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After Rhetoric The Study of Discourse Beyond Language and Culture Stephen R. Yarbrough Southern Illinois Univ...
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After Rhetoric The Study of Discourse Beyond Language and Culture Stephen R. Yarbrough Southern Illinois University Press Carbondale and Edwardsville
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Disclaimer: This book contains characters with diacritics. When the characters can be represented using the ISO 88591 character set (http://www.w3.org/TR/images/latin1.gif), netLibrary will represent them as they appear in the original text, and most computers will be able to show the full characters correctly. In order to keep the text searchable and readable on most computers, characters with diacritics that are not part of the ISO 88591 list will be represented without their diacritical marks. Copyright © 1999 by the Board of Trustees, Southern Illinois University All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 02 01 00 99 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data Yarbrough, Stephen R. After rhetoric : the study of discourse beyond language and culture bStephen R. Yarbrough. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Discourse analysis. 2. Language and culture. 3. Communication. 4. Rhetoric. I. Title. P302.Y37 1999 401'.41—dc21 9838966 ISBN 0809322390 (cloth : alk. paper) CIP The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.481984.
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For my family
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Contents
Acknowledgments
ix
Introduction
1
1. Power, Motive, and Discourse Studies
16
2. Making Ground
51
3. Cultural Mystique
80
4. Language, a Field of Force
108
5. The Dialogic Way
137
6. The Pragmatic Way
158
7. The Problematological Way
186
8. Beyond Composition
210
Appendix
245
Notes
249
Works Cited
257
Index
267
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Acknowledgments I greatfully acknowledge permission from Penn State University Press to reproduce part of my article "Power, Force, and Motive" in Philosophy and Rhetoric 29 (1996): 344–58, copyright 1996 by The Pennsylvania State University. Reproduced by permission of The Pennsylvania State University Press. I also acknowledge permission from the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, Office of Accountability Services, to quote extensively from the prompts and sample responses for the fourth and seventh grades from the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction's Scoring Guide for 1997. To the School for Criticism and Theory at Dartmouth College I give my warmest thanks for the inspirational summer in which I began writing this book, and I thank as well Skidmore College and the University of North Carolina at Greensboro for grants that partially supported my work on the manuscript. Although numerous individuals through their comments and suggestions have contributed to what still seems to me a work in progress, I would like to thank especially Ronald Schleifer, Steven Mailloux, Henry W. Johnstone Jr., Richard Rorty, and Bonnie Yarbrough.
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Introduction The most specific I can be about when this book began as a project is to recall a cool evening in upstate New York during the spring of 1991. That night I read in The American Scholar a heated exchange of views between Diane Ravitch and Molefi Kete Asante on the issue of multiculturalism. In an earlier issue of the same journal, Ravitch had drawn a distinction between what she called "pluralistic multiculturalism" and "particularistic multiculturalism." According to her, "The pluralists seek a richer common culture; the particularists insist that no common culture is possible or desirable" (Ravitch 340). Particularists, she charged, were "filiopietists'' (a term not in the O.E.D. and clearly a polite substitute for "racists,'' if not "racist separatists"). Particularism, she said, is "invidious," for it implies that "racial and ethnic minorities are not and should not try to be a part of American culture," that "American culture belongs only to those who are white and European," that "those who are neither white nor European are alienated from American culture by virtue of their race or ethnicity," that "the only culture they do belong to or can ever belong to is the culture of their ancestors, even if their families have lived in this country for generations" (341). Asante, in response, implied that it is Ravitch who is the racist, comparing her positions to those "taken against the Freedmen's Bureau's establishment of black schools in the South in the 1860s" and to "what Martin Bernal calls in Black Athena the 'neoAryan' model of history" (Asante and Ravitch 267). Ravitch, he said, is one of the "keepers of the status quo" who "want to maintain a 'white framework' for multiculturalism" (271). Ravitch's distinction between pluralism and particularism is a false one; the true distinction is between the pluralism "within a Eurocentric framework" that Ravitch advocates and the "pluralism without hierarchy" that he advocates. The fact is, according to Asante, "there is no common American culture" to which minority cultures should conform as Ravitch and other "defenders of the status quo" contend (270). Rather, "To believe in mul
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ticultural education is to assume that there are many cultures," but the only way Ravitch "can reconcile the 'many cultures' is to insist on many 'little' cultures under the hegemony of the 'big' white culture" (271). This "exchange of views," so similar to others I had read and heard (and still often read and hear today), distressed me very much. In these pages two apparently normal, intelligent, sincere people were publicly accusing one another of racism—if not deviance, stupidity, and hypocrisy. They fully expected their readers to take a position along with them, to declare one right and the other wrong. I, however, could not meet this expectation. After reading and rereading their arguments, I had to conclude the following: Both of the participants had accused the other of racism, and both were right—both were racist. Both thought they had found a position that transcended racism, and both were wrong. Given this unfortunate state of affairs, the question for me became, How is it possible that two interlocutors, each apparently drawing logical conclusions from well defined premises, could disagree so vehemently when they apparently shared the same fundamental premise? Everything I knew about traditional logic and rhetoric said that this should not be so. Yet it was so. The premise was that an entity called "culture," when shared by interlocutors, served as the foundation of their communication. Both Ravitch and Asante agreed that in order to understand others, to persuade them, to agree upon goals and values with them, people had to share with those others a complex of fundamental signs and symbols, beliefs and values, conventions and traditions. Moreover, they agreed that in order to understand oneself, to have an identity, an existence as a person, it was necessary to find one's place within some culture, to define one's freedom within the constraints of that culture, to belong to it. Eventually, it became clear to me that in a sense they were right—that without their shared belief in the existence of culture, without their each believing that the other believed in that existence, they could not have argued with one another. Yet, paradoxically, for that very same reason they could not, and could never, reach agreement. The belief that they shared—the belief that one had to share in advance with others a complex of linguistic and cultural beliefs before one could communicate with them—was the very belief that prevented
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them from sharing further beliefs. The paradox was paralyzing. It seemed to mean that the very nature of culture and language required that being fully human meant being isolated from or in conflict with other humans who did not share with you the same foundational cultural and linguistic assumptions. Of course, I had heard, and in fact had written about, this dreary scenario before. Only a month prior to reading this exchange of views, I had sent to press a book which dealt with some of these same issues. But that spring night somehow the scene seemed more dreary than ever, more hopelessly paralyzing, and I began to think about the problem again. I knew already that for nearly a century the concept of culture has been linked to the concept of language. Both have been understood as interrelated systems—as totalities of elements in which each element achieves significance through its (usually negative) systematic relationships to other elements within the totality. Accordingly, individual (speech or behavioral) acts and their objects have been understood as being mediated and constituted by some language or culture. Insofar as the language/culture has been believed to perform these functions, it has been regarded as an entity—a medium either of representation or expression—between the mind and the world. I knew also that for the last few decades, "postmodern" thinkers have criticized this structuralistic conception of language and culture. We are now familiar with the postmodern claim: structuralist thinking, although ultimately inescapable, necessarily and continually undermines itself because the knowledge it produces rests upon foundations of its own devising. As a result, postmodernism implies that intellectual inquiry should expose the symbolic and semiotic structures upon which our cultural values and beliefs depend, but that it cannot circumvent such structuration. What I didn't know was that there was a way to circumvent this dilemma. Attempting to take postmodernism a step further, I had argued in Deliberate Criticism (1992) that because deconstruction and other postmodern modes of intellectual inquiry have been conducted as internal critiques of structuralism, turning its own methods against itself, these modes have been unable to provide practical alternatives, only an ironic awareness of an apparently untenable, yet inescapable predicament. These critiques have exposed mercilessly the contradictions in the dogmas of expression and representation, but they have
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given us no new way of writing about the behavior the dogmas were invented to explain. As a result, I claimed, the postmodern undermining of cultural and linguistic authority has not eliminated, but proliferated, our use of these concepts, even if they are now used in highly ironic, selfconscious manners. Today, I still believe that, oddly, writing "metaphysical" concepts "under erasure" has not often led to abandoning conceptual schemes but to authorizing absolutely linguistic and cultural practices not considered one's own and to debunking and trivializing those considered one's own. This tendency can be summed up in the current watchwords of ''multiculturalism,'' "ethnocentricity," and "cultural incommensurability." Unfortunately, multiculturalism is no solution to the problems of culturalism. As Asante says, "the meaning of multicultural is 'many cultures'" (270). Unlike Asante, I think that if culturalism is foolish, multiculturalism is simply multifoolish. The problem is not that (multi) culturalism recognizes a multiplicity of legitimate aims and values. Rather, the problem is that it considers languages and cultures to be internally coherent, therefore selfreferential and incommensurable—and the problem is widespread. The belief that poems cannot be adequately paraphrased, that languages cannot be fully translated, and that cultural practices cannot be legitimately judged from the "outside" has guided our criticism, educational policy, civil rights legislation, judicial decisions, and foreign policy for decades. Even as I write this introduction the Supreme Court of the United States is pondering whether it is constitutional for states to make "English" the official language. The belief that there are such things as languages and cultures is shared by the political left and right. It undergirds the farleft belief in cultural isolationism (e.g., Afrocentrism); the farright belief in cultural literacy. The existence of entire academic departments depends upon the belief that languages, poems, cultures, are things that exist independently of our purposes and can be learned in isolation from the circumstances and activities that produced them. Much of our "common sense," such as the notion that one can legitimately "correct" grammar, spelling, punctuation to conform to "Standard American English," depends entirely on the belief that there is such a thing as a "language" understood as an entity, a medium, standing between our minds and the world. Depending upon the attitude one takes toward these doctrines and
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beliefs, they lead to either isolationism or totalitarianism because they feed a false dichotomy: either we share the same codes and conventions, achieving community but risking exclusivism, or we proliferate differences, achieving choice and freedom but risking fragmentation and incoherence. In Deliberate Criticism I sought to dissolve this dichotomy. I proposed that we should seek a mediative balance, recognizing, on the one hand, that categorical logic, judgment by standards, and social organization by classes are the inevitable products of human language, but, on the other hand, insisting that we can choose the categories, standards, and classes we use. I had hoped to demonstrate that we are not bound by a priori concepts, natural or cultural, because we have the capacity to negate the impulses that ensue from them. We can refuse the impulse to objectify women, to humble ourselves before the sign of the cross, to eat meat, and so forth, should we so choose. We can overcome desire and revulsion and consciously replace the concepts that produce these with others. Coupling this capacity to negate with two convictions: first, that since we cannot know the Truth in any absolute sense, it doesn't matter what we believe so long as it doesn't contradict what we do; and, second, that community is better than strife, unity better than disunity, I arrived at the conclusion that wherever contradiction and conflict manifest themselves, a mediate position was both possible and desirable. I did not promote compromise, the sacrifice of part of what we want in order to obtain another part of what we want. Mediation was, itself, the goal. This desire for the middle I called "humanism," for it discounted any aims and purposes other than our selfgenerated, temporally situated desires to resolve the irritation of doubt. Presently, although still committed to fighting isolationism and totalitarianism—fanaticisms of any sort—I no longer believe that we are stuck with categorical logic and structural thinking. Derrida had convinced me that, however illusory the "truths" produced by structural thought were, we could not avoid believing in them because language actually had the characteristics structuralist theory claimed it had—that communication, in fact, consisted of a transference of meaning that depended upon interlocutors sharing the same, or at least commensurable, languages, understood (apparently, at least) as coherently integrated systems of signs and conventions. I now no longer believe
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that structural thought is inevitable because I no longer believe that community—the sharing of beliefs, conventions, linguistic habits, and values—is a prerequisite for communication. It may very well be a goal or at least a possible consequence of communication, but I have found that assuming the latter rather than the former produces a very different understanding of the nature of discursive processes, and this understanding, in turn, alters considerably our understanding of how societies can function. I was first convinced that community was no prerequisite for communication by the postanalytic philosopher Donald Davidson. In a series of articles produced over the last few decades, Davidson has strenuously challenged "the very idea" of language, and implicitly the idea of culture, when these are conceived analogously to Kantian "conceptual schemes." Davidson describes the problem we must confront when we accept the notion of "conceptual schemes": There may be no translating from one scheme to another, in which case the beliefs, hopes, and bits of knowledge that characterize one person have no true counterparts for the subscriber to another scheme. Reality itself is relative to a scheme; what counts as real in one system may not in another. (Inquiries 183)
Davidson showed me that believing in conceptual schemes—whether the "language" of linguistics, the "culture" of ethnography, or the "theory" of criticism—gets us tangled in paradoxes from which we cannot escape. The problem lies with the notion of ''meaning" associated with such schemes, the notion that an utterance or action is to be understood in relation to some learnable, abstract structure or system that exists prior to the utterance itself. In place of the notion of antecedent meanings, Davidson sees that an utterance's meaning lies in the future, in its effects, and that its effects depend upon what listeners discern to be its causes. Davidson's causal theory of meaning led him to develop what he calls "radical interpretation." To me its central message is this: the attitude we take toward the people with whom we speak greatly affects what we understand from what they speak. If we want to understand them truly—that is, if we want to know what caused them to speak as they did—we have to take up the attitude he calls "interpretive charity." This is why: unpredictable utterances always point toward conditions
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of which we are not aware. Others may very well be wrong about some of the things they say, but unless we believe them initially, we will never know what it is about the way things are that prevented us from predicting their errors. We begin to communicate with others once the causes that condition our speech begin to coincide with the causes that condition theirs. As Davidson put it: "Communication begins where causes converge; your utterance means what mine does if belief in its truth is systematically caused by the same events and objects" ("Coherence" 318). Davidson's radical interpretation completely bypasses the need to hypothesize the existence of "languages." As he says, it "erases the boundary between knowing a language and knowing our way around the world generally." Extending this claim, I say it therefore erases the boundaries between species, between members of cultures, speakers of dialects, languages: we all are alien, always. Thus, "The problem of interpretation is domestic as well as foreign: it surfaces for speakers of the same language in the form of the question, how can it be determined that the language is the same?" As much as Davidson's work helped me to understand how communication is actually achieved, his work did little to explain the consequences to human life of believing in one theory of language rather than another. Here the Russian dialogists, particularly Mikhail Bakhtin, were most helpful. Their notion that language is not structural but interactive fits nicely with Davidson's dynamic notion of discourse. In dialogism, understanding is not the passive decoding of a message but an active response to a prior utterance—a response intending to elicit another response. Speech, then, for the dialogists as for Davidson, is more doing than meaning. However, the dialogists go on to note that what speech does is intimately connected with work, with what we do with others to maintain our existence. Questions about language, then, are inherently questions about power, and the discursive tools the dialogists invented to describe the involvement of speech with power—such as the differences between the centrifugal and centripetal forces acting upon language, between active and passive understanding, and between authoritative and internally persuasive speech—are extremely useful for the study of discourse. They are particularly useful for understanding the source of discursive power because, as these concepts intimate, everything in discourse depends
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upon what we believe others believe about discourse. Bakhtin's notion of discursive "distance" speaks to this point. Distance, I learned from Bakhtin, cannot be traversed so long as speech has been what I call "linguistified"—a truly ugly word, but one that indicates how once discourse is believed to work through a conceptual scheme, or language, the results are the same as they would be if it actually did work that way, for incommensurability then becomes a selffulfilling expectation. Linguistification can be overcome through Davidson's interpretive charity and Bakhtin's active understanding, but, in my view, it is most seriously challenged by Michel Meyer's problematology. Like Davidson and Bakhtin, Meyer defines meaning as response, but then he defines response in terms of questions and answers, problems and solutions. If, as Meyer says, the meaning of any statement is the question to which it is an answer, and if, as he further says, every statement is the answer to more than one question, then what creates the difference between languages, or between disciplines, or cultures—or between any other presumed "conceptual schemes," as Davidson would call them—are our prior, tacit agreements about what cannot be asked. Incommensurability, then, is merely an enabling (and sometimes disabling) illusion. The difference between schemes, or discursive "grounds," is not the nature of the reality to which they refer or the character of the "medium" through which discourse takes place; the territory, field, or grounds of discourse is hardly a bedrock but simply a set of questions that are currently outofthequestion. Statements may differ in form and context (in Meyer's special sense, which I'll discuss in chapter 7), but because that which is outofthequestion can always be made opento question—can be made problematic—statements are never incommensurable. That is, statements from any language, culture, or discipline can always be brought within the problematics of any other language, culture, or discipline. Bakhtin's, Davidson's, and Meyer's views of how discourse works were my own introduction to discourse studies, and in a sense this book is an introduction to their views. I say "in a sense" because chapters 5, 6, and 7 are devoted not only to explicating but also to revising their views when necessary to conform to my own understanding of how discourse works. That understanding (which is, to use Bakhtin's term, a decidedly active understanding) comes largely from my read
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ing of the American pragmatists Charles Peirce, William James, John Dewey, and George Herbert Mead. Although I'll discuss these in some detail in chapter 6, let me quickly summarize what I see as the major pragmatic tenets relevant to the study of discourse: 1. Discourse is transitive. Language—understood as an abstract, synchronically stable system through which particular utterances are understood—does not exist. 2. Utterances, however, are real. They are part of the situations they purport to describe, not over and against them, such that every utterance, true or false, alters the world. 3. Since utterances can be true or false, believing them may or may not produce the effects we expect. 4. Discourse is holistic. The effects we expect a belief in an utterance to produce depends upon the other beliefs we already hold. 5. Discourse is motivated by the perception of differences, by disparities between the responses that we expect to our utterances and the actual responses we receive. 6. There is more than one way to satisfy our need to account for difference, and some ways are better than others. 7. The best way is the way that best accounts for the conditions that actually affect us and that best accounts for changes in those causal circumstances. 8. The best motivation for discourse, therefore, is inquiry about the causes of the differences we perceive, and to conduct such inquiry, we must, at the outset, assume that the nonsense others say is true, that is, systematically affected by conditions of which we are unaware. Perhaps the most important pragmatic tenet of all is that, whether or not the beliefs of others turn out to be true, those beliefs are nevertheless real and even false beliefs have real effects—just not the effects their believers expect. My hope for this book, then, is that a pragmatic view of discourse can both account for the problems and paradoxes that mediational theories of languages have created and invent new discursive practices that may avoid those problems and paradoxes. To that end, I have arranged After Rhetoric in the following way: In chapters 1 and 2, I introduce "discourse studies" as a general al
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ternative to philosophy, rhetoric, and the disciplines that have split off from them. Ontologically, the chief characteristic of this new mode of study is that it does not think of "language" or "culture" in distinction from "things" or ''nature" but erases, as Donald Davidson put it, the distinction between linguistic ability and our ''ability to get around in the world generally." Methodologically, its chief difference is that, unlike traditional science and philosophy, it does not seek to "discover" truths unaffected by the discursive processes that describe them; unlike traditional rhetoric, it does not "recover" truths from established topoi; and unlike postmodern rhetoric, it does not invent truths through merely contingent associations. Instead, for discourse studies, to invent is to account for differences between our discourse and the discourse of others by revising our sense of the causal conditions that affect us. Another important characteristic of discourse studies is that because it erases the difference between words and things, it can recognize that what we believe about how discourse works affects how our discourse works. In chapters 3 and 4, then, I offer selective tours of the history of our belief in culture and language and the consequences of our having had such beliefs. The primary consequence, I suggest, has been a blurring of the distinction between force and power, a blurring that culminates in the development of cultural and linguistic imperialisms promoted in the name of communicative efficiency and community unity. While chapters 1 and 2 discuss why we might want to change to a new set of beliefs about discourse, chapters 3 and 4 suggest why we might want to change from our old sets of beliefs. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 offer descriptions and revisions of the work of Bakhtin, Davidson, and Meyer as alternative forms of discourse study that go a long way both toward developing pragmatic notions of effectual discourse and toward avoiding the pitfalls of foundational and postmodern rhetorics. The final chapter, chapter 8, takes up the question, Now that we understand the unfortunate consequences of our having clung for centuries to foundational notions of culture and languages, and now that we have new ways of understanding discourse that are neither skeptical nor relativistic, ways providing new alternatives and opportunities, new motives, and new ways of getting along in the world, what, concretely, should we do?
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First, we have to remember that the contemporary social and intellectual ills that this Introduction and succeeding chapters attribute to the processes of culturalization and linguistification result from centuries' old habits of discursive belief and practice. These habits cannot be attributed to a public overdose of any one system of philosophy, religion, or government; rather, compositional discourse from static grounds permeates every discursive arena of society. It is part of the way things are, and I am not so arrogant as to suppose this book can do much to change that. I do hope it can contribute to changing the pervasive beliefs that coherence and comprehensiveness are necessary to meaningfulness, that cultures and languages are necessary to communication, that for agreement to occur common ground must be discovered, that debate must be agonistic, that discursive success must be measured by persuasive force. There are other ways, other motives and criteria, that might serve our interests far better. The compositional habits of discourse can hardly be blamed on any one institution; nevertheless, from my own perspective as a "Professor of Rhetoric and Composition" the college composition course seems particularly counterproductive. In the United States, for nearly 150 years through the various versions of this course, we have been reinforcing some of the very worst of these habitual practices, while neither teaching the limits of these practices nor providing alternatives to them. Only recently have theorists such as Jasper Neel argued that composition courses simply cannot deliver what they claim: to teach techniques for representing either an "internal" or ''external" antecedent reality simply, coherently, comprehensively, and therefore (supposedly) persuasively to an audience classified and characterized in advance. The final chapter, then, will plead for our replacing composition with discourse study. I will suggest that we cannot teach "writing" or "speech" as such, for there are no general rules of language and no discursive conventions to teach that account for discursive ability. However, we can help students to take note of the effects of power (and, therefore, of the pervasiveness of compositional practices), and we can aim less at representation and more at experimentation, less at argumentation and more at problematization, less at "taking a position'' and more at "entering a conversation," less at applying principles and more at engaging in social actions. Of course, the chapter will only be
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able to hint at the many differences between teaching writing as the representation of reality or the expression of ideas and teaching students that their speech and writing are always direct, not mediate, exertions of force and power, but it should be enough to demonstrate how extensively the study of discourse will allow us to revise our understanding of our world and ourselves. Since it is traditional to discuss one's scholarly methods in an introduction, perhaps I should say a word about mine here. I hope my readers will keep in mind two things. First is that, believing in causal meaning myself, I think that what I am writing will find its meanings in the future, in its effects upon my reader's discourse, and that the effects it will have will depend upon what those readers perceive to be my intention, that is, upon what they believe I am trying to get them to believe because of what I believe they now believe. Writing and reading are processes of guessing about guesses about guesses about. . . . Such conscious recursivity forbids the oversimplifications of theories of both "depth" and of "surface" and the assumption made by all theory that one's mode of argumentation should cohere with one's argumentative aims—that one's method should match the truth it represents. However, what I'm writing about here is not discourse theory, but discourse study. I offer no truth in the theoretical sense, and no corresponding method. Accordingly, I don't always feel compelled to interpret, to historicize, or analyze, explicate, or document, or to offer anecdotal evidence, narrative explorations, thick descriptions, deconstructions, or semiotic tracings. Sometimes I do. It depends. It depends upon the question I'm answering, or the answer for which I'm trying to find the best question, and upon whose questions or answers they are. It's a bit difficult to be theoretically coherent when you don't believe in theoretical coherence; in fact, I would be pragmatically incoherent if I tried to be theoretically coherent. The second thing about my "methods" I'd like my readers to keep in mind is that, according to the way of study I'm describing here, as human beings we don't enjoy the sublime simplicity of being either right or wrong about the beliefs of others. For example, when I deny Paul de Man's claim that an abyss lies between grammar and rhetoric, I first must accept the distinction in order to understand what he says—and what he says in terms of the distinction is true. Yet I will offer a different way of dealing with the problem de Man confronts,
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one that does not use the same terms and so gives a different answer. I should emphasize, however, that mine is a different answer because it's to a different problem. There's no "argument" here. De Man finds an impasse, or a paradox that cannot be resolved, when he asks "What does this text mean?" Its grammar and its rhetoric, he says, pull in two different directions. In contrast, I see no impasse. I also see no grammar, no rhetoric, no text, and no ''meaning" in the senses that de Man means them. For me, the problems de Man argues about simply would not exist if he and others with similar beliefs didn't write about them. The fact is, nevertheless, that they do write about them. That becomes a problem for me. It is tempting to say that their discourse, not what their discourse is about, is real. If I could say that, I could fully accept Richard Rorty's "method" for achieving radical discursive change: The method is to redescribe lots and lots of things in new ways, until you have created a pattern of linguistic behavior which will tempt the rising generation to adopt it, thereby causing them to look for appropriate new forms of linguistic behavior, for example, the adoption of scientific equipment or new social institutions. (Contingency 9)
Although I'm sympathetic to it, I'm not sure that this is always the best "method" to pursue. To return to my previous example, if grammar is a system of rules that determines how we speak, and de Man and others believe in it, then it affects how they write and read. De Man would make absolutely no sense at all if there were no such thing as grammar. Obviously, de Man makes sense. So there is grammar—if you have de Man's problem. What I will try to show you, however, is that you need not have his problem and so you need not believe in grammar. That, however, is not an argument. One of the primary aims of this book is to bring to my readers' attention a whole galaxy of problems like de Man's connected with the concepts of "language" and "culture" that we would not have if we did not believe we had them. No particular "mode of argument," however, corresponds to such a bringing to attention. To argue with de Man about his solution to his problem would be like (and please forgive me for using such an analogy with reference to such a distinguished thinker as de Man) arguing with a child about how Santa Claus manages to get up and down chimneys. The "mode of argument" is hardly
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the important thing to consider in either case. The Santa Claus problem is one any mature adult would hesitate to address directly. Can you imagine what would happen if the President of the United States announced at a press conference that there was no Santa Claus, that parents have been lying to their children about this for decades, that kids will get their presents whether or not they believe in Santa, whether or not they've been naughty or good? Would the President's words be true? Well, yes, no, maybe—it depends. The strong possibility that the economy would collapse if people actually dropped the whole thing might give him pause, not to mention the political consequences of telling the people what they don't want to hear. Exactly why are so many millions spent, and why are so many routines broken, so much anxiety suffered, so much glee expressed, if there is no Santa Claus? So I suspect that if the President were asked by some irresponsible journalist, "Is there a Santa Claus?" what we would hear, perhaps preceded by some hemming and hawing but probably without hesitation, would be, "Yes, Virginia. . . ." Well, here I ask the same question about "culture" and "language," "grammar" and "rhetoric," and a host of similar terms. In the end, my answer is that culture or no culture, language or no language, you'll get your meanings, Virginia, but if you do not believe in language and culture you will relieve yourself of worrying about a mess of problems having a status similar to those inquiries your children make each December: "How does Santa's mail get to him?'' ''How does he get all those toys in one bag?" "How will Santa know that we've gone to Grandma's house?" When you answer questions such as these, it may be with some hemming and hawing, and how much of the "truth" you let out probably "depends" on who asks the questions while your "method" of answering probably "depends" on what strikes you as the right thing at the time. The same goes for me with the questions in this book. The questions I'm dealing with are almost as serious as those Santa Claus questions, and "language" and "culture" are at least as real as Christmas, so please don't ask me to "thematize my procedures." I don't, I can't. A final word of introduction to After Rhetoric: This book is an "introduction" to discourse studies, yet at the same time it is an introduction to a way of thinking about other human beings. The enabling belief of discourse studies is that we and others live in one world and that
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each of us individually needs each other to survive healthily, happily, and productively in that world. Only through others do we think, feel, learn at all. Our differences from others interest us because those differences suggest causes that might affect us. Respectful discourse with humans—always ultimately an inquiry into our differences from them—is what makes us human. Whatever cuts us off from others, including the belief that our language or culture is incommensurable with theirs, lessens our humanity and diminishes our world.
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1 Power, Motive, and Discourse Studies Rhetoric and Truth To study discourse today requires a certain reorientation, an adjustment in approach toward what, until recently, was the province of philosophy, the sciences, sociology and psychology, linguistics, anthropology, literary criticism, but primarily rhetoric. To Aristotle, whose definition has been the standard for centuries, rhetoric was the art of discovering "the available means of persuasion in a given case" (Rhetoric 1355b). Persuasion to him meant presenting convincing proof of the truth of a proposition, and propositions were rhetorical when they were about specific, concrete cases that were not subject to scientific demonstration but were matters of probability or opinion. The specificity and concreteness of the problems that Aristotle believed rhetoric properly addressed distinguished it from other forms of demonstration, those having certain foundations because they were designed for problems having clearly definable parameters. Much of the work of the rhetorician, therefore, entailed convincing an audience to accept a definition of the parameters most congenial to proving the proposition the rhetorician advanced. For centuries, rhetoric has been considered subordinate to philosophy and the sciences, in part because the latter were thought capable of defining foundations and describing parameters in ways that actually corresponded to reality, whereas rhetoric worked not toward such truths but from received opinions toward the ends the rhetorician desired. Philosophy and science sought truth; rhetoric sought the appearance of truth. The history of rhetorical theory has followed along behind the histories of philosophy and the sciences because they formulated the believable paradigms, the models of demonstration that
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rhetoric sought to imitate. Now, however, intellectuals are questioning the validity of positing such foundations and paradigms. What is usually called "postmodernism" has repudiated nearly every attempt to differentiate between appearance and reality. "Depth" itself—the notion that a true state of affairs lies beneath the appearances we perceive—and subsequently all hermeneutical methodology, is under suspicion. As Fredric Jameson has pointed out, There are at least four other fundamental depth models [besides that of the "inside" and "outside" of expression] which have generally been repudiated in contemporary theory: the dialectical one of essence and appearance . . .; the Freudian model of latent and manifest, or of repression . . .; the existential model of authenticity and inauthenticity . . .; and finally, latest in time, the great semiotic opposition between signifier and signified. 1 (70)
One could extend this list, but the important thing to note is that the attack upon these oppositions has consisted primarily in demonstrations that such divisions are always both arbitrary (for instance, what is said to be "essence" can as easily, and as validly, be said to be "appearance") and motivated. One of the first to proclaim the rhetorical character of philosophy and science was Friedrich Nietzsche, who taught that interpretation is a Western intellectual manifestation of the Will to Power because interpretation induces belief. Here Nietzsche follows an old tradition, joining the ranks of Aristotle, Cicero, and Augustine in asserting that people act on their beliefs, that belief commits us to action, and that true beliefs yield right actions. Belief in a statement, accordingly, must be earned by proving the statement; it is proven by its being linked to something we already believe and by such beliefs being finally linked to something that cannot be doubted, the foundation. Such linkaging is the function of the syllogism and enthymeme, the essence of traditional dialectic and rhetoric. The assumption had been, before Nietzsche, that such linkages make the Truth coherent, whole; the Truth makes sense. What and who we believe determines how much knowledge we have and, as Bacon said, knowledge of truth is power: if the statements we believe correspond to reality, we will gain power. Nietzsche departed from this tradition on the question of truth itself—the question of whether there could be true beliefs and therefore right actions in any absolute sense. He argued instead that truth was
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perspectival, historical, and that beliefs were never proven but only persuaded. Persuasion to another's beliefs—submission to his or her view of how things are— relies, in Nietzsche's opinion, upon a faith that there is a coherent universe to be described; and it relies as well upon the assumption that some accounts of that universe are more in accord with it than others, that is, more coherent, more true—qualities to be measured against the standard of absolute coherence. In other words, for the tradition Nietzsche was opposing, truth always aims at, and recognizes itself as being subordinate to, the Truth. Thus, that tradition could distinguish between discursive processes that aimed at the Truth (understood as statements corresponding and subordinate to a coherent totality) and discursive processes that aimed merely to persuade, to achieve predetermined ends by manipulating the appearance of a totality that cohered with those ends. The former processes were called philosophy, the latter rhetoric. Once Nietzsche determined for himself that there was no Truth and that the goal of pursuing the Truth was only a supreme rhetorical ploy, he then saw that what was presumed to be the means of pursuing Truth and Justice—that is, power, residing in institutional and personal authority—was the actual goal, the only goal. The Will to Truth, he concluded, is the Will to Power. Two problems arise from the above equation inherited from Nietzsche. First, the virtue of the traditional division of discursive processes was that so long as actual aims remained hidden by the myth of Truth, people wanted to be persuaded and could feel good about persuading others. So long as the belief in an ultimate coherence was intact, the drive toward achieving coherence was intense, the impulse to commit to a line of thought or action was strong, the desire to belong to communities pursuing coherence and order was overwhelming. As members of such communities, people were willing to expend enormous energy pursuing coherence, whether in the form of religious or scientific pursuits for cosmological unity, economic or political wars for empire, or cultural and intellectual strivings for universality. When such a rage for order has been quenched, developing shared motives becomes difficult. When what has always been rhetorical becomes obviously, consciously rhetorical—when I know that you know that both our arguments are in the pursuit of power—then what motive remains either to persuade or to listen?
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The second problem is that although many people no longer assume the ideals of universal or even locally common standpoints, and no longer hope for universal or local consensus, most people resist this loss. Thus an unfounded world cannot be entirely "the way things are." Continuing and habitual beliefs are always part of the way things are. Numbers of people in the West believe, although they cannot prove the assertion—perhaps because they cannot prove the assertion—that nothing makes sense in particular except insofar as it refers to, derives from, or aims toward an a priori scheme, a totality, a coherent state of affairs, a set of uniform laws, a code, etc. Opposing these believers is a smaller, but influential group (those "postmoderns") who believe—precisely because assertions about the existence of such schemes and totalities cannot be proven—that any thing, statement, or value depending for its existence upon the postulation of such frames of reference is necessarily without ''real" significance; that is, its "only" significance derives from the force wielded by those who believe it. The problem is not just that these opposing groups are persuaded by different things. Their very conceptions of what persuasion is are different. When speakers define rhetorical situations not in terms of differences of opinion with respect to an issue (e.g., "Should the U.S. respond militarily or diplomatically when American citizens are taken hostage?"), not in terms of disagreements over fundamental issues (e.g., "Does the right to free speech or class equality take precedent in sexual harassment cases?"), but in terms of their very recognitions of issues (e.g., "How can laws protect the rights of individuals, when there are no 'individuals'?"), can they employ a rhetoric that can assist them in reaching agreements and avoiding violence or the sheer domination of minorities by majorities? Probably not. We should bear in mind that, as Edward Schiappa has reminded us, the term rhêtorikê, along with the Greek terms for eristic, dialectic, and antilogic "all originate in Plato's works" (2). By distinguishing between rhetorical persuasion and philosophical truthseeking, Plato could argue that the ability to persuade to the truth depends upon having a prior knowledge of the truth, a knowledge arrived at nonrhetorically. Accordingly, for him rhetoric is defined by its pursuit of preconceived ends; rhetorical thinking begins only after you know what you want your audience to believe, so that not your knowledge of the subject but your knowledge of your audience's beliefs about
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the subject determines your discourse's structure. Rhetoric and philosophy are therefore products of Plato's contention that a deep gulf lies between reality and what people believe reality to be: philosophy pursues reality while rhetoric pursues its appearance. Obviously, "rhetoric" defined in opposition to "philosophy" cannot proceed if its practitioners cannot find some common ground in their beliefs about the nature of things and about how they are known. However, once we drop Plato's contention, then the distinction between the two disciplines ceases to make sense and so too does the need to assume that finding a "common sense" of reality is a precondition of discursive agreement. Under these conditions, though, coming to agreement means something quite different from being persuaded to take a perspective different from one held before toward some established object of discourse. Prior to Plato's invention of rhetoric, according to Schiappa, the term logos "was the key term thematized in the texts and fragments generally assigned to the fifth century history of rhetorical theory" (3). We can roughly translate logos as "discourse," and I think "discourse studies" is probably a less misleading term than either "rhetoric" or ''philosophy'' for the kind of inquiry I am attempting to describe here. When logos was the key term, in a time prior to the distribution of knowledge into sovereign disciplines, everything in every aspect was subject to deliberation. Questions of aesthetics were not distinct from questions of science, questions of logic were connected to questions of morals, questions of psychology blurred with those of physics. It was not then out of line to consider whether the concept of the atom was a morally responsible idea, or whether democracy was sufficiently productive economically. Before things were decided, we might say, it was possible to deliberate about whether a thing people argued over should be recognized at all. Were we to take this encompassing view today, it would not be illegitimate, for instance, to debate about whether we want to live in a world composed of molecules, or in a world having different races of people. If one takes a Platonic position, of course, such debates today seem particularly foolish. Either there are molecules or there are not; either there are races or there are not. From the position of discourse studies, however, these are the truly important debates, and to suggest that there is only one way to articulate or conceptualize the effects ac
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counted for by "molecule" or "race" is naive. As Michel Meyer has forcefully argued, all of the concepts used by our reason—including that of logos itself—are the answers to what were once questions, now forgotten, but questions that can always be reopened and made problematical once again (see Rhetoric 117–21). Moreover, to allow those who invented or invested in the concepts to retain control over them and present them as ''facts" to which the rest of us are obliged to subordinate all our other beliefs is irresponsible, perhaps even cowardly. This "ethical" dimension inheres in every raising and marshalling of terminological forces because the notion of disciplinary sovereignty and territory is perfectly analogous to political sovereignty and territory. And this raises the issue of the motive behind the modes of argument developed by philosophy/rhetoric. Force and Power: The Dynamic Difference In the Platonic tradition, as I have suggested, philosophy seeks the truth while "true" or "noble" rhetoric seeks to persuade others to a truth the speaker already knows. Even to lie and deceive well requires knowing the truth in advance. As a subordinate counterpart to philosophy, rhetoric is thus confined to preparing audiences for or orienting them toward receiving the truth as the rhetor would have them believe it. Through rhetorical processes the rhetor can delight and disgust, inform and deceive, praise and condemn, soothe and agitate an audience. The goal of these processes, according to Plato and reiterated by Nietzsche, is to attain and maintain power. Since Aristotle, power has been usually thought of as a capacity, either to repress, obstruct, and annihilate, or to reveal, construct, and produce (see Metaphysics IV). Locke put it more simply as the ability to make or receive change. It has been seen as residing in individuals and in relational positionality, sometimes as the perfection and sometimes as an accident of substance. Hobbes thought it no more than an illusion. Whether as illusion or reality, power has always been considered as an ability to do or a capacity or be done to. Accordingly, power is often analyzed as the effect of a particular state of affairs and as something that can be turned on and off, like a light switch, or as the consequence of having access to the right buttons and the ability to push them. Power in this sense of capacity, I call "actual force." When
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philosophy and science are distinguished from rhetoric, "rhetorical force" can only be the consequence of credibility, while credibility is the concretely effective consequence of the apparent ability to exercise actual force. Speakers and the institutions they represent "have" rhetorical force to the degree that others credit them with having the actual force to effect change. (By "force" I don't mean only violence in the usual sense—pushing the button, building a house, washing the dishes, performing a laboratory experiment, writing a poem are all exercises of force.) Of itself, actual force requires no credibility to effect change. At the same time, the use of force, whether actual or rhetorical, is always a sacrifice, a price paid, to avoid further change. If, for example, John wants groceries from the store, to get them himself requires expending energy, money, and time—actual force. If, in contrast, John wants his wife to get the groceries, but she says she cannot because she needs to clean the kitchen, John may claim that he can do this chore for her. His claim has rhetorical force for his wife to the degree that she is willing to invest in his claim, that is, to trust him to clean the kitchen. This claim, too, expends force, because John either must "back up" his claim by actually cleaning the kitchen (if he wants to maintain his wife's existing state of trust), or if he does not clean the kitchen as he said he would, he must exert even more energy later in order to regain her trust, her willingness to invest in his claims. Force is subject to a simple economic law—to exercise force is to decrease the force available. Exercising one's discursive power, however, increases one's power. This is because one's power is the product of both the credibility of one's actual force and the credibility of one's rhetorical force. Power is, one might say, force squared. We credit actual force to a speaker to the extent that our belief in his or her capacity to use force induces us to invest in it—to direct our energies toward or against the speaker's potential future use of it. Rhetorical force, however, we credit to a speaker to the extent that we believe in his or her capacity to avoid using force by inducing others to invest in it: we invest in a speaker's rhetorical force when we direct our energies toward or against the speaker's ability to substitute the invested force of others for his or her own. This crediting of rhetorical force gives the speaker discursive power: a speaker gains power to the extent that others credit his or her
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ability to persuade still others to credit him or her with force, rhetorical or actual. In short, crediting a speaker with actual force increases her rhetorical force for you, while crediting her with rhetorical force for others increases her rhetorical power for you. For example, suppose John wants to prevent his coworkers from smoking in his office building. John, being merely a midlevel executive, has virtually no power and cannot use actual force to achieve his goal, so he uses rhetorical force: he marshals his evidence about secondary smoke's contributions to various diseases, about customers' reactions to tobacco odor in buildings, etc. These arguments, in fact, substitute the invested force of others—medical researchers, social scientists—for John's own, and to the extent that he convinces his coworkers of their force, he gains in rhetorical force. It may be that a coworker, George, is not at all convinced by John's arguments, but he may very well become convinced that John will convince the majority of his coworkers. This is a recognition of John's rhetorical power. George therefore has a choice: he may respond to John's force or his power, or he may take both into consideration. The important thing to note is that there is no necessary correlation between an argument's force and its consequences because its power may contradict its force. Describing this difference between force and power precisely makes it sound rather complicated, but we all recognize it as a simple fact of existence, one that erases every effective distinction between reality and appearance, one that recognizes that "truth" can be understood only as a social, discursive concept. This difference, which I call the dynamic difference between force and power, also helps to explain why Michel Meyer's definition of force at first seems adequate, even if it ignores the dynamic difference. Meyer says, An argument is all the more convincing [has more force] for a given person (or group of persons) when this person is led to draw the conclusion for himself (or herself). The force of an argument varies directly with the freedom left to the addressed individual: the arguments that are imposed are seldom convincing; an argument is all the stronger when the addressee is free to reject it. (Problematology 51)
Meyer calls this enthematic process "transfer of inference." Transfer of inference is one of two factors that can increase the force of an argument. The second is "thoroughness." An argument is thorough to
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the extent that it deals "with all the relevant subquestions related to problems which are debated" (51). By this I presume he means something like the traditional rhetorician's anticipation of objections. Meyer does not, but we should ask why an argument becomes more convincing the more it can transfer inference and the more thoroughly it anticipates objections. Surely neither of these criteria relate to the truth, that is, to the actual force available to support the argument. Neither of these assists in relating an argument's elements to a previously shared ground. An unconvinced individual wants more explicitness, not less, and as individuals, listeners care only about their own objections, not "all the relevant subquestions." These criteria clearly relate to satisfying not the listener's doubts about the argument's truth (that is, about the speaker's capacity to back up its claims with actual force), but about its arguability to others. To take an example from recent American politics, I may fully accept the logic of the claim that there has been no proof whatsoever that President Clinton committed any illegalities in the "Whitewater" affair, and yet I might not be convinced by it—that is, I might not be prepared to act on the claim's force—because I may doubt the claim's arguability to others. I might say that the argument is unconvincing not because I cannot make the logical inference but because I doubt that relevant others can or will. In the above situation, if I do not recognize the dynamic difference, the difference between rhetorical force and discursive power, I might be led into a paradox: I might find myself refusing to direct my energies toward reelecting President Clinton despite the fact that I recognize the force of the argument that he is innocent because I recognize the force of the argument that he is guilty. If, however, I recognize the dynamic difference, I might recognize the discursive insufficiency of the argument that there is no empirical proof that Clinton is guilty—I might recognize that although an argument for Clinton's innocence may have much force, it may have no power, because power requires social credit, credit that may be suffering for reasons other than the facts of the Whitewater case itself. So, even though I may be persuaded, I may not be persuaded that sufficient numbers of others will be; and when my support for another (Clinton) is partly predicated upon my belief in his ability to lead (to gain, maintain, and deploy power), I may be justified in denying my support even though I may think others ought to.
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Obviously, the complexities of such discursive situations can be easily missed when we fail to distinguish between rhetorical force and discursive power. At the same time, though, simple situations may seem extremely complex when we do not see the distinction. Take the apparently simple question, Are laws simply orders backed by threats? Stanley Fish, in his essay "Force," affirms that laws are such orders by attacking H. L. Hart's objections to the view that laws are merely deferrals of force. According to Fish, "Hart objects that this view fails to distinguish the law and its operations from the action of the gunman who 'orders his victim to hand over his purse, and threatens to shoot him if he refuses'" (Hart 6; qtd. in Fish 502). But the distinction between law and force, Fish insists, is a difference that makes no difference. Why?—because most laws are subject to interpretation, and interpretation, as Hart admits, is a form of force. Hart attempts to keep interpretation at bay through the use of "determinate rules" that are not subject to interpretation. These attempts, however, Fish easily, and rightly, deconstructs. He notes, for instance, that the "settled meanings" of legal precedents indeed had been previously settled and therefore unsettled prior to their judgment, and so they may be unsettled later. Any case may be reopened, "and when that happens, contending arguments or interpretive agendas will once again vie in the field until one of them is regnant and the case acquires a new settled and plain meaning'' (Fish 513). I agree with Fish that interpretations are historically situated, and I agree with him that Hart's attempts to "keep force at bay" through the use of determinate rules will not work. However, it does not follow that the motive behind interpretations is always the same. Fish's central claim is that for both the gunman and the judge "the bottom line remains the ascendancy of one person—or one set of interests aggressively pursued— over another" (516). In short, he says, "the force of the law is always and already indistinguishable from the forces it would oppose" (520). For Fish, no real difference separates a gunman's motives from a court judge's, and so we respond to the orders of each in the same way. This is Fish's explanation for denying this difference: There is always a gun at your head. Sometimes the gun is, in literal fact, a gun; sometimes it is a reason, an assertion whose weight is inseparable from some already assumed purpose; sometimes it is a desire, the urging of a state of affairs to which you are already predis
Page 26 posed. . . . Whatever it is, it will always be a form of coercion, of an imperative whose source is an interest which speaks to the interest in you. . . . In the end we are always self compelled, coerced by forces—beliefs, convictions, reasons, desires—from which we cannot move one inch away. (520)
Human beings, then, are caught up in contingent, historical forces that compel them to act as they will act. This does not lead to chaos, Fish assures us, because the distinction between law and force itself has historical force behind it. The distinction, he says, "is real insofar as it refers to a society's understanding of its foundational moorings in relation to the energies that would threaten to dissolve them" (523). And does an essay like Fish's, one calling attention to the contingency of such a distinction, threaten that reality? Not at all, according to Fish. That the awareness of contingency might produce effects Fish calls "antifoundationalist hope." One cannot turn "the recognition of contingency into a way of avoiding contingency, as if contingency acknowledged were contingency transcended'' (524). We cannot get outside where we are, says Fish, even when we know where we are. So, for Fish, the gun at your head and the gun in your head are the same, and your only reasons for preferring one to the other are your historically contingent desires, beliefs, and convictions. If rhetorical situations were as Fish describes them, we would be caught in a deterministic web reminiscent of that believed in by the Puritans Fish studied for so long. Fortunately, Fish has, I think, inadequately described the situation because he is trying to have his cake and eat it, too: he wants to claim that the distinction between law and force is a difference that makes no difference, because both are subject to interpretation, and he wants to assure us that knowing it makes no difference itself makes no difference because the difference between law and force is real so long as people believe it. 2 In other words, Fish has slipped into his argument a real difference (that is, one that affects practice) between what one believes about an object and what one believes others believe about an object just long enough to negate a theoretical distinction (that cannot affect practice) between law and force, but then he drops this real difference before he or his readers can observe that this difference is, precisely, the basis of a difference between law and force. In the confusion, Fish gets away with using one distinction between law and force to explain why "knowing" another distinction makes no difference to our actions.
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Fish is not aware of this logical confusion because he is confused about the import of the pragmatic dictum he borrows from William James: "There can be no difference anywhere that does n't [sic] make a difference elsewhere—no difference in abstract truth that does n't [sic] express itself in a difference in concrete fact and in conduct consequent upon that fact, imposed on somebody, somehow, somewhere, and somewhen" (The Writings 379). Fish is confused about what this means because although he collapses the distinction between appearance and reality, as all pragmatists do, he collapses it in the wrong direction, so that everything ends up being just "in your head." When you make this Cartesian move, you can become convinced that some beliefs have no real effects. For pragmatists, however, the "reality" that permits its distinction from appearance is a reality that could exist only if no one ever thought or spoke about it. But the reality we actually have is one that exists because people think and speak about it. For this reason, our very thinking and speaking adds to the world. As James put it, reality "seems to grow by our mental determinations'' (Essential 276). In other words, merely by speaking about it we alter the character of the situation we are speaking about. Pragmatists do distinguish, however, between true realities and false realities. Illusions, lies, erroneous opinions, dreams, and so forth are real. As John Dewey says, "the occurrence of illusions is not an illusion, but a genuine reality" (265). Illusions have effects. Dreams are not "cognitive distortions of real things; they are more real things" (79). That does not mean, however, that dreams, illusions, and opinions are in themselves true. We can have, of course, a true sense of the conditions that created them and the consequences of having them. But every real difference makes a difference, even if every difference is not satisfactory, even if knowing the difference does not produce the effects we expect. "All 'knowledges,'" Dewey insists, "are differences made in things by knowing, but some differences are not calculated or wanted in the knowing . . ." (217). Thus, Fish fails to collapse reality and appearance into what I prefer to call "the way things are" because he collapses all causes into reasons. For him reasons are effective only within a particular "interpretive community"—only by virtue of their having been determined by what Donald Davidson calls a shared "conceptual scheme." But he should have collapsed reasons into causes. When we do the latter we can, with Richard Rorty, "usefully distinguish reasons for belief from
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causes for belief which are not reasons" (Contingency 48). This distinction makes room for motivations which are neither deductions from previous beliefs nor responses to purely contingent events. With this distinction in mind, Rorty has suggested that "'argument' is not the right word" to describe the rhetorical processes that produce "intellectual progress.'' Drawing upon Donald Davidson's contention that metaphors mean nothing beyond their literal meaning yet produce sensible effects, Rorty suggests that radical change results from a process of "the literalization of selected metaphors, rebutting objections to one's descriptions of some things [by] redescribing other things, trying to outflank the objections by enlarging the scope of one's favorite metaphors" (44). In short, such tactics use words as causes to effect future responses rather than as concepts to elicit antecedent meanings. For Rorty, this distinction marks the difference between persuasion and force, and he believes that recognizing it is crucial to maintaining a liberal society's institutions. I would go a bit further than Rorty to suggest that Fish's collapse of causes into reasons prevents him from nothing that wherever we can productively distinguish true reasons that are causes from false ones, we can productively distinguish "force" from "power." To make this distinction properly, I need to introduce the term "credit." James says. Truth lives, in fact, for the most part on a credit system. Our thoughts and beliefs 'pass,' so long as nothing challenges them, just as banknotes pass so long as nobody refuses them. But all this points to direct facetoface verifications somewhere, without which the fabric of truth collapses like a financial system with no cashbasis whatever. (The Writings 433)
If we believe what a speaker says is true, that is, if we believe he can do what he says he can do and can prove what he claims, we credit his words and do not demand that he back them up. We say his speech has "rhetorical force," and rhetorical force in this sense is actual force deferred. "Rhetorical power," however, is a different thing altogether. If we believe that others will believe what a speaker says is true (whether we do or not) and that they will act on that belief, we credit her persuasiveness. That is, we credit her speech with making a real difference to the rhetorical situation, to the reality within which we will make future discursive decisions, whether or not we believe her actual claims.
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Thus, to repeat what I said earlier, we credit actual force to a speaker to the extent that our belief in his capacity to use force induces us to invest in it—to direct our energies toward or against the speaker's potential future use of it. Rhetorical force, however, we credit to a speaker to the extent that we believe in her capacity to avoid using force by inducing others to invest in it: we invest in a speaker's rhetorical force when we direct our energies toward or against the speaker's ability to substitute the invested force of others for her own. As a result, a speaker gains power to the extent that others credit her ability to persuade still others to credit her with force, rhetorical or actual. In short, crediting a speaker with actual force increases her rhetorical force, while crediting her with rhetorical force increases her rhetorical power. Obviously, because power is generated differently from force, it affects rhetorical situations differently. A perfect example of this distinction lies, ironically, in Fish's essay "Force." The theory he puts forward is, as he says himself, "of no force whatsoever" (524) because believing what he says can have no effects upon what we do. He is right about that. But if he is right, why am I expending all this energy by responding to his essay? The answer is that not believing what he says has affected my actions because I believe that others will believe what he says. Fish wields considerable rhetorical power, and although my response will, I know, add to his power, to me it is well worth it to put some force behind the distinction I'm about to draw between force and power within law, because if others recognize the distinction, it may help produce better laws. Let's return then to Fish's claim that "there is always a gun at your head." If we introduce the terms I have suggested—the distinction between rhetorical force and power—the way we view the situation will alter radically. The gunman must use force because he has no power. If he had power he would prefer to employ power. Discursive power is not, as I think Fish would argue at this point, simply a further deferral of the use of actual force, as rhetorical force is. People who obey the law do not always do so simply because they either fear punishment handed down by a chain of agencies from those who interpret the law or because they believe in the law. Sometimes people obey the law because a discursively powerful law can offer alternative historical conditions within which decisions must be made. That is, rhetorical power can change the way things are. We can distinguish between two kinds of laws that correspond to
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the distinction between rhetorical force and power. The first kind depends entirely upon its ability to compel us, as individuals, to comply with its demands, by appealing to the current interests, beliefs, and desires that already define us as selves. These may include, for instance, an appeal to our already privileging our lives over our money (as with the gunman's "appeal"). Our response to this appeal depends entirely upon our assessment of how the force of the appeal itself (whether law or gun) affects our ability to continue in the pattern we have previously set for ourselves. The second kind, however, alters the very desirability of the pattern, or the believability of the beliefs upon which the pattern was based—not by appealing to the coherency of our own antecedent beliefs, but by altering the situation itself. Power does this not so much by persuading us directly but by persuading others—or rather by persuading us that others have been persuaded—for it is others who determine the nature of any rhetorical situation. If a law declared that paper currency would be invalid tomorrow, you would give it up far more readily than you would give it up to the gunman. You would not be forced to give it up; you would want to give it up. No powerless gunman can accomplish that. Such a difference in motive is easier to observe in a example of traffic laws. The law compelling us to drive on the right side of the road, though obviously arbitrary, is made compelling not by the occasional state trooper waiting behind a billboard, but by the tons of steel and glass hurtling toward us on the left side of the highway. In contrast, the recently rescinded 55 mph limit on federal highways was seldom obeyed, despite the vigilance of the troopers. The first law significantly determines the conditions under which one must drive because of the people who obey it; the second did not significantly alter those conditions, whether or not people obeyed it. The second had to rely purely on enforcement even though it had good, persuasive reasons behind it—fuel savings, safety. No matter how much I may have been persuaded by the reasons for the 55 mph law, the fact is that I was compelled—by the vehicles coming up behind me at speeds dangerously exceeding my own—to exceed the speed limit myself. No matter how much force a law many have behind it, if it has insufficient power, it will be ignored. If you doubt this, ask yourself what kind of legal force, directed only at you, could compel you to drive on the left side of the road.
