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Classics From the Renaissance to the nineteenth century, Latin and Greek were compulsory subjects in almost all European universities, and most early modern scholars published their research and conducted international correspondence in Latin. Latin had continued in use in Western Europe long after the fall of the Roman empire as the lingua franca of the educated classes and of law, diplomacy, religion and university teaching. The flight of Greek scholars to the West after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 gave impetus to the study of ancient Greek literature and the Greek New Testament. Eventually, just as nineteenth-century reforms of university curricula were beginning to erode this ascendancy, developments in textual criticism and linguistic analysis, and new ways of studying ancient societies, especially archaeology, led to renewed enthusiasm for the Classics. This collection offers works of criticism, interpretation and synthesis by the outstanding scholars of the nineteenth century.

Ancient Empires of the East Archibald Henry Sayce (1845–1933) was an influential orientalist and philologist. He was a pioneering Assyriologist and published widely on the history, religion, and literature of the Babylonian and Assyrian peoples. In 1891 he became Professor of Assyriology at Oxford University. The Ancient Empires of the East (1883) is Sayce’s edition, ‘with Notes, Introductions and Appendices’, of the first three books of The Histories by the fifth-century Greek historian Herodotos, which focus on Egypt and Persia. In his preface Sayce states that since the field of oriental studies is ‘growing day by day’ it is the aim of his edition to ‘take stock of our existing knowledge’ and ‘see exactly what is the point to which our researches have brought us’. Although his translation of Herodotos was criticised on publication on account of inaccuracies, Sayce’s reputation as a great populariser of oriental philology, history and culture remained intact.

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Ancient Empires of the East Herodotos I-III E di t e d by Archibald Henry Sayce Herod otus

C A m B R I D G E U N I v E R SI T y P R E S S Cambridge, New york, melbourne, madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paolo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New york www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108010962 © in this compilation Cambridge University Press 2010 This edition first published 1883 This digitally printed version 2010 ISBN 978-1-108-01096-2 Paperback This book reproduces the text of the original edition. The content and language reflect the beliefs, practices and terminology of their time, and have not been updated. Cambridge University Press wishes to make clear that the book, unless originally published by Cambridge, is not being republished by, in association or collaboration with, or with the endorsement or approval of, the original publisher or its successors in title.

THE ANCIENT EMPIRES OF THE EAST HEEODOTOS I.-III.

THE

ANCIENT EMPIEES OF THE EAST HEBODOTOS I.-III.

WITH NOTES, INTRODUCTIONS, AND APPENDICES

BY

A. H. SAYCE DEPUTY-PROFESSOR OF COMPABATIVE PHILOLOGY, OXFORD ; HONORARY LL.D., DUBLIN

SLonttott MACMILLAN AND CO. 1883 [All rights reserved.]

TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE

PREFACE .

.

INTKODTJCTION :

T H E HISTORICAL THE

BOOK

I.

BOOK

II.

BOOK

III.

II.

APPENDIX

III.

APPENDIX

IV.

APPENDIX

V.

EGYPT

BABYLONIA

.

EMPIRE .

.

.

. .

. . .

.

.

.

xiii

.

xxxiii 1

228 307

.

.

.

. 1 2 4

.

.

.

ix

.

.

.

.

.

.

'

AND ASSYRIA

T H E PERSIAN

.

. .

.

T H E PHOENICIANS LYDIA

. .

.

.

OF HERODOTOS

OF HERODOTOS

EMPIRE .

.

CREDIBILITY

OF EGYPT

TABLES

.

.

OF THE EAST

T H E PERSIAN

APPENDIX

.

LANGUAGE

T H E LAND

I.

INDEX

.

T H E EMPIRES

APPENDIX

DYNASTIC

.

. 3 5 7

.

.

406

.

.

.

. 4 2 3

.

.

.

. 4 3 6

.

.

.

. 4 5 9

-

•

•

485

ERRATA. Page „ „ „ „

„

207, note 8. For not read rot. 331, line 20. For Sestesura read Sestura. Also written Scsetsu. 337, „ 27. For in read into. 361. An inscription lately brought from Abu-Habba shows that Agade, Semitised into Accad, is the true reading. 369-71. A recently discovered cylinder of Kabonidos asserts the date of NaramSin, the son of Sargon of Agade, to have been 3200 years before the time of Kabonidos (see Pinches in the Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Ardumlogy, Nov. 7th, 1882). It is more than doubtful whether Eri-Acu, the son of Cudur-Mabug, is to be identified with Eim-Agu, who was conquered by Khammuragas, and recent discoveries show that the conquest of Babylonia by Khammuragas did not follow very closely upon the reign of Naram-Sin. There seem, however, to have been two princes of the name of Khammuragas. 438. The cylinder of Nabonidos just mentioned calls Astyages "the king of the tsab manda" or "barbarians." It must have been through a confusion between the words Mada or Medes—the term by which the heterogeneous tribes east of Kurdistan were known to the Assyrians— and manda, " a barbarian," that the name of Media came to be applied by Greek and probably Persian writers to the kingdom of Ekbatana. Nabonidos states that the temple of the Moon-god at Harran, which had been destroyed by the "Manda," was restored by himself, with the help of the soldiers he had summoned from Gaza and elsewhere, after the overthrow of Istuvegu or Astyages by Kyros in B.C. 553. He goes on to say : " And Merodach spake with me: ' The barbarians of whom thou hast spoken, themselves, their country, and the kings that are their allies, exist not.' In the third year when it came, he bade Kuras, king of Anzan, his young servant, to march with his army ; he overthrew the wide-spreading barbarians ; he captured Astyages, king of the barbarians, and took his treasures to his own land."

N.B. —In the following pages an attempt has been made to give a correct transliteration of Greek and oriental proper names. But as long as English spelling remains a national disgrace, and no reformed alphabet is in current use, rigid consistency is unfortunately impossible. Nor can the printer be expected to be always attentive to the clumsy devices by which alone we are able at present to mark the differences between a long and short e or o. As in the case of Greek accents, the most careful corrector for the press will sometimes overlook a misuse of diacritical marks. Any endeavour, however, to approximate to the right reproduction of Greek proper names is better than none at all, and may possibly help to contribute to that most desirable of objects, the reform of English spelling.

PEEFACE. THE main object of the present work is to show what light has been thrown upon the earlier books of " the Father of History " by recent discoveries in Greece and the Levant, and, at the same time, to emphasize the fact, which Herodotos perceived, that G-reek history and civilisation are but a continuation of the history and civilisation of the ancient East. The rapid progress that has been made of late years in the decipherment of the Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions, the active exploration and unexpected discoveries that have been made in Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Syria, and Asia Minor, the excavations on the site of Carchemish, and the recognition of the important part once played by the Hittites, have revolutionised our conception of early history, and given us a knowledge of the religion and culture, the languages and inner life, of the old nations of the Orient which Herodotos and his contemporaries did not and could not possess. In studies which are growing day by day, and continually revealing some new fact or correcting some previous misconception, it is well to take stock of our existing knowledge every now and then, and see exactly what is the point to which our researches have brought us. The present volume, accordingly, deals with the Mstory rather than with the language of Herodotos, and with that history only in so far as it bears upon the East. I have not touched upon philology except where the meaning of a word or name has been cleared up by the science of language, or where I have myself found a difficulty in the grammatical construction or exact signification of a passage.

x

PREFACE.

Those who would be saved the trouble of reference to a grammar and dictionary, or who desire to learn what difficulties commentators have discovered in simple texts, and what avalanches of learning they have poured down upon them, must turn to other editions of Herodotos. It is with Herodotos as the historian, rather than as the subject for the dissecting-knife of the grammarian, that I have had to do. The edition of the first three books of his history now presented to the reader does not profess to enter into competition with the standard work of Prof. Eawlinson. Its existence is justified on three grounds. First of all, as I have already said, it tries to place before the public the results of the researches made up to the present time in the monumental records of the ancient civilised world. Dislocated and hidden away as most of the materials are in numerous learned periodicals, some of which are scarcely known even by name beyond a very small and select circle of subscribers, the task of bringing them together is one which the ordinary classical student would have neither the leisure nor the desire to attempt, and it therefore becomes the duty of those who have specially devoted themselves to Oriental matters to undertake it for him. In the second place, I can speak at first hand about a good deal of the material worked up in the present volume, and can claim to have contributed some portion of it myself to science; while both in the notes and appendices new facts will be found which have not hitherto made their way into print elsewhere. Then, thirdly, I have travelled over a considerable part of the ground on which the history described by Herodotos was enacted. Indeed, with the exception of Babylonia and Persia, there is hardly a country or site mentioned by him in these first three books which I have not visited. And the more I have travelled, the more impressed I have been with the conviction how impossible it is to write accurately of an event, or discuss with any advantage a historical or topographical question, without having studied it personally on the spot. I much doubt if the great antiquity of Egyptian

PREFACE.

xi

civilisation can be really brought home to the mind of anyone who has not actually sailed up the Nile and examined one by one the groups of monuments he passes on the way, and the successive stages of culture they imply. For recent monographs on the relation of monumental discovery to Herodotos I would refer to Maspero's interesting " Fragment d'un Commentaire sur le seconde Livre d'Herodote " in the Annuaire de I'Association pour I'Encouragement des Etudes grecques en France, 1875 (pp. 15-21), 1876 (pp. 185-193), 1877 (pp. 124-137), and 1878 (pp. 124-174); Eugene Eevillout's " Premier Extrait de la Chronique de"motique de Paris: Le Koi Amasis et les Mercenaires" in the Bevue igyptologique, II. and III., 1880 (pp. 49-82); and, above all, Wiedemann's " Geschichte iEgyptens von Psammetich I. bis auf Alexander den Grossen," Leipzig, 1880 (more especially pp. 81-100), in which, for the first time, the methods of scientific criticism are applied to the records of ancient Egypt. Briill's " Herodot's babylonische Nachrichten" (1878), though convincingly disproving Oppert's topographical restoration of Babylon, is little more than a restatement of the argriments in Bawlinson's Herodotus. For Persia the student may be referred to Hovelacque's " Observations sur un Passage (I. 131-141) d'Herodote concernant certaines Institutions perses " in the Bevue de Idnguistique et de Philologie comparie, VII., 1875 (pp. 243-68), and my own letter on the "Eise of the Persian Empire" in the Academy, Oct. 16, 1880, pp. 276-7 ; while for the Hittites and their extension as far as Lydia my article on " The Monuments of the Hittites," in the Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, VII. 2, 1881 (pp. 248-308), may be consulted. The natural history of Herodotos is treated by B. Beneke in the Wissenschaftliche Monatsblatter for 1879, Nos. 4-8, 10-12, under the titles of " Die Saiigethiere in Herodot's Geschichte," " Die botanischen Bemerkungen," and " Die mineralogischen Bemerkungen." The net result of Oriental research in its bearing upon Herodotos is to show that the greater part of what he professes

xii

PREFACE.

to tell us of the history of Egypt, Babylonia, and Persia, is really a collection of " marchen," or popular stories, current among the Greek loungers and half-caste dragomen on the skirts of the Persian empire. For the student of folklore they are invaluable, as they constitute almost the only record we have of the folklore of the Mediterranean in the fifth century before our era; and its examination and comparative treatment by a Felix Liebrecht or a Ealston would be a work of the highest interest and importance. After all, it is these old stories that lend as great a charm to the pages of Herodotos as they do to those of mediseval travellers like Maundeville or Marco Polo; and it may be questioned whether they are not of higher value for the history of the human mind than the most accurate descriptions of kings and generals, of wars and treaties and revolutions.1 A. H. SAYCE. QUEEN'S COLL., OXFOED,

April 1883.

1 There is no commentary on Herodotos more instructive or interesting than Maspero's admirable Contes igyptiens (Paris 1882), which forms the fourth volume of Les Literatures populaires. The author says justly (p. xxxiii.) of Herodotos: "II n'ecrivait pas une histoire d'Egypte. Meme bien instruit, il n'aurait pas donne au livre de son histoire universelle qui traitait de l'Egypte plus de developpements qu'il ne lui en a donnes. Toutes les dynasties auraient du tenir en quelques pages, et il ne nous

eut rien appris que ne nous apprennent aujourd'hui les textes originaux. En revanche, nous y aurions perdu la plupart decesrecitsetrangers, et souvent bouffons, qu'il nous a si joliment racontes, sur la foi de ses guides. Pheron ne nous serait pas connu, ni Protee, ni Rhampsinite. Je crois que 9'aurait ete grand dommage. Les monuments nous disent, ou nous diront un jour, ce que firent les Kheops, les Ramses, les Thoutmfis du monde reel. Herodote nous apprend ce qu'on disait d'eux dans les rues de Memphis."

INTRODUCTION. THE HISTORICAL CREDIBILITY OF HERODOTOS. WHETHER it was that the work of He'rodotos fell upon an age which had imbibed the sceptical teaching of the philosophers and sophists, and, like the wits at the court of the Kestoration, was ready to laugh down a writer who made demands upon its credulity,—or whether his residence in the "West lost him the literary friends and advocates he would otherwise have had in Greece,—or whether, again, his partiality for Athens aroused the prejudices of the younger generation which gathered like vultures round the carcase of Athenian greatness, and neither cared nor desired to remember the history of the Persian wars, —certain it is that from the first Herodotos met with hostile criticism and accusations of historical dishonesty. Hardly had the generation for whom he wrote passed away before Thukydide's tacitly accused him of errors which the Attic historian corrected without even naming the author to whom they were due. While his statements on matters of Greek history were thus called in question by a writer of that very nationality whose deeds he had done so much to exalt, his history of the East was categorically declared to be false by Kte'sias, the physician of the Persian king Artaxerxes Mn^mon. Born at Knidos, almost within sight of Halikarnassos, the birthplace of Herodotos, the position of Kte'sias gave him exceptional opportunities for ascertaining the true facts of Persian history, and his contemporaries naturally concluded that a critic who had lived long at the Persian Court, and had there consulted the parchment archives of Persia, was better informed than a mere tourist whose travels had never extended so far as the Persian capital, and who was obliged to depend upon ignorant dragomen for the information he retailed. The very fact, however, that Kte'sias considered Herodotos worthy of attack shows that the latter held a high rank in the Greek literary world, whatever opinion there might be as to the character and credibility of his writings. But the attack

xiv

INTRODUCTION.

of Kte"sias produced its desired result; the work of Herodotos fell more and more into contempt or neglect; the florid rhetoric of Ephoros superseded it among the readers of a later day, and, Bauer notwithstanding, even the antiquarian philologists of Alexandria paid it no special attention. Manetho and Harpokration wrote books to disprove the statements of Herodotos j 1 Theopompos,2 Strabo, 3 Cicero,4 and Lucian,5 challenged his veracity; and Josephos 6 declares that " all" Greek authors acknowledged him to have " lied in most of his assertions;" while the Pseudo-Plutarch went yet further, and composed a treatise on the Malignity of Herodotos, in which he sought to prove that the misstatements of the " father of history" were intentional distortions of fact. It is only wonderful that with all this Herodotos continued to be read, and perhaps yet more wonderful that his work has escaped the wreck from which but a few excerpts of his critic Kte"sias have been preserved. The last half-century has placed materials at our disposal for testing the historical veracity of Herodotos which the majority of his Greek critics ignored and despised. Year by year exploration in the East and patient research at home have been gradually adding to our knowledge of the ancient world, and enabling us to reconstruct the history of oriental civilisation. Assyria and Babylonia, Egypt and Nubia, Asia Minor and prehistoric Greece itself, have yielded up their monuments to the scrutiny of a generation which has been trained in the principles of a scientific criticism and desires to discover only the truth. The contemporaneous records of princes and statesmen who were but names a few years ago now lie before us, and we know more of the inner and outer life of ancient Babylonia or ancient Egypt than Herodotos could have done even though he had spoken the languages of these countries and travelled more widely over them than he did. The question of the trustworthiness of Herodotos can now be judged on better grounds than internal evidence or the testimony of classical writers. We have means for deciding how far the statements of Herodotos in regard to events which happened before his time and in the foreign countries he visited are correct. Unfortunately, as we shall see, the decision is on the whole against our author, and we shall therefore have to enquire why this is,—whether the mistakes of 1

Etym. Mag., s.v. Aeoi/Tomfyios ; and Snidus, s.v.'ApwoKpariav.

i

.

, W. 29. 3

xi. pp. 740, 771, etc.

6

De Leg. i. 1 ; De Div. ii. 56. „ .. .„ Ver

- E- U- 42 '

Con. Ap. i. 3.

INTRODUCTION.

xv

Herodotos are due to the circumstances under which he wrote and travelled, or whether, as the Pseudo-Plutarch was persuaded, he was not only fallible but dishonest. For the sake of briefness it will be best, first, to see how and with what object the history was written; secondly, how far the honesty of Herodotos can be trusted ; and thirdly, how far his statements bear the test of facts. (1.) Herodotos tells us himself that his object in writing was to record the famous events of the past, more especially the struggle between the Greek and the barbarian. In other words, he wished to write a history of the Persian War, and of the causes which led up to it. What else he tells us is episodical, taking the place of the footnotes and excursuses of a modern book. The history of Lydia is connected with the first beginning of the contest between Europe and Asia as well as with the rise of the Persian empire; the account of Babylonia necessarily finds a place in a work dealing with a power of which it formed so important an element; and the long episodes upon Egypt and Skythia are justified by their bearing upon the Persian War, which could not fitly come about until the conquest of Egypt had swept away the last civilised kingdom which stood between Persia and Greece, and the chastisement of the Skythians had made the Persian frontier safe on the north, and allowed it to prosecute its designs against Hellas without hindrance or fear. Egypt, too, exercised a most important bearing on the course of the war. Had it not been for its opportune revolt in B.C. 486, the whole strength of Persia would have been flung upon Greece under the direction of the skilful and energetic Dareios, not of the weak and cowardly Xerxe's. We are only surprised that Herodotos has introduced no digression upon Phoenicia into his work, since the Phoenician fleet was a prime factor in the war, and Phoenician traders were held by him to have been the first causes of the quarrel between East and West. But the ingenuity of commentators has of course not been satisfied with the simple account Herodotos gives of the object of his work. They have divined other objects as well, and it cannot be denied that in the choice of his subject, and especially in his treatment of it, Herodotos must have been influenced by motives which appear more or less plainly on the face of his book. Herodotos had travelled and taken many notes, and, like travellers of our own day, was anxious to let other people know that he had done so. As it happened, his travels had taken him over the scene of the great war. Then, again,

xvi

INTRODUCTION.

he had that common failing of literary men—jealousy of others who had done what he thought he could himself do better. Hekatseos, as we shall see, seems to have been the special object of his dislike, and he succeeded only too well in effacing him. But, above all, Herodotos had a philosophical, or, if the term is preferred, a theological theory, which was a combination of the • old Greek belief in the doom that awaits hereditary guilt, and the artistic Greek conception of "the golden mean." Whatever exceeded a just proportion aroused the envy and ve/iecres of heaven; the overweening power and pride of Xerxes brought upon him the destined disaster, just as it brought destruction upon Kroesos at the moment when he considered himself most secure. Hence it is that the Athenian legislator and gnomic poet has to be introduced into the Lydian court in spite of chronological difficulties, in order to preach that doctrine of moderation which was soon to be verified by facts; hence it is that the murder of Polykrates or the expedition of Xerxes has to be preceded by dreams—the shadows of the events that were to follow. Kirchhoff1 has made it plain that Herodotos left his work unfinished. He could not have intended to break off his history of the Persian War while it was not yet ended without commemorating "the great and wonderful deeds" 2 enacted on the Eurymedon and at Salamis in Kypros, or the compact known as the peace of Kim6n, which brought to a close the long hostilities between Greece and Persia. At the same time it is equally clear that the work, as we have it, is carefully arranged according to a definite plan. And not only so, but it bears evident marks of having been revised by its author after its first publication, or at any rate its first composition. Canon Eawlinson points out that in iv. 30 irpoo-Orjicai must be rendered " additions " or " supplements," not " digressions," and that the phrase there used, "additions are what my work always from the very first affected," implies that the book had already been published. It is otherwise difficult to understand why this protest against a carping criticism should have been made. It is also possible that when Herodotos twice declares (iii. 80, vi. 43) that Otan^s had really recommended a republic in spite of the incredulity of " certain Greeks," he is alluding to objections that had been raised on the first publication of his work, and not to the criticism passed on the authority from which he is quoting. The most natural explanation of 1 2

Ueber die Entstehungszeit des herodotischen GeschichtswerJces, 2d edition, 1878 i. 1.

INTRODUCTION.

xvii

the fact that whereas some passages in the book were clearly composed or revised in Southern Italy, others appear to have been written in Asia Minor or Attica, is, that it underwent two editions. The passages which imply a residence in Southern Italy are always, as Professor Rawlinson says, parenthetical (except, perhaps, vi. 127), and can be omitted without injury to the sense; 1 while it is difficult to conceive that the vanity of a Greek could have been satisfied with writing' a book and not publishing it for years. Kirchhoff, indeed, has argued ably to prove that the work was brought out piecemeal. As the promise of a digression on Assyrian history in i. 106, 184, is not fulfilled in the third book (ch. 150), where we should expect it, he concludes that a considerable interval of time elapsed between the composition and publication of the two passages, and that Herodotos had meanwhile forgotten his promise. As Bachof,2 however, remarks, the Assyrian power had been destroyed by the Medes, not by the Persians, and therefore the history of it could not well enter into the plan of his work. Moreover, in iv. 1 Herodotos actually refers to one of the very passages in which the " Assyrian History " is mentioned, so that his memory could not have been so short as Kirchhoff imagines. Kirchhoff places the composition of this first part of the work at Athens before B.C. 442, when Sophokles brought out his Antigoni, in which a reminiscence appears of the history of the wife of Intapherne's (see iii. 119, note 6), and when Herodotos received the gift of 10 talents for his work from the Athenian people.8 Bachof reasonably wonders how an author who intended to write the history of the Persian War could have published a fragment which did not reach even as far as the occasion of its beginning. Kirchhoff brings Herodotos to Athens for the second time after the commencement of the Peloponnesian War on 1 For those written in Southern Italy see iii. 160 (end) ; iv. 99 ; v. 77 (end) ; vi. 127 (where the list begins with Italy); vii. Mi (end); ix. 73 (end). For the others see i. 142, where the Ionian cities are enumerated from south to north, iii. 90, ii. 7. Stein suggests that iv. 81 was written before the visit of Herodotos to Delphi, as otherwise he would have compared the great bowl presented by Kroesos (i. 51) with the Skythian cauldron. 2 Die 'Kaaipwi A6701 des HSrodotos

b

(Fleckeisen's Jahrb. 1877). But it must be remembered that Herodotos understands Babylonia as well as the kingdom of Nineveh under the name of Assyria so that he must have regarded the Babylonian empire as merely a continuance of the Assyrian. 3 The vote was moved by Anytos, according to Dyillos, an Athenian historian of the fourth century E. C. , quoted by the Pseudo Plutarch (Be Malig. Herod, ii. p. 862 A ; see Euseb. Chron. Can. ii. p. 339.)

xviii

INTRODUCTION.

the strength of a comparison between the funeral oration of Perikle's and the metaphor of the spring put into the mouth of Gelon (vii. 162), and makes him remain there till B.C. 428. During this second visit he supposes bks. v. 77-ix. to have been written. Kirchhoff's dates are accepted by Bauer,x who, however, believes that what Kirchhoff calls the composition of the second part of the History was really its final redaction. He assumes that Herodotos had by him a number of individual histories — the Lydian, the Egyptian, the Skythian, the Libyan, and the Persian—which he had written at various times. These were pieced together into a connected whole, the first part (to the middle of the 5th book) in Thurii, the second part in Athens. It was the history of the expedition of Xerxgs which was read to the Athenian people in B.C. 445, soon after the composition of the Egyptian history.2 Bauer's theory no doubt contains an element of fact. Herodotos must have written his history in parts. The existence of such episodes as that on Egypt goes far to prove it; but the references to the Assyrian history, which was never incorporated into the work, make it almost a certainty.3 The Assyrian history cannot well have been expunged by Herodotos when he revised (or redacted) his book, and there is no satisfactory evidence that it formed a separate volume. Nevertheless the Assyrian portion of the history of Ktlsias seems to have been composed with the view of confuting the statements on Assyrian matters which had been current under the name of Herodotos. We must, therefore, assume that Herodotos had actually written a work on Assyria similar to that on Egypt, and that while he embodied the whole of his Egyptian volume into his great work, he introduced from his Assyrian volume only that portion which related to the Babylonian empire, together with a passage or two which bore on the earlier chronology of Assyria. The whole volume, perhaps, fell after his death into the hands of friends, who, without publishing it, let it be known what its author had said about Assyrian history. It is even possible that Herodotos may have read this and other fragments which went to form his general history to private circles of friends. Hence the reply of Kt6sias in the form of a counter Assyrian history. 1

Die JEntstehungsseit des Tierodotiscken GeschicMswerkes, 1878. 2 Bauer's hypothesis, so far as it assumes that the history of the campaign of Xerxes (bks. vii.-ix.) was written

before bks. i. -vi., is successfully overthrown by Bachof, Qumstiuncula Herodotea (Eisenach, 1880). 3

See i. 106, note 1.

INTRODUCTION.

xix

The detached parts, which we thus suppose were woven into a harmonious whole, must themselves have been based in great measure upon notes. Herodotos must have gone about, pencil and measuringtape in hand, examining the relics preserved in temples, noting down the replies he received to his questions from dragomen, Greek priests, and the descendants of great men to whom he was introduced, or measuring the size of the buildings he visited, and the large blocks of stone which excited his wonder. He appeals to the testimony of his own eyesight and observation; to the offerings and famous relics preserved in temples, like the fetters of the Spartans at Tegea, or the monuments to the Greeks who fell at Thermopylae ; to Greek inscriptions like the forged Kadmeian ones at Thebes; to oracles like those delivered to Kroesos; to tradition; to eyewitnesses1 and personal intercourse with those who had taken part in the events described, or were related to those who had done so, like Thersander 2 and Arkhias 3 ; to Egyptian priests, or rather half-caste dragomen; to Persian and Phoenician writers 4 ; to Greek poets—Arkhilokhos (i. 12), Soldn (v. 113), Sapphd (ii. 135), Alkreos (v. 95), Simonides of Keos (v. 102, vii. 228), AnakreSn (iii. 121), Pindar (iii. 38), Lysistratos (viii. 96), .iSfekhylos (ii. 156), Phrynikhos (vi. 21), Aristeas (iv. 13), Homer and Hesiod (ii. 117, iv. 32, v. 67, ii. 53), Olen (iv. 35), Musseos and Bakis (vii. 6, viii. 20, 77, 96, ix. 43)—and to earlier Greek historians and geographers. Among the monuments he saw were many inscribed ones, such as the stem of twisted serpents on which stood the tripod dedicated to Apollo by the Greek victors at Platsea, and which is now in the Hippodrome at Constantinople; or the tablet of Mandrokles in the temple of Here1 at Samos;5 or the two columns erected by Dareios and engraved with Greek and Assyrian (i e. Persian) characters.6 The example of the Kadmeian inscriptions at Thebes, however, shows that Herodotos could not distinguish between forgeries and genuine texts even where he had to deal with Greek inscriptions; and we must be therefore careful in accepting his statements on the strength of supposed epigraphic evidence where we do not exactly know what it was. Besides monuments of this kind it is probable that he used official registers preserved in temples, like the dvaypa^al of Sparta.7 If the latter gave 1 2 4 5 7

iii. 115, iv. 16. 3 ix. 16. iii. 55. See i. 1, i. 95, i. 214. 6 iv. 88. iv. '87. Plut. Tit. Ages. 19. Comp. also the

dpxcua ypi^ara of Elis (Paus. v. 4, 4); the list of Olympian victors (Paus. v. 8, 3); the list of Karnean victors at Sparta (Athen. xiv. p. 635 E) ; the registers of Argos and Sikyon (Plut. Be Mus. p.

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INTRODUCTION.

the length of each king's reign as well as his name, they may explain the fact that Herodotos places 900 years between himself and HSrakle's (ii. 145) instead of 630, which, according to his own mode of reckoning dates (ii. 142), would be the time required for the twenty-one generations from HSrakles to Le6nidas (vii. 204). The oracles probably formed part of the oral tradition from which he drew so largely, though, as the oracles ascribed to Musseos and Bakis were in writing, it is possible that a written compilation of the oracles of Delphi had been made before his time (see i. 47). We are no doubt indebted to tradition for a good deal of the folklore which lends to his pages so great a charm. That Herodotos borrowed from Persian and Phoenician writers he expressly states himself; and as the style as well as the doctrines of the early Ionic philosophers presuppose an acquaintance with Oriental literature, while Herodotos was born a Persian subject, it might be concluded that both he and his countrymen in Asia Minor were not so ignorant of Persian—the English of the day—or of Phoenician—the language of trade,—as is ordinarily supposed. It is quite clear, too, that the account of the Persian satrapies given in the third book is taken from an official list. But there is nothing else to show that Herodotos was acquainted with any other language than his own, and the mistakes he makes in his translations of Persian words prove that he could not have understood the Persian language. The same evidence is also borne by Ktesias.1 That persons must have been found in Asia Minor able to speak both Greek and Persian is of course evident—in no other way could the Persian government of the Greek states there have been carried on; but they were probably of no high station in life—mere clerks, in fact, who made a livelihood, like the dragomen in Egypt, out of their linguistic acquirements. To learn the language of their conquerors was unpatriotic, and if the trouble were undergone for the sake of gain "banausic." Possibly Semitic settlers were found to perform the same office of interpreters between the Greeks and their masters that was undertaken by the Jews in Spain for the Arab students of Greek literature. In any case there must have been Greek translations of Persian and Phoenician books, as well as of official documents, from which Herodotos derived his statements ; and the fact that they were translations may explain why he always speaks of his Oriental authorities in the plural. The Hellenic poets, on the other hand, 1134); and that of the Athenian archons (Polyb. xii. 12, 1). For the value to be assigned to the list of Olympian victors

see Mahaffy in the Journal of Hellenic Studies, ii. 1 (1881), pp. ]64 sq. 1 See i. 1, note 1.

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formed part of the Greek's education, and were the texts upon which the teaching of •ypa/x/xara was based. Herodotos had no doubt committed a good deal of their compositions to heart, and an apt quotation was not likely to be less esteemed in the ancient world than in the modern. Hence it is that while Hekatseos-is the only Greek prose-writer quoted by name—and that only for the sake of disparagement— Herodotos makes a show of his acquaintance with the poets of his nation. A good knowledge of standard poetry was as much the mark of a cultivated gentleman as it was in the English society of the last century. It is therefore somewhat strange that Sopbokles, the fashionable tragedian of the day, should not once be named, more especially as there are evidences of conscious allusions to Herodotos on the part of the poet, who is even said to have written a poem in his honour.1 But it is precisely the fact that Sophokleis was the fashionable poet of the day which explains the silence of Herodotos. His tragedies had not formed part of the school education of Herodotos ; he had learned no passages from them, and was consequently unable to quote them. Nor did a knowledge of a poet about whom every one was talking bring with it the same reputation of learning as a knowledge of prehistoric worthies like Museeos and Bakis. The relation of Herodotos towards his predecessors in prose literature was a very different one. They were his rivals whom he wished to supplant. There was no idat to be gained by showing himself familiar with their names. His chief aim was to use their materials without letting the fact be known. He tries to impress upon the reader his own superiority to the older prose-writers; he boasts of accepting only what he has heard from eyewitnesses (iii. 115, iv. 16), and names Hekatseos only when he thinks he can confute him or make him appear ridiculous. And yet it is certain that he is largely indebted to Hekatseos for his information, and that in Egyptian matters more particularly he has drawn without scruple on the work of the writer 1

Plut. Op. ii. p. 785 A, edit. Reiske.

The poem began : 'Ui^v 'HpoSSTqi rei^ev 2o0o/c\?)s Maw &v Jlhr iwl jrecTijKoera. See iii. 119, note 6, and cf. Hanna, "Beziehungen des Sophokles zu Herodot" (Briinn, 1875), and Nieberding, " Sophokles und Herodot" (Neustadt, 1875). The lynx eyes of commentators have discovered plagiarisms from Sophokles in ii. 35 and iii. 119. On the other hand, Sophokles seems really to

allude to Herodotos not only in the passage above referred to, assuming it to be genuine, but also where the habits of the Egyptians are attacked and human misery is described in (Ed. Col. 337 sq. and 1211 sq., as well as in.Fr. 380, where mention'is made of the invention of games to allay the pangs of hunger, and perhaps Fr. 967, where the inundation of the Nile is ascribed to the melting of the snow.

xxii

INTRODUCTION.

he desired to supersede.1 Herodotos wrote for a young and growing society, not a decrepit and decaying one; and just as the surest mode of securing the circulation of a book in ancient Egypt, or in the earlier centuries of our own era, was to ascribe it to an older author, so the passport to fame among the Greek reading public in the age of Herodotos was the affectation of novelty and contemptuous criticism of older writers. The treatment Hekatseos has suffered at the hands of Herodotos—and which Herodotos himself was soon to suffer by a just retribution—prepares us to expect a similar treatment in the case of other authors whose works have been laid under contribution while their names have been suppressed. This expectation is verified by passages like ii. 15, 17, iv. 36, 42, where other writers on the same subject, supposed to be well known to his audience, are sneered a t ; or by the reference in vi. 55 to the genealogy-makers, who did not come into competition with Herodotos, and are therefore compassionately allowed to be still read. Among the writers who had preceded Herodotos were Akusilaos of Argos, Eudfimos of Paros, Eugse6n or Eugeon of Samos, Hekatseos and Dionysios of Mile'tos, Khar6n of Lampsakos, Xanthos of Sardes, Dgmokles of Phygela, Bi6n and Deiokhos of Prokonneisos, Amelesagoras or Mele'sagoras of KhalkM6n, Pherekydls of Leros, and Skylax of Karyanda.2 Hekatseos we know he used; even in the ancient world it was notorious that he had " stolen " from that author the descriptions of the phoenix, the hippopotamus, and the crocodile.8 The " Persian History" of Dionysios, which extended from the reign of Kyros to that of Xerxes, may have suggested to Herodotos the original idea of his own,4 while Eugason was probably the source from which he 1 See Wiedemann, "Geschichte Aegyptens von Psammetich I. bis auf Alexander den Grossen " (1880), pp. 82 sq. 2 Hellanikos survived Herodotos and must have written after him, as he alluded to the battle of Arginussaa (B.C. 406) in his Atthis, and, according to the Schol. on Sophokles (Phil. 201) and Porphyry (ap. Euseb. Prcep. Ev. x. p. 466 B), read and copied Herodotos. J. Bass, in his monograph, "Ueber das Verhaltniss Herodot's und Hellanikos'" (Wiener Studien, i, 1879), decides that no use of the one by the other can be detected.

3 Porphyr. ap. Euseb. Prcep. Ev. x. 3. As Wiedemann remarks, the descriptions are so discordant with actual facts that no two writers could have hit upon them independently, and show that Herodotos did not make his statements from personal observation, as he professes to have done. 4 Dionysios is said to have stated that Danaos brought the alphabet to Greece This seems to be the reason why Herodotos insists at such length and with an appeal to his own experience that it was brought by Kadmos (v. 58-61).

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derived his account of Polykrat^s. The digression on ^Esop (ii. 134), which is dragged into the narrative much out of its place, seems to be directed against Eugse6n, who had made the fabulist a Thrakian. Khar6n not only traversed the same ground as Herodotos, but also introduced into his history the same pieces of folklore, as, for example, the dream of Astyages1 which Herodotos must either have borrowed from him or taken from a common source. His special work on Lampsakos, however, does not seem to have been known to the Halikarnassian historian, who would otherwise have seen the point of the threat of Kroesos to cut down Lampsakos "like a fir" (irtrus); Pityusa, according to Khar6n, having been the original name of his native city.2 On the other hand, Khar6n's list of the Spartan magistrates seems almost certainly alluded to in vi. 55, where he is included among other genealogers. The notes of Skylax, again, subsequently worked up with other materials into a Periplus, must have lain at the disposal of Herodotos, who mentions the explorer by name as well as his voyage (iv. 44), and from them he no doubt derived much of his information about the far East.3 Whether he laid Xanthos, the Lydian historian, under contribution is more doubtful. His Lydian history presupposes the use of documents which gave the succession and dates of the Lydian kings and dynasties; but it must be noted that it practically begins with the period when the kingdom of Sardes was first brought into close contact with the Greeks, and deals mostly with the wars between the Mermnadse and the Ionians. On the other hand, the account of the colonisation of Etruria given by Herodotos seems an intentional contradiction of the narrative of Xanthos,4 and Ephoros expressly asserts that the latter writer " gave Herodotos the starting-point" of his history.5 We must not forget that although there were no publishers or printing-presses in the age of Herodotos, public libraries were not altogether unknown ; 6 Perikless at Athens was 1 2

Tertull. De Arian. 46. Plut. De Virt. ihti. p. 255 A. Deiokos of Kyzikos had made the same

rodotos did not extend so far, being confined to the plains of Sardes and Magnesia. The case is different with

statement (Frg. 10, ed. Mull.) 3 See iii. 100, note 5. 4 See i. 94, note 2. 5 Fr. 102, ed. Professor Eawlinson thinks that if Herodotos had used Xanthos he would have noticed " t h e peculiar physical appearances in the interior of Lydia" described by the Lydian writer. But the Lydia of He-

Pemokles, who wrote specially on the Volcanic Phenomena in Asia Minor (Strati, i. p. 85), a work which it is plain Herodotos did not use. 6 As the library of Peisistratos at Athens and that of Polykrates at Samos. In these libraries we may see an illustration of the Asiatising tendencies of the tyrants. Libraries had long existed in

xxiv

INTRODUCTION.

surrounded by literary men, and books were at any rate cheaper than travelling. Such, then, were the sources from which Herodotos drew his materials, which must have taken their final shape not later than B.C. 426, the latest possible date for the desertion of Z6pyros to the Athenian side (iii. 160). No event subsequent to this is mentioned, since vi. 68 does not imply the death of Artaxerxes, and the last occurrence alluded to, the date of which is certain, is the betrayal of the Spartan and Korinthian ambassadors to the Athenians (vii. 133137) in the autumn of B.C. 430. 1 Kirchhoff holds that the death of Herodotos took place two years after this at Athens, to which lie returned shortly after the Delian earthquake at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War,2 and where he saw the Propylsea (v. 77), which were not finished till B.C. 431. Professor Mahaffy remarks that the little said by Herodotos about the affairs of Magna Grsecia, which had been treated by Hippys of Rhegium and Antiokhos of Syracuse, is " a strong argument against the composition of his work at Thurii in his later years;" 3 but it must be remembered that the history of the West, scarcely affected as it was by the great war, did not come within the scope of his work. (2.) Classical scholars have long since determined to reverse the popular verdict of antiquity which found expression in the treatise of the Pseudo-Plutarch, and to acquit Herodotos of the charge of conscious dishonesty. Mr. Blakesley, indeed, has brought powerful arguments to show that Thukydides and others considered Herodotos one of the AoyoVoioi, whose aim was not to instruct but to please, and has tried both to substantiate their judgment and to prove that Herodotos was in no way a more trustworthy writer than Marco Polo or even De Foe. Professor Mahaffy, too, while agreeing with the current opinion, nevertheless ventures to suggest that the attack made by the Pseudo - Plutarch has "perhaps not been sufficiently considered;"4 but it has been reserved for an Egyptologist, Dr. Wiedemann, to make it plain that the charge brought against Herodotos was not undeserved, and that the " blame " (^w^os) which, Babylonia, Assyria, Phoenicia, Jerusalem (Prov. xxv. i.), and, as we now know, Kappadokia, from which two clay tablets, one in the Lonvre and the other in the British. Museum, have been brought, while others have been procured at Kaisariyeh by Mr. Ramsay. For the

contrary view cf. Paley, Bibliographia Grceca (1881). 1 Thukyd. ii. 67. 2 Thuk. ii. 8. as compared with Herodotus, vi. 98. 3 History of Classical GreeJc Literature, 4 ii. p. 26. Ibid, p 38

INTRODUCTION.

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according to his epitaph, caused him to fly from Halikarnassos had been justly provoked. The speeches put into the mouths of many of his characters bear the impress of his own ideas and have always been recognised as his own compositions. But it is usually assumed that they rest on a basis of fact, and are merely what Herodotos supposed might have been said on the occasion of a real event. Our confidence in this assumption is, however, shaken when we find, firstly, that they are generally intended to convey a moral lesson, and, secondly, that where we can test the event believed to underlie them it turns out to be imaginary. Thus the discussion of the seven conspirators after the murder of the Magian cannot be reconciled with the actual facts, and chronological considerations make it very doubtful, to say the least, whether Sol6n could ever have visited the court of Krcesos. There are many other passages in which Herodotos has introduced a legend or preferred one version of a tale, not because he heard it from an eyewitness, as, when he is trying to disparage his predecessors, he ostentatiously asserts was his invariable rule,1—not, indeed, upon any critical grounds whatsoever,—but simply because it agreed with his philosophical creed, or struck his admiration of " smartness," or, finally, because it threw a doubt on the statements of earlier historians. Out of the various stories told of the birth and rise of Kyros he selects one which is a pure myth, and the folklore he has substituted for Egyptian history, or the legends he tells of the way in which the precious gums of Arabia were collected, warn us against accepting a statement which may be true merely because it is in Herodotos. The tale of the phoenix which he plagiarised from Hekataeos is a convincing proof how little he really cared for first-hand evidence, and how ready he was to insert any legend which pleased his fancy, and to make himself responsible for its truth. But the conclusions to be drawn from his descriptions of the crocodile and hippopotamus are yet more damaging to his veracity. Not only did he take them from Hekatseos without acknowledgment, but he repeats all the errors of his text while endeavouring all the time to leave the impression on the reader's mind that they are the result of his own observation. This teaches us to be careful about accepting his testimony in other crises where he seems to claim the credit due to personal experience, but where we cannot test his state1

See iii. 115.

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INTRODUCTION.

ments. It prepares us also for an affectation of knowledge which leads him sometimes to make erroneous assertions, sometimes to conceal real ignorance, and is in every case misleading. Thus, to judge from the way in which he writes, Herodotos must have been a marvellous linguist, able to converse freely with Egyptians, Phoenicians (ii. 44), Arabians (iii. 108), Carthaginians (iv. 43), Babylonians (i. 181-183), Skythians (iv. 5, 24), Taurians (iv. 103), Kolkhians (ii. 104), Thrakians (v. 10), Karians and Kaunians (i. 171-172), and Persians. Yet when he ventures to explain words belonging to any of these languages he generally makes mistakes and simply displays his total ignorance of them (as, for example, when giving an interpretation of the names of the Persian kings, vi. 98). In ii. 104, 105, he assumes an acquaintance with the languages of both Egypt and Kolkhis, and pronounces them to be alike—a verdict which may be put by the side of his other assertion that Egyptian resembled the chirping of birds (ii. 57). When, however, we find him further calling the Kolkhians woolly-haired and black-skinned, we begin to doubt whether he could have visited the country at all, much less have made enquiries of its inhabitants. The doubt is confirmed if we look more closely into what we find elsewhere in his narrative. From time to time, when speaking of Egypt, he alludes to a god whose name he will not mention, he says, for religious reasons.1 The god in question is shown by the context to be Osiris; and, as Wiedemann remarks, the only religious scruple the Greek traveller could have had against pronouncing the name of a deity which was constantly in every native's mouth, and was perpetually meeting his eyes on numberless monuments, and in fact is mentioned by Herodotos himself elsewhere, must have been ignorance. Herodotos or his authorities had not caught the name when taking notes, but instead of confessing the fact " the father of history" deliberately deceives his readers. It is no wonder, therefore, if after this we can further convict him of what, in these days, would be termed literary dishonesty of a most serious character, inasmuch as it affects the credit and veracity of a considerable portion of his work. Herodotos wishes his readers to believe that he had visited Upper as well as Lower Egypt. It is true that, except perhaps in one passage,2 he never actually says that he did so 1

See ii. 3, note 9. ii. 29. In ii. 3 I have bracketed the words is 9)f/3as re KO\, which I believe to have been inserted by a copyist. Helio2

polis alone, and not Thebes, was near enough to Memphis for Herodotos to " t u r n into" in order to test what was told him at Memphis. His reason for

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in so many words, but he does his best to convey the impression, and in one place (ii. 142-143) resorts to a kind of verbal legerdemain in order to effect his object. Here he gives the reader to understand that the 345 statues Hekatseos had seen at Thebes two generations previously were the same as the 341 statues Herodotos saw—as the preceding chapters show—at Memphis, and at the same time contrasts his own superior modesty and wisdom with the ignorant vanity of the older historian whom he now names for the first time.1 There is clear evidence that Herodotos never ascended the Nile higher than the Fayum. Had he done so he would not have lavished such praise upon the labyrinth and been silent over the wonderful buildings of Thebes, nor would he have gravely repeated the story—due, probably, to the misunderstanding of his dragoman—which made the Nile rise at " the city " of Elephantine".2 But Hekataeos had visited Thebes, and if he were to be supplanted it was needful that Herodotos too should have been at least equally far. This is the only excuse for the deliberate falsehood in ii. 29, where he declares that he " came as an eyewitness as far as the city of Elephantine1." In calling Elephantine1 a city, however, instead of an island, he betrays the real facts of the case, and it may be hoped that the Angelican MS. (pima manu) [B], which omits the clause, represents the original text of Herodotos (see ii. 29, note 7). So flagrant an example of dishonesty excites our distrust of the extended travels to which Herodotos implicitly lays claim. The suspicions aroused by his extraordinarily inappropriate description of the Kolkhians are confirmed, and we are inclined to doubt whether what Herodotos has to tell us of the eastern part of the Black Sea was not derived from others—from those " eyewitnesses " of whom he was so proud. At any rate, as Mr. Bunbury remarks,3 there is no evidence that Herodotos ever travelled as far as Susa, the expression used of the Eretrians at Arderikka—that they remained there up to his own time (vi. 119)—being the very same as that used of the Barkaeans in Baktria (iv. 204), a country which few would be disposed to maintain was visited by him. Moreover, the difficulties connected with the description of the royal road from Sardes to Susa4 can only be explained on the supposition that it was borrowed from another doing so was that "the people of Heliopolis were considered the best authorities." There is no reference to the Thebans.

1

See notes 2, 5, and 7 on the passage, See ii. 29, note 7. History of Ancient Geography, i. pp. 4 234-235. v. 52. 2

3

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INTEODUCTION.

work. Not only are the numbers given for each day's journey inconsistent with the final summing up, " but if the Gyndes be taken as the frontier between Armenia and Matiene, the enormous extension thus given to Armenia is altogether at variance with the distance assigned to this part of the route; the march through Assyria, from the river Gyndes to the neighbourhood of Mosul—the lowest point at which the road could well have crossed the Tigris—being alone fully equal to the 56 parasangs allowed to Armenia, thus leaving the whole intermediate space, from the Euphrates to the Tigris, unaccounted for;" while the extension given to Armenia "is equally at variance with the extent assigned to it in the description of the Satrapies."1 It may be added that no one who had actually crossed the Gyndes would have thought that its waters had been dissipated into 360 rivulets by Kyros, as Herodotos does in i. 189-190.2 As Herodotos does not describe any other road to the East, and it is pretty evident that he never travelled along this particular one, we must conclude that he never visited Assyria and Babylonia. This will explain his comparative silence about such important and interesting countries as Syria and Assyria Proper. Yet, just as much as in the case of Upper Egypt, he has endeavoured to produce the impression that he had visited Babylonia and conversed there with Khaldean priests, and his endeavour has been so successful as to deceive the majority of his commentators. One passage, in fact, i. 183, where he wishes it to be inferred that he did not see the golden statue of Bel at Babylon because it had been removed by Xerxes, is as flagrant a piece of prevarication as his statement about the 341 images he saw in Egypt. It is true he does not positively assert that he was in Babylonia, but it is the natural inference from his words. The prevarication would have more easily escaped detection if he had said he did not see the temple itself, as well as the image it contained, since it had been destroyed by Xerxes (Arrian, vii. 17) at the same time that the Persian king had carried away the statue. But unluckily Herodotos did not know this, and accordingly describes the temple at length, leaving it to be understood that he had carefully examined it himself. It is doubtful, however, whether he intended to mean by the words &s eXeyov ot XaASafoi in the same chapter, "as they told me when I was there," since they might signify "as they used to say;" and we can afford him the benefit of the doubt. But when he says in chapter 193 1

P.unbury, i. p. 253.

2

See note 1 on the passage.

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that he will not mention the size of the millet and sesame1 plants, "knowing well that those who had not gone so far as Babylonia" would not believe what had been stated of the luxuriance of the vegetation there, he is again trying to convey a false impression, even though his words may be quoted from another author. We have not to read far to see that Herodotos could not himself have been in Khaldea. Apart from the historical misstatements—two of which, relating to the sieges undergone by Babylon, could hardly have been made by a visitor to the spot 1 —a writer who speaks of " immense stones " in Babylonia,2 who does not know the real site of Opis,8 and describes imaginary cuttings near Arderikka, a place probably quite as imaginary,* who asserts that the walls of Babylon had been destroyed by Dareios,5 and fancies that rain falls but seldom in the country,6 stands self-convicted of never having visited the district he undertakes to describe. No one, indeed, who had done so would have called Babylonia Assyria,7 or have confused the Babylonian with the Assyrian empire. The name of Assyria was never used by the Babylonians of the age of Nebuchadrezzar and his successors, much less by those of the Persian period. It must have been derived by Herodotos from his antiquarian researches among older Greek writers when working up the materials for his Assyrian history, and have come down from a time when Gyges was a vassal of Assur-bani-pal or Sardanapalos, and the Assyrian power was influencing the fortunes of Lydia and Ionia.8 Ktilsias had good reason for accusing Herodotos of errors in his Assyrian history; and if we may judge from the specimens of it incorporated in his work, its disappearance is no great loss. (3.) The conclusion we are driven to, accordingly, is that Mr. Blakesley is right in considering Herodotos a mere Ao-yoVoios. He pilfered freely and without acknowledgment; he assumed a knowledge he did not possess; he professed to derive information from personal experience and eyewitnesses wliich really came from the very sources 1

See i. 192, note 4 ; iii. 159, note 7. sense in which Herodotos uses it of his 3 own work i 186 note 1 i. 189, note 8. ("• 38> v- 36)> a n d d o e s l l o t 5 mea * i! 185, note 5. iii. 159, note 7. f " tradition " or "report." Stein . is clearly not justified in drawing from i. 193, note 8. l. 1/8. t h e p a s s a g e t h e in f erence t i l a t Herodotos 8 In ii. 150 Herodotos confesses that had visited Assyria before he travelled the legend he tells of Sardanapalos was in Egypt. Nineveh was an uninhabited derived from '' a passage (K&yfi) quoted ruin in the time of Herodotos, so there from" an earlier \6yios or "proser" (see could have been no dragoman there to 1, note 1). A670S is here used in the fill his note-books with folklore. 2

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INTBODUCTION.

he seeks to disparage and supersede ; he lays claim to extensive travels which are as mythical as those of the early philosophers; and he introduces narratives or selects particular versions of a story, not because they were supported by good authority, but because they suited the turn of his mind, and fitted into the general tenor of his work. With such evidences, then, of unveracity staring us in the face, it becomes a question how far we can trust his statements and accept his authority in historical or topographical matters. In order to answer it we must first distinguish between the countries he can be proved to have visited, and those which there is good evidence to show that he did not. After all, he need not have been ashamed of the extent of his travels; if they could not rival those of Hekatseos or Skylax, they had certainly extended over the greater part of the civilised portion of the Mediterranean. Like a true Greek, Herodotos kept as near the sea as possible; we have no proof that he ever penetrated far inland. He had visited Greece and its sacred shrines, making a pilgrimage as far as D6dona, and probably coasting along the shores of Thrake from Athos to Byzantion. He had been as far south in Egypt as Lake Mceris, had sailed along the shores of Palestine and Syria, touching at Tyre, Beyrut,1 Kypros,2 and Ehodes,3 like a modern tourist returning from Egypt by an Austrian Lloyd steamer, had apparently stayed at Kyrene, and had made the acquaintance of the chief islands of the yEgean, including of course Delos. He had resided in Magna Graecia, and probably also, as the legend of his life asserts, in Samos.* The western coast of Asia Minor was naturally well known to him. He was born at Halikarnassos, and was acquainted with Lydia and its capital Sardes, with Ephesos and the Kaikos, and probably with the Troad as well.5 Except in Egypt, and at Tyre and Sardes, he was not necessarily brought into contact with any but a Greek-speaking population; in Egypt and Syria, as well as at Sardes, he had to depend upon dragomen ; but his voyages were doubtless performed in Greek boats. Egypt, Syria, and Lydia apart, therefore, he had no difficulty in picking up information, and no need of consulting any but Greek authorities. As regards what may be termed the Greek portion of his 1

ii. 44, ii. 106. 3 i- 199"• 182. 4 Stein notes that the account in vi. 13 sq. betrays an attempt to excuse as far as possible the disgraceful conduct of 2

the Samians at Lade. See also i. 70 • ii 168 ; iii. 26, 39 sq., 54 sq., 60, 120 'sq. ; iv. 43, 88, 152 ; v. 112 ; vi. 22 sq • viii 85 ; ix. 106. 5 See ii. 10, vii. 43.

INTRODUCTION.

xxxi

history, accordingly, we may allow his statements the credibility that is usually claimed for them. His account of the nations on the western coast of Asia Minor stands on a somewhat different footing. The history of Lydia, if drawn from first-hand sources, must have rested on the authority of persons who spoke a different language from his own, but for reasons already alleged (p. xxiii) it is probable that this was not the case, and that he made use of Greek documents or traditions. Of Karia he was able to speak from personal experience; the relatives and friends of his boyhood lived on Karian soil, and what he tells us of Karian manners and traditions, as well as of the Kauniarts and their language, may be accepted without questioning. With Samos he shows a special acquaintance, and he may well have laid the history of EugEeon under contribution (see p. xxiii). For the coasts of the ^Egean as well as for Greece we may consider Herodotos both to be a witness at first hand, and to have supplemented his own experience by the use of the best authorities he could find. No doubt he did not exercise much criticism in dealing with the latter, and as he never gives references to the books he employed, we cannot distinguish between matter which comes from really trustworthy sources and that which does not. No doubt, too, his own observation was not very exact, and he may very possibly have made mistakes in repeating what he had read or heard. But these are drawbacks to which most ancient authors are subject. It is very different, however, when we come to the East. In Egypt he was a mere tourist, unable to speak the language of the country, and furnished with no introductions to cultivated natives. He was left to the mercies of half-caste dragomen1 and the inferior servants of the temples, who were allowed to gain a little bakshish by showing them to inquisitive Greeks. Herodotos dignifies them with the name of priests ; but the Egyptian priest did not speak the language of the Greek barbarian. Every traveller will know what a strange idea he would carry away with him of the history and character of the monuments he visits, and the manners and customs of the country, if he had to depend on what he was told by his guides and ckeroni. How little Herodotos saw of the higher society of Egypt may be gathered 1 Like the Maltese in modern times, the Karians acted as interpreters between the natives and the traveller. A bronze Apis, now in the Biilak museum, has upon it a bilingual inscription in hiero-

glyphics and Karian, the hieroglyphics stating that it was dedicated to Apis by "Peram the dragoman." Peram is not an Egyptian name, and may be compared with the Kalian name Pirfimis in

xxxii

INTRODUCTION.

from his assertions that the Egyptians used only bronze cups,1 and did not eat wheaten bread.2 Of course what he saw himself he may be supposed to describe with fair accuracy; but we can seldom tell what he really did see himself, or what he is not merely making the reader believe he had seen. Moreover, his attitude towards Hekatseos on a question like the causes of the rise of the Nile raises the suspicion that he may have treated his predecessors as Ktesias treated him, admitting a legend on any or no evidence simply because it contradicted what they had written. It is only necessary to read through the notes on the second book to see that the majority of the statements made by Herodotos about Egyptian matters are now known to be false, and that there are many in which we can trace a deliberate intention to deceive. It is just the same with his notices of Babylonia, or Assyria as he erroneously terms i t ; and his knowledge even of Persian history, manners, religion, and language is equally defective. Here, however, his shortcomings are redeemed by the use of official documents, like the list of the satrapies, or the description of the royal road to Susa. How these came into his hands it is useless to enquire. His birth at Halikarnassos may have enabled him to obtain them from a government clerk who had translated them into Greek, or they may have been contained in one of the books which he consulted for his history. He certainly did not understand Persian himself, and there is no sign of his being acquainted with Persians of social position, unless it were Zopyros the son of Megabyzos.3 As regards Persian history, therefore, we cannot expect him to have been so well informed as Ktesias, who had access to the royal archives—the S^depal /3aa-iAiKat'4—of the empire. And in his account of Persia, as of Babylonia and Egypt, the affectation of a knowledge he did not possess, and concealment of the sources from which he derived his information, still further diminish his authority. Consequently it is only where his statements are confirmed by the native monuments which modern research has brought to light that we can rely upon them; in other cases, where they are not proved to be false by monumental or internal evidence, we must adopt towards them the attitude of mind of the ancient sceptics. Egyptology and Assyriology have made it impossible for us ever again to accept the unsupported assertions of Herodotos in matters pertaining to the East. The long controversy which has raged over the credibility of the inscription of Halikarnassos (see ii. 143, note 8).

x

ii. 37. s iiL 160

2 ;;. 3g 4 D i o d.'sic,

ii. 32.

INTRODUCTION.

xxxiii

Herodotos has thus been brought to an end by the discoveries of recent years. It only remains to say a few words on the character assigned by the same discoveries to his critic Ktesias, since on this will depend our view of the questions upon which, when Herodotos and Ktesias are at variance, the monuments as yet throw no light. In the first place, then, it is quite clear that Ktlsias really based his history on Persian materials. The greater part of his Assyrian history consists of Assyro-Babylonian myths rationalised and transformed in the manner peculiar to the Persians, of which Herodotos gives us an illustration in the legend of I6.1 Semiramis is the Assyrian Aphrodite, Ninos and Ninyas are Nineveh and its inhabitants; and the names given to many of their successors, such as Arios, Armamithres, and Mithraos, are Persian titles or divine names. It is significant that Baleus, the Assyrian bilu, " lord," is said to have been also called Xerxes, the Persian Khshayarsha, from Jchshaya, which existed by the side of khsMyathiya, "king." 2 In the second place, when we come to Persian history, we find several statements made by Ktesias which disagree with those of other classical authorities, but have been unexpectedly verified by recent discoveries. Thus he makes the reign of Dareios last only thirty-one (or thirty-two) years, the real length of it according to the Babylonian contract-tablets, which place his accession in B.C. 517. On the other hand, there are other assertions which are shown to be untrue, as, for example, that the Magian usurpation did not take place until after the death of KambysSs. On this point Herodotos was in the right. But it must be remembered that the loss of the original works of Ktesias makes it difficult to determine how far he has reported his authorities correctly, or yielded to the desire of contradicting Herodotos at the expense of truth. At any rate it is certain that he was justified in claiming for his history the authority of Persian documents, and that many of the charges of falsehood brought against him must be laid, not upon him, but upon his eastern friends. His history of Assyria is much like the Egyptian history of mediaeval Arab writers, clothed only in a Greek dress.

THE LANGUAGE OF HERODOTOS.

For the peculiarities of the language of Herodotos the student may be referred to the admirable summary prefixed to the smaller edition 1 2

See i. 1, note 1. the Zend ars-na, "eye." Baleus may Benfey and Oppert explain ars-sha by represent Bilu-esir, " Bel the director." C

XXXIV

INTRODUCTION.

of Stein.1 It was formerly supposed that his native dialect must have been a Doric one, Halikarnassos being a Doric colony, and his residence in Samos was called in to explain his use of Ionic. The discovery by Mr. C. T. Newton of a decree issued by the assembly of the Halikarnassians and Salmakiteans along with the tyrant Lygdamis, the contemporary of Herodotos, which'is written in Tonic, has shown that we have no need of this hypothesis, and that Ionic was, ia the age of the historian, the language of his native town.2 The only Dorisms which occur in it are ''AXiKapvarfav) and LTavucmos, survivals from a time when Doric was still spoken in the place. It is similarly only in the case of proper names like ''Ayts, 'Apurrias, AevrvxiSr/s, that any traces of a Doric dialect are found in the MSS. of Herodotos, since yafiopoi for the Ionic yqfiopoi is not only used by iEskhylos (Suppl. 613), but is merely quoted by Herodotos from the Doric dialect of Sicily (vii. 155); while aviwvrai for avdvrai (ii. 165) is really an old Ionic form which survived in Doric alone of the spoken Greek dialects into the literary age.3 1 Vol. i. pp. li.-lix. See also Struve, Qucestiones de dial. Herodoti, Works, ii. pp. 323 sq. : Dindorf, preface to edition of Herodotos (Paris, Didot, 1844) : Lhardy, Quoestionum, de dial. Herodoti (Berlin, 1844-6) : Bredow, Qucestionum Criticarum de dialecto Herod. (Leipzig, 1846) : Abicht, Uebersickt iiber den Herodotischen Dialekt (Leipzig, 1874) ; Qucestionum de dialecto Herod., Specimen I. (Gottingen, 1859) ; Stein, Preface to edit, of Herodotos, vol. i. pp. xliv sq. (Berlin, 1869); Herodotos; sein Leben und sein Oeschichtswerk (Berlin, 1870), 2d edit., 1877: Brandt, De Modorum apud Herodotwm usu (Cb'then, 1872-3): Merzdorf, " Quaestiones Grammatiese de voealium in dialecto Herodotea ooncursu modo admisso modo evitato," and "Vocalverkiirzung vor Vocalen und quantitative Metathesis im Ionischen," in Curtius' Studien, viii. pp. 127-222 (1878), and ix., pp. 201-244 (1876) [the result of the author's study being that the New Ionic has not that love of "resolved " vowels usually ascribed to it, and that the true relation of the Herodotean to the Homeric dialect is that of sisters sprung from a common old Ionic which came itself like

Attic from a primitive " Pan-Ionic " ] : Heilmann, De infinitivi syntaxi Herodotea (Giessen, 1879): and especially Erman, " D e Titulorum Ionicorum dialecto " i n Curtius's Studien zur griechischen und lateinisehcn Orammatih, v. 2 (1872), pp. 251-310. The introduction to Lebaigue's EicUs d'Hirodote (Paris, Berlin, 1881) may also be consulted. 2 The inscription is published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, ix. 2 (1867). Another longer text, of apparently the same date, and recording the registration of lands and houses that had been forfeited to the gods, also found at Halikarnassos, is published by Mr. Newton in Essays on Art and Archaeology (1880), p. 427 sq., and is not contained in the list of Ionic inscriptions given by Erman. It is particularly important on account of the number of Karian names preserved in it. Another copy of the text has been published in the Bulletin de Gorrespondance helUnique. 3 Some of the MSS. give Aviovrat. here. Stephanus first restored <Wawrai. Cf. &<J>4WKO.. "E-a-Ka for ?-u-a is t o % u as vi-Troi.S-a to

INTRODUCTION.

xxxv

The dialect used by Herodotos is known as New Ionic, to distinguish it from the Old Ionic of Homer, as well as the Middle Ionic represented by a few forms, also found in Homer, which stand midway between those of the Old and those of the New. Thus, for instance, the genitive of the o- declension in -ov, like 8rjfj,ov, must have been derived from the older genitive in -oto through an intermediate stage in which the semi-vowel was lost, leaving only the two o's, which afterwards coalesced into the diphthong -ou Examples of this intermediate form were first pointed out in Homer by Ahrens, who detected them in such passages as II. ii. 325, xv. 66; Od. i. 70, x. 60. Homer, however, contains not only Old and Middle Ionic forms, but New Ionic forms as well; and on closer inspection it will be seen that the archaic portion of his vocabulary, in which, for example, the digamma is preserved, is comparatively small, the greater part of his language being in no way distinguishable from the dialect of Herodotos. It is often assumed that this is in great measure due to conscious imitation of the Epic dialect on the part of Herodotos; and Stein accordingly, in the summary above referred to, gives a number of words and grammatical forms which he is supposed to have borrowed from Epic literature. But, as Mr. Paley has pointed out, many of these words, such as dX.\o(f>povetv, dvrjKovcrTeiv, TrapafiaWeaOai, dreovTes, belong to

prose rather than to poetry; while others either present no special characteristics of antiquity, or form an integral part of the structure of the language which Herodotos employs. The oracles, moreover, quoted by Herodotos, which belong to the generation immediately preceding his own, cannot be distinguished from the hexameters of the Iliad and Odyssey in either language, style, or metre. The sharp line of division, accordingly, which has been drawn between the language of Homer and that of Herodotos cannot be maintained; nor are we justified in believing that the language of Herodotos embodied archaic words and grammatical forms which he had derived from his study of Epic poetry. The archaisms of Homer are rather survivals from earlier poetry, embedded, like flies in amber, in the current language of a later date.1 1

For the relation of the dialects of Homer and Herodotos see Merzdorf, " Vocalverkiirzimg und Metathesis in Ionischen," quoted above; Hofer, "Ueber die Verwandtschaft des herodotischen Stiles mit dem homerischen"; andespecially Paley, "On the comparatively late

date and composite character of our Iliad and Odyssey" in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, xi. 2 (1869),, pp. 379-383. Mr. Paley cornpares a large number of similar passages, words, and grammatical forms used by Homer and Herodotos; thus atvus (Herod.

xxxvi

INTRODUCTION.

Herodotos tells us that in his time four different dialects were spoken in Ionia (i. 142); the inscriptions that have been preserved, however, are too scanty, or the differences were too slight, to allow us to substantiate his statement. Enough have been discovered, nevertheless, to show us what were the general peculiarities of the Ionic iv. 61, //. 3, 158), aytveov (iii. 97, H. 18, iteratives in -GKOV, and /uv. In the first 493), deXn-Woxres (vii. 168, /?. 7, 310), three books of Herodotos, again, we find aWocppovijo-cu (v. 85, 7Z. 23, 698), d/t0i- the following parallels to Homer :—The Spvtptas (vi. 77, i l 2, 700), avatcXivai (v. adverbial MicKr/mr (i. 19, II. 18, 487), the 16, 2?. 5, 751), aveivai. (iv. 180, 2Z. vi. omission of &v after wpiv ij and irpbrepov ?l (i. 19, iv. 172), aos oi55VT)ro Od. 7, 102 ; II. 1, 464), dplffrovs SiaKpiSov (i. 168, Od. 11, 322), irpbs ij<3 re KO.1 rfKlov (iv. 53, /Z. 12, 103), ebpyee (i. 127, H. 3, foaroXds (i. 201; cp. 27. 12, 209 ; Od. 13, 351), iruppd^erai (vi. 61, CM. 15, 444), 240), oho? dvrJKt (juv) (i. 213, II. 2, 71), iudypia (iii. 36, 2Z. 18, 407), -qyopbuvTo jj/d/i/j.^ KareiXviiivov (ii. 8, Od. 14, 136), yipavoi etc. (ii. 22, vi. 11. /Z. iv. 1), faparepov (vi. 84,/Z. 9, II. 3, 3, where it appears in a simile not in 203), iKTrjo-Bcu (i. 155, /Z. 9, 402), iOrievvTO (iii. 136, II. 7, 443), iveeiKavro (vii. 125, the body of the narrative as in Herodotos), OVK dSaiJs dXX' 2/iiretpos (ii. 49 ; ep. Od. 2, 22. 10, 30), dpaTrX^crcu /ca/cd (v. 4, 7Z. 8, 354), K(Ka.Kinp.ivi)V (iii. 14, CW. 6, 137),170), SriX-o/wvcs (ii. 74, Od. 18, 85), 8KUS KpoTa\l£av (ii. 60, H. 11, 160), KexapTlK&s re (ii. 108, like the Homeric b're re, Xva (iii. 27, 27. 7, 312), KovplSws (i. 135, 27. 1, re, etc.), iroXvTpoirlri (ii. 121 e, Od. 1, 1), 113), \ai for 4j/j.ev, (iii. 126, ep. II. 6, 189), biroo-rfc imTAArece (II. 10, 303, Od. 3, 99), TraXXothe omission of the temporal augment, Hivoiv of drawing lots (iii. 128, II. 15, (ado. for etoiffa, 571a, ^jcrac, 0i5Xa/cos and ixdprvpos for $t)Xa£ and /idprvs, \arl-q for 190), and the zeugma &ros re rai f/ryoi' etrrla, the lost aspirate in fi.£Td\/j,a>os, (iii. 135, II. 19, 242 ; cp. Pind. Pyth. iv. 104). ^TrdXjueKos, iirhriov, and air<S3ioi', the

INTRODUCTION.

xxxvii

dialect as spoken in Ionia and at Halikarnassos in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.—that is, in the age of Herodotos. We find that the symbol of the aspirate had come to express the long e, from which we may infer that the aspirate had been lost in Ionic pronunciation. The use of the v ephelkystikon exhibits the same inconstancy as in older Attic, though it is more frequent in the earlier than in the later inscriptions, so that the editors who have expunged it from the text of Herodotos have fallen into error. The Halikarnassian inscription lately published by Mr. Newton, has aid, not del; and Stein has been proved to be right in defending the forms KCTVOS and diku against Dindorf and Bredow. On the other hand, rdora appears for ravra at Halikarnassos, and, as Erman points out, the coalescence of € with a following in the texts of Herodotos, as well as Stein and Bredow, who admit the elision of e only where another e precedes.1 The contracted form ipds for Upoi, again, does not appear before the fourth century B.C., and should therefore be expunged from the editions of Herodotos, while we find yeas instead of yijs. We also meet with forms of the dative plural like yviv, NU/JC^O-IJ', ALOUTIV, by the side of TOIS 0eots TOVTOI<;, but the genitive singular of the o-declension always ends in ov. Stems in i and v form their genitives in tos and vos, until we come to the fourth century, when the Attic eu>s first creeps in. On the other hand, so-called Attic forms like 'Ava^iAews occur in the oldest Ionic inscriptions. At Halikarnassos the dative singular is TrdAei, ret^£t. From stems in eos we get HXovrrjos, Hpirjvrji as well as 'A^tAAeos. Coming to the verb we find Lhardy justified in rejecting e'xov from the text of Herodotos by d\ov, t?xev i n * n e Halikarnassian inscriptions; the participle of the substantive verb is Jwv, ZOVTOS—the contracted form not coming into use till late in the fourth century; 1

See Dindorf, Commentatio de dial. Herod. (1844), p. xi.; Abicht, Uebersicht iiber d. Her. JDiahkt, p. 32 ; Stein,

Herodotos, p. liii.; Bredow, Quasstumum criticarum de dial. Herod., p. 218.

xxxviii

INTRODUCTION.

and y, not iy, is met with at Halikarnassos. Here, too", wefindOTTOV, not OKOV, which suggests that the labial found in Homer is not due to Attic influence, and that the guttural of Herodotos did not come from the dialect spoken in his birthplace. This raises the question whether we are justified in correcting the text of Herodotos in accordance with the evidence of the Ionic inscriptions of his age. The existence of dialects in Ionia at the time, and our ignorance as to which of these Herodotos may have used, or whether he combined forms found in two or more of them, teach us the necessity of caution. But on the other hand the evidence of our MSS. is not consistent, and is frequently uncertain; the oldest of them can hardly be earlier than the tenth century of our era, and the errors introduced by copyists, or ignorant grammarians bent on restoring what they supposed to be Ionic forms, are necessarily numerous. In an inscription we are, at all events, secure of having the very words that were written by the engraver. Where, therefore, a grammatical form may be considered to have been used throughout Ionia in the time of Herodotos by the concurrent testimony of the inscriptions found in various localities, we ought to have no hesitation in preferring it to the traditional form handed down in our texts, supposing this to be different. Thus, for example, the contracted form of the participle of dpi given here and there in the MSS. is clearly proved by the inscriptions to belong to a later period, and to have no right to appear in the pages of Herodotos. On the other hand, Merzdorf objects that a distinction should be made between the more popular and negligent language of inscriptions, and the more careful mode of expression adopted by a literary man. But it is only on the tombstones of the poorer class of people that such a negligent kind of language is likely to appear. Public decrees and official texts would certainly be composed in as careful a style as the work of a literary man; indeed, considering their importance and public character, as well as their comparative brevity, they would probably be written still more carefully. We do not usually find the language of Parliament or the law-courts either popular or simple. At the same time there was no such gulf between the literary language of Herodotos and the ordinary speech of the day, as was the case in the Alexandrian period. Indeed, we now and then come upon awkwardnesses of grammar, to use a mild term, which would not have been tolerated in a public document.1 Old forms and words are quite as likely to occur in inscriptions as in the history of Herodotos. At 1

e.g. singular verb for plural {trxypa UivSaptKov), i. 26, ii. 66 (ravra Si ytvdfieva).

INTRODUCTION.

xxxix

the same time, Stein is doubtless right in protesting against the assumption that the language of Herodotos must be uniform. Modern writers, who vary the spelling of a few words in their MSS., should not require a greater uniformity in the "father of history." But it is also clear that this variation should be kept within bounds. In a large proportion of instances it is more reasonable to suppose it due to the mistakes of copyists, or the zeal of grammarians, than to the author himself. The inscriptions, then, must be allowed to amend the text in either one of two cases. When they show that a later form did not come into use in Ionic until the fourth century B.C., all examples to the contrary must be excised from the pages of Herodotos. Thus the contraction of atet into aet, of iepos into ipos, of yeas into yijs, of eo into ev, and of tw into e-qi>, tfijX&js (ii. 35), der/eijvai (ii. 132), iSe^$7) and deria-diiet/os (iii. 44), 8erj
rairri (i. 114), TOictOra, ivBavTa, roiraura, etc., and ydas implies only y£$, not ye a and yiav. The iteratives iroiieaKov (i. 36), tLwaipieoKov (i. 186), a n d irwKteiTKe (i. 196), are old literary forms for which there is no monumental evidence, and B4e
xl

INTRODUCTION.

rather followed throughout, except where corrected by the evidence of the inscriptions. No other text can compete with it for accuracy, completeness, and critical tact. Those of Baehr—the second edition of which was published in 1856—and of Abicht are altogether superseded by it. The earlier editions, from the princeps of Aldus, printed in 1502, downwards, are only historically valuable; students who are curious about them will find a list of them in Baehr (vol. iv. pp. 491 sq., 2d edition). Stein has brought out two editions: a smaller one, with annotations on the text, in the Egyptian part of which he was assisted by Brugsch Pasha (4th edition, Berlin, 1877), and a larger critical one (Berlin, 1809), in which the various readings of the MSS. are given and classified, as well as the fragments of lexicography and the scholia which have been preserved. The introduction contains a full account of the MSS. in question, and discusses their relative merit and testimony, with a protest against the attempt to harmonise all the forms given by them. Stein considers the two oldest codices now extant, the Medicean (A) of the tenth century, and the Angelican (B) of the eleventh century, to be alike derived from a MS. which was itself copied from an older one, which was also the ultimate source, but by a different channel, of the Florentine MS. (C). This lost original, which he calls X, stood by the side of another lost original termed M*, which was the source, among other MSS., of the Parisian (P), the Vatican (R), and the Sancroftian (S). The latter, though made the basis of Gaisford's text, is of comparatively late date. Stein pronounces the text of X to have been "rough " and broken, but of value on account of its high antiquity; while that of M"" was freer from lacunce and errors, but full of interpolations. He follows Abicht in making the Medicean MS. the ground work of his edition. Those who wish further details must consult his introduction. Stein also promises us a lexicon to Herodotos. This is much needed, as the Lexicon Herodoteum of Schweighaiiser is based on a text which is now obsolete. Something better is required for settling the question of the relation of the Homeric to the Herodotean dialect, or of the indebtedness of the latter to Attic grammar. We have yet to determine how far Hermogenes was right in saying1 of Hekatssos, rfj 8ia\eKT<j) &k axpaTW 'Id8i Hp68oTOV TTOlKlXrj.

nal OV fKfuyfiivy

xprj
l

For the place of Herodotos in Greek literature see Mahaffy's History of Greek Literature, 2d edition (1883), vol. ii. 1

De Id., p. 399.

HERODOTOS. BOOK I. 'TipoSorov 'A\(,tcapvr)(T? fiijre ra 1 it; avdpcinrcov TC3 XP°V(P

i^irrfKa

eprya

fieyaXa re ical dav/Maffrd, ra fiev ' l&Wijai ra Be /3ap/3dpot,(7i, aTroBe^devTa, aicXea oiviica<; alrlov; (f>a
Egyptian. The Greeks were notoriously bad linguists, and Themistokles stands almost alone in learning Persian. In fact Ktgsias implied that Herodotos was not acquainted with the contents of Persian literature. Though born, according to Dionysios of Halikarnassos, a little before the Persian wars, he was a mere child when the deliverance of the Asiatic Greeks took place. At the same time, passages like iii. 80, or i. 95, may imply a closer acquaintance with the Persian language and literature upon his part than we are inclined to suppose. From what follows, however, he would seem to have had much the same knowledge of the statements of Phoenician historians as he had of those of Persia. It is possible, therefore, that Greek translators of foreign literature, like Menander of Ephesos, already existed among the Asiatic Greeks of his day. At any rate the earliest Ionic philosophers derived their doctrines from Babylonia through the medium of either the Phoenicians or the Lydians. The systems of Thales and Anaximander, for instance, had long been anticipated in Babylonia, where they fitted in with the mythology and

HEBODOTOS.

[BOOK

T?J? Biaopri<;. TOVTOVS jap dirb rrji 'T&pvOpfj? /cakeo/ievr/? 0a\dcro~7)<; a7riKOfievovs eirl rijvSe rrjv Oa\acro~av, /ecu ol/ajcravTa? rovToy TOV •x&pov TOV xai vvv oliceovo-c, avTiica fia/cpfjo-t eiriOecrdai, aira
Volkern," 1879; Guidi, "Delia Sede primitiva dei Popoli Semitici," 1879), whence the Phoenicians moved westward, settling on the coast, which they called Canaan, or " the lowlands," in contradistinction to the "highlands" of Aram. Agenor (Baal), the father of Phcenix, was also called Khna, and Philo Byblios stated that Khna changed his name to Phcenix (Euseb. Prcep. Ev. i. 10). Eupolemos made Kanaan the father of Phoenix (Euseb. Prcep. Ev. ix. 17); while S. Augustine says that the Phoenician settlers in Africa called themselves Canaanites (Ep. ad Bom. Op. iii. p. 932). Phoenicia is called Canaan on a coin of Laodikeia, and in Isaiah xxiii. 11 (A. V., " merchant city "). 3 This is strictly true, and shows that the legends quoted by Herodotos had a historical basis. Phoenician art and culture are a mixture of Egyptian and "Assyrian" (i.e. Babylonian), and the discoveries made at Mykense and on other prehistoric sites show that the objects brought to Greece by Phoenician traders were partly Babylonian and partly Egyptian in character. 4 This statement, again, has been confirmed by Dr. Schliemann's excavations at Mykenas, if we understand by Argos the Argolis, with its feudal capitals of Tiryns, Mykenae, and Argos, which mark successive epochs in the history of Akhsean power and civilisation. In the Peloponngsos, at all events, the Akhsean dynasty of MykenjE took the lead. The Argolis was naturally the first part of the country to which the art and culture of Asia were brought across the sea. It is noteworthy that Argos is here made

THE EMPIEES OF THE EAST. TOVTO asir

htariQeadai

TOP cf>6pTov.

^9 aTTiKovro,

67rl TJ)V dakaaarav

yvvaiKas

Qvyarepa' Xeyovo-t,

ire^nrTrj

Be ^

e/crr/ rjfieprj

i^e/AiroXij/Aevcov crtyi cr^eBop irdvraip, aXkas

T6 Be ol ovvofia 'low6

eXOelv

re 7roXXa9 Kal Brj Kal TOV elvao, Kara, TCOVTO TO Kal

rr\v 'Ivd%pv.

ravTas

cravat

Kara

rrji veos wveiaQau rcov (fropricov rutv o-(j)t •fy) Ovfios /xaXiara • Kal Toil? <£>oivLKa<; BiaKeXevcrafievovi )Aev Brj wXeom? aWycri

rtov

dpiraaOfivai,.

airoirXeopra'i

yvvaiKwv

ia/3a\o/i,evov<;

e V Alyvirrov.

KeaOau \e
Be e?

ovroa fiep 'IOVP

e'irjaav S' &p ovroi

fiera rov

Kp?jTe?.

Be rdora

eV

Be rdora ^aaiXeof rdora

fiep

TTJV pea

Ovyarepa

airv- 2

aBucrjfidrwp (ov

T ^ ?
Ta?

oX^eadai

69 Atyvirrov

'EW.ijvwi' nvd^

yap e?

Tvpop

^vpcoTrrjv

7

Brj tcra "irpbs lo~a o~<,s

"EXX^va? alrlovs

the leading power of prehistoric Hellas, and not Kadmeian Thebes, which Greek legends connected with the dissemination of the alphabet and Phoenician civilisation, or the neighbouring capital of the Minyans at Orkhomenos. The extent of the Akropolis on the latter site shows that at one time the Minyan power must have been as great as that of the Akhseans; while the beehive tomb, known as the Treasury of Minyas, proves that the period in question coincided with the latter portion of the prehistoric period of Mykense. I t is clear, therefore, that the Minyans of northern Greece must have been quite as powerful a people as the Akhseans, and at the same time (as was natural, from the proximity of Phoenician Thehes) a more cultured people, but only during the later part of the prehistoric age in Argolis. The statement, accordingly, made by Herodotos, which relates to the beginning and not to the close of Akhsean supremacy, is strictly accurate. 5 SidTWeaSai " arrange for sale." Cp. ch. 194 ; also Od. 15, 415. 6 16 may be derived, like 'Uoves, from the root ya, " t o go," and signify " the wanderer." At any rate, she was origin-

avrd?.

Be 'lovv crvv

OVK cb? ' EXX^ve?, Kal rwp

d-7rr]yrjcracr0ai,) acrl

Trpoo-O"xovra<; dpirdaai yepecrdai, /xera

opfi^crao

aTro
T»y? Bevrep7)<; dB

ally the moon goddess, watched by Argos, " t h e bright" sky, with his myriad eyes of stars. When the name of the city Argos (really derived from a different root from that of ipybs, 'Apyb, apyewos, argenturn, etc.) was confounded with the old epithet of the sky, the myth of 16 was localised in the Argolis, and 18 herself made the daughter of the Argive river, Inakhos. 7 Eurdpa was the Phoenician moon goddess, Astarte or Ashtoreth, "with the crescent horns," wooed by the sun god, whose symbol was the bull. Hence she was the daughter of Phoenix, " the Phoenician," also called Khna, "Canaan," or Agenor, the Greek rendering of the Phoenician Baal Melkarth, and the sister of Kadmos, " t h e eastern." The name Eur6pa was first given to " the broad " plain of Thebes, occupied in early times by Phoenician Kadmeians, and from hence was gradually extended to denote the whole of the European continent. The legends connected with the name of Minos show that KrSte was at one time occupied by Phoenician settlements. 8 usa. <xi, etc., " t i t for tat." Cp. ix. 48; Soph. Antig. 142.

4

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

yeveadar KaTairXaxravTa^ yap fna/cpj} vt]\ e? Aldv re Tr)v KoX^'Sa Kal eVt Qaaiv troTafiov, evOevTev, Biairp^afievov^ Kal raXka TWV elveKev a-TTLKaro, dpirdaai, TOV f3at M77S6W7? TTJV apirayrp, w? ov BovTes avTol 8t«a? ovBe e/cSoj/Te? diraneovTaiv ftovXoLaTo v TOVTOV dpTrayas fiovva? elvai Trap dXXrjXcov, TO Be dirb TOVTOV "EXXrjvas Br] fj,eydX(o^ aWiovs yeveadai' irpoTepov; yap dp^ai (TTpaTeveadai e? Trjv ''AaLr)v r) o~(peaea<; fiev Brj TOV? e/c T»)? 'ACW;? Xeyovcri Hepcrai, dpivatpfievecav TS>V yvvaiK&v Xoyov ovBeva r K0i7](raadai,. ' E X X I J W ? Be Aa/ceSat/xoi'Mj? etveKev yvvaiKOS
OVTCO fiev

TLepcrai Xeyova-i, yevecrdai,

Kal

BLCL TTJV

'IXLOV

aX(ooiviKe<;- ov yap apvayfj otVi«e? Xeyovaf iya> Be irepl fiev TOVTCOV OVK epyofiav ipeav w? OUTW i) aXXa>$ «OJ? T a o r a

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

I.] TOV9

iyevero,

6"e olBa avrbs

TOD? ' JLWrjvas, Xoyov,

TOVTOV

irpSiTOv vTrdp^avra

a/sola's o-fMiicpa ical fieyaka

yhp TO Trakau fieydXa e V ifiio

TJV fieyaXa,

dBUav

do-Tea avOpwTreov iirei-icov.

fjv, rd TroWa crfiiicpa air&v irpoTepov

iiTit7Td/j,evo<; evBaifiovi^v

rjv cr/Micpd.

ovBa/j,d ev rairS

yeyove-

TMV eWo? "AXvo?

fiera^ii

%vpicov1

TroTafiov, 09

UacfrXayovwv

it TOV Hvfjeivov KaXeofj,evov trovrov. 7rpwTO5 TWV rifielf

'iB/x,ev rovs

ra

TO, Be

TTJV avQ panvr\i7]v &v /xevovaav,

Ky30to"0? rjv AwSo? pey yevos Trai? Be 'AXvaTTeo), idveoov

re xal

epycov e?

o~r)/j,rjva<; irpo^rjcrofjiab e? TO irpocru) TOV

rvpavvos

Be 6

pecov dirb /u,eaafi/3plrj<;

e^let

irpbs

fiopeTjv

avefiov

ovros 6 Kpotcro? /3ap/3dpcov

fiev

Karearpe'ijraTO

(j>6pov wnaya>yr)v, TOVS Be
'EWijvav

e?

Kareo-Tpe-^raro

fiev "\a>vds re ical AtoXea? KaX Awptea? rov<; ev rfj 'Acriy, i\ov<; Be TrpoaeTroiriaaTO A-a/ceBai/AovLOVS. irpb Be TJ}? Kpottrou TravTes "E\XT?J'£9 rjaav eKevdepoi • TO yap *K.i/j,fiepla)v TO

iirl

TYJV 'lavlrjv

diriKOfievov

9 i.e. Kroesos. The scepticism of Herodotos in regard to the assertions of oriental writers seems to have heen in the mind of Ktesias when he claimed superior authority for his own statements as being derived from the Persian archives. The history given by Herodotos is parodied by Aristoph. Akharn. 523 sq. 1 The Syrians here are the "White Syrians " of Strabo, whom the Greek geographer contrasts with the Black Syrians, or Semitic Arameans, east of the Amanus (Strab.pp. 533, 544, 737. See Schol. ad Apoll. Rhod. i. 948). We now know that they were really the Hittites of Carchemish, who did not belong to the Semitic race at all, and had originally descended from the mountainous region of the north. They have left monuments behind them at Boghaz Keui (? Pteria) and Eyuk (? Tavium), on the east bank of the Halys. Herodotos tells us (i. 72, vii. 72) that the inhabitants of Kappadokia and Kilikia were Syrians, and Hittite remains in the shape of sculptures and inscriptions have been found in these countries. The tribes inhabiting them probably belonged to

KjOot'crou

ebv

2

irpeo-fivTepov

ov

the same race as the Hittites, and spoke cognate dialects. Sinfipe, according to Skymnos of Khios (943), was founded among the Syrians, and a promontory a little to the north of Sinope was called Syrias. Pindar (Fr. 150, ed. Bergk) speaks of " a spear-armed Syrian host" at the mouth of the Thermodon, meaning the Amazons, the Hittite priestesses of the Asiatic goddess, Nana-Istar of Babylon, and Atargatis of Carchemish, whose worship they had carried to Ephesos and the west. 2 For the Kimmerians, the Gimirrai of the Assyrian inscriptions, and their inroads in Asia Minor, see Appendix IV. What Eusebios calls the first capture of Sardes by the Kimmerians in B.C. 1078 is probably a tradition of the conquest of Lydia and Sardes by the Hittites before the rise of the dynasty of the Herakleids. It is possible that the same event is meant by Strabo (i. p. 90), when he says that the Kimmerian chief Lygdamis ruled in Kilikia—a Hittite district — while his followers overran Lydia and captured Sardes. According to Ilesykhios, Lygdamis burnt the temple of Artemis.

[BOOK

HERODOTOS. Karaa-Tpo(f)i] iyevero

TWV iroXiav

a\X

e£ e i p

7 fj Be rjjefiovL-n oimu 7repifjX6e, eovcra 'Hpa/cXetBecov, Kpolaov,

KakeoiMevovs Be MepnvdSas.

EWTjves

MvpaiXov

'AXicalov

ovofid^ovcn,

TOV 'Hpa/cXeo?.

TOV 'AX/calov KavBavXrfs

3

4

PaaLXevo-avTes

"Aypav

irp&Tos 'Hpa/cXetBeav

Se 6 Mvperov Taurus

r\v

Tvpavvo?

TJJ? %wp^?

rbv

01

airoyovo?

Be

6 NtVov TOV BrjXov

fiacriXevs Wav

TO 761/09 rb

KavBavXrj'},

SapSicov,

fiev yap

i>
^ k

"iyevero

'ZapBicov,

ol Be irporepov airoyovoi

AvBov

"Aypwvos TOV

"ATVO?, a-rr oreo 6 8r}/AO<; AvSto? e/cXr/dr) 6 7ra? OVTOS, Trporepov Ts&r)l,(ov KaXeofievo^.6 e
wapa

TOVTCOV 'HpaicXelBai

etc Oeoirpoiriov,6

yeyovore<; ical 'Hpa/cXeo?, 7 ap^avre<;

etc SovXiy? re fiev

eVt Bvo

hvnpa^Qkvre'i TT}? 'lapBdvov re

Kal e'Uo
8 The father of Kandaules was Myrsos of the Hittite occupation of Lydia and introduction of civilisation and writing (Meles in Eusebios). The termination -ilos, therefore, seems to have been gentilic among the nations of the west. The Herakleids would seem to have grown in Lydian. Kav-daiXijs was identified into power when the Hittite empire with Hermes or He'rakle's by Hesykhios, and is translated (TKvWoTrvlicnji (Tzetzes began to decay and could no longer supin Cramer, Anecd. Oxon. 3, 351) ; cp. port the satraps of Sardes. Herakles, Kvwv, amis, hound, Skt. gwan. Tzetzes the sun god of Babylonia and Assyria, quotes a line from Hippfinax: 'E/Sjuij the Melkarth of Tyre, had been adopted Kvvdyxa, MY/OVIITTI JLavSavXa. Nikolaos by the Hittites into their system of worship, like the Asiatic goddess, and Damascenus calls Kandaules Sadyatt&s. 4 The words & Nfoou—'AXimlov have then carried into Asia Minor. Hence dropped out of the text in three late we find the Lydian name of the deity to MSS. (Stein's R b d). As the Assyrians have been Sandan (Joh. Lydus, Se Mag. knew nothing of the country west of the iii. 6i), the Sandan, Sandes, or Sandakos of the Kilikians and Hittites. With Halys before the reign of Assur-bani-pal, and Assur-bani-pal states that when the Alkaios, " t h e strong one," comp. the ambassadors of Gyges arrived at Nineveh Alkimos of Xanthos. 6 (B.C. 660) none knew who they were, or The name of Meies or M*6nes may be had heard the name of Lydia (huddi), or connected with the Lydian ftuvs " earth." could interpret their language, the namea Comp. also the name of Mseander. 6 of Nmos (Nineveh) and Belos (BelProbably a confusion with the oracle Merodach of Babylon) cannot refer to an delivered to Gyges (ch. 13). 7 early Assyrian conquest of Lydia. BabyIardanos was the husband, or, aclonian art and culture, however, as cording to other accounts, the father, of modified at Carchemish, the Hittite Omphale", which may perhaps be the capital, was carried by the Hittites Lydian (or Hittite) name of the Asiatic throughout Asia Minor at the time to goddess (the Ephesian Artemis or Kywhich the rise of the Herakleid dynasty bele). HeraklSs or Sandan, the sun would go back, according to the chronogod, while serving Omphalg, had a son logy of Herodotos ; and as Carchemish is Akelis (or Agelaos) by Malis, or Damalis, called "Ninus vetus" by Ammianus one of her slaves (Hellan. Fr. 102). AcMarcellinus (xiv. 8 ; see, too, Diod. ii. cording to Diodoros (iv. 31), HeTakles 3, 7), it is clear that the genealogy given first had Kleodseos by a slave, then in the text is a legendary reminiscence Lamos by Omphale.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

yevea<; avBp&v erea irevre r e Kal irevraKocna,

7rat9 irapa

p

iicBefcofAevos TTJV hpyfiv, y-ey^pi K-avBavXew TOV MiJocrou.8 OUTO? 8 Brj S)v 6 K.avBavXtj<; r)pdaQr\ T?J5 ecovTov yvvaiKO^, ipaadels Be

iv6fjLi£e ol elvai yvvaiKa iroXXov iracrecov KaXXio~TT)v. ware Be rdora vofii^tov, r)V v Tvyr]$ 6 AaaKvXov apecricofievog fidXio-Ta, TOVTCp TW Yvyy Kal ra cnrovBacecrTepa TWV irpTjjp.aTWV vweperldeTO 6 KavBavXr)? Kal Br/ Kal TO elSo? TJJ?

(xPVv

%povov Be ov iroXXov BieX66vros

jap

/ca/cw?) eXeye TT/JO? TOV YVJTJV ToodBe.

TZ-avBavXy jevkaSai

" Yvyrj, oi yap ere BoKea> ireldeadal /xot, XeyovTi Trepl TOV et'Seo? TjjdaX[ia>v), Trooei OKW; i/ceivrjv Oerjaa'i elire " BeairoTa, Tiva Xeyeis Xoyov OVK vyiea, KeXevcov fte Beo-iroivav TT\v ifirjv derfaacrBai yv/ivrjv ; afia Be Kodwvt, eicBvofievai avveKBveTai Kal TTJV alBa> yvvrj. irakat, Be ret KaXa, dvdpeoTroiai itjevprjTat,, e'/c TCOV /jLapOdveiv Bel- ev Tolcro ev ToBe ICTTI, o-Koirelv

Tiva Ta eavTov. iyco Be TreLQofxai, iicelvijv elvai Traaecov yvvaiKcov KaXXl9 aeo TreLpwfievos Xeya Xoyov TovBe, pjryre yvvalica TTJV ejxr\y, yd) TL Tot, e!; avTris yevrjTai /S\a/3o9. dpyr)v yap 67ft) firj^avrjcrofiai OVT(O wtrT6 /jLijBe fiadelv

fjiiv 6cf>6eio-av VTTO- aeo.

eya> yap ae e?

TO o'lKri/Ma ev TS KOificofteOa b'triaQe Trj
In Mkolaos Damascenus the order is Adyattes I., Ardys, Adyattes II., Meles, and Myrsos, the father of Sadyattes, by whom Kandaules must be meant. In the reign of Ardys a feud broke out between the Herakleidse and the Mermnadss, then represented by Daskylos, son of Gyges, the favourite of Ardys, who was murdered by Adyattes II. In the fifth generation the Mermnad Gyges avenged the murder, excited by fear of punishment for the insult he had offered to the daughter of the Mysian prince, Arnossos, whom he had been sent to bring to Lydia in order that she might be married to the Lydian king. Considering the meaning of the name Kandaules, and his identification with the Greek Hermes, it is possible that it was a nickname given to a prince whom Nikolas calls by his real name, Sadyattes.

8

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

fiera, 8' e>e eo-eXdovra irapearai Kal r) yvvr) rj ifir) e? KOITOV. Kelrai Be dy%ov TTJ? iaoBov 0p6vo<;- eirl rovrov ra>v l/iarimv Kara, ev etcao-Tov iicBvvovcTa Qr\rr)<; jivy,9 aol /leXeTco TO evQevrev o/cax; fir) ? OVK iBvvaro Buupvyelv, rjv eroifios- 6 Be KavBavXr)?, iirel iBoicei a>pv T^? KOITT}<; elvai, tfyaye rbv Tvyea e? TO oiKTjfia, Kal fj,era rdora avrUa irapr\v Kal f) ryvvi]. eaeXdovaav Be Kal TiQelaav TCL eifiara eOrjelTO 6 Yvyt]^, G>? Be Kara vcorov eyevero lovarjs T?)? yvvaiKO? e? rrjv KOLTTJV, vireKBxx; e%w/36t If a). Kal 17 jvvr) eiropa fiiv e^Lovra. paOovaa Be rb Troirjdev SK rov avBpbs ovre aveftwcre ala^yvOeLaa ovre eBofje fiadelv, ev vow eyova'a ricrecoat rov J\.avoav\ea' irapa epei. rare fiev Brj ovra ovBev Brfkaxraira r]avyii]V elye' ft>9 Be rjfiepi] rdviara eyeyovei, rmv oiKereav rov? fidXitrra a>pa Trio-roil? eovra? iwvrr}, erolfjbovi iroiTjffafievri eKaXei rbv Yvyea. 6 Be ovBev BoK&av avrrjv rwv Trprjydevrcov eiriaracrOai %\0e Ka\e6fievos' icbdet, yap Kal Trp6o~8e, oKWi rj fiao-'iKeia Ka\eoo, <j>oirav. ft)? Be 6 Yvyr]<; atriKero, eXeye 17 7111^ rdBe. " vvv roi Bvcov 6Ba>v irapeovo-eaiv, Tvyt), BIBcofu a'lpecnv, OKoriprjv (3ovkeai rpaireadai. rj yap KavBavkea diroKreiva'; ifie re Kal rrjvfiacrCK/qiriveye rrjv AvBwv, rj avrov ere avrUa ovrco airoQvrjiiKew Bel, m<; av fir) irdvra 7rei66fievos KavBavXr/ rov Xonrov iBrjs ra firj ere Bei. aX\J ryroi Kelvov ye rov raora jBovKevGavra Bel airoWvaOai rj ere rbv e/i.6 yv/jivr/v 6er/o-dfievov Kal irot.rjaavra ov vofu^o/ieva." 6 Be Tvyrjs Teco? fiev dTTe6a>vpa%e ra Xeyo/j,eva, fiera, Be iKereve [itf /JLIV dvayKairj evBelv BiaKplvai roiavrrjv a'Cpeaiv. OVKCOV BT) eiretde, dXX' copa dvayKairjv dXr)6ea<; irpoKei/Mevr/v i) rbv Be rea Kal rpoTrqs eiuyeipr)aofiev avro>." rj Be viroXafiovaa e(f>r/ " eK rov avrov fjuev ycopLov V op^V earat odev irep Kal eKelvo<; ifie eVeSefaTO yvfivrjv, 12 vTrvwfievq) Be r) einveCpi]<Ti
" You are behind her."

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

eiTreTO 6? TO daXafiov Trj yvvaiKi. Kal \MV eKeivt], iy^ Bovaa, KaTaKpviTTei virb TrjV avTtjV Qvpr/v. Kal pera, avairavo/jievov TZavBavXeco inreKBv'i r e Kal diroKTeiva^ Kal

TTJV yvvaiKa

o Tlapiot

Kal

TTJV

fiaaiXrjirjv

Tvyrjs-

avrbv

[TOV Kal

Kara TOV avTov ^(povov yevo/juevos iv Idfifiq)

refivrjcrOrj]}

ec^e

Be TTJV /3aaiXrjl7]v Kal eKpaTvvdi) 13

e« TOV ev AeX<polcn %p7]? yap Srj ol AvBol Beivbv ivoieovTO TO K.avBavXeco 7ra#09 Kal iv OTTXOMTL rjcrav, crvvefiijaav 69 TWVTO oi Te TOV Tvyeo) (TTacnoi)Tai Kal ol Xonrol AvBoi, rjv

fiev

TO xprjcrTrfpoov aveXy

/MV fiacrtXea elvai

AvBwv,

TOV Be

fiaaiXeveiv, r\v Be yd), airoBovvai oiricra eV 'HpaKXeiBas TTJV ap^rjv. aveTXi Te Bfj TO ^pTja-T^piov Kal eftacrlXevcre OVTW Tvyrjs.

ToaovBe fievToi elire f) Uvdlrj, o>? 'UpaKXelByai dirojovov

Tvyeco.

Tt<jt9 rfeeu e? TOV

TOVTOV TOV €7T6O9 AvBol

T€ Kal ol

avrmv Xoyov ovBeva iiroieovTO, irplv Br] iireTeXecrdrj. fj,ev BT] TvpavvLBa

OVTW

eayov

ol MepfivdBai

TOW 14

direXofievoi, Yvyqs Be Tvpavvevaa'i dire'7rep,'^re dvae9 AeA,^>ou9 OVK oXlya, dXX' ocra /Aev dpyvpov dvadrj/iaTa eo~TL ol TfXelara iv Ae\^>otcrt,2 irdpe^ Be TOV dpyvpov ^pvabv airXeTov dvedrjKe dXXov Te Kal TOV fidXi&Ta fjLvrjfi^v d^cov e^etv icrTL, Kpr]Tripe<s ol dpidfibv e£ j^pvaeob dvaKeaTai. £(TTao~i Be OVTOI iv TS Kopivdicov drjcravpS, GTaQjibv e^oz/re? Tpir/KOVTa TaXavTa- dXt]6ei Be Xoyw ^pea>fxeva> ov K.opbv8lwv TOV BTJ/JLOCTIOV ivo<;. OWTO9 Be 6 1 This sentence is regarded as spurious by Wesseling and Stein. Aristotle (Ehet. iii. 17) and Plutarch (Mor. ii. 470 c) quote from Arkhilokhos the following line, which was put into the mouth of one of his characters : OS /J.OI TO. Tiyew TOO iroKvxpiiTov fiiXet (Fr. 25, ed. Bergk). Arkhilokhos also referred to the destruction of Magnesia by the Kimmerians, and is stated to have been a contemporary of Gyges, and therefore, as Gelzer has shown (Das Zeitalter des Gyges), to have flourished B.C. 687-53. We learn from the Assyrian inscriptions that the Kimmerians first invaded Lydia in the reign of Gyges, not of Ardys, as Herodotos supposed. With the name of Gyges (Assyrian, Gugu; Hebrew, Gog), compare the Karian names Gygos and Ida-gygos in the Halikarnassian inscription pub-

lished by Newton (Essays on Art and Archceology, pp. 427 sq.) 2 "Most of the silver offerings at Delphi were his." Silver seems to have had a special attraction for the Hittites, whose monuments in Asia Minor are usually met with in the neighbourhood of old silver mines, and their fancy for the metal may have been communicated to the Lydians. In the time of Herodotos gold was to silver as 13 J to 1 (not 13 to 1, as stated in iii. 95, see Mommsen : "Note sur la systeme metrique des Assyriens," appended to the "Hist, Mon. Eom.," ed. Blacas, i. p. 407) ; in that of Plato and of Xenophon 10 to 1, owing to the quantity of gold introduced into Greece by the Persian War. See, too, Liv. 38, 11. Under Theodosius II. it was as 18 to 1.

[BOOK

HERODOTOS.

10 TvjTf?

TT/OWTO?

ava6i]fiaTa yap

fiera

Br) ical

iBUa^e,

iovTa

fiapffdpcov

iBfiev

e? AeX^ov?

dveOV/ce s

MCBTJV TOV TopBCw <$>pv
MiBi)<; TOV ficuriXrjiov Opovov d!;io0er}Tov

ol TOV Tvyeco KprjTripes. Tvyq?

r&v ^ e t ?

Kelrcu

e?

TOV

avefyice

-rrpoKaT^wv

Be 6 6povo<; OUTO? evOa Trep

6 Be ^pvcrbs

OUTO? KOX 6 apyvpos

TOV 6

avedrf/ce, VTTO Ae\(p£>v KaXeiTai TvydBa<; eVt TOV dvadevTO<s

vvp,it]v. 15

'Ecre/3a\e fiev MLXTJTOV 3

vvv

o-Tpartr)V ical OVTOS,

ical e? ~%fivpvt]v

h

eVetVe 4 r)p%e, I? re

ical KoXo^wz/o? TO acrTV elXe-

Midas and Gordios are common names among the Phrygian kings. Phrygians and Greeks were allied in both language and race; and myths which became part of Greek mythology told of a Gordios who was raised from a peasant to be a king, and tied a knot about the yoke of his cart which could be undone only by him who was destined to be lord of Asia ; as well as of a Midas who turned all that he touched into gold, and of whom the reeds whispered that his ears had become those of an ass because he had esteemed the singing of Pan above that of Apollo. Another Midas is made by Eusebios to have ascended the throne in B.C. 738. He married Damodike", daughter of Agamemn&n, the Greek king of KymiS, and seems to have been the Midas meant by Herodotos. He killed himself by drinking bull's blood when Phrygia was invaded by the Kimmerians. He is probably to be distinguished from the Midas whose tomb was adorned with a bronze image of a girl (Plato, Pkcedr. 264 D). Among the tombs of the Phrygian kings in the valley of Doghanlii (between Yazili Kaia and Sidi Ghazi, the ancient Prymn&sos and Midseon) is one at Kumbet, with an inscription of two lines in Phrygian letters, which reads (1) Ates Arkiaevais Akenanogavos Midai gavagtaei vanaktei edaes ; (2) Baba Memevais Proitavos kphi Zanavezos Sikeneman elaes. This may be translated: "Ates Arkiaevas, the son of Akenanos, built this for Midas the . . the king: Baba Memevais, the son of Proitas, and Zana-

Xk'

vezos, a native of Sikan, planned it." See Mr. "W. M. Eamsay's paper on the Phrygian Inscriptions in the "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society " for 1882. During his visit to Phrygia in 1881 he recopied the inscriptions already known, found others, and discovered a new Phrygian necropolis near Ayazeen, twenty miles south of that of Midas. 4 iffd re, like Sffre, 8
i.J

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

11

ovBev yap fieya air avrov aXXo epyov iyevero ^acnXeveravro1? Bvaiv Beovra recnrepaKovra erea, rovrov /j,ev iraprjo'Ofiev rocavra iTn/jLvrjcrdevres, "Ap8vo*s Be roil Tvyem fiera, Tvyyv fiacrtXevo-avro? /j,vrj/jiT]v iroirjcrofiab.

OWTO? Be Hpirjveas

re etXe e? MlXtyrov

re

iaefiaXe, e7rl rovrov re rvpavvevovros %apBCa>v JLififiiptoi e'f rjOecav inrb %Kv6e(ov roiv vofidBav i^avaardvre'i diriKovro e? rrjv 'Acrlnyv Kal XdpBis irXrjv TJ}? aKpoTroKios etkov.6 "ApSwo? Be ftacriXevcravTO'i evb<; Beovra irevrrfKavTa erea 16 efeSe^aTo %aBvdrTr)<; 6 "ApBvos, Kal i)3ao-l\ev(re erea 8va>8eKa, XaBvarreo)

airoyova

Be 'AXWCITTT;?.

OVTOS Be JLva^dprj

re

rm

A^fo/ceo)

eTroXe/jirjcre Kal M?jSotcrt, Kt/i//,6j0t'oi"? Te e/c T ^ ? 'Acrw;?

e%r)\a? r)6e\e

e, dWa, trpoairraiaa^ /MeydXco^1 aXXa Be epya direBe^aro imp iv rfj dpj(rj d^i.a'K'rjyrjTOTaTa rdBe. eTroXefirjcre MiXrjcrioicn, 17 irapaBe^d/j,evo<; TOV iroXefiov irapa TOV trarpo^. eireXavvaiv yap iiroXoopKei TTJV MiXr/rov Tpoirto TotoGSe. o/co)<; fjLev e'irj iv rfj yea Kapirbs aS/30?, TrjviKaijTa ecre/3a.XXe rr)v arpaTirjv • icrTpaTevero Be I/TTO crvpiyywv

re Kal irr)Kr[Ba>v Kal avXov yvvaiKTjiov

re Kal

dvBprjiov. to? Be e? rtjv NliXr]crlr)v diriKoiro, olKrjfjiara fiev rja, eVl rwv dypoov ovre KareftaXXe ovre iveirL^Trpi) ovre 6vpa<s direatra, ea Be Kara, yu>pt]v ecrrdvai' 6 Be rd re BevBpea Kal rbv Kapirbv

rbv

iv

rfj

yea

OKCD? Boa
T?}? yap QaXdacrf]^ ol MtX^crtot iireKpdreov, elvat

epyov

rfj arparifj.

ware

T
esses of the Asiatic goddess whose worship the Hittites introduced into western Asia Minor. Smyrna, originally an iEolic colony, became Ionic through the treachery of the Eolophonians. See ch. 150. Mimnermos, the elegiac poet, celebrated the repulse of Gyges by the Smyrnsens, according to Pausanias (ix. 29, 2).—-XITTV is the unwalled lower city as opposed to the Acropolis (cp. 5, and Od. i. 3). 6 This is a mis-statement, since we learn from the Assyrian inscriptions that the invasion of Lydia by the Kimmerians took place during the reign of Gyges, who sent two of their chiefs whom he had captured in battle as a present to the Assyrian monarch, and was after-

OTTIGW.

iireBp'r)'; firj 6 AvSo?

wards slain himself by them. It is probable that the submission both of Gyges and of his successor Ardys to Nineveh was due to the pressure of the Kimmerian invasion. With Ardys compare the Karian name Ardyssis in the Halikarnassian inscription. 7 Not "flutes masculine and feminine," i.e. of lower and higher pitch, as Bbttiger and Eawlinson, but "flutes of men and women," as Aulus Gellius (Noct. Attic. i. 11). If the first interpretation is adopted, Herodotos would mean the Lydian/id-ya5is(of two octavesof different pitch), the masculine flute denoting the deeper tones of the instrument, the feminine flutes the higher notes (cp. the tibia sinistra and dextra of the Romans).

12

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

T&vBe e'iveKa, OKW? eftoiev evOevrev op^eofievoc rrjv yeav tnretpeLv re teal ipyd^eadai ol MtXrjaioi, aiirbf Be eKeivav ipyafyfievav 18 e^oi n Kal diveadai io-ftdXXcov. rdora iroimv iiroXifiei erea ev&eica, iv rolcn rpco/utTa fieydXa Bt,<j>do-(,a MbXrjcrlwv iyivero, 'iv Te Aifievijicj) x^PV? '"fc ercj>eTiprj<; /j,a%e(rafj,evcov Kal iv MaidvBpov 7reSiw. TO, (lev vvv ef erea r&v evBeica 'ZaSvaTrr)*; 6 "A/sSwo? en AuSwi/ rjpx^, o Kal icrfidWwv rrjviKavTa e? TTJV MiXr)<Tir)V TTJV a-rparitjv ~ZaBvaTTrj<; OVTOS jap Kal 6 TOV iroXefiov rjv o-wdtya?TO, Be irevre -rtav irecov TO, eiropeva rolcn el; AXvarrij? o SaBvdrrea) e7roXe/iet o? irapaBe^dfievo'i, o>9 Kal irpoTepov BeBrjXcoTai,8 nrapa, TOV irarpo^ TOV iroXefiov 7rpocre2xe i rolai Be M.i\rjcrloi(Ti oiBafiol 'Ia>va>v TOV TroXefiov TOVTOV crvveTre\atypvvov OTI fir] Xioi, fiovvot. OVTOU Be TO O/JLOIOV d BiBovTe? irifuopeov Kal jap Br) irpoTepov ol 'M.Ck'qaioL 19 Xtotcrt TOV irpos 'JLpvdpalovs TroXefiov crvvBiijveiKav. TW Be BvcoBeKarai erei XrjCov ifiirnrpafievov viro TT)? o-TpaTifjs crvvrjveLxOr) TU ToiovBe jevecOat, irprfliia- a)? a<j>07) Ta^t'O'Ta TO Xrjiov, ave/u,q> /3id>ft,evov a^fraTO vrjov 'A-dr/vatr]? iiriKX'qai.v 'Acrcr^o-ti;?, d(f>del<; Be 6 V7)o<> KaTeKavdrj. Kal TO TrapavTiKa fiev Xoyos ovBels ejevero, fieTa Be TIJ? crTjoaTti)? aTTiKOfievrjs e? "ZapSt,? ivocrTjcre 6 1 AXvdrTT]?. fiaKpoTeprj? Be ol juvofievr]^ TTJ<; vovaov ireinrei 69 9 deoirpoirovs, eire Br) r) xprjcreiv irplv i) TOV TOV iveirprjaav x vr/bv Tr)<; 'A.6r)vair}<; dvopOaxraxn, 20 MtXr;cri?j9 iv Ao-o~7)o-q>. AeX&)V olBa ijot OVTCO yeveaOai- M-iXijcrooi, Be rdBe irpoo-TbdeZcri TOVTOKTI, TleplavBpov9 TOV K.v^reXov eovTa ®pao-vj3ovXa> ™ Tore M.iXr)Tov TvpavvevovTi %elvov e9 TO. fidXio-Ta, irvdofievov TO XPrl0"rVPLOV T° TU> 'AXvaTrrj jevofievov, ire/j,y{ravTa ajyeXov Karenreiv, OKW; dv TI 7rpoeiBa><; 21 7rpo9 TO irapebv fiovXevrjTai. M.iXrjcrioi fiev vvv ovra> Xejovcri, 8 Nietzsch (Abhandlwng uber Herodot, one, iv. 16, 79, v. 35, and ii. 14. Here Bielefeld, 1873) tries to show that out of Nietzsch thinks the account of the war thirty-five references in Herodotos to what with Kyaxargs, now in chh. 73 sq., stood hehaspreviouslysaidfivefollowsoquickly in the 1st edition inch. 17 before
i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

13

yevecrffai. 'AXvarr^ Be, «9 ol rdora iljayyeXOr), avrUa ewefvire KrjpvKa £9 MIXTJTOV fiovXofievos GTrovBas irocrjaaadai ®pa re Kal yiiXr)
Kal IBMDTIKOS, TOVTOV Travra

crvyKOfii(Ta<; e? TTJV dyopr/v

irpoelire M.iX'rjaloiai, eireav auT09 arrjfATjvj], Tore irLveiv re 7ravrafAip xpaadai, 69 aXXrfXovs. rdora Be eiroUL re Kal 22 7rpoayopev6 ®pa9 yap Brj IBwv re eKelva 6 Krjpv^ Kal el-ira p ®pacrv/3ovXov rov AvSou Ta? ivroXa*; dirfjXde 69 TO.9 %apBt,<>, to? eya irvvdavofiMi, Bi ovBev aXXo iyevero TJ BiaXXayrj. eXiri^tdv yap o 'AXvarrys aiToBelrjv re elvat Icyyprjv iv rfj MtX^rw Kal rov Xewv rerpvo~6ai 69 TO ecr^arov Kaicov, rjKove rov KrjpvKos voGTrjo-avro'i eK TJJ9 yitkrjTOv TOU9 ivavrlov; Xoyovs r/ «9 avro<; KareBoKei. fiera Be r) re BiaXXayij crtf>t iyevero iir c§ re %eivovs aXXrfXoia-i, elvai Kal av/j,/j,d-^ov<;, Kal Bvo re dvrl ivds vrjov? rfj 'Adrjvacy oiKoBo/Mrjae 6 'AXvdrrr}<; iv rfj 'AcrarjoS, avros re eK Trj'i vovaov dvearrj. Kara fiev rov 7T/3O9 MtX^trtow Te Kal ®pao~v{3ovXov 7roXefiov ' AXvdrrri wBe ecr^e. UeplavBpos Be r\v KvyjreXov irals, OVTOS 6 r
8bv rwv rore iovrcov ov&evbs Bevrepov, Kal Bidvpafiftov irp&rov dvQpwiroov rSsv "Bfiev iroirjcravrd re Kal ovofidaavra Kal BoBd^avra iv q).1

TOVTOV rov ' Aplova

1 The dithyramb, originally a hymn to Dionysos, sung by a band of revellers, was adapted to the system of Doric choruses and danced by fifty boys or men round an altar. Hence its name of cyclic chorus. Hellanikos, Aristotle, and others agree with Herodotos in ascribing its invention to Arion ; later writers made Lasos of Hermione its inventor; while, according to the Scholiast on Pindar, 01.

Xeyovao, TOV TTOXXOV rov ypbvov 24

xiii. 25, Pindar, who here implies that it was invented by the Lesbian Arion, elsewhere traces its origin in one passage to Naxos, in another to Thebes. It was really older than Arion, as a fragment of Arkhilokhos in Athenteus (Deip. xiv. 6, p. 628) refers to it, and is itself of a dithyrambic character; but Arion probably introduced some alterations in its use. Hence he was said to be the son of

14

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

BiaTpi'ftovra irapa HepidvBpw, eTri0v(ifj TreXdyei i-mftovXeveLP TOP '''Kpiova eicfiaX6vTa<; e%eiv ra j^prifiaTa. TOP Be crvvevra TOVTO Xlo~? ay r a ^ 9 iv yea Tv%r}, r) eKwqBav e's rrjp ddXaaaav rr)V Tayj? 6^Xe> avv TV (TKevfl iracy. ical roil? fiep diroirXelp e? Koptpdov, TOP Be BeXvXaicy ej(eiv ovBafifj fienePTa, dpaicws Be e%eip TSSP iropdfiewv. a>? Be apa irapelvat, avrovs, icXr)9evTa<; icrTopeladat, e'i TO Xeyoiep irepl 'Aplopos. afiepa>p Be eKeipcov w? e'lrj T6 CT&J? irepl 'IraXirjv /cat fiiv ev rKpr)t rbv Kykl3n. Little is known of him beyond the myth related in the text, which had attached itself to him in popular legend. The myth appears in another form in the story of Orpheus, as well as in that of Apollo Delphinios, who, in the guise of a dolphin, urged the Kretan ship through the sea until the sailors reached the shore, where they were bidden to become the priests and founders of the shrine of Delphi, the oracle of the god of song. The resemblance between the name of the dolphin (5e\0ic) and that of Delphi, derived from the " twin" peaks of Parnassos above it, no doubt originated the latter tale, and gave rise to the device of a dolphin on the coins of Delphi, and a

belief in the connection believed to exist between the dolphin and the musical followers of Apollo. The primitive myth, which told of the effect of music on beasts and outward nature, seems to have referred to the wind, 2 According to the Scholiast on Aristophanes (Achar. 16), the Orthian was in a high key. Compare the Homeric 6p0ia ijvtre, "she cried shrilly." N6,ctos, from vi/ia "to distribute," means "share," then "arrangement" or "order," and so "custom" (what is arranged) and "the arrangement of notes," i.e. a musical strain. The Nomos was dedicated to the service of Apollo, as the dithyramb to that of Dionysos.

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST. Apiova eTi

15

&tnrep e%wv i^eTTijB'rja'e' iea\ Tov
eXey%ofievov<} dpvelcrdcu.

Aeo"/3iot Xeyovai, eVt Taovapm,

rdora

yukv vvv

ical 'Apu>i>o<; iarl

OVK e^euv

Y^opivQiol re

ical

dvddrj/jba ftdX/ceov ov

fieya

e7rl BeXivo<; eirecbv avOpanro?.3

A\UO.TT?7? Be 6 AuSo? TOV irpos MtX^crtov? troXefiov Bteveiicas 25 fiereireiTa

TeXevra,

fiacriXevaas

erea eirra ical TrevTrjicovTa.

drjice Be eK(f)vyaiv TTJV vovcrov Bevrepos AeX^ou? KpTjTTJpd re dpyvpeov KoXXrjTOV, 9ir)<; agiov

dve-

OVTO? T?)? OIKITJ? ravTT)
fieyav ical viroKpr^TriplBiov cnBrjpeov

Sia irdvrcov

TWV ev AeX
YXavKOV TOV Xtou iroirj/Ma, o? fiovvos Brj irdvTwv avdpanrav criBtfpov /coXXrjcrtv i£evpe.i TeXevTrja-avTO^ Kj0oto"o? d 'AXvaTTem, o? Brj 'EXXijvaiv

Be

'AXvaTTeco eTeav

irpwToiai

etjeBefjaTO

eaiv ^XiKlrjv

eireQrjKaTo 'E^eo-totcrt.

"iroXiopKeo/jLevoi inr T»j9 re

VTJOV e7rra

/3acri\T]ir]v 26 evda

Brj ol

avTov dviOecrav TTJV TTOXIV TTJ 'ApTe-

dTJravTes e/c TOV VIJOV a^puviov ^v

TTJV

irevTe KCLI TpurjKOVTa,

e? TO TeZ^oy

eaTi Be

7raXacfj<; TroXio*;, fj TOT6 eiroXtopKelTo,

ical TOV

GTaBioi.6

7rpd>T0icn fiev

3 The figure still remained at Tsenaros in the time of iElian (the third century after Christ), with the inscription :—

Bt) TovTotai

hveyeiprjcre

6

of imbricating or laying plates of metal one over the other. The art of inlaying or damascening metal was also practised by the Egyptians at this early period 'A6a.vd.TUi' Trofarcu 'ApLova, 'KOKXOVOS (Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, ii. pp. vibv, 257-8, ed. Birch). Among the objects m ' E K SIKEXOO Tre\dyov$ awev &Xtl ' T6de. found by Dr. Schliemann in the fourth tomb at Mykense are a silver knife-blade, Creuzer ingeniously supposes that the with figures of men hunting lions inlaid myth grew out of the figure dedicated in gold, and a silver goblet similarly inby Arion in the temple of Poseidon (on the site of which now stands the ruined laid with gold work. Pausanias, who saw the stand of the vase presented by church of the Asomatos). The legend Alyattes to Delphi, describes it as conof Apollo Delphinios, and the consequent sisting of "several plates of iron, laid connection between the dolphin and one over the other in the form of steps ; music, may have induced the poet to the last (those at the top) curving a little choose a figure of a dolphin as his offeroutwards. It had the form of a tower, ing. The later coins of Methymne' relarge at the base and decreasing uppresent Arion sitting on a dolphin. wards ; and the pieces of which it was 4 "Invented the soldering of iron." composed were not fastened either with Objects of soldered bronze belonging to nails or with pins, but were simply solthe prehistoric age have been found by dered together" (Paus. x. 16, 1). AcDr. Schliemann at Hissarlik (Troy) and cording to Athenseus [Deip. v. 13), the Mykense. Herodotos, however, is misvase was inlaid with figures of plants taken in saying that the art of soldering and animals. iron was first invented by Glaukos, since 6 The ancient city included Mount it was known in Egypt at least as early Prion or Pion and a portion of Mount as the eighteenth dynasty, like the art

16

HERODOTOS.

Kpoiaos,

fiera

aWoicrt, a\\as

[BOOK

Be iv

fiepei knadTOvai 'Iwvoov re Kai AloKemv,

alrias

ivrrfepcov, ra>v fiev eBvvaro fie^ovas irap-

evplcrKuv, fi&Cpva iircundifjtfvos, rolcn Be avrcov Kai (fiavXa eiri27 epa>v.

as

Se apa ol iv ry

6pov airajyayyrjV, TO ivBevrev

'Atrtj; "EXX^ye? Kare
iirevoei vias Troirjad/ievos

rolai VTjcncoTycn,. iovToav Be ol -irdvTwv erolfiav ol [lev Biavra

iiri'X.eipelv

is TTJV vavirrjyirjv,

\eyov<7i TOV TLpirjvea diriKo/Mevov is %dpBis, ol Be

HiTTaicbv TOV MvTiXrjvalov,

eipofievov

Kpolaov

ei TI eirj

vearepov

irepi TTJV 'EXXaSa, elirovTa TaBe icaTairavo-ac TTJV vavTTrjjiTjv. jSaa-Ckev, vrjo-iwTai 'ITTTTOV crvvaveovTai eirX ere iv v6a> eyovres

o~Tapa,Teveo~0cu."

\e
K.po2o~ov Be i\7rio~avTa

TOVTO 6eol iroir]o-uav e-irl

voov VTjcnanrjcri, iXdelv eirl AvB&v TratSa? crvv ITTTTOKTI." pdvao " a> /3aai\ev,

Im-irevofjievovs ~ka(3elv iv ryrreipq, OIKOTU eXiri^av.

iv

vijcri-

iirvdovTO
apmpevot,

AvBoiis

"va xnvep T&V iv Trj r\ireLp(o ol/cr/fievcov 'T&Wrjvcov

TiacovTai ere, TOVS cri) BovXwcras e^eis;"

KapTa T6 r)o-6rjvai K.pol-

crov TO5 iirtX6 Kai ol, irpoo-va><; jap Tvavcraadai

Ta^caTa

eVl crlcn, vavTrrjiyeicrOai, veas, \aj3elv

dahdaar),

TOV Be

Trpodvfioos fioi alveai ev^acrdat

d>Ta<; Be Tt BQKeis evj^ecrOai aWo r\, iireire fieWovTa

"&

fivpiTjv, e? ~ZdpBis re Kai

T?)? vavtrrfjlris.

Kai OVTCO rolai

Bogai Xeyeiv, Ta? vrjdovs

ireiQo^evov OZKT]-

ftevoicn "lacri ^eivlrjv crvve0i]KaTO. 28

Xpovov Be iirvyivofievou Kai KaTeaTpa/ifievav a"^eBov trdvTav

Eoressos along the cliff, on which remains of early Cyclopean walls can still be traced. The temple lay at the distance of about a mile from the Magnesian Gate, which was westward of it and in the valley midway between Prion and Koressos. It would seem that in the time of Herodotos it had been already enclosed by the city wall, though Xenophon still speaks of the temple as being seven stades from the city (Ephes. i. 2). The temple, dedicated to the Asiatic goddess, whom the Greeks identified with their Artemis, has been excavated by Mr. Wood. The original structure went back to the Hittite period; that of which the ruins now remain was, according to Pliny, the eighth. The sixth, commenced by the architects Khersiphron of Krete and his son Metagenes, occupied nearly one hundred years

in building, and was destroyed the very day Socrates drank the hemlock (B.C. 400). Kroesos had contributed towards its construction. The seventh was burnt by Herostratos the same night Alexander the Great was born (B.C. 356). The local character of Greek religion is strikingly illustrated by the action of the Ephesians. The rope locally connected the temple with the city, and so placed the latter under the protection of the goddess. Compare Thukyd. iii. 104 (where Polykrates dedicates Rheneia to Apollo by connecting it with Delos by a chain). Similarly, the conspirators who had aided Kylon at Athens connected themselves with the altar of the Eumenides by a cord, and their removal brought a curse upon the house of Megakles, the Alkmaeonid, who ordered it. See ch. 61.

THE EMPIEES OF THE EAST. TUV

ivTos ' A \ u o ? TTorafiov

AVKCWV

TOU? aWovs

oliCTjfAevaiv (Tfktjv

irdvTa's

17 jap

VTT' etavroS et^e

ULIXLICCOV KOX

KaTaarpe'tyafievoi

o Kpolcrof), [elcrl Se o'iBe, AvSoi, <&pv
Kpolaov

AvSolcn],

airucvkovrau

SapSt? a,K[ia^ovcrai,(TTai,7 ot TOVTOV

TOV ypovov

6 Rejected as a gloss by Stein. The Mariandyni lay between the river Sangarios (Sakaria) and Herakleia {Eregli), separated from the mountain-chain of Asia Minor by the Bithynians. They may have been of Thrakian origin (Stra-bo, vii. 42). The Khalybes, famous as workers in steel (iEskh. Pr. 715) are placed by Pomponius Mela (i. 21) near Sinope, so that Herodotos would be right in speaking of them as west of the Halys; Strabo, on the other hand, put them eastward of the Halys, and here Xenophon (Anab. iv. 6, 7) met them, to the north-west of Lake Van, adjoining the Skythini and near the Phasis. It would seem, therefore, that they once extended over a large tract of country between longitudes 42° and 35°; as we know, from the Assyrian inscriptions, the Tibareni (or Tubal) and the Moskhi (or Mesheeh) formerly did. Erzerum would have stood in their territory. The Khalybes were also called IChaldjei by the Greeks (Armenian, Khalti), from their worship of Khaldis, the supreme god of the protoArmenians who have left cuneiform inscriptions in the neighbourhood of Lake Van. The Thynians occupied the coast eastward of Mysia; the Bithynians being more inland (Pliny, H. N. v. 32). Their Thrakian origin is again mentioned by Herodotos (vii. 75). iEolis was the coastline from the Gulf of Adramyttion to the mouth of the Hermos; Ionia that from the Hermos to Miletos,—the Boghaz Pass, a little to the west of Magnesia ad Sipylum, marking their inland limit ; while the Dorians held the south-western extremity of Karia. The C

irvj^avov

iovres,

co?

coast-land of Pamphylia stretched from Korakesion to Phaselis (Telcrova). It was inhabited by a mixed population, partly Greek, partly native. The inscription of Sillyon, in the corrupt Greek dialect of the country, has been treated by Mr. Ramsay in the Journal of Hellenic Studies, i. (1880). The Pisidians of Pamphylia are first named by Xenophon. The Kilikia of Herodotos extended far to the north of Mount Tauros, the upper Halys flowing through it (i. 72). For the other nations of Asia Minor, see Appendix IV. 7 Sophist did not acquire a bad sense until after the time of Herodotos. According to Isokrates, Solon was the first who was called a "Sophist." The wise men of Greece were generally attracted to the courts where they could find a patron and the chance of making money ; whether the patron was a foreigner or a tyrant mattered little. Solon's travels are not placed beyond the possibility of doubt, and the story told here by Herodotos seems a Greek apologue, intended to contrast the wisdom of the Athenian legislator with the ii/3/xs of the Asiatic potentate. It was especially serviceable to Herodotos in his task of showing how the overweening wealth and power of the first great Asiatic monarch the Greeks were acquainted with brought down upon it the vifiems of the gods. No reference is made to the visit bySolon in his poems. Krojsos did not begin to reign until B.C. 560, and Amasis (alone) till B.C. 564 ; and as Solon seems to have been at Athens when Peisistratos made himself tyrant in B.C. 560, it seems

e?

18

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

avr&v afriKvkoiTO, Kal Brj ical %oXa>v dvrjp 'Adr/vato?, 09 ' vaioicn VO/J,OV<; KeXevcracn, Troirjcras direBi]fir)cre brea oeica, Kara Becopirj^ -irpofyacnv eKTrXmaas, tva Br) firj rcva r&v vofiav dvajKacrdfj \va-ac r&v eOero. avrol yap OVK oloi re r)crav avrb Troirjaao 'AGrjvaloL- bptciouri jap fiejdXoicrt Kard^ovro Seica erea 30 xpr\iXoeroecov yrjv TTOXXTJV OecopLrjs eXveicev iireXrjXvOa1;' vvv a>v iireipecrOai fie i/jLepos eirrjkde ere e'i riva rfB-q Trdvrcov eiBe<; oXfiicbrarov." 0 [lev ikiri^cov etvat dvdpwTrwv oXjSttoTaro? rdora iireipcora- "ZoXaov Be ovBev viro6(OTTevaa<; dXXa rw ebvri %pr)crdfievo<; Xe reKva eKyevofieva Kal irdvra irapafielvavrarovro Be rov jSt'ow ev rjKovri, a>9 ra irap rjfuv? reXevrr) rov ySt'ou Xafnrpordrr] iireyeveroyevoft.evr}<; jap 'A6T)vaioLcrt, fid^Tj1; TT/309 TOU9 dcrvjelrovas ev 'HXevcrivi,,9 f$m)Qr)o-av 31 iAejdXa><;" <»9 Be ra Kara rov TeXXov irpoerpe^aro rov TLpolaov elVa9 7roXXd re Kal 6'X.ySta, eireipoara riva Bevrepov questionable whether the account of his travels is not wholly legendary. Biidinger defends the chronology of Herodotos in bringing Sol6n and Krcesos together, but not very successfully {Bericht. WUn. Ak. 92, pp. 197 sq. Comp. a note by Philippi in the Bhein. Mm. d. Phil. 36, 3, pp. 472-3). 8 "After a happy life, as we reckon it," not "after a long life." EJ takes the genitive as being the neuter of the old adjective etis, i.e. Ms, Sanskrit su-,

from the root of the substantive verb elfu. 9 This shows that the unification of Attica, ascribed in the popular legends to Th&eus, "the establisher," did not take place until shortly before Solon's time, if even then. Perhaps it was one of the resuits of the tyranny of Peisistratos. The hostile relations of the two neighbouring towns of Eleusis and Athens is further indicated in the legend of the war between the Eumolpidse of Eleusis and the Athenians.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

19

fier eiceivov tBot,, Botcicov irdy^y Bevrepela ywv oiaeadcu. 6 8' elire " K\eo/3iv re xal JHrava. rovroicn yap iovau yevos 'Apyeioiai /3/o? re apicicov inrrjv, Kal Trpo? rovTcp pcofirj acofiaro^ Tourjhe' dedXocpopoo re dfi(j>6repoi, ofiolcos r)o~av, Kal Br) Kal Xeyerat, oBe 6 Xoyos. iovurj'i 6prr)<; rfj 'Hpy rolai'Apyeloi&i eBet, iravra^ TTJV firjrepa avr&v ^evyei Ko^a6r\vai e? TO cepov, ol Be i a^elro r/ firjTTjp, o-TaBlow, Be irevre Kal TeaaepaKovra BiaKOfiuravTes airiKOVTO e? TO lepov} rdora Be i iroi7)6elcn VTTO T ^ ? TravTjyvpio? reXevrr] rod /3i'ou aplaTr) iireyevero, BieBe^e re iv TOVTOtau 0 debs o>? a/ieivov e'lrj avOpairat TeBvdvai fidXXov rj ^coeiv. 'A.pyelot fiev yap irepbo-rai'Te? e/iaKapcfrv TWV verjvlav irjv pmfirjv, at Be 'Apyelac TTJV fir/repa avroiv, olcov reKvwv eKvprjcre' fj Be firfrrjp (7rept,%aprj Kal rfj rj/i,r), crracra avriov rov aydX/xaros ev%ero K\eo/3i re Kal Ittravi, rolai i(ovrr)<; rkKvoicn, o'i ficv erifirjaav fieydXws, rr/v Oebv Bovvac TO avdpcoTrco rv^elv dpiarov earn, fiera ravrrfv Be rrjv evyr\v w? edvcrdv re Kal evco^ijOrjaav, KaTaKoifujdevTes iv avrm rS> lepw ol vet)vLai ovKen dvearrjaav aXX' iv reXet rovra> ea^ovro. 'Apyelot Be o-j>ea>v elKovas iroit]adfievoi dveOeaav e? AeXov<; w? dvBp&v dpiarwv yevofievcov." 2I6XQ}V fiev Brj evBaifiov£r]<; Bevrepela evefie rovroccn, Kpotcro? 8e 32 o-irep-)(del<; elire " w %elve 'Adrjvale, rj B' r)jj,erepri evSai/jiovir] ovrco rot direpptirrai, e? TO fiTjBev ware ovBe IBieoreav dvBpwv d^lov; rjfiea<> iiroLTja-a1;;" 6 Be elire " 3) J^poiae, iiviard/JLevov fj,e TO Oelov irdv ibv (pffovepov re Kal rapa^a>Be<;2 eireLpwras dvOpcdiriqiaiv irpriyfidrav irepi. iv yap ra> fiaKpS %povw iroXXd fiev icrrt, IBelv ra fir} TJ? iOeXei, iroXXa Be Kal iradelv. e? yap e/3Bo/Mr}Kovra erea ovpov rr)<; %6T)<; avBpooTrqs irporiOrjfii,} ovrot e<We? eviavrol 1 Pausanias saw a sculpture in the temple of Apollo Lykios at Argos, representing BitSn carrying a bull on his shoulders (ii. 19, and see ii. 20). The mother was said to be Kydippg, priestess of Here (Plut. Mar. 109). 2 Here we have the expression of Herodotos' philosophy, to illustrate which his history was in part written. It embodies the Greek idea that anything which violates the tUrpov, or mean, introduces disorder into the Koe-fids of the

world, and must therefore be hateful to the gods. The Greek was still keenly interested in political life, and not yet prepared for the assurance of Epikuros, that the gods " care for none of these things." Comp. Pindar, Isthm. vi. 39, and the answer of Aristotle, Met. i. 2. 3 Comp. Ps. xc. 10. Medical science and sanitary regulations have of late years considerably lengthened the average of life. See iii. 22, and Solon, Frg. 20.

20

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

e(3Bo[M]Kovra irapi-^ovraL rjfiepas BirjKocrla<; Kal Kal 8io-/J,vpia<;, ififioXlfiov fiyvb? /JLTJ yivoyukvov el Be BTJ edeXtjffet rovrepov rwv irewv firjvl fiaKporepov ylveaOai, iva Brj ai ^ T e t ? , o b'X/3ios KeKXijaBai &%io<; ecrrf irplv 8' av reXevrrjo-Tj, i-Trocr^elv, fj,r)Be KaXeiv KCO b'Xjiiov tttt' evrv^ea. ra iravra fiev vvv rdora crvXXafielv avOparrov eovra dBvvarov ecrrt,, axnrep ya>pr) oiiBe/xia KarapKei irdvra ecovrfj Trape^ovaa, dXXa aXXo /lev e%ei erepov Be e7rtSemw rj Be av ra rrXeiara e%r/, avri) dpio-rt]. w$ 4 Herodotos was an indifferent calculator, as is further shown by his blunder over the number of years required for the Egyptian dynasties (ii. 142). So we need not be surprised that he here makes the solar year consist of 375 days. Prof. Rawlinson has pointed out that this is due partly to his counting the months at thirty days each, instead of alternately thirty and twenty-

nine, and partly to his forgetting that the intercalary month was omitted from time to time—possibly every fourth Tpierijpls. 5 Borrowed from the vEolic dialect (for SidirXovros), like the Homeric fdfeos, fdKoros, frrpeip-fis, frxpyns, fa/ae^s, or JaxXijfliis and fcirvpos, which, together with faTrXouros, must be regarded as derived from the Epic dialect.

i.]

THE EMPIEES OF THE EAST.

21

TOV ftlov, OVTOS Trap' ifiol TO ovvofia rovro S> /3ao-iXev eo~Ti epeo~6ai. aKoireiv Be %prj iravTos ^prjfiaTOS rrjv TeXevrrjv, icfj airofiriGeTai,' iroXXolai yap Brj inroBe!;a<; oXfiov 6 #eo? irpoppltpv ¥Lpoi(ra> ov /ca>9 ovre i^api^ero, 33 ovre Xoyov fiiv iroirjcrdfAevos ovBevbs diroTrkp/TTerat,, icdpra Bo^as dfia&ea elvai, o? TO. irapeovra dyadd peTels TTJV reXevrr/v TTCIVTOS %pr]fiaTo9 elicdcrcu, on ivSfucre ecovrbv elvai dvOpayircnv d-irdvTajv oXfticoraTov. aiiriKa Be ol evBovru eTreo-rrj oveipos, o? ol TT)V dXr\6elrjv etyacve TSSV peXXovTuv yevecrOai, Kaicav Kara, rbv 7raiSa.e rjcrav Be T& K-polaa Bvo iraiBet;, TWV ovTepo? fiev Bieifidapro, r/v
TOVTOV

Brj o>v TOV "KTVV

aTjfialvei

r&

K/aotcrw o oveipos, a>? diroXel fuv al^Qifj criBrjper] /3Xr]6evTa. 6 B' 67retTe e%r)Brjaas TOV b'veipov dyerai, fiev TW 7raiBl yvvai/ca, iajdora Be o-rparrjye'iv fiiv TWV AVBWV ovBafifj eVt eirl TOIOVTO irprjyfia i^eTref^ire • d/covTia Be ical BopaTia /cal rd Toiavra irdvra roiai yjpea>VTai e? voXe/iov dvdpanrot, ex T(H)v dvBpecovav e/cico//,lo~a<; 69 rovs OaXd/movf avvevTjae, firj TO ol Kpe/Jbd/Jievov TW ivauBX ejisirear). e%ovro<; Be 35 ol iv %e/0(7t TOV "iraiBbs TOV yd/juov, diriKvelTai is T « 9 ^,dpBt<> dvr\p crvfifopT) e%6fievo<; /cal ov ica6apb<; -^elpa^, ewv <£>pi>!; fiev yevefj, yeveos Be TOV ftaabXrjiov. irapeXOwv Be OVTOS 69 rd Kpotcroi/ ol/cia Kara VO/JUOVS TOIIS eTri^copiov; tcaOapaiov iBeiTO eiriKvpfja-ai, K/3otcro9 Be fuv i/cdOr/pe- k'an Be irapaifXTjaLi] rj KaQapais; TOIGL AVBOIGL xal rolai, "l^XXrjo-iJ eVe/re Be T
host then sacrificed a sucking-pig, poured the blood and other libations on his hands, calling upon ZeiJs Ka8dp<nos, made offerings to the Erinnyes, to the dead person, and to Zeiis ixeMxios, and finally inquired after the name of the assassin and the circumstances of the murder. Adrastos ( " h e who runs not away" or "may not be escaped," similar to Adrasteia, the title of Nemesis in Boeotia and at Kyzikos) is a Greek, not Phrygian or Lydian name, and points to the Greek origin of the story. Stein suggests that the story of the death of Atys, the son of Kroesos, may have arisen out of that

22

HEKODOTOS.

[BOOK

o K.poio-09, eTrvvddvero oKodev re /cal T I ? elt], Xeyeov TaBe. " wvdpayire, Tt? Te eaav Kal KoOev rrj<; &pvylrj<; rjKtov eVto-Tto? i/iol iyeveo ; Tiva re dvBpwv rj yvvaiKWV ecj>6vevo-a<;; o Bk apeifiero "& ftacriXev, TopBlco fiev TOV MiBecb elficn-ah, ovofidfy/jiai Be "ABprjo-Tos, $ovevaa<s Be a8eXebv epeavTov aeiccov Te inrb TOV •jraTpb<; Kal eaTep7]jj,ivoi\(ov Tvy%dvei<> eKjovos iwv Kal i\i]\v0a<; e? (f>u\ov<;, evua dii7]-^avr]0-ei<; %pi]fiaTO<; oiBevbs fievwv ev rj/AeTepov. cv/A(f>opr)V Te 36 TaiiTTjv to? Kov<j>OTaTa epa>v KepBavels TrKelaTOV." o fiev Brj BiaiTav el%e ev Kpoiaov. ev Be TS avrw %pov(p TOVTOI ev ra Mucrift) ^O\vfjb7r
V MKCTWV epya 8t,a<$>8eipeo~Ke.

TroWd/a?

Be ol Mwo-ol e V avTov i%e\6ovTe<; iroieecrKov fiev KaKov ovBev, Te\o? Be a/iriKo^ievoi irapa, TOV T£.poiaov eirao-^ov Be irpbs avTov. T5>V Mucrwi; ayyeXot eXeyov TaBe. " w j3ao~c\ev, vo? y^prjfia fieyiaTov ave(f>dvr) rjfjulv ev ry j^mpy, b<; TO, epya BiatyOeipei. TOVTOV irpoOv/jLeo/jLevoi e\etv oil Bvvd//,e6a. vvv &v irpoaBeofieda aeo TOV nralBa Kal \oydBa<; ver)via9 av fuv i£e\a>/J,ev eK ri)? ^aJpr/5." ol fiev Brj TOVTWV iBeovTO, Kpotcro? Be fivr/fiovevcov TOV bveipov TO, eirea > e\eyi o-tpi TaBe. " 7ratSo? fiev Trept, TOV ifiov fit] fx,v7}cr6fjTe ert • oil yap av ifuv cvfiTrifiyfraifif veoya/j,o$ Te yap £O~TC Kal TaoTa ol vvv fieXei. AvBcov fievToi \oyd8a<; ical TO Kvvrjyiaiov irav o-vfi'7refi'>Jrco, Kal BiaKe\evo~o/jMi Total lovcri elvai ft)? TrpoOv/MOTaToio't avve^eXeiv 37 v/uv TO dr/piov eK T97? ^aipi;?." Taora a/ieA^aro* airo^pewiMevav Be TovToiai TWV Mvcrwy eireo'ep'^eTat, 6 TOV Kpotcrou 7rat? a,K7]Koa)<; TMV iBeovro ol M.V0-0L ov afj,evov Be TOV K-poicrov TOV ye iralBd o~<£t av/iirefj/^etv, \eyet, 7rpo? avTov 6 verjviTjs TaBe. " & iraTep, TO, 8 KaWicrTa irpoTepov KOTe Kal yevvaioTaTa rjfuv r)V e'9 r e TTOX&JJLOW; Kal €9 ay pa'; oiTeovTas evBoKifieiv vvv Be d/Maiveo-0at,; KOIOS fiev Tt9 TOZGI TroXirjTrjo'i'Bo^to elvai, Kolo Be eKelvr) 86f et dvBpl avvoLKeiv; ifie &v erii rj //.eTe? levat &Trl TTJV Orjprjv, rj \oyqy ava7reio~ov OK(O<; fioi afieivco ecrTt TaoTa OVTG> iroieofieva." of Atyg, the sun-god, slain by the boar's makes ra the relative, and accordingly reads evdoia.ij.teii>, vvv Sfy tusk of winter (see Paus. vii. 7). 8 8 Tournier (Rev. de Philologie, 1878) " What face must I show."

i.]

THE EMPIEES OF THE EAST.

23

afielfierai, K/aoto-o? rolcriBe. " & iral, ovre SeiXirjv ovre a\\o 38 ovBev d^api TrapiBwv TOO TTOIW Taora, dXkd fiot, 6ifri<; bveipov ev Tfi3 virvcp eVto-Tacra. etyt) ere okijo^poviov eo-eer6af VTTO jap atyfirjs criSrjper}? airtikelaQcu. irpb<; &v rrjv o^jriv TavTqv TOV re jdfiov rot TOVTOV eenrevcra Kal iirl rd irapaXafifdavofieva OVK o, v\aicr)V %Xa>p 6 ' /c&)? Bvvalfiriv iirl rrj<; ifirj? ere %6rj<; . et? jap fiot fiovvos riny^avet? ia>v Trat? • TOP jap Br) erepov Bi,e<j)6ap/J,evov TTJV aicorjv OVK elvai [IOL Xoji^ofiai." dfjuet/Serat o ver}vlr)<; TotctSe. " o~vjjvd)[ii] fxev & irdrep TOI, IBOVTI 39 7e oyjriv roiavTTjv, irepi ifie (pvXaKrjv e%eiv TO Be ov aKKa \ekr\Qe ere TO ovet,pov,9 ifie rot, BUaiov iem Be Kolai fiev elai %elpe<;, xolrj Be al^firj criBr/per) rrjv erv o/3eai, ; el fjuev jap viro OBOVTOS TOL elire TeXevrrfcreip fie, rj dWov reo 6 TL TOVTCp oitce, yj>r\v BTJ ae iroieiv ra, iroieK' vvv Be virb alj^firj^. eTreire &v ov 7T/3O? avBpa<; TJIMV jlverai, f) fidj(r), fieres fie." afj,ei/3erat, K/sottro? " & ival, eerrt, rrj fie viKa<; jvcofir/v d-rro? eov veviKr)fievo, eKa6r]pa KCL\ OIKLOIO-L viroBe^dfievo<; e^eo, Trap e irdo'av BairdvTjv. vvv Stv (o^et'Xet? jdp ifieo Xprjo-ra, e? ere xpr)errolal fie dfieLfSeerOau) fyvKaKa 7ratSo? ere TOV ifiov xprjl^a) jevecrdou e? djprjv opfieofievov, fir/ Tive? Kar 6B6v /cX&J7re? KaKovpjoi 67rt BrfKrjau (j>avecoo~i, vfilv. "7rpb<; Be TOVTGI Kal ere rot, yjpeov eern levai evOa diro\afiirpvveai rolcri epjoio~ianov Te jdp TOI ecrrl Kal irpoereri, pcofirj vTrdp-^ei." dfiel- 42 6 "A.Bpr}o~To<; " & j3ao~i\ev, dXkws fiev ejeaje av OVK r)ba e? deOXov TotovBe' ovre jdp ervfityopfj TOLtjBe Keyjyt)fievov OIKOS iart e? 6fir)\iKa<; ev rrrprjaerovTa<; levai, ovre TO f3ov\eerdai nrdpa, •7roWa%r} Te av lo~%pv i/iecovTov. vvv Be, iireiTe crv erirevBec; Kal Bel TOO /)(apL^eo~6ai (oel\a> jdp ere dfielfteerOat, xpr)erTolo~i), irotelv el/il eToifio'i rdora, iralBd re erbv, TOV BiaKeXeveat v~h,derereiv, dirrfixova TOV (pvXdGcrovTOS etveKev irpoerBoKa TOI, dirovoa'Tijo'ei.v" roiovTOicri iirelre OVTO? dfiei^raro ULpolaov, 43 rjlerav fiera, TaoTa i^rjpTV/jLevot Xojdcn Te verivlycn Kal Kveri. 9

"Now what you do not understand —but the (meaning of the) dream has escaped your notice."—T6 Sv. cannot be

a second ace. after *h£k., an otherwise unknown construction. Perhaps Herodotos wrote d\\& yip.

24

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

airiKOfievoi Be e? TOV "OXvfnrov TO opo<; e%r\Teov TO drjplov, evpovTes Be Kal irepio-TavTe^ ai)TO KVKXW lo~r\KOVTiX,ov. evda Br) 6 %elvo<;, OVTOS Brj 6 icaOapQeh TOV <j>6vov, KaXeofievo'; Be "ABprjcrTos, aKovTL^cov TOV vv TOV fiev a/MapTavet, Tvyydvei Be TOV Kpoarov •jraiBos. 6 (Lev Br) /SXr)6el<; T§ al^V i^eirXtjo-e TOV oveipov TT)V <j)f)/ir)v, e6ei Be TK ayyeXecov TS Kpoicrq) TO yeyovos, ainic6pevo<; Be e? Ta? "ZdpBts TTJV T6 fid^rjv KOI TOV TOV TraiBb1; [Mopov io-7](j,r]ve 44 oi. 6 Be Kpotcro? T&5 8avaT(p TOV irai,Bo<s o~vvTeTapa'yiJ>evoovov e/cddqpe. irepiTjfiefCTecov Be T§ crvfi<j)opy Beiva>s eicaXet, [i,ev Ala KaOapcnov, fiapTvpo/jbevos ra inro TOV %eivov ireTrovdo)'; eir), ixaKei Be hvlcmov Te KCL\ eTaiptfiov, TOV CLVTOV TOVTOV ovo^d^asv Qeov, TOV /u.ev eir[o-Tiov /caXewv, BIOTC Br] oltcioicri VTroBe{;dfjbevo<; TOV %elvov <j>ovea TOV TraiSbs iXdvdave fiocrtccav, TOV Be e.Taipr)iov, « ? irapr\aav Be 45 (pvkaica cvfitrefityas CLVTOV evprjKOt, 7ro\ejiid)TaTov. fjueTa TOVTO oi AvBol ovev<;. GTas Be ovTO'i irpb TOV ve/cpov irapeBlBov ecovTov Kpotcro) TrpoTelveov r a s j(eipa? eir eicetvrj TOV /caOrjpavTa airoXcoXeiccbs e'it]- oiBe ol e'lrj /Buoo-ifwv. Kjootco? Be TOVTUV a/covcra*; TOV Te "A.Bpr}o~Tov KwrotKTelpei, Kaiirep ia>v ev KaKtS OIK7]LW TOQ-OVTW, Kal Xeyet 7r^io? avTov " eya w £elve irapa ceo Tvaaav TJJV BLKTJV, eireiBr) cecovTov icaTaBiicd^eLS OdvaTov. efc Be oi) crv fioi TovBe TOV ica/cov CUTIOS, el fir) b'aov aeKtov i%epydo~ao, aXXcb 6ewv KOV Tt?, o? fioi Kal irdXau irpoearjfiaive ra, fieXXovTa ecreadac." Kpoto-o? fiiv vvv eOatye, <»? olicb<; rjv, TOV ecovTov iralBa' "ABpi)o~TO<s Be 6 YopBla> TOV M/Sew, OVTO<; Br) 6 (f>ovei>(; fjuev TOV ecovTov dBeXeov yevofievo? cj>ovev<s Be TOV KadrjpavTos, iireuTe fjav^inf] TWV avdpwirwv iyeveTO irep\ TO crrjfia, a-vyyt,vcoo-K6fievo<; avdpwTrcov elvai T&V avTOs rjBei, fiapvo-v/i,(f>op(OTaTO<;, iiriKaTaa<j>d^ei TO3 TVfifia ecovTov. 46 Kjootcro? Be iirl Bvo eVea ev irevOei fieydXa /carr/a-TO TOV 7ratSo? icrTeprjfjbivo'i. fieTa Be r\ 'AcrTva7eo? TOV Kvajjdpeca ?jpovTiBa, ei /cto? BvvacTO, irplv fieydXov; yeveaOav TOII? Hepcraf, KaTaXa/3elv avTwv avgavo/Aevrjv TT)V BvvafjLiv. fieTa &v Tr\v Bidvooav TavTrjv avTiica aireTreipaTO T&V fiavT-rjimv T&V 9

B.O. 549.

See Appendix V.

THE EMPIRES OP THE EAST.

I.]

ev Aiftvy,1

ev "EXX^cri ical rod e? Ae\<£ou? levai, Aa>8d)vr)v•

3

Tpocpcaviov,

iXTjcrtT?? e? Bpay^tSa.?. 4

rf

rdora

ical irapa fiev

vvv

e'9 TO. a.7re7re/x^e fiavrevcr6/u,evos Kpoicro*;airecrTeiXe

7re/Mre Se

rwv

fiavrrjieov

aXXov} 6 n

TTjv aXr]deli)i> evpedeir], iTrelprjrai

el iiri^eipeoi

aXXr),

iirifiiroVTO trapd re 'Afufiidpecov

oi Se

Ai/3vr)<; Se veovTa

8iaTre/u,tya<; aXXovs

Be e? "A/3a.9 r a ? <$>a>/cea>v,2 T O W Se e?

rovs

ol Be T979

rd 'RXXrjv

25

eVt Ile'/jcra.? crTpareveadai.

Ai/Sotcrt TaSe dTreTre/ATre is

xprjo-o/Aevow;.

Bie-

cj>poveoi,ev, &>?, et aea Bevrepa evreiXd/j,evo<; Se ToZcrt 47

rrjv Budireipav TWV yjpr\GTr\pia>v, air

rjs av fjfiepr}<; opfiTjdecoai, e'/c %apBia>v, «7ro TCIVTI}<; rifiepoXoryiovras 7ov Xonrov yjsovov eicaTOGTr} rjfiepr] ^paadao

rolcn

eTreipwreovTas

o TL TTOIIOV rvy^dvoi

6 AvBuv

ySacrtXei'? Kpotuo?

o

aaaa

TSIV ^prjcrTTjpicov

AXvaTTeoj-

S

av

eKaara

a-vyypayjraiMevovii dva(f>epeiv irap TWV j^pr)aTr)p[a)v edeainae,

ov Xeyerai,

<$>OZ? i Qea> Kal eiretpaireov5 Xeyei

1

Qeairiarj,

6 n /j,ev vvv ra Xoiirct

irpbs oiiBaiM&v ev Be AeX-

69 TO fj,eyapov

ol At/Sot ^

TO evTeraXfjuevov, r) HvOLt] ev e

TaSe.

That of Amraon. The temple of Apollo of Abas (cp. Soph. (Ed. Tyr. 897-899, and Herod, viii. 134) stood on a low hill to the north-west of the height still surrounded with the massive walls of Abse. The temple was destroyed in the sacred war B.C. 346, and only a single wall of Hellenic masonry now marks its site. 3 The excavations of M. Karapanos have shown that the oracle of Dodona stood in the valley of Characovista, eleven miles south-west of Yannina, where he has exhumed the remains of the town, the theatre, and the sacred enclosure. (See his Dodone et ses Muines, 2 vols. Paris, 1878.) 4 The oracle of Amphiaraos was at OrQpos (Paus. i. 34 ; Liv. 45, 27). See Herod, viii. 134. That of TrophSnios was at Lebadeia (Livadia), in Boeotia, on the slope of the hill now crowned with the walls of a medieval fortress, and just above a deep gorge through which 2

etovrov.

yjn]aT7]ploicn,

a torrent flows. The water, as it passes through the small funnels it has worn in the rocks, produces a whistling sound, which may have first suggested the oracle. The approach to the oracle is now covered with earth, but is probably to be found where the lowest wall of the mediaeval fortress approaches the cliff. Brankhidse, now Hieronda, was ten miles from Miletos. The ruins now existing there belong to the temple built after the destruction of an older one by Xerxes. On either side of the road leading to the port, two miles distant, Mr. Newton found the sitting figures, in an archaic Assyrianising style, which are now in the British Museum. The oracle was a peculiarly Greek institution; the divine in man was called forth by the stimulus of nature, and revealed itself in prophetic song. s "Before they put their questions." —Rawlinson. It must be noted that the oracles were to be "written down and arranged "

26

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

olha B' ey<» tydfji/Aov r dpiO/Mov Kal /ierpa 6aXaacrr)<;, Kal KCO<J)OV crvvirjfiL, Kal ov (jxavevvro1; aKova. 08/M7 fi e? peva<; rjkOe Kparaipivoio j(eXd>vr}t; i'^rofievrj'; ev ^OKKS a/J,' apveioieri icpeecrcrtv, y yakico? Se Kal &Woi ol •7rept,'7re/j,epopre<; TOVS ^pt)crfioii<;, ivdavra 6 K/sotcro? eKacrra dvanrruaawv iirdapa T&V v. TWV /ASV BTJ ovSev TrpoaLerb fiiv 6 Se to? TO e'« Ae\a>v rjicovcre, avriica irpocrevyeTO re Kal -TrpoaeBe^aro, vo/i/cra? fiovvov elvai fiavrtjiov TO ev AeXol<7i, OTO ol e^evprjKec Tv\a!ja<s TTJV Kvpvr\v TWV rjfiepecov ifiTj^avrjcraTO TocdBe- eTnvor]aaebv OVTCO TW K.po(,
50

aWo

Kal TOVTOV

ivofuae

fiavTijiov

dy

M e r a Se rdora ffvairjcn /j,eva<;, vrjo-a^ nrvprfv fieydXr/v, KaTeKaie,7 v TOV Oebv fidXXov TI TOVTOICTI dvaKTrjcrearOai1 AvBolai Te Tract nrpoelve Oveiv irdvTa Tiva avT&v Tovrq) 6 TO e%ot, eKacTO?, to? Se eK T»)9 dvalrj^ iyeveTO, KaTa^edfievo^ ^pvcrbv airXeTov ^ aiiTov i^rfkavve, eirl /xev TO, fiaKpoTepa TTOOCOV e^a6 " I number the sand and I measure the sea, And^the dumb and the voiceless speak to The ftesh of a tortoise, hard of shell, Boiled with a lamb, is the smell I smell, In a caldron of brass, with brass cover as ven " The second line refers to the fact that the priestess interrupted the envoys while they were speaking (tirapiiiTeov). Those who reject the divine inspiration of the oracle have their choice of regarding the story given here as a myth, or of explaining it by the help of mesmer-

i s m a n d clairvoyance. Among the Greeks w a g s a c r e d tQ Aphroditg_

t h e tortoise

^ o r ^ W " ) " dptS/tAi;, cp. Pind. Ol. ii. 99. 'EintffTcu is from trvv/u.—The Pythian priestess delivered the oracles in early

times only once a year, on the 7th of the month Bysios; later, once a month (Pint. Mor. 292 P, 398 A). 7 The waste of good things recorded here reminds us of the holocaust of the luxuries of life made by the women of Florence in consequence of the preaching of Savonarola.

i.J

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

irdKaara,

iirl Be TO, ^pa^vrepa

apidfiov

27

rpnra\ao~Ta, in|ro? Be TraXacmaia,8

Be eTTTa/calBefca Kal etcarov, /cat TOVTCOV a,7re
recrcrapa, rpirov TjfiirdXavTov9 eKacrrov eXxovra, ra Be dXXa rj/uLnrXlvdia XevKov %pvcrov, aradfibv BordXavra. eirotelTO Be Kal XeovTo? elicova yjpvcrov aire^Oov, eXicovo-av aradfibv raXavra Be/ca.

OVTO<; 6 Xemv,

eireiTe

KareKaiero

6 ev AeX(f>oi
Kareirecre dirb TWV rj/MTrXcvdlcov (irrl yap rovTotai iBpvro), Kal vvv Kelrat ev TS K.opiv6icov 8r)o~avpa> eXiccov araOfibv efiBofiov r/fUTaXavTov aTreTcucr] yap avrov reraprov rj/MTaXavTov. iirt- 51 TeXetra? Be o K^ottro? raora a/Kerreix/ite e? AeXcpovs, Kal ra.Be aXXa a/jM roicrt, KpT)rf)pa<; Svo fieyaOeu fieyaXovi, %pvaeov Kal apyvpeov,

T&V 6 /tev %pvo-eo<; e/cetro eVt Be^ia ecnovTb e? TOV VTJOV,

o Be apyvpeos eir apiGTepa. fiereKivrfdrjcrav Be Kal ovrot, virb TOV vrjbv KaTaKaevTa, Kal 6 fiev %pvcreoopeaa>v 6eo<pa,vloi,o-i.3 ao~l Be fjiiv AeXcpol ®eoBa>pov TOV ~%afxlov 4 epyov elvai, Kal 670) BoKew ov yap TO crvvTv^pv (f>alverai fioi epyov elvac. Kal 7rl6ov; re apyvpeov; rea>v AaKeBai/j,ovloto~t, j3ovXo/u,evo<; yapl'Cleo~8 A palm was a little over three inches. Inscriptions show that we must read iraKaara, not -n-aXaicrra, the reading of all the MSS. except two. 9 The MSS. read rpia rnuraXavra, but the editors have decided that Herodotos did not reckon by half-talents. It is not easy, however, to construe the modern reading. Bahr makes the ingots of pure gold weigh 325 French lbs., and those of pale gold 260 lbs., but his calculations are not wholly certain. 1 Pale or alloyed gold is the usual material of early gold ornaments found in the eastern part of the Mediterranean. Some ornaments lately discovered in an ancient Lydian tomb on the southern side of Tm&los are of pale gold. Cp. Soph. Antig. 1037.

2 "The corner of the ante-chapel." See viii. 122. Six hundred amphorae would be more than 5000 gallons. 3 Wine was mixed with water in it during the festival of the Theophania. The latter is mentioned by Philostratos (Fit. Apoll. iv. 31) and Pollux (i. 1, 34). 4 Theodores, the architect, according to Pausanias (iii. 12; viii. 14), invented the art of casting in bronze. This, however, was an error of Greek vanity, as the art was practised in Egypt, Assyria, and Phoenicia at an early period. Theod&ros was credited with having carved the emerald in the ring of Polykrate's. The supposition of E. 0. Muller, that there were two Samian artists of this name, is wholly gratuitous, and contrary to the plain words of Pausanias.

28

HEEODOTOS.

[BOOK

6ao, TOV iTTiardfievoi; TO ovvofia OVK eirifivrjaoixai. aXX o fiev 7rat?, Bo ov T»)S %et/3o? pel TO vBap, Aa/ceBaifjbovlav e a r / , ov fjiivrou T&V ye trepippavT^piiov ovBerepov. aXXa TC ava8rjfiara OVK iiTLo-Tjfia iroXXd aireireii"^re a/ia TOVTOIO-L 6 K/aotcro?, /cat %evfjiaTa apjvpea KvicKorepea, Kal Br) Kal yvvai/cbs el'BcoXov %pvol T ^ ? apTOKOirov T ^ ? Kpocarov eiKOva Trpo? Be Kal T?}? ecovTov JVVCUKO<; TO, airo TJJ? \e<; Kai ac^/Mfjv o-Tepeijv, iracrav ^pvcrerjv, TO %V TOV 'Io~fj,rjviov 'AiroWaiVOS. 53 Tolcrt Be ayeiv /AeXkovcri TUP AVBWV TaoTa TO, Bcopa e'? TO, lepa. iveTeWeTO 6 Kpotcros iireipwTav TO, yjyY)o~T7)pia el o~TpaTew\Tai iirl Uepcra9 Be diriKOfievoi, e? TO dTveire^^>Qt]aav ol AvBol dvedeo~av TO, dvadrffiaTa, i^pewvTO TOIO~I %p'r)o~Tr)pioi,o~t, XeyovTei " Kjootcro? o AvBwv Te Kal aXXwv idvewv /SacriXev?, vofiio-as TaBe (juavTrjia elvai fjuovva ev avdpcoiroicrt, vfuv Te a%ia Bwpa eBaKe T&V e^evp7)/j,dTwv, Kal vvv Vfteas eireipaTa el o-TpaTevrjTai eirl Hepo-as Kal e'i Tiva CTparov dvBpwv irpoadioiTO crvfifia^ov.", ol fiev TaoTa eireopoaTeov, T&V Be fiavTrjlatv dfi(f>oTepcov e? TCOVTO al fiai o-vveBpa/jiov, TrpoXeyovo-ai, K.poicra), r/v o-TpaTevrjTai eirl Tlepo-as, fieydXrjv dp^r/v fiiv KaTaXvaew Tois Be 'lEXkrjvav BwaTCDTaTow; o-vve{3ov\evov ol iffevpovTa (piXovf irpoaOecyOat,. 54 eireiTe Be dveveiyQevTa TO. Qeoirplmia eirvdeTO 6 Kpotcro?, VTrepr/o-Or] re TOIO-I •xprjo-Trjptoicn, trdyyy Te e\7Ttcra? KaTaXvcreiv Trjv K-vpov /3ao-i\r)l7)v, TTifi^a^ avTt? es TLvdcb AeX(f>ov<; BcopeiTai, TrvOofievos avT&v TO -TrXTjOo^, KaT dvBpa Bvo o-TaTrjpo-o7 eKao-Tov 'Xpvo'ov. AeXcpol Be dvTi TOVTCOV eBoaav Kpolcra) Kal AvBoitri TrpofiavTT)[riv Kal aTeXelrjv Kal TrpoeBplrjv, Kal egeivat, Tai 55 ftovXofievoj) avTwv jiveadai AeX
of the oracle, according to Aristotle (Rhet. iii. 5), were : Kpdi
the figure in gold-leaf found at Mykense and given in Schliemann's Mycenae, No. 273 (p. 182). 6 " T h e necklace." 7 The gold stater of 20 drachmae was equivalent to 16s. 3d. The exact words

/jxydX-riv ipxw Karakiaei. It is plain that Herodotos must have extracted it, like the other oracles he quotes, from some published collection. The Parian Chronicle puts the embassy in B.C. 556.

THE EMPIEES OF THE EAST. crafievos

Se TOU? AeX(f>ov<; 6 Kpolcros

29

i^prja-TTjpid^ero

TO

rpirov

eireure
fidXtcrra 56

Trdvrcov rjcr07j, iXirl^cov rjfjblovov ovSajia, dvr dvSpof jBao~LXevo~ebv Mr)B
Se rdora

ecftpovrL^e

icrropecov

TOV?

av

'RXXrfvcov

Swa-

TWTaTov? iovras TrpoaKr^crairo l\ov<;, laropewv Se evpMT/ce AaKeSaifiovlovs Kal 'AdrjvaLov<; Trpoe%ovra<; TOW fiev rov Aa>pi,icov 761/60? TOV? Se rov 'lavL/cov.

rdora

eovra TO dpyalov TO fiev TleXao-yitcbv1 TO Se 'TLXXrjvo/cbv edvos. Kal TO fiev ovhafifj KCO i^e^copTjcre, TO Be TroXvTrXdvrjrov Kapra. eirl fiev yap Aev/caXlcovo?2 /SacriXeo? o'lKei yfjv rrjv
The Lydians wore shoes, unlike the Greeks, who usually went barefoot or used sandals. Hence the epithet given to Krcesos. The Hermos runs at the distance of 4J miles from Sardes, between Sardes and the tumuli of Bin Bir Tepe, the burial-place of the Lydian kings. 9 " T h e most distinguished." Cp. ii. 121 f. 1 The term "Pelasgian" is used in two senses by the Greek writers—(1) as denoting certain Greek tribes of Thessaly, Thrake, and Mysia, and (2) as equivalent to our own term ' ' prehistoric." In two Homeric passages (II. ii. 681, xvi. 233) it is applied to Akhsean Argos in Thessaly, and to Zeus of D6d6na, as worshipped by the Thessalian Akhaeans. In II. ii. 8403 the Pelasgians are a tribe of Mysia. In the present passage of Herodotos, as in Thuk. iv. 109, they are regarded as natives of Thrake. But elsewhere in Homer (II. x. 429; Od. xix. 177) the "divine Pelasgians" have passed into

the region of mythology, and a way has been prepared for the use of the name by later writers to denote those populations of Greece and its neighbourhood which we should now call prehistoric, or whose origin and relationship were unknown. See Herod, i. 146, ii. 56, viii. 44, vii. 94, v. 26, vi. 138. Hence the primitive Arkadians were said to be Pelasgians, the mountains of Arkadia being naturally the last refuge of the aboriginal inhabitants of thePeloponnesos, whom the Greeks displaced. The occurrence of the name among various tribes of Illyrian origin may be explained by Pischel's derivation of the word from the roots we have in irepav and ei/u (ya), so that it would simply mean the '' emigrants, " like " I o n i a n s " (I&Foixs) from ya " t o go." 2 Deukalidn is formed from Deukalos, like other epithets of the sun-god (Hyperion, Apollon, or Apelion), devKa-\6s being akin to IIOXU-SEUK^S, TroAu-Seu/rijs (Od. xix. 521), and the Homeric a-devicris " u n h e r o i c ' and ev-Siwius "zealously," from the root due " t o lead" (Latin, duco). The myth which has attached itself to

30

HEEODOTOS.

[BOOK

Be Acopov TOV "J£\Xr)vo<; rrjv VTTO rrjv "Ocraav re teal TOP "OXvfi/rrov %a>pT)v, KaXeofievtjv Be 'lariaifbriw etc Be rij<; 'loTutuoriSos &>? i^avea-rrj inrb K-aB/ieoav,8 oi/eei, ev YlivBa) M.a/ceBvbv /caXeo/ievov • ivOeiiTev Be avrK e? rrjv ApvoiriBa fiere^Tj, /cal i/c rij? ApvcnrlBos 57 ovro) e? YleXoirovvrjcrov iXdbv AeopiKOv i/cXydr]. rjvrcva Be arpeKew^ elireiv. el Be yXaxraav Xeaav oi JieXacryoi,i oiiic eari re/c/MiLpofievov Xeyeiv roicn, vvv ert eovcn UeXacrywv rwv inrep TYvpluv)inhabited Lemnos and Athens." The adored in Phoenicia (Nonnios, Dionysiac. latter statement contradicts the assertion ii. 274, xli. 352). A figure of the ser- of Herodotos that they had come from pent is carved on a rock in the island of Thessaly, not from Athens and Lemnos. the name seems to refer to the ark of the sun-god sailing above thefloodsof winter. Pyrrha, the wife of Deukalion, is "the ruddy" dawn, the time when men rise again to the work of the day. Deukalion was the father of Protogeneia, '' the morning," Amphi-ktyon (like Amphion, from the old Greek iifupos "a cloud") and Hellen. The latter name results from a confusion between SXX?;, the Ionic

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

31

rjTt,v KaXeo/xevtjv), Kal TWV HXaKirjv re Kal ~ZKVXaicrjv TleXaay&v oixtjaavrcov ev 'EXX/?;a"7rwT<», ot avvoucou iyevovTO 'Adrjvaloio-t,6 Kal ova dXXa HeXacryiKa, iovra 7ro\to-fiara TO ovvofia fiereftaXe, el TOVTOLCTI reKficupofievov Bel Xeyeuv, r/crav ol TLeXao~yol (Sapftapov yXwaaav tevTe?. el TOUVVV ?JV KCU irav

TOIOVTO TO TleXaa-yiicov, TO 'ATTIKOV

a/ia

rfi [leTaftoXfj rfj e? EXA^m? Kal rf]v yXcoaaav

Kal yap

Brj ovre

eQvo<s eov TLeXacrycicbv

ol ¥*.pr\cn(x)Vi,ryrai ovBa/ioiau

fiere/iaOe.

TCOV VVV a
TrepioiKeovTcov elal ofioyXacrcroi, ovre ol TiXaK^vot, crcfjlcri Be 6fi,6y\too~o~oi' Br}\ovo~l re on TOV rjveiKavro y\d)o-ar]<; ^apaKTrjpa /x,eTa/3abvovTe$ e? raora ra yjapia, TOVTOV e^ovat ev v\a/cr}. TO Be 'TZXXTJVIKOV ykacrcry fiev, eVetVe eyevero, alel KOTS rfj avTr) 58

Bia^parat, TOV

a>9 ifiol Kara(palveTao elvac

TleXao-yiKov

ibv

airoaj^adev

acrQeves, CLTTO o~/j,iKpov reo

fievroc airb TTJV a

opfjueofievov av^rao e? rrr\r)0o'i TWV edvecov, HeXacryatv •7rpoo-Ke%copr]KOTCOv avrq> Kal aXXav eQvewv fBapftapcov j •jrpoade Be &v epoiye BoKel o&Be TO TleXao-yiKov edvos, eov /3dpfiapov, ovBa/jia fieyaXas av^r)6rjvac. TOVTCJV

Br) &v rwv

eOvewv rb fiev 'ATTIKOV

Kal Biecnracfievov lirvvQavero TOVTOV

TOV

KaTe-^o/ievov re 59

6 Kpotco? virb TleoaoaTpaTov TOV ftpovov

The Tyrsenians of Mygdonia have nothing to )do with the Tyrrhenians of northern Italy, except an accidental similarity of name. To draw ethnographical inferenees from this is to repeat the error of the ancients, who derived the Tyrrhenians from the Torrhebians of Lydia. Dionysios of Halikarnassos was the author of the blunder which identified Krest6n with the Etruscan Erotona (Cortona). 6 " W h o had been neighbours of the Athenians." This refers to the tradition that Attika had once been inhabited by a "Pelasgian," i.e. a prehistoric, population. Plakia and Skylake were eastward of Kyzikos (founded B.C. 780 ?). Perhaps Herodotos derived his statement about them from Aristeas. 7 " T h e Hellenic race has always had the same language ever since it first came into existence." 8 We must leave Herodotos to har-

Tvpavvevovros

'Adrjvalcov.9

monise the inconsistent statements that the Hellenic race always spoke the same language, and was a branch of the Pelasgians, which multiplied greatly, and yet that the Pelasgian language differed from the Hellenic, and the Pelasgians themselves were a barbarous people, which never greatly multiplied. His speculations on philology and ethnology are never very profound. 9 The three periods of the tyranny of Peisistratos extended from B.C. 560 to 527. Herodotos is incorrect in saying that the Athenians were "oppressed and disunited" (not "distracted") under his rule. On the contrary, he had found the country in a state of anarchy, misery, and poverty, in spite of Solon's legislation, and left it united, prosperous, feared abroad, enjoying peace and good laws at home, and intersected with roads ; while Athens itself was adorned with public

32

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

jap eovTi IBIWTT) Kal 9ea>peovTi ra 'O\vfnria repa<s ijevero pijaOvaavTOS jap aiiTov ra Upa ol Xe'/^re? eVeo-TewTe9 Kal icpe&v re eovres e/wrXeot ical vBaTO? avev irvpo<; e^eo-av Kal virepefiaXov. XlXav Be 6 AatfeSaf/towo? traparvx^v ical 067jo-dfievo TWV virepaKpiaiv irpoaTas /jLTj-^avaTat TOidBe. TpaifiaTiecovTOv re Kal r/fii6vov<; rfkao-e e? TTJV djoprjv TO £evyo<; tu? o" fiiv ekavvovTa e? djpov 7]8e\rjaav eKTretyevjw TOU? e^pov^, aTrdXeaao Brjdev,1 iBeiTo Te TOV Brjfiov <]>v\aKrj<; TWOS 7T/3O? avTov Kyprjo-ai, irpoTepov evBoKi/ji'ijaa'i iv Trj irpos Me^apea? jevofievrj o~TpaTi)jlr), Nt'cratav 2 Te eKiov Kal aXka a7roBe!;dfj,evot> fiejaka epja. 6 Be S^/w>? s o TMV 'A9r]vaia>v e^wjraTrjdels eBcoKe ol TWV d(7Tmv KaTa\e%a<; avSpa<; TOVTOV? O? Bopvcpopot fiev OVK ijevovTO Kopvvas HeiaocrTpaTOV, Kopvvrjfyopot, Bi' j;v\a>v jap O oi oiriade. crvveTravacrTavTes Be OVTOL a/ma TJV aKpoTroXiv. evda Br} 6 Ueialo-TpaTOS fjp%e ' OVT€ T(ytia? T « 9 iov(ra<; avvTapd^as OVT6 Te TOIO-L KaTeo-Teaxri evepe TI\V TTOXIV Kocrfiecov /caXw? T6 Kal ev. 60 fisTa Be ov iroWov %povov TODVTO fypovrjcravTes ol Te TOV WLeyaKXeo? aTacn&Tai Kal ol TOV AvKovpjov i^eXavvovai fx,iv. OVTCO fiev TleiaicrTpaTOs eerj(e TO irp&iTov 'Adrjvas, Kal TTJV TvpavviBa buildings and a library, was the centre of the intellectual life of the day, and possessed a naval supremacy which extended as far as Sigeion and commanded the trade of the Black Sea. 1 "As he pretended." Cp. ch. 73, vi. 1, vii. 211, etc. 2 This must be a mistake. According to Plutarch (Solon, 8) the war between Megara and Athens took place before the legislation of Solon, B.C. 594. P. would have been too young at that time to have held an important command, while the

distinction gained thirty-five years previously can hardly have helped him in his party conflicts. NisEea was the port of Megara. s This shows that Peisistratos was chosen "tyrant" by the people, whose leader and champion he was against the oligarchy. His tyranny, therefore, was not the unpopular and unconstitutional rdgime it was afterwards imagined to be. See ch. 62. As the bodyguard was given by the dlrnos, the latter could not cornplain of its being contrary to law.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

33

OVKW Kapra ippifafieprjp e%cov a7re/3aXe. ol Be e^ TieicricrTpaTov avTis eic virj'} e V dXXrjXoicn kcnauLaaav, nrepieXavpofiepo<; Be rfj o~Tao~ei o MeyaicXe7)<; eireicqpviceveTO Tleiai(Jrpdrw, el filovkono ol TTJP QvyaTepa e%eip yvvaiica eVt TJ} TvpavviZi,. evhe^afievov he TOP Xoyop ical 6(/*oXoy>]o~apTo<; iirl TOVTOICTI Heicna-rpdrov, /Mrj^apeoprat Brj eVt TJ} icaToBa Trpr\yna €V7)diarTaT0P, <»? eya> evpicrica), fiaicpm, itrei ye aTreicpiOri e/c iraXaiTepov TOV fiapftdpov eOpeos TO 'JLWIJPIKOP eop4 ical SegicoTepop teal einjdelr)'; rj\i6iov dTTTjWay/Aepop /AOWOP, el fcai Tore 7e ovTOt ep 'AOr/paiOKTC Tolat TrpaToiac \eyofiepoio~t elpai 'EXX^pu>p o-o$vr]P fJUYXapeopTai TOcdSe. ep TO> Brjfxai TCS Haiapiei r/p yvprj T§ owofia r/p 'Adr/paloi, heiceo-de dyadm poa> TIeicrio~Tpa,TOP, TOP avTrj r) 'AOrjpairj Tifirjcacra dp6pa>Tra>p fj,d\io~Ta Kardyei e? TTJP ecouT^? dtcpoiroXtp." ol fiep 8r) TaoTa Sia^otTeoz/re? eKeyov avTiica Be e? TC TOW BIJ/MOV^ (f>dTt,9 'A.9r)palrj Tleio~l elprjfieptp 6 TLetvT7}<; fit]Tpi, 17 4 " Seeing that ever since very ancient times the Hellenes have been distinguished from the barbarians by being." Grote compares the appearance of the god Pan to Pheidippides just before the battle of Marathon (Herod, vi. 105), and infers that the Greeks of this period believed that the gods sometimes visited the earth. The same belief runs through the Iliad; in the Odyssey, on the contrary, the gods are always invisible, except when they purposely make themD

selves visible,—a mark of a later date, Herodotos belongs to the sceptical age of the Sophists, and can see nothing but folly in the belief of his forefathers, 6 " B u t as he had grown-up sons." Megakles the Alkmseonid, being arkhon at the time, had slain some of Kylou's followers at the altar of the Eumenides, to which they had attached themselves by a rope, and so brought the curse of the goddesses upon himself and his family, See ch, 26,

34

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

Be ra> dvBpi. TOV Be Beivov n ecr^e arifid^ecrdat, 77730? Heicrio-Tp&rov. 0/3777 Be w? elj(e garaXXdo-o-ero rrjv e^dprjv rolcn crraatitT'QCTL? fiaOwv Be 6 Tleiaio'Tparo'i ra iroieofieva eir ecovrm airaXKacra'eTO &K T17? %(opr]<; TO irapatrav, diriKOfievo'i Be e? iLperpiav ifiovXevero a/xa TOIO~I iraiai. '\Tnria> Be ypcofir) viKt)cravroi irpoaiBearo KOV TI. •JTOW&V Be fieyaXa %ptf/j,aTa, ®7]f3a2ot virepe^aXovro rfj Bocret, TCOV X fiera Be, ov -rroWm \6 elirecv, xpovo? Bt,ecj>v ical "iravra cr^ii, igrfprvro

e? TTJV KCLTOBOV

teal yap

'Apyeioi

[IMTOCOTOI

airuKovro i/e TleXotrovvrjcrov, ical N a ^ t o s cr<£t avr/p airtyfievos i6e\ovrr) ovvofia r\v AvyBa/Mva. ev Be rovra ™ X(opq> crfa
araaieorat

O/KIKOVTO CCKKOI

T6 IK TU>V Brjfimv Trpocreppeov, TOICTI 17 rvpapvls irpb e\ev6eplr)<} TJV dcnracTTOTepov} OVTOI fiev Sr) crvvrjXlgovTO, 'Adrjvalav Be Oi etc TOV dcrreo?, «o? fiev IletcrtcrT/aaTO? TO %prj[iaTa qyeipe, ical /teTauTfy ft>? ^°"Xe MapaO&va, Xoyov ovBeva el%ov eTreiVe Se eTTvOovro etc TOV Mapa6covo<; avTov vropevecrOai eirl TO CLGTV, OVTW Br) ^or)deovo~t eir avrov. ical OVTOI T6 iravaTpaTvy rjicrav eirX roils Kariovras, Kal 01 aficfjl TLeKriarparov, o>? 6pfjLr}6evre<; eic M.apada>vo<; rjccrav eVl TO acrrv, e? rwvrb crvviovres dirncviovrac iirl TlaWr]vlBo<; 'A&r]vali}<; iepov, ical dvrla eOevro TO oirka. evdavra dely Trofnrr/ ^peaiyuevo? 9 •jrapurrarai Ueiata-rpdra) 'Afii6 " He made up his quarrel with the opposite party." 7 "Which were under any obligations to them." Peisistratos had made good use of the wealth derived from his silvermines on the Strymfin. Five MSS. read vpo-qiUaTO, or irporiteaTo. The ending of the 3d pers. pi. pluperf. in -ea.ro is Homeric and Herodotean,—the termination -a.ro, which properly followed a consonant only, being extended by analogy to stems ending in a vowel. The form is New-Ionic, not Old-Ionic. Tlpoa^oliai literally means " to be in the condition of an aidows to some one on account of services rendered by him." It illustrates the Greek feeling that no one

performs an act of kindness except under the supposition that it will be repaid; see iii. 139, note 7. 8 The comment of Herodotos is unjust. It is clear that the Athenian people hailed Peisistratos as their deliverer from oligarchy and faction-fights; hence the unmolested landing at Marathon, the difficulty the oligarchs had in getting a force together, and the ease with which it was dispersed by Peisistratos. If the people had objected to his coming, he could never have made his way to Athens, 9 "Under divine inspiration." See iii. 77, iv. 152, viii. 94; also iii. 139, iv. 8, v. 92, i. 86, iii. 153, i. 111. It is

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

XVTO<; o

A./capvav

e^afierpa

rovm rdBe

35

%pr)o~[ioXo
Vpa

iv

Xeyav.

eppnrrat, 8' 6 /3o\o?, *TO Be BLKTVOP eKTreireTao-Tai,, dvvvoi 8' olfirja-ovcri GeXrjvaiT)*} Sid PVKT6<$.1

6 fiev Br] ol ivded^wv

%pa rdSe, UeicricrrpaTO'i Be crvXXafio&p TO 63

yjpr\o-Tr\piov Kal (/>«? BeKeaOau TO ^ptjadep

' A.drjvaloi

e7rr)ye TTJP o-rpaTirjP.

Be ol e« TOV d
Btj Trjvi/cavTa, Kal /XETO. TO dpiarov fiere^erepoi aircov ol (lev Trphf «v/3ow? ol Be 7r/)o? VTTVOV. ol Be dfi(f>l Jleio-LO-Tparov eo-irecroi/T69 TOII? 'AOrjvalov? rpdr/rovcn.

(jtevyovraiv

Be TOVTWV

ivOavra crocfxaTdrTjv TletcricrTpaTO'} eiriTe^vaTab, o/ca><; nrjT delev 'in, ol 'Adrjvaloi BieaKeBaafiivoi re elev dvaftifidaas TraiBas e?rt 'ITTTTOVS Trpoewe/jwre, ol Bk /caTaXa/if3dpovTes

TOV? ev-

v -rrapa/jLeivavTav 'AdTjvalcov Kal /Mr)

avriKa (pvjovTcov 7ralBa<; Xa/3a>v Kal KaTao~Tr\ Kal eireTpeyfre AvyBdfiei),s

Trpo? re en

rovroiai,

TTJV vrjaov ATJXOV Ka6rjpa<; e'/c

TWV Xoyicov, Ka&i]pa<; Be a>8e' 67r' ocrop eTTOi^t? TOV tepov et%e, eK TOVTOV TOV ywpov

TraPTos i^opv^as

dXXop %wpop T?}? AjfXou.4

TOW peKpoiis fierecpopeo e?

Kal THeicriarpaTO'; fiep

tempting to correct 'ktcapvav into 'A-xapveis with Valckenaer, since Acharnae was close to Pallene (near the modern Garitd), and Plato calls Amphilytos a fellowcountryman (Tkeag. 124). 1 " The cast isflung,the net spread; soon The tunnies dart beneath the moon." The enemies of Peisistratos will soon dart helplessly in his nets, like the coarsest of Mediterranean fish. 2 This, of course, refers to the " r e venues," some of which were obtained from Attika, others from the silver-mines of Thrake (see v. 23). According to Thukyd. (vi. 54), Peisistratos levied a tax of five per cent on the incomes of the Athenians. Grote mistranslates the passage, "some troops being derived

irvpdppeve

from Attica, others from the Strymon " ! 3 This is inconsistent with the account of Aristotle, according to whom Lygdamis was made tyrant by the Minos in consequence of an insult received by a certain Telestagoras from the oligarchs. Lygdamis is a Karian name, 4 Delos underwent a further purification in the winter of B. 0. 426, when the Athenians removed all the corpses that had been buried in it, and ordered that for the future all births and deaths should take place in the neighbouring island of Rheneia (Thukyd. iii. 104). More than half the corpses were shown, by their armour and mode of burial, to have been those of Karians (Thukyd. i.

36

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

'Adrjvaleop Be ol fiev ev rf) /J-&XV eTreirrmKea-dv, ol Be avTcov fier AXtcfieaviSecop e'(j)evyop iic TTJ? OIKI]I,T]<;. 65 Tow? fiev vvv 'A07]valov<: roiavra rbv yjpopov TOVTOV eirvvOaveTo 6 KpoLO-of KaTexpvTa, TOVS Be AaiceBaifiopLovs etc ica/cuv TB fieydXap nrefyevyoTas ical copras r)Bt] TG> iroXefiai KaTV7repTepov<; TeyerjTecop. eirl yap A£OPTO<; fSacnXevopTOS ical 'Hyrjo-iicXeos ev %irapTr) TOVS aXXovs TroXe/iou? evTV)(eovTe<; ol Aa/ceBaifiopioi TTJOO? HeyerjTa<; fiovvov; TrpocreirTCUOP. TO Be eTi trpoTcpop TOVTCOV ical Ka/covofiwTaToi rjcrav o-%eB6p nrdvTcov 'IZKkrjVwv KOTO Te cripeaf avToix; ical geivoicri a7rp6a-fUKTOi. [icTeftaXov Be &Se e? evpofiiijv. Avicovpyov TUP %irapTLr)Tea>v BOKI/JLOV avBpbs e\6oPTO<; e? AeXov AvKoopye i/x,bv TTOTL irlopa vrjov Zrjvl l,\o<; ical irao-w 'OXv/xirta BatfiaT eyovo-i. Bifyo T] ere Oebp fiaVTevaofiai r) apQpanrop. aXX' eTi Kal fidXXop 6ebv eXiro/juu, & AvKoopye.6 8). The Phoenicians seem to have worshipped the sun-god in Delos before the Greeks took possession of the island and introduced Apollo (see Jebb on Delos, in the Journal of Hellenic Studies, i. 1880), though it is difficult for one who has visited the spot to understand why an insignificant rock, situated between two other islands, and not in the direct line of passengers from Asia to Europe, should have become the centre of a great religious worship. By thus purifying Delos, Peisistratos gave visible proof that Athens was at the head of the Ionian world, and we can only wonder how such a naval supremacy and political influence could have been acquired in so short a time. The oracles were doubtless stored in the public library Peisistratos established at Athens; he had banished Onomakritos for forging an oracle of Mousaios (Herod, vii. 6). 5 << Thou art come, Lykurgos, to my wealthy shrine, The friend of Zeus and all that are divine ; I doubt if I shall name thee god or man, Yet rather god, Lykurgos, if I can."

Lykurgos, '' expeller of the wolves " of anarchy, seems to belong rather to myth-

ology than to history, like the numerous other Lykurgi of Greek legend, the sons of Are's, Boreas, or Herakles. According to Plut. Lyk. 1, the Spartan lawgiver was the son of Eunomos and father of Eukosmos. Plutarch begins his life by saying, "Concerning the lawgiver, Lykurgos, we can assert absolutely nothing which is not controverted; there are different stories in respect to his birth, his travels, his death, and his mode of proceeding, both political and legislative; least of all is his age agreed upon." Thukydides does not allude to him, but states that the Spartans emerged from desperate disorders 400 years before the Peloponnesian War (i. 18). Hellanikos (Strabo, viii. p. 363) equally ignores him, and ascribes the constitution of Sparta to Eurystheus and Prokles. Institutions are ascribed to him which show that, like Numa Pompilius at Rome, he was the ideal legislator to whom all the regulations of the later Sparta were referred. He is said to have forbidden the use of gold and silver money, which was unknown in Greece till the age of PheidSn, the iron rings retained at Sparta being the previous medium of exchange through-

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

I.]

ol fiev UO

Brj Tti'e? 7rpo? Tovroicri, Xiyovcri TOV vvv

KarecrTeSira

Xeyovcn, dBeXiBeov /xev eavrov dyayecrdao vofiifia

rdora.6

AvKovpyov

TovToicn

rovs

einTpoirevcravTa

a>9 yap eTreTpoirevae rd^iara,

fiera

evvofirjdrja-av,

OVK oXiycov dvBpav, Kal

Br\ i

ola Be ev re re eBpafiov9

dvd

ovKeri

dire^pa

Trpos

Av/covpyos.

TW Be Avicovpyq)

fieyaXw;.

ra

Be ra

ivcD/j,OTia<; Kal rpirjicdBa'; Kal avcrcr'ima}

creftovrat

Kal evdrjvr\Qi)
fiereaTijcre

icfropow; KOX
TrjcravTi lepbv eltrdtievoi Kal irXijdei

rr/v

avrol

Aew/Swrew,

firj irapafiaiveiv.

