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2
F_lh^bq_kdZyaZibkdZ Ij_^eZ]Z_fh_ mq_[gh_ ihkh[b_ ij_^gZagZq_gh ^ey klm^_glh\ dmjkZ ]_h]jZnbq_kdh]h nZdmevl_lZ Ihkh[b_ bf__l p_evx ijb\blv klm^_glZf gZ\udb ql_gby b ihgbfZgby hjb]bgZevghc Zg]ebckdhc ebl_jZlmju ih l_f_ ©Hdjm`ZxsZy kj_^Zª mf_gby \_klb [_k_^m ih ki_pbZevghklb gZ Zg]ebckdhf yaud_ZlZd`_^_eZlvdjZldb_khh[s_gby\ij_^_eZobamqZ_fhcl_fZlbdb L_dklu^eyihkh[byih^[bjZebkvbahjb]bgZevghcZg]ebckdhcebl_jZlmju Kh^_j`Zgb_ ^Zggh]h ihkh[by hljZ`Z_l kh\j_f_gguc mjh\_gv wdheh]bb b ghkblg_lhevdhh[mqZxsbcghbihagZ\Zl_evgucoZjZdl_j
3 Reading text 1
THE DESTRUCTION OF THE RAINFORESTS The tropical rainforests surround the equator of the earth like a belt. They occupy a total area of about nine million square kilometres. The largest rainforests are in the South America, particularly the Amazon forest in Brazil which stretches to Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela and French Guyana. Smaller forests are rapidly cut down. Nobody knows exactly how much is cut down every year. Estimates vary between 100000 and 400000 square kilometres. Brazil alone lost about 48000 square kilometres of rainforest in 1990. The tropical forests of west Africa (Nigeria and the Ivory Coast) have almost disappeared over the past 40 years. According to the most conservative estimate, all the rainforests in the world will be gone in less than a century unless the rate of felling slows down. A more realistic estimate is 30 years. Between 10 and 30 percent of the trees are sold as logs to the timber trade. Most of the trees from the Nigerian rainforests were sold to the timber industry in Japan, the United States and other industrialized countries. Tropical hardwoods such as mahogany are strong, attractive and hardwearing. They are used in rich countries to make luxury furniture, doors and window frames. But much of the wood is not made into dural products. It is made into cheap, throwaway goods. The multinational timber companies often make roads deep into the forests so that they can drag the logs away. They may only cut down a few trees themselves, but their roads make the forests accessible to local peasant farmers. These farmers cut down trees to create new cropland, or even simply for fuel. Tree felling for firewood is also problem in the temperate forests. The largest cause of the destruction of rainforests is probably the creation of grazing land to feed cattle. Half of the world’s rainforests have already been cut down to make space for the meat industry. We need to conserve the rainforests. First, because the rainforests are the lungs of the world. They take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen by photosynthesis: The loss of vegetation in the rainforests magnifies the greenhouse effect. The capacity of the rainforests to absorb carbon dioxide is becoming ever more crucial. Second, the rainforests are the worlds most important means of storing water. The trees soak up waters in the rainy season and slowly release it into the ground and rivers. This protects the fragile soils from the potentially devastating effects of tropical stores. The rainforests supply water to the rivers during the dry season. If they did not do this, any rivers would disappear in the dry season, and become raging torrents in the rainy reason, flooding the nearby fields and washing away the soil. Third, the rainforests control the climate. Seventy percent of the rain that falls on the tropical rainforests enters the trees from the soil by transpiration and then evaporates from the surface of the leaves. The heat energy required to evaporate the water from the forests cools the equatorial regions. The clouds formed by the water vapor also cool the land by reflecting solar radiation back into space. These clouds are carried to cooler parts of the eath by natural convection, where
4 they release warm rain which raises the temperature in these areas. If the rainforests desappear, so will the rain. Without the rainforests, the temperature difference between the tropics and the temperate zones would be far greater. Fourth, the rainforests are a reservoir of micronutrients. Tropical rainforests usually grow on poor soil. Most of the essential nutrients are stored not in the soil but within the trees themselves. The roots of the trees do not grow deep into the soil. The shallow roots absorb free nutrients released from the thick layer of decaying vegetation on the forest floor. Recycling of these nutrients is crucial to the survival of the ecosystem that the rainforests support. Fifth, the rainforests are an important source of raw materials for many different industries. One very important benefit is the supply of medicinal plants. About 80 percent of all traditional herbal .medicines and 25 percent of modern Estern medicines are extracted from plants that ;row in the rainforests. Loss of plant species within the rainforests will mean that many lifesaving drugs will never be discovered.
Active vocabulary: equator estimate log timber trade hardwoods dural products throwaway goods cropland fuel grazing land conserve carbon dioxide greenhouse effect magnify absorb fragile soils supply flood natural convection nutrients store survival plant species
[i′kweitw] [′estimeit] [l q] [′timbw treid] [′ha:dwud] [′djuwrwl pr d∧kt] [ ′θrwuwwei qudz] [kr plwnd] [′fjuwl] [qreiziη lwnd] [k nsw:v] [′ka:bwn dai′ ksaid] [qri:nhaus i′fekt] [mæqnifai] [wb′s :b] [fræd ail ′s ils] [sw′plai] [fl∧d] [hæt∫rwl k nvek∫wn] [nju:triwnt] [st ] [swvaivwl] [′plant spi∫i:s]
wd\Zlhj hp_gb\Zlv [j_\gh lhj]h\eye_khfZl_jbZehf l\_j^Zy^j_\_kbgZ ^hjh]hklhysZyijh^mdpby h^ghjZah\h]hihevah\Zgby iZohlgu_m]h^vy lhieb\h iZkl[bs_ khojZgylv m]e_dbkeuc]Za iZjgbdh\ucwnn_dl m\_ebqb\Zlv ih]ehsZlv keZ[u_ojmidb_ihq\u kgZ[`ZlvihklZ\eylv gZ\h^g_gb_aZlhie_gb_ ijbjh^gZydhg\_dpby iblZl_evgh_\_s_kl\h kgZ[`ZlvaZiZkZlv \u`b\Zgb_ \b^ujZkl_gbc
5 Exercises: 1. Find English equivalents for Russian words: l\_j^Zy^j_\_kbgZ a) softwood b) woodland
c) hardwood
ihq\Z a) earth
c) soil
b) ground
m]e_dbkeuc]Za a) carbon dioxide b) hydrogen
c) nitrous oxide
khojZgylv a) conservation
b) conserve
c) conservationist
\u`b\Zgb_ a) survive
b) survival
c) survivor
2. Match the following words and word combinations with the Russian equivalents from the column opposite:
1. surround 2. occupy 3. cut down 4. disappear 5. accessible 6. firewood 7. give out 8. release 9. devastating effect 10. transpiration 11. temperate zone 12. extract
a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l)
aZgbfZlv ^h[u\Zlv ^hklmiguc bkiZj_gb_ himklhrbl_evgucwnn_dl mf_j_ggZyahgZ kjm[Zlv kdju\Zlvky hk\h[h`^Zlv ^jh\Z bkq_aZlv hdjm`Zlv