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These examples should be sufficient to show the inadequacy of Fish's claim that we are condemned "to conflict, to acts of persuasion in which one party attempts to alter the beliefs of another by putting forward arguments that are weighty only in relation to still other beliefs" (522). Laws backed by power are not a matter of "the ascendancy of one person—or set of interests aggressively pursued—over another. . . ." The fact is, one's beliefs about a particular matter may have no necessary connection with how one acts with respect to that matter. Fish writes as if everyone always sticks to his or her principles, acts upon her or his beliefs about the issue itself. Principles and beliefs, however, make sense only under certain conditions, and as individuals we are seldom in control of those conditions. What we believe others believe about any matter constrains us far more than what we would believe if there were no others. Rather than claim ''that you can never move one inch away from [your] norms and principles" (522), Fish should say that you are seldom within a mile of your norms and principles—the norms and principles you would have if you could control others' norms and principles. The dynamic difference between rhetorical force and discursive power helps to explain why claims that seem irrational or completely insupportable may nevertheless gain wide support, or why apparently undeniable, provable claims may be ignored, or why in some arenas the "appearance of innocence" may in fact be more important than "actual" innocence. As explanatory concepts, however, they have no intrinsic ethical weight. That is, it is impossible to say in advance whether an exercise of rhetorical force is more or less ethical than an exercise of discursive power. This is because all these differences resolve into the difference between "reality" and "the way things are." Reality and the Way Things are: Issues of Ethics The "way things are" is the phrase I use to describe the range of those statements which, when credited, actually increase the force or power of those who believe them. These are "true" statements, as opposed to "True" statements, statements believed to be atemporally, universally, absolutely effective. The way things are includes true statements about statements, both true and false, about the way things are. The way things are, therefore, exceeds reality, if "reality" is taken to de
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scribe the way things would be if no one believed and credited statements about it. We can now see the primary difference between rhetoric, understood as the subordinate counterpart to philosophy, and discourse studies. Rhetoric and philosophy are concerned with "reality" as the believed foundations of truth and the source of force. Philosophy/rhetoric can account for creditings of force but not creditings of power, and so, from its perspective, attempts to account for creditings of power appear to be the manipulations of a false or deceptive form of rhetoric. Discourse studies, in contrast, is not concerned with "reality" as such, but with "the way things are.'' This is not the same as saying that discourse studies is concerned with culture, not nature, as if these were two "realms" that operated according to two sets of laws—as if one operated by power and the other by force, one by motive and one by cause, one by action and one by motion—as if effects were ''intended" and signified in one realm but "just happened" in the other and had significance attributed to them. This is the view of "Philosophy" as it is traditionally understood, the study of the "Truth"—the correspondence between statements and reality divorced from what has been said about reality. Both philosophy, in this sense, and its subordinate counterpart, rhetoric, attempt to describe a world that could exist only when discourse did not. Discourse studies, to the contrary, attempts to describe the world as it is to the extent that the world is as it is because discourse exists. Discourse studies does not merely take into account discourse's existence; it is most concerned with the consequences of its existence, with the fact that all current conceptions of "the way things are" are products of prior persuasions. To the student of discourse, the world (of things as they are, not the coherent universe of things as they would be if we never spoke) is never "objective," but by the same token, discourse is never merely "subjective." To the student of discourse, you can no more isolate words from what they are about than you can isolate organisms from their environment. Each mutually determines and is determined by the other. You cannot separate what you believe and say from the situation in which you believe and say it. The question of ethics, then, is particularly the question of hypocrisy. Hypocrisy, of course, is the traditional charge leveled against those who seek agreement at the expense of their own "principles" and
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beliefs. As Dewey has remarked, however, "the notion that action and sentiment are inherently unified in the constitution of human nature has nothing to justify it. Integration is something to be achieved" (595). Only when we assume, like Fish, that there can be no real disjunction between our actions and our beliefs, can the charge of hypocrisy make sense. In other words, the paradoxical antithesis to Fish's false claim that we must stick to our guns is the condemnation, equally false, of those who do not. Accusing another of hypocrisy assumes that to seek agreement is to risk compromise. But from a pragmatic perspective, those who make such accusations are, like Fish, refusing to recognize the reality of others' opinions and therefore the possibility of there being a difference between the conditions affecting the others' opinions and the conditions affecting their own. According to a fully pragmatic description of how discourse works, if we are to understand others' opinions, we have to grant them power. That is, we have to give them credit, at least provisionally, for being sincere in what they say—credit for articulating real differences. We have to presume that what they claim is not hypocritical, but that their discourse, and that of the audience that responds favorably to them, is motivated by conditions different from those affecting our own. This difference, we should assume, not the others' irrationality or immorality, is why they can believe differently from us. It may not turn out to be true that such a difference exists, but if we find it to be true, our becoming aware of conditions previously unknown to us alters the rhetorical situation as it affects us. Any agreement we would come to upon these new grounds would compromise only the beliefs we held prior to the discursive interchange but hold no longer. Of course, we may find that our interlocutor's beliefs are not true, but this still alters the rhetorical situation simply because (1) false beliefs are as much a part of the situation as true beliefs and because (2) our knowing about their false beliefs would motivate us to imagine the conditions that have induced them to hold those beliefs, thus altering the rhetorical situation further. The consequences of their believing falsely despite all contrary evidence may alter the situation to the extent that we may need to use actual force to demonstrate to them that their beliefs are false or to prevent them from acting upon their false beliefs. Either way, our sense of the conditions affecting the rhetorical situation will
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be better if from the first we grant power to those with whom we disagree. Certainly, the resort to actual force may be necessary even if we do grant power to those with whom we disagree, but surely we will have to resort to it sooner, and more often unnecessarily, if we do not grant power. Thus, once we reconceive power as the capacity to achieve our ends without spending force instead of as the capacity to exert the force necessary to achieve them, we will usually want others to have power because having power negates their need to exert force. Power as Investment vs. Power as Position (Foucault) This idea goes against not only traditional notions of discourse's being inherently agonistic, but also against many postmodern ones. For example, in his excellent work Rhetorical Power, Steven Mailloux, working within the thematics of the "against theory" debate, takes an attitude similar to my own against the notion that interpretations can or need to be grounded epistemologically. Mailloux, however, insists that the politics of power necessarily turns all cultural conversations into struggles for power. Rejecting Richard Rorty's ideal of cultural conversation as "a rather pleasant affair involving polite conversants who should be more interested in keeping the talk flowing than in resolving disputes or winning arguments," Mailloux prefers Michel Foucault's more combative model of "powerknowledge": When asked who were the subjects opposing each other in his view of power, Foucault once responded, "This is just a hypothesis, but I would say it's all against all. . . . Who fights against whom? We all fight each other. And there is always within each of us something that fights something else." If we take Foucault seriously here, we must view the cultural conversation as a complex rhetorical struggle of everyone with everyone, a conversation traversed by uneven power relations, a rhetorical conflict implicated in social formations of race, class, gender, age, and nation. In various episodes of the conversation, there are rhetorical allies and enemies, strategic moves to dominate the field, battles to win arguments decisively, and sometimes grudging or graceful retreats. (146–47)
The notion that Mailloux and Foucault articulate here relies upon several interrelated assumptions. First, it assumes that such a thing as
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"winning" an argument is possible and that winning produces and is recognized by a subsequent domination, control, and autonomy. Second, it assumes that rhetorical winning is acknowledged to be a progress, a more comprehensive accounting for the relevant facts and forces, an accounting inferred from the fact of winning; as in a game of chess, the winner must have been more comprehensive in her accounting, or else she could not have mated the king. From this follows the third assumption: that the game is played upon a closed field, within an accountable totality. All these assumptions are evident in "The Subject and Power," to my mind Foucault's clearest exposition of "power" as he conceives it. In this essay, he emphasizes that "power as such does not exist," so that the question of what power is makes little sense. He does recognize something similar to what I have called "force," what he calls ''capacity.'' This he defines as "that which is exerted over things and gives the ability to modify, use, consume, or destroy them" (217). But the kind of power he analyzes "brings into play relations between individuals (or between groups)" that can be described as an "ensemble of actions which induce others and follow from one another" (217). Since power does not "exist universally in a concentrated or diffused form," it "exists only when it is put into action" (219). Power of this kind requires neither "consent" nor "violence" in order to control or modify the actions of others. Rather, "it is a total structure of actions brought to bear upon possible actions; it incites, it induces, it seduces, it makes easier or more difficult; in the extreme it constrains or forbids absolutely" (220). Unlike violence, power "is exercised only over free subjects, and only insofar as they are free" (221). Power may structure a "field of possibilities" within which a subject might choose and act, but the possibilities remain. Thus, to Foucault, power is exerted within a set of limitations and possibilities very much like those that open and close during the course of playing a board game. To exercise power, or to "govern," is to "structure the possible field of action of others" much as any move in chess alters the opponent's possibilities. Since for Foucault the "possibility of action upon the action of others" is "coextensive with every social relationship," social life can, in its more extreme forms, become "in situations of confrontation" very much like games and war "where the objective is to act upon an adversary in such a manner as to render
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the struggle impossible for him." For Foucault, "this is a very special type of situation" (225). In such extreme situations, a "relationship of confrontation reaches its term, its final moment (and the victory of one of the two adversaries) when stable mechanisms replace the free play of antagonistic reactions." In this stable state, "through such mechanisms one can direct, in a fairly constant manner and [with] reasonable certainly, the conduct of others" (225). Most of the time, however, such a stable state is reached before the final moment, since until a confrontation becomes ''a struggle to the death" it remains a process of adjustment in which "the fixing of a power relationship becomes the target—at one and the same time its fulfillment and suspension" (225). Nevertheless, because of the factor of freedom, a relationship of power may turn into a confrontation at any time. Within power relations, Foucault claims, insubordination is always possible. Accordingly, any society and any relationship within it can transform suddenly from the stable operations of the mechanisms of power into a confrontation between adversaries. For Foucault, the motivation for such change is clear: "every strategy of confrontation dreams of becoming a relationship of power and every relationship of power leans toward the idea that, if it follows its own line of development and comes up against direct confrontation, it may become the winning strategy" (225–26). This concept of power—essentially that of strategic positionality within a semiclosed field of play—has certain weaknesses. First of all, despite his distinguishing between power and "capacity," his definition of power as positionality is really no more than what I have described as "credit." That is, "position" implies a capacity to exert force, and a "strategic move" can be strategic only if one's opponents credit one's capacity to exert force from the new position. Any such move is therefore simultaneously an act of communication and an attempt to persuade. Unfortunately, Foucault distinguishes between power and "communication," which he understands merely as an exchange of information. Because of this distinction, his analyses of how individuals and societies exert power fail to explain how they constitute the fields of play upon which they exert power. When reading Foucault, one gets the sense that such fields just happen to be. In contrast, the discursive
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power I am attempting to describe is precisely that capacity to define and maintain a field of play itself. Here Michel Meyer's notion of "rhetorization" is useful. He suggests that reality (what Foucault calls a field of play—which is "reality" to the players) "constitutes itself rhetorically": [T]his image of reality . . . is not a given, but the result of a process that involves the ego. The ego is confronted with problems, alternatives, and contradictions which it must answer. Opposition only makes sense with respect to answers which are already granted. . . . The continuity of the world requires precisely that any new question be reducible to an old one. . . . The continuous identity of reality therefore means nothing other than the assimilation of the new—of difference—to identity (which really is not identity except rhetorically) through displacement which translates the problematic into the nonproblematic, the unknown into the already known (or the knowable). (Problematology 17)
In other words, to maintain the continuity that defines the Cartesian ego, the ego must be able to close itself off from whatever is problematic, both inside and outside itself, thus stabilizing the coherence that defines it. The ego is therefore driven toward stability and coherence, and it achieves that coherence by assimilating the new into the old and by repressing whatever will not fit. According to Meyer, then, power relations do not just happen to be, as Foucault's analysis would lead us to believe. Struggles for positionality as Foucault describes them take place only as the players have been convinced already of the reality of the field upon which they play—that is, only as they have been convinced of the field's closure. Persuasion itself, by this conception, is always to a certain configuration of a field of play: no move in chess is a good move unless the set of squares is configured exactly as the player believes. Thus, Foucault's understanding of how radical discursive change can take place is very similar to Fish's—discursive practice cannot change except by sheer chance. For Fish, beliefs can be altered only "in ways that are internal to their constitution," so that if an objection challenges one's position, the rhetor "must counter it with arguments drawn from the same arsenal" (461). In this view the point of discourse is never change of one's own view of the field, much less change of the field itself, but a stabilization of the forces one perceives to be disturbing one's position upon
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the current field. Similarly, when Foucault tells us that "for a relationship of confrontation . . . the fixing of a power relationship becomes a target—at one and the same time its fulfillment and its suspension" (225), he reveals that in his theory, motive is defined by a desire for a stable state, and that a stable state is defined by regular repetition within a closed field. This brings me to a second weakness in Foucault's concept of power: its incapacity to provide a critique of "power" relations. He can do no more than describe power relations because he cannot recognize any alternatives to the motive to attain a steady state within a closed field of play. This limitation is a result, I believe, of an erroneous methodological decision he makes at the beginning of his project. As he describes this decision in "The Subject and Power," Foucault grants "a certain privileged position to the question of 'how'" . . .: "'How,' not in the sense of 'How does it manifest itself?' but 'By what means is it exercised?' and 'What happens when individuals exert (as they say) power over others?''' (217). Privileging the ''how" means putting aside the "why"—the question of why individuals exert power over others—so that he can focus empirically on concrete historical implementations of power. Obviously, this methodological maneuver has enabled much productive research. However, as with any ascetic reduction, costs have incurred. Foucault's historical cases—all very European and postPlatonic—have seduced him to take the "why" they imply as universal and to differentiate only among various modes of "how." That is why the strategies he describes account for only one possible motive—an urge toward achieving a certain kind of coherence and continuity that desires totality and therefore leads necessarily to agonistic social relationships. The Discursive Motive: Achieving a Steady State Certainly, on the surface, discursive exchanges often seem agonistically motivated. Still, we may take a clue from Freud here about similar appearances in the behavior of living organisms. In Beyond the Pleasure Principle, he notes that instincts "give a deceptive appearance of being forces tending toward change and progress, whilst in fact they are merely seeking to reach an ancient goal by paths alike old and
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new" (32). Freud postulates that the basic drive of any living thing is not to change but to "constantly repeat the same course of life." Any organic development, therefore, "must be attributed to external disturbing and diverting influences" (32). Individual living organisms will tend to repeat the same patterns until circumstances compel them to change (that is, until the perceived configuration of life's field of play alters), and such changes can always be described as an indirect attempt to return to the original patterns. In the evolution of a species Freud finds the same tendency: For a long time, perhaps, living substance was thus being constantly created afresh and easily dying, till decisive external influences altered in such a way as to oblige the still surviving substance to diverge ever more widely from its original course of life to make ever more complicated detours before reaching its aim of death. (33)
Peter Brooks has connected Freud's description of organic life to the flow of discourse in narrative, explicating the drive of a plot in terms of a desire for the end inherent in the beginning. Thus, "plot itself stands as a kind of divergence or deviance, a postponement in the discharge which leads back to the inanimate" (Brooks 291). Such postponements are moments of gatheringin, a "binding" of external elements through repetitions that "force us to recognize sameness within difference" (290). The process of binding creates "an energetic constantstate situation which will permit the emergence of mastery'' (289) or rather, the illusion of being in control of a diversity of elements while remaining within the same basic rhythmic pattern. In short, Freud's famous phrase, "the aim of all life is death," can be read rhetorically as "the aim of all speech is silence." Aggression, from this perspective, whether biological or rhetorical, can be described ironically as a complicated avoidance of aggression. Winning may be just one way to avoid having to play. However, human selfconsciousness can produce what Freud refers to as an illusory "instinct towards perfection" that perhaps may be more accurately called an instinct toward totalization. This supposed instinct is in fact a form of neurotic phobia, "an attempt at flight from the satisfaction of an instinct," which "will permit of no halting at any position attained'' (Freud 36). The discursive equivalent is the neurotic desire to "have the
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last word"—to find silence in the silencing of others rather than in an equilibrium between oneself and others. The view that discourse is necessarily agonistic may therefore be seen from a Freudian perspective as the result of buying into an illusion, a neurotic distortion of the death instinct that projects mastery of circumstance as the proper end of life and discourse and that defines mastery as the appropriation of difference into a longed for sameness. Such a view of power as mastery requires discourse to proceed under the assumption that interlocutors' circumstances are always the same, so that they always see themselves as competitors, thus justifying their attempts to preserve and repeat common patterns and eliminate or subordinate alien ones. Freud calls upon us "to abandon the belief that there is an instinct towards perfection at work in human beings, which has brought them to their present high level of intellectual achievement and ethical sublimation and which may be expected to watch over their development into supermen" (36). Although the candidates are many to whom Freud might have attributed the source of this belief—beginning with Aristotle and his principle of "entelechy," which states that every being has an inner drive toward achieving the perfection appropriate to its kind—the most likely, or at least the most appropriate candidate in terms of our current discussion, is Hegel. Unlike Kant, for whom reason is inherently limited, for Hegel reason is never content with any apparent contradiction; rather, reason must resolve every contradiction it confronts by making explicit the law that nothing can be both A and notA at the same time and in the same respect. For Hegel, therefore, life itself is always and necessarily strife: To go through this process of opposition, contradiction, and the resolution of the contradiction is the higher privilege of living beings; what from the beginning is and remains only affirmative is and remains without life. Life proceeds to negation and its grief, and it only becomes affirmative in its own eyes by obliterating opposition and the contradiction. (Aesthetics 97)
The principle of noncontradiction is the formal expression of humanity's deepest impulse, an impulse to achieve "freedom." Freedom "consists in this, that in what confronts the subject there is nothing alien and it is not a limitation or a barrier" (97). The elimination of
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the alien is the highest motive: "The impulse of curiosity, the pressure for knowledge, from the lowest level up to the highest rung of philosophical insight arises only from the struggle to cancel this situation of unfreedom and to make the world one's own in one's ideas and thought" (98). Kenneth Burke has this same impulse in mind when, in his famous "Definition of Man," he adds the "wry codicil" that ''man" is "rotten with perfection" (Language 16). Burke's understanding of the striving for perfection is perhaps more relevant to this discussion than even Freud's or Hegel's because he suggests that "the principle of perfection is central to the nature of language as motive'' (16); in fact, he says, "There is a principle of perfection implicit in the nature of symbol systems; and in keeping with his nature as a symbolusing animal, man is moved by this principle" (17). No matter what the probable outcome, "there is a kind of 'terministic compulsion' to carry out the implications of one's terminology" (19)—a linguistic motive behind the actions of everyone from the nuclear physicist to the Nazi propagandist, from the religious fanatic to the humanistic novelist. Burke believes that the impulse is inescapable. All that saves us from the fanaticism inherent to our use of symbol systems is "the fact that the schemes get in one another's way, thus being to some extent checked by rivalry with one another" (19–20). Freud wants us to abandon belief in this impulse, not for any ethical reasons but because the phenomena the impulse is meant to explain can be explained better by the mechanisms of repression (36–37). In neither case, Burke's nor Freud's, is there a question of choosing, of determining for ourselves our basic motives. This, as we shall see in the following chapters, has been the characteristic assumption of modernist and postmodernist thought about language—the assumption that we are necessarily defined and driven by symbolic systems not of our own making. However, what if it is our very belief that language/thought works as a "system" that drives us toward the perfectionism—what I would call the fanaticism—that Hegel longs for, Freud attempts to explain, and Burke tries ironically to arm us against? What if only our beliefs about how to make sense out of things are erroneous, and only those beliefs can justify our attempts to preserve and repeat common patterns and eliminate or subordinate alien ones?
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Perhaps if we accept a pragmatic description of speech, then a man or woman's neurotic desire to win an argument may be redirected toward a similar aim as, say, a lion's killing an antelope. The lion's in order to springs simply from a desire not to have to hunt—hunting to eat in order to go back to lazing in the sun, not in order to rid the savanna of antelopes. Similarly, his or her arguing may be redirected to spring not from a desire to silence those who disagree, but from a desire simply to perceive no conflict, a desire that, if recognized, could be satisfied in ways different from arguing. Alternative to Agon Substitutes for aggression could satisfy probably only when two conditions are fulfilled. The first concerns the character of the "same basic rhythmic pattern" to which the substitution would allow a return. If the pattern were a closed one, a ritual repetition within a closed field of play, as I would call it, in which the substitute is just that, a substitute allowing only a temporary deferral of desire by means of a "symbolic" marker which, even as it fills the place of some lost elements in a recurrent pattern, highlights the "true" element's absence, then the substitute will never satisfy. Here, compromise is the only alternative to domination, and compromise is at best only a postponement of final victory or death. Such patterns foresee the world as an ordered place, one permitting regulated variations on their themes but not contradiction or disharmony. Alternatively, if the pattern is an open one—a creatively progressing (or rather, developing) repetition, in which the substitute is a nonsymbolic replacement, not a reminder of some lost unity but a herald of new possibilities with different connections—then the substitute may satisfy us. Certainly, it may satisfy us only briefly; nevertheless, unlike the previously described alternative, the substitute does not doom us to dissatisfaction, for it is not a compromise, but an adjustment to the current situation, and which this alternative the character of the adjustment, not the character of the situation, is the object of our judgment. 3 The second condition that must be fulfilled in order for substitutes for "winning" to satisfy us concerns the character of the "self" who
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must adjust. Obviously, no self that aspires to the earliest of rational ideals, first articulated by Antiphon, that of "concord," can ever be satisfied with less than total control of self and world. Antiphon says, Concord . . . comprises the bringing together, common activity and unity of similar minds. . . . Furthermore, it embraces also the concordance of each individual with himself. For if a man is governed by one idea and one mind he is in concord with himself, but if his mind is split and his ideas are at variance with one another, then he is in a state of dissention. (Sprague 225)
Plato takes this ideal further, explicating the means by which concord is to be achieved, the rational processes of dialectic. "The Socratic habit of thought," as Sabina Lovibond has aptly described it, "is one which assumes the possibility, and desirability, of eliminating conflict through the gradual convergence of all parties on a single, stable point of view" (398). Certainly this seems a worthy aspiration until one remembers that the dialectical process through which this cessation of conflict would be achieved "would generate a positive result (a body of beliefs which was perfectly stable, because incapable of further correction) by way of the ruthless application of a negative method (the method of hunting down and eliminating internal contradiction)" (392). Clearly, to a self so conceived, satisfaction can be experienced only either in moments of one's own submission to ''higher unities" or in the submission of others to oneself and the unity one represents. These, however, can be only moments, temporary substitutes or symbols for the final endpoint of dialectic, the cessation of discourse altogether, death. To be able to halt with satisfaction at a position attained, as Freud put it, a self cannot define itself by the ideal of "concord." Just as the notion of "a position attained" cannot be desired as a ritual repetition, a regularity within an unchanging totality, but must be desired as a rhythm of continual change, the notion of the self cannot be one of a coherent unity, but must be one, as Rorty has described, of "a network of beliefs, desires, and emotions with nothing behind it—no substrate behind the attributes." As a network, says Rorty, the self "is constantly reweaving itself . . . in the hitormiss way in which cells readjust themselves to the pressures of the environment" (''Liberalism" 325). Readjustment motivated by a desire for equilibrium, when
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equilibrium is understood as a rhythm of continual change, relieves the self of the awful, unquenchable thirst for coherence that lies behind anxiety and aggression. Such relief is augmented when the objects of anxiety and aggression, one's environment and community (or nature and culture, or self and other), cease to be regarded as mutually defining opposites. If we stop thinking of either side of these false dichotomies as the inadequate reflection or representation of the other, an image that must be systematically altered through "persuasion" or forced to conform to the requirements of its mirrored opposite, then we may more easily apprehend less aggressive ways of encountering resistances to our current patterns of discursive action. Relieved of the habit of distinguishing human behavior from natural behavior, for instance, we may be able to perceive humanly initiated events in ways that require less aggressive responses: what we once would have interpreted as conflicts with our interests we could then view as another's responses to environmental pressures that we have not yet apprehended (remembering that "environment," here, includes both the human and the nonhuman, the discursive and nondiscursive). An encounter under these conditions would not ensure in "argument,'' but in attempts to incorporate the accepted reality of the other's speech and behavior into one's own patterns of change. This view emphasizes the simple fact that the need for discourse with others arises only when their conditions of existence are not the same as ours. The Discursive Motive: Apprehending Difference Wolfgang Iser, drawing upon the work of R. D. Laing, has claimed that "social communication . . . arises out of the fact that people cannot experience how others experience them, and not out of the common situation or out of the conventions that join both partners together" ("Interaction" 109). Iser argues that communication cannot be described on the basis of a "common code." In fact, "There is no common code—at best one could say that a common code may arise in the course of the process" (107). We need to communicate precisely because each of us lives differently and experiences different conditions. To the extent that we experience the same events in the same way, we
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do not need to speak. The gap between our expectation of sameness and the resistance of difference induces communication. 4 Iser's analysis suggests that discourses have no common "contexts"—no additional "texts" with or against which an isolated text may be understood to exist—that delimits or specifies its admittedly general but nevertheless intrinsic "meaning." In subsequent chapters, I will argue further that discourse also cannot be understood as merely instantiated "language"—representations of manifold linguistic possibilities that can be generated from some set of rules, rules of which we must be (unconsciously) ''competent'' in order to speak or write intelligibly. Words are not only and necessarily "signs" and they do not have "meanings" only as differentiations from other signs. They "refer" neither to some contextual world nor to some conceptual scheme. Most importantly, discourse cannot be properly understood in terms of its relationship to some prior existing "culture," some internally coherent, selfreferential system of values and codes incommensurable with those of alternative cultures. Each of these presumes that understanding the meaning of an utterance is distinguishable from understanding the conditions under which the utterance would be true (if by "true" we mean an utterance whose crediting actually increases the force and power of the crediter). Each of these theories attempts to understand discourse as if what utterances "mean" were somehow separable from the conditions their iteration implies. Each of these assumes that for words to be understood they must be seen to stand in systematic relationship to other words, that these relationships are the sources of an utterance's significations, and that an a priori competence in the application of the rules presumed to be governing these relationships defines the range of what words can "mean." These assumptions imply that texts, languages, and cultures are themselves entities, formal unities like the rules of games, that serve as the source of whatever sense it is that we make. One result of accepting these assumptions—the political, ethical result—has been the conviction that languages and cultures are entities that individuals possess or are possessed by. Forgetting that languages and cultures are inherently no more than theoretical constructions and explanatory models, some groups have credited to them the status of living beings, with rights and obligations. Some have credited them
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with the force of deities, worshipping them as the creators of lesser personalities (called people), as deities that require sacrifice and ritual acknowledgement. These assumptions—which have been common assumptions in the West for centuries—have taken on the appearance of reality. If, however, Freud is right in his belief that the aim of life is not the appropriation of other life but the restoration of an earlier state disturbed by extrinsic circumstances; if Rorty is right that the self is constantly reweaving itself, hitormiss, in response to the conditions of its existence; if Brooks is right that the aim of narrative is not interminable telling but the rhythmic delay of a return to a time prior to the need to tell; if Iser is right that the aim of interpretation is not the decoding of texts according to previously attained structures but the resolution of tensions created through encounters between readers' expectations and textual resistances, then we should no longer separate the conditions of utterance from its meaning. Such separation implies that the aims of life, speech, and interpretation are necessarily the subordination, domination, or annihilation of all that is other. Certainly, Freud, Rorty, Brooks, and Iser describe struggles, but not struggles the organic species, the self, the writer, or the critic could "win," simply because what they describe are not games played on closed fields. The Divisibility of Motive Discourse studies, therefore, differs from rhetoric/philosophy in three important ways. First, discourse theory recognizes that it is not a sameness of human nature, or of living environments, or of economic pressures, or of linguistic codes and conventions, but differences in conditions such as these that enable and motivate communication. Second, although discourse studies shares with rhetoric/philosophy the assumption that such differences disturb the stability of our life's patterns, it disagrees that the end of communication must be to end communication, to return to a pattern of ritual repetition made possible by silencing others. Instead, discourse studies describes an alternative pattern, one of rhythmic change that provides stability and sense but depends upon openness and novelty rather than closure and unity for its continuance. Third, whereas to rhetoric/philosophy, power—
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understood as the ability to convince others of one's capacity to exert force—is the ultimate measure of effectiveness and the final ground upon which the ability to persuade resides, discourse studies recognizes that another kind of power can be produced, one avoiding the use of force by conferring credit. Its goal is to keep the conversation going, not to silence it, to proliferate differences, not erase them, to respond to challenges, not submit to them or vanquish them. All of these differences between rhetoric/philosophy and discourse studies are made possible by the erasure of another difference—the false dichotomy between words and things, or between culture and nature, between appearance and reality, between representation and truth, between style and substance, and others like these that undergird rhetoric's distinction from and subordination to philosophy. These differences from rhetoric/philosophy also distinguish discourse studies from what Steven Mailloux has described as "rhetorical hermeneutics." Mailloux follows up on Steven Knapp and Walter Benn Michaels's argument that theory—which they define as "the name for all the ways people have tried to stand outside practice in order to govern practice from without" (30)—''has no practical consequence not because it can never be united with practice but because it can never be separated from practice" (29). They say that a literary theory, a general account of interpretation, cannot have the consequences it claims because it is impossible to occupy "a position from which we can see our beliefs without really believing them'' (27). Logically, theorists should stop trying to discover such a position. "The theoretical enterprise," they conclude, "should therefore come to an end" (30). In short, their argument attempts to silence theorists, to keep theory from disturbing the tranquility of their practice. Mailloux agrees with them—so long as they define theory in that peculiar way; but perhaps sensing that an end to theory might well signal an end to our jobs, since theory has functioned, above all else, to provide social justification for particular sets of practices, Mailloux shrewdly notes, echoing Dewey, that "if a Theory persuades critics, it continues to have consequences, but such consequences are not those of its claims" (15). The fact that people believe—or rather, more accurately, invest—in theories has all kinds of consequences: for hiring preferences, for institutional expenditures of all kinds, for the kinds of books and articles that people write (or not) and publish, for teaching
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practices, ultimately for legal practices, political preferences and actions, so on. And we can, therefore, instead of continuing to define theory as a general account of interpretation, do rhetorical hermeneutics, an "antiTheory theory" which sees as its enterprise not the quest for the true meaning of texts but a quest to explain the actual consequences of pursuing that old quest. As Mailloux puts it, Rhetorical hermeneutics . . . gives up the goals of Theory and continues to theorize about interpretation only therapeutically, exposing the problems with foundationalism and explaining the attractions of realist and idealist positions. But a rhetorical hermeneutics has more to do: it should also provide histories of how particular theoretical and critical discourses have evolved. (17)
It's the force of that "should" that bothers me. The problem with rhetorical hermeneutics, as Mailloux has described it, lies in his use of the same conceptual tool to pursue not only all three projects—exposing the problems of foundationalism, explaining the attractions of previous theory, and providing histories of critical discourse—but also in order to justify his own project. The concept is Foucaultian "power," but the last thing an awareness of power relations as Foucault defines them can do is tell us why we ''should" do anything at all. Using narratives about power relations, Mailloux converts "theory" into rhetorical hermeneutics in order to explain historical changes in beliefs about interpretation. This could be a good move, but not if his motive for displacing "theory" tout court is precisely the same motive behind each individual theory's attempts to displace the force of the dominant theory that precedes it. If, as it seems to me, this is what Mailloux does, we are left not simply with skepticism but with a decidedly unpersuasive cynicism. We are also left with the distinct sense of having encountered in "power" one more mutation of "substance" (which I discuss in the next chapter) and one more instance of rhetoric acting in the service of a philosophy (even if it is an antiphilosophy philosophy), one that proceeds from a presumed "common ground'' of motivation (rhetorical "winning"). Presuming a common ground of motivation is not different from presuming a common ground of knowledge. If, as Knapp and Michaels claim, and Mailloux seems to accept, we cannot distinguish "true beliefs" from "knowledge," or "meaning" from "expressed intention," so that we cannot find a position "outside" where we can see our be
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liefs without believing them or our meanings without intending them, then it is equally true that we cannot examine our desires from a position in which we do not have them. This does not mean that our desires do not and cannot change any more than it means that our beliefs and meanings cannot change. But note: If rhetorical and actual force alone were responsible for change, little would ever change, because—just as Fish and Foucault say—these can appeal only to the desires, beliefs, and principles that presently define us, thus reconfirming with every rhetorical exchange what we are already. Only by acknowledging discursive power, power which derives from accepting the consequences of the reality of others' beliefs, can we move into a pattern that does not follow logically from our current flow. Why? This much is clear: neither beliefs, nor meanings, nor desires change unless the conditions that produced them in the first place change; beliefs, meanings, and desires do not change by our shifting first to states of beliefless knowledge, intentionless language, or desireless consciousness. We control change by trying out alternatives that either fit better for the time being or not. The recognition of power—the effective existence of discourse—creates such alternatives because it is just as "real" as force and yet, as I have explained, no necessary correlation exists between power and force. The dynamic difference therefore inserts a "gap" in reason that creates the opportunity for deliberation and choice. So, with one hand Mailloux offers, in the form of rhetorical hermeneutics, an alternative to doing theory, but then he takes it away with his other hand by not offering us another motive, by not offering an alternative to rhetoric/philosophy and its single determinant of positional "power." Mailloux's strategic "move," his observation that theories cannot have the effects theorists think they have but have effects nevertheless, remains shrewd, but because he does not go far enough, his hermeneutics can only describe as rhetorical those logical operations that were intended to be and to be seen as epistemological—it can only describe quests for truth as quests for positional ''power'' and describe apparent "progressions" in knowledge as no more than reproductions of oppositional structures. For Mailloux, as for Foucault, such reproductions are simply unavoidable, if not admirable, because positional "power," like God, seems monolithic. Discourse studies, however, allows us to see that power/force is di
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visible, and because it is divisible, motive is divisible. In consequence of its recognition of this gap between what we believe and what we believe others believe, unlike rhetoric, which must assume that persuasion is almost always a devious accommodation of discourse to what people already believe, mean, and desire through the process of rhetorical identification, discourse studies assumes that what people believe, mean, and desire can be modified only through the production of novel alternatives. In other words, since the reasons for things are also the causes of (sometimes other) things, instead of seeking a common ground, effective discourse creates new ground. Just how discursive ground is, and can be created, is the subject of the next chapter.
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2 Making Ground In the previous chapter, I questioned whether rhetoric, understood as the counterpart to philosophy, was the only possible discursive response to human conflict. Like all gamesplay, rhetoric, as it has been traditionally understood, is a symbolic substitute for war and other forms of agonistic struggle. Certainly, marshalings of rhetorical force can be far preferable to deployments of actual force—civilized and civilizing substitutions, but they are substitutions nevertheless, and merely defer the inevitable. My hope, however, is that settlement by force is inevitable only when the parties involved believe the field of play is closed and set prior to deploying rhetorical strategies in struggles that will determine what the parties believe the configuration of reality within the field will be. Rhetoric presumes that the field is already closed, and every rhetor's strategies could be divided into (1) those that aim to persuade others that his or her view of the configuration of this already closed field is the best view, and (2) those that presume that others have the same view of the field's boundaries and seek to gain better positions within it. I proposed a new approach, which I called discourse studies, that presumes (1) that no field is ever closed in advance except by the mutual agreement of (not necessarily all the) parties involved, and (2) that the determination of the field is more important than struggles for positionality within the field, because (3) fields that are arbitrarily closed can be arbitrarily reopened and then reclosed. My view of the discursive situation therefore is not the traditional, Platonic, view that claims fields of discourse are closed already (that "reality" exists prior to our discussions about it) and, accordingly, the proper aim is to discover the configurations of that reality and persuade others to accept them. Neither, however, is my view entirely the contemporary, shall I say, postNietzschean view that claims fields of
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discourse are always already open and, accordingly, that the proper aim is to persuade others to destroy or disregard or deconstruct every structurally intact field of discursive play one should run across. I do not think it is a good idea to eliminate all closed fields of play for the simple reason that, even if there are other kinds of judgments, comparative judgments of value and worth—whether logical, moral, or aesthetic—can take place only within such fields. Some such fields have proven themselves to be useful and enjoyable, productive of the kinds of complex thought/behavior that we have become accustomed to calling "truly human." At the same time, though, we should never feel constrained to continue playing simply because such fields have been established. Chess, for example, is an excellent example of a closed field of play. Its long history, canonical strategies, and fixed conventions make creative play extremely difficult; yet they make comparative judgments of worth very easy and nearly absolute. Only those with a special ability honed by years of study and practice can achieve greatness in such a game, but once achieved, such greatness is nearly impossible to dispute. It is important to note, however, that those who have little of that ability and training need not play the game, and few would judge them lesser human beings for performing poorly at it or for refusing to play. In contrast, some people, such as Harold Bloom, treat culture as if it functioned exactly like chess. And when one strictly defines the boundaries of art, as he does, one can easily say the same things about art that one says about chess: only those with special abilities honed by years of study and practice can achieve greatness, a greatness few achieve but a greatness nearly impossible to refute. The difference between chess and art, of course, is that chess is obviously not the only game in town while "culture" is presumed to be, by people like Bloom, the game. 1 Add a new row to a chess board or a new kind of piece and everything a chess master has learned goes to waste, but few would believe that such an addition would junk humanity upon the pile of barbarity. Some might even think the new kinds of strategies and aims such an apparently senseless change might induce could very well better reflect our current situation and produce ways of thinking better suited to solving contemporary problems. Maybe not. There is only one way
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to find out: play the new games. My guess is, perhaps cynically, that the new cultural games are hardly better suited to our lives than the old one is. And if playing a number of useless games is no better than playing one useless game, acknowledging a multiplicity of cultures and languages will be no better than acknowledging only one. The problem, as I see it, is simply this: unless we can find or make a way to understand and articulate meaning and significance without relying upon "closure," either to motivate or explain that understanding and articulation, we shall have to resurrect God once again, or resign ourselves to existential despair, or learn to revel in the freefloating outlandishness of the outlaw. Having said this, I can now return to the second of the two problems that I suggested rhetorical theory has to face as a result of Nietzsche's identification of truth with power. What happens to rhetoric and the goal of persuasion when foundationalists and antifoundationalists cannot find common ground? Or, to put it more accurately, when one insists there must be common ground and the other insists there cannot be? Being antifoundational myself, I am tempted to suggest that there is no such thing as common ground, not even at the most basic levels of "language" and "culture." I am tempted to say that there is no such thing as language and no such thing as culture. That suggestion would be, at the present time, no less than academic heresy, even though, ironically enough, it is quite au courant to suggest that there are no such things as "texts" (although the concept of the "text'' is based on the same notion of ''meaning"). Not only are numerous personal careers, entire disciplines, and university departments founded upon these concepts but also many of our society's laws, "interest groups," businesses, institutions, behavioral practices, and public issues depend upon the belief in their existence. Although the concepts of language and culture, as they are currently employed, have barely a century's history, they have permeated what they purport to describe quite thoroughly. Because they are part of the way things are, it would be incorrect to argue that languages and cultures—or even texts—do not exist. It is quite possible for people to understand speech and behavior in reference to language and culture—indeed, people often do. Accordingly, there are people who believe it is possible to speak "English"
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incorrectly, who really do believe such rules exist and can be broken. People can and often do locate their own identity, their effective sense of self, in their supposed determination by a language and culture. Therefore, my argument in this book is not that languages and cultures do not "exist," as it would be if I were a philosopher concerned only about reality—about how things would be if no one spoke about them. My argument is that language and culture are hypotheses unnecessary for understanding discourse except to the extent that people credit them. Not only are they unnecessary, they are concepts often undesirable in a democratic society. I hold that the concepts of language and culture and their associated concepts have not been innocently and indifferently employed to describe and analyze many of our modern social and scholarly conflicts: people's belief in them has caused many of these conflicts. Nevertheless, because people credit them and act upon them, they are part of the way things are. They cannot be simply dismissed. A Substantial Disagreement Similar to the attitude I take here toward "language" and "culture" is the attitude Kenneth Burke takes toward his foundational concept of "substance.'' For Burke, attempts at persuasion are always appeals to "consubstantiality," to an intrinsic sameness. The doctrine of substance, as Burke admits, has been under suspicion since John Locke's attack upon it in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Chap. XXIII). There Locke insisted that ''substance" was no more than an empty concept, a marker for what we do not understand. As Burke quotes Locke: The idea then we have, to which we give the general name substance, being nothing but the supposed, but unknown support of those qualities we find existing, which we imagine cannot subsist, "sine re substante," without something to support them, we call that substantia; which, according to the true import of the word is, in plain English, standing under or upholding. (Locke 2.4)
Not only is substance nothing but a marker for an "Idon'tknowwhat," but as a concept it is internally contradictory:
Page 55 [T]he word "substance," used to designate what a thing is, derives from a word designating something that a thing is not. That is, though used to designate something within the thing, intrinsic to it, the word etymologically refers to something outside the thing, extrinsic to it. (Grammar 23)
Substance, then, is doubly meaningless, referring to something we suppose must be in order for something else to be, and being something inside, which supports it from the outside. Even so, Burke claims, substance is a concept we cannot do without, and philosophical attempts to banish the term, "far from banishing its functions . . . merely conceals them" (21). He argues that substantial terms are dialectical terms, that is, terms for which whatever meaning they have will always resolve into its opposite, and they are inescapable for the simple reason that "every terminology is dialectical by sheer reason of the fact that it is a terminology" (57). Thus any one of the five terms of Burke's pentad, categories or principles of human motives—Act, Scene, Agent, Agency, Purpose—because they are ''attributes of a common ground or substance," can always be transformed into any of the others, and any thing can be described by any one of them. For example, "A portrait painter may treat the body as a property of the agent (as expression of personality), whereas materialistic medicine would treat it as 'scenic,' a purely 'objective material'; and from another point of view it could be classed as an agency, a means by which one gets reports of the world at large" (xx). He argues further that although "a perfectionist'' will "seek to evolve terms free of ambiguity and inconsistency," this goal is impossible: "Since no two things or acts or situations are exactly alike, you cannot apply the same term to both of them without thereby introducing a certain margin of ambiguity" (xix). Moreover, such perfectionism carries us into the monologisms of theory. The quest for the perfectly coherent and comprehensive theory leads thinkers to attempt to resolve into one of the pentad's terms all that could be attributed to the others. Pragmatism, he notes as an example, tends to refer all motivation back to a source in agency, whereas his own methodology "treats language and thought primarily as modes of action" (xxii). Burke's decision to treat substance as existent, even though "each time you scrutinize a concept of substance, it dissolves into thin air,"
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and even though "the category of substance" may be no more than a "fertile source of error" (56–57), is, although similar, ultimately quite different from my own decision to treat culture and language as part of the way things are. Burke is convinced that "things do have intrinsic natures," even if language is unable to comprehensively describe them (57). Furthermore, he believes that it performs a function that human beings cannot do without: A doctrine of consubstantiality, either explicit or implicit, may be necessary to any way of life. For substance, in the old philosophies, was an act; and a way of life is an acting together; and in acting together, men have common sensations, concepts, images, ideas, attitudes that make them consubstantial. (Rhetoric 21)
By this definition, Burke's "substance" seems not too far removed from what today is often called "culture." Certainly, they share many of the same characteristics, and I don't doubt that culture can be understood as just another transformation of substance. But, where Burke believes there is necessarily some ultimately unnameable substance, some intrinsic nature for everything, I do not believe culture is a conceptual necessity, even if, in fact, cultures exist in the sense that people act on the supposition that they do exist. Does it really matter whether one credits the necessity of an a priori foundation such as substance or culture? Yes, indeed, because the real issue here is that of ultimate rhetorical motive, what speakers aim for, what interpreters rely upon. For Burke, consubstantiality, an underlying beingthesame as others, or at least the illusion of it, makes understanding, agreement, and persuasion possible. "Identification," is therefore the goal. But it is a goal that can only be an ideal because, as Burke recognizes, in reality human beings are not consubstantial. He therefore involves his theory in the following paradox: Identification is affirmed with earnestness precisely because there is division. If men were not apart from one another, there would be no need for the rhetorician to proclaim their unity. If men were wholly and truly of one substance, absolute communication would be of man's very essence. It would not be an ideal, as it now is, partly embodied in material conditions and partly frustrated by these same conditions; rather, it would be as natural, spontaneous, and total as with those ideal prototypes of communication, the theologian's angels or messengers. (22)
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Notice the similarity, and the crucial difference, between Burke's description of the motive to communicate and Iser's. For Burke, human beings really are different, but since communication is a sharing of the same, they must seek identity; indeed, they must conspire "to round out their identity as participants in a common substance of meaning" (23). This conspiracy leads inevitably to conflict, as individuals desire to preserve and expand their substance. To Burke, then, rhetoric is by definition the study of individuals and groups in conflict, and its practice is the symbolic equivalent of war. Like Burke, Iser believes human beings have no essential common core, but unlike Burke, he claims that recognizing our difference propels us into communication and the negotiation of difference, a negotiation that leads, as a byproduct rather than as a cause, to the creation of commonalities. To me, Burke's rhetoric represents the most selfconscious and therefore the most valuable confirmation of a set of assumptions that has governed discourse theory since Plato. These are assumptions that almost everyone takes for granted, so they have earned the status of being common sense. Words are "signs" for something other than themselves; words can "mean" something and do so by their being related in systematic ways both to other signs and/or to nonsigns of varying ontological types. Both signs and nonsigns are ordered within totalities, the first usually being considered an ideal and the second a real totality, but the intelligibility of each derives from its relationship to the other. Thus, human beings understand the world only to the extent that language expresses it, and they understand language only to the extent that the world substantiates it. Therefore, it is possible, indeed, inevitable, that what we say about the world can be wrong, that what we say may be lies, or may be misunderstood. In such schemes, a gap exists between discourse and the world, so that the chief—if not the only aim of reflection—is to narrow the gap. That gap is an abyss of ignorance, the unknown, death. To narrow the gap, we must rely on others because each of us is finite, limited. Because we must rely on others, we must be sure to understand them and to be understood. Since understanding requires that we each know what the other's words mean, we need to be sure that their words correspond to our words. Equally important, we must have ways to ensure that others neither lie nor err. Lies and errors are misrepresentations of reality and lead to death.
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To those who regard discourse this way, nothing is more important, then, to life itself, than creating communities—groups that communicate reality to one another through the same signs and using the same procedures to distinguish lies and errors from truths. All this, as I said, has the ring of very familiar, common sense. Still, as Burke has made us understand, it is a formula for conflict, conflict between individuals and their societies and conflict among communities. The conflict is an inherent consequence of the paradox of substance that Burke explicates and that I am translating into the paradox of culture and language. When something thought intrinsic to us, our identity, is defined by something extrinsic to us, our culture and language, we have entered this paradox. The paradox makes it seem perfectly logical, on the one hand, to seek identity everywhere (that is, to attempt to bring everyone into our culture, to expand the culture toward universality), and on the other hand, to resist absorption into what we perceive as alien cultures and languages. The drive toward totalization from the interior and the resistance to totalization from the exterior are simply mirror images of the same illusion, results of the same neurotic phobia. Put another way, culturalists and multiculturalists are simply two breeds of the same selfcreated species, a species that includes racists, nationalists, sexists (including some feminists), theists—any who credit the notion that identity and meaning derive from the relationship of individuals (whether persons, things, concepts, or signs) to groups (whether categories, classes, memberships, or systems). Burke, as I noted earlier, has claimed that this paradox is a result of the way language works. He is right—if by this we understand "a result of the way people have presumed language works." Burke thinks that because language works as he thinks it does, we are stuck with the paradox, and therefore the conflict, lies, deception, stereotyping, exclusionary practices—all those ills of enculturation to which we have become accustomed—are inevitable. On this, I think, he is wrong—because I think all our traditional views of how language works are wrong. If I am right, these ills are not inevitable, even if highly probable. I do not believe that they are curable by the usual utopian means, however. Religious or political utopians believe that if they could just get everyone else to believe what they believe and want what they want,
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then everything would be all right. Accordingly, utopian experiments always require enclosure, exclusion, and control; and the utopian's millenarian hopes require evangelism, conversions, exportations, and expansions for their fulfillment. Community and unity, communion when understood as the expression of community, and identity when understood as the expression of unity, demand totalization, either through the exclusion of everything alien, or through the alien's consumption and absorption. Of course, there have been resistances to these cultural processes, the most well known being the demystifications of the modern era and the deconstructions of the postmodern. The demystifications showed us that what we thought to be one sort of thing is really another sort of thing, or that what seems to say one thing really says something else, or that what seems one set of motives and ends is really another set. Yet none of the modern alternatives changed the logic of Burke's paradox or even seemed aware of the paradox. Deconstructionists are certainly aware of the paradox, play with it, and make it next to impossible to believe in or commit to either the sort of things we first thought they were or to their various alternatives. However, deconstructionists like Derrida see no way around the problem and can recommend only that we don't allow ourselves to get too wrapped up in our own or someone else's constructions. How do we get out of this conundrum? Well, one way, the neopragmatic way, is to do to language and culture what Nietzsche did to God, proclaim them dead and move on, or do what Darwin did, just don't bring it up. Who worries about the debate over transubstantiation and consubstantiation these days, or over how many angels can dance on the head of a pin? It's not that these problems have been solved; they just have been forgotten, and because no one acts on them anymore, they are no longer part of the way things are. Burke is right, though, when he claims that these problems of Godsubstance will transform into something else—today, for the most part, they have transformed into culturesubstance and languagesubstance. So, as I have said, I don't think that simply dropping the notions of culture and language will do much good. Speech is always onitsway to language and language is always onitsway to culture. Rather than develop a rhetoric that forgets about language and culture, which would be a rhetoric that forgets its audience, I think we
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should develop discursive practices that constantly remember their character of being ontheirway—that remember that they do not effect communication sine qua non but are effects of communication that can subsequently affect its need and performance. Language and culture are less communication's fuel than its products, and, like any products, they can be useful or as waste they can gum up the processes that produced them. A Postmodern Alternative: Cultural Recycling In our economic life, we are becoming accustomed to the notion that as far as human activity is concerned, its continuing processes are more important than its products. No longer is it heretical to assert that we do not as a society want products that will last forever, even if as individuals we do want them to. If every automobile, or even every tire, were to last forever, soon the automobile industry would cease to exist, thousands of people would be out of work, the knowhow would disappear, and the redesigning to meet changing needs would cease. At the same time, no longer is it heretical to insist upon reusing product waste. A few cars may end up in museums, most are simply dumped; yet more and more get ground up and melted down and used for something else. Products are now being manufactured in ways that will make them better waste. Most of us recognize this as a good thing. Our "culture" is constantly recycling, too. Just as everyone knows that the computer or tape player she buys today will be outmoded tomorrow, she can be sure that the literary theory or artistic style she buys into today will be gone tomorrow. Neither the theory nor the computer effects closer approximations to the truth or even greater efficiency: new critical theories don't produce better interpretations and new word processors don't write better books, just different ones, and different in ways that sometimes respond to current needs. Their being different makes us work—reproducing them, figuring out how to use them, to do different stuff with them. This difference doesn't change things or us. It keeps them the same. We are still working to invent, produce, and use them, just as we were for their predecessors. If thinking about what you are doing is good, then such cultural recycling is a good thing.
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Consider what Mailloux said about the twentiethcentury's proliferation of critical theories: Each new approach to literature . . . develops a set of rhetorical moves that can be repeated and interrelated to produce interpretations that appear as simultaneously original and persuasive—original in that they allow criticism to say something new about old interpretive problems and persuasive in that they connect up with what is already accepted as true. (40)
Mailloux suggests that, if you scratch their surface, you will find that critics inscribe connections between old and new problems and ideas in order to persuade, deceptively, rather than in order to "say something new," which they merely "appear" to do. He implies that if these really were new there would be no connection with the old. The assumption here is that criticism is a quest for knowledge and that if what these "approaches" produced were knowledge then we would be able to agree upon one of them; furthermore, new ideas would be built upon old ones, not be built with bits of old ones. Such proliferation may be seen cynically as a symptom of an academic system gone mad, the outpourings of fools attempting the obviously impossible. Others, however, will say that there is nothing to build with except bits of old constructions; that whatever connections there are with the old serve to create continuity, not knowledge; and anyway, it is the processes of construction themselves, not the products, the theories, or ''readings,'' that we are actually concerned about. Some contemporary thinkers, such as Lyotard, can think positively of contemporary cultural recycling, seeing in it the "disappearance of the Idea that rationality and freedom are progressing" ("Note" 47). For Lyotard, the high modernists' attempts to create unified, total visions, always "closely correlated with the principle that it is both possible and necessary to break with tradition and institute absolutely new ways of living and thinking," are in fact not "ruptures" in historical chronology but ways "of forgetting or repressing the past, that is, repeating it and not surpassing it" (48). In this respect, the modern is just a repetition of the Christian, Cartesian, or Jacobian beliefs that "since we are inaugurating something completely new, the hands of the clock should be put back to zero" (48). From Lyotard's perspective, postmodern "'bricolage': the multiple quotation of elements taken from earlier styles or periods, classical and modern; disregard for the environment
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[in their design and placement]; and so on" (47) is a healthy process "analogous to the way dream work uses diurnal residues left over from life past, as outlined by Freud in The Interpretation of Dreams" ("Note" 48). Others, however, do not think such recycling of language and culture is a good thing. Jameson sees the same contemporary phenomena as merely "random cannibalization of all the styles of the past, the play of random stylistic allusion, and in general what Henri Lefebvre has called the increasing primacy of the 'neo'" (74). In Jameson's view, such "pastiche" reduces history to no more than "a vast collection of images, a multitudinous photographic simulacrum" (74), a history without logic, without destiny. History, the temporal correlate to "culture,'' is a concept necessary to discovering "meaning" in life. Jameson's revulsion, of course, echoes that of Marx and Engels, who, in the "Manifesto of the Communist Party" complained, Constant revolutionizing of the means of production, uninterrupted disturbance of social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones. All fixed, frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices, are swept away, all newformed ones become antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned. (Marx 70)
Jameson wants to have Marx's same sense that the disintegration of ritually repeated "tradition" is an historical opportunity. He would like to think an industrial working class could recognize itself and assert control. He is unable to do so, however, largely because he finds that he must "affirm the dissolution of an autonomous sphere of culture." The chief obstacle to revolution now is that "everything in our social life—from economic value and state power to practices and to the very structure of the psyche itself—can be said to have become 'cultural' in some original and as yet untheorized sense" (86–87). In short, postmodernism, in breaking down the distinction between the real and the ideal, between nature and culture, has left us with no "critical distance," no "Archimedean point'' outside capital from which to position cultural acts against the economic structure. If all reality is equally cultural, then there is no standard, no measuring stick with which to gauge the liberating values of cultural practices.
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Such complaints show just how deeply Jameson himself remains immersed in the tradition of rhetoric/philosophy, and how heavily he, like Marx before him, has invested in the same distinctions that the capitalism he fears employs—distinctions between processes and products, means and ends. The assumption that political or cultural action needs to be grounded in a right analysis of economic reality is (like the assumption that rhetorical persuasion needs to be grounded in philosophical truth) simply one more repetition of the ancient ideal of concord, an ideal without which there could be no dreaded sense of alienation from work, from community, or from "self," and no distaste for discrepancies between work and play, or between philosophical and religious beliefs and everyday desires and behavior. From a traditional Marxist's point of view, to fail to attempt to reunite these apparently fragmented relations is to succumb to irrationalism, and therefore to capitulate to the systemic forces that contrive to regulate the individual's freedom. Sabina Lovibond, for example, while admitting that "standards of judgment are historically conditioned," insists nevertheless that we must "still see inquiry as necessarily seeking to bring all 'perspectives' on reality into communication—to construct a body of thought, or a system of values, accessible indifferently from any starting point" (396). She considers this search for an ideal unity necessary to both personal and social health, and it is, she says, "the epistemic equivalent of an article of faith, a commitment to persist in the search for common ground with others: in fact, something which could not be relinquished on pain of sinking into 'hatred of reason and of humanity''' (397). Lovibond has not been alone in her fear. Over the past several decades many have expressed concern about what Habermas once called a "crisis of legitimation," the contemporary impossibility of establishing a common ground that is more than temporary, local, and interested. The pitiable consequences of this crisis to leftist politics is obvious, but postmodernism as such seems incapable of offering any remedy. JeanFrançois Lyotard's call to arms is about as definite as any postmodern political program: We have paid a high enough price for the nostalgia of the whole and the one, for the reconciliation of the concept and the sensible, of the transparent and the communicable experience. Under the general de
Page 64 mand for slackening and appeasement, we can hear the mutterings of the desire for a return of terror, for the realization of the fantasy to seize reality. The answer is: Let us wage a war on totality; let us be witnesses to the unpresentable; let us activate the differences and save the honor of the name. ("Note" 46)
If, as Lyotard insists, the postmodern is an extension of the Kantian sublime, a continual gesture toward the "unpresentable" beyond the currently conceptual, beyond the "real" toward the really real, whose duty it is "to invent allusions to the conceivable which cannot be presented," then it is no more than a scarecrow flapping its empty sleeves. Or, to be more charitable, one could say with Richard Rorty that "one should see the quest for the sublime, the attempt (in Lyotard's words) to 'present the fact that the unpresentable exists,' as one of the prettier unforced flowers of bourgeois culture. But this quest is wildly irreverent to the attempt at communicative consensus which is the vital force that drives that culture" (''Postmodernity'' 95). Postmodernism, like the modernism of which it is an extension, is the spectral evidence of an imagined gap between noumenal and phenomenal, scheme and world, language and reality, differing from the modernism it follows only in its denial that the supposed gap can ever be closed. Postmodernism's strength, its powerful methodologies of internal critique, is thus its weakness. Although it has problematized such central founding oppositions as subject and object, form and content, signifier and signified, beyond any possible redemption, it has been unable to get past them. As Allan Megill put it, the very procedures of deconstruction constitute a "perpetual withholding operation" (271). Stephen K. White has much the same complaint about Foucault, arguing that "Foucault's position seems to allow no normative criteria of better or worse; all we can do is to trace the differences among discourse and their power effects" (18). What has been missing from postmodernism is an examination of the motive to dichotomize, totalize, and systematize. Unable to provide such an examination, postmodernists have given us only another version of the modernist tragic vision: this is the way languageculturemeaning works; these are its horrible consequences, but there is no way out except to raise our consciousness (if we still have the audacity to say we have consciousness) of it, and "wage war" against it, for it marks the human condition.
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Understanding the Motive to Persuade As we saw in the last chapter, some neopragmatic critics like Stanley Fish have forwarded the view that simply raising our consciousness—what he calls "anti foundational hope"—is hopeless; we are doomed to pursue our own interests as we see them from a particular historical position and we have access to no mechanism that can propel us from that position. Marxists and other historicists have offered some causal alternatives, some politically viable, but clearly their presuming prolepsis—their assuming they know what the future should be like—has associated them too clearly with the avantgarde attitude of an elitist cult descending to reform us untutored masses. Foucault, for one, has avoided this trap, but in so doing he also sacrificed all hope not only of a political program but also of rational personal choice. In my view, not understanding, or, more accurately, not committing to an understanding of motivation, is largely the cause of these inadequacies. In part, this refusal to commit to an understanding of motivation has been generated by the postmodern fear of humanism, when "humanism" is taken to be based on a belief in "human nature," an essential sameness founding aesthetic, intellectual, and ethical judgments. Humanism, in this sense, is a source of totalitarian tendencies. However, such refusals to commit are only refusals to admit to motive, refusals that produce that peculiar gap we recognize as a distinction between theory and practice. This is an unnecessary distinction, for it is no more essentializing to commit a theory of discourse to the motivation of returning to a steady state than it is to commit a theory of music to defining its subject in terms of rhythm. Both definitions recognize the temporal, local character of organization and signification without relying upon a priori schemes or "languages'' to explain them. Music often becomes, of course, like discourse and life itself, conventional. It too is always already on its way to the conventional, but as a paradigm it has an advantage over other modes of discourse, for very few people think of music as having codes that have to be cracked, conventions that have to be mastered, meanings that have to be revealed, grammars that have to be inculcated. The general acknowledgment of music's non representational character suggests that we may be able to learn to hear speech as nonrepresentational as well.
