Evaluate the expression in the parentheses. 3 + = + = = 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 Do the multiplication. 3 ⋅ = 3 4 4 3 4

First turn the mixed number into a fraction. 3 =

⎛ 3 1⎞ 1 3 Now you have: ⎜⎜3 + ⎟⎟ – 3 ⋅ = 4 – ⎜⎝ 4 4 ⎟⎠ 4 4 13 16 3 = – = Finally, do the subtraction. 4 4 4

Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

=

Example

5

1 1 Calculate 21 × 1 + 4 3 3

(

)

3

Solution

Don’t forget: Do divisions and multiplications from left to right.

Don’t forget: 1 3

3 =

(3 × 3) + 1 3

=

10 3

Parentheses first: To add the numbers, put them over a common denominator of 3. 3 (4 ×3) + 1 3 13 16 1 = + = 1+ 4 = + 3 3 3 3 3 3 10 1 The division is next, but you’ll need to convert 3 to first. 3 3 1 2 = 1 ÷ 10 = 1 × 3 = 1×3 = 3 1 2 3 2 10 2×10 20 3 3

You can now do the multiplication. 1 2 × 1 + 4 1 = 3 ×16 = 3×16 = 48 1 3 20 3 20 ×3 60 3

(

)

3

The final step is to simplify the answer:

48 4 = 60 5

Guided Practice Calculate the expressions in Exercises 4–5. Give your answers in their simplest form.

4.

1 2 5 1 7 8 ⋅ − ⋅ + ⋅ 6 7 7 2 12 7

5 +8 5. 1 1 4 2 3

1 8

Independent Practice Calculate the following. Give all your answers in their simplest form. Now try these: Lesson 2.4.1 additional questions — p439

1.

3 1 5 ⋅ + 4 6 12

2.

3.

5 9 3 5 5 1 ⋅ + ⋅ − ⋅ 12 2 4 3 8 3

4.

8 3 1 27 − ⋅ + 15 5 3 30

3 2 + 5 15 + 2 2 − 1 3 2 2 3

Round Up Some of the expressions in this Lesson were really complicated. When you have a tricky expression to evaluate, you just need to take your time, remember PEMDAS, and work through it very carefully. Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

95

Lesson

Multipl ying and Di viding Multiplying Dividing Decimals

2.4.2

California Standards: Number Sense 1.2 y, and Add, subtract, multipl ultiply di vide rra a tional n umber s divide number umbers (integers, fractions, and ter mina ting decimals termina minating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers.

What it means for you: You’ll practice multiplying and dividing decimals.

The trickiest thing about multiplying and dividing decimals is working out where the decimal point should go. Once you understand the method, it’s a lot more straightforward though.

Modeling Decimal Multiplica tion Multiplication You can use an area model to show what happens when you multiply two decimal numbers. Example

Key words:

1

Calculate 0.2 × 0.6.

• integer • decimal

{

0.2

Solution

0.2 is two-tenths — that’s how much of the square on the right is shaded. 0.6 is six-tenths — this is shaded in the other direction on the diagram below.

Check it out:

were multiplying

1 5

3

and 5 . These fractions are equivalent to the decimals 0.2 and 0.6.

The part that’s been shaded twice is 0.2 × 0.6. The square’s now divided into 100, so each small square is 1 ÷ 100 = 0.01.

0.2

{

This is really similar to the fraction multiplication area model in Lesson 2.3.3. You would have shaded exactly the same areas if you

There are 12 squares that have been shaded twice and each represents 0.01. 0.6

So 0.2 × 0.6 = 0.12

{

Check it out: In Example 1, multiplying two decimals each with 1 decimal place gives you a solution with 2 decimal places. In fact, you always count the decimal places in both factors to find out how many decimal places the solution has.

Guided Practice Use an area model to show the following multiplications. 1. 0.4 × 0.3

96

2. 0.8 × 0.2

Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

3. 0.1 × 0.9

Multiplying Decimals Multiplying decimals is just like multiplying integers — only you have to make sure you put the decimal point in the correct place. You can rewrite a decimal multiplication as a fraction calculation. Example

2

Calculate: 2 × 1.6 Solution

16 10

2 × 1.6 = 2 ×

Write the decimal as a fraction...

=

2 ×16 10

=

32 = 32 ÷ 10 = 3.2 10

...which can be rewritten like this.

Now divide by the 10 to get the decimal answer.

This works if both numbers are decimals too: Example

3

Calculate: 2.1 × 0.04 Solution

2.1 × 0.04 = Check it out: Another way of multiplying decimals is to just ignore the decimal point, do an integer multiplication, then figure out where the decimal point goes. For example: 2.1 × 0.04 Ignore the decimal points and do 21 × 4 = 84. The factors had a total of 3 decimal places: 2.1 (1 decimal place) × 0.04 (2 decimal places)

21 4 × 10 100

=

21× 4 10 ×100

=

84 = 84 ÷ 1000 = 0.084 1000

84

0 084

Multiply them.

Now divide by the 1000 to get the decimal answer.

Al ways Chec k the P osition of Your Decimal P oint Alw Check Position Point You can check you have the correct number of decimal places in the product by making sure it’s the same as the total number of decimal places in the factors. For example,

So you know the product must have 3 decimal places, so move the decimal point 3 places to the left:

Write both decimals as fractions.

2.1 × 3.67 = 7.707 1 digit + 2 digits = 3 digits

Watch out for calculations that give decimals with zeros at the end — you have to count the final zeros. For example, multiplying 1.5 by 1.2 gives 1.80. You must count up the decimal places before rewriting this as 1.8.

Guided Practice Don’t forget:

Write out and solve these calculations.

Multiplying a positive by a negative gives a negative — see page 75 for more.

4. 1.2 × (–1.1)

5. 4.5 × 5.9

6. 1.6 × (–8.2)

7. 6.31 × 6.4

8. (–2.77) × (–7.3)

9. 9.1 × 2.44

Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

97

Di viding Decimals — Tak e Car e with the Decimal P oint Dividing ake Care Point You can think about decimal division in a similar way. Example

4

Calculate: 46.5 ÷ 0.05 Solution

465 5 ÷ 10 100

Write the decimals as fr actions fractions

=

465 100 × 10 5

To di vide b y a fr action, m ultipl y b y its divide by fraction, multipl ultiply by r ecipr ocal eciprocal

=

4650 = 4650 ÷ 5 = 930 5

46.5 ÷ 0.05 =

Don’t forget: You can do integer division using long division. Check back to Lesson 2.3.2.

Another way is to ignore the decimal points and just use integer division. Then you have to find the correct position for the decimal point: • Count the number of digits after the decimal point in the first number and move the decimal point this many places to the left. Check it out: You could also do the division 46.5 ÷ 0.05 in Example 4 by doing integer division, then working out the decimal places: 465 ÷ 5 = 93 93. There’s 1 decimal place in 46.5, and 2 decimal places in 0.05. So move 1 decimal places to the left, and 2 to the right right. So the decimal point moves one place right overall: 46.5 ÷ 0.05 = 930

Check it out: 0.5 is 10 times smaller than 5. This means that the result of dividing something by 0.5 will be 10 times bigger than the result of dividing the same thing by 5. To make a result 10 times bigger, you move the decimal point one place to the right.

Now try these: Lesson 2.4.2 additional questions — p439

• Count the number of digits after the decimal point in the second number and move the decimal point this many places to the right. Example

5

If 5 ÷ 25 = 0.2, calculate 0.005 ÷ 2.5. Solution

0.005 is the first number — it has 3 decimal places. 2.5 is the second number — it has 1 decimal place. So you have to move 3 places to the left, and then 1 to the right.

0.0 0 0.2

0.0.0 0 2

0.005 ÷ 2.5 = 0.002

Guided Practice Solve these divisions. 10. 273 ÷ 1.3 11. 195.2 ÷ 8 13. 1.56 ÷ 3 14. 1.44 ÷ 3 16. 3.84 ÷ 1.2 17. 4.64 ÷ 1.6

12. 53.56 ÷ 1.3 15. 6.55 ÷ 5 18. 33.58 ÷ 2.3

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, find the product of each pair of numbers. 1. 1.03 × 0.5 2. 4.781 × –6.0 3. –3.11 × (–9.14) 4. 7.2 × 0.6 5. 1.04 × 4 6. 10.5 × 0.07 Find the quotient in Exercises 7–9. 7. –7.25 ÷ 0.25 8. –16.8 ÷ (–0.04)

9. 12.48 ÷ –1.2

Round Up Wow — that was a lot of information about multiplying and dividing. But don’t panic — when you’re multiplying and dividing with decimals, you just need to take it slow, working bit by bit. 98

Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

Lesson

2.4.3

Oper a tions with Opera Fractions and Decimals

California Standards: Number Sense 1.2 Ad d, subtr act, multipl y, and Add, subtract, ultiply umber s di vide ra tional n number umbers divide ( integers, fr actions fractions actions,, and ter mina ting decimals termina minating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers.

What it means for you: You’ll practice adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing fractions and decimals together.

Key words: • • • •

fraction decimal multiply divide

You’ve probably now seen nearly all the ideas, techniques, and tricks you’ll ever need for almost any kind of number problem. Now you’re going to put them all into action...

Calcula tions Can In volv e Both F Calculations Inv olve Frractions and Decimals To do a calculation involving a fraction and a decimal, you either have to make them both fractions or both decimals. 3 For example, if you needed to find 0.3 × , you could... 5 ⎛3⎞ 3 3 9 • Convert 0.3 to a fraction ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ and find × = . ⎝10 ⎠ 10 5 50 3 • Convert to a decimal (0.6) and find 0.3 × 0.6 = 0.18. 5 Both methods are correct, and they both give the same answer (you can check by calculating 9 ÷ 50, which gives 0.18). Example

1

4 by: 5 a) converting 0.25 to a fraction, 4 b) converting to a decimal. 5

Calculate 0.25 ×

Solution

a) 0.25 is b)

25 1 = . So 0.25× 4 = 1 × 4 = 4 = 1 100 4 5 4 5 20 5

4 4 is 4 ÷ 5 = 0.8. So 0.25 × = 0.25 × 0.8 = 0.2 5 5

The best idea is to choose the method that makes the calculation easiest. Example 2 1 Calculate − 0.5 . 3 Don’t forget: 0.3333... can also be written as 0.3 . (But that doesn’t make it any easier to subtract 0.5 from.)

Solution

If you convert

1 3

to a decimal, you get 0.333333333..., which is difficult

to subtract 0.5 from. So it’s best to use fractions here. So

1 1 1 2 3 1 − 0.5 = − = − = − 3 3 2 6 6 6

Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

99

Guided Practice For Exercises 1–6, find the answers to the calculations by: (i) converting all the numbers to fractions, (ii) converting all numbers to decimals. Check that both your answers for each exercise are equivalent. 1 1 1 1. + 0.2 2. − 0.2 3. + 0.4 2 4 4 1 1 1 4. × 0.3 5. ×1.2 6. × 2.5 10 3 6 For Exercises 7–9, use the easiest method to do each calculation. ⎛1 ⎞ 1 3 1 7. + 8. 0.15 ÷ 9. 0.3 − ⎜⎜⎜ × 4.5⎟⎟⎟ ⎝3 ⎠ 7 98 2

You Can Think of F tion Another Way Frraction Multiplica Multiplication There’s another useful way to think about multiplying by fractions. 3 5

Check it out:

When you multiply by the fraction , it is the same as either:

Multiplying by

(i) multiplying by 3 and then dividing by 5, or (ii) dividing by 5 and then multiplying by 3.

1 is the same 5 as dividing by 5.

Example

3

2 Calculate 6.93× . 3 Solution

This would be difficult to do using decimals (6.93 × 0.6666...). ⎛ 693 ⎞⎟ ⎟. And 6.93 doesn’t convert to an “easy” fraction ⎜⎜⎜ ⎝100 ⎟⎠ 2 But multiplying by 3 means dividing by 3 and then multiplying by 2. This is much quicker. Dividing by 3 gives: Then multiplying by 2 gives: 2 So, 6.93× = 4.62 3 Example Calculate Check it out: You can do the multiplication and division in either order — so choose whichever will be easier.

6.93 ÷ 3 = 2.31 2.31 × 2 = 4.62

4

2 ×1.5 . 7

Solution

You’re multiplying 1.5 by

2 , 7

so multiply it by 2, then divide by 7.

So 1.5 × 2 = 3, and then 3 ÷ 7 =

100

Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

3 3 2 . So, ×1.5 = 7 7 7

Example Calculate

5

1 (6.35 − 3.02) . 3

Solution

As always, work out the parentheses first. 6.35 – 3.02 = 3.33.

Don’t forget: 1 is the same 3 as dividing by 3. Multiplying by

Then you can divide by 3. 3.33 ÷ 3 = 1.11

Guided Practice Calculate the value of the expressions in Exercises 10–14. 10.

3 × 0.24 4

11.

7 ×1.5 15

⎛3 1⎞ 13. 3.5×⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 5 5 ⎠

12. 0.9× 14.

8 9

5 ×(8.03 + 0.97) 9

Independent Practice Calculate the following. 1.

1 × 0.8 2

4. 1.25 + Don’t forget: Dividing by

27 13

is the same as 13

multiplying by its reciprocal, 27 .

7. 2.5×

2.

7 4

5. 0.8 −

2 5

8. 1.3×

10. (4.57 + 3.53)×

1 9

Now try these: Lesson 2.4.3 additional questions — p439

1 ×1.2 3

12. (2.89 −18.89) ÷

3.

1 5

1 + 0.25 2

6. −1.3 −

10 13

9. 2.7 ÷

27 13

11. (−5.36 −1.64)×

8 5

3 10

2 7

(5.67 +12.53) 13.

2 3

Round Up The theme that’s been running through the last few Lessons is this — although questions might look complicated, you just need to take things real slow, and use all those things you learned earlier in the Section. Don’t try to hurry — that makes you more likely to make a mistake. Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

101

Lesson

2.4.4

Pr ob lems In volving Prob oblems Inv Fractions and Decimals

California Standards: Number Sense 1.2 Ad d, subtr act, m ultipl y, and Add, subtract, multipl ultiply di vide rra a tional n umber s divide number umbers actions (inte ger s, fr fractions actions, and (integ ers terminating decimals) and take positive rational numbers to whole-number powers. Ma thema tical R easoning 2.2 Mathema thematical Reasoning A ppl y str a te gies and rresults esults pply stra tegies from simpler problems to mor e comple x pr ob lems more complex prob oblems lems..

What it means for you: You’ll use ideas from previous Lessons in this Section to solve some real-life problems.

This is the last Lesson in this Section. And again, it’s all about using the skills you’ve already learned. But this time before you can do the math, you have to write the problem down in math language using a description of a real-life situation.

Fir st Write R eal-Lif e Pr ob lems as Ma th First Real-Lif eal-Life Prob oblems Math Example

1 1

The length of a rectangular room is 54 feet, while its width 3 is 33.3 feet. What is the area of the room? Solution

You find the area of a rectangle by multiplying its length by its width. So the area of this room is given by 54

Key words: • word problem • units

Very often, writing your answer in a sensible way just means adding units. You should also always check that it’s realistic — see Chapter 1 for more information.

× 33.3.

Now you need to work through all the steps from the previous Lessons. 163 1 54 ×33.3 = ×33.3 Con ver ed n umber to a fr action Conv ertt mix mixed number fraction 3 3 = (33.3 ÷ 3)×163 Rewrite as “÷ then ×” = 11.1×163

Check it out:

1 3

Do the di vision division

You could use a calculator here, but you don’t really need to. To do this multiplication without a calculator, you can rewrite it using the ideas in Section 2.3.2. 11.1 × 163 = (10 × 163) + (1 × 163) + (0.1 × 163) = 1630 + 163 + 16.3 = 1809.3 With real-life problems you must always think about what your answer means, and then write it in a sensible way. Here, you need to add units. So the area of the room is 1809.3 square feet.

Guided Practice 1. A rectangular dance floor is 28.6 feet wide and 15

1 2

feet long.

What is the area of the dance floor? 2. A rectangular playing field is 16

2 3

What is the area of the playing field? 102

Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

yards wide and 30.9 yards long.

Dr awing a Dia g ram Can Mak e Things Clear er Dra Diag Make Clearer Sometimes it’s not doing the math that’s the hardest thing in a problem. It’s working out what math to do in the first place. Example

2

Some public sewer lines are being installed along 8

1 4

miles of road.

The supervisor says they will be able to complete 0.75 of a mile a day. How long will the project take? 0.75 miles

Solution

Don’t forget: Your diagram doesn’t have to be accurate — just good enough to get an idea of what you need to do.

If you can’t see how to answer a question, draw a picture.

1 8 miles 4

Sewer

Road 1 4

You need to find out how many times 0.75 goes into 8 . In math language, this is a division — so you need to solve 8 1 ÷ 0.75 . 4

Now that the problem is written in math language, you can use the techniques from previous Lessons. 1 4

3 4 33 3 = ÷ 4 4 33 4 = × 4 3 33× 4 = 4 ×3 33 = = 11 3 1 4

8 ÷ 0.75 = 8 ÷

Check it out: You could work out the 132

fraction here as 12 , and then simplify it. But here, the factor of 4 in the numerator and the factor of 4 in the denominator have been canceled straightaway.

33 × 4 4×3

Con ver action Conv ertt the decimal to a fr fraction Con ver ed n umber to a fr action Conv ertt the mix mixed number fraction Rewrite the di vision as a m ultiplica tion division multiplica ultiplication Multipl y the fr actions Multiply fractions Simplify

Don’t forget: about units... The project will take 11 days.

Guided Practice 3. A piece of rope 17.25 feet long must be divided up into smaller 3 lengths of 4 of a foot long. How many lengths can be made from this piece of rope? 4. A birthday cake needs 2 1 cups of raisins. However, because a big 2 party is planned, several cakes are made by increasing the amount of all the ingredients used. In fact, 8 3 cups of raisins are used. 4

How many cakes is this enough raisins for? Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

103

Example

3

Aisha worked 40.5 hours in one particular week. Three-fifths of these hours she was in meetings, while the rest of the time was spent traveling. How many hours did Aisha spend traveling during the week? Solution

40.5 hours

Again, a diagram might help. You need to work out how many hours the red part of the bar represents.

3 5

= meetings

3

Check it out: Here, you could do the math as fractions... 2 81 2 40.5 × = × 5 2 5 81 = 5 = 16

1

If the blue part of the bar is 5 of the total hours, then the red part must 3 2 represent: 1− = 5 5 2 So you need to work out 5 of 40.5 hours 2 — this can be written as a multiplication: 40.5× 5 Now you can do the math. 2 Rewrite the fr action m ultiplica tion as a fraction multiplica ultiplication 40.5× = (40.5 ÷ 5)× 2 di vision, f ollo w ed b y a m ultiplica tion follo ollow by multiplica ultiplication division, 5 = 8.1× 2 Do the di vision division ultiplica tion Do the m multiplica ultiplication = 16.2 Now say what your answer means. Aisha spent 16.2 hours traveling during the week.

5

...or decimals... 40.5 × 0.4 = 16.2 You get the same answer whatever method you use.

Guided Practice 5. A small town has a sports field with a total area of 1533.75 square yards. One third of this area is used only by parents with small children, while the rest can be used by anyone. How many square yards are for anyone’s use?

Independent Practice 1. The floor area of a room is 99 Now try these: Lesson 2.4.4 additional questions — p440

The length of the room is

1 10 4

15 16

square feet.

feet. What is the width of the room?

1

2. Approximately of the students in a high school take an advanced 5 placement class. Of those students it is thought 50% will receive a scholarship for college. What fraction of the students in the high school are expected to receive a scholarship?

Round Up That’s the end of a Section containing a lot of little bits of information. An important thing to remember from it all is that you must work through complex problems slowly and carefully. 104

Section 2.4 — More Operations on Rational Numbers

Section 2.5 introduction — an exploration into:

Basic P ower s Po ers You can find the powers of numbers by repeatedly folding a piece of paper. Each extra fold you make produces more rectangles. You’ll see how the numbers of rectangles produced are powers. 2 rectangles

Take a sheet of paper and fold it into two equal sections. When you open it up, you’ll see there are two rectangles.

fold

fold

4 rectangles open out

fold again

open out

fold

If you fold the paper into two again, then fold it once more, you’ll have four rectangles when you open it up.

folds

The number of rectangles produced by each fold represents the powers of 2. 20 = 1

21 = 2

22 = 4

Exercises 1. Continue to fold the paper into two equal sections each time. Write the total number of rectangles produced after the given number of folds. a. 3 b. 4 c. 5 2. Write your answers to 1a, b, and c as powers of 2. Now take a sheet of paper and make two folds, so that it forms three equal sections. 3 rectangles fold into three sections

open out folds

Repeat this by folding the paper into three equal sections each time.

fold into three sections

9 rectangles

open out folds

Exercises

3. Fold a piece of paper repeatedly into three, in the way described above. A long piece of paper makes this part easier. What is the total number of rectangles produced from the: a. second set of folds? b. third set of folds? c. fourth set of folds? 4. Write your answers to 3a, b, and c as powers of 3. 5. With a new piece of paper, experiment with this process to make 25 rectangles. 6. Is it possible to make 10 rectangles of equal size by using the process above?

Round Up When you repeatedly fold a piece of paper into two, you repeatedly multiply the number of rectangles by two. And when you repeatedly fold a piece of paper into three, you repeatedly multiply the number of rectangles by three. This gives you the powers of 2 and the powers of 3 — because powers are produced by repeated multiplication. Section 2.5 Explor a tion — Basic Powers 105 Explora

Lesson

Section 2.5

2.5.1

Power s of Inte ger s ers Integ ers

California Standards:

A power is just the product that you get when you repeatedly multiply a number by itself, like 2 • 2, or 3 • 3 • 3. Repeated multiplication expressions can be very long. So there’s a special system you can use for writing out powers in a shorter way — and that’s what this Lesson is about.

Number Sense 1.2 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide rational numbers (integers, fractions, and terminating decimals) and tak e positi ve rra a tional take positiv number s to w hole-n umber umbers whole-n hole-number po wer s. pow ers Alg ebr a and Functions 2.1 Alge bra Inter pr et positi ve w holeInterpr pret positiv wholenumber po wer s as rre epea ted pow ers peated multiplica tion and negative ultiplication whole-number powers as repeated division or multiplication by the multiplicative inverse. Simplify and evaluate expressions that include exponents.

A P ower is a R epea ted Multiplica tion Po Re peated Multiplication A power is a product that results from repeatedly multiplying a number by itself. For example: 2•2 = 4, or “two to the second power.” 2•2•2 = 8, or “two to the third power.” 2 • 2 • 2 • 2 = 16, or “two to the fourth power.” So 4, 8, and 16 are all powers of 2.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to write repeated multiplications in a shorter form.

Key words: • • • •

power base exponent factor

You Can Write a P ower as a Base and an Exponent Po If every time you used a repeated multiplication you wrote it out in full, it would make your work very complicated. So there’s a shorter way to write them. For example:

2 • 2 • 2 • 2 = 24

Check it out: Raising something to the second power is called squaring it. Raising something to the third power is called cubing it. There’s more on this in Lesson 2.5.3.

onent — it tells you This is the exp exponent w many times the base number is a how ho fac factt or in the multiplication expression.

er 2 is the b ase — it’s the numb number that’ s bbeing eing multiplied that’s

For example, the expression 10 • 10 can be written in this form — the base is 10 and since 10 occurs twice, the exponent is 2.

Don’t forget:

exponent

A factor is one of the terms in a multiplication expression.

Check it out: You can describe a number as being “raised to” or “taken to” a power. So 24 could be read as, “two to the fourth power,” or “two raised to the fourth power,” or “two taken to the fourth power.”

106

base

10

2

You can rewrite any repeated multiplication in this form. So any number, x, to the nth power can be written as:

Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

base

x

n

exponent

Example

1

Write the expression 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 in base and exponent form. Solution

The number that is being multiplied is 3. So the base is 3. 3 occurs as a factor five times in the multiplication expression. So the exponent is 5. So 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 = 35. If a number has an exponent of 1 then it occurs only once in the expanded multiplication expression. So any number to the power 1 is just the number itself. For example: 51 = 5, 1371 = 137, x1 = x.

Guided Practice Check it out: When you write a negative number raised to a power, you need to put parentheses around the number. For example, (–2)4 tells you to raise negative two to the fourth power — it has a value of 16.

Write each of the expressions in Exercises 1–8 as a power in base and exponent form. 1. 8 • 8

2. 2 • 2 • 2

3. 7 • 7 • 7 • 7 • 7

4. 5

5. 9 • 9 • 9 • 9

6. 4 • 4 • 4 • 4 • 4 • 4 • 4

7. –5 • –5

8. –8 • –8 • –8 • –8 • –8

Ev alua te a P ower b y Doing the Multiplica tion Evalua aluate Po by Multiplication Evaluating a power means working out its value. Just write it out in its expanded form — then treat it as any other multiplication calculation. Example

2

Evaluate 54. Solution

54 means “four copies of the number five multiplied together.” 54 = 5 • 5 • 5 • 5 54 = 625.

Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

107

Example Check it out: A negative number raised to an odd power always gives a negative answer. For example: (–2)3 = –2 • –2 • –2 = –8 A negative number raised to an even power always gives a positive answer. For example: (–2)4 = –2 • –2 • –2 • –2 = (–2 • –2) • (–2 • –2) = 4 • 4 = 16

3

Evaluate (–2)2. Solution

(–2)2 means “two copies of the number negative two multiplied together.” (–2)2 = –2 • –2 (–2)2 = 4.

Guided Practice Evaluate the exponential expressions in Exercises 9–16. 9. 102

10. 53

11. 71

12. 36

13. 471

14. (–15)1

15. (–3)2

16. (–4)3

Independent Practice Write each of the expressions in Exercises 1–6 in base and exponent form. 2. 9 • 9 1. 4 • 4 • 4 4. 5 • 5 • 5 • 5 • 5 • 5 3. 8 6. –3 • –3 • –3 • –3 5. –4 • –4 • –4 7. Kiera and 11 of her friends are handing out fliers for a school fund-raiser. Each person hands out fliers to 12 people. How many people receive a flier?

Now try these: Lesson 2.5.1 additional questions — p440

Evaluate the exponential expressions in Exercises 8–13. 8. 152 9. 43 1 10. 8 11. 18 12. (–5)3 13. (–5)4 14. A single yeast cell is placed on a nutrient medium. This cell will divide into two cells after one hour. These two cells will then divide to form four cells after another hour. The process continues indefinitely. a) How many yeast cells will be present after 1 hour, 2 hours, and 6 hours? b) Write exponential expressions with two as the base to describe the number of yeast cells that will be present after 1 hour, 2 hours, and 6 hours. c) How many hours will it take for the yeast population to reach 256?

Round Up If you need to use a repeated multiplication, it’s useful to have a shorter way of writing it. That’s why bases and exponents come in really handy when you’re writing out powers of numbers. You’ll see lots of powers used in expressions, equations, and formulas. For example, the formula for the area of a circle is pr2 where r is the radius. So it’s important you know what they mean. 108

Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

Lesson

2.5.2

Power s of R ational Number s ers Ra Numbers

California Standards:

In just the same way that you can raise whole numbers to powers, you can also raise fractions and decimals to powers.

Number Sense 1.2 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide rational numbers (integers, fractions, and terminating decimals) and tak e positi ve rra a tional take positiv number s to w hole-n umber umbers whole-n hole-number po wer s. pow ers Alg ebr a and Functions 2.1 Alge bra pr et positi ve w holeInterpr pret positiv wholeInter number po wer s as rre epea ted pow ers peated multiplica tion and negative ultiplication whole-number powers as repeated division or multiplication by the multiplicative inverse. Simplify and evaluate expressions that include exponents.

You Can R aise a F ower Raise Frraction to a P Po A fraction raised to a power means exactly the same as a whole number raised to a power — repeated multiplication. But now the complete fraction is the base. exponent base

This expression means

2 3

•

2 . 3

When you raise a fraction to a power, you are raising the numerator and the denominator separately to the same power. For example:

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to take fractions and decimals to powers.

Key words: • • • • •

power exponent base decimal fraction

2 2 3

2 ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 2 2 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 3 2

This makes evaluating the fraction easier. You can evaluate the numerator and the denominator separately. Example

1

⎛1⎞ Evaluate ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ . ⎝4⎠ Solution 3

13 = 1 • 1 • 1 = 1

3 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 1 ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ 43 3

Raise both the numerator and the denominator to the third power.

43 = 4 • 4 • 4 = 64

13 1 = 3 4 64

Example Check it out: If you are raising a negative fraction to a power, just keep the minus sign with the numerator all the way through your work. For example: ⎛ 3 ⎞⎟ (–3)4 ⎜⎜ – ⎟ = ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ 44 4

2 1

⎛ 2⎞ Evaluate ⎜⎜⎜ – ⎟⎟⎟ ⎝ 5⎠ Solution

2

2 ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ – ⎟ = (–2) ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ 52 2

(–2)2 = –2 • –2 = 4 Raise both the numerator and the denominator to the second power. 52 = 5 • 5 = 25

(−2)2 4 = 2 5 25 Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

109

Guided Practice Evaluate the exponential expressions in Exercises 1–6. 1.

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

2.

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

3.

⎛ 5 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

4.

⎛ 9 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 7 ⎟⎠

4

2

3

1

⎛

⎛

3⎞

2

3⎞

3

6. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ – 10 ⎟⎟⎟⎠

5. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ – 10 ⎟⎟⎟⎠

You Can R aise a Decimal to a P ower Raise Po A decimal raised to a power means exactly the same as a whole number raised to a power — it’s a repeated multiplication. The decimal is the base.

exponent base

0.24

2

This expression is the same as saying 0.24 • 0.24. When you evaluate a decimal raised to a power, you multiply the decimal by itself the specified number of times. The tricky thing when you’re multiplying decimals is to get the decimal point in the right place — you saw how to do this in Section 2.4.

Example

3

Evaluate (0.3)3. Solution

The multiplication you are doing here is (0.3)3 = 0.3 • 0.3 • 0.3. 3 3 3 × × 10 10 10

write the decimals as fr actions fractions

=

3× 3× 3 10 ×10 ×10

m ultipl y the fr actions ultiply fractions

=

27 = 27 ÷ 1000 = 0.027 1000

0.3 × 0.3 × 0.3 = Check it out: To check the number of decimal places your answer should have, just count the number of decimal places in all of the factors and add them together. For example, in the expression 0.3 • 0.3 • 0.3, you have three factors, and each contains one decimal place. So your answer should contain three decimal places, which 0.027 does.

110

Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

So, (0.3)3 = 0.027

Example Check it out: When you put the decimal point back into your answer, put in 0s to fill up any places between the decimal point and the numerical part of the answer. For example, here the numerical part of your answer is 529, but you need four decimal places in your answer. So use a 0 before the numerical part — so the answer is 0.0529.

4

Evaluate (0.23)2. Solution

0.23 × 0.23 =

=

23 23 × 100 100

write the decimals as fr actions fractions

529 = 529 ÷ 10,000 = 0.0529 multiply 10, 000

Guided Practice Evaluate the exponential expressions in Exercises 7–12. 7. (0.5)2 8. (0.2)3 9. (0.78)1 10. (0.12)2 11. (0.15)3 12. (0.08)2

Independent Practice Write each of the expressions in Exercises 1–4 in base and exponent form. 1. 3.

1 2 1 7

• •

1 2 1 7

• •

1 2 1 7

2. 0.25 • 0.25 •

1 7

4.

–

1 4

•

–

1 4

•

–

1 4

Evaluate the exponential expressions in Exercises 5–10. 5. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ 9 ⎟⎟⎟⎠

⎛1⎞

6. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎟⎟⎠

⎛ 2⎞

8. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎟⎟⎠

⎛1⎞

10. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ – 5 ⎟⎟⎟⎠

2

3

7. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎟⎟⎠

5

9. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎟⎟⎠ Now try these: Lesson 2.5.2 additional questions — p440

⎛1⎞

3

⎛9⎞

1

⎛ 2⎞

3

11. Mark is feeding chickens. He divides 135 g of corn into thirds. Each portion is then divided into thirds again to give small portions. What fraction of the original amount is in each small portion? How much does each small portion weigh? Evaluate the exponential expressions in Exercises 12–17. 12. (0.4)2 13. (0.1)4 14. (0.21)2 15. (0.97)1 2 16. (0.02) 17. (0.25)3

Round Up To raise a fraction to a power, you raise the numerator and the denominator separately to the same power. To raise a decimal to a power, you use the decimal as the base and raise it to a power as you would a whole number — just by multiplying it by itself the correct number of times. Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

111

Lesson

2.5.3

Uses of P ower s Po ers

California Standards:

You’ll come across powers a lot both in math and real-life situations. That’s because you use them to work out areas and volumes. They’re also handy when you need to write out a very big number — you can use powers to write these numbers in a shorter form.

Number Sense 1.1 e write,, and compar compare Read, write ra tional n umber s in number umbers scientific nota tion (positi ve notation (positiv wer s of 10), pow ers and negative po compare rational numbers in general. Number Sense 1.2 Add, subtract, multiply, and divide rational numbers (integers, fractions, and terminating decimals) and tak e positi ve rra a tional take positiv number s to w hole-n umber umbers whole-n hole-number po wer s. pow ers

What it means for you:

Exponents ar e Used in Some F or mulas are For orm Exponents are used in the formulas for the areas of squares and circles. In this Lesson you’ll see how exponents are used in finding the area of a square. In the next Chapter you’ll use a formula to find the area of a circle. The formula for the area of a square is Area = s • s = s2, where s represents the side length of the square.

You’ll see how you can use exponents to work out areas of squares and volumes of cubes, and learn about a shorter way to write very large numbers.

4 3 2 1

2

1

Key words: • squared • cubed • scientific notation

12 = 1

4

3

22 = 4

32 = 9

42 = 16

When you find the area of a square, the side length is used as a factor twice in the multiplication. So raising a number to the second power is called squaring it.

Example

1

Find the area of the square shown below.

Check it out: The areas of all shapes, not just squares, are measured in square units. These could be cm2, m2, inches2, feet2, or even miles2. You’ll learn more about this in Chapter 3.

112

Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

1 cm

Solution

Each small square is 1 cm wide. So the side length of the whole square is 2 cm. The area of the whole square is 2 cm • 2 cm = 4 cm2. You can see that this is true, because it is made up of four smaller 1 cm2 squares.

Example

2

A square has a side length of 11 inches. Find its area. Don’t forget:

Solution

When you’re working out the units that go with a calculation, use the unit analysis method you saw in Chapter 1 (p42). Just apply the same operations to the units as you did to the numbers.

Area = (side length)2 Area = 112 = 11 • 11 = 121 Units: inches • inches = in2 Area = 121 in2

Guided Practice Find the areas of the squares in Exercises 1–4. 3 miles

1.

2. Square of side length 6 feet.

3. Square of side length 3.5 m.

4.

5 mm

Exponents ar e Used tto o Find Volume s of Some Solid s are olumes Solids Exponents are also used in formulas to work out volumes of solids, like cubes, spheres, and prisms. The formula for the volume of a cube is Volume = s • s • s = s3, where s represents the side length of the cube. 2 1

2

1 2

1

13 = 1

23 = 8

When you find the volume of a cube, the side length is used as a factor three times in the multiplication. So raising a number to the third power is called cubing it. Example

3

Check it out: The volumes of all solids, not just cubes, are measured in cubed units. For example, the units could be cm3, m3, inches3, feet3, or even miles3. You’ll learn more about this in Chapter 7.

A cube has a side length of 5 cm. Find its volume. Solution

Volume = (side length)3 Volume = 5 • 5 • 5 = 53 = 125 Units: cm • cm • cm = cm3 Volume = 125 cm3. Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

113

Guided Practice Find the volumes of the cubes in Exercises 5–8. 4m

5.

6. Cube of side length 5 feet.

4m 4m

7. Cube of side length 7.5 mm.

8.

1 in.

Use Scientific Nota tion to Write Big Number s Notation Numbers Sometimes in math and science you’ll need to deal with numbers that are very big, like 570,000,000. To avoid having to write numbers like this out in full every time, you can rewrite them as a product of two factors. For instance: 570,000,000 = 5.7 × 100,000,000 The second factor is a power of ten. You can write it in base and exponent form. 5.7 × 100,000,000 = 5.7 × 108. So 5.7 × 108 is 570,000,000 written in scientific notation.

Check it out: To work out what power of ten the second factor is, just count the zeros in it. For example, 10 is 101, 1000 is 103, and 10,000,000 is 107.

Scientific Notation To write a number in scientific notation turn it into two factors: Æ the first factor must be a number that’s at least one but less than ten. Æ the second factor must be a power of 10 written in exponent form.

Example

4

Write the number 128,000,000,000 in scientific notation. Solution

128,000,000,000 = 1.28 × 100,000,000,000 = 1.28 × 1011

114

Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

Split the number into a decimal between 1 and 10 and a power of ten.

Write the number as a product of the two factors.

Check it out: If the number you were putting into scientific notation was 51,473,582, then you would probably round it before putting it into scientific notation. You’ll see more about how to round numbers in Chapter 8.

Example

5

The number 5.1× 107 is written in scientific notation. Write it out in full. Solution

5.1 × 107 = 5.1 × 10,000,000 = 51,000,000

Write out the power of ten as a factor in full. Multiply the two together: move the decimal point as many places to the right as there are zeros in the power of ten.

Guided Practice Write the numbers in Exercises 9–12 in scientific notation. 10. 32,800 9. 6,700,000 12. 1,040,000,000 11. –270,000 Write out the numbers in Exercises 13–16 in full. 13. 3.1 × 103 14. 8.14 × 106 7 15. –5.05 × 10 16. 9.091 × 109

Independent Practice Find the areas of the squares in Exercises 1–4. 1. Square of side length 2 cm. 2. Square of side length 8 yd. 3. Square of side length 13 m. 4. Square of side length 5.5 ft. 5. Maria is painting a wall that is 8 feet high and 8 feet wide. She has to apply two coats of paint. Each paint can will cover 32 feet2. How many cans of paint does she need? Find the volumes of the cubes in Exercises 6–9. 7. Cube of side length 6 yd. 6. Cube of side length 3 ft. 9. Cube of side length 1.5 in. 8. Cube of side length 9 cm. 10. Tyreese is tidying up his little sister’s toys. Her building blocks are small cubes, each with a side length of 3 cm. They completely fill a storage box that is a cube with a side length of 15 cm. How many blocks does Tyreese’s sister have? Now try these: Lesson 2.5.3 additional questions — p441

Write the numbers in Exercises 11–14 in scientific notation. 11. 21,000 12. –51,900,000 13. 42,820,000 14. 31,420,000,000,000 Write out the numbers in Exercises 15–18 in full. 15. 8.4 × 105 16. 2.05 × 108 17. –9.1 × 104 18. 3.0146 × 1010 19. In 2006 the population of the USA was approximately 299,000,000. Of those 152,000,000 were female. How many were male? Write your answer in scientific notation.

Round Up When you’re finding the area of a square or the volume of a cube, your calculation will always involve powers. That’s because the formulas for both the area of a square and the volume of a cube involve repeated multiplication of the side length. Powers also come in useful for writing very large numbers in a shorter form — that’s what scientific notation is for. Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

115

Lesson

2.5.4

Mor e on the Or der More Order of Oper a tions Opera

California Standards: Number Sense 1.2 ultipl y, and Add, subtract, multipl ultiply Ad d, subtr act, m di vide rra a tional n umber s divide number umbers actions (inte ger s, fr fractions actions,, and (integ ers ter mina ting decimals) and termina minating tak e positi ve rra a tional take positiv number s to w hole-n umber umbers whole-n hole-number s. po wer ers pow

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to use the PEMDAS rules with expressions that have decimals, fractions, and exponents.

In Chapter One you saw how the order of operations rules help you to figure out which operation you need to do first in a calculation. This Lesson will review what the order is, and give you practice at applying it to expressions with exponents in them.

PEMD AS Tells You Wha der to F ollo w PEMDAS hatt Or Order Follo ollow When you come across an expression that contains multiple operations, the PEMDAS rule will help you to work out which one to do first. For example: Parentheses

Key words: • PEMDAS • operations • exponent

Exponents

= 4 + 6 • (6)2 – 10 ÷ 2

Multiplication and Division

= 4 + 6 • 36 – 10 ÷ 2

Addition and Subtraction

= 4 + 216 – 5

Example Check it out:

4 + 6 • (2 + 4)2 – 10 ÷ 2

= 215

Multiplic ation and division Multiplication have equal priorit priorityy in PEMDAS. o right You work them out from lef leftt tto right.

A ddition and subtr ac tion subtrac action have equal priorit priorityy too — work o right them out from lef leftt tto right.

1

Evaluate the expression 52 – 16 ÷ 23 • (3 + 2).

If you see parentheses with an exponent, the exponent applies to the whole expression inside them. So (1 + 2)2 is (1 + 2) • (1 + 2). Everything in the parentheses is the repeated factor in the multiplication. So to follow the PEMDAS rules you need to simplify the contents of the parentheses first, and then apply the exponent to the result. So (1 + 2)2 = 32

Solution

52 – 16 ÷ 23 • (3 + 2) = 52 – 16 ÷ 23 • 5

Do the ad dition in the par entheses addition parentheses

= 25 – 16 ÷ 8 • 5

Then e valua te the tw oe xponents ev aluate two exponents

= 25 – 2 • 5 = 25 – 10

Ne xt it’ sm ultiplica tion and di vision — Next it’s multiplica ultiplication division do the di vision fir st, as it comes fir st, division first, first, then do the m ultiplica tion multiplica ultiplication

= 15

Finall y do the subtr action Finally subtraction

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–6.

116

Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

1. 6 – 10 • 32

2. (5 – 3)3 + 43 ÷ 8

3. 24 + (3 • 2 – 10)2

4. 5 + 64 ÷ (6 – 2)1

5. (36 ÷ 12 – 24)2

6. (10 • 2 – 5)2 – (4 ÷ 2)3 • 3

Check it out: • When you multiply a negative number by a negative number, the result is positive. • When you multiply a positive number and a negative number, the result is negative. • So if you raise a negative number to an even power, the result will be positive. • But if you raise a negative number to an odd power, the result will be negative. • For example: (–2)3 = –2 • –2 • –2 = 4 • –2 = –8 (–2)4 = –2 • –2 • –2 • –2 = 4 • 4 = 16

Check it out: If you have parentheses inside parentheses, for example, (3 + (4 + 2)), you should start with the innermost parentheses and work outward.

Tak e Car e with Expr essions Tha ve Ne ga ti ve Signs ake Care Expressions hatt Ha Hav Neg tiv When an expression contains a combination of negative numbers and exponents, you need to think carefully about what it means. For example:

–(22) = –(2 • 2) = –4 (–2)2 = –2 • –2 = 4 Example

2

Evaluate the expression (–(32) • 5) + (–3)2. Solution

(–(32) • 5) + (–3)2 = (–9 • 5) + (–3)2 = –45 + (–3)2 = –45 + 9 = –36

Ev alua te the e xponent in the inner par entheses Evalua aluate exponent parentheses Do the m ultiplica tion in the par entheses multiplica ultiplication parentheses Ev alua te the e xponent Evalua aluate exponent Finall y do the ad dition Finally addition

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 7–12. 8. (–4)2 7. –(42) 9. –(22) • 5 + 1

10. (–4)2 ÷ 2 – 4

11. 10 + (2 • –(52)) + (–7)2

12. 12 + (–(22) + (–2)2) ÷ 2

The Or der Applies to Decimals and F Order Frractions Too When you’re working out a problem involving decimals or fractions you follow the same order of operations. Example

3

⎛1⎞ 1 Evaluate the expression ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ + • (10 – 7)2. ⎝ 2⎠ 16 Solution 4 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ + 1 • (10 – 7)2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 16 4

⎛1⎞ 1 action in the par entheses = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ + • 32 Do the subtr subtraction parentheses 4

⎝ 2⎠

16

1 1 + •9 16 16 1 9 = + 16 16

=

=

10 = 5 16 8

Then e valua te the tw oe xponents ev aluate two exponents Perf or m the m ultiplica tion erfor orm multiplica ultiplication

Finall y do the ad dition and simplify Finally addition

Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

117

Example

4

Evaluate the expression 0.25 + 7.75 ÷ 3.1 – (0.3)4. Solution

0.25 + 7.75 ÷ 3.1 – (0.3)4 = 0.25 + 7.75 ÷ 3.1 – 0.0081 = 0.25 + 2.5 – 0.0081 = 2.75 – 0.0081 = 2.7419

Ev alua te the e xponent Evalua aluate exponent Then perf or m vision perfor orm the di division Do the ad dition fir st, as it comes fir st addition first, first Finall y do the subtr action Finally subtraction

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 13–20. ⎛1

3⎞

3

13. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟⎟⎠ –

Don’t forget: If your calculation involves a mixture of fractions and decimals, convert everything to either fractions or decimals first. For a reminder of how to do this, see Section 2.1.

14.

15. 0.1 + (0.25)2 – 0.2 ÷ 2 ⎛3

⎛2 1⎞

1⎞

2

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠

2

1 8

•3+4÷

1 2

16. (0.72 + 0.08) ÷ 16 + (0.4)2

3

17. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ 4 ÷ 2 ⎟⎟⎟⎠ + ⎜⎜⎜⎝ 3 • 2 ⎟⎟⎟⎠

18. 0.5 • (1 + 0.25)2 + 1.2 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠

2

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

2

19. 2 •

–2

+ (5 ÷ 10)2 • 4

20. (5 • 0.1 + 0.2) •

Independent Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–6. 1.

12 + 23 5

2. (42 – 23) ÷ 22 + 81

3. (10 + 24 • 3) + (52 – 15)2 5. (–6)3 • 3 – 122

4. –33 • 22 + 9 6. (43 – 34)2 ÷ (17)2

7. In the expression (x – y2 • z)6, x, y, and z stand for whole numbers. If you evaluate it, will the expression have a positive or a negative value? (The expression is not equal to zero.) Explain your answer. Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 8–13. ⎛1⎞

2

2 27 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠

8. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ 3⎟⎟⎟⎠ + 2 • 10.

⎛ 2 4 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ÷ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 5 ⎟⎠

12.

⎛ ⎞ ⎜⎜0.5 i 6 ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠

2

Now try these: Lesson 2.5.4 additional questions — p441

2

9. (0.5)2 + 0.8 ÷ (0.1)3 •4

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠

3

–

11. (0.5 + 1.8)2 • 1.5 + 0.065 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

3

13. (0.2 • 4 – 0.3)2 +

•2

5

14. Lakesha is making bread. She has 4 lb of flour, which she splits into two equal piles. Then she splits each of these in half again. She adds three of the resulting piles to her mixture. How much flour has she added to her mixture? Give your answer as a fraction.

Round Up When you have an expression containing exponents, you must follow the order of operations to evaluate it. You use the same order with expressions that contain fractions and decimals too. 118

Section 2.5 — Basic Powers

Section 2.6 introduction — an exploration into:

The Side of a Squar e Square A perfect square has sides whose lengths are whole numbers. You’ll be given square tiles and be asked to construct larger squares with particular areas — you’ll be able to produce some of the larger squares, but not others. The lengths of the sides of the squares are the square roots of the areas. You’ll see that the areas of some squares have whole number square roots, but others don’t. Each small square has an area of 1 square unit. Example Make a square with an area of 4 square units. Then write down the square root of 4. 2

Solution

With 4 square tiles:

2

This a perfect square — it’s got an area of 4 square units and sides of 2 units. So, 2 is the square root of 4.

Exercises 1. Use the tiles to make squares with the given areas. When you have made a square, write the lengths of the sides. a. 9 square units b. 16 square units c. 25 square units

d. 36 square units

2. What are the square root of the following? Use your answers to Exercise 1 to help you. a. 9 b. 16 c. 25 d. 36 You can use the tiles to estimate the square root of a number that is not perfect square. Example Use tiles to estimate the square root of 8. Solution

This is the closest shape you can make to a square using 8 tiles — It’s bigger than a 2 by 2 square, but smaller than a 3 by 3 square. As it’s closer to a 3 by 3 square, you can estimate that the square root of 8 is about 3.

Looks more like this one.

Exercises 3. Construct a figure that is as close to a square as possible. Use this to estimate the square roots of these numbers. a. 5

b. 14

c. 22

Round Up Some numbers are perfect squares — like 4, 9, 16, 25. These numbers have square roots that are whole numbers. If you make a square with a perfect square area, its sides will be whole numbers. Section 2.6 Explor a tion — The Side of a Square 119 Explora

Lesson

2.6.1

California Standards: Number Sense 2.4 ver se rrela ela tionship inv erse elationship Use the in betw een rraising aising to a po wer between pow and e xtr acting the rroot oot of a extr xtracting perf ect squar e inte ger er; for perfect square integ an integer that is not square, determine without a calculator the two integers between which its square root lies and explain why.

What it means for you: You’ll see what a square root is and how to find the square root of a square number.

Section 2.6

Perf ect Squar es and erfect Squares Their R oots Roots If you multiply the side length of a square by itself you get the area of the square. You can do the opposite too — find the side length of the square from the area. That’s called finding the square root.

The Squar e of an Inte ger is a P erf ect Squar e Number Square Integ Perf erfect Square Raising a number to the power two is called squaring it. That’s because you find the area of a square by multiplying the side length by itself. So, the area of a square = s • s = s2, where s is the side length. 2 3

2 22 = 4

Key words: • • • •

perfect square square root positive root negative root

4

3 4 32 = 9

2

4 = 16

All the numbers in red are the squares of the numbers in blue. The square of an integer is called a perfect square. Perfect squares are always integers too.

Example

1•1=1 2•2=4 4 • 4 = 16

These numbers ar aree perfect squares

3.5 • 3.5 = 12.25 5.1 • 5.1 = 26.01

en’t perfect squares These numbers ar aren’t

1

Is the number 81 a perfect square? Solution

9 • 9 = 81 As 9 is an integer, 81 is a perfect square.

Guided Practice Give the square of each of the numbers in Exercises 1–6.

120

1. 4

2. 7

3. 12

4. 1

5. –2

6. –12

Section 2.6 — Irrational Numbers and Square Roots

The Opposite of Squaring iis s Finding the Squar eR oot Square Root You might know the area of a square and want to know the side length. You find the side length of a square by finding the square root.

Area =4

Area = 16

2 2=4 Side length is 2 2 is the square root of 4

4 4 = 16 Side length is 4 4 is the square root of 16

So, to find the square root of a square number, you have to find the number that multiplied by itself gives the square number. Check it out: Your calculator should have a square root button on it that looks like this: ÷ . To find the square root of 2 on your calculator press:

÷

2

=.

On some types of calculators you have to press: 2 ÷

Check it out: You can’t find the square root of a negative number. To square a number you have to multiply it by itself. • If you multiply a positive number by a positive number the result is always positive. • If you multiply a negative number by a negative number the result is also positive.

For example: 5 • 5 = 25. 25 is a square number. 5 is a square root of 25. The symbol

is used to show a square root.

So you can say that

25 = 5.

Unless the number you’re finding the square root of is a perfect square, the square root will be a decimal — and may well be irrational. (There’s more on this in Lesson 2.6.2.)

All P ositi ve Number s Ha ve Two Squar eR oots Positi ositiv Numbers Hav Square Roots Every positive number has one positive, and one negative, square root. This is because 4 • 4 = 16 and –4 • –4 = 16 — so the square root of 16 could be either 4 or –4. A square root symbol,

, by itself means just “the positive square root.”

16 = 4 — this is the positive square root of 16. – 16 = –4 — this is the negative square root of 16.

So if you multiply any number by itself the answer is always positive.

Guided Practice Evaluate the square roots in Exercises 7–14.

Check it out: These numbers are all perfect square numbers. So their square roots will all be whole numbers.

7. 36

8. – 64

9. 100

10. – 144

11. 121

12. – 169

13. 1

14. 400

Section 2.6 — Irrational Numbers and Square Roots

121

Writing Squar eR oots with F Square Roots Frractional Exponents In Section 2.4 you saw that an exponent means a repeated multiplication. When you square a number it is repeated as a factor two times in the multiplication expression. So you can write x • x = x2.

Check it out: If you multiply a square root by itself you get back to the original number.

x

•

x

= x.

1 2

So,

1 2

1 2

9 = 9 and 16 = 16 .

Guided Practice

– Don’t forget: 1 2

Taking the square root of a number is the reverse process to squaring it. Because it undoes squaring we can also write x as x .

Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 15–18. 1 2

–100 means –(100 ). It can’t be (–100) because that would be the square root of a negative number. 1 2

1

1

15. 4 2

16. – 25 2

17. 49

1 2

18. –100

1 2

Independent Practice Give the square of each of the numbers in Exercises 1–6. 1. 6 2. 11 3. 16 4. –10 5. –13 6. –15 7. Marissa is making patterns with small square mosaic tiles. She has 50 tiles. Can she arrange them to make one larger square, using all the tiles? Explain your answer.

Now try these: Lesson 2.6.1 additional questions — p441

8. This year’s senior class will have 225 students graduating. The faculty wants the chairs to be arranged in the form of a square. How many chairs should be put in each row? Evaluate the square roots in Exercises 9–16. 10. – 25 9. 25 11. 64 13. 9

12. – 49 14. 289

1

1

15. 3612

16. –49 2

17. Give the square roots of 16. 18. Give the square roots of 81. 19. A square deck has an area of 81 feet2. Paul is planning to enlarge the deck by increasing the length of each side by 2 feet. How much will the area of the deck increase by?

Round Up If you multiply any integer by itself you will get a perfect square number. The factor that you multiply by itself to get a square number is called its square root. Every square number has one positive and one negative square root. And don't forget — negative numbers don’t have square roots. 122

Section 2.6 — Irrational Numbers and Square Roots

Lesson

2.6.2

Ir s Irrrational Number Numbers

California Standards:

If you find the square root of 2 on your calculator, you get a number that fills the display, and none of the digits repeat. In this Lesson you’ll learn what makes numbers like that special.

Number Sense 1.4 een Difffer erentia entiate between Dif entia te betw ra tional and ir irrra tional n umber s. umbers

What it means for you: You’ll learn what irrational numbers are, and how they’re different from rational numbers.

Ra tional Number s Can Be Written as F Numbers Frractions a

In Section 2.1 you saw that any number that can be written in the form b where a and b are both integers, and b isn’t 0, is called a rational number. For example: can be written as 2 2 1 3.7

Key words: • • • • •

rational irrational integer terminating decimal repeating decimal

0.81

can be written as can be written as

You can write all of these as fractions as described above, so they are all rational numbers.

37 10 9 11

All fractions, integers, terminating decimals, and repeating decimals are rational numbers. You can add square roots of perfect squares to that list too, because they are always integers.

Guided Practice Prove that the numbers in Exercises 1–4 are rational by writing each one as a fraction in its simplest form. 1. 6 2. 0.8 3. 0.3

Check it out: You could never write an irrational number out in full because it would go on forever.

4. 16

Ir s Can Irrra tional Number Numbers Can’’ t Be Written as F Frractions • Any number that can’t be written as a ratio of two integers is called an irrational number. • Irrational numbers are nonterminating, nonrepeating decimals. 0.123456789101112131415161718192021...

Check it out: In Chapter 3, you’ll use p to calculate the circumference of a circle. You can never calculate the circumference exactly, because p goes on forever.

5.12112111211112111112111111211111112...

Neither of these decimals terminate or have repeating patterns of digits. They’re both irrational numbers.

The most famous irrational number is p — you can’t write p as a fraction. p starts 3.1415926535897932384626433832795... The value of p has been calculated to over a million decimal places so far — it never ends and never repeats.

Section 2.6 — Irrational Numbers and Square Roots

123

The square roots of perfect squares are integers — so they’re rational. The square root of any integer other than a perfect square is irrational. 1 = 1, 2 , 3 , 4 = 2, 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 = 3, 10 ... These numbers are rational

These numbers are irrational

Guided Practice Classify the numbers in Exercises 5–10 as rational or irrational. 5.

7 9

6. p

7. 5

8. 100

9. 1.2543

10. 14

Check it out: The “repeat period” of any decimal is the length of the bit of it that repeats. So the repeat period of 0.3 is one digit — the digit 3, the repeat period of 2.945 is three digits — the group of digits 945, and the repeat period of 5.27316 is two digits — the pair of digits, 16.

Check it out: You know that 1 ÷ 7 must be a rational number because it can be expressed as

1 . 7

Some Decimals Ha ve a Long R epea eriod Hav Re peatt P Period Sometimes it might not be obvious straightaway whether a number is rational or irrational. Some decimals that have a large repeat period may look as if they are irrational but are actually rational. For example, when you divide 1 by 7 on your calculator you get a decimal number. From the number on your calculator display, you can’t tell if that decimal ever ends or repeats. 1 ÷ 7 = 0.1428571... To show that the decimal does in fact repeat, work out 1 ÷ 7 using long division:

0.14285714... 7 1.00000000... 7 30 28 20 14 60 56 40 35 now the same cycle 50 begins again — this is a 49 repeating decimal 10 07 30 28

The repeat period starts here. So you can write this decimal as 0.142857

You can see that the same long division cycle begins again. This means the decimal does repeat.

124

Section 2.6 — Irrational Numbers and Square Roots

It’s really hard to prove a number’s irrational — because it could just be a decimal with a really really long repeat pattern. The only way you can know that a number is irrational is if it has a pattern that you know will never repeat — there’s an endless set of irrational numbers like this to choose from: Æ They might have a pattern of digits that you could generate with a formula. 0.1248163264128256512... This pattern of digits represents the powers of 2: 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, etc. It goes on forever without repeating.

Æ They could have any pattern of digits where each time the pattern is repeated the number of copies of each digit increases. 0.12112211122211112222... In this pattern the numbers 1 and 2 alternate, but each time they are repeated the number of copies of the digits increases by 1.

Guided Practice Check it out: A bar above some digits in a decimal number shows that these digits are repeated over and over again.

Classify the numbers in Exercises 11–15 as rational or irrational. 11. 0.369121518... where the pattern of digits are the multiples of 3 12. 3.122468

13. 0.2647931834

14. 0.14114411144414

15. 0.123112233111222...

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 2.6.2 additional questions — p442

Prove that the numbers in Exercises 1–4 are rational by expressing them as fractions in their simplest form. 1. 14 2. 121 3. 2.6 4. 1.6 5. Read statements a) and b). Only one of them is true. Which one? How do you know? a) All fractions can be written as decimals. b) All decimals can be written as fractions. Classify the numbers in Exercises 6–13 as rational or irrational. 14 6. 10 7. 5 8. 0.497623 10. 9.129587253648

9. 3p

12. 225

13. 22.343344333444...

11. 27

14. Write any four irrational numbers between zero and five.

Round Up Irrational numbers can’t be written as fractions where the numerators and denominators are both integers. Irrational numbers are always nonterminating and nonrepeating decimals. Section 2.6 — Irrational Numbers and Square Roots

125

Lesson

2.6.3

Estima ting Ir oots Estimating Irrra tional R Roots

California Standard:

You saw in the last Lesson that all square roots of integers that aren’t perfect squares are irrational numbers. That means that you could never write their exact decimal values, because the numbers would go on forever. But you can use an approximate value instead.

Number Sense 2.4 Use the inverse relationship between raising to a power and extracting the root of a perfect square integer; for an inte ger tha e, integ thatt is not squar square deter mine without a determine calcula tor the tw o inte ger s calculator two integ ers een w hic h its squar e betw whic hich square between root lies and e xplain w hy . explain wh

Squar eR oots of Nonperf ect Squar es ar e Ir Square Roots Nonperfect Squares are Irrra tional Perfect square numbers have square roots that are integers.

Ma thema tical R easoning 2.7 Mathema thematical Reasoning Indicate the relative advantages of exact and approximate solutions to ve ans wer s giv answ ers problems and gi to a specified de g ree of deg accur ac y. accurac acy

2 The area of this square is 4 units. So its side length must be 4 units = 2 units — which is rational.

2 2

2 =4

What it means for you:

Numbers that are not perfect squares still have square roots.

You’ll learn how to find the approximate square root of any number without using a calculator.

Square roots of integers that are not perfect squares are always irrational numbers. ÷5

Key words:

The area of this square is 5 units. So its side length must be 5 units — which is irrational.

÷5

• irrational • perfect square • square root

2

(÷5) = 5

Guided Practice Say whether each number in Exercises 1–6 is rational or irrational. 1.

9

2.

2

3. 12

4. 16

5. 169

6. 140

Don’t forget: Rounding a number makes it shorter and easier to work with. How much you round a number depends on how accurate you need to be. For example, you might round 99.26 up to 100, down to 99, or up to 99.3 — depending on how accurate you want to be. There are rules for rounding — they’re explained in Chapter 8.

126

You Can A ppr oxima te Ir e R oots ppro ximate Irrra tional Squar Square Roots If you are asked to give a decimal value for 2 , or for any other irrational number, you would have to give an approximation. You could never give an exact answer because the exact answer goes on forever.

Section 2.6 — Irrational Numbers and Square Roots

Example

1

Find the approximate value of

2 using a calculator.

Solution

You should have a button on your calculator that has the square root symbol on it. It will look like this: ÷ . Check it out: Some calculators need you to press

2

÷

To find the square root of 2, press the square root button, then the number 2, and then the equals button, like this: ÷ 2 = . You will get an answer on the screen that looks something like this: 1.414213562

Even though the answer on your screen stops, it’s not the exact answer. It’s just an approximation based on how many digits can fit on the screen. Check it out: ª ” means “is The symbol “ª approximately equal to.” You can use it in situations where you can’t write the exact value of a number because it’s irrational.

Check it out: When you round a decimal answer you will usually be told how many decimal places to round it to. That’s just how many digits there are after the decimal point. If you’re rounding a number to six decimal places, you have to look at the digit in the seventh decimal place. If it’s 5 or more, then round the sixth digit up. If it’s less than 5, then round the sixth digit down. For example, 6 22... 28 = 5.2915026 seventh digit The seventh digit is more than 5, so the sixth digit is rounded up to 3. So,

So you should write your answer like this: Or like this: 2 ª 1.41 Then you’ve shown that you know it’s an approximate answer.

Guided Practice Use your calculator to approximate the square roots in Exercises 7–12. Give the values to six decimal places. 7. 5

8.

9. 10

10.

11.

12. 160

47

6 29

Estima te Squar eR oots Using a Number Line Estimate Square Roots Estimating the square root of a number without using a calculator involves working out which two perfect square numbers it lies between. For example, the square roots of all the numbers between 4 and 9 lie between 2 and 3 on the number line.

4

5

6

7 8 9

x 2 3

28 = 5.291503 to 6 d.p.

There’s more on how and when to round numbers in Section 8.3.

State the accuracy you’ve given the approximate answer to.

2 = 1.414213562 (to 9 decimal places)

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

x 7

x x

3

4 13

The square roots of all the numbers between 9 and 16 lie between 3 and 4 on the number line.

Section 2.6 — Irrational Numbers and Square Roots

127

There are two steps to finding an approximation of the square root of a number. For example: find the two numbers that

7 lies between on the number line.

1) First find the two perfect square numbers that 7 lies between on the number line. 7 lies between 4 and 9

4

5

6

8

7

perfect square number

9 10

perfect square number

2) Find the square roots of these two perfect square numbers. The square root of 7 must be between these two square roots.

÷9 ÷16 ÷25

÷1 ÷4 4 = 2,

9 = 3.

1

2

÷7

3

4

5

So 7 must lie between 2 and 3. Example

2

Find the two numbers that 14 lies between on the number line. Solution

First find the two perfect squares that 14 lies between on the number line. 14 lies between 9 and 16. 9 = 3 and 16 = 4. So 14 lies between 3 and 4 on the number line.

Example

3

Find the numbers that 18 lies between on the number line. Solution

First find the two perfect squares that 18 lies between on the number line. 18 lies between 16 and 25. 16 = 4 and

25 = 5.

So 18 lies between 4 and 5 on the number line. 128

Section 2.6 — Irrational Numbers and Square Roots

Guided Practice In Exercises 13–20 find the whole numbers that the root lies between. 13.

5

14. 15

15.

24

16.

46

17.

68

18.

98

19. 125

20. 150

Independent Practice Use your calculator to approximate the square roots in Exercises 1–4 to four decimal places. 1. 17

2.

3.

4. 155

73

28

In Exercises 5–10 say which two perfect square numbers the number lies between. 5. 3 6. 29 7. 50 8. 95 9. 125 10. 200 In Exercises 11–18 find the whole numbers that the root lies between.

Now try these: Lesson 2.6.3 additional questions — p442

11.

3

12. 13

13.

22

14.

33

15.

58

16.

93

18.

216

17. 160

19. A square has an area of 85 inches2. What whole-inch measurements does the side length lie between? 20. If Don’t forget: A cube has 6 faces that are all identical squares.

a ª 2.4 then which two perfect squares does a lie between?

21. Latoya has a new office. It is a square room, with a floor area of 230 feet2. She wants to fit a 15 ft desk area along one wall — will this fit along one of the sides? Explain your reasoning. 22. A math class is shown a cube made of card. Pupils are told that the total surface area of the cube is 90 cm2. They are asked to guess the length of each side of the cube in centimeters. Peter guesses 10 centimeters, and John guesses 4 centimeters. Whose guess is the closer?

Round Up You can never write out the exact value of the square root of a nonperfect square number — but you can use an approximation. To figure out which two integers a number’s square root lies between, it’s just a case of knowing which two perfect squares the number lies between, and finding their square roots. Section 2.6 — Irrational Numbers and Square Roots

129

Chapter 2 Investigation

Designing a Deck You have to add, subtract, multiply, and divide numbers to solve lots of real-life problems. Being able to use powers and find square roots can sometimes come in useful too. The Dedona family has a deck on the back of their house that they want to make bigger. The current deck is a rectangle with a length of 12 feet and width of 8 feet. They want the new deck to be 225 square feet in area. 12 feet

8 feet

Deck

3 feet

Railing

House

Part 1: What would the dimensions of the enlarged deck be if it were in the shape of a square? Part 2: Make four different designs for additions to the deck that satisfy the Dedonas’ area requirement. Things to think about: • The new deck must contain the original, rectangular deck. However, the new, enlarged deck doesn’t have to be rectangular itself. Extensions The cost of railing is $18.95 for a 3-foot section. Railing is only sold in 3-foot sections. 1) What design for the new deck provides the required area with the least amount of railing? 2) How many sections of railing do they need to buy for the new deck? What is the total cost for the railing? Open-ended Extensions 1) Propose a design that would satisfy the Dedonas’ area requirements and cost the most money for railings. The narrowest any section of the deck can ever be is 1 foot. How would your solution change if the existing deck was torn down? How would it change if the 3-foot railing sections could not be cut? 2) Would a square design be the least expensive if there was no railing against the house?

Round Up When you’re solving real-life problems, you often have to combine all the operations. You use multiplication to find areas and addition to find the total length around the edge. And if you have a square with a set area, you can find its side length by finding the square root of the area. pter 2 In vestig a tion — Designing a Deck Chapter Inv estiga 130 Cha

Chapter 3 Two-Dimensional Figures Section 3.1

Exploration — Area and Perimeter Patterns ............. 132 Perimeter, Circumference, and Area ......................... 133

Section 3.2

Exploration — Coordinate 4-in-a-row ........................ 149 The Coordinate Plane ............................................... 150

Section 3.3

Exploration — Measuring Right Triangles ................. 158 The Pythagorean Theorem ....................................... 159

Section 3.4

Exploration — Transforming Shapes ........................ 174 Comparing Figures .................................................... 175

Section 3.5

Constructions ............................................................ 196

Section 3.6

Conjectures and Generalizations .............................. 206

Chapter Investigation — Designing a House .................................... 213

131

Section 3.1 introduction — an exploration into:

Ar ea and P erimeter P a tter ns Area Perimeter Pa tterns You can draw shapes which have the same area, but different perimeters. In this Exploration, you’ll look at how to maximize the perimeter for a given area. You’ll also look at shapes that have the same perimeters, but different areas. You can find the area of a shape by counting up the number of unit squares. The perimeter is calculated by finding the sum of all the side lengths. Example 6

Find the area and the perimeter of this shape.

2

2

Solution

Area = 12 square units

Perimeter = 6 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 16 units

6

When given a set area, you can draw shapes with different perimeters — like these: These shapes both have an area of 10 square units.

This one has a perimeter of 22 units...

...but this one has a perimeter of 14 units.

And when given a set perimeter, you can draw shapes with different areas — like these: These shapes both have a perimeter of 12 units. This one has an area of 5 square units...

...but this one has an area of 8 square units.

Exercises 1. Find the area and perimeter of each shape. G A

B

C

D

E

F

I H 2. Look at the areas and perimeters of the following sets of shapes. What do you notice about them? Which type of shape maximizes the perimeter in each set? A and B C and D E and F G, H and I 3. Draw three different rectangles with areas of 12 square units that all have different perimeters. What are the dimensions of the rectangle that has the largest perimeter?

Use only whole-number dimensions for Exercises 3–6.

4. Draw the rectangle with an area of 20 square units that has the largest perimeter possible. 5. Draw two rectangles that have different areas but both have perimeters of 14 units. 6. Draw a rectangle that has a perimeter of 20 units and has the largest area possible.

Round Up A rectangle with a big difference between its length and width measurement will have a large perimeter for its area. It works the other way for maximizing the area of a rectangle with a fixed perimeter — the closer the shape is to a square, the bigger the area will be. a tion — Area and Perimeter Patterns Explora 132 Section 3.1 Explor

Lesson

Section 3.1

3.1.1

Polygons and Perimeter

California Standards:

You’re probably pretty familiar with a lot of shapes — this Lesson gives you a chance to brush up on their names, and shows you how you can use formulas to find the distance around the outside of some shapes.

Measurement and Geometry 2.1 Use formulas routinely for finding the perimeter and area of basic twodimensional figures, and the surface area and volume of basic three-dimensional figures, including rectangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, squares, triangles, circles, prisms, and cylinders.

Polygons Have Straight Sides Polygons are flat shapes. They’re made from straight line segments that never cross. The line segments are joined end to end.

This is a polygon

This isn’t a polygon (the lines cross)

What it means for you: You’ll learn about the names of different shapes and use formulas for finding the perimeters of some shapes.

Key words: • • • • • • •

polygon perimeter regular polygon irregular polygon quadrilateral parallelogram trapezoid

This isn’t a polygon (it’s not made from straight lines)

The name of a polygon depends on how many sides it has. 3 sides

Triangle

7 sides

Heptagon

4 s i de s

Quadrilateral

8 sides

Octagon

5 sides

Pentagon

9 sides

Nonagon

6 sides

Hexagon

10 sides

Decagon

Example

1

Identify each of the following shapes.

2.

1.

Solution

1. This shape has 6 sides, so it’s a hexagon. 2. This shape has 7 sides, so it’s a heptagon.

A Quadrilateral is a Polygon with Four Sides Don’t forget: Dashes are used to show that certain lengths are equal. You might see single and double dashes. Sides with double dashes are the same length as each other, but not the same as those with single dashes.

A quadrilateral is any shape that has four sides. You need to be able to name a few of them. Rectangle A rectangle has opposite sides of equal length. It also has four right angles.

Parallelogram Its opposite sides are parallel.

Rhombus This is a parallelogram with all sides of the same length.

Square This is a special kind of rectangle. It has four sides all of equal length.

Trapezoid This has only one pair of parallel sides.

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

133

Guided Practice Identify each of the following polygons: 1.

2.

3.

Regular Polygons Have Equal Sides and Angles Regular polygons have equal angles, and sides of equal length. Irregular polygons don’t have all sides and angles equal.

Check it out: A rhombus has all sides of equal length, but the angles aren’t all the same. So a rhombus is always irregular. A square, however, has all sides and all angles equal, so a square is always regular.

All sides and angles are the same.

rregular egular

irr egular irregular

Neither sides nor angles are all the same.

All sides and angles are the same. The sides are the same lengths but the angles aren’t the same.

rregular egular Example

irr egular irregular

2

Decide whether this polygon is regular or irregular. Solution

The shape has all angles equal. But the lengths of the sides are not the same, so it is an irregular polygon.

Guided Practice

Check it out: Polygons occur a lot in everyday life — for example:

Decide whether each of the following shapes is a regular polygon, an irregular polygon, or not a polygon at all.

The Pentagon

4. 2 in.

2 in.

2 in.

2 in.

5.

6.

octagon

7. triangle

3 ft

4.2 ft 6.4 ft

134

8.

4 ft

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

Perimeter is the Distance Around a Polygon The perimeter is the distance around the edge of a shape.

Don’t forget: The “d” in the formula for the perimeter of a parallelogram stands for the length of the diagonal. Don’t get this confused with the vertical height, which you’ll use when you work out the area in the next Lesson.

You can find the perimeter by adding up the lengths of the sides of a polygon, but some polygons have a formula you can use to find the perimeter more quickly.

P = 2(l + w)

P = 2(b + d)

P = 4s

w

d 5

s

l

b Example

Square:

Rectangle:

Parallelogram:

s

3

Find the perimeter of a rectangle of length 54 cm and width 26 cm. Solution

Don’t forget: Perimeter is a distance and needs a unit. Check what unit the question contains and make sure your answer has the correct unit.

Draw a diagram, and use the formula P = 2(l + w).

26 cm

Substitute the values for l and w, and evaluate.

54 cm

P = 2 × (54 cm + 26 cm) = 2 × 80 cm = 160 cm.

Guided Practice 9. Find the length of the diagonal of a parallelogram that has a base of 4.6 in. and a perimeter of 14 in. 10. Find the perimeter of a square of side 8.3 m.

Independent Practice Find the perimeter of the figures in Exercises 1–4. 1. 3.2 m 2. 6.1 cm 6.1 cm 1.1 m Now try these: Lesson 3.1.1 additional questions — p443

3.

5 ft

5 ft

4.

2 in. 2.1 in.

5 ft 1.8 in.

5 ft 5ft

3 in.

5. Brandy wants to know how many pieces of wood she needs to mark out the boundary of her new house. How many pieces of wood will she need if each piece of wood is 50 in. long and her boundary is a square of side 650 in.?

Round Up There are a few formulas here that make it much quicker to do perimeter calculations. If you can’t apply one of the formulas, remember that you can always just add up the lengths of the sides. Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

135

Lesson

3.1.2

Areas of Polygons

California Standards:

Area is the amount of space inside a shape. Like for perimeter, there are formulas for working out the areas of some polygons. You’ll practice using some of them in this Lesson.

Measurement and Geometry 2.1 Use formulas routinely for finding the perimeter and area of basic twodimensional figures, and the surface area and volume of basic three-dimensional figures, including rectangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, squares, triangles, circles, prisms, and cylinders.

What it means for you: You’ll use formulas to find the areas of regular shapes.

Area is the Amount of Space Inside a Shape Area is the amount of surface covered by a shape. Parallelograms, rectangles, and squares all have useful formulas for finding their areas. Triangles and other shapes can be a little more difficult, but there are formulas for those too — which we’ll come to next. Rectangle:

Square:

Parallelogram:

A = lw

A = s2

A = bh

w Key words: • • • • • •

area triangle parallelogram trapezoid formula substitution

h

s

l Example

s b

1

Use a formula to evaluate the area of this shape.

7 in.

Solution

Check it out: The area of a parallelogram is exactly the same as the area of a rectangle of the same base length and vertical height.

Use the formula for the area of a rectangle. Substitute in the values given in the question to evaluate the area. A = lw = 7 in. × 2 in. = 14 in2 You can also rearrange the formulas to find a missing length: Example

Check it out: Remember — the height you use to calculate the area of a parallelogram is the vertical height and not the length of the side.

Don’t forget: Use dimensional analysis to make sure your answer has the correct units. You’re multiplying a length by a length — for example, meters × meters. So areas should always be a square unit — such as square meters (m2).

136

2 in.

2

Find the height of a parallelogram of area 42 cm2 and base length 7 cm. Solution

Rearrange the formula for the area of a parallelogram, and substitute. A = bh A b = h=h b b 42 h= = 6 cm 7

h 7 cm

Guided Practice 1. Find the area of a square of side 2.4 m. 2. Find the length of a rectangle if it has area 30 in2, and width 5 in.

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

The Area of a Triangle is Half that of a Parallelogram The area of a triangle is half the area of a parallelogram that has the same base length and vertical height. Don’t forget: The height you use for working out the area of a triangle is the vertical height and not the length of a side. This vertical height is often called the altitude.

height (h)

height (h) base (b)

Area of triangle = = =

Don’t forget: Multiplying by

1 is the same 2

as dividing by 2.

Example

1 2

base (b) • area of parallelogram

1 (base 2

× height)

1

A = 2 bh

1 bh 2

3

Find the base length of the triangle opposite if it has an area of 20 in2 and a height of 8 in.

8 in.

Solution

Rearrange the formula for the area to give an expression b in. for the base length of the triangle. 1 A = bh 2 2 A = bh Multiply both sides by 2 2A 2A h = b = b . So b = Divide both sides by the height (h) h h h Now substitute in the values and evaluate to give the base length. b = (2 × 20) ÷ 8 = 5 in.

Guided Practice 3. Find the area of a triangle of base length 3 ft and height 4.5 ft. 4. Find the base length of a triangle with height 50 m and area 400 m2.

Break a Trapezoid into Parts to Find its Area Check it out: Splitting the trapezoid into two triangles isn’t the only way — it’s just the easiest. You will get the same answer if you split it into two triangles and a rectangle, for example.

The most straightforward way to find the area of a trapezoid is to split it up into two triangles. You then have to work out the area of both triangles and add them together to find the total area. base of triangle 2 (b2)

2

height (h)

1 base of triangle 1 (b1)

Notice that both triangles have the same height but different bases. Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

137

So, the area of the trapezoid is the sum of the areas of each triangle.

Check it out: Taking out the common factor uses the distributive property that you learned about in Chapter 1 (see p8).

Area of trapezoid = area of Triangle 1 + area of Triangle 2 b2 1 1 Area of trapezoid = b1h + b2h 2 2 1 h Take out the common factor of h to give: Area of trapezoid =

1 h(b1 2

2

b1

+ b2)

A = 12 h(b1 + b2 ) Example

4 12 ft

Find the area of the trapezoid shown.

8 ft

Solution

Area of trapezoid =

1 h(b1 2

+ b2)

30 ft

Substitute in the values given in the question and evaluate. Area of trapezoid = Don’t forget: It’s always best to draw a diagram before attempting to solve an area question. It’s easy to make mistakes otherwise.

1 × 2

8 ft × (12 ft + 30 ft) =

1 × 2

8 ft × 42 ft = 168 ft2.

Guided Practice Find the areas of the trapezoids in Exercises 5–8, using the formula. 5.

6.

5 in.

7.

20 cm

3 in.

11 cm

10 in.

4 cm

8.

1.1 m

105 ft 80 ft

0.7 m

245 ft

1.5 m

Independent Practice Find the area of each of the shapes in Exercises 1–6. 2. 1. 3. 1.2 ft

2.3 in.

1m 2 in. 1m

1.2 ft

Now try these: Lesson 3.1.2 additional questions — p443

11 cm 4.5 ft

4.

2.5 in.

5.

6. 12 cm

7 in.

3.1 ft

20 cm

7. Miguel wants to know the area of his flower bed, shown opposite. Find the area using the correct 3.1 m formula. 2.4 m

Round Up Later you’ll use these formulas to find the areas of irregular shapes. Make sure you practice all this stuff so that you’re on track for the next few Lessons. 138

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

Lesson

3.1.3

Circles

California Standards:

You’ve already met the special irrational number p or “pi”. Now you’re going to use it to find the circumference and area of circles.

The distance of any point on a circle from the center is called the radius. The distance from one side of the circle to the other, through the center point, is called the diameter. Notice the diameter is always twice the radius.

diameter = 2 • radius Example

Key words: • • • • •

pi (p) radius diameter irrational number circumference

Check it out: Circles are not polygons — they don’t have any straight sides. A circle is formed from the set of all points that are an equal distance from a given center point.

d = 2r

eter

What it means for you: You’ll find the circumference and area of circles using formulas.

Circles Have a Radius and a Diameter

diam

Measurement and Geometry 2.1 Use formulas routinely for finding the perimeter and area of basic twodimensional figures, and the surface area and volume of basic three-dimensional figures, including rectangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, squares, triangles, circles, prisms, and cylinders.

radius

1

If a circle has a diameter of 4 in., what is its radius? Solution

4 in

Use the formula: d = 2r. d 2 Substitute d from question: r = 4 ÷ 2 = 2 in.

Rearrange to give r in terms of d, so r =

r

Guided Practice 1. If a circle has a radius of 2 in., what is its diameter? 2. A circle has a diameter of 12 m. What is its radius?

Circumference is the Perimeter of a Circle The circumference is the distance around the edge of a circle. This is similar to the perimeter of a polygon. There’s a formula to find the circumference.

Check it out: There’s a special p button on your calculator that will allow you to do very precise calculations. Otherwise, use the approximate values of 3.14 or

22 7

in your

r

Circumference = p • diameter d

C

C = pd Because the diameter = 2 × radius, Circumference = 2 × p × radius

pr C = 2p

calculations.

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

139

Example Check it out: p is the ratio between the circumference and the diameter of a circle. For any size of circle: circumference ÷ diameter = p.

2

Find the circumference of the circle below. Use the approximation, p ª 3.14. 12 cm

Solution

Use the formula that has diameter in it. Substitute in the values and evaluate with your calculator. C = pd ª 3.14 × 12 cm = 37.68 cm ª 37.7 cm.

Guided Practice Check it out: There are two formulas for the circumference. If you’re given the radius in the question, use C = 2pr; if you’re given the diameter, use C = pd.

Find the circumference of the circles in Exercises 3–6. 10 cm 5. 3. 4. 6. 2m 5 ft

13 in.

7. Find the radius of a circle that has a circumference of 56 ft. 8. Find the diameter of a circle that has a circumference of 7 m.

The Area of a Circle Involves p Too The area of a circle is the amount of surface it covers.

Check it out:

The area of a circle is related to p — just like the circumference. There’s a formula for it:

p is the ratio between the area and the square of the radius. For any size of circle: area ÷ (radius)2 = p

A

r

Area = p • (radius)2 A = p r2

Example

3

Find the area of the circle opposite, using p ª 3.14. Solution

Use the formula: A = p r2 Substitute in the values and evaluate the area

A ª 3.14 × (12 ft)2 = 3.14 × 144 ft2 = 452.16 ft2 ª 452 ft2 140

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

12 ft

If you know the area of a circle you can calculate its radius: Example

4

The area of a circle is 200 cm2. What is the radius of this circle? Use p ª 3.14. Solution

Don’t forget: r2 = r × r, not 2r.

The question gives the area, and you need to find the radius. This means rearranging the formula for the area of a circle to get r by itself. A = pr2 A = r2 p A r= p 200 r= ª 63.7 ª 8 cm p

Divide both sides by p Take the square root of both sides Substitute in the values and find the radius

Guided Practice Don’t forget: You don’t use the diameter in area problems, so it’s useful to make sure you find the radius before attempting any other calculations. Remember, the radius is half the diameter.

9. Find the area of a circle that has a diameter of 12 in. 10. Find the area of a circle that has a radius of 5 m. 11. If a circle has an area of 45 in2, what is its radius?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–3, find the area of the circles shown. 2.

1. r=8m

3. d = 2 in.

C = 45 cm

4. Find the circumference and area of a circle with a diameter of 6 m. 20 ft Now try these: Lesson 3.1.3 additional questions — p443

5. Lakesha has measured the diameter of her new whirlpool bath as 20 ft. Find its surface area. 6. Find the circumference of the base of a glass with a 1.5 inch radius. 7. Find the area of the base of the glass in Exercise 6. 8. A circle has an area of 36 cm2. Find its radius and circumference.

Round Up This Lesson is all about circles, and how to find their circumferences and areas. There are a few formulas that you need to master — make sure you practice rearranging them. Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

141

Lesson

3.1.4

Areas of Complex Shapes

California Standards:

You’ve practiced finding the areas of regular shapes. Now you’re going to use what you’ve learned to find areas of more complex shapes.

Measurement and Geometry 2.2 Estimate and compute the area of more complex or irregular two- and threedimensional figures by breaking the figures down into more basic geometric objects.

What it means for you: You’ll use the area formulas for regular shapes to find the areas of more complex shapes.

Key words:

Complex Shapes Can Be Broken into Parts There are no easy formulas for finding the areas of complex shapes. However, complex shapes are often made up from simpler shapes that you know how to find the area of. To find the area of a complex shape you: 1) Break it up into shapes that you know how to find the area of. 2) Find the area of each part separately. 3) Add the areas of each part together to get the total area.

Shapes can often be broken up in different ways. Whichever way you choose, you’ll get the same total area.

• complex shape • addition • subtraction

Example

1 5 cm

Find the area of this shape.

Don’t forget: Areas should always have a squared unit. Check what it should be and make sure your answer includes it.

2 cm Solution

Split the shape into a rectangle and a triangle.

Check it out:

B

You get the same answer however you split the shape.

3.2 cm

A

You could also have split the shape into a rectangle and a trapezoid.

A

1.8 cm

B Area A is a rectangle. Area A = bh = 5 cm × 2 cm = 10 cm2. Area B is a triangle. 1

Area B = 2 bh =

1 2

× 2 cm × 1.8 cm = 1.8 cm2.

Total area = area A + area B = 10 cm2 + 1.8 cm2 = 11.8 cm2

142

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

4 cm

Guided Practice 1. Find the area of the complex shape below. 50 ft Don’t forget:

12 ft 18 ft

It’s easy to count some pieces of the shape twice. Always draw the shape split into its parts first so you know exactly what you’re dealing with.

12 ft 30 ft

18 ft

12 ft 32 ft

You Can Find Areas by Subtraction Too So far we’ve looked at complex shapes where you add together the areas of the different parts. For some shapes, it’s easiest to find the area of a larger shape and subtract the area of a smaller shape.

Check it out: Most problems can be solved by either addition or subtraction of areas. Use whichever one looks simpler.

Example

2

Find the shaded area of this shape.

2 cm B 10 cm 5 cm

Solution

A

First calculate the area of rectangle A, 20 cm then subtract the area of rectangle B. Area A = lw = 20 × 10 = 200 cm2 Area B = lw = 5 × 2 = 10 cm2 Total area = area A – area B = 200 cm2 – 10 cm2 = 190 cm2 Since there are many stages to these questions, always explain what you’re doing and set your work out clearly. Example

3

Find the shaded area of this shape. 23 ft

Solution

First calculate the area of triangle A, then subtract the area of triangle B. Area A =

A

12 ft B

1 1 bh = × 54 ft × 23 ft = 621 ft2 2 2

7 ft

54 ft

1 1 bh = × 12 ft × 7 ft = 42 ft2 2 2 Total area = area A – area B = 621 ft2 – 42 ft2 = 579 ft2

Area B =

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

143

Guided Practice Use subtraction to find the areas of the shapes in Exercises 2–4. 5 ft 2. 3. 4. 100 in. 4 ft 0.7 m 5 ft 3m 30 in. 20 in. 1m 30 in.

7 ft

3m

Independent Practice Use either addition or subtraction to find the areas of the following shapes. 12 mm 2. 1. 2 cm 11 mm 7 mm 6 mm 3 cm 5 cm

8 cm

100 ft

4.

3. 20 in. 40 in.

50 ft

125 ft

9 in.

23 ft

25 ft

130 ft

5. Damion needs his window frame replacing. If the outside edge of the frame is a rectangle measuring 3 ft × 5 ft and the pane of glass inside is a rectangle measuring 2.6 ft by 4.5 ft, what is the total area of the frame that Damion needs? 6. Aisha has a decking area in her backyard. Find its area, if the deck is made from six isosceles triangles of base 4 m and height 5 m. Now try these: Lesson 3.1.4 additional questions — p444

7. Find the area of the metal bracket opposite.

4 in. 2.6 in. 3.5 in.

5 in.

Round Up You can find the areas of complex shapes by splitting them up into shapes you know formulas for — squares, rectangles, triangles, trapezoids, parallelograms... Take care to include every piece though. 144

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

Lesson

3.1.5

More Complex Shapes

California Standards:

In the last Lesson you found the areas of complex shapes by breaking them down into rectangles and triangles. Complex shapes can sometimes be broken down into other shapes — such as parts of circles or trapezoids. That’s what you’ll practice in this Lesson. You’ll also look at finding the perimeters of complex shapes.

Measurement and Geometry 2.2 Estimate and compute the area of more complex or irregular two- and threedimensional figures by breaking the figures down into more basic geometric objects.

What it means for you: You’ll find the areas of complex shapes by using the area formulas for simple shapes, including those for circles and trapezoids, and you’ll also find perimeters of complex shapes.

Complex Shapes Can Contain Circles Some complex shapes involve circles, or fractions of circles. To calculate the area, you first have to decide what fraction of the full circle is in the shape — for example, a half or a quarter. Once you know what fraction of the circle you want, find the area of the whole circle, and then multiply that area by the fraction of the circle in the shape. For example, a semicircle has half the area of a full circle. Example

Key words: • sector • semicircle • circle • complex shapes • trapezoid

1

Find the area of the complex shape opposite. Solution

6 in.

Split the shape into a semicircle and a rectangle. 5 in. 5 in.

