Zoroastrian Ethics

The Gnekwad Stuf*jii'iii4^;PTHics ' Though the view that the good cannot be defined has incidentally been implied at...

Author: Maganlal Amritlal Buch

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The Gnekwad Stu
Rdi/tuii

and

Plcilu-^oph i/

:

/I

ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS

l.y

IVintod at the Mirfsion Press, Siirat n. K. 8colt, and imblislieil l»y A. G. Wi(l;.'ery the Collej,'e, Baroda. I. V. 1919.

ZOROASTHIAN ETHICS

By

MAGAXLAL

A.

BUCH, M.

A.

Fellow of the Seminar for the Comparative Stn
With an Infrnrhicfion hv

ALBAN

n.

WrDGERY,

Professor of Philosophy

Study

and

of PiPlii^doiis,

BAK

DA

515604

^f.

of the

A.

Comparative

Baroda.

P n E FACE

The present small volume was undertaken as

one

subject

Seminar

for the

established

study

of

as

Fellow

Comparative Study the

in

College,

in

the

of Religions

Baroda, by

His

Highness the Maharaja Sayaji Eao Gaekwad,

K

C.

by

Professor

S.

etc.

I.

The

subject was suggested

Widgery who

guided the

also

author in the plan and in the general working out of the theme.

It is

his

hope that companion

volumes on the ethical ideas associated with other

Such

religions

will

shortly

the aim which His Highness establishing the Seminar. treats

of

religious

the

elaborate than Dr.

be

undertaken.

ethical studies form an important part of

it

had

in view in

The chapter which conceptions

is

less

might well have been, because

Dhalla's masterly volume on Zomasfrirm

Theolof/y^

New

York, 1914, cannot be dispens-

ed with by any genuine student of Zoroastrianism,

and

all

important details

may

be learned

from

it.

Widgcrv and

for

It

lor

his

only remains to thank writinf,'

a

continued

L;enoral

help

I'rotessor

introduotion

thronghont tho

process of the work.

ma(;am.ai.

a. imcii

n

CONTENTS hit I'uduct Lull Blblluf/raj'hi./

I,

•••

•••

1

Ahbrfji'latiuiiS'"

•••

17

•••

and

...

PART Available

T he

Literature 11.

The H

i

s t

[

Z u ro

or

i

ea

Conditions

a

1

•

•

a

s t r

•

•

•

III.

Psychological Conceptions

IV.

The General Moral Attitude

V.

The Value

VI.

:

.••

and

Deceit:

VIll.

Virtues IX.

The Ethical

Vices

other

:

...

•••

in

Legal

Theological

• • •

30

...

41

•«•

5-5

and

60

...

cSO

...

Ill

and ...

loi^

Pieferences ...

167

Metaphysical

171)

in Zoroastrian Literature

X.

1

Purity

Ethics of Sex Relations

Benevolence

a

...

•"

and Impurity '.•

MI. The

i

Industry and

•••

Truthfulness

oe

24

II

of Life

Indolence

a •••

8

nd

•

PAKT

i

•••

•••

Conceptions Lidej:

I'jy

INTRODUCTION The age in

which we

in

many ways by

practical "

" the

of

live

distinguished

is

In the realm

realism.

its

there

wide- spread

a

is

impatience amongst the educated against the

dominance the

scope

sacrifice

of traditional ideas tending to limit

enjoyment of the

of

concrete

experience

good or

to

sake

of

for the

In the realm of thought

abstractions.

there has been and

itself

a decided revolt against

is

the over emphasis of abstract universal principles as distinct

from actual particulars with

their individual characteristics. is

more

or

less

common

branches of thought is

especially

reflections

some

real

relation

in

to

all

significance for ethics

important.

of

Men

ask

moral philosophers

the

that

shall

have

and important bearing on the problem

of

what the moral

it

should be lived.

a definite

its

:

This attitude

life

how

should contain and

Ethics

is

required to have

and intimate relation with the

indi-

vidual details of morality and not to remain in the discussion of the purely formal. spirit of

Kant

ethics

spirit of Aristotle.

now

From

the

turns again to the

2

/•

:;/oii/>f*jii'iii4^;PTHics

'

Though

the view that the good cannot be

defined has incidentally been implied at various

times in the history of moral philosophy,

only within recent years that

has begun to be realised.

its

In the

involves that moral experience

it

is

true import

place

first

it

immediate,

is

that the knowledge included in any science of

though

ethics,

it

may

be knowledge by descrip-

dependent upon knowledge by direct

tion, is

Moral good

acquaintance.

form of intuition, and terms of

is

In the

itself.

is

known

intelligible only

second place

become more and more evident that to

some

in

all

in

has

it

attempts

explain moral good in a general manner,, duty, or as that which brings the greatest

e.g. as

amount of pleasure,

or as the

and

or as self-realisation,

way

of deliverance,

so on,

are of only

secondary value and importance.

The

chief result of these

with relation

make

it

to

the

much more

of the past there has

empirical.

but too

this

of ethics

attempt

to

In the ethics

and ultimate problems^

discussion has

relation to the ethical facts of actual to

is

been much keen discussion

of abstract principles

often

modern tendencies

science

had life.

little

The

bring about a closer relation has

INTJfiqDUGTrOX

s

involved a superimposition of the principles

upon actual conduct

as

were from without.

it

In consequence the conceptions of the ideal have almost all lacked content,

have, in

been conspicuous by their poverty.

fact,

Spinoza in order

had

moral

to pass

of thought

As

an account of substance

to give

almost immediately to the attributes

and extension and then

explain these had to pass on

in order to

modes, thus

to

eventually taking in the immediate experiences of actual

so ethical

life,

bring their conceptions

writers

order to

in

into touch with facts

have been forced back

to particular experiences.

From

we begin

these only can

we wish

if

an understanding of what the moral

must be regarded

as a natural science concerned

with the data of moral

effort

'*

life.

Ethics" as a science we understand the

to

come

a complete

to

comprehension of the moral similar

to

that

which,

in

and systematic

life,

for

in a

manner

example, the

science of botany

is

prehension of

the forms of plant-life

all

concerned with the com-

the relations between these forms. task,

for

includes

In other words, the science of ethics

in detail.

By

life

therefore,

is

a

survev

of

The

and first

the facts of

)

;^(HiOX.S.'FKIAiN.'>;TKICS

morality.

The

facts

with which

necessary

it is

to beirin in order to form a science of ethics are

These judgments are

moral judgments.

to

be

grouped as clearly as possible into classes and the relationship

between

surveyed

classes

with

coherent and

hope

and forming

principles

general

complete

and the

the facts

the

as

of a

possible.

miirht be divided as follows in a

finding

whole

manner

as

Ethics similar

a division elsewhere adopted for the study

to

of Theology.

'

i<:thics.

KMPllUCAL ETHICS.

\.

The

a.

II.

i)sycliological facts

of tlie

Moral

Critical

{

Examination

of empirical data

Life.

History of floral Systems.

riie

}).

MORAL PHILOSOPHY. a.

b.

Constructive

(

Forma-

tion of ideal system).

The Comjiarative Study

c. :

of

Moral Systems.

In the realm of ethics as in any other branch of knowledge there seems no adequate ground for

any claim

to

tnc actual possession of

complete

coherent

Here as

elsewhere

system

of

humanity

with developing knowledge.

moral is

a

goods.

concerned

The course

of

the development will be an important consideration for understanding the system. *

The Comparative Study

of Religions. Raroda, 1919 p. 10.

IJsTRODUCTION

&

Brief reflection on this view of the science of it

ethics

will

implies

that

ly important

is

historical

the necessity of acknowledging

The ultimate problem

ledge.

in all

recognition that

development of ethical know-

between these two

in

the

to

the human mind possesses a making moral judgments. Equal-

capacity for

the

lead

knowledge

some

relative

:

is

of the relation

similar to that involved

the recognition of reason as

manner absolute and not merely

must be united with the acceptance

a theory of evolution of knowledge.

It

of

appears

deny either the power of

alike impossible to

reason or the evolution

of knowledge.

only way in which they

may

be united

The is

to

regard the evolution or development of knowledge as dependent on

the

increasing degree

with which reason comes into relation with subject

its

any particular branch of

matter in

may

experience.

This

contact with

details

or

be either

by a closer

by attention

to

new

parts of experience.

A

survey of the actual course of history

suggests that the advance of ethical as of other

knowledge of a larcre

is

chiefly

number

due

to the

accumulation

of small contributions

made

ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS by

number

large

a

not

least

are individuals

'insight"

of

To them

capacity.

special

there

degree

workers.

and certainly

sphere,

morality,

in

with a remarkable

individual

of

every

Nevertheless, in

or

due radical

are

changes and great advances, even though these

have usually been prepared of the

many.

by the

for

etibrts

not in contradiction with the

It is

knowledge that some

belief in the evolution of

such individuals have attained an intuition or

immediate

good with

majority

to-day, have not

more which

of

enlightened

men,

of

the degree of philosophical

Aristotle.

But we do

deny the

reality of

For part

of

more men

not, in consequence,

any evolution of knowledge.

this evolution

that of bringing

is

to the appreciation of the

which profound its

or

and knowledge possessed by Plato

capacity

and

one

clearness

Obviously, the majority of men,

ly reached.

the

a

them have never independent-

others even after

even

with

acquaintance

aspects of the

earlier

knowledge

minds attained, and

to

detailed application.

The general

practice of

men

accords with this contention froni pu1>lic o[)inion,

:

in ordinary life

for

when, apart

they look for knowledge

INTRODUCTION of the requirements of morality, they turn to

the

ofreat

moral teachers of the race.

attempt to form a science

method must be

In the similar

of ethics a

in part adopted.

In the moral

Judgments of outstanding moral teachers are to be found the most important facts for the

The study

science.

of the writings

these judgments and those of the

which

more promin-

ent followers of these teachers are will

in

embodied,

have the task of systematising the judg-

ments- and relating the various groups together

knowledge of what the The examination of the

in order to arrive at a

moral

life

includes.

groups of particular judgments should lead to the recognition of the principles which unite

them

in

such groups.

Though the moral judgments

of saints

and

moral teachers are the most important part of the data of ethics, advance in ethics

depends

partly on advance in other branches of ledge.

not

For

this reason,

possible for

judgments made necessary

may al

if

for

no other,

knowit

is

us to be satisfied solely with at a

time when any particular

knowledge

was not available.

take an example.

knowledge tends

to

The advance

We

of medic-

give good reasons for

ZOKOASTKIAN ETHICS the insistence on the moral

judgment found

amongst most peoples against the marriage of persons

closely related

have appeared arbitrary

man

enables

how

accurately

of the keenness

due

to ascertain

and

On

accord

to

of medical

more

or

from

far the abstinence

marriage should go.

proval of

now seen

is

The advance

with facts of n^iture. science

What may

by blood.

inter-

much

the other hand

force of the

less

moral disap-

promiscuous sexual relations has been

to the cognisance of the possible evil

sical results.

phy-

Let us suppose, as seems probable,

that medical science should eventually find an absolutely reliable

means

preventing these

of

This would not constitute

results.

throw of the moral judgment cuous

sex

throw

the

relationships

emphasis

over-

against promis-

rather

:

an

it

would

on the genuinely moral

aspect by taking the attention from the merely

physical

consequences.

Increased

knowledge

of the conditions necessary for the best life

of

the

individual and for the stability of

the social organisation would then form a

higher inducement to abstain

moral

moral

laws in this direction.

important than

all else is

from

much

breaking-

For ethics more

the moral judgment

INTRODUCTION

intrinsic

first

of a scientific ethics should be in

place to throw

which are

such

the

as

the non-moral

then

separate

treated

The

question.

as

a

failure

to

from

The

religious.

relation of the moral to

be

goods

relief the

into

intrinsically ethical as distinct

goods,

other

the insistence on the

worth of chastity and purity as such.

The aim the

instance

this

in

itself,

^

make

may

subsidiary the

clear

distinctions thus implied has led to hindrances to

moral

by reason

progress

of

confusions

resulting, for example, in regarding as authori-

some obsolete precepts

tatively religious

earlier ethical attitude, or

of practices

as

of

an

again in the retention

moral which are simply the

practical application, for obviously prudential of

reasons, sanitation.

not

the

These

defects

ethics, but of the

duties,

ideas

early

are.

of

it

on

physiology

need hardly be

philosophical

more

or

said,

systems of

practical codes of moral

found most frequently in the sacred

writing's of the reliorions.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

10

A

survey of moral judgments in a particular

literature,

such as

attempted here,

is

required for other sacred literatures.

commence with

reasons led us to

The

of Zoroastrianism.

ethical

Zovoastrianism has always been

the literature

character

of

recognised

in

We

a general way and frequently eulogised.

wish

matter

the

that

systematically and in

reason

ficant

character

might

The

are

least

of

the moral

some

life

of the

as lived in this

it

practical character of the Zoroas-

be a cause for Parsis taking

so detinite a part ial

and industrial

of

the

virtues

is

at

aspects

may

trian ethics

signi-

practical

moral precepts of Zoroastri-

here

attain,

universal

world.

pages

essentially

To whatever heights

anism.

most

be considered

Another

detail.

the

is

the

of

should

also

is

Various

in

modern Indian commerc-

life.

A

emphasised

fuller appreciation

the following

in

required amongst some non-Zoroastrian

circles of Indian

society.

Iii

saying this

it is

not meant to imply that the Zoroastrian system as

a

whole

system

in

is

superior to that of any other

India or

elsewhere

simply concerns the need of to these

particular virtues.

:

the question

greater

attention

INTRODUCTION

II

ZoroAstrian ethics impress one with a remark-

able vigour, giving reality and earnestness to the moral

made

Whatever objections ma}^ be

life.

to the view, the idea of a radical distinc-

tion between the

good and the bad

Historically the insistence on

of this vigour.

the

reality of

the

the ground

is

may have become

conflict

thus pronounced on account of actual struggles in

which Zarathushtra was involved.

amongst the Parsis

whether

question

to

open

It is

in

India the struggle of the good against the bad lias

not in recent times assumed too individualform, whereas for Zarathushtra and for

istic a

the greater part of Parsi literature the conflict

was most probably

far

more

The general character

social.

of the ethics suggests

There

a certain Lehensiueisheit, a savoir vivre. is

a healthy recognition of physical goods and

of the duty

striving

of

for

them.

In

the

distinction between the different types of occup-

there

ation,

an admirable absence of any

is

manual labour

depreciation of .with

(

so-called

)

intellectual

as

compared

occupations,

In

depreciation otherwise very wide-spread. India, especially,

this

attitude

of

it

would be an advantage

the Zoroastrian

ethics

a

if

were

Z(^ROASTRIAN ETHICS

12

more widely adopted ceive of no

way

in practice.

which a wealthy Parsi might

in

and the

better carry out the spirit

the

that

It

is

practical

letter of the

the encouragement

Parsi moral code than by of agriculture.

can con-

I

no excuse

maintain

to

regard

with

precepts

to

agriculture were for another age or for particular individuals

;

human

depends now as much

life

The main

as ever on their fulfilment. in this

direction between

past

that today

is

the present

there

is

or

communally,

and the

urgent need for

attention to scientific methods. idually

difference

Parsis, indiv-

more

might adhere

closely to their moral precepts

by doing some-

thing definitely for advance in this direction.

The breadth with

its

of the Zoroastrian moral ideal,

little

and

physical

admirable though

its is

it is,

spiritual

emphasis on the duty of intellectual

and the search

for

knowledge.

which have come most

first in

too

effort

The peoples

definitely

under the

iniluence of Zoroastrianism do not rank

the

goods,

associated with

among

intellectual research with regard to

the scientific study of nature or of history or of

j)hilosophy.

thought

"

and

The " right

on

insistence

word

"

is

not

"right often

INTRODUCTION applied

13

such a manner as

in

to

encourage a

life of scholarship.'"''

More heif "

serious than this,

seems

In the literature that

self-sacrifice.

us

with

find

much

any kind.f This

self-sacrifice of

also

to

difficult

is

it

very "Lehensiveis-

against the virtue of

militate

to

its

almost

the

is

left to

reference to

is

in

complete

harmony

absence

of

any thing which suggests a If on the one hand the form of mysticism.

asceticism,

sane

and

of

practicality,

virility

which

common

of Zoroastrian

the attention

sense,

and

are

aspects

ethics

of non-Zoroastrians

be directed, on the other hand

non-Zoroastrians the moral will

life

may

which

the

to

may

ethics

of

present other aspects of to the Zoroastrian breadth

add a greater depth.

The Zoroastrian system

of ethics,

historical systems, has a theological to this, for the reason

is,

as

most

background;

mentioned in the preface,

the author refers only briefly. fact

the

The

significant

however, worth emphasising here that

* In the nineteenth century and since many scholarly dasturs have devoted themselves strenuously to the study of their sacred scriptures. t The part played by " charity " in Parsi morality

is

not thus denied.

See Chapter VIII.

ZOIIOASTKIAN ETHICS

14

system

the

no

contains

conception

pantheistic

Zoroastrianism

of

any

of

In

reality.

agreement

in

is

evidence

this,

other

with

fundamentally ethical systems, such as .Judaism, Christianity and Islam. that

suirijcsted

It

may, therefore, he

consideration

closer

the

of

nature of moral distinctions and their implications

would tend

ahandonment

modihcation and even

of the

facts of

moral codes, especially in their

different

devolopment

historical

pantheistic

essentially

The empirical study

systems. the

to a

the

of

may have

influence on philosophical .opinions

greater

a

than has

yet been the case.

The aim

of the science of ethics being to

arrive at an accurate of

the

contents

of

and complete statement the moral

in

life

their

relationship as judged by the moral consciousness,

it

may

be reasonably supposed that no

2)articular existent

may

pleteness

system

is

Com-

complete.

graduall}' be obtained

by the

development and comparison of the different systems.

In such comparison, though insistence

on the aspects of similarity may strengthen conviction

concerning the

aspects, a wider

validity

of

these

and richer view than any

will.

INTRODUCTION obtained only

be

differences,

the

aid

to

due attention

by

especially those

common

way

the

attainment

knowledge of the ideal

the

to

which supplement

At present the best

elements. in

15

is

of

wider

a

by careful sj^stematic

common

study of individual systems upon a plan.

From

the foregoing

formed that the ideal

easily be

to the

knowledcre of which we wish to attain a kind of

and

sum

total of different

relations, but with

This impression

ciple.

complete

is

eclectic,

good qualities

no one dominant prinis

such dominant principle therefore

of the

meant that

different systems together

a

is

moral

to

life,

survey

of

might not lead

recognition of such a principle.

upon

For

not justifiable.

though no reference has yet been made not

may

impression

the

What

that from no principle does

is it

to

any it is

the the

insisted

appear

possible to deduce, without empirical consideration, all the

goods which the moral

life

includes.

In the following account of Zoroastrian ethics several fundamental principles are emphasised,

but personally principle.

I

do not find any one supreme

The only principle of which I am which might serve the purpose of

at all aware,

/OKOAS'I'KIAN ETHICS

H)

unifying the elements of the moral

life,

is

one

which, found detinitely in the literature of the has

Jews,

become

central

the

in

ethics of

The warning - viewed as the

(Christianity, the yriiicii>le of lore. is

perhaps

necessary

that,

supreme imifying principle of the moral love

no

im[)lies

simply

and

service

binding

feeble

solely

moral virtues.

the

together

life

sentimentalism

—

but

motive of an active all

the

individual

BIBLIOGRAPHY Andarz-i Pahlavi

Atarpat-i

text, edited

The

Maraspand.

and translated by Peshutan

Bombay, 1885. Andarz-i Khusru-i Kavatan. The Pahlavi text, edited and translated by Peshutan Dastur Dastur Behramji Sanjana.

Behramji Sanjana.

Arda

Viraf.

Bombay, 1885. The Pahlavi text, edited and

translated by Hoshangji Jamaspji Asa, Martin

Haug, and E. W. West. Bombay, 1872. Avesta.

Translated into English by James

Darmesteter and L. H. Mills. Boohs of

the East, vols.

Bahman

Yasht.

Pahlavi text by E.

Books of

the East,

In

Tlte

Sacred

4,23,31.

Translated

W. West.

In

from Tlte

the

Sacred

vol. 5.

Bharucha, Sheriarji D.

A

Brief Sketch of

the Zoroastrian Religion and Customs.

Bombay,

1893. Bilimoria, N. F.

Light of Theosoph}^

Bundahishn. text by E.

in

the

Bombay, 1896.

Translated from the Pahlavi

W. West.

the East, vol.

Zoroastrianism

In The Sacred Books of

5.

Casartelli, L. C.

The Philosophy

of the

Mazdayasnian Religion under the Sassanids. 9.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

18

Translated from the French by Firoz Jamaspji

Jamasp Asa.

i^ombay, 1889.

Dadistan-i

Dinik.

Pahlavi text by

Boohn of the Ea^f,

the

The Sacred

In

vol. 18.

Dadachanji, F. K.

Light of

Avesta

the

Bombay, 1913.

and the Gathas. Dhalla M.

from

Translated

W. West.

E.

New

Theology.

Zoroastrian

York, 1914.

Dinkard.

from

lated

and

Darab

Books 3-7. the

Pahlavi

Edited

and trans-

by Peshutan

text

Bombay,

Vols. 1-18.

Sanjana.

1874-1912. Dinkard.

lk)oks 7-9.