3. Comment on the following: “The rainforests are the lungs of the world”.
6 4. Find the proper definition of the following words: 1. carbon dioxide 2. flood 3. conservation
4. absorb 5. evaporation 6. species (plural and singular form)
7. rainforest
a) the process when liquid changes into gas b) take in, usually moisture or liquid c) a class of plants or animals whose members have the same main characteristics and are able to breed with each other d) the management, protection and preservation of the earth’s natural resources and environment e) an overflow of water on to land, which is usually dry; an overflowing of a river f) a thick evergreen forest of tall trees which is found in tropical areas where there is a lot of rain. It is a home to more than half the world’s plants and animals g) gas, having chemical formula CO2
5. Answer the questions: 1. What total area do the tropical rainforests occupy? 2. What tropical forests disappeared from the past 40 years? 3. How do the multinational timber companies work in rainforests? 4. What magnifies the greenhouse effect? 5. What protects the fragile soils from the potentially devastating effects of tropical storms? 6. Do the rainforests control the climate? 7. Why would the temperature difference between the tropics and the temperate zones be far greater? 8. What soil do tropical rainforests usually grow? 9. Where are most of the essential nutrients stored? 10. Why is recycling of these nutrients crucial to the survival of the ecosystems? 11. The rainforests are an important source of raw materials, aren’t they? 12. What do the rainforests supply us with?
6. Retell the text using the following statements as a plan: 1. the reduction of the demand for new hardwood products; 2. the international timber trace has received a lot of bad publicity; 3. the ecological importance of the rainforests; 4. the planting new hardwood forests, particularly in vital watershed zones; 5. the medicinal plants in the rainforests have great scientific potential; 6. the plight of the disappearing tropical rainforests is one of the most urgent environmental crisis in the world today.
7 Reading text 2
DIVERSITY AND GENETIC RESOURCES When we think or wildlife facing extinction, we are usually thinking of large majestic animals such as whales, elephants and rhinos. These creatures are indeed risk of extinction because of irresponsible and cruel hunting by human predators. But the threat of extinction is not limited to the few species that we can recognize in pictures or visit in zoos. The threat of extinction affects almost every species on earth, down to the tiniest microbe. A species is a group of animals, plants or microorganisms that share a common genetic structure, Members of species can mate with one another but not with members of another species. The earth probably contains between 10 and 100 million different species. Each species is genetically unique. This means that we cannot produce new members of a species by breeding other species. The great variety of different species of animals, plants and microorganisms are the world’s genetic resources. In English biodiversity means biological diversity or “many different forms of life”. Fifty to seventy percent of all the earth’s animal, plant and bacteria species live in the tropical rainforests. The floor of the forest is a warn, moist, sheltered environment that encourages a great variety of living things to grow. Wild plants and animals in the forests already supply us with hundreds of useful materials, foods and medicines. The genetic resources within the rainforests provide a huge potential for new developments. Maintaining biodiversity by conserving the rainforests is one of the greatest priorities for environmentalists today. At the present rate of destruction, 7 percent of the earth’s diversity is lost every 25 years. The balance of nature within any ecosystem depends on the complex interaction between millions of species of animals, plants and micro-organisms. The death of one species could threaten the survival of hundreds of others. A second species might lose its food supply and it, too might become extinct. Another species could lose its predators, so it might become more numerous. The populations of parasites and microorganisms. The balance of nature is often a very precarious one. Small organisms have a large influence on the microenvironment. Microorganisms influence important physical properties such as the acidity and mineral content of the soil, the salinity of the sea and the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air. Changes in the populations of microorganisms may, therefore, cause major changes in the composition of the earth and its atmosphere. In general, organisms that live in the wild are stronger and are more resistant to disease than domestic strains. They can replace domestic strains that develop disease. Today, scientists are trying to store wild strains of all the staple food crops in case the domestic strains develop disease. But we cannot always rely on scientists to restore the balance of nature when it goes wrong. We cannot maintain biodiversity in the plant and animal worlds by storing every single species in laboratories. The world’s ecosystem is
8 far too complicated. The best place to store our genetic resources is in their natural habitat. Man must try to protect every living species on the earth - even the ugliest insects and the tiny, invisible, unglamorous bacteria. Active Vocabulary: creature irresponsible hunting affect tiny contain breed encourage interaction precarious acidity replace rely (on) store maintain natural habitat insects invisible unglamorous bacteria
[′krit∫w] [irisp nswβbl h∧ntiη ] [wfekt] [taini] [kwnt′ein] [bri:d] [ink′∧rid ] [intwræk∫wn] [pri′kεwriws] [ æsiditi] [rip′leis] [rilai n] [st ] [meintein] [næt∫rwl hæbitæt] [insekt] [invizwbl] [ ∧nqlæmwrw bæktiwriw]
`b\h_kms_kl\h [_ahl\_lkl\_ggZyhohlZ \ha^_ckl\h\Zlv djhr_qguc kh^_j`Zlv jZa\h^blv\u\h^blv ih^^_j`b\Zlv \aZbfh^_ckl\b_ jbkdh\Zgguc dbkehlghklv \hkklZgZ\eb\Zlv iheZ]Zlvky khojZgylv ih^^_j`b\Zlv ijbjh^gZykj_^Z gZk_dhfh_ g_\b^bfuc g_\ajZqgu_[Zdl_jbb
Exercises: 1. Find English equivalents for Russian words: 1kj_^Zh[blZgby a) place b) habitat
c) home
\ufbjZgb_ a) extinction
c) termination
b) ending
\hkklZgZ\eb\Zlv a) restore b) rehabilitate
c) return
ih^^_j`dZkh^_j`Zgb_moh^ a) maintetance b) care
c) support
5.m]jhaZhiZkghklv a) threatening b) risk
c) threat
9 2. Match the following words and word combinations with the Russian equivalents from the column opposite: 1. microorganism 2. destruction 3. disease 4. diversity 5. salinity 6. supply 7. resorces 8. species 9. ugly 10. protect 11. affect 12. encourage 13. composition
a) \b^u b) khklZ\ c) ih^^_j`b\Zlv d) ihe_agu_bkdhiZ_fu_j_kmjku e) hdZau\Zlv\ha^_ckl\b_ f) aZsbsZlv g) fbdjhhj]Zgbafu h) jZagh\b^ghklv i) [_ah[jZaguc j) kgZ[`Zlvh[_ki_qb\Zlv k) aZkhe_gb_ l) aZ[he_\Zgb_ m) jZajmr_gb_
2. After reading through the text carefully, say whether the following statements are true or false: 1. Organisms that live in the wild are weaker and less resistant to disease than domestic strains. 2. The best place to store our genetic resources is in laboratories. 3. Small organisms don’t have a large influence on the microenvironment. 4. The death of one species could not threaten the survival of hundreds of others. 5. The earth probably contains between 10 and 20 million different species. 6. This means that we can produce new members of a species by breeding other species. 7. At the present rate of destruction, I percent of the earth diversity is lost every 5 years. 4. Find the proper definition of the following words: 1. biodiversity 1. extinction 2. genetic resources 4. habitat 5. mate 6. affect 7. store
a) the natural home of a plant or animal b) a group of animals, plants or microorganisms sharing a common genetic structure c) a great variety of different species of animals, plants and microorganisms d) the disappearance of plants and animals e) to cause some result or change in f) make into a pair of animals for the production of youth g) to make or keep a supply of something
10 for future use. 5. Answer the questions: 1. What animals are facing extinction nowadays? 2. Is the threat of extinction limited only to the few species? 3. Does the threat of extinction affect every species on earth? 4. What is a species? 5. How many different species does the earth contain of ? 6. Can we produce new members of a species by breeding other species? 7. What are the world’s genetic resources? 8. Fifty to seventy percent of all the earth’s plant, animal and bacteria species live in the tropical rainforests, don’t they? 9. What provides a huge potential for new developments? 10. What is one of the greatest priorities for environmentalists today? 11. What does the balance of nature within any ecosystem depend on? 12. Who has a large influence on the microenvironment? 13. Are organisms that live in the wild stronger and more resistant to disease than domestic strains? 14. What is the best place to store our genetic resources? 6. Say which facts given in the text were new to you. 7. Skim through the text and say which of its paragraphs gives the information about: a) b) c) d)
the threat of extinction; the worlds genetic resources; the balance of nature is often precarious one; the best place to store our genetic resources is in their natural habitat.