OVTCO [lev iLeTafiaXovTes dyadfj

KOX pd(rai, avrS

%TrapTirjTr)ab' &>? B'

/3aai\evovTO<; Be Zi7rapTii)Te
TrdvTa, Kal i(f>vXa^e rdora

e? iroXe/MOV e^ovra, re

Koafiov

37

reXev- i X^PV avTiica

rj
dWa, KaTa§povr)ol
ivdcrrj T§ 'ApKaBcov

^(opy.

rj Be HvOirj
Xpa rdBe. out the country. The ephors whom he was supposed to have instituted dated only, as we learn, from Aristotle, from the time of the first Messenian War, and Grote has shown that the equal division of lands with which Lykurgos was credited was an idea which, arose in the age of Agis in the third century B. c. No wonder the oracle hesitated whether to call him god or man. 6 Aristotle makes him more than 100 years later (B.O. 880), and along with other writers calls him a Prokleid, whereas, according to Herodotos, he would have been an Ageid. Aristotle and others also state that he was regent for Kharilaos, not Labotas. The peculiarities of the Spartan constitution which turned the state into a military camp were unknown to Krete ; the institutions of Krete agreed with those of Sparta only in so far as the latter might be regarded as the common property of the Dorian race (a senate, irresponsible ephors called kosmi, an ekklesia, Perioeki called vTrrficooi, and public slaves called ixvolai). The Kretans, however, had a public meal known as avSpia, furnished at the expense of the state ; but they had no kings, and possessed private slaves (d0a/uwT
7 In the time of Thukydides (v. 68) the Spartan Xo^os or cohort contained 4 pentekostyes and 512 men, the pentekostys 4 enomotise and 128 men. In the time of Xenophon (Sell. vi. 4) the lokhos consisted of only 2 pentekostyes, and the pentekostys of only 2 enomotise and 50 men. The trtikas is mentioned only by Herodotos, and seems to have ceased to exist at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. The Syssitia refers to the public meal ((peiShiov) paid for by those who shared it. 8 The ephors correspond to the tribunes of the people at Rome, and like the latter, gradually usurped the supreme power in the state. As has been already stated, they were really instituted in the time of Theopompos (Arist. Pol. v. 9 ; Plut. Lyk. 7). The ytpovres are the thirty members of the Council, which, as a common Dorian institution, must have existed from the very beginning of the Spartan state. Each member was required to be over sixty years of age. 9 "They (shot) grew up." "AP& is used adverbially and separated from its verb, as in Homer, showing that the socalled Homeric tmesis is not necessarily a mark of the Old Ionic dialect. Comp. vii. 156, and 11. 18, 56.

38

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

'Ap/eaBlrjv /*' alrei<;- fieya /JL alrei1,' ov TOI SCOO-o~a> TOI Teyerjv iroaaiKpoTOV op real KOXOV ireBoov cr^oivcp f p rdora <£>? a/irevei^devTa rjKovaav ol AaKeBacfiovioi, ApKaBwv fiev T£>V aXkwv direi^ovTO, oi Be 7reSa? 5 Br) e%avBpdevTes Be TJJ av/jL^o\fj, baoc avTvsv i^cojp^dTjaap, iriBa1} Te e'XpvTes TO.? etyepovTO avTOt, icai aypivvi Bia/j,erpr]a-dfievoi TO ireBiov TO TeyerjTecov ipyd&VTo. ai Be TreSao avTai, ev Trjau eSeBectTo, ert Kal 69 ipe r/crav aoao ev Teyey, irepl TOV vrjov Trj
K a T a fiev Brj TOV irpoTepov Troke/iov avve^ems aiel «a«w? dedXeov Trpo<; TOV$ TeyetfTas, KUTU Be TOV KCITO, K.poicrov %povov Kal TTJV 'Ava^avBpiBeo) Te Kal 'Apio~T(ovo<; {3ao~t,\r)iT}i> ev Aa«eBal/Aovi r)Br} oi ~ZirapTi,riTai KtZTVirepTepoi TS 7roXe/x.» eyeyovecrav, TpoTTw ToomBe yevo/Mevoi. eTreiBrj alel TS TroXejAW eacrovvTO VTTO TeyeijTewv, TreinfyavTes deoirpoirovi e's AeX^>ov? eireipwTeov Tiva av 9eS>v tkaffd/juevoi, KaTinrepde TCO TroXefia) TeyeijTecov yevoiaTo. •q Be TlvOirj o~<j>i, eycpijcre TO, 'OpecTea) TOV 'AyafjLefuiovo'i 6o~T&a eTrayayo/j,evov<;. &>s Se dvevpelv OVK oXol r e eyivovTO TJJV Qr\icr]V TOV 'Opeo~Tea>, eirefMTrov avTis TTJV e? 6eov i"7rei,p7]o~ofj,evov<; TOV T ?> Keono 'O/JecTT?;?. elpcoT&o-i Be Taora Tolai Qeoirpb\eyei r) TivOLr) TaBe. ecrTt, Tt? 'A/3/caSw;? Teyer] Xevpqi ivl yoapa, ev6' avefioi irveiovo-i Bva> KpaTepfjs inr' avdy/erjs, Kal TI/TTO? dvTLTV7ro<;, Kal Trfjfi eirl irijfiaTi xeiTai. evff1 'AyafieiAvoviBriv KaTer^et ? 8e Kal TaoTa r\Kov
whence her epithet. See Paus. iii. 5, /> 3

" Arkadian Tegea lies upon a plain; ^ T h e r e W o wt w o w i n d driy J main

= Athena Alea was worshipped also

^tSZ^T^™^'^

. , , , . . , , ., . , ,, . at Mantmeia, Manthyreia, and Aleia,

The fruitful soil holds Agamemnon's son; Fetch him to thee, and Tegea is won."

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

i.]

acrrtov, e f « W e ? e/c TWV iinrecov* fcTeo? etcacTov

alel

ol Trpeo-fivTaroi,

39

irevre

TOVS Bel TOVTOV TOV iviavTOV, TOV av i^Uotri eic

TWV liriTewv, ^uapTuqTewv TU> KOCVW BcaireiMirofievovi fir) iXtvveiv TOVTCOV Siv TU>V dvBpmv Ai'^77? dvevpe iv T^eyerj 68 a W o u ? aXXr).6 Kal avvrvyirj Xprjcrd/Aevos Kal crotyir]. iovar)<; yap TOVTOV TOV

-)(p6vov iirifjii^uqs 7T/3O? Toir? TeYe^Ta?, e\0a>v e? yakic^iov edrjelTO o~lBr)pov e^eXavvofievov, ical iv dcovfiaTt rjv opeo&v TO Troieofievov. fiaOcbv Se /uv 6 %aXicev<; airodwvfid^ovTa el-rre f7ravo-dfj,evo<; TOV epjov " rj KOV av, a> %elve A.aKcov, e'i irep etSe? TO irep eydo, tcdpTa av

idd)Vfjba%e<;, o/cov vvv OVTCO Tvy%dvet,<; dcovfia iroieofievos TTJV

epyaair)v TOV cnSrjpov. iyco yap iv TrjSe dekcov Ty axiKr} irov<; T&V VVV dvoi^a ai>Tr)v Kal elSov TOV veicpbv fjLrjKei, Xaov iovTa Trj cropu)' /ierprjcras Se crvvi^ao-a oTriaco." 6 fiev Bi] ol eXeye TO irep oiramei, 6 Be ivvmaa^ TO, \ey6fieva o-vvefidXkero TOV 'OpeaTea a

TO deoirpoTTtov TOVTOV elvai, TyBe crv/j,{3aWo/j[.€vot> • TOV ? Bvo opeasv cpvaas TOU? dvefiovs evpicr/ce e w r a s , TOV Be

aKfiova Kal TT)V afyvpav

TOV TC TVTTOV Kal TOV OVTITVITOV,

TOV Be

i^eXavvofievov crlZrjpov TO nrrj/jLa eVl wr/fiaTi Keifievov, KaTa Toiov&e TL el/catyov, «>? 67rt Kaiccp dvOpanrov pa£e ATa seems one of the false forms of the Epic dialect, produced by the sup 1 position that 7am at the end of a line was resolvable into 7' ala (Journal of Philology, x. 19 (1881), p. 118). 4 " Who quit the order of the knights." The statement of Herodotos is contradieted by the better testimony of Xenophon (De Mep. Lac. 4, 3), who says that the ephors elected three iTriraypirai, and these chose the 300 knights from among the Spartan youth. As the ephors were changed every year the election must have been annual. Stein quotes the verse in the Etym. Mag. ill: £%' ^Xa /ttya aafxa. 5 "Should continue in active service, being sent in different directions by the Spartan community." 6 The employment of iron in the place of bronze was of comparatively late date among the Greeks, as among other nations

of the world. Even in the middle of the sixth century B.C., it would appear, the forging of iron was a novelty to the Spartans, among whom there was little trade or manual labour ; and smiths and smithies continued to be called xaX/ceta and xa^K& throughout Greece after the use of iron became general. The fact bears upon the date of the Homeric Poems, which are well acquainted with the use of iron, and effectually disposes of the legend which ascribed to Lykurgos the introduction of iron rings into Sparta as a medium of exchange (see note 5 on ch. 55). 7 The verb cvvixaa'a shows that cropos here means " a sepulchral chamber" or "tumulus " rather than "a coffin." The bones were evidently those of some fossilised animal, like the bones of the Dun Cow slain by Guy of Warwick, preserved at Warwick Castle. Similar notions of

40

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

Aa/ceSaipovioicn irav TO Trpijy/ia. oi Be eic Xoyov irXao-Tov eireveiKavTes ol alTvt]v eBlcogav. 6 Be aTTt^o/ievos e? Teyerjv Kal pd%a>v TtjV ecovTOV o-v/j,(jiOpr]v TT/JO? TOP %a\/cea efiio-vovTO trap OVK e/cSt&Wos TTJV a&Xrjv.8 XP°V uvhvacre> evoiiclcrdr), Be TOV Tafyov Kal Ta oaTea aTO a KaTvirepTepoi ™ 7roXe/i.w eylvovTO ol AaKeBaifioviot,' Se eepovTa$ Kal Berjcrofiivov; ffv/Mfia^ir)^, ivTei\,dfievo<; Te TO, Xeyeiv XPVV- ° ' ^ eXOovTes k'Xejov " kire/iifte r)/jLea<; Kpotcro? 6 AvB&v T6 Kal aXXcov idvewv /3/xcrtXeu?, Xev TaBe. & AaKeBaifiovioi, yjprjLXov •jrpoo-Qeo-dai, bfieas jap irvvddvofiat irpoeaTavai Trjs 'EXXaSo?, vfiea1} Siv KOTO, TO %pr]o~Ti]piov 7rpoo~KaXeofjLai ^>tXo? Te OeXwv jeveo-Qai Kal o-u/iyaa^o? avev Te BoXov Kal aTraTi??." Kpotcro? fiev Br) TaoTa Bi dyyiXmv eTreKTjpvKeveTO, AaKeBai/xovioi Be aKrjK00Te V AVB&V Kal e-rroirjaavTO opKia ^etvlr]<; nrepu Kal (rv^fjuaxp1]^' Kal o?.9 K^otcro? 70 Se <xcj>i wveofievoio'i eBooKe BCOTIVTJV. TOVTWV Te &v e'lveKev ol AaKeBaifj-ovioo TTJV o-VfjLfM%Cr)v iBegavTO, kal OTC CK irdvTwv cr^ea? ivpoKplva'i 'QXXrfvoov alpelTO lXov<>. Kal TOVTO fiev avTol ?jo~av eToifioi i-TTayyeiXavn, TOVTO Be irour\adfievov KprjTrjpa ^aXKeoi/ Te egcodev TrXtfo-avTe? irepl TO ^eZXo? 1 Kal /Meyddei the size and strength of the ancient heroes are found in Homer (e.g. II. 1, 272 ; 5, 304). 8 "He wished to rent the courtyard from the latter, who at first would not give it up." 9 This seems to be an error. Theopompos (Fr. 219) states that the Spartans had sent for the gold in order to cover the face of the image of Apollo, at Amyklse, with it, and Pausanias (iii. 10) actually saw the statue (which was 45 feet high) at Amyklffi. Thornax was a mountain on the road from Sparta to

Sellasia. The Spartans were ready enough to help an Asiatic despot who had conquered their brother Greeks of Ionia; they were not so equally ready afterwards to assist Athens when threatened by Persia. 1 The bronze bowl must have been made in imitation of the Phceniko-Hellenic or "Corinthian" ware, which was similarly adorned with the figures of animals. This was a favourite Phrenician mode of decoration, and characterised both their pottery and their work in metal. The embroidery of Thera,

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

41

Tpi7)KO<7iov; dfifyopeas ^copeovra rjyov, Bcopov fiovXofiepoi dpTiBovpat, Kjooicro). O5TO9 6 Kpr)TT]p OVK diriKero e? %dpBu<; Bi atTta.? Bicf>aaia<; \eyofiepa<; rdcrBe. ol /j,ev AaKeBaifiopioi \eyovai a>9 eTreiVe dy6fievo
K a r a fiep i/uv TOP Kptyrr\pa OVTCO ecrj^e. Kpotcro? Be dfJLaprwv 71 rov %p7)6<;, dirb Be TaVTiy; T?)? yva>fji7]<; Kal TO Kapra OVPOJM ip AvBolcri eywp, avpefiovKevae Kpoiaa rciBe- ovvofid ol rjp %dvBapi<;. " & /3acri\ev, eir apBpat TOIOVTOVS o~Tpareveo~6ai irapaaKevd^eau, ot aKVTipa% fiep dpa!;vp£Ba<; CKVTIPTJP Be TT)V aXXrjp e&drJTa (j>opeovcn, aLTeovTai Be OVK oaa edeKovai a\\' oaa eypvcri, yaipriv eypPTet rpTj^eaP. 7rpo? Be OVK OIPW $ia%pecoPTai, dXXd i/BpoiroTeovai, oi avica Be e^ovo-i rpcoyeip, OVK aXXo dyaObp ovBip. TOVTO fiep By, el viKt]O'ei,^, TI cr^>ea? aTvaipr)creai, rolal ye fnl] ecrn fiijBip ; TOVTO Be, rjv vtKrjdrjs, fidQe oaa dyada airo^aXet?" yevo-dfiepoi yap T&P rjfierepaip dyadwp rrepte^oprai ovBe dircoaTol eaovrai. eyia flip PVP Oeolat, e%a> ydpip, o\ OVK £7rl voov Troiovai Jlepar/ai aTpareveaOai eirl AvBovs." rdora Xeymp OVK eireide TOP Kpoiaop. Tleparjai ydp, irplp AvBov<; KaraaTpeaadai, rjP OVT€ djBpbv ovTe dyadbv ovBep. which had a Phoenician origin, was similarly adorned (Hesykh. s. v. Qr/paiov and BripoeiSus; Pollux, Onom. vii. 48,77; compare II. ii. 289). 2 A single column only remains of this temple of Hera, which had been built under the directions of Rhcekos (Herod, iii. 60). It has been excavated by M. Guerin in 1850, Prince John Ghika in 1853, and M. P. Girard in 1879. Herr Humann has also dug on the spot. Little has been found except a few bas-reliefs and inscriptions (mostly

decrees and dedications). A statue of Bathyllos was erected by Polykrates before the altar (Apuleius, Flor. 15), and there was also a colossal group by Myron (Strab. xiv. 637). The temple was dipteral, and seems to have been built on the site of an older one. See Herod, ii. 182.—A^oiec is imperf. opt., and, unlike Attic usage, when united with &v, expresses a conjecture about the past, See vii. 184, 214 ; viii. 136. Herodotos also uses the aor. opt. with &v in the same sense (vii. 180, ix. 71), like Homer.

HERODOTOS.

42

72

[BOOK

Ot Be YLainraBoKat viro 'EWtfvav %vpi,oi ovofidfrpTCU-3 rjcrav Be ol ~£vpiot OVTOI TO [lev itpmepov rj Tlepaas ap%at M.rjBwv KarijKooi, Tore Be Kvpov. 6 yap ovpos rjv rfj<; re MrjBL/cfjs «/>%?}? Kal TTj? AvBucrj*; 6 "AAv? 7roTa/J,6<s, o? pel i£ 'Apjievlov opeos Bia, KtXi/cwv* fieTci Be MaTtrjvoix; fiev iv Begvrj e%ei pecov, e/c Be rod erepov <£>pvya$' Trapafieifiofievo'; Be TOVTOV; Kal pecov avco 7T/5O? fioperjv ave/jLov evQev fiev ^vpiovi Ka.7r7ra.S0/ca? direpyei, e'f evmvvfjLov Be Havq> dvBpl irevre r/fiepai dvaicn-

73 fjLovvTai? 3

edrpateveTO

Be 6 Kjootcro? e7rl Trjv T^.aTVjraBoK.irjv T&vBe

Kappadokia was bounded on the west by the Halys, and on the south by the Kilikians. Its area is larger in the Persian cuneiform inscriptions, where it is called Katpaducca or Katapatuka (comp. Kat-aonia). The important Hittite remains at Eyuk and Boghaz Keui are within its borders, and there is plenty of evidence that it was at one time the headquarters of the Hittite race. They must be the "White Syrians of Strabo, whom the Greek geographer contrasts with the Black Syrians of Semitic Aram (pp. 533, 544, 737. Cf. Schol. ad Apoll. Rhod. i. 948). Pindar (Fr. 150, ed. Bergk) speaks of " a spear-armed Syrian host" at the mouth of the ThermSdon (compare Herod, ii. 104), the river on whose banks dwelt the Amazons, the Hittite priestesses of the Asiatic goddess; and SinSpe, according to Skymnos of Khios (943), was founded among the Syrians. But these Syrians were really Hittites, so called as coming from the country known to the Greeks as Syria. The Aramaic legends on the coins of SinSpe, Side, and Kotyora or Gazir (Brandis, Miinzwesen, 308, 427), belong to a later period. See also Herod, vii. 72. Strabo states that the language of the Kataonians was the same as that of the White Syrians. The Aryans, who afterwards occupied Kappadokia, belonged to the wave of migration which brought the Aryan Armeni-

ans into Armenia, and the Aryan Medes into Media, in the seventh century B.c. Pharnaspes, king of Kappadokia, married Atossa, sister of Kambyses, king of Persia, according to Diodorus Siculus; but as he is also said to have been five generations distant from Darius Hystaspis, the statement cannot be correct (see iii. 68, note 4). The names of the early Kappadokian kings, however, are Persian, as well Sis the deities worshipped in Kappadokia in the Persian period (Omanes, Anandatis, and Anaitis). See ch. 77. 4 The Kilikia of Herodotos extended considerably to the north of the Taurus range. Herodotos puts the Matieni (of Lake Urumiyeh) far too mnch to the west. 5 The pedestrian would certainly require to be "well equipped." As the distance is 280 miles, and Herodotos makes 200 stadia (abput 23 miles) a day's caravan journey (iv. 101), either his geography or his arithmetic is at fault. It is very possible, however, that Professor Mahaffy may be right both here and in ii. 34 in reading fifteen for five, fifteen days being equivalent, according to eastern modes of reckoning, to the real distance. He supposes that the original text was ANAPIIEHMEPAI, and that one of the two iotas has fallen out {Hermathsna, vii. 1881). Compare also i. 185 (where Vitringa suggests t'e (fifteen) instead of e').

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

43

eiveiea, Kal yea<; Ifiepa irpo8e. ^Kvdecov Ttov vofidBwv etkr) dvBpcov crraaidaaaa virei-rjXde e? yrjv

TTJV MrjBiKr'jv irvpdvveve

Be rbv

y^povov TOVTOV

MTJBWV

JLva£dpr]<; 6 ^paopreco TOW ArjtoKeo}, o? row? 2,Kvda$ TOVTOVS TO fiev irpStTov ireptelire ev &>? eovras t/ceTa?" &i irapeBwKe TTJV yXaxxa-dp re eKfiadelv Kal TT}V Te^vrjv TCOV ro^cov. %povov Be yevofievov, Kal alel <j>otTeOVTCOV TWV ~%KvQk(ov e V dyprjv Kal alel rt, (pepovraiv, Kal Kore <jvvr\veiKe ekelv crea? firjBev voaTrj(Tavra<; Be airom Keivfjat ^epal o Kvafapij? (r/v ydp, eo? BieBe^e, opyrjv aKpos) T p ^ e w ? Kapra Trepieare deoKeiTj. oi Be rdora irpbs JLva^dpeco ira66vre<;, &? ayprjv Brjdev, SwTe? Be T-TJV Ta%lcm)v KOfil^ecrdac irapa 'AXvdrrea rov 'ZaBvaTTeas e? "ZdpBi.^. rdora Kal iyevero- Kal yap

J£vaf;dpr)<; Kal ol irapeovTe<; Bairvfioves

TCOV Kpewv TOVTCOV

eTrdaavTo, Kal ol %KvQai TaoTa iroirjcravTes 'AXvaTTeco iKeTat eyevovTo. fieTa. Be TaoTa, ov yap Brj 6 'AXvaTT^? igeBlBov TOV? 74 2,Kv9a<> i^aiTeovTt T£.va!;dpr), 7roXe/io? TOICTL AVBOIGL Kal Tolm MiySoto"t eyeyovet eir eVea irevTe, ev TOicrt, TroWaKii fiev ol M^Sot TOU9 AvBovf

evlmfaav,

7roWaKi<; Be ol AvBol TOV? M I J O W ? .

ev Be

Kal WKTOfia^lrjv TIVVL eTrot,7]o~avTO' Biacf>epovai, Be o~(f>i iirl 'larf<; TOV iroXefiov TW e/cTw eVet yevofievrjs o~Te Trf; iidyrpi avveaTemarfi TTJV rjfieprjv e^airlvrj<; VVKTU yeveaOab. TJJV Be fieTaXXayrjv

"laxri

TavTTjv TTJ? r)/iep7]<; ®aXfj<; o MtX?;o"to9 TOIO~L

TrpoTjyopevo-e eaecrdai,8

ovpov irpoOefievos evuavTov TOVTOV

6 "Brother-in-law." Ta/ippSs is any Agane before the seventeenth centuryrelation by marriage (yd/ios). Comp. Skt. B.C., mentions solar eclipses which had jdmdtri "son-in-law," j&mti "daughter- happened both " a t " and "out of their in-law," vijdman "related "; Lat. gemini predicted time." This shows that the

(for M-gemini). 7 For these passages, see Appendix V. 8 Eclipses of the sun had been predieted by the astronomers of Chaldea at an early period. The great astronomical work (afterwards translated into Greek by Berosus), compiled for Sargon of

predictions did not rest on a very certain basis, and were only approximate. Thales must have derived his science from Babylonia. For the influence of Babylonia on Thales, see the first note on ch. 1. The eclipse has been variously assigned by astronomers to B.c.

44

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

iv T&3 Br) Kal iyevero r) fierafioXrj. oi Be AvBoi re Kal oi MfjBoi eireire elBov vvKra dvrl rj/j,epr}<; yevofievrjv, rfjs fia^rj<; re erravaavro Kal /JiaXXov ri eairevo-av Kal dfi<j>6repoi elprjvrjv ewvrolcri yeveaQai. oi Be o-vfifiiftdo-avre? avroix; rjaav o'lBe, %vevveo-k re 6 K/Xi|? Kal Aa/3vvr)ro<; 6 BafivXcovios.9 ovroi cnpi Kal rb b'pKiov oi airevaavre<; yeveoSai rjcrav, Kal ydfiav eTraXXayrjv iirol^aav AXvarrea yap eyvaaav Bovvai rrjv Ovyarepa 'Apvtjviv Aarvayei, rm Kvagdpew -jraiBl,- dvev yap dvayKalrjs loyvpf]'} v rov 'A&rvdyea KUJOO? iovra eoovrov fvqrpoTraropa Karao'rpe'y'tifjLevos eo"Y6 oi airir\v ri)v eyco ev roio~i OTTLO~CO Aoyoici aTjfiaveay ra K/joio-o? e7n/j,efj,
eirefiire el arpareinjrai etrl Ilepca?, Kal Br) Kal diriKOfievov •^prjcr/jLov Kt^BrjXov, i\iricra<; irpbi; ecovrov rov %p7)? fj,ev iyoo Xeyco, Kara ra<> iovcras ye? Be 6 7roXXo? X070? 625, 610, 603, 597, and 585. The last date best suits the chronology and history of the period. Pliny (N. B. ii. 53) makes it B.C. 583. Herodotos seems to wish to contrast the science of the Greeks with the ignorant superstition of the "barbarians." 9 The "mediators" were Syennesis of Eilikia, and Labynetos of Babylonia. Syennesis was a common name among the Kilikian kings (Herod, v. 118, vii. 98; Xenophon, Anab. i. 2; jEskh. Persas, 324). Other kings of Kilikia (called Khilak in the Assyrian inscriptions and on the native coins) were, Pikhirim, B.C. 854 ; Ambaris or Amris of Tubal (Tibareni), made king by Sargon, B.C. 712; and Sanda-sarme, B.C. 660 (whose name is compounded with that of Sandan, the Kilikian Herakles). Tarkondemos or Tarkondimotos, father and son, ruled Kilikia in the time of Augustus. Tarsus, called Tarzi by Shalmaneser (B.C. 833), was supposed to have had an Assyrian origin, and to have been built in imitation of Babylon. If so, it must have

been a restoration of the older city of Shalmaneser's age. Labynetos is clearly for Nabynetos, or Nabonidos (Nabunahid), a copyist having mistaken N for A. (See ch. 77.) As Nabynetos did not become king of Babylon till B.C. 555, Herodotos has given the wrong name. Nebuchadrezzar was really king at the time. Labyn6tos is placed on the same footing as Syennesis, and therefore could hardly have been merely a Babylonian official. As such, moreover, he was not likely to have had much weight with the hostile kings. 1 The custom of confirming an oath or contract by drinking one another's blood is widely spread (see iv. 70). In Chinese secret societies blood is drawn from the finger of the candidate for admission, poured into a bowl of wine or water, and drunk by the rest of the society. Tacitus describes the same custom as prevailing among the Georgian and Kaukasian tribes (Ann. xii. 47). 2 "The bridges that really are there." Herodotos seems to be here contrasting

i.]

THE EMPIRES OP THE EAST.

45

ol 6 MtXiJcTio? 8ief3£j3aTaTOV \dj3oi,, TavTrj KCLTO, TT\V Biwpvya e/CTpaTro/Aevos eic TWV dp^altov peWpeov, KaX avTis Trapafiei^o/xevo1; TO aTpaToireBov e? T<X dp^aia i0Tep7] Bia/3aT0$ iyeveTO. ol Be /cat TO irapdnav Xeyovac ical TO dp^alov peWpov diro^pavdrivai. aKka TOVTO fiev ov irpocriefiai,' 76 /cw? yap OTTiaeo Tropevofievoo Btefir/crav avTOv ; KpoZcro? Se 67retTe Bia/3prj<; TavTi)^ TO ^ KaTa, ^Lvunrrjv TTOKLV TTJV iv TLi!;elva> i r w r a fiaXiGTa KTJ ivOavTa eo-TpaT0ireBeveTO $6elpTfjeas diro Kpolaov diricrTdvat,. "I&we? fiev vvv OVK eirelOovTO' Kj}po? Be co? a/irliceTo ical dvTeo~TpaTOTrehevcraTo Kpo/cr&), evdavTa ev T§ TlTepiy X^PV eTreipavTo KaTa TO ia^vpov dXkrjXav. f^d^T]^ Be icapTeprjs yevofievr)<; ical ireaovTcov afMpoTepwv TTOWCOV, reXo? ovBeTepoi vi/ajaavTes 8ieo~Tr)o~av VVKTO<$ el7re\8ovo~7]<;. ical TO, fiev o-TpaTOireBa dfupOTepa OVTW riycovlcraro- Kpotcro? Be 77 his own assertion with that of some roads led from Ghurun and Kaisariyeh. other Greek historians, not with that of Kyros had doubtless advanced along the Greek tradition. The double channel first of these, and Krcesos crossed the river of the Halys may have originated the in order to meet him. The vague statecurrent legend, mentthatPteriawas "nearSinope,"which 3 Pteria is here a district rather than is between seventy and eighty miles disa town, though a town of the same name tant from the Halys, shows that Hdt. had is mentioned by Stephanos Byz. Texier no personal knowledge of the country, 4 would identify it with the Hittite city "The fields of the Syrians" or Hitwhose ruins are at Boghaz Keui; per- tites. This overthrow of the Hittites haps Eyuk, the neighbouring Hittite may have led to the colonisation of ruin, is more likely to mark the site. At the depopulated district by the Persians any rate the district must he that in (see note 3 on ch. 72). The ruin of the which Boghaz Keui and Eyuk are situ- Hittite palace at Eyuk was no doubt ated, and to which the two Hittite high- effected by Kroesos.

46

HEKODOTOS.

[BOOK

Kara, TO TrXrjdos TO ecovrov arpaTevfia (rjv yap ol o cn-paro? iroXXbv eXdcrcrcov rj 6 K.vpov), TOVTO fie/x,(f>6ek, a>? T7J iiarepair) OVK eireip&To eiricijv 6 KO/ao?, aTrrjXavve e? ras "ZdpBis, iv voa> eywv TrapatcaXecras fiev AlyvirTuov; Kara, TO opiciov fiaaiXevovra Alyinrrov (iiroirja-aTo yap ical irpb ervpdvveve Be rbv ypovov TOVTOV T&V Jia&vXavuov Aa{3vvr)TOpopea>p, a>s diriKero e? T « 9 SapSt?, eTre/iire KqpvKas Kara, Ta?
TaoTa iiriXeyofievq) Kpotcrw TO irpoda'Teiov irav otyiwv eveTr\rjo-dt}' <pavevTa>v Be avTWv, ol "iriroi fieTievTess Tas vofias ve/ieaOai, (poiTeovTes KaTr)o~Qt,ov. IBOVTI Be TOVTO KJOOIVOJ, &o~"irep

Kal rjv, eBoge repa<; elvai- airlKa Be eVe/ATre Oeo-Trpoirovs e? r&v e%r\yr)Tea>v Te\/j,7]o~crec0v,9 airiKOfjuevoKTi Be TOIO~I deoirpoiroiai, Kal fiaffov(n 7Tp6<; TeX/j^)cro-ea>v TO deXei crrjfiaivetv TO repas, OVK ii;ey&veTo Kpottrw a/rrayyeiXav irplv yap T) OTTL&W cnpias dvairXSyaai, e? Ta? %dpBt,s rfka 6 Kpotcro?. TeXya^crcret? pevTOi, TaBe eyvascrav, arpaTov aXXoOpoov irpocrBoKifiov elvai K.polcrq> iirl rrjv ycaptjv, aTTiKOfievov Be TOVTOV Karao~Tpe(j)eo~0ai, TOV? iirivaplov;, Xiyovres 6'iv elvai, yeas iraiBa, "TTTTOV Be -rroXefjuov Te Kal iTrrj1 5

For Amasis, see Appendix I. Makri ; but Leake makes it the Karian Labynetos for Nabynetos or Nabo- town of the same name, near Halikarnidos. See Appendix II. nassos, following herein Cicero and 7 " Having dismissed all that part of Clement of Alexandria, who says that his army which consisted of mercenaries the oracle was famous for the interpreta. . after having fought such a drawn tion of dreams (Strom, i. 16, p. 361). battle." "Os ty {. with the partitive Little remains at Makri except tombs genitive is like rj ITOKKT] rijs 7^5 and and the theatre. x similar phrases. The snake was supposed to eat dust 8 "Leaving off." The ruins of Sardes (Gen. iii. 14). The "genius loci" is still abound with poisonous snakes, often represented by a serpent at Pomsometimes of great size. That they peii and elsewhere. It was the inhabitshould have been eaten by horses must ant of tombs (Verg. Mn. v. 93), and have been a popular legend. Pythagoras was believed to have taught 9 Probably the Lykian Telinessos, now that the human marrow after death be6

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

47

/xev vvv rdora vireKpivavTO J^polacp 77877 rfXcoKOTt,, ovBev KG) 6l8oT69 TWV r\V 7T€pl Sa/)8t9 T6 Kal dVTOV K.pol(TOV. K{}|909 Be 79 avrUa direXavvovTOf K/so/o-ou fiera rrjv ftdyrfv TTJV yevofievTjv iv TTJ Tlrepir), fiadatv a>? airekdcra^ fjueXXot Kpoto-o? BiaaKeBav TOV arparov, ftovXevopevos evpicrice nrpfiy/id ol etvat, iXavveiv &>9 BVVCUTO TayLGTa eVt r a ? 2,dpBi<;, nrplv rj TO Bevrepov aXoaOrjvai TOSV AvBwv rrjv Svva/Miv. a>? Be ol Taora eSoge, icaX eiroiet KCLTO, eXacra? ea>v rjv air '(.TTTVOIV, Bopard re itpopeov fieydXa, Kal avTol rjaav iTnreveo-dai aryaOoL 69 TO TreBiov Be o-vveX66vT(ov 80 TOVTO TO irpb rov acTTeo<; ian TOV %apBcr]vov, ibv fteya re KOX tyiXov (Bia Be airov iroTa/u,ol p'eovres Kal dXXoi Kal w T \ \ o 9 avpptjyvvcrt €9 rbv fieyio-Tov, KaXeo/tevov Be "JZp/j,ov, 09 ef opeo<; lepov fiTjTpbs AcvBv/J,i]V7)s peav e/cStSot 69 ddXacrcrav Kara, ^a>Kait]v TTOXLV),2 ivdavra o Kv/309 <£>9 elBe TOV9 AUSOU9 69 fJ-d'yrjv Tacrcrofievovs, KaTappa>Bi]cra<; TTJV ttrirov iiroirjcre 'Apirdyov viroOefievov dvBpbs M.i]Bov roiovBe. b'o-ai TW arpaTw ra ewvrov eXirovTO criTOffropoi re Kal GKevotyopoi Kdjj/qXob, Tavra*; irdaa<; aXtcra9 Kal direXcav TO, dj(6ea avBpas e V avra<> dve/3r]o-e lirirdBa GToXrjv iveo~TaXfj,evovs, o~Kevdaa<; Be avToiis irpoaira^e rrj<; dXXrj<; arpaToi]^ irpoievai irpo<; TT)V Kpotcrou LTTTTOV, Trj Be KafirfXo) eirecrdai rbv ire^ov crrparbv ixeXeve, OTTtaOe Be TOV Trefoil iirerra^e Tr\v irdaav 'uirirov. a>9 Be ol TravTes BiereTa^aro, irapaiveae Tr) <j>eiBo/j,evov<; KTeivew irdvTa TOV ifnroBwv yivofievov, Kpoicrov Be came a snake (Ov. M. xv. 389). The horse was of eastern origin, and was accordingly called by the Accadians "the animal of the east," in contradistinction to the ass, "the animal of the west." The honour of having first tamed the horse belongs either to the Tatars or to the primitive Aryans. 2 The Hyllos flows into the Hermos from the north, westward of Magnesia ad Sipylum. Consequently the plain meant by Herodotos is not the Sardian plain properly so called, east of Sardes and south of the Hermos, but the plain west of Sardes and north of the Hermos.

If the battle really took place here, Kyros must have managed to slip past Sardes. The Hermos nowflowsinto the sea to the south of its older channels, one of which is used as a road. An extensive delta has been formed at its mouth, apparently since the time of Herodotos. The Hermos rises from two sources in the Murad Dagh, a branch of the Taurus, in the ancient Phrygia, called Dindyma in classical times. The Dindymenian mother is Kybele or Kybebe, the Asiatic goddess, whose worship seems to have been carried to the west by the Hittites and who had a shrine on Mount Dindyma.

48

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

avTOV fir) tcrelveiv, fiTjSe r)v patvofievo<;. avrov orj tov TOVTOV eiveicev iaecrofacrTO, iva T&> Kyaotcrw ayjpT)9 axrefrpavro rd-^iaTa T6OV Kafifawv oi 'VTTTTOI Kal elBov avrds, biriaw dve<7Tpe<pov, Btecj)6apTO re ra K^ot'crm r) ekirL<s. ov fiivroi, oi ye AvBol TO iv&evrev Beikol ?\o~av, dXX w? efiadov TO yivofievov, diroQopovTes dvo TCOV ITTTTCOV ire^oi, rolai Hipo-rjcri OTepa>v TTOWWV kWpdirovro ol AvBoi, KareiXr]0evTe<; Be e? TO Tet^o? eiroKiopKeovTO V7ro TWV Uepcreeov. 81

Tolai, {iev Br) KaTeaTrjKet iroXiopKLr). Kpotcro? Be Boxecov ol j(povov eirl (JLaKpov eaeaOai TTJV iroXiopKir/v eirep/ire eK TOV rei^eo^ aXXovs dyyeXovi e? TCLS o-vfifia^ia<;- ol fiev yap irpoTepov Bieire/j,ITOVTO e? ire/jLTTTOv firjva irpoepeovTes &vXXeyeo~0ai e? ZidpSis, TOVTOV; Be e^eTre/MTTe TTJV Ta")(La~TT\v BelaQah ftoTjdeiv &>? iroXiopKeo/iivov 82 Ky3o/crou. e? T6 Brj 3>v r a ? aXXas 'i-rrefjuire crvfi/J.a^ta'i Kal Brj Kal e? AaKeBalfiova. Tola Be Kal avroio-i TOZO~L %TTapTvr]Tr]ui KWT avTov TOVTOV TOV ypovov avveireTTTaiKei epi<; eovcra Trpof 'Apyelovs Trepl •%(opov KaXeofievov ®vper)<; • T « 9 yap ®vpeas 4 TavTa<; eovcras T?j9 'ApyoXCBos fioipr} x^PV Kai V ^-vQr\pir) vr\ao^ Kal al Xonral TWV vqaav.5 /3o7)8r)o~dvTcov Be 'Apyelav Trj o-fyeTepy diroTafJuvofievri, evOavTa o-vvej3r)o-av is Xoyovs o-vveXOovTes wcrTe TpiTjKOfflovs eKaTepwv /jLa%eo~a(rdai, OKOTepot, B' av TrepiyevtavTai, TOVTWV elvai TOV x&pov TO Be TrXrjdos TOV crrpaTov diraXXdaaeaOat eKaTepov 69 TTJV ecovTov 3 The camel, called " the beast of the sea," i.e. the Persian Gulf, by the Accadians, came originally from Arabia. The dislike of the horse to it still continues, as travellers in the east are well able to testify. 4 Thyrea, not represented by the monastery of S. Luke, as Leake supposed, was the chief town of Kynuria, "the borderland " between Lakonia and Argolis. The Kynurians claimed to belong to the pre-Dorian Ionians of the Peloponnesos. See Thukyd. v. 41.

5 In the time of Pheidfin. The whole country was gradually absorbed by the Spartans when they were still aiming at possessing themselves of the Peloponnfisos, before their check at Tegea led them to change their policy and come forward as simply the leaders of the Dorian race. Kythgra had been occupied by the Phoenicians, who built a temple to Astarte" there, but were driven out by the Dorians, like the Phoenician colonists elsewhere (in Thera, Melos, Thebes, etc.)

I.]

THE EMPIEES OF THE EAST.

49

firjBe irapafieveiv dywvi^ofihxov, ravBe e'lveicev Xva fir) irapeovTwv TS>V O~TparoireBcov opiovTes ol k'repoi kcrvovfievow; rovs (r^erepov; evafivvoiev. crvvQkfievoi rdora diraXXdaaovro, XoydBe*} Be e/carepwv viroXeHpdevTe*} v ical ytvofievwv laoiraXecov inreXeiirovTO ifj dvBpSiv k^aicocriav rpels, 'Apyelwv fiev 'AX/cijvaip re ical Xpo/ito?, AaKeBaifiovutov Be ^OOpvaBw

vTreXel(j>6r)a-av Be OVTOI VVKTOS

i-ireXdovcrr)<$. ol fi.ev

Br) Bvo TS)V 'Apyeiwv ? fiev Brj avrol eicdrepot ecpacrav viicav, Xeyovres ol fiev &>? kavTWV 7rXeoveaivovTe<; TreevyoTa<;, TOV Be creTepov irapa/j,eivavra /ecu a/cvXevo-avra TOVS eicelvwv ve/cpovv TeXo? Be 4K T ^ ? epiBos cru^7reo-oi'Te? ifidj(pvTO, ireaovrcov Be /cat d/j,(f>OTepcov TTOXXWV eviKoav AaiceBaifxovioi. 'Apyeioi fiev vvv diro TOVTOV TOV %povov Karcuceipdfievoi TO.? KeaXd<;, irporepov eirdvayKe^ KOfieovre^, eTroi^cravTO vofiov Te ical tcardprfv fir) irporepov Ope^jreiv KOfir\v 'Apyeleov fir)Beva, fii)Be TO.? yvvalicds afa ^pvcrocfroprfo-eov, irpXv ®vpea<; dvaadxrcovrat. Aa/ceBaifiovioi Be TO, ivavria TOVTCOV eOevTO vofiov ov yap Ko/ieovres irpb TOVTOV dirb TOVTOV KOfiav. TOV Be eva Xeyovat, TOV irepiXei(f>Oevra rcov TpirjKocricov 'O6pvd8r]v, ala^vvbfievov dirovocrTelv e? %TrdpTT]v TWV ol (TvXXo^irecov Bieej>Oap/ieva)v, avTov fiiv iv Trjcri, ©vpeycri, KaTa^priaaaOai eaVTov. TOIOVTWV Be Toicri ^TraprirjTrjcri, eve(TTed)Twv TrprjyfidTcov fjice 83 o ~^,apBvr]vb ftorjdelv iroXiopKeofieva. ol Be o/ifti?, iireire eirvOovro TOV icijpvicos, opfiearo ftorjOeiv, icai a? rjXd>KOL TO TeZyos Tbiv AvBwv Kal e%oiTO Kpolcro OVTCO Br) OVTOI fiev crvfi^oprjv 7roirio~dfievoi, fieydXrjv eiren XdpBies Be rfXaxrav &>8e. eireiBr) recraepecncaiBeKaTT) eyeveTO r)fiepr] 84 iroXtopiceofiivq) Kpotco), Kvpo? Tr} cTTpanrj Trj eoivrov 8iaTrefii.yjra<> t7T7rea? irpoel-we ™ nrpwTO) iirufSdvTL TOV Tet^eo? Bwpa Baxreiv. fiera.

Be TOVTO TretpijcrafievT]'; T?J? o~TpaTir)
e " B y fixed custom." The later Greek custom of cutting the hair short was derived from the Dorians, though the Dorian Argives here appear as wearing it long. The Dorian element in the E

w? ov

Argolis, however, does not seem to have been strong. The Akhseans of Homer were long-haired ; so, too, were the ancient Athenians (cp. Thuk. i. 6).

50

HERODOTOS.

evdavTa

[BOOK

T&V aXXtov TreiTavfievcov dvrjp Ma^So? iireipaTo irpoo~-

fiaivcov, TO5 ovvofia ovBels iriTaKTo

r/v 'TpoidSrj<;, Kara

(jbvXaKO?1 ov jap

TOVTO TTJS aKpowoXtos

rjv Beivbv

Trj

KUTO, TOVTO fir) dXa

KOT€. diroTOfLo? Te
TOV XeovTa TOV oi r) iraXXaKr) eVe/ee,7 TeXfirjo-creav SucacrdvTav to? irepieveo^OevToi; TOV XBOVTOS TO Tet^o? £O~OVTCU z,apoie<; avaXa>T0i.

6 Be M^Xij? KCLTO, TO aXXo Tei^o? -irepuevebcas, T{) rp> hrlfiaypv [TO yooplov] T?)? aKpoiroXios, /caT^Xoyrjae TOVTO a>? ibv ayM/ypv r e Kal aTroTOfiov ecrTt, Be TT/SO? TOV TfimXov TeTpafifievov TJJ? TroXto?.8 o 3>v Sr) 'TpoidBr)<; OVTOS 6 MapSo? IBcbv Trj irpoTepairf TUIV Tiva AvBSiv KaTa TOVTO T?J? aKpoiroXios KaTafiidvTa, eir\ Kvverjv avwOev

KaTaKvXtcrOelcrav ical dveXo/juevov e^pdadr) Kal e? Ovfibv ifidXeTo. T6T€ Be Brj avTO'i Te avafiefirficec Kal KaT avTov aXXoi TLepaecov avi/3aivov TrpoafidvTwv Be cv^ycbv, OVTW Brj %dpBie<; Te rjXa>Keo~av

Kal irav TO acrTV hiropOelTO? 85

E a r ' avTov Be JLpolcrov TaBe iyiveTO. 7]V oi iral<;, TOV ical irpoTepov e"7re/j,vi]cr8r)v, TO, fiev aXXa e7riei,Krj<; a(pcovo<; Be. ev Trj &v TrapeX&ovcrrj evecrTol 6 Kpotcro? TO TTCLV e? axnov eTreiroLrjKei,

aXXa

Te i-7ripa£6/j,evo<;, Kal Brj Kal e? AeX<pov<; irepl frei %prjo-o/j,evovi. r) Be TlvOirj ol ehre TaBe. Ai/Se
avrov

aKoveiv

7ratSo? <j)9e
The lion was the symbol of Sardes, and of its protecting deity, the sun-god. The acropolis, composed of crumbling sandstone, has now been almost entirely washed down into the plain below, and it is clear that the breach mentioned by Herodotos must have been a spot where a landslip had occurred. The MSles meant here can hardly have been the last king but one before Kandaules, but rather the mythical Meles of the Atyad family who was deposed by Moxos on account of his tyranny. 8 i.e. on the south side, where alone the approach to the top of the acropolis is at present not precipitous. <> According to Ktesias (Polysenos, Strat. vii. 6), Kyros took Sardes through

the advice of (Ebare's, figures of men being placed on long poles and raised to the top of the walls. This must have been the Persian account. The Lydian account is also given by Polysenos. According to this, Kyros agreed to a truce and pretended to withdraw, but the following night returned and scaled the unguarded walls with ladders. As Xenophon gives the same account as Herodotos (Kyrop. viii. 2), it would seem to be the Greek version. The introduction of the myth of Meles and the lion makes it suspicious, 1

" L y^ n -b°™. of many king, foolish as a ^ K ^s ^ wlsh not in home ^ treaty wild,

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THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

51

aKta-KO/iivov Bt] TOV Tet^eo?, r)ie yap T? airoKTevewv, K/)oiepe irXrjyevTi airodavetv 6 Be Trats O5TO? 6 a?elBe einovTa TOV Uepcrjv, virb Beov? r e Kal ica/cov epprjge tfxovrjv, elire Be " wvOpanre, fjuij KTelve YLpolaov."

OUTO? fiev

Si) TOVTO irpcoTov e9ey^aTO, JMSTO,

Se TOVTO r)Br) e<pa>vei TOV irdvTa %povov T97? ^o?;?. ol Se Tiepaat, 86 TCLS Te Srj %dp8i<; ecr'xpv Kal UVTOV Kpoicrov i^coyprjcrav, aptjavTa eVea Teo~o~epea~icaLBeKa Kal TecraepecrKalBeKa2 17/iepa? TroXiopKijOevTa, rfpLov Te KaTatraxxravTa TT)V eavTov fj,eyd\7jv dpyfiv. Se avTov ol Tlepcrao Tjyayov irapa Kvpov. 6 Se avvvqaa'i Trvprjv /j.eyd\7]v dvefiufSao-e CTT' avTrjv TOV TLpolcrov Te iv SeSefievov Kal St? eirTa AvB&v Trap' avTov 7ratSa?, kv vow e% elVe Brj aKpodivia TaoTa KaTayuelv 6eu>v OTeq> Brj, elVe Kal eTTLTe~keo-ai OeXcov, etVe Kal 7rv06fievo<> TOV Kpolaov elvai, 6eocre/3ea TovBe e'iveKev dvefiij3ao~e eVt TTJV TTvpi]v, f3ov\6[jLevo<; elBevai el Tt? [uv Baifjuovcov pvcreTat, TOV pr} ^GsvTa KaTaKavOrjvai. TOV fiev Brj iroielv TaoTa- TG> Se TZ.po£o-q> eaTe&Ti eVt TJJ? irvpri<; eaeXdelv, Kaiirep iv KaK<£ eovTi TOO~OVTO>, TO TOV ^OXWVOS CO? ol etrj o-vv 6ea> elprjfievov, TO fj,7]Beva elvac TWV ^COOVTWV b'XjSiov. a>? Se apa fiiv irpoao'Trjvab TOVTO, dvevei,Kd/j,ev6v3 Te Kal dvaaTevd^avTa e/c iroXXfj'i rjGvyvr)*; e'? Tpl<; ovofjidaat, " "ZoXcov." Kal TOV TLvpov KeXevo~at TOV? ep/J,rjvea<; eireipeo~8ai, TOV ¥Lpo2aov Tvva Kal TOV<; Trpoo-eX66vTa<; iirei,po)Tdv. Kpolcrov Be Tew? fiev aiyrjv ej(eiv elpa>Teo/j,evov, /JbeTa Be, w? rjVayKa^eTO, elirelv " TOV av eyat Tracn Tvpdvvoiai irpoeTijiriaa fieydXcov j(pr)fj,dTcov e'? Xoyovs eXdeiv."i w? Be t, do-rjfia e(fipa£e, irdXiv iireipwTeov TO, Xeyofieva. XnrapeovTwv Be UVTWV Kal o^Xov •7rape%6vT(ov eXeye Brj a>? ^X^e dp%rjv 6 %oXasv ea>v 'K6r]vaZo<;, Kal 0er)crd/j,evo<; irdvTa TOV ECOVTOV b'Xfiov dTro(f>Xavpl<7ei,e ola Br) etVa?, w? Te avTw izdvTa dito^e^Ke ol Trj irep cwwo? elire, ovBev TL fidXXov e? ecovTov Xeywv rj e? dirav TO dvOpcoirivov Kal /j,dXtlcrt axiTolai oX/3tov? BoKeovTas elvai. TOV fiev Thou shouldst hear thy boy speak out: better thus alway; Thou wilt hear him first, I ween, on an unblest day."

probably due to legend than to coincidence. Fourteen Lydians were condemned to be burnt with Kroesos. 3 ( i w h e n t M g t h o u g h t s t r u e k him, he

'Afupls " a l l round," and so " i n every way." The Homeric meanings " o n both sides " and " apart" are later. 3 The identity of number is more

drew a long breath." Cp. II. 19, 314. 4 "Whose conversation with every monarch I would prefer to abundant wealth."

52

HEKODOTOS.

[BOOK

j rdora dirrjyelo-Oai, T?)? Be Trvprjs tfBr] afifievr)? xaiecrOai ra irepueo-^ara. ical rbv K.vpov dtcovaavra r&v ep/irjvecov ra, Kpotcro? elire, fierayvovra re ical evvcocravra on ical avrb? av8panro<; ia>v aXXov avOpairov, yevo/xevov ecovrov evBatfioviy OVK iXdao-w, ^oivra irvpl BiBofy, 71730? re rovroiai Beiaavra rrjv ruriv ical eirCXe^dfievov a>? ovBev eir) rcov iv dv0pa>7roicn aafyaXeax; i"Xpv, iceXevecv crfievvvvai rr)v Ta^laT-rjv TO /caio/ievov irvp ical Ka,Ta/3i/3d£eiv Kpolaov re ical rovs fiera Kpolcrov. ical rov? 87 Treipco/Aevov? ov BvvaaOat, en rod Trvpo? eirncparrjo-ai. evOavra Xeyerai inrb AvB5>v Kpoio-ov fiadovra rr)v Kvpov fierdyvcoaiv, w? a>pa irdvra fiev dvBpa aftevvvvra rb irvp Bvva/Aevov? Be ovKen /caraXafieiv, erufiwo-ao-dai rbv 'AiroWwva eTruca\e6fi,evov, eX ri oi /ce-^apio-fievov e£ avrov eBtoprjOr), irapaarfivat ical pvcracrOai, avrbv iic rod Trapeovros icaicov. rbv fiev Baicpvovra etriKaXelaBai rbv Qeov, eic Be al0p£r)<; re ical vqvefili)^ avvBpa/ielv ical vcrav vBan i^airivrj'; veea ical %ec,fia>vd re /carappayfjvai Xafipordra), Kara? eir) 6 KjOotcro? ical OeofaXrjs ical dvijp ayados, Karaj3i{3do~avra avrbv cnrb rrj<; Trvprj^ elpeadai rdBe. " K^oto"e, Tt? ere dvdpanrcov aveyvaxre eirl yrjv rryv &fir)V o-rparevcrdfj.evov iroXefuov avri <j>CXov i/Aol Karao~rr\vaL ; " 0 Be elve " w fia&tXev, eya) rdora eirprj^a ry arj fiev evBai/Aovly, rfj i/iecovrov Be icaicoBaifiovirj. a'lrios Be rovrwv iyevero 6 'ILXXTJVCOV Oeb<; eiraelpas ifie arpareveadai. ovBels yap ovrco dv6i)r6<; icrn ocrri<; woXefiov 5 We are reminded of the legends of Persians, and they thenceforth began to Christian martyrs, ordered to be burnt, observe the law of Zoroaster, which forwhom the fire would not injure. Comp. bade the burning of dead bodies or any also the account of the Three Children other pollution of fire. This last statein the fiery furnace. The legend ment may point to the fact that Kyros of Krcesos is further embellished in was not a Zoroastrian, as we now know Nikolaos of Damascus. Here we are told (see Appendix V.) was the case, and conthat the son of Krcesos, who had been sequently was not likely to venerate fire, dumb, wished to die with him, and when Thales had predicted the storm, and the prevented prayed to Apollo to save his fetters with which Krcesos had been bound father ; that the Sibyl appeared and were sent by him to Delphi. The whole ordered the Persians to desist from the story, it is clear, has been coloured, if deed ; and that it was the Persians, and not invented, by the vanity of the not Kyros, who from the first had pitied Greeks. Ktesias says nothing about the his prisoner and tried to save him from fire, but asserts that the fetters of the anger of his enemies, who were KKESOS were miraculously struck off by moved by the name of Solon. Fourteen thunder and lightning, after which he Lydians had been selected to be burnt was treated kindly by Kyros, and allowed with Krcesos. The storm terrified the to live at Barene (Barkg in Justin, i. 7).

i.J

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

53

irpo elprfv'T)'} alpelraiiv fiev yap rfj ol TralBe<; rot"? irarepa? uairrovai, iv Be rat ol irarepe1; roiif TralSas. dXXa rdora Balfiocrl KOV lXov rjv ovra yeveaOai." ' O [lev rdora eXeye, Kvyao? Be avrov \vv AvB&v aarv Kepai%ovTa<; eltre " & ftaaiXev, Korepov Xejecv Trpbs ere TO; voeav Tvy^avw rj ciyav ev T&5 irapeovrt, ^prj ;" Kvpo? Be fiiv dapcreovra i/ceXeve Xeyeiv o r t ftovXoiro. 6 Be avrov elpcora Xeycov " OIITOS 6 iroXXos SfiiXos TL rdora TroXXrj a-TrovBfj ipyd^erai,; " o Be ehre " TTOXIV re rrjv crrjv BiapTrd^ei ical j^prjfJLara TO, aa Buicpopei" Kpotcro? Be afieifieTO " ovre iroXtv TTJV ifirjv ovre ^prjfiaTa ra ifia Biapird^ei- ovBev jap ifiol €Ti TOVTCOV /u,era- dXXa, <$>epovcrC re ical dyova-i TO era." Kvpa> Be 67rt/i6Xe? iyevero TO, Kpotcro? etTre* fjLeracrTTjadfxevo'i Be 89 roil1; aXXovs, etpero T$.poi(rovt 6 TI ol ivopqtr) iv Toiat Troceo/ievoicri. 6 Be elire " iireuTe lie Oeol eBco/cav BovXov o~oi, Bi/caia), el TL ivopeco irXeov,6 at]fiaiveiv aoL Hepcrai r)H,aroi. rjv 5>v av TOVTOV; TrepilBys BiapTrdaavra^ /cat KaTao~%ovTa<; ypr\fiara /leydXa, rdBe roi i£ ainoiV eirtSotja yevecOau-1 09 av avroyv •jrXelo'Ta /cardcr^r), TOVTOV irpoaBeKeadai TOI iiravao-rrjcrofievov. vvv &v TTOITJO'OV <SSe, e'l TOI dpeaxei ra, iya> Xeyco. /cdricrov TWV Bopv6pa>v iirl Trdcrycri, rfja-i ea avay/calox; e%et Be/carevOrjvat rat Ail. /cal av Te cr(f>i OVK dire^Orjaeac fily avraipeo/ievo*; TO, ^prf/iara, ical i/celvoi o-vyyvovTe<> iroieiv ere Blicaia « W T 6 5 TTporjaovcTL." rdora 90 dicovwv 6 Kvpo9 vTrepijBero, W9 ol eBoxei ev VTrortdeadaialvecras Be TroXXd, ical ivTeiXd/u.evo'; rolcri Bopvcj)6poiai ra Kpoicro9 6

"If I see anything to your advantage," or perhaps "if I see any deeper than you and yours." 7 "You may expect the following

"and these"; hence the construction, $UX<£KODS for
treatment from them." Or ^f avrQv may be equivalent to 4K Toiriav, "after this," " afterwards," as in ch. 9, iii. 52, vii. 8 7, viii. 60 |8 (in the sing. i. 207, ii. 51, vii. 46). 8 The use of the imperative here instead of the conjunctive is anomalous. The relative, however, is equivalent to

small number of instances to have been just setting in during the age of Herodotos in New Ionic. We find similar forms in Homer (
54

HEEODOTOS.

[BOOK

hnrehelv, eltre irpos JLpoZaov rdSe. ""KpoZae, dvapTfjfjbevov o~eo dvBpbs /SacrtXeo? ypr\aTa epya Kat, eirea iroieZv, aneo Bocriv r\vTiva ftovkeal TOI yevioSai irapavTiKa." 6 Be £t7re " w Secnrora, edo-as fie yapua, fiaXiara TOV debv TWV 'T&Wrjvwv, rbv ija> eTi/Mija-a Oea>v [iaXiv irapaiTeoiTO. etra\iW6 TOVTO oveiBoaat. KOpo? Se cd9 Be TaoTa rjtcovae 6 Kpot«ro9, •nep/irv. KpoZtro? Be irefiirTov v Bopvfyopos 'YipaKkeiBewv, Bo\w yvvaiKrjLU) i-jncr'irofievo'; i9 vcnepov Total erecrt TOVTOIO~I aXou? T?)? 7re7rpa>fiev7]'i. BevTepa Be TOVTCOV KaiOfievw axjTW einr)pKeae. KaTa Be TO p^avTr\iov TO yevofievov OVK opduts K^otcro? fj,ifj.(peTai. 7rpor]j6peve yap ol A £ / 9 fjv o-TpaTevrjTai eirl Hepcra<;, /iejdXrjv dp^rjv ainov 9 Ao^ias has nothing to do with Xof6s in the sense of "ambiguous." The form is difficult to explain if derived from the root of \iya. Frohde compares it, along with Ao£t&, an epithet of Artemis, with the Sanskrit lakhsh-man, " m a r k , " "sign." As the epithet is applied to both Apollo and Artemis, it is better to

regard it as coming from the root of Xewc6s, Kretan AtVros ( = MKTOS), lux, light, the vowel being changed through a "popular etymology," which connected it with either Xo£ds or Xfryos.— Schone (Hermes, ix.) ingeniously infers from the oracle that the fall of Sardes was regarded as a fixed date. Herodotos

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

55

/caraXvcreiv. TOV Be irpof rdora xprjv ev fieXXovra ftovXevecrdat, iireipeaOai irkfxrifavTa Korepa TTJV ecovrov rj TTJV TLvpov Xeyot, apyrjv. ov o~vXXaj3(ov Be TO prjOev oib" eTraveupofievos eonnbv alrcov dirocpaiveTO). ra> Kal TO TeXevTalov •y^prjaTTjpia^ofievp elire Aogtrj*; Trepl rjfuovov, oiBe TOVTO crvveXafie. rjv ydp Brj o K0joo9 OVTOS fifiiovos' i/c ydp Bvcov OVK ofioeOvecov iyeyovec, fir]Tpb<; dfieivovo<;, irarpb<; Be inroBeearepov T] fiev yap r\v M??8t? Kal 'Aa-Tvdyeos dvydrrjp TOV MrfBcov fiao-i\eo<;, 6 Be Hepcrrjs re •qv Kal dpyofLevo^ vir eKeivoicn, Kal evepde ea>v TOZCTL airaai Bea-irobvr) Trj ecovrov o-vvoiKec." Taora jjuev rj TivOuq vtreKpivaTO Tolcri AVBOIGL, ol Be dvqveiKav 6? SapSt? Kal dinjyyeiXav J£.pol<7(p. o Be aKovcra? avveyvw ecovrov elvai TTJV afiaprdBa Kal ov TOV deov. Kara, fiev Brj TTJV JLpoLcrov re dp^rjv Kal 'lavLiy; Tr\v TrpcoTijv KaTacrTporjV eaye OVTCO. KpotVft) Be io~T0 Kal dWa dvaOojfiaTa ev rfj 'EXXaSt TroWd 92 Kal ov rd elpijfiiva fiovva. ev fiev yap tyrffiycri rycri TSOIG>TU>V rpiirovi %pvo~eo<;, TOV dveOrjKe ra 'ATTOWCOVI ra 'lo~fjL7)VL(p, ev Be E^>eo"ffl al re /3oe? ai ypvaeai Kal TWV KIOVCOV at vroWai, ev Be THpovqir)<; TTJ? ev AeX^otcrt dairls ypvaei) fieydXrj. rdora fiev Kal CTL e? ifie rjv vepieovTa, rd 8' e%airo\wke T&V dvaOrjfidrwv rd 8' ev T$pay%l$7]o-t rfjo-i, ^H.oKrjaicov dvaOtf/Aara ]£.polo~a>, a>9 eya> •7rvv6dvofiat, taa re araOfiov Kal b'fioia Tolao ev Ae\<j>oio-i . . . 2 TO. /A&V vvv e? r e AeX^oii? Kal e? TOV 'Afi(f>tdpea> avedrjKe olKrjid T£ eovra Kal ra>v •jrarpcoitov y^pyfidTOiv aTrapyrjv rd Be dXXa dvadrjfiaTa e|- dvBpbs iyevero ova(r]<; eydpov, o? ol irplv rj j3aeriXevcrai dvTio~Tao-td>Tr)<; KaTeo-TrJKei, o-vo'irevBav HavraXeovrt yevecrOai

TTJV AVBCOV

apyr]v.

6 Be TiavraXecov

r\v

'AXvaTreco

fiev irals, YLpoio-ov Be dBeX(f>eb? OVK 6fAOfirJTpio<;' J£.poia-o<; fiev yap eK Kaetp?;? ?JV yvvaLKos 'AXVUTTT}, TlaVTaXecov Be e^ makes the five Mermnad kings reign 170 years ; subtracting three, we have 167 years, i.e. just five generations, according to the calculation of Herodotos (ii. 142) of three generations to 100 years. Hence the number of years assigned by Herodotos to the Mermnad dynasty. In ch. 13 Herodotos will have written iriiarrov airbyovov by mistake for yeve&v. —As Astyagfe was conquered by Kyros, according to the inscription lately found at Babylon, in B.C. 549, and the next year or two were spent in subduing

the Medic fortresses - in Assyria, while the temple of Delphi was burnt in B. c. 548, it is clear that the story of the embassy to the oracle is a pure myth, 1 The temple of Athena at Delphi stood in front of the great temple of Apollo (irpt> TOU vaov). The shield was carried away by Philomelos, the Phokian general, in the Sacred "War (Paus. x. 8). 2 Stein points out that here the predicate is lost, which probably referred to the plundering of the temple of Brankhidss in B.C. 494 (see vi. 19).

56

HEEODOTOS.

[BOOK

eVetVe Be Bovro? rov Trarpbs2a i/epdrrjo-e rr)<; dp^ TOV dvQpanrov rov avrnrp^caovra eirl Kvdtyov eXKtov Sie(f>vet,pe, rrjv Be ovauqv avrov ert irporepov Kariepuxras rore rpoirw ru> elpTjfievcp apidrjKe e? TO. eiprjrai. Kal irepl fiev dvaOrj/Mdrcov roaavra elptfo-ffw. 93 ®a>v/u.ara Be yrj r) AVBLTJ e? ffvyypa^rjv oil fidXa e^ei, old re Kal aXXi) xa>pr), irdpe^ rov eK rov T/icoXov Karaepofiivov •tfnjyfiaro';} ev Be epyov -TTOXXOV fieyiarov Trape^erai %«/H? r&v re Alv HafivXwvicov. eo-ri avrodu 'AXvdrrem rov K/joicron •7rarpb<; arjfia, rov •>] Kpr\Trl<s fiev eo-rt, XlOcov fieydkav, ro Be dXXo o-fjfia j(&)fia yfj<;.& e^epydaavro Be fitv oi dyopaloi avQpwKoi Kal ol ^eipoovaKTe? Kal at ivepya^ofievai iraiBio-Kai. ovpoi 6 Se irevre eovres en Kal e? ifie rjaav eVt rov crr]fiaro^ avco, KaL o"0t ypdfifiara eveKeKoXairro ra eKaaroi e%epyao~avro, Kal 2o "His father having handed it over to him." 3 The instrument had iron teeth, like a carding-comb, over which the victim was dragged. According to Nikolaos Dam., the "enemy" who incited Pantale6n was a merchant named Sady-

metres of cubic contents. The stone base is no longer visible. As described by Herodotos the tomb will have resembled the "Cucumella" tomb at Vulci, as well as the tomb of Porsena at Clusium described by Pliny (iV. H. xxxvi. 19). The perpendicular height of the great pyramid of Kheops is 482 4 The gold-dust washed down from feet, and it covers an area of nearly 13 Tm&los by the Paktfilos must be distin- acres. 6 guished from the gold found in the mines "Monumental stones" bearing inof TmQlos.—Ofa re as in Homer (e.g. scriptions. No traoe of writing remains II. 7, 280). on the stone now on the top of the 5 The tomb lies on the southern bank tumulus. The Lydian alphabet was, like of the Gygasan Lake, and is the highest the alphabets of Karia, Lykia, Pamof all the multitudinous tumuli or tombs phylia, and Kappadokia, based on the on the plateau of the Bin Bir Tepe. It Greek alphabet, with characters retained is a conspicuous object from the acropolis from the older Asianic syllabary (which of Sardes, and is entirely composed of continued to be used in Eypros down to earth. On the top is a huge block of stone the fourth century B.C.), in order to ex(about 9 feet in diameter) cut into the press sounds not represented in the form of a pomegranate or phallus. The Phceniko-Greek alphabet. A specimen mound has been partially excavated by of the Lydian alphabet survives in the Spiegelthal and Dennis, and a sepulchral five characters on the base of a column chamber discovered in the middle, com- belonging to the earlier temple of Arteposed of large well-cut highly-polished mis at Ephesos, discovered by Mr. blocks of white marble. The chamber Wood (published in the Transactions of is 11 feet long, nearly 8 feet broad, and the Society of Biblical Archceology, iv. 2, 7 feet high. The mound, which had 1876). Mr. Newton points out that the been used in later times for burial pur- base belonged to one of the " cselatse poses, is 281 yards in diameter, or about columnse " presented by Krcesos. 7 half a mile in circumference. Texier "Stating how much each class of makes it 80 metres high, with 2,650,800 workmen had executed."

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

57

ialveTo fierpeo/Mevov TO T&V TraiBia/cemv epyov

ibv fjueyt,o~Tov.

I.]

TOV jap

Br) AvBa>v Brj/Aov at 6vyaTepe
Tracrai,s a-vX-

\iyovaat,

&(f>lo-i
avvot,Krjaa3ai TOVTO

i/cBiBovcn

Be avral

Br) 7re/}t'oSo? TOV

iaind?.

rj fiev

voieovaai' o-rjfia,To<;

elal

crrdBiou e£ Kal Bvo ifKeOpa, TO Be evpos etrri, irXeOpa

Kal

BeKa.

AvBol

\lfivr)

delvaov

rotovTO

Be e^yerai

TOV O~TJ/IMTOS fieydXrj,

elvai • 9 KaXeiTat, Be avTrj Yvyair).

eaTi.

A.vBo\

Be vofJLOLai, fiev

Tr)v

TOVTO fiev

TrapaifKrjaiObcn

Kal ' EXX^ye?, %copl<; rj OTI TO, OrfKea TeKva KoifrdjAevoi e%prjo-ai>TO,1 TrpwToc Be Kal

<pa
AvBol

Kal Ta<; "rraiyvias

8 This was also the case in Babylonia (see Herod, i. 199), and in other parts of the Semitic world, where the girls consecrated themselves in this way to Astarte. We must notice that according to Herodotos it was only " t h e common people " whose daughters practised this Semitic custom. The custom may have been introduced by the Hittites along with the worship of the Asiatic goddess. 9 The lake, now called that of Mermereh, was dried up during a hot summer a few years ago, and the remains of some "pile-dwellings" found in it. It is famous for its carp, which grow to a great size, and in the belief of the natives cause fever when eaten, unless " a bitter stone" in their heads is first taken out. 1 According to Pollux (ix. 6) coined money was invented by the Phrygians. The first coins used in Egypt were introduced by the Persians, as were also the first known in Babylonia and Assyria. The Jews had none before the age of the Maccabees, and none have been found in Phoenicia older than the Persian period. The early coins found near Sardes are of gold, silver, and eleetrum, and some of them may be older than the time of Krcesos. They have a device—a lion's head, a lion and bull, or a crowned king with bow and quiver— only on one side; on the other is the

Brj 94

^pieovTai

KaTairopvevovai,

vrpcoTOi Be avdpcoTTCov TCOV r)fiel
rpia

Xeyovai

Kal

apyv-

Ka/rrrjKoi eykvovTo.

r a ? vvv

l
quadratum incusum left by the square excrescence of the anvil on which they were struck. The coins of Pheidon of Argos were imitated from those of Lydia, though Greek vanity afterwards ascribed the invention to him, and bore upon them the figure of a tortoise, the symbol of Aphrodite, and the very animal with which Krcesos was supposed to have tested the veracity of the Delphian oracle. The iEginetan scale of Pheidfin was of oriental origin, like its standard the mna, or rnina, which goes back to the Accadian mana, subsequently borrowed by the Babylonians and Assyrians, and handed on by them to the West. The Babylonian silver mina is further identical with the silver mina of Carchemish, the Hittite capital, and the mina in use in Asia Minor, and weighed about 8656 grains Troy. Fifty Lydian silver staters (each weighing 173 grains) make one of these minas. This mina was also employed among the PhrygoThrakian mining tribes, who must have brought it from Asia Minor, and Dr. Schliemann has discovered at Troy (Hissarlik) six wedges of silver, 7 or 8 inches long by 2 in breadth, each of which Mr. Barclay Y. Head has shown to be the third of the Babylonian or Hittite mina. This was divided by three, not halved and quartered like the Phoenician standard, which weighed about 11,225 grains Troy.

Kal

58

HEEODOTOS.

[BOOK

/caTe
avT&v

(riToBeirjv icr^ypr)v

G§1<TI Xeyovat,

Xeycwre?. dva

eirl "ATVO?

rr)v AvBfyv

AvBoix; Tews fiev Bidyeiv Bi^r/crdai, aXXov

dijvai

8r) &>v Tore Kal r&v KV$WV

aCp7]<; Kal Treacrwv iroielv

Be aXXo

TWV aXXecov

TOVTOOV yap

ruJLepeoov irai^eiv

iraveaQai,

avTwv.

i^evpe-

T5H> Trauyvlcov. eoKocn.

iireire

Kal

ret

rfj?

eoBea, TrXrjv

OVK olK7]iovvTai

e%evpovra<;, TTJP fiev

eir k'rea Bvwv

2

Be, a>? ov

iraiyvlcov

iracrav, iva Br) fir] ^r/Teoiev

SeovTa

Kal roii<;

Kal ra>v daTpaydXav

aiTeio-Qai, iravofjuevov; X' en

fj,era

iracrkwv

Be

airoiKio-ai?

yeve&Ocu,

e7nfirj^avao-dai

&v TTJV i^evpecriv

Be <SSe 7rpo? TOV Xifwv

afia

TOV M.dvem /3acriXeo<ss

fraaav

XiirapeovTa^,

aKea

yeveo-0ai,

Kal Tvpcrrjvi'rjv

AuSot.*

eTepr/v

rwv

GITLCL, TTJV Be erep'qv

TOIOVT

Btdyetv

TO KaKov

eirl /JL&XXOV fiid^ecrOai, O{JT
Xanthos, the native Lydian historian, not only knows nothing about this colonisation of Etruria, but calls Tyrrhenos Torrhebos or Torybos, and makes him the founder of a Lydian city and the eponym of a Lydian tribe. Dionysios of Halikarnassos states that the Etrurians and Lydians differed completely in "language, customs, and religion," a statement fully confirmed, so far as language is concerned, by the Etruscan inscriptions on the one side, and the Lydian words preserved in classical authors on the other. Etruscan was agglutinative and sui generis: Lydian belonged to the Helleno-Phrygian branch of the Aryan family. Mommsen points out that the great cities of Etruria are inland, rather than on the sea - coast ; while Etruscan inscriptions have been found as far north as Botzen, and the vocalisation of the language becomes more corrupted the further we advance south. There may be a connection between the Rhaati of the Alps and Easena, the native name of the Etruscans. The legend of the Lydian colonisation of Etruria seems to be a Greek one, occasioned by the similarity of Tyrrheni or Tyrseni, the Greek corruption of the native name of the Etruscans, and Torrhebos, easily changed into Tyrrhenos,

In ch. the mythical Lydian prince. 163 Herodotos himself allows that the Phokajans first made the name of Tyrrhenians known in Asia Minor. 3 Atys or Attys was the Lydo-Phrygian sun-god wooed by Kybele, as Tammuz or AdSnis by Aphrodite* (Astartg), and served by his eunuch priests the Galli. Agdistis is another form of his name. Manes or Manis was the Phrygian Zeus, called Masdes (Ahuramazda) by the Persians, according to Plutarch (de Is. et Os. p. 360 E). 4 Draughts was an ancient Egyptian game, both board {sent) and men (ab) being figured on the monuments and found in the tombs. A board found at Thebes, and preserved in the Abbott Collection, is given by M. Prisse d'Avennes in Monuments e'gyptiens, p. 9. A similar game, called the game of the vase, was also played in Egypt as early as the fifth dynasty. Odd and even was played with astragali, and various games of ball were known from an early period. No dice, however, have been found in Egypt before the Roman epoch; but an ivory die of rectangular shape, with its four sides covered with numerals in the cuneiform character, has been discovered at Nimrud (Calah) in Assyria.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

59

BteXovra AvBatv irdvTcov K\i)p& eK TTJ? ^a>p7]<;, Kal iirl /u,ev rfj jMeveuv avTov Xay^avovarj T&V jjboipiwv kavTov TOV fiaaiXea irpoo-Tacrcreiv, eirl Be rrj aTraWacra-ofievr) TOV ea>vrov -rralBa, TQJ OVVO/JM elvai Tvpcrrjvov. Xa%ovTa<; Be avr&v TOW; erepow; e^ievat eK T ^ ? %d>pr)t; Ka,Taf3rjvcu e? %fjuvpvqv Kal /jyrj^avrjcraadai, irXoia, e? r a iadefievow; TO, irdvTa o<xa aeae%pt, rovBe. dvrl Be AvBcov fieTovofMcrOiivai avTovs iirl TOV /SacrtXeo? TOV TraiBos, o? <7^>ea? av^yaye' e7rl TOVTOV TIJV eTrcovv/Aiijv iroieojjbevov; ovofiacrOrjvai rYvpar)vov<;. AvBol fjiev Brj virb Heparjai iBeBovKeovTo. eiriBb^qTai Be Brj 95 TO ivdevrev rjfilv o X0705 TOV TB l&vpov 6'ao-ia<; a X \ a ? Xoycov 68oi><; (frfjvat,. ''Kaavpiwv

dpyovTaav

T7J<; avai 'AO-£TJ<; enr eVea SI'KOO-I, Kal 96

irevTaKocna, irpwTot air aircov M.fjBoi r/pgavTo anrlo-Taa-Qai, Kal Kad/j,€voo TTJV BovXoavvrjv r/XevOepco&ijaav.7 fieTa, Be TOVTOVS Kal Ta aXXa edvea eTroiei, TWVTO 5 The Alpis and Karpis flow into the Danube north of Umbria, according to iv. 49. Herodotos, therefore, must have included Lombardy in the district. 6 See Appendix V. Once more reference is made to Persian authorities with whom Herodotos must have been acquainted (see ch. 1). The three contradictory legends of Kyros show how soon he had become a hero of popular mythology, like Charlemagne in the middle ages. The legend chosen by Herodotos is simply the old solar story which was told of Perseus, of Romulus, and of so many other mythic heroes. It is doubtful whether the account given by Xenophon in the Kyropcedeia is one of the three meant by Herodotos, since the Kyros of Xenophon is merely the Greek writer's ideal of what a royal

warrior ought to be. It is evident that Herodotos has in view other Greek historians who had adopted different accounts of the birth and bringing up of Kyros; in opposition to these he asserts that he is going to relate "the real history." ? See Appendix II. From ch. 177 it would seem that the "upper Asia" of Herodotos was Asia between the Tigris and the Mediterranean, exclusive of Asia Minor west of the Halys, or "Lower Asia." "What Ber6sos calls the Assyrian dynasty, reigning 526 years, cannot be the Assyrians of this passage, since (1) the dynasty of BerSsos ruled only in Babylonia, and (2) it ended B. c. 747, two years before the rise of the Second Assyrian Empire ; while the supremacy of the Assyrians in Western Asia dates

60

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

TOLCTL M^Sotcrt. eovrcov Be avTovofiwv irdvTwv dva TIJV vyireipov, &8e aim? e? rvpavviBa Trept,rj\9ov. dvrjp ev roicri M.rj8ot,crt, eyevero b<; ™ ovvofia r\v ArjioKTjs, 7rat? S' r\v <£>pa6pTeco.s O5TO? o Ar)ioKr}<; ipao~0elV ]Ar)8a>v Kara iccbfias,9 ev TT) eoavrov icbv Kal irporepov SoKifioi Kal fidXXov TI Kal irpoQvfiOTepov BiKaioavvifv eTri64fievo<s V\Q~KG.V Kal rdoTa fievToi, iovo~7]<; dvo/ALr)$ 7roW»}? dva iraaav TTJV M.rjBiKrjv eiroiei, eirLGTafievos on TO3 ZiKaia TO aBoKov irokefiiov ecrrt. ol 8" eK rrj<; avrrjs KO>/J,T)S MjjSot opeovTe? avrov rovs BiKaarrjv fiw ieovT&v alpeovro. 6 Be Brj, ola fiP(b/J,evo<} pxfjv, fflvs re Kal St'/tato? rjv TTOLWV re rdora eiraivov ei^e OVK oXiyov 7TjOO? Twv TroKi'qTecov, oiiTca &crre irvvOavofievoi ol ev rrjat aWrjai Kafirjai w? Aijto/c?/? e'lrj dvrjp fiovvos Kara, TO opObv BiKa^cov, Trporepov irepi'iriiTTOVTe'i dBiKoicri yvcofirjcri,, TOTB, iireire r/Kovcrav, da-fievoi icftolreov irapa, TOV ArjioKea Kal aiirol BtKacro97 fjievoi, TeXo? Be ovBevl aWq> eireTpdirovTO. TrXeoj'o? Se alel yivofievov TOV iTri^otriovTo^, ola irvvOavo/xevcov Ta<> St«a? diroftalveiv Kara TO eov,1 <; 6 Ar)ioKr)<; e? eavrbv rtrav dvaKeifievov oiire Kari^etv en, r)6e\e evffa irep itporepov 7rpoKaTi^cov eBiKa^e, OVT e<j>r} BLKCLV erf oil yap ol XvaireXelv r '£TL TTOWW fiaWov dva Ta<> Ktofia? rj irpoTepov r\v, o-vveXe^0rjaav ol M.rjBoi €9 rmvTO Kal eBLBoaav o-iai Xoyov, XeyovTes irepl TOIV KarrjKovTcov. a>? 8" iya> BoKeco, fiaXiara eXeyov ol TOV ArjtoKeco <j>oXoi " ov yap Brj TpoTra T&5 irapeovrt, %pea>fMevoi from at least as early a period as the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I. (B.O. 1130), and closes after the death of Assurbanipal (B.O. 640?), with two periods of partial eclipse in the eleventh and eighth centuries B.C. Moreover, the Medes were not conquered by the Assyrians until the time of Sargon (B.C. 722-705), and even then it was only the more western tribes of them into, whose territory the Assyrian king made a raid or two. The Medes of Astyages or Istuvegu were never subject to the Assyrians at all. The whole statement of Herodotos is unhistorioal, and merely illustrates the way in which a monarchy was supposed to grow up. 8 "We find the name of Daiukku as

that of a Minnian chief in the year B.C. 715, and Bit-Daiukku, "the house of Daiokes," lay to the east of Assyria, not far from the district in which Ekbatana was afterwards built. Daiukku, a vassal of the Minnian king Ullusun, was carried captive to Hamath by Sargon. 9 This statement is correct. When Esarhaddon made his campaign against the Medes, he found them divided into a multitude of small states, or rather towns, each under " a city chief." Their political condition was therefore similar to that of Greece. 1 "As people learnt that his decisions were fair;" T6 ebv, "the truth," as in ch. 30, v. 50, vi. 37, vii. 209, 237.

i.] Bwaroi,

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST. elfiev

oliceiv TTJV ya>pt]v, kpe cmjacofiev

ficMTiXea- Kai OVTCO r/ re X^PV

61 rjfikcov avT&v

evvofirjcreTat, Kai avrol Trpo? epya

rpe^rofieda, \ov8e vir" avofitr)? dvd
icrofieOa." rdord xy avTiKa Be irpoftaWo- 98

fikvwv ovriva (mjcrovTai, fiacriXea, 6 ArjtoK7}<; r\v 7ro\Xo? VIVO TvavTos dvSpb? Kai irpoftaXkofievo'} Kai alveopevos, e? o TOVTOV

Karaiveovat ftacriXea atyiai elvai. 6 8' eiceXeve avrovs olxia re ewuTcS a^ia rfj'i /3a(rtX7;wy9 olKo8o/j,ijaao Kai Kparvvai airbv Bopvpav KaraXe^acrdat.

6 Se a>? ea^e

•jroKiafJia Tronjaacrffat

rrjv dpyj)v,

Kai

TOVTO

TOV? M ^ S O U ?

irepiareWovTai;

r/vdy/caae

ra>v

ev

aWcov

fjcraov iTri/xeXecrOai. "KevQoiiivuiv Be Kai Taora TWV ^ArjBmv oiKoBofiel refyea fieydXa re Kai Kaprepa, rdora TO, VVV 'A ivecrre&Ta.

fie/j,7]-%dv7)Tai. Be ovrm

TOVTO TO T€t^O? &)£TT6 O 6T6/3O? TOV &T6pOV

fiovvoiai

earl vtyifkoTepo<s.

KVKXOS

TOlO~l TTpO-

TO fiev KOV TL Kai TO xtopCov

KO\WVO<; ecbv &o~Te TOIOVTO elvai,

TO Be Kai (JLSXKOV TI

iireTTjBevOrj- KVKXCOV S' eovTcov T&V v kind,

Te\evrai
ra (3ao-LXrjia eveo-Ti Kai ol BrjaavpoL

ev Br) TW

TO 8'

avrwv

ecTTi relj(o^ Kara, TOV 'A67jvecov KVKKOV fidXiaTa KIJ TO TOV fiev Brj irpwTov KVKXOV oi 7T/30/aa^e&)j'e? elcrl XevKoi, TOV Be Bevripov fteXaves, rpiTov Be KVKXOV (poiviKeoi, TeTapTov Be Kvdveoi, irkfi/KTOv Be cravBapaKcvoi. OVTCO irdvTwv 2 Ekbatana or Agbatana, called Agamtanu in the Babylonian text of Kyros and Hagmatana in the Persian cuneiform, is the modern Hamadan, on the slope of Mount Elwend, the Orontes of classical geography (Aranzi in Sargon's inscriptions). The description of the palace giyen by Herodotos shows that it was built in imitation of the great temple erected by Nebuchadnezzar at Borsippa, and now called Birs-i-Nimrud, the seven stages of which were coloured like the walls of the Median palace (see Judith, i. 2-4). This alone makes it evident that the city was later than the date assigned by Herodotos to Deiokfe. But we know from the cuneiform inscriptions that it must have been

Kastarit or Kyaxares who was the real founder of the Median empire. See Appendix V. Sir H. Eawlinson has tried to show that a second Ekbatana existed at Ganzaka in Atropatene, the ruins of which are now known as Takt-iSuleiman {Jour, of Geog. Soe. x. 1). The inscription of Kyros, however, indicates that the capital of Astyages was the Ekbatana of Media Major, now Hamadan. 3 "Very nearly equal in size to the circuit of Athens." The hearers and readers of Herodotos are here supposed to be acquainted with Athens like the historian himself. The Scholiast on Thuk. ii. 13 makes the circuit of Athens thirteen by sixty stades.

62

HEEODOTOS.

TO>V KVK\(OV

OL irpofia^eSive'i

ol TeXevraZoi 99 fievovs

6 fiev

Kal

irepl

TO T C I ^ O ?

oliceiv.

TovBe

AT)<,6K7)<; Tr/awTO? fiaaikka

fiacriXea

rdora

firjBeva,

etrTi

VTTO fiyBevos, Kal airacn

Be Trdvra

TT/JOS re

imvTov

iaejj,vvve

eoyres

crvvTpo<j)ol> TB eKeiveo Kal

rovroicn

%pacr0at, en

elvao TOVTO ye alo-%p6v.

TwvBe elveKev,

\eiirofjLevoi,

100 ere/joto? cri BoKeoi elvai

\vireot,aTO firj opcocri.

eKpCLTVVe kaiVTOV Trj TVpaWiBt,

io-ievai opdarOal

ryeXav

re

Be irepl

ol

OV cjjKavpoTeprjs

Kau

irept,^ Koo-pov

TaoTa

OKCOS av fJ>r) opeovTe? OIKIIJS

ecovrw

Brjfiov

6 KaTa
Be ayjekcov

irrveiv

Kal

KaraKe^pvaco-

ol/coBo/j,r)devTa>p Be irdvTwv

dvriov

dvBpayadCr}v

o Be

(j,ev Srj 6 A^to/ci??

TO, emvTOV ol/cta, TOP Be aWop

irapa re

rjv6to~fj,evoc elcrl <papfiaicoi
ej(€ov TOVS Trpofjua^eava^}

re irel^et eiceXeve

eltrl

[BOOK

eiri^oxfKevoiev,

Kal

oprfkiKes, oiBe

e?

a.W

eireuTe Be Tciora BieKocr/jirjcre ?jV TO BlKUlOV

v\d<7CTG)V

^ a X e 7 r o y KOI T « ? r e S t « a s ypd<j>ovTe$ ecrm irap eKelvov eoTre/i•rrecrKov, Kal eKelvo<; Boaicpivoov r a ? io-
Ai;ioK77S /lev vvv TO ^ATJBIKOV edvos avvecrTpe'^re fiovvov Kal TOVTOV ?ip%e~ eo~Tt Be M^Stov TocrdBe yevea, Bovcrat UaprjTaKrjvol

102 %Tpovj(aTe<; ' A p i ^ a v T o l BovStoi M.dyoi.6 ko~Tl TocrdBe. A^to/eeiw Be 7roZ? yiveTai ArjioKea), 4

y3a
The colours of the seven planets of the Babylonians, among whom seven was a sacred number, and who had a week of seven days called after the seven planets. 6 The original Medes spoke agglutinative dialects, and. belonged to a nonAryan and non-Semitic race. In the ninth century B.o. the wave of migration which brought the Aryan Persians into Persia brought the Aryan Medes into Media, though the Median empire of Kyaxares and Astyages was still nonAryan when it was conquered by Kyros. See Appendix V. The name of "Mede " was first introduced by the Assyrians, who applied it in a geographical, and not ethnographical, sense to denote the

Tpia

yevea fiev Br) ^paopT^, o? Kal

irevTrjKOVTa

tribes eastward of the Zimri in .Kurdi. stan. Oppert ingeniously explains the 7&ea as " classes " or castes, the Buzss being the "aborigines" (Pers. Mzd, Skt. bhujd); the Paretakeni "the nomads" (Pers. parwitakd) ; the Strukhates " t h e dwellers in tents" (Pers. chatrauvatis, Skt. chatravat); the Arizanti " t h e Aryan race" (Pers. ariyazantu, Skt. dryajantu); the Budii " the cultivators of the soil" (Pers. Mdiyd); and the Magi " t h e holy ones" (Pers. magus, Vedic maghd). 6 A reign of fifty-three years indicates its unhistorical character. If we assume that Kyaxares had reigned thirty years when he captured Nineveh, the fiftythree years of Deiokes added to the

i.J

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

63

TTJV dpyr\v, TrapaBe^djievos Be OVK dire^paTO fiovvaov MtfBwv ap^eiv, dXka o-TpaTevad/Aevos eVt TOIK; Hepo-as nrpwToicri T6 TOVTOMTI iired^Karo Kal wpcoTow; M-tfBap inrrjKoov^ eiroLTjcre. fiera Be e^cav Bvo rdora k'dvea Kal d/MOTepa Icr^ypd, KaTearpe<j)eTO TTJV 'AaiTjv air aKXov eir aXKo l(bv edvos, e? o crTpareverd/xevo<; iirl TOU? ' Ao-paopTr)<;7 avro? re Bie6dpr), ap%a<; Bvo Kal e'lKoai k'rea, Kal 6 GTparo'i avrov 6 7roXXo?. Qpaopreco Be reXevrTjaavro^ ifjeBetjaro Kua^ajbTj? o 103 TOV ArjcoKea) Trat?. OUTO? Xeyerai, iroWbv ere jeveaOat dXKi/uorepos rwv Trpoyovrnv, Kal irpcoTo1; re eXo^icre Kara, reXea TOV? ev rrj 'Acriy Kal 7TJ0WTO5 Siera^e ^copls e^acrrou? etvai, TOV<; re alxfiocjiopovs Kal TOVS rol;o irdinai iaTparevero iirl rjP 'Nivov, ri/xapeaiv re TG> irarpl Kal rrjv TTOXUV ravrijv deXmv twenty-two of Phraortes would make 105 years. Dating back from B.C. 610 as the year of the fall of Nineveh, we should reach B.C. 715 as the first year of Deiokes, i.e. the very year in which the Minnian chief Daiukku was carried away prisoner by Sargon. It would therefore seem that the fifty-three years of Herodotos represent the interval between the names of the two "Median" chieftains handed down by tradition. The connection between the Mannai or Minni (in the district between Lakes Van and Urumieh) and the Medes of Hamadan may be explained by the fact that the combined forces which overthrew Nineveh were composed of Minnians, Medes, and Kimmerians. Hence tradition associated them together. It must not be forgotten that Daiukku was only a subordinate chieftain under Ullusun, the Minnian king. His name may be compounded with the Susianian ukhu, '' great."

medic " (really Susianian) transcript of the Behistun inscription. His reign of twenty-two years seems historical, and we can well believe that he attacked the Assyrians during the decay of their empire. But it is difficult to suppose that the Median empire was founded by him rather than by Kyaxar&s or Eastarit, since Phraortes, the rival of Darius, assumed the name of Sattarritta (Khshthrita and Khasatrita in the Persian and Assyrian texts) when he attempted to restore the Median kingdom, and called himself the descendant of Vakistarra (Persian, Uvakhsatara; Ass. Uvakuistar), which has been erroneously identified with the Greek Kyaxares. The latter is really Sattarritta, more correctly written Kastarit in the Assyrian tablets which relate to the last struggle of the Assyrian power. iEskhylos {Persce, 761-64) makes Kyaxares the founder of the empire.

* The name is written Pirru-vartis (perhaps "all-directing") in the "Proto-

8 The Assyrian sculptures make this statement more than doubtful.

64

HEEODOTOS.

icai ol, a>s icaTT]/j.ivq> T?]v N o w CLVTOVS fiaXov

wv ivUrjo-e eirrjkde

^Kvdewv

TOW? 'Aercru/n'oi/?,

iiev e? TTJV ' A c r t V Kipfiepiovs

Be

-irais- o'i eae-

eicfiaX6vTe<s i/c Trjs JLvpco-rrr)?,

Be eTnairofJuevoi (f>evyov/)i7!>

104 airUovTo.

ecm

Be arrb TT)<; Xifivr)?

TTOTafibv zeal e? KoA^ou?

1

Bia fieaov

edvos

VOUTL etvai

ev

eo-e/3aXov, aXXa

avTcov eart, rfj

]Ar]Biicfj.

ov

•jTOfjuevoi, ev Befyrj e^ovre^

e'9 rt)v Mr}BiKi]V, d\\'

cV

h TO fi

pevTOU o'C
6Bbv iroXKw

TO Kav/cdcriov

fia/cpoTeprjv e/CTpa-

opo<;.3

evdavTa

ol (lev

%Kv6r]ai KOL ecro-(o9evTe
dpj(fi<; /caTeXiidrjcrav, ol Be *Zicv6a,i TTJV 'Aarirfv iracrav4 Be r\iaav

®a
0S09, e« Be

Sacr7ret/3e?,2 TOVTO Be

TTJV KarinrepOe

MrjBoi o-v[ifta\6vTe<; TOIGI

T?}? M a ^ T t S o ? eirl

TpvrjKovTa r/fiepicov eii^mva

T7j<; KoX^;tSo9 ov TTOXXOV vTrepfirjvai

105 evOevTev

irepi-

6 %tcv0icov Ma8vr)<;9 HpoTo6veco

fiaaiXevs

TovToicri

[BOOK

ACJVTTTOV

9 Strabo (i. p. 91) makes Madyes a Kimmerian prince, who drove the TrSres out of Asia Minor. The Kimmerians, called Gimirrai in the Assyrian inscriptions, are the Saka of the Persian texts (the Saks of the Greeks), and first appear in the time of Esarhaddon (B.C. 675), when they threatened the northern frontier of the Assyrian monarchy under their chief Teuspa. Esarhaddon, however, defeated them, and turned them westward into Asia Minor. When Od. xi. 14-19 was composed, they must have already reached the shores of the Euxine, and become known to the Greek merchants and sailors of Ionia. Soon afterwards they destroyed Siu6p§, and then inarched into Lydia. Gyges sent two Kimmerian chieftains whom he had captured in battle as a present to Assurbanipal at Nineveh B.C. 665. He was afterwards killed in battle with them. See ch. 15. As they assisted the Medes and Minnians in their final attack on Nineveh, some of them must have settled in or near Media. The Skyths, who drove them from their old homes, seem, from their names, to have been Aryans. The name of Skythopolis, given to Bethshan in Palestine, is supposed to be a memorial of their inroad into "Western

/cal

e7retTe iyevovTo

enrecryov. ev Trj

Asia. Reference seems to be made to them in the earlier prophecies of Jeremiah. 1 From the mouth of the Masotis or Sea of Azof to the Phasis (or Eion) is about 270 miles. J This is a mistake. A large number of tribes and races intervened between Kolkhis and Media (see ch. 110, iii. 94, iv. 37). The Saspeires seem to have inhabited the neighbourhood of Tiflis. Ritter's attempt to identify the name with that of the Iberi is not successful. See iii. 94, note 1. 3 i.e. along the shores of the Caspian. The longer route would have been through the Pylae Caucasese. Herodotos, however, seems to be thinking of the route followed by Greek merchants, who first sailed by sea to Phasis and Dioskurias, where they joined the caravan road to the East. 4 In Homer {II. ii. 461) " t h e Asian mead " is the plain of the Kayster. The conquests of Krcesos seem to have extended the signification of the name, and by the time of Herodotos it had come to mean all "Western Asia, Lower Asia being Asia Minor, and Upper Asia the country west of the Tigris. Here Upper Asia can alone be meant.

i.]

THE EMPIEES OF THE EAST.

65

o-ifreas KlyvirTov /3acrtXeu? Bcopoicri re Kal XiTrjai airoTpairei, TO TrpoarwTepai firj Tropevecrdcu.

ol Be iireiTe

ava%a)peovTe<; 6TT((TCO iylvovTO

TJJ?

SwjOM?? iv 'AcrieaXcovi, iroXei, T&V -rrXeovcov ^KvQimv irape^eXdovTav aaivecov oXiyoi Ttve? avT&v vTroXeidevTe<; iavXrjcrav T97? ovpaviiyi A^ooSm/?

TO Iepov.

€? iyco

irvvQavo-

fj,evo<; eiiplcTKCo, iravTcov ap^atoTaTov lepwv ocra ravTrjs TJJ? 6eovKal ryap TO ev KtJ7r/3» Iepov evdeiiTev iyeveTo, « ? avTol Kvirpioi Xeyovcrt,, Kal TO iv J£.v6fjpot,(ri $otVtKe? elai ol ISpvcrdfievoi e« TavTi]? Tfji ~Zvpi7]<; iovTes. Toicrc. Be TSJV %Kv6ea>v avXr\o-aai, TO Iepov TO iv 'Acr/eaXcwt ical TOIGL TOVTCOV alel eKjovoicn iveaKTj-^re

o 0eb<; OrjXeav vovcrov wcrre dfia Xeyovai Te ol %Kvdau Bia, TOVTO o~(j)eat} voaelv, ical opdv Trap" ecovTolcn TOVS diriKveofievovi e? TT)V %KV6IK7]V 'ETTI /lev

xcoprjv 60? BiaKeaTai,8 vvv

OKTCO Kal eiKoai

Toil? KaXeovcn 'TLvdpeas eVea 9 r\pyov

ol

T ^ ? 'A.
Oat, Kal TO, irdvTa apl6pov ^piratpv wepieXavvovTe? TOVTO 6 TI e^oiev

eKa
TOV?

irXeovas

J£vaf;dp7}<; Te Kal M^Sot £eivio~avTe<; Kal KaTa/ie6vaavTe<; Karecpovevaav, Kal OVTCO dveawaavTO

TTJV dpyr)V M.rj8oi, Kal iireKpaTeov

Tcov ivep Kal ivpoTepov, Kal Tr\v Te ^ivov erepoio-i

Xoyoiab

BrfXaaw)

etXov (a>? Be etkov, ev

Kal TOW? 'Kacvplovs

5 Psammetiklios was besieging Ashdod at the time (Herod, ii. 157). 6 Atargatis or Derketo, the Astarte of the Phoenicians. According to Xanthos, Askalon was founded by Askalos, the general of the Lydian king Akiamos, and Athenasos (viii. 37) makes the Lydian Mopsos drown the goddess Derketo in the sacred lake near Askalon. This lake still exists between Mejdel and the sea-shore, and was doubtless the reservoir of the temple of the Asiatic goddess. 7 The site of this temple is apparently marked by ruins on a hill facing the west side of San Nikolo in Kythera, between the town and the sea. 8 " A n d that visitors to Skythia see among them how afflicted they are whom." Enarms is rendered deaeSp^es

v'

by Hippokrates (De aere, 22). Comp. Zend a privative, and nar "man." The French physician Larrey observed a similar disease among the returned Egyptian soldiers. 9 If Kyaxares be assumed to have reigned at least two years at the time of the Skythian invasion, his capture of Nineveh could not have taken place till at least the thirtieth year of his reign, His war with Alyattes must have been later than this event, as in this he was allied with the Babylonians. Had Nineveh still existed, it would have blocked the road between Babylon and the Halys. 1 Herodotos again promises " a n AsSyrian history" in ch. 184. No other author mentions it, and the passage in Aristotle (Hist. An. viii. 18), which says

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

iiroiijcravTo irXrjv rrj<; HaftuXeovlrjs fioipt]^. fiera Be rdora Kva^a/3^7? /lev, ftacrtXevcra? recrcrepdicovTa erect crvv roicri z ovprjcrai rocrovro ware irkrio-ai fiev rrjv iatvrov TTOKIV, iiri/caraieKvcrai, Be Kal rrjv 'Acriijv iracrav? VTrep6i/j,evo$ Be ratv Mdywv roicri 6veipo7ro\oicri ro evvirviov, ifofirfOi] irap avrwv aiira exaara fiadcov. fiera Be rr)v MavBdvr]v ravrrjv iovcrav tfBrj avSpb? mpauqv M.i]Bwv fiev rav ecovrov agocov ovBevl BiBol jvvaiKa, BeBoiKa)<; rrjv o^fnv 6 Be TLepo-y BoBoi TG3 ovvo/JM rjv Ka/iySu<777?, rov evpicr/ce olKlrjs fj.ev iovra dyaBfjii rpoTrov Be Tjcrv^iov, iroWw evepOe aycov avrbv fiecrov avBpb? 108 MrfBov. crvvoi/ceov irpcorco ereu elBe aXkrjv o^nv, iBo/cei Be ol eic rwv alBoicov rfj<; Ovyarpb^ ravrt]^ (pvvcu afxire'Kov, rr/v Be afwreXov eTria^elv rrjv 'Aairjv Tracrav. lBa>v Brj rovro icai virepdefievos roicri bveipoiroXoiai, fjuereirefityaro i/c rwv TLepcicov rrjv Ovyarepa eTTLretca iovcrav, dTTiKOfJLevqv Be iv that Herodotos introduced an eagle drinking in his account of the capture of Nineveh, has the various reading " Hesiod," while the word TreTrotyKe looks as if a poet were referred to. Prof. Eawlinson suggests that the " curious notices in John of Malala (ed. Dind. p. 26) concerning the Scythic character of the dress, language, and laws of the Parthians, which are expressly ascribed by him to Herodotos," come from this lost work, as well as the narrative of Kephalion (B.C. 120), who, according to the Synkellos, followed Hellanikos, Ktesias, and Herodotos in his Assyrian history. But John Malalas and Synkellos are late writers, and Herodotos does not seem to have lived long enough after the completion of his history to have had time to carry out his intention. However, the Assyrian history of Ktesias appears to have been composed in order to confute Herodotos. In any case the history of Herodotos would not have been worth very much, if we may judge from his notices of

Assyria and Babylonia in the present book. 2 We learn from the newly-discovered inscription of Kyros that the overthrow of Astyages, — Istuvegu in the Assyrian text,—took place in B.C. 549. If, therefore, Astyages reigned thirty-five years his accession would fall B.C. 584. This date, however, cannot well be reconciled with the fact that Kyaxare's was the opponent of the Lydians in the battle of the Halys, if that event happened in B.C. 584, or with the most probable date of the fall of Nineveh. 3 Nikolaos of Damascus makes Argoste1, the mother of Kyros, have the dream. 4 See Appendix V. Ktesias denied the relationship of Kyros and Astyages, and seems to be borne out by the inscription of Kyros. Astyages has nothing to do with the Zend Aj-Dahaka or "biting snake" of darkness and evil, the Zohak of the Shahnameh, as used to be supposed. The Assyrian form of the name shows it to be of Protomedic and non-Aryan origin.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

67

oveipoiroXoi, ecrrjfiaivov OTO fxeXXoi, ol T ^ ? Ovyarpbs avrov yovo<; pacriXevaeov O-VTI i/celvov. rdora Br) &v <j)vXaaa6fievos 6 A.o-Tvdyri% ft>
T6 M-1]B(QV KObl TTaVTOlV eTrlrpOTTOV TWV

ecovrov, eXeye ol roidSe. " "Apvaye, irprpnia TO dv TOL irpouQew, firjBa/j,co<; Trapa^prjay, /xrjBe ip,e r e irapafidXr) xal dXXow; e^ofievos elf va-Tepr)<; ao\ avTai Trepnreay;. \d/3e TOV ^Aavhavq eVe/ce iralBa, (j}ipo)v Be e? aeavTov diroKTeivov /Mera Be Odtyov Tpoirai OT6ft) avTos fiovXeai." 6 Be afj.e(/3eTai, " a> fiaaikev, ovTe dXKore Km irapelBet; dvBpl TmBe d^apt, ovBev, <^vkacra6(ieda Be is ere KOL £9 TOV fieriireiTa yjsovov firjBev i^afiapreiv. aXX' el TOO (f>i\ov TOVTO OVTO) yiveadau,

%pr) Brj TO ye ifiov vTrrjpeTeiadac eVtT^Seo)?."

TOVTOIGI dfieiTJrd/j,evo<; 6 "Apirayos, to? ol irapeBoOrj TO iraiBLov 109 Keico(Tjxr\)x,evov TTJV 67rt davaTa, r\ie Kkalwv 6? Ta olicLa. TrapeXOcbv Be e(f>pa%e TT) CCOVTOV yvvauKi TOV trdvTa ''A.o~Tvdyeo<> prj ~koyov. 7] Be 7T/3O? ainbv Xeyei " vvv &v TL crol iv vow iroielv ; " o Be d/J,el{3eTai, " oi TTJ iveTeWeTO ^Kcnvdy^, ovB' el Trapapovr)V TWO, 'A.crTvdyeo<s avTov <j)ovea yeveadai ical /J,TJ T&V ifiav." rdora eVrre ica\ avTiica ayyeXov 110 e-rre/JLire eVt Tftji/ fiovicoXmv Toiv 'KaTvayeos TOV rj-wio-TaTO vofids r e e7riT7)BeoTdTa
Harpagos seems to bear a non-Aryan name. He was probably the leader of the conspiracy, which, as we learn from the inscription of Kyros, caused the latter to gain so easy a victory over Astyages. 6 " B y preferring others you bring destruction on yourself hereafter." 7 "Assist his purpose."

8

Xenophon's romance (Kyrop. i. 4) gives Astyages a son, Kyaxares. Phraortes, however, the rival of Darius, does not call himself "Kyaxares, the son of Astyages," bnt "Kyaxares, the descendant of Vakistarra." 9 Mitradates is a Zend word, "given to the sun." See ch. 113, note 3. ' Spaka cannot be identified with the

68

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

al Be virmpeai elcn TWV opewv, evQa ra? vofias TWV j3owv el%e OVTOS Br) 6 (3OVKO\OS, 717309 ftopeco re dvefiov TWV 'Ayfiardvcov ical 777)09 TOV 7rovTov TOV Eu^etVoir ravTy /lev jap r\ Mr/Bitcr/ 777309 'Zaa-Treipcov bpevvr] iari icdpra ical vyjrrjXi] re ical o-vv7}perj<;, r) Be aWrj Mr/BiKr) yapr) ^°"7"^ iracra a7reSo9. etrel Siv 6 fiovKoXos cnrovBfj TToKXfj KctXeo/jbevos diriKero, eKeye 6 rdBe.

" /ceXevei

ere 'AaTvdyrif

TO TTCUBIOV TOVTO

deivai es TO iprjfiOTaTov rmv bpkasv, o/ccos av ^ p ical rdBe rot, e/eiXev(re elTrelv, r\v fir) di avro dWd rew Tp6iru> irepnroiijo-r}?, 6\edpq> TC3 icaictaT
jvvat, elBov re if irokiv eX&cbv ical rfKovaa TO firjre IBeiv o(f)e\ov firjre icore yeveo~8at £9 BeairoTa<; robs r)/j,eTepov<;. ot«O9 fiev 7ra? 'Apirdyov KXavdfiw To, iya) Be i/CTr\a<; Be Ta^LCTTa io~f)\6ov, iraiBiov irpoiceLfAevov datralpov Te ical icpav[ievov, pvBeo~TaTov e'irj T£)V opewv, <^9 'AaTvdyea elvai rbv Taora eirtOefievov fiot, TroW' d-7reiXrjcra<; el fit] afyea nroirfaaifii. ical iyco dva\a/3o>v ecfrepov, Boicecov rwv Zend qpd, Skt. $wa(n), Greek iciuv, Lat. canis, Eng. hound, on account of the final guttural, and is rather to be regarded as a non-Aryan word. At the same time it is clear that the whole story came from the Persians, as well on account of the unfavourable light in which Astyages is represented as of the name Mitradates. The myth may have attached itself to Kyros in consequence of the meaning of his name ("shepherd of the country" in Elamite). See Appendix V. The legend is told

of other heroes in both east and west. As Romulus and Remus were suckled by a wolf, so, according to the Chinese, Assena, the ancestor of the Turks, as well as Tsze-wan of T'su, was suckled by a tiger, and Kw'en-ino, the powerful king of the Wu-sun in the second century B.C., by a wolf, after having been deserted in the wilderness. Kw'en-mo was also fed by ravens. 2 An illustration of the piety or superstition of Herodotos. See ch. 62, note 9.

r.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

69

Tti>o? oiKerecov elvat,' ov yap av /core KariBo^a evdev ye r)v. ida.fi/3eov Be opemv ^pvam re Kal e'ifiacn KeKocrfirjfievov, 7Tj0O9 Be Kat, ickavOfiov Kareare&Ta i/j,(f>avea ev 'Apirdyov. Kal irpoKare Br) Kar 6Sbv irvvddvofiai TOV iravra Xoyov depd-rrovros, 09 ifie irpoire fnrav e^to 7roXtO9 ive^eipto'e TO {3p£(f>o<;, O>9 apa MavBavr/s T6 etrj iraZs T?)9 'Aea Troorjcrri. 0)9 Se OVK eirei,8e apa TOV avBpa, Bevrepa Xeyei r) yvvrj rdBe. " iirel TOLVVV OV Bvvafuii ere ireiQeuv fir) eKOelvat,, crv Be &Be Trolr/aov, el Br) iraaa dvdr/Kr/ ocftOfjvao iKKelfievov. Teroica yap Kal iydo, reroKa Be redveo<;. TOVTO fiev fyepcov irp6de<;, TOV Be rr)? 'Aarvdyeos 6vyarpb<; traZBa &>9 ef rjfiiav iovTa Tpkfywfiev. Kal ovray ovre aii akdaaeai dBiKemv TOVS BeairoTa<; ovre r)fuv KaKoos f3e/3ovXevfieva ecTTat' o re yap TeOvecbs f3av edrjKe 69 TO ayyo<; ev T& ecpepe TOV t-Tepov Koo-fi,rjepa>v e9 TO eprjfioTarov rcov opecov TideZ. a>9 Be r)fiepr) TO) iraiBlq) eKKeifieva) eyeveTO, rjie 69 iroXiv 6 r&v riva irpof3oaKmv (f>vXaKOV airov KaTaXcTrcov, eX8a>v Bk e'9 TOV 'Apirdyov diroBeiKvvvai, e(pr/ eVot/409 elvat TOV waiBlov TOV Be 6 "Apirayos TWV ecovToii Bopv<popo)v T0U9 etBe re Bia, rovrcov Kal Wa^re TOV (SOVKOXOV TO iraiBlov. Kal TO fiev ireffaTrro, TOV Be venepov TOVTCOV Kvpov ovo/iaaOevra irapaXafiovcra eTpecf>e r) yvvr) TOV fSovKoXov, ovvofia aXXo KOV TI Kal ov ¥Lvpov defiewq? Kal 6Ve r)v BeKaeT7)<; 6 TraZ<s, 114 3

Strabo (xv. p. 1034) makes Agradates the original name of Kyros, but this was probably his Persian title, "countrygiven," a translation of the Elamite Kuras ("country-shepherd"). See Appendix V. There is no reason for identifying Agradates with Atradates,

"fire-given," a Mardian and robber, who, according to Nik. Damask., was the father of Kyros, and after being employed in a menial capacity in the court of Astyages, rose to be cupbearer and satrap of Persia. It is noticeable that he is made a Mardian or Amardian, i. e.

70

HERODOTOS.

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irprjjfia e? avrbv roiovSe yevofievov i£ecf>r)ve fiiv. eirai^e iv rrj KCO/JLT) ravry iv rfj rjcrav Kal al ftovKoXiaL avrai, eirai^e Be fier' aXXmv rfklicoov iv 6Bco. Kal ol vraiBes irai^ovre^ elXovro ecovrwv fiaaCXea elvai rovrov By TOV TOV /3OVKOXOV iTrl/chrjcriv •tralBa. 6 Be avTuiV Bierafje rov? fiev oiKias oltcoBofjieZv, TOV? Be Bopv(f>6pov<; elvai, rov Be KOV Tiva avrav 6<j)0a\fibv y8a? eKObara epyov irpoa-rdcrcrav. et? Brj TOVTCOV TWV "iraiBiwv av/jLTral^cov, icbv 'A-pTefjLJ3apeo<; vrat? dvBpbs BoKifiov iv TArjBoicri, ov v Be e? iroXiv TTjOo? rov irarkpa diroiicri^ero rwv virb Kwpou rjvrTjo'e, Xeycov Be ov Kvpon (ov yap KCO rjv rovro rovvof^a) aXXa TT/30? rov ftov/coXov rod 'AcTTuaiyeo? TraiBos. 6 Be 'Aprefi/3dpr)<; opyfj rj ireirovdevai, Xeycov " & fiao-iXev, virb rov CTOV BovXov, /3OVKOXOV Be 7rat8o9 &Be 7repiv/3pii] " av Brj ewv roi/Se TOiovrov ewT09 7rat9 iroXfiTjcra? rbv TovBe iralBa i6vro<; nrpwrov Trap ifiol deiKeiy roifjBe Trepicnrelv ; " o Be dfieb^ero cl)Be. " & Be&irora, eyw rdora TOVTOV iirolijcra criiv BiKy. ol yap fie eic TJJ9 Ka>f/,r)<; 7ratSe9, r&v Kal oBe rjv, rirait>ovre<; acpecov avrwv io~Ti]o~avTO fSacriXia1 iBoKeov ydp o~i, etvau €9 TOVTO iiriTTjBeoTaT09. ol fiev vvv aXXoi TralBes rd iirirao'aofieva eirereXeov, O5TO9 Be dvTjKovcrrel re Kal Xoyov el%e ovBeva, 69 o eXa/3e rr)v BIKTJV. el 3>v Br) TovBe e'lveKa a^to? reo xaKov elfii, oBe rot 116 TrdpeifU." rdora Xeyovro<; rov 7ratSo9 rbv 'Acrrvdyea io-rjie dvdyvcocri<; avrov, Kai ol o re %apaKTr)p rov "irpocrayjrov trpoa<j>epeo-0ai eBoicei e? ecovrbv Kal i) v-jroKpio-K; eXevOepcorepTj elvai, o re -xpovos rrj<; eK0ecno<; ry r)XiKirj TOV TraiBbs iBoKei o-Vfi/Salveiv. iKTrXayel? Be rovroiai iirl 'yjpovov a0oyyo$ rjv. yaoyi? Be hrj Kore dvevei%0eU et7re, 0eXcov eKirifiyfrai TOV 'Apre/j,/3dpea, iva, a native of the district of which Kyros calls himself and his ancestors kings. His wife is called Argoste1. Atradates

must be the same as Mitradates, the name assigned by Herodotos to the pseudo-father of Kyros (ch. 110).

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

71

TOV /3OVKOXOV jiovvov Xaftcbv fiacravto-r), " 'A^Te/X/Sape?, iycb Taora Trotr/aco uxTTe ere Kal TOV iralBa TOV abv fir^Bev eTri/u.efM(f>eadat." TOV fjiev Brj 'ApTefifidpea ire/nret, TOV Be TLvpov 97701/ eaco ol OepaTrovTes KeXevaavTO? TOV 'Ao~Tvdyeo$. eVet Be vireXeXenrTO o /3OVKOXO<;, fjuovvos fiovvwdevTa TaBe avTov e'ipeTO 6 'AcrTvdyr)?, icodev Xdftoi TOV iralBa not TI? el'?? 6 irapaBovt;. 6 Be e% ecovTov r e e Be Kal fieydXcos liefjt,§6fievo<; KaXelv avTov TOV<; hopvfyopov? eKeXeve. a>? Be ol Traprjv o ' ApTrayos, e'ipeTO fiiv 0 'Ao~Tvdy7) Br) fiopa TOV TraiBa KaTe^prjaao TOV TOL trapeBwKa e/e dwyaTpbs ? elBe TOV /3OVKOXOV k'vBov iovTa, ov TpdireTai hrl yjrevBia 6B6v, "va fii) eXey%6fievo<; dXicrKr]Tai, dXXa Xeyet, TaBe. " w fiacroXev, eireiTe irapeXafiov TO iraiBiov, efiovXevov aKoiremv OKO><; aoi Te Troirjaoa KUTO, VOOV, Kal iyai irpbBe. KaXeaa^ TOV /3OVKOXOV TovBe •jrapaBiB(O[u TO iraoBiov, <£a? ere re elvai TOV KeXevovTa arrroKTelvau avTO. Kal Xeycov TOVTO ye OVK iifrevBofiijv av yap eveTeXXeo OVTCO. irapaBLhaifii fjuevToi Taive Xoyov 'AaTvdyrjs Be KpviTTcov TOV ol ivetye ^oXov Bta, TO yeyovo<;, 7rp6i)Ta fj,ev, Kara irep rfKovae avTO<; Trpbs TOV ftovKoXov TO Trpfjyfia, irdXiv dirrjyelTO TC3 'Apira/ycp, fiera, Be, w? ol eiraXiXXoytjTo, KaTeftaive Xeycov ws irepieo'Ti Te o rraK Kat, TO yeyovo<; KaXa><;- " TW Te yap nreiroirfiLevw " e<pr) Xeycov " e? TOV iralBa 4

"Took little further account of him."

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TOVTOV e/ca/ivov /leydXcos, ical BvyaTpl rrj e/iy Bia/3e/3Xr)fievo<; ovtc ev iXa(f>pm iiroieo/Mr/v. a>? 3>v Trj<; TIT^T?? ev fieTeo-r)$, TOVTO /lev TOV crewvTov iralBa diro'ne/i'^fov irapa TOV Traloa TOV verfkvoa, TOVTO Be (amo'Tpa yap TOV watSo? fieXXa dveiv Tolai Oea>v TI/IT) 119 avTt) Trpoo-KeiTat) irdpio-QL fiot, eirl Belnrvov." "Apirayo^ fiev to? rjKovo-e TouoTa, TTpocrKvvr)<jas KaX fieyaXa Troir\<xa/i,evo<; OTU Te r) a/iapT&s oi e? Beov iyeyovei xal OTI eirl Tit^yo-i xprjo-Trjcrt iirl Belirvov iiceic\7)To,& rjie e? ra olicla. iaeXdcbv Be TTJV Ta^La-TrjV, rjv yap ol 7rat? et? /iovvo<; eVea rpla KO\ Beica KOV /idKio'Ta yeyovd><>, TOVTOV i/cire/Lirei levat, Te iceXevcov e? Ao-Tvayeos /cal irotelv o TI av iicelvos /ceXevr/, avTO<s Be 7repi^(apr)? eav <{>pd£ei, T§ yvvaiKi TO, o-vy/cvprfcravTa. 'Ao-Tvdyri<; Be, w? ol airiiceTO o 'ApTrdyov irals, (rd!;a<; avTov ical icaTcu fj,e\ea BieXwv TO, fiev a-TTTrjcre TO, Be tfyjrrjo-e TU>V icpe&v, evTV/ca Be iroiTjad/ievo1; efye eTOi/ia. eireLTe Be rfj<; w/3?y? yivoftev7)<; TOV Beitrvov trapr/aav ol Te aWoi BacTV/ioves tea), 6 "'Apirayos, Tolai fiev aWoiat ica\ avTm ^AcTTvdyei irapeTtQeaTO Tpdire^ai eiriirXeai firfXeiav Kpe&v, 'Apirdr/(o Be TOV vratSo? TOV eavrov, ifXrjv /ee<j>aXi]<; Te KOI ewepcov %eipa>v Te ical rroB&v, TaXXa irdvTa- TaoTa Be %a>p\<; e/ceiTO e7rt /cavetp /caTa/cefcaXv/ifieva. « ? Be TW 'Apirdya iBo/cei &Xi<s e%eiv TJ}? /Bopr)?, 'Ao-Tvdyr}s elpeTo /iiv el -fjo-OeLr) TL TJJ 6OLVI). (f>ap.evov Be 'Apirdyov ical icdpTa rjo-drjvai, irapecf>epov Tolai irpoaeicevTO TTJV Ke(j>aXrjv TOV TratSo? KaTaiceicaXvfifji,ev7jv ical T « ? ^etpa? ical TOU? 7ro8«9,' Apnrayov Be etceXevov irpoaaTavTe^ dirotcaXvirTeiv Te ical Xafielv TO fioiXeTai aiiTutv. treido/jievo'; Be 6 "Apirayo? ical aTroKaXvrrToav opa TOV TratSo? TO, Xel/M/iaTa, IBiav Be ovTe e^eirXdyr) ivTos Te eaiVTov yiveTai. e'ipeTo Be avTov 6 'AaTvdyr)<; el yivwo-icoi oTeo 07)piov Kpea /3e/3pa>icot. 6 Be ical yiva>o~K€iv e<pr) ical dpecTov elvai irav TO av jSacriXeii? epBrj. TOTJTOIO-I Bk dfieiifrdfievo^ ical avaXafiwv TC\ Xoi,ira TCOV icpe&v r\ie e? TO, olicia, ivdevrev Be e/ieXXe, a>9 iya> BoKeco, aXiaas Odijrecv TO, iravra.6 120 'Apirdya fiev 'Ao-Tvdyi]? BLKTJV TavTTjv eTredrjice, Kvpov Be •Kepi fiovXevav i/cdXei TOIIS avTou? TS>V M.dya>v ot TO evvirviov oi TavTrj eicpivav. aTruconevovs Be e'lpeTO 6 'AaTvdyrjs TJ} 'iicpivav ol T7jv oyjnv. ol Be Kara Tavra elirav, XeyovTe<; a>? /3ao-iXev
i.]

T H E EMPIEES OF THE EAST.

73

v TOV iralBa, el e-rre^aae Kal fir; direOave rrporepov. 6 Be dfielfterai, avrovs rolaiBe. " eari re 6 irais Kal nrepieart, Kai fiiv €7r' dypov Biaircofievov ol e'« TJJ? Ka>/n)6pov<: Kal 6vpcopov<; Kal dyye/ea v Xir)6pov<; Kal TO, Xonra, irdvra Biard^a<; ypxe' ^v e? TL vfilv rdora (f>aweTai (f>epetv;" elirav ol Mafyot " el [lev irepiearl re Kal i/3acTL\evcre 6 irals fir] e'/c irpovoir]^ TWOS, Qdprret re rovrov e'uveKa Kal &V/J.6V e%e dyaOov oil yap en rb Bevrepov dp^ei. irapa afUKpa yap Kal rwv Xoyicov r/fxiv evia Ke%a>pi]Ke, Kal rd ye ra>v oveipdrcov i^pfieva reXecos 6? do-6eve<; ep^erai." 6 ''A.arvdyq'i rolcnBe. " Kal avrbs w Ma^ot ravry yvd>/j,7]v elfil, /Sao-iXeo? ovofiacrOevros rod TraiBos e^rjKeiv re rbv b'veipov Kai fioi rbv TralBa rovrov elvai Beivbv eru ovBev. [lev ye' roi o-vfi/3ov\evo-are [ioi ev Trepto-Ke^frdfievoi, ra da^aXearara elvai O'IKW re ™ i/im Kal vfiiv." elirav 7rpb<; rdora ol Ma^oi " w fiao-i\ev, Kal avrolai rj/iiv Trepl TTOWOV iari Karop&ovcr&ai dpyr)v TVV °'VV' leeway? [iev yap aXXorpiovrai e? rbv -iralBa rovrov irepuovaa eovra Hipa-rjv, Kal r/fieh eovres M?)Sot BovXoiifiedd re Kal Xoyov ovBevbs ytvofieOa Trpo? TLepaewv, iovres ffeivof8 aeo S' eveo-reSiro<; ySacrtXeo?, eovros iroXirireoo, Kal apxp/iev TO fiepo<; Kal rifias -7rpb<; aeo [ieyd~ka<; e%o/iev. ovrco £>v irdvrwi r/fuv aeo Kal rrj<; arjs dpxfis rrpoovreov earl. Kal vvv el (poftepov ri, iva>pa>/iev, irav av aol Trpoe^pd^o/iev. vvv Be drroaKij-^ravros rov evvirviov e? av\ov avroi re Oapaeofiev Kal aol erepa roiavra rrapaKeXevofieda. rbv Be TraiSa rovrov ei; 60a\[icov diroirefityaL e? Tlepaas re Kal TOV? yetva/ievov;." aKovaas 121 rdora 6 'A.arvdy7)<; i^apt) re Kal KaXeaa^ rbv Kvpov eXeye ol rdBe. " a iral, ae yap iya> Be o^jriv ovelpov ov reXerjv rjBuKeov, TTJ aewvrov Be fiolprj irepieci' vvv otv X8i j(aipaiv es Tlepaas, Trofnrovs Be iya> a/ia irefi'^co. eKdwv Be e«et Ttarepa re Kal [iryrepa evpijaeis ov Kara MirpaBdrrjv re rbv (SOVKOXOV Kal rr\v yvvaiKa avrov." rdora etVa? o 'Aarvdyrji; dwoTre/nret rbv 122 Kvpov. voarijaavra Be [iiv e'9 rov Kafiftvaeco ra. olKia iBegavro ol yeivdfievoi, KCU Be^d/ievoc &>9 iirvdovro,9 fieydXcos daird^ovro ola By iiriardfievoi avrUa rdre reXevrfjaai,1 laropeov re oreqi 7

"Some oracles even have had an unimportant issue." 8 This seems to imply a difference of race between the Persians and that part

of the Medes to which the Magi belonged. 9 "When they learnt who he was." 1 " A s they had always been con-

74

HERODOTOS.

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rpoirco irepiyevoiTO. 6 Be crept, eXeje, cpas irpb TOV fiev OVK elBevai dXX' rifiapTTjicevat, TrXeluTov, icar 6Bbv Be irvdecrOat iracrav TTJV ecovTov ivdOrfv Iiria.Tiv a)? eKKelfievov Kvpov KVOOV i^eOpe^lre. evdevTev fiev r\ <pa,Ti<; avTTj xe^coprj/ce. 123 KiijOft) Be avBpevfievq) teal iovTi TWV r/Xi/ccov avBpeiOTdrq) ical TrpoartyCXeaTaTO) irpoaeiceiTo 6 ' A.pirajopa irefnraiv, TiaaaQai ''A.aTvdjea eTTiOvfiecov cnf etovTov jap &6VTO<; l8t,a>Teo) OVK ivecopa Tt./j,a>p(7]v e6/j,evov (Tv/J,/Ma^ov, TO,? trddas ras JLvpov Trjcri etnvTov ofioiovirpb S' eVt TOVTOV TaSe ol KaTepjao-To. iovTos TOV 'Ao"TuaV irpcoTcov M.rjBcov aveireiOe w? %prj ~Kvpov irpoaTt\aafjAvovi 'AcrTvdjea iravaau TTJ? j3ao-ikr)L7)<;. /caTepjao~fiivov Be ol TOVTOV icai iovTos erotfiov, OVTCO Brj TCS Kwpw BcaiTcofieva) ev Hepcrrjiri /3ouA,o/iei'O? ' A.pirajov\ao-o-o/j,evea>v, 6 Be eiviTe-^yciTai TotovBe. Xajov fiT]xav7]o~dfAevo? Se et^e, OVTCO ecreOrfKe ftvfiKiov, jpdyfra? Ta ol eBoicef diroppd"i}ra<; Be TOV Xajov TTJV jacrTepa, ica\ BiKTva Sov? are drjpevTrj TCOV oliceTecov TS TTICTTO' TaTcp, direo-TeWe €? TOVi Tlepaa<;, ivTetXdfjbevos ol dirb jXcocrcrrjis BiBovTa TOV Xajov JLvpco iireiiretv avTo^eipiT] fj,cv Bie\elv ica\ 124 firjBeva ol TaoTa iroieovTt, irapelvai. TaoTa Te Brj cov enriTeXea ejlveTo KaX 6 Kvpo? irapaXaficov TOV Xajov dveo-^icre. evpcov Be ev avTco TO fivfiXiov evebv XajBcov iireXejeToTot, Be jpdfifMTd eXeje TaBe. " S> Tral Ka/iftvcreco, ere jap deol eVopeovcu • oil jap TOV aecovTOV dv KOTe e? ToaovTO T V ^ ? dirt/ceo- av vvv 'Acrrvdjea ovia Ticrai. icaTa, pev jap TTJV TOVTOV TTpoOvfiCrjv T&dvTjicas, TO vinced that lie had died immediately afterbirth." 2 Kyros says in his inscription : "Astyages gathered (his forces) and went against Kyros, king of Ansan. Against Astyages his soldiers revolted and took him prisoner and handed him

over to Kyros. Kyros to the land of Agamtami (Ekbatana) the royal city (went); silver, gold, furniture, and goods from the land of Agamtanu he carried off, and to the land of Ansan brought the furniture and goods which he had taken."

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

I.]

75

Be Kara Oeovs Te ical e/j,e Trepieis. TO ae ical irdXac Boiceco irdvra i/c/j,e/J,a9r)Kevai, aeo re avTov irkpi &>? eirpfyOTj, ical ola iya> inrb 'A.arvdyeo<; TreirovOa, on ae OVK diretcTecva dXXd eSco/ca ra ftovicoXcp. av vvv, rjv f3ovXy ipol ireideaOai, TTJ? nrep ' A.aTvdyiy; dpj^et, '^coprj'i, TO,VTT)<; dirdar)^ dp^ei^. Tlepaas ydp dvaTreLaas

diviaTaaQai 'A.crTvdyeo'; ftovXeai,

aTpar^Xdrec iirl M^Sou? 1 ical r\v re eyco xnro aTrohe^jdeco arpaTi)yb<; dvTia crio, ecrri roi ra av

r\v re T£>V T I ? BOKI/ACOV dWos

WLrfBcov irpoiToi jap

OVTOI

dTrocrTdvTes air' eiceivov ical yevo/Aevot, 7rpo? aeo Aarvdyea tcaTatpelv ireipijcrovrai,. &>? &v erol/Mov rov povTi£e oreco Tpoirm ao^xoTaTfp Hepaas dvaireiaei, dirLCTTaadac, (f>povT[^av Be evpiaKerai, rdora Kaiptwrara elvat,- eirolet, Brj rdora.

typd-\jra<; e?

ftv/3\lov

TO, iftovXero,

aXirjV TOOV TIepaecov

i-Troi'TjeraTo, /j-era Be dvairTv^a^ TO /3vfi\lov ical iirtXeyofievos er] 'A.(TTvdyed fiiv o-TpaTrjybv TIepaecov diroBencvvvaL. " vvv re" e(f>7) Xeycov, " & Tlepaai, Trpoayopevco vfilv irapelvai e/caarov e-^ovra BpeTravov." K£)po? fiev rdora "jrpoTjyopevae. eari Be TIepaecov av-^vd yevea, ical rd fiev avrcov 6 KOpo? avvdXiae ical s

Instead of ten Persian tribes Xenophon reckons twelve (Kyr. i. 2). The Pasargadse, Maraphii, and Maspii were those on whom " a l l the other Persians were dependent," i.e. they were the principal tribes. According to Anaximenes (ap. Steph. Byz., s. v.), Kyros founded Pasargadie, the old capital of the country, called Parsagadae by Quint. Curt. (v. 6, x. 1), but Nik. Dam. represents it as already existing in his father's time. Kyros was buried there (Strab. xv. 1035), and it remained the capital of Persia until the foundation of Persepolis by Darius Hystaspis. It stood on the Kyros in the south-east of Persia, and consequently cannot be identified with Murghab, which is on the ancient Araxes. The tomb of Kyros at Murghab cannot belong to the founder of the Persian empire on account of its architectural ornamentation, and probably belongs to the brother of Xerxes, the satrap of Egypt, who is called Akhsemenes, " t h e Akhsemenian," by Ktesias. The royal clan of the Akhse-

menidae or "friends" traced its descent from Akhsemenes (Hakhamanish), whom the Persian kings in their inscriptions claim as their ancestor. Steph. Byz. reads Penthiadse for Penthialaei, Karmanii for Germanii, and (apparently) Derbikhi for Dropiki. Karmania lay on the eastern frontier of Persis. The Dai were an Elamite tribe, and are called Dehavites in Ezra iv. 9. The Mardi are the Amardi of Strabo (xi. p. 761), who inhabited the range of mountains which separated Persepolis from the Persian Gulf (though they seem to have extended northward as far as the neighbourhood of Susa). The Derbikhi were to the south-west of the Caspian, while the Sagartians were the eastern neighbours of the Medes. The Sagartian opponent of Darius claimed to be the descendant of Vakistarra like the pretender to the Median throne. The nomad tribes were not Aryans at all, and we can account for their being reckoned among the Persians by Herodotos only by supposing that his classi-

76

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

dviireiv oiXXoi 'Trdvre'; dprearat Tlepcrai, TlaaapydBai M.apd? Be irapr\Br)$ ocrov re iirl d/crcDicaiBeica trTaStou? rj eticocn rovrov a-(j}t TOV X&pov irpoelire igrj/Aepwcrai, iv rjpeprj advTcov Be TWV Hepcrecov TOV Trpo/celfievov aeO\ov, BevTepd crfa irpoelire e? rrjv varepaijjv Trapetvai XeXavfievovs.. ev Be TOVTQ TO re aliroXia ical T « ? irolfiva^ /cat Ta ^ovKoKta o Kwpo? irdina TOV Trarpos avvaX,iaa<; e? rwvrb eOve ical Trapeaiceva^e a>? Be%ofievos rbv Tiepaewv crrparov, Trpb<$ Be o'lvq> re ical CITIOUTI ai? iiriTr)BeoT&TOi,cn. diritcofievovi Be TTJ varepairj Toil's Ilepcras /caTatckLva*; es Xeifuava evm^ei. 67retVe Be dirb Beiirvov fjaav, elpeTO (T^>ea<; 6 Kv/309 icorepa ra TJ) irporepaly st^ov ^ Ta ol Be e^>aaav iroXkbv elvai avr&v irapeovTa ai e%t] alpercorepa. TO /Aecrov4 TT]V fiev yap Trporeprjv rj/ieprjv irdvra (TavkoTepov<; ovre TaWa ovre ra iroXifiia. co? S>v eypvToav a>Be, diriarao'Oe air 'Ao-rvdyeo<; TT)V TaylGT^vT 127 Uipa-at, fiev vvv irpoardTeco i-jriXafiofievoi ao-fievoi iXevQepovvro, ical trdXav Beovbv iroieo/jLevoi virb M^SCBV apyeo~6ai. 'AaTvdyris Be w? eirvOeTO TLvpov rdora irprjo-crovTa, Tr&fityas ayyeXov i/cdXet, avTov. 6 Be Kupo? iiceXeve TOV ayyeXov dtrayyeXXeiv on irpoTepov rjgoi Trap' iiceivov r) 'AcrTvwyr)<; fiovXrjo-erat,. dicovcras Be rdora 6 *AaTvdyri<; M^Sou? Te floation is purely geographical, and ineluded the aboriginal tribes who were held in subjection by the Aryan immigrants.

4 "The distance between them is great." Comp. ix. 82. 5 " I think I am destined to take this into my hands." Comp. iv. 79, vii. 8.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

77

s, Kal arparr/ybv avT&v wcrre #eo/3Xa/3^? imv "Apirayov e, XTJOTJV iroieofievos rd fiiv eopyei. o>9 Be ol MrjBoi o~Tparevadfievoi roicn Yleparjai avvefiicryov, ol fiev rives avrcbv ifid'yovro, b'croo fir) TOV Xoyov fierecr^ov, ol Be avTOfioXeov w/so? TOU? IIe/)cra?, ol Be ifXelaToi eOeXoicaiceov re Kal e7) aireCKemv rq> Kvpcp " aXX,' ovS' &)? ye ^aipijcrei." roo-avra etVa? irp&Tov fiev Tmv ^Aaytav TOU? ovetpoTToXovs, o'C fiiv aveyvwaav fierelvai TOV Kvpov, rovTOU? avea-KoXoTrtcre, fiera,

Be &ir~kio~e TOI"? VTro\ei
TO

aarei TSJV IATJBWV, veovs re Kal -irpeo-[3vTa<; avBpas. ifjayarywv Be TOVTOV*; Kal crvfi^aXcbv rolai Tlepaycn e6r), Kal avros r e 'A.o~Tvdyr)<; e^coyprjOr) Kal TOLI? eljrfyaye rmv yirjhwv a7re/3a\e.6 eowi Be ai^fjLaXcoTa) TC3 'Acrrvdyei TrpoacrTas 6 "Apirayos Kare- 129 %aipk r e Kal KareKeprofiei, Kal aXXa \eya>v e? avrbv dvfiaXyea eirea, Kal Brj Kal elpero [itv 7T|OO9 TO ecovrov Beiirvov, TO fitv eKelvos o-apgl TOV 7ratSo? idoivrjcre, o TI elt] rj eKeivov BovXoavvr] dvTt T579 /SacrtX^w;?. 6 Be JXIV Trpov dvTeipeTo el ea>vrov Tvoielsrai TO Kvpov epyov. ' Apirayos Be e(p7j, avTos yap ypd-^rai, TO TrprjyfJM BTJ eavTOV St/au'co? elvaiJ 'Aa-Tvdyr]<; Be /uv dire^aive TC5 Xoyq) o~KaioTarov re Kal dBiKu>Tarov iovTa irdvTwv dv0pa>TTCOV, o-Kaoorarov fiiv ye, el irapebv avrw fiainXea yeveadai, el Br) BI eeovTov ye eTrprj'^jdr} TO. irapeovra aXXip wepue6r)Ke TO Kpdro*;, dBiKcorarov Be, on TOV Belirvov e'iveKev M^Sou? KareBovXcoae. el yap Brj Beiv Travrw; •wepiQeivai dXXa> Teq> TT)V j3ao-£Xr]ir]v Kal fir) aiirov e^etv, BiKaiorepov eivai MrfScov rem •7repi,j3aXelv TOVTO TO dyadbv r) Ylepcrecov. vvv Be MjfSov? fiev dvaiTiovs TOVTOV iovTas BovXovs dvTl BeairoTecav yeyovevai, Ilepcra? Be BovXovi eovras TO nrplv ~M.r]Bav vvv yeyovevai 'Ao-Tvdyrj<; fiev vvv fSaaiXevaag eTr erea trevTe Kal rpir/KOVTa 130 OVTCO Trj<; f3ao~iXr)ir)v Beovra, irdpe^ i) b'aov 6 Nikolaos of Damascus states that fled with a few friends. The recentlyfive battles were fought between Astydiscovered inscription of Kyros shows ages and Kyros in Persia, Astyages win- the whole narrative to be unhistorical. ning the two first. The next two were Nor is the account of Herodotos altofought on two successive days just out- gether correct. See note on ch. 123. 7 side Pasargadse. After the fifth, Kyros "Because he had written, and therepursued and captured Astyages, who had fore the deed was justly his."

78

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

ol ~%Kv9ai ?ip-^ov.& vcrrepq) fiivTot, %povq> fieTe/jbiXTjcri re cri rdora iroirjaacn Kal wnk<7Tt)<jav diro Aapetov,9 anroaTavTes Sk OTTIGCO KaTea-Tpdtjidrjo-av fi-d-^if) viKrjOivTes. Tore Se eirl 'AcrTvayeo? ol Hepcrai re Kal 6 KOpo? eivavacrTavTe^ tolo~i Mr/ooicrt r\pyov TO dirb TOVTOV TTJ? 'ACTM;?. 1

'Acrvdjea

Se Kvpos

KUKOV ovSev

aWo

•jroirjaas el%e Trap" CCOVTS, e? b ireXevTrjae. OVTCO STJ KSpo? iroieofievov; ISpveaOai, dXkh, Kal Tolcri iToikovai yuatpiiyv eirLtyepovai, a>? /Mev e/J>ol SoKelv, on OVK dvdptd'irofyveas iv6/j,tpoSiTrjv 8 " Except as long a s " ; irdpeg % cannot possibly mean "besides," as it has often been rendered. Comp. IT\T)V fi, vi. 5 ; t'£w 1}, vii. 228. What Herodotos seems to mean is that the Medes ruled Asia "east of the Halys" (notice the useofiScu) 128-28 years, i.e. 100 years. This would place the beginning of their empire in B.o. (649 + 28 =) 677, when the Assyrian empire was still intact. One hundred years, however, is a round and therefore indefinite number, which Herodotos has treated as though it were a definite one, adding to it the twentyeight years of the Skythian inroad. The Median empire could not have lasted more than eighty years at the most, and is probably to be reckoned from the date of the battle of the Halys (B.C. 584). 9 This is the Median revolt which took place in the third year of Darius Hystaspis, as described by him in the Behistun Inscription.

1 The Kyros tablet shows (1) that Kyros was king of Elam, not Persia ; (2) that it was the Median army which revolted against Istuvegu or Astyages. 2 Because Krcesos bad begun the war. 3 See Appendix V. The "vault of heaven" is the Thwasa, "god of the celestial space," of the Avesta. Sacrifices were not offered to the moon, earth, water, or winds, though vdta "the wind," myu " t h e air," the earth, and the water, were "honoured" as "pure" elements. Xerxes scourged the Hellespont (vii. 35), which he would hardly have done had he accounted water divine. Fire was the visible symbol of the supreme god Ahuramazda. The Persians built fire-temples (each called ddityd gdtus, "house of the law"), and Dareios, at Behistun, complains that Gomates the Magian destroyed "the temples of the gods." Poly bios (v. 10) implies that the Persians had temples. Altars were equally used by them.

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

I.]

, 4 'Apdfiioi Tiepayui,

Be 'AXiXdr,5

^pecovTai,

ovre

rbv

6eov,

ecovTm fiev ayaddTm

Br)

eireav

dvaKaiovat,

ov aTefifiaai,,

ra

OVOVTO IBlrj fiovva waai

Be Bia/M
4

TO, Kpea.

eiraocBrjv • * dvev

yap

Istar is not called Mulidatu or Mulidtu, " t h e bearer," in any of the Assyrian texts we possess, but such might easily have been her popular title. See ch. 199. 5 Restored from iii. 8. The codices have "AXiTTa, probably through the jingle of MuAtTTa. Alilat is the feminine of MUl, " t h e shining one," the morning star of Is. 14, 12 (in Assyrian ellu, fern, ellitu). See iii. 8. De Vogiie is wrong in identifying it with the name of the goddess Allath in Palmyrene and Nabathean inscriptions, whose chief seat was Taif in the Hijaz. 6 This is an error. Mitra or Mithra was the sun-god. The Zoroastrians made him the visible form of Ahuramazda or Ormazd. The Persian Aphrodite was Anahid or Anaitis, whose statue was set up in the temples of the chief cities of the empire by Artaxerxes Mnemon (B.C. 405), as we learn from an inscription found at Susa, a fragment of Berosos wrongly assigning the deed to Artaxerxes Okhos. 7 This is either a truism or an error. A truism if Herodotos meant that altars were not built and fires kindled just before the actual sacrifice began; an error if he supposed that there were no altars and fires. Libations were used (see

Kal

h}pr)crri TO, Kpea,

Be TO rpicpvWov,

O'LTJV

Br) Mdyov

apdcrdai

ev jlveadai

Bia0evTO<; Be avTov

7ra/3eo"Tea)? eTraelBei Oeoyovlrjv, rr)v

KT^vof

fiaXicrra.

Kal avTOS yLverau?

TO leprjiov

fidXiaTa

ov ru>p

a/yaya>v rb

ov ol iyylverai,

Tleparjao

ovre 132

Qvew •r

fivpaivy

Tlepo-ya-o /carev^eTat,

ev yap Br} rolcri airaai

TavTTjs edrjice a>v irdvra elvai

dvalrj Be

OVKI ovkfjai.

6e\j], e? j^copov KaOapov

inroirdcras Troifjv to? airaXwTdTrjv, avr)p9

fieWovre?

io~Te<j)av(o/j,€vos TOP Tiapav

6 Be rolcn

ftacriXef

irvp

OVKL avXS,

Be &>? eicd dveiv xaKel

Be Mirpav.6

Uepaai

-rrepl TOII? elprjfjbevovs 0eoii<; tfBe KarearrjKe.

TroteovTai cnrovBfj

79

Br) iicelvoi,

iirl

Mayo? Xeyovao

ov a
vii. 54); one of the chief ceremonies during a sacrifice was that of the drink of the Haoma (the Vedic Soma). Instruments of music—the flute with fifteen holes, the tambourine, etc.,—were also employed in the sacrificial ceremonies. 8 ' ' He also is included." 9 Here Magos is synonymous with "priest," as in the later period of the Persian monarchy. Up to the time of Darius Hystaspis, however, the Magians were one of the non-Aryan Median tribes (as in ch. 101), who placed the pseudoSmerdis on the throne. The festival which recorded the overthrow of the usurper was called Mayotpovla, not M^So<povia. Having lost their political importance, however, the Magi acquired a sacerdotal one after the amalgamation of the Medes and Persians, and the gradual infiltration of Persian Zoroastrianism by Median superstitions. See Appendix V. In the Avesta the priest is called dtharvan or "fire priest."—For the birthday feast cp. Xen. Kyrop. i. 3. There is no allusion to it in the Avesta. 1 A rhythmic prayer, recited in monotone, and addressed first to Ormazd and Mithra, and then to the other holy beings, many examples of which are to be found in the Avesta. Cp. Lucian, Nekyomant. xi.

80

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

Troteladac. eirw)(tbv Be oXlyov %povov airotyepeTai 6 133 dvcras TO Kpea, ical yparai, 6 ri fiiv Xoyos aipel. tjfj-eprjv Be diraaea>v [x,dXicna itceovr/v rifidv vofj,i£ovcri rfj e/caaros eyevero. ev Tavrr) Be TrXea Balra T&V dXXeav BiKateovai TrpoTideadai- ev 777 ol ev8a£/j,ove<; avTwv ftovv ical Xinrov ical icdfiTjXov icai bvov irpoTideaTCLL okovs OTTOI)? iv Ka/Jbivoicn, ol Be •jrevr)Te<; avr&v TO, Xeirra TG>V Trpofidrcov irponOeaTat. criroicri Be bXiyoiai ^picovTat, eiri^oprifiaai Bk iroXXolcri ical OVK aXecn' ical Bia TOVTO acri Jlepaai TOW? " E W I / W I ; opeiTai ovBev Xoyov afyov el Be TO 7rapaepoiro, eaOLovTas av ov iraveadai. otvm Be icapra irpoaical crc^t OVK efieaai e^ecrri, ov/cl ovprjaai, avrlov Kearai,2 aXXov. Taora fiev vvv OVTCO (frvXacrcreTai, fj,e9vcrico[ievoi Be iooOacri, fiovXevecrdat, ra am-ovBaiearara TUIV Trp^y/MaTaiv. TO 8' av aBrj a(j}0 flovXevofievoicrt,, TOVTO T{J vdTepaiy vr)ovcn irpoTiQei 0 o~Teyeap%o<;, ev TO{) civ eovTe<; fiovXevavTai,' ical r\v pkv aBrj ical vrjtyovau, yjpewvTai avTq>, rjv Be fJ,r) aBy, fieTelcrt. TO, h* av v^cj)OVTe<; TrpoftovXevccovTai,, fx,e6vaic6fievoi efiriBi,ayi,v(bo~icovcn? 134 evTvy^dvovTef 8" dXXtfXoicri, ev Tt}Tepo<> ayevveaTepo';, irpoo-iriirTrnv irpoaKwel TOV eTepov. Tifi&ai, Be etc TrdvTwv TOVS ayyiGTa ewvT&v oliceovTas fieTa ye ea>VT0V<;, Bemepa Be TOVS BevTepovv fieTa, Be Kara. Xoyov irpo^alvovTe^ Ti/Mocn' rjKicrTa Be Toil's ewvTwv e/caaTaTco ol/crjfjLevow} iv Tififj ayovTcu, vo/j,l£ovTe<$ emvTovs elvai avdpanrmv fia/cpai r a irdvTa dplaTov;. Tovf Be dXXovi Kara, Xoyov [TC5 Xeyo/j.evq>] Trjs dpeTr)<; dvTe^eaOai, TOU? Be eKaaTaTO} olrciovTas airh ecovTwv /ca/ctcTOf? elvat. eVl Be M.r}8a)v dpyovTuiv ical rjp'xje TO, eOvea dXXijXav,5 o-vvaTrav2 Still a characteristic of the Persians. The statement that the Persians cooked whole animals in their ovens seems to be parodied by Aristophanes, Akharn. 85-7. Cp. Maxim. Tyr., ed. Diibner, Dissert, xxviii. According to Ktesias (ed. Didot, p. 79) the king was allowed to be drunk only on the day when sacriiices were made to Mithras. 8 Plainly a Greek story. 'BTTI- means " y e t again." Tacitus ascribes a similar custom to the Germans (Germ. 22).

4 Compare the pretensions of the Celestial Empire, or of the English tourist. Stein regards T<£ \eyo/dv(f in the next clause as a false interpretation of Kara \tyyov, " in proportion." 6 " I n the time of the Median supremacy the several nations had the following precedence over each other." Herodotos imagines a feudal system conditioned by geography ; those furthest from the ruling power being under those nearer to it. Perhaps the notion was

i.J

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

81

TCOV (lev M.rjBoi ical TWV ay%i,a-Ta OIKBOVTCOV cr(poai, OVTOI Be ical

T&v ofAovprnv, ol Be fiaXa Ttov e^ofievtov, Kara TOV avrbv Br) \6yov ical ol Hepcrcu TOfM&ai- irpoefiaive yap Br) TO edvos ap%ov Te Ka\ iiriTpoTrevov.6 geiviica Be vofiaia TLepaai irpocrievTat7 135 avBpSiv //.akio'Ta. ica\ yap Br) TT)V MrjBcicrjv eo~8r)Ta vo^iaavTe^ Tr\opeovcn,s ical e? TOVS 7roXe/«w9 TOII?

Aipr)icas' ical evira6eia<; Te TravToBaTras irvvBavoiirt>TT)BevovGi, ical Br) ical air 'JLWrjvwv /u,aO6vTe<; iraoal ya/jLeovat Be e/cacrro? avTtbv 7roXXa? fiev icovpiBlas9 yvvalicas,

TTOWO) S' en nikeova'; TraXXa/ca? KT&>vTai. avBpayaQLi) 136

Be avTT) airoBeBeKTai, fieTa TTOWOVS

aTToBe^T) iralBas'

TO fjuayecrOai, elvac ayadbv, TS

Be TOV? irkeiaTow;

B
B' r)yeaTai

dp^d/ievoi fJ^XP1' et/cocraereo?, Tpia /xovva, mirevew ical ical aXrjdi^ecrdai. irplv Be r) irevTaeTT)1; yevrjTai, OVK di e? oijriv TW iraTpi, aXXa irapa Trjcri yvvai^l BiaiTav e%ei. Be eiveica

TOVTO

OVTCO TroieiTai,

"va,

rjv

diroddvr)

o? av

airoBeiicvvvTi

TovBe

Tpefyo/xevos,

firjBefiiav darjv TG> iraTpl nvpoa^aXr). alvea) fiev vvv TovBe TOV 137 vofiov, alveai Be ical TovBe, TO fir) fiLr)<; atVw;? eiveica pvffre avTov TOV ySacrtXea firjBeva (poveveiv, fir)Te T£)V aXXaw Tiepaewv firjBeva suggested t y the seven walls of tlie citadel of Ekbatana (ch. 98). 6 " T h e nation continually made advances in ruling and administering." This means that the empire of Persia had been continually growing, so that new countries were added to its borders, as well as new subjects who took rank after those nearer than themselves to Persia proper itself. Others understand the sentence of Media and render: " i t governed first immediately, then mediately, in a progressive fashion." Stein asks whether we should not read dpxifievov for &p%ov ? 7 "Adopt foreign customs." 8 According to ch. 71 the old Persian dress consisted of a leather tunic and trousers. On the monuments the kings wear a long sleeved robe, reaching to the ankles, and fastened round the waist by a girdle. 9 The "Homeric" novpidios, from G

Kovpos, belonging to " a free youth," and hence "lawfully wedded," is, it will be noticed, a word of the new Ionic dialect of the age of Herodotos. 1 Persian respect for truth is forcibly illustrated by the Behistun inscription where Dareios calls the Magian usurpation " a lie," declares that he is favoured by Ormazd because he is not " a liar," and orders his successors to destroy everyone who is " a liar." Cp. ch. 138. It is difficult to suppose that Kyros was unable to read the inscriptions drawn up for him by the Babylonian scribes ; and still more difficult to suppose it of Dareios; whence we may conclude that Persian education was not quite so illiterate as Herodotos would imply, Indeed the inscriptions Dareios took such pains to have inscribed by the side of the public road imply that a knowledge of letters was fairly widely spread.

82

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

T&V ecovrov oliceTeav eirl fivfj airly avrjtcecrTov irddo<; epBeiv dXXd Xoyiad/ievo'; rjv evpia/cp TrXew re ical fie£a> ra aBiKrjfuira iovra

TCQV virovpyqfidTcov,

OVTCD TW 6vfia> ^parai.

airoKTelvai

Be ovBeva KOO Xeyovcri TOV ecovrov trarepa ovBe firjrepa, dXXa OKoaa rjBv) Toiavra iyevero, iraaav dvdy/crjv aal dva^rjreofieva rdoTa av evpe8r)vcu ffTot, viro^oXifjuala eovra rj /j,oi%iBca- ov yap Bri aai olicbs elvai TOV ye d\7]0i(o<; Toicea VTTO TOV ewvTov iraiBbs 138 dirodvr}i, troieiv OVK e^ecrTi, a TaoTa ovhe Xeyeiv

e^ecrTi.

aicr^icrTov

Be CLVTOZGL TO i^evBeaQat

vevo/jLiaTai,

BevTepa Be TO 6ei\eiv %pio<s, iroWotv fiev ical aWaiv eiveica, [idXicTa Be dvayxaiTjv acrl elvai TOV 6
09 av

Be T£SV dcrTutv XeTrprjv T) XevKrjv e^rj, e? TTOXIV

O5TO? ov KCLTepyeTat ovBe crvfifiLcryeTcu TOLO-I aWoio-i aal Be fiiv e? TOV T]\LOV djjMpTOVTa TI TaoTa e%eiv. •rrdvTa TOV "Xafi^avofievov

VTTO TovTecav

TJ}? xcopris, ical r a ? Xev/cas 139 eVt^e/joi/re?.

e? iroTa/j,bv

\TTOWOX\

Hepcrrjaf %eivov Be

iljeXavvovGi

-trepLo-Tepas . . ., TTJP avTqv Be OVTB ivovpeovcri

iic

alrb/v

oijTe e/jL7TTVovai,

oil 'xelpas evairovl^ovTai, oiiBe aXXov ovBeva Trepiopiovai, dX\A aefiovrai TroTa/ioii? fidXocrTa.3 ical ToBe aXXo <7(f)i &Be avimreirTcoice ytvecrdai, TO TIepcras /juev avToiis XeXrjOe, rifiea? pevToi ov' TO, ovvofiard o-(j>i eovTa ofioia TOIGI awfiaai ical T17 fieyaXonrpeireLr) TeXevraxri, irdvTa e? TWUTO ypdfifia, TO Aoopiels fjxv aav KaXeovai, "Itoz'e? Be criyfia' e? TOVTO Bt,^rjfievo<; evprjcrei^ TeXevTCOV TLepaicov Ta ovvo/iaTa, ov TO, fiev TO, 8" OV, aXXa iravTa 2

0/u.otto?.5

" Wherever such cases occurred . . . they would turn out on enquiry to have been the crimes either of changelings or of children born in adultery." 2 " Tournier conjectures bail) for g-eort (Revue de Phil. 1877). 3 Xerxes could not have had very much respect for the water when he chastised the Hellespont (vii. 35). Superstitious respect for the water, however, was an Elamite rather than a Zoroastrian virtue. 4 Sigma is the samech of the Hebrew alphabet, san the Hebrew shin. The Greeks, not having the sound expressed by samech, fused the two sibilants together, making sigma take the place of •shin before tau, and giving to the symbol

which denoted samech the sound of as, Among the Dorians, however, the name of sigma {samech) never displaced the older shin. A reminiscence of the two original letters was preserved in the system of numeration, where sampi, is. san + pi, denoted 900. 5 This only proves Herodotos's ignorance of the Persian language. The Greeks, of course, bestowed a final s on Persian proper names, but in old Persian only nominatives of nouns in i and « had it. Names like Bardiy(a), Gaamat(a), etc., end in a vowel, like fenrinines in -&. Herodotos was equally wrong in imagining that all the names had reference to bodily or mental excellence. Cf. Pott on Old Persian proper

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

83

Tdora fiev aTpeKems e%a) irepl avrwv elBms elirelv TaSe 140 a)? KpviTTOfieva Xiyerat Kal oil aaepr/vias 7repl TOV diroS, «B? ov irporepov Qd-Krerai dvBpbs Tiepcreco 6 veicvs irplv av vif opviOos rj KVVOS e\/cv
TTOWOV

T&V re

aXXmv

dvQpdyircov /ecu

TO>V

iv

AljinrTO) lepecov. oi fiev TOVTW i^ero) a>? Kal dp ivofilcrdr], aveifu Se e7rt TOV irpoTepov Xoyov. "I(uz'e9 Be Kal A.loXei<>, a>9 ol AuSoi Ta^iaTa KaTerrTpdipaTO 141 VTTO Tiepcrecov, eire^Trov dyyeXovs 69 ^,dpBi^ irapa TLvpov, edeXovTes iirl Tolai aiiTolai elvai TOIGI Kal Kjootcr^) fjcrav KaTrJKooi. 6 Be avTwv Ta irpoto-j^ovTO, eXeije cr9 Be Tfrevo-drjvat, TTJ9 eXiriBo';, Xaj3elv dfx,(f>i/3Xr)o-Tpov Kal TrepujHaXelv Te nrXrjOo*; TTOXXOV TWV lj(6vu>v Kal i^eipvcrai, IBovTa Be irdXXofievov; elirelv apa avTov Trphs TOV9 lj(0v<; " iravecrOe fxou bpj^eo/JLevoi, iirel ovS' i//,eo avXiovTos r)8ekeTe iK/BaLvecv op^eofievoi." K.vpos fiev TOVTOV TOV Xoyov Tolai "Icotro Kal Tolai AloXevai T&vBe eiveKa eXe^e, OTL Br) ol "leaves irpoTepov aiirov Kvpov BerjOevTO? Si dyyeXwv diriaTaaQai rr(f>eas dirb Kpoicrov OVK iireiOovTO, TOT6 Be KaTepyaafxevav T&V Trpr/y/xaTcov r). o fiev Brj opyfj efto/ievo? eXeye crept rdBe1 "I&W69 Se a>9 -rjfcovaav TOVTWV dvevev^OevTtov e? Ta9 iroXuas, Telyed r e TrepiefidXovTO eKacnoi, Kal avveXeyovTo e? Tlavuoviov ol dXXoi TTXTJV MtA/^crtW • Trpos yap TOVTOVS opKiov Kvpos eirotrjcraTO iir oltri irep 6 names, in the Journal of the German Oriental Society, xiii. (1859), pp. 359 sq. 6 According to Zoroastrian belief neither earth nor fire may be polluted by contact with a corpse ; the only way of getting rid of the dead, therefore, is that mentioned in the text. The modern Parsis place the dead body on a round tower, called a " tower of silence," where it is devoured by the vultures. We may notice that Herodotos ascribes

this custom to the Magi rather than to the Persians generally, so completely had the Magi become identified with the Zoroastrian priests, 7 An exaggeration of the religious duty enjoined on the Zoroastrians of destroying all animals noxious to man. See Appendix V. Ants are ordered to be killed in Vendidad, xvi. 28 ; snakes, lizards, ants, rats, and gnats, in Vend. xiv. 10 sq.

84

HERODOTOS.

Be Xovjroicn "lao-i e'Sofe icobvw \6ya %7rdpTr)i> Ber)o~ofievov<; "Iwcrt rifiapelv. 142

Ol

Be "lave?

OVTOI, TS>V Kal

[BOOK

irifiireiv

TO Uavicoviov

ayyeXov;

e?

eerrt, TOV fiev

ovpavov KaX ratv capeav iv rw KaWio~TQ irvy^avov iBpvcrdfievoi 7roXfa? wavrcov dvdpairav rav r)fiel<; tS/iev ovre yap TO. avm avrrjs yapla TU>VTO troiel rfj 'Yaviy ovre TO Kara, \ovre TO, 7T/JO? TT]V rju> oiire TO. TT/SO? TTJU ecririprjv,] TO fiev virb TOV "^v^pov re Koi vypov -jrie^ofieva, TO, Be VTTO TOV depfiov re ical av%jid>Beo<;. yXaxraav Be ov rrjv airr/v OVTOI vevo/u,Licao~i, aWa Tpoirov; Tecrcrepa? Trapayooyemv.8 MI'XTJTO? fiev airitov •Kpont] Kelrai ainai 7roXt? 7T/3O? fieo-a/JL^plrjv, fjuera Be MvoO? re feat Tlpitfvr). fiev ev Trj Kaplj] KaTOLicrjVTat, Kara, Taiira BiaXeyofievai o~a>v Ae/3eSo? Tet»? K\a£o/ji,eval <&a>Kaia' avTai Be at 7roXt69 Trj at irpoTepov \ej(0elv vrjauoTyo'i r/v Beivbv ovBev ovTe yap Qoivi/ce1? rjo-av KW Hepaecav KarrjKooi ovre avTol ol Uepcrai vavfidrai. drirecr')(io~6r)o-av Be airb TOIV aXkcov 'Icovcov OVTOI KaT aKKo fiev ovBev, do~8eveo<; Be iovro<; TOV iravro'; Tore 'HWTJVCKOV yeveos, iroXkw Brj r)v daOevecrraTov ra>v idvemv TO 'Icoviicbv Kal \6yov e\a%Lvyov TO ovvofia, oi f3ov\6fievoi "laves KeK\r)o-0ai,1 aWa Kal vvv (fyaivovTaL fioi ol iroWol avTcov inraw^yveo-QaL ra ovvofiwrf al Be BvwBeica 7roXte? avTai TC3 TS ovvofiari rjydWovro Kal lepov IBpvaavro eVt creav avTav, ra ovvofia edevro Uavidviov, e/3ouXevaavTO Be avrov fieraBovvai firjBafioicri aXXoiai 'lavav (ovo" 144 eBerjdrjcrav Be oiiBafiol fieTacr^elv ort fir) %fivpvaiot)- Kara vep ol e'/c T>}9 TT€VTairokio<s vvv X^>PV^ Aw/Jtet?, TrpoTepov Be et;airokws 8 "Four slightly - differing dialects." Scarcely any trace of these differences can be detected in the Neo-Ionic inscriptions which we possess. 9 ' ' And use the same dialect." 1 In consequence of the cowardly con-

duct of the Ionians at the time of the Ionic revolt, which hrought the very name of : ' Ionian " into contempt. At an earlier date, the poet of the Homeric Hymn to Apollo is proud of the title.

i.]

THE EMPIEES OF THE EAST.

85

TT}? axiTrji ravrr)^ Ka\eofievt)<;, icDV avTcov TOVS irepl TO lepov avo/j,i]cravTa<; e^eKXrjicrav Trj
TOVTOICTI JJAV

VVV OVTOI

TavTrjv

TT)V ^7]/J,[T)V 145

eTredrjicav 8va>8eica Be /AOL BoKeovat TroXta? Trovqcrao-Qat, oi "Iawe? Kal OVK ideTvrjcrai irkeovas eaBi^aaOai tovBe elveica, oTb /cal 6Ve ev TLe~ko'jrovvrio-(p o'i/ceov, BvcoBe/ca rjv ai)T&v fiepea, icaTa irep vvv 'A%aia)V TUIV e^eXacrdvTcov "lavas BvcoBe/cd ia-Tt, fiipea? TleWrfvr) fiAv ye Trp&Tr) irpos AIKVWVOS, fjueTa, Be A'lyeupa Kal Aiyal, ev Trj K.pa,0t,<; 5 TroTa/io? deivao? icrri, air OTBO 6 iv 'IraXtj; nvorafjib^ TO ovvofia ecr%e, Kal Hovpa Kal 'EXIKT;, e? Trjv Kariipvyov "\wves VTrb 'A-^aiav l^d^rj ecrcra)0evTe<;, Kal A'iybov Kal 'PuTre? Kal HaTpels Kal Qapels Kal OXei'o?, ev TO3 Uelpos iroTafW'i fieyas io~Ti, Kal Avfirj Kal TpiTaieZs, ot fiovvot, TOVTCOV fxeaoyabot, olKeovai. TaoTa BvcoBeKa fj,ipea vvv 'Ay^aiojv £CTTI Kal TOTS ye 'Ia>va>v rjv. TOVTWV Brj e'iveKa Kal oi "Icoi'e? BvcoBeKa Tro\ia<; eirov^cravTo, errel 146 w? 76 TI fiaXXov

Tt yeyovacn,6

OVTOL "leaves elai, TCOV aWtov

/Majplrj TTOXXI) Xeyeiv

2 The Triopian cape was the threeforked promontory on which Knidos stood. An inscription found at Knidos states that a yv/xviKis dyCiv took place there ever}' five years. 3 Lindos, Ialysos, and Kameirbs were all of Phoenician foundation, but afterwards occupied by the Dorians like the other Phoenician settlements in the ^Egean. Lindos still exists on the southern coast of Rhodes, but nothing save tombs remains of Ialysos (a little southward of the town of Rhodes) and Kameiros (near Kalavarda) on the northern coast of the island. 4 This refers to the legend which made the Akhasans, when driven by the

'Imveov rj KOXXLOV

TWZ'7 "AfiavTes

fiev ei; Ei/So/i;?

Dorian invasion from Argolis, Lakonia, and Messema, expel the Ionians from the part of the northern coast of the Peloponnesos afterwards known as Akhaea. 5 The Krathis ran past Thurii in Magna Grsecia, where Herodotos finished his history and ended his days. The original Krathis was in Arkadia. 6 ' ' That these Ionians are at all more Ionian than the rest, or in any way better." 7 As in Homer, " o f whom." According to Aristotle the Abantes were prehistoric Thrakians who settled in Eubcea (also in Khios, Paus. vii. 4, 9). See II. ii. 536.

86

HERODOTOS. fioipa,

ovBev, Mivvat

TOICI 'Itovlrjs

Be 'OjO^o/ieVtot

8

[BOOK

fiira

ovBe TOV ovvofiaTo?

Kal

K.a8fieloi

Kal A/3UO7T6? Kal <3>a)«et9 diroBdo-fUoo Kal M.o\ocrcrol Kal 'Ap/eaSe? TJeXaaryol Kal A(opiel<; '^iriBavpioi, /j,e/J,L%aTai,- oi

Be avT&v

airo

aKXa

re

6pfir)0evTe<; Kal vo/jui%ovTe<; jevvaioTarot

elvai

row? yoveas.

vofJbov Oifievai

Bia

edvea

TOV irpvTavrjLov

ovrov Be ov k
TOVTOV Se TOV (povov al

(Tiai avT-fjai

opKov;

ySwcrat TOV eawn}? avBpa, avTrjcri GWOIKZOV.

8 The prehistoric Minyans of Orkhomenos in Boeotia were famous for their wealth (II. ix. 381), and seem to have been the rivals of the Akheeans of Mykenifi. The shafts cut through the rock in the neighbourhood of Kopse (Topolia) in order to let off the water of the Kephissos may have been their work. A prehistoric naval alliance between Orkhomenos, Athens, Epidauros, Hermioiie", Prasise (afterwards Spartan), and Nauplia (afterwards Argive), which met every year in the island of Kalauria, off Argolis, was preserved in name into historic times. The recent excavations of Dr. Schliemann have shown that the Minyan city occupied only the southern part of the later historical acropolis of Orkhomenos. Prehistoric pottery and stone implements, similar to those found at Mykenae, have been brought to light. The "Treasury of Minyas," a gigantic tholos or beehive tomb, like the Treasuries of Mykenai, only built of well-cut and well-fitted blocks of white marble, has been shown to have led into a rectangular chamber, the ceiling of which consisted of four huge blocks of green marble, while the walls were lined with slabs of the same material. The ceiling and slabs were adorned with sculptures in the form of rosettes, spirals, and " sphinx-tails," resembling the ornamentation of one of the tombstones

"ywat/ee?

iTrrfXa&av Kal

TovBe eivexa

dcbscov TOU? 7raTe0tt9 Kal avBpa
dva-

KBi}vaiaiv

'Iwvwv,

Kaetjoa?

Boaav Trjai OvyaTpdcri, fjurj KOTB 6fj,ocrt,Trj
iroWa

TOV

irapi-

dvBpdat

fiijbe

OTI icpovevadv

Kao eirenev

TaoTa Be rjv ytvofieva

iv

TOOTH ^

discovered at Mykense, as well as of some of the gold objects found in one of the tombs there. The Minyans are said to have founded Teos (Paus. vii. 3), and the Phokians Phoksea, while the Abantes helped to found Khios, and the Kadmeians Priene. Attica was filled with fugitives from all parts (Thuk. i. 2). It is probable, however, that the coasts of Asia Minor were occupied by "Ionian " Greeks long before they were reinforced by the fugitives from the Dorians. 9 When a colony was founded, some of the sacred fire, which, was always kept alight iii the Prytaneion, was taken from the mother city. 1 " N o r call her husband by his name." A Kafir woman is not allowed to name her father-in-law even mentally, or any of her husband's male relations. The Bogo women may not name their husbands (Munzinger, Bitten und Eechi der Bogos, p. 95). Elsewhere, as in America, persons avoid the use of their own names, while the Tahitians disused all words containing a syllable of the name of the reigning sovereign. It is clear, therefore, that the custom originated in a fear lest by mentioning a name the attention of the evil spirits might be attracted to the person to whom it belonged. In Miletos its origin wasforgotten.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

87

Be io~Ti]o~avTo ol /x,ev avrStv Au/a'ov? dirb TXavKov TOV 147 yeyovoTas, ol Be Kaii/cawa? Ili/Xtou? dirb KoBpov TOV MeXdvdov, ol Be real crvva/j,OTepov<;. dWd yap irepieyovTat TOV ovv6[iaTO<; ficLWov TI TUIV dX\a>v 'Iwvwv, eaTwaav Btj Kal ol Kcbdap&f; yeyovores "Iwve? 1 elo~\ Be irdvTes "Iwves, b'aoi dir A.07)ve(av yeyovaai Kal 'Awarovpia ayovo-L koprrjv ayovcrt, Be iravTes ifK-qv 'E^ecrtwj' Kal KoXocfjavlcov OVTOI yap fiovvoi '\a>vo)v OVK ayoven 'AwaTOvpia, Kal OVTOI KaTa 6vov Tiva o-Krj^iv. TO Be Uavuoviov io-Ti T ^ ? Mu/caX?;? %wpo? lepbs TT/JO? dpKTov 148 TeTpafifj.ivo';, KOIVT} e^apaiprffjuevo^ virb 'Itopcov HoaeiBicovi. 'EXtKwvlat. f) Be M U K A I ; eaTi T ^ ? rjireupov aKpt) vrpbs £e, e? TTJV avWeyofievoi dirb TWV "iroXlwv "Iowe? dyeo-Kov opTr\v T-fj eOevro ovvofia Uavicovia.3 \veiv6vQao-i Be OVTI fiovvai al 'Icovcov opral TOVTO, dWd Kal 'HWqvwv irdvTwv ofioiw; irdaai e? TGOVTO ypdfifia TeXeuTwcrt, KaTa irep T&V Tiepaeav TO ovvofiaTa.^ AiiTai pev al 'IaSe? 7ro\te? elen, aiBe Be al At'oX/Se?, Ku/xr; 149 7] QpiKavls KaXeofxevrj, Arfpiaai, Neoy Tet^o?, T^/ivo?, KtXXa, NOTIOZ', Alytpoeo~o~a, TLITUVT], Klyalai, ^Jlvpiva, Ypvveia.6 ainai evBeKa AloXeav 7roXt69 al dpyalaf fiia yap a<j>ea>v irapeXvOr] %fivpvr) virb 'lcovcov rjaav yap Kal avTai SvcoBeKa al iv Tjj Tjireipa. OVTOI Be ol AioXet? %a)pr}v fiev ervyov KTlo-avTe<; dfielvco 'Iwvaiv, aypecov Be r\Kovo~av OVK o/totto?. ~%^ivpvr\v Be o)Be dire- 150 AtoXet?. K.o\o(f>a>vLovs dvBpas crTacrei eo-awOevTas Kal e« TTJ? iraTp[Bo<; vireBe^avTO. fieTa, Be ol T£-o\ov\d£avTe<> TOU? %/JLvpvaiovs opT-qv efw iroieofievov; Awvvcrq>, Tds 7rvXa? dnTOKkTjLo-avTes eayov TTJV TTOX.IV. Be irdvTcov A-loXecov o/AoXoylr) eyprjcravTO, TO 2 4 The Apaturia was the annual meetThis seems too absurd a truism to ing of the phratries, when the children have been written by a Greek. 5 born during the two or three preceding In place of jEgiroessa other writers years were enrolled as citizens. It took haye Elsea. Recent discoveries fix the place in Pyanepsion (November), and site of Myrina at Kalabassery, a few lasted three days. On the first (Sopwla) miles north of Kyme, at the mouth of the members of each phratry dined tothe Koja Chai. Mr. W. M. Ramsay gether; on the second (av&pj>v<ns) sacrihas found the site of Temnos on the fices were offered to Zeus Phratrios ; and northern side of the Boghaz or Pass on the third (Kovpeurts) the children's leading into the western part of the names were registered. plain of Magnesia. Menimen, with which 3 In the time of Thukydides (iii. 104) Texier identified it, had no existence in this feast was in great measure superthe Greek period. Phoksea, which interseded by the Ephesia. vened between Kyme and Smyrna, must

88

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

dvoBovreov rav 'l<6va>v iicXnreiv %fivpvt}v AloXeas. trovr\o-dvra>v Be rdora %fj,vpvalcov eiriBielXovro cr^ea? al evBeica 151 7ro\te? ical erroirjo'avro o~v avrewv i7oXir)ra<;. avrai fiev vvv al f)ireupd)Ti,Be<; AloXLBes TroXte?, efe* r£>v ev rrj "ISy ol/CTjfieviwv BaTai yap avrai. al Be T O ? vrjaov; eypvcrai irevre fiev TTJV Aecr{3ov vefiovrai (rr/v yap eKTr)v ev Trj Ae ol/ceo'Apiafiav rjvBpairoBta-av M.7]6v/J,valoi, iovras ofialfiow;), ev TeveBq) Be fiia oltceiTai, 7roXt?, ical ev trjcri ' E / c a r w vr\aoiai KaXeofiivrjcri,6 aXTli? fila. Aecr/3totcrt fiev vvv ical TeveBCoiai, Kara irep 'Icova>v roitri r a ? vrjaov<; e^ovac, r/v Beuvov ovBev rfjai Be Xonrfjcri TT6\L<TI eaBe Koivfj "Iwcrt enreaOau ry av OVTOI y 'ft? Be diriicovTo e? tv)v %7rdpr7]v TO>V 'lcovav ical AloXicov ol ayyeXoi {Kara, yap Srj rd-^o^ r)V rdora irpria-aofieva), e'CkovTo 6 Be Trpo irdvrwv Xeyetv TOV Qca/caea, ru> ovvo/ia fjv Hvdepfios. Trop<j)vpe6v re elfia 7repi/3a\6fievos, a>? av irvvQavofievot, •KkelaToi uvveXOoiev ^TrapTirjTecov,7 ical tcaTaaTas eXeye TTOXXO, TifMopelv ecovrolcri ^prji^cov. AaKeBaifiovioi Be ov KCO<; ecrrjKovov, aSX s a7reBo^e a(pt, p/t] T0f/,a>peiv "lcoai. ol fiev Br) dtraXXdaaovro, Aa/ceBaifiovtoi Be diraxydfievoi T&V 'Iv TOV? dyyiXovs 6fia>^ direcrreiXav Trevrrj/covTepq) avBpas, a>? pev i/xol BoKel, Karacricoical 'Iwywy?. drnKOfievoi Be 7rov? TCOV re JLvpov irp^y/judrav ovroi e? Qwicaiav eirefjuirov e? %dpBo<; crea>v avrmv rbv BOKI/JLCOrarov, ra> ovvofia rjv AaicpLvris, drrepeovra Kvpa AaKeBai/MvLmv prjCTLv, yea<; T»J? 'EXXaSo? /M7]Be/j.iav TTOXLV criva/Mopelv, to? avrwv 153 ov Trepioyfrofiivayv. rdora elir6vro ofivvvre'i e^airarwairolcn, r\v iya> vyiaivco, ov ra 'Icovoov irdBea ecrrat eXXecr^a dXXa, rd al/crfta" rdora e? rovs irdvra^ "ILXXrjvai;

152

liave been founded by the Ionians after their capture of Smyrna. 6 Opposite the northern end of Lesbos. 7 " In order that most of the Spartiates might hear of him and come together." A purple robe seems to have been a luxury unknown in Sparta. 8 Yet they had been willing enough

to assist a foreign despot, Krcesos, a short time before. 9 "Into which they come together to swear and cheat one another." 1 " A matter to talk about." AiirxVi " a club-room," seems borrowed from Phoenician (Heb. lishcdh " a chamber").

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

89

6 Kupo? TO, etrea, on dyopas crTrjo-d/j,evoi mvfj re Kal ypkwwai,' avTol yap ol TLepcrat, dyopyai ovBev ewffacri y^pacrdat,, oiBe o~(j>t icrrl TO irapdtrav dyoprj. fieTa, rdora errirpeyjra<; Ta? fiev %dpBi<; Ha{3d\q> dvBpl Hepcry, T W Be ypvaov TOV T6 K.pol(TOV Kal TOV TOiV oKkfOV AvBSiV TlaKTVT) dvBpl AvBw Kofii^eiv, a,Tri]Xavve avTbs e? 'AyfiaTava, K.poio~6v Te dfia dyopevos Kal TOU? "Iowa? iv ovBevl \6ya> iroir]ad/^evo<; TTJV eivai. y\ Te yap Ha/3v\d>v ol r)V ifiTroBlos Kal TO Hd/CTpiov ed Kal ~%aKaL3 Te Kal AlyvirTboi, iir ovs eirelye Te o-TpaTrfkaTelv avTo<;, iirl Be "lava? aXkov ireiMiretv a-Tpar^yov. ' f l ? Be dirrjXaae 6 K0/)ov, TOU? AvSoii? 154 aTT€o-Tr)o-e 6 UaKTvr)<; d-jro Te TafidXov Kal JLvpov, KaTa/3a<; Be CTTI Qd\ao~v, eTTLKovpov*} Te ei^taOovTo Kal TOV? eTTidaXaao-lov^ dvOpwirovs eTreiOe aiiv emvTm aTpaTeveo-dai. i\do-a<; Se iirl Ta? %dpSis eiroXtopKei Td/3a\ov direpyfievov iv T{) aKpoiroKei,. Tri/^o/iei'o? 155 Se /COST' 6BOV TaoTa 6 Kj}/)o? et7?"e Trpo? Kpoicroz/ TaSe. " Kpotcre, TL eaTai TeXos T&V yivofievcov TOVTWV efioi; oh TraverovTao AvBoi, o>? o'licaai, TrpijyfiaTa irapeyovTes; Kal ai)Tol eypvTe'i. P01'T^C0 /j,rj apLcrTov fj i^avBpaTroBlaaaOai o-(j)ea<;. o/ao^tu? yap JXOI vvv ye (f>alvo/Aai, TreTTOL'qicevaL &>? el Tt? iraTepa a/rvoKTelva*; T&V iralBwv avTov eiaaiTo-Sa &>? Se Kal e'7<» AvB&v TOV /J-ev irkeov TI rj iraTepa eovTa ae \afia>v aya>, avToio-i Be AvBoio-c TTJV WOKIV TrapeBaiKa, Kal eireiTa deovfid^co el fioi direo'Tacn," 6 fiev Brj Ta Trep evoeo eXeye, o B' dfieifieTO ToicriBe, Setcra? fit) dvao~TaTov
sagetse. In the Babylonian transcripts of the Persian inscriptions the Saka are rendered Zimmirrai or Kurds, and there were Sakse in Armenia adjoining the Medes and Kadusians (Strab. vi. pp. 745, 767, etc. ; Pliny, N. H. xi. 10; Ptol. v. 13). The Skythians who overthrew the Greek kingdom in Baktria are also called Sak;e. According to Ktesias the conquest of the Sakae and Baktrians preceded the capture of Sardes. 3a From the old proverb ascribed to the Epic poet Stasinos (Arist. Mhet. iii. 21), but more probably forming part of the Kypria (see ii. 117, note 5 ) : PATHOS 8S Traripa urdvas iraWas KaraXc/ir«.

90

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

fievTOL fir) irdvra Ovfico yjpeo, firjBe iroXiv ap^airjv i%avao-Tr)o~r)$ dva/idpTr)Tov iovaav Kal TWV irporepov Kal T&V VVV eo-TecoTmv. TO, fiev yap irpoTepov iya> re eirprj^a Kal iym /ceepco' TO, Be vvv irapeovTa X^aKTvr)^ ydp ecm o dBiKetov, ™ o~v eireTpe"^ra<; %dpBi<s, OVTOS BOTCO TOI B£icr]V. KvBolcn Be crvyyvmfirjv eyjav rdSe avroiai iiriTa^ov, w? fir/re diroareacrL fjbrjre Beivol TOI ewai. aTreuire fiev <7<$>L Trefi/tyas oifKa dpy)ia fir) eKTr)cr6a,L, KeKeve Be avd<; re inroBvveiv rolart, etfiacri Kal tcodopvovs viroBelcrdai,, Trpoenre 8" avroicrt KiQapi^eiv re Kal tydWeiv Kal KaTTTjXeveiv iratBevebv TOU? 7ralBa<;. Kal rayews atyea<; 3> fiaaiXev ywalKas dvr dvBpmv o^eai yeyovoTas, wcrre ovSev Beivoi TOI 156 eaovrai firj diro(Ti" Kpotcro9 fiev Br) rdord oi vTreTtdero, alpertorepa Taora evpicrKwv AvBola TJ dvBpariroBiea<;, iiria-rdfievof on rjv fir) d^io^peov 7rp6<paariv irpoTeivr), OVK dvaireLaeu fiiv fierafSovXevcacrOai,, dppcoBecov Be fii) Kal vurepov Kore oi AvBoi, i)v TO irapebv vireKBpdfMoo't,, diroardvre'; divb T5>V Hepcricov aTroXavrai. Kupo? Be r)o-6el<s rfj viroOrfKr) Kal inreh T>}? 6pyrjr) oi ireidea-dai. xoXecra? Be Ma^dpea avBpa MrjBov, rdord re oi everetkaTo irpoenreiv AvBoio-i TO. O Kpoicro? vireTiOero, Kal 7rpo? i^avSpaTroBiaatrOai, TOI><> aWovs 7rdvTa<> oi fiera, AvBwv iirl %dpBi<; eaTparevcravTO, aiirbv Be TlaKTvrjv irdvTas dyayelv nvap ecovrov. lot

U fxev or) raoTa

etc T?J? OOOV evreiXa/j,evo<; airrj\avve

e?

ra Tlepcriaiv, TIaKTVT)? Be TrvOofievos dyyov elvai arparbv eif ecovrbv lovra, Betaa? ofyeTO evycov i<s Kvfirjv. Ma%dpr]<; Be o MT}8O? i\daa<; iirl Ta? SapSt? TOV Kupov arparov fioipav oar\v Br] KOTe e^a>v, t»? OVK evpe en eovra? TOU? dficjA UaKTvrjv iv SapBiai, irpSiTa fiev TOII? AvBovs r)vdyKacre Ta? Kvpou ivrokas eTTireXelv, IK TOVTOV Be Ke\evafj,oo~vvr)<; AvBol Tr)v irao'av Bianav rr)<; %6r)<; fiere/3a\ov. MafapT;? Be fiera TOVTO eVe/A7re e? rr)v K.vfi7)v dyyeXovi eKBiBovai KeXevcov HaKTvrjv. oi Be K.Vfialoi eyvcoaav o-Vfi/3ov\.rjs irkpu e? Qebv dvolaai TOV iv 3pay%o8r}o-C' r)v yap avTodi fiavTrjiov eV TraXaiov iBpvfievov, ra "\mvi6eo~av %pacr0ai. 6 Be %w/)o? OVTO<; ia-rl Tr)<; 36 The phrase occurs in the Odyssey. head" instead of with the hands. It MatTirio is to " r u b , " "knead," 'hence was the difference between thought" smear"; Skt. mach, "grind small": making and bread-making. Both here KC. dva/i. is not " t o rub off on the and in the Odyssey, therefore, the phrase head," i.e. " t o incur responsibility," means "what one will have reason to but " t o knead" or "work up with the think of."

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

91

vTrep Tiavopfjiov Xifievo*}. TrefnfravTes &v oi Kvfiatoi 158 e? TOW; Bpary%'S#¥ deoirpoirov^ elpcoreov irepl TlaKrvijv OKOIOV TI "7roi,eovTe$ 6eol<Ti fieXXoiev j(apieii T/iora •Xpijo-Ttfpiov iyevero e/chiSovai UaKTVTjv Uepcrrjcrt. Taora Be a>? airevei'xOevTa r/Kovaav oi Hvfiaioi, opfiearo eK&iBovat,- opfirj/nivov Be TavTT] TOV Tr\i]0eo<;, 'Apto"ToSt«09 o 'Hpa/cXeiSeco avrjp T&V acTTwv iaiv So/cifAO1; eo~%e firj iroirjO'ai TO,OTCL KvfjLaiow;, annaTecov r e Tm xprjcr/jLa) Kal SoKeav TOVS deoirpoirovi ov Xiyeiv aXTjdea)?,* e? o TO Sevrepov irepl Tla/cTveco iireiprjo-o/Aevoi rfiaav aXX.01 OeoirpoTroi, TWV Kal 'ApicrToSiKos ?jv. aiTiKOfievcov Se e? J5paevya>v ddvaTOv ftLaiov Uepcreoiv ol he fxiv i^atTeovTai, irpoelvau Ki/yaatov? KeXev. rifiels Be SeifiaivovTes rrjv Tiepaeayv Svvaficv, TOV CKeTrjv e? ToSe ov TeToX/MijKa/j,ev iKBtBovai, irplv av TO dirb creo rffilv BrjXwdfj aTpeKews oKOTepa Troia>/j,ev." 6 (lev TaoTa eireipdiTa, o B' avTK TOV avTov o~i ^pTjo-fibv ecpaive, KeXevwv eicBiBovai TJaKTVTjv Heparjcn. TT/JO? Taora 6 'ApicrToSiKOS i/c 'rrpovovr)** eiroiei TaSe. irepuaiv TOV vrjov KVKXO> egaipei roiis o~Tpov0oiis Kal aXXa oca r\v vevoaaev^eva opviOcov yevea iv T&> vi)a>. Troveoz/TO? Be avTov TaoTa XeyeTat (fxovrjv e/c TOV dBvTov yeveaOai (pepovaav fiev irpbs TOV 'ApiaToBiKov, Xeyovo-av Be raSe " dvoo~td)TaTe dvOpdnrcov, TI TaBe TOX/AO,1; Troteiv ; TOVS t«eTa? /MOV eK TOV vf]ov Kepai^eis ; " 'AptcrToBiKov Be OVK diroprjaavTa Trp6<; elirelv " a>va^, avTO<; fiev OVTCO TOIGI iKerrjcn /3o7)6els, Be KeXeveis TOV iKeTijv eKBiBovai;" TOV Be avTif i TolcnBe " val tceXevco, Iva ye do-e^rjo-avTe? fuq TO XOLTTOV irepl iKeTemv eKBoaio? eXdrjTe eTrl TO ^pt)o-Ti]pi.ov." TaoTa to? direvei^OevTa rjKovaav oi Kvpalot,, ov 160 /SovXa/JLevoL oine eKBovTe<; diroXeaBai ovre irap eavToicri e%ovTe<: TroXiopKeladai eKirkfimovai avTov e? yLvTiXrjvqv. oi Be MVTIA.'J?valoi i'Tmre/ji.TrovTO'i TOV Ma^apeo? dyyeXlas eKSiBovai TOV TLaKTVTJV 'rrapecTKevdtflVTO eirl fiicr8a> b'o~? efiaOov TaoTa TrpTjcrcrofieva eK TWV MvTiXrjvaicov, Treyi/<5favTe. evdevTev Be e% iepov

iroXiov^ov d-woa-waaQels virb XtW i^eBoOy e^eBoaav 4 TMsmistrustevenoftheiroraclesand The oraele of Delphi only too well justimessengers is characteristic of the Greeks. fied the charge of bribery and corruption.

92

HERODOTOS.

Be ol Xloi

/xicrOS-5

eVt TOO 'Arapvei

[BOOK

TOV Be 'Arapvios

M.vair}<;, Aeo~ftov avTtos. p

ol Yiepaai

Be$ai- fjv Be xpovos etc TOV 'ATapvios

TOVTOV

Ha/CTVTjV /lev

vvv

el%ov ev tyvkaicfj, OeXovres Kiyjw

atro-

OUTOS OVK 0X1709 yevo/j,evo<;, ore X i W oiiBeli

TOVTOV OVTB ov\a<; KptOecov 7rpo%vcnv iiroteiTo

detov ovBevl ovTe irefifiaTa

eTrecrcreTO Kapirov TOV evdevTev,

p^eTo r e TOOV TTCUDTGIV lepoiv TO, irdvTa

etc t?)? ^OJ/JIJS

airelTavTij?

yivofieva. 161

Xtot [lev vvv HaKTvrjv

e^iBoaav.

M a ^ a p i ; ? Be fieTa TCLOTO,

eo~Tpa,TeveTO 67rt roi)?
KaX TOVTO

/Mev Hpir]vea<; i?;7)vBpw7roBt,o-aTO, TOVTO Be M.aidvBpov

ireBiov irav

i-ireBpafie XTJLTJV Troieo/Aevos TW
Be TUOTU UVTIKU

vovaw

TeXevra.

dxravras.

diro6avqvTO<; Be TOVTOV

"Ap7rayo<; KaTefti] BidBo%o$ Trj
'AcrTvay^

6 TO3 Kw/3« Tfjv

crvyKaTepyaad/jievo^.

Tore inrb Kvpov aipei

^acnXtjirjv

aTpaTr]iyb<s diroBe^deli;

Ta? TToKia'i ^cofiacri,'

b'/cws

TrpwToi

'^iXKrjvcov

ol Be Qcoxatei1; e^pycravTo,

irevTrjKovTepoiat. eyevovTo

evavTiKKovTo

iiropOei.

