A Reference Grammar of Modern Hebrew
EDNA AMIR COFFIN Professor Emerita of Hebrew Language and Literature Department <Jf Near Eastern Studies University of Michigan
SHMUEL BOLOZKY Professor of Hebrew Department of Judaic and Near Easlem Studies University of Massachusetts
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
l'l!RLISHED RY THE PRHSS SY!'\DICATE OF THE lJNIVfRSITY 01' CAMRRIDGii
The Pitt Huilding, Trumpington Stret:l, Cambridge, United Kingdom C-\:\1 R R li)G li UNI VHRSITY PRESS
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcon, 280 14 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http:!/www .cambridge.urg
D Edna Coffin and Shmuel Tlolozky 2005 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision~ of relevant collective licensing agreements, no repmductionof any part may take place without the written pem1i ssiun of Cambridg~: University Press. First published 2005 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
Typeset by authors A catalogue record of this book is uvai/ab/e.fi"om the British Library
ISBN 0 521 820332 hardback ISHN 0 521 527333 paperback
For Leah. Jonah, Rachel, Aaron and Harlan For Michal and Noa
CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1 1.1 1.2
1.3
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Chapter 2 2.1
2.2 2.3
2.4
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
Chapter 3
3.1
3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
3.6 3.7 3.8
XIll
Preliminary discussion Parts of speech Grammatical functions Words and patterns Gender and number Open and closed word classes Phrase constituents Rules of agreement
M~TJ'M
1
1:::1~1 ~p~n
1!)01:)1 1'r.l
3 4 7
mmn!l O'~'l:l m~1JP
7
nPpnpl
'w~pll!l
o~~m~1 O'l::lr.l
m1m:;~1
0'!l11'S ':::1':>1 ill:lNl'lil ,~,::J
Writing and pronunciation M'')fll !at!~ Introduction NlJY.l Consonants and OilY./ 0'Nlili11 0'11~')1 Cl')~))Y.) corresponding sounds The Hebrew vowel system n'1:J.Y::l mll1mn nJ1YI:l Texts with and without 'JY.l'O '~J1 0)1 CJ'\:)0j7\:) l'l))ll)ll vowels Diacritic marks other than Ol'NY.I )nJil 'lY.l'O vowels mllun Syllables m1::1n Stress patterns nr.J)J\:)il m'lJn Dialectal variation in n"m:J n'"P~N'1 nmw consonant articulation 0'11::1')1 ))1,£11'1 tl~.,,.~ The verb system Introduction: verb ~)Jl!lil ':I 'Jl : Nl::IY.l components Citation fonns m'll7"Y.l nn1~ Verb tenses ')Jl!lil 'lY.l l Historical notes: Biblical CJ'll:l't: m'll\:)O"il nn)Jn tenses and aspects ~)Jl!l::l 0'"P!l0Nl Moods and verbal nouns n'l)J!l mY.lwl CJ'onm Verb pattern groups 0'l"l::l Verb categorization O'~).l!l ')10 With and without linking verbs '').l!l ''Jl 0).1
1l)l
12
13 16 16
17 21 23 25
27 2~
31
33 33 34 35 40 44
47
51 52
viii
3.9
Contents
m~'m tl'~~!l
Verbs with obligatory prepositions
m:::>i~lY-3
3.10
Chapter 4 4.1 4.2
'~~1!1 ,0":J.'t1jJN tl'~~!:l
Active, stative and inchoative verbs
:J.!IY.) 'll''tll
4.7
Verb pattern groups Verb pattern: pa 'a/ Verb pattern: nij'al Verb pattern: pi'el Verb pattern: pu 'al Verb pattern: hilpa 'el Verb pattern: h(fil Verb pattern: hr~fal
Chapter 5 5. L
The noun system Introduction to the noun system
4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6
53
on'
54
:::1~ Y.)
n,,m O'l"l3
56
(~p) ~~~ )''):::1
56 71
~~!?~ )"l:J. C'J)J'!l) ~.)l!il )ll):J.
C'Jln!l) ~~~ 1"l:J ~)!~J;1D 1"lJ ~))'.!?i) )"))
C~ll!lm) ~)!!?D l"l:J. a~n
n:t,»D
n:>,yr.~~
z..ctm
Sl
90 97
108 119 125 125
O'tlil
5.2 5.3
5.4 5.5 5.6
5.7 5.8 5.9 Chapter6 6.1
6.2 6.3
6.4
Indefinite and definite noun f()rms Gender tt~atures Number features Noun patterns Nouns derived from verbs Noun patterns associated with semantic features Significant patterns with no semantic association Acronyms Pronouns Forms of personal pronouns Independent subject pronouns Pronoun suffixes and prefixes in verbs and in existential expressions Pronouns suffixed to nouns and prepositions
m'N'tll O')lil'Y-3 rm:::l\!1
131
0'll1l'r.l 'l'r.lil m'l):>n
132
1!loon mm:>n
137
rwm\!J :nl'l::m
131)
O'~Y!lY-3 D'iH)o :nlr.IYJ
143
m7l':J DYJ :nl'l:m
147
l11't1l1JO 111'll:>n 1\'Jpn
N''
O\!J nPl:J.n 't1lY.lO
153
D'llP'1t1ll
155
O"U':J
158
onn,:m 'llO
158
0'111!1 ~l)
"))':;)
160
n'~'nn> O'"l1:m O"ll'=>
164
~l'1!l:J
Cn'!llO 1N
Dl'P "1\J'J.J.l l11'!ll0:> D'11J.n 0"1l':> on, m~m71 oYJ~
168
Contents
6.5 6.6 6.7 Chapter 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
Demonstrative pronouns Interrogative and relative pronouns Impersonal pronouns
IX
UJ1 ''1l':::l
iiP' t
~~1)~::>1 n'N'll nu>:>
o~~,l~:>
164
t'l',.l)~~
177
i11'!)0
177 182 183
O"r.ll10
Numerals Free counting Cardinal numbers Noun phrases with cardinal numbers Ordinal numbers
170 173
{0"110') Ol))):) 0'1.!:!0):) 0)1 CJll)r.l\!J
0~!)11~~
0~))):)
0'1.!:!0):)
Ol1i10
CJ~1!l0r.l
IR7
(Oll11i~O)
7.5 7.6 7.7
Fractions Multiplication values Numeric value of letters
7.8
Phrases: days of the week. dates, telling time, age
0~1::J.\!J
'\!}
D'~!l:J '1!l0r.lil 11lli1
188 189 190
l11ll11N 'Y.ll : Ol!l11 >:::!
191
, 0':::l>iNl1 ,ll1::J.\!Ji1
'~~ ,ml'\!J
Chapter 8 8.1
8.2 8.3 8.4
Adjectives Introduction: fanning adjectives Comparative and superlative adjectives Forming adjectives by adding suffix -i Nouns and adjectives of affiliation
194
194
1N1l1 i1N11\!Jil ~\!J 0~1Nl1
195
111l1~1
_,)) 1N1l1 l11Y.l\!J
l1l>~~
,_ ]1!)01]1 o~l"~r.ln o~1Nm
197
~,.,
mr.l\!J
198
l11:l"\!J n~mpr.ltl1'l1~llp
8.5 8.6
Participles that function as adjectives Special patterns
Chapter 9
Adverbs and adverbial expressions
9.1
Introduction Adverbs grouped according to t{)rm
9.2
nnp!lnr.ln 'l1)'J m11~
202
0~1Nl1:> nnnw~ m~l:Jl1
204
'.01..,,!11, ~.»,.Oft ,,NlS'I
209
·n~e~n
N1JY.l l!l ~)) Ol11N>l1l11~0 0]111!::1
209 209
Content.~
9.3 9.4
Adverbs grouped according to function Adverbs and 'degree' words
9.5
Sentential adverbs
Chapter 10
Particles
10.1 10.2
Introduction The particle 'et' before definite direct objects
10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7
Prepositions: prefixes, independent prepositions Prepositions or adverbs'? Coordinating and correlative conjunctions Subordinators Exclamation particles and expressions
Chapter 11
Noun phrases
11.1
Introduction to noun phrases
11.2
Noun phrase: noun+ adjective Comparative and superlative adjectives Apposition noun phrases Construct phrases Phrases ofpossession Phrases with demonstrative pronouns Prepositional phrases Numerical and quantifier phrases Noun phrases with determiners Gerunds and infinitives in noun phrases
t 1.3
11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 1l.9 11.10 11.11
'!:1 ':7~ o,,,Nm l11'0
213
on'l'P!:In m~:nr.n 0'11N'n
214
n1'0 tl!:l\!.10 ,,,N'n
218
J'll'~'D
I'•O:JO 'l!:IJ "nN" n'~"on Ql}I11'1J O"ln'C Ql!))1'!! 1'\!.l'n N\!.l"::m ;.., ,m,~nnn : on' m'J'r.> ml11!:1 on' m':7'm ?':7lll!:l '1N1n 1N on' m':7'o
225 225 225
228
11\!.I'P m'J'O
244 246
l):J~'ll
)'11J'.O
248
''1tl':J1 nN'1P m';no
250
nN'1P C"3D~ C'!:ll,,~
O'!ln'!!J N'l:JO Oll)n\!)
+ 0!1~ O'tl : lJIJ\!.1 I'J'l1'!!
252 252 253
1Nm 0\!.1 m7!ln '1N1m )'1n' '1Nm
257
'!l'l"'''~
260 261 275
n11on m:::.,.oo
'!In'~
l"lP '!l'l1'!1 n:n "'ll':J Oll O'!l'l1'!1
277
on' '!111'::1 nm:::.1 1!10.0 '!1'1'~
281 281
m':7'.0 0~ O''liJ'tl O'!l)1l.:::l mv;:m
2R3
~Yl!:l
mr.>\!.11 n';:!l~!l mo~t~ 0"JO'tl 0'!:11"'1':::1:::1
287
Contents
Chapter 12 12. t 12.2 12.3 12.4
12.5 12.6 12.7
Verb phrases Introduction to verb phrases Verb phrases: verbs and objects Compound verb phrases Grouping verbs by semantic considerations Modal verbs Habitual aspect phrases Subjunctive and possibility phrases
Chapter 13
Modal \-'erbs and expressions
13.1 13.2 13.3
Introduction to modality Modal verb phrases impersonal modal expressions Temporal aspects in modality Modality expressed by phrases with nm
13.4 13.5
Chapter 14
Clauses and sentences
14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4
Introduction Verbal sentences Nominal sentences Equational sentences Existential sentences Sentences of possession Elliptical sentences Classification of sentences by function Sentence classification by structure Simple sentences Coordinate/compound sentences
14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11
XI
t:t"!1)11~ a•~,,,~
288
O"~)J)!l 0'!lll'!t~ N1Jr.:l
288
0'~).1!) : 0"7)11!) 0'011'~
2&8
0'N'01r.l1 0':J=>l1Y.l 0"~lll!l O'!l'll'~ O'!ln':::~ ~\? 'tllOU ln>u
291 297
Ol'>~).ll!l
O"~N11Y.l O'>~)J!l ('~llil?) \JjJ!lUN '!l11'~ i1~N\!IO , l)'}ln '!lll'~
298 298 299
nn'tl!lN1 t:I"~N'TU3 t:l""''21 t:l'7)1.!:1
300
In''JN1l0; Nl:JO
O''Dnu 0'''JN11r.l 0'"1\J':J
300 301 305
J"nl~Ni10J )Y.lli1 \JjJ!>UN
306
0)1 0''1\JlJJ In''JNiu:l
311
0"'JN11r.l O"'J)I)!l 0'!l1l'!t
'i1'il' t:I'".!:I'0~1 ,,,,~.!:!
NlJO on;)ll!l O'\J!l\!10 onm\!1 0'\J!l\!IO l)il)l l\J!I\!Ir.:l Ol'P '\J!l\!IY.l l"ljJ )\:)!)\!JJJ 0'1tm 0'\J!l\!IY.l )!)
,)I 0'\J!l\!10 l wu
314 314 316 318 318 323 324 330 332
01'f.'!ln O)J)J '!l ;)I 0'\J!l'OO lll'U
334
O'\JW!l 0'\J!l\!lr.:l
335 337
O'n'NO 0'\J!l\!lr.:l C0'1:nnr.:l)
Contents
XII
14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 14.16 14.17 14.18
Complex sentences Complement clauses Attributive clauses Relative clauses Adverbial clauses Conditional sentences Integrated sentences
Chapter 15 15.1
Language in context Introduction Sentence or utterance? Topic and comment Focus and topic Deixis - reference to person, time and place Reported speech- direct and indirect Language registers Genres oftext Cohesion and coherence of text Language in context: sample texts
15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5
15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10
Appendices Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5
Verb tables Noun tables Particle tables Punctuation rules Plene writing
Index of grammatical topics
C':J:nm
0'\J!l~t~P
nlt.l'~\!.1~ TIPplO!l 'Nll~ m'jJlO!l
np'l nl'PlO!l nl'~N'::l1ll"TN m'jJlO!l
338 340 344 345 349
l\J!)\!)~
357
Ol:J~llt'~ Ql\J!l\!.1~
337
,vpn:a ,,v~
364 364
ll'()l1
Nllt.l ! }I:JO lN \J!llt'O ~mm
N\!m
ilP'm N~t~ll , ")U~ Tlltm,nm nP~1
365 366 369
369
Olpo7l )OlJ "l'P).Il
1'~t~'
:1om 1l:J'i
373
1llt'J ':J'It'O
377
\JOP\J 'J\!J m:rm l1'1':J7l nl'il\!JljJ
381 382
mmn : 1~t~pn:::t 11~t~'J
384
b'nOV3
390 390 416
O'~Y!l nl'm mm~ nm~t~ m'm mm~
nl'J'P mm~
425
plO'!ln 'JJJ
428
N~Y.l
O"Pl"TPl
O'N~t~lJ
:JlTIJ
436
Up1l'N
438
Preface The main purpose of this book is to serve as a reference grammar tor Modern Hebrew. It is designed to teach about the language and to give readers a reference tool for looking up specific details of the language. The intended audience is a varied one; it includes non-native speakers who arc students of Hebrew, native speakers of Hebrew who seek a comprehensive coverage of Hebrew grammar, instructors and teachers of Hebrew, students and scholars of Biblical Hebrew who would like to have a better understanding of contemporary Hebrew, students of linguistics, and the general public interested in Hebrew language and culture. Particular care was taken to make the presentation as simple as possible, and to avoid use of excessive linguistic terminology or complex linguistic analyses, in order to make this volume as accessible as possible to everyone, and to give pedagogical considerations equal weight to those of Linguistic explanations and analysis. The book is based on the study of formal Hebrew and of Hebrew as a spoken language, and it includes some historical notes on pre-modern Hebrew (Biblical and Post-Biblical). We consider the Hebrew language both as a system and as a communicative tool. Whenever possible, equivalent Hebrew terminology is given in order to facilitate use of Hebrew grammar and language textbooks.
A Reference Grammar of Modern Hebrew combines modern and traditional approaches in the description of language structures and uses. The term 'normative' is used to convey the adherence to the formal rules of grammar, while 'common use' alludes to the rules applied by educated speakers in their daily use. While most speakers perceive 'correct' Hebrew to be the language usage as prescribed by the fonnal rules of Hebrew, in fact their own actual language usage, particularly in informal contexts, often departs somewhat from the normative rules. The language is thus described both in its written and more forma] contexts, and in the spoken conversational mode, where there is a relaxation of some ofthe normative rules, as is common to all languages in use. The formal presentation of rules and tables associated with language structures uses Hebrew texts with vowels, 10n ::Pn:l ktiv haser, while
xiv
Preface
the examples, on the whole, use N~Y.l.l'l1::l ktiv mate, without vowels, as in daily use in contemporary Hebrew adult texts. A R~jerence Grammar of Modern Hebrew is organized according to universal structural categories. The book describes the basic structures of Modern Hebrew, and provides a generous number of examples, based on the authors' experience of teaching Hebrew to Englishspeaking students, and research work in the field of Hebrew linguistics. We wish to acknowledge our colleague Robert Hoberman, Professor of Linguistics at the State University of New York Stony Brook, whose feedback comments were very insightful and helpful from both linguistic nnd pedagogical aspects. We also wish to acknowledge Liz Brater, who as a student of Hebrew gave us much needed insight into learners' needs, and as a professional editor, helped us with organizing the text. We are particularly thankful to her, since she found time during her busy schedule as a Michigan State Senator, to do careful reading of large parts of the text. [n addition, we thank Neta Bolozky and Tris Coffin for their steady support during the writing of the book. We also wish to express our gratitude to Cambridge University Press for the opportunity to write and publish this work.
June 2004
Chapter 1 Preliminary discussion 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 I .7
Parts of speech Grammatical functions Words and patterns Gender and number Open and closed word classes Phrase constituents Rules of agreement
1.1 Parts of speech One of the major issues in the presentation of grammar is the definition of language categories. Language categories can be described as parts of speech, i.e. language units in isolation, or in terms of their function in context. For instance. a noun can be described as belonging to the parts-of-speech category 'noun', and also as functioning either as a subject or an object within the clause or sentence structure, as the modifier of another noun, etc. While we recognize that all language items belong to a whole network of interrelationships, we shall limit the present discussion to context-free (i.e., parts-of-speech), and contextdependent (i.e., functional) relationships. The following are the main traditional categories of parts of speech: Verbs Nouns Pronouns Adjectives Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions
C'~)J.!:l
Tnr.l'll ~n
''))''
1Nm mo'l.l ~)J)!lil '1NUl on,m':mJ 1t:Pn m~:mJ
ln many cases, the distinction between the part-of-speech characterization of some item and its function in context is obvious. Thus, for instance, in the noun phrase 0'1!!0 mm 'bookstore', we have two nouns (part of speech), and although the second one is a modifier
2
Chapter I: Preliminary di.scuj·j·ion
of the first, and thus functions as if it were an adjective, it is still a noun from the part-of-speech point of view. On the other hand, there are words that even in isolation cannot be assigned unambiguously to a single category. Every word functions as at Least one part of speech, but there are words that can serve as two or more parts of speech, depending on the context. For instance, some present participle forms can function as verbs in the present tense, as nouns or as adjectives:
Adjective
The new worker did not arrive at work today. The computer does not work properly. The executive (working) committee decided to raise membership fees.
ow1 ~n.:m N~ Ynnn ~).ll!lil .ilil:J).I~
.'lN,_, ~l'l!l N~ :JYJn~n m~).ln~ '.J'~nn ~l'l!ln iYm
.I:Jnn
,~,
nN
The same word can also function as both an adjective and an adverb: .nYJp Y.I'N Nlil ~nmn Adjective The director is a ditlicult man. Adverb He makes everyone work hard. .O~l-' nN nYJp i>:J)J~ Nlil Below are some illustrations of parts of speech and grammatical functions. A more detailed discussion wil1 follow in the main chapters of the book. Verbs o•'l.u9 Verbs in tense
Dan hurried home. They will oppose the plan tor ideological reasons.
.nn>:::~n
1n>o rr
m:J>ot:J n>l:~m;. lilln' on .m>ll~1N'1'N
Non-finite verbs Dan wants to run in the Boston
Marathon.
Nouns and pronouns
D 11 IJ 1 JI n1nw
Nouns I have coffee and cake for you. Verbal nouns
Dan is a cooking expert. She proved a profound understanding ofthe subject.
.~1Y.I'J~ nno1o
11
.NYJU:l nj:mJY mJ.n iln'::>1n N'il
Chapter I: Preliminary discussion
3
Personal pronouns
He likes to cook and she likes to eat.
m.nn·-c N'ill 'J'I!'::J.'J ::J.illN N.m .'J1:>N'J
Demonstrative pronouns
This food is Muroccan food.
Adjectives Adjectives in noun phrases He is an excellent cook. Adjectives as predicates
.l'1~r.:! l'J\U::l
N.1il
.l\U:>UJ mn i'O'JTln
This student is talented.
Adverbs He cooks a lot but eats little.
.,lll!>il .,Hin .\JYO ?:nN. 'J::J.N il::J.1il ?\U::J.JJ N.1il
Particles
m•'l•n/m..,•n
Prepositions
Dan goes with friends to shows.
.ml~il~ 0'1::m oy
1'Jm )i
Conjunctions
Do you want to walk or to go by car? Subordinators They went to the restaurant that I
!Y1t7)'J 1N
'Jn:J Tl:J'J'J
m~m
om.c
.m~?on il''JY~ myuo? 1::.'::m on
recommended. Interrogatives
Who is this?
!ill '.O
Interjections ~::J.N.1:J
Ouch! It hurts!
m P1N
1.2 Grammatical functions Another way to classify the components of an utterance is by their grammatical function. Here are some of the terms that arc used to describe the roles the parts of speech play in sentences: Subject Predicate Attribute Object Adjunct
N\U1) NWl 'N11'J
N\UUl n!lt7l
4
Chapter 1: Preliminary discussion
M~ll
Subject Noun phrases
The new cook is from France. Subordinate clauses
That he studied cooking in France is of no interest to me.
1"l}.lr.l N~ n~i~:a ~lt~':a lr.l' Nm'll .;.::.J:a 'mN
Predicate Verb predicates
Dan started studying in the summer. Nominal predicates
He is a student in law school. Attribute Expansion of phrases with additional information
Dan met friends from work at a pub on the beach.
J>' :JN!l:l i1i':J)InY.l D'l:Jn 'lll!l 11 .om Tl!l'll
Object complement Direct object
Dan met his friends. Indirect object
Dan got together with his friends. Adjunct
nDOl
Temporal
Dan was not at home this morning. Spatial
Dan traveled in England for three months.
1.3 Words and patterns
o•.,iJ\!IDI
Dl
1 11
l:l
,D•.,n
All verbs, many nouns, and a good number of adjectives and adverbs are based on a combination of roots and patterns. The root 'llii'll shoresh is a consonantal skeleton. It is a hypothetical sequence of consonants shared by related words. Roots do not constitute actual words. Each one is applied to a pattern, from which actual words are formed. In the verb system the pattern is called 1"ll hinyan, and elsewhere it is called ~PIVY.l mishkal.
Chapter 1: Preliminary discussion
Verbs Gloss wrote dictated
5
Word :Jl)~
::l'.l'l:m ':.
Nouns and adjectives
Gloss magician (noun) charming (adjective)
Word 09ip
l!.nl\!1
o-u-p
0'1li?~
There are seven verb pattern groups (binyanim) in Hebrew. The third person singular in the past tense is traditionally used to represent each of these groups. To label each of these groups generically, a prototypical root is used. The generic verb ~)l!:l is used in combination with the pattern of each binyan, giving it its name.
pa'al nifal pi'el pu'a/ hitpa'el hifil hf.!fal
Root
Bin"t,an's name
Citation Form
~~~
P1l
p-1-l
7~~~
1~~~
1-:J-\!1
Cnn!:l)'JV.~
(1!:1'0} 1~1?
1-!)-t;l
P~9.
p-'J-u
':J)!~J;ln
\!I~'JJ;liJ
\!)-)-1
'J'l.'~n (Jll!:lln) 'J).I!;)!.I
"'~i?n
\)·J-p
(7).11!:1) '~~
Cp71t!)
cn:mnJn~m
n-s-l
The root consonant is labeled ~))l!:ln '!:l (marked in English as C1). The second root consonant is labeled 'JYl!ln ')) (C 2) and the third root consonant is 'J)Jl!:lil ·~ (C3 ). Verb form
Root
'7l.ll~il ''7
'7~1~il
PlJ"'
Binr..an Jll!:l
up~
~ll!:ll
Q-J-~
0
)
:>
(07'\!1) 0~~
~ll'!:l
T.)-J-\!1
T.)
l'i'$.!
~)J)!)
1-\)-!)
,
::lt1~l;1iJ
'Jll!:l11il J'lol!:lil
:1-n-J
:J
"n'
\!)
:::1-!1-:l
:J
n
J
J))!))il
\)-J-p
"
~
p
(1\)~!;l)
::l'J;l?iJ '"~pm> ";..i?t!
p-n-\!1
p
n
'v
'11JI9il '9 \!)
!)
J
6
Chapter I: Preliminary discussion
A comparative note The verb pattern groups m Hebrew are somewhat similar to special groups of verbs in English, where the base undergoes predictable internal changes, and the modifications within the stem arc regular. Some examples of such groups: (a) drive-drove-driven, write-wrote-written, ride-rode-ridden (b) speak-spoke-spoken, freeze-froze-frozen, steal-stole-stolen Although the root does not exist on its own, many words sharing a common root tend to have a common meaning or related meaning. Verbs Citation form Gloss 1-'tl-p tie be tied get in touch; get connected Nouns and adjectives Gloss tied, connected (adj.) tie, connection (noun) context (noun)
11'tli?
1l'o
{l) 1'<Ji?
Cl'll
Cl) 1Wi?i)
O'll
1.3.2 Deriving new words New words in Hebrew, as in other Semitic languages, arc formed in two ways: I. Linearly, without affecting the base for derivation. For instance, the adjective )1~3.)~ 'public, in the public domain' is derived from the noun 1):1)~ 'the public'. There are also cases of chains of derivations. Noun child Abstract noun derived from -1':(~: childhood childish Adjective derived from nn?~: childishness Abstract noun derived from 'JWI'~!:
1??. nn':(~
'nn~~ Jwnn?~
2. New verbs can also be derived from an existing root, by combining it with an existing derivation pattern. For instance, the following recent verbs were formed with existing roots and their new combination with patterns:
Chapter 1: Preliminary discussion
Existing verb New verb in shlfel pattern Existing verb New verb in ljfe/ pattern:
write rewrite act, do operate, activate
7
::l.!J~
:l.fl?'?'
'~-? ,).1!;11;'
1.4 Gender and number Nouns, adjectives and verbs have gender and number features. The gender is either masculine 1~! or feminine n;tm. A distinction is made between two major noun categories: [lJ nouns that represent living entities: human beings and other living beings with biological gender features, and [2] nouns that represent other entities, mostly inanimate and abstract nouns (for example, objects, concepts, plants and others}. The biological gender of living beings and their inherent masculin~ ur feminine features are reflected in their grammatical gender features. Other nouns have an assigned grammatical gender, which is prescribed and cannot be predicted. There arc regular number features, which indicate whether a noun is a singular noun n1~n~lim' or whether it is a plural noun nt:niD'::l1. The feminine singular noun endings (ili'n'l are frequently marked by a final n.- -a or a final n- -t. The plural noun endings are represented by the sutlixes D'- -im and m- -ot. In nouns the plural ending 0'- -im most frequently but not necessarily reflects the masculine gender of the nouns, while the plural ending m- -ot most frequently but not necessarily reflects the feminine gender of the nouns. (See pp./30-139for more informalion) Verb forms in Hebrew also have gender and number features. In most past and future tenses they also have subject person features, i.e. personal pronoun features (1, you, he), which are often affixed to the verb forms. (See pp.36-3H.for more il?/ormation)
1.5 Open and closed word classes The parts of speech can be classified as belonging to two large categories: to 'open' classes or to •closed' classes. The open classes consist of these parts of speech: verb, noun, adjective, and adverb. The various particles (prepositions and conjunctions and others) are closed
8
Chapter 1: Preliminary discussion
classes. The closed classes are fixed sets of a limited number of function words, whereas the open classes have a large membership. 1.5.1 Open classes These are productive classes to which new words are continuously added, responding to the need for new vocabulary to serve the changing times. The new words are added either according to existing rules of morphology tor the formation of new words, or by borrowing words from other languages and either leaving them as they arc, or adapting them to Hebrew structures and patterns. The closed classes resist the addition of new members. Formation of verbs Adaptation from existing words: Gloss Derived Verb
to market to report
P~W~
Derived Root p-,-'l,l <
on?
n+l<
Gloss
market report
Base p!!\!J
nnn
-n t- prefix added to existing roots: Gloss Derived Verb Derived Root to communicate 1-\!J-p-n < iWi?tl~ to brief ::.-1-1-n < TJ!tl~
tie guide
Root 1-'l.l-p ::>-i-1
-1!1 sh- prefix added to existing roots: Gloss Derived Verb Derived Root
Gloss
Root
work write
.J-n-::>
to subjugate to rewrite
l~~W~
1-.J·~-ltl
.J~9W?
.J-n-::>-\!J <
<
Gloss
1-J-).1
Formation of nouns Derived from verbs Gloss Derived Noun
frame guard, watch
l1')~~Y.l 1Y;l'I(JY,)
Gloss
close guard
Derived from other nouns Gloss Derived Noun
Gloss
brotherhood privacy
brother individual
il)Q~ m~~;J?~
Base
Root
,~V
j-)-tl
ir.l~
1-Y.)-\!,1
Base nl$
.'
\J19
Chapter 1: Preliminary di.vcu.vsion
Derived from adjectives Gloss Derived Noun
Gloss
pennissiveness health
permissive healthy
mY~~l:IY.l
TnN'"J:;I
9
Base
'n'J:lt,) N">"J~
Borrowing words from other languages Direct borrowing of nouns:
high tech prime time
pt>-"il D"\J o.,.,,!l
~~
u~
Deriving new verbs from borrowed words: Gloss Derived Verb Extracted Root 1-U-J.-U subsidize 19:!tl?
sympathize
\J;lJ;l~
\J-!:1-~-u
Gloss
Base
subsidy sympathy
n~·pl?~~u
il?\?~~'1?
Borrowed words with Hebrew suffixes
Plural Suftixes Feminine ending Adjective endings
intellectuals Practice digital
0'~1'<1\JjJ~\J))I'( np~\JjJ,!l
J1l~\Jllli/'~\J'l'1
Note that the noun system is the most open, and nouns from other languages can be adopted into the language without alterations or with little alteration, such as Oi\JN 'atom', )1!l':m 'telephone', mt'n~m 'television', il'li~ilJ\J 'technology', and many others. However, new borrowed verbs and adjectives require adaptation into the existing system. For instance, the verb 19~~ sihsed 'to subsidize' above requires vowel modification from the borrowed noun i1?7~l?~~u subsidya 'subsidy' in order to fit into a Hebrew verb pattern. 1.5.2 Closed classes The closed classes of words consist ofthe grammatical function words, such as: I. Pronouns ill ,Nm ,'JN J. ,-~,~!liN ,0)1 2. Prepositions ~:JN ,) 3. Conjunctions -jJ 4. Determiners o',!ltm 1N ,nJ.,n .~:J 5. Quantifiers 1\!JN,\!J 6. Subordinators
10
C'hapter 1: Preliminary discussion
All of the above do not have gender or number teatures, and as a general rule, do not fill the slot of the head of a phrase. They are called closed because they contain a limited number of items, and their membership is not likely to be expanded. Function words are hardly ever borrowed from other languages.
Prepositions on• m'J•n Prepositions are usually followed by a noun phrase or by a pronoun sutlix. Prepositions function as heads of prepositional phrases. Some verbs must be followed by obligatory prepositions. Some prepositions are followed by a subordinating particle -~ that introduces a subordinate clause. Prepositional phrase
After the holiday meal Subordinating item: preposition+ clause
After they ate the holiday meal.
Determiners, articles and quantifiers JII"T.. m'l•n Articles, determiners, and quantifiers precede and modity nouns: Not everyone agrees with you. He is a billionaire! He has lots of money. Each person brought something.
.1:nN O'Y.l':JOY.J 0'\!JlNn 'J:J
N'J
.'lU:J )U~il l~ "I!J' !il'''J'l Nlil .lil\!JY.l N'lil inN ~J
Coordinators ,1:1•n nr'J•n Common coordinators are_, 'and' and ':J 'because' and 1N 'or'. They can be found in several levels of the hierarchy: words, phrases, or clauses. Phrases
Who is the boss here, you, or your brother? Are you and your brother going to the offic.e?
Chapter 1: Preliminary discus.~ion
II
Clauses OJ~1Jl,~J1N P'!:IOY.l W'
There is enough food, and you can all come and cat.
.J1JNJ NlJJ 0'J1J'
Subordinators The most frequently used subordinator is the particle -'? 'that', after which a subordinate clause follows. When the subordinate clause is an object (complement) clause, the word '' can be used as a subordinator but only in higher registers. When the subordinate clause is a relative clause, 1\!.IN may be used in higher registers. Reporting
We all know that you did not mean to say this. At a press conference the American Secretary of State said that an important strategic change has taken place.
nmJr.n N~ nnN~ D'Yll' 1l':71J .iH!lN1Y.ll~ i\!.1 "lr.3N 0'Nl1!1')1 1l:l'0Y.):J
'll'W ':7n ':::l
'lP'lr.ll:m ~mn .::11\!.ln ll\Jl"ON
Introducing a relative clause
The girl who is walking towards us is my cousin. The patient's rights law, which became valid in 1996, is a pioneer in its field.
-n.l N'n 1mN1p~ mo(J~ nim.ln
_,,,,
Ul::Jl
·wN ,n7mn n1'1Jl pm
'<1':7n 1l'n , 1996 mYJ:J 1!lpm':7 .1Y.3ln!ll
Introducing an adverbial clause
He did not arrive on time because his plane was late. He came to the office even though he was sick.
)ll>JY-3 1Y.lll Y':ln NJ Nli1 .ln'N 1omr.3~
mnw nnY-3':7 11\!.IY.l~ NJ Nm .n~m
Interrogatives Interrogatives are question words or phrases used to transform statements to questions. They can be pronoun question words PY-3 'who?' or mn 'what?'. They can also be adverbial question words about time mm 'when?' or about location !n!l'N 'where?'. They can pose questions about the reason for doing something mY-3~ 'why?' or ask to quantify things mn:> 'how much? how many?'.
12
Chapter I: Preliminary discussion
Questions about the subject or object:
Who called you? What did he te11 you on the phone?
?1''JN )!I'J\J .,~ !11!l'J\J:ll'J 1~N Nln i1~
Questions about time or location:
When is Dan coming? Where is he going? Where will he be this evening?
!N1:l'J J'llm )i ,n~ q'Jm Nm .ll:Q ?l1.Yi1 i1'i1"> Nln i1!l'N
Questions about cause or reason:
Why doesn't Dan want to come? Why was he so late?
?Nll'J mm N'J
11 nr.l'J
!p 'J::> 1nN Nln Y1ir.l
Questions with prepositions:
The question words 'r.l and ilr.l can be preceded by prepositions, as in 'Jy ?nr.l •about what?', or !'r.l Dl' •with whom?'. About whom did you talk? With whom did you go to the movies?
Interjections i'IM•1il m'l•n Interjections are words or phrases used to exdaim or protest or command. They sometimes stand by themselves, but they are often contained within larger structures. Most interjections are usually used in speech. Nice! You finished everything on time. Wow! I won the lottery! We won- Hallelujah! How awful! Everything is lost.
! 1u1'Jn
m-< ,,.m111n ! or.lnr.3 ! i1'''~m - 1ln~'l
. i1:l'N'J 1~'i1 'J::>n !'1:lN1 '1N
1.6 Phrase constituents Observe the following sentence: Small children go to kindergarten. The sentence can be clearly divided into two main constituents: verb phrase noun phrase
Chapter 1: Preliminary disc:uss ion
13
Each of these constituents is a phrase and the two of them together form the sentence. The first one is a noun phrase, while the second one is a verb phrase. The central item of the noun phrase is O'l~' 'children', while the modifying item is O'JVP 'small'. In the verb phrase, the central item is the verb O':>~m 'go', and the destination is indicated by the prepositional phrase that completes the verb phrase ·p~ 'to kindergarten'. A phrase, as we saw above, consists of an obligatory item, which we call the head or nucleus, and it is always essential to the phrase. It sets the syntactic category of that phrase. Other elements may be optional. Only words that belong to open classes can be heads of phrases. They combine with other words to t'brm larg~r unils, and within the phrase they constitute the central item around which the other words are organized. Head nouns determine the gender and number of the other components in the phrase, as well as in the sentence. Types of phrase: noun phrase
Head word- noun: n!liv 'language' In context: [The Hebrew language) changes. Types of phrase: verb phrase
Head word- verb: llp 'bought' In context: The children [bought ice cream].
1.7 Rules of agreement The head of a syntactic unit, such as a phrase, a clause or a sentence determines many of the features of the other nouns, adjectives or verb forms in these units. Beyond the phrase there is agreement between the head noun of a subject and its predicate (verb, noun or adjective), or between any noun and its co-referent pronoun anywhere in the sentence or beyond. Let's see how the head noun in the following sentence determines the features of some other components in the sentence: .p~ O'~~m O'l\.?p O'i~' • Head noun: C'i~'. Gender: masculine. Number: plural. • Adjective reflects the teatures of the head noun: O'l\.?P.
14
Chapter I: Preliminary discussion
•
The verb reflects the plural masculine features of the head noun: o>~~nn.
1. 7.1 Gender agreement 1. Noun phrase: head noun + adjective The~
·1"lYtJ )JtJ\!.Il \!.1-rnn \:nun
movie sounds interesting.
The new exhibit is attracting a lot of visitors. They say that i! is very interesting.
n~\!.lm
n'1!J1nn n:ni)Jnn
N>il\!.1 O>i}J)N . D':li D'if.':ltJ .11NY.l m»lYtJ
2. Noun phrase: head noun+ demonstrative pronoun Since demonstrative pronouns can modi(y nouns in a noun phrase, they agree in gender and number with the head nouns. This pool is an Olympic pool. .n'!lr.J'''N m'i:l Nm m-tm il:l'i.Ji1 That game was riveting. 3. Noun phrase+ verb predicate Nira was accepted to work in the otlice of an architectural tirm. They hired her as soon as she finished her studies. Noam works in a bank. Many friends of his work there.
~\!.1 1"1\!.IY.l.J ni,:lY~ n~:1pnn ili'l
1''Y.l nmN l~:l'P .o>\Jj7t1'~1N
..D.'iu:J'~ om oy 1~\!.1 0':::11 D'"1.Jn .jJl.J:l 1:1W OlJU
. 0\!.1 D'l:lllJ
4. Noun phrase+ adjective predicate
Your choice (is) very good.
.11NY.l il:::ll\:1 1~\!.1 i1"1'n:lil
The voting rate (is) low.
.11m
illl:l~nn
ill'' \!.I
1.7.2 Number agreement 1. Noun phrase: head noun + adjective
The new~ are interesting. We strolled in the small streets of the town.
. D'l"l:l.IY.l o>\!.linn mmr.m .-,>yn 7\!.1 0'lt1pn m:Jlni.J 11~mo
2. Sentence: noun phrase+ predicate: verb
Moshe and Danny arrived late. Aliza and Dina live in the dorms.
.inlNY.lW'lil '111 il\!.IY.l .nm:l.lr.J:l m1:~
ill', m'7ll
15
Chapter I: Preliminary discussion
3. Sentence: noun phrase+ predicate: adjective
These flowers are very pretty. The girls in my class are not particularly friendly.
1.7.3 Agreement in person 1will finish the paper tomorrow. You didn't hear the bell?
. 1lN~ D'!l' n?Nn D'nl!lil
:mmn::m NJ nn'J.J mnn .1nllY.lJ.
.1rm
n-rn~n
1~n:~'l~n
nN 1mlN 'JN
nN omn:ri!J N? onN
Personal pronouns (subject, object, possessive, etc.) reflect the person that they represent. The girl said that she was hungry.
Her parents also said that they were hungry.
1.7.4 Definite/Indefinite status When the head noun is indefinite, so is the adjective that modifies it. However, when the noun modifier is a prepositional phrase, the head noun does not influence it. Indefinite head noun
There arc small and nice restaurants there. We bought an old house. Did you visit any art museums?
.)~.n
!l'J U'JP
1!l1))::lNJ D'JlN'n~:J D!llj7'J
When the head noun is detinite, the adjectives that modify it are also definite. A definite concept consists of a noun introduced by a definite article, or one with a possessive suffix, or a proper name. However, when the noun modifier is a prepositional phrase, the head noun does not int1uence it. Definite head noun
The blossoming trees are apple trees. His second wife was born in Canada. Our Ilana is a gifted musician.
.D'nl!>n
'~Y
on D'n1l!li1
D'~~n
. i11)j7J. i11~Jl) i1ll)~i1 ln'iJN
.nmnY.'l !l'NP'UlY.'l N'il UJ~ m'l'N
Chapter 2 Writing and pronunciation 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2. 7 2.8
Introduction Consonants and their corresponding sounds The Hebrew vowel system Texts with vowels and without vowels Diacritic marks other than vowels Syllables Stress patterns Dialectal variation in consonant articulation
2.1 Introduction In Hebrew, as in other Semitic languages, consonants are regarded as the primary units that compose a word. There are twenty-two letters in the Hebrew alphabet, with eight additional variations. Each consonant is assigned a letter of the alphabet. Four consonants may also represent vowels, but generally, vowel signs are marked by dots and short lines inserted below, above, and inside the consonants. In contemporary Hebrew texts, sequences of consonants represent words. Vowel signs are not used in most texts, with the exception of poetry, children's literature, textbooks for early grades, and liturgical literature. In writing without vowels, each sequence of consonants can have more than one vowel pattern assigned to it, and thus has several possible pronunciations and consequently several possible meanings, e.g., in a sequence like l!lO: Gloss
book; literary work ( l) te II, narrate; talk about (2) to cut hair be recounted, be narrated count, enumerate count! barber border, edge, fringe
With vowels
Without vowels
s~fer
l!fQ
l!lO
siper
1~1?
l!)'tl
supar
l~P.
l!l,O
.w~far
l!;.!V
l!ltl
s.for sapar
,.!lV
1)!)0
l!;l~
l!ltl
.~far
,~~
l!ltl
17
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
The consonantal skeleton of a word carries its basic sense, and the vowel string usually identities the word grouping to which a particular word belongs. Pattern recognition is aided by affixes (attachments), which facilitate the reconstruction of the associated vowel configuration. The following example demonstrates the combination of a consonantal skeleton with two different word patterns. Gloss number narrator
Patterns mispar mesaper
Prefix ,~~Y,l
-Y,l
1~Qt;:l
2.2 Consonants and sounds Tn the table below, you will find the Hebrew consonantal alphabet, traditionally arranged. Five consonants have a special torm when they come at the end of the word ('"1'!:1; '"<·~;'I 'l; •o •o; '1 ·~).Note that shin and sin are represented by the same symbol (a dot is used to distinguish between them); and that some consonants were modified with diacritics to also represent non-native sounds (•s ,'l ,'l). The letters are dispLayed in both print and script forms. The transcription sign is displayed under the sound column, referring to the sound realization of that letter and the conventional way to transcribe it in English. Short notes about pronunciation are added in a separate column next to each letter. Note
Single Hebrew Letters in isolation are marked with an apostrophe. When the letters are referred to by name in texts, they often have an inverted double comma inserted in between the last two letters, such as in the fo11owing examples: 1"'ll ,'"i~ ."1"~ •'"'' ,TI"'l ,t"J"7N. The reason tor inserting the double inverted comma into the spelling of the names of letters is to avoid confusion with actual words. In the toll owing table neither an apostrophe nor a double-inverted comma are inserted, since there is no confusion as to what they stand for when they appear in a table.
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciulion
18
Consonants Letter N
Sound
k
(J
Notes on pronunciation
Name
It carries the sound of the following
'cilef
~?z:t
bet
JP:;J
vet
n'~
vowel, as in :l':;tz:t aviv. It is never realized at the end of words:
N":~i?
kara.
N''J~ hari.
'
In deliberate speech it is realized as a glottal stop with a stressed vowel: nz:t";li?
::1
,
kar'a. h
h, as in the first sound of flpy, word
intially: p ben, or after a closed syllable: i1:;J";ID harhe,
:J
11'
v
or after an open syllable in
some patterns: 1~1 diber. v, as in the first sound of y_ine, atlcr a vowel or at the end of words:
NJ;l~V
savta, ::llJ:;t katav.
l
~
g
gas in the first sound in green
'l
~~
j
as in the first sound in George ('l";li'l)
l
?
d
i1
f)
h
gfmel
~t;l')
d as in the first sound in door
dalet
n~J
Aspirated h, as in !J.ello, before a stressed vowel, e.g., 10 har; or when n is final,
he
NiJ
vav
1)
preceded by a, preceded by another
{j
vowel: ;;JiJ~ gaw)ah; or to mark a fern. sing. suffix: i'l~ lah. At the end of a word, following an a or e: n~~ yofd, n~~ yqfe, or optionally before an unstressed vowel: '7i;:fN ohel- 6e/
1
I
v
v as in the first sound of l')J vered, or
after a vowel as in
n~p
kiva, 1p kav. ~Ji?
l
I
u
The vowel u as in mp kmn,
'
i
0
II
v
The vowel o as in "'iP kof: i11 ho. Alternative for a single '1 consonant.
w
win foreign words, 1i\J,P''<.Ii1 Washington
11
kanu.
19
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
,,'
~
z
z as in the first sound of g_oo.
,~
zh
In foreign (borrowed) words, such as the
zayin
l~!
final sound in gara~ ('lN')~). n
n
n
fi is pronounced as in Loch Ness.
net
n'>l}
For alternate pronunciation sec explanation on page 3 I. \J
6
I
t as in the first sound of [able
tel
ll'\?
')
I
y
y in any position, as in x.eam, kaJ!.ak
yod
l)>
)
I
i
,,::::'
~y
))
,
The vowel i as in speed, or in seal The diphthong ey as in ww: Alternative tor a single'' consonant.
:J
:;il
k
k~f
C'J~
;:,
;I
kh
kh4
C'j:;l
1
p
'
y
~
I
I
Y.l
"
m
0
p
)
J
l
I
n
k as in fan: at the beginning of a word l:;? ken, or after a closed syllable: n~?r.> maiko, or after an open syllable in some patterns: 'li'l? siken. kh is pronounced as in Loch Ness, after a vowel or at the end of words. An orthographic variation at the end of words: TJ rakh. I as in the tirst sound of lean. m as in the first sound of mother. An orthographic variation at the end of words. n as in the first sound of t1,ever.
nun
'\~)
An orthographic variation of at the end
nun
'\U
of words.
St~/il
khaf
C'J~
s~fit
n~iu
kimed mem
0):;)
mem
Ol;;l
sofll
n->~)U
u
0
s
s as in the first sound of ~un.
samekh
)I
~
(1
In standard speech it only carries the
'4vin
sound ofthe following vowel, just as 'N does. For alternative pronunciation see explanation on page 3.1.
lt;;J?
n'>~)U
wv ~~~
20
.!!1
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
a
p
pas in the first sound ofQearl: at the
pe
N!,ll
syllable in some patterns: 1~~ siper. f as in the first sound of.fun: after a
fe
N~
vowel: "V~~ safwl or initially in borrowed words: 'J~''V'i?~festival. Orthographic variation offat the end of
.fe s~flt
N~
beginning of the word or after a closed syllable: ,0!~ parpar, or after an open !l
')
;)
l
1
words: ~
'I ·~
''I p
,
'1
, ~1
ts
ch
~t
')~9
ll'~)O
kesef.
ts pronounced as one segment, as in the
tsadi
,,.~
first segment of P'ry-~ !§.adik. Orthographic variation of Is at the end of
tsadi
''1~
so.fit
l1'~'0
k
\9l,
words: '(~::l.'i? kihbutz. ch in foreign words, such as Charlie ('~1·~).
p
k
?
r
k as in the tirst sound of !s_id r as in the tirst sound of r_un. It is
'l'P
pronounced almost like the r in French or German. Some pronounce it like the rolling r as in Spanish. 'tlj
e
sh
sh as in the first sound of shop.
sin
1'\!J
\1.1
e
s
s as in the first sound of ~un.
sin
1'YJ
n
J?
t
t as in the first sound of [able.
tav
)J;I
The following letters, which were historically distinct, have the same sound today. Words with different spelling can have the same sound: Pronounced
kar
.shote ala sar lakh lsav
cold drink went up minister to you summons
Word 1 ,i? n~i't!l
Word 2
pillow fool
n?)J
club, bat
,."'
go aside humid turtle
1~ l~
Letters
1;>
p,::>
il\;''YJ
ll,\:1
n"?~
)I,N
,v
't!I,O
n'?
::>,n
::t~
, ,J
21
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
nu.mn
2.3 Vowels
lsraeli Hebrew has only five vowel sounds: i e a o u. There are many more different vowel signs, reflecting historical differenc.es in vowel quality and length that no longer exist in contemporary use (other than what is determined automatical1y by the stress pattern and the context). Pronunciation
Vowel Name
kamats ~Y.li? v patah nJ;J:i'l 'i? nata{-f!_atan nJ;J~-<'J"IJ IJ ,,~0 e (as in get) segol ., v nataf-segol "~9-C"J\?Q 0 shva na )I~ N'\? ~ tsere ill'~ . .. ............... . .. . . . . . . . . .J?. . ey (as in m~y) tsere il"')'~ 'Q i (as in dear) nirik fwser 1QQ P'':l'IJ 0 nirik male N~Y;'! P'':l'IJ 'o () (as in stop) nolam ha.~er 1QQ o~'n nolam mate iO N~J?0~1n kamals katan Wi? ~r.li? ~ hatafkamats n ~Y.li? '1"1J u (as in soup) kubuts ~~1lj:? p jJ~l~\(J shuruk m 0 (as in glue) shva nan n~ Nl~ 1? short e (as in yeladim) shva na ' ).llNW In this table the letter 10 is used as a prototypical consonant, •nji.Jr a prototypical guttural. a (as in start)
:~
~:
0
Note 1: Comment on kamats vowels
There are two realizations of the ~Y.li? kamats vowel: The normal realization ofthe vowel in 1), for instance, is a, but in a few words (as a rule in a closed, unstressed syllable) it is pronounced o. Note 2: Comment on segol and related vowels
In Israeli Hebrew, the segol, the liatq{-segol and the shva na' arc all realized as e, and so are most cases of tsere that are not fo11owcd by yod.
22
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
Note 3: Comments on shva vowels
The usual realization of shva is no vowel, but in some environments where a sequence of consonants is difficult to pronounce (because of the nature of the consonant clusters involved), it is pronounced as a short e. Traditionally, the absence of a vowel at the end of a closed syllable, as in 17~~ mis-dar or 1.;!,~~ mush-be1·, is called n~ ~)1~ shva nan. When a shvt1 at the beginning of a sy11able is reali2ed as e, as in Ol~;t{ levanim, it is called Y~ N)l~ shva na '. Originally, every word-initial consonant cluster was split by a shva na ·: 0'?-il-~ ge-do-lim; however, in Israeli Hebrew, which al1ows many initial consonant clusters. most initial shva 's are realized as zero vowels: 0'~-ii~ < 0'~-il-~ ge-do-lim > gdo-/im. When the consonant clusters arc difficult to pronounce, the shva will be pronounced as e, as in 0'~-;t-{ le-va-nim. This is true when a word begins with a consonant cluster the tirst member of which is '', ''· 'Y.l, '), '1, or when the second is 'N, 'il, or'}!, which makes the consonant sequence hard to articulate. levanim neshama zehirut she'onim
Cl'~;t~ ilQ~~
m1'Dl O'~~y~
yeladim mesiha reshima te 'una
0'1~? n~1;'~ ilQ'~';l
n~'NJ;I
The same applies to a shva that immediately follows another shva: *nivdka > niv-de-ka
*tisgru > tis-ge-ru
Note 4: Comments on vowels marked with Frataf
Tht! four guttural consonants, ':,1 ,rn ,•n ,'N, arc hard to pronounce with no vowel (i.e., a shva nan). There are many word patterns which include a zero vowel in particular positions in the word, so to facilitate the pronunciation of each of the tour guttural consonants where a zero vowel was supposed to occur, one of three auxiliary vowels is inserted: shorter versions of the kamats, patah and segol. These auxiliary vowels are known as hatafim 0'~\?0· Today, however, they are no longer short.