Pahlavi text by E.

Translated from the

W. West.

In

TJie

Sacred

Books of the East, vols. 37, 47.

Encyclopaedia of Religion by James Hastings.

Edited

and Vols.

Ethics. 1

—

9.

Edinburgh, 1908-1917. Epistles

of

Mannshchihar.

from the Pahlavi text by Sacrrd

BooJx'x

K.

Ganj-i Shayigan.

Translated

W. West.

In

Tlo>

18.

The Pahlavi

text, edited

and translated by Peshutan Dastur Bchramji Sanjana. Bombay, 1885.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Geiger, Wilhelm.

19

Civilization of the Eastern

Iranians in Ancient Times.

the

German

Sanjana.

Darab

by

2 vols.

Translated from

Peshutan

Dastur

London, 1885, 1886.

The Pahlavi

Hadokht Nask.

Hoshangji

and translated by

W.

Martin Haug, and E.

Haug, Martin.

edited

text,

Jamaspji

Asa,

West. Bombay, 1872.

Essays

on

the

Sacred

Language, Writings, and Eeligion of the Parsis. Edited and enlarged by E.

3rd ed.

W. West,

London, 1884.

Hodivala,

K.

S.

and

Zarathustra

Contemporaries in the

Rig

Veda.

His

Bombay,

1913. Jackson, A. V. Williams.

Prophet of Ancient Iran.

Kapadia,

and the

S.

Xew

Zoroaster,

The Teachings

A.

Philosophy

of

the

the

York, 1899. of Zoroaster

Parsi Eeligion.

London, 1905.

Menant D. and Murzban M. in India.

Eng.

Mills, L. H.

with

the

Books

ed.

The Parsis

Bombay, 1917.

Avesta Eschatology compared of

Daniel and Revelations.

Chicago, 1908. Zarathushtra, Philo, the Achaemenids

and

Israel.

Leipzig, 1905, 1906.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

^)

— Our Own Religion

Ancient Persia, 1913.

in

Minu-i Khrat. Translated from the Pahlavi text by E.

W. West.

In The Sacred Books of

the Ecu^t, vol. 24.

Mistri, R.

Bombay,

I

H. Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.

DOG.

Modi, Jivanji J.

The Religious System

of

the Parsees. Bombay, 1885.

Moulton, James H. Early Religious Poetry Cambridge, 1011.

of Persia.

London, 1913.

Early Zoroastrianism.

The Treasure

of the Magi.

London, 1917.

Rapp, A. The Religion and Customs Persians

of the

and other Iranians, as described by

the Grecian and

Roman

Authors.

Translated

from the German by K. R. Cama. Bombay,

1876-1879.

Sad Dar.

Pazand text by Books of the

from

Translated E.

luisf,

W. West, Vol.

in

in

Pahlavi-

The

Sacred

24.

Sanjana, Rustamji E. Zarathushtrianism

the

the

and

Zarathushtra

Liepzig,

Avosta.

190G.

Airan.

Shatroiha-i Pahlavi

text

by

Bombay, 1899.

Translated

Jivanji

from

.lamshedji

the

Modi.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Shikand Gumanik Vijar.

2t

Translated from

W.

the Pahlavi-Pazand text by E.

The Sacred Bools Tiele, C- P.

Peoples.

West.

In

of the East, vol. 24.

The Religion from

Translated

of the

the

Iranian

German

by "

G. K. Nariman.

Wadia, Ardaser

Part S.

1,

Bombay, 1912.

The Message

of Zoroaster.

London, 1912. Wilson, John. The Parsi Religion. Bombay, 1843.

ABBREVIATIONS AnAtM

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS PART

I

PreliTnincu^y

Before embarking upon the special study of Zoroastrian Ethics three preliminary enquiries are necessary

very

:

these

we intend

to

undertake

briefly.

A. The question as to the character of the literature available for the study.

The

B.

social

and

historical

conditions, so

far as

they can be known, in which the moral

ideas

arose and the changes and modifications

were made. C.

The problem concerning the psychological

nature of man, as understood by the authors of this

literature, so

far

as

these

psychological

views have a bearing on ethical questions.

CHAPTER A.

I

THE AVAILABLE ZOKOASTRLVN LTTEKATUliE

The early Zoroastrian literature falls into two main divisions the Avestan and the :

Pahlavi. I.

down

The Avestan writings which have come fragment of the ancient

to us are only a

literature

much

which has perished.

of

These

consist of (a) the Yasnaj including the Gafhas^ (b) Vlsperad, (a)

Yitsna

(c) is

Yashfa, (d) Vendidad.

to invoke, or to Avorship. in its entirety

in

The whole book chapters. three parts

chapters

parts

of

the

It

is

praise^ recited

Ya^^na ceremony.

consists of seventy-two

be

the Gatlnts

seven

later part.

the

may

It :

= to

from zaz

derived

;

and

Yasna

Tho Gathas

divided ;

the

which (yf.

into

Yasna of tho

ga

remaining forms

= to

a

sing).

THE AVAILABLE LITERATTTRE There are

psalms.

are

J.

H. Moulton, assign

1000

date

the

these

to

Dr.

b.

Yasna of the seven chapters

is

Yasna

is

ated

with

sacred

a prose

The

prayers.

Zarathustra

objects.

dominating personality

the

The

c.

also full of prayers associ-

later

is

of

consisting

writing,

divisi/ojis

Roughly we

17 hymns.

consisting of

may, with

rive

2iy

the

in

whole Avestan literature and particularly in

(b)

the Gathas.

Visperad lords'

(Av.

^"ispe

ratavo

resembles the Yasna

)

'

the

all

in language,

form and subject. (c)

The

Yaslds

praise')

(

Av.

Yeshi

'

worship

by

form a poetical collection of 21

hymns, glorifying the angels and heroes of ancient Iran. (d)

The Vendidad {vi-daeva-data-nhe law against the demons ') is a priestly code of laws,

written in the form of a

dialogue

between

ations

and

penalties.

and

Ahura-Mazda

Zarathustra, containing

the various kinds of

prose

an

account

purification, It

may

of

expi-

be located

in the post-Alexandrian period.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

26

P'tlilavi

II.

heroic

Parthian,'

(<

times

or

)

i.

'belonging to

e.

Persian literature

Middle

'

dates from the 3rd century

century

a.

has

roots

its

It is

d.

the

in

the

to

d.

a.

9th

not an abrupt growth, but

The

Avestan writing.

contents of the Avestan books are explained

and elaborated

Pahlavi writing.

in the

Zoro-

aster appears no longer as a merely historical

personage but

is

transformed practically into a

superhuman being. The concepts

of the Gathic

period lose something of their original charac-

and become

ter

more

and

formal,

definite,

stereotyped.

Ancktrz-i Atrepat-l Mara.f<pandan precepts concerning

religion

contains

and worldliness

delivered by Dasturan Dastur Adarbad

respand to his son in the time of

Zarthost.

It

Hormazd Shapur,

Mah-

was written

the grandson

of the founder of the Sassanian dynasty.

The Arda-Vi /'((/, written about the sixth century

heaven and is

supposed *

a. d.,

sets forth

hell, as related

to

or

descriptions of

by Arda-Viraf, who

have visited them.

Ganj-t-Skayl(jan* was written in the reign

of Noshirwan the Just, about 505 his

fifth

minister

Vizorg-Meher.

It

A.

D.,

by

distinguishes

THE AVAILABLE LITERATURE

27

between permanent and evanescent wealth and lays is

down

precepts to acquire such wealth as

and

permanent,

happiness of

conducive

The Dined- Menuk-i'Khrat spirit

of

to

the

true

mankind.

wisdom

(

*

opinions of the

was written

)

in the sixth

'

century, by a devoted Mazda-worshipper.

It

contains questions on religion answered by the spirit of

wisdom.

The Shayast-la-Shayast

improper')

customs regarding ceremonies.

(*'

the proper and the

sins, impurities

and religious

was probably written

It

and

miscellaneous laws

contains

the Muslim conquest,

(a. d.

before

636-651).

The Shikaud-Giimanik Vijar ('doubt-dispelling explanation

is

)

a

work,

controversial

'

which attempts

to prove that

good and

not come from the same source.

evil

do

It criticizes

the attitude of Judaism, of Christianity, and

Manichaeanism.

It

was written

after

the

middle, but before the end of the 9th century.

The Dinkard ^-reatest of the

was compiled ninth century.

(

*

Acts of the Religion

'

),

the

Pahlavi works of the period,

by It

a high-priest, is

'a large

during the colleption of

information regarding the doctrines, customs,

— ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

•28

and literature of the Mazda-worship-

traditions,

W.

pin<( reli<(ion/ (E.

West).

The Dadlstan-i-Diiuk ('religious opinions or decisions

'

ninety-two questions on

contains

)

religious subjects put to a high priest with the

answers given by him. years before 881

was written some

It

a. d.

The Epistles of Mauushchihar give some light

upon the condition

of the

(a. d. 881

at the time.

The Bundahishn

*

(

Mazda- worshippers

).

original creation

'

)

deals

with the cosmogomy, mythology, eschatology of the Zoroastrian

about

A. D.

faith,

Aii/adf/arl-Zarh'an Zarir.

having been written

88G.

Referring to

introduction to

i.

it,

The Memoir of

e.,

Firdausi says

Shah Namah

'^

:

in

his

There was a

book of ancient times which contained many episodes. different

It

was scattered

Mobeds

the family of the

works

hands of

fond of

history of ancient

So he called aged Mobeds from

parts of the country

him

the

He was

Dehkans

collecting materials for the

times.

in

There was a Pehelwan of

These

and

great

all

collected the historical

men

narrated

before-

the accounts of the kinirs and of the events

THE AVAILABLE -LITERATURE

When

of the world.

that

great

29

man

heard

from them the narratives, he laid on them the foundation of a great book.

became a memoir

Thus

(

the

work

The Buhra'in Yashf was written after

had been over-run by to the reign of

Iran

a foreign race subsequent

Khusrd Xoshirvan.

It professes

Ahura-Mazda's revelation

to be

)

in the world."

Zoroaster

to

about the future of the Iranian nation. TIte

the

Besaflr professes to be a collection

from the time fifth

of

Mahabad

Sasan, being fifteen in or Zoroaster

Zerdusht, the

who

different Persian Prophets,

fifth

to the

time of the

number

;

of

whom

was the thirteenth and

Sasan the

last.

It

different

from

the

language

of

flourished

is

written in a

Avestan

and

Pahlavi.

The Sitd-dir ('a treatise on one hundred subjects

'

)

is

in the early part of the

this

is

very

old,

but

16th century was that

we

have no

evidence concerning the date of

The book

its

reliable

authorship.

deals with various religious duties

and customs. The tone to priestly

The opinion

written in Persian.

control

of

complete submission

characterises the book as

written in a period of subjection.

CHAPTER TiiK

An

II

nrsTORirAL and social conditions* account of the ethical ideas evolved by

the Iranian people in successive ages of their

demands

history,

as

preliminary

a

a

brief

description of the actual social conditions of

Only when

the people in the different epochs.

these ideas are placed in their right historic setting

and viewed

in the light of the

general

conditions of civilization in which they rose to

prominence, can their merely temporary aspects bo distinguished from what ent worth.

The prominence

in certain ages,

ance of

may

others

of certain beliefs

and the comparative

former and neoflected the This

insignific-

depend necessarily upon the

general social conditions which

•

be of perman-

cliapter is based

the

fostered

latter.

chiefly

upon Geiger

;

and

the article " Ancient Persia,^' Encyclopa'dia Britannica. Iltli

.«(!.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS For

consideration

first

is

31

the civilization of

the Gathic and the later Avestan periods.

The 1000 B.C., and the Avestan period from about 800 B.C. to 200 A.D. The Pahlavi period then commences and ends with the ninth centurv. Gathic Age

An

may

well be located around

examination of the existing evidence

leads one to the generally accepted belief in

the x\ryan origin of the Iranian people. in the

frequent called

Indeed,

Avestan writings themselves there are references

to

AiryaMrt-vaega

Aryans).

(

Their country

Iran,

is

the land of the

Possibly the Avestan people arose

as a distinct people

spread

it.

themselves

in Eastern Iran

over

the

other

and then parts

of

Persia.

Even, so early as the time of the Gafhas, the Iranians Avere in a transitional stage with regard to their

mode

nomadic.

of

the Gathic be noted.

to the agricultural stage

of

Here, however, a difference between

Age and the later Avestan Age may The chief object of attention in the

former was the cow. to

They were no longer

In fact, they were already passings

from the pastoral civilization.

life.

'

Cattle-breeding' appears

have been the main occupation of the people.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

32

compared with which

agricultural interests

all

This suggests

occupied a su])ordinate place.

that the people were at that time passing from

nomadic

the

.

The

oxistence.

more

to a

life

its

leads eventually

to

The cow

success partly

And

a settled state of living.

soil.

upon

a stable existence

methodical cultivation of is

said

despise

to

masters and to favour peasants only.

other

In the

later writings of the Aresfa^ agriculture -a

of

careful rearing of cattle on a

large scale depends for

the

form

settled

assumes

position of importance equal at least to that

For example, the Vendidad

of cattle-rearing. gives a

of the following meritorious w^orks

list

indicating forcibly the character of the existing •social

conditions

course of

life

liousehold

fodder

an

and

and

of sheep

canals

arc

permanent

of grain, of

the planting

of cultivating the land

wells

of a

The cultivation

cattle,

The breeding

1\'.

Piety and a law-abiding

The founding

II.

III.

;

for

;

I.

:

of trees

and cows.^

;

The

becomes specialised;

made

to further

agri-

cultural operations.

A

second

noticed.

In

important

Gathic

the 1

Vd. Ill

difference ao-e.

1-5.

must be

Zoroastrianism

SOCIAL CONDITIONS was not established;

was only introduced.

it

This introduction was no

less

than a religious

revolution, accompanied with all of conflict of

new and

83

But the

old.

tolerably well established

symptoms

its

was

faith

when we come

to the

later Avesta.

The

early

agricultural forests,

civilization

was

the tilling of the

supreme importance.

above

The

civilization.

soil,

all

an

clearing

of

were objects of

The cow, the dog, the

€ock, the she- camel were especially cared for

on account

of

their

farming population and

great

usefulness

human conduct

to

a

towards

them was brought under moral precepts. The dog was regarded as a friend of man, because it

to

protected cattle and flocks

:

hence

dogs were severely punished.

must be extended them. his

to

female

Hot food was not

pregnant.

The horse derived

employment

all injuries

Tender care

dogs to be

who were given to

his chief value

in warfare.

from

The camel was

indispensable for traversing surrounding deserts,

and covering great distances

The cock

is

referred

to

in

in

short

connection

time.

with

an agricultural

early rising,

an essential

-civilization.

Sheep, goats and the ass are also

for

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

34

mentioned

in the

During

earliest literature.

the Avestan period agriculture attained a con-

The

siderable degree of development.

Mazdayasnian

of the

against

may

all

faith

were asked to fight Further, we

and waste.

sterility

note the development of horticulture and

of artificial irrigation, wells

and the construction of

and canals.

Manufacture received gradually

A

attention.

increasing

considerable development of

the existence

implied

handicraftsmen.

a

of

Metals

special

were

class

it

of

worked with

Gold was esteemed the most precious

skill.

metal and jewels were made of

was

followers

silver.

Much

Next

it.

made

use was

to

it

of brass or

bronze in the manufacture of weapons. Copper Tiles were

was used. was

known.

not

prepared.

Chariots

are

But

ghxss

frequently

mentioned.

The art of medicine received attention. In the VendUlad we lind that care is demanded in

the

treatment

of

the

diseased.

Medical

treatment was extended to beasts also.

Though coined money does

not seem to have

been used, considerable progress was made in

commerce.

Exchange was

effected

through

i

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

medium mainly

the

35

For

of domestic animals.

example, the fee for the cure of a son of a family of a certain social standing was a horse. All this presupposes an evolution to a certain

degree

In

of

the

fact

a

into

regular

a

had

state

very

existence.

distinct

of five divisions

the

:

town or

clan, the

constitution

early

emerged

was composed

It

family,

tribe,

of society..

the village

or

the district and the

The family was the unit of society, The village was a group of families. The township did not possess much The idea of a district occurs real influence. province.

not the individual.

in the Gcdhas.

It

many

contained

settlements

occupied by one or more races.

Lastly there

" country,"

geographical

was the

expression.

chiefly

a

At the head of every family was

the master of the house.

Similarly, there was

the master of the village and the master of the tribe.

Over the whole province or country was

the king.

Each head enjoyed

measure of authority king was called also

an *armed

conflict class.

in his

Yima ruler.'

own

a substantial

sphere.

The

(the rich in flocks) and

Traces are found of a

between the priestly and the political

The power

of

these

heads

was not

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

We

unlimited.

hear of popular

assemblies^

which were opened with prayer. To shine these assemblies was a great distinction.

The

rise

and growth

not entirely peaceful.

was

of Zoroastrianism

From

in

the beginning a

constant warfare was waged between the Zoroastrians

The Gathas The

and the non-Zoroastrians.

give sufficent evidence of perpetual feuds.

atmosphere in which the were

faith

xjuietistic

preached

sermons of the

first

was

anything

atmosphere of religious peace

but ;

a

was

it

turmoil between antagonistic ideas. The

full of

conflict

was a double one

;

the one between the

Aryans and the non-Aryans

in

general and

between the ''believers" and the "unbelievers "

among the

Iranians

struggle between the latter was well as religious.

the

pious,

It

economic as

was a struggle between

husbandmen,

stable,

The

themselves.

Ahura Mazda, and attached

devoted

to the

to

rearing of

cows, and the restless, nomadic elements which persisted in injuring

regarding the

new

agriculture

faith.

and

in

dis-

This struggle lasts

through the Avestan period.

The adversaries daivas or demons.

of

the

faith

They were

were

called

also stigmatized

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

They

as drihjas.

37

made sudden

often

inroads

into the cultivated districts of the Zoroastrians

and carried away and

called daevas

That they were

captives.^

shows the contempt

driijas

with which they were regarded.

This actual

historical conflict led to the expression of the

nature of morality as a struggle against evil

Under the circumstances, the people bound to be warlike. Wars being

powers.

were

common virtues. fields,

led to a special recognition of martial

Men

prayed not. only for cattle and

but also for

*

troops of warriors.' x\rmies

were organized by the kings.

A

high

priesthood.

themselves

called

They fices

;

position

ofi'ered

assigned

Athravans

or

the

to

their creation.

They

fire-priests.

prayers and performed the sacri-

tended the sacred

lire

and prepared the

They encroached

Haoma-drink. on

was

The Avesta was

little if at all

the functions of the secular government,

maintaining medical

themselves

and

practice

purificatory clear lines

ceremonies. are

by the

In

earnings

the

drawn between

Vd.

III. 11.

.

Gathas,

of

no

social classes,

but in the later Avesta, mention 3

from

performance

is

made

of

ZOIiOASTRIAN ETHICS

38

three classes: priests, warriors, and peasants.

Possibly

"manufacturers"

captives

either

pawned away

was a

there

Lastly,

class.

formed class

a

fourth

of

slaves,

war or persons who had

of

their freedom.

Gradually

Zoroastrian

the

faith

became

firmly established and society attained a

compact

organization

The

civilization.

Medians

and

and a high degree overthrew

Persians

established

and to reduce were

generously

that they

to rule the civilized

world

The subject

races

to unity.

it

felt

of

the

empire.

great

a

Eduard Meyer says that they had a great mission

more

dealt

with.

swore allegiance to the king,

The Persians

and he protected

them. All judicial and administrative decisions were based on the advice of the leaders of the people.

There were twenty provinces in the

time of Darius

I.,

each under a governor. Each

was divided into minor governorships. were

imperial

with

postal

highways,

stations,

There

regularly provided

which

facilitated

com-

Money currency was introduced munication. about the 4th century H. c. Still payment in The kind was often the rule in the court. society progressed in many other ways. Darius

SOCIAL CONDITIONS founded harbours,

from the Nile

completed

great

a

What

to Suez.

39

the Persian kings of the empire was

tinued in the empire, carried beyond

place in

Whether

luxurious

The Persians

under the influences of

Later

life.

Greeks

the

They

Alexander conquered Persia.

have

to

destroyed

Zoroastrian

again

was

be noticed from the evidence

deteriorate

to

it

important modifications took

may

of the inscriptions of the kings.

began

a matter

and may have been

boundaries.

its

not,

as

it,

is

Zoroastrianism undoubtedly con-

of question.

supreme or

canal

the religion of

greater

the

The

literature.

revived under

the

under

are said

part

of

decaying

Parthians,

the faith

but the

Avestan language was replaced by the Pahlavi or Parthian.

The Ardashir

Sassanian I.

Empire,

marks

a

inaugurated

turning-point

in

by the

history of Persia. Image-worship was abolished;

and

a belief in one

god restored. The remaining

Avestan literature was collected and arrangred.