'ABpiijv

Be ov

crTpo'yyvkrjo-i

eTvpavvevae

Ttjv

T ^ 9 ecovTov

5 '' On condition of receiving Atarneus as a recompense." Athena does not seem to have visited the perpetrators of this piece of treachery with the punishment inflicted by the Eumenides upon the Alkmajonids. Atarneus was opposite Mitylene". 6 Magnesia ad Mseandrum, with its temple still surrounded by a peribolos, not Magnesia ad Sipylum. 7 " W h e n he had." 8 " W h o made known" (/caraSef/fl'Vjiu). Tartessos, the Tarshish of the Old Testa-

fiev f/V

oyBcoKOVTa

TovTtp Brj TS dvBpl

oi <&a>K Bf) TI ijevovTO

aXKa

Trpoo-faXeh

TO5 ovvofJM

Be TapTTjcrcrov

Be TrdvTd e'lKocn ical e/caTov. 'ICOVLTJV i/ceXeve

fia/cprjcn ical

vrjvcrl

dirtKo/JievOi Be e<s TOV TapTrjo-o-bv

TO3 f3ao~iXei, T&V TapTTja-criojv,

'Apyav0d>vio<;,9

irpcoTrj Be QaicaLy

OVTOI vavTiKir/at,

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Fvp(T'r)VL'r}v K.aX TTJV 'Iftrjpiijv

KaTaBei;avTe<;-s

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KOI TOV Te

r

eBaiae,

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163 evdevTev %a>fia.Ta %fi>v 77/309 TO Te^ea 'la>vi?]<; eire^eipTjae.

dvofMp Tpaire^rj

eTea, irpoc-

a>9 TO, fiev TrpwTd afyecK ^coprji;

ol/cf)
ment, was the district in the neighbourhood of Gibraltar which extended perhaps as far as Cadiz, Iberia being the north-western coast of Spain. 9 Anakreon (ap. Plin. N. S. vii. 48) made A. live 150 years. The same age was assigned him by Phlegon of Tralles. Registers of birth were evidently not kept in Spain at the time. The "roundsided " merchantmen were " the ships of Tarshish " of the Old Testament, i.e. the Phoenician trading-ships whose furthest voyages westwards were to Tarshish.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

93

fiovXovTat, fjuera Be, a>9 TOVTO ye OVK eireiOe TOVI <$>a>Kaiea<;, o oe Trvdofievo'i TOV M.7)8ov Trap' avrmv &>9 avtjoiTo, eBlBov atyi •^prjfiaTa Tet^o? Trepij3a\icr6ai TTJV TTOXIV eBiBov Be d(f>eiBea><; • Kai jap Kal r) irepioBos TOV Tefyeos OVK oXiyoi aTaZioi elcrv, TOVTO Be irav Xidmv fieydXtov Kal ev crvvapfioo-fievfov. TO fiev Br) Tetyos 164 Tolffc <$>a>Kaievcrt Tpoirq ToiaiSe ilje-ironjOr).1 6 Be "Ap-rra oi KaTayjpa el J3OV\OVTCU <£>a>KaieK irpoiLayeSiva eva fiovvov TOV Tet^eo? ipel-tyai Kal o%Kt)yM ev KaTLepmaat. ol Be ^>G)«atet? 7repir)fj,eKTeovTe<; Ty SovXocrvvr) ear) elBevai fiev ev TO, eKeovoi fieXXoiev iroielv, o/jbtDS Be o~i irapievai /3ovXevcrao-0ai. ev a> wv 6 "Kpirayos airb TOV ret^eo? airriyaye TTJV (TTpaTirfv, ol $t»/catet9 ev TOVT(O o-'rrdaavTe'i r a 9 TrevTiyKovTepowi, eaOefievot TeKva Kal Kal eimrXa iravTa, 7rpo9 Be Kal TO. dydXfiaTa TO, e'/c T&V lepmv Kal TO, dXXa dvaQru^aTa, ^apl'i 6 Tt, ^aX«09 ^ Xi0o<; rf ypacprj2 rjv, TO, Be dXXa TtdvTa eo-divTes Kal avTol io-(3dvTe<; eirXeov eirl Xtov. TT]V Be *&coKalr)v ipTj/jLcoOelaav dvBpwv ea^ov ol Tlepcrai. 165 01 Be (3?<WA:aiet9, eireiTe o~(f>i Xiot TCW vrjcrovs T « 9 Olvovaaa^3 KaXeofievas OVK eftovXovTo wveopevotcrt, TrwXelv, BeifialvovTes /j,r) al fiev ifiiropLov yevcovTai, rj Be aiiTUiv vrjcro'i diroKXrjKrdy TOVTOV eiveKa, irpbs Taora ol <£>wKaiei<; iaTeXXovTo e9 Kvpvov ev ydp T?7 Kvpva e'uKoai eTeac, irpoTepov TOVTCOV eK deoirpoTriov dveaTT]aavTO TTOXIV, Trj ovvofia rjv 'AXaXiT). 'ApyavOdivios Be TTJVIKavra rjBr) TeTeXevrijKei. o-TeXXofj,evoi Be 67rt Tr)v 'Kvpvov, irpSiTa KaTairXevaavTei €9 Trjv <£>a>Kai7]v KaTeovevo~av TWV Tiepo-eav Tr)v (pvXaKTjv, r) e9 TOVTO o-(f>t e^epyacrTo, eTroiijaavTo l o ^ v p a s TS v7roXenro/j,eva) ecovTWv TOV O~TOXOV. nrpbs Be TavTycrc Kal fivBpov aiBrjpeov KaTeirovTcoaav Kal wpocrav fir) irplv 69 ^(OKairjv rj^eiv irplv r) TOV /J,vBpov TOVTOV dva<pavf)vat. crTeXXofievcov Be ai)T0)v eVt TTJV Kvpvov,i vwep r/filaea1; T&V 1 3 Old Fokia lies a little to the south The (Enussse (now Spalmadori) are of New Fokia, a town founded by the five islands between the mainland and Venetians or Genoese. The substructions the northern part of Khios. 4 of a temple exist on a small island in Corsica. Alalia, afterwards Aleria, front of the harbour of Old Fokia. and originally founded in B.C. 572, on 2 "Writing" rather than "painting," the east coast of the island, was deinscriptions being on stone or bronze. stroyed by Scipio (B.C. 262), but restored

94

HERODOTOS.

d(TTo)v eXafie

rrjs xwprjs,

[BOOK

woOo? Te Kai OIKTOS T?}? 7roXto? Kai TWP f/Oewv

-^revSopKioi Be yevo/ievoi

direirXeov

oirio-w

e? TT)V

<Pa)icalr)v. o'i Be avrcbv TO opiciov i(f)vXao~<7OP, aepdevres etc TCOV 166 Olvovacrecov eirXeop. eireiTe Be e? TT)V K.vpvov CLTTIKOVTO, o'iiceov

KOivfj /Mera TWV irporepop

airuKOfievrnv e V erea irkvTe, Kai lepa

eviBpvcravTO. Kai fjyov yap Br) Kai e(f>epov TOU? TrepioiKov; airavTas' a-Tparevovrai &p eir avTovs KOIVW Xoya> XprjcrdfAevot,

Tvparjvol Kai l^ap'fflhovuoi,6 vrjvcrl eKarepoi e^rjKovra. ol Be 1 ^coKaiet ; ir\r]pd>aavTe<; Kai airol TO, ifKola, iovra dpidfibv e%r\K.ovTa, dvria^ov e? TO %apB6viov KaXe6/u.evov irekayos. trvfiK.aBfielr) Tt? VIKTJ 6 TOICTL QaKaieiiori

fiio-yovTtov Be T§ vav/ia^irj

eyiveTO •

ai pep yap Tecro~epaKOVTa o-(f)t, vies Bieipffdprjaav, ai <Se

eiicotri ai irepieovarai, r\aav

a^pijO'Toi,-

airecrTpd(paTO yap TOW?

KaTa7r\d>o-avTes Be e? TT)P ^AXaXur/p ap£\a/3ov Kai

iylvopTo

T O ? yvpaiicas

Kai TTJV aWrjv

al z/ee? o~(f>i ayeiv,

Kai eireira

ra

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airePTes

rrjp T£.vpvov

167 eirKeov e? 'Vrjyiov. TWV Be Bia
AyvXXaloiai irdvra TCL irapuovra TOP x&pop, ip TO ol ^WKaiei<s KaTaXeva6ePTe<; eKearo, eyopeTO BidcrTpo
of the name was Carthada (Solin. Polyh. xxvii. 10 ; Isid. Hisp. Et. xv. 1, 30). The "Old Town "was either Utica or, less probably, the mother-city Tyre, 6 i.e. a victory which produces more harm than profit. The phrase is derived from the combat between Polynik& and Eteokles by Plutarch, from the conquest of the Seven Heroes by the Thebans, which only led to the return of the Epigoni, by Eustathios (ad Sam. H. iv. 407). 7 The lacuna has been conjecturally supplied thus : difKaxov, TWV di TU/MTJv&v ol 'AyvXkaioi. Agylla was said to have been founded by the " Pelasgians." The name of its port, Pyrgi, and its consultation of the Delphic oracle, go far to show that it was not originally Etruscan, and that the later name Care (now Cervetri) indicates its passing under Etruscan rule.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OP THE EAST.

95

AyvXXaioi 6? A.eXovs k'-rre/u.'jrov ftovXofievoi, a/eecraadai rrjv dfiaprdSa. 17 Be Tlvdir] o-i fieydXas ical dycova yvfiviicbv ical ITTTTIKOV eirio-rdai. ical ovroi fiev TWV <Pa>iccuecov TOIOVTW fiopa Bie^prjcravTO, ol Be avrcov €9 TO 'Vqyiov tcaraepvyovres ivdevrev opfieofievoi iicnjaavTO iroKiv yeas rfj$ OlvcoTpLrjs TCLVTTJV r]Ti<; vvv 'TeXrj8 icaKeiTaf eKTicrav Be Tavrrjv 7rpo9 avBpbs HocreiBcovi^Tea iiadovres C09 rbv IZ-vpvov i 7} Tlvdirj e%p7)€(Dv el\e ^d>)j,aTi TO T6t;y;o9 ' A.pirayo<;, iafiavTes iravre1; 69 ra irXoXa otj(pvTO TfKeovres eVl T779 ®pr]iKr)<;, ical evdavra etcTLaav TTOXLV "AftBrjpa, TTJV 7T/3OT6/3O9 TOIITCOV JLXa^ofievios Ttja?;crtO9 /ericas OVK a/ira)V7)T0, aX\'

{nrb

©PTJLKCOV itjeXaadel?

TI/MO,<; VVI> VTTO

Trjicov TOOV ev 'AfiBrfpoicrt a>9 r)p(o<; e^et. OvTot fiev vvv 'Idoveov fiovvoi rrjv BovXoavvrjv OVK dve^ofievoi 169 e^eKnrov ra<; TraTplBas- ol B' aXXot, "leaves TTXTJV MiXrjcriajv Bt,a fid^r}<; /i,ev diriicovTO 'Apirdya8 /card Trep ol ifckcirovTes, icai avBpes iyevovro dyadol irepl Trjs eeovrov eKaaros fiaj(pfievoi, eo~crw6evTe<; Be icai dXovres efievov Kara, ^a>pir\v e/cao-Toi ical TO eiriTaacrofieva iireTeXeov. MtX^criot Be, C09 teal irporepov fiou elprjTat, avra) Kvpq>, opictov iroirjadfievoi ^avyv^v rjyov. OVTW BTJ TO Bevrepov 'ICOVLTJ eBeBovXcoro. a>9 Be Toiif ev rfj rjTrelpw "lavas iyeipwaaTo "Apirayos, ol ras vrjerovs e-^ovres "leaves wBtfcravTes rdora o~(j>eas avrovs eBocrav HLvpcp* Ke/caiecofievcov Be 'Icbvcov ical o-vXXeyo/ievcov oiBev fjcraov is 170 8

Better known as Yelia or Elea, whence the philosophic school of Xenophanes and Farmenides took the name Eleatic. (Enotria or "Vineland" was the name given by the Greek colonists to that part of Lucania into which they had imported the vine. Poseidonion is better known as Paestum, southward of Naples. 9 " T h e Kyrnos the oracle had bidden them establish was a hero, not the island." A very convenient way of explaining away the failure of the oracle. Kyrnos was called the son of Herakles, i.e. the sun-god of the Phoenicians who had discovered and colonised the island.

1

The ruins of Teos lie on an isthmus 1J miles south of Sighajik on the niainland north of Samos. They consist of little else besides the theatre and the temple of Dionysos. 2 Abdera, originally founded by the Phoenicians, and the birthplace of Protagoras, Anaxarkhos, and Demokritos, is now lost in the marshes of Bulusra or Balustra. 3 "Entered into a struggle with H . " Compare vi. 9 ; iEskh. Prom. 121. 4 Samos, however, continued independent until the reign of Darius.

HERODOTOS.

96 TO Haviwviov,

Trvvddvofiai

[BOOK

ypcofirjp Hiavra

apBpa

Upwqpea

diro-

Be%a
irapel^e

evSaifiopeiv

GTOXO) ' Iwra?

aepOevras

'"EiWrjpaav fiaXiara

• 09 iKeXeve

irXeiv es XapBcb Kal eirena

KOIVS

TTOXLP /Jbiav KTt^etp

'Ia>vcav, Kal OVTCO a7raXXa%dePTa<; crea<; BovXoaiwqi; creiv, vqawv aXXcop' en

Te cnraa-ecov fieylarrjv6

fievoixri

eaofievt]v.

pefiojiepovs

he (T(f>i, iv 7rj 'Iwplr) avrr)

fiev

Btavro?

Kal

av cr<j)i irdvTwv evBaifiovqapxpvrai

OVK e<j)r) evopav TOV TlpiTjveos

e\ev8eplr)v

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Bie^>8apfj,evoi(rt, "looat, yevopevrj, ^prja-rt) Be Kal irplv r\ BieipOaprjvai 'laviTjv

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iovros

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avBpbs

M.tXr)criov

0? 6«e\eve ep

TO Be elpat ev T e « (T^eav yap

ijevero,

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7roXia? OLKeofiepas r\
/card

OVTOI fiep Brj (Ti rypdofjias ToidaBe

171

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"A.pira'yo'; Be KaTaa'Tpe^dfiepo'i p

el

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elev.

'ICOPITJP e7roieiTO 8

iirl Ka/oa? Kal K a w t o u ? Kal AVKIOW;, 6 Mahaffy (Hist, of Cl. Greek Lit. i. p. 178, edit, i.), comparing the verbally similar statement of Diog. Laertius, i. 5, concludes that in Theognis 757-68 we have an actual fragment of Bias .preserved, describing the blessings of the proposed Ionic settlement in Sardinia. 6 Comp. v. 106, vi. 2, whence it appears that Herodotos thought Sardinia the largest island in the world. But even Sicily seems to be larger. 7 The Phoenician ancestry of Thales, the founder of Greek science, and one of the seven wise men of Hellas, is significant. See note 1 on the first ch. of this hook. His philosophic system, which derived the world from water, was of Babylonian origin: in Phoenician cosmogony M6t was the watery chaos from which the universe has been evolved. Comp. Gen. i. 2. The astronomy of Thales equally came from Chaldea, where eclipses had been regularly predicted centuries before. 8 The statements of Herodotos which follow have a special importance, as he was a native of Halikarnassos, and so better acquainted with the Karians than most other Greek writers. The Kaunians lived between Karia and Lykia, the

irep

direBe^apro. 8

apa

6 a
ruins of their capital Kaunos being upon a small stream, the Koigez, and including cyclopean walls. We learn from Thukyd. (i. 8) that Karian tombs existed in Delos. Kohler has suggested that the remains found at Spata and Menidi in Attika may be those of Karian settlers; but of this there is neither artistic nor architectural proof. Mysos, Lydos, and Kar were brothers (cp. vii. 74, where the Mysians are called Lydian colonists) ; but while the remains of the Lydian language preserved in Greek glosses are Aryan, the remains of the Karian tongue hardly seem to be so. Thirteen Karian inscriptions, in an alphabet only partially deciphered as yet, "have been discovered, all except one (from the ruins of Krya, on the Gulf of Skopea), in Egypt, where they were inscribed by the Karian mercenaries of Psammetikhos and his successors. A long list of Karian names is contained in the inscription found in the castie of Budrum (Newton, Essays on Art and Archceology, pp. 427, etc.) The semimythical Leleges are as ubiquitous as the Pelasgians. They turn up in Lykia and Akarnania (Aristot.), Karia (Strab.), Mount Ida (Nymph.), Samos (Menodot.),

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

I] Kai, AtoXea?.

elcrl

he

TOVTWV

rjireipov eic rmv vqcrayv. Kal KaXeofievoi UTTOTeXeovTe?, i^iKeadai

Ae\e76? ocrov

aKofj'

«al

fiep

el%ov TO.? vrfcrovs, iyo)

SwaTO?

aTuy//,evoi,

e?

eovTe? Miva) et/w

6pov e7ri

fiev

ovBeva

/juaicpoTaTov

ol Be, OKWS MI'DMS BeoiTO, eirXrjpovv ol Ta? veas.

are

8r] M.lva> re

T&)

TroXefMp, TO K.apifcbv

artrairraiv Kara

Kape?

TO yap iraXaiov

97

/caTeo-rpa/Afiipov

TOVTOV

cnpt, rpc^a i^6vprjfj,ara

rjv

afia iyevero

yrjv TTOWTJV Kal evTV)(eovTO<;

eOvos

XoyifidiTaTov

TOV j(povov

fiaicpaj

TWV IQvkasv

/jbaXicTa.

ical

TOLCTC ol "E\Xr)ve
Kal

yap irrl Ta Kpdvea \oov<s eiriBelo-dab Kape? elo-t, ol /caTaSe£ai>Te? Kal eVl Ta? ao-TrLhas TO, o-r)firjia TroLeladab,1 Kal oyava

Khios (Pherykyd.), Thessaly (Steph. Byz. s.v. "A/j.vpos), Megara (Paus.), Bosotia, Lokris, and ^ t o l i a (Aristot.), and Lakonia (Paus.) They appear along with the mythical KaukSnes and " divine Pelasgians" in H. x. 429, and between the Karians and Lykians. See also II. xx. 96, and xxi. 86. The Kaukones appear in II. xx. 329, and Od. iii. 366 (cp. Herod, i. 147, iv. 148). Strabo makes them one of the earliest races of Greece (vii. 465), where they gave their name to the Kaukfin in the N.W. angle of the Peloponnesos, and to the Kaukonitse on the Parthenios. The Lykians called themselves Tramele, the name Lykia being derived from the Greek settlers on the coast, who called the country to the east, where the sun rose from behind the mountains, " the land of light'' or Aima. Hence the legend that the Ionian Lykos gave his name to the country. The Lykian inscriptions have been partly deciphered by the help of a few bilingual (Greek and Lykian) texts; the language of them, though inflectional, is not Aryan, in spite of all the attempts that have been made to show the contrary. 9 The name Min6s may have the same origin as Minyas, but it has nothing to do, as has been sometimes said, either with the Aryan word man or with the Egyptian Menes.. The "thalassok r a t i a " of Minds denotes the period when the Phoenicians were colonising H

aatrun.

and' ruling in the iEgean ; and the connection of Diedalos, the cunning craftsman, and of the Minotaur or bull, with Min6s further indicates his Semitic character. Perhaps his name comes from the Semitic root mdnd/i, " t o apportion " or ''measure" (whence fj.vcL). It is difficult not to associate the name with that of the Minyans of Orkhomenos, more especially when we remember that the Phoenician legend of Athamas or Tammuz, the sun - god, is connected with them, Athamas being called the son of Minyas. Herodotos does not seem to know of the later belief, shared by Thukyd., that Min6s was a Greek. Hence he asserts that the thalassokratia of Minos and of the Karians must have been at the same time. In the Iliad Sarpedon is a descendant of the Greek Bellerophon; and MinSs, who is two generations older, has only one brother, Rhadamanthys (II. xiv. 322). The earlier legend, which made Minds and Sarped6n Phoenicians, was found in Hesiod (according to the Scholiast on Eurip. Mhes. 28). Herodotos does not seem to know the version of the myth given in the Iliad. 1 The Balawat bronzes (B.C. 840) represent the soldiers of Ararat (Van) with crested helmets and small round shields held by a handle in the middle. Their short tunics and shoes with turnednp toes are identical with those of the Hittites, and there are many reasons for

98

HERODOTOS.

OVTOI elcn ol Troirjo-dfievoi irp&TOf

[BOOK

Tew? Be avev

d%dva)v e<popeov

TO? dcnriBas TravTes o'L irep icodeo-av do-Trlcri, %pdo-0at,, TeXafiaxri, cncvrivoicn

olijKL^ovTe
cofjLoicTi irepiKeifxevoL.

Awptei? Te Kal "Icove? e^avecrrrja-av rrjv rjireipov airiKovro. yeve&Oaf

ov fiivToi

i/c T&V vqa-av, Kal OVTCO e?

Kara fiev Brj K.apa<; OVTCO Kp?}T65 \eyovcn avToi

aXka, vofii^ova-v avrol T&5 ovvbfiaTi

re zeal rolcri api
fiera Be TOV? JLapas %pov(p vtnepov TTOXKW

IWUTOWS elvai

TOVTOMJI

TfiS avT

BeiKVvcri Be ev MnXacrotcrt

Aio?

Kaptou

lepov

ap^alov,

Mucrotcrt jjiev Kal AuSotcrt fMerecrTi 0)9 xaaiyvrjTOiai Kapcrt- 2 TOV yap AvBbv aSeXc^eoi;?. edveos 172 oi

TOVTOMJI

fjuev Brj fierecrTi,

Be JiS-avvioL avTO^0ove<; BoKelv

Kp^Ti;? <pa
Kapbi

ocroi Be iovTa

aWov

TOVTOKJI, Be oil (lira. avrol

fievroi e'«

Be ykaxraav

fiev Trpbs TO

eOvos, rj ol Kape? irpo'i TO YSMAJVIKOV (TOVTO yap OVK

ej(co arpeKewi iroWov

elvai

e/Mol elau,

irpoaKe^mpijKaai

BtaKplvai).

T&V re aWcov

vofioiai,

Be ^pernvrai Ke^copocr/Mevoicn

dvOpcoTrcov Kal TfLapStv.

rolcri yap KaX-

\LC7TOV i(TTL Kar rjKiKiqv re Kal i\.OT'r)Ta eikaBbv es iroacv,

Kal dvBpdo~i Kal yvvai^l

a
fiereTretra,

j^pdo-Oai

K-avpioi, r)/3r)B6v, Tinrrovre1;

Kal iraucri.

OVTOI fiev

Tpoiroicn

ivByvTes

rd

6-jfka aTraVTe?

Bopacri TOV r)epa, f^e-^pi

TOIOVTOMTI

K.prJTr)<; T(op%aiQv yeyovacrt

avyylvecrdai

IBpvOevTtov 8e

w? L direBo^e, e'Sofe Be TOIOL

deolcn,

KaXvvBiKcov elirovTO, Kal e<j>aaav eKftdWeiv 173 Kal

airoTOV

iovat TOI
Kal TOV Mucroz/ \eyovcri

ofJioyKaxriroi TOL<TI K.apcrl eyevovro,

K.apiKov

01 Ka^je?,

avT0%6ova<; r)treLpa>Ta<;, Kal

ovpav T£)V

TOV? ^eiviKovs 8eov<;.

%pecovTai, ol

Be A.VKIOI ex

(rr/v ydp ^LprjT7)v elyov TO nrakaiov

nrdcrav fidpfiapoC) • Bievei^devTcov

Be ev Y^pryrr) irepll r^?

thinking that the Hittites and ProtoArmenians belonged to the same race. Perhaps the devices on the shields of which Herodotos speaks were originally Hittite hieroglyphics, which were borrowed by the people of Western Asia Minor during the Hittite occupation of the country. Compare the devices on the shields of the seven champions in the legendary war against Thebes. 2 Mylasa, now Melassa, is about twenty miles inland, with a pyramidal mausoleum just outside the walls, and- numerous fragments of ancient buildings built

into the houses. About twelve miles distant are the ruins of a temple which probably mark the site of the temple of Zeus Labrandeus (derived from the Karian labranda, Lydian labryn, "an axe "). Karios was made a son of Zens and Torrhebia by Xanthus, and was worshipped in the Lydian district of Torhebia, according to Steph. Byz. -As Herodotos had special means of infonnation about the Karians, his assertion of their recognition of the common kinship of the Karians, Lydians, and is valuable.

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST. T£>V ILvpcoTrrps TraiBcov 'ZapirrjBovo'i r e Kal Tt)

(TTacret

M«/&>?,

<7Tao~uoTa<; aiirov, rrjv

MtXuaSa 1

efjjXacre

avTov

99

M.lva>, to? e-TreKparrjcre

re

%apirrjB6va

T^I> 7a/) i>t)i> AVKIOI

vefiovTat,, ainr)

rjV MiXua?, ot Se MtXuat Tore SoXu^ot eicaXeovTo.3 avroiv ovvofia

%apiT7]ha>v %>%e, xal

vvv

Kal

rovs

ol Be aircocrBevTes ATTLKOVTO T?}? 'Atrt^s I? fy^v

en

ol

%e e/caXeovro

KaXeovrai

TO iraXabov Tea>? /iej> S97

TO Trip re rjveiKavTO

VTTO TWV TrepioiKcov ol

AVKIOL,

4

/cat OUTO? i7ro TOV a.Se\(f>eov Alyeo$, irapa, AvKiot TO,

Be

XapirrjSova, ava

j^povov eKk,r)dr)Gav.

Kopt/cotcrt

Kal ovBajiolai

aTrUero

OVTCO Br) KaTa, TOV AVKOV y^peavTat.

aWoiai

vo/j,oiat ev

69 TOV? Te/3/u\a? TTJV

Se TO, /J,ev

Be ToBe 'iBiov

epovTai avffpdoircov.

TCOV fir)Tepo)v ewvTou? Kai OVKI airo 3 The plain of the Kayster is called " t h e Asian mead" in II. ii. 461 (see eh. 104, note 4), and it would seem that it was still known as " A s i a " in the time of Herodotos. The name was afterwards extended to denote the Roman province of Asia (in Asia Minor), and Justin first speaks of "Asia Major" as denoting the continent in contradistinction to " Asia Minor." In the Augustan age Milyas was the plateau, 4000 feet above the sea, the capital of which is now Almali. It was bounded by Tauros on the north, and Klimax and Solyma on the east. Strabo makes the Milyans as well as the Kabalians Solymi (xiii. p. 904 ; xiv. p. 952), who once extended along the Tauros from Lykia to Pisidia. According to Pliny {N, H. v. 27) and Steph. Byz., the Pisidians were Solymi. Khcerilos (a poet of the fourth century B.O.) stated that the Solymi formed part of the army of Xerxes, inhabited the shores of a lake (supposed to be Egridir by Leake), and spoke the Phoenician language. The last assertion, however, was probably due to the fancied similarity of the word Solymi to Hierosolyma, the Greek form of Jerusalem. At any rate Josephus (Cont. Ap. i.) takes it for granted that Khoerilos meant the inhabitants of Judaea, though he describes the Solymi as having "sooty

TOSV iraTepcov

KaXeovai eipofievov

airo

Be

heads," all shorn except a single tuft of hair. As . Klimax and Solyma were different mountains, there is little reason for explaining the latter name by the Hebrew sulldm, '' a ladder." The Solymi are mentioned, II. vi. 184, sq.; Od. v. 283. 4 The Tramele of the native inscriptions : Tremileis in Steph. Byz. 8 Herodotos was mistaken here, as it is the rule among primitive tribes to trace the descent through the mother and not through the father. ' ' Even among hunting tribes," says Sir J. Lubbock, "though men were unable to maintain so many wives, still, as changes are of frequent occurrence, the tie between a mother and child is much stronger than that which binds a child to its father." On the western coast of Africa a man's heirs are his sister's children, as also in Central Africa (Caillie's Travels, i. p. 153), on the Congo, among the Berbers, and in Madagascar. Descent was reckoned from the mother among the Lokriaus, according to Polybios, and is still among the Kasias, Kochs, and Hairs of India. Property is ; transmitted through females alone on the Malabar coast (Sir W. Elliot, Trans. Ethn. Soc. 1869, p. 119). A chief's successor is his sister's son among the Battas of Sumatra and other Malay

100

HERODOTOS.

erepov

TOV 7r\7jcriov Tt
/ATjTpbs avavefietrai BovXto artfia 174

01

yevvala

fj,ev

Kai i)v fiev

TO, ri/cva

6 irpa>TO<; avrSsv

ra reicva

SCOVTOV firjrpodev

T « ? /Mrjrepas.

crvvoucrjari,

a<7TO9 Kai6

[BOOK

ye

vev6/uo~Tai,'

yvvai/ca

Kai Trjs

yvvq do~TT] r\v

%elvr)v rj

Be dvr/p

iraXXaKrjv

yiverai.

vvv

Ka/oe?

ovSev

iBovX(!)0T)(7av VTTO 'ApTrdyov,

Xafiirpov

epyov

avrol

ol K.ape<; di

ovre

ovhev, ovre o
TT\V yo&pr\v oliceov
Be /cal dWoi

airoiicoc ~Kvl8toi'

KaX Aa/ceBcu/jboviav

oiiceovcn

o'i T?}? %(bpT)$

T179 eTepr]<; TeTpa,fif/,evr)<; e? TTOVTOV, TO BTJ Tpioiriov dpy/jLevrji; Be eic T?}? Xepo-ovrjaov TJJ? KVISM?? ifkriv p

j3ope7]i> avefiov

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TT}? Bu/Sacrcrw;?, iovar)<; re

6X17179 irepippoov

(ret, fiev

o Kepa/i£t«O9 KOXTTOS direpyei,

VOTOV 7) KaTa. %vfit]v r e Kai 'VoBov

yap TO, Be

6dXa
TOVTO, iov oa-ov r e iirl irevTe crTaBoa, copveraov ol Kvt'Stot ev ocra> "Kptrayo';

TTJV 'layvirjv

]v TTOirjcrat.

KaTearpetpeTo,

^ovXofievoi

eVro9 Be iracrd crept eyiveTO'

vr\o~ov

TT)V

Trj yap r/ KviBlri

e9 TT)V rjireipov TeXevTa, Tavrrj o lafffio'; eo~Ti TOV &pv
TWV K.viBla>v, fiaXXov

yap

n

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TOV o-a>fiaTO<; Kai fidXicrTa TO, irepl TOV9 o

6pavo/j,evr)<; T9J9 tteTpt)^, eirefnrov aofievovi

TO dvTt^oov.

e'9 A e \ 0 o i ' 9 OeoTTpoTrov*; eVet/31/-

rj Be Tlvdlr)

cr
<»9 avTol

Kw'Siot

Xeyovcri, yj>a ev Tpi/j,eTpa> TOVW TaBe. lo~6/M)v Be fjirj irvpyovTe

/jurjB^ opvcraeTe' iftovXeTO.8

Zei>9 yap K eOrjKe vfjerov, el K fiev

TaoTa Kai

175 cr^)ea9 avToii'i

T ^ 9 TLv&trjs y(pr}ada7)<; TOV Te 6pvyfia,T0$

A.pircuyu> einovTL irapeBoo-av.

'AXt,Kapvr)o-crov /j,eaoyai,av, eo-eaOai, avTolai irutyuiva fieyav

Y

Tolai

TC Kai rouri 'icr"^eu. Tpk

TW

o~TpaTG> ayttaviyTi

oKCd? TI

oiKeovTes inrep

peXXoi,

dv

TrepioUoocri,, r) lepirj r>j9 '

cr
OVTOI TWV wepl

dvBpmv fiovvol TG dvTeaypv %povov 'Kpirdya Kai

tribes (Marsden's Sumatra, p. 376), and descent is in the female line among the Iroquois and most other North American Indian tribes, as well as among the Tongans of the Pacific and some of the Australians. « "Even though he is their leading man

o~vv

r)
-

7 "As for them, since their country looks towards the sea—now it is called the Triopian peninsula—and juts out (&pxu) from the Bybassian Khersonese" (i.e. the peninsula between the mainland and the Triopian). Se ch. 144, note 2. 8 " D i g n o t the isthmus, nor build:

An island it were had Zeus will'd."

i.] fiara

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST. irapeo-ypv

ifKeia-Ta,

opof

Tei^iaavre^

101 ru> ovvofid

SCTTL

A18V. Il7ySa<j6t9 fiev vvv %povv> i^acpedtjaav AVKIOI Be, &>o? iroXXoii'; apera? direBelicvvvTo, ecrcrtodevTes Be ical KareiXr]devre6fj,evos ical ovSev irapieU. ra /u,iv vvv axnmv ifKeco irapijaofMev TO. Be oi irapeo-j(e re TTOVOV ifkelaTov ical d^iaTrTjyrjTOTaTd ia-ri, TOVTWV eTrifivrjcro/JMi. Kupo? eVetVe ra irdvTa TTJ? rjirelpov inroyeipia iiroirjaaro, 178 1 AaavpioLCTi eireTiOeTO. T?;? Be 'Acrcruptiy? icrrl fiev KOV ical aKKa TroXiafiara fieyaXa iroWd, TO Be ovofiaarorarov ical la^vpoTaTov ical evda I NtVou 4 dvacnaTov yevofievr)? TO, fiao-t\rjia Kareo-Trjicei, r)v T5a{3v\a>v, eovcra roiavrr) Bi] Tt? 7roXt?._ icelrai iv ireBiai f/,e, fieyados eovcra /lercoTrov eKacrrov e'iKocrt ical eicarbv araBicov, iovo-ij^ rerpaycovov OVTOI o-rdBioo T ^ 9 irepboBov 9 The town of Xanthos is called Arina on the native coins and inscriptions (Arna in Steph. Byz.) Koprlle also appears on the coins of the place, and may denote the district in which Arina stood, as Canon Eawlinson suggests. Xanthos was primarily the Greek name of the river on which Arina stood, and which was called Sirbe or Sirbes by the natives (Strabo, xiv. p. 951; Steph. Byz. s.v. TpeidXii; Eustath. ad II. xii. 90730). 1 "Belonging to the hearth," i.e. "families," a peculiar use of the word. Comp. 4irlaTia, v. 72. 2 The Lykian obelisk now in the

British Museum mentions Kaias, " t h e son of Harpagos"; but as this seems to belong to a period nearly 100 years later than the Persian conquest of Karia, a different Harpagos must be meant, 3 Herodotos means the Babylonians who had succeeded to the power of the Assyrians. The same inaccuracy occurs in 2d Kings xxiii. 29. The conquest of Babylonia took place in B.C. 538. See Appendix II. 4 Nineveh — Ninua or Nina in the native texts—was of Accadian foundation, and is now represented by the mounds of Kouyunjik and Nebi Yunus opposite Mosul.

102

HERODOTOS.

Tr)? iroXios

jivovrat

TO fiev

fieyados

vvv

crvvdiravTes

[BOOK

6jBd>KOVTa ical

ifceieocTfirjTO Be &>9 oiBev dXXo iroXiafia fiev

irpSiTa

fiiv

ftaOea

TS>V rifieis

r e ical evpea

fieTa Be Tet^o? TrevTijKovTa fiev {njro9 Be Btij/coa-lav -irrfykav

6

T£ e/c Trfi

Tei^o? b'vTova Tpoirov eirkivOevov

trrj^ewv

TeXfiaTi

xpecbfievoi,

Tafypov

Set BTJ fie 7T/3O? TOVTOUTI rf
opvacrovTes

acr^aXTW

6epfxfj

ical

Zia

Be UVTO

TpoTrov.

irapa

eBeifiav,

olfCTjfiaTav eXiirov

T6Tpajifieva TeOpiinrtp

virepOvpa fjfiepeav

ataavTco^. 6B6v diro

ra

e? aXXrjXcf

7repieXaaiv.

•irepit; TOV T6^6o? eicaTOV, xdXieecu

fieTa 8e So/iwv

irpSiTa /lev

TO Tet^o? TOV

avnv

eir^oTd olicrf/MTa TO fiecrov irvXai

Be TS>V

Be evearacri

iracrai, ical (TTaO/iol Te ml

€
Tapov

TpirjtcovTa

8t,ao-Toi/3d%ovTe<;,8 eBeifiav

Be TOV ret^eo?

teal TO

TTJV

iiccpepofievTjv, eXicvcrav-

T?}? Tpov TO, %elXeci,, BevTepa fiowoKcoXa

dfia

wTTTTjaav avTa? iv icafiivoia'i'

•wXivOov Tapcroix; KaXdfiav etrdvo)

irepiOel,

iov TO evpos,

6 Be f3aa-CKrjio<; TTTJ^V? TOV fieTpiov

epyacrTo.

l/cavas

iBfiev. Tapo<}

fiacnXrflwv

TTJV
T€? Se ifkivdow;

TiafivXwvlov,

ical irXer) vSaros

179 ecrTL T r ^ e o ? /le^tov Tpccl 8aiCTvKoi
TeTpa/coaioiI'

TOCTOVTOV CCTTI TOV ao-Teos TOV

TTOXK

• *I? ovvo/ia

dire")(pvaa OKTOD avT-jj.

evOa e'orl

7TOTa/io? ov fieya*;' *I9 ical T&> 7roTa[Mp TO ovvo/ia'

i
OUTO? €9 TOV TZv<j)prJTr)V 9 TTOTaflOV TO peWpOV.

OUTO9 &V 6 *I?

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T&5 vBaTi

0po/i{3ov<; aa<j)dXT0v

5 That is 56 miles, enclosing an area of about 200 square miles, which is absurd. Ktesias, who adds a third wall, contrary to the evidence of the monuments, makes the circuit 360 stades (42 miles), Strabo (xvi. 1, 5) 385 stades, Qu. Curtius (vi. 1, 26) 368 stades, and Kleitarkhos (ap. Diod. Sic. ii. 7) 365 stades. Nebuchadrezzar himself states that " the citadel of BabyIon" occupied a space of 4000 square cubits. 6 The height would then be about 385 feet (the width being 85 feet) ; Ktesias made the height 200 cubits, Strabo only 50 cubits. In the time of Xenophon, we may remember, the ruined wall of Nineveh was 150 feet high {Anab. iii. 4, 10). 7 It is impossible to determine the exact equivalents of these two measures,

dvaBoBol

but we may reckon the aminai or cubit at about twenty inches. 8 Layers of reeds have been found bedding the courses of crude brick among the ruins of Babylonia, and so binding them together. Asphalt (iddn in Semitic, ebu in Accadian) was plentiful in the Babylonian plain, especially at Is, now Hit, which probably took its name from the word iddu. As, however, hid was the Accadian term for "a river," it is possible that the town was named after the river on which it stood. It is called Aeipolis by Isid. Khar., Idikara by Ptolemy. 9 The Euphrates was called by the Accadians the Pur-rat or " winding water," whence the Assyrian Purratu; Heb., P'rath ; Old Persian, Ufratu; and Greek, Euphrates (with a play on ei? in reference to the " good " waters of the river).

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

103

evdev r) dcr(pa\To<; e? TO ev Ba/3i/Xwj>t Tet^o? eKOfiiaQt). ireTeiTo fiev vvv r] BaySuXcw Tpoiru) roiqyBe, eari Se Bvo Adpaea 180 7TO7UOv fieyas KOX /3a0i>? teal - e^iei Be OVTOS e? rr)v ^pv6pr)v OaXacraav. TO ebv Br) eicdrepov TOV? dyicwvas e? TOD Trora/ibv ekrfkaTai- TO Be diro TOVTOV al ifjnKafjbfjra\2 irapa ^etXo? eicaTepov rod iroTafiov aifiaair) ifklvdwv OTrreav iraparelvev. TO Be darv avTO ebv 7fKr)pe daOevetyrepov TOV erepov Tetp^eo?, areivoTepov Be. ev Be (f>dpcret e/carepa) Tij'i 7roXto? ereTeiy^icTTo [ev /ietrw] ev TOJ fiev rd (Bao-iKr)ia 5 irepi/3oXft) re fieydXa) KOI lo~yypS>, ev Be TU> eTepa Ato? Br;Xoy lepbv 'XakKOTTvXov, KaX 6? ifie en TOVTO eov, Bvo CTaBicov iravrr/, ebv TeTpdrywvov.6 ev //.ecra) Be TOV lepov irvpyos o-repebs 1 Babylon, now represented by Sillah, is the Hebrew Babel, the Assyro-BabyIonian Bab-ili, "Gate of the god," the Semitic translation of the original Accadian name Ka-dimirra. It was also known in Accadian times as E, " the hollow," and Din-Tir, "the city of the tree (of life)." It first became the capital of the country under Khammuragas, the leader of the Cassite dynasty. 2 " Winding " with the river. 3 "Three and four stories high." This shows that the city was more densely built than is usually supposed, and that the system of building in stories which prevailed in Rome had already been known in Babylon. 4 The salkhu or outer wall is called Nimitti-Bilu ("foundation of Bel") in the inscriptions, the inner wall being called Imgur-Bilu (" habitation of Bel"). Both were built by Nebuchadrezzar. 5 Now represented by the Kasr or "Palace" mound, which Herodotos incorrectly transfers to the western bank

of the river. According to Diodoros (ii. 8, 4) it was surrounded by three walls, the outermost being sixty stades (seven miles) in circuit. The inner walls were adorned with painted bricks, and two of its gates, opened and shut by machines, were of brass. It was begun by Nabopolassar, and finished in fifteen days by Nebuchadrezzar, who calls it "The guardhouse of mankind." It overlooked the Ai - ipur - sabu, or great reservoir of Babylon, and stretched from this to the Euphrates on the one side, and from the Imgur-Bel to the Libil or eastern canal on the other. Within it were the hanging gardens, watered by means of a screw. An earlier ruined palace is represented by the Amram mound, the smaller palace of Neriglissar standing in the western part of the city. 6 Now represented by the BaMl or Mujellibeh mound. Bel (Bilu in the inscriptions) is the same word as the Phceniko-Hebrew Baal, " lord," and was

104

HEEODOTOS.

[BOOK

cnaSiov KCL\ TO /Mr/KOf Kal TO e&po?, Kal eVt TovTcp TW irvpyw aXXos irvpyo? eTrt/Se/S^/te, Kal erepo? /idXa i"7rl TOVTO>, fiA'Xpi ov 6/CTQ) irvpycov.

avdfia
roil? irvpyovs

Be e? at/Tow

e%ovcra ireirouqTai.

e
egmdev

KVKXW

irepl

fieo-ovvTi Be KOV T %

r e Kal OWKOL a/nravtTTrjpioi,,

ev Toio~t,

afxiravovTai ol avafialvovres. ev Be TC3 TeXevTalat irvpycp vrjqs eireo'Ti fieyaf ev Be TC3 vr\5> KKLVT] fieyaXr) Keirai ev eaTpafievq Kal ol Tpdire^a irapaKeiTai ypvaer). ayaX/xa Be OVK evi

ovBev avroOt, ivlBpvfievov

avOpcbirav

OTL /jJq yvvr)

ovBe

VVKTU

ovBels

/JLOVVTJ TCJV eirb^aplcav,

eXrjTai eK iraaeaiV, w? \eyovai

ol ILaXBaioi

ivavkl^eTat, Tt}V av

6 6eb$

iovTes lepels TOVTOV

TOV Oeov. (f>ao-l Be ol avTol OVTOI, ifiol fiev ov TuaTa, XeyovTes, 182 TOV deov avTov fyovrav T6 e? TOV vrjbv Kal dfnravecrdai eVi TTJS K\lvr]<;, KaTa irep ev ©ij^ycri Trjcrt AlyvKTirjai Kara, TOV avTov Tpbirov, to? Xiyovcrt, ol AlyviTTioi,' Kal yap Br) eKeffli Koi/AaTai ev ™ TOV A(O? TOV ®rij3aieo<; yvvr]- ajxfyoTepai Be avrai XeyovTai avBpwv oiBa/u,a>v e? O/AIXITJV <potTav Kal KaTa irep ev HaTapoicrt,8 Trj ev T<S vr\&. ecrTi Be TOV iv

183 BaySvXwvt lepov Kal aXXo<; Kara vrjos, evOa ayaXfia fieya TOV Ato? evi KaTi](ievov yjpvaeov Kal ol Tpa-rre^a fieydXr] TrapaKeiTai ")(pv(jer\, Kal TO fidOpov ol Kal 6 dpovof p^pucreo? ecnv Kal a>? eXeyov ol XaXSatot, TaXdvTcov oKTaKoalatv %pvo~lov Treiroiryrat, TaoTa.

e^co Be TOV VTJOV /Swytio? eo~TC ^pv
specially applied to Merodach, the patron deity of Babylon. The Accadian god of the lower world was also called Bel by the-Assyro-Babylonians, and in later times was distinguished from Bel-Merodach by the epithet of " t h e older." In saying that the temple of Bel still existed in his time, Herodotos betrays the fact that he had never really visited Babylon; see ch. 183, note 17 The Kaldai are first met with in the inscriptions as a small non-Semitic tribe on the shores of the Persian Gulf in the ninth century B.c. Under their chief, Merodach-baladan, they conquered BabyIonia, and became so integral a portion of the population as to give their name

eo~Ti Be Kal

to the whole of it among the Greeks, The reputation of the Babylonians for magic and astrology caused the name Khaldaean to become synonymous with '"priest" and "soothsayer," as in this passage. The Casdim of the Old Testament cannot be identified with the KMdseans, but are probably to be explained as the Oasidi or Semitic "conquerors" of Accad and Sumir. s Still called Patara on the sea coast, and marked by ruins of tombs, temples, and other buildings, besides a theatre, containing thirty-four rows of seats, Apollo was supposed to dwell here during the six months of winter, delivering his. oracles at Delos during the summer, (See Hor. Od. iii. 4, 64.)

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

I.]

fJ,e
OVK egeari

Be TOV fi,e%ovo<; ftw/jLov Kal

ra

T&V Trpofidraiv

Karwyi^ovai

ereo? iicao~Tov ol ILaXBaloi

TCO 0em

TOVTO).

rare

r\v Be ev TO> re/ievei BvcoBeKa irrj^eav

XiftavcoTov

dvBpidvTi

iroXfirjae

Aapelos

XafieZv,

fiev

o

TOVTUI en

TOV yjyovov

^pvcreo? crrepeo^- e \iev

TcrTacr7r6O5

'Bip^Tji; Se 6 Aapelov

direKTeuve dirayopevovTa

fir) Kivelv

%l\i,a

eiredv rrjv oprrjv dya>cn

y*iv OVK elBov, ra Be Xeyercu VTTO XaXtWow, rdoTa Xeyp). TW

TOVTCO

iTriftov\ev
e'Xa/Se

ical TOV lepea

TOV dvBpidvra.

TO fiev Brj

lepov TOVTO OVTCJ KeKoafirjTai, %(JTL Se Kal oBia dvadrj/xaTa Tij? Be Ba./3v\wi'O9 TavTr}'; iroXkol /3a<7i\et9, TSIV ev TOICTI, ^Aaavpiobcn o'l TO, reuyed Te eireKoafi^crav Bvo.

7) /iev irporepov

Tepov yevofievT], Trj ovvofia 9

(lev KOV KOI aWoi Xcr/oiai, fivijfirjv

Tr)? varepov

rjv 2e/upa/M?,

The incense altar before the ark in the Jewish tabernacle was similarly overlaid with gold (Ex. xxxvii. 26). In front of the ark was also a table overlaid with gold (Ex. xxxvii. 11). 1 According to Arrian (vii. 17) Xerxes ' ' destroyed " the temple after his return from Greece. In this case Herodotos could not have seen the temple himself, but must have derived his information about it from some earlier author, whom he quotes without acknowledgment. This is supported by his reference (eh. 182) to Egyptian Thebes, which, as will be seen, he also never visited. 2 See ch. 106, note 1. 3 We learn from ch. 188 that Nitokris, the later queen, was the mother of Nabonidos ; consequently the Semiramis of Herodotos will have flourished about 150 years before, if we assume thirty years for a generation, as elsewhere. This brings us to B.C. 700, when Babylonia was overrun by Assyrians and Elamites, and a prey to internal discords. No great public works could have been executed at this time, and a few years later (B.C. 695) Babylon was razed to the ground by Sennacherib. Semiramis, moreover, was the name, not of a human

jeveycn avrr)

fiev

iroWd. iyivovro

iroir\(rofLai^ 184

Kal TO, lepd, ev Be Brj Kal

dp^aaa,

eVt

fiovva.9

Oveiv ort fj.rj jaXadrjva

rakavra

eicelvov Kal avSpias

reXea

105

jvvaiKet;

irevre

irpo-

di

queen, but of the goddess Istar, whose legend was rationalised by the Persian historians and their Greek followers. 'Sammuramat, the queen of Rimmonnirari (B.O. 810-792), was an Assyrian princess, and lived a century earlier than the Semiramis of Herodotos. Besides, her name may not be identical with that of Semiramis, and the reading of it is not quite certain. Perhaps Scaliger was right in proposing to read "fifty" instead of "five," which would bring us to B.C. 2050, the period at which the Semiramis of Greek romance was popularly supposed to have flourished (Synkellos B.C. 2177, Eusebios B.C. 1984, both on the authority of Ktesias). On the other hand, Polyhistor endeavours to rombine the dynasties of Berqsos with the Greek legend of Semiramis by introducing her as a queen of the Assyrians before the rise of the Assyrian dynasty in Babylonia B.C. 1272, and Hellanikos makes her a contemporary of the Trojan War B.C. 1229. She belongs, however, not to Assyrian history, but to Assyrian mythology. Vitringa's reading "fifteen" is supported by Mahaffy's corrections in i. 72 and ii. 34 ; but 450 years would bring us to B.C.

106

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

•)(a)fjLaTa ava TO ireBlov eovTa d^ioOirjTa' irpoTepov Be eatdei o 185 7roTa/io? dpa TO ireBiop Trap ireKwyi^etv. f) Be BTJ BevTepop jepofiaaiXeta, T§ ovvofjua rjp NmoKjtw, 4 avrrj Be crvveTWTeprr\ TJ79 irpoTepop dp^dat]^ iyto

TOVTO fiev fipujfioavpa

drrrr\yr)crojx.ai, TOVTO Be TTJP MIJBCOP opeovaa

eXltreTO Ta

dpyyp

fjbejdXTjv

re teal oi)K drpefii^ovaap, dXX' aXXa T6 dpaiprj/Mepa cuTTea avTolcri, 61/ Be Bt) ical Trjp NtVov, TrpoetpvXd^aTO oaa IBvvwro fidXiara. TrpwTa pep TOP TLixfrprfTrjp irorafiov peopTa irpoTepop IOIIP, o? cnfri Sea rr)? TTOXLOS fxken}^ pel, TOVTOP apcoffep Bimpv^as 6pv£ao~a ovrco Sr'i TI iiroLTjo'e O~KO\IOP a>o~Te Brj Tpls e? T&P Tipa xa/iecop TS)V ev Trj 'Ko-crvpirj diriKPelrat pimp- TT) Be KCO/JLTJ ovpofid eaTi, e? TTJV

d"iriKPeiTcu 6 T£vp7]T7]S, 'ApBipiKKa. /cat PVP oi ap KO/ii^covTai dirb TrjcrBe Trj
TOVTO fjbep Br) TOIOVTOP eT

yjafJM Be irape-^axre irap eicaTepop rov iroTapov 6covfjLaTO<> jjueyado', ical vifro<; ocrov Tt CCTTI.

TO ^ e t \ o ? &%I icaTinrepOe Be

BaySuXcoi'09 &pvaae eXvTpop Xi/xvrj, oXlyop TI irapaTelpovaa omo rov iroTafiov, j3d0o<> fiep eV TO vBap alel optxraovaa, evpos Be TO irepifieTpop avTov Tvoieovaa ei/coat Te Kal TerpaKOGiav o~TaBlcov TOP Be opvo-aofiepop

ypvp

e/c TOVTOV

TOV opvy/jLaTOS dpaiffl/Mov

irapd Ta yeiXea TOV TroTafxov irapaj^eovcra. eireiTe Be ol 6pa>pv/CTO, XWovs djayofjievT] /cpr/TriBa Kii/cXtp irepX aiiTrjp rjXacre. 1000, a date 'to which Semiramis is assigned hy no classical author. 4 Nitokris is an Egyptian name (Neitakrit). Nabonidos did not belong to the royal family, and his mother might easily have been an Egyptian. She must be the queen-mother who figures so prominently in the tablet of Kyros, whieh records the reign and fall of Nabonidos. From this we learn that while the king himself was wasting his time in idleness at Babylon, his mother was encouraging the army by her presence in the camp near Sippara, where she died on the 5th of Nisan B.C. 547. It is therefore very probable that the works of defence which Nabonidos claimed to have made against the attack of the Persians were really due to the energy of the queen-mother, as Herodotos states.

5

Arderikka is not yet identified, and probably is imaginary. Sir H. Eawlinson says : ' ' No such cuttings as those here described by Herodotus can ever have existed." In vi. 119 Herodotos places Arderikka near Susa. 6 If we venture to throw aside the authority of all the MSS., with Schweighauser, and omit Is before rbv Eiupptniv, the meaning of the passage would be simple enough : ' ' Those who would now go from our (Mediterranean) sea to Babylonia, sail down the Euphrates." Retaining es, however, we must translate: "Those who would now go from this sea into Babylonia, sailing down it into the Euphrates." In this case the sea would be the Persian Gulf, and the writer would not be Herodotos, but some unknown one whom he is quoting.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

107

Be a/A(f>0Tepa rdora, TOV Te iroTafiov GKOXIOV Kal TO opvjfia •wav e \ o ? , &>? o Te iroTa/ib? fipaBvrepo? e'lrj irepl /ca/ATra? 7roXXa? ayvvfievos,

Kal oi TTXOOI eajcri CTKOXIOI e? Trjv TiaftvKwva,

eK Te

TWV irXocov 7 eKBeKTjTai irepioBos T?)? Xtfivr/s fjMKprj. Kara TOVTO Be epyd^ero T?}? ^cipr]'; TJ/ at Te ea/BoXal r/aav Kal TO. avvTOfia T>7? e/c MrjBtov 6Bov,s iva /J,r) €7rt/M<7'yoyU.ei'ot oi M^Sot eKfiapOdvoiev TO, irprj^fjiaTa. TaoTa fiev Br) eK ySa^eo? TrepiefldXeTO,9 186 e Se e^ avT&v irapev8rjKr]v iiroi^aaTO. TJ}? 7roXiO9 eovcTTjs Bvo (fcapcriaiv, TOV Be iroTafiov fjueaov e%ovTO<;, iirl TCOV irpoTepov /3ao-i\ea>v OKca Tt? e9e\ot, eK TOV erepov (pdpo-eos e? TovTepov Blaftfjvat,, Xprjv ifKolai BiafiaLveiv, Kal r/v, w? i
avTr)

Be Kal

TOVTO TrpoelBe-

etreiTe

yap

wpvacre TO

eXvTpov TT] XifjLvg, fivq/juoavvov ToBe aXXo dirb TOV avTov epyov eXhreTO. eTafj,veTo Xtdovs irepifi^Kea^,1 to? Be oi rjaav oi Xldoi eTot,)j,oi Kal TO ^wpiov opwpvKTO, eKTpeijracra TOV iroTa\i,ov TO pelBpov irav e? TO obpvacre ywplov, ev w eiriyinfkaTO TOVTO, iv TovT(p a.7re^r]paa/j,evov TOV dp^aiov peiQpov TOVTO fiev TO, j^eiXea TOV TTOTafiov KaTa TT]V TTOXIV Kal Ta? /caTa./3ao"ta? Ta<; eK TCOV

TrvXiBwv e? TOV TTOTafibv (pepovcras dvoiKoBofjbrjtre irXivdoiai OTTTrjcn KaTa TOV avTav Xoyov TOO Tefyei, TOVTO Be KaTa fiearjv KOV ftdXicTTa TTJV TTOXIV Toio-i Xidoicri TOV9 wpv^aTO olKoBofiei yevpav,

Beovaa TOV? Xidovs criBrjpw Te Kal fj,oXv,8Ba). eiriTeiveo-Ke Be 67r' avT-qv, o/ctU9 fiev rj^ept) yevoiTO, ^vXa TeTpdycova, eir &>v TTJV Bidftacriv eiroieovTo oi HafivXcovioi • T « ? Be vvKTa<; TO, %iXa TaoTa diraipeedKov TovBe etveKa, 'iva fii] Bt,a<j)ot,TeovTe? Be TO Te 6pvj(6ev XI/MVTJ iyeyoveo vwb TOV -n-OTafiov Kal TO, irepl T-qv yi<j)vpav TOV ^iiKpp^Tfjv iroTafibv e? TO, dp-^aia pelOpa SK T ^ ? Xifivr)<; 7

" At the end of the voyage." " I n that part of the country where the passes were and the shortest roads into Media." That would be on the north-east. The camp was pitched near Sippara (now Abu-Habba), and the efforts made by Kyros to penetrate into BabyIonia from the north-east proved unavailing. See Appendix II. Xenophon (Anab. i. vii. 15) passed a wall sixtynine miles in length, which had been built to protect Babylonia from the Medes, and the remains of which have been discovered by Lieut. Bewsher be8

tween the Nahr Malcha ami Bagdad (Jrl. B. O. S. xxxvii.) 9 "Such were the defences she made by digging out the soil." J It is clear that Herodotos had never visited Babylonia, otherwise he would not have spoken of "immense stones" being hewn in a country which is absolutely devoid of them. The few stones brought from Babylonia are either gems or boundary stones, the smallest pebble being of high value. It was no doubt the rarity and consequent preciousness of stone which caused the Baby-

108

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

^yy Kai ovrm TO opvyOev e\o? yivo/ievov e? Biov e'So/eet yeyovevac Kai rolcru irdXiijTrjo-t, yevpa ?JV KaTecrKevaa/J-ewr). 187 ' H B' avTTj avT7j ftaaiKeLa Kai diraTr/v TOirfvBe Tiva efiti^avi]aaro. virep T&V pakiaTa \ea>(f)6pcov irvXecov TOV ao~Teo<; rd^>ov eavrfj KareaKevdcraro fieTecapov eVt7roX?7? avrecov T&V irvKewv, eveKoXa^re Be e? TOV To<; r)V dKLvt)TOS pe^pc ov 6? Aapeiov TrepirfkOe fj j3ao-i\r]Lr)- Aapela Be Kai Beivbv iBoKei elvat T-rjo-t, TrvXrjcn TavTr)ov evpe j^prj/jbaTa fiev ov, TOV Be veKpbv Kai v dpyfijv.3 (TTpaTeveTai Be Brj ySacrtXev? o /Ae Kai O-ITIOMTI exi io-Kevacrfievo'i i£ O'IKOV Kai TrpoftdTotcri, Kai Br) Kai vBcop dirb TOV Xoao"7T6(B 7roTafiov * afia wyeTai TOV irapd ^ovcra peovTO<>, TOV fiovvov trivet ySatrtXei;? Kai aXKov ovBevbs TTOTafiov. TOVTOV he TOV Xoaa"7re&j TOV vBaTOf diretjrrjfievov iroWal KapTa afia^ai TeTpdicvicKoi rjftioveiai KOfii^ovcrac ev dyyrjlouri, dpyvpeoio~i eirov189 Tai, 0K7) av iX-avvy eKacrTOTe. eTretVe Be 6 Kvpo9 Tropevo/jLevos €7Tt T7]v Ba/SvX&jva iyiveTO eirl YvvBy 5 iroTafiw, TOV al /lev lonians to become famous as gemengravers. 2 This is evidently one of those "moral stories" the Greeks were so fond of inventing. It is needless to say that the inscriptions are wholly Greek in style and conception. 3 Herodotos means Nabonidos and the empire of the Babylonians. So far from being the son of another Nabonidos, however, Nabonidos did not belong to the royal family, but was elected to the throne after the murder of Laborosoarkhod, the son of Neriglissar. Herodotos is thinking of the king he has miscalled

Labynetos in ch. 74. His ignorance in regard to so comparatively well-known a portion of Babylonian history proves that we need not regret the loss of his Assyrian history. The father of Nabonidos was really Nebo-balatsu-ikbi, the Eab-Mag. 4 Apparently the modern Kerkhah. Strabo (xv. p. 1043) tells the story of the Eukeus (Ulai), supposed to be represented by a dried-up channel on the eastern side of Susa, from the bridge of Pai Pul on the Kerkhah to the Shapur, a branch of the Karun. 5 The Gyndes is usually identified

THE EMPIRES OP THE EAST.

109

iv M a / r ^ o t e r i opecri,6 pel Be Bia AapBavetov,7 iicBiBoi Be e? k'repov irorafiov Tiypr/v, 6 Be irapa *£ITUV TTOXIV pecov e? TT/V 'J&pvdprjv OaXaacrav e/cStSot, TOVTOV Br) TOV TvvBr/v iroTapMv a>? Biafiaiveiv eTreiparo o KOpo? iovra vrjvaiirepr^Tov, evOavTa, ol TWV Tt? lepwv Xiriraiv r&v Xev/c&v inrb U/3/MO? eV/Sa? e? TOV TTOTa/j.bv Biafiaoveiv iireipaTO, 6 Be \uv avfxr^^tra'i vvro/3pv%iov olywicei (f)epa>v. Kapra Te Br) e^aXeiraive TG3 iroTa^St o K.vpo<> TOVTO vfipLaavri, ical ol eTTTjireoXTjcre OVTM Brj /MV aaQevea

Troir/creiv WCTT6 TOV \OLITOV KCL\

yvvaiicds fiiv evireTetos TO v Be /caTereive v-woBe%a<; Bia>pv)(a<; 6yBd>KOVTa ical eicaTov9 Trap kicaTepov TO •^eiXo'i TOV YvvBea TeTpa/ifjievas iravTa Tpoirov, BtaTa^a^ Be TOV o~Tpa,Tov opvaaeuv eiceXeve. ola Be ofiiXov iroXXov ipya^o/xevov •qveTO /j,ev TO eppvj(a<; /JLIV BiaXafioov,1 ical TO Bevrepov eap vTreAa/nTre, OVTCO Br) ijXavve iirl Tr)v Jia/3vXa>va. ol Be TiafivXcovioi eicaTpaTevadfievoi, kfievov avTov. eirel Be iyeveTO eXavvwv ay^ov Tr)s with the Diyalah, but the legend probably rather has in view the Gingir, which is divided into a number of small streams at Mendalli. 6 The Araxes also is said to rise in the Matienian mountains, ch. 202. SamasEimmon (B.C. 821) defeated Ehanatsiruca, king of the Matai, in the mountains to the north-east of Assyria, and sacked his capital Sagbita, and Lake Urumiyeh was known as Lake Matiana to classical geography. The place of the Matai seems to be taken by the Medes (Madai) in later inscriptions. See iii. 94, note 9. 7 Otherwise unknown. 8 Herodotos must mean that the Gyndes joins the Tigris near Opis (Upe in the inscriptions), after which the Tigris flows southward. But Xenophon (Anab. ii. iv. 13-25) shows that Opis lay near the junction of the Physkos, not the Gyndes, with the Tigris, many miles to the north of the Diyalah.

9

" By stretching ropes he marked out 180 straight trenches." 1 Sir H. Eawlinson rightly divined that the whole story was " a fable," as is now proved by the tablet inscription of Kyros, from which we learn that the Persians marched upon Babylonia from the south, not from the north. He believes it embodies "some popular tradition with regard to the great hydraulic works on the Diyalah below the Hamaran hills, where the river has been dammed across to raise the level of the water, and a perfect network of canals has been opened out from it on either side." It is not surprising, therefore, that the geography of Herodotos should be as confused as his narrative, or that the channels should be just 360, the number of days in the old Babylonian year, perhaps suggested by the fact that the horse was sacred to the sun. We may well doubt whether such a stream as his Gyndes really existed at all.

110

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

7roXto9, avvefiaXov re ol HaftvXcopioi Kal kcrOevTe<s Trj ^ KareiX^drjaav 6? TO acnv. ola Be i^67riv a U o ? ol diropeovTi vTreOi]icaTo, elre Kal avrbs efiaOe TO iroirjTeov ol rjv, en-olei BTJ TOiovBe. r a f a ? TTJV a-TpaTirjv airaaav e | ifij3o\7J<; TOV v, Trj 69 TTJV TTOXIP icrfidWet, Kal 6'irt
€K Trjf

7TO\tO9 0 7TOTa/iO9, 7r/3O6t7T6 TO)

p , OTav BiaBaTov TO pefflpov XBavTai yevo/^vov, icnevai OVT(O T€ Br) Ta^a? Kal KaTct, TaoTa irapaivTrj €9 TTJV 7r6\iv. vi d^pr)ia> TOV aTpaTov. Be ivrl TTJV Xlfivrjv, ra -irep r) T5>V JSafivkcoviav fiaalXeia ei Kara Te TOP vroTafibp Kal KaTa, Trjv \ifx,pt]p, eiroiei, Kal 6 erepa ToiavTa- TOP
jepo/jbepov

Be TOVTOV

TOIOVTOV, ol

YVepaai o'i irep eTeTa^aTO eir avT& TOVTW KaTa TO peldpov TOV Ev dpBpl a>9 69 fieaov firjpov fiaXiGTa Kjij KaTa TOVTO io-qicrap e? TYJP Ha/3v\a>pa. el fiev vvv irpoeirvdoPTo rj efiaOov ol Ba/3wXa)i/iot TO ex TOV K.vpov Troieofiepov, ol B' &p TrepuBopTes

TOU9 Hepcra?

icreXdetp

is

TTJV TTOKIV

Bie yap av iracra? T « 9 e? TOP 7roTa/Miv irvXlBas i'xpvcra'i Kal avTol iirl Taf al/jLaaiaf avaySaz/T69 Ta9 irapa TO, -^eikea TOV iroTafiov iXrfXafiiva'i, e\a/3ov av o-ea<> a>9 ev KvpTrj. vvv Be ef d'7rpoo'BoK'i]Tov G$L irapecrTijcTav ol Hipcrat,. inrb Be /j,ejddeo<s T»j9 7roXtO9, a>9 XejeTai, virb T&V TavTrj olKrjfj,iv(OP, TS>V irepl TO, ea^aTa T ^ 9 7roXio9 eaXaKOTWv T0119 TO fiicrov oiKeovTa'i TU>V HafivXtovicov ov \iav6dvew eaXaKOTas, dXXa (rv^elv i iovaav opTrjv) %opeveiv Te TOVTOV TOV xpovov Kal ev evTraOeirjcn elvai, e'9 o Br/ Kal TO eirvdovTO. 2 All this is unhistorical, as we learn from the tablet inscription (see Appendix II.) There was no siege of Babylon, and Kyi-os did not enter the city until three months after it had opened its gates to Gobryas. The account given here by

Herodotos must be a confused echo of the siege of Babylon by Darius Hystaspis, 3 The unhistorical character of the whole narrative relieves us from the need of entering into the geographical difficulties of this passage.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

Ill

K a t Haj3vXa>v fiev OVTCO rare TrpwTov dpaip^TO1^ TTJV Be 192 hvvafJLiv TOiv l$af5v~Xayvlu>v TTOXXOIGI fiev ical aXXocai Bi}\axra> oat] TIei fiiv r) Tia/3v\a>vlr) ^copT], TOII? Be OKTO) TSSV fvqvatv rf Xoiirr] iracra 'Acrut). OVTOS rpiTr]/j.oplr) 17 AaavpiT] 'Xeopt) Trj Bvvdfiei TTJ? aWrjs 'Acrti;?. ical 97 d-px*l "TV1* %a)p7}'; TavTrji;, TTJV ol Hepaai aaTpairTjirjv5 KaXeovat,, earl amaakoav TWV dp^icov iroWov TL KpaTicrrr), OKOV ^pnavraiyjiy TS> 'Aprafid^ov etc /SacrtXeo? e^ovri TOP vofiov TOVTOV dpyvpiov fjiev trpoa-rjie e^acrTT;? rj/j,epr}<; dprd^T) fxecrri] • 17 Be d fiirpov ibv HepaiKov X OrjXea'; oKraicoatoi, al Be ftaivofievai e^a/cttr^/Xtat ical fivptaf dvefiaive
KVV&V Be 'IvBi/cwv

1

TOCTOVTO

Brj TI irXfjdos 6T/3606TO wcrTe Tecrcrejoe? rwv ev TO3 ireBiqi fiejdXai, TWV dXXtnv iovcrai aTeXeis, TOZCTL KVCTI criTia irapeyei'V. Tooavra fiev ra ap-ypvTb T?}? Ba.ySuXwi'o? 193 v'R'VPX6 ^ovTa1 rj Be V 'Acravpicov veTau fiev oXt^w,8 ical TO eKTpe(f)OV TTJV pi^av TOV aiTOv eo"Tt TOVTO' dpBofjbevov nevToi eK TOV TroTafJLov aZpvveTal Te TO XIJIOV ical irapayuveTai 6 CUTO?, oil KttTa itep ev Al avTov TOV irorafjuov dva^alvovTO^ e< ' ? Ta9 dpovpas, aXXa ^e/3. fj
4 Herodotos is ignorant of the nuinerous captures of the city by the Assyrians, beginning with that of Tiglath - Adar and ending with that of Sennacherib. Probably he wished to contrast this capture of Babylon with that by Darius Hystaspis (see iii. 159), though the legend he borrowed may have intended nothing more than a reference to the two captures in the reign of Darius. See iii. 159. 5 " Satrap " is the old Persian khsJiatrapd for khshatrapdwan, '' defender of the empire." 6 Hence the modern Egyptian ardeb (nearly 5 bushels). The artabe would have contained If bushels.

7 See Mr. W. Houghton's Papers on the Mammalia of the Assyrian Inscriptions, in the Trans. Soc. Bill. Archmol. v. (1877). 8 A good deal of rain falls in Assyria, In Babylonia it is rare during the summer, though, there is plenty in the winter and spring, 9 The Egyptian shaduf. An early Accadian collection of agricultural proverbs says: "The irrigation - machine he puts together ; the bucket he hangs, and the water he will draw up." Irrigation naturally played a large part in the economy of BabyIonia.

112

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

Bicopv)(as- Kai 17 /leylcrTrj TCOV Buopii^cov e o r t vrfvanreprjTOS, TT/)O? rfXiov TeTpappevi) TOV %eifiepivov, eW^et Be 69 aXXov 7T0Ta/x,bv ex TOV J^vtyprjTeco, e? TOV Tiypijv, Trap' bv NtVo? TTOXI? OIKTJTO.1 ecrri Be yapeav avTrj iracrecov fuiKpw dpicrTt) TCOV fi^els XB/Jbev ArffirjTpo? Kapirbv eKtpepeiv • TO, yap Si} aXXa BevBpea ovBe ireipaTat, dpyrjv 2 ^>epeiv, ovTe O-VK£T)V OVTC afiireXov ovre eXairjv. TOV Be T % Arj/j/r]Tpoepeiv io~Ti (OCTTG eiri BirjKoaia fiev TO Tvapanvav a-iroBbSol, eireiBav Be dpicrTa avTrj eoovTrjs eveUrj, eVt TpfrjKOcria eKcpepet.. ra Be v\Xa avToQi TWV r e irvp&v KOX TKIV KptOeav TO TrXaTo? r/lveTai Teo~o~epcov ev7reT6a>? SK Be Keyxpov Kai o~r]o~dfjuov ocrov TL BevBpov fieyados fivrjfirjv ov rroirjaofiab, ei elBax; OTL TOIGI jir) 69 TTJV l$afivka3vLr)v %copr)v Kai TO, elprjfieva Kapir&v 69 aTTHTTiTjv TTOWTJV airlKTai. ^pewvTau Be ovBev i\al(p, aXk' eK TS)V at]trd/Awv "iroieovTei, otviKe<} •7reVKOTe5 ava, irav TO ireBiov, ol 7r\eove<; avTwv Kapirocfropoi, ex TCOV Kai a-LTua Kai olvov Kai fteki iroieovTai- TOU9 crvKewv Tpoirov OepaTrevovai

Ta

re

aXka

Kai

§OLVIKU>V TOU9 epaeva<; "EXX7jye?

KaXeovcro, TOVTWV TOV Kapirov -jrepiBeovcn Trjcn {3aXavr)(p6poi,cn TCOV §OIVIK<£>V, Lva TTeTTavvri re o~oiviKO'i- •^rfjva'i yap Brj fyepovai 194 ev TG3 Kapirui ol epaeves KaTa irep 8r) ol b'Xvvdoi.3 TO Be airdvTCOV dcovfia (leyiaTov fiot, earl TCOV TavTy fieTa, ye avTijv TTJV pypi&ai cfrpdcrcov. TO, irXoia avTolcn eo"Tt TO KUTCL TOV Tropevofieva 69 TTJV Tia/3v\a>va, iovTa KVKKoTepea, irdvca cTKVTiva.

eveav

yap

ev

TOICTU 'A.pfj,evioicrt

TOICTI KaTinrepde

'KcjcrvpLcov olKT)/j,evot,cri vo/jb&as IT&TJS Ta/J,6fj,evot, iroitfcrcovTcu, ireptTelvovcn TOVTOIGI Bicfidepaf crTeyacrTpiBa*; e^coOev ehdcfieos TpoTrov, ovTe 7rpv/MVTjv diTOKpivovTe'i OVTC irpcoprjv avvdyovTes, ' dcriruBo'; Tpdirov KVKKoTepea irovrjcravTe'i Kai Ka\dfjir)s niKr)irav TO TTXOIOV TOVTO dirielat, Kara, TOV iroTafiov cf>epecrdat,, 1 " The Tigris, on the banks of which Nineveh stood." Of course this has nothing to do with the great canal of Babylonia, which was probably the Nahr Malcha or "Royal River," called Armalchar by Pliny, and first constructed by Khammuragas. 2 " A t all." 3 This, as Theophrastus pointed out [Hist. Plant, ii. 9) is an error. The

fruit of the date-tree only needs the pollen of the male palm. i " They stretch a covering of skins on these outside, like a floor." Circular boats, or hufas, of the same kind are still used on the Tigris and Euphrates, The rafts which are floated down the river, supported on inflated skins, are broken up when they reach their destination. The pinoi carried by them seem

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

113

Be /3t«ou? ^>owiKi)iov^ Kardyovcrt olvov 7r\eou?. WvveTac he VTTO re Bvo 7rXrjKTpa>v Kal Bvo dvhpcbv bp8a>v ecrrediTwv, KaX o p,ev ecra> eXKet TO irXrjKTpov 6 Be e^co wOei. TroieiTcu Be Kal Kapra fteydXa rdora ra irXola Kal e\d6prov, vo/jLea1; fiev TOV trXolov Kal TTJV KaXdprjv iracrav d-rr S>v eKrjpv%av,b Ta<; Be Bi
eVt

TOIIS OVOVS

direXavvovai e? TOU? 'Apfj,evtov<;. dva TOV iroTafjuov yap Brj OVK old r e e<7Tt irXelv ovhevl rpoTra) viro rd^eo^ TOV iroTafiov' Bia, yap TaoTa Kal OVK e'« gvXwv Troieovrai TCL irXola dXX' eic Biv. eireav

Be TOV?

OVOVS iKavvovTef

diriKaivTai

oiricrco e?

TOV?

'Apfieviovs, dXXa TpoTrw rat avrS TroteovTai irXola. TO. fikv hrj 195 irXola avrolai ecrrl ToiavTa- io-&rJTi Be roifjBe ^peavTao, KIQWVL iroht)veKei Xwka, Kal e7rl TOVTOV dXXov elpiveov Ki8a>va eTrevBvvec Kal ^XaviBiov XevKov TrepifiaXXofAevos, viroBrj^aTa e^cov iiri^capia, ^ rrjo~i TSoiaTiyo-i e/A/3acrt.a KOfieovras he r a ? KecpaXas dvaBeovrai, fj,efivpicr/j,evoi, irav TO a&fia. o-(j>p7]ylBa Be e%ec7 Kal aKrjirTpov yeipoiroirfTov e V eKao-TOi Be 67T6«7Tt iretTOV^yukvov rj fj,i)Xov rj poBov rj KpLvov rj ateTO? r) dXXo Tf avev yap eiriirrjfjbov ov a§i vofios ICTTI e^eiv GKrptTpov. avTt] IJAV Br] o~(pi dpTt}ai<; irepl TO crai/ia eo~rL% VO/JLOI Be avrolcrc 196 &Be KaTecrTacn, 6 fiev croa>TaTO<; oBe Kara yvdfirjv TTJV rff rw Kal 'lXXvpicov 'EJ/6TOU? 8 irvvddvofiai %pa
7 Herodotos refers to the cylinders of which most museums contain specimens. A cord, passed through the hole which pierces them from end to end, fastened them to the wrists of their owners. The designs engraved upon them usually represent deities or scenes from the ancient Chaldean epic; more rarely human beings or animals only. About one half have inscriptions which usually give merely the names of the owner and his father and patron deity. 8 The Eneti or Heneti represent the Venetians (Liv. i. 1). The Illyrians are supposed to have belonged to the same race as the modern Albanians.

114

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

Tracra?, e? ev y&plov eadyecrKov aXeas, irkpi^ Be o/ii\o<s dvBpatv, aviara? Be Kara fiiav e/cdo-TT)v /cfjpvl; ircoXeearice, irpSiTa fiev TTJV eveiBecrraTTjv e/c iraaewv fxera Be, O/WB? avrrj evpovaa iroWov yjtvcriov irpt)Qeit), aWijv av dveKr/pvacre rj per ixeivrjv evice eveiBea-Tarrf eirakeovTO Be iirl crvvoiKr/ac. b'croi /lev Brj ecricov evBaifioves TWV Tla/3v\.tovta>v iirija/jioi, virepftaKXOVT6? aX\i]\ov<; i^coveovTO Ta? tcaX\i9 yap Brj Biefjekdoi 6 icrjpvf; nrakeav Ta? evetSecrraTa? raiv irapdevcuv, aviary av rrjv afiopecrTaTi]v r) el Tt? avreav efnir7]po<; etrj, Kal ravTTjv dveKrjpvaae, 6'crTt? QeKoi iXd^icrTOv ^pvcrlov Xa/Swi' (Tvvoiiceiv avrfj, e? b TC3 TO iXd^icrrov vTriaTafievm irpocreiceiTO. TO Be av xpvalov iyivero curb TWV eveiBecov irapdevwv, Kal OVTW ai evfiopcfxx, Ta? d/j,6pcf>ov<; Kal efinrfpowi i^eBiBocrav. SKBOVVUI Be TT)V eoovrov dvyarepa brew /3OV\OITO exacrTOS OVK e^r/v, ovBe avev iyyvrjTeo) dirdyea'Oai rrjv irapOevov irptdfievov, a\X' eyyvrjTa? %pr\v KaracTTija-aVTa r\ fiev avvoiKr]aew airy, ovrto d-rrdvaiov eKeiro vofio1?. e^fjv Be Kal il; aWr]<; ekOovra KCO/JLTJ'; TOV /3ov\6fievov (ovelcrdai. 6 fiev vvv /cdWicrro1; vo(io<; OUTO? v,9 aXXo Be n i^evprjKacn veaarl i vopos KarecrTTjKe. TOVS Ka/j,vovra<; e? TTJV dyoprjV ixtfropeovcn- ov yap Brj ^pecovrai, lr)Tpoio-c. 7rpoo~t,6vTe<; &v TT/30? rbv KafJbvovTa o-vfiftovkevovcn irepl Trj<; vovcrov, el Tt9 Kal avTO? TOIOVTO eiraQe OKOOOV av efty 6 Ka/Mvav, rj aWov elBe iraOovTa- TaoTa irpoaiovTe<; avfi/3ovXevovL e^eaTC, irplv Taal Be crept, ev /xeXm, Oprjvoi 198 av eireipriTai rjvnva vovcrov e^ei. Be rKaparifK'Y]O-iob TOICTI ev AlyinrTco. ocrd/ci? 8' av fio^V yvvcuicl Trj ea>VTOv dvrjp Ba^SvXtoi'to?, -jrepl Ov/Mirj/ia Karayi^ofievov i£ei, 9

Nik. Damasc, four centuries after Herodotos, states that the custom still existed in his day (see, too, Strabo, xvi. p. 1058). But its actual prevalence may be doubted. At any rate no reference

to it is found in the numerous commercial tablets that have come from Babylonia. Herodotos does not seem to esteem womankind more highly than did Euripides.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OP THE EAST.

115

erepaOt, Be r) yvvr) ravrb TOVTO 7rotet, opOpov Be yevo/juevov XovvTai /cab a/j,(j)OTepof ayyeo<; yap ovSevos ayfrovrai irplv av XovaavTai. TOVTO Be rdoTa Kal 'Apdfiiot, iroieovo-i.1 6 Be Br) aio-^icrTOV 199 voficov iz>to{t7t oSe. Bei traaav yvvaiKa i'Tri^copirjv l^oiievrjv e? lepov 'ApoBiTr)<; wwa^ iv rfj £6rj fii^dfjvat dvBpl %el,vu>? iroXXal Be Kal OVK agieo/Aevcu dvafiicnyei, oiricrde everai al Be TrXeo^e? Troteovcri <SSe. iv re/xevei 'A.poBiT7]<; aTe(f>avov irepl Trjau Kea\fjcri e%ovaai doo/Myyo1; yvvai/ce<;' al /j,ev yap irpoakpy^ovTai, al Be amep^ovTat' voTeveis Be BcigoBoi trdvTa rpoirov 6B&v e%ovcn Bt,a TU>V BL WV ol ^elvoi Bietjiovres ifcXeyovrai,. evQa iiveav ifyrai yvvrj, ov irpOTepov diraWda'O'eTai e? Ta oltcla 77 Tt? ol ^eivcov dpyvpiov i/jLftaXcbv e? TO yovvara p^iydy efja> rod lepov' ipftaXovTa Be Bel elirelv roo~6vBe, " iiri/caXeco TOL TTJV deov MvXtTTa." MuXtTTa Be KaXeovai rrjv 'A(f>poBiTr]v 'KaavpiOi. TO Be dpyvpiov fieyaOos i Be ififiaXovri, eireTau oiBe aTroBoKifia oiBeva. iireciv Be dtToaunaafLevr) TTJ 6ea> diraXXdo-creTaL e? TO oiKia, teal TOVTOV OVK OVTCO fieya TI ol Ba>o-ei<; &<; fiiv Xd/JL^eai. oaai vvv eiBeos Te iirafj,fj,evai elal /cal fj,eyd0eo<;, Ta^v diraXXdaaovTai, ocrao Be a/jt,opcf>oi, avTeav elcrl, yjpovov TTOXXOV irpocrfievovai ov Bvvdfievai, TOV vofiov eKTrXijaai- icai yap Tpierea icai rerpaerea /Mere^eTepao ^povov fievovai. ivia^rj Be Kal TTJ<; K.inrpov ecrTt •7rapaTrXrjcrio<; TOVTW vofios. [lev BTJ Tola 1, TSafivXavioiGL ovroi KareaTaac- elal Be 200 TvaTpiaX rpels a'l ovBev dXXo cnTeovrai el fir) Ijfdvs fiovvov, roils iireire av drjpevo-avre'; airfvoocrc 7T/oo? rjXt,ov, iroieovai rdBe' io-ftdXXovai e? oXfiov Kal Xerjvavres virepoicro awen Boa, awBovos, Kal 09 p,ev av ^ovXrjrai avrwv are fia^av fia^dfievof ej^et,, 6 Be dpTOV TpoTrov oTrTr)o~a<;. 1

And also, it may be added, the Jews. - This custom is mentioned by Strabo (xvi. p. 1058). It was practised in the name of religion, the woman thus placing herself under the protection of Istar, the goddess of love (cp. Numb. xxv. 1-15). It was the natural result of the existence of religious prostitutes (called Kadisti

in the Assyrian inscriptions) among the Assyro - Babylonians, the Phcenieians, and the Hebrews (see Deut. sxv. 18), who lived around the temples of Astoreth or Istar and the sun-god, 3 See ch. 131, note 4. 4 i.e. in the Phoenician colonies. Comp. Justin. 18, 5.

HERODOTOS.

116 201

' f l ? Be TW Kvptp

[BOOK

Kal TOVTO TO eOvos Karipyaarro, €7re6v/j,rjcre

M.acr
XeyeTai

elvai

Kal aXKifiov,

•qXiov avaToXds,

ireprjv TOV 'Apdtjea

Bovwv dvBpwv.

eicrl Be oiTives

202 eOvos elvai.

TO Be Wvo
olicr)fi,ivov Be irpbs iroTapov,

Kal %KV0IKOV

6 Be ' A p a ^ y XeyeTai

Be 'Icro-?/-

Xeyovo-i

TOVTO TO

Kal fie^cov Kal eXdo-crmv elvai

TOV "\<7Tpov • vr\o~ov
TO Qepos 6pvo~crovTe<; •jravTouas, Kapirovt;

KapTrovs

TTJV iyei^epiVT\v.

aXXa

TOiovcrBe Ttva
crvviX0cocn Kara, etXa? Kal irvp fikvov
TOV?

iireiTe

dvaKavcravTai

av

SevBpea

e? TWVTO

KVKXW

Treputp-

fj,e6vaKeo-6at, Tjj 6B/j,fj Kara irep

o

e?

op^aiv

TOVTCOV fiev

avTt]

XeyeTai

The Massagetae were regarded as Skyths, like the Thyssagetse (iv. 22) and the Gefae. Herodotos states that they lived on the western bank of the Araxes, opposite the Issedones. The Arimaspeia of Aristeas of Prokonnesos (iv. 13) seems to have first spread among the Greeks a knowledge of the Issedones and of their eastern neighbours the Baldheaded Men, the Arimaspi or Oneeyed Men, and the gold-guarding Griffins (see iii. 116, and iv. 27). The Greek colonists of the Euxine, however, must have previously become acquainted with these legends through the caravan-trade from Eastern Asia. A Chinese book on mythical zoology and anthropology, which claims to have been written B.C. 1100, and is at least as old as the time of Confucius, has pictures of the Oneeyed men (or Kyklopes), described as living beyond the deserts to the west, and of their neighbours the Pigmies. The latter (already known to the II. iii.

Biana

Kal

e? doiBrjv

elvai.

6 Be

b'Qev irep o TvvBr)<; TOV

e? Ta<; Bia>pv)(a, o-TOfiaai, Be egepevyeTai

TOV Kapirov /JLSXXOV

TB dvio-Tao-dai

'A.pd^r]i; r TTOTafios pel /xev e/c MaTiTjvwv,

5

Kal TOVTOVS

Be o~(f)t, egevprjo'ffai

"F,XXr)va<; TS olva, TrXeovo'; Be iiri^aXXofj^evov diriKveiadai.

Be dirb BevBpicov

mpaiov;,

eirl TO irvp, 6o-pai,vofievov<; Be KaTayt^o/xevov

TOV Kaptrov TOV eiriftaXXo/Aevov fjLedvo-Keo-6ai,6 e?

irapairX'qcrLa'i

ev Be avTrjcri dpdpa>irov<; o'l aiT&ovTat, fiev

i^evpr)/jievov<s i e? tyopfiriv KaTaTideaOai o~LTeio~6ab

rim re Kal

dvTiov

TpirjKoo-las

BiiXafte 6

Tecro-epaKOVTa, TWV TCL irdvTa 6) are said to walk arm in arm lest they should he carried away by the birds. The legend of the griffins originated in the discovery of mammoths and fossil rhinoceroses, whose horns are still supposed to be bird's claws by the Siberians, on the gold - bearing banks of the Siberian rivers (see H. Howorth on the "Mammoth," Geol. Mag., Sept. 1880). For the various forms assumed by the legend of the Kyklops see Sayce, Introdudion to the Science of Language, ii. pp. 263 sq. 6 This sounds like a confused account of the use of tobacco, which, however, could not have made its way from America to Asia at this time. 7 Herodotos has mixed two rivers together, the Aras or Araxes, which rises near Erzeriim, and flows eastward into the Caspian, and a large river on the eastern side of the Caspian (according to ch. 202), which was probably the Jaxartes.

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

I.]

7T\T]V evb<s e? eKed re Kal revdjea

117

iicSi&oi, ev TOICTL dvQpdnrowi

KaTOucfjo-Ocu Xeyoutrt l^6w w/iov? cnreofievovs, eaQr^Ti Be vofii%ovra<; ^paadaL (pcoicicov Bep/iaa-t. TO Be ev rwv crTOfidrav rov 'Apd£ea> pet Bia tca&apov e? rrjv > K.acnririv ddXacrcrav. r/ Be 203 K-acnrlt} OdXaa-cra eerTt eir ewur^?, ov avfif^layova-a rfj ereprj OaXdv ddXaacra rj 'A.T\
iovcra Tvyydvef9

rj Be K.acnrlr) iarl

erept] e V ecovri}?, iov
/Arjicos (lev TT\6OV elpea-iy %pea>fiivq> TrevTeicaLBeica, r/fiepicov, evpos Be, ry evpurdrr) earl avrr] etBVTTj?, 6/CTCO rifiepecov. Kal ra [juev 7rpo? rrjv eepovra TJJ? 6a\dcrcrr)<; TaiiTrjs 6

•naparrelvei, ibv opecov Kal ifKijOec fieyicrrov rarov.

eOvea Be avdpcoirav

Kal fieydOei vy

TTOWO, Kal iravToia

ev eeovrm e

Kav«ao"O9,9 ra TroWa, iravra dir v\rj<; dypiri<; ^coovra' ev Kal BevBpea cf>v\Xa rotrja-Be tSei;? ivapeyofieva etvai Xeyerao, TO, rpoftovrd1; TC Kal irapafiiayovTa^ vBwp £,&a eavrolao e? rrjv ecrdrjra iei,v TO, Be £a>a OVK eKifKvvecrOai, dWa, cnijKaTayrjpdaKeiv TC3 aWa elpiw Kara Trep evvavOevTa dpj(r)v. fil^iv Be rovrav TMV dv6pa>Tra>v elvat ifi<pavea Kara Trep TOZCTL irpofBd

8 The circumnavigation of Africa by the ships of the Egyptian king Necho (iv. 42) had shown that the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean were one and the same sea. 9 The Kaukasos has teen always famous as the last refuge of numerous different races and languages which have become extinct elsewhere. Mithridates knew twenty-four languages spoken by his subjects, and Pliny {N. H. vi. 5) states that in Colchis there were more than 300 tribes speaking different languages, and requiring 130 interpreters for intercourse with the Romans; while Strabo (x. p. 498) asserts that seventy distinct tribes gathered together into Dioskurias. The Greek caravans along the Volga employed seven interpreters (Herod, iv. 24). The known languages of the Kaukasos resolve themselves into five groups, which have no connection either with one another or with any other tongues :—(1)

Lesghic, (2) ITde, (3) Circassian, (4) Thushian, and (5) Kartwelian or Alarodian. Under Lesghic are comprised Avar, Andi, Dido, Kasikumuk, and Akush; under Circassian, Abkhas or Absne, Kurinian, Cherkess, Bzyb, and Adige; under Thushian, Thush, Chetchenz, Arshte, and Ingush or Lamur ; and under Kartwelian, Georgian, Lazian, Mingrelian, Suanian, and the extinct language of the cuneiform inscriptions of Van. 1 This is not very probable. Almost the only well-authenticated case of the kind is that of the Arctic highlanders, a degraded branch of the Eskimaux. first visited by Ross and Parry. For the Andamanners, Bushmen, Nairs, and Techurs of Oude, Californians, and natives of Queen Charlotte Island, see Lubbock's Origin, of Civilisation, Third Edit., pp. 82, 83. Strabo asserts the same of the Garamantes. See also Herod, iv. 180, and i. 216.

118

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

204

Ta fiev Br) Trpo? ecnreprjv rr)<; 0aXdaar)<; TavTi?? T?)? KaXeofievrj<; 6 Kav/eacro? direpyei, ra Be TTpbs r)co re /cat r)Xiov dvareXXovra rreBiov eKBeKerat, irXfjOos aireipov e? d'Tro^riv. rov cov Br) rreBlov rovrov rod fieydXov OVK ekayiarrjv fioipav fiereyovai ol MacrawyeVat, enr ofi? o KO/ao? eay^e Trpodvfiirjv vyelv. rjv Be rov avBpbs a,7rodav6vro<; yvvrj rcov Maacrayerewv (3acri\eLa' To/jivpk ol rjv ovvofia. ravrrjv •jrefnriuv 6 Kvpo? ifivaro ra> Xoya> deXcov yvvaiKa r)v eyeiv? i\ Be T!6/jLvpt<; o~vvielo~a OVK avrr\v fiiv fivd>/Aevov aWa, rr)v Macro"ayeremv fiaaiXr/ir/v, aireiiraro rrjv TrpoaoBov. ILvpos Be fjbercb rovro, W9 ol BoXip oi irpoeympei, eXacray^eVt rbv 'Apdgea iiroielro e.K rov ifi(f)aveo<; eVt TOV? Mactra'yeTa? arparr]Lr]v, yetyvpas re gevyvvwv eVt TOV irorapov Bia$ao-iv ra> o-rparm, Kal irvpyov; eirl 7rkoia>v r&v BiaTropdfievovrcov rbv -rrorafibv olKoBofie6/j<evo<;. 206 eypvri Be ol rovrov rbv irovov irefi^aaa r) Tofivpi? KqpvKa eXeye rdSe. " w f5a<TiXev M^Seo^, iravaai o-irevBa>v ra cnrevBew • ov yap av elBeirjs e'i rot e? Kaipov ear at rdora reXeofieva' iravadfievo'i Be fiacrlXeve rcov crecovrov, Kal rjfieas dveyeo opecov apyovTas rcov rrep apyofiev. OVKWV iOeXrjepe, fioyOov fiev rov eye^ ^evyvvs rbv irora/Mov a7re?, av Be r/fiecov dvaycopr/advrav dirb rov Trorafiov rpicov rjfjuepecov 6Bbv Bidftaive e? rr)v rjfiereprjv. el B' r)fji,ea<; /SouXeat iaBefjaadai fiaXXov e's rr)v v^erepr\v, crii rwvrb rovro 7rotet." rdora Be aKovaa? 6 KOpo? avveicdXeire Tlepaeav TOV? irpdirov;, avvayelpa1; Be rovrov; e? fieaov crty irpoeridei TO Trprjyfia, avfju^ovXev6fievo<; oKorepa iroifj. rcav hi Kara, rchvrb al yv&fiai avve^kmrrrov KeXevovrcov eaBeiceadai 207 Tofivpiv re Kal rbv arparbv avrr)<; e? rr)v ycopr/v. irapewv fie Kal [iefj,cf>ofievo<; rrjv yvcbfirjv ravrrrv Kpotcro? o AuSo? direBeUvvro ivavTirjv rrj TrpoKeifievr/ yvcofir], Xeycov rdBe. " co fiaaiXev, elirov fiev Kal irporepov roc on eirei fie Zev? eBcoKe roc, rb av opeco acpdXfia iby O'IKCO rco aco, Kara, Bvvafiiv dirorpetyeiv ra Be faoi, Otf ra iovra dydpura fiadrjfiara yeyove. el fiev dOdvaros 2

" On the pretext that he wished to make her his wife." Reflexive ijv, as in Homer.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OP THE EAST.

119

elvai Kal arparirj'i Toiavrr)? apyew, oiBev av e'ir) Trprjyfia i/j,e aoi aircxfiaovecrdaf el B' eyva>Ka<; on, av6pantos Kal crv et? Kal erepaiv TOiwvBe ap%ei<;, iicelvo irpwTov fidOe, &>9 KVK\O<; T&V av6pcoirr}lo)v eerl irprj'y/jidrojv, irepityepopevos Be ov/c id alel TOVS avTovs evTvyelv. TJBT] &v e^co yvwfirjv irepl TOV Trpo/ceifievov Trpri
vi/cwv Be ov

vitc&s TOGOVTOV OCTOV el

e'9 T?)V eiceivwv, VIKS)V MacrcrayeTas, eiroio TWVTO yap avTidrfcra) iiceivq>, OTI viicijcras rov? avrt-ovfievovi i\,a<: fflv TJ79 dpj(fis rij9 To/ivpios. ^O)|0t9 re TOV diri^yrffievov ala^pbv Kal OVK dvao-^eTov J£vpov ye TOV K.afif3vcre(o yvvaiKl el^avTa VTro%a>prjcrai, TYJ<^ %d>pr]';. vvv wv fioi BoKeZ BiafSdvTa? -rrpoeXdelv b'aov av eKelvoi Biegiatcn, evdevTev Be TaSe iroieovTas iretpaadai iiceivcov TrepiyevecOai. a>9 yap iya> TrvvOdvofiat, MaccrayeTai elal dyadwv r e UepcriKcbv aireupoi, Kal Ka\wv fieydXmv di &v Toiat dvBpdai T&V irpo^aTcov dcfr avTas Kal crKevdcravTa<; irpoQelvai, ev ra rat TjfieTepai Balra, 7T/3O9 Be Kal Kpr}Ty)pa<; d(f>eiBea><; oivov aKprjTov Kal <xnia iravToia- iroorfaavTa? Be TaoTa, inro\nrofievov<> TTJS crTpaTLris TO (piXavpoTaTOV, T0119 Xonrovs aSTt9 e^ava^apeiv 67rt TOV iroTafiov. r\v yap eya> yvdo^ir]1; fi,rj afidpTW, Kelvoi IBo/ievoi dyaOa, iroXKa TpeyfrovTau Te 7T/9O9 aina Kal rj/jiXv TO evdevTev XeiTreTai diroBe^K epycov f/,eyd\o)v" TV5))MU fiev avTai avveo'Tacrav Kvpo9 Be ytteTei? TTJV irpo- 208 TepT)v yvcofiijv, TTJV Kpotcrov Be eXofievo';, irporjyopeve Tofivpi e^ava^mpelv a>9 avTOV Biafirjcrofievov e V eKelvrjv. 17 fiev Brj e^ave^copei, KUTO, vireo'yeTO irpSiTa' K{)y9O9 Be K-pourov €9 T « 9 eo~6el6fj, rdoTa ivTeikd/ievoi; Kal d-iroo-TeCkas TOUTOU? 69 Hepcra?, avTbs Bieftaive TOV TTOTafxov Kal 6 O"T/3«TO9 avTov. 67T61T6 Be e.'wepaiaiQ'q TOV 209 'AjOa^ea, VVKTO<; e7reX0ov(rr)<; eiSe otyiv evBaiv ev TS)V M.ao~aayeTecov Ty X^PV ToitfvBe. eBoKei 6 JLvpos ev TQ> virvco opav TWV c To"Taa"7reo9 iraiBasv TOV •wpeo~(3i)TaTov eypvTa ein, T£>V 7TTepvya<; Kal TOVTemv T§ fiev

v.

TTJV 'AO-LTJV T{/ Be TTJV T&

"To-Tdairei Be TC3 'Apc7a/4eo? eovTi dvBpl '

120

HEEODOTOS.

[BOOK

viBy TJV TWV iraiBav Aapelos 7iy>eo73uTaTOv TOTE V)XLKLT)P e? eiicocrl KOV ixaKia-ra erea, icai OUTOS KareKekeiino iv oil yap el%e KCO r)Xt,Kir]V crrparevecrdai. eirel &v Brj p 6 Kupos, iSiBov Xoyop ka>VT& irepl T?j9 oi/rtoij. a>? Se ol iSoieei fieydXr) elvai 17 oyJrLS, KaXeaa<; "TaTaGTrea Kal diroXafiwp fiovvov elire " "TaTacr-7re arjfiaveo), ifieo deol KrjBovrac Kal fiot, irdvra -irpoBeticvvovcn ra eVtep6fieva. T^ST) &V iv rfj irapoi^ofiivy VVKTI evBav elBov T&V amv iraiBcov TOP Trpea-ftvTaTov e^ovra iirl T&V W/AWV s, Kal rovreav

T§ fiev

rrjv 'A
. OVKWV SCTTI firj^avrj airb Tr)<; o-ty'ios ravrr}^ ovBe/iia TO firj eicelvov eirifiovXeveLv 6/MOL crv rolvvv rrjv ra^iarnjv •Tropeveo O7r/o"a) e? Tiepua<; Kal iroiei OKCO<;, eireav eyco rdde KaraaTpe^diievo1; e\6co eKel, ws fiot, Ka-raaTrjcrem TOP iralBa e? 210 eXey^op." K.vpo$ fiev BoKeav ol Aapelop iiriflovXeveiv eXeje rdBe- TC3 Be 6 Baifxap irpoefyavpe a>? a u r o s fiep reXevrrjcreiv avrov vTj] fieXXot,, 97 Se ^aaCXr]ir) avrov irepi^aipeoi e? Aapelov. 8rj S)P 6 'Tardcnrrj'i TolcnBe. " & fiacnXev, fir] elr/ dptjp TLepyea)<> oaTis TOI irtrij3ovXevo~ei, el 8' ecm, diroXOITO

a>? rdyiG-va-

o? dprl

pep

BOVXCOP 67TOM;o-a? eXev8epov<;

TUpaas elpai, dprl Be \jov\ ap^e(r6ai vir aXXcop ap^eip dirdvroav. el Be r t s TOL o-v/rt? diraiyyeXXet, -rralBa TOP ifibp peatTepa fiovXeveiv irepl ceo, e TOI TrapaBiBaifu yjpaaQai, ai)T& TOVTO 6 Tt, o~v fiovXeai." 211 Ta"T<2 TOP iraiBa Aapelov, KOpos Se 7rpoeXd(bv a.7ro TOV 'Apd^eco rj/j,epr]<; 6Bbv eiroieb ra? Kpotcrou VTTO3 Darius calls himself the son of Hystaspes (Vishtaspa), son of Arsames (Arshama), son of Ariaranmes (Ariyaramana), son of Teispes (CHshpaish), son of Akhaemenes (Hakhamanish). Akhaamenes, whose name probably means "friendly," or perhaps "having friends," seems to have been the leader of the Persian tribe at the time of the Aryan migration from Baktria westward. The introduction of the dream shows us that we are again in the domain of legend, even apart from the fact that the story of the death of Kyros recounted by Herodotos was only one out of many different ones (ch. 214). Aris-

tobulus, the companion of Alexander, not only saw the tomb of Kyros at Pasargadae, but his corpse also (Arrian, vi. 29), which effectually disposes of the whole story. Xenophon makes Kyros die in bed (Gyrop. viii. 7), but his authority is small. According to Kt&ias he died in camp of the wounds received in battle against the Derbikes, whom he had conquered with the help of the Sakian king Amorges. The tomb at Murghab, long supposed to be that of Kyros, must be referred to a later prince of the same name, probably Akhsemenes, the brother of Xerxes. See iii. 12. and Appendix V.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

121

s. fierd Be rdora K.vpov re Kal Jiepaecov rov Kadapov arparov d birLa-co eVt rov 'Apd^ea, XeHpdevros Be rov d^prjlov, eireXOovaa ra>v ^Aaao~ayere(ov rpirrjfiopl*; rov arparov rovs re \ei8evra<; rr)<; Kuyaou arpanrjs: i<poveve dXei;Ofievov<; Kal rr\v irpo/ceifievrjv IBovres Balra, opftrj<; icah otvov evBov. oi Be Jlepcrai eTreXdovre<; 7roXXou? fiev &(f>e(ov £ovevcrav, •jroWq) S' eVt Trheovas i^wyprja-av /cal aXXovs ical rov rrj<; /3aatXeiri<} To/iUjoto? tratBa (rrparr)jeovra yiaacrayerecov, TC3 oiivofia r/v 27rajO'ya7rto"7;9.4 79 Be TrvdofMevrj rd re irepX rrjv arpariTjv yeyo- 212 vora ical rd irep\ rov iralBa, irefMirovcra /cr)pv/ca irapd Kvpov eXeye rdBe. " airk^are ai/iaro? KO/Je, firjBev eiraepdrj*; ra 7670vort, rwBe irpijiyfian, el dfMreXivq) icapTrw, ra> irep airol ifiirnrKdfievoi /j,abveade ovreo Scrre Kariovros rov o'ivov e? TO O~W\W, eiravairKelv vfilv eVea. Kaicd, roiovra (fiapfid/cq) Bo\a>ara<; eKpdT7;o"a? 7ratSo9 rov ifiov, alX' oi /*>dyji Kara, TO icaprepov. vvv &v fieo ev •7rapaiveovo-r]<; virokafte rov Xoyov diroBov'i fiot rov ivaiBa aTTlOt e/c rijcrBe rrjs ya>prj<; d^ij/juo*;, ^s/i.ao'aa'yereQiv rpirijfioplBt rov arparov tcarvj3plo~a<;. el Be rdora 011 irotr]aeb reXevra- Tofivpw Be, 214 d)? ol Kv/309 OVK earjKovae, avWeljaaa irao-av rrjv icovrr)S Bvvafitv o~vvef3aXe K.vpa>. ravrtfv rrjv fidyyv, oaai Brj fiapftdpeav dvSpwv fidyat, eyevovro, Kpivw la^vpordrrfv yeveadai, Kal Br) /cal irvvOdvofiai ovro) rovro yevofievov. irpwra fiev yap Xiyerai avrovs Biacrrdvra'i 69 aS\rj\ov<> ro^eveiv, fierd Be, a><; a$>c rd /3e\ea. i^erero^evro, GVfnreo~bvras rfjai afyfirjcrl re Kal rolo~L e avveyeaOai. yjpbvov re Br) i-irl iroWbv crvvecrrdvai /cal ovBerepov; edeXeiv evyeiv reXo9 Se ol Macrcra^erai irepieyevovro. 7) re Brj TroWr) rf)<; TLep
122

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

K.vpov veKvv, co? Be evpe, evcnrr)ice avrov rrjv KefyaXrjp e? rov acrKov. Xv/Aaivo/ievr) Be rS veicpip eirekeye rdBe. " crii /j,ev ifie £a>crdp re Kal VIKUXTOLV eye fJ>d%T) cwrcoXecra1?, iralBa TOP ifiov eXaw B6\q>' ere 8' iyd>, Kara irep rjireCKriaa, aifiaros Kopecrw. ra pep Bij Kara, rrjv K.vpov reXevrrjP rov /3t'ou, iroW&v Acnya)!; \ejo/j,eva>v, b'Be pot 6 7ridapa>raro<; e'tpijTai. 215 Mao-crayirai Be iadijTa re O/XOLTJV rrj 2,KV&IK{J <j>opiovai, Kal Biaurav e^oven, livwoTai Be elai Kal avcrnroi5 (dfJ,OTepa)v yap fieri^ova-C) Kal rotjorao re Kal al%fjLO(f>6poi, craydpi^ vofiL^ovTes e-^eiv. %pvcrrfjpa<; Kal fiacr^aXicrrripa^, %pv(ra> Kod\apa yfivcrw. t, earl eV rfj ^a>prj, 6 Be %pvcrb$ Kai o 216 %a^«o? a7r\eTO?. 6 VO/JLOKTI Be ^peayprai rocoiaiBe. yvpaiKa /lev ya/j,el e/cacrro?, ravryen Be eirlKoipa ^peapraf rb yap 2tKv8a<s <$>a<;. ovpo'i Be rjXLKirjs crfa irpoKelrai a\\o<; fiev ovBek' eireap Be yepup yevrjrao Kapra, ol irpoa'f)KOpre
the latter he means the nomade and half-settled tribes which spread over the southern part of Eussia, extending on the one side to Thrace, and on the other into the steppes of Tatary. Many of these were no doubt Turkish - Tatars ; others perhaps belonged to the Mongol or other races whose relics are now preserved in the Kaukasos ; but a large part seem to have been Sarmatians or Aryan Slavs. Among the latter are ineluded the Budini, Neuri, etc., of Herodotos (bk. iv.) The Massagetse, like the Sakse with whom they are associated, were probably connected with the modern Kirghizes. At all events, they seem to have been Tatars like the Sakse who founded the Turanian kingdom of Baktriana between B.C. 165 and 150. The " Greeks " mean perhaps Hekatseos.

i.]

THE EMPIRES OF THE EAST.

123

uvovcri fj,t,v Kal aXXa Trpoftara afia CLVTOI, iyfryaavTe^ Be ra Kpea Karevco^eovrai.9 rdora //,ev TO okfticoTard tri vevofxio-Tai, rbv Be vovam TeXevrrfcravra ov KdTacriTeovTat, aXXa opr)v "iroieofievoi on OVK i/cero 69 TO TvOrjvai. cnreipovcri Be ovBev, a\X' a/rrb KTrjvewv %a>ovo~i, Kal l^Qvwv ol Be a^Oovol1 crfyi i/c TOV 'Apd^eco Trorafiov irapwyivovrab' yaXaKTOTrorai, B' elcrL OeS>v Be fiovvov rfkiov (reftovrcu, ra Ovovci X'7nrov<;? voo<> Be ovros T ^ ? Ova-it]^' TMV 6ewv TC3 Ta^io-ra irdwaiv rwv 8vr)ra>v TO rd^tcrrov Bareovrat. 3

So the Fijians put their parents to death, after a feast, when they become old. See iii. 38, note 8. 1 " Plenty of fish." 2 Xenophon (Anab. iv. 5, 35) found

that horses were sacrificed to the sun in Armenia. The noblest sacrifice that could be offered by the Aryans of the Rig-Veda was the horse.

HERODOTOS.

124

[BOOK

BOOK II. ? Be K.vpov K-vpov os,

T»J?

eoov iraif

Kal

irpoairoBavova-^

Kal roicn, aWoiai irobelaOai.

ravrrj?

J€.a,[i/3vcr7)<} "lavas ivo/Mi^e, 67rl irapaKal3(bv 2

irapekafte

rrjv

J3aa-£kr)i,riv Ka/t-

TZ-acro-avSdvrjs T?}? KO/309

avros

'Kpoelire

iracri

Brj TJ}? yvvaiKos

eoav

re

fiija

irevOo?

ra>v r)p%e Trevdoi 7rat?

fiev Kal At'oXea? &>? Bovkovs

Be AX'yvrrTOV iiroieiro

<&apvdcnrea)

aTparrfkaviriv

Kal

K.vpov

irarpcoiov; e6vra<; aXkovs

re

TCOV ^p%e Kal Br) Kal '^IKKr/vcov TWV eireKparei.

O i Be AlyvTTTioi,, irplv pep rj ^afifirjTi^ov ecovrovs

irpd>Tov<;
1 Three Babyloiiian contract - tablets exist in the British Museum, bearing the dates—(1) " t h e first year of Kambysgs, king of Babylon, his father Kyros being king of the w o r l d ; " (2) " t h e eighth year of Kambyses, king of Babylon and the world ; " (3) ' ' the eleventh year of Kambyses, king of Babylon." (See Pinches in the Trans. Soc. Bib. Ardueol. vi. 2.) This supports Africanus in making the length of the reign of Eambyses eleven years as against the eight years of Ptolemy's Canon and the seven years and five months of Herodotos. We must, therefore, suppose that Kyros made his son Kambyses king of Babylon, reserving to himself the imperial title, in B.C. 530, since we possess tablets dated from the accession year (B.C. 539) to the ninth year of Kyros as king of Babylon, and that KanibysSs was officially considered to be king up to the accession of Darius, after the overthrow of the pretender Nebuchadrezzar III. in B.C. 519. It is very possible

a-i(ov {3acnXev
i'jreiSr)

that, like Nero, he was popularly supposed to be still living. Manetho, according to Africanus, made Kambyses reign six years in Egypt, which would make his invasion of the country take place in B.C. 528 (B.C. 522 being the eighth year of Kambyses as king of Babylon, and the date of the Magian usurpation). This was probably the year of the death of Kyros. On the other hand, Egyptian scholars agree with Eusebios and Diodoros in placing the invasion in B.C. 525. But this depends on assigning B.C. 664 as the date of the accession of Psammetikhos I. According to Clem. Alex. (Str. i. p. 395), Kambyses reigned nineteen years; Ktesias says eighteen. 2 The Egyptians considered themselves to have been created by the supreme demiurge Khnum; while the races of Asia and Europe were only the formations of the goddess Sekhet, and the negroes of the younger god Horus.

ii.]

THE LAND OF EGYPT.

125

8e "9'a/Afi'qTi'Xpi} /3aert\eucra? rjdeXrjcre elBevai oiTives jevoiaro irpcoroi, dirb TOVTOV vofil^ovac <&pvya<> Trporipov; yeveo~Qai ewvrSsv, T&V Be aXXwv ewvTovs. ^a/i/i^Tt^o? Be a>? ovtc eBvvaTO 7rvv9avofievos tropov ovBiva TOVTOV dvevpelv, o'l yevoiaTO irpwToi dvQpdyirav, ein,Tej(vaTai ToiovBe. TrcuhLa Bvo veoyva, dvOpcoTrwv TS>V iiriTv^ovTcov BiBcoai, iroifievi Tpe(f>eiv e? TO iroifivia Tpotyrjv Tiva TovqvBe, ivT6i\.dfievo<; firjBeva CUVTLOV ai/T&v /MTjBefiiav covr)v levat, ev o-Teyr) Be iprjfirj e V ewvT&v K€io-6at, aind, Kai TTJV aprjv 3 eirayivelv o~(f>i alyas, ifXrjo-avTa Be yakaKTO<; TaKXa Btairp^a'(recrOai. TaoTa Be iiroiei re Kai iveT&WeTO "^a/j,fnjTi/^o^ OeXoov aKovcrai T&V •KatBiwv, a.TraWaj(6evT(oveov, opeyovTa Ta? j(elpa<;. TO, fiev Brj irpS)Ta aKovaas rjav^o^ rfl) o Troifjbrjv a>? Se 7roXXa«t? (poiTeovri Kai iirifieXofievai TTOXXOV TJV TOVTO TO eVo?, OVTCO Brj (jTjyJfva^ T&> BeairoTrj r/yaye TO, iraiBla KeXevo~avTO<; es otyiv Tr/v eKeivov. aKovcra^ Be Kai avTos 6 Wajj.fi'qTi'Xpi: etrvvQaveTO oirw/e? dvdpm-irwv @€K6<; TC KaXeovcri, irvvOavofievo'i Be evpio-Ke <£>pvya<; KaXeovTas TOP apTov? OVTCO o-vve%copr)o~av AlyinrTiot Kai TOIOVTO) o~Ta&/Ai)o~d/Aevoi irprjyfiaTi Toil? ? yvvaiKcov r a ? yXa>o~
126

HEKODOTOS.

[BOOK

6 ^afifi^Ti^o1; eKTafjiwv TTJV BlaiTav OVTW eiroirjcraTO T&V iraiBmv •rrapa Tavrrjcn rrjcri yvvai^L 3 Kara fiev Bi) TTJV Tpcxpyv TWV iraiBcav TOcravTa eXeyov, •ijKovaa Be KCU aXXa iv M e / ^ j eXOwv e? Xoyou? rolcn iepevcn TOV 'Htyalo-Tov. teal Br/ ical [e? ®i]f3a<;7 Te «at] e? 'HXlov iroXiv8 ai>T&v TOVTWV e'iveicev iTpairo/irjv, ideXwv elBevai el crvfifirfo-ovTai rolai Xoyoiat, TOicn, iv Me/tt^f ol 8e (OTepov clEXXtfva>v, e/j,ol Botcelv, b'aa> "EXX^ye? fiev Bia TpiTov 6T6O9 ififioXifiov eirefif3dXXovai TWV wpeav eweicev, AlyinrTioi Be TpirjKovTTjfiepovi ayovTes TOVS BvmBeica /irjva7 The Egyptian name of Thebes was Us, the sacred quarter on the east bank of the Nile being T-Ape, "the head," whence the Greek Qij^ai. It is called Nia in the Assyrian inscriptions, NoAmmon or " N o of Amun" in the Old Testament, from the popular Egyptian name Nu, "the city," or Nu-a, "the great city," also Nu-Amon. Amun was its, patron deity. It first appears in history as the capital of the Middle Empire. I have bracketed the words is 6^/3as re jcai for the reason given in ch. 29, note 7. 8 Heliopolis, close to Cairo, the ancient seat of Egyptian learning, now marked by the solitary obelisk of Sesurtasen I.,— the oldest known. Its Egyptian name was Ei-n-Ra, "the abode of the Sun," or Anu, whence the Old Test. On. 9 This may be rendered: "Considering that all people are convinced that they ought not to be talked about." This affectation of religious scrupulosity on the part of Herodotos was probably

a cover for ignorance. So chh. 45, 46, 47, 48, 61, 62, 65, 81, 132, 170, 171. As "Wiedemann points out, "there is no part of the work of Herodotos [on Egypt] which betrays so much ignorance as that which deals with religion." He is not therefore likely to have known anything of the mysteries of the Egyptian faith, more especially as his only informants were half-caste dragomen. In ch. 86 he says he will not divulge the name of the deity who was embalmed, and yet every child in Egypt knew that it was Osiris, and the name appears on myriads of sepulchral monuments. " It is clear," says Wiedemann, "that Herodotos had not understood the name, and tried to conceal his ignorance under an affeetation of secret knowledge." x Herodotos shows that he does not understand the Egyptian method of intercalation, which must have been by the intercalation of the quarter days. He equally forgets the claims of the Babylonians to early knowledge of astronomy

THE LAND OF EGYPT.

II.]

eXeyov Trpd>Tov<; Alyvrniovs

BeKa re 6ewv itravvfiias

' EXXij^a? irapa o-(pe
Oeotai

iyyXvtyai,.

dirovel/iai

acfiias

Kal TOVTCOV /lev

yevofieva.

fiacriXevcrai

Mti
8

elvat

e'Xo?,4 Kal

fico/iovs

irpd>Tovs Kal

vvv

ra

r>7? %a>pw ocrrt? 76 (rvvecnv

avTrjs

elvai

iovTeov,

BrjXa yap

ovSev

e a r l AlyvKTioio'i Kal

XlOoicn

avOpwirov

TU>V VVV evepGe diro daXdcrcrT)?

Kal ev fioi iBoKeov Xeyeiv 5

Br) Kal fir) irpoaKovaavTi

IBOVTI Be,

e? TTJV "EXX^j/e?

vavTbX-

eVt TTJ? Xifivr]1; TauTTj? l^eypi eKelvoi

Alyvmov

fjukv irpoairXeav

eXeyov

A'lyvrrTov

erriKTriTOS Te 797 Kal BGspov TOV iroTa-

TO, KaTinrepde

Be erepov TOCOVTOV.

virepe^op

e? TTJV avairXoos

€%eo, OTI AoyvjrTOS,

rj/iepecov ifXoov, Trjs frepi irpSna

£&3a iv

Kal Kal

7rXea) epya> iBtfXovv OVTCO

Be irp&Tov AlyvirTov

rjfiepeav e o r t dva TOV iroTa/iov.

fiov,5

vofilaai

Te Kal dyaXfiara

eVt TOVTOV, TTXTJV TOV ®T)/3alKov vo/Mov, iraaav

59 TJJ? Motpto?

XovTai,

127

eVrt

yap <j)iio-i<; etrTt TJ79 %a>p7)s ToctjBe.

eVt Kal r)/Mep7)<; Bpofiov direyasv

els KaTarTretpr\T'qpir]v irrfXov Te dvoicreis Kal iv evBeKa and the calendar. The Sothic cycle of the Egyptians proves that they had known from an early date that 1460 Sothie years were equal to 1461 vague ones. In reckoning the dates of a king's reign, however, they used the year of 360 days, and reckoned the months of his reign, not from his accession, but from the beginning of the year in which he ascended the throne. The Babylonians in later times distinguished between the year of a king's accession and the first year of his reign. The Zodiac was a Babylonian discovery, not, as Herodotos imagines, an Egyptian one. 2 The ciceroni employed by Herodotos probably knew more about Greek than about Egyptian mythology, and, as their employers were Greeks, took care to tell them what would interest or natter them. Hence the astounding statemeut of the text. 3 Menes was not the first " h u m a n " king of Egypt (after the demigods and gods), but the first monarch of all Egypt. Herodotos probably wrote Mi/pa (as in three MSS.), which the copyists have assimilated to the name of Min&s. i This, of course, is a fiction, based

Tptav

ovBev eVt ToiovBe eXeyov,

diro

yeas,

opyvifjai

on wrong conclusions drawn from the appearance of nature. Pottery has been found at Memphis by Hekekyan Bey thirty-nine feet below the colossal statue of Ramses II., which would have been deposited there 11,646 years B.C. if the rate of increase of Nile mud had been the same before the age of Ramses that it has been since. Memphis itself is far to the north of Lake Mosris, and the desert which formed the necropolis of Memphis had been dry and bare for countless ages before the time of Menes. Bubastis, Pelusiura, and other towns of the Delta, existed in the days of the Old Empire, and Busiris, near the coast, was supposed to be the burial-place of Osiris. 5 This is taken without acknowledgment from Hekataeos (see Arrian. v. 6). No doubt the Delta was originally formed by the Nile ; but as marine deposits are not found at a depth of forty feet, it must have existed for thousands of years before the foundation of the Egyptian monarchy. The land is sinking along the north coast of Egypt, so that the Delta is really becoming smaller instead of larger. See also ch, 10.

128

HEEODOTOS.

eaeai.

TOVTO /MBV iirl

[BOOK

TOO~OVTO BrjXot irpoyyuiv

7779
6 awrt? Be avTr/s icrn AlyvTrTOV /Arjicos TO irapa OdXaccrav a-yolvoi,

Kara

r/fieis Biaipeopev

elvat

AiyvTTTOV airb

6tv7]Tea> KOXTTOV f*e%pt "ZepficovtBo? Xtfivr)?, Trap opo<; Teivef6 /Jkev yap

Tai>Tr)<; &v astro oi efjijtcovra

yemirelvai

•7rapao~cvyyrj(Ti,

ol

ebv

AlyviTTtov,

fiev

Kal

peyjpi

Al'
'HXtou iraaa

7roXto?

To fifjKOS rfj

a^oivoiai.

OVTW

TO irapa e?

Bvvarai

e^ovai, Be 6

e'lrfcrav KiyvirTOv

Oakacrcrav.

TTJV fiecroyaiav

evdevrev icrri

evpea

Kal tXu?.

eori

OaXdacrijs ctvco IOVTI TrapaTrXrjulrj

i£ 'A.07jvio)v 6Ba> rfj airb

tyepovar] Is T6 Yliaav9 afiiKpov

av

VTTTIT) re Kal evvBpos

Be 68b<> e? 'HXtou TTOXIV airb

oerot

/A,e//,eTpr}Ka
6 Be cr^otvo? e/ccurTO*;, fierpov

efjtftcovTa o~T
7 (TrdBioi e^aicocrcoi Kal Tpur^iXtoi

Kaaiov

crTaBloKTi, oi Be TTOWTJV

Be a
irapacrar/yri<; TpirjKOVTa o-rdBia,

r\v TO

cr%otvot elcn.

elcri av0pa>7rwv, opyvtycrt

%a>pr)v, ocrot Be r/craov yewrrelvai,

e^KOvra

TOV TlXtv-

T&V BvcoBeKa 6eS>v TOV

Kal iirl TOV vrjbv TOV Ato9 TOV

TI TO Biatyopov

evpoi

Tt9 a.v Xoyi£o/Aevo<s

TCOV 68a>v TOVTecov TO fir/ icra<; /J,T)KO<; elvat,, ov irXeov irevTeKaiBeKa (TTaBicov 7] /jiev yap 69 Tliaav crTaBlmv /JL7J elvai

i^ 'A.0t]veeop KaTaBel irevTeKaiBeica

TrevTaKoaLtov Kal ^CXimv, r) Be 69 'HXlov TTOXIV

6 Plinthine was on the Mareotic Lake. The Serbonian Lake still exists, as Mr. G. Chester's explorations have shown, divided from the sea by a narrow strip of sand, and extending along the coast of the Mediterranean eastwards of the Delta. It is a sea-water, not a freshwater, lake. Mount Kasios stretches into the sea in the form of a promontory, and took its name from the Phoenician temple of Baal-Katsiu ("Baal of the promontory"), which stood upon it. Like Mount Kasios on the Syrian coast, it was also known as the mountain of Baal Tsephon, "Baal of the North" (Bahli-Tsapuna in the Assyrian texts). The name of the god Katsiu is found in Nabathean inscriptions (e.g. de Vogiie, Syrie centrale, 4), and Zeis Kda-ios on bronze coins of Seleukia in Pieria, where the god is represented by a conical stone. The name is not connected with that of Kais, a pre-Islamitic deity of the Arabs, or Kof£, an Idumsean

divinity (Joseph. Antiq. xv. 7, 9), as has been sometimes supposed. The Egyptian khennah or skhcenos varied from thirty to forty stadia (Plin. K H. v. 10, xii. 14), whereas Herodotos here makes it sixty stadia. He thus makes the length of the coast 3600 stadia or more than 400 miles, while the real length is hardly more than 300 miles. i " Flat, and without spring water." 8 The roads of Attica were due to Peisistratos, who unified and centralised the country, making them all meet in the market-place of Athens. 9 Olympia was orginally the suburban temple of Pisa, which it supplanted and destroyed with the help of Sparta. According to Pausanias, Pisa was razed to the ground in B.C. 572. Its site is no longer traceable. The road must have continued to bear the name of the "Pisan" rather than "Olympian" up to the age of Herodotus.

ii.]

THE LAND OF EGYPT.

129

airb 6aXa fiecra/jL/3p£i]v re Kal VOTOV, alel avco Telvov e? rrjv '^pvdprjv KaXeofievijv ddXacro~av iv T&> al XidoTOfilai eveicri ai e? TCV? firvpafj,iBa<; KaraT/x,7jdelcrai, TO.? iv Meju^ii.1 TaiiTy /j,ev Xfjyov dvaKa/xTTTei e'? r a TO b'po'i' rfj Be avrb ecovTov ecrTt fia/cpoTaTov, a>s e

b

6

y

eirvvdavofirjv, Bvo firjvwv avrb elvat, Trj<; 6Bov airb ^o£)? 7rpo? e. TOIOVTO io~Ti, TO Be irpb /caTeiXvfievov, KaTa TOV avTov Tpoirov Kal TOV 'Apaftlov TO, 7Tj0o? fieoma/j,/3pi'r]v (f}ipovTa. TO &V Brj airb 'HXiov TroXios oviceTL nroWbv •yinpiov to? elvai Aiyv-WTov, a \ X ' ocrov Te r)fji€pe(ov Tecraepcov [/cat Se/ca] dva7r\6ov etrrt crTeivr) A'tyvirTOs2 iovaa. TS>V Be opeav T&V elp^fievav TO fieTatjv TreSta? fiev yrj, crTaBioi Be fiaXiara iBoiceov fjuoi elvai, Ttj (TTeivoTaTov eo~Ti, Birj/eoamv oil TrXeov? i/c TOV 'Apaftiov opeos e? TO Aifivicbv KaXeofievov. TO S' evOevTev a v r t ? evpia Alyvmos ecrTt. Trev/ce fiev 9 vvv rj y^top?} avTrf OVTCO.

dwb

Be 'HXLOV

TTOXLOS e? ©?f/3a? ecrTt

ava,7rXoos ivvea rjfiepeeov, o-TaBiot, Be TI}? 6Bov e^rjKOVTa Kal OKTaKoatot, Kal TeTpaKiaj^CXioi, aj^oivwv evbv e'? Tivrjv KaXeofj,ev7}v iroXiv crTaBioi ^tXioi Kal OKTaKoauoi etcrt.4 1

These quarries are at Ma'sara and Turra, between Cairo and Helwan, in the Mokattum range of hills, the northern continuation of the "Arabian mountains " on the eastern bank of the Nile. Turra is the Ta-rofu, later Taroue, "region of the wide rock gateway," of the monuments, the Troja of Strabo and Diodoros, who suppose that the quarries were first worked by the captive Trojans of Menelaos. They were worked from the time of the fourth dynasty downwards. 2 Egypt, it must be remembered, is only the strip of cultivated land on K

either side of the Nile. The MSS. omit KOX Sdica (inserted by Dietsch), which are required for the real distance as well as for the calculations of Herodotos himself elsewhere (chh. 9 and 29). 3 In reality it is not more than 566 miles. On the other hand, Herodotos has stated that there are 1500 stades from the sea to Heliopolis, and 4860 stades from Heliopolis to Thebes, making altogether 6360 stades ! 4 Really only 124 miles. Elephantine is the small island opposite Assuan, at the northern entrance to the First Cataract.

130

10

HERODOTOS.

TavTTj? mv T?)? ywpris rfjs lepeis ekejov,

[BOOK

eiprjfievi}^ rj 7ro\\i],

iBoxei Kal avTW fioi

elvai

Kara

eirtKTrjTO^

irep ol

Aljvirrioicri.

TCOV jap 6pea>v ra>v elprj/j,ep
TO fiera^i)

ra, irepl

"WLOV

ireBiov,6 w? je

ical TevOpavfyv Kai "E<£eaw re Kal M.aidvBpov elvac afiiKpa

TO. ycopia

rdora

jap

rdora

roil

Net'Xov, e'oi'To? irevTaaTOfiov,

/jLejaXouri

<7ii/iy3aXetz/ • TSSV

irpoGdv7(i>v 7roTafi&v ivl TG>I> aTOfidrmv

d^io<; (rv/J,fi\r)0rjva£ io-Ti.

ovSel?

avr&v

ir\rj6eo<; irepi

elcrl he Kal aXKoi, TTOTapoi, ov Kara,

TOP NeiXov e'oz/Te? fiejddea,

omz>e? epja

aTroBe^d/jievoi,

elov, 09 pecov 81 'A.KapvavLr)<; Kal e'ftet? 6? 6dXa
vrfo-wv Ta? 3^iM<7ea?

fjBr)

tfireipov

ire'KOi'qKe.

etm

Be Trjf 'AjOaySti?? ycoprji;, A-ljiJTrTOV Be ov 7rp6o~a>, /coX7ro? OaXdtro-T/9 ecrkywv

e'« TT]^ ^pvQpr]^

daXdcra-rif,7 /wwepo?

KaXeofievr]^

OVTCO Br] r t Kal ? epy^o/iat pdcriov. fir}KO<; fiev TTXOOV, dpgafievqi

eK fivyov

dvai<7i\iovvTai evpvTaTO<; iaTi

BieK-rrKSio-ai e'9 TTJV eipeav

TecraepaKovTa

elpecrlr) y^pewfieixp'

KOXTTOV Kal TTJV K'LJVTTTOV

'Apdfiiov,

daKdaff'T)';

KOXTTOV

TC •rrapaXX.daaovTa'i

eTepov TOIOVTOV

KOV, TOV /J,ev eK TIJ?

eir

A.ldi07rlr)<;,s TOV Se

avvTeTpaivovTas T ^ 9 ^copr)?.9

TOU9 fivyovs,

6 NetA-09 €9 TOVTOV TOV 'Kpdfibov

KOXTTOV, TL fuv KcoXvei

CVT6<; je Bio-fivpiav

ei
TrpoavaicrifKOfieva) 6

y^pova

irpOTepov

See eh. 5, note 5. Mr. F. Calvert has shown that there has been no increase of land on the Trojan coast. The increase at the mouth of the Kaikos (where Teuthrania stood) has been small. At Ephesos there are now three miles of marsh between the sea and the ruins of the ancient city, and at Miletos the Mseander has silted up for a distance of twelve or thirteen miles from what was the sea-line in the time of Herodotos. 7 The Gulf of Suez, running into the 6

oKiryov Se

el &v edeXr/o-ei eKTpeyfrai, TO

peovTO<; TOVTOV eKyaaOrjvai TS

^ ' €I/

TOV epyo/jbai Xefjcov, e'9 TJ79 VOTL7)S
cryeBov fiev dWr)\ai,ai peidpov

eaeypvTa

PVXW

jiverai.

BoKeco jevicrdai

fifiepai

evpo<; Be, TT\

6 KO\7TO9, r\\u,
avT<2> Kal a/AircoTK dva "jraaav ^/iiprjv ftoprjlrj';

OdXaa-aav,

eTetov ; ijQ) fxv KOV je Br) ev

r\ e/xe jeveo~8ai

OVK av

Eed Sea. The latter signified the Indian Ocean, but also included the Persian Gulf and our Red Sea. The Gulf of Suez is included in it in ch. 158. 8 "Forming a gulf which stretched from the northern sea (the Mediterranean) to Ethiopia, while the other." Schweighauser and Stein reject the words 'Ap&piov rbv £pxo/"a' ^ ! w " 9 " Leaving a little strip of country between them." 1 The geological ideas of Herodotos were certainly somewhat vague.

n.]

THE LAND OF EGYPT.

j(coo~6elr) KOXTTO1; Kal iroXXS

fie^av

en

TOVTOV

131 VTTO TOO~OVTOV re

iroTa/Mov Kal OVTCO epyaTiKov; r a -Trepl AlyvirTov &V Kal TOIO-L 12 Xeyovo~t avTa ireiOo/jbai, Kal auro? OVTOJ KapTa BoKea elvai, IBcov Te TTJV A'lyvKTOV irpoKei/Aevrjv Trj'i e%o(iipr)<} Yea? 2 Koy^vXid Te (fjaivo/Meva eirl TOICTI opeat Kai aXfiyjv eiravdeovo~av, MO-TE Kal TCI? •jrvpap.lBas BrjXeicrOai, Kal yjrd//,//,ov fiovvov . AlyviTTOv opos TOVTO TO virep Me[iio<; e-^ov.i 7rpo? Se \rfj xd>prf\ OVT€ T§ 'Ayaa/3t'j7 Trpoo-ovpw iovarj TTJV AXyvirTov •7rpocrei,KeK7jv OVTB Trj Aifivrj, ov fiev ot&e Trj Xvpirj (rr)<; yap 'Apa/St?;? TO, irapa, 9dXao-9 eirl Motpto? /SacrtXeo?,5 OKGJS eX0ot 6 iroTa/io? evl 6KT(O Trrj-^ea^ TO eXd^iarov, apBecrKe A'lyvirTov TTJV evepde Me/i<^)to?- Kal Motpt OVKCO r)v erea elvaKocria TeTeXevTrjKOTI OTB TWV lepimv TaoTa iyco TJKOVOV. vvv Be el fir) eir eKKaiBeKa rj irevTeKaiBeKa irf^^eas dvaftfj TO eXd^MTTOv 6 iroTafios, OVK virepfialveb e? Tr)v ^capr/v. BoKeovai Te fxoi AlyvrrTitav ol evepde XL[AV7)S T?7? Motpto? oLKeovTe? rd re aXXa j^mpia Kal TO KaXeofievov AeXra, r\v OVTW r] %aipr) avTt] KaTa, Xoyov q) e? #i|fo? Kal TO b'/jLOiov diroBuBS 69 avgrjo-iv,7 /x.fj 2 " Juts out beyond the neighbouring shores." The coast-line of the Delta projects a little beyond that of the desert on either side. 3 Herodotos refers to the fossils of the tertiary nummulite limestone. In many places the desert is covered with a solid gypseous and saline crust. 4 Herodotos could not have travelled to the south of Memphis with observant eyes. Sand-drifts are common, especially on the western side of the Nile. 5 Mreris is one of the imaginary Egyptian kings of Herodotos. In Egyptian meri signified " a lake," and was therefore applied to the great artificial reservoir of the Fayum,whose proper name was hun-t, "the discharge lake." It seems to have been constructed by Amen-em-hat III. of the twelfth dynasty

(about B.o. 2900). He, therefore, will be the Mceris of Herodotos, as the latter is stated in eh. 101 to have made the lake ; but instead of being only 900 years older than Herodotos, he was between two and three thousand. 6 23 cubits 2 inches (about 41 feet 2 inches) are now required. In the time of Amen - em - hat III. the river rose 27 feet 3 inches higher than it does today at Semneh (thirty miles south of the Second Cataract). Between Ms date and that of the eighteenth dynasty the First Cataract was formed, reducing Nubia to a desert, and no doubt causing the rise in the height of the inundation in Egypt mentioned in the text. 7 "If the country goes on increasing in height as it has done, and grows equally in amount."

132

HERODOTOS.

KXV%OVTO<; avrrjv

[BOOK

TOV Net'Xou ireiaeaQai

TOV iravTa

iiriKoiTrov AlyviTTCoi TO KOTB avTol " E U i / w s TrvOo/ievoi jap

to? VETCU iraaa

iroTa/j,ol(7i, apSeTat,

Kwra

xpovov TOV

e<pao-av ireiaeaBai.

r) xdbpr) T&V 'JZiXXrjvcov dXX'

irep

'tyeva'de.vTa'i KOTB iXvrlSos fjueydXr]*; /ca/ew? ireivtfo-ew. TOVTO ideXei avy/jba)

Xeyeiv

a>9, el fir] ideXrjo-ei acpt, veiv \i>[J oi "EXX^ve?

BiaypdcrOai, /cat Taora

alpeOrjcovTai'

ical axnolai

AlyvirTioicn

el o-i, diXoi, w? ical irpoTepov

elirov, r\ x^PV

(aijTij

KaTa \oyov

Xpovov

yap e?

icTi

f] av^avofievTf)

UT|TO?

aif;avecrdai,

aWo

Tt i)

AlyvrrTLCOv •jreuvrjo-ovcri, el firjTe ye vaerai 7TOTa/iO9 oto? T

OVTOI airovr)TOTaTa

aWajv

avOpcdirtov irdvT(ov ical TCOV Xonrwv

apoTpat avapprjyvvvTe1;

tcapirov

avXaKas

9

Ta
6p0u><; e^ovra V evepOe Me/i^to?

TOV Trapoixofievov ol

TavTrj oliceovTe<;

crcfu r) %(6pj}

ot ovre

ovTe

avOpanroi.

irepl

o~
a/ocras Be airoXinrri oirto-a,

TTjv ewvTOV apovpav

TWV re

Alyvirrbcov

eyftavai irovovs

p^Te 6

; ^ yap Brj

KO/X,[£OVTCU iic yeas

ovTe aXko epya£6fj,evoi oiBev T&V ol aXXoi •wovkovo-i, aXX' eireav

yap

a>? e%et pacra>.

ecTTat e? Ta? apovpa<; inrepftalveiv

vvv ye

ov

fir) e'/e TOU A M ?

fiev e? "EXX^va? Alyv7TT(oiai

e'lpr}T(U' epe Be vvv

TO Be eVo?

6 0eb<} aXXci,

8rj ao e'o-Ti wSaTO? oiSe/jbia a\Xr) airoo-Tpocpr) on 14 fiovvov.

ov

7] acpeTepr}, eao-av "EXX^vas

eafidXXei

ToVe cnreipas

e/ca<7To?

e? avTtjv vs, iireav Be

Trjo-t, vcrl TO GTrepfna, afir/TOV TO airb

TOVTOV fievei,

ai

Be Trjcri vcrll TOV O~LTOV OVTCO KOfii^eTai. 15

E t &v (HovXofieOa yvcofiyo-L Trjai 'Idivcov2

^pacr^at TCL wepl

AXyviTTov, o'l aal TO AeXTa fiovvov elvat AtyvKTov, cr/coTrirjs XeyovTef

TO irapa

T&V TlijXovo'iaic&v,3 8 Rain was a prodigy at Thebes (Herod, iii. 10). Showers fall in Upper Egypt, however, several times during the year (particularly in April and May), and from time to time there is heavy rain. In Lower Egypt, especially near the sea-coast, rain is more abundant; and since the cutting of the Suez and freshwater canals, heavy rains have visited Cairo most years. The scarcity of rain is due to the absorbing power of the desert. 9 On the contrary, the monuments show that the plough was largely used by the Egyptians.

OdXao-aav

dirb Tlepffeo<; elvai

auT?j?

Trj Brj Teo~o~epaicovTa el
J Oxen were used for this purpose, and sometimes asses, but not swine. Other Greek writers copied the mistake of Herodotos (see Ml. Hist. An. x. 16 ; Pliny, 18, 168). 2 Col. Mure has shown that Hekateos can hardly be meant here, as he divided the world into two parts, but some other Ionian writers who divided it into three (ch. 16). 3 The watch-tower of Perseus was west of the Canopic mouth, on the point of Abukir. The Pelusiac salt-pans (see ch. 113) were near Pelusium, now marked

ii.]

THE LAND OF EGYPT.

133

i, TO Se dirb 0aXdarcrrj<; XeyovToav e? /j,ecr6yeav reivetv avrrjv \ikj(pL TLepKaa-mpov 7ro?Uo?, KWT r)v a-^i^eTai 6 NetXo? I? re YlrjXovcTiov picov Kal e? Kav«/3oi>, TCL Be aXXa Xeyovrcov T»)? Alyvirrov ra [iev At/3u7/9 ra Be 'Apa/3irj<; elvai, diroBebKvvoijiev hv TOVTO) TS> Xoya xpecb/ievoi AlyvTrrloicrt, OVK eovcrav Trporepov X<*>pyv' rjBi] yap cr^a, TO 76 AeXra, ft>? avrol Xeyovcri, Alyv7rrioi teal ifj,ol Bo/eel, icrrl Kardppvrov re xal vecoarl to? \6yq> elirelv dvaire^vo1;. el TOIVVV crea<; e? Bidiretpav r&v irauBimv levai, Tiva yXcocraav TrpcoTfjv dirricrovcrt,. sXX' ovTe AlyvTTTLovs BoKea afia TW AeXTa T&J VTTO 'ICOVCOV KaXeo/Mevq) yevecrOai alei re elvac i^ ov dvdpcoircov yevos eyeveTO, Trpolovar)'; Be TT}? X">P71'> ToWoii? fiev TOU? inroXetTrofiivovs avTeov yiveadat iroWovs Be TOV? vTroKaTafiaivovTas. TO B' 3IV irdXat, al ®i)/3ai AlyvTrTOf e/caXeiTO* TT}? TO irepifieTpov (TTaBioi elcrt, eiKocrt ical exaTov ical effa/cMTj^lXioi,. el u>v ^ e t ? 6pda><; 16 •rrepl avTwv yivaxTKOfJiev, "Iw^e? OVK ev poveovo-i ivepl AlyvirTov el Be 6p0ij earl rj yvcofir] TWV 'Icovav, "IZXXrjvds Te ical avToii<s "lavas diroBelKWfii OVK eTrio-Ta/Aevov*; Xoyi^eaOac, o'l fyacrl Tpia fiopia elvai yfjv iraaav, ^ivpa>irr\v Te xal 'ACTLTJV KOX Aifivrjv. TerapTov yap Sr) o"^>6a? Bel irpoaXoyi^ecrOai, AlyinrTov TO AeXTa, el fJirjTe ye ecrrl TTJ? 'ACTIT;? firjTe T ^ ? Aifivrjs- ov yap Br) 6 NetXo? 76 ea-Ti KaTa, TOVTOV TOV Xoyov 0 TTJV 'Ao-trjv ovpi^wv TT) Ai/3vy TOV AeXTa Be TOVTOV KaTa TO O^V irepippriyvvTai 6 NetXo?, wcrTe ev TS /MeTa^v 'ACTI'T;? T6 KOX AI/3VTJS yivotT av. K a t Ttjv fiev 'lcovav yvco/j.rjv dirieixev, r/fieis Be a>Se Kal irepl 17 TOVTCOV Xeyofiev, AtyvKTOV fiev ivacrav elvai Tavrqv TTJV VTT AlyviTTicov olKeofievrjv KaTa irep K.oXiKtr)v TTJV V'TTO KLXLKOW Kal *A
Hebrew Ham, "black," from the black mud deposited by the Nile. During the New Empire the Delta was known as Keft-nr or "Greater Phoenicia" (the Caphtor of the Old Testament), from the number of Phoenicians settled there. Aristotle says that Egypt was once called Thebes, thus still further misunderstanding the mistake of Herodotos. We must note that in what follows Herodotos distinguishes between the views of the Greek and of the Ionian geographers.

134

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

o'iSafiev ovBev ebv opOw T^oyip el /irj TOU? AlyvTTTiwv ovpovs. el Be TG5 VTT ' E W I J W B J / vevo/u<7fievq> %pr)cr6/u,eda, vo/iiovfiev A'iyvirTov •tracrav ap^afievrjv dirb ^.aTaBovirtov 5 Te Kal 'TZkecpavTivr)? TroXto? Bi^a BiaipelffOai teal afupoTepecov rS>v eiravvfjuwv e%ecr0af TO, ftev yap

avTrjs elvai

T»J? AifivTjs

xa

Be T?J9 'AO-MJ?.

6 y&p Brj

NeiXos ap^d/ievo'i dirb ra>v K-araBovircov pet fiea-rjv Aiyvirrov peyjpi yukv vvv K.epicacra>pov 7ro\to? pel cr^i^cov e? OaXacraav. eh ia)V 6 NetX.09, TO Be dirb Tavrr)? T ^ 9 7ro\tO9 aoBovs. Kal r) /lev TT/309 rjSi rpairerac, TO ica\eiTai TirjXovaiov a,

r\ Be eT&prj TS)V OBCOV 77y>o?

YLava>[$iicbv 6 OTO/MI KeK\rjTat.

e a r l rjBe' avasdev (pepofievos TO Be dirb

TOVTOV

a^Xfiav

ecnrept\v

e^ef

TOVTO Be

r) Be Br) I6ea TS>V 6Ba>v T

69 TO d£v TOV AeXTa

di

iie
ovTe e\.a%lcrT7]v fxoZpav TOV VBUTOS Trape^o/ievo*; TavTrj ovre r\Ki/j,r], OTI TocravTr) & Xoyat, Kal TO "A/JL/AWVOS Xpy(TTripLov yevofievov • TO iya> T?j9 ifiecovrov yvdafirj^ vcrTepov irepl AXyvirTov eirv66ixr]v. oi yap Br) 4K Mapeij9 Te •jroXt09T Kal "A7TtO9 olKeovTes Alyvinov TO, irpocrovpa Aifivrj, avToL Te BoKeO2/T69 elvai At/3ve9 Kal OVK AlyvirTioi Kal d^do/ievoi Tf) irepl TO iepa 0pr]crK7]ir], ^ovKo/xevob drfkemv (3o5>v ^ epyetrOai? eirep^av e'? "A/MfMova fyafjievoi ovBev ff
i.e. the'First Cataract. Kan6pos was the Egyptian Kah enNub, or "golden soil," the sacred name of which was Pakot. It was 120 stades east of Alexandria, probably near Lake Edku. But its exact site is unknown. The seven mouths of the Nile were—(1) the Pelusiac or Bubastic; (2) the Tanitic, Busiritic, or Saitic; (3) the Mendesian, passing by Mansurah ; (4) the Bukolic or Phatnetic, entering the sea at Damietta; (5) the Sebennytic ; (6) the Bolbitic, entering the sea at Rosetta; and 6

(7) the Kanopic or Herakleotic. The two last were artificial canals. Pliny reckons eleven mouths, besides four other " false mouths." 7 Marea gave its name to Lake Mareotis, and was celebrated for its wine. Strabojp. 799) places the village Api» on the coast, 100 stadia from Parstonion {Marsa Berek), and about 160 miles west of Alexandria, 8 " N o t to be prevented from eating the flesh of cows," which, as being sacred to Hathor,—not Isis, as Herodotos says

ii.]

THE LAND OF EGYPT.

135

OVK ea iroielv rdora, <£<x? Aiywn-Tov elvai Tavrrjv rrjv 6 NeiXo? eirimv apBei, Kal AlyinrTiows elvai TOVTOV; oi evepOe 'JLXe<pavTiV7)<; 7roXio<; ot/eeoz/Te? dirb TOV iroTctfiov TOVTOV irivovcri. OVTCO o~(f>i Taora e^prfa-Qr}. eTrep^erai Be 0 NetXo*?, i^reav TTXTJOVT), ov fiovvov TO AeXra dXXa, teal TOV AI/3VKOV re Xeyofievov ^wpiov elvai Kal TOV 'Apafilov evia%r} ical inrl Bvo r/fiepewv e/caripwOi, 6B6v, Kal ifKeov en TOVTOV Kal e\a izepi ovTe TI TCOV Upecov OVTB aXXov 19 ouSevo? irapaXaftelv iBvvdo-Orjv. TrpoOvfios Be ea TaBe irap avTwv Trv6ev avTovs r\VTiva Bvvafiiv e-^et, 6 NeZXo? TO, k'fnraXtv "7re(f)VKevai ra>v aXXxav iroTa/Mciv TaoTa, Te BTJ TO, \e
Tpiao-La<; 6Bov
Bvo TOSV 6BS>V OVB'

d^iw

/j,VT)o~df)vai el fj,rj 6o~ov (TTjfirjvai, /SouXoyttej/o? /MOVVOV TSSV f\ krepr) fiev Xeyet TOV? eT7)ai,a<; cive/iovs elvai aiTiovs ifKTfdveiv TOV iroTajiov, KaXvovTa<; e? ddXaaaav eKpeiv TOV NetXov. 7roXXaKi<; Be eTrjcriai fiev OVKWV k'trvevo-av, 6 Be NeZXo? TWVTO epyd^erai. 7T/3O? Be, el irrjcriai OXTIOI rjcav, XPVV Kai' Tai><; dXXov<; •7roTafiov<;, ocroi TOICTI eTrjcrirjcri dvTioi peovo~i, ofioia><; vda^eiv Kal TO, avTa T& NetXo), Kal fidXXov eVt TOO-OVTW oaa> eXdcr(rove<; dcrOeveo'Tepa TO, pevfiaTa irape^ovTai. elal Be 7roXXol fiev iv Trj ^,'vpirjs iroTafiol 7roXXot Be iv Trj AL^VT), 01 ovBev TOIOVTO irda^ovcri olov Tt, Kal 6 NeZXo?. v) B' kTept) dveiridTi]- 21 fioveo~Tepr) fiev io~Ti T ^ ? XeXej/jLevrj<;, X07&) Be elireiv 9a>vfiao~ia>(ch. 41),—were forbidden to be used as food, though oxen might be eaten. 9 At the First Cataract the Nile begins to rise towards the end of May, at Memphis towards the end of June, and is at its highest about the end of September. 1 Every one who has sailed on the Nile and felt the invigorating breezes of

the desert will know that this statement is not true. 2 This is supposed to be the opinion of Thales (see Athen. ii. 87). The northwest winds blow not only during the inundation, but also during a good part of the winter. 3 Herodotos has forgotten that the rivers of Syria face west, not north.

136

repr)'i

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK-

f) Xeyei dirb TOV 'Hiceavov peovra

avrbv

Taora

firj^a-

22 vacrOai, TOV Be 'iliceavov yrjv irepi iraaav pelv. r) Be TpLTrj TS>V ohS>v iroXXov eTTLeiicea'TaTT} eovcra [idXicrTa eifrevcrTai' Xeyei yap Brj o&B' avTT] ovBev, (fra/ievr) TOV NetXoz> pelv airb TTJKOfievrj<s Xiovos' o? pel jj,ev iic At/Su^? Boa, fieo-av AIOIOTTCOV, i/cBiBol Be e's AiyvirTOV. /ccos &v Bfjra peoi av airb j(iovo<;, arro rwv 9ep/jLOTaT(ov pecov e? TO, yjrvxpoTepa ra TroWd ecm ; avBpi
CCTTO TWV xa>pea>v TOVTCWV

depfioi-6

Bevrepov

Be on

avoji^po'i f) %pi] ica\ a/cpvcrraWos SiareXel eovcra, eirl Be %i6vi ireaovcrri Traaa avay/CT] ecrrl vcrai iv irevre r/fieprjcri,8 &crre, el eyiovb^e vero av rdora TO, ^a>pia. rpira Be oi avQpwjroi iirb TOV Kav/iaTo<; jj.e\ave
T07TOVS TOUTOWS.

el

TolvVV

e

i%l6vl£

Kat

'

OGOVbiV

TaVTTJV TTjV

Xcoprjv Bo ^ s Te pel ical iic T ^ S apyeTat. pecov 6 NetXos, ?JV av TI 23 TovTtov ovSev cos i? avdyfcr) eXey^et. 6 Be irepl TOV 'Hiceavov Xe^as e's agaves TOV /MVOOV avevelica'; OVK ej(ei eXeyj(pv oi yap Tuva eycoye olBa TTOTafibv '0,/ceavbv eovTa, "O/irjpov Be rj Tiva TWV irpoTepov yevofiivcov irofqTecov BoKeco TO oiivofia evpovra e's •jrolrjcriv eaeveiicacrOai. E t Be Bel /j,e/j.^frdfievov yvdfiat r d s irpoKei^eva'i avTOV irepl 24 T(bv dcpavecov yvcofiTjv airoBe^aaQai,, pdcrco Bi 6 TI /MOI Boicei •n-Xrjdvecrdai 6 NetXos TOV depeos. TTJV xei/Aepivrjv &pt]v direXav4 The opinion of Hekataeos is probably referred to {Frg. 278, ed. Mull.). 5 This was the opinion of Anaxagoras (Diod. i. 38 ; cp. iEskh. Fr. 293), and, little as Herodotos approved of it, was nevertheless correct. The inundation is caused by the melting snows and tropical rains of Abyssinia, which suddenly swell the Atbara and Blue Nile before they join the White Nile on its way from the great inland lakes of Africa. Kallisthenes, the pupil of Aristotle, Agatharkides, and Strabo, all refer the inundation to the rainy season in Ethiopia. 6 The wind from the desert is frequently very cold.

7 Herodotos knows nothing of the tropical- rains and icy mountains of Abyssinia. But frost often occurs at night even in the desert, and in the winter of 1880 ice was found as far up the Nile as Girgeh. 8 How Herodotos came to such a wonderful meteorological conclusion it is hard to say. 9 These arguments of Herodotos show that he was not a profound logician. Kites and swallows, moreover, do not remain in Africa the whole year, and the idea that the negro or Nubian has been blackened by the heat of the sun belongs to a very infantile period of scientific inquiry.

ii-.]

THE LAND OF EGYPT.

137

vo/jt,evo<; 6 jyXto? e« Trj<> dp^aLrj'i Bie^oBov inrb TWV veificovayv1 epxerai TTJ? Aifivrjs TO, avw. a>? pev vvv ev iXa^iara BrjXwcrai,, •nav e'iptjTcu- T ^ ? yap av dyxoTaTw r e y X^P7)* OVTOS 6 v. &)? Be ev ifKeovi 25 crai, &Se e'^et. Bie^coiv T ^ ? A.t,j3vr]<; ra ava> 6 ^A,to? rdSe TTouel. are Boa Travrb'i TOV xpovov alQpiov r e £6VTO<; TOV r/epos TOV Kara, r a o r a TO, xp, eX/cvcra? Be aTrcoOet e? TO avco xoapla, vTro\a/jL@avovTe<; Be oi ave/juoi Kal SiacTKiBvdvTes Tr/Kovai- Kal elcrl OIKOTCO<; ol dirb TavTi)<; TJJ? X&pvi

TrveovTei, 6 r e

VOTOS Kal

6 Xty,

dvifiav

TTOWOV

T&V

irdvTcov veTCOTaToi. BOKCX Be pot, ovBe trav TO vBcop TO eKacTOTe diro'irefJu'Keadai TOV NetXou o rfkio*;, aXKa Kal vT ireo'dat irepl ecovTOv. 7rpi]vvofj,evov Be TOV xeclJ'^>V0^ aTrepx o ^Xto? e? /iio~ov TOV ovpavov OTVIGW, Kal TO evOevrev 77897 ofiolw; dirb irdvTwv e'X/cet TWV iroTafiwv. Tews Be ol ftkv 6/j,fiplov vBaTO? crvfi/Atcryofievov iroWov avTolcn, a r e voy^evr]^ r e T779 %«u/3'»?? Kal Kexapo>Bpa>fiev7}S, piovcri fieydXoi- TOV Be depeos TWV TB ofiftpcov eiriKenrovTOiv aiiTOvs Kal vivo TOV rjkiov eX/co/j,evoc dadeveK elo~L 6 Be NetXo? ea>v avo/jL^po';, ekKonevos Be vtrb TOV rfXiov, fiovvos TTOTa/xwz/ TOVTOV TOV xp°vov OIKOTO><> auTo? ecovTOv pel 77"oXXe3 inroBeio-Tepos rj TOV Oepeos- TOTe fiev yap fieTa, TrdvTwv TWV vBaTWV laov e'XKerai, TOV Be ^et/iwi/a fiovvo? m-ii^erai. OVTCD TOV rj\iov vevofLLKa TOVTWV aiTiov etvai. aiTios Be 6 avTO<; OUTO? KaTa, 26 yvd>fj,r)v TTJV ifirjv Kal TOV r\epa %r)pbv TOV TavTy elvai, BiaKaiwv Trjv Bie^oBov ecovTOv' OVTW TT}? A{/3UT;9 TO. ava 6epo<; aiel KaTexetel Be 7) ardai<; rflCXaKTO TWV wpewv, Kal TOV ovpavov TJ} fiev vvv o /3opei7? r e Kal 6 ^etytiaii' eo-Taai, TatiTrj fiev TOV VOTOV rjv r) o-racrt? Kal TTJ9 fieo~afi/3plrj<;, Trj Be 6 VOTOS VVV ecrTTjKe, TavTrj Be

o f3oper)<;, el TaoTa OVTCD etxe> ° 7?Xto? av direXavvofievos eK jj,ecrov TOV ovpavov virb rod xeiViwvo'> Kai T°v ftopea) r\ie av TO, avw TT}? Eupft)7T7;9 KaTa irep vvv TJ)S Ai/3vr)<; ep^eTdt, Sie^iovra 8"

1 " T h e sun being driven out of his former course by the storms." The absurd explanation of the inundation proposed by Herodotos shows how much behind his older contemporaries, the Ionic philosophers, he was both in his

knowledge of nature and in Ms capacity for generalisation. 2 New Ionic contracted form of £OIK6S. 3 "Repels it into the upper parts of the air."

138

HERODOTOS.

av /MV Bia iracrr)<; EUJOW7T77? eXirofiai

[BOOK

•noielv av TOV "Icrrpov

rd

27 irep vvv

ipyd^erai TOV NeiXoi\ rrj<; avpr)<; Be Trepi, on OVK ^ TrjvBe e^ta yvcofirjv, w? Kapra dirb Oepfiewv %a>pea>v OVK io-Ti oiBev diroirvelv, avpi) Be dirb -^rv^pov TWO? i\el

28

Tdora

fiev vvv ea~Tcoft>?ea~Tt, re teal a>? dp^rjv

Be NetXov Ta? ir'qya<; ovre AlyvirTia>v OVTS Aifivatv

iyevero' TOV

OVT€ 'ILWtfvcov

TWV i/jbol a,Tntco/j,eva>v e? \ 0 7 0 v 9 ouSet? inrkcryero elSivai, el fir) iv a iv S a t TroXet o ypa/J.fiaTicrTr]<; TWV lep&v ^prjfiaTmv XT)? 5

OUTO? S'

efioiye

irai^eiv

eBotcei <j>d/j,evo<; elBivai

eXeye Be &Be, elvai Bvo opea e? ofu Ta? icopvj>a<; diri)y/j,eva, fieTa^v ~2,vr)vr)$ T6 7roXto? KeijjLeva TJ}? ©^ySai'So? «at 'EXe^ai/TtV^?, ovvofiaTa

Be elvai

TOICTI, opect

TS /Mev K-paxju T »

Se M f i ^ c

r a v aiv 8^ •7rr]ya<; TOV Net'\ov eov(ra<s aftvacrovt; iic

TOV fieaov

TS>V opeeov TOVTWV

pelv, ical TO fiev tffjLio~v TOV {58aTO?

e V AlyvTTTOV pelv ica\ 7T/3O? ^operjv

avefiov,

TO B' eTepov rj/uov

eir Aidioirl'Tj'i Te ical VOTOV. to? Be a$vo~a~oi eltri al irrjyai, e? Bidireipav e(pr] TOVTOV ^ap.firjTi'Xpv Aiyinnov /3a
KaTavoeZv, 4

BCvas Tiva<s TavTj]

eovaas

See ch. 19, note 1. i.e. Neith. The office held by the sacred scribe was a very high one, and he seems the only priest of rank with whom Herodotos came into contact, the other " priests " mentioned by him being merely the custodians of the temples, who knew a little Greek, and showed them to travellers like the custodians and guides of our own churches. As the sacred scribe was probably unacquainted with Greek, conversation must have been carried on through the dragoman, and Wiedemann conjectures that the story put into the priest's mouth was due to a misunderstanding of the interpreter's meaning. The stele1 of Eedesieh states that the water of a spring in the desert bubbled up like that from the bottom of the Kerti of Elephantine, where reference is made to " two fountains" or kerti. Every Egyptian 6

Itryyphss

ical

i

knew that the sources of the Nile were not near Syenfi (Assuan) by hundreds of miles, and that Elephantine (Egyptian Abu, " t h e elephant-island") was not a city, but an island, between which and Syene there is only the water of the Nile. But Herodotos seems to have divined that the sacred scribe was only answering the inquisitive stranger according to his folly. Kr6phi and M6phi may be a reminiscence of the two peaks which overhang the Third Cataract, and can be seen from the rock of Abusir at the Second Cataract. The jingle of names is one in which Orientals, more especially Arabs, delight, e.g. Abil and Kabil for Cain and Abel. 6 This, of course, was pure invention. The sacred scribe must have said something about the First Cataract, which Herodotos misunderstood.

II.]

THE LAND OF EGYPT.

139

oia Se ififtdWovTOS TOV vSaro? TOIGL opeffi, fir/ Svvao~6ai KaTiefievT/v KaTaireLprjTTfpiTjv e? /3vcrcrov levac. aXKov Be ovBevbs 291 oiBev iBvvdfiTjv Trv8eo~9ai. dWa ToaovSe fiev aWo 67ri \xaKpoTaTOV eirvdo/jbrjv, f^XP1 P611 'EXe^ai'TiV?;? 7roXto? avTOTTTrj? i\6d>v, TO Be cnro TOVTOV aicorj 77877 iaTOpeoav. dirb 'lL\eavTivr]<; iroXios avw lovTt, avavTes io~Ti yapiov TavTjj a>v Bel TO ifKolov BiaBijo~avTa<; a/jL(f>OTep(o0ep /card irep fiovv iropeveaOai' rjv Be diroppayrj, TO irXolov ofyeTai (pepofievov VTTO tV^iio? TOV poov.8 TO Be ^topiov TOVTO € Be TavTjj KaTa Trep 6 MataySpo? ecrrt o NeZXo? • 9 o~%oivoi Be Bvd>Beicd el<Ti OVTOI

TOV<; Bel TOVTU

TW Tpotrai

BieKirXacrai.

Kal

eireiTa diri^eai, e? ireBiov Xelov, ev TO irijcrov •wepippel 6 N e t \ o ? r Ta^o/iT^-ft) ovvofia avTrj eo~Ti.1 ol/ceovo-i Be Ta a/jrb 'EXe^ayTtVi;? ava> AlOtoTres2 rjBrj ical r ^ ? vqaov TO rjfMcrv, TO Be. rjfuo-v Al
88 miles, which would carry the traveller far below the First Cataract, and as far south as Kalabsheh. Inscriptions at Philse mention a district of twelve ar or aruar on both sides of the Nile from Assuan to Takamsu (Takhomps6), where tithes were paid to Isis of Philse. 1 There is no smooth plain through which the Nile flows around an island after passing the First Cataract. The river is shut in by cliffs most of the way to the Second Cataract. Ptolemy places Metacompso (now Koiban) opposite Pselkis {DaTckeh); but the river here flows between cliffs, there is no island, and Metacompso was a fortress of brick, built in the time of the eighteenth dynasty, which still exists. By Takhompso Herodotos must have intended Philse, five miles from Elephantine, and called Pilak by the Egyptians. Mr. Bunbury, however, would identify Takhompso with Derar, an islet near Dakkeh, considering that Herodotos has confounded the First Cataract with the district called Dodekaskcenos by Ptolemy between Syeng and Pselkis. The same district is named in a Greek graffito at Philae of the age of Tiberius. 2

Nubians, not negroes.

HERODOTOS.

140

[BOOK

Aldioires vefiovrav3 TTJV SieKTrkaxras e? rod Net'Xov TO peWpov rivets, TO e? TTJV \I/JLVT)V TavTtyv eicBiBoL. ical eireiTa airojUcK; Trapa TOP iroTa/MV oBonropiijv iroirjcreai rj/jLepeoov TeaaepaKovTa- 4 (TKoirekoi TB 'yap iv ra N e ^ \ w o^els avk^pvat, ical %oipdSes 7roX\ai elcn, Bo &v OVK old Te e a r l TrXety. Bie^e\0a>v Be iv Trjcrt TeacrepdieovTa tffieprjo-i5 TOVTO TO -^copiov, aSrt? e? erepov irkolov 6cr/3a? BvcoBe/ca rifiepa'; 7r\eucreat, ical erreiTa tffjei,<; e? irokiv fieydXrjv Ty ovvopd io-Ti, Me/aoij- \eyerai, Be avTij r) TTO\I,<; elvai iMTjTpoTroXK TU>V aWcop Al0io7reov.6 oi b" iv TOVTIQ Ala OeSiv ical

ALOVVO-OV

[IOVVOVS

crefiovTai,,7

TOUTOV?

Te

fieyd\a)<;

Ti/jLciHTi, ical o~(pi fiavTijiov Ato? KaTe<7T7)Kem (TTpaTevovTai Be iiredv
be described as consisting of the countries of Magan and Melukh, and Melukh accordingly has been identified with Meroe; but originally Magan was the Accadian designation of the Sinaitic Peninsula, the land of "copper" and "turquoise," so that Melukh must be sought in the same region. There is no likeness between Melukh and Berna. Ethiopia is Kush in both the Egyptian and the Assyrian inscriptions. 7 Amun and Osiris. But they were by no means the only gods worshipped in Cush or Ethiopia. Besides the native gods, the Egyptian pantheon had been transferred thither after the conquest of the country by the Egyptians. 8 The oracle of Meroe was famous. It was worked by priests and moving statues. The priests of Meroe succeeded in reducing the kings to mere puppets, whose lives even were at their merey, until Ergamenes, who has left his name in the Nubian temple of Dakkeh, rebelled in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphos, entered "The Golden Chapel," and put them to death. The Meroe intended here was not the Meroe of Strabo and the later geographers, but Nap or Napata, built by the Egyptian kings on the sacred Gebel-Barkal. The temple of Amun stood at the foot of the mountain, and an inscription tells us how the "sect, odious to God, called Tum-pesiu-Pertot-

II.]

THE LAND OF EGYPT.

aXKm r^et? e? TOU? avTOfiokov? rfhdeS

ev o irep

6? TTJV flTJTpOTToXlV TWV AlQlOTTCOV.

141 i£ 'E\e<£
TOUTl Be aVTOfloKOKTI,

TOVToicri ovvofid icm 'Aa-fid^.9 Bvvarai Be TOVTO TO eVo? Kara TT)V 'KWrfvcov tfySxrcrav ol e£f dpicrrepijii %eipb<; irapiardfievob fiacnXei. diricrT7]crav Be avrcu Tea-crepe? teal e'i/coai [ivpidBes A.lv\aicao KareerTrjaav ev Te 'ILXecfyavTivrj ir6\ei, 7TjOo? AWIOTTCOV KOX ev Ad(f>vrjcri, Trjat, Tir)\ovcr£rjcrt,1 aWrj TT/JO? 'Apaftiaiv re ical 'Acrcrvplayv, ical 'ev Khaiu " ("cook not, let violence slay," only a round one, but far too high ; and probably in reference to the Abyssinian it is absurd to suppose that so large a habit of eating rawflesh),were forbidden body of armed men could have peacefully to enter it. The description of the marched through the whole of Egypt, election of Aspalut to the crown states evading the strong fortress of Memphis, that the "royal brothers " passed before and running away into the far south, the statue of Amun, who finally selected whither they were pursued by the king Aspalut, seizing him and declaring him with a handful of foreign mercenaries. to be king. The Theban priests had The longest of the Greek inscriptions, already invented statues which could however, written on the leg of one of move the head, according to the legend the colossi of Abu-Simbel, goes to show of Eamses XII. and the princess of that Psammetikhos and his Greek soldiers Bakhten. King Horsiatef consults the actually made an expedition into Nubia. oracle before going to war against '' the Wiedemann, indeed, refers the inscriplands of Khedi." See Maspero in the tion to the Ethiopian expedition of Ann. de VAss. pour VEnc. des Et. Psammetikhos II. (B.C. 594), mentioned by Herodotos (ii. 161) and Aristeas. grecques, 1877, pp. 124 sq. 9 As, according to Herodotos, it took But the cartouches of Psammetikhos II. fifty-six days to get from Elephantine are not found further south than Philse, and Herodotos expressly ascribes the exto Meroe, another fifty-six days would pedition to the south with the Greek be required to reach the country of the mercenaries to Psammetikhos I. In any Deserters. This would bring us into case the Ionic inscriptions of Abu-Simbel Abyssinia. Asmakh has been connected are among the earliest Greek inscriptions by De Horrack with the Egyptian semhi, known, and, scratched as they were by "left"; but the best MSS. read 'A
142

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

M.ap4r) trp6vXaKal eypvai &>? Kal iirl tyafifirjTixov rjo-av Kal yap ev 'EXe<pavrivrj Heppovpiovcri Kal ev /^.d<j)vrjcri. Toil? &v Br) AlyvTTTiovs rpia erea <j>povprfpovpf}<;ol Be j3ov\ev(rd/jLepoi Kal KOIVS Xoya> ^prjcrdf^evoi 7ravTe? dirb TOV ^afifiTiTi^ov diro
Aldioiririv

WTTLKOVTO, BiBovai

trcpeas

avTOii*} TG> AIOIOTTCOV

fiacriXei' 6 Be crea<; raiSe dvTiBcopelTai. r\opo£ rives yeyovores rSsv AIOIOTTCOV 2 rovrov; eKeXeve igeXovras rrjv eKeivwv yrjv OLKeiv. rovrcov Be iaoiKiadevrcov e? roi><} Al&lo7ra$ rifiepdy repoi yeyovacri AWio-ires, rjdea fiaQovres Alyinrna? 31

Me^jOt fiev vvv reaakpav fiTjv&v TTKOOV KOI 6BOV yivwaKerai 6 NetXo? irdpet; rov iv Alyvirrtp pevfiaros- roaovrov yap crvfi^aWojj,ev(p firjvef evpicrKovrab avaicri/Aovfj-evoo eg '^ke<$>avrivr)<; iropevofieva 6? rovi <XUTO/AO\OU? rovrov<;. pel Be dirb ecnreprjs re Kal rjXiov Bva/Aecov. rb Be drrb rovBe ovBel's e%et o-aea>$ 32 tppdcrai- h'pr]fio<; yap earu f) %pt] avrrj virb KavfMaro<;. dWa, rdBe /j-ev rjKovdvai, eX6elv Kore trap avrbv Naca/iwi'a? avBpa<>. rb Be eOvos TOVTO ecrrl /lev

AI/3VK6V,

" a g a i n s t " ; cp. i. 110. ; Thukyd. i. 62, iii. 21. 2 "Some of the Ethiopians had been at feud with him." 3 We may infer from this that Herodotos had not heard of the theory which imagined Egyptian civilisation to have come from the "blameless Ethiopians." The idea that the Ethiopians were models of virtue, like the savage of Rousseau, though found in II. i 423, is really a late one, the product of Greek philosophy. 4 The temple of Ammon was in the oasis of Siwah, fourteen days' journey from Cairo, and about 78 feet above the

ve/Merat Be rr/v

%vpriv

re

sea-level. Traces of the temple still exist. The god seems a hybrid character, being a mixture of the Baal-Khammam, " the fiery " sun-god of the Carthaginians, the ram-headed Amun of Egypt, whom the Greeks identified with their Zens, and an original Libyan deity, The name of Etearkhos shows how strong Greek influence was in the oasis, where Greek garrisons had been planted by the kings of the twenty-sixth dynasty. Max Biidinger, however, very improbably would identify the name with Taharka. Oasis is the Egyptian uah "dwelling," Arabic el Wah.

ii.]

THE LAND OF EGYPT.

143

Kal rrjv 7T/3O? ??« ^v ipr)iMov TT)<; AIJ3VT)$, (pdvai irapd lv. TJ}? otVt«e5 eyovai' TO, Be virep BaKdcrat]1; re Kal T£>V eirl OdXaaaav KarrjKovTOJv dvOptoircov, TO, KaTinrepde 6ripiG>Br)<; icrrl r) Aij3vr)% rd Be KarvirepOe TJ79 8i)pia>Beos •^rdfifios re earl Kal avvBpos Bewoos Kal epq/AO1, irdvTav. etTrai &v roiif verjvia1; aTroTrefnrofji.evov1; iiiro rSsv TJXIKCOV, vBari re Kal GITIOLGL ev efjrjpTVfievov;, levai ra irpwra fjbev Bia, rr)<; oiKeo/jLevT]?, TatiTrjv Be Bie£e\doi>Ta<; e? TTJV 6i)pia>Bea diriKea'dat, eK Se TavTT)<; TTJV eprj/j,ov Bie^iivai, Tr\v oBov iroieo/iivov; 7TjOo? £e<j)vpov avefiov, BiefjeXdovras Se %apov iroXXov ifra/jL/icoBea Kal iv TToWrja-i, rjfieprja-i IBelv Brj Kore BevBpea iv ireBiw TretyvKora, Kal a-<j>ea<; irpocreXdovTas aTrrecrdat TOV iireovTO'; iirl TWV BevBpicov Kapirov, aTTTOfievoiai Be ecvf)<; Be ovre TL rrj<; iicelvav TOU? NaaafAwvas yivdxr/cetv ovre TOV<; ayovTava>v dyeiv T6 Br] avTovs BL ekewv fiejlcrTav, Kal BiegeXdovTas rdora airiKeadat 69 irokw iv Trj iravTas elvat, TOXCTI dyovcri TO fjL&yados t'croi;?, %pci)/x,a Be fieXavas. Ttapd Be TT/V nrohiv pelv Trora/Mov yukyav, pelv Be diro eairepr]^ avTov izpo'i rfkbov avareWovTa,7 aivecrdai Be iv avrm KpoKoBelXovs. 6 fiev 33 Br) TOV 'Afifuovlov '^Jredp'yov Xoyos e? TOVTO fioo BeBrjXaxrdco, TJV on dirovoGTrjcral Te ecpa&Ke rou? Nao"a/iajfa9, a>9 01 eXeyov, Kal 69 roi><; ovroi djriKovTo dvOpcoirovi, yor

5 See iv. 43. Either Cape Cantin near Mogador, or Cape Spartel near Tangier. 6 The Akkas or Pygmies south of the cannibal Nyam-Nyam, north-west of Lake Victoria Uyanza, described by Miani. Krapf speaks of the brown Dokos, four feet in height, to the southwest of Abyssinia in Sennaar, and Du Chaillu of the Obongo (called Mabongo)

Pygmies in Central Africa. The Bushmen are supposed to have once extended as far north as the confines of Nubia, and, with the dwarf races already named, may be the descendants of an aboriginal race. 7 Possibly the Niger or Joliba; in which case the city may be Timbuctoo. But the Waube, flowing into Lake Chad, may be meant.

144

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

elvai airavTa^. TOV Be Br) -rroTafibv TOVTOV TOV irapappeovTa teal 'ETea/j^os crvvefidWeTO elvai Net\oi> ical Br) ical 6 X0709 OVTU aipel. pel yap iic Aifivrjs 6 NetXo? teal /jiicrrjv Tafivcov Aifivrjv ical ft)? eya> cv^aXKofjuai Total, e/A etc Tmv 'Icrav fieTpav opfi&Tai. "ICT/JO? TB yap 7TOTa/AO9 ap^d/ievo? etc K-e\rS>v ical Tlvprjvr)<; Tro\io<} pel fjiecr7}v (T^l^o)v Ttjv Hvpc6r!ri]v oi Be JLEXTOI eicri, e^o) 'UpaicXicov (TTTjXecov, 6fiovpeovo~i Be T&.vvr)<Tioiai, o'l ea^aTOi irpos Bvcrfieav oliceovo~L T(bv ev TTJ J^vpanry KaTOtKTjfievcov.9 TeXevTa Be 6 e? QaKaacrav pecov Trjv TOV ^iv^eivov TTOVTOV Bta 34 T{) 'lo-Tpir/v ol M.CKrja-L(ov oliceovcn airoiKOi.1 6 fjuev Brj "ICTT/30?, pel yap Be ol/ceofi,ipi]<;, 7rpo? TTOWCOV yivaxncerai, Trepl Be rfav TOV NetXou TTTjyecov ouSet? ^Xet ^J611'' OOIICTJTOS T6 yap KCLI eprHJLos eo-Ti r) Aifivr) Si rjs pel. irepl Be TOV pev/AaTO? avrov, evr ocrov fiaKpoTaTov iaTopeovTa r\v i%iiceo~6ai, e'lpr/rai' 7] Be Aiyv7TT0<; TI}? opeivrjs Be e? AlyvirTov. LT) icelTaf evOevTev Be e? 2,ivdyrn)v TTJV ev T&> r/fiepecov idea 6Sb<s ev£a>va> avBpl-2 rj Be XIVCOTTT) TS> "Icrrpw iicBiBovTi e? 6aXao~aav avTuov tcelTai. OVTOO TOV NetX.oi' BoKem Bia 7rdcrr}<; TT)9 AtySi/^9 Siefyovra egicrovcrOai TS "Io-Tpco. 35 N e t \ o u fjiAv vvv irkpi ToaavTa elprjo-dw ep^ofiai Be irepl AlyvTTTOv fiTjKvvecov TOV Xoyov, OTI 7r\elo~Ta Oav/Aaaia e%ec [rj r/

8 "Runs parallel to : the Ister." Herodotos regarded Europe and Africa as equal, and. consequently balancing one another. It was necessary to this equibalance that they should each be divided by a large river, which followed much the same course, and was of the same length. It is very doubtful whether the Kelts had penetrated as far as the Pyrenees in the time of Herodotos. To call the latter a city, and to suppose that the Danube rose so far to the west, does not show that the Danube was " better known" to Herodotos than the Nile. As Mr. Bunbury points out, Herodotos imagined the Nile toflowdue east from its sources to Elephantine. 9 The pillars of Herakles are the two peaks of Ealpe and Abila, which face one another on either side of the Straits of Gibraltar. The Phoenicians termed

them the columns of Melkarth, the sungod, and Melkarth was the Herakle's of the Greeks. The Kynesians are also called Kiviires. HSrod6ros of Herakl&a, a contemporary of Sokrates,. mentioned them (Fr. 20), and stated that their northern neighbours were the rMjres. Avienus places them on the Anas or Guadiana. They represent the praAryan population of Europe, and possibly were related to the ancestors of the Basques. 1 Istria or Istrianopolis, founded about the time of the Skythian invasion of Asia, lay near the modern Kostendje, and consequently sixty miles to the south of the most southern mouth of the Danube. 2 See i. 72, note 5. 3 This is a flagrant instance of Herodotos's ignorance of geography.

ii.]

T H E LAND OF EGYPT.

145

OXXT) Tracra %a)pi?] ical epya Xoyov fie^co irape-^eTai 77730? irdcrav %(opr)v TOVTWV e'ivetca TrXeco Trepl auT»j? elpriaerab. A.lyinrTioi dfia T&> ovpavm TM Kara aea<; iovn erepoio) ical TW iTorafim vaiv dXXoCrjv irapeyofievcp rj ol aXXot, irotafioi, TO, TroXXa irdvra efiiraXiv Total aXXoto~o av6pa>TroiGi iarijaavTO r/Oed Te ical v o p w iv rolab al fiev yvvaiKes dyopaX,ovcn KCL\ Ka/jrrjXevovai, ol Be ctvBpe1; /car' OI'KOV; iovres vaivovai-6 v(f>aiVOVCTL Be ol fiev aXXoi ava> TTJV icpoicriv wOeovTes, A.laXea>v opiovcn,7 al Be 'yvvalices eirl T6)V wfiav. ovpeovai al /Aev opdai, ol Be avBpes

Kartjfievoi.

eifiapeir)

^pewvrai

iv

TOLGL O'IKOLCL,

eaOiovcn Be egco iv rfjcri oBoiai,9 iiriXeyovre^ w<; ra /j,ev ala^pa dvajKala Be iv diroicpv<$>(p icrrl iroielv %peov, TO Be fir) aia^pa avatyavBov. leparai, lyvvr) fiev ovBefiia ovre epcrevos Oeov ovre OrjXerj^,1 avBpes Be irdvrcov re ical iraaewv. rpetpeov TOU? ro/cea? rolcri fiev iraiaX ovBefiia dvdyicrj /JLTJ fSovXofievouaL, rfjcri Be 0wyarpdo-i -irdcra dvdyKrf ical fir; ftovXofievrjcri.2 ol lepei<; TWV 8eu>v 36 rfj fiev aXXy icofieovcn,, iv AlyinrTqi Be ^vpwvrai.3 roocn aXXoiGt, dvQpdmot,o~L vofios afia ic-qBei iceicdpdai ra<; KecfraXas roii? v^ Alyinrriot,

Be VTTO TOV? Oavdrov;

dvielcn

Ta?

TO? Te iv ry ieeaXj} ical ra> yevelto, ricos i^vp fiev aXXoicrt, dvdpci>rirot&i ^wpt? drjpoav r) Blaora diroiceicpiTai, Alyvrnioio-L Be 6/iov 6t)pioiX\ot, %d>ovcri, hXyvrvrLav Be TO> iroieofieva diro TOVTCOV t,ot)v oVetSo? fieyiaTov iari, dXXa, diro oXvpecov iroLeovTat, a, TO? t,eia
relating to Egyptian law goes to contradiet this statement. 3 All classes alike shaved the head for purposes of cleanliness, and wore large wigs to protect themselves from the sun. 4 "The relations." Cp. 2 Sam. xix. 24. 6 This is contrary to fact, unless told of the very poorest class. 6 Wheat and barley were not only eaten, but were offered in the temples, and the king at his coronation offered ears of wheat to the gods as representing the staple food of the country, "Q\vpa. was not the same as fed or spelt (Theophr. H. P. viii. 1, 3 ; Dioskor. ii. 113), but was probably the doom eaten

146

HERODOTOS.

[BOOK

avatpeovrai.8

TOto~t iroal, TOV Be 7T7]\bv Trjcri %epo~l, Kal TTJV Koirpov TO alBola

wXXot fiev

efiaOov, Alyvirrioc e/cacTTOS e'^et

Bio,

Toi>? Kpbcovs

Kal

Alyinrrioi

Be

ewcru t»? iyevovTO,

Be TrepndfivovTab. r&v

Be yvvaiK&v

ifKrjv

baot, diro

TOVTWV

e'lfiara

ra>v fiev

dvBpoov

ev

ecrcoOev.

ypdfifiara

avrol

enr dpiarepd.

Bi(f>acrioi,cn Be ypdfifiaais

fiev

BcavfieovTes elfiara fidXiGTa.

^peavrai,.

dva irdaav

Be ~kivea rd

re

^peavTai,

eK ^aXKecav

rjfiiprjv,

(f>opeov
Kal

Kal ra

fiev

KaXetrai.