Reading text 3
THE OZONE LAYER AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The atmosphere is the layer of gas that surrounds the earth. The composition of the atmosphere charges with the distance from the earth’s surface. The layer near the surface - the troposphere - contains the air we breathe, which is 78 percent nitrogen, 2l percent oxygen, 0,03 percent carbon dioxide an I percent inert gases such as argon. Water vapor, small particles of dust and tiny quantities of other gases such as helium, ozone, nitrous oxide and methane are also present. The stratosphere (between 15 and 80 kilometres above sea level) contains thin, cold air with less oxygen and no dust or water vapor. The ionosphere contains very thin air and electrically charges particles which reflect electromagnetic waves. We use the ionosphere to send radio signals around the earth. The lower part of the stratosphere contains a band of warm gas called the ozone layer (between 15 and 40 kilometres above sea level. Ozone absorbs very shortwave
11 ultraviolet radiation - that is the harmful, burning rays from the sun. These rays kill plants and cause burns, skin cancer and cataracts in animals and man. The ozone layer protects us from these damaging effects. The man-made chemicals chlorofluorocarbons break up ozone molecules. CFCs occur in some aerosols (such as deodorants, hair sprays and cleaning fluids and the cooling mechanism of refrigerators. CFCs have already caused a large hole in the ozone layer. CFCs also contribute to the greenhouse effect. The manufacture of new products containing CFCs is slowly declining in most countries, but it is not happening quickly enough. Another environmental problem in the atmosphere is the greenhouse effect. The sun’s energy arrives as shortwave radiation; some of this is reflected away in the clouds and upper atmosphere and some is absorbed into the ground. About 5 percent of the energy is reflected off the earth’s surface as longwave radiation. Certain gases in the upper troposhere - especially carbon dioxide, methane and CFCs - reflect this longwave radiation back to earth. The greenhouse effect is very important if it did not occur at all, the temperature of the planet would be 40 degrees lower and the oceans would freeze. But an increase in the greenhouse effect (caused by an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere) may lead to global warning with disastrous consequences. The higher average temperatures produced by global warming could cause dramatic changes in the weather. A rise in the earth’s average temperature of only one or two degrees would probably melt large expanses of ice in the Arctic and Antarctic and raise sea level, any heavily populated regions would be permanently flooded. Many of the world’s major population centres could become uninhabitable. About one billion people would lose their homes and become environmental refugees Carbon dioxide accounts for 55 percent of the greenhouse effect. CFCs account for 17 percent; methane for 15 percent and nitrous oxide for 5 percent. Carbon dioxide occurs naturally in the atmosphere. But it also produced when living things burn, so it is as by-product of industrial processes which use fossil fuels (coal, gas or oil) and motor vehicles which burn gasoline or diesel fuel. Methane is also a natural gas produced when living things decompose in the absence of oxygen. Methane in the atmosphere breaks down relatively quickly. Nitrous oxide in the atmosphere comes from bacteria beneath the earth surface, which convert nitrates in the soil to the gases nitrogen and nitrous oxide. Levels of nitrous oxide in the air will continue to increase for many years, because there is already a large reservoir of artificial nitrates within the soil. We cannot see, hear, taste or smell the earth atmosphere, but it provides vital oxygen, protects us from damaging solar radiation and stabilizes the earth climate. Pollution has already caused a large hole in the ozone layer and increased global warming. We must try to reduce emmisions of greenhouse gases today, rather than wait for another 10 to 15 years until the phenomenon of global warning is absolutely certain.
12 Active Vocabulary: troposphere nitrogen oxygen carbon dioxide argon vapor methane stratosphere ionosphere chlorofluorocarbon fluid degree heavily populated regions refugee account for fossil fuels break down
ljhihkn_jZ [′tr pwsfiw] Zahl [naitrid wn] dbkehjh^ [′ ksid wn] m]e_dbkeuc]Za [ka:bwn daiksaid] Zj]hg [′a:q n] bkiZjylvky [′veipw] f_lZg [′meθein] [′stræt usfiw] kljZlhkn_jZ [ai′wnwsfiw] bhghkn_jZ oehjnlhjm]e_jh^u [kl fwfluor ′ka:b n] `b^dhklv [flu:id] ]jZ^mk [di′qri:] [hevili p pjuleitid rid wns] ]mklhgZk_e_ggu_jZchgu [_`_g_p [refju:′d i:] gZkqblu\Zlv [ kaunt f ] bkdhiZ_fh_lhieb\h [′fosl ′fjuwl] [′breik ′daun] jZajmrZlv
Exercises: 1. Find English equivalents for Russian words: iuev a) dust
b) haze
c) sleet
lZylv a) freeze
b) melt
c) cool
ijhba\h^kl\h a) manufacture b) manufacturing
c) output
gZkqblu\Zlv a) count b) account
c) countless
aZsbsZlv a) watch
c) protector
b) protect
13 2. Match the following words and word combinations with the Russian equivalents from the column opposite: 1. surround 2. surface 3. particle 4. man-made 5. occur 6. average 7. by-product 8. fossil fuels 9. provide 10. emission 11. absence 12. decompose 13. cool
a) qZklbpZ b) ijhbkoh^blvkemqZlvky c) ih[hqgucijh^mdl d) h[_ki_qb\Zlv e) ijhoeZ^guc f) wfbkkby g) jZaeZ]ZlvgZkhklZ\gu_qZklb h) hlkmlkl\b_ i) l\_j^h_lhieb\h j) kj_^gbc k) bkdmkkl\_gguc l) hdjm`Zlv ih\_joghklv
3. Find the proper definition of the following words: 1. greenhouse effect 2. global temperature
3. 4. 5. 6.
fossil fuels emission flood convert
7. occur
a) the earth’s temperature b) the gradual raising of the temperature of air in the lower atmosphere as a result of the accumulation of gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons c) a great overflow of water d) change into another form e) to take place, happen f) any naturally occuring fuel, such as natural gas, oil, coal g) releasing of some substance, heat, light, gas, radiation, etc. into the atmosphere.
3. After reading through the text carefully, say whether the following statements are true or false: 1. The air we breathe consists mainly of oxygen. 2.The air is thinner in the ionosphere than in the stratosphere. 3. Chlorofluorocarbons are the main factor in the greenhouse effect. 4. Without the greenhouse effect the climate on the earth would be much colder. 5. The sun’s energy reaches the earth as infra-red radiation. 6. If there is a rise in temperature of one or two degrees, the sea level will rise by about 2 millimetres a year.