The priesthood was

reinstated in a

position of

importance. Ardashir believed that " the altar

and the throne were always inseparable and jnust always sustain each other,"

The Sassanian

ZOllOASTllIAN ETHICS

40

period forms a brilliant page in the history of Zoroastrianism. But during

were made

to set

up

various attempts

it

The most

hostile sects.

important of these was Manicha^ism, founded

by Mani, Whether a heresy ism or not

was opposed

it

view

the

which

Darkness

universe was

to

the spirit of the

" According to

Zoroastrian faith. cht\3an

Avithin Zoroastrian-

admixture gave

rise

the

and Darkness,

Manichaiism

quietistic, ascetic

was

suppressed

heretical

sect

Mazdak who But a

consequently regarded

people

in

the

evil

was

and repre-

cosmopolitan,

and unworldly."'^

This sect

Shapur

Another

by

appeared

H.

under

tauorht a form of o

spirit

admixture

of

such as marriage and

is

by Mani and his followers as hensible.

material

All that tends

essentially evil

begetting of children,

and

Light

of to

to the prolongation of this state

of Light

the Mani-

the

of indifference

of

came over the Sassanians.

time of the later

With the success of the Arabs,

this

about the

downfall of the faith

thousands

remained

followers

lead

communism.

:

and

brought

only

some

many

of

these migrated to India. 4

E.G. BroM-ne,"^ lAteranj History of Persia:' pp.160-162.

CHAPTER Advance

in ethical ideas

knowledge

human mind. considered

Though

in

can take place in

attains a certain

amount

concerning the nature

of the

a society only after of

III

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS*

C.

it

Ethical relation

should

principles to

human

mind was fond

the Persian

be

capacities. of

making

psychological distinctions, the extant literature gives no evidence of an analj^sis of the

mind anything in Jain

so detailed as

like

and Buddhist

the Avesfa

is

Avorks.

human

that found

The psychology

of

neither simple nor primitive, but

presupposes some philosophical speculation.^

According

human

to the Avesta^ the

ality consists of five

elements —

'

person-

vitality' (ahu),

"This section is preliminary only and does not represent a complete independent examination of the material. Much use has been made of W. Geiger. Civilization of

Ancient Iran. Vol. I. Ch. Ill and Casartelli Philosophy of the Mazdayasnian Religion under the Sassanids. Ch. V. 2 Ys. 1 Geiser I. 124. 4 and 6— ;Yt. XIII. 149. :

XXVL

<

42

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

'

'perception' or 'sense' (baodha)^

'ego' ((?ae/ia),

and Fravashi.^

(^wrcan),

'soul'

Man

Pahlavi writers.

The

soul.

Dlnhard and other

ally accepted division

ness).

the

divided into body and

is

man was

spiritual part of

farohar (guardian

Ichart

by

variously

Lists of psychological powers are given

divided. in the

Psychological

developed

further

are

distinctions

is

:

jan

spirit),

(life),

(

(memory), dino

Among

vir

),

ravan

(soul),

and hod (conscious-

Other powers are akho intelligence

The gener-

writings.

(

(judgment), reason

),

hosh

(religion), vakt^h (conscience).

elements

were

mysterious

powers, parts of the

human

being,

though not

belonging

individual

these

for

elements

of

Frarashis

is

Dr.

the

to

responsible

acts.

its

this

type.

and

not

The Frarashis

are

soul

The conception

of

peculiar and difficult to interpret.

Moulton

thinks

of

them primarily

as

Roman manes. Dr. Dhalla much in common with the Platonic ideas. Now they are referred to as parts of the human personality now as corresponding to the finds

that

have

they

;

celestial spirits.

well-defined luive not a

Nevertheless, they have certain

characteristics.

mere

ideal

The Frarashis

existence,

but are real,

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS spiritual

positive,

highest

the

part

essence of things, as

Every good

distinguished from the accidental. creature

constitute

man, without beginning

of

They form the

and end.

They

entities.

under the heavens has

who

Fravashi

acts as

life

its

corresponds

and

partly

its

guardian

after

with

it.

Fravashi.

its

Every new-born babe brings with

during

it its

own

spirit

both

The conception idea

the

all

physical and mental planes

feelings or volitions

while everything good and the Fravashi only.

is

of

bad--'

But

man.

has

its

atman,

Like the Fravashi, the atiiutn does not

short,

the

Ahura Mazda its

is

not

it is

connected with good creations

actively interfere in the course of a

In

;

nor in any way affected by the

responsible,

thoughts,

soul

of

Atman

(atman) in the Hindu psychology. above

43

Fravashis are to help the

human

life.

the agencies

of

creation forward in

righteous endeavours and tendencies,-a task

which they

fulfil

by each one connecting

itself

with one particular person or object and doing its

utmost

all

necessary assistance.

supply that person or object with

may, of course, be maintained that from the point view of atman the distinction of good and bad is invalid. *It

of

to

:

ZOUoASTinAN ETHICS

44

The Farukars

or Fravahars of the Pahlavi

correspond

period

the

to

Fmvashit;

the

of

Avestan age. These possess distinct personalities

and enter into the bodies by their own But while all creatures heavenly will.

sweet

or earthly were thought to have their Fravashis^

the Farohar.^ belong only to the earthly objects.

much

In fact, the original conception loses its

arc

with the

identified

stars

of

The Farohars

dignity in the later times.

one of the

in

The Farohar purifies the air body by means of fire and thus helps to

P.ihlavi works.' in the

maintain it

In the post-Sassanian writings,

life.^

becomes a mere principle of digestion. In the

Revayet of Barzii Kavam-iid-Dln, '<

The function

someness

remove every

The

of the

Fawhar

the food

to

is

find

to give whole-

which men eat and

indig'cstible matter.

to

""^

(Ircaih represents 'soul' or as Dr.

maintains 'the ego proper, the real is

we

Dhalla

I-ness.'^

It

the Urvan or ravan (so called in the Pahlavi

period) which constitutes the responsible

capable

of

making choice between good and

3

MUh.

4

l)k. III. 165, VI.

6

92.

(^)iiotc
in

self,

Dr. Dlialla.

.S-kS.

Cania Memorial

V(»liniie, lo4-15S.

p. 144.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS 6vil

and hence

valso

Not

rewards and

men, but animals

Ahura Mazda has

a soul

have other divine beings.^

so also

much

liable to

only

possess the soul."

and is

becomes

it

punishments.

45

There

evidence in favour of the view

that

the Zoroastrians believe in the pre-existence of

The

the soul. 9 the body

but

;

spiritual world.

above, and world. ^^

soul

^^

not created alonof with

It

body

the

from

comes from

does not owe

Similarly

existence

is

enters

it

has

the soul

The

predominate.

an

clearly

sent to heaven or hell according as evil deeds

world

the

existence to this

its

the death of the body.

after

the

its

soul

It

is

good or

requires to

be protected against spiritual decay and death.

The

soul

of

man who commits

a

crimes, becomes extinct.^-

a

It

said in the

is

the soul of a man,

•dog

is

merely

who

Vendidad that Yanghapara

kills the

destroyed only for a temporary period.^^

As regards

a mortal sinner

in his future

XXXIX.

body they

7

Ys.

8

Yt. XIII. 81, 84. Spiegel Memorial

9

this is

sort of stupefaction, a suspension of spiritual

activities.

**

But

unnatural

pp. 100-105.

I. 2.

Volume

(

it

is

stated

that

the high priests

10 Bd. 64. 11 Gs. 20. 12 Sd. 268. 13 Vd. XIII.

3.

)

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

46

head once, and the

will cut off his

make him

last

time

and

will

they

will

inflict

three night's severe punishment."^'^ Lastly

we may

alive again,

refer to the account

from doing

(

to

evil,

soul

is

)

evil ones.

him an idea of heaven and directs him to make choice of reject

There

is is

It protects

body of man through superior wisdom^

the gives

"

The man_

restrain

to

induce him to speak good

words, and abstain from

soul

"

Revayaf of Barzu Karara-iid-Din.

the

function of ravan

and

ravan in

of the

what

is

Avhat

good,

is

is evil."^^

a reciprocal

and soul on body.

It is

dream,

hell in

influence of

Thus

body on

stated that

it is

owing to (his) soul that (a man's) body

And each

well- warned

rendered

by

dull

strength of the other

the ;

(soul

and body)

weakening

for,

of

when any

the

of the

powers of the soul become enfeebled, every one of the

powers of (the) body

And when harm

stand-still.

part

of

the

body,

co-related soul.

injury

Therefore,

is it

is

is

brought

to a

done

any

to

caused is

to

owing

its

to the

purity of the soul that the body pertaining to this world

n

becomes valuable.

SIS. 'M)X

1

.">

And

the acquis-

Cama Memorial Volume

154-158.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS by the soul

purity

of

ition

powers of the body pertaining Bodily

are

illnesses

through the

to this world. "^^

removed by the Thus the cure of

best

recitations of the Avesta.

body

is

47

through the soul and that of the soul

is

through the body.^^

must

It

be understood

however that the body and the soul are

The body

is

roban

the soul,

is

distinct.

the instrument of the soul.

which

is

the

'<

ruler

The over

the body. Just as the head of a family conducts the household, and the rider the horse, so does

the soul conduct the body."^^

Another

spiritual

Avesta was daena.

power referred

Some

to in

the

scholars translate

it

by the English word 'Conscience'; others (Moulton

v/as

one of them) by

Fravashij daena

human

soul

is

and continues

the Fravashi^ a daena

man

its

Like the

after death.

Unlike

associated with a bad Different views

exact functions.

the 'daena

Dr. Geiger

to

is

as well as a good.

held as regards

'self.'

largely independent of the

or

are

According

conscieuce

is

a

divine power existing eternally, which unaftectted by the sins of evil courses. I

6

Dk. IV.

192.

man warns him

According 1

.against all

to other scholars, the

7~I)k. IV. 224. 240.

i 8

Dk. VI.

353.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

48

It

that each

emphasise

to

the fact

own 'individual

his

responsi-

and an immortal ego within him, which

bility

would Frt,sY.s,

meant

is

man had on

pass

weal

to

daena of a

the

bodily form

"

:

I

am

In

woe.^^

man

good

the

takes

a

and encounters

his death

after

him, saying

or

own good thoughts, The daena of

thine

words and deeds, thy daena.^^^^ 11

bad

man

similarly appears as an ugly hag.

The word

dlno corresponds

literature to the

the

in

Avestan form daena.

Pahlavi It

means

the religious spirit.

The Baudhu means

It participates in

sciousness.'

of the Urvan. literature,

'intelligence' or 'con-

The

the responsibility

hoi or hod, of the Pahlavi

corresponding to the Baodha of the

Avestan period means also consciousness, the faculty by which a

the sun is (

" As

himself.

the light of the world, and a

the liglit) of a house,

{Jiod^j

the

is

man knows

lamp

so does the intellect

animate with watchful light the lord of

house

(

viz.

the

body

),

and

does

so

animate the rider on the horse, as also

it

it

directs

the master of the house to take care of the i» Moulton p. 264.

»• Yt. XXII.

11.

Mkh.

19.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS house,

and the

49

rider of the horse. "^^

If the

departs from the body, the soul be-

intellect

comes much

and the body

distressed,

insensible. ^-^

In the Revayat of Barzu Kavam-ud-Dinj the " The function of following account is given :

Boe

(spirit) is to rule over

perform

intelligence, under-

and judgment,

standing

its

that

so

may

each

duty, and co-operate for the entire

welfare of the body.""

Ahw means •co-terminous

*

life-force.'

with that

opinion of Dr. Geiger

of

existence

Its

body.

the

is

This

however, controverted

is,

by some Parsi scholars, who maintain that means both bodily and spiritual life. Ahu

it

is

appointed to find and watch over the corporeal functions of man.^^ the Avesta

•of

),

apprehension serves to keep

of

is

The Pahlavi Akho, and

man from

then to the

at last to of

33 3 3

stars,

the sun.^^ It

evil.

Dk. VI. 354. Dk. VI. 354. Cama Memorial Volume

sin.^^

According to

first

to the nearest

then to the moon and is

stated in the Revayat

9

4 Dr. Geiger.

9*

Dk. V.

::;

faculties

V.

I.

125.^

337, 338.

«« SIS. 341-2. V

154-158.

4

always

It

Barzu Kavam-ud-Din that when the

i 1

Ahu

the power of the spiritual

good

one account, Akho passes fire,

(

...

::,

^

^:

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

50

depart from the body,

the vital

mixes-

force

with the wind, whereas akJio returns to

itself

heaven in company with the soul of the because

not affected by the sins of man.

is

it

pious,.

But the ravan^ hoCy 3i.ndfroharj according to the Revayat have to account for the good and

man."

evil of

According of

types (

intellects

(

Gathas^^

there

khratit

and two

)

twolives

).

Avesta

one

the

nhroto hhratii

'

source

is

The two mental

is

hhratu called

superior

in

the

Jaoshi

obtained by the

obtained through the validity

to

former

the latter.

lives are distinguished as bodily

faculties

intellectual

and

mentioned in the

Pahlavi writings are khaH^ vir and intelligence.

intelligence

account passage. • 7

^

*

they correspond to our body and soul.

;

The

the other

'

the wisdom

*

Wisdom

ear.'

asno

called

is

original intellect,

is

are

The two intellects are distinguished the first and the last,^^ and in the later

ahii

as

the

to

is *'

It

and

is

of

two

acquired

given

of

Be

known

it

Khart

Jiosh,

kinds,

innate

intelligence.

both

in

that the happiness

Cania Memorial Volume 154-158.

9» Haug. p. 310.

3» Ys.

An

the following

XLIV.

1».

Haug

p. 310.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS

51

is desired in two ways One, bymeans of the power of innate reason pertaining to the soul, which is ( a principle ) for sending

of the soul

out

movements (thoughts)

inner

the

raise the

to

effect

:

soul

to

higher

a

to

the

rank.

(Another) by means of educated reason, which (a principle) for sending

is

ments

In

within."^°

the

intelligence

and

;

for

move-

the

highest

places

all

man

rank and the best thing for

in

outer

him who

is

innate

inferior in

is

innate intelligence the best thing in the second

grade

is

learning.^^

Innate intelligence express-

es outwardly the intuitions of

intelligence

impressions

communicates from the

man

to the

outside

;

acquired

interior

the

Hosh

world. ^^

means practical good sense and vir is reason^ Nobody can buy these at any price. It may be here remarked that knowledge as an essential

factor

emphasis

in :

virtuous

a

thus

it

is

life

said that the

the strength of wisdom. ^^

is

known

received first

Again,

due

strength *^

Be

it

that all good qualities exist because of

the heavenly principle of wisdom."^*

Virtue,

however, requires not merely knowledge, but 3

3

1

Dk. L 60. Dk. III. 134.

3» Dk. 3 3

I.

3 4

60.

Dk. VIL

475.

Dk. IL

83.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

sb

<*

also practice.

man

Education makes

noble

;

good habits endow him with a virtuous disposition education is a corrector of man, good ;

"habits the

A

guardian of his

soul."''^

faculty corresponding to the

modern word

conscience was recognised. It was called Vaksli i.

e.

man

the power that guides

And

path.

the invisible power

soul, to help

in this

warnings

it

to

make

and

to

is

the

world

it

in the right

that

in the

behave properly

conscience

walk in the good

is

that

path.-^'*'

•'

gives

The

soul

and the farohar are because of conscience and it is also owing to conscience that the soul and ;

farohar perceive

;

and conscience

is

the eye (of

souls and farohars.y** And the soul performs the

work relating prevails

in

conscience."-^'

wishes and the farohar

to (its)

the

vigour of

The presence

its

own, through

of conscience

means

power of perceiving the right thing. The power of doing the right thing implies freedom of will. *'

God has given

save

themselves

from

Ahriman the source in the Avestaf

man

3» Gs. 11. 3« Dk. HI. I«4.

men

to all

sufficient ability to

as

sin

well

of their sins

is

called 3 7

*

as

from

and woes.""

lord of the corpbr-

Dk.

III. 165.,

38 Dk. VII. 441.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS

Man

world.'

eal

53

has the power of governing

himself, the power denied to other creatures.

This capacity, vouchsafed as a distinctive

human

all

gift to

beings, of initiating either good or

evil actions,

own

at one's

will,

creates in

man

In our view

a sense of moral responsibility.

thus alone ethics becomes possible. This brief sketch of the psychological ideas

known is

not

to the Zoroastrian writers

possible

to

find

in

human

faculties.

many

lists of

human

is

a

considerable

diversity

principles of division. also

have

meaning.

always

not

Further,

demarcation

is

mind is

there

The

these.

on fixed logical

The terms employed the same definite

no very

exact

line

of

drawn between the bodily and

the mental faculties.

recognition

faculties,

in

based

not

classifications are

it

them very exact Though we

classifications of

encounter

shows that

of the

We

look in vain for the

tripartite

division

of the

and

volition.

There

into reason, feeling

no marked metaphysical or psychological

dualism in a man's soul, corresponding to the modified metaphysical and ethical dualism of the later Zoroastrian philosophy. substantial

steps

were

Nevertheless,

taken in psychology,,

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

-54

when

the broad division between the material

and the non-material parts of the human whole when attempts were made to was made ;

•differentiate different

when

it

faculties

;

and above

was recognised that man's

will

is

all,

free.

And

with such a psychological conception of

man

the moral ideal was possible.

PART

II

CHAPTER

IV

THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE First

an attempt

will

be made' to

give

a

general idea of the moral attitude of the Parsi faith

and of

its

characteristic principles.

A

clear grasp of the fundamental standpoint of

Zoroastrianism will enable

us to survey the

details with greater facility.

The view here taken iible

of life shows a remark-

absence of the recognition of the deeper

metaphysical

problems

related

with

ethical

The Hindu mind misses anything

problems.

really corresponding to the mysterious concepts

like

May ay

Ka.rma, Sainsara,

play so important a part in

Moksha^ which

Hindu

speculation.

Concerned predominantly with practical morality

this

religion

€thical religion.

centres

round

is

known above

The main the

ethical

all

as

an

interest generally

implication

of

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

56

rather than their deep philosophy.

questions

This

indicates

weakness

The from

predominantly unmetaphysical char-

acter of the system of

The

life.

is

the positive view taken

utilitarian genius of the Iranians

instinctively avoided all attempts to

pure

abstractions

which

is

There

practical.

no attempt

and darker shadows the

adumbrate

and thus evolved a view

essentially

mysticism,

at

and

strength

the

whole system.

consequence which directly flows

first

this

once

at

of the

of

no

fathom the deeper

to life,

transcendental.

is

no

flight to clutch

Dhalla

Dr.

" Religion should be such that

its ideals

says':

can be

applied to our work-a-day world.

Its

ings should be

exigencies

This

of daily life

The

reality of

questioned for a ]y real.

The

stuff is

The

:

very simplicity. '^^

it is

not

is

always supremei-

not sacrificed on the

altaa-

made

same

finite is

that constitutes the infinite

:

of the

the infinite

the deepening, the expansion of the

not quite different from or opposed to 1

teach-

the characteristic of

its

immediate experience

moment

finite is

of the infinite.

is

through

Zoroastrianism

the

applicable to

Dr. Dhalla.

p. 358-9.

finite^ it.

»

'

"^

THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE

57

Two features which follow from this attitude may be observed at once. The one is the firm and

belief in the reality of the individual soul,

in its capacity for activity.

contribution to the

sum

The

individual's

good of the

total of the

world receives special recognition in Zoroastrian

Man

ethics.

is

held to be largely a free-willed

being, capable of initiating both good and evil activities

and according as he leans more on the

one side or the other, the fate of the universe is

decided for good or

from

being

a

mere

evil.

wheel

Man

machinery, a helpless tool in

is

thus far

a

universal

the

hands of

in

powers vaster and superior to himself. a choice

to

make,

a

choice

both

to

He

pregnant

has

with

himself and to

infinite

possibilities

others

he has a part to play, a part which

;

helps to turn this way or that

way the

tide of

success of the moral forces of the universe.

Constant faith in the power of man, genuine respect for his individual efforts,

and persistent

insistence on his activity in the right directions

give to the whole view a tone of vigour and

make

it

a very powerful lever to

masses from passivity and indolence.

uplift

the

;

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

-^

Another feature which this positive view

is

A

vailing about man's destiny.

This

in its possibilities.

with the

contrasted

operations of destiny and so often

irresistible

breeds

may be

outlook.

pessimistic

taken of the worth and individual

room

little

In

much

view

the

importance of left

is

or

Man He

the master of his fate.

the

dark

for

mysterious views about man's future.

very

confi-

view which resigns us to the

fatalistic

a

of

belief in the

immediate experience inspires

reality of

dence

outcome

the

the optimistic tone pre-

is

is

is

not

a negligible factor in the constitution of the

This inspires him with a sense of

universe.

make

power, a consciousness of dignity, which light the difficulties of the situation

mind with

bright

Darmesteter says

was

a

it

—

religion of

the word old

:

;

Aryan

it

hopes '*

tion

;

;

gives

not

his

The Zoroastrian

religion

in the noblest sense of

life

two

the

midst of

which

dim percepthings were vioraliti/ and or only a

so that the Zoroastrian faith its

fill

future.

religions in

those

and

the

brought two things of which the

arose had no idea

hope

about

not only

follower a moral rule through

only directs his

heart,

his

tongue,

life

hi»

THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE

59^

hand, teaching him good thought^ good word^

good deed

;

but

prevail at last

it tells

him

that the good will

he does his duty

if

;

that a son

come and open Ormazd and exterminate The poorest, the the evil from the world. meanest Zoroastrian in the world knows that of the prophet, Saoshyant, will

the eternal reign of

he

born a soldier

is

-Ormazd

will

of

Saoshyant and that

conquer through him."