®eo
Kal

eirl TO Befjia

(pacri, eVt Beljtci, -iroielv, "EXX^va? Se

lepa ra Be ByjfioTiKa

vofioicri,

larlwv

irpocrBeovai,

Be onrb rwv Be^ieav eirl TO dptarepd'

•jroLeovres rdora avrcov 37

AiyvTmoi

TCOV

efjadev

ypd<pov
tyi](f)oio~i "EXX^ve? fiev dirb TWV dpicTeprnv rrjv yeipa,

kicao-Tr)}

roil? KaXow? ol fiev aXXoi

irdvTav

vroTijplav

dvOpanrav Trivovcn,

OVK 6 fiev 6 B' ov, aXXa veoTrXvra,

irepiTafivovTai

irdvTe^}

eTTLTr]Bei)OVTe<;

TOVTO

Ka9apeioTr]TO<> etveKev,

TrpoTtfia>VTe<; KaOapol elvai rj exnrpeTrea-Tepoi,.

ol Be lepel<; %vpS>v-

rat, Trap TO awfia

(f>8elp firjre

fivaapbv

Bta, TpiTT]^ fjfiepr]<;, iva firjre

fir/Bev eyylvr\Tai

acpi depairevovo-i

Be (f>opeovKal TOV? deovs. viroBrjfiaTa aXKo eaOiJTa f3v/3\ova'5 waato give the deity his best and dearest, See ch. 104. 1 The men wore a long robe over the loin-cloth, but threw it off when at work, The upper classes often wore an additional garment. 2 The hieratic and demotic are written from right to left, the hieroglyphics either from right to left, or from left to right, or vertically. The statement of Herodotos about Greek writing shows that he was unacquainted with any specimens of writing which either ran in the old direction from right to left, or in the later boustrophedon fashion, We may infer therefore that all the MSS. accessible to Mm were written from left to right. 3 Really three, but demotic had probably entirely superseded the earlier hieratic cursive in the time of Herodotos. See Appendix I. 4 Gold, glass, and porcelain were also used, 6 See ch. 81. Cotton upper-garments THE LAND OF EGYPT. ii.] aWrjv Be o~ aXXa. XovvTai eKacrrr]^ VVKTOS. elirelv \6y(p. TCOV ol/crjlcov Be Bis aWas 147 OVK e!-eo~Ti \af3etv oiBe viroBrjfiaTa TTJS rj/J-eprji; eKacrTrjs y^rv^pai Kal Big re OpTjcrKijias etrneXeovcn, /xvplas to? ivdo-yovai Be Kal dyada OVK okiya- ovre TI jap TpLftovai ovTe Bairav&VTai, dXka Kal cnria o- SCTTI lepa irecro-ofieva, KOX Kpewv ftoeaiv Kal ^rjvewv TrXijdo eKaarq) yiverat, TTOXXOV r/[iipT)<; eKao-T7)s, BlSorai Be o- olvos afiireXivo'i' l^Ovcov Be ov acpi e^ecrrt irdaaaQai. Be ovre TI fiaka aireipovat, AlyinrTooi, iv Trj y^wpy, rovs re yevofAevovs oiire rpwyovo-i ovre eyfrovre? irai-kovrai- oi Be Brj iepel<; ovBe opeovres ave^ovTao, vofii^ovTes ov /caOapbv elvai /J,LV oairpiov. ieparai Be OVK et? eKacrTOV TWV 6e&v aXKa, TTOXXOL, TWV els ian apxiepevs' eireav Be Tt? cnroddvrj, TOVTOV 6 7rat? avriKario-Tarai.3 T0U5 Be /Sou? TOL>9 epcreva<; TOV '^Eiirdcjjov elvao vofxiipvai, 38 Kal TOVTOV etveKa BoKifid^ovat, avTovs &Be. Tpfya rjv KOI filav '{BTjTai iireovaav fiekauvav, ov Kadapov elvai, vofii^ei. Bl^TjTai Be rdoTa eVt TOVTCO TeTayfievos TWV Tt? lepecov Kal opOov ecrTewTO? TOV KTrjveos Kal VTTTLOV, Kal Tr/v T£)V TrpoKei/Aevcov <jy\^t\lwv, TO, iya> iv aX\q> \6yq> epeo)-1 KaTopa Be Kal Ta? Tpiyas T ^ 5 ovprj<; el KaTa, vo~tv eyei "ire elXicracov Kal enreuTa yrjv o-j)fxavTpiBa enri/rfKao-as iirifidWei TOV BaKTvXuov, Kal OVTCO dirdyovai. daijfiavTov Be OvaavTi 8dvaT0<; were also worn over the linen underclothing. We find the high priest wearing a leopard's skin over his dress. The linen was frequently so fine as to be semitransparent. The sandals of those who were not priests were made of palm leaves and leather as well as of papyrus, and those worn by the upper classes and women generally had the points turned up. No foot-covering was worn until the time of the fifth dynasty, and in later times even the richer classes often went barefoot like the majority of the modern inhabitants of Egypt. 6 "Their own property." 7 This prohibition, which was not extended to the rest of the community, was probably a survival from a time when there was a superstitious dislike to eat fish, such as still exists in many parts of the eastern world as well as among the Highlanders, fish being supposed to cause fever, or some similar malady. Fish alone were not offered to the gods. 8 The son might not only become the priest of some other god, and so enter another college, but also practise some other profession, such as that of the soldier. The high priest was called Sem, and there were five priestly grades. 9 i.e. Apis, Egyptian Hapi, who was identified with Epaphos on account of the similarity of name. The monuments show that bulls with black, red, and white hairs were killed both for the temples and for the private houses. Apis stood at the head of the four sacred beasts (Apis of Memphis, Mena or Mnevis of Heliopolis, Bak of Hermonthis, and Tamur). Compare iii. 28. r\v 148 HERODOTOS. [BOOK •f] tyfiirj iirt/ceiTal. BoKLfid^eTau fiev vvv TO KTT)VO<; Tpoira TOiaBe, 39 Qvait] Be o~d£ovai, acpdfjavTes Be diroTdfivovo~i rr)v KetpaXrjv. crwfia [lev Br) TOV KTT]V€O<; Beipovo~L, Ke<pa\fj Be Keivr} iroXka icarapr\o'djievoi epovcri, Total fiev av rj dryopr) xal ' EXX^ve? o~tj)t, eaxri efiiropoi, oi Be (f>epovTe<; e? TTJV ar/oprjv air &v eBovTO,B Brj av fir) irapecoo-t "EXXT;I/6?, oi b" eic^dXKov Trj crvvcnrdcrr) KCLKOV ryeveo-Oai, e? icea\r)v TavTrjv Tpaireo-Qcu. Kara fiev vvv Ta? Kea\a<> TS)V Ovofievwv KTrjveav ica\ Tr)v iirio'ireiaiv TOV olvov irdvTes AlyvvTioi, vofioiai TOICTI avTolci -^pewvTat, ofioiw; e? irdvTa TO, iepd, ica\ dirb TOVTOV TOV vofiov ovBe aWov otiBevb1; 40 ifi-^rv^ov Ke<pa\fj<; yevcreTai AiyvirTiav ovBets. r) Be Br) i^aipea-^ T&V iepcov KOI r) icavcris dWr/ irepX aXKo tepov o~i K,aTeo~Tr\KV Tr)v 8" &v fieyia-Tt)v re Bai/iova tfyrjVTai elvat, ical /jAyiaTrjv ol bpTrjv dvdjovcrt, TavTijv4 ep^o/iat, epecov . . . etreav airoBeipaci, TOV ^ovv, icaTevtjdfievot, KotXirjv fiev iceivrjv iraaav e'f &v elKov, o~Tr\dfiaTt /cal Tr)v Tnfiekrjv, o~ice\ea Be d'jroTdfivovo'i ical Tr)v 6o-iBo<> Kal O~VKCOV Kal \if3avooTov Kal Cfivpvr]^ Kal T&V aWav 6va)fiaTa>v, Tr\rjo-avTe<; Be TOVTCOV KaTayi^ovcri, eKaiov afy&ovov KaTaykovr&f Trpovr)(TTevo~avte<; Be dvovat, Kaiofievcov Be Tmv iepwv TinrTOvrcu 7rdvTe<;, €7reav Be a/KOTv^avTai, Baira irpoTidevTai TO, iXivovTO 41 T&V iep&v. TOW fiev vvv Ka0apoii<; /Sow? TOW? epcreva<; ical TOV<S fiocr^ov<; oi Traz/re? AlyinrTioi Qvovo-i, Ta? Be 07j\ea<; ov (r<j>t> e%eo~TL Qvew', aKXa, iepai eicri TT)<; "Iv icm, KOTO irep "¥i\\r)ve<; Tip 6 'low ypd<pov 4 Herodotos means Isis ; see chh. 59, 6 1 ; but in ch. 41 he confounds her with Hathor, to whom, and not to Isis, tie cow was sacred. As the reclining cow, Isis was called Heset. 6 Really Hathor, see last note, 6 16 was the moon-goddess at Argos, according to Eustathios, her connection ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. O/MH«5 aiftovTat, irpo^a/rav ivainav fiaXiara 149 jMaicpa>- TS)V e'tveica ovre dvrjp AiyvirTOO'i ovre yvvr) dvBpa "EiWrjva (faiXrjcreie av TO3 (TTOfian, ovBe fia^alpy dvBpbs "RWi)vo<> j^prjaerai ovBe 6/3e\olcri ovBe XefiyTi, ovBe icpew; icadapov /3oo? BtaTer/MTj/ievov 'E\\r)viKfj fia-y^aipr} yevaerai. OdirTovau Be rovs drjro6vrjaicovTa<; /Sou? rpoTrov TovBe. Ta? fikv 6r)\ea<; e? rbv TTOTafibv wKieiui, TOU? Be kpaeva? Karopixraovcn e/cacrToi iv rolac irpocuneioiai, TO «epa? TO erepov rj KOX dfKpoTepa VTrepi^ovra arjfirjiov eive/cev eireav Be (ramfi KOX irpocriri 6 TeTayfAevos %p6vo<;, dirncveirai, e? e/cacr/Sapi? 8 eK Trj^ IIpocr(B7riTtSo9 KoKeofievfji; vr)aov. TTJV 7ro\iv rj B' €<JTI fiev iv ra> AeXra, Trepcfierpov Be airr)? elo-l a-^olvoi ivvia. iv ravrrj av rrj TlpocrwrriTiBu vqam evei.cn fjsv ical dXXai 7roX(e? (Tvyyal, in TT)<; Be al ySapte? Trapayivovrai dvaipqcrofievai ra ocrTea r&v /3oa>v, ovvofia T§ ir6\ei 'ATdp{3r)%t,<;,9 iv B' airy 'A^poStTi/? lepov dyiov "Bpvrai. e« Tavr7)<; T?}? TTOXIO^ ir\avcovrai, TTOWOI aWoi e? aXAa? 7ro\ia<;, avopvljavre1; Be ra oarea dirdyovai ical ddtrTovcri e? eva ^(S)pov iravres. Kara Tavrd Be roiai /3oucrt /ecu raXXa KTqvea Od-rrTovai diroOvqcrKovTa' ical yap irepl rdora OVTCO Kreivovcn yap Br) ovBe rdoTa. "Oaoi fi,ev Br) Ato? %rj^aieo creftovrai, 6eoi><; ydp Br) ov TOU? avTov*; airavre^ 6fioia><; Alyinrnoi irXr/v "I with Argos being really due to the identity of sound between the name of the city of Argos and that of Argos, the ' ' bright " sky, with its thousand eyelike stars which Here" (swara, " t h e heaven,") had deputed to watch 16. 16 originally meant " t h e wanderer," from ya " t o g o " (whence el/u, ire, etc.); hence the story of her wanderings. The moon goddess was given the horns of a cow from her crescent shape. Southward of Cairo, the new moon rests on its back, instead of one of its horns, making the likeness to the horns of a cow very complete. Hence it was that the cow was sacred to the moon. It is probable, however, that the Greek legend which connects the cow with 16 was derived from the Phoenician conception of the moon-goddess "Astarte, with elvai the crescent-horns." See ch. 153, note 9. 7 The Egyptians Considered the Greeks (like other foreigners) unclean, not only because they killed the cow, but also because they ate swine's flesh, and did not practise circumcision. In this they agreed with their modern Mohammedan descendants. 8 Egyptian bari, "a Nile boat," already found on monuments of the eighteenth dynasty. 9 Prosopitis lay between the Kanopic and Sebennytic branches of the Nile; Atarbekhis being Aphroditopolis, or "the city of Hathor." It is impossible to suppose that all the bulls of Egypt were buried there, or that the Nile was polluted by the corpses of heifers. Herodotos has here found another mare's nest. 150 HERODOTOS. [BOOK \eyovo~f TOVTOVS Be ofiolws &7ravTe<; crefiovTcu. ocroi Be TOV Mei/S?;TO9 e.KTt]VTai lepov rj vofiov TOV IS/LevBTjaCov elcrl, OVTOV Be alycbv aTre^Sfievoi 06? Qvovcn. TOVTOVS 6la>v aTveyovTai, ©ij/Satot fiev vvv Kal oaov Bid Bid TaBe Xeyovcri TOV VO/IOV TOvBe a^lcrt TeQr\vai. 'H-paickea OeXijaac iravTWi IBeadcu TOV At'a teal TOV ovK ideXeiv 6<j}0rjvai, inf avTOv- TeXo? Si, eireire Xnrapelv TOV 'Upa/cXea, TOV A t a fj/q^avrjaaaOai Kpibv eicBelpavTa irpoe^effdai Te TTJV Ke<j>aXrjV airoTafiovTa TOV /cpiov, Kal evhvvTa TO vdicos OVT(O ol ecovTov 67rtSe^at.3 airb TOVTOV KpioTrpoaairov TOV Ato? Troieovat AIJIITTTIOI, enrb Be A.l Te Kal KIOLOTTCOV S/irotKoi xal cjxQvrj von,itpvTe Bo/ceiv Be /JLOI, /cat TO ovvofia ' dirb TovBe o-$lai TTJV iTrcovvfii^v eTroirjcravTO1 'Afiovv TLOL KaXeovcrL TOV A/a. yap Alyinr- TOV? Be Kpioii<; ov Qvovcri ®7]{3aloi, elcri o-(f)C lepol Boa TOVTO. fiifj Be r)fjbepr) TOV iviavTov, TOV Ato?, Kpibv eva KaTaKo^avTes Kal diroBeipavTe'; dW' iv oprfj KaTa TWUTO ivBvovac TaiyaXfia TOV AtO9, Kal eireiTa aKKo dyaXfia 'HpaK\eo<; irpocrdyovo-i, Trpbs avTO. TaoTa Be 7roir}cravTe<; TinrTOVTai6 ol 7repl TO lepov aTravTes TOV Kpobv Kal eireura iv leprj 0^Krj ddirTovai avTov. 43 'Hpa«;A.6o? Be trepi TovBe TOV Xoyov r/Kovcra, on e'lt] T&V Bva>BeKa 6ewv6 TOV eTepov Be irepu 'Hpa/cXeo?, TOV " E X X T ; ^ ? olBacri, 1 The Egyptian deities were originally local, but were united into one pantheon after the unification of the empire. The special god of a city or nome, however, continued to be honoured as its chief deity, as, e.g. Amun at Thebes, or Ptah at Memphis. Some local deities never became national, and the sacred animals or totems of one district were not sacred in another. Thus the crocodile was worshipped at Ombos, Athribis, and the region of Lake Mceris, but abhorred and hunted down at Dendera, Herakleopolis, and Apollinopolis Magna. The extension of the Osiris myth throughout the whole of Egypt indicates its rise after the foundation of the united monarchy by Menes. Goats were naturally offered to the ram-headed Amun (-Knuph), who came to absorb all the other members of the pantheon after the rise of the Theban dynasties. 2 The ruins of Mendes (Egyptian Pibineb-tat) have lately been excavated eleven miles east of Mansurah (on the Damietta branch of the Nile). The god Mendes is probably the Egyptian Ba-en-Tat, also called Ba-neb-Tat ( " t h e soul, the lord of Abusir") who is ram-headed, 3 Amun means " t h e hidden one," as Manetho rightly stated, and this, coupled with his ram's head when representing Khnum or Knuph, no doubt gave rise to the myth. HSrakles is Khunsu or Khons (also Shu), who, with Amun and the maternal principle Mut, forms the Theban Triad, and as being " t h e destroyer of enemies" and the wandering moon-god, wasidentifiedwithHeraclesbytheGreeks. 4 See ch. 32, note 4. 5 "Strike themselves (i.e. lament) for the ram." 6 The twelve gods are probably an invention of the Greeks ; comp. the altar n.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. ovSafif} AIJVTTTOV E j iBwdcrdiiv ekafiov fidXXov 151 dicov ical \x,r\v on ye ov trap Alyvimot TOV 'Hpa/tXeo?, dXXa TO ovvofia Trap AlyvivTiaiv ical 'EKXrjvcov OVTOI ol de/ievot A[i(f>t,Tpvc0vo<; yova> Tovvo/jua 'Yi.paKK.ea, iroXXd fioi /cal dXXa icrTi UpaxXeo1; 'AXK/AIJVT) TOVTO TOVTOV OVTCO e%eiv, iv ol yoveis yeyovoTes Be ical ToBe, OTL TC TOV dfMpoTepoi, rjcrav 'AfufciTpvwv TO dviicadev air Alyv-rrTov? ical ical BIOTI AlyviTTOOb ovre HoaeiBemvos OVTB Aioa/covpwv ra ovvo/iaTa (f>aai elBevai, ovBe i deol OVTOI, iv TOICTL aXkoiac deolai, diroBeBe^aTai. ical firjv e'i ye Trap' '^iWrjvuiv eXaftov ovvofia Teo Baipovoi, TOVTCOV OVK rjKKTTa dXXa, fidXiaTa efieXXov /Mvtjfirjv e^eiv, e'i ireps ical Tore vavToXiycri i^peaivTO ical rjcrav 'JLXXijvcov Tives vavToXoi, ft)? eXTro/jMi T6 ical ifir) yvoifir} alpel- (wcrre TOVTCOV av ical fidXXov TCOV 6ewv TO, ovvofiaTa i^eiriaTeaTO AlyvirTioi r) TOV 'HpaicXeos. dXXd TK ap^aZo? icm debs Aiyvmloiat, 'HpaKXerjs- co? Be avTol Xeyovai, ered ecrTi eTTTaicio"){LXia ical fLvpia e? "Afiao-tv /3ao-iXevaavTa, iireiTe iic TWV OKTW detov ol BvwBeica deol iykvovTO TO>V 'UpaicXea eva vofii^ovcri,.9 ical OeXav Be TOVTCOV ^repi ;, vos avToOi e\vai lepov 'Hpa/cXeo? dycov. icaTeo-icevao~fievov aXXoiai of the twelve gods in the Troad, and the twelve gods of Etruria presiding over the twelve months of the year. According to Manetho, as quoted by Syncellus, after the seven gods for 13,900 years, came a dynasty of eight heroes (Are's, Anubis, Herakles, Apollo, Ammon, Tithoes, Zosos, and Zeus), for 1255 years (reduced to 189 by Syncellus). These were followed by other kings for 1817 years, then 30 Memphites for 1790 years, next 10 Thinites 350 years, after whom came ' ' manes " and demigods for 5813. These prehistoric dynasties ended with Bytis, and were succeeded by Menes. From Hephfestos (Ptah) to Menes were 24,900 years. After Horus, the last of the first divine dynasty, the Turin Papyrus gives Thoth for 7226 years, then Thmei, and then the younger Horus, after whom seems to come a summation of the demigods followed by the name of Menes. See the end of this ch. ical elBov Te TTOXXOIO-O dvadij/Micri, ical 7 Because the mythologists made Amphitryon the descendant of iEgyptos, and Alkmene1 of Perseus, and so of JEgyptos. The Greek Herakles (corresponding with Sansk. suryas, " the sun," for swar-yas, like Hera) is the Tyrian Melkarth, the sun-god, and his twelve labours have their prototype in the twelve labours of the solar hero of the great Chaldean epic, 8 " I f indeed the Egyptians." 9 The first divine dynasty contained seven, not eight gods ; and the demigods were not twelve, but eight, according to Manetho. The secondary deities were not sprung from the primary. In ch. 145 Herodotos reckons 15,000 years from Dionysos (Osiris) to Menes. Since Osiris was included in the first divine dynasty, while H&rakles belonged to the second of demigods or heroes, Herodotos has again misunderstood his informants, See ch. 145. 152 HEEODOTOS. [BOOK ev ai>Ta> ?jo~av aTrjXai Bvo, r) fiev yjpvaov anvkfyQov, 77 Be crfiapdyBov Xidov XdfiirovTO<; T « ? vvKTas fieyaOos. e? Xoyov; Be eXOebv rolai lepevcri TOV 6eov elpofirjv 6K6 lepbv tSpvrai. evpov Be ovBe TOVTOVS rolau "EXX^crt. crvfi<j>epofievov;' e<pao~av yap afia T^vpm oiKitpfievr) /cat TO iepbv TOV Oeov lBpv8ijva(,, elvai Be erea d-ir o5 Tvpov ol/ceovo-o rpir/Koa-ia Kal Btcr^lXia.2 elBov Be ev rfj Tvpa> teal aXXo lepbv 'Hpa/tXeo? i"Tr(ovvfJbir]v e%ovTO<; %aaiov eivcu. aTTtKO/jbrji) Be Kal 6? ®dcrov, ev TTJ evpov lepbv 'Hpa«Xeo? iiirb QOLVLICWV iBpvfxevov, o'l /car' T^vpanrTji; ^rrjcnv eicrrXwaavTes %daov eKTiaav 3 Kal rdora Kal irevre yevefjcri avBpwv irpoTepd eari n) TOV 'AfMpirpvoovos 'UpaKXea ev Tjj 'J^XXdBi yevecrdai. TO, fiev vvv laTopt)fieva BifXoi aa^>ew<; iraXaibv Oebv 'UpaKXea iovra' Kal BoKeovai Be fiot, OVTOO bpQoTaTa '^XXrjvoiv iroielv, o'l Biffa, 'UpaKXeia IBpvcrd/ievoi, 6KTi]VTai, Kal T« fiev o>? adavdrw 'OXvfnria Be eir? rjpcoi ivayl^ovai,. Xeyovo~i Be TroXXa Kal aXXa dveiricTKe'iTTWi ol "EXX^^e?, evi]6r)<; Be avraiv TOV irepl TOV 'H^a/cXeo? Xeyovcri, AtryvTTTov (TTeyfravTef dvo-ovTe<; TC5 Ad- ol AlyvTTTioi, Kal oBe 6 fj,v66<; £GTI <»? ainbv amiKOfievov e? VTTO 7ro/i7T97? egrjyov w? TOV Be Tews fiev r/av^irjv e%eiv, eVet Se avTov TTjOo? T&5 /3&)/xc3 KaTap^ovTO, 6? OXKTJV Tpairofievov iravTas cr^iaf KaTa<povevcrai,. ifiol fiev vvv BoKeovcn TOOTO Xiyovres TT)<; AlyvjrTLCOV (j)vcrio<; Kal T&V voficov irdfi/irav direlp(o<; eyew ol "EXX-^z/e?1 yap ovBe KTrjvea oair) Qvetv IGTI %copl<; v&v Kal ipo~eva>v 1 The temple of Melkarth stood in insular Tyre, probably a little southward of the ruined Crusaders' Cathedral. The two upright cones of stone were the Asherim (mistranslated "groves") of the Old Testament, the symbols of the goddess of fertility, which stood at the entrance of the Phoenician temples of the sun-god. Compare the two "pillars" Jachin and Boaz ("establishment" and "strength") at the entrance of Solomon's Temple, which was built by Phoenicians (1 Kings vii. 21). The "emerald" pillar was probably of green glass. Movers makes the pillars the Khammdnim or "sun-images" of the Old Testament. 2 Tyre is the Heb. tsdr, " a rock." Sidon was considered the older settlement. 3 The gold-mines of Thasos were first worked by the Phoenician colonists. The temple of the Thasian Melkarth perhaps stood on the little hill of ElMa'shuk ( " t h e beloved," i.e. Adonis the sun-god), facing Tyre at the eastern end of the isthmus which joins the island to the mainland. The title "Thasian" has probably nothing to do with the island of Thasos. Europa, the daughter of Agenor or Khna (Canaan), and sister of Phcenix and Kadmos, represents Astarte, who, under the form of a cow, was the bride of the bull, the symbol of the sun-god. The name was first applied to Boeotia, where the Phoenicians were long settled. Possibly it is the Heb. 'erebh, " t h e w e s t " ; to which a Volksetymologie has given a Greek appearance. See i. 2, note 7. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 153 ftoav ical fiocr^wv, ocroi av tcaOapol eaxri, Kal ^vmv, #«? av OVTOL avdpobirovs dvoiev ; en Be eva kovra TOV 'Hpa/cXia /cat en, avOpunrov, w? Br) (jjaai, «&>? v ical Trapa TWV r\pu>av evfieveit] eh]. T a ? Be &r] alya<; ical TOV? rpdyov; TwvSe eive/ca ov dvovcri 46 A.lyv7TTL(ov ol elprjfievoi. TOV Tiava TWV OKTCO Oetov Xoyu^ovrai, elvai ol MevStfcrtoi, TOU? Be d/crm 6eov<> TOI/TOV? Trporkpow; TWV Bvdb&eica de&v <j>aovcrl re Brj ical yXv^ovcri ol ical ol dyaXfiaToiroiol TOV Ilaz/o? T&yaX/xa icard irep alyoirpoaanrov ical TpayoaiceXea, OVTI TOIOVTOV vo/xielvai fitv dXKa ofxoiov rolcn, aXXotcrt Oeolcri- oreo Be etveica TOIOVTOV ypd<povat CLVTOV, OV fioc, T]8I,6V eaTL Xeyetv. crefiovTai Be TTOi'Ta? TOV9 alyas ol WLevBijaiot, ical fiaXXov TOW? epo~eva<; TSIV SrjXecov, Kal TOVTCCV ol aliroXoi Tifias fie^ovas k'^ovao- etc Be TOVTCOV eva /judXccrTa, oo-Tt? eireav aTrodavrj, irevdos fieya nravTl TC3 M.evBr]o-[(i> vofiS TiOeTai. /caXeirai, Be o Te Tpdyos Kal 6 Hav Alyvima-Ti Mei/S?;?. iyeveTO Be iv TS vofiai TOVTW eV ifieo TOVTO TO Tepas' yvvaiicl Tpdyos ifilayeTO dvaav86v. TOVTO e? eTrlBetjtv dv0pa>TT(ov airiiceTO. r Tv Be KlyuTTTioL fiiapbv r]yi)VTai Qt]piov elvac6 Kal TOVTO 47 fiev r/v Tt? yfravo-r) avT&v 7rapia>v wo?, aiiolcn Tolcrt Ifiarioiai anf &v e/3ai|re kcovTov ySa? eirl TOV iroTafiov TOVTO Be ol crw/3o)Tat AlyinrTLoi eyyevels e? lepbv oiiBev TS>V iv AlytnrTW eaepX fiovvoo -jrdvT(ov, ovBe crcpi eK&lBocrOat. ovSel? OvyaTepa ideXei o&B' ayeaOai efj avTuiv dXX' iicBiBovTai Te ol avfi&Tai ical dyovTai i£ dXXtfXmv. TOICI, fiev vvv aXXoicri Qeolxri Oveiv y? ov 4 According to the legend as found in Pherekydes of Leros (Fr. 33), strangers were sacrificed to the supreme god on the coasts of the Delta by Busiris, who is plainly the town of that name. As this part of Egypt was almost wholly inhabited by Phoenicians, it is clear that the myth is a reminiscence of the human sacrifices they offered to their sun-god, who himself had been sacrificed by his father El. 5 See ch. 43, note 9. Khem is meant by Pan. Hence Khemmis is the Greek Panopolis. Herodotos here confuses Khem and Mendes together. No Egypt- ian deity is represented with the feet of an animal. The Sesennu, or "eight" gods of the monuments, who gave their name to Pi-Sesennu or Hermopolis, were —(1) Nu ("the water") and Nut, (2) Hehu and Hehut, (3) Kek ("darkness") and Kekt, (4) Neni and Nenit. These do not include Khem, and have nothing to do with the eight gods of Herodotos who are explained in ch. 43 (see note 9). 6 Herein agreeing with Jews, Mohanimedans, and Hindus, as well as with the more refined portion of modern European society. HERODOTOS. 154 AIJVTTTIOI,, avrov %eXrjvr) Be ical [BOOK Aiovv7 fiovvocat rou yjpovov, Trj avrrj 7ravcreXr)vq>, TOU9 5? dvcravTes iraTeovTai T5>V Kpe&v. BIOTI Be Tovf u? iv fJ>ev Trjai aXXrjcri opTrjo~t a"jreo~Tvyrj/cacrt iv Be ravrrj Qvovcn, ean pev Xoyof Trepl UVTOV inr' Alyv7rriQ3V Xeyopevos, ifjuol fi&VTOt, iTUO-ra/Aeva OVK p s icrri Xeyecrdat. Qvait]] Be rjBe TCOV v&v rfj ^eXr/vrj y j f eireav Svarj, TTJV ovprjv a/cprjv KdX TOV cnrXfjva, Kai TOV eirnrXoov avvdeh Ofiov KCIT' &V i/caXvtJre iraxyr) TOV KTijveos Trj -TrifieX?) Trj irepl TTJV vrjBiiv yivofievr), KOX eireira KaTayi^ei irvpi' TO, Be aXXa Kpea 48 Ovovcrt,.9 TS Be A.iovvo-q> T?J? opri}? Ty Bopirirj1 yolpov dvpecov (T^d^a^ aTToBoiievai TCOV Aiovvcrq) irpo TWV e/tacrTo? BoBol airoi^kpeo'Qai, TOV yoipov ax)T& T& TTJV Be OXXTJV avdyovau ol KlyinrTLOi TTXTJV %opu>v2 KCLTO, TaiiTa opTrjv avTb Be aXX5>v aXXa acf>i io~Ti i^evprjfieva ^ ayaXfjMTa vevpoairacTa, ra a^eBbv TravTa bo~ov Te TO, irept,<popeovo-i KCLTO, KWfia1; yvvaiKei, vevov TO alBolov, ov iroXXa Tea) eXaaaov ibv TOV dXXov <xeu/A<xTO?.3 irpoTjyelTat, B~e avXos, at Be eirovrau aelBovaau TOV 49 TOV BoKei BIOTL Be fieCpv re e%ei TO alBolov Kal Kivel fiovvov ?, eaTt, Xoyos irepl avTOv lepbs Xeyofievo^. TJBTJ &V 6 M.eXdfi7rov<;6 o 'Afiv6ewvo<; 7 Isis and Osiris. Brugsch makes Selene the Egyptian Suben, whose chief seat of worship was El-Kab (Eileithyopolis). Droves of swine haye been found represented on • the walls of the tombs here. 8 Probably another attempt of Herodotos to cover his ignorance. See ch. 3, note 9. 9 The civilisation of China has discovered an equally cheap way of appeasing the gods with paper figures. 1 Aopirla was the first day of the Ionic feast Apaturia. It here seems to have the general sense of " t h e beginning of the feast." 2 Two MSS. read x°^Pav, but %huv ' s the reading of the three best, and most suits the context, the meaning being that the Egyptians have no " choral dances." 3 " In no way much less than the rest TavT7)<; OVK of the body." Cp. v. 33. The feast of the ithyphallic Min (Khem) took place on the 26th of Pachon, in the time of Eamses III. 4 Herodotos has confused the feast of Osiris with that of Khem. 6 Melampous, nephew of Neleos, king of Pylos, and brother of Bias, the soothsayer, was himself a prophet and a physician. Serpents had licked his ears, and so given him understanding of the language of birds and knowledge of the future. He healed the daughters of Prcetos with hellebore, and restored the women of Argos to their reason. The introduction of the worship of Dionysos, ascribed to him, seems to indicate that the myth has embodied traditions of " swarth-footed " Phoenicians, and justifies the statement of Herodotos at the end of the chapter. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 155 eivai a8ar)<; dXX' efi-ireipos. "EXXTJCTI yap 8rj MeXdfnrov; icrrl 6 e^rjyTjad/Mevo'; TOV Aiovvaov TO Te ovvofia /cat TT]V QvalrfV real Trjv Trofnrrjv TOV aXXov- aTpeKea>i fiev ov nrdvTa avXXafScov TOV Xoyov ecpTjve, dXX' ol iiviyevofievoi TOVTM o-ooaTal fie^ovcos i^ecf)7jvav TOV 8' a>v (f>aXXbv TOV TW Aiovvaca irefnrofievov MeXa/wrou? etTTi 6 >caTr)yr)o-dfievo<;, ical d-jrb TOVTOV fiaQovTa Troikovai TO. TTOieovcn "lLWT]ve fiev vvv <j>r)/M, MeXdfnroSa yevo/xevov avBpa croijo-a) ra Te iv AlyvirTG) iroieo/Aeva ra 8eq> Kal TO, ev TOIO~I "EXXTJO-I- veaan '^Wrjvoov icrTjyjieva. eXafiov o/MOTpoTTa yap av rjv Tolcn "EXX-^trt Kal ov ov fiev ovBe (frijo-w OKO><; hlyvimoi rj TOVTO rj aXKo KOV TL VOJJMLOV. fxot, BoKel fid\i, nrap TwOkaQai Be TOV AIOVVCTOV Trapa, Kal TSJV O~VV avT& eK QOIVIK^ airiKOfJuevoov e? TT]V vvv HOICOTITJV KoXeofjievTjv ycoprjv. %%eBbv Be xal iravTaiv TO, ovvofxaTa T&V 6e&v i^ AlytnrTov 50 e\r]\v6e e? TTJV ' E X l a S a . 6 Biort, fiev yap eK T&V j3apf3dpcov fjKei, TTvvOavofievos OVTCO evpidKd) iov BoKeto b" wv fiaXidTa dir AlyinrTOV airiyQai. OTI yap Br; fir] Tloo-eiBecovo1? Kal AooaKovpav, acri de&v yuvmaKeiv TO, ovvofiaTa, OVTOI Be yuot, BoKeovai virb YieXaay&v ovofiacrdrjvai, TTXTJV IlocretBewvos' TOVTOV Be TOV Oebv irapa AifSvwv eirvOovTO' ovBafiol yap air dp%r)<; Tlocrei8ea>vo<; ovvo/ia eKTTjVTai el fit) A('/3ue?,7 ical VOfll^OVCTL 8' S)V AlyVTTTlOt, Ol)B' TLfl&Gl TOV Oebv TOVTOV alel. fjpaai oi8ev.s TaoTa fiev vvv Kal dXXa 7T/3O? TOVTOMJL, TO, e^a) 51 (f>pdaco, "E\\7}ve<; air AlyvirTiatv vevofiiKaaf TOV Be ' dydXfiaTa 6p0a ej^eiv TO, alBola iroieovTes OVK dif 6 The Chauvinism of Herodotos, if he ever had any, had been entirely removed by his travels, and he had the same high opinion of the Egyptians that many Englishmen have of the French. Not onlywere "things better managed there," but Greece had to go to Egypt even for its theology. Of course the name of no Greek deity really "came from Egypt." 7 It is a pity that Herodotos does not tell us what was the Lybian form of the name. But probably he did not know it. In Egypt the sea was under the influence of Typhon (Set). 8 " T h e Egyptians are in no way used to heroes." The very idea was unknown in Pantheistic Egypt. The worship of ancestors (tepu) was altogether different. HERODOTOS. 156 [BOOK diravTcov fjLe/Mi8iiicao~t, dXX' a/iro Ti.eXao~ya>v irp5)TOi 'Adrjvalot, TrapaXafiovTes, irapa Be TOVTO>V MXXOI. yap 77S77 rrjviKavra e? "EXXrjva*; reXeovcri9 HeXao-yol avvoucoi iyevovTO iv TT) ^coprj, o&ev irep KOI "JLXXrfve*} TjpjfavTO vo(i*io~df)vai. 6'cTTt? Be ra K-afielpwv opyia fie/MvrjTai,1 ra "Za/ioOptfiices iTriTeXeovai 7rapa\a/3ovTe<; irapa TleXacry&v, O5TO? mvijp oiBe TO Xeyay Tt]V yap 2,a/ji,odp'r)iKr]v o'liceov trpoTepov JleXacryou oiiroi 01 irep 'AOrjvaloiai, opyia O-VVOLKOI iyevovro, TrapaXafifBavovcn. TOV 'Tipfieco 'AOrjvaloi KaX irapa, TOVTCOV %afJL.odprji,Ke<; ra opda &v tyew irpwroi ra alBola 'EWJ/VOJZ' fiadovTes irapa rayaX/iaTa UeXao-- yu>v eTroirio~avTO' ol Be UeXaayol lepov nva ~koyov irepi avrov eXe^av, ra, iv rolcri iv %afio0p7)licr) fivaTrfpioicn BeBrfXarai. 52 edvov Be trdvTa irporepov ol TieXao~yo\ 0eoio~i iirevyofievot,, &)? iycb iv A.a>Bd>vrj olBa aKovcras, iiravvfii^v Be ovB' ovvo/ia eVoteovro ovBevl avrcbv ov yap a/crj/coecrdv KU>. Qeovs Be irpocr<0vofj,a TO, iravra Trptfyfiara ical Trdo-as vofia,<; elyov? eireiTa Be ypovov iroXXov Bie%eXdovTO<; iirvQovro etc T ^ ? Alyvvrov dntyfieva TO, ovvofiaTa 9 "Beginning to be reckoned among Hellenes." See i. 57, note 1. 1 " H a s been initiated into the mysteries of the Kabeiri." The Kabeiri were the eight Phoenician Kabbirim or K%birim, " t h e strong (or great) ones," of whom Eshmun ( " t h e eighth"), identified with Asklepios, was the youngest. Perhaps they originally represented the planets, Eshmun being a form of the supreme god. According to Sanchoniathon (Phil. Byb. 11), they were the seven sons of Sydyk or Sadykos, " t h e just." The mother of Eshmun (Damascius, Fit. Isid.) was Astronoe, i.e. AstartS. The Greeks identified them with the Dioskuri, " t h e sons of Zeus," i.e. El, the supreme god, who was the father of the seven Titans (a Greek translation of Kabeiri), and of whom Sydyk was a title. Their worship in Lemnos and Samothrake shows that these islands once possessed Phoenician colonies, which Herodotos calls Pelasgic, i.e. prehistoric. Greek writers vary as to their number as worshipped in these islands ; the scholiast on Apollon. (i. 917) makes them four, Axieros or De'me'te'r, Axiokersa or Persephone, Axiokersos or Aides, and Kasmilos or Herme's ; Akusilaos and Pherekydes reckoned only three; others only two (Zeus and Dionysos). M. James Darmesteter (Mim. de la Soe. de Linguistique, iv. 2) seeks to identify them with the "Sons of God" of Gen. vi. 2, and supposes the legend to have originally run : ' ' The sons of God saw the daughters of men that they were fair, and left for them the daughters of God (i.e. the seven Kabeirides or women of Lemnos) ; the daughters of God slew them." See Herodotos, iii. 37. The old Aryan god Hermes (the Vedic Sarameyas, the dog of the dawn) was changed into the Phoenician Kasmilos, who presided over generation. 2 Gcis probably stands for Beads, from 0e-, dha, the root of rWri/u, so that the etymology of Herodotos seems to be correct. At any rate phonetic laws prevent us from connecting the word with deus and its kindred. ii.] T&V Kai THE LAND OF EGYPT. 157 0eS)v T&V aXXmv, Aiovvcrov Be vcrrepov 7roXXm iirvdovTO? fiera yjpbvov i%pr)o~T/r)pid£ovTO irepl TWV oiivo/jLarav iv Awodovy TO jap Brj fiavrijiov TOVTO vevofiio~Tai dp^aioraTov TWV iv "JLXXrjcri •%pr)CTTT]pLC0V elvai, Kal r/v rov ypovov TOVTOV fiovvov. iirel 3)v i^ptjaTrjpid^ovTO iv TJ} Ao)Ba>vrj ol UeXacyol el dviXeovTac Ta ovvopaTa TO, dvo TWV fiapfidpcav r/KOVTa, dveTXe TO fiavTqiov yjpatrQai. dirb fiev Br) TOVTOV TOV %p6vov edvov rolao ovvofiaai T&V Oewv %ped>(jLevot,- irapa, Be He\ao-v "JZWrjves i^eBe^avTO vo-Tepov. oOev Be iyevovTO e/cao-TO? T£>V OeStv, eifre 53 ale\ fjo~av iravTes, OKOZOL Te TH>6? TO. elBea, OVK r/TTHTTeaTo /J<e%pi ov -jrpwrjv Te xal %#e? toy elirelv X07C0. 'HaioBov yap Kal "Ofxrjpov 7)KtKit]v TeTpaKoo-LoLO~i eTecn BoKeca peo Trpe Kal ov irXeoa'c OVTOI Be elo~i ol Trovr)o~avTe "l^Wrjcri Kal Tolai 6eolo~t, TO.? iTra)vv/j(,la<; SovTes Kal Ttyaa? Te Kal Te%ya<; BieXovTes Kal eiBea avTwv arjfi^vavTe1;.5 ol Be irpoTepov 7rot7]Tal \ey6fievoc BoKelv, iyevovTO.6 Xeyovwi, TOVTCOV TCOV dvBpwv yevecrdai vaTepov, TOVTCDV TO, /j,ev irpSiTa al AooBavlBes efioiye lepelai TO, Be vo~Tepa TO, e? 'Ho-loBov Te Kal "Ofiijpov e^ovTa iya> Xefya). XpTja-TijpLcov Be -Kepi TOV Te iv "EWrjcn, Kal TOV iv Aiftvy 54 TovBe AlyinrTioi Xoyov Xeyovai. eacrav ol lepelf TOV ®r)j3aieo<s 3 The statement of Herodotos about the names of the gods is as incorrect as his other surmises about the Pelasgians. The Greeks brought most of the names of their deities with them from the early home where they had lived before the separation of the Aryan family. But Dionysos certainly was of later importation, and came from the east, either from the Phoenicians or from the Hittites. 5 As Homer and Hesiod are here said to have formed the Greek theogony, Herodotos must understand by Homer all that mass of epic literature which in after times was called Cyclic, and distributed among various authors, together with the '' Homeric" hymns. The date of Homer largely depended on the birthplace assigned to him, i.e. to the rise of epic poetry, or the formation of guilds of rhapsodists in different localities, particular dates being connected with particular places. Krates placed him B.C. 1100, the author of the life of Herodotos B.O. 1104, Eratosthenes B.C. 1084, Aristotle and Aristarkhos in the age of the Ionic migration (B.C. 1144), the Khians in the ninth century B. c., Euphorion and Theopompos in the age of Gyges B.C. 670. In their present form, however, the Iliad and Odyssey bear traces of the age of Perikles, and the mass of epic and didactic literature which went under the names of Homer and Hesiod must have been of slow growth. Homer is a name rather than a person, and 3/wjpos, " t h e fitted together," is applied by Euripides (Alk. 870) to the marriage-bond. Why Herodotos has fixed on his particular date is clear from ch. 145, where he places the Trojan "War 800 years before his own time. Dividing this 800 years in half gave him 400 years before himself for Homer, 6 Linos, Orpheos, Musseos, etc. 158 HERODOTOS. A t o ? r Bvo yvvalicas /ecu TT)V fiev lepelas e/c ®r)/3ea>v itjaxffrjvai avriwv irvOeadao Taora fy'jTTjcrov fieydXrjv recov, KOI avevpetv TCOV ev rdora ra? \eyovo~i, iBpvcrafieva^ eipofievov Be ecfrao'av 7rpo? avreav ov Svvarol yevecrOai, 7rvaecr0ai, Be TCL Trep Brj e\e lepecov "rfnovov, rdBe rdora fiev vvv Be AooBcovaioov (paau al Bvo TreXetaSa? /xeXatVa?8 i/c ®7)/3ea)v TG>V 7rpo/jidvTies. Tieav avanrTayuevaK TTJV fiev avreav diriKeadai, elvai dirb crcfrecov yevecrOai TMV yvvaiK&v TOV- fiev atyeas irepl ®rjlSr] eirwrrdfievoi viro irprjOelo-av rrjv Be e? Trpcbras ev TOIO~I elprffievoicri edveac. fieo 6ic68ev OVTCO drpeKeax; 55 varepov e? AiftvrfV Be T<X? yvvai/ca1; TOU? "EXX^pa?, Tavras TO, fiavrqia [BOOK i^ofjievrfv Be fuv e? Aiftvrjv 67rt dvdpanrr)[ri &>? %pebv eiTj fiavrtjiov Aljinr- TT/V Be irapa cr avToOi Ato? yeveo-Oai, /cat axiToiis V7ro\a/3elv Oelov elvat cr^>ea? e'« TOVTOV nvouqaai. ireXetdBa Xeyovai "Ap/Movo? %pr)o~Trjpi,ov teeXevcrat, TOVS Aij3va<; iroielv TO eirayyeWofievov eaTL Be KOX TOVTO Ato?. Trj 77peafividry ovvofia yvvaiicas AcoBcovaicov Be al lepelai, ra>v eKeyov rdora' el aXrjOeayi oi Qoivtices Kal TTJV fiev avrecov Tifta- avvaifioXoyeov Aa>Ba>valot oi irepl TO lepbv. 56 irepl avr&v yvcofiTjv rtfvBe. lepas otyofievTjv rjv Upo/jLeveia, rfj Be fiera, Tavrr/v peTT], rrj Be vefordrr] Ni/cdvBpr), Be avrolcri,, KOLI rrjv Be e? TOV? KlfivaM eya> B' e^ i^rjyayov e? Abf&vifv Tr\v Be e? 'EXXaSa dtreBovTO, Bo/ceiv ifioi, r/ yvvr) axnrf T ^ ? VVV 'EXXaSo?, Trporepov. Be UeXaaylrjs 6? ©6O"7T|3t»T0u?,2 eiretTa tcaXeofievr)? T?)? avTfjs ravrr/s, Tvprjdvfvai Bovhevovaa 7 " The Theban Zeus." This does not show that Herodotos actually visited Thebes. The "priests" were the beadles who showed him over the temples. Herodotos probably had heard the story he recounts at Dodona, and when in Egypt took the opportunity of putting heading" questions to his guides, who answered accordingly. 8 The doves were sacred to Dione, the Phoenician Astarte, who shared the temple of D6d6na with Zeus. The weXeids or cushat dove took its name from its " d a r k " colour (TC\I6S). 9 The oracles of DMSna were communicated to their interpreters partly through the rustling of the oak leaves (Od. xiv. 327), partly through the mur- avrodi IBpvo-aadai VTTO muring of water, and the bronze vessel given by the Korkyreans. See i. 46, note 3. x We gather from this that the oracle was served by three priestesses in the time of Herodotos. At an earlier time the prophets of the god were men, belonging to the tribe of Selli (later Helli), who ' ' washed not the feet and lay on the ground." (II. xvi. 233 ff.) This disposes of the attempt of Herodotos to rationalise the legend. 2 ' ' Among the Thesprfitians in what is now Hellas, but was formerly called Pelasgia." Herodotos does not mean that all Greece was once called Pelasgia, but only the district of Epeiros, in which D6d6na was situated. It is interesting ii.J THE LAND OF EGYPT. 159 ire(j)VKv(rj Ato? lepov, wcrirep rjv ot/co? dficp'tiroXevovcrav ev ®r)j3yai, lepbv Ato?, evOa airtKero, iv&avra fivrjfir/v avrov eyetv. ex Be TOVTOV yprjcrTrjpiov EXXaSa yKSyaaav. KaTijyrjaaTO, eVetVe crvve\aj3e virb TCOV CLVTCOV $>otvU(ov vir rrjv ireirprjadat mv KaX avTT) eirprjOrj. ireXetdBes 57 oe fjuob BoKeovat K~kr)6r)vat irpb<; AcoSavaltov iirl TovSe at yvvaiKes, BiOTt ftapfiapoi tjcrav, iSo/ceov Si crept, 6/J,OL fjiera Se %povov rrjv •jreX.eidSa avQpwKt]Ly (pa>vfj Xeyovcri,, eTretVe a-vverd acpi TjvBa r] yvvr]' ew? Be e/3ap/3dpi£e, opvidoi; rpowov i86/cei crept TTJV 7reXeidBa a-^fiaivovcrt OTL AlyvTrrlrj re iv ®rj{3rjcri rfjac KlyvrnirjCTi aXKrjKrjfTi Tvyyavovai iovcrcu.3 rj yvvr) rjv. 77 Be 58 /cat rj ev AcoBdvy hem Be ical TCQV lepmv rj //,avTl/ct) air' Alyvirrov dirtyfievr/. iravr/yvpias Be apa K,a\ 7ro/i7ra? /cal irpocraycoya'i irpwroi, dvdpcoircov AlyvirTiot eleri ol iroiTjcrdfievoi, KOI irapa TOVTWV "EWr/ves /j,e/J,adr)Ka Xpovov iroLeojievat, at Be 'ILWrjvi/cal vewaTi eiroirjdrjo-av. TlavTjyv•pi^ovcri Be AlyvirTiot OVK airaj; TOV ivtavTOv, iravrj- 59 yvpta? Be av^vd<;, fiaKtcrTa fiev KaX irpodvfjLOTaTa e? Bou/Sao-Tti/ iroXtv Trj 'ApTe/AtSt,6 BevTepa Be e? Hovertptv iroXtv TT} "Io~f 7 iv to find the Thesprotians reckoned as of the half month. Under the twelfth Hellenes ; D6dona, however, was an dynasty were added (12) the feast of Hellenic sanctuary. Osiris, and (13) that of the Epagomenas. 3 Such an assertion goes to show that The feast or Mb usually lasted five Herodotos could not have visited Thebes. days. 4 6 "Divination by means of victims." Sekhet or Bast, the lion-headed and This has been practised widely over the cat-headed goddess of Bubastis (Pi-Bast, globe, and was not confined to Egypt now Tel Bast, near Zagazig), to whom and Greece, as Herodotos imagined. the cat was sacred, was daughter of Ea, 5 irpoaay. refers to the litanies and and bride of Ptah, and symbolised hymns which were sung to the sound of sexual passion. Her festival took place musical instruments. Separate calendars on the 16th of Khoiak (about Christmas). of feasts were possessed by each of the Bast (also called Menk) and Sekhet principal towns. In the time of the were also regarded as sisters. See ch. Old Empire the festival calendar of 137, note i. 7 Memphis was: (1) Feast of the beginThe site of Busiris (Abusir) is now ning of the year; (2) Feast of Thoth ; famous for its pyramids of the fifth (3) of the New Year; (4) of Uaka; (5) dynasty. So far from being in the of Sokharis ; (6) of the greater and lesser middle of the Delta, however, it lies burning; (7) of holocausts ; (8) of the beyond it to the south-east of Gizeh. manifestation of Khem ; (9) of S a t ; (10) The Busiris meant by Herodotos must of the first of the month ; (11) of the first therefore be another town, P-User-neb- 160 HEKODOTOS, [BOOK TavTy yap 8r) rrj troXei earl /liyiarov "Icrto? iepov, XBpvrai Be fj Tr6~ki$ avTr] rrj<s AlyVTTTOV ev fxecrcp rw AeXraw ' l e w Be ecrn Kara TT)V 'EkXtfvcov yXSxrcrav Arjfirjrijp. rptra Be e? Z,dt,v iroXiv rrj *A.9r)vairi 8 iravqyvpiCpvo-v, rerapra Be e? 'HXlov iroXiv TO3 'HXl Be e? BOVTOVV TTOXIV rfj ATJTOI,9 SKTU Be e? HaTrprj/iiv 1 60 iroXiv TW "Apei. e? /J,ev vvv HovfiacrTiv TTOXIV eireav KO^i^tovrai, Troieovcn roidBe. Tfkeovcri re yap Brj afia avBpe? yvvat^l Kal TTOWOV TI 7r\r)6o<; e/carepcov ev eicaa-Tr) fidpef ai fiev rives ra>v yvvaiK&v KpoTaKa e^ovaai KporaXi^ovcrt, ol Be avKeovai Kara irdina TOV ifkoov, ai Be \017ral yvvat/ces Kal avBpes deiBovtrt, Kal Ta? %etpa<; Kporeovcrt. eireav Be irXeovres Kara nva TTOXIV aXXrjv yevtovrai, iyxpLfiifravTe*; rrjv fiapuv rfj yea, •KOLeovai rotdSe. ai (lev nveaai TO.? ev Tjj TroXet ravrr] yvvaiKas, ai Be 6p%eovTai, ai Be dvaavpovrai avMrrd/Aevai. rdora trapa ivaaav iroXiv irapaTroTauwqv iroieovcrv eireav Be diriKmvrai e? TTJV BovfiacrTiv, oprd^ovai /j,eydXa<} avdyovres Overlap, Kal olvos d/j/rreXivo'; dvaiai/j,ovrai rrXeav ev ry opry ravrr} rj ev TO> airavru eviavrw rS eiriXourra). crv/ji,tf>oiTeovai Be, o Ti dvrjp Kal yvvr\ ecrri TTXTJV iratBoav,2 Kal 69 ej3Bo/ji,i]KovTa /AvptdBas, &>? oi iirt^copcoi Xeyovai. 61 rdora fiev B-q ravrr) Troielrai, ev Be TSovcropi iroXei eo? dvdyovai T{) "Io"t TTJV oprrjv, eiprjrat, irporepov fioi' rvirrovrai yap Brj /j,era TT)V dvcrlrjv Travres Kal iracrai, fivptdBes Kapra 7roXXal avdpayjrwv TOV Be Tinrrovrai,3 ov [lot, b'criov iari Xeyeiv. ocroi Be T^apwv elat, ev AlyvTrrq) olKeovre<;, OVTOI Be Tdo-ovrq) en TrXeco iroieovai rovrtov oo-ft) Kal TO, fiertoTra KoirTovrai fia^aiprjcri} Kal Tat, or rather Tatta, of which Osiris was lord. See ch. 4, note i. 8 Neith, the "great cow," which gave birth to the world, and was a manifestation of Isis, was identified with Athena on account of the similarity of name. Sais was already famous in the time of the eighteenth dynasty. Its ruins lie north of Sa el-Hager, on the Rosetta arm of the Nile. 9 The goddess Buto seems to be Uat or Uati, the genius of Lower Egypt, symbolised by the winged asp, who was worshipped at Tep, at the extremity of the Eosetta branch of the Nile. The city of Buto is usually identified with the Egyptian Pi-Ut'o in the nome of Am-pehu. 1 Ares was Mentu-Ea, the warriorgod, who steers the bark of the sun, and pierces the serpent Apophis. He is hawk-headed, and is once represented with two heads. Papremis seems to have stood between Menzaleh and Damietta (see ch. 165, and iii. 12). 2 " The pilgrims, reckoning men and women only, and not children, amount to." 3 Osiris; see ch. 3, note 9. The Egyptians themselves felt no scruple about naming him. 4 Like the fanatics who gash their heads at Cairo on the night of the 'Ashura. The Karians were imported by Psammetikhos I., ch. 152. They are ii.] THE LAND OP EGYPT. 161 eiai Br/Xoi on elal fjeivoi ical ov/c AiyvirTioi. e? ~%dw Be TTOXIV 62 i-rredv avXXe'ydeaiai, rfjai dvairjai ev TWI VVKTI Xv^va Kaiovai iravre^ iroXXd viraWpia irepl rd Bcofiara tcvicXtp' rd Be Xvyya earl ififtdipia, efnrXea dXos teal eXaiov, eVt.7roA.9j9 Be eiveari airb TO iXXv^yiov, /cal TOVTO icaierai iravvvy^bov, /cal rfj oprfj ovvofia xelrai Xv^yoicair). oi B' dv fir/ eXOaai TWV Ai^yvirrlav e? TTJV 7ravrjvXdcra)9 eXa^e ical rifirjv 7] vv% ainrj, ecrTi [epos irepl avrov Xoyos Xeyofievos. 69 Se 63 'HXiov re TTOXIV ical Tiovrovv dvcria<; fiovvas eTriTeXeovcri (j}oireovTe9. ev Be THaTrpij/Ai4 dvaias /J,ev ical lepa, Kara irep ical rrj dXXrj Troieovai' evr dv Be ylvrjrai /caracjyeprjs 0 ^XtO9, oXljoi fiev rives TUV lepeav 7repl roSyaXfia irenrovearai, 01 Be TTOXXOI avr&v Kopvvai; e%ovre<; eardai rod lepov ev rfj eaoBw, dXXoi re iTrireXeovres TrXeoves ^iXimv dvBpwv, e/cacrroi e%ovre<; /cal ovroi, eirl ra erepa aXet? ear da 1. TO-Be dyaXfia ebv ev VTJS fiiKpm %vXivq> /caTa/ce%pvaa)fievq> Trpoe/c/cofjii^ovai rfj irporepairj 69 dXXo o%Kr\fia lepov. ol fiev Btj oXlyoi ol irepl rwyaX/Ma XeXeifi/u.evoi eX/covai rerpd/cv/cXov dfiagav 6 djovaav rbv VTJOV re ical ro ev rS> vqw eveov d 6eq> iraiovai avrovs dXe^ofievov1;. evdavra f^d^rj %vXoiai /caprepr/ 9 eyeo Bo/cia) TTOXXOI ical d-jroOvriaicovai i/c rcov rpmfidrmv oi fievroi o't, 7rov<; row re irpoTroXow; Tprj-^ewi ivepiairelv ical eaeXOelv irapd the Lud or Lydians of Jer. xlvi. 9, and Ezek. xxx. 5. 4 Papremis is prohably the Egyptian Rem, the name being P-ap-rem, "city of the (goddess) Ap of Rem." The Papremitic nome lay between the Khemmitic and Saitic. 5 Chariots with four-spoked wheels characterise early Greek coins. The M wheels of the Hittite chariots, as represented on the Egyptian monuments, have four spokes. Those of Egypt have four, six, and eight—generally six. Persian chariots usually have eight spokes, but one given by Ker Porter has eleven, 6 Herodotos seems to have confounded the legend of Horus with what he was told about Mentu-Ra. 162 HEROD OTOS. [BOOK firjTepa. a/rro rovrov TG3 "Apeu ravrrjv rrjv irXrfyrjv iv rrj oprfj vevojiucevai cj>ao~L 64 K a t TO /j-rj fiio-yeaOai yvvailjl iv lepoicri firjoe aXovrow; airo yvvaiKwv e? lepa. ecnevat ovroi elo~i ol irpu>rot dprjaKevaavret;. ol fiev yap aXkoi o-^eBbv iravres avdpanrot, ir\r)v AlyvTrrlcov Kal 'EWtfvmv, fiio-yovrai iv lepotV 8eG>v Kal iv Toicri Tefievecrf el &v elvai ra dea> TOVTO /MTJ (f>l\ov, OVK av ouSe 65 TO, KTijvea ivoieiv. ovrot, fiev vvv roiavra iiriXejovTe'; troieovav e/jioiye OVK apecrrd. Alryvirnoi, Se OprjaKevovat, irepuaao)^ TO re aWa ivepl ra lepa Kal Srj Kal raSe. iovaa yap A'OJVTTTO<; ofiovpo<> TT} Ac/3vr) ov fiaXa 6r]pca>Srj<; icrro' TO, Se iovra ai aTravra lepa vevo/jaarai, Kau ra fiev crvvrpoepa avToocri roiat avQpdnroKTb, ra Be ov. rcov Be etvexev avelrat, ra Qrjpua lepa 9 el Xeyoifu, KarajSairjv av TO3 \6y
Be iuri nrepl ra>v drjplwv coBe e%wv. fieXeBavol arroBeBe^arai rr)<; rpoc^r/'i ^WjOt? eKaarmv Kal epcreves Kal Orfkeat,1 rciiv Alyvrrrimv, r&v irai<; Trapa r 7rarp6<; eKBeKerat rrjv rifxrjv. ol Be iv rfjai TTOXMTI eKaaroi ev%a<> rdcrhe cr(f>o airoreXeovai,ev-^ofievoi ra> Bern rod av •§ TO Orjplov, %vpa>vre<; rmv iraiBiwv rj irarrav rr)v Ke<j)a\r]v i) rb r^/uav r) rb rpurov fiepos ri}<> Kea\fj<;, laracn, araOfjum 7rpo? apyvpwv Ta? T/3 Avei/iivot. in vii. 103. Herodotos is probably again making piety an excuse for ignorance. The" true origin of the animal-worship of Egypt was totemism. The Egyptian monuments themselves explain it on the ground that the animals were nem-wnkh nuter, " t h e godhead living again" or incarnated. 1 The guardians of the sacred animals were all priests, who were called khnem, " guardians," or priestesses called mendt, "nurses." 2 "They weigh the hair in a balance against a sum of silver." There was no coinage in Egypt. Though men shaved the whole head, tufts of hair were left on the heads of boys, and boys belonging ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 163 BoBoX, 7] Be avr avrov rd/MVOvaa l%0v<; irapeyei fioprjv TOLCTC drjpiotcn. rpo(pr] fiev Brj aiiToicn, ToiavTt] airoBeBeiCTai,- TO 8 av Tt? TWI' 6r}piu)V TOVTCOV diroKTeivy, r\v /JLBV etca>v, QdvaTOS rj ty}ixiir), rjv Be aeicwv, diroTlvei, ^/MITJV rrjv av ol lepel? rd^covrai. o? 8' av Z/3(i/ i) iprjKa d-noKTeivrj, r\v re eicv Be iinOvfieova-ai,, OVTCH Br) airitcveovTai irapa, TOW? epaevat;- (fiCkoreKvov yap TO Orjplov. 7rvpicair)<; Be ytvo/j,evr]<; 8ela irptfyfiaTa KaTaKa[x,j3dvei TOV<S ale\ovpov<$- ol /^ev yap AlyvirTOoi BiaaTavTes <$>v\aica<;'i^ovcrtTWU aleXovpwv, dfieXtfaavTes o-fievvvvau TO Kacofievov, ol Be alekovpot, Bt,aBvovTe<> /cal inrepdpa)crKOVTe/j,a ical TTJV Ke^>a\rjv. dirdyovTai, Be ol aleXovpot, dirodavovTes e? lepa? cneyas, evda 67 OdiTTOVTai Tapi^evOevTes, iv Hov/3daTi 7roA,ef4 T « 9 Be /cvvai iv Trj ewvTtav eicaaToi "RoKet, daTTTOvao iv lepfjai dtftcjjcri,. w? Be avTtos Trjcri, KVCTI ol fyvevTal OdirTovTac. T « 9 Be [ivyaXas ical Toil? lprjica<; aTrdyovcri e? THOVTOVV TTO\IV, T « ? Be t/3t? e? '^pfieca •jroXtv.6 Ta? Be dp/CTOvf iovaas crravla^6 Kal TOU? XVKOVS OV 7TOXXC3 Tea iovTa<; aXcoireicuiv fj,e£ova<; avTov evpeOecoat iceifievoi. Tatv daTTTOven Trj av Be tcpo/coBelXcov cf>vo-i to the ruling class had a long plaited lock which fell behind the ear. 3 It is difficult to understand how Herodotos could have gravely noted down such a story. 4 As the mummies of cats, hawks, and ibises are found at Thebes and other places, it is plain that they were not carried to particular cities, as Herodotos states. Dogs and jackals, as guardians of Hades, were sacred to Anub (Anubis). 6 Hermopolis Magna was in Upper TOV? %eifiepi,co- 68 Egypt, old Egyptian Sesunnu, modern Eshmunen. Hermopolis Parva,—Egyptian Tema-en-Hor, "city of Horus,"—is now Damanhur, to the south of Alexandria. The ibis (Egyptian Mb) was sacred to Thoth, the god of literature, whom the Greeks identified with Herm&s, as the hawk was to Horus. 6 Bears do not, and did not (as the monuments show) exist in Egypt. Herodotos was perhaps thinking of hyaenas. 7 Herodotos stole his description of 164 HEEODOTOS. [BOOK T<XTOU9 fir)va<; Tecrcrepa<; iadiei oiiSev,8 ebv Be Terrpairovv %epo-alov Kal Xb/xvalov ecrTL. ru/crei fiev jap ma, iv jea /cal iieXeirei, ical TO TTOWOV TJJ? r)fieprj<; BcarpifSei iv TG5 ty\pm, TIJV Be VVKTO, iraaav iv TO3 7roTa/j,(p' depfiorepov jap Br) i&TC TO vBwp T77? re al&pirjs Kal Tfj'i Bpoaov. irdvrav Be TWV r/fieis iBfiev dvrjrwv TOVTO if; fiejvaTOV jiveraf Ta fiev jap ma yr\vea)V ov -jroXXa TLKrei,, ical 6 veoacrbs Kara \ojov TOV a>ov jiverao, av$jav6fj,evo<; Be jlverai Kal e? eTrraKaiBexa wfyea? Kal fie^av €Ti. e^ei Be 6(j)0aXfiov<; fiev v6s, bhovTa<; Be /j,ejd\ov<; Kal yavXioBovTas Kara Xojov TOV (rcofiaros. jX&crcrav Be fiovvov aXka Kal drjpiwv OVK evcre. oiiBe Kivel TT}V KCLTCO jvddov, TOVTO fiovvov drjplwv TTJV oLva jvdOov wpocrayei Trj /carco. e^ei Be Kal 6Vu^a? KapTepovs Kal Beppa XeinBaTov appr\KTOV ewl TOV VWTOV. TV(j>\bv Be iv vBaTi,1 iv Be T§ aidpir) o^vBepKecrTaTov. are Brj &v iv vBaro BiatTav Troieofievov, TO aTOfia k'vBoOev (popel ivav fiecrrbv ftBeXXewv. ra fiev Brj aWa opvea Kal Or/pla ? iirLirav iroielv irpb<; TOV £e<j>vpov), ivdavTa 6 rpo^CXo<; io-Bvvwv e? TO crTOfia avTOv KaTairlvei Ta<; 6 Be dxfieXeofievos rjBerai, Kal ovBev aiverat, TOV ftBeXXas1 69 Tpo^lXov. TOICTI, fiev Brj roov A.IJVTTTI,WV iepoi elcri ol KpoKOBeiXoi,, Tolav Be ov, 4 dXX' are TroXefilovs ivepieirovav ol Be irepi Te ©^;8a? Kal Tr)v Moiysto? XIJIVTJV oiKeovTe<; Kal K&pra rjjrjVTai avTovi elvai tepov?- e/e iravroiv Be eva eKarepoi TpeTa ivOevTes Kal dfL$iBea<; irepl TOV? ifinvpoG6Lov<; TroSa1;, Kal aiTia diroTaKTa, BiBdvTes Kal leprjia, Kal Trepie7rovTe<s to? KaXXiara ^cavras' diro9av6vTa<; Be ddiTTOvat, Tapi^eviv lepfjcn, QrjKrjai. ol Be Trepl 'JLXeavTlvrjv iroXiv olKeovre<; the crocodile, hippopotamus, and phoenix from Hekateeos (Porphyr. ap. Euseb. Proep. ev. x. 3, p. 466 B ; Hermog. ii. 12, 6). The inaccuracy of the description shows that he never took the trouble to verify the statements of his authority, and casts a strong suspicion upon other parts of his account of Egypt, which may have been similarly taken, without acknowledgment and verification, from older writers. The crocodile has now disappeared from the Nile north of the First Cataract. 8 Contrary to fact. 9 Its lower jaw really moves downwards, though the movement is difficult to detect. 1 This is absurd. 2 An equally absurd statement. 3 This is a pure myth. 4 See ch. 42, note 1. 5 i.e. glass. n.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 165 Kal iaOiovert, avToijs OVK r/yeofievoi lepovs elvai. /caXeovrat Be ov KpoKoBeiXoi, dXXd ydfx/^raf KpoKoBetXov? Be "Icoves a>v6fiacrav,e el>cd£ovTe<; avTwv ra elBea Tolai irapa afyiai yivofievoicn icpoicoBeiXocai, TOZCTL iv rfjai, alfiaaifjai. ay pat' Be ea>v TroXXal 70 Karea-Tdcri Kal iravTolai- rj 8' wv e/ioiye Boicet dgtcoTaTr} dirr\yr)<Tiovrj^ 6 tcpoKoBeiXos terai Kara TTJV (pcovijv, ivrv^wv Be TW vatrai Kara7rivei,' ol Be eK/covac. eiredv Be itjeXKverOr} e? <; ra Xouva fir) iroirjcra'; Be TOVTO O~VV 'rrova. Ol Be "TTTTOI ol TTOTdfiiOL vo/x,w fj,ev TM TlaTrprjfilTr) lepoi 71 elcri, TOICTI Be aWourt AlyvirTloiai OVK lepoi. fyvaiv Be irapeyovTai lBki)t,rjv e%ov ITTTTOV,9 %avXt6BovTa<; <j)aivov, ovprjv LTTTTOV teal cfxovrjv,1 fieyaOo's oaov Te /3ow 6 fieyia-TO1? • 2 TO Bepfia B' avTov OVTCD Bfj Ti TTa^v i<7Ti wcTTe avov yevofievov ^vaTa irotelTai aicovTLa 3 ef avrov. YIVOVTCLI Be Kal ivvBpce*;* iv TO iroTa/jLai, T elvai. vo/jLi^ovm Be ical TSJV I'yQvwv TOV icaXe6f/,evov XeiriBcoTov lepbv elvau Kal TT)V eyyeXvv,5 lepovs Be TOVTOVS TOV Net'Xou tyacri eivat, Kal TWV opviOav TOII? ^vaXmireKa1;^ eolvi^.7 eyeb fiev fniv OVK elBov el fir) 6 In old Egyptian the crocodile was em-suh (modern Arabic, timsaJih), cm.-su'h meaning "that which (is) from the egg." The Ionians are the Greek mercenaries of Psammetikhos I. 7 In the time of the Old Empire the hippopotamus inhabited the Delta, as appears from a picture in the tomb of Ti (an official of the fifth dynasty) at Sakkarah. In the time of Pliny (N. S. xxviii. 8), it was still found in Upper Egypt. St. John describes it as existing opposite to Abu-Simbel forty or fifty years ago, but it is now not met with north of the Third Cataract. 8 It is not cloven-footed, but has four small toes. 9 It has no mane, and the tail, nearly trilateral at the end, is unlike that of a horse. 1 It does not neigh. 2 It is far larger than the ox, averaging sixteen or eighteen feet long. 3 Herodotos means whips ("kurhashes.") 4 If Herodotos means otters, he has made a mistake, as otters do not exist in Egypt. 5 To these should be added the oxyrhinchus. 6 The Nile-goose was the symbol of Seb, the earth-god, but was not sacred. 7 The bennu, "Phce.nix," or bird of Ea, was worshipped at Heliopolis. It is the Tchol or Ichul of Job. xxix. 18. The period of 500 years represents the 1500 166 HEKODOTOS. [BOOK b'crov ypatyfj- Kal yap Bt} Kal erTrawo? eTTMJxuTa 9 'HXiOTToXiTai Xeyovcri, irevTaKoaiwv (poiTav Be TOTS tyao~v iiredv ol amoQdvri 6 TraTrjp.- eari Be, el rfj ypacpfj 7rapo/ioto?, ToaoaBe Kal roioarBe- ra /j,ev ai)Tov ^pvaoKOfia T&V irrep&v ra. Be ipvOpd- es TO. fjuaXiara alerm irepi^yqcnv OfiOLOTaTOS Kal TO fieyados? TOVTOV Be Xeyovai /jLtj^avacrdai rdBe, ifJbov /u,ev ov a Xeyovres. i% 'AJOO./3/T?? op/Meofievov e? TO lepbv TOV 'H\lov v TOV iraTepa ev afivpyrj eivrfhaGcrovTa Kai dairreiv iv TOV ™ lepm- KOfil^eiv Be OVTW. irpooTOV T?}? (Tfivpvr)<; a>ov irXdaaeuv b'aov Te BvvaTOf e Br)\i]fiove<;.9 ot fjueyddei eovTes a/juKpol Bvo Kepea (popeovcn irefyvicoTa e£ CLKpr)s T-i}? /ce^aX-ij?, TOV? OdirTovcn dwo6avovTaea<; TOV Oeov (fraai, 75 elvai lepovs- h'o-Ti Be %w/3o? TTJ<; 'Kpaftlris KaTa BOVTOVI' TTOKIV fxdXiaTa KJJ Keifievos, Kal e? TOVTO TO %cop£ov r\kdov irvvQavofievo? Tvepl T03V 7TTepa>Tcbv 6icov} diriKOfxevo^ Be elBov ocrTea 6(f>lwv Kal aKav6a<; ifKrjdei fiev dBvvaTa dirr^yrjaaaQai, o~a>pol Be -qcrav aKavOewv Kal fieydXoi Kal viroBeeo-Tepoi Kal iXdo-o-oves en TOVTCOV, iroWol Be rjcrav OVTOI. and 500 years required for the soul after death to wander in search of purification ; its connection with the Phcenix is due to the association of the latter with the sun. In the Book of the Dead it is said : " T h e Bennu is Osiris ; in Heliopolis the verifier of things visible and invisible is his body . . . it is an age and an eternity." 8 Had Herodotos actually seen it upon the monuments, he would have known that it was not an eagle but a heron. 9 The cerastes or horned viper was not sacred, and is extremely venomous. The equally poisonous asp, however, was sacred to Khnum, and was the symbol of the goddess Ranno. 1 It is difficult to believe that Herod- eo~TL Se 6 %a)po<s OVTOS, iv T&> al otos actually visited the spot he describes, He seems to have attempted to give probability and local colouring to a traveller's tale he had heard by telling it in the first person. Neither Tep nor Pi-Uto in Upper Egypt (see ch. 59, note 9) were opposite Arabia, unless by the latter Herodotos means the Arabian side of the Nile. The winged serpents belong to mythical zoology, and were perhaps suggested by the monumental snakes with bird's wings and human legs. The gorge reminds us of the valley of the roc in the Arabian Nights. Herodotos can hardly have believed that there was only one entrance into Egypt from the east for winged creatures. See iii. 107. n.] T H E LAND OF EGYPT. 167 hicavQai KwraKeyyaTai, roiocrSe TK, eajHoXr) eg opecov crreLvSsv e's irehiov /j.e he e'tTTt afjia ra eir AlyinrTov, eapo TTTepwrou? 6'<£t<j eic T97? TCIS he i'/3t9 T ecrj3oX,r)v TavTt}<; TJ}? % TT)V IJSLV Sia TOVTO 'Apa/3lrj<; diravT(oo-a<; e? TOU? OC/X.? aXXa TO epyov TeTifirjaOai \eyova'i 'Apdftwi, fieyakcos nrpoopei V fia%o/j,eve(ov 7rpo? TOW 6aXrjv ical Trjv heiprjv irdaav, Xev/crj TTTepolcro TrXrjv Ke(j)aXrj<; ical TOV av%evo<; ical a/cpecov TOIV irTepvyoav Kal TOV Trvyaiov aicpov (rdoTa he TO, elirov irdvTa fieXcuvd io~Ti, heovcb<;), cnceXea. he Kal -rrpoaranrov e/i^ep^? T17 eTepy. TOV he 6'0tO9 7] /j,op(pr) o'lrj irep T&V vSpcov, TTTIXO, he ov irTepa>Ta (jjopet dXXa Tolcn TYJ<; vvKTepbhos nvTepolcn /jidXio-Ta /cy ificpepeaTciTa. ToaavTa /j,ev Orjplcov Tre.pt, lepcov elprjaOa. AVTWV he hrj AlyvrrTLwv o'l /juev irepl TTJV cnreipofjLevrjv3 77 ol/ceovcri, /JLV>]/J,7}V avdpcoTTcov irdvTODV XoyicoTaTOb elcri fiaicpq) TCOV eyo) e? hbdireipav di he fo^? Toiaihe hia^peavTai,. avpjxaiCpvcn Tpel<; r/f [ir/vb1; e/cda-Tov, efieTOiai drjpcofievoi, TTJV vytelrjv Kal KXV, voixi"CpvTes onro TWV Tpe<povTcov aiTiwv irdaa^ TO.? vovaovs Tolcn dvQpdnroiGi yivecrOai} elal /xev yap Kal aXXcos AlyinrTioi fiera, Al/3va<; vyiTjpecrTaToi irdvTwv dvOpmircov TWV apeav ifiol hoKelv e'uveicev, OTL OV fieTaXXdo-crovcri, al a>pai- ev yap Trjat, fieTafioXfjcL TOXCTI dvOpcoiroicri al vovaoi fidXiaTa yivovTau TWV T6 aXXfov irdvTwv Kal hr) Kal TWV wpeav fidXoaTa. dpTocf)ayeovo~l he eK TCOV oXvpecov 7roieovTe<; apTovs, TOU? eKelvov KvXXrjcrTi,<; ovofid^ovcri. oiva he eK KpiOeav Treirourifieva) hia^peavTat,ov yap cr<j)L elal ev Trj %a>pr) a/u,TreXoi. l^Ovav he TOU? /MV 7T/3O? 2 " Of those who most go to and fro among men." Cp. the use of the. Lat. versari. 3 Upper Egypt, as opposed to the marshes of the Delta. 4 The Papyrus Ebers, the great medical papyrus of the sixteenth century B.C., describes a large number of diseases, and gives a variety of prescriptions for their treatment, which read like doctors' prescriptions of the present day. 6 This is a mistake. Vines were cultivated throughout Egypt, especially in the neighbourhood of the Mareotic Lake, Memphis, and Thebes. "Wine (erp) was much drunk by the upper classes, the 168 HERODOTOS. [BOOK rfKiov avrjvavTe*; &>/tou9 cnreovrai, TOV? Be e"\- aXfir)? rerapi^evpevow;. opvfflav Be row re oprvyas Kal ra<; vrjaaas Kal ra, afiiKpa TUP hpviQLav a/Ma airkovrat, irporapi^evaavre^. ra B' aXXa oaa r) bpvLQav rj iyQvonv a$i earl iypfieva,, %«/W V OKOGOI afyt, lepol am-oBeBexarai, TOW Aot7roi»? OVTOV? Kal e<]>0ov<; fj Kal epryq>,b fieyaOos oaov re [Trdvry] irrf^yalov rj S w r ^ w , BetKvvs Be eKaarai rwv avfiiroreayv Xeyeo " e? rovrov opeoov nrlve re Kal repireo • etreai jap airoOavcov roiovros" rdora fiev irapa ra avfiiroaia 79 iroikovcn. irarpLoMTL Be %pea>fj,evoi vo/MOLcn aXKov ovheva eiriKrwvrai- TOICTI SiXKa re eird^id eari vofitfta, Kal Br) Kal cteiafia ev ecrTt, AtVo?,7 ocnrep ev re <&OIVIKJ) aoLBbfios e'crrt Kal ev Kvirpw best kinds being those of Mareotis, Anthylla, Plinthin§, and Koptos, the Teniotie, Sebennytic, and Alexandrian. Wine is represented in the tombs of the fourth dynasty, and the monuments mention " white wine," the wine of Lower Egypt, southern wine, and "fisher's wine," besides wines imported from Syria. Beer was only drunk by the poorer classes because it was cheaper than wine. It was called heka, and was as old as the time of the fourth dynasty. Two kinds of beer were also imported from Kati (to the east of Egypt), alcoholic and mild, the latter being employed in medicine. Spirits were made from must, and mention is made of spiced wine. A cellar of Seti II. contained as' many as 1600 jars of wine. 6 "With both painting and carving." Many months often elapsed between the embalming of the corpse and its removal to the tomb, during which liturgical services were held over the mummy and funeral feasts were made. The introduction of the mummy into the banquet, no doubt, took place at the latter. 7 "The air of Linos" (seeiZ. xviii. 570). As Herodotos did not understand Egyptian, it is only the air that he can be referring to. The plaintive melody of most primitive peoples is the same, and had Herodotos travelled in the High- lands of Scotland, he would have heard there the same air. According to Athenseus (Deipn. xiv. p. 620), Nymphis made Manerfis a youth who went to fetch water for the reapers and never returned, like the youths of European legend who are carried away by the water-spirits. The "first king of Egypt" would not be Menes, but Ptah. ManerSs is the Egyptian ma-n-hra, "come back to me," the words of a refrain in which Isis mourns for her lost brother and husband, Osiris. Linos is the same as AiXii/os, the refrain of the Phoenician lament (ai Unu, "woe to us"), which was introduced into Greece, where it was supposed to mean, " Woe, Linos." Hence the mythical name Linos. The lament was sung throughout the Semitic world by the women, "weeping for Tammuz" (the old Accadian sun-god Dumu-zi, "son of life," or "only son"), called adonai, "lord" (AdSnis) in Phoenician, Duzu (whence the Greek Thoas and Theias) in Assyrian, Tammuz in Hebrew (Ezek. viii. 14), Attys in Phrygia and Lydia, Bormos in Bithynia, and Hylas in Mysia. Byblos (Gebal) was the chief Phoenician seat of the three days' mourning for AdSnis, slain by the boar's tusk of winter; and after the introduction of Egyptian influence into Phoenicia, and the consequent identifi- ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 169 Kal aXXr], KCLTCL fievroc Wvea ovvofia e%ec, crv/iepeTai Be a>VTO<; elvat, TOV ol "TLXkyves Alvov ovo/id^ovTes delBovcn, ware iroXXa fiev Kal aXXa a7rodcovfid^eiv fie rSiv Trepl A'iyvTrTov iovrcov, ev Be Sr) Kal TOV ALVOV bmQev eXaftov TO ovvo/xa- aivovTai, Be alei KOTe TOVTOV aelBovTes. eo~Ti Be AIJVTTTKTTI 6 Alvot KaXe6fievo<; Maz>epa>9. e(f>aaav Be /MV AlyinrTtot TOV irpdyTov fiao-okevcravTOS AlyviTTOv nralBa fiovvoyevea yeveaOai, airodavovTa Be avTov avwpov dprjvoicn, TOVTOLGI viro AlyvKTiaiv TifiiqBrjvai, Kal aoiBrjv Te TavTTjv TTpd)TT]v Kal fiovvrjv a-cpicri, yevecrOai. avfifyepovTau Be 80 Kal ToBe aXXo AlyinrTiot 'EWrfvav IIOVVOIGL AaKeBaifiovioLdi' ol vecorepoi avT&v Tolai irpecrfivTepoLcn <jvvTvy^dvovTe^' e'lKovac Trj<; oBov Kal eKTpdirovTai Kal innovat e£ eBprjs viravicrTeaTai. ToSe fievTOb aWoicri [ ' E W T ^ G W ] ovBa/jbolau (TVficjjepovTaf avTi TOV irpocrayopevebv aXkrfkow; ev T-rjai oBolat irpocrKweovcn, KaTievTe<; peyjH TOV yovvaTOS TTJV %elpa. ivBeBvKaai Be Ki65)va<; 81 Xiveov<; irepl TO, aKeXea dvcavcoTovs, TOV<; KaXeovcro KaXaaipw €Trl TovToiai Be elpivea e'lfiaTa \evKa enravajSXriBov (fiopeovcn.8 oi fievToi e? ye TO, iepa eatyepeTau elpivea ovSe avyK o~(pi' ov yap oatov? 6fio\oyeovai Be Taora Tolai ^ Ka\eofievot,cri, Kal JiaK^iKolcri, eovcn Be Alyvwrioiai, Kal Tlv0ayopeloiaf ovBe yap TOVTCOV TWV bpylcnv /j,eTe^ovra oaiov ecrTi ev elpiveoiai e'ifiacn 6a§Qr]vai. e a r i Se ivepl avTwv lepbs \oyos Xeyofievos. K a t TaBe dXka AlyvirTcoicrl euTi i^evprjfieva, fiek re Kal rjfiepi] 82 6eS>v oTeo ecrTi, Kal Trj e/cacrTO? rjfjLeprj yevofievos OTeonxt Kal OKCO? TeXevTrjaei Kal OKOIOS Tt? eo~Tai. Kal TOV- Tooat, TSSV ' E U ^ w ol ev Trocijaei, yevofievoi e-^p^aavTo.1 TepaTa Te irXeco ai dvevprjTai rj Tolai aXXoicn diracn dvdpinvoiaiyevofikvov yap re/aaTo? pvXaaaovcn ypacfyofievoo TWTrojBalvov, Kal cation of Osiris and Ad6nis, the mummya scribe is represented in a skirt or tunic, case containing the limbs of the dead which, however, was probably an upper sun-god Osiris was believed to have been garment worn over the kilt, 9 found there. An early Babylonian myth See ch. 37. In a hot climate, where makes Istar (Aphrodite) descend into vermin are abundant, the reluctance to Hades in search of her husband Tammuz. use woollen garments was salutary. The 8 We find from the sculptures that "Orphic and Bacchic rites" were imthe usual dress was not a tunic properly portations from the East, 1 so called, but a kilt extending from the "This the Greek poets have turned waist to a little above the knee. The to account." Babylonia, rather than woollen upper garment is not represented Egypt, was the country from which the on the monuments. One or two ex- West derived its astrology and its horoamples occur of a kilt with figures, and scopes. 1V0 HERODOTOS. [BOOK rjv Kore vcrrepov irapairkriaLov rovrq) ircov fiev oiBevl Trpoo-KeiTat, r/ re^vr), r&v Be 6emv fiere^eTepoicn' Kal yap 'Hpa/eXeo? fiavTijiov avToQi icrrl Kal 'AiroXkcovos Kal 'AOrjvaoTjs Kal 'Apre/MBos Kal "Apeo? Kal AM>9, Kal TO je fiaXiara ev Tifj/fj ayovrai iravraiv rusv fiavT^icav, ATJTOVS ev BovTot 7roXet 6CTTL ov fievToi a'i 6a\fi(ov Irjrpol KarecrTao'i, 01 Be Kea?, ol Be OBOVTWV,6 ol Be ru>v Kara VTJBVV, oi Be T&V aavea>v vovo~a>v.6 85 ©pfjvoi, Be Kal raai crea>v elal a"Be. rolcri av aTroyivrjTai eK T&V OIKIOIV avdpunro? rod Tt? Kal \6yos •§, TO drjXv jevo<; irav TO 6/c TS)V oiKLcov TOVTCOV KaT &v eirXdo~aTO rrjv Ke^aXrjp TrrjXS 7) Kal TO Trpoawirov, KaireiTa ev Tolai OIKIOIGI Xiirovaav TOV veKpov avral ava rr]V TTOXLV a>fievai, TinrTovTai eiret,w(Tfie.vai Kal ifyalvovcraL TOUS fia^ov^, aiiv Be o-t al irpoarjKOVcrai traaai, erepcodev Be ol avBpes TinrrovTai em-e^mafievoi, Kal ovroi. iireav 86 Be Taora Troirjcracn, OVTW 6? TTJV rapiyevaiv Kofjui^ovai. elal Be o'l 67r' avrw rovTU) Karearai Kal -reyy^v eypvari ravrrjv. OVTOI, eiredv o~(f>i KOfiiady veKpos, BeiKvvovai Totcrt KOfiLcraai irapaBeuy/jLara veKpmv gvkiva, T17 ypatfij] fiefiifiTj/xeva7 . . . , Kal rr)V fiev o~rwovBa,iordT'r\v avrecov (jyaal elvau TOV OVK oaiov iroieofiai TO ovvofxa eVl TOLOVTW ivpryyiJMTi ovofid^eiv, TTJV Be BevTeprjv BeiKVVOVO~I inroBeeo~Tepr)v Te. TavTqs Kal evTe\,eaTeprjv, TTJV Be TpuTrjV evTeXeo-TaTTjv •8 pdo-avTe<; Be irvvQdvovTai trap ai)Ta>v KaTa rjVTiva fiovXovTai o~§i aKevac6r\vai Toy veKpov. ol /xev Brj 2 This was true of Babylonia rather than of Egypt. 3 See eh. 77, note 4. The standard work on anatomy was ascribed to Athothis, the successor of Menes. 4 According to the Papyrus Ebers, there were more than twenty different kinds of eye-disease. One of the prescriptions given is that of a "Semite" of Gebal, who seems to have been one of the most famous oculists of the time. 6 Mummies found at Thebes have been supposed to show that the Egyptian dentists knew how to stop teeth with gold. This, however, is disputed by Sir Erasmus Wilson, 6 " Obscure diseases." 7 In the form of Osiris, whose nature the deceased had put on in order to be justified. 8 The mummies show that there were more than three kinds of embalming, According to Diod. (i. 91), the most expensive sort cost a silver talent (nearly £250), the second 22 minae or £90. For the religious scruples of Herodotos, see ch. 3, note 9. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 171 e/ciroBtov /Mudm 6fio\o'yrj(Tavre<; diraXXdaaovrai, ol Be viroXeiirofievoi iv olKrifjuaai £>Be ra airovBauoraTa Tapi/^evovau. irp&Ta fiev cncoKiai a-iBrjpai Bia rSiv fiv^atrrjpaiv ifjdyovcrt, TOV iaXov, TO, [lev avTov OVTCO i^dyovTe^, TO, Be i dp/j,aKa- fieTa Be XlOcd KlOioiriKU) b^eu9 irapaa^laavTe^ irapa TTJV \aivdpr\v it&v etkov rrjv KoikiTjv irauav, iKKad-fjpavTes Be a\iTr)v Kai Biqdrjo'ivco (pooviKrjia) avTis BirjOeovai 0v/At,i]//.a<Ti TeTpi/ifievoicrf TTJV VTJBVV afivpvrj<; aKrjpdTOV T€TpififJ,evr)<; Kai Kaair]<; Kai Tmv aXXav 6va>fiaTaiv, 'TfXtjv \ij3ava)TOV, irXrjcravTe'; avppdirTovcri h-wicrw. TaoTa Be Troiijo-avTes Tapu^evovai XiTpwx Kpvy]ravTe<} rjfiepas efiSop,i]KovTa' irXeovas Be TOVT&WV OVK e^eaTi Tapi^eveiv. eireav Be irapekOcocn al e/3Bo/u,i]KovTa, ~kovev'yovTa<; o-fcevd^ovai &Be. iiveav TOU? K\vo~Tripa<; ifKrjaaivTai TOV diro KeBpov aXeicfraTOS TO KXvcrfia TJJ? OTTIO-CO 6BOV 3 Tapt^evovai r a ? •7rpoKeifieva<; r//j,epa<;, Tjj Be TeXevTalr) i^ielao e? T?)? KOiXirjS TTJV KeBpirjv Tr]v iarjKav irpoTepov. rj Be e-^ei Too-avTrjv Bivapiv ware a/ia ecovTy TTJV vrjBvv Kai TO, CTrXd/y^va KaTareTrjKOTa i^dyei,' Ta? Be <jdpKa<$ TO XiTpov KaTarrjKet, Kai Br) XelireTai TOV veKpov TO Bepfia fjuovvov Kai TO, ocrTea. iireav Be TaoTa 9 Probably Ethiopian agate or obsidian, see vii. 69. The use of stone instead of metal implies that the practice of embalming in Egypt, like circumcision, went back to the stone age. Perhaps it originated in the natural preservation of bodies buried in the natrous soil of the Libyan lakes. 1 Subcarbonate of soda (Egyptian, hes-men), from the natron lakes of the Libyan Desert and El Hegs in Upper Egypt. Ko/ifu, or "gum," is the Egyptian hand. —Sinddn or "muslin," Hebrew sddin, Assyrian sindhu (found in a list of clothes probably as old as B.C. 1800), was imported from India (i. e. the mouths of the Indus). It was not brought overland, as the initial s would have been changed into h in the mouths of Iranians, Brugsch compares the Egyptian shenti. Byssos, "fine linen," is the Egyptian bus. 2 The well or pit in the inmost chamber of the tomb. 3 "Having stopped the clyster from returning." Comp. iii. 55. 172 HERODOTOS. [BOOK 88 air &v eBa/cav ovra TOV veicpov, ovBev ero vpr)yfiaTev0evTe<;. r/ Be TpiTi) Tapi%evcn<; earl rjBe, fj TOU? %prj/J,ao-i, ao-Oevecrrepov*; (TKevd^ev cvpfiair) Bir]6rjo-avTe<; Trjv KOiXlrjv Tapc%evovcri T « ? e/3BofM]KOVTa r)/j,epas Kal eweiTa air &v eBao/cav dirofyepeaOai. 89 T « ? Be yvvaiKas TWV ein^aveav dvBpwv, eireav TeXevTrjacocrt, ov •jrapavTbKa BiBovai Tapiyeveiv, ovBe ocrat, av ecoai evetoet? /capra Kal \6yov TrXeojJO? TOZCTL Tapi^evovai. TOVTO Be iroieovai OVTCO TovBe eivexev, Xva ivf] i ol Tapi^evral fiiayiovrai rrjat yvvat^i- ~KafjL^>8rjvai aal fuayofievov venpat TrpocrtydTq 90 yvvatKog, Karenretv Be TOV SfioTe^vov. o? B' av rj avT&iv A-lyvirTicov $j £e£va)v ofioico*; viro KpoicoBeCKov apivao'dei'i f) vw avTOv TOV TroTafiov (paivrjTai Tedveco*;, KaT fjv av iroXiv i^ TOVTOVS iraara dvdyicr] ICTTI TapiyevaavTas avTov Kal XavTa? c[>? KaXXicTTa 0dtyac ev lepfjai 6t]Krjcn' ovBe -tyavaai e^ avTov aXXov ovBeva ovTe Ta>v n-poarjKOVTWv ovTe rwv lXa)v, dXXd fit,v ol lepeis avTol TOV NelXov are irXeov TL r) dv0pa>Trov ve/cpbv fteipaTTTd^ovTes QdirTovai. 91 '^JXXTJVIKOIO'I Be vofiaioicri, cjievyovai yj>ao-6ai, TO Be avfnrav elrrelv /A^S' aXXoov fjbrjBafj-a fATjBafAWV dvdpcoTrcov vo/jLaloucn. ol fiev vvv aXXoi AlyinrTiot, OVTCO TOVTO $>vXd vr]6<; Te evi Kal dyaXfia ev avTw evecnrjKe TOV Ilepcreo?. OVTOC ol 4 The expensive burial was rather a sort of tax to check needless loss of life in a district. 6 Khemmis, called Khem and Apu by the Egyptians, the modern Ekhmim, was the Panopolis of the Greeks ; Khem, who was identified with Amun during the process of self-generation in the primordial waters, being [identified with Pan. Neapolis, now Keneh, is more than ninety miles further south. This geographical ignorance of Herodotos is another proof of his not having been further south than the Fayum. The friendly feeling of the people of Khem- mis towards the Greeks, like the shrine of Perseus, must have been the invention of Herodotos's guides, who would be the natives of Khemmis of whom Herodotos made enquiries. Though he wishes his readers to believe that he was himself at Khemmis, he does not actually say so; and had he been there he could have communicated with the people only through his dragoman. Brugsch suggests that the shrine was that of Horus, who bore the title of perse, "son of Isis." 6 Statues never stood on the propylsa of an Egyptian temple, and would have been seen had they done so. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 173 Xeyovai rbv Ilepcrea TroXXaw fJ,ev dvd TTJV yfjv tyalveaOai crept, TToWaKK Be eo~a> TOV lepov, aavBakiov r e avTov ire^>opt]^evov evpi BLTTTJ-^V, TO eireav <$>avfj, evdrjvelv anraaav Ai'yvTTTOv. TaoTa fiev \eyovo~t, iroieovau Be TaBe 'E\\i)viica TO) Tlepcret,' aywva yvfiviKov TiOelcn Bid Trdari<; dyaovlrjs eyovTa, vaper^ovTe'i de6\a KT-qvea Kal •y\alva<; Kal BepfiaTa. elpo/jLevov Be fieo o Tt o-9e 6 Hepaev<; i'7ri(f>alvev cvy&va yvfiyViKov Ti8evTe<;,s eaaXrjv, etf>ao~av iXOelv Kal irapa cr^ea? Kal avayvSsvat TOU? crvyyeveas iravra^' iKfie/j.a&ijKOTa Be /JLCV, asiriKeaQai e? Alywinov, TO T?}? Xe/i^ito? oiivofia, ireTrvcrfievov trapa TJ}9 /j,r]Tp6s- ayosva Be oi yvfiviKov avTov Ke\evcravTO<; eiriTeXelv. TaoTa /j,ev Trdvra ol Karinrep&e TWV ekeaiv olKeovTes AlyvitTloi 92 vo[il^ovo~f ol Be Bt) ev Tolai e'Xecrt KaToo/crjfjievoi rolcri, fiev avTolai V6/J,OIO~I j^pecovrat TOIGL Kal ol aXXoi AlyvirTboi, Kal TO, a\Xa Kal yvvai/cl fioy e/cacrro? avTwv avvoiKel KaTa irep " aTap irpb^ evTekeiTjv TOIV GITIWV TaBe a<j)i, dWa e^evp eireav TrXrjpT}^ yevr\Tai 6 7r0Ta.yU.09 Kal TO, ireBla TreXayiay, veTat, ev TO> vBaTt, Kplvea 7roX\a, TO, AlyinrTioi, KaXeovcrc \a>Tov.e TOOT' eireav Bpeyjracri, avalvovai Trpos TJKLOV Kal eireuTa TO eK fiecrov TOV XCOTOV, Trj firjKwvt ebv efi<^>epeepea, ev TW iroTaix& yivo^eva Kal TaoTa, e^ wv o Kapiros ev dWrj KOXVKI 7rapa(f>vofiev7j eK Trj? pityj<> ylveTat, Kr\pim a^rjKwv IBer/v ofiowTaTov ev TOVTW TpcoKTa, b'aov Te trvpr)V 6XaM;9 eyylverai, av^yd, TpcoyeTai Be Kal «7raXa TaoTa Kal ava. TTJV Be /3v/3\ov2 TTJV iirereiov yivo/Aevqv eiredv 7 Over three feet in length was certainly a respectable size for a "little sandal." 8 Gymnastic contests were common throughout Egypt, though they never became a religion as in Greece. 9 The Nymphsea lotus, of which there are two kinds. It was the flower of Amenti or Hades, and the child Horus sits upon it. It differs from the lotos of the Iliad, which was trefoil, and the lotus of the Odyssey, which was the jujube. 1 " I n this are many seeds, good to eat, each of the size of an olive stone." " The papyrus has disappeared from 174 HEKODOTOS. [BOOK avacnrdacocrt e« T&V eX&oov, TO, fiev avco avTrj -^paadat,, iv tcXifSdva) 8taavet,3 irvl^avTe<; OVTCO rpwyovcri. ol Be TOE? ai/Twv ^Sxrt, airo TS)V lydvaiv fiovvov, TOW? eireav Xdficocn ical e^eKwcri TTJV KotXlrjv, avalvovovcn is SdXacrcrav r/yeovTai Be ot epcreve'i airoppaivovTe'; TOV dopov, al Be eiro/j^evat ava/cdvrTovcn /cal i% avTov /cvtcncovTai} eireav Be ir\rjpeiVTab iv rfj daXdacrr], dvaTrXcoovcri btzidd) e? r\Qea TO, ecovrav etcacrTOL. rj^iovrai fievroi ye ov/ceri ol avToi, dWa ra>v 6r}\emv v irepijivo/jbevav ica\ fit) KaraTrivo/Mevav Key^pwv ol rpecn iiafKddovTe? e? OdXaaaav, aivovTai TeTpi/jL/jAvob ra eir dpiarepa T5>V KefyaXeav, ot B' av oiricrco dvairKdiOVTes, ra i-rri Be^ia rerpfyaTai.5 irda^ovcri Be rdora Bia ToBe' i%6fievot Trj<; 5? oSoO Bia rbv poov. iireav Be TrXTjOveadat, apyiyrcu, 6 Net\o TOV vBaTO<; iic TOV iroTa/xov- ical avTi/ca Te vKea The male fish deposit the milt after the female fish have deposited the spawn. 6 This is a myth. 6 The fish were brought by the canals which were fed by the Nile, not by the percolation of the water through tlie soil. it.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 175 K a t irepl /lev TOV? l^Ova? OVTCO eyeu. dXeiipaTi Be ypecovTai 94 A.t,jvTTTOcov ol Trepl ra eXea oliceovTe<; diro TCOV aiXXiKvirpuoiv TOV Kapirov, TO KaXeovcrt, fiev AlyvirTioi KIKO, iroieovat Be a>Be. irapa TO, ^eiXea T&V Te itoTafi&v Kal T&>V Xifivecov aireipovai, ra o~iXXcKVTrpoa rdora, ret iv "JiXXr/ai, aiirofiaTa aypia cfiveTai. rdora iv T17 AlyinrTcp airecpofieva Kapirov (pepet, -TTOWOV fiev SvcrcoBea Be- TOVTOV e-ireav o-v\\e%a>VTt, eo~Tl fie/j,7j^av7)/jieva. TOU? fiev TO, avco Tmv iXecov ol/ceovTat; ol irvpyoi axfteXeovo'i,, e? TOU? avaf3aivovTe<s KocfieovTat,- ol yap /ca>va>7re<; VTTO TWV avifiaiv OVK oloi Te elal vtyov ireTeaOaL. TOICTL Be irepl TO, eXea ol/ceovai TaBe avTi TUSV irvpycov aXXa fie/Mrj-^dvTjTai. TTCK dvrjp avTwv afMpbftXTjo-Tpov eKTT)Tai, TQJ T?79 fiev rjfiepr)<; fyOvs dypevei,8 TTJV Be vvKTa TaBe avT& ypoLTau' iv TTJ avaivaveTai KOLTTJ, we pi TavTTjv HOTTTJO-I TO dfi(f)i/3XrjcrTpov Kal eireiTa ivBii<; vir avTO KaTevBei. ol Be KOOVW7T69, rjv fiev iv ifiaTLa) iveiXc^dfievo? evBy rj abvBovi, Boa TOVTCOV BaKvovai, Btd Be TOV BLKTVOV oiBe ireiprnvTai dpj(tjv. T a Be BTJ TrXold aj>i, Tolcrc (^opTTjyeovcri, icrTi iK T ^ ? aKavBrf; 9 96 Troieofieva, T979 rj jiop<prj fiev eVri OfioioTaTr/ TU> Kvprjvala X«TC3 TO Be BaKpvov KOfifii icrTi. iK TavTijs a>v TTJ? aKdvOr\s KO^jrdfievoi, ^vXa oo~ov Te Btirrj^ea -rrXuvQ-^Bov avvTidelcri vavwTjyeofievot Tpdirov ToiovBe. irepl yofityow; TTVKVOVS Kal fiaKpovs Trepielpovai, Ta BiTrri^ea %vXa- iireav Be TW Tpoira) TOVTW vavirTjyrjcrwvTai,, %vya eTTLTToXrji; Telvovai avTWv. vofievo~t Be ovBev ^pewvTai' eaadev Be TCLS ap/x,ovia<; iv a>v etraKTwaav TJ} /3v/3Xa>. TTTjBdXiov Be ev TToieovTai, Kal TOVTO Bia, TTJS Tpoirt-o1; BiaftvveTai. IO~TW Be aKavOlvu) xpecovTai, IGTIOLGL Be f3vf3Xbvoicri. TaoTa TO, irXola dva fiev TOV iroTafiov ov BuvaTai irXeiv, r\v fir/ Xafnrpos ave/ios j], iK yea<; Be TrapeXKeTai. KaTa poov Be KOfil^eTai o>Be. eK fivpiKr]^ •KeTvourffievr] Qvprf, KaTeppafifievr/ pi-irei KaXdficov,1 7 The castor-oil plant (Palma Christi), of which Nubian damsels and the baskets they sell to travellers are still redolent. In the Egyptian texts the kiki is called tekem (Revillout in Lepsius's Zeitschrift, 1879, p. 92). 8 The fishing-net must have had mar- vellously small meshes if it kept out mosquitoes. 9 The modern sont or acacia, of which the Nile boats are still made, 1 " A raft made of tamarisk, and stitched together with a wattling of reeds." 176 HERODOTOS. [BOOK Kal XiOos T€rpr]fj,evo<; BiTaXavTos fidXtcrrd KJJ crTafffiov. TOVTCOV rrjv fiev Qvprjv BeBefievTjv KaXq> efiirpoaOe TOV TTXOLOV dirlec r) fiev Brj dvprj iiTKpipeo-dcu, TOV Be XiOov aXXa> KaX
icrTi TOIGL TTXOLOLO-L TOVTOLCTL), 6 Be XLOOS oiticrQe f Kal icbv ev /3vo~o~a> KaTbdvvei TOV TTXOOV. eo~Ti Be Ta irKoia TUOTU irXrfOei TroWd, Kal ayei evta TroXXa? %i\idBa<; taXdvTcov. 97 'Fiireav Be iireXdy 6 NetXo? TTJV yayprjv, ai TroXte? fiovvai alvovTai virepeyovo-at,, fidXiaTa KT) ifjL(j>epel<; Tycn ev Tip Aljaia TTOVTG) vr/aoio-f TO, fiev jap dXXa T ^ ? AlyinrTov treXayo^ yiveTai, at Be iroXies fiovvat, vTrepe^ovcn,. iropd'/isvovTai &v, eireav TOVTO iv e'/c Nav/epaTio<; dvairXdaovTi, Trap' avTa<; Tas irvpafAiBas yiveTai 6 7rXoo?* ecrTi Be ovS" OVTO<;, dXXA irapa TO O^V TOV AeXTa2 Kal irapa JLepKao-oipov iroXiv e? Be NavKpaTiv airb 6aXdo-/3ov Bia ireBiov -irXewv rj^eii KaT "AvdvXXdv Te TTOXCV Kal TYJV 'Ap-^dvBpov KaXeofievyv? 98 TOVTewv Be r] fiev "Av6vXXa iovcra Xoylfji^j 7roXt? e? v7roBrjfiaTai i^aipeTO^ BiBoTai TOV alel /3acnXevovTO<} AiyinrTov Trj yvvaiKi (TOVTO Be yiveTai if; ocrov virb Tlepajjai icrTO A%yv7TTo<;), 17 Be eTepr] TVOXI<; BOKCZ fioi TO ovvofia eyeiv dirb TOV Aavaov ya/ifipov ''ApyavBpov TOV <$>9iov TOV 'A%aoov'b KaXeiTai yap Brj ''Ap^avBpov TTOXIS. e'lr\ B' av Kal aXXo$ Tt? "Ap-yavBpo'i, ov fievTot, ye AtyvRTiov TO ovvofia. 99 M e ^ a t fiev TOVTOV o^n^ Te i/xrj Kal yvwfi/r) Kal icrTopuq 6 TaoTa Xeyovad ecrTi, TO Be airb TovBe AlyxnrTiovt; ep^ofiai Xoyovs epewv KaTa TCL f/Kovov irpoaecrTai, Be TL Kal avTolai Kal T ^ ? eyJr]<s b'tyws. Tov M t v a irp&Tov (3acn,Xevo-avTa AiyvTrTov ol lepels eXeyov 2 Two MSS. read oi)/c instead of oiSi. The passage seems to mean, "whereas the (usual) way is not this, but by the apex of the Delta ; " 6 tuB&s appears to have fallen out of the text. 3 These two towns must have stood westward of the Kanopic branch of the Nile. 4 "To keep her in shoes." Revenues of towns were given to the Persian queens as pin-money (Xenoph. Anab. i. 4, 9). So three cities were given to Themistokles by Artaxerxes to provide him with bread, wine, and meat (Corn. M"ep. Vit. Them. 10). 6 "Son of Phthios, son of Akhsos." Pausanias makes him son of Akhseos. 6 "Enquiries." As we have seen, the "judgment" of Herodotos is not always to be commended. 7 See ch. i, note 3. Menes ("the enduring" or "eternal") was originally king of This (see Appendix I.) The great dyke of Kokheikhe, by means of which he obtained the embankment on which to build the capital of his new THE LAND OF EGYPT. II.] TOVTO /Mev aTToye^vpuKrcu Tt)V lAifjLtpiv. 177 TOV yap TroTa/Jibv peiv irapa TO opo^ TO -^rdfi/jLivov 7rpo<; At/Si;?;?, TOV Be ava>0ev, oaov Te eicaTov o-TaB£ov<; airo Me/i^to?, rbv irp6<; /3/H'??9 ayKwva irpoo-^oo-avTa TO jxev ap^alov peldpov airotjrjprjvai, TOV Be TroTaiJLOv o-yeTevaai TO jieo-ov T&V opecov pelv. ert Be Kal vvv virb Jlepcrecov 6 ay/ea>v OVTO? TOV Net'Xou &)? aTrepy/j,evo<; pey 8 iv tyvXaicfjcrL /MeydXycn, e^eTai, (f>paaaofievo<; ava irav ero? 1 el virep^rjvat, Mejui|)( ica,Taic\vo~&7]vai icrTi. 6 7TOTa//.o5 TCLVTT}, KIVBVVO? o>? Be TU> Mivt TOVTtp yevo/x,eva fiaaiXei %epcrov yeyovevai TO airepyfievov, TOVTO /J,ev iv avTm TTOXIV KTLCTCU Tavrqv rjTd vvv Me/i(/«9 KaXelTcu- ecrrt yap Kal r] Mefii<; ev T T ^ ? AIJVTTTOV egcoOev Be "7repiopv!;ai Xifivrjv etc TOV nroTafiov irpb eai CK f3vj3>\ov aWtov fiao-CKewv TpcrjKoalcov Kal TpurjKovTa ovvofiaTa.1 iv TocravTycri, yevefjoi av6pd>rrra>v oKTWKalBeKa fiev At'0<We? rjaav? fila Be yvvrj eiro^copLT],3 ol Be aXKot avBpes AlyinrTLot,. TT} Be yvvcuKi ovvofia r\v, e/3ao~l\ev 178 HEKODOTOS. $et3, 5 TOV KlyvirTioL fiaaiXevovTa Te? Be OVTCO eKeivrj airehoaav [BOOK atyeav aireKretvav, TTJV ^acnXr/lrjv, airoKTeivav- TOVTW Tificopeovcrav 7ro\\ov? AiyviTTLWv Statpdelpai BoXto. 7roir]a-afJ,ivrjv yap /iiv oifCTj/Aa 7replfir)Ke<; vtroyeov Kaivovv ™ Xoyo?, vow Be aXXa /Mrj^avaa6ai- KaXecraaav Be fiiv KlywrTiav TOV? fidXiara fierai,Tiov<; TOV (povov fjBei,, iroXXoix; icxTiav, Saovvfievot,o~L Be eireivai TOV 7roTa/j,bv Bi avXwvos KpvTTTOV fieyaXov. T«VTT7? fiev irepi ToaavTa eXeyov, TTXTJV OTO avrrjv fi.LV, &>s TOVTO £%epya eXeyov ovSefiiav epyeov airoBe^w TTXTJV evbs TOV eo-yarov aircav TU>V Be aXKcov e? ooicrjfia a-iroBov fiaaikewv ov yap Ka\ ovBev elvau Xa(nrpoTr)To<;,6 Motpto?* 7 TOVTOV Be airoBe^ao-6ai fivrjfioavva TOV 'H(paiv iaTi crTaBiav vo~Tepov BrfXwaco, TTvpafiiSas p,eyd6eo<; trepi ToaavTa airoBe^aadai, 102 r e iv avTrj olicoBo/j,rjo~ai, TCOV TOV 6/JLOV avTrj Trj XI/JLVT) eTTifjuvrja-ofJiai. TOVTOV /JAV Uapafietylrdfievos TMV Be aXXwv ovBeva oiiBev. &v TOVTOV? TOV eVt /3ao~£Xeo<;, Tm ovvofjM rjv AeawaTp^, TOVTOICTL TOVTOV fivijfnjv yevofievov Troitjao/jMi1 TOV eXeyov ol lepels irpwTov fjuev 7rXototo"t /j,a,icpoZo~i 6p/j,T)devTa e'« TOV 'Apa/3tou KOXTTOV TOV? irapa TTJV 'EpvOprjv 6aXacro~av KaTOiKt]- fievovs KaTao-Tpecpeo-Oao, e? o irXeovTci [uv irpocra airc/ceo-dai e? daXaaaav oviceTi TrXwT'qv VTTO ^pa^eav,1 e? AiyvirTov, evQevTev Be &>? OTTLCTQ} KUTO, TCOV lepecov TTJV (paTiv, Turin Papyrus, however, has after her Nofer-ka, Nefrus, and Ra-ab. 6 Merenra Zaf-em-saf, called Menthesouphis by Manetho, according to whom he reigned only one year. 6 If we may argue from the silence of the monuments, this would be perfectly true of the successors of Neitakrit down to Amen-em-hat I., the founder of the twelfth dynasty. But the earlier kings of this latter dynasty were great warriors and builders, which looks as if Moeris were intended to be Amen-em-hat I., who, however, did not construct the lake and its pyramids. Perhaps, however, the Memphite priests took no heed of the glories that were won for Thebes, and the buildings that adorned a rival city. Or, more probably, Herodotos and his interpreter only half understood what was read to them. 7 o~Tpa,Tit)V See ch. 13, note 5. This is in favour of the idea that the Memphite priests would not allow that any kings could be illustrious who had neglected their own city and temple. Lake Moeris, too, was in the neighbourhood of Memphis rather than of Thebes. 9 Ramses II. of the nineteenth dynasty, popularly called Sestura, whence the Greek Sesostris. As there was an interval of between one and two thousand years between Amen-em-hat III. and Ramses II., ^7ri roiroun, "after these," must he taken in a wide sense. * The war of Seti I., the father of Ramses II., against the Punt on the coast of Somala seems to be referred to. For the real character and military feats of Ramses II., see App. I. 8 ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 179 iroWrjv T&V . . Xafieov rjkavve Bia riji r)irelpov, <; yXi^ofxevoia-c -Kepi 1-779 iXevdepfys, TOVrotcn fjuev a-TrjXas 2 iviaTt) e? Ta.9 %a>pa<> Bta ypafifMaTcov \eyovo-a? TO Te ecovrov ovvofia Kal Trjs iraTprfs, Kal (09 Bvvd/j,ei Trj eavTov KdTecrTp&ylraTO areas' OTecov Be d/j,a^7)Tl Kal evireTea><s p Ta9 iroXtWi, TOVTOHTC Be iveypacpe iv Tyao cTT^Xycn, KaTa Kal Tolai dvBprjioiai TWV idvearv <; etrjaav dvaXKiBes. TaoTa Be trovewv Bie^ijie TTJV rfrretpov, €9 o IK T ^ 9 'Acrirj<; 103 69 TTJV T^iipcoTrrjp Biafias TOVS Te ~ZKv6a<; KaTearTpetyaTO Kal TOV9 ®prjiKa<;.i e? TOUTOV? Be fioi BoKel Kal irpocrwTaTa amiKeaQai, 0 ACLivovTai crTa6elcrai at (TTrjXai,6 TO Be TrpoacoTepco TOVTCOV ovKen. ivOevrev Be 67rtcrT/3ei|ra9 oirlo-a> tfte, Kal hrevre eyiveTO hvl Qaai, iroTafJim,6 OVK e%(o TO ivdevTev aTpeKew; elireiv etVe a^TO9 0 /3acriXev<; ZieaaarpK diroBao-dfievo1; TJ79 eavTov o-TpaTifjs fiopoov ocrov BTJ avTov KaTeKiire Tr)<; ^0)^179 olKrjTopas, etVe T&V Tives crTpaTuoTewv T§ TfkdvQ aiiTov dyQeaOevTe1; irepl Qaaiv iroTafibv KaTefieivav. aivovTai fiev ydp iovTes 01 KoA/j£O£ AlyinrTioi, vofjcra<; Be 104 irpoTepov avT09 r) d.Kovo-a.7 &>? Be fioi, iv povTiBo iyeveTo, elpofirjv dfMpoTepovs, Kal fiaXXov ol KoX^ot ifiefiveaTO T&v AlyvTTTicov i) ol AlyvnvTiot TCOV KoX^wi' • vofio^eiv b" efyacrav 01 A.lyvTTTiot, T979 Seo"(»o"T/3iO9 aTpaTirfi elvai, TOI Se e%Kaaa TrjBe Kal OTI jieXdyxpoes elai, Kal 2 Tablets rather than pillars, like the three cut in the rock by the side of the ancient road at the mouth of the Nahr el-Eelb or Dog River (the ancient Lykos), eight miles north of Beyriit. One of these was dedicated by Ramses to Ptah, the second to Ra, and the third to Amun. 3 '' The same inscription as in the case of those who had shown themselves brave." The description of the tablets is wholly imaginary. 4 No Egyptian sovereign ever penetrated into Europe, or ever heard the name of Skythians and Thrakians. 6 This gratuitous falsehood does not raise our opinion of the credibility of Herodotos in regard to objects which he might have seen. 6 The Phasis was unknown to both Egyptians and Assyrians. 7 We may gather from this that the story of the Egyptian colony in Kolkhis had been suggested to the guides of Herodotos by his "leading" questions, 8 The Egyptians are not black skinned, nor have they woolly hair. This warns us against accepting Herodotos as an anthropological authority. As the Egyptians shaved, he had not much opportunity of observing their hair, but seems to have made his observations upon their negro slaves. It is equally difficult to believe that the Kolkhians were black and woolly haired. Certainly none of the numerous races now inhabiting the Kaukasos are so. But the black skin of 180 HERODOTOS. [BOOK Kal TOVTO fiev e? ovBev avrjKei,- elal yap Kal erepob robovrobdXXd rolabBe Kal fiaXXov, on povvoi irdvrasv dvdp&Trav KoX%ob Kal Alyinrnob Kal AWloires Trepirdfivovrai air dpyr\<; ra alBola? QolviKes Be Kal %vpob ol iv ry HaXabartvy Kal avrol SfioXoyeovab •nap AlyvirTbwv fiefjiadr)K6vai, ~tvpbob Be ol irepl ©ep/icoBovra Kal ILapOeviov irorafibv Kal MaKpave? ol TOVTOMTC daTvyebrove^ eoWe?1 diro JLoX^cov <paal vecoarl fie/j.adrjKevab. OVTOI yap elcri ol irepiTafivofievoi dvdp&ircov fiovvoi, Kal OVTOI AoywrTLOIGI (palvovrai, "irobeovTeepe vvv Kal aXXo e'lirca irepl TUV ILoX^cov, to? AlyvKTbOMTt, 7rpoo~(f)epel<; elal. \LVOV fiovvoi ovroi re Kal AlyviTTiob epydtpvTab Kara ravrd, Kal fj t,dt] iracra Kal rj yK&craa 2 i/J,<])epi]<; ecrrt Xbvov Be TO fjuev KoX^bKov virb 'FXXijvwv "ZapScovbKOV 106 TO fiivrob asir Alyvirrov dirbKveo/jievov KaXelrat AlyvrrTbov. Be arijXab ras "era Kara, TO.? ^cojoa? o Alyinrrov al (MV TrXeoves ovKerb (palvovrab irepbeovcrab, iv Be "Zvply4 avTOf &pwv iovaas Kal rd ypd/xfiara elp7]fj,eva iveovra Kal yvvaLKbs alBola. elal Be Kal nrepl Bvo TVTTOI iv rrreTpyab eyKeKoXafifievob TOVTOV TOV dvBpos, ry re eK TJ)? 'Ecjbecrt^? e? <£>a>Kabav ep^owab Kal iy e/c %ap8lwv e? %fivpv7]v.5 eKarepcodb Be dvyp eyyeyXvirrab /Aeyados the Kolkhians seems to have been an old Greek myth ; cf. Pind. Pyth. iv. 212. 9 See ch. 36, note 9. 1 The Thermodon seems to be the Termeh Chai, eastward of Samsun and the Halys, while the Parthenios is the Chati Chai or river of Bartan, considerably to the west of the Halys. The Makronians lived inland from Trebizond (Xen. Aiiah. iv. 8), and were afterwards called Sanni or Zani (Strab. xii. p. 795). Their heads were artificially elongated. For the "Syrians," see i. 72, note 3. 2 There are no traces of any language related to Old Egyptian among the numerous languages of the Kaukasos. Herodotos, who knew neither Egyptian nor Kolkhian, was as near the truth as his hypothetical Dodonaeans, who could not distinguish between the Egyptian language and the chirping of birds. 3 "Why Kolkhian yarn should be called Sardinian is not clear. Perhaps the Kolkhian name sounded to the Greeks like sardonikos. 4 At the Nahr el-Kelb, see ch. 102, note 2. The female emblems upon them are due to the imagination of Herodotos. 6 The two sculptures are carved on the rocks of the pass of Karabel, three miles east of Nimfi, and about twentyfive miles inland from Smyrna, on the sides of the old road which led from Smjrna to Ephesos through the Mahmud THE LAND OF EGYPT. II.] TJ7 fiev Befjiy %etjOt e-^av alx^'hv Kal T?)I> aXXqv crKevrjv dxravrw 181 T{) Be dpicnepfj Kal ydp AlyvTrrorjv ro^a,7 Kal AlOio- 7rt'8a e^et* 8 4K Be rod &/MOV e? rbv e'repov &jiov Boa TO>V crTrjOemv ypdfifiara leph Alyvima9 Birjicet, ey/ceico\a/j,fAeva, Xeyovra rdBe. " iyoi) rrjvBe rrjv ^coprjv OO/JLOKTI TOICTI e^iolab i/eTTjcrdfirjv." 1 Se Kal oKodev iari, ivOavra TO Brj KOI fiere^eTepoi fiev ov BrjXot, erepa>0i Be TWV OeTjcrafievcov M.e/j,vovo<; eoKOva el/cd- %ov(ri fiiv elvai, -jroWov T ^ ? akri6eiri<; airoXeXei/j./jLevoi,.2 TOUTOI/ dvdyovTa aTpetyaTO, BT} TOV A-lyinmov ZiecraxTTpiv dva^copeovra Kal 107 TTOXKOV^ avdpa>irov<; rSiv edvecov TSI> rat %pas KareeXeyov Ad(f>vy<Ti rfjat, ol lepeis, eireire eylvero dva/co/j,i^o/x,evo<; ev HjjXovcTirjcri, TOV dBeX(j>ebv eavrov,3 range. The best preserved (discovered by Kenouard in 1839) is about 140 feet above the path on the eastern side, and represents a warrior larger than life-size, standing in a niche, who looks southward, holds a spear in the left hand, has a bow at the back, and wears a tiara, a tunic reaching to the knees, and boots with turned up ends. The second, which is an exact repetition of the first, is on a level with the old road, and on its western side, but is much mutilated, and has but lately been brought to light. The dress and style of art, which agree with those of the Hittite sculptures at Boghaz Keui and Eyuk (in Kappadokia), as well as at Ghiaur Kalessi (near Ancyra) and Ibreez (in Lykaonia), show that the sculptures are Hittite. The first-mentioned figure is also accompanied by an inscription in Hittite hieroglyphics placed between the face of the figure and the top of the spear, which does not seem to have existed in the case of the second figure, where it may have run across the breast. The second figure looks northward. These figures, instead of being memorials of the conquests of Sesostris, are monuments of his most redoubtable enemies, the Hittites, and testify to the extension of their power as far as the iEgean (see Sayce on The Monuments of the Hittites in the Trans. Soc. Bibl. Archmol. vii. 2). The road from Sardes to Smyrna, however, could TW hardly have run through Karabel, though it no doubt joined the road to Ephesos at the entrance to the pass, and both figures hold the spear in the right, not left hand. The direct route now from Ephesos to Phoksea is through Smyrna ; in the time of Herodotos the marshes at the mouth of the Hermos seem to have been impassable, and the road then doubled the eastern shoulder of Sipylos, and ran from Magnesia to Kyme by the pass of Uzun Hassanly (still used by cattle drivers), and thence to Phoksea (cf. Academy, April 9, 1881, p. 262). 6 A little over three feet, which is only half the real height. 7 The bow is really slung behind the back. 8 The dress is utterly different from that of the Egyptians and Ethiopians. 9 The characters are hieroglyphs, it is true, but not Egyptian. 1 This must have been the invention of the cicerone. As the Greeks did not know what the origin of the figure was, it is not likely that they would have been able to interpret the long disused characters upon it. 2 The legend was nearer the truth than the guess of Herodotos. Memnon, the son of the Dawn, was associated with the Homeric KSteians or Hittites, as Mr. Gladstone has shown (Homeric Synchronism, pp. 173 sq.) 3 Manetho is said (Joseph, cont. Ap. 182 HEKODOTOS. p Trjv Atyvinov, Kal TT/30? aiirm TOV<; iralBa^ TOVTOV eirl £elvia [BOOK aiiTov KaXecravra irepivrjo-ai e%(o6ev TT\V OIKLI)V vXr), irepcvr/a-avTa Be viroirprjcrac. TOP Be &>? fiadelv TOVTO, avTiKa avfifiovXevecrdai, TTJ yvvaiKV- Kal yap Br) Kal Tr)v yvvaiKa axiTOv a/ia ayecrdai' Tr)v Be ol av[if3ovXevcrai TWV iraiBcov iovTCOV ef TOU? Bvo irrl Tr)v irvpr)v eKTeivavTa yetyvpwaaL TO Kaio/ievov, avToiif Be e V eKeivwv iin^aivovTa<; iiccrm^ecrOai. Tciora Troifjcrai, TOV %eG(o6rjvai, afia TS iraTpi. voo'T^aa^ Be 6 Secrwo-T/Ji? e? TTJV MyvirTov Kal Ticrd[ievo<; TOV aBeX(j>eov, T& fiev ofitXtp TOV iiTTjydyeTO Ttov ra? ^copa? KaTeo-TpeyjraTo, TOVTG) /Mev TciBe e%pi]o~aTO. TOW? T6 ol Xidov; TOIX; eirl TOVTOV TOV /SacrtXeo? KOfiio-devTas e? TOV 'H^atcrTou TO lepov, eovTa<; fieyddet, TrepifirjKeas, OVTOI rjaav ol eXKiiaavTe^, Kal Ta? Bidpv^af Ta? vvv eoucra? iv AlyinvTa 7rdcra<; OVTOI avayKa^ofievoi a>pvo~aov, eiroieov Te OVK eKovTes AXyvjrTov, TO rrrplv iovaav l-7nraa-ifirjv Kal dfia^evofj,evr]v iraaav, evBea TOVTCOV. dirb yap TOVTOV TOV yjpbvov Aiyv7TTO<; iovcra 7reSta9 iraaa avnnros Kal dvafid^evTo:; yeyove' a'lTiac Be TOVTWV al Bubpv%e<; yeyovact, iovcai iroXXal Kal •KavToiov; Tpoirov; e%ovcrai. KaTerrafive Be TovBe e'iveKa TTJV %a>pr)v 6 /3acrtXev?# ocroo TCOV AlyvirTitov fir) iirl T » woTa/iai eKTrjVTO TO.? 7roX(.a? a \ \ ' dvafiicrovs, OVTOI, OKO><; Te dirioi 6 TroTafio^, airavi^ovTe<; vBaTcav TrXaTVTepouri ift 109 Trofiacn, e'« (ppeaTcov %ped>fievoi. TOVTCOV fiev Br] e'iveKa r) AXyvKTOS. KaTavelfiat Be TTJV ywp^v Ah/VKTiotau avaai TOVTOV eXeyov TOV ffacriXea, KXijpov 'iaov eKao~T<£> TeTpdycovov BiBovra,6 Kal diro TOVTOV TO.? irpocroBov; TrotrjaacrOai. eiriTa^avTa wno§opr\v eTTLTeXelv KaT eviavTov. el Be TIVOS TOV KXrjpov 6 7TOTa/io? i. 15) to have known of this brother, whom he called Armais, and declared to be the same as the Danaos of the Greeks. But he makes him a brother, not of Ramses II., but of Sethosis, i.e. Seti (Meneptah) II., the grandson of Ramses. As Seti II. was driven from the throne for about five years by a successful pretender, Amun-mes, while Egypt fell under the dominion of a Semitic invader, Arisu, after his death, it is possible that Manetho's account may be a confused rendering of actual events. 4 The canal system of Egypt existed from the beginning of the monarchy, On the other hand, horses were first introduced by the Hyksos, and, like the chariot (which had the Semitic name merkebat), are first found on the monuments of the eighteenth dynasty. 5 " Brackish," perhaps because irXarfs was used of the " broad " sea. 6 This equal division of the land, which was a favourite theory of Greek philosophers, was both unworkable in practice and non-existent in fact. Only a Greek guide could have invented the story. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 183 Ti irapeXoiTo, e\6o)v av 717305 avrbv iarifiaive TO yeyevrjfievov 6 Be eirefmre TOW? iina-ice-^rofievov^ Kal avafierptfcrovTa1; oam eXdo-v o %Wjoo? yeyove, OKCOS TOV XOLTTOV Kara, Xoyov TT)? reTayfievr)<; aTrotyoprjs TeXeoi. BoKel Be fioi evOevTev yewfieTpir)7 e? Tfjv 'EXXaSa iiraveXdelv TCL SvcoBeKa fiepea 8 " TTOXOV fiev Trjs rjfieprj'i irapa BacrtXeu? fiev Br) OUTO? fiovpos fj.vrjfj.oawa Be ikiirero yap evpedelcra Kal yva>/j.ova Kal Haftvkoovocov efiadov AlyviTTio1; oi AlOtoTrlr)? •rjp^e,9 110 7Tpo TOV 'HaicrTeiov avBpidpTa<; Xidivov*;, Bvo fiev TpiijKovTa TTTj^ecov,1 ecavTOv Te Kal TTJV yvvaiKa, TratSa? eovTas Teaaepag eiKocri irrj^eav e/caaTov TOV 'HalcrTov 'Xpova fj,eTeirena TOV<; Be TO>V Brj 0 lepei) TTOXKG) Aapelov TOV Ueparrjv ov ireptelBe icrTavTa efiirpoaOe avBpidvTa, (f>a<; ov ol TreTroirjo-dai ep eKeivov Kal Br) Kal %Kv6as, Aapelov Be ov Bvvacdrjvao 2 fievov Tolcn epyoict. yva>fi7jv Troirjaaadai. Aapelov fiev vvv Xeyovcri 7rpb<> rdora crvy- Secrtoo-T/oto? Be TeXevTijo-avTOs eKBe^aadac ekeyov TOV iralBa avTov Qepcov,5 TOV cnroBi^aadai 7 For the geometrical papyrus that has "been discovered, see App. I. 8 This is perfectly correct. The sundial and gnomon were invented by the Babylonians, who divided the day into twelve caspumi or "double hours." Anaximander set up the first gnomon (or obelisk) in Sparta in B.C. 560 (Diog. Laert. ii. 1). 9 Contrary to fact. Not only the kings of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth dynasties ruled over Ethiopia, but those of the twelfth also. After the time of Thothmes I., the kings' sons are called " princes of Kush." 1 i.e. over 51 feet high. The fallen colossos of Ramses II. at Memphis is between 42 and 43 feet in length. One found by Hekekyan Bey is about 34J feet (20 cubits = 34 feet). 2 This reason has plainly a Greek author. 5 PherSn is Pharaoh, per-aa or "great TTJV fiacn- fiev ovBefniav house," the title of the Egyptian kings (like the "sublime Porte"). The real successor of Ramses was his son Meneptah I. Herodotos now leaves history behind, and introduces us to the legends which passed current among the ignorant guides and dragomen. They are interesting, however, as examples of the folk-lore of the time and country. Hence it is that the king is not named ; he is simply " a Pharaoh," which Herodotos has mistaken for a proper name, The tale told of him is thoroughly Greek and non - Egyptian in character, and must therefore be regarded as belonging not to Egyptian but to Greek folk-lore, There is more than one K6m el-Ahmar or "Red Mound" in modern Egypt, so called from the heaps of red bricks in the ruins which mark the site of an ancient city. It was to a similar " Red Mound" that the legend recounted by Herodotos was attached. 111 184 HERODOTOS. [BOOK irjv, o~vvevev)(Qr\vai Be ol TvcpXov yevecrdai Bia roiovBe TOV iroTajiov KareXdovTOS fieyiara or) Tore eir OKTOJKaiBeica 7 r ^ e a ? , &>? inrepeftaXe Ta? apovpas, irvev/MiTO'; ifiireeroi'TO? KVfMTLrjs 6 7roTa/xo? eyeverorbv Be ftacnXea Xeyovari TOVTOV arao-OaXiri xprjo-dpevov, XafiovTa al^rjv @aXelv e? yaecra? Ta? Bivas TOV iroTCLfiov, fiera Be avrl/ca fca/AOvra avTOV Toils 66aX/j,ov<;, ^Tt? irapcl, TOV ia>VTr)<; avBpa fiovvov 7recj)o(,T7)ice, aXXcov dvBp&v iovcra aireipo^. /cal TOV •jrpd>Ti)<; ri}? eavrov yvvaiicbs TretpaaOai, fiera Be, &>? OVK ave/SXeire, 67re^9 tracrewv Treupaadai' avafiXeijravTa Be crvvajayeiv ras yvvai/ca$ rwv iireip^dr], TrXrjv rj T?j9 TS ovpcp vityd/Aevos dpefiXeyjre, e? fiiav TTOXW, rj vvv KcCXelrai 'Jipv6pj) /ScoXo?* e? ravrrjv V 6v aXXa Te ava Ta lepa irdvTa TO. Xoyi/Ma aveOrj/ce icai TOV ye Xoyov f/,dXto~Ta al-iov e 112 eicarov, evpo<; TOVTOV Be i/cBegacrdai T-qv ^ao-CXt)irjv eXeyov avBpa Me/AlTr)v, Ta> Kara TTJV ' E t t ^ f f l K yX5io~o~av ovvofia TlpcoTea etvai'8 TOV vvv re/Aevos iait ev Me/iif( icdpTa icaXov Te ical ev ecricevacrfievov, TOV 'H<paio~relov irpo^ VOTOV ave/Mov /cetfievov. Trepioiiciovo'i Be rb refievo^ TOVTO ^oiVt/ce? Tvptoi, /caXelrcu Se 6 %w/oo? OVTO<; 6 d Tvpimv crrpaToireBov. eo~ri Be ev ra> Tefievet TOV lepbv TO /caXelrat, fjelv7)<; 'ApoBiT7)<;- crvfifidXXofiai 6 The tale, therefore, was attached by the guides to the two obelisks at Heliopolis, one of which, erected by Usertesen I., still stands there. 7 Over 150 feet, a gross exaggeration. The height of the obelisk of Heliopolis is 66 feet; the loftiest in Egypt, that of Queen Hatasu at Karnak, is 122 feet, or, without the pedestal, 108 feet 10 inches. Small obelisks were first used for sepulchral purposes under the fourth and fifth dynasties. 8 Here we have another Greek legend attached to the shrine of the Phoenician AstartS at Memphis. The Greek Helen was easily identified by Herodotos with the Semitic goddess of beauty and love, more especially as there were strong points of similarity between the legend of Helen and that of Astarte and AdSnis. Homer makes PrSteus live on the coast of the Delta, on the island of Pharos, and Polybos king of '' Egyptian Thebes " (Od. iv. 385, 126). Herodotos seems unacquainted with the Homeric version, but see note 2 on ch. 116. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 185 Be TOVTO TO iepov elvat, ' E X e ^ ? TJJ? TvvBdpeai, Kal TOV Xoyov d/c^/too)? o>? BiaTrjOr] 'EXeV?7 irapa TLptorii,, Kal Br) Kal on ^eivqi A.po8iTri<; iir(ovvfi6v W T C b'o~a yap dXXa ' A ^ O S / T T ; ? iepd eo~Ti, ovBafia>$ £elvr]<; eiriKaXelrai, eXeyov Be fioi, oi lepels icnopeovTi 113 Ta jrepl 'H\evr]v yeveadad &Be. 'AXe^avBpov dpirdcravTa iic ATrdpTrji; diroirXelv e? rr/v eavrov- Kai fiiv, a><; iyevero Alyalw, i£(oo~Tai avejioo eic(3dWovv oi'/ceTT;? OTCVUV dvdpcoTTCov i"7ri/3d\r}Tai GTiyfiaTa Iepd, icovTOV BiBovs TW Gem, OVK etfe&Ti TOVTOV a-^raadai. 6 J/O/AO? O5TO? BiaTeXel eibv 0/40(05 TO fiey^pi' i/J-eo dir dp%fj<;. TOV a>v Brj 'AXegdvBpov d-mo-TeaTai OepdirovTei irvdofievoi TOV irepl TO iepov eyovTa vo/j,ov, iKBTai Be i^ofievoi TOV 8eov KaTTjyopeov TOV 'A\e£dvBpov, fiovkofievoi, fSXaiTTeLV avTov, irdvTa \6yov e^yeofievou to? 6 '% e Trepl TT)V 'E\ev7]v Te Kal TT)V e? lAeveXewv dBiKirfv. KaTfjyopeov Be TaoTa irpo'i Te TOV; iepeas Kal TOV TOV <no[ji,aTo<; TOVTOV <j)v\aKov, rm ovvofia r\v ©coz^. 4 aKovaa^ Be TOVTOV 6 ©COVK 7re/x7ret TTJV 114 e? Meytt^tv irapa TlpaTea dyyeXbjv \eyovo~av TaBe. yevos fiev Teu/cpd?, epyov Be dvoaiov ev Ty 'EXXaSt %eivov yap TOV icovTov e^airaTr\o-a/j.ev datvea eKirXelv r) aTreXcofieOa Ta e%tov ^X^e ; " avTiire/nrei 7rpo? TaoTa 6 UpcoTev? XeyovTa TaBe. " avSpa TOVTOV, 6VT(.9 «OT6 eo-Ti dvoaia i^epyaafievo^ £elvov TOV ewvTov, avXXa/3ovTe<; dirdyeTe Trap i/xe, tva elBeco o TO KOTe Kal Xe^ei." a^oucra? Be 115 TaoTa 6 ®wz/t9 GvXXafifidvei TOV 'AXe^avBpov Kal T « 9 veas avTov KaTicr%ei, fierd Be avTov Te TOVTOV dvtfyaye eV M.efiiv Kal TT)V ' Te Kal TO, ^prj/iara, irpos Be Kal TOV9 iKeTa<;. dva9 This a clear case in which Herodotos was answered according to his wishes. 1 " T h e salt-pans." 2 That is the Tyrian Melkarth. For the Phoenician colonists in the Delta, see ch. 15, note 4. 3 Cf. Lev. xix. 28; Is. xliv. 5 ; Ezek. ix. 6 ; Rev. ix. 4 ; and the marks of the Vishnavite sects in India. See Luc. De Dea Syr. 59, where we learn that the Syrians devoted themselves to the service of Astarte by tattooing the wrist or neck. Cp. Gal. vi. 17. 4 Thdnis was a town on the Kanopic mouth of the Nile. Cp. Od. iv. 228. It was subsequently superseded by Kanopos. The name may be derived from the Egyptian ton, "canal." 186 HERODOTOS. [BOOK / Be irdvrav, elpcbra TOV 'AXe^avBpov 6 Uparevs TI? el?} Kal OKoOev irXeoi. 6 Be ol Kal TO yevo? /ea-reXefe Kal •rij? TraT/37/5 elire TO ovvofia, Kal Br) Kal TOV TTXOOV airriyrjo-aro OKodev irXeoi. pera Be 6 UpcoTev? elpcoTa avrbv OKoOev Tr)v 'TSXevr/v Xdfiof irXavwfievov Be TOV 'AXegdvSpov iv TG3 Xoya Kal ov XeyovTo? Tr]v dXr]6elr]v, rfXeyyov ol yevofievot UeTai, i%T)ye6fievoi irdvTa \6yov TOV aBiKrifiaTOS. TeXo? Be Br/ CT^K. Xoyov TovBe eKalvei 6 TLpa)Tev<;, Xeyav OTI " eym el fir] irepl TTOXXOV rjyeo/j^rjv /xrjBeva %eiva>v KTeivew, ocrot XITT dvifiav r)Zr) dTroXaii,<$>6evTe<s f/XOov e? %a>pir\v Tr/v ifiijv, iya> av ere virep TOV "EXX^vo? eTio-dfi7]v, 6'?, & KaKOffTe dvBpcov, ^eivioav TV^WV epyov dvoffbdiTaTov ipydcrao- irapa, TOV o-eavrov gelvov5 TTJV yvvaiKa rjXdes. Kal fidXa Taord TOI OVK rjpKeae, dXX' dvairTepdxras Kal ovBe TaoTa TOL fiovva ijpKecre, avTrjV o'fyeat e%a>v eKKXe-^af. dXXa, Kal oiKia TOV %eivov /cepaicra? ^«et?. vvv cbv iireiBr) irepl iroXXov tfyrjfiat fir) geivoKTOveiv, yvvatKa fiev TavTrjv Kal TO, ^prjfjiaTa ov TOI, irporjo'a) dirdyeaQai, dXXJ avTat, iyco TM ' EXX^w %etvq> (pvXd^co, e? o av avTo? iXBow eKelvos dirayayko'Qai ideXy avTov Be ae Kal TOI>? cov$ cru/XTrXooy? Tpi&v rjfiepecov Trpoayopevco eK Trjs ifirjs yeas 6? OXXTJV Tivh fieTopfii^ecrdat, el Be fir], are •TroXefilovs TrepieiJreo'Oai." 116 'EXei^? (iev TavTrp anrd-iv irapa TlpwTea eXeyov ol lepels yevecrOav BoKei Be fiot, Kal "Ofnypos TOV Xoyov TOVTOV irvOeo-Qar dXX' oi yap 6fioia>s e? Tr]v etTOirod^v evTrpeirr]^ t)v TW erepq) TU> irep e-%pr)o-aTO, eKcav fieTTJKe8 avTov, S?;Xcocra? to? Kal TOVTOV eiricTTaiTO TOV Xoyov BrjXov Be KUTa irep iTroirjcre iv 'lXidBt (/cat ovBafifj aXKrj dveiroBiae ecovTov) irXdvrfv TTJV 'AXeljdvBpov, to? dtrr]vel')(Qr] ayav 'TLXevrjv TJ} re Br) aXXy TrXa%6fievos Kal o>? e? ~ZiBS)va 8 TJ)? $>OLVLK7]<; dirtKeTO. eTnfiefivrjTai Be avTov iv AiofitfBeos apiGTrjLy 9 Xeyet Be TO, eVea &Be. 5 "Host; " wapi. goes with the ace. "He threw it aside." Stein reads kKiliv for the unintelligible is 6 of the MSS. 7 " Contradicted." This is the first mention of the Iliad as a separate poem in Greek literature. 8 Sidon, "the fisher's town," now Saida, though the older city, had ceased to be the leading state of Phoenicia after the rise of Tyre under Hiram, the contemporary of David and Solomon. It 6 did not recover its former position until the Assyrian wars had ruined Tyre for a short time, when it again represented Phoenicia up to B.C. 678, in which year Esarhaddon destroyed it. This must have therefore been the period when the robes imported from Phoenicia came to be called Sidonian by the Greeks. 9 II. vi. 290-2. Book v. is the part of the Iliad known as the "Bravery of Diomedes " in our texts. The arrangement of the poem by the rhapsodists ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 187 evd' ecrav ol ireirXoi TrafnroiKtXoi, epya yvvaiK&v XtBovlcov, Ta? avrbs 'AXe$javBpo<; OeoetBr)*? 7770.76 'ZiBoviTjdev, eV(.7r\a>? evp'ea TTOVTOV, 6Bbv fjv 'Ekevrjv Trep dvrjyayev evirarepeiav. Be Kal ev 'OBvacrelr) ev rolaiBe TOICTC eire.cn. Tola Ato? Ovywrffp e^e cj>dpfia/ca \x/r\TioevTa, iO? TrapaicoiTL<; A-lyvTTTLT], Tjj TrXel&Ta <j)epei, £elBapo<; apovpa dp/jLaica, 7ro\Xa fiev ia8Xa fiefiiy/Aeva, TroXXa Be Xvypd. Kal TaBe erepa 7rpo? TriXefia^pv Mei^eXetu? Xeyei. AlyvTTTO) ft eVt Bevpo deol fie/j.aa>Ta vkeaQai eaypv, eireX ov criv epe^a reXT/ecro-a? eKaT0/i/3a?.] 3 ev TovTotai Tolcrt, eirecn BrfXoi on rfKLcnaTO TT)V e? AiyvirTov ^AXe^dvBpov TrXdvrjv ofjuovpel jap r\ "%vplr\ AlytnTTO), ol Be <$>oivbice<;, T5)V ecTTi r/ 2,LB(OV, ev Trj Ztvply ol/ceovcri.* Be TO, eirea Kal ToSe TO yapiov Kara, TaoTa 117 OVK »j/a 6 ByXoo OTI OVK 'Ofirjpov TO, ~Kxnrpia eired icrTt, dXX' aXXov TLVOS. ev fiev yap TOZGI TLvirploiai e'iprjTat &>? TptTato? e'/c ^7rapT7y? 'AXe£avBpo<; diruKeTo e? TO "IXIOV dyav 'EXevrjv, evaei Te irvev- /j Xeiy iv Be 'IXidBi 0/xi?po? fiev vvv Kal TO, KvTrpia enrea ^aiperai. Be fieo TOVS lepeas el fiaTaiov must have been different in the time of Herodotos. 1 The digamma is absent from this word ; the original line probably ran— ira/j.iroiKi\a Fipya.; but the corrupt reading has been imitated in Od. xv. 105. 2 Sehafer doubts the authenticity of the passage between brackets, on the ground of roSe in ch. 117, but it is found in all the MSS. Since Herodotos could quote the Iliad as a separate poem, there is no reason why he should not have quoted the Odyssey as a separate poem also. The reference is to Od. iv. 227-30. 3 Od. iv. 351-2. The last line does not scan, since the two dipthongs ei—ov cannot be pronounced as one syllable. 4 A parallel argument would be that Homer knew of the wanderings of Xoyov Xeyovai Xeyet, ol " E W ^ p e s Ta Menelaos in Abyssinia, because Egypt bordered on Abyssinia. The logic of Herodotos is as much at fault as his geography. 5 ' ' From these verses, and more especially this passage." The words of Herodotos show that the authorship of the Eypria was in his day commonly ascribed to Homer, like that of other parts of epic literature (see ch. 53, note 5). In the Alexandrine age, when the Iliad and Odyssey alone had come to be marked off as Homeric, it was the fashion to assign the Kypria to Stasinos. If Herodotos had carried out his principle of denying a common Homeric authorship to passages which were inconsistent, he would have had to anticipate "Wolf and Lachmann in dividing the Iliad into independent lays. 188 HEKODOTOS. [BOOK irepl "IXiov yeveadai, rj ov, eacrav 777309 rdora raSe, la-ropirja-i (pd/ievoi, elBhau Trap" avTov Mei>eXe&>. iXOeiv fjuev jap fiera rrjv 'EXei'i?? apirayrjv e? TT?Z> TevKpiBa6 yijv 'JZXXrfvav a-Tparir/v iroXXrjv fiorjdeovaav MeveXeu), eicftacyav Be e? yrjv Kal IBpvOeio-av TTJV (TTpaTiTjv irefi/ireiv e? TO "\XLOV ayyeXov<;, crvv Be crcjn, Ikvai Kal ainhv M.eve\ea>v TOVS S" itreire ecre\0elv e? TO ret^o?, airaiTelv '^Kevrjv re Kal TO, ^prjfiaTa TO ol o'i^ero /cXei^ra? 'AXefai>S/)o?, TWV Te aSiKijfidrav BUas alreiv TOV? Be Tevtcpoixj rov avrbv Xoyov Xeyeiv Tore Kal fiereireira, Kal o/j,vvvTa<; Kal avcofioTi, /J,r) /j,ev e%eiv 'EKevrjv fjw]Be ra iiriKaXeoixeva %pi]fjMTa, oXX'. elvat, avra, irdwa iv Alyvirrw, Kal OVK av BiKala)<> apTol St/ca? vire^eiv TWV Tlparevt; 6 A-lyvimo1; ftacriXevs e%et- ol Be "HXXrjves KarayeXacrOai, BoKeovre? vtr avrwv OVTO) Brj iiroXiopKeov, e? o i^eZXop' iXovcro Be TO Tet^o? a>? OVK icpaiveTo rj 'QXevrj, dXXa TOP avTov Xoyov T Xoyw Ta> irpa>Tq> ol "JZXXr)ve<; avTov MeveXeav 119 aTrocTeXXovGi irapa, TlpcoTea. diriKOfAevos Be 6 MereXea)? e? Trjv A'iryv7rTov Kal dvaTrXco<7a<; e? TT)V Mificpiv, etVa? TTJ^ dXrjdei'qv T5>V TvpriyixaTcov, Kal %eiviwv r\vTT)v TOVTWV eyeveTO Mei'eXew? dvrjp aSt/cos e? AiyuTTTiov;. diroirXelv yap op/iTjfievov avrov la^ov dirXolai- iireiBr) Be TOVTO etrl iroXXov TOIOVTOV TJV, eiviTe^yaTai 7rprjy/j,a OVK OO~IOV Xafiwv yap Bvo iraiZia dvBpSiV enrv^apLmv evTOfid aea eiroir^ae.'1 fiera Be a>? 67rato"T09 eyeveTO TOVTO ipya&fj,evos, /ucrijOels Te Kal BiatKOfievos of^eTO tyevywv Trja-o vrjvcrl eVt Aifivw TO ivdemev Be OKOV eTi eTpdireTO OVK elyov elirelv KiyvtrTioL. TOVTWV Be TO, fiev laToplrjo'i, eao~av eirlo'TaaOab, TO, Be Trap ewvTolari yevo/ieva aTpeKew; eiruTTd/jLevoL Xeyeiv. 120 TdoTa fiev AlyvrrTLcov ol lepeis eXeyov iya> Be TS Xoyq> TC3 Trepl 'EXei>775 Xej(6evTi Kal avTos Trpoo-TiOefMai, TaBe iirCKeyofievo'i, el fy '~EiXevr) iv 'IX/w, aTroBoOfjvaL av avTrjV Tolai, " E U i j « rjTot, ye rj deKovTO<; ''AXe^dvBpov. ov yap Br) OVTCO ye pevoi7? rjv 6 Tipiafio^ ovBe ol aXXou ol TrpocrriKovTe*; auTW, ware o~ 7 Suggested, probably, partly by the legend of the sacrifice of Iphigeneia at Aulis, partly by the human sacrifices offered to the sun-god by the Phoenicians of the Delta coast. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 189 Bvveveiv eftovXovro, o««9 'AXegavBpos 'T&kevrj avvoticfj. el Be TOi'Kat, iv rolai Trpcoroiat j^povotai raora eyivaxrKov, e7rel TTOXXOL fiev r&v aXXcov Tpaxov, oKore o-vfi/jbLcryoiev rolai "JLXXrjat,, dira>XXvvro, avrov Be Ilpidfiov OVK ecrri, ore ov 8 Bvo rj rpeis r\ zeal en irXeov; rmv iraiBcov fiaxv^ yivopevrjs dnreOvrjaKov, el ^pr\ n roicri eiroiroioicn y^peaifievov Xeyeiv, TOVTODV Be TOIOVTOOV av/j,/3aivovT(i)V €70) /jikv eKiro/xai,, el Kal avTot; Hpla/j,o<; crvvolicei, 'TLXevr), diroBovvcu av avTijv roicn 'A^aiolai, fieWovrd ye Brj TU>V TrapeovToov KaKwv diraWayrjaeadai,. ov fi,ev otiBe 17ftao-LkTjiT]e? 'AXe^avBpov •jrepirjte, & TO, irpijyfjMTa elvai, dWa "E«T&)/3 iced -rrpeafivTepos; Kal dvrjp e/ceivov faaXkov ecov efieWe avTrjv Upid/Aov diroOavovTOS "jrapakdp-ty-ecrOaL, rbv ov •Kpoo-rjKe dBticeovTL rq> dBe\(f>ea> eirbTpd'rreiv, Kal rdora fieydXcov KCLKOIV Bi avrov crvfiftaivovTcov IBlr] re avrw Kal rolcn, aWouri Tracn TpaxrL oAA.' ov yap el%ov 'RXevqv diroBovvat,, ovBe Xiyovcrt airolcn TTJV dXrjdeiTjv eiricrrevov oi " E U i / w , &>9 fiev 6Y&) yva>(ir]v diro^aivo^iai, rod Bai/j,ov£ov rrapaaKevd^ovros OKW? diroXofievot Karaave<; rovro rolo~t dvQpd>irourL i, a>? rwv peydXcov dBiKTjfidroov fieydXai elal Kal at irapd ra>v Oemv. Kal rdora fiev rfj e/iot BoKel etprjrai. TLpa)reo<; Be eKBe^aaOau rrjv /3a 'Vafi-^rlvorov9 eXeyov, 121 09 fivTjfiocrvva iXiTrero rd TrpoirvXaba rd irpo'; ecnveprfv rerpafxfieva rod 'H(f>aio-relov, dvrlovi Be r&v irpoirvXaLatv earrjere dvBpidvras Bvo, iovras rb fj,eyado<; irevre Kal eiKocn irriyewv, rS>v 8 " There is not when it did not happen that"= "constantly." 9 The old Aryan story of the Masterthief, which the Greek colonists had brought with them into Egypt, was attached by them to the name of Rhampsinitos, who seems to have been Ramses III., the builder of the pavilion of Medinet Abu at Thebes. The name is a Greek form of Ramessu pa nuter, " Ramses, the god," according to Brugsch. Maspero makes it Samessu si-Neith, "R. son of Neith," a title never borne by the Theban kings, but first used by the Saitic princes, which fixes the date of the tale to the period of Psammetikhos and his dynasty. For illustrations of the story, see Dunlop-Liebrecht: "Geschichte der Prosadichtungen," pp. 264 5^., and Scliiefner " Ueber einige morgenlandisehe Fassungen der RhampsinitSage " in the Bulletin de VAcad. Imp. des Sciences de Saint-Pe'tersbourg, xiv. pp. 299-315. It is but a variant of that told of Trophonios and Agamedes in the treasury of Hyrieus at Hyria (Paus. ix. 37, 5), of Augeias in Elis (Schol. Aristoph. Clouds, 504), and of Hermes who receives as his reward the title of apxfc tptjMp-euv (Hymn. Serm. 292); or again, of the Hindu legend of Karpara and Gata, of the Highland tale of the Shifty Lad, or of the story of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves in the Arabian Nights. In the Pecorone of Ser Giovanni, a Florentine of the fourteenth century, a Venetian doge takes the place of the Egyptian king. 190 HEEODOTOS. [BOOK KlyviTTioi TOV fiev irpos fSopea io~Tea>Ta KaXeovtri depot, TOV Be 7rpo? VOTOV ^(eifiwva' Kal TOV fiev KaXeovo~i vepo<s, TOVTOV fiev irpoaKvvkovaL Te Kal ev woieovai, TOV Be ^eifiava KaXeofievov TO, a) efiiraXiv TOVTWV epBovat. TTXOVTOV Be TOVTW TG3 /3ao~iXei yeveo~6ai dpyvpov fieyav, TOV ovBeva T&V vaTepov eiriTpa^evTcov f3ao~iXea>v BvvaaOat virep^aXeadat o&8' iyyv1; ekOelv. {3ov\ofievov Be ai)TOv iv datyaXeir/ TO, ^prjfiaTa Orjcravpi^eiv olKoBofielcrdat, \L0IVOV, TOV T&V TOi-^wv eva 6? TO e^co fiepos T»}? OLKI?)<; TOV Be ipya^ofievov eirifiouKevovTa TaBe pj^yavaaQai' TCOV \16WV irapatTKevdaaaOai eva e^aiperbv elvai eK TOV Tofyov, prjiBuos Kal V-TTO Bvo dvBpSiv Kal VTTO evo fiev ftacrCkea 6r\o-avpiaai TCL %prnjMTa ev avT& • %povov Be trepuovTOS TOV OIKOB6/J,OV Trepl TeXevTTjv TOV fiiov iovTa dvaKa\eo-ao-8ai TOI"? -jraiBas (elvai jap avTw Bvo), TOVTOLCTL Be d7n}yi]o-ao-dai ws eKeivoov irpoopecov, OKW; fiiov afyQovov e'%a>o~i, TeyydaaiTO OIKOSOfiecov TOV drjaavpov TOV /Sao-tXeo?1 cra^ew? Be avTolcn wdvTa e^Tjyrjo-dfievov Ta, Trepl TTJV e^aipeaiv TOV Xidov Bovvai TO, fieTpa avTov, XejovTa ft>? TaoTa Bt,acf>v\dcrcrovTe<; Tafiiat, TWV /3ao-i\eo<; •^pr)fj,aTO)v eaovrat. Kal TOV fiev Te\evTrjo~ai TOV fiiov, TOV<; Be •7ralBa<; ainov OVK e? fiaKprjv epjov ej(ecr6ai, i'ire\66vTa<; Be eVt ra /3ao~i\rjia VVKTOS Kal TOV ~kL6ov iirl TW OIKOBOIXYJ/JMTI dvevpovTas pr)iBla><; fieTa^eipiaaadao Kal TS)V •^prj^aTcov iroXka e^eveiKaaOai. P) a>s Be Tv^elv TOV fiaaXea dvoi^avTa TO o'iK7]fia, Ocovfidaai IBovra jfjidTcov KaTaBed td dyyrfia, OVK e-^eiv Be ovTiva evaiTWV r e v eovTcov crocov Kal TOV ooKi]fiaTo<; KeicKtjifievov. ws Be airm Kal Bis Kal Tpls dvolgavTi alel ekdaaw <; Ty Trdyrj eve-^eo-Qau. to? Be yva>vat, avTov ev o'Cw KaKtp r)v, Wews KaXelv TOV dBe\cf>eov Kal BrjXovv avTco Ta irapeovTa, Kal KeXeveiv Tr\v Tayio-Tr\v eaBvvTa diroTafielv avrov TTJV Kei^iaXrjv, o/ctu? fir] avrbs 6(f>8els Kal yvoopio-del'i o? elr\ Trpoo-airoXecrr) KaKeovov. TS Be Bo£ac ev Xeyeiv, Kai ivovr\o-ai fuv ireicrQevTa TaoTa, Kal Karap1 " One of the walls of which should adjoin the external part of his palace." The secret treasure - chamber reminds us of the crypts in the Egyptian temples, concealed even from most of those employed in the edifice. At Denderah there are twelve such crypts. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 191 fioaavra rov Xldov airievai eir O'IKOV, <j>epovra rrjv KediaXrjv rod aBeXfaov. a>? Be r)/j,epr) iyevero, iarekOovra TOV ftaaCXea e'9 TO (y oiicr)fj,a eKtreifKrj'^Oai opeovra TO crufia rod (papo*; ev rrj Trdyrj dvev T/79 Ke(j)aXr)<; iov, TO Be o'lKrjfia dcives Kal ovre ecroBov ovre eicBvo-cv ovBefilav e%ov. wnopeopevov Be fiov rdBe Troifjcrai- TOV <j}(opb<; TOV veKW Kara rov Tet^eo? KaraKpefidaai, $>vkaicovi, rbv av 'iBcovrat airoickaiiuavra rj tcaroiKTicrdfievov, av\Xa/3ovra<; dyeiv 7T/3O9 ecovrov. dvaKpefiafievov Be TOV vetcvo<; rrjv fir/repa Beivw , b're(p T/3O7TO) BvvciTaL, /x,7)%avao-0cu o«(»9 TO (TW/JLO, roil d8e\<j)eov KaraKvaa<; KOfiicrr}- el Be TOVTCOV dfie\rfcrei, BiaireiXeiv avrrjv a>? i\0ovo~a vrpbs rbv fiao-ikea /Arjvvcret avrbv e^ovra TO, ^prjiiara. a>9 Se ^dXeivSis eXafiftdvero rj /JLTJTIJP TOV irepie6vTO<; wcuBbs KOX (S TroWa 7T/3O? avrrjv Xeycov OVK eireide, iirire^vrjcraaOai roidBe fuv. 6V01/9 Karaa-Kevacrdfievov ical dcr/covs irXtjaavra o'ivov hndeZvai eVt TO)V ovcov Kal eireira iXavveiv avrovs. to? Be Kara TOV$ tyvkdcraovras r)v rbv Kpefidfj,evov ve/cvv,2 iiriairdaavTa r&v a? Be eppet, 6 01V0S, rrjv Kea\i]v fiov KOirrecrdai [i-eydXa fto&vra a>? OVK eyovra irpb? oKoiov rSiv ovmv irpwrov rpdnrrfrai. roil? Be (pvXd/cov; w? IBelv TTOWOV peovra rbv olvov, 6Bov Kal KaracrKevd^eiv. a>9 Be Xayovs re 7rX,eov9 iyyiveaOat Kal riva Kal aKwtyaL /MIV Kal e? yeXeora irpoayayecrOai, eTroBovvai, avrolcn ruiv cicrKcov eva~ roix; Be avrov &cnrep efyov KaraKXidevTa<; iriveiv Biavoei(T0at, Kal eKelvov trapaXafj,/3dveiv Kal KeXeveiv fier' ecovra>v fieivavra crvfiiriveiv rbv Be iretcr0rjvai re Brj Kal Karafieivai. a>9 Be JJLIV irapa rrjv irocnv (f>iXocf)pova>$ rjatrdtpvro, imBovvai avrolo-c, Kal aXXov ra>v dcrK&v BayjnXei Be TC3 TTOT<S %p7]o-a(ievovs roil? <j>vXaKov<; virepfie0vo~0rjvai Kal KparrjOevTa1; inrb TOV VTTVOV avrov ev0a irep eirivov KaraKoifirj0r}vai. rbv Be, ft>9 irpocra) r)v TTJ9 VVKTOS, TO re o~£}[ia rov dBeX 3 The native Egyptians usually (though not invariably) shaved. The police, how- 192 HERODOTOS. [BOOK Tov? avr
d>TaTOV ical dvocuoTarov os B hv dirr}'yr]crr]Tai ra irepl row tywpa yejevrj/j.eva, TOVTOV crvWafiftdvew ical fir] dirikvai e^a. a>? Be TTJP iralSa iroieiv ra ex TOV irarpo<; irpocrTa^devTa, TOV (pcopa irvdo/ievov T&V elve/ca Taora eirprjacreTo, fiovkrjdevTa iroXvTpoTrirj TOV /SacrtXeo? Trepiyevko-Qai, nroielv TaBe. vetcpov 7rpo(T/j,
TaTOV fiev eit] epyao-fjievos ore TOV dBe\^>eov ev rm Qrjcravpw TOV ySacrtXeo? VTTO ird/yr]'; akovTos dirord/Moi, rr)v Kea\ijv, ao(j>coTaTov Be ore roiis (frvkdtcovs feaTay,e$vo~a$ tcaraXvo-eie rov dBe~X<j>eov Kpefidfievov TOV veKvv. rrjv Be to? r/Kovce aTrrecrdat, aiiTOV. TOV Be (pwpa ev TS cr/coret TTpoTelvai avrfj TOV vexpov TTJV %elpa- ryv Be e7ri\a/3o/j,evTiv eyew, vofiitpvaav avrov eiceivov TJ}? %eipopa irpoefievov 0 airy o'lyeoQat Bia dvpeav ev? Be ical TaoTa e? TOV fiaaCkea dvrjvel^dr), iic'TTe'ifKrfxdai (lev eVt T§ TTo\v(ppoo-vvr) re Kal ToXfir) TOV dvdpeorrov, TeXos Be BiairefxirovTa es 7rao"a? Ta<> 7ro\ta? eTrayyeWeo-ffat, dBeirjv re BiZovTa ical fiejdXa viroBeicofievov eXdovri, e? b'ifriv TT/V eeovrov. TOV Be . <j)a>pa TviarevaavTa eXdelv TTpos avrov, 'Vafiifrlvirov Be fieydXcos Oa>v/j.do-ai, Kal ol rrjv dviyarepa Tavrrjv crvvoi/claai a>? irXelo-Ta eiriaraiMeva) dvOpcbiroov AltyvTrriovs fiev MeTa Be rdoTa eXeyov TOVTOV TOV fiacnXea £a>bv Karafifjvai tcdrco e? TOV ol "EXX^i^e? " ALBTJV VO/JLI^OVO-I, elvai, ical iceWc avyicvfteveiv TTJ A,ijfi7jTpi,i ical TO. fiev voicdv ai/Trjv ra Be eaaovaQai ever, were recruited from the Libyan Matiu, who had whiskers. See Maspero, Contss igyptiens, p. xl. 3o " X o " ; not elsewhere in Herodotos. 4 i.e. Isis. Plutarch (De Is. 12) records an Egyptian myth which ac- counted for the five days of the epact, needed to make up the 365 days of the solar year, by declaring that Hermes (Thoth) had won them at dice from the Moon before the birth of Osiris. The story told by Herodotos may be a dis- ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 193 V7r avTFj$, Kal ficv irdXtv ainiceao~av, TTJV Kal iya> olBa eVt Kal e? ifie eVtreXeoi'Tas avTov?' ov yukvroi el ye Bid rdora opraCpvai e%a) Xeyeiv. cf)dpo<s Be avTijfiepbv iijiKfrrfvavTe1; ol tepet? KCVT mv ehrjcrav ei'os ewvraiv /ilrpy TOV<> d9a\/j,ov$, ayayovre? Be fiiv eyovra TO <papo$ e? 6Sbv (f>epo'vaav e? lepbv Arf/jbrjTpo1}5 avrol airaWdcraovTat oiriaa) • TOV Be lepea TOVTOV KaraSeSefievov TOII? 6cj>9aXfiov<; Xeyovat vrrb Bvo \VKCOV ayeaOat, e? TO lepbv TTJ? Ajf/i^Tpo? anre^ov rrj<; TTOKIOS e'licoai tTTaStou?, Kal auTts hiriaai IK TOV Iepov airwyeiv /uv TOVS \VKOVS 6? TWVTO %<0piov. Total, [lev vvv vir AlyvTTTiav Xeyofievooai 123 yjpaaQw OTea Ta TOiavTa iriQava e V n 1 6 e/J.ol Be irapa rrrdvTa TOV Xoyov VTroKetTai OTI TO, Xeyofjueva vir eKacrTcov a-Kofj ypd6lvovTO<; e? aXXo %a>ov alel yivofievov icrBveTai, eireav Be irdvTa irepteXOrj T(i ^epaala Kal TO, QaXdcrcna Kal TCL ireTewd, avTL<; e? dvQpanrov crwfia ywoy^vov eaBvvei, TTJV irepirjXvaiv Be avTrj ylveaOai iv Tpia^iXioicn eVecrt.8 TovTcp ra Xoya> elcrl o'i ' ^prjcravTo, ol /j-ev irpoTepov ol Be vo~Tepov,9 a>? lBia> eovTf T&V iya) 6tSa>? TO, ovvofiaTa ov ypdv Xeo?ra e? iracrav KaKOTTjTa iXdaai. Karatorted form of this, since it is associated with a feast of Isis. The Greeks perhaps affixed it to the name of Rhampsinitos in consequence of the representation of Ramses III. seated at draughts with a woman of the harem, which holds a prominent place on the outer wall of his palace at Medinet Abu. The romance of Setnau, given in a demotic papyrus, describes how Setnau descended into the tomb of Ptah-nofer-ka at Koptos, and beat the dead man in a game of fifty-two points, thereby gaining possession of a magical book. 5 Doubt is thrown upon the ceremony by the fact that Herodotos does not say where this particular temple of Isis was. O Amenti, the Egyptian Hades, was guarded by two jackals, the . representatives of Anubis, who are accordingly often depicted on the monuments. Herodotos or his informants mistook them for wolves. 6 Even the faith of Herodotos was not robust enough to swallow the descent of Rhampsinitos into Hades, 7 Isis and Osiris, 8 See Appendix I. The souls of the wicked alone passed into animals, 9 Pherekydesof Syros(Cie. Tusc. Disp. i. 16), Pythagoras, Empedokles, etc. 1 The three pyramid-builders belonged to the fourth dynasty, and reigned about 3000 years earlier than Ramses. But 194 HERODOTOS. [BOOK yap /xiv irdvra ra iepa irpcora fiev 'Apafiua) opei,3 etc rovrecav eX/ceiv XiOovs fJ.e%pi rov NeiXoir Biairepaicodevra'i Be TOV •jroraiMov irXoiouav TOV? XLOOV; erepoiat, e r a f e iicBeiceo-0cu Kal Trpo? TO Aifiv/cbv tcaXeofievov opo<;, •jrpb<; rovrb ekiceiv. ipyd^ovro Be xara BeKa [ivptdBas avdpcoircov alel TTJV rpifirjvov eKa<7T7)v. yjpbvov Be iyyevecrdai Tpiftofievq> rw \ew BeKa erea /xev rfjs 6Bov Kar' rjv et^Kov TOV? Xt&ov*;,4 TTJV eBeifiav epyov ibv ov TTOWW req> eXaaaov T ^ 9 Trvpa/AoBos, o>9 ifiol BoKelv rfj<; fiev yap [irjKOS elcri irevre (rrdBioi, evpos Be BeKa opyviai, vyfro<; Be, ry vyjnjXordTr) earl avrrj eavrr]^, OKTW opyviai, \idov re feo-TOU Kal %q>a>v iyyey\v/j.jievct>v • ravrr)<; re Brj ra BeKa erect, yeveadai Kal r£>v eir\ rov \6cf)ov £7r' OV earacri at irvpa^LBe'i, rwv virb yfjv olKT}[idTvov Kal vi^o? lo~ov, \LQov Be %eo~rov • re Kal dp/Moa/Mevov ra fiaKi&ra' oi8el<; rwv XiOcov rpitjKovra TTOBWV 125 iXdcrcrcov.7 iiroi^dr) Be a)Be avrrj r) irvpanis, dvaftadfjuuv rpoirov, Herodotos having visited Memphis before the pyramids, and having consequently noted down the stories attached to the building of the city before those attached to the pyramids, imagined that Kheops must have come after Ehampsinitos. Kheops—SouphisinManetho—is the Egyptian Khufu or Shufu, "the longhaired," the builder of the Great Pyramid of Gizeh, and the conqueror of the Sinaitic Peninsula for the sake of the copper and turquoise mines there. So far from being impious, he was a devoted worshipper of the gods, the builder and endower of a temple of Isis, and even, according to tradition, the author of a religious treatise. His impiety was an invention of the Greeks, like the bad government of his reign. 2 This is in direct contradiction of the monuments. 3 See ch. 8, note 1. 4 " The period during which the people were oppressed in order to make a causeway." Most MSS. read T<J> 6XK
which is not easy to explain. Traces of two causeways still remain, one leading to the Great Pyramid, the other to the Third. The first is only 32 feet broad (not 60 as Herodotos says), and 85 feet high (not 48 as Herodotos makes it), 5 "Ten years were devoted to this and to the underground chambers on the (rock) platform whereon the pyramids stand, which he made to be vaults for himself in the midst of an island." There is no trace of a canal, and none could have existed, as the platform on which the pyramids stand is more than 100 feet above the level of the highest inundation at the present day. 6 That is, 800 feet. The real length of the side was originally 764 feet, the perpendicular height from 480 to 485 feet, and the height of each sloping side 610 feet. 7 The stones vary considerably in size. —Pyramid was abumir in Egyptian, The Greek word properly denoted a pyramid - shaped cake (Athen. 647 C), ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 195 TO? iteretjeTepoi /cpoo-cra? ol Be fico/AiBa? ovofid^ovai. ToiavTrjv TO irp5)Tov iirecre eiroi^aav avrijv, r/eipov TOI>? iiriXoi7rov %vXcov fipa'xeav ireiroiTj/ji.evrjcn, %a.[iadev fiev eVt rbv (TTOI^OV ray avaftadficbv aeipovres • OKW? Be dvioc 6 Xidos 67T avrov, e? erepTjv iMij^avrjv erldero GTolypv, dirb TOVTOV Be iirl ecreSxrav rov Bevrepov eirl rov irpcorov etk/ceTo <no!yov eV aXXrj*} firj^avrj^' oaoi yap Btj aroi^oi rjo~av rS>v avafiaOfiwv, roaavrai jcal fi^aval r/aav, elre Kal TTJV avrrjv fiTj^avrjv iovaav fiiav Te Kal evftaaraicvov fiere<popeov eiri, arolj(pv eicaajov, o«&)? rbv \idov e^ekoiev XeXe^Ow jap8 rjfuv e V a/Jb^orepa, Kara irep Xeyerai. e^eiroirjdri B' iv reXevrala Be avTrjs ra eirip/ea Kal TO e^eiroi-rjcrav^ cearifiavrao Be Boa jpafifidrcov Kljvn'Tiaiv rrj irvpafjuiBi ocra e'9 re avp/Mairjv Kal Kpofipva Kal aKopoBa avaiGi/Acodr) TOLCTL ipya^ofievoicri,- Kal a>? e/xe ev y,ep,vr\<jdat ra o epfi7)veii<; JXOI iiriXeyofievos TO ypafifiara et], e^aKOcna Kal ^iXia ToKavra apyvplov TereXea-dai.1 el B' eari ovra) k'^ovra rdora, Kocra ot/co9 aXXa BeBaTravrjcrdaL e<m e? TS alBrjpov TC3 epydtpvro, Kau cnria Kal ecrdrJTa roiai epya^ofievoicri,; OKore %povov fiev olKoBofieov Ta epya TOV elprj/tevov, aXXov Be, a>? iya> BoKea, ev rrn Tou? \C0ovi erapvov Kal TJJOV Kal TO iiirb yrjv opvjfia ipyd^ovro, OVK okuyov xpovov. e? TOVTO Be iXOelv Xeo7ra ««A;OTIJTO? ware 126 made of wheat (wvpds), which was compared by the first Ionian settlers in Egypt with the tombs of the ancient Egyptian kings. De Sacy's derivation from the Egyptian article pi (pa), and the Arabic haram, "sacred enclosure," is plainly impossible. 8 " Or again they might- have had only one machine, which, being easily moved, they transferred from tier to tier, when they had chosen the stone; for let the story be given." 9 This is plainly contrary to probability. Lepsius has shown that a king, on ascending the throne, built a small pyramid, and covered it with a fresh coating of stone each year of his reign. Hence the size of the Great Pyramid is explained by the long reign of Kheops. 1 This was not the kind of inscription placed by Egyptian kings upon their monuments, and the inscriptions written on the exterior of a pyramid were either funeral formulae of a later date or graffiti. The Greek guide was not likely to be able to read hieroglyphics, and simply guessed at their meaning, which was probably suggested to him by what looked like the head of an onion in the name of Kheops. Lentils, rather than radishes, onions, and garlick, were the staple vegetables of the Egyptian working class. The Great Pyramid was called Khufu-khut, " t h e glorious throne {or lights) of Kheops," by the Egyptians, Maspero suggests that the inscription seen by Herodotos was a proscynema to Osiris for a dead person to whom the god is asked to give bread, beef, wine, oil, etc., the inscription being accompanied by the picture of a table on which the food was piled (Annuaire de I'Ass. des Et. grecques, 1875, p. 17). 196 HERODOTOS. j^prj/iaTrnv Beofievov TT)V dvyarepa oiKrjfuiTO<; irpoo'Tagai [BOOK TT\V eavrov •rrpri yap Br) TOVTO ye ekeyov. Trprja-creadcu, ISLT) Be Kal avTrj avrr)v eva XiOov ev rolcn rpiwv Biavorj07]vat epyoicn rr)v TrvpafilBa eo-T7]Kviav, efiirpoo-de Trj<; fieyaki)? Be TOVTOV /ivrjfirjiov iic rovrav rrjv vrvpafjiiBo';, TI)? icm vTroBelfias ovTe yap OVTB e« TOV NetXov Bi&pvl; r\KU e? avTrjv uHTtrep e? Trjv eTeprjv peovaa' vr)(Tov irepippely, airov TS erepqi TO, eKeivov fieTpa OVK &v Kal 57/x.et? ifj^eTprjca/jLev vireo-Tt, ol/crjfiaTa virb yfjv, eo~a> rb j3ao~i\evo~ai Be TOV /3aebv TO. Te aXka Kal irvpafibBa iroirjo-ai, e? fiev yap Be TWV ekeyov irevTijKOvra erea,s TeXevTrjcavTo1; eKBefjacrOai rrjv TaoTa Kara- ev fiea-q) rwv Xe(f>pr)vam i Kal TOVTOV Be Tip avT& Tpoirtp Bia^paadai, avrjKovaav ov BelcrOai, o««9 av Bcopeoiro. ol/coBofirjdrjvai 127 KS)XOV eicacTTov oKov Kal ^/x.tcreo? irkedpov. "Keoira TOVTOV AlyvirTioi eir' TT)V Be TO TC VTTO TOV 7rarpo "KiTreadau, Kal TOV eaLovros 7T/3O9 avTrjv mdarov \L6a>v efyaaav Kariaavra OKOCTOV or) ri' ev Be TOV irp&Tov Bt olKoBo/jLi)fievov Be av\S>vo Trj ai>Tov Xeyovcri, Bofiov \l6ov KelaQai A-WIOTTIKOV Xeo7ra. TTOIKIKOV, reo-crepaKOVTa 7roSa? V7ro/3a? T ^ ? cripr)?, TCHVTO fieyaOos ej(pfievt]V fj,eyd\r]<; oiKoBofirjcre. orepai, fiaXierra ecrracrt Be iirl \o<j)ov TOV avrov e? eKarbv TroSa? v^JTrfkov. /3ao~iXevo~ai Be ekeyov ~K.e^>prjva eg Kal irevTrjKOVTa erea. 6 128 TdoTa re iraaav KkrjuaOevTa dekovcn eg Te Kal eKaTov koyi^ovTai elvat, KaKorrjra Kal ra, lepa OVK dvob^OrjvaL. AlyvTTTioi TTOt/iei'o? QikiTbos, ovofid^eov, TOVTQVS akka erea, ev TOIIL yjpovov Kara- VTTO /j,Lcreo<; ov Kapra Kal T » 9 irvpafiLBas 09 TOVTOV TOV yjpovov AlyvirTioicrl TOGOVTOV Kakeovcn eve/u,e KTrjvea Kara, rdora TO, %a>pia.T 2 This pyramid has the name of Menka-ra (Mykerinos) painted on the ceiling. The story attached to it was an invention of the Greek guides. Maspero suggests that the heroine was Hont-sen, a favourite daughter of Khufu, for whom he built a funereal pyramid near the temple of Isis of Rosta. 3 According to Manetho sixty-three years. His successor was Ra-tatef according to the tablets of Abydos and Sakkarah ; then came his son-in-law Shafra (for sixty-sis years according to Manetho, who calls him Souphis II.) 4 Son-in-law, not brother. Khafra or Shafra in Egyptian, called Khabryas by Diod. Sic. His wife was Meri-s-ankh, by whom he had two sons, Neb-makhu-t and S-kem-ka-ra, and in right of whom he came to the throne. 5 Syenian granite. Shafra had the command of the river as far as the First Cataract. The Egyptian name of the Second Pyramid was ur, "the great." Its original perpendicular height was 458 feet, the height of each sloping side 5751 feet, and the length 711 \ feet. 6 According to Manetho sixty-six years. 7 Perhaps a reminiscence of the Hyksos invasion, Philitis or Philition standing ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 197 Me-ra Be TOVTOV fiao-Ckevo-ai Alyvinov NLv/cepivovs eXeyov 129 XeoTro? 7rat8a TtSTOfiev TOV TraTpos epya diraBelv, TOP Be TO Te lepa dvol^ai Kal TOV Xewv TeTpvfievov e? TO ecr^aTov ica/cov dvelvat irpo<; epya T€ teal dvo-las, St/ca? Be crfa irdvTaiv /3ao-iXecov BucaioTaTas Kplveuv. Kara TOVTO fiev VVV TO epyov airdvTtov ocrot, 7/817 /SacrtXet? iyevovTo KlyvTTTiav alveovcri fidXicrra TOVTOV. T<£ r e aXXa yap fiiv icplvew ev, Kal Br) ical TW eTn,fjLefi<J30/jLeva> etc T7j5 BvKrji 7rap' emvToti BLBOVTCL aXXa a/KOinyi/ifKavoii avTov TOV 6v/x6v.9 ibvTL Be rpria TO) ^AvKeplvw Kara TOV<> 7ro\MjTa? ical TaoTa e7rtTt}SevovTi irp&TOV Kaicwv aptjai TTJV OvyaTepa airoQavovo-av avTov, TTJV /MOVVOV ol elvai iv TOICTI OIKIOIGI TBKVOV. TOV Be v"7repa\yrjev 7ro\ei iovaa, Kei/jbivi] Be ev Tolai fia<Ti\i)ioi' Ovfiitf/AaTa Be trap' avTrj iravTola %ovcri ava iracrav r/fiepyv, vvKra Be eKacrTr)V •7rdvw%o$ ayypv Be T ^ 9 ^009 TavT7)<; ev aXXco TSIV iraXXaKeoov TCOV ^JivKepivov eaTaai, 019 eXeyov ol ev TToXei te/3et9" euTaai fiev yap %vXivoi KO\OO~O~OI, iovo-ai vepl T?;9 /3OO9 Taur?/9 Kal TO>V KOXOO~O~WV TOvBe TOV Xoyov, ft>9 Mn/ce/341'09 rjpdadri T ^ 9 eavTOV dvyarpb1; Kal eireiTa ifiiyr/ ol deKova-rj • 3 fieTa. Be Xeyovcn a>9 r) irah dirr\y%aTO iiirb for Salatis, the first king of the Shepherds, rather than for Philistines. But the connection between the pyramids and the Hyksos is difficult to discover. 8 Men-ka-ra in Egyptian, Menkheres in Manetho, the lid of whose sarcophagus is now in the British Museum. He does not seem to have been related to Ehufu, and it is possible that at this time in Egypt descent was traced through the mother rather than through the father (see i. ch. 173, note 5). In the Book of the Dead it is stated that his son Hortetef found one of the most important chapters of the Ritual, during his reign, at Sesennu or Hermopolis. Ac- cording to Mauetho he reigned sixtythree years; the Turin Papyrus seems to read twenty-four, 9 " If anyone brought a charge against him on account of his decision, Mykerinos appeased his mind by giving him something else out of his own purse." For trap' ewvrov, cp. vii. 29, viii. 5. x The cow must have been an image (or rather symbol) of Isis Hathor, who bore between the horns the disk of the moon (ch. 132). 2 They were doubtless images of Hathor, who is represented naked. Adult women were never so depicted, 3 "We have once more an unclean inven- 198 HERODOTOS. [BOOK ^ ? , o Be fiiv edatye ev ry /3oi ravrj], rj Be [i-^T^p avrfjs r&v aficjinroXwv TWV TrpoBovaewv TTJV Ovyarepa TW itarpi (nreTa/Ae TO? p^etjOa?, Kal VVV TO? elKovas avrewv elvai ireirovovui'i TO irep at £a>al eiraOov. rdora Be \eyova-i, <\>Xvi)peovTe? e*ya> Bo/cea>, TO re aXXa ical BTJ teal ra irepl TO? ^elpa<; TWV KOXO<7OS)V rdora yap we ica\ r]fiet^ mpwfJLev on viro %povov r a ? ^eipas airofBepX/r)132 tcacn, at ev Trocrl avrecov e(f>aivovro iovcrai en /cal e? ifie. r) Be /3ou9 TO [iev aXXa /caTa/ce/cpvirTai <poivi/ceq> eifian, TOV av^eva Be KOX TTJV icea\r]V (j>alvei, Ke^pvaco/ieva ira^ei Kapra ^pvcrSBe TO>V tcepewv 6 TOV rjXiov icv/cXo*; 4 fiefii/irifievoi eirecm k'crTi Be -fj fiovs OVK opdr) dXX' ev aa\ ceplvov diroOvrja-Kovcrav ev ™ eviavTW a-rra^ [iiv TOV rfXiov KaTiBelv.6 133 MCTO Be T7j5 OvyaTpb? TO irddo TU> @a6[t,evov OTI 6 fiev avTov iraTrjp ical irdrpco^, drrroicXriicravTe<; TO, lepa Kal 6ewv ov [iefivrj[i,evoi aXXa, KaX rot>? dvOpairov? (f>9elpovTe<;, eftiwo-av %p6vov eirl iroXXov, awro? S' evo-ej3r)<; ewv fieXXoi ra^eft)? OVTCO TeXevrrjaeiv. eic Be TOV %pT) ? This shows that the legend had been concocted by the dragomen, as also do the reference to oracles, and the idea of a man being able to do without sleep (cp. Od. x. 84). Its connection with Sais may be due to the fact that Psammetikhos II. bore the name of Men-ka-ra, and reigned six years, like the six years ascribed to Mykerinos in the myth. THE LAND OF EGYPT. II.] e? re TO. eXea KOX TCL a\o~ea 7rXava>fj,evov ical iva elvai ivrjftrjT'rjpia eiriTTjBeoTaTa. rdora fiavrrjiov Iva ireav "ifrevBofievov airohe^cu, yevrjrai, TivpafilSa al pii/cres fjfiepai 199 irvvQdvoiTO Be ifirj^avaro oi deXav TO 8va>Be/ca erea dvrl e£ iroieofievai. Be OVTOS direXiireTO iroXXov ekdo~o~a TOV TraTpos, 134 elicoa-i TTOBWV /caraBeovcrav KcoiXov eicao~TOV rpi&v irXedpav, eovo~r)<; reTpaydovov,8 Tepol Xfflov Be e? TO r}/Mo~v AldioiriKov' (pacrt, 'EXXrfvcov opOSis Xeyovre1;. 'POBGOTTIOS kralpTjs Troirjcrao-dcu Toiavrrjv, elireiv Xevovra yap OV yap av e? TTJV raXavrcov iroXXolcn irvpafjiiBa<; Tavras ©p^L/cr]?, BovXrj Se varepov rjv r)v oi TrvpafiLBa Xeyeiv dvedecrav ^iXidBe<; dvapLOfir/Toi co? dvcucrl/j,a>VTai- 7rpo? Se on r/v dKfid^ovo~a 'PoSw7rt?, dXX' Kapra elvai, OVK ovBe &v ovBe etSoTe? [lot, (paivovrai, OVTOO 7]TK rjv r\ 'FOBWTTK' Xoyto TTJV Br] fiere^e- yvvai.Kb'i Kara *hfiacnv fiaai,- ov Kara, TOVTOV. ereac TOVTCOV TCOV (HaabXeuiv r&v Xnrofievoov 'IdB/xovos 'VoBStirK, yeverjv /lev TOV 'H^>aKrT07roXto? ras diro dvBpbs %afji,iov, o-vvBovXo TOV Xoyoiroiov.1 8 i.e. 200 feet each side: Pliny is nearer the truth with his 363 Roman feet (about 350 English). The original length was 356J feet, the perpendicular height being 219 feet, and the sloping height 27 91 feet. The Egyptian name of the Third Pyramid was her, " t h e upper." The lower part is still covered with its coating of polished granite, the edges of which are bevelled. 9 Eor once Herodotos allows that the legend came from the Greeks, not from the "priests." It embodies the old Aryan nursery tale of which the story of Cinderella and her slipper is a familiar illustration. According to Strabo (xvii. p. 1146) Ehod6pis or Rhodope was called Dorikha by Sapph6. Manetho made the Third Pyramid the work of Nitokris, the queen of the sixth dynasty, whom he described as "rosy-cheeked," and the pyramid really seems to have been finished by another sovereign than its original builder. This fact may have started the Greek legend that it was constructed by Rhod6pis, ' ' the rosycheeked." .Elian (Far. H. xiii. 33) makes Psammetikhos the king who married Rhod6pis, and the wife of Psammetikhos II. was a Neitakrit or Neitaker; while the Hellenic proclivities of Psammetikhos I., and the marriage of Amasis to a Greek wife, suggested the rest of the story. 1 Hephaestopolis is not likely to have been the name of an individual, and the introduction of iEsop points to the legendary character of the whole story, which Herodotos seems to have heard in Samos. The fables ascribed to jEsop were not written down until the time of Plato (see Wasps, 1259, and Plat. Phcedr. 61), but were merely repeated orally, and, like the epic literature, which was all assigned to a single Homer, were assigned to a single eponymous author. Thus the "fable of JEsop" referred to in Aristoph. Birds, 651, is said by the scholiast to have been composed by Arkhilokhos. The number of birthplaces claimed for jEsop, as well as the stories current about him, indicate that he was a creation of the popular mind. The fables can be traced to the old Hindu stories which were turned to a moral account by the Buddhists, ical yap OUTO? 200 HERODOTOS. 'IdB/iovo? iyevero, &>? BteBe^e 7roWdtci,<; KtjpvaaovTav [BOOK OVK r\Kiarah TyBe AeX5)V ifc 09 aXXo9 fiev ovBeh Trowrjv T?]9 AltrcoTrov •tyv'xfjs dveXecrffai, '\aBfiovo<; Be iraiBo<; irals aXXo9 'IdBfjLwv 135 Al.'(7ft)7ro? 'IaS/Aoz/09 eyeveTo? 'tBdvOea iXvdtj TOV "tafiiov ^pr^fidrmv Xprffiara a>9 av TOiavTr/v igiicia-Oai. IBeaOat, iarl ia>VTrj fir] jcdpTu iiiro dvBpbs iira^poBtTO'; 'PoSaJ7rt, 3 drap TT)<; yap dvaOelvai. aXX« Karifieive Be avTov iroirjiia ical iroirjo-a^evq dvaKeifievov oiricrde Set fiev ev TOVTO lepw, Tr) fioviropovs ol, direirefji'ire TOV vrjov. and which we have in the two Sanskrit collections, the Panchatantra and the Hitopadeca. The latter were translated into Persian (Pehlevi) A.D. 570, for Khosru Nushirvan, and again into Arabic by Almokaifa about A.D. 770, under the title of the " Kalila and Dimna." The Arabs ascribed the fables to the mythical sage Lokman, the contemporary of Solomon, whom the Persians regarded as an ugly black slave. The Kalila and Dimna was translated into Greek by Simeon in the eleventh century, and into Hebrew by the Eabbi Joel, the latter becoming the source of our European fables through the Latin rendering of John of Capua. A French rendering of a Persian translation of the Arabic book (made by David Sahid of Ispahan), which ascribed the fables to the "Indian sage Bilpay" or Pilpay, appeared in the seventeenth century. AUiaros may be a Graecised form of a Lydo-Phry- e? yap 'PoS 6/3eXou9 r/ BeKarq iv ra>v e? AeXcjfcov? fivrnjuocrvvov icovTrjs. eVt avvveveaTai re ix^ T<£ /3ovXofj,eva>, oiBev e^evprj/j,evov Xapafjov fieydXa BeKarrjv iiredifirfae T&V XprjfiaTCDV iroirjaafievT] o'l ical vvv teal OVK W? ye rrjv Trj 'EXXaSt KaTaXiirea-dai, Tvy^dvoi dirUero ipyaairjv MvriXTjvaiov yevo/j,evr} eVt ical e? ToBe iravrl TOVTO dvadelvav T??9 elvat ol y^p^fiara OVTCO ical 7rat8o9, dBeXeov Be 2«7r^>oi)9 T ^ ? (JLOVCTO- OVTW Sri r\ 'PoSw7ri9 eXevOepwOt], teal icjxivr), 'PoS fieydXav Alyv7TT(p fieydXa dveiXero. yap fiovXoiro Ko/iio-avTO<; fiiv, diriKOfievr) Be /ear TOV ZiKafiavBpcovvfiov TTOIOV. iireire 8eoirpoir[ov 7roXXou9 e'9 AeX(f>ov<;- TOV y8ft)/ioO TOI> Xtoi (fuXeovai Be KCO? iv Ty gian name. Aoyoiroi6s is " prose-writer," Xcfyos being opposed to (wij, "verses." 2 " Accordingly jEsop'must have beea Iadm6n's slave." The usual story, however, was that iEsop had been manumitted, was intimate with Kroesos, Solon, and Peisistratos, and had been sent to Delphi as the Ambassador of Kroesos (see Plut. de 8. Num. Vind. p. 556 F). There he was thrown from the Hyampsean rock on a charge of sacrilege, according to the scholiast on Aristoph. Wasps, 1446-9, because he had ridiculed the Delphians for having no landed property, in revenge for which they had hidden one of the sacred vessels in his baggage, s " For a Rhod6pis, that is." 'Pofoim is Schafer's correction of the 'PoSfflme of the MSS. Valcknaer reads 'PoSi6?rios, Reiske /cari 'Po5w7ru'. The construction is the same as in cis eUdaai, and results from the fact that the infinitive was originally the dative of a verbal noun, ii.J THE LAND OF EGYPT. 201 eTrafypoSiToo ylveaQai at iraipai. TOVTO fiev yap avrr], T?)9 Kal oi iravTes r'EXX77i>e? 'PoSaWfo? TO ovvofia i^efiadov TOVTO Be vaTepov TavTrjs, TT} ovvofia4 rjv 'Ap^tBUrj, aolSifios dva TTJV 'EXXaBa iyeveTo, r]o~o~ov Be T?J? eVep?7? Trept,Xeo~%i]vevTo<;. Xapo|-09 Be &)? Xvadfjuevos 'VoBayTriv aTrevbo~T7)o~e 65 yLvTiXrjv^v, iv fii\ei AdTT^a) 7roXXa KaTe/cepTO/jLtjcre fuv. 'PoSftWio? fiev vvv Tre.pi TreTravficu. fieTa Se TAviceplvov 136 yevecrdai Alyinnov ffacrtXea eXeyov oi te/set? "Aav%i,v,6 TOP TO, 7T/3O? rjXtov av[ iL<pai Kal aXXrjv o^nv oiKO$of/,7)fj,aTa)v ybvpir^v, eKelva Be Kal [laicpw [laXiGTa. irpoitvkaia TVTTOW; re eyyeyXvfifievovi eirl TOVTOV (3ao~iXevovTO TO ^ p e o ? - 7 irpocrTedrjvai Be eVt TOVT TO3 vofiai TOvSe, TOV BiBovTa TO %/3eo? Kal airdaT)^ TOV XafiftdvovTos KpaTeiv T»J? OTJKTJS, T&5 Be vTTOTidivTi TOVTO TO eve^ypov TijvSe eirelvai ^rj/j,[rjv /MTJ fiovXofievai airohovvai, TO %peo<s, fiySe avTq> eKeiva> TeXevTrjo-avTi elvau T a ^ ? Kvpfja> firjT iv dXXa> /j,7jBevl, fiijTe dXXov fir/Beva TWV ecovTov a/rroyevofievov Odtyai. inrepftaXeo-dac Be j3ovXofj,evov TOVTOV TOV f3aaiXea TOV? tvpoTepov ecovrov /3acrtXea? yevofievov; AlyviTTov fiVTjfjLoo-vvov TTvpaiMiBa Xbireo-Oab i/c TrXivdcov Tvoir)a, iv TJ) ypd/jbfiaTa iv XL6a> iyKeKoXafifieva TaSe Xeyovrd while us was the ablative of the demonstrative ( " t h u s " ) . 4 " N e x t after her another whose name." Naukratis shared the character of most seaport towns. Founded by the Milesians in the time of Psammetikhos I., when no foreign traders were allowed to penetrate further into the country (like the Dutch at Nagasaki in Japan), it is now represented by Desuk on the right bank of the Eosetta (Kan6pic) branch of the Nile, twenty-six miles south-east of Eosetta. Amasis deprived the Milesians of their monopoly, which they had shared with Samians and iEginetans, and granted similar trading privileges to all Greeks, so that Naukratis became the common factory of Miletos, Khios, Teos, PhSkaea, Klazo- mense, Rhodes, Halikarnassos, Knidos, Phaselis, and Mitylene, the temple of Apollo remaining under the superintendence of the Milesians. Porcelain and flower-wreaths were its chief manufactures. 5 According to Athenseus (Deipn. xiii. p. 596), it was Ehod6pis (Dorikha) who was satirised by Sappho, 6 Called Sasykhes by Diod. (i. 94), who makes him precede Sesostris. He represents Ases-kaf or Shepses-kaf, the successor of Menkara, who ' built the pyramid called keb, " t h e cool." This must be the brick pyramid of Herodotos. 7 This can scarcely be anything more than legend. 8 Two brick pyramids exist at Dah- 202 HERODOTOS. [BOOK " fir) fie KarovocrOfj^ irpb<; r a ? \i6Lva<; TrvpafilBa<s' jap aiireayv TOCTOVTOV oa~ov 6 Zeu? TG>V aWav inroTvjrTOVTes TOVTO 137 e? Xifivrjv, arvWejovTes 6 TI 'KpocrcrypiTo ifkivOovs TOVTOV /iev roaavra \ev avBpa elvai. rvfikov 67rt TOVTOV etpvcrav Qewv. KOVT&> jap TOV Trvfkov ra KOVTW, Kal fie Tpoirco diroBi^acrOat,. fiera TOIOVTW Be TOVTOV Bacn- ef? 'Avvcrio<; 7roXto?, T&5 ovvo/ia Bacri\evovTo<; eKcurac "Avvaiv i"rr A'l 7roWf) AlOioTra*; Te Kal %aBaKU>v TOV AIOLOTTUIV Bacrikia.1 fiev Br) TV(f>\bv TOVTOV AWloira BaaCkeveiv e V eVea TrevTijKovTa.3 AIJVTTTOV ai>Tov TaBe airoBe^ao-dai. KTeiveiv fiev avT&v iv TOUTI o/cws TS>V TK AlyvTTTiaiv dfidpTOL n, ovBeva e9e\eiv, TOV Be KaTa aBiKTjfiaTOS eKao-TW BtKa^eiv, eirvrdao-ovTa ^cofiaTa fie ea>VTO>v irohei, b'&ev e/cao"TO? r/v TWV dBiKeovTav. ai 7ro\te$ ijevovTO inrb v-tyrjXoTepar v-^rfKewv Be eirl Be Kal TOV •AWIOTTOS r\ iv TiovBdaTi fiaXXov. i vyjrrjXal iv Trj AIJVTTTW iroXet i Kal TrdXvBairavwTepd 7rpo? TI? Kal OVTCO eVt eVt SecrwcrT/Jfo? Kal KapTa eTepecov jevofieveeov ifiol BoKel, fiaKtaTa iepov TO fiev jap irpwTov TWV TO,? Biwpv)(a<; dpv%dvT(ov BevTepa TOV oi%ecrOai <j>evyovTa 69 TO, eXea,2 TOV Be ijevovTO. TTOXLCOV, a>? e£ey(a)o~dr), iv Trj Kal fie^co fiev yap aWa ecrrt lepd, rjBovr] Be IBecrOai oiBev TOVTOV rj Be BovySacrrt? KaTa 'EXXaSa j\a>cro-av e<7Tt "ApTefii 138 TO 8' lepbv avTTjs wBe e^et. Tr\r}V T»}? iaoBov sMr, cased with limestone, another at IllahCn, and a fourth at Howara in the Fayum. 9 Another "subjective" translation of the guides, which is as Greek in style and spirit as it is non-Egyptian. 1 Ases-kaf of the fourth dynasty, and Sabako of the twenty-fifth, were separated by an interval of more than 3000 years ! The Egyptian king conquered by Sabaka or Sabako was Bak-en-ranf, the Bokkhoris of the Greeks, a native of Sais, who reigned six years. See App. I. Herodotos has misunderstood his informants, or mixed his notes together, as Anysis must be the name either of a place or of a man, not of both. According to Lepsius, it was Thennesis, the name of the island in Lake Menzaleh, TO akXo called Elb& by the Greeks, where Amyrtseos took refuge, and to which, according to the popular legend, Bak-en-ranf had previously fled. Bak-en-ranf, however, was captured,and burned alive by Sabaka. For the history of the Ethiopian dynasty, see App. I. 2 Seech. 140, and preceding note, 3 Sabaka, the So of 2 Kings xvii. 4, reigned twelve years according to Manetho and the monuments. His successor wasSabatok—SebikhosinManetho—who reigned, according to the latter authority, fourteen years. Then came Taharka, Manetho's Tarakos, Old Testament Tirhakah, Assyrian Tarku. Herodotos has amalgamated the three Ethiopian kings into one. 4 See ch. 59, note 6. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 203 etc yap TOV NetXon 8id>pv%efievT] icrrl 6B6<; XiOov eVt crTaStou? rpet? icy, ,Bia TT]? dyoprjs (frepovcra e? TO 7T/3O? r)co, evpos Be w? Teacrepcov •jfXeOpaiv Trj Be Kal rfj T ^ ? OBOV BevBpea ovpavofi^Kea irefyvice' epei Be e? JZpfieco lepov. TO /xev Brj lepov TOVTO OVTCO e^ei. TeXo? Be T ^ ? a,TraXXayr)<; TOV A191OTTO<; SBe eXeyov yevecrOai. 139 o^riv ev T& inrvw ToirjvBe IBovra airbv ot^eadai fyevyovra1 eBoKei ol dvBpa eTnaTavra o~vfi,(3ovXeveii> TOIIS lepeas TOU? ev AlyinrTO) avXXe^avTa -irdvTas fiecrovs Biarafielv. IBovra Be TTJV b'-tyiv TavTr/v "Xeyeiv avTov a>? irpoaaiv ol BoKeoi ravTrjv TOU? 6eoii<; TrpoBeiKVvvai, "va daej3r]O'ali irepl TO, lepa icaicov TI 7T/3O9 OeGiv rj 7rpo? dvdpcoTrav Xdftoi' ov/ccov iroirjaeiv TaoTa, aXXa, ydp ol efjeXifXvOevai. TOV j^povov, OKOGOV Ke^prjaOai dp^avTa AlyinrTov eK^mprjcreiv. ev ydp rj) AlOioTrly eovri avrw TO, fiavrrjia, Tolai xpecovrai AlOooTres, dveiXe &>9 Beoi avrbv Alyvirrov /3aa'i,Xevcrat erea irevTrj/covra. V 6 yj)ovoea and reinstated himself in the kingdom, See App. I. The reference to the oracles shows that the fable came not from the "priests," but from Greek guides, 6 This is equally a fable. 204 HERODOTOS. [BOOK dvevpelv ol irporepoi yevofievoi /3acnXet<; 'Afivpraiov. ovvo/ia Be TavTy rfj vriaa 'E\/3w, fteyaOo? 8" ia-rl iravry Se/ca (TTaSlcov.7 141 Mera Be TOVTOV fiaaiXevo-at, TOV lepea TOV 'H^aioTou, TOO ovvofia ehcu 'Zedwv • 8 TOV ev dXoyirjo-i eyeiv •jrapa'xp'qo-d^evov TWV fMa^l/Xcov AlyvirTiwv a>? ovBev Berjo-Ofievov aiiTciv, dXXa re Btj art/ia Troieovra e? avTovs, ical crfea? aireXeaOai TO.? apovpas, rot(Ti eVt rcov irporepcov fiacnXecov SeBocrdat, igaipirovs e/cd BvcoBeica apovpas. /Mera Be iir A'IJWITTOV eKavpeiv arpaTov l*,e? ovSev irelaeTai ayapi avTid^av TOV 'Apa/3ta>v (TTpaTov ai>T0<; (ravTr/ ydp elcri at eafioXal) • eireo-Qav Be ol TWV fia^if^wv fiev ovBeva dvBpwv, ovi Be ical •}(eipa>va/CTa<; ical dyopalov; dvdpanrovs. evQavTa 7 See note 1 above, and iii. ch. 17. As Amyrteeos was driven into the marshes B.O. 455, while Rud-Anmn (the TJrdamane of the Assyrians), the son-inlaw of Tirhakah, was driven out of Egypt after his temporary occupation of it by the Assyrians in B.C. 665, the arithmetic of Herodotos is considerably at fault. After Eud-Amun's death, Mi-Amun-Nut, the son of Tirhakah, again succeeded in occupying Egypt about B.C. 660, and compelling the Assyrian satraps or vassal-kings to acknowledge him. But he soon retired to 8 Neither Egyptian nor Assyrian history know anything of this personage. Sennacherib died in B.C. 681, before the conquest of Egypt by Ms son and successor, Esar-haddon, and therefore long before the expulsion of the Ethiopians. The story of the destruction of the Assyrian army is an echo of the biblical account which places it in Palestine, and (in agreement with the Assyrian inscriptions) in the time of Tirhakah, when he was sole and undisputed master of the whole country. Though priests of Amun usurped the royal power, the monuments know of no priest of Ptah who did so. Sethos has been identified with Zet, whom Manetho makes the last king of the Tanitic twenty-third dynasty, reigning for thirty-one years. But the chronology makes this impossible, and Sethos is Seti, not Zet. The legend, however, is evidently Egyptian, not Greek, and the name of Sennacherib, as well as the fact of the Assyrian attack, is correct. s * This is a fresh proof that we have lost little in the Assyrian history of Herodotos. The Egyptian priests called Sennacherib king of the Arabians as being an Asiatic, Arab being the Greek equivalent of the Egyptian Shasu or nomads, and some of the expounders of Manetho accordingly called the Hyksos Arabs (Joseph, c. Ap. i. 14). Had Herodotos known anything of Assyrian history he would not have repeated the statement. THE LAND OF EGYPT. II.] aTTitcofievovs,9 Tolai apovpaiovs ivavrloocri [avTolcn] 205 eTru^vdevTa^ VVKTO? Kara fiev (payelv TOU?I apeTpea>va<> avTwv Kara Be TO, rof;a, 7rpo? Be ru>v do-TrlBcov ra o%ava, mare rrj vaTepair) (j>evyovTCOV ea>v yvfivuv iK; ecTTqice iv oirXav TW lepw %6'po? fivv, Xeycov 8ia ' E ? fiev roaovSe aTToheiKvvvTes dirb trecrelv ypafifiaTcov ^aatXevaavra yeveai em dvBpcbv eicaTOV ered Toav eirCKovwwv yevelmv, TeaaepaicovTa eywv OVTOS 6 eVi " e? ifie Tt? opecov re icaX ol iepels eXeyov, 142 fiiav r e icai Teaaepa- ryevofievas, KOX iv Tav- KOX (Bao-Ckeas e/caTepow; TOO~OVTOV<; yevofievovs.2 tcaiTOi TpiTjKoatau /j,ev dvhpoiv yeveal Tpeis rdSe. TOV Xoyov Alryinrnoi KovTa icaX TpirjKocrias dvOpunraiv yap icai vvv TOV irpdoTov /3acrtA.eo? e? TOV 'H^XZUTTOV TOV lepea TOVTOV TOV TeXevratov TTjcn apyiepeas iroXXovs. TOV 'H at SvveaTai Sennacherib defeated Tirhakah at Altakn or Eltekeh. Josephus says he took Pelusion (Antiq. xii. 1), probably because of this passage of Herodotos. 'ATTIK. is an accusative absolute; airuv = the enemy. 1 Here we have to do again with the Greek dragomen. The story of Sethos was attached to the statue of some deity which was supposed to hold a mouse in its hand. Mice, however, were not sacred in Egypt, nor were they used as symbols or found on the monuments. On the other hand, the Greeks were familiar with the conception of Apollo Smintheus, who was represented on coins of Alexandria Troas with a mouse in the hand, and whose statue at Khryse by Skopas had a mouse under the foot, because mice ' ' had gnawed the leather of the enemy's arms" (Strab. xiii. p. 416). Eustathios (ad II. i. 39) says that the Trojans reverenced mice "because they gnawed the bow-strings of the enemy." The inscription is as thoroughly nonEgyptian as it is thoroughly Greek. 2 See ch. 100. From Menes to Mreris were 330 kings ; Herodotos has since named eleven others (including Sethos). No Egyptian priest, however ignorant, erea1 eTrrjcrav Trjcn Tpirj/coalrjcn, Kal TporjKoaia icai %Ckia erea. 3 9 /ivpia yeveal eo~Tf /AM}? Be icai Teao-epdicovTa earl OVTCO iv could have furnished him with his account of these latter, much less have supposed them to have succeeded each other. Indeed, there is clear evidence, from the way in which the story of most of the kings is attached to some monument, that their succession depended on the order of Herodotos's sight-seeing, and the place they accordingly occupied in his note-book. Consequently the statement that there were 341 kings from Menes to Sethos was not given, as Herodotos asserts, on the authority of the Egyptian priests, or even on that of the guides, hut was a calculation of his own. This shows how cautious we must be in accepting his assertions.' Of course there could not have been an exactly equal number of kings and priests for 341 generations. 3 The arithmetic of Herodotos is at fault; the number should be 11,366| years, instead of 11,340. But a generation was counted at 30 years only, not 33J, as Herodotos counts it here, apparently for the purpose of being able to reckon more easily; while a moment's reflection should have taught him that a king's reign is not equivalent to a generation. 206 re HERODOTOS. eTecn teal •%tXloio~i ical k'Xeyov 6ebv dvOpairoeiBea repov ovBe vo~repov Terpdicis eXeyov KaraBverai, ivdavra yivofieva, ovre ovre ra icovrbv rod io-ayayovTe'i tcoXoo-crovs dpyiepev's ecovrovvvaav yap ical ovre 5 ra TTJV iraTpirjV e? TO fieyapov gvXlvow; re vvv dvariXXei, raora iara eavrmv TOV? ov oaovs e^rjplOfieov elirov8 irep T?}? ecovrov tfit]^ oi iepels eicaarTOV eovra, 'E/caTat'ca Be yever/Xoyrfo-avTi i/xol elicova direBeiK- eic TOV Bia, traaewv ueov jeveTjXojijo-avTi eo~a ebv fieya iirl davavrow;. ryeverfKoyqcavTi e? e/cfccuBe/carov TOCTOVTOVS diroOavovTOS Tr}<> eoKovo<; BiefyovTes anrdo-a'i a u r a ? . Kara Ato? olov TI ical ifiol e/cacrTO? avrodt, TraT^o? vvv ev ®rj^rj(n dpid/Meovre<; 8>v teal Beucvvvres iralBa evda evdev JCCU oiBev T&V /car' A'ljV7TT0V VTTO ical avaBrjcravrt, Beucvvvres TC3 XPOV etc TTJ? fyea? ovre TO etc TOV 7TOTafx>ov o~t- afj,l vovaov; ifiewvTov. oiBe Trpo/3ao~iKevcri dvarelXaf enravTelXai, Be 'E/caratft) ™ XOJOTTOM eTTOLTjaav oi [epeis ov fievTOi Aljinrrov ev TOLVVV rovra TOV rfkiov Bis ra viroXoiiroiai, TOIOVTO. if- rjdemv 8t? KaraSvvai- 143 irpoTepov re oiBev evOevrev erepouodrjvat, rpirjicoo'loLO'b TB KCLI Teo~o~epaicovTa ovBeva yeveo~Qai' ev rolai yevo/jLevoicrt, eXeyov [BOOK ay^tara 6«9 ov diveBe^av easvrov ical Br)o~avTb 65 ex/catBeicaTov 6ebv dvTeyeverjXoyqo~av eirl TJJ dpiOfurjaei, oil Beico/JLevoi Trap avdpanrov avrov dirb deov yeveaOai dvadvre- yeverfkoyri Be a>Be, afievoi, 'eKacrrov T&V KOXOO~O~O)V irlpwy^w etc Tripwfjuos yeyovevai, 6? o TOI>? irevre ical recro-epdicovTa ^av K.oXoo~crov<; \jirlp ical ical revolt he had travelled widely and embodied his observations in two works, the geographical ri)s irepiodos and the historical TeveaXoylcu. His clear and mellifluous style was highly praised by Hermogenes and Strabo.—The previous chapters (especially 100 as compared with 142) indicate that the priests with whom Herodotos conversed were the priests of Ptah at Memphis, not of Amun at Thebes. But Herodotos wishes to conceal the fact that he did not ascend the Nile so high as his rival Hekatseos (see ch. 29, note 7). 6 i.e. 341. The statues were probably those of deities. Note 2 above makes it doubtful whether Herodotos really saw this actual number, 7 Herodotos and Hekatseos could not ii.] T H E LAND OF EGYPT. 207 OVTS e? Oebv ovre e? rjpcoa dveBrjcav avrov'i. irlpcofus Be eo~Ti Kara 'EXXaSa yXwcraav « TO Be irpoTepov T5>V dvBpcov TOVTCOV Oeovs elvai TOV? ev AlyxnrTcp ap%ovTa<;, oliceovTa<; afia roicrv dvOpmtroicn, Kal TOVTCOV alel eva TOP /cpareovTa elvai' vaTaTov Be aur?}? fiacriXevo-ai, "'Clpov TOP 'Ocri/Jto? iralBa, TOP ''A-rroWmva "EXX^^e? ovofid^ovcrf TOVTOV KaTairavaavTa Tvcpaiva ftaatXevircu vaTaTov AlryviTTov} "Oaipis Si ecrTt Aiovvcros Kara 'EXXaSa (yXwcrcav. ev ' EXXijcrt fiev vvv vea>TaToi Tmv 0ea>v vofil^ovTai 145 elvai 'Hpa/cXr/*? TE KOI Atovvao<; icai Yidv, irap KX^vKTioLai Be dp%acoTaTO TO>V OKTCO T&V irpwTwv \e^/ofxevwv a/cX?}? Be T&>V BevTepcov TWV SvcoSeKa Xejofievcov elvai, Aiovvcros Be TCOV TpiTav, dl i/c TCUV Bvd>Se/ca Qe&v iyevovTO? 'HpaicXei fiev Brj oaa avTol AIJVTTTIOO (paat. elvai, eVea e'9 "Afiacnv ftacrikia, SeS^Xwrat fioi trpoaOe- Havl Be eVi TOVTWV nrXeova Xeyerai elvai, Aiovvcra) B' iXd-^icrTa TOVTCOV, KOI TOVTW trevTaKio-^iXia Kal fivpta Xoyi^ovTat elvai e? "Ajiacriv fSacnXea. /cal TaoTa AlyvTTTiOi aTjOe/cew? cpaal eirio-Taa-dai, alel Te Xoji^ofievoi Kal alel aTroypa IK TTJ9 KaS/iou Xeyofievw yevecrOai Kara, etjaKocria eTea Kal dXicTa ecrrt e? ifie, 'HpaKXei Be ra> 'AXKfirjvri<; K«TO elvaKOcna eTea' Tiavl Be T&> e/c II^i'eXoTr'?;? (eK TavTrf; yap Kal '^ipfieco XeyeTat yevecrOai VTTO 'HXXrfvav 6 Tldv) eXdaaco erea e period ; the old Egyptian equivalent being riot. 9 For the dynasties of gods and demigods, see ch. 43, note 6. 1 For the Osiris myth, see App. I. Typhon is Set or Sutekh, originally the god of war and strangers, who, with Ms brother Horus, made up the Kehehui or hostile twins, and in the later period of Egyptian history ceased to be worshipped, Typhon was not the last of the divine dynasty, as he was followed by Horus. 2 See ch. 43, note 9 ; ch. 46, note 5. 3 See ch. 43, note 6. 4 See ch. 53, note 5. The fall of Troy was placed B.C. 1335 by Duris (ap. Clem. Alex. Str. i. p. 337), 1270 by the author of the Life of Homer, 1260 by 208 HERODOTOS. [BOOK &v afufroTepav rrdpeari [iripi ecnai] yfiao-Bai TOLO-L TLS irelaerai Xejofievoicn /laXKov e/tot S' (bv fj irepl avr&v yvcofj,?} diroBeheKrai. el fiev yap (ftavepol re iyevovto Kal Kareyqpacrav Kal OVTOL iv rfj 'EXXaSt, Kara rrep 'HpaK\fj>; 6 i^ 'A/j,Lrpvcovo<; yevopevos, Kal Brj KOL Atowcro? 6 eK Se/xeXT;?, Kal Tlav 6 eK Ur}ve\o7T7]<; yevofievos, erj av TL$ Kal TOVTOV? aWovs avSpa? yevofievov? e^eiv Ta eKeivcov ovvofiara ru>v T-poyeyovorav 0ea>v. vvv Be Atovucrov re Xeyovo-i ol "Etti/re? a>? avriKa yevbfxevov e? rov ywr\pov eveppd-^raro Zeu? Kal ijveiKe e? Nvcrav rrjv virep Klyxnrrov eovaav iv ry AldioTriT},6 Kal Ila^o? ye irept, OVK eypvcn elireiv OKJ) erpdirero yevofievos. Brj\d fioi &v yeyove on varepov itrvQovro ol "EXXT/ye? rovrcov ra, ovvo/iara rj ra rwv aX\cov QeSiV. dir ov Be iiruQovro %p6vov, airo TOVTOV yeveriXoyeovcn, aiirmv rr/v yevecriv. 147 Taora fiev vvv avrol Alyinrriot, Xeyovai' ocra Be o'i re aWoi avdpcoTroi, Kal Alyvirrioi, Xeyovai 6fio\oyeovre<s rolo~i aXXoicri Kara, ravrrjv rrjv yji>pT]v yeveaOai, rdor $)Brj (ppdo~a)- itpooecrrai Be ri avrolcri Kal T?}? ifjurjt; 01^109. 'TL\ev0epa>6evre<; Alyinrrioi fiera rov lepea rov 'Ha(o-rov (Bao~tkevo~avra (pvBeva yap jfjpovov oloi re rjcrav avev ySac BiairacrOaC) iarrjo-avro BvcoBeKa /3ao-tXea9, 69 Bvd>SeKa Baadfievoi AXyvirrov iraaav. OVTOL iirLyafiLa'i iroLrjo-dfievoL i(3acrL\evov VO^OLCTI, TOLO-LBB %ped)fievoL, firjre Karaipelv aXKiyXovs fiTjre ifkeov TL Bl^ijcrBaL e%etv rov erepov rov erepov, elvai re i\ovs TO, fiaXLara- rSivBe Be e'iveKa rovs vo/iovs TOVTOV<; OVTO, t(r^VjOft)9 irepLGTeWovTes. eKe^prjo-ro o~(fit, Kar avriKa ivLo~Ta[ievoio~L 69 ra<; rvpavvcBa<; rov y^aXKer} cnveicravra avr&v iv TO3 iepq> rov H 6 We learn from the Assyrian inscriptions that the Assyrians divided Egypt among twenty satraps or vassal-kings, of whom one of the chief was Necho of Sais, the father of Psammetikhos. The number twelve conies from the twelve courts of the Labyrinth, which Herodotos erroneously connected with this period of Egyptian history. " The Egyptians being made free " means free from monarchical or priestly rule, like a Greek republic, 7 The allusion to the oracle shows the Greek source of the story. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 209 Kal Brf o~cf>t, fivrjfiocrvva eBoffe Xnreo-0at, Koivfi, Bo^av Be . fjcrav fiev vvv Kal at TrvpafilSes \6yov /Amoves, Kal TTOWWV eKaart) avrecov 'EXX.7;VIKWV epywv Kal fieydXcov avra^Lr)- 0 Be Brj XajBvpwdot; Kal TO? •7rvpafJ,lBa<; inrepfidWei. rov yap BvwBetca fJtev elai aiXal Kardcrreyoi, dvriirvXoL dXXrjXrjcri, e£ fiev Trpo? j3opea> ef Be Trphs vorov rerpafifievai, crvve^eK' TOt^o? Be etjcodev 6 avro<; cc^ea? irepikpyet,. oiKrifiara S' evecrri BnrXd, ra, /u,ev iiiroyea ra Be fiereapa eir eiceivoHTL, rpio"\(iXia dpidfiov, rrevraKoaimv Kal yChlmv eKarepa. ra fiev vvv fierecopa roiV olK7]/j,dra>v avrol re a>peofj,ev Bce^iovre<; Kal avrol deTjadfievoi, Xeyofiev, ra Be avroyv inroyea Xoyoicri iTrvvdavofieBaol yap eVecrTecoTe? r&v klywriwv BeiKvvvai avrii ovBafjuS><; rjOeXov, (f>d/j,evoi 8r)Ka<$ abroQi elvac rcov re dp-^rjv rbv Xaftvpivdov rovrov olKoSofiTjo-a/ievav ftaaiXewv Kal rS>v lepSiv KpoKoBeiXwv. ovrco rcov fiev Kara irepi oiKijfidrcov aKorj irapaXafSovre'i Xeyofiev, ra Be avco fie^ova avdpanrrjlav epywv avrol oopeofiev • at re yap egoBoi Bia, rwv areyetov Kal ol eXiyfiol Sia rwv avXecov eovres iroiKuXwrarob dwvfia fivpiov Trapefyovro i£ avXf)<; re e? TO oiKr)fiara Bie^ovTi Kal eK rcov oiKrjfidrcov 6? irao-rdBas, e? crreya<; re aXXa shoe, occupying an area of 8800 yards, with a large inner court of about 60 acres. Brugsch explains the name as eljpa-ro-hunt, "temple of the mouth of the lake." Inscriptions show that it was built by Amen-em-hat III. of the twelfth dynasty, so that Diodoros is nearer the truth than Herodotos in saying that it was built by King Mendes. Straho made the numberof courts twentyseven (xvii. p. 811). 210 HERODOTOS. [BOOK 149 Tot) Be XafivpLvOov TOVTOV eovra TOLOVTOV, OSiv/ia en irapeyeTai 17 Motpto? KaXeofievi] Xifivq, Trap rjv 0 \a/3vpiv6oVT7)<;, nrevrrjicovTopiyvLos. on Be ^et.poiroi'rjTO'i icrn KOI opv/crr), ainr) 8rj\ol- iv jap fie pel e? TT/V \lfj,vrjv, etj Be iirjvas ef-co e? TOV NetXoz/ a^Tt?. Kal iireav fiev eKpfj e^ai, 7] Be TOT6 TOV? ef fifjva<; e? TO fiacrtX'tji.ov KaTafiaXkei e V rjfiepTjv eKao~T7)v TaXavTov apyvplov e« TS>V fydvav, iireav Be eairj TO 150 vBcop iv avTifjv, ei/coai fjuveas. eXeyov Be ol iTviywpioi Kal w? e? TT)V ~2,vpTi,v T7]v 6? Kifivrfv e/cStSoi 97 Xifivrj aim?) viro yrjV? TerpafiTO 7T/3O? ecnreprjv e? TTJV fiea-6pacrav fioi Xva egetyoprjOr), Kal evnreTea><; eireidov fjBea ical ev Ntvw Trj 'A.aarvplav iroXei yevofievov eTepov TOLOVTOV. TO yap "ZapBavaTrdWov4 TOV NtVou /3aaiXeo<; iovTa fieydXa 9 Perhaps the ruined monuments calledJr«srei.F'i27-'Mw("Pharaoh'sthrone") at Beyahmu,fourmiles north of Medinet el-Fayum. 1 The stade of six plethra may be the Egyptian atur, a certain distance performed by a boat on the river. See ch. 168, note 2. 2 Probably the Bahr Yusuf. The lock-gates were at El-Lahun (Egyptian Ho-hun, "mouth of the lake"), each opening of which, according to Diod., cost fifty talents (about £11,250). 3 . Perhaps his informants meant the natural lake, now Birket el-Kurun, the western boundary of the Fayum. 4 This is evidently not the Assur-banipal of history, but the wealthy and luxurious Sardanapalos of Greek romance. A6yip, in the preceding scntence, means " a passage," quoted from a X6710S, or " prose-writer." Herodotos uses the word in the same sense of his own writings {e.g. ii. 38, v. 36). As Nineveh was in ruins in the time of Herodotos, he could not have learned ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 211 ra Kal tyvkaaaofieva ev Orjcravpoicrc Karayeoiai entevoiqaav €K(f)op7]aai. etc BT) &v rap o-tyerepwv ol/clav dp^d/xevoi Ob KXCO7T69 viro ryfjv (TTaOfieofievob 6? Ta /BacrCKrjia olicLa wpvaaov, TOV Be xovv TOV eK^opeofievov IK TOV opvyfiaTos, o/cw? yevobTO vv%, es TOV Tbyprjv iroTa/iov irapappkovTa TT)V NIVOV if-e6peov, e? b KaTepyaaavTo 6 TI i/3ov\ovTO. TOIOVTOV erepov r\Kov<xa /cal TO TJ79 ev AlyinrTq) \£/j,vr]<; opvyfia yeveaOai, irkrjv ov VVKTOS aWa /xeT rjfiepifjv irobeofievov opvacrovTas yap TOV y^ovv TOV<; AlyvTTTiovs e? TOV NetXcv (popelv 6 Be inroXa/iftdveov epeWe Bia^elv. 17 fiev vvv Xlfivr} avTt] OVTCO XeyeTai opv^dr/vao. Twy Be BvcoBe/ca fiaatXecov BIKCUOO-VVT) %peu>fiev9 eOvaav iv TW Upw TOV 'H(j>alo-Tov, T{} varaTr] TI]S opTr)? fieWovTtov /caTao~7r€icrecv 6 ap^iepeii^ iffrfvei/ce a(f>o <j>idXa<; Xpvaeas, rpcn' irep ewdecrav airevBeLv, dfJ-apToov TOV dpid/nov, evBe/ca Bvd>Be/ca iovcri. evOavTa to? OVK el%e id\i]v 6 ecr^aTO9 eo~Tea>opeov Te /3acrtA,et9 Kal eTvy^avov TOTE e^ovTes. ^ fiev vvv oiiBevl BoXepm voca %pedo/j,evo'; inrecr'^e TTJV Kvverjv ol Be iv <j>pevl Xaftovres TO re TTOL-rjOev e/c M^a/iytt^Tt^ou Kal TO yj>r\GTT}piov 6 TC eK&xprjcrTO 9 dvevpiaKov f$aaavi^ovTe<s e£ ovBefjufjs irpovoi^ avTov aavTa, e'9 Be TO, eXea eBoge cr<j)i, Bim^ai ^iXa>aavTa<; TO, T9j9 Bvvdfjuios, eK Be T&V ekecov opfieofievov /AT) eTTi^io-yeadab Trj dWy AlyvTTTG). TOV Be ^afif^TjTi^ov TOVTOV irpoTepov (pevyovTa 152 TOV Aldioira "ZafiaKwv, 09 oi TOV iraTepa Ne/ceuz/ direKTebve, TOVTOV evyovTa Tore €9 %vpbT]v, a>9 aTraWd^Orj eK T^9 o^jrbo1; TOV oveipov 0 Aldio^r, KaTrjyayov AlyvTTTbwv OVTOI oi eK vofiov TOV % elab.6 fieTa Be (3aabkevovTa TO BevTepov 7rpo9 T&V evBeKa the story from information on the spot. 5 This is inconsistent with ch. 152, where we are told that the Egyptians were surprised to see men in bronze armour. Bronze armour, however, was worn by the Egyptians at least as early as the time of Eamses III., though the helmets were usually of quilted stuffs. 6 All this is unhistorical. Esar-had- don, after his conquest of Egypt, appointed Necho vassal-king of Sais and Memphis. Shortly after the beginning of Assur-bani-pal's reign (B.C. 669) Neeho was found conspiring with Tirhakah, and sent in chains to Nineveh. He was, however, soon pardoned and reinstated, and his son Psammetikhos, who received the Assyrian name of Ne. boshasban, was made king of Athribis. 212 HERODOTOS. [BOOK fiaaiXecov Ka,Ta\a[i/3dvei fiiv 7 Bia TTJV Kvvet]v (pevyecv e? ra eXea. eVto-Ta/iei/o? &v &>? Trepivfipicrfievo'i elr] 71720? avTcov, iirevoei Tiaacrdab TOU? Bia>^avra<;. Trifiyfravri, Be oi e? HOVTOVV TTOXIV e? TO xpr/crTrjpiov T?}? ATJTOVS, h'vOa Brj AlyvTrTioicri ecrrt fiavrrjiov a-tyevBecnaTov, rjXOe xprjcrfibs a>? Ttcrt? r/^et aiib 8aXdacrr]<; %aX/cecov dvBpwv ermfyavevrav. ical TCS fiev By airKnlf] fieyaXrj vire/ce'^iiTO •)(aKic6ov<; oi avBpa? tffjeiv eTUKovpovs. %povov Be ov •7TOXX.OV Bte\06vTO<; avayteaiT) Kare\a/3e "Icovd? re /cac K a p a ? avBpa<; Kara \r]ir)v eKTrXcoaavTas a,Treveb'x6f)vai e? A'ijvTTTOv,8 eKftavTas Be e? ayyeXXei TWV Tt? Aiyvirrimv e? TO, e\ea aTrt,/c6/j,evo$ TW ^afi/MijTl^a), w? OVK IBcbv irpoTepov ^aXica) avBpa<; 6rjfKi aTriyfiivoi d-iro 0dXdcra7]<; XerjXareovcn TO ireBlov. 6 Be fiadwv TO XprjcrTr/piov eTTLTeXeofievov t\a Te TOIITI "Icoat, ical JZ.apo-1 TroieiTCM, /cal cr(f>ea<; fiejdXa vTria^veofievo'; irelOet, fier' eeovTov irpoirvKaia ev M ^ i TO, 7T/3O? VOTOV dvefiov TeTpafifieva, avh/rjv Te TO> "ATTI, ev TTJ Tpe(f>eTai eTreav §avf) o *A7Ti?, olKoSofirjare evavTiov TOJV irpoirvkaLwv, Traadv Te 7repi(TTii\.ov eovaav /cal TVTTCOV iiker\v Trj avkfj. CUVTX Be KOOVCOV inrea-Tacn /coXocrcrol BvcoBe/caij-^ei,^ 6 Be 'Airt,<s KaTa Necho shortly afterwards died (B.C. 664), and when the Assyrian empire broke into revolt at the instigation of the Viceroy of Babylonia, Psammetikhos procured help from Gyges of Lydia, and managed to shake off the Assyrian yoke, put down his rivals, and become sole and independent monarch of Egypt. Possibly he may have fled from his government at the time of the raid of Mi-Amun-nut (see ch. 140, note 7), but the story of his retreat in the marshes is clearly borrowed from the myth of Horus. 7 "And afterwards, for a second time, it befalls him during his reign at the hands of." 8 We learn from the inscriptions of Assur-bani-pal that they had been sent expressly by Gyges to Psammetikhos, to TTJV '^iXXrjvwv r/Xmaaav eo"Tt assist him in his revolt against Assyria, Gyges may have been of Earian descent, the name of his father Daskylos being Karian. Thirteen (still undeciphered) Karian inscriptions have been found at Abu - Simbel, Abydos, Memphis, and Zagazig, besides one in Karia, among the ruins of Kryassos. According to Polysenos, Temanthes, king of Egypt, had been warned by an oracle against cocks, and Psammetikhos therefore took the Karians into pay on account of the crests on their helmets, which were like the crests of cocks, and of which he had heard from his friend, the Karian Pigres. After dethroning and killing Temanthes, he gave the Karians the quarter of Memphis, called Karomemphis. This is clearly another version of the legend given by Herodotos. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 213 Be "Iwcrt /cal TOICTL J£.apa~l Tolai auyieaTep- 154 avrS> 6 ^a/Aya^Ti^o? BlBcocri %a)pov<; evoucrjcrai, CLVTIOVS dXXrjXcov, TOV NetXou TO fiecrov e^ovTO^' TOICTI ovvofiaTa eTe8rj %TpaTOireBa. TOUTOU? r e Bi] o-(f>c TOV<; %a>pov<; BlBcocri Kai TO, aXXa TO, vwea^eTO irapeftaXe avTolai aicecrOai' dirb eh irdvTa AlyvTrTiov1? Be TOVTOJV direBaiKe. Kai Br/ /cal iralBas TTJV 'EXXdBa i/c/j,a8ovTcov iv AlyvirTcn yeyovaat. yXGyaaav iicBcBd,- TTJV jXaxrcrav ol vvv ol Be "Icoves Te /cal ol Kape? TOU? j((i)pov<; oc/CTjaav %povov eirl TTOXXOV eicrl Be OVTOC oi yjhpoi 7T/3O? 0a\do-a7]<; oKuyov evepOe HovftdaTio'; TTOXIOS, eTrl Ta> YlrfKovaltp KaXeofieva arofiaTt, TOV NetXou. TOVTOVS fiev Brj vaTepov /3acriXev<; ' A/iacri? e^avacrTrjo-av\a,Ki)v ecovrov Troieofievos 7T/3O? TOVTWV Be oiKtadevTcov ev AlyvTTTa, ol "JLWrjve? icaToi- OVTCO ei TovTOicri TO, irepl A'iyvTTTOv yivofieva d-rrb dp%d/j,evoi irdvTa Kai TO, vaTepov etriaTdfieda a yap OVTOI iv Alv Be e^aveo-TTjcrav %a>p(ov, ev TOVTOUTI Be ol Te oX/col TWV ve&v Kai TO, epeiiria TWV olKTjfiaTav TO /J>e-%pi, ifieo r\crav. •SPa/i/A^rt^o? [lev vvv crTt]piov TOV iv AlyinrTO) irepl avrov a>? d^iov TOVTO TO iv AlyvTTTa OVTCO ea%e Al TOV Be %pr]- 155 TToWa eTrefivrio-6r)v TJST), Kai Brj Xoyov eoi/To? 7rot»;o"o/xat. e TO yap ^ lepov, ev iroXet Be ISpvfievov KaTa TO %ef3evvvTiKov KaXeofievov UTOjia TOV Ne/Xou, dvairXeovTi dirb 6aXdaar)<; dva>. ovvofia Be Tjj iroXei TavTy OKOV 9 The black bull Apis (Egyptian Hapi) was the offspring of a white cow by a moonbeam, and was sacred to Ptah, whose ' ' second life" or incarnation he was. He symbolised the generative and creative power of the god, and was therefore the son of the moon, which seems to refashion itself day by day (see ch. 41, note 6). The Apis period was lunar, containing 309 mean synodic months, or nearly twenty-five Egyptian years. The Serapeum discovered by Mariette at Sakkarah, enclosed the huge granite sarcophagi and mummies of the sacred bulls, upon the entombment of one of whom the chief priest in the reign of Ptolemy Lagos (according to Diod.) spent not only all the money in the treasury of the temple, but fifty talents of silver (about £11,700) as well. The votive tablets dedicated to each bull within seventy days of the animal's death state the days, months, and years of a king's reign on which it was born, enthroned, and buried, and are therefore of great chronological value. Apis was identified with Epaphos because of the similarityof name, In the tablets of the Serapeum he is called Apis-Osiris or Asar-Hapi (Serapis). 