14 5. Answer the questions: 1. What is the atmosphere? 2. What does the troposphere contain? 3. The stratosphere contains thin, cold air with less oxygen and no dust or water vapor, doesn’t it? 4. What does ozone absorb? 5. What layer protects us from damaging effects? 6. What rays kill plants and cause burns, skin cancer and cataracts in animals and man? 7. Where do CFSs occur vainly? 8. What is the greenhouse effect? 9. What is the cause of the greenhouse effect? 10. Where does carbon dioxide occur naturally? 11. What does the atmosphere provide us with? 12. Must we wait for another 15 years until the phenomenon of global warning is absolutely certain?
6. Say which facts given in the text were new to you. 7. Retell the text using the following statements as a plan: 1. the composition of the atmosphere; 2. the ozone layer; 3. the man-made chemicals chlorofluorocarbons break up ozone molecule; 4. another environmental problem in the atmosphere is the greenhouse effect; 5. the higher average temperatures produced by global warming could cause dramatic changes in the weather; 6. the earth atmosphere provides vital oxygen, protects us from damaging radiation.
8. Give a number of connections between the ozone layer and the greenhouse effect.
Reading text 4
AIR POLLUTION In the past, air pollution in industrialized countries caused a visible haze called smog. Smog is a mixture of different pollunants (mainly sulphur dioxide gas and particles of soot) and water vapor in still, cold air. It occurs in unusual weather conditions where there is temperature inversion - that is a layer of cold air close to the ground with a layer of warmer air above it. In normal weather conditions, air near the ground is warmer than air higher up; warm air rises and the air circulates. With temperature inversion, the air does not circulate so pollutants become trapped close to the ground. When these pollutants combine with fog they form a visible suspension in
15 the air, this is known as smog. The main sources of sulphur dioxide are soot and fossil fuels, particularly coal. Oil, natural gas and hard black coal produce much less sulphur dioxide than soft, brown coal. Sulphur-based smog rarely occurs in developed countries, but it is a major source of pollution in newly-industrializing countries. Sulphur dioxide is, indentally, also emitted from volcanoes, when they erupt; this “natural” sulphur dioxide can cause the same environmental problems as industrial emissions. Smog is very bad for health. Water vapor combines with sulphur dioxide to form sulphuric acid and with nitrogen monoxide to form nitric acid. Air pollution in the upper atmosphere does not cause smog, but it has other harmful effects. Sulphuric and nitric acids are carried long distances with air currents and become acid rain. Acid rain damages crops and forests destroys aquatic life in lakes, rivers and ruins buildings. In sandstone or limestone regions, certain chemicals within the rock (such as calcium carbonate) will reduce the acidity of the water. This is called natural buffering. But if the lake lies on an insoluble or acidic rock such as granite, no natural buffering will occur and the acidity of the water will remain high. Scientists have tried to reduce the acidity of the lakes artificially by adding chemicals to the water, but this intended remedy sometimes upsets the ecological balance even further. Acid rain destroys buildings by corroding metal and dissolving stone; some important historocal monuments are being washed away by acid rain. The ozone layer in the upper atmosphere protects us from solar radiation, but ozone at ground level is a major air pollutant. It causes chest disease, particularly asthma and irritates the eyes and skin. Ozone at ground level comes from motor vehicles. Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in vehicle exhausts combine with one another in sunlight to produce ozone. The photochemical smog is worst in trafficcongested cities on hot, dry summer days, whereas sulphur-based smog occurs on cold damp winter days. Photochemical smog is especially common when the vehicle engines are old and poorly maintained. The toxic emissions from car exhausts can be reduced condiderably by installing catalytic converters on the engines. Another toxic component of car exhaust fumes is lead. Until quite recently, all gasoline contained a lead-based compound (tetra-ethyl lead) which made the gasoline burn more smoothly. Lead is a very poisonous metal. Human beings cannot excrete lead, so it accumulates in the body. Even in tiny concentrations (25 milligrams per liter) it can cause headaches, abdominal pains, miscarriages and general tiredness. Lead is particularly toxic to growing brain cells. Lead pollution from car exhaust probably reduces the intellegence of children who live in crowded cities. The air we breathe is no longer clean and pure. “Developments” that have made our lifestyle more comfortable (such as industrialization, urbanization and the use of private cars) all polute the earth’s atmosphere. Air pollution today is often invisible, but we should not ignore the danger it is causing to our own health, the health of our children and the health of the planet. Reducing air pollution should be a priority in all countries.
16 Active Vocabulary: haze [′heiz] pollunant [′p lu:twnt] soot [su:t] inversion [in′vw:∫wn] circulate [′sw:kjuleit] suspension [sws′pen∫wn] [′ha:mful] harmful [ ′εw′k∧rwnt] air current acid rain [′wsid ′rein] aquatic [w′kwætik] limestone [′laimst un] dissolve [diz′ lv] exhaust fumes [iqzwst fjums] [eks′kri:t] excrete [bri:∂ ] breathe [p iznws] poisonous [in′telid wns] intellegence [wbenaizei∫wn] urbanization
e_]dbclmfZg^ufdZ aZ]jyagbl_ev kZ`Z i_j_\_jgmlhklv pbjdmebjh\Zlv ih^\_rb\Zgb_ijbhklZgh\dZ \j_^guciZ]m[guc \ha^mrgh_l_q_gb_ dbkehlguc^h`^v \h^guc\h^yghc ba\_klgyd jZkl\hjylv \uoehigu_]Zau \u^_eylvba\_j]Zlv ^urZlv y^h\bluc mfbgl_ee_dl mj[ZgbaZpby
Exercises: 1. Find English equivalents for Russian words: 1. y^h\bluc a) toxic b) harmful c) poison k\bg_p a) silver
b) copper
c) lead
b]ghjbjh\Zlv a) forget b) ignore
c) neglect
kgb`Zlv a) cut
b) cut down
c) reduce
fZrbgZ a) machinery
b) lorry
c) vehicle
\uoehi a) fallout
b) exhaust
c) buffer
[_gabg a) oil
b) petrolium
c) gasoline
17 2. Match the following words and word combinations with the Russian equivalents from the column opposite: 1. breathe 2. fog 3. health 4. inversion 5. limestone 6. acidity 7. mixture 8. insoluble 9. irritate 10. sunlight 11. burn 12. accumulate
a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l)
jZa^jZ`Zlv ba\_klgyd kheg_qguck\_l gZdZieb\Zlv a^hjh\v_ k`b]Zlv bg\_jkbyi_j_\_jgmlhklv ^urZlv lmfZg dbkehlghklv g_jZkl\hjbfuc kf_kv
3. Find the proper definition of the following words: 1. acid rain 2. exhaust 3. catalytic converter
4. buffer 5. particle 6. corrode 7. harmful
a) the gas which is produced and coming out of the engine of a motor vehicle when it is working b) the precipitation of dilute solutions of strong mineral acids from the atmosphere c) a device which chemically changes the harmful hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide in automobile emissions to carbon dioxide and water vapor d) a very small piece or amount of something e) something that prevents something from being harmful f) causing or likely to cause harm g) when metal corrodes it is gradually destroyed by a chemical or by rust
4. Answer the questions: 1.What did air pollution cause in industrialized countries? 2. What is smog? 3. What happens with temperature inversion? 4. What are the main sources of sulphur dioxide? 5. What countries is smog a major source of pollution? 6. What forms sulphuric acid? 7. What does acid rain damage? 8. What is natural buffering? 9. What is one of the major air pollutants? 10. What does ozone come from at ground level? 11. How can the toxic emissions from car be reduced? 12. What is the main component of car exhaust fumes? 13 Is the air we breathe clean and clear? 14. We should not ignore the danger of air pollution, should we?