^

Every

Zoroastrian necessarily believes in the ultimate

triumph of the good, although his optimism type, but largely based

not of a facile

man's

is

upon

eftbrts or sufferings as direct contributions

towards the realization of the future millennium.

Like Tennyson he believes that 'good will be the

goal of

final

*'Good shall

At

last

And

—

fall

far off

—

at last, to

all,

every winter change to spring."

The system irrepressible It

and that

ill'

the

is

outcome of the robust,

optimism of the Iranian mind.

can be broadly distinguished from the views

of certain thinkers,

chiefly Eastern,

<;onsidered life as radically

and then

desire 2

its

extinction.

ERE

IX.

who have

and unalterably

647.

evil

The Iranian

ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS

60

with bright hopes both for

life is filled

and

and

hereafter,

salvation

life

here

Mohsha

or

is

considered as consisting not in the negation of life,

but in

its fullest

realization.

As Zoroastrian metaphysics posits two spirits,. Spenta Mainyu the Good spirit, and Angra

Mainyu the Evil

spirit, so also

Zoroastrian ethics

evolves the fundamental opposition between the

Good and the

the forces of Life and the

Evil,

forces of Death.

The whole universe

two opposite camps ready out.

The duty

man

of

arrayed in

is

to thrust

consists

each other enlisting

in

himself on the side of the good, by furthering to

the best of his

and retarding

Ahura

ability all the vital forces

the forces of death.

all

says to the wicked one

minds are

nor our beliefs, nor our

words, nor our actions,

nor our souls." ^

In the

writings,

The

thought,

the

second

third

good

thoughts, 3

Ys.

first is

deed.^

evil

XIX.

nor our consciences,

Arda Viraf and other

the distinction

maintained.

is

^'Neither our

harmony, nor our precepts, nor

in

our comprehensions,

Pahlavi

;

words, 15.

footstep

sharply

is

is

the good

good word, and the

The

practice

and 4

AV.

evil

of

deeds

154. 189.

evil is

THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE

A man

punished.5

harm, good deeds

A man

no

let

man's

for

;

life

good

not eternal."

^

by good

himself

good

words,

He who

good deeds." ^

evil idea possess is

^^should maintain

thoughts,

my

your thoughts,

all

good and

son, be about

your mind

should prefer " good to

to sins, virtue to vice, light

"Let

darkness."^

to

61

and

tongue,

thinks good thoughts,

^'

speaks good words, and does good deeds, does

by

his

good thoughts and words and deeds

cause his soul to reach the best place. "^ said in the Menuk-i-khrat that

a righteous

own deeds in the **I

am

man

when the

passes over the

is

bridge, his

kind come to meet him

of a virtuous

form of a handsome maiden. no maiden, but

It

soul of

I

am

She says

:

thy virtuous deeds,

thou youth, who art well-thinking, well-speaking,

well-doing,

way

the same

and a

to

death, his evil deeds

maiden, and

the

deeds, thou

good

of

wicked

come

»

AV.

«

Gs. 21.

is

190.

man, in the

maiden says

who

monster,

and

evil-speaking, evil-doing

Holiness

religion. "^°

after

his

form

of a

am

thy

*'I

:

In

evil-thinking,

art

of evil religion.

"^^

acquired through good thoughts, 7

An At

s

Gs. 22.

M

»

1. 1

Gs. 32.

Mkh.

19.

1 1

Mkh.

23.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

62

good words and good deeds. ^- But

''the soul

of

him who

follows evil professions becomes guilty

through

evil

deeds."

thoughts

"And

^^

of danger

and the increasers of

**Evil passions

owing

are

extremely hurtful."

The

words and

evil

evil

the evil thoughts are the cause evil passions."

to evil,

^*

mean and

^"^

oft-repeated reference to thoughts, words

and deeds, siveness

suggests

and depth

at once

of the

the comprehen-

ethical position

of

these writings. For the root of good or bad words or deeds

The to be

is

to be

found in good or bad thoughts.

basis of the ethics

may

therefore

inner motive

is

of

be

said

But though the

fundamentally spiritual.

primary importance, the outer

act or consequence

is

also recognised as possess-

may

ing a value which ethics must consider.

It

be remarked here that the importance

of the

word and deed

triad of thought,

strian scheme in

of life

is

some other Eastern

in the Zoroa-

not without

its

parallels

In the classical

faiths.

Sanscrit writings, the reference to manaSy vach

and kannan exactly corresponds to Humata or Manashni, Hukhata or Gavashni and Hvarit Dk. 13 Dk.

I.

1.

20.

20.

1* Dk. ifi

Dk.

I.

60.

II. 86.

;

THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE

65

The eightfold path which Gautama Buddha preached as a way to the extinction of suffering is more or less an expan-

shta or Kunashni.

sion of the Zoroastrian formula

Right Faith,

:

Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Living, Right

Effort,

Equally noteworthy

Right Self-concentration. is

which the Zoroastrian

correspondence

the

triad

exhibits with

Jainas.

They

conviction,

the

three

jewels

of the

Sainyag-darsana^

are

and

faith

Right Thought,

perception

samyag-jnana^ right knowledge

;

right

combined

sainyak-chari-

tra, right conduct.^^

The sum total of duty one word Asha^ which may be

translated

whole world-order

their

expressed by the

in particular

Righteousness

as

Under the dominating all its better

state,

is

is

or

terms

Purity,.

influence of the idea, the

kept in

to be

purest

its

elements advanced towards

promised realisation and

ments gradually made

to

its

worse

ele-

This

disappear.

is

then the broad meaning of Asha^ the funda-

mental concept of Parsi ethics. '

The main

fullest 1 «

idea of the

realisation J. L. Jaini.

of

the

Parsi

ethics

vital forces

Outlines of Jainism 1916

is

the

and the

—

p. 52.

— ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

'€4

consequent

disappearance

tendencies.

In the words of the poet:

<<

T'is life

Oh

ethics

whereof our nerves are scant,

and

life

fuller that I want."

course

In the

opposite

not death for which we pant,

life,

More

the

of

the

of

development of the

and

fuller

earliest stages of civilization,

when

received

idea

this

a richer

content.

In the animistic

tendencies largely

stract ideas are

prevail,

and ab-

understood only under the guise

of something concrete, morality consisted very

largely in a struggle against evil spirits. Every-

which

thing

supposed spirit.

has

All such evil spirits

Hence the very great elaborate

tendency

pernicious

a

is

be due to the action of some evil

to

rituals

must be

insistence

calculated

impurity, under the

out

all

which an

evil

root

to

shelter

of

exorcised.

shown on the

spirit generally lurks.

The

idea

gradually

interpretation.

religious

work in

duties

As

Lchmann

more

liberal

remarks,

the

go hand in hand with the

of civilisation.

the

receives a

time of the

We

must remember that

Gathas, the people were

mainly pastoral and agricultural.

The work

THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE of promoting

life

to the age.

The work

and the

took the special forms suited of breeding cattle well

art of cultivation receive special atten-

Many an important work

tion.

65

of bridges, houses, canals,

such as building

the

destruction

of

noxious creatures become highly moral when looked at from this point of view.

The

idea

of

underlying the above

utility

agricultural ethics received a further extension

when man's of

health and vigour become objects

Thus marriage as a the sexual relations and a guaran-

particular

regulator of

pure and healthy progeny was highly

tee of

lauded.

All

of

relations,

Positive

to

all

progeny. structive

to

inas-

utmost impoverishment

obligations

were laid upon

maintain and promote his

and then

unnatural

condemned

strongly

as they led to the

life.

man

illicit

were

intercourse,

much

attention.

energy

first

produce and bring up healthy

The same emphasis upon the conis shown by the

elements in ethics

great contempt expressed for asceticism in each

and every form.

had no fascination

mind

The

for the intensely practical

of the Zoroastrians.

such as was

at

ideal of renunciation

A

state of celibacy

one time popular among ancient

f

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

GO

Brahmans and mediaeval Christians did not find favour amongst the followers of Zoroaster. In It was the same with reference to fasting. virtues,

negrative

fact, all

which

from more positive and

fruitful

to the diminution

life- forces,

releofated to the

From

of

lead

activities

were either

backcjround or ig^nored.

general

this

divorced

if

standpoint,

not

is

it

strange to find that all practical virtues which lead to success in life receive

The

tion.

qualities

of

industry, moderation are

a true Zoroastrian. So

marked

recogni-

temperance,

thrift,

deemed

essential

far Parsi ethics

for

appear

as ethics of utility.

The

best

attitude

of

spirit

will

be

the

missed

Zoroastrian

if it is

the calculations of worldly profit

what

\yas

mind.

A

chiefly

and

dreamt of by

the

human

soul

conspicuous place was assigned

virtues.

anthropy

loss

were

the Iranian

vivid appreciation of the higher and

.finer possibilities of

A

moral

supposed that

Charity in

all

large-mindedness

or good- will, its

are

virtuous organization.

shapes part

The

to

grew up. altruistic

active

and

philforms,,

and parcel of a followers of Zoro-

aster learnt well to identify self with the larger

THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE community and

self of the

work

to

67

in a spirit

of disinterestedness for the larger brotherhood.

A

manifestation

further

tendency of the ethics

the

of

idealistic

seen in the very great

is

regard attached to tjiithfulness in mind, word

and deed.

This

well-known

trait

comes out

definition

of

the

Persian

given by Herodotus, when he said the truth

in the

finely

ideal

that to tell

and bend the bow were the main

part of Persian education.

Such, briefly expressed, of

system

the

is

the

main attitude

developed

ethics

We may

Zoroastrians. of

of

conclude

by

in the

Lehmann--'* Keviewing the whole

the

words

field

we

note the extremely formal and rather juristic character of the Zoroastrian ethic,

Persian genius practical

for

always

utilitarianism

enters

into

righteousness and justice. life,

this

control

and veracity;

ness, regularity

of this ethic

not

and

scheme

of

industry,

self-

in social life, righteous-

social accord.

an abstract

accommodate

irrational life.

is

and things

In the individual

appreciated

ethic

the

while the

itself

to

The

reverse

stiffness that life

and

will

whose

consequences are often inimical to

The monotonous opposition

of

good to

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

€8

evil

and

evil

good leaves no room

to

intermediate stages of real

for

life,

in the soul of

vidual and spontaneous states

mankind. emotions

The Persians cared

little

for

the

disinterestedness

even

in

the

of

we

religious feelings

a lyric element

accordance with called

<

law

;

too often the want of

feel

on the contrary we always

;

the heavy burden

is

for the

the indi-

of the juristic spirit.

this, '

(

^

religion

daena

)

'

feel

In

in the Avesta

and the Persians

could not distinguish between the two ideas." 1

7

ERE

V. 516.

^^

CHAPTER V THE VALUE OF LIFE INDUSTRY AND INDOLENCE :

The

Zoroastrian ethics

character

positive

essentially

best brought out

is

the

of

by

its

constant and reiterated emphasis on the value of

Life itself

life.

the longer

is

very good thing and

a

In the Gathas,

the better.

is

it

Zarathustra prays " In order that

known

to

men

the

true

I

may make

and sacred aims of

Ye me a long life for this."^ And do Thou, O Lord

their desires, grant

Again he says bestow

:

'^

long-lasting

a like

Zarathustra spoke to Vistaspa

O

man,

of a

O

good

life :

"I

on

us."^

bless thee,

lord of the country, with the living life,

an exalted

of

life,

of a long

life.

May thy men live long May thy women live long May sons be born unto thee of thy own !

I

body 1

!"^

Life as such

Ys. XLIII.

13.

2

Ys.

is

a divine thing

XXVIII.

7.

3

;

it

Yt. XXIII.

is 1.

)

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

70

created by

Ahura Mazda; death

abomination

owes

it

;

Ahura Mazda life,^

the

is

and the source

always an

is

existence to Ahriman.''

its

lord

deeds of

the

of

the joys of life/

of all

Haiirvatat or health and Ariieretat or immortality are

very frequently

Ahura Mazda gives words and deeds.^

Amesha

the

Ameretat, state

''

life.

That

restore

We

ing,

and master

of

life

and the world

when

when he

will die,

rotting, ever living

when

The

final

unto the victorious

will cleave

never grow old and never

will rise,

unto

sacrifice

pictured as eternal, deathless

is

the world, which

and never

unto the pros-

Spenta."^

and his helpers,

Saoshyant

unto Haurvatat,

sacrifice

Amesha

man

of

we

seasons

the

objects of prayer.

'*\Ve sacrifice

Spenta,

of the

perity

made

these as a reward for holy

its

wish.

(

shall

thenceforth

never decaying

and ever

When

increas-

the dead

and immortality will come,

will be restored at

wish,

its

the creation shall grow deathless

prosperous creation of the good

spirit,

— the

— and

the Druj shall perish."'^

»

Ys.

XXX.

Ys.

XXXI.

« Ys.

4. 8.

XXXIII.

10.

7

Ys.

XXXIV.

«

Yt.

II. 6.

»

Yt.

XIX.

1.

19-20

;

89-90.

THE VALUE OF LIFE Death, disease, decrepitude are

Death

the

is

Holy word, aw^ay.

ing

worst

both hunger and

by Mazda

;

away."

fled

may

The

^^

may

I

fled

follow-

take away

from the world created

thirst,

that I

Before the

away, Death

fled

asked: ^'That

is

abhorred/

all

of all evils.

''Sickness

the Daeva

boon

71

take away both old age

and death, from the world created by Mazda." ^^

"To

Sickness, I say a vaunt

thee,

Death,

avaunt

I

say avaunt

To

!

physical

thee,

O

To

'

say avaunt

and

imperfection

considered hateful.

I

"There

thee,

O

Pain, I say

thee,

Fever,

To

!

!"^-

All

malformations are

no hump-

shall be

backed, none bulged forward there; no impotent,

no

no

lunatic,

one

with decayed

tooth, no leprous to be pent up."^^ If life itself is

so

supremely

things which subserve esteem. son,

"Give me,

it

desirable,

Ahura Mazda's

Fire,

a speedy glory, speedy nourishment,

speedy booty, and abundant nourishment,

all

are also held in high

abundant

glory,

abundant booty,

expanded

an

mind, and nimbleness of tongue

and

for

soul

and

understanding, even an understanding contini« Yt. IIL

7.

11 Yt. IX. 10.

18 Vd.

XX.

7.

13 Vd. n. 29.

J

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

72

ually growing in

and that never

largeness,

its

wanders, and long enduring virile power." order that our minds

our souls the best,

An

as well."^^

health,

male

strength,

children,

in assembly,

who

and ready

(of

who smite and

to

help.''^^

number

great

a

praisers

God) and

are

their

one stroke their

strike at

is felt

not

smitten,

be

rich

Mayst thou

*'Mayst thou

king Husravah

warriors,

!

May

!

strength to

ten sons be born

three as Athravans,

three as tillers of the

with

Mayst

Pourusaspa

like

three as

ground

one of them be like Gamaspa that he thee

thyself !

a good share of bliss, like

Mayst thou have

!

Kangha thy own body,

reach the of

horses,

in

have

who

in joy

ever

foes,

of

chiefs

enemies,

be rich in cattle, like an Athwyanide

thou

for

<"Give us strength

life.

smite at one stroke

glol-ified

things which

prosperity, all

Give us

victory.

delighted, and

be

our bodies be

intense appreciation

advance the forces of

and

may

let

"In

^^

!

may

May bless

great and ever greater happiness

I

Mayst thou be freed from sickness and death like

Peshotanu

14 Ys. LXII. 4. 15 Ys. LX. 11.

!

Mayst thou have piercing »c Ny. III. 10. Yt.

XXIV.

6.

THE VALUE OF LIFE Mithra

rays, like

the fire

as

moon

!

Mayst thou be warm like

!

Mayst thou

Mayst thou

!

man

an old

be resplendent,

can be

And when thou

!

"

abode of the holy Ones

happy,

all

The same

^^

!

blissful spirit of

optimism breathes through

invincible

the following passages: " Give me,

lively

hast

thousand years, (mayst

thou obtain) the bright,

Ahura Mazda!

like

be long-lived, as long-lived

fulfilled a duration of a

robust

75

Atar, son of

lively welfare, lively maintenance,

of welfare,

fulness

living;

maintenance, fulness of

fulness

"We

life."^^

of

worship

Strength and Prosperity and Might and Victory

and Glory and Vigour." "(Give) unto that man

him health of body, him victorious

brightness and glory, give give

him

sturdiness of body, give

strength of body, give

give

long

him life,

him

full welfare of wealth,

a virtuous offspring, give

give

him

the bright,

all

him

long^

happy, blissful

abode of the holy Ones."^^ Prayers are directed to the Fravashis of the holy persons "for the

vigour of health, for the glory,

made by Mazda,

for the health of the body, for a

offspring

for a

for a long 17 Yt.

lonsf

XXIV.

dominion

life,

2-5.

and

good virtuous

full of

for

18 Ny. V. 10.

all

splendour,

boons and

i9 Yt.

I.

33.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

74

Ahura Mazda says:

remedies."'^

Aryan

in wealth,

rich

in

glory

;

store of intelligence, with

''I

made

the

rich in Hocks, rich

Glory, rich in food,

provided with store

full

full

of money,

to

withstand need and to withstand enemies

It

destroys Angra Mainyu, who

death."

is all

:

-^^

Hero we find an apotheosis of strength, energy, might, victory, glory, worldly power and prosperity is

and

spiritual

sense

of

in Zoroastrianism

conflict

which might have induced Nietzsche

famous book the

to his

It

with the

such as these coupled

passages

optimistic

power and prosperity.

title of

'

to

give

Thus spake

Zarathustra.'

Man own

therefore

physical

must not only enhance

and

equip himself with

and

mental all

vigour,

necessary

the

his also

means

qualities instrumental in this struggle for

more

fulness of existence, both

individual and

communal.

For

mended and

children and wealth

mended. has a wife,

end marriage

this

is

recom-

are recom-

Spitama Zarathustra, he

'<

is

far

superior

to

no wife; he who has a family, to

but

him who has none

;

wh-o

him who has is

far superior

he who possesses riches

»« Yt. XIII. 134, 135.

2

1

Yt. XVIII.

1.

THE VALUE OF LIFE is

far

above him who has no riches." poverty and

life of is

75

Thus a

and renunciation

celibacy

very remote from the Zoroastrian ideal.

It is

very necessary to take very strong and ample

upon

for

food,

vigour

depends

that

of the body,

but also

and

spiritual energy.

"

eat

has

do

strength

to

beget

w^orks

in

fills

''And

former

is

;

does not holiness,

of

two

the

of

receives

better than he w^ho

the latter

above

intellectual

himself with meat

him Vohu Mano much

does not do so

the

husbandry, strength

children.""^

men, he who

all

No one who

strength to do works of to

only

not

is all

him by

the

Asperena, by the worth of a

but dead

worth

;

the

of

an

sheep, by the

worth of an ox, by the worth of a man.

man

can strive

iT^idhotu

arrow

;

;

the

against

he can strive against the winter

strive

Ashemaogha."^"* j)ains 22

23

against

him on

47.

24

33.

2 5

the head,

ungodly

the

Hunger and

and they should not be Vd. IV. Vd. III.

fiend,

he can strive against

;

the wicked tyrant and smite

can

of Asto-

onsets

he can strive against the well-darted

with thinnest garment on

he

This

fasting

thirst are severe

inflicted

on men.-^

Vd. IV. 48, 49. Vd. Vn. 70, 71.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

7«

This brings us to

importance of work

the

and particularly agricultural labour, because

work

is

with

is

intimately

and

Carlyle,

might

worship.'

The habit '

:

Rise

Zarathustra,

said

that

me

up.'

Whichever

up

shall

enter

two

the

of

paradise."

applaud-

one

gets-

first

Upon

^^

is

cock calling

the

is

is

address

bed-fellows

up, here

like

Work

'

of early rising

then

''And

ed.

another

have

prosperity

that

activity

connected.

it

this fact

depends the importance attached to the cock in

Parsi

who

man

cocks

(

gives a house with a

Agricultural part

prosperity

of the

asked:

Which the

is

erects

a

just

is

)

who

gives

like

forms

an

happy

?

''^

essential

When

the second place where

is

one

hundred columns.

general prosperity.

earth feels most

"It

A

literature.

two Parodar birds

it

is

the

Ahura Mazda answers:

place whereon one of the faithful

house

with

cattle,

with a wife,

herds

within; and

cattle

continue to

a

priest

within

;

with

with children, and good

wherein

afterwards

virtue

thrive,

fodder to thrive, the doc: to

to

thrive,

the-

thrive,,

the wife

to thrive, the child to thrive, the fire to thrive^ 2 6

Yd. XVIII.

26.

2 7

Yd. XVIII.

28.

THE VALUE OF LIFE

77

and every blessing

of life to tlirive."^^

when

Which

it

asked,

is

where the Earth given ful

"It

:

feels

happy

And

the third

is

place,

The answer

?

is

the place where one of the faith-

is

sows most corn, grass, and

Zarathustra, where

ground that

he waters

ground that

dry, or drains

is

Spitama

fruit,

too wet."