23
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
Replacement of 0 by auxiliary vowels: natof:putan l'tataf-segul liataf-kamats
a e o
n:J;1!,11-C)\(()
o~~IJO
~t\9-"1\?Q
il~~~t<
'(Y,lj?-C)\(0
O'~.I'JQ
< < <
0'1'?~ n'?~1~ O':;l)~
Note 5: 'furtive' patah (patali gnuva) The furtive paton is an a vowel that is added to a word-final 'Y ,'n ,'il when it is preceded by a vowel other than a (as required by the word fonnation pattern), because it is easier to pronounce a word-final guttural. which is a low consonant, when it is preceded by a low vowel, i.e., by the patal't a.
Here are some examples: Pattern: CaCiC CaCuC CaCoC CoCeC/CaCeC
Final 'n
J:o'inal 'll
Final •n
iJ'~Y,)
~P:;l~
O'JJ~
i3ml;1
l:'n~
om~
i3tl~
l/)~~
l)i:)~
i}r,;ll;l
l/J)'
I)"Ji9
However, this rule does not apply when the word-final vowel is a. CaCaC n~~ YY.l~ n]J~ Note on the pronunciation of furtive patali When you see a patal't under a word-final 'll ;n, read it as if a silent 'N with a paton has been inserted before it: O.f.li9 potean, ~~"T? yadua '. The stress is always on the vowel bet(lre the furtive patan. It never falls on the furtive patan itselt~ A historical note The development of Hebrew orthographic signs for consonants is much earlier than that of vowels. The first sign of vowels emerges in what are called nN'1Pil mm-t malres lectionis. where some consonants were also used to represent vowels: '1, ''. tinai'N and fina1 1il. l. The letter '1 vav represents the consonant v (historically pronounced w), as well as two vowels: ) stands for o ()l-¥ ,Oi'l, and ~ for u (mi? ,mp).
2. The letter yod represents the consonant y as well as the vowel i ('~-¥ ,1'~), and on some occasions the diphthongs ay C'?~l or ey (').~ ,m;J.) (diphthongs are vowels combined with the "semi-vowels" y or w).
24
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
3. The use of,, and '' as vowels applied in medial as well as in final position. 4. In Hebrew orthography as it eventually became stabilized, all final vowels are represented by letters, with ,, for o and u, '' tor i, ey and ay, and '"for a Cil~~J and e (ii~~~J. Similarly, 1N is silent at the end of words CN"Ji?) or syllables C,N~ ,'.DN')i(), but is stiU maintained in the spelling. Vowel marks and other diacritical signs were added later to the Biblical Hebrew text to aid in the pronunciation of the text.
2.4 With or without vowel signs? Although native speakers can easily deduce the vowels from the morphological patterns in which words are realized and from the rest of the context, the optional use of yod and vav to represent the vowels i and o!u, respectively, has been a long tradition for many generations and has become the norm today. It is taught in schools, documented in all recent dictionaries, and used with complete regularity by publishers. When this is done, we refer to the result as N~Y;) :J'l:l~ ktiv male, 'plene writing', as opposed to 1QQ :l'lJ~ ktiv liaser, which includes vowels marks (for a summary ofplene writing rules, see Appendix 5). In a text with ktiv ma/J most olu vowels can be represented with a vav throughout, but the usc of yod for i is generally restricted to open syllables, or to alternants of words with open syllables, e.g., 1:1,., and l1J'1, but lli:J.,rm, not 'li:J.':mm· (see description of open and closed syllables on p. 27). Although the distinction between N7n :Jm:J ktiv male and 10n :J))"l:J ktiv liaser only refers to the presence or absence of optional vowel letters for i and for o/u, respectively, in practice the former is typically also characterized by the absence of any diacritic vowel marks, which ktiv haser usually displays. Note, however, that a 'hybrid' practice is emerging, in which the two representations are merged when users feel the need for it, so as to achieve maximal redundancy, as in 1~'"':1 alongside 1~1 and 1:::1''1. It should be emphasized that ktiv mate only relates to optional vowels; many vowel signs are obligatory, as in oipY;) ,1'~~ ,1~9~ ,o~p~ etc. Such vowels have always been obligatory. Also, note that the use of the
25
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
matres lectionis 'nand 'N to represent a and e is essentially still limited to the ends of words - although 'N is often used in rendering internal a in borrowed words and foreign names: )N\J~:m:' 'sultan', n\JI'OlO 'sonata', !1NiNU 'Sadat'.
Another long-standing tradition associated with ktiv male is to distinguish between consonants and their corresponding vowels by representing the former with a double letter, i.e.,)) for v from vav (1))'n liiver) and '' for y from .vod e:mn nayaf).
H'llll ,on l.•nJ N~O
1t:>n
N~Y.l
1t:>n
N~O
1:::1'1
1~-::r
J.'rl::l'
J.'T-l~~
1n~l\!.l
lQ~~
11::1U'n
11::l9f:1 nt;J;>Q
!10"\)
!lV?~
111:mn
l~:;,IJ;'ID
11J.'l
1~::17
''~)l
'?~
no.:>m
JQ.D
2.5 Other diacritics Along with the vowel signs Lhat were developed in post-biblical Hebrew, there are other diacritic marks that came to signify either a variant pronunciation of a letter, or its length, or a grammatical function. These diacritic marks are the following: dagesh kal, dagesh liazak and mapik. They are marked by insertion of a dot into the middle of a letter. The three have different labels, as they have different values and functions.
2.5.1 Dagesh kal
'liJ "l'T Historically, six Hebrew consonants were pronounced in two different ways, depending on their position in the word: '!1 •!) •:> •1 'l 'J.. The dagesh kal consists of a dot inserted into these letters to distinguish two variant pronunciations: 'T-l '9 'ZI ,,. ') ·~ (stops) and '!1 '!) ':I '1 'l ':::1 (continuants), respectively. The latter occurred after vowels, the former elsewhere. Three of the six, '!l ,'J ,':::1, have maintained the two variants (b, k, p vs. v, kh,f~ respectively), while the other three, 'l1 ,'i ,'l, have lost that distinction. In texts with vowels, all six letters keep the two distinct variants, indicated by the presence or absence of dagesh ka/, but only the tollowing are maintained in current pronunciation: v as in sevivon ,1J':;l1? J h as in barvaz l))~ ::1 kh as in mikhtav ::J~l:;)r,l ::1 k as in karlis 0'\;J):;,l ::J p as in patish f as in silriya
26
Chapter 2: Writing and prommciatinn
2.5.2 Dagesh »azak jJTn w.:n The dagesh lurzak uses the same sign as the dagesh kal, a dot in the middle of a letter, but has a totally different function. Historically the presence of a dagesh na:;ak reflected a doubling of the length of the letter. The dagesh could be inserted into most of the letters of the alphabet, with the exception of the 'guttural' consonants ('l 'll •n •n 'N). In Israeli Hebrew, the dagesh liazak no longer retlects a doubling of the length of a consonant, but it still functions as part ofthc distinct pattern of some verb and noun groupings. It is also part of the definite article structure: in texts with vowel markings, dagesh nazak is inserted into the first consonant of the noun the definite article -n is attached to (with the exception of 'l 'll'n •n 'N- which could not be doubled). Definite article + consonant with dagesh:
has¢fer
l~t?iJ
I
n~~D
hahayit
Definite article followed by guttural consonant:
ha 'arets
'OZ,Q
I
tmQ
haruali
Because the length, or doubling, represented by a da[?esh nazak no longer exists in Israeli Hebrew, all Hebrew consonants. including the ones with dagesh liazak, are considered and are pronuunced <;short". Note
Since the dagesh cannot be inserted into the letters 'l 'Y •n •n 'N, there were mles tor compensating tor the absence of the dagesh ('llr] m4;1Y,Jtl). This process no longer makes any difference in pronunciation, but in writing, vowels ofl.en changed from what used to be short vowels to formerly long vowels. In many cases the following changes occurred: Short vowel > long vowel
patali > kamats nirik > /sere kubuts > fwlam 11aser
2.5.3 Mapik
:-~:>nH
:"lllllll
< ;,,:rj7 i"llllll
ll'JW < 4;1~~ 1~Nt:1
< 1~!'!11?
(lNU"It.:l) ,z,·m;> < l~t?>;>
il'!!l"
A dot (mapik), though looking the same as a dagesh, has a distinct function. It can be inserted into the letter •n when it is in a final position in the word, to signal an audible h sound and to distinguish it from the
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
27
typical final •n, which is silent. It is used for the small numbt!r of items that contain a true h as tht!ir last root consonant, as in i)i:J~, but in most cases it also has a morphological function. It is attached at the end of a noun, or a preposition, to indicate a third person feminine singular pronoun suffix: i'l)!;l~ •her book', i'l'? 'to her', i'l~~ 'her(s)'. In Israeli Hebrew the final 'i'l is silent. In formal readings, there arc those who may pronounce it as an aspirated h for stylistic reasons. Note
The mapik is only present in the feminine singular third person form of possessive pronouns. When the pronoun is teminine plural, there is no mapik in the pronoun suffix. without mapik .~f'areha
her books
Q'':J~V
with mapik her book
s{fi'rih
i'l)~~
nn:::a.i\
2.6 Syllables
Words arc composed of syllables. Tht!re are two types of syllables, n1nU1!i! n11~0 'open syllables' and ni1~l9 nii~t) 'closed syllables'. Whereas in English, many syllables start with vowels (e.g., apple), most Hebrew syllables start with a consonant. Following the consonant, the syllable has one vowel. The open syllable ends with a vowd, \'lfhile the closed syllable ends with a consonant (or consonants). cv = se =open sy1lable .w!:fer ~~~ eve= .fi?l' =closed sy11ablt! CV== sha =open syllable shaJ;l';IY.l~ CVCC= mart= closed mart syllable CCV= shmi-ni shmi = open syllable CV= ra = open syllable (C stand~fbr consonanls and V.for
vowel.~).
Note
There are some morphological arguments for assigning consonantal value to the 'guttural' consonants •n ,')1 ,'N in dt!scribing the syllabic structure of a word, even when they are not actually realized. One may wish to do so because consonantal slots indicate the morphological pattern to which particular words belong. Insotar as syHable structure proper is concerned, however. it depends on the likelihood of actual
28
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
realization. Since under certain circumstances, 'N, ~~ or 'il may be realized phonetically before a stressed vowel, as in n~";li? kar 'a 'she read', we may be justified in granting them consonantal value, even though it is not always pronounced. At the end of a word, the same letters are even less likely to have consonantal value insofar as the structure of the syllable is concerned: 'N is never realized phonetically (e.g., NJ;;)~ tsame), nor is 'il from original '' (e.g., ilD raze), and realization of 'Y is rare (e.g., Yr) rega · > rega). Such words are thus regarded as ending with an open syllable. Final •y or •n preceded by a, itself preceded by another vowel, as in Y.Ji> or tttl~, is just as unlikely to be realized: yodea' > yodea, gavoah > gavoa.
2.7 Stress
im1n:m
Every word has a stressed vowel, which is usually pronounced as a longer vowel and often more emphatically. Stress is part of the pattern of the word. Two words can have the same sound sequence (not necessarily spelled alike), but still have a different stress pattern, and thus have different meanings. For instance, the sequence bo-ker can have two different stress patterns: The first syllable can be stressed: lj(":l b6ker, which means 'morning', or stress can fall on the second syllable: lpiJ boker, which means 'cowboy'. (Note that both are written 1j7tl when they appear in texts without vowels). Hebrew stress normally falls on the final vowel of the word, regardless of the number of syllables. Final vowel stress is called l''J~Y.l milri(. Hebrew ivrit l1''J~.).J secret sod iio thing davar 1:n There are well-defined word groups, where the stress falls on the vowel before last (penultimate), called ~~~Y.l mil-e!, but all other words follow the general rule. The largest group of mil'el words are the segolate nouns known by that name because of the prominence of the segol vowel as part of their pattern: CeCeC man gever derekh way A detailed discussion of the segolate nouns can be found in Chapter 5, pp. 153-155. For additional examples, see the noun index.
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
29
The feminine singular conjugation of many verbs in the present tense has a similar sef?olate pattern, and thus the same ~:\:l?r.> stress: ... CeCet says omeret n:JQiN gets excited mitrageshet 11\?PJ;!Y.l Past tense forms in the first and second person (whose suffixes usually start with a consonant) arc also stressed ~~~Y,l: ... +ti I wrote katavti '3:1:;tlJ~ ... +nu we spoke diharnu ~).,ill So is the final '' i or ,, u!o or e of a past or future verb stem (or a whose root contains'' i or,, u) that is followed by a sumx vowel: they will run yarotsu l~~,~ she explained hisbira il')'~Vil they got up ktimu ~Y.)i? they will come yavou ~Nil~ she protected hegena n~~D Another class of items stressed -ayim: legs -ayim twice
~~?Y.l
is forms with the dual-noun suffix
raglayim pa'amayim
Stress patterns in borrowed words GeneraJly, borrowed nouns maintain the stress pattern they had in the original language, e.g., artist artist \JV'\J';l~ flashback jleshbek P~'<-1~!? manyak maniac
Certain foreign suffixes (especiaJiy from Eastern European languages) are associated with non-final stress in the source, and maintain it in Hebrew as well, as in nouns ending with +ika: politics politika ili?'\;)'~'9 ceramics keramika ili('Y.l"JP music musika ili7'~~~
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
30
Changes when affixes are added When an affix is added to a native Hebrew word, stress normally shifts from Lhe stem to that sutlix: Native words: Stress > last syllable SU.\'Q
shirim
Suffixed
mare poems
n~'Q O''J'~
Stress
Base
sus shir
horse poem
Q'Q ,,~
In borrowed words and in acronyms, however, stress remains on where it was in the word in isolation: Borrowed words Stress unchanged
tankim johim
Acronyms Stress unchanged mankalim CEO's
makamin
Stress
Base
Ol:J.i')
tank }db
tank job
Suffixed
Stress
Base
Ol';?••~~Y.l
mankal makilm
CEO radar
Suffixed
tanks jobs
O'iJ?Q
radars
O'Y,)"?Y,l
'"?tY.l O''?Y.l
Stress patterns in casual and rapid speech Speech is conveyed in a connected stream of words, rather than in singular words, and therefore the stress pattern of words that are strung together may change from the stress pattern of each of these words viewed out of context, as single entities. What do you mean? m')~iN m•O nY.l Stress in individual words: : l1)i1!)) 0'''t.J nui ZOI omeret m')~iN + m·.ft + nY,l : ·pni"J .,,J.'i Rapid speech: mastomeret'!
It is not all right. Stress in individual words: ze 16 be.w?der Rapid speech: zlopseder
?.n)~i·n~r.>
.1"JP~ N?
n!
, nn1!>l D'''t.J .1JQ;t + N?
+
n}
: 1'ni"J 1lJ'i
·rJQ~''!
Chapler 2: Writing and pronunciation
31
Primary and secondary stress There are two degrees of stress, which are noticeable in such sequences as the ones above: a primary stress, and a secondary stress. In expressions like !nJJ?'N nN·l m~. the primary stress still falls on the stressed vowel of onuJret, whereas the secondary stress falls on rna. ln pronouncing the sequence, the secondary stress is less dominant than the first one, but is still audible. Also, note that in a sequence like Nm 01~YJ 1l~ lON u anuir lanu shaMm 'he said hello to us', the secondary stress of tanu normally moves forward, resulting in lanu, to avoid a stress clash with the primary stress of '1mar: uamar lanu shalOm.
2.8 Dialectal variation
o•11ll 1ll n 11 lill. n•oiJ~H.·"T nunu
In the early days of the revival of Llcbrew as a spoken language (late 19111 and early 201h centuries), two main dialects were recognized in Modern Hebrew, and in the popular vernacular they were referred to as 'Ashkenazi' and 'Sepharadi'. The Ashkenazi dialect referred to the Hebrew of European Jews or recent immigrants from mostly Eastern European background, while the Sepharadi dialect was used as a general term to refer to the llebrcw of Jews from Arabic-speaking countries, who spoke Arabic as their native tongue, as well as to Jews from the Balkans and parts of the Middle East who spoke JudeoSpanish (Ladino). However, today Israeli Hebrew is the one standard language. Most variations within Israeli Hebrew involve language registers, but may also reflect communities of speakers by the countries of their origin. (The situation is never stable, since the waves of immigration continue to bring groups of speakers from a variety of countries, tix instance, Ethiopia and Russia). There is a formal standard Hebrew, which is used by the media: newspapers, radio and television. An even higher register is used for language of the courtroom and formal speeches and addresses. As in most spoken languages, there are also several informal registers and sub-dialects in Israeli llcbrcw, such as street Hebrew, army jargon, pop culture and children's language. The term Mizrahi (Eastern) has now replaced Sepharadi, and it refers to the spoken pronunciation of Israelis from Eastern (mostly Arabicspeaking) backgrounds. The main teature of the Mi:::.rahi dialect is the preservation of the original pronunciations of •n and ').1. Both are articulated low, in the pharynx, and both are fricative. The difference between them is in voicing; when 'll is pronounced, the vocal cords
32
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
vibrate, while in •n they do not. Few older members of Eastern immigrant groups maintain the distinction between ·~ k and 'P q that exists in Arabic, pronouncing the latter further back in the mouth (at the uvula). Even more rarely is the historical difference between •n and'\) maintained (this involves the articulation of '\) like t, while simultaneously raising the back of the tongue, creating the impression of emphasis). The historical pronunciation of the letter tsadi was s with the raising of the back of the tongue, and the articulation of the letter '' was »'. However, in contemporary Hebrew, such features of pronunciation are extinct. There are some who pronounce '1 not in the back of the mouth as in standard Israeli Hebrew, but as a dental roll, like Spanish or Polish r. As a rule, these variations ::Jre not characteristic of all of the speakers of Eastern origin and depend a great deal on whether they are immigrant or native Israelis, and in the case of the fonner, of their age at the time of immigration. Standard Hebrew is gradually replacing other dialects in daily speaking. Some special pronunciation is maintained in the t(Jlk tradition, particularly in popular and traditional music, folksongs and story-telling.
Chapter 3 The verb system 3.1 3.2 3. 3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10
Introduction: verb components Citation forms Verb tenses Historical notes: Biblical tenses and aspects Moods and verbal nouns Verb pattern groups 0')n)::J. Verb categorization With and without linking verbs Verbs with obligatory prepositions Active, stative and inchoativc verbs
3.1 Introduction: verb components Verbal forms in Hebrew are composed of two main components: verb stems and morphemes of inflection that denote person, gender and number. Suffix Stem/base Prefix Verb form Root Gloss _.,~v -,-l-U I closed 'T:l'T:l')~V ,_ -,-)-U you will close . .,~1?- -J;J ,.,~1?:1:1 .,~1;'tells 1-!:1-0 1~V'? "'? 1'Y.)~-,');:,~? 1-Y.l-'tl to guard -':? A traditional constituent of each verb is its root. Roots are not actual words, but rather sequences of consonants, which provide the common base for verbs and nouns. Roots can be common to a number of verb patterns and noun patterns: Verbs
be written be dictated
Root ::J.]J~~
:m::m - ... ~
write dictate correspond
:u:q
.
::J.l1J~i1 :.
-
Jl'l::ll1i1 .. ; .
Nouns
handwriting correspondence dictation
::J.-31-:l
Root JJ;q n~·n~l;l
n:tND
spelling letter desk
l'N :lJ;9~
n~t~~r,J
::J.-]1-~
34
Chapter 3: The verb ·'J'Siem
Verb stems are formations through which roots, which are not actual words but rather sequences of consonants, are organized into a variety of verb tonns. The stem sequences are composed of vowel patterns combined with root consonants and in some cases additional consonants. Conjugation markers are added to verb stems in order to indicate person, gender, and tense or mood. For example, the verb torm 'J:l)~V 'I closed' is made up ofthe stem -1~V and the first person subject sutlix ')n-, which designates first person singular in the past tense. The verb form 1$.1\:1'? 'tells' is composed of the stem 1!,\!Q- and the -t;J prefix marking the present tense ofpi'e/.
3.2 Citation forms Verbs are usually entered into the dictionary either by root or by the past tense, third person singular fi>rm. Different dictionaries use different principles to organize lexical entries, even when alphabetization is by root. The sub-entries within each root are by the past tense form ofthe third person masculine singular. A verb torrn like ~1':J~D 'they explained', for instance, is never listed as such. One needs to look tor the form 1'~~D 'he explained', which would be listed either under the 'root' 1-:J-U, or as is, in simple alphabetical order, regardless of root. At times the present tense form ,,~~~ 'explain, masculine singular' is included as a separate dictionary entry, also irrespective of root. In either case, the torm is marked for category (a verb, in this case), and sometimes tor verb pattern (here, hffil). This type of dictionary entry is rcf~rrcd to as 11m7'Y.l n11~, a 'citation form'. An example of a minimal dictionary entry is (!:!) 1~~ '(to) study (v)'. More information may be included, such as regarding a preposition that obligatorily tollows the verb to link it with an object, as in <'~~) -~ n')~ •trust (in)'. The citation form, although it mirrors the third person past tense, refers to the general meaning of the verb, and to all the various possible actual uses, i.e. the entire verb paradigm. For instance, 1'-'Jl;ID is not only the past tense, m~aning 'he explained', but also stands tor all the verbal forms associated with that hffil verb. ln English similar representation is achieved by entering verbs under the infinitive 'to explain', or simply 'explain'.
35
ChtJpfer 3: The verb :;ystem
Here is an illustration of the above concepts: l!nuu Gloss l"lJ. explain ''V!m l-J-u
n 'll'7•n
ill I~
l':,tl(D
These are the various forms associated \vith the dictionary entry l'::J.Uil: Tense/mood Person Verb forms Stems J;l)~l(D
D"):;Jt;:'D
lr:rJ~t?D D.tJ";l~t;:'D
3rd
Present Future
all singular
plural
'J:I';l~l(D
U-;t::J.l(D
~1'~9D
Oil ,il')':,lt;:'D N'il ,l'~t;'n Nm l1i1':;1l(Y.l 0'')':,1 t;:'Y.l il')'~t?Y.l , ':;ltft;) ,,~t?~ "'ll:;ll(! '')'~t?~ 1':;11(~ ,,~17~ n'~V~ cnn~t?D) ~l';,tt?JJ
1'Jtm . :.
_,,::mo . ~
1':;11?1
cnn:;Jt?JJ)
Imperative Infinitive
Cnn~t?D) n>:ll(iJ '"J'~ t;:'iJ 1~1;'0
l':;ll(D~
-lN!It;:'iJ 1':;Jt;:'D
As can be seen in the above table, each verb stem is present in the actual verb fonns listed next to it. Verbs conjugated in tense have a dynamic quality since they express ditlercnt ongoing processes.
3.3 Verb tenses
a,lll9il •JDT
Verbs can be classified in two different groups: those that arc conjugated in tense, and those that are not. Verb tense is the expression of the time frame tor the action, state or event that the verb signifies. The verb fonn itself denotes the time frame. There are three tenses in modem Hebrew: past, present and future. The past tense indicates a completed one-time action, or a process that started at some point in the past and was completed or ceased. llebrew expresses past perfect by the simple past. The present tense indicates an ongoing action, event or state, or habitual action. The future tense indicates actions or states contemplated, planned or considered fbr a future time. i'Uiil 1nr 3.3.1 The present tense The present tense refers to an ongoing state or action repeated with regularity, or a continuous action. The present tense of all verbs has four forms. These forms have gender attributes (masculine or feminine), and number markings (singular or plural). They do not have any person attributes and thus do not include a subject (unlike the past
36
Chapter 3: The verb system
and future tenses). Jn the following tables the present tense verb base (U'~~) and the suffixes that arc added to it are represented. Present tense suffixes ).)N
Tllil
')N
m11
+ U'tl:l
•U'ti:J
nnN
N'il
Nlil
UnlN
1)n.lN
l'1i + ti'U:J.
D' .+ U'U:J.
)TIN
OTIN
nli•n•
m/c•::n
on
)il
•o'O.l the Hehrew term for 'stem', standr;.for any presell/ tense ::,·tern
Here are some of the nuances conveyed by the use of the present tense: 1. The present moment of the speaker
She cannot come to the phone llilli: because she is working.
'' )1!:17\J:J. 1'\!.IJ)' 1:117
n71J'
N7 N'm
.n-r:m.1 N'il
2. Ongoing progressive activity
She has been sitting and waiting here for hours.
.mY\!.1 1:J.J INJ n:mr.:n Tl:J.\!.11' N'il
3. Habitual/repetitive action
Every day they leave home at seven.
.).I::J.\!.1::1 Tl'li1Y.3 D'N:lll' on 01' 'J
4. Completed action resulting in a state
The meal is ready. .m::m:l nnnNn The context for the above sentence is a process of meal preparation that took place and was completed, and the result is that now it is ready. 5. Action that started in the past and is ongoing
They have been teaching this course for five years.
\UJ::m 1::1:::1 nm u11pn nN 0'11::l'1J on .D'l\!.1
Grammatical functions of present tense forms The present tense forms can function as verbs, as adjectives, and as agent nouns. They are referred to as participles m)'::l nn1~. 1. As verbs:
She closes the door and leaves. We are looking for an apartment.
.~1 n.,,n nN n,:nu N~il
. il1'1 D''ll!lnY.3 llnJN
37
Chapter 3: The •·erb system
2. As adjectives:
The dog is a faithful animal. The cooked food is in the refrigerator. 3. As nouns: There are many distinguished people in the audience. The organizers did a good job.
.mtJNl
3.3.2 The past tense
mn Nm .J.~jil
,:lll 1nr
The past tense has nine forms. The subjects of the verbs are suffixed to the verb stems in the first and second persons. Therefore the past tense is sometimes referred to as the suffixed tense. In the third person, both singular and plural, the subject is not included in the verb form and has to be expressed by a noun or pronoun or some other entity. Past tense suffixes
'1:'1 +t!'t!l 1;1 +t''t!l
(llN)
'1:'1 +*t!'t!.J.
('lN)
(nl.'o()
1;1 +t!'t!.J.
cnnN)
ilT +t!'t!.J.
N'il
U'U.J.
Nm
+U'U.J.
(l)f'l)N)
+U'U.J.
(1lnlN)
)t:J + U'tiJ.
()nN)
Ol;J + t!'t!.J.
conN)
lil
) +O't!.J.
Oil
~.)
~
+0'0:1
* 0'0~
~l
ni/D'.J.l
the Hebrew term for 'stem·, stands .for any past tense stem
In Hebrew, unlike in English, it is not necessary to have an independent subject pronoun in the first and second persons of the past tense, since these pronouns are already incorporated in the subject suffixes and thus would be redundant. I finished You finished
Subject
Stem
'1:'1
+1~~
1;1
+ 1t;l~
= 'T:I')Y,)~
('lN)
J;l')Y,)~
(nnN)
:0
However, it is possible to include them as separate pronouns for emphasis, and in common use even without emphasis. ! found the lost item, not he. .Nm N~ ,ili:JNil nN '!1N!in '-'N ! finished eating before you. ·l'.:l!l~ ~tJN~ m1m ')N
3S
Chapter 3: The verb sysfl!m
The past tense refers to an aspect of a completed action, an event or a situation that was completed and is no longer taking place. 1. Completed action
l read the book you wrote. 2. Duration of action The author had been writing the book for ten years. 3. Past perfect I had read his last novel. before I started reading his first book.
.n::m::>\!J '1!ltm nN 'nN'1jJ 1\!J~ 1\!JOJ "'\!>tm !'IN J:n::> '1:J.non
.O'l\!J l)!:)~ I)~\!)
)ni'"INn v:mn :nN ll1N'1jJ
)WN1n 1!>tm nN Nnp~ m?nnn\!J . '~\!)
3.3.3 The future tense ,.•n.vanr The future tense forms combine a prefix subject pronoun with the future stem of the verb. The feminine singular and the plural fonns also have suftixes indicating gender and number. Future tense affixes
+N n o'O.J + n
('lN)
O'O.J + N
('lN)
(:nN)
O'O.J + :n
(n:nN)
N'il
0'0.J t-'
N'n
O'Ol + J
()lmN>
+J
()lf"IJN)
+ 0't1l+ 1'1
(11'1N)
+O'O:J.+ n
(Ol1N}
+O'O:l+'
Oil
\JlOJ
'+ OlO:l +
~
0'0J ~
em + 0'0:::1 + n> ~
+ O'Ol+'
)il
~
em + o'o:J + :n) "0'0:1,
the Hebrew term for 'stem', stands .for any future tense stem
Note
As in the past tense, independent personal pronouns arc redundant for the first and second persons, since they are already incorporated in the suffixes of these forms. However, they may be added when the pronoun requires emphasizing, as well as in colloquial use. It should be noted that in the first person singular, the independent pronoun 'lN has become the norm in everyday speech.
Chapter 3: The verh .l'ystem
39
There are two variants for the feminine plural meaning of the second person and third person: I. The first one employs a special form for the feminine second and third person pI ural: il~?~!?J:l FV~J~!;J' )i1 ; n~?~~J:l 1l1W)J~?n )ll!'(. The form n~?~~n, which is found in biblical Hebrew, is rarely in use in contemporary Hebrew. ll was considered for many years to be the normative form, but is now restricted to usc in formal speech, and sometimes when addressing a female audience. 2. The shared plural form for both masculine and feminine in the second and third persons is the standard torm in ordinary speech and is part of the accepted norm:~'~?? )il/~.,~!;1? on; ~?~?n 1l1N./)J~?n onN..
3.3.4 Planning, anticipation and contemplation The future tense refers to an action or process that is being planned, anticipated or contemplated. Plans
Dan will be working on the program during the year. Anticipation Everybody hopes that there will not be a strike. Contemplation They may not (it is 1ike ly that they w i11 not) arrive on time, and then we'll be late for the show. Cond itiona Is lfthcre is (will be) a strike, we won't be able to get home, since the trains won't be running.
1WOJ m:nnn J)II1J)I' 11 .ml!ln il'nn N.JW 0'11Pr.J o.,t) .illl'J IV ,v:nJ ~!'(., Oil IV l1Pi1J J)J' .m~n? 1nN.) ~N.)
).r~mJ
?:m N.J nn~JIV nmn
.lJ)J!:l~ N.J
DN.
mJJ1il 'J ,illl'Jil
A comparative note
Three tenses in Hebrew cover eight categories oftense in English 1. Present tense- habitual action He goes to work at eight. 2. Present progressive- action in ongoing present He has been driving for eight hours already. .m)JIV mmw 1JJ mu
N.li1
40
Chapter 3: The verb ~ystem
3. Past tense- action occurred in the past He drove all the way. 4. Past progressive -ongoing action in past l~ O'll N~'l )jl) Nm He was driving along, and did not notice the .)Y.ll~ time. 5. Past perfect progressive He had been working there for eight 'l~'ll=>ll1 0' J\!.1 nm~\!.1 O'll llY 1'(1il . ill'l~lln :nN l'llY'J V'~nn 1'(1il years, and now he called it quits. 6. Past Perfect Nlil ,1N=> 11ll''J 'J~nrm 1'(1il'll 'l!)., Before he started working here, he ...,nN 11'liOl i:lll had been working in another office. 7. Future He will work here if the conditions 'I'M' O'Nl:nil 01'( ,N::J illY' Nm .Olll\J p~!lOY.l will be satisfactory. 8. Future Continuous He will be working here in the next O"llll 'llil 1'liY.ll 1N:I 1l~ll' N1i1 .011-(~il two weeks.
3.4 Historical notes L. Many linguists view Biblical Hebrew as having no tenses, only aspects: actions or states are considered as either complete or incomplete, perfect or imperfect, rather than being related to time and tense. 2. In Biblical Hebrew there are two additional verbal fonns related to the imperfect: the jussive and the cohortative moods (see below). They are maintained in high registers of Israeli Hebrew, especially in written texts for stylistic reasons. 3. Past tense in Biblical Hebrew is normally indicated by the use of the imperfect form prefixed by the waw consecutive. Future tense can be indicated by the use of the perfect form prefixed by a waw consecutive. (see discussion below for i11ustrations).
3.4.1 Jussive and short form of the imperfect ,llljln "T'nll In classical Hebrew, a brief form of the imperfect (and of some imperatives) exists in some of the "defective" (or non-regular) verb classes and in some regular hifil forms. It is used in the third person. less commonly in the second person, and rarely in the first person: l1J:;>~ < rP"J:;>~ , l;J? < np~ , N';l ~ < nt<~? , 'iJ? < n~~~
Chapter 3: The verb system
41
The short form of the imperfect can function as a jussive, i.e., a moderated command, as in the following example: ."1iN ~iJ~) - 1iN ~iJ~ : o~iJJ~ 1)?N~) And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. {Genesis, 1:3) (.:~:.H n'\!JN.·n.) When it combines with the special ·wal-r consecutive' wa- (vs. regular we-), it assumes a narrative function, as wetl as past tense time reference, and is used mostly in narrative style (see discussion below): (i:N. n'IV.HlJ.) ·1¥,i"nD 1';J~ "1iNQ 1'~ O~i)J~ 'n:;t~) Ji\J ~~ liNQ n2:;t O~iJJtt N~~) And God saw the light, that [it was] good: and God divided the light from the darkness. (Genesis, 1:4)
It should be noted, however, that not all imperfect forms used as a jussive are necessarily shortened; many remain intact. A significanl number of verb types are unaffected, and even when the singular form is shortened, the comparable plural one may not be. And he said to his father, let my father sit up and eat of his son's game. (Genesis, 27:31) Abner said to Joab, Let the young men come forward and play before us. (Samuel II, 2:14)
~~~Y,) ';ll'<.') '~~ Oi?,~ )~~~? l'?l'<-~1 (H'J:T) n'IVNl::t) . iJ:;t
N~ ~r.:np~ J~i'-'~ ip~ lr,;lN.~)
. U'~~? ~PQ~'1 O~"J)}~D · (-r•:J. 1:1 7Htn1V)
3.4.2 Cohortative ,,H.Jl'l "T'nll This is a quasi-imperative mode, used exclusively in the tirst person (singular and plural), to express a wish, command or request, often in the form of self-encouragement (as one would expect from a "command to oneself'). An -a suffix is added to the verb form. 1~t person singular 1st
person plural
Future Cohortativc Future Cohortative
'eshmor 'eshmera nishmor nishmera
j)J'?'l:;t
i1)9'?'~
.,.~'?~ iiJJ?'?~
The meaning attached to this type of future verb is •Jet' s do something'. Tn modern Hebrew it is used in the literary register, usually with the
42
Chapter 3: The verb sywtem
initiating verb of address: il;tiJ 'let us'. as in the famous tune n~,~~ il;tiJ i1Qf;>'?'l) 'Let us rejoice and be happy'. Here are examples from biblical literature: And they said one to another, Go to, Jet n;to ,m):IJ-?~ 'li'~ n>;>N-~1 us make brick. and bum them ; il.!;!J'<J? i1~";1'?J~) D'~:;)~ i1~:!;1~~ thoroughly. And they had brick for 1>;!1JiJ) ,);J~~ i1~J?D Di)~ 'iJ3;'1l stone. and slime had they for mortar. {:I:N• n'I!JN,:J.) .,J?n';:o Ci)~ il!iJ (Genesis, 11 :3)
Let us go down, and there contclund their language. that they may not understand one another's speech.
Dtl!}\? D'{) n~:;m ,i1T)~ il;tiJ .m~) 1l~\? 'ti'N W>;>~~ N"';! 1~~ ·(r:N' n'I!JNU}
(Genesis, 11 :7)
3.4.3 The uses of waw consecutive 119•nn n The 'waw consecutive' is one of the most frequently used partic.1es in the verb system of Biblical Hebrew. Pretixing this particle to verbal forms turns it into a constituent of a verb sequence (narrative and other), and sets its time reference. Waw consecutive prefixed to imperfect verb forms When this particle is prefixed to the imperfect verb form, it places it in a narrative sequence, and sets its time reference to the realm of the past. A shortened t(Jrm of the imperfect foJJows this particle in some verb sub-groups, but in many cases the full imperfect f<>rm is maintained. The waw is always followed by the vowel a (patah, with a dagesh in the next segment, or a kamats, if the next segment is a guttural), which helps distinguish it from the regular conjunction and he said ,J?I'b) = 1~N'+1 < ,nN Nm and they went t)?~l = "l::>'l' + 'I < 1::>~n on I went 1'l~l = 1'lN +"I < '!l::>'ln 'lN
-r
Illustrations:
And he rose up, and went unto the place of which God had told him. (Genesis, 22:3) He came to King Solomon, and executed all his work. (Kings I. 7:14)
i'l-,1;)~-,'U~ cip~D-'l~ l~~l Oif~l
(l::l) n'I!JHl). ) 0';:-I"';!~V -'l~-31~ ·YJ~!l n·~..,'?J J'l.~D-.,7::< Ni:l~)
(1•:r 'N D':>'71'l) iT-9N~9
Chapter 3: The verb .~ystem
43
Waw consecutive prefixed to perfect verb forms When the l'l-'aw is prefixed to the perfect verb form, it places it in a verb sequence, and sets its time reference to the realm of the fl.1ture. and it will come to be and they will go/turn and he will build and you (pl.) will guard
n~oJ == uo~
==
il~-?) =
nm
+'
+, i1).) + l ))!l
0~)~~~ = 0!11JJ~
+,
<
n~;;J?
Nm
<~)??on
The waw is followed by a shva. or is realized as ~ before a labial ':nnsonant ('!:! ,'t.:l ,., ,'::1.) or before a consonant cluster, e.g., shm in o:p-;.Y.l~~ ushmartem. Illustrations: Cursed of the Lord be the man who shall undertake to tortif)t (lit. who will rise and will build) this city of Jericho. (Joshua, 6:26) For your part, take of everything that is eaten and you shall gather it, and it shall be for food tor you and for them. (Genesis, 6:21)
il~-?)
mp? 1~~
nrn~ '~!?~ '.!m~Q
·mz;<
. in'J~-nz::t !lNliJ 1')!Q-nz::t (D:IlJ~Ii1')
~~~~ 1~~ ~?~~-7;JJJ 1~-np n~l::()
.n'?:;>t<'? OQ{) 1'? n~Q) 1''7.~ l;l!?'?z;<) (10:1 n•~NTl)
Since a very large number of verbs in the Bible are either constituents of a verb sequence, and/or arc part of a narrative. the forms with 'waw conseculive' prove to be prevalent. The simple imperfect and perfect without waw are generally used only in specific contexts: l. After certain short words Iike NJ 'not', ':;! 'because', 'Y,) 'who', nr.> 'what', lt< 'then',1'?'~ 'which/that', e.g., n~iJ 1;r:JiJ-!1~ n'"'.\' 'JJ 'who has done this thing?' 2. When the subject precedes the verb, usually for focusing (normally, the verb precedes the subjccl in Biblical Hebrew), e.g., N~ 1'1)~ '"'~) ii'~r.> 'and his brother Esau came back from his hunting'. 3. When the verb refers to the past-of-the-past (past pertect), i.e., when referring to an earlier '"pre-past" occurrence, e.g., 7·J~ O~Q:;u~c-m::~ lJJ.. 'ill 'and God had blessed Abraham with everything•.
44
Chapter 3: The verb system
4. As the first verb in a verb sequence; the next occurrencc(s) would be with a 'waw consecutive', as inn~~~ O'P! 'who will rise and will build' above.
3.5 Moods and verbal nouns There arc two moods other than the indicative/declarative mood (which refers to the basic regular mode of verbs in tense): imperative, and infinitive. The temporal aspect of the activity or state is not a feature of these moods. 3.5.1 The imperative mood •n•l! Only five of the binyanim have an imperative form. The two passive verb groups, pu 'a/ and hu .Yal, do not have such a form. The imperative mood conveys commands, directions, orders, and instructions. For a negative command, the special negative particle ~!::< is used, and the future tense forms arc added. Imperative mood: giving commands or directions
Command Negative
Sit quietly! Don't sit near the door!
!"P~J J'll
•n·~
!J'l~1n i ' ~)l J~:n ~N
n'1•'71!J
To moderate the force of a command, words like to the imperative. Come in, please!
n"'i?~~
can be added ! nvpJ::I
'Ul:J'n
In daily speech, the future forms are usually used in lieu of the imperative, but the same may apply in higher registers as well, as an alternative to adding i1'VP::I:;I when issuing a polite request or a directive, rather than a command. Come in and make yourself at home! !n'J::I ''V':nm~ 3.5.2 The infinitive mood 'll.ll!)i'l DIJU The infinitive ';1.).11!ln O'V is the form of a verb that has no inflection to indicate person, number, mood or tense~ it only contains information about the base of the verb and reflects the main idea or concept of the verb. It is caHed ''infinitive" because the verb is not made finite, or modified by inflection.
Chapter 3: The verb .\y.,·tem
Who wants to speak? You have to listen to us!
m
1:;/.1?
:J.'\!JPi17 D'J'1~ onN
:J.'~i?D?
?1:117 ! l.)J
45
n~,.,
Hebrew has two infinitives, the infinitive absolute \J~mm 1ljm and the infinitive construct 'lm "f.'r.:l. The infinitive construct is used much as an English infinitive, including being preceded by -7 'to', and with some other prepositions (see below); the infinitive absolute, which is restricted to the higher registers, is used to add emphasis or certainty to the verb, or as a verbal noun, or tor emphatic commands (see below). Like the imperative, only five of the binyanim have an infinitive form. The two passive hinyanim, pu 'al and huf'al, do not have an infinitive fonn. In literary Hebrew, however, absolute infinitive forms of these two hinyanim may occur, as in 'l'l=?-~~ J)~~ 'I have indeed been kidnapped', or {l")iJF'JliJI[l 'you have (unequivocally) been warned!' 3.5.3 Infinitive absolute o.,mn ,•iln The infinitive absolute is used either before a verb in tense, to intensify and increase the force of the statement, or on its own, to serve either as an abstract noun, or as an emphatic command. There is no equivalent to it in English, and therefore it is somewhat difficult to explain. It occurs mostly in Biblical Hebrew. It is not productive in Israeli Hebrew, but individual forms do occur, for example lilD)liJQ 'back and forth'. Emphasis
Emphatic Command Abstract Noun
We have indeed eaten You will say He shall indeed die Keep the Sabbath to honor it (Deut. 5:12) Eating too much honey is not good (Proverbs 25:27)
~)~q~ ':JiJ~
7i:ll~
~~~N.l'llir.:l~
1ir.:l~
mn~nin
nin
n~'l!?'iJ Di'-n~ 1ir.:l~
lir.:l~
(:J.':i1 D'I:J."T) i'i.I'Ji?? -N'J ni:l)D "lJ~7 ~iJ~
?iJt<
(D:i1) •"'ovr.~)
::li\J
3.5.4 Infinitive construct As mentioned earlier, when we refer to the infinitive mood, we are generally referring to its ordinary use, similar to its function in English. ?1:117 il~,., 'r.:l ~~n? Who wants to speak?
46
Chapter 3: The verb system
3.5.51nfinitive as gerund The infinitive mood is used mostly with the particle -7 •to', and as such it is more often referred to as ?Y1!lil mu and not ·np~. However, there arc other uses tor the infinitive, with one of the tour prepositional pretixes ·~. •'] ;::. ,•J.. In such cases it acts as a gerund rather than an infinitive. It is not used often in such a form, except in some written texts. Paraphrasing with a verb in tense is much more common. gloss
gerund
while being to the return of from going as (his) saying
+J. +']
-ni'D~
J).l)!lil O'tlf')\J)il 11j?Y.lil
-J.W']
Jl11!m D\!lt')\J)i111p~n
-n?~Y.l
7)11!li1 C\!11'1\Jm ·npnn +D
-1J?iN~
J),l)!)il 0\!JI')\:))i111j?~il +::>
'
Pronoun endings can he added, and they act as the subject of the gerund: gloss gerund while I was 'J:ll'l":l~ <Jll n~1'0 +Jl')!lil 0\!1 +l tor your return <)U l1m'O +7l11!lil O't! +., o;>:;n't'':;! from her going <)U n~1'0 +']Y1!li1 O't! +~ ilJ;l?~Y.l as he said <)1:1 n1J1>u + 7~n!ln O'll + ::> i1J?iN;t When I was a little girl, I lived abroad.
.7"mJ 'n1l ,m\Jp ni?' 'tli'D:;J.
We waited for his return from abroad. We avoided going to his home.
.J"1n1J il~'t!':? l:l'Jn . m'J.'] n~~Y.l
mmJ)
The infinitives in the sentences above can be paraphrased by sentences with finite verbs: 'lH + 11i7Y.l +J.
Infinitive+ suffix Paraphrase Infinitive+ suffix
while being abroad when I was abroad
We waited tor his return
']ll)f)J 'ni'i;l~
? 111n:J. '1l,'i11\!INJ Hli1 + ·u i7Y.l + '1 ':7"1n)J i:t~'t!':? 1l,::>n
from abroad. Paraphrases
We waited till he returned from abroad. We waited for him to return from abroad.
J.'ll Nm'll 1)1 'l'Jn
7"1nY.)
.J"1n1J ::n'll' N1il't! lJ'::>n
Chapter 3: The verb system
47
3.5.6 Verbal noun Verbal nouns are abstract nouns that can be related to verbal roots and are associated with various verbal groups and patterns. Each hinyan has one or more patterns of nouns that are derived from the roots and/or are associated with that binyan. reading, act ofreading agreement, discussion excursion, trip explaining; propaganda explanation development
il'71.1H> D~
'7~1~ DIU
l!nll!.l
N-1-p 1-:J-1
ntt'ii?
l•f1p~
!ln:;r:tD
1:;J'];:'I~
('t} ~~~\?
~~\J,
Cl) (l)
.. -
~-'-U
n:9VD Ct> 1:;JVQ
1':;1VD?
1-:J-tl
mn.J;l~J;"ID
IJD~J;liJ?
n-n-!:1
(l)
CJ)
;
3.6 Verb pattern groups
o•l .. l:l Traditionally Hebrew grammar classifies verbs into seven basic pattern groups, called binyanim, each of which has special inflectional characteristics. In contemporary grammatical descriptions five major pattern groups are recognized, with the two additional ones being "internal passives". The verb conjugations are the various sets of forms of actual verbs. Some of the categories that dictate the t(lrm of a conjugated verb are person, gender, and number features.
The third person singular in the past tense is not marked by a sutlix, and serves as the citation form t<>r each binyan. To capture the citation form, a prototypical root is used, most commonly J)l!:l. 3.6.1 Names of verb pattern groups D 1 J 11 J:J.il mn.a Each conjugation is named according to its citation form. Names of verb patterns
Citation forms
pa 'a!
~~~
lamad
1't.)?
nffal pi'el
~l!~~
nilmad
lt.)'?J
pu'al h(fil ht!fal hitpa 'e/
~~~
~~~
J').J!;lD ~~!;ltl ~~~J;'ID
gidel gudal
hiklit huklat hitkabel
JJ~ ~:r~.
'V'~i?D \)~iff.)
.,~Pl;liJ
4&
Chapter 3: The verb ·'}'stem
3.6.2 Root composition: regular and irregular There are two major root classifications: regular verbs and irregular verbs. They are also known as "strong" verbs, and "weak" verbs, respectively. In the same manner that each verb belongs to a particular )"):J, it also belongs to a particular group of verbs, known as n)p (plural niiH) that classify them by their root composition. 1. The regular verbs belong to a root composition group known as n')p o>r,J?.\?'D ('whole'), as all consonants are present.
2. Verbs that are not fully regular are labeled by the particular root letter, which causes some deviation !rom a fully regular conjugation. These classifications, the rrnu, provide a frame of ret'erence for addressing irregularities in the verb system. There are two ways of labeling them, either as -'1)~, which means that a root consonant, indicated by the label, undergoes some weakening, or as _,J~IJ. which means that one of the consonants, indicated by the label, is omitted in part of or in the entire verb conjugation. Root consonants undergo changes in some, but not necessarily all forms in the conjugation concerned. Root classification groups
C1==,
;
(~Y!:l) 11'~.1'~ W'J:l .))~~~
< l-'V-'
'"!:l '0~
C7'Y!ln) i'~in ; C7Y!ll) i~i) < 1-~-,
Cr='
CJ=J C2=Vl
C'll!l) nn~ j !1J ,1J~ < "T-i-'
')II!) '')01)
(~'Y!ln) "':;liJ~ ; "'~~ ·"'::;tD < u-:::1-1 (7y!)) mp~ ; Oi? , mr;>p < n-1-p
l''!:l 'iOn
"'liiV'Y
(~Y'!J) Ot;;lip~ ; Ot;;Jip ,'l))?t;;lip
('])l!l)
Cz == C1
C3=N C1=='
1''?'i i i~ ''))~'?' < i-">-'lJ < )-)-)
Q)'J)!l:;l
(?y!)) Nip~ ; nN')ijJ ,NJip < N-i-p
N"~ 'nl
C?ll!:lrm> 1).t:t~D?; v'~~J;lY.l ,'m~i:\~D
(']y!J} ni!t";~~ ; i1~"J ,'JJ'~'J < '-!t-i
c•n••'J)
,,~
'nl
*The root classification ,,';1 'nl is a]so referred to as n•·~ 'nl. The term '"~ 'nl assumes that the '' which surfaces when suffixes are added is the actual underlying consonant.
Chapter 3: The verb lystem
49
3.6.3 Verb roots with four consonants While most roots in Hebrew consist of three consonants, there are also roots with four consonants (on occasion even five). Traditionally, in order to accommodate such roots, all consonants fit into a three "consonant slot" structure. which is the norm set by the predominant tri-consonantal verb pattern. In the case of.,~~. for instance, the root consonant slots and the pa 'a/ stem vowels are divided as follows: Form .,~~
Slot 3
.,
Vowel a
Slot 2
Vowel a
:J
Slot1
Root
\!.1
"l-:J-'l.l
The tour consonant roots are accommodated by the three following hinyanim: pi 'el, pu 'al and hitpa 'e/. They are not found in other binyanim. Pi'el Conjugation Form Slot3 19.~
,
O~")f:l
0
Pu 'a! Conjugation Form Slot3 1~~
,
'J~p~
7
Vowel e e
Slot 2
Vowel a a
Slot 2
Vowel e e
Slot 2
!)
:n
\)
?:>
Vowel
I I
Slot1
Root
t)
1-!:l-t'
J'1
Y.)-)-1-11
Vowel u u
Slot1
Vowel
Slot1
Root
.!)