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Richard Rorty has claimed that some thinkers have already made this transition. After Quine and Davidson, he says, sentences were no longer thought of as expressions of experience nor as representations of extraexperiential reality. Rather, they were thought of as strings of marks and noises used by human beings in the development and pursuit of social practices—practices which enabled people to achieve their ends, ends which do not include "representing reality as it is in itself." ("TwentyFive" 373)
It is safe to say, nevertheless, that very few people educated primarily in what is typically called the "Western tradition" do hear speech in a nonrepresentational way. This is because representation is an ancient notion, coextensive with what we call "philosophy"; and that notion, the result of positing a dichotomy between things and words, arose simultaneously with the notion that the relationship between a whole and its parts, and the systematic interrelationships of parts, generates and governs meaning. All this is often laid at Plato's feet (as I will do) for good or ill. To the extent that subsequent Western thought develops the thesis that what something is or means depends upon its relationship to the totality of what it is or means, the old saw about all philosophy (including Aristotle's) being no more than a footnote to Plato is more or less correct. What changes throughout this history is the character of the supposed totality in relation to some peculiarly constituted object. For the present, I am concerned with two supposed totalities of this type—culture and language—that, because large numbers of people believe in them, most affect our social life. They affect it because when these are understood as conceptual schemes or abstract realities that interpose themselves between individual human beings and the world, then they become, to use Kenneth Burke's term, the "substance" grounding the rhetorical processes of interpretation and persuasion. It does not matter whether the customs and conventions of culture and language are acknowledged to be arbitrary or mutually relative; what matters is that they are thought to be not only necessary and prior to communication and consensus but also the consequence of communication and consensus. Interpretation is affected because when a conceptual scheme prior to and necessary for the "retrieval" of "meaning" is supposed to be involved, the hermeneutic process must be seen as one that necessarily
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moves from the most general to the most specific. That is, although few people think that interpretation is a simple linear decoding, most believe that a prior linguistic, cultural, or literary "competence" is necessary, and it follows that decoding will generally follow a path leading from shared conventions, presuppositions, or prejudices toward particular specified meanings—from the broadly shared through more and more finely determined differentiations, a movement from sameness toward difference. Several important consequences follow. For one, this belief generates a strong motive to support formal cultural stability and uniformity. From this perspective, undirected changes in cultural and linguistic configurations can only lead to miscommunication and disorder. For another, the scheme makes it seem perfectly logical, that is, utilitarian, to expand one's own culture at the expense of others' if one can. This expansion to uniformity would make the same kind of sense as installing the same word processing program throughout an office's computers (culturalism). At the same time, it is equally utilitarian to recognize that different kinds of programs are incompatible, just as one would not force one's accountant to use Word Perfect, a word processing program, to do the books (multiculturalism). In either case, however, the presumption is, first, that communication requires sharing the same program, and, second, that one must have the right program to be able to perform certain tasks and that having the right program enables you to do them. From this it follows, for example, that education is a kind of programming. A society should, by this line of thinking, select its goals and then program its "units" accordingly. The programming should be enddirected and (especially) uniform; at the same time, it should recognize the multiplicity of available ends and offer variable programming instruction. It similarly follows that people in the same culture are programmed in the same way. This presumption of sameness—that others use the same language and customs (if not the same as ours, the same as some other identifiable group)—is dangerous because it is difficult to recognize once one has taken up the culturalist's perspective. Culturalism allows us to presume that others "inside" our culture say and do as they do for the same reasons that we would if we were to say and do as they do, and it allows us to attribute the differences we are able to recognize in
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the speech and acts of those "outside" our culture to the differences in the cultural scheme we presume is generating their behavior. When we take the culturalist perspective, then, even some of our apparently most "civilized" procedures, such as the common law presumption "innocent until proven guilty," can take on demonic overtones. For once one assumes a sameness of cultural or linguistic code, one ceases to look for a difference in material causal conditions, since the codes are presumed to be the causal conditions of behavior and speech. Like interpretive processes, persuasive processes are affected when culture and language, understood as mediative entities, are believed to be the cause and consequence of communication and consensus, that is, when discursive processes are conceived as the product of convention. When they are so understood, persuasion itself is seen as a form of force, as "changing someone's mind," as imposing discursive "constraints"; or more primitively, as a form of enchantment; or scientifically, as a manipulation of another's "perspectival context" or ''horizon." However one conceives such reframing, if one's motive is getting what one wants, and the capacity to get it is to be gained from knowledge, which means lining up one integrated whole (whether culture or language as wholes, or particular discourses) with another integrated whole (the universe, or a particular state of affairs or situation), then one can be persuaded to agree with another when the other offers through discourse the appearance of having achieved such an alignment. In this scenario, whoever does the persuading, whether or not they deliver the Truth, uses not force—rhetorical force as I defined it in chapter 1—but discursive power understood as the consequence of credibility, of having convinced others to invest in their belief that the persuader has the force resulting from the truth he or she claims. The "conceptual scheme" view of language may blind the one persuaded to the persuader's capacity to avoid using actual force and to substitute the force of those he or she has convinced. Whoever the persuader persuades, however, gains power only if they exchange their desires for the desire of the persuader—if they become "consubstantial" with the persuader by investing their force in the conceptual scheme—and if others invest through them in the same scheme. This is the technique of the demagogue. According to Webster, the demagogue "tries to stir up the people by appeals to emotion, preju
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dice, etc. in order to win them over quickly and so gain power," but from this perspective we may view demagoguery as an appeal both to the individual's very rational assessment of what "the people" believe and to the presupposition that "community" is essential to meaningful signification and the production of value. Such appeals apparently have none of what William James called "cash value" (The Writings 430) for they claim simply that "this is what people should believe because this is what people believe.'' Nevertheless, when they are persuasive, they can have tremendous effects, although never entirely the effects they claim. Language and culture, when seen as communicative media, are indeed schemes, very much like the pyramidal schemes outlawed by the post office in which early investors are paid off only with the investments of later investors. For some, perhaps many, the quick riches message is true, that is, the way things will be, but for most it is just a lost investment, and perhaps a loss deserved for having invested in someone else's desire. Even so, the scheme does produce power, which is seen as evidence of its "Truth" or correspondence to reality. The obvious problem with such schemes arises when the system drains more of its members' force—which can be measured in capital, labor, and resources—than it produces for them. Eventually, the schemes must collapse. Persuasive processes are affected in a less obvious way by belief in culture and language because the belief affects our sense of personal identity. How we speak and how we behave is thought to reflect who we are, and not only because pyramidal schemes generate a perception of hierarchical social classes. Since language and culture are thought to be the result of communication and consensus as well as their prerequisites, and since interpretive processes are seen largely as modes of determining deviations from conventional norms, nonconventional speech and behavior are viewed (except in certain institutionalized contexts) as deviant, erroneous, and criminal to the extent that their practice is apparently damaging to the language and culture. Of course, such potential damage justifies groups in outlawing the behavior, expulsing the offending individuals, and exerting whatever force necessary to alter recurrences, including the institutionalization of law and its enforcement, of education, cultural propaganda, and so forth. Perhaps more important, however, these coercive forces incul
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cate a desire to be persuaded, a desire to be part of the whole. The whole comes to represent the Truth, the Power, and, when opposed, the primary obstacle to an easy life rhythm. Once one identifies with the group and finds one's place in it, life is easier, less of a struggle; and the more complex the culture and the more integrated the self is with it, the more "harmonious" life becomes. All this helps to explain why in societies that function culturally (or multiculturally) the primary rhetorical motive is to gain and retain "power"—or rather, as I have defined it, "rhetorical force," understood by audiences as one's ability to exert coercive force over others—as opposed to "discursive power," understood as one's ability to avoid using force. Anytime one believes that others believe in a different language and culture from one's own, conferring nonsubordinate power upon them would appear foolish since, however one believes power ought to function, one must think that they believe that having power means altering through force a current state of affairs, an alteration that by definition in such an instance would mean reversing the hierarchy of who can confer power upon whom. In the simplest terms, while the only things you could want others to want are what you have, since the fact of others' wanting them is all that could confirm their value, why give others what they want if, in a society that believes in uniform cultures, the only thing they could want is by definition what you want? If one believes that others believe that the source of truth, meaning, value, and power resides in the possession or control of an a priori conceptual scheme, then it becomes extremely difficult to argue outside that scheme since, as one knows, whatever one says will be heard or read in terms of the scheme. Therefore, one cannot simply "drop" culture and language tout court. A Heuretic Alternative What then can we do? Well, for one, as Lyotard says, we can wage war against totality; that is, we can continue the postmodern project of deconstructing culture and language, showing that such products of totalizing thought cannot deliver what they promise. The postmodern alternative I described earlier as "cultural recycling" is a start, but the deconstructive "war on totality," although it may break the bounda
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ries of the past, does not, and cannot by itself, provide us with alternative grounds for future decisions. At the beginning of this chapter I asked, "What happens to rhetoric and the goal of persuasion when foundationalists insist that there must be common ground and antifoundationalists insist there cannot be?" The question remains unanswerable so long as we continue to see our situation as one fitting the conditions of what Lyotard has called the "différend" ("a case of conflict, between at least two parties, that cannot be equitably resolved for lack of a rule of judgment applicable to both arguments" [Differend xi]). I have suggested that human conflicts of this type cannot be resolved through argument and that to overcome them we must learn to alter our discursive motives by altering what I called our "rhythm," our sense of the satisfaction of living in a steady state. Given that aim, however, we still need ways of generating alternative fields suitable to the play of new rhythms. Perhaps an alternative to the "différend" is neither to suppose that we can discourse without grounds nor to presuppose the necessity of finding established grounds for our discourse, but to recognize that grounds have been and can be invented. Gregory L. Ulmer, in his recent book Heuretics: The Logic of Invention, has proposed a new rhetoric "that does not argue but that replaces the logic governing argumentative writing with associational networks" (18). Such a nonargumentative writing would use, instead of the topoi of traditional heuristics, a completely different notion of grounds, premises, or space that he calls chora, a term Plato employs in his Timaeus during his speculations about the generation of beings. Ulmer, of course, does not use the term as Plato did but as deconstructed by Derrida in his essay "Chora." In the Timaeus Plato divides the cosmos into three kinds of primary being. The first is "a pattern intelligible and always the same"; the second "only the imitation of the pattern, generated and visible"; and the third, chora (which can be interpreted as space, place, ground, or premises), is "the receptacle, and in a manner the nurse, of all generation" (48c). The subjects of generation, described as the first principles or elements of the whole, are earth, air, fire, and water. These are all the same, differentiated by the conditions within which they appear. Thus:
Page 72 [W]ater, by condensation, I suppose, becomes stone and earth, and this same element, when melted or dispersed, passes into vapor and air. Air, again, when inflamed, becomes fire, and again, fire, when condensed and extinguished, passes once more into the form of air, and once more, air, when collected and condensed, produces cloud and mist—and from these, when still more compressed, comes flowing water, and from water comes earth and stones once more—and thus generation appears to be transmitted from one to the other in a circle. (49c–d)
We can easily grasp the metaphorical applicability of this image to discourse theory if we compare it to how Kenneth Burke, in A Grammar of Motives, explains the transformational character of the five terms of his pentad (act, scene, agent, agency, purpose). He argues that the terms describing motives should "clearly reveal the strategic spots at which ambiguities necessarily arise" (xviii): Distinctions, we might say, arise out of a great central moltenness, where all is merged. They have been thrown from a liquid center to the surface where they have congealed. Let one of these crusted distinctions return to its source, and in this alchemic center it may be remade, again becoming molten liquid, and may enter into new combinations, whereat it may be again thrown forth as a new crust, a different distinction. So that A may become nonA. . . . And so with our five terms: certain formal interrelationships prevail among these terms, by reason of their role as attributes of a common ground or substance. (xix)
If I were Harold Bloom, I would say this is a "strong misreading" of Plato, for whereas Plato sees his four elements as differing forms of the same element, Burke sees his five elements as sharing or taking part in some substance in common, which he calls the ground. The appropriate parallel to Plato's ground, however, is the "surface" upon which Burke's molten elements congeal. In Plato, chora, the ground or receptacle, is responsible for the element's actual appearance. Chora lies between being and becoming, between the intelligible and the sensible. According to Plato, "she is the natural recipient of all impressions, and is stirred and informed by them, and appears different from time to time by reason of them" (Timaeus 50b), but in the end, she is not changed by them. The analogy Plato uses to describe the relationship between the impressions and their receptacle is that
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of a winnowing machine (liknon) in which the four elements of the cosmos, like the parts of broken grains of wheat, vigorously shake and are shaken by the receiving vessel, so that "the elements most unlike" are "scattered far away from one another" while "the most similar elements" are "forced . . . into close contact" (53a). Thus, order is generated out of chaos by virtue of a violent relationship between a depthless surface that itself cannot change and a variety of elements that are resolvable into a single element. Ulmer focuses upon the machinelike characteristics of chora, offering as contemporary substitutes for the winnowing basket the television and the computer, whose capacities to receive and organize bits of information without themselves being changed serve as excellent examples of his thesis that our notions of memory and discovery, and therefore of discourse, must alter as the apparati with which we write alter. In hyperspace, memory is no longer a matter of associating things and events with topoi imaged as threedimensional, geographic space, nor as categorically organized conceptual "library" space. Similarly, discovery can no longer be directed toward locatable empty spaces on topographical or conceptual maps. The unknown is to be made, not found. For my present purposes, however, I am more interested in Ulmer's suggestion that chora may be understood as a "social machine." For example, he describes the French Foreign Legion as "another metaphor for chora . . . another figure of the sorting machine . . . a kind of liknon . . . for sorting men according to two values: good (courage and death), and evil (cowardice and life)" (108). Later, in his discussion of cult films, he notes that movies that are disjointed or disconnected structurally are particularly vulnerable to appropriation by marginal social groups because in "the cult relation of the audience to the screen the Oedipal positioning of the subject, fixing the subject in a 'social machine,' is weakened" (122). Especially interesting in this context is a passage Ulmer (122) quotes from Umberto Eco: I think that in order to transform a work into a cult object one must be able to break, dislocate, unhinge it so that one can remember only parts of it, irrespective of their original relationship with the whole. In the case of a book one can unhinge it, so to speak, physically, reducing it to a series of excerpts. A movie, on the contrary, must be already ramshackle, rickety, unhinged in itself. (198)
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From this we can surmise that what I previously referred to as "cultural recycling" can be seen as a first step in heuretic invention, a breaking up of elements which, if we go no further, can be shaken out into identities and differences meaningful to whatever "social machine" that happens to serve as the receptacle, including marginalized social groups for whom the cultural product was not intended. The real object of heuretics, however, is the invention of the receptacle, or social machine, itself. If as we did earlier in this chapter we can understand "culture" as just another transformation of substance, and if chora as the ground for the generation of discourse can be understood as a "social machine," we can now see that chora, this social machine, is in our time generally understood as "culture." Ulmer, however, under the guidance of Derrida's deconstruction, does not claim that chora is either eternally fixed, as Plato does, or historically determined, as cultural determinists see culture (determinists would be attracted to Burke's image of newly erupted elements congealing over the old crust). Rather, he emphasizes the element of chance or serendipity, highlighting the vehicle of Plato's metaphor. Obviously, different sorting machines of differing configurations and surface textures will sort materials differently, and admixtures will sort differently on different machines. After the sorting is done, we may be able to discern logical, necessary relationships between the resulting identities and differences and the ground that sorted them out, but the coincidence of this admixture with that ground is and will always be largely luck. "Chorography," then, "is a method of chance" (Ulmer 201), and as such it does not confine itself to topoi found in closed fields. As Peter Dixon has described them, the topics store the "treasures of tested and approved ways of investigating a chosen subject, ways both of conducting an argument and of analyzing a theme or subject prior to discussing it" (qtd. in Ulmer 48). Choral places, in contrast, are "paradigms" (rather than concepts) of loosely gathered associations derived from the coincidence of two or more "premises'' (what Ulmer calls a ''diegesis," "an imaginary space and time" [48]—traditionally, a speech's narrative statement of a case). In Ulmer's heuretic "method," no intuitively felt association can, or should, be ruled out in advance. There is no guarantee of success, no assurance that what one finds in one's invented space will be useful. However, as Derrida has said,
Page 75 Interesting coincidences are necessary coincidences, they reveal the law. . . . Let's just say that the event of the coincidence is a place where the innumerable threads of causality fall together, coincide, begin to cross and reconfigure. They are the moments in which the greatest numbers of possibilities produce the economic effect of an event. . . . In the economy of one event the unfathomable threads of causality cause unpredictability. (Derrida qtd. in Kipnis)
Inventing our grounds as Derrida and Ulmer describe the process does not assure us useful, or even interesting, results, although it may offer some opportunities to articulate those desires and needs that may be covered over by the topical maps of current knowledge. Chora can be, in other words, a metaphor for the unconscious. In fact, Julia Kristeva in her Revolution in Poetic Language has used chora to describe the unconscious or what she calls the "semiotic" order of signification—"the rhythms of the body in its gestural and vocal materiality" (Ulmer 175). Opposed to the semiotic in Kristeva's thought is the "symbolic'' order of languages and social institutions. Ulmer notes that, for Kristeva, inventive writing "is the result of an interference between [these] two orders of signification'' (175), an interruption of the symbolic order's tendency to "arrange" the semiotic. The unconscious is like chora because it precedes discursive articulation but is nevertheless ordered; it is a pattern or rhythm tuned to the material and bodily conditions of the individual life. As a pattern counter to the symbolic order (of language and culture), in transgressing that order's rules it provides a passage to a new sign system, a hybrid that functions as "a kind of 'memory,' an 'anamnesis' recalling the semiotic drives into the symbolic" (177). Despite the fact that Kristeva's structural thinking involves her in a kind of "depth" psychology—as if the semiotic were a truer "system" in conflict with the false consciousness of the symbolic—her notion of chora as an underlying rhythm or pattern is useful because it indicates that different rhythms, patterns, or styles may shake out the elements of discourse quite differently. If so, discursive relationships with others need not be restricted to what I have called ritual repetitions within closed fields (Kristeva's symbolic order) and thus may escape the agonistic rhetoric endemic to discourse that remains restricted to such fields. To put all this more simply, if chora, the grounds of our discourse,
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is a social machine, that is, a "culture," and if the function of this social machine is to sort out differences, then when those differences do not correspond adequately to the felt rhythms of one's life, the thing to do is to invent another machine, to refuse the terms of the argument. The chora that had shaken out the differences you find oppressive was itself artificially constructed, so there is no reason not to project another. And even though the consequences of creating the new chora are unpredictable, since its old terms were untenable, there seems little to lose and much to gain. To put this even more simply, how you think culture works has everything to do with how culture works for you. If an argument is a rational linking of new beliefs to prior beliefs, you cannot argue yourself out of your current cultural conditions because those conditions have set the terms with which you could argue. You have to take a chance and make your own ground. It is our discourse about discourse that makes all the difference. Unfortunately, the method of invention offered by Derrida, Kristeva, and Ulmer is insufficient, for it reduces thought to a solipsistic activity and reduces persuasion to pure chance. Ulmer's theory of invention cannot begin to identify the coincidences that comprise those instances of discourse when communication actually occurs, that is, those incidents when what the other understands from us and what we understand from the other are not already implicit in the grounds we share prior to our conversation. Ulmer and Derrida retain the view that language constitutes objects of discourse, in the sense of "setting up" or "establishing" them, as we think of a law constituting an institution. Thus they see language as distinct from a transcendent reality, as operating according to its own laws, and therefore, as unable ultimately to "represent'' reality. When we think of language in this way, we can produce novelty only when we randomly shake up the linguistic system, like so many shaman's bones, and hope that what falls out somehow fits with what is. In stark contrast to such a method of invention is the one implied by the first chapter of this book, a method that takes into account the mutual conditioning of world and word. Today we understand the futility of sharply distinguishing the plants and animals of an environment from that environment. We understand that they are part of that environment such that the environment to which they belong would
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not be the same environment if they were not a part of it. So too we cannot separate words from the world. When we think of discourse as real, when we think of a word's meaning as the effect it has upon the situation in which it is being interpreted, then we can alter the grounds of our discourse simply by acknowledging the reality of others' discourse—by acknowledging that their articulations of the world different from our own necessarily indicate conditioning stimuli different from our own. Similarly, we can alter the grounds of others' discourse simply by speaking, introducing new vocabularies and discursive patterns with which our interpreters will have to contend. To acknowledge the reality of others' words, then, is to enable the conditions that affect your own discourse to combine with the conditions that affect theirs. The motive to invent now differs both from the traditional heuristic motive of seeking a previously determined, socially common ground from which to manipulate the other toward an end you have previously determined, and from the postmodern, heuretic motive to randomly shake up the common ground in order to produce a new ground which, if luck is with you, might enable you to articulate some needs you would not otherwise be able to. In the traditional view, the other is something you must change in order to satisfy needs you already have. In the postmodern view, the other is just a resistance to your altering the linguistic prison that traps you. But in the pragmatic view I'm offering here, the other is someone you need in order to change yourself—in order to alter your discursive habits to accommodate those conditions which, without the others' difference from yourself, you would not know were, or could be, affecting your life. In the pragmatic view of invention, accordingly, what we should be inventing are theories about others' theories of discourse. That is, what we should be trying to do when we converse with others is anticipate how their utterances are conditioned, what caused them, recognizing that among those causes are their beliefs about how discourse should work and their beliefs about how we believe discourse should work. We (and they) so invent in order to accomplish some further end or ends, of course, but those specific ends will always be conditioned by our beliefs about discourse and how discourse is motivated generally. If we believe that the function of discourse is to communicate, that is, on the one hand, to make the conditions that affect our discourse
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affect others' discourse, and, on the other hand, to allow the conditions that affect others' discourse to affect our own (at stake here, it is presumed, is mutual survival), then what we believe about how discourse works makes a difference to how it works. 2 In this view language is continually being created in a process of our guessing about the others' guessings about our guessings. Making ground is is the process of discourse, not an extra something added from time to time to an otherwise stable field of play. Language can become a stable field of play only artificially, in the form of games that have little to do with the way things are. A onesizefitsall theory of language or discourse, therefore, just will not do. In chapters 5, 6, and 7, I will describe some theories of discourse—those of Mikhail Bakhtin, Donald Davidson, and Michel Meyer—which abandon the idea of language as a formal entity operating by a set of laws different from those governing the things language lets us talk about. Instead, they describe the processes of a dynamic, effectual discourse. In the meantime, for the next two chapters I'd like to explore some consequences of our having believed that there are entities acting as media between ourselves and the world, that is, languages or cultures that function independently of the world and what we believe about it. In his most famous early essay, "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences," Jacques Derrida lays out two "paths" along which a critique of language and culture may be carried out. Of the first he says, "Once the limit of the nature/culture [or reality/discourse] opposition makes itself felt, one might want to question systematically and rigorously the history of these concepts . . . to deconstitute them.'' In addition to this first, deconstructive path, the other path "consists in conserving all these old concepts within the domain of empirical discovery while here and there denouncing their limits, treating them as tools which can still be used'' (Writing 284). Both of these paths presume that it is impossible to escape the "metaphysics" of the nature/culture opposition, so that our choice is either to become more conscious of the arbitrary, ungrounded origins of the concepts we employ, enabling us to avoid unwarranted commitments to them, or to use the concepts nevertheless, aware of the limits of their utility. The "choice" Derrida gives us would be a true one if language actually and necessarily functioned as he assumes it does, that
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is, through the deployment of "signs" whose meanings are determined by their "différance" from other signs. However, when we believe words work in a different way, not as mere "signs" but as causes like any other causes of behavior, thus erasing from the outset the nature/culture opposition, then a new path opens up. This is the path along which we may trace the effects of our having believed there is an opposition between nature and culture, things and words. It is not enough to observe that a concept cannot "represent" the antecedent reality it is purported to represent: we must observe the effects of its employment in our world, then decide whether it is worth our while to continue to employ it.
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3 Cultural Mystique An excellent example of an artificial determination of discursive grounds was telecast internationally on January 23, 1995, when, at the beginning of O. J. Simpson's trial for double murder, Judge Lance Ito read his instructions to the jury. This was an exquisite description of the fenced territory upon which the discursive battle that was about to ensue could be legitimately played out. It set the boundaries of speech and judgment—what players might properly say and how, what the jury could consider and what it must ignore. Bound by the judge's instructions, the jury would determine what was real, what connections would be drawn among the determined realities, what kind of conclusions would be inferred. To most listeners (including the jury), I suspect, this was alien territory, a terrain so strange that it was hardly surprising that the judge anticipated the jury's need for written copies of his instructions. As we saw in the previous chapter, postmodernists have suggested that the discursive grounds for all rhetorical confrontations are artificially constructed, but why do we submit ourselves and our neighbors to this particular artificial construction of "justice"? The answer probably lies in the first book of Aristotle's Rhetoric where he asserts that "it is of great moment that welldrawn laws should themselves define all the points they possibly can and leave as few as may be to the decision of the judges" (1354a30–32). His reasons are, first, that very few people have enough sense to consider difficult matters, second, that trials need to be expedient and jurors do not have the time to think through all the ramifications of their decisions, and finally, "the weightiest reason of all," is that since jurors "decide on definite cases'' instead of general ones they may be so "influenced by feelings of friendship or hatred or selfinterest that they lose any clear vision of the truth . . .'' (1354b1–11). By "clear vision of the truth" here, only "the limits of debatable reality as determined by social authority" can
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be meant. It cannot possibly mean "the perception of the way things are actually conditioning the human agents being judged." The end (telos) of speech—whether forensic speeches that aim to persuade judges deciding about the status of past events, whether deliberative speeches to judges deciding about future actions, whether epideictic speeches to audiences judging the speaker's present praise or blame of others—that end is not to understand events and the conditions determining them but to sort out those actions and beliefs that would contradict a predetermined order of conditionality from those that would reinforce it. All speeches, if one accepts Aristotle's Rhetoric, are about reestablishing, expanding, or confirming an order that has been threatened or that is open to threat. A trial, for instance, is a ritual, a discursive repetition of events, not in the event's own terms but in the terms of the order being reimposed. If we look at O. J. Simpson's trial as such a ritual, then some of Judge Ito's instructions and actions that at first seem rather odd begin to make sense. For example, note his demand that jurors not attempt to learn anything, either about the case or about the nature of the evidence used in the case, on their own. They were to use only the information offered by the attorneys, information that—out of their hearing—had been first screened by the judge. Similarly, remember the prosecution's cry of "foul" when Simpson's attorney in his opening statement referred to the testimony of witnesses not yet disclosed. The prosecution's diegesis, its opening narrative statement, had not accounted for such obstacles on the playing field, and it demanded from Ito—and received—an opportunity to revise. Such instructions and rulings make sense only if the point of trial is not to understand what happened but to create two versions of what happened within a discursively constituted set of assumptions about what can happen and, in deciding upon one, determine the "truth," not of the version selected, but of the assumptions. Every trial is a public announcement that the authorities' version of the way things can be is, in fact, the way things are. A successful trial confirms that there are no anomalies that escape the official version of things. So, to return to my question, Why do we submit ourselves and our neighbors to such artificial constructions of "justice"? I think we must answer that, so long as disturbances to our easy, repetitive rhythms in life (which depend so heavily upon our belief that others believe in the
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publicly declared order) can be quickly disposed of, with, as Aristotle suggested, as few decisions and as little thought as possible, we will so dispose of them. So long as what happens can be satisfactorily explained in terms of the commonly accepted and authorized assumptions about what can happen, we will explain them that way, simply because what we want, above all else, is to satisfy predictably our predictable wants. However, as I have already suggested, our willingness to accept previously defined discursive grounds in order to expedite the resolution of disturbances in the regular rhythms of our lives actually produces the very conflicts we want to resolve. This is because when discursive territory is laid out in advance, defined and limited according to rule, players have no choice but to take a position upon it, and from that point on, whatever can be said (or done) has to be said in relation to the other's position. Rhetorical theory has traditionally referred to the result of this takingofaposition as stasis. As Thomas M. Conley has explained, Stasis, in Greek, may be translated either as "strife" or as "immobility," as in the English static. Both senses are operative in the context of stasis theory, since stasis in that context refers to the basic issue in dispute resulting from the positions taken by adversaries in a debate. (32)
What has been seldom understood (if ever) is that if the preconstituted discursive representation of the ground does not adequately reflect the actual ground (the way things are for the agents involved), the positioning of the other within the closed field may produce immobility—the incapacity to resume one's regular rhythmic movement upon the field—and the immobility thus necessitates the strife. Confrontation becomes inescapable, and even attempts to "get around the law" become occasions for further confrontation. In this respect, a lawyer's statements being ruled "out of order" and "stricken from the record" follows exactly the same logic as a defendant being "found guilty" and "sentenced.'' In both instances an order is being restored, but the fact that force is required to restore it signals a disparity between the conditions of life presupposed by the order and the circumstances that actually condition speech and behavior. Such disparities are easily discerned in examples of discursive con
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flicts occurring within conditioning circumstances that differ greatly from those within which we currently live. For example, during the Salem witchcraft trials of 1662, "spectral evidence" was allowed to carry about the same weight as the DNA evidence offered during the O. J. Simpson trial. A spectre was presumed to be a demon appearing in the image of a witch who sends it from a distance to torment a victim. Spectral evidence could thus account for an accused witch's being in one place while his or her crime was being carried out in another. By allowing spectres the status of reality within the discursive ground, the judges assured not only that the conflicts within the community were resolvable (by conviction or acquittal of the accused) but also that the community's discursive order itself would not be put in question, since that order had no explanation besides witchcraft for the accuser's "fits." Thus, because the ''common ground" of discourse was constituted in advance of discussion, the conditions producing the accusations themselves remained out of the question, out of the range of discursive inquiry. In consequence, the disparity between those conditions and those presupposed by Puritan beliefs remained hidden, protected. Now, I am not in the least suggesting either that DNA is "spectral" or that we should abandon our current judicial procedures. I am suggesting, however, that—ever since Plato opposed "appearance" to "reality" and "knowledge" to "belief, and especially since Aristotle separated rhetoric from the processes of establishing discursive ground—rhetoric has been unable to address any forms of conflict that cannot be defined in terms of previously imposed or agreed upon shared grounds. ''Rhetoric," says Aristotle, "may be defined as the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion" (Rhetoric 1355b2627). But he could have defined it as the faculty or power of creating the grounds upon which a case could appear as a case. As it stands, that faculty has been relegated to science, philosophy, and religion, and not as a faculty of invention, but one of discovery, as if the ground were always already in place, waiting to be described aright. In our time, and for some time previously, what has been "described" as the discursive grounds already in place has been labeled fairly consistently as "culture" and "language." These have been the subject of sciences such as anthropology and linguistics, disciplines
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that claim to be descriptive rather than prescriptive, as if defining "what is" does not delimit "what may be." According to these sciences, something stands between ourselves and the world, mediating our experience, making meaning possible and, insofar as we share this mediating substance or scheme with others, making communication possible. Culture and language are thought to preside over our discourse like a judge over a court, issuing general instructions, ruling out the illicit comment, ordering us to forget whatever the judge deems outside the established procedures. Culture and language are for groups what the superego and the Other are for the individual. They are presumed to be necessary for social communication, as superego and Other are presumed necessary for psychic unification. The fact of communication, therefore, is said to argue for the existence of culture and/or language. In this book I have been suggesting that such things as culture and language do not need to exist and do not perform the functions these sciences claim except insofar as people believe they do. In this respect, culture and language are magical. 1 I have nothing against magic, mind you, but I do not see why it has to be mystifying. There may be times when it may be best to deal directly with the world—lots of times. Still, just as our forebears had a hard time learning to deal with the world without the intervention of gods and demons and such, it may be quite difficult for us to get the hang of behaving unculturally and speaking unlinguistically, to learn the knack of making our own discursive space. Cultural and Linguistic Mystique First, we must break the mystique of culture and language. We must remind ourselves that the very terms and concepts are fairly recent inventions. We also need to see that these concepts do not describe a reality that existed prior to the concepts' invention; rather, they are themselves substitutes for beliefs held and credited prior to their invention. Although "culture" and "language," understood as abstract nouns referring to conceptual schemes that mediate between speakers and the world, are fairly recent inventions, they can be seen as the descendants of two very old ideas, ideas now so entrenched that they seem
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selfevident to most of us. The first is the idea that there is a distinction between theGoodandtheTrue, and theEvilandtheFalse. The other idea is simply that we can tell the difference between the two, and that we have only to accept a few basic assumptions to do so. The first, and most basic assumption, is that something usually called Being—the totality of all that truly is—is real. Second, a gap persists between what is real and what appears to be real. Third, something called language or discourse can "represent" either what is real or what appears to be real. "Truth" happens when discourse corresponds to the real. The problem, or one of the problems, has been determining what is real—that is, stable, fixed, reliable—and then bringing the secondary orders into line with it. People have believed, for instance, that mathematical laws are real, so that the problem is to discover the natural phenomena that correspond to them and to connect the two through discourse. People have believed that certain discourses are real and true because of divine origin, so that the problem is to bring the world and human behavior into line with those discourses. People have believed that phenomena—what to some were merely sensual appearances—are real, so that the problem is to bring discourse and the orders it represents into line with immediate experience. Thus, although idealisms, realisms, empiricisms, and so forth have been in one sense radically different versions of how things are, in another sense they are quite similar variations on the idea of truth. Few have doubted that the universe is an ordered totality, although quite a few have doubted that anyone could achieve the correct perspective of it without divine inspiration, and more than a few have doubted the possibility of such inspiration. Some, indeed, have thought there might be more than one such order, thus positing the possibility of multiverses operating under different sets of laws. And a very few have thought there was no order, only a chaos upon which human minds have projected illusions of order. But hardly anyone has suggested that this whole idea of Truth is simply the wrong way to look at things. What other way is there? What if we simply dropped the idea of Truth as a correspondence of statement to reality? If we were to eliminate the category of Truth, we also would have to eliminate the categories of erring, lying, exaggerating, and so forth. That's a big "and so forth" as we shall see in a later
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chapter, but for now it will do to drop just these. The question now becomes, can we understand anything without these categories? Can we intelligently respond to anyone's speech without them? Imagine for a minute stepping out onto your deck and startling the squirrel eating from your bird feeder. He will scamper off, stop, flip his tail vigorously, and chatter at you. You will rightly think this is a communication directed at you. You probably will not, however, consider whether the squirrel is lying to you, or that he is in error about the state of affairs, or that his behavior is insane or an act with subversive intent or speech with ironic undertones. And if you were really interested in what this squirrel had to say, you probably wouldn't try to look up his chatter patterns in a squirrel translation manual. Squirrels don't lie. Squirrels don't say one thing and mean another. They can't, because squirrels don't have language. Squirrels aren't devious, or treacherous, or insane. They can't be because squirrels don't have culture or language. When we judge an animal's behavior, we don't measure it against a standard we assume should be guiding that behavior. We assume that the discrepancy between what we expect the animal to do and what the animal actually does is to be accounted for by conditions or forces of which we are currently unaware. If we want to understand the behavior, we look for those conditions; we don't look for an a priori code. The world simply is not populated with lying, devious, stupid, or evil squirrels. It's anthropomorphic to think so, right? Only people are lying, devious, stupid, and evil— other people, of course. And we can know when they are lying or erring because we can measure perceptions and opinions against some standards. Human perceptions and opinions can be false, and can be seen to be false, only when human language is believed to be capable of representing the real. When this is believed, there is no excuse for conflicting with the real when you can agree with it. There is no excuse for disagreeing with fellow human beings when your discourse can represent the real and through your common representations agree with your fellows. That is what agreement with another has meant—agreeing together with the standard. That is what persuasion has meant, moving another's perceptions and opinions toward the standard as you see it. That is what proof has meant—making it clear, beyond doubt, what the standard is. That is what a community has been—a group of people who, for the most part, agree upon what the standards are and
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how they are to be determined. Everything has always depended upon our willingness to believe that truth can be distinguished from falsity in the above ways. That is what has always separated us from the animals. Well, not always. The Protagorean Theorem vs. Plato's Greatest Trick Apparently, some Sophists in preSocratic Greece thought otherwise. According to Sextus in Against the Schoolmasters, Protagorus said "that all appearances and opinions are true and that the truth is a relative matter because a man's every perception or opinion immediately exists in relation to him" (Sprague 18). Frankly, I doubt Protagorus said that in precisely that way because, for one thing, the belief that "a man's every perception or opinion immediately exists in relation to him" does not imply that "truth is a relative matter," and because, if it did, it would mean that attempts to discuss things with others would be useless, while Protagorus believed that discourse was the very life of humanity. Moreover, like most of the important Sophists, he was an alien in Attica, a Thracian, attempting to make a place for himself in a notoriously xenophobic community. Teaching that the truth is relative simply would not have been wise, since the implication would be that everything he said may have been well and good in Thrace, but certainly not in Athens. Pragmatically, the difference between Protagoras's claim and the claim it excludes—namely, that your or my perceptions and opinions might be false in relation to ourselves—is the judgment that follows the perception of contradiction: for Protagoras, listeners should not judge a speaker's perspicuity, sanity, or character when what he says contradicts what listeners believe, nor should he so judge himself. The truth as articulated by others would not necessarily be compelling, that is, creditable, because the conditions of its truth may not impinge upon the listeners. The speaker's goal, however, as a persuader, is to alter the conditions affecting the listeners by means of speech. The speech itself is an action to be reckoned with. The listener's goal should be to consent to the speech, that is, to hear the speech as an articulation of how things are, given that the speech itself is part of how things are.
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This notion of truth implies that coming to agreement does not mean agreeing upon the nature of a past or current state of affairs but upon articulating a possible state of affairs in a common way. 2 From the point of agreement, the way things are includes that way of articulating it. If the truth is particular—determined by the conditions affecting an individual speaker—then coming to agreement is always both a coming into falsity (since the conventional and general are beyond the particular) and a coming into truth (since the agreement itself becomes part of the conditions affecting discourse). In short, discursive processes change the way things are. I like to call this the Protagorean Theorem: Discourse neither describes nor constitutes but is of reality; it is a direct, not mediate, exertion of force and power. That is, discourse is not of a different ontological order from the rest of the world. It does not, in the form of culture, language, theory, or anything else, stand as a medium, transparent or otherwise, between ourselves and the world. It is to be understood and dealt with like anything else in the world, not as a "representation" of reality or an "expression" of ideas operating according to its own special laws. Because it asserts that to speak within a situation is to alter the situation, the Protagorean Theorem, unlike mathematical theorems, does not simplify but complicates things. Plato, by separating discourse from reality, simplifies knowledge: by assuming that things will be as they are no matter what anybody says, he can posit a reality that stays put and a truth that is the truth no matter who says it, or where, or when. In the Phaedrus, Socrates declares that his mission is "to discover whether I really am a more complex creature and more puffed up with pride than Typhon, or a simpler, gentle being whom nature has blessed with a quiet, nonTyphonic nature" (229e–230b). Typhon was that multiheaded, plurivoiced monster, the last to challenge the authority of Zeus, the very representation of hierarchical power. We may remember Socrates's rebuke to Phaedrus when he suggested that Socrates may have fabricated the myth of Theuth for his own purposes: Oh, but the authorities of the temple of Zeus at Dodonna, my friend, said that the first prophetic utterances came from an oak tree. In fact the people in those days, lacking the wisdom of you young people, were content in their simplicity to listen to trees or rocks, provided
Page 89 these told the truth. For you apparently it makes a difference who the speaker is, and what country he comes from; you don't merely ask whether what he says is true or false. (275b–c)
Evidently, Plato, like so many today, assumed that truth is either comprehensive, coherent, and simple—or else it is relative. In contrast, the Protagorean theorem does not claim that the truth of the statement is relative to the situation in which it was made, but claims that a statement is part of that situation and therefore partly defines it. Certainly, there were sophists who believed that truth is relative to the situation. The author of the Dissoi Logoi seems to have had relativity in mind when writing, "everything done at the right time is seemly and everything done at the wrong time is disgraceful" (Sprague 283). The author makes similar claims about justice and truth, as when claiming, "whenever a statement is made, if things [should] turn out to be as stated, then the statement is true, but if they should not turn out to be as stated, the same statement is false" (Sprague 287). The idea here seems to be that there are truths defined by their relationship to total situations; such totalities, however, are not absolute, but limited, local, and therefore incommensurable. Gorgias seems to have an even different view in his "Encominium of Helen." There he says, All who have and do persuade people of things do so by molding a false argument. For if all men on all subjects had [both] memory of things past and [awareness] of things present and foreknowledge of the future, speech would not be similarly similar, since as things are now it is not easy for them to recall the past nor to consider the present nor to predict the future. (Sprague 52)
Here the idea seems to be not that there are different truths for different times and places but that there is one truth, one inaccessible to human beings, and therefore all persuasion is always a lie. The difference between Plato and Gorgias is really much smaller than people think. Neither Plato nor his Socrates ever claims to know what the Truth is positively, and like Gorgias, Plato claims that positive rhetorical claims are false. Plato does claim to know what the Truth is like, however—that is, what form the Truth must take. Truth is comprehensive, coherent, simple. Gorgias, then, sees discourse (much as do Fish and Mailloux) as inherently false and therefore a mat
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ter of force, an agonistic battle of persuasion to achieve one's preconceived desires, a justified aim since the Truth cannot be known. Plato, in contrast, sees a true discourse, a discourse that is, like Truth itself, coherent, simple, and noncontradictory, a secondorder reflection or representation of Truth itself. After Plato, Protagoras's notion of truth is entirely lost. For Protagoras, the aim of discourse was to make the conditions affecting one's speech affect the speech of others. Speech was a presentation, not a representation; it created possibilities, it did not reflect an "objective" state of affairs. In that sense, discourse was always true. Gorgias gave us the lie, the ideal of representing a state of affairs that implies a misrepresentation because necessarily finite and incomplete. Plato gave us the dream of imitating Truth, the goal of closing the gap between discourse and the world that the very idea of Truth had created. In doing this, he gave us the rhetoric of identity. The rhetoric of identity, indeed the term "rhêtorikê" itself and its concept in contradistinction to philosophy, was, as we saw in the previous chapter, invented by Plato. In the Gorgias, Plato has Socrates advise Callicles as follows: If you believe that there is any man on earth who can teach you an art that will at once make you powerful in the state and at the same time unlike it in temper (whether for better or worse) in my opinion, Callicles, you're quite wrong. It is not an imitator that you will be, it is your very nature that will conform to the mob if you are going to enter a real bond of friendship with the Athenian people and, I swear, with the son of Pyrilampes as well. Whoever, then, may render you most like them will also make you the politician and orator you desire to be. Everyone, of course, is pleased with speeches that accord with his own way of looking at things and annoyed with a foreign point of view. (513)
Socrates condemns as he invents almost all the important concepts of the rhetoric of identity in this passage. Implied is the belief that one's identity is derived from the order to which one conforms, and that rhetorical power derives from the commonly shared opinions of those with whom one shares such identity. Because opinion is distinguished sharply from Truth, conformity to a good state produces force and goodness; conformity to an evil state produces force and evilness. As Socrates had earlier explained, the key to the good life in the good state
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is selfcontrol—the restraint of desires that, if exercised, would disturb what he calls "geometrical equality" (508a). Geometrical equality is simply proportionality within an integrated whole. The power of the individual is derived from his or her position within the whole, as in the Republic (or in Foucault). Such "equality" is, says Socrates, a "mighty power." Some powers, of course, are greater than others, not only because some individuals have more significant places within the whole, but because some wholes are greater than others. The earth, gods, and men belong to a single totality, a "cosmos" or order. Conformity to the cosmos produces, ultimately, the greatest power and therefore the greatest happiness, even though conformity to its Truth may create conflicts with the more local orders to which one belongs. The duty and chief object of the true rhetorician, then, both for personal benefit and the benefit of all, is to convince the members of the lower order to bring their local practices into conformity with the laws of the cosmos. Such a "good man" as a speaker will "always have some definite end in view," and like any craftsman, will "dispose every element of his task in a fixed order and adjust the parts in a suitable and harmonious scheme until the whole has been constituted as a regularized and wellordered object" (Gorgias 503). True logos, in other words, reflects kosmos. It is an integrated totality. Three criteria for discourses follow from this: the criterion of coherence measures discourses by their degrees of the coordination and subordination of their elements; the criterion of comprehensiveness measures them by their abstraction, by the magnitude of the particulars they account for; and the criterion of simplicity measures them by the absence of the superfluous and irrelevant. In short, discourses are measured by the degree to which they mirror the cosmos, understood as totally integrated Being. In the Phaedrus, these criteria undergird the primary principle of persuasion: "every discourse, like a living creature, should be so put together that it has its own body and lacks neither head nor feet, middle nor extremities, composed in such a way that they suit both each other and the whole" (264). It undergirds what we would now call aesthetics: "our poets would be amused at anyone who believed that tragedy could be anything other than the combination of these elements, an apt organization of them, both in their relation to one another and in their relation to the whole" (268). It even
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undergirds ethics, as when in the Gorgias Socrates says, teasing Callicles, "it's contrary to good morals to break off even a story in the middle; it needs a head, so it won't have to go around without one" (505); crime, in fact, can be defined as the unlawful interruption of someone else's life story. In Plato, true rhetoric, art, and morals are not separated but are all forms of logos, and logos is the reflection of the cosmos. The two criteria it generates, then, undergird dialectic, which he defines in the Phaedrus as the "power to organize into a single comprehensive system the unarranged characteristics of a subject" and "the ability to divide into species according to natural articulations" (265). Dialectic and all true discourse reproduce the processes that produce cosmic order. If you can get one's audience to assume this much, then you can produce the greatest sophistical parlor trick ever imagined. It is, one might say, the secret of the logos. If you can get your audience to assume in advance that your discourse has the characteristics of a true discourse, because, for instance, it is divinely inspired, or, as in Socrates's dialogues, divinely disciplined (his daemon doesn't tell him what the truth is, only when he has departed from it), or because it is fiction and truth does not apply, then you have placed yourself beyond criticism. For if the audience assumes that the discourse is true, that it has a beginning, middle, and end, that it is closed and therefore coherent, integral, and simple, then the audience must assume that those elements that appear to contradict other elements cannot not be true— they must mean something other than what they appear to mean. They must be ironic, allegorical, metaphorical or otherwise tropic. This shifts the burden of signification onto the listener or reader, who must, in order to make sense of what seems senseless, imagine levels or orders of being that "transcend" the world with which he or she is familiar. The text must reveal "higher" or "deeper" purposes and meanings beyond those of the mundane, familiar world of the everyday. The invention of the Truth as the reflection of the cosmos not only produces the distinction between two kinds of discourse—a true rhetoric (which is subordinate to philosophy, the determiner of the cosmic Truth) and a false rhetoric (which, like the true, convinces
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through identity, but through identity with orders that are less than cosmic)—it also produces a distinction between two kinds of culture. As Socrates reminds Callicles, ''Just remember that we decided that there were two ways of cultivating anything, whether it was of the body or the soul; one procedure is to aim at its pleasure, the other at its best good. The latter uses no soothing methods, it combats them'' (Gorgias 513). False culture, like false rhetoric, reenforces the perception of things as they are believed to be rather than critiques those beliefs in favor of things as they "really" are. Or, to put the matter more cynically, true culture encourages individuals to play Plato's trick on themselves, to transcend or sublimate their pain and suffering, to experience it as being part of something greater and more significant than their own lives, and, therefore, to do nothing to stop it. Plato's conception of enculturation is therefore linked to his epistemology and ontology. Enculturation should be the process that heals the breach between reality and appearances. Human social life can and should imitate or reflect the cosmos; it should be ordered and proportionate, an harmonious whole that draws its significance and legitimacy from universal laws that transcend nature and arbitrary convention. At first sight, such a conception seems a far cry from the modern, anthropological concept of culture in common use today. However, they are not so far apart as they at first appear. 3 The Theological Origins of Modern "Culture" According to A. L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, "the word culture with its modern technical or anthropological meaning was established by [E. B.] Tylor in 1871" (9). Tylor abandoned the term "civilization" in favor of the German Kultur. German usage of "culture," in Kant for instance, had always indicated "cultivating or becoming cultured— . . . also the older meaning of civilization" (10). Following its etymology, the term from the beginning had carried with it the implications of gardening, of promoting organisms of chosen kinds and weeding out all others. Raymond Williams marks the watershed in the term's usage at Herder's unfinished Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind (1784–91), which attacked the then common claim that encultu
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ration was "what we would now call a unilinear process" leading to its culmination in eighteenthcentury European culture. As Williams quotes Herder, Men of all the quarters of the globe, who have perished over the ages, you have not lived solely to manure the earth with your ashes, so that at the end of your time your posterity should be made happy by European culture. The very thought of a superior European culture is a blatant insult to the majesty of Nature. (89)
Herder argues, says Williams, that one must "speak of 'cultures' in the plural: the specific and variable cultures of different nations and periods, but also the specific and variable cultures of social and economic groups within a nation" (89). Williams agrees, though, that culture "as an independent noun, an abstract process or the product of such a process" hardly appears in everyday use before the midnineteenth century (88). Culture's transition from a verb of process to an abstract noun is also discussed by HansGeorg Gadamer in Truth and Method with respect to its connection to a similar transition occurring to the German Bildung in the eighteenth century. At first Bildung signified "a 'natural shape' which refers to external appearance," but it came to designate "primarily the properly human way of developing one's natural talents and capacities." In this usage it came to be ''intimately associated with the idea of culture'' (11). In its development from a concept of becoming to one of being, Bildung was seen to be "not achieved in the manner of a technical instruction" but in that of "the inner process of formation and cultivation" (12). Gadamer notes that Bildung thus comes to resemble the Greek phusis. Like nature, "Bildung has no goals outside itself" (12). The characterization of Bildung as an end in itself ultimately distinguishes it from Kultur, because cultivating natural talent—developing "something that is given"—is "a mere means to an end" (12). Bildung, to the contrary, has no end; therefore, its processes are preserved, rather than lost once the end is achieved, as in encultivation. The gap between Kultur and Bildung is fully exploited by Hegel in a way parallel to Plato's exploitation of the difference between true and false culture. As Gadamer explains, Hegel believes that culture alienates the self from the natural self, and so the Phenomenology of Spirit
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undertakes to describe the process by which consciousness, through work, "raises itself above the immediacy of its existence to universality" (13). In other words, through work, "by forming the thing," consciousness ''forms itself" (13). The tendency of Spirit, then, is to "'recognize' oneself in other being" (14). In Bildung the aim is not to differentiate oneself from the rest of being but to seek out the alien in order to "become at home in it," to find oneself in it. Thus the proper relationship of the individual to his or her society is clear: Every single individual that raises himself out of his natural being to the spiritual finds in the language, customs and institutions of his people a pregiven body of material which, as in learning to speak, he has to make his own. Thus every individual is always engaged in the process of Bildung and in getting beyond his naturalness, inasmuch as the world into which he is growing is one that is humanly constituted through language and custom. (15)
Properly, culture is the spiritual expression of the naturally human, and Bildung is the process of narrowing the gap between the artificial and individual toward achieving the natural and universal. Bildung imposes upon the individual the duty "to keep oneself open to what is other, to other, more universal points of view" (17). This notion of bringing culture, understood as socially impinging forms, into line with a perfected natural universality is a secularization of Augustine's Platonic motive to establish a "city upon a hill," a perfect society that is both the reflection and cause of the holy being of the individuals in it. This motive, as has been well documented, ultimately fueled much of the rhetoric associated with the Puritan and Separatist immigrations to the American continent. The kind of society aimed for by these colonists was that described by William Ames and other Protestant Ramists as "encyclopedic" (see Adams, "Alexander"), that is, a functionally integrated society consisting of individuals who recognize their interdependence and mutual subordination, whose work and symbolic forms reflect and express perfectly their values and beliefs. According to one of these Protestant Ramists, Alexander Richardson, the world, because made by God, is imbued with his perfect (because total) idea of being; when human beings, through art (techne: making, materially altering the world as given), remake the world, the things they make "teach" their makers not only the thing's true being, but the true being of the maker(s):
Page 96 So that we may see, that art is the Wisdom of God, but yet it is energetick in the thing, so it is called Ars, So mark this, that Art is the Law of God, whereunto he created things, whereby he governeth them, and whereunto they yield obedience. Mark this well, for the Schooles run into many absurdities, whilst they have thought Art is in a mans head, and not in the thing. (19)
The world, being the "Art" made by God, is perfectly integrated, everything dependent upon everything else. Moreover, human society should be like this, equally an interdependent system of relationships. In Puritan societies work takes on the character of a holy office precisely because the resistance of things to the human will is educative of reality: to the old cliché respecting the slow learner, "Do you have to be hit on the head?" Richardson would have answered "Yes," because ''every creature must take a blow of God" (10). What is to be learned through such blows, of course, is that the actions and motions of people and things are more than what they immediately seem. They point beyond themselves; they are symbolic of a total structure unseen, texts revealing God's "Idea." Hegelianism is not Puritanism and neither is exactly what we would call culturalism, but they both set the stage rhetorically for the development of culturalism. It is a very short step from the notion that society or culture should be integrated, to the notion that cultures are integrated; from the notion that social behavior is an expression of God's idea to the notion that it expresses a unified conceptual scheme or semiotic system called "culture"; from the notion that historical events are to be understood in terms of a progressive Providence or dialectical zeitgeist to the notion that the history of particular cultures gives meaning to particular events. Of course, there is apparently a vast difference between the absolutism of Puritanism and (ultimately) of Hegelianism and the relativism of culturalism. But from the perspective I'm trying to establish here—one that does not acknowledge the existence of cultures, real or ideal, only the existence of the effects of believing in them—from this perspective the difference between cultural absolutism and cultural relativity is trivial. Because both see culture (or the encyclopedic society) as a totality of elements that acts as a medium of communication, a generator of meaning, a determiner of values—as a structure or system prior to and constitutive of concrete acts—they both operate by the same logic of
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inclusion and exclusion, determining what does and does not make sense, have being, and possess value. Thus, although the Hegelian concept of Bildung encourages individuals to keep themselves open to the alien, it demands of cultures to keep themselves pure. "Arbeit macht frei" was not as ironic as we might like to think. The Christian duty to love, of course, never prevented a Puritan from exiling or executing a heretic, but encouraged him. The "rule of charity" invoked at the conversion narratives of individuals attempting to join the church, a rule similar to the common law presumption of innocence, was a kind of openness to the alien as well (see Adams, "Ramist" 262–63), but it was an openness only to the possibility of a difference in the articulation of the same totality accepted by the congregation. A narrative that demonstrably was incoherent with that totality was rejected. Moreover, individuals whose actions or words reflected a contrary totality were themselves rejected ruthlessly. The eighteenthcentury Puritan minister Jonathan Edwards explains this logic of inclusion and exclusion clearly: The first object of a virtuous benevolence is Being, simply considered . . . and what it has an ultimate propensity to is the highest good of Being in general. And it will seek the good of every individual being unless it be conceived as not consistent with the highest good of Being in general. In which case the good of a particular being, or some beings, may be given up for the sake of the highest good of Being in general. And particularly, if there be any statedly and irreclaimably opposite and an enemy to Being in general, then consent and adherence to Being in general will induce the truly virtuous heart to forsake that being, and to oppose it. (True Virtue 545)
Edwards's concept of "being" is structural. Being in general is the totality of all that means and is—God; but it also refers analogously to the community. All meaning or being is relational, and the essential relationship is that of "consent." Consent is, roughly speaking, an element's assent or contribution toward the whole's "direction" or inclination or end. No element can exist (be significant) in itself, because alone it cannot consent: One alone without any reference to any more cannot be excellent; for, in such a case, there can be no manner of relation, no way, and therefore no such thing as consent. Indeed what we call "one" may be excellent because of a consent of parts, or some consent of those in that
Page 98 being that are distinguished into a plurality some way or other. But in a being that is absolutely without any plurality there cannot be excellency, for there can be so such thing as consent or agreement. (Writings 337)
Edwards distinguishes between two kinds of being, the perceiving and nonperceiving. Finite, nonperceiving "sensible" things' consent to one another Edwards normally terms "beauty." Excellency he reserves for spiritual, or conscious, beings' consent to one another. Repeating Plato's argument about "geometrical equality," Edwards explains that sensible things may consent "by equality or by likeness or by proportion." Proportion's complex beauty is more satisfying than the simple beauty of equality or likeness, and Edwards inevitably draws upon human art to exemplify proportionate beauty: By proportion one part may sweetly consent to ten thousand different parts. All the parts may consent with all the rest and, not only so, but the parts taken singly may consent with the whole taken together. Thus, in the figures or flourishes drawn by an acute penman, every stroke may have such a proportion, both by the place and distance, direction, degree or curvity, etc., that there may be a consent in the parts of each stroke, one with another, and a harmonious agreement with all the strokes and with the various parts composed of many strokes and an agreeableness to the whole figure taken together. (Writings 380–81)
To Edwards, human beings are not distinct, selfdetermined beings. As in Richardson's encyclopedia, in Edwards's theology all beings are interdependent, part of a vast system of Being, the totality of which is God. Thoughts, affections, and actions are not intrinsically good or evil; rather, whether these are good or evil depends upon whether they are appropriate to the being's place within the system: If any creature be of such a nature that it proves evil in its proper place, as in the situation which God has assigned it in the universe, it is of an evil nature. That part of the system is not good, which is not good in its place in the system; and those inherent qualities of that part of the system, which are not good, but corrupt, in the place are justly looked upon as evil inherent qualities. (Original Sin 125)
Whether a sensible or a spiritual thing, its real being or meaning, its beauty or excellency, is ultimately determined by its reference to the
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totality of things, so that a thing appearing agreeable or disagreeable from a lesser perspective may appear (and therefore be) quite the opposite from a greater. Edwards's metaphysics is important for two reasons. First, it is a clear illustration of the Platonic and structuralist correlation between hermeneutics and aesthetics. When a conceptual scheme (in this case, God's total idea) is taken to be the medium of signification, what something means and its value are determined in the same way, that is, by a judgment of the relationship of elements to themselves and to the whole. Therefore the judgment participates in the problematic of what Derrida has called "framing." In his extended discussion of this phenomenon in On Deconstruction, Jonathan Culler quotes Derrida as follows: This permanent demand—to distinguish between the internal or proper meaning and the circumstances of the object in question—organizes every philosophical discourse on art, the meaning of art, and meaning itself, from Plato to Hegel, Husserl, and Heidegger. It presupposes a discourse on the boundary between the inside and the outside of the art object, in this case, a discourse on the frame. (193)
I think it is safe to say that the primary difficulty with structuralist thought as problematized by deconstruction is that every attempt to frame a context, a totality within which to gauge relationships, will always be thwarted, for the frame can always be extended or altered. The JudeoChristian tradition has always recognized this, for the very idea of monotheism presupposes that judgments must ultimately be held to infinity, and that temporal judgments, to be legitimate, must be founded upon a supernaturally given law. The notions of grace and revelation testify to a tacit recognition of the problem of "framing." The other reason Edwardian metaphysics is important follows from the first: it helps make obvious the parallel in function between the Puritans' God and the anthropologists' "culture." Indeed, my point here is that culture is just another transformation of "substance" and in particular a secularization of "God." Culture performs all the functions of God and performs them in an analogous way, with the primary difference being that God, of course, was thought to be absolute and universal, whereas cultures are acknowledged to be limited and historical. This, of course, makes them all the more vulnerable and pre
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cious, and more in need of defense, and therefore far more dangerous than the God they replaced, since supposedly an almighty being could take care of itself. Cultural "Science" Kroeber and Kluckhohn examine one hundred sixtyfour modern definitions of culture in their landmark study, tracing the term's use from the 1870s through the 1940s. They classify the definitions into six basic types. First are the "descriptive" definitions, which focus on the content of culture. Almost all of these emphasize that cultures are totalities, using phrases like "complex whole" (Tylor, 1871; Benedict, 1929; Panunzio, 1937); "integral whole" (Malinowski, 1944), "sum total'' (Linton, 1936; Lowie, 1937), and "totality" (Dixon, 1928; Kroeber, 1948; Thurnwald, 1950). Second are ''historical" definitions. These too emphasize totality, but they also stress the notion of culture as that which is communicated from one generation to the next (Sutherland and Woodward, 1940), or that which is inherited non genetically and determines "habitual ways of life" (Davis and Dollard, 1940). Third are "normative" definitions that emphasize culture's function of providing rules or "ways" of life through the use of phrases such as "standardized beliefs and procedures" (Wissler, 1929), "customs, traditions, attitudes, ideas, and symbols which govern social behavior" (Gillin and Gillin, 1942), and "historically created designs for living" (Kluckhohn and Kelly, 1945). Fourth are the psychological definitions, which speak of the sum of humans' "adjustments to their lifeconditions" (Sumner and Keller, 1927), "learned problemsolutions" (Ford, 1942), and "patterns of preferences" (Morris, 1948). These sometimes emphasize learning (e.g., Hart and Panzer, 1925; Young, 1947; Hockett, 1950), sometimes habit (e.g., Murdock, 1941), but they all stress as a psychological fact that a person's relationships and place in a culture determines who or what a person is and believes him or herself to be. Fifth are the "structural" definitions that emphasize the patterning or organization of culture. Here culture is seen as "a system of interrelated and interdependent habit patterns" (Willey, 1929), as an "historically derived system of explicit and implicit designs for living" (Kluckhohn and Kelly), or as the "functioning, patterned totality of groupaccepted and transmitted invention, material and nonmaterial" (TurneyHigh,
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1945). Finally are those genetic definitions, which emphasize culture as a product or artifact. These range from the notion of culture as "everything which is created or modified by the conscious or unconscious activity of two or more individuals interacting with one another" (Sorkin, 1937), to culture as "a precipitate of man's social life" (Young, 1942), to ''the manmade part of the environment'' (Herskovits, 1948), to "all behavior mediated by symbols" (White, 1943). By the early 1950s, then, the notion of culture had become associated with the following characteristics: Culture(s) consist of historically created totalities of interrelated and interdependent elements, both material and nonmaterial but symbolically charged, which, individually and as a totality are transmitted or communicated and which govern individual and group behaviors in relation to themselves and the world. Culture(s), in other words, had taken on the shape of "objects" for scientific study and, more important, had begun to appear to be—and be treated as—entities with causal properties, and not simply as historically developed analytical tools. Already in 1952 Kroeber and Kluckhohn were alert to this danger, warning that there was a tendency for concepts like "life, mind, society, culture" to be "transcendentalized into entities or kinds of realities," and they suggest that "the motivation of such hypostatizing or reification" is "a hangover from old prescientific concepts like soul" (187). They cite in particular Malinowski, who had recently "credited culture with being 'a reality sui generis'" (187). Kroeber and Kluckhohn, however, had in 1952 only glimpsed what was to come, or rather what had already come but seemed hardly a dominant view at the time— the view that culture and language were identical and therefore cultural study could become as "scientific" as linguistics. They do cite Claude LeviStrauss's 1951 article "Language and the Analysis of Social Laws" as "one of the most arresting statements on language and culture ever published" (124n) and quote from the article its purpose to "ascertain whether or not different types of communications systems in the same societies—that is, kinship and language—are not caused by identical unconscious structures" (167). They gave much more space to the established work of Franz Boas and Edward Sapir. Boas had doubted "that there is any direct relation between the culture of a tribe and the language they speak" or that "a certain state of culture is conditioned by morphological traits of the
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language." He had supposed, though, "that the essential difference between linguistic phenomena and other ethnological phenomena is, that the linguistic classifications never rise into consciousness" (qtd. in Kroeber and Kluckhohn 115). In his early work, Sapir took this distinction and speculated that because language is unconscious, it would be more subject to "the conservative tendency," so that linguistic and cultural forms would change at different rates. Accordingly, "the forms of language will in course of time cease to symbolize those of culture," but for the same reason "the forms of language may be thought to more accurately reflect those of a remotely past stage of culture than the present ones of culture itself" (qtd. in Kroeber and Kluckhohn 116). Later, in 1929, Sapir would conclude that precisely because language developed more or less independently from the rest of culture, ''linguistics would seem to have a very peculiar value for configurative studies" (qtd. in Kroeber and Kluckhohn 117). By this time, Sapir's thesis had changed: "Behind the apparent lawlessness of social phenomena there is a regularity of configuration and tendency that is just as real as the regularity of physical processes in the mechanical world,'' and because language is, apparently, the reservoir of this regularity, linguistics gives the "possibility of a truly scientific study of society which does not ape the methods nor attempt to adopt unrevised the concepts of the natural sciences" (qtd. in Kroeber and Kluckhohn 117–18). The stage was set for linking anthropology with linguistics. The motive, apparently, was to gain credibility by becoming more obviously "scientific"; the same move for the same motive would be repeated across several disciplines, including literary criticism, during the 1940s and 1950s (see Mailloux 22–28). Certainly, structural linguistics was not yet well known in the United States, and structuralism proper would not begin to dominate the social sciences and humanities until the late 1960s. Nevertheless, the structuralist attitude had already been revealed by LeviStrauss in his "Introduction à l'oeuvre de Marcel Mauss" in 1950 (that "particular actions of individuals are never symbolic in themselves; they are the elements out of which is constructed a symbolic system, which must be collective" [xvi]), and it had already begun to take hold of the academic imagination as a secular substitute for Puritan encyclopedia. The reification of language and culture was on its way, with the subsequent conse
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quences familiar to us all, including the notorious "rejection of the notion of the 'subject'" (Culler, Structuralist Poetics 28), a repetition of the rejection already effected by Richardson and institutionalized in Puritan societies (see Yarbrough and Adams 11–14; Yarbrough "Beginning"). Cultural Incommensurability Postmodernism, of course, has decentered structuralism just as it had decentered "man" (cf. Culler, Poetics 28–30). But there is another consequence of structuralism that postmodernism has hardly addressed—the problem of incommensurability. In Puritan thought, in which the mediating totality was absolute, incommensurability was easily settled: as we saw Edwards put it, the incommensurable is to be forsaken and opposed. But this is hardly justifiable if the totalities involved are multiple and relative. The idea that cultures are incommensurable, that no alien culture can be fully intelligible to members of another, is first presented by Nietzsche in The Birth of Tragedy. Hoping that the German spirit "will eliminate those elements grafted on it by force and remember its own true nature," he warns, It seems scarcely possible to graft an alien myth onto a native culture without damaging the tree beyond repair in the process. Occasionally the tree proves strong and healthy enough to eliminate the foreign element after a prolonged struggle, but as a rule it must wither or continue in a state of morbid growth. (140)
In his Decline of the West, Oswald Spengler developed the idea in the form of an organic historicism. Cultures are individual organisms with separate destinies and lifecycles, and they produce different kinds of human beings: Cultures, each springing with primitive strength from the soil of a motherregion to which it remains firmly bound throughout its whole lifecycle; each stamping its material, its mankind, in its own image; each having its own idea, its own passions, its own life, will and feeling, its own death. (21)
The life of cultures has "the same superb aimlessness as the flowers of the field" and they cannot be seen as progressions from one to another
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(21). Cultures are absolutely relative, incommensurable, and completely unintelligible to members of other cultures, even when those members believe themselves to be descended from the other: The whole religiousphilosophical, arthistorical and socialcritical work of the 19th Century has been necessary to enable us, not to understand Aeschylus, Plato, Apollo and Dionysius, the Athenian state and Caesarism (which we are far indeed from doing), but to begin to realize, once and for all, how immeasurably alien and distant these things are from our inner selves—more alien, maybe, than Mexican gods and Indian architecture. (27)
Although Spengler's theories had a brief (and, horrifically misapplied) influence in Germany, it had little influence in the United States. However, another prophet's theory of incommensurability did. Although Sapir himself did not "believe that culture and language are in any true sense related" and defined culture "as what a society does and thinks," while defining language as "a particular how of thought'' (218), Benjamin Lee Whorf, a student of Sapir's, fully integrated the concepts of language and culture, developing what he called the "principle of relativity.'' According to this principle, "all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar, or can in some way be calibrated" (214). Language, in other words, stands between speakers and the world in such a way as to determine their perception. Thus: [T]he background linguistic system (in other words, the grammar) of each language is not merely a reproducing instrument for voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper of ideas, the program and guide for the individual's mental activity, for his analysis and impressions, for his synthesis of his mental stock in trade. (212)
Whorf thinks of languages as "conceptual systems," (214) which, when they differ substantially, inevitably induce their respective speakers to "arrive at somewhat different views of the world" (221). Whorf developed this principle to combat the common sense or what he calls the "natural logic" view of language, which holds that "talking, or the use of language, is supposed only to 'express' what is essentially already formulated nonlinguistically" (207). He maintains that "thought, in this view, does not depend on grammar but the laws of logic or reason which are supposed to be the same for all observers
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of the universe—to represent a rationale in the universe that can be 'found' independently by all intelligent observers, whether they speak Chinese or Choctaw" (208). In short, he is positioning his theory against the monocultural progressivism exemplified by Edwards and Hegel. Rather than projecting one culture that approaches correlating with one world, he projects many cultures constituting many worlds. From the view I'm taking here, however, this opposition is no more than a shift from one version of conceptual scheme to another. For all the apparent differences between the two views Whorf contrasts, they remain views of essentially the same type, with Whorf substituting "language" for "God's Idea" or ''universal logic" or "reason." Like all doctrine based upon conceptual schemes, the linguistic relativity principle seems, as John B. Carroll claims in the introduction to his collection of Whorf's writings, ''embarrassingly circular, or at least tautological, in that the only evidence for differences in 'world view' turns out to be the linguistic differences" (28). Relying upon such evidence, of course, is much like inferring God's existence from the existence of the world and then using divine attributes to explain why the world works as it does. Using apparent differences in "language" or "culture" to explain apparent differences in perception is questionable for another reason. As Carroll notes, as early as 1953 Lewis S. Feuer pointed out that "one would not expect cultures speaking different languages to have different ways of perceiving space, time, causation, and other fundamental elements of the physical world, because a correct perception of these elements is necessary to survival" (28). Later, Donald Davidson will echo this Kantian criticism in his more pragmatist one, arguing that the common survival of groups that differ in their ways of speaking and acting indicates only that different groups do different things under different conditions, not that different conceptual schemes compel them to see different worlds. The Mono/Multicultural Difference Despite their common reliance upon conceptual schemes, the multiculturalism supported by Whorf's hypothesis and the monoculturalism advocated by Edwards's and Hegel's ontotheology carry enormously different social consequences, particularly political consequences. When people believe that human societies are moving toward a univer
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sal sameness in conformity with nature—the assumption being that as we know more and more about the way the world works our human ways will reflect that knowledge—they can at least hold up as a criterion something like Kant's categorical imperative. That imperative, to "Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a Universal Law of Nature" (Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals 421), can offer an a priori rationale for upholding contractual relations, a sense of obligation to establish such relations, and a motive to establish international consensus and to promote unified actions. No doubt, much of benefit has been justified on the basis of such imperatives. However, as multiculturalists will point out, the drive toward uniformity justified by such imperatives can be devastating to minority groups that stand in the path of its progress. The relativity principle, they say, not the categorical imperative, protects diversity and therefore insular groups from majority oppression, and if the price of such protection is an acknowledgment of incommensurability, so be it. But if the problem with culturalism is its presumption that the speech and behavior of individuals and societies ought to be headed towards universality, the problem with multiculturalism is its presumption that communication between differing groups is ultimately impossible. Both views, if they don't lead to war—to the exercise of force in order to make sure of a culture's expansion or insulation—lead to something like détente, to a standoff against the alien sustained by mutual fear. In détente, communication is reduced to a signaling of intent, and the best one can hope for is an avoidance of conflict until the opposition collapses under its own weight from the strains of its contradictions. Fortunately, neither the categorical imperative nor the relativity principle has any real philosophical force, since both rely for their credibility entirely upon people's belief in the conceptual schemes from which they are inferred. If communication is not a question of coding and decoding messages through the media of such schemes but one of converging the causes of one set of habitual speech acts with the causes of another—that is, if no a priori schemes are recognized—then the categorical imperative and the relativity principle cease to be political criteria and become merely mutually excluding political alternatives. Thus, the question of whether we would work to preserve the insularity of an alien society or to integrate it with our own could be
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referred only pragmatically to our own desires, to our assumptions about what we want our world (and ourselves) to be like. Culturalist Rhetoric Those assumptions largely determine our rhetoric, how we interpret and persuade, because they determine how we think we ought to read and persuade. Rhetorical processes are not ideologically neutral: every attempt to describe how communicative processes work is always an attempt to make them work as they are described. Sapir's "hypothesis" did not merely create a set of conditions within which human behavior could be accurately described; it made possible a methodology and terminology for describing current political conditions, a whole program of political goals and ethics (centering upon antiethnocentrism), and therefore it created a set of values and beliefs "substantially" different from those of monocultural progressivism. Remaining the same, however, were the persuasive processes themselves, for they remained processes of identification, of the conjoining of interests, of attaining coherence. Whether universe or multiverse, persuasion remains the same because the goal remains the same—to remain the same. The shift to multiculturalism from culturalism, despite its being radical (literally—a return to roots), is one more repetition of the great Idea of Truth that has mystified Western discourse ever since Plato invented it, even if it has been fragmented almost out of recognition by the resistance of contemporary life.