^^

is

Zara-

thustra placed the tilling of the soil on a level of equal dignity with such

as

and righteousness.

veracity

and

labour, welfare,

is

high ethical qualities

activity

all

Agricultural

furthering

"Not

essentially virtuous.

righteous liver, not for the thrifty -earth,

To the question: What

^°

Mazda answers

"It

:

is

sows corn sows righteousness

:

Mazda. "^2

agriculture

The man who

"He who

dost not

me

till

with the

religion

abstains

from

"0 thou man,

a great sinner.

is

the

he makes the

Mazda walk, he suckles the

religion of

is

sowing corn again and

Spitama Zarathustra.""'^

again,

left

arm and the

ever shall thou stand at the door of

right «8 Vd. ^» Vd.

the

Mazda? Ahura

food that feeds the religion of

who

for the

tiller of

shall there be destruction together with

the wicked."

of

human

III.

2—3.

III. 4.

Ys. XXIX. 5. SI Vd. III. 30.

3

3 2

Vd.

III. 31.

X

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

78

who beg

those

fainted

came,

Daevas

;

groaned, w4aen

Daevas

the

when it grew, when the

Daevas' hearts

the

knots came, the ears

''When barley was-

the Daevas started up,

created,

then

for bread. "^^

flew away.

the

In that

house the Daevas stay wherein wheat perishes.

though red hot iron were turned about

It is as

their

in

is

when

throats,

The earth

corn."^^''

feels

there

plenty

is

of

very joyous when there

an abundance of flocks and herds/^ Industry

and

manufacture

there

not

are

passage in the

is

unto metals."

sacrifice

The same

respect

accompaniments writings.

world sheep,

and

Ahura

life

and

its

expressed in

earth

and

necessary

the

in the

and

cattle

trees,

good

Pahlavi

who

rewarded,

other

The

Mazda."-'"

we

;

^^

are

the

all

many noxious

(excellent power)

for

is

Women

" honored

*'we sacrifice

Yctshts

unto Khshathra-vairya

Thus

neglected.

creations of

souls of those

who

killed

creatures in the world; and the

prosperity of the waters and sacred

fires

and

fires

in general and trees and the prosperity of the earth was also 33 •**

Vd. Vd.

III. III.

increased

28—29. .S2.

thereby

3 5

Vd.

III. 5.

'6

Yt.

II. 2, 7.

;

3 7

and they aV.

162.

THE VALUE OF LIFE

is

given to the souls of

also

and

tillage

to

Good treatment men who looked

exalted and adorned.^^

were

l^

In the

cultivation.^^

^

Ganji-

Shayigan' the same tendencies find expression.

A man who

gets wealth in this world through

God's favour, " does works that lengthen the

men, increase their progeny and pros-

lives of

Every man should marry and "conti-

perity."'^'^

nue his progeny

world and give them

in the

the required strength and is

drawn

A man

comforts.

(of a day) sports

Attention

food."'^^

to the necessity of

looking to bodily

should "spend a third portion

in eating

and enjoying

his

indulging in

food,

rest."

'^-

A man

with his

surplus wealth should do such works as render the body is

duty

make

land and

purchase with if it

anv

will not

rate

Cultivation

comfortable.'^-^

a necessary

make

of alien

;

a

man

it fertile.'''* it

water

"Jf

you have wealth

and arable

immediately give

is

forbidden. "^^

soil

fruits,

a fair begfinning:."'*^

wealth

of land

should cultivate

which, will at

Destruction

The land

be-

comes happy when oxen and sheep repose upon it

brought from an uncultivated

or

it is

3 8

AY. AV.

163.

4

3 9

164.

4 2 Gs. 21.

45

4

Gs.

2.

4 3

4 6

1

Gs. 21. Gs.

6.

state

4 4 Gs. 21.

An. Atm. An. Atm.

4. 8.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

80

cultivation

to a state of

when

burrows

the

Dinkard

man's

with

'* :

life

(

First,

be

known

good

in

by

condition." its

comes resourceless and languid."

much

sary to maintain it is

far

also necessary to

Be

The body ^^

it

is

be-

It is neces-

keep trouble and

strife

life is

expressed

throughout the range of Parsi literature.

animals

also.

A

the kine that they fodder

*'

human

prayer

is

beings,

made

may have

look

in

pregnant female,

Mkh.

God

to

for

from the famed, and from the humble,

the faithful to

every

to

It

but

comfort and have

from the potent and the weak."^^ "

7

it

immortality

respect for agriculturists-,

reverential tenderness for

extends not only to

4

;

from them.^°

A

\

'*

"^^

without food

food

)

thirdly

soldiers that they

by improving the mortal body. kept strong

lives

cattle,

soul works for

that the

men's

to

giving proper food to the

might

are

the virtue connected

or protecting

pasture

giving

secondly,

creatures

Three things are recommended

extirpated/' in the

and habitableness or

of noxious

28.

»8 Dk. VII. 452.

the

»o sd. 281.

same way

either

4» Dk. VII. 460.

It lies

with after

two-footed *i Ys.

XXXV.

or 4.

THE VALUE OF LIFE four-footed,

bitch."

woman

two-footed

Arda

the

In

^-

many punishments are molest or

kill

or four-footed

we

Viraf,

of

find

Arda Viraf

life.

whose breasts were

saw the souls of Avomen,

placed upon a hot frying-pan. They w^ere souls

women who gave

those

of

infants no milk, but emaciated them."^^-^

woman

^'

their

**

the

own

and destroyed

of the wicked

The souls who killed the

that

on those who

inflicted

any forms

81

man and

water-otter in the water

and smote and slew other creatures of Ahura

Mazda"

'^

had

man who

the

slew a pious

much

unlawfully

man

soul of

meets with a

The wicked man

death. ^^

cruel

The

eat excrement.

to

'*

who made

slaughter of cattle and sheep

and other quadrupeds" has

his limbs

broken

The souls of wicked persons who gave hard work and insufficient food to beasts suffered severe punishment.^^ The body

and separated.

^°

woman was

of a

poison and

torn, because she

oil of

opium

to

gave people

eat.^^

Animosity

should not be entertained towards nor injury

done

to

anything

-2 Yd. 5 3 5

4

5 5

6-

AV. AV. AV.

XV.

belonging

19.

^>c

186, 188, 197, 200.

5 7

201.

5 8

170, 184.

to

AV. AV. AV.

the

good

174, 192. 194. 19t).

H2

ZOKOASTKIAX ETHICS

creation. 5^^

Domestic animals should be kept

out

harm's

of

diminution or undesirable.

is

should

children.^'

of

sacrifice

''It

man

confine a

Men

way.^^

women and

defenceless

life

a sin

without

considered

is

strike or to

to

to do

cause,

protect

All useless

harm

to

Zohak has advised people to be cruel and revengeful and to slaughter men; any female/'"-

men to lay corn in summer men and cattle.'-^' "Abstain

but Jamshid advises

and

winter for

from

unlawfully

cows,

sheep or goats,

(

needlessly that

happen unto you thereby ing

A

)."'^'

slaughtering

)

no distrust

at the

(

part of the Dliikard

final is

may

reckon-

concerned

with the excellence of physicians, their merit

from doing good, and sin from not doing good; the

quality

that

exists as regards medicines,

seeking a physician for animals also, and else to the

no food death.

is

r>9

r.

1

C'--

The

one of those which

sin, affecting

striking

<-o

purpose/^"^

In one section

^'^

about the ful

same

there

much

sin of giving is

worthy of

are particulars

the soul, due to unlaw-

and wounding beasts of burden

Dk. IX. 643. Dk. IX. ()4:{. Dk. I. 41. Dk. IX. 1)31.

RS Dk. YII. 438. Dk. V. 31,-). Dk. Bk. VIII. 48. Dk. IJk. VIII. 07.

<•-

<'••'••

•'•'*•

THE VALUE OF LIFE and

''One section concerns the mode

cattle."^'

and object of confinement of sheep, and dog that are for the atttiction

toration

;

;

the operation

what extent

also to

slaughter, the care of is

their res-

is

them even

sin to give animals

for

in confinement^

on the same subject."

eugenics w^ere applied to

was a

a beast of burden,

mad and

and when not restored, but come

and whatever

It

83

Laws of the animal kingdom. bad

^^

males, to admit

males to animals at an improper time.^^ The

same general attitude

When is

he commits a

keep close

much

swallow

that

ox,

catches

cock should not be

animals

those which affect

the w^ar

the

The

An

noxious creatures

endeavour

and

these especially

Dk. Bk. VIII. 84. C8 Dk. Bk. VIII. 105. 6 9 Dk. Bk. VIII. 139.

6 7

the

is

should be spared,

w^ith.

Among

and

idea

that

while

us injuriously should be

made

the earth.

the

horse,

locust

killed."-

done away to kill

and

and

Particularly the lamb, the

ploughing-

useful

One must

slaughter of animals

the cattle species. the

any one who

sin."^

watch over one's animals,^^

refrain from

all

kept up in the 8ad-da>\

a person molests or smites

innocent,

kid,

is

should

be

reptiles of

the

^e Sd. 36L 7 1

Sd. 286.

7 2

sd. 295.

frog

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

84

in the water, the

snake and scorpion, the ant and

A

the mouse should be destroyed."^

hedgehog

should not be destroyed, but put into a hole in the

wilderness, where

it

may

many

destroy

ants and snakes."" Similarly a beaver should not

be killed, but put into running water. '^ But the

animal which required particularly good

ment was the dog,

treat-

because he afforded a very

valuable

protection to one's property against

thieves, ^^

and because he

mischievous

He who

dog."''

dog

'^

who

of

killed or injured a

gives bad food to a shepherd's

guilty of the

is

thousands

Very heavy punishments

insects."'

are inflicted on those

kills

same

guilt as

though he

should serve bad food to a master of a house of the

first

rank."

"^

Thus the shepherd's dog

very great importance.

It is

is

of

allowable to kill a

sheep for the nourishment of a shepherd's dog,

which

is

deprived of food.^^ ''Every time they

eat bread,

it

is

necessary to withhold

morsels from their to a dog, 3

and

it is

own

not desirable to beat a dog." Vd. xni. 4, 7 Vd. XIII. 20. fo Dk. Bk. VIII.

sd. 306.

7

4 sa. 318. 7. Sd. 350.

7

7

three

bodies and to give them

7

-5

7C Vd. XIII. 39, 40. 7 7 Vd. XIII. 2.

8

**!

Sd. 292.

etc.

83.

"^^

— THE VALUE OF LIFE The most remarkable Zarathustra

is its

feature of the ethics of

attitude towards

which flows directly from

and the world.

life

85

its

asceticism,

towards

attitude

This characteristic

ferentiates this faith broadly

dif-

from many other

great religions of the world, particularly from

Hinduism.

Its

character in this

has

matter

already been seen in the emphasis placed upon

and

life

activity,

agricultural

upon worldly

It is also

of wife

seen in the penances

and

body are never

in

works,

public

securing

for

Mortifica-\

any favour with the

Avestan or Pahlavi writers. of noxious creatures,

children.

prescribed

the violation of religious precepts. tions of

upon

and economic goods, upon marri-

and the possession

age

goods,

The

destruction

the construction of useful

the

rendered in

assistance

good marriages, these are the forms

which atonement takes. All forms

of abstinence

which lead

of

to

the diminution

are rigorously excluded.

tinued for a long time similarly 'Sad is

is

Dar we

requisite

fasts.

is

life- forces

Thus celibacy conprohibited.

Fasting,

unequivocally condemned. In the find the following passages to

abstain

:

'^

It

from the keeping of

For, in our religion,

it

is

not proper

\

ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS

«6

that they should not eat every day or anything

because

it

would be

us the keeping of

With we keep

a sin not to do so. fast

is

this

that

from committing sin with our eyes and

fast

tongue and ears and hands and

The importance

of

work

feet.'"*-

and activity

continually emphasized in this literature.

the Avesta, the habit of early rising

commended. In the subsequent matter

receives

a

more

Diligence in good works

highly

is

literature, the

definite is

is

In

treatment.

Ankc

necessary.^-^

Viraf saw the soul of a lazy man, whose whole

body was gnawed by a noxious creature was

his right foot

any good work

did

not

gnawed.

He

(when he was

but

;

never this

in

world) except that with his right foot he cast a

bundle of grass before a ploughing

The

industrious

man who

cares.^^

to obtain

'^

of

Industry

industry.''*'

is

a

freedom from anxieties and

Be industrious that you may be able

your

8 2

Sd. 348.

8 3

AV. AV.

8 4

by

glory

great

mankmd A man earns

assisted

aspires to a place in heaven. ^"^

concomitant

ox.'^'^

162. 175.

wishes."'^'^ »'> Gs. 13. 8c Gs. 11. 8 7 Gs. 18.

"Rise early that you 8 8

An. Atm.

7.

THE VALUE OF LIFE

may

be able to continue your work."

up your

wealth by his good industry able to store so that the

up

virtue."

Keep be

will

who has acquired

'"'He

is

by that wealth

Practise no sloth

''

-^

''

'^^

fame

your

and

industry

increased thereby."-'^'

is

87

duty and the good w^ork, which

;

it

may not remain lazy man is said to

necessary for thee to do,

He who

undone.""-

a

is

Because

be the most unworthy of men.

it is

declared in revelation, that the creator Ahura-

mazda produced no corn

man

;

for a lazy

man

of anything in gifts

him who

for

is

a lazy

must be no giving

there

and charity

and entertainment are not

;

and lodging

be provided for

to

him. For this reason; because that food which a lazy

man eats, he eats through

injustice

;

impropriety and

and. on account of his laziness and

unjust eating, his body then becomes infamous

and the soul

wicked.-'^

In the catalogue

heinous

the sin of

doing no work, but

sins,

eating unthankfully and unlawfully twelfth.'"*

In the Dinkard

the virtue of honest work. trious

with

personal

s» An.

7.

^i An.

'JO

8.

9 2

Atm. An. Atm.

much ''

Atm. 10.

and 9.

placed

said about

Whoever

zeal

Mkh.

is

is

of

is

indus-

labour, 9 3

s*

Mkh. Mkh.

he 53. 72.

ZOIiOASTRIAN ETHICS

88

remains fresh

in wealth."

God has

created

dilii^ence

the

the

**Be

'^'^

work of the Creator

ned.""^ **One should pass his

bidden

as

should, as

known that

it

(by

directed by him,

is

contin-

in industry

life

Dasturan

the

By

world for work

Dastur)

one

;

irrigate the land,

promote the growth of vegetation, and endeavour

under

his

conferring other

direction,

do the deeds

to

blessings on

the world

;

one

should follow a noble occupation and not

a

mean one; and one should not be idle."^" From diligence arises skilfulness and ultim'* We, men,, ately prosperity and power. ^'^

ought

to toil

hard for the personal gratification

of the pious people and for

and

joy

thanks-

^'Idleness should be swept

giving to God."^'^ out of the world."

^^^

In the Sad Dar, persist-

ence in one's own work and punctuality in

its

Man must

be

performance are insisted

on.

continuously employed on

then

the work becomes

his

own work, and

his own.^^'^

duty and good work, which

''Every

'requisite

it is

to-

perform, they should accomplish while within that day, and not postpone for the morrow." 9 5 !>fl

9

7

Dk. 1.53. Dk. VII. 495. Dk. IX. 034.

^» Dk. XII. 0(5. i>i> Dk. XI. 1-2. 1'^" Dk. XII. 47.

i«i Sd. 259. i

<>

2

Sd. 344.

^^-

CHAPTER

VI

TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT PURITY AND IMPURITY The

virtue

reverence

great

According

to

truthfulness

of

by

the

was

:

held

ancient

in

Iranians.

Herodotus to speak the

truth

and bend the bow constituted the most

essential

Love

of truth

parts of the Iranian education. is

closely

light

;

connected

with

purity and

love of

while falsehood belongs to darkness, to

Ahriman.^

Amongst them

Herodotus,

falsehood

(the Persians) says

passes

for

graceful act, next to that comes of debt, and, in truth,

most

dis-

notably for the reason

that the debtor necessarily lies in addition. ^

a

the incurring

is

obliged to speak

Herodotus says the ancient

Persians had no markets, because these would lead to the practice of deceit.^ 1

2

3 Herodotus I. 153. Rapp. pp. 313-4. Herodotus I. 138. Cf. J. H. Moulton Early Zoroastrianism p. 397.

ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS

90

In the Acestay this virtue

condemnation of

the constant '

lie

•of

or (leceitfulness,

'

the

Anita

The

;

Druj

lie.'' it

is

for truth,

and

who

'

the

'

demon

opposite

of

in all its forms.

a wicked one

is

'

thus opposed to draj.

is

derived

''

The

unto Mithra brings death unto

lies

much

the faith-

hundred evil-doers could

as a

v/orld,

'

the very

the whole country, injuring as ful

opposite the

its

Draj

denote a wicked man. Mithra stands

to

ruffian

the

embodies wickedness

epithet (Iregvant

from

'

taught most by

is

Break not the contract,

do.

Spitama, neither the

one that thou hadst entered into with one of the unfaithful, nor the one that thou hadst entered into with one of the faithful

who is one of thy own

faith.

For Mithra stands for both the faithful

and the

unfaithful."-^

tic

because

it

This passage

is

characteris-

exemplifies the respect for truth

which the Zoroastrians were expected at all times

and

in all relations.

local, provincial,

It

tribal or sectarian

held good for

man as such.

nobody must

lie,

to cherish

was not a matter

;

it

''Unto whom(Mithra)

neither the master of a house,

nor the lord of a borough, nor the lord of a town nor the lord of a province." Otherwise Mithra 4

Y.S.

XXX.

8.

-

Yt. X.

2.

TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT

principle of falsehood takes in

having

deny

to

neighbour sion."'

Down

man who

robs the man.

lent

lying " is

etc."^

absolutely

the the

the

the thing and

steals

house

keeps in his

property,

There are

and

breaks

to wit,

:

This he doeth everyday, every

word-contract, contract,

his deed

in the world

it,

long as he

neighbour's ^

his

''He that does not restore a loan

necessary.

ov\rn."

any

in all business transactions

night, as

from

for

who knowingly

the deed of men,

to the

(

there the pain

shall be as hard as

Honesty

no one make

received

the ox or garment in his posses-

)

''

are strongly

life

It is said ''Let

discountenanced.

the

Minor forms which the

town, the province.^

bold

borough,

the

asunder the house,

l)reaks

91

as

though

it

six types of contracts

hand-contract, field- cojitract.

word-contract,

he

his

were his

the If

shall

a

;

the

man-

man

give as

the amount of the hand-contract. The hand-contract is cancelled by the sheep-

damages

^contract

and

so

on.^*^

And

not

only

the

breakers of the contracts, but even his relatives

to a certain extent are involved in his crime.^^ 6 7

Yt X. 17. Yd. lY. 46.

^

9

Yd. IV. Yd. lY.

54. 1.

i

"

n

Yd. lY. Yd. lY.

2-4.

5-10.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

92

Arda Viraf rewards were attached

In the the

to

practice

penalties

shown

are

follow

to

from truth and honesty.

walked

The

all

departure

truthful speaker

splendour with

in lofty

and severe

truthfulness

of

great glory. ^-

" Every one -who speaks correct and true,

honour and know." *'

who,

in the

falsehoods"

had

and ashes with it

tongue

his

was forced

a bushel

when

because

many

spoke

world,

A man

worm.i''

I

But the soul of a man

^^'

to

lies

and

gnawed by a measure dust

and gallon and

to eat

in the world he " kept no true

bushel, nor gallon, nor weight, nor measure of

length

he mixed water with

;

dust into at a

grain and sold

them

wine and put to

the

people

high price and stole and extorted some-

thing from the good."

wicked

man who

in

^5

'^This

is

the soul of that

the world kept back the

wages of labourers, and the shares of partners; and

now the soul must suffer severe punishment." The soul of a man was gnawed with worms for ^"^

having

committed perjury and extorted wealth

A man

from the good.^because he 12 1

^

AV. AV.

''

was torn by demons-

kept back the food of the dogs of

162.

14

203.

1

••

AV. AV.

176, 199.

ic

173, 19").

i "

aV. AV.

178. 180.

TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT shepherds and householders."

The same was

^^

man who had

the case with a

93

removed the

'*

boundary-stones of others, and took them as

own."

his

The giving

^^

condemns a man

severe

to

evidence

of false

A

punishment.-^

man was suspended by one leg in the darkness of hell, for a city " was confided to him for administration, and that which was

proper

to

do and order, was not done and not ordered."-^

A

man's eyes were scooped out and his tongue

cut away, because his

was

justice, in

*'

the

world,

and he took bribes and made

false

false

decisions." -

Similar emphasis

is

placed upon truthfulness

A man

in the other Pahlavi literature. live

according

*'One

is

ciples

supposed

of

truth

the

to

principles

of

should truth. -^^

according to the prin-

to act

when he behaves truly and own souL" -^ The assert-

sincerely towards his ions

of a truthful

upon.-^

That man

man is

can

be

venerable

the promises that he has made."

ent

in

-^

most relied

who

"fulfils

''Be consist-

your thoughts so that you command

the confidence (of people). Be truthful so as to 18

AV.

181.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

94

be trustworthy."

-"

Falsehood

by truth/^ "Tell not fulness

Do

double-dealing.

''

other words

not

man and

on

and

worthy

true

condemned.

man

according to the him.''^''-

'^

him round." stealing."

soever

^^

so

to

one

Men

are

and

insisted

terms of your

Take not anything from

him

"Prevent your **

is

in

Requite a trust-

a thief or give not anything to '-

^''-

(

hypocritical

theft

contract with

)/'

Honesty

facts.