"l-1:1-!:l
\!.1
?-7-:>-'l.l
Hitea 'el Conjugation
Form
Slot 3
'l.I~~J:ID
'V
tlr;J~J;ID
0
J )1
I
a a
Root
.,
\!.1-:J-7
!)
t'-)-1-!:l
Note
The consonantal slots indicate how the extra consonants are accommodated into three slots that form the stem. They do not necessarily represent the syllabic division. For instance, the slot division of l-:::11-i is not the same as the syllabic division, which divides the word into two closed syllables: ):;J·-;J":f. There are different processes by which four consonantal roots or longer are created:
Chapter 3: The verh svstem
50
I. Some roots, which have a base of two consonants, repeat (reduplicate) their consonants. ':1·:1-':1-.J Slot 3 Slot 2 ';J :1':1 J:l?:;t '~'!) '}~~~
';J
J';J
';J
:1':1
':1~1!)
-nil
?~!lnn
The slot division is !:J-::J!:J-.2, while the syllabic division is !:J:J-(3. 2. One way of creating new four letter roots is by adding an initial consonant to basic three letter roots, thus fanning secondary derived roots having a related meaning. The three consonants used in this process are: •n ,''l' ,'M Gloss diagnose rewrite activate
Derivation lNz..t < J-n-.l +N .J:r:t;''?' < J-!1-, +'l' ?):I.!;):J:I < ?·))-!) +31
Gloss examine write act
Base
lN .J.Di'
'~~
3. Other four letter roots are derived from native nouns and adjectives Gloss Derivation Gloss Base oxidize oxygen 1~~1) < l-~-Y.l-n )~'?1:.' )-:1-'l'-n calculate calculation )i::l'?'l) ):l'?'D < "19.9}') < j-!)-t!-Y.l enumerate number i~VY.l 4. A large number are derived from foreign words Gloss Derivation Gloss phone )9.~\;) < l-!l-'J-\:l telephone catalogue .l'?.\?P < )-'J-o-p catalogue
Base )i!l~\?
liJ'?i?
3.6.4 Some shared meanings of roots Although the root docs not exist on its own, most words that share a common root tend to have a common meaning core. These form-andmeaning relationships are only tendencies, and often apply only in part. Some forms never followed the regularity to start with, and most departed from it with time, with varying degrees of deviation. Language is an ever-changing, living entity, and the relationship between fbrm and meaning is not maintained for long. Exceptions
Chapter 3: The verb system
51
consequently abound, and meaning develops independently by extension and by association. Here is a common root with some shared examination, test n~'N examiner ll)tl diagnosis W'9~ perception, discernment i1~1):ftl diagnostician 1Nz:t~
meanings: examine, test be examined diagnose notice, discern be noticed
lN ,0~~
lN~
W9D
1ND
3. 7 Verb categorization Verbs in Hebrew can he classified in a number of ways, by their meaning and function, and by structural characteristics. There arc transitive and intransitive verbs, active and passive verbs, verbs of action and verbs that describe state. Some verbs describe the process of change from one state to another. Verbs can also be classified in terms oftheir composition: There are verbs that have to be complemented by objects, and when these objects are not direct, they have obligatory prepositions, which link them with their objects. There arc compound verbs, which are constructed of two verbs, usually one conjugated in tense, and another realized in infinitive torm. These classifications will be described in the segments below. 3.7.1 Transitive verbs c•H:ll'l 1 c•'lll9 A transitive verb is an action verb requiring a direct or indirect object to complement its meaning in the sentence. The action of the verb, performed by the subject, is transferred to the object, the recipient of the action. It is not just a matter of meaning but also of form. The direct object, which directly tollows the verb, is either unmarked when the object is indefinite, or is preceded by the particle n~ when the object is definite. (ndirect objects require a preposition. However, it should be remembered that many indirect objects arc not complements of transitive verbs. Transitive verbs with direct objects: Indefinite direct object
The parents bought presents t<>r the children.
52
Chapter 3: The verh system
Definite direct object The parents hid the presents. Transitive verbs with indirect objects: Indefinite indirect object
The truck driver hit a streetlight and a power line post.
Jm1
~)OJ
}l:l!l rt'N'll~n lm
.'m'lln ''~)JJ'
Definite indirect object
I did not mean to hurt MichaeL A comparative note
Notice that while there is an indirect object tbllowing the verb -J ).l)!l •hurt/hit', in English an equivalent verb takes a direct object. In both cases, the fact that the action of the verb is transferred to the object makes the verbs transitive in meaning.
3. 7.2 Intransitive verbs An intransitive verb is one that does not transfer the action to a recipient. The subject is the person or things undergoing or experiencing the action of the verb. Typically, an adverb or prepositional phrase modifies an intransitive verb. or the verb ends the sentence. Nir and Ilana danced. Afterwards they strolled in the park. Nir's grandfather was born in 1930.
.np1 m':1'N' 1'l .JT1N!lJ )':1"\:1 on p 1nN .1930 rtJ'liJ 1~m 1') ':1'0 NJO
Some verbs can function as both transitive and intransitive verbs. Intransitive Nir and IIana studied. .ntJJ m':1'N' 1'l Transitive They learned new songs.
3.8 With and without linking verbs In the present tense in Hebrew, there are sentences without verbs. They usually have a subject and a noun or noun phrase predicate. or an adjectival one. These sentences are often referred to as nominal sentences:
53
Chapter 3: The verb 5yslem
Dan (is) a bank director. His wife (is) a lawyer. The twins (arc) high school students. The car (is) over there.
. Pl.J ~mo
11
.)'1 n::rm.1 mVJN .)1::>m.J D'1'o':m D'Y.l1Nnn
.O'l.l l1'l1JY.lil
3.8.1 Linking verb 'to be' Verbless sentences exist in the present tense, however. in the past and future tenses, the verb 'to be' is present and in addition to linking the two parts of the sentence, it marks the tense. Dan was the director. His wife will be a lawyer. Their twins will be university students.
.7mr.m il'il )1 .'1'1 nYnY il"nn
unm
D'Ull1\JU 1'iP on~'l.l omu
Note
nm may also serve as a full-fledged verb meaning 'exist', rather than as a mere linking verb, as in the beginning of the Book of Job: .J1'N , ~'l' ~1N.J il'il 'li'N There was a man in the land of Uz named Job. .mVJ 3.8.2 Other related linking verbs !O'J.l~ll 1=> ~J O'N1l onN no'] Why do you seem so sad'! They remained our good friends. .U~VJ D'J.1Uil 0'1J.r"lil nNVJl on This movie sounds melodramatic. .'tJY.l111'm lJY.lVJJ ;nn U1Uil For more in:.formation. see Chapter 14, pp. 320-323
3.9 Verbs with obligatory prepositions There are a number of verbs. which have a preposition as an integral part of their fonn. The preposition is. by definition, followed by an object, which is a noun, a noun phrase or a pronoun. The meaning cannot be conveyed by the verb alone; it must include the prescribed obligatory preposition that connects it to the following object. The citation form of the verb usually includes that preposition. Examples of verbs that cannot be used \Vithout a preposition and an object following it: The host hurt our feelings. . n~YJ m'l.l:l!1~ ).l:lt!:l nnmn -:::t Yl!>
54
Chapter 3: The verh sysll~m
When will you help us get ready for the party?
llN )':Jil~
nz 1it)m 'Jll:)
_., 1t))
rn:Ptmn
3.10 Action, stative and inchoative verbs Another way of dividing verbs is by semantic categories like the following: action verbs, stative verbs, and inchoative verbs. 3.1 0.1 Non-stative verbs There are many types of dynamic verbs, and most of them describe activities or events, which can have beginning and completion points.
Here are some examples: Activity Shira is playing tennis. Process The food is cooking. Action He passed the ball.
.tm\J npn'lm ili'VJ
.7'l1Jrll:) 7:J,Ni1
.;n:m nN J.2!2 Nm
3.1 0.2 Stative verbs Stative verbs usually refer to an ongoing state or condition. They can be divided into verbs of perception or cognition (which reter to things in the mind). or verbs of state (which describe an ongoing state).
Describing perception/feeling/attitude: Aydet hates science fiction movies. She loves adventure movies. Ayelet prefers tunny movies. Describing states: Everybody is asleep. Nobody is awake at such a time. He has been sick for a week.
.'l''1J )J1n '\J1tl
mmv ll~'N
.mNpn!lin '\J1tl nJmN Nm .O'pm~n Cl'\J"lO il!l'1)J 1:)
n7' N
.~o':n:~
.JlNl:l mJVJ.J .]l.N? 1nN ")N
.o'n' }11:1VJ "l:I:J n?m Nm
3.1 0.3 lnchoative verbs lnchoative verbs are verbs that convey a transformation and change of state, such as 'fall asleep'. which indicates the process of changing from being awake to being asleep. The change is usually an internal one, the process of becoming.
Chapter 3: 71w verb system
55
Describing changes of state:
Everybody fell asleep. Nobody woke up when we knocked. When he gets well, we 'II travel to Africa. The apples ripened (became ripe).
. UJiil
0,,:>
. ,lp!li'lJ:::l 11l}lnil N'J inN ')N .ilp'i!lN~ ).ltl'l ,N'i:J' N1il'lJ:::l
Chapter 4 Verb pattern groups In this chapter the seven major binyanim (verb pattern groups) will be discussed. They will be presented first in the regular root groups O')t;l~~ first, and then in the irregular verb categories. 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5
4.6 4.7
pa'al n((al pi'el pu'a/ hitpa 'ei hifil hufal
4.1 Pa 'al conjugation
(.,p) .,~~
l"ll
'~-?~ ,~~ ):::1
(']}!'!))
?)l!il 1'"ll
('})))!)) '~!:? )"):::1
?V.~J;ID
l''ll 7'l:'!?D )"Jl ('}))!)ln) 7~!?D l"ll
'l.V? 1•1:1
The pa 'a/ conjugation is traditionally considered the simplest or the most basic of the conjugations. It is an unmarked conjugation, since its verb forms do not contain any special identifying markers other than the root letters, usually tri-consonantal (i.e. composed of three consonants) and the tense/mood/person markers. The pa 'a/ conjugation is not identified with any particular semantic trait either and is broad enough to incorporate such categories as: (I) transitive verbs (e.g. [nl!)J1il nN] ?;>r::t 'eat') (2) intransitive ones (l~~ 'sit') (3) stative verbs (W!~ 'sleep') (4) inchoative 'change/become' verbs
4.1.1 Regular verbs Regular verbs are verbs in which all the root consonants are present in all the verb forms.
Present tense/participle '?~i9 "lll•:l./iulilJnr In most pa 'a/ conjugations, the stem of the present tense consists of the sequence C,oC2eC,~ (C = consonant) ?).119. The vowel o N?n o?m, between the first and the second consonant of the root, and the vowel e i11l~, between the second and third consonants, are the stem voweLs tor
C'hapter 4: Verb pattern groups
57
most of the present tense fonns. There are tour fom1s of present tense: masculine singular, feminint! singular, masculine plural and feminine plural.
to dance
.,.i'..,~
; r1Ji?.i1 (Nlil ,l1N ,'lN) ; lt;'il (Nm ,i!JlN ,'.3N)
:nnm'
J1iipi1 ()il , )JlN ,1lnlN) ; 0'"1i;'il (Oil , Ol1N , 1lnl N)
:J"lVO'~l
In the singular forms the stress is on the second vowel of the stem: roked and rokedet. In the plural form the stress shifts to the suffix vowel, which brings about the loss of the last stem vowel e: rokdim and rokdlk Variation -first stem vowel a In some verbs in the present tense of pa 'al the first stem vowel is a instead of the usual o. It characterizes mostly stative verbs.
; il~~~ (N'il ,JlN ,'lN} ; W'? (Nm ,ilTIN ,'JN)
, n;·pn'
:nil~~ ()il , )l1N , llnlN) ; 0'~\?~ (Oil , Ol1N , UnlN)
: J"ll!O':J.l
Note
In colloquial Hebrew native speakers tend to use the prevalent o-e sequence rather than the nommtive one tor such forms: ,31~\\'i'" ,)V,Ii'• l1il\l)i'• ,0'~~1'*· It is considered substandard. 'liJI9 'lll'::l Passive participle Many present tense forms in pa ·at have passive counterparts that describe a state, and generally fi.mction as adjectives, as 'broken', 'stolen', etc. do in Eng) ish. broken nil~:J.'?' ,O'"J~::t'?' ,n:n::t'?' ,ltl~
The passive participle stem is .,~)J~, but when the feminine and plural suffixes are added, the stress moves to the last syllable, and the steminitial vowel is omitted, resulting in a variation of the stem: -~~)lliJ, to which feminine and plural sutlixes arc added.
58
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Compare:
I am open to any interesting proposal. The door is open; close it please.
.nl".:lliP illi.Sil .,:J2 nm!l mo~ .nYJpJJ. nmN 11lO ;I!!ill:!Q n71il
When the first consonant is 'Y ,'n ,•n ,•N, a hatqf'patan replaces the shva in the feminine singular and the plural: nil~J.~ ,O'j~J.~ ,il'J~J.~ ,l~J.~. The pa 'u/ form also provides a base tor many adjectives (all of which have four forms): important clear n?~.,~-';n7~ n~~YJttJ~YJO imperfect steep il~~7:~;~-.,~7J:J
Pasttense
~~»1nr
The sequence-':?~~ provides the stem tor the past tense (and the citation form, since .,~~ is also the third person singular form). A variation of this stem -7},1~ occurs when a final suffix vowel is added, and the stress shitts to it, again causing deletion of the preceding stem-vowel (gamra i1')9~. gamru ~~'?~). Stress remains on the last stem-vowel only in the first ami second person fonns (gamclrti '.D)Q~. gamarta t'')Y.l~. etc.).
to tinish
,.tl~~
,J;l)Y.l~ CnN) ,l))Q~ Cn1'1N) , '-D)Y.l~ (')N) il'JJ?~
N'il ,1Y.l~ Nm
, ·w')Y,)~ <11'1NJ , • ot:t?Y.l~ conN> , U)Y.l~ ~1J?~
cnmN)
: 1'1VO'JI
)il ,~1J?~ Oil
*There are two variants t()r the plural f(lfm of the second person: gmartem Ol))Y,l~ and gamcirtem O~)Y,l~. The variant gmar!(!m is considered nommtive, but it is rarely used, except in formal speech. The other variant gamartem (considered substandard by some) is commonly used, and is modeled atler all other first and second person forms in stem structure and in stress pattern. Ordinary speech
gamcirtem gamarten
Dt:":1~~ (01'1N)
)~)Y.l~ ()1'1N)
Normative
gmartbn gmarten
O~')Y.)~ (01'1N) W)Y.l~ C)nN)
Chap/a 4: Verb patlern groups
59
Future tense ,•n.u1nr When regular verbs O'Y.l~\;J are conjugated in the future, they can be divided into t\\'0 main groups: the major group of verbs that have an o stem vowel (such as 1n~l:;(), and a smaller group of verbs that have an a stem vowel (such as in liJ~~). The personal pronoun prefixes have an i vowel, with the exception of the first person prefix, which has an e vowel: 1n'?'~ ,1)::!\l)~. Verbs with o stem vowel , '"J'?P'I (l1N) , 1·n~l?l cnnN) 11n~~ C>lN)
Nm C1lnm> (nr;fY.l~J:l) nY,)~' 111 ,nY,)~? Oil ...,·n~J;~
~Cilr;fn~J:~) ~1>?~B
C)nN>
.~1tt1J:J
conN>
N'il 1
,in~?
1n~l
:l'lV01J1
Note
1. The o vowel of the future tense is represented by a Pwlam naser in normative orthography, but in common usc in writing the vowel 1 (liolam male) is inserted instead: l1Y.llJ ,l1Y.ll' 111Y.lll1 111Y.llN
2. There are two variants for the feminine plural form of the second person and third person: (i) the variant that is commonly used is the same for both the masculine plural and feminine plural. They have become the standard forms in ordinary speech and are considered normative. (ii) The Biblical Hebrew variant with distinctive feminine plural suffix nn·n~n is rarely used, except in formal speech, and is now considered somewhat archaic. Verbs with a stem vowel:
to learn, study
..,.-~~~
CilnN) 11>;>~~ (')N) lt,1~.J:l N'il,lt;l~~ Nm ,Cilr;t"r.>~.n> nt?~J:I C)nNJ ,nt;)~l;l conN) ,1r.>~~ rnmN> (ilrYY.l'.;m> nJ?~~ 111 ,nY;)~? oil 1
'J>?~l'l (l1N) , "TY.l~l:l
: n11m'
, nvo'J1
60
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Which verbs have a stem vowel a?
I. There are a few verbs that simply have to be memorized as having a stem vowel a: the future of1Y:J? 'study'= 1Y:l?? 'will study', and J.~I{J 'lie (down)'= J.:;.J~' 'will lie down'. 2. When the second or third root letter is '!J ,rn ,'n ,•N: third root letter guttural second root letter guttural
Note 1. The future forms that end in a vowel (the forms of )!On ,)IOtlN ,nN)
lose the second vowel of the stem when vowel suffixes are added. Consequently, there are two sequential shva's: )1Y,l?D ,'"J'??D· Since such a sequence is ditlicult to pronounce, the second shva is pronounced e ralher than zero: tilmedi, ti/medu. 2. The vowel a is not reduced when the second or third root letter is a guttural. The vowel nn~-'1\Jn is used: )J~~' )IOil ,~J~~l'l ()!OtlN) ,'?~~l:l (llN)
The imperative mood 'll''ll Similar to the forms in the future tense, the imperative forms can be divided into two groups, according to the stem vowel. The division only affects the form of the masculine singular. Verbs with o stem vowel Verbs with a stem vowel The negative imperative
To form negative imperatives one uses the fulurc tense form with the imperative negative particle 7~ 'don't!': ! nml:l J~ ! ''JY,l~l:l 7~ ! (11Y.))tl) 1n~l:l J~
• Just like in the future, there arc two variants for the feminine plural form of the imperative: !~1'?~ and !nn·n~ The variant that is commonly used is the same for both the masculine plural and feminine plural. It is the standard form in ordinary speech and is considered normative.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
61
The infinitive mood The 'default' stem with o in the future tense and in the imperative of the majority of pa 'al verbs also serves to derive the infinitive ~·lJ!;l~. including those verbs that belong to the group where the future vowel is a (except for isolated forms like :1~~~): 0":1'41~ .~·N~~ ,ltl{~. The verbal noun il'lU19il Dla In addition to the infinitive, there are also verbal nouns (il~~lJ!i' nm~). or nominalizations, that are more 'noun-like', but are still closely related to the verbal pa 'a/ form. The torm of verbal nouns of regular pa ·at verbs is generally of the form il~'l!~. e.g. il~'J:l~ ,ilJ'~V· Variants with '9 ,'J ,'::::L 1. The letters '9 .'D ,'::1 are realized as b. k, p i. when they occur as the first consonant of the present and past tenses and imperative: Otli9 ,:1tl)::> ,pJi::! : ~lJ,~ 'l,J':l om~ ,:1m~ ,,~,;t 7,~!) ml':J
,
ruJ~ ,:JlJ~
.;n;t , ;:w
!nlJ.!il ! :1"11? q:ii~ : ,,,,~ ii. when occurring as the second root letter in the future tense, or the infinitive: ti9J;l~ ,.J.~J~ ,1::~~? : 1mY ti9J;l~ ,J.'::>J~ ,1·::1~'-: ~~,!)il 0'\!.1
2. The letters·~,') ,':1 are realized as v, kh. f i. when they occur as the second root letter in the present, past and imperative: tl~il'l ,.J.~ii ,l~i'\!.1: ')U'.J. t1~B,J.~J,1~~
:1JY
! tl"!)l;l ! J~';l ! ,.:J \f' : '"'~
ii. when they occur as the first root letter in the future tense, or the infinitive: \!J·~? ,J.l'l?' ,p·l;t?, lm).l '\!}·~~~ ,::fl'l:;>':? p"1-?':? :.,}),!) O'tl iii. when they are in the final position in the word or root. I
O'!;>\?iP
.~::1';11 ,:J.l'l?~
Chapter 4: Verh pattern groups
62
Variants with guttural root letters C1 = 'K When the first root letter is 'N, the vowel e replaces the shva vowel in the future, imperative and infinitive. The prefix vowel in these verb forms is also affected: l1~? ,1l~? ,
0\!.1
t'1~? ,1·:u~? ,'10~~: ·pn)l
;
! f1~ !1·)~ ! r,.u~ '11'::::1
C1 = 'll When the first root letter is •)1, the vowel a replaces the shva vowel in the future, imperative and infinitive. The pretlx vowel in these verb forms is also affected: lt.Jl-1~ ,1-:Jl-!~ ,l:Jl!~ : ~Yl!:ln O\!J lo~~
,1 :J~~ ,1·:1~~ : l'n)J
! 1"!:::l~ n·:J.~ ! 1:1~ : '11'~
C1 = 'n When the tirst root letter is n the vowel a replaces the prefix vowel i. The first root letter can either be zero shva, or the shva may be replaced by a. Both forms are acceptable, but the pronunciation with the zero shva is more common in speech. (,.np~ ,:f:::~p~ <,·no~
,J.\!Jt)';?) 1:1'1~';? ,J·:::~~';? ,:J\!J~';? : ~)Jl!:ln o'll ,:J.·~o~ ,J.'llt)~) 1"r1~~ ,:J.·:::~I;\~ ,J.'LII;\~ : l'lW
C2 = '11 ,'n ,'n ,'K
When the consonant is a guttural a hatqj'patan replaces the shva: ~1~;t~ ,'PO~J:l,O'~Qi) ,n~~~
C3
='11 ,'n ,'n
At the end of the word, if one of these gutturals is preceded by a vowel other than a, a' furtive' patan is inserted: ~ir.l~':? ,Dl;;ltl ,t'~i\!J
4.1.2 Irregular verbs The group of irregular verbs is composed of verbs where one or more ofthe root consonants are either missing or altered.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
63
Note
I. The classification O)itm stands for verbs \vhere one of the root consonants is absent, while o)m stands for the classification when a root consonant is present in spelling but it is not pronounced. 2. The three root consonant letters by which the irregularities arc marked arc: consonant I = '!:1, consonant 2 = ')J , and consonant 3 = ·~ When the first consonant is affected, the following label is given to it: )"!:J, meaning the first consonant yod undergoes a change, and so on. The category of roots classified by irregularity of root consonants 1s called n;u ·root classification group'.
The root classification: •"lJII"ll These are roots with a second root consonant '1, such as in t.:J-1-p, or '', such as in 1-'-\!J. The verb stems of the past and present tenses are hiconsonantal, i.e. have only two consonants, as the second root consonant is omitted, such as in 1'{.1 ,Oi?. In the future, imperative and infinitive, the second root consonants are realized as vo\vels: the vowel ~ u for 1''l' verbs, as in 01p-, or as the vowel •) i in )1')) verbs, as in ·v~-. Accordingly, this conjugation pattern is called )"))/1").1 rnp, since it is ')) ~)J1!li1 that undergoes changes and thus differs from the regular verb conjugations. 1"11 verbs
to get up Root classification 1'':1.1
Present Past 3n:l person Future 3rt1 person Imperative
a~p?
Verbal Noun
Infinitive
Root
ilt,;l)P
o~p~
Y.)-1-p
Oil
.N.'il
.N.Iil
0'J?i?
"Y:li?
Oj?
mi?
ilt,;li?
Oi(
~mp~
mpJ;J
l!OllN
l1N )t.:Jlp
mp? nnN
!lmp
OljJ
Note In "'Wl":Y verb forms, the stress usually stays on the (only) stem vowel,
even when a suffix vowel is added: kama ilt,;li(. kamu mi(, yaktJmu lr.lliJ?, kumi )1;11p, kumu 1mp. This is always the case in regular speech. In the higher registers, the present tense feminine singular fonn ilt,;li( is
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group.~
64
distinguished from its identical past tense tonn by the movement of its stress to the sutlix (the same as in the plural - kamim. kamot): 1/you/she gets up she got up
kama ilQi? kama i1Qi?
As is the case with any verb in the fonnal register, stress also moves to the suffix in kamtemln VDl)t;Ji?, but not so in regular speech (kamtemln). Variation of
,··v
verbs:
The stem vowel of the future, imperative and infinitive is o when the final root letter is 'N:
to come Root classification
2'<;:..~
Verbal Noun
Infinitive
Root
,,~
il~':;l
Ni:J~
N-,-J
!ill
liTI
llli1
Future
~NiJ~
NiJ.~
Ni:J~
l!OllN
nN
nnN
! ~Ni::l
!'~i!l
!Ni!l
Imperative
•".u verbs: The stem vowel is i when the medial root letter is'':
to sing Root classification
'")I Future Imperative
,,'Q~
Verbal noun il)''?'
Infinitive
Root
1''?'~
1-'-'ll
.QD.
!ffi
XIii
~1''?'~
1''?'~
1''P~
)10l1N
llN
illlN
!n''?'
!''J'W
!1'W
The root classification: M"9 •o! The conjugation is called N"!.l 'nl because 'N, its first root consonant, is 'silent' in some verbs. In verbs such as 'JJN, instead of the expected 'J~~r;~· or 'iJ~J)· (cf. ~"fO~?, above), the form is ~~Nn tokhtil, with 'N silent. The associated vowel becomes o. Only the future tense is affected. and the rest ofthe forms follow the regular verb rules.
Chapter 4: Verb palli~rn groups
~-,~?
to eat Root classification N"!l
65
Verbal Noun
Infinitive
Root
il~':;l~
~-::>~~
~-::>-N
Future
Dil
~
Mill
~~::>N'
~~~{)'!
~~l·(l
' vonN !~7:;>~
Imperative
TlN
nnN
!'~?N
!~)J~
Another common verb classified as N"!l ,m is the verb lQ)J 'to say': l~N·J'l ,.,~-N etc. Note the absence of the 'N of the root l-,-N in 1Y.l"N, ;.~·N and the even more unusual absence of 'N in 1Y:>i~. In all other cases, if the root includes 'N, the 'N always appears in writing, even if silent. That the silent •N is omitted after an 'N (J~N ,1Y."fN) is expected, but lQi? is a real exception, probably the only one. The alternative Biblical Hebrew 1mo(~ is used with a slightly different meaning, more like 'quote'.
The root classification:
···!> "J90
When the first consonant of the root ('Yl!lil '!l) is '' and that " is absent in the future tense, the imperative, and the infinitive, it is referred to as '"!I 'JY'tl mp (190 means 'missing', or 'absent').
to sit Root classification '"!:! '10n
.n:n.1~ \" ·:
.
Verbal Noun
Infinitive
il~''?'~
:n~\\1~
Oil
N'il
Future
Mlil
tl~~
~\\ltl
l\\1~
IIDnN
!lli
ilrlN
!l~~
P:;J.~
!l\\1
Imperative
When '"!:! '"lOn has a final •guttural' consonant 'Y ,•n, such as in Y1' 'know', the stem vowel e changes to a. Compare the two: Imperative Future Infinitive Root
The root classification: •""9
! ~\\I
~\\I~
:n:;fw~
:J-'lJ-'
! Y1"
YJ~
:n~J~
Y-1->
·o~
When the first consonant of the root is'~ y, and that'' is not deleted, but rather weakened to the corresponding vowel i in the future tense and in the infinitive, we refer to the conjugation as "'!l '0~ n)p.
66
Chapter 4: Verh patTern groups
Unlike '''!l '1t1n where the '' is omitted, notice that the letter '' is still included in the verb forms: :JW~ but w~~c
to sleep 111U'> Verbal Noun
Infinitive
Root
'"!> 'nl
n~w
Wo'~
)-Y.J-'
Q.U
~
li!D.
Future
~)'lJ'~
'~'1:1
1'Q'~
(/OnM
ill!
DD1!
m'll~
! '~'l''
!)'P~
Root classification
Imperative
'.
The root classification: l""g This classification includes verbs which have 'J nun as their first root letter. Such verbs can lose their initial 'l in the future and infinitive for a phonological reason: the consonant 'l is weakened at the end of syllables, i.e., when no vowel follows. As a result it tends to be totally assimilated into the next consonant (ct: English historical assimilation in in legal > illegal, inre1-;rular > irregular, etc.). The group of verbs whose 'l is assimilated in this manner is known as J''!l '1Un n:rr~-
to fall ';m> Root classification ~'1t1n
Future
Verbal noun
Infinitive
Root
n{'.!:l~
~i9?
']-!)-)
QD.
!t.Q
li!D.
~';I~~
';1'9J;I
~:i9~
In some l''::l '10n verbs, while the initial•) is lost in the future tbrms, the is kept in the imperative, such as in these verbs: 'fall down!' !~)!)) n~.!:lJ ! ''!ll or •take' ! 1?\JJ !''\J) ! ~nm
'l
Other verbs lose the initial•l in both: 'drive' !'.VU !.VU; wun ,'.VOn ,.von q.vu. or 'give' mn !'.m qn; )lnn .~mn ,)nn (see below). verbs that keep their initial "1 1. Verbs that keep the 'l in the future, imperative and infinitive are those that have a 'guttural' second root consonant: •.v ,•n ,'ii,'N, as they cannot assimilate any consonants adjacent to them. l"9
67
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Gloss
Infinitive
lm~erative
Future
Root
o·N~~
Oz:.t~
o~q~
Y.l-N-l
!liJ~
)il))
l-n-l
'{~~~
!"(~~
'(l.!r
~-~-)
rfn~~
!lll)~
nl)~'
n-n-1
deliver speech drive tack land (plane)
:in~~
-
:.
2. There are other verbs that for no apparent a priori reason keep their initial 'J, and that today actually outnumber those in which the 'l is assimilated. Among them are: \JJ) ')lJ bark nJJ germinate rebuke tlpl ill bite Oll oppose took steps
Special verbs: There arc a number of special l"!l '1tm verbs that combine features of different irregular verb groups.
1. 'to give' n~~ : l'11'1/l"!> The verb m:t~ 'to give' is a unique one, since both first and third consonants are 'l, either of which assimilates into the next consonant when occurring at the end of the syllable. In addition, the intinitive torm not only reflects the loss of the t\VO n consonants, but also takes on a special infinitive form partly associated with W!'J verbs. )''!)
il"'lTl
il '11119 DIU
'7.1119 D 1U
IU1 IIU
,,on
)~Y.)mJ'm
m~'<
1-n-.)
I. In the present tense the verb J-n-.J is conjugated as a regular verb and does not lose any consonants: niJl;liJ ,D'~:J;lil ,ll?J)il ,WiJ. 2. In the past tense the third consonant 'l is lost, and is assimilated into the subject pronoun suffix: the expected 'ti+?D~* ends up as 'tllJ~. This occurs only in the first and second person. /\ Jage:Jh hazak in the suffix compensates for the loss of the first root consonant. (m~/DnH
llnJN
illlN
3. In the third person all consonants are maintained:
m;-t~ ,il~~~
'lN
.1m
4. All the future tense forms lose the first 'l, which is assimilated into the second consonant (a dagesh huzak in the second consonant
68
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
compensates for the loss of the first root consonant):
m~
instead of
,.m~·.
5. The imperative forms echo the first consonant loss of the future tense: Imperative 2. 'to touch' ~i.1~~/n~~~
The infinitive tonn has two variants: n~~( loses the first consonant n and takes on a special infinitive form associated with '"!I verbs, while ~'">-~':!has a regular verb infinitive and keeps all root consonants. ))-)-)
All the future tense forms lose the first n, which is assimilated into the second consonant. The stem vowel is a, as it is in any such tonns that end with a guttural consonant: ,Y~~
llnlN ~ll~ ~
Imperative
,l'~'
Nm
,lJ~f:l
,))~l;:(
ilnl'{
'lN.
von ,~Y~T:l vonx ,'~~T:l nx ~))~ ,'l.'~ ,)J~
3. 'to travel'~~~>
The infinitive fonn of this particular )''!) verb keeps all consonants, but the future and imperative lose then, like the verbs above: ,Y~~
UnlN ,l'W? Nm ,Y9l:l ilJlN ,Y9tt 'lN. "'Y'o/~
Imperative
)IOil ,·,)l'o/l:l )!Ol1N
,'.)J~J:I
wv
I
!lN
'l.'1? ,lJQ
4. 'to take' noLJ'1
The root of this verb is n-p-.,, and although it does not have a') or a '' consonant, it behaves like a l"!:l verb with a final guttural consonant. It is conjugated just like the verb))~~ 'to touch'. The infinitive form loses the tirst consonant I and takes on a special infinitive tonn associated with '"!:1 verbs. All the future tense forms lose the first ,.,, which is
69
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
assimilated into the second consonant. The stem vowel is a, as it is in any such forms that end with a guttural consonant ')I or •n: Future ,nw~ ))mN ,nw? Nlil ,npr~ nnN ,np~ '3N mp~ von ,mpn vonN ,'t:li?n nN Imperative
The root classification: H"'l •m In the N"':1 conjugation, in which the third root consonant is 'N, the 'N is kept in spelling, but is not pronounced at the end of the syllable. Joe"~~~ Verbal noun
to find Root cla:s:sirici::lliun
"~'~t?
N"''m Present Pa'ul Past Future Imperative
Infinitive
Root
N·~t;:l~
N-~-IJ
Dil
~
Mlil
nnx
0'~~i!J
.TIN~ir.l
N~ir.l
N~ir.l
0'~~~9
il~~~t?
)~~~
,~~!;!
n~~~
"~~~
N~l;l
l)N;II;l
~N~t;:l?
N~t;:l.J:l
N~Y;l?
N~t;ll;l
IIDnM
nx
ilnM
!~N~Y,l
!'~~Y,l
!N~'?
Note
Notice that in some N"':1 verbs, the ,, substitutes for the 'N in the >)1)>:J ':1w~. following thew' pattern, as shown in the table above. However, this is not true for all N"':1 verbs, as forms such as Ntq, ~m~ exist as well. At times there is even a 'mixed' case: n~~'tl~ ,'l·'tl~ 'married'. The root classification: •"~ •m When the third root consonant is'' y, it is realized as the vowel e or a in final position, where it is represented in the spelling as •n, whereas elsewhere, it is realized as the vowel " i, or is elided before another vowel. This conjugation is called '"' ">n). It is also commonly known as i1"':1 'm because of the final •n of the citation t(mn.
70
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
to buy Root classification
Verbal noun nm?
~·/?
QD.
Present Pa'u/ Past Future Imperative
n~,~~
@
Infinitive nilp':?
Root n-J-p
li!D
illlli il),ip
o~~ip
n~ip
n~ip
o~~~li?
n~~lp
')!))j(
~li?
il{l~i?
n~i?
l)'~i?
~li?~
n~pl;l
n~p~
i1?,i?l:'1
JIDnM
nN
!!!lp
P~i?
i1!lli !iQp
''li?
Note that in the third person feminine of the past tense, elision of the stem vowel would have mt:rged the fonn with the masculine counterpart, n~i?· To prevent that. the historical feminine 1n resurfaces, resulting in nmi?Marginal root class: 11"11 In some roots, the second and third root consonants are identical. In pa 'a!, most of them behave like regular verbs in current usage, e.g., 'l:'I~~Q 'I cclebratcc.r from the root )-l-n, but a few maintain a separate form in which the two identical consonants are merged, e.g., 'tli:"IIJ 'I pardoned' from l-l-n. For full conjugation see Appendix l. 4.1.3 Associated meanings As noted above, pa 'a/ verbs can be classified into two major groups, verbs of action and stative verbs, but it is hard to go into any further semantic classification, since pa 'a/ is the major default verb conjugation. and the meanings of other binyanim are often described in relation to the pa 'al pattern.
Chapler 4: Verb pattern groups
71
4.2 Nif'al conjugation The conjugation n!{al ~~!l) I")J is identified hy a prefix, n (realized as ni- to facilitate pronunciation), that is part of its past and present tense stem. Its name reflects the third person singular masculine past tense form, its 'citation form': ni+CCaC ~~.!;)+~. The ni- prefix is not maintained throughout the conjugation. Its n is totally assimilated into the first consonant of the stem in the future, the imperative, and in the infinitive, and the vowel pattern changes. It is assimilated because it occurs at the end of the syllable in these sub-conjugations (e.g., ti+n+gamer > liggamer > tigamer- cf. n assimilation in pa 'a! above). In the imperative and infinitive forms, there emerge::~ an initial 'il prefix. Stem of future
... i+shamer
11:;)~~
Stem of past and present
ni+shmur
11?'?'~111?\('~
Stem of the imperative and infinitive
hi+shamer
Thus, instead of niCCaC ~~!?~ of the past and present, the stem of the future, imperative and infinitive is (hi)-CaCeC ~V~-(i:J). The dugesh hazt.lk in the first root Jetter was intended to compensate for the loss of the prefix consonant 'ln. When the text has vowels, the dagesh hazak is visible. When the text has no vowels, the letter '' is inserted after the pronoun subject prefix to reflect the vowel i CThis, of course, excludes the first person singular personal pronoun, as the vowel of that prefix is e): o~~D~
o~~D
ti):J'n~
ti):Jlil
The "does not form part of the nifal pattern but is inserted for clarity, sometimes even in vowelled texts, to indicate the i vowel.
4.2.1 Regular V'erbs Regular verbs arc verbs in which the root consonants are present in all verb forms.
72
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Present tense illlil enr The present tense forms have a ni- prefix, which identifies them as nf(al verbs. The stem vowel is ~op a with the exception of the feminine fi1rm.
to recall ~ ,;t.!t'l~ n:9!~ (Nm ,JlN ,~lN) ; 1~p (N1il ,i1JlN ,'.:lN) ni1~p ()n , )nN ,1mlN) ; O'"J~ p con , o.nN ,1mm>
: illi'l"1' :11110'~1
In the singular forms the stress of the word is maintained on the second vowel of the verb form: nizkar, and nizkeret. In the plural form the stress shifts to the last vowel of the word: nizkarim and nizkarot. The second vowel (or stem vowel) remains a, and doesn't change toe with the movement of the stress. ,~u,nr Pasttense The past tense forms also have a ni- prefix, which identifies them as njfal verbs. The stem vowel is n.n!l a, with the exception of the forms that end in a vowel.
,f;l)~p (TIN) ,l)";J~p CnnN) .~l.'l')~p ('JN)
:illi'n'
n:qp N'il ,1~p N1il .wrpp
,Dl;n~p
com-<>
,,JmN> , n11o'~, n:;m 1n .~1~p on .~n~n
The stem of the past tense shares the citation fonn niCCaC-. Jt has a variant niCCeC- (the second shva is pronounced e), resulting from reduction of a to e when the stress shifts to the last sylJable of an added vowel sutlix (feminine and plural markers ofthe third person). Future tense -,•nu 1nr In the future tense the ni- prefix is not present, and instead we tind the stem i(e) + CaCeC-. As noted above, then \Vas there historically, but as in other similar environments was assimilated into the subsequent consonant, resulting in a dagesh lia=ak \Vhen the letter is not guttural (guttural letters required that the previous vowel be lengthened instead). It has a variant -iCaCC- when the stress shifts to the last
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
73
syllable (feminine and plural markers of the third person), reflecting deletion of the 1ast stem vowel. ,l"J:;Jll;l (11N) ,enn~lm n;>p"~
,1~~J:'l
(i111N)
,1~W
(llN)
1;>~l;l N'n ,,~r Nm c1nNJ , ~,?"P'I conN> ,,~n mmN> cnrrnn> ~1?·!~ 1il.~,n~ on
: illilf"''
=
mto'J1
As noted above, the '' is usually present, as in 1~·Pn. Without the " a form like '1:ltn can be read as •you will remember' in pa 'a/, or 'you will recall' in nif'al. There is no wufusiuu if the pu 'u{ fonn is written '1~ln and the ntfal form is written '1::>r>n.
The imperative mood •u•l! The Imperative shares part of the stem with the future tense, and m addition is preceded by the prefix -;:1 hiCaCeC (hiCaCC-) Recall! Beware! Watch out! Be careful! Often a'' is inserted after the prefix:
CnnDFll ml)FI
!'"Jt)~D
!1iJFI
!1~Pn
The future forms are used with negative commands, and in daily speech often tor positive commands as well. Come in, immediately! ! 1"n ~u.J:;,'n Don't enter the room! !11n~ 'O.J:;,'n ~N Limited use
Directives can occur in njfal only when the verb has an active meaning: !O)::l'il Come in! Beware! ! l1Qt'D but not when it has a passive meaning:
Getbroliea! Be written!
~
!13f13'n
The infinitive mood ~JII9il ow The infinitive has the same stem as the future and imperative; in fact, in this case the stem is identical to the imperative stem: u~~D~ 'to enter'.
74
Chapter 4: Verb pattem groups
I don't like recalling that story. It is impossible to come in; the opening is too narrow. He needs to beware of them.
.11!:!'0 U11N:J 1:Jlli1J ::m1N NJ
mo{
•">">i}'J 1~ nll!)il , 0.):Jli1J 1'lJ!)N 'N
The infinitive form can also be translated by the gerund 'doing' (rather than by 'to do'), though not as commonly: Entering his house is like entering t)J::1'ilJ 1tJJ m illl'::tn P'JN Ol:J'ilJ a bank. .jJ):J'J Verbal noun Not all verbs can generate a related verbal noun. Most nfral v~rbal nouns usc the same stem as the infinitive, plus the abstract nominalization sutlix m-. It is always a feminine noun. In these verbal noun fonns, the e vowel of the stem (of the infinitive, future and imperative) is deleted: Verbal noun Infinitive Citation form running into m'Jpl)D :l Jj;?:J,li;:J? :l Jj;?l;l~ state of readiness 1H::1";'~iJ 'J lJ~D? 'J TJ~~ Some forms of the verbal noun arc based on the present tense stem: Verbal noun Stem form determination m~JD~ determined '<J':'~ willingness, readiness mli::1~ correct 1i::1~ Some verbal nouns whose base is nifa/ are realized in other patterns: Verbal noun Stem form entrance, entry enter, come in ilV'~=i' 0~~~ caution watch out 1H1'Dl 1DP Variants with '9 , ·~ ,':1. 1. The letters '9 .'J .'::::tare realized as b. k. p When occurring as the second root consonant in the past and present, or the first root consonant is in the future, imperative and infinitive 1~J;l) 1 1~p I 1;t~)
: l)))")J,
,~m ,,~P ,,~'?'~
,
, 1::aY
,,,y
,P1;tT:l , U~~D ,'li~~D ,PJ;tD: '1l>~ o~~D~ ,'l!~~D~ ,P1;tiJ~ ' 'JYl!m o'l! or~~ 'li~~T:I
Crwpter 4: Verb pattern gruups
2. The letters'!>,')
,'J.
75
are realized as v, kh, f
i. When it is the first root consonant in the present and past nl;l~~ ,up~ ,10;t~ : 1)1)1J nl;l~~ ,up~ ,K9~ : 1JY ii. When it is the second or third root consonant in the future. imperative. and infinitive \JP,~l;l ,l:;HB , l~~T:l : 1'll)l ~::)£;!~? '1!;r;f~l?l
'um :1'11)1
\J~~iJ~ ,l~:liJ~ ,1~~D?: ~)11!lil
O'll
Variations with guttural radicals 1. In the future, imperative and infinitive, the prefix vowel is always e and there is no dagesh liazak in the guttural consonants: :J'?.'QD?· 2. The prefix vowel of nffal ni- in the past and present tenses changes from ni- tone- when the first consonant of the verb is 'Y ,•n ,•n ,'K An ·echo' vowel replaces the zero vowel of the first consonant. with the exception (in non-fonnal usage) of first radical •n: :JWJ;~? Nm ; ,,~? Nm ; n~m Nm ; 'f~~? Nm
3. When the second letter is 'guttural', the expected zero vowel (shva) is replaced by a natql patan in the third person of the past tense (feminine singular, and plural); in the second person singular feminine and in the second and third person plural of the future tense; and in second person singular feminine and plural of the imperative: nQ!i:l ,'-:'IQ!D .~1Q!~ ,nmn ,~"1Q·Jl;l .~1qp ,nJQP
4.2.2 Irregular Verbs Irregular verbs are verbs in which one or more of the roots consonants arc missing, altered or remain silent.
The root classification: •"9 •m When the first consonant of the root is '\ it is never deleted; it is replaced by the vowel o in the present and in the past tenses. and 1s converted to the consonant '' in the rest of the conjugation.
76
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
to be born .,>.li:l~ Root classification
Present Past Future
~
Verbal noun nn'?)i:l
Infinitive i'?.);:l'?
1-'J-)
Root
Qi!
N'il
MID
illlN
0'-:T'?il
J'l'J~1)
1'?il
i~il
,i'{i)
n:r?i)
i'?~)
.1;11'2))
,,'?l?
i';?)l:'l
i'?.p
1'?.~:1:1
The root classification: K"~ "Ol The final consonant 'N is always silent in forms that end the word or syllable, or precede another consonant that ends the syllable: I. The past tense first and second stem, aud lhin.l person masculine singular: NJm ,(1T,liO~t~l!l1tJ;II'lJJ -NJm. Note: before a consonant, a> e. 2. The present tense singular: llNJi?~ ,NJi?~ 3. The future, imperative, and infinitive stem (except t(lr tonns that end in a sutlix vowel): N"JJ¥(D}
to be read/named Root classification N'•7ml Present Past Future Imperative
Verbal noun mN";lJ¥;:l
N'i?::'l~
infinitive
root N-1-p
Oil
~
o'~"Jm
llNJi?~
NJi?D'? !llil N')i?l
!IN-:"~m
il~")i?~
N"Jm
~N1m
~N";li?~
NJW3:'1
NJW~
N"Ji?l:'
1/om~
nx
ilTIM
!,N";Ij?i:l
!'~")i?D
!N"Ji?D
illlN
N)in
The root classification: ·"~ •m When the third root consonant is ''. it is realized as the vowel e or a in tinal position, where it is represented in the spelling as n. Elsewhere, it is realized as the vowel '·· e::,v, in the past tense: '1:''~';1~. or in the singular feminine present tense Tl'~f;ll N'n. The final stem vowel is elided before a final vowel when a suffix is added, such as in ,)i?" on ,~li?~ on, and a 'TI separates the feminine nJ;Jp~ form from il~:p.
77
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
to be built !'113""~ Root classification ,,~
Associated noun
Infinitive
Root
*n~p;nu~;:1
n~l~iJ~
')-)-:J
M'il
~
ilnM
o>p~
n''-:;J~
ilpl
np~
:tl;l~
ilnl:Jl + : : •
iiJ:;J~
1)'>.:;1~
!))~:
m::m
il~::}~
il~::J.B
)/DnM
m<
i'lnM
m;m
P~;tD
!il~~iJ
'nJ Di"'
Present Past Future Imperative
·,·1".
*The associated noun is often the verbal noun of the pa 'a/ conjugation. The n({al form of the verbal noun is mJ::}D. but it is rarely used in contemporary Hebrew.
Combined initial guttural and •"'7 verb: The verb l11JtJ';1 'to enjoy' combines the features of verbs with initial gutturals with those of '"'=' mJ verbs.
to enjoy Root classification
;n1li;lt1> Associated noun Infinitive
Root
*mon .... ,. -:
l1iltJ~
'-J-n
M'il
!lli!
ill1N
D'n;)~
l1'~D?.
n~m
il?,i,B
!))m
nl)~m
n~m
'"';I 'nJ en Present Past Future Imperative
fl1l;;t~
~lQ?.
mv-D
n>v?.
{l'nP n>.v.f:l
)/Dill'<
!lli
i"'l1H
! ~JDD
! '~vD
!mDD
*While the verbal noun torm mJiJD exists, the noun commonly used and associated with this verb is nN.m 'enjoyment'.
Marginal root classes: 1.1"1.1 ,1"1.1 ,J"!> •""'on In a fhv verbs, the first 'l of the stem is assimilated to the next consonant when it occurs in sy11able-final position, and its loss IS reflected in a dagesh nazak, e.g., from '-~-J. 'l:l~~~ < 'B~:~m 'I survived'. In the literary register, some 1"~ forms survived, e.g., from l-l-U, 'J:'li:HU~ 'I retreated', l1t7~ 'he retreated'. There are also some high register
7R
residues of turned'.
Chapler 4: Verb pattern groups
).J")l
verbs. e.g., from
:J-J-o, 'J:11:lQ~
'I turned'.
JQ~
'he
See Appendix I
4.2.3 Associated meanings ]n contemporary Hebrew n~(al generally refers to either one of two meanings- passive or inchoative (denoting a change of state). In a tew cases. it also carries a reciprocal meaning. The focus of most n[{al verbs is on the recipient of the action. a. Passive meaning There are several verbs in n!fal which arc counterparts of transitive verbs, usua1ly in pa 'a!. Active meaning ·''~nN
Dan sent the letter only yesterday.
p1 :m:mn nN n'\'J )1
Passive meaning
The letter was sent only yesterday. When a n[fal verb carries a passive meaning, the grammatical subject of the sentence is the recipient of the action, rather than the agent that perfonns the action. The minimal components of a sentence with a passive verb arc the subject of the verb, which is the recipient of the action, and the ni(al passive verb: Jl1~~il : N\!lll (J'JO) ').J!ll
.nJ\!Il
JJ1)~i1
)i: NY.m (J').J!!) ,)I!)
<
.Jn~~il
nN n'\!1 11
The presence or absence of an agent (the one performing the act) is dependent on the context. There are many instances where the agent is as important a focus as the recipient, and thus is included in the passive sentence as well, as an indirect object. Agent: subject
The police interrogated suspects.
.D'il\'Jn mpn m"\!IY.lil
Agent: Indirect object
The suspects were imerrogated by the police.
,,, ~)I ~1pn~
D'il\!lnn .n1"v~n
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
79
b. lnchoative (change of state) meaning Jnchoative verbs involve a change of state, e.g. going from wakefulness to a state of sleep, as expressed in a verb like 'fall asleep' OJ')~. A change of state may be "involuntary'; the process happens without an agent causing it, or without mentioning who caused it. Dan remembered that he forgot to .n~iil mo( 1uu~ n:;:,\!1 Nm\!1 1:m )l close the door. The patient weakened after the difficult treatment. Thus, in a sentence like il')~~~ n•~U~iJ 'the window pane broke', the breaking is assumed to have occurred on its own. In Hebrew you cannot make an agent out of an inanimate object. Even if someone may have been involved, their role is not the focus of the statement.
A comparative note In both Hebrew and English the recipient ofthe action may actually be the subject of the proposition, but in addition, in English, the verb can be realized as an active verb, whereas in Hebrew it is stated by a n!fal form with a passive meaning. .m1ltl.:l N~ OY.!l C'JN m,,mn The shops never close. The result of the action is stated in Hebrew not in n~f"al. but rather in the passive participle of pa 'a!: The shops are closed every 1nN 'Y-1'~\!1 01' )::> nnuu n1''Jnil Tuesday afternoon. .0''1ill~il The n[fal form describes the process, whereas the pa'al passive participle ':7W~ ~lU'J describes the state resulting from that process. The person who is causing the action may be at the same time the one undergoing it, in which case the verb is referred to as 'ret1exive' (d~ the meanings of hitpa 'el below). In the illustrations below, Dan can be said to register himself for school, and Joseph to lean himself on the wall. Dan is registering tor school today. Joseph leaned on the wall.