The semicircle has half the area of a full circle, and has a diameter of 5 in. This means its radius is 2.5 in.

Don’t forget: If you’re given the diameter of a circle in an area question, you need to halve it to find the radius before using the area formula.

Area of full circle = pr2 = p × (2.5 in)2 = p × 6.25 = 19.6 in2 Area of semicircle = 0.5 × area of full circle Example 1 = 0.5 × 19.6 in2 = 9.8 in2 Area of rectangle = lw = 5 in. × 6 in. = 30 in2 Total area = area of semicircle + area of rectangle = 9.8 in2 + 30 in2 Total area = 39.8 in2

Guided Practice Don’t forget:

1. Find the area of the complex shape opposite.

1 in.

A little square in a corner means that the angle is a right angle.

5 in.

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

145

Look Out for Trapezoids and Parallelograms Too Some complex shapes need to be broken into more parts than others. Often it’s not obvious what the best way to break them up is. If you only look for triangles and rectangles you could miss the easiest way to solve the problem — look out for trapezoids and parallelograms too. Example Don’t forget: If you see a problem that looks too tricky, don’t panic! Break it down into small manageable chunks, instead of attempting the whole thing right away.

2

Find the area of the complex shape below by breaking it down into trapezoids. 4 ft 2.5 ft

2.5 ft

A B

0.3 ft

C

3.5 ft D

2.5 ft

1 ft 0.7 ft 0.8 ft

Solution

The equation for the area of a trapezoid is A =

1 h(b1 2

+ b2 ).

Area of trapezoid A =

1 2

× 0.3 ft × (2.5 ft + 4 ft) = 0.975 ft2

Area of trapezoid B =

1 2

× 1 ft × (4 ft + 2.5 ft) = 3.25 ft2

Area of trapezoid C =

1 2

× 0.7 ft × (2.5 ft + 3.5 ft) = 2.1 ft2

Area of trapezoid D =

1 2

× 0.8 ft × (3.5 ft + 2.5 ft) = 2.4 ft2

Total area = 0.975 ft2 + 3.25 ft2 + 2.1 ft2 + 2.4 ft2 = 8.725 ft2

Guided Practice 2. Find the area of the complex shape below. 4 cm 15 cm 10 cm 7 cm 3 cm

146

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

17 cm

Finding the Perimeter of Complex Shapes The perimeter is the distance around the edge of a shape. To find the perimeter of a complex shape, you need to add the lengths of each side. It’s likely that you won’t be given the lengths of all the sides, so you may need to find some lengths yourself — for example, the circumference of a semicircle, which is half the circumference of a full circle. Example

3

Find the perimeter of the complex shape opposite. Don’t forget: Remember — don’t include the lengths of sides that don’t form the outline of the final shape. For example, the fourth side of the rectangle isn’t included here.

Solution

6 in

The circumference of a semicircle is half the circumference of a full circle of the same radius. Circumference of semicircle =

1 2

5 in • circumference of full circle

= 12 pd =

1 2

× p × 5 in. = 7.85 in.

Perimeter of 3 sides of rectangle = 6 in. + 5 in. + 6 in. = 17 in. Total perimeter = circumference of semicircle + perimeter of rectangle. Total perimeter = 7.85 in. + 17 in. = 24.85 in.

Don’t forget: Perimeter has units of length (for example, feet). Area has units of length squared (for example, ft2).

Guided Practice 3. Find the perimeter of the shape below. 3 in. 1 in. 4.5 in.

2 in. 1 in.

5 in. 4. Davina has made a flower shape out of some wood by cutting out a regular pentagon and sticking a semicircle to each side of the pentagon, as shown. She wants to make a border for her shape by sticking some ribbon all around the edge. Find the length of ribbon that Davina will need.

10 cm

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

147

Independent Practice 1. Kia’s swimming pool is rectangular in shape with a circular wading pool at one 10 m corner, as shown. Find the total surface area of Kia’s pool and the distance around the edge.

20 m

15 m

2. Find the area of the face of the castle below (don’t include the windows). Assume that all the windows are the same size and that all the turrets are the same size, and evenly spaced. 100 ft 70 ft

50 ft 50 ft

220 ft 50 ft

Check it out: If there is a rectangle overlapping a circle, always try to find the area of the rectangle, then the area of the rest of the circle. You’ll get in a mess if you try to solve it the other way around!

440 ft 3. Find the area of the button shown below if each hole has a diameter of 0.1 in. and the button has a diameter of 1.2 in.

4. T.J. has five friends coming to his 13th birthday party. He bakes a cake that is 12 inches in diameter. At the party, T.J. and his friends divide the cake equally between them, into identically shaped slices, as shown. Find the perimeter and area of the base of each slice of cake. 5. Find the perimeter and area of the shape below. Now try these: Lesson 3.1.5 additional questions — p444

3 cm 5 cm 2 cm 2.3 cm

Round Up Now you know everything you need to know about finding the area and perimeter of complex shapes. The first step is to look at the shape and decide on the easiest way to break it up into simple shapes. 148

Section 3.1 — Perimeter, Circumference, and Area

Section 3.2 introduction — an exploration into:

Coor dina te 4-in-a-r ow Coordina dinate 4-in-a-ro Ordered pairs are used to represent points on the coordinate plane. The goal of this game is to get as many points in a line as possible — the lines can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal. You score for each row of four or more points that you make — the scoring system is below. Scoring System 4-in-a-row 1 point 5-in-a-row 2 points 6-in-a-row 3 points (or more) Example You need part of a coordinate plane, like shown. Players take turns calling out coordinates.

y

10 9 8

For example: Player 1 ( Player 2 ( Player 1 ( Player 2 ( Player 1 (

7 6

): (4, 2) — right 4, up 2. ): (9, 3) — right 9, up 3. ): (5, 3) — right 5, up 3. ): (6, 4) — right 6, up 4. ): (3, 1) — right 3, up 1.

5 4 3 2

Now, Player 1 needs to get (2, 0) to get 4-in-a-row and score 1 point. But it’s Player 2’s turn next, and if they choose (2, 0), they’ll block the point.

1 0 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

x y 10 9

After a while, your coordinate plane will look a bit like this:

8 7

Player 1 ( ) has 4 points in total so far and Player 2 ( ) has 3 points so far. So Player 1 is winning at the moment.

6

3 points

2 points

5

1 point

4

If a player calls out a point that’s already taken, or plots a different one to that which they called, they lose their turn.

3 2 1 0 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 point

10

x

Exercises 1. Play the game with another person. The person whose birthday is next goes first. 2. Play the game again. This time, players are allowed to pick two points in each turn.

Round Up You can pinpoint a certain place on the coordinate plane using a pair of coordinates, and by plotting several points you can form a straight line. Section 3.2 Explor a tion — Coordinate 4-in-a-row 149 Explora

Lesson

Section 3.2

3.2.1

Plotting Points

California Standards:

When you draw a graph you draw it on a coordinate plane. This is a flat grid that has a horizontal axis and a vertical axis. You can describe where any point on the plane is using a pair of numbers called coordinates.

Measurement and Geometry 3.2 Understand and use coordinate graphs to plot simple figures, determine lengths and areas related to them, and determine their image under translations and reflections.

What it means for you:

You Plot Coordinates on a Coordinate Plane The coordinate plane is a two-dimensional (flat) area where points and lines can be graphed. y-axis y

4

You’ll see how to use a grid system to plot numbered points.

3 2 1

x-axis origin

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1

1

2

3

4 x

–2 –3 –4

Key words: • • • •

coordinate x-axis y-axis quadrant

The plane is formed by the intersection of a vertical number line, or y-axis, and a horizontal number line, or x-axis. They cross where they are both equal to 0 — a point called the origin.

Coordinates Describe Points on the Plane The x and y coordinates of a point describe where on the plane it lies. The coordinates are written as (x, y). Coordinates are sometimes called ordered pairs. This means that the order of the numbers matters — (1, 2) is different from (2, 1).

y-coordinate

x-coordinate

Check it out:

(2, –3) When you plot points on the coordinate plane you plot them in relation to the origin, which has coordinates of (0, 0). • The x-coordinate tells you how many spaces along the x-axis to go. Negative values mean you go left. Positive values mean you go right. • The y-coordinate tells you how many spaces up or down the y-axis to go. Positive values mean you go up. Negative values mean you go down.

y

4 3 2 1 –4 –3 –2 –1

So a point with the coordinates (2, –3) will be two units to the right of the origin, and three units below.

150

Section 3.2 — The Coordinate Plane

1

2

3

4 x

0 –1 –2 –3 –4

(2, –3)

Example

1

Plot the point with the coordinates (3, 4). Solution

Step 1: start at the origin, (0, 0). y

Check it out: A positive x-coordinate tells you to move right along the x-axis, while a negative x-coordinate tells you to move left along the x-axis. A positive y-coordinate tells you to move up the y-axis, while a negative y-coordinate tells you to move down the y-axis.

4

Step 2: move right along the x-axis 3 units.

3 2 1 –4 –3 –2 –1

1

2

3

4 x

0 –1

Step 3: now move straight up 4 units and plot the point.

–2

When you are reading the coordinates of a point on a graph you can use the same idea. Example

2

What are the coordinates of point A?

y

4 3 2

A

1 –4 –3 –2 –1

1

2

3

4 x

0 –1 –2

Solution

Start at (0, 0). To get to point A on the graph you need to move 2 units to the left. So the x-value of your coordinate is –2. Then you need to go 2 units straight up. So the y-value is 2. The coordinates of the point A are (–2, 2).

Guided Practice Plot and label each of the coordinate pairs in Exercises 1–6 on a coordinate plane. 1. (1, 4)

2. (2, –3)

3. (–1, –2)

4. (–4, 2)

5. (0, 3)

6. (–4, 0)

Section 3.2 — The Coordinate Plane

151

The Coordinate Plane is Divided into Four Quadrants The x-axis and y-axis divide the coordinate plane into four sections. Each of these sections is called a quadrant. The quadrants are represented by Roman numerals, and are labeled counterclockwise. y

4

II (–, +)

I

3 2

(+, +)

1 –4 –3 –2 –1

1

2

III (–, –)

4

IV

–2 –3 –4

3

x

0 –1

(+, –)

The signs of the x and y values are different in each quadrant. For instance, in quadrant I both the x and y values are positive. But in quadrant II the x value is negative and the y value is positive. You can tell which quadrant a point will fall in by looking at the signs of the x and y coordinates.

Example

3

Which quadrant is the point (1, –4) in? Solution

Check it out: A point that is on either the x-axis or the y-axis is not in any of the quadrants.

The x-value is 1. This is positive, so the point must be in quadrant I or IV. The y-value is –4. This is negative, so the point must be in quadrant IV. The point (1, –4) is in quadrant IV.

Example

4

Which quadrant is the point (–3, –6) in? Solution

Both coordinates are negative, so the point (–3, –6) is in quadrant III.

152

Section 3.2 — The Coordinate Plane

Guided Practice In Exercises 7–14 say which quadrant the point lies in. 7. (1, 3)

8. (–2, –4)

9. (7, –2)

10. (–3, 6)

11. (–2, –2)

12. (2, 2)

13. (–1.5, 2.5)

14. (1, –1)

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6 say which quadrant the point is in. 1. (1, 1) 2. (–1, –1) 3. (–1, 2) 4. (–2, 1) 5. (3, –2) 6. (–61, 141) 7. Do the coordinate pairs (–3, 4) and (4, –3) correspond to the same point on the plane? Plot each of the points in Exercises 8–13 on a coordinate plane. 9. (3, 2) 8. (0, 0) 11. (–3, 4) 10. (–2, –3) 13. (0, 4) 12. (1, –2) 14. Sophie and Jorge are playing a game. Sophie marks out a coordinate plane on the beach, and buries some objects at different points. Jorge has to use the map below to find the objects. y

2

Now try these: Lesson 3.2.1 additional questions — p445

1 –3 –2 –1

1 0

2

3

x

–1 –2 –3 –4

a) What are the coordinates of the keys? b) What are the coordinates of the baseball cap? c) What are the coordinates of the apple? d) How many units are there between the keys and the flashlight? e) How many units are there between the baseball mitt and the keys?

Round Up Coordinates allow you to describe where points are plotted — they’re written as pairs of numbers, such as (1, –5). The first number tells you the horizontal or x-coordinate. The second tells you the vertical or y-coordinate. Plotting points on coordinate planes is a big part of drawing graphs, and will be used a lot in the rest of this Chapter and in the next Chapter. Section 3.2 — The Coordinate Plane

153

Lesson Lesson

3.2.2 3.2.2

Drawing Shapes on the Coordinate Plane

California Standards: Measurement and Geometry 3.2 Understand and use coordinate graphs to plot simple figures, determine lengths and areas related to them, and determine their image under translations and reflections.

What it means for you: You’ll see how to draw shapes on a grid by plotting points and joining them.

Key words: • coordinate • area • perimeter

In the last Lesson you saw how to plot points on the coordinate plane. If you plot several points and then join them up, you get a shape.

You Can Make Shapes by Joining Points You can draw a shape on the coordinate plane by plotting points and joining them together. The coordinates are the corners of the shape. Example

1

Plot the shape ABCD on the coordinate plane, where A is (3, 2), B is (3, –3), C is (–2, –3), and D is (–2, 2). Name the shape you have drawn. y (3, 2) D (–2, 2) Solution Step 1: Plot and label the points A, B, C, and D.

Check it out: You have to join the points in order. So pentagon DEFGH must have D joined to E, E joined to F, F joined to G, etc... If you joined the points in a different order you’d get a completely different shape.

A

2 1

–3 –2 –1

1

2

3

0

x

–1

Step 2: Join the points in order. So A joins to B, B joins to C, C joins to D, and D joins to A.

(–2, –3)

C

–2

(3, –3)

–3 –4

B

The shape has four sides of equal length and four right angles — so it’s a square.

Check it out: You can tell something about the shape you’re drawing just from the number of coordinates you’re given. If you are only given three points to plot, the shape must be a triangle. If you are given four points, then it’s probably a quadrilateral (though it could be a triangle — if three of the points are in a line).

154

Guided Practice Plot the shapes in Exercises 1–4 on the coordinate plane and name the shapes. 1. JKL

J(3, 1) K(2, 3) L(1, 1)

2. EFG

E(1, 2) F(2, –3) G(–3, –2)

3. RSTU

R(–2, 1) S(2, 1) T(3, –1) U(–3, –1)

4. PQRS

P(–1, 3) Q(3, 3) R(1, 0) S(–3, 0)

Section 3.2 — The Coordinate Plane

Use the Shape’s Properties to Find Missing Points Sometimes you might be given a shape to graph with the coordinates of a corner missing. You can use the properties of the shape to work out the missing pair of coordinates. Example

2

VWXY is a square on the coordinate plane, where V is (2, 2), W is (2, –1), and X is (–1, –1). What are the coordinates of point Y? Solution

First plot points V, W, and X and join them in order. y

2

V

1 –2 –1

1

2x

0 –1

X

W

You know that VWXY is a square. So it must have four equal-length sides that meet at right angles. The lines VW and WX are both 3 units long. So point Y must be 3 units left of V, and 3 units above X. Add it to the graph, and form the square. y

Y

2

V

1 –2 –1

1

2x

0

X

–1

W

Now read the coordinates of Y from the graph: point Y is at (–1, 2).

Don’t forget: An isosceles triangle is one that has at least two sides the same length and at least two angles of equal measure.

Guided Practice In Exercises 5–8 find the missing point. 5. Square KLMN

K(–2, 2) L(2, 2) M(2, –2) N(?, ?)

6. Rectangle CDEF

C(1, 3) D(1, –1) E(–2, –1) F(?, ?)

7. Parallelogram ABCD

A(–3, –2) B(1, –2) C(3, 1) D (?, ?)

8. Isosceles triangle RST

R(1, –2) S(0, 1) T(?, ?)

Section 3.2 — The Coordinate Plane

155

Find Lengths Using Absolute Value Once you’ve plotted a shape on the coordinate plane you can find out its area or perimeter using the formulas that you saw in Section 3.1. Don’t forget: If you need a reminder, then all the perimeter formulas that you might need are in Lesson 3.1.1. All the area formulas that you might need are in Lesson 3.1.2.

But first you’ll need to find some lengths on the coordinate plane — such as the side lengths of the shapes. You could do this by counting squares on the diagram. Another way of doing this is to use x- and y-coordinate values. This is shown in the example below. Example

3

Plot the rectangle WXYZ on the coordinate plane, where W is (–1, 1), X is (4, 1), Y is (4, –2), and Z is (–1, –2). What are the perimeter and area of WXYZ? Solution

First plot WXYZ on the coordinate plane.

y

(–1, 1) W

1

2

3

–1

Z

–2

Y (4, –2)

The sides WX and YZ give the length. They’re the same, so find either. To find the length (l) using side WX, subtract the x-coordinate of W from the x-coordinate of X: l = 4 − (−1) = 5. Sides WZ and XY give the width. They’re the same, so find either. To find the width (w) using side XY, subtract the y-coordinate of Y from the y-coordinate of X: w = 1 – (–2) = 3. Now just plug the length and width values into the formulas for perimeter and area. Perimeter of WXYZ = 2(l + w) = 2(5 + 3) = 16 units Area of WXYZ = l • w = 5 • 3 = 15 units2

156

4 x

0

(–1, –2)

The bars around the calculation here show that the absolute value is being calculated. This means it doesn’t matter which coordinate you subtract from which — you’ll always get the correct, positive answer.

X (4, 1)

1

–4 –3 –2 –1

To find the perimeter and area, you need to know the width and the length.

Don’t forget:

2

Section 3.2 — The Coordinate Plane

Guided Practice 9. What is the perimeter of square ABCD, where A is (1, 1), B is (3, 1), C is (3, 3), and D is (1, 3)? 10. What are the perimeter and area of rectangle EFGH, where E is (–2, 1), F is (3, 1), G is (3, –2), and H is (–2, –2)? 11. What is the area of triangle JKL, when J is (–1, –3), K is (3, –3), and L is (1, 0)?

Independent Practice Plot and name the shapes in Exercises 1–3 on the coordinate plane. 1. ABC A(2, 3) B(3, –3) C(–2, –1) 2. TUVW T(4, –1) U(0, –1) V(0, 2) W(4, 2) 3. EFGH

E(–2, –2) F(–1, 0) G(1, 0) H(2, –2)

4. Anthony is marking out a pond in his yard. It is going to be perfectly square. He is marking it out on a grid system, and has put the first three marker stakes in at (–1, –3), (–1, 1), and (3, 1). At what coordinates should he put in the last stake? In Exercises 5–7, find the missing pair of coordinates. 5. Square CDEF 6. Rectangle TUVW 7. Parallelogram KLMN

C(1, 2) D(4, 2) E(4, –1) F(?, ?) T(–3, 3) U(–2, 3) V(–2, –2) W(?, ?) K(1, 0) L(–2, 0) M(–1, 2) N(?, ?)

8. What is the perimeter of rectangle BCDE, where B is (–2, 4), C is (3, 4), D is (3, 2), and E is (–2, 2)? 9. What is the area of triangle JKL, where J is (1, 2), K is (4, –1), and L is (7, –1)? Now try these: Lesson 3.2.2 additional questions — p445

10. What are the area and perimeter of rectangle PQRS, where P is (0, 0), Q is (3, 0), R is (3, –2), and S is (0, –2)? 11. A school has decided to set aside an area of their playing field as a nature reserve. A plan is made using a grid with 10-feet units. The coordinates of the corners of the area set aside are (0, 0), (4, 0), (2, –2), and (–2, –2). What area will the nature reserve cover?

Round Up Drawing shapes on the coordinate plane just means plotting their corners from coordinates and joining them together. You can even use the known properties of some shapes to figure out the coordinates of any missing corners. Once you’ve got the shapes plotted, you can use the standard formulas to work out their perimeters and areas. Section 3.2 — The Coordinate Plane

157

Section 3.3 introduction — an exploration into:

Measuring Right Triang les riangles

There’s a special relationship between the leg-lengths and the hypotenuse-length in a right triangle. The purpose of the Exploration is to discover this relationship. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is the side directly across from the right-angle. The other sides are called legs. Some right triangles are shown below with their hypotenuses labeled. hypotenuse hypotenuse

hypotenuse

Example On grid paper, draw a right triangle. Measure the length of each leg and the length of the hypotenuse. Solution

You can draw any triangle, as long as it has a right-angle. Legs = 2 cm and 3 cm Hypotenuse = 3.6 cm

3 cm

3.6 cm

hypotenuse

2 cm

Exercises 1. Draw 5 right triangles on grid paper. Label them A-E. Then label the hypotenuse on each. 2. For each right triangle, measure the length of each leg and the length of the hypotenuse. Measure in centimeters and record your measurements in a copy of this table.

Tr i an g l e

L eg 1 (c m )

L eg 2 (c m )

Hy p o t e n u s e ( c m )

Ex am p l e

2

3

3.6

A B C D E

3. Explain how the length of a right triangle’s hypotenuse compares to the lengths of its legs. 4. Explain how the sum of the legs of each right triangle compares to the hypotenuse length. 5. Add three new columns to your table, like this: Tr i an g l e Ex am p l e

L eg 1 (c m ) L eg 2 (c m ) Hy p o t en u s e (c m ) L eg 1 s q u ar ed 2

3

3.6

4

L eg 2 s q u ar ed Hy p o t en u s e s q u ar ed 9

13

Complete these columns, and then compare the squared side lengths for each triangle. What patterns do you notice?

Round Up You should now have discovered how the leg-lengths of a right triangle are related to the hypotenuselength. This is known as the Pythagorean Theorem — you’ll be using it in this Section. a tion — Measuring Right Triangles Explora 158 Section 3.3 Explor

Lesson

Section 3.3

3.3.1

The Pytha gor ean Theor em Pythag orean heorem

California Standards:

You will have come across right triangles before — they’re just triangles that have one corner that’s a 90° angle. Well, there’s a special formula that links the side lengths of a right triangle — it comes from the Pythagorean theorem.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 3.3 Geometry Kno w and under stand the Know understand Pytha gor ean theor em and Pythag orean theorem its converse and use it to find the length of the missing side of a right triangle and the lengths of other line segments and, in some situa tions y situations tions,, empiricall empirically verify the Pytha gor ean Pythag orean theor em b y dir ect theorem by direct measur ement. measurement.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about an equation that you can use to find a missing side length of a right triangle.

The Pytha gor ean Theor em is About Right Triang les Pythag orean heorem riangles A right triangle is any triangle that has a 90° angle (or right angle) as one of it corners. You need to know the names of the parts of a right triangle: o ttenuse enuse is the The hyp hypo longest side of the triangle. It’s the side directly opposite the right angle.

c b 90º

a Right angle

Key words: • • • • •

Pythagorean theorem right triangle hypotenuse legs right angle

Check it out: A right angle is an angle of exactly 90°. In diagrams, a right angle is shown as a small square in the corner like this:

The other two sides of the triangle are called the legs legs.

In diagrams of right triangles, the hypotenuse is usually labeled as c, and the two legs as a and b. It doesn’t matter which leg you label a, and which you label b.

Guided Practice Complete the missing labels on the diagram.

1.

90º

Any other angle is shown as a piece of a circle like this:

3. 2.

In Exercises 4–7 say which side of the right triangle is the hypotenuse. 5.

4. I

I

II

II III

III

6.

7.

I

II

I

II III

III

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

159

The Theor em Links Side Lengths of Right Triang les heorem riangles Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician who lived around 500 B.C. A famous theorem about right triangles is named after him. It’s called the Pythagorean theorem:

For any right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two legs. This all sounds very complicated, but it’s not so bad once you know what it actually means. Look again at the right triangle. Now add three squares whose side lengths are the same as the side lengths of the triangle:

2

Area = c

2

c

b

Area = b

a Area = a

2

What the Pythagorean theorem is saying is that the area of the red square is the same as the area of the blue square plus the area of the green square.

c2

=

a2

+

b2

So this is what the Pythagorean theorem looks like written algebraically:

For any right triangle: c2 = a2 + b2 It means that if you know the lengths of two sides of a right triangle, you can always find the length of the other side using the equation.

160

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

You Can Chec k the Theor em Using a Right Triang le Check heorem riangle Don’t forget: It’s really important to remember that the y Pythagorean theorem onl only works on right triangles. It won’t work on any other type.

You can check for yourself that the theorem works by measuring the side lengths of right triangles, and putting the values into the equation. Example

1

Use the right triangle below to verify the Pythagorean theorem.

5 units 4 units 3 units Solution

a = 3 units

b = 4 units

c = 5 units

c 2 = a2 + b2 52 = 32 + 42 25 = 9 + 16 25 = 25

Guided Practice Use the right triangles in Exercises 8–11 to verify the Pythagorean theorem. 8.

9. 15 units

13 units 12 units 12 units 5 units

9 units 10.

11. 4.1 units

4 units

0.7 units

2.5 units 2.4 units

0.9 units

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

161

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–3 say whether the triangle is a right triangle or not.

1.

2.

3.

In Exercises 4–6 say which side of the right triangle is the hypotenuse. Don’t forget: The hypotenuse is always the longest side of a right triangle.

II 4.

5.

III

I

III

6.

I

III

I II

II

Use the triangles in Exercises 7–10 to verify the Pythagorean theorem. 7.

8. 10 units

17 units

8 units

15 units

6 units 8 units

9.

10. 1.25 units

1 unit

2 units

0.75 units

1.6 units

1.2 units

Now try these: Lesson 3.3.1 additional questions — p445

11. Victor used the triangle shown on the right to try to verify the Pythagorean theorem. Explain why his work is wrong. Victor’s work: 92 = 122 + 152 81 = 144 + 225 81 = 369

15 units

12 units

9 units

Round Up The Pythagorean theorem describes the relationship between the lengths of the hypotenuse and the legs of a right triangle. It means that when you know the lengths of two of the sides of a right triangle, you can always find the length of the third side. You’ll get a lot of practice at using it in the next few Lessons. 162

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

Lesson

3.3.2

California Standards: Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 3.2 Geometry Under stand and use Understand coor dina te g coordina dinate grra phs to plot mine simple figures, deter determine lengths and areas r ela ted to elated them them, and determine their image under translations and reflections. Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 3.3 Geometry Kno w and under stand the Know understand Pytha gor ean theor em and Pythag orean theorem its converse and use it to find the length of the missing side of a right triangle and the lengths of other line se gments and, in segments some situations, empirically verify the Pythagorean theorem by direct measurement.

What it means for you:

Using the Pytha gor ean Pythag orean T heor em heorem In the last Lesson, you met the Pythagorean theorem and saw how it linked the lengths of the sides of a right triangle. In this Lesson, you’ll practice using the theorem to work out missing side lengths in right triangles.

Use the Pytha gor ean Theor em to Find the Hypoten use Pythag orean heorem Hypotenuse If you know the lengths of the two legs of a right triangle you can use them to find the length of the hypotenuse. The theorem says that c2 = a2 + b2, where c is the length of the hypotenuse, and a and b are the lengths of the two legs. So if you know the lengths of the legs you can put them into the equation, and solve it to find the length of the hypotenuse. Example

1

Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse of the right triangle shown below.

You’ll see how to use the Pythagorean theorem to find missing side lengths of right triangles.

c cm

6 cm

Key words: • • • •

Pythagorean theorem hypotenuse legs square root

Don’t forget: Finding the square root of a number is the opposite of squaring it. The symbol: ÷ represents the positive square root of the number inside it. For more about square roots, see Section 2.6.

8 cm

Solution

c 2 = a 2 + b2

Fir st write out the equa tion First equation

c2 = 62 + 82

Substitute in the side lengths tha ou kno w thatt yyou know

c2 = 36 + 64 c2 = 100

Simplify the e xpr ession xpression expr

c = 100

Tak e the squar e rroot oot of both sides ake square

c = 10 cm

A lot of the time your solution won’t be a whole number. That’s because the last step of the work is taking a square root, which often leaves a decimal or an irrational number answer.

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

163

Example

2

Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse of the right triangle shown. Check it out: Before you start, it’s very important to work out which side of the triangle is the longest side — the hypotenuse. Otherwise you’ll get an incorrect answer.

cm

1m

Solution

c2 c

= a2 + b2

2

2

=1 +1

c2

=1+1

c2

=2

c=

2

Fir st write out the equa tion First equation

1m

Substitute in the side lengths tha ou kno w thatt yyou know

Simplify the e xpr ession expr xpression

2m

Cancel out the squaring b y taking the squar e rroot oot by square

If you do this calculation on a calculator, you’ll see that approximately equal to 1.4 m.

2 m is

The Pythagorean theorem is also useful for finding lengths on graphs that aren’t horizontal or vertical. Example

3

y

Find the length of the line segment KL.

L

4 3

Solution

2 1

Draw a horizontal and vertical line on the plane to make a right triangle — then use the method above. c 2 = a2 + b2 Fir st write out the equa tion First equation c2

= 32 + 2 2

c2

= 9 + 4 = 13 Simplify the eexpr xpr ession xpression

0

3 units K 2 units 1

2

3

Substitute in the side lengths tha ou kno w thatt yyou know

c = 13 units ª 3.6 units Cancel out the squaring by taking the squar e rroot oot square

Guided Practice Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse in Exercises 1–3. 1. 2. 3. 15 units

8 units

c ft

c mm

3.6 mm

12 ft 1.5 mm

c units 5 ft y

4. Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of the line segment XY.

2 Y 1 –2 –1

1

X

164

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

2 x

0 –1

4

x

You Can Use the Theor em to Find a Le g Length heorem Leg If you know the length of the hypotenuse and one of the legs, you can use the theorem to find the length of the “missing” leg. You just need to rearrange the formula: Don’t forget: To keep an equation balanced, you have to do the same thing to both sides. Here b2 is subtracted from each side. For a reminder on equations see Section 1.2.

a2 + b2 = c2 a2 = c2 – b2

Subtract b2 from both sides to get the a2 term by itself.

Remember that it doesn’t matter which of the legs you call a and which you call b. But the hypotenuse is always c. Now you can substitute in values to find the missing leg length as you did with the hypotenuse. Example

4

Find the missing leg length in this right triangle.

÷58 cm

3 cm a

Solution

c2 = a2 + b2

Fir st write out the equa tion First equation

a2 = c2 – b2

Rear e it earrrang ange

a2 = ( 58 )2 – 32

w Substitute in the side lengths tha thatt yyou know ou kno

a2 = 58 – 9 a2 = 49 a =

Simplify the e xpr ession expr xpression

49

Tak e the squar e rroot oot of both sides ake square

a = 7 cm

Guided Practice Use the Pythagorean theorem to calculate the missing leg lengths in Exercises 5–8.

6.

5. 20 cm

a ft

1.6 ft

16 cm

3.4 ft a cm

7.

a units

136 units

8. 10 units

89 units

a units

5 units

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

165

Independent Practice Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the value of c in Exercises 1–5. 2.

1. c cm

12 cm

cm

0.8 m

0.6 m

9 cm 4.

3. 4.8 m

3.6 m

5.

cm

1 cm

c in.

7 in.

1.5 cm

c cm

2 in.

Calculate the value of a in Exercises 6–10. 6.

7. 5 feet

4 feet

a feet a cm

8. 4 cm

7.5 m

am

4.5 m

9.

10. ÷45 units

4.1 cm a units

11. Find the length of line AB.

a in.

3 in.

3 units

÷19 in. y

4A 3

B

2 1 0

1

2

3

4 5

Now try these: Lesson 3.3.2 additional questions — p446

x

B

12. Find the perimeter of quadrilateral ABCD.

y 3

2

A

1 –2 –1

1 0 –1

2 C

x

–2 D

Round Up The Pythagorean theorem is really useful for finding missing side lengths of right triangles. If you know the lengths of both legs of a triangle, you can use the formula to work out the length of the hypotenuse. And if you know the lengths of the hypotenuse and one of the legs, you can rearrange the formula and use it to work out the length of the other leg. 166

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

Lesson

3.3.3

A pplica tions of the pplications Pytha gor ean Theor em Pythag orean heorem

California Standards: Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 3.3 Geometry Kno w and under stand the Know understand Pytha gor ean theor em and Pythag orean theorem its converse and use it to find the length of the missing side of a right triangle and the lengths of other line se gments and, in segments some situations, empirically verify the Pythagorean theorem by direct measurement.

In the last two Lessons you’ve seen what the Pythagorean theorem is, and how you can use it to find missing side lengths in right triangles. Now you’ll see how it can be used to help find missing lengths in other shapes too — by breaking them up into right triangles. It can help solve real-life measurement problems too.

What it means for you:

Here’s a reminder of the formula.

You’ll see how the Pythagorean theorem can be used to find lengths in more complicated shapes and in real-life situations.

Key words: • • • • •

Use the Pytha gor ean Theor em in Other Sha pes Too Pythag orean heorem Shapes You can use the Pythagorean theorem to find lengths in lots of shapes — you just have to split them up into right triangles.

c2 = a 2 + b2

Which rearranges to:

a2 = c2 – b2

(c is the hypotenuse length, and a and b are the leg lengths.)

Example

1

Find the area of rectangle ABCD, shown below. A

Pythagorean theorem right triangle hypotenuse legs right angle

B 13 inches

D

12 inches

C

Solution

The formula for the area of a rectangle is Area = length × width. You know that the length of the rectangle is 12 inches, but you don’t know the rectangle’s width, BD. A

Check it out: When you use the Pythagorean theorem, it’s important to remember that the longest side of the right triangle is the hypotenuse. Your first step in any problem involving the Pythagorean theorem should be to decide which side is the hypotenuse.

But you do know the length of the diagonal BC and since all the corners of a rectangle are 90° angles, you know that BCD is a right triangle. You can use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of side BC. BC2 = BD2 – CD2 BC2 = 132 – 122 BC2 = 169 – 144 BC2 = 25 BC = 25 = 5 inches

D

B 13 inches

12 inches

C

BC is the width of the rectangle. Now you can find its area. Area = length × width = 12 inches × 5 inches = 60 inches2 Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

167

Example

2 R

Find the area of isosceles triangle QRS. Don’t forget:

15 cm

15 cm

Isosceles triangles have two sides of equal length, and two angles of equal size.

Q

S

M 18 cm

Solution

The formula for the area of a triangle is Area =

1 2

base × height.

The base of the triangle is 18 cm, but you don’t know its height, MR. Isosceles triangles can be split up into two right triangles. Here’s one: R

You can use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of side MR. 15 cm

15 cm

L

MR2 MR2 MR2 MR2 MR

18 M cm

= RS2 – MS2 = 152 – 92 = 225 – 81 = 144 = 144 = 12 cm

S

9 cm

This is half the base of the original triangle.

Now put the value of MR into the area formula: Area = =

1 base × height 2 1 (18 cm) × 12 cm 2

= 9 cm × 12 cm = 108 cm2

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4 use the Pythagorean theorem to find the missing value, x. Don’t forget:

1. E

If you need a reminder of the area formulas of any of the shapes in this Lesson, see Section 3.1.

10 cm

6 cm

area = x cm2

3.

W

17 inches Z

168

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

25 inches

X

T

P 32 feet

4. W

33 inches

Y

Z

V X

xm x inches

area = x feet2 34 feet

34 feet

G

H

U

2.

F

12 m Y

area = 108 m2

The Pytha gor ean Theor em Has R eal-Lif e A pplica tions Pythag orean heorem Real-Lif eal-Life pplications Because you can use the Pythagorean theorem to find lengths in many different shapes, it can be useful in lots of real-life situations too. Example

3

Monique’s yard is a rectangle 24 feet long by 32 feet wide. She is laying a diagonal gravel path from one corner to the other. One sack of gravel will cover a 10-foot stretch of path. How many sacks will she need? Solution

The first thing you need to work out is the length of the path. It’s a good idea to draw a diagram to help sort out the information.

Path Yard

24 feet 32 feet You can see from the diagram that the path is the hypotenuse of a right triangle. So you can use the Pythagorean theorem to work out its length. c2

= a2 + b2

c2

= 322 + 242

c2

= 1024 + 576

c Check it out: Right triangles are found in many different shapes. You can use the Pythagorean theorem on any shape that contains right triangles.

c

2

= 1600 = 1600 = 40 feet

The question tells you that one sack of gravel will cover a 10-foot length of path. To work out how many are needed, divide the path length by 10. Sacks needed = 40 ÷ 10 = 4 sacks

Guided Practice 5. Rob is washing his upstairs windows. He puts a straight ladder up against the wall. The top of the ladder is 8 m up the wall. The bottom of the ladder is 6 m out from the wall. How long is the ladder? 6. To get to Gabriela’s house, Sam walks 0.5 miles south and 1.2 miles east around the edge of a park. How much shorter would his walk be if he walked in a straight line across the park? 7. The diagonal of Akil’s square tablecloth is 4 feet long. What is the area of the tablecloth?

10 cm 8 cm

17 cm

8. Megan is making the kite shown in the diagram on the right. The crosspieces are made of thin cane. What length of cane will she need in total? Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

169

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4 use the Pythagorean theorem to find the missing value, x. B

1.

area = x cm2

13 cm

Don’t forget:

3.

E

b2

P

Q

x inches

13 cm

34 inches

h

15 inches

S

H 10 cm

A

2.

R

C

area = 300 in2

32 m

F

20 feet

4.

L

K

17 feet x inches

x feet

N

H

b1 The formula for the area of a trapezoid is: 1 A = h(b1 + b2) 2

48 m

M

G

36 feet

5. A local radio station is getting a new radio mast that is 360 m tall. It has guy wires attached to the top to hold it steady. Each wire is 450 m long. Given that the mast is to be put on flat ground, how far out from the base of the mast will the wires need to be anchored? 6. Luis is going to paint the end wall of his attic room, which is an isosceles triangle. The attic is 7 m tall, and the length of each sloping part of the roof is 15 m. One can of paint covers a wall area of 20 m2. How many cans should he buy? 5 feet 5 feet 11 feet 15 feet

7. Maria is carpeting her living room, shown in the diagram on the left. It is rectangular, but has a bay window. She has taken the measurements shown on the diagram. What area of carpet will she need?

20 feet 2nd base

et fe

Lesson 3.3.3 additional questions — p446

8. The diagram on the right shows a baseball diamond. The catcher throws a ball from home plate to second base. What distance does the ball travel?

90

Now try these:

Pitcher’s Plate 1st base

3rd base

et

90

fe

Home Plate

Round Up You can break up a lot of shapes into right triangles. This means you can use the Pythagorean theorem to find the missing lengths of sides in many different shapes — it just takes practice to be able to spot the right triangles. 170

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

Lesson

3.3.4

Pytha gor ean Triples & the Pythag orean Con ver se of the Theor em Conv erse heorem

California Standards: Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 3.3 Geometry Kno w and under stand the Know understand Pytha gor ean theor em and Pythag orean theorem its con ver se and use it to conv erse find the length of the missing side of a right triangle and the lengths of other line segments and, in some situations, empirically verify the Pythagorean theorem by direct measurement.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about the groups of whole numbers that make the Pythagorean theorem true, and how to use the converse of the theorem to find out if a triangle is a right triangle.

Up to now you’ve been using the Pythagorean theorem on triangles that you’ve been told are right triangles. But if you don’t know for sure whether a triangle is a right triangle, you can use the theorem to decide. It’s kind of like using the theorem backwards — and it’s called using the converse of the theorem.

Pytha gor ean Triples ar e All Whole Number s Pythag orean are Numbers You can draw a right triangle with any length legs you like, so the list of side lengths that can make the equation c2 = a2 + b2 true never ends. Most sets of side lengths that fit the equation include at least one decimal — that’s because finding the length of the hypotenuse using the equation involves taking a square root. There are some sets of side lengths that are all integers — these are called Pythagorean triples. You’ve seen a lot of these already. For example: 5

Key words: • • • • • •

Pythagorean theorem Pythagorean triple converse right triangle acute obtuse

(3, 4, 5)

4 3 13

(6, 8, 10)

12

(8, 15, 17) (5, 12, 13)

15

17 10 8

6

Don’t forget: The longest side of a right triangle is always the hypotenuse. The other two sides are the legs.

5 8

You can find more Pythagorean triples by multiplying each of the numbers in a triple by the same number. For example: (3, 4, 5) (3, 4, 5) (3, 4, 5)

×2 ×3 ×4

(6, 8, 10) (9, 12, 15) (12, 16, 20)

These are all ean triples ythagorean triples. P ythagor

Don’t forget: Lengths are always positive, so you can’t have a negative integer in a Pythagorean triple. Positive integers can also be umber s. umbers called whole n number

To test if three integers are a Pythagorean triple, put them into the equation c2 = a2 + b2, where c is the biggest of the numbers. If they make the equation true, they’re a Pythagorean triple. If they don’t, they’re not.

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

171

Example

1

Are the numbers (72, 96, 120) a Pythagorean triple? Solution

To see if the numbers are a Pythagorean triple, put them into the equation. Don’t forget: The greatest number is substituted for c.

c2 1202 14,400 14,400

= a 2 + b2 = 722 + 962 = 5184 + 9216 = 14,400

— so which is true

These numbers are a Pythagorean triple.

Guided Practice Are the sets of numbers in Exercises 1–6 Pythagorean triples or not? If they are not, give a reason why not. 1. 5, 12, 13 2. 0.7, 0.9, 1.4 3. 8, 8, 128 4. 25, 60, 65 5. 6, 9, 12 6. 18, 80, 82

The Con ver se of the Pytha gor ean Theor em Conv erse Pythag orean heorem The Pythagorean theorem says that the side lengths of any right triangle will satisfy the equation c2 = a2 + b2, where c is the hypotenuse and a and b are the leg lengths. You can also say the opposite — if a triangle’s side lengths satisfy the equation, it is a right triangle. This is called the converse of the theorem: Check it out: The converse of a theorem or statement is formed by changing it around. For example: If the statement is, “if a shape is a square, then it has four equal-length sides,” then its converse is, “if a shape has four equal length sides, then it is a square.” The converse of a true statement isn’t always true — this one isn’t. A rhombus is a shape with four equal-length sides — but it’s not a square.

The converse of the Pythagorean theorem: If the side lengths of a triangle a, b, and c, where c is the largest, satisfy the equation c2 = a2 + b2, then the triangle is a right triangle.

Example

2

A triangle has side lengths 2.5 cm, 6 cm, and 6.5 cm. Is it a right triangle? Solution

Put the side lengths into the equation c2 = a2 + b2, and evaluate both sides. The longest side of a right triangle c2 = a2 + b2 2 2 2 is the hypotenuse, c. 6.5 = 2.5 + 6 42.25 = 6.25 + 36 42.25 = 42.25 — which is true It is a right triangle.

172

Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

Don’t forget:

Test Whether a Triang le is Acute or Obtuse riangle

A right triangle has one 90° angle.

If a triangle isn’t a right triangle, it must either be an acute triangle or an obtuse triangle. By seeing if c2 is greater than or less than a2 + b2, you can tell what type of triangle it is.

An obtuse triangle has one angle between 90° and 180°. An acute triangle has all three angles under 90°.

Don’t forget: When you evaluate c2 and a2 + b2, remember that c is the longest side length — the hypotenuse is always the longest side.

If c2 > a2 + b2 then the triangle is obtuse. If c2 < a2 + b2 then the triangle is acute. Example

3

A triangle has side lengths of 2 ft, 2.5 ft, and 3 ft. Is it right, acute, or obtuse? Solution

Check whether c2 = a2 + b2, with c = 3, a = 2 and b = 2.5. c2 = 32 = 9

and

a2 + b2 = 22 + 2.52 = 4 + 6.25 = 10.25 9 < 10.25

c2 < a2 + b2, so this is an acute triangle.

Guided Practice Are the side lengths in Exercises 7–12 of right, acute, or obtuse triangles? 7. 50, 120, 130 8. 8, 9, 10 9. 3, 4, 6 10. 12, 6, 180 11. 0.25, 0.3, 0.5 12. 0.5, 0.52, 0.55

Independent Practice 1. “Every set of numbers that satisfies the equation c2 = a2 + b2 is a Pythagorean triple.” Explain if this statement is true or not. Say if the side lengths in Exercises 2–7 are Pythagorean triples or not.

Now try these: Lesson 3.3.4 additional questions — p447

2. 8, 15, 17 3. 1, 1, 2 4. 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 5. 300, 400, 500 6. 12, 29, 40 7. 15, 36, 39 8. In triangle ABC, side AB is longest. If AB2 >AC2 + BC2 then what kind of triangle is ABC? Are the following side lengths those of right, acute, or obtuse triangles? 9. 5, 10, 14 10. 10, 11, 12 11. 12, 16, 20 12. 5.1, 5.3, 9.3 13. 2.4, 4.5, 5.1 14. 3.7, 4.7, 5.7 15. Justin is going to fit a new door. He measures the width of the door frame as 105 cm, the height as 200 cm, and the diagonal of the frame as 232 cm. Is the door frame perfectly rectangular?

Round Up The converse of the Pythagorean theorem is a kind of “backward” version. You can use it to prove whether a triangle is a right triangle or not — and if it’s not, you can say if it’s acute or obtuse. Section 3.3 — The Pythagorean Theorem

173

Section 3.4 introduction — an exploration into:

Transf or ming Sha pes ansfor orming Shapes Geometric figures, like triangles, rectangles and so on, can be plotted on the coordinate plane. The purpose of this Exploration is to predict and discover what changes will occur when the coordinates of a figure are changed in a particular way. If you change the coordinates of figure, ABC, you normally label the changed figure A’B’C’. Example Plot triangle ABC on a coordinate plane. A(–1, 1), B(1, 5), C(2, 3). Add 5 to each x-value of the coordinates, and plot the new triangle A’B’C’. y Describe the change. 8 7

Solution

6

The new coordinates are A’(–1 + 5, 1) = A’(4, 1) B’(1 + 5, 5) = B’(6, 5) C’(2 + 5, 3) = C’(7, 3) The shape has moved 5 units to the right.

5

B'

B

4 3

C

C'

2

A

1

–2 –1 0 –1

A' 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

x

–2

Exercises 1. Draw a coordinate plane. Your x and y axes should both go from –8 to +8. Plot triangle PQR — P(–4, 2), Q(–1, 4), R(4, 3). 2. Predict how triangle PQR will change if 3 is added to the y-values of each coordinate pair. Then test your prediction by performing the change. 3. Draw a coordinate plane. Your x and y axes should both go from –6 to +6. Plot trapezoid EFGH on the coordinate plane. E(–3, –2), F(5, –2), G(2, –5), H(–1, –5). 4. Predict how trapezoid EFGH will change if the y-values are changed from negative to positive. Then test your prediction by performing the change. 5. Draw a coordinate plane. Your x and y axes should both go from –8 to +8. Plot rectangle RSTU — R(1, –2), S(7, –2), T(7, –4), U(1, –4). 6. Predict how rectangle RSTU will change if the signs of the x-values are changed to the opposite sign. Then test your prediction by performing the change. 7. What was the effect on the size and shape of all of the figures after the changes were made to the coordinates?

Round Up You’ve looked at two types of transformation in this Exploration — translations and reflections. In translations, the shape is slid across the grid. In reflections, it’s “flipped” over. a tion — Transforming Shapes Explora 174 Section 3.4 Explor

Lesson

Section 3.4

3.4.1

Ref lections eflections

California Standards:

The next few Lessons are about transformations. A transformation is a way of changing a shape. For example, it could be flipping, stretching, moving, enlarging, or shrinking the shape.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 3.2 Geometry Under stand and use Understand coor dina te g coordina dinate grra phs to plot simple figur es figures es,, determine lengths and areas related to mine their them, and deter determine ima ge under translations and imag r ef lections eflections lections.

What it means for you: You’ll learn what it means to reflect a shape. You’ll also see how to draw and describe reflections.

Key words: • • • • • •

reflection image flip prime coordinates x-axis/y-axis

The first type of transformation you’re going to meet is reflection.

AR ef lection F lips a Figur e Acr oss a Line Ref eflection Flips Figure Across A reflection takes a shape and makes a mirror image of it on the other side of a given line. B B' Here triangle ABC has been reflected or “flipped” across the line of reflection. A' A The reflections of points A, B, and C are labeled A', B', and C'. C C' The whole reflected triangle A'B'C' is called the image of ABC. Line of reflection

Example

1

y

Reflect triangle DEF across the y-axis.

E D F

6 5 4 3 2 1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

2 3 4

1

5

6 7

x

8

Check it out:

Solution

A' is read as “A prime.”

Step 1: Pick a point to reflect. Point D is 7 units away from the y-axis. 7 units

7 units

E

D F

6 5 4 3 2

{

y

{

Move across the y-axis and find the point 7 units away on the other side. This is where you plot the point D'.

D'

1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

Step 2: Repeat step 1 for points E and F.

D F

6 7

x

8

y

6 5 4 3 2

E

E' D'

D

F'

1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

5

Step 3: Join the points to complete triangle D'E'F'.

y

E

2 3 4

1

1

2 3 4

F 5

6 7

8

x

6 5 4 3 2

E' D' F'

1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

1

2 3 4

5

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

6 7

8

175

x

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, copy each shape onto a set of axes, then draw its reflections across the y-axis and the x-axis. Draw a new pair of axes for each Exercise, ranging from –6 to 6 in both directions. 1.

2.

R

6

6

5

5

Check it out:

4

4

Suppose you’re drawing more than one image of a shape called ABC. The first image should be called A'B'C', the second is A''B''C'', the third is A'''B'''C''', and so on.

2

3

L

K

3

T

2

1

S

0

1

2

3

5

4

M

1 6

3.

N

0

1

2

3

4

5

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

4. –6 –5 –4

–3 –2 –1

G

H

I

0

–1

–1

–2

–2

–3

–3

–4

–4

–5

–5

–6

–6

6

W Z X Y

Ref lections Chang e Coor dina te Signs eflections Change Coordina dinate A reflection across the x-axis changes (x, y) to (x, –y). A reflection across the y-axis changes (x, y) to (–x, y). Don’t forget: For a reminder about the coordinate plane see Lesson 3.2.1.

To see this, look again at the reflection from Example 1. The coordinates of the corners of the triangles are shown below. y

D (–7, 4) E (–2, 5) F (–3, 2)

E D F

6 5 4 3 2

D'

E' (2, 5)

F'

1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

D' (7, 4)

E'

1

2 3 4

F' (3, 2) 5

6 7

x

8

When DEF is reflected across the y-axis, the y-coordinate stays the same and the x-coordinate changes from negative to positive. y

If you reflect DEF across the x-axis, the x-coordinate stays the same and the y-coordinate changes from positive to negative.

E D F F''

–2 –3

D'' E''

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

E (–2, 5) F (–3, 2)

1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1

176

D (–7, 4)

6 5 4 3 2

–4 –5 –6

x

D'' (–7, –4) E'' (–2, –5) F'' (–3, –2)

Guided Practice In Exercises 5–8, give the coordinates of the image produced. 5. A: (5, 2), (4, 7), (6, 1). Triangle A is reflected over the x-axis. 6. B: (9, 9), (–4, 8), (–2, 6). Triangle B is reflected over the y-axis. 7. C: (–2, 10), (2, 10), (5, 5), (0, –3), (–5, 5). Pentagon C is reflected over the x-axis. 8. Pentagon C from Exercise 7 is reflected over the y-axis. Exercises 9–11 give the coordinates of the corners of a figure and its reflected image. Describe each reflection in words. 9. D: (5, 2), (6, 3), (8, 1), (4, 1); D' (5, –2), (6, –3), (8, –1), (4, –1) 10. E: (–6, –1), (–3, –6), (–9, –4); E' (6, –1), (3, –6), (9, –4) 11. F: (0, 0), (0, 5), (3, 3); F' (0, 0), (0, 5), (–3, 3)

Independent Practice Copy the grid and figures shown below, then draw the reflections described in Exercises 1–6. y 10

1. Reflect A across the x-axis. Label the image A'. 2. Reflect A across the y-axis. Label the image A''. 3. Reflect B across the x-axis. Label the image B'. 4. Reflect B across the y-axis. Label the image B''. Now try these: Lesson 3.4.1 additional questions — p447

5. Reflect C across the x-axis. Label the image C'. 6. Reflect C across the y-axis. Label the image C''.

9 8 7

C

6 5 4 3 2 1

–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1 –2 –3

A

1 2

–4 –5 –6 –7

3 4

5 6 7

8

9 10 x

B

–8 –9 –10

In Exercises 7–9, copy the figures onto graph paper and reflect each one over the line of reflection shown. 7.

8.

9.

Round Up Don’t forget that a reflection makes a back-to-front image — like the image you see when you look in a mirror. Unless the original is symmetrical, the image shouldn’t be the same way around as the original. If it is the same way around, that’s a translation, not a reflection. You’ll learn about translations in the next Lesson. Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

177

Lesson

3.4.2

Transla tions anslations

California Standards:

A translation is another type of transformation. When you translate a shape, you slide it around. You can translate a shape up, down, left, or right, or any combination of these.

Measurement and Geometr y 3.2 Geometry Under stand and use Understand coor dina te g coordina dinate grra phs to plot simple figur es figures es, determine lengths and areas related to mine their them, and deter determine ima ge under tr ansla tions imag transla anslations and reflections.

What it means for you: You’ll see how to draw and describe translations of shapes.

Key words: • • • •

translation slide image coordinates

A Transla tion Slides a Figur e anslation Figure A translation takes a shape and slides every point of that shape a fixed distance in the same direction. The image is the same size and shape, and the same way around as the original figure. Example

A

A' C

The image of point A is the point A' (A prime).

C'

1 D

Translate DEFG 10 units to the left.

E

Solution

F

G

Step 1: Pick a point to translate — we’ll start with point D. Don’t forget:

B'

B

D

D'

E

Move across the grid and find the point 10 units to the left of point D. This is where you plot the point D'. Step 2: Repeat step 1 for points E, F, and G. D

D'

Step 3: Join the points to complete D'E'F'G'. D

D'

E'

E'

E

F'

F G

G'

F

G

E

F'

F

G'

G

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, copy each shape onto graph paper. Remember to leave enough space to draw the translations. 1. Translate JKL up 7 units. 2. Translate JKL left 8 units and down 1 unit.

V W

J

Z K

X

3. Translate VWXYZ left 9 units. 4. Translate VWXYZ down 3 units and right 7 units. Y

L

178

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

You Can Describe Transla tions with Coor dina tes anslations Coordina dinates When you translate a shape, the coordinates of every point change by the same amount. So you can use coordinates to describe the translation. Example

2

y 6 5 4 3 2 1

Translate the triangle LMN using the translation: (x, y) Æ (x + 4, y – 3) Solution

L

N

0

1 2

–1 –2

The question tells you how to change the coordinates of the points of LMN.

M

5 6 7

3 4

8

9 10 x

–3 –4

Start by finding the coordinates of L, M, and N: L = (1, 5)

M = (4, 5)

N = (3, 1) y

Now you can apply the transformation: Æ Æ Æ Æ

(x, y) L (1, 5) M (4, 5) N (3, 1)

(x + 4, y – 3) L' (1 + 4, 5 – 3) = (5, 2) M' (4 + 4, 5 – 3) = (8, 2) N' (3 + 4, 1 – 3) = (7, –2)

Once you’ve figured out the coordinates of the image L'M'N', you can draw it on the coordinate grid.

6 5 4 3 2 1

0

–1 –2 –3 –4

L

M L'

M'

N 1 2

3 4

5 6 7

8

9 10 x

N'

Guided Practice In Exercises 5–8, copy the shapes and axes shown onto graph paper. Check it out: A lot of people prefer to use coordinates to do translations. If you use the method of counting how many squares to move, it’s easy to miscount and put a point in the wrong place.

Apply the following translations to triangle PQR: 5. (x, y) Æ (x + 2, y – 4) 6. (x, y) Æ (x – 3, y – 6) y 10 9

P

y 7

Q

8 7 6 5 4 3 2

6 5 4 3 2 1

R

1 –3 –2 –1 0 –1 –2 –3

1 2

Apply the following translations to the quadrilateral ABCD: 7. (x, y) Æ (x – 4, y) 8. (x, y) Æ (x + 2, y + 2)

3 4

5 6 7

8

9 10 x

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1 –2 –3

B A C 1 2

3 4

5 6 7

8

9 10 x

D

–4

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

179

Find the Transla tion b y Looking a dina tes anslation by att the Coor Coordina dinates When you look at a shape and its translated image, you can figure out what translation was used to make the image. Example

3

Describe the translation from QRST to Q'R'S'T' in coordinate notation. y

Solution

Q'

Find the coordinates of Q and Q'. Q = (–8, 2) Q' = (–2, 5)

Q R

The x-coordinate has changed from –8 to –2. This is an increase of 6.

T'

5 4 3 2 1

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1 S –2

R' S' 1 2

3

T

The y-coordinate has changed from 2 to 5, so it has increased by 3. (x, y) Æ (x + 6, y + 3)

So the translation is

You can check that this is the right answer by seeing if this translation changes R, S, and T to R', S', and T'. R (–4, 1) Æ S (–4, –1) Æ T (–7, –2) Æ

(–4 + 6, 1 + 3) = (2, 4) = R' (–4 + 6, –1 + 3) = (2, 2) = S' (–7 + 6, –2 + 3) = (–1, 1) = T'

It does — so you have the right answer.

Guided Practice In Exercises 9–14, describe the following translations in coordinates. Check it out: You don’t just use the prime symbol to indicate the image of a single point. Sometimes it’s used when the whole shape is named by a single letter, like in these Exercises.

9. A to A' 10. A to A''

y

y

7

6 5 4 3 2 1

11. B to B' 12. B to B''

6 5 4 3 2 1

0

A

1 2

–1 –2 –3

3 4

5 6 7

8

–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1 –2 –3

9 10 x

A''

–4 –5 –6 –7

B

y 10 9 8 7

C'

C'' C

6 5 4 3 2 1

–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

–4 –5 –6 –7 –8 –9 –10

13. C to C' 14. C to C''

180

B'

A'

1 2

3 4

5 6 7

8

9 10 x

1 2

B''

x

x

Independent Practice Copy the shapes and axes shown onto graph paper for Exercises 1–6. y 1. Translate K 5 units 10 9 to the left. Label the 8 image K'. M 7 2. Translate K 7 units left and 7 units down. Label the image K''. 3. Translate L 12 units up. Label the image –10 –9 –8 L'. 4. Translate L 13 units left and 2 units down. Label the image L''.

K

6 5 4 3 2 1 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1 –2 –3

1 2

3 4

5 6 7

9 10 x

8

L

–4 –5 –6 –7

5. Translate M 1 unit up and 3 units right. Label the image M'.

–8 –9 –10

6. Translate M 3 units left and 4 units down. Label the image M''. Use coordinate notation to describe the following translations: 7. K to K' 8. K to K'' 9. L to L' 10. L to L'' 11. M to M' 12. M to M'' Now try these: Lesson 3.4.2 additional questions — p447

Copy the axes and triangle shown onto graph paper for Exercises 13–16. Apply the following translations to triangle UVW. y 13. (x, y) Æ (x + 4, y + 5) 10 9 14. (x, y) Æ (x – 2, y + 4) 8 7 15. (x, y) Æ (x + 1, y – 6) 6 16. (x, y) Æ (x – 5, y – 5) 5 U

4 3 2 1

–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1 –2 –3

W

1 2

3 4

5 6 7

8

9 10 x

V

–4 –5 –6 –7 –8 –9 –10

Round Up Coordinates are really useful for drawing translations, and can help you check your answers. But don’t forget that one of the most important checks is to look at the image you’ve drawn and see if it looks the same as the original.

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

181

Lesson

3.4.3

Scale F actor s Factor actors

California Standards:

In this Section so far you’ve seen two types of transformation — reflections and translations. These both give an image that’s the same size as the original.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 1.2 Geometry Constr uct and rread ead Construct dr awings and models made dra to scale scale.

Another type of transformation changes the size of shapes. The scale factor tells you by how much the size changes.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to use scale factors to produce images that have the same shape as another figure, but a different size.

Key words: • scale factor • image • multiply

A Scale F actor of Mor e Than 1 Mak es a Sha pe Big ger Factor More Makes Shape Bigg Sometimes an image is identical to the original apart from its size. The scale factor tells you how much larger or smaller the image is. The scale factor is a number. You multiply all the lengths in the original by the scale factor to get the lengths in the image. So: original length × scale factor = image length Example

1 A

Draw an image of square A using a scale factor of 2. Solution

The sides of A are 3 units long. So if you apply a scale factor of 2, the sides of the image will be 3 × 2 = 6 units long. Check it out:

A

So the image A' is a square with side length 6 units.

A'

A scale factor of 1 leaves the shape exactly the same size.

Example

2 A

What scale factor has been used to enlarge ABC to A'B'C'?

B A'

C

Solution

C'

The scale factor is given by dividing any length in the image by the corresponding length in the original. Length of A'B' = 9 Length of AB = 3 So the scale factor is: Length of A'B' ÷ Length of AB = 9 ÷ 3 = 3 182

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

B'

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–5, find the scale factor that has produced each image. 1.

J

2.

K

3.

K'

J' L L'

4.

5.

M

N N'

M'

Copy the shapes shown in Exercises 6–9 onto graph paper. Draw the image produced by applying the given scale factor. 6. Scale factor 3

8. Scale factor 2.5

P

Q

7. Scale factor 2

S

9. Scale factor 1.5

R

A Scale F actor of Less Than 1 Mak es a Sha pe Smaller Factor Makes Shape Example Check it out: Decimals could also be used for scale factors. The same method applies — multiply the original dimension by the decimal scale factor to find the dimension of the image.

3 1

A

Draw an image of square A using a scale factor of 3 . Solution

The sides of A are 3 units long. 1

So if you apply a scale factor of 3 , the sides of the image will be 3×

1 3

= 1 unit long.

A

A'

So the image A' is a square with side length 1 unit.

Guided Practice In Exercises 10–14, find what scale factor has produced each image. 10. 11. 12. X V' V

W W'

X'

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

183

13.

14.

Y

Z'

Z

Y'

Don’t forget: Go back to Lesson 2.3.3 if you need a reminder on multiplying fractions by integers.

Copy the shapes shown in Exercises 15–18 onto graph paper. Draw the image produced by applying the given scale factor. 15. Scale factor

1 2

17. Scale factor

3 4

D

F

16. Scale factor

1 3

18. Scale factor

2 3

E

G

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, find what scale factor has produced each image. A

1.

2.

A'

4.

D

5. D'

3.

B'

B

C

6.

E

C'

F

E' F'

Copy the shapes shown in Exercises 7–10 onto graph paper. Draw the image produced by applying the given scale factor. 7. Scale factor 2

G

8. Scale factor

Now try these:

1 2

H

Lesson 3.4.3 additional questions — p448

9. Scale factor

1 4

1

J

10. Scale factor 1 3

I

Round Up The scale factor tells you how much bigger or smaller than the original object an image is. You’ll use scale factors to make and understand scale drawings, which you’ll learn about in the next Lesson. 184

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

Lesson

3.4.4

Scale Dr awings Dra

California Standards:

Scale drawings often show real objects or places — maps are good examples of scale drawings. All the measurements on the drawing are related to the real-life measurements by the same scale factor. So if you know the scale factor, you can figure out what the real-life measurements are.

Measurement and Geometr y 1.2 Geometry Constr uct and rread ead Construct dr awings and models made dra to scale scale..

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to draw pictures that accurately represent real places or objects. You’ll also use drawings to find information about the places or objects they represent.

Key words: • • • • •

scale drawing scale factor measurement distance scale

To Mak e Scale Dr awings You Need R eal Measur ements Make Dra Real Measurements To make a scale drawing of an object or place, you need two things. First, you need the real-life measurements of what you’re going to draw. Second, you need a scale. This will tell you what the distances on the drawing represent. The scale is usually written as a ratio. If 1 inch on the drawing represents 10 feet in real life, the scale is 1 inch : 10 feet. Example

1

A rectangular yard has a length of 24 feet and a width of 20 feet. Make a scale drawing using a scale of 1 inch : 4 feet. Solution

You need to find the length and width of the yard in the drawing.

Scales are often written as ratios. Ratios are a way of comparing two numbers — you should have learned about them in grade 6. You can also write a ratio as a fraction, so the scale can be written as

1 inch . 4 feet

The ratio of the length on the drawing to the real-life length must be equivalent to the scale ratio. That’s why you can write the proportion as 1 inch x . = 4 feet 24 feet

To convert the real-life length into a length for the drawing, set up a proportion using the scale given. Let x be the length the yard in the drawing should be. Drawing length 1 inch x = = Real-life length 4 feet 24 feet 1inch × 24 feet 24 feet = x× =x 4 feet 24 feet x = 1 in. ×

So,

Multipl y both sides b y 24 ft Multiply by

24 feet = 1 in. × 6 = 6 in. 4 feet

Repeat the process using y for the width of the drawing and you find: y = 1 in. ×

20 feet = 1 in. × 5 = 5 in. 4 feet

You can use these measurements to make a scale drawing. 6 in. 0

1 in.

2

3

4

5

6 in. along...

6

1 in.

0

2 3 4 5 6

...by 5 in. wide

Don’t forget:

5 in.

scale = 1 inch : 4 feet

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

185

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, make the following scale drawings: 1. A square of side length 4 m, using the scale 1 cm : 1 m. 2. A rectangle measuring 40 in. by 60 in., using the scale 1 in. : 20 in. 3. A rectangular room measuring 6 ft by 12 ft, using the scale 1 in. : 3 ft. 4. A circular pond with diameter 3 m, using the scale 1 cm : 2 m.

You Can Use Scale Dr awings to Find Actual Lengths Dra The size of real objects can be found by measuring scale drawings. Example

2

This map shows three towns. Find the real-life distances between: • Town A and Town B • Town A and Town C Solution

Town A Town B

Town C Scale — 1 grid square : 2.5 miles

The distance between Town A and Town B on the map is 6 grid squares. The scale tells us that 1 grid square represents 2.5 miles, so the distance between Town A and Town B is 6 × 2.5 miles = 15 miles. Town A and Town C are 3 grid squares apart on the map. In real life this is equal to 3 × 2.5 miles = 7.5 miles.

Guided Practice

Check it out: When you’re buying new furniture, such as kitchen units, you might use a scale drawing of the room to decide where you want the furniture (or which furniture would fit).

186

This picture shows a scale drawing of the living room in Lashona’s house. The scale used is 2 in. : 3 feet. In Exercises 5–8, find the real-life measurements of: 5. The chair 6. The couch 7. The bookcase 8. The rug

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

1 in.

Bookcase 3.4 in.

2 in.

1.5 in. TV set Rug

Couch

3.2 in.

2 in. Chair

2 in.

4 in.

You Can Sometimes Find R eal Lengths Without a Scale Real If you know one of the real-life lengths shown on a scale drawing, then you can figure out the others without a scale. Example Check it out: Another way of doing this is to find the scale factor that’s been used and use it to find the other real-life lengths, as you did before. The scale factor is the ratio between the real-life length and the drawing length. So in Example 3, the scale factor would be 4.2 m ÷ 3 cm, which is 1.4 m/cm. To find the real-life width of room 208, you’d just multiply the drawing width by the scale factor — 3.5 cm × 1.4 m/cm = 4.9 m m. This gives the same answer as the other method.

3

This scale drawing shows three classrooms at Gabriel’s school. Gabriel measures the drawing. His measurements are shown in red.

3 cm

Room 207

3.5 cm

Room 208

Room 209

Gabriel knows Room 207 is 4.2 m wide in real life. What is the real-life width of Room 208? Solution

You can find the answer by setting up a proportion, similar to the one in Example 1. Use x for the real-life width of Room 208. Real-life width 4.2 m x = = Drawing width 3 cm 3.5 cm

x = 4.2 m ×

3.5cm = 4.9 m 3 cm

So the width of Room 208 is 4.9 m in real life.

Guided Practice Use the map below to answer Exercises 9–14.

Town E

Town D

Town F

Town H

Town G

Town J

It is 18 miles from Town D to Town E. Calculate the distance from: 9. Town D to Town F 11. Town G to Town J 13. Town D to Town G

10. Town F to Town G 12. Town H to Town J

14. Find the number that completes the following sentence: The scale on this map is 1 grid square : ____ miles. Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

187

Independent Practice 1. A sail for a boat is in the shape of a right triangle. The actual height of the sail is 18 feet, and it has a base of 12 feet. Make a scale drawing of the sail using a scale of 1 cm : 3 ft. 2. This sketch of a house has not been drawn to scale. 6 feet

Make a scale drawing of the house using a scale of 1 cm : 6 ft. 18 feet

36 feet

3. A scale model of a town uses a scale of 1 inch : 30 feet. Find the actual height of a building that is 2.5 in. tall in the model. 4. On a map, 2 inches represents 45 miles. What does one inch represent on this map? Amanda is drawing a plan of her bedroom using a scale of 1 in. : 2 ft. Exercises 5–7 show objects from the plan. Calculate the real-life dimensions of the objects. 5.

1.5 in.

1.75 in.

6.

Desk

1 in.

3 in.

Bed

3.5 in.

7. 1.5 in.

Chest of drawers

The scale drawing below shows part of a zoo. The parrot enclosure measures 40 m by 24 m. Find the following real-life measurements: Now try these:

8. The length and width of the sea lion enclosure.

Parrots

Lesson 3.4.4 additional questions — p448

Cobras Lemurs Sea Lions

Turtles

9. The length and width of the lemur enclosure. 10. The perimeter of the turtle enclosure. 11. The area of the cobra enclosure.

Round Up Pictures that are drawn to scale can be very useful. If maps weren’t made to scale, they would be much harder to use. And if plans and blueprints for buildings or machines weren’t done as scale drawings, it would be difficult to build them the right size and shape. 188

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

Lesson

3.4.5

Perimeter ea, and Scale erimeter,, Ar Area,

California Standards:

So far you’ve been looking at how length and width are altered by applying a scale factor. In this Lesson, you’re going to see how applying scale factors affects perimeter and area.

Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 1.2 Geometry Constr uct and rread ead Construct dr awings and models made dra to scale scale.. Measur ement and Measurement Geometr y 2.0 Geometry Students compute the perimeter ea perimeter,, ar area ea, and volume of common geometric objects and use the results to find measures of less y kno w common objects. The hey know ho w perimeter ea how perimeter,, ar area ea, and e af y volume ar are afffected b by c hang es of scale hanges scale..

What it means for you: You’ll see the effect that multiplying by a scale factor has on perimeter and area.

Key words: • • • •

perimeter area scale factor image

A ppl ying a Scale F actor Chang es the P erimeter pplying Factor Changes Perimeter When you change the size of a shape, the perimeter changes too. Example

Gilberto draws an image of rectangle A using a scale factor of 2. Find the perimeter of rectangle A. What is the perimeter of the image A'?

Rectangle A is 3 units wide and 4 units long. So A' will be 2 × 3 = 6 units wide and 2 × 4 = 8 units long.

In the example above, the perimeter of the image is double the perimeter of the original. This is because all the lengths that you add together to find the perimeter have been multiplied by 2. The perimeter of the image is the perimeter of the original multiplied by the scale factor. This is true for any shape and any scale factor, so: original perimeter × scale factor = image perimeter

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, find the perimeter of the image you would get if you applied the given scale factor to the figure shown. Give your answers in units. You do not need to draw the images. 1 2

B

You’ll need to use the Pythagorean theorem to help you find the perimeter of these triangles. See Section 3.3 for more.

A'

The perimeter of A is 2(3 + 4) = 2 × 7 = 14 units. The perimeter of A' is 2(6 + 8) = 2 × 14 = 28 units.

1. Scale factor

Check it out:

A

Solution

Don’t forget: The formula for the perimeter of a rectangle is P = 2(l + w). For more about perimeter see Section 3.1.

1

4. Scale factor 2

E

2. Scale factor 3

3. Scale factor 5

D

C

5. Scale factor 2.5

F

6. Scale factor

1 3

G

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

189

Ar eas Also Chang e When You A ppl y Scale F actor s Areas Change pply Factor actors Area also gets larger or smaller as a figure changes size. Example

2

Chelsea uses a scale factor of 2 to draw an image of triangle H. Find the area of H and of the image H'.

H

Solution

Triangle H has a base of 5 units and height of 4 units.

Don’t forget: The formula for the area of a triangle is A =

1 (b 2

× h).

For more about area see Section 3.1.

So the base of H' will be 2 × 5 = 10 units and its height will be 2 × 4 = 8 units. 1

The area of H is 2 (5 × 4) = The area of H' is

1 (10 2

1 2

× 8) =

H'

× 20 = 10 units2. 1 2

× 80 = 40 units2.

In the example above, the area of the image is 4 times the area of the original. The lengths that you multiply together to find the area have both been multiplied by 2, so the area is multiplied by 2 × 2 = 4. The area of the image is the area of the original multiplied by the scale factor squared. This is true for any shape and any scale factor. original area × (scale factor)2 = image area

Example

3

Alejandra draws an image of shape J. She uses a scale factor of 3. If the area of shape J is 5 cm2, what is the area of the image J'? Solution

The area of the image= (area of the original) × (scale factor)2 = 5 cm2 × 32 = 5 cm2 × 9 = 45 cm2

Guided Practice In Exercises 7–12, find the area of the image you would get if you applied the given scale factor to the figure shown. Give your answers in units2. You do not need to draw the images. 7. Scale factor 4 8. Scale factor 3 9. Scale factor 10 K

190

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

L

M

10. Scale factor 2 N

11. Scale factor 5

12. Scale factor 20

Q

P

Independent Practice Roger draws a figure with a perimeter of 8 units. Find the perimeter of the image if Roger multiplies his figure by: 1. Scale factor 2 2. Scale factor 11 3. Scale factor 4.5 4. Scale factor 0.25 Daesha draws a figure with an area of 10 cm2. Find the area of the image if Daesha multiplies her figure by: 5. Scale factor 2 6. Scale factor 3 7. Scale factor 7.5 8. Scale factor 0.5 In Exercises 9–10, find the perimeter of the image you would get if you applied the given scale factor to the figure shown. Give your answers in units. You do not need to draw the images. 9. Scale factor 9

10. Scale factor

1 4

In Exercises 11–12, find the area of the image you would get if you applied the given scale factor to the figure shown. Give your answers in units2. You do not need to draw the images. 11. Scale factor 2

12. Scale factor 7

Now try these: Lesson 3.4.5 additional questions — p449

Don’t forget: You’ll need to find square roots in some of these Exercises. You learned about them in Section 2.5.

What scale factor has been used in the following transformations? 13. Perimeter of original = 13 cm, perimeter of image = 26 cm 14. Perimeter of original = 22 in., perimeter of image = 77 in. 15. Perimeter of original = 50 in., perimeter of image = 5 in. 16. Perimeter of original = 15 cm, perimeter of image = 3.75 cm 17. Area of original = 10 in2, area of image = 90 in2 18. Area of original = 1 cm2, area of image = 36 cm2 19. Area of original = 8 in2, area of image = 128 in2 20. Area of original = 5 cm2, area of image = 125 cm2

Round Up The effects of scale factor on perimeter and area can be confusing, but they do make sense. Try to remember them, because understanding them is an important part of geometry in general. Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

191

Lesson

3.4.6

Cong Congrr uence and Similarity

California Standards:

Congruent figures are shapes that are exactly the same size and shape as each other. That means that if you could lift them off the page, there would always be a way to make them fit exactly on top of each other, just by flipping them over or turning them around.

What it means for you: You’ll learn the meaning of the terms congruent and similar. You’ll find out how to tell if two shapes are congruent, similar, or neither.

Cong es Ha ve the Same Siz e and Sha pe Congrr uent Figur Figures Hav Size Shape Two figures are congruent if they match perfectly when you place them on top of each other. They can be turned around or flipped over, but they always have the same size, shape, and length of each dimension.

A

These pairs of shapes are all congruent. Example

Key words: • • • • •

congruent similar size shape scale factor

A

Measurement and Geometr y 3.4 Geometry Demonstr a te an Demonstra under standing of understanding conditions tha te tw o thatt indica indicate two geometrical figur es ar e figures are ha cong wha hatt congrr uent and w bout cong about congrr uence means a the rrela ela tionships betw een elationships between the sides and angles of the tw o figur es two figures es..

1

Which of these pairs of shapes are congruent? Which are not, and why? 1. 2. 3. 4.

Solution

Don’t forget: If a shape is flipped over, it’s called a reflection. A shape and its reflection are congruent.

In pairs 1 and 4, each shape is identical to the other, but upside down. So pairs 1 and 4 are congruent. Pair 2 is also congruent, as each shape is a mirror image of the other. The rectangles in pair 3 are the same shape but they’re not the same size, so they’re not congruent.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–8, say whether or not each pair of shapes is congruent. If they are not, give a reason why not. 1.

5.

192

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

2.

3.

6.

4.

7.

8.

Cong ol ygons Ha ve Ma tc hing Sides and Ang les Congrr uent P Pol oly Hav Matc tching Angles Sometimes two polygons might look quite alike. You can tell for sure if they’re congruent if you know the measures of their sides and angles. Example

Check it out: The angles of congruent polygons have the same measures, in the same order. Suppose that, going clockwise around its vertices, a quadrilateral has angles of 70°, 80°, 100°, and 110°. Then a congruent polygon’s vertices will have the same measures in the same order, either clockwise or counterclockwise.

2

Which two of these quadrilaterals are congruent? 1. 2. 10.7 cm 10 cm

6.1 cm

110° 6.4 cm

10 cm

10.6 cm 70°

110°

111° 10 cm

3.

10.6 cm

70°

69°

10 cm

6.4 cm

10 cm

10 cm

Solution

Quadrilaterals 1 and 2 look alike, but you can see from the angle measures and side lengths that they’re not identical. The angle measures tell you that Quadrilateral 3 is a mirror image of Quadrilateral 2. So Quadrilaterals 2 and 3 are congruent.

Guided Practice In Exercises 9–12, say which two out of each group of shapes are congruent. Give a reason why the other one is not. 9. a.

b.

4 in.

c.

3.8 in.

60°

60°

4 in.

60° 60°

3.8 in.

60°

60°

4 in.

4 in.

4 in.

60°

3.8 in.

60°

4 in.

60°

10. 55°

a. b.

38°

c.

52°

35° 38°

11.

a.

52°

b.

85°

c.

100°

95°

80°

100°

95°

80°

12.

a. 50°

100°

b.

80°

85°

40°

95°

c.

85°

40°

40° 50°

50°

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

193

Similar Figur es Can Be Dif ent Siz es Figures Difffer erent Sizes Similar figures have angles of the same measure and have the same shape as each other, but they can be different sizes. So two figures are similar if you can apply a scale factor and get a congruent pair. Example

3

Which of these pairs of shapes are similar? 1.

2.

3.

4.

Solution

Pair 1 is a similar pair. They are both squares, and the only difference is the size. Pair 2 is not a similar pair. The shapes are different — they have different angles. Check it out: You could also turn pair 4 from Example 3 into a congruent pair by applying a scale factor of

1 . 2

Pair 3 is not a similar pair. You can’t multiply either of them by any scale factor to get a rectangle congruent to the other one. Pair 4 is a similar pair. If you multiply the smaller triangle by a scale factor of 2, you will get a triangle congruent to the larger one.

Guided Practice In Exercises 13–18, say whether or not each pair of shapes is similar. 13.

14.

15.

16. 17.

194

Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

18.

Independent Practice Use the triangles shown below to answer Exercises 1–4.

1

2

3

4 5

8 7

6

9

1. Which triangle is congruent to triangle 1? 2. Which triangle is similar to triangle 6? 3. Which triangle is congruent to triangle 4? 4. Which two triangles are similar to triangle 3? In Exercises 5–8, identify each pair of shapes as congruent, similar, or neither. Explain your answers. 5.

6.

40 m

7.

95°

80°

100°

12 in. 12 m 100°

80°

40°

40 m

18 in.

85°

80°

100°

55°

12 m

24 in.

100°

80°

45°

50°

36 in.

8.

13 cm 5 cm 12 cm

Now try these: Lesson 3.4.6 additional questions — p449

5 cm

12 cm

13 cm

9. Explain the difference between congruency and similarity when examining two figures. 10. Triangle ABC has sides measuring 5 in., 6 in., and 8 in. Write the side lengths of a triangle that would be similar to ABC. 11. "You can tell whether two shapes are congruent just by looking at the lengths of the sides. It is not necessary to look at the measures of the angles." Is this statement true or false? Give a reason why.

Round Up You’ll learn more about congruence and similarity — particularly with triangles — in later grades. For now, make sure you know what each term means, and don’t forget which is which. Section 3.4 — Comparing Figures

195

Lesson

Section 3.5

3.5.1

Constructing Circles

California Standards:

You already know a lot about circles. Earlier in this Chapter, you learned about the radius, diameter, circumference, and area of circles. In this Lesson, you’ll learn some more words relating to circles. You’ll also draw circles and mark features on them using a compass.

Measurement and Geometry 3.1 Identify and construct basic elements of geometric figures (e.g., altitudes, midpoints, diagonals, angle bisectors, and perpendicular bisectors; central angles, radii, diameters, and chords of circles) by using a compass and straightedge.

What it means for you:

A Compass Can Help You to Draw Shapes You might have used a compass in math lessons in earlier grades. A compass is a tool that can help you draw many types of shape. The easiest shape to draw with a compass is a circle.

You’ll learn what chords and central angles of circles are, and how to draw them.

Example

1

Use a compass and ruler to construct a circle with radius 3 cm. Key words:

Solution

• circle • compass • radius • chord • central angle • arc

Step 1: Draw a point that will be the center. Step 2: Draw another point 3 cm away from the center. Step 3: Open the compass to the length between the two points. This length is the radius of the circle.

Don’t forget: 360° is the measure of a full circle.

Step 4: Slowly sweep the pencil end of the compass 360°. Keep the pointed end of the compass on top of the center point. Make sure the ends of the curve join to make a complete circle.

Check it out: The part-circle you make if you don’t join the ends of your curve in a full circle is called an arc.

Don’t forget: You open your compass to the length of the radius — not the diameter. If you’re asked to draw a circle with a certain diameter, halve it to find the radius.

196

Guided Practice

Section 3.5 — Constructions

Use a compass and ruler to construct the following circles: 1. Radius 4 cm 2. Radius 2.5 cm 3. Diameter 10 cm 4. Diameter 7 cm

A Chord Joins Two Points of a Circle Check it out: A line segment is a straight line between two points. You’ll learn more about line segments next Lesson.

A chord is a line segment that joins two points on the circumference of a circle. The length of a chord can be less than or equal to the length of the diameter. A compass can help you to draw chords. Example

2

Use a compass and ruler to construct a circle, then draw a chord of length 3 cm. Solution

Step 1: Start by drawing a circle.

2 cm

Remember that the length of the chord is less than or equal to the diameter. So the diameter must be at least 3 cm — which means the radius must be at least 3 ÷ 2 = 1.5 cm. A circle of radius 2 cm will do nicely. Step 2: Mark a point on the circle. This will be one endpoint of the chord.

Step 3: Open the compass to a length of 3 cm — the length of the chord you want to draw. Step 4: Put the pointed end of the compass on the point you marked on the circle. Draw an arc that crosses the circle.

Check it out: In step 4 of this method, there will be two possible places where your arc could cross the circle. You only need it to cross at one of these points.

Step 5: Draw a straight line from the point you drew in Step 2 to the point where the arc crosses the circle. Measure the chord you’ve drawn to check that it is 3 cm long.

Guided Practice In Exercises 5–10, use a ruler and compass to construct the following circles and chords 5. Circle of radius 3 cm, chord of length 5 cm 6. Circle of radius 1.5 cm, chord of length 2 cm 7. Circle of radius 2.2 cm, chord of length 3.5 cm 8. Circle of diameter 11 cm, chord of length 10 cm 9. Circle of diameter 6.8 cm, chord of length 4 cm 10. Circle of diameter 5.2 cm, chord of length 3.2 cm Section 3.5 — Constructions

197

A Central Angle is Formed by Two Radii Don’t forget: Radii is the plural of radius.

A central angle of a circle is an angle made by two radii of the circle.

Radius Sector

The size of a central angle is between 0° and 360°.

Central angle

When a circle is divided by radii, the parts that it splits into are called sectors. Example

(This central angle is 110°.)

3

Construct a central angle of a circle with a measure of 130°. Solution

Don’t forget:

Step 1: Start by using a compass to draw a circle.

1. Place the baseline of the protractor on the radius, with the middle of the baseline on the center of the circle.

Step 2: You can now use a ruler or straightedge to join any point on the circle to the center. This is a radius of the circle.

2. Count around to 130° on the scale that starts at zero.

90

Step 3: Use a protractor to make another radius at an angle of 130° to the first one.

130°

Guided Practice For each of Exercises 11–16, construct a circle and draw central angles with the following measures: 11. 90° 12. 75° 13. 45° 14. 125° 15. 150° 16. 10°

Center of circle 3. Make a dot next to the correct number of degrees. 4. Join this dot to the center of the circle with a straight line.

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 3.5.1 additional questions — p450

In Exercises 1–2, draw the following onto a circle of radius 5 cm: 1. A chord of length 7 cm 2. A central angle measuring 60° In Exercises 3–4, draw the following onto a circle of diameter 5.8 cm: 3. A chord of length 3.5 cm 4. A central angle measuring 85° 5. Terrell is constructing a circle with a diameter of 6 inches. He opens his compass so that it is 6 inches wide. Explain what error Terrell has made. B

6. Identify the chords in this circle. A

E

D C

F G I

H J

Round Up If you need to draw a circle, always use a compass. It’s pretty much impossible to draw a perfect circle without one. Practice drawing circles, chords, and central angles until you’re really confident. 198

Section 3.5 — Constructions

Lesson

3.5.2 California Standards: Measurement and Geometry 3.1 Identify and construct basic elements of geometric figures (e.g., altitudes, midpoints, diagonals, angle bisectors, and perpendicular bisectors; central angles, radii, diameters, and chords of circles) by using a compass and straightedge.

What it means for you: You’ll learn what midpoints and perpendicular bisectors are, and how to draw them.

Key words: • • • • •

line segment midpoint bisect perpendicular bisector right angle

Constructing Perpendicular Bisectors You should have gotten used to using a compass to draw circles and chords in the last Lesson. Now you can start using it for more complex drawings that don’t have anything to do with circles. For starters, this Lesson shows you a neat way to use a compass to divide a line segment exactly in half.

A Line Segment is Part of a Line If you join two points on a page using a straightedge, you make what you’d normally call a line. But to mathematicians, a line carries on forever in both directions. When you join two points, you draw part of a line. In math that’s called a line segment. This line segment joins points A and B. A and B are called the endpoints. The line segment is called AB.

B

A

You can use a compass to make an accurate copy of a line segment without measuring its length. Example

1

Use a compass and straightedge to copy the line segment JK. Label the copy LM.

J

K

Solution

Check it out:

Step 1: Draw a line segment longer than JK. L Label one of its endpoints L.

This method of constructing line segments will be used for other more complex drawings over the next few Lessons.

Step 2: Open up your compass to the length of JK.

J

K

Step 3: With the compass point on L, draw an arc that crosses your new segment.

L

M

L

Step 4: The point where the arc crosses the line segment is point M, the second endpoint of your new line segment.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, use a ruler to draw a line segment with the length given, then copy it using a compass. You’ll use these line 1. 5 cm 2. 6.5 cm segments again for Guided 3. 3.9 cm 4. 2.6 cm Practice Exercise 11. Section 3.5 — Constructions

199

The Midpoint Splits a Line Segment in Half The midpoint of a line segment is the point that divides it into two line segments of equal measure. Dividing a line segment into two equal parts like this is called bisecting the line segment. 8 cm C

A 4 cm

B

AB is bisected into two line segments of equal length, AC and CB.

4 cm C

A

B

In this diagram, C is the midpoint of the line segment AB.

Guided Practice 5. The line segment DE is 8 in. long. F is the midpoint of DE. How long is the line segment DF? 6. Which is the midpoint of line segment 3 cm PT — point Q, point R, or point S? Q P Use the diagram below to answer Exercises 7–10. 3 in.

A

3 in.

B

1 in. 2 in.

C D

2 cm

5 cm

R S

T

3 in.

2 in.

E

4 cm

F

G

7. Which point is the midpoint of line segment AG? 8. Which point is the midpoint of line segment BE? 9. Which point the midpoint of line segment DF? 10. Which line segment is point B the midpoint of?

A Perpendicular Bisector Crosses the Midpoint at 90° Don’t forget:

Two lines are perpendicular if the angles that are made where they cross each other are right angles.

A right angle measures 90°. Right angles are usually marked with a little square.

D

A

C

B E

A bisector is a line or line segment that crosses the midpoint of another line segment. In this diagram, C is the midpoint of AB, so DE is a bisector of AB. F

A perpendicular bisector of a line segment is a bisector that passes through the midpoint at a right angle. In this diagram, FG is a perpendicular bisector of AB.

A

C

B

G

200

Section 3.5 — Constructions

You need a compass to draw a perpendicular bisector. Example

2

Use a compass and straightedge to draw the perpendicular bisector of VW. Label the bisector YZ.

W V

Solution

Step 1: Place compass point on V. Open the compass more than half the length of VW. W

Check it out: This method has two uses. It is the way to draw a perpendicular bisector using a compass and straightedge, but it also shows you where the midpoint is.

W V

V

Step 2: Sweep a large arc that goes above and below line segment VW.