18 5. Skim through the text and say which of its paragraphs gives the information about: a) b) c) d)
the main sources of sulphur dioxide; acid rain destroys aquatic life in lakes; lead is a very poisonous metal; “developments” pollute the earth’s atmosphere
6. Give a list of the main things which you think cause air pollution. 7. Read the following paragraph. Choose the appropriate words and word combinations to complete the text: 1. exhaust fumes 6. evaporates
2. damages 7. exposed
3. urban 8. carry
4. irritates 9. sources
5. greenery 10. reactions
A the top of the list of **** urban air pollution *** is the automobile, which is not only man’s servant, but a dangerous foe. Automobile **** *** many harmful substances such as nitric osides, lead compounds, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, residual hydrocarbons, carcinogenous benzopyrene and so on. Besides this a considerable percentage of automobile fuels *** into the atmosphere. *** to solar warmth residual hydrocarbons begin chemical *** in the air and produce smog which **** peoples eyes and respiratory tracts and *** plants. **** plays a big part in the control of dust and other pollutants in cities. 8. Suggest a possible title for this paragraph in English.
Reading text 5 WATER POLLUTION One of the most urgent environmental problems in the world today is the shortage of clean water. There are large differences in per capita water consumption between different countries. A comfortable lifestyle (with flush toilets, washing machines and publich swimming pools) uses a lot of water. So even if the population growth stops, the water shortage will get worse. Access to clean drinking water is a basic human right. But acid rain. industrial pollution and sewage dumping have made many sources of water undrinkable. Lakes, reservoirs and even entire seas have become vast pools of poison. Lake Baikal is one of the largest lakes in the world. It is also one of the most beautiful. It contains a rich variety of animals and plants, including 1,300 rare species that do not exist anywhere else in the world. But they are being destroyed by the passive volumes of industrial effluent which pour into the lake every day. Most industries simply ignored the
19 regulations. But some factories are now disposing of their waste more responsibly. The Mediterranean Sea occupies I percent of the world’s water surface. But it is the dumping-ground for 50 percent of all marine pollution. Sixteen countries border on the Mediterranean. Almost all of them regularly dump shiploads of industrial wastes a few miles off the shore. Sewage effluents pour into the sea only meters from popular bathing beaches. The United Nations Environmental Program brought together these 16 countries and drew up the Mediterranean Action Plan. The countries agreed to stop dumping from ships arid to reduce sewage pollution. Japanese factories dumped waste containing mercury into the sea at Minamata Bay. Shellfish became contaminated with this very toxic heavy metal. Over 2000 people developed brain damage and 40 of them died. These tragic examples should teach us that ocean is neither a garbage can nor a toilet. Sewage is a rich source of micronutrients, which are essential for the growth of plants and animals. Sewage sludge, and fertilizers washed off the land, increase the concentration of micronutrients (particularly nitrates) in the sea to dangerous levels. Plankton (tiny) plants that float near the surface of the water) become so numerous that they cut out the light to deeper parts of the sea. This endangers plants that grow on the sea bed, which need the suns light for photo synthesis. Seaweed is also very sensitive to changes in the level of micronutrients in coastal waters. One or two species of algae (seaweed) can outgrow all the other species. Overgrowth of algae can cause slimy, smelly, ugly deposits on beaches. Occasionally alage produce poisonous toxins that can kill fish or cause skin rashes in swimmers. We condemn deliberate pollution of the water supply by industrial waste and sewage dumping. But we are usually impressed by “developments” such as huge dams, dikes and irrigation schemes. These are often magnificent feats of civil engineering. They cost a lot of money and use modern materials and equipment. Many dams and irrigation schemes have been environmental disasters. Three quarters of the worlds water is used to irrigate crops, so inefficient or extravagant irrigation schemes can cripple a regions water supply. The Aral Sea is now less than half the size it was in 1965. Badly-planned irrigation schemes have taken water from the rivers that fed the Aral Sea. In addition, overuse of pesticides on the cotton crops nearby has polluted the water with toxin chemicals. In some cases, major water diversion projects began because a new technology became available and governments wanted to demostrate their new-found power over nature. Dams also be a direct political tool. Rivers often flow through one country to get to another, so the first country can potentially control the flow of water into the second. “Developments” projects can also make soil erosion worse. Forests and grasslands in a river valley soak up water after heavy rains and slowly release it back into streams and rivers. This prevents the valley from becoming dry and dusty in the months without rain. In addition vegetation also prevents erosion by holding the particles of soil together. If there is no vegetation, the soil crumbles away and it washed into the rivers as silt. Rivers become clogged with sediment. Lakes change from clear, blue pools into thick, muddy puddles. The destruction of the rainforests and intensive farming practices(such as heavy grazing of cattle and excessive plowing with powerful machines) both increase s soil erosion. The traditional farming methods used by
20 primitive communities may seem inefficient, but the sediment loss from these methods is tiny. The best things in life are free. But because water is free, we often take it for granted. A few years ago people thought that the supply of clean water in the world was limitless. Clean water is now scarce, and we are at last beginning to respect this precious resource. Active Vocabulary: urgent shortage water consumption access sewage dumping pour marine effluent contaminate micronutrients endanger coastal waters irrigation schemes disaster soil erosion release silt precious
[′w:d wnt] [′∫ tid ] [′w tw k n′s∧mp∫wn] [ ′ækses] [′sju:id ′d∧mpiη ] [p ] [mw′ri:n] [′efluwnt] [kwn′tæmineit] [maikrwnju:triwnt] [indeind w] [′k ustwl ′w tws] [iri′qei∫n ski:ms] [di′zastw] [′s il irwu wn] [ri′li:z] [silt] [′pre∫ws]
djZcg_g_h[oh^bfuc g_o\ZldZg_^hklZlhd ihlj_[e_gb_\h^u ^hklmi k[jhkklhqguo\h^ eblv\eb\Zlv fhjkdhc ihlhd aZ]jyagylv fbdjhgbljZlu gZoh^ysb_kyih^m]jhahcbkq_agh\_gby [_j_]h\u_\h^u bjjb]Zpbhggu_ijh_dlu [he_agv wjhabyihq\u k[jZku\Zgb_ behkZ^hd ^jZ]hp_gguc
Exercises: 1. Find English equivalents for Russian words: aZohjhg_gb_fmkhjZ a) dumping b) landfilling
c) disposal
hjhrZlv a) irrigate
b) water
c) soak
hiZkguc a) terrible
b) dangerous
c) harmful
g_h[oh^bfuc a) essential b) necessary
c) equitable
21 2. Find the proper definition of the following words: 1. silt
2. contaminate 3. sediment 4. plankton
5. damage
6. waste 7. sewage
a) organisms inhabiting the surface layer of a see or lake, consisting of unicellular plant organisms. Plankton forms the vital step in aquatic food chains b) physical harm that is caused to something c) a material which has been used and is, no longer wanted d) a fine-grained mineral material formed from the erosion of rock fragments and deposited by rivers and lakes e) if something is contaminated by dirt, chemicals or radiation, it becomes impure, unhealthy or harmful f) waste matter from homes and factories, which flows away through undeground channel g) the material that has been carried along and then left somewhere by water, ice or wind
3. Match the following words of similar meaning: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
shortage to contain variety to reduce sensitive to condemn disaster to release
a)shock, catastrophy, calamity b) to set free, let go c) scarcity, lack, insufficiency d) to hold, to involve, to keep e) diversity, many sidedness f) to diminish, to shorten g) easily affected by h) to disapprove of, to criticize
4. Give a list of the main things which you think cause water pollution. 5. Answer the questions: 1. What is one of the most urgent environmental problems in the world today? 2. Is there any difference in per capita water consumption between different countries? 3.What makes many sources of water undrinkable 4. What beautiful lake is being destroyed by the massive volumes of industrial efflient? 5. What sea is the dumpingground for 50 percent of all marine pollution? 6.What country dumped waste containing mercury into the sea? 7. Is sewage a rich source of micronutrients? 8. What plant is also very sensitive to changes in the level of micronutrients in coastal waters? 9. What “developments” have become environmental disasters? 10. What projects make soil erosion worse? 11.Is clean water now scarce?