.01li1 O~i1t:l'~2 0\!11~ )i .1'Pil
'y
W\!ll CJUl~
80
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group.<:
c. Reciprocal meaning The nlfal hinyan shares another meaning with hitpa 'ei, that of reciprocity. There are a few reciprocal verbs in nifal, where the causer of the action and the recipient of it are not the same, but may shift roles (usually conveyed in English by 'each other'). Reciprocal meaning can only occur when the verbs are in plural form, since the meaning 'each other' involves more than one entity. Dan and Rina mel at work. Moshe and Hanna separated after many years.
m,,,
.ni'~~:J 1'l1l!lJ ,i O'l'V '1mc riJal mn' n'tln
.mJ.1
The sentences above can have reciprocal pronouns as their object. This use of these pronouns is optional since they are redundant. Dan and Rina met each other at work.
n Oll ;n )'l.'l!ll m,,, )i .nl)J.)l~
Moshe and Hanna separated from each other after many years.
nn m n1!:1J mn1 n'tln .n,~, O'J'tl '1nN
When the subject is singular these verbs must take an object, usually introduced by an obligatory preposition: Dan gets together with Rina every evening. Moshe separated from Hanna after many years. The feature of reciprocity is not a unique feature of n[fat.
.mJ.1
d. Other meanings Verbs in nifa/ arc nut necessarily passive, inchoative, or reciprocal. Many involve none of the above semantic features and can he considered to have an active meaning. We opened the door and entered the .1in2 nt;.JJJ) n'in m~ )lnn£1 room. We hurried to help them. Britain fought the Nazi regime. . >SNlil 1\:l'l1~1 nr.m;, l il'J\:1>1~ He wrestled with his conscience. .m!:l~~ OY jJl~~ N)il
Chapli'r 4: Verb pattem groups
4.3 Pi'el conjugation
81
.,)l•g
l11 ll.
The .,):!~ CiCeC sequence characterizes the stern of the third person masculine singular form in the past tense and gives it its name. The vowel sequence i-e (with its variants) provides the stem for the past tense. This includes a dagesh nazak in the second consonant, e.g. l'tlil 1i1-1'- In other tenses and moods the vowel sequence is a-e: 1~1-. The dagesh nazak, which is part of the pattern, exists in all forms of the various tenses and moods, with the exception of the •guttural' consonants ('l .·~ ,•n ,•n ,'N}, where a dagesh can never be present. A historical note
The presence of the dagesh nazak is a historical residue of the doubled (geminated) second radical, which originally marked the doubling of the length of a consonant. Today this feature is no longer in etlect phonetically, but the dagesh hazak is still part of the pattern of the verb, which also means that when the consonant concerned is ,!:1 ,'J, '3, it is always realized as a stop, b. p. k.
4.3.1 Regular verbs The group of regular verbs is composed of verbs in which all the root consonants are present in all the verb forms. Present tense illlil 1nr The present tense of this conjugation pattern has a -1;) me- prefix, which marks it tor present tense. l1'J~J~ (N'm ,l1N ,"lN) ;i~11;) (Nm ,nnN ,'lN)
nil~1'? {ln
,lllN ,lmlN) ; O''J~J'? con ,anN ,nmNJ
:nnm, : lll!O':ll
Note
The prefix nlfal.
-~
is typical to all verb pattern groups, except tor pa 'a/ and
The present tense forms of pi 'el not only act as verbs, but generate many adjectives and nouns. Here are some adjectives that have pi 'e/ present tense forms:
H2
Chapter 4: Verb palfern groups
Adjective
Root
Citation form fascinate Pm reinforce P11J drive mad ))~'?'
p-n-1 p-t-n
Speakers add new adjectives constantly, e.g.: Adjective Citation form astonishing shock D~D
Root
fascinating reint{Jrcing fantastic
P~'J~ pm~
~~~~
))-)-\!)
Here are some nouns that have pi 'e/ present tense forms: Citation form immigrate l~D train l~~ ,~~ tell. narrate gamble l~D
Noun
immigrant trainer/coach narrator gambler
l~D~
~~~tt l~'Q~ lt,;ID~
Root l-)-il l-0-N
l-0-0
1-.o-n
Past tense The past tense of pi 'el has three stem variants: Masculine singular 3rd person: I ' 1 and 2"<~ person forms: 3nJ person feminine singular and plural (stem vowel deleted when stress moves to sumx):
to speak; to talk ,~):;)1 !!'IN)
diber dihardibr-
l~:t'
-!~1
-l::;t':f
,~,?
,J)"P1 !nl1N} , 'l:l)~1 ('lN)
, illi'n'
n:q:r r·Pn ,l:;J.:Y Nm ,)tl)~'J'
()l1N) ,Otl)::i":f (Ol1N) ,~)";~~')' (1lnJN.): l1V0'll
,,:!;1:1' )n
.~1:!;1":1
on
The vowel stem i is indicated by the frequent addition of'' following the tirst consonant: lJ'l. It is added not only to indicate the stem vowel, but also to further clarify the difference between pi 'e/ verbs and pa 'a/ verbs, such as between l!l'O 'recounted/told' and lOU 'counted'. The '' is often inserted even in texts with vowels.
83
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Future tense The future tense of pi 'el has two stem variants: I. In all first and second person singulars and first person plurals 2. In the second person feminine singular and second and third person plural (stem vowe] deleted when stress moves to sutlix)
-daher
1~J-
-dabr-
-1:!;11-
, ''":l~Jl;l (m'() ,1~1l;l cnnN) ,1~1~ (>)N)
N>n ,1~1~ Nm ,cnn~JJ;l) n~J:J;l C)nN) .~.,~JJ;l conN> ,1:;J7~ ClJmN)
: nrPn>
1~J:J;l
(ilr?:;JJ:J;l)
nn? )il
',1~1?
=
mto':J1
on •u•:~r
The imperative mood The imperative shares the same stem with the future tense. cnn:;J1)
!~1:;L'J
!l"J:;t'J !1:;J:Y
Future fonns used for negative and positive ones in speech: !1:;)13;1
-
! '1:Jil'l . : ~
- -
!1::1111 .. : JN P1:Jil'l . - JN ;
;
!~1~1J;l 'J~
The infinitive mood The pi'e/ infinitive uses the same stem as the present, future, and imperative: 1)~-~~ ,1~:1)? ,1~1~1 want to talk to him about what happened yesterday. Talking to him is like talking to the wall.
il1PV no J)) U1'N 1:;!.1~ il~i1 >)N .';1)}-Jl'lN
.1'Pil 'JN 1~J? m:> m 1mN 1:n?
Verbal noun il.,I.U9il ov The pi'el verbal noun uses a fonn similar to the 'citation torm\ but the second vowel is u rather than e: Gerund
Stem
Gerund
Stem
Chapter 4: Verb paff(~m groups
84
Variants with
,'l ,':1 1. The letters '9 ,') .·~ are realized as b, k, '!)
p
i. When it is the first root letter in the past and imperative: tl~:;! ,1~~ ,1{:;'~
: 1:1))
!tl~~ !1~~ !1{:;'~: '"'~
ii. When it is the second root letter in all tenses and moods: ,~~ , 0~~
i~Q'? ,o~Q'?
i~Q~ .o~~~ n~Q
,1:;).1 : j:J))
,1:;!.1'?: mm ,'"'I~J~ : 1my
! o~~ !
1*J
: ,,,,~
1!.11~? ,o~Q? ,i:;JJ~, JY,!lil 0\!.1
2. The letters '9 ,') ,':1 are realized as
v. kh. f
i. When it is the first root letter, preceded by a prefix: in the present, future, and infinitive. '"'~W~t;J,i~~'? .u~~t;l mm =
'"'I~~~ ,tl~~!:'!- ,1{:;':;!.~:
l'lW
1-~~~ , tiP? I iii?~? : .,)))!)il O'tl
ii. Whenever it is the last letter in the word or root:
Variations with 'guttural' consonants ''l ,'il ,'n ,'JI ,'M l. When the second root letter is •N or '1. the first vowel i is replaced by e in the past tense and in the verbal noun: ·nr-c:[:! ,1n:;1.; 11::<:[:1 ,1J:;J. 2. When the second root letter is a guttural, the expected zero vowel (shva) is replaced by a Pwtaf"patah: ~'tm ,0'~0~'? ,il~O'~ when the verb form ends in a stressed suffix vowel. 3. When the second root letter is •roc or,.,, the patan under the first one is replaced by a kamats, but the pronunciation remains the same: 11::? .~~'qf;> (note: fern. n~~"'t;l ,TIO~~Y,l).
Chapter 4: Verb pal/ern groups
4.3.2 Irregular Verbs
85
a•n:u a•,on nnu
The root classification: 11"11 Verbs that belong to this group have identical second and third root consonants. They are conjugated as regular verbs. Some of the).)"~ roots are derived from hi-consonantal adjectives; ll"ll Gloss Infinitive Future Present INin 01/.1 Past j-1-f"l sharpen < if"l 1JI) T]'O~ 1:10? i:!"O'? o-o-n warm up OJ;;) I)
The root classification: merger of •"11/1"11 with 11"11 In pi 'el, pu 'a/ and hitpa 'el '"W)"~ verbs behave as if they were ~~~~ ones, and undergo some additional changes. For both original Y"~ verbs and merged "'WV'Y ones, the final root consonant is duplicated, and the medial consonant') or'' is replaced by the vowel o. Gloss spin around incite
Infinitive J.:;no? DO.iP':(
Future
Present ::lJ..iOY,l
Past
li"JJ
D!.
::lJ..i~~
J.J..i~
Or,;Jip~
m;::~ip'?
oo.ip
J.-:::l-0 (n-n-p)
(:::1-)-tl) r.J-)-p
Note
Some '"W1"~ roots have two forms of pi 'e!: one is conjugated as a regular verb in pi 'el, and the medial semi-vowel '1 or '' is realized as a consonant. The other follows the merged '"W1"W~"~ pattern above. Examples
Gloss fulfill, realize incite, arouse
Infinitive O?.iJ.':? DP.iP':?
Citation form O?.P oo.ip
Pi"el root r.J-'-p Y.)-r.J-p
Source r.J-1-p Y.)-)-p
Gloss aim, direct found, establish
Infinitive
Citation form
Source )-1-:l )-)-::l
n~?
lP
Pi'el root J-)-:l
pi:l?
)~i:il
)-.)-)
The root classification: N"'l 'fJ~ When the third root consonant is 'N, it is not pronounced at the end of the syllable, although it is maintained in the spelling.
86
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
to fill up N>.~~ Root classification
Verbal noun
Infinitive
Root
N"''m
o.,~~~n~m~~
N~~~
N-'7-Y.l
Dil
lt'il
ltlil
ilmf
0'~\'Y.'lt? 'lN?J?
TINi?Y.lt?
N~t;l'?
N~t;l'?
n~~'?
N~Y,l
l)N~Y,l
~N';Jr,>~
N).r,>:J;~
N~Y,)~
Ni?Y.ll;l
1/DnN
mt
ilnlt
! ~N?r,)
!'~?r.>
!N'i'Y.'l
Present Past Future Imperative
The root classification: •"~ •nl When the third root consonant is '', it is realized as the vowel e or a in tina! position. where it is represented in the spelling as 'il. whereas elsewhere, it is realized as the vowel " i, or is elided before another vowel. to discover/reveal J'l1}~~ Root classification Infinitive Verbal noun
,,.,,m
Present Past Future Imperative
l!)~~
n''z:l~~
Dil
lt'il
I'Liil
ilJ'\N
tJl':J~'?
n~~'? il:J;l~~
n"?.~'?
il~~'?
'l'z:l~
n~~
D''i!~
"~~~
il~~l;l
n~~~
n'?~J;l
IIDnN
n~t
ilJ'\N
!"'z:l~
!'>'.;~~
!il~~
4.3.3 Derived and newly created verbs New verbal roots can be created for pi 'el, which is a very productive binyan. There are various ways of creating such new roots, most of which are listed below. Three-consonantal verbs derived from nouns: Several agentivc verbs (where the su~ject of the verb is the one carrying out the action) with tri-consonantal roots were and are continuing to be derived from existing nouns, as in: Citation form Noun Stem place place (l) DiP'? (DP'Y.l) OtJY,> em,,, nn report report Cl) on mechanize machine ()) n~i:J'? (P'Y.l) PI? file file (P"l1) P~!:' (l) P'!:'
87
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Derived four~consonantal verbs Most Hebrew verbs can be traced to three-consonant roots. but even at earlier stages of the language, some four-letter roots can be attested, all in pi 'el: provide livelihood gnaw However, most four-consonant verbs were derived from pre-existing words or roots. The oldest historical method was to reduplicate the first stem syllable, as in 'J~':n 'roll (tr.)', ?~{:;~'confuse'. a. First stem syllable reduplication:
to roll '~?~> Root classification
':m{~
'~'?~?
Root 'J+'J-l
Oil
N'il
N.lil
ilmt
0'':?~~~'?
n{~{~'?
'~':?~>;>
?~{~'?
,,~?~
ilJ:l'J:I .. : .
?~{~
~~~~~
~'~'?~~
?~{~J;J
,~·:m
7~{~:1:1
1/omt
nN
ilnN.
!l'J~{~
! ''~?~
!J~{~
(0)J!):J1'l!Y.:ll Q))):J11Y.:l
Present Past Future Imperative
Verbal noun
Infinitive
~
b. Four-consonantal verbs derived from existing nouns Another way is to derive such verbs from existing nouns with (at least) four consonants: Verb meaning Citation form Root Base Noun J-)-)-)l matter interest )~?)l 1?~)1 J-::1-'V-n calculate calculation )l3~1) )~~I) )-l-l-'l! armor ensure, obtain )?,";1'?' W";J~ c. Verbs derived from foreign words: The consonants of the foreign words are adapted into root consonants that are realized in the pi 'e/ four or five consonantal pattern: Citation form New root telephone )~{\? /)P.?'Y +-)-!:1-J-\J 1)-)-!>-il +-hypnotize \JJ!;!D il!i)~'D l·\J·)-!) +-fantasize il~~\?~!;'1 ''?.~~ \J·\J-1- J-!) +-tlirt IJ\J)?~ \J')'~~
88
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Note
Most recently many new technology terms have been adapted from English. While technical tenns are created by the Hebrew Language Academy based on Hebrew roots, these new terms come from the field, and are created by necessity. They often have a short life as the Academy creates the necessary new roots or new technology replaces the existent one, requiring new terms. refresh YJJ~'J compile Four-consonant roots expanded from three-consonant roots Some new roots are derived from existing tri"consonantal verbal roots. to which an initial -YJ, -!1, -N, or -Y.l are added as the first consonant, to create a new, but related meaning. a. Four-consonantal verbs: with -was first consonant
Adding an initial -YJ as the first consonant, creating a new, but related meaning can create new roots. Verb meaning Citation form convince ).lp\l.l rewrite :lt9W duplicate, photocopy ':1~?~
Root )I- )-::1-Y.I
J-!1-::1-YJ ':1-!:1-::1-YJ
Gloss surrender write multiply
b. Four-consonantal verbs: with initial letters n
,PC
Base YP~
).1·)-::1
ltql
J-!1-::1
~'~?;:'!
~-!)-::1
,n
The prefixes -J'J ,-N ,-!1 characterize some new roots, which are either derived directly from existing nouns, or from existing tri-consonantal verbal roots. New verbs are created, and they have a meaning related to their source words. Verb meaning drill, exercise function diagnose refer enumerate mortgage
Citation form
Root
~~';11:1
~-)-1-!1
iP~l'l
i-p-n-!1
)O:;tz:.t
l-n-J-N
1~~z:.t
"l-::1-l-N
"l~1fr,l
1-!:1-Q-Y.)
,~~r,l
)-:J-YJ-0
Noun exercise function check, test mention number mortgage
~'nJ;l i'i?!;l~
)O;a 1'~ln
1~91? nm~'?'~
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
R9
4.3.4 Associated meanings Pi'el may be either transitive, e.g. 1:1~ 'arrange', or intransitive, e.g. 'speak'. It is difficult to place all the verbs under one semantic rubric; the closest is 'agentive', i.e. the verb designates a voluntary activity, which is initiated and controlled by the 'actor/doer', who is the subject of the sentence. u? 11'0 N1m UJ\!J 1:m 'Nt.:!Jn The director is a friend of ours and he got us good tickets for the show.
1:;).':1'
The following subgroups have additional specitic features that characterize them. a. Causative: 'cause to be', or 'cause to become' The volunteer physicians cure O'J1n O'N!l1t.:l 0'J1)llt.:lil O'N!lnil patients in many distant villages. . O'iJ1n1 0'1!lJJ .nn!l\!Jt.:ln nN n1n'N mJun The danger unified the family. b. Repeated/intensive action Some pi 'e/ verbs that share roots with pa ·at add the feature of repeated action to the meaning of the verb. Thus, if '{!Ji( kafats is 'jump', ~~p kipets is 'jump again and again, or jump back and forth'. Sometimes the activity may be characterized as intensive, so while 1~~ shavar is 'break' 1~V! shiber is 'smash, shatter'. The intensive activity can also be accounted for by repetition, as 'smash' means 'break again and again'.
The clerks sorted all the files. We didn't read the book- we only leafed through it. One preserves fruit in this manner.
.O'P'nn 'JJ nN 1)"~ 0'1'iJ!ln 1)!11!11 P1 ,1!ltJil nN DN1jJ NJ .)J
.n n\J,\!JJ m1'!l 0'1t.:l\!Jt.:l
c. Removal A small group of verbs in pi 'el refer to removal ( otlen related to a base
noun). One should uproot violence from the schools. We'll remove all the thugs.
.1!ltJn mJt.:l mt.:l'JNn nN \!.11\!J? 1'1~
.O')P1Jil 'JJ nN p'JtJ)
90
Chap!er 4: Verb pattern groups
Pu 'a/ conjugation ~.1119 l11 l:l Pi 'eland pu ·at are related conjugations. All or almost all verbs in pu 'al
4.4
are passive counterparts of existing pi'el verbs, which in itself suggests that pu 'at is always pi 'el-based. However, not every pi 'el verb has a passive counterpart in pu 'a/. The pu 'a/ s1em is characterized by the discontinuous u-a vowel sequence 1hat internally marks it as being passive. The u-a vowel pattern simply replaces the parallel i-e one in the corresponding pi 'el form. As in pi 'el, the second root consonant is always marked with a dagesh liazak, which is not audible in current Hebrew, but which at least means that when that consonant is one of the letters '!:1 ,'=> ,':J, it is always realized as h, k, p- never v, kh,f. Pattern
Form
Root
CiCeC CuCaC
()p)nJ lii?l:l <1P1II) lWt'
l-p-n
I
Form
Root
(1!l'U) 1~~
1-!:1-U
(1!l~U) 1~P.
The dagesh hazak in the second root consonant of the verb is an integral part of the pu 'al pattern, just as it is an essential component of pi'el. The only exceptions are the 'guttural' consonants ('1 ,'Y ,•n ;n ,•N), which can never have a dagesh. As noted above, the presence of the dagesh is an historical residue of the doubling in length of the second root consonant. An important teature of the pu 'a/ conjugation is that it is limited to the tenses only: present, past and future. This verb conjugation docs not have the imperative or infinitive moods and does not have a verbal noun. The pi 'el infinitive and verbal nouns serve the pu 'a/ conjugation. Due to the passive nature of pu 'a/, most forms used in the past, present and future tenses arc in the third person only. There are only a few verbs that occur in the first and second person also.
4.4.1 Regular verbs The group of regular verbs includes verbs in which all the root consonants are present in all the verb forms. Present tense All present tense forms arc marked by a -J? me- prefix.
to be arran2ed/ncat ..,_'l~t;) J'll'tl~ !1';)!9.1? (Nm ,llN ,'lN) ;1JP.J? {Nm ,i11lN ,'lN) ni1JP.I? 11n ,1l1N , 'lmNJ ; o)nP.'? con ,om'( ,)ln)NJ
illli1lnT
:nti'n' :mto':J1
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
91
When tht! text is without vowels, the ~ vowel replaces the kubuts [...] u vowel mark. In ordinary writing, even when the texts have vowels, the, is inserted to make deciphering this f(lrm easier: m""'l~tm
,0'11n7Y.l ,n11m.o
,11~tm
Many present tense forms of pu 'a/ function as adjectives. This pattern is particularly productive in generating new adjectives. Adjective
obliged riveted connected signified/marked
(.J.'m.O) .J.!D.J? cpm1.o) i'.ti1J? (1~m.o) 1;1QJ? {)Y.l~OI:J) W~t?
Citation form be obliged :1~(1 be riveted i'.lJ1 -,~n be connected -..• be marked )t;l~
Pasttense The past tense ofp11'a/ has two variants of the past tense stem: In the first and second person: pularln the third person feminine singular and plural: putr-
.l;l')'i)~
Root .J.-'-n p-:n-1 1-:::1-n )-Y.l-0
,~»lnT
-
-"l\:>9 ·-. ~
CnN) ,.tJ')'i)l1! (ilnNJ ,'T:l')~!!! ('JNl : illl'n'
il'J\?P. Nm I 1\.'>!i! Nm , 1-t'l~'i)~ ()nN) , O.J;J')~P. conN) , 1J)l.}:i? C1mmJ : nvtl'.J.1 ~1\"l1!
lil
In\"~
on
In text without vowels: 11\J)!l 1 0l1l\J1!l 11l1m!l ,1m!l ,n1o1!l ,'l110l!l
Future tense -r•n» )nT The future tense uses the following stem: -CuCaC. The second stem vowel a is lost when the stress shifts to the last syllable. (TIN) ,lQ~J;1 Cnl1N) 1 1\;)~~ ('lN) : nllm' ""''i)P.J;l N'n , "ll.}~? Nm ,cnn\.'>P.J;ll n\i)el;l ():nN) ,,,\l'~J;l conN) I ,~m (UnJN) : nVO'.l1 ,''J\?~J.'l
cnn!,it~J;ll Y1'?~~ ,n I ~1\l'~? on
In text without vowels: 1101!l:n ,1\Jl!lJ ,'1\J!lll ,1\J1!lll ,l\J1!lN
92
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Variants with '9 , ':> ,':1 1. The letters '9 ,'J ,'J. are realized as b. k, p i. When it is the first root letter in the past tense 0~~. 1\'"l~
:1:1).1
ii. When it is the second root letter in all tenses and moods:
:1~).1
1~?, ,0:;,1?, .1~9.
1~9.~ ,D~P.t? ,1~?.'? 1;"1?,~ , 0~?,~ , 1~?,~
=
mm
: i~J1)l
2. The letters·~,') ,':::1. are realized as v, kh. f i. When it is the first root letter in the present and future tenses ,~~t;l ,up~
,\!JW:.!l? =nnn
1\i>~~ .~~~? ,\!JW~?:
1my
ii. When it is the third letter of the root
Variations with root letters ., ,'»,'n ,'il,'l< In roots where the second consonant is a guttural one (except for •n). the u is replaced by o, in all tenses: 1~\!Jf? ,:l"J.P'? ,1~-!:IP ,;tf:JJ? With the same consonant (except for •n), a nataf patan replaces the expected shva: ,1~\!J? ,,.,tP~ ,n~·,.,~ ,,1~·r-1.
4.4.2 Irregular Verbs The group of irregular verbs parallels that of the pi'el conjugation and undergoes the same processes.
The root classification: merger of •"»I•"» with :u"» In pu 'a!, as in pi 'el and hitpa 'e/, wwv•y verbs behave as if they were Y").l ones: the final root consonant is duplicated. Their first vowel is o. Gloss be spun around be incited
The
H .. .,
Future
Present
Past
y".v
1"11
:J.JiO~
:J.~iOJ;:l
:JJiO OY,Jip
:J.-:J-0
(:J.-1-0)
(>J-~-p)
t.:l-1-p
Or,lip~
OY;)iPJ?
•m root classification
When the third root consonant is 'N, it is not pronounced at the end of the syllable, although it is maintained in the spelling. ln the first and
93
Chapter 4: Verb partern groups
second person of the past tense, the a vowel before the sutlix is replaced by e. In the third person singular the palan is replaced by kamats, which does not affect its pronunciation.
to be filled )(~~~ 1ll'~> Dil
N'il
Nm
N-7-Y.'I : \!.11)\!.1 ilnN
Ol~?~Y:J
nNi'~Y:J
N~~~
N\7~t,)
1N{~
m~?~
N~~
tJNi'~
1N{~~
N~~J;l
N~~'
N\7~:1:1
N"'Jlm Present Past Future
The •"'l•nJ root classification As in other binyanim, when the third root consonant is '\ it is realized as the vowel e or a in final position, where it is represented in the spelling as 'il: il~?Y:l .n~?Y:l· Elsewhere, it is realized as the vowcll.. ey as in 'l:1'~~9, or is elided before another vowel, as in m9.
to be experienced on Present Past Future
t1V~.~ J'!l'~>
l-U-) : \!.11)\!.1 nnN
Nm il?.?.Y:l
10).
N'il ilW.Y:l il{l?.?_
il~~
~'W)
1W.~
n~~l;l
iltJ)l ...
il~9l;l
O'~).Y:J
•.•
~
n~.~~
4.4.3 Derived and newly created verbs New verb torms can be created for pu 'al, mostly by virtue of its being the almost-automatic counterpart of the very productive pi"el. Generally, all new verb formation patterns allowed in pi'el can be found in pu 'a! as well. Thus, for instance, when a three-consonant new root can be formed in pi el, it will have generally a pu 'al counterpart as well: '7lJ•g Gloss '1.lH9 Gloss Base Gloss opt,) place place place cop~Y.l) ow~ oipY.J report report report (nH1) n);:~ JJn nr:r file file file (P'~n} P~{l P~l?l P'l?l
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
94
Reduplicated roots The same pi 'el-pu 'at relationship applies when the first syllable is reduplicated, to fonn new four-c.onsonant verbs. Alongside ~~~:;t 'confuse' (tr.) in pi 'el, we find.,~~~ 'being confused' in pu 'a/.
to be confused ~~~~~ n1'v> Root classification
Root
(Ql~!lJl'llr.:l) Ql)IJ ,,r.:l
Present
~-::1-~-J
on
N'il
N1i1
Ql~~~~t;l
l1?~'?~9 n~~?~
?i?~9
~.,:;1~~
1J~~~~
J~'?~l;l
~ZIJJl - : ..•
Past
Future
?:g.'?;;! ~
Expansion to four-letter roots The pu 'af stem can be expanded to f(lur letters:
to be famous; be advertised
av,~~ ,,,~>
Root classification
Root Y.l-0-,-!l
O'~=n,n
Present Past 3rd person Future 3rd person
.QU
!£ll
1lli1
O'Y.lt:'';IP.J?
CV)~'?
~017)@
mtV??.'? i1Q\???.
u:m,!l, '•. :
CQ)l;]{l
OQ)P.~
;
~
c~n~
Derived four-consonant verbs a. Derived from foreign words
The consonants of the foreign words are adapted into root consonants in the same manner as in the pi 'el conjugation. What distinguishes the two binyanim is the vowel sequence. pte/ New root Noun pu·a/form be hypnotized il!il~>;:l \:))!:)11 "~~Q ··:. be neutralized J~l\'~ .,J'?~ b. Four-consonantal verbs derived from existing native nouns pu'a/ form pi'el Root Base noun
be ensured
armor
95
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
c. Four-consonantal verbs: with ·1!1, -n, ·Hor-n as first consonant
The new roots are derived either directly from existing tri-consonantal verbal roots. Verb meaning pu'al pi'el Root ::J.·n-:J-'ll be rewritten ::n.:qW. lN'<-' be drilled '-l-1-n 'l1l'l - •., 'nJ:~ 1-::J.-)-l'l be reinforced 1itn_l 1~~:J:l )-1"1-l-N be diagnosed 1t9l:t 11:9~ 1-J-l-N be referred ,~il:t 1~i~ 1-!l-tl-r.l be enumerated ,~?Y.l 1~?~ ~
existing nouns. or from Source
write exerctse overcome check. test mention number
::m:J+'ll
''r;ltt 1~~ )I}~
.
"l'~lil . ~
1~?Y.l
4.4.4 Associated meanings Pu a/ verbs arc used most commonly in the third person. which can refer to objects as well as to persons. There are few pu 'a/ verbs that can be conjugated in the tirst and second person as well. The restrictions are semantic and depend on the specific meaning of the verb: Pu'al in all persons: We were hugged and (were) kissed. Pu'al in plural: The workers were organized tor the strike. The singular is not applicable:
I was ergaRi;zee
~er
t'He strike.
.1m10m 1lpJm .ill'l'l'llil nN1P' Ul1)N
O''lll!:ln
.nn)JYJn n~np!J 'n;~;nm
There arc many pu 'a/ verbs that cannot be used with a human grammatical subject. Their meaning excludes a person being the recipient of an action. The show was cancelled. .n'"':J m~nn .)J=l~\3)3 I was eaneelled. Active pi'el and passive pu"a/
Because of the passive nature of the conjugation, the grammatical subject of the sentence with a pu 'at verb is the recipient of the action rather than the initiator of the action. The subject of the active sentence, the agent, may surface in the passive counterpart as an indirect (or oblique) object, signaled by the preposition 'by' ''J~ '~· The recipient is often an object or an entity, which is not a person. A few verbs apply to human recipients of actions.
96
Chapler 4: Verb pal/ern groups
pi'el
The manager changed the daily schedule.
.mm 110m-< ill'\!! 7nmn
pu'al
The daily schedule was changed by the manager.
.7nmn ,,, ~)I m~v 01'i1110
We also find some pu 'a/ verbs used in passive sentences even when the correspondingpfel verb is not transitive, e.g., 1:~r:r •talk, speak' and 1il:! 'be talked about': It was not talked about in the last n~'l.IY.lt:ln n:P'l.I'.J p ~~ 1:::1~1 N7 meeting ofthe government. .mnnNn A comparative note
Active verbs in English have passive counterparts. This is not necessarily the case in Hebrew. Dan did not pay Ron the money l'JO:m llN , , , O~''l.l N7 11 '.V.'9 Ron was not paid the money. ...,9;)i'J:R~I e7n!.' ~t7 )'1 7.V.lll The money~ not paid (by Ron). .(111 '1' 'Y) o7~v N' l'JO:m ~.V.~ Other verbs act in a similar way in Hebrew and English: The doctors immunized the O'i~'>n llN tlom 0'N!ll1i'l ~).!'.!:! children against measles. .llt:liN i.U The children were immunized .llt:liN 1l) .lli21Q o>1~m ~.V.~ against measles. Common use
The use of pu 'al is most often restricted to a high register, which is used in news broadcasts, in formal documents or speeches and in literature. In practice, the use of sentences with third person subjects and the verb in pi 'el is more characteristic of everyday speech to express the passive sense. More formal This bill was paid. .o~~\!J nm )tlvnn '.V.?. Evervday Use
.mn l1:J'l.lnnnN lt:l:;,~'l.I1J.:>
:;,~p9
Pu'al participles as adjectives or nouns There are many participles (present tense forms) of the same verbs that function as adjectives, nouns, or adverbs.
97
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Adjective Adverb Noun Adjective
The hour is already late. 1 arrived late to the meeting. All the dignitaries have arrived. Professor Schwartz is a highly regarded scholar.
.rnmNo "1:1::> nli\!Jn .., nu-to n\!J'l!l~ 'lWln .1ll'ln O'i::n:mn ~::>
1Pln Nlil 'il"\!1 ln,!lll!:l ·lm12
4.5 Hitpa 'el conjugation .,ll9nil 1•ll. The stem of hitpa 'el has two components: -it + pa 'el. The prefix -it is the unique marker of hitpa 'el, and it is always preceded by another marker: l. It can be initiatt:u by Lht: prt:st:nl Lt:nst: marker m: ~.V.~~02. Jt can be initiated by h in the past tense, imperative and infinitive: :.v.~.J;liJ.
3. In the future tense, the subject person prefixes combine with it, such as in the following forms: :.):I~.J;l~ ,:.v.~.J;ll;( . As in pi'el and in pu "a!, the second root consonant is always marked with a dagesh nazak. Although the dagesh is irrelevant in Israeli Hebrew, one consequence is that when that consonant is one of the letters '!:1 ,'::> ,':1, it is always realized as b, k, p, respectively.
4.5.1 Regular verbs
o•n-.er
Regular verbs arc composed of verbs in which a11 the root consonants are present in all the verb forms.
Present tense
illlil
1nr
All present tense forms have a mit- -J;lr,l prefix: the m indicates present tense, and the fo1lowing 1 indicates that it is a hitpa 'ef verb.
to e:et dressed
VJ;?J:11:'1~
J"''U~~J;lt;:l (N>n ,J"'N ,'lN) ; \!.'~~J;l~ (Nlil ,iU1N ,'lN}
: n11lnl
l"li\!J:!;i?J;JY.l (1n , )J"'N , llnlN) ; O'~:;tlJ;'Ir,l (Oil ,OJ"'N ,llnlN}
: J"'VO'J"l
Pasttense The stem of the past tense of hitpa 'el has three variants: 1. Masculine, singular third person hitlabesh 2. First and second person fonns hit/abash3. Third person feminine singular and plural hit/absh(deletion resulting from stress shift to the suffix)
,~u1nr
\!J:;).?J;liJ -"<J~'ll;liJ
-\!1-=il'll;lD
98
Chapta 4: Verh pattern groups
,J;l~~~J;m CnN) ,~~~:;_,J;'ID
: nnm'
i'l~~':?J;'ID N'i'l 1'liJ..'2J;1D Nm ,)3)'<1~'2J;ID
()TIN) 103)~~'2J;'ID (OTIN) .~l~~'2J;JD (llmN) w~?J;JD )il I ~w~?J;'ID on
: l1VO':J1
A historical note
In Mishnaic Hebrew a variant of hitpa 'el emerged in the perteci: nitpa 'el, with n replacing h in the hit- pretix: o~gm be discovered take place. exist This variant became the preferred realization in Mishnaic Hebrew. Few verbs maintained the hit- pretix in that period. It is very likely that the h > n shift resulted from analogy with then of n!(al. In modern Hebrew, hit- is dominant in everyday use; nit- is more typical of higher registers. Future tense The stem of the future tense of hitpa 'el has two varianls: l. In all first and second singular and first -tlabesh person plural: 2. In the second person feminine singular and -tlabshsecond and third person plural (deletion resulting from stress shitl):
-
'li!I~TI.. ;
,'~:;t:;_,J;'IJ:l (TIN) , VJJ..?J;ll:l (i1!1N) ,'li~'2J;l~ ('lN) \!.I:;J'2J;'IJ:l N'i'l I \!.IJ..'2:1;1~ Nm ,{i1~'?'~'2J;Jl';l} ~lli:;I?J;'IJ:l ()l1N) , ~\!.l:;t'2J;lt:l (Ol1N) , 'll;)'2m ()lnlN)
The imperative mood •u•3f The imperative, like the past and the infinitive, includes the prefix hiof the hilpa 'el pattern in its forms. (M~'?':;!.~J;l;:l) ! ~\!.1~'2J;liJ ! '~:;t'2J;'ID ! \!.l~'l.J;!D
Like in the rest ofthe conjugation, the stem vowel is reduced from e to a zero vowel before a stressed sutlix hif!ahcsh•-H * > hitlabshu. The negative imperative
The negative imperative also uses the future tense fonn with the negative particle ~~'don't!'
Chaplt>r 4: Verb pattern group.s
99
~)119i\ DW The infinitive mood The hitpa 'el infinitive mood is formed with the same stem as the imperative: .,~gll;ID ,'J:;JG'l;lD ,'ti:J.~J;ln, with the addition of the pretixed letter-~ 'to': 'J~~l;lD'? ,.,:J.G'J;ID'? ,'ti:J.~~D'?·
I need to get dressed before I leave home. He hopes to be admitted to the University.
nN!:!1' 'lN'tl 'l!)'] ~t~:J'Jnn., n::l'1!:1 ')N .!1l:Ji1~
.n\J'01:J'J1N., .,Jpnn., mlp~ Nm
As in other binyanim the infinitive form can also be translated as the English gerund equivalent of'doing' (rather than by 'to do'). .Dl' ']::~.,mmn'J :n'lln Exercising every day is very important.
The verbal noun The hitpa 'el verbal noun appends the sutlix m- to its citation form stem. The stem used is the variant hitiahsh-, because it is followed by a stressed vowel. Nouns with the suffix m-are always feminine nouns. Gerund Stem Gerund Stem
A verbal noun of a transitive verb is linked to an object by the same preposition as the finite verb: .m\J.,nn~ milmn 'J::> ' ::1 )'N I have no objection to the decisions. nJ1'lln mn mnn~ mz..t:mnnn Familiarity with this domain is very . i1i:l)I~J i'lilJ.)I'] ilN~ important tor the work in the lab.
Alternate stems with initial: r ,3f ,iO ,w ,o There arc certain alterations that occur in the stem of hitpa 'el verbs when the first consonant is a sibilant: itlto s, \V sh, ~ rs, i :::. (In Hebrew the sibilants are known as mp1l\!J nPmN or 'whistling letters' because of their articulation). The changes involve a different placement of the l1 of the prefix of hitpa 'el, which trades places with the first root consonant. It may involve other changes as well. The changes facilitate the articulation of the pretix together with the sibilants and prevent them from merging with then, so that they are all heard distinctly.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
100
First root consonant: ·v,~,, s, ~ sh Tf the first consonant of the root is either "ll.lttJ or IV, then that consonant and the n at the end of the prefix change places: Is > st. Actual Form
histader hishtalem
11lJ~D
o';?lJ\?iJ
Expected Form
hit+sader hit+shalem
.. -
1~U-l"ln* :
.
o~~-3;lD*
First root consonant: t zayin When the first consonant of the root is zayin l z, the n of the hit- pretix becomes 1, as well as changing places with the first root letter: tz > zd. The reason for the change from the prefix consonant n to 1 is its proximity t() the first root consonant t, which is a voiced consuuanl. Instead of the expected voiceless ll, the prefix consonant becomes voiced 1. Actual Form
hizdamen hizdaken
V;;J1)i:'l
)ii."Jli:l
Expected Form
hit+zamen hit+zaken
1~!-3;ln*
lii?!-l;'D*
First root consonant:~ tsadi If the first consonant of the root is tsadi ~ ts, then that consonant and the prefix consonant change places. In addition the prefix consonant n changes to ": "~ < :m. Actual Form
hilsta'er hitstalem
1),1'\;)~i)
o']"~n .. .. . ~
Expected Form
hit+tsa'er hit+tsalem
1):1~-3;lD*
o~~-3;1n·
A historical note
The consonant ~ tsadi was historically an emphatic consonant, pronounced differently than today's pronunciation of t.<j (i.e. it was an s with the back of the tongue simultaneously raised towards the velum). Therefore the n of the hitpa 'el prdix which preceded it was turned into what was once an emphatic" let to fit with~- These qualities were lost in modern pronunciation, but the spelling still reflects the historical process.
Chapter 4: Verh pattern groups
101
Variants with 'g , 'J , '::1 1. The letters '9 .':> ,':l are realized as b. k, p i. When it is the first root letter in all the tenses and moods: N~!iJJ;'l~ : 1'lW ; N'i!;'IJ;lil : 1:1)1 ; N~~J;'lJ;l : mm N~~J;'lil~ : .,))1!lil 0\!1 ! N~~J;'Iil : '11':::1
ii. When it is the second root letter in all tenses and moods: \!I.;J~J;'I~ : i'rlY ; \!I.;J~l;'lil : 1:1Y ; YJ.;J~J;'IJ;l : mm ! \!.I.;J~J;lil : '11':::1 YJ:;J.~J;ln~ , .,Y,!lil o\!.1
2. The letters '9 ,') .':l are realized as v. kh, f When it is the last letter ofthe word or root:
Variations with radicals ., ,'i\ ,'n ,')1 ,'N. l. When the second root letter is 'N or '1, the first one has a kamats rather than a patan under it, but the pronunciation remains the same in all tenses and moods: PJ!i!J;l? ,1~~J;lY.l 2. When the third root letter is •n or •)) and no suffix is appended, the usual normative form is: nB~J;l~ ,)Jm'l}'n; however in common speech the second stem vowel changes toe and a 'furtive' patan is inserted, as in ~~l.:l\!-'il ,t'lf:l!i'J;l'. The fonn with a furtive patan is the only option in the present tense: ~~B~r,> ,1:\T:I~J;'IY,)
3. lf the second consonant is a guttural that is expected to be followed by a zero shva, we have a natafpatan instead:
,
''J~I:? ~l.'l ,~'o~J;l? o'~m.l;lY,l ,ilJN.~J;~il
4.5.2 Irregular Verbs The root classification: ll"ll Verbs that belong to this group have identical second and third root consonants. They are conjugated as regular verbs. Some of the))").! roots are derived from bi-consonantal adjectives: Gloss Infinitive Future Present Past v"v 11
Chapter 4: Verb pal/ern group8
102
The root classification: merger of •"JI/1"11 with 11 1111 As in pi 'el and pu 'a/, there is also a group of ~"W1"ll verbs in hitpa 'e/ which behave as if they were )1")1 verbs. Again the second consonant is duplicated, and the first stem vowel is u, for both ).)"Y and )"Y/V'l': Gloss spin around wake up
Past
v"ll
l"ll
:l:;).iT-1~?
Present ::t:;).il'l'9Y,l
::t:;).il'l?iJ
::1-:::t-U
(:::t-1-U)
"'''Jl).IJ;l?
11i).)l;)Y,l
l'Ji).IJ;ID
(1-"l-).1)
"l+)l
Infinitive
Future
:1~13'1'911?
l'Jll.IJ;'ID?
Note Some ~··w1••y roots have two fi.nms uf hitpa'e/: one is conjugated as a regular verb in pi 'el, and the medial semi-vowel '1 or ·~ is realized as a consonant. The other follows the merged W).)t1'W)I"l.l pattern above: Gloss Infinitive Citation form hitpa'e/ root Source take place, exit c~vl;"D? C~i?J;'ID ~+p IJ-l-p rise up Ct;liPJ;lll? Cr.;liPJ;liJ ~-o-p IJ+P
Gloss intend, mean get ready, plan
Citation form
hitQ.a'el root
Source
1~~J;'ID?
)~~J;'ID
H-:l
)-1-J
l~i::>J;liJ?
)~l;:)J;liJ
J-)-J
)-1-J
Infinitive
The root classification: N11 'J •nl As in other biuyanim, when the third root consonant is 'N, that 'N is not pronounced at the end ofthe syllable:
to be familiar with/oriented Root classification
Infinitive
Dil
l('il
Nlil
~
C'~~Y,lJ;'IY,l
.l1N~Y,lJ;lt;:l
N~Y,l3;JY,l
N~Y,lJ;'IY,)
~N~JJ.l1i1 ; ; .
ili':<~Y.ll;lD
N~Y,l~D
J;lN~Y,lJ;'IiJ
~N~Y,lJ;l~
N.ll~Y,l3;Jl:l
N~Y.lJ;l?
N~Y.ll;ll:l
1/DnN
nN
m:lli
!'N~Y,lJ;lll
!'~.!;CY.ll;liJ
!N~Y,ll;lD
N"~'n.l
Present Past Future Imperative
~ N~tlnn~ .. : . =
Verbal noun lllN¥Y,lJ;'IiJ
-
N~Y,ll:'li'J~
Root N-!1-Y.l
The root classification: •"'l •nJ When the third root consonant is '' y, it is realized as the vowel e or a in final position, where it is represented in the spelling as 'il, whereas
103
ChapTer 4: Verb pattern gruups
elsewhere, it is realized as the diphthong another vowel.
l __
ey, or is elided betore
to experience, be put to the test Root classification lll?
'1'1.)
on
Present Past future
0'~~J;'IY,l ~-e~~D
.n1t~~J;I::J~
Verbal noun
Infinitive
Root
m-eum -' .
niO~J;liJ~
'-tJ-) ;mN
~
@
ilWJ;lY.l ilTI'elTiil ... - : .
nwH,Y.l ilWJ;liJ
J)'l;?~J;liJ
i19JJ;'IJ:I J/DnN
n~m;l~
ilt;j'~l;\1:1
llli
i1llli
-
!'tnnn
!ilW~l;lil
~
~O~J;l>
Imperative
!~omn : .
. - = .
ilWl;'Y.l
4.5.3 Deriving new hitpa'el verbs The focus in hitpa 'e/ forms is not on the initiator of the action, but on its recipient, or on the entity undergoing a process, and generally it is intransitive. In many cases hitpa 'el verbs are verbs of becoming, turning into, or changing from one state to another. Many other verbs in hilpa 'el are either reflexive (action goes back to self) or reciprocal (mutual action: each other). As such, it is quite open to derivation from existing nouns as well as from verbs. To start with, many new pi'el verbs have hitpa 'el counterparts, similar to \Vhat happens in pu 'al: Gloss
settle (intr.) focus (intr.) realize (intr.) become subjugated become perfect
'7JJ~nn
'111·1~
'7JJ·~
Gloss
Base
DWY.ll;lD
OUJP.
ow~
o'PY;J
1jP.Y.l~D
1W~
1{¥~
YJ1.1JY.l~D
y)~~
'VY.l~
place toe us real(ly)
1-lJ~J:I~D
,~~~
1:;)~~
1:1Y+'l.l
~?.:;m~n
~~~'?.'
?2~~
~?J+'l.l
1j?iY.l 'V~Y.l
And parallel to reduplicated forms in pi'el like ?:;;~~ 'confuse', there exists the parallel hitpa 'el counterpart .,:;J~:;)J;lil •get confused':
Chapter 4: Verh pattern groups
104
to get confused Root classification (o''::l!l~1'tlr.l)
Infinitive
m'::I~?~J;'ID
';:I:;)~~J;lD
Oil
~
N.li'l
O'"J.'::I::um • = ; -
n'(~?~J:lY,)
'::I:;)?~J;IY,l
~'}~~~J;ID
n~~?~J;ln
1;/:;)~~J;lD
i'lnH '::IJ..,J.nt:l .. : - . n'JJ.'::Ilr1n
~'::1¥~~3;1~
.,J.I;I::mn = . 1/DnH
7~?~3;1~
'J:;)?~J;ll;l
me
ilnx
! ~1;/J..,J.nn : : .. ; .
!'~:;t?~J;Jn
!.,:;)~~J;lD
D'>':mn
Present Past Future
~~~~~tw?
Verbal noun
1
o
••
Imperative
!
..
;
9
:
•
;
-
I
•
Often, a hitpa 'el verb is related to a noun, an adjective, a pi 'el verb stem. or a pa 'a/ verb stem. It is based on the some root consonants and has a related meaning, as in: 1. Derived from adjectives
Citation Farm become strong become hot become c1ear get closer distance oneself straighten up
P~OJ;'ID
oannn .. .. . ~
"'tiJ~J;liJ
:l'Ji?J;lD Pr:r:tJ;ID ,~~J;ln
---+-
Source strong hot c1ear close far, distant straight
PR' 01) "'I'D~
::J.i"'ti(
p1nJ ,~~
2. Derived from nouns
Citation Form calcify ):;)i;J;lD become focused lW~J;ID become a citizen O'J11;J;ID take a shower o~vJ;~n acclimatize oneself O~i(~J;'ID take some air ,,,~J;Jn
--
---
Source stone toe us citizen shower climate air
H~
i{:?it:l nJl~ no~pt;)
O'~i?~ ,,,~
3. Many verbs are derived from transitive pi'el verbs
Citation Form improve (intr.) make a living get cold
"l;l~~D
-
tm~mn .
..
~
~
,~\?:jii)
---
Source improve (tr.) provide for cool (tr.)
1~'?'
t1n!ll 1~~
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
get spoiled take a risk advance oneself get trained
~i.t?i?DD Yi?tl~D
O'JDl;lD W~J;'ID
---
-
spoil (tr.) risk (tr.) advance (tr.) train (tr.)
105
~P~P p~
o:rp ,~~
4. Derived from transitive verbs in pa 'a/
Citation Form get washed get dressed get undressed
'<01DD ~t~~~DD \J'¢.1!;11;1;:'1
+-
Source wash clothe (tr.) take off clothes
'<0? 'tl~~ "'U~
5. A few verbs are derived from intransitive pa 'al verbs
Citation Form become enraged get angry become silent
otru;m ~nl;'ID
P:O~~D
+--
Source boil be angry be silent
ntlJ lr) j7.D~
6. Derived from other binyanim
Citation Form get ready hide oneself trade places
)~i::>J;lD ltltl~;:l
"li?Ol;lD
--
Source prepare hide replace
)':;liJ
l'3:11?D "l'~Qi)
4.5.4 Associated meanings Hitpa 'e/ is primarily associated with reflexive and reciprocal meanings. However, it sometimes has other meanings, including passive, repeated action, and feigning doing something. a. Reflexive meaning Reflexive verbs are ones for which the instigator of the action ('the agent'), and its recipient ('the patient'), refer to the same entity. Every morning I wake up at seven. .).l::l'tl::lllW'UJ 'JN 1p1:::1 ~:J
Many reflexive verbs in hitpa 'e/ can also have related verbs expressed by a different hinyan, where they refer to an action affecting someone or something other than the subject.
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Chapter 4: Verb put/ern groups
Reflexive - 'lJmnil In the morning David washes, shaves, gets dressed and combs his hair. "'J.le washes hiR~self, sha.,'e!i l:ti~self, dresses himself aRe een'lb!i his i:tair.
,n'JmtJ ,'(rnm.J i n 1j:m. ?:. .p1:nor.n 'tll'J:nn fl~t nli'~19 ,msy m{ '(nl1 i'nn· P19191 ,msy mt W'3li'19 ,msY .UJS)I fli-t
Transitive- with separate recipient - "lll'91 'lll9 He washed the car. .J'lll,:>r.m :nN '(n1 Nm He wore testive clothes. .m li)l 'tll'J Nm He combs his hair. A comparative note In English there arc verbs which have the same fonn regardless of whether they arc used as reflexive or as transitive verbs. 11 thus becomes a source of confusion for learners of Hebrew. It is important to keep in mind the distinction between the verbs where the recipient of the action is identical to the instigator of the action, and similar verbs which require a separate object. Reflexive
He trained (intr.) for the Olympic games.
Olpn'lltJJ ,nN:nD N1il
Transitive
lie trained many athletes. The verb )~~J;ID 'trained' implies that the person was the trainer as well as the one being trained. The use ofthe word self is part of the meaning of hitpa 'el. The English verb train can also be a transitive verb, which requires an object, such as 'trained many athletes'. In Hebrew, the pi'el verb is a transitive verb, as in O'NU1l!:IOn :nN )t::l'N Nln, while the hitpa 'el verb is reflexive and can have no separate direct object. The reflexive meaning is not obvious at all times. In some intransitive verbs, the action may not be transferred directly to the subject/patient, but it still indicates a process that affects it. For instance, OJPJ;lD 'advance' includes the meaning of 'advance oneself, ::l)i?l;liJ 'get closer' is equivalent to 'bring oneself close', and '(~~J;lD 'make an effort' is an extension of 'exert oneself.