9a This was not the case. To say nothing of the Semitic settlers in the Delta or of the Hyksos, Lybians and allied tribes had been established in Egypt and had served both as a royal bodyguard and as a police since the fourteenth century B.C. 214 TO HERODOTOS. yp^CTTTlpLOV lepov io~TL BoUTCO, Be ecrTi ev rfj W? /CCll TTpOTSpOV [BOOK WVOflCtCTTal "BOVTOI TO,VTT} 'ATTOWGWO? Kal fJLOl. 'ApTefuBos. Kal o ye vrjbs rfjs ArjTovs, ev TS BTJ TO ^prjo-rrjpiov evi, (tiros re Tvy^avei ea>v fieya? Kal ra irpoirvXaia e^ei e? wi/ro? 8etca TO Se [lot, rav <j>avepo!)V ?JV d&v/ia fieyiarov irape^oopyvimv. /JKVOV, (ppdaeo. eari ev rm refieveo TOVTW AIJTOV? v?]b<; e'f evbs eKaaros Xldov TreTroiTjfievos e's T6 {)i|ro9 Kal is fifjKOS, Kal Tolyps •Klr\yea>v TOVTOOV eKaarov icrn. TO TovToiab lo'os' reaaepaKovra Be KaracrTeyacrfjLa T?}? opocprjs aXXos eiriKel/rai Xiaos, e^cov TTJV 156 7rapcopoiBa TeTpaTrrj^vv. ovrco fiev vvv 6 vrjbs T&V <pavepa>v fiOi T&V "irepl TOVTO TO lepov iarl dcav^iaaroTaTov, TWV Be Bevrepcov eo-Ti fiev ev Xifivrj ^adey Kal vrjaos r\ Xe/i/it? KaXeofievrj. TrXarer] Keijxevr] irapa TO ev BOVTOI lepov, Xeyerai Be vir A t yvjrricov elvat, avrq r) vrjcros TrXarrj. avTos /J-ev eyaye ovre irXeovcrav ovre Kivrjdelaav elBov, Te6rj7ra Be CLKOVCOV el vrjaos aXrjOecos eo-rl TTXCOTI].2 ev Be &v ravTr} VTJOS re 'A7roXXa>vos /A&yas eve Kal /SW/AOI Tpiacrt,oi, eviBpvaTai, e/Jure^vKaat, B' iv avrfj (j)oiviKes av^vol Kal dXXa BevBpea Kal Kapirotyopa Kal a(f>opa iroXXa. Xoyov Be rovBe eirCXeyovTes ol AlyinrTiou <pao~i elvai avTrjV irXwrrjv, a>s ev rfj vrjeep ravrrj OVK iovo-p irporepov irXarfj Ar]Ta> eovaa T&V OKTW 6eav TO)V Trpcorcov yevofievwv, olKeovaa Be iv BOUTOI iroXei, iva hrj ol TO •^prjaTijpi.ov TOVTO iari, 'AvroXXcova Trap' "Icrios irapaKaTadrjK'rjv Betjafievrj Bteaaycre KaraKpv-^racra iv rfj vvv irXaiTrj Xeyofievy vrjacp, oVe TO TVCLV Bi^rjfJbevos 'ATTOX6 r£vTeipav yeveaffai. AlyvrrrtcrTl Be BouBe ^AiroXXmv ftev *Qpos, AT]/jiyr'rjp Be T Icri?, "Apre/iis /3acrTt?. e« TOUTOU Be TOV Xoyov Kal ovBevbs dXXov Ala^vXos 6 ILvcfropLcovos r]piraae TO eyeb (ppdo-a>, fiovvos Br) TroirjTewv TWV irpoyevofievav eiroiijae yap "Aprefitv elvat Bvyarepa ArjjirjTpos.3 TTJV Be vrja-ov Bia, TOVTO yevecrOai irXaTrjv. Taora fiev OVTCO Xeyovcn. 157 "^afifirjTi^os Be ifiacrlXevo-e Alyvirrov Teacrepa Kal 1 A similar shrine, though of smaller size, hewn out of a single block of granite, exists in the inner chamber of the temple of Edfu, where it was placed by Nektanebo I. See ch. 175. 2 Hekatseos (Fr. 284) had described this floating island, which he called Khembis ; and as Herodotos confesses that he did not himself see it move, the account must hare come from him. Hence, no doubt, the scepticism of Herodotos. 3 Comp. Paus. viii. 37, 3. The tragedy of iEskhylos is now lost. ii. J THE LAND OF EGYPT. 215 Kovra eVea,4 TU>V TO, ez>o? Beovra rprf/copra "A^WTOV TJ}? / fieTO? airaaeav iroXicov eTrl ifkelarov %povov irdXiopKeofievr] avrkcrye T&V rjfiecs tBfiev. "^afjbfirjTi^ov Be Neww? irals iyevero teal ej3ao~L\evcre At- 158 yinrTov, o? rfj Bt,wpv%t eire^eipijcre irpu>TO<; rfj e? TTJV 'J OdXacraav (pepovar], TTJV Aapeto? o Yiepar}^ Bevrepa S Tr} TTOX.IV, icre^ei Be e? rrjv rjv OdXaaaav. bpwpvKTai Be irp&Tov fiev TOV ireBiov TOV ra 7rpo? 'Apa/3lr)v c^ovra, e^erai Be KdTv-rrepOe rod ireBLov TO Kara MifMpiv reivov opo<;, ev TO> at \i8orof/,[ai eveucf TOV mv Brj 6'joeo? TOVTOV nrapa TTJV vTrcoper/v r/KTai rj Biwpv!; dir ecnrkpr\epovcra dirb TOV opeo? 7T/3O? ^ie TJJ Be eX-d^io-Tov icrTi KOI CTVVTO- fiairaTov iic rfjs ftop7)ir)<; OaXdaarrjt; vTrep/3rjvai, e? rr\v VOTITJV teal 'Upvdprjv Trjv aiiTrjv Tavrrjv /caXeofievijv, airb TOV Kact'ou opeo<; TOV oipi^ovTOS AtyvTTTOV Te leal ~%vp[rjv, curb TOVTOV elcrl o-TaSioi ^IXIOL 8 e? TOV ''Apdftiov KOX-ITOV. TOVTOV fiev TO (TVVTO- v, rj Be Bi&pv^ 7roXXo3 fiaKpoTept], 6 a-KoXiaTeprj ecm'* eir\ NEKCO f3acn\eos opvBeKa fivpcdBe1;.9 Ne/cw? fiev vvv fiera^v opvaacov eiravcraTo 4 According to Wiedemann B.o. 664604. He counted his reign from the death of his father, not from the date of his revolt against the Assyrians. 5 The length assigned to the siege of Ashdod is absurd. The decay of the Assyrian power tempted'the new dynasty to seek to re-establish the old empire of Egypt in Asia. For commercial reasons the subjugation of Phoenicia and Cyprus was important. 6 The monuments show that the canal wasfirstdug by Ramses II. Three monuments of Darius Hystaspis were found during the construction of the Suez Canal at Serapeum, Shaluf, and a point nearer Suez. The canal was known as the " amnis Ptolem;ens " or Ipaiavos irora.ij.6s, though the latter name properly applied to the branch canal which left the Nile near Old Cairo. 7 Egyptian Pa-tum ("city of the sungod"), the Pithom of Ex. i. 11, built for Ramses II. by the Hebrews. It lay midway between Pelusium and Tanis (San), and was the capital of the district of which, according to classical writers, Herakleopolis Parva was the chief town, Dr. Birch identifies it with Heroopolis. Herodotos calls it an Arabian city, because it lay on the Arabian side of Egypt, 8 i.e. 114 miles. The real distance is about 90 miles, while the shortest distance from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea is 76 miles. 9 Clearly exaggerated. Many must 216 HERODOTOS. fiavrrjlov i/J/iroBiov yevojievov epyd^ecrOai. fiapfidpovs ToiovBe, TS Travadfievos 7rpo? aTpaT7][a<;, ical Tpitfpeis daXdcrcrrj iiroirjOrjaav, 'RpvOpjj daXdaay, fiapfidpcp he'irdvra<; ol Aljvirrcot 159 fit) acf>l<Ti o/ioyXcocro-ov;.1 eTpdirero [BOOK al S' iv Be Trjs StaJ/jw%o? o Ne«w? al ftev eirl rfj /3opr)[rj TG> 'Apa/3tft> tcoXirtp iirl rfj T&V en, ol OXKOI iirlBTjXot,. ical ravT^ai re i%pa.TO iv T&) SiovTC /cal ^vpoicri ire^fj MayBeoXp ivl/cyae,3 fJ*d%r}v KdBvriv Ztvpli)*; iovcrav4 avTov Trpo- KaXeovai TOW? peta, Be rrjv fieydXrjv etXe. iv 6 Ne/e&W crvfifiaXcov iv Ty Be iadrjTi TTOXLV erv^e TT}? rdora KaTepyaadfjbevo MiXTjaloov. reXevra, 160 fiera Be, eic/caiBe/ca erea 6 TCO iraoBl ^dfifii irapaBoix; TTJV dp^rjv. 'ETTI TOVTOV BTJ TOV ^dfifiiv 'HXeowv ayyeXoi,7 av^eovTes TOV iv 'OXvfjLTrlr) dymva TaoTd ov8 av TOVS fiacriXevovTa AlyvirTOV airiicovTO Bi/caioTaTa ical icdXXucrTa TiQkvai 7rdvTcov avOpanrtov, ical Bo/ceovTes irapa, (ro^xoTaTOVi av6pd)ir iire!;evpeiv. to? Be dnnKOjx,evob e? TTJV Atyvmov T&V d-rriicovTO, ivOavTa elveica AlyvTTTicov Toil? Xeyofievovs ol AlyviTTLOb iirvv6dvovTO XeyovTcov TOV dycova- rjiceov iirbfiadijo-ofjievoi TOVTcav Bi/caiOTepov iire^evpetv. crvy/caXeiTat cro(f>a>TdTOV<;. TWV 'HXeicov el avveXOovTes Be airavTa aTnjyrjcrdfievoi, TL e%piev AlyvirTbou ol Be ecfiacrav ical crv ical T&V dXXcov 'J^XXrjvcov 6/iola><; TS aycovb^ecrdai. ol Be AlyvTTTbot e<paadv TOV Bi/caiov r/fiapTrjicevat. necessarily have died in the natural course of things during the long continuance of the excavations. 1 Like the Greeks. See II. ii. 867, and Herodotos viii. 20, ix. 43. 2 ' ' For." 3 The Syrians are the Jews. Herodotos refers to the battle at Megiddo, where Josiah lost his life (2d Kings xxiii. 29), but has confounded Megiddo with Migdol, " t h e fortress." The Egyptian Migdol was 1\ Roman miles south-west of Pelusium on the sea-eoast, where Mr. Chester has found its ruins, called Tel el-Hir {Quarterly Statement of the Pales- tine Exploration Fund, July 1880, p. TO. Be TO, ol Be fiovXevadixevoi eireipa>Teov TOV<; 'HXe/ow? el crfyi ol ivoXbr\Tai ivayavlfovTai. i^eivao ovBev ol 'HXetoi eXeyov 6 /3aaiXev<; OVTO? elvai KaTijKec o-(f>ea<; irobelv trepl •wdvTa eao-av ap^a<;,& TO, irdvTa flovXofievm a<j)ea<; oiBe/jiiav OVTCO yap elvat 148). Another Migdol was on the borders of the Sea of Galilee. 4 It is plain from iii. 5 that this is Gaza, Khazitu in the Assyrian inscriptions, 5 Wiedemann, B.C. 610-594. Herodotos knows nothing of Necho's defeat at Carchemish by Nebuchadrezzar, and the consequent loss of Asia. 6 Psammetikhos II. (Psamtik) on the monuments, Psammuthis or Psammatikhos in Manetho. Maspero thinks there was a shortened popular form, Psamit', whence Psammis. 7 The story is told of Amasis by Diodoros ; of one of the seven wise men by Plutarch. ii. J THE LAND OF EGYPT. 217 firj^avrjv OKCOS ov TCO CLCTTCO dycovi^ofievcp irpoadtjcrovTai, dBoKeovTes TOV %elvov. dX)C el Bfj fiovkovrai BiKaicos Tidevai Kal TOVTOV elveica diriKotaTo e? A'lyvirTov, ^eivoiau ayavcarfjcrt, eicekevov TOV dytova ridevai, ' H X e t W Be firjBevl elvcu ayoovi^eaOat,. rdoTa fiev Alyvimoi 'HXetotcrt xnreOrjKavro. ^Pa/x/xto? Be e|f erea fiovvovs f3ao-i\evcravTO<; AlyinrTov Kal 161 a-Tparevaafievov e? Aidioirirjv9 Kal fieravrUa Te\evTijcravro<; i^eBe^aro 'A.Trpir)<; x 6 Ya/i/xto? • o? fjuera ^a/jb/x^Ti^ov TOV ecovTov irpoivaTopa eyeveTO evBcu/jboveo"ra,TO<; TCOV irporepov (BacriXecov, eir eVea irevre Kal eiKoai dp^ai,2 ev TOZCTL eivt Te Z,iB(ova aTpcnhv rikaue Kal ivavfjid^rjae T& Tvpico. eirel Si ol eBet /ca/cw? yevecrdai,3 eylveTO O,TTO Trpofyaaws TTJV iyo) ft,e£ovci)<; fiev ev Tolat, KifivKoicrt, "koyoicru aTrrjyrjcrofiaL,* fieTpico'i B' ev T&3 TvapeovTi. a.7ro7re/u,i/ra? yap cnpaTevfjia 6 'ATrplrjs fieya eirl T£.vpr)valov<; fieyaXaiiJTl irpoa-eirTaitje, Alyinmoi Be r a o T a a7reecov <j)6opr) yevTjrai, Be TCOV \OITTCOV AlyvirTicov aaa\e(rTepov ap%oi. TaoTa Be Beiva Troieofievoi OVTOL Te ol dirovoaTrjcravTe'; Kal ol TU>V airoXofievcov (f>£\oL aTreo-Trjcrav eK Tr}<; Wer]<;. iTv66fievo<; Be 'Airpir)*; 162 Taora. ivep/rrei eif avToij*; "Afiaatv KaTairavaovTa Xoyoiau. 6 Be eireiTe airiKOfievo1? KaTeKa/x^ave TOV<; AlyvTTTiovs, TaoTa fir/ iroieiv XeyovTos avTov TCOV Ti? AlyviTTtcov oiucrQe aTas irepieQijKe ol Kvverjv, Kal irepiTiOeh e<§>-r) etrl fiao-iXrjlr) TrepiTiQevai. Kal TCO ov KCOS deKovaiov eylveTO TO Troteofievov, to? BieBeiKvve. eirebTe yap icrTrjaavTO fitv fiatrCkea TCOV AlyvirTicov ol direcrTecoTe<;, trapecTKeva^eTO co? ekcov 5 eirl TOV 'AirpLr^v. TrvOofievos Be TaoTa o Airpirj^ eTrefnre e V ' A/xaaiv dvBpa BoKtfiov TCOV irepl ecovTov AiyvTTTicov, TCO oiivofia r/v JIaTdpfi7)fj,cs, evTei,\dfj,evos avTco 8 More exactly 5J, B. 0. 594-589. See ch. 30, note 9. A stele (A90) in the Louvre states that Hor, the governor of the south, completed the subjugation of Kush in the first year of Apries. It would therefore seem that Psammetikhos did not himself conduct the expedition. 1 Egyptian TJhapra ; Manetho's Uaphres, the Hophra of the Old Testament. His mother was Nitokris, daughter of Necho. 2 Manetho says nineteen, which is 9 shown to be right by the monuments. See ch. 170, note 5. 3 ' ' And when the fated time of misfortune came to him." Notice Herodotos's fatalism, and cp. iv. 79, i. 8, ii. 55. 4 Seeiv.159. The fact that "the Libyan history" forms part of the general work of Herodotos throws light on "the Assyrian history." That also must have been equally intended to form part of the general work, and the fact that it does not do so implies that it was never written. 5 " About to march." 218 HEEODOTOS. [BOOK %5>VTa "Afiacriv ayayelv Trap* eavrov. a>? Be airi/co/ievo? TOV "Afiaacv iicaXei 6 TlaTdp/Sr][LC<;, 6 "Afiao-i<; (erv%e yap e V "irirov KdTijfievos;) errraelpa<; airefiardtae, Kal TOVTO /MV eKeXeve ^Airpiy airdyeiv. ofim? Be aiirbv agcovv TOV HaTapfirifUV /3a<7tX<=09 fieTairefiirofiivov livat, 717705 avTov TOV Be OVTW vTvoKpivecrQai a>? TaoTa irdXai irapecrKevd^eTO vrocelv, Kal avTm oil fiifi-^recrOat irapea-ecrOat yap Kal avTO? Kal aXkovs at-eiv.6 TOV Be pfijf eK re TUIV Xeyofievav OVK dyvoelv TTJV Bidvocav, Kal 7rapao-Keva%6fievov opeovTa a-irovBrj airievai, ftovXofievov Tr\v TayicTTrjv (HacrCkki BrjX&crai TO, irpi]cro-6fieva. a>? Be diriKeo-Oau avTov 7T/3O? TOV 'AirpbTjv OVK ayovTa TOV "A/iao-iv, ovBeva Xoyov ecovTw BovTa aKXa TrepbOvfMOS e^ovTa "7reptTafielv irpocrTa^ai avTov Ta Te w r a Kal TTJV piva. IBofievot, 8' ol Xoiirol Toyv AlyviTTiav, ot em TO, eKeivov i(f>poveov, avBpa TOV BoKificoraTOV kcovT&v OVTW alcr%pa> CLTTLO'TeaTO 7T/9O9 TOV1} 6X6/301/9 Kdl iBlBoCTaV O"<£>6 163 avTovs 'Afidcri. 7rv66[ievo<s Be Kal r a o r a o 'ATrplr)? mwXi^e TOU9 eiriKovpov; Kal r/Xavve eirl TOV<; AlyvirTLOV1?- el%e Be irepl icovrbv K a p a 9 Te Kal "\avas avBpa<; eiriKOvpovs Tpur^vpLov^' TJV Be ol TO, (SacrtXr)ia ev %db iroXei, fieydXa iovra Kal agtodeijTa. Kal ot Te Trepl TOV ''Anrpirjv eivl TOV9 Alyvirriovs r)lo~av Kal ol irepl TOV "Afiaaiv 67Tt TOV9 %eivov% • ev Te Br) Mw/ieyu.<£t iroXeu8 eyevovTO afityoTepot Kal irecprjaeadao efieXXov dXXrfkcov. 164 "ECTT( Be AlyvjrTMv eirTa yevea,9 Kal TOVTCOV ol fiev lepet<; 6 Cp. i. 127. The similarity of the answers of Kyros and Apries shows that Herodotos considered them what a suecessful rebel ought to say. 7 We may infer from this that the real cause of the revolt was the favour shown to the foreign mercenaries. Conrp. the story of the Asmakh or deserters. It has been ingeniously suggested that the overthrow of Apries was brought about by the invasion of Nebuchadrezzar, which a cuneiform inscription states took place in the latter's thirty-seventh year. But this fell in B.o. 567, and Nebuchadrezzar mentions that his opponent was Amasis, and not Apries. According to an Egyptian inscription, the Babylonians first met the Egyptian forces under Hor at Syene, and were defeated and driven back by them. Joseph. (Antiq. x. 9, 7) declares that Netmcha'dreZzar put the Egyptian king to death, and appointed another in his place. 8 Below the modern Algam, on the edge of the desert, and near the mouth of the Lykos Canal. Now Menuf. 9 These castes had no real existence. Children were not obliged to follow the professions of their fathers. The mention of interpreters shows that the society described is later than the time of Psammetikhos ; while swineherds are included who could have been as little as the interpreters native Egyptians, to whom swine were an abomination. On the other hand, important professions and trades, such as those of medical men, scribes, and agriculturists, are wholly forgotten. Plato, Diodoros, and Strabo, ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 219 ol Be fid^ifjioc KeKXearai, ol Be ftovKoXoi, ol Be crvfiunai, ol Be /cdirrfkot, oi Be epfir/vel^, ol Be KvfiepvfjTai. yevea /j,ev AlyviTTicov vTa, icm, ovvofiara Be i Kelrai airb TMV re-yyewv. oi Se ^ ainSiV KaXeovrat, /J,ev KaXacriptes Te Kal 'Ep/iOTiJ/Ste?, e« VO/JLCJV Se TwvSe elai' KaTa yap Br/ VO/AOVS AV vofiwv 'Ep/iOTV/8te? elav, opiT7)<>- 9 ovro<; 6 vofibs ev vrjcrq) olicei dvriov Bovy3<xo-Tio? 7roXto?. ovTOi Be ol vofioi K.aXacTt,pi(0v eld, drpeKecos Kpivai, opecov Kal ©ptfcKas Kal ^Kvda*; Kal Hepcra? Kal AvSov? Kal a^ehbv TrdvTa<; TOW; /3ap/3dpov<> dTTOTlfiorepovs TWI/ aXXav ra<; Te%va<> TOVTWV, TOIIS Be dTraWaypevovs fiav&dvovras Kal TOV<; TCOV %eipa>va!;ia)v yev- valovi vofiifyfievow; elvcu, Kal \xd\io-ra rovs e'? TOJ> iroXefiov aveifievow,' fie/xaOriKao't S' mv TOVTO irdvTes ol "JLX\7]ve<> Kal fid\io~Ta Aa/ceBaifiovioi. rjKiara Be l^oplvQioi, ovovTau TOU? yepea Be o-(j)i TJV TaBe i^apaiprjfieva fiovvoiai 168 repeat the error of Herodotos, though they are not agreed as to what the different castes were. 1 Egyptian KeUshir, "armed with leather," from the garment mentioned in eh. 81. The word is found in a papyrus of the Roman period. Hermotybis has not been identified. 2 For the nomes, see App. I. 3 Between the Sebennytic arm of the Nile and the Thermuthiac, which ran east of Xois (N.E. of Sais). 4 Egyptian Teh-en-nuter (cuneiform Zabnuti), now Semennud, on the Damietta line. 6 Marked by the mounds of K8m el- Atrib, a little to the north-east of Benha, to the north, of Cairo. 6 Marked by the granite monolith of Tel Etmei, a little south of the Mendesian branch of the Nile. ' Perhaps Benub, on the Sebennytic branch. 8 Perhaps Bebeit, about six miles below Semennud. 9 An island between the Tanitic and Pelusiac mouths of the Nile. The accuracy of this list may be questioned, as only two nomes of Upper Egypt (the Thebaic and Khemmitic) are mentioned, 1 The notion that trade is /3dj 220 HERODOTOS. [BOOK A.lyv7rria>v irdpe^ TS)V lepeav, apovpai i^alperoi BvwBe/ca iicdcrTip dreXet?. r/ Be apovpa eKarov rKT)r^ka>v icrrl Klyvmlav iravry, o Be A.lyvTTTio'i rnr\'xys Tvyydvet Brj TOtcrt airaai TJV i^apatprjfieva, icros iwv TC5 2 rdBe rdora Be iv irepiTpcnrfj fiev e/cap- ITOVVTO Kal ovBafia o)VTol. ^.aikacnpimv %£kioi Kal 'Tipfiorvfilcov 3 i8opv(f>6peop evuavrov eKaaroi rbv fiacrtXea- TOVTOMTO WV rdSe irdpe^ T5)V dpovpecov aXXa i8i8oro e V r/fiepy kicdcrrrj, OTTTOV airov crTa^/io? Trevre fivecu kicda-TW, /cpe&v (Soecov 8vo fiveai, oXvov T6O"O"6y3e9 dpvo'TTjpe';. rdora Tolcri aiel Bopv^opeovai i8iSoro. 169 'E7reiTe Be crvviovTe*; o re 'A.Trp(,r]<; ayav TOV? eirncovpovi o "A/Acwrt? irdvTa (Tvveftakov ekdaaov&s ical i[iayiaavTo /xev ev ol %elvoi, irK/qQeu Be iovre<; Kara TOVTO ecraa>dt)crav. 'A-jrpia) Be elvai i]Be Bidvoia, firjB' av Qeov fiiv firjBeva Bvvacrdai /3acrtXr]lr}<; •i zeal OVT Xiyerai iravaai iBpvcrOai, iSoicet,. TJ79 Kal Brj Tore crv/JL/3a\a>v eaawdr] Kal ^a)ypr)8el<; dirrj-yOr) e? %duv iroKiv, e? ra ecovrov ol/cla irporepov iovra, Tore Be 'A/iacrto? rjB ivdavra Be Tew; ftev irpe? ov iroieoi Bb/caia Tpecov rbv cfcplcn, re Kal ecovra e^Oia-rov, OVTCO state in which the military feeling is strong. In Athens, where the democracy could be led by Kle6n the leather-seller, and Hyperbolos the lamp-maker, it influenced public life considerably less than at Korinth. 2 About 22,500 square feet. Consequently 12 aruree were 9 acres. The Egyptian royal cubit was a little more than 20J inches, the ordinary Greek cubit being 18£ inches. There were, however, several kinds of cubits in Egypt. Besides the suten. md or royal cubit of 7 palms {i.e. 28 digits), there were the lesser cubit [md nets) of 6 palms, and the cubit of 5 palms. Each cubit was dedicated to a god. The t'er was 4 palms, the remen da or greater spithame Z\ palms, the remen nets 3 palms, the tint sen or ' ' two hands " 2 palms, the khep or " foot " 1J palm, the palm or s'ap containing i teb or digits, a digit being probably 07366 inch. In the geometric papyrus the ar seems to be equivalent to the Greek skhcenos, the Tcha or pole being the orgyia of 6 feet, See ch. 149, note 2. 3 Reading '~Epfiorv@Liiit> SXXoi with two MSS., we should have to translate "as many of the H." ; but it is difficult to extract such a sense out of the pronoun. It is therefore better to understand Herodotos to mean that a thousand soldiers in all acted as bodyguard, Kalesirians and Hermotybians being on duty in alternate years, 4 Comp. Ezek. xxix. 3, 8, 9. 6 Wiedemann supposes that Apries survived for six years (B.C. 570-564), hence the twenty-five years of Herodotos (see ch. 161). But it is not likely that he would have remained a prisoner when Amasis was defeated by Nebuchadrezzar, and all Egypt overrun by the Babylonians (see ch. 163, note 7). ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 221 Brj irapaBcBol TOV 'Aij-piTjv roicn Alyvrnloiai. oi Be fuv aT Kal eireiTa eOaijrav ev Tjjo-t Trarpalrjcn ra^rjcrv ai Se elcri ev TG> iepw TJ}? ''Adrjvalr]^, dy^ordTco rod fieydpov, icriovn dpunepr) Kal rmv TOVTOV irpoiraropav, ecrro fievTOi Kal TOVTO ev rfj abXfj TOV iepov, 7rao"Ta? Xidlvrj fieydXr) Kal rjaKrjfievq arvKoicri re (ftolviKa? TO, SevSpea fiefiifir/fievoici,6 Kal T{) aXXy Bairdvy. eo~a) Be ev Trj 7rao-TaSi Bi^d OvpajfiaTa ecrTTjKe, ev Be TOIGI dvpdifiacn rj OrjKr) e&TL. ela\ Be Kal ai Ta<pal TOV OVK b'cnov iroiiofiai eVl TOIOVTO) 170 irpri^/jxaTi i^ayopeveiv TO ovvofia ev 2,dt, ev TW iepq> Trjs 'A.67]vaL7)<;, oTTiaOe TOV vrjov, 7ravT0<; TOV T ^ ? 'AdTjvaiTj'; i%o/j,evai, rofyov. Kal ev TS Tefievei 6/3e\ol eo-Taai fiejakoc Xldivoi, Xlfiv?) 8 Te e9 ifiol iSoKei, ocrr) irep rj ev At]\a> r\ Tpo•%oeiSr)s KaXeo/xevrj. ev Be Trj Xc/Mvy ravrrj rd BelKTJXa rcov 171 •jraOewv airov 1 VVKTOS iroieovai, TO KaXeovat, fjLVGTijpia AlyvwTioi. •jrepl fiev vvv TOVTCOV elSoTi fioi eVl irXeov w? eKaara avT&v e%et, evopt,a KaXiovai, Kal Tavrq^ JJLOI irepi, evcro/jLa Keio~9ai, TTXTJV b'crov avTrj<; ball) io-rl Xeyew. ai Aavaov Ovyarepes 6 This is Phoenician rather than Egyptian work, and indicates that the Egyptian wars in Phoenicia had brought Phoenician artists into Egypt. 7 Osiris, see ch. 3, note 9. Yet elsewhere Herodotos has no scruples about mentioning Osiris under his Greek title, Dionysos ! 8 The lake still exists near Sa el-Hager, north of a huge brick wall which encloses an open space and is seventy feet thick. The lake has been made irregular in shape by the fallen masses of rubbish. 9 Cp. Theogn. 7, Kallim. Hymn, ad Del. 261. M. Homolle's excavations in Delos have shown that the lake was an oval, 289 feet long by 200, in a rectangular enclosure, with a granite wall running round it 4 feet high. The conduit by which it was fed is at the north-east corner. Upon it floated the sacred swans, and hard by were the sacred palm-tree, the Kep6.ri.vos fSwfids, where the ancient dance, the yipavos, was performed, and the. KUKSS flia/ids, round which sailors were whipped with their hands tied behind their backs, while they chewed the leaves of the sacred olive, J Osiris, see note 7 above. For the Osiris myth, see App. I., and comp. the lamentations for the death of Tammuz, or Ad6nis, the sun-god, whose legend was ultimately derived from the Accadians of Babylonia. 2 The Thesmophoria were observed at Athens in honour of Demeter Thesmophoros by women clad in white, who went to Eleusis on the 11th of Pyanepsion (the day of the Anodos), the festival beginning on the 14th. The 16th was a fast, and the 17th the last day of the feast, during which the sacrifices called Diogma or Apodi&gma, and Zemia, were performed. For a similar, feast at 222 HERODOTO& [BOOK r)(7av al rrjv reXerrjv ravrrjv itj Alyvirrov igayayovtrcu Kal BiBdi;ao~ai r a s TLe\acryca)TiBa<; yvvalKas" fiera Be e^avacrraar]^ \Trdo~rq6evTe<; TieXoirovvrjavaiv Kal OVK ifjava(TTdvTe<; Ayj/eaoe? Bueaw^ov avTrjv fiovvoi. 172 * Airplay Be &Be Karapaiprjfievov i/3acrl\evcre "AfjMcris. vo/nov fiev ^atrea icov, e/c rrj<; Be r\v iroKwi, ovvofid ol ecrrl %i,ovaveo<;m fiera Be cro(f>iri avrovs 6 "A/jbao-i?, OVK dyva>Ephesos, see Herodotos, vi. 16 ; and at the morning (cp. Herodotos in this ch.) Thebes, Xen. Hell. v. 2, 29. on Kelebi wine, and so forgetting the 3 Cp. Schol. on Aristoph. Clouds, 398 ; affairs of state. The "chronicle" also (the Arkadians claimed to be irpotjiX-tivoC).states that after his death Kambyses The human sacrifices offered on the sum- was received '' because of his generosity mit of Mount Lykaeos indicate the exist- of heart." He "gave up Egypt to his ence of a non-Aryan population in satrap in the year 3," and expelled the Arkadia. " strangers " from the temple of JSTeith 4 Probably Seffeh, north of Sais. at Sais, restoring to the priests what Brugsch identifies it with the Egyptian Amasis had taken from them. This Sotep. seems to have been in great measure 5 "Held him in no great esteem." due to Ut'a-Hor-en-pi-res or TJt'a-HorThe low birth of Amasis (Egyptian res-nt, high priest of Neith, who was Aahmes) is inconsistent with his rank as a friend of Kambyse's, and initiated the general and friend of Apries, and his latter into, the mysteries of the Egyptian marriage with Ankh-nes-nofer-ap-ra, the goddess. The Persian king had so great latter's sister. But it allowed the Greeks an affection for him as to take him with to indulge in their passion for invent- him out of Egypt when he left it,- and ing stories about persons in authority. the Egyptian priest only returned to Amasis lost the favour of the priests by Sais on a confidential mission from handing over to the foreigners some of Dareios when the latter was in "Aram." their best lands at Memphis, Bubastis, Uta-Hor-en-pi-res speaks of restoring and Heliopolis, as we learn from a "de- property and fortune to his countrymen motic chronicle," deciphered by M. in the reign of Dareios, "during the Eevillout (Revue igyptologique, 1880). great calamity which took place over Instead of listening to their demands the whole earth." This must refer to for justice, and allowing the case to be the general insurrection which broke tried by the supreme court of thirty out after the death of the pseudo-Bardes judges from the sanctuaries of Thebes, (Gomates), in which Egypt also shared; Memphis, and Heliopolis, the king caused as we learn from an inscription found it to be decided against them by the on the line of the Suez Canal, in which council of state. The taxes levied by Dareios says, " I am a Persian ; with Amasis on the priesthood were renewed (the aid of) Persia I conquered Egypt." by Dareios in the third year of his reign. Tapert, the mother of Amasis, was Hence the hatred of the priestly com- related to Apries (see Revillout in pilers of the '' chronicle " to Amasis, the Rev. igyptologique, 1881, pp. 96whom they accuse of getting drunk in ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 223 fioavvy irpoo'fjydyeTO. fjv ol dXXa re dya&a fivpia, iv Be ical •jroBavnrrrjp %pvo~eo<s, iv rat avro<; re o "Afiaais ical ol Sairvfibves 01 iravres TOV<; 7roSa? eicdo~TOTe evairevl^ovTO. TOVTOV KWT Syv Kola's ayaXfia Sai/iovos e£ avrov eiroitjaaro, ical XBpvae TJJ? otcov fjv eTriTTjSeoTaTOV 01 Be A.lyinTTioi oiTeovre<; vrpo? iae/3ovTO fieydkais. fia8a)V Be 6 "AyLtacrt? TO e/c TMV dcnSiv iroieo/xevov, crvyicaXecra'i AlyvTrTiow; igecpTjve <pa<; 4K TOV iroBavnr'rrjpo'i Ta>yaX/xa yeyovevai, e? TOV irpbrepov fiev TOU? A-lyvTrrlov; ive//,eiv re icaX evovpeiv /cal 7roSa? ivairovi^eo"6ai, Tore Be lAeyakas ae^e7) Xiywv ofioia><; avTos TW rrroBavnrTrjpi ireirpriyevai- el yap irpOTepov elvai Brj/jioTr)^, aXX' ev T&) irapeovTi elvai avr&v /3acriXev^' /cal TI/JLO,V re KOX irpofj,7)6el(r6ai kwvrov e/ceXeve. TOIOVTCO fiev rpcwq irpoarjydyeTO 173 TOL>? Alyv-jTTiovs ware BiKdiovv BovXeveiv, i%pa,To Be KwraaTacrei TrpijyfAdrcov TOlfjBe. TO /lev b'pdpiov fJ-e^pi OTOV ifKrjOoxicjrj'i d/yopfj';6 r7rpo6vfi(o<; eirprjaae ra irpoa^epo/jueva Trpijy/j,ara, TO Be dirb TOVTOV eirive Te xal Kareo-Kco-Trre rovs O-V/J,TTOTCI<> KCU, r\v fxarawi re /cal iraiyvirjfiwv. d^deaOevTe^ Be TOVTOKTI ol (piXoi avTov evovQereov avTov roidBe Xeyovres. " <S /3ao~i\ev, oi/c 6p8a> aefxvm crefivbv dcoKeovTa Si r/fieprj1; nrprjaaeiv r a irprjyfuna, ical ovrca AiyinrTioi T av rjiriareaTO ft)? vir dvSpbs /AeydXov apyovrai, /cal afjueivov aii av rjicoues- vvv Be 7rotet? ovBafiws jSao-iki/cd." 6 S' d/jLeifiero roicri.Se avrovl\ov<s d/Aefyaro. Xeyerai Be 6 "Afiaai^, ical ore rjV 174 to? (^iXoTror'q^ TJV /cal (piXocr/ccofifMov ical ovSafiavi icareo'i dvrjp1 OKCO<S Be fiiv iiriXeiTroi Trivovrd re ical eviradeovra ra e-jrirrjSea, /cXeTrrecrice av irepumv ol K av fiiv eyeiv ra afyerepa xptffiara dpveofievov ayecr/cov eirl v, b'tcov e/cdo-roio-i elrj. TroXXa fiev STJ ical rfXicncero inro TCOV fiavrrjlmv, 7roXXa Be K6X enrefyevye. eireire Be ical i/3ao-iXevcre, e Cf. Xen. Anab. i. 8, 1 ; ii. 1, 7 ; Plat. Gorg. 469 J>. I t means the third hour (nine o'clock). iv. 181. See iii. 104, note 1, and 224 HEEODOTOS. [BOOK roidBe. ocrot pep avTov TWV decov direXvo-av fir) a>pa elvai, TOVTWV fiev TWV lepwv ovre eirefieXeTO ovre e? iino-Kevr)v eBLBov ovBev, ovBe <j)ot,Teu>v edve &>? ovBevbs eovcn dgiotac yfrevBea re fiavrrjua iKTrj/ievoiaf ocrot, Be fiiv KwreB^crav (pa>pa elvai, rovTCOV Be to? aXrjOeav 0ea>v eovrwv /cal dtyevBea fiavTrjoa irape^o175 fiivcov TO fiaKicTTa eirefiekeTO. /cal TOVTO fiev ev %ai rfj 'A07)vair) dcovfidcrid ol e^eTroLTjae, iroWov Trdvras VTrepftaT&5 Te vifret ical T«3 fieydOet,, b'crwv re TO fieyado1; Xidcov earl ical 6/colcov reav TOVTO Be Ko\oacrov<; fieya\ovs teal avSpoo-fayyas 7 •jrepifirjicea's aveOrj/ce, XlQov; Te aXkovs e? iiriaKev-qv virep TO fiev fir/Kos e^coOev eo~Ti et? Te ical eiicoo~t, 7T?7^et?, evpo ydp fiiv e? TO lepov <j>acri, ToiivBe eive/ca OVK eaeXKvo~cu. TOV apyyreKTova avTTjs eXKOfievi}1; T^J? (TTeyrjs dvacTevdgai, old Te ypovov iyyeyovoTo<; iroXXov ical d^Oofievov TG> epyq>, TOV Be "Afiacriv evQvfiLO-Tov Troi,r}o~dfievov OVK idv eVt irpoaaTepco eXKi>o~ai. rfBrf Be Ttves Xeyovai &>? avdpurTros Bi,eddpr) inr a u r ^ ? TUIV Tt? avTr/v 176 fio^XevovTcov, ical diro TOVTOV OVK eaeXKVo~8f)vai. dvedrjKe Be Kal ev Tolai aXXoiai, lepolat, 6 "Ayaao"i? irao~b TOICTI iXXoybfioicri epya TO fieyados dgioOerjTa, ev Be Kal ev M e / ^ i TOV VTTTLOV Kelfievov KoXoaabv TOV 'Hipaio-Teiov efiirpoo-9e,g TOV 7roSe? irevTe 7 i.e. sphinxes with human heads, not the heads of rams or hawks. The avenue leading to the entrance of a temple was generally lined with a double row of sphinxes (as at Karnak). The sphinx (Egyptian hu or ahar) symbolised the god Harmakhis, and, if the great sphinx of Gizeh. is older than Menes, (see App. I.) was of vast antiquity. The sphinx of Greek art, which united the head of a woman with the body of a lion, was an enfeebled copy of the Egyptian original, its wings being derived from Phoenician art. The Greek name, which means "the strano-ler," was derived from the myth of the shemonster sprung from Ekhidna and her son Orthros, the dawn, 8 See ch. 156, note 1. ° As statues were intended to stand upright, the colossos referred to by Herodotos was probably one of those ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. 225 Kal eftSo/jLrjicovTd elcru TO fiiJKO?' eirl Be rm avTw ftddpq* earaai TOV avrov 6WT09 Xidov Bvo /coXocrcrob, ei/coai, iroBStv TO /jLeyado? imv eKaTepos, 6 fiev evBev 6 8' evdev TOV fieydXov. eo-ri Be Xt#ti>o? eTepos TOCTOUTO? Kal ev %di, Kei/j,evo<; KUTO, TOV axiTov Tpoirov TO5 ev Me/i0t. rfj 'Io~i TS TO ev Me/ii^i lepov "A/iack eo"T( o i^oiKoBofit]cra vo/j,dp^ji irdvTa Tiva AlyvTrTicov b'Oev /BiovTao' fj^r] Bk irooeovTa TaoTa /MTjBe dirofyalvovTa BiKair]v %6r]v WiveaOat davaTa. XoXav Be 6 'AOijvatos \aj3a>v ij; AlyvTTTOv TOVTOV TOV vofjiov 'Ad7]vaL0io~i, eOeTO' TS iKeivoc 6? alel -^peavTao iovTt vofiw. (ptXeWijv Be yevofievos 6 "A/jiacn,<; aWa Te e? 178 fJueTe^eTepov; direBe^aTO, Kal Brj Kal TO1O~L dircKveo^evoicrt, es A'iyvjrTOV eBcoKe NavKpaTiv iroXiv3 evoiKrjcrai' Total Be /JLT] fiovXofievoicri avToiv OIKSIV, avrov Be vavTiWofievoiai eBwKe %cbpov<; iviBpvo-ao-Oai j3co/j.ov<; Kal Tefiivea 0eolcn. TO fiev vvv fieyio~TOV axiT&v Te/tei'o? Kal ovo/MtcrTOTaTov ibv Kal ^pTja-ifLdoTaTov, KaXeo/xevov Be 'EWrfviov, a"Be 7roA,te? elo~i al IBpv/Aevai KOIVT), 'Icovav fiev Xto9 Kal Tew? Kal <£>a)Kaia Kal Aa>pi£>v Be 'Po8o? Kal Kyt'So? Kal 'AXiKapvr]ao-b<; Kal AloXetov Be r] isHvTtXrjvaiav \iovvr\. rovTeeov /j,ev io~Ti TOVTO TO Tefievos, Kal 7rpoo~TdTa<s TOV efnropiov avTai al 7roXte? elcru al irape^ovcrai' oaai Be aXXac 7roXte? ixeTarroieovTac, ovBev o-$i fieTebv fjLeTaTroieovTai,? ^copls Be Alyivr\Tav iirl emvT&v IBpvset up by Ramses II., and subsequently overthrown. See ch. 110, note 1. 1 Already, under the eighteenth dynasty, bodies of men are represented presenting themselves for registration. According to Plut. (Sol. 17), Solon repealed Drakon's law, which condemned to death the man who was convicted of idleness. Vagabondage was punished in England under the Tudors with flogging, imprisonment, and even death. Theophrastos ascribed the law to Peisistratos (Plut. Sol. 31). 2 The past participle implies that Q Amasis had not at first been favourably disposed towards the Greeks who had supported Apries. When he was once secure, however, the mercenaries were too powerful not to be courted. 3 See ch. 135, note 4. 4 " All the other states which claim a share, claim what in no way belongs to them." We may compare the Hanseatic League of the Middle Ages. Phaselis, also called Pityussa, lay on the east coast of Lykia at the foot of Mount Talditalii. Its ruins are now known as Tekrova, where the ancient theatre, 226 HERODOTOS. cravTo refievo<; Ato?, Kal aWo 179 Xftjyo?. [BOOK 2 « / w o t "Hp?;? icah M t \ ^ < r t o t 'ATTOX- t)v Be TO iraXaibv fiovvrj Nav/cpaTt? ifiiropiov icai ovBev AlyvwTOV. ei Si Tt? e? TWV TL aWo aWo crTOfiaTwv TOV NetXou cmlicono, %pr)v ofioaai /Ar/ pev e/covTa eKdelv, dirofiocravTa Be Tjj vrjl avT-rj -rfkelv e? TO KavcofiiKov' avifiovi TO avTtovs AekTa, pixpi ov old TB eirj irpos diriicouTO e? Nav/cpaTiv. 180 Nau^/saTt? eTenfiTjTo. Ae\<j>olcri vvv rj el yJ) ye irXecv, TO, (popTia eSei -Trepodyeiv ev ftapicri irepi, iovTa OVTCO pev 8rj 'Afuf>iKTv6vcov Be fjn,a6a>crdvT(ov TOV ev vijbv TpiTjKocricov TaXdvToov /caTe/cdr] 5), TOV? (o Br) eTrifiaXke TeTaprij/jiopiov TOV /ucrOcbfiaTos irapao-^elv. ixevoi Be ol Ae\(f>ol "wepl T « ? 7roXta? iScoTova^ov, irXavco- iroilovTes Be TOVTO OVK iXd%io-TOv ii; AlyvTTTOV rjveiicavTO' "A/iacrt? (J-ev jdp o~(f>i eSwice ^uXia 181 oliceovTe<; "EXX^i'e? aTViTTr)pir}<;6 rdXavTa, e'iKocri fiviaiJ ol Be ev AlyinrTq) K.vp7)valoicri, Be "Afi,acn<; iBiKaiaae yr]f/,a,i avToOev, ryvvcu/cbs e'ire /cat C'IT' iTroOvfj,^aa<; 'JiWrjvlBos iXoTT)TO<; Yivpt]vaiu>v e'iveica' ja/iel Be KOX Be &v, ol fiev Xiyovcrt, ol 8' 'Apiceo-iXea>8 dvyaripa, ol Be *KpiTofiovkov dv8pb<; TS>V ao-T&v BoKifJiov, Ty ovvo/j,a r\v AaBiKr)' 6 "A(Mio-t$, fjLLO-yecrdat yvvcuifl iftpaTo. iireiTe Be iroWbv 7T(0o? T^Z/ AaSUrjv TavTijv idp/jt,a!;a.<;, Kal eaTi KaKcaTa yvvatK&v ovBev Ttjcn KaXeofievqv aXKyat " a> yvvat, /caTa (JLB /jbrj^av-rj fir] OVK airoXaiXevat, fj Be AaBtKr], €7retT6 ol 6 "Afiacri';, stadium, and temples may all be traced. s B.C. 548. For the rebuilding of the temple by the Alkmaeonids, see bk. v. 62. The Amphiktyons or " dwellers around " were the Thessalians, Bceotians, Dorians, Ionians, Perrhsebians, Magnetes, Lokrians, (Eteans, Akhseans, Phokians, Dolopes, and Malians—though the list is differently given by iEskhines, Harpokrati6n, and Pausanias—who in prehistoric times formed a federal league, and met twice a year (autumn and spring) at Thermopylae, their central sanctuary, and (later) at Delphi, Subsequently they became merely the superintendents of the Delphic temple, and later still Be TOVTO eyiveTO, elire 6 "Ayxacrt? TOI ovBefila Traaeav" iyCveTO irprjiiTepos ry eireiTe o~vyic~KivocTO OVK 0409 TB iylveTO- ev^eTai ev dpveofievy T& vocp T§ of the Pythian games. By Herodotos intends to contradict the statement that the temple had been purposely burnt (see Schol. Pind. Pyth. vii. 9). 6 Alum is still found at Sheb, south of the Great Oasis, and in the Oasis itself. 7 £81. The Greek merchants seem to have thought that the munificence of the Egyptian king relieved them from diminishing their incomes for the sake of the great national sanctuary, 8 One MS. reads rov 'Apx. "son of Ark." Battos had been made king after the murder of Laarkhos by Eryx8 and Polyarkhos. See bk. iv. ch. 160, sq. ii.] THE LAND OF EGYPT. r\v ol vir etceivrjv rrjv vvicra 227 iMj^Qy 6 "A/MUTIS, TOVTO yap ol KCIKOV elvai [irj%o<;, ayaXfJbd ol dTroTri/Mifreiv eV K.vprjvr]v. fiera Be TTJV ev^rjv avrlica ol ifitydrj 6 "A/iacrt?. Kal TO evdevrev r/Brj, 6K6T€ eXdoo "AfiaaK Trpbs avrrjv, i/j,icryeTO, Kal icdpra fiiv ecrreptje /j,era TOVTO. r\ Be AaSiKT] diriBcoKe TTJV evyrjv rfj OeS1 •7roi,7)o~afjLev7) yap dyaXfia direire/ji'^re e? JZ.vprfvrjv, TO 6TI Kal e? ifj,e r\v aoov, e£a> T6Tpap,fievov TOV ^vpr\vaL(nv ao~Teo<;. Ta\)Tt]v TTJV AaSUrjv, ft)? iireKpaTTjae Ka/i/3uo"?;? AIJVTTTOV Kal hwyQero avTV)*; -jjTt? e'lT}, aTveivefi^re dcnvka e? K.vpijV7jv'AvedijKe Be Kal dvaOrffiaTa 6 "A/iacrt? e? TTJV 'EXA,aSa, 182 TOVTO fiev e? YLvprjvqv dyaXfia eTriyjpvaov ''AQr\valir)<; Kal eiKova ewvTOv ypa^fj elKaa-fievrjv,9 TOVTO Be Trj iv AivBw 'Adrjvaly Bvo Te dydXfiaTa XiOcva Kal 6d>prjKa Xlveov d^ioOerjTOv, TOVTO B' e? %dfiov Trj "Hpjj elKovas eeovTov Bi^aaias ^vXtva?, at iv TCO vrjm TS fieydXa) IBpvaTO ert Kal TO pe^pi ifieo, OTricrde TCOV Ovpecov. e? (lev vvv Zid/Mov dvedrjKe Kara ^eivirjv TT)V kwvTov Te Kal UoXvKpaTeos TOV Ata/ceo?, 2 es Be AivBov £eivor}<; fiev e'lveKev, OTO Be TO lepbv TO iv AlvBco TO T77? :Adr)vair\, elXe Be JLvirpov 7rpwT0? dvQpwirwv Kal Ka 69 (f>6pov a T ^ 9 Portraits painted on wood were at least as old as the twelfth dynasty. 1 See Plin. N. H. xix. 22, who says the corselet had 365 threads. 2 See bk. iii. 39-43. 3 Kypros (Chittim in the Old Testament, from the Phcenician town of Kition) is called in Assyrian the island of Yavnan or Yanan (Hebrew Javan), " the Ionians." It was colonised by the Phoenicians at an early period, then by the Greeks, Phoenicians and Greeks con- tinuing to share the island between them. Sargon I. of Babylonia (B.C. 2000) penetrated as far as it, and Sargon II. set up a stele at Larnaka (now at Berlin). The tributary kings of Kypros are enumerated by Esar-haddon and Assur-bani-pal. The Phoenician colonies had previously been subject to Tyre; and if Asebi means Kypros, the island had been conquered by Thothmes I I I . Amasis was consequently not the first to compel it to pay tribute. 228 HERODOTOS. BOOK 1 [BOOK III. 'E7rt rovrov Br) rbv "AfUMTiv Ka/i/Svcr??? 6 K.vpov io-rparevero, djcov Kai aWovs rwv ?ip%e Kai 'ILWtfvcov "Ia>vd<; re Kai Ai'oXea?, Bt alrlrfv roirjvBe.1 7rifiyjra<; Ka/Lt/?vcn7? e? Atyvirrov Kr/pvKa airei "A/xaatv dvyarepa, a'irei Be e'« fiovXfjs dvBpb<; Alyvirriov, o? fiefuf>6fievo<> "A/iacriv eirprj^e rdora on /AW it; awavTav TWV ev AliyvTTTq) iTjrp&v aTrocnrdcras diro yvvatico'; re Kai retcvav etcSorov eiroirjcre 6? TLepcra1;, ore Kvpo? irefji^rwi irapa "A/JLCHTIV alret irjTpbv 6v,2 o? eh] apicrro? TWV ev AbyvirTcp. rdora Br) eirkfiefL<; dvlmro rj fir) Bovs K.afifivcrr] dire^Ooiro. 6 Be "Ayaacrt? ry Bvvdfiei, rS)V TLepcrecov d%dofj,evo<; KCU dppcoBeav OVK el%e ovre Bovvai ovre dpvqaaaOaf ev ? yvvcuKa fiiv efieWe K.afj,/3var)<; efjeov K' to? TraWaKrjv. rdora Br) iK\oeiBr)<; jiovvT) rov O'IKOV Xekeififievr), ovvo/xa Be oi r)v ravrr/v Br) rr)v iralBa 6 "A/j,acn<; Koo-fitfaai; ia-Ofjrl re Kai % diroTrefiirei e? Tlepaas to? ewvrov dvjarepa. fiera Be %povov w? fiiv r)aird^ero irarpoOev ovofid^cov, \eyet, rrpof airbv r) irals " & /3a(TiXev, Bia^e^Xrj/Mevo1; virb 'A^Aacrto? oi jjiavddveis, o? eyite col Kocrfico dcrKrja'a'i dirhrefi^e ft>9 ecovrov dvyarepa StSov?, eovaav rf} dXrjdelrj 'Airpiw, rbv e'/cet^o? iovra eatvrov Becrirorea fier" 1 The pretext of the invasion was no doubt the alliance between Egypt and Lydia (i. 77). Egypt had furnished Krcesos with some'of his best troops, if we may trust Xenophon's Kyropcedia (vi. 2, 10 ; vii. 1, 30-45), which is, however, a doubtful authority. As long as Egypt remained independent, Persia had a dangerous neighbour, and Kyros had restored the Jews to their native country to act as a garrison against it. The alliance between Lydia and Egypt was as old as the time of Gyges and Psammetikhos. 2 See ii. 84, and iii. 129. 3 Nitetis would have been over forty years of age when Kambyses came to the throne ! in.] THE PEKSIAN EMPIRE. 229 AIJVTTTLCOV iiravao-ra^ i6vevo-e." TOVTO BT) TO eVo? teal avrij 7) airly iyyevofievy ijyaye TLa/iftvcrea TOP ~Kvpov fieydXms OvficoOevTa eif A'lyvrrTov. OVTO> fiev vvv Xeyovcri Tlepaai. AlyvnvTiOi 2 Be olKt]iovvrai TSLafifivcrea,4' ipdfievol fiiv i/c Tavryi; Br) T?)? 'Airpia 0vyarpb<; yeveaOai' T£.vpov yap elvai TOV Tvkfvtyavra trapa" Afiaaw 67rt Ttjv dvyaTepa, a!OC oi Ka/i/3vo"6a. XiyovTes Be TaoTa OVK 6p8a><; Xeyovcri. ov fiev ovBe \i\7)0e avTovs (el yap Tives xal aWoi, ra TLepaewv vo/iifia eiriaTeaTac ical AiyviTTbot) OTI Trpcora fjbev )^odov ov o~$>i vo/io<; ecrTt /3acri\evo~ai yvv\o~Lov avTi<; Be OTO J€.ao-crav8dvr}<; T ^ ? ^apvdaireca 6vyaTpb<; r\v T^afi/3vcrr)<;,5 avBpbs 'A^aifieviBea>, dXX' OVK eic Tr}<; Al d~K\a irapaTpd'jrovai TOV \6yov irpoairoieofjievoi Trj K_vpov Be e%et. XeyeTai Be ical oBe 3 X0709, ifiol /Mev ov irtOavo'i, w? TMV JJepa-iBrov yvvaiKmv ecreXdovcrd Tt? irapa T « 5 K.vpov yvvalicas, a>? elBe Trj ISiacraavBdvy irapecrTewTa Teicva eieiBea TC KOX /AeydXa, 7roXX.d) e^p&TO ra eiralvai VTrepOcovfid^ovaa, r\ Be ¥Lao~a~a,vBdvr) iovaa TOV Kwpov elite TaBe. " ToiwvBe /j,evToo ifjue iraiBmv firjrepa iovaav ev aTi/xir] e^et, TT)V Be air AlyviTTov eTTLKTrjTOV ev Tbjjvfj " TTJV fiev d^Oofievqv Trj Ntr?;Ti elirelv TaoTa, TWV Be 01 iraLBav TOV Trpeo-jSinepov elirelv Kayu,/3vcrea " Toiydp TOL & firjTep, iireav iya> yeveofiai, dvrjp, Alyvirrov TO, fiev avco KaTco 6r)0~a>, TCL Be KaTco avco." TaoTa elireiv CLVTOV erea w? Beica KOV yeyovoTa, ical Ta? yvvatKa<; ev QdiVfiaTt, yevecrdai' TOV Be fiovevovTa OVTCO Brj, hrevre dvBpdaOrj ical ecr^e Tr\v TTOiijo-aadai Ttjv e V A'iyVTTTOV crTpaT7)Li)v. %vvr]veoKe Be ical aWo TL TovbvBe Trprjyfia yeveaOai e? Tr)v 4 eTn(TTpdrevo~Lv TavTTjv. ijv TO>V eiriicovpcov 'Aytiacrto? dvr)p yevo<; fiev 'A\iicapv?)o~o~ev<;, ovvofia Be ol <£>dvr)<;, ical yvco/irjv l/cavo1; ical TO. TroXefiL/ca aX/cifio<;. OWTO? O <£>dvr)<; fiefiofievo<; KOV TI 'Afideri eKBiBpr]o-icei ifKoiai if; AlyvTrTov, fiovXofievos K.afi/3vo-r) i\,6elv e? Xoyovs. ola Be eovTa avTov ev Tolcn eiriKovpoiai \oyov ov crfu/cpov eiriaTafievov Te TO, ivepl AtyviTTOv aTpe/cea-Tara, fieTaBuoicei 6 "Afiao~t<; dvrif KaTafiedvaas yap TOVS cf>vXaKov<; 4 This "appropriation" of Kambyses was in full accordance with eastern vanity. See Athen. 560 B. 5 According to Etesias, his mother was Amytis, daughter of Astyages. 6 As a Halikarnassian, Phanes, though 230 HERODOTOS. e'9 Hepcra?. eV A'lyvirTov opfirjfiiva Kal diropeovTL [BOOK Be crrpaTevea-Qai Ka/A/3vo-y TT/V eXaaiv, o««? Tr)v avvBpov BceKirepa, iireXQcbv (j>pd^ei /lev Kal TO, aXXa TCt 'A/xacrto? Trprjyfiara, i^rfjelrai, Be Kal TT)V eXaaiv, irapa, TOV 'Apafitav fiacriXea 7 &Be irapaiveav, ire/AifravTa Belcrdat, TTJV Bie^oBov ol dcr<^aXea 5 7rapao~yelv. fiovvp Be ravrrj elcrl tyavepal icr/36\al e? AijinrTov. dirb yap '$>oiviKr)<; f^e^pi ovpcov TWV KaSwTto? TTOXIOS, eaTb %vpav Tav UOXMICTTLVCOV KaXeofievav airo Be KaSvTto? eovcrr)<$ 7roXto9, ft>9 ifiol BoKel, 'ZapBlwv ov TTOXXW iXdcrcrovot;, airo ravTrjs ra i/jLiropia TO, STTI 6a\der(T7)<; fie-^pt 'Irjvvcrov TTOXIO? 9 icrrl TOV 'Apa/3/ou, a.7ro Be '\rjvvo-ov avrbs "Zvpcov f^e^pt %epj3a>viBo<; Xlfivr)1;,1 Trap1 rjv Brj TO Kocrtov opo<; Teivei e? OdXaacrav dirb Be %ep/3coviBodai, dirb TavT7]$ tfBr] Aoyv7TTO<;. TO Brj fieTa^b 'Irjvvcrov 7ro\tO9 Kal Yuiaiov Te b'peo<; Kal T»}9 %epfia>vi,Bos Xl/j,vrj<;, ibv TOVTO OVK oXiyov %o)piov 6 dXXa, ocrov Te eirl Tpels rjfiepa'i 6B6v, avvBpov icm Beiva><;. TO Be oXiyot Twv is AlyvirTov vavTiXXofievmv evvevcoicacri, TOVTO epxpfiai pdcrcov. 69 AIJVTTTOV e« T ^ 9 'E\XaSo9 irdcrrj^ Kal 77/309 etc <$>OLVLKr)<; KepafJios icrdyeTat irXr)pr)<; oivov Bis TOV 6T609 eKaaTov, Kal ev Kepdfiiov olvqpbv api6fi<x> Ketvbv OVK ea-Ti &>9 Xoya> el^relv IBecdac. KOV BfJTa,. etirot TI<> av, TaoTa dvaiat/LiovTat; efyco Kal TOVTO (frpdcra. Bel TOV /xev Bijfiap^ov eKacrTov eK TT)<; ecovrov TTOXIOS o~vXXe^avTa irdvTa TOV Kepafiov ayeiv 69 M.efiiv, T0119 Be e'« Me//,<£to9 69 Taora Br) TCC avvBpa T ^ 9 %vpLr)<$ Ko/jbl^euv TrXrjaavTas vBaTOS. OVTCO 6 i"!ri,(j>oi,Te Kepafios Kal i%aipe6fjievo<; iv AlyvirTW eirl TOV TraXaibv KOfii^eTai 69 a Greek, was probably reckoned rather sons, and, under the name of Pulusata, among the Karian than the Ionian mer- the Pilisti of the Assyrian inscriptions, cenaries. Herodotos no doubt obtained henceforth appear in Egyptian history, 9 this story of his countrymen from trustNot identified. It was three days' worthy sources. journey (about sixty miles) east of Mount 7 The Arabians had no king, as Kasios (see ii. 6, note 6). Titus took Herodotos imagines. Some desert three days to march from Mount Kasios sheikh must be meant. Cp. ii. 141, to Rhinokolura (El-Arish) (Joseph. B. J. note 8. iv. 11). Ostrakine1, " potsherd-town," 8 Gaza, see ii. 159, note 4. Palestine (see next ch.) was two days from Kasios, is the country of the " Philistines," who Pelusion one day. 1 came, according to the Old Testament, See ii. 6, note 6. 2 from "the coastland of Caphtor," i.e. Seb, when he fled from the vengeKeft-ur, " Greater Phoenicia " or the ance of Horus. 3 Delta. Some of the Phoenicians settled It is difficult to understand how here were planted by Ramses II. in the Herodotos could have written down so five southern cities of Judaea as garri- absurd a tale. How were the imported in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 231 OVTCO fiev vvv Hepcrat, eltrl oi TTJV icrfioXrjv ravTTjv irapaaiceva- 7 6TT61T6 TayiGTa Trapekafiov A'lyviTTOv. T0T6 Be OVK iovTos KCO eToifiov, Ka/u./3uoT7? irvdofievo^ TOV 'AXiKapvqacreo^ %elvov, ? irapa TOV 'Apdftwv ayyeXovs Kal Berjdeh T»J? do-(^>aXeii}<; eVu^e, Trio-Tec; Sow TE Kal Bei;d(ievo<; Trap7 avTov. aefiovTai Be 8 Apafiioi 7rt'o"T6(? avdpcoTrwv ofioia Tolai fidXiara, nroikovTai Be auTa? TpoiTO) TOLtoBe. TWV fiovXofi&vasv TO, TUGTa iroieladai aXXos dvrip dfifjiOTepoiv aiiToiv ev f^ecra IcrTecb? Xidqt 6%eu TO ecra> TWV 'yeipoiv irapa TOU? BaKTvXovs TOU? ju,e Troieofievav Ta? 7rto"T«9, Kal eiveiTa Xa(3<>iv e« TOV 1/iaTiov eKaTepov KpoKvSa dXelj>ei T5> at/juaTi ev [tecra Keipevovs Xfflovs eTTTa- TOVTO Be irotwv iiriKaXei TB TOV AIOVVGOV Kal TTJV Ovpavi7]v. eiriTeXicravTO^ Be TOVTOV Taora, 6 T O ! 7ritXoiiTi nrapeyyva TOV ^elvov rj Kal TOV OLCTTOV, rjv 7T/3O? dcTTOv TTOLTJTaf ol Be (plXot Kal avTol T « ? rjriaTet<; BitcaievaL ae/3ecrdat. Aiovvcrov Be demv fiovvov Kal Tr\v Oipavirjv rjyeovTau elvac, Kal T&V Tpiyfov TTJV Kovprjv KelpeadaL a7rot;vpa)VTe<; TOU? KpoTd<pov<>. ovofid^ovat, 'OpoTaX, TT]V Be Ovpavirjv Be TOV fiev Aiovvaov 'AXiXaT.7 jars to be distinguished from the myriads (as among the Babylonians, the Phceniof jars (including wine-jars) made in the cians, and the Hebrews), seven being the country ? And why should they alone number of the planets, and of the days of the week which the Accadians had be carried to the desert? How could all the jars in the country, from the named from the planets. The week itself was the fourth part of the old Mediterranean to Assuan, be collected at Memphis ? The whole population lunar month. Heaps of stones were would have had to be on the tramp for set up (as they still are in the East) to the purpose. Fragments of wine-jars, record oaths and other events, inscribed stelae afterwards taking their place however, with resinous sediment at the among the cultured Babylonians and bottom, have been found plentifully in Egypt. The language of Herodotos may Assyrians ; see Gen. xxxi. 46-49 ; Josh, iv. 3-9. So in the great Chaldean epic, imply that he regarded the whole story Izdubar or Gibirra sets up a Beth-el (or as a joke : " S o Mr. jar, after making a pilgrimage to Egypt, and being dis- fialrvKos, " house-of-god"). 7 Most MSS. read 'OporaXr, from the charged there, returns to Syria to rejoin Ms old friends." jingle with 'AhiK&r. Movers explains 4 "Having loaded it {i.e. rty 232 HERODOTOS. [BOOK 'Ewel &v TTJV iria-TUV rolcn dyyekoiai roicri irapa Kafifivcreco airvypevouri iirotrjo-aTo 6 'A/ja/3to?, iiirj^avaTo roidSe. acr/coiis Kaiirfkcov TrXrjGas vBaTO? i-Treaa^e eVt T « 9 ?« ovvo/ia Kopw;,8 i/cBiBol Be OVTOS e? rrjv 'Kpvdprjv /caXeo/j,evr)p ddXao-aav. airo TOVTOV Brj Stv TOV TTOTafiov XeyeTdi TOV fiao-CXea T&V 'Apafiuov, paijrd/j,evov ai/Aofioicov Kal [T&V] aWcov BeppaTtov byeTov firjKei i^i/eveofievov e's TTJV avvBpov, ayayelv Bca, Br) TOVTCOV TO iiBmp, ev Be TT) dvvBpw /MeydXa^ Bega/Meva? opvtjacrdai,, Xva Betcofievai TO vBcop aco^cocri. oBbs 8" io~TU BvooBe/ca rjfiepewv drro TOV iroTafiov ayeiv Be fitv Bt o-^eT&v TpLcov e'9 g e? TavTTjv TTJV avvBpov. ^p 10 ' E v Be T<£ Hrfkovaia icaXeofievcp o-TOfiari TOV Nei'Xou i ToireBeveTo ^a/jLfiTjviTOi9 0 'A/AacrtO9 -wah viro/xevcov K a / ^ "Afiao-tv yap ov /careXa/3e £S)VTa Ka/Ay8i5o"7?9 eXdcra<; iir' A'iyvTTTov, dXXa, f3ao-Ckevcra<; 0 "Afiao-i<; Teaaepa Kal Tecro-epdicovTa eTea cwredave, ev Tolat, ovBev ol fieya dvdpcnov Trpfjyfia o-vvr)vel%dr) • diroOavwv Be Kal Tapi%ev6el<; eTacprj ev Trjai Tafjo-i Tyai ev TftS lepm,1 Tcts avTos olKoBo^rjaaTO. eirl ^a/i/i^i/tTov Be TOV 'Ayxacrto9 fiaaiXevovTOS AlyinrTov <j>dcrfia Alyvn-Tioiai \jueyio~Tov Br) iyevero. vadrjaav yap ©^/Sat at AlyvivTiai, OVTB jrpoTepov ovBa/xa vaOelaai ovTe vcnepov TO ^ey_pi efieo, a>9 \eyovo~i avTol ®r)/3aioi' 11 ov yap Br) verai Ta avco T ^ 9 Alyv-rrTov TO irapdirav} aXXa Kal TOTe voSi)aav ai ®r)/3ai tyaKaBi. ol Be Tlepo-ai eVeiVe Bie^eXdo-avTes TT)V avvBpov L^OVTO ireX-as TWV AlyviTTiav a>9 crv/M/3a\eovT69, ivdavTa ol iiriKovpoi ol TOV AlyvirTiov, eovTes avBpe*; " r e Kal K«|0e9, fiefufrofievoL TW There is no large river in this part of Arabia. 8 Psamtik (Psammetikhos) I I I . of the monuments, Psammekherites of Manetho. Maspero thinks that Psammenitos represents a popular form of the king's name, Psammit'-si-neith ("son of Neith "), see eh. 159, note 6. 1 Of Neith at Sais. 2 An error ; see ii. 14, 8. This statement is a fresh indication that Herodotos never visited Upper Egypt. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 233 67T AtyvirTov aXKodpoov, firj^aveovrat irprjyfia e? avrbv roiovSe. rjcrav TCO <&avr) TralBes ev AlyviTTCp KaraXeXeifi/ievoi' TOVS wyayovTes e? TO arparoireSov Kal e? o^friv TOV TraTpb<; KprjTrjpa ev fj,ea-q> earrjcrav dficpoTepcov rmv aTpaTOireBcov, fiera Be dyiveovT6? Kara, eva eKaarov T&V iraiBcov ecrcf>a%ov e? TOV Kprjrfjpa' Bia TravTcov Be Bie^eXBovTes TCOV iraiBcov olvov r e Kal vBa>p eo~eoTepcov TCOV crTpaToireBcov irhqdet, iroWGiV eTpawovTO oi Alyinrnoi,. ®a>vfia Be fieya elBov •jrv&6fj,evo'; irapa TWV eiri^wpiaiv TSIV 12 9 e'^wpicrQi] KaT ap%ds, eTepadi Be T&V A.lyv7TTia>v), ai fiev T5)V Tiepaeav Kea\a£ elcro acrBevels OVTCO SxrTe, el deXeis •^r^cfxp fiovvri (3aXelv, BuaTeTpavels, ai Be TCOV AlyvTTTicov OVTCO Brj TI la'XypaC, p,6 rKaiaa<; Biappij^eiaf. airtov Be TOVTOV ToBe e\eaXaKpovopeovcri Taf KecfraXas aiTiov ToBe. crKirjTpo^eovcri, ef "/>%% iriKovs Tidpas opeovTe<;.B Taora p,ev vvv ToiavTa- elBov Be Kal dXXa Sfioia TOVTOicrt ev Tla7rprj[u4 TCOV d/j,a 'Ayaifievei TW Aapelov Biacj>OapevTcov VTTO 'Ivdpco TOV A//S1/09.5 Ol Be AlyinrTLOL eK T ^ 9 fid"xr)<; &>9 eTpdirovTO, ecpevyov ovBevl 13 Koo-ficp- KaTeiXTjdevTCOv Be €9 Me/icpiv, eirefiire dva TroTafibv vea ^AvTbXrfvairjv KijpvKa dyovcrav dvBpa Hepar/v, 69 3 "They keep themselves shaded from khos, revolted in B.C. 460, with the help the first by wearing turbans for caps." of the Athenian fleet of 200 sail, which mXos is a skull - cap or fez; the ri&pa besieged the citadel of Memphis. In (TL-qp-qs masculine in Herodotos, a Per- B.C. 455 the Phoenician fleet of Arsian word) was a turban, which the taxerxes destroyed the Athenian ships, king alone wore upright, with white and together with a reinforcement of fifty blue fillets. The Greeks rarely wore triremes, Inaros being taken and cruciany head-covering except the viracros fied. Akhsemenes, the brother of Xerxes, when travelling. is probably the Kyros of the tomb 4 See ii. 63, note 4. at Murghab (see i. 209, note 3). He 6 See Herodotos vii. 7, and Thukyd. had been satrap of Egypt twenty-four i. 104, 109. Inaros, son of Psammetiyears. 234 HEKODOTOS. [BOOK irpoKaKeofievo'; AlyvirT LOVS. oi Be hrelre rrjv vea elBov ia-eXBovo-av e'9 TTJV Mififav, eKyvBevTes aXelf i/c TOV Tei^eo? TTJV Te vea BiecjiOeipav Kal TOV? avBpas Kpeovpyr/Bbv Biao-Trao-avTes i<popeov e'9 TO Tet^;o9. Kal AiyviTTioi ftev fieTa TOVTO iroXiopKeofjuevoi XP°VCP irapeo-T7)o-av, oi Be ^poo-eyel? At/3ve? BelcravTes Ta irepl TTJP AtyvirTov yeyovora irapeBocrav cnpeas CCVTOVS afia^Tl Kal 9 Be Kvpr/valoi Kal BapKaloi BetcravTes o/W&>9 a Kal oi A//3ue9 TOiavTa eiroLrjaav. Ka/tySuo-^9 Be Ta fiev iraph Aifivcov i\66vTa B&pa faXotypovw; eBegaTo- TO. Be irapa. Kvprjvauav airbKopeva peficpdek, 9 ifiol BoKei, on TJV oXiya' eireiityav yap Bt] TrevTaKoalaf fivea? apyvpiov oi K.vprjva2oi,- Tavras Bpacro-ofievos avTO%eipir) Biecnreipe Trj p 14 'Hfiepy Be BeKaTy OLTT ^9 -irapeXafBe TO Tet^;o9 TO iv Me/w^i 9, KaTLcra? 69 TO irpodcrTeiov eirl \vfirj TOV ftacriXea TWV afAfirfviTOV, fiao-CkevcravTa firjvas e!j, TOVTOV AlyvtTTioio'i Bieireipwro avTov T ^ 9 •tyvyri' TOtaBe. o-TelXa? avTov Ttjv dvyaTepa icrdrJTi BovKijirj e^ei 67r' vBcop eyovaav vBprjCov, crvveTrefiire Be Kal a\X«9 TrapOevov; O7ro\e|a9 avBp&v TOJV TrpwTwv, o/iot(»9 eaTaXfieva? TTJ TOV (3acnA.6O9- ft>9 Be [3ofj TB Kal tcXavd^im Traprjiaav ai irapGevoi, irapa TOV9 iraTepas, oi fiev aXkoi TravTe1; aveftocov Te Kal aVTeKKaiov opeovre? TO, TeKva KeKaKco/jueva, 6 Be tya/Afitfvcros irpolBoav Kal padcav eKV^Jre eV Trjv yrjv. irapeXOovaewv Be T£>V iiBpocpopwv, BevTepa oi TOV iralBa eirefiire per aWav AlyvirTLGsv Snx^tXtfflZ/ TTJV avTtjv rjXiKirjv e%ovT(ov, TOU9 T6 avyeva? KaXa> BeBefievovs Kal TCL erTOfiaTa eyKe^aKivwfhevov?' rjyovTO Be iroivryv TicrovTef M.vTi\r)vala>v Toiao ev Mefit aTroXofievoicri o~vv Trj vr\L TCLOTO, yap eBiKacrav oi /3ao~tXi]ioi, BoKacTai, vTrep avBpbs eKacrTov BeKa AlyvrrTiav TWV irpdnTav avTaTroWvadai. 6 Be IBodv Trape^iovTa? Kal paOcbv TOV iralBa rjyeofievov eVt QavaTov, TO)V aXKcov AlyvirTicov TSIV •jrepLKaTrifjbevwv avTov KKaoovTav Kal Beiva iroiebvTCOV, TWVTO iiroLTjcre TO Kal eVt Trj OvyaTpi. irapeXOovTcov Be Kal TOVTWV, o~wf)veiKe &o~Te T&V avfnroTecov oi avBpa airTJXiKecrTepov, eKTreTTTCOKOTa e« TCOV SOVTCOV eyovTa TB ovBev el / i ^ ocra 7TTtB^09 Kal TrpoaaiTeovTa TTJV (TTpaT^v, irapuevai "^afi/i^viTOV re T W 'Ayu,acrto9 Kal TOU9 iv TS> irpoaaTelqi KaTrj/jbivovs AlyviTTiav. 6 Be tyafifirjviTO*; About £2030. Arkesilaos III. was king of Kyren§ ; see iv. 165. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 235 ovofiacrTi TOV eTalpov eirXr/^aTO TTJV KefyaXrjv. f)aav S' dpa aiiTov vfido~as Be 6 K.afMfiv(rir]<> ra iroieofieva, irefi-^a^ dyyeXov elpdiTa avTov Xeya>v TaBe. " BecnroTi)<; ere K.afi/3vcrr)<;, "tyafifiijviTe, elpcoTa oV o TL Br; TTJV fiev 6vfj,ev7]v Kal TOV iralBa €7rl ddvarov cTefyovTa ovTe dve{3a>aa<> ovre d-jreic\av<7a<;, TOV Be "TrTco^ov ovBev o~ol irpoariKovTa, &>9 aXkcvv nrvvOdveTat,, eVZ/i^o-a?." o fiev Br/ irreipcoTa, 6 B' a/j,el/3eT0 TolcriBe. " & iral, JLvpov, TO, fiev ryv fie^a icaica r/ &o~re dvaicXaleiv, TO Be TOV eTalpov irevdos d^wv rjv Ba/cpvcov, o? e'« iroW&v r e Kal evSaifiovcov eiarecraiv e? 7TT&>Xrjlrjv dirlKTai eVt yrfpaos oiBw." Kal TaoTa d><; . . . a,Trevei%devTa viro TOVTOV, ev BoKelv crcf>t, elprjaOai. a>? Be Xejerai 7 vir AlyvTTTicov, BaKpveiv fiev K.poi e V MJVTTTOV), SaKpveiv Be Uepcrewv TOU? irapeovTa£et,v Kal avTov €K TOV irpoaaTeCov dvaarqaavTac; ajeiv Trap' eavrov? TOV fiev 15 Br) TralBa evpov avrov oi fienovTes ovKeTi irepteovTa dXXa TtpG>TOV KaTaKoivevTa, avTov Be ^afifiijviTov dvaaTr/cravTe<; rfjov Trapcu Ka/i/Sucreo. • ev6a TOV Xobirov BiaTaTO e%a>v ovBev (ilaiov. el Be Kal •^iricrTydrj fir) r7roXvTrpr]Qacn Tlepaai, TCOV fiacriXeav TOW ivalBa'i' TCOV, el Kal acfyeav airoaTemai,, 6'yaw? TOICTI ev Be Kal ra Te 'Ivdpco iraiBl ®avvvpa, o? direXafSe TTJV OI 6 iraTtjp el%e fiv, Kal T&> 'AfivpTalov Tlavcrlpi-x Kal yap OVTOS a7reXa/3e 7 9 Tournier (Ecv. de Philologie, 1877) " I f he had known (Ardmi/uu) how would read Kal ravra iis dTrerax^era to refrain from meddling." Cp. vii. virb TOIJTOV e3 doK^eiv 236 HERODOTOS. [BOOK TrjV TOV 7rarpb<; dpyr\v. /calroi 'Ivdpco je Kal 'Afivprauov KCO Hepcras epjduavTO. /ca/ca irXioj 6 tyafifirjviTO*} eXafie TOV fiiadov eVetVe Be eVato-To? ijeveTO direOave irapw^pr\fia. 16 vvv airUTTas jap virh Kafifivaeeo, TOV 'Afidcrios BTJ Kal eiroirjae. oiKua, airUa V&KVV eKcpepetv etjw jap XvfiaivecrOat. iKeKeve /iiv Hepaai jap •udvTa ejeveTo, i-rrevre Be Kal TaoTa debv vo^i^ovcn 0eS ov avTetye elvat BUaiov irokiv, eKafiov OVK oa-ia. TO &V KaTaKaieiv je io~Ti, Ylepcrrjcri, fiev Bi Xeytwre? vefieiv AljvTrTiObcri Be pevo/McrTai, irvp d-qpiov elvat, veicpbv efj,^v^ov, Be ai)TO KaTeaQleiv T « irep hv Xdfir}, irXr^a-Qev Be avTO oi>Bafia><; o-(pi earl TOV VCKVV BiBovai- OVKCDV Qf)pioio~i Kal Bia, Taora %evovcri, %va fir; Keifievo<; inrb evXecov KaTaj3pco6f).& vofii^ofieva AIJVTTTIOI Xejovcri, iveTeXXeTO iroielv 6 Ka/tySvcn??. OVK "Afia iraQdw, r t ? TS)V Ai/yvTTTicov ej^oiv TT)V avTTjv f)XiKlr]v 'Afidcri, fievot TaXka irotiovTe<; (o TB Kal ovBev Bte%eiTo), irvp. elvai ra, 'Afidinos /j,ao-Tijovv ivTeWofievo*; oprj1; crvvaTrodvrjGKeiv T « KaTeaOoofieva. poi&i f3ov\6- i Kal KBVTOVV TB Kal 6 Ka//.j8i!o-^? KaTaKavcrai, "jrep ecprjTai, dvdpa>irovi jap iirbTeXea Toil's veKpovs ovBa/Mm^ iv vo/j,q> ovBeTepoial o TTICOV 2 eK TT)<; Ta<j>fj<; TOV aTTOTiWeiv3 Brj veKpbs are TeTapi^evfievof eKe\evo-i e? %div eireire w? Be TUOTU eK&Xeve Kal r a ? Tpfyas ttdvTa AIJV7TTIOV<; 7jX(O' al/j,a ravpov OVT Kafi/3v oiSafioi Be firj^ave6fievo TLepaab eBoKeov 'Afidat, irv96fievo<; eK fiavTrjiov fieXXovTa jlvecrOai, Xvfiaive ovra cE>? dXXa TC3 Xejovcri 6 "A/iacr/,? TO, -rrepl ewvTov Tapi- ovBeTe- Xv/iawojap a><> dirodavovTa OVTCO Brj aKe6fievo<; TO, iTr<,ep6fj,eva TOV fj,ev avOpanrov TOVTOV TOV /Mao-TijcodevTa dirodavovTa 2 This casts doubt on the story. That bull's blood was poisonous was a common superstition among the ancients. So Midas of Phrygia (Euseb. Chr, ii. p. 324), Themistokles (Arist. Eq. 84), and Smerdis (Ktesias, Pers. Ex. 10), were all said to have died of it. According to Ktesias, Psamme'nitos was carried captive to Susa. 3 Herodotos forgets that an Egyptian king's corpse was entirely shaved ! The story must be of Greek origin. Amasis, moreover, was buried in the temple of Neith, not in the palace. eOayJre eVl TJJ 4 Kambyses, we now know, was not a Zoroastrian. See App. V. 6 The real reason for embalming was the belief in the resurrection of the body, to which the soul would eventually return. Mohammedans have a strong prejudice against cremation, and Christian feeling on the subject goes back to the early centuries, when miracles were supposed to interfere to prevent a martyr from being consumed by fire, though not from being subsequently beheaded or stabbed to death.—Tijv dirty ^XiKiijK below is rather "the same age" in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 237 Ovpycn ivrbs Tt)? easvTov 9rjKr) iraiBl iv / i f ^ w T>J? 0rJKr)<; &>? fidXt,o~Ta delvao. ai fiev vvv i/c TOV 'Afidaiof ivToXal avrac at e? TTJV Tacfitfv re ical TOV avQpanvov eyovaai ov JMOL BoKeovat, dp^rjv yeviadat, aXXcof B' avra AlyvirTIOL aefivovv. Mero. Be rdora 6 K.afi/3vo-7)<; ifiovXevaaTO Tpiao~£a'; arpa- 17 as, eiri r e K.ap^7]Sovlov<; /ecu iirl 'Afi/juovcovi ical eirl TOU? /iaK/30/Stou? AifltWa?, 6 olicijfiivovs Be At/3v?;? eVl rfj voriy 6a\dcra-7]- fiovXevofievw Be oi eBoge iirl (lev K.ap^r]BovLov<; TOV vavTticbv crTpaTov aTrocTTeWetv, iirl Be 'Afificoviov; TOV 7re£ov diroKpivavTa, iiri Be TOV<S AlOloira<; /caTO7TTa? itpStrov, b Te T7)v iv TovroLari Tolcn Aldio^ri Xeyofievtjv eivai rfXiov p el e<;, ical irpo<; TavT?) TO, aXXa KaTO~^ro^ievov<;, Bcopa Be ra X07&) (pepovTw; TU> /SaatXei avT&v. 17 Be Tpdire^a TOV rfkiov TOirjBe TIS XeyeTai elvai. - Xeificbv eo~TL iv TO3 irpoa<jTel&a>v TrdvTwv T&V TeTpairoBwv 6? TOV T « ? /lev vvKTaV dcrTwv, Ta? Be f]fi,epa? eBofje Tre/nreiv TOV<; avTiica /j,eTe7refi7reT0 i£ 'EXetyavTivrj1; 7roXto? TSJV dvBpcov TOV$ iiuo-TafJievovs TTJV Al0w7rlBa o~o~av.s iv q> Be TOVTOVS (leTtjiaav, iv TOVTW i/ceXeve eVt TTJV irXeiv TOV vavTixbv crrpaTov. OotVt/ce? Be OVK eaaav TaoTa1 opKioiat, yap /AeydXoicrt, evBeBeadai, ical OVK av oo-ia iirl TOVS 7ratSa? TOW? ewvTcbv (TTpaTevofievoi. Be ov /HovXofJuevdov ol Xonrol OVK d^io^ayoi iyovovTO.9 than '' the same height," as Hesykhios makes it. 6 The long-lived Ethiopians, placed by Ephoros in the extremity of the south, probably belonged to mythical geography. The Southern Sea was the sea supposed to wash the southern coast of Africa along the line of the equator. 7 Pausanias (vi. 26, p. 518) very justly regards the table of the sun as a myth. Heeren ingeniously suggests that the legend arose out of the practice of dumb trading. But dumb trade is not carried on with cooked meats. Coinp. II. i. 423, xxiii. 205 ; Od. i. 22. After the toils iroielv of the day the sun sank at night behind .the ocean on whose shores the Ethiopians dwelt, to enjoy there with the other gods the offerings made to him. 8 The Ichthyophagi were placed by Eratosthenes and Artemiddros (Strab. xvi. p. 1093) at the entrance of the Eed Sea, near Cape Dire (now Ras el-Bir). Herodotos must mean that some of them happened to be living in Elephantine1, or that they first entered Egypt at Elephantine, and were thence fetched to the court. 9 Carthage or "new-town " (see i. 166, note 5) was founded by the Tyrians 238 HERODOTOS. BOVIOI fiev vvv [BOOK OVTCO BOVXOCTVVTJV Bdcpvyov TT/SO? Hepcrecov Ka/x.- /3vo-7]<; jap /3lr)v OVK iSucalov ivpoafyepeiv ^oivi^i, on a$ea<; re avTovs iBeBdiKeaav Heparjai, Kal 7ra? e'/c QoivUcov r)pTi)TO 6 vavTiKO? o-Tparo'i. BovTei Be Kal Kinrpiot, acpeas avTOix; HepayaL 20 ea-TparevovTo e V MyvrrTOV. iireire Be TU> Kafiftvo-y IK T??? 'E\e<£azmV>7? airUovTO ol 'I%0uo$ayo6, eirefnre avToii<; e's TOV? Aldioira'i ivTeiXafievo? ra Xejeiv %prjv Kal B&pa cfrepovras iropKal yfreXta <j)vpe6v re elfia Kal ypvo~eov crTp^irrbv irepiav^eviov Kal fivpov aKajSaaTpov Kal (poiviKTjlov o'ivov K&BOV. OI Be AWlo-ires ovroi, e? rovs aireirefiire 6 Ka/iySvcrj??, Xeyovrai elvau Kal KOXXICTTOL avOputirav TT&VTCOV? VO/AOHTI Be Kal %paacn Ke^coptaf^evoiai TCOV aWmv av6pa>7rcov Kal BTJ Kal Kara, TT]V ^aaCKrjirjv roiSBe. TOP av TS)V ao~T(0)v Kpivacri, fie TOVTOV a^iovai fiaatkeveiv. e? TOVTOV? Brj &v TOVS avBpa<sft>?CUTIKOVTO oi 'l^dvo<j>dyoi, BiSovTes TO, B&pa TS ftaaiket, avTcbv eXeyov rdBe. " /3acrtXev<; 6 Hepcretov K<x/iySi/cr^9, /3ov\6fjuevo1; xal £eZvo<; TOO m.] AWioirav T H E PERSIAN EMPIRE. 239 o-VfifiovXevei, ra Hepaewv ftacrtXei, eireav OVTCO ev7reTeco? eX/cwcrt, Ta ro^a TLepaai iovra fieyddet ToaavTa, TOTE e V Toil? /ia«/3o/3t'ov? ifKrjOei virepftaXXopevov crTpaTevecrdai- Be TOVTOV Qeolcrt elBevau %dpiv, 01 ov/c irrl voov Tpdirovai, ircov iraicrl irpoaKTaadao rfj ecovTcov." etVa? Kal avels TO TO^OV -irapeBatce Tolcn r\Kovcri. el/Ma TO iroptyvpeov eipaiTa o lyjp Al6c6- rdora Xafiatv Be 22 Be TO TO elrj Kal o«a>9 elnrovTCdv Be TWV 'I%dvo(f)dv TTJV aXrjOei^v Trepl $p Kal T>79 /3a^)i}?, Bo\epov<; fiev TOV<; avdpocnrowi k'fyr) elvac, SoXepa Be avTOiv TO, e'ijxaTa. Bevrepa Be TOV yjtvaov elpana TOV (TTpeirTOV TOV "Trepiav^iviov Kal Ta ^rekia' e^yeofievcov Be T&V 'I%6VO(f>dja>p TOV Koafjiov avTov ^eXacra? o jSacriXev? Kal vo/u,iaaea 7reS<x? elire co? Trap' eavrolcri elcrl pcofiaXecoTepao TOVTeasv TreBai. TpiTOV Be elpa>Ta TO fivpov elirovTcov Be T?}? Trotrj<Tio<; irepu Kal aXeA/rtos, TOV avTov Xoyov TOV Kal irepl TOV et/iaTO? el-ire. a>? Be e? TOV olvov dirUeTO Kal eirvdeTO avTov TTJV iroit](jLv, inrep7)o~del<> TG> irofiaTL eirelpeTO 6 TU Te aiTeiTac, 6 /3ao~iXevs Kau yjyovov OKOGOV fiaKpoTaTov avrjp Uepcrr)? £a>et,. ol Be aiTeiadai fiev TOV apTov etirov, e^7]vai,v, 6KovTa Be eVea £o?;5 TrXrjpcofia dvBpl fiaKpOTaTov irpoKelcrdat. 7rpo? TaoTa 6 A.lOoo'fr ecj)7] ovBev Oavfid^eiv el a-iTeofievoi Koirpov eVea oXlja ^coovai- ovBe yap av ToaavTa Bvvaadab £a>eiv a(f>ea<;, el fir/ TM wofiaTt, dvecpepov, cfrpdfov Tolau 'I^Ovoipdyoiai TOV olvov TOVTW yap ewvTovs viro Tlepcrecov e dvTeipo/j,evcov Be TOV fiacriXea TS>V 'I%6vodya>v TTJ<; 23 ^orjs Kal BialTT]Ta>v dfriKvelcrQai, inrepfidXXeiv Be Tivas Kal Taora, aiTrjatv Be elvav Kpea \re\ ei r/yrfGacrdac, dir •>?? Xovofievou XnrapcoTepoi eyivovTO, KaTa irep el eXaiov eLt)- ogecv be air avTrjs cos ei icov. acroeve waters of life " bubbled up in the underworld. Cp. Zech. xiv. 8 ; Rev. xxii. i. The arsenic springs of Transylvania produce a smooth skin and clear complexion, European folk-lore knows of a fountain of life guarded by dragons from which the hero has to fetch water for the princess he would make his bride. 240 HEEODOTOS. [BOOK oa-a %v\ov io-rl i\a<j>poTepa, aXXa iravra o-fpea %(opeiv e? fivo-o~bv. TO Be vBasp TOVTO el' o-$b e'crrt aXr/Oeoai oXov TI XeyeTat, Bia, TOVTO av elev, TOVTO> TO, irdvTa ^pecofievoc, paicpofiioi. astro Trjs Kprjvr]? Be aTraWaaaofiivcov, dyayeiv atfreas e? BeaficoTfjpiov avBp&V, ev6a Toil's -iravTas iv ireBr)o-t •^pvcre'rjcri BeBecrdai. e&TC Be iv TOVTOIO~I Total AWioyfri irdvTtov 6 ^aX/cbs cnravMOTaTOV /cat TifiuoTaTOV.6 derjcrd/Jievoi, Be Kal TO Seo-ficoTijpiov, idetjcravTO 24 Kal Tt]v TOV rfktov Xeyofievr/v Tpaire^av. fieTa, Be TUVTTJV T6Xeurata? ederjcravTO Ta? Orjicas avT&v, at XeyovTat, o-Kevd^eaOai e'f vekov Tpoivw Toi&Be. iireav TOV venpov lo-^vqvaxrt,, e'lre BTJ /card irep Al^virTiot elVe a X k ; yea)?, y}ra>o~avTefj Koa-fieovai, igofioieovTes TO elSo? e? TO BvvaTov, eiretTa Be ol •jrepiLGTaai arrfX/rji/ it; vekov ireiroi^fievrjv KOIXTJV TJ Be o~t 7roWr) Kal eiepybs opvcro-eTai.7 iv fJ&o-r] Be Ty aTrjXr] ivecov Bi,aavepa ofjuoiw; avT& TOO vi/cvl.8 iviavTov /Jiev Brj ej(ovo~<, TTJV o~Trj\r}v iv TOZGI OIKIOLGI ol IJfdXicrTa ivpoo"l]KOVTe'i, irdvTwv dirapj(ofi,evoi Kal Ovaia<; ol irpocrdycwTe?* fieTa, Be TUOTU iKKOf^lcravTe^ larTatri irepl TtjV iroXuv. 25 ©erjffdfievoi Be T « ivdvTa ol KaTaaKoirob diraWda'o'OVTO biriaw. diraryyeikdvTwv Be TaoTa TOVTCOV, avTiKa 6 T£-a/j,/3vo-7]? opyrjv Troirjcrdfievos icrTpaTeveTo iirl TOV; AWloTra^, OVTB irapaa-KevrjV CTITOV ovBepiav irapa>y? YJKOVB T&V 'I%dvodya>v, ia '^iXXrjvwv /lev TOU? irapeovTas avTOV Ta£a? virofieveiv, TOV Be ire^bv irdvTa a/j,a dyopevos. eVetVe Be ? irevTe fivpidBas, Kal TOVTOLCTI /juev iveTeWeTO 'A/AfiavLov; i£avBpaTro8icra[ievov<; TO XPVo~Tr)piov TO TOV Aio? ifvirpfjacu, avTo1; Be TOV \onrbv aya>v crpaTov y)ie iirl TOU? A.l6ioTra<>. irplv Be Trj<> oBov TO irefiiTTOv BieXrjXvdevai TTJV crTpaTirfv, avTiKa irdvTa avToi)<; TO, O~I/TC(OV i^pfieva iireXeXoiirei,, fieTa, Be TO, aiTia Kal r a v i r y eVeXwre KaTecrdio/jLeva. el fiev vvv paOwv TaoTa 6 Ka/i/3uo"7/9 6 Copper mineg exist not only in the eastern desert of Egypt, between lat. 24° and 33°, but also in the upper part of the White Nile. 7 Of course no block of crystal dug out of the earth could have been large enough for a sarcophagus. 8 "And all is as visible as the bare corpse itself." For Qavepb, cp. 8, note 7. 9 See ii. 32, note 4. The army of Kambyses is made to take the longer road from Thebes to the oasis of Sivah instead of the usual one from Memphis. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 241 ^ Kal airrjje 6mo~a> TOV crrparov, eirl 777 apxf yevofj,evrj dfiaprdSi, r^v av dvrjp O9' vvv Be ovBeva \6yov ievos r/te alel e? TO irpoaw. ol Be aTpaTiStrai eats fiiv TI e/e T»)? yeas Xaftfidvew, iroi7j^>ayeovTe<; Biefaov, em-el Be €? rjv yfrdfifiov diriKovro, Beivbv epyov avr&v rive? ipydcravTO- etc Se/cd8o<; yap eva crea>v aiir&v aTroicXripdxravTes Kare^ayov. irv8ofievoayiT)v, a7rei9 rbv eif Aldio-ira<; crroXov h-Trlcra ivopeverq /ecu aTriKvelrae 6? ®i]/3a<; iroWovs a.7roXeo"a? TOV (rrparov' e« ©^/Sewv Be Kara/3a<; e? M.efi<j)iv TOU? "EXX^i'a? dirrj/ce diroirXelv.1 CTTOXOS OVTCO eirprj^e' ol 8 avrwv 6 fiev eir' AWio-ira? 26 e V 'A/JL/UOPIOXJ? diro a-TparevecrOai, eiretre opfirjOevTei 4K T&V ®ijfiewv eiropevovro exovTes dycoyovf, d-rriKOfievot, pep fyavepoi eUri 69 "Oaaiv iroXiv,1 rr)v e^overi /xev Aa/iiot rrj<; Klcr/^pi(ovl,ri<; (fiv\fj<; s Xeyofievoi elvai, direypv(Ti Be eiTTa ryiepewv 6Bbv dirb ®r)f$epov \eyerai dirkiceoQai TOV crrparov, TO evOevrev Be, on firj avrol 'AfifMovioi Kal ol TOVTCOV d/covo-avTe<>, aXKoi ovBeve<> ovBev e%ovcri eltrelv irepX avrwv yap 69 TOU9 'A./J,/U.(OVIOV<} dirixovTo oiire OTricrco evo<7Ti) ovre Xeyerac Be Kal rdBe inr" avT&v 'Afificovlcov. eTretBrj eV T^9 'Odo-coi Tavlivai Bia, T^9 i^dfifLov eVi crfyeas, yevecrOai re avT0V9 1 Yet, according to ch. 97, Kambysgs oasis south-west of the first; (3) Uit reduced at this time the Ethiopians far mehit, " t h e Northern Oasis" (now elto the south of Meroe (Napata), to which, TJah el-Bahharieh); (4) Ta-n-ah, " t h e according to Josephos [Ant. ii. 10), he land of the cow " (now the oasis of Faragave a name. At Persepolis the negroes freh); (5) Kenem (now Ghanaim, the of this region figure among the nations oasis of Khargeh, " t h e o u t e r " ) ; (6) subject to Persia, and Premnis in Nubia Testes (now Dakhel, " t h e inner," west is called the Market or Magazine of of the preceding); (7) Sokhet-am, " t h e Kambys&s by Pliny and Ptolemy. Kam- field of date-palms " (now Sivah, where bys§s, therefore, really established his the temple of Zeus Ammon stood). In empire further south than even Thothmes all Amun was worshipped (Brugsch). 3 III., and returned to Memphis a successHerodotos must have made a misful conqueror. take in the name he gives. Maritime 2 This must be the Southern and Greater Oasis of El-Ehargeh, from 6 to 7^ days from Thebes. There are remains of a temple built here by Darius in the little town called Hib or "plough " by the Egyptians. According to the Egyptian texts there were seven oases : (1) Du-hesmen, " the natron mountains," west of Lower Egypt; (2) Uit, a small E Samians could not have settled in the middle of the desert, 400 miles from the sea. iEskhrion is. the name of an iambic-writer in a Samian inscription of the fourth century B.c. The name has also been found by Sayce in a Greek graffito in one of the tombs of Tel el-Amarna. 4 A name subsequently applied to the Canary Islands. 242 HERODOTOS. [BOOK KOV (idXiara avT&v re icaX TJJ? 'Oatrto?, apiGTOV aipeo/ievoicrt avrolai iimrvevo-ai VOTOV fieyav re KQI igaiaiov, opeovra Be 6lva<; Trj*} •tyafLHOv KaTaypxrai crt^ea?, icai rpoTrw TOiovra d<paviaQrjvai. 'Afificovioi pep OVTCO Xeyovai yevecrdai irepl TTJI (TTparirj<; TavTrjs. 27 'Airty/j,evov Be Kafij3vdvr) AlyvrrTioiav 6 'ATT*?, TOT "EW^i/e? "E7raia<; icaTaSogas eavrov «a«w? •Kprj^avro's •yapfioavva rdora iroielv, iicdXet, rovs i7riTpoirovi Tfjs Me/A^>toy, aTriKOfievovi Be e? o-tyiv e'ipeTO 6 n irpbtepov fiev iovros avrov iv M.e/ii, evoieov TOLOVTOV ovBev Alyvirrioi, Tore Be eVet a u r o ? irapelt] rrji crrpaTirji; ir\r)66? e7rtaivecr0ai, ical <»? eireav avrj Tore Trainee AlyvTmoi /ce^apr/KOTe'i oprd^oiev. TaoTa a,KOvcra<; 6 K.a/i/3vcrr)<; eea<; leal ft>? tfrevSo28 fievovP lepecov, ov e<pr) avTov el deos Tt? xeiporfOrj'i dirty/ievo? eirj AlyvirToaavTa Be elVa? dirdyeiv i/ceXeve TOV ^AITIV TOW? lepeas. ol /lev Brj fiertfia-av a^o^re?. o Se ' A i r t ? OUTO? O "E7ra^>09 ovpavov KWrlcryeuv, icai fill) eic TOVTOV TIKTCCV TOV *ATTIV. ey,et Be 6 fioo-fto? OUTO? d 9ATrt? KaXeo/ievof a-rjfiijia ToidSe ia>v fjieXa<;, eirl fiev T
v viro/MpyoTepos, (nracrdfievos TO ey^eipCBiov, OeXav Ttnjrai TTJV yao~Tepa TOV "ATTIO1; iraiei TOV fitjpov yeXdo~a<> Be elire irpbi TOII? iepeas " & KaicaX icefyaXal,, TOIOVTOI deol ylvovrac, evai/ioi Te icai crapicd>Bet<; icai eiratovTe'i criBrjpiwv; agios fiev ye AlyvTrTuov OVTO? ye 6 6e6<s. wrap TOI u/iet? 76 ov %alpovTe<; yeXcoTa ifie drjv aXXav TOV av Xdfiacn opTatyvTa KTeiveiv. opTY] pev Br) BteXeXvTO AlyvirTtoio-i, oi Be iepets iBincuevvTO, 6 Be 'A7rt? ireirXt]yfievo HI.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 243 XdOpy K.an/3v? Xeyovai Alyvirriot,, avrUa Bia TOVTO TO aBiKrj/jM ifiavt), io>v ovBe irporepov (frpevrfpr)1;.5 ical irp&Tct, fiev [TCOV ica/cwv] e^epydo-aTO TOV dSe\ebv 'Z/j.epBip6 copra 7raT/5o? KOI firiTpbi rfj66pq> eg AlyinrTov, OTI TO T6%OV fiovvo1; TLepa-eav ocrop TB STTI Svo BaKTiiXovi eipvcre, TO irapa TOV AIOLOITOS rfveiKav oi 'l^jdvodyof 7 TWV Be aXXoov Hepcriav oiheh olo? T€ eyiveTo. diroL^ofievov &v e? Hepca'; TOV ^pepSio? otyw elBe o K.afi/3vcri]<; iv T<5 VTTVG) ToitfvSe. iSoKel oi ayyekov i\06vTa i/c Tlepcriav dyyeWeiv w? iv TO3 6pova> TO) /3acri\.7)i
cecf>a\r} TOV ovpavov yjravaeie. 7T/9O? 3>v TaoTa Set'cra? "7repl emvTov firj fiiv dirotcTeivas o dBe\eo<; apyjg, irefiirei UprjgdaTrea e? Ti.ep(7a<s, 09 fiv oi dvrjp Tlepo~etov iriaTOTaTO';, diroKTeveovTa fiuv. 0 Be dva/3ciorepo)P dBeX^erj. eyrj/ie Be avTrjp a>Se' ovBa/J,a>$ yap ewQeaav irporepop Trjai dBe\$>efjcn P dBe\e£>p Ko/t/Swi)?, teal eireiTa /3ov\o/j,evo<; avTrjp yr/fiai, OTI OVK BCOOOTU eirevoei iroirj(reip, elpeTO /caXecra? TOVS j3a 7 The introduction of the bow shows that we are dealing with a myth. According to the Behistun inscription, Bardes was put to death before the campaign against Egypt. 8 Susa (Shushan, native name Susun) was the capital of Anzan or Susiana, the original kingdom of Eyros (see App. V.), and therefore naturally remained the capital of the empire he created. The dream and the fact that the murder of Bardes did not take place when Kambyses was in Egypt, make the mission of Prexaspe's very doubtful. The account of Ktesias is wholly different. 9 i.e. the Persian Gulf. 1 The "royal judges," though mentioned more than once by Herodotos 244 HERODOTOS. [BOOK j] i irapevpeBfj n dBiKov, pe^pL TOVTOV ovrot Be rolai Uepa-go-i BUdf BiKa^ovo-i Kal igtjyijTal r&v nrarptav Qecrfiav yivovTai, Kal irdvra e? TOUTOV? dvaKelrai. elpofievov a\ea, <j)d/j,evoi vofiov ovBeva e^evpicricetv o? tceKevei aBeXcfref} o~vvoi/celv aBe\(f>e6v, dXKov fievToi e^evprjKevai, vofiov, T& /3ao~i\,evovTi OVTM ovTts TOV vopov Jlepo-ecov iljeivai, iroielv TO av /SovXrjTai,. ekvcrav Belo-avTes K.a[if3vo-ea, "va T€ /j-rj avToX airdXeovTai TOV vofiov Trepio-T&WovTe*;, irape^evpov aKXov vofiov avfi^aypv TW BiXovTi ya/xelv a S e \ 0 e a ? . r o r e pev Br/ 6 Ka/t^viri)? eyy/ie TTJV ipafievrjV,2 jieTci'fievToc ov TroWbv.'Xpovov ecr%e aWrjv a8e\(f>etfv. TOVT&tov BrfTa TT)V vewTeprjv £irio~firoiLeV7)v ol iir' AHyvinov KTeLvei. 32 dfi<j>l Be TS Oavarw avT^ hi>%ofievov, TVJV Be •7rap/r]fj,evrjV BaKpveuv. Ka/i/3vcrea Be \iaQbvTa TOVTO eireipecOai, Bu 6 TI Baiepvei, TrjV Be elirelv « ? IBovo-a TOV o-KvkaKa TW dBe\eq> TifiaprjcravTa Baicpvcreie, fivf]adeicrd Te "ZfiepBioi Kal fiadova-a to? eKelvtp OVK eXi) 6 Tifuoprjaav. "EXXiyve? fiev Brj Bia TOVTO TO eVo? <pao~l aitrjv diroXeardai virb Ka/i/3ucrecB, AlyvirTioi Be w? Tpaire^rj m"apaKaTr)fj,eveov XafiovGav dpiBaKa TTJV yvvaiKa nrepiTTXat Kal etraveipeo-6ai TOV dvBpa KOTepov ireptTeTiKfievT) r\ QplBa% r) Baarea etnj KaWiav, Kal TOV <j>dvai Baaeav, Tt]v B' elirelv " ravT-tjv fievTOi KOTe av Tr\v dpiBaKa ifiifjurja'ao, TOV TLvpov OIKOV d/rroi/rtXcocra?." TOV Be dvficodevTa efnrrjBTJo-at avTJj i^ovcrrj iv yaaTpl, Kai fitv eKTpcocracrav diroOavelv. 33 TdoTa fiev e'5 TOU? OIKV)LOV<; O Ka/i/Svo-?;? i^efidvij, elVe Brj Bid TOV ''ATTIV elVe Kal dWcos, ola 7roWd eco6e dvOpwirov; KaKci, KaTaXafi/3dveiv Kal yap Tiva e/c yever]<; vovo~ov fieyaX/qv \iyeTat, e%eiv o Ka/i/3i5 above), are not They seem to Persia Proper, circuit once a 2 Atossa, afterwards the wife of the pseudo - Smerdis and Darius Hystaspis, and the mother of Xerxes, 3 Epilepsy. in.] THE PEKSIAN EMPIRE. 245 p£va<; vycalveiv. TaBe §' e? T O W aXXov? Tlepcra<; ifjefidvi]. 34 XeyeTat yap elirelv aiirov irpof Tiprj^dcnrea, Toy erifia T€ fidXio~Ta KaC ol Tat; dyyeXlas; i6pei OVTOS, TOVTOV Te 6 Trat? olvo%6o<; r)v TS Kafifivcr/, Tifirj he Kal avrrj ov o~fiikpr)' elirelv Be XeyeTai TaBe. " Uprj^acnres, KOIOV fie Tiva vofiiCflvai, Hepcrai elvai avBpa TtVa?, r e X07011? irepl i/ieo iroieovTai ;" TOV Bk ehrelv " & BecnroTa, TO fiev aXXa nrdvTa /j,e<; iiraiveai, TJJ Be i\oivir) o~e <$>aa\ irKeova)1; irpocriceiaOai,." TOV /xev Br) . Xeyeiv TCLOTCL irepl TLepo-ewv, TOV Be dvfuodevTa TOidBe afieifteo-Oai. " vvv apa fie ao-l Hipo-at o'ivw Trpoaicelfievov wapatppoveiv Kal OVK elvai vor/fiova' ovB' apa o~(f)ea>v ol irpoTepoi \6yot rjcrav aKrj6et<;" irpoTepov jap Brj apa Tlepaecov ol avveBpcnv iovTcov Kal TLpoiaov e'lpeTO Kafi/3vo-7]<; K0I05 r t ? BoKeoi dvrjp elvai Trpo? TOV -jraTepa TeXeuai K.vpov,i ol Be dfielftovTO eo? eirj dfxeivu>v TOV Trar/so?1 TO. Te , K|00t«70? Be ivapewv Te Kal OVK dpeaKOfievos Trj Kpiaei, elire 77-/309 TOV K.afij3vo-ea TaBe. " ifiol fiev vvv, & iral Kvpou, ov So«et? ofioio<> elvai, TS iraTpi' ov yap KO) TOO iarl vlo<> olov Tol XeyovTes TaoTa irapa^poveova-f el fiev yap TOV hracBb<; TOV aov TOvBe eo"T6WT09 ev Toicrt irpoQvpoicn /3aXa>v TV^OI/J.I fieo~7)<> Tr)<; KapBlrjs, Hepaai aveovTai XeyovTe<; ovBev i)v Be dfidpTW, (f>dvai Uepaas re Xeyeiv dXnjdea Kal fie fir) povelv" TaoTa Be elnrovTa Kal BiaTelvavTa TO Togov fiaXecv TOV iralBa, 7recrwTO9 Be TOV 7ratSo9 dvaa^l^eiv avTov KeXevecv Kal GKetyao-Qai To fSXfjfia' C09 Be ev T§ KapBlrj evpe6r)vai eveovTa TOP O'CGTOV, elirelv irpot; TOV iraTepa TOV 7ratSo9 yeXdaavTa Kal irepij(apea yevofievov " Uprj^aaire1;, &)9 fiev eycoye ov fiaivofiai Tiepaau Te Trapapoveovcrt,, BijXd TOI yeyove. vvv Be jiot elire, Tiva elBe<; rjBr) irdvTuiv dvOpcoTrcov OVTCOS ewiaKO'jva To^evovTa;" Hpr}f;do~Trea Be opeovTa avBpa oil fypevrjpea Kal irepl ecovTW BeifiaivovTa elirelv " BeairoTa, oi)B' av avTov eywye BoKeco TOV Oebv OVTCO av «aX&)9 fSaXelv." TOT6 fiev TaoTa e^epydaaTo, eTepadi Be Hepcrewv 4 " To compare with his fatter," from the use of re\eiv els in the sense of ' ' reckoning among." But the expres- sion has no parallel, and several MSS. read raX^rai. Stein conjectures eijcdirai. 246 HERODOTOS, [BOOK ofiolovs Tolo-i irpdroio-i SvwSeica e V oiBefiiy alriy af-i6%pe
a\r)v Karcopv^e. 36 Tdora Be flip iroikovra i$i,icaiu, tcreCveis Be TratSa?. i)p Be iroXXa roiavra irot,fj<;, b'pa o«w? fir) creo airao-rr)aoPTai ILepo-cu. ifiol Be irwrrfp ao ayaffov." 6 fiep Brj evpoirjp (f>alva>v crvpefSovXeve ol rdora- o B' dfieifSero TolcriBe. " cri) ical iftol ToX/ta? keo~a<; Trj<; o~ea>vTOV iraTpiBot /ca/cw? irpoa-rdi;, dirb Be wXecra? Kvpop -rreiOofievop aoL a U ' OVTC yaipoav, eVet roi Kal irdXac e? cr^ irpo<\)dcn6<; reo iBeofir/p eiri\af3eo~dai." rdora Be ewra? i\.dfij3ape TO TO^OV a>? Kararo^eio'cov avrov. Kysotcro? Be avaBpaficop eOei egm. 6 Be eireire Togevcrai OVK et^e, evereiKaro Tolcri Oepdirovai Xa/SovTa? flip diroKTelpai. oi Be depdirovTe? eirio-Tdfievoi TOP rpoirov aviov KwraKpinrTovo-t TOP lK.po2 &o~re, el fiev fieTa/jt,e\i]o~r) T«3 K.afi/3vo-r} Kal eiri^rjTrj TOV TLpola-op, oi Be eK§7)vaPTepa ~Kdfi"AfovTaL ^codypia Kpot'crou, rjv Be fir) fieTafie\r)rai fir/Be iroOfj fup, rore Kara^paaOai. eiroQr)ae Te Br) 6 T£.afi/3v fiev r) irepieopTi, e/cetVou? fiePTOi TOV? Treptsrrovr) Me/j^t Kal 0^Ka<; Te 7ra\aia<; dvoiyav Kal o-KeTTTOfiepos Tow? veKpoi'i. w? Be Br) xal e? TOW 'Hcjialo-Tov TO iepbp r)\6e Kal iroXka TW dydXfiaTi Kareyekaffe. ecm yap TOV 'Hi,crTov rcoydXfia TOIO~I QoiviKrjloMTi, TLaratKoicri ifiepeo~TaTop, oi ®oipiice<} ev rfjert, •wpwprjo-i, ran rpirjpecov irepidyovo-i.5 6 The Patseki seem to have the same nameasPtah,"theopener,"i.e."creator," from Egyptian ptah, Phceniko-Hebrew pathakh, " t o open." Ptah-Sekari is represented on later monuments as a deformed pygmy, the type being a foetal in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 247 05 Se TOUTOU? fir) o-rrcoiTe, eycb Be arrj/jbavea)' irvyfiaiov dvBpbi} nifiriGvi ia-Tt. eo-f}Xde Be ical e? T&V K.aftelpa>v TO lepov, e? TO oil OepiTOV ecTTi eaievai, aXXov ye r) TOV iepea- TOOTO, Be TO, dydXfiaTa ical eveirprjce TroXXa, KaTao~icd>y{ra$. eo~Ti Be ical TaoTa Ofioia TOICTI TOV 'Hfalo-TOV TOVTOV Be en^ea? iratSa? Xeyovat elvai.7 iravTayrj 3>v fioi BrjXd ecrrt OTI Ifidvr) /jLeydXcof 38 o Ka/iySuo-');? • ov yap av iepolo-C r e ical vofiaioiai KaTayeXdv. el ydp Tts irpodelrj Tract dvdpanroicn KeXevcov vofiov} TOW /caXXlaTovs e« TWV irdvTcov vofiwv, fievoi av eXoiaTO eicacrTOL TOV<S eoavT&v OVTCO vofii^ovcn iroXXov Tt KaXXi TOU? VO/JLOVS TrdvTe? avdpairoi, TroXXolcri Te ical aXXoicri Teic/ir/pooio-i irdpecrTi o-TaOfiwcracrdai, iv Be Br) ical TwBe. Aapeios STTI TT)? ecovTov dp%i}<; icaXeo-a<; 'EXXrfvwv Toil? 7rapeovTa<; elpeTO iirl icocrai av %pijfjMTi ySouXoiaTO TOU? iraTepas diro9vrjo-KovTa<; KaTaaiTelcrdaf oi Be e V ovBevl eao-av epBeiv av TOVTO. Aapeto<; Be fieTa, TaoTa /caXecra? 'lvBcbv TOW KaXeofievov? KaXXarta?, 8 ot TOIIS yoveas icaTecrOiovcn, elpeTO, irape6vT fieya eiKprj/xelv fitv eiceXevov. OVTCO [lev vvv TaoTa vevo\M eTronyaavTO ical 39 where the practice of eating their parents on the part of the Kalantians is referred to. The same custom was ascribed to the Massagetse (i. 216, note 9) and the Issedonians (iv. 26), and by Strabo (xi. pp. 756, 753) to the Derbikes and a tribe on the Caspian. Marco Polo found the same custom in Sumatra. 9 The fragment was, according to Plato (Gorg. 484 B),— v6pos, 6 irAvrwi /3aci\ei)s 0VO.T&V r e KOX 6.6a.vi.ruv, &yei diKaiQv T6 fjicutn-arov iTreprdrq. %epL • reKfialpo/iat tpyoiaiv 'Hpa/cX^os, eirel [Tijpv6i>a /3<5as 'KvKXawlay iirl irpo8ijpwi> Wipva64os di-amJTas re /cai airpidras ij\a 248 HERODOTOS. [BOOK AaKeBaifiovioi avTLKa TOV HoXvKpaTeo? r a irprfyfiaTa rjv^eTO Kal fy fieftotfiepa avd Te TTJP 'Impels Kal TT]P aWrjp ' E W a & z * OKOV •yap ivvaeie yap <j>i\a> etprj ^apieicrOai fiaXXop diroBiBoi)<; TO, e\a/3e rj dp^p firjBe \a{id>p. crv^i'a? pev BTJ TS)P VTJGCOP dpaipr\Kei, 7roXXa Be Kal Trf: t)Treipov aurea' ip Be Br) Kal Ae9 irapa-TpaTty ^o7]0eoPTat MtX^crtotcrt pavfia^y KpaTripop irepl TO Tel-^p? TO ep ~Zdfiq> rrdo-ap "40 BeBefiepot, wpvljap. Kai /cw? TOP "AfiaaiP eiiTV^emv fieydkco*; 6 HoXvKpaT'r)1; OVK i\dp0ape, dWd ol TOVT T\P evrt/ieXe?. 7roXX&> Be eTi -irXeopos ol evTv^it}^ yipo/j,ep7)Be Xeyet. r/Bv fiep iTVpddpeo-dai dpBpa i\op Kal Ijeipop ev irprjcraoPTa' ifiol Be al cral peydXai evTV)(iat OVK dpecrKovcri, TO Oelop e7no~Ta/j,epq> a>? eo~Ti 6opepopm 2 Kai «w? fiovkofiai Kal avTO<; Kal TWP OLP KrjBatfiai TO flip TI evTV%elp TWV TrprjyfidTcop TO Be irpoaiTTalebP, Kal OVTCO B trprjO'crwp r\ evTV^eiv Ta irdpra. 1 See ch. 120. Syloson, the brother of Polykrates, must be distinguished from another Sylos6n, the chief of the Megarian prisoners from the Propontis, at whose instigation a democratic revolution had broken out on board the Samian fleet, resulting in the overthrow of the oligarchy and the establishment of a tyranny. The power of Polykrates rested on his mercenaries, his. fleet, and the revenues he obtained through it. He was a patron of art and literature, established a public library, and entertained the poets Ibykos and Anakreon, and the physician Demokedes (see ch. 131). He acclimatised foreign plants and animals in Samos—the Attic and Milesian breeds of sheep, the Skyrian and Naxian goats, the Sicilian swine, and the Molossian and Lakonian dogs. The palace and fortresses, the breakwater, the temple of Here, and the aqueduct tunnelled through a mountain, seem all to have been his works ; see ch. 60. His rule was semi-Asiatic ; hence his imitation of Assyrian, Phoenician, and Egyptian libraries, and his introduction of foreign plants and animals, like Thothmes III. of Egypt, and Tiglath - Pileser I. of Assyria. Eusebios makes his tyranny begin B.C. 532. 2 This is the sentiment of Herodotos, not of Amasis ; see i. 32, note 2. The story is characteristic of Greek, not of Egyptian, thought. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 249 ovBeva yap KCO Xoya> olB.a d,KOiio~a<; OO~TI<> e? TeXo? ov icaiccos eTe\evTr) &v vvv ijiol ireiOofievo? trolr\o-ov irpb'i Tas evTvyla<; ToidBe. povTicra<; TO av evprjt; iov TOI 7rXeio-TOV ai;iov Kal i-ir' OVTW OATG)? (j,r)KeTi rj£et TO)7TO TOVTOV 6? dv8p(iyirov<}' TJV re p/q ivaWal; rjSi? ai evTV%tat, TOI rfjcn irdOrjcri irpoa-iriirTaxTi^ rpoTra r& el; ifiio viroKeifievtp aicio" rdora eTriXegdfievo? 6 HoKvicpdrr}? Kal VOW 41 \aficbv w? ol eS virerLOero "A/Ltacrt?, iBi^rjTO eir «S av TT]V yfrv%r)V aa-7]deir] dtroXofiiva) r&v KeifirfKlcov, evpio-ice roSe. r\v ol cr(f>pr]yl<; TTJV e6pei %pvo-oBero<;, a/iapdyBov 5 fiev XlOov iovaa* epyov he rjv ®eoBcopov rov TrfkeicXeos X 67ret Siv ravTTjv ol iBoKei diTo^aXelv, iiroiei roidBe. Tepov irXrjpcocra1; dvBpS>v iaefir] is avrrjv, fiera. Be dvayayelv ixeXeve 69 TO 7reXayo<;. coy Be airo T ^ ? vtfaov l/ea? eyeveTO, Trepie\6(ievos r-qv o-<j>pr)yiBa TrdvToov opeovTcov TCOV avfiifKotov pfarei e? TO iriXayoi. TOVTO Be Troirjo-as direirXei, dinKOfievo'i Be 6? TO, olicia <7Vfi ^( eXeye BiBov1; TOV lyQvv " BacriXev, iya> rovBe eXwv OVK eBiKaicao-a epecv e? ayoprpi, Kalirep emv diro^(eipo^loTO<;, dXXd JJLOI iBo/cei o~eo re elvai a^io<; Kal T?}? o~f)<> apxfjs' o~ol Bri fiiv epa>v St'Sw/it." o Be fjcrdel'i Tolai eirecn afieifterai roio-iBe. " Kapra r e eS eiTo^o-as Kal %a/3t? BnrXrj T&V re Xoywv Kal TOV Bdtpov Kal ere eVt Belirvov KaXeo/iev." 6 /lev Brj aXiei/? fieya Troieo/Aevos rdora tfie e? Ta OIKIM, TOV Be l^Ovv fd/Mvovre1; ol OepdirovTes evpiaKovcn ev rfj vqBvi avrov eveovcrav Trjv TloXvKpdreos crtyprjyiBa. &>? Se elBov re Kal eXafBov Ta-^io-Ta, e(j>epov /ce^a/a^Kore? irapa TOV TIoXvKpdrea, BiBovres Be ol Trjv o~pT)yiBa eXeyov orew Tpbirat evpidrj. TOV Be a)? eo~rjX6e deZov elvai TO irpijyfia, ypdepet, e? fivfiXiov irdvra ra woirjcravTa fiiv ola KaTaXeXdf3r)Ke,6 ypdyfra? Be e? AXyvirTov eTreOrjKe. 3 "Be not chequered with misfortune." Temple of Concord at Rome, to which it For ivaWd!- rpoatrltrrtui, cf. Diod. v. 7 ; was presented by Augustus. 5 kv. ipirlTTTeiv, Arist. depart. An. iii. 1, 5. See i. 51, note 4. 4 6 Pliny (N. E. xxxyii. 2, xxxiii. 6) " H e writes in a letter (cp. v. 95) states that the ring of Polykrates set all that had befallen him after having with a sardonyx was preserved in the done i t " Irh for aira). Bu/3\£ov or /3y3- 250 HERODOTOS. [BOOK 43 i-7rt\e^dfievo avBpwirov eic TOV fieXXovTO<; yiveo-Qai irpyy/J-aTOf, Kal OTI OVK ev TeXevTrjaeiv /MeXXot, UoXv/cpaTT)? evTV%ea>v TO, irdvTa, o? Kal TO, diro^dXKeb evpio-Kei. irifA,^lra<; Bi ol KrjpVKa €9 Xdfiov BiaXvecrOai er) TTJV gewLrjvJ TovBe Be e'lveKev TaoTa eirolei, "va fir] (7WT^/i)9 Beivi]<; T6 Kal fiejd\r) 'Effi TOVTOV BTJ &v TOV Ho\vKpaTea evTV%iovTa TCL wdvTa ea-TpaTevovTo AaKeBaifiovioi, eiriKaXeaafiivtop T&V fiera, Taora J£v8? a y Kal trap ecovTOV 6? 2idfiov BiotTO o~TpaToi). Ka/A/8va"?7? Be aKOvaai TOVTCOV Trpodvfiw; e7re/A7T6 e? %dfiov Beyo-o/ievos TloXvKpaTeo? VCIVTVKOV a/ia iri/M^ai, easvTw eV AI^VITTOV. 6 Be TS)V daTwv TOU? virdaTTTeve fjbd\io~Ta e? eiravaaTaaiv TecraepaKovTa Tpiijpeai,9 evTeCkdfievos Ka^i/3uo"7? o-rrLcrw 45 TovTovi fir/ dirotrefiireiv. ol fiev Br) Xeyovo-i TOU? dr7ro'7refji(, dBeiv TO irpoamTepa firjKeTi. liKelv ol Be Xeyovai diriKOfjuevovs Te e? AlyvirTov Kal (jivXao'O'Ofievov^ ivOevTev auroii? diroBpyyvai} KaTairXeovcn Be e? TTJV "Zd/xov JloXvKpaTr)? vrjvo-l dvTidcra<; e? fjud^rjv KaTecrTt]' viKrjaavTe'i Be ol KaTiovTe<s drjre(S'r)o~av e? TTJV vrjGov, ire^ofi,a')(riaavTe<; Be ev avTrj io-crwd'qo-av, Kal OVTUI Brj eirXeov e? AaxeBaifiova. elo~l Be ot Xeyovcri Toil1; air" AiyvirTov \lov from ^iij3\os, the Egyptian papyrus: imHBriiu, " to send by letter." We may notice that letters written on papyrus are regarded as a matter of course at this date among the Greeks. 7 No doubt the alliance was really dissolved by Polykrate's, who considered it advisable to court the rising power of Kambyses. 8 See ch. 59. 9 Triremes with three banks of oars are different from penteconters with one bank of oars and fifty rowers, of which the fleet of Polykrate's was said to consist in ch. 39. The trireme was introduced among the Samians by Ameinokles the Korinthian about 700 B.C. (Thuk. i. 13). 1 The varieties of the story are instructive. They show that even in Samos, where a library had once existed, and where Herodotos had every means of procuring information, events which had happened hardly a century before were differently reported. It is clear, therefore, that the history was handed down by tradition, not in written records (see ch. 55). So at Athens it was possible for the contemporaries of Herodotos and Thukydides to doubt which of the two sons of Peisistratos, a century before, was the older (Thuk. i. 20). in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 251 viKrj<;- ovBev jap e8e£ 0"(£ea9 A.aKe8ai/iovlov<; eiriKaXeio~6ai, et irep avTol rjcrav itcavoi HoXvKpdrea irapacrTi]cracr9ai. 77790? Be TOVTOKTI ovBe \ 0 7 0 9 aipei, TG3 2 eiruKOvpoi fiicrdwrol Kal ro^orai ol/ctfiot r)o~av TrXrjdei iroXXoi, TOVTOV VTTO TWV KUTIOVTCOV 2 < Z / U W iovTcov oXlyeov eo-o-coOfjvai. TWV 8 iiir ecovTq> iovrcov iroXcTjTecav TO, TeKva ical Tai T-fj irpdoTy xaTacrTacri vireicplvavTO TO, fiev irp&Ta Xej(6evTa iu-iXeXrjffdat, TO, Be vcrTaTa oi avvtevat. jieTa, Be TCLOTO, BevTepa KaTaaTavTes aXXo /lev elirov ovBev, OvXaicov Be (frepovTe? e(f>acrav TOV OVXCLKOV dX^)iTeov Beecrdcu. oi Be o-cfn, vireicpLvavTO ™ OvXd/cq) irepiepydadai' ftorjdeiv 8' &v eBotje avTolcri. Kal eireiTa irapaaiceva- 47 cdfievoi i(7TpaTevovTO A.aice8aifjt,6vioi, iiri %dfiov, w? /J,ev %dfiioi Xiyovcri, evepyeaias eKTlvovTe<s, 6Vt a(f)i irpoTepoi, a&Tol vrjvcrl e^o7]Qi\o-av eVt ~M.e? Be Aa/ceBaifiovoot Xeyovai, OVK OVTCO Ti/Mcoprja-ai Beofievoicn Sa/itotcrt ecrTparevovTo to? Tiaacrdai ^ovXofievoi TOV icpr)Tr)po<; 7^9 apirayrjs, TOV rjyov K^otcrw,4 Kal TOV 6a>pr]K0<;, TOV avTolat "Ayaacrt? o AlyvirTov /SacrtXev? eTrefi^e Bdpov. Kal yap 6d>pr)Ka eXrjio-avTO TO> irpoTepa> eVet 7) TOV Kp7\Tr\pa oi 2id/M0i, iovTa fiev Xiveov Kal ^axav evv(f>ao-/ieva>v <JV)(VSSV, KeKO Kal elpiouo-i diro %vXov 5 TWV Be elveKa Ooovfidaai a^iov, dpireBowq eKao-TTj TOV 0. TOIOVTOS erepo9 ecrrt Kal TOV iv A.lv8a dve07)Ke Trj 'AdrjvaLf} "A/iao"t?.6 XvveireXdfiovTO Be TOV crTpaTevfiaTOs TOV eirl "Zdfiov &aT€ 48 yevkcrOat Kal J£.opcv0ioi 7rpo6v/Ko<;' v/3pio~fia yap Kal €9 TOVTOV; el^e 4K TWV %a\ilwv yevofievov yevefj irporepov TOV crTpaTev/J,aTO<; TOVTOV, KaTct 8e TOV avTov yjpbvov TOV KprjTrjpos Trj apirayfj yeyovos. KepKvpaiav yap 7ratSa9 TpirjKoaiov^ dvBpwv T5>V * " That one who had." " T h a t they had overdone it with t h e i r ' s a c k , ' " i.e. " s a c k " was a word too much. The story is told by Sext. Empiricus (adv. Math, ii. 24) of the 3 Khians, wlio wanted a free exportation of grain. 4 5 See i. 70. i.e. cotton. 6 See ii. 182. 7 As the bowl was sent to Kroesos at 252 HEBODOTOS. [BOOK irpmrav TLeplavSpos 6 K-vtyeKov e? %dpBi<s a-ireTrefiifre nrapa 'AXvdrrea eV ixTOfiy • 8 irpoacr'^ovTcov Be e? rrjv %dfiov ra>v ayovroav rovs TratSa? K.opiv0lav, irvOofievot ol z,djuoL rov \oyov, eV olcn dyoiaro ev TraiBe? e%oiev rpoi]i>. e? rovro Be roBe eylvero, e? o ol K-optvOioi r£>v iraiSav ol <j>v\.aKoi o'l-)(pvro diroXiirovre^' roiis Be iralBa? dirijyayov eV 49 K-ipicvpav ol %d/xt,oi} el fiev vvv UepidvBpov re\evrrjcravro<; rolai K.opiv0toi,ai T»}9 alrvr)<;. vvv Be alel eirel re eKricrav, rrjv vrjcrov elcrl aXKrj\x>iopoi, iovres ecovrolai,2 . . . rovrcov 5>v e'CveKev dire/wrjaiKdKeov roicn Sa/iioio-i ol K.oplv0ioi. 50 'A.ireTre/Mre Be e? zdpSos eir eKro/xy HepiavBpo? rcov irpoiroov the end of his reign, and the boys to selos, who overthrew the Bakkhiad oliAlyattes, there must have been an in- garchy at Eorinth, and whose coffer at terval of at least fourteen years between Olympia, adorned with Homeric subjects, the two events. They did not, therefore, was one of the earliest specimens of Greek take place at the same time. Since the art, see v. 92, where the legend connected date assigned to Periander is B. o. 625- with him grew out of his name and the 585, it is hard to see how the boys could punning allusion to it in the gift he have been sent to AlyattSs,who died about made to Olympia. 9 B.C. 560, or how this could have occurred "When the Korinthians cut the only a generation before the Lakedae- boys off from food." It seems clear that monian expedition against Samos in B.C. there was as yet no tyrant in Samos ; 520. Panofka conjectures TpLrr) yeverj, the " Sainians " alone are named, x supposing y' (3) to have fallen out beAccording to Pliny {N. IT. ix. 25) fore yep., but this only makes the state- and the pseudo-Plut. (who appeals to ment about the bowl more difficult to Anttsnor and Dionysios the Khalkidian), explain. Herodotos, however, had only the Knidians, not the Samians, drove oral tradition as his authority for these away the" Korinthian guard, and restored events of preceding Greek history (ch. the boys to Kerkyra. 2 45, note 1). After twvroLiri. Valckenaer would sup8 This illustrates the Asiatising ten- ply 0-11776^^5, Eeiske ok^iot. 'So&nov, dency of many of the Greek tyrannies. however, remains without construction. The same Periander, though one of the The nominative to tKrurav is of course seven wise men of Greece, had a nephew "the Korinthians." For the hostility who succeeded him of the name of Psam- between Korinth and her colony, Kermetikhos (Arist. Pol. v. 12). For Kyp- kyra or Corfu, see Thuk. i. 13, 25, etc. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIEE. 253 K.epKvpalpe6fievo<;' irporepoi op7]v ToirjvBe ol aXXrjv crvvefir) irpb1; Trj yeyovvly yeveadat. rjtrdv ol €K MCXMTOTJ? Bvo TralSes, ^XiKirjv 6 /jiev eirTaicaLBeKa 6 Be OKTW/calSe/ca eVea yeyovcos. TOVTOVS 6 firjrpo7rdrcop TlpoicXfjs icov '^Eiirihavpov Tvpavvos /jLeTaire/jLyfrdftevo^ irap' kwvrbv i(j)i,\o(ppovelro, (»? OIKOS fjv Ovyarpof eovTa? TJ7? ecovTov iratSa^. iirelre Bi o-ea<; aTreirefiireTO, dire 7rpoiri/j,7ra)v aviovs " apa tare, & TratSe?, 05 vfiAcov TTJV [irjTepa direicTet,ve;" rovro TO eVo? o fiev irpea^vTepo<; CLVTS&V iv ovBevl \6yq> eiroirjaaTO' 6 Be T& ovvofia ?JV Avicocfrpwv,* rpvyrjae dieovcraovea TTJ? fj,i)Tpb<; TOV irarepa OVTC irpoaelire, Bia\eyo/j,evw Te ovTe irpoaBieXeyeTO icrTopeovTi r e \6yov ovBiva iSiBov. reXo? SI fuv irept Ov/xai i%6[ievo<; 6 TiepiavBpo<s igekavvei etc TWV ol/ciwv. e'^eXacra? Be TOVTOV 51 tcrropet TOV TrpeafivTepov Ta t 6 p/qTpoirdTcap BieKe^dt], 6 Be ol dir^yeiTO w? apovco<; eBe^aro' eiceivov Be TOV eVeo? To v, ovtc ifie/jiV7]T0. TlepiavBpo'i Be ovSe/xiav /iTj^avrjV er) elvai /jJq ov afa enelvov virodeaOcu TI, ikbirdpei Te iTTopecov 6 Be dva/j,vi)cr0el<; elire ical TOVTO. UepiavBpos Be vou> Xa/Smj/ [xal TOVTO] KOX ficiKaKov evBiZovau /3ov\ofj,evo<> ovBev? T§ 6 e!;e\a<76el<; VTT avTov Treti? BldLTav eTroieiTo, e? TOVTOV1; Trefnrcov dyyeXov dirrjyopeve 'firi ficv Beicecrdat, olxiouri. 6 Be OKW; direXavv6iievo<; ekOoo e? aXXrjv oLKOTjv, aTrtjXavveT av ical dirb Tavrrj';, direiKeovTO'i Te TOV TiepidvBpov Tolcn Befja/j,evotcri ical i^epyeiv Ke\evovTO The Hebrew name Deborah similarly means "bee." At Ephesos i 4 Nik. Damaso. calls him Nikolaos, Lykophron being another son who was murdered for his cruel behaviour to the Perioeki. The same author states that Periander had two other sons, Evagoras and Gorgos (the Gordias of Arist. Pol. v. 9). 5 ' ' Determining to show no sign of softening." Cp. vii. 52. If KOX TOVTO is read, it must be taken with \a/3i>p, but Krueger is plainly right in rejecting the words, as they ought to stand before and not after the participle. 254 HERODOTOS. [BOOK r/ •rrpoaZtcCKe'^dfj, leprjv ^Tjfiirjv TOVTOV T&5 'ATTOWB&VI ofi,evo airo? ea i^epyacdfirjv. trv Be fiadoav ocrq> (pOoveladat, Kpeaaov &r) Be fiiv leprjv ^rjfilijv 6et\,etv TCO dew ecovrm e? X070119 airiKOfievov. fjLaOwv Be 0 TleplavBpo<; a>9 airopov TI TO KUKOV e"r) TOV 7ratSo? Kal (IVIKTJTOV, if; 6v fjav airoirifiireTai, crretX.a9 irXolov e9 KepKvpav iireKpdrei yap Kal ravr?)?. . d-iroo~TeL\a<; Be TOVTOV 6 HepuavBpos icrrpaTevero eVt TOV trevOepbv TlpoKkea a>9 T&V •7rape6vT(ov ol irprfy^aTav eovra aiTicoTarov, Kal etXe fjuev TTJV 53 'J^TriBavpov, etke Be avrbv TLpoKXea Kal e^dayprjce. eirel Be TOV irpo^aivovTO'i o Te TLepiavBpo? TrapTjfirJKei Kal a-weytvaxrecovra OVKITI elvai Bwarb1; TO, Trprjyixara eiropav Te Kal Btenreiv, Treftyfras 69 Tr)v K.epKvpav direKaXei TOV AvKO(f>pova iirl TTJV TvpavvlZa' ev yap Bfy rq> TrpecrfivTepcd TWV iralZav OVKWV ivcopa, dXkd ol KaTefyaiveTo elvai v an<* understand Uvra of at, "or that you should inherit this, my tyranny and prosperity, by behaving dutifully (being what you should be) to your father." e " If a calamity had happened thereby." h airois for iv Toiirois, like l£ airdv, "therefrom," i. 9. Periander refers to his tyranny ; this he alleges had produced no real calamity; if it had, he would have been the chief sufferer himself. 9 The first naval battle on record in Greece was fought between Korinth and Eerkyra (B.O. 665), Thuk. i. 13, so that Periander must have conquered the island. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 255 ovBe avaicpicnos rfelacre. TOV (pepovra Tr)v dyyeXfyv. HeplavBpos Be irepbe^pfievo^ TOV verfvlm Bevrepa direo~TeiXe eif avTov Tr)v aBe\<j)erjv, ecSvTov Be OvyaTepa, BoKecov fuv fidXbaTa ravrr/ av ireideadai. d7riK0/ievr)<; Be Taurus Kal Xeyovcrrj'i " & -jral, ftovXecu Tr\v re TvpavviSa e? aXXovs irecreiv Kal TOV OIKOV TOV 7raTpo? Biaopr]9evTa fiaXXov rj avTO? o-i\oTifiii} KTrffia o-icatov. fir) T&3 tca/co) TO KCLKOV IS). iroWol TWV BiKaiaiv TO, eirbeiKeaTepa irpoTiOelari, iroXKol Be r)Br) TO, /xrjTpwia Bityfievoi TO iraTpmta airefSakov. Tvpavvls ^prj/ia atyaKepov, iroXXol Be avTr)<; epao~Tai elo~i, 6 Be jipcov T€ tfBr) Kal iraprj^TjKW' fir] 8c3? T « ceeovTov dyada aXXoiai." r) fiev Brj TO, eiraymyoTaTa BiBa^detcra virb TOV war/jo? eXeye nrpo<; a\)TOV 6 Be viroKpi,vafLevo<; e<pr] ovBafia •rj^eiv e? ¥L6piv0ov, eo~T av irvv6dvr]Tai irepteovTa TOV iraTepa. d"7rayyeiXdar]<; Be TdVTrjs TaoTa, TO TpLrov YiepiavBpoi KrjpvKa Trefiirei /3ovXofievo<; avTO<; fiev e? Kep/cvpav rjiceiv, melvov Be i/ceXeve e? JZ.6piv6ov dirucofievov BidBo-^ov yivecrdai Tr}<; rvpavvlBos. KaTaiveaavTO<; Be eVt TOVTOKTL TOV irai,B6<;, 6 fiev HepiavBpos eo~TeXXeTo e? Tr)v YLepicvpav, b Be irals ol e? Tr)v YJipivQov. fiaOovTes Be ol ILep/cvpaiot, TOVTWV eKao'Ta, "va fir] cri THepiavBpo? es Tr)v X^Pyv dirlietjTat,, KTeivovcn, TOV verjvicncov. dvTi TOVTWV fiev Heplav8po<; Kep/cvpaLov? iTificopeiTo. AatceBaifioviot, Be O~T6XG> fieydXco ro? diri/covTO, eiroXiopKeov 54 %dfiov TTpoo-ftaXovTes Be Trpbs TO Tel%o<; TOV fiev Trpb's OaXdo-crr] ecrTewTO? irvpyov icaTa TO irpodcrTeiov ri}? 7roXto? eTreflrjcrav, fieTa Be avTov /3oi)0r]o-avTO$ TLoXvKpdreo'; %etpl TroXXf) dTrr]Xdo~67)o~av. Kara Be TOV etrdva irvpyov TOV STTI Trj<; pd%io<; TOV opeo<;1 eireovTa eTre£r)X0ov o'(, Te e-rriicovpob Kal avTwv ~$afiia>v crv^voi, Be^dfievoi Be T0119 KaKeBabfioviov; iir oXlyov yj>ovov efyevyov OTTLCCO' ol Be eiruairofievoi eKTeivov. el fiev vvv ol 55 AaKeBaifiovlcov b'fioioi eyevovTo TavTtjv Tr)v r/fieprjv (r) Te Kal AVKCOTT-TJ, alpeSr) av ^dfiov 'A^/779 yap Kal fiovvob iroXeb Trj ^afilcov. ir) rip Z,afilov iv TpiTW Be d-ir 'Apj/b'eo TOVTOV yeyovon dXXa> TOV 'Ap^teo avTOf iv TlbTavy2 avveyevofirjv 1 Ampelos, at the southern foot of which lay the town of Samos, while a wall of fortification ran along the northern edge of the hill. The temple of Here stood by the sea near the marshy land at the mouth of the Imbrasos, south-west of the city, 2 Pitane was one of the five villages, Ty 256 HERODOTOS. [BOOK (BIJ/J.OV yap rovrov r)v), o? jjeivcov irdvrav fidXiara eri/JM re Sa/«'ot"? icat ol Tft) irarpl er) ^d/iiov rotivofia redrjvai, on ol o irarrjp 'Ap^lr)*; iv %dfMp dpiarevaaf ireXevrrjae. rifiav Be 2d/i/ou? er], Bion TtMprjvab ol TOP irdtrrrov STJ/IOO-IT) virb Xa/iieov: 5,6 AaiceBaifioviot, Be, w? aipi reaaepd/covra iyeyoveaav rjfiepai •jroXiop/ceovo-i, Sdfiov e? TO irpoa-a re ovh*ev irpoeicoirrero rtov irprjyfidrtov, diraWdao'ovro e? Tle\oTr6vi>r]o~ov. &>? 8e o fiaraiorepo<} X070? &pfi7jTai,3 [Xiyerai] HoXvKpdrea hrv)(a>piov vofiid/Mi iroWbv fio\v/38ov Karaj^pvacdo-avra Bovval crept, roii<; Be OVTO) 8r) diraX\dvov. xprjfidrcov yap iSeovro, ra Be rwv 'StKpvliov irp^yfiara rjKfjM^e rovrov rbv ypbvov, KM, vi}o~io)re(ov fidXio~ra eTrXovreov, are iovrwv avroio-i iv rrj vr\; iv AeXcpolai dvaKeZrai ofioia rolai irXovo-iaavrol Be ra ytvo/ieva rw ivtavra e/caarft) ^ptj/jMra Bievefjuovro. ore 8>v iiroieovro rbv ffrja-avpov, e^pimvro rq> Xpr)crr7}pi(p el avrolai ra trapeovra dyada old re earl TTOXXOV yjpbvov Trapafiivew f\ Be.TlvOCrj e^prjae apvs r dyoprj, rore Brj Set pdaaaaffai gvXivov re Xo^ov Ki]pv/cd T' ipvBpov.6 roiac Be 2,i rja/ct]fieva. rovrov rbv yp^ayibv OVK otoi re ?jaav yv&vai which, with Limnse, Mesoa, Kynosura, and Polis (where the temple of Athene stood), made up Sparta ("the sown ground "). We here have an illustration of the dependence of Herodotos upon tradition, not written records, for earlier Greek history. See ch. 45, note 1. too avaricious to continue the payment of tithes to Delphi. Traces of copper and iron were found by Ross in the galleries of the old mines near the chapel of S. Sostis. Lead was also found in the island. 3 " As the idle tale goes " (cp. iv. 16 ; vi. 68, 8 6 ; vii. 189; Soph. Aj. 197). Nevertheless the story illustrates the •» " When the town-hall in Siphnos is white, And white-browed the market where judgments are said, , . . * ri 1- c* 1 general opinion of Greece as to Spartan corruptibility. 4 Pausanias (x. 11, 2) saw the treasury, but the mines had failed, having been submerged because the Siphnians were -A- wise man is needed to guard , Qainst a n a m b u s h rf wood g and & ^ ^ ^ ^ The buildings had been so recently erected that the white marble had not yet been painted. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 257 ovre Tore evdvs ovre T&V "Zafiiav aTTiyfievcov. iireire yap ra^iara irpbs TTJV 2t(vov irpoo~io~%ov ol Itdfuoi, eirefiirov T&V ve&v /j,iav irpeo-j3ea<; dyovcrav e? TTJV iroX.iv. TO Be iraXaibv airaaai at vies r)crav /j.iXTrjXivXdi;ao~0ai TOV ^VXIVOV Xoj(pv KeXevovcra Kal Kr/pvKa ipvOpov. airiKOfievoi &v ol ayyeXoi eBiovTo T&V ^Lityviav BeKa TaKavTo, i ^prjo-ai' ov a<7K6vTvla)v avToicn, ol "Zdfuoi TOV<S %mpov<: UVT&V eTTopOeov. irvOofievoi, Be evOvs T)KOV ol %i$vioi, fiorjOiovres Kal Toi)<; fieTct, TaoTa eKaTov TaXavTa eirpitf-av. irapa Be 'J^p/Movecov vfjaov dvrl ^prjfidTCOv 59 Trapekafiov "TBpeqv T^V eV^ He\oTrow>]o-q) Kal avTtjv Tpoifyvioio-i irapaKaTedevTO- avTol Be K.vBa>vir)v TT)V iv KprjTy eKTiaav; ov/c 67ri TOVTO 7r\iovTe<; dWa ZaKvvdiovs e^eXeo^Te? e/c T ^ ? vqaov. efieivav B' iv TavTrj Kal eiBaifiovrjaav e V erea irevTe, &o~Te TO, lepa, TO, iv K.vBa>vlr) iovTa vvv OVTOL elvt, ol iroirjO-avTe*; Kal TOV TTJ? AiKTvvrjif vr)6v.7 SKTW Be eret AiTov<s vavfia^ly viKijo-avres rjvhpairoBiaavTo fieTa KprjT&v, Kal T&V ve&v Kairpiov; i^ovcreav r a ? irpwpas r)Kpu>T7]piaaav Kal dvedeaav e? TO lepbv Trj8 crTpaTevo-dfievoi iir Aiytvav fieydXa KaKt Tpia iffTl dirdvTtov '¥iK\rjva>v i£epyao~[ieva, opeos Te LifrtfXov e? Kal eKaTov opyvids, TOVTOV 8pvy/u.a KUTtoOev dpljd/xevov, dfj,<j>LO~TOfiov. TO fiev /J.rJKO<; TOV opvy/xaTO? iirTa aTaBioi elcn TO Be vijro<; Kal evpo? OKTW eKaTepov TroSes.1 Bia, TravTOS Be 6 Comp. Homer's /u\TOTdprioi (II. ii. Samos was colonised by Epidaurians 637, Od. ix. 125), and ^ou'iKoirapi/oi Under Prokles. We must not forget, (Od. xi. 124, xxiii. 272). The ships however, that in ch. 52 Periander calls themselves, however, are / 258 HERODOTOS. [BOOK avTov aWo opvypa elicoo-lTrrjXV fidOo? opcopvtCTdi, Tpiirow Se TO evpos, Si ov TO vScvp oyeTevofievov Sid TCOV crcoXrfvcov trapayiveTai e? TT)V TTOXIV dyofievov arch fieydXrjs irrjyrj^. dp^netcTav Be TOV opvyfiaTO? TOVTOV iyeveTO Meyapevf EuwaXti'o? NavaTpoov. TOVTO /lev Sr) ev TWV rpi&v iari, SevTepov Se vepl Xifieva ev daXdcrcrr), fiddos ical eiKocn opyvi&V /Mj/eo? Se TOV fie&v Svo aTaSLoov. Tphov Se o~(pi i^epyaaTai vrjos irdvTcov vTjwv TWV r/fieis XSfiev^ TOV apyyreKTwv firp5)To<; iyeveTo 'Pot/to? 3 <&t\e» eV^copto?. TOVTWV eXveicev fia.XX.6v Ti 7repl "Zafiicov ifJur/Kwa. Ka/iy3vo"j7 Se T& Kvpov ^povl^ovTi irepl AXyvwrov ical trapaeol, TWV TOV eTepov Ka,Take\olirei TO>I' ol/cimv fieXeScovov o J£.afifiv(rr)<;. OVTO? Srj &v ol eiraveaTr] fiaffcbv r e TOV Z/fiepSio'i OdvccTov to? KpvirTOiTO yevofievos, ical o~a in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. i, eto~e ayav e? TOV /3ao~L\i]Lov 6povov. TOVTO Kt]pvKa<; T?7 T6 aWy 259 7roii]o~a<; Be BieTrefnre Kal Brj Kal e? A'lyvjTTov irpoepkovTa TU> crrpaTw w? S^epSto? TOV Kvpov a/covcrTea ett] TOV \otirov dW' ov Kaya/3vv dWoi /cijpvtces 62 Trporjyopevov TaoTa Kal Brj Kal O eir AtyvrrTov Ta-^jdei^ (evpiaice yap Kafifivcrea Kal TOV crTpaTov eovTa TT}S SV/OW;? iv 'AyftaTavoiai)s Trpoyyopeve GTCLS e? fiicrov TA ivTeToX/^eva i/c TOV Mdyov. Ka/x/3ucri7? Be dicovaras TaoTa ex TOV KrjpvKof Kal eK/jrlaw; [uv X&yeiv dXr)dea auT09 Te irpoBeBoo-dai 4K Ti.p elm " Hptffjaaire'i, OVTCO fioi Bt,ewpr)%ao TO TOL Trpoo~e8r)Ka Trpfjyfia;" 6 Be elire " a> 8eo~TTOTa, OVK eo~Tt, TaoTa d\r)6ea, o/ccos KOTe aol SynepSt? dBe\ eTravio~Tr]ice, oiBe o/cai? r t e'f eicetvov TOV dvBpbs velic6<; TOL eaTai rj fieya rj o-/uicp6v iyco yap avro?, Trobrjaas TO, av fie e/ceXeves, edayfrd /MV ^epo~\ Trjat, ifiecovTov. el fiev vvv ol Te6ve5)Te<s dveaTaai, TrpocBe/ceo TOL Kal 'AcrTvdyea TOV MrjBov iiravaaTrjcreadai,- el B' eoTt wairep irpo TOV, ov fiij TL TOL e'/c ye eKeLvov vecoTepov dva/SXacrTrj. vvv 3>v fjLOL BoKel /jL,eTaBid)^avTa<; TOV KrjpvKa igerd^eLv elpcoTeovTas Trap1 OTeo rjKoiv irpoayopeveL rjfjblv ^pepBios j3acn~\.eo<; aKoveLv." TaoTa 63 elVai/To? Tip7)%dr}<; ydp r\Keiv irapa XfiepBLos TOV K.vpov ayyeXos- vvv &>v elVa? T-TJV dXrjOeirjv WTTLOL ^(alpmv, KOTepa avTo<; sios of Miletos, a writer older than Herodotos), is plainly intended to be the brother. 8 There was no Agbatana (Hagmatana) in Syria. The name is derived from the legend mentioned in eh. 64. Consequently there is no reason for considering whether Hyde was right in identifying it with Batansea, the Hebrew Bashan, or Blakesley in making it Hamath, on the ground that Steph. Byz. states that the Syrian Agbatana was also called Epiphania. Stephanos took the name from Herodotos, as did Pliny, who identifies it with the town of Carmel {A7. H. v. 19). As the herald was sent to Egypt, and Kambyses had as yet no reason for leaving that country, he would naturally be not in Syria, but in Egypt, as is implied in the Behistun Inscription. Both the Babylonian contract tablets and Manetho make the reign of Kambysea last to at least B.c. 519, i.e. two years after the death of the Magian and the accession of Dareios. See ii. 1, note 1. On the other hand, the inscription of the Persian eunuch Atiuhi, found in Hamamat, makes Dareios reign thirtysix years, which was doubtless the length of reign he himself assumed. Kambyses reigned a little under eight years in Egypt according to the Apis stel8s(Wiedemann, p. 219, who, however, erroneously believes that the reign of Kambyses in Persia is referred to). This would bring us to B.C. 517 (if the conquest of Egypt took place in B.C. 525), the year indicated by the Babylonian tablets. 260 HEEODOTOS. [BOOK roc 2/jepSi? (pcuvo/J-evoi e? 6'tyiv ivereXXero rdora rj rwv Tt? iiceivov virr^peremv" 6 Be elire " iya> "ZfiepBiv fiev TOV Kvpov, 0; oreo fiao-ikevs Ka/ifivo-Tis rfkao-e e< ' ? Atyxmrov, ov/cco oTraira6 Be fiob Mdjot rov Ka/iySvo-J/9 e-Trirponrov r&v olxltov direBe^e, ovrof rdora iveretkaro, (pas "tfiipBiv rov Kvpov ehai rov rdora 6 pev Bri fioi Boiceco avvievai ro yeyovbs rovro, & fiao-i\ev' ol M.dyoi elo~t rot, iiraveareibre^, rov re e\t7res fieXeBavbv r&v oliclav, Uan£eL0T)<;, ical 6 rovrov aSeXi^eo? rb %[iepBio$ ovvofia 64 'XfiepBis" ivdavra aicovcravra Ka^vaea erv^re rj dXrjdeitj rv ical rod ivvirviov o? eBoKei ev ra virva d-TrayyeTkai rivd ol w? %fiipBi<; l%6[ievo<; e? rov ^aenXijiov Qpovov "tifavaeie rfj /ce<j)a\{j rov ovpavov. jiadoov Be t»9 jidrrjv a7To\toX6«:ft)5 eirj rbv dBe\(f>e6v, direickaie "ZfiepBiv drroK\avcra<; Be ical irepifrjfjbeKrrjaa^ rfj anrdarj o~vfi<j>opy dva6pd)0~Ket iirl rbv ITTTTOV, ev v6(p e^ojz' rrjv ra^iariyv es %ovcra crrparevecrOcu eirl rbv M.dyov. ical ol dvaOpaxrKovri iirl rbv Xirtrov rov KoXeov rov |-/(^eo? o /JLVKTJS aTroirlirreit, yvfivwdev Be rb ^t^>o? iraiei rbv firjpov rp(O/iano-0el<; Be Kara rovro rr) airb<; irporepov rbv rwv AlyvTrriwv 6ebv *A.TTIV eV\ij^e, 9 w? ol Kaipiy eBoffe rerv^}6ai, e'ipero 6 Kafi/3vo-r)<; o ri, rfj iroXei ovvofia ettj- ol Be elirav on 'Ayftdrava. rm Be en, irporepov eKe^prjcrTO iic BOUTOO? TTO\IO<; ev 'Ay/3ardvoi eKTreirXrjyue'vo'i ical rov rpco/Maros io-a>p6vi)o-e, o-vXXa/3wv Be rb Oeoirpowiov elve " ivOavra Kafifivtrea rbv Kvpov eo~rl 7re7rpa>65 fievov reXevrav.' Tore /xev roaavra. rj/iepyo'i, Be vo~repov to? 9 As the wounding of the Apis has turned out to befiction,we are not surprised to find the Behistun Inscription stating that Kambyses committed suicide. According to Ktesias, he killed himself with a knife with which he was carving wood, and died at Babylon. A BabyIonian contract-tablet is dated the 7th day of the 11th year of Kambyses (see preceding note), which goes to show that Ktesias had documentary evidence for his statement that the reign of KambysSs lasted eighteen years (nineteen according to Clem. Alex. Strom, i. p. 395). Josephos {Ant. xi. 2) makes Kambyses die at Damascus. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 261 /jb€Ta7re/jL'yjrd[ievo<; Heptrewv reov irapeovrav TOI"> TOU? eXeye crfyi TaSe. " at Tiipaai, KaTaXeXdf3r)Ke fie, rb irdvTwv fidXia'Ta eicpviTTop irprfyfiaTtov, TOVTO e? vfiea<} iKrjvai. iya> yap ia>v iv AlyvirTto elBov b'-tyiv iv TW virvq>, TTJV fiqSafia, oeXov ISeiv iBoKeov Be fioi ayyeXov eXOovra e£ O'IKOV dyyeXXeiv to? ZfiepBis l£6fievo<; is TOP ^aatKrjiov Opovov ifravcreie rfj tcefyaXfj TOV ovpavov. Sei'cra? Be fir) airaipeOefo Tt)v dp-yr)v Trpbs TOV dSe\<j>eov, eTrolrjcra TayyTepa rj aocjxoTepa' iv ry yap av$pa>7rr)[r) vaei oiiK evrjv dpa TO fieWov yiveadai dtroTpdireiv. eyw Be 6 fiaTaios Tlpr)£de6<> lifiepBis. TOV fiev vvv iMaXicrTa %pr\v ifiio alo-^pa, 777)09 Tail' Mdywv TreirovdoTOs rifimpeiv ifiot, OUTO? fiev dvoaia) fiopm TeTeXevT^jKe VTTO TQ>V ecovTov olK7]ioTaTtov TOVTOV Be firjKeTi iovTOS, BevTepa T&V ~konr£)V vfilv & Jlepaai yiveTai fioi dvayKaioTaTov ivTeX\eo~dai TO, deXco fioi yeveaQai TeXevTtov TOV (ilov, Kal Brj v/itv TaBe iirLffKrjTTTa) 0eoi><; TOV? fiacnXTjiovs e-wiKaXemv Kal irao-i vp.lv Kal fidXio-ra yA%ai/J,eviSea)V Tolcri irapeovai, fir) irepuBelv r/yefiovLTjv avri<s 69 MJJSOV? 2 TrepteXdovtrav, aXX1 efae BoXtp e^ ai/TTjv KTTfffdfievoi,, BoXco wTraipeQv\vai iiirb vfieeov, elVe Kal aSkvel Teco Karepyao-dfievoi, a-Qevev KaTa TO KapTepbv dvao-£>aao-Qai. Kal TaoTa fiev iroieovcri, vfilv yij Te Kapirov €Kep(u Kal yvvaiKes Te Kal irolfivai TiKTOiev, ioxxri €9 TOV airavTa j^povov i\ev0epoio~f 1 " Without need," or (less probably) '' contrary to right." 2 Herodotos here supposes that the Magian revolt was a Median revolt (see ch. 126). If so, the name of the Persian festival which commemorated its suppression would have been MTJSO^IO, not Ma7o06em (ch. 79). Moreover, Dareios says in the Behistun Inscription : "There was not a man, either Persian or Median or any one of our own family (the Akhsemenids), who would deprive that Gomates the Magian of the crown ;" and throughout the inscription the revolt is described as that of the Magians, not of the Medes. On the other hand, Gomates was slain " i n a fortress named Siktha'uvatish, in the district of Media called Nisaya," and the Magi were a Median tribe (i. 101). For the Akhsemenids see i. 125, note 3. 262 HERODOTOS. [BOOK fir) Be dvao~(oo~afievoio~i TT)V dpyj ^ ra evavTia TOVTOKTI dpeofiai ifilv yeveo-Qai, ical irpb? ert TOVTOKTI TO Te\o einyeveadai olov i/Mol iwiyeyove.' r e e<.Va9 TaoTa 6 Kajj,/3vo-r)<; direkXaie trdaav TV)V ecovTov p 66 Hepaai Be to? TOV fiaaiXea elBov dvaickavo-avTa vdvTes Ta Te iyofieva eX^(pv, r a o r a /eaTijpeiKOVTO ical olfiwyfj dtyOovco fieTa Be TOOTO, &>? icr<paKe\io~e Te TO 6o~Teov ical o p ^Ta eadirr), dirrjvence Ka/iySv<7ea TOV K.vpov, ftao~LkevaavTO, fiev Ta irdvTa eirTa eVea ical irevTe firjvas? airatBa Be TO irapdirav iovTa ep OavaTOv, 'iva ol iKiro\efia>0j} irav TO TiepaiKov. OVTOI fiev vvv 7)irio~TeaTo ^,/iepBiv TOV Kwpou /3ao~i\ea iveo-Te&Ta. Bet,va><; yap ical 6 Tlpr/gdo-Trris egapvo*; r)v fir) /lev diroKTelvai "ZftepBiv ov jap r)v ol dc^iaXe? Ka/AySucre6) TeTeXevTf)icoTO<> (pdvcu TOV Kvpov vlov aTToXcoXeKevai avTo^eipirj. 67 ' O Be Bi) M.dyo<; TeXeuT^crai/ros K.a/i/3vo-ea> aSew iinfiaTevaiV TOV Ofuovvfiov S/ae/aSto? TOV K.vpov, firjvas eiTTa e7ri\.oi7rov<; Kafifivcrr) e? Ta OKTW eTea r»?5 irXt)pa)a-bo<;- iv TOICTI dtreBe^aTO e? TOW inrrjKoov; irdvTa*; evepyecrias /j,e'yd\a<s, &crTe d-TroOavovTos avrov iroOov eyeiv TrdvTa<s row iv Ty 'Acrt'i; irdpe^ avT&v Jlepo-eoiv. Bia7refJAJra<; yap 6 M a ^ 0 ? ^9 irav edvos T&V fjp^e irpoel/Ke aTeXelr/v elvcu Be firjvl iyeveTO KaraSijXo? Tpoirw TotaiBe. 'OTavrj? rp <Papvdo~7reco fiev Trat?,4 yevei Be ical ^prifiaau ofiotoi TO3 7rptoTW Tlepaecov. OVTO? o 'OTavr/s 7rpdJTO? birmitTevae TOV Mdyov &)? OVK e'lrj 6 TfLvpov Z/AepBis dXX' o? irep r)v, TrjBe avfi^aXofievo^, OTI Te OVK i%eVTa> oiBeva TS)V Xoyificov Tlepcecov virarirTevo~a See ii. 1, note 1. According to the Behistun Inscription, Otanes (Utana) was the son of Thukhra (Sokris). Otanes is not the Onophas of Ktesias, who is placed at the head of the list of conspirators. Onophas is clearly the Anaphas of Diod6ros, who makes him son of Artamnes, son of 4 Smerdis, son of Gallos, son of Pharnakes, king of Kappadokia, who married Atossa the sister of Kambys^s I. (Phot. p. 382) (see i. 72, note 3). 5 Herodotos means the citadel of Susa (chh. 64, 70). Gomates, however, was in Media at Siktha'uvatish (note 2 above). in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 263 avrrjv Br) Tavrifv el^e Tore 6 Mayo? Kal ravry re crvvoUei Kal rrjai aXXyai, wdcrrjo-i Trjai TOV T£.ajif3vo~eco yvvai^L irefnrtov Br) wv o 'Ordvr] dvdpcoTrcov /coifjL&TO, ei/re /ji£Ta 2/fjjipSioi; TOV T£.vpov elVe fieTa aWov Teo. r) Be ol dvTeirefnre (pafievrj ov yivaxr/ceiv OVTB TOVTO) a-vvoiKel avTr) Te eKeivrj Kal crv- •KavTdi'i yap Brj KOV TOV ye ecovrrjs dBe\ebv yivdxTKei." avTiTre/Mirei irpb<; TaoTa T) 69 dvyaT-rjp " OVTB 'ATO<70"J7 Bwa/uii, e? \6yow? iX8elv oine aWrjv ovBefilav IBeaOat, TCOV crvy/caTrjfievecov yvvaucoiv. eireiTe yap Ta%io-Ta OSTO? &v6p(oiro<;, ocrTt? KOT4 eVrt, irapeXafie TT)V /SacrtXrjiijv, Btecnreipe r)/j,ea<; aXXrjv aXXrj -ra^a*?." ditovovTi Be rdoTa TO 'OTavrj fiaXXov /caTeaLveTO TO 7rprjyfia. TpiTrjv Be dyyeXitjv ecnreft/ireu Trap ai>Tr)v \eyov OvyaTep, Bel ae yeyovviav ev KLVBVVOV dvaXafieaOat, TOV av 6 iraTrjp viroBvveiv tceXevy. el yap Br) /j,rj iaTi 6 Kupov %fiipBif dWa TOV uaTaBoKeco iya>, OVTOL fitv aol Te avyKoifico/Mevov Kal TO Hepo-ecov KpaTos e-^ovTa Bel ^aipovTa aTraXKdcrcretv, dXXa, Bovvai BIKTJV. vvv OJV "KOiTjaov TaSe. eireav aol avvevBrj Kal fiddr}<; avTov KaTVTrva)/j,evov, acpaaov avTov TO, SiTa1 Kal r)v \xev <$>aivr)Tat e%(ov a)Ta, vofii^e crecovTrjV XfiipBi, TO) K.tipov crvvotKelv, rjv Be fir) e^a>v, aii Be TCS Mdya> %fj.epSi." avTiirefiirei irpb<; TaoTa r) <&aiBvfi7) <j>afj,iv7] KivBvvevaeLV fieydXa}<;, rjv iroifj TaoTa1 r)v yap Br) jxr) Tvy^dvr) TO, S)Ta e^cov, e7rl\afnrT0<} Be d^daaovaa ecrrat, ev elSevai &>? dicrT(bo-ei piv O/A&)9 fievTot, ironfjaeiv rdoTa. r) /xev Br) vireBe^aTO TaoTa ra traTpl KaTepydereaOat' TOV Be Mayot; TOVTOV TOV %fiepBioot,Teov<; TOV Mdyov rjfyaae TO, SiTa. fiaOovaa Be ov ^aXeirSi'i d\X' ev7rerea)<; OVK e-^ovTa TOV dvBpa &Ta, a)? r/fieprj Tdj^io~Ta iyeyovet, iraTpl TO, yevofieva. 6 This looks as if Herodotos wished to correct the statement of some pre- vious historian, perhaps Dionysios of Miletos. 264 70 HERODOTOS. [BOOK ' O Be 'Oravrj^ irapaXaf3mv 'Ao-rraOlvr]V6a ical To$pvr)v1 Uepaeav re irpayrovs iovras ical ecovrq) etnTrfBeoTarovi e? TTIOTIV, a/itt]r^T\cra,TO irav TO irprp/f^a' oi Be /cat, avToi apa virwrnevov ovTto TOVTO e^euv, avevelicapTOS Be TOV 'Ordveco TOI/? \oyow; iBiljavTo. ical eSoge cri eicacrTov avBpa Jlepaeav irpocreTaipicracrdai TOVTOV oreto wicrrevei fidXto-ra. 'Oravt]? fiev vvv iadyerai 'Ivrafypevea, Tofipvr)*} Be Meydfivfyv, 'Aa-iraduvi)<; Be 'TBdpvea.8 yeyovorav Be TOVTCDV eg irapayiverai if ra 2,ovcra9 Aopeto? 0 'To-rdcnreos i/c TIepcrecov tf/ccov TOVTCOV yap Br/ r\v oi 0 irarr/p virap^o^. eireX &v OUTO? airi/cero, rola-i eg TCOV Hepo-ewv 71 eBofje ical Aapelov irpoa-eraipicraffOai,.1 crvveXOovres Be OIITOI ewTe? eiTTa iBiBocap trltrc irli, rdSe. " iya> rdora eBoiceov /lev aura? fiovvo<; eTrtcrTacrdai, on re o Mayos eXt) 6 ftacriKeiHov ical "Z/MepSfi 6 Kvpov TereXevrrj/ce • ical avrov TOVTOV e'lveicev rj/eat o-irovBrj a>? o~vo-Tr\m rr)v fievroi eirv^eipr^cnv TavTTjv fir] OVTW avvTayvve a/3ew\w?, a ea Perhaps Aspachana, the quiverbearer or messenger of Dareios, according to the Naksh-i-Rustam Inscription, where a portrait of him is given. According to the Behistun Inscription, the conspirator was not Aspachana, but Ardumanish, son of Vahuka. 7 Gobryas (Gaubaruva) the Patiskhorian is joined with Aspachana at Naksh-i-Rustam as the lance-bearer of Dareios. He may be the general of Kyros who occupied Babylon and reduced Babylonia. 8 The list given at Behistun is Vidaframa (Ataphernes in Ktesias, ArtaphrenSs in jEskhylos, who makes him slay the Magian, Pers. 782), the son of Vayaspara ; Utana, the son of Thukhra ; Gaubaruva, son of Marduniya (Mardonios); Vidarna (Idernes in Ktesias), son of Bagabigna; Bagabukhsha(Megabyzos), son of Daduhya; and Ardumanish, son of Vahuka. They were all Persians. Vidarna defeated the Medes during the Median revolt at the beginning of the reign of Dareios. See vii. 135, and for his sons Hydarnes and Sisanmes, vii. 83, 66. His descendants became kings of Armenia down to the time of Alexander the Great (Strab. xi. p. 771). Max Duncker has shown that Kt&ias has given the sons of the comrades of Dareios instead of the conspirators themselves (Hist, of Antiquity, Engl. Tr., v. p. 329). His Idernes is the son of Vidarna, the brother of Sisamnes. So we have Mardonios the son of Gobryas, instead of Gobryes, Anaphes or Onophas the son of Otane\s (Herod, vii. 62), instead of Otanes. See note 4 above. 9 A mistake ; see note 2 above. In the Behistun Inscription, Hystaspes is satrap of Parthia, not of Persia. 1 According to Dareios, "no one dared to say anything concerning Gomates the Magian" until he arrived. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 265 TO crG)(j>povieCkeTe 67r' vfieoav a&T&v fiaWofievoi irouelv rdora' eve ire Be vfilv dvacj>epeiv e? ifKeova^ eBoicev teal ifiol inrepedeaOe, r) iroieofiev a-rj/iepov rj tare vfilv on, rjp vireptrecrri TJ VVV rjfiepr), &>6as e/jueo Karrjyopos earai, dX\d cea auTO? 67a) Karepea) 7T/3O? TOV Mdyov." \eyei 7TjOO? rdora 'OravT;?, eTreiBt) &pa cnrepxpfievov 72 Aapelov " eVetre rjfiea^ avvrayyveiv dvayicd%ei Trdpi/J.ev e's ra jSacTbkrjLa ical €iri%eipr)o~a<; o7Bds KOV ical avTO?, el fir} IBcbv, aXX' aKOvcras' Ta? Tea) Tpoirai ireprjo-ofjiev; " dfjuei^eTai Aapelos TolaiBe. " 'OTaz/7?, v) iroXkd ecrrt TO, Xoya) fiev OVK old Te Br)\S>crai, epya> Be' a\Xa B' e a r i TO \6yo) fiev old Te, epyov Be oiBev air avT&v Xafiirpov yiveTai. iifieis Be io~Te ^>i/Xa«a? Ta? KareaTecoca^ iovcra<; oiBev p^aXeTra? •jrapeXdeiv. TOVTO fiev yap r/fiecov eovTcov Toiav ovBel<> OGTIS OV iraprjffei, TO, fiev KOV KaTatBeo/j,evo<; rffiea^, Ta Be KOV KOI Beifialvwv TOVTO Be e%a> ai)To<; a-K^-ty-iv evirpetreGTaT^v Tjj tvdpifiev, <pa<; apTi Te rjKeiv eK Uepaewv Kal BovXeaOal TI eVo? irapa TOV iraTpos o~7]firjvai TS f3ao~iXei. evOa yap TI Bel yjrevBos Xeyeo-0ai, XeyecrOco. TOV yap avTov yXi%ofie0a o'i Te yfrevBofievoi Kal ol TJJ dXr)6eirj Buayjpeuifievov ol fiev ye yJrevBovTai TOT€ eiredv TI fieXXtocri TOICTI yfrevBeai •jretaavTe'; KepBrjo-eaOai, ol BJ dXr]6i£ovTai Iva Trj dXijdeijj eTrio-Trdo~a>VTai KepBo'i Kal TI fiaXXov afyi iTriTpdirTjTai. OVTCO ov TavTa do-KeovTes TWVTOV irepte^ofieda. el Be firjBev KepBrjo-eo~6ai, fieXXoiev, 6/ioi(o<; av o Te dXr)6i^6fievoti ijrevBr)<; eXtj Kal 6 yjrevB6fievo<; dXrjOfc.3 09 av fiev vvv TWV irvXovpmv eKwv trapir), avTco ol dfieivov e? yjpovov ecrTai- o? 8" av dvTiftalveiv ireipaTai, BeiKvvcrOo) evOavTa ev TroXefuo<;, Kal eireiTa wadfievoi eo~o) epyov e^a>fieOa." Xeyei Toftpvrjs fieTa TaoTa " avBpes <j)lXoi, 73 r/filv KOTe KOXXLOV irape^ei dvacrcocracrOai TTJV dp-^rjv, r) el ye fir) 2 " I t all." Several MSS. read a&as, "you," as in 77. x. 398. The neater The Magian revolt is itself a lie. The permissibility of a lie under compulsion was, however, a subject of discussion among the Athenians of the age of Herodotos. See J?skh. Fr. 294 ; Soph, Fr. 325. 266 HERODOTOS. [BOOK olot re eaofieda avTr/v dvaXaf3eiv dirodavelv ; ore ye dp-^pf fiev eovTe? Uipo-at inrb MrjBov dvBpb<; Mdyov, Kal TOVTOV &ra irapeyevovro, ovtc €%OVTO<;. ocroi, Te v/iewv Kafiftvo-rj vocreovTi iravrax; KOV fiifivrjo-de ra eireo-K^e TJepo-yo-i reXevr&v TOV fSiov fir) ireipuifievoiai dvaKTaadai TTJV apyfyv' ra Tore OVK iveSe/cofieda, «XX' eVl SiafioXfj eSotceopev elirelv Kapfivaea. viiv &v rffleficu •yfrr)cf)ov TrelOecrOcu Aapeia Kal /IT) 8ia\ve 'Ev u> Be OVTOL TcioTa ifiovXevovro, iyivero Kara o~uvTvyLr\v Tahe. Tolcri M.dyoicri eBo^e j3ov\evo/j.ivoicn TLpTjgda-irea l\op l jrpoo'8ecr0ai,i OTI re etreirovdei, irpb<; KM,fif3v(7e? dviireio-dv juv ol NLdyoi, Bevrepa "rrpocrecpepov, avTol fiev (fidfievoi, Hepaas iravra^ o~vyKa\eiv VTTO TO /3ao~i\r)iov Tet^o?, Kelvov S' eKeXevov dvaftdvTa iirl irvpyov dyopevaai GO? virb TOV Kvpov ZfiepBios ap^ovrac Kal vir ovBevbs aWov. rdoTa Be OVTIO ivereWovTO 00? TnaroTaTOv Brjdev eovTos avrov ev Tlepo-yo-i, Kal 7ro\Xa«t? d-TroBe^a/jLevov yvu>pvr\v a>? irepievr) 0 K-vpov 75 ^/j.epBi'i, Kal i£apVT)o~afievov TOV 6vov avrov. a/u,evov Be Kal Taora erolfiov elvai iroielv TOV Uprj^dcnreo';, ffvyKaXeo-avTef Ile^cra? ol Mayot dvefiLfiaGav avTov eirl irvpyov Kal dyopevew eKekevov. 6 Be TWV fiev Brj eKelvot, irpocreBeovTO avTov, TOVTWV fiev eKv eXeye 00-a dyaOa, Kvpos Ilepo-a? ireiroir)KOL, Bie^eXOmv Be rdora e^i(j>aive TTJV dXr\Qevr\v, (pd/jbevos ivpoTepov fiev KpinrTeiv {ov yap ol elvai do~(f}aXe<; Xeyeiv TO, yevofieva), ev Be TCO irapeovTb dvayKait]v 4 It is clear from this that Herodotos considered Prexaspes to have returned to Persia after the death of Kambyse's (ehh. 63-66). Hence he placed the death of the latter during the usurpation of Gomates, B.C. 522. This is now rendered doubtful (ch. 62, note 8). Stein re- marks : '' There were plainly three traditions respecting the discovery of the Magos. According to one it was made by Dareios himself (ch. 71), according to another by OtanSs and his daughters, according to a third by Prexaspes. Herodotos has combined all three." in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 267 fiiv KaraXafiftdveLV <j)aiveiv. ical Sr) eXeye TOV fiev AfiepBiv a>? avTo? VTTO Kapfivo-ea) dvay/ca^o/Aevos airoicreiveie, TovaXr)V <$>epea6ai dirb TOV nrvpyov Kara). fj,ev vvv icbv TOV irdvTa yjpbvov dvrjp BoKifio1; ovro) 01 Be Brj eirra rcov TLepaeav eo? efioxiKevaavTO avTLica eiri- 76 j(eipelv TOIGL M.dyouai ical fir) virep/3dWeo-Qcu, rjiaav ev^dfjuevoi Tolcri deolo-t, TCOV vrepl Ylprjjjdcnrea 'Trprj^devrtov elBores ovBev.6 ev re Br) TTJ 6B
dvr] iprjKcov eTrrd ^evyea Bvo alyviriSiv %evepe' icaraiBeofievoi yap ol v\a/eoi avBpas TOII? Jlepaetov irpcorovi ical ovBev TOLOVTO vTroTnevovTes elj avT&v eaeadat, traplecrav Oely -rrofjiirfj ^pecofievov^,7 ovB' eirevpayra ovBel<;. itrelre Be ical iraprfKdov e? rrjv avKrjv, eveKvpaav Tolau ra? dyyeXias io~ 5 Ktesias tells the story of Ixabates or Izabates, one of the chief eunuchs, who, however, had not been the murderer of Bardes, and who was put to death by the Magi after being dragged from a temple in which he had taken refuge. Dareios says (at Behistun) that Gomates slew many people who had known the old Bardes, lest the deception should be discovered. 6 The death of the Magian happened on the 10th of the month Bagayadish, which Oppert makes the 2d of April. According to Ktesias the conspirators were admitted into the palace by Bagapates, who kept the keys. The Magian was sleeping with a concubine, a BabyIonian, and defended himself for a while with the golden leg of a chair he had broken off, no assistant being present, 7 Dareios says that what he did was done by the help of Ormazd, to whom he had prayed. 268 HERODOTOS. [BOOK rrjviKavra iovres re eVw Kal ra dirb Tlprjgdo-n-eo'; yevofieva iv fiovXrj e%ovTe<}. iirel &v elSop roi)$ evvov%ovv 7ro\e/Aia>v Kal TrpocrKebfievav, r\v •yprjcrra ovBevm 6 8' erepos rrj alyjty r/fwvero Kal rovro fiev hxriraQivriv iraiei e? rov fiypov, rovro Be 'IvraOaXfi6v- Kal ecrreprjOr) /xev rov oda\/Mov e« rov rpaofiaros o 'lvra<j>pevr]evyei, deXcov avrov irpoaQelvau r a ? Ovpai, Kal ol o~vvecnrirrrovai r&v kirra Bvo, Aapelos re Kal To/3pvr)<;. ? TOU Mdyov. diroKrelvavres Be TOU? M.dyovs Kal dirora/jiovref avrmv ret,? KeaXd<;, roiis fiev rpcofiariaf ecovrwv airov XeiTrovcn Kal dBwaarlrj? e'iveKev Kal aKpoiroXios, ol Be irevre avr&v e%ovreaXa<; eOeov flor) re Kal irardyrp ^(pedtfievoi, Kal Ilepcra? TOVS aWou? eireKaXeovro e^rjyeofievoi re rb 7rpr)yfia Kal BeiKvvovre<; KeaXd$, Kal dfia eKreivov irdvra riva, ra>v M.dya>v rov ev yivofievov. ol Be Tiepv M.dya>v rr)v dtrdrtjv, iBiKaiovv Kal avrol erepa roiavra rroielv, o-iracrd/Mevoi Be ra iy^eipiBia eKreivov OKOV riva Mayov evpio-Kov el Be fir) vi/l; eireXdovo-a e6vta'9 iv rfj Mdyov ovBiva ej-ecrn avr)vai e? rb <£<«?, a \ X a Kar OOKOV; i(ovrov<; ol Mdyoi e-yovcri rr)v yjfiAptjv ravrrjv. 80 'E7T£tT£ Be Karecrrrj 6 dopvfios Kal CKTO? Trej/Te r/ftepewv1 8 Light being excluded on account of the heat. 9 See ch. 65, note 2. Tournier (Rev. de Phil., 1877) would without sufficient reason expunge the clause. 1 "Over five days." According to in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 269 eyevero, e/3ov\evovro oi i'Travacrravre'} rolcrt, Mdyoccri irepl r&v iravrwv irpr/yfidrmv Kal e\e/)(6'qvvap%bri,3 rrj efje6ovo<; Be dp%f}&ev ifupverai dv6pd>iru>. Bvo S' e%a>v rdora e^ei iraaav KaKorrjra- ra fiev yap vfipet, KeKopijfievos epBei TTOXXOL Kal drdcrOaXa, TO Be <j)66vq>. Kairoi avBpa ye rvpavvov a0ovov k'Bet, elvai, eypvrd ye irdvra ra dyaOd. rb Be iiirevavrlov rovrov e? TOW? TroXtjfra? Tre Be &piaro^ ivBeKecOai. dvapfioo~rorarov Be irdvrwv r\v re yap avrbv fierpla><; dwvfidfygt;, a^Qerai on ov Kapra Oepaireverat, r\v re 6epaTtevy ris Kapra, a%0erai are OCOTTL ra Be Brj fieyterra ep%o/iat, ipiwv vofiaid re Kivel irdrpia Kal fiiarai yvvaiKas Krelvei re aKpirovs. Be apyov irpwra fiev ovvofia irdvrtov KaWicrrov e%ei, la Bevrepa Be rovrcov r£>v 6 fiovvapftos Troiei ovBev irdXtp fiev dp%d<; dp^ei, vTrevQvvov Be dp%r)v e^ei, fSovKevfiara Be irdvra et TO Koivbv dva(pepec. rldefiai av yvdfirjv fierevra nroWtp evt, ra irdvra." fiev Brj ravrr/v Sext. Empeir. (adv. Mhet. 33), it Was a custom of the Persian nobles to remain without a government for five days after the king's death. 2 The Greek readers of Herodotos displayed a wise incredulity, since the sentiments expressed were those of Greeks, not of Persians. The Behistun Inscription implies that Dareios succeeded to the throne by right of birth; the overthrow of the Magian usurper being the signal for the assertion of Persian and Zoroastrian supremacy, and the restoration of the family of Dareios to power (see App. V.) Herodotos does not tell yvwfirjv ecre<j>epe' Meyd/3v!£o<} Be 81 us how he knew that these speeches were spoken although he had not travelled in Persia, and was unacquainted with the Persian language. The incredulity of " t h e Greeks" about the matter is referred to in vi. 43, and we may gather from the two passages that the copy of the text of Herodotos which we now have is a revised edition of his work, which he brought out shortly before his death. 3 "How can single rule be a welladjusted thing." Contrast II. ii. 204-5 ; also Eurip. Fr. 8 ; and Arist. Pol. iii. 15. l "Equality of rights." 270 HER0D0T0S. [BOOK 'irj eKeXeve iiriTpdireiv, Xeycov TaSe. " TO. fiev '( elire TvpavviBa iravcov, XeXe%&a> Kafiol TaoTa, TO, 8' e? TO TrXrjOo*; dvcoye tpepeiv TO KpaTOS, yvcbfirj? TTJ<; dpicrTrj<; rjfidpTrjKe- OfiiXov yap d^prjiov ovBev icrTi do-vveTcoTepov ovBe vfipio~TOTepov. Kal Tvpdvvov vftpiv tfrevyovTas dvBpas e? Stjfiov aKoXdcnov vftpw irecrelv e<7Ti oiBafitos dvac^eTov. o fiev yap et TL iroiel, yivwo~Ktov Troiei, TU> Be ovBe yivcocKeiv eve /KCO? yap av yiva>o-/coi o? OWT' i8iBd%6r) OVTS elBe KaXov ovSev [o&8"] OIKIJIOV,& mOel Te ifiirecrcbv TO, TrprjyfiaTa avev voov, yeifidppa TTOTafiSt eiKeXos ; Brjfiq) fiev vvv, ot Ylepo~yo~i KCIKW voeovcn, OVTOI ^jpaadoav, ^fieW Be dvBpojv TWV dpio~T(ov iirtXe£avT€<> ofitXirjv TOVTOIGL irepudecufiev TO KpaTO<>' iv yap STJ TOVTOIGI Kal avTol iveo~bfieda' dplo~T Meya/3u£b? fiev Sr/ Tainrjv yvtofirjv icreepe- TpiTO<; Be Aapeto? direBeiKWTO yvdo/xrjv, Xeycov " ifiol Be TO, fiev elire ^JieydfSv^os e? TO irXrjOo'i e^ovTa BoKel 6pda>s Xe^ai, TO, Be e? oXiyap^tTjv OVK 6p8co<;. TpiSiv yap irpoKeifievcov Kal irdvTcov TCO Xoya> dpiGTcov iovTcov, Brjfiov Te dplaTov Kal oXiyap^irj<; Kal fiovvdp%ov, 7roXXa> TOVTO Trpoej(eiV Xeyco. dvBpb<> ydp e^o? TOV dp£o~Tov oiBev dfieivov av <j>aveirj- yvcofiy yap ToiavTrj ^peco/ievo? iiriTpoirevob av dficofii]TCO<; TOV irXrjdeos, criycpTO Te av ftovXevfiaTa 67rt Bvcr/nevea<; avBpas OVTCO fidXicrTa. iv Be oXiyap-^ir) TTOXXOIGL dperrjv iiracrKiovari e'? TO KOLVOV e%6ea XBta Xayypd cpiXel iyyiveadau-6 avTOs ydp e/cauTO? j3ovXofievo<; Kopvcpaios elvat yvcofirjcri Te VLK&V e's €%6ea fieydXa dXXijXoiGi diriKveovTai, i^ &v crTacrte? eyylvovTai, iK Be T&V (TTacricov cpovos' e/c Be TOV <j)6vov d"Kef3r\ e? fiovvapxlrjv, Kal iv TO'VTCO SteSefe ocrcp iarl TOVTO apicrTov. Brjfiov Te av ap%ovTO<; dBvvaTa fit) ov KaKOTijTa iyy£veo~dae TOIVVV eyyivofievrjs e? Ta Koivd eydea fiev OVK iyyiveTab KaKolat, (piXlab Be Icr^ypai- ol ydp KaKovvTes Ta Koivd 5 TroieovcTi. TOVTO Be TOIOVTO yiveTat e? o av •a? Tt? TOV Bijfiov TOW? TObovTov; iravo-rj. eK Be avTcov OVTO? Br) V7ro TOV Brjfiov, 9covfia%6fievo<; Be dv' cov i(pdvr] fiovvap~)(p to arise in a body which (collectively) governs the commonwealth wisely and well." 7 "Laying their heads together;" so vii. 145. Allusion is made to the political clubs. in.] THE PEESIAN EMPIRE. 271 KpaTicrTov. evl Be eirei irdvra crvWafiovTa elirelv, Kodev rjfilv r) eXevdepir) iyevero Kal reo 8cWo? ; /corepa Trapa TOV Brj/iov i) 6\iyap%l7)<; i) (lovvdpyov; ej^w TOLVVV yva>/ii)v r)/iea<; i\ev6epo)6evTa<; Bia eva dvBpa TO TOIOVTO irepicrTeXXeiv, vcopk Te TOVTOV Trarplovi vofiovs fir) Xveiv e^ovra^ eS- oi yap dfieivov." Tvwfiat, (lev By Tpels avTai Trpoe/ceaTO, oi Be Tea-crepes TWV 83 eiTTa avBpuv irpocriOevTO TavTt). di<; Be eacrmOr] TTJ yvcofirj 6 OTaz/77? TLepo~ri /ieTai, Bifka yap Brj OTI Bet eva ye Tiva r)fj,ecov ftaaikea yeveadat,, rjroi icXrfpip ye Xa^ovra, •/} eTriTpeyfrdvTeop T&> Uepo'ecov irXr/dei, TOV av e/celvo eXrjTai, r) aXXy TLVI fit]^av§ • iycb fiiv vvv vfiiv OVK ivaymvtio/j,ac. oi/re yap apyeiv ovTe apyecrQai e6ekw eirl TovT(p Be vire^laTafiai r^? apyfis, eir w r e vw' ovBevbs itfiicov ap^o/tai, ovTe ai)TO<; iya> ovre ol air' ifieo alel yivofievoi." TOVTOV eiVaz/ro? TaoTa &>? trvvex Brj o-$i OVK evrjyaivi^eTO aW' i/c TOV fiecrov tcaTr\o~TO, icaX vvv avrrj r) ol/cir) BiareXeX fiovvr) eKevdeprj iovcra TLep&iav ical apyeTai TOcravTa Sera avTTj deXei, vofiovs OVK virepftaivovaa TOW Hepcewv? ol Be Xoiirol TWV 84 eTTTa ejSovXevovTO to? fiacnXea BiKaioTara crTrjaovTav Kal o~<j>i e'Boge 'Gravy /j,ev Kal Tolai CLTTO 'Ordveco alel yivofievoiai, r)v 6? aXXov Tiva rav eirTa eXdrj r) fSao~£kr)iri, i^aipera BLBoaOat ecOrfrd re MTJBLKTJV eTeof eKao-rov Kal TTJV iracrav Baper)v fj yiveTai iv Hepo-pcri Ti/MLaTaTT}. TovBe Be eXveKev eftovXevadv ol BIBoa&at, rdora, on e/3ovXevcre re 7rpa>T0<; TO irpr)yfj,a Kal o-vveaT7jo-e avTov'i. TaoTa [lev Brj 'OTavy e^aipeTa' TaBe Be e? TO KOLVOV efiovXevcrav, iraptevav e? TO, fiao-Ckr)ia irdvTa TOV /3ovXo/j,evov TOJV eirra avev iv. irepl Be Trjs ySacrtX^w;? eftovXevcrav TOiovBem oreo av 6 'ITTTTOS r)Xlov eTravareXXovros TrpGiTos dey!ji)Tat, iv TO) irpoao-Teiai avr&v eTnfiefirjKOTCov, TOVTOV e%eiv rr)v fiao-tXrjirjv. Aapeiq> Be f/v iTnroKOfios dvr)p cro^)O9, TW ovvofia rjv Olfidpijs. 85 •7T/3O? TOVTOV TOV avBpa, i-welre BteXvdrjaav, eXe^e Aapeios TaBe. " O'l/3ape<;, T)/IIV BeBoKrai, irepl rfj dviovri avrwv TOVTOV ej(eiv rr)v ftacnXriLrjv. vvv wv el Tiva 8 The position of the family of Otanes was probably due to the marriage of his daughter Pbeedyme' to Kambyses, Gomates, and Dareios, and of his granddaughter Amestris to Xerxes, 272 HERODOTOS. [BOOK ep^et? croi7)v, firj^avco to? av r/fieis o-^&fiev TOVTO TO yepa<; ical fir] aXXo9 Tt9." dfiel/3eTai Ol/3dpr)<; TolaiBe. "el fiev Brj & Beo-iroTa ev TOVTQ> TOI ia-rl rj ftaatXea elvai r\ firj, Qdpaei TOVTOV eXveicev KaX dvfwv e%e ayadov, <»? fiao-iXevs ovBel? «XXo9 irpo creo eo-Tai- Toiavra ey/w dpfiaKa." ~keyei Aapelo? "el TOLVVV TI TOIOVTOV eyet? o~6p rjfiiv e? iylvero y vv^, Twf Orfkeosv liririov v, T^I> o Aapeiov '£inro<; eo-Tepye fiakurra, TavTTjv dyaycov e'? TO irpodo-TBLov KaT&8r)o~e ical eirrjyaye TOV Aapeiov Xirirov ical TO, fiev TroWa irepirjye dyxpv rfj Xirirto eyyjplyinrTwv Ttj OrfKerj, TeXo? 86 Be iirijKe 6%evcrai TOV fanrov. afi rjfiipy 8e 8t,a^>a>aK0vcry oi e£ KaTa o~vve6i]tcavTO fjraprj9 KaTa TOVTO TO yaplov eylvovTO iva Trjs irapov^ofi,evrj<; WKTOt KaTeBeBeTO fj QrfKea Zmros, evdavra o Aapeiov Xinros irpocrBpafimv i^pefieTio-e' afia Be rc3 iirirto TOVTO irotrjo-avTi da-Tpwirr} eg aWpirjs KaX fipovTr) eyeveTO. eTriyevofieva Be TaoTa TW Aapelw eTeXewo-e /uv &a-"jrep iic o-vvdeTov Teo yevofieva' oi Be tcaTadopovTes diro T&V %Tnrwv ntpoo-eicvveov TOV 87 Aapeiov. oi fiev Brj ao-i TOV Olftdpea TaoTa firj^(avrjo-ao-0at, oi Be ToidBe (>eal yap e V dfifyoTepa Xeyerai viro Hepo-emv),9 &>? TJJ? i7r7rou TavT7}<; T&V apdpwv eirityavo-at; TTJ %eipl e^ot, aiiTrjv1 «/3vi|ra? ev Trjo-i dvagvplcn- &>? Be afia TCS f)\la> dviovTt, airleo-0ai fiiXKetv TOI<9 Xirirovt, TOV Olftdpea TOVTOV i^elpavra TT\V %elpa 7T/)O9 TOV Aapeiov Xirirov TOU? fivKTrfpa? Trpoa-evelicai, TOV Be aiaftofievov pt,jid!jao'6al Te ical j(pefieTio~ai. 88 Aapelos Te Brj 6 "TaTao-ireo^ /3acrtXeu9 dtreBeBeKTO, ical oi fjaav ev TT} 'Atrij; wdvTes KaTr\Kooi irXrjv 'Apafiltov, KtJjoou r e KaTaa-Tpeyjrafievov KOX vo-Tepov avTL<; K.afif3v<7eco.2 'Apdfiioi Be oiBafia KaTrjKovaav iiri BovKocrwrj Uepcrrjcn, aXXa. gelvoi iyevovTO 9 This is an indication that we have to do with a popular legend. Thunder and lightning in a clear sky appear in many popular tales as an announcement of the will of heaven (comp. Hor. Odes, i. 34; Verg. Georg. i. 487, JEn. vii. 141; Xen. Kyrop. i. 6 ; Ktes. Fr. 29). In Hebrew thunder is the " voice of God." The whole story grew out of the rocksculpture mentioned in ch. 88, and the popular interpretation of the unknown inscription attached to it. A variation of. the legend seems to be given by'Nik. Dam., who ascribes the successes of Kyros to CEbares, a name which is rightly translated 6.ya0i.yye\os (Persian 'U-bara) by Nik. Dam. Fr. 66. 1 i.e. the hand. 2 Dareios had to reconquer the empire piecemeal, as the Behistun Inscription tells us. See Appendix V. Herodotos must mean that the Phoenicians and Kyprians were subdued by Kambyses (see ch. 19, note 8). THE PEESIAN EMPIEE. III.] Ka/A/3v i ' ApTverTwvrjv, TTJV fiev Kafi/3vcrT] r e TG> dBe\. ftev Buo OvyaTepas "Aroaa-ap "Krocro-av Trpocrvvoi/crjcrao-av TGO Mdyq>, Trjv Be 'ApTvo'Tcovrjv Ovyarepa e r)v Hdp/j,v<;- e OvyaTepa, rj KaTaBrfkov eiroirfae' •npSiTOV //.ev vvv ivfjv dv-qp Bvvdfiio<; re iravra TVTTOP •rroi.rjadfjievo's XiOivov t7T7rev?, eireypatye " Aapeto? o "Tardcnreo^ \eycov 'Apafiicov OVK ydfj,ov<; re TOV<} irpdarovi eTeprjv Be S/ae/aSto? TOV K.vpov TOV Mdyov ol deKovrcov yap e? A'iyvmov. TJepo-rjcn s 6 Aajoeto?, Kvpov iyd/iei re liepaai 273 aw Be ypd/Mfiara iroirjaa^ t, Ta? avTol Kal eirnrrriaa^ 3 " O f the first rank as the Persians considered." Cp. i. 117; vi. 70. Dareios had already married a daughter of Gobyras (vii. 2), and he afterwards married Phratagune, daughter of his brother Artane's (vii. 224). The sons of Atossa were Xerxes, Masistes (vii. 82), Akhaanenes (vii. 97), and Hystaspes (vii. 64) ; of Artystone, Arsames and Gobryas (vii. 69, 72). 4 When he had reconquered the empire he caused the sculptures and great inscription of the sacred rock of Behistun (Bagistana, "place of the gods "), on the road from Babylonia to Hamadan (Agbatana), to be engraved. Sargon mentions a place called Bit-ili (Bethel), "house of the gods," in the same locality. 5 See i. 192, note 5. Dareios gives three lists of the " provinces " (dahydva) of the empire, which varied at different periods of his reign. At Behistun he counts twenty-three : Persia, Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, the islands of the sea, Saparda, Ionia, Media, Armenia, Kappadokia, Parthia, Zarangia, Aria, Khorasmia, Baktria, Sogdiana, Gandaria (Candahar), the Sakae, Sattagydia, Arakhosia, and Maka (the Arabian peninsula in the Straits of T ^mov Be \eyovra rdBe. eKrrjo-aro TT\V TIepo~ia>v Be TaoTa iv TUpcrycri a/3%<X9 Kareo-TqcraTO 89 KaXeovaru Garparirrjla'i-6 ap%oi>Ta<; eTnivrfkearo. re TOV IITTTOV rfj dperf} " TO ovvofia " Kal Ot'jSapeo? TOV liriroKOfiov fiacrtX7)LT]v." ol earqcre'i erd^aro KaraaTi]a-a<; Be (f>6povs ol ras irpocrievat Ormuz). The words " and the maritime districts " are inserted by the Protomedic text, the Babylonian has "Egypfon the sea." Saparda is the 'Saparda of the Assyrian Inscriptions (Scpharad, Ob. 20) south-west of Lake Urumiyeh. For Gandaria the Protomedic and Babylonian texts have Par(r)uparaisanna (Paropanisos), and the Babylonian text replaces the Saka? by the Zimmirrai (or Kurds). The second list is at Persepolis, and includes twenty-three provinces : Susiana, Media, Babylonia, Arabia, Assyria, Egypt, Armenia, Kappadokia, Saparda, Ionia, Sagartia, Parthia, Zarangia, Aria, Baktria, Sogdiana, Khorasmia, Sattagydia, Arakhosia, India, Gandaria, the Sakse, and Maka. The third list on the tomb of Dareios at Naksh-i-Rustam has twenty-nine provinces : Media, Susiana, Parthia. Aria, Baktria, Sogdiana, Khorasmia, Zarangia, Arakhosia, Sattagydia, Gandaria, India, the Amyrgian Sakaj, and the Sakse with pointed caps, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Kappadokia, Saparda, Ionia (? Kypros), the Sakse of the (Caspian) Sea, Skodria (Skythia), other Ionians with plumes on their heads, Phut (? the Budii), Kush (the Ethiopians), the Matstsiyans (? Maxyes), and the Karkians (? Carthaginians). 274 HERODOTOS. [BOOK Kara edved re Kal 717)0? rolai Wveo~i rovs irXr)<no-)((opov<; irpoaTaa-a-cov, Kal virepfSaipav TOU? irpoo-ej(eaviov rdXavrov Bvparai Eu/3oifiBa? OKTW Kal efihofLriKOVTa p,vkaopov irkpi, aKka hwpa aylveov. Bia, Se ravrrfv TTJV iirira^tv TOV <popov Kai irapaifkv)? Aa/aeto? fiev TJV Kairrfkoi;, Ka/ty8vo-J7 BeiiTepos PO/IOS OVTO<S* dirb Be '^iXXfjcirovTicov TOJV eirl Be^ia ecnrXeovrt, Kal <£>pvyv rd>v iv Trj 'Acrtj? Kal Ha(j>Xay6va>v Kal MapiavBvv&v Kal %vpiasp5 e^i]Kopra Kal TpirjKoaia rdXapra r)p 6po<;- pofibs TjOtTO? OVTOS. dirb Be K-IXIKWP linroi re XevKol e^r/KOPTa Kal rpirjKOcnoi, e/eaorijs r)fiepr)s et? yopofiepos, Kal rdXavra dpyvpiov TrepraKoaiaTOVTWP Be recra-epaKovTa Kal eKarbp 69 rr)v THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. in.] 275 7roXio?, rrjv 'Afi^iXo^of 6 'Afj,(f)idpeco ooKiae iir ovpouri rolci K.iXiKa>v re Kal Svpaiv,7 dpl;dfievo<; dirb r a i m ; ? H&XP1 Alyvirrov, •jrXr/v fioiprj? TT)? 'ApafiLcov 8 (rdora yap fjv dreXia), TrevrrjKovra Kal rpirjKocna rdXavra <popo<; fjv eo~ri Be ev T&> VO/J,W rovrm ot,viKi) re iraaa Kal Svpirj r\ TLaXaicrrivr] KaXeo/jbevq Kal K.virpo<:' VO/J,6>; 7T6/i47rT09 ovTO?. e%ia>v AlyvTrrai riov VO/MOV avrai drr Alyvirrov Be Kal Aiftvoov rwv Trpoa- Kal K.vptfvrjs re Kal HdpKrjs (e? yap rov iK€Ko kirraKoaba Alyvir- irpotrrjie rdXavra, irdpe^ rov IK rfj<; Mo/ya/o? Xl/ivt]<; v i^6va>v rovrov re Bf) ^a>pl<; rov dpyvpiov Kal rov eirifierpeofievov alrov "irpo&ijie eirraKocna rdXavra1 airov yap Bvo Kal BeKa /j,vptdBa re rolai ev T<£> AevKa refyei TCS ev Me/x^t KaroLKr]fievot<Ti Karafierpiovcrt Kal rolai rovrap eVtKotfpotai. vofib? eKTO<; ovro<;. XarrayvBai9 Be Kal TavBdpioi * Kal AaSiKai re Kal 'Airapvrai, 2 e? roavrb rerayftevoi e/3Bofj,i]Kovra Kal eKarbv rdXavra 7rpoo~eepov vofM>$ Se ovrof e/3SoyLto?. dirb %ovapr]<; rpirjKoaia' vo/j,b<> oyBoo<; ovros. dnrb Ba/3uA&)i'os Be Kal T?)? Xot7r^9 'A vofib<; elWro? ovros. l TLapiKaviwv 6 About twelve miles south of the mouth of the Oronte"s, now represented by Bosyt. 7 The foundation of Mallos was also ascribed to him (Strab. xiv. p. 675). 8 From Gaza to Ienysos (eh. 5). 9 Persian Thatagush, Protomedic 'Sattagus. Their exact position is unknown, but they bordered on Kandahar. 1 Now Kandahar (the Gandhdras of the Hindus), see note 5 above. The province is called Paropanisos in the Protomedic and Babylonian texts, a name given by the later Greeks to the Indian Caucasus. The capital was Ortospana or Kabura, now Kabul, in the valley of the KSphgn. See eh. 102, note 7. The Gandharas migrated to Kandahar from the Upper Indus in the fifth or sixth century A.D. 2 For the Dadikae see vii. 66. The Aparytse seem to be the Paryatse of Ptolemy ("mountaineers," from Zend pHru, " mountain "). In the Vannic dirb i Be 'Ayfiardvoov Kal T?J? Kal 'OpOoKopvftavricovb irev- Inscriptions mention is made of the Dadikas or "clan of Dadis," south-west of Lake Urumiyeh. 3 The Kassi of the cuneiform inscriptions who under Khammuragas conquered Babylonia and founded a dynasty there (see Appendix II.) The Kissi or Kosssei (called Kushan by the Syrians) were properly the ancestors of the Lures in the northern mountain borders of Elymais towards Media. 4 In Smith's Classical Atlas it is conjectured that they may be the Barkanii (the Persian form of Hyrkanii), who bordered on the Medes. Perhaps they are the Paretakeni of i. 101,—the Partakanu of Sargon, who makes them a remote Median tribe to the east. Hekatoeos mentioned a Persian city, Parikane. S Orthokorybantes has been supposed to be a Greek word meaning " those who wear upright tiaras" (like the Sakae of the Naksh-i-Eustam Inscription), and to have been an epithet of the Parikajiii, 276 HERODOTOS. [BOOK TrjKovrd re Kal rerpaKocna rdkavra' vofibs Se/coros OUTO?. Kda-Trioi Be Kal Havo-Uai Kal UavTipaOol re Kal AapeiTai,6 e? ravrb (TVfMJiepovTes BirjKO6po<; 7)v vofibs BvmSeKaro<; ofiros. diro TiaKTviKfji;8 Be Kal 'Appeviwv Kal ra>v -n-poa-e^ecov fieXP1 rod TTOVTOV rov ftvgetpov rerpaKocna rdXavra' vofib? rptros Kal BeKaTos OVTO<;. dirb Be Xayapricov g Kal Xapayyeap 1 Kal ®afiavalwv 2 Kal Ovrlcov 3 Kal M.VK(OV i Kal TWV iv rfjcri vr]V iv rfj '^ipvdpfj QaKdaay, iv Trj6po<;- vofibs TerapTos Kal Se/caro? OUTO?. 2,aKai Be Kal Kao"7Ttot TrevryKOVTa Kal Bir/Kocria dirayiveov rdXavra' vofj-bf TrefnrTOS Kal BeKaro? OUTO?. Udpdoi Be Kal Kal "ZoyBoi re Kal "Apeioi7 rpirjKocria rdXavrathe original text being II. ol Kal 'Op0oKopvp&vTwi. Sir H. Rawlinson ingeniously connects the first part of the name with the Zend SrSdhwa, " h i g h ; " and Jaquet makes the second part the Zend girSwantd, "inhabitants." 6 The Kaspii lived on the steppes of the lower Kyros and Araxes, and gave their name to the pass of the Kaspian Gates. The Pausikae seem to be the Pasikse or Apasiakse of Strabo, who were neighbours of the Khorasmians. Conip. the Psesieje of Pliny (iV. H. vi. 19). The Pantimathi are unknown. The Dareitse seem to have inhabited Ptolemy's Dareitis, on the borders of Rhagiana. 7 The jEgli are probably the Augali of Ptolemy, who lived on the Jaxartcs. C. Miiller acutely corrects the ^Egaei of the Paschal Chron. (p. 321) into iEgli, and thus fixes them at Alexandria i) icrx&rii, the Persian border fortress of Kyra or Kyreskhata on the Jaxartes (which the Skythians called Silis, and the Turks still call Syr), in Sogdiana (now Sogd). Lassen and Kiepert would read 2,o"ySS>v, Billerbeck 'Apetwv. 8 Not Paktyikg on the Upper Indus (ch. 102). 9 The Sagartians (Old Persian Asagarta) were nomades. 1 The Zarangians of the Persian texts (from Zend zaraya, Old Persian daraya " a lake"), in the marshy plains of Arakhosia (Kandahar), by the lake of Zerrah or Seistan, into which the Helmend flows. They were also known as Drangae (West Persian d corresponding to East Persian s). 2 Perhaps the Teimunis of Herat. See oh. 117. 3 A tribe of Karmania, not to be confounded with the Uxii (the Khu's'se of the Susian Inscriptions, Persian Huzha, in the modern Khuzistan). Yutiya is a district of Persia in the Behistun Inscription. 4 The Maka of the Inscriptions of Dareios. Hekatseos mentioned them (Steph. Byz. *. v.) in connection with the AraxSs (? the modern Magistan). Comp. the name of Mekran on the south border of the plateau of Persia. 5 The Persian Gulf. 6 Old Persian Huvarazmi, now Khwarism or Kharizm (perhaps " t h e Netherland "), along the Lower Oxus to the Sea of Aral. 7 Old Persian Haraiva. The capital, Alexandria Arei6n, is the modern Herat. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. III.] 6KTO<; Kal Be/caTO? OVTOS. TlapiKaviot e/c Tr) ^AaTiujvolat, /cat M a p t r i 6 elWro? /cat Se/caro? O5TO?. 3 'AXapo- /cat MaKpcocri,4 /cat Mo z/o/i.09 Kal 6pov dirayiveov Trpb<; Kal TpirjKOcria TaXavTa yfrtjyfiaTO<;- TO fiev Br) dpyvpiov TO ~EIVI3OIK6V crv/AftaWoftevov Kal elvaKia^iXta Kal oi 94 efiSofios 'IPSWJ' Se 7r\?}#o? r e 7TOA.\G3 wXetoroi' i^KovTa vofib<; eiKoo~TO<; OVTOS. vofios I>O/AO? 07S005 Kal BeKaTO<; TptrjKocria TakavTa e'crrt iravTwv T&V 97/AeZ? iS/iev dvOpdnrav TrdvTas Tew? aWovs,7 Be Kal AiBioire^ Be Kal Ztdcnreipai} Mo<7^ofcri 8e Kal Tifiapyvolcri, 5 8 dirayiveov S t o w i 2 Bi7)KOo~ia i-rreTeTaKTO rakavra' OVTOS. 277 TaKavTov TakavTa- 8 In Gedrosia or Beluchistan, now represented by the dark Brahui, whose black skins caused the Greeks to call them the Ethiopians of Asia. 9 See i. 189, note 6. The Matieni lay on the borders of Armenia and Media (see i. 72). They are the Matai of the Assyrian Inscriptions of whom Khanatsiruca was king in the time of SamasRimmon (B.C. 821). They are called Amadai by Shalmaneser, and are apparently the Madai or Medes of the later texts. As the Kurds, the Kardukhians of Xenophon (the Zimri or Namri of the Assyrian Inscriptions), are not mentioned, they must have been independent, as they practically are to this day. 1 See i. 104, note 2. If the name is the same as Sapeires, which Steph. Byz. says was later pronounced Sabeires (the Iberi or Georgians of classical geography, called Vir-k by the Armenians), we may compare the country of Sapira mentioned by Tiglath-Pileser II. as south of Lake Urumiyeh. It may be the same as the Saparda of Sargon (and the Persian Inscriptions), which bordered on the north of Aranzi (Orontes) or Mount Elwend. The Saspeires separate Media from Kolkhis (iv. 37), and must therefore have been regarded as extending over a large tract of country and occupying all Eastern Armenia and a portion of Georgia. 2 Sir H. Eawlinson is certainly right in identifying the Alarodians with the TO ^aftvkdiviov yiverai. Trpbs 95 oyBcoKOVTa Kal TO Be ypvaiov TpicrKacBe- Urardhians of the Assyrian Inscriptions, the inhabitants of Ararat, called Biaina or Van by the natives, who seem to have been the ancestors of the modern Georgians, and were driven northwards by the Aryan Armenians. 3 The Moskhi and Tibareni (Assyrian Muscai and Tublai, Biblical Meshech and Tubal) are generally coupled together in the inscriptions, and originally extended as far south as Melitene' and Kummukh, or Komagene, on the east, and Kilikia on the west. The Moskhi were made a Kolkliian tribe by Hekatseos as the Tibareni were by the Scholiast on Apoll. Ehod., and the cuneiform inscriptions make the Kaskai their eastern frontagers. In Strabo the mountains about Erzerum are called Moskhian. 4 See ii. 104, note 1. See Xen. Anab. v. 4. Miaavv signified one of the "wooden houses" in which they lived (Dion. Hal. i. 2 6 ; Strab. p. 549). 6 Restored by Voss; the MSS. have Marsians (two have Mardians). Steph. Byz. makes them neighbours of the Mossynoeki, and they are mentioned by Hekataeos. 7 Not "equal to that of the rest," as this was not the case, but [irXeiarov being understood again with (f>6pov) " the largest amount of tribute in comparison with all the rest" (cp. viii. 44 : vias irpbs Tdvrat Toils flXXous). 6 278 HERODOTOS. [BOOK Xoyi^6fievov,a TO yjrrjy/Mt evpiffKerai iov ical TeTpaicia^CKimv. TOVTakdvTiov 6yBa>K0VTa ical k^anoaiav TU>V &v TrdvTcov cvvTidefievcov TO irKfjOo'i Ev/3oi7<:a raXavTa avveXeyeTo e? TOV eirereiov fyopov Aapelco fivpia ical Terpaicio-^lXia ical irevTatcoaia ical eS-tficovTa- TO S' en TOVTCOV eXao~o~ov dineh y OVTO? Aapeta) irpoar^ie 6po<; diro Trjs r e 'Affwj? ical TJJ? oXiyaj^odev.1 irpoiovTos fievrot, TOV %povov ical diro Trpo6po<: ical Ttbv ev Trj ^iiipcoirr) fie%pt ol/crj/iivav. TOVTOP TOV (j>opoi> Otjcravpi^eu /3aariXev<; rpoira Toi&he. e? TTIOOVS icepa/j,ivov<; Ttjijas Kara^ei, TTX^CO.? oe TO- dyyo6pcov eVtTafte?. ff Uepopof dreXea yap TIepcrat vkfiovTav yti>p"i)v. oi&e Be 6pov fiev oiSeva erd^Orjcrav (j>epeiv, Bcapa Be dyiveov. AlOloTret; ol irpoaovpov A.lyvTrT(p, TOU? Ko/iicareaTpk^raTO, ySuo-'j;? eXavvtov eVt TOII9 fiaicpofiiovs AWloiras o'l irepi Te Nvarjv Trjv leprjv KaToiKtjVTat, ical TW Aiovvacp dvdyoven TaapTo<> oBovTas [/,eyd\ow; ei'«oo"i.5 96 8 " If the gold be reckoned at thirteen times the worth of silver." See i. 14, note 2. 9 "Putting aside the fractions of a talent." The arithmetic of Herodotos is, as usual, at fault. Summing up the items he gives, the whole amount of the silver is (7740 Babylonian =) 9030 Euboic talents, not 9540 ; while 9540 added to 4680 is 14,220, not 14,560. The amount ought to be 13,710 Euboic talents (about three millions and a half of our money). 1 Herodotos must have derived his information from an official list; and as he did not know Persian, Greek translations of such Persian official records must have been accessible in his day. 2 See ch. 38, note 8. Nothing has been said of the Kallantians feeding on seeds (? rice), and Naber and Stein accordingly expunge the passage. But Herodotos may have left it in the second edition of his work after striking out what it alludes to. Valckenaer conjectures ff^fiwn, Wesseling ^py/iaru 3 See iv. 183, where their language is compared to the squeaking of bats. The Tibbus, against whom the inhabitants of Fezzan make slave-hunts, still live in caves, and their neighbours compare their language to "the whistling of birds." 4 i.e. the Troglodyte Ethiopians and their neighbours. But the preceding passage seems much corrupted. 6 Ivory and ebony (Egyptian habni) in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 279 Be ragdfiepot, e? TTJP Bcoperjp6 ical oi Trpoo-e^el<; ^p Kau/cacrto? opeos (e? TOVTO yap TO 6'po? i>7ro Tiepcryai apteral, TO, Be Trpb? /3opir)v avefiov TOV Kav/cacrto? Uep&ewv ovBep eVt povTi%ei), OVTOI Siv BCopa ra irdgavTo en ical e? ifj,e Bia •7revreT7)pl8o<; ayiveov, eicaTov 7ratSa? ical iicaTOv 7rap6evov<;J 'Apdfiioi Be %i\ia rdXapra ayiveov Xifiavayrov8 dva vav eVo9. Taora /xev ovrot Bcopa irdpe^ TOV (jjopov /3aprj<; TO irpb'i TJXLOV dvio"XpvTa ifrdfi/j,os' TO>V yap rifiels 'iBfiev, ToiV ical irepi, aTpeice'i TL XeyeTai, Trp&Toi 7T/3O? rjtb ical rjXiov dvaToXas ol/ceovfft dvOpwirmv TWV iv Trj 'Atrcrj 'IvBol- 'IvBa>v yap TO TT^O? Tr/v r/w eprjfiir) ecTTt Bia, TTJP ^rdfifiov.9 Be -rroXXa eOvea 'IPBWP ical OVK 6/j,6(f>a>pa o-opeovo-i itrdfJTa Xoti>7)piireav etc TOV iroTa/j,ov Xovp dfjurjcraai ical icoyfrcoai, TO evQevTep Tpoirop KaTairXe^aPTe^ o>? dooprj/ca evBvveovai. aXXoi Be 99 i/S&jf 7rpo? rjSi oliceoPTe<; TOVTCOP, vofidBes elcri, icpe&p iBeo~Tal &)/i«i># icaXeoPTai Be TlaBalot,3 po/MaioKTi Be ToioiiaiBe XeyoPTai -^pacOai. o? av icdfir) T&P do~T(OP, v\p Te yvvrj f/P Te dvTjp, TOP [iev dpBpa apBpes oi /jidXicrTa oi ofiiXeoPTes KTeivovai, dfievot avTov TTjico/xevov Trj povo~
6elpeo'0af were among the tribute brought by the Ethiopians to the Egyptian kings. 'E\t<pas is the Assyrian alap or alab, " a n elephant," probably from alapu (Heb. eleph), " a n ox." Comp. Jos Zucas in Latin. In Egyptian ah is " an elephant," in Sanskrit ibhas. 6 "Imposed a gift on themselves." The MSS. have Ira^av, one reading ird^avro. 7 So Circassian and Georgian women were sent to Constantinople. 8 A Semitic loan-word ; Hebrew Vbon&h. The plant is the Juniperus Lycia or Boswellia thurifera. " Kt&ias knew better, as he had heard of mountains in India. 1 The Indus. 2 Bamboos, or rather, according to Lassen, kanas, are meant. According to Lassen the custom of eating fish " i s ascribed in the great Indian Epic to the inhabitants of the Southern Sarasvati (e\tbdijs), . . . which falls into the sea not far from the Indus" (Ind. AUerthiim, ii. p. 635). 3 Perhaps named from the river Paddar. Some of the nomad Gondas in the north Dekkan still eat their parents (see Lassen's Ind. Alterthiim. ii. p. 635). Cp. Tibull. iv. 1, 143-4, and see ch. 38, note 8, and Strab. p. 710. Also Thuk. iii. 94. In the Kig-Veda dmdd (dma-ad), "eater of raw flesh," is an opprobrious epithet applied to the native barbarian. 280 HEEODOTOS. [BOOK 6 Be airapveofievos ecrri fir) fiev votrelv ol Be oi avyyivaxTKOfievou airoKretvavres Karevw^iovrai. r) Be av yvvr) Kafir/, cbcravT6)? ai iinxpedbfievai fidXicrra yvvalices raird rolcn avBpdai iroieovcri. rbv yap Brj e? yfjpas airiKOfievov dvcravres Karevioj(eovrai- e? Be rovrov Xoyov oi iroXXoi rives aircov airiKveovrai' 100 7T/3O yap rov rbv e? vovaov iriirrovra irdvra KTeivowb. erepav Be ea-ri 'IvB&v oBe aWos rpoiros. ovre Kreivovai ovBev ovre TI cnrelpovcn ovre olicias vofio^ovai eKTrjaOat, iro^ re- ical avroicri earl b'aov Keyyjpo'i TO fieyaOo<;4 iv KOKVKI, avro/Aarov eic TJ79 76a? yivofievov, rb crvWiyovres airy rfj icdXv/ci e'yjrovv /careke^a jrdvrav ifufjavrj'; io-ri Kara irep raiv Trpofidrcov,6 Kal TO %poo[ia (popeovai 8/j.oiov 7rdvre<; Kal irapairXi^a'tov AlOdo^i' 17 yovr) Be avrwv, rrjv anrievrai e? Ta? yvvaiKas, oi Kara irep rutv aXXav avdpanruv iarX \evKr), aXka, nekaiva Kara irep rb ^pwfia' roiavrrjv Be Kal A.iOioire'i dirlevrai OoprjV. ovroi fiev rwv 'IvBcov eKaarepa rc7>v Uepcreayv olxeovcri Kal irpb<; vorov dvifiov, Kal Aapeiov ySacrtXeo? oiBafia, virijKovo-av. 102 "AXX01 Be r&v 'lvBwv Kaa-irarvpa> re iroXei Kal rrj TlaKrviKy X^PV e ' ° " ' irpoaovpoi, irpbs apKrov re Kal fiopea dvefiov KaroiKrjfievoi r&v aXXcov 'IvBcov, oi JSaKrpiouo-L irapairXrjcrirjv e^pvai Biairav ovroi Kal fia^t'^iorarol, elcri 'IvBcov Kal ol eirl rbv xpvirbv trreXXofievoi elal ovrot,- Kara yap rovro icrrl ipr/fiir] Bia rrjv •^rdfifiov. iv Brj cov rfj ipr/fity ravry Kal rfj •^rdfi/juo yivovrai, fj,vp/j,r)Ke<; fieyddea e^oj/Te? KVVCOV fiev eXdcrcrova dXcoireKiov Be fie^ova- elerl yap air cov Kal irapa (HaabXei rcov Hepcrecov i "A plant of the size of a millet seed." The description seems to apply rather to Buddhist monks than to rahmins, especially when it is said that they eat no animal food, and neither sow nor build. Perhaps, however, it merely refers to the Yogis or ascetics. Herodotos seems to have got his information from some account of the voyage of Skylax of Karyanda, a city not far from Halikarnassos. See iv. 44. The Periplus of Skylax was not written till the following century, but was based on earlier materials. 5 6 See i. 216 (of the Massagetse), and 201, note 1. The physiological assertion of Herodotos is not correct, 7 Paktyike (see vii. 67) is north-eastern Afghanistan. The Afghans in the east still call themselves Pakhtun (in the west Pashtdn). Kaspatyros, whence Skylax started on his exploring expedition, was more correctly named Kaspapyros by HekatEeos, and is Kaspa-puras, "the city of the Kaspians," the ancient name of Kabul (not Kdsyapa-puras or Kashmir, as Wilson supposed). See ch. 91, note 1. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 281 ivOevrev drjpevdevres. OVTOI, &V ol fivpfinj/ces Troieofievoi VTTO yrjv dvaopiovo~i, TTJV yfrdfifiov Kara Trep ol iv Tolai " Kara rbv avrbv Tpoirov, elerl Be Kal avTolcri, elBos r) Be tyd/Afios r) dvaepofievr] earl %pvcrlTi<;. iirl Br) TT]V yfrdfifiov CTTeXXovTcu e? Tr/v eprjfiov ol 'Iz/Soi, £eu£aeicacrTOS KaixrjXow; r/aet?, ae.ipi)^>opov fj,ev e/carepaiOev epcreva •n-apekiceLV, drfKeav he e? fieaov eVt TavTr\v Brj avrbf avafiaivei, i"7rtTr]Bev(Ta? vewrdrcov airocnrdo'a'; ^ev^ei.s al yap crcfii K.dprfh.01 "inrtiv OVK rjcraoves e? Ta^vrTJrd elcri, ^tupl? Se a^dea Bwarcorepai TTOWOV (pepeiv. TO fiev Brj etSo? OKOIOV TL 103 e^et r/ /cdfi7]\o<;, eTricrTafievoiai, roiai ' EXXiycrt ov o~vyypdpdo~c>). «a/m;Xo9 ev rolcn OTTiadloiai o-/ce\ecn, e%ei, Teacrepas /ATjpovs Kal yovvara Teo-crepa,9 ra re alBola Sia, T&V OTTHTOICOV aKeXeav 7r/)O9 rr)v ovprjv rerpafi/j,eva. ol Be Brj 'IvBol Tpotrcp TOIOVTCC Kal ^ev^ei TOiavTjj 104 XpeddfJbevoL eXavvovcn eVl rbv ^pvabv \e\oyi<7f/,eva}<; 6KW<; KavfidTCOV Tavel<> yivovrau VTTO ytjv. depfioraTos Be ecrrt, 6 ^ \ ( o ? Tovrooo-t Toicrt, dvdpcoTroiai TO eadtvov, ov Kara irep rolao aWoiai /J.ecra/U'^pirj^, aW' vTrepreiXa^ fie^pi ov ayoprjs StaX-vcrto?.1 TOVTOV Be rbv %p6vov tcalei TTOXXW fidWov rj rrj /Aeo-a/j,/3piri rrjv ' E W a S a , ovrco &ar iv vBart Xofyo? ai>TOV<> 2 rr/viKavra. fiecrovcra Be r) r)fiepr) a^eBbv irapaKaiei TOJJ? re aXXovs dv8p Be T?)? fieo~afi/3pLT]<; yiveral aXXoio-t, 6 eadivos, TOU? 'IVBOVS. o~cf)t 6 77X109 Kara Kal rb dwb TOVTOV airiayv irep eVi /JLOXXOV i, e? o 67rj. Bvo~fif}(Tt, iu>v Kal TO KapTa •^rv'^ei,. eTreav Be 105 eXdcoat 69 TOV ^Sipov ol '\vBol e%ovTe<; OvXaKia, i[nrXr)aavT€<; 8 Prof. Wilson suggests that the story arose from the fact that the gold collected in the plains of Little Thibet is commonly called pippilika, or "ant-gold," from a belief that it is exposed by the ants when making their hills. When Nearkhos (Arrian, Indie. 15) says he saw their skins, he must have been shown the furs of some species of marmots, specimens of which may well have been trapped for the Persian king. See Lassen, Ind. Alter, i. pp. 849-50. 9 The "fact" was unknown, for the very good reason that it was no fact at all. The leg has four bones only and three joints. Aristotle corrects the error, His An. ii. 1. l i.e. midday; cp. Xen. (Me. xii. 1, and see ii. 173, note 6. Of course the statement about the heat is as fabulous as the rest of the narrative, 2 "Drench themselves with water." The Greeks were not very fond of bathing, at all events in cold water. Hence the semi-incredulity of Herodotos. Kt&ias (Ind. viii.) was more correct in saying that the morning sun brought coolness. 282 HERODOTOS. [BOOK rdora TT)? •^rdfifiov ri)v Taylo~Ti)V eXavvov? 8r) \iyerat virb Uepcrecov, fiadovTes BicoKOVffi,. elvai Be Ta^yTi)ra ovBevl erepw O/AOIOV, OVTCO &o~re, et, fir) •jrpoXafifidvew rov<; 'Ii'Sou? ri)<; 6Bov iv a> TOV<; fivpfirjKa<; cruXXeyeaQai, ovBeva dv c^eav airoo-a>%eOTepovs'S r a ? Be OrjXea^ dvafiifivrjaKOfievai; TS>V eXnrov reicvcov ivBiBovai /xaKaKOV ovBev. TOV /lev Br) TrX-eco TOV yjpvtrov ovrco ol 'ivBol Krcovrat, to? Tlepcrat, {jiaal' aXX.09 Be CTravicorepo'; icrrl iv rfj 'Xjcoprj opiKTao/xevo';. At B' icrya/rial «:&)? T»?? ol/ceo/ievri1; ra, /caWtcrTa 4 eka%ov, Kara irep r) 'EXXa? ra<; wpa? iroWov TI KdWicrra KeKprj[i.eva<; eXa^e. 5 TOVTO fiev yap Trpbs rr)v r) rj iv TOIO-L a\Xoio-i ^copioicrl icrri, Trdpel; TWI' Xirirwv (OVTOI Be ecrcrovvrai V7TO Tiov Mr)BiKoi>v, "Nuraieav Be KaXeofievcov Xiriraiv ), TOVTO Be Xpvcrb<; a7rXero<; avToOc io-rl, 6 fiev opvao-ofievof, 6 Be KaTa(popeofievos virb 7Torafici)v, 6 Be &o~Trep ic^/irjva dp7ra^6fMevo<;. TO, Be BevBpea TO, dypia avToQt (f>epei Kapirbv ecpia KaWovfj TB irpoipovTa Kal dpeTj} r&v astro TU>V oicov Kal iadrJTi '\vBol dirb 107 TOVToav TSIV BevBpeav %pea)VTai.s -irpbs S' a v fiecrafifiplTjs ia 'Apafiirf T5)V olxeofievifov %a>pea)v iaTi, iv Be Tavrrj re io-rl fxovvr) yapkav iraakoav (f>v6fievo<; Kal \eyovo~i TTJV CTvpaKa OvfuAvres, 3 " Grow tired and begin to drag,"— not, however, both together. 4 'The best productions." 6 Comp. Arist. Pel. vii. 6. 6 Comp. Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6. The Nisaean plain was placed in Media by most writers (those who placed it in Armenia and Persia using these words in an extended sense); and as Alexander passed it on his way from Opis to Ekbatana, it must have lain near Behistun (now the grassy plains of Khawah and Alistar). It was in the district of Nisaea (Nisaya), near the old Median capital, that Gomates was slain, according to the Behistun Inscription. Tiglath- TTJV i? "EXX^va? Pileser II. mentions Nissa among the Median districts in this region. 7 The English have unfortunately not found India so auriferous a country. 8 Cotton is meant. 9 2/j.tipvri is the Heb. mor (with in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 283 f ravTTjv Ov/iiatvTes Xafi(3dvovo~f ra jap BevBpea rdora ra Xif3av(OTO(p6pa 6ie<; viroTTTepoi, arfivKpol TO, fieydBea, TTOIKLXOL ra eiBea, vXdcro-ovcri TrXr)8ei iroXXol irepl BivBpov '4K.CLO-TOV, OVTOI oiirep e V Aiyvirrov eiviGTpaTevovTai} ovBevl Be aXXtp cnreXavvovTai, airo T&V BevBpecov r) TT}? GTVpaKos ra> KairvS. Xeyovcri Be Kai ToBe 'Apd/3ioi, a>? irao-a av yr) e-irifiirXaTo T&V 108 ocpimv Tovrav, el fir) ytvecrOai /car' avroiis olov TI Kara ra<; e^tSfa? ^Tna-rdfirjv iyiveo~6at,.i Kai Kr), oaa fiev [7«/38] ifrv^rfv re BeiXa, Kai iScoBifia, rdora fiev irdvra TroXvyova •neiroir)Ke, "va fir) eTTiXiirr) xareadiofieva, oca Be cj^erXia Kai dvirjpd, oXiyojova. TOVTO fiev, OTI 0 Xayos inro travrb Brj TI iroXvyovov e V n 1 eiriKviaKerai fiovvov drjplav, Kai TO fiev Bao~v ra>v reKVwv ev rfj yacrrpl TO Be ov, TO Be aprt ev Trjo-u fiijTprjo-i TrXdacreTaL, TO Be dvaipeirai.* TOVTO fiev Br) TOIOVTO io-Tf r) Be Br) Xeaiva eov lo-^vporarov Kai dpaavrarov aira% ev T& f3la> TiKTei evb TiKTOvaa yap avveKfidXXet, T«3 TIKVO) T<X? firJTpas. TO Be a'iruov TOVTOV TOBB eo"Tt. eireav o o~KVfivo<; ev rf} firjTpl iwv dp^tjTai BtaKiveofievo<;, 6 Be e%(i)v ovv)(a<; drfpiwv iroXXov irdvTfov o^vTaTovs afivo-crei Tas firjTpa*}, av^ofievot; Te Br) 7roW&5 fidXXov eTriKveiTat, KaTaypda>v TreXas re Br) o TOKO<; earl, Kai TO trapdwav Xeiirerai aineoov vyies ovBev. w? Be Kai al 'i^iBvai re Kai ol ev 'Apa/3£ot.cn viroirrepoi 109 6'<£te? el eyivovTO to? 77 (f>vo-i<; avTolav virdp^ei, OVK av rp> f3cc6cn/j.a dv6pd>iroLdyr). 6 fiev Br) epo~r)v a7rodvrjo~Kei Tpoira T& elptj/jLevm, r) Be 0r)Xea TLUIV roirjvSe diroTivei T& epo~evc. TW yovku TificopiovTa eVt ev rrj yacrrpl iovra TO, TeKva Bieo-diei rr)v fnjTepa, Biacpayovra Be Tr)v 1 See ii. 75, 1. The smoke of gums was believed to drive away evil spirits. 2 "Unless I knew that to happen in regard to them, which I knew," etc. Probably the text originally had albv re otov, '' unless it were possible that should happen in regard to them which I knew." We cannot render "unless (they say) that happened in regard to them which." 3 Though in all the MBS., yhp is unconstruable. 'EOTI is not to be joined with iovaa any more than in vii. 129. 4 "Some of the young in the belly are covered with fur, others smooth, others just formed in the womb, others being conceived." 5 Herodotos is usually unfortunate in his statements about natural history, The lioness has cubs year after year, and seldom so few in any year as one. Homer is more correct (II. xviii. 318). See Arist. Hist. An. vi. 31. 284 HEEODOTOS. [BOOK vrjBvv airf}*} ovrco rr)v HKBVO-IV iroieirai. ol 8k aXXoi o(f>ie<; iovres avdpmirav ov Br>Xr)/j,ove<; TIKTOVO-L re <pa Kal eKXeirovo-i, iroXXov TI -^pfjfia T&V rexvcov. at fnev vvv £%i8vai Kara iraaav rrjv yrjv elo-i, ol Be, virowrepoi eovres, aOpooo elo~l iv rfj 'Apafilr} Kal ovBafiT) aXXr)- Kara TOVTO BoKeovat, iroXXol elvat. 110 T w fiev Br) Xiffavcorbv TOVTOV OVTCO KT&vrai 'Apdfiioi, TTJV Be Katrvqv &Be. iireav KaTaBrjo-oa\ep-^ovrai iirl TTJP Kacrlrjv r/ Be iv Xifivy verai, ov ftaOerj, KOV dijpia TTTepcoTa, rrjai •jrepl Be airrfv Kal ev avr§ avki^eTai vvKTepiai irpoaeiKeKa jLakicrTa, Kal Terpiye Beivov, Kal e? OXKTJV akieifia- ra Bet airayuvvo\Lkvovv OVTCO Bpeireiv 111 TT)V icaairjv.6 TO Be Br) Kivafimjiov e r t TOVTCOV davfiacrroTepov (rvWiyova-t. OKOV /jiev yap jiverai Kal ^ r t ? fuv yrj f] rpeovo-a io~n, OVK eypvci elirelv, TrKrjv on Xoycp OIKOTI %pe(Ofievoi ev Tolo-iBe xwpioicn tyacri Tive<; avrh <j>vecrdat iv TOICTI 6 Aiovvo-os eTpd(f>7]' opvidas Be \eyovcrt, fieyaXas opelv rdora TO, Kapea TO, rjfj,el<; atrb QOIVLKCDV naOovTes Kivafiasfiov KaXeo/iev, <j>opelv Be Tas opviOas e? veov re Trpos &v Br) rdora rovs 'ApayStov? o-ol%e&0ai rdBe. Kal b'vcov TWV diroyivofikvwv Kal rmv aXXav viro^vyicov TO, [ie\ea BiaTa/AOVTas a>? peyicrTa Ko/j,l£eiv e? Taora TO, y((opla, Kal, crea 0evra<; dy^ov T&V veoao'tSsv diraWdaaea'dai, ItfAs a&Tecov ras Be opvidas KaTaTreTOfj.lva'i \avTOiv\ TO, /xekea T&V vTro^vyiwv dvaopeiv 67rt ra$ veocro~id<;' T « ? Be ov 8vva[Leva<> Xcr^eiv Karappr)yvvo-dai i-rrl yrjv roiis Be einovTa'i o-vWeyetv. ovro) fiev TO KivafMo/iov o-vWeyofievov eK TOVTWV diriKveio'Qai e? Ta? a\Xa<; 112 %d>pas. TO Be Br) XrjBavov, TO KaXeovcri 'Apo~i evpiffKerat iyyuvo/xevov olov yXoibs dirb TIJ? vXr)<;. yjpr\o'i\iov B' e's 7roXXa T&V fivpcov io~ri, dvfiL&cri T6 fidXio-ra TOVTO 'Apa/3toi. 113 Tocravra fiev 0va>/j,dTcov irepi elprja0o), diro^et Be 6 Here is another bit of eastern folklore. Cp. the "myth" told of the oinnamon by Theophr. Hist. PI. ix. 6,—how it grows in ravines where it is guarded by poisonous serpents, against which the gatherer has to protect both hands and feet. 7 i.e. India. The Laurus einnamomum really chiefly grows in Ceylon. Comp. the story of the Phoenix and her nest, Bochart suggests that the legend arose out of the similarity of the Semitic Jcinnam&n, "cinnamon," and kinnim, "nests." in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 285 Apa/3lrj9 r)Bv,s Bio Be yevea oionv o-(j)t SC 0pir] ic^drr) TWV oliceofievewv avrr) Be %pvabv re epei TTOXXOV Kal i\eea<; Kal BevBpea Trdvra aypia Kal efievov Kal avBpas f^eyicrrovi Kal KaWicrrovs Kal fiaKpo/3ia>TdTov<;. Avrai fJLev vvv ev re rfj 'A.Trr) TWV irpbs ecnrep'qv icr^aricav eyas fiev oiiK aTpeKeas Xeyeiv ovre yap eyaye ivB&Ko/iai, 'HpiBavbv KaXeZaOau 77730? fiapfidpiov iroTa^bv eKSiBovra e? OdXaacrav TTJV 7T/3O? fioperjv ave/Jiov, «7r' oreo TO rjXeKTpov oiTav X070? ecrrt, 1 ovre vrjotra Kal TO fjXeKrpov. 7T/3O? Be dpKTov rfj ' ' There is breathed from the country of Arabia an odour divinely sweet." Conip. Od. ix. 211. 9 These Cape sheep are common in Africa, and are now spread through Persia, Syria, Afghanistan, and Asia Minor. 1 The Eridanos (Hes. Theog. 338) belonged to the mythical geography of the Greeks, and it is useless to attempt to identify it with the Po, or the Ehone, or the Vistula. Amber, which Pliny (iV. H. xxxvii. 11) says was called by the Germans glessum, i.e. glass, was brought overland from the Baltic to the head of the Adriatic Gulf. When the Eridanos was identified with the Po (as, so far as we know, it was first by Skylax), the amber was said to come from it. 2 The tin islands really existed, but are not (as usually assumed) the Scilly Isles, but the islands off Vigo Bay where the tin-ships touched (see Elton, The Origins of English History, ch. i.) Strabo, Diodoros, Pliny, and Solinus, all place them off the northwest coast of Spain (the Corticata, Aunius, and Cica; islands). Kacairepos is the Sanskrit kastira, the Assyrian leizasaddir (alar in Accadian). The word has been borrowed by both the Aryan and the Semitic langnages. 286 HERODOTOS. [BOOK elirai, Xiyerai Be vireK rav ypvirav dpird^eiv 'Api/iao-trovs avBpa<; fiovvocfrddX/iovs. -ireiOofiai Be ovBe TOVTO, O«O)? fiovvovcnv e%ovTe<; TTJV aXXrjv ofioirjv roia-i aXXoio-i avdpdtiroicri? al Be &v ear^ariaX o'ltcacn, irepiKX'qiova-ai, Trjv aXXtjv xcoprjv Kal ivrbs direpyovcai, ra KaXXicrra BoKeovra r/fjiiv eivat Kal (r-iravuwTaTa e%eiv avrai. 117 "Eo-Tt Be ireBiov iv rfj 'Acrij; Trepiiceickr)ifjt,evov opei Trdv'Todev, Biafftfrayei; Be TOV opeos elal irevre. TOVTO TO ireBlov %v fiev KOT€ Xopaafiicov, iv ovpoiai iov ILopacr/Aicov Te avTwv Kal 'TpKavicov Kal HdpOav Kal %apav Kal ©afiavaicav, iiretTe Be Hepcrai e%ovcri TO KpaTO<;, CO-TI TOV /SacrtXeo?. e/e Brj &v TOV TrepiK\r}iovTo<; opeo<; TOVTOV pet TTOTa/io? fj,eya<;, ovvo/xa Be ol icrrl "A/KT;?.* ovTOf irpoTepov fiev apBecrKe BiaXeXa/^fiivo^ irevTa^ov TOVTCOV TWV elprjfjbevav Ta? ^co/oa?, Bih Biadyo$ dyo/ievos eKa(TT7)<; eKaaroKTi' iireiTe Be virb TS Tlepo-jj elal, ireirovdacri ToiovBe. r a ? Biadya<; TOSV opecov evBeifia<; 6 /3acn\ev<; Trvkas iao~dji e0eo~av yjpao~6ai TO5 vBaTi, OVK yjpao-Qai o-vfiopfj fieydXr) Bia-^pewvTai. TOV fiev jap vet O~<\>L 6 Oebi wairep Kal TOIGL aXXoiai avdpcoiroiai, TOV Be 6epeo<s o-ireipovTes fAeXtvijv Kal o-rjaafiov yj>i]l<jKovTai TO5 vBaTi. eTreav &v firjBev c(j)i irapaBiBSiTau TOV vBaTos, iXOovTes e? TOW? IIe/3cra? avToi Te Kal lyvvaiKes, o-Tavre? K a r a Ta? dvpas TOV /Sao"<.Xeo9 fioaio-t, iopvojievoi, 6 Be /SacrtXeu? TOIGL Beo/xevoiai avTwv fidXia-Ta ivTeXXeTai dvolyeiv Va? irvXas Ta? ,e? TOVTO epovcra<;. iireav Be BiaKopo<; f) could have approached each other would be in the prolongation of the Elburz range north of Khorasan, where there is no valley or river answering to the description of Herodotos. The Ak6s, too, is unknown to all other classical writers, The story is probably based on the regulation by the Persian Government of the waters of the Heri-rud (near Herat), and the taxes imposed by it in consequence. A water-tax is still levied in Persia, the irrigation of the country being under imperial control. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 287 rolari SeofievoHTt, fidXia-Ta TSSV Xonroyv. a>? B' iycb olBa aKovo-a<>, XprjfiaTa fieydXa Trpr)o-o~o[ievo<} dvolyev Trdpelj TOV (ftopov. TdoTa (juev Br) eyeb OVTW. TG>V Be TC3 M.dytp iiravao-rdvTCOV 118 eirra dvBpwv, eva CLVTCOV 'IvTapevea KaTeXafte vftplaavTa rdBe diroOavelv airUa fiera5 TTJV eiravdaraa-iv. rjOeXe e'9 ra ftacnXtjia iaeXOmv •^prjfiarlo-acrdai TC5 /3acrtXef Kal yap o~r) Kal 6 VO/JLO<; OVTO] el^e, rolab liravaaTao'b TG3 Ma eaohov elvau irapa, fiaaCKka avev ayyiXov, r\v fir) yvvaiKi Tvyydvrj [uay6/j,evo<; /3aat,\6v<;. OVKOHV Srj 'Ivrapev7]t; eSiKalov ovSeva oi iaayyeTkai, on rjv T&V eirrd, ecnevai tfOeXe. o Se 7rv\ovpb$ Kal 6 oi Trepiwpeov, <j>d[ievoi TOV /3ao~i\ea yvvaiKi yeadai. 6 Be 'IvTa<j)pevr}<; SoKecov crcfjeas ifrevSea Xeyeiv ToidBe' aTTaadfJbevo'i TOV aKivaKea diroTd/ivei avtwv Ta re &Ta Kal TO,<; plvas, Kal dveipas irepl TOV ^aXivbv TOV 'iirirov irepl TOV<; <7eo>v e'Si/cre, Kal dirrjKe. ol Be TCO /SacrtXet BeiKvvovai 119 vs Kal TTJV alrirjv elirov Bi fjv TreirovBoTes eirjcrav. Aapelos Be appaBrjaa^ fir) KOIVS \6yq> oi eg TreiroiriKOTes eoxri rdora, fieraTre/jLTrofievos eva eKacrrov aTreireipaTO yvdofirj';, el avveirawoi elcrt Ta5 TreTroi7)/j,evq>. eireire Be igefiaffe to? oi crvv Keivoicn elr\ rdora TreiroirjKoot;, e\a/3e airov r e TOV 'Ivrapivea Kal TOV<; 7raZSa? airov Kal TOU? OIKI)IOV<> iravra^, ekiriBa fiera TWV avyyevecov ficv eTri/SovXeveiv ol iiravdcrracriv, Be cr^ea? eBrjcre TTJV eVl OavaTO). q Be yvvr; TOV 'I <poiTeovo~a iirl Ta? 0vpa<; TOV /3a. yvvai, /3ao-iXev<; TOI Aapelos B1B0I eva T5>V BeBefievmv OIKTJICOV pvo~ao~9ai TOV fiovXeai e.K irdvTcov." r) Be ^ovXevaafievq vireKpiveTO TaBe. " el ft.ev Brj fioi B1B0I fiacriXevs evbs TTJV •tyvyjiv, alpeofiai IK -rravrcov TOV dBeXeov." irvBo/xevo1; Be Aapeios rdoTa Kal 0o)Vfj,daa<; TOV Xoyov, Tre/iyfras r/yopeve " a> yvvai, elpcora ae j3a(riXev<;, rlva e^ovaa yvi>jvt)v, TOV avBpa re Kal TO, reKva eyKaTaXnrovcra, TOV dBeXebv e'Ckeo ireptelvai TOI, 05 Kal dXXoTpia>Tep6<; TOI TWV 5 And yet Intaphernes is mentioned in the first place of honour in the Behistim Inscription, which could not have lieen engraved earlier than B.C. 515, while the death of Gomates took place in B.C. 521. If J5skh. Pers. 774 is not spurious, Maraphis and Artaphrenes (Intaphernes) were regarded as the sixth and seventh kings of Persia intervening between Gomates and Dareios, which seems to imply that Intaphernes endeavoured to claim the crown. But no allusion to this appears in the Behistun Inscription. It is just possible that Maraphis may be the second pseudo-Bardes (Merdis), who was not put down till B.C. 516. 288 HERODOTOS. [BOOK iralBap Kal fjaro-ov /te^a/Jto-yaez^o? rod dpBpos iari." JJ B' afielfiero TolaiBe. " w ftacriXev, dvrjp fiev fioi av &XXo<; yevotTO, el BalfMov ideXoi, Kal re/cva aXXa, el rdora aTroftdXoifif irarpb^ Be Kal fir)Tpb<; ovK&Ti. fieo ^coovrav d8eX elirelv f] yvvij, Kai ol wnr\Ke TOVTOV r e TOP irapaiTelro Kai rwv iraiBwv TOV irpecr^vTarov, rjcrOels avrfj, TOU? Be aWovs aTrcKTeive iravras. T&V fiev 8r) eirTa eh avrUa Tpoirip TO) elprjfieva) a7ro\iwXet. K a T a Be KOV fidXiara 7 rtjv Ka/i^ucreo) vovaov ijivero rdBe. UTTO K.vpov KaTacrraOeh rjv %apB£a>v virapj(O? fx,ev ol ifkeoves Xeyovat, Bia, roirfvBe Tiva alriijv. eirl TCOV /3ao~t,\eos Ovpicop Karrj/Mevov TOP r e 'Opofaea Kal a\\op Tlepcrijp TW ovpo/Ma elvat, MtTpoySaTea, PO/J,OV ap-^ovra TOV ev AacrKv\,eia>,9 TOVTOV; eK \6ya>p e? pelicea P T I ? wepreKaiSeKa 07rXtTycr{ eVavaa-ra.? ecr^e Kal vvp Tvpavpevei." ol fiep Brj fup (pacrl TOVTO aKovcrapra Kal a TO ovelBei eTTiOvfjurjaai, OVK ovra> TOP ettravra TaoTa Tiaaadat w? 121 HoXvKpdrea Travrw; diroXecrai, Bi b'prova KaK&s rjKovo~e. ol Be ehdcrcrope<; Xeyovac irey^at 'OpouTea e? %dfiop K-qpvKa b'reo Brj •)(pr)fiaTO<; Berjo-6/j,evop (pi yap &v Br/ TOVTO ye Xiyerai), Kal TOP HoXvKpaTea Tvyelp KaraKelfievov ev dvBpe&vi, irapelvai Be ol Kal 'AvaKpeopTa TOV Trjiov Kal KCO<; elr eK TrpovotT]? avrbv KaTrjXoyeovra TO, ^Opolrea irpfjyfiaTa, elVe Kal avPTvyit] Tt9 roiavTij iireyeveTO' TOP T6 yap KrjpvKa TOP 'OpotVetu irapeXdovra BiaXe- 120 6 Comp. Soph. Antig. 909-12; unless the lines be spurious, they seem a conscious imitation of this passage of Herodotos. Fr. Kern (" Die Abschiedsrede d. sophokleischen Antigone" in the Zeitschr. f. d. Gymnasialwesen, xxxvi.) disputes against Kirchhoff their authenticity and bearing on the date of the composition of Herodotos. 7 "Just about the time of." Comp. ii. 134, i. 67. 8 Miscalled Oronte's by Diodoros and Lueian. 9 Also called the satrapy of Phrygia on the Hellespont, or of .Solis, or of the coast. See ch. 90, note 4. The capital, Daskylion, which was built by Daskylos, son of Periandros, according to Steph. Byz., lay near Lake Daskylitis, from which, says Hekataeos, the Rhymos flows through the Mygdonian Plain into the Rhyndakos near the city Alazia. It in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 289 yecrffai, KOI TOP HoXvicpaTea (rv%eip yap airecrTpa/MfjApop Trpos TOP ToZyov) ovTe TI fieTa&Tpacfrrjpai ovTe viroKpipao~Qai. alrlai fiep 122 or) avTat Bitydo~iab XeyoPTat TOV QOP&TOV TOV UoXvKpaTeo<; yepecrdai, irdpeo-Tt Be ireldeadai OKOTeprj rt? fiovXeTai avTewv. o Be &v 'OpoiT7)<; l^ofiepo? ip ^/layprjo'ly T§ virep WLaidpBpov TroTa/j,ov olKTjfiivr)1 eTre/nre M.vpo~ov TOP Tvyea) dpBpa AvBbv2 e? Ztdftop dyyeXiTjp (fiepopTa, fj,a6a>p TOV HoXv/cpaTeos TOP POOP. TloXv/epaTt)? yap ecrrt 7ry>«TO? TO>P ij/^et? 'IBpep 'EXA^I/COI/ 09 OaXacrcoKpaTeip iireporjBr), irdpe^ Ma/wo? r e TOV T&.v(oo~aiov 3 icai el Brj Ti? $XKo<; irpoTepo? TOVTOV rjp^e T ^ ? dakdo-arr)^- Tr)<; Be dp6pa>7rr)i7]<; Xeyo/j.eP'rjv yeperjs TioXvicpdTT)<; TT/SWTO?, TroXXa<> e^cop 'IcDpirjs Te /cat pr)Be Xeyei. irvpOdpofiai eiriftovXeveip ere irptfyfiacri fieydXoicri, ical ^prj/naTd TOI OVK elpai Kara, TO, popijfiaTa. av VVP (SSe iroirjaa<; opffcoaei1; fi,ep aecovTov, aayae^Be ical i/ii- e/xoX yap /3ao~iXevs K.a/j,/3vo~r]<; ein^ovXevet, ddpaTop, ical fioi TOVTO ai a-afprjpea1;. o~v VVP i/Me eKKOfilca^ avTOP ical XPVTO, flip avT&p avTo? e^e, TO, Be eyu.6 ea 'i^ew eipeicep Te Twp ap^eif dvda-r]^ T ^ ? 'EXXaSo?. el Be fioi dino-Tel? TO, irepu T5)P •xprjfiaTWP, irifi^jrop OGTK TOI inaTOTaTos Tvy^dpet, imp, Tat iym diroBe^eo." r a o r a d/covcra? UoXv/cpaTT)'; fjo~6rj Te ica\ 123 6/Soi/\eTO" Kal ««? [fielpeTO ydp ^prjfiaTcop /AeydXco*}, dTvoirkfitrei irputTa KaToyjrofiepop MaidpSpiop MaiapBplov i apBpa TWP da-T&p, 09 ol f/p ypajifiaTio-Tr/s' 09 ^popw ov 7roXXc3 vcrTepov TOVTWP TOP icocrfxop TOP etc TOV dpBpetopos TOV TloXvicpaTeos iopTa d^ioderjTOP dpedrjice irdvTa e9 TO "Hpaiop. 6 Be 'Opolri]p TOV /caTacncoirov eopTa irpocBoKi/jLOP eTrolei ToidBe. Xdppaicas OKTW TrXjjpa)(7a "son of Myrsos," by the Greeks (see i. 7, note 8). 3 Comp. i. 171, note 9 ; Thuk. i. 8. 4 No other Greek in Herodotos has his father's name, while Demosthenes 290 HERODOTOS. TOV rjXtov. ravrrfv IBovaa rrjv oyfriv wavTovt] ejiveTO fi-rj airoBr)- \i,r\(rai TOV TloXvicpdTea avrov iirl irapa TOV 'OpoiTea, rjv iffTepfjo-dai.. o-vfifiov\L7)i; aXojrja-a^ eirXei trapa y j j v irjTpov TWV /car ecovrov. ayofievo? Te ebvTa airucojievos ical TTJV Be e? TT/V 6 Uo\viepdTr)<} Bie<j)0dpr) /ca«w9, ovTe eaivrov T&V ecovTov ^povrj/jLaTav jevofievoi Be irao-r)? Be Brj KOI ArjfiOKi^Bea TOV J^.poT(ovi^Trjv6 avBpa, aaiceovTa apiaTa oine iv f) Be irapdevevecrdat HoXviepaTi]? TOV 'OpOLTea, afia aWov? Te TroXkoix; TWV eTaipwv, ? 6 Be ol rJ7relXr)o~e, %povov Trapdevevecrdai. jeveaBai • fiovXecrdai jap r/prjcraro eVtTeXea rdora ^ /cat Srj ical IOVTOS iiretprifii^ero.6 TTJV irevrTjKovrepov 125 trXem-^povov [BOOK Tvpavvoi OTI jap fifj ol ovBe el? TCOV aXXcov 'HWrjvi/e&v af-tos icrTi TloXvKpaTet .fieja\o7rpeireirjv dft'ffl? %vpT)KO crv[i/3XT)diivai. diroKTei- va<; Be fiiv OVK d^tw? drjrr)jrj TSJV Be ol eTrofievtov ocroi fiev rjcrav "Zdfiioi, airfjice, iceXevcov cr elBevai BovXoi iovTas iXevOepov}, T&v eTTOfievwv, iv ocroi Be r/a'av ^elvoi dvBpairoBtov Xojm UoXv/cpaTr}1; Be ava/cpe//,d/Aevo<; iireTeXei 8vjaTp6<;w iXovTO fiev jap Te /cal Troieofievoi; iracav el^e. TTJV oyjriv Trj<; VTTO TOV Ato? o/cw? voi, i%pleTo Be biro TOV r)Xlov, aviels avTOf e« TOV cr HoXvicpaTeos rrjaav fiev Brj al iroXXal [rf) ol "A/iao't? o AIJVTTTOV Be ov TTOXXW vaTepov fieTa, jap evTvyiai e? TOVTO eVeXeu- ^acrtXew? 7rpoefiavTevcaTo]. ical 'OpotVea HoXviepaTeos TOV Ka/i/3uo"e<» OdvaTov /cal TWV Times Mdywv Tf)v /3ao-iXrjlr)v fievcov iv Trjai ^apBiau '0/3 dirapaiprjixevovs TTJV dp^fjv eKTeive MtTpo/SaTea o? ol dyvelBtae TO es HoXvKpaTea 6 Be iv TOV e/e Tavrrj AaaicvXeiov e^ovTa, Kara 1 Be TOV MtT/3o/3oTeG) TOV TralSa K.pavdaTr7]v, avBpas iv UepaTjcn BOKI/JLOVS, aXXa Te i%v/3picre iravTola ical Tiva gives as many as five examples of the usage. 6 " She followed him with words of ill omen." Comp. Thuk. vii. 75. The more common reading is lipy/ilfero, " s h e kept crying o u t ; " but lirup. has the support of Eustathios as well as of two of the best MSS. 6 - Krot6na, now Cotrone, the suecessful rival of Sybaris in Magna Grsecia. 7 djjeXtij(p6pov2 iXdovTa The three brothers Gelon, Hieron, and Thrasybulos, B.C. 485-66. 8 The impaling describes the mode of death which was one fit for a slave, not for a free-born Greek. ATOK., etc., is epexegetical of bvear., and does not refer to a particular kind of death, 9 See ch. 65, note 2. 1 A striking example of the so-called Homeric tmesis. 2 One MS. reads the Persian equivalent in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 291 Aapelov Trap avTov, w? ov 7T/3O? r\Bovr)v ol r)v TO, dyyeWofieva, KTeivet fjuiv oiriaas KOfii^ofievov, avBpa<; ol virelcras KaT 6Bov, aTroKTeivas Be fuv r)dvio-e avrm tTrirq). Aapeios Be &>? ecrj^e rrjv 127 apyr\v, eTreOvfjbei TOV 'Opoirea, TiaaaOai TTOVTCOV T&V aBucrj/juiTav etveicev Kal fi,d\io~Ta M(T/3o/3aT6» Kal TOV iraiBo?. e« fiev Brj T?79 Werjs o-Tpcnhv eir avTov OVK eSo/cet ire/ATreiv a,Te olBeovrcov eTt T&V irp^yfiaTeov, Kal vecoo~Tl ej^wv TTJV apyr\v, Kal TOV 'OpoiTea fj.ejdXr)v TTJV icrj^vv irvvOavofievo1; ej(eiv TOV %l\t,oo [lev TLepcrewv iBopv6peov, et^e Be vo/j,bv TOV TB <£>pvytov Kal AvBiov Kal 'ICOVIKOV. 7T/3O9 TaoTa Br) &v 6 Aapeio1; TaBe ifir^ t, TaBe. Hepo-ai, TR av /JLOI TOVTO v/j.ea>v uTrocrTa? iiriTeXeaeie fir) ySt'17 Te Kal o/jbiKa ; evda £r)<; Bel, /3t?7¥ epyov ovBev v/Jietov Be &v Tt? fioi 'OpoiTea rj £d>ovTa cvydyot r) diroKTeivet,e ; o? ttxpeXr/a-e fiev KCO Hepcra? ovBev, KaKa, Be fieydXa eopje. TOVTO /x,ev Bvo r)fiia>v rjla-Tcoo-e, MtT/)o/3area Te Kal TOV iralBa avTov, TOVTO Be Toil? avaKaXeovTas avTov /cal irefnrofiivov; inr ifieo KTeivei, vftpiv OVK avaayeTov tpatvwv. irplv TO a>v fie^ov ifjep'ydo-ao'dao fuv Hepcras KUKOV, KaTaXafiTTTeof eo-Tt r)fuv davaTW." Aapelos fiev TaoTa eVetpwTa, TOJ Be avSpes TpirjKovTa inrecrTrjcrav, 128 auTO? e/cao-To? ideKcov iroielv TaoTa. epi^ovTWi Be Aapetos KaTe\dfi/3ave KeXevcov irdWecrOaoTraWofievwv Be \ay%dvei e« nraVTCov Tiayalos 6 'ApTovTeco- Xa^oav Be 6 Hayalos iroiel TaBe. /3w/3X/a v pr)>yl8d o~v ev eKaaTov 7repiaipeo/jievo<; eBlBov TW jpafifiaTicrTy TOJ j3ao~£k'qiq> iiriXeyeaOaf Be /3ao~i\r)£ov<; ol irdvTef eypvat. airoTreopeofievos Be T&V Sopv<j)6payv iBiBov TO, o BaYato?, el evBe%a(,aTO arrroo-Tao-w dirb 'OpoiTeca. 6pea>v Be cr^ea? T<£ Te f3v/3XUt aefiofiivovs /J,ejd\a><; Kal TO, Xeyofieva e'/c T&V j3v/3\ia>v eVi fj,e£6vais, BiSol aXKo ev TS evtjv eirea TaBe. " Uepo-ai, ^acrtXeu? Aapelos dirayopevei vfilv /AT) Bopv<j>opeiv 'Opolred." ol Be a,Kovo-avTe<; TOVTCOV fieTrJKav ol TO,<; atyfids. IBcov Be TOVTO o~ea<; 6 Bayato? •7rei6o/j,evov<; TGJ /3vf3\ltp, ivOavTa Br) 6apar)aa's TO TehevTaiov T&V /3v/3\£a)v BiBol TW ev TW ijejpa7TTO " ySatriXev? Aapelos Hep 3 These secretaries served as checks upon the satraps, as they could report his doings to the king. 292 HERODOTOS. [BOOK roicrt iv "ZapBiai ivTeXKerat, /crelveiv 'Opoirea." ol Be Bopv<popot, a>9 rjicovaav Taora, cr-iraa-dfievoL TOV? aKivaKw; KTelvov&i irapavrUa fiiv. ovrco Br) 'Opoirea TOV liepar/v Tlokv/cpdreos TOV 'Za/iiov Ticnes fxerrjXdov. 129 'AiriKo/ievav Be teal avaKOfiiadevrav r&v 'Opolrea xprifidTcov e? Ta %ovo~a, trvvrfveiice yjpovca ov iroXXS vcrrepov fiacrikea Aapeiov iv ayprj Brjp&v dirodpd)(TKovTa air "-Kirov ffrpa^rjvai, rbv troBa. /cat tew; Icr^vporipa)'; io~Tpd<jyr}' o jap 01 a\avpa><; irapaKovaa^ irpoTepov €Ti iv %dpBio~t TOV T£.poTcovii]Tew Ai}fioK7)Beo$ TTJV y djyeXXei T&> Aapeltp' 6 Be ajeiv /MV TTJV TwyitTT'qv Trap' dvBpaecovTov e«e\euo"e. TOV Be co? i^evpov iv TOIO~I 'OpolTea 7roSoio-i OKOV Br) dvrjfieXr/fievov, iraprffov 69 p,eaov 7reSa? Te 130 eKicovTa ical pdiceo~i ecrdtj/iivov. GTaQevTa Be e? /x,eo~ov elpwTa 6 Aapelos TTJV Te^vrjv el eVt'crTatTO* o Be OVK vTreBeiceTO, dppaBeatv fir) e&VTOV iictyriva'i TO Trapdirav Tr)<s 'EXXaSo? y direaTepTjuevo'i • /caTeXavpa><; e%eiv TTJV Te^VTjv. fieTa Be, w? ol iireTpe^e, 'JLWr)viteolcn irjfMtcri xpewfievos ical r)iTia [jbeTa TO, la^ypa irpoadjav VTTVOV Te fiiv Xay^dveiv iirolei Kal iv %povm 6\iya> vyiea /uv iovTa direBe^e, oiBafia eVt ik-jri£ovTa upTiTrovv eo~ea6ai. BapelTai Brj fiiv fieTa TaoTa 6 Aapeiov ireBemv ^/sucrewi' Bvo ^evyecrf 6 Be fiiv eirelpeTO e'i ol BnrXrjo-iov TO Kaxov e7rtT7/Se? ve/Aet,, OTC fiiv vyiea eTrow/cre. r)o~6e\<; Be T&5 eirei 6 Aa/jeto? dtroireiMirei fiiv irapa T ^ 9 ewvTOv yvvaticas • irapdyovTe? Be ol evvov%pi, eXeyov 7T/3O? Ta? yvvaltcas a>? /SacrtXet ovTO'i etTj o? Tr)v •^rv)(r]v direBwKe. viroTviTTOVo-a Be avTemv e/cdo~TT) idXi} TOV yj>vo~ov e>? SVKTJV iBapeiTo ArjfioictfBea ovTa Brj TI a>? TOU? diroTriirTovTas dirb T&V (piaXecov 4 i.e. darios (see vii. 28) of 128£ grains each. The Attic staters were so nearly of the same value that they passed current in Persia after being marked with a bar. 'TiroTiSTrrowro, "dipping deep down (with a cup)," as in ii. 136, vi. 119. Perhaps ivoKiwrovaa was the original reading. The MSS. have TOO in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIEE. iroXXov TL xpvcrov 293 S, TC3 ovvofia r\v XKITCOP, dveXeyeTo ical oi o-vpeXe^6r]. ' O Be Arjfj,OK7]ST]'i OVTO9 &Be e/c K/JOTGWO? a7riyfiepo<; HoXv- 131 Kpdrei d>/u,l\r)v /cal €%(DV ovBev T&V ocra Trepl TTJV ecrrt epyaXtjia. ical fiiv BevT€p