Step 3: Keeping the compass open to the same width, place the compass point on W and repeat step 2. The two arcs should cross in two places. If they don’t you might need to extend them.

W

V

Y

Step 4: Draw a line segment that passes through W the points where the arcs cross. This is the perpendicular bisector of VW, so label its endpoints Y and Z.

X V Z

The bisector crosses VW at the midpoint, X.

Guided Practice 11. Use a compass and straightedge to draw the perpendicular bisectors of each of the line segments you copied in Exercises 1–4. Label the midpoint of each line segment.

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 3.5.2 additional questions — p450

S is the midpoint of line segment RT. The length of RS is 12.6 in. 1. What is the length of RT? 2. What is the length of ST? In Exercises 3–8, draw a line segment of the given length, then construct its perpendicular bisector. Mark the midpoint X. 3. 8 cm 4. 5 in. 5. 4.5 cm 6. 9.3 cm 7. 3.5 in. 8. 6.5 in.

Round Up A compass isn’t just useful for drawing circles and arcs. You also use it to find midpoints and draw perpendicular bisectors. This is something else that you need to practice until you are happy with it. Section 3.5 — Constructions

201

Lesson

3.5.3 California Standards: Measurement and Geometry 3.1 Identify and construct basic elements of geometric figures (e.g., altitudes, midpoints, diagonals, angle bisectors, and perpendicular bisectors; central angles, radii, diameters, and chords of circles) by using a compass and straightedge.

What it means for you: You’ll learn what perpendiculars, altitudes, and angle bisectors are, and how to draw them.

Key words: • • • •

Perpendiculars, Altitudes, and Angle Bisectors Last Lesson you learned to draw perpendicular bisectors, which cross other line segments exactly in their center, at 90°. Now you’re going to use the skills you learned to draw other perpendiculars too. You’re also going to learn about angle bisectors. These do just what it sounds like they do — divide an angle exactly in half.

Perpendicular Line Segments Meet at Right Angles You’ve seen how to construct a perpendicular bisector. That’s a line segment that crosses the midpoint of another line segment at a 90° angle. A line or line segment that makes a 90° angle with another line segment, but isn’t a bisector, is sometimes called a perpendicular. You can construct a perpendicular that passes through a specific point using a compass and straightedge.

perpendicular altitude triangle angle bisector

Example

C

A

1

B

Use a compass and straightedge to construct a line segment perpendicular to AB that passes through point C.

Solution

Step 1: Put the compass point on C. Open the compass to a length between C and the nearest end of the line segment — B in this case. C

A

Don’t forget: If you need a reminder of how to construct a perpendicular bisector, look at Lesson 3.5.2.

B

C

B

A

Only the parts of the arc that cross AB are now shown. These are at equal distances from C.

Section 3.5 — Constructions

B

Step 2: Draw an arc that crosses AB twice. (In fact, you only need to draw the parts of this arc where it cross AB — see the next step.)

Step 3: Follow the steps for constructing a perpendicular bisector. Use the points where the arc crosses the line segment as endpoints.

A

202

C

A

C

B

The point you need to pass through isn’t always on the line segment you want to cross. Example

2

D

Use a compass and straightedge to construct a line segment perpendicular to AB that passes through point D. B

A

Solution

D

Step 1: Put the compass point on D and draw an arc that crosses AB twice. Call the points where AB crosses the arc E and F.

E

F B

A

Step 2: With the compass point on E, draw an arc on the opposite side of AB to point D.

D E

F B

A

G

Step 3: Move the compass point to F. Keep the compass setting the same and draw an arc that crosses the one you drew in step 2. Call the point where the two arcs cross G. D

Step 4: Draw a line segment passing through D and G.

E

F B

A

G

Guided Practice Draw a line segment, JK, that is 12 cm long. Mark the following points on the line. Draw a perpendicular through each of those points. 1. Point L, 3 cm away from J 2. Point M, 2 cm away from K 3. Point N, 5 cm away from J 4. Point O, 5.5 cm away from K 5. Draw a line segment, PQ, that is 8 cm long. Draw one point, S, above PQ and one point, T, below PQ. Construct a perpendicular to PQ that passes through S and another that passes through T.

An Altitude is a Line Showing the Height of a Triangle An altitude of a triangle is a line segment that starts from one corner of the triangle and crosses the opposite side at a 90° angle. The way to construct an altitude is very similar to the method for constructing a perpendicular through a point not on the line — just use the corner of the triangle as the point. Section 3.5 — Constructions

203

Example

3 P

Use a compass and straightedge to construct an altitude from P through RQ.

P

Step 1: Put the compass point on P. Draw an arc that crosses RQ in two places. Q

R

Check it out:

Q

R

Solution

P

Step 2: Keep the compass open the same width. Put the compass point at one of the points where the arc crosses RQ. Draw an arc below RQ.

Drawing an altitude from one of the acute corners of an obtuse triangle is a little more tricky. You need to extend the opposite side of the triangle for the method to work.

Q

R

Step 3: Repeat step 2 from the other point where the arc and RQ cross. Make sure the two new arcs cross. P

extended line

Don’t forget:

R

Q

Step 4: Draw a line segment from P to the opposite side of the triangle, toward the point where the two arcs cross.

Guided Practice In Exercises 6–8, you need to draw triangles. Start each one by drawing a line, AB, that is 6 cm long. Choose the lengths of the other sides to suit the question. 6. Draw an acute triangle ABC. Construct an altitude from C. 7. Draw a right triangle ABC. Construct an altitude from C. 8. Draw an obtuse triangle ABC. Construct an altitude from C.

An acute triangle has three angles of less than 90°. A right triangle has one angle of exactly 90°. An obtuse triangle has one angle of more than 90°.

An Angle Bisector Divides an Angle Exactly in Half An angle bisector is a line or line segment that divides an angle into two new angles of equal measure.

Angle bisector

80°

204

Section 3.5 — Constructions

80°

40° 40°

Example

4

A

Check it out: The method for constructing an angle bisector works for any angle — acute, obtuse, or right.

B

Use a compass and straightedge to bisect the angle ABC. C

A

Solution

Step 1: Put the compass point on B and draw an arc that crosses the line segments AB and BC.

B

C

Step 2: Put the compass point where the arc crosses AB and draw a new arc in the middle of the angle. Keep the compass open at the width you’ve just used. Step 3: Using the same compass width, repeat step 2 with the compass point at the spot where the first arc crosses BC. Make sure the two new arcs cross.

A

B

C

A D

Step 4: Join point B to the point where the two arcs cross. The angle ABC has been bisected into two equal angles, ABD and DBC.

B

C

Guided Practice Use a protractor to draw the following angles. Bisect them using a compass and straightedge. 9. 90° 10. 65° 11. 20° 12. 129°

Independent Practice 1. Draw a 10 cm long line segment UV. Mark two points on the line segment, and label them W and X. Mark a point Y above the line. Draw perpendiculars to UV through W, X, and Y.

Now try these: Lesson 3.5.3 additional questions — p450

2. Draw an acute triangle and an obtuse triangle. Construct altitudes from all three corners of each triangle. What is different about the points where the three altitudes meet (or will meet if extended)? 3. Draw one acute, one right, and one obtuse triangle. Start each one by drawing a line that is 5 cm long. Construct an angle bisector for the largest angle in each triangle.

Round Up This Lesson gives you two methods for the price of one. The method for drawing an altitude of a triangle is the same as for drawing a perpendicular through a point that’s not on the line. Remember, watch out for those tricky obtuse triangles, where you might need to extend one side. Section 3.5 — Constructions

205

Lesson Lesson

3.6.1 3.6.1

California Standards: Mathematical Reasoning 1.2 Formulate and justify mathematical conjectures based on a general description of the mathematical question or problem posed. Mathematical Reasoning 2.4 Make and test conjectures by using both inductive and deductive reasoning. Measurement and Geometry 3.3 Know and understand the Pythagorean theorem and its converse and use it to find the length of the missing side of a right triangle and the lengths of other line segments and, in some situations, empirically verify the Pythagorean theorem by direct measurement.

Geometrical Patterns and Conjectures In this Lesson, you’re going to learn about testing and justifying conjectures. You make conjectures all the time in math, and also in everyday life. A conjecture is just an educated guess that is based on some good reason.

A Conjecture is an Educated Guess A conjecture is what’s called an educated guess or an unproved opinion, such as, “it’ll rain soon because there are gray clouds.” This is unproved because we don’t actually know whether it will rain soon or not. You can make conjectures about mathematical situations such as patterns or data. For example, given the pattern 2, 4, 6... you could make a conjecture that the pattern increases by 2 each time. There are two main types of conjecture in mathematical patterns: • Specific conjectures about a new instance of a pattern. • General conjectures about a pattern. Example

1

Make three specific conjectures and three general conjectures about the pattern below.

What it means for you: You’ll make conjectures, or “educated guesses,” about problems and use counterexamples and reasoning to decide whether your conjectures are true or false.

Key words: • • • • •

conjecture limiting case justifying reasoning instance

Check it out: There’s no real right or wrong answer with conjectures. The only rule is that you should be able to explain why you’ve made that conjecture, and why you think it’s likely to be true.

206

Instance 1

Instance 2

Solution

Specific conjectures: 1. Instance 4 will have 13 dots. 2. Instance 4 will be in the shape of a cross. 3. Instance 5 will have 17 dots.

Instance 3 These are specific conjectures because they describe instances 4 and 5 only. These are general conjectures because they describe the entire pattern.

General conjectures: 1. Each instance is the shape of a plus sign. 2. Each instance has rotational symmetry. 3. Each instance has four more dots than the instance before it.

There are usually lots of conjectures you could make about a pattern, and you have to select which you think are the most important to mention. Not every conjecture has to be true, but if you make a conjecture you should either think it is true, or think it has the possibility of being true. So, although we don’t know that instance 4 will definitely have 13 dots, we make the conjecture because it seems the most sensible guess based on what we know so far.

Section 3.6 — Conjectures and Generalizations

Guided Practice 1. Below is the first three instances of a dot pattern. Make at least one specific and one general conjecture.

Instance 1

Instance 2

Instance 3

A Counterexample Shows that a Conjecture is False It only takes one instance where the conjecture doesn’t apply to show that the conjecture is not true. For example, if you made the conjecture that it never rains on Mars, only one drop of rain would have to fall on Mars to prove you wrong.

Don’t forget: Limiting cases are generally the ones that are most out of the ordinary. For example, one limiting case for the parallelogram is the rhombus, which has all sides the same length.

You can show that some math conjectures aren’t true by finding a counterexample. A counterexample is a single case that makes a conjecture false. To find a counterexample, consider some instances of the situation. Try to think about any extreme or limiting cases. These may be cases such as negative numbers, zero, or the most regular or irregular shapes. Example

2

Test the following conjecture about rectangles: “The diagonals of a rectangle are never perpendicular.” Solution

Perpendicular means that the lines are at 90° to each other. First find the limiting cases. For rectangles, try the case where the rectangle is very long and thin, and the case when the rectangle is square. E F A B D

C

G H For the conjecture to be true, it must be true for every possible case. So if this conjecture is true, it must hold for every possible rectangle. The special case of the long and thin rectangle clearly does not have perpendicular diagonals. But the special case of the square does have perpendicular diagonals. So the conjecture is false since it isn’t true for every case. The square is a counterexample. Deciding whether a conjecture is true or not by looking at specific limiting examples is called justifying through cases.

Section 3.6 — Conjectures and Generalizations

207

Guided Practice Don’t forget: Quadrilaterals are four-sided shapes.

2. Consider the following conjecture: “All quadrilaterals have four right angles.” Decide whether it is false or could possibly be true by examining limiting cases.

You Can Justify Conjectures Through Reasoning It’s hard to show that a conjecture is definitely true — there could always be an example that you haven’t found that would disprove the conjecture. Justifying through reasoning means that you use algebra or principles to show that a conjecture is true for all possible cases. Example

3

Test the following conjecture about rectangles: “The diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.” Solution

Congruent means the same in size and shape. Split the rectangle along both the diagonals to make 4 triangles, where each diagonal becomes the hypotenuse of a right triangle. B

B

A

D

B

C

A

Go back to Lesson 3.3.1 if you need a reminder of the Pythagorean theorem.

+

A

Triangle 3

Don’t forget:

C

Triangle 2 Triangle 1

C

D

B

D

C

+ Triangle 4

A

D

The Pythagorean theorem says that the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two legs. Triangle 1:(BD)2 = (AB)2 + (AD)2 Triangle 3:(AC)2 = (AB)2 + (BC)2 = (AB)2 + (AD)2 Rectangles have two pairs of equal sides, so BC = AD.

(BD)2 = (AC)2, so BD and AC must be the same length. This means the diagonals of the rectangle are the same length, and so they’re congruent. 208

Section 3.6 — Conjectures and Generalizations

Guided Practice 3. Consider the following conjecture:

You can use the Pythagorean theorem to justify whether this conjecture is true or false too.

“The vertical height of a cone will be 4 cm, if the base has diameter 6 cm and the slant height is 5 cm.” Decide whether the conjecture is true or false by justification through reasoning.

m 5c

Check it out:

4 cm 6 cm

Independent Practice 1. Make two specific conjectures and two general conjectures about the following number sequence. “1, 9, 25, 49...” Use some of your conjectures to find the next two numbers in the series. 2. If n is an odd number, make a conjecture about n + 1. The pattern below shows the first three instances of a pattern. Use the pattern to answer Exercises 3–5.

Instance 1 Now try these: Lesson 3.6.1 additional questions — p451

Instance 2

Instance 3

3. Make three specific conjectures about the pattern. 4. Make three general conjectures about the pattern. 5. Draw the next two instances of the pattern. 6. Consider the following conjecture: “Parallelograms never have a line of symmetry.” Decide if this conjecture is true or false by testing limiting cases. 7. Consider the following conjecture: “There are exactly three ways that you can split a rectangle into four smaller rectangles, so that all four smaller rectangles are congruent to each other.” Show that the conjecture is false by finding a counterexample.

Round Up So that’s conjectures. You’ll make conjectures about all kinds of things in math — often without even thinking about it — and you might have to show whether they’re true or not using counterexamples or careful reasoning. Section 3.6 — Conjectures and Generalizations

209

Lesson

3.6.2

Expressions and Generalizations

California Standards:

You met specific and general conjectures in the previous Lesson.

Algebra and Functions 1.1 Use variables and appropriate operations to write an expression, an equation, an inequality, or a system of equations or inequalities that represents a verbal description (e.g., three less than a number, half as large as area A). Mathematical Reasoning 2.2 Apply strategies and results from simpler problems to more complex problems. Mathematical Reasoning 3.3 Develop generalizations of the results obtained and the strategies used and apply them to new problem situations.

A generalization is a special kind of general conjecture. It allows you to work out quickly what any instance of a pattern will be.

A Generalization Comes from a General Conjecture A generalization is a way of extending a general conjecture. Making a generalization means finding some kind of expression or formula that you could use for any instance. Generalizations can be mathematical expressions or word descriptions. You might use the first three instances of a pattern to make a the generalization that would tell you how to find the nth instance — the nth instance could be any instance whatsoever. Example

Make a generalization for the number of dots in instance n of this pattern:

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to generalize a pattern from simple examples so that you can find any given instance of that pattern.

1

Instance 1 Instance 2

Instance 3

Solution

Look at what happens in each instance. Instance 1 has 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 dots. Instance 2 has 1 + 2 + 2 = 5 dots.

Key words: • • • •

generalization number pattern number sequence conjecture

Instance 3 has 1 + 3 + 3 = 7 dots. We can therefore say that Instance n will have 1 + n + n = 2n + 1 dots. Check this is correct by testing on instance 2: 2n + 1 = (2 × 2) + 1 = 5 dots, which is correct. Test on instance 4: 2n + 1 = (2 × 4) + 1 = 9 dots. This is what you would have expected.

Don’t forget: It’s always a good idea to test your generalizations. With patterns, do this by checking that a generalization or formula works on a new instance.

Guided Practice 1. Make a generalization of the pattern below by writing an expression for the number of dots in instance n.

Instance 1 210

Section 3.6 — Conjectures and Generalizations

Instance 2

Instance 3

Instance 4

Use Generalizations to Solve Problems Example

2

In the pattern below, find the number of dots in instance 10.

Instance 1 Instance 2

Instance 3

Solution

In Example 1 we found a generalization for this pattern. This was that the number of dots in instance n is 2n + 1. Instance 10 therefore has 2n + 1 = (2 × 10) + 1 = 21 dots.

Don’t forget: The examples opposite ask you to find expressions for the numbers in patterns. One way to do this is to compare each instance number with the corresponding value in the pattern. A table can help you do this. For example:

Another way to do this is to notice that the top line has the same number of dots as the instance number, and the bottom line has one more dot than the top line. The top line of instance 10 will have 10 dots, and the bottom line will have 10 + 1 = 11 dots. The total number of dots is 10 + 11 = 21 dots. When you look at a pattern, there can be more than one generalization to make. Example

3

By making a generalization about the pattern below, find the sum of the 7th line of the pattern.

Instance

S um

1

1

1+3=4

2

4

1+3+5=9

3

9

4

16

Check it out: It’s often useful to make a table of simple cases. For example, a table for Exercise 2 would look like this: Instance

1=1

Solution

The pattern is the sum of consecutive odd numbers, adding one more odd number each line. You could say that the sum of the 7th line will be the sum of the first 7 odd numbers. A generalization would be that the sum of the nth instance is the sum of the first n odd numbers. You could also generalize that the sum of each of the lines is the square of the instance number. So the nth line will sum to n2. So for line 7, the sum will be n2 = 72 = 49.

Number

Guided Practice

1

1

2

3

3

5

2. Use a generalization to find the 50th odd number.

4

7

3. Use a generalization to find the 9th term in the following pattern: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12... Section 3.6 — Conjectures and Generalizations

211

Independent Practice Use the dot pattern below to answer Exercises 1–3.

Instance 1

Instance 2

Instance 3

1. Generalize the pattern using words. 2. Generalize the pattern by finding an expression for the number of dots in the nth instance. 3. Draw Instance 10. 4. Maggie created a pattern in which the nth instance had 5n – 1 dots in it. Draw the first three instances of Maggie’s pattern.

Use this pattern to answer Exercises 5–6. 2=2 2×2=4 2×2×2=8 5. Extend the pattern for two more lines. 6. Find a generalization and use it to find the product of the 9th line. For Exercises 7–9 use the pattern of numbers: 7, 10, 13, 16, 19... 7. Describe the pattern in words. Now try these: Lesson 3.6.2 additional questions — p451

8. Write an expression for the nth number in the pattern. 9. Find the 30th number in the sequence. Use this pattern for Exercises 10–12: 1=1 3+5=8 7 + 9 + 11 = 27 10. Find the next line of the sequence. 11. Find an expression for the sum of the nth line. 12. Find the sum of the 10th line.

Round Up Generalizing is really useful in problem solving. If you’re asked to find the 100th instance in a pattern, it’ll take you ages to write or draw all 100 out — better to start simple and then generalize. 212

Section 3.6 — Conjectures and Generalizations

Chapter 3 Investigation

Designing a House Before starting expensive construction, architects will make scale drawings, so that the size and shape of everything is clear. Often, constructions will be complex, rather than regular shapes. You work for an architect company, which is designing single-floor, one-bedroom houses. The houses will have one bedroom, a living area/eat-in kitchen and one bathroom. They must have a floor area of 900 square foot. An example layout is shown here.

Closet

Bedroom

Bathroom Eat-in kitchen

window

Living area

Part 1: Design a house that satisfies these requirements. Be sure to include the dimensions of each room. Part 2: Calculate the area of each room. Add up the area of each room to check that it comes to 900 square feet. Things to think about: • You don’t have to design a rectangular or square house — you could make it a complex shape. • Try to make the room dimensions seem reasonable — a bathroom that is a 2-foot by 2-foot square wouldn’t be usable. • Be sure to include doorways, windows and other useful things, like a closet. Extensions 1) Make a scale drawing of the house using a scale of 1 cm : 2 feet. 2) Make a scale drawing of the house using a scale of your own choosing. Open-ended Extensions 1) One buyer wants the bathroom to be accessible from the bedroom and the living area. He also wants a separate kitchen. Design a house that would incorporate this concept. 2) A second buyer wants the rooms in the house to flow from one into the other, but to still offer privacy. Design a house that uses partial walls to separate rooms.

Round Up When you’re designing something, you’ll often have certain limitations — like the area that the house should be. But you also have to think about how to make it usable — for example, you need enough space for a bed in the bedroom. But after that, you can take preferences into account — like where you’d prefer to put the door and the kitchen sink. Cha pter 3 In vestig a tion — Designing a House 213 Chapter Inv estiga

Chapter 4 Linear Functions Section 4.1

Exploration — Block Patterns ................................... 215 Graphing Linear Equations ....................................... 216

Section 4.2

Exploration — Pulse Rates ....................................... 227 Rates and Variation ................................................... 228

Section 4.3

Units and Measures .................................................. 241

Section 4.4

More on Inequalities .................................................. 254

Chapter Investigation — Choosing a Route ...................................... 264

214

Section 4.1 introduction — an exploration into:

Bloc k P a tter ns Block Pa tterns In this Exploration, you’ll use pattern blocks to make patterns that could carry on forever. These patterns all result in different straight lines when graphed on the coordinate plane. Example Pattern 1 is developed using pattern blocks. Describe the pattern and record it in a table.

Solution

The pattern of 1, 3, 5, 7... continues on forever. Two blocks are added each time.

Figure in pattern

1

2

3

Number of blocks

1

3

5

Exercises 1. Describe each pattern and record it in a table. a.

b.

c.

The numbers from each pattern can be graphed on the coordinate plane. This data can be used to make predictions about other figures in the pattern. Example

Pattern 1

10

Graph the data for Pattern 1 and predict the number of blocks in the fifth figure in the pattern.

9 8 7

Solution

Reading from the graph as shown, there will be 9 blocks in the fifth figure.

Number 6 of 5 Blocks 4 3 2 1 0

Exercises

1

2 3 4 5 6 Figure in pattern

2. Graph the data for each pattern in Exercise 1. 3. Predict the number of blocks in the fifth and sixth figures of each pattern. 4. Find the slope of the graph of each pattern. What do you notice about each slope?

Round Up The figures in each pattern increase by the same number of blocks each time. So, when you plot the data, you get straight line graphs. You can use these to predict later figures in each pattern. Section 4.1 Explor a tion — Block Patterns 215 Explora

Lesson

Section 4.1

4.1.1

Graphing Equations

California Standards:

Equations like y = 3x, y = x + 1, and y = 2x + 3 are known as linear equations because if you plot them on a grid, you get straight lines. In this Lesson you’ll learn how to plot linear equations.

Algebra and Functions 1.5 Represent quantitative relationships graphically, and interpret the meaning of a specific part of a graph in the situation represented by the graph. Algebra and Functions 3.3 Graph linear functions, noting that the vertical change (change in y-value) per unit of horizontal change (change in x-value) is always the same, and know that the ratio ("rise over run") is called the slope of a graph.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to plot linear equations on a coordinate plane.

Linear Equations Have the Form y = mx + b A linear equation can have one or two variables. The variables must be single powers, and if there are two variables, they must be in separate terms. Linear Equations

xy = 7 y = 2x2 – 3 y = x3 + 1 y = 3x2

y=x–7 y = 8x + 1 4y – 2x = –7 y = 3x

A linear equation can always be written in the form below (but you might have to rearrange it first): m and b are constants, so they’re numbers like 1 or 3.

y is a variable.

y = mx + b

Key words: • linear equation • variables • graph

Nonlinear Equations

x is a variable too.

The m and b values can be 0, so y = 3x and y = 4 are linear equations too.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, state whether the equation is a linear equation or not. 1. y = 2x – 5 2. 7y – 9x = –1 3. y = x2 + 4 4. 2y = 4x + 3 5. y3 = x3 – 1 6. y = x

Check it out: The y = mx + b equation represents a “function.” A function is a rule that assigns each number to one other number. If you put a value for x into the function, you get one value for y out.

Every Point on the Line is a Solution to the Equation The graph of a linear equation is always a straight line. Every point on the graph is an ordered pair (x, y) that is a solution to the equation. y5

Don’t forget:

4

Ordered pairs are often called coordinates, or coordinate pairs.

This is the graph of the equation y = x + 1. The point (1, 2) lies on the graph, so x = 1, y = 2 must be a solution to the equation.

(3, 4)

3 2

(1, 2)

1

Check it out: There are an infinite number of points on a line. So there are an infinite number of solutions to a linear equation.

–5

–4

–3

–2

–1 0 –1 –2

(–3, –2) –3 –4 –5

216

Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations

1

2

3

4

5

x

You can test this by substituting the xand y-values into the equation and checking that they make the equation true: y=x+1 Æ 2=1+1 This makes the equation true, so x = 1, y = 2 is a solution to the equation.

Guided Practice Show that the following are solutions to the equation y = x + 1. 7. x = 3, y = 4 8. x = –3, y = –2 Using the graph on the previous page, explain whether the following are solutions to the equation y = x + 1. 9. x = 1, y = 4 10. x = –4, y = –3

Find Some Solutions to Plot a Graph To graph a linear equation, you need to find some ordered pairs to plot that are solutions to the linear equation. You do this by putting some x-values into the equation and finding their corresponding y-values. Example Check it out: You only really need two ordered pairs to draw a straight-line graph. But you should work out at least one more than this to make sure you haven’t made any errors.

1

Find the solutions to the equation y = 2x + 1 that have x-values of –2, –1, 0, 1, and 2. Use these to write ordered pairs that lie on the graph of y = 2x + 1. Solution

Step 1: Draw a table that allows you to fill in the y-values next to the corresponding x-values. Make a column to write the ordered pairs in. x

y

O rd e re d Pa i r ( x, y)

–2 –1 0 1 2

Step 2: Substitute each x-value into the equation, to get the corresponding y-value. Here are a few examples: For x = –2: y = 2x + 1 = 2(–2) + 1 = –3 For x = –1: y = 2x + 1 = 2(–1) + 1 = –1 Step 3: Write each set of x- and y-values as an ordered pair (x, y).

x

y

O rd e re d Pa i r ( x, y)

–2 –3

(–2, –3)

–1

–1

(–1, –1)

0

1

(0, 1)

1

3

(1, 3)

2

5

(2, 5)

Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations

217

Guided Practice 11. Find the solutions to the equation y = 5x – 4 that have x-values equal to –2, –1, 0, 1, and 2. Use your solutions to write a set of ordered pairs that lie on the graph of y = 5x – 4. 12. Find the solutions to the equation y = 2x – 6 that have x-values equal to –6, –3, 0, 3, and 6. Use your solutions to write a set of ordered pairs that lie on the graph of y = 2x – 6. Check it out: If your points aren’t in a straight line, you must have made a mistake — go back and check. That’s why you need more than two points — you wouldn’t know if you’d made a mistake if you only had two points to join up.

Plot the Points and Join Them Up You draw the graph of an equation by first plotting ordered pairs that represent the solutions to the equation. They should lie in a straight line. Example

2

Draw the graph of y = 2x + 1 by plotting the ordered pairs you found in Example 1. Solution

The ordered pairs that fit the equation are (–2, –3), (–1, –1), (0, 1), (1, 3), and (2, 5). Plot these points and draw a straight line through them. y = 2x + 1

Check it out: y5

Always label your graph with its equation.

4 3 2 1 –5

–4

–3

–2

–1 0 –1 –2 –3 –4 –5

218

Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations

1

2

3

4

5 x

Example

3

Plot the ordered pairs (1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5), and (4, 7). Do these ordered pairs lie on a linear graph? Solution

y

Plot the points on a coordinate plane.

9 8

When you join the points together, you get a straight line.

7 6

So, the coordinates do lie on a linear graph.

5 4

(In fact, they lie on the graph of y = 2x – 1.)

3 2 1 –1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

x

–1

Guided Practice 13. Plot the graph of the function y = 5x – 4. You found some x and y pairs in Guided Practice Exercise 11. 14. Plot the graph of the function y = 2x – 6. You found some x and y pairs in Guided Practice Exercise 12.

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–3, use the values of x to evaluate the following equation: y = 2x – 9 1. x = 4 2. x = –6 3. x = –10 4. Fill in a table for the equation y = –5x + 3 ready for it to be graphed on a coordinate plane. Use the x-values –1, 0, 1, and 2. In Exercises 5–6, determine whether the set of ordered pairs lies on a linear graph. 5. (0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 5). 6. (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4). Now try these: Lesson 4.1.1 additional questions — p452

7. Explain whether the point D with coordinates (4, –6) is on the line y = –5x + 14. 8. Construct a table to find some points on the graph of y = 3x – 5. Plot the values on a coordinate plane and draw the graph. 2

9. Construct a table to find some points on the graph of y = 3 x – 6. Plot the values on a coordinate plane and draw the graph.

Round Up When you draw a graph of a linear equation you always get a straight line, and all the points on the graph represent solutions to the equation. It’s important to understand this when you look at solving systems of equations in the next Lesson. Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations

219

Lesson

4.1.2

Systems of Linear Equations

California Standards: Algebra and Functions 1.1 Use variables and appropriate operations to write an expression, an equation, an inequality, or a system of equations or inequalities that represents a verbal description (e.g., three less than a number, half as large as area A). Algebra and Functions 1.5 Represent quantitative relationships graphically and interpret the meaning of a specific part of a graph in the situation represented by the graph.

In the last Lesson you graphed linear equations and saw how every point on a line is a solution to the equation of the line. In this Lesson you’ll use this idea to solve a system of equations.

A System is a Set of Linear Equations A system of linear equations is a set of two or more linear equations in the same variables. The equations y = 2x + 2 and y = –3x – 8 are a system of equations in the two variables x and y. Example

1

Write a system of linear equations to represent the following statement: “y is three times x and the sum of y and x is 8”

What it means for you:

Solution

You’ll learn what systems of linear equations are and understand how their solutions are shown by graphs.

You need to write two equations that both need to be true for the statement to be true.

Key words: • system of equations • linear equation • solving • intersection

The first part says, “y is three times x,” so y = 3x. The second part says, “the sum of y and x is 8,” so y + x = 8. These two equations form a system of linear equations. The solutions to a system of equations have to satisfy all the equations at the same time. So the solution to the system of equations y = 3x and y + x = 8 is x = 2 and y = 6. These values make both equations true.

Guided Practice Write systems of equations to represent the following statements. 1. x subtracted from y is 3, and y is twice x. 2. Bob buys two melons at $y each and three avocados at $x each. He is charged $9 altogether. Melons cost $2 more than avocados.

You Can Solve Systems of Equations Graphically All points on the graph of a linear equation have x- and y-values that make that equation true. Points on the graph of another linear equation in a system have x- and y-values that make that equation true. Where the graphs of two linear equations in a system intersect, the x- and y-values satisfy both equations. This intersection point is a solution to both equations, and so is the solution to the system. 220

Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations

y 5 4

Check it out: Two straight lines that aren’t parallel, or exactly the same, can only intersect each other once. So there will only ever be one solution to a system of linear equations like this. Parallel lines never cross, so there would be no solution. And if the lines are the same, there would be infinitely many solutions.

...this is the graph of another linear equation.

3

This is the graph of one linear equation...

2 1 –5

–4

–3

–2

–1 0

1

2

4

3

5

x

–1 –2 –3 –4 –5

At this point, both equations are satisfied, so (–1, –1) is the solution to the system of equations.

The solution to a system of linear equations in two variables is the point of intersection (x, y) of their graphs. So you can solve a system of linear equations by plotting the graph of each equation and finding out where they cross. Example

2

Solve the following system of equations by graphing: y = 2x – 1 y=x–2 Solution

Draw tables to find coordinates of some points on each graph. y = 2x – 1

y=x–2

Don’t forget:

x

y

O rd e re d Pa i r ( x, y)

x

y

O rd e re d Pa i r ( x, y)

This is the same method that you learned last Lesson for plotting linear equations. If you can’t remember the steps, go back and do a bit more practice on graphing equations first.

2

3

(2, 3)

2

0

(2, 0)

1

1

(1, 1)

1

–1

(1, –1)

0

–1

(0, –1)

0

–2

(0, –2)

–1 –3

(–1, –3)

–1 –3

(–1, –3)

–2 –5

(–2, –5)

–2 –4

(–2, –4) y 5

Now plot both graphs on the same coordinate plane.

y = 2x – 1

4 3 2 1 –5

–4

–3

–2

–1

0 –1 –2

(–1, –3)

1

2

3

4

5

x

y=x–2

–3 –4 –5

Read off the point of intersection — it is (–1, –3). So (–1, –3), or x = –1, y = –3, is the solution to the system of equations. Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations

221

Guided Practice Solve the systems of equations in Exercises 3–4 by graphing. 3. y = x + 2 and y = –2x + 5 4. y = x – 6 and y = –x + 2

Always Check Your Solution It’s easy to make mistakes when graphing, so you should always test the solution you get by putting it into both equations and checking it makes them both true. Example Don’t forget: The first number in an ordered pair is always the x-value — (x, y).

3

Check that (–1, –3) is a solution to the system of equations y = 2x – 1 and y = x – 2. Solution

Check the solution by substituting the x- and y-values into both equations: Equation 1: y = 2x – 1 fi –3 = 2(–1) – 1 fi –3 = –3 — true Equation 2: y = x – 2 fi –3 = –1 – 2 fi –3 = –3 — true So (–1, –3) is a solution to the system of equations.

Guided Practice 5. Check your answer from Guided Practice Exercise 3 by substituting it back into the equations. 6. Check your answer from Guided Practice Exercise 4 by substituting it back into the equations.

Independent Practice 1. Explain whether it is possible to have two solutions to a system of two linear equations. 2. Describe the situation in which there is no solution to a system of two linear equations. Now try these: Lesson 4.1.2 additional questions — p452

3. Solve the following system of equations by graphing. Check your solution by substituting. y=x+3 y = –x – 1 4. Graph the following two equations. Explain why this system of equations has no solution. y=x–2 y=x–6

Round Up In this Lesson you learned how to write systems of linear equations, and how their single solution can be read from a graph. In grade 8 you’ll also solve systems of linear equations algebraically. 222

Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations

Lesson

4.1.3

Slope

California Standards:

Over the past few Lessons you’ve been graphing linear equations — which have straight-line graphs. Some straight-line graphs you’ve drawn have been steep, and others have been more shallow. There’s a measure for how steep a line is — slope. In this Lesson you’ll learn how to find the slope of a straight-line graph.

Algebra and Functions 3.3 Graph linear functions, noting that the vertical change (change in y-value) per unit of horizontal change (change in x-value) is always the same, and know that the ratio ("rise over run") is called the slope of a graph.

The Slope of a Line is a Ratio change in y

For any straight line, the ratio change in x is always the same — it doesn’t matter which two points you choose to measure the changes between.

What it means for you:

10

You’ll learn what the slope of a graph is and how to calculate it.

y 6 units

9

change in y 9 = = 1.5 change in x 6

8 7

5

change in y 3 = 1.5 change in x = 2

3 units

• slope • steepness • ratio

2 units

9 units

Key words:

6

4 3 2

Check it out:

1

The distance you go across a graph is known as the “run,” and the distance you go up is known as the “rise.” So the

0

1

3

2

5

4

6

7

8

x 10

9

change in y

This ratio, change in x , is the slope of the graph.

change in y

ratio change in x is often called the “rise over run.”

Slope is a Measure of Steepness of a Line change in y

A larger change in y for the same change in x makes the ratio change in x bigger, so the slope is greater. Check it out:

y

9

3 units

8

change in y change in x

=

8 4

=2

7 6 5

6 units

4 units

4 2 units

You can use any points on the line to calculate slope — it’s normally easiest to choose points that have integer x- and y-values though.

10

3

This line is steeper, and it has the bigger slope.

change in y change in x

2 1 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

=

2 1 = 4 2

x 10

So a slope is a measure of the steepness of a line — steeper lines have bigger slopes. Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations

223

Slopes Can Be Positive, Negative, or Zero y

A positive slope is an “uphill” slope. The changes in x and y are both positive — as one increases, so does the other.

Positive change in y

Positive change in x

positive change in y = positive slope positive change in x y

Positiv lop ositivee S Slop lopee

Negativ lop Negativee S Slop lopee Negative change in y

x

0

A negative slope is a “downhill” slope. The change in y is negative for a positive change in x. y decreases as x increases. negative change in y = negative slope positive change in x Check it out:

y

The slope of a vertical line is undefined. There’s a change of zero on the x-axis, and you can’t divide by zero.

0

Zer oS lop Zero Slop lopee

y

A line with zero slope is horizontal. There is no change in y.

Positive change in x

0 change in y = 0 slope positive change in x

change in x = zero

x

0

x

0

Positive change in x

Guided Practice 1. Plot the points (1, 3) and (2, 5) on a coordinate plane. Find the slope of the line connecting the two points. 2. Does the graph of y = –x have a positive or negative slope? Explain your answer.

Compute Slopes from Coordinates of Two Points Check it out: It doesn’t matter which points you use for (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). But you have to make sure you subtract both the x-and y-values of one pair from the x- and y-values of the other pair.

224

Instead of counting unit squares to calculate slope, you can use the coordinates of any two points on a line. There’s a formula for this: For the line passing through coordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2): change in y y2 − y1 Slope = = change in x x2 − x1

Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations

x

Example

Subtracting a negative number is the same as adding a positive number. So 3 – (–1) is the same as 3 + 1. Be careful with this when you’re calculating slopes.

The graph below is the graph of the equation y = 2x + 1. y Find the slope of the line. 5 4

Change in x

Solution

Choose two points that are easy to read from the graph, for example: (x1, y1) = (–1, –1) (x2, y2) = (1, 3) Don’t forget: You can always count the units on the graph to check — but be careful. The scale might not always be one square to one unit.

3

Start by drawing a triangle connecting two points on the graph.

Change in y

Don’t forget:

1

-5

-4

-3

-2

1 -1

0

2

1

4

3

5

-1

(–1, –1)

-2 -3

y2 − y1 x2 − x1

Slope =

(1, 3)

2

-4 -5

This is the change in y.

=

3 − (−1) 3 + 1 4 = = =2 1− (−1) 1 + 1 2

So the slope of the graph is 2.

This is the change in x.

Example

2

Find the slope of the line connecting the points C (–2, 5) and D (1, –4). Solution

You don’t need to draw the line to calculate the slope — you are given the coordinates of two points on the line. (x1, y1) = (–2, 5) and (x2, y2) = (1, –4). (–2, 5) y

Check it out: Always check your answer is reasonable. Look at the graph you’re finding the slope of, and check that if it’s downhill, your slope is negative, and if it’s uphill, your slope is positive.

5

Substitute the coordinates into the formula for slope:

y2 − y1 −4 − 5 −9 = Slope = = x2 − x1 1− (−2) 3 Slope = –3

4 3 2 1 -5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

x

-1 -2

If you plot these points and draw a line through them, you can see that the slope is negative (it’s a “downhill” line).

-3 -4

(1, –4)

-5

Guided Practice 3. Plot the points (–2, 3) and (2, 5) on a coordinate plane. Find the slope of the line connecting the two points. 4. Plot the graph of the equation y = 4x – 2 and find its slope.

Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations

225

x

Independent Practice 1. Identify whether the slope of each of the lines below is positive, negative, or zero.

–5

–4

–3

–2

y

y

y

5

5

5

4

4

4

3

3

3

2

2

2

1

1

–1 0

1

2

3

4

5

x

–5

–4

–3

–2

–1 0

1 1

2

3

4

5

x

–5

–4

–3

–2

–1 0

–1

–1

–1

–2

–2

–2

–3

–3

–3

–4

–4

–4

–5

–5

–5

1

2

3

4

5

On a coordinate plane, draw lines with the slopes given in Exercises 2–5. 2. 3 3. 6 4. –1 5. –4 In Exercises 6–9, find the slope of the line passing through the two points. 6. W (3, 6) and R (–2, 9) 7. Q (–5, –7) and E (–11, 0) 8. A (–12, 18) and J (–10, 6) 9. F (2, 3) and H (–4, 6) 10. The move required to get from point C to D is up six and left eight units. What is the slope of the line connecting C and D? 11. Point G with coordinates (7, 12) lies on a line with a slope of

3 . 4

Write the coordinates of another point that lies on the same line. 12. On the coordinate plane, draw a line through the points E (–2, 5) and S (4, 1). Find the slope of this line. On the same plane, draw a line through the points P (–2, –2) and N (4, –6). Find the slope of this line. What can you say about the two lines you have drawn and their slopes?

Now try these: Lesson 4.1.3 additional questions — p452

13. Consider the statement: “The slope of a line becomes less steep if the distance you have to move along the line for a given change in y increases.” Determine whether this statement is true or not. 14. Is it possible to calculate the slope of a vertical line? Explain your answer.

Round Up The slope of a line is the ratio of the change in the y-direction to the change in the x-direction when you move between two points on the line — it’s basically a measure of how steep the line is. Positive slopes go “uphill” as you go from left to right across the page, and negative slopes go “downhill.” Slope is actually a rate — and you’ll be looking at rates over the next few Lessons. 226

Section 4.1 — Graphing Linear Equations

x

Section 4.2 introduction — an exploration into:

Pulse R a tes Ra In this Exploration, you’ll measure your pulse rate and convert it to several different unit rates. A rate is a comparison of two amounts that have different units of measure. For example: 100 miles in 2 hours or

100 miles . 2 hours

A unit rate is a rate where the second amount is 1. You find a unit rate by dividing the first amount by the second. Example A car travels 100 miles in 2 hours. What is its unit rate? Solution

100 miles 2 hours

Unit rate = 50 miles/hour, or 50 miles per hour

Exercises 1. Write the unit rate for each. a. 90 words in 3 minutes

b. 10 feet for 2 inches of height

c. 100 miles on 4 gallons

You’ll now make some measurements involving heart rate. Work with a partner for this. Find your pulse on your left wrist, using two fingers of your right hand, as shown. When you’ve found your pulse, your partner should start the stopclock and say “go.” Count how many pulse beats you feel, until your partner calls “stop,” after 15 seconds. Write this number down. Now swap, so that your partner counts his or her pulse, and you time 15 seconds for them.

Exercises 2. Write your results in this form: _____ beats in 15 seconds. Now change it into a unit rate. 3. Pulse rate is usually given in beats per minute (bpm). Calculate your unit pulse rate in beats per minute. 4. Approximately how many times will your heart beat in: a. 1 hour b. 1 day c. 1 week d. 1 year (365 days in a nonleap-year)

Round Up The unit rate is generally more useful than other rates — it makes it easier to compare things. For example, it’s difficult to compare 18 beats in 15 seconds with 23 beats in 20 seconds — it’s much easier to compare 72 beats per minute with 69 beats per minute. Section 4.2 Explor a tion — Pulse Rates 227 Explora

Lesson

Section 4.2

4.2.1

Ratios and Rates

California Standards:

Rates are used a lot in daily life. You often hear people talk about speed in miles per hour, or the cost of groceries in dollars per pound. A rate tells you how much one thing changes when something else changes by a certain amount. Imagine buying apples for $2 per pound — the cost will increase by $2 for every pound you buy.

Measurement and Geometry 1.3 Use measures expressed as rates (e.g., speed, density) and measures expressed as products (e.g., person-days) to solve problems; check the units of the solutions; and use dimensional analysis to check the reasonableness of the answer.

What it means for you: You’ll learn what rates are and how you can use them to compare things — such as which size product is better value.

Ratios are Used to Compare Two Numbers You might remember ratios from grade 6. Ratios compare two numbers, and don’t have any units. For example, the ratio of boys to girls in a class might be 5 : 6. There are three ways of expressing a ratio. The ratio 5 : 6 could also be expressed as “5 to 6” or as the fraction 5 . 6

Example

1

There are four nuts between three squirrels. What is the ratio of nuts to squirrels?

Key words:

Solution

• rate • ratio • fraction • denominator • unit rate

There are 4 nuts to 3 squirrels so the ratio of nuts to squirrels is 4 : 3. 4 This could also be written “4 to 3” or 3 .

Rates Compare Quantities with Different Units Don’t forget: You can simplify ratios by dividing both numbers by a common factor. Rates can be simplified in the same way. For example — you can divide top and bottom of the rate

3 inches by 3 to 9 years

1 inches

get 3 years .

A rate is a special kind of ratio, because it compares two quantities that have different units. For example, if you travel at 60 miles in 3 hours you would be traveling at a rate of

60 miles . 3 hours

You’d normally write this as a unit rate. That’s one with a denominator of 1. So

60 miles 3 hours

Example

=

20 miles , 1 hour

or 20 miles per hour.

2

Check it out:

John takes 110 steps in 2 minutes. What is his unit rate in steps per minute?

You must always write the units after a rate. The unit miles per hour could also be written as miles/hour.

Solution

228

110 steps in 2 minutes means a rate of:

110 steps 55 steps = = 55 steps per minute. 2 minutes 1 minute

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

Numerator ÷ Denominator Gives a Unit Rate Check it out: Rates don’t have to be expressed as fractions or whole numbers. Rates can also be decimals.

Dividing the numerator by the denominator of a rate gives the unit rate. So, if it costs 2 dollars for 3 apples, the unit rate is the price per apple, which is

2 dollars = 2 dollars ÷ 3 apples = 0.66 dollars per apple. 3 apples

Example

3

A car goes 54 miles in 3 hours. Write this as a unit rate in miles per hour. Solution

Check it out: The unit rate that’s calculated here is average speed — there’s more on this in Lesson 4.2.3.

Divide the top by the bottom of the rate. 54 miles = (54 ÷ 3) miles per hour = 18 miles per hour. 3 hours This is a unit rate because the denominator is now 1 (it’s equivalent to

18 1

mi/h).

18 mi/h

Example

4

If a wheel spins 420 times in 7 minutes, what is its unit rate in revolutions per minute? Solution

The rate is

420 7

revolutions per minute.

Divide the top by the bottom of the rate. (420 ÷ 7) revolutions per minute = 60 revolutions per minute. This is a unit rate because 60 revolutions per minute has a denominator of 1 (60 =

60 ). 1

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–3, find the unit rates. 1. $3.60 for 3 pounds of tomatoes. 2. $25 for 500 cell phone minutes. 3. 648 words typed in 8 minutes. 4. Joaquin buys 2 meters of fabric, which costs him $9.50. What was the price per meter? 5. Mischa buys a $19.98 ticket for unlimited rides at a fairground. She goes on six rides. How much did she pay per ride?

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

229

Use Unit Rates to Find the “Better Buy” Stores often sell different sizes of the same thing, such as clothes detergent or fruit juice. A bigger size is often a better buy — meaning that you get more product for the same amount of money. But this isn’t always the case, so it’s useful to be able to work out which is the better buy. You can do this by finding the price for a single unit of each product. The units can be ounces, liters, meters, or whatever is most sensible. Check it out: There are situations where the “better buy” is not actually the most sensible option. For example, a store might sell a product at a much cheaper unit price when you buy 20 — but if you only want 1 of the product, it’s silly paying the extra if you’re not going to use it all.

Example

5 CEREAL

A store sells two sizes of cereal. Which is the better buy?

$3.20 for 16 ounce box $4.32 for 24 ounce box Cereal

Solution

16 ounce box: Rate is

3.20 dollars . 16 ounces

Unit rate = (3.20 ÷ 16) dollars per ounce = $0.20 per ounce 24 ounce box: Rate is

4.32 dollars . 24 ounces

Unit rate = (4.32 ÷ 24) dollars per ounce = $0.18 per ounce The 24 ounce box is the better buy — the price per ounce is lower.

Guided Practice 6. Determine which phone company offers the better deal: Phone Company A: $40 for 800 minutes. Phone Company B: $26 for 650 minutes. 7. Determine which is the better deal on carrots: $1.20 for 2 lb or $2.30 for 5 lb.

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, write each as a unit rate. Now try these: Lesson 4.2.1 additional questions — p453

1. $4.50 for 6 pens 4. 120 miles in 2 h

2. 100 miles in 8 h 5. $400 for 10 items

3. 200 pages in 5 days 6. $36 in 6 hours

7. Peanuts are either $1.70 per pound or $8 for 5 pounds. Which is the better buy? 8. Lemons sell for $4.50 for 6, or $10.50 for 15. Which is the better buy? 9. “$40 for 500 pins or $60 for 800 pins.” Which is the better buy?

Round Up Rates compare one thing to another and always have units. A unit rate is a rate that has a denominator of one. In the next Lesson you’ll see how rate is related to the slope of a graph. 230

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

Lesson

4.2.2

Graphing Ratios and Rates

California Standards:

When you’re buying apples, the price you pay increases steadily the more apples you buy. If you plot a graph of the weight of apples against the cost, you get a straight line. The slope of this line is the same as the unit rate — the cost per pound.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to graph two quantities in a ratio or rate and understand what the slope means in this context.

Key words:

Quantities in Ratios Make Straight-Line Graphs When you increase one quantity in a ratio or rate, the other quantity increases in proportion with it. For example, if flour cost $0.50 per pound, you know that two pounds of flour would cost $1. This is because if you double the amount of flour, you also double the cost. In the same way, if you buy ten times as much flour, it costs ten times as much. 10 You can represent the cost of different amounts of flour on a graph:

6

Po u n d s o f f l o u r

Cost

2

2 × $0.50 = $1

4

4 × $0.50 = $2

• straight-line graph • slope • rate

8

Cost ($)

Algebra and Functions 3.4 Plot the values of quantities whose ratios are always the same (e.g., cost to the number of an item, feet to inches, circumference to diameter of a circle). Fit a line to the plot and understand that the slope of the line equals the ratio of the quantities.

4 2

6

6 × $0.50 = $3

8

8 × $0.50 = $4

0

For every extra 2 pounds, the price rises by $1. 12 16 8 20 4 Pounds of flour

By joining these points you get a straight-line graph. You get a straight-line graph whenever you plot quantities in a ratio or rate. Example

1

Suzi the decorator earns $50 per hour. Plot a graph to show how the amount Suzi earns increases with the amount of time she works.

Check it out: When one quantity in a ratio is zero, the other quantity must be zero also. So you know a graph of quantities in a ratio must go through the point (0, 0).

N um be r o f H o urs

Am o unt S he E arns

1

$50

2

2 × $50 = $100

4

4 × $50 = $200

10

10 × $50 = $500

Step 1: You know she earns $50 per hour. Draw a table of her earnings for different numbers of hours. 500 Amount Earned ($)

Solution

Step 2: Plot a graph from your table to show the number of hours worked against the amount she earns.

400 300 200 100 0

2

6 8 4 Number of Hours

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

10

231

Guided Practice 1. You can buy 5 kg of sand from a toy store for $3.00. If the sand always costs the same amount per kilogram, draw a graph to represent the relationship between the cost and the mass of sand. 2. It costs $1 to run an electricity generator for half an hour. Draw a graph to represent the relationship between cost and time.

Use the Graph to Find Unknown Values Once you’ve drawn a graph, you can use it to find unknown values. Example

2

Suzi the decorator worked for 5 hours on Monday. Use the graph in Example 1 to work out how much she earned. 500

Amount Earned ($)

Solution

She worked for 5 hours, so find 5 hours on the horizontal axis. Go up to the line, and then across to find the amount earned for 5 hours’ work.

400 300 200 100

On Monday Suzi earned $250 for 5 hours’ work. Example

0

2

6 8 4 Number of Hours

10

3

A car rental company charges $0.25 per mile driven. Plot a graph to show this rate and use it to find how far you could drive for $4.50.

M ile s Cost 1

$0.25

5

$1.25

10

$2.50

15

$3.75

Solution

Draw a table that will allow you to plot a straight-line graph of miles traveled and price charged. Check it out: Cost ($)

You could use the graph to find the cost for any distance driven — for example, 5.3 miles. In reality, the company would probably charge to the nearest mile.

8 6 4 2 0

232

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

5

10 15 Miles

20

Plot the graph on a coordinate plane. To find the number of miles you could drive for $4.50, find $4.50 on the vertical axis. Go across to the line, and read off the corresponding number of miles. You can drive 18 miles for $4.50.

Guided Practice 3. Rita is filling a sand box at the day camp where she works. She needs 8 kg of sand. Use your graph from Guided Practice Exercise 1 to find the approximate cost of the sand. 4. Use your graph from Guided Practice Exercise 2 to find the approximate price of running the generator for 3 hours.

The Slope of the Graph Tells You the Rate The slope of a graph of two quantities is the unit rate. It tells you how much the quantity on the vertical axis changes when the quantity on the horizontal axis changes by one unit. The slope of a straight-line graph is found using this formula: Slope = Example

change in y change in x

4

Use the graph to find how many miles per hour Selina is traveling at.

Solution

The slope is the change in y divided by the change in x. Check it out: The slope of a distance-time graph (with time on the horizontal axis) is always speed.

Distance Traveled (miles)

This graph shows the progress of Selina, who is traveling at a constant rate. 400 300 200 100

On this graph, this is the distance traveled divided by the time taken, which is a unit rate in miles per hour.

0

2

8 6 4 Time taken (hours)

Find two points on the line, and find the vertical change and the horizontal change between them by drawing a triangle onto the graph. Change in y = 150 miles Change in x = 6 hours So, Slope =

change in y 150 miles = change in x 6 hours

Rate = (150 ÷ 6) miles per hour = 25 miles per hour Selina is traveling at 25 miles per hour.

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

233

Guided Practice 5. The y-axis of a graph shows the cost of hiring an engineer, and the x-axis shows the number of hours you get the engineer’s services for. What does the slope of the graph tell you?

Number of Feet

2

Cost ($)

6. The graph on the right shows the price of carrots in a grocery store. Use the graph to find the unit rate for the price of carrots.

1.5 1

8

0.5

6

0

4 6 8 Weight of carrots (lb)

7. The graph on the left shows the number of feet against the equivalent number of yards. Use the graph to find the number of feet in a yard.

4 2 0

2

1

2 4 3 Number of Yards

Independent Practice 1. Water is dripping into an empty tank from a pipe. The water depth is increasing by a depth of 4 inches every 24 hours. Draw a graph and use it to find the depth of water in the tank after 36 hours. Use the graph to find the unit rate of water depth increase. 2. A store earns about $100,000 over seven months. Draw a graph and use it to estimate the store’s earnings for a year.

Now try these: Lesson 4.2.2 additional questions — p453

4. The graph on the right shows the number of miles John drives, and the number of gallons of gas he uses. Find the number of miles John’s car does per gallon. 5. Plot a graph of circle diameter against circumference. Put diameter on the horizontal axis. Find the slope of the graph. What does this slope represent?

Don’t forget: Circumference = p × diameter Diameter = 2 × radius

Number of miles driven

3. There are 12 inches in a foot. Draw a graph and use it to find the number of inches in 9 feet. Then use it to estimate the number of feet in 50 inches. 80 60 40 20 0

1

2 4 3 Gas used (gallons)

6. Plot a graph of circle radius against circumference. Put radius on the horizontal axis. Compare the slope of your graph to the slope of your graph from Exercise 5. Explain any differences.

Round Up When you graph quantities that are always in the same ratios you get straight-line graphs. You can use these graphs to convert from one quantity to another. They aren’t the only way to convert quantities — the next Lesson is about conversion factors, which are another way. 234

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

Lesson

4.2.3

Distance, Speed, and Time

California Standards:

Speed is a rate — it’s the distance you travel per unit of time. 55 miles per hour is the speed limit on some roads. If you drive steadily at this speed, you’ll travel 55 miles every hour. There’s a formula that links speed, distance, and time — and you’re going to use it in this Lesson.

Algebra and Functions 4.2 Solve multistep problems involving rate, average speed, distance, and time or a direct variation.

What it means for you: You’ll learn the formula for speed, and how to use it to solve problems.

Speed is a Rate Speed is a rate. It is the distance traveled in a certain amount of time.

2 hours 10 miles per hour

Speed can be measured in lots of different units, such as miles per hour, meters per second, inches per minute...

Key words: • • • •

speed distance time formula

The formula for speed is: Example

speed =

20 miles

distance time

1

Gila walked 6 miles in 8 hours. What was Gila’s average speed?

Check it out: Gila might not have walked at a steady speed for the entire 8 hours. That’s why we have to calculate average speed.

Solution

Use the formula, and substitute in the values from the question. speed =

distance time

6 miles 8 hours = (6 ÷ 8) miles per hour = 0.75 miles per hour =

Check it out: Miles per hour is often shortened to mi/h or mph. This means the same as miles

Gila’s average speed was 0.75 miles per hour.

miles ÷ hours, and hours .

Rearrange the Equation to Find Other Unknowns You can rearrange the speed formula, and use it to find distance or time.

Don’t forget: Speed can be measured in any unit of distance per unit of time. If you divide a distance in kilometers by a time in hours, your answer will be in kilometers per hour.

distance into an equation that gives time distance in terms of speed and time, multiply both sides of the equation by time. distance × time speed × time = time To change the equation speed =

distance = speed × time Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

235

Example

2

Alyssa runs for 0.5 hours at a speed of 11 kilometers per hour. How far does she run? Solution

Use the formula for distance, and substitute the values for speed and time. Distance = speed × time = 11 kilometers per hour × 0.5 hours = 5.5 kilometers You can find the equation for time in terms of speed and distance in a similar way. Example

3

Andy is planning a walk. He walks at an average speed of 3 miles per hour, and plans to cover 15 miles. How long should his walk take him? Solution

You need to rearrange the speed formula first. distance = speed × time Check it out: Formula triangles help you find the formula you want. The formula triangle for speed-distance-time is shown below. distance

time =

Divide both sides by speed

distance speed

Now you can use the formula to answer the question:

d s×t speed

distance speed × time = speed speed

time

To use it, cover up the thing you want to find, and the equation is what’s left. So if you want to find distance, cover up “d” and you’re left with “s × t.” If you want to find time, cover up “t” and you’re left with “ d .” s

time =

distance 15 miles = speed 3 miles per hour

time = (15 ÷ 3) hours = 5 hours Andy’s walk should take him 5 hours.

Guided Practice 1. Juan ran in a marathon that was 26 miles long. If his time was 4 hours, what was his average speed? 2. Moesha goes to school every day by bike. The journey is 6 miles long, and takes her 0.6 hours. What is her average speed? 3. Monica travels 6 miles to work at a speed of 30 miles per hour. How long does the journey take her each morning? Josh has been walking for 5 hours at a speed of 4 miles per hour. 4. His walk is 22 miles long. How far does he have left to walk? 5. How much longer will he take if he continues at the same speed?

236

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

Some Problems Might Need More than One Step Example

4

On a three-hour bike ride, a cyclist rode 58 miles. The first two hours were downhill, so the cyclist rode 5 miles per hour quicker than she did for the last hour. a) What was her speed for the first two hours? b) What was her speed for the last hour? Solution

Check it out: This answer seems reasonable — the cyclist rode 5 mi/h faster for the first two hours. 21 mi/h and 16 mi/h fit this and sound reasonable speeds for a cyclist.

Let the cyclist’s speed for the first two hours be (x + 5) miles per hour. So her speed for the last hour = x miles per hour. You need to write an equation using the information you’re given. distance traveled distance traveled Total distance = + in last hour in first two hours 58 = (x + 5) × 2 + (x) × 1 58 = 2x + 10 + x distance = speed × time 58 = 3x + 10 48 = 3x fi x = 16 a) The speed for the first two hours was (x + 5) = 16 + 5 = 21 mi/h b) So the speed for the last hour was x = 16 mi/h

Guided Practice 6. Train A travels 20 mi/h faster than Train B. Train A takes 3 hours to go between two cities, and Train B takes 4 hours to travel the same distance. How fast does each train travel?

Independent Practice 1. A mouse ran at a speed of 3 meters per second for 30 seconds. How far did it travel in this time? 2. A slug crawls at 70 inches per hour. How long will it take it to crawl 630 inches?

Now try these: Lesson 4.2.3 additional questions — p453

3. A shark swims at 7 miles per hour for 2 hours, and then at 9 miles per hour for 3 hours. How far does it travel altogether? 4. Bike J moves at a rate of x miles per hour for 2 hours. Bike K travels at 0.5x miles per hour for 4 hours. Which bike travels the furthest? 5. On a two-day journey, you travel 500 miles in total. On the first day you travel for 5 hours at an average speed of 60 mi/h. On the second day you travel for 4 hours. What’s your average speed for these 4 hours?

Round Up You need to remember the formula for speed. If you know this, you can rearrange it to figure out the formulas for distance and time when you need them — so that’s two less things to remember. Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

237

Lesson

4.2.4 California Standards: Algebra and Functions 4.2 Solve multistep problems involving rate, average speed, distance, and time or a direct variation.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to use the fact that two things are in proportion to solve problems.

Direct Variation Direct variation is when two things change in proportion to each other — this means that the ratio between the two quantities always stays the same. For example, if fencing is sold at $15.99 per meter, then you can say that the length of fencing bought and the cost show direct variation.

Direct Variation Means Proportional Change Two quantities show direct variation if the ratio between them is always the same.

Key words: • direct variation • proportion • ratio • variables • constant of proportionality

If you have two quantities, x and y, that show direct variation, the ratio y between them, , is always the same — it’s a constant. x y If you call this constant k, then = k. This rearranges to y = kx. x

y = kx

Check it out: You could also divide the quantities the other way around (x ÷ y) to get a different constant of proportionality.

Check it out: Corresponding lengths in similar shapes show direct variation. If you divide a length on one shape by the corresponding length on another, you get a constant that’s the same whichever length you pick — this is the scale factor. See Lesson 3.4.3.

k is known as the “constant of proportionality.” You’ve seen things that show direct variation before when you learned about rates. For example, imagine a store selling bananas at a certain price per banana. The price per banana is constant and doesn’t change no matter how many bananas you have:

30¢

90¢

×3

What your bananas cost = price per banana × number of bananas. What your bananas cost and the number of bananas are the variables, and the price per banana is the constant of proportionality. Example

1

If m and n show direct variation, and m = 4 when n = 2, find m when n = 8. Solution

Check it out: You could have divided n by m to get a constant of proportionality, k, of 0.5. This means your equation is

n = k. m

n , so k when you substitute in k = 0.5 and n = 8, you still get 16.

This rearranges to m =

238

First find the constant of proportionality: k =

m 4 = =4÷2=2 n 2

The constant of proportionality, k = 2. The formula rearranges to m = kn. So substitute in the value for k and the new value for n. m = kn = 2 × 8 = 16 So m = 16 when n = 8.

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

Example

2

A person’s earnings and the number of hours they work show direct variation. An employee earns $600 for 40 hours’ work. Find their earnings for 60 hours’ work. Solution

First write a direct variation equation: k = earnings ÷ number of hours worked Now substitute in the pair of variables you know and find k: k = $600 ÷ 40 hours k = $15 per hour. The direct variation equation rearranges to: Earnings = k × number of hours worked So, earnings for 60 hours = $15 per hour × 60 hours = $900

Guided Practice 1. y and x show direct variation and y = 4 when x = 6. Find x when y = 9. 2. s and t show direct variation and s = 70 when t = 10. Find s when t = 7. 3. The cost of gas varies directly with the number of gallons you buy. If 10 gallons of gas costs $25, what is the cost per gallon of gas? What does 18 gallons of gas cost?

Direct Variation Graphs are Straight Lines Graphs of quantities that show direct variation are always straight lines through the point (0, 0).

y The slope of this direct variation graph is equal to Check it out: The line of a direct variation graph always crosses the origin (0, 0). If one quantity is 0, the other quantity will be 0 too.

x (0, 0)

As

y . x

y = k , the slope is the same as x

the constant of proportionality, k.

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

239

Example

3

If y and x show direct variation, and x = –1 when y = 2: a) Write an equation relating x and y. b) Graph this equation. c) Find the value of y when x = 1. Solution

y =k. x y 2 = –2 Now you need to find out the value of k: k = = x −1 y y So = −2 , or y = –2x. x 3 b) The graph of y = –2x must go through (0, 0). 2 Because x = –1 when y = 2, it must go 1 through (–1, 2). –3 –2 –1 0 –1 The slope of the line is equal to k, and k = –2.

a) Because y and x show direct variation,

Check it out: You could have found the value of y when x = 1 from the equation. y = –2x, so if x = 1, then y = –2(1) = –2.

c) Reading from the graph, when x = 1, y = –2.

1

2

3

–2 –3

Guided Practice When you add a weight to the end of a spring, the spring stretches. The amount of weight you add (w) and the distance the spring stretches (d) show direct variation (until you have added 100 pounds). 4. If 30 pounds causes a stretch of 25 centimeters, write an equation relating w and d. 5. Graph the direct variation. Use the graph to estimate how far the spring stretches when 50 pounds is added.

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 4.2.4 additional questions — p454

In Exercises 1–2, x and y show direct variation, with y = kx. 1. If y = 36 and x = 6, find k. 2. If y = 12 and k = 2, find x. 3. You can buy 6 pounds of apples for $4.50. Given that the cost and weight show direct variation, find the cost of 5 pounds of apples. 4. The graph of a line crosses the y-axis at 1. Explain whether the line could represent a direct variation. 5. The stopping distance of a toy cart varies directly with its mass. A 2 kg cart stops after 30 cm. Write an equation linking the stopping distance and the mass of the cart. Graph this equation and find the stopping distance of a 3.5 kg cart. 6. A graph showing direct variation is drawn on the coordinate plane. The line goes from top left to bottom right. What can you say about the constant of proportionality?

Round Up If two things vary directly, the ratio between them is constant. Most rates are examples of direct variation, like the price of something per kilogram — the price and weight stay in proportion. 240

Section 4.2 — Rates and Variation

x

Lesson Lesson

4.3.1 4.3.1

California Standards: Measurement and Geometry 1.1 Compare weights, capacities, geometric measures, times, and temperatures within and between measurement systems (e.g., miles per hour and feet per second, cubic inches to cubic centimeters).

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to convert between different units of length, weight, and capacity in the customary and metric systems.

Section 4.3

Converting Measures There are lots of circumstances where you might want to convert from one unit to another. For instance — say you have 2 pounds of flour and you want to know how many cakes you can make that each need 6 ounces of flour. This Lesson is about how you convert between different units of measurement.

The Customary System — Feet, Pounds, and Pints... The customary system includes units such as feet, pints, and pounds. To convert between the different units in the customary system you can use a conversion table. A conversion table tells you how many of one unit is the same as another unit. LENGTH 1 foot = 12 inches 1 yard = 3 feet 1 mile = 5280 feet 1 mile = 1760 yards

Key words: • customary system • metric system • conversion table

The ratio of feet to inches is 1 : 12 or 1 . 12

The ratio of cups to fluid ounces is

WEIGHT 1 pound = 16 ounces 1 ton = 2000 pounds CAPACITY 1 cup = 8 fluid ounces 1 pint = 2 cups 1 quart = 2 pints 1 gallon = 4 quarts

1

Don’t forget: “Capacity” is often called “volume.”

1 : 8 or 8 .

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, find the ratio between the units. 1. yards : feet 2. quarts : pints 3. tons : pounds 4. ounces : pounds 5. yards : miles 6. quarts : gallons

Don’t forget:

Metric Units Have the Same Prefixes

You’ll often see units abbreviated — for instance, mL for milliliters. The strangest one is the pound — which is abbreviated to lb.

The meter, the liter, and the gram are metric units, and the prefixes “kilo-,” “centi-,” and “milli-” are used in this system: “kilo-” means “a thousand” MASS

LENGTH 10 millimeters = 1 centimeter 100 centimeters = 1 meter 1000 meters = 1 kilometer

CAPACITY

1000 milligrams = 1 gram 1000 grams = 1 kilogram

1000 milliliters = 1 liter

“ c enti-” means “a hundredth”

“milli-” means “a thousandth”

Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

241

Guided Practice In Exercises 7–12, find the ratio between the units. 7. millimeters : meters 8. liters : milliliters 9. grams : kilograms 10. kilometers : meters 11. milliliters : liters 12. grams : milligrams

Convert Between Units by Setting Up Proportions You might remember proportions from grade 6. They’re a good way of converting between different units. Example

1

How many yards are equivalent to 58 feet? Solution 1

Step 1: The ratio of yards to feet is 1 : 3 or 3 . Don’t forget: To cross-multiply the following proportion: a c

=

Step 2: You want to find the number of yards in 58 feet. So write another ratio — the ratio of yards to feet is x : 58, where x stands for the number of yards in 58 feet.

1. Multiply both sides of the equation by b, and cancel.

You know that the ratios 1 : 3 and x : 58 have to be equivalent — which means they simplify to the same thing, because there are always 3 feet in every yard.

a c c ×b = ×b ⇒ a = ×b b d d

So you can write these ratios as an equation — this is called a proportion.

b

d

1 x = 3 58

2. Multiply both sides of the equation by d, and cancel.

c a×d = ×b×d d ⇒ a×d = c ×b So if

a c = , then a × d = c × b b d

Step 3: Solve the proportion for x using cross-multiplication. 1 × 58 = 3 × x 58 = 3x x = 58 ÷ 3 = 19.333... = 19.3 So 58 feet is approximately equivalent to 19.3 yards. Step 4: Check the reasonableness of your answer. The conversion table tells you that there are 3 feet in every yard, so estimate: 20 yards × 3 ft per yard = 60 feet. The estimation is close to the answer — so the answer is reasonable.

242

Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

Example

2

How many kilometers are equivalent to 7890 meters? Solution

There are 1000 meters in a kilometer, so the ratio of meters to kilometers is 1000 : 1 or Check it out: Make sure you set up your proportion correctly. In this example, meters are on the top on both sides of the proportion, and kilometers are on the bottom. 1000 m 7890 m = 1 km x km

1000 . 1

Write a proportion where there are x kilometers in 7890 meters: 1000 7890 = 1 x

Cross-multiply and solve for x: 1000 × x = 7890 × 1 1000x = 7890 x = 7890 ÷ 1000 = 7.89 So 7.89 kilometers is equivalent to 7890 meters. Check the reasonableness: there are 1000 meters in a kilometer, so estimate 8 km × 1000 m = 8000 m — the answer is reasonable.

Guided Practice In Exercises 13–18, find the missing value. 13. 6 miles = ? feet

14. 40 tons = ? pounds

15. 18 quarts = ? pints

16. 4560 ml = ? l

17. 45 g = ? kg

18. 670 km = ? m

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, find the ratio between the units. 1. gallons : quarts

2. ounces : pounds

4. meters : centimeters 5. liters : milliliters

3. cups : pints 6. milligrams : grams

In Exercises 7–12, find the missing value. 7. 560 cm = ? m Now try these: Lesson 4.3.1 additional questions — p454

8. 8.2 kg = ? g

10. 20 inches = ? feet 11. 5 cups = ? pints

9. 9.67 l = ? ml 12. 5 pounds = ? tons

13. A recipe uses 8 ounces of butter and 12 ounces of flour. The supermarket sells butter and flour by the pound. How many pounds of butter and flour do you need for the recipe? 14. Jackie wants to drink 2 liters of water a day. She sees a bottle of water that contains 250 milliliters. How many bottles would she need to drink in order to get the full 2 liters?

Round Up There are two main systems of measurement — the customary system and the metric system. You can convert between units in a system by setting up proportions and solving them. You’ll often have to convert between the systems too, which you’ll learn about in the next Lesson. Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

243

Lesson

4.3.2 California Standards: Measurement and Geometry 1.1 Compare weights, capacities, geometric measures, times, and temperatures within and between measurement systems (e.g., miles per hour and feet per second, cubic inches to cubic centimeters).

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to convert from a unit in one measurement system to a unit in another measurement system. You’ll also convert between temperature scales using a formula.

Converting Between Unit Systems Lots of countries use the metric system as their standard system of measurement — for example, distances on European road signs are often given in kilometers. So if you ever go abroad you’ll find it useful to be able to convert the metric measures into the customary units that you’re more familiar with.

Convert Between the Customary and Metric Systems Here’s a conversion table that tells you approximately how many customary units make a metric unit. LENGTH 1 inch (in.) = 2.54 centimeters (cm) 1 mile (mi) = 1.6 kilometers (km) 1 yard (yd) = 0.91 meters (m)

WEIGHT/MASS 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 pounds (lb) CAPACITY 1 gallon (gal) = 3.785 liters (l) 1 liter (l) = 1.057 quarts (qt)

Key words: • customary system • metric system • conversion table • Celsius • Fahrenheit

You can convert between customary and metric units by setting up and solving proportions. Example

1

How many gallons are equivalent to 29 liters? Solution

Check it out: This is exactly the same method that you used in the previous Lesson to convert measures within either the customary or metric system.

The ratio of gallons to liters is 1 : 3.785 or

1 . 3.785

Write a proportion where there are x gallons in 29 liters: 1 x = 3.785 29

Cross-multiply and solve for x: 29 × 1 = 3.785 × x 29 = 3.785x x = 29 ÷ 3.785 = 7.661... So there are approximately 7.66 gallons in 29 liters. Check the reasonableness: 1 gallon is around 4 liters. So 8 gallons is about 8 × 4 = 32 liters. This estimation is close to the answer, so it is reasonable. 244

Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, find the missing value. 1. 235 lb = ? kg 4. 5.7 m = ? yd

2. 9.3 mi = ? km 5. 7.32 kg = ? lb

3. 500 cm = ? in. 6. 76 qt = ? l

Convert Twice to Get to Units That Aren’t in the Table Only the most common conversions are in the conversion table. There are lots more you could make. For example, you might want to convert centimeters into feet, or liters into cups. Example

2

Find how many feet are in 30 centimeters. Solution

Check it out: For conversions like these, you need to use the metric and customary conversion tables from the last Lesson too.

There’s no direct conversion from centimeters to feet listed in the table. But there are conversions from centimeters to inches, and inches to feet. Step 1: Convert 30 centimeters to inches. The ratio of inches to centimeters is 1 : 2.54. So set up a proportion and solve it to find x, the number of inches in 30 cm. Set up a proportion...

1 x = 2.54 30

1 × 30 = x × 2.54

...cross-multiply to solve

x = 30 ÷ 2.54 = 11.81102... ≈ 11.8 So there are approximately 11.8 inches in 30 centimeters. Step 2: Now convert 11.8 inches to feet. The ratio of feet to inches is 1 : 12. Set up a second proportion and solve it to find y, the number of feet in 11.8 inches. Set up a proportion...

1 y = 12 11.8

1 × 11.8 = y × 12

...cross-multiply to solve

y = 11.8 ÷ 12 = 0.98 ≈ 1 This means that there’s approximately 1 foot in 30 centimeters.

Guided Practice In Exercises 7–12, find the missing value. 7. 235 kg = ? tons

8. 0.08 mi = ? cm

9. 500 cm = ? yd

10. 12.3 m = ? ft

11. 7.32 kg = ? oz

12. 0.05 qt = ? ml

Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

245

There’s a Formula to Convert Temperatures There are two common units for temperature — degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and degrees Celsius (°C). Converting from one to the other is more complicated than other conversions because the scales don’t have the same zero point. 0 degrees Celsius is the same as 32 degrees Fahrenheit.

Check it out: Water freezes at 0 °C or 32 °F. It boils at 100 °C or 212 °F.

0°

100°

100° °C — the Celsius scale

32°

°F — the Fahrenheit scale 212°

180°

So to convert from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit, you have to use this formula:

F= Example

9 C + 32 5

Where F is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and C is the temperature in degrees Celsius.

3

What is 30 °C in degrees Fahrenheit? Solution

Don’t forget: Remember the order of operations, PEMDAS. You’ve got to do the

9 C 5

bit first and

then add 32 to the result — or else you’ll get the wrong answer.

Use the formula: F =

9 C + 32 5

You know C, so put this into the formula and work out F. F=

9 × 30 + 32 = 54 + 32 = 86 °F 5

Rearrange the Formula to Convert °F to °C You can rearrange the formula so that you can convert from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius: 1. Take 32 from both sides:

9 C 5

2. Multiply both sides by 5:

5 × (F – 32) = 9C

3. Divide both sides by 9:

5 × (F – 32) = C 9

C=

246

F – 32 =

Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

5 (F – 32) 9

Where F is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and C is the temperature in degrees Celsius.

Example

4

What is 52 °F in degrees Celsius? Solution

5 (F – 32) 9 You know F, so put this into the formula and work out C.

Use this formula:

C=

C=

5 5 × (52 – 32) = × 20 = 11.11111... ≈ 11 °C. 9 9

Guided Practice In Exercises 13–18, find the missing value. 13. 212 °F = ? °C

14. 0 °C = ? °F

15. 88 °F = ? °C

16. 132 °C = ? °F

17. –273 °C = ? °F

18. –15 °F = ? °C

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–3, find the missing value. 1. 128 ft = ? m

2. 340 miles = ? km

3. 75 kg = ? lb

4. The weight limit for an airplane carry-on is 18 kilograms. The weight of Joe’s carry-on bag is 33 pounds. Will Joe be able to take his carry-on on the airplane? 5. A car has a 10-gallon tank for gasoline. How many liters of gasoline are needed to fill the tank? 6. Javine has set up the following proportion to convert 70 km to mi: 1 70 = 1.6 x Explain whether Javine has set up the proportion correctly.

7. A car is traveling at 50 miles per hour. How fast is this in kilometers per hour?

Now try these: Lesson 4.3.2 additional questions — p454

8. A recipe needs 180 ounces of apples. What is this in kilograms? In Exercises 9–11, find the missing value. 9. 45 °C = ? °F

10. 108 °F = ? °C

11. 5727 °C = ? °F

12. Josie has a new baby. She reads that the ideal temperature of a baby’s bath is between 36 °C and 38 °C, but her thermometer only shows the Fahrenheit temperature scale. Advise Josie on the ideal temperature for her baby’s bath in degrees Fahrenheit.

Round Up Conversions between different systems of length, mass, and capacity don’t need a formula because they all start at the same point — 0 kg = 0 lb, etc. The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales start at different places — 0 °C = 32 °F, so you need to use a formula for these conversions. Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

247

Lesson

4.3.3

Dimensional Analysis

California Standards:

This Lesson is about dimensional analysis. Dimensional analysis is a neat way of checking the units in a calculation. It shows whether or not your answer is reasonable.

Algebra and Functions 4.2 Solve multistep problems involving rate, average speed, distance, and time or a direct variation. Measurement and Geometry 1.3 Use measures expressed as rates (e.g., speed, density) and measures expressed as products (e.g., persondays) to solve problems; check the units of the solutions; and use dimensional analysis to check the reasonableness of the answer.

Dimensional Analysis — Check Your Units You can use dimensional analysis to check the units for an answer to a calculation. For example, if you were trying to calculate a distance and dimensional analysis showed that the units should be seconds, you know something has gone wrong. You can cancel units in the same way that you can cancel numbers. For example, 70 miles × 6 hours = 210 miles 2 hours

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to use dimensional analysis to check the units of your answers to rate problems.

Key words: • dimensional analysis • formulas • canceling

Example

The units on both sides of the calculation must balance — so the answer must be a distance in miles.

1

Jonathan earns 10 dollars per hour. How much does he earn for 40 hours’ work? Solution

You need to multiply Jonathan’s hourly rate by the number of hours he works. Earnings = 10 dollars per hour × 40 hours = 400 dollars You can use dimensional analysis to check your answer is reasonable: 10

dollars × 40 hours = 400 dollars hour

Example Check it out: A person-day is a unit that means the amount of work done by 1 person working for 1 day. Units separated by hyphens are products.

2

It takes 12 person-days to tile a large roof. If there are three workers working on the roof, how many days will it take them to tile it? Solution

Number of days = total person-days ÷ number of persons = 12 ÷ 3 = 4 days You can use dimensional analysis to check your answer is reasonable: 3 persons × 4 days = 12 person-days

248

Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

Example

3

You are organizing a three-legged race. You need 2.5 feet of ribbon for every two people. You have 660 inches of ribbon. How many people can join in the race? Solution

First convert the length of the ribbon from inches to feet. You need to set up a proportion. 12 inches = 1 foot, so: 12 660 = x = length in feet 1 x 12x = 660 × 1 fi x = 55 feet So 660 inches is equivalent to 55 feet. You can check this by dimensional analysis: x=

660 inches × 1 foot = 55 feet 12 inches

Now divide the length of ribbon by the amount you need per person: 55 feet ÷

2 people 2.5 feet = 55 feet × = 44 people 2.5 feet 2 people

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–2, find the missing unit. 1.6 km 1. 4 miles× = 6.4 ? 1 mile

2. 26.5 inches×

2.54 cm = 67.31 ? 1 inch

Checking Formulas with Dimensional Analysis Dimensional analysis is useful for checking whether a formula is reasonable. The units on each side of a formula must balance. Example Check it out: A unit of meters per second means “meters ÷ 1 second.” This is the number of meters traveled in 1 second. When you get a unit with the word “per” in it, you know that you can write the unit as a fraction.

4

A formula says that speed (in meters per second) multiplied by time (in seconds) is equal to the distance traveled (in meters). Use dimensional analysis to check the reasonableness of the formula. Solution

Write out the formula suggested and include the units. ⎛m⎞ speed ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ × time (s) = distance (m ?) ⎜⎝ s ⎠ So the seconds cancel and leave units of meters. This means that the formula is reasonable since the units on each side of the equation match. Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

249

Example

5

Mass (kg)

It is suggested that the slope of this graph is equal to density, which is measured in kg per m3. Is this a reasonable suggestion? Solution

Slope =

change in y change in x

⎛ kg ⎞ change in mass ( kg) = density ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟⎟ Slope = 3 ⎜⎝ m ⎠ change in volume ( m )

Volume (m³)

⎛ kg ⎞⎟ So the unit of the slope of the graph is ⎜⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ . ⎝m ⎠ This is the same as kg per m3. So it’s reasonable that the slope is equal to density, since it has the right units.

Guided Practice 3. Find eight different units of speed, if speed = distance ÷ time. 4. The formula for acceleration is “change in speed ÷ time.” Which of the following could be a unit for acceleration: A.

in. h2

B.

cm 2 min

C.

s m2

D.

km s2

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, find the missing unit. $0.20

1. 15 tomatoes × 1 tomato = 3 ? 3. Now try these: Lesson 4.3.3 additional questions — p455

54.3 yd ×

0.9144 m = 49.65... ? 1 yd

1.3 lb = 72.8 ? $1

2.

$56 ×

4.

$500 ×

£0.53 = 265 ? $1

5. Use dimensional analysis to check that this expression is reasonable. Use it to find the number of seconds in an hour. 60 minutes 60 seconds 1 hour = 1 hour × × 1 hour 1 minute 6. You need to save up $240 for a ski trip. You earn six dollars per hour babysitting. How many hours do you need to work to pay for the trip? Check your answer using dimensional analysis.

Round Up So dimensional analysis is basically making sure your units balance — it’s useful for checking you’ve worked out what you think you have. Try to get into the habit of using it for all types of problems. 250

Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

Lesson

4.3.4 California Standards: Measurement and Geometry 1.1 Compare weights, capacities, geometric measures, times, and temperatures within and between measurement systems (e.g., miles per hour and feet per second, cubic inches to cubic centimeters).

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to convert from one unit of speed to another unit of speed.

Converting Between Units of Speed There are a lot of units that can be used for speed — kilometers per hour, miles per hour, meters per second, inches per minute. Speed units are all made up of a distance unit divided by a time unit. This makes them a bit tougher to convert than other units.

You Can Set Up Conversion Fractions Equal to 1 When you multiply something by 1, it doesn’t change. 5 Fractions with the same thing on the top and the bottom, such as 5 , are equal to 1, so whatever you multiply by them doesn’t change either. 60 seconds = 1 minute, so the fraction 60 seconds has the same on the top 1 minute

Key words: • conversion • dimensional analysis

and the bottom, so it’s equal to 1 too — this is called a conversion fraction.

Use Conversion Fractions to Convert Units You can use a conversion fraction equal to 1 to convert from one unit to another. Here’s how a time can be converted: Example

1

A ship takes 1.75 days to reach its destination. How many hours is this? Don’t forget:

Solution

1 is the multiplicative identity. See Lesson 1.1.4.

24 hours = 1 day

Check it out: If you don’t end up with the units you wanted, your conversion fraction may be upside down.

24 hours 1 day = 1 day 1 day 24 hours =1 1 day

Start with a conversion equation Divide both sides by 1 day You now have a fraction that is equal to 1.

So, whatever you multiply by the fraction 1.75 days ×

24 hours 1 day

won’t change.

24 hours = 1.75 × 24 hours = 42 hours Cancel the units 1 day

1.75 days is equivalent to 42 hours.

Guided Practice Check it out: You’ll need to look back at the conversion tables in Lessons 4.3.1 and 4.3.2 for these.

Convert each of the following by multiplying by a conversion fraction. 1. 6 inches to centimeters 2. 45 minutes to seconds 3. 12 miles to kilometers 4. 6 liters to quarts Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

251

Speed Units May Have Two Parts to Convert A speed unit is always a distance unit divided by a time unit.

Check it out: You could also convert centimeters per minute to centimeters per second, before finally converting this to inches per second.

If you want to change both of these parts, you need to do two separate conversions. For instance, if you were converting centimeters per minute to inches per second, you might do the following conversions: centimeters per minute Example

inches per minute

inches per second

2

A train travels 1.2 miles per minute. What is the speed of the train in kilometers per hour? Solution

Break this down into two stages — Stage 1: Convert from miles per minute to miles per hour. First, you have to write a conversion fraction: 60 minutes = 1 hour

60 minutes 1 hour = 1 hour 1 hour 60 minutes =1 1 hour

Start with a conversion equation Divide both sides by 1 hour You’ve now got a fraction equal to 1

So, whatever you multiply by the fraction Check it out: Dimensional analysis shows that the product should have units of miles per hour — that’s the unit we are aiming for at this stage.

60 minutes 1 hour

won’t change.

1.2 miles 60 minutes miles × = (1.2 × 60) Cancel the units 1 minute 1 hour hour = 72 miles per hour Stage 2: Convert from miles per hour to kilometers per hour. Write another conversion fraction: 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers 1 mile 1.6 kilometers = 1 mile 1 mile 1.6 kilometers 1= 1 mile

Check it out: Using dimensional analysis here shows that the product should have units of kilometers per hour — that’s the unit we want.

252

Start with a conversion equation Divide both sides by 1 mile You’ve now got a fraction equal to 1

So, whatever you multiply by the fraction

1.6 kilometers 1 mile

won’t change.

72 miles 1.6 kilometers kilometers Cancel the units × = (72 × 1.6) 1 hour 1 mile hour ª 115 kilometers per hour

Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

Guided Practice 5. Convert 18 miles per hour into kilometers per hour. 6. Which is faster — 56 miles per hour or 83 kilometers per hour? 7. Convert 14 inches per minute into the unit feet per second. 8. Which is faster — 22 centimeters per minute or 500 inches per hour?

Independent Practice Write conversion fractions from the equations given below. 1. 3 feet = 1 yard 2. 1 kilometer = 1000 meters 3. 3600 seconds = 1 hour Convert the following by multiplying by a conversion fraction. 4. 3 feet into inches 5. 4.5 hours into seconds 6. 36 miles into kilometers 7. Jonah and Ken were both running separate races. Jonah ran 100 meters in 12 seconds, and Ken ran 100 yards in 0.18 minutes. Who ran faster? 8. A snail managed to crawl 50 centimeters in 14 minutes. A slug crawled 40 inches in 0.5 minutes. Which was faster? Convert the following speeds into the units given. 9. 25.6 kilometers per hour into miles per hour 10. 36 inches per hour into centimeters per minute 11. 7 feet per minute into yards per hour Now try these: Lesson 4.3.4 additional questions — p455

12. A boat travels 20 miles in 4 hours. How fast is this in kilometers per hour? A car travels 0.6 miles in two minutes. 13. How fast is this in kilometers per hour? 14. How fast is this in meters per hour?

Round Up Speed units have two parts — a distance part and a time part. That’s why you often have to do two separate conversions to convert a speed into different units. Multiplying by a conversion fraction is a useful way of converting any units. But it’s real important that you always check your work using dimensional analysis. Section 4.3 — Units and Measures

253

Lesson

Section 4.4

4.4.1

Linear Inequalities

California Standards:

In Chapter 1 you learned what inequalities were and how to write them. In this Lesson, you’ll review some of the things you’ve already seen, and learn how to solve inequalities using the same kind of method that you used to solve equations.

Alg ebr a and Functions 1.1 Alge bra Use vvaria aria bles and ariab a ppr opria te oper a tions to ppropria opriate opera write an expression, an equation, an inequality, or a system of equations or inequalities tha epr esents thatt rre presents a vverbal erbal description (e.g., three less than a number, half as large as area A). Alg ebr a and Functions 4.1 Alge bra Solve Solv e two-step linear equations and inequalities in one vvaria aria ble o ver the ariab ov ra tional n umber s, inter pr et number umbers interpr pret the solution or solutions in hic h the y the conte xt fr om w hich they context from whic ar ose erify the arose ose,, and vverify reasona bleness of the easonab r esults esults..

What it means for you: You’ll solve inequalities by addition and subtraction using the same methods that you used for solving equations.

Key words: • inequality • addition • subtraction

Inequalities Ha ve an Infinite Number of Solutions Hav Inequalities have more than one solution. The inequality x > 4 tells you that x could take any value greater than 4, whereas the equation x = 4 tells you x can only take the value of 4.