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4 Language, a Field of Force As I read Plato in the previous chapter, Truth for him was a correspondence between kosmos and logos. He posited that the kosmos is an integrated totality, but because finite human beings can perceive only a portion of that totality, what appears real to us is, in fact, merely illusion. We can, however, "know" the real and represent it through language—offer an analogy of it, a mirrored reflection, so to speak. He established three primary criteria for such discourse. Discourse should be coherent—a whole consisting of interrelated parts; comprehensive—an exhaustive representation of the relevant parts and their relationships to themselves and to the whole; and simple—uncomplicated in its representation of truth by issues of contingency, locality, established opinion, or other matters that might blur the distinction between discourse and reality. In short, the world is and discourse should be compositional. Plato's chief notion that meaning is produced by correlating language with the real continued to exert its influence long after his suggestion that Being was a totality of Ideal Forms. I only hinted at this rather complicated history of the transformation of "substance" in the last chapter, discussing just enough, I hope, to suggest that the concept of "culture" in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries could be seen as a transformation of Godsubstance (as Burke would have put it), one taking over the discursive function of the ground or foundation that had previously been attributed to Scripture. As such transformations, concepts of culture cannot help but contribute to the creation of the conditions they purport to describe. Cultures exist by virtue of their being believed to exist. They are a peculiar product of compositional discourse. When alternatives are available, it is impossible for an individual to make the distinctions and decisions that consistently would associate her or him with one culture rather
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than another unless that individual intentionally defers to a preconceived notion of cultural wholeness. Once that deferral takes place, however, something strange happens. First, the world divides up into two types of people, those who "belong" to our culture and those who do not. The way we actually behave and interpret then changes. We interpret the actions of those whom we presume to be "one of us" precisely as we would our own behavior under the same conditions, as a set of systematic conformities to and deviations from the norm we ourselves project. This mode of "cultural understanding'' prevents us from even considering the possibility that the conditions affecting the other's behavior may be quite different from those that would affect us. We presume to understand and so free ourselves to judge. Obviously, such a mode of understanding can be very efficient and therefore have considerable survival value for small groups of people living in similar conditions, and who thus actually say and do similar things for similar purposes. As societies become more complex, however, ever, maintaining the illusion of loving under the same conditions—a requirement of cultural understanding—becomes more and more difficult. Laws have to become more abstract and generalized as behaviors become more diverse and the society's need to "transcend" particular differences becomes more acute. The less effective the sameness among individuals' activities and their aims and purposes becomes, the more consciously the society has to impose standards of unity if it is to maintain its old modes of interpretation and persuasion. There have been, of course, many strategies for imposing standards of unity. Besides law, however, the standardization of language has been attempted the most aggressively. In this chapter I am particularly interested in a line of change that leads to the structural theories of language and the political and rhetorical paralysis associated with modernism and postmodernism that I described in chapter 2. As in the previous chapter, I'm not so much interested in historical correctness here, in the sense of an exposition of cause and effect, as I am in exposing the consistency of an assumption about the requirements of meaningful discourse—an assumption deriving from the Platonic distinction between reality and appearance that reduced power to force, opposed truth to opinion, and so eventually led toward the twentieth century's sense of human powerlessness within a relativistic universe.
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Faith in Discourse Church scholasticism following Augustine had put the world out of the epistemological loop. To Augustine, the world as perceived was insignificant; the Bible, however, was "the canon" of "divinely inspired writings" that "could not have been said in any other way" (123). Consider what this pronouncement implies. As a canon, the Bible is a closed system of writings. That the writings could contradict themselves or one another is, to Augustine, inconceivable. As he exclaims when examining an apparent contradiction in Paul's first epistle to Timothy, "Does the Apostle contradict himself . . .?" (142). Of course, he cannot. It is not just that Paul speaks truth and, therefore, as with Plato's texts, that any apparent contradictions have to be resolved in favor of coherence; it is that Paul could not have spoken otherwise. Augustine, concerned about the apparent ineloquence of Biblical writings in comparison to pagan, declared that where "I do not understand these [Biblical writings] their eloquence appears to me to be less, but I do not doubt that it is like that eloquence I find in places where I do understand them" (123). By declaring that the Biblical authors could not have spoken otherwise, he implies that they could not have stylistically varied their words and still said the same thing, could not vary the part without substantially altering the whole. With this declaration, Augustine establishes the Bible as a closed system reflecting the cosmic totality, a unity of form and content, and therefore the standard of Truth and Beauty against which historically concrete beliefs and values are to be measured. In short, with a gesture he created the grounds of a discursive tradition that would last more than a thousand years. 1 During the Renaissance, however, the medieval assumption that the Bible alone could sufficiently ground discourse had begun to dissolve. As it did, rhetorical theory, which had received little attention after Augustine, again became a central intellectual concern. The reasons for this renewed interest are, of course, multifold. Thomas M. Conley in Rhetoric in the European Tradition refers to two significant conditions in particular. The first is the internecine conflict both among Western Christians and between Rome and Constantinople. Something more than a mutual reference to Biblical authority was evidently required, and something less destructive than force of arms was ur
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gently desired as a means toward resolving differences. Rhetoric seemed to be a practical, although hardly an ideal, instrument for peace. The second change in condition was the radical revision of the past stimulated in the Latin world by the discovery and dissemination of significant, previously unknown Latin and Greek rhetorical texts. Especially influential were Cicero's speeches, correspondence, and, crucially, his De oratore. Together these presented an image of thought and speech actively engaged in solving concrete human problems, in resolving human conflicts, and, perhaps most important, debating the nature and aims of rhetoric itself (see Conley 109–120). One response to this new set of conditions has become known as "humanism," primarily because of the humanists' redirection of interest away from celestial and toward mundane concerns. One of the humanists, Erasmus, is of special interest to the story I am now telling because he represents a way not taken that contrasts sharply with the narrative lines leading to today's culturalist rhetoric. Erasmus was indeed Christian, but he was also a skeptic for whom the chief characteristic of human beings is our finitude, a characteristic that so limits our rationality that faith necessarily overshadows epistemology at every turn. For Erasmus, the severe limits of reason suggest that true rationality requires devising modes of thought and discourse that foreground uncertainty and make it obvious that decisions spring from ultimately unjustifiable beliefs guided by individual desire. Erasmus's understanding of the human condition resulted in a rhetoric that in practice consumed all invention and magnified it through the ideal of copia—an abundance of alternatives in both expression and subject matter that "are so interconnected in reality that one cannot easily separate one from the other" (505). Copia exerted itself in argumentation through a balanced presentation of possibilities, rather like the Sophists' antilogic. These possibilities were primarily generated from scholarly tradition, classical thought, and Scripture, all of which, the Bible included, were open to multiple interpretations that weighed more heavily in some contextualizations than in others, but that ultimately had to be remanded to the individual for a decision. Social coherence—peace—then, depended, first, upon the persuasive power of learned individuals capable of taking an enormous number of possibilities into consideration and, second,
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upon the willingness of those individuals to submit to authority once the possibilities had been played out. In an uncertain world, faith in authoritative figures must ultimately prevail. Erasmus's political and religious conservatism notwithstanding, the important thing to note is that for him the very grounds of discourse are negotiable and debatable, even though ultimately the authority of those grounds, once established, must be treated as if absolute. Moreover, that authority rests upon its access to and active consideration of the alternatives discovered in a controversial and very obviously plural scholarly tradition. And most important, fluency in that tradition defined membership in the community the humanist addressed, not narrow political, geographical, or linguistical boundaries. Such a community was certainly elitist; nevertheless, those with the education and training necessary to enter it could have the sense of actively shaping their world, not simply sojourning in a world ready made. For Ramus the world was readymade, and by God. 2 Unlike Erasmus, who doubted the ability of humans to understand the world, Ramus thought he knew precisely how both the world and God's mind worked. The real and the divine were sublimely logical, binomially logical, and an integrated whole. Theoretically, one could catalogue the entire universe in terms of its dichotomous logical interrelationships of part to part—an epistemological and ontological totality Ramists would call "encyclopedia." Thus, by aligning the closed Biblical canon with a closed system of logic to create an image of total intelligibility, Ramus could claim that meanings and beings were knowable in terms of their relationships. Even human beings were to be understood in relational terms. Richardson would extend this claim, saying that the truth of how things are—including what the Bible means—is to be found only through involvement in social life, through engagement with the world and with others, not through detachment from social life and encyclopedic natural life. In other words, "God's Idea" regulated the natural world, and if social life was meant to mirror the mutual dependencies of natural elements, then "God's Word" could be understood as reflecting the former and refracting the latter. The Bible's meaning, therefore, was accessible to anyone to whom God had given the grace to "experience," and not merely to know abstractly, the isomorphism of God's World and Word. To anyone
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without grace, however, the Bible was as subject to multiple, selfinterested interpretations as any other text. Since to Ramus God's Word was logos, binomially logical, and the world, made by God, was also logical, and since dialectical logic was available to and in fact defined human beings, it was possible to know with near certainty exactly how God wanted human beings to resolve their controversies. Ramists like Richardson would argue, for instance, that human relationships could function logically only in what Ramus had called "relative" relationships (relationships of mutual causality such that, for one half of a dichotomy to exist the other half has to exist) of which there are only two types, natural (as a father and son) and consensual (as a buyer and seller, or husband and wife). To be legitimate (i.e., divinely authorized because logical), the latter required mutual consent. By this logic, the appointment of a minister to a congregation without the prior consent of both minister and congregation is simply, flatly wrong. There can be no argument about it. 3 The difference between Erasmus and Ramus can be described as one between an assumption that discursive grounds are fully negotiable until authoritatively established and the contrary assumption that they are fixed in advance. Let me put it into the terms I used in the first chapter. For Erasmus, what matters most is what the individual believes others will believe, thus his focus upon tradition, historical situations, and the invention of copious alternatives to the description and solution of problems. For Ramus, what matters most is a nonnegotiable truth completely unaffected by what others believe, by historical circumstances, or by personal desire—a truth accessible because the method for finding it and the language for expressing it have been fixed in advance. In short, Erasmus is concerned almost exclusively with discursive power—persuasion to a possible conceptual whole from elements that others will consider relevant; Ramus is concerned almost exclusively with rhetorical force—persuasion from a conceptual whole toward conclusions that others will (by virtue of the method entailed in the whole to which they have already agreed) consider necessary. Historically, Ramus won and Erasmus lost; that is, force won out over power in the battle for theoretical attention. The single notable exception lay in the work of Giambattista Vico, who, in his struggle against the domination of Cartesianism during the early eighteenth
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century, argued that the concept of truth should not be restricted to "eternal" abstract truth. Prudence demands attention as well to those "concrete or specific truths" which "change momentarily from truths to untruths" (721). Part of truth, part of the reality of any situation, was the opinions about it held by others. Vico considered the failure to be concerned "with the opinions of others" to be the chief source of political and rhetorical ineptitude (721), whereas attention to the opinions of one's audience was the ''essence'' of eloquence (718). When we recognize human opinion as being part of the reality one is trying to describe, we can no longer, like the abstract scientist, be satisfied with "reducing a large multitude of physical effects of a single cause"; instead, we will "ferret out the greatest possible number of causes which may have produced the single event, and . . . conjecture which of all these causes is the true one" (720). To Vico, in the world as lived, appearance is as effective as reality, and to ignore reality's social dimension was simply foolish. Unfortunately, although today scholars have recognized that Vico was grappling with issues that would not reemerge until the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, he had almost no influence during his time and was seen by most as a reactionary against the new science. The revolutionary spirit of the times demanded a view of discourse and truth that could ignore tradition and the beliefs of others. Unlike Erasmus's and Vico's humanism, Ramism had encouraged a casual disregard of traditional authority and, through its alignment with Protestantism, reliance upon individual experience. Ramism, too, would lose adherents as that same reliance upon experience, once it became directed toward the natural world, would contradict the Ramist claim that the logical mechanisms of the universe could be known a priori and knowledge of individual truths could be deduced from it. Nevertheless, Erasmus and Ramus continued to influence discourse theory after the Renaissance in its two opposing tendencies predominant in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. One tendency would be to claim that normative discursive patterns are discoverable and accessible, while the other would be to claim that such patterns have yet to be discovered or produced. Both, however, will subscribe to the old Platonic assumption that discourse should be "correct" and subordinated to some normative pattern.
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Modern Doubt: Fixing Language The modern world would put its faith in perceivable experience, but that, in turn, shifted the burdens of coherence and comprehensibility onto everyday discourse, while simplicity demanded the bracketing of personal and communal faith. No one had ever believed that everyday discourse was unified and coherent in itself. Whatever unity and coherence it achieved was by virtue of its reflecting either Biblical discourse or encyclopedic form. Now it became obvious that if truth consisted of a correspondence between an unknown unified totality and a known one, and if arriving at the truth of the unknown had to be progressive, not the immediate total vision of the mystic, but a labored, incremental development, then the communication process had to be purified. How could anyone build upon what others had learned if the language muddied the information? Francis Bacon was one of the first to target language as an epistemological hindrance. In The New Organon (1620), he declared that "the human understanding is like a false mirror" (77) because our very perceptions are distorted. They are distorted on account of what he calls the four "Idols": the Idols of the Tribe are those endemic to human nature and finite perception; the Idols of the Cave are those peculiar to individuals, either their personal nature or their education and particular experiences; the Idols of the Market Place are peculiar to particular societies and social practices; and the Idols of the Theatre stem from philosophies and religions that have virtually created worlds of their own. Each of these is the product of false or imprecise discourse, and each distorts and limits our apprehension of reality, "For men believe that their reason governs words; but it is also true that words react on the understanding" (86). Bacon believed that "the formation of ideas and axioms by true induction is no doubt the proper remedy to be applied for the keeping off and clearing away of idols" (76). A number of projects followed upon Bacon's suggestion that language be subjected to an inductive critique. In the late seventeenth century, the British Royal Society endorsed working toward a onething, oneword language. A founding member, Bishop Wilkins, proposed an entirely new system of symbolization, Esperanto, that would eradicate the deceptive ambiguities of rhetorical
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devices. Still, most Baconians were content to believe that through a disciplined critique guided by a properly scientific examination of the world, language may gradually come to approximate more closely the true nature of things. Others, however, followed Wilkins in believing that language had to be purified or standardized before proper scientific procedures could proceed fruitfully. One of the more influential, John Locke, held that we can have unmediated knowledge only of our own ideas. We do have direct sensations of phenomena, of course, and some of these directly result in what he called "simple ideas." But to all our ideas we assign words. While words allow us to convey our ideas to others, because simple ideas combine to form complex ones that may have no necessary relation to reality, our language may be more deceiving than it is enlightening. Language may deceive us especially when (1) we use words to which we can assign no particular idea (as, for example, when someone discusses the taste of pineapple without ever having eaten a pineapple), (2) when our vocabulary is inadequate to our complex ideas, (3) when we use words inconsistently, (4) when we use words in ways different from their common use, and (5) when words refer to imagined substances (285–86). These deficiencies could be remedied, at least partially, by submitting discourse more strenuously to experience and by standardizing language. The development of dictionaries and prescriptive grammars followed naturally from Locke's concerns. Although Locke saw language as a "medium" whose "obscurity and disorder" is likely to "cast a mist before our eyes, and impose upon our understandings" (266), he did not see language as conditioning knowledge. Discourse merely recorded our own thoughts and communicated them to others, so that a conventionally standardized language would effectively promote the goal of accumulating and spreading knowledge. Some, however, saw language—the right language—as one of the necessary conditions of understanding. Étienne Bonnot de Condillac was one of these. After Descartes had found in geometry what he believed to be a model for developing a universal method for all the sciences, one that would link all knowledge in encyclopedic unity, and after Leibniz had sought the same sort of unity in a universal grammar modeled upon algebraic symbolization, Condillac concluded that "the progress of the sciences depends uniquely on the progress of language, and that well constructed languages alone can give analysis the degree
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of simplicity and precision of which it is susceptible" (qtd. in McRae 4: 435–46). Languages, he believed, are "so many analytical methods. . . . We think with them. Rulers of our judgment, they determine our knowledge, opinions, and prejudices" (Condillac, Writings 395). By asserting, somewhat like Bacon, that language conditioned knowledge and perception, Condillac parted significantly with the Cartesians, who held to the doctrine of the "essential identity of reason." As Pierre Swiggers has said, "This [doctrine] entails a radical distinction between thought and speech: the former is, by nature, uniform, whereas the latter is flexible and varies from one language to another" (118). This same doctrine had led the Port Royal solitaires in their Grammar (1660) and Logic (1662) to posit the theory of the arbitrariness of linguistic signs. This theory supports the notion that language is transparent and "grounded in the conscious use of the total set of linguistic signs, which are arbitrary at the level of constitution" (Swiggers 116). Because language use is grounded in conscious intentionality, the PortRoyalists considered it possible "to rephrase, in a systematic way, the control exerted by the speaker over the system of signs he uses'' (117). In other words, a language can artificially be made more rational, by, for instance, altering its syntax to conform to the natural order of reason (subjectpredicateobject). But this new rationality only makes the language's use more convenient; it does not determine how one thinks. To Condillac, however, we can reason only as well as our language will permit us. He speculated that because of inadequate languages that allow or encourage "the habit of using words before determining their meanings," human beings now live dominated by "monstrous systems" in which error supports error, and in which, while we may "believe we think for ourselves, we still continue thinking second hand" (Writings 386). The only way to restore order to thought, now, is "to forget everything we have learned, to take up our ideas again at their origin . . . and to reconstitute . . . human understanding'' (386). If we were to think under the guidance of a rational language that tied our words to our sensational experience, our linguistic system would correspond to the natural system. Nature is "a system whose parts are all perfectly well ordered. If there are in me needs and desires, there are outside of me objects appropriate for satisfying them, and I have the faculty of knowing and making use of them" (383). In other words,
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Condillac believed some sort of rationally guided, universal grammar was necessary to make Locke's sensationalism work. Closing the gap between world and word required guidance. But the initial contact between word and world could not be empirically induced. That contact was not provided by supernatural intervention, by grace, but by "genius"—that typically Romantic substitute for God or substance—which intuited a core "analogy" around which the rest of a rational language could develop. Before the nineteenth century had begun, then, two trends had emerged in reaction to the loss of the medieval faith in an available, immediately accessible, normative discursive pattern. One trend assumed that such a pattern was needed but had yet to be discovered. For those moving this direction, language conditioned perception, so that establishing truth required first finding a true or proper language, one fitting either physical nature (analogously to mathematical laws or geometrical relationships), as with Descartes and Leibniz; or one fitting human nature (a rational language attuned by genius to nature) as with Condillac. The other trend, including Bacon, Wilkins, and Locke, assumed that language's alignment with nature had to be achieved incrementally, guided by a proper method of positive investigation. The main requirement for the second trend was that language should not hinder the recording and communication of knowledge; therefore, an adequate language could be produced conventionally and arbitrarily, so long as the language was coherent and unambiguous. Different as they were in method, these projects to purify language were intended to further scientific investigation, not to alter society; nevertheless, they quickly began to affect social life, as well, primarily by encouraging an increased demand for and expectation of greater linguistic standardization and conventionality. Of course, it is true that rhetorical theory and practice had emphasized conventionality significantly at least since the Roman era. Quintilian had demanded, "Let no one however demand from me a rigid code of rules such as most authors of text books have laid down, or ask me to impose on students of rhetoric a system of laws immutable as fate" (1: 289), but his only protest was that "most rules are liable to be altered by the nature of the case, circumstances of time and place, and by hard necessity itself" (1: 291). In short, he understood particulars only as deviations from known norms. Earlier, the Rhetorica ad Herennium had defined taste
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in terms of "Correct Latinity" which "keeps the language pure, and free of any fault," and "Clarity" which "renders language plain and intelligible.'' Clarity was to be achieved by the use of "current terms and proper terms" as defined by everyday speech and the discursive practices typical of various occupations (2: 269–71). Of course, both Quintilian's stricture and the Ad Herennium's dictum were derived from Cicero (see 1: 11, 77) who had insisted that ''in oratory the very cardinal sin is to depart from the language of everyday life, and the usage of the community" (1: 11). For Cicero, one adhered to "correct Latinity" and sought clarity in order to achieve identification with one's audience and thus to effect persuasion. Identification (as we might say today, solidarity) with an audience was both the means and the end of persuasion. The idea was to make the audience see and feel that what it and the orator want were, at bottom, the same. It was the rhetor's responsibility to become one with the audience. The rhetor "ought to feel the pulses of every class, time of life, and degree, and to taste the thoughts and feelings of those before whom he is pleading or intending to plead any cause" (1: 159). To the Roman rhetoricians, speaking as the audience spoke reflected such an identification. However, the rhetoric that emerged in England during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries under the influence of the "conventionality" trend in linguistics sought correctness and clarity for entirely different reasons and through entirely different means. New Science, New Rhetoric These reasons may be best seen through a brief examination of how Bacon revised the traditional rhetorical canon. In traditional rhetoric, the processes of invention were designed to discover what a rhetor's audience believed and how they thought. Aristotle's rhetoric, by far the most influential (at least indirectly through Cicero and Quintilian), had pursued invention through two lists of topics, or "places," where arguments could be found. One of these lists mapped out general modes of thinking; the other was an incomplete list suggesting that people used different kinds of arguments for different subjects in different settings. The aim here was to know the audience. If the ancients believed that knowledge was power, the knowledge was of the communities to whom they spoke. In contrast, for Bacon, who coined the
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phrase "knowledge is power," the knowledge was of empirical "reality," as for Ramus it had been knowledge of the dialectical encyclopedia. Accordingly, like Ramus, Bacon degraded rhetorical invention. The only knowledge that matters, knowledge about how the world works, Bacon assigned to science. Rhetorical invention was "no Invention, but a Remembrance or Suggestion" of what we have learned through scientific methods (Advancement 626). Bacon's famous definition of rhetoric therefore completely altered the very notion of persuasion. He said, "The duty and office of Rhetoric is to apply Reason to Imagination for the better moving of the will" (629). If classical rhetors had adjusted their arguments in order to accommodate the established will of their audiences, this new rhetoric sought to alter the audience's will itself, by subordinating it to "reason"—to scientific, inductively established knowledge. This is why knowledge is power. In effect, empirical knowledge became the rhetorical substitute for the Holy Scripture that in the Middle Ages had founded communion. Whereas in classical rhetorics, power was achieved through establishing one's solidarity with a community, through the identification of the rhetor's desires with those of a community's members, now power was defined as the capacity to alter what the audience wants—to change the audience's minds by bringing them under the domination of reason, as defined by scientific method. With the alteration of the notion of persuasion came corresponding alterations in the aims and methods of persuasion. Primarily, rhetoric came to be seen unabashedly as manipulative powerseeking, although ideally subservient to scientific truth. By the late eighteenth century, as George Campbell put it in his highly influential treatise The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1776), the best orator was thought to combine appeals to the intellect and the passions in order to produce "an irresistible power over the thoughts and purposes of his audience." Seeking such manipulative power was, however, quite legitimate: It is this which hath been so justly celebrated as giving one man an ascendant over others, superior even to what despotism itself can bestow; since by the latter the more ignoble part only, the body and its members are enslaved; whereas from the dominion of the former, nothing is exempted, neither judgment nor affection, not even the inmost recesses, the most latent movements of the soul. (4–5)
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In other words, people want, and should want, what reason says is best, just as once they should have wanted to obey God. Nature becomes the general standard of what is desirable. However, we must remember that the trend influenced by Bacon and Locke saw the communication of the truth of nature facilitated by strict linguistic conventionality. What this meant socially and rhetorically can be quickly illustrated by Hugh Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres (1783). For Blair, what correctness of diction was to communicability, correctness of taste was to desirability. It therefore could no more be possible that individuals could legitimately disagree about the desirability of the same object than they could legitimately disagree about the meaning of the same word. A standard was necessary. Of course, "nature is the standard of taste" (1: 29), and if there were "any one person who possessed in full perfection all the powers of human nature, whose internal senses were in every instance exquisite and just, and whose reason was unerring and sure" (1: 30) we could rely upon that person for our standard (just as Jesus's life had provided a moral standard). There being no one person with this kind of authority, however, the next best standard is human nature in general. That is, "That which men concur the most in admiring, must be held the most beautiful. His taste must be esteemed just and true, which coincides with the general sentiments of men" (1: 30). Blair's standard is certainly not a simple majority rule; rather, "when we refer to the concurring sentiments of men as the ultimate test of what is to be accounted beautiful in the arts, this is to be always understood of men placed in such situations as are favorable to the proper exertions of taste" (1: 32). These, obviously, are the educated men of "polished and flourishing nations" (1: 32). All that is to be said about correctness of taste goes also for correctness of diction. Thus, linguistic and rhetorical standards are to be found in the established conventionality of the upper classes. Richard Whately articulated this as a general principle in his Elements of Rhetoric (1828): "There is a Presumption," he said, "in favor of every existing institution" (1: 114). When language is perceived as a kind of measuring stick, a tool for the correct transmission of information, then it is obvious that ''a change is not good in itself''; so, "he that demands change should show cause for it" (1: 114).
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Standardizing Language to Create Community Nineteenthcentury theories of rhetoric and language did offer cause for altering, or rather, standardizing, language, which had now come to be regarded as an institution, and in the Victorian age, institutions had come to be regarded as the proper seats of power. Tony Crowley has done a fine, although brief, study of the history of the English movement toward standardization. The term "standard language," he says, was "coined in the 1858 Proposal for the New/Oxford English Dictionary" during the debate over what was to be included in its volumes ("History" 78). He notes that ''the arguments about whether there was such a standard form had raged for well over a century and a half, its locus classicus being Locke's extension of his arguments in favour of social stability to language, particularly in his warnings of the dangers of formal and semantic instability . . ." (79). According to Crowley, nineteenthcentury scholars saw ''standard language" as a project to be accomplished rather than as a fact to be described. Unlike their eighteenthcentury counterparts, they saw linguistic unity as more a political than an epistemological necessity. As one nineteenthcentury linguistic historian put it, "Unity of speech is essential to the unity of a people. Community of language is a stronger bond than identity of religion or government, and contemporaneous nations of one speech, however formally separated by differences of creed or of political organization, are essentially one in culture, one in tendency, one in influence" (qtd. in "History" 76). The felt need for linguistic norms for politics' sake was echoed in other areas, as well, especially in education and aesthetics. In literary aesthetics, the eventual conviction that there was a norm would lead during the first half of the twentieth century to an extraordinary emphasis upon aesthetic effects such as parody, irony, and personal "style" that rely for their recognition upon the assumption of there being linguistic norms. Typically, those who believe in the necessity of such norms also believe that in their time the language is degraded and in need of rehabilitation. For example, in 1948 Cleanth Brooks would lament "the depletion and corruption of the very language itself" and insist that "the modern poet has the task of rehabilitating a tired and drained language so that it can convey meanings once more with force and with exactitude" (80). Crowley's study makes it clear,
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however, that norms such as those Brooks laments exist only as an ideal for the elite. Thus, we should suspect claims that "linguistic fragmentation" is a recent and specifically postmodern phenomenon. Fredric Jameson, for instance, has suggested that postmodern "pastiche" has displaced high modernist parody, and this in turn, has been followed by a linguistic fragmentation of social life itself to the point where the norm itself is eclipsed: reduced to a neutral and reified media speech (far enough from the Utopian aspirations of the inventors of Esperanto or Basic English), which itself then becomes but one more ideolect among many. (73)
The loss of the "norm," however, could only be a loss for those few who had convinced themselves that there ever was a norm to lose. Linguistic Imperialism In the nineteenth century, though, such norms were still seen as something to be established, and once established, spread. As Tony Crowley emphasizes, the "forces of centripetalisation . . . were not confined to a united language internal to the British state" ("History" 77). Many British scholars believed that English, by right of the accomplishments of its speakers, was on its way toward being, and deserved to become, the universal language. As one apologist for imperialism proclaimed, ''English is emphatically the exponent of commerce, of civilization, of social and religious freedom, of progressive intelligence, and of an active catholic philanthropy; and beyond any tongue ever used by man, it is of right the cosmopolite speech" (qtd. in ''History" 78). One might observe in this argument for linguistic imperialism more going on than Locke's requirements for recording and communicating ideas. By now, another notion had become imported into British linguistic discourse, one justifying the belief that language reflected, indeed created character. This notion encouraged British linguist G. F. Graham, for example, to describe language as follows: [Language is] the outward expression of the tendencies, turn of mind, and habits of thought of some one nation, and the best criterion of their intellect and feelings. If this explanation be admitted, it will naturally follow that the connexion between a people and their language is so close, that the one may be judged of it by the other; and
Page 124 that the language is a lasting monument of the nature and character of the people. (qtd. in T. Crowley, "Object of Desire" 40)
The belief that the character and intelligence of a people was determined by their language descended not from Bacon or Locke, but from Condillac, who in his Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge had declared not only that "every language expresses the character of the people that speak it" (285) and that a nation's great works begin only "when the language begins to have fixed principles and a settled standard" (287), but also, more importantly, that "the language of rude and ignorant people obstructs the progress of the mind," an obstruction that cannot ''diminish, but in proportion to the degrees of perfection added to that language'' (290). Such pronouncements lent authority to the ideologues' plan to impose a standardized French throughout the country. In the late eighteenth century, they sought to replace not only foreign languages but also French dialects. According to Hans Aarsleff, The chief support for these efforts came in fact from the nonFrench speakers who wished to be part of the events they did not understand. Since the republic was one and indivisible under a single law and the equality of patriots, it must also have one language and do away with the distinction between the Frenchspeaking elite and the rest of the population. The aim was liberation, not repression. (xli)
However noble the intent of the ideologues may have been, their project to standardize the language within French borders soon combined with the idea that some languages were better, because more "rational," than other languages, and therefore it was equally noble to impose a more rational language upon the speakers of those less so. An important linguist whose work sometimes was used to support such linguistic imperialism—although he himself did not support it—was Wilhelm von Humboldt. His influential text, The Diversity of Human LanguageStructure and Its Influence on the Mental Development of Mankind (1836), claimed, as its title suggests, that the language and mental capability of a people were identical, "For," as he explains, "intellectuality and language allow and further only forms that are mutually congenial to one another" (46). According to Humboldt's theory, some language types more closely reflect the principles of universal grammar than others because they
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have had, from their very origin, a better intuitive grasp of the goals of speech. A language's "primordial form" determines from the start its ultimate development, just as the initial configuration of a crystal determines its ultimate structure. Humboldt concluded that certain linguistic properties such as regular inflection were more conducive to creativity and intellectual rigor. Accordingly (to continue my analogy), just as it is legitimate to value a diamond more than a quartz crystal, it is legitimate to value some languages (as it turns out, unsurprisingly, "Sanskrit" or IndoEuropean languages) more than others. Humboldt does not want to eliminate the inferior languages anymore than he would want to eliminate "inferior'' crystals and gems. As he put it, I can never avoid a clear and open adoption of the decisive contrast between languages of purely regular form, and those of a form that deviates from this. It is my sincere conviction that what is expressed thereby is just an undeniable fact. The excellence of even these deviant languages, with the particular advantages it confers, the artistry of their technical construction, is neither misapprehended nor despised; we simply deny them the capacity to act, of themselves, in so ordered, so versatile and so harmonious a fashion upon the mind. (218)
Later British efforts to standardize English, as Crowley has noted, "did not exclude differences but hierarchished them: posited as the central form, it [standard English] then ranged around it dialectal, class, gender and racerelated differences in an inferior relation to its own powerful status" ("History" 81). Humboldt clearly provides a rationale for such a hierarchalization. Deriving his standard from the values held by his own society and then imposing it upon others, thus "proving" that otherness leads to inferiority, Humboldt set the pattern for later attempts to purify languages and cultures of foreign elements. Humboldt's main argument for such purification, however, came from his habit of describing the differences among languages as being analogous to differences among works of art. Previously, Condillac had described languages as developments of an initial, formative analogy, one that continues to govern the language's structure and give it its unity. A language's beginning, Condillac had said, may be arbitrary, but afterwards linguistic relationships are not: "Signs are arbitrary the first time they are employed, which is the reason perhaps that some imagine they can have no character. But I would fain know whether it
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be not natural for every nation to combine their ideas according to their own peculiar genius" (Human Knowledge 298). Humboldt took this idea further to claim that the totality of a language was, like an artistic genius' initial inspiration, inherent in the sparking analogy that initiates the development of a language: Language, as is evident from its very nature, is present to the soul in its totality. Every detail in it, that is, behaves in such a way as to correspond to another that has yet to become clear, and to a whole given, or rather capable of creation, by the sum of the phenomena and the laws of the mind. The actual development goes on gradually, however, and the new increment is formed by analogy with what is already present. (77)
For Humboldt, then, a language is like organic art. And, like art, when conceived organically, a language suffers when it is not kept pure. As Hans Aarsleff explains, For Condillac the genius of each language is controlled by the analogy that determines its individuality and organization. It is by virtue of its analogy that a language can be said to be an organism, and for Condillac as well as Humboldt this analogy and thus also the organism are impaired when a language becomes mixed with elements taken from a language that obeys another analogy. (xxxv)
Humboldt understands language as the working out of an intrinsic relationship between an initial "form" or "analogy" that cannot be artificially created and a totality that has yet to be realized but whose intimated nature as an integral whole determines what does and does not belong to it. Despite major differences between Humboldt's romanticism and the rationalisms of Locke, Leibniz, and Condillac—including the obvious difference of Humboldt's insistence upon the "genius" of the initial formation—Humboldt presumes as the rationalists did that nature itself is an integrated system and that ideally language mirrors that integrative totality. Even so, a very important difference exists between Humboldt's theory and those of the universal grammarians on the one side and the Lockian conventionalists on the other. The difference lies in Humboldt's treating language as a process rather than a product. We usually think of language as being the lexicon and the grammatical laws that determine the correctness of speech. Humboldt says, on the contrary, that "the breakup into words and rules is only the dead makeshift of
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scientific analysis" (48). Such structures are descriptions of moments of stasis that in fact do not occur: "Language, regarded in its real nature, is an enduring thing, and at every moment a ransitory one. . . . In itself it is no product (Ergon), but an activity (Energeia)" (49). This language activity, or speech, Humboldt sometimes describes as a "labour," or a "work of the spirit" (49), and sometimes as an "inner striving" (78) of the individual to, on the one hand, express the requirements of a particular situation and, on the other, to be understood, which requires submitting to the way in which a listener ''under similar circumstances, would have spoken to [the speaker]" (50). Such "labour," which ''produces the expression of thought, is always directed at once upon something already given; it is not purely creative, but a reshaping activity" (50). Humboldt claims that the "labour operates in a constant and uniform way" (50), according to a certain form—or what he sometimes, following Condillac, calls the central "analogy." This form, not grammatical form, constitutes the very essence of language, and language, therefore, cannot be regarded as a totality of signs and a set of rules for their combination. We can regard "only the totality of this speaking as the language" (49). Only particular utterances are "present." A Game of Chess: Saussure's Linguistics V. N. Volosinov, in his germinal text Marxism and the Philosophy of Language, has described Humboldt as "the most important representative" and founder of one of the two most important trends in language theory prior to his own work in the 1930s. That trend, individualistic subjectivism, adhered to four basic principles: 1. Language is activity, an unceasing process of creation (energeia) realized in individual speech acts; 2. The laws of language creativity are the laws of individual psychology; 3. Creativity of language is meaningful creativity, analogous to creative art; 4. Language as a readymade product (ergon), as a stable system (lexicon, grammar, phonetics), is, so to speak, the inert crust, the hardened lava of language creativity, of which linguistics
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makes an abstract construct in the interests of the practical teaching of language as a readymade instrument. (48) The opposing major trend, established by Ferdinand de Saussure, Volosinov called abstract objectivism, and he gives these as its basic principles: 1. Language is a stable, immutable system of normatively identical linguistic forms which the individual consciousness finds readymade and which is incontestable for that consciousness. 2. The laws of language are the specifically linguistic laws of connection between linguistic signs within a given, closed linguistic system. These laws are objective with respect to any subjective consciousness. 3. Specifically linguistic connections have nothing in common with ideological values (artistic, cognitive, or other). Language phenomena are not grounded in ideological motives. No connection of a king natural and comprehensible to the consciousness or of an artistic kind obtains between the word and its meaning. 4. Individual acts of speaking are, from the viewpoint of language, merely fortuitous refractions and variations or plain and simple distortions of normatively identical forms; but precisely these acts of individual discourse explain the historical changeability of linguistic forms, a changeability that in itself, from the standpoint of the language system, is irrational and senseless. There is no connection, no sharing of motives, between the system of language and its history. They are alien to one another. (57) I borrow Volosinov's antithetical contrast here because it highlights nicely the difference between the Romantic and Modernist conceptions of the grounds of meaning, the nature of discursive force, and the individual's relationship to a language. Whereas the Romantics believed that discursive force originated from the individual's grasp of a core analogy that generates an organic linguistic whole, the Modernists, like the eighteenthcentury Rationalists, saw the whole itself as the ground. The chief differences be
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tween the Modernists and their Rationalist predecessors, of course, were that while the Rationalists thought the whole in question was Nature, the Modernists thought it was language; and while the Rationalists thought language could be fixed and altered to correspond to the logic governing the universe, the Modernists thought that language was not subject to the individual's control. Just as Darwin argued that the success or failure of the individual act or life had no effect upon the evolution of its species, except insofar as that act or life is the consequence of an accidental mutation affecting the individual's inheritable capacities correlated with accidental alterations in the species' environment, Saussure argued that the system of language that mediates speech, that determines or limits what an individual thinks, and that "in great part . . . makes the nation" (21) that speaks it, is completely "unassailable by the human will" and changes only by chance. Saussure's founding methodological premises are well known. He defines language (la langue) and speech (la parole) in terms of a difference between "the product passively registered by the individual" and "an individual act of the will and the intelligence" (14). This distinction allows him to establish language as an isolated, homogeneous object for a science distinct from those appropriate to studying speech. Language as the object of linguistics is a closed system of arbitrary signs, and signs are ''real objects" (15), unities of signifiers and signifieds whose identities are determined by their differences from one another within the closed system. His very definition of language therefore compels him to distinguish between synchronic linguistics (the study of a language at a particular moment in time) and diachronic linguistics (the study of historical changes in states of the system). Apparently, Saussure intended for these constitutional definitions to establish only a particular point of view, one that would not delegitimate the study of individual speech or motivated discourse but would assign to such studies entirely different methodologies. However, his claims that signs are real and not merely analytical abstractions and, more importantly, that the history of a language is conceptually and causally independent of the state of a language, led inevitably to "structuralism" and the belief in the abyss between desire and knowledge, motive and effect, that structuralistic thinking supposedly reveals. This "abyss," however, is less a revelation than a presupposition.