<'

doubly

one thing

say

another to another

conceal

Truth-

^^^

hypocrisy or

with

not speak

by the devil to be

taught to

do

subdued^

to be

is

anybody."

compatible

not

is

lies to

but bring

hands

from

Break no kind of promise whattarnish your good name.'"

as to

^^

"That land is the happier, in which a righteous man, who is true speaking makes his abode "^^-^ Truthfulness

which

is

enables

reckoned the second good work

man

a

to

heaven.

attain

-^^^

Abstinence from falsehood and promise-breaking

respectively

are

thirty-tirst is

dubious regarding 2 7

An

Atni. 5.

2H

Gs. 20.

2 9

An Atm. An Atm.

^"^

the

good works.""

••

i

'^2 'A.

7.

•«•»

•^

all

and

the

false-hearted

man

thirtieth

A

things, good or bad/^'^

An Atm. An Atni. An Atni. An Atni.

5. o.

•'• •'>

•-•

8.

^7

S.

-^

Mkh. Mkh. Mkh. Mkh.

27. 7.S.

75. 53.

TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT Truthfulness

95-

on the whole a safe habit.

is

'*In

keeping oneself untroubled, the discreet speaking which

Fairness in *'

Do

path of truth,

is

good,"^-^'^

business transactions

is

essential.

in the

is

all

from the wealth of others;

not extort

own

so that thine

For

said that

is

it

own

w4io eats anything, not from his

but

industry,

human head

holds a

human

another,

froixi

brains.'"

^^

pleasanter which

regular

and

eats

better

and

hand,

''That wealth

is

collected by honesty,

is

not

*He

:

one who

like

is

his

in

may

industry

regular

become unheeded.

and

one consumes and maintains with duties and

good

works."

honesty

better than

is

which

'-'Poverty

''^

opulence which

As

the treasures of others

opulent,

who

the w^ealth

is

a

man

through

is

to

much

of

from

him who is when

wealth,

not produced by honesty,

is

is

though

he takes trouble in duties and good works and righteous

gifts, his

good work

own, because the good work the wealth

is

abstracted."^-

is

80

" has acquired wealth by crime, glad

of

it

39 4

thereby,

Mkh. Mkh.

that

then not his

his

is

for

whom

him who

and becomes

pleasure

13.

4

Mkh.

41.

12.

4^ Mkh.

42.

1

from

is

worse

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

^6

him

for

imhappiness."

than

misappropriation

is

sin

of

the twentieth in point of

and that

heinousness,

The

"^^

of

theft

is

the seven-

teenth.^^

We

meet with

shall

and detailed

a broad

treatment of the virtue of truthfulness in the

A

Dinkard. or

contradiction between expediency

The ''

to one for the particular

what appeals

something eternal

and truth as

attitude praised

and hurtful truth

)

(

to

iind

And,

any time, be spoken."

"^^^

is

very injurious still it

),

at

if

untruth

Iind

still,

man who

it

speak the truth

venient and beneticial,

the

moment

perceived.

the reverse of casuistry.

must be spoken.

men should

holy

is

any place holy men

If at

is

it

(

the

any

place,

very

con-

must never,

''Be

it

known

hopes

far-sighted

at

that

to be

saved from damnation by being in the good graces perfect

of the

Almighty on account

veracity, his proper sense

his fidelity

to plighted word.""^*^

or plighted word should

of

his

of justice,

''A promise

not be spoken,

nor

A detinition "And truth is

should obligation be forgotten.""'" of truthfulness

is

oriven here. o

4.»

Mkii.

4!j.

^> I)k.

4 4

Mkli.

7-2.

-10

I.

L'7.

Dk. VII. 427.

^7 Dk. IX. 643.

TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT this

9^

whoso speaks anything speaks what he

:

ought

speak and speaks so with caution as

to

though God and the Ameshaspends stood near behind him

listening

observing him."

"^^

'^

The

best thing

is

falsehood."^^

and the worst thing of the

unity

essentials

whoso having ( his )

;

and pious

"The

Nor are we

life is this

tamper

justified to

with truth for courtesy's sake.

One's

^'

own

tongue should not be trained to be polite (serve) falsehood."

From

to

^^

the above quotations

it

can be clearly

inferred that deception or druj in all

and shapes should be given up. falsehood

:

from

return into

to

it

this

is

and word

cast out the druj entirely

body would not allow

the body."^^

truth

is

(of morality)

that ycu should keep (your) thought

and deed entirely true

and

utterance

his

to

its

forms

Evil

or

man by Ahriman or Harm is done to all people

implanted in

is

"

the evil principle.

through the deceitfulness of the Deceiver." ^2 ^<

you

If

force out falsehood

jour body

will

delivered (from hell)." 48 Dk. 4

9

7

Dk.

XL XIL

0.

40.

5

5

from

your) body,

(

improved and your soul

be

1

^3

'^

And

Dk. XII. 3L Dk. Xn. 59.

all

the physical

52 Dk. 5 3

I.

22.

Dk. L 53

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

98

danger that originates in the body, because of the residence within

Giving

of falsehood."-^''

who promulgate as

among people

uttering

power

evidence

and

-^"^

" Those

the bad religion cause such

caused by

is

does so

of the

coining are condemned.

counterfeit

evil

false

it

coiners

money

of

by

lead in place of gold, or

by alloying gold with lead."

^^

All attempts at

misappropriation of others'property are distinctly

"Wealth should not be

immoral.

is

obtained

(so)

will

passage

which

suggests

committed even this

is

:

mine.*"^^'^ is

grossly

for

by

that

the

following^

theft

"

in intention.

One

^^'

And

may

be

robber}^

whoever speaks about the wealth which

not his

is

be ravaged."

robbery in

asked to avoid

is

realized

because that (wealth) which

acts

sinful

own,

thus,

Theft

is

<

a

*

Would

that

it

capital offence.''*^

dishonest in a priest to take

were It

money

performing some ceremonial and then to

omit

it.

and not

**

And he who

perform

shall take his

his ceremonial,

is

money, just as

though he had abstracted from the angels and the righteous guardian spirits, S4 Dk. IV. 239. -.5 Dk. IX. 029.

66 '^-

Dk.

I.

5 8

51.

Dk. XII.

and destroyed^

52.

"'»

Dk. XII. 3. Dk. IX. 629.

TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT as

much

propitiation

would

as

possible from that ceremonial."

9»

have

been

^o

in

The same emphasis on truthfulness continues ^' The possession later literature. of truth

is

the one power of the

through the

faithful,

The many kinds

singleness of truth.

of false-

hood, which must become confused and mutually

many, are

affecting to

in the

one source of deceitfulness." to

the

take early to

from

aggregate,

^^

*'

It is

necessary

speaking of truth and

doing of justice and to maintain oneself therein, for

nothing whatever

better

is

Owing

kind than truth created this world,

among manHormazd

to truth

and that other world and

truth has remained on the spot and on account of truth is

One

becomes pure

it

hood."

^-

*'

man

That any agreement and promise

they make with any one to

truthful

better than the whole world speaking false-

and

perform

many it is

things

it is

bring

may go

to

to

necessary so far

pass.

Although

harm by means

of

it,

not desirable to perform that agreement

with duplicity." of promise'

)

^^

It is a

Mihir-druj (a 'breach

and any one who commits

6

Dd.

6 1

Sg. 120.

243.

6 2

Sd. 323.

^3 Sd.

287.

it

ha&

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

100

the heaven closed for

even

to

man's

a

The

him.^'^

A

children.

taint extends

breach of

a

covenant between two persons with no witness to

God

except

it

the worst sin.^^

abstain

to

requisite

is

is

•

^'

A

**

There

liar

from

strictly

falsehood- and falsehood

no hereafter

It

abstinence from

great

speaking

has to

thief

lose

men

they are

necessary to practise

is

committing theft and

A

taken.

may

thief

be beaten

;

^'

double the amount of

property he has stolen and a robber has forfeit a fourfold

^

speakers of

anything from mankind by force."

seizing

A

*'

is

Aharman."^^

the

for

falsehood and in the midst of

contemptible." 6^

It

the chief of sins."

a co-operator with

is

is

*'

amount

may have

to

of property he has his ear cut

while a robber

may

oft'

and

be killed."^

PURITY AND IMPURITY It

might be said without much

tradiction that the virtue most

A

of purity.

tutes

:

**

praised

is

that

rough definition of what consti-

moral impurity

sentence

fear of con-

To render

is

given in the following

the soul full of blemishes

fi4

Sd. 287.

C7 sd. 322.

<•'«

Sd. 288.

<••«

Sd. 822.

cc Sd. 322.

C!.

Sd. 320.

7o sd.

.S2G-7-8.

PURI'rV M^T> IMPURIO^Y

101

there are evil understanding, deceit, injury to purity, apathy, pride, scorn, evil passion, slander,

adultery

this

has

physical

down

and

idleness."

reference simply

Very often

^^'^

freedom from

to

Elaborate rules are laid

pollution.

Vendidad, regarding the purifica-

in the

tion necessary in case of the places where deaths

have occurred, and where a

given

has

All the passages relating to

birth to a child.

physical

woman

show the great attention

cleanliness

paid to sanitation and hygiene in those days. It

was clearly recognised that cleanliness

A woman

part of godliness. as a

woman

and work

intercourse

is

;

ordinary social

forbidden to her

then after some time she

may wash

with dead bodies

position

)

rushes

go a process

7

very

a

man

of purification

other things

Vd. V. 50-59

;

Contact

decom-

upon a man who touches a

Such

should then under-

known

as

Bareshnum^

become unclean through 7ia Yd. VII.

0a Dk. IV. 233.

7 1

and

dangerous for man.

nasii (or the infection due to

dead body.-^^

Many

is

and

;

herself

be restored to her normal position. ^^

The druj

a

with child has to remain quite

from other persons

isolated

is

in her menses,

XYI.

8-12.

6-7.

.

102

.*.

:

:;:Z:01^'0vl^*I^KIAN.

this infection

;

hence these two must be cleansed.

Certain things

can be well cleansed such as

vessels of gold or copper

or

ETHICS

while vessels of clay

;

wood cannot be cleansed

such sacred elements as

at

fire

Further,

all.'^

and water should with impure

not be polluted through contact things such as a dead body.'^^

The

earth

must

not be rendered unclean and for this reason

dead bodies should not be buried nor

The Earth

feels

sorest

the

grief at

burnt.''' '*

place

whereon stand most of those Dakhincis on which men are deposited."''' Such things

corpses of

as a bone or

hair should

pollute the earth.

not

be

allowed to

The ground whereon dogs

men have died shall lie fallow for a year.'^ ^' He who should pull down Dakkmas (graves)..

or

and deed are remitThe ted as they would be by a Patet."'^'^ *' on a down bodies of the dead should be set

his sins in thought, word,

place,

where they know there are always corpse-

"^^ eating dogs, and corpse- eating birds.

In the Arda Vimf, we find that the breach of the above rules brings with 7 9

7 3 7

4

Vd. VII. 73-75. Vd. VI. 26-41. Vd. III. 8-9.

it

severe penal«

7* Vd. VI. 1. 7 6a Vd. VII. 51. 7 6 Vd. VIII. 10.

PURITY ANi) Impurity after

ties

Water and

death.

103

are

fire

to be

looked to with care and reverence, because they

The woman who threw hairs from her head upon the fire had her body gnawed by noxious creatures.'^

are instruments of purification."

A man

was forced

mankind,

of

own body and

and refuse

flesh

" brought

he

and dead matter

refuse his

the

to eat

because

to water

and

bodily fire

and

men and

those also of other

;

he was always carrying the dead alone, and

was polluted

he also did not

;

wash himself

in

this occupation.""'^

The same <*

fire,

ideas

recur in the later Pahlavi

In the Dinhardy

writings.

is

it

water and the earth

written that

should be kept pure from

fragrant and air should be kept

all

noxious substances and things liable to decay,

owing

that

to

men

them

from disease and pestilence."

may ^°

*'

not

sufier

People should

be admonished to remove to a distance from the

house, dirt arising from keeping birds, sheep

and goats *'

lest

men

should be injured thereby." ^^

One should keep away from the

"there 77 7 8 7 9

is

a dead

AV. AV. AV.

man

or

a dead

155; 162, 163.

so Dk.

176.

8

177, 178.

8 2

1

place where

dog."^1.

42.

Dk. VII. 437. Dk. IX. 648.

The

ZO^IOASTKIAN ETHICS

104

intimate dependence of the purification of the soul

upon the cleanliness

nised

the

in

is

ranked as

operation

an

recog-

is

"A

Manushchihr.

Epistles of

washing which

body

of the

not religiously ritualistic

among

the

is

useless

The extent to which physical purity insisted upon may be seen from a passage

ones."^-^ is

such as the following declared

that

purified, is

when he

not able

it is

is

body

LOt

is

wash

him,

good works by thought,

to seek

word or deed, and

thereby

is

it

whose

thoroughly

they

until

As

'' :

not able to purify his soul,

then a matter for the truly wise to seek

even for purification of the soul by the purifi-

The

cation of the body."^''

considered in the

the Sad DaVj esteemed. tained

women, honour for the

*'

life

of

first

man

the sanctity of

If the

fire

is

not

pregnancy becomes

in the vicinity of the

men, and there

their words. "'^

«3 84

purity. fire

"^^^

scarcer

is

main-

for

king becomes

EpM. EpM.

is

the

and less

no approbation of

All dead matter It

In

highly

is

properly

male children are born,

fewer

abomination.

is

thing to be

requisite

EpM.

is

a veritable

"to

284.

8 5

285.

»« Sd. 271.

303.

demolish

PURITY AND IMPURITY

10^

the habitation, house. ••and abode, of au}' one

who has eaten dead heart

body and

out of his

scoop out his eyes."^'

beneath the ground.

and

matter,

No

necessary

it is

corpse

to fetch his

Such matters

^"^

water on the

and paring

feet,

of nails are insisted

Menstruous women should be avoided.

remnant remain

of her

food

of

is

her loses

any

its lustre. ^°

No

She must

use.

of three

at a distance

steps

least

at

A

thing looked at by

It is

not proper for her

from a righteous man.

to

of personal

not making

cleanliness as washing one's face,

on.^^

to

hidden

to be

is

put a bare foot on the ground.-^

Thus purity

is

and the

understood in the most

to be

comprehensive sense,

including

internal, physical

and

spiritual

words and deeds. In

of thoughts,

or purity in the spiritual sense

man

to cultivate

is

" Holiness ness

is

is

for

is

purity

a basic conof a

the highest good.

to life, the greatest good,

that

is

;

holiness

good

the spirit of righteousness.

man

happiness."'- " Purity

thustra,

fact,

The main aim

cept in Parsi ethics.

external

the

in the

is

for

man, next

that purity,

religion of

Holi-

Zara-

Mazda

8 7

Sd. 336.

8 9

Sd. 312,317,275.

9i Sd. 333.

8 8

Sd. 294.

9

Sd. 302-3.

»2 Yt. XXIII.

for

8.

— ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

106

him who

cleanses

thoughts, words,

his

and

own

with

self

deeds.""''

*^

May

good

all

my

actions be performed in the Divine Righteous-

Holiness

ness."^"^

is

acquired through good

thoughts good words and good

''Purity

deeds.""^

has been called the best quality of the soul and

by

man

a

it

With is

saved from hell."

is

-^

this exaltation of the idea of holiness,

connected the idea of the intrinsic superiority

of the spiritual

goods over the goods of the

One must not suppose that as the mundane things are highly appreciated by the world.

Avestan and Pahlavi writers, this ethics was merely utilitarian in the narrow sense of the

Far from running

term.

spiritual qualities of

down the higher

men, Zarathustra evidently

places the utmost possible emphasis

And

upon

these.

the proper sense of proportion was observed

in estimating the relative value of the material

Thus

higher virtues of man.

things and the in a passage in

the

Haptan

Yast

we

find

:

-^*We sacrifice unto Khshathra-Vairya (excellent

power) fice

;

wc

sacrifice

unto the metals

unto Mercy and Charity."-'

9 3

Vd. V.

9 4

Ys.

»5 Dk.

21.

XXVIII.

2.

9 6

I.

It is

20.

Dk. VIL454.

'•>-

;

we

sacri-

here clearly Yt.

II. 2«.^-7.

PURITY AND IMPURITY

the

worship of brutal force

that

indicated

by us

thing to be desired

sole

lO"

;

not

is

not

is

it

from such spiritual virtues as

to be divorced

charity.

This conclusion can be

amply confirmed by

a survey of other writings.

mercy and

Thus

we

one of the fragments,

in

following passage

"To

:

treasures

obtain the

forego not the world

of the material world

For he Avho

of the spirit.

the

find

the

to obtain

treasures of the material world destroyeth the

world of the the

spirit •

• •

•

• •

Li^ht nor

Celestial

Ahura Mazda."

'^

"^^

man

is

dust

who,

-dust

performs passage

and the horse

the

world

praises

and good

duties

..this

and

spiritual

Passages

world.

in other Pahlavi

the

kingship

and the wealth 9 8

dust,

of

as

ideals

of

it

the

that

superiority

TdFr. 90-93.

*'

AV.

out of of

abound

Nay even

this

of

accompanies 9 9

those

type

the

kings

This

^^

brings

above

writings also.

of

and

piety,

works."

very significant

very forcibly the measureless

moral

is

and the body

he alone mingles not with the

in

is

be ye aware also of

silver are dust, ;

me

Paradise of

the

And

this, that cattle are dust,

and gold and

neither

shall possess

it

203.

world

will not

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

108

last

but the deeds of frasokereti

;

done by one

in his

and

lasting

or charity

)

be ever-

The

wealth

same kind as those

''of the

is

(

will

^^0

indestructible."

of the world things,

good times

good or bad which one finds

in sleep,

but which disappear as soon as he awakes from

Body perishes; hence

it."^^^

souls

A man and

men

that '^

must consider

body

his

to be the

not proud of your

that

for

tiies

from tree seat

their

virtue.^*^^

an inn

receptacle of his

wealth

to tree

on any."

soul

''Be

his own/'^*^^

wealth and

world's

this

permanent

for

this world to be

and must make good deeds

world,

is

it

should do deeds of

goods in this is

like a bird

and never has

From

^^^

The

the ultimate triumph of virtue over vice. *'

ultimate

value of virtue

is

its

this follows

so great

and so

Ghanamino into obscurhim miserable." ^^^ In the Menuk-i-khratj we encounter many passages infinite that

ity

and

it

will sink

make

which breathe the same

spirit.

" Thou shouldst

not become presumptuous through any happiness of the world is

;

for the

happiness of the world

such like as a cloud that comes on a rainy day^ 100 Gs.

3.

10

12.

1

Gs.

102 Gs. io» Gs

30. 34.

io4 An. Atm. io« Gs. 29.

6.

;

PURITY AND IMPURITY which one does not ward

off

109

by any

Thou

hill.

much arranging the world-arranging man becomes

world;

shouldsfc not be too for the

spirit-

Thou shouldst not become presumptuous through much treasure and wealth

destroying.

end

for in the

it is

necessary for thee to leave

Thou shouldst not become presumptuous

all.

through predominance

;

end

the

in

for

it

is

necessary for thee to become non-predominant.

Thou

shouldst

presumptuous

become

not

through respect and reverence

;

for respectfulness

does not assist in the spiritual existence. shouldst,

not

Thou

through

become presumptuous

great connections and race; for in the end thy trust

is

become presumptuous through

not

death comes upon thee at

he

Thou shouldst

on thine own deeds.

is

the

more

*'

last."^°^

unforeseeing

who

life

In

;

for

wisdom

does not

provide for the spiritual existence, and attends to the worldly one."^^^

'^

In heart he

is

the

more seemly who abandons the worldly existence and seizes the spiritual one and by his ;

own

will accepts righteousness as a yoke."^^''

The

spiritual aspect

of existence

is

distinctly

recognised and assigned the place of superiority loe Mkh. 16,51,80.

io7 Mkh.

67.

los Mkh.

77.

Z0K0A8TKIAN ETHICS

110

the

over

material

Sad

the

in

principle of the religion

is

''that

Dar.

One

thou prefer

the friendship of the spiritual existence to that of the worldly one,

the

spirit

precious; on

the world

thou

and consider the things of

world as contemptible and those of the

let

is

tliis

account the glory of

sought with

the spirit escape." i^'»

S.l.

329.

scorn, ^^'^

and do not

CHAPTER

VII

THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS

A

state of

marriage was regarded as highly

important by the Iranians, considered even as a sacred

Thus Ahura Mazda

duty.

sented as saying " The far

man who

above him who lives in continence

keeps a house

is

far

is

repre-

has a wife ;

he

is-

wha

above him who has none

;.

who has children is far above the childless man he who has riches is far above him who he

;

has none."

^

Hence

it

was considered a great sin

either to allow maidens

to

grow up unmarried

The worst deed is when they keep which hostile a maiden from marriage and immure her as "Every man that has a an unmarried one.-

or to prevent their marriage.

men commit

material body should regard his as a good

And

work incumbent on him should

he 1

Yd. lY.

promote 47.

»

A't.

the

own marriage to

perform

marriages

XYI[.

59.

of

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS Through the marriage

Others."'

come

A

related to each other

father

is

to incur

said

enable a daughter

excitement.^

to satisfy

the cap-

her menstrual

Prayers for marriage are common.