This means “x is greater than 4.”

x

x

4

4

“x = 4”

“x > 4”

Remember the four inequality symbols you learned in Chapter 1: The Inequality Symbols “>” means “greater than,” “more than,” or “over” “<” means “less than” or “under” “≥” means “greater than or equal to,” “minimum,” or “at least” “£” means “less than or equal to,” “maximum,” or “at most”

Show Solutions to an Inequality on a Number Line The solution to an inequality with one variable can be shown on a number line. A ray is drawn in the direction of all the numbers in the solution set. So for x > 4, the ray should go through all numbers greater than 4.

–8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8

x

This number line shows “x > 4.”

x

This number line shows “x £ –2.”

An open circle means the number is not included in the solution; a closed circle means the number is included in the solution.

254

Section 4.4 — More on Inequalities

Don’t forget: You’ve done problems like this before in Section 1.3. To write inequalities that are given in words, look for the key words given in the table of inequality symbols on the previous page. Then think about which way around the expression should go.

Example

1

Write and plot an inequality to say that y must be a minimum of –3. Solution

The word “minimum” tells you that y ≥ –3. You need to use a closed circle, because –3 is included in the solution set.

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

x

The ray goes in the direction of all values greater than –3.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, write the inequality in words. 1. z < 7 2. y > –10 3. x £ –1 4. n ≥ 89 In Exercises 5–8, plot the inequality on a number line. 5. k > 8 6. j ≥ 2.5 7. a £ –4 8. d < –50 9. To go on Ride A, children must be at least 1 m tall. Write this as an inequality, and plot the inequality on a number line.

Don’t forget: You wrote systems of equations in Lesson 4.1.2. Systems of inequalities are similar, but are likely to have a range of solutions.

You Can Write Systems of Inequalities A system of inequalities is a set of two or more inequalities in the same variables. The inequalities x > 2 and x – 1 £ 6 make a system of inequalities in the variable x. The solutions to a system of inequalities have to satisfy all the inequalities at the same time. So if x is an integer, the solution set of the system of inequalities x > 2 and x – 1 £ 6, must be {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. These values make both inequalities true. Example

2

Write a system of inequalities to represent the following statement: “3 times y is greater than 5, and 2 plus y is less than or equal to 7.” Solution

You need to write two inequalities that both need to be true for the statement to be true. The first part says “3 times y is greater than 5,” so 3y > 5. The second part says “2 plus y is less than or equal to 7,” so 2 + y £ 7. These two equations form a system of inequalities. Section 4.4 — More on Inequalities

255

Guided Practice 10. d is an integer, and d > –1, and d £ 4. What values of d would make this system of inequalities true? In Exercises 11–12, write a system of inequalities to represent each statement: 11. z is less than 0, and the sum of z and 4 is greater than –12. 12. A third of p is less than or equal to 0, and the product of p and –3 is less than 30.

Solv e Inequalities b y R ever sing Their Oper a tions Solve by Re ersing Opera To solve an inequality you need to get the variable by itself on one side — you do this by “undoing” the operations that are done to it. This means doing the “opposite.” Check it out: When you’re solving inequalities by addition and subtraction, treat the expression like an equation, but with the inequality sign in the middle.

So, if a variable has a number subtracted from it, you undo this by adding the same number to it. Remember — you have to do exactly the same to each side of the inequality. +6

Example

x – 6 > 16 x > 16 + 6 x > 22

+6

3

Solve the inequality y + 7 £ 21. Check it out: You might see this solution set written as {y : y £ 14} — it means the same.

Solution

y + 7 – 7 £ 21 – 7 y £ 14

Subtr act 7 fr om eac h side of the inequality Subtract from each Simplify

You might get word problems that ask you to solve inequalities. Example

4

A number increased by 3 is at most 9. Write and solve this inequality. Solution

“A number increased by 3” means x + 3. “at most 9” means “less than or equal to 9” so £ 9. This means the inequality is x + 3 £ 9. Now solve the inequality by subtracting 3 from each side: x+3–3£9–3 x£6 256

Section 4.4 — More on Inequalities

Example

5

An elevator has a weight of 1250 pounds already in it. If the maximum load for the elevator is 2500 pounds, write and solve an inequality to find the amount of additional load that can be put in the elevator safely. Solution

“maximum” load of 2500 pounds means £ 2500 pounds. 1250 pounds plus the additional load that can be added, x, must be less than or equal to 2500 pounds. 1250 + x £ 2500 x + 1250 – 1250 £ 2500 – 1250

Tak e 1250 fr om both sides ake from

x £ 1250 The load that can be added is a maximum of 1250 pounds.

Guided Practice In Exercises 13–20, solve the inequality for the unknown. 13. z + 5 < 17 14. y – 10 > –10 15. 2 + x £ –1 16. p + 45 £ 76 17. h – 6 > 3 18. –6 + h > 3 19. 14 + x ≥ 12 20. 1 + y < 1 21. A number decreased by 17 is at least 16. Write and solve an inequality to find the number. 22. Sophia must complete at least 40 hours of training to qualify. She has already completed 32 hours of training. Write an inequality and solve it to find the remaining hours of training she must complete.

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, plot the inequality on a number line. 1. x > 3 2. t £ 14 3. n < 1 4. z ≥ –2 5. An elevator has a safe maximum load of 2750 pounds. Write an inequality that shows the safe load for this elevator. 6. Write a system of inequalities to represent this statement: 4 plus f is greater than 14, and the product of f and 6 is less than 14. Now try these: Lesson 4.4.1 additional questions — p455

In Exercises 7–14, solve the inequality for the unknown. 7. p – 6 > 10 8. z + 12 < 1 9. c + 1 £ –6 10. 13 + d ≥ 12 11. x + 7 ≥ –7 12. –12 + y > 6 13. f – 100 £ –2 14. g + 130 < 12 15. A number, y, increased by 12 is larger than 12. Write and solve an inequality to find the solution set. Plot the solution on a number line. 16. The area of Portia’s yard is 32 ft2. The area of Gene’s yard is at least 4 ft2 larger than Portia’s. Write and solve an inequality for the area of Gene’s yard.

Round Up Solving inequalities that involve addition and subtraction is exactly like solving equations. In the next Lesson you’ll solve inequalities involving multiplication and division — this has an important difference. Section 4.4 — More on Inequalities

257

Lesson

4.4.2

California Standards: Alg ebr a and Functions 4.1 Alge bra Solv e two-step linear Solve equations and inequalities in one vvaria aria ble o ver the ariab ov ra tional n umber s , interpret number umbers the solution or solutions in the context from which they arose, and verify the reasonableness of the results.

What it means for you: You’ll get more practice at solving linear inequalities and learn how to multiply and divide inequalities by negative numbers.

Mor e on Linear More Inequalities So far you’ve set up and solved linear inequalities that use addition and subtraction. The next step is to use multiplication and division. This is a bit trickier, because you need to remember to swap the inequality symbol when you multiply or divide by a negative number.

Multipl ying and Di viding b y P ositi ve Number s Multiplying Dividing by Positi ositiv Numbers The rules for multiplying and dividing inequalities by positive numbers are the same as for multiplying and dividing equations. The inequality symbol doesn’t change. The main thing to remember is to always do the same thing to both sides.

4

x

Key words: • inequality • multiplication • division • inequality symbol

x>4 Example

3x ×3

12

3x > 12

1

Solve the inequality 4x < 32. Solution

4 x 32 < 4 4 x<8

Example

Di vide both sides of the inequality b y 4 Divide by

2

Solve the inequality

x ≥ 45. 9

Solution

Check it out: You can’t do this if you’re multiplying or dividing by a negative number. There’s a different rule for negative numbers, which you’ll come to next.

x × 9 ≥ 45 × 9 9 x ≥ 405

Multipl y both sides of the equa tion b y 9 Multiply equation by

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, solve the inequality for the unknown. f g 1. 5c > 12.5 2. 3p ≥ 63 3. <9 4. £ –3 12 60 258

Section 4.4 — More on Inequalities

Multipl ying and Di viding b y Ne ga ti ve Number s Multiplying Dividing by Neg tiv Numbers You know that a number and its opposite are the same distance away from zero on a number line. So 4 and –4 are both 4 units from zero. When you multiply a number by –1 you are effectively “reflecting” the number about zero on the number line. For example, 4 × –1 = –4 and –4 × –1 = 4. Check it out: You could think of the negative scale as a reflection of the positive scale about zero on the number line.

“mirr or line” on the number scale. “mirror

–8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8

x

You can use this idea to understand what happens when you multiply or divide an inequality by –1 on the number line. For example, consider the inequality –x > 4. This is saying that some number, –x, can be anywhere in the region greater than 4 on the number line.

–x –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8

x

–x > 4 You want to solve the inequality to find x, so you need to divide both sides of the inequality by –1. Reflect the inequality about the origin of the number line to see what the solution looks like.

+x –x –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 x < –4

x

–x > 4

The inequality symbol is reflected too.

So if –x is greater than 4, then x is less than –4. This “reflection” idea works for all inequalities, so there’s a rule: When you multiply or divide by a negative number, always reverse the sign of the inequality.

Section 4.4 — More on Inequalities

259

Check it out: If you’re finding all this stuff really tricky, you can void multiplying sometimes a av and dividing by a negative altogether. Take the inequality –4x < 32. Ad d +4 Add +4x to both sides: –4x + 4x < 32 + 4x. So, 0 < 32 + 4x Now take 32 from both sides: –32 < 32 – 32 + 4x –32 < 4x Now divide by 4: –8 < x This is your answer. It’s the same as x > –8.

Example

3

Solve the inequality –4x < 32. Solution

Divide both sides of the equation by –4. As you’re dividing by a negative number, reverse the symbol of inequality. –4x < 32

–x

+x

÷ –4

–4 x 32 > –4 –4

–8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 –4x < 32 –x < 8

x > –8

x > –8

Example

4

Solve the inequality

x ≤3. –6

Solution

You need to multiply both sides of the equation by –6. As you’re multiplying by a negative number, reverse the symbol of inequality. x ≤3 –6

–x

+x –20

–15

–10 –5

0

5

x ≥ –18

x ≥ 3 × –6

10

15

20

–x £ 18

x ≥ –18

Guided Practice In Exercises 5–12, solve the inequality for the unknown. r z 5. –4h > 24 6. –10y ≥ –20 7. < 25 8. £ –1 −5 −32 x k 9. > –6 10. –100x < –25 11. £3 12. –17d > 34 −2 −7

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–8, solve the inequality for the unknown. Now try these: Lesson 4.4.2 additional questions — p456

1. 2g > 4

2. 56b < 112

3. –5h < –15

5. 2k ≥ –6

6. –13p £ 39

7.

x £ 1.5 −4

4. –8x > 12 8.

y ≥ 3.3 −3

9. Write and solve the inequality that says that twice the negative of a number is no more than 14.

Round Up So that’s how to solve inequalities that involve multiplication and division. You’ve got to remember to switch the direction of the inequality symbol each time you multiply or divide by a negative number. 260

Section 4.4 — More on Inequalities

Lesson

4.4.3

California Standards: Alg ebr a and Functions 4.1 Alge bra Solve two-ste o-step Solv e tw o-ste p linear equations and inequalities in one vvaria aria ble o ver the ariab ov ra tional n umber s, inter pr et number umbers interpr pret the solution or solutions in om w the conte xt fr hic h the y whic context from hich they ar ose erify the arose ose,, and vverify reasona bleness of the easonab r esults esults..

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to solve two-step linear inequalities.

Solving Two-Ste p o-Step Inequalities So far in this Section you’ve learned how to solve one-step linear inequalities, and why you have to reverse the inequality whenever you multiply or divide by a negative number. Two-step inequalities follow the same rules, but you need to do two steps to solve them.

Two-Ste p Inequalities Ha ve Two Dif ent Oper a tions o-Step Hav Difffer erent Opera A two-step inequality contains two different operations. So you need to do two steps to solve the inequality.

2 × x + 12 > 10 first operation

Key words: • inequality • system of inequalities

Don’t forget: You learned how to set up two-step inequalities in Section 1.3. Now you’re going to solve them too.

second operation

You need to get the variable by itself on one side of the inequality, so you must undo whatever has been done to it. It’s usually best to undo additions and subtractions first, and multiplications and divisions second. That way, you only have to multiply or divide one term. Example

1

Solve the inequality 2x + 12 > 10. Solution

• First subtract 12 from both sides of the inequality: 2x + 12 – 12 Don’t forget: You’ve used PEMDAS to remember the order of operations when evaluating expressions. Don’t be tempted to use this when solving equations and inequalities. The calculation is often simpler if you add and subtract first so that you only have one term on each side of the inequality before multiplying and dividing.

> 10 – 12

2x > –2 • Then divide both sides by 2: 2x ÷ 2 > –2 ÷ 2 x > –1 Don’t forget to reverse the sign when you multiply or divide by a negative. Example

2

Solve the inequality

x – 2 < 14. −4

Solution

• First add 2 to both sides of the inequality: x < 16 −4

• Then multiply both sides by –4, remembering to reverse the sign: x > –64 Section 4.4 — More on Inequalities

261

Example

3

Solve the inequality –5x – 2 > 103. Solution

Don’t forget: You’re reversing the sign of the inequality because you’re dividing both sides by a negative number. Remember you need to reverse the sign whenever you multiply or divide by a negative number.

• First add 2 to both sides of the inequality: –5x – 2 + 2 £ 103 + 2 –5x £ 105 • Then divide both sides by –5, remembering to reverse the sign: x ≥ 105 ÷ –5 x ≥ –21

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, solve the inequality for the unknown. 1. 4c – 2 > 6 4.

2. –6z – 14 < –36

z + 18 ≥ 2 −32

5.

r –12 > –6 −5

3. 3x + 3 £ –18 6. –12g + 4 < 12

Solv e R eal Pr ob lems with Inequalities Solve Real Prob oblems There are lots of real-life problems that involve inequalities. The key is in interpreting the question and coming up with a sensible answer in the context of the question. Example

4

Two students decide to go to a restaurant for lunch. They order two drinks at $2 each, then realize they only have a maximum of $20 to spend between them. If they want one meal each, what is the maximum price they can spend on each meal? Assume their meals cost the same amount. Solution

First you have to write this as an inequality. Call the price of each meal x. They want two equally priced meals, which is 2x. The price of the meals plus the two drinks they have already bought must be no more than $20. So, 2x + 4 £ 20. This is your inequality. Now you have to solve the inequality to find x, the price of each meal. Don’t forget: You’ve got to interpret your answer in the context of the question here. Look back at what x represents and what units you need to use in your answer.

262

2x + 4 £ 20 2x £ 16

Subtr act 4 fr om both sides Subtract from Di vide both sides b y 2 Divide by

x£8 So the maximum price of each meal is $8.

Section 4.4 — More on Inequalities

Example

5

Joaquin goes to a fair. He buys an unlimited ticket that costs $30 and allows him entry to all the rides that normally cost $4 each. The ticket also gives him one go on the coconut shy, which normally costs $2. How many rides does Joaquin need to go on in order to have made buying the unlimited ticket worthwhile? Solution

First you have to write this as an inequality. Call the number of rides that Joaquin goes on x. So the amount that Joaquin would normally spend on the rides is $4 × x, or 4x. For buying the ticket to have been worthwhile, the total value of the rides plus the value of the go on the coconut shy must be at least the price of the unlimited ticket. So, 4x + 2 ≥ 30. Now solve the inequality to find the number of rides, x. 4x ≥ 28

Subtr act 2 fr om both sides Subtract from

x≥7

Di vide both sides b y 4 Divide by

Joaquin needs to go on at least 7 rides in order to get his money’s worth.

Guided Practice 7. Anne-Marie is saving up to buy a concert ticket by babysitting for $5 an hour. Anne-Marie owes $15 to her mother already, and the concert ticket costs $25. How many hours does she need to work in order to be able to buy the ticket and pay her mother? Show how you reached your solution using an inequality.

Independent Practice Don’t forget: Remember that multiplying by 0.5 is the same as dividing by 2. If in doubt, convert 0.5 into a fraction first.

Now try these: Lesson 4.4.3 additional questions — p456

In Exercises 1–6, solve the inequality for the unknown. 1. 4x – 3 > 5

2. 7x + 12 < 19

4. 0.5g + 3 ≥ 6

5.

x – 5 < 15 −5

3. –6x – 6 > 6 6.

x + 14 £ –2 8

7. Juan runs a salsa class on a Wednesday night. Entrance to his class is $3 each. If the venue costs $50 and the music equipment costs $10 to hire, what is the minimum number of people needed to attend the class in order for Juan to make his money back on the night?

Round Up The trick with real-life inequality problems is understanding what the question is telling you. Try to break the question down into parts, and work out what each part means in math terms. Section 4.4 — More on Inequalities

263

Chapter 4 Investigation

Choosing a R oute Route Rates compare one quantity to another. There are rates involved in driving to places — roads have speed limits in miles per hour, and when driving at a steady speed, you travel a particular number of miles per gallon of gas. “Per” just means “for each.” Derek is starting a new job next week in a different town. He wants to get to work quickly, but also doesn’t want to put a lot of miles on his car. He looks at a map to examine all of the possible routes.

A

Scale:

(8 miles)

(8 miles) B

Work )

(4 miles) (12 miles)

(13

5 miles

9m

(

(12 miles)

C

) iles

0

s ile

m

(10 miles)

Key:

55 mph road (18 miles per gallon) 40 mph road (20 miles per gallon)

Derek's Town (9 miles)

D

E

30 mph road (25 miles per gallon)

(9 miles)

Find the shortest and the quickest routes that Derek could take. Decide which route you think is the best overall. Explain your reasoning. Things to think about: The best route should be a balance between time and distance. A route that is 15 miles long and takes 15 minutes might be less desirable than a route that is 10 miles long and takes 20 minutes. Compare different scenarios before picking the best route. Extensions 1) Derek is concerned about the effect of burning gas on climate change. Determine how many gallons of gas are used driving the route you have chosen. Are there any other routes that would reduce the amount of gas he uses? 2) Determine the minimum yearly cost of Derek’s commute. Assume he drives to work and back home again on 250 days each year, and that the average price for a gallon of gas is $2.80. Open-ended Extensions 1) Using a map of your town or city, examine different routes from your school to a major town landmark. Which do you think is the best route? Consider factors such as distance, speed limit and time of travel. 2) Convert the scale, distances, and speed limits on this map to the metric system.

Round Up Real-life decisions are often not straightforward. There’s often no perfect right answer — you have to decide what’s most important to you, or find the best compromise. pter 4 In vestig a tion — Choosing a Route Chapter Inv estiga 264 Cha

Chapter 5 Powers Section 5.1

Operations on Powers ............................................... 266

Section 5.2

Negative Powers and Scientific Notation .................. 275

Section 5.3

Exploration — Monomials ......................................... 287 Monomials ................................................................. 288

Section 5.4

Exploration — The Pendulum ................................... 301 Graphing Nonlinear Functions .................................. 302

Chapter Investigation — The Solar System ...................................... 313

265

Lesson

Section 5.1

5.1.1

Multiplying with Powers

California Standards:

When you have to multiply powers together, like 53 • 54, there’s a rule you can use to simplify the calculation. But it only works with powers that have the same base.

Number Sense 2.1 Understand negative wholenumber exponents. Multiply and divide expressions involving exponents with a common base. Number Sense 2.3 Multiply, divide, and simplify rational numbers by using exponent rules. Algebra and Functions 2.1 Interpret positive wholenumber powers as repeated multiplication and negative whole-number powers as repeated division or multiplication by the multiplicative inverse. Simplify and evaluate expressions that include exponents.

What it means for you: You’ll see how to use a rule that makes multiplying powers easier.

A Power is a Repeated Multiplication In Chapter 2 you saw that a power is a product that results from repeatedly multiplying a number by itself. You can write a power in base and exponent form. The base is the number that is being repeated as a factor in the multiplication.

The exponent tells you how many times the base is repeated as a factor in the multiplication.

52

For example 7 • 7 = 72, and 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 = 35.

Guided Practice Write the expressions in Exercises 1–4 in base and exponent form. 2. 11 • 11 • 11 • 11 • 11 • 11 1. 3 • 3 4. (–5) • (–5) • (–5) • (–5)

3. k • k • k • k

The Multiplication of Powers Rule Key words: • power • base • exponent

Look at the multiplication 22 • 24. When you write it out it looks like this:

2•2 •2•2•2•2=2•2•2•2•2•2 2 factors

4 factors

6 factors

The solution is also a repeated multiplication. 2 is repeated as a factor six times, so it’s the same as writing 26. That means you can write 22 • 24 = 26. In the multiplication expression the two exponents are 2 and 4, and in the solution the exponent is 6. If you add the exponents of the original powers together you get the exponent of the solution — the base stays the same. Check it out: The variables a, m, and n could stand for any numbers at all here. Whatever numbers they are, the equation will still be true.

266

Multiplication of Powers Rule: When you are multiplying two powers with the same base, add their exponents to give you the exponent of the answer. am • an = a(m + n)

Section 5.1 — Operations on Powers

Only Use the Rule If the Bases are the Same It’s important to remember that this rule only works with powers that have the same base. You can’t use it on two powers with different bases. • You could use the rule to simplify 53 • 54 as the bases are the same. • You couldn’t use it to simplify 35 • 45 because the bases are different. Example

1

What is 32 • 36? Give your answer in base and exponent form. Solution

You could write the multiplication out in full 32 • 36 3 is repeated as a factor 8 = (3 • 3) • (3 • 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 • 3) times in the multiplication. = 38 But these two powers have the same base. So you can use the multiplication of powers rule. 32 • 36 = 3(2 + 6) = 38

Example

Don’t forget: 2

2

2

(–5) is not the same as –(5 ). (–5)2 = (–5) • (–5) = 25 –(52) = –(5 • 5) = –25

What is (–5)12 • (–5)14? Give your answer in base and exponent form. Solution

The powers have the same base. Use the multiplication of powers rule. (–5)12 • (–5)14 = (–5)(12 + 14) = (–5)26 (This is the same as 526, since the exponent is even.)

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 5–12. Use the multiplication of powers rule and give your answers in base and exponent form. Don’t forget:

5. 22 • 22

6. 910 • 98

Any number to the power 1 is just the number itself. So an expression like 25 • 2 can also be written as 25 • 21.

7. 6104 • 662

8. (–7)7 • (–7)3

9. 108 • 101

10. 56 • 5

11. k8 • k5

12. (–t)14 • (–t)17

Section 5.1 — Operations on Powers

267

Multiplication of Powers Can Help with Mental Math Sometimes changing numbers into base and exponent form and using the multiplication of powers rule can make mental math easier. Example

3

What is 16 • 8? Check it out:

Solution

Write yourself out a table showing the first few powers of all the numbers up to ten. Use it to help with problems like Example 3. You’ll begin to remember some of the more common powers — then you’ll know them when you see them again.

16 and 8 are both powers of 2, so you can rewrite the problem in base and exponent form: 16 • 8 = 24 • 23. Now use the multiplication of powers rule: 24 • 23 = 2(4 + 3) = 27. 27 = 128. So 16 • 8 = 128. If you knew lots of powers of 2, this could make your mental math faster.

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 13–16 using the multiplication of powers rule. 13. 9 • 27 14. 10 • 100,000 15. 4 • 64 16. 125 • 25

Independent Practice Write the expressions in Exercises 1–4 in base and exponent form. 1. 5 • 5 2. 17 • 17 • 17 • 17 • 17 • 17 3. q • q • q • q • q 4. –y • –y • –y 5. Can you use the multiplication of powers rule to evaluate 83 • 93? Explain your answer.

Now try these: Lesson 5.1.1 additional questions — p457

Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 6–13. Use the multiplication of powers rule and give your answers in base and exponent form. 6. 57 • 57 7. 1126 • 119 3 5 8. (–15) • (–15) 9. (–23)11 • (–23)17 5 10. 9 • 9 11. h5 • h10 12. (–b)9 • (–b)11 13. ax • ay 14. A piece of land is 26 feet wide and 27 feet long. What is the area of the piece of land? Give your answer as a power in base and exponent form. Then evaluate the power. 15. Evaluate 81 times 27 by converting the numbers to powers of three.

Round Up Using the multiplication of powers rule makes multiplying powers with the same base much easier. Just add the exponents together, and you’ll get the exponent that goes with the answer. 268

Section 5.1 — Operations on Powers

Lesson

5.1.2

Dividing with Powers

California Standards:

In the last Lesson you saw how you can use the multiplication of powers rule to help simplify expressions with powers in them. There’s a similar rule to use when you’re dividing powers with the same base.

Number Sense 2.1 Understand negative wholenumber exponents. Multiply and divide expressions involving exponents with a common base. Number Sense 2.3 Multiply, divide, and simplify rational numbers by using exponent rules.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about a rule that makes dividing powers easier.

Key words: • power • base • exponent

Don’t forget: You can rewrite any division problem as a fraction. x x ÷ y is the same as . y So xn ÷ ym is the same as

xn . ym

Check it out: The variables m and n could stand for any numbers, and a could stand for any number except zero. Whatever numbers they are, the equation will still be true.

The Division of Powers Rule Look at the division 27 ÷ 24. 27 If you write it out as a fraction it looks like this: 4 2 Now write out the powers in expanded form: 2 • 2 • 2 • 2 • 2 • 2 • 2 2•2•2•2 If you do the same thing to both the top and bottom of the fraction you don’t change its value — you create an equivalent fraction. So you can cancel four twos from the numerator with four twos from the denominator. 2•2•2•2•2•2•2 = 2 • 2 • 2 = 23 2•2•2•2

Now you can say that 27 ÷ 24 = 23. In the division expression the two exponents are 7 and 4, and in the solution the exponent is 3. When you subtract the exponent of the denominator from the exponent of the numerator, you get the exponent of the solution. The base stays the same. This is called the division of powers rule: Division of powers rule: When you are dividing two powers with the same base, subtract the second exponent from the first to give you the exponent of the answer. am ÷ an = a(m – n)

This Rule Only Works for the Same Bases Just like with the multiplication of powers rule, it’s important to remember that this rule only works with powers that have the same base. You can’t use it on two powers with different bases. • You could use the rule to simplify 53 ÷ 54 as the bases are the same. • You couldn’t use it to simplify 35 ÷ 45 because the bases are different.

Section 5.1 — Operations on Powers

269

Don’t forget: If you do the same thing to the top and bottom of a fraction its value stays the same. This means that if you have the same factor in the multiplication expressions on the top and bottom of a fraction you can cancel them with each other. It’s the same as dividing the numerator and denominator by the same amount. For example:

x• y y = x•z z

In Example 1 you can cancel three fourteens from the top with three fourteens from the bottom.

Example

1

What is 146 ÷ 143? Give your answer in base and exponent form. Solution

You could write the division out in full 146 ÷ 143 =

14 • 14 • 14 • 14 • 14 • 14 14 • 14 • 14

= 14 • 14 • 14 • 14 • 14 • 14 = 143 14 • 14 • 14 But these two powers have the same base. So you can use the division of powers rule. 146 ÷ 143 = 14(6 – 3) = 143

Example

2

What is (–5)18 ÷ (–5)10? Give your answer in base and exponent form. Solution

The powers have the same base. Use the division of powers rule. (–5)18 ÷ (–5)10 = –5(18 – 10) = (–5)8 or 58

Check it out: The order that you do the subtraction in is very important. For example: 55 ÷ 53 = 52 = 25 1

When you’re using the division of powers rule you must always remember to subtract the exponent of the second power from the exponent of the first power — never the other way around. The commutative property doesn’t apply to subtraction problems. If you change the order of the numbers you’ll get a different answer.

53 ÷ 55 = 5–2 = 25 = 0.04 The answers are different. You’ll see more about what a negative power means in Section 5.2.

270

Guided Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–8. Use the division of powers rule and give your answer in base and exponent form. 1. 69 ÷ 64

2. 1525 ÷ 1510

3. 4206 ÷ 454

4. (–3)7 ÷ (–3)2

5. 274 ÷ 271

6. 75 ÷ 7

7. d10 ÷ d 7

8. (–w)14 ÷ (–w)–17

Section 5.1 — Operations on Powers

Division of Powers Can Help with Mental Math Like the multiplication of powers rule the division of powers rule can come in handy when you’re doing mental math. Convert the numbers into base and exponent form and use the rule to simplify the problem. Example

3

What is 1024 ÷ 64? Solution

1024 and 64 are both powers of 4. So you can rewrite the problem in base and exponent form: 1024 ÷ 64 = 45 ÷ 43. Now use the division of powers rule: 45 ÷ 43 = 4(5 –3) = 42. 42 = 16. So 1024 ÷ 64 = 16.

Guided Practice Check it out:

Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 9–12.

343 and 49 are both powers of 7.

9. 1024 ÷ 16

10. 100,000 ÷ 100

512 and 32 are both powers of 2.

11. 343 ÷ 49

12. 512 ÷ 32

Independent Practice 1. Evaluate 76 ÷ 74 by writing it out in full as a fraction and canceling the numerator with the denominator. Check your answer using the division of powers rule. Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 2–9. Use the division of powers rule and give your answer in base and exponent form. 3. 2342 ÷ 2323 2. 36 ÷ 32 5. (–41)112 ÷ (–41)52 4. (–8)20 ÷ (–8)9 7. z7 ÷ z3 6. 48 ÷ 4 9. ga ÷ gb 8. (–p)17 ÷ (–p) Now try these: Lesson 5.1.2 additional questions — p457

10. A research lab produces 107 placebos (sugar pills) for a medical experiment. It distributes the placebos evenly among 103 bottles. How many placebos are in each bottle? Give your answer as a power in base and exponent form, then evaluate the power. 11. Evaluate 1296 divided by 216 by converting the numbers to powers of six. 12. What is half of 2n?

Round Up When you have two powers with the same base you can divide one by the other using the division of powers rule. Just subtract the exponent of the second power from the exponent of the first power, and you’ll get the exponent that goes with the answer. Section 5.1 — Operations on Powers

271

Lesson

5.1.3

Fractions with Powers

California Standards:

The multiplication and division of powers rules still work if the bases are fractions. But you have to remember that to raise a fraction to a power you must raise the numerator and denominator separately to the same power — you saw this in Chapter 2.

Number Sense 2.1 Understand negative wholenumber exponents. Multiply and divide expressions involving exponents with a common base. Number Sense 2.3 Multiply, divide, and simplify rational numbers by using exponent rules.

What it means for you: You’ll see how to use the rules you saw in Lessons 5.1.1 and 5.1.2 to simplify expressions with fractions in.

The Rules Apply to Fractions Too When the bases of powers are fractions, the multiplication and division of powers rules still apply, just as they would for whole numbers. For example: 6 4 ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ • ⎜⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

(6+ 4)

⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

⎛2⎞ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠

10

(6−4 )

⎛2⎞ ⎛2⎞ ⎛2⎞ and ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠ 6

4

⎛2⎞ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠

2

For the rules to work the bases must be exactly the same fractions.

Guided Practice

Key words:

Simplify the expressions in Exercises 1–4. Give your answers in base and exponent form.

• power • exponent • base

⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ 1. ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ • ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ 3

⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ 2. ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ 7

2

⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ 3. ⎜⎜⎜ – ⎟⎟⎟ • ⎜⎜⎜ – ⎟⎟⎟ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ 15

23

5

⎛a⎞ ⎛a⎞ 4. ⎜⎜⎜⎝ b ⎟⎟⎟⎠ ÷ ⎜⎜⎜⎝ b ⎟⎟⎟⎠ 10

7

Simplifying Fraction Expressions with Different Bases If you have an expression with different fractions raised to powers, apply the powers to the numerators and denominators of the fractions separately. Then use the rules to simplify the expression. 2 4

Don’t forget: When you raise a fraction to a power it’s the same as raising its numerator and denominator separately to the same power. For example: 3 ⎛ ⎞ ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = 1 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 23 3

Look at this expression.

⎛ 5 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

⎛ 2⎞ • ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠

1) You can’t use the multiplication of powers fraction 1 rule to simplify the expression as it is, because the bases are two different fractions.

⎛ 5 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

⎛ 2⎞ • ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ fraction 2 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠

2) So write out the fractions with the numerators and denominators raised separately to the powers.

⎛ 5 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

2

2

4

⎛ 2⎞ 52 2 4 • ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = 2 • 4 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 3 4

3) When you multiply two fractions together, you multiply their numerators and their denominators.

52 2 4 52 • 2 4 • = 32 • 34 32 34

4) Now you can apply the multiplication of powers rule to the denominator of the fraction.

52 • 2 4 52 • 2 4 = 36 32 • 34

For a reminder see Section 2.5.

5) The powers in the numerator have different bases. You 52 • 2 4 52 • 2 4 can’t simplify the fraction further without evaluating the 2 4 = 3 •3 36 exponents, so leave the answer in base and exponent form. 272

Section 5.1 — Operations on Powers

Don’t forget: Dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal. a c a d ÷ = • b d b c

To divide one fraction by another fraction, flip the second fraction upside down and multiply. There’s more on this in Lesson 2.3.4.

Example

1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 3

Simplify the expression

4

as far as possible, leaving your answer

in base and exponent form. Solution ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 3

Check it out: The number 1 to any power is always 1. That’s because 1 • 1 = 1, 1 • 1 • 1 = 1, etc. So 13 = 1, and 13 • 34 = 34.

4

=

13 24 ÷ 23 34

Apply the exponents to the numerators and denominators separately

=

13 34 • 23 2 4

Multiply by the reciprocal of the second fraction

=

13 • 34 23 • 2 4

=

34 27

The two powers on the bottom of the fraction have the same base. You can use the multiplication of powers rule.

Multiply the numerators and denominators

Guided Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 5–10. Give your answers in base and exponent form. 5.

⎛ 5 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

7.

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ • ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠

9.

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎝⎜ 2 ⎟⎠

3

⎛ 3⎞ • ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠

55

15

6.

⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 9 ⎟⎠

8.

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 7 ⎟⎠

2

2

72

⎛5⎞ • ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 9 ⎠

10

4

10

8

⎛ 3 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝⎜ 3 ⎟⎠ 3

10.

2

You Can Use Powers to Simplify Fraction Expressions Sometimes converting numbers into base and exponent form can help you to simplify an expression that has fractions in it. ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ 1 ⎜⎜ ⎟ • ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 9 3

For example:

⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

3

You can expand the

to

23 33

. At first this doesn’t seem to help because

the other fraction doesn’t contain any powers with a base of 2 or 3. But 9 is a power of 3: 9 = 32. If you change the 9 in the fraction into 32 then the expression becomes: ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ 1 ⎜⎜ ⎟ • ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 9 3

=

23 1 • 33 32

Now you can use the multiplication of powers rule to simplify the denominator. 23 1 23 • 1 23 • = = 33 32 33 • 32 35

Section 5.1 — Operations on Powers

273

Example

2

⎛ 4 ⎞⎟ 81 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ . ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 64 2

Simplify

Leave your answer in base and exponent form.

Solution ⎛ 4 ⎞⎟ 81 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 64 2

4 2 81 ÷ 32 64 4 2 64 • 32 81

= =

Apply the exponent to the numerator and denominator separately Multiply by the reciprocal of the second fraction

=

4 2 43 • 32 34

Convert the numbers in the second fraction into powers

=

4 2 • 4 3 45 = 32 • 34 36

Multiply the numerators and denominators

Guided Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 11–16. Check it out: 1296 is a power of 6.

12.

⎛ 4 ⎞⎟ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟ • ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 81

14.

⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ 5 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 16

16.

625 ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ ÷⎜ ⎟ 32 ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠

5

11.

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ 1 ⎜⎜ ⎟ • ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 4

13.

64 ⎛⎜ 4 ⎞⎟ •⎜ ⎟ 1296 ⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠

15.

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ 343 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎝ 7 ⎟⎠ 15

15

2

2

343 is a power of 7. 81 is a power of 3.

8

625 is a power of 5. 32 is a power of 2.

12

Independent Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 1–4. ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

2

1.

⎛ 3 ⎞⎟ ⎛ ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ 10

⎛ 2⎞ • ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠

3

2.

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ ⎞ ⎜⎜ – ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ – 1 ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

⎛ x ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ y ⎟⎟⎠

5.

⎛ 3 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠

⎛7⎞ • ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎠

6.

⎛ 5 ⎞⎟ ⎛10 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ • ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 9 ⎟⎠ ⎝⎜ 9 ⎟⎠

7.

⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠

⎛ 3⎞ • ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ x ⎠

8.

⎛ 7 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 5 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

9.

⎛ 4 ⎞⎟ ⎛ ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜11⎟⎟ ⎜⎝11⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠

10.

⎛ 4 ⎞⎟ ⎛ ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝16 ⎟⎠

19

a

9

4. 3. Simplify the expressions in Exercises 5–10. 2

Now try these: Lesson 5.1.3 additional questions — p457

Check it out:

4

b

3

6

10

16

23

4

4

Simplify the expressions in Exercises 11–16. 11.

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ 7 ⎜⎜ ⎟ • ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 27

13.

9 ⎛⎜ 5 ⎞⎟ •⎜ ⎟ 512 ⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠

15.

⎛ 4 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ 47 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 256

12.

⎛ 5 ⎞⎟ 125 ⎜⎜ ⎟ • ⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠ 10

14.

⎛ 2 ⎞⎟ 81 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎝ 9 ⎟⎠ 5

16.

1000 ⎛⎜ 7 ⎞⎟ ÷⎜ ⎟ 49 ⎜⎝10 ⎟⎠

5

4

7

256 is a power of 4 (and 2). 125 is a power of 5.

⎛ x⎞ • ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ y ⎟⎠

15

3

15

27 is a power of 3. 512 is a power of 8 (and 2).

7

1000 is a power of 10.

2

10

5

Round Up If you can spot powers of simple numbers you’ll be able to recognize when you can simplify expressions using the multiplication and division of powers rules. And that’s a useful thing to be able to do in math — whether the bases are whole numbers or fractions. 274

Section 5.1 — Operations on Powers

Lesson

5.2.1

Section 5.2

Negative and Zero Exponents

California Standards: Number Sense 2.1 Understand negative whole-number exponents. Multiply and divide expressions using exponents with a common base. Algebra and Functions 2.1 Interpret positive wholenumber powers as repeated multiplication and negative whole-number powers as repeated division or multiplication by the multiplicative inverse. Simplify and evaluate expressions that include exponents.

Up to now you’ve worked with only positive whole-number exponents. These show the number of times a base is multiplied. As you’ve seen, they follow certain rules and patterns. The effects of negative and zero exponents are trickier to picture. But you can make sense of them because they follow the same rules and patterns as positive exponents.

Any Number Raised to the Power 0 is 1 Any number that has an exponent of 0 is equal to 1. So, 20 = 1, 30 = 1, 100 = 1, ⎛⎜⎜ 1 ⎞⎟⎟ 0 = 1. ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

For any number a π 0, a0 = 1

What it means for you: You’ll learn what zero and negative powers mean, and simplify expressions involving them.

You can show this using the division of powers rule. If you start with 1000, and keep dividing by 10, you get this pattern: 1000 = 103

Key words: • base • exponent • power

100 = 102

Now divide by 10: 103

÷ 101 = 10(3 – 1) = 102

Now divide by 10: 102

÷ 101 = 10(2 – 1) = 101

Now divide by 10: 101

÷ 101 = 10(1 – 1) = 100

1

10 = 10 1 = 10

0

The most important row is the second to last one, shown in red. Don’t forget: The expression “a π 0” means a is not equal to zero.

Don’t forget: When you are dividing numbers with the same base, you can subtract the exponents.

When you divide 10 by 10, you have 101 ÷ 101 = 10(1 – 1) = 100. You also know that 10 divided by 10 is 1. So you can see that 100 = 1. This pattern works for any base. For instance, 61 ÷ 61 = 6(1 – 1) = 60, and 6 divided by 6 is 1. So 60 = 1. You can use the fact that any number to the power 0 is 1 to simplify expressions. Example

1

Simplify 34 × 30. Leave your answer in base and exponent form. Check it out: a doesn’t change the value of whatever it’s multiplied by. That’s because it’s equal to 1 — the multiplicative identity. 0

Solution

34 × 30 = 34 × 1 = 34 You can use the multiplication of powers rule to show this is right: 34 × 30 = 3(4 + 0) = 34

Add the exponents of the powers

You can see that being multiplied by 30 didn’t change 34. Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

275

Guided Practice Evaluate the following. 1. 40 2. x0 (x π 0) 0 4. (7 + 6) 5. 43 ÷ 43 7. 32 × 30 8. 24 × 20

3. 110 + 120 6. y2 ÷ y2 (y π 0) 9. a8 ÷ a0 (a π 0)

You Can Justify Negative Exponents in the Same Way By continuing the pattern from the previous page you can begin to understand the meaning of negative exponents. Carry on dividing each power of 10 by 10: 1000 = 103 100 10

2

= 10

1

= 10

0

1

= 10

1 10 1 100

= 10–1

1 1000

= 10–3

Now divide by 10: 103

÷ 101 = 10(3 – 1) = 102

Now divide by 10: 102

÷ 101 = 10(2 – 1) = 101

Now divide by 10: 101

÷ 101 = 10(1 – 1) = 100

Now divide by 10: 100

÷ 101 = 10(0 – 1) = 10–1

Now divide by 10: 10–1

÷ 101 = 10(–1 – 1) = 10–2

Now divide by 10: 10–2

÷ 101 = 10(–2 – 1) = 10–3

= 10–2

Look at the last rows, shown in red, to see the pattern: One-tenth, which is

1 , 10

can be rewritten as

Check it out: Two numbers that multiply together to give 1 are multiplicative inverses.

One-hundredth, which is

6–1 = 1 ÷ 61, so 61 × 6–1 = 1, meaning 6–1 is the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of 61.

One-thousandth, which is

1 6−1 But also, 6 × −1 = −1 = 1 . 6 6 −1

So,

1 is the multiplicative 6−1

inverse of 6–1 too.

1 , 100

1 101

= 10–1.

can be rewritten as

1 , 1000

1 102

can be rewritten as

= 10–2.

1 103

= 10–3.

This works with any number, not just with 10. For example: 1 1 60 = 1 60 ÷ 61 = 6–1 and 1 ÷ 6 = 6 , so 6–1 = 6 . 6–1 ÷ 61 = 6–2 and

1 6

÷6=

1 6

•

1 6

=

1 36

=

1 62

, so 6–2 =

1 62

.

You can multiply 6–1 by either 61 or

1 1 to get 1, so 61 = 6−1 . 6−1

This pattern illustrates the general definition for negative exponents.

For any number a π 0, a–n =

276

Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

1 an

Example

2

Rewrite 5–3 without a negative exponent. Solution 1 53

5–3 =

Example Rewrite

1 75

or

1 125

Using the definition of negative exponents

3

using a negative exponent.

Solution 1 75

= 7–5

Using the definition of negative exponents

Guided Practice Rewrite each of the following without a negative exponent. 10. 7–3 11. 5–m 12. x–2 (x π 0) Rewrite each of the following using a negative exponent. 1 1 1 13. 33 14. 64 15. q × q × q (q π 0)

Independent Practice Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–3. 1. 87020 2. g0 (g π 0) 3. 20 – 30 Write the expressions in Exercises 4–6 without negative exponents. 4. 45–1 5. x–6 (x π 0) 6. y–3 – z–3 (y π 0, z π 0) Write the expressions in Exercises 7–9 using negative exponents. Now try these: Lesson 5.2.1 additional questions — p458

7.

1 82

8.

1 r6

(r π 0)

9.

1 ( p + q )v

(p + q π 0)

In Exercises 10–12, simplify the expression given. 10. 54 × 50 11. c5 × c0 (c π 0) 12. f 3 ÷ f 0 (f π 0) 13. The number of bacteria in a petri dish doubles every hour. The numbers of bacteria after each hour are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ... Rewrite these numbers as powers of 2. 14. Rewrite the numbers 1,

1 1 , , 2 4

1

and 8 as powers of 2.

Round Up So remember — any number (except 0) to the power of 0 is equal to 1. This is useful when you’re simplifying expressions and equations. Later in this Section, you’ll see how negative powers are used in scientific notation for writing very small numbers efficiently.

Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

277

Lesson

5.2.2

Using Negative Exponents

California Standards:

Negative exponents might seem a bit tricky at first. But the rules for positive exponents work with negative exponents in exactly the same way. This Lesson gives you plenty of practice at using the rules with negative exponents.

Number Sense 2.1 Understand negative wholenumber exponents. Multiply and divide expressions using exponents with a common base. Algebra and Functions 2.1 Interpret positive wholenumber powers as repeated multiplication and negative whole-number powers as repeated division or multiplication by the multiplicative inverse. Simplify and evaluate expressions that include exponents.

What it means for you: You’ll multiply and divide expressions that share the same base. This includes expressions containing negative exponents.

Key words: • • • • •

base denominator exponent numerator power

Don’t forget: As with regular addition and subtraction of integers, you need to be very careful with your positive and negative signs. • Adding a negative can be thought of as a subtraction. For example, 7 + (–3) = 7 – 3. • Subtracting a number is the same as adding its opposite. For example, the subtraction 6 – (–2) can be rewritten as 6 + 2.

Don’t forget: 10 can be rewritten as 101.

278

Simplifying Expressions with Integer Exponents Both the multiplication of powers rule (am × an = am + n) and the division of powers rule (am ÷ an = am – n) work with any rational exponents — it doesn’t matter if they are positive or negative. The examples below apply the multiplication and division of powers rules to numbers with negative exponents. Example

1

Simplify 5–4 × 5–3. Solution

The bases are the same, so the multiplication of powers rule can be applied. 5–4 × 5–3 = 5(–4 + (–3)) = 5(–4 – 3) = 5–7

Example

Use the multiplication of powers rule

2

Simplify 76 ÷ 7–2. Solution

The bases are the same, so the division of powers rule can be applied. 76 ÷ 7–2 = 7(6 – (–2)) = 7(6 + 2) = 78

Use the division of powers rule

Guided Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 1–8. 1. 58 × 5–2 2. 6–7 × 63 3. 10–4 × 10 5 –4 –3 7 5. 7 ÷ 7 6. 11 ÷ 11 7. 10 ÷ 106

Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

4. 7–3 × 7–9 8. 2–7 ÷ 2–5

You Can Turn Negative Exponents into Positive Ones This is a different way to tackle the problems on the previous page. You can decide which method you prefer to use. Check it out: Another way to write x

–n

n

⎛1⎞ is ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ . ⎝ x⎠

Some people like to convert negative exponents into positive exponents before doing any problems involving them. 1 So when they see a number like 4–6, they rewrite it as 46 . The examples on the previous page are repeated below using this method. Example

3

Simplify 5–4 × 5–3. Solution

5−4 × 5−3 = = = =

Example Don’t forget: To divide by a fraction, you multiply by its reciprocal. You find the reciprocal by flipping the fraction.

1 4

1

×

5 53 1×1 54 × 53 1

5

7

Multiply the fractions Use the multiplication of powers rule

( 4 +3 )

5 1

First convert to positive exponents

−7

or 5

4

Simplify 76 ÷ 7–2. Solution

7 6 ÷ 7 –2 = 7 6 ÷ = 76 ×

a c a d ÷ = × b d b c

1 72

First convert to positive exponents

2

7 1

To divide by

1 72

, multiply by its reciprocal

= 76 × 7 2 = 7( 6 + 2 ) =7

Use the multiplication of powers rule

8

Guided Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 9–16 by first converting any negative exponents to positive exponents. 9. 63 × 6–9

10. 42 × 4–5

11. 78 × 7–4

12. 12–7 × 12–2

13. 3–4 ÷ 3

14. 23 ÷ 2–6

15. 105 ÷ 10–6

16. 11–8 ÷ 11–3

Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

279

Getting Rid of Negative Exponents in Fractions You might have to deal with fractions that have negative exponents in the numerator and denominator, like

2 –4 3–7

. It’s useful to be able to change them

into fractions with only positive exponents — because it’s a simpler form. A number with a negative exponent in the numerator is equivalent to the same number with a positive exponent in the denominator

2 –4 =

2 –4 1 = 4 1 2

.

A number with a negative exponent in the denominator is equivalent to the same number with a positive exponent in the numerator So: Don’t forget: You could also do this sort of calculation by converting the negative exponents into positive exponents before multiplying.

Example

4

× −4

8

73

× −4

3

8

7−6 82

= =

8 4 × 73 = 8(4 – 2) × 7(3 – 6) 82 × 76

=

2

8(4 – 2) × 7(3 – 6) = 82 × 7–3 or

7−6 82

.

Solution

8 ×7 1 8 ×7 × 2 = 1 8 × 76 82 × 76 3

3–7 moves from the denominator and becomes 37 in the numerator.

5

73

Simplify

73 7−6 8 4 × 73 1 = × × 2 8−4 82 1 8 × 76 4

2−4 37 = 3−7 24

2–4 gets moved from the numerator to the denominator, where it is written as 24.

1 37 = = 37 . 3–7 1

8 73

73× 7−6

Multiply the fractions

8−4× 82 7( 3+(−6 ))

Use the multiplication of powers rule

8(−4+ 2 ) 7−3 8−2

=

82

Convert to positive exponents

73

Guided Practice Rewrite the expressions in Exercises 17–20 without negative exponents. 3−2 11−3 24 4 −3 17. −3 18. −6 19. 2 × 5 20. 2 8 7 3

Independent Practice Simplify the expressions in Exercises 1–3. 1. 104 ÷ 10–3 2. 5–2 × 55 Now try these: Lesson 5.2.2 additional questions — p458

3. 7–3 ÷ 7–9

Rewrite the expressions in Exercises 4–6 using only positive exponents. 4.

5−2 2−7

5.

63 11−2

6. 73 × 4–9

Multiply the fractions in Exercises 7–8 and write the answers using only positive exponents. 7.

4−5 67

×

6−2 4−3

8.

2−5

2−4

11

11−7

× 3

Round Up After this Lesson you should be comfortable with multiplying and dividing expressions with negative exponents. Remember — you can only use these rules if the bases are equal. 280

Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

Lesson

5.2.3

Scientific Notation

California Standards:

Scientific notation is a handy way of writing very large and very small numbers. Earlier in the book, you practiced using powers of ten to write out large numbers. In this Lesson, you’ll get a reminder of how to do that. Then you’ll see that with negative powers, you can do the same thing for very small numbers.

Number Sense 1.1 Read, write, and compare rational numbers in scientific notation (positive and negative powers of 10), compare rational numbers in general.

What it means for you: You’ll see how you can use powers of 10 to make very big or very small numbers easier to work with.

You Can Use Powers of 10 to Write Large Numbers In Chapter 2 you saw how to write large numbers as a product of two factors using scientific notation. The second factor is a power of ten.

Key words: • • • • • •

scientific notation numeric form power decimal base exponent

Don’t forget: For more about writing large numbers in scientific notation, see Lesson 2.5.3.

The exponent tells you how many places to move the decimal point to get the number.

The first factor is a number that is at least 1 but less than 10.

1,200,000 = 1.2 × 106 Example

1

The planet Saturn is about 880,000,000 miles away from the Sun. Write this number in scientific notation. Solution

880,000,000 = 8.8 × 100,000,000

Split the number into the appropriate factors. Write the power of ten in base and exponent form.

= 8.8 × 108 miles

Guided Practice Check it out: You’ll come across lots of very large and very small numbers written using scientific notation outside of math. For example, large numbers like distances between planets or populations of countries, and small numbers like the length of a molecule or the weight of a speck of dust.

Write the numbers in Exercises 1–6 in scientific notation. 1. 487,000,000,000

2. 6000

3. 93,840,000

4. –1,630,000,000,000

5. 28,410,000,000,000

6. –3,854,000,000

You Can Write Small Numbers in Scientific Notation Scientific notation is also a useful way to write very small numbers. A number like 0.0000054 can be rewritten as a division. 0.0000054 = 5.4 ÷ 1,000,000 Using powers of 10 you can write this as 0.0000054 = 5.4 ÷ 106 And remember that 1 ÷ 106 =

1 106

= 10–6, so you can write

0.0000054 = 5.4 × 10–6 5.4 × 10–6 is 0.0000054 written in scientific notation. Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

281

Example

2

A red blood cell has a diameter of 0.000007 m. Write this number in scientific notation. Split the number into a decimal and a power of ten.

Solution

0.000007 = 7 ÷ 1,000,000 Check it out:

= 7 ÷ 106

Remember to include the units — they’ll be the same as in the original number.

= 7 × 10–6 m

Write the power of ten in base and exponent form. Change division by a positive power to multiplication by a negative power.

Guided Practice Write the numbers in Exercises 7–12 in scientific notation. 7. 0.000419

8. 0.000000000015

9. 0.00000007

10. 0.000030024

11. 0.00008946

12. 0.00000004645

You Can Convert Numbers from Scientific Notation Sometimes you might need to take a number that’s in scientific notation, and write it as an ordinary number. When you multiply by 10, the decimal point moves one place to the right. When you divide by 10, the decimal point moves one place to the left. Check it out: Numeric form means the number written out in full.

You can use these facts to convert a number from scientific notation back to numeric form. Example

3

Write 3.0 × 1011 in numeric form. Solution

“3.0 × 1011” means “multiply 3.0 by 10, 11 times.” To multiply 3.0 by 1011, all you need to do is move the decimal point 11 places to the right. It might help to write out the 3.0 with extra 0s — then you can see how the decimal point is moving. 3.0 × 1011 11

= 3.00000000000. × 10 = 300,000,000,000

282

Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

The gr een line sho w s the green show decimal point moving 11 plac es tto o the right. places

Example

4

Write 4.2 × 10–10 in numeric form. Solution

“4.2 × 10–10” means “divide 4.2 by 10, 10 times.” You need to move the decimal point 10 places to the left. You can write in extra 0s in front of the 4 to help you: 00000000004.2 × 10–10 = 0.00000000042

Guided Practice In Exercises 13–20, rewrite each number in numerical form. 13. 5.91 × 106

14. 5.91 × 10–6

15. 2.2 × 103

16. 4.85 × 10–8

17. 9.023 × 107

18. 6.006 × 10–2

19. 8.17 × 1010

20. 7.101 × 10–5

Independent Practice

Don’t forget: Include the correct units in your answer. So 0.000028 cm written in scientific notation is 2.8 × 10–5 cm — not just 2.8 × 10–5.

Write the numbers in Exercises 1–6 in scientific notation. 1. 78,000 2. 0.00000091 3. 843,000,000,000 4. 0.00000000000416 5. 20,057,000,000,000 6. 0.000000000000000000000100801 Write the numbers in Exercises 7–12 in numerical form. 7. 8.0 × 104 8. 6.2 × 10–5 9. 2.18 × 106 –10 9 10. 3.03 × 10 11. 5.0505 × 10 12. 9.64 × 10–3 13. The planet Uranus is approximately 1,800,000,000 miles away from the Sun. What is this distance in scientific notation?

Now try these: Lesson 5.2.3 additional questions — p458

14. An inch is approximately equal to 0.0000158 miles. Write this distance in scientific notation. 15. The volume of the Earth is approximately 7.67 × 10–7 times the volume of the Sun. Express this figure in numeric form. 16. An electron's mass is approximately 9.1093826 × 10–31 kilograms. What is this mass in numeric form?

Check it out: 1 billion is a thousand million. Written out as a number it looks like this: 1,000,000,000

17. In 2006, Congress approved a 69 billion dollar tax cut. What is 69 billion dollars written in scientific notation? 18. At the end of the 20th century, the world population was approximately 6.1 × 109 people. Express this population in numeric form. How would you say this number in words?

Round Up Scientific notation is an important real-life use for powers — it’s called scientific notation because scientists use it all the time to save them having to write out really long numbers. Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

283

Lesson

5.2.4

Comparing Numbers in Scientific Notation

California Standards: Number Sense 1.1 Read, write, and compare rational numbers in scientific notation (positive and negative powers of 10), compare rational numbers in general.

When you look at two numbers, you can usually tell straightaway which is larger. If the two numbers are in scientific notation, you might need to think a bit harder. But once you know what part of the number to look at first, it becomes much more straightforward.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to tell which is the larger of any two numbers written in scientific notation.

Key words: • • • •

scientific notation exponent coefficient power

Look at the Exponent First, Then the Other Factor The problem with comparing numbers written in scientific notation is that each number has two parts to look at. There’s the number between 1 and 10...

2.89 × 106

... and there’s the power of 10.

2.89 × 106

The first thing to look at is the power. The number with the greater exponent is the larger number. Example

Don’t forget: The expression “a > b” means “a is greater than b.”

1

Which of the following numbers is larger? 4.23 × 108 or 7.91 × 106 Solution

The exponent in 4.23 × 108 is 8. The exponent in 7.91 × 106 is 6. 8 > 6, so 4.23 × 108 is the larger number.

If two numbers have the same power of 10, then you need to look at the other factor — the number between 1 and 10. The number with the greater factor is the larger number. Example

2

Which of the following numbers is larger? 4.23 × 108 or 7.91 × 108 Solution

The exponents of the power of 10 in these two numbers are the same, so you need to compare the other factors. 7.91 > 4.23, so 7.91 × 108 is the larger number.

284

Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, say which of each pair of numbers is greater. 1. 9.1 × 106, 8.2 × 109

2. 4.61 × 105, 1.05 × 1010

3. 3.21 × 103, 6.8 × 103

4. 8.4 × 108, 5.75 × 107

5. 6.033 × 1012, 2.46 × 1012

6. 2.6 × 104, 2.09 × 104

In Exercises 7 and 8, write out each set of numbers in order from smallest to largest: 7. 8.34 × 1010

7.1 × 109

5.71 × 1010

9.64 × 109

8. 3.8 × 105

3.09 × 106

3.41 × 105

4.12 × 105

Be Careful with Negative Exponents Check it out: It might help to think about where the negative numbers would be on the number line. A number that is further to the right is always greater. For example: –3 < –2 or –2 > –3

You need to take care when you compare numbers in scientific notation that have negative powers. The number with the greater exponent is still larger — but remember that negative numbers can look like they’re getting bigger, when they’re actually getting smaller. Example

–3 –2

3

Which of the following numbers is larger? 4.23 × 10–5 or 7.91 × 10–7 –3

–2

–1

0

Solution

The exponent in 4.23 × 10–5 is –5. The exponent in 7.91 × 10–7 is –7. –5 > –7, so 4.23 × 10–5 is the larger number.

If the negative exponents are the same, then the number with the greater coefficient is still larger. Example

4

Which of the following numbers is larger? 4.23 × 10–9 or 7.91 × 10–9 Solution

The exponents in these two numbers are the same, so you need to compare the coefficients. 7.91 > 4.23, so 7.91 × 10–9 is the larger number.

Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

285

Guided Practice In Exercises 9–14, say which of each pair of numbers is greater. 10. 5.0 × 10–6, 4.8 × 10–6 9. 1.4 × 10–4, 2.3 × 10–6 11. 7.42 × 10–33, 3.89 × 10–23 12. 1.57 × 10–4, 9.31 × 10–5 –86 –86 13. 6.04 × 10 , 6.2 × 10 14. 9.99 × 10–40, 1.45 × 10–17 In Exercises 15 and 16, write out each set of numbers in order from smallest to largest: 15. 4.97 × 10–8 4.52 × 10–7 3.08 × 10–8 3.18 × 10–7 16. 6.4 × 10–15 6.04 × 10–13 6.44 × 10–13 6.14 × 10–15

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–8, say which of each pair of numbers is greater. 1. 4.25 × 1018, 3.85 × 1019 2. 9.16 × 10–12, 6.4 × 10–10 7 4 3. 2.051 × 10 , 1.19 × 10 4. 8.04 × 10–9, 7.96 × 10–9 5. 5.22 × 1045, 7.01 × 1045 6. 6.861 × 10–22, 4.0 × 10–21 7. 7.89 × 1011, 7.9 × 1011 8. 3.642 × 10–30, 1.886 × 10–28 This table shows the mass of one atom for five chemical elements. Use it to answer Exercises 9–11.

Element

Mass of atom (kg)

Titanium

7.95 × 10–26

9. Which is the heaviest element?

Lead

3.44 × 10–25

10. Which element is lighter, silver or titanium?

Silver

1.79 × 10–25

Lithium

1.15 × 10–26

Hydrogen

1.674 × 10–27

11. List all five elements in order from lightest to heaviest.

This table shows the approximate distance from Earth of six stars. Use the table to answer Exercises 12–16.

Now try these: Lesson 5.2.4 additional questions — p459

12. Which of these stars is nearest to Earth?

Name of Star

Approx. Distance from Earth (miles)

13. Which of these stars is furthest from Earth?

Bellatrix

1.4 × 1015

Sirius

5.04 × 1013

Barnard's Star

3.50 × 1013

Castor A

3.1 × 1014

Peacock

1.1 × 1015

Deneb

1.9 × 1016

14. How many of these stars are nearer than Castor A? 15. Which is closer to Earth, Peacock or Sirius? 16. List all six stars in order from nearest to furthest.

Round Up If you have two numbers written in scientific notation and you want to know which is larger, look at the two parts of the numbers. First compare their exponents, and then, if necessary, compare their other factors. And don’t forget to watch out for negative exponents. 286

Section 5.2 — Negative Powers and Scientific Notation

Section 5.3 introduction — an exploration into:

Monomials A monomial is a term that is a constant, a variable or a combination of both. In this Exploration, you’ll use Algebra Tiles to multiply and divide monomials. The tiles you’ll use are shown here: x2

x +1 –1

When you multiply two numbers, the product is the same as the area of the rectangle that has the two numbers as the length and width.

3 Area =6

2

Monomial multiplication works in exactly the same way. Example Multiply the expression 4 • 2x using algebra tiles. Solution Put one factor on the top (2x here) ...and the other down the side (4 here)

• 1 1 1 1

x 1• x 1• x 1• x 1• x

•

x 1• x 1• x 1• x 1• x

x x x x x

1 1 1 1

x x x x x

= x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x = 8x

The product (4 • 2x) is the area inside the red box.

You can use algebra tiles to divide monomials. You are given the area of the rectangle of tiles and one of the side lengths. The goal is to find the tiles that match the other side length. Example Divide the expression 2x2 ÷ 2x using algebra tiles. Solution

x

x

x2

x

The thing you’re dividing by goes on one side of the area rectangle.

2

2x2 is the area, and 2x is the length of one side.

x

The tiles that fit into the other side represent the quotient.

x

x fits on the other side. So 2x2 ÷ 2x = x x fits on this side.

2

x

x 2

x

Exercises 1. Use algebra tiles to simplify the expressions. a. 2 • 3x b. 2x • 2x c. 3 • 3x e. 3x2 ÷ x

f. 5x ÷ 5

d. x • 4

g. 4x2 ÷ 2x

h. 2x2 ÷ x

Round Up You know that the area of a rectangle is the length multiplied by the width. Well, if the length and width are monomials, then it’s just the same — the area of the rectangle is their product. Section 5.3 Explor a tion — Monomials 287 Explora

Lesson

Section 5.3

5.3.1

Multiplying Monomials

California Standards:

In Section 5.1 you saw how to do multiplications like y × y2, or x2 × x3. Now you need to know how to multiply together terms that contain numbers or more than one variable, like 2x2 × 3x3, or 2xy × y2. Things like 2x2 and 2xy are called monomials — and this Lesson is going to show you how to multiply them.

Algebra and Functions 1.4 Use algebraic terminology (e.g., variable, equation, term, coefficient, inequality, expression, constant) correctly. Algebra and Functions 2.2 Multiply and divide monomials; extend the process of taking powers and extracting roots to monomials when the latter results in a monomial with an integer exponent.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to multiply together expressions that have only one term.

A Monomial Has Only One Term A monomial is a type of expression that has only one term — meaning it has no additions or subtractions. A monomial can include numbers, fractions, and variables raised to whole number powers, but they can only be multiplied together. y

8, y , y3, 2 , and 5xy2 are monomials — expressions with just one term and only whole number powers. 2 + y, a2 + 4, and y4 – 9 aren’t monomials — they all have more than one term.

Key words: • monomial • coefficient • constant

Don’t forget: The whole numbers are zero and all the positive integers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4...

x–1, y–3, and m0.5 aren’t monomials — they contain powers that aren’t whole numbers.

In a Monomial the Number is the Coefficient The number that the variable is multiplied by is called the coefficient. • In the expression 5y the coefficient is 5. • In the expression

–9a3 means –9 × a3.

Check it out:

1

the coefficient is 2 .

• In the expression x the coefficient is 1. Multiplying by 1 doesn’t change the value of a number, so writing 1x is the same as writing x. Example

Don’t forget:

y 2

1

Which of the following expressions are monomials? For those that are monomials, what is the coefficient? 4 a) 2x, b) z2, c) a + b, d) 5n–3 e) y2 Solution

A monomial that is just a number is called a constant, since its value can’t change (unlike the value of a monomial that contains a variable).

The coefficient is 1 because a) 2x is a monomial. The coefficient is 2. z2 = 1 × z2. 2 b) z is a monomial. The coefficient is 1. c) a + b is not a monomial. Two terms have been added together. d) 5n–3 is not a monomial. –3 is not a whole number power because it is negative.

The monomials 2, 6, 3.75, 1 and are all constants.

e)

2

288

Section 5.3 — Monomials

y4 2

is a monomial. The coefficient is

1 2

(since

y4 1 4 = y ). 2 2

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–8, state whether or not the expression is a monomial. 1. 3x4 2. 3x–4 3. 3 + x4 4. x–4 4 5. 3xy 6. 3x + y4 7. x4 – 3

8.

x4 3

State the coefficient of each of the monomials in Exercises 9–12. 9. 11x3 10. 14xy4 11.

z2 8

12. –9a3

Treat Each Variable Separately When Multiplying Don’t forget: Multiply powers together by adding the exponents:

x a × xb = x a + b For example, x3 × x4 = x7. This is the multiplication of powers rule. You saw it in Lesson 5.1.1.

To multiply monomials you deal with the coefficients and each different variable separately. You’ll often need to use the multiplication of powers rule too. Example

2

Multiply together 4x3y and 6x4y4. Solution

Multiply the coefficients and each different variable separately.

Don’t forget: This method works because of the commutative and associative properties of multiplication (which say that things can be multiplied together in any order and you get the same results — see Lesson 1.1.5). When you work out 4x3y multiplied by 6x4y4, you are really doing this: 4 • x3 • y • 6 • x4 • y4 . By using the method in Example 2, you are just multiplying them in the most convenient order — first the numbers, then the powers of x, and then the powers of y.

• Multiply the coefficients: 4 × 6 = 24 • Multiply the powers of x together: x3 • x4 = x7 • Multiply the powers of y together: y • y4 = y5 Now multiply all these results together to form your final answer. So 4x3y multiplied by 6x4y4 gives 24x7y5. Sometimes, only one of the expressions contains a particular variable. Example

3

Find 2ab5 • 4a2c. Solution

Multiply the coefficients and each different variable separately. • Multiply the coefficients: 2 × 4 = 8 • Multiply the powers of a together: a • a2 = a3 • Multiply the powers of b together (only one monomial contains b so you just include that power of b in your answer): b5 • Multiply the powers of c together (again, only one monomial contains c so just include that power of c in your answer): c Now multiply all these results together to form your final answer. So 2ab5 • 4a2c = 8a3b5c. There’s a quick way to work these out — multiply the coefficients and add the exponents of each different variable. Section 5.3 — Monomials

289

Example

4

Find 6x5y6 • 2xy2z. Solution

6x5y6 • 2xy2z = (6 × 2) • x5 + 1 • y6 + 2 • z = 12x6y8z As always, be extra careful if there are negative numbers or fractions. Don’t forget: When you are multiplying a fraction by an integer, just multiply the numerator of the fraction by the integer, and then simplify it if you can. For example: 1 3i1 3 1 3i = = = 6 6 6 2

Check it out: You can multiply three (or more) monomials together in stages — first multiply two monomials together, and then multiply the result by the third.

Example

5

Find –12p2qr4 multiplied by Solution

−12 p2qr 4 i

3 4

3 4

(

prs3 = −12 ×

prs3. 3 4

)p

2+1

qr 4+1s3 = –9p 3qr 5 s 3

Guided Practice Find the results of each multiplication in Exercises 13–22. 13. x2 • x5 14. 5y8 • 3y2 2 4 15. 2z • x 16. –2a • 3a 2 3 2 4 4 17. 3a b c • a bc 18. 12a3b3c3d3 • 3ab2c3d4 4 2 19. 5xy • x z 20. 0.5x2 • 3y2z 21. a2b4c6 multiplied by a2b4c6

⎛ ⎝ 3

⎞ ⎛ ⎠ ⎝4

⎞ ⎠

22. ⎜⎜⎜− 2 p2qr ⎟⎟⎟ • ⎜⎜⎜ 3 pq5r10 s2 ⎟⎟⎟

Write down the answers to Exercises 23–26. 23. xy2 • x2y • xy 24. ab2 • a3b4c5 • a6b7c8 25. pqr2 • pr • q2r 26. mn3 • a2b7 • abmn

Independent Practice Which of the expressions in Exercises 1–6 are monomials? 1. 2bc 2. 12a + 2 3. xy3 4. 3x–4 5. –4x3 6. a2b3c4 Now try these: Lesson 5.3.1 additional questions — p459

Don’t forget: To “square” something means to multiply it by itself.

State the coefficient in each of the monomials in Exercises 7–12. 7. 5x 8. 8a2b3 9. p2 10. –3y6 11. 0.3d2 12. 3.142r2 Calculate the coefficient of each product in Exercises 13–14. 13. 5x multiplied by 2y 14. –10a multiplied by 0.5b3 Calculate each product in Exercises 15–20. 15. 5x • 4x 16. 2xy • 8x2 18. –12xy3 • 7xz

19.

1 2 3 2 3 2 pq • pq 2 3

Square each monomial in Exercises 21–23. 21. x2 22. 3y3

17. 3a2b2 • 6ab2c 20. 2f 33g11 • 8f 71g12 23. 4a2b2

Round Up So that’s how you multiply monomials — you deal with the numbers first, and then each of the variables in turn, and then multiply the results together. You’ll get a lot of practice with this skill because you need to use it all the time in math. 290

Section 5.3 — Monomials

Lesson

5.3.2

Dividing Monomials

California Standards:

You saw how to multiply monomials in the previous Lesson. The next step is to learn how to divide monomials — and that’s what this Lesson is all about.

Algebra and Functions 1.4 Use algebraic terminology (e.g., variable, equation, term, coefficient, inequality, expression, constant) correctly. Algebra and Functions 2.2 Multiply and divide monomials; extend the process of taking powers and extracting roots to monomials when the latter results in a monomial with an integer exponent.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to divide expressions that only have one term.

Divide Monomials by Subtracting Exponents Dividing monomials works in a very similar way to multiplying them. You deal with coefficients and each different variable in turn. But when dividing monomials, you subtract variables’ exponents rather than add them. This is because you’re using the division of powers rule. Example

1

Find 8a8 ÷ 4a6. Solution

Treat the coefficients and the variable separately. Key words: • monomial • coefficient

• Divide the coefficients: 8 ÷ 4 = 2 • Divide the powers of a using the division of powers rule: a8 ÷ a6 = a8 – 6 = a2 Now multiply these results together to form your final answer. So 8a8 ÷ 4a6 = 2a2. Notice how you divide the coefficients and the variables, but then you multiply all the results together at the end. So in the previous example, you divided the coefficients to get 2, and you divided the powers of a to get a2 — but then you multiplied these together to get the final answer of 2a2. Example

2

Find 10x7y4 ÷ 2x2y. Solution

Don’t forget: Any number or variable to the power 1 is just itself. For example, 21 = 2, 91 = 9, a1 = a, x1 = x, and so on. This means you can rewrite 2x2y as 2x2y1.

Treat the coefficients and each different variable separately. • Divide the coefficients: 10 ÷ 2 = 5 • Divide the powers of x using the division of powers rule: x7 ÷ x2 = x5 • Divide the powers of y using the division of powers rule: y4 ÷ y = y3 Now multiply all these results together to form your final answer. So 10x7y4 ÷ 2x2y = 5x5y3.

Section 5.3 — Monomials

291

You have to be very careful to get the signs of your exponents correct — especially if a variable only appears in the second monomial. It helps to remember that x0 = 1 for any value of x. Example 3 shows why this is useful. Example

3

Find 12a4b5 ÷ 6a2c4. Solution

Check it out: You can’t change the order of division calculations. That means you must always subtract the exponents in the second monomial from those in the first, regardless of which is bigger. This might result in a negative exponent. If you need a reminder on negative exponents, see Section 5.2.

First, rewrite the division — making sure that all the variables appear in both monomials. Do this using the fact that b0 = 1 and c0 = 1. So you have to find 12a4b5c0 ÷ 6a2b0c4. Now divide the coefficients and each variable in turn in the normal way. • Divide the coefficients: 12 ÷ 6 = 2 • Divide the powers of a by subtracting the exponents: a4 ÷ a2 = a4 – 2 = a2 • Divide the powers of b by subtracting the exponents: b5 ÷ b0 = b5 – 0 = b5 • Divide the powers of c in exactly the same way: c0 ÷ c4 = c0 – 4 = c –4 Then multiply all these results together to give your final answer. So 12a4b5 ÷ 6a2c4 = 2a2b5c–4.

Guided Practice Find the results of each division in Exercises 1–8. 1. 3x4 ÷ x 2. 10a6 ÷ 5a3 3. 6x5y4 ÷ 2x2y2 4. 16p10q7r2 ÷ 2p4q5 2 5 5. –12m ÷ 2m n 6. 2xy4 ÷ 5x4y5z2 7. 0.5xyz ÷ 2m3n8

8.

2 3

4 9

p 2 q3 r 2 ÷ pq 2 r 4 s6

Dividing Monomials Doesn’t Always Give a Monomial When you multiply monomials, you always get another monomial. However, when you divide one monomial by another the result isn’t always a monomial. You may end up with an answer that contains a negative exponent — which is not a monomial. That’s what happened in Example 3, above. Example Don’t forget: Monomials only involve numbers and whole number powers of variables. The whole numbers are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4... So 0.5x–1 isn’t a monomial.

292

Section 5.3 — Monomials

4

Find 4x2y ÷ 8x3y. Solution

Treat the coefficients and the variables in turn, as usual. 4 ÷ 8 = 0.5, while x2 ÷ x3 = x–1, and y ÷ y = 1. So 4x2y ÷ 8x3y = 0.5x–1. But the exponent of x isn’t a whole number, so this isn’t a monomial.

Guided Practice Find the result of each of the divisions in Exercises 9–14. State whether each result is a monomial. 9. 7x5 ÷ x2

10. 8y5 ÷ 2y7

11. 9a2b3 ÷ 3a2b3

12. 18p8q5 ÷ 6p8q6

13. –6m11n8 ÷ 3m2n5

14. 2x5y6z7 ÷ 5x2y3z4

Divide Coefficients and Subtract Exponents In the previous Lesson, you saw that there was a quick way to multiply monomials — you multiplied the coefficients and added exponents. You can do a similar thing when you divide monomials. But this time you divide coefficients and subtract exponents. Example

5

Find 6x5y6 ÷ 2xy2z. Don’t forget: A variable z can be rewritten as z1.

Solution

It’s best to rewrite this so that both monomials contain all the different variables. Use the fact that z0 = 1. So you need to find 6x5y6z0 ÷ 2xy2z. 6x5y6z0 ÷ 2x1y2z1 = (6 ÷ 2) ◊ x5 – 1 ◊ y6 – 2 ◊ z0 – 1 = 3x4y4z–1

Guided Practice Find the results of each division in Exercises 15–18. 15. 12a4 ÷ 4a2

16. 100b6c2 ÷ 25a2b4c

17. 26p3q5 ÷ 4p2q2r2

18. 169m100n9 ÷ 13q5

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 5.3.2 additional questions — p459

Evaluate the divisions in Exercises 1–6. 1. x8 ÷ x3 2. 35 ÷ 5y–4

3. 11y4 ÷ y6

4. 6y2 ÷ 3x4

6.

5. –4a3 ÷ 0.5ab2

1 2 5 4 m n ÷ mn7 2 9

7. Which of these expressions have the same value: (1 ÷ an), (a0 ÷ an), a–n? 8. What is 5x3 divided by –5x5? Find the quotients in Exercises 9–11. 10. 11ab5 ÷ 121bc4 9. 20x2y6 ÷ 5x8y2

11.

w7 z7 8

÷ w2 z4

Round Up Dividing monomials isn’t really any harder than multiplying them. But you do have to remember that you subtract exponents when dividing, which means that you could end up with negative exponents. You’ll use these ideas in later Lessons, so make sure you remember the rules. Section 5.3 — Monomials

293

Lesson

5.3.3

Powers of Monomials

California Standards:

Earlier in the book you found out about powers. They show repeated multiplication — for example, 2 × 2 × 2 = 23. This Lesson is all about how to raise monomial expressions to powers.

Algebra and Functions 1.4 Use algebraic terminology (e.g., variable, equation, term, coefficient, inequality, expression, constant) correctly. Algebra and Functions 2.2 Multiply and divide monomials; extend the process of taking powers and extracting roots to monomials when the latter results in a monomial with an integer exponent.

What it means for you:

Powers Can Be Raised to Other Powers You might see expressions in which a power is raised to another power. For example, you can write the expression 24 × 24 × 24 as (24)3. You can add the powers using the multiplication of powers rule to find the result. So (24)3 = 24 × 24 × 24 = 24 + 4 + 4 = 212. This gives exactly the same result as multiplying the exponents in (24)3 together. So you can write (24)3 = 24 × 3 = 212. You can write this more generally as:

You’ll see how to raise simple expressions to powers.

(am)n = am • n This is called the power of a power rule.

Key words: • monomial • coefficient • power

Example

1

By writing the expression as a multiplication, show that (y3)2 = y6. Solution

You’ve got to show that the power of a power rule works for (y3)2. Don’t forget: The associative law of multiplication says that you can group things in any way when multiplying and get the same result: a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c The commutative law of multiplication says that you can multiply things in any order and get the same result: a×b=b×a Combining these properties, you can show that you can multiply any number of things together in any order and get the same result. So you don’t need parentheses in expressions containing only multiplications. For example: a × ((b × c ) × d) = a × b × c × d

As always, work out the parentheses first: y3 = y • y • y So (y3)2 = (y • y • y) • (y • y • y) But you can remove the parentheses here, because it doesn’t matter how you group things in multiplications. Therefore (y3)2 = y • y • y • y • y • y = y6. Example

2

Write (43)6 as a power of 4. Solution

Use the power of a power rule — multiply the powers. (43)6 = 43 × 6 = 418 Example

3

Simplify: a) (x5)8

b) (x5)–8

Solution

a) Multiply the powers together. (x5)8 = x5 × 8 = x40 b) The rule also works with negative powers. (x5)–8 = x5 × (–8) = x–40 294

Section 5.3 — Monomials

Guided Practice Write the expressions in Exercises 1–9 using a single power. 1. (23)2 2. (35)4 3. (799)10 4. (x4)8 5. (a8)–101 6. (r p)q 5 5 10 –10 7. (5 ) 8. (s ) 9. (a2m)n

Use the Same Rule to Find Powers of Monomials All monomials can be raised to powers — even really complicated ones. Just like with a power of a power, you can simplify this kind of expression by remembering that a power means repeated multiplication. Example

4

Simplify (3xy)4. Solution

Everything inside the parentheses is raised to the power of 4. (3xy)4 = (3xy) • (3xy) • (3xy) • (3xy) You can simplify this by removing the parentheses. (3xy)4 = 3•x•y • 3•x•y • 3•x•y • 3•x•y Now you can rearrange this multiplication using the associative and commutative properties of multiplication. (3xy)4 = 3•3•3•3 • x•x•x•x • y•y•y•y = 34 • x4 • y4 = 81x4y4 You can see in Example 4 that each part of the original monomial is raised to the 4th power in the result. To raise any monomial to a power, use the following rule. Raising a monomial to a power To take a monomial to the nth power, find the nth power of each part of the monomial, and multiply the results. When you’re raising monomials to powers, you’ll often need to use the power of a power rule. Example Don’t forget: (b3)2 = b3 × 2 = b6

5

Simplify (5b3)2. Solution

(5b3)2 = 52 • (b3)2 = 52 • b 6 = 25b6

Section 5.3 — Monomials

295

There could be any number of variables in the monomial, but you always do exactly the same thing — raise each individual part of the monomial to the power outside the parentheses. Example

6

Simplify (2x2yz3)5. Solution

(2x2yz3)5 = 25 ◊ (x2)5 ◊ y5 ◊ (z3)5 = 25 ◊ x10 ◊ y5 ◊ z15 = 32x10y5z15 The method stays the same if the expression contains negative exponents. Example

7

Simplify (a2b)–4. Solution

(a2b)–4 = a2 × (–4) ◊ b–4 = a–8b–4

Guided Practice Simplify the powers of monomials in Exercises 10–18. 10. (3x3)2 11. (2x2)4 12. (x2y)3 13. (2a4b2)4

( 12 ab)

14. (2p4q2r3)5

2

16.

( 23 x y)

15. (2pqr)s

3

17.

2

18. (0.5p3qr4)4

Independent Practice 1. Use the multiplication of powers rule to simplify am · am · am. 2. Simplify (72)8 by writing it in the form 7a.

Now try these: Lesson 5.3.3 additional questions — p460

Simplify each of the expressions in Exercises 3–10. 3. (y3)4 4. (5x)2 5. (p2)q 5 2 7 3 4 6. (8x ) 7. (10x y ) 8. (z9)–3 9. (5a4b3)2 10. (x6y11)–2 11. Show that (65)3 = (63)5. 12. Show that (am)n = (an)m. 13. What number is equal to ((22)2)2?

Don’t forget:

14 What is ((am)n)p?

The formula you use to find the area of a circle is pr2.

15. A circular cross-section of an atom has a radius of 10–10 meters. Find the area of the cross-section.

Round Up So that’s how you raise a monomial to a power — you just raise all the individual parts to the same power. You’re likely to need to use the power of powers rule for this, so make sure you know it. 296

Section 5.3 — Monomials

Lesson

5.3.4

Square Roots of Monomials

California Standards:

Taking the square root of a monomial is like the reverse of raising a monomial to the power of two. There’s just one extra complication that you need to be aware of.

Algebra and Functions 2.2 Multiply and divide monomials; extend the process of taking powers, and extracting roots to monomials when the latter results in a monomial with an integer exponent.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to find the square root of a whole expression.

Key words: • • • • • •

monomial coefficient absolute value exponent square root perfect square

x Means the Positive Square Root of x

A square root of a number is a factor that can be multiplied by itself to give the number. All positive numbers have one positive and one negative square root. For example, 6 and –6 are both square roots of 36 because 6 • 6 = 36 and –6 • –6 = 36. The square root symbol, , always means the positive square root. If you are finding the negative square root, you must put a minus sign in front of the square root symbol. 4 = 2 and the negative square root of 4 is – 4 = –2.

So

Example

1

Find: a) the square roots of 81

b)

81

c) – 81

Solution

a) The square roots of 81 are 9 and –9. b)

81 = 9

c) – 81 = –9

Guided Practice 1. What are the square roots of 9? 2. What are the square roots of 25? Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 3–6. 3. 1

Don’t forget: Absolute value is covered in Section 2.2.

Check it out: The negative square root of x 2 is − x .

4. – 100

5. – 196

6.

9

Use Absolute Value to Give the Positive Square Root of x 2 2

The square roots of x are x and –x. But if you’re asked to find only the positive square root is correct.

x ,

x could be any value — positive or negative. So if you write x 2 = x, and it turns out that x = –2, then you haven’t given the positive square root. To get around this, you can write that x 2 = x (the absolute value of x). This way, you know you’ve given the positive answer.

Section 5.3 — Monomials

297

Example Find

2

z2 .

Solution

The square roots of z2 are z and –z. You only want the positive value though. But without knowing anything about z, you can’t say which of z or –z is positive. But you do know that z (the absolute value of z) is positive. So

z2 = z .

Divide Exponents by Two to Find the Square Root The square roots of z6 are z3 and –z3. That’s because z3 • z3 = z6 and –z3 • –z3 = z6. Don’t forget: The multiplication of powers rule says that when you multiply two powers with the same base, you can add their exponents to give you the exponent of the answer.

a m i a n = a m+ n

z 6 means just the positive square root of z6 — so z 6 = z 3 . The absolute value signs are important because you can’t say whether 3 z3 or –z3 is positive — but you know that z is definitely positive.

For instance, if z is –2, then z3 = –2 • –2 • –2 = –8, 3 but z = −2 i − 2 i − 2 = −8 = 8. It’s a bit different if the square root has an even exponent.

Don’t forget: z4 • z4 = z(4 + 4) = z8

For example, z 8 = z4. You don’t need absolute value signs here because z4 is always positive — it doesn’t matter if z is positive or negative. Again, say z = –2: z4 = –2 • –2 • –2 • –2 = (–2 • –2) • (–2 • –2) = 4 • 4 = 16. So to find the positive square root of a variable: 1. Divide the exponent by two. 2. Put absolute value signs around any expression with an odd exponent. Example Find a)

Don’t forget: Negative numbers with odd exponents are always negative. Negative numbers with even exponents are always positive.

z 4 , b)

Section 5.3 — Monomials

y10 .

Solution

a) Divide the exponent by 2: z 4 = z4 ÷ 2 = z2

You don’t need to include absolute value signs because the exponent, 2, is even.

b) Divide the exponent by 2: 5 y10 = y

298

3

You do need to include absolute value signs here because the exponent, 5, is odd.

Guided Practice Evaluate the square roots in Exercises 7–12. 7.

q14

10.

p4

8.

t2

11.

9.

r12

12.

s18

w 30

Taking the Square Root of a Monomial Check it out: Raising a monomial to a power and finding a monomial’s square root are so similar because finding a square root is raising to a 1 power — the power of 2 .

Finding the square root of a monomial is very similar to raising a monomial to a power. You find the square root of each “individual part” of the monomial. Example

4

Find 9 x 2 . Solution

First you need to find the positive square root of 9 and the positive square root of x2. Then multiply the results together. The positive square root of 9 is 3. The positive square root of x2 is |x|. So

9 x 2 = 3 x or 3 x .

The method is the same even if the monomial has many parts. Example Check it out: 2

5

Find 36 a 2 b 4 . 2

6|a|b could be written 6|ab |, or |6ab2| — they are exactly the same. The important thing is that the expression is definitely positive.

Solution

36a2b4 = 36 ⋅ a2 ⋅ b4 .

Find the square root of each part, since

36 = 6, a 2 = a , and b 4 = b 2 . So 36a2b4 = 6 a b 2

Guided Practice Find the square roots in Exercises 13–21. 13.

4x2

14. 16 r 2

15.

36 s 4

16. 100 p8

17.

64 x 2 y 4

18.

25m 2 n6

19. 121m 2 n6 p 2

20.

x10 y12 z14

21.

400 p122 q 246 r 38

Section 5.3 — Monomials

299

The Coefficient Might Not Always Be a Perfect Square Don’t forget: A perfect square is the square of an integer.

Every positive number has a square root. But if the number isn’t a perfect square, then its square root will be a decimal — it may even be irrational. If you do get an irrational number, you should leave the square root sign in your answer. Example

6

Don’t forget: Irrational numbers can’t be expressed as a fraction. They go on forever and have no repeating pattern — so there’s no way to write them down exactly.

Find 15b6 . Solution

15b6 = 15 ⋅ b6 15 is not a perfect square — so keep the square root sign in your answer.

= 15 b 3

Guided Practice Find the square roots of the expressions in Exercises 22–25. 22.

3x 2

23.

7 x 2 y6

24.

22 s10t 14

25.

55b 2 c 78

Independent Practice 1. What are the square roots of 49? 2. What is 49 ? 3. Explain why your answers to Exercises 1 and 2 were different. 4. Stevie wrote this equation: a2 = a, where a is an integer. Explain why Stevie’s equation is incorrect. Write a correct version. In Exercises 5–12, simplify the expressions.

Now try these: Lesson 5.3.4 additional questions — p460

5.

x6

6.

8.

81r 4 s 22

9. 19 x 2

11.

5 x 2 y8

4x2

7. 10.

9 p 2 q18 2x2 y2

12. 169 p16 q8

13. Suppose you know that q = p, and neither p nor q equals zero. Which of p and q are positive? Explain your answer.

Round Up Don’t forget — the square root sign means the positive square root. The trickiest thing about finding the positive square root is remembering to make sure that your answer is definitely positive. You need to remember to put absolute value bars around any variables with odd exponents. 300

Section 5.3 — Monomials

Section 5.4 introduction — an exploration into:

The P endulum Pendulum There are many real-life situations that can be modeled with graphs. In this Exploration, you’ll be making pendulums of different lengths and recording the time they take to swing back and forth a certain number of times. You’ll see that the graph you get isn’t a linear (straight line) graph — it’s a curve (or a non-linear graph). You should work with a partner to complete this Exploration. You’ll make each pendulum by tying a weight to a piece of string — then you’ll need to find a fixed hook to attach it to. You need to make four pendulums of different lengths — 25 cm long, 50 cm long, 75 cm long, and 100 cm long. You’ll use a stopwatch to time how long each pendulum takes to complete ten swings. In one full swing, the pendulum moves from one side, to the other, and back again to its starting position. To make it a fair test, pull the weight out by the same amount each time. Record the times in a copy of this table. L en g t h (c m )

hook

T i m e (s ) f o r 10 s w i n g s

string

25 50

weight

75 100

Exercises 1. Copy the axes below onto graph paper. Graph your results. 35

Time for 10 swings 30 (seconds)

25

20 15 10 5 0

25 50 75 100 125 150 175

Length of pendulum (cm)

2. Do the points lie on a straight line or a curve? Connect the points with an appropriate line or curve. 3. Use your graph to predict the amount of time it will take for a 150 cm pendulum to swing back and forth ten times. 4. Use your graph to predict the length of a pendulum which takes 17 seconds to swing back and forth ten times.