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That this is so can best be observed by revisiting Saussure's explanation of the difference between "static linguistics" and "evolutionary linguistics." In this section of his Course, as in several other places, Saussure draws an analogy between a language and a game of chess. The recurrence of this analogy leads me to believe that Saussure consciously modeled his theory on the game. Whether he did so or not, the analogy provides considerable insight to the limitations of the theory. Saussure offers three points of comparison between chess and language in order to illuminate his distinction between synchrony and diachrony. First, he says, "a state of a chessboard corresponds exactly to a state of the language. The value of the chess pieces depends on their position upon the chess board, just as in the language each term has its value through its contrast with all the other terms" (88). This correspondence tells us a number of things. For one, it reminds us that the capacity of a sign to substitute for an idea (see 114) is conditioned by the sign's comparative relationship to other signs in the system. Saussure, when explaining the difference between value and meaning, said that "the content of a word is determined in the final analysis not by what it contains [i.e., by "the concept or meaning for which it is a token"] but by what exists outside it. As an element in a system, the word has not only a meaning but also—above all—a value.'' And that value is "assessed against comparable values, by contrast with other words" (114). In the analogy with chess, then, the "meaning'' of a knight is "can move up two spaces and over one," while its value is the product of that capacity and its position on the board in relation to the other pieces, each with its own meaning and value. This correspondence also suggests that the board itself, its configuration and size, is not determined by the play even if the board's order determines the potential value of every piece on it. What in language corresponds to the board? "It is true," Saussure notes, "that the values also depend ultimately upon one invariable set of conventions, the rules of the game, which exist before the beginning of the game and remain in force after each move" (88). These rules, he says, correspond to "the unchanging principles of semiology." So the rules, no doubt, establish the board. Still, we have no idea what in language might correspond to it. But the only thing the board could correspond to in Saussure's system is reality, which, for his system to
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work, would have to be a fixed scheme, like the scheme of squares on the board. As Saussure says, though, "If words had the job of representing concepts fixed in advance, one would be able to find exact equivalents for them as between one language and another. But this is not the case" (114–15). Instead of "predetermined categories" or "ideas given in advance" are "values emanating from a linguistic system.'' Furthermore, ''If we say these values correspond to certain concepts, it must be understood that the concepts in question are purely differential. . . . What characterizes each most exactly is being whatever the others are not" (115). In other words, Saussure presupposes a reality that is formally fixed but blank; in itself it is meaningless, like the squares of a chess board, except when a linguistic game is being played upon it. What the squares "mean" is nothing; their value is determined by the pieces upon them, just as are the values of the pieces themselves. The board, then, is Saussure's metaphor for what I discussed in chapter 2 as the chora, the ground of discourse. It may be helpful to compare Saussure's notion of the ground as a fixed structure, a notion typical of philosophies of being, with a more historicized notion of ground typical of philosophies of becoming. Julia Kristeva, for instance, has argued that chora's "organization is subject to . . . an objective ordering [ordonnancement], which is dictated by natural or sociohistorical constraints such as the biological difference between the sexes or family structure" (26–27). In contrast, Saussure's theory clearly implies that changes in linguistic order have no effect upon social order as such, even if various "moves" may effectively revalue elements within the social order. Individuals remain in the grip of a system with no rational means of altering it. We may draw similar conclusions from Saussure's second and third points of comparison between chess and language. The second is that "the system is only ever a temporary one. It varies from one position to the next." The third is that "in order to pass from one stable position to another or, in our terminology, from one synchronic state to another, moving one piece is all that is needed" (88). The consequence of these characteristics is that changes in the linguistic order are necessarily irrational, senseless. Any one move "has a repercussion upon the whole system," but "it is impossible for the player to foresee ex
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actly where its consequences will end" (88). Prediction is impossible because there is an absolute break between diachrony and synchrony. "In a game of chess," as in linguistics, any given state of the board is totally independent of any previous state of the board. It does not matter at all whether the state in question has been reached by one sequence of moves or another sequence. Anyone who has followed the whole game has not the least advantage over a passerby who happens to look at the game at that particular moment. In order to describe the position on the board, it is quite useless to refer to what happened ten seconds ago. All this applies equally to a language. (88)
Although alterations in linguistic systems usually take place through "blind forces of change," even deliberate changes are necessarily irrational. As Saussure says, "If the game of chess were to be like the operations of a language in every respect, we would have to imagine a player who was either unaware of what he was doing or unintelligent" (89). Just as to Darwin the evolution of life is not going anywhere in particular, to Saussure the evolution of language is not going anywhere. Both the physical environment and the social order are beyond the individual's control; just as the survival value of an individual's genetic characteristics and the value of a sign's meaning are products of previous changes in the system, changes that will have taken place through "blind force" and that no one could have predicted. The net result is a view of discourse that implies that anyone who is surviving or making sense now has every reason to try to maintain the system exactly as it is and has no reason at all to try to change it. The Consequences of Linguistification Discourse about discourse has tended toward what I will call "linguistification"—toward more and more emphasis upon language as a medium of force between "mind" and ''reality,'' one of greater or lesser transparency, but always toward more formality, abstraction, and disconnection from historical process and individuals' situations and their desires. Linguistic discourse has been hardly valuefree, "objective," or descriptive; instead, the ideal of formal coherence has almost
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always been its goal. Once this goal has been articulated, the desire for linguistic standardization or purification has been the usual unfortunate consequence. Only in a few historic instances has the "substantiality" of the others' discourse been recognized at all. Even in these, however, recognition of the other has depended upon first subordinating the other's discourse to some authoritative standard: Erasmus's copia, although acknowledging a multiplicity of finite perspectives, relied not only upon a community of Latinity, but ultimately upon Papal authority to achieve final consensus; Vico, although fighting the substitution of Cartesianism for common sense, saw Cartesian logic not as being itself imbued with the temporality that prudence accounts for, but as being actually universal, although in need of being supplemented by common sense; and Humboldt, as pathbreaking as his view was of discourse as a struggle or labor of the individual desire and the particular instant against the petrified or crystallized remains of prior linguistic activity, he still saw true discourse as a struggle toward a new form of coherence and unity that required a cleansing of alien elements to achieve its destined perfection. The remaining theories of discourse, from Augustine through Saussure, tend to suppress completely the effects of individual speech acts, particular discursive situations, and others' opinions about speech. Therefore, linguistification tends to suppress, if not bury completely from view, the effects of power at work in discourse. Instead of a flow of discursive process, it presents a sequence of linguistic states; and instead of the effective word, it presents the arbitrary sign. As "language," discourse is set apart from reality, thus obscuring the way things are. Language is said to have a different ontological status from reality and to operate according to different sets of laws; accordingly, language is understood differently from the way we understand "reality as such." Moreover, linguistification implies that because languages are unified wholes, we have numerous, incommensurable languages. And it is not just that Swahili differs from French, but that poetic languages differ from scientific languages, and that both differ from ''ordinary" languages. Such languages are said to be "translatable'' into the others only insofar as they "refer" to the same thing in a world that is presumed to be unaffected by mere discourse. By the
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same logic, or rather by the same need to grasp "meaning" as sets of relations within integrated totalities, language itself is said to be split into incommensurable "levels," so that what can be said to be true at the level of phonetics cannot be said to be true at the level of syntax, and so on. Of course, such beliefs about language led to spectacular attempts to impose the syntax of the sentence upon wholes greater than the sentence (structuralism), attempts to reconcile the event of speech, which can be "deviant" and new, with the grammar of the language (Chomsky), and attempts (such as Ricoeur's) to locate and distinguish the levels of discourse that function according to different sets of rules than those of the sentence. All this breaking up of discourse, this cognitive shattering of the world, underwrites "alienation," the central "problem" of discourse. Ironically, alienation is a problem only to the processes of linguistification, a fact that is obscured by understanding discourse in terms of language. Because they defined the phenomena of discourse as "language" problems, whole generations of intellectuals ignored the rhetorical tradition with its emphasis upon concrete discursive situations, social constraints, choice, responsibility, and persuasive force. As late modernist and postmodernist writers began to tackle the problems that had been caused by linguistification, they did so within linguistic terminology, usually completely in ignorance of the rhetorical alternatives available to them. This forgetting of the tradition is especially evident in European scholarship. Chaim Perelman, for instance, could, upon visiting The Pennsylvania State University in the late 1960s, be genuinely surprised to find out that what he thought he had discovered had been the subject of debate for centuries. He could then go on in The New Rhetoric to reclaim this "lost" tradition. Other Europeans, however, seem to have never acknowledged rhetoric or seem to have had a very limited view of its issues. Mikail Bakhtin, J. L. Austin, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Stephen Toulmin, and many others who have battled against alienating dichotomies of modernism and who have sought to reclaim an understanding of discourse as situated events, apparently have done so completely without the benefit of knowing the work of their predecessors who had fought to prevent the splits from occurring in the first place.
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Of course, this neglect of the tradition is understandable since what was left to the discipline of rhetoric after Plato split it from philosophy, and after Ramus and then Bacon eliminated invention from its canon, was distributed after the Enlightenment into logic, literary criticism, anthropology, psychology, linguistics, etc. But removing a particular subject from the rhetorical field could not remove rhetoricity from the subject. Eventually, the twentieth century had to account for the discursive processes of all these disciplines. Sooner or later, they have all had to confront the fact that the saying is never innocent of what is being said, that appearance is a mode of reality. Regrettably, attempts to account for the effects of saying were made so not by resubordinating the disciplines to the study of what the Sophists had called logos but by importing linguistics into the various disciplines, on the assumption that linguistics explained scientifically how discourse worked. Richard Rorty's book The Linguistic Turn explains marvelously how this occurred in philosophy. Similar "turns" took place in the other "human sciences." Rorty has suggested that the "three hundred years' worth of attempts to bridge the gap which the Cartesian, representationalist picture of knowledge and inquiry led us to imagine existed" is coming to an end ("TwentyFive" 374). Would that it were so simple! Rorty's hopeful comment reveals just how deeply the picture he deplores still dominates even the best of us, for it suggests that that picture is just an illusion, an appearance, with no real effects, and so it can be simply dismissed and forgotten. But, as I have said several times in this book, even if belief in such a picture cannot produce the effects the belief would lead us to expect, it produces effects nevertheless. However unnecessarily or inappropriately, people do interpret and persuade through linguistic and cultural conceptual schemes. Given this, our interpretive and rhetorical strategies must take these beliefs and effects into account. We may say there are situations where it would be better if there were no linguistic effects in discourse. We may say linguistification and culturalization have produced situations we find undesirable, situations we would prefer to alter. If so, we may want to develop a study of discourse that has as its purpose delinguistification and deculturalization, one that produces alternative ways of interpreting and persuading to those who do rely
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upon ideas of "culture" or "language," when these are understood as "structured [media] of representation, capable of standing in determinate relations to a distinct entity called 'the world'" ("TwentyFive" 373–74). The next three chapters will examine a few of the alternative ways now available.
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5 The Dialogic Way In the 1993 issue of Profession, an organ of the Modern Language Association, a group of opinion essays called the Presidential Forum focused upon the topic of multiculturalism. If irony is the product of differing constellations of affecting conditions upon writers and readers, the title of Houston A. Baker Jr.'s, introduction to the Forum was decidedly ironic. It read: "Multiculturalism: The Task of Literary Representation in the TwentyFirst Century." For me, of course, the task for the next century will be to find for our discourse about discourse alternatives to the notion of representation, and the very idea of multiculturalism is one of the chief obstacles to completing that task. For Baker, quite the opposite is true. Multiculturalism, in his eyes, is a sign of hopeful, progressive change for the better: It is precisely a new sense of a full, diversifying, and everproliferating household on earth that has brought us to the sign of "multiculturalism." The sign has unfolded in the same critical and intellectual space that has witnessed the coming to fullness of such denominations as black studies, women's studies, Chicano and Chicana studies, and Asian American studies. Here, we might say — in these denominations — is the earth's plenty. And there can be no doubt that the old order has changed, yielding paradigmatically to the new. (5)
Rather than viewing these "denominations" as signs of discursive ghettoization or separatebutequal racism (as I would), he sees them, I'm sure, as great leaps beyond the nearly complete academic suppression of the texts these denominations would "represent." So for me the ironic distance may be reduced by my acknowledging that "representation" by class (in however perverse a sense) may have been an historically necessary precondition to our acknowledging the need for nonrepresentational interpretive practices. Furthering the irony of his title, however, is that each of the essays Baker introduces warns, in its own way, against unqualified, naive em
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ployment of the concept of multiculturalism. First, Henry Louis Gates Jr.'s, essay reminds us of the often ignored radical critiques of multiculturalism, such as that by E. San Juan Jr., who "harshly decries what he calls the 'cult of ethnicity and the fetish of pluralism'" (7), and that by Hazel Carby, who argues that multiculturalism "'excludes the concept of dominant and subordinate cultures'" because it ignores the "'antagonistic relations of domination and subordination'" inherent in the concept of culture itself (7). Gates then goes on to warn against the "danger of essentializing culture," especially ''when we blithely allow culture to substitute for race without affecting the basic circulation of the term" (7–8). Following Gates's essay, Susan Stewart's goes further, calling for us to abandon ''our current thematic, realist, and reifying agenda in cultural studies" ("The State" 15) and to move toward "a temporal and processual model of culture" (13). Finally, Sara Suleri's essay agrees with both Gates's and Stewart's insofar as they attempt to "break down" the current "reification of culture" and "turn multiculturalism into a process and a problem" (16). From each essay I get the sense that while multiculturalism was a proposed solution to a problem — the problem of the "marginalization" of people, their speech, and their behavior on account of the prior general perception of the existence and rightness, indeed the necessity, of unitary, organic cultural wholes — the solution has itself become recognized as a problem for which, at present, we have no clearly articulated solution. One reason for this lack of clear articulation, I believe, is that very few professional intellectuals, much less the general public, have been able to see multiculturalism not as a radically new, paradigmatic change in thinking, as Houston Baker seems to believe, but as the most recent transformation in a very old trend in discourse about discourse, the trend toward linguistification and culturalization I briefly sketched in the preceding chapters. Until this trend is recognized, it will be impossible to see that while, on the one hand, multiculturalism was bound to create as many problems as it could solve, on the other hand, multiculturalism was (and is) an agent of delinguistification and deculturalization — one that has made more obvious the inadequacy of our concepts of culture and language, the epistemology upon which they are based, and the rhetoric that they generate. I begin this chapter with a reference to the solution and problem of multiculturalism because I think most of my readers will acknowledge
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that people who believe in multiculturalism interpret and argue differently than people who do not. If so, they may accept my more general claim that what people believe about how discourse works actually affects their discursive behavior, and then my present claim — that developing a comprehensive, unified theory of discourse is impossible. It is impossible because, even if I could prove that there is no such thing as culture or language, people who believe in such things will speak and interpret on the presupposition that there are, so that if I were to deny that there are, then I would be forced to conclude that people who interpret themselves through the mediation of some preconceived language are interpreting themselves incorrectly. However, I could reach this conclusion only if I thought there were unconscious systems of language that mediate between ourselves and the world, thus contradicting myself. Almost paradoxically, because I believe that conceptions of culture and language are unnecessary to achieve communication, I have to believe that conceptions of culture and language have communicative effects nevertheless; therefore, I cannot devise a theory of discourse that could exclude incommensurable, competing theories of discourse. Moreover, in acknowledging that multiculturalism is both a solution and a problem, I am acknowledging more generally that discourse theories are appropriately intended to solve problems but, being theories, being discourse about discourse, according to the Protagorian Theorem their very enunciation alters what they purport to describe, thus creating further problems they cannot possibly foresee. No theory can overcome this dynamic. I am suggesting here that perhaps we should not want to overcome it, but instead see it to be our task to offer ways of identifying problems that result from culturalization and linguistification, ways of creating alternative patterns of persuasion and interpretation to those that have produced the problems we identify, and ways of anticipating the problems our own solutions will produce. What follows in this and the next two chapters are brief expositions of three such "ways": Valentin Volosinov's and Mikhail Bakhtin's dialogism, Donald Davidson's neopragmatism, and Michel Meyer's problematology. What they have in common is their attention to what I call "discourse" instead of to what for a century has been called ''linguistics." That is, each recognizes to a greater or lesser extent that "language'' is at most a virtual reality, or merely an abstraction, and that
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our attention should return to actual utterances — to the sounds, marks, and other gestures we make in anticipation of how others will respond to them. In addition, to a greater or lesser extent, each acknowledges the effective reality of utterances and so attempts to account for how utterances, simply by virtue of their being uttered, alter the situation to which they are a response. Finally, again to a greater or lesser extent, each has recognized that believing in mediative languages and cultures produces social and intellectual paradoxes of various kinds; that is, they have responded to problems that they have identified as being the result of what I have called linguistification. I should note before I begin, however, that because these writers have recognized these issues to a greater or lesser extent, in turn, to a greater or lesser extent, I have, to use Bakhtin's term, "actively responded" to their words, sometimes focussing more intently on what they may have meant or ought to have meant rather than upon what scholars have taken them to have meant or even upon what the writers themselves obviously meant. To put it another way, to a greater or lesser extent I have shamelessly used their words to further my own inquiries, solve my own problems. I believe that no one who actually understands their work could guiltlessly do otherwise. Dialogism: Volosinov's and Bakhtin Volosinov's and Bakhtin's dialogism can be seen to be seen to be attacking the 1 They, like Humboldt, describe speech as a mode of labor. In contrast to Humboldt, through their Marxist perspective they see speech not as a struggle of the individual's expression against entrenched linguistic convention but as the struggle of class interests against one another. By defining the task of discourse analysis as the typology of "utterances" — the response of speakers to others in anticipation of others' responses — Volosinov's and Bakhtin tie types of utterances, or "speech genres," to "certain spheres of human activity and communication'' (Bakhtin, Speech 60), and of course such spheres are endemic to specific classes in economically stratified societies. Thus, although they describe "language meaning'' in virtually the same way as Saussure, to them speech is more than a conveyance of meaning — it is always a response in anticipation of a response to meaning. It is always unique and unrepeatable.
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I hope to show in the next few pages that, on the one hand, because of the residual foundationalism within Volosinov's and Bakhtin's Marxist epistemology, it is perfectly understandable that promoters of a reifying multiculturalism have appropriated dialogism for their use. On the other hand, dialogism's conception of "active understanding" is highly pragmatic and tends to undermine not only the elements of cultural relativism and perspectival pluralism that have served the ends of multiculturalism, but also the entire Marxist project of ideological critique. 2 More important than any of this, however, is dialogism's exploration of what I have called "power" and its initial inquiry into the significance of what we believe and say about what others believe and say about discourse. In the previous chapter I quoted at length from Volosinov's contrast between individualistic subjectivism, represented by Humboldt, and abstract subjectivism, represented by Saussure. As he summarizes their difference, "If, for the first trend, language is an everflowing stream of speech acts in which nothing remains fixed and identical to itself, then, for the second trend, language is the stationary rainbow arched over that stream (Volosinov 52). Volosinov explicitly posits dialogism as a synthesis of these antithetical trends in discourse theory. As a result, he criticizes abstract objectivism for rejecting the speech act as something wholly individual and for taking the language system to be "the entire crux of linguistic phenomena" (82). At the same time, he criticizes individualistic subjectivism for taking the speech act to be purely individual, yet the entirety of linguistic reality, and then setting out to explain speech in terms of the speaker's psyche or psychophysiological conditions. He denies the existence of neither expression nor language, but he ameliorates their untenable opposition by redefining in a more sociohistorically aware manner the key elements of each theory. He then relates them to one another dialectically. He achieves this amelioration by positing, on the one side, the theme of the utterance, and on the other the meaning of the sentence. The utterance, of which the fundamental element is the word, is fully determined by "the immediate social situation and the broader social milieu" (85). It exists only in dialogue, as a response to and in anticipation of a response from some other speaker. Thus, its unity is marked, not by grammatical structure, but temporally, by the start and
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stop of actual speech (97). The theme of the utterance is a property of this unified, but always unique, totality. Accordingly, it is historically unreproducible. In contrast, the meaning of the sentence, of which the fundamental element is the sign, is "reproducible and selfidentical in all instances of repetition." As such, "Meaning, in essence, means nothing; it only possesses potentiality—the possibility of having a meaning within a concrete theme" (101). In other words, the signs and syntax of linguistics are a virtual toolbox for the generation of the concrete utterance, or, as Volosinov puts it, "Meaning is the technical apparatus for the implementation of theme" (100). We need to look more closely at Volosinov's concepts of word and sign. First, the sign he understands entirely as an implement of representation: "it represents, depicts, or stands for something lying outside itself" (9). It is both "a part of reality (natural or social), just as is any physical body, any instrument of production, or any product of consumption" and yet, unlike these, it "reflects and refracts another reality" outside itself (9). Apparently, anything can be a sign, but things that are signs exist in "a special world'' apart from things that are not signs (10). Because of this difference, signs are to be understood semiotically, differently from the rest of the world's phenomena. "The understanding of the sign is . . .," he says, ''an act of reference between the sign apprehended and the other, already known signs; in other words, understanding is a response to a sign with signs" (11). Already we encounter some difficult conceptual problems. Most significant is the implied dichotomy between nature and culture, a dichotomy he makes explicit in a footnote where he says, "Society, of course, is also a part of nature, but a part that is qualitatively separate and distinct and possesses its own specific systems of laws" (12n). Since natural laws are by definition laws that cannot be broken, Volosinov must mean that social laws, which can be broken, are contingent rules necessarily subordinate to natural laws: it is impossible to think of a culture breaking natural laws. Therefore, cultural laws must be equally natural in the same way that differing biological species are differently natural. How is it possible, then, for signs to be both a part of reality, natural or social, and exist in a "special world" according to special laws? How is it possible? is perhaps the wrong question. Why is it desir
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able? is more to the point. As Volosinov insists, "The domain of ideology coincides with the domain of signs. They equate with one another. Wherever a sign is present, ideology is present, too" (10). Unless the sign operates differently from reality as such, there can be no ideological critique. Because "a sign does not simply exist as a part of a reality . . . it may distort that reality or be true to it" (10). The nature/culture dichotomy is a necessary presupposition to ideological critique. The assertion that signs represent reality and may do so distortingly is essential to Marxism in particular, for to Marxists the problem to be solved is precisely the then prevailing belief that consciousness determines life, rather than the other way around, a belief that justifies any current material conditions of life. Thus Volosinov insists: The reality of ideological phenomena is the objective reality of social signs. The laws of this reality are the laws of semiotic communication and are directly determined by the total aggregate of social and economic laws. Ideological reality is the immediate superstructure over the economic basis. (13)
By positing the unity of semiotics with ideology and their determination by the economy, Volosinov can claim that the linguistic tools one has to hand directly reflect not the structure of one's consciousness but one's position within the economy. Indeed, "consciousness itself can arise and become a viable fact only in the material embodiment of signs" (14). So Volosinov redefines Saussure's idealist version of langue as a semiotic system and situates it in socioeconomic reality, thus creating one pole of his materialist dialectic of discourse. To produce the other pole of that dialectic, the utterance and its fundamental unit, the word, Volosinov transforms the concept of verbal expression into one of "verbal interaction." Rejecting the presupposition that "the expressible is something that can somehow take shape and exist apart from expression; that it exists first in one form and then switches to another form" (84), he offers instead the claim that ''there is no such thing as experience outside of embodiment in signs" (85). This embodiment, this generation of the word, "is determined by the actual conditions of the given utterance—above all by its immediate social situation'' (85). First among these conditions is that a word, to be a word, must be oriented toward an addressee, present or absent, real or representative
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of some group. It is social from the start. The meaning of a word is not to be understood in terms of its place in a sentence, but within an utterance (which is defined by the limits of a response to and an anticipation of a response from others) and with respect to the utterance's theme. Theme is not representational at all; rather, it is pragmatic. It is a response to a prior utterance intending to elicit a response, to do something. That is why, to Volosinov, understanding is never a passive decoding of a message: "Any genuine kind of understanding will be active and will constitute the germ of a response" (102). That which is spoken in anticipation of a response must be heard responsively. In his now highly influential essay "Discourse in the Novel," Bakhtin elaborates the difference between active and passive understanding, noting that if the speaker's understanding were purely passive it could never go "beyond the boundaries of the word's context" as the speaker presupposes that context. A speaker anticipating a passive listener could never introduce anything new into his or her discourse, for the speaker could anticipate "only negative demands . . . (for instance, a need for greater clarity, more persuasiveness, more vividness and so forth).'' Speaking toward only such demands, suggests Bakhtin, would "leave the speaker in his own personal context, within his own boundaries'' (Dialogic 281). In other words, the concept of passive understanding required by abstract linguistics is incapable of explaining discursive change. At this point, we must ask an important question of Bakhtin's work. Dialogism explains the utterance by converting a theory of expression into one of verbal interaction. It defines the utterance in terms of response, in terms of active understanding. But is this understanding any more than the anticipation of the audience's reaction that nearly every traditional theory of rhetoric emphasizes? Our suspicions are raised to this possibility because of something Bakhtin himself says: "All rhetorical forms, monologic in their compositional structure, are oriented toward the listener and his answer. This orientation toward the listener is usually considered the basic constitutive feature of rhetorical discourse" (280). This is true, and we would expect Bakhtin to distinguish his version from traditional rhetoric's version of audience accommodation. Surprisingly, he does not, but claims instead that be
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sides persuasive rhetoric "every other sort of discourse as well is oriented toward an understanding that is 'responsive'" (280). If all dialogism does is account for audience accommodation, it can be little more than the old rhetoric in new clothes. It must still retain the old Platonic opposition between reality and appearance, between what is and the representation of what is. As a consequence, it must not be able to escape the agonism of the old rhetoric because it cannot produce real change at all, only sequences of substitutions. And since, as Susan Stewart has said, Bakhtin's "primary concern is not so much with how things work as with how they change" ("Shouts" 269), we may have to consider his project a failure. In order to answer these doubts, we need to take a closer look at what Bakhtin calls the generation of the living word. If the word is part of an utterance bounded by the dialogic boundaries of response and anticipation of response, as Bakhtin claims, then the word itself is internally dialogical, and this dialogism cannot be separated from the word's ability to "form a concept of its object" (Dialogic 279). The nature of this "object" of discourse concerns me. Bakhtin seems to hold onto the Kantian notion of the Ding an sich, the thinginitself, existing prior to and independently of all discourse about it even if it appears only within discourse, for he uses this notion to distinguish between poetry and prose. In poetry, he says, "The word plunges into the inexhaustible wealth and contradictory multiplicity of the object itself, with its 'virginal,' still 'unuttered' nature; therefore it presumes nothing beyond the borders of its own context (except, of course, what can be found in the treasurehouse of language itself)." In prose, however, ''instead of the virginal fullness and inexhaustibility of the object itself, . . . on all its various routes toward the object, in all its directions, the word encounters an alien word and cannot help encountering it in a living, tensionfilled interaction" (Critique 278–79). From these quotations, I get the sense that Bakhtin would not subscribe to the Protagorian Theorem, to the claim that discourse neither describes nor constitutes but is of reality. Instead of distinguishing between "reality"—understood as the way things would be if no one spoke about them—and "the way things are" because people have spoken about them, he seems here to maintain the Platonic opposition between reality and appearance. If so, Bakhtin would be repeating the
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traditional rhetorical view that one's speech must "take account of" or "adjust to" what has been said about an object, so that "interaction" with these previous sayings would necessarily take the form either of negotiating a place among them, or of conflicting with them. This would be the word as perspective, a wordbee jockeying about the flower of its desire among other bees. Other things Bakhtin says, however, make one wonder if perspectivism is indeed what he intends. For instance, he says that "the word is born in a dialogue as a living rejoinder within it; the word is shaped in dialogic interaction with an alien word that is already in the object. A word forms a concept of its own object in a dialogic way" (279). Here dialogism seems to mean something quite different from pluralistic perspectivism. The alien word is in the object, is part of it, and supposedly has changed it from what it was. The new word (apparently an old sign) has its own object, not just a different tack on an old one. Moreover, we have to think of "object" in a different way, this time not as a Ding an sich, but as an "aim for saying." In this case to say that a word ''has its own object" means not that it refers to "a specific bit of reality" but that it has ''a special task only it can perform." Interaction like this might be compared to a chemical reaction, in which the meeting of word with alien word creates a new word altogether. What Bakhtin means by interaction becomes clearer when he describes the second of the utterance's two boundaries, "the answering word" that the utterance anticipates. Here he defines the first pole as the speaker's assimilation of "the word under consideration" into the speaker's own "conceptual system" and the second as "an orientation toward" the listener's "specific conceptual horizon": The speaker strives to get a reading on his own word, and on his own conceptual system that determines this word, within the alien conceptual system of the understanding receiver; he enters into dialogical relationships with certain aspects of this system. The speaker breaks through the alien conceptual horizon of the listener, constructs his own utterance on alien territory, against his, the listener's, apperceptive background. (282)
Such definitions certainly seem to rely upon the old model of abstract objectivism that Volosinov criticized. Change seems to be induced by inserting "new elements" into some "system," thus altering the system so that relations among the elements will thereby be different.
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However, despite his use of a conceptual scheme model of language, Bakhtin may have produced a very different model of communication from Saussure's abstract objectivism: Instead of saying that interlocutors must assume that they share the same language before communication can occur, he may be saying they must recognize their linguistic/ideological difference—they must anticipate that the same sign is not the same word—before communication can occur. Such an interpretation of Bakhtin seems justifiable in the light of some later pronouncements, as for instance when he says, "Semiotics deals primarily with the transmission of readymade communication using a readymade code. But in live speech, strictly speaking, communication is first created in the process of transmission and there is, in essence, no code" (Speech 147). If we accept this latter interpretation and assert that dialogism views "language" as a product of, rather than a prerequisite for, communication, then we can go on to assert that for such communication, or active understanding, to occur, interlocutors must view codes (systems, languages, etc.) as merely virtual realities which they project upon the other and presume the other projects upon them, but which, in the give and take of intercourse, are provisionally effective nevertheless. In other words, the use of language, rather than being an essential attribute of a speaking or listening subject, is necessarily attributed to such a subject by another such subject. If so, then the appropriate response to any response will never be its rejection as an error or its condemnation as a lie, since the only grounds from which such judgments could be made are the standards of a language—from a conceptual system projected by the listener, not the speaker. The interpretation I am forwarding therefore seems confirmed, especially by later texts, as when Bakhtin declares, "Even a word that is known to be false is not absolutely false, and always presupposes an instance that will understand and justify it, even if in the form: 'anyone in my position would have lied, too'" (Speech 127). Presumably, active understanding will move toward finding that position; passive understanding will not. So, apparently, Bakhtin's version of active understanding contradicts Volosinov's claim that signs exist in a "special world" and are to be understood by different processes from those with which we under
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stand the rest of the world. If so, Marxist ideological critique, which requires the presumption of a nondiscursive reality against which to measure discourse, is out the window. Bakhtin clearly still identifies the semiotic with the ideological, but perhaps he no longer sees signs and beliefs as reflections or representations of material reality that might "distort that reality or be true to it" (Bizzell and Herzberg 929). Instead, perhaps, he is beginning to view discourse less as the representation of reality and the expression of ideas and more as a direct, not mediate, exertion of force and power. This brings us to another difficulty in reading Bakhtin's work. As Graham Pechey has put the question, "How can dialogism be both a natural state of language and the liberating practice that Bakhtin often claims it to be?" (49) Sometimes Bakhtin writes as if dialogism describes the way people actually communicate, and sometimes he writes as if it describes how they should communicate. He distinguishes between passive and active understanding, but are these descriptions of two ways that people understand, or a false and a true description of the way people understand? To put my question another way, does Bakhtin believe that what we believe about how discourse works partially determines how our discourse actually works, or does he believe that our discourse will work as it will, no matter what we believe about its workings? If we attribute the latter belief to Bakhtin, then it again becomes very difficult to understand how his explanation of the word's orientation toward the "already uttered" or its anticipation of the "answering word" can be anything other than the old rhetoricians' accommodation to audience. More importantly, if he believes the latter he contradicts the aim of the entire dialogic project—its struggle against linguistic imperialism, or, as Susan Stewart puts it, its struggle to articulate "the powerful force of the silenced in language use'' ("Shouts" 270). That Bakhtin must accept the premise that belief about discourse affects discourse becomes most clear when we examine his discussion of the "actualizing forces" of historical discursive change. Bakhtin refers to these as centripetal and centrifugal forces. Centripetal forces are those enacting the processes of the centralization, the unification, and the homogenization of language usage. Centrifugal forces are those enacting the processes of decentralization, of disunification. According to Bakhtin, "Every concrete utterance of a speaking subject
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serves as a point where centrifugal and centripetal forces are brought to bear" (Dialogic 272). Now, where Bakhtin discusses these forces in his essay "Discourse in the Novel," his main point seems to be that the "linguistics, stylistics and the philosophy of language that were born and shaped by the current of centralizing tendencies have ignored . . . dialogized heteroglossia, in which is embodied the centrifugal forces in the life of language" (Dialogic 273). That is, he emphasizes not that these theories have reduced centrifugal force or enhanced centripetal force, but that such theories have merely suppressed our awareness of the presence of heteroglossia. If this is so, then when Bakhtin says, for instance, that "the utterance not only answers the requirements of its own language as an individualized embodiment of a speech act, but it answers the requirements of heteroglossia as well" (272), we have to conclude that Bakhtin's dialogism is little more than another version of rhetorical audience accommodation. Yet this may not be what Bakhtin means at all. He does say that "unitary language constitutes the theoretical expression of the historical processes of linguistic unification and centralization," as if the theory were one thing and the real process another. He also says that "a unitary language is not something given [dan] but is always in essence posited [zadan]— and at every moment of its linguistic life it is opposed to the realities of heteroglossia," as if unitary language were a figment of the imagination while only heteroglossia were truly real. But the very next sentence pulls us up. Unitary language, he says, this theoretical expression, this somethingnot givenbutonlyposited, makes its real presence felt as a force for overcoming this heteroglossia, imposing specific limits to it, guaranteeing a certain maximum of mutual understanding and crystallizing into a real, although still relative, unity—the unity of the reigning conversational (everyday) and literary language, "correct language." (270)
Such passages suggest that for Bakhtin what people believe about discourse, when they believe it is unified and coherent, does affect the way discourse works. Unsurprisingly, he goes on to claim that an ongoing trend toward centralization and unification has been occurring for centuries in discourse theory, and, because of people's belief in theory, it has been occurring in fact (271). This trend—toward what I have
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called "linguistification"—would not be a problem if it were merely "academic," that is, if what people believed about discourse did not affect their discourse. Moreover, on the other side of Bakhtin's dichotomy of historical discursive forces, the centrifugal side, we see much the same thing. Because Bakhtin believes that semiology is identical with ideology, languages are always the languages of social groups, so that for every organized activity, for everything that people do together, there is a separate language they speak together. He speaks of the "language of the lawyer, the doctor, the politician, the public education teacher" (289), of different languages for different "circles, journals, particular newspapers" (290); he says that "each generation at each social level has its own language" and that "every age group has its own language" (290); he mentions "languages of various epochs and periods of socioideological life'' (291), and so on. Not surprisingly, then, we find him claiming the following: Actual social life and historical becoming create within an abstractly unitary national language a multitude of concrete worlds, a multitude of bounded verbalideological and social belief systems; within these various systems (identical in the abstract) are elements of language filled with various semantic and axiological content and each with its own different sound. (288)
Statements like this one have often been made to serve the cause of multiculturalism and have led many scholars to draw parallels between Bakhtin's dialogism and Whorf's relativity hypothesis, with its insistence upon the incommensurability of languages and cultures. An enormous difference lies between the two, however. Far from viewing these languages as being incommensurable and far from claiming that both a language and the world it constitutes are understandable only from within, Bakhtin, quite to the contrary, says that "languages do not exclude each other, but rather intersect with each other in many different ways" (291). I would go farther to say that in order for Bakhtin's dialogism to become consistent, it has to claim that languages never exist "really" but only virtually within the process of speakers seeking the relevant differences of intention in the use of the same signs. In fact, Bakhtin himself suggests that "it might even seem that the very word 'language' loses all meaning in this process—for apparently there is no single plane on which these 'languages' might
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be juxtaposed to one another" (291). With this I would heartily agree, even though Bakhtin himself apparently does not. For he replies that "in actual fact . . . there does exist a common plane that methodologically justifies our juxtaposing" these languages. All languages, he says, "are specific points of view on the world, forms for conceptualizing the world in words, specific world views, each characterized by its own objects, meanings, and values" (291–92). This last statement appears to be a retreat from his earlier suggestion of cultural relativism back to a perspectival pluralism. But it can be read another way. For his salient point is neither that different languages constitute different worlds nor that different perspectives on the same world create incommensurable statements about that world. Rather, his point is that because "languages" share this common plane they "all may be juxtaposed to one another, mutually supplement one another, contradict one another" (292). The difference between the languages of the French baker and the French mechanic discussing politics and the difference between the languages of the English baker and the French mechanic discussing politics, are differences of degree, not differences of kind. All their languages can run together, one might say, like liquids of differing viscosities from different sources. This happens not simply at the margins in creolization. This happens within the consciousness of every person. We are all multilingual to an extreme, for these various languages "coexist in the consciousness of real people" (292). Every time we speak "consciousness finds itself inevitably facing the necessity of having to choose a language" (295). Moreover, every word in every language, including the languages of our national language, is at first an alien, foreign word that "becomes 'one's own' only when the speaker populates it with his own intention, his own accent . . ." (293). Within heteroglossia, there is no hierarchy of ''correctness," and certainly no incommensurability. Moreover, there can be no incommensurability between the centripetal tendencies of linguistification and the centrifugal tendencies of heteroglossia. 3 They are not a mutually exclusive, but a dialectically related opposition. They cannot be mutually exclusive because the appropriation of the alien word is always with respect to the speaker's evaluation of the listener's attitude toward the speaker's own intention (293). This is so even for speakers of heteroglossia, despite, as we saw earlier, Bakhtin's tendency to denominate heteroglossia as being fully
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"real," as something "given," as opposed to the "posited" status of unitary language. The equally posited status of heteroglossia becomes evident when we examine how Bakhtin opposes it to poetry. He says, At the time when poetry was accomplishing the task of cultural, national and political centralization of the verbalideological world in the higher official socioideological levels, on the lower levels, on the stages of local fairs and at buffoon spectacles, the heteroglossia of the clown sounded forth, ridiculing all "languages" and dialects; there developed the literature of the fabliaux and Schwanke of street songs, folksayings, anecdotes, where there was no language center at all, where there was to be found a lively play with the "languages" of poets, scholars, monks, knights and others, where all "languages" were masks and where no language could claim to be an authentic, uncontestable face. (273)
The important thing about this oftenquoted passage is not so much its reference to a multiplicity of languages as its insistence that these languages are not deviations from a standard language. Instead, they are "consciously opposed to this literary language," a language that (the speakers of the heteroglossic languages presume) presumes itself to be standard. "These languages," he emphasizes, "were aimed sharply and polemically against the official languages of its given time" (273). Such aims reveal that all speech is discourse determined by the speaker's beliefs about what discourse does and by the speaker's sense of the difference it makes to believe one thing about discourse and not another. Heteroglossic "languages," with their tendency to pull speech acts centrifugally away from centralized, unitary language use, hardly represent some bedrock linguistic reality but have the same virtual effectiveness as "standard" languages. To return briefly to my vocabulary in an earlier chapter, for Bakhtin, discursive grounds are made or posited, not discovered or given. I have to conclude, then, that dialogism is more than just another rhetoric that takes into account the tactics of audience accommodation. Volosinov and Bakhtin do, unfortunately, assume that there must be some material, "real" foundation from which to launch an ideological critique, an assumption that blinds them to the arbitrariness of the nature/culture binomial opposition undergirding their positing of a
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"special world" of semiology with its unique laws demanding a unique epistemology and a correspondingly unique methodology. This unfortunate assumption leads them to include within their description of dialogism a number of residual foundational views that appear to support either cultural relativism or perspectival pluralism. If I were to continue this exploration of dialogism, we could see that such views persist into Bakhtin's works such as "The Problem of Speech Genres" and "The Problem of the Text," which, like Volosinov's Marxism and the Philosophy of Language and Bakhtin's "Discourse in the Novel," continually vacillate between compositional models of meaning transmission and more pragmatic models of processual interaction. As I hope I have shown, however, the pragmatic models certainly undermine the compositional. First Bakhtin, in particular, fragments the concept of "language" to the extent that we find every differing common activity producing a different language, so that each of us must regard the other as multilingual to the extreme. Second, despite his use of terms like "national languages" and "conceptual systems," Bakhtin does not say active understanding requires interlocutors to share the same "system" or presume that their discursive partners use the same words in the same way they themselves do; instead, it requires them to presume that they do not share the same language, even, or especially, when they employ the same sets of material signs. Thus, for dialogism, languages and cultures are anything but incommensurable—languages and cultures exist only virtually as the projections of always already projected languages and cultures. To the extent that there are languages and cultures, they are, Bakhtin said in an interview with Novy Mir, not "closed circles" as Spengler described them, but "open unities" (Speech 6). I would go further: Dialogism requires us to regard even the open unity we attribute to others' languages and cultures as entirely virtual ones, the products of our own discursive processes. If so, then the relationships between our discourse and the discourse of others may not be what it at first sight seems, particularly as these relationships function within our discourse about the discourse of others. In "Discourse in the Novel," Bakhtin says, The topic of a speaking person has enormous importance in everyday life. In real life we hear speech about speakers and their discourse at every step. We can go so far as to say that in real life people talk most
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Especially in view of Bakhtin's observation that every word is at first an alien word, all this rearticulation of alien discourse, simultaneously assimilated from and attributed to others, can be seen as a continual sorting out of that which can (or will, or must) be understood passively from that which can (or will, or must) be understood actively. This distinction between active and passive understanding seems to be the basis for Bakhtin's distinction between the two kinds of discourse that result from our assimilation of others' discourse—"authoritative discourse" and "internally persuasive discourse"—which, as usual, Bakhtin sees as being in the struggle of a dialogical relationship. 4 The question here is, Does our attitude toward discourse determine how we understand it? "Authoritative discourse," as one might expect, does not seek to elicit "a free appropriation and assimilation" from us but "demands our unconditional allegiance" (343). It "permits no play with the context framing it, no play with its borders, no gradual and flexible transitions." Moreover, ''one must totally affirm it, or totally reject it. It is indissolubly fused with its authority—with political power, an institution, a person—and it stands or falls with that authority. One cannot divide it up—agree with one part, accept but not completely another part, reject utterly a third part" (343). Opposed to authoritative discourse is ''internally persuasive discourse," which is not at all repressive but associated with "creativity and productivity." The internally persuasive word "awakens new and independent words. . . . It is not so much interpreted by us as it is further, that is, freely, developed, applied to new material, new conditions; it enters into interanimating relationships with new contexts" (345–46). The questions we now must ask are, first, why should we assimilate some discourse as authoritative and some as internally persuasive; and, second, where does the difference lie—in the form, in the content, where? Bakhtin does not answer these questions directly. However, I think we can answer the second question by saying that the difference between authoritative and internally persuasive dis
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course lies in neither the language's form nor in its content—in nothing inherent in the language at all. Bakhtin offers a clue here: The degree to which a word may be conjoined with authority—whether the authority is recognized by us or not—is what determines its demarcation and individuation in discourse; it requires a distance visavis itself (this distance may be valorized as positive or negative, just as our attitude toward it may be sympathetic or hostile). (343)
In other words, for discourse to have the characteristics of authoritative discourse, it need not be authoritative for us. Nothing in or of the discourse itself is, necessarily, persuasive. The authoritative word is, Bakhtin says, "quite independent of any power it might have to persuade us internally" (342). That is why the difference between authoritative and internally persuasive discourse can lie only in its source, or, rather, in our own attribution of the discourse to a source. We may attribute discourse to a specific person, a group, an institution, a deity, or even to what Heidegger called "them" (das Man); yet again, there is nothing intrinsically authoritative or nonauthoritative about any of these possible sources. The answer to the first question has to be, then, that we assimilate some discourse as authoritative, either accepting it fully or rejecting it fully, because we assume that others take it to be authoritative, and only for this reason. Discursive power, in other words, creates authority; it does not derive from authority. As Bakhtin says of internally persuasive discourse, "What is constitutive for it is a special conception of listeners, readers, perceivers" (Dialogic 346). The same must be true of authoritative discourse. "Every discourse," in fact, "presupposes a special conception of the listener, of his apperceptive background and the degree of his responsiveness; it presupposes a specific distance'' (346). On this perception of distance everything hinges. Every time we speak or write, the question facing us is whether our listeners or readers (or we ourselves) are able or willing to engage in dialogic discourse. Will our listener want us or allow us to "play" with or actively interpret his or her discourse? If we do not believe our listener can or will, we simply do not attempt to go beyond passive understanding, beyond "getting it right" on the basis of some conceptual scheme we attribute
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in advance to our listener. Clearly, for anyone who believes in real class differences, real cultural differences, real generational differences, and so forth, active understanding between classes, cultures, or generations becomes impossible. I should now ask the question William James suggests we ask about all our distinctions: "What difference would it practically make to any one if this notion rather than that notion were true?" (The Writings 376). The first notion in question here is whether dialogism rests upon a foundational distinction between nature and society—a distinction between the real world and the world of signs such that signs can "distort" what they represent. If so, then we can say that there are ideologies and languages, systems of ideas that are systems of signs, and that these systems derive from particular material conditions and ways of life and appropriately correspond to those ways, such that an "external" language derived from different conditions would necessarily distort, if not entirely suppress, their reality. The second notion in question, contrary to the first, is whether (an admittedly revised) dialogism can avoid the nature/culture dichotomy, drop the claim that reality is one thing and discourse is another, admit that one set of discursive habits and ways of life will be altered by prolonged interchange with another, but deny that either "distorts" the other although both will alter to accommodate the new conditions their interchange creates. The difference between these two notions is that attempts to communicate between "alien" peoples who hold to the first notion will be selfdefeating, since for them understanding requires preserving the integrity of the other's "language" and "culture'' while an understanding of their own aims and purposes remains tied to a language and culture of their own. If this notion were true, then should communication be achieved it would have to be because, at bottom, at some deep level difficult to perceive, all human language or all human experience were the same in some essential way. But not only does that presupposition work against the very motive to communicate, it assumes the possibility of discovering a language that everyone, no matter where, when, or how they live, could find satisfying. This assumption, of course, is precisely the one generating the motive to impose standard
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languages, to establish the linguistic imperialism that dialogism was invented to combat in the first place. In stark contrast to the first, the second notion insists that communication is to be achieved neither by preserving the integrity of the language/world relationships of both interlocutors, nor by seeking a common ground between them in the deep structures of a universal language or in the essential realities of the world. This notion erases the commensurability/incommensurability dichotomy altogether. There is neither an antecedent languageasawhole nor an antecedent worldasawhole, even if there is a rhetorical tendency—what Bakhtin calls centripetalization—toward unifying or standardizing our ways of saying and doing. At the same time, there is neither an intrinsic meaning for any word nor an "in itself" for any thing, even if there is another rhetorical tendency—what Bakhtin calls centrifugalization—toward differentiating local and particular ways of saying and doing from all others. According to this notion, then, communication between "alien" interlocutors is to be achieved only by their both acting together, speaking and doing new things, creating new habits for new purposes that would not have been perceivable (or have needed to have been perceived) were it not for the convergence of and consequent conflict between their old ways. The primary practical difference between these two notions of dialogism, then, is that believers of the second, antifoundational version will give up attempts to accommodate their audiences, find common ground, or preserve their own or other's traditions when they find themselves in conflict with apparently incommensurable languages, beliefs, or habits. Why? Because the very persistence of the conflict signals the inadequacy of both sides to the situation their conflict creates. It signals that new terms are needed while others need to be forsworn, and that old intuitions and desires need to be suppressed while new ones are satisfied—if, that is, one wants the conflict resolved without resorting to the exercise of actual force.
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6 The Pragmatic Way The notion that persisting conflict signals a need to drop old terms, habits, purposes, and beliefs and then to replace them with new ones is reminiscent of John Dewey's 1910 declaration that "intellectual progress usually occurs through sheer abandonment of questions together with both of the alternatives they assume. . . . We do not solve them: we get over them" (41). Dewey's recommendation that we "get over" the ancient ''conception of eidos, species, a fixed form and final cause" (34) in favor of the ''new logic" based upon "the principle of transition" (35) is at one with my recommendation that we get over the idea that determinate languages and cultures exist and replace it with a dynamic notion of discourse. His recommendation likewise coheres with Donald Davidson's suggestion that we give up on "the very idea of conceptual schemes" and the notions of language that rely upon them in order to replace those old notions with a new way of understanding discourse as continuallybeingrevised hypotheses—or what he calls "passing theories"—and the radical interpretation that transitive discourse demands ("Nice" 442). However, despite Richard Rorty's insistence that Davidson's alternative is a continuation of the pragmatic tradition, Davidson has been reluctant to accept the title of rightful heir to Charles Peirce, William James, and John Dewey. Before entering a detailed discussion of radical interpretation, therefore, it may be useful to sketch briefly some of the pragmatic tenets most relevant to Davidson's view of language. The Pragmatic Heritage Of these tenets perhaps the most relevant to radical interpretation, and to the pragmatic tradition as a whole, is Peirce's distinction between doubt and belief. In "The Fixation of Belief" he says that doubt "is an uneasy and dissatisfied state from which we struggle to free ourselves
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and pass into the state of belief." Belief, in contrast, "is a calm and satisfactory state which we do not wish to avoid, or to change to a belief in anything else" (99). Doubt, an irritation to a state of satisfaction, initiates a struggle, which Peirce calls inquiry, that does not cease until a satisfying belief is established. Once that satisfaction results in the formation of a habit of action, it will remain undisturbed until some exterior irritant initiates another struggle. James will formulate this tenet only slightly differently when he says, "Thought in movement has . . . for its only possible motive the attainment of thought at rest" (The Writings 348). Both Peirce's and James's formulation differ only terminologically from my own claim in the first chapter of this book that ''the aim of all speech is silence," and its corollary that the perceptions of "differences . . . enables and motivates communication." (I can justify claiming the heritage of Peirce and James on this point simply because, for them and subsequent pragmatists, thought, and therefore belief, can take place only semiotically [in the Peircean sense]). Furthermore, because the chief source of doubt is the opinions of others, "the problem becomes how to fix belief, not in the individual merely, but in the community'' (Peirce 103), and thus thought is not merely semiotic but discursive. The importance of locating the motive for inquiry in doubt (or the motive for discourse in difference, in the disparity between expectation and response) is this: doubt (or difference) can be assuaged in many ways. In chapter 1, I suggested that discourse studies always recognizes that it is not the usual sameness of human nature, or of living environments, or of economic pressures, or of linguistic codes and conventions, but the occasional differences in conditions such as these that enable and motivate communication. I also suggested two basic ways discourse can respond to the perception of differences that disturb our lives' regular patterns of thought, speech, and behavior. One way, which I described as the rhetorical/philosophical way, is to silence the articulation of disturbing difference through discursive or actual force. The other way is to posit continual change as the norm, so that difference is sought rather than suppressed, incorporated into present rhythms and forms, rather than merely accepted or rejected by the logic of inside and outside. In this way of assuaging doubt or resolving differences, I suggested, the perception of the whole within which
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events make sense necessarily succeeds, rather than antecedes, the events themselves. Peirce himself describes four ways doubt can be assuaged, which he calls the methods of tenacity, the methods of authority, a priori methods, and scientific methods. At the time he wrote "The Fixation of Belief" Peirce thought that the significant difference between the first three methods and the fourth was that science provides a method "by which our beliefs may be caused by nothing human," and he describes reality as the set of things ''whose characters are entirely independent of our opinions about them" (107). If Peirce had maintained this position, his pragmatism would be of little use to discourse studies since it would define the "real'' essentially as the way things would be if nobody ever spoke about them. As it turns out, Peirce will quickly drop the criterion in favor of an entirely different procedure of distinguishing satisfactory from unsatisfactory methods of settling belief. This new procedure is first formulated in Peirce's essay "How to Make Our Ideas Clear," where he introduces what has become known as the Pragmatic Maxim: "Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object" (124). Peirce formulated this maxim as the third of what he called "grades of clearness," that is, ways to determine a conception's meaning. As Manley Thompson has pointed out (80–82), these three grades correspond roughly to Peirce's four methods of fixing belief. The first grade, familiarity with an idea, is a grade of clearness wherein reality is equated with what we presently believe. At this grade the method of tenacity—the stubborn clinging to a current conviction—can be a satisfactory means of assuaging doubt. The second grade, provided by abstract definitions, goes further than the first because it can order our current conceptions and make them coherent. As Thompson has said, although "the mere analysis of a definition involves nothing but the relations of an idea to other ideas and employs only the dyadic relations distinct from and identical with," it is nevertheless sufficient for relating an idea to the ideas that have been dictated by an authority or by the inclinations of taste and current intuitions (81). At the second grade of clearness, reality can be understood only "as that whose characters are independent of that anybody may think
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them to be" (Peirce 130). However, Peirce considers this definition insufficient. The problem lies in its inability to distinguish between realities that are true and realities that are false. A dream, for instance, is real: it is what it is no matter what we think about it. It is "completely independent of all opinion on the subject" (130). Since the dream is real, it has effects; it can be believed and acted upon. Yet the definitions of meaning and reality at the second grade of clearness cannot in any way tell us how the dream or any other fiction should be acted upon. The dream, the fiction, or the illusion may be comprised of completely familiar elements and be completely coherent with our current beliefs and yet be quite false. Thus, to be clear about a conception we must be aware of the possible effects of believing it, and our conception of its reality must include the difference our being aware of those possible effects might have. The Pragmatic Maxim, then, points toward a method of settling beliefs that differs from those of tenacity, authority, and the a priori methods in two significant ways. First, the maxim locates meaning in the future, not in the past as each of the other methods do: the sense of a conception is not to be derived from its relationships within an ordered scheme of prior conceptions but in the possible consequences of believing that conception. Second, the maxim defines reality not as something unaffected by believing subjects but as something of which its being believed is a part. Human beings are not spectators over and against the world but participants in, and so codeterminers of, the world. It follows that the beliefs we have make a difference to the objects of our belief, or, as Peirce puts it, "Generality is, indeed, an indispensable ingredient of reality" (199). The difference our beliefs make to reality marks the chief distinction between Peirce's pragmaticism and William James's pragmatism. Peirce remained primarily an empirical scientist despite his critique of empiricism's conception of reality as antecedent to judgment. He thought that our beliefs made a difference to reality because the processes of human consciousness make connections among singular existents that could not otherwise be made. To Peirce, since "mere existence or actuality without any regularity whatever is a nullity" (199) existence cannot be all it can become without the intervention of thought. Thought turns the singularity of existents into "realities," but because belief is regulated by verification and the limits of poten
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tiality, human inquiry is "destined" to converge upon a single set of beliefs held by all. In James's pragmatism, our having beliefs has more farreaching consequences to reality. For him, the chief consequence is that "reality genuinely grows" (Essential 276). The very fact of our having thought about the world adds to the world we consider. And unlike Peirce, who believed that only true generals made a difference, to James that reality "actually seems to grow by our mental determinations, be these never so 'true'" (276). By ''true" in quotations, James means the absolutely true. His example of a constellation is telling: ''Did an 'absolute' thinker actually do the counting, tell of the stars upon his standing numbertally, and make the bear comparison, silly as the latter is?" (277). Obviously, the stars could have been assigned to different arrangements; yet the comparison and counting, once made, is confirmed by the stars themselves. The constellation was not there before the human act that made it a constellation. Even so, once there, it was always there. As James says, Our stellar attributes must always be called true, then, yet none the less are they genuine additions made by our intellect to the world of fact. Not additions to consciousness only, but additions of "content." They copy nothing that existed, yet they agree with what preexisted, fit it, amplify it, relate and connect it . . . and build it out. (277)
On account of this process that "grows" the world, we can expect no talk in James of a "destined" reality as we find in Peirce or of an absolute truth with which all will agree at some terminal point of inquiry. "All experience is a process," says James. And because it is a process and not a mere replication, "no point of view can ever be the last one" (275). There is not Truth but truths, no one antecedent world but many possible subsequent worlds. In many respects, James's and Peirce's views are similar. Just as Peirce saw the motive for inquiry to lie in relieving doubt, James saw "the attainment of thought at rest" as "the only possible motive" for "thought in movement" (The Writings 348); and just as Peirce's method placed meaning "in future time" (195), so too does James's. However, because James understood the consequences of our having beliefs differently from Peirce, James's view of what it means to place
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meaning in the future differs as well. We can discern that difference most clearly by comparing Peirce's Pragmatic Maxim with James's version of it. The Peircean maxim, as you may recall, is as follows: Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object. (124)
James's version is this: Grant an idea or belief to be true. . . . what concrete difference will its being true make in any one's actual life? How will the truth be realized? What experiences will be different from those which would obtain if the belief were false? (The Writings 430)
The difference between these two versions of the Pragmatic Maxim lies in what each subjects to scrutiny, in what each puts into question. Peirce first subjects a particular concept to definition in terms of what effects believing it might produce in the world—as that world is now conceived to exist; then he subjects it to the test of whether or not it will produce those projected effects—in that world. For Peirce, in other words, from the beginning a belief in question is a belief that is in doubt, and its burden is to prove its usefulness within the world we now know. James, in contrast, considers not the possible effects of a belief within the world as known, but the possible world that the belief in question implies. Accordingly, he assumes the truth of the particular belief and puts into question the character of the world in which such a belief would be true, testing its existence by inquiry about the practical effects such a world would produce. By giving the belief in question the benefit of the doubt, James directs the inquiry toward the adequacy of the set of conditions that Peirce would use to verify the belief in question. Because every belief is real, true or not, there must be conditions prerequisite to its formation differing from the conditions prerequisite to not having the belief. Those presumed different conditions, not discovered but invented by the inquirer, must, as "new ideas," then "take account" of ''the whole body of other truths already in our possession" (The Writings 434). The
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question then becomes, do these new ideas about the conditions that would make the belief in question true "agree" with our old beliefs? As James emphasizes, "often agreement will only mean the negative fact that nothing comes to interfere with the way our ideas guide us elsewhere" (434). This lack of interference marks the extent of pragmatic "holism," for it is not necessarily the case that the conditions that would make the statement true hold everywhere and always for everyone. Truths, as James is fond of saying, are plural. Holism is not totalism: "each part of the world is in some ways connected, in some ways not connected with its other parts, and the ways can be discriminated, for many of them are obvious, and their differences are obvious to view" (510). James's version of the Pragmatic Maxim and the kind of holism it implies has enormous implications for the study of discourse. For one thing, because it takes one problem at a time and adjusts old to new beliefs only insofar as the exigence demands—that is, because it produces local, not global change—it explodes the "all or nothing" myth of the incommensurability of languages and cultures and, in fact, the primary assumption upon which the doctrine of incommensurability is based—that meaning is the product of the differentiation of signs from other signs within the totality of a linguistic system, such that changes in one part of the system affect the entire system. At the same time, anticipating Derridean deconstruction, it explodes the notions that meanings are fixed through deferrals of sense until structuration is achieved about some signified object that transcends the system. James goes beyond deconstruction by showing us how meaning is fixed, as beliefs are fixed, not in an antecedent or transcendent reality, but in the future, as a set of possible consequences. "Truth lives," as James puts it, "on a credit system. Our thoughts and beliefs 'pass' so long as nothing challenges them, just as banknotes pass so long as nobody refuses them" (433). And just as nothing in the banknote itself makes it pass or not, nothing in the utterance or its preexisting "referent" makes it believable or not. Truth, on James's account, is a process, or set of processes, of supposition and verification. "Language,'' then, cannot be studied as something independent of and prior to the utterances we judge to be true or false, sensical or nonsensical. Discourse is not instantiations of a "language'' or a "cul
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ture" having independent being whether or not anyone should ever respond to it. Truths for James, then, are meanings that "pass" so long as nothing challenges them, not states of being that obtain prior to any discursive processes that engage them. Does this mean that pragmatism is a relativism, that the truths or meanings of individuals and groups ought to be respected and preserved even when they interfere with our own, or that the beliefs of others should be regarded as truths for them that need not cohere with beliefs that are true for us? Is that not what James's injunction "Grant an idea or belief to be true . . ." concretely means? Well, no. All the injunction means is that we must grant, tentatively, the utterance's truth if we are to determine the utterance's meaning, that is, the consequences of uttering the belief. In all likelihood, if there are conditions that make the belief in question true, then simply by virtue of our becoming aware of them, they henceforth affect us—they add to the set of conditions affecting our discourse; they do not constitute a second incommensurate set. But to more thoroughly understand why pragmatic holism is not a relativism, perhaps it would be best to turn to the work of John Dewey, who was more concerned than James with defending pragmatism against that charge. Dewey, more so than James, stresses that our granting the truth of another's belief is tentative, and he warns against the folly of confusing a belief's truth with the reality of its being believed. In so doing, he positions pragmatism against the tenets of subjective relativism as forcefully as James had positioned it against objective absolutism. Dewey's objections to subjective relativism are most clear in his essay "The Construction of Good." There he examines the question of values within the context of his concern about what he sees as the "chief problem of modern life," the apparent discrepancy between what people believe about the world they live in and the values and purposes that should direct their conduct (Dewey 577). Currently, he says, two theories of value are in vogue. One, ''transcendental absolutism," which assumes the existence of an ''ultimate reality" that supplies the standards and ideals against which everyday life is to be measured, he quickly dismisses as having been shattered by science. The other, current "empirical theory," is more dangerous. According to
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empiricism, he says, "to be enjoyed and to be a value are two names for one and the same fact" (578). Dewey concedes, indeed insists, that values are connected to "concrete experiences of desire and satisfaction" (578), but he denies that value relates to "objects antecedently enjoyed'' (579). In other words, Dewey treats the question of values and their relation to enjoyments exactly as he and previous pragmatists treat the question of truths and their relation to beliefs. Although every belief is real, its truth lies in the consequences of believing. Similarly, although every enjoyment is a fact, its enjoyability—its value—lies in the consequences of enjoying. What Dewey adds to the pragmatists' conversation about this relationship between belief and truth, enjoyment and value, is his emphasizing that we understand the conditions that produce the belief or enjoyment. This emphasis results from Dewey's slight twist of the Pragmatic Maxim toward what he calls "operational thinking." An operational definition simply describes what one must do and the conditions under which one must do it in order to produce the object being defined. That process is the object's "meaning." Thus, for Dewey, "Judgments about values are judgments about the conditions and the results of experienced objects: judgments about that which should regulate the formation of our desires, affections and enjoyments" (583–84). To promote an enjoyment as a value, then, is to promote the conditions that produce the enjoyment, as well as the consequences that result from having enjoyed. Nothing about values is "subjective" because in order to share, and so to understand, another's values, we must share the conditions that would make the other's enjoyments possible. Similarly, nothing about truth is "relative." Although it is certainly the case that the conditions affecting one person's discourse may differ from the conditions affecting another's, since to understand the other means to be affected by the same discursive conditions, it is impossible to consider a belief arising from one set of conditions relative to a belief arising from another. Moreover, because the holistic character of truth prevents us from simply dropping all our beliefs at once, even hypothetically, á la Descartes, if you find yourself understanding another, that is, being affected by the conditions that affect his or her discourse, then those conditions have already been added to the conditions affecting yours. There can be no going back.