Chapter 4: Verh pallern groups
107
b. Reciprocal Reciprocal verbs are ones for which the participants' roles arc either equivalent, or shift back and torth between them. When the subject is plural and includes more than one entity, it is not necessary tu add the reciprocal expression 'each other', sine~ it is implied. The built-in feature of 'reciprocity' requires a plural subject. For instance, in on ~n:;>JJ;liJ ;they argued', the reciprocal pronouns 'with eac.h other' arc implied. However, in order to shift the tocus to one of the participants, the distinction is made between the initiator of the action, and its recipient. The singular verb form accompanies the subject, and the verb is then perct:ivt:d as transitive. It will thus be t"b11owed by an object, which is usually linked by a preposition: .mmnn illi1 11
Dan and Dana got married. Transitive meaning- focus on the initiator of action
Dan married Dana. Dana married Dan.
.illl 0).1 1nnnn )i .1i 0)1 mnnnn illi
c. Passive There are several verbs in hitpu 'el which are counterparts or transitive verbs, usually in pi 'e/. Active meaning
Dan requested that I meet with him.
.mN \!.ll!:lm~ 'lnr.l
\!.IP'J )1
Passive meaning
I was asked to meet with Dan. ·Active meaning
The president appointed his spokesperson. Passive meaning
The spokesperson was appointed. d. Additional meanings I. Occasionally hitpa 'e/ verbs have a feature of a repeated action: run around '(~i1J;1D +--run '(l stroll nDDiJ +--walk 1~Q 2. A tew verbs carry the meaning teature of•pretend to. make believe': O):;ltliJ +--nai've D'r.>-tl feign naivety pretend to be sick n~oJ;ln +---sick n~in
108
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
~·i19il
4.6 Hif'il conjugation
111 1::1
The name of the verb pattern hlfil reflects the third person singular masculine, its citation form. I. The stem vowel'~ i of ~n~!:ln is part of its pattern. It is present in most of the forms of this conjugation, with the exception of the first and second person of the past tense, and the singular masculine form of the imperative. lt is not affected by any vowel reduction process. 2. The initial vowel of the past tense thal follows the prefix h is i. However, in other tenses that vowel changes to a: Infinitive Future Present Past Root to explain
4.6.1 Regular Verbs The group of regular verbs are composed of verbs in which all the root consonants are present in all the verb forms. Present tense
illl i'l 1» r
The present tense of this conjugation pattern has a ma- prefix that marks it for the present tense: J'}.l~r.>. Unlike other hinyanim, in which the typical feminine singular ending is unstressed -et, the feminine singular sutlix in hlfil is a stressed -an.-.
to explain
,,~'O'tl)
il)~:;l1fY.l
lli1~::;t1fr.>
(N'il ,llN ,mo(); 1~~~'? (Nm ,il!lN ,~)N) C1n ,)!lN , DmN) ; O,"J,:;J.~r.> Con ,onN ,DmNJ
,
n;,,n~
: !lVO,:ll
ln addition to functioning as present tense verbs, many of the present tense forms are used as adjectives or as nouns: Adjectives Citation form Root p-1-J shine brilliant P'"J:;lr.> P'":9D l-N-1 )ll:{"JJ;;l worrisome worry l~z:t7D p-.J-"T infect; glue infectious P~:;J.7J;;l P':;J.!D Nouns smuggler believer listener
O,"J:;lr.> )'t,)t<J;;l ),!~~
smuggle believe listen
Citation form
Root
0~11-D
n~1-:1
1,t,)~Q
HJ-N H-N
),~~v
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
109
Past tense The past tense of hifil has only two stem variants: 1. In the first and second person: -~~.!;lD 2. In the third person: ~'l.'.!;!D
,~
,J;l';l~~D (m'() ,t~'J~~D (ilnN) ,'J:l';l~~D ('lN) ilJ':;t~D
N'n
,1':J~D
: illi'>n'
N1i1
,)t'';l~~D ()nN) ,O:!;l'J~~D (OnN) ,ll';l~~D (1lnlN) n'~VD
IDT
:nVO':l1
)il/Oil
The stress of the past tense is aJways on the last vowel of the h((il stem, and not on the suffixes. Even though the second person plural form is realized as hisbartem and hisbarten in formal Hebrew, it follows the stress pattern of the other first and second persons in dai1y spoken Hebrew: hisbartem and hisbilrten.
Future tense "T•nu JDT The stem of future tense verbs is ~'l.'!f-. The prefix vowel is always a. The stress is always on the i of the stem. ,'')':;tV:t:1 CnN) ,1'::;11?:!:1 (ilnN) , 1'::;1~~ f~JN) 1':;1~))
Cnn~'?l,;l) ~1':;11(J.:l
N'n
,1'::;1~~
()nN) .~1'::;1"?:!:1 COnN) ,1'::;11(~ (UnlN) (iln~~.]J) ~1'::;11?!
: illl'n'
Nm : nl!O':ll
)il ,~1':;1~! Oil
The imperative mood 'll'll The imperative forms have an h- prefix (like the past tense). Its stem is -CCiC in the feminine singular and plural forms, and the stem vowel changes to e in the singular masculine fonn. cnn~'?iJ) ! ~l':;t ~iJ
! '":l':;t?D ! 1~'?iJ
The negative imperatives use the future tense form with the negative J~ 'don't!':
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group.~
110
The infinitive mood ~lll9i\ The hifil infinitive uses the stem haCCiC: 1':;1~0~ ,)Jl~";liJ~ ,1':;11?0~
DIU
.'nm:mn n~~ 1':J.Un~ n~n~ .p111 1N'I!I'ilJ ON "'~nn., 1~ il~i?
I'll try to explain what I meant. It is hard tor him to decide whether to stay single.
Verbal noun il'lU19i\ DIU There arc two main forms of verbal nouns in h!fil. Most frequently they have separate meanings, which arc sometimes related meanings. as they come from the same verb root and form. The ;,'?.\1!>0 form: Verbal noun 1
Gloss
invitation decision The '7~~;:;'1 form: Gloss
Stem
il~Y;l~D
l'Y.Wl
il\;'~1)0
"'~l;'Q
Verbal noun 2
Stem
~:T~t' 1:\Uil .. ...
?'"T~D
difterence quarantine
1'~1?iJ
~
Some roots can be realized in both torms of the gerund, and they thus form two different nouns with related but somewhat ditlercnt meanings: Verbal noun 2
explanation accord
1~t?v
Verbal noun 1
information
O:;;Jl?t' agreement
n~~1?D ilY.J?~D
explain agree
1'::lt?iJ O':;>t?D
Variants with '9 ,''3 ,':1 1. The letters '9 ,') .'.J. are realized as b. k. p
When it is the second root letter of all the tenses and moods (except when it follows first root letter •n ,•n ,'Y,'N): 1':;1~~
: 1'lW , 1'~l?Y.l : mm
,1'~t?D : 1:1)1
1':;it?D? : ~Yl!lil 0\!.1 !1~'?iJ : '"'~ 2. The letters 'g ,') .'::l are realized as v, kh. f
i. When it is the first root letter in all the tenses and moods: ~'P! : 1'l"IY .~'1':;tr.>
: mm ·''1':;tiJ , 1:IY
';llJ~D'? : J)ll!ln 0\!.1
!'':PO : '11'~
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group.~
Ill
ii. When it is the final root letter in all the tenses and moods: :PJi?! : ·pn~ ,O':;l''Ji?J;l : mm ,::l'':li?D , 1:1~ ::l''Ji?D? : ~l',!lil O'll ! JJi;'D : '11'~
iii. When the second root letter follows •n ,'il ,'Y ,'N:
Variations with '» ,'n ,'il •'H. I. When the first letter of the root is ·~ ,•n ,'N, the prefix vowel of the past tense changes from ito e. In addition an 'echo' vowel e replaces the shva vowel of the first root letter. In the case of •n as the first root letter, the 'echo' vowel is optional. Informal
Formal
2. In all other tenses and moods, the a vowel of the prefix is maintained, and an 'echo' vowel a replaces the shva of the first root letter: Informal Formal O'~J;ll;l
\'P?QJ;~
3. When the third root Jetter is ')I m ,•n and no sutlix is appended, an a vowel is inserted (since the previous vowel is not a, a 'furtive' palan is inserted) : ti':J~D ,IJ'\?~D .~'!il'qi:J.
4.6.2 Irregular Verbs The •"JJ/1"11 root classification The h~(il form of '")ll)"l' roots is characterized by the absence of the second root consonant. The vowel e is the prefix. vowel in the present and past tense and the vowel a is the prefix vowel in the future tense, imperative and infinitive:
112
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group.,
to raise, set up O'j?tJ~ Root classification
Verbal noun
Present Past Future
Infinitive
Root
il'?i?O
D'PO~
Y.l-l-p
Oil
N'il
lilil
D'r.l'P~
il'?'PY;)
O'Pt;;J
~Y.l'PD
nl;l'PD D'Ptl IIDnN !)Y.l'PO
O'PiJ O'i?? nN ! 'r.l'i?O
!l!lli O'Pt;;l J;IJ?PiJ O'Pl) nmt !Ot?O
'"))!l")J
lY.l'P~
Imperative
There are alternative forms tor the first and second person in the past tense. They are used in the higher register: l'l'Y.l'PQ ,:!;~i1J'PO ,'J:'Iir.l'i?D
The l"!:l ,,,n root classification for verbs belonging to this group, the tlrst root consonant 'l of ~Yl!:lil '!! is missing from the whole conjugation, since it always precedes a consonant, and as shown elsewhere, a 'l is often assimilated into the following consonant: hinpillli > hipalti Past 'l:l?~D<~ Future lfmpil > tapil 7'~33 <~ Present manpil > mapil ''!i~Y.l<~ lehc;mpil > lehapil Infinitive ~'!iliJ~<~
to drop, cause to fall Root classification
Imperative
Infinitive
Root
il~~iJ
'J'9D~
'J-!:1-)
Oil
N.'il
Nlil
ilnN
0'~'~Y.l
il~'~Y.l
''!i~Y.l
il~'!l'ID
''~Y.l
)'J'!l'ID )'J'!;l~
''!;l.lJ
l"!) '10n
Present Past Future
~'~l'~
Verbal noun
''!liD ''!;)~
lJ?~D ''!;l:S
1/DnN
!lli
~
!~'J'!lliJ
P':l'!lliJ
!'J~D
Note Because the J"i'l hifil pattern ends up being a hi-consonantal stem in practice - since the first root letter n is omitted - there is a tendency among speakers to use the present tense forms of l"Y verbs tor l"i'l ones. A J"!:l verb such as ,~:;>Y.'l, whose root is"!-::>-), is often pronounced mekir rather than makir.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
113
Exceptions
There are exceptions to the rule of having the first root consonant 'l assimilated into the second root consonant: I. As in previous ) 11 !:1 cases we have looked at, if a guttural follows, there is no 'l assimilation, since gutturals cannot be geminated as required by the assimilation rule: D'Y.~D ,~'IJ?D
2. In fonns where there are two verbs with separate meanings derived from the same root, or from a different but homonymous one, one verb will omit the 1l according to the rules above, while the other one will keep it, as in regular verb forms, to maintain the distinction between them: Gloss look at. store genninate tell contrast
Citation form \J'::;m
Infinitive
Root
\J'::;ID~
\J-J-)
\JlJ.~D
\J'::,l~jJ~
\J-:J-)
jl~iJ
jl~jJ~
1-l-J
i'~~D
,,~~iJ~
1-)-)
I wanted to let you know that I am fine. He contrasted the two assumptions.
.11UJ l.)N'll OJ~ 1'lil';l '31'~1
.mmnn 'll\!.1 l'J 1'lm Nm
Note: The fol1owing verbs with 1) as a first root letter can be conjugated either as l"!:i or following the 1''Y pattern: Gloss Citation form Infinitive Root Form of assume O'm tt'~iJ~ n-1-J l"!:i put down O'm tt'~D~ n-1-J '")I Tt can be assumed that everything is alright. .11u:1 ~:Jil'lt l"l'lD'::I \'.1' Don't put the book down on the table. .)n~Wi1 ~Y 1!:1Un TIN l"l'll;l ~N
The "'!:» 'nl root classification When the first root consonant is ''· it is realized as the vowel o throughout the derivation, and the prefix vowel is elided.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
114
to lower, bring down Root classification
Verbal noun
Infinitive
Root
i1J:I~i1
l'":lin~
1-")-1
~
~
0'7'"Ji~
n:p1i~
n'"Jin )l'"Jil
i11''"Jii1 i'"Jil'l
!ill! l'"JiO l'")iil
~
Present Past Future I mperati vc
,,,,,~
,,.,,,
ill:!l! i'"JiO J;l/"Jin l'"Jil'l
1/CnN
nN
;mN
!)ll"Jiil
!'J'')ii1
!l'Jii1
The N."'J •n1 root classification As in other binyanim, when the third root consonant is 'N, that 'N is not pronounced at the end of the syllable.
to invent Root classification 11
N
'
Associated noun
Infinitive
Root
n~~t;lD
N'~Y,lD{
N-~-)J
~
!.llil
i'lnN
O'~'~Y,)Y,)
ntt'~t;>r.>
N'~Y,)Y,)
N'~Y,lY.l
~N'~~n . :.
N'~I?D
:t'\N~t;lD
"'N' !!I'?~
ntt'::lt?D N'!!l'?l.:l
N'~t;l!
Nl~t;ll.:l
IIDmo(
nN
ill:!l!
!'N'~Y:JD
!N~Y;)D
mJ .Qi1
Present Past Future Imperative
M'¥'?tl~
!U"<'~'?D
In the tlrst and second person of the past tense, the stem vowel i is changed into /sere e: WN~t;lD Ot.lN~Y,)D nN~t;>n ttN~'?D
The ' 11 '1 •m root classification When the third root consonant is ''. it is realized as the vowel e or a in final position, where it is represented in the spelling as •n, and elsewhere, it is realized as the diphthong '·· ey, or is elided before another vowel.
Chapter 4: Verh pattern groups
115
to permit, let nfv'tt~ Root classification
Associated noun
Infinitive
Root
·n~~)D
nl\!f)D~
l-\!)-1
Oil
N'il
Nlil
ilnll(
D''?";lY.'I ·l\!.I")D
i1~'JY.'I
n~"!Y.'I
i1\}'";lr.1
i1J;l~"!D
n~")D
~\!))~
i1\}'";l-D
i1\}')!
J;l''?'";ID i1\}')33
!/CnN
llli
i"lnN
! '\!.l";liJ
!''?I)D
!n'?')D
'"~ 'nl
Present Past Future Imperative
* The
noun associated with this particular verb is m'tl) 'permi:ssion'. The h~/"il fonn is m:.<~)D or n~'\)")D, both of which are rarely used.
The
c•~!9l
root classification
l. When the two last consonants of the root are identical, they merge in h~fi/: the expected ~'~i?D~ is realized as ~V.O? (lehttki-H > lehakel). 2. The present and past tense vowel of the prefix changes from a to e: ~v.~ .~tJiJ.
3. The i vowel of the htfil stem changes to a tsere e and loses the , . 4. When a suffix beginning with a vowel is appended, a dagesh liazak is added to the last consonant; when in addition to that. the stress is moved to the sutlix, the vowel preceding the consonant with the dagesh is changed from e to i: ~~V.? ,n~piJ vs. D'~P'? ,i1~i?'?·
to ease, make easier Root classification ll"ll
Dil
Present Past Future
Imperative
D'~P'?
'~P.iJ )~tn
~'P.t1~
Verbal noun n{'pp m?i?O
Infinitive
Root
~P.D?
~-,-p
~
Nlil
ilnN
n?P'? n?PD ?v:l)
~P.'?
';:lp~
~P.iJ
D?Pi.l
';:lp~
1/DnN
nN
?v.t~ ilnN
l~P.O
'~vD
~P.D
116
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
4.6.3 Meanings associated with hif'il The commonest meaning associated with h!fil is causative, including 'cause to be(come)' and 'cause to do (something)'.
a. Cause to do something The term causative is used in the sense of causing somebody or something to do something. The actor by his action triggers another action. A good example is :lJ)~ 'write' > ~"'T:I?D 'dictate', i.e. 'cause to write', such as in 'The director dictated a letter to the staff' ~mr.m sm~'J J1"1:JY.l ~'l:!:;>D, i.e. the director caused someone else to write the letter to the staff by dictating it. When realization in hffil makes a basic verb causative, that basic verb may be a true action verb, as in: The bear danced. .1p1 Jnn '7.1.1~ The gypsy made the bear dance. .Jnn nN i'jJ1il 'J).I)~i1 '1'.1.19i1 The child ate the soup. The mother ted the soup to the child. The verb may also be stative, as in: We saw a beautiful winter coat. The salesman showed us the coat.
.jJ1Y.lil 1"1N ~:IN iJ"'il
'1119
1"1N 1J'i1 nN n'J':>Nn oNn
'1·11~m
. jJ1Y.li1
.i1!l' t)1,n ~;;.,~Y.l U'N1
'1119
.J').IY.lil nN ))., i1N1Q 1:1)Y.lil
'1•.1.1~11
b. Cause to become/cause to happen (on its own} Although one tends to think of causatives in the sense of causing to do something, the number of verbs referring to causing to happen, or causing to become, is much greater. 1. Verbs associated with pa 'a/ > causative hiril verbs
Some verbs share roots with pa 'a/; when they are conjugated in hifil, it adds the feature of causative onto the basic meaning of the verb. The light is on. .p,n 11Nil '1119 He turned on the light. .1lNil nN iJ"I;;Iin Nm '7•lJ9i1 We forgot everything. Time made us forget (obliterated) all of the details.
..,:m nN nn:~\!.1 I;;IJ nN n':l'l.ln 1mn .0'"1!li1
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
117
2. Verbs associated with nif"al >causative hif"il verbs
The children got scared. He scared the children. He failed the exams. The teacher failed everybody.
. ~~il.Jl 0'i~lil
'7ll~l
.O'l~lil !'IN ~m::m Nm
'7·.u~i1
.mlm::n ~\U:Jl Nm
'7ll~l
.O,l:J l1N ';n'l!.l:m il1,~il
'l·ll~il
3. nouns > causative hiril verbs
Some h~f"il verbs are derived from nouns. There is a limit/border to everything. He limited us in everything. The king ruled tor many years. Who crowned you (made you a king)?
.1.Ji ':J' ,,.Jl \(.ll
D\!J
.,:J.J llmN '':Jm Nm
'7 l.l9il 1
.rn::n D'l\U ~\UY.ll,Y.lil
0\!J
qmN l''~il 'Y.l
'l·ll~il
4. adjectives > causative hiril verbs
Some hifil verbs are derived from adjectives. .plnY.l P'!lUY.l N~ ill1il The tea is not sweet enough. We should sweeten the tea. .mm nN P'l10n' 1'1!:1 The skies are clear. He clarified a number of things that we did not understand.
.0'1m:J
O"~~m
0'1:J1 iln::> u? 1m:Jil Nm
. '3.Jil N~\U
c. Cause to become/acquire a new characteristic There is a significant number of instances in which hifil verbs refer to 'becoming' in the sense of 'acquiring quality of colors or some physical/bodily characteristics'. The verbs signifY a change of state, of bringing an animate or inanimate object to a new state, described by an adjective, as in 1i!l~ 'gray'> ,,~~D 'turn gray/become gray': He is very pale. He became pale when he heard the news.
."TlNO 1ll'n Nlil l.IY.l\U 1\UN:::> 1'lllli) Nlil .m\!.linil nN
118
C'hapter 4:
V~rh
The copper vessels are rusty. They b~eame rusty because we left them out all winter. The fruits are not yet ripe. The fruits have not yet ripened.
pattern groups
.O'l~~m n'lnnm '~~
lMm
1nN'l-'n '" ,,,~nv on .rpmn 'J~ ~1m omN
'7•.lJ9n
.o>'J\(JJ. N'J 1''1).1 n11'!lil
lN:rn
. ~'Jl'l.IJ.il N'J 11).1 n11 '!:lil
'1•1.19 il
Some hifil verbs of the same root can be both transitive and intransitive. The intransitive verbs can be paraphrased as nml "become + (quality)', whereas the transitive verbs can be paraphrased as 01::1 mm'J ;causing something to become'. Intransitive
get dark With the setting of the sun, the skies darkened.
D'~~'l-'n
.ontJ'l.ln
1~>\!.lnn
Wll = '~''l-'nn 'l.lr.l'l.ln n11 o).l
Transitive
cause it to become dark They darkened the room and the show began.
l'l-'m nm''l-'1~':1 D1l
= 1''l-'nQ
m~nm o~1Nn nN l=>''l.lni1 o;,
.n'J,nnn
Intransitive
become/get fat The more one gets fat. Lhe more one's quality of life goes down.
)I'J\!.1 il'i1.l = )'r.l'l-'il .O''mil Tn:::>'N n11l'
p
O'))>I'J\!.Ir.l\!.1 ']"
Transitive
cause someone to get fat It is not the jeans that make her fat, but rath~r the chocolate cake.
)r.l\!.1 il'il' )\!.l'r.l\!.1 p~ 01) = )'r.l\!.lil N'JN ilnlN )'r.IY.II'J\!.1 0l"li1 N'J ill . i~npwn n:ny
Intransitive
Became shiny His eyes shone in the dark.
nlj7l1J.r.l )'ill
= ~i''1:lil
. n::>'l.ln:J. 1P'1J. n l'l')'
Transitive
caused them to shine She shone/polished the silver.
P'1J.n'J on'J nr.11:1 .<"\O~n
=
nv'1J.il
''J::l nN np>1J.n Nm
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119
Relationship between verbs in pa'al, pfel and hiril Sometimes a pa 'a! verb can have two separate, though related, meanings, each of which is realized as a different causative verb. Consider the verb ~n. The first meaning, which denotes 'growing up'. has a causative counterpart in the pi'el conjugation 'raising (causing to grow up)'. pa 'a/: grow up (intransitive)
They grew up on a farm. pi"el: grow, raise (transitive) There they raised turkeys.
.nnm 1~~~ on
The second meaning, which denotes 'getting larger', has a causative counterpart in the h!fil conjugation, 'enlarging, increasing (causing to get bigger)'. pa 'al: grow in size/numbers (intransitive)
The business grew.
.~::m
j7tl).ln
Hif'il: to enlarge, increase size or number (transitive)
He increased the size of the business. He enlarged the picture.
4.7 Hufal conjugation
.po))n m~ ,.,im Nm .OlJ~~il nN ~'lln Nm
.,ll91it l11 l:l
The name of this pattern verb group ht~:fa/ reflects the third person singular masculine in the past tense, its citation fom1. The h~fil-hl!f'al relationship is similar to the pi 'el-pu 'a/ one: hufal is essentially the internal passive of h!f"il, and there are virtually no hufal verbs that do not have hi(il counterparts. The discontinuous vowel sequence u-a appears in all the tenses. Like pu'al, the hu[al conjugation is limited to the tenses only: present, past and future. Similarly, it does not have an imperative or an infinitive mood, and does not have a verbal noun. The h- of the pretix characteristic of the past tense is replaced by m- in the present tense, and by the personal pronoun prefixes of the future tense.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group5·
120
The u stem vowel is represented by the vowel ~~!!p, such as in 1iJltJ, but in the contemporary spelling, especially in texts without vowels, the ~ represents the vowel u, such as in 1i]Jm. Note
The hufal conjugation is also referred to as the hofal conjugation. Both u oro vowel arc acceptable as the prefix vowels of this binyan.
4. 7.1 Regular Verbs Present tense illlil 1nr The present tense of this conjugation pattern has a mu- prefix tense marker. The teminine singular stem changes to -CCeCet. As is the case in all h~fal tenses, the vowel sequence u-a is part of the pattern that characterizes it as passive. Present tense forms function as verbs, as nouns and as adjectives. No vowel reduction takes place in the stem when stress moves to the sutlix in the present tense.
to be neglected
nll~ n1'1:'~
*TIJ:Q}~ (N'm ,TIN ,'lN) ; nn~ (N'il ,nnN ,'lN}
.Tiin~'tl;;;l
{1i1 1lTIN ,UnJN) ; O'D~tr:? (Oil ,OriN , 'JnlN)
, illl'n' :1'1VO':l1
*The usual vowel pattern for the feminine singular is .l1'n!~I.J., but the final •n, which is a guttural letter, causes the change of vowel from e to a, as in nm!I.J.· In texts without vowels: mnmY.l ,O'nll1Y.l,.l1nlnY.l,nmY.l Passive participles in huf al that function as adjectives: abstract \)'lf!lm defined ';JJlm recommended limited ""nm complex absolute Passive participles in huf'al that function as nouns: juror ll:l'll'lO candidate ';:1\):lm authorized person unemployed
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Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Past tense ,:l.UIDT The past tense of h~fal has two stem variants: Jn the first and second persons: -?~~D huCCaCJn the third person feminine singular and plural: -~~~f.) huCCeCThe reduction from a toe occurs when stress is moved to the suffix.
cnnN> I'~J:'l~F:! ('lN): nnm> no?m N'n~nm:J Nm ~Wt;'m) C1nN> ,OJ)r:'lm~ conN> ~~lf;ll!t.' omm>, nvo>:n ~J;lt:'m:'
CnNJ
~l;li;'~F:!
m~1t.J
)i1/0i1
Future tense ,..nJIIDT The stem of future tense verbs is -uCCaC-, becoming -uCCeC- when stress moves to the suffix. There are very few verbs in h~fa/ that are conjugated in all persons in the future tense. The forms that are most in use are the third person forms.
,'mt{l CnN)
.nm~
cnnN)
n~HJ
l(i1~J:'lm;:J>
Variants with
'9
mm':' ()l1N)
,nm~
N'i'l
1
C')lN)
n)'p_ N1i1
I nn.~ ,,lnlN) cn~m!{l> mm. )n ,mm on lm~m (OllN)
: nnm' : nVD':l1
,':> ,'J..
1. The letters '9 ,':> ,':l are realized as b, k. D
When it is the second root letter of all the tenses and moods (except when it fo11ows a first root letter 1Y ;n ;n ,'N) o~v.!. i')TJl! I o~v~ : mm I o~vD : 1:1Y 2. The letters '9 ,'J .':1 are realized as v, kh. f i. When it is the first root letter in all the tenses and moods 1W?~.: 1>:nY ,1\l:l?.!?., mm ,1'
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Chapter 4: Verh pallern !{raups
Variations with radicals '11 ,'H When the first letter of the root is 'Y ,•N, the initial vowel u becomes a kamats katan, which is realized as o. The ~np t'J\.1n in the first root letter echoes that initial vowel and is also pronounced o: mo "omad iJ?~'? mo 'ofal ~!;!~'? Whenever a zero shva is expected, we find a liatafpatan instead:
.~'J~?D
,~~~T:!-
4.7.2 Irregular verbs The •"lJ/I"lJ root classification The hl!fal torm of '"W1"Y roots is characterized by the absence of the second root consonant.
to be prepared
1~'~ n~'~>
)11)1!1")1
Present Past Future
)-1-J
Dil
l<'il
Mlil
0'~~·l1:l
ilJ?~Y.l
)~m
ll=?~il
n~~m
1~m
~l:;n'
)~m
pr~
The l"9 .,on root classification The l"!l '"ltm is the group of hZff"al verbs in which the tirst root consonant 'l is missing in the entire conjugation (since it is always followed by a consonant).
to be presented
'tl~~ n1'~> 10-)-)
l"!l '1t>n
Present Past Future
Dil
H'il
Nlil
O''?'~t;?
l1~~t?
IO~Q
~10:\il ..,
il'<J~f.l
IO~f.l
l'll~~
'll~tl
"'~?.
~
As in other binyanim, there is no assimilation if a guttural follows, e.g., in ?O?Q, and as in hifil, there are a few verbs with separate meanings derived from the same root, where one verb will assimilate the '), according to the rules, while the other one will keep it, as in regular verb forms, so as to maintain the distinction between them:
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Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Gloss
Citation form
be told be compared to
Root
~~D
1-l-l
c~) ,~m
1-l-)
The·"~
•m root classification When the first root consonant is ''. it is realized as the prefix vowel u throughout the derivation. The ·~ and the prefix vowel are contlated into the u vowel. S'11'1'1) to be taken down ..,,~, ,. :.
,_,_,
'"!l '1tm Present Past Future
llil
N.'il
N.lil
0''1'JU::l n;m
l'l'TJU::l nnm
l)U::l lJm
n')~'
i]U'l
iJ~~
The •"'1' •m root classification When the third root consonant is'' y, it is realized as the vowel ey, and the '' is present in the first and second persons of the past tense. In final position where it is represented in the spelling as •n. it is realized as a ore.
to be referred to ;
11~~'? n1'~~
il-l-!l Present Past Future
llil
M'il
N.lil
ilm~
0'>~!?~
l'l~~!?.!;?
i1~!;1.!;?
il~.!;l.!;?
~lQD
il-ti1!?D
il~!?D
-ti'~!?D
~l!?.~
il~!;)tJ
il},.!;l?
il~!;lt'
4. 7.3 Meaning associated with huf'al Because of the passive nature of the hufal conjugation. the grammatical subject of the sentence is the recipient of the action rather than its initiator. Typically. the agent (the one performing the action) in the active sentence is not retained in the passive version. Dan deposited the check in the bank. The check was deposited in the bank.
.pnJ
nNnnnnl'lN lm!li111 mp!lm m'(nnnn
. plJJ
The subject of the active sentence. the agent. may surface in the passive counterpart as an indirect (or oblique) object, signaled by the
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Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
preposition '1~ J~ 'by'. In this example, there is an emphasis on the agent, on Dan, as being the one who deposited the check.
n .,,, J>J pJJ.J. mp!:nn mmt.:~nn
The check was deposited in the bank by Dan himself.
. lt.:I~)IJ.
The recipient is often an object or an entity CnNnt.:~n> and not a person. A few verbs apply to human recipients of actions, as in the following example: The new immigrants were discriminated against by the local residents.
~)! mn~ ~?!m1 0''"lln~n
.O"t.:I'Pt.:ln O'J.V. IUln
'1'
While hu.fal is the passive counterpart of hif"il, it is important to remember that not all h~fil verbs have hu.fa/ counterparts. However, the reverse is true: all huf'a/ verbs have an active counterpart in binyan hffil. Hi{ il verbs that are intransitive do not have hu.fal counterparts. Intransitive
They did not come early.
.NlJ.J 1t.:l'iPn NJ on
.119"TtJ'n ~~~ Hif"il verbs that are transitive are likely to have huf'al counterparts. Transitive: active> passive
The engineers activated all the computers. All the computers were activated.
.O'J.YJnt.:ln J:J nN lJ'>J!ln 0'U1lnt.:ln
Chapter 5 The noun system 5. 1 5.2
5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6
5.7 5.8 5.9
Jntroduction to the noun system Indefinite and detinite noun fonns Gender features Number features Noun patterns Nouns derived from verbs Noun patterns associated with semantic features Significant patterns with no semantic association Acronyms
5.1 Introduction to the noun system A noun is a major part-of-speech category that includes words that refer to people, places, things, ideas, or concepts. Nouns may act as any of the following: subject of the verb, object of the verb, indirect object of the verb, or object of a preposition (or postposition). All Hebrew nouns have a grammatical gender. 5.1.1 Noun categories 1. Common nouns Common nouns are nouns, such as 1~?. 'book' or J?.+,l 'dog', 1hat can he preceded by a definite article or other modifiers: the book 1~WiJ any book 1~?. '~ some books
Common nouns represent one or all of the members of a class. For example, singer represents all singers, as distinct from representing a particular singer, such as 1""\!I)"N P'lN 'Arik Einshtein', or o~pt;J 'place', which represents any place, as distinct from a proper noun, such as 0'''1!111' 'Jerusalem', which signifies a particular place.Common nouns can be animate or inanimate. An inanimate noun refers to things that are not alive. An animate noun refers to living things such as people and animals (but not to plants). They can be countable nouns or non-countable nouns:
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Chapter 5: The noun sy.slem
1. Countable nouns
Countable nouns are ones that have distinct units that can be counted and have a singular and a plural form: Gloss D':J."'l bottle(s) O';?~::li?~ p~:li?~ JJ::l dog(s) O':;t~~ ...... 2. Non-countable nouns
Non-countable nouns are usually mass nouns that cannot be counted. Most are singular, such as 711"1 'sand' or 1~m 'sugar'. A fe\\1 mass nouns are plural, such as o~" 'water', O'?O 'life'. Gloss D'J.1 -ron• flour nY:li? air 1')~ water (waters) sky (skies) Note
Non-countable mass nouns, such as 'Jin ,n,i?, .1~! can be made into countable nouns by adding units of measure, such as: Gloss Countable units Singular a glass of water o~t;l ot> O~t;l a bottle of olive oil n~~w~ 11~! W'l? P'::li?~ a teaspoon of sugar 1;>1?. !'1'!;1~ "'l;.P. Collective nouns: countable and non-countable
Collective nouns refer to a group of people, animals or objects as a group: o~ 'nation', ilQ~~r,:l 'family', etc. As such, these nouns have a singular as well as a plural 1brm: Gloss Singular political party(ics) troupe(s), band family nation(s) However, the singular form shares a feature of the non-countable nouns as well, since in order to specify single units of nouns, such as the ones above, unit nouns have to be used to count them:
Chapter 5: The noun system
Gloss party member(s) band member(s) family member(s) national(s)
Countable units
127
Singular
'"":t'=' -
n~~~)? n~~!?l;l 1~0 i1i?Q~ 'l:;tO - i1i?Q~ 1~t)
n~~~)?
'P ·.. m;.'~\11)? p o~ 'P · o~ ~~
no~~Y,)
no~~Y,)
ili?l)~ 0~
2. Proper nouns D"l.n9 mnll!l A proper noun is a noun that is the name of a specific individual, place, or object. Person's name Daniel J~'n Dina n~'! Place name Jerusalem o~~~m~ Israel J~f:~"~? Object's name The Knesset llVl~iJ Titles added to names
When titles are added to names (usually last names) the phrase can he definite or indefinite. 'JN1'll' l11J.:m 'JN.1\!.I' J11J.l Mrs./Ms. Yisraeli Doctor/Or. Levi '1J 1"1i1 '1J 1"1 lN,i;lll1J )10 Captain Barzilay 'N''l1J )1tm
3. Concrete and abstract nouns A division of nouns can also be made according to the distinction between concrete and abstract nouns. Concrete nouns refer to objects and substances that exist physically, while abstract nouns refer to states, events, concepts, feelings, qualities, etc., that have no physical existence, e.g. \!.l!'nn 'freedom', 1'li1N 'happiness', 11')11 'idea', np,om 'music'. Abstract nouns can be countable or non-countable. Most concrete nouns are countable. Some are non-countable. Abstract nouns - countable i1J.j7] Feminine
culturc/s art/s
l1l'~::J.)l3
,m:J)l3
nl'~)o~ ,m)o~
Masculine symbol/s holiday/s
1)T
o'~O'I?
,?t;;Jv
0'~D
,lD
l2R
Chapter 5: The noun system
Abstract nouns: non..c;ountable Feminine i1J.j1J JOY
ill)'?'l.l
physics
ill?'P~
Masculine
1lT
happiness wealth
Note
The noun nn.'?·~ is also used as a countable noun and as such it refers to 'a joyful occasion' and then it can have a plural fonn nimt~, 'joyful occasions')
4. Adjectives 1Nin n1n11U Adjectives may be used in noun phrases to modifY common nouns and can also serve as predicates. Adjectives are discussed separately in Chapter 8. Adjectival forms sometimes function as nouns, such as in the usc of 0'1'\!.lll ,1'\!1)', which stand for 'rich, wealthy', or for 'a wealthy person/the rich' as the head of the phrase or sentence. 5. Pronouns
'E'JI} mniiU
Pronouns are used to replace nouns with independent or affixed features of person, gender and number. Pronouns arc discussed separately in Chapter 6.
6. Numerals -,gon nll'liiU Numerals are used in noun phrases that have countable nouns as head nouns. They signify a specific quantity of objects. Numerals are discussed separately in Chapter 7. 5.1.2 Grammatical characteristics of nouns As a grammatical class, nouns have the following features: 1. All nouns have a gender assigned to them, either 1?! 'masculine' or n~v.~ 'feminine'. There is no neuter gender. house O'lJ::}- ,(l) n~~ apartment ni1'1 ,(l) il')'l 2. A noun with no article is always indefinite:
a house
Tl'~
an apartment
3. One of the markers of a definite noun is the definite article -n that is prefixed to the noun: the house the apartment
Chapter 5: The noun system
129
4. Another marker of a definite noun is a pronoun suffix of possession: ~l?W TJ?~iJ/~ltl':;J my apartment '~W ilJ'O::JiJI"~'J:lJ':t' our house 5. By definition, all proper nouns (names of people and any other entity) arc definite, which in itself already suggests that the presence of the definite article -n is not a necessary condition for determining that a noun is definite. 6. A noun can have an independent form, 1J~~ D'<J, or it can have a dependent form, WW ow, when it is the first component of a two-noun phrase or is a noun that has a suffix attached to it. Independent noun
house
,"l9l
garden
aw n~~
Dependent noun
a. The first component of a two-noun phrase: n!:!p TJ"~':;J a tlower garden a coffeehouse b. Has a suffix attached to it: my house
my garden
A noun's dependent form may undergo some internal vowel changes, and predictable changes at the end of the word:
Remember
Most learners tend to memorize a singular word, rather than the forms and features that are important for its use in a variety of contexts. To use the noun appropriately in context, the following features of the noun have to be memorized: I. 2. 3. 4. 5.
the form of the independent singular noun, the form of the plural, the form of the dependent singular noun, the form of the dependent plural noun, and its gender.
Chapter 5: The noun ~ptem
130
Illustration ofthe features of a masculine noun and a feminine noun: Masculine Singular a house
Feminine
i)T
i1:J.j1l
1•n•
n••n• an
Plural
apartment n1:::11
0':::11
houses
(-'t:l~)
apartments
0'1:9·
(-!li1'"1) !lii'"1
Dual endings
Dual endings
o~.-
-iryim can signal either 'two of' or 'a pair of.
I. Some nouns (mostly time units) have three forms: a singular form, a plural form, and a dual form. When the dual torm is used it means 'two of. Dual
two weeks two months
0'~~:1\p
O?W7Q
Singular
Plural
weeks months
ni~n:t~
0'\?f'JQ
week month
~tlXJ
'o!I'J'n
2. The concept of duality can designate 'a pair of, and the dual form points to that feature ofthe noun, and is considered also its plural form. Dual/plural Singular a pair of socks/socks stocking, sock .~ :::r)~ O?~J~ a pair of hands/hands hand .) ~~ 0?1~
The actual counting with such nouns is done by adding the noun :m 'a pair of before the singular noun, and using mm 'pairs of if more than one unit is being counted. I have two pairs of glasses: : C'~i?'?'~ ni:m ')'o!J '? 'tl' a pair of sunglasses and a pair of .il"Ni '!)P\!.'Y.l :nn 'l'Y.l\!1 '~P'OY.l :m vision glasses. In the singular O'?~i7\?Y.l :m 'a pair of glasses' the inclusion of the noun :m 'a pair of' is optional. The only way to form the plural is to add the plural ofm, mm. Note
When the singular form of the noun ends in n- in the dual form, the nbecomcs n- (as it is a dependent form). and the dual ending is added: Feminine two years O?tl~~ a year o~J~ ()) il~"' two hours O?tl~'l' an hour ni'-''U (J) il),l~
Chapter 5: The noun .~)!stem
131
5.2 Indefinite and definite noun forms In Hebrew there is no indefinite article, either in the singular or in the plural:
A young woman entered the store. Hats and sunglasses are an important accessory in the summer season.
ll':J.N on Y.nJ'll '!lp'llr.n
o))I:J.1~
.'<'Pn :rml':J. :J.1'lln
A definite noun usually occurs when the noun is made specific in the contexl uf the discourse, or is understood from the shared context of the speaker and listener outside the text, and it is formally marked in the fo11owing ways: I. The definite article comes in the form of a prefix to the noun: mlp~ omD:no lJnlN'tl ll':J.n The house we plan to buy is outside town. .1').1' '<1no Nm We bought books. The books are 'l!lO on D'l!lon .D'l.!:lO U'JP textbooks. .llO'~
2. In a construct phrase- that is, a phrase that has two, or at times more nouns in a morphological relationship expressing possession, origin, atliliation, etc.- the definite article is prefixed to the last noun: the bookstore the problems of school pupils
D'1!lt71J. mm '1'0~J1 J11l)):J.
i.!:lt'D. :11':::1
a bookstore problems of school pupils
0'1.!:lt7J11Jn 'i'O~Jl J11l)J:J.
l£lt7 Jll:l
3. Possessive noun phrases are considered definite. When the possessive pronoun is attached to the noun, no definite article precedes it. When possession is expressed by two separate words - a noun followed by ~'?' 'of' + pronoun - the noun is prefixed by a definite article: my books '~'?' O'>l£lt7n =~)~~ my book ~~~ l!lt'n =''J!;JQ
For internal changes of the vowel patterns in the forms to which pronoun suffixes are attached, see Appendix 2, Noun Tables.
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Chapter 5: The noun system
4. The definite artic-le is also used for abstract nouns, which embody a general concept, rather than an incident or occurrence (in English these nouns are usually capitalized and appear with no article): All that matters is Truth and Honor. Time heals all.
.1)J::>m n~Nn m J,\!.ln'll n~ .,:::>
..,:m nN N!no J~tn
5.3 Gender features As noted above, all nouns in Hebrew have a gender feature, either masculine 1~! or feminine n~tn· Some noun endings are associated with either the singular fonn of feminine nouns or with the plural fonn of both genders. Gender is indicated in most dictionaries. The gender notation is (l} for masculine and(.)} for feminine. Except for inherent biological gender features, there does not seem to be a particular reason why certain nouns are masculine, while others are feminine. Even in a class where nouns share a common meaning, nouns do not necessarily share gender features with one another, as shown in the i1lustrations below. Example 1: hotels
Gender: masculine
Gender: feminine
hotel residence/home inn inn/hostel
,i.,Q-fl'.;)l,i.,Q
1:Jl :
,,Y.l
11).11;1 PJ~~9 n?lQ?~
nJpl , )'Y.l
up';)Y:)';l~~ol'i!!";l~
1:Jl : 1'0
Example 2: stores
Gender: masculine
Gender: feminine
supermarket minimarket hypermarket boutique store bookstore grocery store
\Ji?';IY.l'~'Y:)
\Ji?)Y:)'J~'iJ P'\?~::1
rmo
nJpl , )'Y.l
O''J~~rmo
n~~?';J~In~·:;,Y:)
5.3.1 Gender: form and meaning The gender assigned to nouns is Language-specific, and does not necessarily share the same noun-specific gender with other languages that also have grammatically assigned gender (such as French, German, Arabic and others).
C.napter 5: The noun system
Concrete nouns Feminine nJ.j7l pool/s niJ'J;t (J) n;n~
city/ies
0'"J)J ())
133
·nr
Masculine
roornls rccord/s
.,,~
Abstract nouns i1J.j7] Feminine culture ni'tl)tl (J) l'H::l)tl art l'HlY.J~ Event nouns
stage show
O'TJQ (l)1]Q 0'\J')?i?tl (l) \J'?i?lJ ·ur
Masculine
symbol regime
'>tV '~'?!;)
stage play
Anatomical gender is reflected in the assignment of gender to most animate nouns. Examples- human beings Feminine
woman/women actress/cs girl/girls
;nj7J
?9
0' 1
(J) n~~
nil~i?r;'l~ (J) ll'~i?r;'l~
llii{? (J) n1?~ Examples- other living beings Feminine i1J.j7]
mare(s) female dog(s) she-donkey(s)
ll)O~O (l) i1V~U
ni:l~r;,llniJ{? (J) n~'{:;.>
lliJinl:;( (J) 1il1z;<
Masculine
man/men actor/actors boy/boys
''DT
0 ')':9·~ (t) I:J~ O'~i?J;l't.J
(l) 1i?J;1~
0'!'.? (l) i{~
Masculine
horse(s) dog(s) donkey/(s)
"DT o')~lO
(l)
u~u
0'~{? (l) .J~~
O'"Jinq Cl) 1ino
Some of the nouns that have biological gender features are often assigned a grammatical gender that does not reflect true gender distinctions. For instance, the gender of the noun lVI)~ 'snake' is masculine, regardless of whether the snake is male or female. The generic noun 11~~ 'bird', which stands for any bird, is feminine in contemporary Hebrew. Specific categories of birds are assigned either feminine or masculine gender. For instance, while ll'~~J? 'swallow' and i1'J'~O 'stork' are feminine, 1'r:n 'starling' and UN 'peacock' are masculine. Plants are also living things and in the natural world have gender teatures, but in their representation in Hebrew have an assigned gender and are treated in this respect as objects. While the general noun for the category n)~ 'flower' is masculine, specific flowers within this category such as ll'~?:;;l 'anemone' or n~;.n 'cyclamen' are feminine, while others like U'P)~ 'datfodil' and '~h9~ 'tulip' are masculine nouns.
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Chapter 5: The noun .\ystem
5.3.2 Gender markings Many nouns that end in n.- -a or in n- -t are feminine, but it does not apply to all of them. It is a safe assumption for a learner to consider that these nouns are feminine, unless otherwise indicated.
I. The general identification of the n.- suffix is the safest, because of the small number of exceptions involved: only a few isolated items, like (penultimately stressed) n~~~ 'night', n?~~'ll 'apprentice', arc masculine, as is evident from phrases like :J)\:J n~~~ 'good night'. 2. Many nouns that end in n- arc feminine, as long as that n- is part of a
suftix. !P--it m- -ut n.,- -et
n_- -at
mercury openness pipe delegation
Jll!;l~~
mnm!il nJ\?i?~
310~'<-'~
plan culture rabies flu
31'~~:1) m::J.":~:JJ
n:;)?~ n~~~
When that 31 is a root letter, the gender is unpredictable. It is often masculine: death olive radio play service but may be feminine as well: religion !l'J
pliers
Similarly sounding 1\:J is not part of a gender determination, since 1\:J is never part of the feminine suffix; it is always a root consonant, and words ending with it can be - unpredictably - either masculine or feminine (although in reality, feminine nouns ending with '"are rare). (t) "'~i?~ selection (l) "l?~ record needle (l) \:JOY.l item ("t) "''J.!il 3. When the final vowel is n. .- e, a noun is likely to be masculine, as in the following example: i1!QY.l 'stage play'. The ending n.- e is a regular feature in nouns derived from participles. npt;lJ;l~ lecturer intern field drink i1P'<-IY.l
Chapter 5: The nuun system
135
4. Historically. a few nouns were documented in either gender, sometimes masculine. sometimes feminine, such as: wedge ltl! way lTJ fire 0~);1 knife )':;>Q coin bone ~q·'?Y."l 0~1 sun 'li>";>'U skeleton l~'U wind However, in current Hebrew everyday usage, speakers use only one gender for these. Usually it is conceived of as strictly feminine. except tor 1?~ 'skeleton' that is always masculine today. Only ltJ~ 'wedge' can be heard being used as either masculine or feminine. Similar usage can be observed in the plural word lor 'lace'. 0'~~. which to this day maintains a masculine-feminine duality. 5. The dual ending o~.- can also serve to some extent as a gender cue. Most human (and animal) limbs that end with this suffix, even when not dual in the real world (e.g., o~~~ 'teeth'), arc feminine: 1~ knee TJ.;J ear )fN hand/arm thigh pi'll foot/leg eye 1?~
'n
On the other hand, o~.- forms that are not part of nature tend to be masculine: socks pants 0'QP)",l spectacles scissors O?~j?~Y,l But there are exceptions among these too: o~?~~ "shoes' is feminine. Because there arc significant occurrences in each group, many speakers are often unsure whether the 'non-human-limb' torms are masculine or feminine. and their individual choices in everyday speech are not consistent. 5.3.3 Deriving feminine and plural forms Nouns that refer to human beings often have four related forms retlecting number and gender features and sharing the same stem. The masculine form is considered to be the 'base' form that provides the basic stem from which the other forms are derived, with special gender or number suffixes added to them. c•:n n1:n i'll'n• -r•n•/o•o.:t young person ni1m~ 1m~ i1"J'I"l~ D'"Jm~ dancer l1i'ni?J D'rJi?J l1'Hi?J r1i?1
Chapter 5: The noun system
136
Many nouns and all adjectives that are feminine singular are marked by the gender suffix n.- (the final consonant n is silent), 3"1'.- or n.-, which is added to the unmarked form of the masculine. The stem of the base form may undergo some changes in vowel composition in the derived fonns, including that of the feminine form (either because the stress moves to the last syllable, or because the feminine singular has a slightly different vowel sequence). ~
painter
!"1")~~
Participle forms as nouns
Participle verb forms which serve as nouns or adjectives typically have an . .,- -e-et or an.- -a suffix tor the feminine form. agent volunteer secretary
ng}
QXl
~
•·n•/o•ol.
J"'il?iO
O'~?iO
npio
):;?iO
J"'i:J?~l;l~
0':;lnJ:lY,:l
J"'J.'f)J"'~ ... ':.'- ;
.
J.:rm~
J"'i1':;l!Y.l
0'1':::ll~ . ...
i1J':;l!~
1':;l}Y.l
.
~
5.3.4 Nouns with different masculine and feminine stems There is a group of nouns that have totally different words for masculine and feminine forms. Humans father mother 0~ J.~ husband wife ~l'~ n~r:< bridegroom bride n~:;) wo Animals
donkey goat bul1
1i~t')
'?1':1.:1 1i'?'
she-donkey she-goat cow
)in~
l)) n:t~
5.3.5 Feminine nouns with shared meanings Other nouns that are assigned feminine gender and have no distinct feminine endings can be grouped according to shared and common meanmgs. Nouns: cities
city, town
small town
Names of cities
Jerusalem London
O''l"'n~ )ii~i~
Tel Aviv New York
l~:;t~ '}.n
PJi~ ~'~
137
Chapter 5: The noun s;ptem
Nouns: countries
country
''("J~
state
homeland
Names of countries ~~':'·~,
Israel Spain China
USA Mexico Japan
ij~1?
)'1?
l1'T'tD l1i!i)~ ipl1;1~~
w~
Nouns for parts of the body
(ones that come in pairs and other body- related nouns with dual suffix) ear O?H~-)!"N leg O?~~J-'~"J hand O~J~·i? eye 0'~')!-·p~ knee o?n~-r:9 shoulder O?~~~-rm~ thigh D?:;>1~-1"J? cheek D?~t~?·'f)~ nail o?n~~-r;f9~ tooth o?~'?'-)'?.1
5.4 Number features The plural endings of nouns are not a clear indication of the gender of the noun. While in adjectival and present tense forms they indicate gender features, in the noun systems they merely indicate that the noun is a plural noun. Masculine plural A great number of masculine nouns share the plural suffix: 0'· ~
house(s) room(s)
l'n'
D'l;q.