Round Up Some things don’t have a linear (straight-line) relationship. So when you plot them on a graph the points don’t lie in a straight line. They sometimes lie in a smooth curve — so you mustn’t try to join them with a straight line. There’s lots about non-straight line graphs later in this Section. Section 5.4 Explor a tion — The Pendulum 301 Explora

Lesson

Section 5.4

5.4.1

Graphing y = nx2

California Standards:

Think about the monomial x2. You can put any number in place of x and work out the result — different values of x give different results. The results you get form a pattern. And the best way to see the pattern is on a graph.

Algebra and Functions 3.1 Graph functions of the form y = nx2 and y = nx3 and use in solving problems. Mathematical Reasoning 2.3 Estimate unknown quantities graphically and solve for them by using logical reasoning and arithmetic and algebraic techniques. Mathematical Reasoning 2.5 Use a variety of methods, such as words, numbers, symbols, charts, graphs, tables, diagrams, and models, to explain mathematical reasoning.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to plot graphs of equations with squared variables in them.

Key words: • parabola • vertex

Check it out: The scales on the x- and y-axes are different, so be careful when you plot points or read off values.

The Graph of y = x2 is a Parabola You can find out what the graph of y = x2 looks like by plotting points. Example

1

Plot the graph of y = x2 for values of x between 0 and 6. Solution

The best thing to do first is to make a table for the integer values of x like the one below. Then you can plot points on a set of axes using the x- and y-values as coordinates, and join the points with a smooth curve. x

y (= x2)

40

0

0

35

1

1

2

4

3

9

4

16

10

5

25

5

6

36

0

y

30

The curve passes through all the values that fit the equation between the integer points.

25 20 15

x 1

2

3

4

6

5

To see what happens for negative values of x, you can extend the table. Example

2

Plot the graph of y = x2 for values of x between –6 and 6. Solution

The table of values and the curve look like this: y

40 35 30

Check it out:

25

The graph of y = x2 is symmetrical about the y-axis. This means the y-axis is a “mirror line” for the graph.

x

y (= x2)

–6

36

–5

25

–4

16

–3

9

–2

4

–1

1

20 15 10 5

x –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

This kind of curve is called a parabola. 302

Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions

Check it out: There are two ways to check if a point is on a graph. You can either find the point on the coordinate plane and see if it lies on the graph. Or you can put the x- and ycoordinates into the equation for the graph and see if the equation is true. For instance, to test whether (2, 3) lies on the graph y = x2, put x = 2 and y = 3 into the equation: y = x2 3 π 22 So the point (2, 3) doesn’t lie on the graph.

Don’t forget: Always join points on graphs using a smooth curve.

Guided Practice 1. Which of the following points are on the graph of y = x2? (1, 1), (–1, 1), (–2, –4), (2, 4), (3, 9), (–4, –16), (5, 25), (6, –36) In Exercises 2–5, calculate the y-coordinate of the point on the graph of y = x2 whose x-coordinate is shown. 1 2. 6 3. –10 4. –2.5 5. 3 In Exercises 6–9, calculate the two possible x-coordinates of the points on the graph of y = x2 whose y-coordinate is shown. 6. 16 7. 25 8. 49 9. 30

You Can Use a Graph to Solve an Equation Graphs can be useful if you need to solve an equation. Using them means you don’t have to do any tricky calculations — and they often show you how many solutions the equation has. The downside is that it can be impossible to get an exact answer by reading off a graph. Example

3

Check it out:

Using the graph of y = x2 in Example 2, solve x2 = 12.

Equations like y = x2 represent functions. A function is a rule that assigns each number to one other number. If you put a value for x into a function, you get one value for y out.

Solution

Since the graph shows y = x2, you need to find where y = 12. Then you can find the corresponding value (or values) of x. 20

y

15

y = 12

10 5

x –4 –3 –2 –1

Check it out: If x2 = 12, then x = 12 or x = − 12 .

Check it out: The square roots of 12 are actually 3.464 and –3.464 (to 3 decimal places).

0

x = –3.5 (approximately)

1

2

3

4

y = 3.5 (approximately)

You can see that there are two different values of x that correspond to y = 12, at approximately x = 3.5 and x = –3.5. This is because 12 has two square roots — a positive one (3.5) and a negative one (–3.5). Or you can look at that another way, and say that the numbers 3.5 and –3.5 can both be squared to give 12 (approximately).

Guided Practice Use the graph of y = x2 to solve the equations in Exercises 10–13. 10. x2 = 16 11. x2 = 25 2 12. x = 10 13. x2 = 30

Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions

303

The Graph of y = nx2 is Also a Parabola The graph of y = x2 is y = nx2 where n = 1. It has the U shape of a parabola. Other values of n give graphs that look very similar. Example

4

Plot the graphs of the following equations for values of x between –5 and 5. a) y = 2x2

b) y = 3x2

1 2

2 d) y = x

c) y = 4x2

Solution

Check it out: Notice how x = –1 and x = 1 give the same value of y = nx2. The same goes for any pair of positive and negative numbers with the same absolute value.

All these equations are of the form y = nx2, for different values 1 of n (2 then 3 then 4 then 2 ). The best place to start is with a table of values, just like before. The table on the right shows values for parts a)–d).

x

2x2

3x2

4x2

½x2

0

0

0

0

0

1 and –1

2

3

4

0.5

2 and –2

8

12

16

2

3 and –3

18

27

36

4.5

4 and –4

32

48

64

8

5 and –5

50

75

100

12.5

You then need to plot the y-values in each colored column against the x-values in the first column. y

100

y = 4x2

95

(n = 4)

85 80

y = 3x2

75

(n = 3)

70 65 60 55 2

y = 2x

50

increasing values of n

90

(n = 2)

45 40 35 30

y = x2

25

— this is the graph

(n = 1) from Example 2

y = 12 x2

15 10

(n = 12 )

5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1

304

Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions

x 0

1

2

3

4

5

decreasing values of n

20

Check it out: Values of n greater than 1 give parabolas steeper (or “narrower”) than y = x2. Values of n between 0 and 1 give parabolas less steep (or “wider”) than y = x2.

Notice how all the graphs are “u-shaped” parabolas. And all the graphs have their vertex (the lowest point) at the same place, the origin. In fact, this is a general rule — if n is positive, the graph of y = nx2 will always be a “u-shaped” parabola with its vertex at the origin. Also, the greater the value of n, the steeper the parabola will be. In Example 4, the graph of y = 4x2 had the steepest parabola, while the 1 2 graph of y = x was the least steep. 2

Guided Practice For Exercises 14–17, draw on the same axes the graph of each of the given equations. 14. y = 5x2

1 4

2 15. y = x

16. y = 10x2

17. y =

1 10

x2

In Exercises 18–23, use the graphs from Example 4 to solve the given equations. 19. 3x2 = 25 20. 4x2 = 15 18. 2x2 = 20 21.

1 2

x 2 = 10

22. 3x2 = 70

23. 2x2 = 42

Independent Practice Using a table of values, plot the graphs of the equations in Exercises 1–3 for values of x between –4 and 4. 1 3

1. y = 1.5x2

Lesson 5.4.1 additional questions — p460

On the same set of axes as you used for Exercises 1–3, sketch the approximate graphs of the equations in Exercises 4–6. 4. y = 2.5x2

Don’t forget: For Exercise 7, make sure all your values of s make sense as the length of a square’s sides.

Don’t forget: To take a square root of a power, you need to divide the exponent by 2. See Lesson 5.3.4 for more information.

2. y = 5x2

2 3. y = x

Now try these:

5. y = 6x2

2 3

2 6. y = x

7. If s is the length of a square’s sides, then a formula for its area, A, is A = s2. Plot a graph of A against s, for values of s up to 10. 8. On a graph of y = x2, what is the y-coordinate when x = 103? For Exercises 9–12, find the y-coordinate of the point on the graph of y = x2 for each given value of x. 2 8 9. x = 10–1 10. x = 10–4 11. x = 3 12. x = 5 For Exercises 13–15, find the x-coordinates of the point on the y = x2 graph for each given value of y. 13. y = 102 14. y = 10–6 15. y = 28

Round Up In this Lesson you’ve looked at graphs of the form y = nx2, where n is positive. The basic message is that these graphs are all u-shaped. And the greater the value of n, the narrower and steeper the parabola is. Remember that, because in the next Lesson you’re going to look at graphs of the same form where n is negative. Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions

305

Lesson

5.4.2

More Graphs of y = nx2

California Standards:

In the last Lesson you saw a lot of bucket-shaped graphs. These were all graphs of equations of the form y = nx2, where n was positive. The obvious next thing to think about is what happens when n is negative.

Algebra and Functions 3.1 Graph functions of the form y = nx2 and y = nx3 and use in solving problems. Mathematical Reasoning 2.3 Estimate unknown quantities graphically and solve for them by using logical reasoning and arithmetic and algebraic techniques.

What it means for you: You’ll learn more about how to plot graphs of equations with squared variables in them, and how to use the graphs to solve equations.

Key words: • graph • vertex

The Graph of y = nx2 is Still a Parabola if n is Negative By plotting points, you can draw the graph of y = –x2. Example

1

Plot the graph of y = –x2 for values of x from –5 to 5. Solution

As always, first make a table of values, then plot the points. This time, the table of values is drawn horizontally, but it shows exactly the same information. x

–5

–4

–3

–2

–1

0

x2

25

16

9

4

1

0

y = –x2

–25

–16

–9

–4

–1

0

You don’t need a table for x = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, as it will contain the same values of y as above. However, if you find it easier to have all the values of x listed separately, then make a bigger table including the values below. Don’t forget: y = –x2 is just y = nx2 with n = –1.

x

0

1

2

3

4

5

x2

0

1

4

9

16

25

y = –x2

0

–1

–4

–9

–16

–25

Now you can plot the points. 5

y x

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –5

1

2

3

4

5

–10 –15 –20 –25 –30 The graph of y = –x is also a parabola. But instead of being “u-shaped,” it’s “upside down u-shaped.” 2

306

Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions

Nearly everything from the last Lesson about y = nx2 for positive values of n also applies for negative values of n. However, for negative values of n, the graphs are below the x-axis. Example

2

Plot the graphs of the following equations for values of x between –4 and 4. a) y = –2x2

b) y = –3x2

1 d) y = – 2 x 2

c) y = –4x2

Solution

As always, make a table and plot the points. This time, only positive values of x have been included in the table. The values for negative x will be identical.

x

–2x2

–3x2

–4x2

–½x2

0

0

0

0

0

1

–2

–3

–4

2

–8

–12

–16

y –4 –3 –2 –1 0

1

2

3

4 x

–5

–0.5

y = – 12x

–10

(n = – 1 )

–2

–15 –20

3

–18

–27

–36

–4.5

4

–32

–48

–64

–8

2

decreasing values of n

Check it out:

2

2

y = –x

(n = –1)

–25 2

–30

y = –2x

–35

(n = –2)

–40 –45

2

y = –3x

–50

(n = –3)

–55

To solve the equations in Exercises 9–14, first find the correct graph — you need the one with the matching equation. So for Exercise 9 (–12 = –3x2) you need the y = –3x2 graph. Then draw a line across the graph at the y-value you are given (in Exercise 9 it’s –12) and read off the two x-values. y 1

2

3

4

x –5 –10 –15

–25

–35 –40 –45 –50

–65

(n = –4)

2

y = –12

Also, the more negative the value of n, the steeper and narrower the parabola will be.

Guided Practice On which of the graphs in Example 2 do the points in Exercises 1–8 1

2 lie? Choose from y = –x2, y = –2x2, y = –3x2, and y = − x . 2 1. (1, –3) 2. (–3, –4.5) 3. (4, –32) 4. (–5, –75) 5. (–3, –27) 6. (2, –2) 7. (5, –75) 8. (0, 0)

Solve the equations in Exercises 9–14 using the graphs in Example 2. There are two possible answers in each case. 9. –3x2 = –12

–20

–30

y = –4x

This time, since n is negative, all the graphs are “upside down u-shaped” parabolas. But all the graphs still have their vertex (the vertex is the highest point this time) at the same place, the origin.

Check it out:

–4 –3 –2 –1 0

–60

1 2

2 12. − x = −2

2 10. − x = −4.5

1 2

11. –2x2 = –32

13. –3x2 = –27

14. –3x2 = –40

Plot the graphs in Exercises 15–16 for x between –4 and 4. 1 2 15. y = –5x2 16. y = − x 3

Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions

307

Graphs of y = nx2 for n > 0 and n < 0 are Reflections The graphs you’ve seen in this Lesson (of y = nx2 for negative n) and those you saw in the previous Lesson (of y = nx2 for positive n) are very closely related. Example Check it out: k is just “any number.” You could use n instead.

3

By plotting the graphs of the following equations on the same set of axes for x between –3 and 3, describe the link between y = kx2 and y = –kx2. y = x2, y = –x2, y = 2x2, y = –2x2, y = 3x2, y = –3x2. 30

Solution

y = 3x2

25 20

Plotting the graphs gives the diagram shown on the right. For a given value of k, the graphs of y = kx2 and y = –kx2 are reflections of each other. One is a “u-shaped” graph above the x-axis, while the other is an “upside down u-shaped” graph below the x-axis.

y

y = 2x

2

15 10

y=x

2

5 –3 –2 –1

0 –5

1 1

2

x 3

–10

y = –x

2

–15 –20 –25

y = –2x

2

y = –3x

2

–30

Guided Practice 17. The point (5, 100) lies on the graph of y = 4x2. Without doing any calculations, state the y-coordinate of the point on the graph of y = –4x2 with x-coordinate 5. 18. Without plotting any points, describe what the graphs of the equations y = 100x2 and y = –100x2 would look like.

Independent Practice 1. Draw the graph of y = –1.5x2 for values of x between –3 and 3. 2. Without calculating any further y-values, draw the graph of y = 1.5x2 for values of x between –3 and 3. 1 3. What are the coordinates of the vertex of the graph of y = − 4 x 2 ?

Now try these: Lesson 5.4.2 additional questions — p461

4. If a circle has radius r, its area A is given by A = pr2. Describe what a graph of A against r would look like. Check your answer by plotting points for r = 1, 2, 3, and 4.

Round Up Well, there were lots of pretty graphs to look at in this Lesson. The graphs of y = nx2 are important in math, and you’ll meet them again next year. But next Lesson, it’s something similar... but different. 308

Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions

Lesson

5.4.3

Graphing y = nx3

California Standards:

For the last two Lessons, you’ve been drawing graphs of y = nx2. Graphs of y = nx3 are very different, but the method for actually drawing the graphs is exactly the same.

Algebra and Functions 3.1 Graph functions of the form y = nx2 and y = nx3 and use in solving problems. Mathematical Reasoning 2.3 Estimate unknown quantities graphically and solve for them by using logical reasoning and arithmetic and algebraic techniques.

The Graph of y = x3 is Not a Parabola You can always draw a graph of an equation by plotting points in the normal way. First make a table of values, then plot the points. Example

1

What it means for you:

Draw the graph of y = x3 for x between –4 and 4.

You’ll learn about how to plot graphs of equations with cubed variables in them, and how to use the graphs to solve equations.

Solution

Key words: • parabola • plot • graph

Check it out: The graph of y = x3 has a different kind of symmetry to that of y = x2 — rotational symmetry. If you rotate the graph 180° about the origin, it will look exactly the same.

Check it out:

First make a table of values: x

–4

–3

–2

–1

0

1

2

3

4

y (= x3) –64 –27

–8

–1

0

1

8

27

64

Then plot the points to get the graph below. 70

The graph of y = x3 is completely different from the graph of y = x2. It isn’t “u-shaped” or “upside down u-shaped.” The graph still goes steeply upward as x gets more positive, but it goes steeply downward as x gets more negative. 3

The graph of y = x passes through all positive and negative values of y.

Try to figure out the shape of the curve before you plot it. Think about the value of x3 if x is negative. How is this different from the value of x3 if x is positive?

60 50 3

y=x

40 30 20

y=x

2

10

x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –10

1

2

3

4

–20 –30 –40

Graphs of y = nx2 pass through either all positive values of y or all negative values of y, depending on the value of n.

Check it out:

y

–50 –60 –70

The shape of the graph of y = x3 is not a parabola — it is a curve that rises very quickly after x = 1, and falls very quickly below x = –1.

Guided Practice 1. Draw the graph of y = –x3 by plotting points with x-coordinates –4, –3, –2, –1, –0.5, 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 4. Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions

309

The Graph of y = x3 Crosses the Graph of y = x2 If you look really closely at the graphs of y = x3 and y = x2 you’ll see that they cross over when x = 1. Example

2

Draw the graph of y = x3 for x values between 0 and 4. Plot the points with x-values 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 4. How does the curve of y = x3 differ from that of y = x2? Solution x

0

0.5

1

2

3

4

y (= x3)

0

0.125

1

8

27

64

Plotting the points with the coordinates shown in the table gives you the graph on the right. You can see that the graph of y = x3 rises much more steeply as x increases than the graph of y = x2 does. But if you could zoom in really close near the origin, you’d see that the graph of y = x3 is below the graph of y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 1. y The two graphs cross over at the point 1 x (1, 1), and cross 0 1 again at (0, 0).

70

y

60 50 3

y=x

40 30 20

y=x

2

10

x 0

1

2

3

4

Use Graphs of y = x3 to Solve Equations If you have an equation like x3 = 10, you can solve it using a graph of y = x3. Example Check it out: There will only be one solution to equations like x3 = 10 and x3 = –20. This is because no two numbers can be cubed to give the same value.

310

3

Use the graph in Example 1 to solve the equation x3 = –20. Solution

–2.7 (approximately)

First find –20 on the vertical axis. Then find the corresponding value on the horizontal axis — this is the solution to the equation. So x = –2.7 (approximately).

–3

Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions

–2 –1 0 1 –10

–20

Guided Practice Use the graph of y = x3 to solve the equations in Exercises 2–7. 2. x3 = 64 3. x3 = 1 4. x3 = –1 5. x3 = –27 6. x3 = 30 7. x3 = –50 8. How many solutions are there to an equation of the form x3 = k? Use the graph in Example 1 to justify your answer.

The Graph of y = nx3 is Stretched or Squashed The exact shape of the graph of y = nx3 depends on the value of n. Example

4

Plot points to show how the graph of y = nx3 changes as n takes the 1 values 1, 2, 3, and 2 . Solution

Using values of x between –3 and 3 should be enough for any patterns to emerge. So make a suitable table of values, and then plot the points.

Don’t forget: The graph of y = x3 (n = 1) is also plotted on these axes for comparison. The table of values is in Example 2 on the previous page.

90 y

x

2x3

3x3

½x3

–3

–54

–81

–13.5

70

–2

–16

–24

–4

60

y = 2x

50

(n = 2)

–1

–2

–3

–0.5

40

0

0

0

0

30

1

2

3

0.5

2

16

24

4

3

54

81

13.5

3

y = 3x

80

(n = 3)

3

20 10

x

–3 –2 –1 0 –10

1

2

y = x3 (n = 1) 3 y = 12 x 1 (n = 2 )

3

–20 –30

As n increases, the curves get steeper and steeper. However, the basic shape remains the same. All the curves have rotational symmetry about the origin.

–40 –50 –60 –70 –80 –90

Guided Practice Use the above graphs to solve the equations in Exercises 9–14. 1 3 x 2

9. 3x3 = –60

10. 2x3 = 30

11.

1 3 x 2

13. 3x3 = 40

14. 2x3 = –35

12.

= 10

= –10

15. How many solutions are there to an equation of the form nx3 = k, where n and k are positive? Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions

311

For n < 0, the Graph of y = nx3 is Flipped Vertically If n is negative, the graph of y = nx3 is “upside down.” Example

5

Plot points to show how the graph of y = nx3 changes as n takes the 1 values –1, –2, –3, and – 2 . Solution

The table of values looks very similar to the one in Example 4. The only difference is that all the numbers switch sign — so all the positive numbers become negative, and vice versa. x

–2x3

–3x3

–½x3

–3

54

81

13.5

–2

16

24

4

–1

2

3

0.5

y = –3x

3

(n = –3)

0

0

0

1

–2

–3

–0.5

2

–16

–24

–4

3

–54

–81

–13.5

80 70

y = –2x

3

(n = –2)

60 50 40

3

y = –x

(n = –1)

0

90 y

3 y = – 12 x 1 (n = – 2 )

30 20 10 1

2

–3 –2 –1 0 –10

3 x

–20 –30 –40

This change in sign of all the values means the curves all do a “vertical flip.”

–50 –60 –70 –80 –90

Guided Practice Use the above graphs to solve the equations in Exercises 16–18. 16. –3x3 = –50

17. –3x3 = 50

1

18. – 2 x3 = 10

Independent Practice Now try these: Lesson 5.4.3 additional questions — p461

Using a table of values, plot the graphs of the equations in Exercises 1–3 for values of x between –3 and 3. 1 3 1. y = 1.5x3 2. y = –4x3 3. y = − x 3 3 4. If the graph of y = 8x goes through the point (6, 1728), what are the coordinates of the point on the graph of y = –8x3 with x-coordinate 6?

Round Up That’s the end of this Section, and with it, the end of this Chapter. It’s all useful information. You need to remember the general shapes of the graphs, and how they change when the n changes. 312

Section 5.4 — Graphing Nonlinear Functions

Chapter 5 Investigation

The Solar System Some numbers are really, really large — like distances in Space. It’d take a long time to write such numbers out in full, and then they’d be hard to compare and work with. So scientific notation is used — it makes things much simpler. The eight planets of the Solar System travel around the Sun in paths called orbits. The orbits are actually elliptical, but for this Investigation, you’ll treat them as circles. The average radius of each planet’s orbit is given below in miles. Part 1: The data on the right is presented in alphabetical order, as you might find in a reference book. Make a more useful table by presenting the data so that: • the planets are in order of distance from the Sun • the distances are given in scientific notation. Things to think about: • Is it easier to convert the numbers into scientific notation before ordering them, or to order the numbers and then convert them into scientific notation?

Pl an et

A p p r ox i m at e m ean d i s t an c e f r o m Su n (i n m i l es )

Ear th

92,960,000

Jupiter

483,800,000

Mars

141,700,000

Mercur y

35,980,000

Neptune

2,793,000,000

Satur n

886,700,000

Uranus

1,785,000,000

Venus

67,240,000

Part 2: Using the scientific notation figure, compute the approximate area inside the Earth’s orbit and present it in scientific notation. (Remember that the area of a circle is given by A = pr2, where A is the area and r is the radius. Use p = 3.14.) Extensions 1) The mean distance from Earth to the Sun is called an astronomical unit (AU) and is about 92.96 million miles. Add a column to your table to show all the distances converted into AUs. 2) Make a scale drawing of the Solar System using the scale of 1 cm = 1 AU. Place the Sun at one edge of the paper. Use dots to represent the planets. Open-ended Extensions 1) Research the diameters of the planets. Write the diameters in miles and then rewrite them in scientific notation. 2) Make scale drawings showing the size of the planets. What scale did you use? 3) If you drew the diameter of Mercury as 1 mm, how large a sheet of paper would you need to accurately draw the entire Solar System with planet sizes and distances to the Sun all to the same scale?

Round Up When you’re working with very big numbers, it’s usually easier if you put them in scientific notation first. This way, you can tell which is the biggest by comparing just the exponents, rather than counting all the digits each time. It’s a similar situation with very small numbers. Cha pter 5 In vestig a tion — The Solar System 313 Chapter Inv estiga

Chapter 6 The Basics of Statistics Section 6.1

Exploration — Reaction Rates .................................. 315 Analyzing Data .......................................................... 316

Section 6.2

Exploration — Age and Height .................................. 335 Scatterplots ............................................................... 336

Chapter Investigation — Cricket Chirps and Temperature ................ 345

314

Section 6.1 introduction — an exploration into:

Reaction R a tes Ra In this Exploration, you’ll test your reaction time by catching a ruler dropped by another student. You’ll collect data and calculate its mean, mode, median, and range. From this analysis you’ll be able to draw conclusions about your typical reaction time. The experiment requires one person to drop the ruler and another person to catch it. The catcher is seated with his or her arm resting on a table. The catcher’s hand is off the table, with the distance between his or her thumb and pointer finger at 2 cm.

2 cm

The dropper holds a ruler so that 0 cm is level with the catcher’s finger and thumb. The dropper then releases the ruler without warning, and the catcher tries to catch it as soon as possible. The dropper records the position of the catcher’s pointer finger and thumb on the ruler.

Exercises 1. Repeat the experiment 12 times and record the results in a copy of the table below. Tr i al

Di s t an c e (c m )

Tr i al

1

7

2

8

3

9

4

10 10

5

11 11

6

12 12

Di s t an c e (c m )

Switch jobs after the completion of the experiment. The catcher becomes the dropper and the dropper becomes the catcher. 2. What was the range for your data? 3. What is the median distance for your data? 4. What is the modal distance for your data? 5. What is the mean distance for your data? 6. Explain which value you think represents your typical reaction time best. 7. Were there any trials that did not seem to fit in with the rest of the results? If so, suggest possible reasons why.

Round Up It’s always a good idea to repeat experiments lots of times, then find the average of all the trials. This means your result is likely to be more accurate. You’ve found three types of average for your data from this experiment — one will often represent your data better than the others. Section 6.1 Explor a tion — Reaction Rates 315 Explora

Lesson

Section 6.1

6.1.1

Median and Range

California Standards:

In grade 6, you learned about three different typical values of data sets — the mode, mean, and median. In this Lesson, you’ll review the median in preparation for drawing box-and-whisker plots in the next Lesson.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.3 Understand the meaning of, and be able to compute, the minimum, the lower quartile, the median, the upper quartile, and the maximum of a data set.

What it means for you: You’ll learn the meaning of the terms minimum, median, maximum, and range, and how to find these values from data sets.

The Median is the Value in the Middle of a Data Set If you arrange a data set in order, the middle value is the median. It gives you an idea of a “typical” value for the data set. Here’s a reminder of the process you go through to find the median: 1. Order the data from smallest to largest. 2. Count the number of values in the data set. 3. If the number of values is odd, take the middle value as the median. 4. If the number of values is even, take the average of the two middle values as the median. Example

Key words: • • • •

median minimum maximum range

1

Find the median of each data set below. 1. {4, 6, 8, 8, 12, 15, 19} 2. {12, 6, 4, 8, 15, 15, 8, 15} Solution

1. The data is already ordered — and there are 7 values. This is an odd number, so the median is the middle value, which is 8. 4, 6, 8, 8, 12, 15, 19 Don’t forget: The average of a set of data is the sum of all the numbers divided by the number of data points. So when you work out the average of two numbers, you add them together, and then divide the result by two.

2. The data isn’t ordered — so you have to first order the data. There are 8 values in the data set — an even number. So the median is the average of the two middle values, which are 8 and 12. 4, 6, 8, 8, 12, 15, 15, 15 The average of these values is: (8 + 12) ÷ 2 = 20 ÷ 2 = 10. So the median is 10. Since the median is the middle of a data set, you know that half of the values in the data set are below the median, and half are above it.

Guided Practice 1. A hospital measures the length of newborn babies on a daily basis. On one day the results in inches were: 19, 22, 20, 21, 22, 20, 24, 20, 17, 21. What was the median length? 316

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

The Range Tells You About the Spread of the Data The range of a data set tells you about the spread of the data. It tells you whether the data is close together, or spaced out. To calculate the range you first need to find the minimum and maximum values: • The smallest value in a set is called the minimum • The largest value in a set is called the maximum Don’t forget: You find the difference between two numbers by taking the smaller number from the larger number.

• The range is the difference between the maximum and the minimum. Example

2

Belinda had the following test scores on her first five tests: 92, 88, 96, 83, 91. What is the range of her scores? Solution

Check it out: It’s often safer to put the data into order first, rather than try to find the minimum and maximum values in a long jumbled set of data.

The minimum value is 83, the maximum value is 96. The range is the difference between the maximum and the minimum. The range is 96 – 83 = 13.

Use Medians and Ranges to Compare Data Sets Looking at the medians and the ranges can give you useful information about data sets. Example

3

Jewelry Store A sells watches with a median price of $99 and a range of $60. Jewelry Store B sells watches with a median price of $99 and a range of $820. Describe what these statistics tell about the prices of the watches in each jewelry store. Check it out:

Solution

A possible data set that has a range of $60, a median of $99, and a minimum price of $39 is: {$39, $99, $99}. A possible data set that has the same range and median, and a maximum price of $159 is: {$99, $99, $159}.

Both stores have the same median price. But Store A has a smaller range, so the prices are all clustered more closely together. The minimum price a watch could be in Store A is $99 – $60 = $39, and the maximum price a watch could be in Store A is $99 + $60 = $159. Store B’s price range is much larger, so the price of at least one of the watches it sells lies much further from the median than any of the watches in Store A. The maximum price a watch could be in Store B is $99 + $820 = $919. But some of the watches may be very cheap — cheaper than the cheapest watch in Store A. Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

317

Guided Practice Don’t forget: If the values in the data set have units, you need to include units for the range and median.

A gardener is trying to grow large zucchinis. She has two sets of zucchinis that she treats with different fertilizers. The lengths of the zucchinis in each set are shown below. Set 1: {11 cm, 15 cm, 16 cm, 19 cm, 23 cm} Set 2: {24 cm, 13 cm, 61 cm, 55 cm, 41 cm, 22 cm, 55 cm} 2. Find the range of the lengths in each set. 3. Find the median length for each set. 4. If you were only told the median length and the range of lengths for Set 1, what could you say about the minimum and maximum values of the set?

Independent Practice Find the median of the data sets in Exercises 1–4. 1. {11, 15, 16, 19, 23} 2. {8, 8, 9, 13, 15, 15} 3. {28, 11, 43, 21, 41, 53, 55} 4. {11, 13, 9, 12, 12, 19, 18, 17, 16, 5} 5. Frank had the following quiz scores: 18, 16, 15, 20, and 16. What was his median score? 6. Alyssa had the following number of rebounds over her last 8 games: 4, 8, 9, 3, 11, 5, 12, 5. What was the median number of rebounds? Find the minimum, maximum, and range of the data sets in Exercises 7–8. 7. {8, 8, 9, 13, 15, 15} 8. {11, 13, 9, 12, 12, 19, 18, 17, 16, 5} Don’t forget: The median shows you a “typical value” for a data set. The range shows you how spread out the data is.

9. Store A sells fine pens with a median price of $29 and a range of $20. Store B sells fine pens with a median price of $40 and a range of $30. What could be the minimum and maximum possible prices of each store’s pens? 10. Furniture Store A sells chairs with a median price of $110 and a range of $40. What is the lowest possible price for a chair in Furniture Store A?

Now try these: Lesson 6.1.1 additional questions — p462

Find the median and range of the sets of data in Exercises 11–15. 11. {86, 78, 81, 80, 80, 85, 72, 90} 12. {34, 35, 31, 32, 30, 35} 13. {101, 104, 107, 102, 98, 100} 14. {98, 97, 97, 97, 96, 95, 98, 96, 95, 98, 98} 15. {61, 60, 63, 65, 61, 62}

Round Up The median and range are useful for comparing two sets of data. They can give you an idea of which set tends to have higher values and which has the most spread-out values. In a few Lessons, you’ll see how box-and-whisker plots show this too, but in a more visual way. 318

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

Lesson

6.1.2

Box-and-Whisker Plots

California Standards:

Box-and-whisker plots are useful because you can use them to directly compare the medians and ranges of data sets. To plot them, you need five key values for the data set — the minimum, maximum, median, and two values you haven’t met before — the lower and upper quartiles.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Know various forms of display for data sets, including a stem-and-leaf plot or box-and-whisker plot; use the forms to display a single set of data or to compare two sets of data. Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.3 Understand the meaning of, and be able to compute, the minimum, the lower quartile, the median, the upper quartile, and the maximum of a data set.

Box-and-Whisker Plots Show Five Values Box-and-whisker plots are a way of displaying data sets. They have a central box, and two “whiskers” on either side. There are five important values that are shown in a box-and-whisker plot: median upper quartile

lower quartile

maximum

minimum

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to find lower and upper quartiles, and how to make box-and-whisker plots of data sets.

Key words: • • • •

box-and-whisker plot upper quartile lower quartile number line

range

Quartiles Split the Data into Four Equal Parts There are three quartiles. One of them is equal to the median, which splits the data into two halves. The other two quartiles are the lower quartile and the upper quartile: • The lower quartile is the median of the first half of the data. • The upper quartile is the median of the second half of the data. To find the lower and upper quartiles: 1. First order the data and find the position of the median of the full set. 2. Next find the median value of each half of the data: If the total number of data points is odd — median The lower quartile is the average of these two values.

30 31 35 37 40 41 42 45 48 lower quartile

upper quartile

When the number of points is odd, you don’t include the median value when you work out the lower and upper quartiles...

If the total number of data points is even — median

30 31 35 37 40 40 41 42 45 48 lower quartile

upper quartile

...but when you have an even number of points, y ou do in clude the ttw wo include middle vvalues alues alues.

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

319

Example

1

Find the lower and upper quartiles of the following data set: 20, 21, 21, 24, 25, 25, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 37 Solution

First, find the position of the median of the full data set. 20, 21, 21, 24, 25, 25, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 37 There’s an even number of data points so the median median is the average of the two middle values.

There are six values on each side of the median, so: 20, 21, 21, 24, 25, 25, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 37 Lower quartile = average of 3rd and 4th values = (21 + 24) ÷ 2 = 22.5 Upper quartile = average of 9th and 10th values = (30 + 31) ÷ 2 = 30.5

Guided Practice Find the lower and upper quartiles of the following data sets: 1. Test scores for class A: 56, 57, 57, 59, 62, 64, 64, 68, 69, 70, 72 2. Test scores for class B: 45, 52, 53, 53, 55, 57, 61, 61, 65, 68

Make a Box-and-Whisker Plot on a Number Line You draw a box-and-whisker plot on a number line — this gives you a scale to line the numbers up on. Follow these steps for making a box-and-whisker plot: 1. Find the five important values for the data set — the minimum, lower quartile, median, upper quartile, and maximum. Check it out: The box represents half of the data. A quarter of the data is above the median line, and a quarter of the data is below the median line. The larger the space from the quartile to the median, the more spaced out the data in that quarter is. If the quartile is very close to the median, it means that the data is very concentrated.

2. Draw out a number line that goes from the minimum to the maximum of the data. 3. Plot the five values on the number line, and draw a box from the lower quartile to the upper quartile. Mark the median across the box. 4. Draw whiskers to the minimum and maximum values. median

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

maximum

minimum

20

320

upper quartile

lower quartile

25

30

35

40

45

Example

2

Draw a box-and-whisker plot to illustrate the following data: {45, 46, 47, 47, 49, 51, 51, 53, 55, 57, 57} Solution

First find the five key values for the set: The minimum and maximum are 45 and 57. There’s an odd number of data points, so the median value is 51. Check it out: This data set has an odd number of values. So the median is the middle value. You don’t include this value when you’re finding the lower and upper quartiles.

Now find the lower and upper quartiles: 45, 46, 47, 47, 49, 51, 51, 53, 55, 57, 57 lower quartile

median

upper quartile

Lower quartile = 47 Upper quartile = 55 Plot the data points and make the box-and-whisker plot:

45

50

55

60

The number line should go from 45 or lower, to at least 57.

Guided Practice 3. Draw a box-and-whisker plot to illustrate the following data: 98, 76, 79, 85, 85, 81, 78, 94, 89

Independent Practice

Now try these: Lesson 6.1.2 additional questions — p462

1. Mrs. Walker wants to compare the test results of her period 1 and period 4 science classes. Find the maximum, minimum, median, and lower and upper quartiles of the sets of data, and display the data sets on box-and-whisker plots. Period 1: 56, 78, 10, 43, 32, 20, 67, 65, 58, 72, 74, 67, 68, 55, 59, 49 Period 4: 75, 64, 65, 68, 62, 52, 42, 38, 53, 64, 64, 72, 73, 59, 59, 63

Round Up There’s a lot of information in this Lesson. You need to remember the five key values for drawing box-and-whisker plots — the minimum, lower quartile, median, upper quartile, and maximum. Remember that the box goes from the lower quartile to the upper quartile, and there are two whiskers — one from the minimum to the lower quartile, and another from the upper quartile to the maximum. Next Lesson you’ll see how box-and-whisker plots can be used to analyze and compare sets of data. Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

321

Lesson

More on Box-and-Whisker Plots

6.1.3 California Standards: Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Know various forms of display for data sets, including a stem-and-leaf plot or box-and-whisker plot; use the forms to display a single set of data or to compare two sets of data.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how you can compare data sets using box-and-whisker plots.

Last Lesson you learned how to make a box-and-whisker plot to display a set of data. In this Lesson you’ll use the features of box-andwhisker plots to understand real-life data sets. You’ll also see how box-and-whisker plots can be used to compare two data sets.

The Box Shows the Middle 50% of the Data Values It’s useful to be able to compare two or more data sets. Drawing two boxand-whisker plots on the same number line is a good way of doing this. Remember these important points: • The box represents the middle 50% of the data. • The box length shows how spread out the middle 50% of the data is.

Key words: • • • •

box whisker spread concentrated

ead out The middle 50% of this set of data is fairly spr spread out.

at ed around the median. This middle 50% of this set of data is c on oncc entr entrat ated

• If the median is at the upper end of the box, you know that one-quarter of the data values are concentrated just above the median value, and that the data is spread out more below the median. Check it out:

One-quarter of the data values are spread out across this region.

Half the data values are between the minimum value and the median. So:

One-quarter of the data values are concentrated in this region.

The Whiskers Show the Full Range of the Data Values Half the data values.

Half the data values.

The lengths of the whiskers tell you how far the very lowest and very highest points are from the middle 50% of the data. One-quarter of the data values are concentrated in this region.

ly close to the middle 50% of the data. The minimum and maximum of this data set are fair fairly

The minimum and maximum of this data set are a long w ay from the middle 50% of the data. way

322

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

One-quarter of the data values are spread out in this region.

There are Different Ways to Compare Data Sets Comparing two sets of data can be quite complicated. There are many differences that you may need to think about. For instance, if you only looked at the minimum and maximum values of data sets, you wouldn’t get a complete picture. One set of data might have one unusually high value, with the rest of the data really low. The second data set has a much higher maximum value, but most of its values are actually lower than the first data set’s.

Example

1

These box-and-whisker plots show the prices of stock in two stores. What do they tell you about the price differences in the two stores? STORE A

STORE B

10

20

30

40

50 60 price in dollars

70

80

90

Solution

Looking at the minimum and maximum values: Store B has the lowest priced item ($10). Store A’s lowest price is much higher ($30). Both stores sell their most expensive item for the same price ($90). So Store B has a greater range of prices. Check it out: The difference between the lower and upper quartile is called the “interquartile range.”

Looking at the medians: Store A’s stock has a median price of $70, whereas Store B’s stock has a median price of $40. So Store B’s items are typically less expensive than Store A’s. Another way of looking at this is that half of Store A’s stock is under $70, but half of Store B’s stock is under $40. Looking at the quartiles: The middle 50% of the prices in Store B are much more spread out than they are in Store A. They go from $30 to nearly $70. The middle 50% of the prices in Store A are concentrated more tightly around the median value of $70.

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

323

Example

Check it out:

2

The box-and-whisker plots below show the test scores in two classes. Compare the two sets of scores. Class A

If one section of the box is longer than the other, it doesn’t mean that they contain different amounts of data. It just means that the data in the larger section is more spread out.

Class B

40 Don’t forget: Always label your box-andwhisker plots so that you know which set of data belongs to which plot.

45

50

55

60

Solution

• Class A’s test scores had a much larger range than Class B’s. Both the highest and lowest scores overall were found in Class A. • Class B’s scores were generally higher than Class A’s. The median score for Class B was more than 50, but for Class B it was about 43. • More than half the students in Class B scored more than 50, whereas in Class A only one-quarter scored more than 50.

Guided Practice 1. These box-and-whisker plots show the ages of people using a SATURDAY: public pool on two different days. MONDAY: Compare the differences in ages 0 of the pool-users, and suggest why these differences are seen.

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Independent Practice 1. The data below shows the ages of the people who subscribe to two different magazines. Draw a box-and-whisker plot of each set, and use them to compare the ages of the readers of each magazine. Magazine 1: 20, 21, 32, 19, 47, 65, 34, 21, 33, 52, 24, 20, 19, 31, 23, 22 Magazine 2: 45, 67, 20, 72, 54, 37, 51, 54, 50, 52, 44, 39, 85, 29, 57, 60

Now try these: Lesson 6.1.3 additional questions — p462

2. A group of students took a test in March, then followed a special program for two months before retaking the test in June. Their scores are shown below. Compare the sets of results by drawing box-and-whisker plots. March test results: 20, 23, 28, 31, 24, 24, 25, 27, 25, 25, 23, 22, 25 June test results: 33, 26, 35, 28, 21, 30, 31, 35, 23, 26, 33, 29, 26

Round Up There has been a lot covered in the last two Lessons. Make sure you understand everything you’ve covered — like how to find quartiles, and how to compare data shown on box-and-whisker plots. 324

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

Lesson

6.1.4 California Standards: Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Know various forms of display for data sets, including a stem-and-leaf plot or box-and-whisker plot; use the forms to display a single set of data or to compare two sets of data.

What it means for you:

Stem-and-Leaf Plots Stem-and-leaf plots are a way of displaying data sets so that you can see their main features more easily. Like box-and-whisker plots, stem-and-leaf plots are also useful for comparing two data sets.

A Stem-and-Leaf Plot Has a Stem and a Leaf A stem-and-leaf plot is a way of displaying data so that you can see clearly how widely spread it is and which values are more common. The diagram below displays the data set: {27, 29, 32, 34, 34, 35, 39, 40, 41, 41}.

You’ll learn how to make a stem-and-leaf plot to display and compare data sets.

The s ttee m contains the t ens digit of each data value.

Key words: • • • •

stem leaf tens digit ones digit

The leav leavee s contain the corresponding ones digits of the data, in order.

2

79

3

24459

4

011

This leaf contains the thirtt y-something values thir — 32, 34, 34, 35, 39.

Key:

2

3

Check it out:

represents 32 You always need to include a k e y — this explains how the stem-and-leaf plot should be read.

You don’t usually draw the outlines of the stem and leaves — but these have been included here to show you why they’re called stem-and-leaf plots.

Example

1

Make a stem-and-leaf plot to display the following data: Check it out: The stem doesn’t always contain tens digits — it depends on the data set. For example, the plot below represents this data set: 1.9, 2.4, 2.7, 3.6 1

9

2

4 7

3

6

Key: 1 9 represents 1.9 Other examples of what the stem may contain are hundreds or thousands.

34, 36, 36, 37, 41, 45, 46, 49, 50, 50 Solution

The data contains values in the 30s, 40s, and 50s. So give the stem 3 rows — 3 tens, 4 tens, and 5 tens. Now fill in the leaves. For example, the row with 3 on the stem has a leaf that contains 4, 6, 6, and 7 to represent 34, 36, 36, and 37. 3

4 6 6 7

4

1 5 6 9

5

0 0

Key: 4

5 represents 45

Guided Practice 1. Draw a stem-and-leaf plot of the following set of data. 98, 76, 79, 85, 85, 81, 78, 94, 89 Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

325

Find the Median and Range from Stem-and-Leaf Plots You can find the median, minimum, maximum, and range of the data from a stem-and-leaf plot. The example below shows you how. Example

2

Use the stem-and-leaf plot below to find the: a) median of the data, b) minimum, maximum, and range of the data. Check it out:

This is the minimum value — it’s 56.

From the shape of the stem-and-leaf plot you can see that most values are in the 60s and 70s, with just a few in the 50s and 80s.

5

6 9

6

0 3 5 5 6 6 8

7

1 1 3 7 9

8

0

Key: 5

This is the median (the 8th value) — it’s 66.

This is the maximum value — it’s 80.

6 represents 56

Solution

a) You find the median in exactly the same way as usual, except the data points are now spread out over a number of rows. First count the number of data points, and decide which is the middle data point. There are 15 points on this stem-and-leaf plot — this is odd, so the median is the middle value. The middle value is the 8th value, which is 66. b) The minimum value is the first number in the top row. So the minimum value = 56. The maximum value is the last number in the bottom row. So the maximum value = 80. The range is the difference between these numbers. So the range = 80 – 56 = 24.

Guided Practice 2. The stem-and-leaf plot below shows the number of children who attended an after-school program each week. Find the median number of children and the range. 0

8 9

1

0 2 3 5 7 8 8

2

1 1 1

Key: 1

2 represents 12

3. Find the median and the range of the data shown on the stem-and-leaf plot you made in Guided Practice Exercise 1.

326

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

Use Stem-and-Leaf Plots to Display Two Data Sets A stem-and-leaf plot with leaves on both sides of the stem can be used to compare data sets. This is called a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot. The leaves share the same stem, with one data set displayed on one side, and the other on the other side. This side shows the data set: {63, 65, 69, 71, 73, 74, 74, 75, 77, 80, 81, 83}

953 754431

Check it out: The larger values are further away from the stem on each side of a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.

310

59

6 7 8 9

3557 01146 1 This side shows the data set: {65, 69, 73, 75, 75, 77, 80, 81, 81, 84, 86, 91}

Key:

Don’t forget: A good first step when drawing stem-and-leaf plots is to order your data from smallest to largest. This way, you are less likely to make mistakes like leaving numbers out.

One stem — shared by both data sets.

represents 63 from the first data set, and 65 from the second.

Guided Practice 4. Draw a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot of the following sets of data. Test scores for class A: {56, 57, 57, 59, 62, 64, 64, 68, 69, 70, 72} Test scores for class B: {45, 52, 53, 53, 55, 57, 61, 61, 65, 68, 68}

Compare Data Sets Shown on Stem-and-Leaf Plots To compare the data sets, look at the shape of the back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot. Sometimes there will be a few leaves that are much longer than the others — this means the data is more concentrated around a certain value. Other sets of data will have lots of shorter leaves — which means the data is more spread out. You can also see on the diagram which data set contains the highest number, and which data set contains the lowest number. For example: The data on this side is clustered tightly around the high-30s and 40s.

Key: 8 3

1

9 9

2

0 2 8

9 8 8

3

1 5 7

7 7 5 5 5 3 2

4

0 8

The data on this side is fairly evenly spread between 19 and 48.

1 represents 38 from the first data set, and 31 from the second. Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

327

Example

Check it out: The median age for each trip was 66. The age range on Company A’s trip was 14. This was much smaller than Company B’s, which was 33. This supports what the shape of the stem-and-leaf plot shows.

3

Two holiday companies each organized a trip to visit the pyramids in Egypt for people aged over 50. The ages of the passengers on each trip are shown on the stem-and-leaf plot below. Compare the ages of the people who traveled with each company. Company B Company A 7 6 5 2 5 5 6 9 9 8 8 7 6 5 4 1

6

0 3 5 5 6 6 8

0

7

1 1 3 7 9

8

0 2 3 5

Key: 1 6

0 represents 61 from Company A, and 60 from Company B.

Solution

The ages of the people who traveled with Company B were fairly evenly spread between 52 and 85. (The leaves are all of a similar length.) The people who traveled with Company A were typically younger, and were closer together in age — most of them were in their 60s. (This is shown by a very long leaf representing the people in their 60s.)

Guided Practice 5. Look at the back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot of the test scores that you drew in Guided Practice Exercise 4. Compare the two sets of data.

Independent Practice 1. List all the individual data values that are contained in the stem-and-leaf plot below. 2

5 5 6 7 9

3

1 1 1 4 4 8 9 9

Key: 4 1 1 2 2 2 4 3 1 represents 31 2. In the stem-and-leaf plot in Exercise 1, how many of the values lie between 30 and 35?

Now try these: Lesson 6.1.4 additional questions — p463

3. Below is a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot of golf scores of individuals on two teams. (In golf, the lower the score the better.) Which team has players of a more similar standard? Explain your answer. Team A Team B 8 7 6 9 7 6 6 5 4 1 1 8 1 3 8 8 0 9 0 1 3 Key: 8

7

6 represents 78 from Team A, and 76 from Team B.

Round Up Stem-and-leaf plots are great for showing the trends in data sets. They show data in a much more visual way than lists of numbers do. And displaying two data sets back to back makes the main differences nice and clear. 328

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

Lesson

6.1.5

Preparing Data to Be Analyzed

California Standards: Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Know various forms of display for data sets, including a stem-and-leaf plot or box-and-whisker plot; use the forms to display a single set of data or to compare two sets of data.

What it means for you: You’ll practice preparing a real-life set of data ready to be analyzed.

Key words: • analyze

For data to be meaningful, you usually need to collect quite a lot of it. For instance, if you want to find out the most popular song, then just asking your three closest friends won’t give you a very reliable result. In this Lesson you’ll display some larger sets of real-life data, using the methods that you’ve learned in this Section so far. Then next Lesson you’ll think about what the data actually shows.

Real-Life Data is Used to Answer Questions Real-life data can be collected to try to answer a question. For instance, a company has produced a new medicine designed to lower cholesterol. They want to find out if it works, so their question is: “Does the medicine lower cholesterol when taken daily for two months?” Before entering into a large study, the company gives the medicine to 25 volunteers. They 1 record each person’s cholesterol level before they take the drug, and again after they have been taking it for two months. The data is shown in the tables below:

Check it out: From looking at the raw data in the table, you can see that some people’s cholesterol did decrease, but other people’s stayed the same, while some people’s cholesterol actually increased. It’s hard to tell what the general trend is though.

Pe rson

Be fore (units)

Afte r (units)

Pe rson

Be fore (units)

Afte r (units)

1

190

185

16

215

175

2

21 0

210

17

220

200

3

185

185

18

190

190

4

190

17 0

19

195

185

5

215

210

20

210

195

6

205

20 5

21

190

180

7

210

165

22

215

210

8

22 0

205

23

210

185

9

190

185

24

200

180

10

200

20 5

25

185

195

11

195

200

12

200

18 0

13

215

210

14

215

185

15

205

165

They hope to use this data to answer their question. Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

329

Example

1

The company wants to make a box-and-whisker plot of the cholesterol levels before taking the medicine, and a box-and-whisker plot of the cholesterol levels after taking the medicine. Find the minimum and maximum values, the median, and the lower and upper quartiles for each data set. Solution

The first step is to put the data in order: Check it out: It’s easy to leave out a value when putting them in order. Check you still have 25 values in each ordered set.

“Before” data: 185, 185, 190, 190, 190, 190, 190, 195, 195, 200, 200, 200, 205, 205, 210, 210, 210, 210, 215, 215, 215, 215, 215, 220, 220 “After” data: 165, 165, 170, 175, 180, 180, 180, 185, 185, 185, 185, 185, 185, 190, 195, 195, 200, 200, 205, 205, 205, 210, 210, 210, 210. The minimum and maximum values: • Minimum of “before” data is 185, maximum is 220

Don’t forget: Finding the minimum, maximum, median, lower quartile, and upper quartile was covered in the last few Lessons. Look back if you can’t remember how to find them.

• Minimum of “after” data is 165, maximum is 210 The median: There are 25 pieces of data in each set, which is odd, so the median is the middle value. This is the 13th data point of each set. • Median of “before” data is 205 • Median of “after” data is 185

Check it out:

The upper and lower quartiles: Each half has 12 data points, which is even, so the upper and lower quartiles are the average of the 6th and 7th data points in each half. • Lower quartile of “before” data = (190 + 190) ÷ 2 = 190

There’s an odd number in the full data set — so you don’t include the median value when working out the quartiles.

• Lower quartile of “after” data = (180 + 180) ÷ 2 = 180 • Upper quartile of “before” data = (215 + 215) ÷ 2 = 215 • Upper quartile of “after” data = (205 + 205) ÷ 2 = 205

Guided Practice 1. Marissa is growing sunflowers in her yard. She treats half of the sunflowers with water and a new plant food, and the other half with just water. Marissa wants to answer this question: “Does the new plant food make sunflowers grow taller?” The data below shows the heights of the sunflowers at the end of her experiment. Find the values needed to draw a box-and-whisker plot for each set of data. With food (in cm): 230, 210, 180, 196, 204, 202, 185, 180, 120, 156, 178, 195, 205, 250, 236, 226, 210, 207, 197, 180 Without food (in cm): 205, 230, 210, 196, 186, 198, 204, 176, 134, 156, 202, 185, 182, 178, 208, 165, 174, 182, 110, 162 330

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

Display Your Data Sets to Show the Trends Clearly Once you’ve prepared your data, you can display it. Example

2

Display the “before” and “after” data in box-and-whisker plots on the same number line. Check it out: You should choose the type of plot or chart that shows the important features of your data most clearly. Don’t forget about the types of charts you’ve met in previous grades — such as bar graphs.

Solution

The key values for the “before” and “after” data sets were worked out in Example 1: “Before” data: minimum = 185, lower quartile = 190, median = 205, upper quartile = 215, maximum = 220. “After” data: minimum = 165, lower quartile = 180, median = 185, upper quartile = 205, maximum = 210.

BEFORE Check it out: The number line needs to include the lower minimum (165) and also the higher maximum (220).

AFTER 160

170

180

190

200

210

220

Guided Practice 2. Draw box-and-whisker plots to display Marissa’s sets of sunflower height data from Exercise 1.

Independent Practice 1. A local man is conducting a survey to compare happiness in two nearby towns — Town A and Town B. Inhabitants were asked to rate their happiness on a scale of 1–10. The results are below. Prepare them for analyzing, and display the data in a box-and-whisker plot. Now try these:

Town A: 2, 5, 7, 3, 6, 9, 2, 4, 5, 5, 6, 4, 4, 3, 7, 8, 6, 5, 5, 3, 1, 8, 9, 5

Lesson 6.1.5 additional questions — p463

Town B: 5, 7, 7, 8, 8, 6, 6, 5, 4, 4, 6, 9, 9, 10, 3, 7, 8, 8, 9, 6, 7, 4, 8, 9 2. Use a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot to display the “before” and “after” sets of cholesterol data from p329.

Round Up Once you’ve displayed your data, then it’s ready for analyzing. This means working out what it means, and seeing whether it answers your question. In the next Lesson, you’ll analyze the data sets that you’ve displayed in this Lesson. Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

331

Lesson

6.1.6

Analyzing Data

California Standards:

It’s easy to think you’re done when you have your data displayed as nice neat plots, but you need to think about what the display is telling you. You also have to think back to why you collected the data in the first place, and see if it answers your question.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.1 Know various forms of display for data sets, including a stem-and-leaf plot or box-and-whisker plot; use the forms to display a single set of data or to compare two sets of data. Mathematical Reasoning 2.6 Express the solution clearly and logically by using the appropriate mathematical notation and terms and clear language; support solutions with evidence in both verbal and symbolic work.

What it means for you: You’ll learn how to analyze data displayed in box-andwhisker plots and stem-andleaf plots. You’ll also consider whether or not the data answers the original question.

Compare the Similarities; Contrast the Differences To analyze the results of a study with two sets of data, you need to compare the displays of each set of data. You have to look at what is similar between the data sets and what is different. Example

In the previous Lesson, you drew box-and-whisker plots to show the cholesterol levels of a group of people before and after they took a certain medicine for two months. These box-and-whisker plots are shown below. What do they show you about cholesterol levels before and after taking the drug? BEFORE AFTER

Key words: • • • •

compare contrast conclusion limitation

1

160

170

180

190

200

210

220

Solution

There is a clear difference between the two data sets. The “before” box is much further toward the higher end of the scale. This means that cholesterol levels were generally higher before the medicine was taken. The median is much lower in the “after” box, which indicates the typical cholesterol level was reduced by the medicine.

332

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

Guided Practice 1. Look back at the box-and-whisker plots that you drew last Lesson to illustrate the height of Marissa’s sunflowers. Compare the data shown on the plots. 2. Plot Marissa’s data in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot. Which diagram do you think best shows the differences and similarities between the two sets of data? Explain your answer.

Draw Conclusions After Analyzing Data Conclusions bring all your analysis together, and relate what you’ve found out to the original question. Check it out: You need to be able to back up your conclusions with evidence from the plots of data.

Example

2

The cholesterol data on p329 was collected to try to answer this question: “Does the medicine lower cholesterol when taken daily for two months?” Does the data support an answer to this question? Solution

The data showed that there was a general reduction in people’s cholesterol levels after taking the medicine. You can conclude that yes, the medicine does tend to reduce cholesterol levels when taken daily for two months. There were people in the data set for whom the medicine didn’t work. You can’t tell this from the box-and-whisker plots though, because they don’t show individual data points. You can just see the overall trend.

Think About Any Limitations of Your Investigation Don’t forget: The sample is all the people or things you collect data about. It’s usually a small part of the whole population. The population is the entire group that you want to know about. You usually use a sample because the whole population is too large for you to be able to collect data on every member.

Your investigation is unlikely to give you perfect results. It’s important to understand some reasons for this: • You might not have used a big enough sample. The bigger your sample, the more accurate and reliable your results are likely to be. • Your sample might not represent the population well. For instance, if all the people in the cholesterol study were women, or all aged 40, you couldn’t say if the results were likely to be true for everyone.

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

333

Guided Practice 3. In Exercise 1, you analyzed the results from Marissa’s sunflower experiment. Draw some conclusions from your analysis — do you think the plant food has made the sunflowers grow taller?

Independent Practice The data below shows the number of vehicles that passed along Road A during each day of August and December. August: 73, 67, 79, 86, 78, 54, 65, 63, 73, 75, 79, 69, 62, 63, 75, 59, 78, 79, 72, 75, 64, 68, 69, 62, 56, 75, 78, 84, 82, 78, 65 December: 65, 68, 53, 52, 49, 67, 73, 62, 65, 59, 54, 71, 60, 60, 56, 57, 43, 51, 63, 54, 58, 69, 56, 58, 58, 62, 61, 53, 41, 47, 53 Joe, the local town planner, wants to know whether there is a higher demand for the road during the summer months. 1. Find the minimum, lower quartile, median, upper quartile, and maximum of each data set. 2. Plot the data on a box-and-whisker plot. 3. Plot the data on a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot. 4. Compare the sets of data on each of the plots you have made. Is there a higher demand for the road during the summer months? Moesha wants to compare the heights of the seventh grade boys in her school with the heights of the seventh grade girls. 5. Write down a clear question that Moesha might want to know the answer to. 6. What sets of data could Moesha collect?

7. Two running clubs both believe that their members are faster at running 100 m than the other club’s members. The data below shows the personal best times (in seconds) for the members of each club. Club A: 12.5, 12.3, 11.3, 11.2, 12.9, 12.7, 12.4, 11.9, 12.0, 11.6, 11.5, 10.7, 10.9, 11.0, 11.2, 12.4, 13.1 Now try these: Lesson 6.1.6 additional questions — p463

Club B: 10.1, 11.9, 13.1, 12.0, 12.2, 12.3, 12.6, 11.9, 12.9, 13.0, 13.5, 13.4, 13.9, 12.6, 12.5, 13.4, 12.2 Display the results clearly and explain whether you think they show which club’s members are faster.

Round Up You can collect, display, and analyze data to try to answer a question. You’ve got to be aware that the conclusions you draw have limitations — they can only be definitely true for the sample you used. 334

Section 6.1 — Analyzing Data

Section 6.2 introduction — an exploration into:

Age and Height The purpose of this Exploration is to determine whether there is a relationship between the age of a person and their height. You can find out if a relationship exists by plotting points on a graph called a scatter plot. This provides a visual check of whether one variable affects the other variable. A collection of points on a graph sometimes fall in a diagonal band. This means the pair of variables represented by the points are related. Example Plot Variable 1 against Variable 2 on a scatter plot. Say whether these variables are related. Var i ab l e 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8

Solution

1 3 2 4 5 6 5 7

Var i ab l e 2

The following coordinates have been taken from the data set. (2, 1) (3, 3) (4, 2) (5, 4) (5, 5) (6, 6) (7, 5) (8, 7)

Variable 2

10

These points can be plotted on a graph.

8 6

The points form a diagonal band on the graph — so the variables are related. As one variable increases, the other does too.

4 2 0 0

2

4

6

10

8

Variable 1

Exercises Fam i l y m em b er

Maura

Tobias

Chloe

Wendy

A g e (year s )

14

3

8

19

10

6

Hei g h t (i n c h es )

63

36

54

72

57

42

Copy these axes onto graph paper. Plot the age and corresponding height of each family member. 2. Does there appear to be a relationship between the age and height of a person? Explain your answer. 3. Plot your age and corresponding height on the graph. Label the point with your name. 4. Does your age and height fit with the trend shown in the scatter plot?

George Spencer

100

Height (inches)

1. This table shows the ages and heights of six children in a family.

80 60 40 20 0 0

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Age (years)

5. Based on the graph, predict what the height of a 12 year old would be.

Round Up Some variables are related to each other — the examples on this page are positively related (or correlated). When one increases, so does the other. Other variables are negatively correlated — when one increases, the other decreases. There’s more on this later in the Section. Section 6.2 Explor a tion — Age and Height 335 Explora

Lesson

Section 6.2

6.2.1

Making Scatterplots

California Standards:

You’d expect some variables to be related to each other. For example, it might not be a surprise to learn that as grade level increases, so does the average amount of homework that’s set. Scatterplots are a way of displaying sets of data to see if and how the variables are related to each other.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.2 Represent two numerical variables on a scatterplot and informally describe how the data points are distributed and any apparent relationship that exists between the two variables (e.g., between time spent on homework and grade level).

What it means for you: You’ll use scatterplots to display sets of data.

Some Things May Be Related to Each Other Some variables are related to other variables. You can make conjectures, or educated guesses, about how things might be related. For example, • The hotter the day is, the more ice cream will be sold. • The faster you drive a car, the fewer miles you’ll get to the gallon. • The older a child, the later his or her bedtime.

Key words: • • • •

conjecture scatterplot scale axes

You Can Collect Data to Test Your Conjecture To see if your conjecture is correct, you first need to collect data. For example, to see if it’s true that ice cream sales increase on hotter days, you need to find the average temperature for a number of days, and the number of ice creams sold on each of these days. You might end up with a table of data that looks like this: Average temperature of day (°F)

41

63

55

73

70

90

48

66

87

Number of ice creams sold that day

16

67

80

101

100

1 70

36

73

123 114

Example

1

What data could you collect to test the conjecture “the taller a person, the bigger their feet?”

Check it out: A conjecture is supposed to be an educated guess, so make sure you have a reason for thinking it might be true.

Solution

You would need to collect data on the heights of a set of people, and on the size of their feet.

Guided Practice 1. What data would you need to collect to test the conjecture, “the older a child, the later his or her bedtime”? 2. Design a table in which to record this data.

336

79

Section 6.2 — Scatterplots

Mark Data Pairs on a Scatterplot You can display two sets of data values on a scatterplot. The values need to be in pairs. A scatterplot is a really good way of seeing if the data sets are related — there’s a lot more on this in the next two Lessons. Below is the scatterplot showing the number of ice creams sold against the temperature. Check it out: Each pair of data values is like a coordinate — you plot them in exactly the same way. So 16 ice creams sold at 41 °F can be thought of as (41, 16). You’ve got to make sure you get the data in the right order though — temperature is on the horizontal axis (x-axis).

Each cross represents a pair of data values — the number of ice creams sold on a day of a certain temperature. Number of 180 ice creams 160 sold 140

There were 170 ice creams sold when the temperature was 90 °F.

120 100

There were 101 ice creams sold when the temperature was 73 °F.

80 60 40 20 0 The scale doesn’t have to start at zero. You can show that it doesn’t by putting a little “wiggle” in the axis.

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

Temperature (°F)

Scatterplots Have Two Axes with Different Scales Check it out: It doesn’t matter which data set goes on which axis. The scatterplot above could have had “number of ice creams sold” on the horizontal axis and “temperature” on the vertical axis.

You have to think carefully about the scale of each axis. Each axis represents a different thing and is likely to have a different scale. Here’s how to choose a sensible scale for an axis. 1. Look at the minimum and maximum values of the data set. You have to choose a starting point and an ending point for the scale that fits all of the data. Your scale doesn’t have to start at zero. If it doesn’t, you include a little “wiggle,” as above. The temperatures above were all between 41 °F and 90 °F — so 40 °F and 90 °F were suitable start and end points. It made sense not to start the axis from zero.

Don’t forget: The range is the maximum value minus the minimum value. So the temperature range is: 90 – 41 = 49 °F

2. Choose a sensible step size. It must be small enough so that you can show your data clearly, but big enough to fit on your piece of paper. The temperatures above only had a range of about 50 °F, so 5 °F steps were used. The number of ice creams sold had a much bigger range, so steps of 20 were used.

Don’t forget to label each axis clearly. Once you’ve done all this you can start plotting your data.

Section 6.2 — Scatterplots

337

Example

2

Make a scatterplot of the data below relating people’s ages and heights. Age (years)

10

19

4

6

10

8

14

12

13

Height (in.)

45

67

31

43

51

46

54

65

47

Solution

First you need to decide on a scale for each axis. The ages go from 4 to 19, so a scale might run from 0 to 20, in steps of 2. The heights go from 31 in. to 67 in. This range is larger, so the scale might go from 20 to 70 in steps of 5 inches. Then you can plot the values. Think of each pair of values as coordinates with the form (age, height), instead of (x, y). The first three values in the table would be plotted at (10, 45), (19, 67), and (4, 31). 70

Don’t forget:

65

Take extra care when you’re plotting not to get confused between different scales on your axes. It’s really easy to mark something in the wrong place.

(19, 67)

60 55

Height (in.)

50 45

(10, 45)

40 35

(4, 31)

30 25 20 0

4

2

8

6

12

10

18

16

14

20

Age (years)

Guided Practice 3. Use the data below to make a scatterplot relating foot length to height.

Now try these:

Foot length (in.)

7

8

8.3

9

8.5

7.4

6.5

7.5

8.1

Height (in.)

64

68

70.1

72

69

57

59

63

68

Foot length (in.)

8.2

9.1

7. 5

7

6.8

7.8

8. 4

9.5

8.2

Height (in.)

62

73

61

65

67

71

69

75

70

Independent Practice

Lesson 6.2.1 additional questions — p464

1. Miguel makes the conjecture, “the more people there are in a household, the heavier their recycling bins.” What data would you collect to test Miguel’s conjecture? 2. The data below was collected to test this conjecture: “The older a child, the less time he or she will sleep per day.” Draw a scatterplot of this data. Age (years)

4.5

0.5

8

15

11

14

10.5

2

6

Hours of sleep

11

16

10

8

9

7

9

12

10

Round Up Now you know what a scatterplot is and how to draw one. The next Lesson shows you how to interpret scatterplots, and how to decide whether, or how closely, the variables are related. 338

Section 6.2 — Scatterplots

Lesson

6.2.2

Shapes of Scatterplots

California Standards:

In the last Lesson, you learned how to make scatterplots from sets of data. By looking at the pattern of the points in a scatterplot, you can decide how the variables are related — for example, whether ice cream sales really do increase on hot days.

Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.2 Represent two numerical variables on a scatterplot and informally describe how the data points are distributed and any apparent relationship that exists between the two variables (e.g., between time spent on homework and grade level).

What it means for you: You’ll learn about different types of correlation and what they look like on scatterplots.

Key words: • • • •

slope positive correlation negative correlation strong correlation

Positive Slope Means Positive Correlation If two things are correlated, they are related to each other — if one changes, the other will too. Two variables are positively correlated if one variable increases when the other does. For example, children’s heights are positively correlated with their ages — because older children are typically taller than younger ones. Variables are positively correlated if one variable increases as the other does. If two positively correlated variables are plotted on a scatterplot, the points will lie in a band from bottom left to top right. If you were to draw a line through the points it would have a positive slope. The thinner the band of points on the scatterplot, the more strongly correlated the data is.

Check it out: If two things are correlated, it doesn’t necessarily mean one causes the other. For instance, shark attacks and ice cream sales may show positive correlation, but one doesn’t cause the other. They’re both increased by hot weather, which makes people more likely to swim in the sea, and to buy ice cream.

This graph shows positive correlation.

This graph shows strong positive correlation.

Negative Slope Means Negative Correlation Negative correlation is when one quantity increases as another decreases. For example, values of cars usually decrease as their age increases. Variables are negatively correlated if one variable increases as the other decreases. If a scatterplot shows negative correlation, the points will lie in a band from top left to bottom right. They’ll follow a line with a negative slope.

Section 6.2 — Scatterplots

339

The thinner the band of points, the more strongly correlated the data is. Check it out: The scatterplot you drew in Independent Practice Exercise 2 in the last Lesson showed negative correlation. The ages of children and the amount of time they sleep are negatively correlated.

This graph shows negative correlation.

This graph shows strong negative correlation.

No Obvious Correlation Means Random Distribution When points seem to be spread randomly all over the scatterplot, then it is said that there is no obvious correlation. For example, people’s heights and their test scores are not correlated — the height of a person has no effect on their expected test score.

This graph shows no obvious correlation. Example

1

Describe the correlation shown in the scatterplot opposite. Number of Check it out:

Solution

The correlation isn’t perfect here. If it was perfect the points would lie in a straight line.

The plot shows positive correlation. (As the temperature increases, the number of ice creams sold tends to increase.) The correlation is fairly strong — the points lie in a fairly narrow band.

340

Section 6.2 — Scatterplots

180

ice creams 160 sold 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

Temperature (°F)

Guided Practice No. of cars using street A per day

No. of burglaries per 1000 people

In Exercises 1–4, describe the type of correlation. 100 2. 100 1. 80

60

40

20

0 0

20

60

40

80

80

60

40

20

100

0 0

20

40

60

100

80

Amount of petrol sold on street B per day ($)

% of households with burglar alarms

4. Attendance (%)

90

80

70

60

50 0

20

40

60

80

100

Time spent on homework per day (h)

100

3.

5

4

3

2

1

0

2

0

4

6

10

8

Grade level

Average test score (%)

Independent Practice 1. Brandon investigates the relationship between the number of spectators at a football game and the amount of money taken at the concession stand. What kind of correlation would you expect? 2. If every job you do takes one job off your to-do list, what kind of correlation would you expect between the number of jobs you do and the number of jobs on your to-do list?

Lesson 6.2.2 additional questions — p464

No. of days absent from school

Now try these:

Width of square (in.)

In Exercises 3–4, describe the correlation shown. 3. 100 4. 50 80

60

40

20

0 0

20

40

60

80

Length of a square (in.)

100

40

30

20

10

0 0

20

40

60

100

80

End of year test score

Round Up If the points lie roughly in a diagonal line across a scatterplot, it means the variables are correlated. An “uphill” band means positive correlation, whereas a “downhill” band means negative correlation. Section 6.2 — Scatterplots

341

Lesson

Using Scatterplots

6.2.3 Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 1.2 Represent two numerical variables on a scatterplot and informally describe how the data points are distributed and any apparent relationship that exists between the two variables (e.g., between time spent on homework and grade level). Mathematical Reasoning 2.3 Estimate unknown quantities graphically and solve for them by using logical reasoning and arithmetic and algebraic techniques.

If you have many pairs of values plotted on a scatterplot, and they all fall in a neat band, you know the two variables are correlated. If you plotted some more pairs of values, you’d expect them to lie within the band of points. You can use this idea to predict values. For instance, from the scatterplot of ice cream sales against average temperature, you could predict how many ice creams would be sold when the temperature was 50 °F.

Finding the Highest and Lowest Values Box-and-whisker plots don’t show all the raw values — just the maximum and minimum values and the general trends. Scatterplots are different — they show the raw data values, as well as trends. Example

1

The scatterplot below shows the number of burglaries per 1000 people against the percentage of households that have burglar alarms installed. What was the greatest number of burglaries per 1000 people recorded?

What it means for you: You’ll predict data values using scatterplots. You’ll also practice finding the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Solution

The greatest number of burglaries recorded is the point that lies furthest up the vertical axis on the graph.

Key words: • prediction • scatterplot • line of best fit

The highest number of burglaries recorded per 1000 people is 60.

No. of burglaries per 1000 people

California Standards:

100

80

60

40

20

0 0

20

60

40

80

100

% of households with burglar alarms

For Exercises 1–3, refer to the scatterplot on the right. 1. What was the highest number of cars recorded using street A on a single day? 2. What was the greatest amount of money spent on gasoline in street B on any day? 3. How many cars used street A on the day when the least amount of gasoline was sold on street B? 342

Section 6.2 — Scatterplots

No. of cars using street A per day

Guided Practice 100

80

60

40

20

0

0

20

40

60

80

Amount of gasoline sold on street B per day ($)

100

A Line of Best Fit Shows the Trend in the Data Not many sets of data are perfectly correlated, so a line of best fit is used to show the trend. If the data was perfectly correlated you’d expect all the points to lie on this line. Example

2

No. of burglaries per 1000 people

Draw a line of best fit on the scatterplot below.

Check it out: A clear plastic ruler is useful for drawing lines of best fit. You can adjust it until you think the edge is in the right place.

100

80

About half the data points are on this side of the line...

60

40

... and about half the data points are on this side of the line

20

0 0

20

60

40

100

80

% of people with burglar alarms

The scatterplot shows negative correlation, so the line of best fit will have a negative slope. The line of best fit splits the data approximately in half. You should have roughly the same number of points on each side of the line. You can’t add a line of best fit to data that has no correlation.

Guided Practice 4. The hand spans of 11 students are measured, together with the lengths Example of their arms. The 1 measurements are recorded in the table below. Hand span (cm)

19

18

20

15

21

22

16

17

20

24

26

Arm length (cm)

50

46

56

40

60

63

48

44

48

57

60

Plot a scatterplot of this data. Add a line of best fit to your scatterplot. 5. The ages and values of a particular type of car are recorded below. Age of car (years)

0

2

7

12

11

6

8

1

6

3

3

8

9

Value of car 10,000 9000 4000 1000 4000 6000 7000 8000 7000 6000 8000 5000 4000 (dollars)

Plot a scatterplot of this data. Add a line of best fit to your scatterplot.

Section 6.2 — Scatterplots

343

Use Lines of Best Fit to Make Predictions You can use a line of best fit to predict what other data points might be. Example

3

Predict the number of burglaries per 1000 people if 50% of households have burglar alarms.

No. of burglaries per 1000 people

Solution

Check it out:

Number of ice creams sold

You can use scatterplots to predict data points outside of the range you were given. You have to take care though as you don’t know whether the data will continue in the same pattern. For instance, you could extend the axes and line of best fit in the graph below and predict that 400 ice creams would be sold at a temperature of 160 °F. This is obviously wrong as people wouldn’t survive if it was that hot.

100

Start at 50% on the horizontal axis. Read up to the line of best fit. Read across from the line of best fit to the vertical axis.

80

60

When 50% of households have burglar alarms, the number of burgaries per 1000 people is expected to be around 33.

40

33 20

0 0

100 80 50 60 % of households with burglar alarms 20

40

Guided Practice

400 360 320 280 240 200 160 120 80 40

In Guided Practice Exercise 4, you drew a scatterplot of arm length against hand span. Use your line of best fit to predict: 6. the arm length of a student with a 23 cm hand span. 7. the hand span of a student with a 52 cm arm length. 40

60

80

100

120

140

In Guided Practice Exercise 5, you drew a scatterplot of values against ages for a certain type of car. Use your line of best fit to predict: 8. the expected value of a 5-year-old car of this type. 9. the age of a car that is valued at $5500.

160

Temperature (°F)

Now try these: Lesson 6.2.3 additional questions — p464

Independent Practice The table below shows the height (in feet) of mountains with their cumulative snowfall on April 1st (in inches). 1. Create a scatterplot of the data. 2. Draw in a line of best fit for the data. 3. A mountain has a height of 7200 feet. What would you expect its cumulative snowfall to be on April 1st? Height (ft)

6700

7900

7600

6800

6200

5800

8200

6700

Snowfall (in.)

153

174

249

17 2

128

32

238

1 62

Round Up Lines of best fit follow the trend for the data. You can use them to predict values — but remember, chances are your predictions won’t be totally accurate. They can give you a good idea though. 344

Section 6.2 — Scatterplots

Chapter 6 Investigation

Cric ket Chir ps and Temper a tur e Crick Chirps empera ture Displaying data in a visual way makes it easier to see whether trends and patterns exist. For a long time, people have believed that you can estimate the temperature from the number of times a cricket chirps in a set period of time. At the same time of evening on 15 consecutive days, a student took the temperature outside and counted the number of times a cricket chirped in 15 seconds. The results are shown below. Day

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15

Nu m b er o f c r i c ket c h i r p s

15

17 19 13 14 15 17 20 21 21 19 18

16 16 16

Tem p er at u r e (d eg r ees Fah r en h ei t )

72 76 83 70 75 80 82 87 93 88 90 85 75 81 72

The data isn’t very useful in this form — you can’t see any patterns clearly. You are going to make a visual display that makes the data easier to interpret. Make a scatterplot to compare the number of cricket chirps and the temperature. Explain what, if any, correlation exists among the data. Do you think that you can estimate the temperature from the number of cricket chirps? Extensions 1) Draw a line of best fit on your scatterplot. Use the line to predict the temperature for each number of cricket chirps from 10 to 25. Which of these predictions do you have the most confidence in? 2) There are several different formulas for working out temperature from cricket chirps. One is: “Count the number of chirps a cricket makes during a 15-second period. Then, add 45 to the number of chirps. This gives you an estimate of the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.” Does this formula agree with the data above? Open-ended Extensions 1) Can you create a formula that fits the line you drew in the first Extension above? 2) There are many formulas for estimating the temperature from cricket chirps. See how many different ones you can find using reference books, almanacs, or the internet. Do any of them match the data above?

Round Up When you’ve displayed your data in an appropriate way, you’ll often immediately be able to see patterns that you couldn’t see before. Scatterplots only work when you’ve got two data sets that are paired. If you haven’t, you have to use a different form of display. Cha pter 6 In vestig a tion — Cricket Chirps and Temperature 345 Chapter Inv estiga

Chapter 7 Three-Dimensional Geometry Section 7.1

Exploration — Nets ................................................... 347 Shapes, Surfaces, and Space ................................... 348

Section 7.2

Exploration — Build the Best Package ..................... 366 Volume ...................................................................... 367

Section 7.3

Exploration — Growing Cubes .................................. 374 Scale Factors ............................................................ 375

Chapter Investigation — Set Design ................................................. 387

346

Section 7.1 introduction — an exploration into:

Nets In this Exploration, you will be using two-dimensional figures called nets to make three-dimensional rectangular prisms. You’ll construct nets for rectangular prisms with given dimensions. The example below shows a net of a cube. You make the cube by cutting the net out, folding it along the lines and taping it together. Example What dimensions will the cube made from the net below have?

Tabs let you stick the net together to form a cube.

Solution

3 in.

3 in.

3 in. 3 in. not to scale

3 in.

3 in.

The cube made by this net has a length, width, and height of 3 inches.

Exercises 1. Create a net for a cube that has a length, width, and height of 4 inches. Then build your cube. 2. Find a rectangular prism that isn’t a cube and draw around each face. It may be useful to mark each face after you have drawn around it. a. How many faces are there? b. What shapes are the faces?

4 in.

4 in.

4 in.

3. Measure the length and width of each face you drew in Exercise 2. Do any of the faces match each other? 4. This rectangular prism has twice the length of the cube in the example at the top of the page. Its height and width are the same. What dimensions do the faces of this rectangular prism have?

3 in. 3 in.

5. Create a net for the prism shown on the right. Then build the prism. 6. The prism shown on the right has the following dimensions: Length = 8 in., width = 2 in., height = 4 in. What dimensions do the faces of this prism have? 7. Create a net for a rectangular prism with the dimensions given in Exercise 6. Then build the prism.

6 in.

4 in.

8 in. 2 in.

Round Up Cubes have six identical square faces — so their nets are made of six identical squares. You have to make sure you join them to each other correctly so that the net folds into a cube though. Rectangular prisms are trickier to draw nets for. They usually have three different pairs of faces. Section 7.1 Explor a tion — Nets 347 Explora

Lesson

Section 7.1

7.1.1

Three-Dimensional Figures

California Standards:

Real life is full of three-dimensional figures. This Lesson’s about some of the special figures that have mathematical names.

Measurement and Geometry 2.1 Use formulas routinely for finding the perimeter and area of basic two-dimensional figures and the surface area and volume of basic threedimensional figures, including rectangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, squares, triangles, circles, prisms, and cylinders. Measurement and Geometry 3.6 Identify elements of threedimensional geometric objects (e.g., diagonals of rectangular solids) and describe how two or more objects are related in space (e.g., skew lines, the possible ways three planes might intersect).

Prisms and Cylinders Have Two Identical Ends A prism is a 3-D shape formed by joining two congruent polygon faces that are parallel to each other. The polygon faces are called the bases of the prism. • If the edges joining the bases are at right angles to the bases, it is called a right prism. • If the edges joining the bases are not at right angles to the bases, it’s an oblique prism. Oblique prisms appear to lean to one side.

right prism

oblique prism

Prisms are often named according to their bases — if the bases are rectangles, it’s a rectangular prism. If the bases are triangles, it’s a triangular prism. Example

1

Which of these figures is not a prism? Explain why not.

What it means for you: B.

C.

D.

You’ll practice recognizing some important 3-D shapes, such as prisms, cylinders, cones and pyramids.

A.

Key words:

B is not a prism. The shape at one end is not the same as the shape at the other. A, C, and D are prisms. D is a triangular prism.

• • • • • • •

prism cylinder cone pyramid diagonal right oblique

Check it out: The height of a threedimensional solid is always the perpendicular distance from the top to the bottom. So the height of cylinder C is the distance straight down from the circle at the top to the circle at the bottom. It doesn’t matter that there isn’t a side that goes straight down.

h

348

Solution

A cylinder is just like a prism, except that the bases have curved, rather than straight, edges. All the cylinders in this book will be circular cylinders with circle bases, though it is possible to have cylinders with ellipse bases. As with prisms, cylinders can be right or oblique. Example

2

Which of these figures is not a cylinder? Explain why not. A.

B.

C.

D.

Solution

D is not a cylinder because the circle at the bottom is not the same size as the circle at the top. A, B, and C are cylinders because they have congruent circular faces that are parallel to each other. A and B are right cylinders, and C is an oblique cylinder.

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–10, identify each shape as either a prism, a cylinder, or neither. 1.

2.

5.

6.

3.

7.

9.

4.

8.

10.

Pyramids and Cones Have Points Don’t forget: A polygon is any shape that is made from straight lines that have been joined, end-to-end into a closed shape. See Section 3.1 for a reminder on polygons.

A pyramid is a three-dimensional shape that has a polygon for its base, and all the other faces come to a point. The point doesn’t have to be over the base. A pyramid with a rectangular base is known as a rectangular pyramid. Similarly, a pyramid with a triangular base is a triangular pyramid. Example

3

Which of these figures is not a pyramid? Explain why not. A.

B.

C.

D.

Solution

B is not a pyramid. Its base has a curved edge, so it isn’t a polygon. The base of a pyramid is always a polygon. A, C and D are all pyramids. It doesn’t matter that C leans, as the sides all still come to a point.

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

349

A cone is like a pyramid, but instead of having a polygon for a base, the base has a curved edge. All of the cones in this book will be circular cones with bases that are circles.

Example

4

Which of these figures is not a cone? Explain why not.

Check it out: Pyramids and cones which have their point directly above the center of their base are called “right pyramids” or “right cones.”

A.

B.

C.

D.

Solution

D is not a cone because it doesn’t make a point at the end. A, B, and C are all cones. It doesn’t make any difference that B and C are leaning to the side.

Guided Practice Identify the shapes below as either pyramids, circular cones, or neither. 11.

12.

13.

15.

16.

17.

14.

Check it out: Pyramids and prisms are polyhedrons. The sides of polyhedrons are all polygons, and are known as faces. The line where two faces meet is called an edge. A point where edges meet is called a vertex.

Diagonals Go Through the Insides of Solids Diagonals are a type of line segment. In a 3-D shape, they connect two vertices that aren’t on the same face. Example Check it out: Diagonals must pass through the inside of the shape. So the line from A to H isn’t a diagonal. B D

A F E

C

5

The diagram below shows a rectangular prism or cuboid. Mark a diagonal on it. Solution

There are four diagonals that you could mark:

G H

,

,

There are no other possible diagonals. 350

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

, or

.

Guided Practice Check it out:

18. Crystal says that any line that goes through a prism is a diagonal of the prism. Is she correct?

For Exercises 19–20 — start with vertex A and see how many diagonals you can draw from it. The same number of diagonals will start from vertices B, C, D, and E.

Exercises 19–20 are about the prism shown on the right. 19. How many diagonals does this shape have? 20. Name all the diagonals by giving their starting vertex and ending vertex.

A B C E D F G H J I

Independent Practice 1. What is similar about a cylinder and a prism? 2. What is different about a cylinder and a prism? In Exercises 3–13, identify each shape as a prism, cylinder, pyramid, cone, or as none of those. 3.

4.

7.

10.

Now try these: Lesson 7.1.1 additional questions — p465

5.

8.

11.

6.

9.

12.

13.

In Exercises 14–17, say whether each statement is true or false. If any are false, explain why. 14. A cylinder is a type of prism. 15. All cubes are prisms. 16. Pyramids have no diagonals. 17. A cylinder is any shape with two circles for bases.

Round Up You need to be able to identify the different kinds of three-dimensional figures. The hard part is remembering precisely when you can use each name and when you can’t. Once you’ve mastered that, you can try nets — which are like flat “patterns” that can be folded to make 3-D figures. Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

351

Lesson

7.1.2

Nets

California Standards:

Sometimes you might want to make a model 3-D shape out of card. To do this, you need to figure out which two-dimensional shapes you need for the faces, how big they have to be, and how they should be joined together.

Measurement and Geometry 3.5 Construct two-dimensional patterns for threedimensional models, such as cylinders, prisms, and cones.

What it means for you: You’ll draw two-dimensional patterns that can be folded up to make three-dimensional shapes, such as prisms. You’ll use the formula you learned for finding the circumference of a circle to draw the pattern for a cylinder.

2-D Nets Can Be Folded Into 3-D Figures A two-dimensional shape pattern that can be folded into a threedimensional figure is called a net. The lines on the net mark the fold lines — these are the edges of the faces. Example

1

What three-dimensional shape is this the net of? Solution

Key words: • • • • • • •

net cone cylinder pyramid two-dimensional three-dimensional rectangular pyramid

If you fold along all of the marked lines then you get a prism with a rectangular base. So this is the net of a rectangular prism or cuboid.

Example

2

Check it out:

What shape is this the net of?

There’s often more than one net for a shape. Here’s a different net for the cuboid in Example 1:

Solution

This is the net of a square-based pyramid (a special type of rectangular pyramid), which is a pyramid with a square base.

And here’s one for the pyramid in Example 2:

352

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, say what shape is made by each net. 1.

2.

3.

4.

The Net of a Cylinder Has Two Circles The net of a circular cylinder has two circles — one for the top of the cylinder and one for the bottom. Example

3

Sketch the net of a right circular cylinder. Solution

Don’t forget: The net of a circular cylinder looks like a rectangle with a circle on top and a circle on the bottom. If you were to fold this shape up it would make a cylinder.

A right cylinder is one in which the two bases are directly above each other. A right cylinder doesn’t lean to one side.

The rectangle needs to be wide enough to be wrapped around the outside of the circles. So its length needs to be equal to the circumference of the circles. Don’t forget: The circumference of a circle is given by the formula C = 2pr, (where r = radius). That’s the same as C = pd, (where d = diameter).

Example

4

Work out the missing length, l, to the nearest hundredth.

1 in.

Solution

The rectangle needs to wrap around the circle. So it has to have the same length as the circumference of the circle. C = 2pr l =2×p×r =2×p×1 = 6.28 in. (to the nearest hundredth)

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

l

353

Guided Practice Work out the missing measurements in Exercises 5–8. Use p = 3.14. 9m 9 in. 5. 6. 13 ft 7. 30 ft 8.

l

l

l

l

Cutting a Cone Makes Part of a Circle Check it out: In Example 5, cutting along the cone makes a circle with 1 4

exactly missing. But the amount of the circle that is missing could be anything. For very flat cones only a small amount will be missing. For very tall cones a very large amount will be missing.

The net of a circular cone includes part of a circle. Example

5

Sketch the net of a circular cone. Solution

Imagine cutting up the side of a cone with no base and laying it flat. You get a circle with part missing.

To make a full cone, you need a base as well — the base is a circle. The base circle can’t be as large as the one with a sector cut out, or there’d be no way to roll it up and still have the base fit. So the net of a cone is a circle with part missing and a smaller circle underneath. 3 4

Check it out:

The sketched net above has a part-circle that is

of a full circle.

The circumference of the base circle must be the same as the length of the curved edge of the part-circle.