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Thus for Dewey, as for James, reality "grows." As Dewey says of "reason, or thought, in its more general sense," for which I would substitute the term ''discourse," since there can be no reason or thought outside discourse), [it] has a real, though limited, function, a creative, constructive function. If we form general ideas and if we put them in action, consequences are produced which could not be produced otherwise. Under these conditions the world will be different from what it would have been if thought had not intervened. (51)
Accordingly, to understand the conditions of another's discourse prior to judging it is to alter the conditions of our own discourse—to alter the grounds from which we judge. It is impossible to maintain or protect the "integrity" of another's discourse or our own for the simple reason that "meaning" and "truth" and ''value" are consequences of discursive interaction, not antecedents or discursive action. In short, we cannot, without contradicting ourselves, speak of "relative truth" because in order to judge a belief we must first understand it, to understand it we must become affected by the discursive conditions that could generate it, and once affected by them we are no longer outside them. On this newly made "ground" the belief either makes good its claim, or it does not. Dewey therefore shares with Peirce and James all the tenets that I have so far claimed are Davidson's inheritance from pragmatism: the recognition of difference as the motive for productive discourse; the recognition that these differences are real and are not to be understood as mere deviations from a standard; the recognition that these differences' significance lies neither in their referral to an antecedent reality nor in their deferral through a chain of signifiers but in the effects of our accepting their reality and judging their veracity; the recognition that our beliefs about the world, true or false, change the world because we and our utterances are in and of the world, not over and against the world; and finally, the recognition that truth is a social process simply because we can invent (and subsequently verify) conditions we do not currently recognize by tentatively accepting others' beliefs before testing the conditions they imply against the beliefs we currently hold. One final pragmatic tenet relevant to understanding Davidson's radical interpretation remains: the character of the "social process" of
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truth, or what I prefer to call the transitive character of discourse. Of all the early pragmatists, the social psychologist and philosopher George Herbert Mead was most directly concerned with this process, for he saw in it the rhythm common to all progressive human activity, all the scientific, aesthetic, and ethical activities that rationalistic philosophy keeps strictly separate. For Mead, all action, including discursive action, must be understood in terms of the evolutionary situation, that is, in terms of an organism's relation to its environment. The relation's central fact is that environment and organism mutually determine each other, such that "the effect of every adaptation is a new environment which must change with that which responds to it" (83). Rather than the simple dyadic relation of stimulus and response, a triadic relation characterizes life by virtue of the felt difference between an expectation and an actual reaction. Language, in Mead's view, is a process continuous with other triadic life processes. Mead believed that language, or what he calls discourse through "significant signs," began to evolve as life forms adapted socially. Genetically similar individuals need only the "first indications" of a forthcoming behavioral sequence (e.g., snarling, attacking, killing, eating) in order to cut the sequence short through an appropriate response. Such social stimuli and responses Mead calls "gestures," and these enable animals to engage in ''conversations of gesture" in which the beginnings of instinctual acts call out responses that lead to readjustments of gesture calling out further responses, and so on. In this scenario, the more alike the animals are, the more perfectly adapted they are to one another, and the more habitual their acts become. In a thoroughly adjusted relation between stimulus and response, "there cannot be found in its mechanism the occasion for the appearance of the consciousness of meaning" (129). The recognition of the connection between stimulus and response is meaning; thus, meaning arises from the "conflict of acts," and signs become significant if the organism is capable of recognizing that it is interpreting the gesture of others by its own responses, and so through its responses changing the conditions that call out the other's response. In social situations in which all the organisms involved have this capability, meaning itself is continually evolving. Mead emphasizes
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that "social conduct must be continually readjusted after it has already commenced, because the individuals to whose conduct our own answers, are themselves constantly varying their conduct as our responses become evident" (131). Language, therefore, "is but a form—a highly specialized form—of gesture" (132), and as such it has to be regarded as a process and not a structure. That is, to paraphrase what Mead says about moral acts, we must find the interpretation of verbal acts within the act and not appeal to a linguistic order that transcends the discursive situation (90). The analogy, if not the identity, between moral order and discursive order I indicated in my last sentence (one that parallels Dewey's identifying the processes that connect values to enjoyments with those that connect truths to beliefs) can be carried further. Mead, in his essay "The Philosophical Basis of Ethics" remarks that only two types of reaction are possible in any practical situation: "One may respond to wellrecognized cues by wellformed habits, or one may adapt and reconstruct his habits by new interpretation of the situation" (90). Upon recognizing an exigency, those who take the latter response enter into the "typical play of attention back and forth between perception and response" (91) so that, as Mead stresses, the procedures for solving a moral problem are exactly the same as those for solving an engineering problem. In both cases "the intellectual process by which the problem is solved cannot be a mere reference to a perfect model of conduct already in place" (91). Analogously, discursive ''errors'' cannot be simply referred to a linguistic order. If, as Mead claims, "The interpretation of sin and wrong with reference to a moral order external to conduct fails to identify the moral defect with the situation out of which it springs and by whose reconstruction it may be eliminated" (93), then referring discursive anomalies (what we would call from an absolutist perspective lies, tropes, deviant syntax, faulty diction, etc.) to a linguistic or cultural order for their interpretation would equally fail to identify the anomalies with their conditioning situations and thus forfeit us our opportunity to reconstruct those situations. Mead confirms, then, that we understand discourse—we adapt to it and adapt it to ourselves—just as we understand the rest of the world. Just as there is "no such thing as Truth at large" (324), there is "no ultimate structure in which [an utterance's] final meaning reposes"
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(325). Our ability to understand ourselves and our world, then, relies upon the supposition that there is a common world, a social world, a world that "includes members' views of the attitudes of others" but which is "continually breaking down" and continually being reconstructed (342). Our very motive for discourse lies in "the continuance of the common world" (342), a world that is not irrational but continually novel, if only because our own discourse, true or false, continually adds to that world. For these reasons, as Mead says, "The continuities of process are more universal than those of structure'' (352). That statement summarizes pragmatism's legacy to Davidson. Davidson's Radical Interpretation If, as Mead says, our very motive to discourse lies in the desire to continue the common world, Donald Davidson has stressed even more than he the importance of believing—and wanting—there to be but one world. For instance, in a recent interview with Thomas Kent, Davidson claimed that "it's only because we share a world with others that we can get the hang of what they're talking about" (Olson 15). The ramifications of such an apparently trivial observation as this should be obvious, but apparently they are not. For if we have but one world, then all the familiar divisions that imply the existence of more than one world operating according to one set of laws are obviously false. When we add these divisions up—heaven and earth, nature and culture, space and existential space, factual world and fictional world, scientific world and life world, noumenal world and phenomenal world, Ideal world and Real world, and so forth—it seems more obvious that people have seldom truly accepted there being one reality. In fact, to most people, once the claim's ramifications are spelled out, the belief that there is but one world seems positively strange. Certainly, people who accept the divisions listed above and other divisions like them tend to believe there is one "true" world lying beneath if not beyond the "appearances" of a world we actually deal with. Such a world, understood as "the effable cause of sense and goal of intellect," is, as Richard Rorty has put it, "well lost'' (Consequences 15). Belief in such a true world antecedent to and independent of our discourse about it has led us into all sorts of paradox, confusion, and
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error. Of these, perhaps the most damaging in our time has been the Kantian notion that "experience" is "constituted" through the ''medium'' of "concepts" organized in "frameworks," such that people who discourse by means of alternative frameworks experience "the" world differently relative to their framework and therefore live in incommensurable alternative worlds. As we saw in the previous section, the pragmatic alternative to such Kantianism is to consider the articulations of others not as being incommensurable and relative to some linguistic or conceptual totality different from our own, but as being in a systemic causal relationship to the single world we presume we all share. The presumption of a world that can be shared empowers others' articulations to throw our own articulations into doubt in a way that the presumption of worlds constituted by incommensurable languages does not. Throughout his career, Donald Davidson has argued against the various forms of cultural, linguistic, and conceptual relativism, as well as forms of positivism, perspectivism, and naive realism that descend from the Kantian view. However, his way of arguing has not remained the same. He himself warned in a recent interview that we should "compare what I wrote ten years ago with what I write now; it is clearly different" (Olson 25). Gradually, Davidson has become more radical, more truly nonfoundational as he has worked out the implications for the philosophy of language of there being but one world. Initially, Davidson contended that communication between sentient beings who do not share a set of linguistic conventions was a rare occurrence, but possible, and that shared conventions could be developed between interlocutors only when both believed that what the other said was mostly true (see "Radical Interpretation" [1973] in Inquiries). From this position Davidson has moved gradually toward his current stance that speech dependent upon shared conventions is the special case of communicative success, not the general; that is, he has moved from thinking that the key issue is whether or not it is possible to translate another's language to whether it is ever necessary to. It would be a mistake to say that central to Davidson's recent development is the notion that for interlocutors to communicate is for them to come to be talking about the same thing. To say so is to fall back already into a conception of representational language. A notion more
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useful than representation is that of "effectual discourse": communication is not successful when discourse adequately represents an object that existed prior to the attempt to represent it; communication is successful when the words one utters to others has the effect upon them that one intended. If we accept this criterion (which is not a matter of choice, since representation is impossible), then understanding others relies not upon our sharing with them the same words or even the same "meanings" of the words (in the sense of sets of differentiations among possible conceptual categories to which words might refer) but upon our anticipating the effects on us that others intend by using those words in that way. 1 When "meaning" means intended effects, then our need to coherently describe what interlocutors must know in order to communicate cannot be satisfied by giving an account of the "conventions'' and rules shared by the interlocutors prior to their discursive exchange. As Davidson has stated the problem: If you (the interpreter) do not know how a speaker is going to go on, you do not know what language she speaks, no matter how much she has said until now. It will not help to mention the fact that the speaker has performed according to expectation so far, or that she went to the same school you did, or belongs to the same culture or community, for the question does not concern the past but the future. ("Second Person" 257)
In other words, the common ground of mutual understanding—our shared world—is not located in the past, in either shared linguistic and cultural conventions or in a set of objects already existent and so to be discovered, but in the future as an agreement to be made or a commonality to be achieved. Our problem, therefore, is to explain the process of communicating and understanding, not to describe the state of signs at the point of their having been understood, or of their being assumed to have been understood—which is the best that linguistics, defined as a description of a system of rules and conventions, can do. Davidson typically illustrates what I've called effective discourse with instances of communication that in conventional theory would have to be treated as anomalies or special cases, and then goes on to analyze these instances as being in fact typical or general cases. In "A Nice Derangement of Epitaphs," one of his most famous essays, he
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takes as his paradigmatic anomaly the malapropism. A malapropism, from a standard language perspective, is by definition a misuse of language that should not make sense. Yet the malapropism, as he suggests, marks the general case in language use because "there is no word or construction that cannot be converted to a new use by an ingenious or ignorant speaker" (441). How, then, do we make sense of malapropisms, Davidson asks, for we do make sense of them, and apparently without the least bit of inconvenience on our part, whether the malapropism is intended to be heard as a "deviation" from the conventional or not. Davidson proposes that in order to explain our ability to interpret malapropisms or any other novel use of words we do not have to give up either the notion that literal—or what he calls "first"—meaning is systematic or the notion that speaker and interpreter must share the same method of interpretation. 2 However, he says, we do have to give up the notion that shared conventions or regularities govern first meanings. They do not govern meaning simply because in order for communication to succeed what the speaker needs to know is how the speaker will interpret him, while what the interpreter needs to know is how the speaker expects her to interpret him. In the case of a failed initial expectation in some particular situation, nothing can be solved by appealing to a "language" abstracted from prior particular cases. Confronted with failure, we can only alter our expectations. If we are ever to understand what the other has said, we have to continue to assume that the "first" meaning of the novel utterance is systematically related to the speaker's other utterances and then take a guess at how the speaker is using it. Whether to us (that is, from the perspective of our first expectation) the novel utterance will be a malapropism, a new word for an old concept, an old word for a new concept, a slip of the tongue, or whatever, may or may not be relevant, since "getting it right'' means guessing correctly about how the speaker intended for us to take it, not knowing how we ourselves would have meant it prior to hearing the speaker. What Davidson offers as a description of linguistic ability, then, are the adjustments speakers and interpreters make to particular circumstances—a description that requires no reference to "language" as we traditionally have understood it. What a description of linguistic abil
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ity does require, he says, is a distinction between our "prior theories" about how the other will take our utterances and our "passing theories"—our revisions that account for the other's actual response: For the hearer, the prior theory expresses how he is prepared in advance to interpret an utterance of the speaker, while the passing theory is how he does interpret the utterance. For the speaker, the prior theory is what he believes the interpreter's prior theory to be, while his passing theory is the theory he intends the interpreter to use. ("Nice" 442)
At least three important consequences result from observing the distinction between our prior and passing theories of another's language. First, we recognize that for communication to succeed we must share passing theories since, as Davidson says, "the passing theory is the one the interpreter actually uses to interpret an utterance, and it is the theory the speaker intends the interpreter to use" (442). The prior theory, then, does not correspond to linguistic competence, but neither does the passing theory. Because the passing theory is good only for "a particular utterance on a particular occasion" (443), "language" cannot be governed by learned conventions. Moreover, the passing theory may or may not be useful as a prior theory on later occasions; it all depends upon the character of later occasions, and those, being always highly particular, will almost always call forth prior theories adjusted to those interpretive responses we anticipate. In fact, Davidson begins to sound quite like Bakhtin at this juncture, as he reflects "on the fact that an interpreter must be expected to have quite different prior theories for different speakers—not as different, usually, as his passing theories; but these are matters that depend on how well the interpreter knows his speaker'' (444). The first important consequence resulting from recognizing the difference between prior and passing theories, therefore, is that there are no conventions, no "basic framework of categories and rules," no "language" that could be learned in advance of discourse that describes what speakers and interpreters share when they communicate successfully. What they share they share for that discursive moment only, and although what they share at that moment may serve as a prior theory at a later moment, it need not do so. Perhaps because of the current dominance of socalled "social constructionism" and purely subjective types of "reader response" criti
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cism in the academy, Davidson's arguments against cultural/linguistic relativism and the belief that shared conventions govern interpretation is the aspect of his work that so far has most captured the imagination of rhetorical and literary theorists. Reed Way Dasenbrock, for example, in his essay "Do We Write the Text We Read?" has clearly spelled out the consequences of Davidson's argument for the theories of cultural relativists such as Stanley Fish. The problem with all theories involving conceptual schemes that determine meanings, including Fish's theory of interpretive communities, says Dasenbrock, is that they are irredeemably paradoxical. Cultural relativists like Fish can say either that their own conceptual schemes are true while all others are false, or they can say that all schemes are true, just different. Both ways, the question arises, If two schemes are incommensurable, and therefore untranslatable, how could you possibly know whether the alien scheme is true or false in relation to your own? As Dasenbrock puts it, "we cannot know whether we are seeing something different unless we understand each other's perspective, translate each other's language; and if we can understand and translate another's perspective, it cannot have the radical otherness supposed" by relativists like Fish (25). Instead of assuming the existence of multiple, incommensurable worlds, says Dasenbrock, we have to assume with Davidson that "there is at most one world" (Inquiries 187). Consequently, "agreement is not created . . . by the interpreter overwhelming the text by his or her beliefs and values, but by adjusting them to the demands of the interpretive occasion" (Dasenbrock 27). Since interpreters cannot adjust towards speakers' beliefs and values on the grounds of a previously shared language or culture (because that very lack of shared ground initiates the adjustment), "no necessary relation between a text and the passing theory develops in response to it, no indisputable 'correct' interpretation'' (27). At the same time, however, "certain theories are disconfirmed, even if none is ever indisputably confirmed" (27). In short, Davidson can give us what neither Fish nor any other linguistic relativist can—an explanation of how it is possible to learn about our world from discoursing with others, and with that comes a motive for discourse besides the desire to silence others through argument and other forms of persuasive force. This brings us to the second of the three important consequences
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that result from observing the distinction between our prior and passing theories of another's language: no general "framework" theory of language—"whether conceived as a grammar for English, or a rule for accepting grammars, or a basic grammar plus rules for modifying or extending it" ("Nice" 444)—can ever sufficiently interpret a particular utterance. The greater the abstractness and generality of such a theory, the greater the difference there will be between the framework theory and the passing theory, where communication actually occurs. This observation may suggest that, rather than needing a theory of language as such, what we may really need is a theory about developing strategies to use to converge on passing theories. It is certainly the case that such strategies are what we need to communicate effectively, but how could we develop a coherent strategic theory when both the starting "language" and the finally convergedupon language are different for every discursive occasion? If all we can say about linguistic ability is that ''it is the ability that permits'' one person to "construct a correct, that is, convergent, passing theory for speech transactions" with another person on a particular occasion (444), then the development of a systematic theory of linguistic ability seems out of the question. Thus arises the third important consequence of observing the distinction between prior and passing theories: linguistic ability as such—"the ability to make oneself understood, and to understand" others (444)—cannot be learned and cannot be taught. That is to say, we cannot make a sharp distinction between learning a language and learning about the world through a language. We may as well say we learn about language through the world. This is not because language constitutes its objects but because we cannot make a meaningful ontological distinction between words and things. To do so would be like trying to made an ontological distinction between tools and the things we use tools to work on. If we use a thing to modify another thing for some purpose, the first thing is a tool, even though we may have just worked on the first thing with yet another thing. So it is with words. We arrive at an understanding of how another is using words in exactly the same way we arrive at an understanding of any event or activity; our sets of beliefs about how a particular person will use words on a particular occasion and our strategies for altering those beliefs to suit what actually occurs are not different in kind from our sets of beliefs about how certain chemicals
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will react with one another under certain conditions. The only difference is that, unlike a person, a chemical does not react differently depending upon its perception of how others are perceiving its reaction. To put it another way, the conditions affecting a chemical's behavior never include its beliefs about other's beliefs: it is affected solely by force, never by power. Other than accounting for that complicating difference, Davidson's theory of language has, as he says, "erased the boundary between knowing a language and knowing our way around the world generally" (445–46). If linguistic ability, like the ability to construct hypotheses, cannot be taught, what we can learn and teach are the conditions that affect others' and our own discourse. 3 Learning and teaching, here, amount to no more or less than communication, if we think of communication the way Davidson does. "Communication begins," Davidson says, "where causes converge: your utterance means what mine does if belief in its truth is systematically caused by the same events and objects" (''Coherence" 318). If I say the room is cold and you say it is hot, and we each believe that what we say is true, then the causes of our meanings are obviously different. The aim of communication is to locate those causes, which in this case may lie simply in our differing experiences with the usage of words, in differing experiences in ranges of climate, in differing metabolisms, and so on. Communication—convergence upon the causes of one another's beliefs—requires from us imaginative guessing and the testing of guesses, but it also requires a very specific attitude toward those with whom we discourse. As Davidson explains, for communication to be possible, meaning, belief, and reference have to be regarded as being causally interdependent: to have one is to have access to the other two. If I know already what your words mean I can learn from them your beliefs about the world. If I know already your beliefs about the world I can figure out what you mean when you speak. If you know, or can assume, two of the three, you can solve for the third. If we assume that we share the same meanings about the same world we get nowhere, for that would mean that the other's statements with which we disagree could only be false, so that we could learn nothing from communication. If we assume that we share only the same beliefs and the same meanings we still get nowhere, for then disagreements could never be over the same objects, and communication would be fruitless. However, if we assume
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that we share the same beliefs about the same world, disagreements can be perceived as mere differences of speech. From the basis of our charitable assumption that what the other says is true, we can then begin an interchange and each can figure out what the other means. It may turn out that we and the other indeed disagree, but we must know what the other means before we can know that we disagree. For communication to begin, then, we have to assume at the outset that everything the other says is true, or mostly true. 4 As Davidson has said, "Charity is forced upon us; whether we like it or not, if we want to understand others, we must count them right in most matters" (Inquiries 197). Not in all matters, however. As we just saw, what counting people right in most matters allows us to do is to challenge them in other matters. But challenge them about what? Davidson says, About objects in the world. After decades of structuralism and poststructuralism, we have nearly forgotten that our practical interest in language resides in our need to understand others' utterances, and that our need to understand others' utterances is bound up with our need to understand our world. Theories of language that account only for a relation between a speaker and a language (understood as a set of conventions) end up with a notion of meaning that amounts only to saying "we judge that a speaker means what we would if we were to utter the same words" ("Second Person" 259). Here we have a relation between a speaker and a language; but lost, or deemed unnecessary, is any interaction between speakers, or between the speakers and the objects with which they are concerned. Such a view is but a short step from claiming that there could be a private language, or from claiming that language, however socially it may have been created, itself creates the world its speakers discourse about. Davidson contends instead that once we understand ''that in order to mean something a speaker must intend to have a certain effect upon a specific hearer or hearers" (258) an account of such effective discourse must include a concept of "intersubjective" truth. And this ''is a concept one cannot have without sharing, and knowing that one shares, a world and a way of thinking about the world with someone else" (265). Why is it that language as effective discourse requires the interaction of at least two persons and an object they can come to know in common? In an argument similar to those made by George Herbert Mead, Davidson points toward the difference between two primitive
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learning situations: "The dog hears a bell and it is fed; presently it salivates when it hears the bell. The child babbles, and when it produces a sound like 'table' in the evident presence of a table, it is rewarded; the process is repeated and presently the child says 'table' in the presence of tables" (263). In both cases essential to the learning process is the perception of similarities. One bowl of food is enough like another, and one table enough like another, to elicit a similar response. Apparently we are dealing with a simple mechanism of cause and effect. Yet, when we think about it, the chain of cause and effect is much longer than the pair fooddrool suggests. The dog doesn't smell the food directly, we can say, but airborne molecules stimulate olfactory nerve endings, which stimulate all kinds of other links in a chain a good biologist could tell us about, before we see what I would call the dog's drool. Any one of these stimulations after the food might be better called the stimulus since, Davidson tells us, "it seems that the proximal cause of the behavior has the best claim to be called the stimulus, since the more distant an event is causally from its perceiver the more chance there is that the causal chain will be broken" (262). Which link in the chain we stimulate certainly won't matter to the dog. But it could matter to the child. When the child says "table," of all the points along a possible chain of events the child might be referring to, the one we call "table" is precisely what the child refers to because we call it "table." If the child saying "table" is referring to her imaginings of tables, or to a green color similar to that of the actual table she was in the presence of when she was first rewarded for saying ''table,'' or to anything else besides what we would call a table, we will not respond in a way that will reinforce her use of the word "table." What we call a table eventually becomes "the common cause of our response and the child's response" (263)— responses neither of us could have if we were not attending to the other's response. To use the terms I have been using in this book, linguistic ability requires sensitivity to power as well as to force. Davidson refers to it as "triangulation": The relevant stimuli are the objects or events we naturally find similar (tables) which are correlated with the responses of the child we find similar. It is a form of triangulation: one line goes from the child in the direction of the table, one line goes from us in the direction of the table, and the third line goes from me to the child. (263)
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There must be something "out there" accessible to both parties—which may be things in the usual sense or concrete utterances or signs—that can be the common cause of the speakers' articulations. There also must be sufficient physical similarity between ourselves and the child, enough sensory and motor capacities in common, for us to be able to articulate patterns of stimuli in similar ways. Even should these conditions be fulfilled, however, enough possible ways to articulate experience remain that without triangulation, without our interaction with the child and the child's interaction with us in a space created by objects with which we are commonly concerned, there could be no guessing what the child's "concepts are concepts of" (263): "to have the concept of a table or a bell is to recognize the existence of a triangle, one apex of which is oneself, another a creature similar to oneself, and the third an object (table or bell) located in space and thus made common" (264). Most important to triangulation is that each speaker believes that the other believes that they are part of this same triangle, that they are related to the same object and to each other in the same way. Notice that out of this picture completely is a common language. Sharing the same sets of conventions does not necessarily harm the triangle, but it is hardly essential to it, and of course it is possible, and common, for an utterance about a convention to take the object place in the triangle. But conventions come into communicative play only as utterances about utterances, even if we forget that that's all they are. As Davidson reminds us, "we all talk so freely about language or languages that we tend to forget that there are no such things in the world; there are only speakers and their various written and acoustical products" (256). When we forget this and think that the norm of linguistic behavior is a language—leaving others and objects "out of the loop"—our chances of effective communication begin to break down. Speaker intention is the only norm of effective discourse: "the speaker falls short of his intention if he fails to speak in such a way as to be understood as he intended" (256). Only a perceived failure can spur us to guess again about how our interpreters are interpreting our words. Having the intentional norm in mind makes it much easier to understand why so much discourse is apparently designed to make sure that members of certain groups having certain discursive habits know that they do not know what is being said to them: think about the
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many forms of poetic diction and syntax, the teen lingo, the professional jargon, and the social minority idiolect that seem to scream at us that we and their speakers are not related to the same objects in the same way. Such interpretive failures should tell us not that we and initially unintelligible speakers live in different worlds, but that their discourse is being affected by a part of our world of which we are unaware—a part of which we can, and perhaps should, be aware. The objects of their discursive concern may be different from ours—everyone, after all, lives under somewhat different conditions—and when this is so only their success in making us acknowledge that we are failing to interpret in our usual ways can point us toward seeking those causes of which we are presently unaware. If we do not define successful communication as the convergence of interlocutors' discourse upon the same causes, but insist upon retaining the linguistic view that communication succeeds when one person seems to use signs as the other uses them, then we become hard pressed to explain how it is possible to change one's own or another's mind without admitting that the state of belief prior to the change was irrational. When we consider language as a kind of high order game, we can, as Rorty has pointed out, make a fairly sharp distinction between reasons for belief and causes of belief (Contingency 48) on the basis of whether the belief is explicable in terms of currently agreed upon conventions and rules. But if we define "the rational" as explicability by such rules, agreements, and conventions, then we find ourselves having to admit to being irrational whenever we change our minds toward a belief our accepted rules and conventions cannot account for. In other words, we find ourselves in Stanley Fish's predicament. For Fish, because words make sense only within a totality of linguistic conventions and rules, change is diachronic, a shift from one total system to another. Consequently, Fish cannot conceive of "enlarging" one's awareness of a situation. He says, "any gain in awareness is simultaneously a loss: . . . the passing from one point of view to another deprives you of whatever insights and certainties flow from the point of view you have 'transcended.' . . . Awareness is not a quantity that can be increased or diminished on an absolute scale . . ." (462). Thus, as in Saussure's chess game, knowing the state of the board at one stage in the game is useless toward understanding it at the next stage. As a
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result, for Fish persuasion is purely a matter of luck. It is possible, he says, to move others from out of their current "circle of beliefs," but "one simply cannot tell in advance what will work a change in someone's views" (461). We get a very different sense of persuasion from Davidson. According to him, we are unaware of most causes, and we are aware of some causes. We call the latter "reasons" when they affect our intentions. When the reasons we speak as we do coincide with the cause for our interlocutor's interpretations of our speech, we have successfully communicated. As Davidson puts it, a necessary condition of successful communication is that "the speaker must 'go on' more or less as the interpreter expects, or at least is equipped to interpret" ("Second Person" 260). Obviously, when what the interpreter is equipped to interpret and what the speaker has to say do not coincide, the speaker must (1) see to it that the object of concern is present to the interpreter, (2) attend to her failures to induce the expected response so that she can (3) infer what object the response in fact refers to and (4) attempt at the next try to distinguish the object of the interpreter's response from the object the speaker actually intended. Note that the problem is not to get the interpreter to speak the speaker's language, but to get the interpreter to attend to the same object as the speaker. In other words, communication is a process of teaching and learning things in the world—including the words in the world—not a process of decoding sequences of signs. And teaching and learning are processes of communication. I will elaborate on the consequences of this identification for pedagogy in the final chapter of this book. For now, I want to point out briefly what it means in terms of Davidson's pragmatic holism, that holism's antidote to skepticism and relativism, and its prescription for improving the effectiveness of our discourse. In what is probably the most useful article to date on this topic, "On the Very Idea of a Discourse Community," Thomas Kent sums up Davidson's theory of triangulation: Communicative interaction requires triangulation; triangulation, in turn, requires knowledge of our own mind, the mind of others, and the world we share with others, and when we possess knowledge about one of these elements, we also possess knowledge about the other two. Therefore, when we communicate, we must be right—at least most of the time— about our beliefs. (435)
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As we have seen, Davidson, like all pragmatists, holds that the only way to justify our beliefs is by appeal to our other beliefs. As we have also seen, Davidson's radical interpretation calls for us initially to employ interpretive charity, to believe that the other's beliefs are mostly true. Since to have a belief requires knowing that it is a belief, that is "a state that may or may not jibe with reality" ("Coherence" 318), the conjunction of our beliefs with our interlocutor's beliefs can produce doubt in some, although not most, of our beliefs. And since "beliefs are also identified, directly or indirectly, by their causes" (319), it is to causes that our attention should turn—for it is about causes that through our passing theories we can reach agreement. Therefore, if we are to communicate successfully we can neither globally doubt our own or the other's beliefs, nor can we regard our interlocutor's world as being relative to his language and so incommensurable with our own. The communicative process is one of interlocutors coming together toward a single way of talking about a single world. Said in pedagogical terms, the more we learn from the other the more we can teach to the other—so long as what we are trying to teach and learn is something that actually exists, something we can triangulate, not language, conventions, ideas, or anything else we imagine might lie between ourselves and the world we can come to share. In Davidson's view, then, the perception of differences between our discourse and others' discourse, not the massive background of sameness—which goes without saying—both motivates and enables the communicative process. Thomas Kent suggests, "we might say that triangulation actually operates on the principle of deviation or what Bakhtin called addressivity; we must recognize the otherness of the other—the other's deviation, difference, and variation from us—if we desire to communicate at all" ("Discourse" 442). I want to emphasize, however, that we should not think of the other's discourse as deviating from a set of linguistic conventions that we presume we must share in order to communicate; instead, we must think of the causes of the other's discursive habits as differing from the causes affecting our own habits. Davidson's philosophy therefore recognizes that difference is the motive of effectual discourse, that discursive differences are real and not merely deviations from convention, that the significance of perceived differences lies in the future effects of perceiving them, that our
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utterances that mark differences are themselves real and may serve as the object pole in triangulation, and that discourse and truth are necessarily social, referring to a common world in the making. All these themes Davidson shares with the Pragmatists we discussed in the previous section, but he offers some additional contributions to discourse studies, as well. One is that by describing discursive processes in terms of prior and passing "theories," he calls attention to the fact that what people believe about how language works affects how language works for them. Although Davidson does not take up this issue, it should be clear that the tenacious clinging to prior theories in the belief that there should be and is a "right" way to use words leads us to disregard or contemptuously judge how people actually speak. To Davidson, this would be much like asserting that a physical phenomenon is wrong, inadequate, or miraculous when it cannot be explained by current science or religion. As Peirce says about all tenacious believers, perhaps in some ways such an attitude is admirable, but it is ultimately foolish because of its insensitivity to change and resistance to new knowledge. I would add that the tenacious attitude probably contributes more to miscommunication than any other. Besides revealing the shortcomings of the "standard language" and "interpretive community" theories, however, Davidson makes us realize that whatever we believe about language use, our beliefs will affect our language use. This means, first, that a general theory of language is logically impossible because whatever theory we come to believe can describe how we use words will alter that very use of words. Second, it means that the study of discourse must be historical and must refer not only to speakers' and writers' beliefs about how language works but also to their beliefs about what their audiences believed about how language works. That does not mean, of course, that the theory believed will explain the language used—far from it. But it does mean that no present theory that cannot account for the effects of the speaker's or writer's belief in her theory can possibly recover her intentions, since among them must be an intent to use words in a certain way. Possibly the most important contribution Davidson makes to discourse studies is his insistence that linguistic ability and the ability to "get around in the world generally" cannot be clearly distinguished
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and that such ability depends largely upon the adequacy of our beliefs about others' beliefs about others' beliefs. Reasons, whether valid or not, are causes, but not all causes are reasons. This is Davidson's formulation of the distinction I have maintained throughout this book between power and force. Davidson reminds us that not only do we share, but we know we share, a world with others, so that what we share is largely determined by how we share it. The way things are, or "intersubjective truth" as Davidson calls it, is not just over against us, there to be represented, nor is it just constituted by us, isolated from others whose culture or language differs from ours, but we, all of us who can know that others know that we know, are involved in the world such that our very knowings and sayings alter what we have to know and say. Davidson's theory, then, like all theories, can alter how we discourse with others, perhaps most of all by reminding us that our practical interest in language resides in our need to understand others' utterances, and that our need to understand others' utterances is bound up with our need to understand the world. Because of our interest, we need to believe others: as his theory of radical interpretation tells us, our own interest in understanding our world "forces" charity toward others upon us. Believing others is the price we must pay to live in one world.
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7 The Problematological Way Problematology is less commonly known to scholars in literary and rhetorical fields than the modes of discourse study I introduced in chapters 5 and 6. What it can teach us, however, is extremely relevant to contemporary conversations in those fields, and although the problematological way of discussing discourse may seem unfamiliar at first, because it coheres easily with dialogism and neopragmatism, I perhaps may best introduce it first in these terms. Bakhtin's theory of "verbal interaction," you may recall, describes speakers not as expecting a passive response to or simple decoding of their words, but as anticipating an "answering word." This implies that every time we speak to others we are both answering and questioning at the same time. Moreover, Bakhtin's notion of heteroglossia emphasizes that discursive differences exist because of the different kinds of labor that people perform. The problematological way of putting this is to say that linguistic differences spring from the differing problems people have to solve together, the different questions they have to answer. If we can think of Bakhtin's dialogic poles as that of questions and answers, or problems and solutions, we are already well on our way to understanding problematics and its radically non metaphysical definition of meaning. Problematology also fits well with pragmatism. We saw in the previous chapter how George Herbert Mead located the source of "meaning" in an organism's recognition of the connection between a stimulus and a response, that is, in its intentional interpretation of another's gesture by a gesture of its own. Mead emphasized that "social conduct must be continually readjusted after it has already commenced, because the individuals to whose conduct our own answers, are themselves constantly varying their conduct as our responses become evident" (131). To put this problematologically, our responses to another's stimulating gestures are answers to the questions these gestures raise.
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Their gestures are questions or answers for us in a special way because, unlike the star's shine or the leaf's fall, we apprehend them as being like our own, that is, as anticipating our own responses. Still, in a general way, as questions and answers they remain stimuli and responses; they are not of a different order ontologically from any others. A discursive situation is then a practical situation, and to any exigency we can respond either "to wellorganized cues by wellformed habits" (90) or we can enter the "typical play of attention back and forth between perception and response" (91) and so create a new interpretation of the situation. In other words, we can respond with questions or with answers. Similarly, Donald Davidson's distinction between prior and passing theories can be rewritten in terms of questions and answers, with each utterance presented as a solution to the problem posed by our interlocutor's anticipated response. Again, as for Mead, for Davidson the standard of communication is not that interlocutors come to be talking about the same thing (that is, it is not that meaning and reference are identical). Rather, the standard is the event that lets us say we are talking about the same thing—the event of adequately anticipating the effect upon us that the interlocutor intends. Language, then, is not just occasionally the medium of inquiry: language—discourse rather—is itself continual inquiry, inquiry of the other's discourse through our mutual gropings toward a common cause for discourse. To understand, here, is not to refer to the same "thing" but to be affected by the same discursive conditions. Davidson tells us that in order to communicate we must assume we share the same world, and that to communicate is to come to share the same problems, to have the same questions about the world. Problematology Michel Meyer's "problematological view of meaning" coheres with both the dialogic and the pragmatic view to the extent that it can be seen as an attempt to demonstrate that structural "languages" are not in fact incommensurable because their very possibility depends upon their derivation from a more fundamental conception of the logos. 1 That is, although there are indeed apparently closed systems of rules and conventions that govern the use of their signs within limited pa
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rameters, such systems could not develop if discourse in general was not a very different sort of affair. At "the root of language," says Meyer, is "the fundamental duality of language" which he describes as "the difference between question and answer" and calls ''the problematologique ('problematological') difference" (''Argumentation" 84). "Upon this difference," he claims, "are created other uses of language: informing, communicating, persuading, etc." (84). Ultimately all discourse—from the mathematical to the poetical, from the scientific to the juridical—is unified and explainable from the same general theory of meaning. Meyer's philosophy of language is therefore "foundational" and concerned with origins; yet he does not pursue the same sort of origin and foundation that postmodern critique has rightly rejected. Instead of determining Being or attempting to resolve all doubt in an indubitable cogito, Meyer brings all questions back to questioning. For him, "questioning is indeed the principle of thought itself" (Problematology 6). There can be no further questions beyond the question about questions. All other questions derive from this: all differences ultimately refer back to the problematological difference: "The principle of thought is . . . questioning. Even if we call that principle into question, we are still questioning, thereby verifying the principle" (Rhetoric 149). Thus the problematological view of meaning, according to Meyer, is "based on the idea that language use is a response and therefore implies the presence, implicit or not, of an underlying problem in the mind of the locutor and the minds of the addressees" (103). This view suggests that the meaning of any utterance or text lies in the question(s) to which the utterance or text is an answer, not in its systematic formal relationship to other utterances or texts. Why, then, do we assume that there are such things as autonomous, objective "languages" to which utterances are referred for their meaning independently of the questions that elicit them as answers? As Meyer puts it: "Questioning is useful on the sole condition that it differs from answering, and that is only possible if we know what is considered to be an answer and how it is different from what is considered to be a question" (Problematology 214). Accordingly, because for the most part the goal of discursive activity is to attain answers, we seldom make our questions explicit. For example, yesterday I said to my wife, "It's 2:30, but I'm right in the middle of a paragraph." She
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replied, "OK." "OK" was the answer to the question, "Could you go pick up our daughter at school?" The day before she might have said, "I'm grading papers," which would have answered the question, "Is what you're doing more urgent than what I'm doing?'' It should be obvious that because of my wife's and my history of questioning and answering it was unnecessary for me to say to her something like the following: ''I usually go get our daughter when her school lets out, but at the moment I'm engaged in writing about some difficult ideas and I'm afraid that if I stop now I'll lose my train of thought and have to spend additional time tomorrow reconstructing what I intend to say. Would it be an imposition for you to perform this task for me today?" As Meyer says, though, "Why express what goes without saying, what presents no problem?" (214). Most of the time, then, "An answer to a question, once found, suppresses the question. The question is resolved; it is posed no more" (212). Answers tend to float free from the questions they answer. The question being suppressed, the answer is treated as a judgment, as being independently true, apocritical; it then can become an answer to different questions. This process is the origin of what Meyer calls "propositionalism," the view of meaning to which problematology is opposed. In propositionalism, which has provided the Western view of meaning since Plato, propositions or judgments "are considered as the basic units of thought and language, with exclusive attention put on truthvalues and propositional connections" (103). Meaning, according to this view, is a matter of identity. Two statements mean the same if they have an identical "outside" reference such that one could substitute for the other. For instance, "Jenny is calico" means the same as "My cat has three colored fur" in the same way that 6 × 2 = (2 × 9)(3+3). Ultimately, then, "Jenny is calico" is true if "Jenny is calico" (just as 12=12). Of course, one might ask how one could know that one side of the copula is identical with the other when the meaning of each lies in its identity with the other—unless you know the meaning of one prior to identifying it with the other. In other words, because a proposition is an answer that has forgotten the question that elicited it, propositions appear to stand independently of their context ("Jenny is calico" seems to be true today, tomorrow, to whomever I say it, whenever I say it, so long as "Jenny" and "calico" refer to the same things). Considering the statement alone,
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isolating it from any context—that is, from the problematics of any situation to which it might have been a response—allows us to believe that the meaningfulness of the statement derives from the formal relationships of the sentence's parts and the relationship of the whole statement to an exterior reality. Propositionism and Reference Meyer calls propositionalism "the Xerox theory of meaning," after Borges's "Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote," a story that parodies propositionism. In this story, Menard (Don Xerox) wants to write the perfect interpretation of Cervantes's great book: "Menard sees no other course than to rewrite it entirely, committing himself in the most absurd manner to the substitution view of meaning which is what the semantics of the propositional theory of language is about'' (Meaning 10). This character's linebyline rewriting of Don Quixote drives home the myriad paradoxes to which propositionism is liable whenever statements cannot be isolated from their contexts. Consider, for example, says Meyer, the paradoxes inherent in Gottlob Frege's theory of meaning, an important theory to the twentieth century because of its influence upon thinkers as diverse as Ingarten, Husserl, Heidegger, Hirsch, and Derrida. Frege distinguished sense (Sinn) from reference (Bedeutung) so that terms and propositions always "express (sense) something (reference)" (qtd. in Meaning 13). When a definite sense is correlated with a definite reference, they produce a signification. According to Frege's "principle of composition," when the signification of a name is conjoined with the signification of a predicate, they produce a sentence. In turn, two sentences have the same signification when, despite being expressed differently, they say the same thing—have the same reference. One sentence can then substitute for the other. The "fundamental tenet of the propositional theory of meaning," then, is, as Meyer puts it, that ''the meaning of a sentence is a substitutable statement, which says the same thing, that is, refers to the same thing—a truth value (Frege) or a fact (Wittgenstein)—by expressing it differently" (14). Such a view relies on the supposition that the things to which sentences refer are different from and unaffected by the sentences that refer to them. This seems to be a straightforward, commonsense sup
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position, but a number of difficulties arise when we accept it. For instance, if the meaning of a sentence lies in what it says, then do sentences that declare no whatness have to be considered meaningless? Questions, requests, evocations, exclamations, and so forth do not declare anything, so are they without sense? And what about sentences that cannot be separated from their context and be viewed independently, such as the conversation with my wife I mentioned earlier, or such as all fictional literature? Fictional texts present a particularly thorny difficulty to propositionism. The Fregean notion of meaning, which is purely analytical, "seeks meaning entirely within the elements of a sentence to understand it" (qtd. in Problematology 237). To seek the meaning of a text would entail breaking it up sentence by sentence, then breaking up each sentence, then recomposing it by substitution. According to this theory, then, our understanding of earlier portions of a text would not be affected by the loss of later ones (Meaning 17)—something that could not be the case for even the simplest detective story. 2 Yet more difficult for the Fregean theory to overcome is the problem of fictional reference. How can we substitute an identical sentence to establish the meaning of another when there is nothing for them both to refer to? If we say about The Scarlet Letter, "Hester Prynne has a daughter named Pearl," does the statement have the same meaning as "Captain Ahab has a daughter named Pearl," since both statements have the same, false, referential status? In order to avoid such difficulties, do we have to go back to the old nominalist/realist debate and suppose that concepts can serve as the reference of propositions, or do we just declare that fiction has nothing to do with truth or that it offers a different "kind" of truth? The latter have been the usual answers, for in order to save the propositional notion of meaning the literary and the fictional have had to be regarded as deviations from the literal and referential.3 "Ordinary language" and ''scientific language'' are considered normal and primary because they are said to refer to something outside themselves—everything else is secondary and derivative. More significantly, as Meyer says, "In identifying meaning with reference, and, correlatively, the absence of meaning with the lack of reference, fiction seems to fall outside of the whole question of meaning" (Problematology 240). No better than referentialism, according to Meyer, is antireferen
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tialism. This is the view established by Nietzsche. It simply reverses the priority of the literal over the figurative, making metaphorical, literary language the standard. Nietzsche declared that the referential function of language was derivative and arbitrary, that the "truth" was enforced by the strong to serve their purposes. In "On Truth and Lies in a NonMoral Sense," Nietzsche tells us this: What, then, is truth? A movable host of metaphors, metonymies, and anthropomorphisms . . . which have been poetically and rhetorically intensified, transferred, and embellished, and which, after long usage, seem to a people to be fixed, canonical, and binding. Truths are illusions which we have forgotten are illusions. . . . (qtd. in Problematology 239)
Meyer contends that such a view of the logos "aims at showing that comprehension, because it makes plurivocal discourse literal, is in fact obsessed by the regulating norm of truth, the concern for a correct interpretation set forth as a principle" (Problematology 240). Antireferentiality, taken to its extreme by Derrida, describes language in terms of signs that can refer only to one another, privileging none. Discourse here is a troping upon tropes troping upon tropes, so that the object of discourse can be established only by a coup de force (240). Far from denying the conception of meaning underlying propositionism, deconstruction affirms that meaning is reference only to demonstrate that external reference cannot be accomplished. Figuration Problematology agrees that much literature is a troping upon tropes but draws a quite different conclusion from this fact. Because antireferential theory, including deconstruction, views context as nothing more than a collection of signs, it cannot account for "the basic difference between literature and everyday language." The difference lies in their alternative relations of form and context. Meyer explains that literature is characterized by "autocontextualization," which is ''the means by which literature enables itself to play with forms" (Problematology 142). Fiction creates its own context—the problematics that distinguish problems from solutions—by means of its forms. What would be implicit in everyday discourse is made explicit fictionally. This principle holds for literary form from the simplest setting of
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scene to the complexities of plot. The structures of both Greek tragedy and the detective story, for example, rely upon the withholding of the solution to a problem until the plot's end. Much modern literature, of course, denies itself solutions; the problems themselves become problematic, and literature thereby becomes more enigmatic. Structuralist and poststructuralist theory uses the autoreferentiality of signs in literature to support its claims about language, but problematology views the linguistic selfreferencing of literary signs not as a property of language as such but as only one possibility among others (see Problematology 143). Both the literal and the figurative uses of language derive from and are to be understood in terms of their implicit and explicit relations to the problematological difference between questions and answers. Which came first, the literal or the figurative? This question is what most of the modern debates about language come down to. A great deal is put at risk by posing the question this way. It creates an either/or dilemma: either all those statements that have no definite reference (problematologically, all those questions that cannot be put to rest by definitive answers) are meaningless, or else all statements have unlimited references so that all texts say the same thing (as if all questions have the same answer). From either theoretical point of view, meaning is lost. But, Meyer says, discourse is always meaningful. No hierarchy exists between the literal and the figurative, and neither is a deviation from the other. When we look problematologically at the difference between the literal and the figurative we can see that a "figurative" statement is merely the answer to a different question from the one to which the addressee would typically attribute it as an answer. For our hearer to understand our statement figuratively is for her to take it as an indirect answer to a question that she must infer from the context. In other words, to understand a figurative statement is to refer it to the question to which the statement is an answer—just as we understand a literal statement. Meyer gives the following example: He says "It's one o'clock" to tell a friend it's time for lunch. Since the friend didn't ask what the time is, it is clear to him that "It's one o'clock" is the answer to a different question. Since the friend knows the context—the problematics of the situation they share—he is able to infer that ''It's one o'clock" is an
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answer to the question "Is it time to eat?" That is, "It's one o'clock" is a figurative expression for "Let's eat!"—although one could just as easily say that ''Let's eat!" is the figural expression for ''It's one o'clock" (see Problematology 241–42). The difference between the literal and the figurative can be expressed as a difference between a statement that makes explicit the question it answers and one that requires the interlocutor to search for the question that gives the statement its meaning as an answer. Clearly, the figurative statement could answer more questions than the literal, so that, for instance, "I'm not hungry yet," "Our meeting is in thirty minutes," or "Let me finish this" could all, depending upon variations in the context, respond to different questions implied by "It's one o'clock" ("Are you hungry?" "Do we have time to eat?" "Are you ready to go eat?"). Yet such a multiplicity of meanings hardly renders the statement meaningless as it would if understanding depended upon Meyer's and his friend's language referring to the same object. Figurality does not mean undecidability; it simply "appears when discourse is susceptible of saying something else, that is, of referring to the implicit, of upsetting the expectation (i.e., by suggesting a query) that the grammatical constituents lead one to believe. Figuration is achieved by displacing that expectation onto another response? (Rhetoric 75). And this can always be achieved. The literal has no primacy over the figurative, or vice versa, because "all discourse can mean something other than what it says" (76), and it can because any utterance can be a response to more than one implicit question. Grammaticalization Yet such multiplicity does not suggest that any statement is an answer to every question. As Meyer explains the discursive motive, "If one speaks or writes, it is because one has a question in mind. Using language is how one responds to it" (Rhetoric 76). One intends one's speech to be referred to a specific question or questions or to questioning generally, so that we must in specific instances make the difference between questions and answers more or less implicit or explicit. Sometimes the locutor's response itself solves the problem; sometimes the solution depends upon his addressee. When to the locutor it is ap
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parent that the context is clear to his addressee, then their shared knowledge of the problematics of the situation serves to differentiate questions from answers. When I said to my wife, "It's 2:30, but I'm right in the middle of a paragraph," the problematics of our shared responsibilities for our child served as the problematological indicator. Other times it will be apparent that the context will not be clear to our addressee. When context does not provide enough information to differentiate, form serves the purpose. Thus there is, as Meyer terms it, a "law of complementarity": "The richer the context, the more form will deliteralize, the context serving as a problematological and figurative mediator. The less context is able to be invoked, the greater the grammaticalization of meaning (that is, of the problematic) will be" (76–77). In Meyer's problematology, grammaticalization is a consequence of the fact that "the constitutive difference of language" is the difference between questions and answers—between problems to be solved and solutions to be given. Because humans seldom share fully their discursive conditions (seldom are engaged with exactly the same problematical situation) something besides context is necessary to make explicit the differentiation between questions and answers. Grammar and style are simply mechanisms for formally marking this difference, and different forms can be understood in terms of the relation between what is left implied (contextual) and what is made explicit (formal). For example, "It is nice outside" is a proposition responding to a question implied by the theme of a conversation about the weather, while "Close the door!" and "What time is it?" make explicit the problem for which each utterance seeks a solution. Context, however, can always modify the function of form. For instance, ''I would like to know whether you are coming tomorrow'' is a question in declarative form, and we can suppose that it is even from this isolated sentence because we know that, in general, when someone says they want to know something to someone who can give them an answer, they are asking for an answer. How do we know this? Because the motive to discourse is always the same: "People resort to language because they have a problem in mind" (Problematology 138). Sometimes the context, the problematics of the discursive situations, is not clear to our hearer. Accordingly, al
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though "the very fact of speaking implies that the locutor raises a question thereby," sometimes the hearer "does not necessarily know which question the locutor had in mind" and so "must discover it" (138–39). This is the origin of hermeneutics. Sometimes the locutor anticipates the hearer's uncertainty and guides his or her search by using formal indicators. This is the origin of grammar. Consider a brief example. I say "Gregory Ulmer wrote Heuretics" instead of saying "Gregory Ulmer is the person who wrote Heuretics" because I assume that in this instance I need not specify with an interrogative the question to which my statement is an answer. In a different situation I might say the same while believing my audience would take it as the answer to the question "What did Ulmer write?" rather than "Who wrote Heuretics?" Or yet again I might believe I should specify and so say ''Heuretics is the book Gregory Ulmer wrote.'' In each case, grammatical form helps make explicit what is in question and what is an answer. At the same time, that which is explicit always "raises the question of which question it is the answer" (Problematology 139). Because this is so, grammatical differences always produce rhetorical effects. Suppose that during the 1996 Presidential campaign Bob Dole says, or has others say, "There is no known evidence that President Clinton has committed adultery." By means of the denial, the statement opens the question to which it is an answer. Such a statement, we could say, was intended to cast suspicion without emburdening the speaker with the need to provide proof. It would be, using the terms of this book, a powerful statement having no force. We can say, therefore, that just as there is no gaping abyss between the literal and the figurative, there is no abyss between the grammatical and the rhetorical, only gradations between the explicit and the implicit governing the relative weights we attribute to form and context. 4 When the meanings of utterances are taken to be their references, however, a gap appears to open between the literal and the figurative, the grammatical and the rhetorical, and one seems derived from the other, seems to depend for its sense upon the other. In other words, the supposed abyss between the grammatical and the rhetorical is purely a product of the theoretical belief that meaning is identical to reference.