To give

powers.^

for

husbands

assistance

to

to

the

them good unions

co-religionists in securing for is

be-

who does not

attained

Maidens offered their prayers higher

men

tie

contentedly/

live

sin

who has

having a son

ability of

and

In the Vendidad, we

a very meritorious act.

find that such acts are considered as atoning for

Hence we

sins.'

find that such

philanthropic

Parsi organizations as the Parsi Panchayat help

the poor Paisis with

From

poses.

money

for

marriage pur-

the above quotations

it

may

be

concluded that marriage was mainly recommend-

ed because in the

place,

first

increase of population

and

it

tended to the

also because both the

found the fulfilment of some of their

sexes

highest capacities in a married of having

many

children

is

state.

The duty

always laid down.

and complete (my Yasna) to women who have many sons and to prosperous home life, which continues with-

*'And

I

celebrate

those of the

a 3

G09.

5

Dk. Bk. VIII. US.

IX. G40.

c

Vt. V. 87

Dk. IX.

4 J)k.

;

XV.

39-41.

7

yd. XIV.

15.

THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS reverse

out ness *'

Vanguhi

the great Ashi

those

libations

is

be

will

to

me

dried out,

or

which are sent seed

Barren-

deprecated very clearly in the Yasts.

is

And

of

throughout the year."^

113

said

' :

accepted

either

None

by me,

by a man whose

by the courtesan who

produces untimely issues

by young boys

or

;

who have known no man.' " ^ This is the worst deed that men and tyrants do, namely, when they deprive maids, that have or by girls

'^

been barren bringing

for a

long time, of marrying and

children."

forth

A man

^^

marry and niultiply his progeny. strive for the increase of

"Frequent

her.''^-

A man

women, to

in like

repetition is

s

9 1

act of

and beget a

to

espouse

child.

And

manner, should have a longing Children are deemed

espouse a husband.^'*

other

the

of

in to

an act of great

necessary for various reasons but for the

One should

should endeavour

a wife in his youth

should

progeny by going

propagating the offspring worth." ^^

"

^^

particularly

delegation of one's functions to some

individual and

Ys. 1.6. Yt. XVII. 54. Yt. XVII. 59.

for

securing access to

11 Gs. 28. 1

2

1

3

Dk. IX. Dk. IX.

1

637. 639.

4

Sd. 278.

ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS

114

heaven.

adoption

one

to

is

legitimate

a

If

child

recommended,

whom

*'

wanting,

is

If there

and there be no provision of a child the creator has

commanded him

make some one of his soul

priests

and

relations

adopted son for him.^^ serving wife and child

results

for

him,

son of his own, as a friend

a

child, ^^^

without any son, real or adopted, the

occur

that he should

and should receive a

every duty can be delegated."

of

be any-

may

sickness from heaven

if

from

*'

to

it

because

If

he dies,

is

the duty

appoint

an

any one has a

If

the acquisition of a male her,

is

it

suitable

for

adoption by that person."^-

The marriage-age the age of fifteen.

^^

Further evidence of the

absence of early marriage fact that

was attained at

of girls

may

be found in the

maidens are often mentioned as pray-

ing for suitable husbands.^"*

It

is

confirmed

by the words of the ritual, in which the pair show their consent after " truthful

are asked to

consideration." It is interesting to

how

the match was

Very often

the

17

Sd. 316.

i» Yt. V. S:

i«

Vd. XIV.

brought about. I* Sd. 279. 18 Sd. 280.

note

15.

parents

or

— THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS arranged

the guardians

Women

the marriage

sometimes took the

At

matter.-*^

initiative

marry with mutual consent. of both parties.^^

woman,

avail

^'

you wish

If

the

the friends

to

marry any

yourself of some choice as your

go-between and propose

him."

in

Often negotia-

made by

tions for marriage were

affair.

two parties often

the

present,

115

to the

woman through

22

Let

us

what

inquire

allowed general

influence

Sometimes

deciding

in

the

Business motives often

choice of the parties. prevailed.

considerations wer6

it is

not love or sentiment,

but practical necessity which dictates mxarriage

way

b}*

of atoning for certain

But as Dr. Geiger points

transgressions.^^

out, a higher idea of

marriage as a union based upon mutual love

was not altogether

singer addresses the of marriage in these shall both seek to

only thus will

it

The

lost sight of.

young

priestly

parties at the time

words:

" In piety you

win the love of each other,

lead

you

selection of the wife or

to joy/'

-^

In making

husband some

special

2 1

Vd. XV. 9. Pand-namak-i-Aturpat-i-Maraspandau XLII.

2 2

An. Atm.

2

3.

^3 Vd.

XIV.

15.

2 4

Ys. LIII.

5.

:

ZOKOASTKIAN

116

1<:THICS

considerations are to be looked

O

may

find

offspring

a

;

^-^

Mazda."

Mind,

-"

''

and

intelligent

him they

much ways, arts,

and

also

a giver ii

of

an a

is

in

various

known comforts

other well

himself,

;uid

brilliant,

of (other)

and moral

hurtful

and

a

people."-'' (lualifica-

should possess beaury, strength,

energy, swiftness, tallness, bright clear

eyes, long

arms and small

«- Yt. XV. 40. Ys. Lin. :i

s"

^«2!'

to

to

highly skilled in the

intellectual

tioMs, a husl);ind

to

and

"He

gain- causing

the customs

liesides these

•'"

ot*

give

sweet-tongued, gives

remover of injurious

fearless

rejecter of

virility,

is

full of resources,

is

things,

is

will

daughter

man."-"

learned

happiness,

ready-

most devoted

is

your

husband who

delightful

learned,

Righteousness

to

Marry

and

long,

thou Pouruchista,

husband who

Good

the

all life

wise, '*

thou young daughter,

thee as thy

as

us well

will treat

husband."

tongiied

O

husband, young and beautiful of

a

us

give

:

virgins

Grant us

'*

Vayu, who dost work highly, that we

who

body,

Vayu, saying

prayer to

otter a this,

The

to.

^"^

heels.-'-

^''^

Qualities

An. At 111. 7. i)k. n. mi.

Yt. XVII. ±J ^t. \'1II. l:5;in.l 14: Vl. XIV. 17. Zavatliustra aiul Zaiatlin:^iriai.nsni in llie A vesta. :

p.

21

:i.

THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS

11'

The quality

desired in a wife are mentioned.

most essential in a bride was that she must be quite chaste before marriage. ^^

and homage

to

offer praise

the house-mistress, holy and

We

guiding aright. to

"We

and homage

offer praise

woman promoting good

the holy

thoughts,

words and deeds, receiving her instruction well

good

Purity,

^-

a strong body, a beautiful form, a

birth,

well-shaped

a

stature,

tall

"

husband

to her

and obedient

a

breast,

slender

and such other physical qualities are •' Let your love ever specially appreciated.^^^ waist

woman and

be for a fore-sighted and modest

marry such a one alone."

whom

worse with

"

with pleasure, ^^^ disposed,

" Choose a wife that one

is

good

;

3

1

virtuous wife

who

good who

"Women

spected."^^ four kinds

A

:

who

of character

is

in the

end

is

live

well

not good, and bad Vend. XIV.

3 2

G. IV. 8,9.

3 3

Visp. II. 7

3 4

An Atm.

3c

Mkh.

;

4.

is

;

because

more

;

;

and neither good

Yt. V. 127. Yt. XVII. 3 7

re-

not bad, and

15.

3 5

^^^

are necessarily of these

good as well as bad

41.

the

is

possible to

good helper of enjoyment."

a

is

That wife

not

is

it

-'"^

Mkh. Mkh.

69. 10.

11, etc.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

118

From among

nor bad. is

not bad and

is

manage household and comfort

these any

good should be selected

and

aflfjiirs

to the

to give

to

happiness

master of the house."

should not be taken

prostitute

woman who

a

as

A

^^^

wife.^^

Other factors such as those of race and faith also entered into the matter.

'^

It is

apparent

that difference of race cannot secure an advant-

ageous condition to pass

life in,

connivance at

defects, similarity of thoughts, participation in

benefits or

other, for

injuries

and contentedness over what

some women

(owing force

occasioned to one or the

to)

them

earned

is

in spite of the ability of,

;

and

lack of courage in their husbands, to

purchase more articles for their use

than are necessary and, failing to obtain these

from their husbands, domineer over them,

show

off their superiority."'^^

Men

should

tie

to

the

knot of marriage with believers in the religion, so that strength

might accrue to them and

to

the people of their race for deliverance from hell

by means of prayers and devotions to

From

the

Avesta

it

God.''^

evident that

is

woman

occupied a position of honour in the system of 38 Dk. 11.77. 3« Dk. Hk. IX. 211.

*« Dk. 11.98. 4

1

Dk.

II. 91.

THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS Iranian *

She was styled N'mano-pathni

life.

the mistress of the house

;'

was called Nmano-paitij house

'

as the

A

and perform

estate

Women

wife might priestly

it

declare

it

As man

and put

unto others who

The

it."''^

''

it.

souls

'cuid

it

woman

may

together in the next world/"

company

Husband and

into

let

practice

act according

fravashis of pious

and women are praised together. often in the

or

and perfectly anything good,

really

or her

and teach

men

They live Ahura Mazda is "^^

of female Yazatas/^

wife are to behave respectfully

towards each other. 4 2 43 44

manage

functions/'*

are entitled both to receive the highest

education and impart

to

the

of

be equal or superior to

tries to

her husband in love/^

him

master

She sometimes chooses her

ing to his sphere.

knows

while her husband

*the

She has to perform household work, husband performs other duties pertain-

husband/' she an

119

The

first

essential in con-

Yt. XV. 40. Ys. LIII. 4. The Airpatistan Avestan fragments.

Quoted

in

Zarathustra and Zarathustrianism in the Avesta. P. 214. 4 5 Ys.

XXXV.

4c Ys.

XXVI.

4

7

6.

7-9;

Vd. IX. 42; Ys.

4? Ys.

XXXVIII.

XXXIX. XXXIX.

1.

2; Yt. XIII. 155. 2.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

120

jugal

life is

mutual

Zarathustra's advice

love.

and bridegrooms

to brides

is

" Let each one

:

cherish the other in righteousness

unto each shall the home

life

tender treatment of wives

is

husbands.

cause

tution

misery. ^°

great

A

'^^

enjoined upon the

husbands of

Terrible

thus alone

:

be happy."

evil

consti-

Much

regard

should be had for one's wife and protection " One's

should be given her.^^

aged

should

relations

must not be allowed "

^-

fort."

to

own

wife and

and

kept happy,

be

remain without com-

One should be loving

to one's wife

and

guide, but one should not be excessively fond of

them."

whom

'<

5^^

one

The

is

wife of one's

choice

Wives

the

tinore

of

much

forward

"And in

to )

nijSforardliness."^'*

husbands and co-operate with them in designs.

e.

affection

should be obedient

return

in

i.

by the marriage ceremony

tied

should always be treated with

and without

(

to their all

good

we sacrifice to the holy woman,

good thoughts and words and deeds,

receiving her instructions well, having her hus-

band

as her lord."

*» Ys. LIII. »« Gs. 15. 4

1

Mkh.

67.

5.

^^''

-^s

**And

I

summon

Dk. Bk. XII.51.

*3 Dk. Bk. XII. 61. 'i*

Dk. IX.

637.

the

woman

-s G. IV.

9.

THE ETHICS OF 8EX RELATIONS

121

advanced in her holy thoughts, words, and deeds>

and well lord."

subordinated,

obedient

A woman

wives.

atmosphere

the

in

whose

ruler

her

is

Cruel punishments are reserved for dis-

-^°

was

because

suspended " scorned

she

her husband and master, and cursed, abused

and defied him."'" refuse

eat

eaten

much meat

Women

A woman

was forced to

the

she

in

world,

the}^

concealed from her husband.

^"^

broken promises

husbands

their

to

had stayed away from their husband,

and been

never

contented " These

cohabitation. -^°

and granted

are such as

personally obedient and do service

unto

had

were thrown head downwards because

they had

and

because

the

husband and

father and mother."

^°

the

Here

child is

:

no

must be the wife

unto

the

a picture of an

woman from the Zoroastrian point of view: The woman who is young, who is properly disposed, who is faithful, who is respected, who ideal ^'

is

good-naiured,

who

enlivens the house, whose

modesty and awe are virtuous, a friend

of her

own father and elders, husband and guardians, handsome and replete with animation, is 1

5 «

Visp. III.

5 7

AV.

4.

172, 187.

«8AV.

196.

AV.

191.

«»

soMkh.

78.

;

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

122

over

chief

associates." to

women who

the

A

^^

She should

her husband.

say to her husband, so that

I

for thee,

may

What

"

think them

so that

I

may

;

fold her

arms and

are thy

thoughts,

what

necessary

speak

necessary for thee so that

may

I

As the great sanctity

it

of

it

is

and what

;

first,

was

life

all violation of

was looked upon with great horror. wails thrice:

is

"^^

do it?

married

held in such high importance,

Vanguhi

own

her

are

wife should be all obedience

Ashi

about the courtesan

who who

destroys her fruit ; next, about the courtesan

and

for the

brings forth a child conceived of a stranger third time she says

men and

worst sin that

tyrants

when they deprive maids, barren

for

long

a

*' :

time,

that of

This

do,

have

entreated

to

hurl

her

that what gives

''who

Jo/ti,

faithful

Him

mixes

her

and the unfaithful,

6

1

Mkh.

fi

5

Sd. 320.

108.

6 3 « *

Haoma

Jahi

is

Ahura Mazda

the greatest pain

in

and

mace against the

harlot of lustful wavering mind.^"^ personification of adultery.

the

been

marrying

bringing forth children."" The Yazata is

is

namely

the

seed

the says

is

the

of

the

of the worshippers

Yt. XVII. 57-60. Ys. IX. 32.

THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS Mazda and the worshippers

of

made to

is '*

fly

of the Baevas^

and the righteous."

of the wicked

123

away when the world

^^

The Jahi

progresses. ^^

Lead not astray the thought of other wives,

for

by so doing your own soul

very sinful."

ments

will follow infidelity in

woman who

become

will

In the next world severe punish-

^^

had

married

committed

life.

adultery

A was

to hell.^^ The man who had seduced the wives of others was stung by serpents.^^ Wicked women who captivated the eyes of the men of God had to eat the blood of their own fingers.''^ " Thou shouldst

suspended by her breast

an abstainer

be

because

all

from

the

wives of others;

these three would

become disregard-

ed by thee, alike wealth, alike body and alike soul."^i

In the

spoken of as a harlot

is

Dinkard adultery

sin.^^

Any

is

woman

is

woman.

Vd. XVIII.

woman

''That

will.

6

62.

e« Vd. 6 7 e 8

But

regarded innocent when the act

committed against her

should be considered free and innocent 6 *

often

considered equal in point of heinous-

ness to that with a menstruous

the

is

connection with a

XXI. 17. An Atm. 6. AV. 171, 188, 194,

9AV.

195, 197, 200.

191.

^ i

AV. 192. Mkh. 12.

7 2

Dk. IV.

7

who

233, 237.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

124

has committed

who

is

man."

The Dadistan-i-Dinik,

''^

Dahak was

adultery; ''and by control

it

all

put an end

is

with son occurs."""^ sin,

A

is

case

refers

other

or '

is

sort

and without the

of

living

Adultery

thing,

will

the intercourse,

a

paramour

excitement of

a

to various types of

its

death in the

7

3

Dk. VII.

7

4

Dd. 217. Dd. 228.

7 «

birth. 441.

^'^

:

daughter,

or

sister

'^

A

to

father satisfy

daugrhter/"

murder such

woman through woman through

the woman's swallowing a drug and its

It

or of speaking thus

go in unto thine.' "

who harbours

Adultery leads

my

as the death of a child in the

just after

a very

is

bargain in adultery.

unto

in

menstrual

the

intermingling of

sin of giving a girl for a girl,

the

I too,

sinful

disturbed,

is

reprobated in the Dinkard which

Do thou go

while

commit

worse than theft or spoliation. "^

to a

about

''

is

to

first

lineage

authority of the husband an

heinous

faithless

says that Vadak,

the

to,

but

aid from

from the

save her

to

the mother of

son

stranger

proved to have received no

people

other

adultery with a

its

murder

Sexual intercourse with

7 7

Dk. Bk. VIII. Dk. Bk. VIII.

7 8

Dd. 229.

7 6

66. 66.

THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS an

woman

infidel

grounds. course he

'*

as

is

who

125

is condemned on special The committer of the illicit inter-

unobservant and grievously sinlul as

own

shall lead his

child from his native

habits and the good religion into foreign habits

and

infidelity

may commit

as to the sin

;

childhood he

in

and as that which he

is

equally

with

rape on

from causing a

the

is

may commit

it

sinful

from

abstain

which that child

it."

-^^

another's

woman

sinner,

manhood One should

in

occupy a separate

to

One should

bed from her husband. ^^

and

wife

avoid adultery on this ground

''

strictly

through

that

everyone who beguiles the wife of another,

and commits iniquity

with her, that

woman

moment, unlawful as regards -^ her husband." The wife should crave pardon

becomes, in

a

or death at the death of her husband, If

strange

men

water,

it

woman who

a

case.^^

"'

will

takes

make

into a

diminish,

it

look at a tree or shrub, the fruit

become scanty, and a righteous

man 7

9

man

diminish Dd.

229.

8 6

it

if

sd. 305.

if

river

of

she take a

of the

trees

she speaks a word with

will It

with two

consorts

look

a

in that

make is

the

glory of the

necessary to kill si

Sd. 324.

8 2

her

Sd. 325.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

126

sooner than a biting serpent and similar crea-

and wild

tures

harmful to

my

beasts,

because she

(God's) creatures."

more

is

^^

has

a woman in her much condemned. When a man intercourse with a woman who has

the

whites or sees the blood, he becomes a

Sexual mtercourse with

menses

is

"

Peshotanu.^^

or sees

Whosoever

with

intercourse

blood,

shall lie in sexual

woman who

a

no

does

has

whites

better deed than

he should burn the corpse of his own

man who had an

The

if

son."^-^

with a

intercourse

menstruous woman had the impurity of the

woman

discharged into his

natural intercourse

man who

a

there

sin,'

it

;

it

ment

unnatural

nothing that can cleanse from

and

for ever

which there

ever.'^"

is

The ninth Fargard,

about " the devilry,

no atone-

" Of the sins which

people commit, the unnatural sin heinous."

'

is

the most

Yathais,

8 4

8»Vd. XVI.

Sd. 331.

Vd. XV.

7.

•«

is

the blighted destiny, the

complete pollution, the grievous stench, 8 3

For

nothing that can pay, nothing

a trespass for

'^"^

un-

All

jaws."^^

severely prohibited.

voluntarily commits

is

that can atone, is

is

AV.

170.

17.

the

^t vd. VIII. 27. s's

Mkh.

71.

THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS

127

heinous sinfulness, and the annoyance to

all

spiritual and worldly virtue of the sodomite."

Another part of the Dinkard

is

^^

concerned about

" the vicious desire of the performer and permitter of unnatural intercourse; also their violent lustfulness,

heinous practice and corrupt, pol-

luted bodies, blighted in destiny destruction

their

they

see,

of

life in

;

great through

the things which

and every greatness inevitably provides

them a merited death

;

as great in sinfulness,

Azi-Dahak, in oppression, as the serpent

as

in witchcraft as Tur-i-Bradro-resh, the

Srobar,

Karap,

destroying the righteous and as a

in

deceiving apostate in falsehood. "^°

The grievous

sinfulness of wealth acquired through unnatural

intercourse

is

mentioned.^^

the Dadistan-i-Dinik that

who

first

of males ''

It

is

showed

to the

It

is

related

in

was the Viptak

it

males the intercourse

and the way of destroying the

seed.^-

necessary to practise abstinence

from

committing or permitting unnatural intercourse.

For

this is

there

is

religion,

the chief of

sins

in religfion

;

no worse sin than this in the good

and

it

is

«9 Dk. Bk. IX. 185. » «

all

Dk. Bk. VIII.

111.

proper to

call

those

9 1

Dk. Bk. VIII.

9 5

Dd. 218.

71.

who

ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS

128

commit

of death in reality."

worthy

it

should cut

the heads or rip

off

of both parties in the

commit the same

four-footed females

One

Dinkard.^^

with

cerned

''

the

is

'"^^

who wants washing, with her who any

or

Penalty

sexual intercourse with a

to

other

of

not

those

con-

pregnant or the

wife with a child at the breast.

attached

in the is

who have

those

of

sin

debauched a woman who

they

just the

Dinkard

part of the

bellies

sin of defiling

mentioned

also

is

is

it

The

as that with man."'^"^

up the

And when

women,

with

sin

*'

act.'"'

One

^^

is

is

woman

a foreigner

authorised

for

intercourse.'^^ It

been

has

writers that

*'

by

some* European

polygamy was once prevalent

The testimony

Persia. to

asserted

of the Greeks

is

in

quoted

Thus Herodotus says

support this view.

:

Each one of them marries several legitimate

wives and acquires for himself yet several more

cannot

be drawn

themselves.

from the religious records

Thus Dr. Geiger thinks

that a

S7 Dk. Bk.VIII.162. Sd. 26S. Dk. Bk. VIII. 72. » » Dk. Bk. VIII. 100. See Kapp. Religion and Customs of the Persians,

»3 Sd. 267.