If you’re making a cone with a certain base-radius and a certain slant height, you can work out what fraction of a circle you need:

Slant height

Fraction of circle = radius of base ÷ slant height You use the slant height itself as the radius of the part-circle. Example

6

Draw the net of a circular cone with slant height 10 cm and base radius 8 cm. Solution

10 cm (same as

If slant height is 10 cm and base radius is 8 cm then the top circle should be same as

354

4 . 5

8 10

of a complete circle. That’s the

So draw the top circle with

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

slant height)

1 5

missing.

8 cm

Guided Practice In Exercises 9–11, say whether each statement is true or false. 9. The net of a cone is two circles. 10. You can draw the net of a cone without knowing the vertical height of the cone. 11. The part-circle in the net of a cone is smaller than the full circle. Work out what fraction of a circle is needed for the part-circle in the net of each circular cone described in Exercises 12–14. 12. A cone with slant height 20 cm and base radius 16 cm. 13. A cone with slant height 15 inches and base radius 3 inches. 14. A cone with slant height 2 feet and base radius 1 foot.

Independent Practice 1. Explain why the net shown on the right doesn’t make a cube. In Exercises 2–4, say which net could make each three-dimensional figure. 2.

A.

B.

C.

3.

A.

B.

C.

4.

A.

B.

C.

Fill in the missing measurements in Exercises 5–7. Use p = 3.14. 5.

l 1 ft

6.

l

Now try these: Lesson 7.1.2 additional questions — p465

7. 5 in.

l

15 m

Work out what fraction of a circle is needed for the part-circle in the net of each circular cone described in Exercises 8–9. 8. A cone with slant height 3 inches and base radius 1 inch. 9. A cone with slant height 11 inches and base radius 3 inches.

Round Up Nets sound complicated, and some of them even look complicated. The key is to imagine folding along each of the lines, and think about what shape you would get. Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

355

Lesson

7.1.3

Surface Areas of Cylinders and Prisms

California Standards:

Mathematical Reasoning 1.3 Determine when and how to break a problem into simpler parts.

What it means for you: You’ll see how to work out the surface area of 3-D shapes like cylinders and prisms.

Key words

Don’t forget: The area of a rectangle is given by A = lw. The area of a triangle is given

The net of a three-dimensional solid can be folded to make a hollow shape that looks exactly like the solid. So one way to work out the surface area of the solid is to work out the surface area of the net. Example

1

What is the surface area of this cube?

8 in.

Solution

The net of the cube is six squares. So the surface area of the cube is equal to the area of six squares.

8 in.

The area of each square is 8 × 8 = 64 in2. So the surface area of the entire cube is 6 × 64 = 384 in2.

Example

2 m

20 c

What is the surface area of this prism? Solution

The net of this prism has three identical rectangles. The area of each rectangle is 10 × 20 = 200 cm2. So the total surface area of the three rectangles is 3 × 200 = 600 cm2. There are also two identical triangles. Each has a base of 10 cm and a height of 8.7 cm. The area of each triangle is 1 × 2

10 × 8.7 = 43.5 cm2. So the surface area of both the triangles together is 2 × 43.5 = 87 cm2.

by A =

1 bh . 2

356

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

cm

net surface area cylinder prism

The surface area of a three-dimensional solid is the total area of all its faces — it’s the area you’d paint if you were painting the shape.

10

• • • •

Draw a Net to Work Out the Surface Area

m

Measurement and Geometry 3.5 Construct two-dimensional patterns for threedimensional models, such as cylinders, prisms, and cones.

ea of 3-D shapes. Nets are very useful for finding the sur surfface ar area They change a 3-D problem into a 2-D problem.

10 c

Measurement and Geometry 2.1 Use formulas routinely for finding the perimeter and area of basic two-dimensional figures and the surface area and volume of basic threedimensional figures, including rectangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, squares, triangles, circles, prisms, and cylinders.

10 cm Vertical height = 8.7 cm 10 cm

8.7 cm

10 cm 10 cm 20 cm

So the total surface area of the prism is 600 + 87 = 687 cm2.

Guided Practice Work out the surface area of the shapes shown in Exercises 1–3. 1. 6 in.

8 in. 5 in.

3. 2 m 7m

9 cm

2. 9 cm 10 cm

3 cm

30 m

Height = 8 cm

Finding the Surface Area of Cylinders The net of a circular cylinder has a rectangle and two circles. So you need to use the formula for the area of a circle to find its surface area. Example

3

What is the surface area of this cylinder? Use p = 3.14.

3 ft

Don’t forget: Use the formula for the circumference of a circle, C = pd, (where d = diameter) to work out the length of the rectangle in the net of a cylinder. The rectangle has to be long enough to reach all the way around the circle.

Don’t forget: The area of a circle is given by A = pr2 (r = radius).

5 ft Solution

The net of the cylinder has one rectangle and two identical circles. 3 ft

5 ft

To work out the area of the rectangle, you need to know its length. It’s the same as the circumference of the circles, so it is 3 × p = 9.42 ft. So the area of the rectangle is 9.42 × 5 = 47.1 ft2. The circles have a diameter of 3 feet. So they have a radius of 1.5 feet. The area of each circle is p × 1.52 = p × 2.25 = 7.065 ft2. Together the two circles have a surface area of 2 × 7.065 = 14.13 ft2. So the total surface area of the cylinder is 47.1 + 14.13 = 61.23 ft2.

Guided Practice Find the surface areas of the cylinders in Exercises 4–6. Use p = 3.14. 4. 2 in.

5. 10 in.

6. 1 yd 3 ft

9 yd

3 ft

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

357

Use Formulas For Prism and Cylinder Surface Areas The way you work out the surface area of a cylinder, and the way you work out the surface area of a prism are similar. The surface area of either is twice the area of the base plus the area of the part between the bases of the net. The part between the bases is sometimes called the lateral area. Two bases

Two bases

al er t La rea A

al er t La rea A

Area = (2 × base) + lateral area Independent Practice Work out the surface areas of the shapes shown in Exercises 1–4. Use p = 3.14. 1. 6 cm

30 in.

2. 1 cm

20 in. 5 cm

10 ft

3. 10 ft

4.

7 in. 7 in.

30 ft 8 ft Vertical height = 6.8 feet

Now try these: Lesson 7.1.3 additional questions — p466

7 in.

5. A statue is to be placed on a marble stand, in the 3 feet shape of a regular-hexagonal prism. Find the area 6 feet of the stand’s base, given that the stand has a surface area of 201.5 square feet and dimensions as shown. The inside of a large tunnel in a children’s play area 1m is to be painted. The tunnel is 6 meters long and 6m 1 meter tall. It is open at each end. 6. What is the area to be painted? 7. Cans of paint each cover 5 m2. How many cans do they need to buy?

Round Up Working out the surface area of a 3-D shape means adding together the area of every part of the outside. One way to do that is to add together the areas of different parts of the net. Just make sure you can remember the triangle, rectangle, and circle area formulas. 358

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

Lesson Lesson

7.1.4 7.1.4

California Standards: Measurement and Geometry 2.1 Use formulas routinely for finding the perimeter and area of basic two-dimensional figures and the surface area and volume of basic threedimensional figures, including rectangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, squares, triangles, circles, prisms, and cylinders. Measurement and Geometry 2.2 Estimate and compute the area of more complex or irregular two-and threedimensional figures by breaking the figures down into more basic geometric objects. Measurement and Geometry 2.3 Compute the length of the perimeter, the surface area of the faces, and the volume of a three-dimensional object built from rectangular solids. Understand that when the lengths of all dimensions are multiplied by a scale factor, the surface area is multiplied by the square of the scale Don’tand forget factor the volume is multiplied by the cube of the scale factor. Mathematical Reasoning 1.3 Determine when and how to break a problem into simpler parts.

What it means for you: You’ll work out the surface area and edge lengths of complex figures.

Key words: • • • •

net surface area edge prism

Surface Areas & Edge Lengths of Complex Shapes Prisms and cylinders can be stuck together to make complex shapes. For example, a house might be made up of a rectangular prism with a triangular prism on top for the roof. You can use lots of the skills you’ve already learned to find the total edge length and surface area of a complex shape — but there are some important things to watch for.

Finding the Total Edge Length An edge on a solid shape is a line where two faces meet. The tricky thing about finding the total edge length of a solid, is making sure that you include each edge length only once. Example

1

Find the total edge length of the rectangular prism shown. Solution

6 in.

8 in.

There are four edges around the top face: 6 + 6 + 8 + 8 = 28 in.

5 in.

The bottom is identical to the top, so this also has an edge length of 28 in. There are four vertical edges joining the top and bottom: 4 × 5 = 20 in. So total edge length = 28 + 28 + 20 = 76 in. When complex shapes are formed from simple shapes, some of the edges of the simple shapes might “disappear.” These need to be subtracted. Example

2

A wedding cake has two tiers. The back and front views are shown below. The cake is to have ribbon laid around its edges. What is the total length of ribbon needed? 10 cm 10 cm 5 cm

Solution

Total edge length of the top tier: 15 cm (10 × 8) + (5 × 4) = 100 cm Total edge length of the bottom tier: (20 × 8) + (15 × 4) = 220 cm

20 cm

20

cm

But, two of the 10 cm edges on the top tier aren’t edges on the finished cake. You have to subtract these “shared” edge lengths from both the top and the bottom. Total edge length = top tier edge lengths + bottom tier edge lengths – (2 × shared edge lengths) = 100 + 220 – (2 × 10 × 2) = 280 cm So 280 cm of ribbon is needed. Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

359

Guided Practice Don’t forget:

A display stand is formed from a cube and a rectangular prism.

All the edges on a cube are the same length.

1. Find the total edge lengths of the cube and rectangular prism before they were joined.

12 in. 24 in.

2. Find the total edge length of the display stand.

12 in. 24 in.

Br eak Comple x Figur es Up to Wor k Out Surf ace Ar ea Break Complex Figures ork Surface Area You work out the surface areas of complex shapes by breaking them into simple shapes and finding the surface area of each part. The place where two shapes are stuck together doesn’t form part of the complex shape’s surface — so you need to subtract the area of it from the areas of both simple shapes. Example

3

What is the surface area of this shape?

1 cm 1 cm 1 cm 8 cm

Solution

The complex shape is like two rectangular prisms stuck together. You can work out the surface area of each individually, and then add them together.

16 cm 2 cm

=

But the bottom of the small prism is covered up, as well as some of the top of the large prism. So you lose some surface area. The amount covered up on the big prism must be the same as the amount covered up on the small prism.

Don’t forget: To find the surface areas of the prisms, first draw the nets: 16 cm

So you have to subtract the area of the bottom face of the small prism twice — once to take away the face on the small prism, and once to take away the same shape on the big prism.

2 cm

The surface area of the big prism is 352 cm2.

1 cm 8 cm

1 cm 1 cm

2 cm 8 cm 8 cm

1 cm

The surface area of the small prism is 6 cm2.

1 cm 1 cm

The surface area of the bottom face of the small prism is 1 cm2.

Big prism: Surface area = 2(16 × 2) + 2(16 × 8) + 2(8 × 2) = 352 cm2

Total surface area = surface area of big prism + surface area of small prism – (2 × bottom face of small prism).

Small prism (actually a cube): 1 × 1 × 6 = 6 cm2

So the surface area of the shape is 352 + 6 – (2 × 1) = 356 cm2.

360

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

Guided Practice In Exercises 3–5, suggest how the complex figure could be split up into simple figures. 3. 4. 5.

In Exercises 6–7, work out the surface area of each shape. Use p = 3.14. 3 yd 6. 7. 5 in. 1 yd

4 in.

5 in. 1 yd

4 yd

20 in.

5 in.

1 yd

Independent Practice

Don’t forget: The edges that “disappear” when the complex shape is formed are lost from both prisms.

Now try these: Lesson 7.1.4 additional questions — p466

A kitchen work center is made from two rectangular 2 ft prisms. It is to have a trim around the edge. 3 ft 1. Find the total edge length of each of the prisms separately. 2. Find the length of trim needed for the work center.

5 ft

3 ft

5 ft

Work out the surface areas of the shapes shown in Exercises 3–6. Use p = 3.14. 10 yd 12 in. 3. 4. 10 yd 24 in. 12 in. 12 in. 12 in.

20 yd 15 yd

40 yd

Total height of shape = 26.6 yd

5. 18 in. 3 in. 3 in.

8 in.

6.

2 in.

5 in.

18 in.

10 ft

7 ft

7 ft 10 ft

20 ft

10 ft

Round Up

Total height of shape = 24.9 ft

So to find the total edge length of a complex shape, first break the shape up into simple shapes. Then you can find the edge length of each piece separately. But then you have to think about which edges “disappear” when the complex shape is made. The surface area of complex shapes is found the same way. Remember — the edge lengths and surface areas that “disappear” need to be subtracted twice — once from each shape. Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

361

Lesson

7.1.5 California Standards: Measurement and Geometry 3.6 Identify elements of threedimensional geometric objects (e.g., diagonals of rectangular solids) and describe how two or more objects are related in space (e.g., skew lines, the possible ways three planes might intersect).

What it means for you: This Lesson is all about the different ways planes and lines can be arranged in space.

Lines and Planes in Space Imagine two endless, flat sheets of paper in space. Unless they are parallel to each other, they’ll end up meeting sooner or later. Planes are similar to these endless sheets of paper — except they can pass through one another. This Lesson’s about all the different ways that lines and planes can meet.

Planes and Lines Can Meet in Different Ways Planes are flat 2-D surfaces in the 3-D world. They go on forever. Lines are 1-D shapes in a 2-D plane. They extend forever in both directions. There are three ways for a line and a plane to meet: 1. The line might rest on the plane, so every point of the line is touching the plane. 2. The line might pass through the plane — so it intersects the plane.

Key words:

3. The line might intersect the plane at a right angle to it. In this case, the line is perpendicular to the plane.

• • • •

Example

coplanar skew lines perpendicular intersects

1

Say how each line relates to the plane. A.

B.

C.

Solution

A. The line intersects the plane. Part of it is above the plane and part of it is below the plane. B. The line rests on the plane. Every point on the line touches the plane. C. The line intersects the plane at right angles to it. So the line is perpendicular to the plane.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–6, say how each line relates to the plane.

362

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

Lines Can Be Coplanar or Skew

Check it out:

Two lines are coplanar if there is a plane that they both lie on — imagine trying to hold a giant piece of paper so that both lines lie on it. Lines that intersect or are parallel are always coplanar — there’s always one plane on which they both lie.

Parallel lines go on forever and never meet — they always have the same slope.

If two lines neither intersect nor are parallel, they’re skew. This means there’s no plane that they both lie on. Example

2

Say whether each pair of lines is coplanar or skew. Explain your answers. A. B. C.

Solution

A. The lines never intersect and aren’t parallel. You can’t find a single plane that both rest on. That means they aren’t coplanar. So they are skew lines. B. The lines are parallel. That means they are coplanar. Both lines rest on the plane at the back of the diagram. C. The lines intersect. That means they are coplanar. They both rest on the plane at the back of the diagram.

Guided Practice In Exercises 7–10, say whether each statement is true or false. If it is false, explain why. 7. All lines are either coplanar or skew. 8. Skew lines can be drawn on the coordinate plane. 9. Lines that intersect are always coplanar. 10. Lines that don’t intersect are never coplanar. Exercises 11–12 are about the lines shown on the right. 11. How many lines are skew with the blue line? 12. How many lines are coplanar with the red line?

Planes Can Meet in Different Ways Too Two planes are parallel if they never meet. If they do meet, then the two planes are intersecting. Intersecting planes look like one plane going through another. Planes are perpendicular if they make a right angle where they meet. Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space 363

Example

3

Say whether the planes in each pair are parallel or intersecting. A.

B.

C.

Solution

A. The planes are parallel. They never touch. B. The planes intersect — one goes through the other. C. The planes intersect — one goes through the other. They make a right angle where they meet, so they are perpendicular planes. When two planes intersect, they always meet along a line. When three planes all intersect at the same place, they can either meet along a line or at a single point. Example

4

Say if each of these sets of planes intersect, and if so whether they meet along a line or at a point. A.

B.

C.

Solution

A. The planes all intersect. They meet along a line. The line is shown vertically down the middle of the picture. B. The planes all intersect. They meet at a point. The point is at the centre of the picture. C. The planes do not all intersect. The blue plane never intersects with the red plane (they’re parallel).

Guided Practice In Exercises 13–18, say whether the planes meet, and if so describe how. 13.

364

Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

Fill in the missing words in Exercises 19–21. 19. Planes that never touch are _________. 20. Two intersecting planes always meet along a _________. 21. Three intersecting planes meet either along a _________ or at a _________ .

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–5, say whether each statement is true or false. If any are false, explain why. 1. When a line goes through a plane, it is said to be perpendicular to the plane. 2. Skew lines never lie on the same plane. 3. Two lines are coplanar if they both intersect the same plane. 4. If two planes aren’t parallel, then they meet along a line. 5. Three planes always all meet each other at a line or a point unless they’re all parallel to each other. In Exercises 6–8, say how each line relates to the plane. 6.

7.

8.

Exercises 9–11 are about the lines shown on the right. 9. How many lines are coplanar with the red line? 10. How many lines are coplanar with the green line? 11. How many lines are skew to the blue line? Now try these: Lesson 7.1.5 additional questions — p467

In Exercises 12–14, identify whether the planes meet and if so say how. 12.

13.

14.

Round Up It’s hard to imagine the 2-D drawings in 3-D with lines and planes that go on forever. You’ve got to try to visualize the planes and lines intersecting in space — then you’ll be most of the way there. Section 7.1 — Shapes, Surfaces, and Space

365

Section 7.2 introduction — an exploration into:

Build the Best P ac ka ge Pac acka kag When companies design packaging, they often aim to maximize volume and minimize the amount of material used, so that they spend as little money on it as possible. In this Exploration you’ll be asked to design the best package when given specific volume requirements. To find the amount of material needed to make a box, you calculate its surface area. Example

6 cm

The net on the right can be folded to make a rectangular prism. Calculate the surface area and volume of the prism.

2 cm 2 cm

Solution

The surface area is the total area of all the faces. There are four 6 cm by 2 cm faces, and two 2 cm by 2 cm faces. So, surface area = 4 × (6 × 2) + 2 × (2 × 2) = 48 + 8 = 56 cm2. The net folds up to make the rectangular prism on the right. Volume = length × width × height = 6 × 2 × 2 = 24 cm3

2 cm

6 cm 2 cm

Exercises 1. Calculate the volumes and surface areas of the rectangular prisms that can be made from these nets. Record your calculations in a copy of the table below. A

C

B

4 cm

4 cm

4 cm

3 cm

5 cm

E

2 cm

1 cm 1 cm

4 cm

4 cm

D

10 cm Rectangular Prism Surface Area

2 cm 2 cm

8 cm Volume

A B C

16 cm

D E

2. Is it possible to build packages with the same volume using different amounts of material? Explain your answer. 3. Design and construct a box that has a volume of 24 cm3 and uses the least material possible. The length, width, and height of the package must be whole numbers.

Round Up Volumes and surface areas of rectangular prisms depend on the dimensions — they don’t always increase together. You can change volume without changing surface area, and vice-versa. a tion — Build the Best Package Explora 366 Section 7.2 Explor

Lesson

Section 7.2

7.2.1

Volumes

California Standards: Measurement and Geometry 2.1 Use formulas routinely for finding the perimeter and area of basic two-dimensional figures and the surface area and volume of basic threedimensional figures, including rectangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, squares, triangles, circles, prisms, and cylinders. Mathematical Reasoning 2.2 Apply strategies and results from simpler problems to more complex problems. Mathematical Reasoning 3.2 Note the method of deriving the solution and demonstrate a conceptual understanding of the derivation by solving similar problems.

The volume of a 3-D object, like a box, a swimming pool, or a can, is a measure of the amount of space that’s contained inside it. Volume is measured in units like cubic feet (ft3) or cubic centimeters (cm3). This Lesson, you’ll learn how to find the volume of prisms and cylinders.

Volume Measures Space Inside a Figure The amount of space inside a 3-D figure is called the volume. Volume is measured in cubic units. One cubic unit is the volume of a unit cube — a cube with a side length of 1 unit. The number of unit cubes that could fit inside a solid shape and fill it completely is the volume in cubic units.

1 1

4 unit cubes 8 unit cubes

Volume = 8 cubic units

4 unit cubes

The Volume of a Prism is a Multiple of its Base Area You can work out the volume of a prism from the area of its base. Height = 3 units Height = 1 unit

What it means for you: You’ll be reminded what volume is, and then see how you can work out the volume of prisms and cylinders.

1

Base

Height = 2 units

The base is made of 5 unit squares. So it has an area of 5 square units. Key words: • • • •

volume cubic units prism cylinder

When the prism’s height is 1 unit, it has a volume of 5 cubic units because it would take 5 unit cubes to make it. When the prism’s height is 2 units, it has a volume of 10 cubic units because it would take 10 unit cubes to make it. When the prism’s height is 3 units, it has a volume of 15 cubic units. Every time you increase the height by 1 unit you add an extra 5 unit cubes.

Don’t forget: Cubic units can be written as unit3 — so cubic yards can be written as yd3. You multiply three length measurements, such as length, width, and height, to get a volume, so that’s why volume is measured in unit3.

Guided Practice 1. The figure on the right is constructed from unit cubes. What is its volume? A prism is one yard high. It has volume 4 yd3. 2. What is the area of the prism’s base? 3. A prism with an identical base has a volume of 16 yd3. How tall is this prism? Section 7.2 — Volume

367

Area Formulas Help Work Out the Volume of a Prism When you count the number of unit cubes that make a shape, you find the number of unit cubes that make up the base layer, and multiply it by the height in units. You can’t always count the number of unit cubes that are inside a shape, because not all shapes can fit an exact number of unit cubes inside them. Instead you can work out the volume of any prism by multiplying the area of the base by the height.

Volume of prism = Base area × Height Example

1 3 in.

What is the volume of this prism? Solution

Don’t forget: The height you use to work out the area of the base is the height of the base triangle. The height you’re using when you work out the volume of the prism is the height of the prism itself.

7 in.

The base of this prism is a triangle. So use the area of a triangle formula to work out its area. Area of base =

1 bh 2

=

1 × 2

2 in.

2 × 3 = 3 in2.

Then just multiply that area by the height of the prism. Volume of prism = base area × height = 3 × 7 = 21 in3.

It doesn’t matter if the prism looks like it is lying down — the same method of finding volume can still be used. Example

2

What is the volume of this prism? Check it out:

Solution

You’ve done dimensional analysis before — it’s where you check that the units of your answer match the units you should get. When you’re figuring out volumes, the answer should always be in units cubed — like cm3, m3, ft3, or yd3.

Treat the triangle as the base of the prism, and the length of 5 yards as the height.

368

Section 7.2 — Volume

5 yd 2 yd

1 yd

The base is always the shape that is the same through the entire prism. Area of base =

1 bh 2

=

1 × 2

1 × 2 = 1 yd2.

So, volume of prism = base area × height = 1 × 5 = 5 yd3.

Guided Practice Work out the volumes of the figures in Exercises 4–6. 5. 6. 3 m 4. 1 ft 2 in.

9 in.

11 m

3 ft

1 ft

4 in.

3m

Find the Volume of a Cylinder in the Same Way Circular cylinders are similar to prisms — the only difference is that the base is a circle instead of a polygon. So you can work out the volumes of cylinders in the same way as the volumes of prisms — by multiplying the base area by the height. You use the area of a circle formula to get the base area of a cylinder. Example Don’t forget: Make sure you use the radius of the circle in the area formula and not the diameter. If you’re given the diameter, you need to halve it to find the radius first of all.

3 4 cm

What is the volume of this cylinder? Use p = 3.14. 15 cm

Solution

Area of base = p r2 = p × 42 = p × 16 = 50.24 cm2. Height = 15 cm, so volume of cylinder = 50.24 × 15 = 753.6 cm3.

Guided Practice Work out the volumes of the figures in Exercises 7–9. Use p = 3.14. 7. 8. 1 yd 9. 4 in. 10 in.

2 cm

8 yd

5 cm

Rectangular Prisms and Cubes are Special Cases Check it out: It doesn’t matter which dimensions you use as width, height, or length — you can multiply them in any order.

The area of the base of a rectangular prism is length (l) × width (w). If you multiply that by height to get the volume then you get Volume = length (l) × width (w) × height (h)

h

V (rectangular prism) = lwh Example

l

4

w

What is the volume of this rectangular prism?

6 ft

Solution

Volume = lwh = 13 × 20 × 6 = 1560 ft3.

20 ft 13 ft Section 7.2 — Volume

369

All sides of a cube are the same length. For a cube with side length s, the base area is s × s = s2, and the height is also s, so the volume is s2 × s = s3.

V (cube) = s3 Example

s

where s is the side length.

5

What is the volume of this cube? 7 in.

Solution

Volume = s3 = 73 = 343 in3.

Guided Practice Work out the volumes of the figures in Exercises 10–12. Figures with only one side length shown are cubes. 10.

2 cm 8 cm

12. 3 yd

11. 8 in.

8 yd

2 cm

5 yd

Independent Practice 1. The figure on the right is constructed from cubes with a volume of 1 in3. What is its volume? 2. How many unit cubes can you fit inside a figure with dimensions 3 units × 3 units × 5 units? 3. What is the volume of the prism shown on the right? Base Area = 500 ft 4. A cylinder of volume 32 in3 is cut in half. What is the volume of each half?

Now try these: Lesson 7.2.1 additional questions — p467

2

Height = 70 ft

Work out the volumes of the figures shown in Exercises 5–7. Use p = 3.14. 5. 6. 7. 2 yd 7 in. 8 cm 5 in.

2 in.

5 yd 50 cm

10 cm 8. What is the volume of a cube with side length 3 yd?

Round Up Volume is the amount of space inside a 3-D figure, and it’s measured in cubed units. For cylinders and prisms, you can multiply the base area by the height of the shape to find the volume. 370

Section 7.2 — Volume

Lesson

7.2.2

Graphing Volumes

California Standards:

In Section 5.4, you saw the graphs of y = nx2 and y = nx3. When you graph volume against the side length of a cube, or against the radius of a cylinder, you get these types of graphs too.

Algebra and Functions 3.2 Plot the values from the volumes of threedimensional shapes for various values of the edge lengths (e.g., cubes with varying edge lengths or a triangle prism with a fixed height and an equilateral triangle base of varying lengths). Mathematical Reasoning 2.3 Estimate unknown quantities graphically and solve for them by using logical reasoning and arithmetic and algebraic techniques.

What it means for you: You’ll plot graphs to show how volume changes as the dimensions of different shapes change. You’ll also use graphs to estimate the dimensions of shapes with given volumes.

Key words: • approximately • volume

Don’t forget: ª means “is approximately equal to.” You can use it when you know that the answer is near to a number but you don’t know exactly what the answer is.

The Volume of a Cube Makes an x3 Graph If you increase the side length of a cube, the cube’s volume increases. You can plot a graph to see exactly how volume changes with side length. The volume of a cube with sides of length s is given by V = s3. The first step in plotting a graph is making a table of values. s (unit s )

V ( u n i t s 3)

1

1

2

8

3

27

4

64

Plot these points on a graph — put the s-values on the x-axis. Join the points with a smooth curve.

3

V (units ) 70 60 50 3

V=s

40 30 20

The graph shows that V goes steeply upward as s gets bigger — it’s the y = x3 graph that you’ve seen before.

10

The graph can be used to find the volume of other size cubes without doing any multiplication. Example

0

1

2

3

4

s (units)

1

Using the graph, approximately what is the volume of a cube with side length 3.3 cm? V (cm3)

Solution

V 36 cm

Reading off the graph, when s = 3.3 cm, V ª 36 cm3. So the volume of a cube with side length 3.3 cm is approximately 36 cm3.

3

40 30 20 10 s (cm)

0

1

2

3 4 s = 3.3 cm

Section 7.2 — Volume

371

You can also use the graph to find the side length of a cube if you know the volume. Example

2

What is the side length of a cube with volume 15 cm3? V (cm3)

40

Solution

Reading from the graph, when V = 15 cm3, s ª 2.5 cm.

30

20 3 So, a cube with volume 15 cm3 V = 15 cm 10 has a side length of approximately 2.5 cm. 0

s (cm)

1

2 3 4 s 2.5 cm

Guided Practice 1. If volume was plotted against side length, with side length along the x-axis, explain how you would find the volume of a cube of side 4 m. 2. A cube has a volume of 20 ft3. Use the graph of volume against side length to find the approximate length of each edge of the cube.

You Can Graph the Volume of Prisms and Cylinders You can graph the volumes of prisms and cylinders as one of their dimensions, such as height, changes. The rest of the dimensions have to be kept the same. 3

Example

Graph the volume against the radius of cylinders of height Don’t forget: See Lesson 5.4.1 to remind yourself about graphing y = nx2 equations.

The volume of a cylinder is V = pr2h. So cylinders which are 1 p r2. 2

1 2

cm high

Make a table of values to plot: radius (cm) volume (cm3)

Volume graphs are only drawn for positive values — you can’t have negative lengths or volumes.

372

Section 7.2 — Volume

cm.

Solution

have the volume

Check it out:

1 2

V (cm3) 40 35 30

1

1.57

25

2

6.28

20

3

14.13

4

25.12

Since the radius is squared in the formula for volume, you get a y = nx2 graph — which is a parabola.

15 10 5

r (cm) 0

1

2

3

4

5

You can use the graph to find the volume of a cylinder of a given height if you know the radius, and you can find the radius if you know the volume. Example

4

What radius of cylinder with height

1 cm 2

has a volume of 13 cm3?

Solution

3

V (cm )

Use the graph from Example 3. Reading from the graph, when V = 13 cm3, r ª 2.8 cm. So, a cylinder with height

1 2

15 V = 13 cm

cm and a

3

10 5 r (cm)

volume of 13 cm3 has a radius of approximately 2.8 cm.

0

1

2 3 4 r 2.8 cm

Guided Practice 3. Graph volume against radius for cylinders with height

2 π

units.

4. Use your graph from Exercise 3 to estimate the radius of a cylinder 2 π

centimeters that has a volume of 30 cubic centimeters. t ft 5. Graph the volume against t for the figure shown. with height

6. Use your graph from Exercise 5 to estimate the value of t that makes a volume of 48 cubic feet.

t ft 4 ft

Independent Practice 1. Graph volume against height for prisms with base area 6 units2. 2. Graph volume against radius for cylinders with height 3 units. 3. Use your graph from Exercise 1 to find the approximate height of a prism that has a volume of 10.5 cm3 and a base area of 6 cm2. Now try these: Lesson 7.2.2 additional questions — p468

4. The building on the right is constructed from 7 cubes. Each cube has a side length of s inches. Graph the volume of the building against s. Use the graph to find the side length of cubes needed for a building of volume 36 cubic inches.

Round Up If you increase the length of one of the dimensions of a 3-D figure, you increase its volume. You can use a graph to show the relationship between the length of a dimension and the volume. Next Lesson you’ll learn about similar solids — these are solids of different sizes, which have each of their dimensions in proportion with the corresponding dimensions on the other solids. Section 7.2 — Volume

373

Section 7.3 introduction — an exploration into:

Gr owing Cubes Gro Cubes have a length, width, and height that are equal. When you change these dimensions, the volume and surface area also change. The goal of this Exploration is to find out if changing the dimensions by a given amount produces a predictable change in the volume and surface area. To investigate this, you have to find the volumes and surface areas of some cubes of different sizes. Example 1 cm

A cube with a length, width, and height of 1 centimeter is shown on the right. Calculate its surface area and volume.

1 cm

1 cm

Solution

The surface area is the total area of all the faces. There are six 1 cm by 1 cm faces. So, surface area = 6 × (1 × 1) = 6 cm2. Volume = length × width × height = 1 × 1 × 1 = 1 cm3

Exercises 1. Build the following with centimeter cubes. Calculate the surface area and volume of each and record them in a copy of the table shown.

2 × 2 × 2 cm cube

3 × 3 × 3 cm cube

4 × 4 × 4 cm cube

Cu b e d i m en s i o n s (c m )

Sc a l e Fac t o r

Vo l u m e (c m 3)

Su r f a c e ar ea (c m 2)

o r i g i n al — 1 x 1 x 1

1

1

6

2x2x2

2

3x3x3

3

4x4x4

4

2. What is the volume of the original 1 × 1 × 1 cm cube multiplied by if the cube is enlarged by: a. a scale factor of 2? b. a scale factor of 3? c. a scale factor of 4? 3. How are the scale factor and the number the original volume is multiplied by connected? 4. What is the surface area of the original cube multiplied by if the cube is enlarged by: a. a scale factor of 2? b. a scale factor of 3? c. a scale factor of 4? 5. What is the connection between the scale factor and the number the original surface area is multiplied by? 6. Predict the new volume and surface area if the original cube is enlarged by a scale factor of 5. 7. Check your predictions by calculating the volume and surface area of a 5 × 5 × 5 cm cube.

Round Up When the dimensions of a cube are increased, the surface area and volume always get bigger. The pattern’s more complicated than a linear change though. It involves square and cube numbers. a tion — Growing Cubes Explora 374 Section 7.3 Explor

Lesson

7.3.1 California Standards: Measurement and Geometry 1.2 Construct and read drawings and models made to scale.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about using scale factors to change the size of solid figures.

Section 7.3

Similar Solids Applying a scale factor makes an image of a shape that is a different size from the original — you saw this with 2-D shapes in Chapter 3. You can also use scale factors with 3-D shapes to produce similar solids of different sizes.

Scale Factors Produce Similar Figures You’ve looked at the effect of scale factors on 2-D shapes. You’re going to review this before seeing how scale factors affect 3-D shapes. Two shapes are similar if one can be multiplied by a scale factor to make a shape that is congruent to the other one.

Key words: • • • • • •

similar congruent corresponding solid scale factor image

Two shapes are congruent if they’re exactly the same — if all the corresponding sides and angles are equal.

Similar shapes have corresponding angles that are equal. Also, any length in one shape is equal to the scale factor times the corresponding length in the other shape.

The angles are all 90° in both shapes. The lengths are all twice as big in the larger shape.

Scale factor = 2

1 cm

2 cm 2 cm 4 cm

Example

1

7.4 cm

Triangle ABC is multiplied by a scale factor of 3 to make triangle DEF. Find the measures of all the A D 1 sides and angles of triangle 60° 1.4 cm DEF. The triangles are not drawn to scale. 40° 80° Don’t forget: For more about scale factors, and similar and congruent figures, look back at Lessons 3.4.3 and 3.4.6.

C

B

10 cm

Solution

D corresponds to A, so angle D measures 60°. F E corresponds to B, so angle E measures 40°. F corresponds to C, so angle F measures 80°.

E

To find the side lengths of DEF, multiply the side lengths of ABC by the scale factor. length of DE = 3 × (length of AB) = 3 × 11.4 cm = 34.2 cm length of EF = 3 × (length of BC) = 3 × 10 cm = 30 cm length of DF = 3 × (length of AC) = 3 × 7.4 cm = 22.2 cm

Guided Practice Rectangle Q is multiplied by a scale factor of 4 to give the image Q'. 1. How long is the side marked a? 2. How long is the side marked b?

3 in.

Q

a

Q'

5 in.

b

Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

375

3. Which of the quadrilaterals below is similar to S: T, U, or V? S T U V 70° 70°

100°

100°

100°

110°

100°

100°

70°

100°

70°

4. Which triangle below is similar to W: X, Y, or Z? 4

cm

4.

5

6.2 cm

m

Y

m

3.1 cm

5c

3c

cm

X

cm

w

2

cm

2.

5 2.

2.5

cm

6.2 cm

Z

4.4

cm

6.2 cm

3-D Figures Can Be Multiplied by Scale Factors If you multiply a 3-D figure by a scale factor you get a similar figure. Just like with 2-D shapes, corresponding angles in similar 3-D shapes have equal measures. And like 2-D shapes, you multiply any length in the original by the scale factor to get the corresponding length in the image.

length in image = scale factor × length in original Example Don’t forget: When you transform any figure, including changing the size by a scale factor, the new figure is called the image. The image of A is often called A' (read as “A prime”).

Check it out: You could also have used the corresponding lengths 3 cm and 9 cm to find the scale factor.

2

A and A' are similar. Find x.

The length of 15 cm in A' corresponds to the length of 5 cm in A. Rearranging the formula above gives: Scale factor = length in A' ÷ length in A = 15 cm ÷ 5 cm =3

Length in A' = scale factor × length in A x cm = 3 × 4 cm x = 12 Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

3 cm

First you need to find the scale factor. The lengths in the original are multiplied by the scale factor to get the lengths in the image.

The length of x cm in A' corresponds to the length of 4 cm in A.

376

A

Solution

4 cm

5 cm

A' 9 cm

m

x cm

15 c

Guided Practice Use the equation to find the scale factor that has been used to produce the image in each of the following pairs of similar solids. Find the missing length, x, in each pair. All lengths are measured in cm. 5. 6. 7. D B C 9

1 3

5

4

x

B'

x

2 6

8.

D'

16

2.5

8

9.

E

G x

6.3

5.9

3.9

G'

F' 3.4

2.2

38.4 18.9

5.9

5.9

3.9

E'

3.5

x

10.

F 6.6

x 10.1

7

4

C'

x

1.3

11.8

11.8 11.8

30.3

You Can Check Whether Two Solids are Similar You need to check that all the lengths have been multiplied by the same scale factor, and that the corresponding angles are the same. Example

3

1

Solution

Check it out: Be careful when you use this formula to check if figures are similar. You must make sure that you are comparing corresponding lengths.

B'

B

Are these rectangular prisms similar?

2

3

2

If the figures are similar, then all the lengths will have been multiplied by the same scale factor.

4

6

scale factor = length in image ÷ length in original Start with the shortest edge length: Then the next shortest edge: And last, the longest edge:

2÷1=2 4÷2=2 6÷3=2

The scale factors are all the same, and all the angles are 90° in each, so the figures are similar. B has been enlarged by scale factor 2 to make the image B'.

Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

377

Guided Practice In each set of solids below, say which of the numbered figures is similar to the first figure, and what scale factor created the image. The figures are not drawn to scale. All lengths are measured in cm. 11. K 1 2 3 11

22

11 20

12.

L

40

20

1

6

2

12 21

7 2

21

2

3 12

12

6

12

10

18

6

9 5

3

12

6

1

3

40

21

4

M

13.

22

10

6

3

10

Independent Practice Copy the following sentences and fill in the missing words: 1. A scale ______ of 1 produces an image that is the same ____. 2. The _____ will be _______ than the original if the scale factor is between 0 and 1. 3. If the scale factor is ____ ____ 1, the image is bigger than the ________. Mr. Freeman’s history class made a model pyramid, shown below. The class makes a second pyramid, which is twice the size of the first. 4. What is the height of the second model?

Now try these:

The class builds a third model, which is 0.34 m 3 times the size of the second one. 5. What is the height of the third model? 0.54 m 6. How long is the base of the third model? 7. What can you say about the angles in all three models?

Lesson 7.3.1 additional questions — p468

H H'

6.5 ft 9 ft b

a 3.9 ft

4.5 ft

0.54 m

8. What scale factor has been used to produce the image H' from prism H? 9. What is the length marked a? 10. What is the length marked b?

Round Up Applying scale factors to solid shapes changes their size — and therefore their surface area and volume. You’ll see exactly how surface area and volume are affected by scale factors next Lesson. 378

Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

Lesson

7.3.2

Surface Areas & Volumes of Similar Figures

California Standards:

You’ll find out the effect that applying scale factors has on the surface area and volume of a 3-D figure.

scale factor area volume square cube

A' 3w

The area of A is lw. The area of A' is 3l × 3w = 9lw.

l

The side lengths in the image are 3 times greater than the original, but the area of the image is 3 × 3 = 9 times greater. Example

l

l

w w w

1

Figure B is multiplied by a scale factor of 3 to produce the image B'. Find the area of figure B. Use the area of B and the scale factor to find the area of B'.

6 cm

B

18 cm

B'

2 cm

Solution

B is made up of 2 rectangles, each measuring 2 cm by 6 cm. So the area of B is:

2 × (2 × 6) = 2 × 12 = 24 cm2

The area of B' is:

area of B × (scale factor)2 = 24 cm2 × 32 = 24 cm2 × 9 = 216 cm2

Key words: • • • • •

w A

Here, rectangle A is enlarged by a scale factor of 3 to give the image A'.

18 cm

What it means for you:

When a 2-D figure is multiplied by a scale factor, the area gets multiplied by the square of the scale factor. l 3l

6 cm

Measurement and Geometry 2.3 Compute the length of the perimeter, the surface area of the faces, and the volume of a threedimensional object built from rectangular solids. Understand that when the lengths of all dimensions are multiplied by a scale factor, the surface area is multiplied by the square of the scale factor and the volume is multiplied by the cube of the scale factor.

Area is Multiplied by the Square of the Scale Factor

6 cm

Measurement and Geometry 2.1 Use formulas routinely for finding the perimeter and area of basic two-dimensional figures and the surface area and volume of basic threedimensional figures, including rectangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, squares, triangles, circles, prisms, and cylinders.

You’ve seen already how applying a scale factor affects the perimeter and area of 2-D figures. Well, when you multiply a solid figure by a scale factor, the surface area and the volume are changed. It’s not surprising really — bigger shapes have bigger surface areas and volumes. This Lesson looks at exactly how they change.

2 cm

Measurement and Geometry 1.2 Construct and read drawings and models made to scale.

6 cm

Check: Area of B' = 2 × (6 × 18) = 2 × 108 = 216 cm2 — Correct

Guided Practice Ignacio draws a figure with an area of 5 in2. Find the area of the image if Ignacio multiplies his figure by the following scale factors: 1. 2

2. 10

3. 6

4.

1 2

Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

379

Surface Area is Multiplied by the Scale Factor Squared 6 cm 6 cm

2 cm

Figure B from Example 1 is the net of a 2 cm cube. The surface area of the cube is the same as the area of the net.

The image B' is the net of a 6 cm cube. A 6 cm cube is what you get if you multiply 2 cm a 2 cm cube by a scale factor of 3.

2 cm 2 cm

2 cm

So, if you multiply a cube by a scale factor, the surface area is multiplied by the square of the scale factor. This is true for the surface area of any solid. Example

2

Cylinder C' is an enlargement of cylinder C by a scale factor of 2. Find the surface area of cylinder C. Use the surface area of C and the scale factor to find the surface area of C'. Use p = 3.14. Don’t forget:

5 in.

Solution

The formula for surface area of a cylinder in Example 2 uses the formulas for area and circumference of a circle.

3 in.

C

C' 6 in.

10 in.

First find the surface area of C: Area = (2 × base area) + lateral area = (2 × pr2) + (2pr × h) = (2 × 3.14 × 32) + (2 × 3.14 × 3 × 5) = 56.52 + 94.2 = 150.72 in2

A = pr2 C = 2pr where r is the circle’s radius. They are:

Remember — the length of the rectangle (l) that is used to find the “lateral area” is equal to the circumference of the base circles. See Lesson 7.1.3.

To find the surface area of C', just multiply the surface area of C by the square of the scale factor: A = 150.72 × 22 = 150.72 × 4 = 602.88 in2 You can calculate the surface area of cylinder C' to check the answer: A = (2 × pr2) + (2pr × h) = (2 × 3.14 × 62) + (2 × 3.14 × 6 × 10) = 226.08 + 376.8 = 602.88 in2 — Correct

l

Guided Practice 5. What is the surface area of the prism on the left? 2 cm 4 cm

3 cm

Find the surface area of the image if this figure is multiplied by: 6. Scale factor 3 7. Scale factor 4

8. Find the surface area of the triangular prism on the right. Calculate the surface area of the image if this figure is multiplied by: 9. Scale factor 2 10. Scale factor 380

Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

5 ft 5 ft 4 ft

1 2

10 ft

6 ft

Volume is Multiplied by the Cube of the Scale Factor Cube D is a unit cube. Its volume is 1 cubic unit.

D

D is multiplied by scale factor 2 to get D'. Cube D' has a volume of 8 cubic units. Multiplying by scale factor 2 increases the volume of D by 23 = 8 times.

D'

D is multiplied by scale factor 3 to get D''. The volume of D'' is 27 cubic units. Multiplying by scale factor 3 increases the volume of D by 33 = 27 times.

D''

When you multiply any solid figure by a scale factor, the volume is multiplied by the cube of the scale factor. This works for any solid figure. Example

3

Prism E' is an enlargement of prism E by a scale factor of 3. E' 30 m Find the volume of E. Use the volume of E and the scale 15 m factor to find the volume of E'. E

18 m

10 m

Solution

6m

First find the volume of E:

5m

V = area of base × height 1

= ( 2 × base of triangle × height of triangle) × height of prism 1

= ( 2 × 10 × 5) × 6 = 25 × 6 = 150 m3 To find the volume of E', multiply the volume of E by the cube of the scale factor: V = 150 × 33 = 150 × 27 = 4050 m3 You can calculate the volume of E' to check the answer: 1

V = ( 2 × base of triangle × height of triangle) × height of prism 1

= ( 2 × 30 × 15) × 18 = 225 × 18 = 4050 m3 — Correct

Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

381

Guided Practice 11. What is the volume of this prism? Find the volume of the image if this figure is multiplied by: 12. Scale factor 2 13. Scale factor 3

7 in. 9 in. 5 in.

14. Calculate the volume of this cylinder. Use 3.14 for p. 2m 6m

Find the volume of the image if this figure is multiplied by: 15. Scale factor 2 16. Scale factor

1 3

Independent Practice Find: 1. The surface area of this prism. 2. The surface area of the image, if the prism is multiplied by a scale factor of 2. 3. The volume of this prism. 4. The volume of the image, if the prism is multiplied by a scale factor of 2. 10 ft 7 ft

ft

6 8.

6

8.

ft

6 ft

3 cm 9 cm 6 cm

Calculate: 5. The surface area of this prism. 6. The surface area of the image, if the prism is multiplied by a scale factor of 3. 7. The volume of this prism. 8. The volume of the image, if the prism is multiplied by a scale factor of 3.

9. The surface area of a cube is 480 cm2. The cube is enlarged by a scale factor of k. What is the surface area of the new cube? 10. A pyramid has a volume of 24 cm3. If you double all the dimensions of the pyramid, what will be the volume of the new pyramid? Now try these: Lesson 7.3.2 additional questions — p469

11. A scale factor enlargement of a cylinder is produced. The surface area of the image is 9 times the surface area of the original. The base of the original cylinder has a radius of 5 in. What is the radius of the base of the image? 12. A scale model of a building has a surface area of 6 ft2. If the real building has a surface area of 600 ft2, what scale factor has been used to make the model?

Round Up One way to remember how scale factor affects surface area and volume is to think about the units you use to measure them. Surface area is given in square units like m2 or in2, so the scale factor is squared. Volume is given in cubic units like cm3 or ft3, so the scale factor is cubed. 382

Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

Lesson

7.3.3

Changing Units

California Standards:

You wouldn’t measure the area of a country in cm2 — km2 would be a better unit to use. Similarly, you wouldn’t measure the volume of a die in mi3. That’s why this Lesson’s about converting units of area and volume — so you can keep your answers in a sensible range.

Measurement and Geometry 2.4 Relate the changes in measurement with a change of scale to the units used (e.g., square inches, cubic feet) and to conversions between units (1 square foot = 144 square inches or [1 ft2] = [144 in2], 1 cubic inch is approximately 16.38 cubic centimeters or [1 in3] = [16.38 cm3]).

What it means for you:

You Can Convert Between Units of Area You’ve seen that: 1 foot = 12 inches So 1 foot is 1 inch multiplied by a scale factor of 12. If you multiply a 1 inch square by scale factor 12, you get a 1 foot square. 1 ft So the area

You’ll learn how to convert between different units of area and volume.

1 ft2 = 1 in2 × 122 = 1 in2 × 144 = 144 in2

1 ft

12 in.

12 in.

You can do the same with metric units: 1 meter = 100 centimeters Key words: • • • •

area volume square cube

So 1 m is 1 cm multiplied by a scale factor of 100. So: 1 m2 = 1 cm2 × 1002 = 1 cm2 × 10,000 = 10,000 cm2 1 m2 = 10,000 cm2 is a conversion factor, which you can use to change m2 to cm2, or cm2 to m2. Example

Don’t forget: For a reminder of how to use conversion factors, see Lesson 4.2.3.

1

A cube has a surface area of 500 cm2. What is this surface area in m2? Solution

1 m2 = 10,000 cm2, so the ratio of cm2 to m2 is 10,000 : 1 or Check it out: Another way to do this conversion is to multiply the area measurement by a conversion fraction equal to 1. This method involves dimensional analysis and was explained in Lesson 4.3.4. 1 m2 500 500 cm × = m2 10,000 cm2 10,000 = 0.05 m2

10, 000 . 1

Write a proportion where there are x m2 to 500 cm2: 10, 000 500 = 1 x Cross multiply and solve for x:

10,000 × x = 500 × 1 10,000x = 500 x = 500 ÷ 10,000 = 0.05

The surface area of the cube is 0.05 m2.

2

conversion fraction

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–3, convert the areas to cm2. 1. 3 m2 2. 0.25 m2 3. 1.8 m2 In Exercises 4–6, convert the areas to ft2. 4. 72 in2 5. 864 in2 6. 252 in2 Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

383

7. Luisa makes a scale drawing of a park. The drawing has an area of 240 in2. What is the area of the drawing in ft2? 8. TJ buys 1.2 m2 of fabric to make a Halloween costume. What is this area in cm2?

You Can Convert Between Metric and Customary Units You can convert areas between the metric and customary systems: So

1 in = 2.54 cm 1 in2 = 2.54 cm × 2.54 cm = 6.45 cm2

So

1 ft = 0.3 m 1 ft2 = 0.3 m × 0.3 m = 0.09 m2 Example

2

A cube has a surface area of 500 cm2. What is this surface area in in2? Solution

1 in2 = 6.45 cm2, so the ratio of cm2 to in2 is 6.45 : 1 or Write a proportion where there are x in2 to 500 cm2: Cross multiply and solve for x:

6.45 . 1

6.45 500 = 1 x

6.45 × x = 500 × 1 6.45x = 500 x = 500 ÷ 6.45 = 77.52

The surface area of the cube is 77.52 in2. Don’t forget: You should always check the reasonableness of your answers — this just means checking it’s about the right size.

Check the reasonableness: 1 in2 is around 6.5 cm2, and 77.52 in2 ª 80 in2. 80 × 6.5 = 520, so the answer is reasonable.

Guided Practice

Don’t forget: There are two ways you could do Exercise 15 — either convert ft2 to m2 first, then convert m2 to cm2, or convert ft2 to in2 then in2 to cm2. You can do Exercise 16 in two ways also. You’ll get slightly different answers depending on which way around you do it — due to rounding errors.

384

Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

In Exercises 9–11, convert the following areas to in2: 9. 12.9 cm2 10. 225 cm2 11. 92 cm2 In Exercises 12–14, convert the following areas to m2: 12. 5 ft2 13. 132 ft2 14. 66.7 ft2 15. What is 1 ft2 in cm2? 16. What is 1 m2 in in2?

You Can Also Convert Units of Volume n. 2i

=1

ft

If you multiply a 1 inch cube by scale factor 12, you get a 1 foot cube.

12 in. = 1 ft

1

So, 1 ft3 = 1 in3 × 123 = 1 in3 × 1728 = 1728 in3 In the same way, if you multiply a 1 cm cube by scale factor 100, you get a 1 m cube.

12 in. = 1 ft

So, 1 m3 = 1 cm3 × 1003 = 1 cm3 × 1,000,000 = 1,000,000 cm3 Example

3

A cylinder has a volume of 4 ft3. What is this volume in in3? Solution

1 ft3 = 1728 in3, so the ratio of in3 to ft3 is 1728 : 1 or Write a proportion where there are x in3 to 4 ft3: Cross multiply and solve for x:

1728 . 1

1728 x = 1 4

1728 × 4 = x × 1 6912 = x

The volume of the cylinder is 6912 in3. Check the reasonableness: There are about 1700 in3 in 1 ft3. 1700 × 4 = 6800, so the answer is reasonable.

You Can Also Convert Volume Units Between Systems You can convert volumes between the metric and customary systems: So

1 in = 2.54 cm 1 in3 = 2.54 cm × 2.54 cm × 2.54 cm = 16.39 cm3

So

1 ft = 0.3 m 1 ft3 = 0.3 m × 0.3 m × 0.3 m = 0.027 m3 Example

4

A cylinder has a volume of 4 ft3. What is this volume in m3? Solution

1 ft3 = 0.027 m3, so the ratio of m3 to ft3 is 0.027 : 1 or

0.027 . 1

Write a proportion where there are x m3 to 4 ft3: 0.027 = x 1 4 0.027 × 4 = x × 1 Cross multiply and solve for x: 0.108 = x The volume of the cylinder is 0.108 m3. Check the reasonableness: There are about 0.03 m3 in 1 ft3. 0.03 × 4 = 0.12, so the answer is reasonable. Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

385

Guided Practice

Check it out: There are two ways you could do Exercises 26 and 27. For Exercise 26, either convert from ft3 to in3 and then to cm3, or do ft3 to m3 and then to cm3. You’ll get different answers depending on which way around you do it — due to rounding errors.

In Exercises 17–20, convert the areas to cm3. 17. 10 m3 18. 21.5 m3 19. 8 in3

20. 14.3 in3

In Exercises 21–24, convert the areas to ft3. 21. 2592 in3 22. 1000 in3 23. 135 m3

24. 5.8 m3

25. A building takes up a space of 20,000 m3. What is this volume in cm3? 26. What is 1 ft3 in cm3? 27. What is 1 m3 in in3?

Independent Practice A cylinder has a surface area of 126p cm2. 1. What is this surface area in m2? 2. What is this surface area in in2? A prism has a volume of 2.85 ft3. 3. What is this volume in in3? 4. What is this volume in m3?

Karen makes a scale model of her school for a project. The model has a surface area of 376 in2 and a volume of 480 in3. 5. What is the surface area of the model in ft2? 6. What is the volume of the model in cm3? 7. Julio measures the area of one wall of his bedroom as 35.25 ft2. What is the area of the wall in square inches?

Now try these:

8. The volume of Brandy’s suitcase is 184,800 cm3. What is this volume in m3?

Lesson 7.3.3 additional questions — p469 4 in.

6 in.

Don’t forget: A yard is 3 feet.

3 in.

This rectangular prism is shown with measurements in inches. 9. What is its surface area in square feet? 10. What is its volume in cubic feet?

11. An acre is 4840 square yards. What is an acre in square feet?

Round Up Don’t forget that when you deal with conversion factors, you should always check that your answer is reasonable. If you convert from small units to large units, the number of units will decrease. If you convert from large units to small units, the number of units will increase. 386

Section 7.3 — Scale Factors

Chapter 7 Investigation

Set Design In a play or musical, the actors act on a stage that is often decorated with furniture and scenery. This is called the set. The process of designing a set begins with an idea, and then the set designer creates a scale model of it for the director to see before the real set is built. 10 ft

Here is a designer’s sketch for the layout of a stage set. The stage has a table in the shape of a rectangular prism which also serves as a bench and a couch. There are also two cylinders that serve as stools or tables.

1 3 ft 6 ft 1

Part 1: Make a scale drawing of the set on ¼ inch by ¼ inch grid paper. Use 1 inch to represent 2 feet (four small squares are 1 inch). What is the scale factor of the actual objects to the drawing?

1 2

ft

1 2

ft 1

1 2

ft

2 ft

2 ft

2 ft

2 ft Part 2: The rectangular prism and the cylinders each have a height of 1½ feet.

6 ft

2 ft

1) Determine the volumes of the rectangular prism and the cylinders. Use p = 3.14. 2) Determine the surface areas of the rectangular prism and the cylinders. 3) Instead of a scale drawing, a set designer would show the director a three-dimensional model. Suppose a model was made of this set using the scale factor in Part 1. What would be the surface areas and volumes of the model rectangular prism and cylinders? Extensions 1) Draw this set with a scale of 1 inch to 1 foot. How do your answers to Part 2 change? 2) The entire stage is raised by a platform that exactly fits the stage. The model of it is 3 inches high, when using a scale of 1 inch to 1 foot. What is the volume of the actual platform? Open-ended Extensions 1) Your school probably has a stage for theatricals. Measure the dimensions of the stage and create a scale drawing of it. 2) Using your measurements of the stage platform, calculate its surface area and volume. Now create a model of the stage using the same scale as you did for your drawing. Calculate your model’s surface area and volume, and use these measurements to calculate the volume and surface area of the actual stage. How do your answers compare?

Round Up Scale models are used in real life to give you a good idea of what something will look like. It’s a lot easier and less expensive to build a small model than to build the real thing. So if you don’t like what you see, it’s less of a problem to change it after only building a scale model. Cha pter 7 In vestig a tion — Set Design 387 Chapter Inv estiga

Chapter 8 Percents, Rounding, and Accuracy Section 8.1

Exploration — Photo Enlargements .......................... 389 Percents .................................................................... 390

Section 8.2

Exploration — What’s the Best Deal? ....................... 400 Using Percents .......................................................... 401

Section 8.3

Exploration — Estimating Length .............................. 416 Rounding and Accuracy ............................................ 417

Chapter Investigation — Nutrition Facts ........................................... 429

388

Section 8.1 introduction — an exploration into:

Photo Enlargements You can enlarge or reduce photos — you have to increase or decrease the width and the length by the same percent though, or your image will be stretched. In this Exploration you’ll figure out the dimensions a photo would have if it were enlarged or reduced by a given percent. Example A photograph that is 4 inches wide and 6 inches long is enlarged by 10%. What are its new dimensions? Solution

4 in.

Find 10% of the length and 10% of the width, then add these to the original dimensions.

10 × 6 = 0.6 in. 100 New length = 6 + 0.6 = 6.6 in. 10% of 6 in =

6 in.

10 × 4 = 0.4 in. 100 New width = 4 + 0.4 = 4.4 in.

10% of 4 in =

There’s another way of doing this: The original photo is 100%. Increasing it by 10% makes it 110% of the original size. Find 110% of the length and 110% of the width. These are the new dimensions. New length = 110% of 6 in =

110 × 6 = 6.6 in. 100

New width = 110% of 4 in =

110 × 4 = 4.4 in. 100

Exercises Use the photograph that you have brought to class for the following exercises. 1. Measure the length and width of the photograph in inches. Write the dimensions in the first row of a copy of the table below. 2. Calculate the length and width of the photograph when it is enlarged by 20% and 50%, and reduced by 50% and 25%. Write the dimensions in your copy of the table.

L en g t h

Wi d t h

100% — o r i g i n al s i ze En l ar g ed b y 20% En l ar g ed b y 50% Red u c ed b y 50% Red u c ed b y 25%

Round Up When you enlarge or reduce a photo, you have to keep the dimensions in proportion. So if you increase the length by 20%, you have to increase the width by 20% too. The longer dimension will increase by more inches than the shorter one does. That’s what percent change is all about. Section 8.1 Explor a tion — Photo Enlargements 389 Explora

Lesson

Section 8.1

8.1.1

Per cents ercents

California Standards:

You hear percents used a lot in everyday life. You might score 83% on a test, or a store might have a 20% off sale. A percent is really just a way to write a fraction — it tells you how many hundredths of a number you have.

Number Sense 1.3 actions to Conv ertt fr fractions Con ver decimals and per cents and percents use these rre epr esenta tions in presenta esentations estima tions tions estimations tions,, computa computations tions, and a pplica tions applica pplications tions..

What it means for you: You’ll see what percents are and how they’re related to fractions and decimals.

Per cents Tell You Ho w Man y Hundr edths You Ha ve ercents How Many Hundredths Hav A percent is a way to write a fraction as a single number. It tells you how many hundredths of something you have. The word percent means out of 100. Writing one percent or 1% is the same as writing

Key words: • • • •

percent fraction decimal hundredth

and writing 10% is the same as writing

Decimals can also be written as percents. The decimal 0.01 means “1 hundredth,” so it’s the same as 1%. There’s more on converting decimals to percents next lesson. Example

Check it out: On a penny you’ll see the words one cent because a penny is one-hundredth of a dollar.

10 . 100

1 , 100

1

In a box of 100 pencils, 26 are blue. What percent of the pencils are blue? Solution

26 . 100 So you can say that 26% of the pencils are blue.

The fraction of pencils that are blue is

It’s useful to be able to visually estimate a percent. Example

2

Estimate what percent of the picture on the right is covered by the mountain.

Solution

Trace the outline of the picture onto tracing paper. Draw a 10 × 10 grid over the tracing. Count the number of squares the mountain covers. It covers 37 whole squares, 8 half squares and 4 quarter squares. 37 + (0.5 • 8) + (0.25 • 4) = 42 squares. The grid has 100 squares. So the mountain covers about 42% of the picture.

390

Section 8.1 — Percents

Don’t forget: For a reminder on how to turn fractions into decimals see Section 2.1.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–3, write each fraction as a decimal and a percent. 1.

5 100

2.

25 100

3.

62 100

In Exercises 4–6, write each percent as a fraction in its simplest form. 4. 1% 5. 50% 6. 20% In Exercises 7–9, draw a 10 by 10 square. Shade in the given percent. 7. 8% 8. 27% 9. 100%

Per cents Can Be Gr ea ter Than 100 ercents Grea eater You can also have percents that are bigger than 100. In the same way that

1 150 is 1%, is 150%. 100 100

And just as 0.01 is the same as 1%, 1.5 is the same as 150%. Percents bigger than 100 leave you with more than the original number. Look at these oranges: This is one whole orange. That’s the same as

This is one and a half oranges. That’s the same as

100 of an 100

100 50 150 + = of an 100 100 100

orange, or 100% of an orange.

orange, or 150% of an orange.

Guided Practice In Exercises 10–12, write each fraction as a percent. 10.

120 100

11.

200 100

12.

1200 100

In Exercises 13–15, write each decimal as a percent. 13. 1.4 14. 3.6 15. 22.0

To Find a P er cent of a Number You Need to Multipl y Per ercent Multiply You already know that to find a fraction of a number, you multiply the number by the fraction. Finding a percent of a number means finding a fraction out of 100 of the number. Example

3

What is 25% of 160? Don’t forget: To multiply a fraction by an integer, just multiply the numerator of the fraction by the integer.

Solution

25 Write out the percent as a fraction: 25% = 100 4000 25 Multipl y the fr action b y the n umber Multiply fraction by number × 160 = 100 100 Simplify the ans wer answ = 40 Section 8.1 — Percents

391

Finding the Original Amount — Write an Equa tion Equation Sometimes, you’ll know how much a certain percentage of a number is and want to find the original amount. Example

4

25% of a number is 40. What is the number? Solution

Check it out: 25 100

is the same as

used

1 4

1 . 4

If you

here, you’d get

exactly the same answer.

25 Write out the percent as a fraction: 25% = 100 Call the number that you’re finding x. 25 × x = 40 Multiply both sides by 100. 100 25x = 4000 Di vide both sides b y 25. Divide by x = 160 40 is 25% of 160.

Guided Practice Find: 16. 10% of 40

17. 60% of 250

In Exercises 19–21, find the value of x. 19. 50% of x is 30 20. 4% of x is 7

18. 64% of 800 21. 65% of x is 130

22. Pepe was chosen as president of his class. He got 75% of the votes, and his class has 28 members. How many people voted for Pepe? 23. The school basketball team won 60% of their games this season. If they won 24 games, how many did they play altogether?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, write the fraction as a percent. 1.

10 100

2.

50 100

23

156

3. 100 4. 100 In Exercises 5–8, write the percent as a fraction in its simplest form. 5. 25% 6. 17% 7. 75% 8. 150% 9. Out of 6000 nails made, 2% were faulty. How many were faulty? Now try these: Lesson 8.1.1 additional questions — p470

10. 150% of the people who were expected turned up at the school fair. If 340 people were expected, how many came? 11. 20% of the students riding a bus are from Town A. If 6 students on the bus are from Town A, how many students ride the bus in total? 12. 80 students auditioned for a play. After the audition, 20% were asked to come to a 2nd audition. 50% of those who came to the 2nd audition were cast. How many were cast? What percent of the original 80 is this?

Round Up Percents say how many hundredths of something you have. You find a percent of a number by converting the percent to a fraction, and then multiplying this fraction by the number. 392

Section 8.1 — Percents

Lesson

8.1.2

Changing F Frractions and Decimals to P er cents Per ercents

California Standards: Number Sense 1.3 Con ver actions to Conv ertt fr fractions decimals and per cents and percents use these rre epr esenta tions presenta esentations in estimations, computa tions computations tions,, and a pplica tions pplications tions..

What it means for you: You’ll see how to change fractions and decimals into percents.

Key words • • • •

percent decimal fraction hundredth

Don’t forget: To multiply a decimal by 100 you just move the decimal point two places to the right.

Changing a fraction or a decimal into a percent is all about working out how many hundredths there are in it. The number of hundredths is always the same as the percent.

Changing Decimals to P er cents Per ercents 1% is the same as the decimal 0.01 — which is one hundredth. Each 1% is one hundredth. So the number of hundredths in the decimal is the same as the number of the percent. 0.04 = 4 hundredths = 4% 0.5 = 0.50 = 50 hundredths = 50% The first two digits after the decimal point tell you the number of hundredths. 0.31 = 31 hundredths = 31% 0.025 = 2.5 hundredths = 2.5% Any numbers that come after that are parts of 1%. So to rewrite any decimal as a percent, you need to multiply it by 100 and add a percent symbol. Example

1

Write 0.25 and 3.12 as percents. Solution

0.25 • 100 = 25, so 0.25 = 25%

Multiply decimals by 100 to umber of the per cent percent 3.12 • 100 = 312, so 3.12 = 312% get the nnumber

Guided Practice Don’t forget: 1 can be rewritten as 1.00.

In Exercises 1–9 write each decimal as a percent. 1. 0.01 2. 0.5 3. 0.75 4. 0.23 5. 0.87 6. 1 7. 0 8. 2.5 9. 11.6

Changing F er cents Frractions to P Per ercents You’ve already seen that 1% is the same as the fraction

1 . 100

To change a

fraction to a percent you need to work out how many hundredths are in it — because that’s the same as the number of the percent.

Section 8.1 — Percents

393

Example Write

3 4

2

as a percent.

Solution 3

To write 4 as a percent you need to change it to hundredths. That means you want the denominator of the fraction to be 100. So you need to multiply the top and bottom of the fraction by the number that will change the denominator to 100. 4 × n = 100

umber yyou ou need to m ultipl y b y n = the nnumber multipl ultiply by

n = 100 ÷ 4 = 25

Di vide both sides b y 4 Divide by

Now turn the original fraction into a percent: 3 3× 25 75 = = = 75% 4 4 × 25 100

Example Write

3

3 as a percent. 8

Solution

This time the denominator of the fraction isn’t a factor of 100. So the fraction won’t be a whole number of hundredths. The most straightforward way of dealing with a fraction like this is to convert it into a decimal first.

3 = 3 ÷ 8 = 0.375 8 Now change the decimal to a percent by multiplying it by 100: 0.375 × 100 = 37.5, so 0.375 = 37.5%

Guided Practice In Exercises 10–18 write each fraction as a percent.

394

Section 8.1 — Percents

10.

1 100

11.

100 100

12.

27 100

13.

1 2

14.

2 5

15.

3 2

16.

7 16

17.

1 1000

18.

53 400

Using F eal Lif e Frractions in R Real Life Percentages are useful for reporting numbers. The meaning of 96% is usually easier for people to understand than the meaning of 585 . 610

Example Check it out: In real-life questions, it’s important to make sure that you get the right numbers in the numerator and the denominator of the fraction. The phrase “out of” in the question often gives you a clue where the numbers should go — if it’s “x out of y,” then x is the numerator and y is the denominator. If there isn’t an “out of” in the problem, try to reword it a bit so that there is. For example, in Guided practice Ex. 20, you could reword the problem to say, “15 out of 24 seventh graders go to camp.”

4

Tamika is a professional basketball player. She makes 552 out of 625 free throws in a season. What percent of her free throws does she make? Solution

Tamika made 552 out of 625 free throws. Written as a fraction that’s

552 . 625

625 isn’t a factor of 100. So first turn the fraction into a decimal. 552 = 552 ÷ 625 = 0.8832 625

Now change the decimal to a percent by multiplying it by 100: 0.8832 × 100 = 88.32 Tamika made 88.32% of her free throws. You could round this to 88%.

Guided Practice 19. In a set of napkins, 18 out of 24 are blue. What percent is this? 20. In a class of 24 7th graders, 15 go to camp. What percent is this? 21. James buys a ball of string that is 5 m long. Wrapping a parcel he uses a piece that is 0.8 m long. What percent of the string has he used? 22. A clothing manufacturer makes 3000 T-shirts. If 213 are returned because the color is wrong, what percent are the right color?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–4, write each decimal as a percent. 1. 0.05 2. 0.2 3. 3.2

4. 0.235

5. Puebla and Mark are changing the decimal 0.5 into a percent. Mark says 0.5 = 5%. Puebla says 0.5 = 50%. Who is correct? In Exercises 6–9, write each fraction as a percent. 6. Now try these: Lesson 8.1.2 additional questions — p470

6 100

7.

0 100

8.

1 5

9.

5 32

10. Out of 50 dogs that are walked every day in the local park, 20 are labradors. What percent is this? 11. Mandy surveyed 96 seventh graders on their favorite cafeteria meal. 33 students responded “spaghetti bolognese.” What percent is this? 12. Tyrone is saving up $80 to buy some hockey skates. He has already saved $47.20. What percent is this of the total that he needs?

Round Up Knowing how to change a decimal or a fraction to a percent will often come in handy. Percents are far easier to compare than fractions and decimals because they’re all measured out of one hundred. Section 8.1 — Percents

395

Lesson

8.1.3

California Standards: Number Sense 1.3 Convert fractions to decimals and percents and use these re pr esenta tions in presenta esentations tions estimations, computa computations tions,, and a pplica tions applica pplications tions.. Number Sense 1.6 Calcula te the per centa ge of Calculate percenta centag incr eases and decr eases of increases decreases a quantity quantity..

What it means for you: You’ll see how to use percents to show how much a quantity has gone up or down by.

Per cent Incr eases and ercent Increases Decr eases Decreases When a number goes up or down, you can use percents to describe how much it has changed by. This can come in useful in real-life situations like comparing price rises or working out sale discounts.

You Can Incr ease a Number b y a Gi ven P er cent Increase by Giv Per ercent You can increase a number by a certain percent of itself. So, say if you want to increase a number by 10%, you have to work out what 10% is, then add this to the original number. Example

1

Increase 50 by 20%. Solution

First work out 20% of 50: Key words: • • • •

percent increase decrease compare

Check it out: “50 increased by 20%” is the same as “120% of 50.” Both are 100% of 50, plus 20% of 50. So you could do this calculation by multiplying 50 by 1.2 — because 1.2 is the decimal equivalent of 120%.

20% of 50 =

20 × 50 = 0.2 × 50 = 10 100

This is the amount that you need to increase 50 by: 50 + 10 = 60 So, 50 increased by 20% is 60. Example

2

A photograph with a length of 14 cm is enlarged. This increases its length by 8%. What is the final length of the enlarged photograph? Solution

First work out 8% of 14 cm: 8% of 14 cm =

8 × 14 cm = 0.08 × 14 cm = 1.12 cm 100

This is the amount that you need to increase 14 cm by: 14 cm + 1.12 cm = 15.12 cm The length of the enlarged photograph is 15.12 cm.

Check it out: Percents don’t have any units. To find a percent you will always be dividing a number by another number that has the same units. So they cancel out.

396

Section 8.1 — Percents

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–4, find the total after the increase. 1. 100 is increased by 10% 2. 20 is increased by 5% 3. 165 is increased by 103% 4. 40 is increased by 20.5% 5. Sarah goes out for lunch. Her bill comes to $15. She wants to leave an extra 17% as a tip for the server. How much should Sarah leave in total?

You Can Describe an Incr ease as a P er cent Increase Per ercent When a number goes up, you can give the increase as a percent of the original number. Example

3

A loaf of bread has 24 slices. As a special buy, a larger loaf is sold, which contains 27 slices. What is the percent increase in the number of slices? Solution

First find the increase in the number of slices: 27 – 24 = 3 Call x the percent increase and write an equation. x% of 24 is 3 x fi × 24 = 3 100 Multiply both sides by 100. x × 24 = 300 Di vide both sides b y 24. Divide by

x = 12.5

The number of slices has increased by 12.5%.

Guided Practice 6. Reynaldo has 140 marbles. He buys 63 more. By what percent has he increased the size of his marble collection? 7. A company increases its number of staff from 1665 to 1998. What is this as a percent increase?

You Can Decr ease a Number b y a Gi ven P er cent Too Decrease by Giv Per ercent You can also decrease a number by a percent of itself. Example Check it out: You could also do this by multiplying 80 by 0.85. 0.85 is the decimal equivalent of 85% — and finding 85% of a number is the same as decreasing it by 15%.

4

Decrease 80 by 15%. Solution

First work out 15% of 80: 15% of 80 =

15 × 80 = 0.15 × 80 = 12 100

This is the amount you decrease 80: 80 – 12 = 68 So, 80 decreased by 15% is 68.

Section 8.1 — Percents

397

Guided Practice In Exercises 8–11, find the total after the decrease. 8. 100 is decreased by 15% 9. 40 is decreased by 35% 10. 37 is decreased by 8% 11. 10 is decreased by 3.9% 12. Tandi has saved $152. She spends 25% of her savings on a shirt. How much does Tandi have left?

You Can Describe a Decr ease as a P er cent Decrease Per ercent When a number goes down, you can use a percent to describe how much it has changed by. The decrease is described as a percent of the original number. Check it out: Make sure you find the percent of the original amount amount. 12.8 feet is decreased to 9.6 feet, so you find the change as a percent of 12.8 feet, which was the original amount.

Check it out: There’s a formula you can use to work out the percent increase or decrease: Percent change = original amount − new amount original amount

×100

Absolute value is used so you can use the formula for either a percent increase or decrease.

Example

5

A river is 12.8 feet deep on January 1. By September 1, the depth has fallen to 9.6 feet. Find the percent decrease in the river depth. Solution

First find the amount that the depth is decreased by: 12.8 feet – 9.6 feet = 3.2 feet Call x the percent decrease and write an equation. x% of 12.8 feet is 3.2 feet x fi × 12.8 feet = 3.2 feet 100 x × 12.8 feet = 320 feet Multiply both sides by 100. x = 25

y 12.8 ffeet. eet. Divide by Di vide both sides b

The river depth has decreased by 25%.

Guided Practice Find the percent decreases in Exercises 13–14. 13. 90 is reduced to 81. 14. 4 is reduced to 3.5 15. Jon is selling buttons for a fund-raiser. He starts with 280 buttons and sells all but 21. What percent of his stock has Jon sold?

Use P er cents to Compar e Chang es Per ercents Compare Changes You can use percent increases and decreases to compare how much two numbers have changed relative to each other. For example: Snowman 1 and Snowman 2 have both lost the same amount in height as they’ve melted — 1 ft. ease is But the p er ercc ent decr decrease greater for Snowman 1 — 1 ft is a bigger change relativ elativee to 6 ft than to 7 ft.

398

Section 8.1 — Percents

Snowman 1: 6 foot 5 foot 17% decrease

Snowman 2: 7 foot 6 foot 14% decrease

Example

6

In a store, a bagel is 40¢ and a loaf of bread is $1.60. The store raises the price of both items by 5¢. Which has the larger percent increase in cost? Solution

Check it out: In terms of actual cost both items increased by the same amount, 5¢. But the bagel has increased by a greater proportion of its original cost than the loaf.

The price of both items is increased by 5¢. So the percent increase in the cost of a bagel is: x × 40¢ = 5¢ fi (5¢ × 100) ÷ 40¢ = 12.5, so a 12.5% increase. 100 And the percent increase in the cost of a loaf is: x × 160¢ = 5¢ fi (5¢ × 100) ÷ 160¢ = 3.125, so a 3.125% increase. 100 You need to have the original value and the increase in the same units. $1.60 has been converted to 160¢ here.

The bagel shows the larger percent increase in cost.

Guided Practice 16. Cindy has 250 baseball cards. Jim has 200 baseball cards. Both buy 50 extra cards. Whose collection increased by the larger percent? 17. Ava and Ian have a contest to see whose sunflower will increase in height by the greatest percent. Ava’s starts 10 cm high and grows to 100 cm. Ian’s starts 20 cm high and grows to 110 cm. Who won?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–6, find the amount after the percent change. 1. Increase 200 by 25% 2. Decrease 200 by 75% 3. Increase 49 by 7% 4. Decrease 82 by 56% 5. Increase 50 by 142.6% 6. Decrease 80 by 33.2% 7. At store A, apples used to cost $1.50 a pound. Then the price rose by 6%. What is the new cost of a pound of apples? 8. Kiona’s brother Otis is 115.5 cm tall. The last time he was measured, his height was 110 cm. Find the percent increase in his height. 9. Last year, School C had 120 6th grade students. This year they have 5% fewer 6th graders. How many fewer students is this? Now try these: Lesson 8.1.3 additional questions — p470

10. Mr. Hill’s house rental costs $900 a month. He moves to a house with a rental of $828 a month. Find the percent decrease in his rental. 11. Duena collects comic books. 10 years ago, Comic A was worth $70 and Comic B was worth $40. Now Comic A is worth $84 and Comic B is worth $49. Which has shown the greater percent increase in value?

Round Up Percent increases and decreases tell you how big a change in a number is when you compare it to the original amount. It’s useful to be able to work them out in real-life situations, especially when you’re thinking about tips and discounts — and you’ll learn more about them in Section 8.2. Section 8.1 — Percents

399

Section 8.2 introduction — an exploration into:

Wha t’ s the Best Deal? hat’ t’s Discounts on sale items in stores are sometimes advertised as percents off the original prices and sometimes as dollar amounts off the original prices. By working out how much the percent discount is, you can find out which is the better deal among different sales. You often won’t have a calculator or pen and paper to hand when you want to work things like this out. So it’s a good idea to develop strategies for calculating percent discounts in your head. The easiest percents to find are 10% and 50%. From these you can find pretty much all the percent discounts that are commonly used in sales. Example A shirt is originally priced at $20 and is on sale with 40% off. The shirt is also on sale for $20 at a different store. You have a store coupon that you could use to save $7.50 at this store. Which store will the shirt cost less at? Solution

To answer this question, you can find 40% of $20 and see if it’s a bigger saving than $7.50. 10% of $20 = $20 ÷ 10 = $2 40% = 4 × 10% = 4 × $2 = $8 This is a bigger saving than $7.50. So the shirt costs less at the first store (with 40% off). Another way of doing this is to find 50% and 10%, then find 40% by subtracting the 10% amount from the 50% amount. 50% of $20 = £20 ÷ 2 = $10 and 10% of $20 = $20 ÷ 10 = $2 So 40% = 50% – 10% = $10 – $2 = $8

Exercises For each of the following Exercises explain how you found the percent discount. 1. A pair of sunglasses is originally priced at $15 and is on sale in a store with 15% off. They are also on sale on an internet site for $13. Which is the best deal? 2. Two stores are having a sale on the same video game originally priced at $20. Store A has the game on sale for $5 off. Store B has the game on sale for 30% off. Which store has the better deal? 3. A $70 DVD player is on sale in two different stores. One store is selling the DVD player for 40% off. A second store is selling the player for $35 off the original price. Which is the better deal? 4. A store has a side table, originally priced at $55, with $10 off. The same table can also be found on the internet for $60 and is on sale for 25% off. Which is the better deal?

Round Up $20 off might sound like a bigger saving than 5%, and often will be. But not if you’re buying something very expensive. So it definitely pays to be able to find percents without a calculator. a tion — What’s the Best Deal? Explora 400 Section 8.2 Explor

Lesson

Section 8.2

8.2.1

Discounts and Mar kups Markups

California Standards:

In the last Section, you learned all about percent increases and decreases. In real life they’re used all the time. One thing that they’re used for is working out how much items will cost in stores — these price changes are known as discounts and markups. And that’s what this Lesson is all about.

Number Sense 1.3 Convert fractions to decimals and percents and use these repr esenta tions in presenta esentations tions estimations, computa computations tions,, and a pplica tions applica pplications tions.. Number Sense 1.6 centa ge of Calculate percenta centag Calcula te the per increases and decreases of a quantity quantity..

A Discount is a P er cent Decr ease Per ercent Decrease When you go shopping, you might see items that are on sale — they cost less than their regular price. E! SAL off 20%

Number Sense 1.7 volv e Solve prob oblems thatt in inv olve Solv e pr ob lems tha discounts kups discounts,, mar markups kups,, commissions, and profit and compute simple and compound interest..

35% off. Today only.

10

Key words: • percent • discount • markup

f of

You’ll see how percents are used in real life to figure out discounts and markups on things that are being sold.

%

What it means for you:

The difference between the regular price and the sale price is called the discount. Discounts are often given as percents of the original value — so they’re examples of percent decrease. Example

1

A skirt costing $28 is on sale at 20% off. What is its sale price? Solution

Write the percent of the discount as a fraction: Work out the amount of the discount:

20% =

20 100

20 × $28 = 0.2 × $28 = $5.60 100

Now subtract the amount of the discount from the original price: $28 – $5.60 = $22.40 OR The skirt has been discounted by 20%. This means that its sale price is (100 – 20)% = 80% of the original price. Write the percent as a fraction:

80% =

80 100

Find the reduced price: 80 × $28 = 0.8 × $28 = $22.40 100

Both methods give the same answer. You can use whichever one you find easier to remember. Section 8.2 — Using Percents

401

Guided Practice 1. A CD costing $16 goes on sale at 25% off. What is its sale price? 2. A wheelbarrow has been marked at a discount of 35%. What percent of the original price is it on sale for? 3. An MP3 player retailing for $90 has been marked down at 15% off. What is the sale price of the MP3 player? 4. A power tool that usually retails at $52 is being sold for $38.74. What is the percent discount on the power tool?

Wor k Out Two Discounts in a R ow Se par a tel y ork Ro Separ para tely Sometimes the same item might be discounted twice. You have to work out each discount separately, one after the other. Example Check it out: To find the amount of two discounts in a row you can’t add the percents. The 2nd percent is taken after the 1st one has already been applied. So in Example 2 to find the new sale price, you found 10% of 50, and then 15% of 45. This isn’t the same as finding 25% of 50.

2

A shirt that usually costs $50 is on sale at 10% off. The store then takes an extra 15% off the discounted price. What is the shirt’s new sale price? Solution

First work out the price after the original discount: 10 × $50 = $5 100

$50 – $5 = $45 first discount

Then work out the price after the second discount: 15 × $45 = $6.75 $45 – $6.75 = $38.25 100 second discount The new sale price is $38.25.

Guided Practice 5. A pair of sneakers that usually costs $100 is on sale at 50% off. The store takes another 20% off. What is the new sale price? 6. A computer costing $976 goes on sale at 25% off. The store offers an extra 15% discount for students. What would the student price be? 7. In a store, two sweaters both costing $60 go on sale. Sweater A is put on sale with 20% off, then another 10% is taken off. Sweater B is put on sale with 10% off, and then another 20% is taken off. Which is the least expensive sweater?

A Mar kup is a P er cent Incr ease Markup Per ercent Increase Stores buy goods at wholesale prices. Before selling them, they increase the prices of the goods in order to cover their expenses and make a profit. The prices that stores sell goods for are called the retail prices. The difference between the wholesale and retail price is called the markup. 402

Section 8.2 — Using Percents

Example

3

The wholesale price of plain paper is $3.20 a ream. If the markup is 75%, what is the retail price of a ream of plain paper? Solution

Write the percent of the markup as a fraction: 75% = Don’t forget: Both methods will give you the same answer, so use whichever one you feel most comfortable with.

Work out the amount of the markup:

75 100

75 × $3.20 = 0.75 × $3.20 = $2.40 100

Add the markup to the original price: $3.20 + $2.40 = $5.60 OR The markup is 75%. So the retail price is 175% of the wholesale price. 175 Write the percent as a fraction: 175% = 100 Find the increased price:

175 × $3.20 = 1.75 × $3.20 = $5.60 100

Guided Practice 8. The wholesale price of a case of oranges is $13.50. If a retailer has an 80% markup, what will the retail price of a case of oranges be? 9. A $125 wholesale price chair is marked up 62%. Find its retail price. 10. An item is marked up 50% from the wholesale price. What percent of the wholesale price is the retail price? Check it out: The method for finding a change as a percent was covered in the last Lesson.

11. A $9.20 wholesale price toy retails at $14.72. Find the percent markup.

Independent Practice 1. A hat worth $70 is on sale at 25% off. What is its sale price? 2. A kettle costing $34 is put on sale at 10% off. The store then offers another 25% off the discounted price. What is the new sale price? 3. In a sale you buy a basketball with 20% off a retail price of $20, sneakers with 40% off a retail price of $80, and a tennis racket with 20% off a retail price of $100. What is the total? What percent discount is this on the full amount? 4. A $12 wholesale price bag is marked up 40%. Find its retail price.

Now try these: Lesson 8.2.1 additional questions — p471

5. The wholesale price of a sweater is $35. If the markup is 55% what is the retail price of the sweater? 6. A shirt with a wholesale price of $36 is marked up 40%. In store it is put on sale at 20% off its retail price. What is the shirt’s sale price? 7. A store buys 100 kg of pears for $1.20/kg. They mark them up 50%. Half sell at retail price and half at 25% off. How much profit does the store make?

Round Up Discounts and markups are real-life examples of percent increase and decrease problems. Whether it’s a discount or markup, you need to take care that you find the percent of the original price. Section 8.2 — Using Percents

403

Lesson

8.2.2

Tips Tips,, Tax, and Commission

California Standards:

This lesson is about some more real-life uses of percent increase. You’ll come across them in a lot of everyday situations, so they’re definitely worth knowing about.

Number Sense 1.3 Convert fractions to decimals and percents and use these repr esenta tions in presenta esentations tions estimations, computa computations tions,, and a pplica tions applica pplications tions.. Number Sense 1.6 Calcula te the per centa ge of Calculate percenta centag increases and decreases of a quantity quantity.. Number Sense 1.7 Solv e pr ob lems tha volv e Solve prob oblems thatt in inv olve discounts, markups, commissions commissions, and profit and compute simple and compound interest.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about more real-life uses of percent increase.

A Tip is Calcula ted as a P er cent of a Bill Calculated Per ercent When you eat at a restaurant you would usually leave a tip for the person who waited on you. The standard amount to leave is 15% of your bill — though you might vary this percent depending on the quality of the service. Example

1

Finn’s restaurant bill comes to $16. He wants to leave a 15% tip for the server. How much tip should he leave? Solution

To find how much to leave for a 15% tip, Finn should multiply his bill by

15 100

or 0.15.

0.15 × $16 = $2.40

So Finn should leave a $2.40 tip.

Key words: • • • •

tip tax commission percent

Check it out:

You Might Need to Wor k Out a Tip Mentall y ork Mentally Using mental math, 10% is an easier percent to work out than 15%. So find 10% of the bill and leave that plus half as much again. In Example 1, Finn might first work out that, as his bill is $16, 10% is $1.60. 100%

There are other people who you might tip for their service — a taxi driver, a hairstylist, or a parking valet for instance.

$1.60 $1.60 $1.60 $1.60 $1.60 $1.60 $1.60 $1.60 $1.60 $1.60

15%

So his tip should be $1.60 + ( Check it out: If you rounded down to $50 you’d leave a tip of $5 — and that would be less than 10%.

1 2

× $1.60) = $1.60 + $0.80 = $2.40.

You might sometimes estimate a tip, but you should usually round up and not down. For example, if your bill was $54.40 and you wanted to leave a 10% tip, you could round the bill to $60, and leave a $6 tip. Example

2

Raina’s taxi fare is $17.61. She wants to give the driver a tip of about 10%. Estimate how much she should give as a tip. Check it out: It would also be reasonable here to round to $18 and leave a tip of $1.80.

404

Solution

To estimate the tip needed, round up Raina’s $17.61 fare to $20. 0.1 × $20 = $2 So, Raina should give a $2 tip.

Section 8.2 — Using Percents

10% =

10 = 0.1 100

Guided Practice 1. Vance’s restaurant bill comes to $40. He leaves a 15% tip. How much is the tip? How much does he leave altogether? In Exercises 2–5, use mental math to find 15% of each amount. 2. $10 3. $4 4. $7 5. $12.60 6. Mrs. Clark’s haircut costs $48.59. She wants to leave a 20% tip. Estimate what amount would be sensible for her to leave as a tip.

Sales Tax is a P er cent Incr ease on an Item’ s Cost Per ercent Increase Item’s When you buy certain items, you pay a sales tax on them — an extra amount of money on top of the cost of the item that goes to the government. A sales tax is calculated as a percent of the cost of the item. Tax rates are set by local governments — so they vary from place to place. Check it out: Like a tip, a tax is an extra amount paid on top of the basic cost of the item. It’s paid by the buyer.

Example

3

In Fort Bragg, sales tax is 7.75%. Pacho buys a book costing $12 before tax from a bookstore in Fort Bragg. How much sales tax will he pay? Solution

To find the sales tax Pacho paid, find 7.75% of the selling price. 7.75% =

7.75 100

0.0775 × $12 = $0.93 = 0.0775

Example

Pacho pays $0.93 sales tax on his book. 4

On a vacation, you buy a souvenir that was $3.50 before tax. You were charged $3.71. What is the rate of sales tax here? Solution

The amount of tax paid was $3.71 – $3.50 = $0.21 Check it out: You’re working out what percent $0.21 is of $3.50. So you could write the fraction $0.21 $3.50 , then convert it to a

decimal: $0.21 ÷ $3.50 = 0.06. This is 6 hundredths, which is 6%.