22 6. Retell the text using the following statements as a plan: 1. water consumption; 2. industrial pollution and sewage dumping have made many sources of water undrinkable; 3. sewage is a rich source of micronutrients; 4. “developments” have been environmental disasters; 5. rivers become clogged with sediment; 6. clean water is now scarce.
7. Which paragraph do you think best summarizes the chapter?
8. Read the following paragraph. Choose the appropriate words and word combinations to complete the text:
1. treatment 2. quality 3. foam 4.amount 5. cost-free discarding 6. discarding 7. alkaline 8. die off 9. chlorine compounds 10.a number of advantages
Boiling water is an easy, universally recognized and practically **** way of improving its ***. At 100 degrees Celsius, practically all viruses, bacteria or other parasites present in the water are killed. It is always a good idea to boil your water, even if it said to be safe to drink in your town, chances are that it contains a certain *** of micro-organisms not killed off during chemical ****. Boiling water has *** **** from a chemical point of view: 1. Chemical bodies **** even before the temperature reaches 100 degrees. This is the case for most *** *** which may form during chlorine treatment at the water-treatment plant; 2. If the water is too rich in minerals, *** will form on the surface or cause a deposit inside the body. In addition to this, certain dangerous chemical compounds such as benzopyrene can attach themselves to the foam and can be eliminated by *** the foam; 3. It is not a good idea to leave the water boiling for too long; after a minute on the boil, it becomes more ***.
23 Reading text 6 SOIL POLLUTION Soil forms over thousands of years from the weathering of rock. There are three types of weathering; physial weathering (where temperature changes cause the rock to expand and contract until it shatters in to pieces), chemical weathering (where carbon dioxide and water form a weak acid that dissolves rocks such as limestone) and biological weathering (when the rock is broken down by the action of living things such as plant, roots and bacteria). The top layer of the soil (topsoil) is rich in humus - a dark, fibrous material formed from decaying organic matter. Humus contains micronutriets such as nitrogen, minerals such as iron, and microorganisms that break down the organic matter. Humus absorbs moisture and binds the inorganic particles together. The quality of soil depends on the amount of humus in it. The middle layer of the soil contains less organic Material but it rich in minerals, because these get washed down with the rain. The lower layer (subsoil) is made of inorganic material, similar to the parent rock. All living things are made of protein which contains nitrogen. Without nitrogen, plants and animals cannot grow, because they cannot build new tissue. Intensive farming methods, where cereals are grown every year, tend to deplete the soil of nitrogen. Repeated cropping and overgrazing cause erosion of the toplayers of the soil. The essential nitrates are removed with the topsoil so the nitrogen cycle, which is crucial to the balance of nature is broken. The earth is losing 24 billion metric tons of topsoil every year through intensive farming methods and deforestation. The end stage of this loss of topsoil is desertification, where all the organic and mineral content of the soil has disappeared, leaving only poor quality subsoil, which cannot support plant growth. Thirty percent of the land surface is threatened with desertification. Another hazard of intensive farming is salinization, which is caused by perennial irrigation in arid climates. Where rainfall is minimal, the salt content of the soil is very high. Evaporation from reservoirs and irrigation channels increases the salinity of the water. The quality of the soil can be improved by adding fertilizers. Organic fertilizers are made from animal and plant material such as compost (rotting plant matter) or manure (animal excreta) which return essential micronutrients such as nitrates, phosphates and potash to the soil. Artifial fertilizers contain high concentrations of these micronutrients. But they cause environmental damage by a process which is called eutrophication. Excess nitrogen is washed out of the soil with the run-off after it rains. It passes into rivers and lakes and encourages the growth of algae in the water and wild plants on nearby land. Artificial fertilizers add a few selected micronutrients, because they cause rapid plant growth they deplete the soil of other nutrients. Plants grown in artificial fertilizers are often tasteless and have a low nutritional value. They may be contaminated with chemical residues from the fertilizer manufacturing process. Organic vegetables are also grown without pesticides. These chemicals kill insects and other pests but they are poisonous to many other living things as well -
24 including men. Pesticides are absorbed by the crops and washed into the rivers and sea. Some pesticides accumulate in the human body and are secreted in breast milk. Some pesticides may cause cancer, miscarriage or even birth defects. The effect of pesticides on increasing crop yields is often transient. Some pests become resistant to the chemicals. The pesticides might destroy the pest’s natural predators, so the farmer soon sees a paradoxical increase in the pest population. The so-called “miracle strains” of high-yield cereal crops are particularly vulnerable to pests. The farmer must use higher concentration of pesticides each year to control the problem Intensive farming of highyield strains is usually associated with heavy use of both fertilizers and pesticides. Organic farming methods do not usually use these high-yield strains. A handful of soil looks inert and uninteresting. But good quality, fertile soil contains all the basic building blocks of life. Beneath the thin layer of soil lies a planet as lifeless as the moon. Intensive farming techniques increase crop yield in the short term but deplete the quality of the soil in the long term. At best, crop yields fall and at worst, the soil becomes ecologically bankrupt and unable to sustain crops at all. Intensive farming is yet another example of the "live now, pay later" philosophy that may ultimately cost us the earth.