0'"1'0
There are a number of masculine nouns related to verbal roots (mostly with a middle •1) or that begin with the prefix -n, and often denote a place or institution. These nouns are masculine, but their plural forms end with m-. place(s) donnitory(ies)
ninip!;J l1ili).Jt;:l
A smaller number of masculine nouns with the same singular shape and composition have the expected 0'- ending in the plural form.
138
airplanc(s) institute( s)
Chapter 5: The noun jystem
O'l;'i\JY,l D'~1:Jt;l
A number of masculine nouns without the prefix -o also share the characteristic of having their plural end with !'11- in the plural f'brm, as in nit:l1Pt? above. n•::n "T'n' !11)1~1) window(s) )1~D table !11lQ~'?.' )Q~'?.' cupboard, doset !li)i1~ )i1z:t street(s) ::Jin";J niJin-;~ Note
1. Notice that many nouns that end in 11- or in )-, such as ,)1~m ,)WO ))1!'1!:1 ,)n~1'1!', are masc-uline nouns, and usually have am- plural ending, while, of course, their gender remains masculine.
2. Plural forms do not necessarily have the same stem as the singular forms. There can be intemal changes: n•::n "T'n' market(s) O'i?J~ rabbi(s) Ql~~'J tax(es) D'~Y,l
Feminine plural
By the same token, a great number of feminine nouns, but not all, share the plural sutlix: Tli-. Feminine nouns with plural suffix: niniJ.1
apartment(s) exhibit(s)
i'I"T'n'
ni1'":f
il'J''J
nt:m~JJ
n~n~JJ
Feminine nouns with plural suffix: D'-
There are a number of feminine nouns that have a teminine ending in the singular fom1, and yet the plural form sutlix is D'-.
Chapter 5: The noun S}:stem
139
The first group includes some living beings: TIIJ.,
woman/women ant(s)
iYT•n•
0'~~
il'<"~
0'~t;l~
il~t;l~
The second group includes many plants: ncn il"T'n' pca(s) 0'~l!l~ il?·'!:l~ rose(s) O'~~i'll n~~i'tl Others consist of a variety of feminine nouns: niJ., il"T'n' year(s) word(s) Note
The plural 0'~~ has two possible dependent forms ·'\'!~ and -l1i'll~. These dependtmt forms are also the bases for adding pronoun sutlixes: Oi)'JJ1'll~ or Oi)'V!~The players and their wives were invited to the party. The directors' wives will be included in the list of invited guests.
.ilJ.'OIJ'J 1mtm on'm\!.lll O'Jvnitln )'J';7:>n O'Jil))Jil (l11'lll) ''lll Ol
.o'mnr.m l11J''li,:J
The plural noun 0'~~ has a dependent form -l1il\?, and it is the form to which pronoun suflixes are added. The (years of the) nineties were nn'IJ:::I 'J'll D'l'lll'n O'~'ll!1il l11l'll years of economic growth. .l1'J::I':7:::>
5.5 Noun patterns Many Hebrew nouns and adjectives are formed from specific consonantal roots plus skeletons of fixed vowels and variable consonantal slots with a possible prefix or suffix. We refer to these skeletal patterns as O'JP'liiJ mishkafim. The tenn mishkal means 'canonical pattern'. Included are some illustrations as to how nouns are fonned by combining particular roots with mishkalim. Notice that a root can provide the basis for several nouns, each distinguished by a specific pattern.
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Chapter 5: The noun system
Here are four roots, which combine with patterns to produce nouns: Gloss comb juicer syringe propeller
)J!~'-'
P'J~H~
\JI)9Y.l P'J~Y.l ~D7~
Gloss
scanning squeezing shot; injection push
i1t,?'D'7 ili?'':ll
Root p-1-\? \J-n-o p-1-t
il~'f:\7
!:l-n-i
i71"JI!!J i'li(''J~
Although the root does not exist on its own, most words sharing a common root tend to have a common meaning core, as one can see from horizontal scanning of the examples above. Thus, for instance, most items incorporating the root p-1-0 revolve around the notion of combing or scanning; entries with the root o-n-o contain a squeezing core; p-1-l forms have something to do with throwing, including the more restricted sense of injecting, which is a type of throwing of liquid, hence 'shot' can have two meanings ret1ecting both senses, of 'a throw' (as in basketball) or 'injection by syringe'; and the core of !l-n-i 'push' is extended to 'propelling'. Vertical reading of the tables reveals something else. The non-linear morphological pattern, of a fixed vowel configuration with a possible affix, also tends to demonstrate some regularity. For instance, words sharing the discontinuous pattern .7).1~-P often designate instruments, as in P'J!Y.> 'syringe', P'J'7~ 'a comb', ttOJY.l 'propeller', \JI)'7Y.l 'juicer'. These form-and-meaning relationships do not occur across the board, and at times may not hold at all, or apply only in part. Some forms never followed the regularity to start with, and most departed from it with time, with varying degrees of deviation. Language is an evolving entity, and the relationship between form and meaning is not maintained for long. 5.5.1 Discontinuous and linear derivations of nouns There are two main mechanical strategies for creating nouns: discontinuous formation of nouns, and linear derivation of nouns. Discontinuous derivation of nouns Discontinuous derivation of nouns is the combination of the root with a pattern to yield nouns. It is called discontinuous since the sequence of
Chapter 5: The noun system
141
the root consonants is intermittent and is 'interrupted' by the vowels of the pattern. The vowels combine with the root consonants and at times with prefixes and suffixes to form the actual words. Some common patterns are presented in the table below: (C is used to designate any root consonant and the fixed vowels and prefix consonants are presented specifically as required by the particular mishkal). CeCeC
CCiCa
writing opening examination
CaCaC ?.v~
?31~
dog king slave
J'?~
1{~ 1~~
n'?'~!,)
n:pJ:"q ilQ,l)~
ili?'":l~
maC CeCa il/.V,~Y,l
test tube plough camera
nm:;tY:~ n~:JDY:~
ilY.J?,~>;~
carpenter cook barber
CiCCtiC 1~~
n~\J
l.!ilt'
miCCaC 7~~Y,l
letter shelter test
::ltJ?Y,:! tJ{i(Y,:l
lQ:;tY,:l
CiCaCon li'7.V~
memory madness experience
)il~~ )i~~~
li'W
story speech visit
7·1!1~
l1!:1U 1l:ll'1 l~i:':;l
maCCeC 7.Y,~Y,l computer ::1\I'J;l>;l
receiver battery tiCC6Cet
outtit hairdo syndrome
"?.i?~ 1:;).~Y,l
n'(l.l~J'I
nv/J?n. ':
~
npl'?t:l n~">J'?t:l
Tn indicating the mishkalim, the C represents any root consonant, and the unchanging prefixes, suffixes and vowels (including the stressed vowel) are indicated in lower case. Linear derivation of nouns Linearly derived patterns are those in which a suffix is added to a base without affecting the stem or base of the noun. Some vowel changes may occur, such as the loss of the vowel a in 1'tPt' < ?'J~Q sandal> sandltir, and a change in spelling in halilan 1{'~0 'flutist', derived from nalil.,~?Q 'flute', where a 11atafpatan replaces the kamats vowel. These vowel changes are due to the shift in stress, not to any mishkal.
Chapter 5: The nmm ·'Y.~fem
142
Compounding: recent linear derivations Suffixes
Gloss
-ut
essence flutist carpenter's shop small horse journalist truck shoemaker
-an
-iya -on -ay -it -ar
Noun nm~
'1~'~0 il!"J~~
11om 'N~~rP).I
,,~·""Y.l 1{]~Q
Gloss
< < < < < < <
Source
what flute carpenter horse newspaper load sandal
il~
~'~Q 1~~
tlltl
lil'l').l N'""Y.l ~1~V
1. Word prefix compounding
The prefix words used in prefix compounding arc largely borrowed from Aramaic and Greek. and modeled on Greco-Latin forms. They generate some nouns but more commonly adjectives: :.1Q
~
one-way twotwo-way
'"J\?Q-il)
single parent
-li
'"J\?Q-n
bilingual
-1on inexperienced
l)i'lJ~-l"'' -~~::1
WI?~1VQ
experienced
)i'~) ~~il
'~~:;~-oJp
pre-historic
'"Ji~.JQ'iJ-O'Ji?
-oip
.Qf£:_
pre-military interinternational intraintra-group postpost-Biblical multicentipede subsubstandard supersupersonic nonno-rust
'"Jiil-11)
-)'11
'r,llN~~'~
interste II ar
':;l;>l:D-)':;1
-Ji11 '31~~::~
r-,;n
intracellular
'~J;J-lin
.:J.IQ '~)p~-1lJ~
post-congress
o~mip-1JJ~
Xl .,~";1-JJ
multi-faceted
0'~~-J.'J
:11!1 '~i?.D-113)
sub-human
'~i)~-l1J;I
~ '~lp-~~
supernatural
').1~1,)-,)J
-~N
lJ:l~l)Y.l-~~
immortality
11)~-~~
Chapter 5: The noun .~_vstem
143
2. Foreign suffixes
Foreign suffixes can be appended to native stems (mostly in colloquial Hebrew), as in: Source Noun Suffix army commander 1~ii~~ < 1(?,i)- army (e.g. 3•<1) ;rn~ one who disgraces disgrace )i'P 1~i'P kibbutz member "(~~1? < f.''~- kibbutz P'~-¥)lp Likkud party member Likkud party j~::J? P'PtJ~ nice young man < P''~young man 1m:g. P"~";J~n~ very small small 1\?i? P''~Ni7 3. Compounds: blends
Blends involve merging of two independent lexical items into a new word. Some such blends have been part of the lexicon for quite a while, as in: Blend Stem2 Stem 1 ~1p movie theater ~))~)jJ < movement ~il sound traffic light 1iN hint; signal 1iltJJ < light lY.l') lighthouse
1i~'HtJ
< light
liN
tower
':r~~
4. Compounds: clipped blends
Other blends are more recent. In some of them, part of one of the bases is lost in the process of compounding, which makes them less transparent, and speakers may lose the connection to the base after a while. Some illustrations: Stem 2 Stem 1 Blend pedestrian mall :JinT;TY.l < street ::1in";l sidewalk i1?')7Y.l cable car train cable Jl-?,?,1 ~~~J < ~~~ cellular phone )i.ON'(.~ < telephone )i!:l~'? wonder N~~
5.6 Nouns derived from verbs Some very large classes of nouns are derived from verbs. In some cases, the verb form itselt: in its passive or active participle form, may also function as a noun; so do certain forms of the infinitive. In other cases, certain specific patterns designating abstract nouns are directly related to verbs, and the relationship between a particular hinyan and its related abstract nominalization is fairly regular.
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Chapter 5: The noun system
5.6.1 Active participles functioning as agent nouns One of the most common sources for nouns is the active participle, which yields agent nouns (initiators of action) or instruments performing the action denoted by the verb.
''''':1 - !J,.,., 1''):1 Gloss
Noun
governor worker baker courier
~Wi>J
Citation form
Verb tvJ;!e
~~~
0'})~\!J
~l.'~
O'r.J']\!J
i1!;1~
'0
'"~ '").'
Citation form
Verb tvJ;!e
govern act bake run
~.Vi9
n;.iN '<':1
'n!l':l - ~)''!) l"l:l Gloss
immigrant designer conductor translator
Noun
immigrate design conduct translate
1~iJJ?
J..lti.VY,) 1)~~1? or;~m~
l~i)
Cl'~r.J']\!.1
J~Y,
0'r.J~YJ
nl;!~
Jl'l'1l ·~
C~)l'l
D'liJ.nn
Citation form
Verb ~12e
')U'!1- !J')I!)t'l ,,)!1
Gloss
guide voter life guard leader
Noun
guide vote save lead
l'"J7Y.l )J':;l~Y,)
~'ll'Y.l ''~ir.J
,,,!1 Gloss
trainee adolescent assimilator boxer
Noun l1:')~:J;lr,l
-
.
1;}331):) .. ~
~?,i::I:J;lr,l '11~~J;IY,l
~)l!)f1t'l
1''J7tl
0'r.J~\!J
~'~=liD
)1')))"'1l'~
''~D
)II!)
'':;tin
"'!>
l"l!1 Citation form
train mature assimilate box
lr.;l~J;ID
Verb t~12e 0'):)~\!1
,~~J;liJ
O'r.J']\!J
']~i::I:J;liJ
0'11!J::t
~)~~l;'D
D'liJ.nt:3
Chapter 5:
Tht~
noun system
145
5.6.2 Passive participles functioning as nouns Passive participial tbnns occasionally function as nouns. ,,~
Gloss tiance divorce prisoner
Noun
Gloss elected person absentee missing person
Noun
0~1~
\!1~1~
'~::I'<J
'll-'':1 -
~n,~t~•l"l:l
Verb t~12e
Citation form 0')1::( get engaged drive away 'll)~ capture n~'<J
0~ O~'ll ~V'!l
O'OJ'll J)ll!l ,,, ~)l!l
')U':I- !7)1£1) l"l:l 11)~ ii(~~
1']~~
'nl':l Gloss notable learned fossil close associate Gloss jury member unemployed axiom concept
Noun
1;t?.t? i~?.t? ,~~>;>
:J'iPt? Noun l9~~
J\?:ft? ,~.'<-'~ 1~m
Verb t~12e
Citation form be elected 11):;t~ be counted ip~~ be missing 11~~ ~!If!!
O't.:IJ'll Oli:JJ'll ll'll'U '!l
l"l:l Citation form
be respected be taught be fossilized be brought closer
l.p
D't.:l~'ll
1t;>?.
D't.J~'ll
p~
J'll))1l '.!)
:J')'p
ll'll1l'!l
Citation form be sworn be laid off (work) acquire knowledge be understood
Verb ty:ge
Verb
t~ge
)I~~Q
D't.J''ll
?u:Jn = ...
D't.JJ'll
~~·~Q
D't.J~'ll
,~m
1")1
-
5.6.3 Infinitive forms functioning as abstract nouns Each binyan is associated with particular forms of abstract nouns. These verbal nouns can have the shape of an infinitive absolute 1iP>;> "~l;'lm or be nouns with assigned form and gender, which combine the root and some pattern related to a specific binyan. In the higher registers, the infinitive form of the verb (without -~ 'to') occasionally serves as an abstract noun (sometimes referred to as a gerund). It is commonly prefixed by -:;t 'with, upon', but follows other particles as well.
146
L'hapfer 5: The nuun system
In context with the coming of night upon his coming to Israel upon his return from the front
il:PJil Ni:l
CJ~
VN Ni::l
Citation form come N;J.
:H\!J
return
JN1V'J iNi3 CJ))
!Plnil)Y.l
iJ.~V:;J.
:I'?J
5.6.4 Abstract verbal nouns associated with verbs 1. Derived from participles
As already shown, participial torms, either active or passive, may function as adjectives or as nouns. In some binyanim, abstract nouns may be derived from these participles by the addition of the common abstract nominalization suffix m- (which is always assigned a feminine gender). Base Abstract noun J))!l agent pio agency rm?iU J))!:J) ignorant ignorance nn~:;t~ I }.I~~ obstetrician obstetrics J)J~ !Hi~?~ 1??'? loyal loyalty nm1:1 '!l nm?t9 W~9 obligation obliged !H:l?Q'? J~?. J~D'? skill skilled nm~m W~'? secretariat secretary !H1':;>~1;l ''))!li1 1'~iY.l J))!llil being limited limited ?~q~ m?~~~ 2. 'Default' verbal nouns associated with binyanim Each hin_van has at least one default abstract nominalization associated
with it, unrelated to its participial torm(s). The relationship is fairly automatic, although in some cases the verbal noun may have acquired a meaning that is an 'offshoot' of the automatic basic one. If there is more than one nominalization associated with a binyan, it is usually much less frequent. The commonest associations between specific binyanim and patterns of abstract noun formation are: trip survival improvement behavior beginning
1
ilnlrT
\!J"li\!J
i1 71l.JD C\!J
n~'W
).1-0-)
n?'Y~
JY!l
m1·:i~D
i-1-·\!J
cm?))~m> m?~!JD
Jl.I!:J)
1~9~
1-!)-\!)
{JlY'!l) 7W9
mlmJ;~D
),-j'J-)
m7~~J;'ID
il?QJ;~D
7-n-n
il?Y.~D
Jl.l'!l JY!lnn J'))!ln
l"l::l
147
Chapter 5: The noun system
5. 7 Noun patterns associated with semantic features It is possible to associate meaning categories with formal features of some of the nouns. They may be associated with a particular ending that provides some association of meaning, such as the m- ending that characterizes many abstract nouns, or the -Y.l pretix which characterizes many nouns of location or instrument. Some of the most common pattern groups will be presented with a short discussion of their meaning and form associations. 5. 7.1 Abstract nouns The commonest abstract noun sutlix ism-. Such abstract nouns may be derived linearly from the base or con<:titute part of a discontinuous noun pattern. As mentioned earlier, this noun suffix signals that the noun is feminine. These derivations may involve bases consisting of one syllable, or ones consisting oftwo or more syllables. Monosyllabic stems
Derived abstract noun essence being easy, light being thin; finesse entity, being
mnY.') m~i?
mpJ m\!1?.
Base what easy, light thin there is
i1Y.)
citizen fool human being carpenter
nJi~
Jj;)
P1 \!!~
Polysyllabic stems
citizenship foolishness humanity carpentry
nm:n~
m7')~ nwil~ m1~~
J'l~ \!Ji)~ 1~~
Many of such abstract nouns are derived from adjectives, which end in i. For instance, the adjective '!11 'religious' provides the base for m)n1 'religiosity', and m~)n 'secular' provides the base for mm7'n 'secularism'. Note
In texts with vowels, a dagesh liazak is inserted into the'' of the ending of abstract nouns derived from '.- adjectives (it does not affect the pronunciation of the word). Base Derived noun pragmatic pragmatism m~·w~Y.l 'W~Y.l festive festiveness mw~o w~o
148
Chapter 5: The noun system
Abstract nouns derived from present participles were already discussed above. Note that they may have an alternate fonn of the stem when the -ut ending is present, as the stress shifts from the last syllable of the stem to the vowel1 that characterizes the abstract noun ending. When the first vowel of the stem is a, it is reduced to 0 when the -ut ending is added and the stress shifts to -ut: Derived noun
wholeness devotion
mn~~
shlemut dvekut
mp:;r;r
Base
shalem dawik
The same happens to an e vowel at the end of the stem: foolishness tipshut lWV.!;l\;1 tipesh
C~'U
p:;n
~~\;)
Form: m~'~• < ~'.»-9'~''-'0
There are many realizations of abstract nouns that have the form of m~'l.'.!i'- They arc usually derived from several base forms which have an a initial vowel: Derived noun
mission agility openness duality Pattern:
rnn'?~
shlilit4t zrizut ptinzlt
lm'"Ji mn>t~!]l
~filut
m~'!l:J
.'
Base
shalian
zariz patuali kafitl
0'?~
"'":13 om~
Jl!l:;t
m~).l~
There are many underlying bases for the m~);J~ pattern. Several base forms, including alternates of segolate nouns and some common adjectival fonns, provide the source from which these abstract nouns are derived:
childhood fitness in accordance with Jewish law greatness simplicity
Derived noun yaldut nn~~ kashrut nn~:;;l
gadlut pashhJt
l'H~7~ ,~"~~
Base
yeled
~~~
kasher
1W;:t
gad6/ pashrit
:;,ii~
"w~
Chapter 5: The noun .\J•stem
149
5.7.2 Patterns referring to agents Agents are performers of an action over which they exercise some controL The dominant patterns are the following: ,t +U'ti:J ,1?l:J~ .~~!ll 'N. +U'U:l. Some agent nouns with transparent relationship to the base: Gloss
soldier painter collector comedian wireless operator professional journalist electrician
Agent J~T)
Pattern
7)!!ll
).1~::!
wv~
1?~~
107:J wm~~
).+tPtiJ
Wi~i?~ 'N~il'll,!
'N._+ti'Ul
'N~~"<JT)
Gloss
army color, paint collection joke
Base .,?0 Y~¥
CJ~iN i10'7~
wireless profession
mn~~
newspaper electricity
,,n~
~isp~
70,~0
5.7.3 Patterns referring to instruments An instrument is an implement by means of which an action is carried out. Instruments tend to be realized as il~.V.~r,> ,.,)!.!;)r,>, 1?~~ and 7V.~9Gloss
receiver key camera lathe air conditioner dialer softener dryer
Instrument
Pattern
"~i?Y:> Ot:l-?Y.l
'V.!?Y.l
i1Y;l~-¥Y.l
il~)!~)?
il\jl')f;'\1?
mr.J
)~),1~
u~tt
1~11?
\!.I :;;I!'?
'])!~~
Gloss
Base
absorb open
"~i?
photograph engrave
0~,::1
moderate dial soften dry
nlJ~
'-''JT)
lm l~l:l
,~.,
\!.1~~
In common use the pattern of meCaCeC often replaces the normative maCCeC, such as megahets 'iron' for maghets '<m'? < '(iJ~1;1. or menashev 'computer' for manshev ~'WO'? < l\!?J;lr.J. Both are acceptable and widely used in speech.
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Chapter 5: The noun .\ystem
5.7.4 Patterns referring to locations The prevalent location patterns are n?Y,~Y,l.~).'!;lr.> and il~_+Q'Q.l. Gloss Location Pattern Gloss anny post \J~~l',l ~~!?O control, rule shelter \J~i?t:l absorb headquarters restaurant deli shoemaker's shop
il"Ji?!;lr.> il1).1VY,J
il~lJ!?t;l
il?H~~
il~_+O'O.l
...
-
i1~1~~)0 .,. : ~
Base \J~'U
\J';?i(
command dine delicacy shoemaker
1J~Y,l
1?7~~
Characterizing a pattern as denoting locations is not always easy, particularly since the location concept may partly overlap with other semantic features. A noun like il~l1~ 'step', for instance, may be regarded as either a location (where one's foot steps on), or an instrument (a means of getting oneself higher). Note
Several nouns denoting location in the il~~!)l:l pattern have two possible patterns. Pattern A il~~!;)r,l is considered by some to be the correct torm, while Pattern B il~~!?r.> is considered incorrect. However, in common use the two patterns exist side-by-side and are equally valid. Gloss Pattern B Pattern A laundromat nv;t:;m ilVi!-:;>r.> plant nursery il~l)~Y,l il?:!:l~~
5. 7.5 Patterns referring to collection/group/system Some nominal derivation patterns may also denote a group, a collection, or a system~ characteristic patterns arc linear il!.-, ~~~r.>. li+O'O::J and 1'1~)1~. Gloss Noun Pattern Source library book il?-:'1!;11;1 il~.1?9 song fest song M!"Jf;>~ 1'?l array. variety color, hue )Hr.> ~~!;)Y,l 1J~ ~i)·N encampment tent ~Q~r.> questionnaire ask li + Q'O:J li~~~ ~~'U price list price 1'1)1;) 1)1'1)'? air squadron fly U\? 1'1~~\? n?~~ card file card Q'\?";li> n~\JJ~
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151
5.7.6 Patterns denoting diminution (reduction) Diminution usually denotes a smaller noun than its base form, or an adjective with the denoted quality reduced. It is often associated with affection, such as in :J~~~? 'puppy' or in )i'l?~ 'little child'. However, it can also have a negative association, when the diminution is used to reduce the value of someone or something, for instance, as in )il'P!i' 'a small, insignificant clerk', which is derived from l'P~ 'clerk', probably because the base itself has some inherent negative feature to start with. There are a number of ways of forming diminutiws. Gloss kitchenette small roof little restaurant little girl Gloss doggie goatee bluish kitty piggy Gloss teaspoon wine glass Gloss hot dog cookie
Noun )in~\;)Y.l
Pattern
)i
+ tPO:J
)t~~ ]1~-,~~Y,l
nt + Ol\J:J
nt'l~!
Noun
Pattern
:J?=;i~=i'
~~?).l!il
1i?~i?~
~o?t9 '~l'l,l1n : - -;
.,,nm
Reduplic. of stem vowel
Noun
Pattern
n>.!;i:;,l
l1'-+0l0:J
l1'>1;1t:>
Noun il~P'~i?~ il!~W
Pattern il!.-
+O'>O:J
Gloss kitchen roof restaurant girl
Source n~~;JY,l ~~
ilJ~~Y,l
il'J?~
Gloss dog beard blue caL pig
Source
Gloss tablespoon glass
Source
Gloss sausage cake
Source
:!{.i;!
1i?! ':in~ ~mo
.,,!Q
~~
ob
P'~in il~W
In contemporary Hebrew the most productive diminutive pattern is -on and its feminine counterpart -(met. Essentially, every noun can be made diminutive by an -on suffix. This is a process that can even produce other diminutive nouns from diminutive bases, to render them even more diminutive, as in ~mQ 'cat' > ~m?tto 'kitty' > 1i~m~tt0 'little kitty'.
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Chapter 5: The noun system
5.7.7 Other noun formation patterns Some other small groups that belong to derivation patterns in the noun system can be characterized in a semantically coherent fashion.
I. The noun pattern n~~~ tends to designate sicknesses and other phenomena with negative associations. Gloss
Noun
Gloss
jaundice whooping cough rabies inflammation
rqo~
yellow cough dog burn (int.)
n?V.'U :n:l~::> ,. •:
Base :l·il~
'::1~~\l/
J.?~
v'n
Note
There are other nouns in that pattern, such as n.;rn 'train', n~~'\,;1 'promenade', l'1\?~i? 'cassette', J'l.!t\i'~ 'safe', that do not have any negative connotation . 2. Other nouns with negative connotation are t(lrmed in the pattern )i~).J$:
Gloss
madness drunkenness failure depression
Noun
Gloss
Base
)iY~W
mad drunk tail depress
)1~~1?
)11;'1\l/ )i':1~:;J )1N~ry"
11::>\l/ ':1'U~ N;,l'ry
Note
There are other nouns in that pattern, such as )1l~~ 'memory', )i'W~ 'cleanliness', )i''f~ 'experience', )11i?V 'principle' that have a positive connotation. A tairly common pattern, mostly in more recent Israeli Hebrew, is ''V~l::'. It often refers to a product of the action denoted by the base verb (often in h!f"il), as in: Gloss
budget summary incentive relief
al1ot
l':;li?:J.:l ~'11?:J.:l
"'~;t:J.:l
shorten encourage make prominent
J'::li?il l~P
YJ'?il "'~;tD
Chapter 5: The noun system
Another is
:n~·l'~J:I.
Gloss
memorandum correspondence orchestra hairdo
153
which refers to a system, or a set of conditions, as in: Noun :n:f::!J:J:l rq"rql:l nJ~~:J:l
l1i?.1t;':J:l
Gloss
remind correspond sing comb
Base 1'::!li1 . :.
:m:;,nn .. - : . ,~~
P1~
5.8 Significant patterns (with no semantic association) There are many common nouns that have a pattern that is not associated with any particular meaning.
5.8.1 The pattern pa'al One of the more prominent patterns not associated with any particular meaning is.,~~: river snake thing; act of speech dust
5.8.2 Segolate nouns One large class of nouns has traditionally been referred to as segolate nouns, because their two final consonants are split by a segol e, and in the largest sub-group, the preceding vowel is also e. That preceding vowel carries the word stress: ram geshem O'{J~ snow sheteg l?,"' Since the segolate stress always fal1s on the syllable before last (penultimate), it obviously follows that the final vowel is always unstressed. The segolate base vowel is generally a stressed e vowel, as in geshem, but can also be a stressed oor ci, such as in the following: summer kayits '<~i? winter nvref I'JJ'n morning baker lit~ gate sha 'ar 1~~ A historical note
Historica11y, the segol was inserted to split what used to be an impermissible consonant cluster at the end of the word. 1. A noun such as::>~~ malk 'king' became 1?9 m(Hekh. The feminine torm n~~~ maikO 'queen' and the abstract noun m:J~~ malkhut 'kingdom', where a suffix is added, preserve the original stem vowel a of the J~Y.l base, and stress fa1ls on the suffix, as it norma11y does.
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Chapter 5: The noun .,ystem
2. A noun such as 1!?1? s{fr 'book' became 1~9. sejer. The dependent form with possessive pronoun preserved the original stem vowel i when sumxes were added, e.g., '"J~'Q sifri 'my book', Jn1!;)'Q :J)j'rilt 'literature'. The plural of segolate nouns is a mishkal in itself, usually o,.?J.Ip (CCaCim); stress falls on the plural sutlix: Plural Singular Gloss Dependent form children (of) yaldey-'J?~ yeladim i'(.?, 0''1~? yeled gesher 1'll:\ bridges (of) gishrey- -''J\11~ gsharim O'"J'?'~ ·:·:
The mishkal oft.he plural ofsegolate nouns can also he ni!J.pp: Gloss Dependent form Plural Singular horns (of) karnot-ni)')i? kranot n1YJi7 keren ni.? doors (of) daltot-:ni.n~1 dlatot nin?7 delet .n'(.:y When the first stem vowel is o, that o remains. Sometimes the vowel o is maintained in the plural as well, particularly when the first segment is a guttural. Dependent form Gloss 1P,'J. mornings (ot) hokrey-''Ji?::t hkarim O''Jw:!;! months (of) 'liJ·n 0'\'-lin hodshey-''?.'10 hodashim •: 'onsheypenalties (of) onashim [)l~~v. 'O~Y roots (of) shorsheyshorashim [)l~J'?' "-''J'll
..
When the middle consonant of a segolate noun is "• the stem sequence ayi is reduced to ey in the dependent fonn: bayit > beyt: Gloss Dependent form Plural Singular synagogue bay it When the middle consonant of a segolate noun is •1, the stem sequence is reduced from ave too, in the dependent form, thus gaven > gon: the hue of the sky [)llO'llil )il O'm gaven )H hues of the rainbow l1\!JjJil '~i~ The last two syllables of some feminine nouns display a segolate pattern, with the characteristic final e and penultimate stress. In the plural fonn the stress shifts to the last vowel; the plural pattern often contains the a stem vowel characteristic of the .wgolate plural, but a basic o is maintained, and is not reduced in the dependent form.
Chapter 5: The noun system
Gloss pipe
pipes of skull skulls of orchestra
Base
Plural miktarot mikterotkarkafot karkl/ot· tizmort'>t(-)
155
.Tih\(i(Y,l
mikteret
Sl'J\?i?tJ
-.n 11\)i?Y,l .n'!li?JP -n1!li(")P
kark¢fet
n~n?~P
(-)n111r.rm
lizmoret
n·:;fnp:l
The dependent form of nouns of the n~)J~Y,l pattern, -.n{~-?Y.l, displays the segolatc pattern: Base Gloss Plural mis'ada restaurant mis 'edet -.n:r~VY.l n:r~VY.l police mishteret mi.shtara -.TI') '?. \f' Y,l il)\(~7,)
5.9 Acronyms Hebrew uses at least three types of acronyms: 1. Orthographic acronyms, such as WWII in English, that arc never pronounced as such, i.e., are read always in full, as in: Source Form afternoon :::l"nnN O~'JO~iJ ''JQ~ nmN God willing! o'tln .. - ns1' . . =. em. God forbid! n"ln n~('~Ql tiO negotiations 0' 1ltJ '\))r.n N~~ 2. Letter acronyms, such as MP in English, in which the full name of each letter is pronounced (essentially restricted to two-letter acronyms),
as in:
Source military police gate guard (lit. battalion policeman) under command (of) company commander
.TI'~~~ i1J\;)\f'Y,l
'1n:l1tli'll . : .. 1~P!l
.TIOl.:l
n~~J!)I 1ii?~Y,l
3. Pronounceable acronyms, like NATO, RADAR in English. Of those some deliberately seck to form sequences that correspond to existing catchy or relevant words (ct: English SALT), as in: Source Form fu}n women's corps 0''<-1~ ''I) per diem 'eshel nr~ il!).TI~ n~,~~ kibbutz army units Ol)i~ ':;!·l~O 1Y.i) nanal
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Chapter 5: The noun system
These particular catchy acronyms have an association with the following words: Gloss Associated word Acron~m fu!n grace, beauty l"n IIJ tamarisk 'eshel 'J'"ON 'Jnm river, stream nahal 'JI)~
'"'~
Other pronounceable acronyms involve vocalic components, such as: Acron~m Gloss Source ·um United Nations O"~N niiO~N'? ni>:J~ silverware sukum D"~:::JV :.~~~m ~~~'~v missile boat satil 0'~'\;) Tl~'!;l~ '"''-'9 However, the major, most productive, acronym-forming device is what some refer to as root acronyms, where word-initial consonants or consonant sequences are treated as root consonants (or slots), and realized as pronounceable acronyms in mishkalim, or in a mishkul-Iike pattern based solely on 'plugging in' of the vowel u (see below). Of the preferred existing mishkalim, there are the segolute patterns CeC..eC or CaCaC (when a guttural is involved), as in: Gloss Israel Defense Forces (IDF) training camp Israel's water authority
PX
Source 'J~')-'?'??
Acron:tm
nm) N_;l-¥ tsahal
'"i)~
n:;r:r;rD O'~~ bah ad
i"il:::J
'J~"J·~~? o~~D l~l~J;J o'~ill'? nil'\'~w
m1w
tahul shekem
'J"nn Cl"jJ\!.1
Most root acronyms, however, are realized in strings that contain the vowel a only- the vowel which is the commonest and most prominent in Israeli Hebrew (note that sometimes, more than one segment is pulled from each base word): Acron~m Gloss Source radar (lit. finder of oipt;) ~~,,!l n~~t;) makam O"JY.l direction and location) ,.,.,J .,mo mankal 'J"J)Y.l general staff chief of staff '"J mm 't'Ni ramatkal ""JOY.ll
Chapter 5: The noun systl~m
157
Note that acronyms are different from typical Hebrew words in one important respect: like borrowed words, they keep their stress pattern when inflectional sutlixes (like the feminine or plural suffixes) are added to them, whereas in native stems, the stress usually shifts to the inflectional suffix: friend friends naverim haver radar radars makamim makcim
Chapter 6 Pronouns 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4
6.5 6.6 6.7
Forms of personal pronouns Independent subject pronouns Pronoun sutlixes and prefixes in verbs and in existential expressions Pronouns suffixed to nouns and prepositions Demonstrative pronouns Interrogative and relative pronouns Impersonal pronouns: something/nothing
Pronouns are a subclass of nouns. They are used to refer to nouns or noun phrases, whose identity is known or has already been established, either by the context of a conversation or by presence elsewhere in a text, or is implied by the situation: Noun phrase Pronoun
We have friends in Haifa. They work in a hotel.
. n!l'nJ O'i:m 1J., 'tl' . 11~'1):1 O'>i:J1~ Oil
Pronouns can occur in different positions in the sentence and have different syntactical functions. Subject Direct Object Indirect Object
Orner is our friend. He works in a bank. We saw him when he entered the bank. We don't have confidence in him.
Nm .1J'J'tl 1:1n 1r.nv .plJ:J i:lW ~JO:Jl'tl::l
m,N 'l'N1
.pl.!l'J . ,:J omtn:J NJ ,JnJN
6.1 Forms of personal pronouns In Hebrew personal pronouns can have the shape of 'stand alone' independent words that function as subjects of clauses and sentences, or they can be dependent elements prefixed to words or suffixed to words. They can have diiTerent functions in the sentence: they can be a subject or a direct or indirect object.
Chapter 6: Pronouns
159
Independent Pronoun
lam a student at the university. Pronoun suffixed to a preposition
My Dad works in a bank. Pronoun suffixed to a noun
My Dad works in a bank. Pronoun suffixed to a verb
I worked with my Dad. Pronoun prefixed to a verb
In the summer I'll work in the bank. Reference to personal pronouns
Personal pronouns do not necessarily refer to persons. In the third person they can refer to objects, events, abstract notions and any other noun or noun phrase that is not human. In English these pronouns arc expressed by the word it for the singular. However, in Hebrew there is no neuter pronoun, such as it, and since all nouns have a gender assigned to them, they arc referred to as 'he' or 'she' or 'they', depending on the gender of the noun. Person
Animal
Concept
David works at the bank in town. lie is a branch manager. These dogs are old. They lie on the rug all day long. My television doesn't work. 1! is being fixed. This is a great idea! !! can save us a lot of money.
Nlil .1'Y:J PJ:J:J l:JW 1)1 ·'1'lO~m~
on .O'lP' 1:::1::> n~Nn O':J~::m .n.,u-vn ~Y mm ~' O":J:>l'll .nn,y N~ '~YJ n"l'll7tJn -1~P'n::J
N"il
! 1"l::IO WY1 iH
n::11n ll'J 11tm'J 'Jl=>' Nm .')0:>
It is too bad you did not come to the Qill!y. !! was very successful.
. il:J'OO~ OnN:J N'JYJ 'JJn .ilNO nn'J~m
nn"'n Nm
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
6.21ndependent subject pronouns Subject pronouns, as implied by their name, occupy the position of subjects in clauses or sentences. Subject pronouns can be independent words, as they are in English, or they can be attached in some way to other words. Independent subject pronouns
Singular
Masc.(fem. Mas c. Fem.
Mas c. Fem
Plural
Masc/fem Masc. Fem.
Mas c. Fem.
'.l~
nJpJt 1,jr
you you he she
m;u~
7,jr
~~
n:JpJ
we you you they they
Nm
1,jt
N'D
i7::JpJ
UJ;I~~
n:JpJt 1,jr
OJ)!':{
1,jt
1J;l~
i7:JpJ
OiJ
Dr
1D
n:JpJ
illi'n'
nl:Ji/0':::11
6.2.1 Common bases for pronoun forms The common basis for the first person pronoun is ->(N) in ,mlN ,')N.
The common basis for the second person is the beginning of the word -n~. while the plural endings signify both plurality and gender: the tina) c- is a masculine plural marker and the final )- is the feminine plural marker. All third person forms )il ,on ,Nlil ,Nm begin with -n. Unlike in English, where the third person plural they refers to both feminine and masculine, in Hebrew the masculine plural pronoun ends with o- -m and the feminine plural pronoun ends with)- -n. Comparative notes
There are ten independent pronouns in Hebrew. In English, however, there are seven (six of them refer to human nouns, and one refers to other objects or abstract nouns). The gender features of the Hebrew pronouns are present in both the second and third person forms, but not in the first person forms. 'lN represents 'I' tor both masculine and
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
feminine, and 1JnlN represents both masculine and feminine 'we'. In English, gender features, i.e. masculine and feminine distinctions, are only present in 'he' and 'she', but not in other pronouns. Hebrew, like English, has personal pronouns that refer to persons. However, unlike English, there is no personal pronoun it that refers to non-human animate or inanimate objects, as well as abstract concepts. The third person pronouns ('he', 'she', 'they' = )n ,on ,N'n ,Nm) are used to refer to non-human nouns as well. Since all nouns have gender and number teatures, the choice of the appropriate pronoun for nonliving objects is clear. Note
The final n.- ending, which is usually associated with feminine singular nouns, marks the masculine singular form n~~. while the form :1;1~ without the ending n.- is used for the feminine singular.
6.2.2 First and second persons ln a conversation mode, the speaker and addressee (person being spoken to) use the first and second pronouns to refer to each other. Singular David, do you call home every day? No. I phone once a week.
"T'n' ! Dl' .,::> nn,:m
l't'pn~
nnN ,,,,
..)Ill 't'::l 0.).1!:1 )!l"'-'~ 'lN . N.,
Plural What are you doing? Don't you see that you are stepping on my flowers? We are sorry. We did not pay any attention.
D'J.l
O'Nll N., onN ?0''t'l.)l DnN nr.J ?'''t' o>n19n
.,Y 0'::>1n onN't'
.::1., .Y_r.J't' N., .0'1.).1\J:Jir.J l3nlN
A historical note ':JilK
= 1lK
There are variant forms to some pronouns. In biblical literature, the first person 'l2:;( also has the form of ,~.l~. This alternate fonn may appear in Modern Hebrew in formal speech or in literature. This is true particularly in poetry where it is used to create an artistic etlect.
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Example from biblical literature "lam a stranger and live amongst you". (Genesis 23, 4)
"Who am I to go to Pharaoh?" (Numbers 3, 11)
Example from poetry "That's how I am: quiet like the water in the lake". (Rachel, "I")
.o:~ol! ~ J\!J,m
iii
('i ;;\") n'\!INi:l} .i1)!i9 ?N 17N '1l ~ '.0 (11!~ 1 :l nlrl\!1)
't.J't.J::l n\Jp\!.1 , ~ nNt:::l .OlN
.("'lN" 'm"'l)
iJH = llnlH The first person plural pronoun um~ has a variant fonn of ~J~. While this variation does not appear in biblical texts, its use can be traced back to early Mishnaic Hebrew and it has continued to be used until today. This alternate form appears in formal speech, and in literary texts, particularly in poetry.
Example from Mishnaic literature ... that on all nights we eat leavened bread and mat<;£7 ... Example from a literary text We live in a ditlerent world and forget where we came from and where we are going. Example from a popular song We came to this land to build and be built.
V7:1)N UN m';J,';Jn J:I:J\!.1 ...
... il~n' 'l(nn
O'ri:11\!J .ii"IN O';J)~:J 0"11 ~ .0':1?m ~ )N7, UNJ )'N.O
niJJ'il';J, nU:JJ il~iN UNJ ill:! .i1J
As mentioned earlier, the third person is not used solely to refer to people, but also to refer to objects, concepts, and events that are included in sentences or larger discourse units (such as a paragraph, or an entire text). There is no neutral third person pronoun it, and the masculine and feminine pronouns are used to refer to non-human nouns, depending on the grammatical gender of the noun.
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Objects
Events
Animals
The library opens at eight. It (she) closes at ten at night. These are interesting events! They can change the results of the elections. The lion is the king of the beasts. !! lives in Africa.
.mmVJJ nnn!ll n"l!lt:Jn .n?"J::llVJ}J::lnllt1l Nm ! O'l"lYO
0'}11l'N n?N
J"IU"{~lil llN 11UVJ? 0'J1:::1' on
.nnmJn
'n Nm .mmn 1?0 N1n n'lNn .iliJ'l!lNJ
6.2.3 Word order - independent pronouns Pronoun follows the noun to which it refers In most cases the noun phrase precedes the pronoun; the pronoun repeats it by a different word. The reference can be not just to a noun or a noun phrase, but also to a sentence or a content expressed by several sentences in a larger discourse unit. (This phenomenon is called anaphoric reference). The examples brought here arc from within the sentence domain.
Out of milk? No problem! It's always possible to go to our grocery store, since i! is open all night.
1mn ""''VJ!lN .n'Y::l1'N ?::t?nn lOll ?::> nm119 Nm ':l 1 u?VJ n?t:m? '(19p?
The students were not here in the summer, but they'll return at the beginning of the school year.
on ~UN 1'('f.'::l )N::> 1m N? o'm1mt1n .o,,m,?n mVJ n'::7mn::t 11m.,
.n'''il
Pronoun precedes the noun to which it refers
In some cases, the sequential order of the noun phrase and pronoun is reversed. The pronoun precedes the noun phrase that it refers to. We find out only later in the discourse to what the pronoun refers. (This phenomenon is called cataphoric referencing). Even though he said he would come early, David did not show up till midnight. While she conversed with friends, Dina's mother did not pay attention to the fact that Dina disappeared.
1
0ipm N1::l' N1iiVJ lON Nm ':I ON .m~n 1}1 }J'!lln N'::7 1n lnn:m oy nnmVJ N'nVJ )OtJ l:JJ .J'] noVJ NJ iJ)'1 JVJ NON .no7Yl m'1VJ
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Ellipsis of subject pronouns
In conversations, or written passages, it is quite common that once the third person subject has been mentioned, the pronoun is omitted in subsequent sentences. Its presence is implied rather than being openly expressed. Example from a conversation So what was David doing there? (He) was just standing and waiting for her to come out. Example from a written passage Yitzhak Eliyahu put on his professional look anticipating the woman... twenty minutes later (he) stood by the apartment door... only then did (he) tum to ask her to come in.
!OYJ nYJY ,,, nn tN .N~ny,;
1Y n'J n::>'m 1Y.lY onu
0')!1 ,,Nn IZ.IJ'J m''JN
pn~'
0'1YJY ... i1YJ'Ni1 nN1P., 'Y,~pn
n.,, .,m 10l' mn 1nN., mp1 nmN )'nm'J nl!:l lN
P1 ... m''Tn .m:Jm'J
6.3 Pronoun suffixes and prefixes in verbs and in existential expressions When verbs appear in the past tense or in the future tense in the first and second persons, the subject pronouns are included in the verb form. For example, in Hebrew the past tense verb form 'J:17;J.~ 'I worked', combines both the subject and the verb stem in the past tense. In English the same notion is expressed by two separate words: one for the subject pronoun and one for the verb.
6.3.1 Past tense suffixes In the past tense the subject pronouns of the first and second person arc suffixed to the past verb stem. Since the verb form itself is marked for number, gender, and person, the independent pronoun becomes redundant, and thus optional. Here are the first and second person future tense forms with subject pronoun suffixes. The pronoun is the last component of the verb form. First and second person singular
I, you met
DYJl!l CnN)
First and second person plural
we, you met
)!!\!Jl!l ()l'lN)
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165
In the third person, however, the independent pronouns are obligatory. The verb fonn of the third person does not include person features. It includes the features of number (singular/plural) and gender (masculine/feminine) but not person. Third person singular
he, she met Third person plural
they (masc. and fern.) met
1\!Jln on
There are cases, however, when second person independent pronouns are used with the past tense verb: 1. In informal spoken Hebrew the independent first person subject pronoun is often included: m~n:::> 'lN. 2. Independent subject pronouns are used to emphasize the subject, so as to indicate a contrast between a particular subject and another:
! wrote this letter - not Dan. 6.3.2 Future tense prefixes In the future tense the first and second person subject pronouns come at the beginning of each verb form as prefixes to the future verb stem. Look at the following sentence: We shall meet Dan in a cate. .n!:lp n':J:J rr J1N 't'U!:ll
Notice that the verbal expression I!J1l!ll 'we shall meet' is rendered by three words in English, but it is one word in Hebrew. Here are the first and second person future tense forms ofthe verb with subject pronoun prefixes. The pronoun is the first component of the verb form. As in the past tense, the independent subject pronouns are redundant, and thus optional, but in daily speech the first person singular pronoun is often included, even though it is incorporated in the verb prefix. First and second person singular
I, you will meet
''t')!:lJ"l (nN)
First and second person plural
we, you will meet
1\!Jl!:ln ()J1N)
li!Jl!:ln (OTIN)
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
In the third person, as in the past tense, the independent pronouns are obligatory. The verb form of the third person does not include person features. It includes the features of number (singular/plural) and gender (masculine/feminine) but not person. Third person singular
he, she will meet Third person plural
they (masc. and fern.) will meet
1\\ll!l'
on
The affixes tor )n ,on ,)!lN ,D!lN ,!lN include a prefix and a suffix: the prefix indicates the person while the suffix indicates gender and number. 1+\\ll!l+' )non ,1+\\ll!l+!l (1fO!lN) ,'+lVl!l+!l C!lN) 6.3.3 Subject pronouns added to existential expressions In some registers of Hebrew, from biblical Hebrew to present day formal language, there is a restricted use of personal pronoun subjects that are added to some expressions. The subject suffix is most commonly added to the existential expressions Pl:':VlV!. It is also used in some fixed expressions, especially in legal or technical language. Pronoun suffixes for the negative particle I'N The most common use of this suffixed pronoun ts m the negation expression 'l'l::t, which is only used with present tense participles. Don't you hear me? Are you deaf? ?lVlO il!lN ?'!l)N YY.nll.l Jl'N
The suffixed pronoun is also used to negate an existential state. Once there used to be a theater here, 01'1"1 ?~N , )1"1\JN'!"l )N:l nm O!l'!l but today it is gone. Personal pronoun suffixes for I'K Paraphrase
Paraphrase
N!JNm
il'W~:l~'l::t
N;, N't7
npz::tm~~'l::t
N70i7 N7}t7
N1i1 N'T'I
on 'I~'~ )n
o~'z::t
N;, 'JN
'~'~! '~~'l::(
N;, t7J7N
l~'l::(
N7J7N
1~'l::(
N;, 1JnJN
l:l~'l::(
N7DJ7N
0?,~'~
N7 JnN
1?.~'~
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Formal Daily speech
I do not know if he intends to come. I don't know if he is planning to come.
)n:mo Nm ON ~,, m'N .NiJ.~
Nli1 ON ~1)' N~ 'lN .N)J.~ )JlZIJ10
The third person fonns are also used in the negation of nominal sentences in the present tense. The suffixes retlect the subject gender and number features. The house is not new. . '1!11n U'N mJ.n .n?l1) nJ'N n\JltJlJ.))lNi1 The university is not big. The children are not at home. .J1'J.J. OPN 0'1~m .11n:1 ))'N m))n The girls are not in the room. Pronoun suffixes for the existential expression w•
The positive existential expression '1!1' 'there is/there arc' can carry third person subject pronoun suffixes. A noun may follow it, or it may be preceded by a subject pronoun. lt often serves as the link between subject and predicate, much as the verb 'to be' serves that function in English. 3rd person suffixes to the positive particle Gloss Paraphrase he is 0''PIN~tJJ N1i1 J10"jJIJ1N~0) N'i1 she is they (masc.) are O't.J"jJIO'N~O) On mo,p;mN~m )i1 they (tern.) are
\!1'
They say, "there is a land". There is a heightened risk for heart patients to suffer a stroke.
ilJ'f'' 0'101N
. '<1N mp?~ lJ.)lO 11=>'tJ
iJ~~ n~\}1~
Nm Nm
0~\}'~ Oi1 ,~~~
)i1
m:e J.~ ,~,n~
.mm ~'1'NJ.
6.3.4 Fixed expressions There are other fixed expressions to which this sutlix subject pronoun is used (mostly in the first person). These expressions are used extensively in post-biblical Hebrew. In Israeli Hebrew they are used in the formal registers of the language. In speech they can be found mostly in tl1e language used tor delivering formal addresses. In written form they are used in legal documents, and academic and technical
Chapter 6: Pronouns
168
discussions as well as official documents. They are used stylistically in official language. I hereby I believe/it seems to me I think, I am of the opinion
= '~~D
'lN mn '~
n)Ji)
1 1~VJY.l ~lN = '~J?i~
-,~:m '.lN = 'n~::1~''n~::19
Formal/legal is tic announcement I hereby notify ...
. .. nNl:J
From a formal correspondence It seems to me that you are confusing two things.
mn CnW~l1Y.l mn ))):J)j
.0'1Ji 'l'll I'~ JJ"''~r.J nnN'll .!mll
From a legal document In the light of the results of this appeal, I am of the opinion that each side should bear in the expenses of the appeal.