Let x = the rate of sales tax. x × $3.50 = $0.21 100 $3.50x = $21 x= 6

Multipl y both sides b y 100 Multiply by Di vide both sides b y $3.50 Divide by

So the rate of sales tax is 6%.

Guided Practice 7. Hazel bought a calculator costing $29.50 (before tax) in Santa Rosa, where the sales tax is 8%. How much sales tax did she have to pay? 8. The sales tax in San Francisco is 8.5%, while in Oakland it is 8.75%. What is the price difference in buying a $21,000 (before tax) car in Oakland and San Francisco? 9. Dale bought a table costing $520 (before tax). He paid $37.70 sales tax on it. What was the rate of sales tax where he bought the table? Section 8.2 — Using Percents

405

Commission is P aid to a Sales Ag ent Paid Agent Commission is sometimes paid to sales agents — like realtors, or car salespeople. Realtors may get an amount of money for each property they sell — how much they get is calculated as a percent of the selling price. Example

5

Althea is a realtor. She gets 6% commission on the sale price of a house. If a house sells for $210,000 how much commission will she receive? Solution

To find the commission that Althea gets, find 6% of the selling price. $210,000 × 0.06 = $12,600 The realtor will receive $12,600 commission.

Guided Practice 10. A shoe salesman receives a 10% commission on each pair of shoes he sells. What commission will he get on a pair costing $89? 11. A travel agent receives an 8% commission on all cruise sales. If a cruise ticket costs $1689 how much commission will the agent get? 12. An auctioneer takes a commission on all items sold. A lamp sells for $80, and the auctioneer gets $9.60. What percent commission does the auctioneer take? How much does the seller receive?

Independent Practice 1. Shakia wants to leave her hairstylist a 25% tip. If her haircut cost $42, what tip should she leave? 2. In a restaurant, Mr. Baker’s bill comes to $76.32. He wants to leave a tip of about 15%. Using mental math, estimate what tip he should leave. 3. In Santa Clara, the sales tax rate is 8.25%. If Nina buys a radio costing $40 before tax, how much sales tax will she pay? 4. Brad’s restaurant bill comes to $25. He leaves a tip of $4. What percent of the bill has he left as a tip? 5. Leah buys a pair of jeans in Clearlake, where the sales tax rate is 7.75%. If the jeans cost $40 before tax, how much does she pay in total? Now try these: Lesson 8.2.2 additional questions — p471

6. A salesperson gets 7.5% commission on each car sold. How much commission will the salesperson earn on a car costing $18,600? 7. The sales tax rate in Roseland is 8%. Daniel eats in a restaurant in Roseland. The bill is $100 before tax. After the tax has been added he works out 25% of the total to leave as a tip. What tip does he leave?

Round Up Tips, tax, and commission are all just types of percent increases. Don’t forget though — tips and tax are paid by the buyer and commission is paid by the seller. So you need to think carefully about what it is that you’re being asked to find. 406

Section 8.2 — Using Percents

Lesson

8.2.3

Profit

California Standards:

If you buy something and then sell it for more than the amount that it cost you, the extra money that you get is called profit. Because you end up with more money than you started with, you can think about profit as a percent increase.

Number Sense 1.3 Convert fractions to decimals and percents and use these repr esenta tions in presenta esentations tions estimations, computa computations tions,, and a pplica tions applica pplications tions.. Number Sense 1.7 volv e Solve prob oblems thatt in inv olve Solv e pr ob lems tha discounts, markups, ofit and commissions, and pr profit compute simple and compound interest..

What it means for you: You’ll learn what profit is and how to find profit as a percent of a company’s sales.

Pr ofit is the Amount of Mone y tha es Profit Money hatt a Business Mak Makes A business has to spend money buying stock and paying staff. The amount of money that a business spends is called its expenses. A business also has an income from selling its products or services. The total amount of money that a business brings in is called its revenue. The profit that a business makes is just the difference between its revenue and its expenses.

Profit = Revenue – Expenses Key words: • • • • •

profit revenue expenses percent sales

Example

1

A film had a revenue of $55 million in ticket sales and $35 million in licensing agreements. It had expenses of $4 million in advertising and $48 million in production costs. What profit did the film make? Solution

The film’s total revenue = $55,000,000 + $35,000,000 = $90,000,000 The film’s total expenses = $4,000,000 + $48,000,000 = $52,000,000 Profit

= Revenue – Expenses = $90,000,000 – $52,000,000 = $38,000,000

Guided Practice 1. Janet buys a rare baseball card for $15. She later sells it to another collector for $18. What profit has she made? 2. This year a company had a revenue of $500,000 and $356,000 of expenses. What profit did the company make this year? Check it out: You know that Profit = Revenue – Expenses. Now add “Expenses” to both sides of the equation: Profit + Expenses = Revenue.

3. A school held a fund-raiser. They paid $200 to hire a band, and $400 for food. They took $1000 in ticket sales. How much profit did the event make? 4. A bookstore’s total expenses in one year consisted of $300,000 to buy stock, and $150,000 to pay staff and cover other expenses. Their profit was $40,000. What was their total revenue? Section 8.2 — Using Percents

407

Pr ofits ar e Often Gi ven as P er cents Profits are Giv Per ercents You can also work out a percent profit. This compares the amount of profit to the amount of sales revenue. Example

2

A company makes a profit of $90,000 on total sales of $720,000. What is their profit as a percent of sales? Solution

The company made $90,000 profit on sales of $720,000. Write this as a fraction, and convert it to a decimal. $90, 000 = 0.125 $720, 000 Now change the decimal to a percent by multiplying by 100. 0.125 × 100 = 12.5, so their profit is 12.5% of their sales.

Guided Practice 5. Sayon’s lemonade stand made a $20 profit. He sold $80 worth of lemonade. What profit did he make as a percent of sales? Don’t forget: To find x% of a number, just

x multiply the number by . 100

6. A company made a profit of $6000 on total sales of $40,000. What was their profit as a percent of sales? 7. Sophia buys a set of books for $75. She later sells the books to a collector for $90. What percent profit has she made? 8. Company A made a 12% profit on sales of $295,000. How much profit did they make?

You Can Compar e Pr ofits Using P er cents Compare Profits Per ercents Businesses often use percents to compare the profits that they have made in consecutive years. This shows how the company is performing over time. Example

3

This year, Company B increased its profits by 5% over the previous year. If last year’s profit was $43,900, what was this year’s profit? Solution

5 Write the percent of the increase as a fraction: 5% = 100 Work out the amount of the increase: 5 × $43,900 = 0.05 × $43,900 = $2195 100

Now add the amount of the increase to the original profit: $43,900 + $2195 = $46,095 408

Section 8.2 — Using Percents

Example

4

Last year, Company C made profits of $40,000. This year, they made profits of $28,000. What was the percent decrease in their profits? Solution

Find the amount of the profit decrease: $40,000 – $28,000 = $12,000 Now divide the amount of the decrease by the first year’s profits: $12, 000 = 0.3 $40, 000

Change the decimal to a percent by multiplying by 100: 0.3 × 100 =30, so they had a 30% decrease in profit.

Guided Practice 9. This year, Company D increased its profits by 10% over last year. If last year’s profits were $12,000, what was this year’s profit? 10. Company E’s profits fell by 4% this year compared to last year. If last year’s profits were $29,500, what were this year’s profits? 11. Last month, Company F made profits of $1250. This month, they made profits of $1500. Find the percent increase in their profits. 12. Last year, Company G made profits of $200,000. This year, they made profits of $192,000. Find the percent decrease in their profits.

Independent Practice 1. In one year, a company has a total revenue of $185,000 and total expenses of $155,000. What were the company’s profits that year? 2. A website selling clothes made a profit of $7890 in a month. In the same month its revenue was $12,390. Find its expenses for that month. 3. A toy store makes $12,000 profit on sales of $300,000. What percent profit has the store made? 4. A grocer buys $270 of fruit. He sells it for $283.50. What is his profit? What is his percent profit? Now try these: Lesson 8.2.3 additional questions — p471

5. This year, Company H’s profits fell by 7% compared to the previous year. If last year’s profit was $22,500, what was this year’s profit? 6. Last month, a store made profits of $4800. This month, they made profits of $5400. What was the percent increase in their profits? 7. Your class organizes a dance as a fund-raiser. You spend $100 hiring a DJ, $180 on food, and $40 on tickets and fliers. You have 50 tickets — if they all sell, what will you need to price them at to make a 25% profit?

Round Up Profit is the money that a business is left with when you take away what it spends from what it takes in sales. Percent change in profit is a way of measuring the performance of a business over time. Section 8.2 — Using Percents

409

Lesson

8.2.4

California Standards: Number Sense 1.3 Convert fractions to decimals and percents and use these r epr esenta tions in presenta esentations tions estimations, computa computations tions,, and a pplica tions applica pplications tions.. Number Sense 1.6 centa ge of Calculate percenta centag Calcula te the per increases and decreases of a quantity quantity.. Number Sense 1.7 Solve problems that involve discounts, markups, commissions, and profit and compute simple and compound interest.

Simple Interest Interest is an important real-life topic because it’s all about saving and borrowing money. If you keep your money in a savings account, the bank will pay you something just for keeping it there. The interest that you gain will be based on how much you put in — and that means it’s another use of percent increase.

Inter est is a F ee P aid F or the Use of Mone y Interest Fee Paid For Money When you keep money in a savings account, the bank pays you interest for the privilege of using your money. When you borrow money from a bank, the bank charges you interest for the privilege of using their money. Interest is a fee that you pay for using someone else’s money.

What it means for you:

The interest to be paid is worked out as a percent of the money invested or loaned. The percent that is paid over a given time is called the interest rate.

You’ll see what interest is and how to work out how much simple interest you could earn over time.

Simple Inter est is P aid Onl y on the Principal Interest Paid Only

Key words: • • • •

interest simple interest principal interest rate

Check it out: To invest just means to put money into something.

The amount of money you put into or borrow from a bank is called the principal. Interest that is paid only on the principal is called simple interest. With simple interest, the interest rate tells you how much money you will get back every year as a percent of the principal. For example: think about depositing $100 in a savings account with a simple interest rate of 5% per year. For each year you leave your money in the account, you will get 5% of $100 back. Example

Number of years Interest earned Total 0

$0

$100

1

$5

$105

2

$5

$110

3

$5

$115

1

You deposit $50 in a savings account that pays a simple interest rate of 2% per year. How much interest will you get over 3 years? How much will be in the account after 3 years? Solution

2

First find 2% of $50: $50 × = $1. This is the amount of interest 100 you will get each year. So over 3 years you will earn: 3 × $1 = $3 After 3 years you will have: 410

Section 8.2 — Using Percents

$50 + (3 × $1) = $53 in the account.

Guided Practice 1. If you put money into a savings account which pays simple interest, will the amount of interest you get in the first year be the same as in the second year? Explain your answer. 2. You borrow $150 from a bank at a simple interest rate of 8% per year. How much interest will you pay in one year? 3. You deposit $200 in a savings account that pays a simple interest rate of 5% per year. How much interest will you get over 4 years? 4. You deposit $65 in a savings account that pays a simple interest rate of 4% per year. How much will be in your account after 4 years?

Use the Simple Inter est F or mula to Calcula te Inter est Interest For orm Calculate Interest Look back at Example 1. To work out how much interest you got over 3 years, you worked out the percent of the principal that you would get each year and multiplied it by 3. So the calculation you did was: (50 × Don’t forget: You can remove the parentheses from this equation because of the associative property of multiplication — see Lesson 1.1.5.

2 ) × 3 = $3 100

Now think about what each part of that equation represents. This is the principal.

This is the time that the money is in the account for.

50 ×

2 × 3 = $3 100

This is the interest rate written as a fraction.

This is the interest earned.

You can use this to figure out a general formula for finding simple interest. First assign a variable to stand for each part of the equation: • P stands for the principal. • r stands for the interest rate (in % per year), written as a fraction or a decimal. • t stands for time (in years). • I stands for the amount of interest that has built up. To find the amount of interest that you got, you multiplied together the principal, the interest rate, and the time the money was in the account for. Written as a formula this is:

I = Prt Section 8.2 — Using Percents

411

Example

2

You deposit $276 in a savings account that has a simple interest rate of 6% per year. How much interest will you get over 5 years?

Don’t forget: When you write the interest rate, you can write 6% as 6

either the fraction 100 or the decimal 0.06.

Solution

I = Prt I = $276 × 0.06 × 5 I = $82.80

Substitute the vvalues alues into the ffor or mula orm

Over 5 years you’ll earn $82.80 interest.

Guided Practice Check it out: Read each question carefully. Sometimes you’ll be asked to just find the amount of interest, other times you’ll be asked to find the total amount in the account. To find the total amount that an account will contain, first calculate the interest. Then add the interest to the principal.

5. You borrow $57 from a bank at a simple interest rate of 9% per year. How much interest will you pay in one year? 6. You deposit $354 in a savings account that pays a simple interest rate of 2.5% a year. How much interest will you get over 7 years? 7. You deposit $190 in a savings account that pays a simple interest rate of 4% a year. How much will be in your account after 4 years? 8. You put $520 in a savings account with a simple interest rate of 6% a year. You take it out after 6 months. How much interest will you get?

Independent Practice 1. You borrow $75 from a bank at a simple rate of 9% per year. How much interest will you pay over 7 years? 2. You deposit $64 in a savings account that pays a simple interest rate of 2.5% a year. How much will be in your account after 17 years? 3. Ian put $4000 into a short-term investment for 3 months. The simple interest rate was 5.2% per year. How much interest did Ian earn? 4. Luz borrows money from a bank at a simple interest rate of 5% a year. After 4 years she has paid $50 interest. How much did she borrow? 5. Ty puts $50 in a savings account with a simple interest rate of 3% a year. He works out what interest he will get in 5 years. His calculation is shown on the right. What error has he made? How much interest will he get? Now try these: Lesson 8.2.4 additional questions — p472

I = Prt I = $50 × 3 × 5 I = $2250

6. Anna puts $50 in a savings account that pays a simple interest rate of 5% a year. After 4 years she takes out all the money, and puts it in a new account that pays a simple interest rate of 6% a year. She leaves it there for 5 years. How much will Anna have in total at the end of this time?

Round Up Interest is money that is paid as a fee for using someone else’s money. Simple interest means that each year you get back a fixed percent of the initial amount you invested. Make sure you understand how simple interest works. You’ll use a lot of the same math in the next lesson on compound interest. 412

Section 8.2 — Using Percents

Lesson

8.2.5

Compound Interest

CA Standard covered: California Standards:

In the last Lesson, you saw what interest was and how to work out simple interest. There’s another type of interest that you need to know about called compound interest. And that’s what this Lesson is about.

Number Sense 1.3 fr actionstotodecimals Conv ertt fractions fractions Convert Con ver decimals andand percents and use these and percents these rre epr esenta ruse epr esenta tions in tions in presenta esentations presenta esentations tions computa tions computations tions, estimations, computa computations tions,, and applications. a pplica tions applica pplications tions.. Number 1.6for you: What itSense means centa ge of Calculate percenta centag Calcula te the per increases and decreases of a quantity quantity.. Number Sense 1.7 Solve problems that involve discounts, markups, commissions, and profit and compute simple and compound interest.

What it means for you: You’ll learn about compound interest, and how to work out how much compound interest you could earn over time.

Key words: • • • • • •

compound interest principal interest rate annually quarterly monthly

Compound Inter est is P aid on an Entir e Balance Interest Paid Entire Simple interest is only paid on the principal. So although the balance of your account rises, the amount of interest you get is the same each year. Compound interest is paid on the principal and on any interest you’ve already earned. Interest is added (or compounded) at regular intervals — and the amount paid is a percent of everything in the account. Think about putting $100 in Number Interest earned Total an account with an interest of years rate of 5% compounded 0 $0 $10,000 yearly. Each year you leave 1 ($10,000 × 0.05) = $500 $10,500 your money in the account 2 ($10,500 × 0.05) = $525 $11,025 you will get 5% of the ($11,025 × 0.05) = $551.25 $11,576.25 account’s balance paid into 3 your account. Interest can also be worked out daily, monthly, or quarterly. It often isn’t an exact number of cents — so the bank rounds it to the nearest cent. Example

1

You put $80 into an account with an interest rate of 5% per year, compounded quarterly. What is the account balance after 6 months? Solution

Check it out: Quarterly means every three months — this is a quarter of the year.

Check it out: 0.25 is used here because the interest is compounded quarterly. If it were compounded yearly, the multiplication factor would be 1. And if it were monthly, the multiplication factor would be one-twelfth.

After the first 3 months you’ll get: I = Prt = $80 × 0.05 × 0.25 = $1 interest. So you’ll have $81 in the account. Over the next 3 months, you’ll get: I = Prt = $81 × 0.05 × 0.25 ª $1.01 interest. So you’ll have $82.01 in the account. In 6 months you earned $2.01 interest and have $82.01 in the account.

Guided Practice 1. If you put money into a savings account which pays compound interest, will the amount of interest you get in the first year be the same as in the second year? Explain your answer. 2. You borrow $100 from a bank at an interest rate of 5% a year compounded annually. How much interest do you pay in 2 years? Section 8.2 — Using Percents

413

Calcula te Compound Inter est Using the F or mula Calculate Interest For orm There’s a formula for calculating the amount in an account (A) that has been earning compound interest:

A = P(1 + rt)n • P is the principal. This is the amount that is put into the account or loaned in the first place. • r is the interest rate, written as a fraction or a decimal. 6 So an interest rate of 6% could be written as 100 or 0.06. • t is the time between each interest payment in years. In Example 1 this was 0.25 because interest was paid quarterly. • n is the number of interest payments made. In Example 1 this was 2 — in 6 months quarterly interest was paid twice. Example

2

You put $80 into an account that pays an interest rate of 6% per year compounded quarterly. Use the compound interest formula to find the account balance after 6 months. Solution

Don’t forget: On bank statements, interest payments are usually rounded to the nearest cent.

A = P(1 + rt)n alues into the ffor or mula orm A = 80(1 + (0.06 × 0.25))2 Substitute the vvalues 2 A = 80 × 1.015 Ev alua te Evalua aluate A = 82.418 The account balance is $82.42 to the nearest cent.

Guided Practice 3. You put $100 into an account with a compound interest rate of 10% per year, compounded annually. What’s the account balance after 4 years? 4. You put $150 into an account with a compound interest rate of 4% per year, compounded quarterly. What’s the account balance after 6 months? 5. You put $88 into an account with a compound interest rate of 1% per year, compounded quarterly. What’s the account balance after 9 months? 6. You put $200 into an account with a compound interest rate of 2% per year compounded monthly. What’s the account balance after 7 months?

Comparing Simple and Compound Interest Imagine you have $10,000 to invest for three years, and you intend to make no transactions during that time. You can choose from two accounts: one pays 5% simple interest per year, the other 5% compound interest per year, compounded annually. 414

Section 8.2 — Using Percents

This table shows the amount of interest the two accounts would build up: SIMPLE INTEREST COMPOUND INTEREST Number Interest of years earned

Total

Interest earned

Total

0

$0

$10,000

$0

$10,000

1

$500

$10,500

$500

$10,500

2

$500

$11,000

$525

$11,025

3

$500

$11,500

$551.25

$11,576.25

The account with compound interest would earn you an extra $76.25. Comparing two accounts with the same annual interest rate: • If you are SAVING a fixed sum of money, the account with compound interest will be a better choice because it will earn MORE interest. • If you are BORROWING a fixed sum of money, simple interest will be a better choice because you’ll be charged LESS interest overall.

Guided Practice 7. On a loan of $100, Bank A charges simple interest at 6% a year. Bank B charges 6% a year, compounded annually. Neither loan offers repayment in installments. Which bank has the better deal?

Check it out: To compare simple and compound interest when the interest rates are different you’ll have to work out the account balances.

8. Myra has $100 to invest for 6 years. She can pick from 2% simple interest a year, or 2% compound interest a year, compounded annually. How much more will be in her account if she picks compound interest? 9. Rai has $500 to invest for 3 years. He can pick from 5% simple interest a year or 4% compound interest a year, compounded quarterly. Which will leave him with the greater account balance?

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–3, work out the account balance using the formula. 1. $100 is invested for 5 years at 5% a year, compounded annually. 2. $50 is invested for 2 years at 3% a year, compounded quarterly. 3. $800 is invested for 8 months at 5% a year, compounded monthly. 4. Ezola borrows $200 at 7% a year compounded quarterly. She makes no repayments in the 1st year. What does she owe at the end of it? 5. Ben puts $2000 in an account that pays 5% a year simple interest. Dia puts $2000 in an account that pays 5% a year compounded annually. What’s the difference between their balances after 6 years? Now try these: Lesson 8.2.5 additional questions — p472

6. Geroy has $1000 to invest for 2 years. He can pick from 3.5% simple interest a year or 3.4% compound interest a year, compounded monthly. Which will leave him with the greater account balance? 7. Kim puts $10,000 in an account that pays a rate of 4% interest a year compounded annually. After 2 years the rate goes up to 5% a year compounded quarterly. What is her account balance after 30 months?

Round Up Compound interest is when you’re paid interest on the whole account balance and not just on the money you first put in. It’s a great way to save — but not always such a good way to borrow. Section 8.2 — Using Percents

415

Section 8.3 introduction — an exploration into:

Estima ting Length Estimating An estimate is an educated guess about something — such as the size of a measurement. In this Exploration, you’ll test your estimation skills by estimating the length of different objects in the classroom. You’ll then test your estimates by measuring, and finding your percent error. If you estimated the length of a field and were only 2 inches away from the actual measurement, it would be much more impressive than if you estimated the length of a pencil and were 2 inches out. That’s why you use percent error — 2 inches as a percent of the length of a field, would be tiny, whereas 2 inches as a percent of the length of a pencil would be much bigger. Example A student estimates that the length of a math textbook is 30 centimeters. She measures it, and finds that it’s actually only 27 centimeters long. What is her percent error? Solution

27 cm

Her error is 30 – 27 = 3 centimeters. You have to find 3 centimeters out of 27 centimeters as a percent: 3 × 100 = 11.1 So her percent error was 11.1%. 27

Exercises 1. Make a copy of the table below. Complete it by estimating the things listed, measuring them, and then calculating the percent error. It em

Es t i m a t e (c m )

A c t u al Er r o r (c m ) m eas u r em en t ( c m )

Per c en t er r o r

Length of student desk Width of door Diameter of clock Width of light switch

Pick two other items in your classroom.

2. How did your accuracy change over the course of the Exploration? Did your estimation skills improve? Explain your answer.

Round Up Percent error tells you how big your error is compared to the size of the thing you are measuring. You normally estimate with “easy” numbers — like whole numbers, or to the nearest 10 or 100. For instance, you’d estimate something as “about a meter” rather than “about 102.3 centimeters.” a tion — Estimating Length Explora 416 Section 8.3 Explor

Lesson

8.3.1 California Standard: Mathematical Reasoning 2.7 Indicate the relative advantages of exact and approximate solutions to problems and give answers to a specified degree of accuracy.

What it means for you: You’ll see how to round numbers, and how to describe how you’ve rounded them.

Key words: • • • •

rounding decimal places hundredth thousandth

Section 8.3

Rounding Often, it’s fine to give an approximate answer. For instance, if you calculate the length of a yard as 11.583679 meters, then it’d probably be most sensible to say that it’s approximately 11.58 meters. Also, rounding numbers that have lots of digits makes them easier to handle. There’s a set of rules to follow to help you round any number.

Rounding Makes Numbers Easier to Work With Sometimes, using exact numbers isn’t necessary. For example: the exact number of people who came to a football game might be 65,327. But most people who want to know what the attendance was will be happy with the answer “about 65,000.”

Rounding reduces the number of nonzero digits in a number while keeping its value similar. Rounded numbers are less accurate, but easier to work with, than unrounded numbers.

There are Rules to Follow When You Round Think about rounding 65.3 to the nearest whole number. “To the nearest whole number” means that the units column is the last one that you want to keep. So look at the digit to the right of that: 65.3 You’re rounding to this place...

Check it out: Rounding is all about figuring out which of two numbers your answer is closer to.

Because this digit is less than 5, it means that the number is closer to 65 than to 66. So you can round it down to 65. It might help to think about where the number is on a number line:

64.5

Check it out: 72.5 lies exactly half way between 72 and 73. The rule is to round it up to 73 though.

...so look at this place.

65

65.5

66

66.5

You can see that 65.3 is closer to 65 than to 66.

Rules of rounding: • Look at the digit to the right of the place you’re rounding to. • If it’s 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, then round the number down. • If it’s 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, then round the number up.

Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

417

Example

1

Round 57.51 to the nearest whole number. Solution

You’re rounding to the nearest whole number, so look at the units column. You’re rounding to this place...

57.51

...so look at this place.

This digit is 5 — so you can round 57.51 up to 58.

Guided Practice In Exercises 1–9, round the number to the nearest whole number. 1. 3.1 2. 4.8 3. 2.5 4. 21.6 5. 7.01 6. 43.19 7. 0.61 8. 127.20 9. 1849.271

You Need to Say What You’re Rounding To Check it out: To help you figure out where to round a number, you can circle the digit you’re rounding to. For example: if you’re rounding 1872 to the nearest hundred, ring the digit that represents hundreds.

1872 Now look at the digit to the right of that. In this case, as it is 7, you round up to 1900.

When you round, you need to say in your work what you’ve rounded your answer to. That might be... ... to the nearest whole number

17.23

17

... to the nearest 10

285

... to the nearest 100

1243

1200

... to the nearest one-hundredth

1.379

1.38

290

Guided Practice In Exercises 10–15, round the number to the size given. 10. 726 to the nearest 10 11. 1851 to the nearest 100 12. 21241 to the nearest 1000 13. 0.15 to the nearest 10th 14. 0.2149 to the nearest 100th 15. 0.00827 to the nearest 1000th

You Can Round to Decimal Places Another way of rounding numbers is to round to decimal places. Check it out: Rounding to the nearest hundredth is the same as rounding to 2 decimal places. Rounding to the nearest whole number is the same as rounding to 0 decimal places.

418

Thousandths 3 decimal places

Units 0 decimal places

Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

1. 2 3 4 Tenths 1 decimal place

Hundredths 2 decimal places

The number of decimal places that have been used is just the number of digits there are after the decimal point. Example

2

Round 1.48934 to 3 decimal places. Solution

You’re rounding to 3 decimal places, so look at the number to the right of the third digit after the decimal point. You’re rounding to this place...

1.48934

...so look at this place.

This digit is 3 — so you can round 1.48934 down to 1.489.

Guided Practice In Exercises 16–21 round to the number of decimal places given. 16. 0.27 to 1 decimal place 17. 2.237 to 1 decimal place 18. 4.118 to 2 decimal places 19. 1.4619 to 2 decimal places 20. 0.6249 to 3 decimal places 21. 0.012419 to 4 decimal places

Independent Practice In Exercises 1–8, round the number to the size given. 1. 7.8 to the nearest whole number 2. 423 to the nearest 10 3. 19410 to the nearest 100 4. 1.205 to the nearest 100th 5. 5.63 to 1 decimal place 6. 0.74 to 0 decimal places 7. 1.118 to 2 decimal places 8. 7.2462 to 3 decimal places 9. Duenna’s school has 1249 pupils on its roll. How many pupils does it have to the nearest hundred? What about to the nearest 10? 10. Multiply 1501 by 8. Give your answer to the nearest 1000. 11. Divide 150 by 31. Give your answer to 1 decimal place.

Now try these: Lesson 8.3.1 additional questions — p472

12. Kelvin is asked to round 1.836 to 2 decimal places. His work is shown on the right. What mistake has he made? What answer should he have gotten?

1.836 The digit is 3, so round down to 1.8.

13. The local news reports that, in a survey of 3000 local families, 1000 had 3 or more children below the age of 18. The actual number was 583. Do you think it was sensible to round to the nearest 1000 here? What would you have rounded to?

Round Up When you don’t need to use an exact number you can round. Rounding makes numbers with a lot of digits easier to handle. Use the digit to the right of the one you’re rounding to to decide whether you need to round up or down. And don’t forget to always say how you’ve rounded a number — whether it’s to the nearest 100, the nearest hundredth, or to a certain number of decimal places. Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

419

Lesson

8.3.2 California Standards: Mathematical Reasoning 2.7 Indicate the relative advantages of exact and approximate solutions to problems and give answers to a specified degree of accuracy. Mathematical Reasoning 3.1 Evaluate the reasonableness of the solution in the context of the original situation.

Rounding Reasonably There are times when the rules about rounding up and down that you learned in the last Lesson don’t apply. In some real-life situations it isn’t reasonable to round an answer up, and in others it isn’t reasonable to round it down. This Lesson is all about being able to spot them.

Ordinary Rounding is Rounding to the Nearest In the last Lesson, you learned about the ordinary rules of rounding. For example:

What it means for you:

Anything from here Anything from here to here is rounded to here is rounded down to 1 up to 2

You’ll see how to round numbers in situations where the normal rules of rounding don’t apply.

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0

Key words: • • • •

rounding decimal places round up round down

• If the digit to the right of the place you’re rounding to is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 you should round down. • If the digit to the right of the place you’re rounding to is 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 you should round up. Rounding with these rules is called “rounding to the nearest” because whether you round up or down depends which number the digit is closest to.

Sometimes It’s Sensible to Round a Number Up There are real-life situations when it’s sensible to round an answer up — even though it’s actually closer to the lower number. Example Check it out: Whenever you’re solving a real-life problem, you have to check that your answer is a reasonable one for that particular problem. If the question asked how many cans Latoria would use, the answer could be 5.2. But she couldn’t buy this number of cans.

420

1

Latoria is decorating. She has to paint a total wall area of 130 m2. A can of paint covers 25 m2 of wall. How many cans of paint should Latoria buy? Solution

To find exactly how many cans of paint Latoria will need, divide the total area of wall by the area covered by one paint can. 130 m2 ÷ 25 m2 = 5.2 But Latoria can only buy a whole number of cans. So you need to round your answer to a whole number. • Conventional rounding rules would say that the digit to the right of the units column is a 2. So the answer would round to 5 cans. • But if Latoria only buys 5 cans, she won’t have enough paint to cover the whole wall. So you need to round the answer up to 6 cans.

Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

Real-life situations where you need to round up instead of down include: • Working out how many of something you need for a task — it’s better to have a bit left over than not have enough. Example 1 was a good illustration of this. • Figuring how much to leave for a tip — it’s fine to leave a little over the percent tip you intended, but you wouldn’t want to leave any less. • Working out how much money you need to buy an item — if you give too much you get change, but if you don’t have enough you can’t pay.

Guided Practice 1. A large cake contains 5 eggs. You’re baking a small birthday cake that is half the size. How many eggs should you buy? 2. Reece is laying a path that is 76 m long. Each bag of gravel will cover 3 m of path. How many bags should Reece buy? 3. To get a grade A on a math test, Kate needs to score 80% or higher. If the test has a possible total of 74 points, how many points does Kate need to score an A? 4. Emilio’s taxi fare comes to $17.42. He wants to leave a tip of at least 10%. What is the amount of the smallest tip he can leave? 5. At Store A, a can of tuna costs $1.77. Tess is going to the store to buy 3 cans for a recipe. If she only has dollar bills, how many should she take?

Sometimes It’s Sensible to Round a Number Down There are real-life situations when it’s sensible to round the answer down — even though you’d round it up according to the rounding rules. Example

2

A store charges $2.50 for a carton of orange juice. If you have $7, how many cartons of orange juice can you buy? Solution

To find exactly how many cartons you can buy, divide the money that you have by the price of one carton. Don’t forget: There are some things that you can usually buy fractions of. These will mostly be products that are sold by weight or length. For example, you could buy part of a pound of fruit, or part of a yard of fabric.

$7 ÷ $2.50 = 2.8 cartons $2.50

$2.50

$2

But you can only buy a whole number of cartons. So you need to round your answer to a whole number. • Conventional rounding rules would say that because the digit to the right of the units column is an 8, the answer would round to 3 cartons. • But you can’t buy 3 cartons because you don’t have enough money to pay for them. So you need to round the answer down to 2 cartons. Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

421

Real-life situations where you need to round down instead of up include: • Working out how many whole items you can make from an amount of material. For instance, if it takes 4 balls of yarn to knit a sweater, and you have 10 balls, you might calculate that you can knit 2.5 sweaters. This isn’t a reasonable answer — you can only knit 2. • Working out how many items you can buy with a certain amount of money — you can’t buy part of an item.

Guided Practice 6. At a local store, pens cost $2 each. If you go in with $13.30, how many pens can you buy? 7. You are making up bags of marbles to sell at a fund-raiser. Each bag contains 24 marbles. How many bags can you make from 306 marbles? 8. A room has 4 walls, each with an area of 22 m2. One can of paint covers 30 m2. How many whole walls can Trayvon paint with 2 cans? 9. Blanca is packing books into a box that supports a maximum weight of 50 pounds. Each book weighs 2.2 pounds. How many books can Blanca put in the box?

Independent Practice 1. Joel has 26 yards of material. He needs 3 yards to make one cushion. How many cushions can he make? 2. A bread recipe calls for 5 cups of flour. How many loaves can be made from 64 cups of flour? 3. Lydia is making gift tags. One sheet of card makes 4 tags. How many sheets of card will she need to make 57 tags? 4. A class is planning to buy their teacher a going-away present. The vase they want to buy costs $50 and there are 23 people in the class. How much should they each contribute? 5. Patrick’s restaurant bill came to $22.92. He wants to leave a tip of at least 15%. What is the amount of the smallest tip he can leave? Now try these: Lesson 8.3.2 additional questions — p473

6. You have a 1 kg bag of flour. You want to use it to make 7 cakes for a bake sale. How many whole grams of flour will go into each cake? 7. You use a payphone to make a call. Calls are charged at $0.32/minute. If you have $3 change, how many full minutes can you talk for? 8. Hannah is saving to buy an MP3 player costing $80. Each week she gets an allowance of $6.20, which she saves toward it. How many weeks will she need to save for?

Round Up Usually, when you round a number you use the “rounding to the nearest” method. But in some situations you might need to round a number up or down that you’d usually round the other way. It’s all about making sure your answer is reasonable — there’s more on that in the next two Lessons. 422

Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

Lesson

8.3.3

Exact and Approximate Answers

California Standards: Mathematical Reasoning 2.7 Indicate the relative advantages of exact and approximate solutions to problems and give answers to a specified degree of accuracy. Mathematical Reasoning 2.8 Make precise calculations and check the validity of the results from the context of the problem. Mathematical Reasoning 3.1 Evaluate the reasonableness of the solution in the context of the original situation.

When you’re figuring out the answer to a math question, it’s important to think about how precise your answer needs to be. You have to decide if it’s sensible to round an answer or not, and how much to round it by. And that’s what this Lesson is about.

Leave p and

In For a Completely Accurate Answer

Sometimes in math you’ll need to give very exact answers, and sometimes you’ll only be able to give an approximate answer.

r = 3 cm

Think about finding the area of this circle. The formula is: Area = p r2.

What it means for you: You’ll think about how accurate answers to questions need to be, and when it’s a good idea to round them.

Key words: • • • •

To find the area, you would do the calculation: Area = p × 32. But there are different ways that you could write your answer. • p is an irrational number, so the only way to write the answer absolutely accurately would be: Area = 9p p cm2

exact approximate rounding round-off error

• If you’re asked for an approximate answer then round the number off: Area ª 28.3 cm2 (to 1 decimal place)

Check it out: A wavy equals sign “ª” means “is approximately equal to.”

If the question doesn’t tell you how precise your answer needs to be then make it as accurate as possible. That means leaving irrational numbers, like p or square roots, and non-terminating decimals in your answer.

Don’t forget: An irrational number is a decimal that carries on forever without repeating.

Circumference = p × diameter

Don’t forget: The Pythagorean Theorem:

b 90º

a

1. What is the area of a circle with a radius of 5 feet? 2. If the radius of planet Earth at the equator is 6380 km, what is its circumference at the equator? Give your answer to the nearest 100 km.

Don’t forget:

c

Guided Practice

a2 + b2 = c2

3. You are asked to do the calculation you could write your answer exactly.

1 3

× 4. Think of two ways that

4. A square has a side length of 10 cm. What is the length of its diagonal? What is the length of its diagonal to 2 decimal places? 5. 6 people share 10 pears equally. How many pears will each person get to 1 decimal place? How many thirds of a pear will each person get?

Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

423

The Data in the Question Decides the Accuracy In real-life problems, approximate answers often make more sense than exact ones. There are two things to think about when deciding whether to round your answer, and how to round it: 1) The context of the question. As you saw in the last Lesson, how you round may be affected by what the question is asking you to find. Example

1

Lupe is making buttons. It cost her $15 to make 13. What is the lowest price she can sell each one for and make at least as much as she spent? Solution

15

15

Each button cost Lupe exactly $ 13 to make. 13 = 1.153846 . • As she can’t charge less than a cent, you should round to 2 decimal places. • And as she needs to make at least what she spent, round up not down. So Lupe needs to charge $1.16 for each button.

Check it out: Measurements always introduce some error — you can never measure anything completely accurately. Although the rope in Example 2 is 2.2 m long to the nearest 0.1 m, you don’t know the exact length. For example, it could be 2.21 m or 2.18 m.

Check it out: When you have approximate data in a calculation involving multiplication, any rounding errors are multiplied, making your answer less precise than the data you began with. In Example 2, the least precise measurement was given to 1 decimal place. This was then multiplied by 2p, giving a bigger rounding error. This makes it unreasonable to give the answer to 1 decimal place — it’s more sensible to give the answer to the nearest whole number instead. The reason for this is demonstrated in more detail in Example 3.

424

2) The accuracy of the data in the question. Sometimes data you are given to use in a question will be approximate. If it is, then your answer depends on how precise the data is. Example

2

A goat is tied to a length of rope, which is measured as 2.2 m long. If the goat walks a complete circle as shown, how far has it walked? Solution

.2

goat

m

2

rope goat’s path

p r. The formula for finding the circumference of a circle is C = 2p Using p = 3.142, the goat has walked 2 × 3.142 × 2.2 = 13.8248 m.

But the rope’s length is approximate — it could be a little more or less than 2.2 m. You are told the rope’s length to the nearest 0.1 m, so it’s sensible to give your final answer to the nearest meter. The goat has walked 14 m to the nearest meter.

Guided Practice 6. Lee measures the legs of a right triangle as 6.2 in. and 8.3 in., to the nearest tenth of an inch. He calculates the hypotenuse as 10.36 in. Is this an appropriate level of accuracy? Explain your answer. 7. La-trice completes a motor race of 190 miles, to the nearest ten miles. She then drives the car a further 0.92 miles back to the pit lane Should the total distance she traveled be given to the nearest 10 miles, to the nearest mile, or to the nearest hundredth of a mile? 8. Eli wants to make a tablecloth that overhangs by 10 cm for his rectangular table. To what level of accuracy should he measure the length and width of his table?

Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

Rounding Makes Your Answer Slightly Inaccurate Rounding numbers creates small inaccuracies called round-off errors. 4.2 cm

Check it out: The length could be anything from 4.15 cm to just less than 4.25 cm. All the values in this range would round to 4.2 cm. The width could be anything from 3.35 cm to just less than 3.45 cm. All the values in this range would round to 3.4 cm.

The length of this rectangle’s sides have been measured to the nearest tenth of a centimeter. Think about finding its area: Area = length × width = 4.2 × 3.4 = 14.28 cm2 ª 14.3 cm2

3.4 cm

But the measurements are rounded to the nearest tenth of a centimeter. So actually: 4.15 cm £ length < 4.25 cm and 3.35 cm £ width < 3.45 cm. The minimum area of the rectangle is found by multiplying the smallest possible length and the smallest possible width, so: Minimum area = 4.15 × 3.35 = 13.9025 cm2 And the rectangle’s maximum area = 4.25 × 3.45 = 14.6625 cm2 The actual value could be anywhere between these two. The difference between the true value and your calculated value is a round-off error.

Guided Practice 9. Daisy measures the lengths of 2 planks as 10.2 m and 5.6 m to the nearest 10 cm. She adds them to give a total of 15.8 m. Find the greatest and least possible sums of the lengths. 10. Rey measures a triangle’s base as 10 mm, and its height as 6 mm to the nearest mm. With round-off error, what is its minimum area? Check it out: The earlier you round, the bigger your round-off error tends to be. If Shantel had multiplied 1.86 and 0.55, then rounded her solution, her round-off error would have been smaller.

11. Shantel is finding the product of 1.86 and 0.55. She rounds both numbers to 1 decimal place, multiplies them and gives her answer to 1 decimal place. What round-off error has she introduced?

Independent Practice 1. Liam measures the base of a triangle as 2.34 m and its height as 1.69 m. What is the triangle’s area to the nearest m²? 2. A square has a side length of one seventh of a meter. What is its exact area? What is its area to 2 decimal places? 3. Zoe and Tion both add a third to a seventh and give the answer to 2 decimal places. Their work is below. Which answer is most accurate? Zoe Tion 1 1 7 3 10 + = + = 3 7 21 21 21

1 ≈ 0.33 3

1 ≈ 0.14 7

Now try these:

10 ÷ 21 = 0.48 (2 decimal places)

0.33 + 0.14 = 0.47 (2 decimal places)

Lesson 8.3.3 additional questions — p473

4. Kelly measures the side length of a cube as being 10.1 cm to the nearest mm. With round-off error, what is its minimum volume? 5. Inez adds the areas of a circle with a 2 cm radius, and a triangle with a base of 6 cm and a height of 2 cm. What is her exact answer?

Round Up Sometimes in math you’ll be asked to give an approximate answer. Always think carefully about how much to round your answer. And don’t forget that rounding always introduces round-off errors. Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

425

Lesson

8.3.4 California Standards: Mathematical Reasoning 2.1 Use estimation to verify the reasonableness of calculated results. Mathematical Reasoning 2.3 Estimate unknown quantities graphically and solve for them by using logical reasoning and arithmetic and algebraic techniques. Mathematical Reasoning 3.1 Evaluate the reasonableness of the solution in the context of the original situation. Number Sense 1.3 Convert fractions to decimals and percents and use these representations in estimations, computations, and applications.

What it means for you: You’ll think about ways to check whether the answer to a question is sensible and of roughly the right size.

Reasonableness and Estimation When you answer a math question, you need to be sure your answer makes sense and is about the right size. Making an estimate before doing a calculation is a good way to check your answer is sensible — if your estimate is very different from your answer, you’ll know there’s an error somewhere.

Think About Whether Your Answer is Sensible The first thing to look at is whether your answer is a sensible answer to the particular question you’ve been asked. Example

1

Mrs. Moore is splitting students into teams. She needs to split 59 students into 4 teams, as equal in size as possible. What would be a reasonable way to split the students up? Solution

If Mrs. Moore split the class equally there would be 59 ÷ 4 = 14.75 people on a team. This isn’t reasonable. You can’t put part of a person on a team. Rounding up doesn’t work — 15 people on each of 4 teams needs 60 people. And rounding down to 14 means some people are left out. The most reasonable thing to do would be to split the students into almost equal teams of 15, 15, 15, and 14.

Guided Practice Key words: • reasonable • sensible • estimate

Check it out: Think about: • Whether your answer ought to be a whole number. • Whether your answer should be negative or positive. • Whether to round an answer up or down.

In Exercises 1–3, say whether the answer given is reasonable. 1. A camp has 4 empty tents and 18 new visitors. So the camp supervisor decides to put 4.5 people in each tent. 2. Kea has $7. 1 kg of plums costs $4. Kea says she can buy 1.75 kg. 3. The area of a square is 36 cm2. Alan finds its side length by taking the square root of 36. He says the side length of the square is ±6 cm.

Look at Whether Your Answer is the Right Size Another thing to think about is whether your answer is about the right size. Sometimes it’s quite clear that your answer is the wrong size. Example

2

Rocio wants to find out how far 2 miles is in meters. She does a calculation and gets the answer 3.2 meters. Is she likely to be correct? Solution

2 miles is a fairly long walk, but 3.2 meters is only about as big as two adults lying head to toe. Her answer isn’t likely to be correct. 426

Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

Use an Estimate to Check Your Answer Sometimes it’s not quite so obvious that an answer is the wrong size. So, it’s a good idea to estimate the answer to a problem before you solve it. You do this by rounding the numbers and using mental math to do a simple calculation. If the estimate is about the same as the answer, you’ll know it’s probably right. Think about finding the product of 41 and 29. This is what Ralph did: 1) He estimated the answer first by rounding both numbers to the nearest 10.

Estimate: 40 × 30 = 1200

41

2) Ralph’s answer of 451 is very different from his estimate of 1200. He thinks there may be an error in his work.

29 369 82

41

Check the work

451

29 369 820

1 189

× 3) He checks his work and finds his error. With the error corrected, his worked answer is close to his estimate — so he can be more confident his answer is right.

✓

The error Ralph made was a missing 0 in the tens column.

Whenever you think your answer to a question is not reasonable, you should go back and check your work to find the error. Estimation can be very useful in real-life problems too. Example

3

Ceria buys a sweater for $51.99 and jeans for $39.50. Sales tax is charged at 8.75%. She pays $99.50. Use estimation to check if the total cost is about right. Don’t forget: The symbol ª means “is approximately equal to.”

Solution

First round the costs of the items and add them: $51.99 ª $50

$39.50 ª $40

$50 + $40 = $90 Now round the sales tax rate, and apply it to the total cost: 8.75% ª 10% $90 × 0.1 = $9 Add the tax to the item’s cost to find the final price: $90 + $9 = $99 This is very close to the total cost, so it is probably correct.

Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

427

Guided Practice 4. Find the product of 51 and 68. Check your answer using estimation. 5. Karl put $1021 into a savings account paying 6% simple interest per year. Estimate roughly how much interest Karl will earn in a year. 6. Ruby’s meal cost $39.95. She wants to tip the waiter 15%. She says she should leave about $4. Is she right? Estimate what tip to leave. 7. The school council sold 197 tickets to a dance. A ticket entitles you to 2 cartons of juice. If juice cartons come in boxes of 52, estimate how many boxes the school council should buy.

Independent Practice

Don’t forget: °C =

5 (°F – 32). 9

In Exercises 1–4, say whether the answer given is reasonable. 1. Umar buys lettuce for $2.10, some bananas for $2.05, and a melon for $4. He estimates that his bill will be about $80. 2. A shirt selling for $51.30 is discounted by 22%. Clare says this is a reduction of about $10. Is her estimate reasonable? 3. In winter, the temperature outside Iago’s house is 23 °F. He converts it to °C, and says it is –5 °C. 4. Lashona measures the legs of a right triangle as 7 in. and 9 in. Using the Pythagorean theorem, she says the hypotenuse is 11.4018 in. long. 5. Rachel’s cab fare is $32. She wants to give a 10% tip. Rachel says this is $10. Does this seem reasonable? 6. Jeron and Ann are painting. Jeron paints 1.8 walls/hour, and Ann paints 2 walls/hour. Ann says it will them take less than 2 hours to paint 7 walls. Is this a reasonable thing to say? 7. Felix finds the length of a rectangle with a 10 mm² area and a 3 mm width. He says its length is 3.333333 mm. Is this a sensible answer? 8. Tandi is finding the circumference of a circular trampoline. She measures its radius as 3 m, and says its circumference is 19 m. Does this seem reasonable?

Now try these: Lesson 8.3.4 additional questions — p473

9. Ben is saving up to buy a $98 camera. To earn money he washes cars, charging $12 per car. Estimate the number of cars he will have to wash to earn $98. 10. Xenia uses the Pythagorean theorem to find the hypotenuse of a right triangle. Its legs are 36 cm and 60 cm. She gets 48 cm. Is this sensible? 11. Divide 9.88 by 5.2. Check your answer using estimation. 12. Evan walked for 1.9 km at 2.8 km/hr, and then for 5.9 km at 3.2 km/hr. Estimate how long his walk took in hours and minutes.

Round Up It’s always important in math to think about whether your answers are reasonable or not — there’s no point in giving an answer that doesn’t make sense. Remember that you can always estimate before finding an exact answer. Then you’ll have an idea whether your answer is right or not. 428

Section 8.3 — Rounding and Accuracy

Chapter 8 Investigation

Nutrition F acts Facts Percents are used a lot in real life, so you really need to get confident working with them. In this Investigation, you’ll see how percents are used to provide information about foods. On the right is a nutrition facts label from a packet of crackers. The table below shows the recommended daily values you should eat if you need 2000 calories or 2500 calories a day. 2000 c al o r i es p er d ay

2500 c al o r i es p er d ay

To t al f at

65 g

80 g

S a t u r a t ed f a t

20 g

25 g

Ch o l es t er o l

300 mg

300 m g

So d i u m

2400 m g

2400 m g

300 g

375 g

To t al c ar b o h yd r at es

NUTRITION FACTS Serving size = 30 g

Servings per box = 5

Amount Per Serving

Calories 120

Calories from Fat 40 % Daily Value

Total Fat 5.5 g

8% 3%

Saturated Fat 0.6 g Trans Fat 0 g Cholesterol 0 mg Sodium 180 mg

7% 7%

Total Carbohydrate 21 g

Di et ar y f i b er

25 g

30 g

Dietary Fiber 3 g

12%

Sugars 0 g

The Percent Daily Value figures on the label show what Protein 4 g percent of the recommended daily value each serving contains. The number of calories you need depends on things like your gender, and the exercise you do. 1) How many calories per day are the percent daily values on the nutrition facts label based on? 2) The label reads 7% for the percent daily value of total carbohydrate. What fraction was converted to report this percent? 3) Suppose there were 8 mg of cholesterol in a serving size. What would you report as the percent daily value for this amount? Explain the calculations and rounding technique you used. 4) The percent daily value of sodium is found by dividing the 180 milligrams of sodium in the crackers by the 2400 milligrams of sodium recommended. What rounding technique did the company use to post a percent daily value of 7%? Suggest a reason why this was. Extension 1) Compute the percent daily values for the crackers above using the 2500 calorie diet.

NUTRITION FACTS Serving size = 30 g

2) The same company put out a reduced fat version of the same cracker. The nutrition facts label is shown here. Calculate the percent increase or decrease in the actual amounts in each category (NOT the percent daily values), going from the original to the reduced fat cracker. Round your answers to the nearest whole percent. Open-ended Extension Find food labels for two similar products. Calculate the percent differences between the products. Then make a poster comparing the products.

Servings per box = 5

Amount Per Serving

Calories 120

Calories from Fat 25 % Daily Value

Total Fat 3 g Saturated Fat 0 g

5% 0%

Trans Fat 0 g Cholesterol 0 mg Sodium 150 mg Total Carbohydrate 23 g

6% 8%

Dietary Fiber 3.5 g

14%

Sugars 0 g Protein 3 g

Round Up Percent daily values make things easier to interpret. It’d be hard to remember how many grams of different things you should have — using percent daily values mean you don’t need to. Cha pter 8 In vestig a tion — Nutrition Facts 429 Chapter Inv estiga

Lesson 1.1.1 — Variables and Expressions Write the variable expressions in exercises 1 – 4 as word expressions. 1. 10(b + 8) 2. 2p + 7 3. 3r – 4s 4. 5(2x + 6) Evaluate the expressions in exercises 5 – 8 when r = 4 and s = 7 5. 2(rs – r2) 6. s2 – 7r – 3s 7. (2rs – 2) ÷ 6 8. 5s – 3r + 30 Mike and Abdul collect model cars. Mike has m cars and Abdul has 10m cars. 9. Write a sentence that describes how many cars Abdul has compared to Mike. 10. If Mike has 6 cars in his collection how many does Abdul have? 11. A company uses the formula 25 + 13.50h to calculate the daily cost in dollars for renting lawn equipment. The variable h represents the number of hours the equipment is rented for. How much would it cost to rent a piece of equipment for 4 hours? 12. The formula for the perimeter, P, of a rectangle is given by the formula P = 2l + 2w where l is the length and w is the width. Find the perimeter of a room whose length is 10 feet and width is 14 feet.

Lesson 1.1.2 — Simplifying Expressions Simplify the expressions in exercises 1 – 6 by expanding parentheses and collecting like terms. 1. 3x + 5y + 8x – 3y + 2 + 4 2. –5(7c – 8) 3. –e(2f – 7) 4. 2x – 5 – 8x + 11 5. 5(3r + 6) – 23 6. 5(7a + 6) + 4(5 – 3a) 7. Hector is 3 years older than Ami. Kim is twice as old as Hector. Toni is 5 years younger than Kim. If Hector is x years old, write an expression for the combined age of Hector, Ami, Kim and Toni, then simplify your answer as much as possible. Lisa earns $8 per hour in her job. She works a fixed 20 hours between Monday and Friday and sometimes works extra hours at the weekend. 8. Write an expression to describe how much money she earns in a week if she works an extra h hours over the weekend. 9. Use your expression to find how much Lisa earns in a week if she works 6 hours over the weekend. 10. Kendra, Shawn, and Mario are collecting bottles for a recycling project at their school. Kendra collected 5 times as many bottles as Shawn. Mario collected 15 bottles. Let s represent the number of bottles Shawn collected. Write down and simply an expression for the total number of bottles collected.

Lesson 1.1.3 — Order of Operations Evaluate. 1. 16 ÷ 2 • 4 + 5

2. 24 + 4 • 3 – 82

3. (2 + 3)2 • (11 – 8)

Simplify. 4. k • (8 + 2) – 12

5. 4 + t2 • (12 ÷ 3 + 6)

6. y + 42 – (9 – 23) • y + 25

7. Insert parentheses into the expression 3 + 8 • 42 – 10 ÷ 2 to make it equal 27. The local brake repair shop charges $65 per hour for labor plus cost of parts. 8. Write a calculation to describe the cost of a 3-hour repair if parts cost $54. 9. Evaluate your expression to find the cost of the job. 430

Additional Questions

Lesson 1.1.4 — The Identity and Inverse Properties 1. What is the multiplicative inverse of

2 ? 3

2. What is the additive inverse of (x + y)? 3. Does zero have a multiplicative inverse? Explain your answer. Simplify the expressions in Exercises 4 – 10. Justify each step. 4. 2 + x – x 7.

1 (4b 2

+ 2) + b

10. 2(3y +

1 2

5. 6 – a • 1

6. –12a + 12a + 5

8. d • 1 + 2 – d

9. 8(p – 8 ) + 1

1

+ 0) + (–8 + 8 – 6y)

Determine if the following statements are true or false. 11. Any whole number can be written as a fraction. 12. Any fraction can be written as a whole number. 13. A number multiplied by its reciprocal is always 1. 14. A number divided by itself is zero.

Lesson 1.1.5 — The Associative and Commutative Properties Identify the property used in Exercises 1 – 3. 1. 2 + x = x + 2 2. (2 • 3) • 7 = 2 • (3 • 7)

3. (2x + 5)8 = 16x + 40

Simplify the expressions in Exercises 4 – 9. Justify your working. 4. (5 + 2x) + 3x 5. 2v + 7 + 8v 7. –3y + (7y + 2 – 3) 8. 7r + 6 + 5r + 4

6. 12(7g) 9. 5 • w • 7

Determine if statements 10 – 14 are true or false. 10. Subtraction is commutative. 11. Division is commutative. 12. Subtraction can be rewritten as addition by adding the opposite. 1 13. 5 – (a – 3) = (5 – a) – 3 14. a ÷ b = a × b

Lesson 1.2.1 — Writing Expressions Write the variable expressions to describe the word expressions in exercises 1 – 6. 1. the product of 5 and a number, x 2. the quotient of a number, y, and 10 3. 12 less than a number, c 4. 2 increased by twice a number, f 5. the product of 8 and the sum of a number, r, and 5 6. 15 decreased by twice the quotient of a number, p, and 4 Are these statements true or false? If false, rewrite the statement so that it is correct. 7. To triple a number means to add 3 to the number. 8. To quadruple a number means to multiply the number by 4. 9. Twice a number means to raise a number to the second power. Write variable expressions for the following. Use x as the variable in each case and say what it represents. 10. The height of a triangle is 8 cm. What is the area of the triangle? 11. The width of a rectangle is 9 meters. What is the area of the rectangle? 12. William has $25 more than Luke. How much money does William have? 13. The video store charges a monthly membership fee of $15 plus $2.50 per movie rental. What is the total cost of per month? Additional Questions

431

Lesson 1.2.2 — Variables and Expressions Prove the equations are true in Exercises 1 – 3. 1. 2(10 – 7) + 4 = 55 ÷ 11 • 2 3. 7 – 4 – 2 • ½ + 5 = 5(23 + 1) – (3 • 13 – 1)

2. 8 • 3 ÷ 6 • 9 = 62

Say whether each of the following is an expressions or an equation. 4. 3b 5. 4x = 12x + 5 6. 2 + 7 = 32

7. 2a – 4

Write an equation to describe each of the sentences in Exercises 8 – 14. 8. Three more than the product of five and b is equal to 40. 9. Twenty decreased by the quotient of four and h is equal to 10. 10. Eight increased by the product of three and c is equal to the difference of five and c. 11. Three less than the quotient of y and 2 is equal to the sum of 11 and y. 12. Jessica earns $8.50 per hour. She earned $306 for working h hours. 13. A cell phone company charges a $10 monthly fee plus $0.05 a minute for phone calls. Denise's monthly bill for m minutes of phone calls was $14.75. 14. Jose had $75. He bought 3 movie tickets at $d a ticket and spent $25 on food, leaving $24.50.

Lesson 1.2.3 — Solving One-Step Equations Name the operation that is appropriate for solving each of the equations in Exercises 1 – 3. 1. 5t = 45 2. b – 7 = 3 3. w ÷ 12 = 4 Find the values of the variables in Exercises 4 – 9. 4. 3k = 39 5. b – 5 = 12 7. –18 = –3p 8. h ÷ –8 = 11

6. –45 = x – 40 9. a – 24 = –60

10. The Spring Hill city council is planning to construct a new courthouse that, at 970 feet, will be twice as tall as the existing courthouse. Use the equation 2x = 970 to find the height of the existing courthouse. 11. Marcus purchased an outfit for $54 after receiving a $15 markdown. This can be described by the equation x – $15 = $54. Solve the equation and say what x represents. 12. The height of the Washington Monument is 152 meters. The combined height of the Washington Monument and the Statue of Liberty is 245 meters. Write an equation to find the height of the Statue of Liberty and then solve for the height.

Lesson 1.2.4 — Solving Two-Step Equations In exercises 1 – 4 say which order you should undo the operations in. 1. 8x – 2 = 22 2. w ÷ 12 + 8 = 12 3. 3 • (d – 4) = 24 Find the values of the variables in Exercises 5 – 10. 5. 3b + 4 = 16 6. 30 = 12 + 9x 8. –45 = x ÷ 9 – 48 9. 18 = –3p + 9

4. b ÷ 2 – 4 = 6 7. y ÷ 8 + 10 = 15 10. 8h – 12 = –76

11. A decorator charges $17 an hour plus a $25 fee for each job. In one job the decorator made $620. Write an equation using this information and solve it to find how many hours the job took. 12. The video store charges a monthly membership fee of $15 plus $2.50 per movie rental. Amanda's monthly bill was $30. Write an equation and solve it to find the number of movies she rented.

432

Additional Questions

Lesson 1.2.5 — More Two-Step Equations Find the values of the variables in Exercises 1 – 6. 1 3 c=8 2. 6 = a 3 4 5 3b 5. = –9 4. – • w = 10 6 5 Solve the equations in exercises 7 – 10 and check your solution.

1.

7. 3x – 5 = 7

8. –18 = 2y – 6

9. n ÷ 8 + 2 = –7

In Exercises 11 – 14 say which order you should undo the operations. 2 4c + 5 4x 11. x = 8 12. – =3 13. =3 3 9 7

4 3. – b = –8 3 y+7 6. =8 4

10.

5 t = –10 6

14. –5 +

3a + 2 = –12 8

Lesson 1.2.6 — Applications of Equations In Exercises 1 – 2 use estimation to pick the answer that is reasonable. 1. Joan's annual income in $16,276. Which of the following is her weekly income? a. $846,352 b. $313 c. $1600 2. A car travels at a speed of 45 mph. Which of these is the distance it would travel in ½ an hour? a. 22.5 miles b. 90 miles c. 15 miles 3. Tonya is 10 years younger than her brother. The sum of their ages is 32. How old is Tonya? 4. A decorating firm needs to order 362 gallons of paint. Paint is sold in 5 gallon containers. Write an equation to describe the number of containers, n, they must order. Solve the equation and say if your answer is reasonable in the context of the situation. 5. Lana got her car repaired at the local garage. She paid $585 for parts and labor. The parts cost $225. She was billed for 8 hours of labor. Solve an equation to find the hourly labor charge, $d. 6. A parking garage charges $3 for the first 2 hours, then $2.50 for each additional hour. How many hours, h, after the first two hours can you keep your car in the garage if you have $15? 7. Joyce spent $205 on supplies for her art work. She paid $175 for the easel and canvas. She also bought two sets of paint brushes which cost $d each. How much did each paint brush set cost?

Lesson 1.2.7 — Understanding Problems In Exercises 1 – 3, say what missing piece of information is needed to solve each problem. 1. The length of a rectangle is 5 cm. What is the area? 2. Neal has $75. How long is it going to take him to save $200? 3. Greg’s car repair bill was $225. Parts cost $85. What was the hourly labor charge? In Exercises 4 – 5, solve the problem and state what information is not relevant. 4. Taylor's cell phone plan charges a monthly fee of $15 plus $0.05 a minute for each call. Taylor's cell phone costs $65. How much was last month's bill if she used 90 minutes? 5. Kenneth makes $12 per hour in his job. Last week he worked 5 days. How many hours did he work if his paycheck was $420? In Exercises 6 – 7, fill in the blanks to make the statements true. 6. ____ miles ÷ 2 hours = 48 _____ 7. 15 meters/second • _____ = 45 meters 8. _____ Newtons • 6 _____ = 48 Newton-meters Additional Questions

433

Lesson 1.3.1 — Inequalities Fill in the blanks in Exercises 1 – 3. 1. If x > y then y __ x. 2. If m £ n then n __ m.

3. If a ≥ b then __ £ __.

In Exercises 4 – 6 give a number that is part of the solution set of the inequality. 4. x > –4 5. –5 ≥ m 6. x ≥ 2 Write the inequality expression for the given number line in Exercises 7 – 9. 7.

-4 -3 -2 -1 0

1

2

3

8.

-2 -1 0

1

2

3

9.

-1 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Determine if the statements in Exercises 10 – 13 are true or false. 10. Inequalities have an infinite number of solutions. 11. –4 is in the solution set of x > –3. 12. 5 is in the solution set of y ≥ 5. 13. t > 2 means the same thing as 2 < t.

Lesson 1.3.2 — Writing Inequalities In Exercises 1 – 3, insert an inequality symbol to make a true statement. 1. 24 inches ___ 3 feet 2. 1 century ___ 6 decades 3. 5 days ___ 50 hours Write an inequality to describe the sentences in Exercises 4 – 7. 4. A number, p, decreased by four is more than fifteen. 5. Twenty-five times a number, m, is less than or equal to seven. 6. The quotient of a number, y, and three is less than ten. 7. Eight increased by a number, c, is at least twelve. Write an inequality to describe the situations in exercises 8 – 11. You will need to use and define a suitable variable in each case. 8. The maximum weight permitted on the bridge is ten tons. 9. You must be at least twenty-five years old to run for an elective position on the city council. 10. The minimum allowed height for entry to a rollercoaster ride is 120 cm. 11. Sarah and Miguel have over $350 in savings combined. Sarah has twice as much as Miguel.

Lesson 1.3.3 — Two-Step Inequalities Write an inequality to describe the sentences in Exercises 1 – 4. 1. Seven more than the quotient of a number, y, and three is less than twenty. 2. Eight increased by the product of a number, w, and five is at least twelve. 3. Nine is less than or equal to the difference of five and the product of two and a number, h. 4. Sixteen less than the quotient of a number, k, and five is at most twenty-four. 5. Danielle ordered a meal that cost under $20. She had a $12 main course and a drink and desert each costing $d. Write an inequality to describe how much Danielle spent. 6. Pam is making a rectangular fenced area in her back yard. She has 100 meters of fencing. The width of the fenced area must be 20 meters. Write an inequality to describe the possible lengths, l. 7. Roberto needs an average score of at least 90 from four algebra tests to gain a grade A. His first three test scores are 98, 97, and 82. Write an inequality to describe what Roberto's final test score, x, must be in order to get an A.

434

Additional Questions

Lesson 2.1.1 — Rational Numbers Show that the numbers in Exercises 1–4 are rational. 1. –6 2. 4 3. –4.5 4. 0.75 Convert the fractions in Exercises 5–8 into decimals without using a calculator. 5. 7.

3 5 84 5

6. 8.

3 8 5 6

Say whether the statements in Exercises 9–14 are true or false. 9. All terminating decimals are rational numbers. 10. All decimals can be written as the quotient of two integers. 11. All rational numbers can be written as a decimal. 12. Terminating and repeating decimals are rational numbers. 13. p is a rational number because you can write it as a fraction by putting it over 1. 14.

1 6

is a terminating decimal because when you do 1 ÷ 6 on a calculator you get 0.166666667.

Lesson 2.1.2 — Converting Terminating Decimals to Fractions Convert the decimals in Exercises 1–3 into fractions without using a calculator. 1. 0.37 2. –0.103 3. 0.023 Convert the decimals in Exercises 4–6 into fractions and simplify them if possible. 4. 0.208 5. –12.84 6. –4.005 Say whether the statements in Exercises 7–10 are true or false. 7. 0.23 = 0.2300 8. 2.05 = 2.50 9. Dividing the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same number makes another fraction with the same value as the original. 10. Any decimal greater than 1 can be written as a mixed number or an improper fraction. 11. Mario noticed that 8 out of 10 people on a particular team were female. Sarah looked at the same team and said 4 out of 5 people were female. How can they both be right?

Lesson 2.1.3 — Converting Repeating Decimals to Fractions In Exercises 1–3, use x = 0.5 . 1. Find 10x. 3. Write x as a fraction in its simplest form.

2. Use your answer to Exercise 1 to find 9x.

In Exercises 4–6, use x = 1.67 . 4. Find 100x. 6. Write x as a fraction in its simplest form.

5. Use your answer to Exercise 4 to find 99x.

Say whether the statements in Exercises 7–9 are true or false. 7. 1.235 = 1.23535 8. 32.34 = 323.4 9. Every rational number is a terminating or repeating decimal. Find whether each number in Exercises 10–12 is equal to 3.8 . 35 8 10. 9 11. 3 10

8

12. 3 9

Additional Questions

435

Lesson 2.2.1 — Absolute Value Find the value of the expressions given in Exercises 1–3. 1. |–2| 2. |5|

3. |–3|

In Exercises 4–6, say which expression has a larger value. 4. |–8| or |–4| 5. |5 – 8| or |24 – 25|

6. |6 + 1| or |–3 – 3|

Solve the equations given in Exercises 7–9. 7. |b| = 8 8. |a| = 0.5

9. |h| = 6.5

Say whether each statement in Exercises 10–13 is true or false. 10. |3 – 5| = |3| – |5| 11. |3| × |5| = |3 × 5| 12. A number and its opposite always have the same absolute value. 13. Absolute value is the distance of a number from its opposite on the number line. Evaluate the expressions given in Exercises 14–17 when a = –3, b = 4, and c = 2. 14. b – |a| 15. 3 × |b – c| 16. 2 × |a – c| + |b – a| 17. |b + 4| – |c – 9| 18. If x and y are not 0, |x| = |y|, and x + y = 0, then what can we say about x and y?

Lesson 2.2.2 — Using Absolute Value In Exercises 1–6, find the distance between the pairs of numbers given. 1. 8 and 12 2. 0 and 7 3. –7 and 7 4. –2 and 6 5. –3 and –8 6. 2.4 and 8.2 Say whether each statement in Exercises 7–10 is true or false. 7. |d – e| = |d| – |e| 8. |d – e| = d – e 9. Absolute value can be used to compare numbers. 10. If |a – b| is small then a and b are far away from each other. 11. Town A is 500 feet above sea level. Town B is 355 feet below sea level. How much higher is Town A than Town B? 12. Which of the statements below can be represented by the inequality |x – y| < 8? a. The length of a rod is 8 cm greater than the length of its bracket. b. The length of a rod is within 8 cm of the length of its bracket.

Lesson 2.3.1 — Adding and Subtracting Integers and Decimals Use the number line to work out the calculations in Exercises 1–6. 1. –2 + 8 2. 9 – 6 4. –8 – (–2) 5. 5 – 8

3. 4 – (–3) 6. –6 + (–4)

Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 7–12 without using a number line. 7. 346 – 500 8. 500 – 346 9. –846 + 86 10. –36.4 – 45.82 11. 8.76 – 27.2 12. 14.9 + 5.3 Say whether each statement in Exercises 13–18 is true or false. 13. The sum of two negative numbers is always negative. 14. 2 – 3 + 5 = 2 – (3 + 5) 15. –x – x = –2x 16. –x + x = 2x 17. x – (–y) = x + y 18. x + (–y) = x – y

436

Additional Questions

Lesson 2.3.2 — Multiplying and Dividing Integers Evaluate Exercises 1–4 using the number line. 1. 3 × 2 3. 12 ÷ 4

2. –2 × 4 4. –10 ÷ 5

Evaluate Exercises 5–6 by drawing a rectangle and breaking the numbers into tens and units. 5. 15 × 14 6. 24 × 18 Evaluate Exercises 7–8 using long multiplication. 7. 15 × 14

8. 24 × 18

Evaluate Exercises 9–17 without using a calculator. 9. –12 × 84 10. –62 × –34 12. 816 ÷ 3 13. 448 ÷ 7 15. 1455 ÷ –5 16. –3258 ÷ 9

11. 14 × –36 14. 736 ÷ 8 17. 728 ÷ 14

Say whether each statement in Exercises 18–19 is true or false. 18. The product of two negative numbers is positive. 19. The quotient of a positive number and a negative number is negative.

Lesson 2.3.3 — Multiplying Fractions Use the area model to evaluate the fraction multiplications in Exercises 1–2. 1 1 3 1 × 1. 2. × 2

4

4

Find the product in Exercises 3–5. 2 5 × 3. 4. 3

7

2

4 6 × 5 7

5.

3 4 × 8 5

Find the product in Exercises 6–11. Simplify the results as much as possible. 6. 9.

3 8 × 10 15 3 −8 × 4

1 2 2 3 −6 −5 × 25 12

1 6

7. 1 ×

8. 4 × 3

10.

11. ×

2 3

3

2 5

6 15

1

12. A rectangular patio measures 4 meters long and 5 meters wide. What is the area of the patio as 8 4 a mixed number?

Lesson 2.3.4 — Dividing Fractions Find the reciprocals of the numbers in Exercises 1–3. 1.

3 4

2.

5 6

3. 2

Calculate the divisions in Exercises 4–9. Give your answers as fractions in their simplest form. 4. 7.

3 ÷3 4 2 4 − ÷ 3 9

5. 8.

5 3 ÷ 8 7 11 25 − ÷− 12 24

6.

3 5 ÷ 8 6

9. −5 ÷−

5 4

Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 10–12 and express the solutions as mixed numbers or integers. 1 2

3 5

10. −8 ÷ 6

11. −5 ÷−

2 25

1 7

12. 1 ÷

−4 5

13. What is the product of a number and its reciprocal? 14. The area of a room is 140

1 4

square feet, and its length is 14

1 2

feet. What is the width of the room? Additional Questions

437

Lesson 2.3.5 — Common Denominators Find the prime factorization of the numbers given in Exercises 1–6. 1. 18 2. 24 4. 11 5. 120

3. 56 6. 150

Find the least common multiple of the pairs of numbers in Exercises 7–12. 7. 2 and 3 8. 5 and 8 9. 4 and 6 10. 8 and 12 11. 3 and 9 12. 12 and 18 In Exercises 13–16 put the fractions in each pair over a common denominator to show which is larger. 13. 15.

3 4 4 5

and and

1 2 7 8

17. Put the fractions

14. 16. 3 4 7 9 , , , 8 5 10 20

, and

3 4

5 3 and 6 8 11 9 and 12 10

in order.

18. Three-fifths of the senior class voted to have the prom at the same place as last year’s prom. One-third voted to change locations. Which option won the vote?

Lesson 2.3.6 — Adding and Subtracting Fractions Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–9. Give your answers as fractions in their simplest form. 2 5 − 3 3

1.

2.

7 11 2 12 −2 + 1 3 2

4. − −

5.

7.

8.

4 3 − 5 5 7 −9 10 2 −2 − 5 3 6

3. 6. 9.

3 4 + 4 9 2 1 + 3 6 ⎛ ⎞ −11 − ⎜⎜⎜−3⎟⎟⎟ 15 ⎝ 20 ⎠

Say whether the statements in Exercises 10–11 are true or false. 10. Subtracting a negative number is the same as adding a positive number. ⎛ ⎞

−3

3 11. −⎜⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎟⎟⎠ = −4

5

12. Jennifer left home and jogged of a mile. She got tired, walked back 8 break. How far away from home was she when she took the break?

1 4

of a mile, and then took a

Lesson 2.3.7 — Adding and Subtracting Mixed Numbers Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–12. Give your answers in their simplest form. 1 2 1. 3 + 4

5 1 2. 8 − 3

3 5 3. −4 − 2

4.

5.

6.

5

7. 10.

5 3 10 − 6 1 5 2 ⎞ 3 ⎛⎜ 4 − ⎜⎜−2 5 ⎟⎟⎟ 4 ⎝ 6⎠ ⎞ 2 ⎛⎜ −5 − ⎜⎜−4 5 ⎟⎟⎟ 9 ⎝ 6⎠

8. 11.

6 6 1 5 + 41 8 3 5 −3 + 6 1 6 4 1 3− 6 + 83 2 4

9. 12.

8 8 2 1 4 −3 9 6 1 −3 − 11 4 2 1 3 4 + 7 − 75 3 4 6

1 3 13. The length of a rectangular room is 3 feet, and its width is 5 feet. 2 4 What is the perimeter of the room?

14. In the morning, Jacob drank a glass and a half of fruit juice. That evening he drank another three and two-thirds glasses. How much juice did Jacob drink in total? 438

Additional Questions

Lesson 2.4.1 — Further Operations With Fractions Do the calculations in Exercises 1–12 and simplify your answers where possible. 1. 4. 7.

10.

3 1 3 + × 5 5 4

2.

(4 − 83 )× 23 (2 12 − 6 43 ) + 5× 83 4 23 5 6

1 4

11.

1 5

1 2

6.

5 3 10 ×8 − 2 × 6 5 3

1 2 −7 1 × + − 8 3 12 6

9.

(−2 83 + 121 ) ÷ 4 53

12.

−2 3 1 43

1 4

8.

3 8

3. 2 ÷ ×

5. 3 ÷ 2 + 4

1

+ 83

3 5 7 − ÷ 8 8 16

( 65 − 61 ) − 3 5 12

4

4

1

+ 2×

4 5

3

Exercises 13–14 are about a room that is 8 feet wide and 10 feet long. 2 4 13. What is the area of the room? 14. What is the perimeter of the room?

Lesson 2.4.2 — Multiplying and Dividing Decimals Use the area model to solve the multiplications in Exercises 1–2. 1. 0.6 × 0.1 2. 0.8 × 0.1 Calculate the products in Exercises 3–5 by rewriting the decimals as fractions. 3. 0.6 × 0.5 4. 0.4 × 0.05 5. 1.2 × 2.3 Calculate the quotients in Exercises 6–8 by rewriting the decimals as fractions. 6. 0.3 ÷ 0.1 7. 0.05 ÷ 0.1 8. 15.96 ÷ 4.2 Find the products in Exercises 9–11. 9. –1.23 × –0.006 10. –2.04 × –0.008

11. 3.5 × –0.4

Say whether each statement given in Exercises 12–13 is true or false. 12. Dividing a number by 100 moves the decimal point two places to the right. 13. If you multiply together three decimals, each with two decimal places, then the answer can have up to six decimal places. 14. If 54 ÷ 18 = 3, what is 0.54 ÷ 0.018?

Lesson 2.4.3 — Operations With Fractions and Decimals Calculate the value of each expression given in Exercises 1–9. 1.

3 4

× 0.05

2. –0.28 ×

( 12 + 1.4)

4. 0.6 ×

7.

(

)×0.8

5 + 0.25 6

5.

8.

1 2

3 ÷ (4 ×1.2) 8

−2.4 + 5.6

10. What is the area of a rectangular room that is

1 × 4

6.

2 − 0.5 3

9.

3 4

(2.8 + 12 )

3.

4 5

0.5 + 3 4

3 16 4

feet long and 10.5 feet wide?

11. What is the length of a rectangle with an area of 183

2 3

square feet and a width of 14.5 feet? Additional Questions

439

Lesson 2.4.4 — Problems Involving Fractions and Decimals 1

3

1

1. While cooking, Jose used 6 cups of flour, 2 cups of sugar, 5 cups of water, and 2 4 2 chocolate chips. How many cups of ingredients did he use in total?

1 4

cup of Walk

Exercises 2–4 use the table on the right, which shows what proportion of 850 high school students use various methods of transport to get to school. 2. How many students walk or take the school bus to school? 3. How many students use a car to get to school? 4. How many students use public or “Other” transportation to get to school?

School bus Public transportation Car

A neighborhood has a meeting hall with a floorspace of 206.4 square yards. Other On Wednesdays half of the floorspace is used by the knitting club. 5. How many square yards do the knitting club use? 6. How much would it cost to carpet the meeting hall if carpet costs $8.25 per square yard? 7. A shop sells wire in spools and each spool has 9

3 4

yards of wire on it. Jeanie needs nineteen pieces

of wire, each 1.5 yards in length. How many spools of wire must Jeanie buy?

Lesson 2.5.1 — Powers of Integers Write each of the expressions in Exercises 1–9 as a power in base and exponent form. 1. 4 • 4 2. 6 • 6 • 6 3. 9 • 9 • 9 • 9 4. –6 • –6 5. –5 • –5 • –5 6. 7 7. 3 • 3 • 4 • 4 • 5 8. –4 • –4 • 6 • 6 • 6 9. –(–4 • –4) Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 10–13. 10. (–3)2 12. (–2)3

11. –(32) 13. 42 • 31

Say whether each of the statements in Exercises 14–17 is true or false. 14. A negative number raised to an even power always gives a positive answer. 15. (–2)4 = –(24) 16. 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 25 17. 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 = 34

Lesson 2.5.2 — Powers of Rational Numbers Evaluate each of the expressions in Exercises 1–9. 1.

⎛ 1 ⎞⎟2 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

2.

⎛ 2 ⎞⎟3 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠

3.

4.

⎛ 5 ⎞⎟2 ⎜⎜− ⎟ ⎜⎝ 7 ⎟⎠

5.

⎛ −3 ⎞⎟3 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠

6. (0.3)2

7. (0.13)2

8. (–0.4)3

⎛ 2 ⎞⎟4 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

9. (–0.06)2

Write each of the expressions in Exercises 10–12 in base and exponent form. 10.

1 1 1 1 • • • 3 3 3 3

11. (–0.04)(–0.04)

12.

3 4

3 −1 −1 −1 • • 4 2 2 2

• •

Say whether each of the statements in Exercises 13–15 is true or false. 13. If

a b

is between 0 and 1 then

⎛ a ⎞⎟2 a ⎜⎜ ⎟ > ⎝ b ⎟⎠ b

.

⎛ −a ⎞⎟2 ⎛ a ⎞⎟2 ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎝ b ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ −b ⎟⎠

14. ⎜⎜⎜

15. Raising a decimal to a power is like repeatedly multiplying the decimal by itself. 440

Additional Questions

4 17 5 34 9 34 7 34 5 34

Lesson 2.5.3 — Uses of Powers Find the area of the squares in Exercises 1–2. 1.

2.

4 cm

1.2 m

4 cm

1.2 m

3. What is the area of a square with a side length of

1 2

a foot?

4. What is the volume of a cube of side length 2.4 feet? Write the numbers in Exercises 5–8 in scientific notation. 5. 218,534 6. –32,400,000 7. 5,183,000,000 8. 500 The numbers in Exercises 9–11 are written in scientific notation. Write them out in full. 10. –8.1 × 106 11. 6.123929 × 107 9. 7.36 × 104

Lesson 2.5.4 — More on the Order of Operations Evaluate each expression in Exercises 1–12. 1. 12 ÷ 3 • 4 2. 10 – 6 + 3 3 4. 2 • 4 – 20 5. (8 – 5)3 ÷ 9 2 2 7. –5 – 8 8. (–5)2 – (8)2 10.

⎞ ⎛3 ⎜⎜ ÷ 5 ⎟⎟ i 10 ⎝4 8 ⎟⎠ 3

11. (0.5)2 • 8(5) + 32 • 8

3. 8 • 6 ÷ 12 6. 24 + 32 • (25 – 32) 9. (34 – 2 • 3) ÷ 52 12.

43 − 6 2 5 − 3 i 10

Say whether each of the statements in Exercises 13–18 is true or false. 13. (5 + 3)2 = 52 + 32 14. 2 • 32 = (2 • 3)2 15. (a • b)3 = a3 • b3 16. In the order of operations, division comes before subtraction. 17. You should always do divisions before multiplications. 18. It doesn’t matter which order you do additions and parentheses in.

Lesson 2.6.1 — Perfect Squares and Their Roots Give the perfect square of each of the numbers in Exercises 1–6. 1. 3 2. 0 4. –6 5. 13

3. 5 6. –11

Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 7–12. 225 7. 8. − 100 1 1 10. 1212 11. −36 2

9. 9 2 1 12. −25 2

1

13. There are 400 people in a marching band. How many people should be in each row if the band want to march in a square formation? A square shaped room has an area of 576 square feet. 14. What is the length of the room? 15. As part of a renovation, each wall is being extended by 5 feet. What will be the area of the newly renovated room? Additional Questions

441

Lesson 2.6.2 — Irrational Numbers In Exercises 1–6, prove that each number is rational by writing each one as a fraction in its simplest form. 1. 10 2. 0.6 3. 0.375 25 4. –7 5. 6. 3.2 Classify each of the numbers in Exercises 7–15 as rational or irrational. 7. 2π 8. 2.756 9. 8 10.

49

13. −8

1 2

6

12. −16

14. 2.24635

15. –1.2

11.

1 2

Say whether each of the statements in Exercises 16–22 is true or false. 16. Irrational numbers can be written as the quotient of two integers. 17. The square root of a number that is not a perfect square is irrational. 18. The square root of any integer other than a perfect square is irrational. 19. Irrational numbers can be displayed in full on calculators. 20. Terminating and repeating decimals are rational numbers. 21. All integers are rational numbers. 22. All rational numbers are integers.

Lesson 2.6.3 — Estimating Irrational Roots Say whether each of the numbers in Exercises 1–4 is rational or irrational. 1. 12 2. 25 3. − 36 4. − 14 Use your calculator to approximate the square roots in Exercises 5–8. Give your answers to six decimal places. 8 5. 6. 23 7. 129 8. 520 In Exercises 9–12, say which two perfect squares each number lies between. 9. 8 10. 17 11. 55 12. 2 In Exercises 13–16, find the whole numbers that each root lies between. 13. 18 14. 2 15. 33 16. 112 In Exercises 17–19, say whether each statement is true or false. 17. 7 = 2.64575131106 18. 11 ≈ 3.31662 19. The square root of a perfect square is irrational. 20. Will a 13 foot long bookcase fit along the wall of a square room with a floor area of 140 ft2? Explain your answer.

442

Additional Questions

Lesson 3.1.1 — Polygons and Perimeter 1. Describe how to find the perimeter of a square.

m 8c

m

8c

3m

Find the perimeter of the figure in Exercises 2–5. 3m 2. 3. 4. 6m

3 21

3 mm

4m

ft

5 41 ft

8 mm

2m 8 cm

2 ft

5.

8 31 ft

8m

Karl is putting up a fence around an 8 foot square plot. 6. What is the perimeter of the plot? 7. The fence is going to be 4 rails high. How many feet of railing will Karl need to complete the fence? Alejandra is walking around the edge of a rectangular field measuring 23 meters by 14 meters. 8. What is the perimeter of the field? 9. Alejandra walked a total of 407 meters. How many times did she walk around the field?

Lesson 3.1.2 — Areas of Polygons Find the area of each figure described in Exercises 1–2. 1. A triangle with base of 3 m and height of 4 m. 2. A parallelogram with base of 3

2 3

in. and height of 2

1 2

in.

3. Copy the sentence below, and fill in the blank with the term that best completes the statement. The area of a triangle is ________ the area of a parallelogram that has the same base and vertical height. 4. Ramon is tiling a square kitchen that is 20 feet on each side. If each tile is a 1 ft square, how many tiles will he need? Find the area of each of the shapes in Exercises 5–7. 5.

6 ft 4.5 ft 8 ft

6.

12 in

7. 8 km

7 in 10 km

16 in

Lesson 3.1.3 — Circles In Exercises 1–2, determine the missing measure. 1. Radius = _____ cm, diameter = 15 cm.

2. Radius = 18

3 4

in, diameter = _____ in.

3. Explain the difference between the radius and the diameter of a circle. 4. Explain how to find the circumference of a circle when given the diameter. In Exercises 5–12, use 3.14 for p in calculations involving whole numbers and decimals and those involving fractions. Find the circumference of each circle described in Exercises 5–7. 5. Radius = 3.3 in. 6. Radius = 2.52 yds.

7. Diameter = 6

1 2

22 7

for

mm

Leilani is designing a circular medal with a 3 inch radius. Find: 8. The circumference of the medal. 9. The area of the circular surface of the medal. Find the area of each circle described in Exercises 10–12. 10. Radius = 19 cm

11. Radius =

1 8

in

12. Diameter = 6

2 3

m

Additional Questions

443

Lesson 3.1.4 — Areas of Complex Shapes In Exercises 1–3, find the area of each complex shape. 2m

1.

2. 2 yd

1m

4 cm

3.

1.5 cm

2 yd 2m

3 cm 2 yd

1.5 cm

5 yd

4m

4 cm

In Exercises 4–6, find the blue area. 4.

5.

9m

6.

5m

24 in

8 cm

4m 6m

16 cm

3 in 3 in

8 in

6 in

3 in

7. The math club created a new logo for their t-shirts. The new logo is shown on the left. What is the area covered by the logo?

6 in

Lesson 3.1.5 — More Complex Shapes In Exercises 1–3, find the area of each complex shape. Use 3.14 for p. 1.

12 cm

2. 4 in

5 ft

3. 6 cm

4 in

5 ft

4 ft

12 cm

6 cm

6 cm

The shape on the left is part of a design for a quilt Regina is making. The four triangles are all the same size. 4. What is the area of the blue part of the design? 5. What is the area of the red part of the design?

6 cm

In Exercises 6–7, find the perimeter of each shape. 6.

7.

3m 4m

3 in

4m 3 in

4m

4m 3m

444

Additional Questions

5m

18 in

2.5 m

20 in

6 cm

12 cm

15 in

Lesson 3.2.1 — Plotting Points In Exercises 1–3, plot each pair of coordinates on the coordinate plane. 1. (4, –1) 2. (–2, –3) 3. (–3, 2) 4. On the coordinate plane, which axis is the horizontal axis? 5. What are the coordinates of the origin on the coordinate plane? Use the grid below to answer Exercises 6–13. Identify which shapes are at the following coordinates: 6. (1, 3) 7. (–5, –3) y

Find the coordinates of: 9. The black square 11. The red circle

4 3 2 1 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1

1

2

3

4

5 x

0 –1 –2 –3 –4

8. (0, –4) 10. The blue triangle

One of the following pairs of coordinates on this grid does not belong with the others: (4, 1), (–1, 3), (–4, 0), (–5, –3) 12. Say which pair of coodinates does not belong. Explain your answer. 13. Which pair of coordinates could put instead of your answer to Exercise 15 that would match the others in the set? Explain your answer.

Lesson 3.2.2 — Drawing Shapes in the Coordinate Plane In Exercises 1–4, plot the points given to find the missing coordinates. 1. Square ABCD: A(?, ?) B(4, 4) C(4, 0) D(0, 0) 2. Rectangle EFGH: E(–2, 4) F(1, 4) G(1, –1) H(?, ?) 3. Rhombus KLMN: K(–4, 1) L(?, ?) M(0, –1) N(–4, –4) 4. Parallelogram QRST: Q(–3, 4) R(4, 4) S(?, ?) T(–5, 2) Exercises 5–8 are about the shapes from Exercises 1–4. 5. Find the perimeter and area of square ABCD 6. Find the perimeter and area of rectangle EFGH 7. Find the area of rhombus KLMN 8. Find the area of parallelogram QRST 9. Alyssa, the yearbook editor, has mapped out the layout of each yearbook page using a grid. If the photo of the volleyball team is placed with the edges at (1,2), (1, 8), (8, 2), and (8, 8), what area will the photo cover?