Active Vocabulary: weathering cause humus decay
[′we∂wriη] [k :z] [′hju:mws] [di′kei] [ i′qænik ′mætw] organic matter [′baind] bind [′w ∫ daun] wash down [′tisju:] tissue hazard [′hæzwd] perennial irrigation [pw′rwnjuwl iriqei∫wn] fertilizer [′fw:tilaizw] [a:ti′fi∫wl] artificial [′teistlis] tasteless [′pestisaid] pesticides [i′nw:t] inert [′fw:tail] fertile deplete [di′pli:t]
\u\_ljb\Zgb_wjhaby [ulvijbqbghc\uau\Zlv i_j_]ghcq_jgha_f jZkiZ^]gb_gb_ hj]Zgbq_kdh_\_s_kl\h aZ^_j`b\Zlv \ufu\Zlv ldZgv hiZkghklv fgh]he_lgyybjjb]Zpby m^h[j_gby bkdmkkl\_gguc [_a\dmkguc i_klbpb^u g_Zdlb\gucg_cljZevguc ieh^hjh^guc bklhsZlvbkq_jiu\Zlv
25 Exercises: 1. Find English equivalents for Russian words: \u\_ljb\Zgb_ a) weathering b) weather
c) wind
jZaeh`_gb_jZkiZ^ a) decay b) decaying
c) compost
kh^_j`Zlv a) keep
c) contain
b) hold
aZkmreb\ucdebfZl a) temperate climate b) arid climate
c) severe climate
m^h[j_gby a) compost
c) fertilizer
b) humus
ieh^hjh^guc a) arid b) infertile
c) fertile
ih^ihq\Z a) subsoil
c) podzole
c) topsoil
2. Match the following words and word combinations with the Russian equivalents from the column opposite: 1. wash down 2. weathering 3. break down 4. humus 5. deplete 6. deforestation 7. desertification 8. content 9. threaten 10.salinization 11.crucial 12.overgrazing 13.accumulate 14.lifeless 15.sustain 16.tasteless
a) gZdZieb\Zlv b) kh^_j`Zlv c) m]jh`Zlv d) i_j_]ghc e) ih^^_j`b\Zlv f) h[_ae_kb\Zgb_ g) aZkhe_gb_ h) himklugb\Zgb_ i) jZajmrZlv j) [_a`bag_gguc k) [_a\dmkguc l) djblbq_kdbc m) \u\_ljb\Zgb_ n) \ufu\Zlv o) bklhsZlv p) i_j_\uiZkkdhlZ
26 3. Find the proper definition of the following words: 1. desertification 2. threat 3. topsoil
4. salinization
5. deforestation 6. fertilizer 7. decay 8. deplete
a) the accumulation of highly soluble sodium, magnezium and pottassium salts in a soil b) to reduce the amount of something c) after death living things decompose or decay – they are broken down into simpler chemical compounds d) the process by which the biological productivity of the land is so reduced as to lead to the spread of desert-like conditions into formerly fertile areas of land e) the clearing of forest land and its conversion to non-forest uses f) the upper layer of soil g) any material added to the soil for better crop growth h) the possibility that something unpleasant will happen
4. After reading through the text carefully, say whether the following statements are true or false: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
There are four types of weathering. The top layer of the soil is rich in humus. The lower layer (subsoil) is made of organic material. Without nitrogen, plants and animals can grow. Fifty percent of the land surface is threatened with desertification. The quality of the soil can be improved by adding pesticides. Artificial fertilizers contain high concentration of humus. Pesticides kill insects and other pests but they are poisonous to many other things, including men. 9. Intensive farming techniques increase crop yield in the short term and don’t deplete the quality of the soil in the long term.
5. Give a list of the main things which you think cause air pollution.
6. Say which facts given in the text were not new to you?
27 7. Answer the questions: 1. Does soil form over thousands of years from the weathering of rock? 2. Give three types of weathering. 3. What is the top layer of the soil rich in? 4. What does humus contain? 5. What does the quality of the soil depend on? 6. What does the middle layer of the soil contain? 7. All living things are made of protein, aren’t they? 8. What causes erosion of the top layers of the soil? 9. How many cubic tons of topsoil is the earth losing every year? 10. Can subsoil support plant growth? 11. What is salinization? 12. Can the quality of the soil be improved by adding fertilizers or pesticides? 13. What do artificial fertilizers contain? 14. Why are plants grown on artificial fertilizers often tasteless? 15. What does good quality, fertile soil contain? 8. Comment on the following: Intensive farming is yet another example of the “live now, pay later”. 9. Skim through the text and say which of its paragraphs gives the information about: a) there are three types of weathering; b) the quality of the soil depends on the amount of humus in it; c) without nitrogen plants can’t grow; d) repeated croping and overgrazing cause erosion of the toplayers; e) the land surface is threatened with desertification; f) the quality of the soil can be improved by adding fertilizers; g) artificial fertilizers contain high concentration of micronutrients; h) the effect of pesticides on increasing crop yields is often transient; i) good quality fertile soil contains all the basic buildings blocks of life. 10. Read the following paragraph. Choose the appropriate words and word combinations to complete the text: 1. desert 5. overgrazing
2. salinization 6. pressures
3. cash crops 7. desertification
4. livestock
In hot dry climates, soil erosion and loss of fertility produce **** with deserts spreading in formerly productive areas. Desertification is mainly caused by deforestation, overcultivation and *** in dry areas. But there are other destructive **** on the land. In the Sahel in the 1970s at least 100000 people and millions of animals died. The main cause was not the drought, but two decades of land mismanagement when the region had higher than average rainfall. Cultivation of *** expanded and the population grew. Marginal land was cultivated for the first time in centuries and *** grazed in tiny areas of pasture, where they shoudn’t have been. The land soon became ***. Other pressures on land include *** caused by irrigation water. Salinization can be tackled by improving field drainage and some other measures.
28 Reading text 7
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES: THE FOSSIL FUELS Fossil fuels are sources of energy that are buried under the ground-coal, oil and natural gas. They were all once living plant or animal material. Plants get their energy from the sun via photosynthesis: carbon dioxide + water + light energy ⇒ carbohydrates + oxygen The energy is stored in the bonds between carbon molecules in carbohydrates + oxygen ⇒ carbon dioxide + water + heat energy + light energy. The amount of energy in any fossil fuel depends on the carbon content. All fossil fuels produce carbon dioxide, the most important greenhouse gas, when they burn. The coal was formed about 300 million years ago. Trees and plants fell into swamps and decomposed into peat. Later the peat became buried and compressed into coal. After many years, the coal formed black or brown layers within sedimentary rocks. These layers of coal are called seams. Hard, black coal (antracite) has a high carbon content. We use this coal in our homes for domestic fires. Soft, brown coal (lignite) has a lower carbon content. It is used in power stations. All coal, but particularly brown coal, contains impurities; when the coal burns, sulphure dioxide and nitrogen oxide are produced from these impurities. If we heat coal in the absence of air, we make coke. Coke is a smokeless fuel that is used in the production of iron and steel. Today coal provides 25 percent of world energy. It is particularly important in generating electricity. By-products of coal include plastics, paint, man-made fibers, pesticides and fertilizers. These reserves will last between 100 and 300 years if consumption does not change. Oil was formed about 400 million years ago. Animals and plants that lived in the sea died and were buried under the sea bed. Their bodies decomposed and became compressed by the weight of the sea above them. Gradually they became buried under rocks. Over thousands of years the decomposed animal and plant material turned into crude oil. Oil accumulates in porous sedimentary rocks such as sandstone. Oil is usually found about 2.000 meters below ground in a layer of porous rock that lies between two layers of non-porous rock. The buried oil is often under high pressure. If we drill through the upper layers of rock, the oil is usually rises up to the surface under its own pressure. Oil has a high carbon content so it is a good source of energy. It is easier to reclaim and transport than coal. It is very important in the petrochemical industry which produces detergents, plastics, fertilizers, man-made fibers, cosmetics and industrial chemicals such as sulphuric acid. Today oil provides 50 percent of the known oil reserves. If world oil consumption continues at the same rate and if we do not discover new reserves of oil, we will run out of oil in about 2015. Natural gas (methane) often occurs with deposits of oil. It has a very high carbon content. It comes out of the ground in a pure state so it does not need to be refined before use. It can travel long distances in underground pipes, and it is very clean to use. For all these reasons, natural gas is considered a high quality fuel. However, methane
29 and its combustion product, carbon dioxide, are both greenhouse gases and contribute to global warming. World reserves of natural gas will probably last about 70 years. The largest consumer of fossil fuels in the world is the electricity. Electricity is so cheap that few of us think about the financial cost – when we turn on electrical appliance. But there is another costs – the cost of the environment. Burning cheap, impure coal in an inefficient power station or primitive industrial process produces much more carbon dioxide than burning high quality coal in a modern, efficient system. Fossil fuels are running out. From the point of view of the environment, that is perhaps a good thing. But if we remain dependent on fossil fuels for most of our energy needs there will be a sudden crisis sources of energy before this crisis happens.