v (f>dfJ,a, fieTa Be e/cpayev evefieTo Trpoam. ocrov fiep Brj ypopov rjp eXao-crop, r\ Be KpvivTovaa ical alo-yyvofiePT] e(j)pa£e ovBevi' eireiTe Be ep icaicm r)p, iieTeTrifi/^aTo TOP ArjfioicrfBea ical oi eVeSe^e. o Be a<; vyiea Tvoi7]aevp e^opicol fiiv rj fiev oi dpTVirovpyrjcreiP iiceivTjv TOVTO TO av avTrji Berjdj}' Berjo-eadai Be oiBepbs TWV ocra e? alo-yypr\v eaTi epovTa. a>? 134 Be apa fiiv fiera, TaoTa la>/j,evo<> vyiea aireBe^e, evdavTa Brj BiBaj(delcra VTTO TOV Ar)/j,OK7jBeo<; r) "Krocraa irpoaefyepe ev Trj KoiTr) Aapeito Xoyov ToiovBe. " o> /3ao-iXev, e%a>v Bvpa/MV ToaavTrjv KaTrjaai, OVTB TI edvos TrpocncTonievo^ ovre Bvvafuv Tlepcrycri. ol/cbs Be eo~Ti avBpa ical veov ical ^prj/j-drcov fieyaXwp Beo-7TOTrjv o~i Xpwov aim Bfyw and (one) TOO xpvaov TT]V 6-tjicqv. 5 i.e. £243 :15s., £406 : 5s., and£487 : 10S. "For the employment of state physicians in Greece, see Xen. Mem. iv. 2 ; Plat. Gorg. 21-24. 294 HERODOTOS. [BOOK on vir' avBpb? dp^ovrat. eV dfMporepa Si rot (f>epei rdora •iroieiv, Kal iva i(ov Hipcrai erno-riwvrai avSpa elvai rbv irpoea-reoara, Kal "va rpifioovrai iroXifim /xijSe o-^oX-qv ayovre<s eirifiovkeiKoal, roi. VVV yap av ri Kal diroSifjaio epyov, e«? via? eh rjXiKL-qv avfjofievip yap TO3 crm/icm o-vvavfjovrai, Kal ai tppives, yrjpdo-KOVTi Se avyyrjpda-icovcn Kal e'? ra "TrprfyfAara iravTa airafiJ3\vvovTat." 7] /lev Sr) rdoTa £K StSa^iJ? e\e7e, d 8' dfiet^ero rolaiSe. " & yvvai, irdvja ocra irep avro? etnvoea Troiijcreiv eiprjicas- iya> yap /3efioy\ev/j,ai £ev£a? yi(j)vpav 4K TrjcrUe T?}? rjireipov e? TTJV eTeprjv ryireipov eirl %Kv9a<; arparevecrOaf Kal rdora oXlyov %povov e /3ov\i), ea-ovrai TOC crv Si fioi eVt rrjv 'EXXaSa crrpaTeveaOaL. eiriOvfiia) yap Xoya> irvvQavo\iivr\ AaKalvas re fiot, yeviffdai Oepairaivas Kal *A.pyeLa<s Kal 'ATTIKW? Kal J£.opiv0la<;. e^et? Be avSpa iiriT'rjSeoTaTOV avSpwv irdvTi eironivovs Arj/ioKijBec Sie^e\0eiv ra irapa8a\daaia TJ7? 'EXXaSo?, OKW? re /J,rj SiaSprjo-eral crea<; 6 ATJ/MOKTjSrjLevo<; iraaav Kal einSi^a^ TTJV 'EXXaSa TOICTL Tlepo~t}<Ti, OTTICTCO ry^ef S£>pa Si fiiv T& irarpl Kal rolai dSe\eoit7i eKeXeve irdvra ra eKeivov eiriirXa Xa/3(Wa ayeiv, ^>a? aXXa oi iroWa'TrXrj<Tia avriSdyffew 7rpb<; Se e? rh Swpa oXKaSa ol etyr) v irdvra ra SiSofieva eSeKero, dXXa. ra fiev ecovrov 6 Yet, according to v. 105, even Dareios did not know the name of the Athenians, much less the names of the other Greek states ! 7 " H e would add to the gifts." Cp. iv. 50. 8 = eS (oB) " h i m , " as in II. xx. 464. in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 295 Kara ^coprjv e<j>r) KaTaXetyew, "ya oTricrto o~(f>ia direXdmv e^oi, TTJV jikvrot, 6\icdBa, T-qv 01 Aapeios eVa/yyeXXeTO e? rrjv BcoperjV rolcri d8eXeolo~i, 8&Kea6cu e(j>r]. ivreiXafievo1; Be /cat TOVTW raoTa o Aapelos diroo~TeXXei avTOvs eVi 8dXaao-av. /cara/Sai'Te? 136 Se OVTOI e? fiev Tpirjpeas Bvo eifKrjpaiO'av, ajia Be avTyau xal yavXov9 fieyav iravToiav dyadwv irapeo~/cevao~fi,ivoi Be irdvra eir\eov e? TTJV EXXaSa, ij-po(ricr'^ovTe<; Be avTrjt rh, TrapadaKao-aia iOrjiovTO Kal direypd^ovTo,1 e? o ra TroXka, avri}1; Kal ovofiacrra 6et)ad/xevoi a/iriKovTO TT}? 'IraXtij? e? Tdpavra. ivdavra Be CK prjO-T(OVT)<; T ^ ? A?7/io«7jSeo? 'Apio-TO? KaTacrKOTrov; Br/dev 1 ;. ev a> Be OVTOI TaoTct, eirao'^ov, diriKvelTac dirtypevov 6 A'tjfioKijBrj'i e? TTJV Be f)Br] TOVTOV e? TTJV ecavTov 0 'Api(TTo<jiiXiB'i]<; efXvcre TOV<; Uepo~a<> Kal TO, irapekafie TWV vewv direBcoKe o-cj>c. 7rX60i>Te? Be evQevTev oi Tlepaat Kal Buo- 137 Koi/Tes ArjfioKijSea diriKveovTai e? TTJV KpoTava, eiipovTes Be fitv dyopd^ovra CLTTTOVTO avTov. T&V Be KpoTQJVirjTeoov oi fiev KaTappcoBeovTe<; TO, Tlepo-iKa. irprjy^utTa trpolevat, eToifioi r/aav, 01 Be dvTaiTTovTO Kal TOIO~I aKVTdXoicn eiraiov TOVS Tiepaas irpoicr^ofiivov; eirea TaBe. " avBpes KpoToyvirjTai,, SpaTe TO, iroieiTe. avBpa y3acrtX60? BprjireT^v yevofievov e^aipelo-0e. KW? TaoTa fiacriXei Aapelcp eKj^prjcei, irepiv^pltrdai ; /ceo? Be VJJUV TO, iroiebfjueva ef-et Ka\a><;, rjv direK/qo~de rjfiea^; eirl TtW Be Trjo-Be irpoTepr)v crTpaTevcrofieOa TTOXLV ; Tiva Be TTpoTeprjv dvBpa'jroBu^eo'Qat, ireiprjcrofieda;" TaoTa XeyovTes TOU? KpoT(£)Vvr\Ta<; OVKCOV eiretdov, dXX' i^aipedevTet Te TOP ArjfioKtfBea Kal TOV yavXov TOV dfia r\yovro diraipeOevTes direirXeov oirio~a> e? TTJV 'A.o~tr)v oiB' en e^rjTrjaav TO irpo(T(OTepo) T»)9 diriKOfievoi eKfiaOeiv, icrTeprjfievoi TOV riyefiovos. ToaovBe fiev iveTeiXaTo o-i Ar)iiOKr)Br)<; dvayofievotcn, KeXevcov elireiv cr<j>ea<; Aapela) OTI apfioo~Tat, TTJV Mt'Xwvo? OvyaTepa Ar)fioKrjBr)<; yvvalKa. 9 TavXos was specially used of PhoeniCp. viii. 97 ; cian merchant ships. Schol. on Aristoph. Birds, 572; Hesykh. s. v. The word may be Semitic, and only accidentally of the same form (but not accentuation), as yav\6s, Sanskrit golain, "a globe-shaped water-jug." 1 "Took notes." This explains the way in which the accounts of the voyages of Skylax and Nearkhos were written. 2 Aristophilidgs is king, not tyrant. Tarentmn, however, (founded by the Spartan Phalanthos), soon afterwards became a democracy. Italy still denoted only the south-eastern portion of the peninsula, so called from the number 296 HEKODOTOS. TOV yap 3 Te\e [BOOK Brj -rraXaiaTeco M.iXcovo'i rjv ovvo/ia iroXXov irapa Kara Be TOVTO fioi Boicel o-irevo-ai TOV ydfiov TOVTOV f i ^prf/iara fieydXa Arjfio/crjBris, "va <j>avj) 717)09 Aapeiov iv rrj imvrov BOICI/AO*;. avaxSevres Be etc TTJ? KpoTcovo? oi Hepaai eKiriirTovcn Trjcri vr/vcrl 6? 'IrjTrvylrjv, ical cr^>ear) TOU9 KardyovTaf yiveo-Qai, Boieiajv diro TOVTCOV iovraiv TOIGI TapavTivoicri v fidXia-Ta TT)V /caToSov oi eaecrdai,. Aapelos he inroBe^dfjbevoi eVeTeXet" 7re/j.yjra<; yap ayyeXov 6*9 K.vlBov KaTayeiv o-ea<; eiceXeve TikXov 69 TdpavTa. TreuOofievoi Be Aapeia TapavTlvovs OVKCOV eireiQov, {ULryv he dhvvaToi rjcav TaoTa fiev vvv OVTW hrp-q^Ori, OVTOI he irpSiTOi e'« T?)9 'AT7)v 'T^XXTJVIBOOV ical fiapfSdpwv, Bia TObrjvBe TWO, alTiyv. K.a[x,/3vo-eco TOV Kvpou GTpaTevoyi&vov e V MyvirTov dXXoi Te o~V)(vo), 69 TTJV AXyvinov dwiicovTO 'EiXXt]v(ov, oi fiev, a>? OIKO<S, KaT eyuTTopirfv o-TpaTevofievoi, oi he Tives ical avTijs TJ79 X(i>pr)'; derjTaC' TS>V rjv ical %vXoo~a>v 6 A.ldiceo<;, TloXvKpaTeo'i Te emv aheXtyebs ical (j)evya>v iic %dfiov. TOVTOV TOV %vXoo~a>vTa KaTeXafie evTvyur) Tt9 TOir)he. Xaftwv -)(Xaviha ical 7repij3aX6fievo<; •n-vpprjv r)yopa%e iv rfj Mificfji' iha>v he avTov Aapelos, Bopv6po<; Te icbv Ka/i./3ucrea> ical Xoyov ovSevos KO> fieydXov, eireOitfi'qa'e Trjs of calves (vituli) found there by its first Greek discoverers. 8 As if Dareios had ever even heard the name of a Greek wrestler ! 4 " By paying." 5 The Capo di Leuca. Cp. Hor. Odes, iii. 27, 20. The Greeks called Iapygia Messapia, "between the waters" of the Adriatic and the Tarentine Gulf (ukaaos -and dirfa, as the Homeric i.irl-q ytua and Sanskrit dpas, " w a t e r " ) . The Messapian Inscriptions, which are still undeciphered, but seem to be in an Aryan dialect, have been collected by Mommsen, Die. Unteritalischen Dialekte (1850). 6 Thus showing himself less selfish than Demokedes had done. 1 Here we have another Greek legend. (1) Dareios was never in Egypt with Kambyses, as we may gather from the Behistun Inscription (see also ch. 70); (2) as an Akhaemenid he could not have been of " n o account"; (3) Greeks were not usually so disinterestedly generous, even when helped by "divine luck." As Sylos6n was a refugee at the court of in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 297 Kal avTtjv irpov covetro. 6 Be ~ZvXooS)V opewv TOV Aapelov fieydXa? eTridvfieovTa rfj<; ^Xaz/t'So?, Oeirj rv^y %pea)fj.evos Xiyet " iya) ravrrjv 7ra>Xea> /j,ev ovBevb1; ^pj^aaTO?, BlBcofii Be alXffls, et' irep ovrco Bel jevecrffat irdvTW? Se rov %p6vov trpofiaivovTos Ka/ijSvcri;? re diredave Kal ra M.d e-Kavko-t^aav oi eirra Kal e'/e ra>v eTrra Aapeto? T-qv ^acrtXi/i?;!/ eo-%e, irvvOdverai 6 %v\o<70iv o>? 'q ftacriXrjlr) 7repie\r)\v8ot, e? TOVTOV TOV dvBpa TS> Kore avrb1; k'BcoKe ev AlyvTrrq) BerjOevrt TO elfia. avafBas Be e? rd %ovo-a t^ero e? TO, irpoQvpa TWV ySacrtXeo? OIKIIOV Kal ecpTj Aapeiov evepyerr]^ elvai. dyyeWei rdora aKova-a<s o TTUXOU^O? TO> /3ao"tXef o Be dcov/j,do~a<; Xeyei irpb's avTov " Kal TK eo-Ti ''EWqvav evepyerr/'i ™ iya> TrpoaiBeofiai, vecocrTl fiev rrjv dp-^rjv e%a>v, dvaj3e^T]Ke Be i] Tts r\ oiBek KCO Trap1 /j^ea? avrmv, e-)(a> Be ^/aeo? w? elirelv o&Bev dvBpbs "EWT^VO?. O/X, iva elBiai Tt OeXcov Xiyei rdora." Traprjye 6 irvXovpbs TOV "ZvXooSiVTa, (TTavTa Be e? fiecrov elpatreov oi ep/jLrjveis Tt? re e'iri Kal Tt irot/qaa'i evepyeTr)*; (jtrjcrl elvai /3a yevvaioTare dvBpmv, o~ii Kelvos et? o? ifiol ovBe/xiav e%ovTt Ka Bvvafiiv eBcoKas el Kal ajxiKpd, dXX' &v tar] ye f)")(dpi<;o/j,ola)<> o>? el vvv Kodev TI fiiya Xa/3ot/if dvr &v TOI ^pvcrbv Kal dpyvpov d-rrXeTov BIBCO/M, a>? fi.rj Kori TOO /j-era/^eX^o-T} Aapelov TOV 'To-TacrTreo? ev TropijcravTi." Xeyei 7rpb<; rdora 6 %VXOCT5>V " ifiol fj,i]Te %pvo~bv 3) fiaaiXev firjre dpyvpov BtBov, dXX' dvaaacrdiievos fiot, So? TTJV TrarpiBa %dfiov, TTJV VVV dBeXeov TOV ifiov UoXvKpdreos d"7ro9av6vTO6vov Kal e^avBpaTroBtaoo^." rdoTa aKovcras Aapeto? 141 o-Tparii]V Te Kal aTparrjybv 'Ordvea dvBp&v TWV eirrd Dareios, and an opportunity of putting a stop to the piratical possibilities of Samos was naturally looked for, the conquest of Samos needed no gossiping story for its explanation. 8 " T o whom I owe thanks (cp. i. 61), so lately as I have obtained the kingdom, while scarcely any of them has as yet come to us." Some MSS. read Stf and Si (without the first ij). For the phrase -f/ TIS ij oiideh see Xen. Kyrop. vii. 5 ; iElian. de N. A. v. 50, vi. 58. The king's benefactors were registered in an official list, and were called Orosangte (viii. 85). Cp. chh. 154,160. The latter word is more correctly rendered aaixarotj>i\ai<es by a Gramm. in app. Phot. p. 674, as it seems a compound of the root var, " t o protect," and Tchshdyala, ' ' king." 298 HERODOTOS. [BOOK yevofievov, ivreikdfievo<s, ocreov iBerj&r) 6 %vkoamv, rdord ol iroielv iinreXea. Karaf3a<; Be iirl rrjv dakaaaav 6 'Ojaviy; ecreWe Tt)v crrparirjv. 142 T^? Be %dfiov M.acdvBpio<; 6 M.aiavBplov el%e TO icpdros, iirirpotrairfv irapa TLoXv/cpdreos Xafioov rrjv dpyfiv r& Bucaiordra dvBpcov ftovkofieva yeveadat9 OVK igeyevero. eTreiBr) yap ol igayyeXdrj 6 TloXv/cpdreos ddparos, eiroiei roidSe. irpcora fiev Ato? iXevdepiov ftafibv ISpvcraro ical rifievo? irepl avrbv ovptcre TOVTO TO vvv iv T&> 7rpoa(rTei<j) CVT/ 1 fiera Be, w? ol etreTrou^ro, eKK\,7](rir)v v dv e\e£e rdBe. " ifiot, a>? icrre ical vfieif, aicrpnpov KCLI Bvvafii<; iracra r) Tio\vKpdreo<; iTriTerpaTTTcu, icai fioi irape%ei vvv vfieaiv ap%eiv. eyco Be TCL rm 7reXa? iirtirKrja-a'a), avTo? Kara Bvva/juv oil -iroir\IQ)V ecovrw ovre aWos roiavra irotel. Tlo\vKpdTr]<; fiev vvv e^eifX7]cre fioipav rrjv eavTov, iyo) Be 6? /j.ecrov ri]v dp^rjv Tt^ei? lVTa> yeveo~6ai,. e/c fiev ye TS>V Jl6XvKpdreo<; ^prj/judrcov i^aipera ef raXavrd fxoi yeveo~0ai, Iepm<jvv7]v Be 7r/so? TOVTOUTI alpeofiai airm re fiot teal rolo-i anf ifieo alel yivofievoiffi rod Ato? TOU ekevOepiov rm avro<; re Ka/ca><; ical ia>v o\edpo<;'l aXXa fiaWov OKCOS \6yov Bdao~eLv iv rolari darolo-i B6/cifio<;, rS ovvofia rjv TeXecrap^o?. MatavSjOio? Be voa> \a/3a>v ft)?, el fierr\crei rr\v dpyjqv, afCko% Tf? dvr airov rvpavvo<s Karacrrrjcrerai, oil Bij rt, iv vo
1 "Base-born and scoundrel." A parallel to the demand of Mseandrios that the priesthood should be given to himself and his family is found in an inscription of Gythion (Lak3nia), which states that a popular decree conferred the priesthood on a certain PhilgmSn and his descendants for having restored the temple of Apollo at his own expense (Le Bas, Mev. arehiologique, ii. p. 207). in.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 299 Be f&era rdora KareXafie vovcro?. eXirl^cov Be /uv airoBavelcrOai o aoeX0eo9, ™ ovvofia rjv A.v/cdpr)TO<;, 'iva einrere<; Kardo~yjg ra ev rfj "Zdfia Trptfyfiara, KaraKretvei TOVS Beo~/j,a>Ta<; irdvra<sm ov yap Br), a>? o'licacri, eftovXovro elvai iXevOepoi. 'RireiBr) wv WTTIKOVTO €? rr)v Sdfiov ol liepo-ai Kardyovre? 144 ZvXocrcovra, ovre T « cri yelpa? dvraelperai, viroo-irovBoi re ecj>ao-av elvai eroifioi ol rov M.aiavBpLov crraaiwrat, Kal awro? Mata^Spto? eK^apfjaai CK T^9 vqcrov. Karaiveo~avro rvpdvva rjv dBe\(j>e6<; VTrofiapyorepos, ra> 145 ovvo/u,a r)v XaplXeas • ovros 6 rt, Br) e^afiaprwv ev yopjvpr} eBiBero, Kal Br) Tore eiraKoveas re ra Trprjcrcrofieva Kal Sta/cwi/ro? Bia T»J9 ryopyvprjs, to? elBe roiis Ilepo-a? elpr)vaia<s Kari)fi,evov<;, eftoa re Kal e(j>r) Xeyav MaiavBpla) deXeiv eXdeiv e? Xoyovs. iiraKovo-a'i Be 6 Matai'Spto? Xvaavrai avrbv eKeXeve ajeiv Trap eccvrov &>? Be ax&V rd^iara, XoiBopiwv re Kal KaKi^wv fiiv aveireide e-jnQeo-dai rolab Tlepayo-i,, Xiycov roidBe. " i/J-e [lev, &> KaKtare dvBpav, eovra creavrov dBeXeov Kal dBtKrjaavra ovBev a^tov Becrfiov Br)6r}vai ; dXX' e'i roi o-v cr^ea? KarappcoBr)Ka<;, iftol So? roiis etriKovpov? 146 fjsv iya BoKeco, OVK e? rovro d<$>poo~vvr)s airiKoixevo*; to? Bo^ai rr)v ecovrov Bvvafiiv Trepieaeadai rr)<s /3ao~iXeo<>, dXXa tydovr)cra<; fidXXov %vXoo~5)vri el dTrovqrl e//,eXXe diroXdn^reo-Oai, aKepaiov rrjv TTOXIV. ipedtcra? 3>v rov<; Tlipaa<; rjdeXe w? dcrOevearara iroir)aai ra %dfiia irptfyfiara Kal ovrco irapaBiBovai, ev i^eirio-rd[ievo<; &)9 "iraOovres ol Uep&at. «a/c&)9 TrpocefiTriKpaveiaOai efieXXov roio-t, ~Za/J,loio-i, elBcos re emvrm dcr<paXea €KBVCTIV iovaav eK Tr)s vrjcrov rore eireav avrb<; ftovXrfTaf eireiroi7)ro yap ol Kpvjrrr) BiSypv^ eK Tij? aKpoTroXios tyepovaa eirl OdXaaaav? avrb<> fiev Br) 6 Mataj<Spto9 eKirXel eK rr)<; ^,d/u,ov roi"; B' eTTLKovpovs rravra^ 07rXto"a9 o Xap/Xeto?, Kal dvairerdaas T « 9 rrvXas, etjrjKe eirl row; Tlepcras ovre TrpoaBeKo/Aevovs roiovro oiBev BoKeovrds re Br) 2 The tunnel is probably the one, 4200 feet in length, which was par- tially cleared 1856. out by M. Guerin in 300 HERODOTOS. iravra avfifiefidvai, efnreo-ovres [BOOK Be ol eiriKovpoi TOV9 Bipoopeofievov<;3 re Kal Xoyov Kal ovroi fiev Taora eiroieov, eVe/3oj?#et • irie^eofievov 147 rr)v dKp67r6X.lv. Hepcras r) Be aXXr) arparir) Be ol eiriKovpoi 'OTUVT)? Treirovdoras, r&v Tlepcrecav TrXeicrrov iovTas Be 6 birlaw e/creivov. 17 Hepcriicrj KareiXi]07)(rav e? ivroXd<; re 7-0.9 Aapeios ol diroaTeKkcav ivereKXero, yrf)Te Kreiveiv firjBeva "Za/jiiav ixr/re dvBpaTroBt%eo-dai diraQea re Ka/ccov diroBovvai TTJV vrjcov ztvkoo~£)VTb) Tovrecov fiev r&v ivroXicov fiefj,vr}fj,ivo o~TpaTi,fj iravTa Kreiveiv. TOV av ivdavra T ^ ? arpaTirj^ opKeov, ol Be eKreivov irdvra 148 lepm Kal e%a> lepov.69 AaKeBalfiova- TOV eiroiei irpoOelro, ypovov emv, o/tot ol fiev Tt)V aKpoicoXiv eiroXi- Be aTroBpas Be €9 avrrjV roidBe. TOVTOV TG3 KXeofiivei JLXeofji,evT]<; ra iroTrjpia, avr&v Kal S19 Kal Tpls e'iiravTO<; MaiavBplov 09 Xafieiv i(j>6pov; rj dXXov 149 e^eKrjpv^av fiev B1B0VS TWV dcrT&v afieivov dTraXXdao~e elvai fuv direOmvfjLa^e dirofyepecrOai dvBpcov yiveTaif e/c T?}? Z TIepo~ai TrapeBoaav AvXoawvn TTJV Be ^dfiov eovcav ol B' • rovro BiKaioraTos fiaOwv / 3 a 9 eirl rbv Xva fir] dvatrelcry eprjfiov Xoyoicri OKO)<; Be fiovXoiro. Tificopirjv, riva, 2,TrapTiT)Tea)V KaKOv yeveo~6ai. ^AaidvBpiov. re Kal TC Kal i^eirXijcraeTO oaa %-rrdpTr) TOV gelvov 4K rfj<; TleXoTrovvijcrou, Ta 6 B' av ev i OVK iBiKalov, evp^o-erai erj rfj dpyvped 6 JLXeofievr)^ BiBofieva eKirXel e%eo~fieov avrd, T 'Avaf-avBpiBea> Z/TrdpTT)<;, Trpor\ye 6 Be av eKeXeve avTov ft>9 aXXoiai, aiirov 6/j,oia><; ev re Kal dveveiKafievo? o«t»9 irorripia ol fiev 6epdirovTe<s /3ao~iXevovTi IBOITO MaidvSpios rfj Kal iralBa TOV ifvjroBatv ywofievov dyriKOfievo*; e^mprjcre, %p 6 Be irapijyyeiXe Xdftcocri Kal avBpa Be TOV? "Zdfiiov r) avTov inraKovcavTes o~ay7]vevo~avTe<;6 dvBp5>v. ol vcrrepa) 3 5 " W h o carry chairs with them," i.e. to rescue a Greek state from rather than "carried in palanquins." thraldom to the Persians at some risk to See ch. 144. Slaves carried camp stools themselves. 6 for the richer Persians (Athen. Deipn. "Having netted;" see vi. 31. The xii. 514 A), as they did for the older netting, however, could not have been Athenians (iElian. V. S. iv. 12). So very complete, or else Otangs must have Sennacherib is represented on a bas-relief repeopled the island very effectually, as as seated before Lachish on a chair which a few years afterwards Samos furnished he had carried with him, and Si^>po<j>op^a sixty ships to the leaders of the Ionic is used in this sense in Aristoph. Birds, revolt. Strabo (xiv. p. 945) ascribes the 1552. depopulation of the island to the tyranny 4 A fresh definition of extreme rightof Syloson, and quotes a proverb, eousness—for a Spartan to refuse a 2U\O THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. in.] 301 fievTOi yj>ov
vi,oi 150 airec7Tr}o~av, xdpra ev irapeaKevaafievoi' iv oaai yap 6 re Nldyos VPXe Ka ^ Trj Tapayjg ot ' « 7 r T « eiravecTTTjcrav, iv TOVTW iravrl e? TTJV irokiopKi^v Trapecncevd^ovTO. TG> XP°V KaC /ca>? K a ' rdora iroiiovTet; ikdvdavov. eireire Se e'« TOV i(i(f>aveo<; aTrecrTijcrav, eiroirj&av roiovSe. T « ? fir/Tepaf e^eXoi'Te?, yvvalica e/cacrTO? /iiap irpoae^aipeiro TTJV i/3ov\eTo e/e rciyv ecovrov OIKLWV, TO9 Se \onra f/,a>o-i. 7rv06fievoa eiroXiopKet, povTi%ovTa<; oiiBev T?)? •jroXiopKirj';. ava/3aivovre<; yap eVt TOU? Trpofiaxecbva Babylon revolted twice—first in B.C. 521 under Nidinta-Bilu, who called himself Nebuchadrezzar, son of Nabonidos, and (after ten months, as we learn from the contract - tablets) was captured and put to death in Babylon by Dareios himself, B.C. 520 ; and again in B.C. 515 under the Armenian Arakhu, son of Khaldita, who also pretended to be Nebuchadrezzar, but who was within the year taken and impaled by Intaphernes, the Mede, after the previous capture of Babylon. Neither event, as recorded in the Behistun Inscription, agrees with the account of Herodotos ; and Ktesias asserted—no doubt correctly—that the siege described by Herodotos really took place in the time of Xerxes, when Z6pyros, the governor of Babylonia, was killed by rebels, and his son Megabyzos mutilated himself, and so avenged his father. Comp. i. 183. The first siege of Babylon by Dareios is probably that ascribed by Herodotos to Kyros ; see i. 190, note 2. It is unlikely that either Zopyros or Megabyzos could have been, the one satrap of Babylonia, the other commander-in-chief of the Persian army (ch. 160), after the mutilation of their persons. Orientals dislike to serve under mutilated men (so of Gomates in ch. 73). According to Polyaenos (vii. 11) the idea of the mutilation was taken from an attempt made by a Sakan beyond the Oxus to destroy the army of Dareios ; and as we find the same story'told of the Persian Firoz, the Indian Kanishka, and the Kashmirian Lalitaditya, not to speak of the Latin Sextus Tarquinius, it is easy to recognise in it, as Sir H. Rawlinson says, a ' ' standard Oriental tale." 8 The women could easily have been sent into the country, and no mention is made of the children ; while Babylon was a spacious city with gardens and abundant stores of grain. In the two revolts under Dareios, Babylonia, and not Babylon only, shook off the Persian yoke, and Babylon was not besieged till after two successive defeats of NidintaBilu outside the walls. 302 HERODOTOS. [BOOK 152 oiBapa eKirl^wv av r)[iiovop reieeZv. iirra Be firjvwv Kal eviavrov BieXrjXvdoTo^ ijBi] 6 Aapeios re ^ a t t e Kal r/ (TTparir) irao-a ov Bvvarr) iovcra eXetv TOVS HaftvXwplovs. Kairoi irdvra o~o<j>£o-fiaTa Kal irdo-as fir)^ava<; eireirotr^Ket, e? avTovs Aapeto?* dXX ovB' « ? iBvvaro eXeiv acfrea1}, dXXoicrl re crov\aKrj(Ti ol T5a/3vKa>vioi, ovSe o-tyeas olo$ re r]V 153 eXeiv. ivdavra elKoara firjpl Zanrvpw TW M.eya/3v£ov TOVTOV 6? TWV eiTTa avBpmv iyeveTO TWV TOV M.dyov KaTeXopTav, Toi>T
7rvpa> iyeveTO T&pa<s ToBe' TWV ol criTO(j)6pcov rjfjLiovaiv fiia ere/ee.9 d>? Be ol i^ayyeXOrj Kal inro a.7rt(7TM?? OUTO? o ZdOTTvpof elBe TO /3peo<;, direiira<; Tolcn IBovai /x,rjSevl pd£et,v TO yeyovb'S ifiovXeveTO. Kal ol irpos TCL TOV TlafivXwvlov prf/iaTa, of KaT apyhx etyrjo-e, eiredv trep ^filovoi TeKwai, TOTC TO T6fr^o? aXdocrecrOai,, Trpbs TavTrjv TTJV (fnj/irjv Zomrvpai eBoKei elvat aXd>a-ifios rj Ba/SyXaJv o-iiv yap 6eu> eKelvov Te ehrelv Kal ecovTai 154 TeKelv TTJV TJ/JLIOPOP. v Aapelov dire-jrwddveTO el irepl TTOXXOV KapTa iroievrai TTIP BaySuXwya eXelp. irvOofiepos Be a>? TTOXXOV TI/JLWTO, aXXo ifiovXeveTO, o/ccu? avTO<; Te ecrTai 6 eX fieyddeos TifiwvTai. aXXtp fiep VVP OVK e/3r)o-dfjLevo<} avTOfioXtfaeie e? avTov<;. evOavTa ev i\apw Troirjcrd/Mepo1; ecovTop Xcoft&Tai Xda^rjp dvrjKetTTOv OLTTOTa/icbv yap eatvTov TT]V piva Kal TCI &Ta Kal TTJV K6/J,7)P /ea/cw? 155 •KepiKelpa<; Kal /jLa<7Tiya>o-a<; TjXde irapa, Aapelop. Aapelos Be KapTa /SapetB? tfpeiKe lBa>p apBpa BoKipdoTaTop XeX(ofir)/j,ivov, ex Te TOV Opovov dpairr)B^craBe Btadeivaf ovBe Ti5 dXXoTplav & fiacriXev TaBe epyaaTao, a X \ ' avTO<> iym ifieavTOP, Beivov TV Troieofjuepos 'Acrcruptoi'? Hepcrrjo-i, xaTayeXav." 6 B' dfieifteTO " co tr^eTXicoTaTe avBpcov, epya> TW alo~'ylo~Ta> ovvofia TO KaXXicrTov eOeo, <j>a<; Bia TOU? iroXtopKeofievovi o~ewvTOP dvt]Keo-TO)<; Biadelvai. TI B\ W fiaTaie, XeXco^rjfievov creo dacro'ov ol TroXefiioi •jrapao~Tr) Ktesias, not without reason, denied the truth of this. in.] THE PEESIAN EMPIRE. 303 ra hfieXXov Troitfcreiv, OVK av fie TrepielBet' vvv B' e V ifieavTOV pa\ofievo<} eirpijfja. r)Brj &V r\v fir) TK>V awv Berjarj, alpeofiev BapvX&va. iyco /lev yap co? eya> avTOfioX^crco e? TO Tet^o? Kal prj airoXXvixevr}<;, TavTi)<; ^tXt'ou? Tagov KaT Be diro TSIV irvpycov ol Kara TOVTO TeTayfiivoo KaTeTpeypv KOTO Kal oXiyov TO irapaKXivavTes TTJV eTeprjv irvXyv elpdiTeov Tt? Te e'irj Kal oTeo Beo/xevo? T\KOI. 6 Be o~(f>i rjyopeve ? f)KovV BaySuXcoviwv KaTaaTas Be 67r' avTa KaToiKTt^eTO, a<; biro Aapelov Treirovdevai TO, eireTrovOei x/ir ecovTov, iraOelv Be TaoTa BIOTI 1 "Of my own judgment." Cp. ch. 71, iv. 160 ; Od. i. 234. The full phrase is & 0v/ibv (iir' i/i.) /3d\Xecr0ai (i. 84). 2 As the name of Semiramis belongs not to Babylonian history but to Greek romance (see i. 184, note 3), it is not likely that a gate of Babylon bore the name. The " gate of Mnos " (not Nineveh), with which it is associated, shows that the Greek legend of Mnos and Semiramis was in the mind of the author. 3 The Kissian gates ought to have been on the east, towards the mountains of the Kissii or Kossaei (see ch. 91, note 3). Khammuragas, the Kissian leader, who conquered Babylonia and founded a dynasty there, first made Babylon the capital of the country. However, Kis was the name of a city in Babylonia, now Hymer (a little to the east of Hillah). The only names of gates of Babylon as yet found on the monuments are ellu, "the illustrious," and " t h e gate of the goddess Zamama." 4 The locks were pins of wood or iron, which dropped into holes, and had to be drawn up when it was necessary to open the gate. 304 HEEODOTOS. [BOOK i ol airavio-Tavcu rrjv arpaTHjv, eVet're Br) ovBeU TTO/30? i<j>aivero ri)? dXaxnos. " vvv re " e<pr) Xeyap " eym vfuv fi> BafivXaipioi r\nu> fieyio-rop dyaOop, Aapeiw Be Kal rfj arparifj Kal Tleparjcrt fieyicrrov icaieov oil yap Brj i/ie ye &Se ftd fievos fcaTcnrpotgeraf eirla-raixai 8' avrov 7rda-a<; r a ? 157 TWV fiovXevfidrav." Toiavra eXeye. ol Be Ba/3v\d>pioi opio avBpa TOV ev Hepcrrja-t BoKififorarov pwo<; re Kal mrav ea-repr]fievov /ido-Tti-i re Kal a'tfian dvaire^vpfievov, Trdy-yy ekirlaavres Xeyeiv fuv dXrjOea Kal i r)Keuv (rvfifiaypv, eimpdirecrOai eroi/MOi •rjaav Tav iBelro a-tyeav iBelro Be Be /u,tv ol TiafivXaviot rolat, etreo-i ra epya irapeypfjuevov o/xoia, irdyyy -rrept^apei'? iovres irav Brj eroijMoi rjcap virrjperelp. 6 Be BoaXnrwp r/fiepa<; rct6pevo~e TWP Aapelou arparicoreuiv rovs Bic^iXiov^. ISopre? Be Kal TOVTO rb epyop ol Baj3vX(i>pLoi Trdpres Za>7rvpop el%pp ip crrojxacn alpiopre^. 6 Be avrts BiaXiTrcbv Ta? avyKet,fj,ipa<; r)fi,epai Kal rei%o(f>vXai; dTreBiSeKro. irpocrfioXrjP Be Aapeoov Kara, ra, <; Tlepo~a<; e? TO TCJ^O?. reap Be T&a/3vXa>via)p OL fiep elBop rb iroi^Oep, ovrot e 5 See i. 181, note 6. See i. 192, note 4. 7 This could only apply to the second siege of Babylon during the reign of 6 Dareios, when Arakhu revolted, and Dareios himself was not present. As Babylon withstood another siege in the time of XerxSs, and Herodotos himself III.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 305 eXcov Kupo? Tijv Ba/3u\«z>a{ov<; /idXicrTa e? Tpio-%iXiovs aveaKoXoTricre.9 TOI<TI Be XOLTTOIO~L Ha(3vXwvL0t,<Ti direBtoKe TTJV TTOXIV olieelv. a>? S' e^ovai yvvaiKas ol 15afivXa>viot 'iva o~cj>i yevrj viroyivrjTai, rdSe Aapeios TrpolBwv eVot'^cre • ras yap ecovr&v, QJ? Kal ica/r dpj(a^ SeBrfXcorai, direirvi^av ol J5a/3v\d>vt,oi, TOV (TLTOV Trpoopeovres. eTrerafje roiai irepioiKoiai edveai yvvai/ca? e? HajSvXSiva KaTiardvav, ocras Brj i/cdo-roicn hrndaawv, Stare irevre fivpidBeov TO Kea\alcofia roiv yvvcu/cwv avvrfkde- etc rovrewv Be r&v yvvaiicaiv ol vvv Haf3v\a>vioi yeyovaai. ZcoTrvpov Be ovBel*; dyadoepyl/r)v Uepaewv inrepe/3d\eTO irapa 160 Aapeia) Kpirrj ovre rwv vcrrepov yevopevcov ovre ri'a9 ol etxoo-t 7T/3O? rfj eovo-rj irpocryeveaOai. erlfirjo'e Be fuv fieyaXw;- Kal yap Ba>pd ol dva irav ero? eBlBov rdora TO. Tleparjo-i earl rifiKoraTa, Kal rr/v Hafivk&vd ol h'BcoKe dreXea ve/Aecrdai, iik%pi TT)? eKelvov foi;?, Kal aXXa •jroXXa iiriBcoKe. Zwirvpov Be TOVTOV yiverai WLeydftv^os, os ev AlyvTrra dvrCa 'A.6ir)vai dued the country, and, after quarrelling with Artaxerxes (B.C. 447) for not observing the conditions granted to Inar6s, died full of age and honours. 2 Ktesias implies that this took place shortly before the death of Artaxerxes Longimanus (B.C. 425). Consequently the final edition of the work of Herodotos was not published till after this date. ZSpyros was killed while leading the Athenians against the Kaunians, the near neighbours of the youth of Herodotos (i. 171). APPENDICES. EGYPT. historically the oldest of countries, is geologically the youngest. It consists entirely of the soil deposited in comparatively recent times by the Nile. The triangle of the Delta marks the site of the ancient mouth of the river; and though the land has encroached upon the sea but slightly since the age of the Pharaohs, its height has year by year been slowly increasing. Some of the mouths of the river which were navigable streams in classical times have now ceased to be so; the Serbonian lake has in part become dry land, while desolate marshes are now cultivated fields. To the south of the Delta,—with the exception of the Fayum, which owes its fertility to the canal called Bahr Yusuf, the former feeder of Lake Moeris,—Egypt is confined to the narrow strip of mud which lines both sides of the river, and is bounded by low hills of limestone, or the shifting sands of the desert. The Nile now flows for 1600 miles without receiving a single tributary ; the heated deserts on either bank absorb all the moisture of the air, and almost wholly prevent a rainfall, and it is consequently only where the waters of the river extend during the annual inundation, or where they can be dispersed by artificial irrigation, that cultivation and settled life are possible. This, however, was not always the case. The channels of rivers and water-courses that once fell into the Nile can still be traced on both sides of it, from the Delta to the Second Cataract; and the petrified forests that are found in the desert, one about five miles westward of the pyramids of Gizeh, and two others, an hour and a half and four hours to the east of Cairo, show that the desert was not always the barren waste that it now is. The wadis, or valleys, and cliffs are water-worn, and covered with boulders and pebbles, which bear witness to the former existence of mountaintorrents and a considerable amount of rain; and the discovery of EGYPT, 308 APPENDIX I. palaeolithic implements near the Little Petrified Forest, and in the breccia of Kurnah, at Thebes, as i well as other geological indications, make it clear that the geographical and climatic changes the country has undergone have taken place since it was first inhabited by man. It was long maintained that no traces of a prehistoric age existed in Egypt. Arcelin and the Vicomte de Murard, however, in 1868-9, discovered numerous relics of the neolithic age at Gizeh, El Kab, and the Biban el-Muluk, or Valley of the Kings, at Thebes; and MM. Hamy and Fr. Lenormant in 1869 collected further specimens of the same early epoch. Since then neolithic implements and, chippings have been found as far south as the Second Cataract, and more especially on the plateau which overlooks Helwan. Though the discovery was at first disputed by certain Egyptian scholars, who knew more of the Egyptian monuments than of prehistoric archaeology, no reasonable doubts in regard to it can any longer exist.1 It is, impossible to calculate the rate at which the deposit of Nilemud is taking place, since the amount deposited varies from year to year, and the soil left by the inundation of one year may be entirely carried away by the next. Shafts were sunk in it in ninety - six different places at Memphis by Hekekyan Bey in 1851-4, and in one of them, near the colossal statue of Ramses II., a fragment of pottery was found at a depth of 39 feet under strata of soil which had been covered by sand from the desert. As the statue, which was erected in the fourteenth century B.C., is now 10 feet below the surface, it would seem that the deposits have been increasing at the rate of 3-5 inches in each century, and that consequently the fragment of pottery is 13,530 years old. Such calculations, however, are exceedingly precarious, and at Heliopolis the alluvial soil has accumulated to a height of between 5 and 6 feet around the base of the obelisk erected by Usertasen I. (about B.C. 3000). All we can say is, that the Delta had no existence when the Nile was still fed by a number of tributaries, and flowed at a much higher level than it does at present. 1 Many of the neolithic flints belong to the historical age. Those found at Gizeh for example, are associated with Roman remains, while the flint weapons in the neighbourhood of the Roman mud-brick fortress at Sheykh Gebel Embarak were probably the work of the wild tribes who destroyed it. The worked flints discovered by Gen. PittRivers in the breccia on the north side of the temple of Kurnah must be of great antiquity. See his and Mr. R. P. Greg's papers on the subject in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, x. 4, xi. i (May 1881, May 1882). EGYPT. 309 In some places the river has left behind it evidence of its former level. Thus, at Abu-Simbel, a line of water-worn caves on either bank, just above the heads of the sitting figures of the great rock-cut temple, proves the depth of the channel it has scooped out for itself; while we can actually determine the date at which the First Cataract was removed from Gebel Silsileh, or Silsilis, to Assuan ( Syeue"), and the highest rise of the river in Ethiopia was 27 feet 3 inches above its rise at the present day. Certain inscriptions of the reign of Amenem-hat III. of the twelfth dynasty, and of the fourth king of the thirteenth dynasty, found at Semneh (about thirty miles south of the Second Cataract), show that this was the level to which the inundation then reached, and that the plains of Ethiopia, which are now far above the fertilising reach of the river, were then annually inundated. Before the accession of the eighteenth dynasty, however, the catastrophe had happened; the Nile forsook its old channel, still very visible, to the south-east of Assuan, the First Cataract was formed, and the highest level of the inundation above it was that attained at present. The earliest traces of man in Egypt since the country assumed its modern features are probably to be found in the stone implements already mentioned. There is no evidence to show that Egyptian civilisation was introduced from abroad; on the contrary, everything seems to point to its having been of indigenous growth. And the high perfection it had reached before the date of the earliest monuments with which we are acquainted implies unnumbered ages of previous development. The civilisations of the ancient world — of Egypt, of China, and of Babylonia—were all the creations of great rivers. Every attempt hitherto made to discover a primitive connection between them has failed. Race.—The racial affinity of the ancient Egyptians is still an open question. It is certain, however, that after the age of the Old Empire the dominant race ceased to be pure. Thus, the Pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty seem to have had Nubian blood in their veins, the Phoenicians of the Delta have left descendants in the natives of Lake Menzaleh, and the long dominion of the Hyksos cannot but have affected the population of the country. Even the conquering princes of the eighteenth dynasty married foreign wives and peopled Egypt with foreign captives, the twenty-fifth dynasty came from Ethiopia, and the Saites of the twenty-sixth were probably of Semitic, or, as Brugsch is inclined to think, of Libyan origin. At all events they introduced a new element, the Greek, into the population of Egypt. 310 APPENDIX I. The type of features presented by the monuments of the Old Empire is essentially different from that presented by the monuments of a later period; and while Egyptian skulls earlier than the sixth dynasty are dolichocephalic, those subsequent to the close of the Old Empire are brachycephalic. The physiological type of the Egyptian of the Old Empire—of the founders, that is, of Egyptian art and civilisation—is that of a somewhat short, thick-set man, with massive, goodtempered mouth, smooth hair, full nostrils, broad forehead, and reddishbrown complexion. He belongs to what ethnologists have vaguely termed the Caucasian or Mediterranean stock. Up to the last the Egyptian showed no resemblance whatsoever to the negro, and the colour of his skin alone would effectually mark him off from the Nubian. On the other hand, the monuments draw a careful distinction between him and the Libyans, who are painted white or pale yellow. Language casts no light on the question, since linguistic relationship proves nothing more than that races speaking allied forms of speech were once in social contact with one another. Moreover, the philological position of the Old Egyptian language presents many difficulties, though it seems probable that either it or its parent-speech was the sister of the parent-speech of the modern Libyan, Haussa, and Galla dialects on the one side, and of the parent-speech of the Semitic idioms on the other. We may, if we like, class the Egyptians and their language as " Hamitic," but nothing is thereby explained. In fact, so far as our present materials and knowledge are concerned, the Egyptians were as autochthonous and isolated as their own civilisation. Geography. —Egypt naturally falls into two divisions: the Delta, formed by the mouths of the Nile, in the north ; and the land fertilised by the Nile, between the Delta and the First Cataract, in the south. Below Syene and the First Cataract we are in Nubia. At the apex of the triangle formed by the Delta stood Memphis, built by Menes upon the ground he had reclaimed from the Nile by constructing a dyke,—that of Kosheish,—the remains of which may still be detected near Mitrahenny, and so confining the river to its western channel. Older than Memphis was Tini or This, the birthplace of Menes, and in after times a mere suburb of the younger Abydos. Here was the tomb of Osiris, in the neighbourhood of which every Egyptian of sufficient wealth and dignity desired to be buried. The accumulated graves formed the huge mound now known as the Kom es-Sultan. About one hundred miles southwards of This and Abydos stood Thebes, which under the Middle Empire became the metropolis of Egypt, and EGYPT. 311 attained its chief glory under the kings of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties. It is doubtful whether even a village stood on the spot in the time of the Old Empire; indeed, it is possible that the population of the district at that early epoch was still mainly Nubian. Subsequently, the town extended from the east to the west bank, where the temple and palace of Eamses III. (now Medinet Abu), the Memnonium or Kamesseum,—perhaps the tomb of Eamses II.,—and the temples built by Seti I. at Kurnah, by Queen Hatasu at Deir el-Bahri, and by Amenophis III. farther south, rose at the foot of the vast necropolis of the city. In the classical era Thebes gave its name to the southern half of Egypt. In the extreme south, on the Egyptian side of the First Cataract, was Suan or Syene1, now Assuan, opposite to the island of Elephantine1, called Ab, " the elephant" isle, by the Egyptians, from which came the sixth dynasty. Two small islands southward of Elephantine* acquired the reputation of sanctity at least as early as the twelfth and thirteenth dynasties, and one of them, Senem, now Bigeh-Konosso, in the fourth and third centuries B.C., communicated its sanctity to the neighbouring island of Philse. Philse soon became the religious centre of Egypt, the reputed tomb of Osiris having been transferred to it after the decay of Abydos. The granite cliffs and boulders between Philse and Sy^ne* furnished the material for the obelisks, the sphinxes, the colossi, and the other great monuments of the Egyptian monarchs; and the early date at which they were worked may be gathered from the fact that the so-called granite-temple, close to the Sphinx of Gizeh, whose building may have preceded the reign of Menes, is constructed of blocks which must have been brought from Assuan. Southward of the First Cataract was Nubia, and above that again Cush or Ethiopia. Nubia formed part of the kingdom of the sixth dynasty, while Usertasen III. fixed the boundaries of the empire at Semneh and Kumnaeh; and an Egyptian officer, entitled " the Prince of Kush," and first named in inscriptions of Thothmes I., whose capital was as far south as Napata, governed the country up to the age of the twenty-first destiny. The most perfect remains of Pharaonic fortifications now existing are the fortresses of sun-dried brick erected by Thothmes III. at Kobban, opposite Dakkeh, and on both sides of the river at Semneh, thirty-five miles south of the Second Cataract. The division of Egypt into Upper and Lower dates from the age preceding Menes, the first known king, who united the two kingdoms (B.C. 5004). Lower Egypt, called To Meh or To Mera—" the northern 312 APPENDIX I. country"—extended from the Mediterranean to Beni-Suef, and consequently included the marshes of the Delta, occupied in the time of the Old Empire by the long-forgotten hippopotamus, crocodile, and papyrus. It was defended from the attacks of the Amu or Semitic tribes of Western Asia by a line of fortresses called Matsor in Hebrew (whence Mizraim, or " the two matsors,"—that is, Upper and Lower Egypt). The line stretched from Migdol in the north to the neighbourhood of Suez in the south, and was originally established by the founders of the eighteenth dynasty. The main channels through which the Nile flowed into the sea were seven,—the Pelusiac, Tanitic, Mendesian, Bukolic or Phatnitic, Sebennytic, Bplbitinic, and Kanopic, —of which two only are now navigable. The Kanopic branch, ten miles from the mouth of which Alexandria was founded under the auspices of Alexander the Great, is now represented by a marshy inlet near Abukir. In the eastern part of the Delta lay the land of Goshen, with its cities of Tanis or Zoan, Bubastis, Pharbsethus, Pithom, and On or Heliopolis (near Cairo), not far from which was the site now known as the Tel el-Yehudlyeh, where the Jewish priest Onias, with the aid of Ptolemy Philome'tdr, raised the rival temple to that of Jerusalem. From Tanis and Daphnse to Pelusium the fortified highroad led from Egypt to Palestine, along the edge of the Mediterranean. Upper Egypt, extending from Beni-Suef to Assuan, was known as To Kema, or To Res,—" the southern country,"—which, with the article pa prefixed, is the original of the Hebrew and Greek Pathros. Like Lower Egypt, it was divided into nomes or districts,—hesqph in Egyptian,—supposed to represent the numerous small states of the prehistoric age out of which the historic Egypt was constituted. Each nome was subdivided into its nut or capital, its uu or cultivated land, fertilised by the Nile, the marsh lands (pehu), and the portion of cultivated land watered by canals. The civil and military administration of the nome was in the hands either of a hereditary governor (hik), or of a nomarch (mer-nut-zdt-to), appointed by the king. Under the Ptolemies these monarchs were usually termed a-rpaT-qyoL, presided over by an «rurTjoar>7yos; the religious affairs of the province being managed by the high-priests of the principal temples, assisted by a numerous staif of prophets, scribes, astrologers, and sacristans. At the same time the nome was further subdivided into a certain number of roira/oxtat, composed of groups of towns (TOTTOI) and villages. The number of nomes varied at different periods. Thus the hieroglyphic list at Edfu mentions thirty-nine, nineteen being in Lower 313 EGYPT. Egypt; while Diodoros (liv. 3) and Strabo (xxviii. 1, 3) reckon thirty-six. LIST OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN NOMES. UPPER EGYPT. NOMES. Egyptian. CAPITALS. 1. To Kens. Ombites. 2. Tes-Hor. Apollinopolites. 3. Ten. Latopolites. 4. Fas. ( Diospolites. -J Phatyrites. ^ Hermonthites. 5. Horui. Koptites. 6. Emsuh (?). Tentyrites. 7. Ha-Sekhekh (Hut-sokhem). j- Diospolites. 8. Tenai (?). Egyptian. Greek. Thinites. 9. Khem or Apu. Panopolites. 10. Tuf. Antseopolites. 11. Baar Hypselites. 12. AtefKhent Lykopolites. (Upper Atef). ( of Lykopol13. Atef Perm -i Part and Her(Lower Atef). [_ ites mopolites. 14. TJaz. 15. Unnu. Hermopolites. 16. Meh (or Sat). North part of Hermopolites. 17. Anup. Kynopolites. 18. Uab. Oxyrrhinkhites. Abu (Elephantine). / Teb (Copt. Atbu) \ Khennu. /Nekheb. ISni. M - Amun or TApu, afterwards Her Mont (An Res an Munt). Kebti. ( Ta-reror Ta-n-taru -I (orTa-nutri, Copt. [PiTentore. Ha or Hu. ( ( Teni, afterwards < Ab-tu or Abud ( with suburb Sui. Khem or Apu (Copt. Shmin). Ni-ent-bak. Shas-hotep (Copt. Shotp). Siaut(Copt. Siut). Greek. Arabic. AsOmbos (Egn. (Geziret Nubti) in the suan, and Roman period K6m Ombu. Apollinopolis VEdfu. Magna. j Silsileh. Silsilis. j Eileithyia. El Kab. ( Latopolis Esneh. ( Luxor - KarfThebai (Dios- J nak and -j polis Magna) j Medinet Abu (^ Hermonthis. \ Erment. Koptos. Kuft. l_Tentyris or Denderah. j Tentyra. I Biospolis Hu. j Parva. rThisorThinis, Girgeh and J afterwards 1 Abydos, sub- - Kharabet elMadfuneh. ^urb Ptolemais Panopolis or Akhmim. Khemmis. Antseopolis. Gau el-Kebir. Satb. - Hypselg. { Kus or Kast. Lykopolis. Asyivt. Khusai. Kusiyeh. Tebti. Sesunnu or Khimj- Hermopolis. unu (Copt.Shmun). (Hebennu or HatTheodosio| uer (Copt. Tuho). polis. J Nofrus. Speos ArteI Panubt. midos. iMenat-Khufu. Kynopolis. Ko or Ha-Suten. Pa-Mazat (Copt. I OxyrrhinPemje). khos. Sapt-moru. ( Ashmunen. f Taha el-Medi| neh (?). I Kum el-Ah| mar. Beni-Hassan. Minieh. El-Kes. Behnesa. 314 APPENDIX I. UPPER VGYTT—Continued. CAPITALS. NOMES. Egyptian. Egyptian. Greek. ( Ha - Khnensn, or Pi - her - Shefni Herakleopolites. \ [ (Copt. Hnes). Ha-bennu. 20. Pa. ( Meri Turn, or 21. Neht Peht, < Meitum. including j-Arsinoites. ( Shed (Pi-Sebek). (To-she or) 22. Matenmu Pa Neb-tep-ahe. Aphroditopolites. 19. NehtKhent. Greek. 1 Herakleopolis f Magna. Hipponon. ? )j-KrokodiloJ polis. \ Aphrodito( polis. Arabic. /Annas elt Medineh. i C MMum. -| Medinet el|^ Fayum. Atfieh. LOWEE EGYPT. 1. Anbu-hator Sebt-hat ("the white Memphites, wall"). 2. Aa. Letopolites, 3. Ament. Nomos Libya. 4. Sepi Res. Saites. 5. SepiEmhit. Saites, 6. Ka-sit. Xoites. 7. Ament. ? 8. Sethroites. Abot. 9. At-pi. Busirites. 10. Ka-Kem. Athribites. 11. Ka-Hebes. Kabasites. \ Sebennytes 12. Ka-Theb ( Superior. 13. Hak-at Heliopolites. 14. KhentAbot. Tanites. 15. T-hut. 18. Khar. Hermopolites. Mendesios. 17. Sam-hut. Diospolites. 18. Am Khent. 19. Am Pehu or Pa-ToNuz. 20. Lapt. Bubastites. 1 Butikos or Phtheneotes. Pharbsathites. ( Men.nofer1 \ (" good place"), Memphis, / Various t lages. vil- ( Letopolis and Sekhem-t. j Kerkasoros. Apis. Ni Ent Hapi. Zoka, Kanopos, Near Abukir. Sai. Sais. Sa, el-Hager. Khesauu. Xois. N.E. of Sais. Sonti-nofer. Metelis. /Tel el'-MaskPi-Turn (Pithom). (Sethroe) \ buta. P-Usir-Neb-tat. Busiris. Abustr. Ha=ta-Hir-ab. Athribis. Tell Atrib. Ka-hebes. Eabasos, Theb en-Nuter, Semennud. Sebennytos. Anu (On) and Near Cairo.2 Heliopolis. Pi-Ka. Zan (Zoan) or Zan pi - Ramses VTanis. San. (Raamses) Pi-T-hut. Hermopolis. Paba - Neb - tat or Tmey el-AmMendes. Tatu. did (?). Takhnamunis Pi-khun en-Amun. or Diospolis. J Tel Basta Bubastis. Pi-Bast. t (Zagazig). Pa-Uz Sheten. Contracted into Moph and Noph (modern Tel-Monf). Memphis was also called Kha-nofer, "thegood appearance;" Makha-ta, "land of the scales;" and Ha-ka-Ptah, " house of worship of Ptah," whence perhaps the Greek AlyvwTos. Buto. Pharbaethos. Horbet. The fortified part was named Anbuhat or "white wall." (See Thuk. i. 104). 2 Brugsch would identify Heliopolis or Pi-Ra, on the north side of On, with Tel el-Yehudiyeh. EGYPT. 315 Chronology and History.—Egyptian chronology is full of difficulties, and without more materials than we possess at present can be little else than a system of guess-work. We must be content to date the period preceding the seventh century B.C. by dynasties rather than by years. All we can state with certainty is that the chronology,, historically considered, is an enormously long one, and that the earlier dynasties must be placed at least 6000 years ago. Our authorities are partly classical, partly monumental. The most important is Manetho (in Egyptian Mei en-Tahuti—"Beloved of Thoth"), a priest of Sebennytos, who was intrusted by Ptolemy Philadelphus (B.C. 284246) with the task of translating into Greek the historical works contained in the Egyptian temples. Unfortunately Manetho's work is lost, and we have to depend for our knowledge of it upon the meagre and sometimes contradictory extracts made by Josephus, Eusebius, Julius Africanus,1 and George Syncellus.2 Eusebius and Africanus profess to give us Manetho's list of the Egyptian dynasties, with the length of time each lasted, and in many cases the names and regnal years of the monarchs of whom they were composed. The names and numbers, however, do not always correspond, nor does even the duration of certain dynasties agree with the totals of the reigns comprised in them, when added together. But what is most serious is, that the names of the kings, and the length of time they are said to have reigned, are not unfrequently irreconcilable with the statements of the monuments. Sometimes, too, reigns for which we have monumental evidence are omitted altogether. It is plain, therefore, that Manetho's list has come to us in a very corrupt condition, and that the numbers contained in it must be received with extreme caution. Moreover, the Christian writers who have handed them down were intent on reconciling the chronology of the Egyptian historian with that of the Old Testament, and were consequently likely to curtail it as much as possible. Nevertheless, in the want of other authorities, all attempts to restore Egyptian chronology must be based upon this imperfect reproduction of Manetho, to whom, it may be observed, the distribution of the kings into dynasties is due. That Manetho himself faithfully reported the evidence of the monu1 3 Bishop of Emmaus (Nikopolis) at the i.e. the "cell-companion" of the beginning of the third century. Only Patriarch of Constantinople, A.D. 800. fragments of his work on Chronology in His work was continued from 285 five books have been preserved. (See down to 813 by Theophanes the Isaur- Eouth, Beliquice Sacrcc, ii.) ian. 316 APPENDIX I. ments—or rather, perhaps, of the native histories compiled from them —has been abundantly proved by the decipherment of the inscriptions. His statements, notwithstanding the imperfect state in which they have reached us, are in the main correct. The monumental names can generally be detected under their Greek disguises, the scheme of dynasties has received full confirmation, and the chronology of the Sebennytic priest seems rather to err on the side of defect than of excess. Startled by the long chronology Manetho's list necessitates, Egyptian scholars formerly imagined that several of the dynasties were contemporaneous. M. Mariette's researches, however, have shown that this is not the case. Thus the theory which made the fifth dynasty reign at Elephantine", while the sixth was reigning at Memphis, has been overthrown by the discovery of monuments belonging to the two dynasties in both places; and the discovery of the colossi of the thirteenth Theban dynasty at San or Tanis, near Xois, upsets the scheme according to which this dynasty was contemporaneous with the Xoites of the fourteenth. In fact, as M. Mariette says, if the lists of Manetho " contain collateral dynasties, we should find in them, before or after the twenty-first, the dynasty of high-priests which (as we learn from the monuments) reigned at Thebes, while the twentyfirst occupied Tanis; in the same way we should have to reckon before or after the twenty-third the seven or eight independent kings who were contemporary with it, and who ought, if Manetho had not disregarded them, to have added so many successive royal families to the list of the Egyptian priest; similarly the 'dodecarchy1 would count, at least, as one dynasty coming between the twenty-fifth and the twenty-sixth; and finally, the Theban princes, the rivals of the Shepherds, would take their place before or after the seventeenth."1 There were several periods in the history of Egypt, it is true, when more than one line of kings was ruling in the country ; but it is clear that either Manetho or his epitomisers struck out all except the one line which was considered legitimate, and so drew up a catalogue of successive dynasties. It is probable, however, that gaps occur between some of the latter. If at any period there was no dynasty which the Egyptian priests considered legitimate, it would necessarily be passed over in the annals of Manetho. Indeed, of one such period we have actual proof. No mention is made by Manetho of the so-called dodecarchy, when, 1 Aperqu de VHistoire aneienne d'jZgypte, p. 67. EGYPT. 317 for more than twenty years, Egypt was under the domination of Assyria. The twenty-sixth dynasty is made to follow immediately upon the twenty-fifth. And there is no reason to think that this is an isolated case. The interval of 750 years, for instance, which, according to Africanus, intervened between the close of the Old Empire with the sixth dynasty, and the rise of the Middle Empire with the eleventh, seems hardly sufficient to account for the changes undergone by Egypt and its people during the time, and the interval is still further reduced to 391 or 466 years by Eusebius. Beigns, too, have dropped out of the list in many places ; thus, to take only the earlier dynasties, Noferkara or Nebkara is omitted in the third; Ratat-ef, the successor of Kheops, in the fourth; and Keka in the fifth. The efforts of Eusebius to shorten the chronology make his excerpts less trustworthy than those of Africanus; Kheneres, for instance, the Tefa or Hutefa of the tablet of Sakkarah, is omitted by him at the end of the second dynasty (though he makes Nepherkheres or Noferkafra the seventh and not the fifth successor of Binothris or Bainuter), and an example of the way in which he reduces the number of regnal years has already been noticed. In commemorating the earlier monarchs of the country the priests of the various temples compiled selected lists of them. Thus at Abydos Seti I. is represented as honouring the spirits of sixty-five of his predecessors, beginning with Menes and ending with the last king of the twelfth dynasty, the kings of the eighteenth dynasty, who are made to follow immediately, being reckoned as twelve. At Karnak, again, Thothmes III. is pictured making offerings to the images of sixty-one of his predecessors ; while a second list of kings, discovered at Abydos, in the temple of Eamses I I , repeats the list given by Seti, with a few omissions. At Sakkarah, too, in the tomb of a priest named Tunari, who flourished under Eamses II., we see the dead man admitted to eternal life in the presence of fifty-eight of the earlier kings of Egypt. The principles upon which these selected lists were drawn up are still unknown to us. Certain prominent kings, such as Menes, the founder of the empire, or Kheops, the builder of the great pyramid, occur in them all, but in other parts of the lists the names chosen are different. Possibly the priests selected those monarchs who were reputed to have been benefactors to the particular shrines in which the lists are found; more probably the deceased is brought into spiritual relation with those who in some special way were supposed to have been his ancestors. At all events, it is one of these selected temple-lists that is 318 APPENDIX I. embodied in the catalogue of thirty-eight "Theban" kings extracted from the Greek mathematician Eratosthenes (B.C. 276-194) by Christian writers. The introductory sentence, which calls Menes a Theban, shows plainly the source from which it was derived.1 A sketch of Egyptian history is given by Diod6ros, who probably derived it from Ephoros. The sketch is on the whole fairly accurate, though the blunder of Herodotos is repeated, which placed Kheops, Khephren, and Mykerinos 2000 years too late. Herodotos (see Introd.) derived his information as to earlier Egyptian history from the inventive ignorance of half-caste ciceroni, so that we need not wonder at its utter incompatibility with the truth. In saying, however, that the 341 generations of kings who preceded Sethos extended over 11,340 years, the Greek historian has made a gratuitous mistake of his own; not only is his arithmetic at fault, but he has confounded together reigns and generations. It is possible that the sources from which Manetho composed his history may yet be recovered. What they were we may gather from the famous Turin papyrus, written in the time of Eamses II., and found probably in a tomb at Thebes. The carelessness of the natives who discovered it, and of the Europeans who brought it home, has unfortunately shivered it into more than 160 minute fragments, many of which it is impossible to put in their right places. In spite of this horribly mutilated condition, the papyrus is nevertheless of the highest value. A considerable number of royal names are preserved, many of them otherwise unknown, as well as the years and months each king reigned. With a complete papyrus of this kind we should be able to restore the whole skeleton of Egyptian history. Like the histories of all other great nations, this history begins with its mythical age. The first dynasty of prehistoric Egypt was believed to have consisted of the gods. Each temple had its own peculiar list of these divine monarchs, in which its presiding deity took the first place. Thus at Memphis the dynasty of gods was composed as follows:—(1) Ptah or Hephsestos, "the father of the gods;" (2) Ea, the Sun-god, his son; (3) Shu (Agathodsemon), the Air-god, his son; (4) Seb, the earth, his son; (5) Osiris, his son; (6) Set (Typhon), the son of Seb ; (7) Horos, "the redeemer," the son of Osiris. At Thebes, on the other hand, the order was :—(1) AmunEa, " the king of the gods; " (2) Mont, his son ; (3) Shu, the son of 1 The list of Eratosthenes, in which an attempt is made to give the meaning of the royal names, was edited by ApolIod6ros of Athens (about B.C. 140). EGYPT. 319 Ra; (4) Seb, his son; (5) Osiris, his son; (6) Horos, his son; Set, the evil principle, not being reckoned among the legitimate rulers. Next to these royal gods came the Hor-shesu, or " successors of Horos," divided by Manetho into the two dynasties of demi-gods and Manes j among the latter, according to the Turin papyrus, being the sacred animals, the Apis of Memphis and the Mnlvis of On. The reign of the Manes closed the mythical age of Egypt; they were followed by Menes of This, the founder of the united monarchy and the leader of the historical dynasties. Modern research, however, has caught glimpses of the epoch which preceded the age of Menes, and was relegated by the Egyptian scribes to the reigns of the mysterious Hor-shesu. The country of the Nile was then divided into a number of small kingdoms, inhabited by a race similar in origin and customs, and already possessed of a considerable civilisation. The so-called granite temple, near the Sphinx of Gizeh, built of huge monoliths of Syenite granite, exquisitely cut and polished and fitted together, perhaps belongs to this remote period. It must have originally been a tomb, but when it was discovered in the sand in the time of Kheops, the builder of the great pyramid, the king seems to have imagined it to be the shrine of Harmachis,1 the Sphinx. The building carries us back to an age when neither cement nor sculpture nor writing was known; but even at that remote date the principles of architecture had been studied, and the chieftain who lived on the edge of the Delta was able to have huge blocks of granite cut and transported for him from the distant quarries of Assuan. The Sphinx itself probably belongs to the same early time. At all events it was already in existence in the age of Khephren and the fourth dynasty, and no mention is made of its construction in the excerpts from Manetho. Whoever has seen the rich plain in which the city of This once stood will easily understand how it was that the founder of the united monarchy came from thence. The plain is at once one of the largest and most fertile of those in the valley of the Nile, while it is protected from attack on three sides by the Libyan hills, and on the fourth side by the river. Everything was in favour of the progress of its inhabitants in wealth and power. At any rate it was from here, 1 Egyptian Hor-em-khuti, "the sun on Sphinx is called Hu. The inscription, the horizon." In the inscription, which though probably dating from the age of states that Khufu found a temple of Isis the eighteenth dynasty, is a copy of an beside the temple of the Sphinx, the older text. 320 APPENDIX I. from the precincts of the tomb of Osiris himself, that Menes or Mena, " the constant," made his way northwards, passing on his road the ancient kingdoms of Ni ent-Bak (Antseopolis) and Sesunnu (Hermopolis), where Horus had defeated and slain his enemy Set, with the aid of Thoth. At last he established himself in the near neighbourhood of the Sphinx, which may possibly record his deeds and features, and by means of the great dyke of Kosheish won the land from the Nile whereon to build his capital, Men-nofer or Memphis. The date to which this event was assigned by Manetho has, for reasons already given, been variously computed. Boeckh makes it B.C. 5702, Unger 5613, Mariette 5004, Brugsch 4455, Lauth 4157, Pessl 3917, Lepsius 3892, and Bunsen 3623. We shall provisionally adopt the dates of Mariette, whose longcontinued excavations in Egypt have given him an exceptional authority to speak upon the matter; but those who have sailed up the Nile, and observed the various phases through which Egyptian art has passed will be inclined to think that he has rather fallen short of the mark than gone beyond it. Menes, we are told, undertook a campaign against the Libyans, and after a reign of sixty-two years was eaten by a crocodile (or hippopotamus), a legend which may have originated in the belief that Set, the enemy of order and government, revenged himself upon the successor of the royal Osiris. Teta, who followed him, was said to have written treatises upon medicine and anatomy, and the medical papyrus of Ebers contains a chapter which was supposed to have been " discovered " in his reign, while the sixty-fourth chapter of the Book of the Dead was ascribed to the same date. The only other noteworthy king of the first dynasty was Uenephes, the builder in all probability of the so-called step-pyramid of Sakkarah. The second king of the second dynasty, Kakau or Kaiekhos, established or more probably regulated the worship of the bulls Apis and Mnevis, and the goat of Mendes. After him Bainuter or Binothris laid down that women as well as men might henceforward inherit the throne. With the death of the last king of the second dynasty (B.C. 4449) the line of Menes seems to have come to an end. It had succeeded in welding the whole country together, and suppressing those collateral princes whose names are occasionally met with on the monuments. The third dynasty was Memphite. To it belongs Snefru or Sephuris (B.C. 4290-4260), whose inscriptions in the Wady Magharah tell us that the turquoise-mines of Sinai were worked for his benefit, and EGYPT. 321 guarded by Egyptian soldiers. The lofty pyramid of Meidum is his tomb, close to which are the sepulchres of his princes and officials, still brilliant with coloured mosaic-work of pictures and hieroglyphics. But it is the era of the fourth dynasty that is emphatically the building era. The pyramid-tombs of Khufu (Kheops), Khafra (Khephren), and Men-ka-ra (Mykerinos or Menkheres), in the necropolis of Memphis, still excite the astonishment of mankind by their size and solidity. " The great pyramid " of Gizeh, with its two companions, towers like a mountain above the sandy plain, and neither the ruin of six thousand years nor the builders of Cairo have been able to destroy them. Khufu and Khafra, whose impiety was one of the " travellers' tales " told to Herodotos by his ignorant guides, were separated from each other by the reign of Tat-ef-Ra or Ra-tatf, who was possibly the son of Khufu, " the long-haired," and the brother of Khafra. The statue of Khafra, of hard diorite, found by M. Mariette, and preserved in the Museum of Bulak, is one of the most beautiful and realistic specimens of Egyptian art, characteristic of its early phase, and illustrating the features of the Egyptians of the Old Empire. Men-ka-ra was followed by Ases-ka-f, the Asykhis of Herodotos, who built the pyramid of brick, and was, according to Diodoros, one of the five great lawgivers of Egypt. After a few more reigns, the fifth dynasty succeeds to the fourth, and we pass to the age of Ti, whose tomb at Sakk&rah is among the choicest of Egyptian monuments. Its walls of alabaster are covered with delicate sculptures, brilliantly coloured, and resembling the most exquisite embroidery on stone. They trace for us the scenes of Ti's life ; here he is superintending his labourers in the field ; here he is watching a party of carpenters or shipbuilders; here, again, he is hunting hippopotami among the papyri of the Delta, while a kingfisher hard-by is seeking, with loud cries and outstretched wings, to drive a crocodile from her young. The kings of the fifth dynasty introduced the fashion of adding a second cartouche, with the name of honour, to that which contains their names as individuals. One of them, Tat-ka-ra Assa, who has left us monuments among the mines of Sinai, was the prince under whom the Papyrus Prisse was written by "the governor Ptah-Hotep." This, the most ancient book in the world, is a treatise on practical philosophy, very like the Book of Proverbs in the Old Testament. Thus, it tells us, that " if thou art become great after thou hast been lowly, and if thou hast heaped up riches after poverty, being because of that the chiefest in thy city; if thou art known for thy wealth and art become a great lord;—let not Y 322 APPENDIX I. thy heart be puffed up because of thy riches, for it is God who has given them unto thee. Despise not another who is as thou wast; be towards him as to Wards thy equal." Ptah-Hotep must have been advanced in years at the time he wrote his book, if we may judge from the feeling language in which he describes old age. With the fifth dynasty the Memphite dynasties come to an end. The sixth was from Elephantine Its most illustrious monarch was Merira Pepi I., whose able minister Una has left us a record of his widespread activity. Ships of war were built at the First Cataract to convey blocks of granite to the north; multitudes of negroes were enrolled in the Egyptian army for campaigns against the Semites of Asia and the Herusha or Beduins of the isthmus of Suez; the garrisons in the Sinaitic peninsula were strengthened; and the temple of Hathor, at Denderah, built by the Horshesu in the mythical age, and repaired by Khufu, was rebuilt from the foundations according to the original plans, which had been accidentally discovered.1 The sixth dynasty ended with Queen Neit-akrit, or Nitokris, "with the rosy cheeks," who completed the third pyramid, left unfinished by Men-ka-ra, and, if we may believe Herodotos, avenged herself on the murderers of her brother. An age of trouble and disaster, it would seem, followed upon her death. The copyists of Manetho give but a short duration to the seventh dynasty, and the three kings placed after Neit-akrit by the Turin papyrus are made to reign severally only two years a month and a day, four years two months and a day, and two years a month and a day. With the close of the sixth dynasty (B.O. 3500) we may also date the close of the Old Empire. For several centuries the history of Egypt is a blank. A few royal names are met with on scarabs, or in the tablets of Abydos and Sakkarah, but their tombs and temples have not yet been found. When the darkness that envelops them is cleared away, it is with the rise of the eleventh dynasty and the Middle Empire (B.C. 3064). How long it lasted we do not know, but the period cannot have been a short one. Profound changes have taken place when the veil is once more lifted from Egyptian history. We find ourselves in a new Egypt; the seat of power has been transferred to Thebes, the physical type of the ruling caste is no longer that of the Old Empire, and a change has passed over the 1 "Wiedemann doubts this, and believes that the whole story was invented in the time of Thothmes III., the real builder of the temple, in order to give the shrine the reputation of antiquity. EGYPT. 323 religion of the people. It has become gloomy, introspective, and mystical; the light - hearted freedom and practical character that formerly distinguished it are gone. Art, too, has undergone modifications which imply a long age of development. It has ceased to be spontaneous and realistic, and has become conventional. Even the fauna and flora are different, and the domestic cat, imported from Nubia, for the first time makes its appearance on the threshold of history. Thebes is the capital of the Middle Empire, and a new deity, Amun, the god of Thebes, presides over it. Its princes were long the vassals of the legitimate dynasties of Herakleopolis, and the first of whom we know, Entef I , claimed to be no more than a simple noble. His son, Mentu-hotep I., still calls himself hor, or subordinate king, and it is not until three generations afterwards that Entef IV. throws off the supremacy of the sovereigns in the north, assumes the title of monarch of Upper and Lower Egypt, and founds the eleventh dynasty ; though this honour is also claimed by Mentu-hotep IV. The era of Theban greatness, however, begins with the Amen - em - hats and Usertasens of the twelfth dynasty. Its founder, Amen-em-hat I., won the throne by war, and followed the fashion of the old Memphite kings by building for himself a pyramid. "We possess in the Sallier papyrus the instructions which he wrote for his son. The relations between Egypt and the adjoining districts of Palestine are revealed to us in the story of an adventurer named Saneha, who is made to fly from the court of the Theban monarch to that of Ammu-enshi, king of Tennu in Edom, where, like David, the Egyptian killed a " champion " famous for his strength and size. The obelisk which marks the site of Heliopolis, near Cairo, was raised by Usertasen I., the son and successor of Amen-em-hat; it is the oldest of which we know. It characterises the Middle Empire,, just as the pyramid characterised the Old Empire, and, in the later times at all events, was intended to serve as a lightning-conductor. At any rate, an inscription at Edfu speaks of it as thus employed. Meanwhile, new colonists were sent to Sinai, and the turquoise-mines were re-opened. The Nubians and negroes of Aken and Kush were conquered, and in the eighth year of the reign of Usertasen III. the southern boundary of the empire was fixed at the fortresses of Semneh and Kummeh, thirtyfive miles beyond the Second Cataract, no negro being allowed to come northward of them, except for purposes of trade. Here, in succeeding reigns, the height of the inundation was marked year by year on the 324 APPENDIX I. rocks, from which we learn that its highest rise was 27 feet 3 inches above its rise at the present day. The enormous basin, with its tunnel and canal, dug by Amen-em-hat III. on the western bank of the Nile, created the modern province of the Fayum. Its name, Meri, or "lake," was changed by the Greeks into the name of an imaginary being, Mceris. Its site is now marked by a depression in the south-east of the Fayum. Strangely enough, the province and its inhabitants were so abhorred by the Egyptians on account of their worship of the god Sebek, and his sacred animal, the crocodile, that they are never mentioned on the monuments. It is possible that Amen-em-hat peopled the district with the captives he had carried away from the south. We know from the paintings on the tomb of Prince Khnum-hotep at Beni-hassan that the immigration of the Semites into the Delta, which eventually gave it the name of Keft-ur, or Caphtor, " Greater Phoenicia," had already begun in the reign of Usertasen II. In the sixth year of the latter's reign a family of thirty-seven Amu or Semites from Absha arrived with their asses and goods, and craved permission to settle on the banks of the Nile. We may still see them with their black hair and hooked noses, and Phoenician garments of many colours like the one which Joseph wore. They were the forerunners of numerous hordes, who succeeded at last not only in making the Delta their own, but even in conquering the whole country that had given them hospitality, and under the name of the Hyksos ruling over it for more than 500 years. They borrowed the alphabet of the Egyptians, under the form assumed by it in the hieratic papyri of the Middle Empire; and this alphabet, after being carried to Phoenicia, has become the mother of the alphabets of the civilised world. The kings of the thirteenth dynasty ably maintained the empire which had been handed down to them. More than 150 are named in the Turin papyrus, proving that the number 60, given by the copyists of Manetho, is incorrect. Monuments of some of them have been found at Asyut, at Abydos, at Bubastis, at Tanis, and elsewhere. The twenty-sixth sovereign of them erected colossi in the island of Argo, in the very heart of Ethiopia, thus penetrating far beyond the southernmost limits of the conquests of the twelfth dynasty. But the following dynasty from Xois (Sakha), whose seventy-six kings, according to Manetho, reigned for 484 or 134 years, allowed the power it inherited to slip through its hands. The fifteenth dynasty bears the ominous title of Shepherds, or Hyksos, and testifies to the fact that Egypt had passed under the yoke of a foreign domination. EGYPT. 325 Hyksos is the Egyptian hik-shasu, "chief of the Beduins," or "Shepherds," Shasu being the name given to the Semitic nomades of North-western Arabia. The Hyksos, however, are called Men or Menti in the inscriptions, Menti being explained in the geographical table of Edfu to be the natives of Syria. In accordance with this, Manetho speaks of Jerusalem as a Hyksos town, and their Egyptian capital, Zoan or Tanis, is connected with Hebron in Numb. xiii. 22. It is possible that their leaders were Hittite princes, though Lepsius believes them to have come from Punt or Southern Arabia; at any rate, their features, as revealed by the few memorials of them that exist, more especially the lion of San, belong to a very peculiar and non-Semitic type.1 But their monuments are rare ; after their expulsion the Egyptians did their utmost to destroy all that reminded them of the hated strangers, and it is only within the last few years that M. Mariette's excavations at San or Tanis have brought to light some scanty relics of the Shepherd kings. Their rule lasted, according to Manetho, for 511 years,2 and this seems to be confirmed by a granite slab found at San, of the time of 1 M. Maspero has lately questioned whether the peculiar type represented by the monuments of San is really that of the Hyksos, and not rather of the original population of the district. 2 This number is obtained from the valuable fragment of Manetho preserved by Josephus (Cont. Ap. i. 14, 15). Africanus and Eusebius are hopelessly confused. Africanus makes the fifteenth dynasty consist of six "Phoenician" kings, reigning in all 284 years ; but the number of years assigned to each does not always, agree with that given by Josephus, and the leader of the dynasty, Salatis, is confounded with Saites, the leader of the seventeenth. Africanus further makes the sixteenth dynasty consist of thirty-two " G r e e k " Shepherd kings and last 518 years, the seventeenth dynasty consisting of forty-three Shepherd kings for 151 years. Eusebius, on the other hand, passes over two of the Shepherd dynasties, and, doubtless following the example of Manetho, reckons the contemporary native princes at Thebes as alone legitimate. His fifteenth dynasty consequently consists of Thebans for 250 years, and his sixteenth dynasty also of five Thebans for 190 years. In the seventeenth dynasty he enumerates four Phoenician Shepherd kings for 103 years, though forty-three independent sovereigns had time meanwhile to reign at Thebes. While, therefore, according to Africanus, the Shepherds occupied the country for 953 years, according to Eusebius the contemporary Theban dynasties extended over only 543 years (or, supposing the seventeenth dynasty to be contemporary with the latter, only 440 years). The numbers are plainly exaggerated, and the round numbers in Eusebius suspicious ; but it is probable that the Theban princes did not recover their independence until some time after the Hyksos conquest, so that it was only during the reigns of the later Shepherd kings that Manetho was able to reckon the Theban dynasties as collateral. The seventeenth Shepherd dynasty is distinguished on the monuments from the two preceding ones by the name of Menti-Petti. 326 APPENDIX I. Eamses II., which is dated in the 400th year of the (Hyksos) king, Set-aa-pehti Nubti,—if, that is, the latter can be identified with the Saiteswho leads the seventeenth dynasty of Manetho (B.C. 1806).1 It must, however, be admitted that Set was specially the god of the Shepherds, and that his name enters into the composition of several of theirs (such as Staan, Asseth, and Sethos). Some time appears to have elapsed before the Semitic hordes consolidated themselves under the rule of a single prince, to whom the name of Salatis or Shaladh, " the Sultan," is given, and who established his court at Memphis. Like the Moors in Spain, the Hyksos seem never to have succeeded in reducing the whole of Egypt to subjection, though the few native princes who managed to maintain themselves in the south were no doubt tributary to the earlier Shepherd monarchs; and Wiedemann's discovery that the granite statue (A) in the Louvre, which was usurped by Amenophis III., is really a monument of the Hyksos prince Apepi, proves that the latter subjected to his sway thirty-six districts of Nubia. Gradually, however, the power of the Hyksos became weaker, the tributary princes made themselves independent, and the hik or governor of Thebes collected around him a rival court. Meanwhile the Hyksos kings had fully submitted themselves to the influence of Egyptian civilisation. They had adopted the manners and customs, the art and literature, even the religion and the gods, of their conquered subjects. They gave themselves the titles of their predecessors, and raised temples and sphinxes in honour of the deities of Egypt. Zoan or Tanis was made their capital and adorned with splendid buildings, so that its foundation could well be ascribed to them. Here they surrounded themselves with the scribes and savans of both Egypt and Asia, and a geometrical papyrus written under their patronage has survived to tell us of the culture they professed. Their hold upon the country was confirmed by the construction of two fortresses at Ha-uar or Avaris, in the Sethroite nome, and Sherohan2 on the frontier, the first of which was garrisoned with 240,000 men; but their direct power does not seem to have extended further south than the Fayum. It was during the domination of one of the three Hyksos dynasties that first Abraham and then Joseph must have entered Egypt, and found a ready welcome among a people of kindred race. But the rule of the Shepherds was drawing to a close. Their 1 Maspero, however, holds that the date merely refers to the 400th year of the mythical reign of Set or Typhon, like the year 363 of Harmakhis mentioned at Edfu. 2 Sharuhen in Josh. xix. 6. EGYPT. 327 monarch Apepi or Apophis, as we learn from the legend in the Sallier papyrus, had deserted Tanis and established his capital at Avaris,— an indication, perhaps, that the limits of Hyksos authority had been gradually contracting. Nevertheless, he still claimed supremacy over the subordinate native princes of the south, and in an evil day determined to displace Ra-skenen, the hik or governor of Thebes. Raskenen submitted to his first demand that he should worship no other gods but Amun-Ra; but when the tyrant sent a still more exacting message, Ra-skenen ventured to raise the standard of revolt, and summoned the other oppressed chieftains of Egypt to his aid. The war of independence was begun, the foreigners were driven from one position to another, and a national fleet was built by Ra-skenen Taa II., whose three successors, Ra-skenen III., Kames,1 and Aahmes, concluded the work. Avaris was captured in the fifth year of the last-named prince and Sherohan in the sixth, and Egypt was now free. Aahmes founded the eighteenth dynasty and the new empire (B.C. 1703), and with it a new era of prosperity and glory for the country of his ancestors. The same outburst of vigour and military activity that followed the expulsion of the Moors from Spain followed also the expulsion of the Hyksos. The injuries Egypt had endured at the hands of Asia were avenged upon Asia itself. The old policy of exclusiveness and non-interference in Asiatic affairs was renounced, the war was carried into the East, and the boundaries of the empire were laid on the banks of the Euphrates. Palestine was occupied by Egyptian garrisons, and in thus flinging herself upon Asia, Egypt became an Asiatic power. The penalty was paid by a future generation. Asiatic customs and aspirations penetrated into the kingdom of the Pharaohs, the population and the court itself became semi-Asiatic, and, exhausted by the efforts it had made, Egypt at last fell a prey to internal dissensions and the assaults of foreign enemies. But for a time, under the great monarchs of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, the brilliant policy they had inaugurated seemed eminently successful Time after time their armies marched out of " hundred-gated Thebes," returning with new rolls of conquered provinces, with the plunder and tribute of the East, and with trains of captives for the erection of the gigantic monuments in which the 1 Uot-kheper-Ra-Kames is the Alisphragmuthosis of Manetho, who captured MempMs, I being read for t, and kh repre- sented by s, as in Suphis for Khufu. Men-kheper-Ra (Thothmes III.) is Mespheres (Misaphris) in Manetho and Pliny. 328 APPENDIX I. spirit of the conquerors sought expression. The city-like ruin of Karnak, with its obelisks and columns and carvings, the huge monoliths of granite that watched over the plain of Thebes, the temple of Abu-Simbel, hewn out of a mountain and guarded by colossi, whose countenances betokened the divine calm of undisputed majesty, were all so many memorials of titanic conceptions and more than human pride. Nobler and better than these, however, were the earlier monuments of a Thothmes or a Hatasu, in which Egyptian art gave utterance to its renaissance in delicately-finished and brilliantly-painted sculpture on stone. The little temple of Amada in Nubia, built by Thothmes III. in honour of his young wife, or the ruined walls of Queen Hatasu's temple at Deir el-Bahri, on which is carved the story of Egyptian exploration in the land of Punt, are, in the artist's eyes, worth far more than the colossal monuments of Ramses II. The first care of Aahmes or Amosis, after driving out the foreigner, was to unite Egypt again into a single monarchy. Gradually the petty kings were reduced to the rank of feudal princes, and the defeat of the Nubian sovereign Teta placed the country between the Cataracts once more in Egyptian hands. But it was his second successor, Thothmes I., who was the first of a long line of great conquerors. In the south he added the Soudan to Egypt, and appointed " a governor of Kush;" in the east he carried his arms as far as Naharina, or the land of the Orontes. But his achievements were eclipsed by those of his second son, Thothmes III. For a while his elder sister Hatasu ruled as regent with more than masculine energy and ability, and her little brother was believed in later legend to have fled, like the god Horos, to the marshes of Buto in the north. The loftiest obelisk in the world was, by her orders, carved out of the granite rocks of Assuan, engraved, floated down the Nile, and set up at Karnak, in the short space of seven months. Stately temples rose at her command, and a voyage of discovery was made to the land of Punt and the African coast near Cape Gruardafui, whence the explorers brought back strange plants and stones and animals, among them a chimpanzee. For fifteen years Hatasu ruled supreme. Then the youthful Thothmes, grown to man's estate, claimed and received a share in the government, and six years later the queen died. As a military power, as the arbiter of the destinies of the ancient civilised world, Egypt reached its zenith under the sway of Thothmes. During his long reign of fifty-three years eleven months and four days, the country was covered with monuments, and became the centre of EGYPT. 329 trade and intercourse. Countless treasures flowed into it, and Thebes took rank as the capital of the world. A royal botanical and zoological garden was established, stocked with the curious plants and animals the king had brought back with him from his campaigns, among which we may recognise the mama or dom-palm. In the year after his sister's death, he shattered the combined Canaanite forces, under the Hittite king of Kadesh on the Orontes, at Megiddo, where the enemy left behind them, among other spoil, chariots of silver and gold that had been made in Cyprus. A fortress was built at the foot of Lebanon, near Arados, to secure the new conquests. But it needed fourteen campaigns before Western Asia could be thoroughly subdued, and in the course of these we hear of the Egyptian king hunting elephants near the town of Ni, midway between Carchemish and Kadesh. After this, year by year tribute and taxes of every kind came in regularly to the Egyptian treasury from the towns of Palestine and Phoenicia, from Cyprus and the Hittites, from Mesopotamia, Assyria, and perhaps even Babylon itself. Kush, too, sent its offering, and Egyptian officials visited the Soudan; while Punt—the coasts of Somali and Southern Arabia—poured its products into the trading vessels of the Egyptian king. His successors, Amen-hotep or Amenophis II., Thothmes III., and Amenophis III., maintained the empire they had inherited, with occasional raids upon the negroes, for the sake partly of slaves, partly of the gold found in their country. The two colossi in the plain of Thebes, one of them the miracle-working Memnon of classical days, are statues of Amenophis III. But the latter sovereign left a legacy of trouble behind him. He seems to have made a misalliance by marrying a wife neither royal nor Egyptian, named Taia, and their son, Amenophis IV. or Khu-en-Aten, was regarded as an usurper by the priestly aristocracy of Thebes.1 But Amenophis IV. was more than an unlawful ruler. He was a heretic, acknowledging only the 1 The tomb discovered by Mr. VilliersStewart at Thebes shows no more than that the peculiar style of art introduced by the architects of Khu-en-aten at Tel el-Amarna, was introduced into Thebes itself during the latter part of the king's reign. The right-hand side of the facade of the tomb which is decorated in this peculiar way is unfinished, and both on the right and on the left-hand sides the cartouches of Amenophis IV. and Khuen-Aten are joined together. M. Maspero has shown that Taia was an Egyptian name, so that the Asiatic origin of the princess is not absolutely certain. A fragment of sculptured stone with the uneffaced cartouches of Khu-en-Aten, found at Erment, a little south of Thebes, proves that the "heretic king'' built a temple in the near vicinity of the old capital. 330 APPENDIX I. one God of Light, whom he worshipped, like his mother, under the symbol of the solar disk (aten), and fanatically intolerant of Amun-Ra and the state-gods of Thebes. Open war soon broke out between him and the priests. By royal edict the sacred names of Amun and Mut were erased from the monuments of Egypt, the king's own name was changed to Khu-en-Aten—"the splendour of the solar disk;" and Thebes, the city of Amun, with all its temples and monuments of victory, was left, in order that a new capital might be founded at Tel el-Amarna. Here a magnificent shrine was built to the new divinity of the Pharaoh, not after the venerable model of the temples of Egypt, but of those of the subject Phoenicians. It would seem that the king had originally intended to plant this in the city of Thebes itself, and that his retirement to his new capital was an enforced flight. Here he surrounded himself by his relations and the converts to the new doctrines,—one of the latter, Meri-Ra, being made chief prophet of his temple and adorned with a golden chain. His generals, indeed, continued to gain victories in Syria and Ethiopia, but the upper classes of Egypt were in secret revolt, and the country was fermenting with the suppressed bitterness of religious hatred. He died leaving seven daughters and no sons, and was followed by two of his sons-in-law and the master of his horse, whose united reigns hardly filled up a single generation. Ai, the master of the horse, had married the foster-mother of Khu-en-Aten, and during his short reign seems to have carried out a vigorous policy. He returned to the orthodox worship of Amun, and was accordingly allowed a place in the royal burial-ground of Thebes by the priests. But his death was the signal for fresh dissensions, which were healed only by the accession of Horem-hib, the Armais—not Horos—of Manetho (whose list of the kings of the eighteenth dynasty is in the greatest confusion). Hor-em-hib had married the sister-in-law of Khu-en-Aten. He enlarged the great temple of Amun at Thebes, re-conquered Kush, and received tribute from Punt. With him the eighteenth dynasty came to an end.1 Ramses (Ramessu) I., the founder of the nineteenth dynasty, came from Lower Egypt, and was probably of Semitic extraction. He 1 Among the kings belonging to the close of the eighteenth dynasty may be mentioned Teta Menephthah, who was worshipped under the nineteenth dynasty. Ra-en-tui, another king of the same period, is called king of Lower Egypt only in the temple of Ramses II. at Abydos, from which we may infer that the nineteenth dynasty began with reigning over the Thebaid alone. Ai seems to have been followed by his two brothers-in-law, Tut - ankh - Amun and Ra-s-aa-ka-nekht-kheperu. EGYPT. 331 was related—apparently by marriage—to Hor-em-liib, and his short reign of six years was chiefly. signalised by the beginning of the long struggle with the Kheta or Hittites, now the most powerful people in Western Asia. His son, Seti Menephthah I., or Sethos, the builder of the great hall of columns at Karnak and the principal temple of Abydos, once more restored the waning military fame of Egypt. The incursions of the Beduins into the Delta were mercilessly avenged. Palestine was overrun from one end to the other; the Phoenicians of the Lebanon submitted voluntarily; Kadesh, " in the land of the Amorites," once the- southern stronghold of the Hittites, was captured; and Mautenur, the Hittite monarch, after several years of conflict, was forced to make alliance with the Egyptian conqueror. A new enemy had meanwhile appeared on the coast in the shape of the Libyans. They, too, however, were defeated, and Thebes was filled with the spoil of the stranger.1 Such victories were needed to condone the religious failings of the new dynasty, which worshipped the foreign gods of Canaan, at the head of them all Baal-Sutekh, or Set, once the patron-deity of the hated Hyksos, but now the divinity after whom the Egyptian king was himself named. Ramses II. or Sestesura, the Sesostris of the Greeks, son and successor of Seti, seems to have been a boy of about ten years at his accession, and to have died at the ripe age of eighty. He was the grand monarque of Egypt. His long reign, his colossal buildings, his incessant wars, and the victories he claimed, all make him the prototype of Louis Quatorze. For a time he had been associated in the government with his father, whose death was the signal for a renewal of the war between Egypt and the Hittites. The Hittites had summoned their allies from the furthest regions of their empire. The Dardanians (Dardani) came from the Troad, the Masu or Mysians from their cities of Ilion (Iluna)2 and Pedasos, the Kolkhians or Keshkesh from the Kaukasos, the Syrians from the Orontes, the Phoenicians from Arvad. Kadesh, on the Orontes, was the centre of the war. It wras here that Eamses saved himself from an ambush of the enemy, partly perhaps by his personal bravery, partly by the swiftness of his horses. But the event was made the subject of a long heroic poem by Pentaur, the Egyptian Homer, who 1 It is difficult to determine the exact extent of Seti's successes, since, like many other Egyptian kings, he has at Karnak usurped the inscriptions and viotories of one of his predecessors, Thothnies III., without taking the trouble to draw up a list of his own. 2 Brugsch reads this as Mauna, " Mfeonia." 332 APPENDIX I. won the prize for his verses above all other competitors in the seventh year of the king's reign. It was treated with true epic exaggeration ; the interference of the gods was freely invoked, and the achievement transferred to the region of myth. But the vanity of Ramses never wearied of reading the legend in which he played the leading part. The poem was inscribed on the walls of Abydos, of Luxor, of Karnak, of Abu-Simbel,—every where, in short, where the grand monarque Taised his buildings and allowed his subjects to read the record of his deeds. As a matter of fact 'his victories over the Hittites were Kadmeian ones. At one time the Egyptian generals prevailed over the enemy, and the statues of Ramses were erected in the city of Tunep, or carved in stone at the mouth of the Nahr el-Kelb, while hymns of victory were sung at Thebes, and gangs of captives were lashed to work at the monuments of the mighty conqueror; but at another time the tide of fortune changed, and Carchemish rather than Thebes had reason to triumph. For years the struggle continued, until, in the thirtyfourth year of Ramses, the two nations, exhausted with the equallybalanced conflict, were fain to make peace. Ramses and Khita-sira, " the great king of the Hittites," entered into an alliance, defensive and offensive, agreeing that neither side should punish the political offenders who had fled from the one country into the other during the time of war. The Hittite text of the treaty was engraved on a tablet of silver in the peculiar characters of Carchemish, while the Egyptian copy was sculptured on the walls of the temples of Ramses. It was ratified by the marriage of Ramses with the daughter of the Hittite king. Meanwhile raids were made upon the hapless negroes in the south, and Askalon, which had dared to resist the will of the Egyptian monarch, was stormed and sacked. The Libyans sent tribute, and fresh gold-mines were opened in Nubia, where miserable captives rotted to death. The Israelites in Goshen built the treasure-cities of Pithom and Raamses, or Zoan, and colossal statues of the monarch were carved out of the granite rocks of Syene, and set up in front of the temple of Ptah at Memphis, and of the Ramesseum, " the tomb of Osymandyas," at Thebes. The monolith of the Ramesseum, now shattered by earthquake, was no less than sixty feet high. But Ramses cared more for the size and number of his buildings than for their careful construction and artistic finish. The work is mostly "scamped," the walls ill-built, the sculptures coarse and tasteless. To this, however, Abu-Simbel forms a striking exception. Here, among EGYPT. 333 the silent sands of Nubia, one of the world's wonders was carved in the rock. A huge and solemn temple was hewn out of a mountain, and its entrance guarded by four colossi, each with a divine calm imprinted upon its mighty features, and with eyes fixed towards the rising of the sun. Abu-Simbel is the noblest memorial left us by the barren wars and vainglorious monuments of Ramses-Sesostris. His family must have been a large one. The temple of Abydos records the names of sixty daughters and fifty-nine sons, the fourteenth of whom, Menephthah II., was the next king. His first work was to repel a formidable naval attack by Libyans and various tribes from the north, in whom some have seen Sardinians, Sicilians, and Akhaeans. They were led by the Libyan king, Marmaiu, the son of Did, and had penetrated as far as Heliopolis, sweeping over the Delta like a swarm of locusts. The invaders were almost completely destroyed, and prodigious booty fell into the hands of the royal army. This was in the fifth year of the king's reign. Shortly afterwards, according to the most accepted theory, the exodus of the Israelites took place (B.C. 1320). Three more inglorious reigns over a divided Egypt bring us to the end of the nineteenth dynasty. It had been a period of civil war and foreign invasion. Arisu, a Syrian from Phoenicia, made himself master of a large part of the country, at the head of an army of revolted slaves. The history of this troubled time is glanced at in the great Harris papyrus; it is given in more detail by Dioddros Siculus,1 who calls the rebels Babylonians, and by Manetho,2 who terms their leader Osarsiph, and identifies him with Moses. Osarsiph had been a priest of Heliopolis, and in conjunction with the Hyksos, who had sent troops from Jerusalem, occupied Avaris, the old fortress of the Shepherds. For thirteen years Egypt suffered under this foreign rule; then Set-nekht, whom Manetho names Amenophis, advanced with an army from the south, drove out the Semites and slaves, put down the rival chiefs, and united the country under one sceptre. He ushered in the twentieth dynasty (B.C. 1288), and was succeeded by his son, 1 i. 1, 56. Ap. Joseph, cont. Ap. i. 27. As Manetho makes the legitimate king under whom this happened an Amenophis, it is possible he has divided the name of Menephthah Si-ptah, the tomb of whose wife, Ta-user (the Thuoris of Manetho), is at Thebes, between Amenophis and 3 Osar-siph. Menephthah Si-ptah was one of the kings or anti-kings who preceded Arisu, with whom he has sometimes been identified, and owed the crown to a Theban noble, Bai, and Seti the governor of Kush. The foreign slaves were called lepers by the Egyptians, which Manetho has mistaken for leprous Egyptians. 334 APPENDIX I. Ramses III., the Rhampsinitos of Herodotos, who had been a boy of five years of age at the time of his father's successes. Ramses III. is the last of the native heroes. Egypt was surrounded by its enemies when he assumed its double crown. The Libyans, under their princes Zamar and Zautmar, were the first to attack it. But they were driven off after a fierce battle, in which they left 12,535 dead upon the field. The next struggle was by sea. The Hittites of Carchemish, and their allies from the islands of the Mediterranean, from Asia Minor, and from the Kaukasos, came in overwhelming force in the ships of Arados. But they, too, were defeated and the waters reddened with their slaughter, while their camp on land was plundered and burned. Then, in the king's eleventh year, came a new assault by the Maxyes under their chief Massala, the son of Kapur. They had penetrated as far as the Kanopic branch of the Nile when the avenging hand of Ramses fell upon them. They were partly slain, partly drafted into the Egyptian forces, for Egypt was now obliged to depend largely upon mercenary troops. Even the negroes had ventured to invade the south, but they too were chastised, and the country was at last at peace. Eamses had filled his coffers with the spoil of his enemies, and now increased his wealth by building a fleet of merchantmen in the harbour of Suez, by renewing the mining-stations of Sinai, and by opening mines of copper elsewhere. The construction of new temples marked the revival of Egyptian prosperity; and at Medinet-Abu, opposite Luxor, the solitary example of an Egyptian palace that remains was erected. But with all his riches and success, Ramses was not preserved from a dangerous harem-conspiracy, which, however, was detected and its authors put to death. When he died he left his son, Ramses IV., a prosperous and peaceful kingdom • the empire of earlier days had gone, and Egypt was contracted to its own borders, but within those borders it was at peace. The succeeding kings of the nineteenth dynasty were all named Ramses, and each was as insignificant as his predecessor. The high priests of Amun at Thebes gradually supplanted their power, until at last all things were ripe for revolution, and the high priest Hirhor seized the throne and established a new dynasty (B.C. 1110). But though Hirhor claimed to be king of Upper and Lower Egypt, it was only in the Thebaid that his authority was undisputed. The descendants of Ramses XIII. and their adherents had been banished to the Great Oasis; but a rival dynasty, alone recognised by Manetho under the title of the twenty-first, and founded by Si-Mentu Mei-Amun EGYPT. 335 or Smendes, ruled at Tanis. Another power, however, soon appeared upon the scene. A great-grandson of Eamses XIII., the last king of the twentieth dynasty, had married the daughter of Panu-res-nes, " the great prince " of the Libyan mercenaries in the Delta, whom Brugsch supposes to have been an Assyrian monarch. But the names which he believes to be Assyrian are in no way so, and are probably to be regarded as Libyan.1 Pinotem (Pinetsem) II., the great-grandson of Hirhor, had been succeeded by his son Men-kheper-Ra, when Sheshank or Shishak, the leader of the mercenaries in the Delta, and fifth in descent from a certain foreigner named Bubui or Buai, with his son Naromath, established himself as independent king at Bubastis. A movement seems to have previously broken out at Thebes in favour of the banished Ramessids, in consequence of which the latter were recalled. Sheshank must have extended his power as far as Middle Egypt, since his son Naromath was buried in state during his father's lifetime at Abydos, while the throne of Tanis was occupied by Psiunkha or Pisebkhan I.,2 the Psusennes of Manetho. It was during this period of internal dissension that the bodies of Thothmes III., of Ramses II., and of the other great princes of the 18th and 19th dynasties, were transferred from their tombs to the secret cavern near Deir el-Bahari, at Thebes, where they were interred along with the members of the family of Pinotem.3 Hor Psiunkha II. 4 was the successor of Psiunkha I., and was perhaps the king who sought to strengthen himself against the growing power of the Libyan mercenaries by marrying his daughter to Solomon. But all precautions were in vain. Sheshank I., the descendant of the Sheshank already mentioned, 1 The Mat, of whom Panu-res-nes and his successors were princes, were the Libyan Mashuash or Maxyes. Wiedemann (Geschichte Aegyptens von Psammetich I. bis auf Alexander den Grossen, p. 34), points out that the passage rendered by Brugsch, " A memorial tablet was erected in the language of the land of Bab(el)," is really, " A stele was set up to her made of stone from the land of Ba . . su-t." 2 Called Pasiuenkha by Birch. s The discovery of these mummies has enabled M. Maspero to restore the genealogy of the line of Hirhor as follows :—(1) Hir-hor, high - priest and king, reigned at least sixteen years ; (2) Pionkhi, his son, high - priest; (3) Pinotem I., his son, high - priest; (4) Pinotem II., his son, king. His two sons were (5) Masahirti, the high-priest, and (6) Men-kheper-Ra, the king. Menkheper-Ra's son and successor was (7) Pinotem III. Pinotem II. had married, first, Neithibreshnu, by whom he had Masahirti, whose daughter was the princess Isimkheb (Ast-em-kheb), and, secondly, queen Ma-ke-Ra, whose son was Menkheper-Ra. The latter married Isimkheb, and built the great mud-brick fortress of El Haybi, between Beni-Suef and Minieh. 4 Called Har-pasebensha by Birch. 336 APPENDIX I. overthrew both the rival dynasties of Tanis and Thebes, and heads the twenty-second dynasty, B.C. 980, establishing his court at Bubastis. Sheshank signalised his reign by overrunning Judah, Edom, and the southern part of Israel, and capturing Jerusalem, a list of the conquered towns being engraved on the wall of Karnak. His successors, whose names have been erroneously imagined to be Assyrian, proved a race of rois faineants. Egypt became once more divided among a number of petty kings, and the Ethiopian monarchs of Napata, who derived their origin from the banished family of Hirhor, claimed suzerainty over their former rulers. One of these, Pi-ankhi, has left us a record of his triumphs over Tefnekht of Sais, — called Tnephakhthos, the- father of Bocchoris, by Diod6ros, — who had captured Memphis and made himself master of all Lower Egypt. The rebel prince himself fled to Cyprus, but was pardoned and allowed to return to Egypt His son Bak-en-ran-ef, or Bocchoris, occupied the whole of Manetho's twenty-fourth dynasty, while Mi-Amun Nut, the son of Piankhi, reigned at Thebes. Bocchoris was captured and burned alive by the Ethiopian Shabaka or Sabako,1 the son of Kashta, who founded the twenty-fifth dynasty and reunited the Egyptian monarchy. After his defeat by Sargon, the Assyrian king, at Eaphia in B.C. 720, he died, and was followed first by Shabatuk and then by Taharka (Tirhakah or Tarakos), the brother-in-law of Sabako. Tirhakah found himself in possession of a prosperous kingdom,— threatened, however, by the rising power of the Assyrians, and undermined by native discontent at the rule of the Ethiopian stranger. After the indecisive battle with Sennacherib at Eltekeh in B.C. 701, Tirhakah was left in peace for some years, until, in the twenty-third year of his reign (B.C. 672), he was attacked and driven out of Egypt by the Assyrian armies of Esar-haddon. Egypt became a province of Assyria, divided into twenty satrapies, each governed by a native prince. It was these twenty satrapies that constituted the dodecarchy of Herodotos. But more than once Tirhakah marched down from Ethiopia and endeavoured to recover his lost dominion. He was aided by the satraps and people, who naturally preferred the rule of the Ethiopian to that of the Assyrian. Twice did he advance as far as the Delta, and twice was he driven back again by the Assyrians, Necho of Memphis and Sais, and the chief ally of Tirhakah, being on the 1 Called So in 2 Kings xvii. i. EGYPT. 337 second occasion sent in chains to Nineveh. At last the old Ethiopian monarch died, and his successor Rut-Amen, or Urdaman, the son of Sabako, determined once more to wrest the sovereignty of Egypt from Asia. Thebes and Memphis opened their gates, and even Tyre sent help. But the Assyrians returned and executed terrible vengeance. No-Amon or Thebes was plundered and destroyed, the ground strewn with its ruins, and two of the obelisks at Karnak sent as trophies to Nineveh.1 But the Assyrian yoke was at last shaken off. Psamtik or Psammetikhos, the son of Necho of Sais, led the insurgents. Born in the Delta, he was probably of Semitic origin, but his marriage with a princess of the house of Bocchoris gave him the rights of a legitimate king. The moment was a favourable one for revolt. The Assyrian empire had been exhausted by the conquest of Elam, and the Viceroy of Babylonia was in open rebellion in concert with the nations of the west. Gyges of Lydia sent Karian and Ionian troops to the aid of Psammetikhos, and with these he drove out the Assyrian garrisons and reduced the vassal-kings. The decisive battle was fought at Menuf or Momemphis. Psammetikhos became the sole and independent lord of united Egypt, and the foreign mercenaries, were rewarded with a permanent settlement near Bubastis. With the twenty-sixth dynasty (B.C. 660), the St. Luke's summer of Egyptian history begins. The revival of peace, of power, and of prosperity, was marked also by a revival of art. Sais was adorned with buildings which almost rivalled the mighty monuments of Thebes; the sacred bulls were enshrined in vast sarcophagi in a new gallery of the Serapeum; screens were introduced in the temples to hide the interior from the vulgar gaze; and a new cursive hand, the demotic, came into use. But the government had ceased to be national; it had gained its power by Hellenic aid, and from this time forward Greek influence began to prevail. The king's person is protected by a Greek bodyguard ; the native soldiers desert to Ethiopia, and the oldest Ionic inscription we possess records the pursuit of them by the foreign mercenaries of Psammetikhos. The mart of Naukratis is founded by the Milesians at the mouth of the Kanopic channel, and a new class of persons, interpreters or dragomen, spring up in the country. Necho the son of Psammetikhos flung aside the old exclusive policy of Egypt, and in rivalry with the merchant cities of Ionia strove to 1 Z The destruction of the city is alluded to in Nahum iii. S-10. 338 APPENDIX I. make the Egyptians the chief trading people of the world. An attempt was accordingly made to unite the Eed Sea and the Mediterranean by cutting a canal from Bubastis to the Bitter Lakes, and only given up after the death of 120,000 of the labourers. Phoenician ships were sent to circumnavigate Africa, and returned successful after three years' absence. But the inland trade of Asia, which passed through Carchemish and Tyre, still remained to be secured. The fall of the Assyrian empire allowed this project also to be realised, and Josiah, who stood in the way of the Egyptian army, was defeated and slain. But the hymns of triumph once chanted to Amun were now replaced by an embassy to the Greek oracle of Brankhidse, carrying with it the war-tunic of the Egyptian king. Egypt was fast becoming Hellenised; the old riddle of the sphinx was being solved, and the venerable mystery of Egypt yielding to the innovating rationalism of the upstart Greek. Necho's dreams of Asiatic sovereignty were dissipated by his defeat at Carchemish at the hands of Nebuchadrezzar. His successor, Psammetikhos II., reigned but five years; Uah-ab-ra (Hophra), or Apries, who followed (B.C. 589), avenging his grandfather's reverses by capturing Sidon and Gaza. But Nebuchadrezzar again shattered the Egyptian forces, and even overran Egypt itself. Then came the ill-fated expedition against Kyre'ne" and Barka, followed by the revolt of the army and the accession of Aahmes II., or Amasis, to the throne (B.C. 570). Apries and his Greek mercenaries were overthrown at Momemphis, and Apries himself soon afterwards put to death. Amasis, a nobleman of Siuf, who had married a sister of the late king, and whose mother, Tapert, was related to Apries,1 continued the policy of his predecessors. One of his wives was a Greek of Kyre'ne'. Naukratis was granted a charter and constitution, all Hellenes whatsoever being admitted to its privileges, and temples were raised to Hellenic gods. Meantime Kypros was conquered, and wealth and plenty flowed into Egypt. The end, however, was at hand. Kambyses declared war against the Egyptian king, and, led across the desert by a Greek refugee, entered Egypt (B.C. 525). Amasis died at this critical moment, and his young and inexperienced successor, Psammetikhos II., was defeated, captured in Memphis, and put to death. And so the land of Thothmes and Eamses became a dependency of the Persian Empire. In B.C. 486 a revolt broke out under Khabash, the effect of which 1 Revillout in Rev. igyptologique, 1881, pp. 96-8. EGYPT. 339 was to divert the preparations Darius had made for attacking Greece, and thus save Greece and the West. But the revolt itself was crushed by Xerxes in 483, and Achsemenes Kyros, whose tomb still exists at Murghab, the brother of Xerxes, was appointed satrap. Once more, in B.C. 463, Egypt revolted again. Its leaders were Amyrtaeos and the Libyan king Inaros. Aided by the Athenians they won the battle of Papre'mis and fortified themselves in Memphis. But Megabyzus, the Persian general (B.C. 457), finally succeeded in capturing the Egyptian capital. Inaros was impaled, and Amyrtaeos fled to the marshes of Elbo, his son Pausiris being appointed Persian viceroy, and Thannyras vassal king of Libya.1 In B.C. 415 came the third revolt. This time the insurgents were successful. Amyrtaeos emerged from his place of refuge,—if, indeed, he were the Amyrtaeos who had escaped from the Persians near half a century before, and ruled over an independent Egypt for six years. His successor, Naifaarut or Nepherites I., founded the twenty-ninth or Mendesian dynasty. Then came Hakar or Akhoris, who sent help to the Spartan king Age'silaos during his campaigns against Persia (B.C. 395), and allied himself with Evagoras of Kypros, who had driven the Persians from the island. His son was the last of the dynasty. He was followed by Nekht-hor-heb or Nektanebos I., the leader of the thirtieth, who entrusted the command of his fleet to the Greek Khabrias. The army of Artaxerxes was repulsed, and temples were built or restored in Lower Egypt. But it was the last effort of the old Egyptian spirit. Tsiho or Teos, his successor, with the help of Agesilaos, was deposed by his nephew, Nektanebos I I , and fled to the Persian court. Eighteen years later Artaxerxes Okhos despatched an army to avenge the wrongs of Teos and recover a lost province to Persia. Sidon, with its Egyptian garrison, was taken, and the Persians, aided by Greek mercenaries, besieged and captured Pelusium. The Greek garrison of Bubastis surrendered, Nektanebos fled with his treasures to Ethiopia, and the last native dynasty ceased to exist (B.C. 340). The Persians did not enjoy their victory long. The empire soon passed from them to Alexander (B.C. 332). But for Egypt it meant only a change of masters. The Ptolemies might assume the dress and titles of the ancient Pharaohs, might worship the same gods and build the same temples, but they were as Greek in spirit as in language. 1 See bk. iii. 15, note 9. 340 APPENDIX I. The mission of Egypt among the nations was fulfilled; it had lit the torch of civilisation in ages inconceivably remote, and had passed it on to the other peoples of the west. Its task now was to receive and shelter Alexandria, through which the culture of the West might be carried in turn to the decaying nations of the ancient East. In Alexandria, the meeting-place of Orient and Occident, of old and new, of mysticism and science, the history of Pharaonic Egypt fitly comes to a close. Religion and Mythology.—The exact character of Egyptian religion is a matter of dispute. All we can assert is that, as everywhere else, it underwent change and development during its long period of existence, and that there was a considerable difference between the religious ideas of the upper and lower classes. The chief difficulty it presents is the mixture of high spiritual conceptions and debased animal-worship which we find in it. Hence the conflicting theories it has called forth. According to De Rouge, Egyptian religion was essentially monotheistic, other scholars see in it a pure pantheism, while Renouf makes it what has been termed henotheistic. The animal-worship has been accounted for by a mixture of race, a primitive Nigritian population being supposed to have been conquered by monotheistic or pantheistic conquerors from Asia, who allowed the subject race to retain its old superstitions. But this hypothesis is overthrown by further acquaintance with the monuments. One thing is quite clear. The kernel of the Egyptian state religion was solar. Each great city had its own deities, which, before the time of Menes, had been united into a hierarchy. But at the head of each hierarchy stood a form of the Sun-god, worshipped as Ptah at Memphis, Amun-Ra at Thebes, Turn at Heliopolis, Osiris at This and Abydos, Mentu at Hermonthis. The unification of the empire brought with it the unification of these various circles of gods. They were all grouped together under the sovereignty of Ptah while the Old Empire lasted, of Amun when Thebes gained the supremacy. Nuter, " god," has been shown by Renouf to have originally meant "the strong one," a curious parallel to the Greek tepos, the equivalent of the Sanskrit ishiras, whose primitive signification is still preserved in such Homeric phrases as Up6v /«vos. Like men and animals, each god had his ka or " shadow," which was regarded not only as a second self, but also as more real and permanent than the self which we perceive. The abstract notion of divinity presented itself to the mind of the Egyptian as the ha or soul of the universe. God in the EGYPT. 341 abstract, with which each of the gods was identified in turn by the worshipper, or, in the later pantheistic period, into which they were all resolved, was conceived as one perfect, omniscient, and omnipotent being, eternally unchangeable, yet eternally begetting himself in the liquid chaos called Nu. The sun, which afterwa,rds symbolised him, was primarily the object of adoration itself. And since the sun rises as the youthful Har-makhis or Horos, shines in his full strength at mid-day as Ea, and sets in the evening as Tunij the Christian doctrine of the Trinity found its counterpart in Egyptian religion from the dawn of the historical period. Even the sun that shines at night in the lower world received also his name and worship, and ended by becoming the enemy of light and of the sun that illuminates the day. By the side of the Sun-god stood Isis, the dawn, the mother, sister, wife, and double of the Sun-god himself. Out of the manifold myths that described the relations of the sun to the dawn and the evening arose various deities and conceptions of the divine, each of which assumed a different form in different localities, and eventually found a place in the syncretic religion of the united empire. The oldest and most widespread of these myths was that embodied in the legend of Osiris. The Sun-god Osiris, like his sister Isis, was the child of Nut, the vault of heaven, and of Seb, the earth. While still in their mother's womb they produced the ever-youthful Horos, who is one with his father, and yet a different divinity. Set or Typhon, the husband of his sister Nephthys or Neb-hat, and brother of Horos, imprisoned Osiris in an ark or chest, which, with the help of seventy-two of his followers (the seventy-two days of summer drought), he flung into the sacred Nile. The ark was borne across the sea to the holy city of Phoenicia, Byblos or Gebal, and there found by the disconsolate Isis. Isis, however, after hiding the corpse of the god, made her way to Horos, who had been banished to the marshes of Buto, and during her absence Set discovered the body of Osiris, which he cut into fourteen pieces and scattered to the winds. They were again carefully collected by Isis and buried in a stately tomb, while Horos made ready to avenge his father's death. But Osiris had died only to rise again, after ruling for awhile, during the hours of night, in the dark regions of the under world. It was thus that he became the judge and monarch of the dead. The struggle between Horos and Set was long and fierce; but at length the god of light triumphed, and Set, the symbol of night and evil, was driven from his throne in the upper world. Horos became the mediator and saviour of mankind, 342 APPENDIX I. through whom the righteous dead are justified before the tribunal of his father. In the philosophic system of the priesthood, Nun or Chaos was the first cause from which all proceed,—unshaped, eternal, and immutable matter. Kheper, the scarabseus with the sun's disk, was the creative principle of life which implanted in matter the seeds of life and light. Ptah, " the opener," was the personal creator or demiurge, who, along with the seven Khnumu or architects, gave form to these seeds, and was at once the creator and opener of the primaeval egg of the universe —the ball of earth rolled along by Kheper—out of which came the sun and moon according to the older myth, the elements and forms of heaven and earth according to the later philosophy. Nut, the sky, with the star and boat of the sun upon her back; Seb, the earth, the symbol of time and eternity; and Amenti or Hades, now took their several shapes and places. Over this threefold world the gods and other divine beings presided. It would be wearisome to recount more than a few of the principal divinities. Ptah, with his wife Sekhet, the cat-headed goddess of Bubastis, and his son Im-hotep or ^Esculapius, comes first. He is represented with the body of a mummy and the symbols of power, life, or stability in his hands. It was to him that the bull Hapi or Apis, the representative of the creative powers of nature and the fertilising waters of the Nile, was sacred. Next to Ptah stands Ra, the Sun-god of Heliopolis, worshipped under seventy-five forms, and called the king of gods and men. Into his hands Ptah had delivered the germs of creation, and, like Ptah, he had existed in the womb of Nu. Here he first appeared as Turn, the setting sun; then, as he passed in his boat over the waters of the lower world and the folds of the serpent Apepi during the night, he was known as Khnum ; while it is as the child Har-makhis (Hor-em-khuti), whose symbol is the sphinx, that he rises again from death and sleep each morning on the bud of the lotus-flower that floats on the breast of Nu. This daily birth was held to take place in the bosom of Isis, Mut, or Hathor. Ra is represented with the head of his sacred bird, the hawk, and the solar disk surmounted by the uraeus above; and the mystical Phoenix (bennu), which brings the ashes of its former self to Heliopolis every 500 years, seems also to have been his symbol. When worshipped as Turn (or Atum), he has a man's head, with the combined crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, though as Nofer-Tum he wears a lion's head, above which stands a hawk with a lotus crown. The name of Khnum EGYPT. 343 (Khnubis or Knuphis) was originally derived from the local cult of Elephantine, but came to be applied to Ra when regarded as passing from one day to another after his descent to the infernal world. His old attributes remained attached to him, so that he sometimes takes the place of Ptah, being represented as moulding the egg of the universe, and fashioning mankind. He has a ram's head, and the symbols connected with him show that his primitive worshippers regarded him as presiding over generation. Horos, symbolised now by the winged solar disk, now by a hawk-headed man, now by the hawk bearing a scourge, now again by a child on a lotus flower, merges in the days of the united monarchy into Har-makhis, the avenger of Osiris. But after the rise of the Theban dynasty the supreme form under which Ra was worshipped was Anaun, "the hidden one." In course of time he absorbed into himself almost all the other deities of Egypt, more especially Ra and Khnum. He reigns over this earth, as his representatives, the Pharaohs, over Egypt, and inspires mankind with the sense of right. He is called Khem as the self-begetting deity, "the living Osiris" as the animating principle of the universe. On his head he wears a lofty crown of feathers, sometimes replaced by the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt or the ram's head of Khnum, and Mut and Khunsu form with him the trinity of Thebes. Ma or T-mei, the goddess of truth and justice, was the daughter of the Sun-god, who carries on her head the upright ostrich-feather, and has her eyes covered with a bandage. Beside her stands Isis, at once the sister and wife of Osiris, and the mother of Horos. At Thebes she was known as Mut, " the mother," with the vulture's head; at Bubastis as Sekhet, the bride of Ptah and daughter of Ra. As mother of Horos, she was named Hathor or Athor, " the house of Horos," identified by the Greeks with their Aphrodite1, and confused with Astoreth by the Semites. The cow, with its horns, symbolising the crescent moon, which in Egypt appears to lie upon its back, was con secrated to her, indicating at how early a time the bride of Osiris, the Sun-god, was held to be the moon. She was also identified with Sothis, the dog-star, and in later days with the planet Venus. All that is good and beautiful among men comes from her; she watches over the birth of children, and rocks the cradle of the Nile. As Neit, too, she is the authoress of weaving and of the arts of female life. Against her stands Set or Typhon, primarily the night, into whose character and attributes a moral meaning was gradually read, so that 344 APPENDIX I. in the time of the New Empire he became the representative of evil, the enemy of the bright powers of light and goodness, the prince of the powers of darkness. The crocodile was sacred to him, though Sebek, the crocodile-god, continued to be worshipped in the Fayum and the neighbourhood of Kom-Ombos up to the classical period. Apepi also, the serpent of night, was associated with him, and came to partake of his demoniac character. His wife Nephthys or Neb-hat, the queen of the lower world, was the nurse of Horos and the sympathising sister of Isis. Her son, by Osiris, was the jackal-headed Anubis, " the master of Hades," who, like the Greek Herme's, guides the dead to the shades below. But it was with Tehuti or Thoth that the Greeks preferred to identify their Herme's. Originally the god of the moon, like Khunsu, the ibis-headed Thoth, with his consort Safekhu, became the inventor of writing, the regulator of time and numbers, and the patron of science and literature. The cynocephalous ape and the ibis were his sacred animals. These animal forms, in which a later myth saw the shapes assumed by the affrighted gods during the great war between Horos and Typhon, take us back to a remote prehistoric age, when the religious creed of Egypt was still totemism. They are survivals from a long-forgotten past, and prove that Egyptian civilisation was of slow and independent growth, the latest stage only of which is revealed to us by the monuments. Apis of Memphis, Mnevis of Heliopolis, and Pacis of Hermonthis, are all links that bind together the Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Egypt of the stone age. They were the sacred animals of the clans which first settled in these localities, and their identification with the deities of the official religion must have been a slow process, never fully carried out, in fact, in the minds of the lower classes. Another conception which the primitive Egyptians shared with most other barbarous or semi-barbarous tribes was the magical virtue of names. This also survived into the historical epoch, and, in union with the later spirit of personal ambition, produced an absorbing passion for preserving the name of the individual after death. His continued existence was imagined to depend upon the continued remembrance of his name. The Egyptian belief in the immortality of the soul and the resurrection of the body thus had its root in the old childlike superstition which confused together words and things. In the philosophical system of the priesthood, however, it EGYPT. 345 was given a new and more rational form. According to this, man consists of three parts : the Mat or body, which belongs to matter; the sahu or soul, which ultimately returns to its home in the lower world; and the khu or spirit, an emanation from the divine essence.1 Each of these parts can exist separately, and each is eternal and immutable. But it is the soul which receives after death the rewards or punishments due to it for its thoughts and actions while in the body. If the soul had triumphed over the bodily passions,—had been pious towards the gods, and righteous towards men,—it passed in safety through all the trials that awaited it below. Fortified by sacred texts and hymns and amulets, and trusting in Horos the mediator, it subdued the demons and horrible beasts that opposed its way, and at length reached the hall of justice where Osiris with his forty-two assessors sat as judge. Horos and Anubis now weighed the soul in its vase against the goddess of truth, and Thoth recorded the result. If the soul went down, it was sentenced to the various torments of hell, or to wander like a vampire between heaven and earth, scourged and buffeted by the tempests, or else doomed to transmigrate into the bodies of animals, until permitted to regain its original body and undergo a fresh trial; there were cases even in which it might be annihilated. If, on the other hand, the soul remained evenly balanced, it was allowed to enter the blissful fields of Aalu, there to be purified from all the stains of its early life, and, after becoming perfect in wisdom and knowledge, to be absorbed into the divine essence, or to live again upon earth in any form it chose. Finally, however, in the great day of resurrection, soul, spirit, and body were again to be united, and for this purpose every care had to be taken lest the body should decay or become injured. Our knowledge of Egyptian mythology as distinct from Egyptian religion is still but scanty. Mention has already been made of the Osiris myth, which entered so largely into the religious faith of the people. There was another legend which told how mankind had emanated from the eyes of the deity, and spread themselves over the earth as "the flock of Ra," the Eotu, or Egyptians, and Nahsi, or negroes, being under the guardianship of Horos; the 'Amu, or Semites, and the white-skinned populations of Libya and the north, being under that of Sekhet. According to another version, however, mankind, with the exception of the negroes, had sprung from the 1 Khu is strictly the intelligence, and thus closely allied to the Johannine Logos. 346 APPENDIX I. tears of Horos and Sekhet. Another myth, again, discovered by M. Naville in the tomb of Seti I., states that mankind once uttered hostile •words against their creator Ea, who took counsel with Nun. Hathor or Sekhet, accordingly, was sent to slay them, and the earth was covered with their blood as far as Herakleopolis. Then Ea drank 7000 cups of wine made by Sekti of Heliopolis from the fruits of Egypt and mingled with the blood of the slain; his heart rejoiced, and he swore that he would not again destroy mankind. Eain filled the wells near Lake Mareotis, and Ea went forth to fight against his human foes. Their bows were broken, and themselves slaughtered, and the god returned victorious to heaven, where he created the Elysian fields of Aalu and the people of the stars, charging the sacred cow, the incarnation of Nut, and the prototype of the Greek Io, with their guardianship ; while Shu, like Atlas, supports her on his two hands. Seb was then ordered to keep watch over the reptiles of earth and water, and Thoth over the lower world; the ibis, the cynocephalous ape, and the lunar disk, coming into existence at the same time. Though it is difficult to trace much change or development in the religion of Egypt during the historical period as opposed to the prehistoric one, it is nevertheless plain that as time went on it assumed a more mystical and esoteric character, which shows itself most conspicuously in the monuments of the Ptolemaic and Eoman age. It was from this theosophic phase that the Neo-Platonism of Alexandria and Neo-Platonic Christianity derived a large part of their ideas and principles. At the same time monotheism, or rather pantheism, became more clearly defined among the educated classes, the popular gods being resolved into mystical manifestations or emanations of the one divine substance. From the first, however, as is shown more especially by the solar hymns, the Egyptian priests had a clear sense of the unity of God, in so far as to regard the deity they happened to be addressing at the moment as the one omnipotent, omniscient, and eternal ruler of the universe, to the exclusion of all others. But this is strictly what Professor Max Miiller has called henotheism. A further change may be observed in the conception of the future life between the monuments of the Old Empire and those of the Middle and New Empires. The sadness and gloom that overshadow the latter had not yet been felt. The tomb of Ti at Sakkarah, for instance, presents us with pictures of the after world, in which the dead man lives over again his life in this ; he farms, hunts, superintends his workmen and slaves, and feasts, just as he had done on earth. The shadow of the EGYPT. 347 grave was not yet ever before the eyes of the Egyptian, and though he built tombs for himself while still alive, they mostly took the shape of pyramids, raised on the ground and pointing to the sky, not of dark and gloomy subterranean chambers. We should look in vain in them for those representations of the torments and trials which await the dead below, of the headless souls and horrible coils of the monstrous serpent Apepi, that startle us on the pictured walls of the royal tombs at Thebes. The myth of Osiris had not yet begun to exercise the terrible influence it afterwards obtained over the imagination of the people, and the Book of the Dead still consisted of only a few simple chapters. The Apotheosis of the Roman emperors had been long anticipated in Egypt. The kings were representatives and, in a political sense, incarnations of the deity; divine worship was offered to them, and priests were attached to their cult. The cult of the most powerful of the kings lasted for centuries, or after being discontinued was sometimes revived for dynastic and other reasons. Thus the cult of Sent of the second dynasty, and Sahura of the fifth, lasted into the age of the Ptolemies; that of Menes, of Ser (of the third dynasty), of Kheops, Khephren, Ra-tatf, Snefru, and Ramses II., down to the time of the Persian conquest; that of Usertasen III. to the reign of Thothmes III.; though the pyramid-builders seem to have been forgotten in the epoch of the twelfth and thirteenth dynasties. The adoration paid to the kings had its root in that ancestor-worship which was always popular in Egypt, and was a survival from the prehistoric past. The priesthood was divided into several classes; the high-priest of Amun and his associates ranking at their head, at all events under the New Empire. Next to these priests came the four orders of prophets, out of whom the ministers of the worship of the deceased kings were chosen; and below them again the abu, or divine fathers. Sacred scribes were attached to the temples, as well as servants and slaves. Monks, too, lived in cells in the precincts. Besides the priests and prophets there were also priestesses and prophetesses; and women of the highest rank were proud to be the prophetesses, the singing-women, and the sistrum-players of Amun. The priests and their families were supported out of the revenues of the temple to which they belonged, and so formed a corporation ; and all matters relating to religion and public worship were under their control. The embalmers were an inferior order of priests. Art, Science, and Literature.—Egyptian art falls into two broadly- 348 APPENDIX I. marked periods. The art of the Old Empire is realistic, vigorous, and full of originative genius ; that of later times, stiff, conventional, and hieratic. Art is at its best in the age of the pyramid-builders; its future history is a history of continuous decline. Those who have not seen the diorite statue of Khephren or the wooden statue of the " Sheikh el-Belad " in the Bulak Museum, or the exquisitely painted bas-reliefs of the tomb of Ti, have no conception of what Egyptian art once was. The colossal productions of the Middle and New Empires hardly make up by grandness of design for the want of artistic originality. Spontaneousness and faithfulness to nature were but ill replaced by mysticism and symbolism. Fluted columns with sixteen sides, which bear a close general resemblance to the Doric column (though wanting the echinus that distinguished the latter), first meet us in the tombs of Beni-Hassan and Siut, and thus make their appearance as soon as the pyramid was superseded by the rock-cut tomb. Columns in the shape of four lotus stalks bound together, their blossoms forming the capital, also occur along with them, and introduce a series of columnar architecture, which reaches its final perfection in the papyrus and palm crowned pillars of Edfu and Esneh. The most peculiar and unpleasing feature of these columns is the square box on the top of the capitals. In the Ptolemaic age the shaft often terminates in a square adorned with four masks of Hathor, above which is a miniature temple facade. From the time of the eighteenth dynasty downwards, the shaft of the column is frequently replaced by the figure of Osiris, with the arms crossed over the breast. The Mastdbas or mortuary chapels of the Old Empire, several of which may still be seen adjoining the pyramids of Gizeh, were replaced in later days by sumptuous temples, of which the Memnonium at Thebes may be taken as an example. These temples were built after the model of those raised to the gods by the monarchs of the Middle Empire, since we know of none that belong to the age of the Old Empire. They were intended, not for religious service, but for processions, and were jealously protected from the eyes of the "profanum vulgus." Hence the lofty shrines of stone with which they were surrounded; hence, too, the fact that walls and columns and ceilings were covered with sculptures and paintings that could not be seen until light was introduced into them by the ruin of the buildings themselves. Even the secret passages at Denderah are decorated with carefully-executed bas-reliefs. Since the temples were used as EGYPT. 349 fortresses, as well as for sacred purposes—a fact which will explain the ruined condition of many of them—they were guarded at the entrance by two pylons or towers, where the temple-watchmen lived. Before the pylons standards were planted, and between them was the entrance through which the procession passed into court after court, chamber after chamber, until the shrine itself was at last reached. Here stood the images of the gods. In the rock-cut temples of Nubia the Theban Trinity is hewn out of the stone, with the king himself seated in its midst. The surface of the stone was covered throughout with bas-reliefs and brilliant paintings. In the latter art the Egyptians excelled from the earliest period. But they ostentatiously disregarded the most elementary rules of perspective, under the influence of the hieratic canon, though such objects as flowers, animals, fish, and butterflies, were reproduced with pre-Raffaelite fidelity. The Egyptians were skilful artificers. Their chairs, couches, and other articles of household furniture, display great taste and variety, and their work in the precious metals and gems is of the highest order. Porcelain and glass are among their earliest productions, and they were acquainted with the art of soldering metals, including iron, —which shows that Herodotos (i. 25) was wrong in ascribing the discovery of this art to Glaukos—as far back at least as the eighteenth dynasty. Imbrication, or the art of laying plates of metal one upon the other, was also known to them, as well as the art of damascening. Art in Egypt, as elsewhere, attained an earlier development than science. At the same time, the monuments left by Egyptian art imply a considerable knowledge of mechanics, geometry, and engineering. The Great Pyramid faces the four points of the compass with marvellous exactitude, and the obelisk of Queen Hatasu at Karnak, the tallest in the world, was cut out of the granite quarries of Assuan, engraved, polished, floated down the Nile, and set up in its place, in seven months ! Professor Eisenlohr has discovered that mathematics were studied at the court of the Hyksos princes, as the Ehind papyri contain a work on geometry (written for Apepi I.) which may be described as a treatise on applied arithmetic. Astronomy of a somewhat elementary character was cultivated for the sake of the calendar. The year was divided into twelve months of thirty days, to which, in the prehistoric age, were added five more; but as in this way a whole day was lost every four years, recourse was had to the famous Sothic cycle, determined by the heliacal rising of Sopt or Sothis, the Dog-star, 350 APPENDIX I. on the first of Thoth (the 28th of July), once in 1460 years, when the year returned to its normal condition, and the inundation of the Nile commenced on the Egyptian New Year's Day. The end of one Sothic cycle fell in A.D. 139 j 1 and the festival which commemorated the rising of Sothis was ascribed to the mythical days of the Hor-shesu. The akhimu-wdu or planets (Har-tep-sheta Jupiter, Har-ka-her Saturn, Harmakhis or Har-desher Mars, Sebek Mercury, and Duau or Bennu Venus) were distinguished from the akhvmu-seku or fixed stars, and the sun was believed to wander through the heavens like the planets. It may be added that the month was divided into three decades, as among the Greeks and early Latins (cp. the nundinm), each day being further divided into twelve hours, as in Chaldea. It was in medicine, however, that Egypt attained any real scientific eminence. According to Manetho, the successor of Menes wrote treatises on anatomy, and a medical work mentioned in the Berlin papyrus is said to have been first composed in the reign of a predecessor of King Sent of the second dynasty. Such statements, however, are due to the Egyptian fancy for antedating literary productions, and the oldest medical papyrus we possess (the Papyrus Ebers) does not mount back beyond the eighteenth dynasty. By that time medicine was in almost as advanced a state as in the age of Galen; the various diseases known were carefully' distinguished from one another, and their symptoms were minutely described, as well as their treatment. The prescriptions recommended in each case are made out in precisely the same way as the prescriptions of a modern doctor. One of these was derived from a fashionable Semitic oculist of Byblos, but the greater part belonged to earlier Egyptian medical men, some of whom flourished under the first dynasties. The medicines used were of four kinds—draughts, blisters, powders, and clysters, minerals as well as vegetables being employed in their composition. But progress in medical knowledge, as in art, was checked in the time of the Middle Empire by the rule that new medicines and treatment were adopted by the doctor at the risk of being put to death if the patient died. Anatomy does not seem to have advanced so far as medicine, and Sir E. Wilson disputes the statement that mummies have been found with their teeth stopped with gold, while some have 1 See Censorinus : " De Die Nat." 13. Lauth has shown that the era of Menophre's, mentioned by Theon, came to an end in B.C. 1321, and that con- sequently MenophrSs must have reigned B.C. 2781. Scarabs exist bearing the name of Men-nofer-Ra. EGYPT. 351 been found with broken bones grown together naturally. In fact, the anatomical theory of the Egyptians is sufficient to show that anatomy was still in its infancy. According to this the breath is drawn from the breast to the head, through thirty-two channels or veins, and then transmitted to the limbs. In the later days of Egyptian history, magical formulae and exorcisms began to take the place of the older medical prescriptions ; diseases were referred to the malignity of evil spirits, and the priest and sorcerer superseded the physician. A demotic papyrus at Leyden is almost wholly occupied with charms, especially love-philtres. Egyptian literature embraced the whole circle of the knowledge of the time. Writing was as old as the united monarchy, and the son of Menes was believed to have been an author. Already, in the time of the sixth dynasty, we find an official buried at Gizeh who bears the title, " Controller of the library." But of this literature only a few papyri, and still fewer texts engraved on stone, like the poem of Pentaur, have come down to us, the papyri being written in hieratic and demotic. The most ancient we possess is the " Papyrus Prisse," composed under the eleventh dynasty, and containing two ethical treatises, one by Kakimma, who lived in the reign of Snefru, the other by Ptah-hotep, the son of king Assa of the fifth dynasty. Both treatises are collections of homely, practical wisdom, resembling the book of Proverbs, or the writings of Confucius. Equanimity, honesty, benevolence, and prudence, are inculcated, and the husband is told: " Love thy wife and cherish her as long as thou livest; be not a tyrant; flattery acts upon her better than rudeness." "If thou art wise," says Ptah-hotep again, " bring up thy son to fear God. If he obey thee, walking in thy steps, and caring for thy goods as he ought, then show him all favour. Yet thy foolish son is also thine own offspring; estrange not thine heart from him, but admonish him." Ptah-hotep lived to the ripe age of 110 years, and though he begins by enumerating all the miseries of old age, like the writer of Ecclesiastes, he finds in the wisdom and experience it brings more than compensation. The chief monument of the religious literature of Egypt is the Book of the Dead, in 106 chapters, now being critically edited by M. Naville. Portions of it were inscribed on the mummy - cases and tombs, and are met with in the latest of the demotic papyri. It was, in fact, the funeral ritual of the Egyptians, describing in mystical language the adventures of the soul after death, and the texts it must 352 APPENDIX I. quote in order to escape the torments and trials of the lower world. It is the literary reflection of the Osiris myth, and grew along with the latter. A hieratic text of the eleventh dynasty gives two varying versions of the sixty-fourth chapter, ascribed to King Menka-ra, from which we may infer the antiquity of the latter. But only the essence of the work went back to the Old Empire. The rest consisted of additions and glosses, and glosses of glosses, which continued to be made up to the time of the Persians. The oldest portion seems to have been of a practically moral character, contrasting strikingly with the mystical tone of the later accretions, where the doctrine of justification by faith in Osiris has taken the place of that of good works. Besides the Book of the Dead may be quoted the Litanies to the Sun-god, which are full of deep spiritual feeling, and are monotheistic in tone. Magical works are plentiful, but they mostly belong to the closing days of the kingdom. With these may be coupled the popular tales and romances, such as " The Tale of the Two Brothers," written by Enna under the nineteenth dynasty, and bearing some resemblance to the history of Joseph, or the story of Setna, which turns on the magical powers of the Book of Thoth, or the legend of the cure of Bent-resh, the daughter of the prince of Bakhten and sister-in-law of Ramses XII. A document at Leyden contains an exorcism by the help of which a husband sought to rid himself of the visits of his wife's ghost. Correspondence also occupies a considerable place in Egyptian literature. We have copies of private letters, like that of " The Sotem Mersuatef to his mistress, the priestess of Isis, Tanur," of public and royal correspondence, and of collections similar to Lord Chesterfield's letters or the " Complete Letter-writer." Among these is a letter in which the scribe contrasts the pursuit of literature with other trades and professions, very much to the disadvantage of the latter. The account of the Mohar's travels in Syria and Palestine, where he visited Aleppo and insular Tyre among other places, and describes his sufferings at the hands of robbers, in the time of the nineteenth dynasty, may also be included under this head. So, too, may the autobiography of Saneha, a Semite of the Delta, who fled from Egypt for political reasons, and after slaying a sort of Goliah obtained wealth and power in the court of Ammu-anshi, king of Upper Tennu, the later Edom. The desire of seeing his native land again came upon him in his old age, and he obtained permission from Amen-em-hat I. to return home. Perhaps, however, this latter work should more fitly be classed, as it is by Maspero, among the historical romances of the EGYPT. 353 Egyptians, like the story of the capture of Joppa by Thutii, the general of Thothmes III., which bears a striking resemblance to the tale of Ali-Baba in the Arabian Nights. Closely connected with the epistolary branch of Egyptian literature are the papyri, which contain memoranda or accounts, as well as the official documents kept by the royal scribes. Among these are accounts, which show that provision was made for the support of sick labourers. Tribute - lists and geographical catalogues are perhaps the most important of this class of documents, though the mutilated Turin papyrus, with its chronological table of Egyptian kings, has a still higher value. Judicial records, again, are not rare, even if the oldest deeds are those of the time of Tirhakah. One record describes the trial of certain conspirators against the life of Eamses III., with the punishments allotted to them. From others we learn that commissioners might be appointed to investigate charges afterwards brought before the judges in court, that the evidence was taken down in writing, and that even cases between master and slave had to come before the judge. Petitions were presented directly to the king. Egyptian law was mild; torture seems to have been unknown, and mutilations exceptional. Even the punishment of death was rare, and usually took the form of decapitation or compulsory suicide. It is noticeable that the artist who has portrayed the naval victory of Ramses III. at Medinet Abu has depicted some of the triumphant Egyptians attempting to rescue the sinking crew of an enemy's ship—an act of humanity unparalleled among the other nations of the ancient world. The treaty between Eamses II. and the Hittites gives us an insight into the international law of the time. As in most despotic countries, satirical writing and beast-fables were employed; indeed, Professor Mahaffy suggests that the beastfable owes its origin to Africa. One of the caricatures in the satirical papyrus of Turin represents Eamses III. with a lion's head, playing draughts (a game of which he seems to have been very fond) with one of his harem, who is transformed into a gazelle. Poetry, apart from the religious hymns, was much cultivated. The Epic of Pentaur, the poet-laureate of Eamses II., has been compared with the Iliad, though it resembles the Greek poem only in general character, since it never became popular, and owes its preservation to the vanity of the king whose imaginary deeds it records, and who, like Akhille's, is made to address his horses by their names. The poem seems to have been selected after a sort of competitive examina2 A 354 APPENDIX I. tion. Its author, Pentaur, had been the private secretary of the royal librarian, Amenemen, who, in a letter preserved in the Sallier Papyrus I., scolds him for not having sent the provisions of the season to the palace. But epics and religious hymns were not the only forms in which Egyptian poetry clothed itself. A long poem on the praise of learning, probably composed in the time of the twelfth dynasty, is found in the Sallier Papyrus I I . ; the ode to the Nile, by Enna (the author of the " Tale of the Two Brothers "), is secular rather than religious ; and the lyrics contained in the Anastasi Papyri are of great beauty. Egyptian poetry was simple in structure, and chiefly depended, like Hebrew poetry, upon the parallelism of ideas; but Ebers has shown that it also made use of rhyme and alliteration. Historical literature is unfortunately rare, if we except such documents as the Harris papyrus, the largest papyrus known, which gives the history of Eamses III. For the annals of the kings we must rather look to the walls of the temples and the tombs, or to the stelae and similar monuments. It is seldom that we come across so straightforward an inscription as that of Piankhi, or one so free from interminable titles, and Piankhi was an Ethiopian. Egyptian writing was a system of survivals. It was at once ideographic, syllabic, and alphabetic. The older phases through which it passed were preserved along with those which, in a less conservative country, would have superseded it. The oldest written monuments we possess exhibit it already formed and complete. Its invention must, therefore, long precede the age of Menes. The characters are pictorial, primarily representing objects and ideas, while some are used as determinatives. Each character also denotes one or more syllables, and several further represent the single letters with which the words symbolised by them begin. For the sake of clearness the same word may be expressed ideographically (by a pictorial hieroglyph), syllabically, and alphabetically, all at once. Before the time of the Middle Empire, and probably as early as the first dynasty, a "hieratic" running-hand had been formed out of the hieroglyphics, and in the ninth century B.C. this became the "demotic" hand, the characters of which are still more unlike the original forms from which they were derived than those of the hieratic papyri. Hieratic is always written from right to left, whereas the hieroglyphics may run indifferently from left to right, or from right to left. As was shown by De Rouge\ the Phoenicians of the Delta or Caphtor (Keft-ur, "Greater Phoenicia") adopted the letters of the Egyptian alphabet in the hieratic forms EGYPT. 355 current in the Hyksos period, and handed them on to their kindred in Canaan, among whom they received new names, while retaining their old values. The first letter, for example, ceased to be called Ahom, " the eagle," and became Aleph (alpha), " the ox." Language, Law, Trade, and Culture.—The Egyptian language bears a distant resemblance to the Semitic dialects in grammar, though not in vocabulary. It is simple in structure, and inflectional in form, marking the relations of words by suffixes and composition. It is already an old language when we first meet with it on the monuments, and it changed considerably during the course of Egyptian history. The language of the Old or Middle Empire would have been unintelligible to the ordinary Egyptian of the time of Herodotos; thus on the phonetic side, ts became successively d and t, and Khufu or Kheops was called Shufu in later days. Law has already been mentioned under the head of literature. As in England, the king was regarded as the source of justice, and at all events in the Ptolemaic period the judges went on circuit. The government was imperialistic. The king was a deified autocrat, but affairs were really managed by an organised bureaucracy. A council of thirty seems to have accompanied the monarch on his military expeditions, and he and the royal princes nominally commanded the army. The latter was divided into different corps, each named after its patron divinity. From the time of the nineteenth dynasty downward it consisted largely of Negro, Libyan, and other mercenaries ; in fact, as in the case of the Eoman Empire, it came eventually to consist of them almost entirely. The fleet, with its one-oared galleys, never attained a high development. The soldiers acted as a police-force at home, under magistrates (go), who heard civil suits, and prefects (mer) were appointed over the large cities. The nomes had each their ha or governor. Trade during the Old Empire seems to have been small. Egypt mainly depended on domestic agriculture, and, like China, was jealous of strangers. The mafka, or turquoise, and copper mines of Sinai, however, were early occupied and worke'd, and the use of bronze implies a knowledge of tin. A fragment of wrought plate-iron has been found in the Great Pyramid,1 but this may have been made of baa en-pe or meteoric iron, rather than of ba-nu-ta or terrestrial iron. Certainly Thothmes III. received iron vessels as tribute from Syria and Phce1 See Transactions of the Oriental Congress in London, 1875, pp. 396, 397. 356 APPENDIX I. nicia. Gold was worked under the first dynasties, but it was the Middle Empire that opened the Nubian gold mines. A plan of those of Ehedesieh and Kuban (Kobban) exists in a Turin papyrus of the nineteenth dynasty. "With the rise of the New Empire and the Semitic occupation of the Delta trade largely increased, favoured by the conquests in Asia. Corn, linen, and horses were exported in return for the products of Asia and Cush. The expedition sent by Hatasu to Punt, or the Somali coast, had a commercial object, and Punt henceforth supplied Egypt with incense, gums, cosmetics, monkeys, apes, hounds, and panther-skins. The Phoenicians brought vases of gold, silver, and terra-cotta, many of them with covers made in the shape of animals' heads. Sesostris attempted to join the Mediterranean and the Eed Sea by a canal, and Necho despatched Phoenician sailors to circumnavigate Africa. From the age of the earliest monuments downwards, the Egyptians were acquainted with all the luxuries and comforts of cultivated life. The country swarmed with artisans and handicraftsmen of all kinds. Glass-blowers are depicted on monuments of the twelfth dynasty, and a fragment of dark-blue glass bears the praenomen of Antef III. of the eleventh. Vases of beautiful blue porcelain go back to the age of the Old Empire, and the dyed cloths of Egypt were justly celebrated. Wine and beer were drunk, and dinner-parties were given by the wealthy, at which the guests sat on chairs. For amusements they had dancers, musicians, singers, tumblers, and jugglers, games like that of draughts, or field-sports. Their dress was light, as was natural in a hot climate, and sandals were unknown before the fifth dynasty. The head was shorn, and enormous wigs worn over it, partly for the sake of cleanliness, partly for protection from the sun. Artificial beards were also used. Children went undressed before the age of puberty, and were distinguished by a single lock of hair on the left side. Their education was carefully attended to, and they were trained in "all the wisdom of the Egyptians." As stated by Herodotos, the Egyptians were monogamous; the king, however, was allowed to have several wives, and the great nobles might keep harems. Marriage between brother and sister was also permitted,—a survival from a primitive condition of polyandry. But the woman in Egypt held a high position, very unlike that occupied by her in Greece or in modern Oriental countries. She was the equal of her lord, went about freely and unveiled in public, and could ascend the throne in her own right as far back as the beginning of the second dynasty. Indeed, it would EGYPT. 