'l"llJO ~
,m .,,~.,~J mN~nnn .,,N~
lmlN!IImJ N'll' 1!11 ~::>'ll ')l::>l'll _.,,~.,~J
6.4 Pronouns suffixed to nouns and prepositions 6.4.1 Added to singular noun forms and some prepositions There are two sets of pronoun suffixes attached to the end of nouns or prepositions. One consists of a set of suffixes that are attached to singular nouns and to most prepositions. The other is a set of suffixes, which are attached to plural nouns and to a small number of prepositions. For a more complete discussion ~{prepositions and pronominal endings, see pp. 228-235.
When pronoun suffixes arc attached to nouns, they become possessive pronouns. Pronoun suffixes attached to singular nouns Plural
3rd
~
1st
c.-
[)~-
il-
1.-
~~-
Singular rd
2nd
i-
1-
rl.-
1 .. -
3
1st I
-
C'hapter 6: Pronouns
Ella, does your aunt live in Haifa? No. My aunt and mv uncle live not far from Tel Aviv. Maccabi Petah Tiqvah will not be able to host Maccabi Haifa on Sunday in its stadium.
169
m!lm:J i11lJlJ"J'i"1' ,il~n·-c -J310 f.,n1 NJ D'1l .!!l"Ji11 ,2i1 .NJ .:J':IN nN mN' ':>m N' impn nn!l ':J:>o ..IJ.)1'i\:I~'N:l 1WN1 OP:J. n!:lm '::1:>0
This set of suffixes is also used for many prepositions: J~N
,DY ,J1n ,nN ,11:JY ,J':J'ti:J ,-0 ,,VJ ,-7
He planted himself across from us. Give me mx...book back. It was not easy. Believe me. We wanted to bring him back to reality.
.n NJ1 u'm iOY) Nm .'Jill1!ltm nN 'J 1'nn .'J 1)'0Nn .7p nm N7 m .mN'~OJ 1311N 1'lf"'mJ ))'~1
6.4.2 Added to plural noun forms and some prepositions Pronoun suffixes attached to plural nouns Plural
Singular
3nl
7""
1sl
3n.l
2nd
Dy'_-
D:;)' .. -
il' -
1'.-
,.
IY' . -
1~' . -
v'.,-
1'.,
l sl I
-
__
Ella, do your parents live in Haifa? ?n!lm:J 0'1l r1in ,n,N The (its) owner of the soccer team "'\:I:Jn Jl,1i:::>n n::n:Jp J'lJ n'J>!:J promised that the club will not be N1n iW ':> 1:1\?" NJ 1n>!10nl!.l closed as long as he is alive. This set of suffixes is also used for some prepositions:
He came to us. We heard a lot about him.
.,l',N N:J. N1n .1'J~ n:J.,n 1)>!0'lJ
6.4.3 The use of possessive pronouns The use of pronouns as possessive suffixes is a feature of classical Hebrew, carried over to today's formal registers. In common use of Israeli Hebrew, however, this use is limited. Instead, in everyday language, the possessed noun is followed by the preposition of possession 7~ 'of, with pronouns attached to it.
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Colloquial
Gloss
our neighbor their friends
Formal Register
~)~w p\!Jn
l)).~'?'
OQ~'\1' 0'1'1m
OQ'J'!~
Notable exceptions arc the various kinship terms that have managed to (optionally) maintain the noun + pronoun structure owing to the frequency of their use. The possessive relationship is indicated either with suffix pronouns or with a possession phrase. For instance, both ':::J.N and '~\!J N:IN are used in everyday speech. my father/my Dad ''?"' N:::J.N ':;ll!C her aunt i-ltJ'J1'1 Note that even in the formal registers, one cannot add pronoun suffixes to nouns that are loan words. .0'~\Bnr.l N~ U'\!J 1-,\!Jr.l::l
You can't fool around at our otlice. Doesn't your television work?
ml:::J.W N?
o;:,~,.v mPn~"n
6.5 Demonstrative pronouns The demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun or determiner that is used to indicate a referent's spatial, temporal or discourse location. It functions as a pronoun and as a modifier. The demonstrative pronoun, as its name suggests, is used in some cases at the head of a sentence, as the subject. It ordinarily precedes the noun to which it refers. It points to living things or objects. Gender and number agreement with the noun to which it refers is required. Demonstrative pronouns as an indicator of the referent's location in space and time or identity: Masc. Sing. Fern. Sing. Plural
this (is) this (is) these (are)
n~
ivnN·'t ~~~vn?l:;(
This is our house. This is not my problem. I1 is your problem. These are ditlicult days.
.,)?\!! n'11n m n'l!::lil nNl -
''\!! il'l!::ln N? nNl ·1~\!J
.0'\!!1' O'r.l' on no;,N
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
l'VJ:J>'l - m1>'' 0>'9 ~m ~~N m1:;, ! on7 mpVJ no 7:;,mm .07l!) TlN
These were once woods, and now look at what happened to them! They were all chopped down.
As a modifier, the demonstrative pronoun is part of a phrase: I live in this house. .nm n'l:J 1) 'lN .TlNm n'>'Jn TlN ,m!l., 11'1'l This problem can be solved. These pictures are not for sale. .n1':JY.J7 N7 n7Nn nmonn 6.5.1 Using ilf for general reference In spoken Hebrew the demonstrative pronoun n! 'this' can be used to refer to nouns or noun phrases, regardless of their gender and number. It is considered non-normative usage, but is used in daily informal speech. Normative
This can be a problem!
n'>':J m'n' n7l:::!' nN·~
Colloquial ! n'>'J.
mm? .,,::;,, n!
The demonstrative pronoun m is also used to serve as a link in a sentence that has no verb. It links the two parts of the sentence in the same way that the verb 'to be' in English links such parts, or actually separates the two parts of the sentence. The predicate that is introduced by the link m supplies a comment to the topic, supplied by the subject of the sentence. This structure is particularly useful to separate a lengthy subject or topic from its predicate or comment. What we are doing for him ~ a difficult thing.
,J., m ,.,,l\!J:J 0'\!Jl.VllnlN\!J nr.J .nVJp
In spoken Hebrew it can also be used in the past and future, just as the verb 'to be' is used to indicate the time aspect. What we did for him was a difficult 1l1 nm m l7':JV.I:J ll'VJ>'\!J nr.J thing. .nVJp What we did for him will be a 1:Ji n'il' m ,.,,:JVJ:J ll'V.I>'\!J nr.J ditlicult thing. .nVJp
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
6.5.2 Reference to contexts beyond the noun phrase The demonstrative pronoun singular masculine nj is also used to refer to an entire idea or situation, or a sequence of events. These references are either specifically expressed earlier in a sentence, or a larger discourse unit, or it is part of what is generally understood from the context external to the text. In this case rather than referring to a noun or noun phrase, the pronoun stands for a larger context. In English the pronoun it is used to refer to such a sequence, while in Hebrew the demonstrative pronoun i1! is used to perform the same function. i'nn ,O''tll!ln~ m1N ))'nlntt~:>
When I was invited to meetings, 1 always went, even though i! was not convenient, and i! disrupted work.
rm nm N? .Illtt~ m1n? ,m:>?n . n"TtJ.).I:J '~ :V'1!:li1 ill'
If it is not this, then it is something else. m can also be used to introduce an exclamatory sentence: That's not nice! That's not what is done here! I don't like this at all!
!i1!:l' N? i1} ! )N::J O''tl)).l'tl nn N~ nj
Pl':V.l1n N~)r.3 N~
i1!
6.5.3 Use of the feminine singular nKr for general reference There are occasions where the feminine demonstrative pronoun nN'l functions in the same manner. It is less common, and often indicates a more fonnal usc of language.
1 intend to say something to him each time that he does this.
N1i1'tl 0).1!:1 ~:> ,, 1':Vi1~ )11Jnr.:l ')N
There are certain fixed expressions where and cannot be changed to masculine m: What does i! mean? /What do you mean by this? And in any case, I don't think that there is no hope.
.nNl nNl
ntt~w
is part of the expression
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
6.6 Interrogative and relative pronouns 6.6.1 The interrogative pronoun: who and what? itna•n The interrogative pronoun is one that is used as a question word. As in English, there is one interrogative pronoun'~ that is equivalent to who, and another interrogative pronoun nn that is equivalent to what. These interrogative pronouns, as implied by their name, initiate questions, which elicit information about the subject of the sentence. Who told you that there is no class today? What happened to you? The interrogative pronouns can be used as question words with appropriate prepositions. The question is not about the subject of the sentence but about a prepositional complement. What do you want? Whose is this book? What did you talk about?
?n~,,
n2'o(
ill2
mm,!:ltm'~'w
?on,::t'i nn 7~
Use in speech:
In spoken Hebrew, it is much more common to omit the direct object particle n~ when the question word is i1Y.l 'what', even when the question is about the object of the transitive verb: What are you looking for? 6.6.2 'whoever' and 'whatever' Hebrew relative clauses modify nouns. They follow the nouns that they modify and are introduced by the subordinating particles -w or ,W~· The girls who play soccer will go to play in Haifa.
,~on
7l,li:J mpnvY.l~ nu.Jn .n!:lmJ. pnv7
When the identity of the noun is not known, the pronouns '):) 'who' or il~ 'what' fill the slot of the unknown noun. They are followed by the subordinating particle -w that is an obligatory particle required for introducing relative clauses.
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Whoever Anyone/everyone who Whatever Anything/everything that
... \\' 'r,l
... \\' 'Y.l ';!~ ... ~nY,l ... ~ nr.;l 7~
The following illustrations introduce sentences where nouns fill the subject and object slots, and other sentences where pronouns take the nouns' place when their identity is not known or suggest an inclusive pronoun: 1. Subject: .. 1!1 •n 'Whoever' Subject: 'the people (who .. )'
The people who bought tickets in advance, can board the train now.
.. 1!1 0'\!JJNil
llJN10 0't1't'1:> Up~ O''liJNn .1'1l1:l).l n.::r:n'J m'J.11? O'J1::l'
Subject: 'whoever'
Whoever bought tickets in advance, can board the train now. 2. Subject: ..\!J iln 'What(ever)' Object rumors (which .. )
We heard about him all kinds of rumors, which were all true. Object: whatever
What( ever) we heard about him was lrue.
( .. 1!1) 'l'l J)J' llJNiO O'tl'\:liJ mp~ '0 .PilJJ).I m:>1? m'J).I'J
(.. w)
JlllllllW :NI!.IIll
)m'tl ,m).IU.JilJ 'l'Y.l ?:> P'J).I 1J,).IY.lllJ ..nm:>J
( .. 1!1)
ill'l :N\!Jm
.)1:>.l n'n ,1'7).1 U).IY.l\!J,Yl no
These structures can function as subjects, as direct and indirect objects, and in prepositional phrases. 1. In a subject position
Whoever wants to come - can do so. Whatever I told you is absolutely tme. 2. In direct object position
1 saw everybody I wanted to sec.
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
3. In indirect object position
We spoke about what happened and about everythin~ that we went through.
n~
?:::J ?~' mp~ nn ?~ lYlJ'i .l)lJ~ i::I~~
6.7 Impersonal pronouns: something/nothing Impersonal pronouns refer to entities that not are specitically idenLified. There are several ways to express an impersonal pronoun, including omitting them altogether. In a subject position
Someone told us that the show was cancelled. Everyone will tell you that there is no problem. Everybody ~) thinks that you left town. Nobody knows when he will return. In an object position
,,'l!
He gave your book to someone. .~mJ'~' i!ltm nN 1m Nm We still have not heard from .inN ?::m mn~'l! N' 1"i~ everyone. .il:::l'U~, 0,~::> nN U'Oli1 Oil They invited everybody to the party. Dan told nobody when he'd be .iHn' Nln 'n~ inN 'lN, i~N N, )1 coming back. 6.7.1 Omission of impersonal pronouns In English indefinite pronouns can be expressed by the noun one, or by the pronouns you or they and sometimes people when they refer to an indefinite, non-specific entity. In Hebrew the subject pronoun is omitted altogether in such cases, and only the verbal predicate is present. lt is a subjectless sentence that uses a third person masculine plural torm of the verb (in past, present or future).
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Subject
Predicate
You
add a cup of sugar to the flour and butter mixture. come to visit here from all comers of the world. told me that there are plenty of things to do here. used to play soccer here, until the city closed the park .
People
They
One
Ni\!Jl
1<\!Jil
n:::tnYn7 -,:;:,m m:> O'!l'Ul~
0
.mmnm n~pn ?\!! l1W:Ip ):;:,~ 12'01p:::t? 0'N::!.
0
.o.,wn no n::~.1n \!!'\!! ' ' 11~N .1N:> m\!JYJ
0
i}.l ,.,:nn:;:, 1N::l O'pn'll~ 1m
0
.p1N!lill1N il1ltl il''1'Yil\!J
When the predicate is a transitive verb, the passive verb is often used in English. Subject + Predicate
The plant was closed three months ago. The stories of the first settlers were not documented. What a pity!
Nil!JJ
Nl!Jil
n\!!1?\!J 'J!l? .,}.l!l~n l1N n::~u
0
.0'\!Jin
.,'ll 0'1l!l'Uil l1N 1iY'l1 N., .O'Jl\!JN1n
0':1\!J"n~n
!7:::tn
0
Chapter 7 Numerals A numeral is a word, functioning most typically as an adjective, a quantifier or a pronoun that expresses a number, and a relation to the number, such as one of the following: quantity, sequence, frequency and fraction. The following kinds of numerals will be discussed: 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8
Free counting Cardinal numbers Noun phrases with cardinal numbers Ordinal numbers Fractions Multiplication values Numeric value ofletters Phrases: days ofthe week, dates, telling time, age
Tn terms of form and syntactic role, the main distinction within the numeral category is between 'cardinal' numbers, which are used in counting and as quantifiers of nouns, and 'ordinal' numbers, which behave like adjectives. In terms of function, however, one should distinguish between cardinal numbers used to quantify the nouns they follow, and those used in "free counting', which refer to sequential counting. Note
In this chapter, •N and 'Y are represented in the transcription only in stressed final syllables, where['] is most likely to be heard (e.g., n~~).
7.1 Free counting Free counting involves a flow of numbers without reference to objects. Hebrew uses the feminine independent numbers in counting - see discussion of feminine and masculine numbers in the section on cardinal numbers below. Aside from being used in counting, counting numbers are also used in the following contexts:
Chapter 7: Numerals
17X
1. In naming and labeling objects Bus number 5 6 Hertz! Street
\!.Inn 1!ltm tn:m:mo< \!J\!J 1!:lOD ~~1il :Jln1
2. In conveying telephone numbers ,mm'tl 1:Y:l'tl- o~~n\!J , \!JlJ\!J , \!J\!J 051-632-7894
nnN I \!.Inn 1O!:lN )I:J1N ,).1\!Jn
3. In mathematics For various arithmetical functions, as in the following example: 1+ I = 2 D"n'tl •on nnN 1Wl nnN *In the arithmetic,
Di1
stands for 'is/are'.
Single numbers
aliat shtclyim shal6sh arlui fiamesh shesh sheva shm6ne tesha eser
no~
D?JJ~
2
\!Ji~"'
3
YJ';l~
4
\!J~I)
5
\!}~
6
Y;t'(J
7 8 9 10
min \!.I: .,. )I~~
1\?~
The zero value is conveyed by the masculine noun O.?,~ 4/es.
Teens The teen numbers ( 11-19) are a combination of the nouns for single digits (in dependent fonn) and m~.v.- '-teen': afiat esre il')~~ no~ 11 shteym esre m~)! Q')J)~ 12 shlosh esre ilJi?'~ \!Ji~~ 13 arbd esre i1'J~~ Y~';'~ 14 namesh esre mi?'~ \!J~Q 15 shesh esre il'J~~ IV\? 16 shwi esre ilJ~)! Y;l'?' 17 shmone esre n)~~ n?iD'?' 18 tsha esre n'J\p~ YI{JJ;l 19
Chapter 7: Numerals
179
Numbers 20-90 take a plural form. Except for the number 0'-:J·'{-1~ 'twenty', which is actually the plural form of'ten', the rest ofthe 'tens' are the plural fonn of the singular. From 'll1~'ll 'three' you get O'YJ1~'{-I 'thirty', and so on. esrim 20 0'-:J~.V shloshim 30 0'~i~'?' arba'im 40 0'~:;;1J~ liamishim 50 D'WY.lO shishim 60 0'W~ shiv'im 70 0'~;t~ shmunim 80 CP~iY.l'?' tish 'im 90 D')I~J:l Single digits are added to these numbers with the conjunction 'and' -1 to form the more complex numbers. Thus the number 'twenty-one' is expressed as 'twenty and one': nQ~) O'"J\;J~. 21 esrim ve-aliat nQ~) O''J~~ esrim u-shtayim 22 D?l3'?'~ 0'')\IJ~ esrim ve-sha/6sh 23 YJi'J"'' 0'')~~ esrim ve-arba 24 )l~')~) D''J\IJ~ esrim ve-liamesh 25 YJ~Q) 0'-:J~~ esrim va-shesh 26 YJ~) 0'-:J\;J.V, esrim va-sheva 27 )l~~) D'":I~.V esrim u-shmom? 28 n~it)~~ 0'":1~~ esrim va-tesha 29 )l'{JlJ) 0'":1\:J~ Note a. In normative Hebrew:
The conjunction -) becomes -~ before a consonant with a 'zero shva', e.g. D?t1'{-l~ O'"J·'{-1~ esrim u-shtayim (esrim ve-shtayim is a colloquial variant), n~iY.l'?'~ 0'":1~~ e.~rim u-shmone (esrim ve-shmone in the colloquial, or a 'midway' compromise: esrim u-shmime). The conjunction -) becomes -) before a stressed vowel, e.g., )l;J.~) 0'":1·'?'~ esrim va-sheva. b. In spoken Hebrew:
Speakers rarely follow the practice mentioned above of changing the conjunction -) to its variants -~ or -) in everyday Hebrew. Thus the
180
Chapter 7: Numerals
conjunction is usually pronounced ve-, regardless of the more formal rules.
Higher numbers The noun which denotes 'hundred' is the feminine noun il~>;;l me ·,1. The noun which denotes 'thousand' is the masculine noun C)~~ elef In combination with single digits, these nouns fonn the count nouns from 100 and beyond.
Hundreds The feminine noun il~>;;l me'a 'a hundred' provides the base for all the numbers from 100 to 999. The dual fonn expressing 'two hundred' is o~l)NY.l. From 300 to 900, the hundreds are a combination of the single digit feminine numbers followed by the plural form niNJ;;l, which follows it. Notice that the dependent fom1 of the digits is used. (In the numbers 'three', 'seven' and 'nine', the alternate form is noticeable, as the first vowel of the independent form of the number is omitted and replaced by :L:ero shva sign).
me'a matayim shlosh me 'ot arbci me 'at namesh me'ol shesh me'ot shva me'ot shmomi me'ot tsha me 'ot
il~>;;l O~l)NY.l
niNr,;l·\!Ji~~ niN>;;l-Y~')z::<
niNQ-\/J'-?Q niNt.;)-\!J'?.' niNY:l-Y~~
niN~-n~i~~
niNQ-YW{l
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
To form more complex numbers with 'tens' and 'om~s·, the phrase starts with the highest number, which is followed by the next number in order, and ends with the 'ones'. Notice that before the last number the conjunction 'and' -lis added, such as in the following examples: D"n\/Jl O'llO\/J ,mNO )JJ\!J 782 1!/0nl 0~1\/J).I ,mNO \/Jl?\!1 325
Thousands The masculine noun ~'?~ 'a thousand' provides the base for all the numbers from 1,000 to I 0,000. The dual torm to express 'two
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Chapter 7: Numerals
thousand' is o~~~~ alpciyim. From 3,000 to 10,000, the thousands are a combination of the single digit masculine numbers followed by the plural form 'thousands' O'!:l?~ alajim, which follows it. Notice that the dependent form of the digits is used. elef alpayim shloshet alafim arM 'at alajim hameshet alafim sheshet alafim shiv 'at alafim shmonat alafim tish 'at alafim aseret alqfim
'1~~ 0~~?~ 0'!;1?~-n~i?~ 0'!;1~~-n~~.-~~ o'!:;l?~-n~~;;~o O'!;l~~-n~\Y
D'~?~-n~~~ O'!;l'<~-mio~ o'~~~-n~~n
O'!;I?~-J11W~
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
Note If the number includes thousands and hundreds only, the conjunction 'and' is optional: 1,700 niNr.l-Y::l\1' '1JN or niNr.l-l'::l\1'~ "J?N. Beyond ten thousand To count thousands beyond 'ten thousand', the masculine form of the single numbers is combined with the singular fonn of '1?~ (the plural form can be used as well). ahad asar elef shneym asar elef shlosha asar elef arba 'a asar el!!l liamisha asar elef shisJui asar elef shiv ·a asar elef shmona asar elef tish 'a asar elef esrim elef
'1~t< ,~~ i1J~
'1~~ 1~~ O'~~ '1?~ 1~{1 n~i?~
'1~~ 1~~ n~:g.1~
'1~~ ,~~ n"'Y.lO '1~~ 1~}.' n~'?'
'1~t< ,~~ n~;t~ '1?~ 1~{1 n~ir.l'l' '1~~ 1~}.' n}.'~n '1~z:< O'")·~~
11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000 16,000 17,000 18,000 19,000 20,000
Chapter 7: Numerals
182
From 30,000 to 90,000 '1?~ b''?'l'JII!
shloshim elef arha 'im elef namishim ele.f shishim elef shiv 'im el~f shmonim elef fish 'im elef
30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000
'l?~:;t 0'.\9")~
'17.1:;( O''?I'Y,lQ '17~ 0'~'?1 '1~1:;( 0').9'?1
'l?z::< 0'~l)'J~ 'l~l::< 0').1'?'3;1
From 100,000 to 999,999.
me'aelef matayim elef shlcJsh me 'ot el~f mily6n shisJui milyon bilytmlmi~yard
'l'?l::< ill:<~ 'l~~ D?JJl'
,,, ll''?'Y.l 1i'~'Y,l il""'?l (~) i")N~{'Y,ll)i''?'+
100,000 200,000 300,000 1,000,000 6,000,000 1,000,000,000
The order of numbers in the phrase: To form more complex numbers with 'hundreds', 'tens' and 'ones', the phrase starts with the highest number, which is followed by the next number in order and ends with the 'ones', the same as in English. 7,324 2,256
Y:l1N) 0',\!!Y ,InNI'J \!!,'J\!1 ,0'!;1'?~ J1Y:J\!! \!!\!!) O''l!l't.Jn 0"11N~ ,o~~~~
7.2 Cardinal numbers
0 1liD D 1.,90D
There arc two sets of cardinal numbers: masculine and feminine. Each of these sets has two subsets of independent and dependent forms of the numbers: the independent set is used in indefinite phrases, while the dependent set is used in definite phrases. In the numbers 3-1 0, the masculine numbers have the n.- ending, otherwise associated with feminine nouns. Feminine
Masculine
iDz::<
I
no~
0~~~
0'tl'?'
il"" i'J'?'
2 3
ilY.;J-";1~
4
Y~)~
il""Y.lQ
5
\!JQQ
'l!li'J~
Chapter 7: Numerals
183
6
n~w
~¥.!
n{'~'?'
7
Y;i~
n~1Y.J\(J
8
n~1o~
n~'?'f:l
9 10
Y'?'D
n)·~~
l~)!
7.3 Noun phrases with cardinal numbers Cardinal numbers combine with count nouns for the purpose of indicating the quantity of items. Except for 'one', they precede the head noun, which puts them in the same class as other quantifiers (such as n:;).JiJ ,n})~ ,\)~'? ·'~) and distinguishes them from adjectives, which follow the noun they modify. 7.3.1 Use of number 'one' in numerical phrases There is a certain redundancy in the overt inclusion of the number 'one' in a number phrase, since a singular noun, by definition and by form, is a singular entity. It makes more sense, however, if it is regarded as an adjective meaning 'single', and indeed Hebrew 'one' does behave like an adjective: in a phrase, it always follows the noun that is being counted, and has the gender features of the noun that it modifies. The number 'one' also agrees with the count-noun in its status as indefinite or definite: in an indefinite noun phrase, both count-noun and number do not have an article, while in a definite phrase, both noun and number do have a definite article. Indefinite phrases Masculine
Feminine
one hat
one dress
Definite phrases Masculine
the one actor
l)T 1nNn)pn~t~n
Feminine
the one actress
iiJ.j7)
rmNn n'Jpnvn
7.3.2 Use of number 'two' and above in numerical phrases Numerical phrases with numbers above the number 'one' are formed in a similar shape to that of [noun +noun] phrases, m:>'Y.JO '!:Ill'~- In these phrases the components combine in the following way: the number always precedes the count nouns, which, with some exceptions (particularly, in higher numbers), are plural nouns. The numerals have
Chapter 7: Numerals
184
the same gender features as the count nouns. When the phrases are indefinite, the number nouns are the independent forms of the number (with the exception of number 'two', as can be seen below). When the number nouns are part of a definite phrase, they have the alternate shape typical of the first noun of a m~'OU phrase. When the number 'two' is part of an indefinite or definite phrase, it has the form -~).~ or -';r:l\f' : Indefinite phrases Masculine
two boys two fathers
]2!
0')::1
'~\('
m:JN ').~
Definite phrases Masculine the two boys O'):Ji1 '~'() the three nnNn !'1'1?17'<' fathers Masculine Dependent form Independent form
Feminine the two girls the three women
il:J.j1]
nu:J ':1.:1'<' O''t'J
';r:l~
il:J.j1)
J11):Ji1 'tl~ 0''tlli1 \!Ji.,~
Feminine Dependent form Independent form -';rJ\(' O?JJ\f' \!JiJ'{J -'tliJ'?I
-l~'<'
O~l'<'
-n'?,'i.,'<'
n"'i.,~
-n~:n~
i1{9';1~
-}.I~)~
l.ln~
-n"'~Q
il~Y,)Q
-\!JP.Q
\!J~Q
-n~~
i1~\!}
-\!}~
'll~
Indefinite: Definite:
Feminine two girls two women
-n~:;t\!J
n~~:;t\!J
-l,I:J~
Y:J"'
-n~iO'o(J
n~io'<'
-n~io~
n~io~
-n~'<'l;l
i1~'<'T:l
-Y~tl
Y~t:l
-n;~l!
n~·"'l!
-1~~
,w~
Five customers entered the store. The five customers came in together.
Note
In current Hebrew the !'1\!JlJ\!J type fonns are alive and well, while the 'til.,'<' dependent ones are obsolete. Often, the !'1\!JlJ'tl type is used tor definite feminine nouns as well.
185
Chapter 7: Numerals
7 .3.3 Definite numerical phrase beyond 10 Beyond the number 10, count nouns do not atlect the fonn of the numeral, regardless of whether the noun is detinite or indefinite. Masculine
Indefinite: Definite:
There are thirteen boys in class. All the thirteen boys are friends ofmine.
nn'::>J. D'JJ.n 1'l.'>' n'l-'17'lJ ' ' .'J'lJ 0'1J.n
Feminine
Indefinite: Detinite:
There are thirteen girls in class. All the thirteen girls are friends of mine.
mJJ. nl'l.'>' 'lJ1J'lJ 'l-'' n.n':>J. J1ll::I1J n1'lJ)! 'lJ)J'lJ , ,
·'''lJ m1:m
7.3.4 Teen numbers- masculine and feminine The masculine teen numbers differ in their form from feminine teen numbers (introduced in the counting section above): the tirst number of the compound noun is the masculine singular unit number, while the second number signifies 'teen', and its form in the masculine is 1~~· Masculine 11)~
Feminine
11
.no~
12
D'.tl~
i~)! O'~~
nJi?J~
1~.\' n~i?~
nJ'<J~
13
1~.\' mr~)~
n'J\?{1 14 15
,~~ nX~'?'
16
nJ~).J )!~~
18
n~in~
n)~.\'
i~.\' n.\'~n
l~)!
'l-''?,1
17
i~)! n~in~
'lJ)'JQ n')~).J
,~
n~9'?'
>'J!~
n')~{'
i~.\' nX~~Q
'lJi':J~
n'J\?)! 19
>'~T;I
n')~~
1X6
Chapter 7: Numerals
7.3.5 Agreement between numbers and the quantified nouns In a numerical noun phrase, the main noun determines the choice of the gender of the number of the numeral. Masculine 13 dogs 14 days
1JT
O'J?:l 1\!J)I i1\!J1?\!J 0'}J' 1\!J)I i1)1J.1N
Feminine 13 girls 14 cakes
n:li7l
nin il"l\!.1)1 \!.11?\!J Jlil1)1 i11\!J).I ).l::nN
Beyond 20, only the last digit of the number agrees in gender with the noun it quantifies: Feminine Masculine
23 companies 547 units 49 books 365 days
nn:m \!Jl?\!.11 0'1\!J}I mT'n' ))Jill) O').IJ1N mNn 'linn O'"l~tJ
nY'llm O'liJ'lN
o'n' n'll'nm O''ll'tl mNn 'li1?\!J
7 .3.6 Numbers + pronoun suffix The numbers 2-10 can have a plural possessive suffix added to them. By one word, which consists of a number and a pronoun suffix, one can express what takes a four-word phrase in English: 'The two of you' is rendered by the one word O?'J~- The fonn to which the suffixes are added is a dependent form of the number: -').~ or 'tl~ and not O?J~ or O?lJ~. When the reference is to masculine nouns, or a mixed group of masculine and feminine nouns, the set of masculine numbers becomes the basis for the word, but if the reference is to feminine nouns, then the feminine number is the basis tor the word. By definition, the concept is always a plural one. Numbers with plural suffixes the two of us the two of you the two of them the three of us the three of you the three of them
iUi7l
1JT
~)'lJ~
~)'J~
P'tl~
0~').~
)Q'tl~
Oi)'~~
Ut)~i?~
)~{l'?'i?'?'
O~{l'?'i?~
1~~i?~
o~~i?~
187
Chapter 7: Numerals
the four of us the four of you the four of them
1:?,T;I).'~';Il::(
the five ofus the tive of you the five of them
pr;r~mQ
m::w~':'~ Dit;l).':;t)~
~.m\?t.JQ
D:?,J;l'<1Y:lQ
7.4 Ordinal numbers Ordinal numbers ('first, second, third') are used to indicate the order in which individual items appear. They are usually singular concepts: the first day, the second day, the third day. ,)T )i\!.JN)
il:lj7l
l st
n~iVJN'J
)~'?'
2nd
i1?~~
''?"~'?'
3"1
J'P\?~~~
'~'.:n
4'h
J'l'~'.:;l";J
'\?)Y,lQ
5'h
31'\?~Y,lQ
'"?'"?
6'h
31'~\?
'~'.:;!'?'
7tll
31'~'.:;1~
gth
31'~'Y,l'?f
,~,Y,l~
'~''?'J;l
'-:t''?'l!
9th
lOth
31'Y.''?'l;l 31'1''?'~
Jn the ordinal numbers 'first' and 'second', the feminine ordinal numbers have the feminine suftix n.- while in the numbers 3-1 0, the feminine ordinal numbers have the feminine sutiix 31'-. Note the difference between i1?~'?' 'second, f.' and 31'~¥.' 'again'. 7 .4.1 Noun phrases with ordinal numbers Ordinal numbers have gender features and function as adjectives do, and as such they tollow the head nouns of the phrase. In phrases they have the same gender features as the nouns that they modify. They also reflect the indefinite or definite status of the phrac;e.
188
Chapter 7: Numerals
Indefinite phrases; Masculine
a third house
''t''''t' Jll:J
Feminine
a first show
nmJN""'nl!lln
Definite phrases; Masculine
the third house
'1!.1'7't'n J'l':Jn
Feminine
the first show
m11!.1N1n nl!llnn
7.4.2 Phrases with ordinals higher than 10th The ordinal numbers higher than lOth are formed using cardinal numbers. However, they combine with nouns as adjectives and therefore agree with the head noun in gender and in use of articles. Dan was the eleventh customer in .1m::1 1't')l-imm m1pn nm 11 line. This is the thirty-first year in which n:JY.J nnx, C'Y.I,7Y.Jn m'lm nl'n Hebrew is taught here. . )N:> m1:J)I D'iY.I?Y.I
Use of 'first' and 'last' The noun )11!.1N1 'first' is also paired with the noun )11nN 'last'. They are truly ordinal adjectives and as adjectives have four forms indicating both gender and number. niJl\!.IN') 0'~\\!.IN') n~WJN') )l\!.IN') first last niJi1Q~ 0'~110~ n~i1Q~ )i1Q~ The first day of the week is Sunday. Last but not least. a·-,~~
7.5 Fractions
Partitive numbers are stated by regular nouns, which specify their fractional quality: reva 1/2 The noun 'half' has two forms: one when it is used as an independent noun and is not combined with another noun, '!;II) lietsi, and another when it is combined with a noun as part of a phrase, -'~0 liatsi-. Give me a half of what you have. Give me a half loaf of bread.
lietsi natsi-
·1' 't'''t' noo '~r::'l '' )n .on? 1=>'J '~0 '' 1n
189
Chupter 7: Numeru/s
The words for 'half, 'third' and 'fourth/quarter' are masculine, while those for fractions 'fifth' through 'tenth' are feminine: a half tuitsi '~n 1/2 a third shlish ttn?\11 1/3 a fourth reva Y~:J I /4 Give me a third of what you have. The time is a quarter to seven. a fifth a sixth a seventh an eighth a ninth a tenth
namishit shishit shvi'it shminit t.~hi 'it asiril
-1;. \IJ'\!.1 mm 'll'?'ll '' 111 .)l:l\!.1;. YJ.1
m.1'lln
!l'~'I;JQ
1/5
!l''¢1\11
1/6 117 1/8
!l'~':;I'<J !l'~'Y,l~ !1')1'~{1
1/9
!l'"J'\11~
1110
7.6 Multiplication values Hebrew combines the fixed form of the noun '!1> 'times' with the number. The number form is masculine; however in everyday speech the use of the feminine number in these phrases is more common. tenfold/ ten times as much C1~~ '!))) n;·~~ '!1> fourfold/ four times as much. The value 'double' is expressed by the noun 'double', which has a dual ending: o~~~:;> 'twice as much'. Twice as much/double
D~'?~~
My book is expensive. It costs twice as much as your
book. It costs double. It will cost you five times as much. *The other number with a dual ending is It is a fixed idiomatic expression.
.1P' ';.'ll 1!ltm ·1;.\!.1 1!ltmY.l O"J'll '!l n;.w Nm
.o";.!l::> n;.w Nm .'l.IY.ln '!lli1'l.I'Y.ln '!l 1? n?Y' m
O~l:l~J:f\11,
meaning 'sevenfold'.
190
Chapter 7: Numerals
7.7 Numeric value of letters The letters of the alphabet have number value in Hebrew. They are used in Modem Hebrew to indicate dates, days of the week, status in co1legc ('N m~ is Freshman, 1:1 m~ is Sophomore, etc.), for numbering items in a list, and sometimes they are used where roman numbers are used in English to indicate page numbers. 100 200 300 400
p
80 90
1
!)
10
~
20 30 40 50 60 70
\!1 J1
,
, J
n
8 9
1 2
\:)
Y.l
N :l
3 4
i
)
)
5
il
t1
6
1
y
7
l
Beyond 400, letters are added up and create the higher numbers (similar to Roman numerals): 600=,"11
200
=, +
400=31
500-P"11
100 =P +
400-11
800~11 11 31
400 =31 +
400""31
700=~"11
300
+
400=31
=~
Note The following final letters served for higher numbers, but no longer do so in contemporary Hebrew: 900 = ~ 800 = ~ 700 = '1 600 = 0 500= 1
Teen numerals The teen numbers (ll-19) are expressed by combining the letters 1\J-'N with the letter yod '' for 10. 19 =\J''' 18 = nm 17 = l"' 14 =i"' 13 =l"' 1Z = )"' 11 =N"' The numbers 15, 16 are stated in terms of 9+6, and 9+7, since the combination of the letter '' plus either •n or 'l includes a sequence which is used in the sacred name of God. Thus, 16 = l"\J ,15 "'1"\J. Numbers 20·90 The numbers 20-90 are expressed hy combining the values of '\J·'N for the single unique numbers, and the letters ~-:> for 20 to 90. 58 = n"l 79 =\J"Y 43 =l"Y.l 36= l"? Zl =N":>
191
Chapter 7: Numerals
Other higher numbers represented by letters
Thousands are usually represented by the apostrophe', which is added to the letters. The apostrophe separates the thousand from the rest of the number. 5,000 = 'il
4,000= '1
3,000
~
'l
2,000=':1
l,OOO='N
Combining higher numbers
The principle of combining letters also works for higher numbers. If more than two letters are needed for the number, the double quotes mark " comes betore the last letter. 227 = l")l 508 = n"pn 749 = \:>"Y.lllJn 5, 764 = "T"UilJ.Jl'il
7.8 Numbers in common phrases 7.8.1 Days of the week There are two systems for the names of the days of the week: one uses the letters of the alphabet to signify the day, while the other uses the ordinal numbers following the word 'day' to signify the days of the week. ))llJN1 m~ Sunday 'N DP 1:1 01' Monday ')\!1 01' Tuesday 'l D1' 'llJ'?IlJ 0)' Wednesday '1 01' 'Y':l1 01' Thursday •n D1' 'llJlY.ln m' ,, 01' Friday '\!1'\!1 Ol' Saturday/Sabbath 31:1\!1 .Jl:l\!1 7.8.2 Dates Dates of the Jewish calendar are often given with the number values of the Hebrew alphabet. N"U\!111 'il 11:1\:>:l '' 'i 01' Wednesday, 7th of the month of Tevet, 5,761
The •n for 5,000 is often omitted in common usage: The Gregorian calendar is used extensively, and the marking of the date starts with the month, day and year (day and month are in reverse order from those in English): 2002 ,1:1Y.l:m:l i11\!1Y 10/11/2002 11/10/2002 November 10,2002
Chapter 7: Numerals
192
7.8.3 Referring to dates One refers to decades by using a construct phrase that combines -nil~ 'the years of with the various decades. nmv CJlOJ. mp '~'~::m ,J.'l'On The economic crisis took place in the late 20s. .D','l'>'il One refers to centuries by using a definite phrase (since it is regarded as a specific, known dale) that combines n~~ 'century' with an ordinal numeral. The 21st century started with dramatic events. 7.8.4 Numbers in telling time The nouns that refer to time units are feminine and therefore the counting oftime units is done using feminine numerals. hour 7 hours
ilY'l' mlJ'l' lJJ.'l'
I minute 5 minutes
np; mp'T 'l'Y.ln
The question is 'what hour is it? The answer starts with 'the hour is' The time is six fifteen The time is quarter past six. The time is six thirty. The time is half past six. The time is six torty-five. The time is quarter to seven. The time is seven exactly.
I second 2 seconds
!il!J'l' i1 ilO ... m-''l'il
.mp; il1'l'Y 'l'Onl 'l''l' N'il illJ'l'il .)JJ.,, 'l''l' illJ'l'il .nlp'T 0''l'l,'l'l 'l''l' N'il il>J'l'il . '~m 'l'\!.1 il>J\!Jn . Cmp1) \!./Om 0'lJJ."1N \!.I'll N'il il)J'l'il .l/::l\!)~ lJJ., il>J\!Jil . Pl'iJ. )JJ.\!.1 N'il il>J\!Jil
Note
The 'quarter past' and 'half past' have an a vowel in the conjunction-): 'a quarter past six' >'~Jl \(.1\!J, 'half past six' '~Dl \(I'll. For indicating five and ten minutes, one may alternatively use the masculine number as well, without mpi. 6: 10 nlpi ,\!JlJl \(.1\!J N'il ill/\!Jil il1\!J)J) \!J\!.1 N'il il).I\!Jil 8:55 >J'l'n'7 il\(J'On N'il ilY'l'il Y'l'n~ mp; 'lion wn n>JYJn In numbers greater than ten, the final digit is usually feminine. ,illlY.l'l' N'il il}IYJil D'YJ')')n1 illlO'l' N'il ilY'l'il 8:55 YJom D''li'On
mp; YJom
Chapter 7: Numerals
193
7.8.5 Telling age The nouns that refer to years O'~'?' (.:J) n~'?' are feminine, and therefore the counting of years is done with feminine numerals. The nouns that refer to months are masculine 0'~70 (. 1) 'li'J·n, and therefore the counting of months is done with masculine numerals.
The phrase of telling one's age is formed by using the noun p. in all four forms to head the age phrase. O~)YJ
111:11
Ol:J1
n1m'
1m'
(X) nil~
Ol)VJ (X) '~~
O'l'll (x) n:;J
Ol)VJ (X),:;}.
The questions of age and the responses are fixed expressions. They do not literally translate into the English 'how old are you'?' but the message is the same. The question is expressed in Hebrew by the following phrase '[benlbatlbney!hnot how many (years)) are you?' The initial head noun can be loosely translated as 'a person of'. The head noun agrees in gender and number with the person about whom such information is solicited. The noun o~~"" 'years' is often omitted in speech. Questions:
Danny, how old are you? Sarah, how old are you? How old are your parents? How old are the girls in your class?
mm-< m:D p. ,~n ?nN ?O::I~VJ
no:~
n;I , n1YJ
0'1mn nt.J:> ')~
m:>~VJ nn':>:l ml:~n no:~ niJ;J
Answers:
r am twenty-six. Sarah is thirty-five. Our parents are fifty years old. The girls in class are twelve or thirteen years old.
. 'll'lll
Ol1VJ}.I1~
lJN
. VJt.Jn1 0'1!!1~\!1 n:;J nl'll .O''ll't.Jn '~? UJ'll o~1mn 1N n1VJ}.I-O'nYJ nil~ nn'::l:l nu:~n 0
i11 YJ}.I-'lll'YJ
Fractions can be expressed by 'half or 'a quarter' or by numbers of months: ,~,..., 'lll~\!J i1)l~ Jonah is three and a half Leah is six and ten months. . O''ll1m Tn'li.Vl VJVJ nl nN'' 0
w
Chapter 8 Adjectives 8.1 8.2 8.3 R.4 8.5 8.6
Introduction: forming adjectives Comparative and superlative adjectives Forming adjectives by adding suffix -i Nouns and adjectives of affiliation Participles that function as adjectives Special patterns
8.1 Introduction: forming adjectives The adjective functions both as the modifier of a noun in a noun phrase and also functions as a non-verbal predicate. All Hebrew adjectives have four forms. The masculine singular is considered the base form ofthe adjective. n~::n D':l1 ili'n' :::I:..O.:. < ,,,~ big, large lli~ii~ n?ii~ 0'~1i~ private ni~\;>':1~ 0'~\;>')~ < '\;>'J!;) ll'\;>J~ While the masculine singular form has no particular ending, the feminine and the plural forms all have regular endings: feminine singular n- -a, n- -el or -it; masculine plural 0'- -im; and ternininc plural m- -ut. Adjectives, whether they are noun modifiers or predicates, always take on the gender and number features of the noun they modify. While nouns don't always have predictable plural endings, which reflect their gender, adjectives always do. n1:11
good friend(s)
m:nu lll'lJ.n big street 'n) J.,n1
big streets nice women
nice woman
ilir.lnJ il'li'N
There are two ways of forming adjectives: linearly, by adding a suftix without affecting the stem (except for predictable phonetic
195
Chapter 8: Aqjectives
modifications), and discontinuously, by a [root+ pattern] combination. The linear derivation paUern is manifest in one formation pattern, noun+i (see below). Of the discontinuous adjectival patterns, there are those identical to the participles ofthc various verb patterns (binyanim), and some that are not. Regardless of the nature of derivation, adding a feminine or plural marker may result in a shift of stress in the word, and certain vowel deletions and modifications. 8.1.1 Some of the most common adjectival form groups Certain adjective patterns keep the stem throughout all four forms. The masculine singular is considered the base form, and there are no changes in the stem itself in the other forms, but they do exhibit the suffixes that mark gender and number.
secret funny
-r•n•
m:n
D'.).,
ni~-:rio
Ol~JitJ
Jl')itJ
'7itJ
niP'f:l~I;J
O't''f:l~l;l
ni?'l:'~l?
P'f:l~r,J
In some patterns the feminine singular suffix is -eCet rather than -a: dangerous ni)~?'? 0'~~?'? n~f?'il 1~?9
perfect
nir.l?~t?
O'>;~?~t?
n'??~t?
n{~t?
Changes to the initial vowel of the base form mark other adjective patterns. The vowel a of the tirst consonant changes to a zero; in the case where the initial consonant is •n •n ')) 'N a liatafpatali accompanies it to facilitate pronunciation: black, dark ni,in'?' O'"Jin'?' n:tin'?' ,;nXJ strong
8.2 Comparative and superlative adjectives
'7'!1 o•,Hn •gn•lr 1nn•1 ;,Hnw;,
Adjectives may take comparative and superlative degree. The modifiers that indicate the degree are the following: 8.2.1 Comparative
The adverb ,m, 'more' is added to the adjectives to form comparative constructions. The default order is for the adverb 1m' to precede the adjective, although in speech it often follows it as well: 7nl ,JW, or 1m' 7nl for 'bigger'. The adverb mn.!l "less' is added to the adjective to form similar constructions. The default order is the same, with the
Chapter 8: Aqjectives
196
adverb mn!l preceding the adjective, although in speech it often can follow the adjective. Unlike the adjective, which in Hebrew has gender and number features, the modifier is an adverb and as such has one tixed form, which does not carry gender or number features. sweeter/more sweet
less sweet
;m~ Plnl'J I Plnl'J i:l'n' 1311' npml'J mpum ;m~ iJ'll' 0'P)J'll'J I 0'Plnl'J ,,., ,,.,, mpml'J 1 mpml'J ,,.,,
mn!l pml'J 1 f.'lJ'lt.) mn!l mn!l npmt.) 1 npml'J mn!l rnn!l O'Plnl'J 1 O'f.'lnl'J J'lln!l mn!l mpmt.) 1 mpml'J mn!l
,-•n• ill'n' D'J.i nl).i
••n• i1"'T'n' 0').1 nl).i
A comparative structure by its nature involves two entities, between which a comparison is being made. The first noun phrase introduces the structure while the second noun phrase completes the proposition. The comparative adjective Jinks the two entities by means of the particle 'than' -o. The new show is more entertaining than the previous one.
J111Jt.) 1nl' m.linn n~nn
These hills are less steep than the ones we climbed yesterday.
m~1~m
.nrYnpn~
mn!l n~Nn ml':lln )1l'JJ1N 1i1''l' l)tl!l'\:1\!J J1UJJli1!a
8.2.2 Superlative
Superlative constructions have two ditTerent forms: the adjective can be preceded by the adverb '=>i1 the most, or it can be followed by the adverbial expression 11ll~J, which also indicates mosl. comparative superlative
more dangerous than the most dangerous
em W9.'? 11ll' ;m'J W9.J?i1
W9.'? W9.'? '=>n
197
Chapter 8: Ac{jectives
comparative superlative comparative superlative
CtJJ ni?m ,n,
stronger than the strongest
ni?lO ni?lQ 'Jn
,m,:1 ni?!t;.n O'i?'l:'i!Y.l ,m,
funnier the funniest
,m,:1
O'i?'I:'~Qn
0'i?'l:'i!Y.l 'Jn
O'i?'I:'~Y.l
For more information on comparative and superlative, see pp. 257-260
8.3 Forming adjectives by adding suffix.; The most common way of forming new adjectives is by adding the suffix '-. -i, which stands for 'having the characteristic of, to existing words. It is a suffix that is commonly attached to nouns. Adding this suffix to a noun like J':;I~ 'spring' results in ':;1':;1~, which means 'of spring' or 'spring-like'. This is a transparent adjective with a clear relationship to the noun from which it is derived. This formation is very common, since it only requires adding a suffix to an t!xisting noun.
nm
92).
ilT'n'
ni~'?J!il
0'?\??!il
Tl'l.?)!)l
''?J~
ni~l1JNJ
0'!\IJN')
n'\IJN?
'~N)
Noun < \J')!)) < \!.IN."l
Til'~~~
O'!~?f
Tl'~'?~
'~'?~
< ''?~
Gloss
private mam gt!neral
·pn•
Note
Notice that the stem of all fom1s derived from 'l.IN.., r6sh 'head; main item' is -\!.IN') rash-. The base form -'l.INJ rash- changes to \!.IN.., rash when the vowel is stressed, but remains -\!.IN? rash- when it is not. Although normally these adjectives are derived from nouns, the process of creating such adjectives is so productive, that they are also formed from bases that consist of other adjectives. For instance, \!.1~\,? tipesh 'a fool; foolish' can function as either an adjective or a noun ('a foolish person'). In this form. however, it usually refers to people, while the derived adjective 'W!ill.? tipshi 'foolish' is used to characterize an idea or an event: Base: adjective
1!1~'1:>
'stupid' > 'I!J!l'll 'foolish'
David is so stupid - all of his decisions are always foolish.
m\J7nnn .,::1 - \!.l!:l'\J 1::1 7::~ Nm in .nl'\!J!:l'\:> 1'l'JTI ).,\!.1
198
Chapter 8: Adje£:tives
It was stupid to get up so early,
almost in the middle ofthe night. Only complete fools do such things.
,o1p1.tJ
p
7:::~ mp' ''lJ!l'\J nm m
D''lJ!P\J P1 .11J'J11 )J.SI'JN:l 'lJI'.)I'.) .m:::> 1:11 D''lJ')J D'11.tJ:\
When ordinal numbers are combined in phrases they are considered adjectives and can provide the base for derivation of other adjectives. For instance, the ordinal number )l'ON'J 'first' when used in its primary meaning becomes the base for a derived adjective '~1'lJN'J 'primary, principal or primeval'. Base: adjective
!1\~nn> 'lll!nn
The first problem is that the work conditions are the primary things that need to be changed.
'NmVJ Nm m1'lJN1n n')J:m D'1:tln on 1N=> nl1:l)Jn .'U'IVJ 0'P1Pl'lJ 0'')1'lJN1n
There are also a few adverbs that serve as the base for new adjectives, such as 'lJ~l? 'really' > '"?'~'? 'real', or i!Y,) 'immediately > 'l~Y,) 'immediate'. Base: adverb i"l'l >
'i"l'l
There arc immediate needs, for instance, it is necessary to find an apartment right away in a quiet neighborhood close to work.
1'1.S ,J'lJI'.)J ; O"I"P 0':::11-S 'lJ' n\Jp'lJ m1:>'ll:t ~ 111'1 N).So7 . 1111:t)J7 n:t11p1
8.4 Nouns and adjectives of affiliation There is a set of derived nouns of nationality or religion that are a source tor a similar set of derived adjectives. They indicate the affiliation of an individual with particular national, ethnic, or religious groups. It applies to their belonging or being identified as belonging to such a particular group. From these sets of nouns there derived adjectives. The source can be the name of a country, an ethnic or a tribal group, or a religious community. The derived nouns and the adjectives look alike, but their syntactic function is different.