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Debunking the Poststructural "Abyss" Consider, for instance, Paul de Man's influential article "Semiology and Rhetoric." In this article de Man praises "the demystifying power of semiology." Semiology, he says, demonstrates "that the perception of the literary dimensions of language is largely obscured if one submits uncritically to the authority of reference." Furthermore, semiology ''explodes the myth of semantic correspondence between sign and referent, the wishful hope of having it both ways, . . . of serving both the technique of form and the substance of meaning" (361). Far from denying that reference is identical to meaning, de Man argues instead that a text's formal elements necessarily undercut its capacity to establish positive references. He claims that an abyss lies between the grammatical aspects of language, which are to be understood solely in terms of the internal relations of a linguistic or poetic system, and the rhetorical aspects of language, which are to be understood in terms of their relations to a concrete discursive situation (understood as a spatiotemporally related collection of potential references). De Man levels his argument, therefore, against those literary theorists (he lists Barthes, Genette, Todorov, and Griemas) who "regress from Jakobson in letting grammar and rhetoric function in perfect continuity, and in passing from grammatical to rhetorical structures without difficulty of interruption'' (361). De Man's demonstration that grammar and rhetoric (as they are conceived by structuralism and semiotics) are incommensurable ways of describing texts is, from a problematological perspective, to be applauded. However, his demonstration never questions either those conceptions or the referential model of meaning upon which they are based, and problematology would take him to task for this failure to question. Because de Man neglects to examine the problematological difference and sticks to the old propositionist definition of meaning as reference, his analyses of the relation between grammar and rhetoric lead him to affirm the deconstructionist opinion that textual meaning is always undecidable. For instance, in the first textual example that de Man offers to demonstrate "the tension between grammar and rhetoric," he explores the effects of rhetorical questions because they represent "perhaps the
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most commonly known instance of an apparent symbiosis between a grammatical and a rhetorical structure . . . in which the figure is conveyed directly by means of a syntactical device" (363). He takes his example from the television situation comedy "All in the Family": [A]sked by his wife whether he wants to have his bowling shoes laced over or under, Archie Bunker answers with a question: "What's the difference?" Being a reader of sublime simplicity, his wife replies by patiently explaining the difference between lacing over and lacing under, whatever this may be, but provokes only ire. (363)
De Man says of this example that "the same grammatical pattern engenders two meanings that are mutually exclusive: the literal meaning asks for a concept (difference) whose existence is denied by the figurative meaning" (363). De Man insists that "it is not so that there are simply two meanings, one literal and one figural, and that we have to decide which one of these two meanings is the right one in this particular situation" (363). We cannot decide, says de Man. That, in fact, is what makes the question rhetorical: The grammatical model of the question becomes rhetorical not when we have, on the one hand, a literal meaning and on the other hand a figural meaning, but when it is impossible to decide by grammatical or other linguistic devices which of the two meanings (that can be entirely contradictory) prevails. (363)
"Rhetoric radically suspends logic and opens up vertiginous possibilities of referential aberration" (363), de Man says. This is what makes Archie angry, and his anger "reveals his despair when confronted with a structure of linguistic meaning that he cannot control and that holds the discouraging prospect of an infinity of similar future confusions, all of them potentially catastrophic in their consequences" (363). Really! Perhaps we can explain Archie's anger without supposing him to be abreast of current developments in semiotic theory. We could begin by looking at the two meanings de Man says are generated by the same interrogative structure. De Man says, "'What's the difference' did not ask for difference but means instead 'I don't give a damn what the difference is'" (363). For now we will suspend the question of how it could be, if the structure of the rhetorical question "opens up vertiginous possibilities of referential aberration," that de Man could know
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that these are the two possible meanings and which one Archie intended. Accepting for the time being that these are the meanings, let's see how de Man analyzes them. He says that the first, literal, meaning is a request for a concept (difference) that is denied existence by the second, figurative, meaning. The two possibilities are incompatible if their meaning resides in the existence or nonexistence of a reference—something outside language (a difference between shoes laced over and shoes laced under). We are confronted here with that anchor of propositionist thought, the principle of noncontradiction. There cannot both be and not be such a difference. The text cannot tell us whether there is or is not. We cannot interrogate the text about this, "For what is the use of asking, I ask, when we cannot even authoritatively decide whether a question asks or doesn't ask?" (363). So, along with Archie, we sink into despair facing the "vertiginous possibilities of referential aberration." At least we would so sink if that's what Archie meant. As a matter of fact, however, Archie didn't mean that (in the pragmatic/problematological sense of meaning), even to de Man. Rather than despairing over Archie's utterance de Man responds to it quite a bit. In order to respond to it by recognizing that Archie's question was rhetorical while his wife, Edith, took it as a substantive question, de Man must have taken Archie's anger as the problematological indicator in this exchange. The question of lacing over or lacing under was not Archie's problem—thus the rhetorical question. A rhetorical question is not one "when it is impossible to decide by grammatical or other linguistic devices which of the two meanings [literal or figurative] (that can be entirely contradictory) prevails" (373). That definition begs the question by assuming that meaning is identical with reference. Instead, Archie's question is figurative because it does not make its problem explicit, because as a question it declares there is no problem. As Meyer puts it, a rhetorical question "must be exclusively a purely formal question, in that it refers back to some preliminary assertion which it carries forward through implication" (Rhetoric 16). Archie's question therefore does not have two contradictory, irresolvable meanings but two distinct possible meanings, one an answer to the question "Do you want them laced over or under" that could be restated as "I don't care" or "It doesn't matter," the other a real question calling for exactly the answer Edith offers. Archie isn't angry at a
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language, the vertiginous possibilities of which he cannot overcome, but at the context of his discourse with a wife who clearly does not perceive the problematics of the situation as he does. The meaning of "What's the difference" is not to be found by searching for a reference "exterior" to a "language" but in the question or problem that engenders it as a response. In Archie's case, his question wasn't a real question because to him his problem should have been resolved by his asking the question. A rhetorical question indicates that a problem is outofthequestion. Archie wants to silence Edith, not solicit more speech from her. Behind this anger, then, lies a conception of self and a conception of discourse that is important for us to understand, a conception that suppresses problematicity. Logicality and Rhetoricity The conception of self threatened by Edith's explanation, that is, by her seeing a problem where Archie sees none, is that of the Cartesian ego, the function of which is to reduce all doubt, all questioning. A Cartesian ego maintains itself by its continual closure of the logos through a process of what Meyer calls rhetoricization. Rhetoricization (as in Kenneth Burke's identity rhetoric, see chapter 2) is the process of "displacing real questions, questions of the real, into questions to which one already has (intuition) or can recover (deduction) the answer" (Rhetoric 17). Reality, the continuity of the world, "requires precisely that any new question be reducible to an old one," that is, through the reduction of difference into sameness. The ego, then, is a rhetorical authority, but one that cannot acknowledge itself as such because its very function is to eliminate rhetoric—debatability—from discourse. To ask questions to which the ego does not know how to find an answer therefore challenges the ego's very identity. The problem with such a conception of self is that it cannot allow itself to confront any knowledge that does not emanate from itself as subject. But "Who is this 'I,'" Meyer asks, "if not the questioner himself? There is an 'I,' in fact, only because there is questioning: man is the only being who can pose the question of man, and having done so, the only one who can answer 'I . . .'" (Problematology 218). This "I," which would center all discourse by the elimination of all doubt, all questioning, is itself "perpetually put into question by all those ques
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tions which impel us to resolve this or that" (219). We are the questions we pose, and we are continually questioning ourselves with every action, gesture, and thought. Thus, "Descartes is hardly justified in posing the 'I' as the primary reality rather than the questioning process which produced that result" (218). For a Cartesian like Archie Bunker, the self is bound to those questions he alone generates: if the question of lacing over or under is not a problem for Archie, or cannot be rhetorically connected to something that is a problem for him, it cannot be a real problem. Therefore, he assigns Edith's response to the realm of the irrational—the realm of questions for which there are no answers derivable from the answers the ego already has. All questions that are, to the Cartesian ego, meaningful questions, must be answerable questions—that is, questions that can be given answers by referring them to previously answered questions. To the Cartesian ego, then, the only valid questions are rhetorical questions, questions that blur or suppress the distinction between questions and answers because the way to answer its "valid" questions is implied by the question. Here the logos is closed as are the rules of a game (see "Toward" 116–20). Imagine for a moment that Archie and Edith are playing chess (I know, it's a stretch) and Edith asks if would be better if she faced her knight toward the left or right. Archie would respond, "What's the difference?" Edith would proceed to explain, and Archie would get angry. Archie cannot answer the question because nothing in the rules of chess governs the direction a knight should face. Questions about chess such as Edith's are implicitly outofthequestion. Clearly, Edith isn't playing the same game as Archie. The parallel with de Man's example should lead us to see that just as what makes the progression of a game possible is that certain questions about it remain outofthequestion, what makes progressive discourse possible is that certain questions remain outofthequestion. At the same time, we must recognize that Edith's question is a real question, while any question that Archie would acknowledge as legitimate, such as, "Would it be better for me to attack your queen with my bishop or my rook?" is actually only a rhetorical question, the answer to which is implied by the rulebound context in which it is asked. So the exchange between Archie and Edith is hardly an example of the undecidability of meaning. As Meyer insists, "What is in question
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in a given text is identical to the meaning of that text" (Rhetoric 152). Archie's question is an answer, even if it does not stipulate which question it answers. Yet as Edith's response shows, every answer can suggest new questions. Thus "a text has a meaning without necessarily giving it, and sometimes it must be really sought after (hermeneutics)" (152). Moreover, every answer can be referred to more than one question; that is, every text is subject to figuration, understood as a relation between context and form. The multiplicity of meaning inherent to discourse means that every discourse can always be opened to question, and that makes argumentation and rhetoric possible. Even so, "at some point questioning must stop. Understanding relies on a mutual agreement as to the authority and, in the mind of the receiver, the credibility of what is said" (153). The agreement to stop questioning and accept authority (thus implicitly accepting as outofthequestion those questions that would undercut it) is the basis for discourse communities of all types, including academic disciplines. Meyer refers to this basis as the topoi of a discourse. The topoi are what interlocutors believe that the other believes, and these topoi define "what is outofthequestion in the question itself," thus enabling them "to differentiate what is problematic from what is not" (Rhetoric 56; Problematology 140). Accordingly, the more the topoi of a discourse are shared, the more decidable its questions become. The multiplicity of meaning, then, is a function of the relation of context and form, the implicit and the explicit, and is reducible only by mutual agreement upon topoi, upon what will be considered to be outofthequestion. Multiplicity of meaning thus raises the question of intentionality. De Man claims that we cannot know what Archie means (intends) because we cannot decide upon what he means (refers to). We can now see that, isolated from the problematics of a situation, a context, any sentence can seem to have indeterminate meaning. An isolated sentence seems to have meanings as an isolated sentence, but in fact there are no such sentences. 5 If I say "Consider the statement 'The cat is on the mat' as an example of the logical form A=B" and proceed to analyze it logically, it is not at all isolated but integrally connected to the question I am trying to answer (my intention). Through context, I have already ruled outofthequestion every question about each of the linguistic elements ex
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cept their formally defined syntactic relations, and so in this case "The cat is on the mat" does mean A=B, just as "My Bonnie lies over the sea" means the same thing when considered as the same kind of example. Now suppose I say "Consider the statement 'The cat is on the mat' as an example of a proposition when 'proposition' is defined as 'the content of meaning of a declarative sentence, i.e., a postulated abstract object common not only to different occurrences of the same declarative sentence but also to different sentences (whether of the same language or not) which are synonymous or, as we say, mean the same things' (Church)." In this case does "The cat is on the mat" mean the same as ''My Bonnie lies over the ocean''? That is, do the two statements have the same reference? Well, the answer is "yes" but if and only if we are willing to substitute one sentence for the other for the purposes of this example—that is, only in this context. Thus only when "The cat is on the mat" has a context can it be said to have a reference, and then it is dependent for its propositional truth upon being referred to whatever question for which "The cat is on the mat" is an answer. Perhaps I am willing to substitute "My Bonnie" for "The cat," "lies over" for "is on," and "the ocean" for "the mat" for the purposes of this example. Perhaps I have a cat named Bonnie and own a blue doormat I am perfectly willing to nickname The Ocean. In that case, if you were to ask where the cat is located, my response, "My Bonnie lies over the ocean," would make sense as a substitute for "The cat is on the mat" because both would answer the question. In other contexts, not this example, the substitution will not make sense when "The cat is on the mat" can have other meanings, answer other questions. Perhaps it could be a question of how the mat is decorated, maybe a question of why hair keeps getting on the mat, maybe a question of the success of a beatnik wrestler, maybe a question of providing an example of a rhyme—one could go on and on. The point is that what words refer to is subordinate to the questions they are responses to. Without knowing intention—that is, the problem meant to be solved by the utterance—we cannot know meaning, since they are the same. What then does "The cat is on the mat" mean? I wrote it. I should know. You, the reader, can know, too, but not without some inferential work. "The cat is on the mat" does not say what it means; it doesn't state what question it is resolving by its being said, or even say that it
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is answering a question. Thus, as my reader, you have to supply the question to which "The cat is on the mat" is an answer. For me, the statement is not problematic, while for you it is. What would it take for you to understand the statement? Meyer puts it this way: "Giving or acquiring meaning consists of substituting for an assertion which poses a problem an answer which states what is in question in the answer" (Problematology 224). He says, in other words, that your answer to the question "What does 'The cat is on the mat' mean?'' must be one that could substitute for mine by answering the same question that I intended by statement "The cat is on the mat" to answer. In this case, just about any declarative statement would do. To say the same thing, then, does not mean to have the same reference: "Comprehension consists of bringing [the other's answering] back to what it solves, not necessarily through a literal equivalence but through a problematological equivalence" (Problematology 224). There is, then, a problematics to every logical problem although it is covered over by the logician's appeal to form on the one hand (validity), and reference (truth) on the other. As we have seen, an hermeneutical act is required to sort out what is in question from what is not, but this act goes unnoticed because the function of logic is to provide answers in a way that is unquestionable. The cat is on the mat. The mat is in the hall. Therefore, the cat is in the hall. What is to interpret? Moreover, what is there to argue about? Either the cat is in the hall or it is not, right? Apodictic truth is established by the exclusion of its alternative. When rhetoric is conceived "as a possible procedure for deciding between propositions," Meyer shows us, "it will inevitably be inferior to science and logic, which are conclusive" (Rhetoric 68). To state a proposition is to render outofthequestion precisely that which rhetoric would argue about, the question upon which rhetoric would express an opinion. All that is then left to rhetorical argumentation is accommodation to an audience. Rhetoric thus appears to be merely an endeavor to persuade through the application of technique (62), and so it must be inferior to logic and science, which can give us answers to our questions. As Meyer demonstrates, however, the questions of logic and science are already rhetorical, treating as answered the question of what question a statement like "The cat is on the mat" is an answer to.
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A United Discursive Field According to Meyer, "what problematology seeks to demonstrate is that interrogative grounding requires neither an ontological foundation nor the necessity of any absolute, not even knowledge conceived as a network of apodictic propositionality" (Problematology 304). Put in terms of the problem posed by this book, the interrogative grounding of discourse means that disciplines such as logic, argumentation, grammar, literature, philosophy, and science differentiate themselves neither by kinds of objects "out there" to which their respective discourses refer, nor by semiotic "systems'' that constitute such objects, but by the way they distinguish questions from answers, by the mode of inference from one to the other that they entail, and by what they rule outofthequestion. Inference is involved in every field, and to infer is simply "to solve a question via another one that it expresses" (Rhetoric 65). In every case we infer from A that B ensues. We do this when reading literature, solving mathematical problems, or deciding upon political action. The difference lies not in what is done but in what is put outofthequestion in advance. As Meyer says, "There is no difference in principle between logical inference, rhetorical inference, and literary interpretation" (65). Rather than incommensurable kinds of discourses, we need to think in terms of a line, one articulated by Meyer's law of complementarity, running from the most literal (that is, when the problem to be solved is most explicitly spelled out in the text itself) so that form is the least problematic, as in logic and mathematics, to the most figurative and enigmatic, as in modern literary fiction and poetry. The more literal the text, the more its answer will dissolve the question that motivated it; the more figurative, the more its answer will be its own problematic character. Hermeneutic interpretation and rhetorical argumentation can occur at every point along this line but become most evident between the extremes, where the contextual problematics of topoi are most obviously in question, and the formal means of differentiating questions from answers are least explicitly shared. In this way, Meyer's problematology articulates "a unified concept of meaning, of dialogue, of interpretation, and even an approach to literature" (Problematology 258). In its most simple formulation, prob
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lematology says that logos, discourse, "is itself made up of questions and answers" (206), and its purpose "is to express problems and what we believe to be its answers" (206). Thus the answer generated by the question "What is discourse?" is that it is problematological differentiation, the sorting out of the difference between questions and answers. We are not talking about grammatical form here. Such differences, as we have seen, are not primary, and what grammatical differences mean depends upon problematological differences (In my father's house, for instance, "Would you please pass me the salt?'' is an order, not a question.). The logos is neither question nor answer but expresses both as the differentiation of one from the other. As Meyer stresses, "Affirming that the logos can be a question or an answer finally comes down to the fact that all discursive activity is a questioning process" (208). Understood as problematology, discourse study is primarily concerned with the examination of discursive activity, the process of questioning and answering. From the problematological point of view, the logos, discourse, is not just language, not just the verbal and written signs of a language that we use to make explicit what we have to say but includes all that is implicit. As we have seen, when we say what we have to say, we are responding to certain concerns; we make an answer explicit, but we tend to leave the question unsaid. This phenomenon makes it possible to do with language what we need language to do, but it also makes it possible for us to believe that an answer says something on its own, that its meaning is a product of its form, and that its truth lies in its relation to something over and against that form— its reference. In turn, the notion that a sentence is autonomous can lead us to believe that discourse itself is autonomous, that language is an entity unto itself functioning by different laws from a world to which it purports to refer. In the same way, we are led to believe that the world is "a fixed referent." But "nothing is more problematical than the existence of 'the World'" (Problematology 217). The world's objects emerge as problems for the logos to solve. From a problematological perspective, "reality" is a product of "rhetoricization," the connection of old to new questions and answers through discursive processes. Finally, the self is itself questioning. We are our own questioning. We are not primarily "subjects" over and against the world because "it
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is the nature of the logos to be addressed to someone, even if that one is passive, and therefore to have a respondent (even if the respondent is the questioner himself)" (220). For there to be effective dialogue, discussion must take place upon a question (221). To understand the other is to discover the problem underlying his or her discourse, to reconstruct the other's intention. To debate or argue is to disagree about the answer, but understanding is prior, and to achieve understanding requires in the first instance what Meyer calls "the hypothesis of sincerity" (221), his equivalent to Davidson's "rule of charity." To be able to speak at all requires us to have beliefs about the other's beliefs. Because full explicitness is impossible, discourse always takes place in context, in a relationship between the explicit and the implicit. In dialogue (and, at bottom, every discourse is dialogue), "each person takes the other's place in turns. Each one is the other, standing for himself and the other; therefore, each one must know at least a little bit of what the other knows" (222). As for Bakhtin and for Davidson, for Meyer discourse is always in anticipation of the other's response: "Each knows, and knows that the other knows (or at least thinks he knows), which allows them to address the other in a relevant way" (222). Language, world, self, and others are therefore all bound up in the logos and are related problematologically, not distinguished ontologically. Meyer shows us through his analyses how it has been possible to think of these as separate, incommensurable kinds of things. And, indeed, for specific purposes the assumption of their fundamental difference can be useful. Linguistic analysis, for instance, can be a helpful exercise for those preparing to engage in discourse in areas where the formal habits and expectations differ from their own (i.e., it can help learn another "language"). Yet, as Meyer warns, "Do we have the right to give ourselves over to a language that is never stated or uttered, knowing that sentencesinthemselves do not exist?" (227). We can now say that, implicitly, problematology is a (not, of course the) solution to the problems of linguistification and culturalization that I have outlined throughout this book. The positing of languages, cultures, and disciplines, like the positing of the rules of games, enables us to treat answers independently of the questions that give them their meanings, to render certain questions outofthequestion so as to make it possible to judge, to decide, and to take action. "Answers are
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important," Meyer's problematology tells us, "but they presuppose questioning, which is the real foundation" (Rhetoric 158). Problematology thus gives us an alternative both to the view that the meaning of discourse lies in its correspondence to referents in a world over against it and to the view that meaning lies in the internal coherence of selfreferring signs—to both traditional ontological foundationalism and contemporary antifoundationalism. Both of these can be explained, and their limitations exposed, by the problematological view that "What is in question in a given text is identical to the meaning of a text" (152). Not surprisingly, Meyer has a strong rejoinder to those who would set the limits of meaning and define the identities of persons by the boundaries of language and culture: He who pretends to have answers without their having been questioned, without having questioned them himself, should be quite shaken by all this. He is one who will obey, even if asked to sign his own death warrant. He is a creature of complete acceptance, one comfortable in hierarchies, the type of person in whom all Authority rejoices. Dedicated to being manipulated, he will also, if he can, turn the questioner into the prey for his weaknessbecomestrength. He will even seek revenge against the questioner he cannot be, recognizing in that questioner what puts him in question, in a vitally existential way. (Problematology 306)
Perhaps the greatest importance of the problematological way to study discourse is that it can assist us in distinguishing within the rhetorical element that exists in every discourse the evil from the positive. Every discourse that deals with the problematic and the questionable is rhetorical, but two ways of such dealing are possible. "Manipulative or evil rhetoric," Meyer says, "plays on the unjustified abolition of something which remains problematic, because it only offers problematic answers"— answers to questions that remain hidden. "Manipulation and propaganda proceed as if the question they were dealing with were solved" when in fact the question or problem remains as questionable as ever. "In contrast," Meyer says, ''positive rhetoric exhibits its questions and puts forth arguments in favor of or against the chosen solution," thus keeping visible the problematicity of the issue at hand (Rhetoric 155). In these days when one opinion or ''point of view" is said to be as good as any other, and when "the right to one's opinion,"
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no matter how foolish or malicious, is hardly distinguishable from "God's truth," Meyer's distinction between the evil and the positive is an important one to keep in mind. The distinction is especially important in democratic societies like our own, where the difference between the right thing to do and what the majority want to do is often confused.
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8 Beyond Composition So far this book has introduced "discourse studies" as a general alternative to philosophy, rhetoric, and the many special disciplines they have engendered. It has explored our old beliefs about "language" in order to suggest that they have been counterproductive, often unjust, but always inadequate descriptions of what discursive competence entails. It has introduced three alternative forms of discourse study that, with some revision, illustrate how discourse might be studied today. Now, however, this book must turn to a very concrete, practical question: Given what we now know about how discourse works, what should we do in order to change the general population's deeply entrenched beliefs about discourse? That is, now that we understand that what people believe about discourse affects how discourse works, how do we go about getting others to drop the notions of ''language'' and "culture" that prevent our communicating, our seeking "where causes converge"? One step toward this goal, perhaps not the most important step but at least a step, would be to drop the required "composition course" in colleges and universities in favor of some alternative that might better promote discursive competence. By "discursive competence" here I do not mean the ability to persuade others to do or believe what you (already) want them to, nor the ability to "construct sentences and paragraphs" in keeping with the conventional expectations of grammar and syntax, but the ability to help others to understand the objects of your own concerns, and to seek together the common causes of your questions and problems. When we teach the study of discourse, instead of teaching the composing of themes, that is what we are trying to do. Mikhail Bakhtin, Donald Davidson, and Michel Meyer, emerging from three distinct scholarly traditions, offer us three significant ways of engaging in what this book has defined as "discourse studies"—the study of communication that does not consider "language" or "cul
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ture" in distinction from "things" and "nature." Discourse studies proposes to regard language not as a medium of representation but as fundamentally a questioning process, a continual inquiry into the problems and intentions driving the discourse of others, a convergence with others upon the common causes of our concerns by means of responses to their discourse that anticipate their further response. Discourse studies recognizes that the motive to discourse is always to maintain a steady, rhythmic state of life, but that there is more than one way to achieve this aim. The work of these three writers implies that discourse is most productive (that is, it best helps us understand and cope with our world) when its ultimate aim is a rhythmic pattern of inquiring and making, questioning and answering—solving problems in order to recognize further problems. We become neurotic if not evil when we begin to seek not temporary contentment by solving problems but permanent certitude by silencing others—through persuading them to our own already determined sets of beliefs, through refusing to accept any but our own perspectives, or through processes of inclusion and exclusion by the setting of rules, the slavish maintaining of conventions, the worshiping of tradition. When we seek discursive silence through the silencing of others, we come to regard discourse as naturally an agonistic, strategic, battle of verbal wit; and we come to regard truth as but one more weapon in the arsenal of rhetorical persuasion. In such a situation, discourse, indeed life itself, can become nothing but a game, even if played for keeps. I have sought throughout this book to raise a question regarding the consequences of believing that language/culture and things/nature should be regarded as two distinct sorts of being. I have provided an answer to that question in the form of the statement, "What we believe about how discourse works affects how discourse works, and so affects the way things are." Few of us have believed that. Instead, we have come to believe that language is an abstract entity distinct from the world, functioning by laws different from those that govern the world, yet representing or constituting objects in the world. Our history shows that believing this has had a deleterious affect upon our ability to understand ourselves and our world. For one thing, the processes of linguistification and culturalization, by discounting the significance of what we believe about what others believe, have blurred the distinction between what I have called discursive power and rhetorical force,
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enabling us to justify both cultural and linguistic imperialisms and "multicultural" fragmentations of various sorts. These processes have also encouraged us to accept the proposition that who we are is necessarily determined by the "language" we speak, the "culture" we are born into, the "class" to which we belong—as if these rules, conventions, and categories would exist whether or not we or anybody else believed in them—rather than the proposition that we are the questions we ask, the problems we confront. Linguistification and culturalization encourage us to believe that no matter what we say or do reality will remain as it is, and we will be tomorrow as we are now. Discourse studies, in contrast, suggest that no matter what we say or do, our very saying or doing changes the way things are. Our problem is always to infer from the responses to our actions the conditions that prompt those responses, then to guess what changes our next response will incur. As Davidson has taught us, to truly understand how discourse works, we must erase the difference we historically have drawn between linguistic competence and the competence required for getting around in the world generally. However, once we accept this erasure, we must also conclude that we can have no general theory of discourse. Because the erasure wipes out any ontological distinction between what we say and what is, we must admit that what we say affects what is—and that includes admitting that what we say about how discourse works affects how discourse works, even when what we say is not true. What we believe about how discourse works affects how discourse works for us, and for anyone conversing with us, because to understand others means to anticipate how discourse works for them. Thus, in practice, our beliefs about what others believe about how discourse works will necessarily affect how we speak and write and behave. As a consequence, a general theory of discursive competence is impossible to formulate. If a general theory of discursive competence cannot be formulated, does that mean that we cannot derive from previously successful discourses principles and rules that can be applied successfully to particular discursive occasions, that we cannot establish standards that will guard us from future miscommunications, that, in short, we cannot teach students how to speak properly and write effectively? The answer discourse studies offers here is simple: If by "proper" and "ef
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fective" discourse you mean discourse that will satisfy your current expectations, that will justify your current values, that will rationalize your current beliefs, that will not challenge your fundamental conceptions about the way things are and ought to be, and that will not force you to alter your own discursive practices in order to respond to it effectively, then the answer is yes, of course we can—we have been doing that for centuries. The real question, however, is whether we want to continue to teach people to play that game. I have little doubt that we have been teaching that game in what we call the "composition" course in American schools and universities. This should not be surprising, since discursive games played upon artificial grounds characterize nearly every institution in our society. That fact alone should give me pause before suggesting that we should drop the teaching of composition in favor of some other kind of course. As a practical matter, students do need to understand those games. After taking that pause, however, I still think that teaching a "composition" or "howtowrite" course makes about as much sense as teaching a course on "how to live." We can learn about and teach students how people have lived, are living, or might live; we can teach them how the conditions in which people lived made their ways of living necessary or possible; we can teach them how people's beliefs about those conditions have affected how they live; we can teach them how people's beliefs about other people's beliefs about life have affected how they live; we can teach them how the requirements for life differ under differing conditions, and so on—but we cannot teach them how to live as such. All we can say about the teaching of life we can say about the teaching of discourse because once we erase the distinction between language and things, nature and culture, we have erased the difference between saying and doing—and so too the difference between discourse and life. So, just as I would recommend that colleges and universities drop a required "howtolive" course if they had established one, I recommend that they drop the required composition course. Of course, I am hardly the first person to suggest that we consider dropping composition as we now teach it from the curriculum. In fact, some might argue that the kind of composition course I am condemning has already begun to disappear from American classrooms. 1
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CompAnticomp In their anthology The Rhetorical Tradition, Patricia Bizzell and Bruce Herzberg offer several selections from nineteenthcentury composition textbooks that can serve my purposes here as illustrations of how "composition" was first conceived—and of how I believe it is still conceived. I presume that most of you reading this book have some knowledge of the history of composition during the twentieth century, and I know that as soon as you read the last clause of that sentence your eyebrows lifted. Certainly composition theory has changed a great deal from the old postEnlightenment notions, you will think. Let me quote from, say, Henry N. Day's The Art of Discourse (1867): All discourse should be at the same time logical, aesthetical, and moral, as well as grammatical. But rhetoric, or the art of Discourse, is not properly to be regarded as a department of either of these sciences. It only presupposes them, assumes them, and develops itself in conformity to their principles. (qtd. in Bizzell and Herzberg 866)
When I say that most composition teachers still believe the assumptions that lie beneath Day's distinction between disciplinary cognition and rhetorical expression, you might very well point to Bizzell and Herzberg's own introduction, where they assert, For rhetorical theory now, language is always persuasive in intent, always imbued with ethics and ideology. . . . Knowledge and belief are products of persuasion, which seeks to make the arguable seem to be natural, to turn positions into premises—and it is rhetoric's responsibility to reveal these ideological operations. (15)
After quoting this to me, you might then say, "Surely this contemporary view is quite different from Day's or from the one Alexander Bain propounds in his English Composition and Rhetoric (1866) when he says, "The composition of themes involves the burden of finding matter as well as language; and belongs rather to classes of scientific or other instruction, than to a class of English" (qtd. in Bizzell and Herzberg 875). Yet, as I have attempted to show throughout this book, the "anti foundational" social constructionism propounded by Bizzell, Herzberg, and many others of late and the rationalist theories of the nineteenth century (despite their obvious differences when it comes to what they say about issues such as the role of discourse in
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knowledge production or the relation of truth to communities) remain agreed upon one fundamental tenet—the belief that, as David J. Hill put it in The Science of Rhetoric (1877), language is "a medium of expression" (qtd. in Bizzell and Herzberg 879). One hundred and twenty years ago, his belief that language is a medium led Hill to assert that "Rhetoric cannot make laws for composition, but it can discover them, and explain why poetry pleases and eloquence wins, by referring their effects to the laws of mind and language" (qtd. in Bizzell and Herzberg 879). Today, as Thomas Kent claims, all three of the major approaches to composition pedagogy—the expressionism of Peter Elbow and Ken Macrorie; the empiricism of Linda Flower, John R. Hayes, H. H. Clark, Susan H. Haviland, and Barry Kroll; and the social constructionism of Kenneth Bruffee, Patricia Bizzell, and Barbara Couture—all accept the doctrine of linguistic media, and all "assume that discourse production and analysis can be reduced to systemic processes and then taught in classrooms in some sort of codified manner" ("Paralogic" 25). I repeat, then, "composition" theory has not changed fundamentally since it was first conceived as the rhetoric of the written in the nineteenth century. In fact, one might argue that writing instruction has taken some giant steps backwards in recent decades, at least in some areas of the country. For instance, my own state of North Carolina annually conducts a statewide testing of fourth, seventh, and tenth graders in order "to increase student achievement and teacher accountability throughout North Carolina" (Swofford B1). In the name of "accountability," teachers are evaluated for salaries and promotions by this and similar tests for other subject areas, and when scores go down, parents and politicians become vocally concerned. As my local paper quoted, one parent asked if he thought the schools were failing after he was confronted with test results showing that in his daughter's school only 35 percent of the tenthgrade students were proficient in writing, "How could anyone read them [the results] and concluded anything else? (B1). Well, what one can conclude is that the tests do not measure "competence" at all. According to the newspaper account, students across the state are given the same "prompt" and one hour to respond to it. The North Carolina Department of Public Instruction's Scoring Guide gives examples of such "prompts" and sample student responses and labels
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them "proficient" or "not proficient," along with a numerical test score from 1.0 to 4.0 (see appendix). For the fourth grade, a score of 2.5 represents minimum competency, so that a score of 3 labels the child's writing "competent" while a 2 labels it "incompetent." On the surface, such testing may seem reasonable, but if you look at the sample prompts and student responses from the perspective of discourse studies, what you find are utterly meaningless "prompts" and, unsurprisingly, equally meaningless responses. Here are the sample prompts given by the newspaper: 4th grade Name a time that you were very surprised. Write a story about what happened that surprised you. 7th grade Think about the kind of weather you like best. Name the kind of weather and explain why you like this kind of weather best. 10th grade Often in literature, authors use a friendship between characters to reveal the theme or some truth about human nature. From the novels, short stories, poems, or plays you have read, select a work in which two characters are friends. Explain the kind of friendship that the characters have, the message the author sends to the reader through this friendship, and the importance of this friendship on the work. The work you choose must be from world literature other than British (England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales) literature and American (United States) literature. Give the title and, if you remember, the author of the work. (B2A)
The sample responses for the fourth and seventh grades are given in the appendix to this book. After reading these prompts, even if you ignore their obvious political and theoretical biases, you may ask yourself, as I did, whether you could possibly invent prompts better designed than these to elicit insipid, inane, vapid responses. And after reading the responses you may ask yourself, as well, if it is possible to distinguish better from worse except by criteria that are either formal, empty, and meaningless or merely personal. What are the contexts of these prompts? What ques
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tions are to be answered, what problems solved, for whom, and when, and to what ends? Are there any conversations to which such prompts connect? If effective discourse is discourse that does what it sets out to do, that is, that elicits from others a response that leads to what Davidson calls a "convergence of causes," then the poor students of North Carolina are doomed to discursive incompetence because the only thing their teachers—whose jobs depend upon their students' scoring well by such meaningless criteria—will ever ask them to do is to "write well." The state of North Carolina could have done no worse than if it had tested its children's competency by asking them to "live well" for one hour under the observation of adults—a request that could only imply an order to "behave," to observe the "rules" as the child knows them, to stay in bounds, and ask no questions. The readers of such responses could have applied no criteria to them except their personal preferences and their assumptions about what is formally correct. For neither party involved in North Carolina's "writing test"—student or grader—is anything like effective discourse, communication of any sort, expected or desired. The test is a game. A game with no object. A game of chance. Existing outside of any context, any dialogue, or any living conversation the child is informed about or permitted to connect with, such prompts elicit student responses that can be no more than shots in the dark, and the graders' responses to their responses can be no more than merely formal or personal—the responses of a person whose needs and history and beliefs the student cannot begin to guess. The teachers, whether or not they are aware that such "evaluation" is no more than a game, and whether or not they approve, must for their own survival teach the game—and the students for the same reason must learn it. Why do we wonder that so few American adults can engage in fruitful, problemsolving, discursive inquiry? Teachers teach forms and neglect objects of discourse. The forms being nothing, nothing gets learned. Such is the consequence of our society's generally held belief that language is a medium. Such is the consequence of our believing that we can teach people "how to write." Although it has clung tenaciously to the assumption that language serves as a medium between ourselves and the world, during the postmodern era, like most other disciplines, composition theory has begun
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to critique itself. As a result, the last decade's most radical thinking suggests that the teaching of composition, as we now know it, is fruitless. Kent, for instance, much like de Man (see chapter 7), accepts the idea of systematic language but recognizes "that no conventional link exists between the sign and its effects in the world" and so connects what Davidson calls "the autonomy of meaning" with what Derrida calls "displacement." Because no such link exists between the sign and the situation in which it is used, a gap persists between grammar and rhetoric, between whatever rules one might formulate to describe how language has been used and the effects that usage might have in a particular situation. Linguistic ability, in short, cannot be systematized. Kent concludes, "If we believe that writing and reading cannot be reduced to systemic processes, then traditional courses and most literature courses go out the window" (''Paralogic'' 37). The composition teacher, "at best, can offer only advice" and serve as a collaborator (37). Similarly, Victor J. Vitanza, following Lyotard, argues that all discourse is mediated through "language games," which cannot be foundationally unified. Quoting Lyotard, he recommends that we "'bear witness to differends'; that is, . . . bear witness to the unintelligible or to disputes or differences of opinion that are systematically disallowed by the dominant language game. . ." (146). Because these language games are incommensurable and cannot be unified, Vitanza suggests "two possible conclusions—namely, either that there can no longer be or that ethically, micropolitically, there should not be any foundational principle or covering law or ontogenetic model for composition theory and pedagogy" (148). Accordingly, we should, he says, "deterritorialize students and turn them into drifters" (149), that is, teach them "just gaming, moving from one language game to the next, or drifting or just linking (paratactically, paralogically)" (147). According to Vitanza, we should teach students to "just drift" because we should not teach them what composition theory has always taught us it could do. For instance, Vitanza says that "what appears to be writing as discovery is only—unbeknown to its unselfconscious mystified self—writing that uncovers what has already been predetermined by the modes, or social codes, of production and representation" (150). He similarly doubts the traditional modes of composition. For example, because it is based on "a variety of (apparent)
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legitimation principles that we call warrants (according to Toulmin), grand narratives (according to Lyotard), and representative anecdotes (according to Burke)," and because its goal is rational consensus, which he views "suspiciously as political oppression," argumentation is "problematic" at best (151). Instead of an argumentation based upon the rational linking of commonplaces, we should teach "strategies'' that "would attempt to lessen the oppressive forces of discursive language; would attempt to be discontinuous, random, and filled with fragmented thoughts and digressions; would attempt to use sophistic ruse and counterruse" (165). So, on the one hand, Kent asserts that composition theories do not possess "a body of knowledge" and that "no totalizing theory . . . can describe how discourse hooks on to the world" ("Paralogic" 35), and he consequently throws composition as a discipline "out the window." On the other hand, Vitanza, while conceding that there is no "question of whether writing can be taught; obviously it can be either as craft or techne'' (161), suggests that both foundational composition and supposedly antifoundational social constructionism are unethical, necessarily authoritarian and, intentionally or unintentionally, merely reproduce dominant language games. As an alternative, he suggests that we intentionally undo the ideals of unified composition in favor of paralogical "dissensus" (165). Yet neither of these responses represented by Kent (we cannot teach composition) and Vitanza (we can but we should not teach it) is as devastating as Stanley Fish's response to the postmodern critique of composition theory. Simply stated, Fish claims that it does not really matter how we teach composition. Fish's antitheory of composition, made famous by his essay "AntiFoundationalism, Theory Hope, and the Teaching of Composition," takes to task those anti foundationalist theorists whom he identifies with social constructionists such as Bruffee and Bizzell who "have sought a methodological payoff for composition in the arguments of antifoundationalism" (Doing 346). In this essay, Fish first distinguishes foundationalism ("any attempt to ground inquiry and communication in something more firm and stable than mere belief or unexamined practice" [343]) from antifoundationalism (which "teaches that questions of fact, truth, correctness, validity, and clarity can neither be posed nor answered in reference to some extracontextual, ahistorical, nonsituational reality, or rule, or law, or value; rather, anti
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foundationalism asserts, all of these matters are intelligible and debatable only within the precincts of the contexts or situations or paradigms or communities that give them local or changeable shape" [344]). Fish identifies himself as an antifoundationalist; nevertheless, he says, although he "would certainly like to believe that the arguments to which [he is] committed will have a beneficial effect on the teaching of writing," he is "not convinced" (347). Fish's reason for his lack of conviction is simple, and, in my view, absolutely devastating to the dream of a social constructionist pedagogy. The aim of social constructionist theory is, as Fish says, quoting Bruffee, that we should "introduce our students to 'the notion of knowledge communities' and to the idea that knowledge is a function of belief rather than of unmediated communication with the world or with a selfdeclaring truth. Once we help students 'recognize that they are members of communities of knowledgeable peers,' then we can proceed to build from that knowledge to wider and wider communities'" (348). To Fish, this is just another instance of what he calls "theory hope," one that commits "the error of thinking that a conviction as to the circumstantiality of everything we know can afford us a perspective on our circumstantial knowledge and enable us to change it" (350). The discursive "constraints" of a situation will not be altered by our becoming aware of them. (Discourse studies admits that this assertion is ironically true, since such constraints can exist only as a function of someone's belief in them. You cannot not know you have a belief, so your behavior cannot change as a result of your becoming "aware'' that you do.) Accordingly, says Fish, the advice of theorists such as Bizzell, who urge that we ''teach students that there are such things as discourse conventions" (qtd. in Fish 351), is not only inconsistent with the antifoundationalism that inspired the advice but also ineffectual: "Being told that you are in a situation will help you neither to dwell in it more perfectly nor to write within it more successfully" (351). Moreover, Fish claims that "if the teaching of the theory of situations is inefficacious, the teaching of situations themselves is impossible and a contradiction in terms." The reason is that "a situation is not an entity, but a bundle of tacit or unspoken assumptions that is simultaneously organizing the world and changing in response to its own organizing work." A situation, so defined, is "always on the
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wing" and cannot be captured. Furthermore, "any attempt to capture it must itself be mounted from within a situation" and is thus "out of date" before it even begins. (352) The upshot of Fish's critique, then, is that if the doctrines of social constructionism are true then it logically follows that everyone who teaches composition is already doing what can be done to help students improve their writing. No matter what the teacher values, believes, and does, the student must respond to it, and the provision of a situation requiring practice at writing to it is all that a teacher should want to give. It does not matter what the teacher wants to see in a student's writing; when the student gives it to her, he has done all he can do, as she has done all she can do. The student has successfully practiced at responding to a situation; the teacher has successfully given the student an opportunity to do so. What the situation is is irrelevant. It's here today but gone tomorrow, and tomorrow the student will encounter another. So, all Fish can tell us is that "practice makes perfect, you learn by writing, you must build upon what you already know" (355). With Kent, Vitanza, and Fish preceding me, my own recommendation that we drop the teaching of composition in favor of discourse study seems not very radical. However, despite my sharing their concerns about traditional composition theory and pedagogy, because all three of these precursors retain the view that language is a medium between ourselves and the world, my suggestions for composition's replacement will be considerably different. Even so, enough of what they say coheres with what I will say to justify my taking one more look at their views. Thomas Kent First, Thomas Kent's Davidsonian approach to composition is very similar to my own to the extent that he exposes the inconsistencies of social constructionism in articles such as "On the Very Idea of a Discourse Community." Here he effectively critiques "the claim that what we know is determined by or is relative to the community in which we live" (426) using Davidson's analysis of Kantian "conceptual schemes." I am, of course, highly sympathetic with his prescription for the discipline of rhetoric:
Page 222 I believe that we need to stop talking about social norms, cultural conventions, discourse communities, semiotic mediation, language systems, and similar epistemological constructs, and, instead, begin to talk about the hermeneutic strategies we employ to get things done in the world. (438)
Sympathy, however, is not complete agreement. If he had said that we need to stop promoting various theories about norms, conventions, and so forth, as valid descriptions of how discourse always works and that we need to begin showing how people's belief in one or another of these theories has affected their discourse, then I might have agreed with him. Similarly (the second clause could easily answer more than one question, so he and I may in fact agree on this) if he had said we should begin to talk about the particular strategies that have been used to get particular things done in the world, rather than (as I think he meant) the strategies we always use to get everything done, then I might have agreed again. The strategies are no more teachable (in advance) than are the conventions, according to Davidson, and what I'd prefer to see Kent emphasize are the objects of discourse—the problems to be solved, the things to get done, the questions to be answered. As Kent's theory stands, all the advice it could offer the seventh grader from North Carolina confronted with the order to "Name the kind of weather [you like best] and explain why you like this kind of weather best" is a set of formal "strategies" used by others to respond to the same silly prompt. To respond effectively, the student needs an object for her discourse and an audience—a context, a discursive situation. For instance, put the child on a committee empowered to schedule three new holidays—then the question of what season's weather she likes best might have some relevance, then she might imagine what opinions her own might confront, then she can hear the prompt as a question with respect to other, nonweather related issues, and then she can write about it, for she will have an object with which to come to terms. Kent's lack of emphasis on the object pole of triangulation, despite his recognition of it, leads him into error at several points. Consider the following quotation: The most fundamental activity in discourse production, then, is not the inventional act: the attempt to discover how we might make our
Page 223 intention clear. The most fundamental activity of discourse production is the hermeneutical act: the interpretive guess we must make about our hearer's or reader's code that occurs even before invention becomes possible. ("Paralogic" 26–27)
Indeed, invention conceived as "the attempt to discover how we might make our intention clear" is not, as Davidson shows, fundamental. Invention, conceived as the attempt to produce the conditions that will affect our hearer's or reader's object (the problem to be solved) is fundamental. We do have to guess about the hearer's or reader's beliefs about how discourse works, and these may include beliefs about codes. However, the invention of common objects is the goal of these hermeneutic acts, these acts of discursive inquiry, not the discovery of some "code" that (I presume in Kantian fashion) constitutes an object. Clearly, Kent is not thinking of the shared objects of discourse as being "mutual causes" in the way the later Davidson does. If Kent did, he would not claim, for instance, ''that no totalizing theory . . . can describe how discourse hooks on to the world" (35) because he would not believe that discourse does "hook on to the world" but that discourse is part of the world, both affecting and affected by objects in the world. Holidays don't just lie around waiting for someone's discourse to hook onto them. Furthermore, I know that Kent cannot believe that discourse is part of the world or else he would not propose his "radical restructuring of the university so that every instructor would be made responsible for providing information about discourse production and analysis in her particular course" (41). If he did believe it, he could just as well say that "every instructor would be made responsible for providing information about the questions to be raised and the problems to be solved in the course." As Archie would say, "What's the difference?" Myself, I do not want to become one of "the new Sophists" and "assume the pragmatic responsibility for helping students adapt their discourses to the discourses of others'' (40) if by to "adapt" he means (as I think he means) for students to accommodate the beliefs they wish to convince others of to the beliefs they think others already have. Audience accommodation is precisely what discourse studies does not want to promote. But if by to "adapt" Kent means for students to alter their discursive behavior to account for conditions affecting others' discourse
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of which the students were previously unaware, then I can agree with him. The teacher's true pragmatic responsibility is to introduce students to the causal conditions that affect others' discourse and might come to affect their own (that is, to introduce students to the objects they do not yet know in the one world we share) and to empower students to affect others with their knowledge. Vitanza If Kent's recommendations for changing composition fall short of what we might expect, given his use of Davidson's work, Vitanza's are perhaps more useful than we might expect, given his reliance upon Lyotard's work. Believing that "language games" are incommensurable systems tending toward totalization and ideological domination, Vitanza suggests that we teach students to "drift," to shift among and mix up language games eclectically, paying special attention to those games which are "disallowed by the dominant language game," which he identifies with science (146). Vitanza's is an ethical and political concern, and as such it echoes that of a number of contemporary composition theorists who believe that by playing with composition pedagogy we are playing for high stakes indeed. Sharon Crowley, for instance, commenting upon Bizzell's project of resisting the hegemony of dominant discourse, notes that "Because nearly every student who enters an American college or university is required to take a composition course, [Bizzell's] project indeed has potential for bringing about social reform'' (196). She adds this caveat, however— ''We must also admit that we enact our own hegemonic desire when we use the required composition course to teach our preferred politics" (197). This, of course, is Vitanza's very reason for wanting to teach dissensus rather than consensus, paralogic rather than logic. Traditional composition pedagogy cannot help but reproduce the teacher's own desires, he says. According to Vitanza, this "Socratic pedagogy" is best described by Kenneth Burke in his A Grammar of Motives, "specifically, his example of a card trick in which an inquisitor uses a series of questions that force an interlocutor to arrive at the predetermined conclusion to the inquiry" (166). This same trick has been attributed by Jasper Neel to "the metaphysics of presence," which informs typical composition exercises such as sentence combining. Such exercises as
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sume "that meaning precedes and informs writing" so that substance and structure can be dissociated. When presented with this view of composition, students are "tempted to retreat either into psophistry [sic], where they can substitute their ability to persuade for their inability to know, or into antiwriting, where the purpose is nothing more than to announce sentences as mature, carefully embedded examples of themselves . . ." (168). It follows that, if the meaning of a composition can be known prior to the composition, a pedagogy that assumes this will also know what sort of composition it will consider effective prior to its being written. Instead of accepting the Platonic notion of writing as a working toward a preconceived position (70), therefore, Neel recommends teaching students to take ''a dialectical position," one that "always holds itself in question" (87). According to Neel, teaching dialectical discourse, so defined, demands an entirely different sort of pedagogy from the compositional model that requires students to have their answers ready prior to their writing toward them. In the traditional pedagogy, he says, "the writing teacher's purpose has nothing at all to do with understanding what the students have tried to write; quite the contrary, the teacher . . . sets out from the beginning to show those moments in the text where the texts do not accomplish their own goals" (135). In short, teachers following traditional pedagogy do not listen to what students have to say; they speak at them about how they should say it. Vitanza reaches a similar conclusion, and to counteract this pedagogical tendency he turns to Lyotard's distinction between "language as a spoken game and language as a listening game" (153). Vitanza quotes Lyotard at length as follows: For us, language is first and foremost someone talking. But there are language games in which the important thing is to listen, in which the rule deals with audition. Such a game is the game of the just. And in this game, one speaks only inasmuch as one listens, that is, one speaks as a listener, and not as an author. It is a game without an author. In the same way as the speculative game of the West is a game without a listener, because the only listener tolerated by the speculative philosopher is the disciple. Well, what is a disciple? Someone who can become an author, who will be able to take the master's place. . . . One of the basic rules [of the listening game] is indeed that the position of sender must remain empty. No one may put herself or himself there; no one may be the authority. (qtd. in Vitanza 153)
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I take Lyotard's listening game as an approximation to Davidson's radical interpretation or to Meyer's recognition of problematological difference, modes of "listening" that do not posit in advance what another's words should mean or how that meaning should be expressed. Indeed, Vitanza says that the listening game "is a game played proleptically," and quotes Lyotard's pronouncement that "the artist or writer 'work[s] without rules in order to formulate the rules of what will have been done. . . . Post modern would have to be understood according to the paradox of the future (post) anterior (modo)''' (Lyotard, qtd. in Vitanza 163). Such a conception of meaning as something future to be attained rather than something antecedent to be represented, although paradoxical only when considered from Lyotard's assumption that language is a medium, certainly seems to cohere with the pragmatic conception of meaning that I have been promoting all along. There is, nevertheless, a very large difference between my own conception of meaning and Vitanza's; consequently, there is a large difference between his recommendations for teaching writing and my own. Vitanza believes that writing is always and necessarily games play, so that the only ethical alternatives to them are countergames that he describes as "discourse strategies as art, which attempt to keep knowledge from being realized as a system, as categories, as generic, as techne, as political 'linking'—and more so, as 'teachable'" (163). These should be "played in such a manner" that it "cannot (that is, its rules of linking cannot) be known," and they should be "designed to resist totality, humanity's rottenness, with perfection'' (163). I, too, believe that most of the time people do play linguistic games, and perhaps such countergames occasionally come in handy when the writer believes his reader will insist upon imposing the rules of an alien game upon his discourse. However, language games do not constitute situations even though they sometimes attempt to organize them. Just as I (occasionally) organize the stuff in my office but cannot organize the office as such, no language can organize a situation as such. Being part of situations, people's beliefs about language games are there for us to understand just like anything else in situations. People's beliefs do not constitute situations. When we believe there is but one world, our aim in discoursing with others should be to understand the way things are, and the way things are includes the conditions that affect others' discur
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sive behavior. These conditions, in turn, include their beliefs about how discourse works. We achieve such understanding by using interpretive guesses to seek out those causes that can affect us commonly. By thus enlarging our own ability to be affected by what can affect others, we provide others with opportunities to be affected by what affects us. Vitanza, perhaps, after reading the fourth graders' responses to the order to "Write a story about what happened that surprised you" might comment on the conventional forms the children are so selfconsciously, if unsophisticatedly, attempting to reproduce. Neel would no doubt call these responses "antiwriting," writing, the purpose of which, ''is nothing more than to announce sentences as mature, carefully embedded examples of themselves." Students taught either Lyotard's ''listening game" or Neel's "dialectical discourse" would not simply play the game announced by the "prompt" but go after the prompt itself, question it and the motive behind it. Of course, a student could make just another game of such an inquiry, as Vitanza supposes is the only viable alternative to the writing game proposed by the prompt, but the student could as easily imagine a real questioner behind the prompt, a questioner who perhaps sincerely imagines she has a real question. Unfortunately, I cannot give you an example of what such a response would look like. Such a response is impossible to predict outside the context of a particular student with a particular history in a particular situation. The impossibility of there being a "response in general" or a "typical response" is precisely why standardized testing of discursive ability is oxymoronic nonsense. What we want from an effective writer is what we could not know in advance. Effective responses presuppose students who are discursively aware—who know that people have differing beliefs about how discourse works, who know that what they believe about a situation will change when confronted with the discourse of others within the situation. Is such awareness too much to ask of a boy or girl in the fourth grade? I doubt it. Yet, too much to ask or not, such sophistication is the prerequisite to writing that matters. I agree, then, with Vitanza (as well as Neel) when he suggests that the aim of writing courses should not be to teach students to persuade others to conclusions they have come to prior to their coming to write,
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and I agree with him that the aim of consensus promoted by social constructionism is no better because we can come to consensus only about objects we have already consented to prior to discoursing with others. We don't have to agree with everybody all the time; sometimes what they or we believe is simply untrue. Truth is more important than consensus. Still, it is true that what we and they believe is real and part of the one world in which we must survive. The aim of our courses, then, "writing" courses and otherwise, should be to offer to our students whatever they need to be able engage in effective discourse with others—to be affected by the causes affecting others' discourse and to affect others' discourse with their own; to encounter as problems the problems encountered by others and to initiate questions when others' answers don't solve their own problems. This is empowering students—giving them access to others' discourse and providing them with the terminology and technology to engage their own beliefs with what others believe about the objects in question and with what others believe others believe about them. With such recursive power they may more forcefully and satisfactorily change the way things are. We have to teach them that, no matter what they say or how they say it, their discourse is always already changing the way things are—just not necessarily the way they might want it to. Our job is to help them to learn how their understanding others' responses to their speech and writing can empower them, that is, teach them more about the way things are—and how to alter their own responses to others' responses so as to learn more, rather than simply to cling tenaciously to the patterns of response and sets of beliefs they already hold. Life, in the conception of discourse I am promoting here, is always on the go, but it is on the go toward understanding and coherence, not merely on the go away from the fear that understanding and coherence—Lyotard's feared totality—will be illegitimately claimed to have been already achieved. Fish Vitanza wants us to teach students to "drift" in order to help them avoid being ideologically appropriated by dominant discourse. At the same time, he believes, allowing them to drift will prevent our own failure, the failure of using the "abnormal" pedagogy of inseminating
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students with our own beliefs, a pedagogy he identifies with pederasty (162). Apparently, Vitanza's "drifting" would mean avoiding pedagogical failure even at the cost of encouraging students to write what most of us would call sheer nonsense. Stanley Fish, in contrast, seems assured that, no matter what we do as teachers, we can hardly fail. Since the only possible object of a writing course is to provide students with the opportunity to respond effectively, that is, persuasively, to a discursive situation; since every writing course, no matter what the teacher's beliefs and expectations, no matter what the assignments, is such a situation; and since, in order to succeed, the students must accommodate the teacher's beliefs and meet her expectations, it doesn't matter what our philosophy of composition is (so long as we're sincere?): Vitanza's students must "drift," Bizzell's must conform to the conventions of "the academic community,'' Neel's must engage in "dialogue," Bruffee's must reconcile contending perspectives to reach consensus, and so forth. None of these teachertheorists can actually accomplish what they think they are accomplishing, yet still they are doing all that can be done. Good writing practice comes from practicing writing—period. I must admit that on days when I feel most insecure about my pedagogy I think about this doctrine and gain comfort from counting the beads of its tenets. I do wish it were so. Unfortunately, the fact is that only when you believe that reality is one thing and language is another, or only when you believe that "language games" or "interpretive communities" or something like them constitute the way things are (for you), only, in short, when you are a skeptic or a relativist can you possibly believe that such a doctrine is so. Nevertheless, it is so (as far as you can say) when you do believe it, and in consequence there will be little in your discursive practice to elicit doubt about your currently held beliefs. Moreover, when you believe that discourse works as Fish believes it works, you have no motive to do otherwise than to insist as a teacher that students conform to the situation—that is, that they make an appropriate paradigm shift or, to put it more honestly, convert to your way of doing things. No doubt Fish would advise the tenth graders told to "Explain the kind of friendship that the characters have, the message the author sends to the reader through this friendship, and the importance of this friendship on the work" to "give the examiner what
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he wants"—even though the prompt violates everything Fish's own reader response theory of meaning insists upon, and even though Fish's own writing career is a history of his not giving his readers what they (initially) believe they want. For Fish, it will not help the students to know they are in a situation in which others do not necessarily believe as they do about how discourse works. Fish, following Derrida, is writing here of: [T]he situation in which knowledge is always and already mediated, the situation in which language rather than being the mere [i.e., transparent, nonconstituting] medium or instrument with which we interrogate the world is itself the origin of the world, of our modes of interrogation, and of ourselves. (348)
When you adhere to such a belief, of course it will follow (for you) that "the realization that something has always been the case does not make it more the case than it was before you realized that it was" (348). But when you believe that the "situation" you are in, understood as the "bundle" of your beliefs about what is, does not constitute the world but is merely part of the world, you reach a different conclusion. If we observe, as a simple instance, the effects of the proliferation of dictionaries, we can easily see that as more people believed that the correct or standard spelling of "dog'' was dog, that is, as more people believed that most people spelled it that way, then more people did spell it that way, so that believing it was the case made it more so the case. Once again we find Fish eliding the difference between rhetorical force and rhetorical power (see chapter 1). Fish misses the difference here because he misses the difference between saying that a statement, to be "more true," must be a better representation of something "out there" than another statement (but that such representation cannot happen) and saying that a statement is more true when it is a better predictor of the effects of believing it, and that such truth can happen. It's difference between believing you are in a situation in which no matter what others say, you cannot learn from them because what you hear must conform to what you already believe, and a situation in which everything you hear from others will change something of what you believe. In short, whereas in the view of discourse studies what we say and hear is part of the situation, in Fish's "antifoundational" view,
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the situation is constrained by your "language" prior to your actual discourse. After all, when you believe that conceptual schemes, or what Fish calls structures of belief, determine the world for you by constraining your choices, then "the degree of constraint—at least in relation to an ideal condition of freedom—is always the same and always total" (459). When this is so, then, from your perspective, converting others to your beliefs is emancipating them because you cannot help but believe that your views are the best to have, for if you didn't, you would believe something else. As Fish puts it, "liberation or emancipation is nothing more (or less) than the passing from one structure of constraint to another, a passing that will always be attended by the 'discovery of new possibilities,' but of possibilities that will be no less (or more) than those that have been left behind" (459–60). At the same time, however, in Fish's view, attempting to actually convert students to your beliefs is pretty futile itself. Persuading others to one's own perspective is a matter of contingency—of plain old luck, if not, as Fish's Puritans called it, Divine grace—because shifting to another paradigm is, from the perspective of a currently held structure of beliefs, irrational. Thus, "one simply cannot tell in advance what will work a change in someone's views" and one must rely entirely upon "rules of thumb" (461). Most of the time, students will "remain within the circle of beliefs in relation to which the responses they automatically offer are at once obvious and satisfying" (460). I presume, then, that the teacher who believes Fish's doctrine will feel free to fail any student who does not meet her expectations without needing to wonder if she had done as a teacher all she could have done, just as the Puritan minister of old who had preached the Word believed he should feel no sympathy for the damned sinner who had heard but had failed to convert. After all, as we saw in chapter 1, for Fish, actual force (here, the threat of hell or failure) is the same as rhetorical force. Because of this, neither students' nor sinners' failures will raise doubts for either Fish's teachers or his Puritan preachers. This must be a truly comforting doctrine to those who accept it, for once you accept it, you can explain every change and every unmet expectation because a "structure of beliefs," like the Puritans' omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent God, ultimately explains everything. A
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structure of beliefs, according to Fish, "is not a collection of discrete and static items, but an engine of assimilation, a bundle of related goals, purposes, priorities, hierarchies which is forever transforming the landscape into material for its own project, but which is itself transformed by the very work it does . . ." (463). Such a "bundle," like God, can never be the object of discursive inquiry, but everything that can be the object of inquiry can always be considered to be constituted by the "bundle." If, however, you believe in neither of the alternatives Fish offers—neither the positivist (the "collection of discrete and static items'') nor the structuralist (the "engine of assimilation'') version of the way things are—but instead believe in causes that can, but do not necessarily, affect us and in problems that can be, but are not necessarily, related—that is, if you think beliefs are pragmatically holistic, but not necessarily totalistic—then as a teacher you will not be comforted by the doctrine that your mission is conversion or nothing. You will not be comforted because then you will believe that "reality grows," unlike Fish, who makes no distinction between what he believes is real and what he believes is real for others (since, according to his theory of incommensurability, he cannot possibly understand what others believe except in his own terms). Because he does not make this distinction, Fish can believe that "awareness is not a quantity that can be increased or diminished." Always the totalist, for Fish, awareness cannot be enlarged "because any gain in awareness is simultaneously a loss" since "the passing from one point of view to another deprives you of whatever insights and certainties [that] flow from the point of view you have 'transcended'" (462). If Fish were right then getting around in the world would be pretty difficult. Say I was choosing a lamp for my office. Fish would claim that I could look at it from either an aesthetic perspective (does the shade complement the office's other colors?) or a practical, workoriented perspective (does it give off enough soft light to read by?). If he were right, then taking on one "perspective" would disallow my considering the lamp from the other perspective. It would be sheer "contingency" to find a lamp satisfying both points of view. What I would have to do is set up a hierarchy (since this is an office, my reading comfort is very important) and assimilate the lamp's qualities to my already determined ends.