357 seem that at this period the children traced their descent through the mother rather than through the father. In character the Egyptians formed a strong contrast to the other leading nations of antiquity. Gentle, good-tempered, unwarlike, and humane, they achieved success in war only by the help of superior organisation and equipment. Home-loving and industrious, they made their country the seat of culture and material prosperity. If, like other southern races, they had not the same notions of truth as the northern European, their legal institutions show that they had a profound sense of justice and equity. Under the ever-increasing tyranny and servility of the New Empire, it is true, their political character deteriorated ; but up to the last the pure-blooded inhabitants of Middle Egypt preserved some of that democratic spirit which still distinguishes the Egyptian of to-day. Their deep religious fervour was tempered by light-heartedness, and prevented from passing into fanaticism ; and if from time to time they showed themselves excitable, it was the excitability of healthy children under a warm sun and a bright sky. II. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. as well as ethnologically and historically, Babylonia and Assyria form but one country. It is therefore with justice that classical writers sometimes speak of the whole district between the Euphrates and Tigris as Assyria, though Babylonia would no doubt have been a more accurate name. The district naturally falls into two divisions, the northern being more or less mountainous, while the southern is flat and marshy, and a sharp line of separation is drawn between them at a spot where the two rivers approach closely to one another, and the undulating table-land of the north sinks suddenly into the alluvial flats of Babylonia. It was in these rich and loamy flats, however, that the civilisation of Western Asia first developed. The northern plateau was inhabited by a mixture of uncultivated tribes at the earliest period of which we have any knowledge, and was known under the general name of Gutium or Guti (Kutu in Assyrian), first identified by Sir H. Eawlinson with the Goyim of Gen. xiv. 1. Gutium comprised the whole country which stretched from the Euphrates on the west to Media on the east; the land of Nizir, with GEOGRAPHICALLY, 358 APPENDIX II. the mountain of Rowandiz, on which the ark of the Chaldean Noah was believed to have rested, being included within it. The later kingdom of Assyria formed a portion of it, as well as the great plain of Mesopotamia, which was bounded on the west by Palestine or Martu, the land of "the path of the setting sun," and on the north by Subarti, " the highlands" of Aram or Syria. The plain of Mesopotamia, now known as El-Jezireh, is about 250 miles in length, and is intersected by a single mountain ridge, which rises abruptly out of the plain, and, branching off from the Zagros range, runs southward and eastward under the modern names of Saraziir, Hamrin, and Sinjar. The numerous tels and other remains of old habitations, even apart from the evidence of the Assyrian inscriptions, show how thickly this level region must once have been populated, though it is now for the most part a wilderness. North of the plateau rises a well-watered and undulating tract of country, diversified by low ranges of limestone hills, sometimes barren, sometimes clothed with dwarf-oaks, which often shut in rich plains and fertile valleys between their northern and north-eastern slopes and the main mountain-line from which they detach themselves. Beyond them are the lofty summits of the Niphates and Zagros ranges, where the Tigris and Euphrates have their sources, and by which Assyria was cut off from Armenia and Kurdistan. Geography and Race.—Assyria took its name from the primitive capital of A-sur (or A-usar, "water-bank," later Assur), now Kaleh Sherghat, which stood on the right bank of the Tigris, midway between the Greater and the Lesser Zab, and was founded in praeSemitic times. Some sixty miles to the north, beyond the greater Zab, was another city of nearly equal age, but originally of smaller size and importance, called Nina, Ninua, or Nineveh, "the fish-town," now represented by the mounds of Nebi Yunus and Kouyunjik, opposite Mossul, and built on the banks of the Tigris and Khusur, the modern Khosr. After the northward extension of the Assyrian- kingdom, the capital was moved from Assur to Nineveh by Shalmaneser I. (about B.C. 1300), and from henceforward Nineveh remained the chief city of the empire. Calakh or Calah, however, the modern Nimrud, founded by the same Shalmaneser, from time to time proved a formidable rival of its sister city, and was a favourite residence of Assurnatsir-pal, Shalmaneser I I , and Tiglath-Pileser II. Between Calah and Nineveh lay Ees-eni or Eesen ("the head of the spring"), probably the Larissa (Al Resen, " city of Eesen ") of Xenophon (Anal. BABYLONIA AND ASSYEIA. 359 iii. 4), occupying the site of the mound of Selamiyeh. About ten miles to the north of Nineveh was Dur-Sargina (now Khorsabad), built in the shape of a square by Sargon, whose palace was erected on a platform shaped like a T on its north-west side. Nine miles to the east of Nimnid is Balawat, called Imgur-Bel, " the habitation of Bel," by Assur-natsir-pal, who built a temple there to the Dream-god, and from which the bronze gates commemorating the achievements of Shalmaneser II., and now in the British Museum, have been brought. On the northern frontier of Assyria was Tarbitsu, now Sherlf Khan, while Arbela, now Ervil, on the east, was an early seat of the worship of Istar, and a city of considerable importance. South-west of it lay Kalzu, enlarged and fortified by Sennacherib; while the Mespila (Muspilu, " low-ground") of Xenophon, where the Medes made a final stand against Kyros, must have been a little to the north of Nineveh. Besides these there were numerous other cities, more than twenty of the most important of which are enumerated among the insurgents against Shalmaneser I I . ; while the Bavian inscription of Sennacherib contains a long list of the smaller towns and villages in the immediate neighbourhood of the capital. But in populousness and antiquity Assyria was far exceeded by the southern kingdom of Babylonia. Here were the centre and starting-point of the civilisation which afterwards spread throughout Western Asia. Its primitive inhabitants, whom we will term Accadians, traced their origin to the mountainous country south of the Caspian, from whence they had spread over Elam or Susiania, the shores of the Persian Gulf, and the fertile plain of Babylonia. The country subsequently known as Assyria was also once inhabited by them ; and even Harran, in the western part of Mesopotamia, seems to have been of Accadian foundation. Their physical type was a peculiar one ; the features were long and narrow, the eyes small, the cheek-bones prominent, the nose slightly retroussi, and the beard long and straight. The languages and dialects spoken by them were agglutinative, and in phonology,—more especially the laws of vocalic harmony,—grammatical machinery, and vocabulary, approach more nearly to the UralAltaic family of speech than to any other known group of tongues. So far as we are at present acquainted with them, they fall into two divisions,—the first comprising the Amardian or Protomedic of Susiania, the Cassite of Kosssea, and the dialect spoken in the neighbourhood of Susa; while the second includes the two closely-related dialects spoken in Babylonia itself, chiefly distinguished by the substitution of m in 360 APPENDIX II. the one for b in the other, and the use of different words, such as duga and tsibba for " good." The civilisation of Babylonia seems to have originated in Anzan or Southern Susiania and the coasts of the Persian Gulf, out of which, according to the legend, the semi-human Oannes arose at dawn with the revelation of culture and knowledge. The pictorial hieroglyphics which afterwards became the cuneiform characters were first invented in Elam, as is shown by such facts as the want of a simple character to denote the palm, or the use of the picture of a mountain to signify a country. In Babylonia, however, the civilisation which had been brought from the mountains of the East underwent a rapid development. The country was divided into two halves, the northern half, comprehending Sippara and Babylon, being known as Accad (Acada), "thehighlands," or rather the country of "the highlanders;" and the southern half, which included Erech, Lar'sa, and perhaps Ur, as Sumer or Shinar. The land on the western bank of the Euphrates went under the general name of Edinna, " the desert," the Eden of Scripture, the sacred grove and garden in the neighbourhood of Eridu, at the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates, being the " Garden of Eden " of Genesis. The sea extended as far as the latter city, identified by Sir H. Rawlinson with the modern Dhib, in which we may perhaps see a reminiscence of its old Sumerian title, Tsibba, "the good." The date of its foundation may be approximately fixed by the rate at which the alluvial soil has grown below it. In the time of Alexander the Tigris and Euphrates flowed by different mouths into the sea, as did also the Eulaeus or Karun in the Assyrian epoch ; and Dr. Delitzsch calculates that a delta of between forty and fifty miles in length has been formed since the sixth century B.C.1 The land of Edinna was irrigated by canals, and Ur, now Mugheir, was built on its outskirts. Sumer, called also " the country of the black faces," and " the country " par excellence, was the earliest seat of Chaldean civilisation, and consequently took rank before Accad, the population of which had descended from the mountains of Elam after the settlement of the southern province. Among its cities may be mentioned Erech or Uruk, now Warka, whose Accadian name, " the city," implies that it had once been the capital of the whole country ; Nipur, the city of Bel, now Niffer; Lar'sa, perhaps the Ellasar of Genesis, the city of the sun, now Senkereh or Sinkara; Zirgulla, now Zerghul; Dur or Diru, " the fortress," now Deyr; Chilmad, now 1 See Pliny, K H. vi. 130. BABYLONIA AND ASSYEIA. 361 Kilwadha; Duran or Duban, Karrak or Nisin, Amarda or Marad, Abnunna or Umliyas, and Kul-unu, the biblical Calneh. Babylon, however, and the neighbouring town of Kis, now El Hymer, were not included in Sumer. Babylon consisted of the two Accadian towns of Ca-dimirra, "the gate of God," and Din-Tir, "the seat of the tree (of life)," on opposite sides of the Euphrates, which, after the Semitic conquest, were united into one, known as Bab-ili or Babel, the Semitic translation of Ca-dimirra. The city was made the capital of the county by the Cassite invader Khammuragas, a position it retained up to its entire destruction in B.C. 690 by Sennacherib, who choked the stream of the Arakhtu with its ruins. Eebuilt by Esar-haddon, it soon recovered its old importance, and after being united with its suburb, Barzip or Borsippa, became the centre of the empire of Nebuchadrezzar. The chief city of Northern Accad was, like Babylon, built on the two banks of the Euphrates, the larger half being called 'Sipar or Sippara, " the city of the sun " (now Abu Habba), and the smaller half Agane^ (or Agadhi). Agane subsequently took the title of " Sippara of the moon-goddess," whence the scriptural name Sepharvaim, " the two Sipparas." To the east of Sepharvaim was Tiggaba or Kute (Cuthah), now Tel-Ibrahim, and to the north Dur-aba, now Akkerkuf, and Is, now Hit. The northern part of Accad is frequently termed Kar-Duniyas or Gan-Duni. The country was intersected by a network of canals, the regulation of which was under special officers. The three chief of those which carried off the waters of the Euphrates to the Tigris above Babylon, were the Ar-malcha, entering the Tigris a little below Bagdad; the Nahr-malcha, running across to the site of Seleukeia; and the NahrKutha, which passed through Tel-Ibrahim. The Pallacopas, on the western side of the Euphrates, supplied an immense lake in the neighbourhood of Borsippa. On the same side, to the south of Babylon, is the fresh-water lake of Nedjef, surrounded by sandstone cliffs of considerable height, forty miles in length and thirty-five in breadth at the broadest part. Below the lake the marshes where Alexander nearly perished (Arrian, Exp. Al. vii. 22; Strabo, xvi. 1,12) extend as far as the sea. Here, on the shores of the Persian Gulf, lived the Caldai or Chaldeans, with their capital Bit-Yakin, when we first hear of them in the ninth century B.C. Under Merodach-baladan they made themselves masters of Babylonia, and gave their name to the whole country in the Greek period. Northward of the Caldai 362 APPENDIX II. were the Gambulai and other nomad tribes, among whom the Arameans, Nabatheans, and Pukudu or Pekod, may be mentioned. The fertility of the soil was great. Pliny tells us (H. N. xviii. 17) that wheat after being cut twice was good keep for sheep; and according to Bercisos, wheat, barley, sesame, ochrys, palms, apples, and many kinds of shelled fruit, grew wild. Indeed, wheat still does so in the neighbourhood of Anah, and we need not be surprised at the statement of Herodotos that grain commonly returned two hundredfold to the sower, and sometimes three hundredfold. Chaldea was the native country of the palm, the 360 uses of which were recounted by a Persian poem (Strabo, xvi. 1, 14); and we learn from Ammianus Marcellinus (xxiv. 3) that from the point reached by Julian's army to the margin of the Persian Gulf was one continuous forest of verdure. As already stated, the primitive population of Babylonia and Assyria belonged to a race which may have been allied to the Turanian or Finno-Tatar. At all events it spoke an agglutinative language which has many affinities with those of the Ural-Altaic family. This primitive population was supplanted by the Semites— the Casdim or "conquerors" of the Bible—at some unknown period before the second millennium B.C. The Semitic element, however, was stronger and purer in Assyria than in Babylonia, where it produced a mixed type, which was still further crossed by the Elamite and Chaldean conquests. The Assyrian, on the other hand, displays all the physical and moral characteristics of the Semitic race; and while Babylonia was the home of culture and learning, Assyria produced a breed of ferocious warriors and quick-witted traders. History.—Until the decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions our knowledge of Babylonian and Assyrian history was at once meagre and uncertain. With the exception of Herodotos, whose notices were scanty and of doubtful value, we had to depend almost entirely on the copyists and excerptists of Kte"sias and BSrdsos. Kte"sias was a native of Knidos, and the physician of Artaxerxes Mn6m6n, but he seems to have been devoid of critical power. Portions of the annals compiled by Persian writers were translated for him, and with the help of these he endeavoured to destroy the credit of Herodotos as a historian. The annals, however, like those of Firdusi or of later Arabic writers, consisted for the most part of mere legendary tales and rationalised myths; we have, therefore, to seek in them not the history, but the mythology of the Babylonians. Semiramis was the goddess Istar, Ninos BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 363 the city of Nineveh, Ninyas or Zames the Sun-god. With these legends Ktesias mingled the Greek romance of Sardanapallos, and eked out his list of Assyrian kings with names partly imaginary, partly geographical. Some of these were doubtless due to the translators on whom he depended. In the later Persian period, however, Kte'sias becomes more trustworthy. The work of Be"r6sos was of a far different character. He was a priest of the temple of Bel at Babylon, and is said by Eusebios and Tatian to have been a contemporary of Alexander the Great, and to have lived into the reign of Antiokhos S6te"r. He had, therefore, special opportunities of knowing the history and astronomy of his country, upon which he wrote in Greek. Recent discoveries have abundantly established the trustworthiness of this Manetho of Babylonia, whose works, unfortunately, are known to us only through quotations at second and third hand. Since a cylinder of Antiokhos, the son of Seleukos, has been found inscribed in Babylonian cuneiform, while bilingual fragments in cuneiform and cursive Greek of the Seleukid age have also been discovered, and a contract tablet in Babylonian cuneiform, dated in the fifth year of the Parthian king, Pakoros, the contemporary of Domitian, exists in the Museum of Zurich, there is no reason why Berdsos should not have been equally well acquainted with both the Greek language and the old literature of his native country. And in spite of the fragmentary and corrupt state in which his fragments have come down to us, we now know that he was so. His account of the Deluge, for instance, agrees even in its details with that of the cuneiform texts. JosSphos seems to have known the original work of Be'rdsos, but the Christian writers quote him only indirectly through the compilation of Alexander Polyhistor (B.C. 80). Hence we can put no confidence in the numbers attached to the dynasties in which Berosos, like his contemporarary, Manetho, arranged the list of Babylonian kings. His Arabian dynasty, for example, seems to correspond with the Cassite dynasty of the inscriptions; but if so, the title " Arabian " must be corrupt, as well as the nine kings and 245 years assigned to it, since we know of at least nineteen Cassite monarchs, and the length of time the dynasty lasted must have been over 600 years. Minor dynasties, again, have been either run together or omitted from the list, as a fragmentary tablet which once contained a complete catalogue of legitimate Babylonian monarchs arranged in dynasties introduces a number of very short ones. This was probably the work of either 364 APPENDIX II. Polyhistor or his copyists; at all events, the Assyrian dynasty of fortyfive kings which is made to follow the Arabian one includes at least two dynasties, that of the Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-Adar, which lasted only a few years, and that of the native princes, who succeeded in shaking off the Assyrian yoke and maintaining their independence for more than four centuries. BeTdsos confined his attention to Babylonian history; the history of Assyria seems to have been compiled by Megasthene"s in the time of Seleukos Nikat6r (B.C. 290), from whom (as Professor Schrader has shown) it was extracted by Abyde~nos (B.C. 260). Abyd^nos in turn survives only in the quotations of the Christian writers. But as Nineveh and its monuments had long been destroyed, the only sources Abyd^nos could have had for his history must have been the records of Babylonia; and it is not surprising, therefore, that the extracts we possess from his work all relate to the period of the Second Assyrian Empire, when Babylonia was brought into close contact with the northern kingdom. The earlier period must have been for the most part a mere blank, or else filled up with myth and legend. One more classical authority for Babylonian history remains. This is the valuable Canon of Ptolemy, preserved in the Almagest, and giving the chronology of Babylon from B.C. 747 downwards. It probably came from Be"r6sos. Other classical notices of Assyro-Babylonian history may be passed over; like those of Diodoros, they are little more than echoes of KtSsias. It is only the Old Testament which gives us fuller and more trustworthy information. It is, therefore, to the native texts that we have mainly to look for the history of Assyria and Babylonia. These are partly contemporaneous with the events they record, partly more recent compilations. The statements of those that are contemporaneous may be frankly accepted, due allowance being made for oriental exaggeration and tendency to selfpraise. The Assyrian historical documents, however, are singularly free from these faults. They were intended to be read by a large and well-educated public, and the practical character of the Assyrians made them realistic in style. The historical inscriptions are scrupulous in recording the names, and if possible the parentage, of the foreign princes whom they mention ; every small town is carefully noted by name, and the numbers, whether of conquered populations and spoil, or of the Assyrian armies, are seldom round and never excessive. Even the disaster which befell Sennacherib—the least trustworthy of all the royal authors—in Palestine is not denied or glossed over; it is simply BABYLONIA AND ASSYEIA. 365 omitted, leaving a break which presupposes it. Of course, the same accuracy or trustworthiness cannot be expected in later compilations, and many of these, like the legend of Sargon of Agade1, merely embody popular tales. But such legends belong rather to Babylonia than to Assyria, where the historical sense was really remarkably developed, and the extreme faithfulness with which old documents were copied inspires us with confidence in the statements made regarding them. The Assyrians early possessed a fixed chronology, reckoned by the names of officers called limmi, who were changed every year, and, like the eponymous archons at Athens, gave their name to their year of office. The chief events of each year were added to the name of its eponym, and in the earlier period of the empire the king himself assumed the office in his year of accession. We possess fragments of several editions of the Canon in which the names of the eponyms were recorded in order, and thus have an exact chronology of the empire from B.C. 913 to B.O. 659. Since the inscription of Eimmon-nirari I. is dated in the eponymy of Shalman-karradu, it is clear that the system of dating by eponyms was already in existence in the fourteenth century B.C.; and we may therefore trust Sennacherib when he asserts that a seal which belonged to Tiglath-Adar was carried off to Babylon 600 years before his own capture of that city, and that 418 years had elapsed between his invasion of Babylonia in B.C. 692 and the defeat of Tiglath-Pileser I. by the Babylonians; or this same Tiglath-Pileser, when he tells us that Samas-Rimmon had built the temple of Anu and Eimmon at Kalah-Sherghat 701 years before his own restoration of it. The system of eponyms, however, seems to have been confined to Assyria, and the early Chaldeans do not appear to have had any settled system of chronology. Their inscriptions, if dated at all, are dated by such events as the capture of a city or an inundation of the river. Still they must have had some more definite mode of counting time, since Assur-bani-pal affirms that Cudur-Nankhundi, the Elamite, had oppressed Accad 1635 years before his own conquest of Shushan; while the table of Babylonian dynasties, first discovered by Mr. Smith, assigns to each king the length of his reign in years, months, and days. It must have been some such table as this which was used by BeTosos. It is unfortunate that only fragments of this table are preserved, as our acquaintance with early Babylonian history ami chronology is extremely meagre and uncertain, and has to be gathered chiefly from the brick-legends of the early kings or stray notices in later inscriptions. An inscription of Assyrian origin which gives brief 366 APPENDIX II. notices of the occasions on which the monarchs of Assyria and Babylonia had come into contact with each other since the reigns of Assur-bil-nisi-su and Cara-indas is useful, since our knowledge of Assyrian chronology enables us, to tabulate the Babylonian kings mentioned in the text. It is only with the era of Nabonasar (B.C. 747), and the mutual help afforded by the Assyrian inscriptions and the Canon of Ptolemy, that an exact chronology of Babylonia begins. For the empire of Nebuchadrezzar the records of the Egibi banking firm are invaluable—dated deeds extending, year by year, from the reign of Nebuchadrezzar to the close of that of Darius Hystaspis. The history of Babylonia, like that of most great nations, begins with myth. Ten kings reigned over the country before the Deluge, their reigns lasting for 120 sari, or 432,000 years. The chronology as well as the number of reigns has a purely astronomical origin: the origin of the names has yet to be discovered. The first of these antediluvian kings was Aloros of Babylon, which indicates the Babylonian parentage of the whole story. A16ros took the title of " shepherd," a title which we find assumed by the early Chaldean princes, and which, like the iroi/jt.rjv \a£>v of Homer, proves the pastoral habits of the people before they became civilised citizens. The second successor of A16ros, Ame\l6n, came from Pantibibla or Booktown, possibly Sippara, as did also Dadnus, the Dun or " mighty one " of the inscriptions. Otiartes, which the native name Ubara-Tutu, "servant of the Setting Sun," shows must be corrected to Opartes, was the ninth of the line, and belonged to Larankha, the Surippak of the texts. His son and successor was Xisuthros, the hero of the Deluge. With the Deluge the mythical history of Babylonia takes a new departure. From this event to the Persian conquest was a period of 36,000 years, or an astronomical cycle called saros.1 Xisuthros, with his family and friends, alone survived the waters which drowned the rest of mankind on account of their sins. He had been ordered by the gods to build a ship, to pitch it within and without, and to stock it with animals of every species. Xisuthros sent out first a dove, then a swallow, and lastly a raven, to discover whether the earth was dry; the dove and the swallow returned to the ship, and it was only when the raven flew away that the rescued hero ventured to leave his ark. He found that he had been stranded on the peak of the mountain of 1 This assumes that Brandis is right in supplying 258 years for the fourth dyn- asty of Alexander Polyhistor where the numerals have dropped out in the MS. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 367 Nizir, " the mountain of the world," whereon the Accadians believed the heaven to rest,—where, too, they placed the habitation of their gods and the cradle of their own race. Since Nizir lay among the mountains of Pir Mam, a little south of Eowandiz, its mountain must be identified with Eowandiz itself. On its peak Xisuthros offered sacrifices, piling up cups of wine by sevens; and the rainbow, "the glory of Anu," appeared in heaven, in covenant that the world should never again be destroyed by a flood. Immediately afterwards Xisuthros and his wife, like the biblical Enoch, were translated to the regions of the blessed beyond Datilla, the river of death, and his people made their way westward to Sippara. Here they disinterred the books buried by their late ruler before the Deluge had taken place, and re-established themselves in their old country under the government first of Evekhoos, and then of his son Khomasbolos. Meanwhile other colonists had arrived in the plain of Sumer, and here, under the leadership of the giant Etana, called Titan by the Greek writers, they built a city of brick, and essayed to erect a tower by means of which they might scale the sky, and so win for themselves the immortality granted to Xisuthros. The spot where the tower was raised was the mound at Babylon, now known as the Amram, where stood the temple of Anu, the palace of the kings, and the hanging gardens of Nebuchadrezzar, and the season they chose for building it was the autumnal equinox. But the tower was overthrown in the night by the winds, and Bel frustrated their purpose by confounding their language, and scattering them on the mound. Hence the place was called "the gate of God," though a later punning etymology connected it with b&lal, " to confound." Now happened the war waged by Etana, Bel, Prometheus, and Ogygos, against Kronos or Hea, and the adventures of the giant Ner, who, along with Etana, finally found a seat among the crowned heads in the underworld of Hades. Now, too, the goddess Istar descended from heaven to woo the sons of men ;—Alala, the wild eagle, the lionson of 'Silele; Isullanu, the woodsman; and above all, Tammuz, the young and beautiful Sun-god, the Addnis of Semitic and Greek story. Slain by the boar's tusk of winter, Tammuz sank to the underworld, whither he was followed by Istar, and not released till he had drunk of the waters of life. More famous even than Tammuz, however, was the solar hero whose name is provisionally read Gisdhubar, and who has been identified with the biblical Nimrod. Gisdhubar was the prototype of the Melkarth of Tyre and the H^rakles of Greece, and 368 APPENDIX II. the twelve labours of Herakle"s may be traced back to the adventures of Gisdhubar, as recorded in the twelve books of the great Epic of early Chaldea. The Epic, whose authorship was ascribed to one Sinlici-unnini, was preserved in the library of Erech, a city with which Gisdhubar was specially associated, though his birthplace was supposed to be Amarda, the city of " solar glory." Its date may be roughly ascribed to about B.C. 2000, but it belongs to the period when the Semitic race was already in possession of the land. The Semitic conquest must have been a gradual one. The evidence of language shows that when the Semites first came into contact with the civilisation of Accad, they were mere desert-nomads, dwelling in tents, and wanting even the first elements of culture. These, however, they soon acquired from their neighbours, and with the trading instinct of their race quickly made themselves indispensable to the agricultural Accadians. Ur and the other towns on the western bank of the Euphrates were the earliest places in which they settled, but they soon overflowed into the whole plain of Sumer. The oldest contemporaneous records we possess are those of Lig-Bagas or Ur-Bagas, king of Ur, whose rule extended over the whole of both Accad and Sumer. The great temple of the Moon-god at Ur was founded by him, and he adorned Erech, Nipur, Lar'sa, and other cities, with temples of vast size dedicated to the Sun, to Istar, and to Bel. Viceroys were established in different parts of the country; Khassimir was the governor of Nipur; and Gudea, the grandson of Lig-Bagas, ruled at Zerghul, where the statue of his architect has lately been found. Lig-Bagas seems to have been the first of the great Babylonian builders, and the enormous brick structures he has left behind, cemented with bitumen in the place of lime, show that architectural knowledge was already advanced. Buttresses, drains, and external ornamentation are all freely employed. The cuneiform system of writing had attained its full development; libraries, stocked with clay books, existed in the towns, signet stones were carved with artistic skill, and the country was intersected by canals and roads. The amount of human labour at the disposal of the monarch may be judged from the fact that the Bowariyeh mound at Warka, which covers the ruins of the temple of the Sun-god, is 200 feet square and 100 feet high, so that above 30,000,000 of bricks must have been used in building it. The calendar was already fixed and regulated, and the towers attached to the temples were used as observatories. According to Nabonidos, Lig-Bagas lived 700 years before the age of Khammuragas. BABYLONIA AND ASSYKIA. 369 His son and successor was Dungi, " the mighty one." Among his Accadian inscriptions he has left us a short one in Semitic,—a proof of the importance to which the Semites had now attained. They had in fact become a commercial aristocracy, and the time was not far distant when this commercial aristocracy would usurp the supreme power. It is difficult to know with which of the dynasties of Bferosos these kings of Ur are to be identified. If the Arabian dynasty is that founded by Khammuragas, they ought to belong to the nameless dynasty which followed the eight " Median " kings. These Medes, it may be observed, must have taken their name from the Accadian mada, " country," and may possibly have come from Sumer, often called Kingi, " the land." In this case the capture of Babylon by them would represent the overthrow of a local line of princes who held sway in that city. The unification of the country under Lig-Bagas and Dungi was of short duration. It soon broke up again into small independent states. When Cudur-nankhundi, the powerful Elamite monarch, invaded Babylonia he seems to have found kings with Semitic names reigning there; but the book of Genesis represents another Elamite conqueror, Chedorlaomer or Cudur-Lagamar, as dominating over two Babylonian princes, Amar-phel of Sumer, and Arioch of Lar'sa, as well as over a king of Gutium. It is curious that the inscriptions contain a record of a second Eri-Acu or Arioch, king of Lar'sa, who was son and vassal of an Elamite sovereign, Cudur-Mabug; and it is still more curious that just as Cudur-Lagamar extended his power to Palestine according to Genesis, Cudur-Mabug also styles himself " the citizen of Phoenicia." The power of Cudur-Mabug and his son Eri-Acu, however, did not extend over the whole of Chaldea, though Eri-Acu (or Kim-Agu, as he also calls himself) claimed to be "king of Sumer and Accad." Accad, however, including Babylon, was in the possession of a Semitic dynasty, whose capital was Agade1. The most brilliant representative of this dynasty was Sargon I., whose patronage of learning caused the library of Agade to become one of the most famous in Babylonia. It was for him that the great work on astronomy and astrology was compiled in seventy-two books, which Birdsos translated into Greek, and another work on terrestrial omens was also compiled for the same monarch. Legends naturally gathered round the name of this Babylonian Solomon. Not only was he entitled " the deviser of law, the deviser of prosperity," but it was told of him how his father had died while he was still unborn, how his mother had fled to the mountains 2B 370 APPENDIX II. and there left him, like a second Moses, to the care of the river in an ark of reeds and bitumen; and how he was saved by Acci, " the water-drawer," who brought him up as his own son, until the time came when, under the protection of Istar, his rank was discovered, and he took his seat on the throne of his forefathers. It is indeed possible that Sargon was a usurper, since his name means "the constituted king," and seems as if it had been assumed after his accession to power. However this may be, he was a conqueror as well as a legislator and friend of literature. More than once he attacked the Elamites successfully, though he was unable to wrest Sumer out of their hands. He made several campaigns against Syria and Palestine, in the course of which he crossed into Cyprus, and there, as on the opposite shores of the mainland, he caused images of himself to be erected. These campaigns occupied three years, and it was to them that the influence of Babylonian culture upon the populations of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean must first be traced. Towards the end of his life he even penetrated as far as Maganna, or the peninsula of Sinai, in quest, no doubt, of the turquoise and copper mines that had so long been worked there by the Egyptians. It is perhaps to these expeditions that Manetho refers when he asserts that the Hyksos fortified Jerusalem for fear of the Assyrians. After overthrowing Kastubila of Cazalla, and quelling an insurrection which broke out among " the elders " of Accad, Sargon ended his long reign of fifty-four years, and was succeeded by his son, Naram-Sin, who maintained the military fame of his father by conquering Ris-Rimmon of Apirak and marching into Maganna. A Babylonian cylinder, in which the title of divinity is given to Naram-Sin, was found by General di Cesnola in the treasury of the Cyprian temple of Kurion, and not only shows that apotheosis was not unknown in Babylonia, but also that the influence of the kings of Agade was still strong in the far west. But the reign of this deified king ended after all in disaster. The conquest of Maganna seems to have brought the dynasty of Sargon under Egyptian influence, to which the apotheosis of his son may perhaps be traced. At all events in Agade, as in Egypt, it became possible for a woman to be at the head of the state, and Naram-Sin was followed by a queen, Ellat-Gula. But a custom which suited Egypt did not equally suit the Semites of Babylonia, and Ellat-Gula was the last of her race. A horde of Cassites or Kossseans swept down from the mountains of Northern Elam under their leader, Khammuragas; Accad was conquered, a foreign dynasty established BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 371 in the land, and the capital transferred from Agade to Babylon. Babylon now became a city of importance for the first time ; the rank assigned to it in the mythical age was but a reflection of the position it held after the Cassite conquest. The Cassite dynasty is probably the Arabian dynasty of Ber6sos, though if so, as has already been noted, the number of kings included in it, as well as the length of their united reigns, must be largely increased. We shall not be far wrong in placing its rise about B.C. 2000. 1 The first care of Khammuragas, after establishing himself in Accad, was to extend his sway over the southern kingdom of Sumer as well. Eim-Agu or Arioch was now on the throne, and after the conquest of Karrak and Duran, which gave him possession of the marches and the whole country as far as the shores of the Persian Gulf, he claimed the imperial title of " king of Sumer and Accad,"—a title, however, to which he had no right. He filled Ur, which at one time had been subject to the princes of Karrak, as well as other cities, with public buildings, though his capital was fixed at Lar'sa. With the help of his Elamite allies he succeeded in repulsing the first attack of the Cassite invader; but a second attack proved too strong for him; the forces of Elam and Sumer were overthrown, and Khammuragas became king of the whole of Babylonia. From this time onward the country remained a united monarchy. The Cassite dynasty must have lasted for several centuries, and probably included more than one line of kings. At any rate it is otherwise difficult to find a place for a Cassite dynasty which traced its descent from the god Sukamuna, and one of whose kings, Agu-kak-rimi, the son of Tassi-gurumas, has left us a long inscription, unless we throw it back into the period that preceded the era of Sargon of Agad6, and identify it with the Median dynasty of Blr6sos. It is certainly noticeable that Agu-kak-rimi calls himself king of Accad and Babylon only, not of Sumer. However this may be, it was under the Cassite dynasty that the kingdom of Assyria first took its rise,—partly, perhaps, in consequence of the Asiatic conquests of the Egyptian monarchs of the eighteenth dynasty. Later legends ascribed the foundation of the kingdom to the Moon-god, while Sargon boasts of "the 350 kings" who had preceded him and had "sent forth the people of the land of Bel"; but Assyria was but a portion of the empire of Gutium in the age of Cudur-Lagamar, and the earliest 1 A newly-found inscription of Nabonidos, however, makes the date B.C. 3750. 372 APPENDIX II. Assyrian princes of whom we know were merely petty rulers of Assur, the original capital of Assyria, from which it derived its name. One of these rulers was Samas-Rimmon, the son of Ismi-Dagon, who built the temple of Anu and Eimmon at Assur, and whose date is fixed at B.C. 1820 by an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I. It was not till long afterwards that "the kingdom was founded" by Bel-sumeli-kapi, and the chieftains of Assur became kings of Assyria. From this time forward, however, their power continued steadily to grow; Assur-zaciresir and Adar-tukul-Assur even ventured to contend with Babylonia, and in B.C. 1400 the Cassite king married an Assyrian princess. Her son Kara-Murdas was murdered by the party opposed to Assyrian influence, but the usurper, Nazi-bugas, was quickly overthrown by the Assyrians, who placed a vassal-prince on the throne. This event may be considered the turning-point in the history of the kingdoms of the Tigris and Euphrates; Assyria henceforth takes the place of the worn-out monarchy of Babylonia, and plays the chief part in the affairs of Western Asia until the day of its final fall. In little more than a hundred years later the Assyrians were again in Babylonia, but this time as avowed enemies to all parties alike; Babylon was captured by the Assyrian monarch Tiglath-Adar in B.C. 1270, and the rule of the Cassite dynasty came to an end. But the avenger was at hand. Hardly was Tiglath - Adar dead when the Hittites assailed the Assyrian empire on the north and west, and the Babylonians seized the opportunity to make themselves free. The new line of Babylonian sovereigns, however, was Semitic in name and race. It lasted a short time only. The country was divided both in nationality and in interests. Civil wars distracted the kingdom, and shortlived dynasties were founded by the non-Semitic tribes of the sea-coast or the Semitic inhabitants of the great cities. The adherents of the old Cassite dynasty, as well as the partisans of Assyria, contrived from time to time to place a nominee of their own upon the throne; while the Elamites on the east and the Assyrians on the north were perpetually at war with the unhappy kingdom, or else intriguing in its midst. The literature and culture of Babylonia migrated into Assyria, where kings whose real delight was in war and hunting affected to patronise learning and encourage horticulture. The most eminent among these was Tiglath-Pileser I. He carried his arms as far as Kilikia and the Mediterranean, shattered the power of the Hittites and their kinsmen in the north, swept the wild district of Kurdistan, and in B.C. 1130, after a momentary BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 373 repulse at the hands of Merodach-iddin-akhi, the Babylonian king, defeated his antagonist on the banks of the Lower Zab and ravaged Babylonia, capturing Sippara, Opis, and even Babylon, the capital, itself. Merodach-iddin-akhi saved himself by a timely submission; but a desultory war continued between his successors and Assur-belkala, the son of Tiglath-Pileser. After this Assyria sinks for a while below the horizon of history. Its power had been founded on the individual energy and military skill of its monarchs, and vanished altogether under a feeble prince. Pethor, at the junction of the Sajur and Euphrates, along with the adjacent territory, fell into the hands of the Hittites and Syrians ; David was enabled to carry the Israelitish arms as far as the banks of the Euphrates; and Assyria itself was overrun by the victorious armies of the Babylonian king, Sibir. Once more, however, it revived under Assur-dayan II., whose son, Rimmon-nirari II. (B.C. 911-889), and great-grandson, Assur-natsir-pal (B.C. 883-858), made the name of Assyria again terrible to the surrounding nations. Assur-natsir-pal was the most brutal and ferocious of even the Assyrian kings; but he was also an energetic warrior and a great conqueror. The limits of his empire exceeded those of Tiglath-Pileser I.; Kurdistan, Armenia, and Mesopotamia were traversed by his armies again and again, and his image was sculptured on the rocks at the sources of the Tigris by the side of those of Tiglath-Pileser I. and his own father, TiglathAdar II. Nizir and its mountains, where the ark of the Chaldean Noah had rested, were overrun and ravaged, and the footsteps of the Assyrian conqueror were marked by impalements, by pyramids of human heads, and by unspeakable barbarities. Nebo-bal-iddina of Babylon was defeated; Sangara of Carchemish and his brother princes paid tribute, and on the shores of the Mediterranean Assurnatsir-pal received the submission and treasure of the rich and unwarlike cities of Phoenicia. But these distant raids produced little else than misery abroad and accession of wealth to the royal treasury at home; no attempt was made to hold the conquests that had been gained, or to compensate for the destruction of culture in the West by introducing into the rude regions of the East the borrowed civilisation of Assyria. The cities of Assyria, nevertheless, were enriched with the spoils of foreign victory. Splendid palaces, temples, and other public buildings were erected, and adorned with elaborate sculptures and rich painting. Calah, which had been founded by Shalmaneser I., B.C. 1300, was rebuilt by Assur-natsir-pal, who made it his favourite 374 APPENDIX II. residence, and established a library there. His successor was his son, Shalmaneser I I , named probably after the founder of Calah. Shalmaneser I I , whose long and prosperous reign of thirty-five years marks the climax of the First Assyrian Empire, inherited his father's vigour and military talent, along with greater political ability and appreciation of culture. His opening campaign was directed against the wild tribes of the north-east; Arame of Van and the Minnians of Urumiyeh were next attacked; and after them the Hittites of Carchemish and their allies, among whom Pikhirim of Kilikia may be mentioned. By the conquest of Tul-Barsip or Barsampse1, on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, and the capture of Pethor (now Tash-atan), the Assyrians regained possession of the ford across the river, and in B.C. 854 came into conflict with Hamath. Here Shalmaneser found himself confronted by a confederacy of western princes, under the leadership of Hadad-idri, or Hadadezer, of Damascus and Irkhulena of Hamath, whom a common danger had aroused to oppose the threatened advance of the Assyrian forces. But the confederacy was shattered in the battle of Karkar or Aroer, in which, among others, Ahab of Israel took part with 2000 chariots and 10,000 infantry, and the Orontes was choked with the slain. The Assyrians, however, had themselves suffered so much that Shalmaneser was unable to follow up his victory, and two years afterwards turned his attention to Babylonia, which he invaded and reduced to a state of vassalage, under the pretext of helping the legitimate king, Merodach-suma-izcur, against his insurgent brother. It is on this occasion that we first hear of the Caldai or Chaldeans, whom the Assyrians found inhabiting the marshy district of the Persian Gulf. After thus securing his frontier on the south, Shalmaneser again marched against Syria (B.O. 850). The war lasted, at intervals, for eleven years, during which Hadadezer was succeeded by Hazael, and Shalmaneser obtained several barren victories, and claimed others which a strict criticism must deny to him. In B.C. 842, however, Hazael really suffered a decisive defeat on the heights of Shenir, and his camp, along with 1121 chariots and 470 carriages, fell into the hands of the Assyrians, who proceeded to besiege him in his capital, Damascus. But the siege was soon raised, though not before Jehu of Israel had sent tribute ; and after wasting the Hauran, Shalmaneser marched to Beyrout, and there carved an image of himself on the rocky promontory of Bahli-rasi, at the entrance to the Nahr el-Kelb. The defeat of Hazael had removed the only rival Assyria had to BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 375 fear. From this time forward Shalmaneser contented himself with expeditions to distant regions, such as Phoenicia, Melite"ne, Kappadokia, and Armenia, for the sake of exacting tribute. After B.C. 834 he ceased to command his troops in person, the tartan or generalin-chief, Dayan-Assur, taking his place. The infirmities of old age, which had no doubt obliged him to take this step, further led to the rebellion of his eldest son, Assur-dayan-pal, which troubled the last days of the old king, and well nigh proved fatal to him. Twentyseven cities, including Nineveh and Assur, which probably resented the preference shown to Calah, as well as numerous smaller towns, declared for the pretender, and it was with considerable difficulty that the revolt was put down by Shalmaneser's second son, Samas-Kimmon, who shortly afterwards succeeded him. Samas-Eimmon (824-811), and his son, Eimmon-nirari III. (811-782), fairly maintained the empire they had received, but their efforts were chiefly expended upon campaigns in Armenia, Media, and the neighbouring regions, from which we may perhaps infer that the wild tribes of the east had begun to infest the Assyrian frontier. Samas-Eimmon, however, also endeavoured to restore the supremacy of Assyria in Babylonia. Merodach-baladhsu-ikbi of Babylon and his allies were defeated with great slaughter at Dur-Papsukul about B.C. 820, and eight years later he succeeded in entering Babylon. Eimmon-nirari III. obliged Mariha of Damascus to pay him tribute, as well as the Phoenicians, Israelites, Edomites, and Philistines. But though the royal annals show that the kings still led their armies out to battle year by year, it is plain that the power and vigour of the reigning dynasty were wearing out The campaigns were either resultless, or else were made for purely defensive purposes. The empire of Shalmaneser had melted away. A few more princes followed Eimmon-nirari III, and then in B.C. 763 an eclipse of the sun took place on the 15th of June, and the city of Assur revolted. In B.C. 761 the revolt had spread to Arrapakhitis, and two years later to Gozan. In B.C. 758 it was indeed stamped out in Assur, but the more distant provinces were lost. Three years afterwards, Assur-nirari, the last of his line, ascended the throne. His reign lasted only ten years. What was left of the Assyrian empire had been undermined by decay and discontent, the army finally declared against the monarch, and he and his dynasty fell together. On the 30th of Iyyar, or April, B.C. 745, Pul or P6ros seized the vacant crown, and assumed the name of the ancient conqueror, Tiglath-Pileser. 376 APPENDIX II. With the accession of Tiglath-Pileser II. the Second Assyrian Empire may be said to begin. This Second Empire differed essentially from the first. The usurper was an organiser as well as a conqueror, and sought for the first time in the history of Western Asia to give his conquests a consolidated and permanent character. The conquered provinces were no longer loosely connected with the central power by the payment of tribute, which was refused as soon as the Assyrian armies were out of sight; nor were the campaigns undertaken by the kings of Nineveh mere raids, whose chief objects were prestige and plunder. The conquests of the Second Empire were made with a fixed purpose, and in pursuance of a definite line of policy, and, once made, they were tenaciously preserved. The conquered nations became subject provinces, governed, wherever possible, by Assyrian satraps; while turbulent populations were deported to some distant part of the empire. Each province and capital city had its annual contribution to the imperial treasury fixed and regulated ; and centralisation, with its attendant bureaucracy, superseded the old loose union of mutually hostile states and towns. Tiglath-Pileser took good care that the revolts to which he owed the crown should for the future be impossible. To him is due the inauguration of the principle which was afterwards applied by Darius Hystaspis with so much success to the organisation of the Persian empire. The title to power which his birth denied him was secured by the institutions he established. The Second Assyrian Empire was essentially a commercial one. It was founded and maintained for the purpose of attracting the trade and wealth of Western Asia into Assyrian hands. The instincts of the warrior and crusader had made way for the more deeply-rooted trading instincts of the Semitic race. The expeditions undertaken against the barbarous tribes of the east and north were made solely for the purpose of protecting the frontier and caravan roads, and of keeping the predatory excursions of the mountaineers in check. The resources of the empire were really reserved for the subjugation of Babylonia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, the rich and civilised marts of the ancient world. It was to divert the stream of commerce into their new satrapy of Carchemish that the Assyrian monarchs endeavoured to destroy the merchant communities of Tyre and Sidon. Babylonia was necessarily the first to feel the effects of the new policy. Before six months were over Tiglath-Pileser was leading his forces against the southern kingdom. The northern part of Babylonia was annexed to Assyria, and secured by a chain of fortresses. After BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 377 chastising the Kurds, the Assyrian king next turned westward. Sarduris of Armenia, at the head of a confederacy of northern princes, in vain essayed to bar his way. The confederacy was defeated in Komage'ne', Arpad (now Tel Erfad) was captured, and all Syria lay at his feet. For the present he was content with exacting tribute from the Hittites, the Arameans, and the Phoenicians. Hamath, then in alliance with Uzziah of Judah, was conquered in 738, and its nineteen districts placed under Assyrian officers. For the first time we find the system of deportation applied on a large scale. Three years later Sarduris of Ararat was again attacked, and the neighbourhood of his capital, Dhuspas or Tosp, now Van, was devastated over a space of 450 miles. Freed from any danger from the north, TiglathPileser now eagerly seized the opportunity of .overthrowing the power of Damascus offered by the request of the Jewish king, Ahaz, for protection from his Syrian and Israelitish enemies. Rezin was defeated and besieged in his capital, Damascus, in 734, and the whole country far and near, including Samaria, Ammon, Moab, and the Philistines, was reduced to subjection. At length, after a siege of two years, Damascus surrendered, its inhabitants were enslaved, and Rezin was put to death. Syria became an Assyrian province, and all the princes of the West were summoned thither to do homage to the conqueror, while Tyre was fined 150 talents of gold, about £400,000. One of the chief objects of Tiglath-Pileser's policy had thus been achieved. But Babylonia still remained. In B.C. 731, accordingly, the Assyrian armies again marched into Chaldea. Ukin-ziru, the Khin-ziros of Ptolemy, was slain, Babylon and the other great cities were taken, and in B.C. 729 Tiglath-Pileser assumed the imperial title of "King of Sumer and Accad." But he did not live long to enjoy his success. In B.C. 727 he died, probably without children, and Shalmaneser III., one of his generals, succeeded to his empire and his policy. Shalmaneser, however, failed to found a dynasty. After an unsuccessful attempt to capture Tyre, he died, or was murdered, during the siege of Samaria in B.C. 722, and the supreme power was seized by another general, who assumed the venerable name of Sargon, " the constituted king." Sargon claimed descent from two early kings, Bel-bani and Adasi, but his claim was probably admitted only by the flattery of a court. In B.C. 720 he took Samaria, and deported 27,200 of its leading inhabitants into Gozan and Media, the remainder being placed under an Assyrian governor. Meanwhile Sargon had been reminded that the 378 APPENDIX II. work of Tiglath-Pileser had been but half accomplished. As long as Elam remained unconquered, it was always able to threaten Babylonia, and menace the flank of the Assyrian empire. Entrenched behind its mountains, however, and furnished with all the resources of an ancient civilisation, Elam was difficult to subdue, and its subjugation could, bring no profit to its conqueror. The news, therefore, that the Elamite king, Khumba-nigas, had invaded Babylonia was highly disturbing, but Sargon was obliged to content himself with simply driving the Elamites back. Affairs in the west more imperatively claimed his attention. Here the weak point in the empire was, strangely enough, the little kingdom of Judah. But Judah was a mountainous country, its capital was almost impregnable, and its conquest, troublesome as it would be, was valueless to the traders of Nineveh. At the same time it screened Egypt, whose Ethiopian conquerors endeavoured to defend themselves against the growing power of Assyria by stirring up trouble in Palestine. Sargon's aim, therefore, was to inflict a blow upon the Egyptians without throwing away his strength on the barren conquest of Judah. He effected his purpose by crushing the Philistines, and so making his way to the Egyptian frontier along the seacoast. The Egyptian army was defeated at Eaphia in B.C. 720, and Sargon was satisfied with carrying the spoil of Hanun, king of Gaza, to Nineveh. The last attempt of Syria to free itself, under the leadership of a Jew, Ilu-bihid or Yahu-bihid, had been already stamped out in fire and blood, and Hamath, where he had ruled, was colonised with 4300 Assyrians. In 717 all was ripe for the final assault upon Carchemish (now Jerablus), the wealthy capital of the once powerful Hittites. The city was taken: its last monarch, Pisiris, with all his treasures, fell into the hands of Sargon, and Assyria became mistress of the trade of Western Asia. Carchemish commanded the great caravan road from the East, and its satrap was one of the most important of the Assyrian governors. From this time onward every effort was made to attract all the commerce of Asia to Carchemish: its maund became the standard weight of the empire, and no pains were spared to destroy the rival trade of the Phoenicians. But the fall of Carchemish was not unavenged by the kindred population of the north. Mita of the Moschians, Ursa of Armenia, and their allies from the ranges of the Taurus, now fell upon the conqueror. The struggle was long and bitter, but at length Sargon prevailed. Van submitted, Armenia was ravaged, and Ursa, the leader of the coalition, committed suicide, i The Assyrian forces penetrated BABYLONIA AND ASSYEIA. 379 into the trackless mountains of distant Media; Kilikia and the Tibare"ni were placed under an Assyrian governor, and the city of Malatiyeh was razed to the ground. Sargon could now turn to Palestine, where Hezekiah of Judah, encouraged by Babylonia and Egypt, had refused to pay the tribute due to his Assyrian lord. But in 711 Sargon swept Phoenicia and Judah, Jerusalem was captured, and the Jewish king compelled to submit. The suppression of the revolt in Palestine came none too soon. Aided by the Elamites, Yagina or Yugseos, a Chaldean prince, had made himself master of Babylonia after TiglathPileser's death, and the short campaign of Sargon in 721 did not prevent his son, Merodach-baladan, from succeeding to his power. For twelve years Merodach-baladan was undisturbed. But he knew well that the Assyrian king was only waiting to complete his work in the east before asserting his claim to Babylonia. When, therefore, the coalition of the northern nations was breaking down before the Assyrian arms, the Babylonian king sent embassies to Judah and the neighbouring principalities, in order to concert measures of defence against the common enemy. Sargon, however, fell upon Palestine before either Babylonia or Egypt was ready to move, and when Merodach-baladan at last stirred he found himself single-handed face to face with the whole might of the Assyrian empire. The issue could not be doubtful, and though the Elamites hastened to his assistance he was driven first from Babylon, and then from the cities of the south. His last refuge, Bit-Yagina in the marshes, was taken by storm in 709, and he himself was loaded with chains and sent to Nineveh. Sargon now set himself to obliterate all traces of the Chaldean usurpation. The turbulent desert tribes, whom the late king had settled in Babylonia, were exterminated or expelled, and Sargon did his utmost to ingratiate himself with the native priesthood. His coronation in Babylon was like the coronation of the German emperors at Rome, and seemed to give him that title of legitimacy which was wanting in his own country. In the following year his pride was gratified by the voluntary submission of Uperi of Dilvun, in the Persian Gulf, the sacred island of Accadian mythology, as well as of the Greek and Phoenician kings of Kypros, the island of Yavnan or the " Ionians," where he caused a monument of himself to be erected at Kition or Larnaka, inscribed with pseudo-archaic cuneiform characters. It was the first direct contact between Greek and Assyrian; the culture of Babylonia and Assyria had long since been indirectly leavening the Hellenic world, but the barrier that had existed between them was 380 APPENDIX II. now broken down. The divided nationalities of Western Asia had been fused into the Assyrian empire, and Assyria had stepped into the place once occupied by Egypt in the history of mankind. Elam was left the solitary rival of the new power in Asia, and the last years of Sargon's life were spent in a desultory war with it. The political idea conceived by Tiglath-Pileser was thus realised. Egypt, it is true, was still unconquered, but for how long depended on the energy and ability of Sargon's successors. At first, however, these seemed to be wanting. The fierce old king was murdered in his new city of Dur-Sargina or Khorsabad, and succeeded by his son Sennacherib on the 12th of Ab (July), B.C. 705. Brought up in the purple, Sennacherib had none of his father's virtues or talents. Vainglorious, tyrannical, and weak, he owed the preservation of the empire that had been bequeathed to him rather to the thoroughness with which all elements of opposition had been crushed than to any efforts of his own. The boastful style of his inscriptions contrasts sharply with the plain simplicity of his father's, and makes it needful to examine carefully the accuracy of their contents. Merodach-baladan had escaped from captivity, and the death of Sargon was the signal for a fresh attempt on his part to establish himself at Babylon. But a battle at Kis again drove him from the country, and Sennacherib found himself free to devastate Ellip (in the neighbourhood of the modern Elwend). Then he fell upon Phoenicia (B.C. 701). Zidon and other cities were captured, and the Phoenician king, Lulia or Elulseus, forced to take refuge in Kypros. The turn of Judah came next. Hezekiah's allies in Askalon and Ekron were severely punished; the Jewish towns, with a great quantity of spoil and captives, were taken; and the Jewish king himself sought forgiveness by the gift of 30 talents of gold, 300 talents of silver, precious stones, couches of ivory, tusks of wild bulls, dancing girls and eunuchs, and male and female musicians. But Sennacherib refused to be appeased, and the siege of Jerusalem was determined upon. Then came the disaster to the Assyrian arms, which Egyptian legend ascribed to the piety of their own priest-king Sethos. As a matter of fact, Sennacherib claims to have defeated Tirhakah of Egypt at Eltekeh, when the latter came to the help of Hezekiah; but as he did not pursue his success, it is probable that he lost as much as he gained. Like Xerxes in Greece, Sennacherib never recovered from the shock of the disaster in Judah. He made no more expeditions against either Southern Palestine or Egypt. BABYLONIA AND ASSYKIA. 381 One cause of this was the unquiet state of Babylonia, which could not forget that the power that claimed supremacy over her was a mere parvenu. The year after the campaign in Palestine (700 B.C.), a Chaldean named Suzub stirred up revolt, which Sennacherib had some difficulty in suppressing. Merodach-baladan and his followers had settled at the mouth of the Eulseus, and in 697 Sennacherib found it necessary to have a. fleet built and manned by Ionians and Phoenicians in the Persian Gulf, by means of which he destroyed the Chaldean settlement. But Suzub, with the help of the Elamites, had excited an insurrection in his rear, which was, however, put down by the Assyrian generals, who captured Suzub and sacked the ancient city of Erech. Meanwhile Sennacherib made an unsuccessful attempt to invade Elam, and Suzub, having escaped from Assyria and been admitted into Babylon, in 692 added his forces to those of Elam, Media, and other eastern allies. But the decisive battle of Khalule shattered the hopes of the confederate princes; Babylon was besieged and captured the following year, and then given to the flames. Its inhabitants were sold into slavery, and the river Arakhtu or Araxes was choked with its ruins. If, however, we may judge from the interregnum which marks the last eight years of Sennacherib's reign in Ptolemy's Canon, Chaldea refused to acknowledge the Assyrian domination up to the day of his death. The barbarous destruction of the venerable city of Babylon must have aroused against him the horror of every inhabitant of the southern kingdom. It was the last political achievement of Sennacherib of which we know. The latter years of his life seem to have been spent in inactivity, or else in constructing canals and aqueducts in Assyria, in embanking the Tigris, and in building himself a palace at Nineveh on a grander scale than had ever been attempted before. His partiality for his younger, son Esar-haddon excited the jealousy of the two elder ones, Adrammelech and Nergal - sharezer, who murdered their father in the month Tebet (December), B.C. 681, while Esar-haddon was conducting a campaign against the Armenians. The forces of Esar-haddon's brothers, however, proved no match for the veterans he commanded, and a battle fought near Malatiyeh in December, B.C. 681, established him on the throne and compelled his brothers to take refuge in Armenia. Esar-haddon entered Nineveh the following month, and immediately afterwards started for Babylonia, where Ur was soon taken, and the surviving son of Merodach-baladan compelled to sue for his life. The conqueror pre- 382 APPENDIX II. sented him with the government of his ancestral kingdom, and then turned to the restoration of Babylon, rebuilding its walls and temples, and bringing back its captured deities, its plunder, and its people. Henceforward Babylon became the second capital of the empire, the Assyrian court residing alternately there and at Nineveh. The event quickly showed the wise policy of this measure of conciliation. Esar-haddon's reign, in fact, is characterised throughout by keen political tact. His political sagacity was equal to the high military talents which enabled him to complete the fabric of the Second Empire by the conquest of Egypt. His disposition, too, was unusually mild and humane for an Assyrian prince, and his powers of conciliation enabled him to consolidate what his military genius had won. One of his most remarkable achievements was his expedition into the heart of Arabia, where he penetrated to the kingdoms of Huz and Buz, 980 miles distant from Nineveh, 280 miles of the march being through arid desert. The feat has never since been excelled, and the terror inspired by it among the desert tribes was such that the country adjoining them was for the first time rendered safe. In the north, too, the Assyrian army penetrated almost equally far. Here Teispes the Kimmerian was defeated between the Zagros and Niphates, and thrown with his hordes westward into Asia Minor, while the copper mines in the eastern frontiers of Media—the very name of which had hitherto been barely known—were occupied and worked. This part of the country was already inhabited by Aryan Medes, and the great Semitic empire accordingly found itself in contact on both east and west with an Aryan population, and with those small independent states which seemed the natural political organisation of the Aryan race. Among the twenty-two kings who sent materials for the palace of Esar-haddon at Nineveh were some Kyprian ones with Greek names. Greeks and Medes were thus divided only by a single empire. The day was preparing when the barrier should be removed, and the great struggle of Asiatic and European Aryan was to commence. Early in his reign Esar-haddon had taken good care to pick a quarrel with Sidon. The city was destroyed, and its inhabitants settled elsewhere, Tyre taking the place of Sidon as the chief city of Phoenicia. But the trade of the Phoenicians was half ruined, and Carchemish and Nineveh were enriched at their expense. The conquest of Egypt was alone left to be achieved. The revolt of Baal of Tyre furnished the opportunity. The Arabian king provided water for the Assyrian army in its march BABYLONIA AND ASSYEIA. 383 across the desert; Tirhakah was defeated, Memphis entered in triumph, and Thebes compelled to open its gates. Egypt was divided into twenty satrapies, governed partly by Assyrians, partly by native vassal princes, who were, however, watched by a number of Assyrian garrisons. Necho of Sais and Memphis headed the list of governors. On his return from the campaign, Esar-haddon associated Assur-banipal, the eldest of his four sons, with himself on the throne (on the 12th of Iyyar or April, B.C. 669), and died two years afterwards. Assurbani-pal's first act was to appoint his brother, Saul-sum-yukin or Sammughes, viceroy of Babylon. Assur-bani-pal, the Sardanapalus of the Greeks, to whom he became known through the medium of Lydia, was the "grand monarque " of Assyria. Ambitious and luxurious, he was a munificent patron of literature and art, and while recognising his own military incapacity, selected able generals, who extended and maintained his empire. After the conquest of Elam, which took place during his reign, the Assyrian empire reached its final limits ; but it had within it the elements of decay, and the pride and ambition of the monarch brought about the coalition which robbed him of Egypt, and well-nigh shattered the whole empire. The court set an example of costly magnificence, of cultivated luxury, and of learned antiquarianism, and Assyrian literature entered upon its Alexandrine stage. Assur-bani-pal found Egypt in a state of revolt. Two campaigns were requisite to quell it, to drive Tirhakah back to the domains of his ancestors, and to destroy Thebes. Meanwhile, the siege of Tyre, begun before Esar-haddon's death, was closely pressed. The Tyrians at last submitted; their king and his brothers had to send their daughters to the harem of the Assyrian monarch, while Tubal and Kilikia also owned the supremacy of Nineveh. The name of the great king spread to the extreme west of Asia Minor, and Gugu or Gyges of Lydia voluntarily sent him tribute, including two Kimmerian chiefs whom the Lydian prince had captured with his own hand. The submission of Gyges was ascribed to a dream; more probably Gyges trusted to Assyria for defence against the adherents of the dynasty he had displaced, and the Kimmerian hordes that menaced him from without. But Gyges soon discovered that the friendship of Nineveh was a burden rather than a gain. The Assyrian empire was threatening to swallow up all the East. Elam, the last civilised kingdom of the old world which had held out, had finally fallen after a long struggle 384 APPENDIX II. before the arms of the Assyrian generals, who had been aided by internal dissensions; and Umman-igas, its titular sovereign, was really little else than an Assyrian viceroy. But in B.C. 652 the blow was struck which eventually led to the overthrow of the whole empire. A general insurrection broke out, headed by Assur-bani-pal's brother, the viceroy of Babylon, in the east, and by Psammetikhos of Sais, the son of Necho, in the west. Elam, Babylonia, Arabia, Palestine, Egypt, and Lydia, made common cause against the oppressor. Aided by the Ionian and Karian mercenaries sent by G-yges, Psammetikhos succeeded in shaking off the Assyrian yoke; Assur-bani-pal, in fact, was too much occupied nearer home to think any longer of so distant a province. His agents in Babylonia had forewarned him of the threatened insurrection there, but his natural indolence inclined him to disregard them till the event actually took place. With great difficulty the revolt was crushed ; Babylon and Cuthah were reduced by famine in 649, and Sammughes burnt himself to death in his palace. The wandering tribes of Northern Arabia, Kedar, Zobah, Nabatheea, etc., were chastised, and fire and sword were carried through Elam. Umman-aldas, the last king of Elam, fled to the mountains, the ancient capital of Shushan was plundered and razed, and the whole of Susiania was reduced to a wilderness. Babylonia was thus avenged for its many invasions upon the country whence its civilisation had originally come. Its union with Assyria now became closer than before. Assurbani-pal would trust no more viceroys. Kandalanu, who appears as king of Babylon in Ptolemy's list, was a mere subordinate officer, and a prefect of Babylon is one of the Assyrian eponyms in the later years of Assur-bani-pal's reign. The date of the Assyrian king's death is uncertain, as well as the number of kings who intervened between him and the last, Esar-haddon II., the Sarakos of Be'rdsos. After his death, however, the viceroys of Babylonia again began to extend their power ; and one of them, Nabopolassar, made himself independent in B.C. 625. Shorn of its empire, Assyria lasted for a few years longer, but its end was near. The storm at last fell upon it from the north. Kaztarit, king of Media and Caru-cassi; Mamit-arsu, " lord of the city of the Medes;" the Kimmerians, the Minni, and the people of 'Saparda,1 united their forces against i t ; the frontier cities fell first; and though Esar-haddon proclaimed public fasts and prayers to the gods, Nineveh 1 Or Sepharad (Obadiah 20). BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 385 itself was besieged, captured, and utterly destroyed. The Assyrian empire was now shared between Media and Babylon. Nabu-cudur-utsur or Nebuchadrezzar, Nabopolassar's eldest son, was the real founder of the Babylonian empire. The attempt of Pharaoh Necho to win for Egypt the inheritance of Assyria was overthrown at the battle of Carchemish, and when Nebuchadrezzar succeeded his father in B.C. 604, he found himself the undisputed lord of Western Asia. Palestine was coerced in 602, and the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 laid a way open for the invasion of Egypt, which took place twenty years later. Tyre also underwent a long siege of thirteen years, but it is doubtful whether it was taken after all. Babylon was now enriched with the spoils of foreign conquest. It owed as much to Nebuchadrezzar as Eome owed to Augustus. The buildings and walls with which it was adorned were worthy of the metropolis of the world. The palace, now represented by the Kasr mound, was built in fifteen days, and the outermost of its three walls was seven miles in circuit. Hanging gardens were constructed for Queen Amytis, the daughter of the Median prince, and the great temple of Bel was roofed with cedar and overlaid with gold. The temple of the Seven Lights, dedicated to Nebo at Borsippa by an early king, who had raised it to a height of forty-two cubits, was completed, and various other temples were erected on a sumptuous scale both in Babylon and in the neighbouring cities, while new libraries were established there. After a reign of forty-two years six months and twenty-one days, Nebuchadrezzar died (B.C. 562), and left the crown to his son Evil-Merodach, who had a short and inactive reign of three years and thirty-four days, when he was murdered by his brother-in-law Nergal-sharezer, the Neriglissar of the Greeks. Nergalsharezer calls himself the son of Bel-suma-iskun, " king of Babylon ; " he seems to have been Eab-mag at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem (Jer. xxxix. 3). The chief event of his reign of four years and four months was the construction of a new palace. His son, who succeeded him, was a mere boy, and was murdered after a brief reign of four months. The power now passed from the house of Nabopolassar,—Nabu-nahid or Nabonidos, who was raised to the throne, being of another family. His reign lasted seventeen years and five months, and witnessed the end of the Babylonian empire. Eecent discoveries have made us acquainted with the history of this event. Nabonidos found a new power rising among the mountains of Elam. Aryan settlers had made their way across the deserts 2c 386 APPENDIX II. of Sagartia, and penetrated as far as the rear of the Turanian population in Media and Susiana. Before the death of Nebuchadrezzar half Media was Aryanised, and an Aryan tribe had established itself almost within sight of the Persian Gulf. This tribe subsequently became known under the name of Persian. After the overthrow of Elam by Assyria, and then of Assyria itself, there was nothing to bar its way to the occupation of the waste lands of the old empire of Anzan, and a portion of it accordingly occupied Susa. Early in the reign of Nabonidos the recognised chief of the Susians was Kyros, who claimed descent from the Aryan clan of the Akhsemenids, but whose non-Aryan name may indicate that he was really of Elamite origin. Kyros had the abilities and the will to found an empire. Media was the first point of attack, then Babylonia. The newly-built city of Ekbatana, constructed in imitation of Nebuchadrezzar's buildings at Babylon, was the centre of a loosely-organised empire. Here a prince of the old race ruled over Protomedes and Aryan Medes alike, though it is probable that the allegiance of the latter was doubtful and scant. But the elements of weakness in Babylonia were almost as great as those in Media. Nabonidos was regarded as an usurper by a considerable party, which included the priests and aristocracy. A hostile people, the Jews, were planted in the very heart of the country, where, contrary to the experience and expectation of their conquerors, they had refused to amalgamate with the native population. That native population itself consisted of ill-assorted elements—Semites, Chaldeans, and nomade tribes. The distant provinces of the empire could not be depended on; that they were quiet was due rather to exhaustion than to fear or loyalty. In fact, before the first year of Nabu-nahid's reign was over, he had to face two campaigns, the second against an insurgent named Khume. Hamath rose in rebellion the very next year, and the whole of B.C. 552 was spent by the Babylonian king in putting it down. In the sixth year of Nabonidos, B.C. 549, the Median monarchy fell. The army of Istuvegu or Astyages revolted against him while on the march against Kyros, and gave him into the hands of his enemy. Perhaps it was a revolt of the Aryan against the Protomede. Ekbatana was captured and plundered by Kyros, who spent the next few years in subduing the remains of the Median empire. After the capture of Arbela in B.C. 546, he overran what had once been the kingdom of Assyria, taking among other places Mespila (Muspilu) and Larissa or Resen (Xenophon, Anab. iii. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 387 4, 7-12), and then marched into Mesopotamia. Meanwhile Nabonidos had been taking measures to avert the coming attack. Babylon was made impregnable; the river was paved with brick, and lined with huge walls; and those wonderful works of defence were constructed which Herodotos ascribes to Queen Nitdkris. This queen may have been the mother of Nabonidos, who died on the 5th of Nisan or March, B.C. 546, in the camp near Sippara, where the king had stationed an army under the command of his eldest son, Belshazzar, to prevent the attack of Kyros from the north. The army successfully fulfilled its purpose. Foiled of his intention to force an entrance from the north, Kyros began to tamper with the disaffected elements in the Babylonian population; and in B.C. 539, when all was ready, he marched against Nabonidos from the south-east. The Chaldeans on the coast revolted, and in the month Tammuz, or June, Kyros defeated the army of Nabonidos at Rutum. Immediately afterwards the people of Accad, or possibly the Jews settled there, revolted; the Persians entered Sippara on the 14th of the month without fighting, and Nabonidos fled. Babylon opened its gates to the Persian general Gobryas, and Nabonidos was captured and put in chains. The only resistance made was by the Kurdish bodyguard, who barricaded themselves in the temple of Saggil at the end of the month, but they had no weapons. On the 3d of Marchesvan (October) Kyros entered Babylon in triumph, and the Babylonian empire was at an end. Eight days later Nabonidos died, and Kyros, whose political wisdom was equal to his military abilities, allowed him to be buried sumptuously. The Persian prince, however, adopted other means also for winning the favour of his new subjects. The temples were restored, the gods and their priests received large offerings, and Kyros and his son Kambyses took part in the religious processions, and styled themselves the servants of the gods Merodach and Nebo. The death of Kambyses inspired the Babylonians with the hope of recovering their independence. In B.C. 521 they revolted under Nadintu-Bel, the son of Aniru, who called himself Nebuchadrezzar, the son of Nabonidos. A portrait of him, in the Greek style, and with a Greek helmet, is carved on a cameo in the Berlin Museum. But Darius overthrew the pretender in two battles at Zazan, and pursued him into Babylon, which he closely besieged (November, B.C. 521). The siege lasted nearly two years, but the Persians finally captured the city by diverting the Euphrates from its 388 APPENDIX II. channel, and, after passing by night along the river-bed, entering it through an unguarded gate. It is this siege and capture which Herodotos transfers to the age of Kyros. Once more, in B.C. 515, a new impostor arose, Arakhu, the son of the Armenian Khaldita. He too claimed to be Nebuchadrezzar II., and he too was taken and executed in Babylon after a short siege. Religion and Mythology.—The religion of Accad was originally Shamanistic, like the religion of the Siberians or Samoyeds at the present day. Every object and force of Nature was supposed to have its zi or spirit, who could be controlled by the magical exorcisms of the Shaman or sorcerer-priest. These spirits were good or bad, like the objects and forces they represented, and like the latter, too, they were innumerable. Naturally the demons were supposed to outnumber the powers of good, and there was scarcely an action which did not risk demoniac possession. Diseases were all produced by their malevolence, and it was necessary to guard the house from them by placing at its entrance the figure of a cherub or some similar composite creature, which was regarded as a good genius. Even the dead were believed sometimes to revisit the earth and devour the living under the form of vampires. Gradually, certain of these spirits, or rather deified forces of nature, were elevated above the rest into the position of gods, more especially Anu " the sky," Mul-ge or Enum "the earth" and "under world," and Hea "the deep." But old habits of thought were too strong to be resisted, and even these deities had each their zi attached to them. Before the arrival of the Semites a liturgy was already in the hands of the Accadians. This old prayer-book consisted of exorcisms and magical formulae, interspersed with occasional hymns about the spirits or legends of their achievements, and ending with the words, " Take oath, 0 spirit of heaven; take oath, 0 spirit of earth." With the rise "of a united monarchy, however, the gods began to assume importance and form themselves into a hierarchy. The worship of special deities had become associated with special cities ; Ur was the city of the Moon-god, Lar'sa of the Sun-god, Babylon of Merodach; and the supremacy of a city implied the supremacy of the deity it worshipped. The kings vied with each other in erecting temples to these great divinities, whose vicegerents on earth they were, and those who were engaged in organising men below at the same time organised the gods above. The first monarch of all Chaldea of whom we know is also the first great temple-builder. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 389 It was when Accadian religion had reached this stage that the Semite entered the land. Shamanism had developed into polytheism ; the sorcerer had become the priest. Along with the change had gone an ever-increasing tendency to solar worship. The sun and the daylight were the most potent powers of good that affected the early Chaldean, and when the spirits that were in Nature became the gods of Nature, the sun and the daylight were accordingly marked out for special adoration. The supreme deity of several of the great cities was the Sun-god under varying forms; Merodach of Babylon, for instance, was but "the solar brilliance," who, with the rise of Babylon, was elevated to a chief place in the Accadian pantheon. But there was another cause which aided the growth of sun-worship. The age of political unification was also the age of the great outburst of Accadian literature. Poets started up on all sides, and hymns innumerable were composed in honour of the new gods. In course of time these hymns were invested with a sacred character, and, like the Eig-Veda in India, were arranged in a collection which superseded the old collection of magical exorcisms as the inspired liturgy of Chaldea. It was to the Sun, the great benefactor of mankind, that the majority of the hymns were addressed, and the attributes ascribed to the Sun-god, and the manifold names whereby he was invoked, became so many new solar divinities. These in turn passed into solar heroes, as the names given to them and the human actions recounted of them gave rise to legends and myths. As long, however, as the Accadian domination lasted, the Sungod had a formidable rival in the Moon-god. The Chaldeans were emphatically a people of astronomers and astrologers, the result of their early pastoral life on the mountains of Susiana, and the moon accordingly played the same part in their religion and mythology that the sun has done elsewhere. It was from the Moon-god that the monarchs traced their descent; it was to him that the imperial city of Ur was dedicated; and in the hierarchical system of the priesthood the Moon-god was the father of the Sun-god. But the Semitic occupation of Babylonia turned the scale in favour of the latter. The Semites, the children of the desert, made the sun the centre of their faith and worship; as Baal he was the Supreme Being, now giving life and light to his adorers, now scorching them with his fiery rays and demanding the sacrifice of their nearest and dearest. As soon as the Semitic element in the population of Chaldea became strong, sun-worship began to absorb everything else. At the same time 390 APPENDIX II. a new conception was introduced into the religion of the country. The Semites brought with them the idea of gender; each one of their male deities consequently had a female consort and reflection at his side. Baal or Bel presupposed Baaltis or Bilat, Anu presupposed Anat. Hitherto Accadian belief knew only of one female divinity, Istar, the goddess of war and love, the patroness of the moon and the planet Venus, and there were as many Istars as there were centres of worship in the land. But Istar now became the feminine Astoreth; her attributes were divided among the goddesses of Sippara, of Agade, of Arbela, and other places; and though she continued to the last to retain an independent place by the side of the great male divinities, there was a growing tendency to dissolve her into Beltis, the shadowy female double of Baal. Long before the second millennium B.C. the work of fusing the religious ideas of the Accadian and the Semite together was completed. The Semite borrowed the old Accadian pantheon en bloc, classing the inferior gods among the 300 spirits of heaven and the 600 spirits of earth, and superadding his own religious conceptions and his own divinities. These were identified with the leading deities of the Chaldean creed; Mul-ge, for example, becoming Bel, Tin-sar Nebo, and Utuki Samas. But the great majority of deities were adopted without change of either name or attributes, though the names were in some cases slightly Semitised. This process of syncretism went along with a curious development of astro-theology. The heavenly bodies, like all other objects in Nature, had once had their special spirits; when this old phase of religion passed away, the spirits were replaced by the gods of the new pantheon. The chief divinities were identified with the planets and other leading stars; the sun and moon were already provided for. The state religion of Babylonia thus became a strange mixture of worn-out Accadian spirit-worship, of the Semitised later Accadian hierarchy of gods, of Semitic religious conceptions, and of astrotheology. To this mixture must be added the early ancestor-worship, which still survived under various forms, and the cult paid to certain kings. This, however, was but a form -of ancestor-worship, and may have been due to Egyptian influence. In the higher and more gifted minds the mixture led to monotheism. From resolving the gods of the Semitic nomad into the gods of civilised Chaldea it needed but a step to resolve the gods of BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 391 Chaldea themselves into varying aspects of one supreme deity. Sir H. Rawlinson believes that Eridu, the Paradisiacal city, was the chief seat of the monotheistic " sect; " however that may be, we find hymns in the sacred collection addressed to "the one god," and other tablets in which the manifold deities of the popular faith are made but the different names and titles of Anu. This monotheism must be carefully • distinguished from the henotheism of some of the hymns, in which the author seems to ascribe to the deity he is addressing attributes which, according to our ideas, would exclude the existence of any other god, but which he ascribes the next moment, in the same uncompromising way, to a wholly different divinity. The monotheistic school appears to have died out during the epoch of the Cassite dynasty. The state religion, once elaborated, underwent no material change. The places of the gods, indeed, were moved from time to time, as one city or another rose to pre-eminence ; Assur, the local deity of the old capital Assur, being set at the head of the divine hierarchy in Assyria, and Merodach usurping the place of the older Bel or Mul-ge in the Babylon of Nebuchadrezzar. But the main outlines of the system remained unaltered. While the Accadian substructure, with its spirits and its exorcisms, faded more and more out of view, especially in Assyria,— while the religion of the Assyrian monarchs can be with difficulty distinguished from that of their Phoenician kindred,—the creed that was based upon it lasted to the end. A time came, however, when the popular theology entered into the schools of philosophy. The gods were resolved into elements and abstractions, and it was taught that they and the universe alike had originated out of a chaos of waters. This system of cosmogony has been embodied in the poem of the Creation in seven days, which bears such a remarkable likeness to the first chapter of Genesis, but does not .seem to be older than the age of Assur-bani-pal. The system of the poem agrees with the statements of Damascius (De Prim. Princip. 125, p. 384, ed. Kopp), who tells us that Apas6n or Ap'su, " the deep," and Mummu Tiamtu (Moymis1 Tavthe), " the chaos of the sea," were the original principles out of which all things have been begotten. Of them were born Lakhvu and Lakhva (Dakhos and Dakhe); of them again Kisar and Sar (Kissare1 and Assdros), the lower and upper firmaments, who originated the three supreme gods, Anu, Elum or Bel, 1 Moyinis is made the '' only-begotten " son of Apason and Tavthe by Damascius, contrary to the evidence of the cuneiform text. 392 APPENDIX II. and Hea, the latter being the father of Bel-Merodach, the Demiurge. This theory of emanations was the source of later Gnostic speculation, while the philosophic explanation of the universe it embodied made its way into Ionia, and there started Greek speculative philosophy. Thales and his doctrines drew their ultimate inspiration from Babylonia. An earlier cosmogonic system is found in an Accadian legend of the Creation preserved in the library of Cuthah. According to this the present Koarfios or regulated universe was preceded by an anarchical chaos, in which Nature had made its first essays in creating. Composite creatures had been formed out of the earth and the deep, like those engraved on the gems and cylinders, or painted, according to Ber6sos, on the walls of the temple of Bel. There were men with the bodies of birds or the tails of fish, and human beings with birds' faces. The philosophy of Anaximander, which has been termed an anticipation of Darwinism, may be traced to this cosmological theory. The after-life expected by the Babylonian was as dreary as that expected by the Greek. Hades was beneath the earth, a place of darkness and gloom, from which none might return, where the spirits of the dead flitted like bats, with dust alone for their food. Here the shadowy phantoms of the heroes of old time sate crowned, each on his throne (comp. Is. xiv. 9), and in the midst rose the fortress-palace of Nin-'sur or Allat, the goddess of death. Hades was guarded by seven gates and seven warders, who stripped the spirit that entered of all he possessed; and in early days, when the geographical knowledge of the Accadians was limited, its entrance was believed to be in the marshes beyond the mouth of the Euphrates. But even within the abode of Nin-'sur the waters of life bubbled up at the foot of the golden throne of the spirits of earth, and whosoever could drink of them might return to the upper world. A happier lot was reserved for a few. Xisuthros and his wife were translated for their piety to the blissful fields beyond Datilla, the river of death ; the spirit of Hea-bani, the friend of Gisdhubar, summoned by the prayers of his friends, rose like a cloud of dust out of the ground and ascended to heaven, where gods and heroes lie on couches feasting and drinking limpid water; while an Assyrian court-poet prays that his lord may hereafter have " everlasting " life in the land of the silver sky, where the gods revel and know no ill. But the fear of the evils that the demons were perpetually devising against him while alive must have made the life of the Babylonian BABYLONIA AND ASSYEIA. 393 almost intolerable. Every day and almost every hour had its religious ceremony, the neglect or malperformance of which brought down upon him some misfortune. Banished from the state religion, magic became a science. An elaborate system of augury was gradually formed, and omens were drawn from every event that could possibly happen. The power once exercised by the sorcerer-priest was now transferred to the necromancer and witch,—who, by the way, was supposed to fly through the air on a wooden stick,—with the difference that the power of the latter was believed to be exercised only for evil. The exorcisms which had in early days formed a prayer-book now formed a distinct branch of literature, and survived long after the fall of the Babylonian monarchy. The bronze bowls found by Sir A. H. Layard, as well as the part played by charms and demons in the Talmud, show how strongly the belief in magic had seized not only upon the native mind, but on that of the Jews also who had settled in the country. Through the Jews and various Gnostic systems of early Christianity, aided in part by the superstitions of imperial Rome, the belief found its way into the mediaeval Church, and the features of the mediaeval devil may be traced in an Assyrian bas-relief, which represents the dragon of Chaos, with claws, tail, horns, and wings, pursued by the Sun-god Merodach. Even the phylacteries of the Jews go back to the same origin. Accadian magic ordered the sorcerer to bind the charm, twice knotted with seven knots, round the limbs of the sick man ; and this, with the further application of holy water, or the binding of a sentence from " a good book " about the sufferer's head, would infallibly produce a cure. Babylonian mythology is a more pleasing subject than the magic which made the " Chaldeans" famous in later days. The myths of Accad were rich and manifold, and necessarily gained much by the Semitic conquest. Eeference has already been made to some of them, and there are many that reappear under more or less changed forms in Jewish and Greek literature. We have learned at last how great was the debt owed by Greek mythology to the poets of ancient Babylonia, whose legends found their way to the west through the mouths of Phoenicians and Hittites. Addnis and Aphrodite are the Tammuz and Istar of Accadian story; and the death of Ad6nis, and the descent of the goddess into Hades to search for him, formed the subject of Accadian poems before the Greek perhaps had yet reached his future home. The theft of Prometheus has its analogue in the story of the god Zu, " the divine storm-bird," who stole the lightning 394 APPENDIX II. of Bel, the tablet wherein destiny is written, and was punished for his crime by the father of the gods. Gisdhubar, originally the old Accadian Fire-god, and then a solar hero, is the prototype of HerakleiS. Hea-bani, the confidant and adviser of Gisdhubar, is the Kentaur Kheiron, for Kheiron was the son of Kronos, and Kronos is identified by Ber6sos with Hea, the " creator" of Hea-bani. The lion slain by the Chaldean hero is the lion of Nemea; the winged bull made by Anu to revenge the slight suffered by Istar is the bull of Krete ; the tyrant Khumbaba, slain by Gisdhubar in " the land of the pine-trees, the seat of the gods, the sanctuary of the spirits," is the tyrant Geryon;* the gems borne by the trees of the forest beyond " the gateway of the sun " are the apples of the Hesperides; and the deadly sickness of Gisdhubar himself is but the fever caused by the poisoned tunic of Nessos. Even the encircling ocean, with its gates, where the women Sabitu and Siduri keep eternal watch, is the Okeanos of Homeric legend. Naturally the impress made by Babylonian mythology upon the western Semites was deeper than that which it made upon the Greeks. An echo of the war waged between Merodach and the powers of chaos and darkness, headed by the dragon of the sea, the seven-headed " serpent of night," still survives in the Apocalypse. The sacred tree, with its guardian cherubs, as well as the flaming sword of the lightning, with its fifty points and seven heads, recall biblical analogies; and the legend of the plague-demon Lubara brings to our remembrance the vision of David when the angel of pestilence hovered over Jerusalem. Art, Literature, and Science.—The art of Assyria was the copy and offspring of that of Babylonia. At the same time the copy was a free one, and in many points differed very materially from its model. The difference was caused in part by the want of stone in Babylonia and its abundance in Assyria. In Babylonia brick had to take the place of stone; stone, in fact, was costly, and used only for such objects as seals and signets, for boundary - marks and royal statues. It is a curious illustration of the servile dependence of Assyria upon Babylonia in artistic matters, that up to the last brick was largely used there in the construction of the royal palaces, in spite of its rapid decay and the ease with which stone might have been procured. Slabs of alabaster were nevertheless employed to line the walls, and where, therefore, the Babylonians were forced to have 1 Khumbaba appears as Kombabos in Luoian, De Dea Syria, 19-26. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 395 recourse to painting, the Assyrians made a liberal use of sculpture in relief. The existing remains of Babylonian and Assyrian architecture are further distinguished by the religious character of the one and the secular character of the other. The attention which was primarily devoted to the construction of temples in Babylonia was devoted to the construction of palaces in Assyria. The temple in Assyria was a mere appendage of the palace, whereas in the sister kingdom, while the only palaces of which we know are those of the dynasty of Nebuchadrezzar, the site of every great city is marked by the ruins of its temples. Hence the general style of architecture was different, the temple, with its huge masses of brickwork, rising stage upon stage, each brilliantly painted and surmounted by a chamber which was at once a shrine and an observatory, while the palace was built upon a heap of rubble, with open courts and imposing entrances, but never more than two or three stories high. Columnar architecture had its natural home upon the banks of the Euphrates. Wood and brick had to take the place of stone, and naturally suggested the employment of the column, which soon became a mere ornament and developed into a great variety of forms. Coloured half-columns were used in the temple of Lig-Bagas at Erech for decorative purposes long ages before they were employed in the same way by Sargon at Khorsabad, and it is to Babylonia and Assyria rather than to Egypt that we must trace the Doric and Ionic pillars of Greece. But the chasteness of Greek taste preserved it from the many fantastic forms into which the column branched out in Babylonia and Assyria, where we find it resting with a circular base on the backs of lions, dogs, and winged bulls. While the column thus became an ornament rather than a support, the buttresses against which the early Chaldean temples rested never lost their original character. Like the walls, they were covered with plaster and painted with bright colours or overlaid with plates of shining metal. Enamelled bricks, which were first painted, then glazed, and finally baked in the fire, were often used for the purpose ; sometimes, as at Warka, we see cones of various colours and embedded in plaster taking their place. The rain was carried off by elaborately constructed drains, some of which afford us the earliest examples of the arch, and which occasionally consisted of leaden pipes. In Assyria sculpture was used in the stead of painting, although the bas-reliefs were judiciously picked out with red, blue, black, and white 396 APPENDIX II. colours, none of which, however, were of the same brilliancy as the colours used in Babylonia. This use of colour to heighten the effect of sculpture, which we find also in Egypt, was adopted by the Greeks, who probably derived it, with so many other elements of art, from the cultured populations of the Euphrates valley. Assyrian sculpture in relief may be said to have passed through three phases of development. The first phase, best represented by the reign of Assur-natsirpal, is characterised by a simplicity and vigour which shows itself especially in the drawing of animal forms. Nothing, for instance, can be bolder and more life-like than a scene in which the monarch is depicted hunting lions; but the freshness and freedom of the work are marred by an almost total want of perspective, an absence of delicacy in the execution, and a servile minuteness in reproducing the outlines. No attempt is made to fill in the background. The second phase lasts from the beginning of the Second Empire to the reign of Esarhaddon, and was doubtless influenced by the delicate work in bronze and ivory executed by the Phoenician settlers in Nineveh. The care formerly expended on the chief figures is now extended to the background, which is finished with a pre-Eaffaelite minuteness that reminds us of elaborate embroidery. What has been lost in vigour is gained in richness, though the realism of the work is too obtrusive to allow it to be examined with microscopic eyes. The reign of Assur-bani-pal marks the third and best phase of Assyrian art in relief. Drawing has much improved, and the sculptures furnish several instances of successful foreshortening. The exactitude with which animal and vegetable forms are represented is relieved by a general softness of tone, while the overcrowding of the previous period is avoided by a recurrence to the earlier mode of leaving the background bare, or else by introducing merely the outlines of a landscape. Nevertheless, the art shows symptoms of the same effeminacy and decay that strike us also in the choice of subjects. Scenes are taken for the first time from the harem; and in contrast with the lion-hunts of a former age in the open field, Assur-bani-pal is made to enjoy the pleasures of a royal battue, where tame lions are let out of their cages and whipped into activity. Admirable as the Assyrian artists were when they sculptured in relief, they failed altogether as soon as they came to the round. Here the artists of Babylonia much surpassed them. In Babylonia stone was too precious to be used for other than decorative or legal purposes, and the largest stones procurable were blocks of black basalt or diorite, BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 397 which could be carved into statues but not cut up into slabs. Statuary of a certain kind, therefore, flourished there from the earliest epoch. But it was always heavy, the figures being represented in a sitting posture, though much skill was shown in the delineation of the face. On the other hand, the carved gems are often very good, a spirit of humour and light-heartedness appearing in them which we look for in vain in Assyria. Gem-cutting, in fact, originated in Babylonia, and thence s"pread through the western world. Though frequently rude, the very earliest intaglios are invariably clear and vigorous. Emery must have been used in their manufacture, and the work is sometimes extremely fine. The Accadians were also skilled in terra-cotta and bronze work. The terra-cotta and bronze images of King Gudea are quite astonishing when we consider their antiquity. Spirited bas-reliefs in terra-cotta have been found at Senkereh, and many of the vases made by the Accadian potters display great beauty of form, and must plainly have been modelled on the wheel, though the majority are handmade and rude. Assyrian pottery is also very good, but the native work in bronze is poor. The bronze gates of Balawat, for example, where the bas-reliefs have all been hammered out from behind and then chiselled, belong to the infancy of art, though the forms are bold and vigorous. The engraved bronze bowls and similar objects found at Nineveh were the work of Phoenicians. Babylonia was celebrated from the first for the manufacture of textile fabrics, and the oldest gems furnish us with specimens of richly embroidered dresses. Goldsmiths' work, too, had already attained a high perfection in the Accadian period. At a later epoch the Assyrians equally excelled in metallurgy, and their bronze casts, as distinguished from hammer-work in relief, are of a high order of merit. Their gold earrings and bracelets are admirable both in design and in workmanship, and so well were they acquainted with the art of inlaying one metal with another that our modern artists have been content to learn from them the method of covering iron with bronze. Their chairs and other articles of household furniture are equally worthy of imitation. Besides porcelain, they were acquainted with glass, though transparent glass does not seem to have come into use before the age of Sargon. Coloured glass was known at a much earlier date. But the Assyrians had none of that love of brilliant colours which characterised their neighbours in the south. Though the introduction of vegetable forms into their bas-reliefs shows that their art was less 398 APPENDIX II. intensely human than that of the Greeks, they were never led to cultivate the gardens for which Babylon was renowned. It was Babylonia, again, and not Assyria, that was famous for the manufacture of dyed and variegated stuffs. Iron was little used in the Accadian period, and we may infer from the ideographs which represent it that the only iron known was meteoric. On the other hand, besides stone implements, bronze and copper weapons and tools were largely in use, and bronze bowls are found in nearly all the early tombs, fashioned sometimes with considerable skill. With the Semitic period the employment of iron becomes more common. Of Babylonian and Assyrian music little is known beyond the fact that there were different instruments for producing it. Accad was the China of Western Asia. Almost everyone could read and write. Clay was plentiful, and the writing-paper of the Accadians was mostly of clay. The characters were impressed with a metal stylus upon clay tablets (the laterculm coctiles of Pliny), which were then baked in the sun, or (in Assyria) in a kiln. Papyrus, however, was also extensively used, though it has all now perished. Indeed papyrus, or some similar vegetable substance, preceded clay as a writing-material, the primitive hieroglyphics out of which the cuneiform characters arose having been painted on it by the Accadians before they left their original home in Elam. The hieroglyphics were arranged in vertical columns like the Chinese. After their settlement in the alluvial plain of Babylonia, and their adoption of clay as a writing-material, the Accadians altered the arrangement of their characters, the vertical lines becoming horizontal ones, and running from left to right. By this process the old hieroglyphics were laid upon their sides. At the same time the forms of the hieroglyphics themselves underwent a change. It was difficult to make curved lines upon the clay, while the impress of the stylus assumed a wedge-like shape. The primitive pictures thus became cuneiform or wedge-shaped characters, which had already come to be employed phonetically as well as ideographically. When the Semites borrowed them, a great extension was given to the phonetic element, the sounds which expressed words in Accadian becoming mere phonetic values in the Semitic syllabary. Hence the same character can denote more than one syllabic sound, and at the same time can be used ideographically. Long before the Semitic period, or even before the earliest period of which we have contemporaneous record, the Accadian characters BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 399 had all been classified and arranged. Compound characters were naturally called by the names of those out of which they were composed, though the proof of this has sometimes been obliterated even in the archaic forms of the characters found on the bricks of Lig-Bagas. After the Semitic conquest no pains were spared to facilitate a knowledge of the Accadian literature and the characters in which it was written. Like the syllabary, the literature of the Semitic Babylonians and Assyrians was mostly of Accadian origin, and it was consequently necessary for them to be acquainted with the language in which it was embodied. Syllabaries, grammars, vocabularies, and reading-books were accordingly drawn up in Accadian and Semitic, and the old Accadian texts were accompanied by interlinear translations, sometimes arranged in a parallel column. When Accadian became extinct, about the seventeenth century B.c, the translations alone of many of the old texts were preserved; it was only where the original text was important, as in legal documents or in the sacred hymns—the very language of which was held to be inspired—that it continued to be copied. In the time of Assur-banipal an attempt was made by the litterati to revive the old language, and it became fashionable to write compositions in Accadian, many of which, however, resembled the " dog-Latin " of our own day. A knowledge of the old mode of writing continued down to the Christian era, the latest document so written being, as has been already mentioned, a contract-tablet, dated in the reign of the Parthian king Pakoros, the contemporary of Domitian. From the earliest period the literature of Chaldea was stored in public libraries. According to Be'ro'sos, Pantibibla, or "book-town," was one of the antediluvian cities of Babylonia, and Xisuthros had buried his books at Sippara—perhaps in reference to the Semitic sepher, " book "—before the Flood. Every great city had at least one library, and the office of librarian was considered honourable enough to be held by the brother of the king. The most famous of the Babylonian libraries were those of Erech, Lar'sa, and Ur, and (after the Semitic conquest) of Agade\ The older library of Babylon perished for the most part when the town was destroyed by Sennacherib. Scribes were kept busily employed in copying and re-editing old texts, and more rarely in preparing new ones. The copies were made with scrupulous care, and an illegible character or word was denoted by the statement that there was a " lacuna," or a 400 APPENDIX II. "recent lacuna," while attention was drawn to the breakage of a tablet. When an Assyrian scribe was in doubt as to the meaning of a character in his Babylonian copy, he either reproduced it or gave it two or more possible equivalents in the Assyrian syllabary. The libraries established by the Assyrian kings at Assur, Calah, and Nineveh, were formed in imitation of those of Babylonia. Like the Babylonian libraries, also, they were thrown open to the public, though it is extremely doubtful whether the reading public was so large in Assyria as in the sister kingdom. At any rate, their contents were derived almost entirely from Babylonia. The tablets or books were all numbered and arranged in order, and the table of the chapters in the great astronomical work compiled for Sargon's library at Agade (B.C. 2000) enjoins the student to hand to the librarian in writing the number of the book or chapter he wishes to procure. The literature contained in these libraries comprised every branch of learning known at the time. Historical and mythological documents ; religious compositions; legal, geographical, astronomical, and astrological treatises; magical formulae and omen tablets; poems, fables, and proverbs ; grammatical and lexical disquisitions; lists of stones and trees, of birds and beasts, of tribute and eponyms ; copies of treaties, of commercial transactions, of correspondence, of petitions to the king, of royal proclamations, and of despatches from generals in the field,— all were represented. The mythological and religious literature was particularly extensive and interesting. Along with the latter must be classed certain penitential hymns, which may favourably compare with the Hebrew psalms. Thus in one of them we read: " O my God, my transgression is great, my sins are many . . . I lay on the ground, and none seized me by the hand ; I wept, and my palms none took. I cried aloud; there was none that would hear me. I am in darkness and trouble; I lifted not myself up. To my God my distress I referred, my prayer I addressed." The omen-tablets chiefly belong to a work in 137 books, compiled for Sargon of Agad4 Among the fables may be mentioned a dialogue between the ox and the horse, and another between the eagle and the sun ; while we may reckon with the proverbs not only the riddle which the wise man propounded to the gods, and to which the answer is plainly the air, but also the songs with which the Accadian^ox-drivers beguiled their labours in the field. Two of these are worth quoting : " An heifer am I ; to the cow thou art yoked; the plough's handle is strong; lift it up, lift BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 401 it up ! " " The knees are marching, the feet are not resting; with no wealth of thine own, grain thou begettest for me." Folklore was more poorly represented than mythology, though some specimens of it have been preserved. It was the great epics and mythological poems, however, which naturally occupied the chief place in each library. A fragmentary catalogue of them has come down to us along with the reputed authors of these standard works. Thus the Epic of Gisdhubar was ascribed to a certain Sin-liki-unnini; the legend of Etana to NisSin; the story of the fox to Kak-Merodach, the son of Eri-Turnunna. Some of their titles are quoted in Accadian, and their composition referred to Accadian poets; others belong to the Semitic period. Among the latter is the Epic of Gisdhubar in its present form, which is based upon an astronomical principle, the subject-matter of each of its twelve books corresponding with the name of a Zodiacal sign. The lion is slain, for instance, under the Zodiacal Leo, the sign of Virgo answers to the wooing of the hero by Istar, and the sign of Aquarius to the episode of the Deluge. This is rather violently introduced into the eleventh book, and, like the rest of the epic, is pieced together out of older poems, fragments of some of which we possess in the original Accadian text. Perhaps the most beautiful of these early legends is that which describes the descent of Istar into Hades in search of her husband, the Sun-god Tammuz, slain by the boar's tusk of winter. The legend curiously survives in a moral form in the Talmud, where Istar has been changed into the demon of lust. Science was chiefly represented by astronomy, which had its first home among the Accadians. But it soon connected itself with the pseudo-science of astrology, the false assumption having been made that whatever event had been observed to follow a particular celestial phenomenon would recur if the phenomenon happened again. Observatories were established in all the chief towns, and astronomers-royal were appointed, who had to send fortnightly reports to the king. At an early date the stars were numbered and named; the Zodiacal signs had been mapped out while the vernal equinox still fell in Taurus; and eclipses of the sun and moon had been found to recur after a certain fixed time, and were consequently calculated and looked for. The equator was divided into degrees, sixty being the unit, as in other departments of mathematics. A table of lunar longitudes belongs to the Accadian period, and fragments of a planisphere, which marks the appearance of the sky at the vernal equinox, are now in the British Museum. The year was reckoned to consist of twelve lunar months 2D 402 APPENDIX II. of thirty days each, intercalary months being counted in by the priests when necessary. In Accadian times the commencement of the year was determined by the position of the star Capella (a Aurigae), called Dilgan, " the messenger of light," in relation to the new moon at the vernal equinox. The night was originally divided into three watches, but this was afterwards superseded by the more accurate division of the day into twelve casbu, or " double hours," corresponding to the divisions of the equator, each casbu of two hours being further subdivided into sixty minutes, and these again into sixty seconds. Time was measured, at all events at a later epoch, by means of the clepsydra, and the gnomon or dial was a Babylonian invention. So also was the week of seven days, which was closely connected with the early astronomical studies of the Accadians, the days of the week being dedicated to the moon, sun, and five planets. The 7th, 14th, 19th, 21st, and 28th days of the lunar month were kept like the Jewish Sabbath, and were actually so named in Assyrian. They were termed dies nefasti in Accadian, rendered "days of completion (of labour) " in Assyrian ; the Assyrian Sabattu or " Sabbath " itself being further defined as meaning " completion of work " and " a day of rest for the soul." On these days it was forbidden, at all events in the Accadian period, to cook food, to change one's dress or wear white robes, to offer sacrifice, to ride in a chariot, to legislate, to perform military service, or even to use medicine. The month was further divided into two halves of fifteen days each, these being again subdivided into three periods of five days. The standard work on astronomy and astrology was that in seventy-two books, compiled for the library of Sargon at Agad6, and entitled the Observations of Bel. It was subsequently translated into Greek by B6r6sos. The table of contents shows that it treated of various matters,—eclipses, comets, the pole-star, the phases of Venus and Mars, the conjunction of the sun and moon, the changes of the weather, and the like. After each observation comes the event which was believed to have happened in connection with it, and the number of observations shows for how long a period they must have been accumulating before the second millennium B.C. We can in fact trace the beginnings of Babylonian astronomy back to an age when the Accadians were still shepherds and herdsmen among the mountains of Elam; it was above Elam that the zenith was fixed, and the heaven was regarded as a great pasture land, the ecliptic being " the bull of light" or " the furrow of the sky," and the stars " the heavenly flock," BABYLONIA AND ASSYEIA. 403 whose shepherd was Arcturus (a Bootis). It may be added that Tammuz represented Orion. The attention given to astronomy presupposes a considerable advance in mathematics. This in fact was the case. The system of cyphers was a comparatively easy one to handle, and was simplified by the habit of understanding the multiple 60 in expressing high numbers,—IV., for instance, denoting 4 x 6 0 = 240. Sixty was also the unexpressed denominator of a fraction, 1-| being represented by I.XL., i.e. lf#. A tablet from the library, of Lar'sa gives a table of squares and cubes correctly calculated from 1 to 60, and a series of geometrical figures used for augural purposes implies the existence of a Babylonian Euclid. Even the plan of an estate outside the gate of Zamama at Babylon, in the time of Nebuchadrezzar, has been discovered which shows no mean knowledge of surveying. Some acquaintance with mechanics is evidenced by the use of the lever and pulley; and the discovery of a crystal lens on the site of Nineveh suggests that some of the microscopic characters on the tablets were inscribed with artificial aid, as well as the possibility of a rude kind of telescope having been employed for astronomical observations. At all events, one astronomical record states that " Venus rises, and in its orbit duly grows in size." Mr. Eassam has discovered on the site of Babylon remains of the hydraulic machinery used for watering the Hanging Gardens of Nebuchadrezzar. The ideas of that primitive epoch, when as yet astronomy in its simplest form was unknown, survived in the popular mythology. The " mountain of the world," or Eowandiz, the Accadian Olympos, was believed to be the pivot on which the heaven rested, covering the earth like a huge extinguisher. The world was bound to it by a rope, like that with which the sea was churned in Hindu legend, or the golden cord of Homer, wherewith Zeus proposed to suspend the nether earth after binding the cord about Olympos (II. viii. 19-26). Eclipses were caused by the war of the seven evil spirits or stormdemons against the moon, and a long poem tells how Samas and Istar fled to the upper heaven of Anu when the war began, and how Merodach had finally to come to the rescue of the troubled moon. Language, Law, Trade, and Agriculture.—As already stated, the original languages of Accad and Sumer were agglutinative, the cases of the noun being indicated by postpositions, and were related to the dialects spoken in Elam (Susian, Cassite, and Amardian). The Semitic language known as Assyrian consisted of the two dialects, 404 APPENDIX II. Babylonian and Assyrian, the first being distinguished by a preference for softer sounds and a longer retention of the mimmation. It was closely allied to Hebrew and Phoenician, more distantly to Arabic, and more distantly still to Aramaic, while it had many points of resemblance to Ethiopic. The archaic and finished character of its grammar, and the fulness of its vocabulary, make it the Sanskrit of the Semitic tongues. The literary dialect underwent little change during the 1500 years that we can trace its career, the result being that it came to differ very considerably from the language of everyday life spoken at Nineveh or Babylon in later times. Aramaic became the lingua franca of trade and diplomacy after the overthrow of Tyre and Sidon under the Second Assyrian Empire, and in course of time gradually superseded the older language of the country. In Babylonia, however, this did not happen until after the Persian conquest. Law was highly developed in Chaldea from an early period, and a large number of the precedents of an Assyrian judge, like the titles on which he had to decide, went back to the Accadian epoch. An Accadian code of laws shows us that the mother occupied the same prominent place in the community as among other " Turanian" peoples. A married woman was permitted to hold property ; at the same time the husband might repudiate his wife after paying a fine, but the wife who repudiated her husband was punished by drowning. The master who ill-treated or killed his slave was fined, and the slave was allowed to purchase his freedom. Property was carefully protected ; the maximum rate of interest was fixed; and houses, land, or slaves could be taken as security for debt. Judges were appointed throughout the kingdom, and forbidden to accept bribes, while prisons were established in every town. The most ancient written code was ascribed to the god Hea or Oannes. As in Attika, the boundaries of property were marked by steloe, one of which .informs us that the ground mentioned on it was bestowed by the king on a poet-laureate in return for some complimentary verses ; and deeds were drawn up on tablets, often enclosed in an outer coating of clay, and connected by a string with a papyrus docket. These deeds were duly witnessed and sealed. Sennacherib has left behind a sort of will, in which he leaves certain property to his favourite son, Esar-haddon. The taxpayers were divided into burghers and aliens, some of the taxes being paid for the use of the public brickyards and roads. In the time of the Second Assyrian Empire municipal taxes and the tribute of subject states formed an important part of the imperial revenue. Nineveh, BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 405 for instance, paid every year 30 talents, 20 of which went to the maintenance of the fleet, Assyria as a whole being assessed at 274 talents; Carchemish paid 100 talents, Arpad 30, and Megiddo 15. Trade and commerce were the creation of the Semites, and were particularly active in the later days of the Assyrian monarchy. The trade of Assyria was mainly overland—that of Babylonia maritime. The teak found at Mugheir proves that it extended as far as India; on the other side wares came from the coasts and islands of Asia Minor, from Egypt, and from Southern Arabia. Coined money, however, was as yet unknown, and the maneh of Carchemish, after the capture of that city, was made the standard of weight. Interest was usually at four per cent; but sometimes, more especially when objects like iron were borrowed, at three per cent. Houses were let on lease, and the deeds which conveyed them gave a careful inventory of their contents. A house sold at Nineveh on the 16 th of Sivan, or May, B.C. 692, fetched one maneh of silver, or £9, the average price of a slave. The records of the Egibi banking firm recently discovered in Babylonia extend from the reign of Nebuchadrezzar to that of Darius Hystaspis; the deeds were kept in large jars, and like the Rothschilds of modern days, the firm increased its wealth by lending money to kings. The father generally took his sons into partnership during his lifetime. While the Semite devoted himself to trade, the Accadian was an agriculturist, and up to the last agriculture occupied a more prominent place in Babylonia than it ever did in Assyria. The canals were a matter of special importance, and their management was superintended by the state. Market-gardeners might lease the ground of richer proprietors, and the tenant had to give one-third of the produce to the owner. The country was covered with gardens • Merodach-baladan has left us a list of no less than seventy-three belonging to himself. At an earlier date, Tiglath-Pileser I., in imitation of the Babylonian princes, tried to acclimatise in royal botanical gardens some of the trees he had met with in his campaigns; but his example does not seem to have been followed, and agriculture of all kinds was never popular in Assyria, where it was relegated to the slaves. Our knowledge of Assyro-Babylonian administration is too slight to allow us to say more of it than that the government was an absolute monarchy, the court consisting of a large number of officials who owed their rank to the king. After the time of Tiglath-Pileser I., the subject provinces were placed under satraps, the cities of the empire 406 APPENDIX III. being governed by prefects. Besides the turtannu {tartan), or commander-in-chief, who stood on the king's right, there were other military officers, such as the "sultan," the colonel ("man of three troops"), "the captain of fifty," and "the captain of ten," who might assume the command in his absence. Among the chief officials of state may be mentioned the Bab-saki (Eab-shakeh), or Vizier, the Eabsaris or Chamberlain, the Music-director, and the Astronomer-Eoyal. III. THE PHOENICIANS. WHILE the struggle for supremacy between Accadian and Semite was going on in the east, another branch of the Semitic race was establishing itself on the western coast of Asia. A narrow but fertile strip of land, from 10 to 15 miles in breadth and 150 in length, shut in between the snow-clad peaks of Lebanon and the sea, and stretching from the Bay of Antioch to the promontory of Carmel, was the home of the Phoenicians. They called it Canaan, " the lowlands," a name which was afterwards extended to denote the whole district of Palestine inhabited by kindred tribes. The Egyptians named it the land of Keft, or the " palm," of which the Greek Phcenike" is but a translation. The early date at which it was occupied is shown by the emigrations from it to the Delta in the time of the Middle Egyptian Empire; by the time the Hyksos were ruling at Memphis the mouths of the Nile had become so thickly populated by Phoenicians as to cause the whole coastland to be termed Keft-ur (Caphtor), or " Greater Phoenicia." According to Genesis, Sidon, " the fishing city," was the firstborn of Canaan. Native legends, however, claimed an older foundation for the sacred city of Gebal or Byblos, northward of Beyrut. Beyrut itself, the Berytos of classical writers, was dependent on Gebal, and along with it formed a distinct territory in the midst of the Phoenician states. These consisted of nine chief cities, Akko (now Acre), Achzib or Ekdippa (now Zib), Tyre (now Sur), Sidon (now Saida), Botrys (now Batrun), Tripolis (now Tarabolus), Marathus (now Amrit), Arvad or Aradus and Antaradus (now Euad and Tartu s), and Eamantha or Laodikeia (now Ladakiyeh). With these may be counted Zemar or Simyra (now Sumra), to the north of Tripolis, inhabited by an THE PH(ENICIANS. 407 independent tribe, like Arka (now Tel 'Arka). The country was watered by rivers, six of which were invested with divine attributes like the mountains from which they flowed. The Eleutheros (Nahr el-Keblr) in the north is followed by the Addnis (Nahr el-Ibrahim), by whose banks the women of Byblos lamented the dead Sun-god Tammuz ; the Lykos (Nahr el-Kelb), where Egyptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian conquerors have erected their memorials; the Tamyras (Nahr Damur); the Bostrenos (Nahr el-'Awaly); and the Belos (Nahr Na'man). With the mountains in their rear the inhabitants of the Phoenician cities were driven to the sea. They became fishermen, traders, and colonists. First Kypros, called Kittim from the town of Kition, was colonised; then Rhodes, Thera, Melos, and other islands of the ^35gean; then came the settlements on the coasts of Greece itself, in Sicily and Sardinia, and on the northern shores of Africa; and finally the colonies of Karteia, near Gibraltar, and Gades or Cadiz, which led the adventurous emigrants into the waters of the unknown Atlantic. Karteia lay in the district of Tarshish or Tartessos, long the extreme western boundary both of Phoenician voyages and of the known world. But before the sixth century B.C., the Phoenicians had not only penetrated to the north-western coast of India, but probably to the island of Britain as well. Tradition brought them originally from the Persian Gulf, and the similarity of name caused the island of Tylos or Tyros, now Bahrein, to be named as the country from which the forefathers of the Tyrians had come. The tradition pointed to a fact. The close resemblance between the Phceniko-Hebrew and Assyro-Babylonian languages proves that the speakers of them must have lived together for some time after their separation from the rest of their Semitic kindred, as does also the common possession of such deities as Malik or Moloch, Baal or Bel, perhaps also Dakan and Dagon, which were not of Accadian origin. Most of the tribes comprehended under the title of Canaanites in the Old Testament were really Phoenician, though the Egyptian monuments show that the Amorites were of Arab descent, while the Hittites belonged to a different stock from the Semites. The Hebrews themselves, if we may trust the evidence of language, physiognomy, and character, had the same ancestors as the Phoenicians, and at the time of the conquest of Canaan only differed from the people they expelled in being rude nomads instead of cultivated citizens. It is nevertheless possible that intermarriage with the aborigines of the country—a race 408 APPENDIX III. of whom we know but little—had produced a modification of type and character among the natives of Phoenicia; but if so, the modification was not great. Towards the north the Phoenicians were affected by contact with their cousins, the Arameans or Syrians, who occupied Damascus and the southern coast of the Orontes, and under the name of the Rutennu appear in the Egyptian inscriptions as extending southward of the Hittites as far as the banks of the Euphrates. Sidon and Tyre alike consisted of two towns. Those of Sidon were both on the mainland, and were known as the Less and the Greater; those of Tyre were distinguished as insular Tyre and Palsetyros. Palsetyros stood on the coast, and, if we may trust its name, was older than the city which occupied a double island at a little distance from the shore, and eventually claimed supremacy over it. But insular Tyre was of itself of early foundation, since the great temple of Baal Melkarth, the Phoenician Herakle"s, which rose on the eastern side of the smaller island, was built, as the priests told Herodotos, 2300 years before his time, or about 2750 B.C.; and the name Tyre itself—Tsor in Phoenician—denoted the " rock " on which the insular city stood. When it was visited by the Egyptian Mohar in the time of Ramses II., the water drunk by its inhabitants had all to be conveyed from the mainland in boats. Tsarau or Palsetyros, we learn, had been recently burnt. Arvad or Arados was similarly on an island, and held rule over the two cities of the neighbouring coast, Marathos and Karne\ Gebal had originally been built inland, on the northern bank of the Nahr el-Kelb, before its inhabitants migrated to the shore. Phoenicia was known to the Accadians under the names of Titnum and Martu, the latter of which signified " the path of the setting sun," and was rendered into Semitic by Akharru, " the back " or " western " land. An old geographical tablet makes Khikhi and Lakhi the two divisions of Phoenicia, a word which has been compared with the Fenekh of the Egyptian inscriptions. Cudur-Malug, the Elamite, had sprung from the cities of Martu, though this may mean the West generally and not Phoenicia in particular; and Chedor-laomer had held Palestine under his sway for thirteen years in the age of Abraham. Sargon of Agade not only set up his image on the shores of the Mediterranean, but even penetrated as far as Kypros, bringing with him the elements of that Babylonian civilisation which spread from Kypros into Asia Minor. Phoenicia itself was equally affected by Chaldean culture, which long dominated over the art of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean. THE PHCENIGIANS. 409 The Phoenicians, indeed, were an eminently receptive people. Like the rest of their Semitic brethren, they lacked originality, but they were gifted beyond most other races with the power of assimilating and combining, of adapting and improving on their models. Phoenician art derives its origin from Babylonia, from Egypt, and in later times from Assyria; but it knew how to combine together the elements it had received, and to return them, modified and improved, to the countries from which they had been borrowed. The Phoenicians were the most skilful workmen of the ancient world, and the empire of the Euphrates, which had first taught them the art of gem-cutting, of pottery-making, and of dyeing embroidery, was glad to learn in turn from its pupils. Already, in the age of Thothmes III., we see the Phoenicians on the walls of Eekhmara's tomb at Thebes bringing as tribute vases with animals' heads, similar to those found at Rhodes and Hissarlik, and clad in richly-embroidered kilts: But the most precious acquisition of the Phoenicians was the alphabet. This was borrowed by the' settlers in Caphtor or the Delta from their Egyptian neighbours in the time of the Middle Empire or the early days of Hyksos dominion,— all the other incumbrances of the Egyptian system of writing being discarded by a people who possessed the practical habits of traders and merchants. It soon found its way to the mother-country, where the Egyptian names of the letters were replaced by native ones, drawn possibly from an older script now termed Hittite, and from the mother-country it was disseminated through the western world. The Phoenicians were the intermediaries of ancient civilisation. It was they who inaugurated the trade of the West, and their trading voyages carried the art, the culture, and the knowledge they themselves possessed to the other nations of the Mediterranean. Modern research has abundantly confirmed the tradition embodied in the opening page of the history of Herodotos, that the chief elements of early Greek art and civilisation came from Assyria through the hands of the Phoenicians. But the influence of Phoenicia was exercised differently at different periods in its history. In the early period the influence was indirect. It was brought by solitary traders, who trafficked in slaves, and above all in that purple-fish which formed the staple of Phoenician wealth, and whose voyages were intermittent and private. This was the period of what we may call Babylonian culture. The conquests of the Egyptian monarchs of the eighteenth dynasty forced the trading communities of Phoenicia to pay tribute to the empire of the Nile, or at 410 APPENDIX III. times to join in the efforts made to resist its further progress in Palestine ; and the result was that Egyptian fashions found their way among them, the sphinx became domesticated on the coast of Keft, and Phoenician art passed into its Egyptianising phase. Meanwhile the population had been increasing along with wealth and prosperity, new regions had been discovered by adventurous voyagers, and experiments in colonisation had been made on the coasts of Kypros and the Delta. The same mountain-chain which had originally forced the inhabitants of Phoenicia to the sea now induced them to relieve the pressure of population by sending out organised colonies to the recently-discovered lands of the west. Commercial marts were accordingly established in favourable positions; TheYa arid Melos, with their volcanic clay, became centres of Phoenician trade in pottery; the gold mines of Thasos were worked for Phoenician masters by Greek slaves; the temple of Astarte* rose on the southern headland of KytheTa; Lesbos was ruled by Makar or Melkarth, the Tyrian god (II. xxiv. 544), and Kre'te' by Minos; the three cities of Rhodes were planned by Phoenician architects; Attika received a Phoenician colony; while the Minyans of Orkhomenos found themselves confronted by the Kadmeians or " Easterns " of Thebes; and the isthmus of Korinth itself, the key to the western sea, was held by Phoenician lords. But Greece was not to be the furthest bound of Phoenician colonisation. Settlements were established on the coast of Africa, in Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and finally the columns of the Phoenician He'rakle's themselves were cleared, and the son of Phcenix led a colony to Gadeira, " the walled town," at the very limit of the setting sun. The influence exercised by these colonies upon the still barbarous nations of the west was necessarily profound. The Assyrian character of early Greek art is due to its Phoenician inspiration. The pottery with which the sites of ancient cities like Myke'nae and Orkhomenos, or Kameiros in Rhodes, are strewn, was made by the Phoenician potters of Thera and Melos. Megara, Minoa, Coth6n, the "little" island by the side of Kytheira, are all Phoenician words. The Greek alphabet, as the forms and names of its letters declare, was a Phoenician gift. Tradition ascribes it to Kadmos, " the ancient" or " eastern " of Thebes, the son of Khna or Canaan, or, as other legends affirmed, of Ag6nor, perhaps a form of Kinyras. His wife, Harmonia, is the Semitic Kharm6n, the " holy " mistress of the harem; and the serpent into which he was changed is the yepuv o$«ov, the Serpent-god of Tyre, whose image is carved on one of the rocks of Thera. Kad- THE PHCENICIANS. 411 mos himself was worshipped not at Thebes only, but at Sparta as well, just as Melikertes or Melkarth remained the deity of the Korinthian isthmus into the historical age. The sacred emblems of the Greek divinities—the myrtle, the pomegranate, and the olive—are plants that the Phoenicians must have brought with them; the rites with which Dimeter Akhsea was worshipped bear a Semitic stamp; and the attributes of the Hellenic Aphrodite" are really those of the Assyrian Istar, the Phoenician Astarte. Astarte, too, is Eur6pa, the daughter of Phoenix, brought to the continent to which she was to give a name by the bull-formed Phoenician Baal. The Babylonian prototype of the myth of Aphrodite and Addnis, the Phoenician Adonai, or "lord," has been discovered; so also have the Babylonian Herakles and his twelve labours, as recounted in the great Epic of early Chaldea. Sidon seems to have taken the initiative in sending out the colonists. But it was quickly supplanted by Tyre, which claimed supremacy over the cities of Kypros. Arvad and Zemar, however, seem to be the first Phoenician states mentioned on the Egyptian monuments, if they can be identified with the Arathutu and Zemar, whose territories were ravaged by Thothmes III. in his sixth campaign. Perhaps the land of Son-Tsar, or " the other Tyre," mentioned in an inscription of the reign of Amenopliis I I , refers to the double city of Tyre; at any rate, insular Tyre was conquered by Seti I. shortly before his death. His son, Ramses II., at the beginning of his reign, carved his likeness, in imitation of Sargon of Agad6, on the rocks at the mouth of the Nahr el-Kelb, and three years later defeated the king of Arvad, with the other allies of the Hittites, in the battle of Kadesh. In the age of David Tyre had become the leading city of Phoenicia. Hiram, the son of Abibaal, was the friend of both David and Solomon, who found an alliance with the wealthy trading community of Tyre at once profitable and honourable. Phoenician culture was introduced among the rude tribes of Israel, and the temple of Jerusalem was built by Phoenician artists, after the model of a Phoenician one. Even the two columns or cones at the entrance, the symbols of the Sun-god, as well as the brazen sea or reservoir, with the twelve solar bulls on which it rested, were reproduced in the Jewish sanctuary. The conquest of Edom had given David the possession of the Gulf of Akaba, and Tyrian commerce was accordingly able to sail down the Red Sea, hitherto the monopoly of the Egyptians, and find its way to Ophir or Abhlra, at the mouths of the Indus. The name given to the peacocks brought from thence shows that the Dravidian race then 412 APPENDIX III. extended thus far north. Insular Tyre was enlarged and strongly fortified, and the temples of Melkarth and Astarte- beautified and restored. After a reign of thirty-four years, Hiram died at the age of fifty-three. His grandson, Abd-Astoreth, was murdered by the sons of his nurse, the eldest of whom usurped the throne for twelve years. For a while the legitimate dynasty returned to power, but Phel6s, a brother of Abd-Astoreth, was put to death by Ethbaal, the priest of Astarte, and with him the line of Hiram came to an end. Ethbaal had a long and prosperous reign of thirty two years. His daughter Jezebel married the king of Israel, and attempted to break down the barrier of religion which separated that country from Phoenicia. Sidon was made subject 'to the Tyrian sway, and Auza was founded in the interior of Africa, south of the ancient colony of Ityke. But the first cloud of danger had already appeared on the horizon. Since the time of Assur-bil-kala, the son of Tiglath-Pileser I., the name of Assyria had not been heard in the west; now, however, Assur-natsir-pal marched into the fastnesses of Lebanon, and in B.C. 870, the kings of Tyre, Sidon, Gebal, and Arvad offered tribute. Arvad, indeed, almost more intimately connected with Syria than the other states further south, took part in the battle of Aroer against Shalmaneser in B.C. 854. The great-grandson of Ethbaal was Pygmalion, whose sovereignty in Kypros caused his name to become familiar in Greek story. Seven years after his accession, at the age of sixteen, he murdered the regent, his uncle, Sichar-baal, a name corrupted into Akerbas and Sichseus by classical writers. His sister Elissa, the wife of Sichar-baal, fled with other opponents of the new king, and found a home on the coast of Africa, not far from the old Phoenician settlement of Ityke or Utica. The site they chose was named Kartha khadasha, " the new city," a name which has become famous under the form of Carthage. Legends soon gathered round the foundress of the city. She was identified with Dido, the title under which Astarte was worshipped as the consort of the fierce and cruel Moloch; while Anna, " the gracious," the name of Astarte' as the giver of life and blessing, was made into her sister. Even the Bosrah or " citadel" of the new state, where a temple rose to Eshmun, was identified with the Greek fivpa-a, a " hide," and gave birth to the myth which told how Iarbas, the Lybian prince, had been cheated of his land by the ox-hide for which he sold it being cut into strips. Carthage was destined to take the place of Tyre as the mistress of the commerce of the western seas, when the mother city had been ruined by Assyria. Pygmalion's reign lasted for forty-seven THE PHCENICIANS. 413 years, almost down to the period when Tyre and Sidon paid tribute to Rimmon-nirari III. When next we hear of Tyre it is under Hiram II., who sent tribute to Tiglath-Pileser II. at Arpad in B.C. 743, and is possibly the King Hiram mentioned on an ancient broken bronze vase found in Cyprus, and deciphered by M. Clermont-Ganneau. His successor, Matgenos II. (Metenna), revolted against Assyria, and was punished by a fine of 150 talents in B.C. 731. On his death, the Zidonian prince, Elulseus or Luli, was raised to the Tyrian throne. Hardly was he seated on it when the Assyrian monarch Shalmaneser invaded Phoenicia, and closely besieged Tyre. Sidon, Acre, and Palsetyros submitted to the invader, but the Assyrian fleet of sixty vessels was utterly destroyed by the besieged. Tyre did not capitulate till after the accession of Sargon, who was obliged to grant it easy terms. Sidon was soon afterwards compelled to return to its former allegiance. In 701 B.C., however, Sennacherib captured both the Greater and Lesser Sidon, as well as Sarepta, Achzib, and Acre; and though he was unable to take Tyre, Elulseus fled to Kypros, possibly to obtain help. Tubaal or Ethbaal was made king of Sidon, and for a while Sidon became the leading state in Phoenicia. It is to this period of Sidonian supremacy that the early traditions of historical Greece looked back, and in the Homeric poems the Sidonians, and not the Tyrians, are the representatives of Phoenicia. The Greeks of Kypros - from this time forward know only of Sidon, not of Tyre. But the supremacy of Sidon was short-lived. Abd-Melkarth, its king, was misguided enough to ally himself with Sandon-arri of Kilikia, and refuse the homage due to Esar-haddon. Sidon was captured and razed, its prince beheaded, and a new Zidon built, and stocked with the inhabitants of the old one. The tide of commerce now flowed again into Tyre, and though under Baal I. it joined the Egyptian revolt against Assyria towards the close of Esar-haddon's reign, it was strong enough to defy all attempts to take it, and Assur-bani-pal was glad to receive its submission on the easy condition of adding the daughters and nieces of its monarch to the harem at Nineveh. When Tyre again saw an enemy before its walls, it was the Chaldean army under Nebuchadrezzar. But the founder of the Babylonian empire was no more successful than Assur-bani-pal had been, though he joined the island to the mainland by a mole. After a siege of thirteen years, he consented to treat with the Tyrian king, Ethbaal (B.C. 674), and was thus left free to turn his arms against Egypt. On the death of Ethbaal's successor royalty was abolished for a time, and 414 APPENDIX III. the Tyrians elected Sufetes or Judges ; but in 557 B.C. the old line of kings was again established in the person of Baletor. The conquest of Kypros by Amasis seems to have induced the Phoenicians to recognise the hegemony of Egypt, but with the rise of the Persian empire they passed over to the new power. The Persians, however, who depended on Phoenicia for a fleet, allowed the Phoenician states to be still governed by their own kings, one of whom, Eshmunezer II., the son of Tabnith or Tennis, tells us on his sarcophagus that he ruled for fourteen years as " king of the Sidonians," and had built temples to Baal, Astoreth, and Eshmun, and been lord of the rich cornfields of Dor and Jaffa. The maritime experience of the Phoenicians made them indispensable to their Persian masters, and when they refused to attack Carthage, Kambyses was able neither to accomplish his expedition against that city, nor to punish his refractory subjects. Their commercial empire, however, had long since departed. The Dorians had driven them from their possessions in the Greek waters, Ionic sailors and colonists had followed them to the Pillars of Herakle's, the Etruscans had occupied their ports in the Tyrrhene Sea, and Assyria had ruined them at home. Their power passed to Carthage, which in time avenged them upon the Greeks. Sicily and Sardinia once more became Semitic, the Hellenic states in the former island with difficulty maintaining their ground against the admirals of Carthage; while the northern coast of Africa was rendered tributary, and a Carthaginian empire erected in Spain. But while the old strength and spirit of Phoenicia thus revived in its African colony, the last stronghold of native independence fell before the Greek conqueror Alexander. Tyre was besieged by the army that had just overthrown the Persians at Issos ; the mole made by Nebuchadrezzar—and still to be seen on the sandy flat which marks the ancient sea-bed between Palastyros and insular Tyre—was reconstructed, and in July B.C. 332 the city, which had defied Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian, at last fell. Thirty thousand of its citizens were sold into slavery, thousands of others were massacred or crucified, and the wealth of the richest and most luxurious city of the world became the prey of an exasperated army. Its trade was inherited' by its neighbour Sidon. Religion and Mythology.—Phoenician religion was typically Semitic. It centred in the worship of the Sun-god, adored now as the beneficent giver of light and life, now as the stern god of fire and summer heat, who must be appeased by human sacrifice. Each aspect of the Sungod had its own name, and became a separate divinity. By the side THE PHCENICIANS. 415 of each stood its reflection and double, that female power presupposed by all the operations of nature, as well as by the Semitic languages themselves, with their distinction between masculine and feminine. Baal, "the lord," therefore, must have his consort Baalath, "lady." But just as Baal was the common title given to the masculine deity in all his forms, so it was rather Ashtoreth than Baalath which was the common title given to the female deity—a title originally derived from an Accadian source. Ashtoreth was also identified with the moon, the pale consort of the diurnal sun, and, under the name of Astarte, was known to the Greeks as the goddess "with the crescent horns, to whose bright image nightly by the moon Sidonian maidens paid their vows and songs." Greek mythology, too, knew her as 16 and Eurdpa, and she was fitly symbolised by the cow whose horns resemble the supine lunar crescent as seen in the south. But it was as the female power of generation—as pale reflections of the Sun-god—that the manifold goddesses of the popular cult were. included among the Ashtaroth or " Ashtoreths " by the side of the Baalim or "Baals." Ashtoreth must be carefully distinguished from Ashe'rah, the goddess of fertility, symbolised by the asMrim, " upright" cones of stone, or bare treestems, which stood at the entrance of a Phoenician temple. Asherah was more particularly adored among the Canaanites of the south. Baal Sam6m, " the lord of heaven," called Agenor by the Greeks, was the supreme Baal of Phoenicia. But it was rather to Baal as the fierce and cruel Moloch or Milcom, " the king," that worship was specially paid. Moloch demanded the best and dearest that the worshipper could grant him, and the parent was required to offer his eldest or only son as a sacrifice, while the victim's cries were drowned by the noise of drums and flutes. . When Agathokl^s defeated the Carthaginians, the noblest of the citizens offered in expiation 300 of their children to Baal-Moloch. In later times a ram (or hart) was substituted for the human offering, as we learn from the Phoenician tariffs of sacrifices found at Marseilles and Carthage. The priests scourged themselves or gashed their arms and breasts to win the favour of the god, and similar horrors were perpetrated in the name of Ashtoreth. To her, too, boys and maidens were burned, and young men made themselves eunuchs in her honour. The two aspects of the Sun-god, the baneful and the beneficent, were united in Baal-Melkarth, " the king of the city," the patron god of Tyre. Melkarth, Graacised into Melikert^s and Makar, is a sure sign of Tyrian presence, and his temple at Tyre, where he was invoked as Baal 416 APPENDIX III. Tsur, was the oldest building of the city. In his passage through the year Melkarth endured all those trials and adventures which Chaldean poets had told of their great solar hero, and which, under Phoenician tuition, the Greeks subsequently ascribed' to their own HSraklSs. Herakles, in fact, is but the Tyrian Melkarth in a Greek dress, and the two pillars of rocks which guarded the approach to the ocean the Phoenicians had discovered in the west were rightly termed the columns of Herakles. The temples of Melkarth were said to have been without images, and no women, dogs, or swine were allowed within them. The fire that symbolised him burnt perpetually on his altar, and, under the form of Baal-Khammam, the Ammon of the African Oasis, whom the Greeks confounded with the Egyptian Amun, he was worshipped as the great deity of solar heat which at once creates and destroys. At Carthage the goddess Tanith was his " face " or female reflection. In early times the Sun-god was invoked as El, "god,"or "exalted one,"1 and El accordingly became a separate divinity. As El Shaddai he was the thunderer, as El Elyon " the most high god," of whom Melchizedek was priest. The rationalising mythology of a later day told how El, the Kronos of Greece, was the founder of Gebal, the first of Phoenician cities ; how, armed with iron sickle and lance, he had driven his father Uranos (Baal-samem) from the throne; how, in the thirty-second year of his reign, he had fertilised the streams by mutilating his sire ; how he had thrown his brother Atlas (Atel, " the darkness ") into the nether abyss ; and how in the time of plague he had burnt his " only " son, Yeud, on the altar of Uranos, and circumcised himself and his companions. Yeud (or 'Ekhad) means "the only one," like the Accadian Dumuzi or Tammuz, whose name and worship had been carried to Gebal by the first Phoenician settlers. Under the title of Adonis (Adonai), " master," he was lamented by the women of Byblos in the month of July, when the Nahr Ibrahim runs red with the earth washed down from the mountains. The rivers themselves were worshipped, and, addressed as Baal, were merged into the Sun-god. Thus the Tamyras was adored as Baal-Tamar, called by Philo Zeus Dimarus, the son of Uranos, who ruled over Phoenicia in the days of El along with Astartg and Ad6dos or Hadad, " the king of the gods." The mountains, too, were Baalim, the worship of the Sun-god on a mountain-peak being transferred to the 1 As Delitzsch has pointed out, el is of Accadian origin, and is not connected with the Semitic root meaning "to be strong." THE PHCENICIANS. 417 peak itself. On the two mounts Kasios, southward of Antioch, and again to the north of the Sirbonian lake on the African coast, rose the temples of Baal-Zephon, "Baal of the north;" elsewhere we find BaalGad, "Baal of good luck," Baal Meon, Baal Hazor, Baal Perazim, Baal-Peor. Peniel, "the face of El," was a mountain deity, and according to Philo, the fourth divine generation consisted of the giants Kasios, Lebanon, and Hermon, after whom the mountains were named. But the titles and forms under which Baal was adored were not yet exhausted. Sometimes he was known as Baal-Shemesh, "the sun,"' sometimes as Baal-Zebub, the oracle god of " flies," the sun being imaged as a huge fly; at other times he was invoked by names as manifold as the local cults and individual caprices of the Canaanitish race. But the fact that it was everywhere the same deity, the same force of Nature, that was worshipped, caused the popular polytheism to tend towards monotheism; the Baalim tended to become Baal, symbolised by a gilded bull. There were, indeed, other dignities recognised by the Phoenicians besides the Baalim and Ashtaroth, of whom, however, we know but little. Among these may be mentioned the Kabeiri, the makers of the world, the founders of civilisation, and the inventors of ships and medicine. They were represented as dwarfs, the Greek word for which, Trvjfiaioi, was confounded with the name of the Phoenician god Pugm. The most famous of the Kabeiri was Eshmun, " the eighth," identified by the Greeks with their Asklepios, who carried snakes in his hands, and was restored to life by Astronoe or Astoreth Na'amah, after he had mutilated himself to escape her love. The Kabeiri were originally the seven planets, and M. J. Darmesteter has tried to show1 that they are on the one side the " sons of God" of Genesis, and on the other the husbands of the Lemnian women, slain, according to the Greek story, by their wives. It is needless to mention other Phoenician deities, such as Sikkun and Mut, " death," of whom we know hardly more than the names. The character of Phoenician religion and of the people who held it was at once impure and cruel. It reflected the sensualism of nature. Intoxicated with the frenzy of nature-worship under the burning sky of the east, the Canaanite destroyed his children, maimed himself, or became the victim of consecrated lust. Men and women sought to win the favour of heaven by sodomy and prostitution, and every 1 Memoires delaSocUtt deLinguistiqice de Paris, IV. 2 (1880). 2 E 418 APPENDIX III. woman had to begin life by public prostitution in the temple of Astarte. This practice, indeed, was brought from Babylonia, along with the sacrifice of the first-born by fire; but though we may ascribe the origin of the latter to the Accadians,—an Accadian text stating expressly that sin may be expiated by the vicarious sacrifice of the eldest son,—the immorality performed in the name of religion was the invention of the Semitic race itself. Up to the last, customs that had originated in a primitive period of Semitic belief survived in Phoenician religion. Stones, more especially aerolites, as well as trees, were accounted sacred. The stones, after being consecrated by a libation of oil, were called BakvXoi, or Beth-els, " habitations of God," and regarded as filled with the indwelling presence of the Deity. The Caaba at Mecca is a curious relic of this old Semitic superstition, which is alluded to in the Gisdhubar Epic of Chaldea, and may have suggested the metaphor of a rock applied to the Deity in Hebrew poetry. Prof. Robertson Smith, again, has pointed out that numerous traces of an early totemism lasted down into the historical period of the Semitic race, more especially among the ruder nomad tribes of Arabia. Tribes were named each after its peculiar totem,—an animal, plant, or heavenly body,—which was worshipped by it and regarded as its protecting divinity. The division between clean and unclean animals arose out of this ancient totemism, the totem of a tribe being forbidden to it as food, or eaten only sacramentally. Exogamy and polyandry almost invariably accompany totemism, and it is not surprising, therefore, to find clear traces of both among the Semites. The member of one tribe was required to marry into another. Hence the same family with the same totem might exist in different tribes, and the ties of the totemrelation were stronger than those of blood. David, for instance, belonged to the serpent-family, as is shown by the name of his ancestor Nahshon, and Prof. Smith suggests that the brazen serpent found by Hezekiah in the Solomonic temple was the symbol of it. We find David and the family of Nahash, or " the serpent," the king of Ammon, on friendly terms even after the deadly war between Israel and Ammon that had resulted in the conquest and decimation of the latter. One result of the absorbing Baal-worship of Phoenicia, and the tendency to monotheism it produced, was the rationalising of the old myths which took place in the Greek period. Euhe^meros had his predecessors in Phoenicia; in fact, it was from Phoenicia that he THE PHCENIOIANS. 419 probably derived the principles of his system. In the pages of Philo Byblios the gods became men, and the symbolic legends told of them are changed into human actions. At the same time, with the syncretic spirit of Phoenician art, the gods and myths of Syria, of Egypt, and of Greece, are all fused together along with those of Phoenicia itself. Two systems of cosmogony are quoted from him, one of which probably belongs to the school of Byblos, the other to that of Tyre. According to one of these, the wind or breath (Kolpia) brooded over the original chaos (Baau, bohu; Assyrian, Bahu), and produced first Desire and then M6t, the watery element which underlies all things. Mot, in the form of an egg, generated the universe. Then came the first men, ^E6n and Protogenos. Their offspring were Genos (Cain) and Genea, who dwelt in Phoenicia and worshipped Baal-Samem. Next followed Ph6s, Pyr, and Phlox, the discoverers of fire; the giants Kasios, Libanos, Anti-libanos, and Hermon; and finally Samim-rum, " the most high," and Us6os (Esau). Samim-rum lived in Tyre, where he built huts and fought with Us6os, the inventor of ships and clothing made of the skins of wild beasts, who gave his name to the city Hosah. Among their descendants were Khus6r, the first worker in iron, and his brother Meilikhios, the discoverer of fish-hooks, who together invented the art of brickmaking. Afterwards came the husbandman Agrot6s, Sydyk "the righteous," the father of the Kabeiri, and Uranos and Ge, the children of Elyon and B6rytos. One of the sons of the latter was Dagon, the corn-god, and Astarte" was his sister. El, the son of Uranos, gave Byblos to Beltis, Be'rytos to the sea-god, the Kabeiri, and the descendants of Agrot^s and Halieus; while Egypt fell to Taautos, the Egyptian Thoth. Art, Science, and Literature.—Phoenician art, as has been stated, was essentially catholic. It assimilated and combined the art of Babylonia, of Egypt, and of Assyria, superadding, perhaps, something of its own, and improving at the same time upon its models. It borrowed the rosette and palm-leaf from Babylonia, the sphinx from Egypt, the cherub from Assyria, but gave to each a form and spirit of its own. Its gem-cutters came to excel those of Chaldea, its artists in bronze and stone those of Assyria, while the sarcophagus of Eshmunezer aims at rivalling the massive coffins of Egypt. Its decorative art as well as the plan of its temples can best be learned from the construction and ornamentation of Solomon's temple at Jerusalem. The carved gems and ivories and bronze bowls found at Nineveh, or the treasure discovered at Palestrina, the ancient Prssneste, are examples of 420 APPENDIX III. Phoenician workmanship. Everywhere we have the same combination of Assyrian and Egyptian elements, of scenes copied now from Egyptian paintings, now from Assyrian bas-reliefs, sometimes mingled together, sometimes divided into separate zones. If we may listen to M. Clermont-G-anneau, the central medallion of the sculptured bowls gave the first idea of money; at any rate, we know that the bronze vessels of Phoenicia were frequently broken up for the purposes of exchange. In the early art of Greece, and above all in the art of Kypros, we may trace the outlines and spirit of the art of Phoenicia. We shall see hereafter, however, that Phoenician art was but one element in the art of primitive Greece, though it was the most important one; the other element being the art long supposed to be peculiar to Asia Minor, but now traceable to the Hittites. But this element was naturally weaker on the Grecian mainland, which owed even its alphabet to the Phoenicians, than in the islands. A bronze plate like that recently found at Olympia, the lowest compartment of which is occupied by a figure of the winged AstartS, or the pottery of Mykense and other prehistoric sites, are the products of Phoenician rather than of Hellenic skill. The so-called Korinthian or Phosniko-Greek vases, with their quaint animal forms and Babylonian rosettes, belong to that transition period when Phoenician art was passing into Greek. The patterns upon them owe their inspiration to the embroidered dresses for which Th6ra was long famous. The earliest attempts at statuary in Greece are Assyro-Phoenician, as may be seen from the statues discovered by General di Cesnola at Golgoi in Kypros, or the sitting figures disentombed by Mr. Newton at Brankhidse; and it seems difficult to believe that the genius of Athens so soon transformed these stiff models of the Orient into the marvellous creations of a Pheidias or a Praxiteles. But the art of Homer is still Phoenician in character; the shield of AkhillSs might have been wrought by one of the artists who have left us the bronze bowls of Nineveh. In science Phoenicia inherited the discoveries and inventions of its neighbours. Glass, according to Pliny, had been an invention of the Phoenicians, but it was known to the Egyptians long before the Phoenicians had emerged from their primitive barbarism.1 In the art of navigation, however, the Phoenicians no doubt made an independent advance. The gavlos, with its high rounded prow and stern, the fiftyoar galley, and " the ship of Tarshish," or merchantman, were the i The earliest dated specimen of Egyptian glass tears the name of Antef III., of the eleventh dynasty. THE PH(ENICIANS. 