Country: Derived noun: Derived adjective:
Chapter X: Adjectives
199
Many languages are spoken in China. The Chinese speak several languages. There arc several Chinese languages.
n:nn D'"l:Jio .}!2:J .m!l\!.1 "l!ltm D'"l:Jin D'l'tm .nm\!.1 m!:l\!.1 .m'.l'U m!:l\!.1 no:> \!.1'
The derived adjectives for the most part look the same as the derived noun. The one exception is that the masculine plural form has the extra ,, before the plural sumx, as can be seen in this example: Noun: Adjective:
the diligent Japanese the Japanese paintings
D'~'"lnn
D'.l!lm
Oll.l!:l'i1 D'1P::Ii1
8.4.1 Nationality: denominative noun and adjective
'nn¥J•n Nouns: Adjectives:
Israeli Israeli
n1'':?N11!1'
Ol':;'N"l\!.1'
n'7N"l'l.ll
l'/N"l\!.1'
ni'':?N"l'I!J'
on':;'N"l'I!J'
n'.,N"l\!.1'
''N"l'I!J'
Noun: Israelis Many Israelis go abroad during the holidays.
Adjective: Israeli There are many Tsraeli passengers
.D'ln:J
.,,ln.,
D'-,H."''¥.1' :D¥.1
D'.)IUU D'JN"l\!Jl i1J"ln
D11 -,H"U!I 1 :"''HIJI D¥.1
.unmJ D''JNi'I!J' D'YUll n:nn 'I!J'
on the plane.
8.4.2 Ethnic group: denominative noun and adjective From Georgia (in Central Asia) Nouns: Georgian ni~~'H1~ Jl'~'H1~ D'~'H"l~ Adjectives: Georgian ni~~'~n~ D'?l'n,~ n'~'~n~ Noun: Georgians The Georgians have been living in this neighborhood from the beginning of the 201h century.
il'TI"''AD ,~,~~,~
'Pl~"l~
D'J'TI"''l : D¥.1
nNm ml:>\!.I:J 0'1:1
D'l'~n:~n
.D'"l'I!Jlln nNon n.,mno
200
Chapter 8: Adjectives
Adjective: Georgian
D"l'TnA :,Min
There are many Georgian singers who preserve their traditional music.
a~
0'1Y.l'liY-I'll 0"l'l11l 0'1Y-Il jlJ.1il 'll' .on~'ll rPrrmmn ilP't:llY.lil nN
8.4.3 Religion: denominative noun and adjective
"nrTi'I'"D Nouns Adjectives
Jew Jewish
ni~-:rm~
o~·:nn~
il!Jm~
'Jm~
n1~Jm~
O'~Jm~
n'Jm?
'Jm~
Notice that in this example, both the feminine form and the masculine plural have slight differences that distinguish nouns from adjectives. Noun: Jewish woman/Jewess
il'"Tiil'
:a~U
In her passport it is written that she is Jewish. Adjective: Jewish
She belongs to the Jewish faith.
n•"Tiil 1 :1Min DIU
.!1'i1nm ni~ n:J"'ll Nm
8.4.4 Predictable changes of base: noun > adjective Some adjectives share the base of the noun with no change in vowels. If the base undergoes some changes in the process, it is because of phonologically predictable changes. When the sutlix -i is added, the adjective's main stress moves to the suffix, and some predictable changes consequently occur in the base form: a. Stems that do not undergo change: l. Vowels other than a are not public (N) >public
affected by reduction: 2. The vowel a in a monosyllabic word remains: 3. The vowel a is retained in an initial closed syllable:
(Adj.) religion> religious
,.,~~~ < 1n~
'l:l~
< n~
culture> cultural
b. Stems that undergo vowel reduction In.; adjective formation:
1. In an open syllable, two syllables away from the main stress, the vowel a is deleted:
cylinder> cylindrical security> security related
,~,~~ ,~in'?~<
< ~'~~ )in\'):;t
201
Chapter 8: Adjectives
2. When the word ends with a vowel with a final 1n, they are both deleted:
incident > unplanned contract > contractual negation > negative
However, when the word ends with a silent 'N, that 'N. remains and 'carries' the i:
Bible> biblical
3. The final vowel historically
criticism > critical
'1i?~
< TlJJ?t;l
'~'n <
nlin
'~'~'<' < n'.'~~
inserted to break up a cluster (in segolate nouns) is deleted: 4. When the cluster of consonants is difficult to pronounce two syllables away from the stressed suffix, a short e replaces the zero vowel: location > local i. When the first consonant in the cluster is one of the consonants,., •) 'r.J ·~ '':
ii. When that a is followed by a guttural ('~ ,'n ,'il ,'N):
genius (N) > genius (Adj.)
5. When the word begins with a guttural, a hatafvowel replaces the expected zero:
spring > springlike friend > friendly
< :Jl:;J.~
':;!.':;!.~
'"J:;JQ < 1:;JQ
c. Some common internal vowel changes
Some internal vowel changes occur (a historical vowel may resurface with stress shift):
bear > bearlike hawk> hawklike home >homey
':;l"J < :::1."1 '~~
< '(~
'l:l':J < 1l~~
d. Changes in the suffix
When the adjective is derived from feminine nouns with ann.- suffix, this suffix is replaced by -ati, i.e., a is preserved, final •n changes to 111, and -i is added.
society > social fashion > fashionable problem >problematic link> vertebrate
'l:'9~iN < n~~'N 'l:l~).l~
<
'!l'~n
< Tl'~n
• T: "•,
n?~9 , . : •-.
202
Chapter 8: Adjectives
e. The suffix -ni is added to some monosyllabic nouns
Some adjectives add an o vowel to the noun base before the suffix -ni.
city >urban
When the noun base has the vowel a, an extra a is added before the suffix -ni.
hand > manual
8.5 Participle forms that function as adjectives When the form is directly related to a particular verb, adjectives are likely to be realized in the participial forms, as can be seen in the discussion of the verb system.
8.5.1 Active participle forms functioning as adjectives The active participial t'onns of pa 'a/, pi 'el, hitpa 'el, hifil, can also function as adjectives, normally agentive (the ones who initiate or perform the action). Such adjectives describe an action or a state characteristic of the head noun. The English counterpart of the active participles is the ending -ing, as in ,l.:'~t;l 'distressing', 1~l!J'? 'refreshing'.lt can often be paraphrased by 'something that is causing a state or event', as in ,).!~'? 'distressing', i.e., 'causing distress', or V.~J'? 'refreshing', i.e., 'causing one to become refreshed'. '1v1~ 'lll'::t nm~ :'111~ l"l::t
just
n1p7i~
0'i?7l~
ni?Ji~
P'Ji~
'lll'::t nn•~ :'7~·~ l"l:l
representative
nil-¥!'?
Ql~~!t;l
nil:J1l?D~
D'l;J';fi;JJ;'Ir,J
n~~~'?
)~~'?
'lll'::t nn•~ :'1.!:!~ni'l l"l:l
progressive
n~::rt'D'?
O:J'tJJ;lY,)
'lll'::t nn1::1 :'7•JJ9i'l l"l::t
annoymg
nit'r;tY.l
D'P~))')
npn>;~
l'rn;l
Below are examples of adjectives from each ofthe categories above. The form 'lV,i9
prominent silent supportive
Adjective \:1~i::l
om1 v~tJ'I
Verb
stand out be silent support
"2~
OQ'J 1Y.ltl
Chapter R: Aqjectives
203
The form "l,V.?~
The form '~!;l>;l is the most productive of all the active participles, which means that many adjectives are patterned accordingly. lts relationship to corresponding verb forms is quite transparent. The related verb is usually in pi 'el. It also accommodates the many quadriliteral root verbal forms as the base tor adjectives. Adjective Verb fascinate fascinating Pt!J>;l Ptl'J refresh refreshing 1~~") mn'? boring bore Ol;l~~>;l O)'J~I?' The form "l,t~?J;"I~
Adjective
convergent progressive adolescent The form
U~;lJ;ll',)
OJi?J;lY,l ,~~J;"II',)
Verb converge progress mature
Adjective
'7•~?,_
scary limiting embarrassing
''D:;tY.l ,,~~!',)
1':;tl'J
u~~J;"ID
O'Ji?J;"ID ,~~J;"ID
Verb scare limit embarrass
''D:;tD '':;l~D
1':;tD
8.5.2 Passive participle forms functioning as adjectives Adjectives that are identical to the passive participle tend to be resultative adjectives, that is, a state which is a result of an action, like "lUO 'closed', ~m:~ 'written', etc. They describe tht: result of a process that the subject had undergone. Tht:re are four possible sources for resultative adjectives: pa 'a/ C.?IJIP ')1)':::1), n(fal, pu 'a!, and h1{{a/. '7tlJ~ 'lll':J. nru~ :'111~ l"l:J.
closed
l"li"l~)9
O'"J~)"
iiJU"
lUI(
'lll':J. nnt~ :'7lJ~l l"l:J.
separate
J"lii?~~
O'JJQ~
l"lTJQ~
i'J~~
'lll':J. nnt:ll :'7lJt~ l"l:J.
dangerous
J"li.l??>;l
0')i>P.'?
J"l~~P.'? W~t? 'ltl':J. nnt::i :'i'JJ~Iil l"l:::l.
recommended
l"li~~'?!?.
0'!:1~'?-P.
n~~'?!?.
~~'?!?.
Chapter 8: Adjeclive.f
204
Below are examples of adjectives trom each ofthe categories above. The form 'u»~
Adjective 1~::1~
broken open locked
Verb 1J.~
break open lock
Verb
Adjective
The form '7\1~~
hidden failed select(ed)
1t'W 7~?~
1Q:p
be hidden fail (intr.) be chosen
1:J::!~~
'~?~ 11J;l~
The form .,\'~t'> (which, like ?).!~!? for active participles above, is very
productive, owing to the relationship to pi 'e/ via pu 'al) Adjective
neat, tidy refurbished interested state-of-the-art
1J?.l? ~~~!? 1m~'?
???'!1!1?
arrange; be arranged refurbish; be refurbished interest (tr.) perfect; be perfected
The form '7\1~~ Adjective
exaggerated absolute emphatic
om;? '-'~!;'~ 'lin~
11?.; 11~ '<~~;'<~'II' 1!.~~
'~?'II'
Verb
exaggerate; be exaggerated decide; be decided emphasize; be emphasized
onD ;O'lF' "~QD ; "'':?J:lv
YJrm ; 'li'~7D
8.6 Special patterns There are other adjectival patterns, which are not as readily related to underlying verb forms as participles are. In some of them the relationship to the verb is more transparent than in others: one can readily identify the root and the verb form from which the adjective may have been derived. 8.6.1 The '7·)1~ pattern One salient adjectival pattern whose forms can more readily be related to verb bases is ''~~. Tn the feminine and plural forms of such adjectival forms the initial kamats is reduced to shva or to a natafvowel:
Chapter 8: Adjectives
Process a>0 a stays after guttural
205
m:n
o•:n
i1"1'n'
••n•
n;,,~~
0')':;1~
il'J':;l~
1':;1~
niPt,)~
0'~'t,)~
il~'t,)~
,,t,)~
Many recent .,,~~ forms are equivalent to -able adjectives in English, which mean 'that can be ... -en', e.g., 1':;1'(.1 'fragile, breakable', i.e., that can be broken. Even if the comparable English gloss does not contain an actual -ahle suffix, it can still be shown to contain it semantically, e.g., P':;l'J 'sticky' means 'adhesive', 'that can be glued'. -able type '7')1!a» adjectives:
Adjective countable accessible available
1'!;)~
YJ'~
l'Y.l!
Verb
count approach happen to be
1~9 YJ~
WJFl
Other, non -able type '7•lJ!) adjectives:
Adjective sensitive direct senior
YJ'~'J
1'W! 1':;l~
Base feel straight firstborn
YJ'~';ID
1"'~
1i~~
8.6.2 The 'l•J~~ pattern There is also a form that sounds identical to the .,,~~ form described above, which has a patan vowel as the first vowel, and in which the middle consonant has a dagesh nazak and is therefore geminated (lengthened) historically. However, since geminated consonants are no longer distinguishable from non-geminated ones, the two patterns are phonetically identical, except for two partial distinguishing markers: when the middle consonant is one of the following consonants: 'J ,':l ,'n it is realized as p, b. k. In the illustration below, the singular fonn is 1':;1:;) 'huge' and that stem serves the entire inflection of this group. The stem is kept in feminine and plural forms and is never reduced: m.J.l D'.J.l il"T'n' 1•n• Gloss huge !'lil':;ti' D''J':;t~ il')':;t~ 1':;1:;)
Most of the adjectives that belong to this pattern group do not have transparent bases, verbal or otherwise:
206
violent stable strong, firm
Chapter 8: Adjectives
mighty courageous ancient, antique
c>'.~ ~'~~
~'ii!lJ
"l'"Jl!< ~'~!!< P'T:I~
There are adjectives that have a hi-consonantal base, such as co 'hot'. Some of them often have ~'~~ counterparts (where 7;=J1), which converts them into diminutive or 'lighter' versions ofthe base: very thin P'ii!J thin PJ warm C'Y,l~ hot co bitterish, acrid "l'":l~ bitter "ll;l 8.6.3 The 1~11~ pattern The 1'?}.1~ form serves both as a noun pattern group and as an adjective pattern group. The four forms of this adjective pattern are: Gloss
diligent lying; liar
!!..G!J
D'J.1
lli'HP~
D'rJi?~
n>r]p~
C'rJi?'?'
11'rJi?'?'
Tli'rJi?'?'
When 1'?¥~ is interpreted as an adjective, it is likely to have a related transparent base, usually a verb. be shy W?~ \!)~~J;I~ shy be stubborn stubborn 1~i?~ I!!P~l;lf:l save, conserve "ll;l'(J conservative n'?~ Some prefer to disambiguate by using the '~~'},~ form for adjectives, such as in 'H:P 'irate, bad-tempered' alongside 1HJ, to distinguish the adjective from noun, but most speakers do not. 8.6.4 The 'l.l!~ pattern The ~V.~ pattern group includes adjectives that also stand for corresponding stative verbs, referring to the comparable state of being denoted by the adjective. The base form ~V.~ has an initial kamats vowel. In the feminine and plural forms of such adjectival forms this kamats is reduced. It becomes shva or a nat~fvowel: niJ.1
heavy guilty
nii~~
D'!.;J:P
nJ.;J~
i.;J~
nin\',1~
D'Y,l'?'~
n~\',1~
ow~
C'J.1
;n•n•
1•n•
Gloss
Chapter 8: Acfjectives
207
A variant of~~~ is the participial form of a "'~ verb: the masculine singular form ends in a sego/ vowel and a final •n and the feminine singular has a kamats vowel and a final •n, while the plural forms lose both the vowel and that •n: Gloss niJ.l D'J.l iYT'n' 1!!:1! hard, difficult ni\!Ji7 D'~i? n~i? n"'i? pretty, beautiful
8.6.5 The "J'iJ.I~ pattern It is possible to distinguish two ~iY~ sub-groups: the first one maintains the o vowel in all the forms, but the feminine and plural forms undergo reduction of the initial a. Sub-group with o throughout:
Gloss close, near big holy
D.QJ.
o•:n
il""T'n'
-pn•
!li:lill(
D'~ilp
n~ili?
J.ili?
ni,ii~
Ql~ii~
n?ii~
711~
ni\!Jiii?
D'~i--rp
i1~i1i(
'l.ll"Ti?
In the second group, the initial a also undergoes reduction, but the second vowel in all suffixed forms is u instead of o (O'~Q~). When the u is stressed, which happens only in the unmarked citation form, it becomes o (7il""9). Historically, the third root letter following u had to be geminated, and thus, when it is ·~ ,'!l ,'J., it is realized as h, p, k, respectively. Colors and other physical characteristics prevail, as in: o - u sub-group: blue long ni::>J~ D':;l1~ n~J~ green pil~ nil':!? D'i?1~ i1WJ? Note
In colors like lin"' 'black', 1i.!l~ 'gray', etc. there is no alternation with u, since '1 cannot be geminated. black m·,;n'P D'"Jin\1) n')in'P 1ino/
208
Chapter 8: Atfjectives
8.6.6 The "l)}~lJ~ pattern Some ~i).l~ adjectives, mostly those that denote color, may undergo a reduplication process, in which the last two consonants are reduplicated: ?).!~).!~. It results in a new adjective that has a diminutive effect, turning 'red' into 'reddish', 'blue' into 'bluish', etc. Base '1iJJ9
'1117119
pinkish bluish darkish
pink blue black
l'JTJ1 ?o{Oi' 11))0~
'Ti1J ?in~ 1in~
Note that the same reduplication applies if the color is realized in the ~~~pattern: 1~{ 'white'> 1~~'? 'whitish'. 8.6.7 Other common patterns Pattern
Gloss
CiCeC
blind deaf short new obligated mobile fresh clean light, easy soft good cheap
CaCaC
CaCaC CaCi CaC CoC
Adjective ll'i1~»
0'"J~»
l"l')~Y.
1~»
ni'l-1";10
0''1-'":10
l"IWJO
'l-110
ni1~i?
0'1~i?
llJ~i?
1~i?
ni'l-170
[J'\1-170
ll~70
'l-170
ni~!t:'l
0':;1~['1
n~~t:'l
:I~(\
nil~~
0'7!~
n~m
1!~
l1'i'"J'?
0'~"J'?
n~")'?
'J'?
ni'P~
O'~P~
i1!P~
'P~
ni~i?
0'~i?
n?g
?g
ni::>J .ntli\J ni?it
0\l) Ol:;li\J
n;>J
1J
n~i"
:Ji\J
Ol';:lil
n{it
~il
Chapter 9 Adverbs and adverbial expressions 9.1 9.2
9.3 9.4 9.5
Introduction Adverbs grouped according to form Adverbs grouped according to function Adverbs and 'degree' words Sentential adverbs
9.1 Introduction An adverb, broadly defined, is a word or a phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, an adverb, whole clauses or sentences. Adverbs cannot modify nouns. Adverbial expressions can consist of a one-word adverb or of an adverbial phrase.
1. Modifying a verb 2. Modifying an adjective 3. Modifying an adverb 4. Modifying a sentence
He runs fast. Dan is very young. He runs ~fast. Regrettably, I cannot come.
.1nn.nNm
..1llil2 1 '>'~ 1l .~
1no '(1 Nm
~):ll N~ l)N , '1~~?
.N):l.,
9.2 Adverbs grouped according to form They can be a single word adverb, functioning only as adverbs: Single word adverbs perhaps first fast 0-:J'p 1Dl'J n·9/)N~ now there here 1'~9~ yesterday always thus 1'Y,l{l 1~
'?lN
0""
~inJ;ll:;(
Others have the same form as masculine singular adjectives, and can function as either adjectives or adverbs: early 1n~ good/well :li\:1 clear/clearly strongly hard i1\?i? nice/nicely n?~ Still others can function as either adverbial degree words or noun quantifiers: very 1iNJ? a bit \:1~'? much, many n:;nD
210
Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
Suffixes associated with some adverbs
Several sutlixes are associated with adverbs in Hebrew. (a) the sutlix n.- -a for some directional adverbs (note that stress does not shift to the suffix, e.g., pnim - pnima): Gloss to town homeward inward southward seaward Exam121es I went to town. Go (to} home! I went inside.
Adverb M'J'~D
MtJ?~tJ m~,~~
MY;Ji1'] n~~
Gloss town home the inside south sea, east, south
Base ,,~(i;l)
Tll~(iJ) Ql~~
Oi1'] :J~,DJif,D?
.i11l).!il 'TI).!Q) mmJ.n 1~
. iiY.P)!) 'TIQ):J)
The directional adverbs associated with the compass arc all marked by this -a ending: m,!l~ 'northward', mJl1"T 'southward', nr.rw~ 'eastward' and ii~'Jl/Y.) 'westward'. We went southward towards Eilat. .Jl,lN 1lll:J' .lJ!2li! l)).!t)) You shall spread out to the west and to n~l~) .ll&~J i1Y.)1Pl ~ D~'J~~ (,• n) n'I!Hn:l) the east, to the north and to the south (Genesis 28:14) A historical note
mYTP and m:u are literary biblical counterparts of iiJ.1).!0 'westward' etc., that designate a direction relative to its position with respect to the Land oflsrael, or to Jerusalem: the Negev region is in the south, the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and no"Tp refers either to an ancient region east of Canaan (kedem = ancient?), or to the direction one faces when praying towards Jerusalem (being before, in front). n~',
(b) the suffix -it for some manner adverbs (slightly formal usage): Adverb Gloss Gloss Base personal personally 11'~'~ '~'~ official officially TI'Y,l~":l 'Y.l'?'"J time temporarily m~~;~~ 1Y.)J
Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
Examples Tspoke to him personally. I spoke to him by phone. I am replacing him temporarily.
211
.n'"V'N ml;{ m1:J'1 .nm!I'V m~ m1:1'i .n'Jr.n 1n1N "l''nn 'lN
(c) the suffix -ot, also for some manner adverbs, but this one can only be attached to adjectives, and is used primarily in the higher registers: Gloss at length harshly
Adverb
Gloss long hard
ni:;,1~
niYJi?
Base li1~
nww
An adverb can be one word consisting of two constituents: a preposition prefixed to a noun (most commonly -~ 'in/with'): Composed of two constituents to-t-eternity n~m +';I in/with+care m1ml +J inlwith+quiet \JjJYJ +J inlwith+will )1~1 +:1 to+last(ly) m11nN+' in/with+purpose nm:::> +J
~
~ ~ ~
...
...
Gloss forever carefully quietly willingly lately intentionally
Adverb n~~~ nn'~np
Vi(~:;t
)i~'):;l
n~i1Q~~ nn~:;t
An adverbial expression can be composed of other particles, such as 'negative words', which by themselves are adverbials, followed by a noun: without will unintentionally )l~'J '?:;t n~~~ N7{ without logic without a doubt )i'~tl m'V '~:;t P~V N'J{ It can also consist of several constituents, such as a preposition prefixed to a noun followed by an adjective: with great care n~'J m1'DP with ill intention n~J n~~~:;t
Adverbials can also be phrases or words that introduce an entire sentence or a clause: first of all in the beginning n~QJ;lD~ '"' 1l''VNJ and finally and in summary "JiU~{~ 01JV{1 to our regret fortunately ))~~~? ))'J~~?
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Notice that in the following examples, there are actually two adverbs one initiates the entire sentence (and is underlined in the examples), while the second one modifies the verb. sentence modifier
verb modifier
Fortunately he does not speak so fast. sentence modifier
verb modifier
At the beginning he talked very tast.
~~l!) llNJl
1J!)IIJJ::l llNJl
.,nn p 7::::! ,~'Tn N7 Nm u7m7 'nr!!l llNJl l)!liiJO llNJl .1,No 1no '1:1.''1 Nm n7tmn~
9.2.1 Adverb or adjective? To clarify the role of the adverb, let's compare the use of the adverb with that of the adjective. We will find the following significant differences: 1. The adjective changes form according to its head noun. The agreement in gender and number with the head noun is one of the most important structural requirements of the adjective. On the other hand, the adverb keeps the same shape and does not change so as to agree with any other element in the sentence or phrase. Look at the following:
He did not talk fast, but she did N7 Nm Ol 7J.N 1J.ill2 ,::l'i N7 N,n not talk fast either- neither one of .'1i10 ~'1:J.'1 N7 On')YJ - '1i10 il"'l:!l'i them talked fast. While the subject changed, from 'he' to 'she' to 'they', and the verb form changed accordingly, the adverb did not change shape. 2. The adjective follows the noun it modifies, while the adverb follows the verb it modifies. Adjective Adverb
This is a clear chapter. These are clear directions. He speaks clearly. She speaks clearly.
.""'nJ p19 m .3111~'1:1. lliN'lln n?N
.1nJ '1:!lio Nm .~n,::t1nNm
A comparative note In English the distinction between adverb and adjective is usually clear since, for the most part, their forms are different, e.g., clearly vs. clear. In Hebrew, the form of the adjective masculine singular 1~1~ is the same as the form of the adverb 1~1~, but speakers can tell which is
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213
which by means of the two clues suggested above, agreement or its absence and position with respect to the head: 1. Observe phrases with a feminine head or a plural one. If agreement is observed (e.g., ni1~i:jl niN'Jiil 'clear directions'), the modifier is an adjective; if not (e.g., 1~1~ lli1:jl1r,l )n 'they (fem.) speak clearly), it's an adverb. 2. Examine the preceding head. If it is a noun, the modifier is an adjective; if a verb, it's an adverb. Single word adverbs
..J!!l2 1Yl!:l Nm
He walks fast. She eats fast. They work hard. They are learning a lot.
.1ilr;> ll~:JlN N)il
.n\!Jp m1J.UJ )n .~ D'iY.Il., on
Adverbial phrases
He hurt us unintentionally. She did everything without resistance. They work very diligently. They are studying without a teacher.
.nm:::> '~::1 llJ. l'l9 Nm
.rmnrm N7!:1.,:m nri\!J>? N'il m~'1nJ.
.nJ.i 0
D'1J.W on
i11lY.I '~J. l1liY.Il~ )il
9.3 Adverbs grouped according to function An adverb, narrowly defined, is a word belonging to a class of words that modify verbs for such categories as manner, time, place, or direction. 9.3.1 Adverbs of manner: Adverbs that answer the question 'How?/in what manner?' Modifying verbs
She spoke quietly. He walked slowly. Did you hear well?
~ni:P1N)il
."N'
1.,il N1n
Related interrogative adverbs
How did you find out what happened? How does one prepare a lentil stew?
m;p nn nYo\!J ~ !0'\!Ji)? 1'U D'l':JY.I
i~':J
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Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
9.3.2 Adverbs of time: Adverbs that answer the question: 'When? I At what time?'
First she spoke and only then (afterwards) he spoke. lt happened only yesterday. If not now, then when?
J::> 10~ p1l ni::l''T N'il OJiP .1::1'1 Nm .~mnN pimp
m
P1lY.l'N ,1'VJ::>)J N~ ON
Related interrogative adverbs:
When did you get here? Till when are you staying?
?)N=>~ on.v:~n ~
!O'iN'tll 01lN ~
9.3.3 Adverbs of place/location: Adverbs that answer the question: 'Where? At what place?' We'll meet YQ in his office. .l~VJ ·nvm::1 n~.vr;J~ \!Jl!!l'J
TI1ey live upstairs. They live across.
. n~).IY.lJ 0'1l on .'::lmo 0'1l on
Related Interrogative adverbs:
Where shall we meet? 9.3.4 Adverbs of direction: Adverbs that answer the question: 'Where to? To what place?'
We went westward in the direction of the sea. We'11 go to California we'll be going (!Q) there in Lhc spring. Because ofthe tornado threat, they went down to the cellar.
.O'il 1ll'::>'::l il::l1YY.lllYOJ
.vtm- n'nl!l'JPJ )!0') .::l'::lN::l O\!JJ on ,1i)1l\Jil m::>o '::l'::ll::l ."!1l1Y.lJ n"Y.lJ )11'
Related Interrogative adverbs:
Where are you coming from and_!Q where are you headed?
01lN .lli'2l 0'N::l 01lN )"NY.l ?O'=>Jm
9.4 Adverbs and 'degree' words Adverbs can also be classified according to their function: some are considered 'true' adverbs, i.e. they modifY verbs, while others are considered 'degree' adverbs. Degree words have a different distribution, since for the most part they modify adjectives, some adverbs and a tew select verbs. They mostly modifY the intensity or degree of certain qualities.
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adverbs
The adverb modifies the verb speak<;: He speaks fast and it is nllJpl 1n~ 1:11~ Nm difticult to understand him. .lmN 1'J.n:;,
'degree' words
The 'degree' adverb modifies the adverb .fast: Tie speaks so fast that it is '1i1~ JJ 7J '1:::11~ Nli1 difficult to understand him. .unN 1'J.i1J nllJpllJ
Adverbs of 'degree' and 'intensity' often modify adjectives. I.NJ? very so n~:q not at all NJ 7{:;>:;1 especially 11:1.~_1?:;1 An adverb of degree that precedes an adjective is '1 'quite': He is quite smart. He is talt:nted. He is~ talented. He is so talented. He is not talented at all. He is especially talented. He is quite talented.
.oJn ' I Nm
.'1\lJJl~
.llN~
Nli1
'1\lJJlP Nli1
. '1\lJ:Jlr.l ]2 JJ Nln .1\!JJm NJ JJJ:J. Nli1 :tnl'P:J. 1\lJJlr.:l Nli1 .1\!JJm 'I Nli1
The 'degree' and 'intensity' adverbs also modity verbs that express feelings, desire, and wish, such as nnpn ,n~l1 ,N.lW ,:JmN. He very much likes... ... llNP J.i11N Nli1 He wants very much ... .. . "TlN~ i1~l'1 Nln He hates so much .. . .. .]2 JJ N)lllJ Nln He especially likes .. . ... "TnPr.:lJ. J.i11N Nln He does not like at all... .. .J.mN N7 'J7J:J. Nm Adverbs of 'degree' can also modity other adverbs that describe the degree or intensity of a particular activity. He speaks a lot but says little. .\J)IP 1PlNl i1J.'1i1 1J."TP Nln He speaks slowly. .mQ '1:J1P Nlrl He speaks [~ siowlv]. .["TlNP + \JN7l1:Jlr.:l Nlil He speaks lliQ slowly]. .[\Jl'b + p .,J] 1:::11~ Nli1 He speaks [too slowly]. .(mQ + ''lP '1lW] 1:Jlb Nli1
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Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverhial expressions
He talks a lot. He talks [a great deal]. He talks .[§Q muchl. He talks [too much]. He says little. He says (.Yro!: little]. He says [too little].
.nJ.1n 111ir.l Nm .[i)Nr.l + n:nnJ 1!lir.l Nm .[n:;nn +1:> ':>] 111ir.l Nm .['ir.l 1m'] 1::t'Tr.l Nm .\JYr.l 1::tir.l Nm
. [ 'TlNr.l
+ \.?)lr.l] 1!1lr.l N)n
.['in \JYn] 1111r.1 Nm
Note
A source of contusion for many learners of Hebrew is the distinction between mnD 'a lot/much' and 1-Nl;l 'a lot/very much'. il~')D is a quantifier referring to the number of times an action has taken place (e.g., taking many trips), or to the general quantity/amount to which it applies (e.g., eating a lot), while the intensitier i"Nl;l refers to the intensity of the action (e.g., loving a lot). il:;l.)iJ is an adverb of degree. It is also used as a quantifier of nouns: .n:::11n lN1p on As adverb: They read a lot As They read many books. .D'"'I!l\7 n:rm ,N1P on quantifier: 'TiNY;) is an intensifier. It is used only with verbs that can be intensified. As adverb: We very much hope to hike in ilNr.l O'llPY.l llmN the mountains.
A quantifying adverb can be used only when the verb is quantifiable. How many times did they hike in the mountains? 'Once', 'twice', 'a lot'. As They traveled a lot abroad. -'"ln:::l i1J.1n )';m\.? on quantifier:
* They saw very.
*.1i~U\) l~n Oi"l
They saw a lot
.n:::11n ,N,
on
ln English the adverb 'a lot' can be used for both il~)iJ and 'TiNY;). In Hebrew they are mutually exclusive, except when one wants to further enhance il-Nf,l, and in colloquial use liNJ? n:;).JiJ, meaning 'an awful lot', is used for emphasis.
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As noted above, when quantifiers modify nouns, they are not considered adverbs: A lot of money. ."Jtl:> n:nn Some noise. .YJYl n!i!p Many people. 9.4.1 Adverbs that answer the question 'to what degree'? Degree word: modifying verb
She talks too much. She loved to read very much (a lot). He ate a bit and rested a bit.
.)'T!llnl' il)YJ' N'i1 .N1ljJJ'T1NY.'I n:mN N'i1 .n~p m1 n~p ~:>N
Nm
Degree word: modifying adjective
He is ~ bit quiet. They are quite smart. The food is too hot.
n!i!p Nm . D'liJ.l .!1 on
_\.JP\!1
.!l.Q QQ 7=>1Nn
Related interrogative adverb:
How much time did she sleep? How many people were there?
?iJ)v,l)
N~n
v:n.!:!@
mn D''l!lm !1!22
9.4.2 Positive and negative expressions Adverbial positive expressions
Yes. This is indeed a serious development. Certainly this needs mentioning. Adverbial negative expressions
Not here and not now. What? Are you without a coat?
.1'\!I:IY N~1 1N=> N'? !J)YY.l '~:::t nnN m1:1
Adverbial expressions of doubt
Not today- perhaps tomorrow. 1 am worried lest they not come on time.
.lnr.:l '71N - DPn N7 ))l)l' N7
on ~ '1!1\!lm ))N _,Y.'IlJ
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9.4.3 Adverb or prepositional phrase? After questions regarding place or time, the answer (an obligatory complement of the verb) can consist of either an adverb or a prepositional phrase that functions as an adverbial syntactically.
Place: Adverb Complement
! \!l)!l'l il!l'N
We'll meet upstairs. We' 11 meet at his office.
Time: Adverb Complement
. n~~o~ ( 't.'l9'l) .l~\!1 '1'1\!10::1
(\!I )g)))
1't.'l!l'l ·mQ
The meeting will be tomorrow. The meeting will be at four o'clock.
·~ ('t'l~l'l)
9.5 Sentential adverbs The term 'adverb' suggests that adverbs modify verbs only, but as noted above, the domain of some adverbs goes beyond the verb; it can apply to the whole sentence. The adverb 11NO 1i10 '(very) fast' in Nln llNO 1no )ilU 'He drives very fast' is clearly a modifier of mu 'drive'. But the domain of'J1Yi~ 'in my opinion' in "'TO 1nn :mu Nln ,my;~ 'In my opinion, he drives too fast' is not the verb, nor even the whole predicate, but rather the whole sentence. If we rewrite the sentence as "'TO 1ilY.l lnn Nm't.' N'il 'J1Y1 'My opinion is that he drives too fast', or 'It is my opinion lhat he drives too fast', we'll see that '11}11~ 'in my opinion' relates to the entire sentence. Most sentence adverbials express a point of view (that of the speaker, the writer, the subject of the sentence or another person referred to in the adverbial) regarding the sentence content, and since what they express does not form an integral part of the sentence they modify, they are often - though not necessarily - separated from it by comma intonation. The point of view can be a comment on the statement in the sentence, or it can place it in context. An adverbial such as il\!Jp:t:t 'please' in n't.'p:J:J ,)1'!:1'::1 0't1'\)1:J il\!117\!.1 '~ 'l11 'Give me three tickets in the balcony, please' characterizes the statement as a polite request. A sentence adverbial can also serve to refer to a previous statement, e.g. 1lON:J •as already noted'.
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Sentence adverbials may consist of a single word, a phrase, or a clause. What is common to all is that they can be paraphrased in a manner that would expand them into full clauses, which on the surface look like the main clause to which the original sentence is subordinate. Below are some illustrations drawn from a corpus, with accompanying comments. 9.5.1 Qualifying statements of opinion The following expressions, and others, may be used to qualify statements as constituting opinions (we will use the frrst person, tor simplicity, but other pronouns and full nouns may be used as well): In my opinion/according to my opinion 'J;IY,1 '~~ t'l:1~1? To the best of my understanding 'ti~~Q J\;)lQ '!J'? (To tell you) frankly nll~¥ CJ? "lQi?) To tell you the truth llJ?z:<~ lll:;( CJ?> iY.li~ Between us, confidentially ll'2'~ Personally ll''?''l:< The adverbial may be expanded al1 the way to containing a subordinate clause with -~, as in As far as I understand' p:;t~ )~~"' il~~ 'T~ As far as I know ~ji' '~~~ il~~ 1~ Expressions such as 'n:n~ can also be located within the sentence, and they are not usually separated by commas. I. The point of view can be that of the speaker, as in: He is not guilty, in my opinion, until m:tw 1~ m~'T~ OWN 1l'N Nm the court decides his guilt. .mnwN llN ~:lP' N~ \:)!J\!.lnil
2. The point of view being referred to can be that of the addressee, as in: Rachel, in your opinion, is this bestseller truly a good book? 3. The point of view can also be of an entity to which the pronoun in the sentence reters to: The Justice Department made it m~-r~ '~ 1m:m 0'\:)!l\!.Jr.m ii'tln clear that in its opinion cable should \:))j\:))lNJ 11'\!11 O'JJ~~ nn~ 1'N not be given a license for fast internet and television broadcasts.
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9.5.2 Evaluating a statement by expressions of regret and surprise There are adverbial expressions of emotions such as regret or surprise that modify the entire sentence, such as: unfortunately, regrettably surprisingly astonishingly disappointingly luckily what is surprising (about it) is that
,~~iJ n~J'J~f'~)Jt;t'!?ICJJD>
'll/::1?
'J:l~~!i'D?
'J:l9D7lJ? 'N·!~~? ~'T:l~Y.l~
'.:I!~D mn~?l'?~~? n~l-¥,.1 Nm 1:r1~ ~'T:l~~D -~Nm
Here are some illustrations of the uses ofthese expressions: 1=> ?::> N? O'j?U)In ,:nn U1)1~'] To our great regret, we are not doing such good business. .O':J)\J To my astonishment 1 heard my name called. Luckily for the driver, the car did not complete the fall.
0'N1)jJY.I
'n)l~'ll 'l'U~i11l1'.:1 ·'~'l'J
N?
nm::>~n
,:m.m '.:I'll ,?m? .n?'!:IJilllN n~'''lln
9.5.3 Is the statement true/untrue? Adverbial expressions can be used to ascertain the truth-value of a situation or statement. They include some of the following: of course, certainly, naturally undoubtedly il is obvious that as is well-known luckily as expected the truth of the matter is theoretically (speaking) formally perhaps, it could be seemingly
n\;'~
)~~l:.l~I'N:Tl;t
P~VN7? ,~,~
~~,~~
'~!:1~~
1:].1 ,~ il'lt,l~~
l'P\?)iN'tl i1pf:9t,l1l1'\?JiN'.Diil?~t)';?
''?'<J) )~iN~ll''?'<''J '';?~N ill:;(')~~
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Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
Here are some illustrations of the uses of these expressions: Surely this is not a beginner's program. Without a doubt, it's our children who will have to pay. Outside of Israel's territorial water, Israeli policemen of course have no enforcement power. The truth of the matter is that conditions now are quite different from what they were in the past.
on U'\!J 0'1'm ,p!lu N~~ .0~\!J~ lJ1\:l~'\!J
~\!.1 O"~N'1l\:l'1\:ln 0'0~ ~lnO 0'1\:ll\!J~ )J.10J )'N ~Nl\!J'
.n!l':JN l11JOO 0''N1\!J' l'\!JJY O'Nmn ,1::11 'J\!J m'nN~ .1:JY:J l'n\!J nm:;, O'Jl\!J
With or without a comma?
While there is a tendency to separate the sentential adverbs from the rest of the sentence by commas, in some cases there are no such commas. Although commas do not separate n\:l::l and ):Jlr.D in the first and third examples above, they still modify the whole sentence. 9.5.4 Introducing main propositions as subordinate clauses Expansion to variants containing clauses with -\!J is quite common: of course, certainly, naturally -~ 1)~\:l~ undoubtedly -'\!,' )~~~~/-'\!,' 'N:fl';l as is obvious that. .. -'\!,' 1~1~ it is a fact that. .. -'\!,'nn~ it is possible that. .. -¥,~ 1~{1~ it is true that... -'l! )iJ~
Many of the expressions above can be made negative by initiating them with the negative particle N'J or pN: it is not certain that .. . there is no doubt that .. . -w P~V 1'~ it is not clear that/if ow-\!,' 1n~ N? it is not possible that ... -w 1~l!1~ N? it is not true that ... -~ )1:>~ N? Here are some colloquial expressions: really (lit. 'by my life') it couldn't possibly be ...
-~ '!0~ 1'!0~
. .. NJ ... 0'~1):;)
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Cnapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
While structurally the adverbial expressions act as main clauses, they do not state the main propositions. The adverbial expressions function as modifiers of the main propositions, included in the subordinate clauses. Some illustrations of the uses of these expressions: There is no doubt that there is a .)n~nn~ ilY.l ~ll \!.''\!.' p!l~ W< lot to complain about. Naturally there is reason to be pleased. It is a fact that many people came, .11pi1 in spite of the cold. I swear/by my life I never thought of insulting you! 9.5.5 Placing the statement in a different or special context The writer or speaker may wish to place the statement in the sentence in a different or special context, introducing it as a general observation, a request, or a deviation from the main topic.
Here are some of the expressions used for such purposes: generally speaking ~?f 1TH''?'
With your permission, T' d like to go back to last year's report
mJnn m~'Y!l , '~~:> '\P1N3 .0'1'nY.lil m1p"nno Y!l\!.lm
0)\!.1 ,:llN 111 ,ll'11il ~":>lY.lil .D"U'\!.1~ il!l~Y.l N~ N1il ill'lJil
il"'lllil 11Y tpmn? m111 ':IN ,J)N
.m"p rv•11~ 1nn':J n~,, 'JN ,o:>m't.'"'lJ
.i11Jll\!.l il)\!.lil ~\!.'
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9.5.6 Referencing or connecting sentence adverbials Sentence adverbials may refer to a previous sentence or to some other context already noted, or known to the parties to the communication. Here are some of the expressions used for such purposes: as already noted as noted above n~~~~ Here are some illustrations: As noted, the prices may change. The CEO announced, as noted above, that he did not expect changes.
1UJ~~
m!"' '~~
.rmmm'::l o'~';Jl';J.lJ 0'1'nr.m ,"ll~N::> ,n.,.lJo';J ,,,~\!..1 '!l::l ,Y'"Tm '"::>mn .O''ll'\!..I';J n!:l.::m N';J Nm'l'
Sentence adverbials may also connect between sentences, not as conjunctions, but as adverbial expressions. The connections always assume a larger context, an intra-sentential one, which goes beyond the sentence. moreover in addition in regards to, concerning for instance that is, namely in other words in conclusion, to sum up so in this respect briefly, in short if so in any case in contrast indeed ... however ... on the one hand ... and on the other ...
~~ '~ ,~~ l?~ln·l~
"JVil:;t
'"J~~t-'? 1"'1$~
i19~J{h"'9'?
U?iJ7 1'li11)~
O'':?Y.l;t O~!l1;:''?
'~ il nrD~Y.l 1l~P;t
1:;?
OlVl~ 01::(
J"lN.l':q;t nN·l m~t?
... ':}t< ... 0~~~ . .. '~\\11~Y,)~ ... 1n.l:;t 1~Y,)
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Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
Here are some illustrations: We should not raise our prices; moreover, we must keep the quality of the product.
; D'1'non nN n1.,Yn., 1J., 11oN 110~b D':t"n unm ,p .,Y 1n' ..,~nnn ntJ'N
'Y
In regards to further research, it all depends on tederal grants.
.,:m ,D'!:ltl)) D'1pno., 1YJN:t
Dina began shopping for the trip, however Danny worked till the last minute.
,,l'\:1' m'JP mYJy' n'mnn m'i
It cannot be that the government, on the one hand, opens the market to competition, and on the other hand, competes with a private company.
n,YJOOi10 D'PJYO::l '1~m .n''1i!:li1
Yl1il iY nY 'll ,nNt now' .)nnNn 1:::10 , n.,YJoonYJ
pnn N., pwn nN nnm!) ,::!rlli mnno ,'JYJ 1::1m ,m1nn., .'t11!) D1U:::l
Chapter 10 Particles I0.1 10.2 I 0.3 10.4 10.5 I 0.6 10.7
Introduction The particle 'et' before definite direct objects Prepositions: prefixes, independent prepositions Prepositions or adverbs? Coordinating and correlative conjunctions Subordinators Exclamation particles and expressions
10.1 Introduction Particles include prepositions, conjunctions, and exclamations. While prepositions can have pronoun suffixes, conjunctions and exclamations do not. They do not change in form regardless of where they occur, and they typically have a grammatical function in the sentence. 10.2 The particle nM before D'9n'lf 'l9'7 "nx"' n•'7•r.m definite direct objects D'li"TI'rl D"lrl'!l In Hebrew the prepositional-like particle nN marks detinite direct objects. It precedes them and links them to transitive verbs. This particle presents problems for non-native speakers for the following reasons: a. There is no equivalent particle in English. b. It is not used when the direct object is indefinite.
The detinition used here for direct objects and for transitive verbs is strictly formal: a direct object is one that is not linked to its verb by a preposition (but when it is definite it is preceded by the particle nN). A transitive verb is likewise defined as a verb that is followed by a direct object. Examples of indefinite direct objects: I am reading an interesting book. The police caught two robbers. The children bought a gift for their teacher.
.)n)y~
1!ltl nN11P
~m
.o,::m ')Ill no!ln n1\J'll~n .on~\!J mHJ~ mn~ 1)j7 o~17'il
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Notice that both the Hebrew and the English verbs are followed by direct objects. No prepositions can be inserted to link the verbs to their direct objects. The direct objects in the above examples are all indefinite. In English, the singular noun is preceded by 'an', while the plural noun has no article. In Hebrew there is no article for the singular or plural indefinite nouns: an interesting book )"l)IY.l 1!lt1 two robbers 0'))) 'l\!1 a gift nmY.l The differences between Hebrew and English are present when the direct objects are definite. In Hebrew the direct object particle nl:':( follows transitive verbs that are complemented by definite direc.t objects.
Examples of definite direct ob\ects: I am reading the interesting book. The police caught the robbers. The children bought the gift at the new mall.
.)nl>JY.lil 1!ltm nz~ TIN1,p 'lN .O':Jlln TIN
nt~!lTI
n1\J\!Jnn
,,,li':J nmnn TIN up
0'1?m .\!1-rnn
The user has to be aware of what constitutes a direct object and also has to remember that the particle TIN must be inserted before such an object. As this particle does not exist in English, it presents a problem, especially in conversational situations when there is no time to analyze the nature of the verb and its object. A comparative note Hebrew and English do not necessarily share all verbs that are considered transitive where the object is direct. Consider the following examples where in English the verb is transitive, while in Hebrew, a preposition must be used to link the verb to its object and thus it is not considered a direct object. English: - preposition The principal entered the classroom unannounced. David told everybody to leave. Everyone left the room.
Hebrew: + preposition
)l,,m, ,,:I nTI'J~ UlJl ?m"n .\!IN17.3 .TIN~' O?D~ ~ 1n :nnn~ ,N~, o~,J
English:+ preposition The police are searching for witnesses to the accident.
Hebrew: - preposition . nm'ln?
o~-.y
nVJ!lnn n1"VJnn
A definite object is not just a noun or a noun phrase with a definite article, but also includes other nouns that are considered inherently definite: names of persons; names of geographical entities, such as countries, cities, regions; nouns with possessive suffixes and more. An object is made definite by having ont! of lhe following features or by being one of the following entities: Definite article We'll see the movie -~1Y:J 1nn \:nun n!''( mnJ tomorrow night. Proper name Do you know Jonah nll' nN D'1'Jt.J onN Wallach? n?n ,nnu nN D'JYit.Jil The scientists Place name .10-n nJ~m lJlJ discovered Sedna, the I 01h planet. Nouns with They will put their on'~!ln nN ln'VJ' on .)unn~ things in storage. possessive suffix We'll ask our guide if he Possessive U7VJ r11t.Jil nN ?NVJ.) .\!Jin )Jilt.) l? 'lJl ON phrase has new information.
,,,:1
(For a description of 'internal direct objects', see note in chapter 12, p. 289.) When the direct object is a personal pronoun rather than a noun, the particle is merged with the pronoun sutlixes. It is a definite concept. Singular
i'l{liN
iniN
J{liN
JJ;JiN
'nlN
her
him
you
you
me
)DiN
O{liN
Pl;l~
O~J;l~
~l{liN
);>J;liN*
D~l;liN*
them
them
you
you
Plural
us
* Tn daily speech the -niN variant is also used in the plural second person suffixes.
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Note
Since many learners have problems identifYing a direct object and also identifying a definite direct object, it is useful to note that there are contexts where the direct object status is visible in English as well: some of the pronouns have forms that are used when they are objects, such as in him, her, us, them. We saw them and they saw us. She got her dressed. Did you see him in the play?
.1JmN ,N, om omN )J'N'l nnm . iUllN il'll'l~m N'il ?ill::lill )JnN On'N'l
10.3 Prepositions Prepositions indicate relationships between nouns and other components of the phrase or the sentence. Prepositions combine with other items, which function as the objects of the prepositions and form prepositional phrases. These phrases consist of a preposition and a noun, a noun phrase or a pronoun that serves to complete the phrase. Prepositions can never dangle in a sentence or a phrase - they have to be completed by nouns, noun phrases, or pronouns. Pronouns that follow prepositions are always attached to the prepositions, and do not appear as two separate items. Note A common mistake that English speakers make is to:
1. Literally translate a preposition and pronoun as two separate items: .1ln'N -rJJ!;I Nm He studies with us. .umN 1 e~ "TI9., ~nn 2. Omit a noun or pronoun complement after a preposition. Prepositions do not stand alone. The family you asked about left the city. '1'.Yi1 ."l'~n l'IN nal~ 2ll'l.,~t\!l\!l nn9WI9n 0
10.3.1 Prepositions: Form Prepositions can be followed by either a noun (rr D.Y 'with Dan') or be combined with a pronominal suffix (il'l~ 'with him'). Prepositions that consist of only one letter are always prefixed to nouns or pronouns and are never written as independent words.
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Prepositions are also formed by more complex entities, which combine pretix prepositions with certain nouns or other prepositions into single grammatical items, such as 11n+l 'inside' or J'lYJ+l 'for the sake or. 10.3.2 One-syllable prepositions directly prefixed to nouns The prepositions,-::> ,-'::1 ,-l which have the form of prefixes, have a shva that is realized as e. The preposition -Y,l has an i vowel. Prepositions np,,oN~ in America beamerika in, at beleruiyim to life! to le0"0~ -~ for everyone lekhulam OJ1;)~ for as a spokesman kedover ,llif as ke-f *-)',) from Tel Aviv mite/aviv from mi- *
*The fonn -)',) is an abbreviated version of the preposition word )Y,l (since a 1l at the end of a syllable is ofien assimilated to the next consonant), and has achieved the status of a prefix. In texts with full vowel representation, the tirst consonant of the noun that follows this preposition receives a dagesh liazak, to compensate for the loss of the final•l of the full form of the preposition. Prefixed to nouns that begin with a consonant cluster When the following prepositions are prefixed to a noun that starts with a consonant cluster, the prefix shva vowel in -7 ,-::> ,-l is replaced by i (a shva na' cannot be toll owed by a consonant cluster, or by another shva):
in handwriting for a reasonable price as one group
bikhtav yad limnir savir kikvutsa anat
l'lll:;J::;l l':::tt7l'r'IY;l~
nnN n::~1:1p:;>
The same happens when -? ,-:> ,-J precede a first consonant y with a shva, except that in addition, the '' y is weakened to i, and the following weak shva is elided: in Jericho be + yerino > birirw When one of-? ,-::> ,-:1 precedes a first consonant that is guttural with a natafvowel, it takes on the color of