Active Vocabulary: fossil fuel decompose sedimentary rock impurity generate by-product man-made fibers crude sandstone porous reclaim sulphuric acid
[′f sl ′fjuwl] [dikwm′p uz] [sedimentwri ′r :k] [im′pjuwriti] [′d enwreit] [′bai ′pr d∧kt] [mæn meid faibo] [kru:d] [′sændst un] [p :rws] [rik′leim] [s∧l′fwrik ′æsid]
bkdhiZ_fh_lhieb\h jZaeZ]Zlvky hkZ^hqgZyihjh^Z ijbf_kv \uau\Zlvijhba\h^blv ih[hqgucijh^mdl bkdmkkl\_ggh_\hehdgh kujhcg_h[jZ[hlZgguc i_kqZgbd ihjbkluc lj_[h\Zlvh[jZlgh k_jgZydbkehlZ
Exercises: 1. Find English equivalents for Russian words: 1fhxsb_kj_^kl\Z a) dioxins b) detergents ^_r_\uc a) free b) cheap \ujZ[Zlu\Zlv a) generate b) elaborate hkZ^hqgZyihjh^Z a) silt b) sedimentary rocks bkdmkkl\_ggh_\hehdgh a) plastics b) man-made fibers hqbsZlv a) clear b) refine
c) adhesives c) cost c) construct c) sandstone c) detergents c) impure
30 2. Match the following words and word combinations with the Russian equivalents from the column opposite: 1. fossil fuel 2. molecule 3. swamp 4. sedimentary rock 5. impurity 6. coke 7. consumption 8. turn into 9. porous rock 10. reclaim 11. refine 12. need 13. alternative
a) ihjbklZyihjh^Z b) fhe_dmeZ c) ijbf_kv d) bkdhiZ_fh_lhieb\h e) g_h[oh^bfhklv f) [hehlh g) hqbsZlv h) lj_[h\Zlvh[jZlgh i) dhdk j) ihlj_[e_gb_ k) ij_\jZsZlvky l) hkZ^hqgZyihjh^Z m) Zevl_jgZlb\guc
3. Find the proper definition of the following words: 1. fossil fuel 2. power station 3. by-product 4. smoke 5. photosynthesis 6. impure
7. porous
a) allowing liquid to pass slowly through b) a place where electricity is generated c) any naturally occuring fuel such as natural gas, oil, coal d) something which is made during the manufacture or processing of another product e) consists of gas and small bits of solid material that are sent into the air when something burn f) process by which green plants use solar energy to manufacture their food from carbon dioxide and water g) mixed with something else
4. After reading through the text carefully, say whether the following statements are true or false: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
The amount of energy in any fossil fuel depends on the oxygen content. We use black coal in our power-stations. Brown coal doesn’t contain impurities. Oil was formed about 200 million years ago. The buried oil is not often under high pressure. Natural gas (methane) often occurs with deposits of coal. World reserves of natural gas will probably last about 70 years. Burning cheap impure coal in an efficient power station produces much carbon dioxide.
31 6. Answer the questions: 1. What are fossil fuels? 2. What does the amount of energy in any fossil fuel depend on? 3. What do all fossil fuel produce? 4. After many years, the coal formed black or brown layers within sedimentary rocks didn’t it? 5. What carbon content does brown coal have? 6. What coal contains impurities? 7. What do by-products of coal include? 8. When was oil formed? 9. Where does oil accumulate? 10. Is oil a good source of energy? 11. Is oil easier to reclaim and transport than coal? 12. Where does natural gas occur? 13. Does gas need to be refined before use? 14. What is the largest consumer of fossil fuels in the world? 15. Do we depend much on fossil fuels for most of our energy need? 16. Are the reserves of fossil fuels exhausted? 7. Comment on the following: If we remain dependent on fossil fuels for most of our energy needs there will be a sudden crisis when the reserves are exhausted. 8. Retell the text using the following statements as a plan: 1. fossil fuels are sources of energy; 2. the amount of energy in any fossil fuel depend on the carbon dioxide; 3. the coal formed black or brown layers within sedimentary rocks; 4. all coal contains impurities; 5. today coal provides 25 per cent of world energy; 6. oil is usually found about 2.000 metres below ground; 7. oil is easier to reclaim and transport than coal; 8. oil is very important for petrochemical industry; 9. world reserves of natural gas will probably last about 70 years; 10. fossil fuels are running out. 9. Read the following paragraph. Choose the appropriate words and word combinations to complete the text: 1. heat and power 2. tapping 3. occur 4. external influences
5. to be contaminated 6. impart 7. leakage 8. damage
9. ever-growing 10. fuel tanks 11. vicinity 12. tapping
13. blow-outs 14. offshore 15. oil slicks 16. marine life
Oil is very important today, because it is used to provide much of our **** ***. Since it is also the new material from which many chemical products are manufactured, enormous quantities are needed to meet the *** demand. Consequently oil production is increasing all the time. Oil drilling, particularly the **** of the sea-bed, may, however lead to grave risks to the environment. Owing to the shortcomings of drilling technology. *** have occured on *** rigs, result to large oil-slicks. The shipwreck of big tankers has led the
32 same effect. As *** *** are highly poisonous to *** ***, fishing yield can be seriously reduced. Another threat is the pollution of the coast-line as a result of crude oil poured into the beaches. Oil may also be spilled on land, and the soil is thus polluted. So accidents during transport by pipeline, rail or road can *** the environment. Modern pipelines are, therefore, designed and constructed to very high standards. That is why there have proved to be the safeest form of transport for large quantities of crude oil or petrolium products. Experience has shown that small pipeline-leaks are rare. Should a leak *** it is more likely to be a large one, possible resulting from damage to the line due to *** ***. It is easy to observe that the number of domestic *** *** is rapidly icreasing. So *** leakage from such tanks is of special concern, because effective control has proved rather difficult. On account of the continuous growth of population and industrialization it is not easy to prevent the use of oil and water in the same ***. When soil *** by oil, it follows that certain components may *** taste and odour to groundwater used for the preparation of drinking water.
Ebl_jZlmjZ 1. Greenhalgh Trisha. Environment Today. – S.l.: Longman Group Limited, 1994. 2. <\_^_gb_ \ wdheh]bx / Ih^ j_^ ijhn X: DZaZgkdh]h – F Ba^-\h :L 1992. 3. Nedogonov V. The Disasters that Never Happened // Mosc. News. – 1995. - 3336. 4. Shpakov Y. Soviet Uranium Empire is Buried // Mosc. News. – 1995. - 28.
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