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Such a strategy, the only strategy Fish's totalizing perspectivism will allow, would prevent me from recognizing that my separate problems have common causes. It would prevent me from conversing even with myself. In this case, I would not be able to note that the color of lamp shade affects the softness and brightness of the light, as does the color and texture of the walls the light will reflect from, the placement of the lamp in the room, and so forth. In contrast, to the student of discourse, every solution, as Meyer says, is the solution to more than one problem. Problems may or may not be related. It is not the case that "the passing from one point of view to another deprives you of whatever insights and certainties [that] flow from the point of view you have 'transcended'" for the simple reason that your point of view does not constitute, but is a part of, the situation, and because what you can know from a point of view is not the situation itself but objects within it and their relations to one another. Reality grows—it doesn't just reconfigure itself into another world with every new problem you encounter and upon every new recognition of some cause. Moreover, just as our conversations with ourselves enrich our sense of the way things are, so too do our conversations with others. When we assume others are sincere they are to us simply other selves with whom we converse, selves aware of and affected by some similar and some different conditions from those affecting us, encountering some similar and some different problems from our own. Not only may we find out through our discursive encounters that the objects of their concern may also affect us, but also that their very concern should be a concern of ours, since what they are concerned about may be a part of our world. More important, the only things that create doubt about our own beliefs are new beliefs that conflict with our old ones—either our own new beliefs or the beliefs we attribute to others— that is, those we infer from their responses to objects (discursive or otherwise) in the world. An unexpected disagreement with others is not a sign that there are other worlds we cannot know but a symptom of our not understanding part of our own world. On Courses in Discourse Thomas Kent believes that reading and writing cannot be reduced to systemic processes. Victor Vitanza believes that when reading and
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writing are taught as systemic processes governed by sets of rules and conventions, they unethically reproduce dominant ideologies. Stanley Fish believes that teaching students that there are rules and conventions in general does them no good and that teaching them situations in particular is impossible. With all three of these views I agree entirely, although, as I explained in the previous sections, I cannot agree with their recommendations for altering (or not altering) the way we teach reading and writing. I cannot agree because those recommendations remain based upon the belief that language and culture are (inadequate) mediums of expression, and I no longer believe that. Because I no longer believe that, my main motive for writing this chapter is to encourage other members of my profession to stop enculturating students into what I consider to be the (very large) cult of culture and language. Only when students are faced with the counterbelief that "language" and "culture" are not necessary to communication because to communicate is to come to be affected by the same causes, problems, and questions—only then will students be able to recognize that what we believe about how discourse works affects how discourse works. Discourse does not work in any one, universal way, which is why neither I nor anyone else can formulate a general theory of discourse. How it functions for any one person at any one time is in part a consequence of how that person believes it functions, just as what that person believes about what other people believe about how discourse functions affects how it functions. The decision to teach discourse rather than composition involves more than this ontological difference, however; the ethical and political difference cannot be separated from it and is just as important. As I have suggested many times in this book, a speaker or writer gains discursive power to the extent that others credit his or her ability to persuade still others to credit him or her with force, rhetorical or actual. Subsequently, in order to increase one's power, one's discourse must account for what people believe other people believe about the object of the discourse. If, then, our aim as teachers of discourse is to empower our students as speakers and writers, our initial pedagogical aim should be to introduce them to powerful discourses and to inquire with them about why it was that those discourses convinced people that others would be convinced by it.
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Teaching Historically What we believe about what others believe does, and should, affect how we speak and write, but if we want students to go further than mere audience accommodation, we must also aim at helping students to investigate the causes of the beliefs people have had. Such causes are often most easily discerned when they cease to be effective. Thus it is that, contrary to common opinion, historically distant discourses are often easier for us to understand than contemporary ones because our differences in belief from distant writers, coupled with our tendency to respect them, can alert us to those causes and problems affecting their discourse that do not affect our own. Contemporary discourses we tend to either simply praise or condemn because, indoctrinated into the cult of common languages and cultures, we assume that the discourse in question means what we would have meant had we said or written it, so that its differences from our discursive habits do not alert us to causes and problems of which we may not be aware but alert us instead to an assumed irrationality we would hope to avoid. Believing others, at least initially, is the price we must pay to live in one world, and the one world is the only world we can know. Consequently, in order to learn more about that world, we need to curtail our tendency to praise or condemn precipitately upon encountering differences. Our need to survive should be reason enough to encourage us to treat reading and writing as historical processes. Yet there is another reason to teach discourse historically. The conversations we would have our students enter are not only ongoing but longstanding. Structuralism may have claimed that knowing the history of a language game's play cannot help us make our next strategic move within the game (see chapter 4), but we have learned from Bakhtin, Davidson, and Meyer that discourse is no game, that it need not, and very often should not, be treated as a game. Through discourse we understand and affect our world. The objects of our discourse, which can include those habitual marks and noises we make that help us to discourse, are neither thingsinthemselves nor the elements or products of conceptual schemes; rather, they are the causes of effects we attempt to anticipate. And whether those objects are animals in a field or rocks on a mountain or marks on a page or waves on an oscilloscope, we understand
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them with respect to our beliefs about how others understand them, and those beliefs are always a result of our inferences from our perceptions of how those others have responded to those objects. When we accept that we and others live in the same world, and when we assume the sincerity of other's attempts to communicate with us, we then assume that what affects them can affect us. When this is so, our perceptions of discursive difference lead not to judgments of irrationality or (hardly better) judgments of incommensurability, but to alterations in our beliefs about the world. In other words, the objects of our discourse change—they are historical. As a result, to understand an object we must understand the history, the problematics, of its becoming an object for our discourse. Teaching Objectively The primary aim of interpretation is to understand the objects of another's discourse, and the primary aim of discourse is to make our own objects of concern understandable to others. To communicate with other persons is to bring them to be affected by the same causes—the problems and questions—that affect us. Successful communication, therefore, as Davidson showed us, does not necessarily require that we use the same marks and noises in the same way as the person with whom we communicate. For me to understand your discourse is for me to learn what concerns you. To teach me that, you must, through your discourse, move my discourse to be affected by the same causes—by the same problems and questions that affect you. Even if I fully understand you, however, I need not agree with you or elect to use the same marks and noises as you. Other causes—other problems and questions—may affect my understanding of the objects in question and any preference of discursive tools. According to discourse studies, however, there would be no question but that any relevant causes or problems or questions that you bring to my recognition that I had not recognized before will necessarily alter the object for me and probably alter my discourse about it. The same would go for you. The relationship between interlocutors that I just described is, obviously, not one of equality. That is to say, about any given object you and I might discuss, either you or I will have more to say that will affect how the other will discuss that object in the future. The recog
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nition of such inequality is necessary to human survival, and for this reason the potential for learning from another or teaching another about a common world is the ultimate motive to discourse. Although the potential inequality among interlocutors with respect to specific objects of concern underlies all discursive activity, when formalized, that inequality becomes the basis of the institutionalized teacherstudent relationship. We choose a teacher because we assume that the teacher either has workable answers to the problems and questions we already have, or because we assume that the teacher can make us aware of significant problems and questions we do not presently know exist. The teacherstudent relationship is necessarily a power relationship because we make those assumptions prior to our being taught based upon what we believe other people believe about the teacher's ability to answer our questions or bring us to ask new ones. An authoritative "position" within an institution is nothing more than a formal indicator of the beliefs of others whom the student believes are sincere. Having such an authoritative position does not mean that the teacher's discourse is authoritative in Bakhtin's sense. Far from it. Teaching, to be teaching and not indoctrination, must be dialogic. Because teaching is dialogic, learning students will converge their discourse with the teacher's toward the objects of the course, not simply ritually repeat the teacher's incantations. Moreover, because the teacherstudent relationship is a power relationship, students will, and properly should, expect that the objects of a course will be of concern not just to the teacher and eventually to the student but to those others upon whose beliefs the student based his or her decision to choose the teacher. Teaching, like all discourse, is social. I draw three conclusions from this brief analysis of the teacherstudent relationship. First, to teach at all we must teach objects. There can be no teaching of "language" or "culture" or "life" or "the world'' anymore than, as Fish says, we can teach ''the situation," or even particular situations. What we can teach are the objects affecting situations, including responses to those marks and noises people make within situations. Attempts to "improve student writing" in general are useless—we can only help students' abilities to effect changes through discourse regarding this object or that. We might use the analogy to health, here. We can do nothing to promote health in general, yet by exercising muscles to achieve this object and that one, by ingest
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ing this nutrient or that one, by refraining from this practice or that one, we can achieve what we call "health." The analogy breaks down, of course, when we consider that what we believe about achieving health has far less to do with our actual health than what our beliefs about discursive ability have to do with our actual discursive ability—muscles do not respond in anticipation of our subsequent response. Even so, what we know about physical training can tell us much about effective discursive training. Teaching Actually A case in point is the second conclusion I draw from my analysis of the teacherstudent relationship: Just as gymnastics trainers or soccer coaches do not train their athletes in abstraction from the apparatuses of their sports, neither should discourse teachers attempt to teach writing in abstraction from the associated objects of a discursive situation. Most composition courses are and have been far too much like the "think method" of music instruction employed by Professor Harold Hill in the musical The Music Man. If discourse studies has taught us anything at all, it is that the "context," as Meyer uses the term, or the "tacit knowledge" of the situation, somewhat as Michael Polanyi uses the term, or the implied labor of which all discourse is a part, according to Bakhtin—that none of this can be abstracted from the use of the marks and noises linguistics tries to systematize. Ironically, games like football and basketball can be more legitimately taught from the blackboard than can discourse about football and basketball, since the games as such really do have rules constituting them. Yet every coach knows that teaching a player the rules of a sport and encouraging virtual or imaginative play do little to help a player learn the sport: you have to give her an actual ball on an actual field and give her opportunity after opportunity to actually dribble and pass, kick and head; you have to give her the chance to see how others—those on her team, those on the opposing team, the referees—respond when she dribbles this way or that, or passes this way or another. Practice creates expectations—the player's beliefs about what others believe that enable her to anticipate how they will respond. In other words, although players of sports learn the "rules" better at play, they can learn them in abstraction before they play. Students of discourse have no choice. With the exception of certain highly formal
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types of poetry and similar language games, the regularities of discourse must be learned "on the fly," as Fish puts it. That does not mean, however, that just any old sort of training will do for discourse study, as Fish would have us believe. Discourse training, like sports training, needs to be aim specific, problem oriented, and situated among the objects and people the discourse is intended to affect and be affected by. We can teach discursive "strategies," as Kent says, but only when students are within a situation to observe responses to their strategies from the actual readers and objects they intend to affect by them. Given the realities of institutional life, this makes the teacher's role an extremely important one. Currently, composition teachers are often in a position similar to that of a gymnastics coach having no beams, no bars, no mats, no rings, no pommel horse—only a blackboard and some books to teach with. Worse than that, imagine if that coach had never himself done any of the things he was trying to teach with books and a blackboard. That, I am afraid, is the situation of most composition teachers when they try to teach students "how to write." Because we cannot properly separate words from things, culture from nature, we must teach discourse as being not only historically situated and object oriented but also as being contextual. Ideally, discourse study would be "in the field," "onsite" training, somewhat like apprenticeships. At the very least, the teacher should know something about the objects of the course, should have engaged in the activities that make those objects significant, and, preferably, should have been or be actively engaged in creating the social concern for those objects. There is, of course, always some benefit to a student's learning to cope with a situation in which the teacher believes that the object of all discursive study is to not dangle her participles or not offend some member of an "alien" culture, but there is probably more benefit in coping with problems that more forcefully affect our lives. Obviously, the seriousness of problems is a relative matter. We have all encountered situations in which people's beliefs about language are such that the dangled participle or dropped slur can be a very serious matter indeed. Teaching Socially And this brings me to the final conclusion I would draw from my analysis of the teacherstudent relationship. It regards the character of
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the objects and problems that should be addressed in university classes of discourse. As I mentioned earlier, the teacherstudent relationship is established initially as an unequal power relationship because students choose teachers on the basis of what they believe others believe they should learn. This means that in most cases students already perceive problems they want to be able to solve and have questions they want to be able to answer. Ethically, this suggests that any questions and problems the teacher would want to answer and solve should be rhetorically connected to the issues students currently perceive, no matter how inadequate the teacher may believe that perception may be. This ethical requirement is not restricted to formal teacherstudent relationships, of course. The book you are now reading, for instance, begins with the "cultural" problems the concept of "multiculturalism" was intended to solve, but it dissolves those problems in order to pose other problems of which multiculturalism is a part. In the same way, courses have no responsibility to solve the problems they announce. They do, however, have the responsibility to lead students toward tackling actual problems and questioning answers that are part of the way things are—that actually do affect the lives of students, even if, or rather especially if, they are not currently aware that they are so affected. Knowledge for its own sake is a contradiction in terms. Does this mean that teachers should know the solutions to the problems and the answers to the questions the course will aim for in advance of teaching the course? Emphatically not. Certainly, the teacher, to be a teacher, must know much of what has been written and spoken about the course's initial objects, and she must know much of how people's believing what has been written and spoken has affected what they say and do with respect to those objects. Because she knows these things, she will certainly have beliefs about the course's initial objects. However, unless the teacher has no respect for her students' beliefs and their capacity to be appropriately affected by discursive causes (that is, unless she thinks her students are stupid) and so attributes differences between their beliefs and hers entirely to their ignorance and none to differences between their and her conditions of existence; unless the teacher has the unique capacity to read a text a second time in exactly the same way as she read it the first time; and unless the teacher learns nothing whatsoever in the time between the beginning of the course and its end, odds are that the teacher's beliefs about the objects of the
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course—if not the very objects of the course themselves—will have changed by the course's end. In consequence, any strict setting of "course objectives" and "educational standards" is, although not impossible, certainly undesirable, and undesirable for the same reason that any persuasion of others to a preconceived goal is often undesirable—for it means that education has then turned into a game, that nothing of the way things are has been taught or learned as its result, that no conversation either with the students or with past voices has taken place, that all that has taken place in the classroom is a ritual, a repetition of empty signifiers whose only effect is to distract both teacher and students from the problems that actually affect them. In chapter 2 I wrote of such rituals as instances educational "programming," and this sort of educational aim is precisely the sort of "pederasty" Vitanza argues we should avoid. The way to avoid it, however, is not through teaching students to "drift" from one game or program to another, but to help them to bring the relevant conditions that affect their lives to bear upon conversations about the discursive objects they share, or can come to share, with others. The important thing to remember about education is that it does not derive properly from a unified conception of the world but that it aims toward a unified conception, that our discourse with one another makes it possible to share similar responses to the same objects, not that our already similar responses make it possible to discourse with one another. We do not live in a world already made that we can represent with language; rather, through our discourse with others we are continually making a world. No one can teach, in any effective sense, who does not understand that. A Brief Conclusion? Although I cannot conclude this book in any formal sense and remain true to my beliefs about what effective discourse should be, I will take a pause here shortly in order to listen to my readers' responses. My purpose for these pages has been to question the way we have described how discourse works, to suggest that most theories of language and culture have been way off the mark to the extent that they claim to be general theories, and to promote three modes of discourse
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study that seem more promising precisely because they attempt to account for the fact that what we believe about discourse affects how we discourse. Although because of this recursiveness we can invent no valid general theory of discourse, none is necessary because we need not separate the study of discourse from the study of everything else anyway. That is, we need not separate discursive competence from any other kind of competence once we recognize that utterances, as a means of discourse about objects, can be the objects of discourse just like everything else, and that there is no difference between how we understand the objects of the first and the objects of the second. In other words, there is no "medium" called language or culture standing between ourselves and our world. Because there is no medium, what we believe about how discourse works affects how discourse works, and believing that discourse works through a medium, I have suggested, has caused a great deal of harm to humanity. I suspect some folks will take issue with that claim, and so the conversation will continue.
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Appendix Notes Works Cited Index
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Appendix The following prompts and sample responses with their scores and explanations were quoted by the Greensboro News and Record as coming from the 1997 Scoring Guide from the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, Office of Accountability Services. Fourth Grade Topic: Name a time that you were very surprised. Write a story about what happened that surprised you. Proficient One day on December twenty forth I was dying to know what I got for Christmas so I ran to Nicole and I said "Please give me a clue on what you got me." "No" my sister said. So I ran to mama and said "Please tell me what you got me for Christmas." "No" she said. So I ran to daddy and said ''Daddy will you give me a clue on what you are going to get me.'' Then he said it is bigger than this table and it is something that you can jump on that night I couldn't sleep I kept thinking what could it be. It is bigger than the table and it is something that I like to do. I could imiagaine what it was so I went on to sleep. I woke up at 6:00 clock first I woke up Nicole and she went in the living room then I woke up daddy and Mama and then I woke up Tonya they all went in the living room. first Tonya opened a present then daddy then Nicole then Mama and I. We all opened one present. After we all opened one present we open another presents. Next after all the presents were opened daddy gave us an envalope with our names on it in the envalope was some money I felt like I was rich then daddy said "I'm not finish stay right there." So we waited until daddy came back. but when he did he came back with a trampaline just for me. I was so excited! I almost jumped on it all day. Finally my mama put it in my room. In conclusion, I still got my trampaline and I love it. I am glad my daddy got it for me. He must really love me because I really love him. Score Point: 3 This response exhibits a reasonable command of narrative writing. The writer's organizational strategy is apparent in the deliberate building of suspense until the surprise is revealed near the end of the paper. However, the forced formulaic setup (especially in the final two paragraphs) is a minor weakness.
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Not Proficient One day I was surprised. I was surprised on my birthday. It was July 28, 1995. My friends came over. My friends are Ashley, Ashley, Heather, and Casey. They are girls. Then we played Bingo. We played for dolles. My friend Kim came late. When she got there we whent and jumped on my trampoline. My mom pop 6 bags of popcorn. We lied down on the trampaleen an talk about our club we had. Next we talked about boys. We got of. We went in side and ate lunch. We at soup. We got threw. Got are swiwingsoups on and and got in the pool. Finally we swam in the pool tille super. We ate hotdogs. We wached TV. It was time to go to bed. My dad said I was having a sleepover. Then some ovey my friends sleap on the flor and my waterbed. I feel good for my friends to surprise me on my birthday. We will be friends forever. I was happy. My friends are happy too. Score Point: 2 This response exhibits a weak command of narrative writing. The response is focused and establishes a progression of events but has a listlike quality. Seventh Grade Topic: Think about the kind of weather you like best. Name the kind of weather and explain why you like this kind of weather best. Proficient The kind of weather I like best is cold, snowy weather. It is so beautiful as it falls down to the ground. Snow give you a good feeling inside as well. It only comes during one season of the year, unfortunately, but I enjoy it when it comes. As I said, cold, snowy weather is so beautiful. It gently drifts down to the unexpecting earth, and the sun shines through each snowflake making it sparkle and glisten. The snow looks like someone is trying to spread a big white comforter over the earth. When the earth is finally covered, the moon shines down on it and makes the snow look like an enormous silk linen. On cold, snowy days it give me a great feeling. It feels refreshing when I breathe in the chilly weather. I think it is such a joy to see the snow. It give me a happy feeling inside because it only come for one month or two out of the whole year. Snow and the cold seem to come only on Christmas holidays and people already feel joyous inside. I feel even more joyful because I can play in the snow with my cousins. It seems to bring familys together.
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I have explained to you why cold, wintery weather is my favorite type of weather. I rejoyce every time the cold and snow come. I can't wait until next year when snowy weather will return. I don't understand whey people lock themselves indoors and close the schools, but that's okay because it give me more time to enjoy the snowy weather. Score Point: 3 The writer selects cold, snowy weather as the favorite type and gives two reasons to support his/her selection. The first reason "the weather is so beautiful" is elaborated by description. The ideas progress logically. The second reason "a great feeling" uses cause and effect writing to develop the idea. There is a sense of overall completeness. Not Proficient Weather is very important to my life. My mood usually depends on the weather, and I'm mostly happy when it's hot. When it's hot, it's most likely summer or early fall. When it's hot outside, I want to do more activities like swimming and sports. It's also very green with grass and trees. I enjoy looking at green leaves and green grass, and I like the smell of freshly cut green grass. Another reason I like it hot is because I don't have to war layers of clothes and feel uncomfortable. I like to move with loose clothes on. I can sleep late in the summer and not worry about school. The last reason I like hot weather is because of the time. When it's hot I stay out later because it doesn't get dark until eight or nine o'clock. It get to be with my friends later or get to play ball or jump on my trampoline at nine oclock. In conclusion, when it's hot I get to enjoy my time and have a better time. Score Point: 2 The writer identifies the kind of weather he/she likes best ("when it's hot"). The reasons provided (it's most likely summer . . . don't have to wear layers of clothes . . . the time") lack the elaboration needed for this response to be scored higher than a "2." However, this is a high "2."
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Notes 1. Power, Motive, and Discourse Studies 1. Ronald Schleifer in Rhetoric and Death provides an excellent overview of the modernist/postmodernist tendency toward what he calls "the materialization of understanding" (65). At the heart of both modernist and postmodernist thinking, he says, is "the transformation from cause to effect, from causal to functional explanationor, in Saussure's terms, from a mode of understanding based upon the diachronic discovery of the origin to a mode of understanding based upon a synchronic apprehension of relationships between and among phenomenal data . . ." (64). Because it "both eschews depths for surfaces and thinks of truth rhetorically, playfully, phenomenally" (73), it both reduces "the past to an 'agency' that exists only on the surface of the present, an agency that simply creates the phenomenal 'effect' of causality that can only be retrospectively discerned'' (65) and ''conceives of the future negatively, as a material effect of language whose ghostly haunting presence . . . can be accounted for, after its accidental fact, by rhetoric" (73). 2. Fish's tendency to want to have his cake and eat it too has been noted before. Reed Way Dasenbrock, in the course of explicating Donald Davidson's arguments against conceptual relativism, links Fish's "interpretive communities" with Thomas Kuhn's "scientific paradigms" and Benjamin Lee Whorf's "incommensurable languages" as forms of what Davidson terms "conceptual schemes"(linguistic) media standing between ourselves and the world that determine perception, meaning, and therefore belief. As Dasenbrock remarks, Davidson says the promoters of such schemes "want to have it both ways. They want to claim that the other scheme is unknowably different from our own, but also that they know what the other scheme is" (qtd. in 23). Fish's failure to distinguish between rhetorical force and what I call discursive power is a direct consequence of his assumption that interpretation operates through conceptual schemes. Since to him every reading of a text can only be a reading into the text, his theory prevents him from acknowledging real differences between his opinions and others', and thus he can conceive of no changes in one's interpretations that are not entirely the consequence of one's prior interpretations. 3. This discussion of two basic motives with respect to an analogy to music is obviously a loose revision of Nietzsche's provocative if sometimes confusing first book The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music. There Nietzsche distinguishes between the Apollonian and Dionysiac tendencies of art. The first is a will toward an order fueled by a longing for original unity. Apollo "may be regarded as the marvelous divine image of the principium individuationis" (22), the principle of individuality, the god of light who represents the illusion of our being able, through the attainment of knowledge by means of the elimination of contradiction, to gather the world into the self as a total vision. The second tendency feels the origi
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nal unity as "without image or idea" in music as original "pain and contradiction" (38). Dionysius submits to this pain in a "mystical process of unselving'' (39) in which the illusory division of self from other ceases to be recognized and in which the contradiction of the self by the other is the primary reality. To deny the force and power of the other's sounds, to hope to subordinate them to one's own, is fantasy, dream. For this reason, Nietzsche says, "we have in fact come to understand that the chorus is the cause of tragedy and the tragic spirit" (89). It is against the chorus and its music that the enlightened rationalism of an individualistic hero like Oedipus will ultimately collide. That is Dionysiac wisdom. Nietzsche's pointas I read him hereis hardly that we should always submit to other's opinions but that others' discourse is real, not merely inadequate representations or imitations of reality. The best example of the attitude I'm trying to describe may be a blues improvisation. When the trumpet comes in with a new riff the other players don't turn to say "You've got it wrong!" They take it into account, blend it in. It is already, by virtue of its having been played, part of the music. 4. It is important to note here that, although Iser does not emphasize this as Donald Davidson will (see chapter 6), the normative assumption that makes the apprehension of difference a motive to communication is that of sameness everywhere else. To put it another way, only because we assume that the world is mostly the same for others as it is for us do we want to understand why they act or speak differently from what we expect. Precisely because there is a common world, there cannot be a common code. 2. Making Ground 1. Bloom will probably object to my suggestion that he treats literature and culture as if they were games like chess. However, the underlying metaphor of his project is that of a stable ground with fixed limits. this metaphor allows him in A Map of Misreading, for instance, to write of poetry as a "territory" that can be "charted" and to define his chief critical principle, "revisionism," as a "lookingoveragain" (4). All this implies that once the limits have been explored, all further poetic play will necessarily be only variations upon previously made moves. 2. Readers should not confuse my claim that "what we believe about how discourse works affects how discourse works" with the apparently similar structuralist claim that, as Jonathan Culler has put it, "The work has structure and meaning because it is read in a particular way, because the potential properties, latent in the object itself, are actualized by the theory of discourse applied in the act of reading" (Poetics 113). In my view, when we discourse, the "theory" we begin with is seldom the theory we end with: we continually modify our expectations as our beliefs about the other's beliefs about discourse alter. In the structuralist view, the theory we begin with stays the same, and only our judgment of the other's "competency" with respect to that theory may be modified. To discourse study, the function of discourse is always communication, even that of ''aesthetic" discourse, whereas, to structuralist theory, the aesthetic function is different in kind from and secondary to the communicative. Necessarily, for the structuralist, "aesthetic language" is a "distortion" of or a "deviation" from some standard language that is presumed to be stable and shared (Mukarovsky, for example).
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3. Cultural Mystique 1. On the connection between rhetoric and magic, see Jacquiline de Romilly's Magic and Rhetoric in Ancient Greece, Daniel Lawrence O'Keefe's Stolen Lightning: The Social Theory of Magic, and William A. Covino's "Magic, Literacy, and the National Enquirer." The classic statement on magic and language comes from Kenneth Burke: "Magic, verbal coercion, establishment or management by decree, says, in effect: '"Let there be"and there was.' . . . The magical decree is implicit in all language; for the mere act of naming an object or situation decrees that it is to be singled out as suchandsuch rather than as something other'' (Philosophy 34). Neither Burke nor any of the above writers notes, however, that not only is ''language use" magical, but the very idea of language is itself magical. Authority declares a certain grammatical form correct and, Behold!, the form exists. 2. See Poulakos for an excellent discussion of the Sophistic rhetoric of possibility as opposed to the Aristotelian rhetoric of actuality. 3. The synoptic histories in the following section should not be regarded as causal explanations but more as narrative reminders of certain influential discursive events narratives that foreground the dependence of those events upon that characteristically Platonic set of beliefs about discourse and truth I described earlier in this chapter. I will not be taking into account those differing causal conditions whose understanding, as I suggested in chapter 1, is the object of interpretation because I am not trying to get my readers to question either what or why these writers believed the particular things they believed. Instead, I hope readers will question why we still believe in "truth" and "reality" as they did. 4. Language, a Field of Force 1. This tradition is of course still alive and well and explicitly evoked in much contemporary discourse, not only in the rhetoric of the backwoods fundamentalist, but in the sophisticated criticism of those like Northrop Frye, for whom "the total shape and structure of the Bible . . . is most important: the fact that it's a continuous narrative beginning with the creation and ending with the Last Judgment, and surveying the whole history of mankind, under the symbolic names of Adam and Israel, in between" (111). 2. The following discussion of Ramus's beliefs is based on his Dialecticae libri duo. The Yale edition of Milton's commentary on this book, Artis Logicae, has parts of Ramus's text printed in italics. See also Walter Ong's critique of Ramist thought, Ramus: Method and the Decay of Dialogue. 3. For a good, brief account of how belief in the existence of "relatives" affected early American society, see Morgan, especially 2128. 5. The Dialogic Way 1. The ongoing controversy over the authorship of the books of the "Bakhtin Circle" is of no consequence to the "active interpretation" I am conducting here. For more information on this controversy, see Matejka and Titunik's "Translators' Introduction" to Volosinov's Marxism and the Philosophy of Language, pp. 15,
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and Ken Hirschkop's "Critical Work on the Bakhtin Circle: A Bibliographical Essay," in Bakhtin and Cultural Theory, pp. 195212. 2. Graham Pechey has argued that Bakhtinian concepts have "migrated" from their original context, and that in this process "the inadequately theorized areas and dimensions" of dialogism ''open a space for those liberal readings that are now coming through" (49). Pechey, of course, is attempting to rehabilitate Bakhtin for Marxism, while I am trying to push the ''migration" of his concepts even farther, away from not only liberal relativism but also Marxist realism, and toward pragmatic antifoundationalism. 3. Ken Hirschkop, in "Bakhtin, Discourse and Democracy," has traced a change within the Bakhtin Circle in their conceptualization of this very issue between the 1920s and 1930s. As Graham Pechey summarizes Hirschkop, "if in the earlier decade it had been a matter of the 'truth' of dialogism and polyphony versus the 'error' of monologism and homophony, in the later it is a matter of contending social forcescarnival and official, centrifugal and centripetal, heteroglot and monoglot" (45). 4. Don H. Bialostosky offers a good discussion of the difference between authoritative discourse and internally persuasive discourse in his essay "Liberal Education, Writing, and the Dialogic Self." Unfortunately, Bialostosky subscribes to an unrevised version of Bakhtin's work that does not recognize the discrepancy between Bakhtin's foundational distinction between nature and society and his more pragmatic conception of dialogics. For this reason, Bialostosky is led by his reading of Bakhtin to make some rather Cartesian claims, such as the following: "Recognizing languages as languages and exploring the worldviews inherent in them allows us to engage languages in a new way: responsibly, selfconsciously, and openly, orfor it amounts to the same thingauthentically" (17). 6. The Pragmatic Way 1. Davidson, like most pragmatists, tends to equate "meaning" with speaker intention. However, he is quick to point out that this does not imply that an utterance can have only one meaning, as Steven Knapp and Walter Benn Michaels; E. D. Hirsch Jr.; P. D. Juhl; and others suggest. At least two things are relevant here: first is "the fact that there are endless intentions involved in every single action," and second is that "some of the intentions are relevant to our interests and some are not" (Olson 24). Davidson admits that he has not thought through the ramifications of this issue. However, Meyer's discussions of multiple meaning, it seems to me, are a useful complement to Davidson's (see chapter 7). 2. Literal or "first" meanings are necessary concepts for explaining any usage whose explanation requires us to differentiate between what it says and what it does between what it means (which may or may not be true) and how it causes the interpreter to respond (which may or may not be as the speaker intended). In particular, explanations of lies, malapropisms, irony, and metaphor require positing first meaning. See, for example, Davidson's essay "What Metaphors Mean" in Inquiries (24564). 3. Davidson's argumentthat "language" with its rules and conventions can at best describe a prior theory that gives way to a passing theory when communication actually occurscould easily serve to explain why Kant found himself forced to resort to a theory of "genius" in order to account for the originality of
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significant art and the unteachability of artistic ability. Kant, of course, could not conceive of discourse dynamically and certainly could not imagine erasing the distinction between the natural and the cultural. That, however, is precisely how he defines geniusas "the innate mental disposition (ingenium) through which nature gives the rule to art" (Critique 150). Kant was astute enough to notice that highly effective acts of communication could not be explained in terms of acknowledged linguistic rules and conventions, and so offered the "gift" of geniusa supernatural explanationto fill the gap in his philosophy. Davidson notices that no communication can be explained linguistically and so drops the Kantian paradigm entirely. 4. Davidson has said recently that "the word charity is a misnomer because it's not a matter of being kind to people; its the condition of understanding them at all. Thus, charity has two features: one is that you can't understand people if you don't see them as sharing a world with you; the other is that you can't understand people if you don't see them as logical in the way that you areup to a point, of course" (qtd. in Olson 15). For me these two features boil down to the claim that you can't understand people (or whatever) unles you assume that what they say is truethat is, systematically related to the world we can share. 7. The Problematological Way 1. In Rhetoric, Language, and Reason, Meyer writes about "rhetorical and pragmatic theories of language" that are merely extensions of propositionalism and confirm propositionalism's "fragmentation of language." He then says that "from Wittgenstein until Donald Davidson, the belief in a propositional model of linguistic meaning has been widely sustained" (102). As I showed in the previous chapter, by the time Meyer wrote this (1994) Davidson had given up entirely on the attempt to make sense of ''linguistic meaning." I presume Meyer would take a different view of Davidson's most recent work. 2. The reason latter portions of a text affect the meaning of earlier portions is simply that new information, recontextualization, and so forth continually demand of readers that they reinterpret utterances read earlier. Since those prior interpretations authorized the current interpretation of the latter part of the text (an interpretation that motivates the reader to revise her interpretation of the earlier part of the text), the difference between the first and second reading is always part of the second reading. Put simply, the text doesn't sit still long enough to be analyzed. The classic exposition of this aspect of the reading process is, of course, Iser's "The Reading Process: A Phenomenological Approach" in The Implied Reader. 3. Perhaps the most influential theory postulating difference in kind between referential and nonreferential language was that of I. A. Richards: A statement may be used for the sake of reference, true or false, which it causes. This is the scientific use of language. But it may also be used for the sake of the effects in emotion and attitude produced by the reference it occasions. This is the emotive use of language. (267)
It is important to note that for Richards and many others the distinction between referential and nonreferential language undergirds a distinction between
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knowledge and belief (28283)a distinction that discourse studies denies (see Knapp and Michaels, for example). 4. In Donald Davidson's essays of the 1980s, such as "Communication and Convention" (Inquiries), he often gives the impression that he, too, subscribes to a version of the postmodernists' belief that a gap exists between grammar and rhetoric. For instance, after demonstrating that no conventions exist that could link a statement to its social effect, he says, "I conclude that it is not an accidental feature of language that the ulterior purpose of an utterance and its literal meaning are independent, in the sense that the latter cannot be derived from the former: it is of the essence of language" (274). However, as he goes on to explain, here he is trying merely to distinguish ''two quite distinct theses: on the one hand, the (correct) thesis that every utterance of an imperative labels itself (truly or falsely) an order, and the thesis that there is a convention that under 'standard' conditions the utterance of an imperative is an order" (275). We have to remember that for Davidson "literal" meaning is simply ''first" meaningthe effect we believe that the speaker believes is the effect the sign's usage initially will have upon us. This is far, far different from de Man's assumption that a sign's meaning derives from its relation to a stable system of signs. 5. Steven Knapp and Walter Benn Michaels make a similar claim in their highly influential essay "Against Theory"; in fact, they use one of de Man's essays, "The Purloined Ribbon," to make the parallel point that de Man's "separation of language and speech acts rests on a mistake" (22). Unfortunately, they suppose that de Man's only mistake is that he believes that a sound (the example is the name "Marion") "remains a signifier even when emptied of all meaning" (23). It is here that Knapp and Michaels reveal themselves to be far closer to social constructionist thought than they are to the pragmatist thought they purport to espouse. Their mistake is that they agree with de Man "that sounds become signifiers when they function in language" (qtd. in "Against Theory" 23). Their only disagreement with de Man is that, unlike him, they think "it is not true that sounds in themselves are signifiers; they become signifiers only when they acquire meanings, and when they lose their meanings they stop being signifiers" (23). Knapp and Michaels should have ceded to de Man that if there were such a thing as language as he uses the term, he would be rightand then counter that there is no such thing. Instead of saying that you cannot separate language from speech acts, they should have said that there are only speech actsor better yet, that there are only sounds. There are those sounds (or marks, etc.) that readers and listeners presume to have been made by some being in anticipation of how we would respond to them (i.e., sounds made intentionally), and there are those sounds made without regard to our potential response (i.e., sounds made unintentionally). In this way, Knapp and Michaels could have avoided falling into the metaphysical trap, as they do throughout this essay, of resorting to the old Platonic distinction between truth and appearance, as when they say, "Our point is that marks produced by chance are not words at all but only resemble them" (20) or, "The fact is that the meaningless noise 'Marion' only resembles the signifier 'Marion,' just as accidentally uttering the sound 'Marion' only resembles the speech act of naming Marion" (23). Words don't magically change their ontological status just because we intend them to do something, anymore than a baseball changes ontological status when it goes through a neighbor's window instead of into left field. Only a future metaphysician
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could say straight faced to the angry neighbor, "That's not a baseball" because the path it took was accidental. 8. Beyond Composition 1. For a good summary of recently attempted alternatives to teaching composition, see Betty Bamberg's "Alternative Models of FirstYear Composition."
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Index A Aarsleff, Hans, 124 Aeschylus, 104 aesthetics, 20, 91, 98, 122 alienation, 63, 134 Ames, William, 95 anthropology, 1, 16, 83, 102, 135 antifoundationalism, 26, 157, 208, 214, 219, 220, 230, 252n. 2 antilogic, 19, 111 Antiphon, 43 Aristotle, 1, 16, 80, 82 Asante, Molefi Kete, 1, 2, 4 Augustine, Saint, 17, 95, 110, 133 Austin, J. L., 134 authority, 7, 11214, 121, 124, 133, 154, 155, 160, 161, 197, 199, 200, 202, 208, 219, 225, 237, 251, 252; linguistic, 4, 18, 80, 81, 88, 110 B Bacon, Francis, 17, 11521, 124, 135 Bain, Alexander, 214 Baker, Houston A., Jr., 137, 138 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 7, 8, 10, 78, 134, 13941, 14450, 15255, 183, 186, 210, 251n. 1, 252n. 3 Barthes, Roland, 197 Bernal, Martin, 1 Bialostosky, Don H., 252n. 4 Bible, 11013, 251n. 1 Bildung, 94, 95, 97 Bizzell, Patricia, 214, 215, 219, 220, 224, 229 Blair, Hugh, 121 Bloom, Harold, 52, 72, 250n. 1 Boas, Franz, 101 ''bricolage,'' 6162 Brooks, Cleanth, 122, 123 Brooks, Peter, 39, 46 Bruffee, Kenneth, 215, 219, 220, 229 Burke, Kenneth, 41, 5459, 66, 72, 74, 108, 200, 219, 224, 251n. 1 C Campbell, George, 120 Carby, Hazel, 138 Carroll, John B., 105 charity, 6, 8, 97, 178, 183, 185, 207, 253n. 4 Chomsky, Noam, 134 chora, 7176, 131 Cicero, 17, 111, 119 civilization, 93, 123 Clark, H. H., 215 closure, 37, 46, 53, 200 coherence, 11, 12, 18, 37, 38, 44, 91, 107, 110, 111, 115, 132, 133, 208, 228 composition, 11, 108, 144, 153, 190, 210, 21315, 21719, 221, 224, 225, 229, 234, 238, 239 comprehensiveness, 11, 91 conceptual schemes, 27, 31, 45, 105 Condillac, Étienne, 11618, 12427 Conley, Thomas M., 82 contingency, 26, 28, 108, 142, 231, 232 convention, 2, 5, 6, 11, 44, 46, 52, 6569, 88, 93, 116, 118, 119, 121, 126, 130, 140, 159, 17175, 178, 180, 181, 183, 187, 211, 220, 222, 227, 229, 234, 25253n. 3, 254n. 4 Couture, Barbara, 215 Covino, William A., 251n. 1 (chap. 3) credit, 22, 24, 28, 29, 3133, 36, 45, 47 creolization, 151 Crowley, Sharon, 224 Crowley, Tony, 122, 123, 125 Culler, Jonathan, 99, 103, 250n. 2 culturalism, 4, 67, 96, 106, 107 culturalization, 11, 135, 138, 139, 207, 211, 212 cultural recyling, 60 culture, 1, 45, 47, 93 D Darwin, Charles, 59, 129, 132 Dasenbrock, Reed Way, 175, 249n. 2
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Davidson, Donald, 68, 10, 27, 28, 32, 66, 78, 105, 139, 158, 167, 17085, 187, 207, 210, 212, 21718, 22124, 226, 23536, 249n. 2, 250n. 4, 252nn. 13, 253n. 4, 254n. 4 Day, Henry N., 214 deconstruction, 12, 59, 64, 74, 99, 164, 192, 197 de Man, Paul, 12, 13, 19799, 201, 202, 218, 254n. 5 de Romilly, Jacquiline, 251n. 1 (chap. 3) Derrida, Jacques, 1, 5, 59, 71, 7476, 78, 99, 134, 164, 190, 192, 218, 230 de Saussure, Ferdinand, 12733, 140, 141, 143, 147, 181, 249n. 1 Descarte, René, 116, 118, 166, 201 desire, 5, 25, 26, 30, 38, 39, 42, 43, 49, 50, 63, 6870, 75, 90, 91, 107, 111, 113, 117, 120, 129, 133, 166, 170, 175, 183, 224; deferral of, 42; neurotic, 39, 42 détente, 106 Dewey, John, 9, 27, 33, 47, 158, 16567, 169 dialectic, 17, 19, 43, 55, 92, 96, 113, 120, 141, 143, 151, 225, 227 dialogism, 7, 13941, 14450, 152, 153, 156, 157, 186, 252n. 2 diegesis, 81 différance, 79 différend, 71 discourse studies, 812, 14, 16, 20, 32, 46, 47, 4951, 159, 160, 184, 186, 206, 21012, 216, 220, 221, 223, 230, 236, 238, 239, 241, 249, 250n. 2, 254n. 3 discursive situation, 25, 51, 133, 134, 169, 187, 195, 197, 222, 229, 238 Dissoi Logoi, 89 doubt, 5, 115, 15860, 162, 163, 171, 183, 188, 200, 229, 231, 233 dynamic difference, 31, 49 E Eco, Umberto, 73 Edwards, Jonathan, 97 Elbow, Peter, 215 empiricism, 85 encyclopedia, 102 entelechy, 40 enthememe, 17 epideictic, 81 epistemology, 93, 111, 138, 141, 153 Erasmus, Desiderius, 11114, 133 Esperanto, 115, 123 ethics, 3132 F Feuer, Lewis S., 105 fiction, 92, 161, 170, 191, 192, 205 Fish, Stanley, 26, 29, 31, 33, 37, 49, 89, 175, 181, 182, 21921, 22834, 237, 239, 249n. 2 force, 2126, 2839, 4449; as capacity, 24, 3437, 47, 68, 120, 130 Foucault, Michel, 91 foundationalism, 48, 141, 208, 219 framing, 99 Frege, Gottlob, 19091 Freud, Sigmund, 17, 3841, 43, 46 Frye, Northrop, 251n. 1 (chap. 4) G Gadamer, HansGeorg, 94 Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 138 Genette, Gerard, 197 genius, 118, 126, 25253n. 1 geometrical equality, 91, 98 gesture, 140, 168, 169, 186, 187, 201 Gorgias, 89; "Encominium of Helen," 89 grace, 99 Graham, G. F., 123 grammar, 13, 14, 65, 104, 116, 127, 134, 176, 19597, 205, 210, 218, 254; universal, 116, 118, 124, 126 grammaticalization, 194, 195 Griemas, A. J., 197 grounds, 80 H Hart, H. L., 25 Haviland, Susan H., 215 Hayes, John R., 215 Hegel, G. W. F., 94 Heidegger, Martin, 99 Herder, 93, 94 hermeneutics, 17, 4749, 66, 98, 196, 202, 204, 205, 222, 223 Herzberg, Bruce, 214 heteroglossia, 149, 151, 152, 186 heuretics, 70, 71, 74, 77
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Hill, David J., 215 Hirsch, E. D., 190, 252 Hirschkop, Ken, 252n. 3 historicism, 103 Hobbes, Thomas, 21 holism, 164, 165, 182 humanism, 5, 65, 111, 114 Husserl, Edmund, 99, 190 hypocrisy, 2, 32, 33 I idealism, 85 ideology, 143, 150, 214 illusion, 21, 27, 32, 39, 40, 56, 58, 85, 108, 109, 135, 161, 192, 249n. 3 incommensurability, 103 inference, 23, 24, 205, 236 Ingarten, Roman, 190 interpretation, 25, 26, 34, 4648 interpretive community, 27, 184 invention, 74, 76, 77, 83, 100, 111, 113, 119, 120, 135, 222, 223 irony, 3, 4, 86, 92, 122, 137, 252n. 2 Iser, Wolfgang, 4446, 57, 250n. 4, 253n. 2 Ito, Lance, 8081 J James, William, 9, 27, 28 Jameson, Fredric, 17 Juhl, P. D., 252 justice, 18, 80, 81, 89 K Kant, Immanuel, 106 Kent, Thomas, 170, 182, 183, 215, 218, 219, 22124, 233, 239 Kluckhohn, Clyde, 93 Knapp, Steven, 47, 48, 252n. 1, 254n. 5 kosmos, 91, 108 Kristeva, Julia, 75, 76, 131 Kroeber, A. L., 93 Kroll, Barry, 215 Kuhn, Thomas, 249n. 2 L Laing, R. D., 44 language, 311, 13, 14, 41, 45, 49, 5360, 62, 6467, 69, 70, 78, 8486, 88, 95, 101, 108, 109, 113, 115, 119, 121, 12429, 133, 134, 13941, 145, 14750, 152, 153, 15557, 158, 164, 178, 180, 181, 184, 185, 18890, 192, 193, 199, 200, 203, 2068, 21014, 218, 219, 22426, 229, 234, 235, 237, 239, 241, 249n. 1, 251n. 1, 252n. 4, 253n. 1, 254n. 5; figurative, 19296; heteroglossic, 152; and incommensurability, 4, 15, 133, 134, 15053, 157, 164, 171, 224, 249; literary, 192, 197; as medium, 3, 4, 9, 68, 69, 84, 116, 123, 124, 132, 136, 139, 140, 215, 217, 221, 226, 230, 231, 234, 242; ordinary, 133, 191, 192; pragmatic conception of, 911, 78, 158, 164, 168, 169, 17178, 18284, 187, 252n. 1, 253n. 1; problematological conception of, 188, 194, 195, 207; scientific, 191, 253; standardization of, 109, 11519, 12224, 152, 157, 173, 184, 250n. 2; structural conception of, 3, 5, 6, 41, 45, 70, 75, 76, 78, 83, 84, 101, 102, 104, 105, 109, 12832, 141, 156, 173, 187, 192, 218, 222; universal, 123, 157 law, 26, 2932, 40 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 116, 118, 126 LeviStrauss, Claude, 101 linguistic imperialism, 10, 123, 124, 140, 148, 157, 212 linguistics, 6, 16, 83, 101, 102, 119, 127, 129, 130, 132, 135, 139, 142, 144, 149, 172, 238 linguistification, 8, 11, 13235, 13840, 150, 151, 207, 211, 212 Locke, John, 21, 54, 116, 118, 12124, 126 logic, 5, 20, 62, 71, 96, 104, 105, 11214, 129, 133, 135, 158, 159, 198, 200, 202, 204, 205, 224 logos, 20, 21, 92 Lovibond, Sabina, 43, 63 Lyotard, JeanFrançois, 61, 63, 64, 70, 71, 218, 219, 22428 M Macrorie, Ken, 215 magic, 84, 251n. 1, 254n. 5 Mailloux, Steven, 34, 4749, 61, 89, 102 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 101
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marginalization, 138 Marx, Karl, 62, 63, 65 Matejka, Ladislav, 251n. 1 (chap. 5) Mead, George Herbert, 9, 16870, 178, 186, 187 meaning, 68, 12, 25, 28, 45, 48, 49, 84, 96, 97, 109, 112, 18688, 203, 208; as answer or solution, 188, 194, 202, 204, 208; causal theory of, 6, 12, 177; and difference, 53, 79, 99, 132, 134, 192, 198, 200; as effect, 140, 144, 16063, 165, 166, 168, 172, 186, 226; figurative, 198, 199; and intention, 49, 173, 252n. 1; linguistic, 128, 140, 142, 198, 253n. 1; literal, 28, 198, 199, 252n. 2, 254n. 4; propositional, 18991, 197; and reference, 190, 191, 196, 197; and value, 130 Meyer, Michel, 8, 10, 21, 23, 24, 37 Michaels, Walter Benn, 47, 48, 252n. 1, 254n. 5 modernism, 41, 61, 64, 109, 123, 128, 129, 134, 249n. 1 Morgan, Edmund S., 251n. 3 motive, 25, 30, 32, 38, 41, 44, 46, 4850, 5557, 59, 64, 65, 67, 68, 7072, 77, 95, 102, 106, 128, 129, 156, 159, 162, 167, 170, 175, 183, 194, 195, 211, 227, 229, 234, 237, 249n. 3 multiculturalism, 1, 4, 67, 1057, 13739, 141, 150, 240 music, 65, 238, 24950n. 3 N nature, 10, 20, 32, 33, 44, 46, 47, 56, 62, 65, 78, 79, 88, 90, 93, 94, 98, 103, 106, 115, 117, 118, 121, 124, 126, 129, 142, 143, 145, 152, 156, 159, 170, 211, 213, 216, 239, 252, 253; human, 33, 46, 65, 115, 118, 121, 159, 216. See also phusis Neel, Jasper, 11, 224, 225, 227, 229 neopragmatism, 59, 65, 186. See also pragmatism Nietzsche, Friedrich, 17, 18, 21, 51, 53, 59, 103, 192, 24950n. 3; The Birth of Tragedy, 103 nominalism, 191 O O'Keefe, Daniel, 251n. 3 P passing theory, 158, 17476, 183, 187, 252n. 3 (chap. 6) Paul, Saint, 110 Pechey, Graham, 148, 252n. 2 Peirce, Charles Sanders, 9, 15863, 167, 184 Perelman, Chaim, 134 perspectivism, 146, 171, 233 persuasion, 16, 18, 19, 28, 31, 32, 37, 44, 50 phusis, 94. See also nature Plato, 20, 21, 43, 83; Phaedrus, 88; Republic, 91; Timaeus, 71 positivism, 171 postmodernism, 19, 34, 41, 103 Poulakos, John, 251n. 2 (chap. 3) power, 11, 17, 18, 2125, 2830, 3638, 40, 45, 46, 48, 49; as positionality, 21, 36, 37, 51 pragmatic maxim, 160, 161, 163, 164, 166 pragmatism, 27, 33, 42, 55, 77, 105, 139, 15862, 16468, 170, 18284, 186, 187, 226. See also neopragmatism prior theory, 174, 184, 252 problematology, 8, 139, 18689, 192, 193, 195, 197, 2058 propositionalism, 189, 190, 253 Protagorean Theorem, 87 Protagorus, 87 providence, 96 Puritanism, 96 Puritans, 26, 99, 231 Q Quine, W. V., 66 R race, 1, 20, 21, 34, 125, 138 racism, 1, 2, 58, 137 radical interpretation, 6, 7, 158, 167, 170, 171, 183, 185, 226 Ramus, Petrus, 11214, 120, 135 rationalism, 126, 128, 129, 168, 214, 250n. 3 Ravitch, Diane, 1, 2 reader response, 174, 230 realism, 85 reality, 16, 17, 20, 23, 2628, 3133, 37, 44, 46, 47, 49; and appearance, 17, 27, 47
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recursivity, 12, 228, 242 relativism, 6, 10, 66, 87, 89, 96, 1036, 109, 141, 14951, 153, 16567, 171, 175, 182, 183, 229, 249n. 2, 252n. 2 repetition, 38, 39, 42, 43, 46, 75, 81, 142, 241 representation, 11, 12, 88 repression, 17, 41, 124 rhetorical situation, 9, 26, 36, 220, 221, 22931, 233, 234, 237 rhetorization, 37 Richards, I. A., 253n. 3 Richardson, Alexander, 49, 53, 59, 84, 91, 95100, 103, 105, 108, 112, 113, 118, 121, 209, 231, 232 Ricoeur, Paul, 134 Romanticism, 118, 126, 128 Rorty, Richard, 27, 34, 43, 46, 64, 66, 135, 158, 170, 181 S San Juan, E., Jr., 138 Sapir, Edward, 101 Schiappa, Edward, 19, 20 Schleifer, Ronald, 249 science, 10, 16, 17, 20, 22 self, 43, 44, 46, 54, 94, 200, 206, 250 semiotics, 143, 147, 197 Sextus, 87 simplicity, 12, 31, 32, 88, 91, 92, 107, 115, 117, 169, 198, 214 Simpson, O. J., 80, 81, 83 skepticism, 48, 182 social constructionism, 174, 214, 215, 21921, 228, 254n. 5 Socrates, 92 Sophists, 87 space, 71, 73, 74, 84, 101, 105, 170, 180. See also chora; territory; topics; topoi spectral evidence, 83 Spengler, Oswald, 103 stasis, 82 Stewart, Susan, 138, 148 stimulus and response, 168, 186 structuralism, 103 substance, 21, 39, 47, 48, 5459, 72, 74, 84, 99, 108, 116, 118, 197, 225; and consubstantiality, 54, 56 Suleri, Sara, 138 T territory, 8, 21, 80, 82, 146, 250. See also space; topoi Thompson, Manley, 160 Titunik, I. R., 251n. 1 (chap. 5) Todorov, Tzvetan, 197 topics, 74, 119. See also topoi topoi, 10, 71, 73, 74, 202, 205. See also grounds; space; territory; topics totality, 39, 58, 59, 97, 224 Toulmin, Stephen, 134, 219 triangulation, 179, 180, 18284, 222 tropes, 169, 192 truth, 90; as correspondence, 32, 69, 85, 108, 115, 197, 208 Tylor, E. B., 93 U Ulmer, Gregory, 71, 7376, 196 utopia, 58, 59, 123 V value, 24, 6, 19, 45, 52, 62, 69, 70, 73, 95, 109, 110, 125, 128, 132, 151, 165, 166, 189, 190, 213, 219, 221; economic, 62; as enjoyability, 166, 167, 169, 175; linguistic, 13032; production of, 69; systems of, 63, 70, 96, 97, 99, 107, 131 Vico, Giambattista, 113, 114, 133 virtual reality, 139, 147 Vitanza, Victor J., 218, 219, 221, 22429, 233, 241 Volosinov, V. N., 127, 128, 13944, 146, 147, 152 von Humboldt, Wilhelm, 12427, 133, 140, 141 W Whately, Richard, 121 Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 104, 105, 150, 249 Wilkins, Bishop, 115, 116, 118 Williams, Raymond, 93 witchcraft, 83 Z zeitgeist, 96
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Stephen R. Yarbrough is an associate professor and the director of graduate studies in English at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. He has published books on Irving Babbitt, Jonathan Edwards, and contemporary critical theory, and he has received the Everett Lee Hunt Scholarship Award from the Eastern Communication Association.