Lesson 3.3.1 — The Pythagorean Theorem In Exercises 1–3, copy and complete the following sentences: 1. For any right triangle, c2 = a2 + b2, where c is the length of the __________ and a and b are the lengths of the __________. 2. The hypotenuse is always the __________ side of a right triangle. 3. In a right triangle, the hypotenuse is always opposite an angle that measures ____°. 4. The Pythagorean Theorem is only true for right triangles. If you know the lengths of the three sides of a triangle, how can you use the Pythagorean Theorem to find out if it is a right triangle? In Exercises 6–8, use the Pythagorean Theorem to decide whether a triangle with the given side lengths is a right triangle or not. 5. 4 cm, 9 cm, 12 cm 6. 10 ft, 6 ft, 8 ft 7. 5 yd, 7 yd, 5 yd

Additional Questions

445

Lesson 3.3.2 — Using the Pythagorean Theorem In Exercises 1-8, use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the missing length. Round decimals to the nearest hundredth. 1.

2. a

9 yd

3. 33 cm

12 yd

d

c

e

5. 4.2 m

7 in

50 ft

35 ft

b

8 in

4.

19 cm

6. f

11.5 m

14.5 in

20.3 in

7. Lana has a triangular corner bookshelf. She wants to add rope edging along the hypotenuse. If each of the leg sides is 2.5 feet long, how much rope edging will she need? Eduardo and Destiny are planting a vegetable garden. Each plot needs to be fenced in. In Exercises 8 and 9, determine how much fencing is needed for the plot shown. 8.

9.

9 ft 5 ft

3 ft 6 ft

3 ft

Lesson 3.3.3 — Applications of the Pythagorean Theorem 1. Mrs. Lopez is decorating the class bulletin board. She wants to place decorative trim around the perimeter and along each diagonal. The board is 8 ft. long and 4 ft. wide. How much trim will Mrs. Lopez need? 2. Erica usually runs the distance around the park shown on the right each day. Erica's house When it is raining, she ends the run early by returning home along the diagonal. How much further does Erica run on a dry day compared to a rainy day? 3 miles

2nd base

90 ft

1st base

90 ft 3rd base

Home plate

4 miles

3. The school yard has a baseball diamond that is really a 90 foot square as shown on the left. If the catcher throws from home plate to 2nd base, what is the distance thrown?

A quilt square is stitched along each diagonal to make 4 right triangles. Each diagonal is 12 inches long. 4. What is the perimeter of the square? 5. What is the area of the quilt square? 6. How many quilt squares from can be cut from a piece of fabric that is 8 feet long and 2 feet wide?

446

Additional Questions

Lesson 3.3.4 — Pythagorean Triples and the Converse of the Theorem Tell whether the side lengths given in Exercises 1–5 indicate a right, obtuse or acute triangle. 1. 13, 13, 20 2. 8, 9, 11 3. 45, 60, 75 4. 4, 7.5, 8.5 5. 1.2, 1.5, 1.7 6. A blanket has length of 80 inches, width of 60 inches and a diagonal of 100 inches. Is the blanket a perfect rectangle? Explain your answer. Exercises 7–9 are about a triangle, XYZ. Side XY is 10.5 cm long. Side YZ is 17.5 cm long. 7. If side XZ was 13 cm long, would XYZ be right, acute or obtuse? 8. If XYZ was obtuse, and XZ was the longest side, what could you say about the length of XZ? 9. Tammy claims that there is only one possible length for XZ that would make XYZ a right triangle. Is this true? Explain your answer.

Lesson 3.4.1 — Reflections y

Copy shape A on to a set of axes numbered –6 to 6 in both directions. 1. Draw the image A', made by reflecting A over the x-axis. 2. Write the coordinates of the vertices of the image A'', made by reflecting A over the y-axis. y Copy shape B on to a set of axes numbered –6 to 6 in both 6 5 directions. 4 B 3. Draw the image B', made by reflecting B over the y-axis. 3 2 4. Draw the image B'', made by reflecting B over the x-axis. 1 5. Write the coordinates of the vertices of the image B''', x –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 –1 made by reflecting the image B' over the x-axis.

6 5 4 3 2 1 –1 0 –1

A 1 2

5 6

3 4

y 1

Copy shape C on to a set of axes numbered –6 to 6 in both directions. 6. Draw the image C', made by reflecting C over the x-axis. 7. Write the coordinates of the image C'', made by reflecting C over the y-axis. 8. The vertices of the image C''' have the coordinates (–2, –3), (–4, –6), (–6, –6), and (–4, –3). Describe in words the transformation used to create C''' from the image C'.

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1 –2 –3

C

1

–4 –5 –6

Lesson 3.4.2 — Translations In Exercises 1–3, copy the shapes shown on to grid paper, and graph the indicated translations. 1. (x, y) Æ (x – 2, y – 5) 2. (x, y) Æ (x + 3, y + 2) 3. (x, y) Æ (x + 7, y – 2) A D

y

y

y

5 4 3 2 1

3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1

B

E C

1 2

3 4

5

x

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1 –2 –3

H

G

K

F 1 2

x

J

4 3 2 1

W

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1 –2 –3

Z

X Y 1 2

3 4

5 6

x

L

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 –1 –2

N y

x

1

x

M

Use the grid shown on the left to answer Exercises 4–9 In Exercises 4–7, describe the indicated translations in coordinates. 4. X to W 5. X to Z 6. W to Y 7. Z to Y Exercises 8–9 each describe a translation between two shapes on the grid. Write the translation described in the form “A to B”. 8. (x, y) Æ (x, y + 3) 9. (x, y) Æ (x – 2, y + 5) Additional Questions

447

x

Lesson 3.4.3 — Scale Factor In Exercises 1–3, draw an image of each figure using the given scale factor. 1. Scale factor 0.4 2. Scale Factor 1.25 B A

3. Scale Factor 1.5 C

4. Explain what happens when a scale factor of 1 is applied to a figure. In Exercises 5–7, find the scale factor that produced each transformation. 5. 6. 7. X'

Y

Y'

Z Z'

X

Lesson 3.4.4 — Scale Drawing In Exercises 1–5, make the following scale drawings 1. A rectangular 20 × 40 ft. swimming pool, using the scale 1 in = 5 ft 2. A square play ground with sides of 60 yds using a scale 1 cm = 10 yds 3. A rectangular 28 × 32 ft classroom using a scale 1 cm = 4 ft 4. A circular spa tub with a 9 ft diameter using a scale of 2 in = 3 ft Planter 1 Planter 2

Fire pit

Chair

Rocking chair

Serving cart

Dining table

BBQ grill

448

Additional Questions

Fountain

This is a scale drawing of Michael’s patio, using the scale 1 grid square = 2 ft. In Exercises 5–12, find the real life dimensions of the following objects. 5. Planter 1 6. Planter 2 7. Fire pit 8. Dining Table 9. Serving Cart 10. BBQ grill 11. Rocking Chair 12. Fountain 13. Ian made a miniature of a portrait he was painting. The miniature was 7 inches long. If the actual portrait is 42 inches long, what is the scale factor he used?

Lesson 3.4.5 — Perimeter, Area, and Scale In Exercises 1–5, calculate the perimeter and area if the image if the figure shown is multiplied by the given scale factor. 1 1. Scale factor 1 2. Scale factor 5 3. Scale factor 3

4. Scale factor 1.5

1 4

5. Scale factor

In Exercises 6–8, find the scale factor used in each transformation. 6. Perimeter of original = 35 in.; Perimeter of image = 50 in. 7. Area of original = 92 mm; Area of image = 23 mm 8. Area of original = 12 cm; Area of image = 72 cm

Lesson 3.4.6 — Congruence and Similarity In Exercises 1–6, each pair of figures is similar. 1. Find a. 2. Find b and c. 30 m

3. Find d. 21.21 ft

45° 6m

c

135°

a

50 m

21.21 ft

d b

10 ft

7.07 ft

7.07 ft

4. Find e and f.

5. Find g. 10 in

e 30°

76°

39°

h

6 cm 99°

6m

m

100°

6. Find h, i, j and k.

15

50°

10

mm

65°

13 in

k

50°

117° 55°

i j

f 100°

30°

7.5 cm

7 in

mm

117°

20 in

26 in

99°

8 mm 8 cm

12 cm g 14 in

89° 55°

18 cm

Additional Questions

449

Lesson 3.5.1 — Constructing Circles In Exercises 1–6, use a ruler and compass to construct circles with the following features. 1. Circle of radius 2 in, with a chord of length 3 in. and a central angle of 120°. 2. Circle of radius 3 in, with a chord of length 3.5 in. and a central angle of 55°. 3. Circle of diameter 4.5 cm, with a chord of length 3 cm and a central angle of 160° 4. Circle of diameter 5 in, with a chord of length 4 in. and a central angle of 40° 5. Circle of radius 5 cm, with a chord of length 3.5 cm and a central angle of 145° 6. Circle of radius 3.2 cm, with a chord of length 4.8 cm and a central angle of 70° In Exercises 7–8, copy and complete the sentences. 7. The ________ is the distance from a point on the circumference of a circle to the center. A ________ is the distance from a point on the circumference to another point on the circumference. 8. A chord of a circle can never be ________ than the circle’s diameter.

Lesson 3.5.2 — Constructing Perpendicular Bisectors Use the diagram below to find the midpoints of each segment in Exercises 1–6. 2m

4m

M

O

N

3m

4m

P

3m

Q

1. Segment NR 4. Segment NT

3m

R

3m

S

5m

2m

T

1m 2m

U

VW

2. Segment PR 5. Segment SV

X

3. Segment PT 6. Segment MX

In Exercises 7–9, use a compass and straight edge to construct line segments of the following lengths, then construct their perpendicular bisectors. 7. 4

1 2

inches

8. 4.1 cm

9. 3

1 4

inches

Lesson 3.5.3 — Perpendiculars, Altitudes, and Angle Bisectors Draw a line segment, AB, that is 5 inches long. In Exercises 1–8, mark the following points on the line. Draw a perpendicular through each point. 1. Point C, 1 inch away from A.

2. Point D, 2

3. Point E, 1

3 4

inches away from B.

4. Point F,

5. Point G, 1

1 2

inches below AB.

6. Point H, 2

7. Point I, 1 inch above AB.

8. Point J,

3 4

1 2

1 2

inches away from A.

inch away from B. 1 2

inches below AB.

inch above AB.

9. Draw a line segment PQ that is 4 cm long. Use a protractor to draw an angle at Q measuring 140°. Mark a point R on the new ray that you have drawn, so that the distance QR is 3 cm. 10. Bisect angle PQR using a compass and straightedge. Mark the point S on the angle bisector that is 5 cm away from Q. 11. What are the measures of the angles PQS and SQR? 12. Use a compass and straightedge to bisect the angle PQS. Mark a point T on the new angle bisector that is 3.5 cm from Q. 13. What are the measures of angles PQT and TQS?

450

Additional Questions

Lesson 3.6.1 — Geometrical Patterns and Conjectures In Exercises 1–2, draw the next instance in the given sequence. 1.

2.

Exercises 3–7 are about the sequence of dots shown below.

Instance 1

Instance 2

3. Make a specific conjecture about instance 4. 5. Make a general conjecture about the pattern. 7. How many dots are in the 10th instance?

Instance 3 4. Make a specific conjecture about instance 5. 6. Draw the 6th instance in the sequence.

Are the following conjectures true or false? Explain your answers. 8. There were 365 people inside the school building during the last fire drill. Conjecture: If John was inside the school at the time, John is a student. 9. There is a pecan tree in Maria's yard. Yesterday Maria picked up nuts that had fallen in the yard. Conjecture: The nuts Maria collected must be pecans. 10. Marcus made a perfectly square table. One corner is a right angle. Conjecture: All the corners of the table are right angles. 11. Angela has a round cushion with a diameter of 1 yard. Conjecture: The radius of the cushion is 18 inches. In Exercises 12–14, find the next three numbers in the series. 12. 6, 17, 28, 39 … 13. 3, 7, 12, 18 …

14. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 …

Lesson 3.6.2 — Expressions and Generalizations In Exercises 1–2, find the next term in the following sequences. Explain your answer. 1. January, April, July… 2. Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday… Exercises 3–5 are about the following number sequence: 3, 13, 23, 33… 3. Find the next term in the sequence. 4. Write an expression for the nth term in the sequence. 5. Use your answer to Exercise 4 to find the 17th term in the sequence. Exercises 6–8 are about the following number sequence: –6, 2, 10… 6. Find the next term in the sequence. 7. Write an expression for the nth term in the sequence. 8. Use your answer to Exercise 4 to find the 12th term in the sequence. Use the diagram below to answer Exercises 9–12.

9. How many circles are in the 4th row? 11. How many circles are in the nth row?

10. How many circles are in the 5th row? 12. How many circles are in the 9th row?

Additional Questions

451

Lesson 4.1.1 — Graphing Equations In Exercises 1–4, say whether the equation given is a linear equation or not. 1. y = 2x + 4 2. y – 5 = x 3. y2 + x2 = 12 4. 2y – x = 8

3 2

The diagram on the right is the graph of the equation y = 2x + 1. Use the graph to explain whether the following are solutions to the equation y = 2x + 1. 5. x = 1, y = 2 6. x = –1, y = –1

1 -2

-1 0 -1

7. Show that x = 2, y = 9 is a solution of the equation y = 12x – 15.

-2

8. Show that x = –2, y = 1 is a solution of the equation y = 3x + 7.

-3

9. Find the solutions to the equation y =

1 x 2

1

+ 1 which have x values of –2, –1, 0, 1, and 2. Use the 1

ordered pairs you have found to draw the graph of y = 2 x + 1. 10. Find the solutions to the equation y = 2x – 2 which have x values of 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2. Use the ordered pairs you have found to draw the graph of y = 2x – 2.

Lesson 4.1.2 — Systems of Linear Equations 1. How many possible solutions are there to a system of linear equations in two variables? In Exercises 2–3, write a system of linear equations to represent the statements. 2. Twice a number, y, is equal to a number, x, increased by 9. Four less than the product of a number, x, and 3 is equal to a number, y. 3. A number, q, increased by the product of a number, p, and 3 is equal to 10. A number, p, is equal to the quotient of a number, q, and 2. 4. Explain how to find the solution of a system of two linear equations by plotting them both on a graph. 5. Check that the point (–1, 1) is the solution to the system of equations y = 2x + 3 and y – x = 2. Solve the systems of equations in Exercises 6–9 by graphing. 6. y = x + 1 and y = 2x + 1 7. y = 1 – x and 2y = 2x + 2 8. y = 2x and 4y = 2x 9. y = 0.5x + 1 and 2y = x

Lesson 4.1.3 — Slope In Exercises 1– 3, say whether the slope of each line is positive, negative, or zero. Then find the slope. 2. 3. 1. 2 2 2 1

1

1

0 -1

-2 -1 0 -1

-2

-2

-2 -1

1

2

1

2

-2 -1 0 -1

1

2

-2

4. Plot the graph of the equation 2y = 1 – x and find its slope. 5. Point A with coordinates (–1, 4) lies on a line with a slope of 4. Give the coordinates of any other point that lies on the same line. In Exercises 6–11, find the slope of the line that passes through the two points given. 6. (3, 1) and (4, 2) 7. (1, 1) and (2, 3) 8. (0, 2) and (2, 0) 9. (–2, –3) and (–1, 0) 10. (–1, 3) and (3, 5) 11. (2, 1) and (–3, 0) 452

Additional Questions

Lesson 4.2.1 — Ratios and Rates In Exercises 1–2, express each statement as a ratio in its simplest form. 1. A store sells 2 rulers for every 1 eraser that is bought. 2. For every 2 lemons that I have, I also have 8 oranges. 3. Clayton is cooking breakfast for his family. He knows that he needs 18 pancakes to feed all 6 people. What is this written as a unit rate? In Exercises 4–9 express the quantities as unit rates. 4. 60 apples in 10 pies. 5. $4 for 2 meters of fabric. 6. 70 grams of food for 2 gerbils. 7. 120 miles in 3 hours. 8. 90 books for 15 students. 9. $2.97 for 3 pens. In Exercises 10–13 say which is the better buy. 10. 1 pen for $2 or 5 pens for $9 12. 300 ml of soda for $1.29, or $2.20 for 500 ml.

11. 2 kg of rice for $6, or 3 kg for $8.40 13. $7 for 100 minutes of calls or $7.20 for 2 hours.

14. A store sells 2kg bags of flour for $3.20, and 500 g bags of flour for $0.90. What is the price per kg for each size?

Lesson 4.2.2 — Graphing Ratios and Rates 1. At a gas station the price of gas is $2.40 a gallon. Draw a graph to represent the relationship between the cost of the gas and the volume purchased. 2. A doctor measured a patient’s resting pulse rate at 80 beats per minute. Draw a graph to show the relationship between time and the number of times the patient’s heart beats. Use it to estimate how many times the patient’s heart will beat in 18 minutes. Cost ($)

80

The graph on the right shows the relationship between the cost of hiring a bike and the number of hours you hire it for. Use the graph to answer Exercises 3–5. 3. How much does it cost to hire a bike for 5 hours? 4. What is the slope of the graph? 5. How much does it cost to hire a bike for 1 hour?

60 40 20 0

2

4

6

8

Time (hours)

6. Madre works as a waitress. Today she worked an 8 hour shift, and was paid $92. Plot a graph of the amount Madre earns against the time she works for. Then find how much Madre is paid per hour.

Lesson 4.2.3 — Distance, Speed, and Time 1. Dan walks 12 blocks to school. It takes him 6 minutes. What is his average speed? 2. If a tortoise is crawling along at a speed of 6 yards per minute, how far will it crawl in 4 minutes? 3. Mr Valdez drove 400 miles in 8 hours. What was his average speed? 4. A hiking club go on a camping expedition. They can cover a distance of 18 km each day. If they plan to go 90 km in total, how long will their expedition take? 5. A plane flies 2520 miles in 4 hours and 30 minutes. What is its average speed for the flight? 6. A machine can make 5 miles of silk ribbon in an hour. What length of ribbon can the machine make in an average 40 hour working week? 7. Each day Tya cycles to the bus stop to catch the school bus. She rides at an average speed of 10 mph, and the bus goes at an average speed of 40 mph. It takes her half an hour to do the 15 mile trip. Assuming she doesn’t have to wait for the bus, find how long she spends riding her bike. Additional Questions

453

Lesson 4.2.4 — Direct Variation The numbers a and b are in direct variation, and a = 3 when b = 4. In Exercises 1–6, find the value of a when b equals the value given. 1. 8 2. 12 3. 2 4. 7 5. –1 6. –34 7. It costs a school $100 to take 20 students on a trip to the museum. Use direct variation to find how much it would cost to take 55 students. 8. What point on the coordinate plane do all graphs that show direct variation pass through? 9. It took Jesse 3 hours to drive the 159 miles to his Grandmother’s house. If he was driving at a constant speed, how far would he have driven after 2 hours? 10. A saleswoman receives $20 in comission for every $150 worth of goods she sells. Show this relationship on a graph. Use your graph to find how much commission she receives from $225 of sales. The numbers x and y are in direct variation, and x = –1 when y = 1. 11. Write an equation relating x and y, and graph it on the coordinate plane. 12. What is the slope of your graph from Exercise 11? What does the slope represent?

Lesson 4.3.1 — Converting Measures In Exercises 1–6, give the ratio between the units. 1. feet:inches 2. centimeters:millimeters 4. fluid ounces:cups 5. kilograms:grams

3. meters:kilometers 6. pint:quart

7. Complete this equation: 0.1 km = ? m = ? cm = 100,000 mm 8. Complete this equation: 2 quarts = ? pints = ? cups = 64 fluid ounces In Exercises 9–16, set up and solve a proportion to find the missing value, x, in each case. 9. 480 mm = x cm 10. 15 kilometers = x meters 11. 64 ounces = x pounds 12. 5.5 pints = x cups 13. 50 grams = x kilograms 14. 300 pounds = x tons 15. Nora is making soup. Her recipe calls for 3 quarts of water. How many one cup servings will it make? 16. Dell needs 70 feet of wallpaper border. If the border comes in 5 yard rolls, how many should he buy?

Lesson 4.3.2 — Converting Between Unit Systems In Exercises 1–4, give the ratio between the units 1. inches:centimeters 3. liters:gallons

2. kilometers:miles 4. kilograms:pounds

In Exercises 5–10 find the missing value, x, in each case. Give all your answers to 2 decimal places. 5. 18 inches = x cm 6. 49 kg = x pounds 7. 840 yards = x meters 8. 31 km = x miles 9. 10 gallons = x liters 10. 14 kg = x ounces 11. Salma’s house is 3 km from the store. She cycles to the store to buy bread, and then rides on to the library. The library is a further 750 m from the store. How many miles has Salma cycled in total? 12. Bill is working on a science project. His task is to record the daily high temperature outside the school for a week. Bill’s table of results is shown below. Fill in the missing temperatures. Sunday Monday Tuesday Temperature (°F) 86 Temperature (°C)

454

Additional Questions

Wednesday

Thursday Friday

86.9 32

27

Saturday 85.1

31

30

Lesson 4.3.3 — Dimensional Analysis 1. Match the equations with their missing units. dollars

i) 320 copies × 0.10 copy = 32 ? ii) 100 feet ÷ 5 minutes = 20 ? iii) 2 feet × 12

inches foot

= 24 ?

In Exercises 2–9, find the missing unit 2. 90 miles ÷ 3 hours = 30 ____ 4. 2 persons × 3 days = 6 ____ 6. 1095 days ×

1 year 365 days

= 3 ____

8. 15 m/s ÷ 5 s = 3 ____

A) inches B) dollars C)

feet minute

dollars

3. 4 hours × 20 hours = 80 ____ 5. 10 inches × 5 inches = 50 ______ 7. 8 miles ÷ 2 miles per hour = 4 ____ 9. 16 m3/person-day ÷ 4 m2/person = 4 ____

10. The school dance team sell team pins during recess to fund travel to an out of town tournament. They earn $15 each day. The cost of the trip is $300. How many days do they need to sell for to cover the trip? 11. My go-kart can travel at a maximum speed of 10 miles/hour. How far can it go in 1800 seconds?

Lesson 4.3.4 — Converting Between Units of Speed In Exercises 1–6 create a conversion factor equal to one for each pair of units. 1. Days and weeks 2. Meters and kilometers 3. Seconds and minutes 4. Miles and kilometers 5. Days and hours 6. Meters and yards In Exercises 7–10 perform the conversions to find the missing numbers. 7. 32 miles per hour = w km per hour 8. 5 yards per minute = x meters per minute 9. 10 cm per second = y cm per hour 10. 3 feet per minute = z yards per hour 11. Which is faster, 85 miles per hour, or 120 km per hour? 12. Davina and Juan had a race over a course 1000 m long. Davina’s average speed was 9 kilometers per hour. Juan’s average speed was 3 meters per second. Who won the race?

Lesson 4.4.1 — Linear Inequalities In Exercises 1–4, write the inequality in words. 1. p > 5 3. r £ –2

2. q < –13 4. s ≥ 2.5

In Exercises 5–8, plot the inequality on a number line. 5. j > 1 6. k £ –2 7. n ≥ –1 8. m < 0 9. A number, x, increased by twelve is at least nineteen. Write this statement as an inequality and solve it. In Exercises 10–13, solve the inequality for the unknown. 10. a + 2 £ 10 11. b – 4 > 0 12. c + (–2) < –1 13. d – (–4) ≥ 8 14. Ula is painting a room. She needs at least 5 liters of paint to cover the walls. She already has a 1.5 liter can. Write and solve an inequality to show how many liters of paint, p, Ula needs to buy. 15. Mike is 8 cm taller than Darla. She is less than 160 cm tall. Write an inequality to show Mike’s height. Ad ditional Questions Additional

455

Lesson 4.4.2 — More On Linear Inequalities In Exercises 1–6, solve the inequality for the unknown. 1. 2x > 18 2. 3x < 48 3. x ÷ 8 ≥ 8 4. x ÷ 12 £ 11 5. 86x £ 1032

6.

1 x 2

≥ 18

7. Which of the following is the correct solution of the inequality –2y < 4? a) y < –2 b) y > –2 c) y > 2 In Exercises 8–13, solve the inequality for the unknown. 8. 2x < –4 9. x ÷ 3 > –1 10. –4x ≥ 8 11. x ÷ –10 < 1 12. –x < –7 13. x ÷ –5 £ –6 In Exercises 14–17 say which inequality goes with which solution graphed on the number line. 14. 2x < 4

x

A

x

B

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2

15.

x >3 3

16. 2x > 1

6 7 8 9 10 11 x

C –1 0

x 2

1

2

3

4

17. − < 1

x –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

D

Lesson 4.4.3 — Solving Two-Step Inequalities 1. Eva is saving money to buy a computer. She needs to save at least $720. She already has $200, and thinks that she can save $40 more each month. Write and solve an inequality to find the number of months, m, that Eva will have to save for to get her computer. In Exercises 2–7, solve the inequality for the unknown. 2. 3x + 5 > 8 3. 2x – 9 < 13 4. 4x + 5 < –55 5. 13x – 6 > –58 6. –18x + 3 ≥ 39 7. –15x – 3 £ 72 8. Sean is 6 years older than twice his cousin’s age. Given that Sean is over 30, write and solve an inequality to describe his cousin’s age, c. In Exercises 9–14, solve the inequality for the unknown. 9. (x ÷ 2) + 4 > 7 10. (x ÷ 4) – 5 ≥ 1 11. (x ÷ 3) + 9 < –2 12. (x ÷ 7) – 4 > –8 x 4

13. − + 3 £ 1

2m

x 5

14. − – 7 < –11

15. The diagram on the right shows the floor of a room in Felicia’s house. Felicia has decided to lay a new carpet in the room. She hasn’t measured the distance labeled x yet, but she knows that the total area of the floor is less than or equal to 80 m2. Write and solve an inequality for x.

4m

xm

8m 456

Additional Questions

Lesson 5.1.1 — Multiplying With Powers Write the expressions in Exercises 1–3 in base and exponent form. 1. 15 • 15 2. 8 • 8 • 8 • 8 • 8

3. w • w • w

Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 4–9 using the multiplication of powers rule. Give your answers in base and exponent form. 4. 32 • 33 5. 61 • 612 6. 25 • 27 5 1 4 9 7. a • a 8. (–5) • (–5) 9. x8 • x9 10. The distance from Anna’s middle school to her home is 32 times the distance from the school to the library. If the distance from the school to the library is 35 yards, how many blocks away is Anna’s middle school from her home? Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 11–15 using the multiplication of powers rule. Give your answers in base and exponent form. 11. 4 • 8 12. 5 • 125 13. 3 • 81 14. 8 • 16 15. 1000 • 100 16. 36 • 7776 16. The 7th grade class has a display at the science fair which is a triangle-shaped board with a base of 32 inches and a height of 33 inches. What is its area?

Lesson 5.1.2 — Dividing With Powers Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–6 using the division of powers rule. Give your answers in base and exponent form. 1. 1210 ÷ 123 2. 119 ÷ 117 3. g17 ÷ g7 7 48 19 4. 20 ÷ 20 5. 15 ÷ 15 6. (–8)15 ÷ (–8) 7. The area of a rectangular game board is s6 centimeters2. The length of the board is s2 centimeters. What is the width of the board? Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 8–13 using the division of powers rule. Give your answers in base and exponent form. 8. 64 ÷ 2 9. 128 ÷ 8 10. 4096 ÷ 32 11. 3125 ÷ 25 12. 343 ÷ 49 13. 12167 ÷ 529 14. Each month, a company purchases 107 cell phone minutes and shares them equally among its 103 employees. How many minutes does each employee receive?

Lesson 5.1.3 — Fractions With Powers Simplify the expressions in Exercises 1–4. Give your answers in base and exponent form. 1.

⎛ 3 ⎞⎟2 ⎛ 5 ⎞⎟3 ⎜⎜ ⎟ i⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠

2.

⎛ 6 ⎞⎟11 ⎛ 6 ⎞⎟12 ⎜⎜ ⎟ i⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎟⎠

3.

⎛ 2 ⎞⎟5 ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟7 ⎜⎜ ⎟ i⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 7 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎟⎠

4.

⎛ a ⎞⎟5 ⎛ a ⎞⎟10 ⎜⎜ ⎟ i⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎝ b ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

5.

⎛ −5 ⎞⎟12 ⎛ −1⎞⎟9 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 10 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 13 ⎟⎠

6.

⎛ 2 ⎞⎟8 ⎛ z ⎞⎟6 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ z ⎟⎠

7. Can either the multiplication of powers rule or the division of powers rule be used to simplify the 3 1 ÷ ? Explain your answer. 7 14 ⎛ 3 ⎞2 studied ⎜⎜⎝ ⎟⎟⎟⎠ hours for her math test 2

expression 8. Lisa

and

3 4

as long for her science test. How long did she study

for her science test? Give your answer in base and exponent form. 9. Ashanti runs

⎛ 3 ⎞⎟2 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠

yards every day. Louise runs

⎛ 2 ⎞⎟3 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠

as far as Ashanti. How far does Louise run?

Give your answer in base and exponent form. Additional Questions

457

Lesson 5.2.1 — Negative and Zero Exponents Evaluate the expressions in Exercises 1–4. 1. 210 3. 380 + 380

2. (xy)0, xy π 0 4. (9 – 5)0

Rewrite each of the expressions in Exercises 5–10 without a negative exponent. 6. 10–5 7. 5–13 5. 3–2 –8 –2 8. 41 9. 99 10. x–y Rewrite each of the expressions in Exercises 11–14 using a negative exponent. 11. 13.

1 10

12.

4

1 55 × 55 ×55 ×55 ×55

14.

1 t8 1 (−c ) × (−c ) ×(−c )

15. Lisa’s little sister is 1 year old and her big sister is 25. The ages of all three sisters are powers of the same base. How old is Lisa? Give your answer in base and exponent form.

Lesson 5.2.2 — Using Negative Exponents Simplify the expressions in Exercises 1–4. Give your answers as powers in base and exponent form. 1. 77 × 7–5 2. 298 ÷ 29–2 3. 438 ÷ 43–21 4. 12–12 ÷ 12–8 Simplify the expressions in Exercises 5–8 by first converting any negative exponents to positive exponents. Give your answers as powers in base and exponent form. 5. 415 × 4–5 6. 98–8 × 98–5 7. a–56 × a–40 8. 32–x × 32x 2 9. 38 ÷

11.

1 38−9

⎛ 5 ⎞⎟−2 ⎜⎜ ⎟ of ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

−n 10. r ÷

3 r−2

the 7th grade class received an A on a recent science test. If there are 25 students in the

class, how many students received an A?

Lesson 5.2.3 — Scientific Notation Write the numbers in Exercises 1–12 in scientific notation. 1. 420 2. 6,000 3. 917,000 4. –938,700 5. 245,000,000,000 6. 93,000,000 7. 147,396,000,000 8. 53,560,000,000,000 9. 0.00032 10. 0.00000000819 11. 0.000000064 12. 0.000000387 Write the numbers in Exercises 13–16 in numerical form. 13. 4.35 × 102 14. 8.31 × 106 15. 4.79 × 10–7 16. 9.101 × 10–12 17. A wealthy businessman is worth 5.28 billion dollars. What is 5.28 billion in scientific notation? 18. Pritesh converts the number 16,200 into scientific notation and gets 16.2 × 103. Explain his mistake.

458

Additional Questions

Lesson 5.2.4 — Comparing Numbers In Scientific Notation In Exercises 1–6, say which of the two numbers is greater. 1. 3.27 × 103, 3.27 × 106 2. 4.9 × 107, 4.9 × 10–7 3. 7.8 × 109, 7.8 × 10–9 4. 4.36 × 103, 8.2 × 102 5. 2(1.5 × 105), 3.0 × 1010 6. 9.67 × 1012, 8.412 × 1013 Order the expressions in Exercises 7–10 from least to greatest. 7. 3.2 × 105, 4.35 × 103, 9.874 × 102, 1.4 × 106, 4.2 × 101 8. 9.99 × 106, 9.9 × 106, 9.999 × 106, 9.9999 × 106 9. 2.7 × 108, 3.965 × 106, 1.982 × 1013, 8.623 × 108 10. 4.3 × 105, 3.4 × 106, 5.2 × 105, 3.5 × 106 A space shuttle has two solid rocket boosters that each provide 1.19402 × 106 kg of thrust; 3 main engines that each provide 154,360 kg of thrust, and 2 orbital maneuvering systems engines which each provide 2.452 × 103 kg of thrust. 11. What is the thrust of a single solid rocket booster as a decimal? 12. Which type of engine has the greatest amount of thrust? 13. Which engine has the least amount of thrust? 14. What is the total amount of thrust provided by the engines? Give your answer in scientific notation.

Lesson 5.3.1 — Multiplying Monomials State whether or not each expression in Exercises 1–3 is a monomial. 1. 5y9

2. 2x + 2y

Identify the coefficient in Exercises 4–7. 4. 17a3 6.

x 2

3.

y8 2

5. 31w4 7.

51x 6 9

Simplify the expressions in Exercises 8–16 by turning them into a single monomial. 8. 17x3 × 2x2 9. 6ab2 × b3c 10. 18x2y2z2 × xz2 11. w3k2 × 2wn6 × 3k3n2

12.

40 x 3 × x2 y × y 9

13.

Square each monomial in Exercises 14–16. 14. 8y3 15. 4t5uv3

2 xz 3 4 xy 2 x 6 y 2 z 2 × × 3 5 3

16. 12d5e5f 5

Lesson 5.3.2 — Dividing Monomials Evaluate each expression in Exercises 1–8. 1. 6b7 ÷ b 3. 18x2y2 ÷ 3xy 5. 144d4e9f 17 ÷ 12d4e3f 7 7. 0.6t3u2v3 ÷ 3xy 3

2. 81d6 ÷ 9d4 4. 27m12n2 ÷ 3mn2 6. 20a17b14 ÷ 5a8b12 5 3 2 4 1 x y z ÷ xyz 3 8. 7

2

4

9. Does 36xy ÷ 2x y give a monomial result? 10. If all their chores are done on the weekend, the Anderson children receive 3x2y2 dollars in total, split evenly between the 2x2 children. How much does each child receive? Say whether each division gives a monomial result in Exercises 11–14. 11. 5x2 ÷ 5x 12. 25z3 ÷ 5z4 34 12 30 14 13. 40x p ÷ 20x p 14. 20z4x3 ÷ 5z4x3

Additional Questions

459

Lesson 5.3.3 — Powers of Monomials Write the expressions in Exercises 1–9 using a single power. 1. (32)3 2. (54)4 4. [(–17)2]5 5. (5–2)–10 7. (r a)b 8. (s–1)b

3. [(–8)2]4 6. (p2)6 9. [(–t)–c]–d

Simplify the powers of monomials in Exercises 10–15. 10. (4x5)2 11. (2y7)3 13. (2n8o3p5)3 14. (g–2n3e2)4

12. (7a2b3c)2 15. (–0.3x–2ymz4)3

16. What is the area of a square room with side lengths of 5x2y3z10 centimeters? 17. What is the volume of a cubic container with side lengths of 2a5b3 feet? 18. What is the volume of a cylindrical container with a radius of 4x3y2 and a height of 3x5?

Lesson 5.3.4 — Square Roots of Monomials Simplify the expressions in Exercises 1–9. 1.

81

2.

36

3.

52

4.

z2

5.

c 30

6.

a2

7.

x4

8.

y 50

9.

t 46

Find the square roots of each monomial in Exercises 10–15. 10. 16x4 11. 100x4z8 2 4 8 13. 49k h j 14. 625r12s24t32

12. a12b18c20 15. 144a8b10c12d14e16

16. A square painting has an area of 25x4y2z18 square feet. What is the length of its side? In Exercises 17–19, determine whether each square root will be a monomial. 17.

x15 y12

18.

s11t 8

19.

23x16t 14

Lesson 5.4.1 — Graphing y = nx2 In Exercises 16–21, find the y-coordinate of the point on the y = x2 graph for each given value of x. 1. x = 5

2. x =

1 2

3. x =

3 4

Determine which of the points in Exercises 4–9 lie on the graph of y = 2x2. 4. (–1, 2) 5. (2, 8) 6. (–5, 12) 7. (4, 40)

8.

⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟ ⎜⎜ , ⎟ ⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠

9. (–3, 18)

In Exercises 10–15, calculate the two possible x-coordinates of the points on the graph of y = x2 whose y-coordinate is shown. 10. 81 11. 144 12. 4 13. 36 14. 14 15. a In Exercises 16–18, draw the graph of each of the given equations. 16. y = 2x2

460

Additional Questions

17. y = 3x2

18. y =

1 2 x 2

Lesson 5.4.2 — More Graphs of y = nx2 In Exercises 1–4, plot the graph of the given equation for the values of x between 5 and –5. 1. y = –x2 2. y = –2x2 3. –y = x2 4. Using your graph from Exercise 2, what is x if –2x2 = –18? 5. Using your graph from Exercise 1, what is x if –x2 = –25? Answer Exercises 6 and 7 without plotting any points. 1 5

6. The point (5, 5) lies on the graph of y = x2. What is the y-coordinate of the point on the graph of 1 5

y = – x2 with x-coordinate 5? 7. The point (–2, 8) lies on the graph of y = 2x2. What is the y-coordinate of the point on the graph of –y = 2x2 with x-coordinate –2? For each point in Exercises 8–13, say which of the equations shown below it would lie on the graph of. y = x2 y = –2x2 y = 0.5x2 y = 3x2 y = –x2 y = –4x2 8. (–9, 81) 9. (–4, –32) 10. (6, 18) 11. (8, 32) 12. (10, –400) 13. (–7, –49)

Lesson 5.4.3 — Graphing y = nx3 1. Make a table of values for y = 5x3 for x between –4 and 4. 2. Use the points in Exercise 1 to plot the graph. Use your graph of y = 5x3 from Exercise 2 to get approximate solutions to the equations in Exercises 3–8. 3. 5x3 = 125 4. 5x3 = 305 5. 5x3 = –30 6. 5x3 = 70 7. 5x3 = –50 8. 5x3 = –210 Graph the equations in Exercises 9–11. 9. y = 2x3 10. y = 3x3

11. y = –x3

Make a table of values with x values from –4 to 4 for each of the equations in Exercises 12–15. 12. y = –2x3 13. y = 3x3 14. y = –3x3

2 3

15. y = – x3

Answer Exercises 16 and 17 without plotting any points. 16. If the graph of y = 0.2x3 goes through (4, 12.8), what are the coordinates of the point on the graph of –y = 0.2x3 with x-coordinate 4? 17. If the graph of y = 0.8x3 goes through (15, 2700), what are the coordinate of the point on the graph of y = –1.6x3 with x-coordinate 15?

Additional Questions

461

Lesson 6.1.1 — Median and Range Find the median of each of the data sets in Exercises 1–8. 1. {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13} 2. {9, 23, 48, 7, 100} 3. {10, 4, 2, 8, 6} 4. {99, 99, 100, 102, 101, 98, 107, 97} 5. {30, 33, 30, 33, 33, 33} 6. {65, 30, 25, 45, 20, 25} 7. {18, 15, 13, 6, 9, 12} 8. {20, 60, 80, 80, 20, 60, 60, 60} Find the range of each of the data sets in Exercises 9–14. 9. {71, 50, 32, 55, 90} 10. {11, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12} 11. {98, 99, 98, 99, 100} 12. {500, 550, 575, 600, 625, 675} 13. {365, 90, 90, 200, 250} 14. {33.5, 6.5, 200.1, 82.3, 66.4} 15. Store X sells class rings with a median price of $350 and a range of $50. Store Y sells class rings with a median price of $350 and a range of $250. Interpret these statistics. 16. A cell phone company has packages with a median price of $59.99 per month and a range of $100. Another company has packages with a median price of $49.99 and a range of $50. Interpret these statistics.

Lesson 6.1.2 — Box-and-Whisker Plots Find the upper and lower quartiles of each data set in Exercises 1–5. 1. {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19} 2. {88, 77, 9, 23, 48, 7, 100, 102, 99} 3. {99, 99, 100, 99, 99, 100, 102, 101, 98, 107, 97} 4. {20, 22, 24, 25, 30, 33, 30, 33, 33, 33, 50, 53} 5. {30, 25, 20, 18, 15, 13, 6, 9, 12} Create a box-and-whisker plot to illustrate each of the data sets in Exercises 6–11. 6. {11, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 13, 13} 7. {71, 50, 32, 55, 90} 8. {10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50} 9. {150, 150, 200, 365, 90, 90, 200, 250} 10. {36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 40, 40, 45} 11. {50, 60, 70, 70, 90, 100, 10, 40} 12. Terrell recorded the daily temperature each day for a week and made the data set {45°F, 40°F, 40°F, 53°F, 52°F, 40°F, 33°F}. Draw a box-and-whisker plot to illustrate this data.

Lesson 6.1.3 — More On Box-and-Whisker Plots 1. Principal Garcia is curious to know whether school attendance drops off before a holiday. The box-and-whisker plots on the right show school attendance 2 weeks before a holiday and 1 week before a holiday. What conclusions can Principal Garcia draw from the plots?

2 weeks before 1 week before 800

850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 Number of Students in Attendance

2. The ages of the band members from two middle schools are shown in the box-and-whisker plots on the right. Which school has a larger percentage of younger students?

School A School B 11

3. What is the difference between the range of a box-and-whisker plot and the interquartile range?

12 Student Ages

13

4. In a box-and-whisker plot, what is shown by the length of the whiskers? 5. Name the three different areas of a box-and-whisker plot that contain exactly half of the data values. 462

Additional Questions

Lesson 6.1.4 — Stem-and-Leaf Plots Make stem-and-leaf plots to display the data given in each of Exercises 1–7. 1. {11, 13, 24, 29, 33, 35, 37, 39} 2. {13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 18, 24, 34, 42} 3. {34, 35, 39, 40, 47, 50, 54, 56, 57, 60} 4. {2, 3, 6, 6, 10, 12, 14, 19} 5. {2, 12, 13, 14, 22, 23, 27, 33, 35} 6. {82, 82, 83, 83, 83, 84, 84, 85, 85, 89, 92} 7. {3, 4, 4, 4, 12, 15, 23, 25, 27, 33, 34, 34, 34, 36, 42, 44, 54, 57, 60} Find the median and the range of the stem-and-leaf plots in Exercises 8–9. 8. 4 1 3 9. 3 4 5 9 5 49 4 07 6 3579 5 0467 Key: 4 3 represents 43 6 0 Key: 4 0 represents 40 Draw a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot for each pair of data sets in Exercises 10–15. 10. {18, 28, 38, 48, 49, 50} 11. {7, 9, 10, 14, 17, 23, 25, 29} {23, 23, 23, 35, 35, 41, 41, 43, 52} {13, 13, 14, 14, 21, 22}

Lesson 6.1.5 — Preparing Data to be Analyzed 40 people participated in the tests for a new health food diet. Half ate a regulated 1500 calorie diet while the other half ate as much as they wanted from a selected group of health foods. Their weight loss in pounds after one month is listed in the chart below. Use this data for Exercises 1–10. 1500 Calorie Group 5 9

10 13 11 15

5 6 8

8

7 3 0

9 7 6 5 5 3 10

Health Food Group 7 10 12 15 14 12 10 9 12 10 10 9 15 13 7 8 9 7 8 15

1. Find the minimum of each data set. 2. Find the maximum of each data set. 3. Find the median of the 1500 calorie group. 4. Find the median of the health food group. 5. What is the lower quartile of the 1500 calorie group? 6. What is the lower quartile of the health food group? 7. What is the upper quartile of the 1500 calorie group? 8. What is the upper quartile of the health food group? 9. Create box-and-whisker plots of the two data sets. 10. Create a double stem-and-leaf plot of the two sets.

Lesson 6.1.6 — Analyzing Data A chef was trying to determine which of two daily specials is more popular. He kept track of the number of orders received for each over 22 days. The results are shown below — use this data for Exercises 1–8. Special 1: {50, 60, 89, 95, 45, 99, 98, 99, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 95, 94, 95, 99, 98, 98, 87, 99, 95} Special 2: {85, 85, 85, 45, 77, 62, 88, 87, 99, 95, 94, 99, 66, 68, 72, 75, 98, 99, 99, 99, 99, 99} 1. Find the minimum and maximum of each data set. 2. Find the range of each data set. 3. Find the median of each data set. 4. Find the lower and upper quartile of each data set. 5. Find the interquartile range of each data set. 6. Draw a box-and-whisker plot of each data set. 7. Draw a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot of the data sets. 8. Compare the popularity of the two specials. Additional Questions

463

Lesson 6.2.1 — Making Scatterplots 1. What data would you need to collect to test the conjecture “the more books read by a student, the higher their grade point average”? 2. Design a table in which to record this data. 3. What data would you need to collect to test the conjecture “the further you live from school, the fewer after-school clubs you’re a member of ”? 4. Design a table in which to record this data. 5. Kayla decides to test the conjecture that “the older the child, the taller they are” and collects the data shown below. Draw a scatterplot of this data. Age (years)

3

5

4

6

5

6

3

Height (inches) 36 42 40 45 40 46 40

6. The data below was collected to test the conjecture “the more minutes offered by a cell phone contract, the more expensive the contract”. Draw a scatterplot of this data.

Number of minutes

300 300 400 400 500 500 500 500 500 600

Monthly Fee

$20 $25 $25 $30 $30 $35 $40 $45 $50 $50

3. Draw an example scatterplot with no correlation. 4. Draw an example scatterplot with a weak negative correlation. 5. Draw an example scatterplot with a strong positive correlation. 6. The scatterplot on the right shows how average test score is related to the distance that students live from school. What sort of correlation does the scatterplot show?

60 40 20 80 90 100 110 120 Temperature (°F)

Average Test Score

A hospital in the desert made the scatterplot on the right to determine how outside temperature is related to hospital admissions due to heat stroke. Use it to answer Exercises 1–2. 1. What sort of correlation does the scatterplot show? 2. Is the correlation strong or weak? Explain your answer.

Admissions

Lesson 6.2.2 — Shapes of Scatterplots

100 75 50 25 2 4 6 8 10 Distance from school (miles)

Lesson 6.2.3 — Using Scatterplots Roy decides to test his theory that the older a person in the baseball team is, the more professional baseball games they’ve seen. He collects the following data:

Age

1 1 12

Number of 20 games seen

11 13 15 14 14 12

15 10 35 30 29

18 10

1 1 12 5

13

13 20

1. Create a scatterplot of the data. 2. Draw a line of best fit. 3. Predict how many professional baseball games a 17 year old on the baseball team is likely to have seen. 464

Additional Questions

Lesson 7.1.1 — Three Dimensional Figures In Exercises 1–4, say whether the statements are true or false. 1. A polygon is any shape that is made from straight lines that are joined end-to-end, in a closed shape. 2. Pyramids and prisms have circles for their base. A 3. Prisms must have congruent bases at each end. B 4. Pyramids have diagonals. F In Exercises 5–7, refer to the figure at the right. 5. Identify the shape as either a cone, cylinder, prism, or pyramid. 6. How many diagonals does this shape have? 7. Name all diagonals by giving the staring and ending vertex.

E

C D W

V

X

8. Copy the table below and check all statements that are true about the figures. Cone

Cylinder

Prism

Pyramid

U

S

The figure is a polyhedron The figure has diagonals. The base of the figure has a curved edge. The base of the figure is a polygon. The bases are congruent. The base of the figure is a polygon, and the other faces meet at a single point. The base of the figure has a curved edge, and the other end meets at a single point.

T

Lesson 7.1.2 — Nets In Exercises 1–3, say which net could make each three-dimensional figure. 1.

a.

b.

c.

2.

a.

b.

c.

3.

a.

b.

c.

In Exercises 4–6, say whether the statements are true or false. 4. Every shape has one unique net. 5. In the net of a cylinder, the length of the rectangle is equal to the circumference of the base circle. 6. The net of a rectangular prism has five rectangles. In Exercises 7–8, draw a net for the solid. 7.

8.

Additional Questions

465

Lesson 7.1.3 — Surface Areas of Cylinders and Prisms h cm

a cm

In Exercises 1–3, find the surface area of each triangular prism. 1. a = 5, b = 8, h = 4.3 2. a = 8, b = 12, h = 6.9 3. a = 20, b = 35, h = 17.3

a cm b cm

r yd

a cm

In Exercises 4–6, find the surface area of each cylinder. Use p = 3.14. 4. r = 6 and h = 11 5. r = 12 and h = 17 6. r = 30 and h = 45

h yd

Use each of the diagrams in Exercises 7–9 to write a general formula for finding the surface area of that type of figure. 8.

7.

9.

r

y h

h

x

w

b

l

h

Lesson 7.1.4 — Surface Areas & Perimeters of Complex Shapes Exercises 1–4 are about the figures shown below: 4 ft

8 ft

4 ft 6 ft

4 ft

1. 2. 3. 4.

Find the edge length of the cube. Find the edge length of the rectangular prism. Find the total edge length of the two figures. Find the total edge length once the figures have been joined.

4 ft

36 in 72 in 60 in 2 in

A work table has the shape shown on the right. 5. What is the total edge length of the tabletop? 6. What is the total edge length of the base? 7. Find the total edge length of the work table.

68 in 32 in

Work out the surface areas of the shapes shown in Exercises 8–10. Use p = 3.14. 8.

6 cm

5 in

9.

10.

9 cm

2 in

9 cm

15 cm

6 yd

2 in 4 yd

8 yd

10 in 5 yd 21 cm 10 in

466

Additional Questions

2 yd

Lesson 7.1.5 — Lines and Planes in Space In Exercises 1–3, copy the sentences and fill in the missing words. 1. When two planes intersect they can meet along a _______ or at a single _______. 2. There are ______ ways for a line and a plane to meet. 3. Coplanar lines are on the same _______. In Exercises 4–6, say whether each statement is true or false. If any are false, explain why. 4. Lines that do not intersect are always parallel. 5. Perpendicular planes meet at a point. 6. Skew lines are not coplanar. In Exercises 7–9, match each figure to one of the following descriptions: a. The intersecting planes meet along a line. b. The intersecting lines meet at a point. c. One plane intersects two parallel planes. 8.

7.

9.

Lesson 7.2.1 — Volumes 1. A prism is 3 meters high. It has volume 12 m3. What is the area of the prism's base? In Exercises 2–6, work out the volume of the figures. Use p = 3.14. 2.

3.

7 cm

4.

2 cm

12 cm 2 ft

6 cm 7 ft

4 cm 3 in

5.

3 ft

6. 3m

5 in

3m 3m

4 in

In Exercises 7–8, consider a prism of volume 72 ft3. 7. What is the height of the prism if the base area is 12 ft2? 8. If the prism is cut in half, what is its new volume?

3 in

9. Find the volume of the figure shown on the right if the area of the shaded base is 26 in2. 10. The contents of a full baking pan with dimensions 8 in. by 8 in. by 2 in. are poured into a cylindrical container with a diameter of 5 in. and a height of 8 in. Will the cylindrical container hold all the contents of the pan? Explain your answer.

Ad ditional Questions Additional

467

Lesson 7.2.2 — Graphing Volumes V (cm3)

Use the graph of the volume of a cube with side length s, shown on the left, to answer Exercises 1–4. 1. Estimate the volume of a cube with side length 2.1m. 2. Estimate the side length of a cube with volume 25 m3. 3. Estimate the volume of a cube with side length 1.5 m. 4. Estimate the side length of a cube with volume 33 m3.

40 30 20 10 s (cm)

0

1

2

3

4

Exercises 5–8 refer to the figure at the right. 5. Write an expression for the volume of the prism. 6. Use your expression to find the volume of the prism when x = 5. 7. Graph the volume of the figure against the value of x. 8. Use your graph to estimate the side length x that makes a volume of 28 yd3. 2 in

h

x yd 7 yds x yd

Exercises 9–11 refer to the figure on the left. 9. Find an expression that gives the volume of the figure. Use p = 3.14. 10. Graph the volume of the figure. 11. Use your graph to estimate the value of h that makes the volume 55 in3.

Lesson 7.3.1 — Similar Solids In Exercises 1–5, say whether the statements are true or false. 1. When multiplying by a scale factor, the corresponding angles of the image are multiplied by the scale factor. 2. If you multiply a three-dimensional figure by a scale factor you get a similar figure. 3. A scale factor of one produces an image the same size as the original figure. 4. Two figures are similar if one can be multiplied by a scale factor to make a shape that is congruent to the other one. 5. The image will be larger than the original if the scale factor is between 0 and 1. In Exercises 6–8, find the scale factor that has been used to create the image in the following pairs of similar solids and find the missing length, x. Figures are not drawn to scale. 6. 7. 8. 6 m 6 in. 4 in.

10 mm

8m

2m

6 mm 18 mm x 8 in.

18 m 5 mm 6m

x 9 mm

x

A class constructed a scale model of the figure below. The model was twice as large as the original. 1.2 ft 9. What is the height of the students' model? 10. What is the length of the bottom face of the model? 2.4 ft 11. What is the length of the top face of the model? 12. The class decided to construct another model one-quarter the size of the original that will be easier to transport. What is the height of the new model? 2 ft 468

Additional Questions

Lesson 7.3.2 — Surface Areas & Volumes of Similar Figures Luis draws a figure with area 16 cm2. Find the area of the image if Luis multiplies his figure by the following scale factors. 1. 3 2. 20 3. 0.3 In Exercises 4–6, find the surface area and volume of the image if the figure shown is multiplied by a scale factor of 3. Figures are not drawn to scale. Use p = 3.14. 4.

5.

2 cm

6. 5 ft

2 in 4 in 7 cm

8 ft

7 in

Exercises 7–8 refer to figure A at the right. The base area of figure A is 24 cm2. 7. Find the volume of figure A. 8. Find the volume of the image if A was enlarged by a scale factor of 4.

3 ft

3 cm

9. A scale model of a building has a surface area of 37.5 ft2. If the actual building has a surface area of 15,000 ft2, what scale factor was used to make the model?

Lesson 7.3.3 — Changing Units In Exercises1–3, convert the following areas to cm2. 1. 21 m2 2. 0.085 m2

3. 4.5 m2

In Exercises 4–6, convert the following areas to square feet. 4. 864 in2 5. 48 in2

6. 288 in2

A cube has a surface area of 240 cm2 7. What is the surface area in m2?

8. What is the surface area in in2?

Exercises 9–11 refer to the cylinder on the right. Use p = 3.14 9. What is the surface area of the cylinder? 10. What is the surface area in m2? 11. What is the surface area in in2?

3 cm

8 cm

In Exercises 12–14, convert the volumes to cubic inches. 12. 3 ft3 13. 0.864 ft3 14. 5.1 ft3 In Exercises 15–17, convert the volumes to cubic meters. Use the conversion factor 1 m = 0.91 yd. Round to the nearest hundredth where appropriate. 15. 5 ft3 16. 25 ft3 17. 24.56 yd3 18. Juan's house has a floor area of 4500 square feet. What is this area in square meters? 19. An acre is 4840 square yards. What is an acre in square meters?

Additional Questions

469

Lesson 8.1.1 — Percents 1. What percent of the grid shown on the right is shaded? Draw your own 10 by 10 grid and shade 75% of it. In Exercises 2–5 write the fraction as a percent. 75 100 100 100

2. 4.

3. 5.

36 100 124 100

In Exercises 6–9 write the percent as a fraction in its simplest form. 6. 1% 7. 10% 8. 40% 9. 26% 10. I have 100 DVDs. 12 of them are comedy films. What percent of my DVDs are comedy films? 11. If 15% of x is 36, what is x? 12. What is 25% of 64? What is 125% of 64? 13. In a 40 game season, a school soccer team won 70% of their matches. How many games did they win?

Lesson 8.1.2 — Changing Fractions and Decimals to Percents In Exercises 1–6 write each decimal as a percent. 1. 0.03 2. 0 4. 0.44 5. 0.9

3. 0.11 6. 3.6

In Exercises 7–12 write each fraction as a percent. 1 4

7. 10.

3 10

8.

57 100

9.

140 100

11.

7 1000

12.

5 8

13. A factory has 3000 employees on 2 shifts. The night shift has 600 workers. What is this as a percent? 14. Shemika grew 48 bean plants for a science project. 33 were grown in soil, and the rest in water. What fraction were grown in soil? What percentage were grown in water?

Lesson 8.1.3 — Percent Increases and Decreases In Exercises 1–4 find the total after the increase. 1. 80 is increased by 5% 3. 100 is increased by 130%

2. 65 is increased by 20% 4. 81 is increased by 80%

5. Tulio’s curtains are 60 inches long. He lengthens them to put in a larger window. Their new length is 72 inches. By what percent has Tulio lengthened the curtains? In Exercises 6–9 find the total after the decrease. 6. 50 is decreased by 10% 8. 25 is decreased by 24%

7. 180 is decreased by 30% 9. 600 is decreased by 4.2%

10. Nicole has a collection of 110 old coins. She gives 44 of them away to a friend who wants to start their own collection. What is the percent decrease in the size of Nicole’s collection? 11. In 1980 Fremont had a population of 132,000 and Hesperia had a population of 20,600. By 2000, Fremont’s population was 203,400 and Hesperia’s was 62,600. Over the 20 years, which city’s population increased by the largest number of people, and which city saw the biggest percent increase in population? 470

Additional Questions

Lesson 8.2.1 — Discounts and Markups A stationery store is having a sale. They offer the discounts shown in the table below. Use this information to calculate how much the items in Exercises 1–6 would cost from the sale. Item

Notebooks Pencils

Pens

Erasers Ring Binders Adhesive Tape

Original Price

$5.99

$0.59

$1.99

$2.99

$4.99

$2.99

Discount

20%

5%

15%

25%

30%

10%

1. 2 ring binders 4. 10 notebooks

2. 3 erasers 5. 1 notebook and 1 pen

3. 3 rolls of adhesive tape 6. 6 pencils and 5 erasers

Find the retail price of each of the items in Exercises 7–11. 7. Cherry vanity unit — wholesale price $150, markup 45%. 8. Cherry dresser — wholesale price $850, markup 60%. 9. Florentine mirror — wholesale price $95, markup 100%. 10. Sleigh bed — wholesale price $530, markup 85%. 11. Mattress set — wholesale price $999, markup 50.5%.

Lesson 8.2.2 — Tips, Tax, and Commission In Exercises 1–4 use mental math to calculate each tip. 1. 10% tip on a $15 taxi ride. 2. 20% tip on a $30 hair style. 3. 15% tip on a $5 salad. 4. 15% tip on a $34.26 family meal. 5. A $25 concert ticket had a 15% entertainment tax added to the price. What was the total cost of the ticket? Work out the total cost after tax of the items in Exercises 6–11. 6. 5% added to a $39.60 purchase. 7. 8% tax added to a $15,000 car. 8. 7% tax added to a $549 laptop. 9. 9% tax added to a $2.99 notebook. 10. 6% tax added to a $0.49 fruit juice. 11. 11% tax added to a $10.34 fruit basket. 12. Jarrod bought a bike priced at $109.98. After taxes he paid $119.33. What was the rate of tax?

Lesson 8.2.3 — Profit Find the profit made in Exercises 1–4. 1. Expenses: $800 Revenue: $3000 3. Expenses: $777.77; $5.89 Revenue: $1,258.34

2. Expenses: $954 Revenue: $3975.01 4. Expenses: $800,034; $957.45; $999,381.45 Revenue: $12,456,901

In Exercises 5–8, find the percent profit. Round each answer to the nearest whole percent. 5. Profit: $245 6. Profit: $300 Total Sales: $4,875 Total Sales: $879.20 7. Profit: $9,000,000 8. Profit: $4,432,567 Total Sales: $21,000,000 Total Sales: $6,289,437 9. The math club sold 500 pencils at 10 cents each as a fundraiser. They paid the supplier 2 cents for each pencil. Emmitt says the profit is $40 but Lonnie says it is $50. Who is correct? 10. A company increased its profits by 33% over the previous year. If the previous year’s profits were $5,000,000, what are the profits this year? Additional Questions

471

Lesson 8.2.4 — Simple Interest 1. Jacob put $3000 in an account with a simple interest rate of 5% per year. How much was in his account after 1 year? 2. Juan invested $10,000 and received 6.25% simple interest per year. How much did she have after 5 years? 3. Sara borrowed $500 at a simple interest rate of 5.5% per year. How much did she owe after 5 years? 4. A savings account advertises a simple interest rate of 3.5% per year. If Jan puts $5000 in the account, how much interest will she have earned after 1 year? 5. A bank advertises a saving scheme which gives 12% simple interest per year if you keep your money in the bank for 8 years with the slogan “double your money”. Is their slogan accurate? 6. Lisa asks her mom to borrow $20 for new jeans. Her mom says she will charge 3% simple interest per month. If Lisa intends to repay her mom in half a month, how much interest will she owe? 7. Janice has decided to buy a new sofa set on credit. One furniture store offers credit with no interest for 6 months and then 18.5% simple interest per year. Another offers 4 months with no interest and then 18% simple interest per year. Which is the better deal for a $3000 sofa set which Janice has budgeted to pay off in 2 years?

Lesson 8.2.5 — Compound Interest 1. If you’re saving money, is it usually better to receive simple or compound interest? 2. If you’re borrowing money, is it usually better to pay simple or compound interest? 3. You put $250 into an account with a compound interest rate of 6%, compounded annually. What is the account balance after 5 years? 4. Daniel puts $1500 in a savings account with 6% interest for 8 years compounded quarterly. What is the account balance in 8 years? 5. Cynthia has $1700 to invest for 8 years. She can choose between either an investment with a simple interest rate of 15% or one with a compound interest rate of 8%, compounded annually. Which investment would leave her better off? 6. Luis puts $600 into an account with a compound interest rate of 10%, compounded annually. Destiny puts $600 into an account with a simple interest rate of 12%. What’s the difference between the investments after 5 years?

Lesson 8.3.1 — Rounding In Exercises 1–3, round each number to the nearest percent. 1. 87.5%

2. 45.3%

In Exercises 4–9, round each number to the nearest tenth. 4. 103.785 5. 3.265 7. 75.432 8. 7.9854

3. 71

3 % 4

6. 40.23 9. 41.98

10. Don’s favourite group sold 549,873 copies of their last song. How many did they sell to the nearest hundred thousand? 11. Ana and Ava were asked to round 7199.99 to the nearest hundred. Ana said the answer was 7100, Ava said 7200. Who was correct? 12. 63,495 fans attended a recent football game, which the newspaper rounded to the nearest 10,000. How many did the newspaper report had attended? 472

Additional Questions

Lesson 8.3.2 — Rounding Reasonably 1. Nadia needs 233 yards of ribbon to decorate the hall for the prom. If the ribbon comes on spools 10 yards long how many spools does Nadia need to buy? 2. Raul is buying a window shade for a window that measures 95.2 cm wide. The store has shades of 93 cm, 95 cm and 97 cm wide. What width of shade should Raul buy? 3. The drama club is using its funds to sponsor students acting at the Shakespeare festival by paying their $25 entrance fee. If they have $282, how many full entry fees can they pay? 4. Latoyah is baking bread. She needs 0.4 kg of flour for each loaf she makes. If she has 1.8 kg of flour altogether, how many loaves can she bake? 5. Michael’s restaurant bill came to $47.10. He wants to leave a 20% tip, but he only has dollar bills with him. What tip should Michael leave? 6. Anjali is saving $20 per week towards a new computer. If the computer she wants costs $728.50, how many weeks will she need to save for? 7. Mr Scott is buying new books for the school library. The publishers will sell him each book for $12. If he has a budget of $500, what is the maximum number of books he can buy?

Lesson 8.3.3 — Exact and Approximate Answers 1. Estimate the area of a circle with a radius of 7 cm, using 3.14 as an approximation of p. What is the exact area of the circle? 2. Kiana is buying presents for her family. She has $85, and wants to spend the same amount on each person. If there are 6 people in her family, what is the most that she can spend on each one? 3. Rico’s kitchen scales measure weights in kilograms to two decimal places. He uses the scales to weigh out 1.45 kg of rice. Given that 1.0 kg ª 2.2 pounds, what weight of rice does Rico have in pounds? 4. Find the perimeter of the triangle in the diagram on the right. 5. Emma has a lawn with the same dimensions as the triangle in the diagram. She wants to put edging round it. If edging comes in 0.4 m strips, how many should Emma buy?

xm

2m

6. I measured the side of a square as being 5.6 cm long to the nearest tenth of a centimeter. With round-off error, what are the maximum and minimum possible areas of the square?

3m

Lesson 8.3.4 — Reasonableness and Estimation 1. Tion is shopping at the grocery store, and only has $35 with him. He puts items costing $5.99, $3.98, $10.57, and $12.99 in his basket. Use estimation to check whether he has enough money with him to pay. 2. Rachel puts $102 in a savings account with a yearly rate of 5.2% simple interest. She says that she will earn $53 in interest each year. Perform your own estimate, and say whether she is likely to be correct. 3. Find the product of 73 and 39. Check your product using estimation. 4. Ms Harris is organising a field trip. 144 students are going on the trip, and the bus hire company can provide up to 5 buses that seat 50 students each. How many buses should Ms Harris hire? 5. James measures the temperature in his kitchen as being 70°F. He converts this to degrees Celsius, and says that the temperature in his kitchen is 21. 1 °C. Is this a reasonable answer? 6. Diega is baking scones. Her recipe calls for 0.25 liters of milk. She knows that 1 liter ª 4.2 cups. Diega says that she needs to add about 1 cup of milk to the mixture. Is this a reasonable answer? Additional Questions

473

Appendixes Glossary

................................................... 475

Formula Sheet ................................................... 478 Index

474

................................................... 480

Glossary Symbols < > £ ≥

is less than is greater than is less than or equal to is greater than or equal to

π W Z

is not equal to the whole numbers the integers

A absolute value the absolute value of a number, n, is its distance from zero on the number line, and is written |n|. Absolute values are always positive, for example |–3.6| = 3.6. acute triangle a triangle in which all angles are less than 90° altitude the “height” of a triangle, measured at right angles to its base arc part of a circle's circumference; can be drawn with a compass associative properties (of addition and multiplication) for any a, b, c: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c a(bc) = (ab)c

constant of proportionality a number, k, which always has the k same value in an equation of the form y = kx or y = x converse of the Pythagorean theorem if a triangle has sides a, b, and c, where c2 = a2 + b2, then it is a right triangle, and c is its hypotenuse conversion factor the ratio of one unit to another; used for converting between units coordinate pair an ordered pair of coordinates representing a point on the coordinate plane, for example, (2, –3) coordinate plane a flat surface that extends to infinity, on which points are plotted using two perpendicular axes (usually x- and y-axes) coplanar points, lines, or figures are coplanar if they lie in the same plane correlation a relationship between two variables counterexample an example that disproves a conjecture cube a three-dimensional figure with six identical square faces customary units the system of units that includes: inches, feet, yards, miles, ounces, and pounds cylinder a three-dimensional figure with two parallel circular or elliptical bases and a constant cross-section

B base in the expression bx, the base is b bisect divide in half box-and-whisker plots a diagram showing the range, median, and quartiles of a data set against a number line.

C central angle the angle between two radii of a circle, for example:

D data set a collection of information, often numbers decimal a number including a decimal point; digits to the right of the decimal point show parts of a whole number denominator the bottom expression of a fraction diagonal a straight line joining two nonadjacent corners of a two-dimensional figure, or two vertices of a three-dimensional figure that aren’t on the same face, for example: diagonals of a pentagon

central angle

chord a straight line joining together two points on the circumference of a circle circumference the distance around the outside of a circle coefficient the number that a variable is multiplied by in an algebraic term. For example, in 6x, the coefficient of x is 6 commission money earned by an agent when he or she sells a good or service, usually given as a percent of the sale price common factor a number or expression that is a factor of two or more other numbers or expressions common multiple a multiple of two or more different integers commutative properties (of addition and multiplication) for any a, b: a + b = b + a and ab = ba cone a three-dimensional figure that right has a circle or ellipse as its base, circular from which a curved surface cone comes to a point, for example:

conjecture a mathematical statement that is only an informed guess. It seems likely to be true, but hasn’t been proved congruent exactly the same size and shape

diagonals of a cube

diameter a straight line from one side of a circle to the other, passing through the center dimensional analysis a method of checking that a formula is correct by examining units direct variation a relationship between two variables in which the ratio between them is always the same distributive property (of multiplication over addition) for any a, b, c: a(b + c) = ab + ac divisor the number by which another number is being divided. For example, in 12 ÷ 3, the divisor is 3

E edge on a three-dimensional figure, an edge is where two faces meet equation a mathematical statement showing that two quantities are equal equilateral triangle a triangle whose sides are all the same length

Glossary 475

Glossary (continued) equivalent fractions fractions are equivalent if they have the same value, for example:

1 2 2 4 = , = 2 4 3 6

estimate an inexact judgement about the size of a quantity; an "educated guess" evaluate find the value of an expression by substituting actual values for variables exponent in the expression bx, the exponent is x expression a collection of numbers, variables, and symbols that represents a quantity

L line of best fit a trend line on a scatterplot — there will be roughly the same number of points on each side of the line linear equation an equation linking two variables that can be written in the form y = mx + b, where m and b are constants least common multiple (LCM) the smallest integer that has two or more other integers as factors

M

face a flat surface of a three-dimensional figure factor a number or expression that can be multiplied to get another number or expression — for example, 2 is a factor of 6, because 2 × 3 = 6 factorization a number written as the product of its factors formula an equation that relates at least two variables, usually used for finding the value of one variable when the other values are known. For example, A = pr2

mean a measure of central tendency; the sum of a set of values, divided by the number of values in the set measure of central tendency the value of a "typical" item in a data set. Mean, mode and median are measures of central tendency median the middle value when a set of values is put in order metric the system of units that includes: centimeters, meters, kilometers, grams, kilograms, and liters mixed number a number containing a whole number part and a fraction part monomial an expression with a single term

G

N

generalization a statement that describes many cases, rather than just one greatest common factor (GCF) the largest expression that is a common factor of two or more other expressions; all other common factors will also be factors of the GCF grouping symbols symbols that show the order in which mathematical operations should be carried out — such as parentheses and brackets

net a two-dimensional pattern that can be folded into a three-dimensional figure numerator the top expression of a fraction numeric expression a number or an expression containing only numbers and operations (and therefore no variables)

F

O

hypotenuse the longest side of a right triangle

obtuse triangle a triangle in which one angle is greater than 90° origin on a number line, the origin is at zero; on the coordinate plane, the origin is at the point (0, 0)

I

P

identity properties (of addition and multiplication) for any a, a + 0 = a, and a × 1 = a improper fraction a fraction whose numerator is greater than or

parabola a “u-shaped” curve obtained by graphing an equation of the form y = nx2 parallelogram a four-sided shape with two pairs of parallel sides PEMDAS the order of operations — “Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication and Division, Addition and Subtraction” percent value followed by the % sign; corresponds to the numerator of a fraction with 100 as the denominator perimeter the sum of the side lengths of a polygon perpendicular at right angles to power an expression of the form bx, made up of a base (b) and an exponent (x) prime factorization a factorization of a number where each factor is a prime number, for example 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 prime number a whole number that has exactly two factors, itself and 1 prism a three-dimensional figure with two identical parallel bases and a constant cross-section product the result of multiplying numbers or expressions together proportion an equation showing that two ratios are equivalent proper fraction a fraction whose numerator is less than its denominator

H

equal to its denominator, for example

7 4

integers the numbers 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,...; the set of all integers is denoted Z interest extra money you pay back when you borrow money, or that you receive when you invest money inverse (additive) a number’s additive inverse is the number that can be added to it to give 0 — for any a, the additive inverse is (–a) inverse (multiplicative) a number’s multiplicative inverse is the number that it can be multiplied by to give 1 — for any a, this is

1 a

inverse operation an operation that “undoes” another operation — addition and subtraction are inverse operations, as are multiplication and division isosceles triangle a triangle with two sides of equal length

476 Glossary

pyramid a three-dimensional figure that has a polygon as its base and in which all the other faces come to a point, for example: square pyramid

hexagonal pyramid

Pythagorean theorem for a right triangle with side lengths a, b, and c, a2 + b2 = c2 Pythagorean triple three whole numbers a, b, and c, that satisfy a2 + b2 = c2

Q quadrant a quarter of the coordinate plane, bounded on two sides by parts of the x- and y-axes quadrilateral a two-dimensional figure with four straight sides quartiles split an ordered data set into four equal groups — the median splits the data in half, and the upper and lower quartiles are the middle values of the upper and lower halves quotient the result of dividing two numbers or expressions

R radius the distance between a point on a circle and the center of the circle range the difference between the lowest and highest values in a data set rate a kind of ratio that compares quantities with different units ratio the amount of one thing compared with the amount of another thing rational number a number that can be written as a fraction in which the numerator and denominator are both integers, and the denominator is not equal to zero reciprocal the multiplicative inverse of an expression regular polygon a two-dimensional figure in which all side-lengths are equal, and all angles are equal, for example a square or an equilateral triangle repeating decimal a decimal number in which a digit, or sequence of digits, repeats endlessly, for example, 3.333333333... rhombus a two-dimensional figure with four equal-length sides in two parallel pairs right triangle a triangle with one right (90°) angle rounding replacing one number with another number that’s easier to work with; used to give an approximation of a solution

S scale drawing a drawing in which the dimensions of all the features have been reduced by the same scale factor scale factor a ratio comparing the lengths of the sides of two similar figures scalene triangle a triangle with three unequal sides scatterplot a way of displaying ordered data pairs to see if the values in the pairs are related, and if so, how they are related scientific notation a way of writing numbers (usually very large or small ones) as a product of two factors, where one factor is greater than or equal to 1, but less than 10, and the other is a power of 10 — for example, 5.3 × 106 (= 5,300,000) sign of a number whether a number is positive or negative

similar two figures are similar if all of their corresponding sides are in proportion and all of their angles are equal simplify to reduce an expression to the least number of terms, or to reduce a fraction to its lowest terms skew lines nonparallel, nonintersecting lines in threedimensional space slope the “steepness” of a straight line on the coordinate plane, change in y given by the ratio change in x solve to manipulate an equation to find out the value of a variable square root a square root of a number, n, is a number, x, that when multiplied by itself, results in n — for example, 3 and –3 are square roots of 9 stem-and-leaf plot a way of displaying numeric data, in order, so that the common values and spread of the data are easy to see sum the result of adding numbers or expressions together surface area the sum of the areas of all the faces of a threedimensional figure system of equations two (or more) equations, with the same variables, which can be solved together

T terminating decimal a decimal that does not continue forever, for example, 0.378 terms the parts that are added or subtracted to form an expression translation a transformation in which a figure moves around the coordinate plane (but its orientation and size stay the same) trapezoid a four-sided shape with exactly one pair of parallel sides

U unit rate a comparison of two amounts that have different units, where one of the amounts is “1” — for example, 50 miles per hour.

V variable a letter that is used to represent an unknown number vertex the point on an angle where the two rays meet on a two-dimensional figure; the point where three or more faces meet on a three-dimensional figure volume a measure of the amount of space inside a three-dimensional figure

W whole numbers the set of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3,...; the set of all whole numbers is denoted W

Glossary 477

Formula Sheet Order of Operations — PEMDAS Perform operations in the following order: 1. Anything in parentheses or other grouping symbols — working from the innermost grouping symbols to the outermost. 2. Exponents. 3. Multiplications and divisions, working from left to right. 4. Additions and subtractions, again from left to right.

Fractions Adding and subtracting fractions with the same denominator::

a c a+c + = b b b

a c a−c − = b b b

Adding and subtracting fractions with different denominators:

a c ad + bc + = b d bd

a c ad − bc − = b d bd

Multiplying fractions: a ⋅

Dividing fractions:

c ac = d d

and

a c ac ⋅ = b d bd

a c a d ad ÷ = ⋅ = b d b c bc

Reciprocals:

d c is the called reciprocal of c d

Rules for Multiplying and Dividing positive ×/÷ positive = positive positive ×/÷ negative = negative

negative ×/÷ positive = negative negative ×/÷ negative = positive

Axioms of the Real Number System For any real numbers a, b, and c, the following properties hold: Property Name Commutative Property: Associative Property: Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition: Identity Property:

Addition a+b=b+a (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

Multiplication a×b=b×a (ab)c = a(bc)

a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca a+0=a

Inverse Property:

a + (–a) = 0

a×1=a 1 =1 a× a

Area Area of a rectangle:

A = bh

Area of a triangle:

A=

1 bh 2

Area of a parallelogram:

A = bh

Area of a trapezoid:

A=

1 h(b1 2

+ b2)

where b is the length of the base (for a trapezoid, b1 and b2 are the lengths of the bases) and h is the perpendicular height.

478 Formulas

Formula Sheet (continued) Slope of a Line For a line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2):

Powers For any real numbers, a, m, and n:

y − y1 slope = 2 x2 − x1

Multiplying powers: am × an = a(m + n) Dividing powers: am ÷ an = a(m – n)

And, for any number, a π 0: Zero exponent:

a0 = 1 1 Negative exponent: a–n = n

Circles Diameter: Circumference: Area:

d = 2r C = pd A = pr2

di

am

et

radius, r

er,

Pythagorean Theorem

d

For any right triangle:

where c is the hypotenuse.

c

c2 = a2 + b2

a

Volume of a Prism V = Bh

90º

where B stands for the base area, and h stands for the height of the prism.

b

Units Lengths in Customary Units

Capacities in Customary Units

1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in.) 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet 1 mile (mi) = 1760 yards = 5280 feet

Weights in Customary Units

1 cup = 8 fluid ounces (fl oz) 1 pint (pt) = 2 cups 1 quart (qt) = 2 pints 1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts

1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz) 1 ton = 2000 pounds

Capacities in Metric Units

Lengths in Metric Units 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm) 1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters

Weights in Metric Units

1 liter (l) = 1000 milliliters (ml)

1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams (mg) 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams

Customary-to-Metric / Metric-to-Customary Conversions 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters 1 yard = 0.91 meters 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

1 gallon = 3.785 liters 1 liter = 1.057 quarts

1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds

Converting Between Temperatures in Fahrenheit and Celsius F=

9 C + 32 5

C=

5 (F – 32) 9

Applications Formulas Speed speed =

distance time

distance = speed × time

time =

distance speed

Simple Interest The interest (I) earned in t years when p is invested at a simple interest rate of r (as a fraction or decimal) is given by: Compound Interest The amount in an account (A) when P is invested at a compound interest rate of r is given by: where t is the time (in years) between each interest payment, and n is the total number of interest payments made.

I = prt

A = P(1 + rt)n

Formulas 479

Index A absolute value 65-70, 156, 297, 298 accuracy of data 424 acute triangles 173, 204 addition 71-73 adding fractions 84, 87-92 additive identity 13 additive inverse 14, 16 algebraic expressions 3-11, 21-25 altitude of a triangle 203-204 analyzing data 332 angle bisectors 204 approximate answers 417, 423 - approximating square roots 127-128 arcs 196 area 8, 136, 143-144, 156-157, 189, 379 - area and scale factors 190-191, 379-380 - area and the Pythagorean theorem 167-168 - area formulas 112, 120-121, 136-138, 140-141 - area models for multiplication 76-79, 96 - areas of complex shapes 142-146, 148 - surface area of 3-D shapes 356-361 associative property of addition 17-18 associative property of multiplication 17-18, 289 axes 150

B back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots 327-328 base and exponent form 106-111, 114, 266-274 bisectors - angle bisectors 204-205 - perpendicular bisectors 200-201 box-and-whisker plots 319-324, 330-332

C Celsius temperature scale 246 central angle 198 checking answers 36-37, 39-40, 222, 426-427 - checking by dimensional analysis 248-250 chords 197 circles 139-141, 145, 196-197 circumference 139-141, 147, 197, 353 coefficients 3, 288-291 collecting like terms 7-9, 19, 22 commission 406 common denominators 84-91 common multiples 86, 88 commutative property of addition 18-19 commutative property of multiplication 18, 289 comparing data sets 317-318, 322-325, 327, 332 comparing simple and compound interest 414-415 complex shapes 142-147, 359-360 compound interest 413-414 cones 350-351 congruent figures 192-195 conjectures 206-209, 336 constant of proportionality 238-239 constructions 196-205 converse of the Pythagorean theorem 172 conversions - conversion fractions 251

480

Index

- converting decimals to fractions 59-61, 99 - converting decimals to percents 393-394 - converting fractions to decimals 56-58, 99, 359 - converting fractions to percents 393-394 - converting mixed numbers to fractions 80 - converting repeating decimals to fractions 62-64 - converting temperatures 246 - converting times 251 - converting units 241-244, 251-253, 383-386 coordinate plane 150-157 coordinates 150-155, 176, 179-181, 224-225 coplanar 363 correlation 339-341, 343 corresponding angles 376-377 corresponding lengths 182, 375-376 counterexamples 207 cross-multiplication 242-245, 383-385 cubic units 367 cubing 113 cuboids 348, 352 customary unit system 241, 244, 384-385 cylinders 348, 353

D decimals 55-60, 96-99, 110, 123-124, 390, 394-395 - converting decimals to fractions 59-61, 99 - converting decimals to mixed numbers 61 - converting decimals to percents 393-394 - decimal division 98 - decimal multiplication 97, 100 - decimal places, rounding to 418-419 - raising a decimal to a power 110-111 denominators 15, 36, 60-61 diagonals 350-351 diameters 139-140 dimensional analysis 42-43, 248-250 direct variation 238-240 discounts 401-402 distance between two numbers 68, 70 - distance of a number from zero 65 distributive property (of multiplication over addition) 8-9, 16, 19 division 75, 77 - dividing by zero 56 - dividing decimals 96, 98 - dividing fractions 81-82, 93 - dividing inequalities by negative numbers 259, 261 - dividing monomials 291-292 - dividing powers 269, 269-272, 274-275, 278, 291 drawing diagrams to help solve problems 103

E equations 24-40, 216, 220, 223, 240 equivalent fractions 59, 86, 88 estimation 426-428 - estimating irrational roots 126 - estimating percents 390, 404 - estimating to check your answers 427 evaluating expressions 5-7, 11-13, 24-25, 116-118, 267 evaluating powers 107-111 exact numbers 417, 423 exponents 10, 106-108, 111-112, 116-117, 122, 266, 275-280 expressions 3-11, 21-25

F

L

faces of shapes 350, 359 factors 84-85 - factor trees 84 Fahrenheit temperature scale 246 formulas 27 - area formulas 136-138, 140, 358 - checking formulas by dimensional analysis 249-250 - formula triangles 236 - interest formulas 411, 414 - perimeter formulas 135, 139 - speed, distance, and time formula 235-236 - temperature conversion formula 246 - volume formulas 368-370 fractional exponents 122 fractions 35-36, 59-64, 78-95, 393-395 - adding and subtracting fractions 84, 87-91 - converting fractions to decimals 56-58, 99, 395 - converting fractions to percents 393-394 - multiplicative inverses of fractions 15 - multiplying and dividing fractions 78-83, 100 - powers of fractions 109

LCM (least common multiple) 85-86, 88 legs of a triangle 159, 163, 165 less than / less than or equal to 44, 47, 254 limiting cases 206-208 lines of best fit 343-344 line segments 197, 199-201 linear equations 24-26, 216-217, 220 linear inequalities 44-48, 254-262 lines in space 362 long division 57, 77, 124 long multiplication 76 lower and upper quartiles 319-321

G GCF (greatest common factor) 60 GEMA rule 10, 12 general conjectures 206-210 generalizations 210-212 graphing 216-218, 225, 240 - graphing ratios and rates 231 - graphing volumes 371-373 - graphs of direct variation 239 - graphs of y = nx2 302-308 - graphs of y = nx3 309-312 - slope 223-225, 233 - solving systems of equations by graphing 220-222 greater than / greater than or equal to 44, 47, 254 greatest common factor (GCF) 60

H hypotenuse 159, 162-165

I identity property of addition 13 identity property of multiplication 13, 16 improper fractions 61 inequalities 44-52, 254, 257-263 - inequalities in real-life 48 - inequality symbols 44, 47, 50, 254 integers 55 interest 410-415 - compound interest 413-415 - simple interest 410-412 intersecting lines and planes 362-364 inverse operations 28-29, 32-33 inverse property of addition 14, 28 inverse property of multiplication 14-15, 28 irrational numbers 56, 121, 123-126, 163, 300, 423 irregular polygons 134 isolating variables 28-30, 32-34

J justifying work 13, 16, 19, 207-208

M markups 402-403 maximum values in data sets 317, 323 median 316-320, 323-324, 326 metric system 241, 244, 384-385 midpoint of a line segment 200-201 minimum values in data sets 317, 323 mixed numbers 61, 80, 83 monomials 288-292, 294-296, 299 multi-step expressions 22-23 multiplication - multiplying decimals 96-97 - multiplying fractions 79-80, 93, 100 - multiplying inequalities by negative numbers 259, 261 - multiplying integers 75-76 - multiplying monomials 289-290 - multiplying powers 266-268, 272-274, 278, 289 multiplicative identity 13 multiplicative inverse 14-16

N negative correlation 339-340 negative exponents 276-280, 285 negative slope 224 nets 352-356 nth instance of a pattern 210-212 number line 45-46, 65, 71, 75 numerator 15, 36, 60-61 numeric expressions 3-4, 21

O obtuse triangle 173, 204 opposites 65 order of operations 5, 10-11, 24, 50, 93-95, 116-118 ordered pairs 216-219 origin 150

P p 56, 123, 139-140, 423 parabolas 302, 304-307 parallel planes 363-364 parallelogram 133, 135-137, 146 parentheses 5, 8-11, 23 patterns 206, 210-211 PEMDAS rule 5, 10-12, 24, 32, 50, 93-94, 116, 261 percents 390-396, 399, 401-406, 410-411, 413 - percent decrease 397-398, 401-402, 409 - percent increase 396-397, 399, 402-404, 406, 410 perfect square numbers 120-121, 124, 127-129, 300

Index

481

perimeter 135, 147, 156-157, 189 - perimeter and scale factor 191 - perimeter of complex shapes 147-148 perpendiculars 200-202 perpendicular bisectors 200-201 perpendicular planes 362-364 planes 362 plotting points 150-153 polygons 133-136 polyhedrons 350 positive slope 224 positive correlation 339 powers 106-107, 109-112, 114-115, 266-269, 273-275, 294 - power of a power rule 294-295 prime factorization 84-85, 88 principal investment 410-414 prisms 348-349, 351 profit 407-409 proper fractions 61 proportions 185, 187, 242-245 pyramids 349-351 Pythagorean theorem 159-173 - Pythagorean triples 171-173

simplifying fractions 60, 79, 92 skew lines 363 slope 223-226, 233, 240 solving equations 28-38, 40, 216-218, 220 - solving equations using graphs 303, 310 - solving systems of equations graphically 220-221 solving inequalities 45, 254-263 specific conjectures 206 speed 235-237, 251-253 spread of data 317 square numbers 128 square roots 121-122, 124, 126-129, 297-300 squaring 112, 120, 122, 133, 135-136 stem-and-leaf plots 325-328 substituting solutions to check them 36-37 subtraction 71 - subtracting decimals 71 - subtracting fractions 87-92 - subtracting negative numbers 71 surface area 356-361 - surface area and scale factor 380, 382 systems of equations 220-222 systems of inequalities 255

Q

T

quadrants 152-153 quadrilateral 133 quartiles 319-321, 323 quotient 57, 77

terminating decimals 55, 57-59 terms 3, 7, 288 tips 404 tolerance limits 70 transformations 175, 178-179, 182 translations 178-181 trapezoids 133, 137-138, 146 triangles 133, 136 triangular pyramids 349 typical value for a data set 316

R radius 139-141, 196, 198 range 317, 322, 324, 326 rate 228-235 rational numbers 55-56, 58, 62, 123-124 ratios 185, 228, 238, 242 real-life problems 38-41, 102, 169, 262-263, 395, 420-421, 424, 427 reasonable answers 39-40, 420-422, 426-428 reciprocals 14-15, 35, 81-83, 98 rectangles 133, 135-136 rectangular prisms 348 rectangular pyramids 349 reflections 175-177, 308 regular polygons 134 repeating decimals 56-58, 62-64, 124-125 revenue 407-408 rhombus 133-134 right triangles 159-162, 171-172, 204 round-off errors 425 rounding 417-419, 422-425, 427

S sales tax 405 sample size 333 scale drawings 185-188 scale factor 182-185, 189-191, 194, 375-382 scales for axes 337-338 scatterplots 337-339, 341-342, 344 scientific notation 114-115, 281-286 sectors of circles 198 similar figures 194-195, 375-377 simple interest 410-412, 414 simplifying expressions 7-13, 16-19, 22, 24, 272-274, 278-279

482

Index

U undoing operations 30, 32, 34, 256 unit analysis 42-43 unit conversion 251-252, 383-385 unit rate 228-230, 233-234 unit systems — customary and metric 241 upper quartiles 319-321

V variables 3-5, 7, 11, 22, 25, 27-28 vertex 305, 307, 350 volume 367, 385 - converting units of volume 385-386 - volume and scale factor 381-382 - volume formulas 113, 367-370 - volume graphs 372

W word problems 22, 26, 38, 41, 47-48, 51, 102, 256

Y y = nx2 303-304, 306-308 y = nx3 309-312

Z zero exponents 275 zero slope 224