421 oldest of their vessels, and the Byblians were held to be the best shipbuilders, the men of Sidon and Arvad being the best rowers. It was at Carthage that a ship with more than three banks of oars was first built, and its pilots steered by the pole-star, not like the Greeks by the Great Bear. The Phoenician galley seems to have been the model of the Greek one. As for medicine, a Phoenician of Gebal was one of the most famous of oculists in the time of the eighteenth dynasty, and even the Egyptian doctors did not disdain to make use of his receipts. The renown of the Phoenicians as builders and carpenters implies their knowledge of mechanics and the use of the lever and pulley. But their buildings have mostly perished, and so, too, has their literature. All that we possess are the scanty quotations, chiefly by Josephos, from the history of Tyre by Dios and MSnander of Ephesos, who seem to have derived it from the native annals; references to Mokhos, Moskhos, or Okhos, who wrote on Phoenician history, and is made by Strabo, on the authority of Poseidonios, to have lived before the Trojan War, and started the atomic theory; and, above all, the fragments of Philo Byblius, who flourished in the second century B.C. and professed to have translated into Greek older works by Sanchuniathon and others on Phoenician history and religion. Sanchuniathon (Sikkun-yitten) is said to have been one of a series of hierophants, among whom Thabion and Isiris may be named, and to have lived, like Mokhos, before the war of Troy. His works were based on the archives preserved in the temples, a book composed by Hierombaal or Jerubbaal in the days of Abelbaal, king of Berytos, and the sacred scriptures of Taautos and Eshmun. If, however, Sanchuniathon had any real existence, he must have written but shortly before the time of Philo himself, since the cosmogony and theology of the latter is wholly the product of a syncretic and rationalising age. The works of Mokhos, as well as two other Phoenician writers, Hyksikrate"s and Theodotos (? Sanchuniathon), are said to have been translated into Greek by a certain Khaitos. It may be added that the Carthaginian general Mago was the author of twenty-eight books on agriculture, turned into Greek by Dionysios of Utica, and into Latin by Silanus; and Hanno of an account of his voyage along the west coast of Africa, in the course of which he fell in with a " savage people " called gorillas. Government and Trade.—The government of the several states was a monarchy tempered by an oligarchy of wealth. The king seems to have been but the first among a body of ruling merchant princes and still more powerful and wealthy chiefs. In time the monarchy disap- 422 APPENDIX III. peared altogether, its place being supplied by suffetes or "judges," whose term of office lasted sometimes for a year, sometimes for more, sometimes even for life. At Carthage the suffetes were two in number, who were merely presidents of the senate of thirty. The power of the senate was subsequently checked by the creation of a board of one hundred and four chosen by self-electing committees of five, to whom the judges, senate, and generals were alike accountable. By providing that no member of the board should hold office for two years running, Hannibal changed the government into a democracy. The colonies of Phoenicia were permitted to manage their own affairs so long as they paid tribute and supplied ships and soldiers to the mother city, though their inhabitants were allowed no rights or privileges in Phoenicia itself. Many of them, however, were wholly independent, governed by their own kings, and benefiting Phoenicia only in the way of trade. The cities of Phoenicia were, in fact, the first trading communities the world had seen. Their power and wealth, and even their existence, depended on commerce. Their colonies were originally mere marts, and their voyages of discovery were undertaken in the interests of trade. The tin of Britain, the silver of Spain, the birds of the Canaries, the frankincense of Arabia, the pearls and ivories of India, all flowed into their harbours. But the purple trade was the staple of their industry. It was by the help of the murex or purple-fish that they had first become prosperous, and when the coasts of Palestine could no longer supply sufficient purple for the demands of the world, they made their way in search of it to the coasts of Greece, of Sicily, and of Africa. The purple manufactories of Tyre must always have spoilt a traveller's enjoyment of the place. Slaves, too, formed part of Phoenician traffic from the earliest times, as also did pottery. The copper of Kypros was no doubt their attraction to that island, and, mixed with the tin of Britain and the Caucasus, it became the bronze for which they were famous. In mining they excelled, and the gold mines of Thasos, where, according to Herodotos, they had " overturned a whole mountain," were worked before the thirteenth century B.C. Their woven and embroidered garments, dyed crimson and violet, were sent all over the civilised world. The weights and measures they used were borrowed from Babylonia, and passed over to Greece along with the ancient Accadian name of the mina or maund.1 At Carthage we 1 Accadian mana. THE PHCENICTANS. 423 hear of loans made from foreign states, and, along with bars of gold and silver, even of a token-money, like our bank-notes, which had no intrinsic value of its own. The revenues were derived chiefly from the customs, and were largely expended upon the mercenaries, who formed the bulk of the army. The citizens themselves preferred to serve on ship-board. IV. LYDIA. is the link that binds together the geography and history of Asia and Europe. It occupied the western extremity of that great peninsula of Asia Minor, 750 miles in length and 400 in breadth, which runs out from the mountains of Armenia and divides the nations of the north from the happier inhabitants of a southern clime. The broad plains of the Hermos and Kayster, in which the Lydian monarchy grew up, are the richest in Asia Minor, and the mountain chains by which they are girdled, while sufficiently high to protect them, form cool and bracing sites for cities, and are rich in minerals of various kinds. The bays of Smyrna and Ephesos formed incomparable harbours; here the products of the inland could be safely shipped and carried past the bridge of islands which spans the JEgean to the nations of the West. Asia Minor, naturally the richest of countries and blessed with an almost infinite diversity of climates, finds, as it were, in the ancient territory of Lydia the summing-up of its manifold perfections and characteristics. Rightly, therefore, did the loamy plain of the Kayster give its name of AsianJ to the rest of the peninsula of which it formed the apex. This peninsula is cut in two by the Halys, which flows from that part of the Taurus range—the western spur of the Armenian mountains—which overlooks the eastern basin of the Mediterranean and forms the background of Kilikia. This geographical division had an influence on the ethnology of the country. As Asia Minor was but a prolongation of Armenia, so too, originally, its population was the same as that which in prehistoric days inhabited the Armenian plateau. From hence it spread westward and southward, down the slopes of the mountains, under the various names of Hittites, Moschi and Tibareni, Komagenians, Kappadokians, and the LYDIA 1 n. ii. 461. 424 APPENDIX IV. like. We may term it Proto-Armenian, and see in the Georgians its modern representatives, though doubtless the Circassians and other half-extinct races, which, before the Eussian conquest, found a refuge in the fastnesses of the Caucasus, once had their share in populating the neighbouring regions. But a time came when Aryan tribes forced their way along the northern shore of the Caspian, across the Ural mountains, and into the plains of Southern Eussia and Central Germany, and when some of them penetrated yet further into the lands afterwards known as Thrake' and Greece. From Thrake1 they sailed across the Hellespont, and one tribe at least, the Briges or " Free-men," occupied so large a tract of country as to give their name to Phrygia. Other tribes found their way across the JSgean from Greece itself, and under the general title of Ionians or "emigrants" established themselves on the more accessible parts of the western coast of Asia Minor, where they were joined in the later days of the Dorian conquest by other emigrants from their old home. The older settlers intermarried with the native population and formed in many districts a mixed race. If we might argue from language alone, we should infer that the Phrygians, Mysians, and Lydians were not only Aryans, but more closely allied to the Hellenic stock than any other members of the Aryan family, the Lykians and possibly the Karians alone belonging to the old population. But language can prove no more than social contact; it can give us but little clue to the race of the speakers; and other facts go to show that the Phrygians alone could claim a fairly pure Aryan ancestry, the Mysians and Lydians being essentially mixed. But the Aryans never passed eastward of the Halys; the Assyrian inscriptions make it clear that as late as the seventh century B.C. a non-Aryan population still held the country between that river and Media. It was only when the stream of emigration had brought the Aryan Medes into Media, and the Aryan Persians into Elam, that Aryans also forced their way into Armenia, changed the Zimri of the Assyrian inscriptions into Aryan Kurds, and planted the colony of the Iron or Ossetes in the Caucasus itself. The Proto-Armenian race has left memorials of itself in the monuments and inscriptions of Lake Van and its neighbourhood. In the ninth century B.C. it borrowed the characters of the Assyrian syllabary, selecting those only which were needed to express the sounds of its language; and the line of monarchs that then ruled at Dhuspas, the modern Van, showed themselves to be able administrators and good generals. Menuas, Argistis, and Sar-duris II., all added to the king- LYDIA. 425 dom, and brought the barbarous tribes of the north and east under their more civilised domination. The gods they worshipped were numerous : Khaldis the supreme god, Teisbas the air-god, Ardinis the sun-god, and Selardis the moon-god, standing at the head. There were, in fact, as many Khaldises as there were local cults; and an inscription of Isbuinis, the father of Menuas, distinguishes four of them by name. The dress of the people consisted of a long fringed robe which reached to the ankles, or of a short tunic resembling that worn by the Greeks, over which an embroidered cloak was sometimes thrown. The short tunic was worn by the soldiers, whose helmets so closely resemble those of the Greeks as to confirm the statement of Herodotos (i. 171) that the Greeks derived the crests that adorned them from the Karians. A short dirk was slung in the belt, and the hands were armed with a small round shield and a long spear. The most peculiar part of the dress, however, were the boots with the ends turned up, such as are still worn by the mountaineers of Asia Minor and Greece. They indicate the cold and hilly region in which their inventors lived. The head was covered sometimes by a close-fitting cap, sometimes by a lofty tiara, sometimes by the Phrygian cap; and the double-headed axe which characterised the aboriginal populations of Asia Minor, and gave a name to Zeus Labrandeus, " Zeus with the double-headed axe," worshipped in Karia, was also used by them. The language of the Vannic inscriptions, as they are termed, may, like Georgian, be called inflectional, though it is neither Aryan nor Semitic. The language revealed by the bilingual inscriptions of Lykia is of the same character. The most important branch of the Proto-Armenian race were the Hittites, who established themselves in the heart of the Semitic territory, and founded an empire which contended on equal terms with Egypt, and once extended its sway as far as the ./Egean. Its two capitals were Kadesh, on an island in the Orontes, and Carchemish, now Jerablus, the classical Hierapolis, on the Euphrates, about sixteen miles south of Birejik. A Hittite tribe even succeeded in settling in the south of Palestine, in the neighbourhood of Hebron, which, like Jerusalem, would have been a Hittite foundation if Mariette is right in making the leaders of the Hyksos dynasties Hittites. But the Semites gradually managed to push the Hittites to the north, whence they had come. Kadesh, the southern capital, fell into Syrian hands, and before the reign of Solomon Hamath also had ceased to belong to them. As late, however, as the eighth century B.C. the allied tribe of Patinians extended from the gulf of Antioch to Aleppo, where the territory of the 426 APPENDIX IV. Hittite princes of Carchemish and Pethor (at the junction of the Sajur and Euphrates) commenced.1 But the Patinians were conquered by Tiglath-Pileser II., and the fall of Carchemish in B.o. 717, when Sargon put its last king, Pisiris, to death and made it the seat of an Assyrian satrap, marked the final victory of the Semitic race. The Hittite empire, while it lasted, had done much for civilisation. The Hittites invented a system of hieroglyphic writing, suggested doubtless by that of Egypt, and the art developed at Carchemish was a peculiar combination and modification of early Babylonian and Egyptian, in which, however, the Babylonian elements much preponderated. This art, along with the accompanying culture and writing, was carried by them into Asia Minor, which they overran and subdued. They have left memorials of their empire there in the sculptures of Boghaz Keui and Eyuk in Kappadokia, of Ivris in Lykaonia, of Ghiaur Kalessi in Phrygia, and of Karabel and " the Niobe"" of Sipylos in Lydia. The two figures at Karabel which Herodotos, after his visit to Egypt, imagined to be those of Sesostris, were really those of the bitterest enemies of Egypt, and the hieroglyphics which accompanied them were the hieroglyphics, not of Thebes, but of Carchemish. The monuments were erected as sign-posts to the travellers through the pass, and as witnesses that the power which carved them was mistress of Ephesos, of Smyrna, and of Sardes. The date of this westward extension of the Hittite empire may be fixed from the fifteenth to the thirteenth centuries B.C. Though the Hittites are mentioned in the work on Babylonian astronomy compiled for Sargon of Agade1, they are unknown to the Egyptian monuments till the reign of Thothmes III. In the time of Ramses II. they are able to summon to their aid not only the Kolkhians, but also the Masu or Mysians and the Dardani of the Troad, with their towns, Iluna or Ilion and Pidasa or Pedasus, showing that at that period their power in the extreme west was unimpaired. But it seems to have decayed soon afterwards, though, according to Tiglath-Pileser I. (B.C. 1130), the Hittites in his time still held possession of Semitic Syria, garrisoning it with Kolkhian soldiers. The legend reported by Herodotos which makes the founder of the Herakleid dynasty of Lydia the son of Ninos, and- grandson of Belos, may possibly be an echo of the fact that Carchemish was called Ninus Fetus, "the old Nineveh" 1 The district occupied by the Patinians is called in the Egyptian Inscriptions the land of Nahraina or "the two rivers," from which Kirgipa, the daughter of King Satarona, was brought as a gift to Thi, the wife of Amenophis III. LYDIA. 427 (Amm. Marcell. xiv. 8 ; Diod. ii. 3, 7), and that its culture had come from the land of Bel. At all events, the Heckle's or Sandon who wedded Omphale", the daughter of Iardanos, and from whom the dynasty derived its name, is the Babylonian sun-god, as modified by Hittite belief, Omphale being perhaps the Hittite name of the Asiatic goddess.1 There were other legends which connected Lydia with the Euphrates; and these were supposed to point to an Assyrian conquest of the country before the Assyrian inscriptions themselves had told us that the Assyrians never passed westward of the Halys, much less knew the name of Lydia, until the age of Assur-bani-pal. The art and culture, the deities and rites, which Lydia owed to Babylonia were brought by the hands of the Hittites, and bore upon them a Hittite stamp. -It is with the Hittite period, so strangely recovered but the other day, that Lydian history begins. The legends of an earlier epoch given by the native historian Xanthos, according to the fragments of Nikolas of Damascus, are mere myths and fables. The first Lydian dynasty of Atyads was headed by Attys and the moon-god Manes or Men, and included geographical personages like Lydos, Asios, and Male's, or such heroes of folklore as KambletSs, who devoured his wife, and Tyl6n, the son of Omphale', who was bitten by a snake, but restored to life by a marvellous herb. Here and there we come across faint reminiscences of the Hittite supremacy and the struggle which ended in its overthrow ; Akiamos, the successor of the good king Alkimos, sent Askalos or Kayster, the brother of Tantalos, to conquer Syria; and Moxos (or Mopsos) marched into the same region, where he took Atargatis, the goddess of Carchemish, captive, and threw her into the sacred lake. It is probable that the Herakleidse were at the outset the Hittite satraps of Sardes, whose power increased as that of the distant empire declined, and who finally made themselves independent rulers of the Lydian plain. According to Herodotos, Agr6n, called Agelaos by Apollodorus, Kleodaios or Lamos by Diod6ros, was the first of the Herakleids, whose rule lasted for 505 years. Xanthos, however, was doubtless more correct in making Sadyatte"s and Lixos the successors of 1 According to Eusebios, Sardea was first captured by Kimmerian invaders three centuries before the first Olympiad (B.C. 1078). This seems to embody a tradition of the invasion of the Hittites, who came from the same locality as did the Kimmerians in later days. "When Strabo says that Lygdamis with a horde of Kimmerians made his way to Lydia and conquered Sardes, though he himself remained in Kilikia, it is possible that the Hittite conquest is also referred to. 428 APPENDIX IV. Tyldn, the son of Omphale1. The dynasty ended with Kandaul^s, the twenty-second prince. GygSs, called Gugu in the Assyrian inscriptions, Gog in the Old Testament, who seems to have been of Karian descent, put him to death, and established the dynasty of the Mermnadse about B.C. 690.1 Gyge"s extended the Lydian dominion as far as the Hellespont, though he was unsuccessful in his attempt to capture the Ionic port of Old Smyrna. Towards the middle of his reign, however, Lydia was overrun by the Kimmerians, the Gimirrai of the Assyrian texts, the Gomer of the Old Testament, who had been driven from their ancient seats on the sea of Azof by an invasion of Skythians, and thrown upon Asia Minor by the defeat they suffered at the hands of Esar-haddon on the northern frontier of the Assyrian empire. The Greek colony of Sindpe' was sacked, and the fame of the barbarian hordes penetrated to Hellenic lands, where the redactor of the Odyssey, the Homer whom Theopompos and Euphoridn make a contemporary of Gyg6s, spoke of them 2 as still in the misty region of the eastern Euxine. The lower town of Sardes itself was taken by the Kimmerians, who were mentioned by Kallinos, the Greek poet of Ephesos; and Gyge"s in his extremity turned to the power which alone had been able to inflict defeat on the barbarian hordes. Accordingly an embassy was sent to Assur-bani-pal; Lydia consented to become the tributary of Assyria, and presents were made to the great king, including two Kimmerian chieftains whom Gyge"s had captured with his own hand. It was some time before an interpreter could be found for the ambassadors. The danger passed, and the Lydian king shook off his allegiance, aiding Egypt to do the same. But Assyria was soon avenged. Once more the Kimmerians appeared before Sardes, Gyge"s was slain and beheaded in battle after a reign of thirty-eight years, and his son Ardys II. again submitted to be the vassal of Sardanapallos. Upon this occasion Sardes seems to have fallen a second time into the hands of its enemies, an event alluded to by Kallisthene's. Alyattes III., the grandson of Ardys, finally succeeded in extirpating the Kimmerian scourge, as well as in taking Smyrna, and thus providing his kingdom with a port. Lydia rapidly progressed in power and prosperity; its ships trafficked in all parts of the iEgean, and its kings sent offerings to Delphi and affected to be Greek. It / remained for Krcesos, however, the son of Alyattes, to carry out the policy first planned by Gyg6s, and make himself suzerain of the wealthy trading 1 According to Eusebios, B.C. 698. 2 Od. xi. 12-19. LYDIA. 429 cities of Ionia. They were allowed to retain their own institutions and government on condition of recognising the authority of the Lydian monarch, and paying customs and dues to the imperial exchequer. With the commerce of Ionia and the native treasures of Lydia alike at his command, Krcesos became the richest monarch of his age. He reigned alone only fifteen years, but he seems to have shared the royal power for several years previously with his father. All the nations of Asia Minor as far as the Halys owned his sway. He was on friendly terms with the states of Greece, with Babylonia, and with Media. In fact, Astyage"s of Media was his brother-in-law, his sister ArySnis having been married to Astyage's in order to cement the treaty between Alyatte's and Kyaxare's, brought about (in B.C. 585), after six years of fighting, by the kindly offices of the Babylonian king, and the intervention of the eclipse foretold by Thallss. The Lydian empire, however, did not long survive the fall of the Median empire. Kyros and Krcesos met in battle on the banks of the Halys about B.C. 545,1 and though the engagement was indecisive it was followed by a winter campaign of the Persians, which resulted in the defeat of the Lydians before they could summon their allies to their aid, and the capture of Sardes and its citadel. The vulnerable spot was believed to be where the legendary monarch Mile's had failed to carry the lion, which was a symbol alike of Hittite and of Lydian power; but it was really the path made by one of those ever-recurring landslips which have reduced the crumbling sandstone cliff of the Acropolis to a mere shell, and threaten in a few years to obliterate all traces of the ancient citadel of the Lydian kings. Religion and Mythology.—The religion of Lydia, as of the rest of Asia Minor, was profoundly influenced by that of Babylonia after the modification it had undergone at Carchemish. The Hittites had received the religious conceptions of Chaldea, along with the germs of art and culture, before the rise of Assyria; it is Babylonia, therefore, and not Assyria, that explains them. The Babylonian Nana became the goddess of Carchemish, where in the days of Semitic ascendency she was known as Atargatis and Derketo. The Babylonian sun-god passed into Sand6n of Kilikia and Lydia, the Baal-Tars or Baal of Tarsos of the Aramaic coins. Even the Chaldean story of the Deluge was transplanted to "the sacred city" of Carchemish, the ship becoming an ark, Xisuthros Sisythe's, and the mountain of Nizir a pool 1 Eusebios makes it B.c. 546, but this is probably a year or two too soon. 430 APPENDIX IV. in the neighbourhood of the Euphrates. From hence the legend was passed on to Apamea, and possibly other towns of Asia Minor as well. The form and worship of Atargatis were similarly carried westward. The terra-cotta images of Nana, which represent the goddess as nude, with the hands upon the breast, may be traced through Asia Minor into the islands of the JEgean, and even into Greece itself. Dr. Schliemann has found them at Hissarlik, where the "owl-headed" vases are adorned with representations of the same goddess, and they occur plentifully in Kypros. At Carchemish they underwent two different modifications. Sometimes the goddess was provided with a conical cap and four wings, which branched out behind the back; sometimes she was robed in a long garment, with the modius or mural crown upon the head. Terra-cotta statues of her, discovered by Major di Cesnola in Cyprus, set under the mural crown a row of eagles, like the double-headed eagle which appears in the Hittite sculptures at Boghaz Keui and Eyuk. At times the mural crown becomes the polos, as in the images disinterred at Mykense and Tanagra; at other times the body of the deity takes the shape of a cone, or rather of the aerolite which symbolised her at Troy, at Ephesos, and elsewhere, while the surface is thickly covered with breasts. It was under this latter form, and with the mural crown upon the head, that the Hittite settlers in Ephesos represented the divinity they had brought with them. Here the bee was sacred to her, and her priestesses were called " bees," while the chief priest was lo-cnjv, " the king bee." The bee is similarly employed on Hittite gems, and a gem found near Aleppo represents Atargatis standing on the insect. The Hittite priestesses who accompanied the worship of the goddess as it spread through Asia Minor were known to Greek legend as Amazons. The cities founded by Amazons—Ephesos, Smyrna, Kym6, Myrina, Pri6n6, Pitang—were all of Hittite origin. In early art the Amazons are robed in Hittite costume and armed with the double-headed axe, and the dances they performed with shield and bow in honour of the goddess of war and love gave rise to the myths which saw in them a nation of woman-warriors. The Therm6d6n, on whose banks the poets placed them, was in the neighbourhood of the Hittite monuments of Boghaz Keui and Eyuk, and at Komana in Kappadokia the goddess Ma was served by 6000 ministers. By the side of Atargatis or Ma, the Ephesian Artemis, called also KybelS, KyMbe*, and Amma, stood the sun-god Attys or Agdistis, at once the son and bridegroom of the " great goddess " of Asia. Among LYDIA. 431 the Phrygians he was named Papas or "father," and invoked as "the shepherd of the bright stars," a title which reminds us of the Accadian name of the star Arcturus. Attys was symbolised by the fir-tree into which he had been changed after mutilating himself to avoid the love of Kybell. He is, in fact, the Semitic Addnis; or rather, just as the old Hittite goddess assumed the attributes and functions of the Babylonian Nana, so, too, Attys took upon him the character of Tammuz or Ad6nis. The rites with which Istar and Tammuz had been worshipped at Babylon were transferred first to Carchemish and then to Asia Minor. The prostitution by which Atargatis was honoured was paralleled by the mutilation and self-torture practised in the name of Attys. His untimely death was mourned by women like the death of Tammuz, and his galli or priests were all eunuchs. At Pessinus, where each was termed an Attys, the chief priest had the title of archigallos. But underneath these imported religious conceptions and rites lay the old nature-worship of the natives of Armenia and Asia Minor. The frenzy that marked the cult of Attys or of Zeus Sabazios in Phrygia, the wild dances, the wanderings in the pine-woods, the use of cymbals and tambourines, the invention of which was ascribed to Asia Minor, were all of older date than the period of Babylonian and Semitic influence. The story of Apollo and the Phrygian flute-player Marsyas, the follower of Kybele", may imply that the Aryan occupation of Phrygia exorcised the wild and exciting spirit of the native music and of the worship to which it was consecrated. At any rate, as the language of the Phrygian inscriptions proves, the non-Aryan element in the population of that part of Asia Minor was reduced to insignificance, and the supreme god of the country became the Aryan Bagaios. The close connection between Phrygia and Hellas is shown by the early mythology of Greece. Phrygian heroes like Gordios and Midas form as integral a part of Greek story as do the heroes and poets of Thrake1. It is different with those other lands of Asia Minor which enter into Greek legend. The plain of Troy was rendered famous by the struggles made by the Akhsean fugitives from the Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesos to gain a foothold in iEolis; the immemorial story of the storming of the sky by the bright powers of day, which had been localised in Thebes, where Greeks and Phoenicians had contended for possession, being again localised by Akheean poets in the land of their adoption. SarpMdn, the Lykian hero, was celebrated 432 APPENDIX IV. in Ionic song, because Apollo Lykios, " the god of light," had been associated with the eastern hills behind which the light-bringing sungod rose each morning for the Hellenic settlers on the coast; and the tales that grew around the names of Tantalos and Pelops enshrined a real tradition of the day when Hittite culture and Lydian wealth came to the feudal lords of Mykense from the golden sands of the Pakt6los. Art and Literature.—Hittite art was a modification of the art of early Babylonia, though the sphinxes at Eyuk, the Hittite form of the feroher or winged solar disk, and the scarabs found in the neighbourhood of Aleppo, show that Egypt had also exercised an influence upon it. It was characterised by solidity, roundness, and work in relief. The mural crown was a Hittite invention, and the animal forms, in which the Hittite artists specially excelled, were frequently combined to form composite creatures, among which may be mentioned the double-headed eagle, afterwards adopted by the Seljukian sultans, and carried by the crusaders to the German states. This Hittite art is the source of the peculiar art of Asia Minor, which forms a well-marked element in that of primitive Greece. The famous sculpture at MykSnae, over the gate to which it has given its name, finds its analogue in a similar heraldic sculpture above a rock-tomb at Kumbet, in the valley of the Sangarios; and the tombs of Midas and other Phrygian kings in the same spot exhibit the architectural devices, the key pattern, and other kinds of ornamentation which we meet with in the early art of Greece. An archaic lion's head from Sardes, built into a wall at Akhmetlii, forms a link between the lions of Hittite sculpture on the one side, and the lions found among the ruins of Mykense on the other. The lentoid gems, again, discovered in the islands of the Archipelago, in Krete, at the Herseon of Argos, and on other prehistoric sites, are all closely allied in artistic style to the Hittite carved stones which owe their inspiration to the archaic gems of Babylonia. Still more nearly Hittite in character are the engraved cylinders and seals of chalcedony, and similar stones, brought from Kypros and from Lydia itself. Long supposed to be rude imitations of Phoenician workmanship, they now turn out to be engraved after Hittite models. They were, indeed, ultimately derived from the art of Babylonia, but through the northern, and not through the southern, channel. It is possible that the gold chatons of rings engraved in imitation of archaic Babylonian patterns, and found by Dr. Schliemann at Myke'nse, may have made their way into Argolis, not directly from LYDIA. 433 the Babylonians at the time when Sargon of Agade" carried his arms as far as Kypros, but through the intervention of the Hittites, since the double-headed battle-axe of Asia Minor is introduced upon one of them, and a row of animals' heads in true Hittite style appears upon the other. Greek tradition remembered that Karians as well as Phoenicians had brought the West the culture of the East. Karian tombs were discovered in Delos when the island was purified by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian War.1 The Greek helmet, a Karian gift, may be ultimately traced back to the warriors of Armenia, and the emblems of the shield to which Herodotos ascribes a Karian origin were possibly at the outset the hieroglyphics of Hittite writing. Dr. Kohler once wished to see in the rock-tombs of Spata (perhaps the Attic deme of Sphettos), the resting-places of Karian dead; and though the discovery of similar remains in Rhodes, in the tomb of Menidi in Attica, at Mykense, and elsewhere, shows that the sepulchres themselves belonged to Greek natives, and that their contents mostly exhibit Phoenician influence and trade, yet there are certain objects like an ivory human head crowned with the Hittite tiara which refer us unmistakably to Asia Minor. The butterfly which occurs so plentifully at Mykense, and of which specimens, conventionally treated, may be seen on the glass ornaments of Menidi,2 came more probably from Asia Minor than from Phoenicia. On the other hand, the gold masks with which the faces of the dead were covered seem to be of Phoenician derivation, since they were suggested by the gilded mummy faces- of the Egyptians, who sometimes used gold masks besides, as is evidenced by the golden mask of Prince Kha-em-Uas of the eighteenth dynasty, now in the Louvre, while the corpse of a child covered with a mask of gold has been disinterred at Arvad. Silver was the metal which more especially attracted the Hittites. Their monuments in Asia Minor are chiefly in the neighbourhood of silver mines, which they were the first to work. The Hittite copy of the treaty with Eamses II. was accompanied by a plate of silver, with a likeness of the god Sutekh in the middle, and an inscription running round it. A similar circular plate has been found, which apparently covered the handle of a dirk, with a figure of a king in the centre, a Hittite inscription twice repeated on either side, and a cuneiform legend running round the rim. These circular silver disks, with an 1 In the winter of B.C. 426. Thuk. i. 8, iii. 104. 2 F 2 See "Das Kuppelgrab bei Menidi" (1880), pi. iv. 12. 434 APPENDIX IV. image in the middle, and an inscription surrounding it, very probably suggested the idea of coined money, which was primarily of silver, and the invention of which was ascribed to the Lydians. The practice of using silver as a writing material seems to have been general among the Hittite tribes. M. Eenan has found niches cut in the rocks of Syria which would fit the written silver-plates of the Hittites as depicted on the monuments of Egypt, and the Hittite hieroglyphics are always carved in relief, even when the material is hard stone. These hieroglyphics were of native invention, though probably suggested by the sight of Egyptian writing. The Egyptian monuments speak of Khilip-sira, "the writer of books of the vile Kheta," and Kirjath-sepher, or "book town," was one of their settlements in Southern Palestine. They carried their writing with them into the furthest extremity of Asia Minor—one of the pseudo-Sesostres in the pass of Karabel having a Hittite inscription still legible upon it, and out of it, apparently, was formed a syllabary, which we may term Asianic. This syllabary was in use throughout Asia Minor before the introduction of the simpler Phoenician alphabet, and a local branch of it was employed in conservative Kypros as late as the fourth or third century B.C. Elsewhere we find it only on objects discovered by Dr. Schliemann in the lower strata of Hissarlik, though certain characters belonging to it were retained in historical times in the various Asianic alphabets—Kappadokian, Mysian, Lydian, Lykian, Karian, Pamphylian, and Kilikian—to express sound3 not represented by the letters of the Ionic alphabet. As the latter alphabet still contained the digamma when it superseded the older syllabary, its adoption could not have been later than the middle of the seventh century B.C. Lydian literature has wholly perished, though the fragments of the native historian, Xanthos, prove that annals had been kept for some generations at least previous to the accession of the Mermnadse; and we may infer from the Babylonian character and colouring of the earliest Ionic philosophies that Lydian writers had already made the philosophic ideas of the far East familiar to their countrymen. Trade.—Lydia was essentially a trading community. But just as the complexion of the Babylonian culture brought by the Hittites to the West differed from that brought by the Phoenicians in being carried overland by conquerors, and in therefore being more penetrating and permanent, so too the industrial character of the Lydians differed from that of the Phoenicians. Their trade was an inland, not a maritime one. Sardes was the meeting-place of the caravans that journeyed from the LYDIA. 435 interior along the two high-roads constructed by the Hittites,—the one traversed by Krcesos when he inarched against Kyros, and leading by Ghiaur-Kalessi and Ancyra to Boghaz Keui; the other, afterwards used by Xenophon and the Ten Thousand, which ran southwards through Lykaonia and Ikonion, and after passing through the Kilikian Gates, joined the thoroughfare from Carchemish to Antioch and the bay of Scanderun. Unlike Phoenicia, moreover, Lydia was rich in its own resources. Gold, emery, and other minerals were dug out of its mountains ; its plains were luxuriant beyond description; its hill-sides clothed with thick forests. The policy of the Mermnadse was to make their state the industrial centre of East and West. The conquest of the Ionian cities which had succeeded to the commercial empire of the Phoenicians threw into their hands the trade of the Mediterranean, and Abydos was occupied by Gyge"s in order to command the entrance to the cornlands of the Euxine. Pamphaes of Ephesos was the banker of Kroesos, and money was coined for the first time by the Lydian kings. The standard, as Mr. Barclay Head has shown, was the silver "mina of Carchemish," as the Assyrians called it, the Babylonian, as it was termed by the Greeks, which contained 8656 grains. This standard, originally derived by the Hittites from Babylonia, but modified by themselves, was passed on to the nations of Asia Minor during the epoch of Hittite conquest, and from them was received by Pheidon of Argos and the Greeks. The standard, it will be observed, was a silver, and not a gold one, silver being the favourite Hittite metal. Six small silver bars, each originally weighing the third part of the "Babylonian" mina, were discovered by Dr. Schliemann at Hissarlik, and the standard was that according to which the electron coins of Gyge"s were struck. Little by little, however, it was superseded by the heavier Phoenician mina of 11,225 grains, also, no doubt, primitively of Babylonian origin. Thrake, Lydia, and the western and southern coasts of Asia Minor, all adopted the new standard, and it was only in conservative Kypros and on the neighbouring shores of Kilikia that the old mina remained in use down to the age of Alexander the Great. 436 APPENDIX V. V. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. PERSIA proper, roughly corresponding to the modern province of Farsistan, was comparatively a small district, about 450 miles in length by 250 in breadth. Eastward it touched on Kerman or Karamania, westward it was bounded by Susiana, southward by the Persian Gulf. Its inhabitants were Aryans, whose immigration into the country called after their name was hardly earlier than the period of the fall of the Assyrian empire. The Assyrian inscriptions know nothing of them. Under leaders termed Akhsemenians (from Hakhdmanish, "the friendly") the tribe of the Persians pushed its way into the old kingdom of Anzan, or Southern Elam, which had been destroyed and desolated by the armies of Assur-bani-pal, and subsequently left a prey to the first invader by the decay of the Assyrian power. The tribe was but one out of many which had long been steadily advancing westward from the regions of the Hindu Kush. The first great wave of Aryan emigration, which had resulted in the establishment of the European nations, had been followed by another wave which first carried the Hindus into the Punjab, and then the Iranian populations into the vast districts of Baktria and Ariana. Mountains and deserts checked for a time their further progress, but at length a number of tribes, each under its own chiefs, crept along the southern shores of the Caspian or the northern coast of the Persian Gulf. These tribes were known in later history as the Aryan Medes and Persians. The Medes are first mentioned on the Assyrian monuments by Shalmaneser II. (B.C. 840) under the double name of Amadai and Matai, and placed in Matiene". Between them and the Zimri of Kurdistan intervened the people of Par'suas, with their twenty-seven kings, who occupied the south-western shore of Lake Urumiyeh. But it is doubtful whether these Matai were really the Aryan Medes and not rather " Protomedes," allied in race and language to the Kossseans and Elamites, and more distantly to the Accadians of primaeval Babylonia. At any rate the name seems derived from the Accadian mada, "country," a title appropriately given to the country where the "mountain of the world" was situated, and which was held to be the cradle of the Accadian race; while the name of Khanatsiruka, who ruled over the Matai in B.C. 820, certainly has not an Aryan sound. THE PERSIAN EMP.IRE. 437 Most of the Median districts on the southern and south-western shores of the Caspian enumerated by Tiglath-Pileser II. have non-Aryan names, and the Median chieftains with such Aryan names as Pharnes, Ariya, and Vastakku, who are mentioned by Sargon (in B.C. 713), belonged to the extreme east. In fact the district of Partakanu, which represents the Median Pare"takeni of Herodotos, is recorded last in Sargon's list; and Esar-haddon, who divides it into the two provinces of Partakka and Partukka, describes it as the furthest place east in the known world. The other Median tribes of Herodotos were still unknown to the Assyrian kings. With the fall of the Assyrian empire, however, came a change. The scattered tribes of prse-Aryan Media were united under a single monarchy by Kastarit or Kyaxar6"s. Hitherto they had been divided into a multitude of small states, each governed independently by its own chief, or " city lord," as he is termed by Esar-haddon. Kyaxareis, according to Herodotos, was the descendant of Deiokes, the builder of Ekbatana, a name which appears as Daiukku in the Assyrian records. One Daiukku, a chief of the Minni (on the western shore of Lake Urumiyeh) under their king Ullusun, was transported to Hamath by Sargon in 715 B.C., and two or three years later the Assyrian monarch made an expedition to the three adjoining districts of Ellibi, Karalla, and Bit-Daiukku, " the house of Deiok&s." Ellibi lay on the eastern frontier of Kurdistan, and included the land of Aranzi—a name preserved in the Orontes mountains of classical geography, the Urvanda of the old Persians — where Ekbatana was afterwards founded. Karalla intervened between the northern boundary of Ellibi and the south-eastern shores of Lake Urumiyeb. It is just possible that the Median kings of Kte"sias, Astibaras, and Artaios, may represent (Rita or) Dalta, who was placed on the throne of Ellibi by Sargon in B.C. 709, and his son, Ispabara, who came into conflict with Sennacherib. However this may be, Kastarit was king of that part only of Media in which the city of Caru-kassi was situated, his ally Mamiti-arsu having the general title " city lord of the Medes." Along with the Minni, the people of 'Saparda or Sepharad—a small district on the east of Ellibi—and the Kimmerians, the two allies attacked and overthrew the Assyrian power. Kastarit now seems to have turned against his friends, and to have gradually extended his sway over the whole region vaguely known as Armenia and Western Media. Peace was established between him and Alyatt&s of Lydia in B.C. 585 through the kindly offices of his ally Nebuchadrezzar, and the Halys made 438 APPENDIX V. the boundary of the Median and Lydian empires. Under the shadow of Mount Urvanda or Elwend, Agamtanu or Ekbatana (now Hamadan) was founded in imitation of the new Babylon Nebuchadrezzar had built. Kyaxares was succeeded by his son Istuvegu, the AstyagSs of the Greek writers, whom later Persian legend confounded with the tyrant Zohak or Azhi-dahaka, "the biting snake" of night and darkness, celebrated in ancient Aryan mythology. The classical historians connected him by marriage with his conqueror Kyros, but the recent discovery of contemporaneous records has proved their accounts to be so largely mixed with fable that it becomes unsafe to accept any statement not supported by monumental authority. Kyros was the son of Kambyse's, the son of Kyros, the son of Teispe"s, who had been the first to establish the Persian rule in Anzan or Western Elam, which extended from the district of Susa in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south.1 Dareios, the son of Hystaspes, who traces -his descent through Arsame's and Ariaramnes to Teispes, the son of Akhsemenes, probably refers to the same Teispe's, and would therefore be justified in his claim to be of the royal race. It is even possible that while Kyros I. and Kambyse's I. were ruling in Anzan, Ariaramnes and Arsame's governed the more unmixed Aryan part of the population in Persis. At any rate Dareios declares that eight of his race had been kings before him; and while his own ancestors all bear thoroughly Aryan names, the names Kyros and Kambysls seem to be of Elamite derivation. Strabo,2 indeed, says that Kyros was originally called Agradates, and took the name of Kurus or Kuras from the river that flows past Pasargadse; while Nikolaus Damascenus, doubtless quoting Kte"sias, made him the son of the peasant Atradates, the Mitradates of Herodotos, whom he calls an Amardian. The Amardians, it must be remembered, were an Elamite tribe bordering upon the Persians and intervening between them and the Susians, whose dialects closely resembled their own. They seem to be the Khapirti or Apirti of the inscriptions, who inhabited the plain of Mai-Amir. It was in B.C. 549 that AstyagSs was overthrown. On his march against Kyros his own soldiers, drawn probably from his Aryan 1 Sir H. Rawlinson has pointed out that the learned Arabic writer, Ibn enNadim," who had unusually good means of information as to genuine Persian traditions," ascribes the invention of Persian writing to Jemshid, the son of Vivenghan, who dwelt at Assan, one of the districts of Shushan [Jrl. R. A. S. xii. ], Jan. 1880). 2 xv. 3. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 439 subjects, revolted against him and gave him into the hands of his enemy. " The land of Ekbatana and the royal city " were ravaged and plundered by the conqueror; the Aryan Medes at once acknowledged the supremacy of Kyros, and the empire of Kyaxare"s was destroyed. Some time, however, was still needed to complete the conquest; the older Medic population still held out in the more distant regions of the empire, and probably received encouragement and promises of help from Babylonia. In B.C. 546, however, Kyros marched from Arbela, crossed the Tigris, and destroyed the last relics of Median independence. It was on this occasion that he must have captured Larissa or Eesen and Mespila or Muspilu, near the site of Nineveh, whose ruins were seen by Xenophon (Anab. iii. 4). The daughter of Astyage"s had taken refuge in Mespila, which was strongly fortified. The following year saw the opening of the campaign against Babylonia. But the Babylonian army, encamped near Sippara, formed a barrier which the Persians were unable to overcome; and trusting, therefore, to undermine the power of Nabonidos by secret intrigues with his subjects, Kyros proceeded against Krcesos. A single campaign sufficed to capture Sardes and its monarch, and to add Asia Minor to the Persian dominions. The Persian conqueror was now free to attack Babylonia. Here his intrigues were already bearing fruit. The Jewish exiles were anxiously expecting him to redeem them from captivity, and the tribes on the sea coast were ready to welcome a new master. In B.C. 538 the blow was struck. The Persian army entered Babylonia from the south. The army of Nabonidos was defeated at Rata in June; on the 14th of that month Sippara opened its gates, and two days later G-obryas, the Persian general, marched into Babylon itself "without battle and fighting." The elaborate fortifications of the queen-mother had been in vain ; traitors had worked on the side of the invader. In October Kyros himself entered his new capital in triumph; priests and scribes alike strove to do him honour, and to account him as one of their native kings. The fall of Nabonidos was attributed to his neglect of the gods, and the politic Kyros did his best to encourage the illusion by professing, along with his son Kambysgs, to be a zealous worshipper of the Babylonian deities. Their images were restored to their shrines with great state, the Persian monarch and his heir-apparent taking part in the solemn processions, and the new sovereign styled himself, like his predecessors, "the worshipper" and "servant" of Bel-Merodach and Nebo. It is probable that the ruler of Western Elam had always been a polytheist. 440 APPENDIX V. Zoroastrian monotheism was first made the state-religion by Darius Hystaspis, who represented a more genuinely Aryan stock than the collateral family of Kyros. The excesses of Kambyse's in Egypt were dictated not by religious fanaticism, but by political suspicion, as is proved by the inscriptions in which he avows his adherence to the old Egyptian creed. The stele" which commemorates the death of the Apis bull, said by Herodotos to have been slain by Kambyse's, shows that, on the contrary, it had died a natural death, had been buried under his auspices, and had monumental authority for accounting him one of its worshippers. The fall of Babylon brought with it the submission of the tributary kings, including those of Phoenicia. If we may listen to Greek legend, Kyros fell in battle with the wild Skythian tribes of the north-east. But the same myths that grew up around his birth and early history seem also to have gathered round his death. Just as Persian ballads fastened upon him the old story of the solar hero who is exposed to death in infancy, and after being saved by miracle, and brought up in obscurity, is finally discovered and restored to his high estate, so too the old lesson of the punishment of human pride and greatness was taught by the legend of his death. The woman-warrior Tomyris was made to quell the great conqueror, and to throw his head into the bowl of human blood where he might drink his fill. Before his death Kyros had made his son Kambyse's king of Babylon, reserving for himself the supreme title, "king of the world." His death occurred in B.C. 529, at least two years afterwards. The first act of Kambyse's, as sole ruler, was to murder his brother Bardes, the Smerdis of Herodotos, to whom his father had bequeathed a portion of the empire. Then followed the invasion and conquest of Egypt, and the distant expeditions against Ethiopia and the Oasis of Ammon. The long absence of the monarch and the army soon produced its inevitable consequences. The loosely-cemented empire began to fall to pieces. The revolt was headed by the Medic tribe of Magians. The Magian Gomates personated the murdered Bardes, and seized the throne. He represented the non-Aryan portion of the population, which viewed with jealousy the increasing influence of the Aryan element. Kambyse's, like Kyros, it is true, had not been a Zoroastrian, and the personator of his brother could thus overthrow the altars and temples of Zoroastrianism without imperilling his imposture ; but he had countenanced and probably favoured it. During his absence the government had been in the hands of the great Aryan THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 441 families, who traced their descent from the royal clan of Akhsemene's, and these families were all Zoroastrian. Hence in the Magian usurpation we see at once a political and a religious revolt. It was directed against Aryan supremacy and the worship of Ormazd, the supreme deity of the Zoroastrian creed, and it was at the same time a signal for the different nationalities which composed the empire of Kyros to recover their independence. Before it could be crushed Kambyse's committed suicide, after reigning eleven years as king of Babylon, and about eight years as sole monarch. The reign of Gomates did not last a year. Dareios the son of Hystaspe's, with six other Persian nobles, overthrew the usurper and slew him in Niseea in Media, where he had taken refuge among his clansmen (B.C. 521). Zoroastrianism was made the religion of the empire; the temples of Ormazd, which Gomates had destroyed, were restored; and the Aryan families of Persia and Media were brought back from exile. If we may trust Dr. Oppert's rendering of a passage in the " Protomedic" transcript of the great Behistun Inscription, where Dareios records the deeds and successes of his life, the Avesta or sacred book of Zoroastrianism, along with its commentary, was republished and promulgated throughout the empire. The flight of Gomates was the signal for the massacre of all his followers and tribesmen who were left in Persia. The Magophonia long continued to be a popular festival in Persia, when it was unsafe for a Magian to venture out of doors. But the spirit of revolt was by no means extinguished. Immediately after the death of the pseudoBardes, Susiana and Babylonia alike shook off the Persian yoke. Under the leadership of Assina the Susians claimed again the freedom which Teispes had taken from them, and the extinction of the family of Kyros seemed a favourable opportunity for recovering it. Babylon revolted under Nidintabel, who called himself " Nebuchadrezzar the son of Nabonidos," the last Babylonian king. But the Susian rebellion was soon put down. Babylon took longer to reduce. After defeating Nidintabel at Zazana, Dareios laid siege to the city. It was taken June B.C. 519 after a blockade of nearly two years, the Persians penetrating into the city during a festival by marching along the dry channel of the Euphrates. By this time, however, the non-Aryan population of Media was in revolt under Phraort^s, who called himself Sattarritta or Kyaxargs, the descendant of Vakistarra. Battle after battle was fought in Armenia by the Persian generals; until at last Phraorte's was captured in Ehagse and impaled. It was the last 442 APPENDIX V. struggle for independence; from this time forward the older population acknowledged the supremacy of the Aryan intruders, and became merged in the latter. Henceforth by Medians are meant the Aryan kindred of the Persians themselves. It cost Dareios some trouble yet to reconquer the empire of Kyros. A second revolt, promptly suppressed, took place among the Susians, and a second one also among the Babylonians. This time it was an Armenian who professed to be Nebuchadrezzar the son of Nabonidos, but his career was soon closed by the capture of Babylon in B.C. 513. The Sagartians arose in unsuccessful insurrection under a leader who claimed to be a descendant of the Median Vakistarra, a proof that the Median empire had once included Sagartia. As the Parthians and Hyrkanians had followed Phraortes, we may perhaps infer that Parthia and Hyrkania also had formed part of the old Median monarchy. A second pseudo-Bardes also had to be crushed; he was a native of Tarava, the modern Tarun in Luristan, but, though born in Aryan territory, was followed not by Persians, but by Susianians. He, too, was defeated and slain in Arachosia. Margiana, moreover, had risen in revolt; but as unsuccessfully as the other provinces of the empire. Dareios was at last free to organise and settle what he had won back with so much difficulty and labour. In the work of organisation Dareios proved himself a master. The empire was made a homogeneous whole, with its centre at Susa or Shushan. For the first time in history centralisation becomes a political fact. The king was the source of all authority and all dignities; every subject was equal before the throne, which was the fountain of law. It is true that a council, consisting of the seven leading families and a hereditary sub-nobility, sat without the will of the king; but this relic of a period when Persia had not yet become an empire had neither power nor influence against the bureaucracy which managed the government, and even the great king himself. The government of Persia became what the government of Turkey has been of late years—a highly centralised bureaucracy, the members of which owed their offices to an irresponsible despot, The centralisation of Persia stands in marked contrast to the decentralisation of Greece, as well as of the Aryan Medes themselves before the rise of the Median monarchy. The empire was divided into at least twenty satrapies,1 communication being kept up between them by roads and posts which 1 Dartios mentions twenty - three at Behistun, twenty-nine on his tomb at Naksh-i-Rustam. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 443 all met in Susa. Each satrap was responsible for a fixed tribute of from 170 to 1000 Euboic silver talents (£42,000 to £250,000), out of which the civil and military officers, the army, and the satrap himself, were paid. It was of course the interest of the crown to prevent the provinces from being exhausted by additional taxation, but the satrap generally managed to squeeze a good deal more than the fixed tribute out of his subjects. The satraps were like small kings; indeed their official residences were called palaces, and in some cases, as for example in Kilikia, the native princes were allowed to hold rule. The danger to the Government caused by the power of the satrap and his distance from the central authority was diminished in several ways. Eoyal scribes or secretaries were employed to send up reports of the satraps and their actions to the king, and from time to time an officer came down from the court with an armed force to inspect a province. The satraps themselves were generally connected with the king by birth or marriage, and in Persia proper royal judges went on circuit at least once a year. According to Xenophon the control of the troops was further handed over to a separate commander, and it would seem that important fortresses like Sardes were also entrusted to an independent officer. Owing, however, to the weakness occasioned by this division of authority, the civil and military powers were united in the satrapies which bordered on dangerous enemies, such as the Greeks, and it was accordingly in these frontier satrapies that revolts like that of the younger Kyros broke out. The districts of which a satrapy was composed were not always contiguous. The imperial exchequer received no less than 7740 talents or £2,964,000 a year from nineteen of the provinces, which paid in silver, and of which Babylonia contributed the most, and 4680 Euboic talents or £1,290,000 from the twentieth or Indian province, which paid in gold. The provinces had further to furnish tribute in kind, grain, sheep, and the like, and rates were levied in many places for the use of water and of the royal demesnes, while the taxes derived from such things as fisheries were farmed by the State. The gold and silver darics coined from the specie collected at Susa, and impressed with a rude representation of an archer, were remarkably pure, containing respectively 124 and 224 to 230 grains of pure metal. While this work of organisation was being completed the empire was at peace. Then came a war against Iskunka the Sakian chief, 'succeeded by a campaign in the East. The Indus was first explored by a naval expedition under Skylax, a Karian Greek; this was followed 444 APPENDIX V. by the conquest of the Punjab. Dareios was now free to secure his north-western frontier. The Skythian coast on the Black Sea was explored as the Indus had been, the Bosporus was bridged by Mandroklgs the Samian, and the steppes of Southern Eussia were swept by the Persian army. The impression left on the Skythian mind was never wiped out; the empire was henceforward safe on that side. Meanwhile Megabazos with another army had reduced ThrakS, and made Makedonia a tributary kingdom. Shortly afterwards, in B.C. 501, came the Ionic revolt. Sardes was burnt by the Athenians, and Dareios, bent on vengeance, no longer delayed to listen to the exile Hippias, and to demand the submission of Athens and the restoration of its tyrant. Mardonios was sent against the offending city with a large army. But his fleet was wrecked off Mount Athos, and the land-force surprised by the wild Thrakian tribe of Briges. Two years later (B.C. 490) the Persian army under Datis was again hurled against Attika; but Athenian valour at Marathon drove back a power hitherto held invincible, and saved Greece. For three years Asia was now astir with preparations for crushing the handful of citizens that had dared to resist the mighty Persian empire. Fortunately for Athens, Egypt revolted at the moment when the preparations were completed (B.C. 487), and diverted the blow which would have fallen upon her. Before the revolt could be suppressed Dareios died in the sixty-third year of his age and the thirty-sixth of his reign (B.C. 486). His son and successor Xerxes, born in the purple, was a different man from his father. Weak, vain, and luxurious, it need not surprise us that the huge and unwieldy host he led against Hellas returned shattered and discomfited, and that after the defeat of Mardonios with his picked Persian and Median troops at Platsea, the war that Persia carried into Europe should have recoiled back into Asia. The islands of the ^Egean, the Greek colonies of Asia Minor, the wild coasts of Thrake1, the command of the, Hellespont, were one by one wrested from the great king by Athenian skill and enterprise. The sole result of the attempt to enslave Greece was to found the Athenian empire, and to make Athens the intellectual and artistic leader of the world then and thereafter. Before the campaign against Greece had been entered upon, XerxSs had punished the Babylonians for their murder of the satrap Zopyros by destroying the temple of Bel and the other shrines of the ancient gods. Xerxes was murdered by two of his courtiers in B.C. 466, at the THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 445 instigation, it was believed, of Amestris, the only wife he had ever married. His third son, ArtaxerxSs I. Longimanus, had to win his way to the throne by crushing the Baktrians under his brother Hystaspe's, and murdering another brother. In B.C. 455 an Egyptian revolt was put down after lasting for five years, and in B.C. 449 a treaty of peace, known as that of Kallias, was made between Persia and Athens,—Athens agreeing to relinquish Kypros, and Persia renouncing her claims to supremacy over the Greek cities of Asia Minor. Not long afterwards Megabyzos, the satrap of Syria, revolted, and extorted terms of peace from his suzerain, the first open sign of the inner decay of the empire. ArtaxerxSs, who, like his father, had. but one legitimate wife, Damaspia, was succeeded by his son Xerxes II. (B.C. 425), who was assassinated at a banquet forty-five days after by his illegitimate brother, Sekydianos or Sogdianos. Sogdianos was murdered in turn by Okhos, another bastard son of Artaxerxe"s, about six months, later. Okhos took the name of Dareios, and is known to history as Dareios II. Nothos. He had married his aunt Parysatis, daughter of Xerxes, and his reign of nineteen years was one long series of revolts, most of which were crushed mercilessly. The first was headed by his brother Arsites; then came those of Pissuthn^s, the Lydian satrap, of Media, and of Egypt. The loss of Egypt, however, was compensated by the restoration of Persian authority over the Greeks of Asia Minor in consequence of the destruction of the Athenian power at Syrakuse. Dareios II. was followed by his son, Artaxerxe's II. Mngmon (B.C. 405), in spite of the efforts of his wife Parysatis to substitute for the latter her younger and abler son, Kyros. Four years later Kyros left his satrapy in Asia Minor, and marched against his brother with about 13,000 Greek mercenaries and 100,000 native troops. The battle of Cunaxa ended his life and his claim to the throne, and the retreat of the Greeks under XenophSn became one of the great feats of history. But the authority of the Persian king was gone in the West. Mysia, Pisidia, and Paphlagonia were all practically independent; Sparta protected the Greek colonies, and her forces under Derkyllidas and Agesilaos made themselves masters of Western Asia (B.C. 399-395), and might have anticipated Alexander had not Persian gold sowed dissension at home. A league was formed between Persia, Athens, and other Greek states; the Long Walls were rebuilt at Athens with Persian money, and Sparta was forced to sign the disgraceful peace of 446 APPENDIX V. Antalkidas (B.C. 387), by which all Asia was restored to the great king. In B.C. 379 Evagoras of Salamis, who, with Egyptian and Athenian help, had made Kypros and Kilikia independent and conquered Tyre, was finally crushed. But the decay of the empire could not be checked. The satraps of Phrygia and Kappadokia shook off their allegiance, and in B.C. 362 a general but unsuccessful revolt took place in Asia Minor and Syria. Three years later Artaxerx6s died at the age of ninety-four, according to the doubtful statement of Plutarch. His son and successor, Okhos, had already caused the deaths of three of his brothers, and his first act on mounting the throne was to destroy, as far as he could, the other princes of the royal family. His attempt to recover Egypt failed, and Phoenicia and Kypros declared themselves free. Idrieus, vassal king of Karia, however, reduced Kypros. Sidon, the head of the Phoenician revolt, was destroyed, and Egypt reconquered by the Persian general, the eunuch Bagdas, and the able Greek admiral Ment6r, the Rhodian. For six years there was peace, thanks to Bagdas, who had become Vizier, and Ment6r, who was entrusted with the protection of the sea-board. But in B.C. 338 Okhos was poisoned by his Vizier, who raised his son Arsis to the throne after murdering all his brothers. Two years afterwards Arse's also and his children were assassinated, and Bagdas now placed the crown on the head of a personal friend, Kodomannos, the "son of Arsanes. Kodomannos, who took the name of Dareios III., was not of the royal family, according to Strabo (xv. 3, 24), though this is contradicted by Dioddros (xvii. 5, 5). It was not long before he was called upon to contest his empire with Alexander of Makedon. In the spring of B.C. 334 Alexander crossed the Hellespont with a force of over 30,000 foot, and between four and five thousand horse. In May the battle of the Graneikos placed Asia Minor at his feet. Memnon, the brother of the Ehodian Mentdr, the only Persian general equal to the task of checking the Makedonian conqueror, died early in the following year, and Alexander was now free to advance into the heart of Persia. Dareios and his army were well nigh annihilated in the Pass of Issos on the Bay of Antioch (in November); his wife, mother, and baggage fell into the hands of the enemy ; Tyre and Gaza were besieged and captured; Egypt was occupied by the Greeks; and at the Oasis of Ammon Alexander was hailed as the son of Zeus. At length, in B.C. 331, the decisive moment came. A new army had been collected by the Persian king from his eastern dominions, and was strongly posted about thirty miles from the site of Nineveh THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 447 awaiting the attack of the Makedonians. The battle was fought in October at Gaugamela, twenty miles distant from Arbela, and ended with the total rout of the Persian host, the flight of Dareios, and the fall of his empire. Alexander entered Babylon in triumph, assumed imperial pomp at Susa, where the spoils carried from Greece by Xerxes were discovered and sent back, and, if we may believe the current story, fired the royal palace of Persepolis in a fit of drunken insanity. Dareios was then pursued, first to Ekbatana, next to Ehagse and Baktria, where the hapless monarch was seized and finally murdered by the satrap Bessos. The reduction of the rest of the Persian empire by Alexander quickly followed. Religion and Mythology.—The religion of Persia was Zoroastrianism. But the nature and teaching of Zoroastrianism varied at different times and in different localities. The inscriptions make it plain that the Zoroastrianism of Dareios and his successors was widely different from that of later times. The early populations of Media and Elam, dispossessed or overlaid by the Aryan invaders, had the same shamanistic form of religion as the Accadians of primitive Chaldea. They were grossly polytheistic, and the polytheism of Elam had in later days been largely affected by the religious beliefs and practices of Semitic Babylonia, more especially by the worship of Nana or Istar. On the other hand, the Iranian emigrants had monotheistic tendencies. The supreme god Ahura-mazda, " the lord who gives knowledge," tended to absorb all the other deities of the original Aryan creed. The gods of Vedic nature-worship became his attributes and creatures. But this nature-worship had included evil powers as well as beneficent powers, night as well as darkness, pain as well as pleasure, the serpent as well as the sun-god who slays him. Gradually the conflict between these opposites assumed a moral form in the minds of the Iranian wanderers ; the struggle between night and day, between the storm and the blue sky, of which the Vedic poets sang, was transformed into a struggle between good and evil. In place of the careless nature-worshipper of the Panjab, a race of stern and earnest Puritans grew up among the deserts and rugged mountains of Ariana. M. Darmesteter has tried to show that the transformation and development were natural. But the attempt is unsuccessful. Though there is much in Zoroastrianism (or Mazdeism) that is clearly a natural development out of the elements we find in Vedic religion,—though the fundamental ideas upon which Mazdeism rests have grown out of the conceptions common to all the primitive Aryans alike,—it is neverthe- 448 APPENDIX V. less impossible to explain the individual character that has been stamped upon it without assuming the existence of an individual founder. We must accept the historical reality of Zoroaster or Spitama Zarathustra. Zoroastrianism implies a prophet as much as Mohammedanism. According to the usual opinion, this prophet lived and taught in Baktriana. Zend, the language of the Avesta, the sacred book of Mazdeism, differs dialectically from the Old Persian spoken in Persia Proper by Dareios and his subjects, and is ordinarily believed to have been the language of Baktriana. M. Darmesteter, however, supposes the original home of Mazdeism to have been Atropate'ne1; but as he further supposes that Mazdeism did not take its start here till the sixth century B.C., his views do not clash with the received theory which makes Baktriana the first seat of Zoroastrianism and of the language of its sacred books. Another theory has been started by M. de Harlez.1 He makes Rhagse (now Kaleh Erij) and Mouru or Meru the birthplace of the new creed in the seventh century B.C. But Rhagse, again, under the shadow of Mount Demavend, only marks a stage in the western progress of the Iranian tribes ; and the same Parsi legend which relates that the prophet was born in Eai or Rhagse makes him teach his religion in Baktria at the court of King Vist&sp. A more important question, however, remains behind. The two scholars just mentioned not only think that Zend was the language of Aryan Media rather than of Baktria, but they also hold that Mazdeism itself, as embodied in the Avesta, was taught and promulgated by the Magi. In the revolt of the pseudo-Bardes M. Darmesteter sees not an uprising of the old non-Aryan faith, but an attempt to impose the peculiar tenets of the priestly tribe of Magians upon the rest of the people. The chief arguments in favour of this hypothesis are sought in the classical writers. Strabo (xv. 14) describes the Magi as a sacerdotal caste spread over the land, and Herodotos (i. 140) states that it was the Magi who practised the peculiarly Mazdean duty of killing noxious animals, and required the corpse to be devoured by birds, not buried in the ground. But in Strabo's time the old distinctions between the Aryan and the non-Aryan portions of the population had been obliterated, and the Greeks had come to apply the term Magian indiscriminately to the various priests and sorcerers of the East; while, as is shown in the note upon the passage, the statement of 1 See his exhaustive review of the subject in his Introduction & VEtude de V'Avesta, 1882. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 449 Herodotos admits of another interpretation, and is corrected by his own descriptions of the Magi elsewhere as a Median tribe, neither more nor less sacerdotal than the other five tribes mentioned along with them. Against these doubtful quotations we have the express testimony of Dareios himself, engraved on the rock of Behistun, where he tells us that the Magian usurpation had destroyed the temples of his gods and the sacred hymns of the Zoroastrian faith.1 According to Dr. Oppert the Behistun Inscription further informs us that the Avesta had existed before the days of the Magian revolt, and was restored by Dareios after the revolt was suppressed. He would thus render a clause at the end of the inscription found only in the " Protomedic " transcript: " By the favour of Ormazd I have made elsewhere a collection of texts in the Aryan language, which formerly did not exist. And I have made a text of the law and a commentary on the law, and the prayer and the translations. And this was written, and I promulgated it; then I restored the ancient book in all countries, and the people followed it." 2 The Persian equivalents of " the law " and " the prayer " are dbastd and zandi, " Avesta " and " Zend." "Whatever doubt may hang over the renderings of particular words, the general sense of this translation may be accepted; Dareios claims to have restored the ancient writings that had been destroyed or injured by the Magian revolt. It is highly probable that both Kyros and his son, as well as their predecessors, the kings of Anzan, had been almost equally responsible for the loss or neglect of the 1 Col. i. Par. 14. Persian text: Ayadand tyd Gaumata hya Magush iriyaka,adam,niyatr hymns and the sacred invocation and the worship." AS is an ideograph which properly means "sacred hymn." Gaitham, borrowed by the Ekmites under the form of gatas, must be connected with the gdthas of the Avesta. 2 The following is the literal rendering of the passage, the meaning of all the words of which is certain except the three written in italics : " B y the grace of Ormazd, I have made the writings for others in the Aryan language, which was not done before ; and the text (?) of the law and the knowledge of the law and the collection (?) and the . . . I made and wrote, and I sent abroad; then the old writings among all countries I restored for tie sake (?) of the people.'' 450 APPENDIX V. sacred books, and the fact that the people needed to be " taught" the law implies that among the Persians themselves a knowledge of the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism had been half forgotten. But the Avesta had not yet become a technical term. AbastA is rendered simply "law" and "laws" in the Elamite and Babylonian versions; it was the pious care of Dareios which first gave it its fixed and restricted sense. His words seem to show that the Zend text was translated into the Old Persian of his western provinces. We must not suppose, however, that the Avesta was completed at once, or that the beliefs and customs of the Sassanian age were familiar to the Persians in the age of the Akhsemenians. Dareios speaks of other gods by the side of Ormazd; Ormazd is supreme among them; he has created them, like all things else; but nevertheless other gods also exist. Temples, too, are erected to him and them, contrary to the later teaching of Mazdeism. The dead were buried, sometimes alive, and there is no trace of those elaborate regulations in regard to purity which occupy so large a part of the Avesta, and must have been devised, as M. Breal has shown, at a time when Mazdeism had ceased to be the religion of the state. In fact, the sacred literature of Zoroastrianism was a slow and gradual growth, like the sacred literatures of most other religions. The five Gathas or " hymns," written in an older dialect than the rest of the Avesta, form the earliest portion of this literature. They are embodied in the Yasna, which, like the Vispe'rad, is a collection of litanies for the sacrifice. Together with the Vendidad, a compilation of religious laws and mythical tales, the Yasna and Vispe'rad make up the Avesta properly so called. By the side of this stands the Khorda Avesta or " Small Avesta," consisting of short prayers, and divided into the five Gah, the thirty formulae of the Sir6zah, the three Afrigan, and the six Nyayish. To these are generally added the Yashts or hymns of praise, and a number of fragments, of which the most important is the Hadhokht Nosk. The sacredness of the Avesta is to some extent reflected on certain literature written in Pahlavi or mediaeval Persian towards the end of the Sassanian period, among which may be named the Bundehesh, an exposition of Mazdean cosmogony and mythology. This sacred literature, however, is but a fragment of what once existed; according to Parsi tradition, the Vendidad is the only survivor of the twenty-one Nosks or books which formed the primitive Avesta revealed by Ormazd to Zoroaster, the eighteen Yashts were originally thirty in number, and the THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 451 Bundehesh has many references which are not found in existing Zend texts. Hermippos1 analysed 2,000,000 lines in the books of Zoroaster, and Pausanias heard Magian priests singing hymns from a book.2 A tradition which may be traced back to the Sassanian age asserts that the present Avesta consists of the fragments put together by the priests, partly from memory, after the destruction of the sacred books by Alexander the Great, and the Mohammedan conquest brought with it further injury and loss. Dr. Oppert thinks that a reference to Angro-Mainyus, the evil spirit, is found in an inscription of Dareios. However this may be, it is pretty clear that the distinctive dualism of Zoroastrian doctrine was already fully developed in Akhsemenian times. The world was divided into the mutually-hostile kingdoms of good and evil, though Ormazd (Ahuramazda) had originally created all things, and evil would therefore be again swallowed up in the kingdom of good. On the side of Ormazd and the faithful follower of his prophet stand the Ahuras or "living" spirits, called "gods" by Dareios, and subsequently converted into the Yazatas (Izeds) or angels, and the seven AmeshaSpentas (Amshashpands), " the undying and well-doing ones." These, originally identical with the Adityas of Hindu mythology, became the deified abstractions, Vohu-mano ("good thought"), Asha Vahishta (" excellent holiness "), Khshathra vaviya (" perfect sovereignty "), Spenta Armaiti (" divine piety "), Haurvatat (" health "), and Ameretat ("immortality"). But Armaiti had once been the goddess of earth, like Vayu, the wind-god, who appears in the Gathas, Varena "the sky," and Mithra " the sun." From the first Varena had been identified with Ormazd, or rather Varena was the supreme being specially invoked as Ahura-mazda, while Mithra became in time his material symbol. Under the Akhaemenian dynasty, however, the complete absorption of Mithra into Ormazd had not yet been effected; and though Dareios shows no taint of Mithra worship, his descendant Artaxerxes Mnemdn, corrupted by Babylonian superstition, adopted the popular cult, and not only invoked the sun-god Mithra, but even set up images to Anahit or Tanata, the Babylonian Nana, at Susa, at Persepolis, at Ekbatana, at Babylon, at Damascus, at Sardes, and at Bak'tra. The Mithraic worship of later days, which symbolised the passage of the sun into Taurus by the figure of a bull slain by a man, was the last survival of a faith that had once penetrated deeply into the minds of the people. 1 3 Pliny, Ar. H. xxx. 1, 2 ; Diog. L;UM t. Frocem. 8. v. 27, 3. Cp. Herod, i. 132. 452 APPENDIX V. Angro-Mainyus (Ahriman), "the dark spirit," the opponent of Ormazd, was primitively the darkness of night and storm. The Devas, or "gods," who had assisted him in the old mythological combat between night and day, became the demons of Mazdeism, and some of the gods of light also were in time included among them. The archangels and angels of good were matched by those of evil. Ako-man6 (" bad thought") opposes Vohu-man6 (" good thought"), and with his companions, Sauru, the arrow of death, Indra, once the raingod of India, Naunhaithya (the Vedic Dioskuri), Tauru and Zairi, sickness and decay, form the council of the prince of darkness. Whatever Ormazd creates, Ahriman destroys. At the head of the army of Ormazd is the priest-god Sraosha (Serosh), who first offered sacrifice to Ahura and sang the holy hymns. Thrice each day and night he descends to smite Angro-Mainyus and his crew,—the Kahvaredhas and Kahvaredhis, the Kayadhas and Kayadhis, the Zandas and Yatus, Aeshma (" the raving "), the leader of the Drvants, Drukhs, " destruction," Daivis, " deceit," and Drivis, " poverty." Sraosha dwelt in a palace of a thousand pillars, ornamented without by the stars, lit within by its own light, and reared on the peak of Elburz or Demavend, to which the Olympos of Accadian and Protomedic mythology had been transferred. The legend had filtered into Mazdeism through a " Protomedic " channel. The weapons with which the worshipper of Ormazd had to fight against his spiritual foes were prayer, sacrifice, purity, the sacrament of the Haoma, and various ceremonies, among which may be particularised the use of the Jchrafsthraghna or instrument for destroying noxious animals,—the creation of Ahriman,—and the baresma (barsom) or divining rod, which had played a large part in Accadian religion, and must have been borrowed from the " Protomedic" part of the population. Sacrifice, which consisted partly of offerings, partly of prayers, aided the gods as well as men. The costliest victim was the horse, human sacrifices being ascribed to the' Persians by Greek writers erroneously. The flesh of the victim was eaten by the priest and the worshippers; the "soul" of it only was enjoyed by Ormazd. The Haoma was the Soma of the Indians, an intoxicating plant which symbolised the powers of vegetable life, and the juice of which was drunk by the faithful for the benefit of themselves and the gods. Answering to the yellow haoma of earth is the white haoma of heaven, which will make men immortal on the day of resurrection. For the Zoroastrians believed in the immortality of the soul, and at least as THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 453 early as the time of Theopompos' in a resurrection of the body. It was from them that Mohammed borrowed the notion of the narrow bridge {chinvat pere.tu) which the soul of the good passed safely by the help of Sraosha, while the wicked fell from it into the bottomless pit of Angro-Mainyus. Fire was from the first the sacred element; it was the material manifestation of Ormazd, and nothing was allowed to pollute it. At one time, no doubt, fire itself was worshipped, like the primitive Aryan hearth on which it had originally blazed, and Atar, the fire-god, held high rank among the Zoroastrians ; but eventually it became the medium through which the worshipper approached his deity. Earth and water were also reverenced, and since a corpse would have defiled these sacred elements, it was left to be devoured by the beasts and birds. The dog was a sacred animal, perhaps because of his scavenger-like habits; but it is now difficult to explain the principles upon which certain animals were handed over to Ormazd and certain others to Ahriman. The existence of the world was held to be limited. After 12,000 years it was to end in winter or storm, to be followed by an eternal spring, when the earth would be repeopled by the risen bodies of the righteous. It is possible that this doctrine was taught as early as the time of Dareios. But a later date must be assigned to the further conception of the final victory of good and absorption of evil into it. This conception led to the pure monotheism which believed that above and beyond both Ormazd and Ahriman there was one abiding principle, called by various sects Space or Infinite Light or Fate or Zrvan akarana, " boundless time." The early date, however, at which the belief grew up may be judged from the fact that Eude'mos, the pupil of Aristotle, already makes time and space the first principles of the Magi.2 But it is unknown to the greater part of the Avesta, from which we may infer the age of the latter. This is not the only instance in which we can assign a relative date to different portions of the sacred book. When the tenth Fargard or chapter of the Vendldad was written, and the nineteenth Yasht composed, the opposition between the six archangels and the six arch-fiends, mentioned in the Bundehesh and already found in Plutarch, was unknown, and, as M. Darmesteter says, " the stars were not yet members of the Ormazdean army when the bulk of the eighth Yasht was compiled." But the old opposition between the dthrava or Mazdean priest and the 1 Diog. Laert. Promm. 9 ; Mn. Gaz. Dial, de anim. immort. p. 77. 2 Ap. Damascium, ed. Kopp 384. 454 APPENDIX V. •magus or " Protomedic " sorcerer was already passing away j under the unifying influences of the Persian empire magian and priest became inextricably confounded; the magian adopted the outlines of the Zoroastrian faith, and in later days hardened them into a system of sacerdotal laws and lifeless ceremonies; while the priest took over the beliefs of the older population, modifying and altering them in the process. Thus, as M. Lenormant has shown, the spirits of the shamanistic cult of Accad and Elam were changed into the fravashis or fervers of Mazdeism, the genii which correspond with all created things, and watch over the servants of Ormazd. A rich mythology was associated with the religion of Zoroaster. The cosmogony of his followers and the successive creations of Ormazd, the places, possibly, occupied by the Iranians in their westward migration, may be read in the Bundehesh and the first fargard of the Vendldad. The paradise of the Aryan races was laid in Airyanem vaejo, between the Oxus and Jaxartes, where they were ruled in the golden age by Yima, the son of Vivanghvat,—called Yama, son of Vivasvat, in the Veda,—the first man, the lord of the departed, originally the evening darkness. In the Shahnameh of Firdusi, the great Epic of mediaeval Persia, Yima became Jemshid. But the sovereign light, the hwarend, was carried off from Yima Khshaeta, " the shining Yima," by the three-headed serpent of night, Azhi-dahaka, the biting snake, the tyrant Zohak of Firdusi's epic. Thra§taona, the son of Athwyd, was the chosen hero who subdued the monster, and whom the Shahnameh has changed into Feridun. Born in the " fourcornered Varena " or heaven, he is the Vedic Traitana or Trita Aptya, " the dawn, the son of the waters," whose name reappears in the Homeric epithet of Athena, rpiroyivna. The serpent was bound to the highest peak of Demlvend, not to be loosed till the end of the world, when he will be slain by Keresaspa, the Gershasp of Firdusi, the KrisMshva of Hindu legend. Keresaspa has already killed other monstrous creations of Ahriman, Shravara, the Greek Kerberos, among them, and his reign restored the glory of that of Yima. When Azhi-daMka is finally slain, a son, Saoshyant, will be born to Zoroaster who will bring eternal life and light to glorified mankind, as his father once brought them the law and the truth. Art and Literature.—Persian art was derived from Babylonia through that of Susiana. But it lacked the humorous freedom of Babylonian art; it was stiff, severe, and formal. The carved gems were poor imitations of those of Chaldea; even the signet of Dareios is THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 455 rudely cut, and shows little artistic skill. The palaces were raised on lofty platforms like those of Babylonia, where such a protection from the marshy ground was needful; and the platforms were adorned with broad, handsome nights of stairs which led to their top. The buildings which stood on them were comparatively small and low, but this was compensated by a profusion of light and elegant columns. The columns, again, were due to Babylonian inspiration, and their capitals, with sitting figures of animals, placed back to back and turned sideways towards the spectators, resemble those of Babylon and Nineveh. The colouring of the walls and ceilings was also borrowed from Babylonia, and the bas-reliefs with which the. walls were ornamented find their counterpart in the palaces of Assyria. But the subjects were treated in Babylonian and not Assyrian style; Gizdhubar, transformed into a Persian hero, again slays the demon monster with all the thickness of limb that characterised Babylonian art, and the Babylonian rosette makes its appearance everywhere. On the other hand, the long processions of men and animals, the winged solar disk that symbolises Ormazd, and the struggle between the lion and the bull, remind us of Assyria, though the treatment is thoroughly Babylonian. We feel that the same Accadian artists who inspired the art of Babylonia must have inspired the art of Persia as well as the lost art of Elam which preceded it. As in Babylonia, the animal figures are better than the human ones. The winged bulls which guard the entrances of the palaces are Assyrian; not so, however, the fashion of ornamenting the panels of the doorways with figures in relief. On the whole, Persian work in relief is clumsy, but vigorous. The same substantial solidity characterises the architecture, in spite of the forests of pillars by which its general effect was lightened. The platforms and staircases are alike massive, the walls are thick, the doors too narrow for their height. On the other hand, a spirit of harmony and proportion is everywhere observable. The doors exactly face each other; the columns are erected in uniform rows. Egyptian influence may perhaps be detected in the propylsea through which the royal palaces were approached, as well as in the head-dress of the man who has the attributes of the winged Asiatic goddess on one of the pillars of the tomb falsely ascribed to Kyros at Murghab. Persian architecture may best be studied in the remains of the palace near Persepolis, burnt by Alexander. The buildings erected on the different terraces which form the platform were not connected with one another. Of the five largest buildings, one was the palace 456 APPENDIX V. of Dareios, the second that of Xerxes, and the third that of Artaxerxe"s Okhos, while the other two are known as the Chehl Minar or hall of a hundred columns—supported as it was by a hundred columns in ten rows of ten, each thirty-five feet high and twenty feet distant from its companion—and the Eastern Palace. The latter contains four groups of pillars, the largest being a square of thirty-six pillars in six rows of six, and covering an area of over 20,000 square feet. The rooms seem to have been built round the walls of the several palaces, while a portico of columns fronted the visitor. The tombs of the Persian monarchs consisted of chambers cut out of the rock, that at Murgblb alone excepted. Persian literature has perished, with the exception of the older parts of the Avesta, though the references to it in Herodotos, Kt§sias, and other classical writers, show that a good deal once existed. The so-called historical literature, however, seems to have resembled Firdusi's Shahnameh, or the histories of foreign nations given by Arabic authors, and to have been mostly legendary. The cursive writing employed for this literature is unknown. The cuneiform alphabet, used for monumental purposes, was probably introduced in the reign of Dareios. The tomb at Murghab, which bears the cuneiform legend, " I am Kyros, the king, the Akhsemenian," cannot belong to the older Kyros, since Murghab was not Pasargadae, where he was buried. It is possibly the sepulchre of the satrap of Egypt, the brother of Xerxes, who is called Akhaemenes by Kt^sias. This would explain the Egyptian head-dress of the sculpture which adorns it. It may, however, have been intended to commemorate a cult of Kyros; • at any rate, the figure represented in the sculptures is not that of a human being, but of a god. The cuneiform alphabet was last employed by Artaxerxe"s Okhos. Trade and Manners.—The Persians were not a commercial people, and the trade of the empire was therefore left in the hands of their subjects. The coinage of Dareios was; however, remarkably pure. Various devices were cut upon one side of the coin, but the only inscription known is one in Greek letters which records the name Pythagoras. Pythagoras may have been a captain of the mercenaries, since a Greek inscription on the upturned base of a column at Susa is dedicated by "Pythagoras, son of Aristarkhos, captain of the bodyguard," to " his friend Arreneides, the son of Arreneides, governor of Susiana." Attic coins were allowed to pass current in Persia, after being impressed with a mark in. the shape of a bar. THE PERSIAN EMPIEE. 457 The Persian form of government after the reign of Dareios has already been described (p. 442). Its nearest parallel in modern times is that of the Turkish empire. But the exaggerated flattery and meanspirited subservience of the Persian towards his monarch would be hard to match. His dress implied a cold climate. Drawers and boots were worn by all classes, stockings and gloves by the rich. Horses were largely employed both in war and in peace, and the Persian bowmen were celebrated. Spiked balls were strewn over the field of battle by Dareios Kodomannos, and there were six ranks of militaiy officers under the commander*in- chief, who was always a Persian or a Mede. Prisoners of war were treated kindly, unless they happened to be rebels. The luxury and etiquette of the court were proverbial. The harem was guarded by a dense body of eunuchs, and the king seldom emerged from the secresy of his palace. Cooks and " tasters " abounded, and the king reclined on a couch with golden feet, drinking the wine of Helbon, while an inferior beverage was served to his guests seated below. Drunkenness, it may be observed, was as much a Persian failing as truthfulness was reputed to be a Persian virtue. Hunting, more especially battue shooting in paradeisoi or enclosed parks, shared the monarch's time with diceplaying, at which large bets were lost and won. Criminals were put to death for slight offences and in peculiarly cruel ways, and distinctions of class were rigidly maintained. Polygamy was allowed, education neglected, and the queen-mother permitted to exercise an injurious influence over the king, the court, and the empire. In short, the empire contained within it from the first all the elements of decay, and the Persian character was one which could with difficulty be respected and never loved. DYNASTIC TABLES. KINGS OF EGYPT. Prom the Egyptian Chronicle (Synkellos, Chron. 51 ; Euseh. Chron. 6). Egypt was ruled by thirty dynasties for 36,525 years, the first series of princes being Auritfe, the second Mestraeans. and the third Egyptians. Egyptians. ;he third Hephsestos. 20th, Thebans; 8 kings, 228 years. 21st, Tanites ; 6 kings, 121 years. Helios for 30,000 years. Kronos and the other twelve gods, 3984 22d, Tanites; 3 kings, 48 years. 23d, Thebans ; 2 kings, 19 years. years. 24th, Saites ; 3 kings, 44 years. Eight demigods for 217 years. 25th, Ethiopians ; 3 kings, 44 years. Fifteen generations for 443 years. 16th dynasty, Tanites ; 8 kings for 190 26th, Memphites ; 7 kings, 177 years. 27th, Persians; 5 kings, 124 years. years. 28th, . . . . 17th, Memphites; 4 kings, 103 years. 29th, Tanites ; . . . kings, 39 years. 18th, Memphites ; 14 kings, 348 years. 30th, Tanite; 1 king, 18 years. 19th, Thebans ; 5 kings, 194 years. MANETHO (as quoted by Julius Africanus). (The excerpts of Africanus are only known from Georgios Synkellos and Eusebios, Chron. I. 19, 20.) DYN. 11.—Continued. DYN. I.—THINITKS; 8 kings. fegiu.1 6. Khaires (unnamed b y Eus.) . 17 1. Menes 62 7. Nepherkheres (the 7th successor 2. AthSthis, his son . . . 57 of Biophis, Eus.) . . . 25 3. Kenkenes, his son . . . 3 1 8. Sesokhris . . . . 4 8 4. Ouenephes, his son . . . 2 3 9. Kheneres (unnamed by Eus.) . 30 5. Ousaphaidos, his son (Ousaphae's, Eus.) 20 . 302 Sum . 6. Miebidos, his son (Niebaes, (Eus.. . 297) Eus.) 26 7. Semempses, his son . . . 1 8 8. Bienakhes, his son (Oubienthes, DYN. III.—MEMPHITES ; 9 kings. or Vibesthes, Eus.) . . 26 1. NekhertSphes (Nekherokhis, 28 Eus.) . . . . Sum . . 253 29 (Eus.. . 252) 2. Tosorthros (Sethorthos, Eus.) 7 (Really . 263) 3. Tyreis (unnamed by Eus.) i. Mesokhris (omitted by Eus.) 17 5. S&uphis (unnamed by Eus.) 16 DYN. II.—THINITES ; 9 kings. 6. Tosertasis (unnamed by Eus.) 19 7. Akhes (unnamed by Eus.) 42 1. Boe-thos (Bokhos, Eus.) . . 38 8. Sephouris (unnamed by Eus.) 30 2. Kaiekhos (Kh&os, or Kekhous, 9. Kerpheres (unnamed by Eus.) 26 (Eus.) 39 3. Bin6thris (Biophis, Eus.) . 47 Sum . 214 4. Tlas (unnamed by Eus.) . . 1 7 (Eus.. 5. Sethenes (unnamed by Eus.) . 41 197) DYNASTIC TABLES. 460 DTN. IV.—MEMPHITES ; 8 kings DYN. X. —19 HEEAKLEOPOLITES for 185 years. Eegnal Tears. DYN. XL—16 THEBANS for 43 years, Sfiris (unnamed by Ens.). . 29 of whom Ammenemes reigned 16 Souphis I. (3d king of dyn., years (after the 16 Thebans, Eus.) Mis.) 63 Souphis II. (unnamed by Eus.) 66 End of Manetho's first book, the kings Menkheres (unnamed by Eus.) 63 of the first eleven dynasties reignRatoises (unnamed by Eus.) . 25 ing altogether 2300 years and 70 Bikheres (unnamed by Eus.) . 22 days (really 2287 years 70 days). Seberkhere's (unnamed by Eus.) 7 Thamphthis (unnamed by Eus.) 9 DYN. XII.—7 THEBANS. (Bus.: 19). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Sum . (Eus.. (Really . 277 . 448) . 284) DYN. V.—ELEPHANTINES ; 9 kings. (Eus.: 31 kings, including Othios, the first, and Phiops ; the others unnamed.) 1. Ouserkheres . . . . 2 8 2. Sephres 13 3. Nepherkheres . . . . 2 0 4. Sisirgs 7 5. Kheres 20 6. Rathoures . . . . 4 4 7. Menkheres . . . . 9 8. Tankheres . . . . 4 4 9. Ounos (Obnos) . . . 3 3 Sum . (Really . 248 . 218) DYN. VI.—MEMPHITES ; 6 kings 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. (no number in Eus.) Othoes Phios Methou-Souphis . . PhiSps (lived 100 years) . Menthe-Souphis . . Nitokris 30 53 . 7 . 94 . 1 12 1. Sesonkhosis (Gesongosis), son of Ammenemes . . . . 46 2. Ammanemes . . . . 38 48 3. Ses6stris 4. Lakhares (Lamaris or Lampares, Eus.), the builder of the Labyrinth 5. Ameres (unnamed by Eus.) 6. Amenemes (unnamed by Eus.) 7. Skemiophris, his sister (unnamed by Eus.) . (Eus. makes the total of the three last reigns 42 years.) Sum . 160 (Eus.. 245) DYN. XIII.—THEBANS ; 60 kings for 453 years. DYN. XIV.—XOITES ; 76 kings for 134 years (Eus. : 484 years). DYN. X V . — S H E P H E B B S ; Sum . . 203 (So Eus.; really 197) Sum . DYN. DYN. VII.—70 MEMPHITES for 70 days (Eus.: 5 kings for 75 days, or years according to the Armenian version). 6 Phoe- nician strangers at Memphis for 284 years (Eus.: Thebans for 250 years). 1. Saites 19 2. Bncm 44 3. Staan 50 4. Arkles 49 5. Aph6bis 61 XVI. — HELLENIC . 284 SHEI<- HEEBS ; 32 kings for 582 years (Eus.: 5 Thebans for 190 years). DYN. XVII.—SHEPHEEDS ; 43 kings for 151 years, and THEBANS ; 43 DYN. VIII.—27 MEMPHITES for 146 years (Eus.: 5 kings for 106 years, or 9 kings according to the Arm. version). DYN. IX.—19 HBEAKLEOPOMTES for 409 years (Eus. : 4 kings for 100 years). 1. AkhthOes . . . . * 1. 2. 3. 4. kings for 151 years (Eus.: 5 Shepherds, Phoenician strangers, for 103 years. Saites Bn6n Arklgs (Arm. version) . Aphophis (Arm. vers.) . Sum . 19 40 30 14 . 103 DYNASTIC TABLES. DYN. XVIII.—THEBANS; 16 kings (Eus.: 14 kings). Begnal Years. 1. Amfisis . . . . .25 2. KhebrSs {Eus. : KhebrSn) . 13 3. Amen6phthis (Eus. : Amen5phis, 21 years) . . .24 4. Amensis (omitted by Eus.) . 22 5. Misaphris (Eus. : Miphris, 12 years) 13 6. MisphragmouthSsis 26 7. Touthm6sis . 9 8. Amen6phis (Memn6n) 31 9. Horos (Eus. : Oros) 37 10. Akherreis (Eus.: Akhenkherses, 16 or 12 years) . 32 . 11. RathSs (omitted by Eus.) 6 12. Khebres (Eus.: Akherres, 8 years) . . . . . 12 13. Akherres (Eus. : Kherres, 15 years) 12. . . . . 5 14. A m e s s S s ( . . • Armais Danaos) 15. (. y) . 1 Ramessgs (Eus..- 68 years) 16. A Amen6phis 6 h i ((Eus.: 40 years) . 19 Sum . (Eus.. . 263 . 348) DYN. XIX.—THEBANS ; 7 kings (Eus. : 5 kings). 1. Sethds (Eus. : 55 years) . . 51 2. Rapsakes (Eus. : Rampses, 66 years) . . . . . 61 3. Ammenephthes (Eus.: Ainenephthis, 8 years) . . . 20 4. Harnesses (omitted by Eus.) . 60 5. Amenemes (Eus. : 26 years) . " 5 6. Thoudris (Polybos) ." . . 7 Sum . . 209 (Eus.. . 194) In the Id book of Manetho are 96 kings for H121 years. DYN. XX.— THEBANS; 12 kings for 135 years (Eus.: 172 or 178 years). 1 DYN. XXL—TANITES; 7 kings. 1. Smendes. . • . . .26 2. Psousennes (Eus.: 41 years) . 46 3. Nephelkheres (Eus. : Nepherkheres) 4 4. AmenQphthis . . . . 9 5. Osokh6r 6 1 Synkellos gives in t h e 20th d y n a s t y :— Nekhepsos . Psamraoutliis . . . • 19 years. . 13 4 Okhuras „ ,, 461 Regnal Years. DYN. XXI.—Continued. 6. Psinakhes 7. Psousenn&s (Eus. : 35 years) 9 14 130 130) 114) Sum . (Eus.. (Really DYN. XXII.—BUBASTITES ; 9 kings (Eus. : 3'kings). 1. Sesonkhis (Eus.: SesonkhSsis). 21 2. Osorth6n . . . .15 3. 4, 5. Unnamed (omitted by Eus.) 25 6. Takelothis . . . .13 7, 8, 9. Unnamed (omitted by Eus.) 42 Sum . (Eus.. (Really . 120 . 44) .116) DYN. XXIII.—TANITES ; 4 kings (Eus.: 3 kings). 1. Petoubates (Eus.: Petoubastes, 25 years) . . . . 40 2. Osorkho Herakles (Eus. : Osor8 thdn, 9 years) 3. Psammos . . . . 10 4. Zet (omitted by Eus.) 31 Sum . 89 44) (Eus.. DYN. XXIV.—ONE SAITE. Bokkhoris the Wise (Eus.: 44 years) 6 DYN. XXV.—ETHIOPIANS ; 3 kings. 1. Sabakon (Eus. : 12 years). . 8 2. Sebikh6s, his son (Eus.: 12 years) 14 3. Tearkos (iifos..-Tarakos, 20.years) 18 Sum . (Eus.. . . 40 44) DYN. XXVI.—SAITES ; 9 kings. (Eus. : 1. Ammeris the Ethiopian, 18 or 12 years.) 1. Stephinates (Eus. : 2. Stephinathis) 2. Nekhepsos (Eus.: 3.) . . 3. Nekhao (Eus.: i. for 6 years) . Psammetikhos (Eus.: 5. for 44 or 45 years) . . . .5 5. Nekhao (Eus.: 6.) . . . Kertos . . • . 1 6 years. Rhampsis . . . 45 ,, Amenses, or Ameneines . 26 ,, . 14 years. 7 6 8 4 6 462 6. 7. 8. 9. DYNASTIC TABLES. Regnal DYN. XXIX.—MENDESIANS ; 4 DYN. XXVI.— Continued. Eegnal Years. kings. Years. Psammouthis (Eus. : 7. Psam1. Nepherites I. (or Nekherites) . mouthis II., or Psammatikhos, 13 2. AkhSris for 17 years) . . . . 6 3. Psammouthe's . . . . 1 Ouaplivis {Eus..- 8. for 25 years) 19 [Eus. inserts Mouth6s here for AmSsis (Eus.: 9. for 42 years). 44 1 year.] Psammekherites (omitted by Eus.) 4 150J 167) •Sum . (EMS. . DTN.XXVII.—PERSIANS; 8kings. 1. Kambyses, in the 5th year of his reign (Eus.: for 3 years) . 2. Dareios, son of Hystaspes (Eus. prefixes the Magian 7 months) 21 3. Xerxgs . . . . 4. Artabanos (omitted by Eus.) 7 mths. . 41 5. Artaxerxfis 2 mths. 6. Xerxgs II. . . . 7 mths. 7. Sogdianos . 19 8. Dareios, son of XerxSs DYN. XXVIII.—ONE SAITE. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. . . . . 4 mths. Sum . . 20i DYN. XXX.—SEBENNYTES ; 3 kings. 1. NektanebesI.(#MS.:forlOyears) 18 2. Te6s 2 3. NektanebesII.(i?Ks.:for8years) 18 Sum . . 38 (Eus.. . 20) DYN. XXXI.—PERSIANS ; 3 kings. 1. Okhos, in his 20th year (Eus. : for 6 years) . . . . 2. Arse's (Eus.: for 4 years). . . 120£) 3. Dareios (Eus.: for 6 years) . Sum . (Eus. . Amyrtaios 4. Nepherites I I . . 6 Sum . (Eus.. 2 3 i . 9 . 16) ERATOSTHENES (as quoted by Synkellos from the Excerpt of ApollodSros of Athens). The Theban kings are :— Years. Menes, the Thinite, whose name means "everlasting" . . .62 Athcthgs, son of Menes, whose name means "born of Hermes " (Thoth) . 59 Athothes II. . . . . . . . . 32 Diabies, son of Ath6thes, whose name means "friendly to others" . 19 PemphSs (? Semphfis), son of Ath6thes, whose name means "son of Herakles" . . . . . . . . 18 Toigar Amakhos Momkheiri, the Memphite, i.e. " man - avenger, redundant in limbs" . . . . . .79 Stoikhos, his son, i.e. "Ares the senseless " . . . . 6 Gosormies, i.e. " desire of all" (?) . . . . . .30 Mares, his son, i.e. " gift of the s u n " . . . . .26 Anoyphis, i.e. "long-haired" . . . . . .20 Sirios, i.e. "son of the pupil of the eye," or, as others, " n o t to be bewitched by the evil eye" . . . . . .18 Knoubos Gneuros, i.e. " the golden son of the golden " . . .22 Eayosis, i.e. "chief ruler" . . . . . . .13 Biyris . . . . . . . . .10 Safiphis, i.e. " the long-haired, or, as others, " the extortioner " . . 29 Sa6phis II. . . . . . . . . .27 Moskheres, i.e. " gift of the sun " . . . . . .31 Mosthes . . . . . . . .33 Pammes Arkhonde's . . . . . _ .35 Apappos, the very great . . . . o n e hour less than 100 Ekheskosokaras • • • • • . . . ! Nitokris, a woman, i.e. " Athena the victorious " . . . 6 Myitaios Amni6nodotos ("gift of Anmn") , . _ .22 Thyosimares, " t h e strong," i.c. " t h e s u n " . . . ! 12 DYNASTIC TABLES. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 81. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 463 Years. 8 18 7 12 Tliinillos, i.e. " the augmenter of his father's strength " . . . Semphroukrate's, i.e. " Heraklgs Harpokrates" . . . . Khouther Tauros, a tyrant . . . . . . Meures Philoskoros . . . . . . . Kh6maephtha Kosmos Philephaistos ("world-loving Pthah," kheper meren-Pthah) . . . . . . . .11 Soikynios Okho, a tyrant . . . . . . .60 Peteathyres . . . . . . . .16 Ammenemes II. . . . . . . .23 Sistosikherm&, " strength of Herakles" . . . . .55 Mares . . . . . . . . . 43 Siphoas, i.e. "Hermes, son of Hephaistos" (Thoth, son of Pthah) . 5 Phrour6n, i. e. the Nile . . . . . . 5 (or 19) Amouthantaios . . . . . . . .63 Apolloddros added 53 other names, which are not given by Synkellos. HERODOTOS. Minds. 18 Ethiopians, and Queen Nitokris. Mceris. Sesostris. Pher6n, his son. Pr6teus, a Memphite. Rhampsinitos. Kheops for 50 years. Kephren, his brother, for 56 years. Mykerinos, son of Kheops. Asykhis. Anysis, the blind. SabakSn, the Ethiopian, 50 years. Anysis restored. Seth8s, the priest of Pthah. The 12 kings of the Dodekarkhy. Psammetikhos for 54 years. NekhSs, his son, 11 years. Psammis, his son, 6 years. Aprils, his son, 25 years. Amasis, an usurper, 44 years. Psarumenitos, his son, 6 months. Oukhoreus II., his son, the founder of Memphis. Igyptos, his son. Then 12 generations. Mceris. Ses66sis I. Ses66sis II. After many kings, Amasis, who was conquered by Aktisanes, the Ethiopian. Mendes, or Marrhos, who built the Labyrinth. Interregnum for 5 generations. Ketes, or Proteus. Rhemphis. 7 kings, of whom one was Neilos. Khembes, or Khemmis, the Memphite, for 50 years. Kephren, or Khabryas, his brother or son. Mykerinos, son of Khemmis. Tnephakhthos (Plutarch's Tekhnatis). BokkhSris, the Wise, his son. After many years Sabakon, the Ethiopian. Interregnum of 2 years. 12 nomarchs for 18 years. Psammetikhos, the Saite, for 54 years. DIODOROS. After 4 generations Apries for 22 years. Menas. Then 54 kings for more than 1400 Amasis, 55 years. years. DiodSros also names Sasykhis, OsyBousiris. Then eight of his descendants, the last be- mandyas, and 5 queens, and states that ing Bousiris II., the founder of Thebes. according to some the first Pyramid was Oukhoreus I., the 7th in descent from built by Armaios, the second by Amasis, and the third by Inaron. Bousiris II. THE ARABIC WRITERS. I. The Dynasty before Adam ; Gian ben Gian builds the Pyramids. II. 1. Kraus, 5th descendant of Adam, son of Mesr, builds Mesr, and reigns 180 years. 2. Tegar, or Natras, his son. 464 3. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. DYNASTIC TABLES. Mesram, the magician, his brother. Gamgam, the magician, his son. Aryak, the sage, his son. Lukhanam, his son. Khasalim, his son, invented the Kilometer. Harsal, or Husal, his son, in whose reign Noah was born. Yadonsak, who first made canals. Semrond, his son. Sariak, or Sarkak, Ms son. Sahaluk. Saurid, the wise, for 107 years. Built the three pyramids of Gizeh, and was buried in the largest of them. Hargib, his son, the chemist, for 99 years. "Was buried in the pyramid of Dashur which he had built. Menaos, or Menkaus, his son, the tyrant, killed by a fall from his horse. Ekros, his son. Ermelinns, not related to the royal family. Firaun, his cousin ; asked King Darmasel to kill Noah and burn the ark ; was drowned by the Deluge while drunk. III. 1. Bansar, or Beisar, son of Cush, saved in the ark with the high-priest of Egypt; built Mesr or Memphis. 2. Mesr, his son, who divided Egypt between his three sons 3. Koptim who had Middle Egypt, Ashmun who had Upper Egypt, and Athrib who had the Delta. 4. Koptarim, son of Koptim. 5. Budesir, his son. 6. Gad, or Gadim, his son. 7. Sedeth, his son. 8. Mankaus, his son. 9. Kasaus, his son. 10. Marbis, his son. 11. Asmar, Ms son. 12. Kitin, Ms son. 13. Elsabas, his son. 14. Sa, his son, who built Sais. 15. Malil, his son. 16. Hadares, Ms son. 17. Kheribas, his son. 18. Kalkan, his son. 19. Totis, or Tulis, his son, for 70 years ; poisoned by his daughter. 20. Interregnum. 21. Kharoba, or Juriak, daughter of Totis. IV. Egypt conquered by the Amalekites. Among their kings were Riyan, whose minister was Joseph. Darem, his son, a tyrant, drowned in the Nile. Succeeded by Kathim. Kabus, grandson of Riyan. Walid, his brother, the Adite, in the time of Moses, drowned in the Red Sea. Daluka, his daughter, built the walls of Mesr. V. Darkum, a young Egyptian, drove out the Amalekites. Ashya . . . . f.. Firaun el Araj ("the lame"), conquered by Nebuchadrezzar, the last native king of Egypt. DYNASTIC TABLES. 465 THE MONUMENTS. D T N . I. Tablets of Abydos. Sakkarah. 1. Mena. 2. Teta. 3. Atota. 4. Ata. ... S.... 6. Hesep (or Sapti). 7. Merba. Merbaipen. 8. Semen Ptah ? 9. Kabeh. Kabehu. Turin Papyrus. Mena. Atet. Manetho. Menes. Ath6this. Kenkenes. Uenephes I. Uenephes II. Usaphaidos. Miebidos. Semempses. Bienekhes. DYN. II. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. S. 9. Butau. Kakau. Bainnteru. U.tnas. Sent 1 ... Tata I. ... ... 10. ... 11. ... Kakau. Bainuter. Utnas. Sent. Aakar. Boethos. Kaiekhos. Binothris. Tlas. Sethengs. Khaires. Nofer-ka-ra. Nepherkheres. Sekeri Nofer-1ka. Nofer-ka Seker, Sesokhris. 8 y. 3 m. 4 d. Hu-tefa, (? 3)1 y. Tefa. Khener&. 8 m. 4 d. Bubui. Bubu, 27y. 2m. Id. DYN. III. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Neb-ka. Ser-bes. Tata II. Set-es. ... Nofer-ka-ra. ... ... Snefru. ... 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ... Khufu(f). Ra-tatf.2 Khafra. Men-ka-ra.3 0. ... Ser. Ser-Teta. Neb-ka, 19 y. Sera, 19 y. 1 m. Ser-Teta. Neb-ka-ra. Huni. Hu(ni). Snefru. Nekher6ph&. Tosorthros. Tyreis. Mes6khris. S6yphis. Tosertasis. Akhes. Sephouris. Kerpheres. DYN. IV. 7. ... 8. Shepseskaf, or Aseskaf. 9. ... Khufu. Ea-tatf. Khafra. SouphisII. (Khephren). Menkheres (Mykerinos). Bikheres. Seberkheres. ... 1 The inscription of Sera seems to make Perab-sen the immediate successor of Sent. 2 Perhaps the same as Khnum-Khufu -who is mentioned along with Khufu on contemporaneous monuments. 2 H S6ris. Souphis I. (Kheops). Thamphthis. 3 More than one earlier Men-ka-ra is known from the monuments ; but as they are not named by Manetho or the list of Abydos their places cannot be determined. DYNASTIC TABLES. 466 DYN. Tablets of Abydos. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Userkaf, Sahu-ra. Keka. Nofer-f-ra. ... ... Ra-en-user. Men-kau-hor. Tat-ka-ra. Unas. V. Turin Papyrus. Sakkarah. Manetho. Ouserkheres. Sephrgs. ... Sahu-ra. Nofer-ar-ka-ra. Shepses-ka-ra. Kha-nofer-ra. Men-ka-hor, 8y. Tat, 28 y. Unas, 30 y. Men-ka-hor. Tat-ka-ra. Unas. VI. . . . 6 m. 21 d. . . . 20 y. 1 '.'.'. [Ati, stele of . . . 4 y. Una.] Pepi (Meri-ra). . . . 9(4) y. Meri-ra. Meren-ra(?MenMeren-ra, 1 y. 1 m. tu-hotep). Nofer-ka-ra. ... Nit-aker (a queen). ... 1. Nofer-ka, 2 y. ... 1 m. 1 d. ... 2. Nefrus, 4y. 2 m. Id. .•• ... 3. Ab-en-ra I., 2 y. 1 m. Id. Nepherkheres. Sisires. Khere's. Rathoure's. MenkherSs. Tankheres. Ounos. DYN. 1. Teta. 2. User-ka-ra. 3. ... 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Teta. i 4. Otho&s. Phios. Methou-souphis. Phi6ps. Menthe-souphis. Nitokris. ... ... ... ... ..i 5. Ab-en-ra II. 6. Hanti. 7. Peat - sat - en Sepd. 8. Paitasu. 9. Serhlinib [Lauth]. DYNS. VII., Tablets of Abydos. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Merem-ra Zaf-em-saf. Nuter-ka-ra. Men-ka-ra. Nofer-ka-ra. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Nofer-ka-ra Nebi. Tat-ka-ra Shema. Nofer-ka-ra Khontu. Mer-en-hor. VIIL, IX., X., XI. Turin Papyrus. Other Monuments. 1. . . . fi y. 2. ... 3. ... 4. Nofer-ka-ra. 5. Khrati. 6. Se . 7. ... 8. Ur 9. Set . . . 10. Ha . 11. ... 12. . . . ra. 1. Ahetus (AkhthoSs). 2. Nofer-ka-ra. 13. . . . ra. 14. . . . ra. 15. . . . ra. And 3 others destroyed. (Sum of years of 10th dynasty:— 355 y. 10 d.) Ma DYNASTIC TABLES. DYNS. VII., VIII., IX., X., Turin Papyrus. Tablets of Abydos. Snofer-ka. Ra-en-ka. Nofer-ka-ra Terel. Nofer-ka-hor. Nofer-ka-ra Pepi-seneb. Snofer-ka Annu. (Nofer-) kau-ra. Nofer-kau-ra II. XI.—Continued. Other Monuments. Manetho. Sekhem-em-apu-ma-ra Antuf Aa. Ra-nub-kheper Antuf IV. (XI. dynasty). 1 Nofer-kau-hor. Nofer-ar-ka-ra. Neb-khru-ra (Mentuhotep IV.) S-ankh-ka-ra.2 467 Neb-khru-ra, 51 y. Ra-neb-taui Mentuhotep III. Ra-user, 12 y. Ra-neb-khru Mentu(Sum of years of hotep (46 y.). 11th dynasty:— 243 y.) DYN. XII. Monuments. Turin Papyrus. 1. Amen-em-hat I., alone . . . 20 y. S-hotep-ab-ra. With Usurtasen I., . . .10 2. Usurtasen I. Kheper-ka-ra, alone . 32 . . . 48 y. With Amen-em-hat II. . . 3 3. Amen-em-hat II. Nub-kau-ra, alone 29 With Usurtasen II. . . . 6 . . . 19 y. 4. Usurtasen II. Ra-kha-kheper . 13 . . . 3 y. 5. Usurtasen III. Kha-kau-ra . . 26 (Ra)-en-mat. 6. Amen-em-hat III 42 Ra-ma-khru, 9 y. 7. Amen-em-hat IV 3 m. 17 d. Sebek-nofru-ra, 3 y. 8. Sebek-nofru-ra (queen) . . 10 m. 24 d. (Sum of years of 12th dyn. :— 213 y. l m . 17 d.) Manetho. Ammeneme's. Sesonkhosis. Ammanemes. Sesostris. Lakhargs. Ammeres. Ammenemes. Skemiophris. DYN. XIII.—According to the Turin Papyrus. 1. Sebek-hotep I. Ra-khu-taui (son of 12. Notem-ab-ra. 13. Ra-Sebek-hotep II. Sebek-nofru-ra), 1 y. 3 m. 24 d. 14. Ran-(sen)eb. 2. Sokhem-ka-ra, 6 y. 15. Autu-ab-ra I. 3. Ra Amen-em-hat I. 16. Setef . . . ra. 4. S-hotep-ab-ra I. 17. Ra Sokhem-khu-taui (Sebek-hotep 5. Aufni, 2 y. III.) 6. S-ankh-ab-ra, 1 y 18. Ra-user . . . . 7. S-men-ka-ra. 19. S-monkh-ka-ra Mermesha. 8. S-hotep-ab-ra II. 9 ka-ra. 20 ka-ra. 10-11. Destroyed. 21 user-Ser. 1 Twelve Antufs are known, six being mentioned in the list of Karnak. Two bear the title of Aa, "great." 2 Lieblein makes the ten kings of the 11th dynasty:— (1.) Snofer-ka-ra. (2.) ra. 3.) 4.) 5.) 6.) 7.) 8) 9.) (10.) User-en-ra. Neb-nem-ra. Sa-ra Mentu-hotep 1. Mentn-hotep-ra. Neb-hotep-sa-ra Mentu-hotep II. Neb-taui-ra Mentu-hotep III. Neb-khru-ra Mentu-hotep IV. S-ankh-ka-ra. DYNASTIC TABLES. 468 DYN. XIII. —Continued. Sebekhotep 68. Uben-ra II. 69-70. Destroyed. IV.) 71 tefa-ra. 23. Kha-seshesh-ra Nofer-hotep, son of 72. . . Uben-ra III. Ha-ankh-ef. 73. Autu-ab-ra II. 24. Ra-si-Hathor. 74. Har-ab-ra. 25. Kha-nofer-ra Sebek-hotep V. 75. Neb-sen-ra. 26. (? Kha-ka-ra). 76-79-. Destroyed. 27. Kha-ankh-ra (Sebek-hotep VI.) 28. Kha-hotep-ra (Sebek-hotep VII.), 80. S-kheper-en-ra. 81. Tat-khru-ra. 4 y. 8 m. 29 d. 82. S-ankh-(ka-)ra. 29. Uab-ra Aa-ab, 10 y. 8 m. 28d. 83. Nofer-tum-ra. 30. Mer-nofer-ra Ai, 23 y. 8 m. 18 d. 84. Sokhem . . . . ra. 31. Mer-hotep-ra, 2 y. 2 m. 9 d. 85. Ka . . . ra. 32. S-ankh-nef-ra Utu, 3 y. 2 m. 86. Nofer-ab-ra. 33. Mer-Sokhem-ra Anran, 3 y. 1 m. 87. Ea-a . . . . 34. Sut-ka-ra Ura, 5 y. ... m. 8 d. 88. Ea-kha . . . 2 y. 35. Anemen . . . . ro. 36-46. Destroyed. 89. Nut-ka-ra, 2 y. 90. S-men . . . ra. 47. Mer-kheper-ra. 48. Mer-ka-ra. 91-111. Destroyed. 49-53. Destroyed. 112. Ra-Sokhem . . . 113. Ra-Sokhem . . . 54 mes. 55. Ra . . . mat Aba. 114. Ra-Sokhem-us . . 56. . . . Uben-Ra I. 115. Ra-sesen . . . 57-60. Destroyed. 116. Ra-neb-ari. 61. Nahasi-ra. 117. Ra-neb-aten. 62. Kha-khru-Ra. 118. Ra-s-ment . . . 63. Neb-ef-autu-Ra, 2 y. 5 m. 15 d. 119. Ra-user-aten. 64. S-heb-ra, 3 y. 120. Ra-Sokhem . . . 65. Mer-tefa-ra, 3 y. 66. Sut-ka-ra. From thirty to forty more names arc 67. Neb-tefa-ra. destroyed. 22. Ra Sokhem-(khu-taui) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. [DTK. XIII.—According to the Tablet of Karnak. . . . ka. 6. Kha-seshesh-ra. Sut-en-ra. 7. Kha-nofer-ra. S-ankh-ab-ra. 8. Kha-ka-ra. Ra-Sokhem-khu-taui. Kha-ankh-ra. Ra-Sokhem-sut-taui. 10. Kha-hotep-ra.] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Destroyed. Ab-nu. Sotep-en-mau. Pan-n-set-sotep. Pah-as? Sor-hem-t. Af . . . Seti . . . Nun . . . DYN. XIV.—According to the Turin Papyrus. 10. Hor . . . 11 ka. 12. Destroyed. 13. . . . Hapi . . . 14. . . . ka-Mentu? 15. . . . ka-beb-nu . . 16 3 y. 16. . 17 . kheti. 17. 18. . . . en-neb-Erget. 19. etc. Destroyed. [Ea-men-nofer (Menophre's) on Scarabs, B.C. 2785.] DYNS. XV., XVI. Turin Papyrus (Lauth). Set-Shalati (Salatis), on the Colossus of Tell Mokdam . . . . 44 years. Set-aavpehuti Uub-ti (? Saites) Hap . . . (Apakhnas). Ra-Set-Nub (on the Lion of Bagdad) Aan-Nub (Staan). Apepi (Aphobis) I. Ra-aa-user (geometrical papyrus written in his 33d year) Apepi II. Ra-aa-ab-taui (? Aphdphis of Euseb.) Ap(epi), 61 years. DYNASTIC TABLES. 1. 2. 3. 4. 469 DYN. XVII. Ra-sekenen Taa I. Contemporary with Apepi II. Ra-sekenen Taa II. Aa. Ra-sekenen Taa III. Ken. Ut-kheper-ra Kames and his wife Aah-hotep. DYN. XVIII. Monuments. Manetho. 1. Neb-pehuti-ra Aahmes (more than 22 years), and wife f Am6sis. Nofert-ari-Aahmes. t Khebrfin. 2. Ser-ka-ra Amun-hotep I., 20 y. 7 m. ; his mother at first Amenophis I. regent. 3. Aa-kheper-ka-ra Tehuti-mes I., and wife Aahmes Meri- Amensis. Amun. 4. Aa-kheper-en-ra Tehuti-mes II. (more than 9 years), and Misaphris. wife Khnum Amun Hatasu Ma-ka-ra. 5. Hatasu (Hatsepsu) Ma-ka-ra (queen), 16 years. MisphragmuthSsis. 6. Ra-inen-khaper Tehuti-mes III., 37 y. 11 m. 1 d. Touthmosis. 7. Aa-khepru-ra Amun-hotep IV. Amen6phis II. 8. Men-khepru-ra Tehuti-mes IV., and wife Mut-em-ua HoTos. 9. Ma-neb-ra Amun-hotep III. (more than 35 years), and Akherres. wife Thi. \ 10. Nofer-kheper-ra Ua-en-ra Amun-hotep IV. Rathos. / 10. Khu-en-Aten (more than 12 years) and wife Nofri-Thi. Khebres. 11. Sa'a-nekht and wife Meri-Aten. Akherres. 12. Tut - ankh - Anmn Ra-khepru-neb, and wife Ankh-nesAmun. 13. Nuter Atef Ai Ra-kheper-khepru-ar-mi!, and wife Thi. 14(?). Hor-em-heb Mi-Amun Ser-khepru-ra. Armesses. 15 (?). Bek-ra (Ra-nefer-i, Lauth). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. DYN. XIX. Men-pehuti-ra Ramessu I. (more than 2 years). Ma-men-ra Seti I. Meren-Ptah, and wife Tua. Ra-user-ma Sotep-en-ra Ramessu II. Mi-Amun, 67 years. Meren-Ptah I. Hotep-hi-ma Ban-ra Mi-Amun. User-khepru-ra Seti II. Meren-Ptah. Amun-mesu Men-kha-ra Sotep-en-ra. Khu-en-ra Sotep-en-ra Meren-Ptah II. Si-Pthah. Ramesses. AmenSphis. f Seth6s. \ Rapsakes. Ammenephthes. Ramesses. Thudris. Amenemes. DYN. XX. 1. User-kha-ra Sotep-en-ra Set-nekht Merer Mi-Amun (recovered the kingdom from the Phoenician Arisu). 2. User-ma-ra Mi-Amun Ramessu III. (more than 32 years). 3. Eamessu IV. Mi-Amun. 4. Ramessu V. Amun-hi-khepesh-ef Mi-Amun. f 5. Ramessu Meri-Tum (in Northern Egypt). \ 5. Ramessu VI. Ra-neb-ma Mi-Amun Amun-hi-khepesh-ef. 6. Ramessu VII. At-Amun User-ma-ra Mi-Amun Sotep-en-ra. 7. Ramessu VIII. Set-hi-khepesh-ef Mi-Amun User-ma-ra Khu-en-Amun. 8. Ramessu IX. Si-Pthah Se-kha-en-ra Mi-Amun. 9. Ramessu X. STofer-ka-ra Mi-Amun Sotep-en-ra (more than 10 years.) 10. Ramessu XI. User-ma-ra Mi-Amun Sotep-en-ra. 11. Ramessu XII. Men-ma-ra Mi-Amun Sotep - en - Ptah Khamus (more than 27 years). 12. Ramessu XIII. Amun-hi-khepesh-ef Kheper-ma-ra Sotep-en-ra (more than 15 years). [Brugsch makes Ramessu XIII. precede Ramessu XII.] 470 DYNASTIC TABLES. DYN. XXL—ILLEGITIMATE. 1. Hirhor, the high-priest of Amun at Thebes (more than 16 years) (wife, NotemMut). 2. Piankhi, the high-priest (wife, Tent-Amun). 3. Pinotem I., the high-priest (wife, Hontaui). 4. Pinotem II., king, and wife Ma-ka-ra (descendant of Ramses). 5. Men-kheper-ra, brother of the high-priest Masahirti (wife, Ast-em-kheb). 6. Pinotem III., son of Men-kheper-ra. DYN. XXL—LEGITIMATE (TANITES). Manetho. Monuments. Si-Mentu Mi-Amun Nuter-kheper-ra Sotep-en-Amun. P-seb-en-kha x Mi-Amun Aa-kheper-ra Sotep-en-Amun P-seb-en-kha II. 2 Mi-Amun Ra-uts-hik . . . . . . Hor. Amun-em-kam Mi-Amun User-ma-ra Sotep-en-Amun. Smendes. Psousennes. Hephelkheres. Amen6phthis. Osokhdr. Psinakhe"s. PsousennSs. DYN. XXII. 1. Shashank I. Mi-Amun Hat-kheper-ra Sotep-en-ra (more Sesonkhis. than 21 years). 2. Usarkon I. Mi-Amun Sekhem-kheper-ra (marries the Osorthfin. daughter of P-seb-en-kha). 3. Takelet I. Mi-Amun Si-Ast Hat-ra Sotep-en-Amun, and wife Kapos. 4. Usarkon II. Mi-Amun Si-Bast User-ma-ra Sotep-en-Amun (more than 23 years). 5. Shashank II. Mi-Amun Sekhem-kheper-ra Sotep-en-Amun 6. Takelat II. Mi-Amun Si-Ast Hat-kheper-ra Sotep-en-ra TakelSthis. (more than 15 years). 7. Shashank III. Mi-Amun Si-Bast User-ma-ra Sotep-en-ra, 52 years. 8. Pimai Mi-Amun User-ma-ra Sotep-en-Amun. 9. Shashank IV. Aa-kheper-ra (more than 37 years). DYN. XXIII. 1. Se-her-ab-ra Pet-si-Bast. 2. Usarkon III. Mi-Amun Aa-kheper-ra Sotep-en-Amun. 3. P-si-Mut User-ra Sotep-en-Ptah. [Lauth: 4. Kashet, father of Shabaka. ] PetoubastSs. Osorkh5. Psammos. Zet, iNTEEKEQNtTM. Egypt divided among several princes, including Tef-nekht (TnSphakhtos), father of Bek-en-ran-ef. It is overrun by Piankhi the Ethiopian, while Osarkon III. rules at Bubastis. The son and successor of Piankhi is Mi-Amun-Nut. DYN. XXIV. Monuments. Bek-en-ran-ef Uah-ka-ra (more than 6 years). DYN. XXV. 1. Shabaka (Assyrian Sibahe), defeated by Sargon B.c. 720 (more than 12 years). 2. Shabataka. 3. Taharka (Assyrian Tarku), 26 years. Manetho. Bokkhoris. SabakSn. Sebikh&s. Tearkos. Bvugsch reads Pi-seb-khan. The name may also be read P-siu-en-kha. * Perhaps the Psinakhes of Manetho. 471 DYNASTIC TABLES. INTERREGNUM. The Assyrian conquest and division of Egypt into 20 satrapies, B.C. 672-650. Taharka and his successor Rud-Amun (Assyrian Urdamanu, the Ammeris of Euseb.) make vain efforts to recover it. In Manetho the period is represented by Stephinates, NekhepsQs, and Nekha6, the latter being the Mku, satrap of Memphis and Sais, and father of Psammetikhos, of the Assyrian inscriptions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. DYN. XXVI. Monuments. Psamtik I. Uah-ab-ra, and wife Mehet-usekh, 54 years, B.C. 660-610.1 Neku I. Uahem-ab-ra, and wife Mi-Mut Nit-aker, 15J years, B.c. 610-594. Psamtik II. Nofer-hat-ra, and wife Nit-Aker, 54 years, B.C. 594-589. Uah-ab-ra Haa-ab-ra, and wife Aah-hotep, 19 years, B.c. 589570. Aah-mes Si-Nit Khnum-ab-ra, and wife Thent-kheta, 44 years, B.c. 570-526. Psamtik III. Ankh-ka-en-ra, 6 months, B.C. 526-525. 1. 2. ( 3. \ ( 3. 4. 5. DYN. XXVII. Kambathet Sem-taui Mestu-ra, 6 years, B.C. 525-519. Ntaruish I. Settu-ra, 36 years, B.C. 519-483 (485). Khabbash Senen Tanen Sotep-en-Ptah (native prince), B.c. 484 (486). Khsherish (more than 13 years), B.C. 483 (485)-463 (465). ... ... Artaksharsha (more than 16 years), B.C. 463 (465)-423 (425). 6. 7. 8. Ntaruish II. Mi-Amun-ra. DYN. XXVIII. Amun-ar-t-rut (more than 6 years) 2 (B.C. 415). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. DYN. XXIX. Nef-a-rat I. Ban-ra Mi-nuteru (more than 4 years). Hakori Ra-khnum Mat Sotep-en-khnum, 13 years. P-si-Mut, 1 year. Har-neb-kha, 1 year. Nef-a-rut II., 1 year. Manetho. Psammetikhos. NekhaS. Psammouthis. Ouaphris. Amo'sis. Psammekherites. Kambyses. Dareios I. Xerxes I. Artabanos. Artaxerxes. Xerxes II. Sogdianos. Dareios II. Amyrtaios. Nepherites I. Akhdris. Psammouthes. Monthes. Kepherites II. DYN. XXX. 1. Nekht-hor-heb Ra-snotsem-het Sotep-en-anhur Ast-anhur Nektanebes I. Si-Ast, son of Nef-a-rut I., 9 years (16 years from the death of Nef-a-rut I.) 2. Tsi-hu, 1 year. Teos. 3. Nekht-neb-ef Ra-kheper-ka, 18 years. Nektanebes II. 1 The dates are Wiedemann's. So Wiedemann. Revillout makes the Demotic name Amun-hir. 472 DYNASTIC TABLES. KINGS OF BABYLONIA. BERdSOS (APOLLOD6ROS) AND ABYDENOS. BEFORE THE DELUGE : — 1. A16ros of Babylon, " t h e Shepherd of the People," for 10 sari (36,000 years). 2. Alaparos or Alasparos, for 3 sari (10,800 years). AA 3. Ameldn or Amillaros, of Pantibiblon, for 13 sari (46,800 years). Annedotos comes from the Persian Gulf. 4. Ammen&n, the Khaldsean, of Pantibiblon, for 12 sari (43,200 years). I h e Mousaros,1 Oannes, or Annedfitos, comes from the Persian Giilf. 5. Amegalaros, or Megalaros, or Metalaros, or Megalanos, of Pantibiblon, for 18 sari (64,800 years). 6. Da&nos or DaSs, the Shepherd, of Pantibiblon, for 10 sari (36,000 years). Euedokos, Eneugamos, Eneuboulos, and Anementos come from the Persian 7. Eued6reskhos or Euedfirakhos, of Pantibiblon, for 18 sari (64,800 years). Odakon or Anodaphos comes from the Persian Gulf. 8. Amempsinos, a Khaldsean of Larankha,2 for 10 sari (36,000 years). 9. Otiart&j (Opartes), called Ardates by Alex. Polyhiet&r, a Khaldsean of Larankha, for 8 sari (28,800 years). 10. Xisouthros, or Sisithros, his son, who was saved from the Deluge, for 18 sari (64,800 years). ALEXANDER POLYHISTOR. AFTER THE DELUGE :—• I. First Dynasty of 86 (Khaldtean) kings for 34,080 or 33,091 years, headed by Euekhoos, or Evexiosjor Eutykhios (identified with Nimrod by Synkellos), for 4 neri (2400 years), and his son Khosmasbolos, or Komosbelos, or Khomasbelos, for 4 neri 5 sossi (2700 years). Their five next successors were :— 3. PSros, for 35 years. 6. Oniballos, 40 years. 4. Nekhoubes, 43 years. 7. Zinziros, 46 years. 5. Abios, 48 years. II. Second Dynasty of 8 Median kings for 224 years, headed by Zoroaster. III. Third Dynasty of 11 kings (? for 258 years). IV. Fourth Dynasty of 49 Khaldsean kings for 458 years. Y. Fifth Dynasty of 9 Arabian kings for 245 years. 1. Mardokente's, 45 years. 4. Nabios, 37 years. 2. ... 5. Parannos, 40 years. 3. Sisimardakos, 28 years. 6. Nabonnabos, 25 years. VI. Semiramis, Queen of Assyria. VII. Seventh Dynasty of 45 kings for 526 years. VIII. Phoulos and Nabonassar. THE CANON OF PTOLEMY Nabonassar, 14 years . . . . Nabios, 2years . . . . Khinziros and Poros, 5years . . Iloulaios or Yougaios, 5 years . . Mardokempados, 12 years . . . Arkeanos (Sarkeanos), 5years . . Interregnum, 2 years (Hagisa or Akises, 30 6 m., ac. to Alex. Polyhist.) . . 8 . B e l i b o s {Alex. P . : Elibos), 3years . 9. A p a r a n a d i o s (Alex. P . : Assordanios) 6 years 10. Regebelos, 1year . . . . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1 Accadian mu-sar, "writing.'' 2 (in the . . . . . . d., a n d . . . . Almagest). B . o . . . . 7 4 7 . . . 7 3 3 . . . 7 3 1 . . . 7 2 6 . . . 7 2 1 . .. 7 0 9 Merodach Baladan, . . . 7 0 4 . .. 7 0 2 . . . 7 0 0 . . . 6 9 4 The Surippalt of the monuments. DYNASTIC TABLES. 473 B.C. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Mes&imordakos, 4 years . . . . . . . I n t e r r e g n u m , 8 years . . . . . . . Asaridinos, 13 yrs. (Alex. P.: 8 years) . . . . . Saosdoukhinos, for 20 years (Alex. P.: Sammuges, for 21 years) . Kineladanos, 22 years (Alex. P.: 21 years) . . . . Nabopolassaros (Alex. P.: Nabupalsar, Abyd.: Busalossoros, General of t h e Assyrian k i n g Sarakos) 21 years . . . . . 17. Nabokolassaros (Alex. P.: Nabukodrossoros), 43 years 18. Ilouaroudamos, 2 yrs. (Alex. P.: Amilmarudokos, 12 years) 19. Nerigasolasaros (Alex. P.: Neglisaros), 4 years . . . . [20. Josephos: Laborosoarkhodos, 3 m . 21. Nabonadios (Alex. P.: Nabodenos ; Joseph..- Nabonidos), 17 years Kyros captures Babylon . . . . . . . KINGS OF 693 689 681 668 648 626 605 562 560 556] 556 538 ASSYRIA. KTESIAS (ac. to Eusebios, Synkellos, and Moses of Khorene). Euseb. Yrs. B.C. Synkell. Yrs. B.O. MOS. Kho. [Arm. vers. : Nimrod. ... 2116] Belos (=Bel-MerodNimrod. ach) . . . 5 5 2284 Bab( = "Babylon"). Anebis. Arbel ( = "Arbela "). Khael( = "Calah"). Ninos ( = " Nineveh ") 52 2036 Nmos . . . 5 2 2229 Ninos. Semiramis ( = Istar) . 42 1984 Semiramis . . 42 2177 Semiramis. Zameis ( = Samas the Ninyas ( = "the Ninevite") or Zames . 38 Zamessis or Ninyas. Sun-god), or Ninyas 38 Arios ( = Nergal, lord 30 Arios. of Hades) Arios 30 Aralios. Aralios ( = Arali, ^ 40 Aralios Sosares. "Hades") . j 40 Xerxes or Baleus Armamitres Belokhos . Balaios Altadas Mamitos . Mankhaleos Spheres Mamitos II. Sparetos . Astakadis . Amyntes . Bglokhos II. (? Belkudur-utsur) . Bellepares. LainpridSs S6sares Lampares . Panyas SSsarmos . Mitreos Tautangs (sent troops to Priam) 30 38 35 52 32 30 28 (or 22) 22 (or 28) 30 42 48 (or 38) 45 30 38 35 52 32 30 32 20 30 40 40 45 Xerxes Armamithres Belflkhos . Balaios Sethos Mamythos Askhalios . Sphairos . Mamylos . Sparthaios Askatades. Amyntes . 25 30 32 20 30 45 19 27 Belokhos II. Balatores 1 Lamprides S6sares Lampraes . Panyas Sosarmos . Mithraios . 32 Teutamos or Tautanes 32 1 Beletares, who had been the former king's gardener, is the same as Tiglath-Pileser, ac. to Agathias (II. 25,15). Bion and Polyhistor made 25 30 30 20 30 45 22 27 Xerxes. Galeus. Armamitres Belokhos. Altadas. Mamithos. Makhalaos. Sphairos. Mamylos. Sparethos. Askatades. Amynthas. Belokhos. Balatores. Lamprides. Sosares. Lampares. Panyas. Sosarmos. Mithreos. Teutamos. him overthrow Beleous, the last of the Delketades or descendants of Semiramis. DYNASTIC TABLES. 474 KTESIAS—Continued. Yrs. B.o. Euseb. Teuteos Synkell. Yrs. B.C. . 30 Derkilos Eupales . Laosthenes Pyriatides. Ophrateos (?" Euphrates") . Ophratenfe OkrazapSs T6nos Konkoleros or Sardanapallos 40 38 45 30 Teutaios . 44 42 Arabelos . 45 Khalaos . Anebos 38 Babios or TautanSs II., called Tith6nos by the Greeks 37 30 40 Derkylos . Enpakme's 38 Laosthene's 45 Pertiades . 30 20 50 42 Ophrataios EphekherSs Akraganes 20 Th6nos Konkoleros Thinasos 40 Sum 1240 21 52 42 Sum . 15 Mos. Kho. Teuteos. Ophrateos. Ophratanes. Akraganes. Tineos. Derkylos. Eupalmeos. Laosthenes. Prietiades. Sardanapalos. 1 1460 Diod. Sik. (II.).—Ktesias made 30 generations from Ninos to Sardanapalos for 1360 years. Thallos (Theophylact. ad Autolycum, 282).—Belos 322 years before the Trojan War. Ovid (Met. iv. 212).— Orchamus, the 7th king of Babylon from Belos. Horus, King of Assyria (Pliny, N. H. xxx. 51), may be the same as the Thouros of Kedrenos. Thilgamos, in iElian, must be Tiglath-Pileser. ABYDE"NOS. 1. Senekherib, the 25th king of Assyria (defeated a Greek fleet off Kilikia, and built Tarsus). 2. Nergilos, murdered by his son. 3. Adramelos, slain by his half-brother. 4. Axerdes (Esarhaddon) (conquered Egypt and Syria, had Pythagoras in his pay). 5. Sardanapallos. 6. Sarakos, last king of Nineveh ; burnt himself in his palace. ALEXANDER POLYHISTOR. Sinnekherim or Senekherib, 18 years, murdered by his son Ardu-Mousanos. Assordanios, his son. Sardanapallos, the Khaldsean, father of Nebuchadrezzar. Sarakos, last king of Nineveh. HERODOTOS. Ninos, son of Belos, cir. B.o. 1250. The Assyrian empire for 520 years till the revolt of the Medes, cir. B.u. 730. Senekherim, king of the Arabians. Sardanapallos. Nineveh destroyed, cir. B.C. 600. Semiramis, queen of Babylon. NitSkris, queen five generations later. Labynetos I., king of Babylon, B.C. 585. Labynetos II., his son, conquered by Kyros. 1 Sardanapallos fought with Perseus ao. to the Paschal Chrwi., p. 68; the antagonist of Perseus was Belimos, 640 years after Ninos, ac. to Kephali6n (Frg. I.) Kephalidn made it 1000 years from Semiramis to Metraios, whose successor was Tautanos, the 22d Assyrian king. He sent aid to Priam. 475 DYNASTIC TABLES. THE MONUMENTS. BABLYONIA. BEFORE THE DELUGE. IXbara-Tutu of Surippak. Zi-Susru (Assn. Samas-napisti) or Adra-khasis, his son, who was saved from the Flood. ' LIST OF KINGS WHO REIGNED AFTER THE DELUGE, NOT IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER" (but according to the signification of their names).1 Assyrian Translation. Aooadian Original. Amil-Gula. Samsu-natsir. Amil-Sin. Amil-Samsi. Sapin-mat-nukurti. Muabbid-cissati. Apil-Hea-sar-mati. Apil-Bilu-usum-same. Sarru-cinu. Bahu-ellitu. la. Ur-Babara. Iscipal. Gulkhisar. Aa-lugal-calama. Akur-ulana. Queen Azag-Bahu. Meaning. 'Man of Gula." 'Defend, 0 Sun-god." ' Man of the Moon-god." ' Man of Samas." ' Sweeper of the hostile land." 'Destroyer of legions." ' Son of Hea, king of the earth." ' Son of Bel, sovereign of heaven." ' King established." ' Bahu the illustrious. KASSITE DYNASTY. Kassite (Kosssean) Original. Khammu-ragas. Ammi-saduga. Cur-gal-zu. Simmas-Sipak. Ulam-bur-ya'as. Nazi-TJrudas. Meli-Sipak. Burna-bur-ya'as. Cadar-Cit. Sumerian Original. Ci-Tutu(?)-ta-khegal. Ci-Tutu(?)-ankhegal. Lu-Siliklusar. ITn-kur-Silikalim. Ca-sermal-Tutu. Sazuab-kusvu. Sazuab-tila-nengu. TJr-Nin-arali. Khumeme. Dili-Khedu. Muna-tila. Uruci-satu. Fruci-amal-duabi. Labar-Nudimmud. Urudu-mansum. Assyrian Translation. Meaning. Cimta-rapastu. Cimtu-cittu. Eie-bisi. Lidan-Maruduk. Lidan-bil-matati. "Large of family." '' Family established." " B e a shepherd." "Offspring of Merodach." "Offspring of the lord of the world." 2 Tsil-Adari. " Shadow (protection) of Adar." Amil-Marudiik. "Man of Merodach." Cidin-bil-matati. "Servant of the lord of the world." "Minister of Bel." Tukulti-Bili. About S3 names lost. Meaning. " "With Merodaeh (is) life." ""With Merodach one creates." " Man of Merodach." '' Lord of the earth (is) Merodach." "Supporter of the mouth (is) Merodach." Maruduk-tsululu. "Merodach overshadows." Maruduk - baladh • en - "Merodach proclaimed life to him." ikbi. "Man of Gula." Amil-Gula. "Man of Gula." Amil-Gula. " Man of Papsukul." Amil-Papsnkul. " May my name exist." 3 Suma-libsi. " S i n has begotten." Sin-ibni. " Sin the benefactor of all." Sin-lie-cullati. Arad-Hea. "Servant of Hea." Nusci-iddina. " Nuscu has given." Assyrian Translation. Itti-Maruduk-baladhu. Itti-Maruduk-banu. Amil-Maruduk. Bil-mati- Maruduk. Emid-pi-Maruduk. 1 About 38 names are lost before these. This may also be read Rub-Adaru, " a prince is Adar." 3 The Sumerian is " O live his name." DYNASTIC TABLES. 476 KASSITE DYNASTY—Continued. Sumerian Original. Assyrian Translation. Meaning. "Sweet to the bond of Bel." " 0 Bahu, vivify her womb." '' 0 Gula, may the name of him alone exist." Gula - rubi - va - duma - "May Gula see prince and son." Dun-gal-dhumuta-e. lumur. Maruduk - tappe-ediru - " 0 Merodach, arrange for her a Tutu-bul-antamal. comrade." si. Dugga-makh-Sazu. Tsirat-cibit-Maruduki. "Supreme (is) the command of Merodach." " Papsukul is a colossus." Lamassi-Papsukvil. Khedu-alat-ra. "T.he glory of Bel." Tanitti-Bili. Enum-kherak. " Sin the son of Ur." Sin-abil-Uri. Sar-Uru-ibila. "The son of Sin." Abil-Sin. Sar-ibila. " 0 Hea, make a son." Hea-abla-epis. Enuci-ibila-ru. " 0 Bahu, make a son (?) " Bahu-abla-epis (?) Dun-ru(?)-ibila. 3 names lost. Limmur-Zirpanitu. "May Zirpanit see." a-edina. "Bel has created." Bilu-ibni. Si-ra. " Adar their chief." Kurnigin - garra - kursis - Adaru-asarid-sunu. nene. " Adar thou presidest." Ninip-saggubtar(?) -zae- Adaru-pakidat. men. Bil - Nippuri - ana - asri - "Bel of Nipur return to his Mul-Nipur-ci-bi-gin. place." su-ter. "Nebo illuminates." Lakhlaggi-Dimsar. Ebib-Nabu. " Bel the recorder of the name." Eurgalmar-mu-pada. Bilu-zacir-sume. Aba-Sanabi-dari. Mannu-cima-Bil-khadin. "Who is like Hea." "Beth-Saggil the establisher of Es-Guzi-gin-dur. Bit-Saggil-cin-abli. the son." " Bel who knows men." Khu-un-zuh. Bilu-mude-nisi. " 0 Bel, prosper me." Mul-curu-menna. Bilu-dumek-anni. " . . . . Rimmon." Barsugal-Babaragude. Sikhabiti-Ramanu. "The man of Hea." Amil-Hea. Ur-Sanabi. "The man of Gula." Amil-Gula. Lu-Damu. Samsu-yupakhkhir. 'Samas has collected." Duldul-Samul. Enucuru-duga-nu-palpal. Papsukal-sa-ikbu-ul-ini. ' Papsukal changes not his word." Sin-iddina-abla. Agu-sak-algin. ' Sin has given a son." Sin-irtsita-sa-libludh. Agu-ba-tila. ' 0 Moon-god, mayhisearthlive." Bilu-kudurri-utsur. Larru-sadu-al. '1 0 Bel, defend the landmark." Arad-Nergalli. Lubar-Egirazag. Servant of Nergal." Us-Mul. Cidm-Bili. 'Servant of Bel." Uruci-gula. Sinu-rabi. ' 'Sin (is) great." . . nularakh-rag-calga- . . . ina-puski-u-dan- '... in difficulties and force take su-mu-aldibba. nati-kati-tsabat. my hand." Es-Guzi-kharsak-men. Bit-Saggil-saddu-ni. ' ' Beth-Saggil (is) our mountain." Samsu-ritsua. ' ' Samas (is) my help." Nabu-edir-uapsati. ' ' Nebo the arranger of life." About 30 names lost. Ucu-sema-Alima. Dun-im-ba-khetil. Damu-mu-dili-khegal. Kassite Original. Ulam-Urus. Meli-Khali. Meli-Sumu. Meli-Sibarru. Meli-Cit. Nimgiragas. Nimgiragas-Cit. Dhabu-udli-Bili. Bahu-taci-sa-bullidh. Gula-sume-edi-libsi. Assyrian Translation. Lidan-Bili. Amil-Gula. Amil-Sukamuna. Amil-Simalia. Amil-Samsi. Edira. Ediru-Samsu. Meaning. "Offspring of Bel." "Man of Gula." ' Man of Sukamuna." 'Man of Simalia." 'Man of Samas." 'The arranger." 'The arranger, the sun-god.1 DYNASTIC TABLES. Kassite Original. KASSITE DYNASTY—Continued. Assyrian Translation. Nimgiragas-Bur-ya'as. Ediru-bil-matati. Cadar-bur-ya'as. Tuculti-bil-matati. Cadar-Cit. Nazi-Sipak. Nazi-bur-ya'as. Tuculti-Samsi. Tsil-Maruduk. Tsil-bil-matati. 477 Meaning. " T h e arranger, the lord of the world." " Minister of the lord of the world." "Minister of Samas." " The protection of Merodach." " The protection of the lord of the world." 6 names lost. EAKLY ACCADIAN DYNASTY. Banini, with his wife Melili and 7 sons, Memantakh, Medudu, etc. . . . . mm. Dingir-illat, his son. Mul-ega-nunna. Ane-Cis, his son. Ur-Bagas (capital at Ur). Dungi, his son. Gudea, his son, viceroy (builder of Zerghul, where he was followed by the viceroys Me-sa-Nana-calama, son of Be . . khuk, Idadu, Enum-Anu, Enumte-na and his son En-Na-dun). Earlier kings of Zerghul were TJr-Nin, son of Khal-an-du, and his son Mena(?)kur-gal. Su-Agu. KING OF EEECH :— Amar-Agu. Agu-gasid, son of the goddess Nin-'sun. ELAMITB DYNASTY. Cudur-Nankhundi I., B.C. 2280. Chedorlaomer ( = Cudur-Lagamar). Cudur-Mabuk, son'of Simtisilkhak. Eri-Agu, his son. DYNASTY OF AGADE (ACCAD. ) Sega-ni-sar-likh. SEMITIC DYNASTY OF AGADE. Sargon I. Naram-Sin, his son, B.C. 3750 according to Nabonidos. SEMITIC KINGS OF U R . Camaru-Sin (Ga-Sin). Sin-idina, his son. Nur-Rimmon. Gainil-Adar. Libit-Nana. Ismi-Dagon. Gungunnum, his son. Rim-Sin (conquered Erech, was conquered by Khammuragas), reigned more than 30 years. 478 DYNASTIC TABLES. " The 11 Kings of the DYNASTY OF BABYLON." 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Sumu-abi, 15 years. Sumu-la-ilu, 35 years. Zabu (built temples at Sippara), his son, 14 years. Abil-Sin, his son, 18 years. Sin-muballidh, his son, 30 years. Khammuragas, 1 his son, 55 years, cir. B.O. 2000. Samsu-ilu-na, his son, 35 years. Ebisu, his son, 25 years. Ammi-satana, his son, 25 years. Ammi-saduga, his son, 21 years. Cit-satana, his son, 31 years. T H E DYNASTY OF EEEOH (?) (ACOABIAN). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Anman. Ci-dingir-nibi. Damoi-ili-su. Iscipal. Sussi, Gulkhisar. Kir-gal-dubbar, his son. Adub-calama, Ms son. Akur-ulana. Melam-kurkura. Hea-gaka (?). KASSITE DYNASTY. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ummikh-zimtu. Agn-ragas, his son. Abi . . ., his son. Tassi-gurumas, his son. Agu-kak-rimi, his son. Cudur-Cit. Sagasaltiyas-Buryas, his son. Murudas-Sipak. Simmas-Sipak. Cara-indas . Burna-bur-ya'as Cara-murudas Nazi-Bugas Cur-gal-zu Meli-Sipak Merodach-Baladan Nazi-Murudas . . . . . . I. . . . . . . . . . . . . cir. B.o. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450 1430 1410 1400 1380 1350 1325 1300 . 1270 1230 1200 ASSYRIAN DYNASTY. Tiglath-Adar . . Eimmon . . . bi Zamama-zaeir-iddin . . . . . i The Kassite names which appear at the end of this dynasty must be due to the marriage of Sinmuballidh with a Kassite princess. DYNASTIC TABLES. 479 KHALDEAN KINGS. ch. N a b u - k u d u r r a - u t s u r I. (Nebochadrezzar) Cara-bur-ya'as Merodach-nadin-akhi . . . . Merodach-sapik-zirrat . . . . sadua . . . . . DYNASTY FROM THE P E K S I A N B c 1150 1120 1100 1097 1080 GULP. 1. Simmas-Sipak, son of Erba-sin, for 17 years (buried in Sargon's palace) 2. Hea-muoin-ziri (an usurper), son of Cutmar, for 3 m o n t h s . 3. Kassu-nadin-akhi, son of Sappa, for 6 years. DYNASTY OF T H E H O U S E OF BAZU. 1. 2. 3. 4. Ulbar-surci-iddin, son of Bazu, for 15 years. Nebuchadrezzar I I . , h i s brother, for 2 years. (Amil ?) S u k a m u n a , his brother, for 3 years 3 months. A n E l a m i t e for 6 years. Rimmon-pal-iddina. Erba-Merodach. Merodach-baladan I I . , his son. Sibir. Rimmon-suma-utsur N a b u - b a l - i d d i n a (Nebo-baladan) Merodach-suma-izcur . . . Merodach-baladhsu-ikbu Samsu-izcir-dumki . . . . Nebo-suma-iscun, his son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.o. 900 880 863 820 810 i Nebo-cargin-abba Nabu-natsir Nabu-yusapsi Yucin-ziru Tiglath-Pileser ( P u l or Poros) of Assyria . . . Yagina, Chief of t h e Kaldai . . . . . Merodach-baladan I I I . , his son Sargon of Assyria Merodach-baladan restored Bilu-ebus Assur-nadin-sume . . . . . . . Suzub Esarhaddon of Assyria Samul-mucinu Assur-bani-pal Kandalanu1 Nabu-pal-utsur Nabu-kudurra-utsur I I I . . . . . . Amil-Maruduk Nergal-sarra-utsur . . . . . . . Nabu-nahid Conquered b y Kuras . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 733 731 729 726 721 709 704 703 700 693 681 668 648 (?) . . . . . . . 626 (?) 605 562 560 556 538 1 A contract-tablet is dated in the 20th year of Kandalanu or Kineladanos. 480 DYNASTIC TABLES. ASSYRIA. Gil". B.C. . . . Sargon says he was preceded by 330 Bilu-cudurra-utsur Adar-pal-esar . . . . Assyrian kings. Assur-da'an I., his son. . . Mutaggill-Nabu or Mutaggil-Nuscu, ACCADIAN VICEROYS OF ASSUR his son (KALAH SHEKGHAT). Assur-ris-isi, his son . . . I s m e - D a g o n . . . . B.C. 1850 Tiglath-Pileser I. (Tuculti-pal-esar), Samsi-Rimmon I., his son . . 1820 his son . . . . . Assur-bil-cala, his son . . . Igur-sumeli-capu Samsi-Rimmon I., his brother . Samsi-Rimmon II., his son . Assur-rab-bnri Teba(?) Iritak, his son. Assur-tsalmati 1240 1220 1200 H70 1150 1130 1100 1080 KINGS OF ASSYEIA. Assur-da'an II 930 Rimmon-nirari II., his son . B.C. 913 Tiglath-Adar II., his son . . 891 Assur-natsir-pal, his son . . 885 Adasi. Shalmaneser II., his son . . 860 Bilu-bani, his son. Assur-dain-pal, his son (rebel king) 827 Samsi-Rimmon II., his brother . 825 Assur-suma-esir. Rimmon-nirari III., his son . . 812 Adar-tuklat-Assuri, his son. Shalmaneser III 783 Assur-da'an I I I 773 Erba-Rimmon. Assur-nirari II 755 Assur-nadin-akhi, his son. Tiglath-Pileser II. (Poros or Pul), usurper . . . . . 725 Assir-nirari I. Shalmaneser IV., usurper . . 727 Nabu-da'an, his son. Sargon, usurper . . . . 722 Assur-bil-nisi-su . cir. B.C. 1450 Sennacherib (Sin-akhi-erba), his 705 Buzur-Assur . 1420 son Assur-yuballidh . . 1400 Esar-haddon I. (Assur-akh-iddina), 681 Bil-nirari, his son . 1370 his son Pudilu, his son . 1350 Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapalos), his son . . . . . ' . 668 Rimmon-nirari I., his son 1330 Assur-etil-ilani, his son . . ? Shalmaneser I. (Sallimmanu-esir), ? his son 1300 . . . suma-iscun ? Tiglath-Adar I., his son . . 1271 Esar-haddon II. (Sarakos) last king Bilu-sumeli-capi, the founder. PHCENICIA. Baleazor, his son, 7 years (lived 43 years). TYRE. Tyre built 2300 years before Herodotos Abdastartos, his son, 9 years (lived 29 years). (II. 44). Astartos, son of Deleastartos, an usurper, Baal-merom-gabu, 3d year of Menephtah 12 years (lived 54 years). 1 Astarymos, his brother, 9 years (lived 54 years). Abibal (Joseph, c. Ap. I. 17-18). Pheles, his brother, 8 months (lived 50 Hiram I., his son, for 34 years (lived 53 years). years), contemporary with David and Eithobalos (Ethbaal) I., priest of Astartg, Solomon. an usurper, 32 years (lived 68 years). 1 Oppert's conjecture. The text is corrupt, reading: "the four sons of his nurse slew (Abdastartos), the eldest of whom reigned 12 years, fie$ov AorapTos son of Deleastartos 12 out of 54 years.',' Theophilos has Methuastartos, and neither Theophilos nor Busebios has the double 12 years. DYNASTIC TABLES. TYRE—Continued. Baalezor (Badezor), his son, 6 years (Eus. and Synkell..- 8 years), lived 45 years. Matgenos (Mutton), his son, 9 years (Eus. and Theoph.: 29 years), lived 32 years. Pygmalion, his son, 47 years (lived 56 years); his sister Dido founds Carthage in his 7th year, 155 years 8 months after Hiram. B.C. Khirummu (Hiram II.), reigning . Mietenna (Mutton I I . ) . . .7 Elulaios P y a ' (Assn. Lulie), 36 yrs. Bahlu (Baal) I. . . 675 and Eithobalos II. (besieged by Nebuchadrezzar) Baal II., 10 years . . . Eknibal, son of Baslakh, judge, 2 months . . . . . Khelbes, son of Abdaios, judge, 10 months . . . . . Abbartos, the high-priest, judge, 3 months . . . . . Mutton and Gerastratos, sons of Abdelemos, judges, 6 years Balator (king), 1 year . . . Merbalos (brought from Babylon), 4 years Hiram III., his brother, 20 years . 481 678 Abd-Melkarth (Abdimilkutti) Tetramnestos, son of Anysos (Herod, iii. 98), age of Xerxes. Bod-Astoreth I. Bod-Astoreth II., his son. Esmunezer I. T a b n i t h I., his son. 738 Esmunezer II., his son, 14 years. 30 725 StratSn (Ashtoreth), age of Artaxerxgs. 2 665 575 Tennes (Tabnith II.) . . . S t r a t o n I I . , deposed b y Alexander Ball6nymos 351 332 GEBAL (BYBLOS). 565 Sibitti-bihil (Sebedh-Baal) . Urumilki (Urimelech) . . . . . 565 Milki-asapi . . . 738 . 7 0 0 675 564 Baal, age of Xerxes ? 557 556 552 E n i l I., age of Artaxerxes I. Azbaal, his successor. Enylos (Enil II.) 330 AKVAD. . Matinubahli (Matan-baal) I. Hiram IV. (Seiromos). Mattenos (Mutton III.) (Herod, vii. 97), (Ma)tan-Bihli I I . . his son, contemporary of Xerxes. Abdilihti . . Kilu-Baal . . Yakin(i)lu . . Subject to Tyre, Ethbaal I. and Elu- Azi-bahal, his son. SlDOH". . . . . . . . 854 732 700 . '. 675 665 laios being Kings of Sidon as well as Merbaal, son of Agbaal (Herod, vii. of Tyre. B.C. E t h b a a l II. (Assn. Tubahlu), after t h e flight of Elulaios . . 98), age of Xerxes. 333 700 StratSn LYDIA. Mythical Period. DYNASTY OF THE ATYAD^E. Manes (the Moon-god), son of Zens. Cotys, son of Manes, married Halie, dau. of Tyllos. Attys (the Sun-god), son of Kotys (of Manes ac. to Herod.) Lydos and Torybos, sons of Attys. 1 Joseph. Ant. ix. 14, 2. 2 i Alkimos the pious. Akiamos, whose general Askalos founded Askalon. Arimos. Meles. Moxos, his son. Kambles or Kambletes (Kamblitas). 2 Athen. Deipn. xii. p. 531. DYNASTIC TABLES. 482 Nik. Dam. {i.e. Xanthos). T H E H I T T I T E CONQUEST (? B.O. 1076). Adyattes II., his son (Eus.: Alyattes II. for 14 years. Meles II., his son (Eus.: for 12 years). Myrsos, his son (Eus. omits). Sadyattes II. (Kandaules), his son. Iardanos, the opponent of Kambletes. Omphale, his daughter, marries Herakles (Sandan). Alkaios or Lamos, their son (Herakles also had Akelis, or Agelaos, or Kleodaios, by the slave Mails or Damalis). DYNASTY OF THE HEEAKLEID-E. Nik. Dam. Herodotos. (i.e. Xanthos). 1. Tylon succeeds AgrSn, son of Ninos, son of Belos, son of Oniphale. Alkaios, founds the 2. Sadyattes I. dynasty B.C. 1192; 3. Lixos. his 21st successor was AdyattesI.(BMS. Myrsos. Kandaules Myrsilos, Alyattes). Ardys I. (bro- his son, the last of the dynasty, which ther of Kadys), his son, for 70 lasted 505 years. years (Ens.: for 36 years). DYNASTY OF THE MEEMNADJS. 1. Gyges (Herod.: 38 years ; Eus.: 36 years) . . . . 2. Ardys II., his son (Herod.: 49 years ; Eus.: 38 years) . 3. Sadyattes II., his son (Herod.: 12 years ; Eus.: 15 years) 4. Alyattes III., his son (Herod.: 57 years ; Eus.: 49 years) 5. Kroisos (brother of Pantaleon), his son (Herod.: 14 years; Eus. : 15 years) . . . . Conquered by Kyros . B.C. 687 615 603 554 530 MEDIA. KTESIAS (Diod. Sik. ii. 8. Astibaras for 40 years. 9. Aspadas, called Astyages by the Greeks, for 35 years. 33). 1. Arbake's for 28 years after the throw of Sardanapallos. 2. MandaukSs for 30 (or 20) years. 3. Sosarmos for 20 (or 30) years. 4. Artykas for 50 (or 30) years. 5. Arbianes for 22 years. 6. Artajos for 40 years. 7. Artynes for 22 yeara. HERODOTOS. 1. 2. 3. 4. Deiokes (Ass. Daiukku), 53 years. Phraortes (Frawartish), 22 years. Kyaxares (Ass. Kastarit), 40 years. Astyages (Ass. Istuvegu), 35 years. VAN (BIAINIS) OR ARARAT (ARMENIA). 1. Aramis (wars with Assyria, B.C. 857 8. Ur'sa . . . . and 845). 9. Argistis II. . 2. Sarduris I., son of Lutipris, B.o. 833. 10. Erimenas, his son . 3. Ispuinis, his son. 11. Ru'sas, his son 4. Ispuinis and his son Menuas. 12. Sarduris III. . 5. Menuas alone. 6. Argistis I., his son. Conquered by Media about 7. Sarduris II., his son. B.C. . . 730 714 . . 660 645 610 PERSIA. 1 Akhaemenes (Hakhainanish). 2 Teispes (Chaishpaish), his son. He conquers Susiania and rules at Susa, B.C. 600. ("3. Ariaramnes (Ariyaramna), his son, -j in Persia. V 3. Kyros I. (Kuras), his son, in Susiania. 14. Arsames (Arshama), son of Ariar| amnes, in Persia. j 4. Kambyses I. (Kambujiya), son of V, Kyros, in Susiania. 5. Kyros III., son of Kambyse's, in Susiania. He conquers Media, B.C. 550, and Persia, 548. DYNASTIC TABLES. B.C. 483 B.C. 6. Kambysea II., his son . 529 11. Xerxes II., his son, for 2 months 425 7. Gomates (Gauinata), the Ma12. Sogdianos, his half-brother, for gian, the pseudo - Bardes 7 months . . . . 425 (Bardiya), for 7 months 521 13. Dareios II. Hothos (Okhos), his 8. Dareios (Darayavaush), son of brother, for 19 years . . 424 Hystaspes (Vishtaspa), and 14. Artaxerxes II. MnemSn, his son, for 43 years . . 405 grandson of Arsames, for 36 Revolt of Kyros the younger . 401 years . . . . 521 15. Okhos, son of Artaxerxes, for 9. Xerxes I. (Khshayarsha), his 23 years . . . .462 son, for 21 or 12 years 485 16. Arses, his son, for 3 years . 339 10. Artaxerxes I. (Artakhshatra), 17. Dareios Kodomaniios, for 6 years 336 Longimanus, his son, for Conquered by Alexander . 331 40 years . . . . 465 INDEX. amber, 285. Amen, see Amun. Aahmes (Amasis), 328. Amen-em-hat, 178, 309, 323. Aalu, 345. Amenophis, 329, 333. Abae, 25. Amenti, 193, 342. Abantes, 85. Ammon, 142. AbdSra, 95. Ampelos, 255. Abu-simbel, 141, 328, 332. Amphiaraos, 25. Abydos (Egyptian), 310, 317. Amphiktyons, 226. Accad (Agade), 360. afiLs, 5 1 . Accadians, 359. amphora, 27. Accadian language, 399, 403. fi/j0os, 30. AdSnis (Tammuz), 58, 367, 393, 411, 416. Amu, 324, 345. Adrastos, 21. Amun or Amen, 150, 318, 340, 343. Africa circumnavigated, 117. Amyrteos, 202, 204, 233, 339. JEginetan scale, 57. Amytis, 229, 305, 385. Mgli, 276. Anaitis, 79. iEolis, 17. Anaxagoras, 136. iEskhriSn, 241. Anaximander, 183, 392. ancestor-worship, 155. jEsop, 199. Agade or Agadhe (Accad), 361, 369, 400. ayyapeiov, 291. Angro-mainyus (Ahriman), 451, 452. Agane, see Agade. animal-worship, 162, 344. Agbatana (Ekbatana), 259. ant-gold, 281. AgenSr, 410, 415. Antef, see Entef. Agradates, 69, 438. Anubis, 344. Agylla, 94. Anysis, 202. Ahab, 374. Anzan (Elam), 438. Ahura-mazda, 78, 447. Aparyte, 275. cda, etymology of, 39. Apataria, 87. klyvirTos, 133, 314. Apepi or Apophis, 326, 327, 342, 347. Akes, 2S7. Apis, 147, 213, 243, 344, 440. Akhseans, 2. Apis (a village), 134. Akhsemenes, 75, 120, 233, 436. apotheosis in Egypt, 347. AkhSris, 339. Aprigs (Uab-ra), 217, 338. Alalia, 93. Arabian king, 230. Alarodians {see Ararat), 277. Arakhu, 301, 304, 388. Alea, 38. Ararat (see Alarodians), 97. Alexander conquers Persia, 446. Araxes or Aras, 109, 116. Alexander Polyhistor, 363. Arbela, 359. AMat, 79, 232. Arderikka, 106. Alkaios, 6. Ardys, 11, 428. A16ros, 366. Areii, 276. alphabet, 354, 409, 410. Argos, 2, 3, 29, 149. Alpis, 59. Arimaspi, 116. alum, 226. Arioch, 369, 371. Alyattgs, tumulus of, 56. AriSn, 13, 14. Amardi, 69, 75, 359, 438. Aristeas, 31, 116. Amasis (Aahmes), 222, 236, 238. Arisu, 182. Amazons, 11, 42, 430. INDEX. 486 Bokkhoris, 202, 336. Arkhandros, 176. Borsippa (Barzip), 361. Arkhilokhos, 9, 11. Brankhidse, 25, 55. Armais, 182. Armenia (Ararat), 264, 377, 378, 381, bronze, 39. casting of, 27. 4v!3, 424. Bunbury, 139, 144. Arsinoe, lake of, 208. Busiris, 153, 159. aprdfai, 111. But6, 160. Artaxerxes I., 445. Artaxerxes II., 445. Ashdod, 65, 215. Asherah, 415. Calah, 358, 373. Asia, 98. camel, 48, 281. Asia, Upper, 59, 64. Canaan, 2, 3, 30, 406. Asianic syllabary, 56. canal of Suez, 215. Askalon, 7, 65, 427. cannibalism, 279. AsmaJch, 141. Caphtor (Keft-ur), 133, 230, 354. Aspathines, 264. Assur, 358. Carchemish, 5, 6, 373, 378, 385, 405, 426, 429. Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapallos), 6, 383. mina of, 435. Assur-natsir-pal, 373. Carthage, 94, 237, 412, 422. Assyria, name of, xxix. Casdim, 362. history of, xvii, 65, 66, 78, 372. Cataract, the First, 139. Assyrian Canon, 365. Astarte (Ashtoreth), 57, 58, 390, 411, Chaldeans (Caldai), 361. chariots, 161. 415. chronology, Assyrian, 365. astragali, 58. cinnamon, 282, 284. Astronoe, 156. astronomy, Babylonian, 43, 369, 400, circumcision, 146. columnar architecture, 395. 401, 402. Astyaggs (Istuvegu), 66, 67, 74, 77, 78, community of wives, 117. conspirators, the Persian, 264. 386, 438. cosmogony, the Phoenician, 419. Asykhis (Ases-kaf), 201, 321. Creation, Chaldean account of, 391. Atargatis, 5, 7, 65, 427, 429. crocodile, the, 164, 165. 'Adrjvai., 30. crypts, Egyptian, 190. Ath6this (Atet), 170. Cudur-lagamar, 369. Atossa, 244, 273. Cudur-nankhundi, 369. Attys, 58, 430. cuneiform writing, 398. Avaris, 326, 333. Cuthah, 361. Avesta, 449. B Baal (Bel), 415. Babel, Tower of, 367. Babylon, 102, 103, 301, 304, 361, 439. siege of, 110, 111, 381, 387. Babylonian dress, 112. astronomy, see astronomy. Bachof, xvii. iSSpis, 149. Bast or Pasht, see Sekhet. Battos, 226. Bauer, xviii. Behistun (Bagistana), 273. /3«cfe, 125. Bel (Baal), xxviii, 103, 390. Beni-hassan, 348. Berosos or Berfissos, 59, 362, 363, 402. beth-el {baitylos), 231, 418. §IKOL, 112. Bithynians, 17. Boghaz Keui, 5, 42, 45, 426, 430. D Dadikfe, 275. Dai, 75. Daphne (Egyptian), 141. Dardanians, 331. Dareios, 120, 441. wives of, 273. Dareios Kodomannos, 446. Dareitse, 276. Darmesteter, 448. Daskylion, 274, 288. Dead, Book of the, 351. Deiokes (Daiukku), 60, 63, 437. Deir el-Bahari, 335. Delos, 35, 221. Delphi, 14, 226. temple of Athena at, 55. Deluge, Babylonian account of, 366. Derbikhi, 75. Derbikes, 120. Derket6, 65. INDEX. "Deserters," the, 141. Deukalidn, 29. SiaTWevOai, 3. dice, 58. Dido, 412. Dionysos, 208. duppocpopiu, 300. dithyramb, 13. Dodekarkhy, the, 208. DodSna, 25, 29, 158. draughts, game of, 58. dreams, 21. Dungi, 369. E 487 fire-temples, 78. fish, avoidance of, 147. flutes, 11. G galli, 431. yafifipbs, 43. Gandarii, 275. gathas, the, 450. yau\os, 295, 420. Gaumata (Gomates), 258, 261, 440. gem-cutting, 397. geometric papyrus, the, 349. Gisdhubar, 367, 394, 401, 455. glass, 356, 420. gnomon, the, 183. Gobryas, 264. gold, value of, 9. pale, 27. gorillas, 421. griffins, 116. Gudea, 368. Gutium, 357, 371. Gygaaan Lake, 57. Gyges (Gugu), 7, 11, 64, 212, 337, 383, 428. Gyndes, 108, 109. Egibi banking firm, 405. Egyptians, creation of, 124. Egyptian castes, 218. customs, 145. deities, 150. dress, 146, 147, 169. dynasties, 151, 176. feasts, 159. humanity, 353. kings, 205. measures, 220. medicine, 160, 350. priests, 147, 347. religion, 340. H Ekbatana {see Agbatana), 61, 74, 386, 437. Elam (Susiania), 360, 378, 383, 402. Hades, the Babylonian, 392. Elbo, 202. haoma, 452. elephant, 279. hair, how cut, 49. Elephantine, 129, 138, 139, 140. Harmakhis or Hor-em-khu, 319, 342. embalming, 236. Harpagos, 67, 101. Enarees, 65. Harran, 359. Eneti, 113. Hatasu or Hatsepu, 328. Enna, 354. Hat-hor, 134, 342, 343. Entef (Antef), 323. Hazael, 374. iird re, 10. Hekatseos, xxi, xxii, 122, 127, 132, 136, Ephesos, 15, 16. 164, 206, 214, 286. Erech, 360, 368. Helen, 184. Ergamenes, 140. Heliopolis (On), 126. Eridanos, 285. Hellanikos, xxii. Hellen, 30. Esar-haddon I , 64, 336, 383. henotheism, 346. Esar-haddon II., 384. Hephsestopolis, 199. Eth-baal, 412. Herakles, 151, 367, 394. Ethiopians, 140, 142. Etruria, colonisation of, 58. columns of, 144, 416. Etruscans, 94. Herakleida;, 5, 6, 427. eS, 18. Hermopolis, 163. Hermos, 47. on, xxii. Herodotos, arithmetic of, 20. Euphrates, 102. authority of, xxxi. EurSpa, 3, 411. date of history of, xxiv. Eyuk, 5, 42, 45, 426. dialect of, xxxv. ethnology of, 31. extent of travels of, xxvi, xxx. honesty of, xxiv, etc. fables, 353. philosophy of, 19. Fayum, 324. predecessors of, xxii. fire among the Persians, 78. 488 INDEX. Herodotos, object of history of, xv. sources of history of, xix. Herusha (Bedouins), 322. Hezekiah, 380. hieroglyphics, Egyptian, 14S, 354. Hittite, 409, 434. hippop.otamus, the, 165. Hiram, 411. Hir-hor, 334, 335. Hissarlik, 16. Hittites, 5, 9, 10, 16, 42, 45, 57, 98, 181, 325, 329, 331, 425. Homer, 157. Homeric dialect, xxxv, 37, 51, 53. H6TOS (Hor), 318, 341, 343. horse, the, 47. in Egypt, 182. sacrifice of, 123. Hor-shesu, 319, 322. Hyllos, 47. Hystaspe"s, 264. Hytennians, 274. I Iardanos, 6. ibis, the, 163. Ichthyophagi, the, 237. Ienysos, 230. Iliad, the, 33, 186. Im-hotep, 342. Inar6s, 233, 339. Indus explored, 443. inscriptions, evidence of, xxxviii. Intapnern&, 287. 16, 3, 148, 346. Ionians, 3, 29. Ionic dialects, xxxiv, etc. revolt, 444. iron, meteoric, 355. Isis, 148, 192, 341, 342, 343. Istar (Astartg), 367, 390. Istria, 144. Ixabates, 267. judges, Persian royal, 243. K Tea, 340. Kabeiri, 156, 247, 416. Kadmos, 30, 410. Kadytis (Gaza), 216, 230. Kalasiries, 219. Kallatite, 247. Kallantians, 247, 278. Karnbyses, 222, 387, 440. length of reign of, 124, 259, 260, 266. Kandalanu (Kineladanos), 384. Kandaules, 6, 7, 9. meaning of name, 6. KanSpos, 134. Kappadokians, 42, 262. Karians, 96, 98, 160, 212, 433. interpreters, xxxi. Karmania, 75. Karnak, 317, 328. Karpis, 59. Karrak, 371. Kao-irj, 282. Kasios, 128, 417. Kaspatyros, 280. Kaspians, 276. Kassi or Kossteans, 275, 303, 359, 370, 371. Kaukasos, 117. Kauk&nes, 97. Kaunians, 96. Kef-t, 2, 406. Kelts, 144. Keneh, 172. Kepheus, 2. KeikasSros, 133. Keteians, 181. Khabbash, 338. Khaldseans, 104. Khaldis, 17, 425. Khalybes, 17. Khammuragas, 303, 361, 370. Khar6n of Lampsakos, xxiii. Khem, 153, 154, 343. Khemmis, 172. Kheops or Khufu, 194, 317, 318, 319, 321, 322. Kheper, 342. Khephren or Khaf-ra, 196, 319, 321. Khnum, 343. Khorasmians, 276. Khu-en-Aten (AmenSphis IV.), 329. Khunsu, 343. KIKL, 175. Kilikia, 5, 17, 42, 44, 374, 378, 383. Kimmerians, 5, 9, 11, 64, 382, 384, 427, 428, 437. Kirchhoff, xvi-xviii, xxiv. Kis, 361. Kissians, 275. Kissian gate, 303. Kokheikhe, dyke of, 176. Kolkhians, xxvi, 179, 180, 277. K6p./u, 171. Korosko, 140. Korys, 232. Kovpidios, 81. Krathis, 85. KrestSn, 30. Krcesos, 5, 16, 57, 428. legend of, 52. Kr6phi and Mdphi, 138. Ktesias, xiii, xviii, xxxiii, 1, 5, 362, 456. Kurds, 277. Kyaxares (Kastarit), 61, 63, 65, 67, 384, 437. INDEX. Kybele, 47, 58, 430. Kyd6nia, 257. Kykldps, 116. Kynesians, 144. Kypros, 227, 338, 370, 379, 382, 408. Kypria, the, 187. Kypselos, 252. Kyrnos, 95. Kyros, 59, 66, 68, 69, 74, 77, 78, 3 438, 455, 456. his death, 120. Kyros the younger, 445. Kythera, 48, 65. Labrandeus, Zeus, 425. Labynetos, 44, 46, 108. Labyrinth, the, 208. Larissa, 358, 439. Lasonians, 274. lentoid gems, 432. \etrxv, 88. MSavov, 282. \IJ3O.VO)T6S, 279. libraries, xxiii, 399. Libyans, 333, 334. Libyan history of Herodotos, 217. Lig-Bagas or Ur-Bagas, 368. Linos, 168. AoJ£os, 54. lotus, the, 173. Lydia, 6, 423, etc. Lydian writing, 56. Lygdamis, 35. Lykians, 97. Lykurgos, 36, 37. M Ma, 430. Ma, 343. Madyes, 64. Mseones, 6. txayadis, 11. Magdolos (Migdol), 216. Magi, 62, 73, 79, 83, 448. Magnesia, 9, 17. Magos, 258, 267. Magophonia, 261, 441. Mahaffy, xx, xxiv, 42, 96, 353. Makronians, 180. Mai-Amir, 438. Maneros, 168. Manes, 58, 427. Manetho, 315. Mardians, 69, 75. Marea, 134. Mares, 277 Mariandynians, 17. Mariette, 316. marks, sacred, 185. 489 Marsyas, 431. Maspero, xii, 216, 232. Massagete, 116, 122, 247. mastabahs, 348. master-thief, story of the, 189. Mat, 335. Matai, 109, 277. Matienians, 42, 277. Medes, 60, 62, 109, 277, 384, 386, 436, 441. Median dynasty, 369. empire, 78. wall, 107. Megabyzos, 305. Megakles, 33. Megara, 32. Megasthenes, 364. Melampus, 154. Meles, 50, 427. Melkarth (Makar), 3, 6, 152, 185, 367, 408, 410, 415. Memphis, 125, 127, 314. Mendes, 150. Menes, 127, 176, 311, 317, 320. Meneptah II., 333. Menophres, 350. Menti, 325. Mentu-hotep, 323. Mentu-ra, 160. Men-ke-ra, see Mykerinos. Mermnadse, 55. Merodach, 390, 391. Merodach-Baladan, 379, 380. Meroe, 140, 241. Mespila, 359, 439. Messapia, 296. Mi-Amun-mut, 212. Midas, 10. Milyas, 99. mina, 57, 422, 435. Minni, 60, 63, 64, 384, 437. Minos, 97. Minyans, 3, 86, 97, 257, 410. Mithra, 79, 451. Mitradates, 67. Mizraim, 312. Moeris, 131, 178, 324. Mohar, travels of the, 352. Moloch, 415. Momemphis, 218. money, who first coined, 57. monotheism, Babylonian, 391. Mont, 318. Moskhians (Meshech), 17, 277, 378. Mossyncekians, 277. fiw'us, 6. mummies, 160. Murghab, 75, 455, 456. Mut, 343. Mykerinos (Men-ke-ra), 196, 197, 318, 321. Mykians, 276. 490 Mylasa, 98. Myrina, 11, 87, 258. myrrh, 282. Myrsilos, 289. INDEX. Padsei, 279. Paktyike, 280. TrdXcurra, 27. Paley, xxxv. Pallakopas, 361. Pamphylia, 17. N Pan, 153. Nabonasar, 366. Nabonidos (Nabu - nahid), 44, 46, 106, Panopolis, 172. Pantibibla, 366, 399. 108, 385, 439. Pantimathi, 276. Nabopolassar, 384. Papremis, 160, 161. Nahr el-Kelb, 179, 180, 411. papyrus, 173. Napata, 140, 204, 311. ir&pet -S), 78. Naram-Sin, 370. parents, murder of, 123. Naukratis, 201, 337, 338. Parikanians, 275, 277. Nebuchadrezzar, 385, 413. Paropanisos, 275. invades Egypt, 218. Parthia, 442. Keith, 138, 160. Pasargadae, 75, 77, 258. Nekh6 I., 211, 337. Patseki, 246. Nektanebos, 339. Patara, 104. Nephthys, 344. Pausiksa, 276. Nidinta-Bel, 301, 387, 441. Pausiris, 233, 339. Nile, course of, 139, 140. Peisistratos, 31, 32. deposit of, 308. Pelasgians, 29, 30, 31. rise of, 135. Pelusium, 132. sources of, 138. Nimphi, the pseudo-Sesostres near, 181. Pentaur, poem of, 353. Pepi, 322. Nimrod, 367. Periander, 253. Nineveh, 101, 358. Perseus, 172. Nisaean plain, 282. Persians, 386. Nitetis, 228. Persian customs, 78, 79. Nitokris, 106, 177, 199, 322, 387. language, 82. Nizir, 366. vbixos, 14. tribes, 75. writers, 1. nomes of Egypt, 312-14. Pethor, 373, 374, 426. Nu, 341. Pharaoh, 183. Nun, 342. Phaselis,' 225. Nut, 342. Pheidfin, 57. nuter, 340. Pherekydes, 286. Pheron, 183. O Philitis, 196. oasis, 142, 241. Philo Byblius, 419. oaths, how confirmed, 44. Phinthine, 128. obelisks, 184, 349. Phoenicians, 2, 3, 30, 405, 408. Odyssey, 187. Phoenician writers, 1. CEbares, 272. phcenix, 165, 342. of a re, 56. Phraortes, 63, 67. Okhos, 339, 446. Phrygians, 10, 424, 431. Olympia, 128. ti\a.Kos, 5 3 . Omphale, 6, 427. Pi-ankhi, 336. Onophres, 262. Pindar, 247. Ophir, 411. Pinotem, 335. Opis, 109. irlpufus, 207. oracles, 26, 28. Pisidia, 17. Oroetes, 288. Pithom (Pa-Turn), 215. orosangce, 297. planets, Egyptian names of, 350. Orotal, 231. plough, Egyptian, 132. Orthokorybantes, 275. Polykrates, 248. Osiris, 318, 341. Prexaspgs, 266. Herodotos ignorant of name of, xxvi, TrpoaiS4o/j,ai, 34. 126, 221. Prometheus, 393. INDEX. Pros&pitis, 149. prostitution in Babylonia, 114, 115. Psammetikhos (Psamtik) I., 65, 141, 211, 252, 337. Psammetikhos II., 198, 199, 216, 232. Ptah (Hephfestos), 125, 318, 342. Ptah-hotep, 321, 351. Pteria, 45. Ptolemy, Canon of, 364. Pul, 375. Punt, 325, 328, 329, 356. purification of murderers, 21. Pygmalidn, 412. pygmies in Africa, 143. pyramids, the, 194, etc. pyramid-builders, 193, 321. Pyrenees, 144. K Ea, 318, 346. rain in Babylonia, 111. in Egypt, 132, 232. Eamses I., 330. Ramses II., 178, 331, 411. Ramses III. (Rhampsinitos), 334, 353. Ea-skenen, 327. religion. Greek, 16. Resen, 358. Rhagse, 448. Rhampsinitos (Ramses III.), 189, 193. RhodSpis, 199, 201. Rhcekos, 258. Rud-Amun, 204. S Sabak&n (So), 202, 336. Sabbath, the, 402. sacrifice, human, 153. sagaris, 122. Sagartians, 75, 276, 442. Sais, 221, 337. SakiB, 64, 89, 120, 122. Sakkarah, 317, 321. Samaria, 377. Samnrughes, 383. Samos, 41, 250, 255, 257, 299, 300. sampi, 82. son, 82. Sanclraniathon, 421. Sandan, 6, 429. Saneha, 323, 352. Saparda, 273, 277, 384, 437. Sarakos (Esar-haddon II.), 384. Sarangians, 276. Sardanapallos (Assur-bani-pal), xxix, 210. Sardes, 5, 29, 50. Sargon I., 227, 369, 400, 408. Sargon II., 60, 371, 377. saros, 366. Saspeires, 64, 277. 491 satrap, 111. satrapies, 273, 442. Sattagydians, 275. Schliemann, 2, 5, 28, 430, 432, 435. Seb, 230, 318, 341, 342, 346. Sebek, 344. Sekhet (Bast or Pasht), 159, 342, 343. Semiramis, xxxiii, 105, 303, 362. Sennacherib, 205, 380. Sepharvaim (Sippara), 361. Sesennu, 163. Sesostris (Ramses II.), 178. the pseudo-Sesostris, 181, 426, 434. Set, 207, 318, 326, 341, 343. Set-aa-pehti-Nubti, 326. SethSn, 204. Setil. and II., 178, 182, 331. Setnau, romance of, 193. Set-nekht, 333. seven, a sacred number, 231. Shalmaneser II., 374. Shamanism in Accad, 388. Shishak (Sheshank), 335, 336. Shinar, see Sumer. Shu, 318, 346. Sidon, 186. silver, 433. value of, 9. Sinai, 320, 322, 323, 355. sind6n, 171. Siphnos, 256. Sippara (Sepharvaim), 107. Siup, 222. skhoenos, Egyptian, 128. Skyths, 64. Skylax, xxiii, 443. Smerdis (Bardes or Gaumata), 243, 440. Smintheus (Apollo), 205. Smyrna, 11. snake, the, in folk-lore, 46. Snefru (Sephuris), 320, 351. Sogd, 276. soldering of metals, 15, 349. Solon, 17. Solymi, 99. sophist, 17. Sophokles, xvii, xxi, 288. Sothis (Sopd), 343. Sothic cycle, the, 127, 349. (nr&tca, 67. Sparta, 256. Sphinx, the, 224, 319. 0-01, 162. stater, the, 28. Stein, xxxiv, xl. stone-age, the, in Egypt, 308. Suben, 154. Sumer (Shinar), 360. sun-dial, the, 183. Susa (Shushan), 243. Susiana (Elam), 454. Syene (Assuan), 311. 492 INDEX. Syennesis, 44. Sylos6n, 297. Syrians, the White, 5. table of the sun, the, 237. Tsenaros, 15. Takhompsd, 139. talent, value of the, 274. Tammuz (Adonis), 58, 168, 367, 393. Tanis (Zoan), 325. Tarshish (Tartessos), 92, 407. Tarsos, 44. Telmessos, 46. Temnos, 87. Teos, 95. Te6s, 339. Teta (Ath8this), 320. Teukrians, 187. Thales, 96, 135. eclipse of, 43, 392. Thamanseans, 276. Thebes in Egypt (No-Amon), 126, 133, 158, 311, 323, 337. Theodoros, 27, 258. theophania, 27. Beds, 156. Thera (Santorin), 30, 40, 410. Therm6d6n, 180. thesmophoria, 221. This, 310. Th6nis, 185. Thomax, 40. Thoth (Tehuti), 344, 346. Thothmes, 328. thunder as an omen, 272. Thynians, 17. Thyrea, 48. Tibareni (Tubal), 17, 277. Tiglath-Adar, 372. Tiglath-Pileser I., 60, 365, 372, 405. Tiglath-Pileser II., 375. tin, 285, 422. Tirhakah, 202, 203, 336, 382. Torrhebos, 58. tonsure, the, 232. totemism, Egyptian, 344. Semitic, 418. trttkas, 37. triremes, 250. TpiToyheia, etymology of, 454. Troad, land not increased, 130. Troja in Egypt, 129. TrophSnios, 25. Troy, fall of, 207. Turn, 341, 342. TyphSn, 207. Tyre, 2, 152, 382, 408. Tyrrhenians, 31, 58. U UenepMs, 320. Una, 322. Ur, 360, 368, 381, 389. Usertasen, 323. Utians, 276. Utica, 238. Uxians, 276. Van, cuneiform inscriptions of, 117, 277, 424.. Vendidad, 450. W water of life, 239. Wiedemann, xxvi, 141, 215, 216, 220, 235. will of Sennacherib, the, 404. wine, Egyptian, 167. women forbidden to mention their husbands' names, 86. X Xanthos, xxiii, 100, 427, 434. Xerxes, 444. meaning of the name, xxxiii. Xisuthros, 366. Xois, 324. , 20. f«d, 145. send, 449. Zimri, the, 62. Zoan (Tanis), 325. zodiac, the signs of the, 127. Zohak, 454. ZSpyros, 301, 305. Zoroastrianism, 83, 447. Zrvan akarana, 453. MACMILIAN'S CLASSICAL LIBRARY. With Notes and Introductions for Higher Students. iESCHYLUS. — AGAMEMNON, CHOEPHOROE, EUMENIDES. Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by A. O. PRICKARD, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of New College, Oxford. 8vo. [In preparation. ANTIPHON, ANDOKIDES, LYSIAS, ISOKRATES, AND ISsEOS. Edited, with Notes, by R, C. 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