«f'

9 4

«<•

sd. 261. «•!

definite conclusions

Rut very

concubines."""

pp. 208-300

:

Heroa.

I.

135

;

Strabo,

p.

733

etc.

THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS passage in the Vendidad the

of

III. 3. ('* in

women and

righteous,

129

the house

children

are

present in rich abundance ") implies the exist-

ence of the state of polygamy then. wives

may

be meant sons' wives

But by

also.

It

may

be that some rich people contracted marriages

with

such

many

At any

wives.

custom

now,

nor

rate there

in the religious records that

indication

no

is

any

there

is

clear

was

it

once prevalent,

A

problem of special

nection with

the

importance

Iranian

marriagfe

question of the Xvaetvadatha or marriage.'

meaning maintain

between

in

'

con-

is

the

next of kin

The quarrel here rages round the

Some western

of the term.

that

it

nearest

once

scholars

meant the marriage betw^een

relations,

and children and brothers and

modern Parsis maintain that

it

parents

sisters. The means and it

always meant marriage between

first

cousins.

The evidence adduced by the former deserves some examination. In the first place, the foreign

the

on

writers

existence

of

such

Secondly, there are to

the

custom

in

have

Persia a

testified

custom

unmistakable the

Pahlavi

in

to

Persia.

references writings.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

130

Thus

in

Nash

"

:

o-iven

woman

And

in

Fargard

21st

the

this,

that

too,

marriage to a

to another

man who had was seen

woman the

some

tion.

And

snake.

reverence

In the Arda-

The

references.

soul of a

contracted a next-of-kin marriage

in the

enjoyment of a splendid

woman, who

the soul of a

was

marriage

next-of-kin

is

even so as a

man, by him who teaches

unto father and husband."

Viraf, there are

daughter

a

father,

the daughter and the other dtie

Baku

the

of

posi-

violated

attacked

by

a

^^^

Arda Viraf had married his seven sisters. The next-of-kin marriage was the second of the seven good works

fourth

point

in

classes of sins.

^^-

of

^^^ ;

its

dissolution

among

heinousness

The

was recommended because

it

The custom

it.

tends to preserve

the purity of race, to increase the lity of

husband and

to

prevent

wife,

Mkh. 10* Mkh. 10

1

^^^

and

26. 71.

compatibi-

increase

to

the

Another motive was

perversions of faith.

loo AV. 197.

the

third book of the Din-

kard contains a long defence of

affection for children.

is

thirty

^^''

From

the

i»3 Dk. II. 91. 10* Kevayat. Tr. West. Vol. XVIII. S. B. E. p. 416-7.

THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS

complete progress

next-of-kin marriage arises

world luito the time of the renovation

the

in

131

of the universe.

Then

^^^

marriages were not

said

is

it

that such

uncommon among

certain

other peoples of the world.

But

it

is

maintained that

there are no passages which

^^^

the nature of the relationship.

didad,

it is

said that those

in the

clearly

who

Avesta^ indicate

In the Ven-

carry the dead

must afterwards wash the hair and bodies with the

urine

men

or

of

cattle

or

draught oxen, not of

women, except the two who have

formed Xvaetvadatha,

But from

^°'

passages the nature of the marriage gathered.

As

regards

foreign authors, is

it

it

evidence of the

the

not in perfect agreement

with

the

it

Persian

The Persian Revayats are

meaning of next-of-kin marriage;

means marriage

thus summarises

of

first

cousins. Louis H.

the situation

astrianism never advocated

it

by non-Zoroastrian Persians; at least

these

cannot be

cannot be accepted when

writings themselves. clear about the

all

per-

;

:-

it it

->'

Gray

Pure Zoro-

was practised was advocated

during the Sassanian and early Arab

105 Dd. 225. 107 Vd. VIII. 13. loe Ys. XII. 9 Visp. III. 3. G. IV.

8.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

1.32

periods by a Magianized priesthood to

have been a theoretical

the

religious

period ideal)

;

it

and

ideal,

political

;

it

situation

of the

was constantly resisted (even as an

by a large-and doubtless, ever

ing-body

appears

prompted by

of the faithful

i«8

ERE.

;

it

increas-

has disappeared."

VIII. 458.

^^^

CHAPTER BENEVOLENCE

OTHER VIRTUES

:

Zoroastrianism

weH

of

Charity

moral

Kindly and piously the faithful, be is

well

I

it

life

is

as

to give

ever so

for the

poor as

one of the naain conceived

unasked

little of

to

here.

one of

one's riches,

"

of.

Mazda

?

with the Righteous Order, and

Mind

AN^D VICES

What then is your What are your riches, may become your own in jny actions spoken

kingdom, that

a gospel

is

as the rich.

essentials

VII

to care for

(

thy

)

Good

your poor (in their suffering.)"

He who admonishes one

for his

good

is

a gift to his religious faith in the love of

^

offering

Ahura

Ahura Mazda will give the most prosA perous life to him who gives gifts to men.^

Mazda. ^

man or a woman, who knows ly should declare 1

Ys.

XXXIV.

5.

it

a

the duty thorough-

and inculcate

Ys.

XXXIII.

2.

it

3

upon those

Ys.

XLVI.

13.

;

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

134

who may perform

it

as

it

^

is

^'

Never may

I

stand as a source of wasting, never as a source of withering to the

Mazdayasnian

body or of

for the love of

good-will extends to

We

"

universe.

all

villages, not

The

life."^

spirit of

good beings of the

worship the souls

;

those of the

tame animals; those of the wild animals; those of the

animals that live in the water

of the

animals that live

those

the

of

running ones

Thus

it

flying

entirely

is

ones

those

;

the

of

grazing ones."^

those of the

;

those

;

under the ground

within the

comprehensive

range of the Zoroastrian sympathy to love and reverence the beings of the animal kingdom.

But the range all

the waters

;

is

wider

we worship

pray for th^ joy

still.

all

"

We

worship

the plants."

'

"I

and comforts of this country.

I

pray for the health and happiness of you, holy

men

;

I

pray for a thousand blessings on him is

heaven."^

''

good and lives between earth and

whosoever

I

pray for the freedom and glory of

the entire existence of the holy (man) while I bless

it,

and

I

pray for the repression and shame

of the entire existence of the wicked."*^ 4 Ys. *

XXXV.

Ys. XII.

3.

6.

Thus

6

Yt. XIII. 74.

«

Ys. LXVIII. 15.

7

Yt. XIII. 79.

«

Ys. VIII.

8.

;

BENEVOLENCE

135

the whole existence becomes the

sphere for the working of

But

charity

is

mere passive sympathy

not

active helpfulness as well.

it is

same

appropriate

human sympathy. '^

If

men

either friends or brothers

faith,

of the

come

to

an agreement together that one may obtain from the other either goods or a wife or knowledge,

him who desires goods have them delivered to him let him who desires a wife receive and wed her; let him who desires knowledge be taught the holy word." ^° The spirit with which let

;

all gifts

should be doled out must not be cynical,

but joyous. Zarathustra,

Thus " Woe to him, Spitama who gives alms when his soul is

not joyful over almsgiving

;

for in

alms

lies for

the corporeal world the decision for good

all

thoughts, and good words and good deeds."

Charity

is

inculcated in

Morality

Pahlavi literature.

private individual concern,

others

to

between

as

well

as

man and man

mutual good- will.

1

2

Gs.

5.

1 1

it

is

forms in the not a

mere

refers essentially

oneself.

All

relations

are to be regulated

by

Virtue requires charity as

an essential ingredient. ^^ le Vd. IV. 44.

all its

^^

That man

is

most

LXXXIV. (tr. C. Bartholomae Altiran, Worterbuch.)

Nr.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

136

venerable

who

you enjoy use

it

to

up

stores

acts of charity. ^^

in charity. "^"^

"Be always charitable

you may secure your place

its

and meets

it

on the way

alms-giving.

''

to

of a

heaven, describes

among which

special virtues,

that

in Garothman."^^^

The maiden who represents the good deeds soul

" If

any extent the power of wealth,

And alms were

she mentions

given by thee

him who came forth from near and him, too, who was from afar." ^^ The man who to

provides lodging accommodation for the

and secluded and traders heaven, ^^ "

He who

is

is

said

to

sick

arrive in

very rich should use his

superfluous riches in supporting (ochers) and in other

tions."

good deeds pertaining

to

higher rela-

*^He who at his doors gives to the

^^

pious dervishes food and water enough to supply their

obtains

wants,

return."

^*^

**A

man

among men through

an

excellent

gets

respect

is

-^

"

An

exalted final is

for

21

13 Gs. 31. 14 An Atm.

4.

16 i7

Mkh. Mkh.

An Atm.

6.

is

Dk.

ifi

and glory

through charity and charity

exalted final life."

in

charity by which the world

becomes easy and happy." life

thing

19.

73. 75.

II. 73.

i* Dk. VIII. 454. »o Dk. VII. 468. «i Dk. VIII. 458.

an

BENEVOLENCE But

discriminate

is

it

137

which

charity

preached here. The right arm of help

is

not to

is

be extended to the lazy or the improvident or the undeserving.

It is

the

'

faithful

who

'

are

constantly referred to as the worthy object of

''He who relieves

charity.

"And

Ahura king."--

poor makes

the

that gift

the more

is

unprofitable which they give to the unworthy."

"Those who deserve patronage

the poor)

e.

( i.

^^

should be patronised as one's own; and

they

if

are not satisfied with such patronage, then they

should be admonished."-'^

opened

for the

way should be

''A

happiness of worthy and excel-

lent people, for the

good of the

devout people and

(

for the

follower of the good religion, to preserve himself against

(rigours) of possible

summer and

souls of the

every

relief of)

who may be unable hunger,

winter."

-^

thirst,

"As

one should not partake of food

after feeding the

The following

needy."

and

far as till

-^

four quotations are significant

because they illustrate the nature of the attitude to

be adopted towards people of other religions

in

matters of charity. 2 3

Vd. XIX.

2 3

Mkh.

82.

2.

''

If

he who

Dk. VII. 437. 35 Dk. IX. 638.

3 4

2 6

is

a dervish

Dk. IX.

638.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

138

(

man

a poor

or of

)

be also a

man

no honest motive, then,

be given religions,

too,

of evil religion

anything might

him as a gift." -^ <' People of evil who may be in danger of suffering

from hunger, thirst and cold, should be saved from these (hardships)."-^ give

an

who

infidel

is

and medicine

clothing

;

It is

the custom to

not a foreigner food,

but

wealth,

horses,

accoutrements, wine, and land should not be

Men

"

given to foreigners and idolaters.-^

of

the good religion should give something to a

man

of different religion only in case of

necessity,

lest it

should be given

become as

a sin."

'"^'

extreme

No

to vicious people; Avhich

further their evil desio-ns.

help

might

"Different thinors are

not to be given as means to the vicious. "^^^

The higher manifestation and

the

from

it.

and wife ness."^2

of charity

love

is

co-operation or mutual service born,

Zarathustra advises the young husband to

'^

love each other throuo^h ricjhteous-

"When men

love

and

one

help

another to the best of their power they derive the greatest pleasure from loving their fellow-

men."^^

This love or good-will shows

2 8

Dk. XII. 11. Dk. IX. t)38.

«9

I)(l.

9 7

197.

so sd. 282. 1 Dk. XII. 62.

3

3 2

Ys. LTII.

o.

3 3

itself

Dk. VIII.

454.

BENEVOLENCE in

such

virtues

different

139

or

liberality

as

generosity, sympathy, hospitality, peacefulness, patience, good temper, courtesy and disinter-

The power

estedness.

us

affords

the

comfort.

greatest

millennium every one

generous

of

persons

will please (his soul)

(following) the path of generosity. ^^

formance

most

two

generosity

generosity

Charity

holy

The

are

to

liberality

itself

as

also

"The miserliness."-''^ of the generous man are

^'without

a heart has the light of the

The generous man

fire

*'

pertaining

exhibits

heart and conscience

warm and such

good,"^^

higher order

of a

and love."

are

qualities

excellent

intelligence

by

Among

'^

speaking of thanks and per-

doers of deeds of

the

In

^'^

exalted

is

Liberality however should be

among men."^^

shown towards the deserving

only.

When

*'

they provide any munificence or liberality, is

necessary

worthy

that

they

provide

As

regards

that

provides any munificence for it

is

called a vain

advantage. "39 3 4

Gs. 18. 35 Gs. 29.

work and

Liberality

it

person

the a

shown 3 8

Dk. IX.

39

Sd. 291.

Dk.

who

without

to the

14.

Mkh.

37

it

the

unworthy,

gift

II. 71.

3 6

for

worthy

555.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

140

is

spoken of as one of the four principles of the

religion of Zarathust/^ liberality

For the exercise

''

grand, in such manner as

is

and pleasanter, on which a

manner,

in like

man

liberal

wind that blows upon a

manner

man and

man

for the

moon

sun,

shine upon a liberal man."^^

He

says that

has not been able to

any recompense and happiness that are

suitable for a liberal

Again He says

"

:

persons

unworthy/'

;

except a blessing/^

for the sake

who provide

them something

man

have created the supreme

[

heaven of heavens liberal

those

for

better in

sits,

cow and goat that a liberal

for the

stars that

Hormazd find

ground

for the

man, better

liberal

and pleasanter

eats,

of

better

walks, better for the

the horse on which a liberal like

it is

and gloomy

who

of

any

worthy

for the

hell

for all

is

anything

give

of the

and give

to

the

''•^

Other qualities which How naturally from the attitude of good- will

who has sympathy concerns.

^'^

4 1

not averse

Hospitality should

panied by self-praise.

4

is

"^^

*'He

to

be

unaccom-

is

hospitable

who

Sd. 329.

4 2 Sd. 342.

4 4 Qs. 12.

Sd. 342.

4 3

4 5

Sd. 343.

He human

are also extolled.

Dk.

[I.

72.

BENEVOLENCE

141

and entertains

towards the good

with what has been given him

endowed with higher good men of his ing It is

the

at the

for the host to

approach

Arda-Viraf

it is

and thirsty

food,

wards

to

task."

^^

Some

details regard-

forms of hospitality are also given.

customary

seat

regarded as

is

than the (other)

gifts

city.""^^

(his guests)

of a

rise

guest.

from

his

In

the

"^^

stated that to ''give the

the

is

make enquiry

of

hungry

and

thing,

first

after-

him and appoint

Menuk-i-Khrat gives a

his

description

setting forth the details of hospitality extended

As soon

as

it

enters

angels of every

man

righteous

to the soul of the

angels and arch-

the

it,

description

and ask him questions.

paradise.

iii

come

meet him

to

Ahura Mazda

says

that no questions should be asked but that he

should be seated upon an all-embellished throne.

The Shah-Kamah inferior in rank, if

the two were

to

meet his guest. ^^

mony

is

says

that

host

the

the guest

if

saluted

was

him,^''^

but

the host went

equal in rank,

A

'^^

state of peace

and har-

preferred to one of enmity and discord.

''With your elders and friends do you 4« Dk. VIII. 455. -17 Vd. XIX. 31.

4

8

4»

AV. 153. Mkh. 21.

I.

-5

••*

i

live

on

234 and 257.

11.

12

and

58.

ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS

142

Do

terms of peace. possible,

is

keep

not submit to and

at a distance

from

all

nurse feelings of anger and enmity against

He who

has the wealth of patience

He who

finder.5^

A

no miser. speaking

who

speech,

A

and

behaviour towards

be excellent.

"

millennium. ^^

do or speak

prominent

desire in the

gains a bad injurious to

than

He his

at

anj^^body let

in

acquire

will

time of the

to

our fellow-brethren and

do

reputation,

).''

your deed or

-^^

good

to

Pahlavi writings.

human

others

the

men

Whenever you have anything to

broad interest

an active

(

?

in

good

all

A man

^^^

speech be sweet and civil."

A

Who

'*

sweet

courteous,

is

the habit of

is

suavely.^'^

our greatest affection

friends by his courtesy,

to

fault-

and a great respecter of persons. "^^

man's

should

good disposition

courteously

extremely

is

you."^^'

possesses a good disposition

command

should

it

such as

no

is

if

them

A

who deems

interests to be

A man

should

are

person actions

more just be

most

anxious to do disinterested good to his fellow»2

An Atm.

1

;

BENEVOLENCE The wishing

brethren.

one

of happiness for every-

which are great and good good

for the

these

"

desires or

others

;

He

kind regard

soul

among virtue

towards others

pleased with

is

a

whose

in

well disposed

is

and

;

the works

classed as the seventh

is

works.*^^

dwells

among

the sixth

classed as

is

143

and

happiness of

the

thereby he becomes capable of prevent-

among men and of promotvirtue among them."^^ One

ing mutual injuries ing the union of

should

give

" to

prominence

the

virtue

of

benevolence and of taking care of others, so that

by this the vice

revengefulness

of

is

weakened and the power of the vindictive druj rendered harmless."

is

of three types

:

first,

6-

Philanthropists are

who

those

are

philan-

thropists through the love of religious reward

secondly, those lastly,

who

are so through pure love

there are those

are

known

protected ^'

who

who do good

to them.^^

in this

world

"

A

man's body

by philanthropy.

One should have regard and

affection

(people of) one's community, and should

them, and Mkh.

6 6

1

live

27.

Dk. V.

276.

6 3

Dk. VII. Dk. VII.

4

446.

6

453.

6 5

is

"^"^

for visit

with them, in one abode. 6 2

;

to others

"^"^

Dk. VII. 453. Dk. IX. 642.

ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS

144

make a wicked man holy to make an ill-formed man wise"^^ are amongst the greatest functions of men. One

" To make an enemy a friend

;

to

;

should be reverent patronize

and

of

man

towards the world

should

One

benefit to one's co-adjutors.^^

give

obligation

helpfulness,

is

and

keep his door open so that he and his

to

one

might associate with have the negative form

fellows

We

Rule

:

" That

nature only

for its

own

of these

mischief as

and

o-ood,

Golden

good when

it

not good

is

self."^^

The absence

much

another.^^

the

of

is

shall not do unto another whatever

as

and

ones

one's great

to

inferiors

one's

good qualities implies

their

expresses

this

presence

implies

in

various

itself

forms, such as avarice, anger, jealousy, slander,

enmity, selfishness, hatred, revenge, stubbornpride.

ness,

have a value

Although things

become a ground *'

The

attributes

discontented "

for the sin

of covetousness.

Dk. Vol. XI.

make men cause them to

of avarice

"^

and

7.

world

they can easily

«« Dk. XII. 31. fi7 Dk. Bk. VI. Vol. X. f.H

of this

own,

of their

14.

6» D(l. 271 7o Us. 7.

;

quite

seek

AnAtm.

1.

BENEVOLENCE shadowy good.

145

Avaricious people are repre-

The

sented as severely punished.

man was had it

'*

stretched

much

collected

wealth and he consumed

not himself, and neither gave

a share to the good

The

headlong into world, gave

<^

oven.'*'^

demon

nor

place,

nor allowed

it

in store."

^^

thrown

were

persons

" in

the

caravanserai

for

because

hell,

no

Form no

these

covetous desire; so that

may

of greediness

and the treasure tasteless

but kept

it,

nor lodging, nor space, nor baking

travellers,

the

;

some

of

souls

soul of a

upon a rock, because he

to

world

the

of

thee,

and

may

that

of

are

two

"There

unperceived."^^''

not deceive thee, not

the

be

spirit

most

evil

vices pertaining to a perverse intelligence of a

miserliness and animosity. "^^

lower order

" Whosoever

whosoever

is

is

liberal

niggardly

is

is

and

praiseworthy

despicable."

^^

"

One

should not be immoderately covetous as regards

power and wealth." science as ice,

^^The heart and con-

which are the abodes

and 7 1 7 2 7 3

10

^^

it is

of avarice, are cold

the meanness and the coldness (of

AV. 174; AV. 200. Mkh. 10.

198.

7 4 Dk. IV. 198. '^ Dk. V. 351. 7 6 Dk. XII. 56.

ZOKOASTKIAN ETHICS

146

the man) which show him to be avaricious."-'^ One ought not to be excessively desirous of

good

''From greediness

things.''^

arises

cor-

ruption and from corruption perplexity and evil "'^

heart."

''

thinks

it

world."

'^'^

That man has the worst

right If

one

man of

to

power he

is

the

in

of

spirit

of wrath

heaven.

is

'^'^

one ''

In

more seemly who, when he

indulges his wrath,

and not

A

do evil deeds. ^-

The suppression

ways of arriving

the

heart on obtaining

anger by the

subdue

should

this

cannot obtain reverence

him strength

endurance.'-^

who

Anger makes man ungrateful

and honour.^^ and gives

sets his

he

material wealth,

desires,

amass the riches of

to

commit

Jealousy creates in

is

sin

able to allay the wrath,

and gratify himself."

man

'^^

the desire of destroy-

happy condition and

teaches

ing

another's

him

to

entertain vicious hopes about others. "^°

A man

should subdue jealousy by good inten-

tions.'^'

man

is

Slander makes

most odious who

fault-finder 7 7

7 8 T->

men unworthy.

and a

Dk. IX. 555. Dk. XII. 62. Dk. XII. 69.

HO Dk. III. 129. 8 1 Dk. VII. 492.

bitter 8 2 8 3

^4 8.>

is

^"^

That

a proud tormentor,

slanderer of men.^^

Gs. 8. Gs. 26.

Mkh. Mkh.

75.

77.

8 6

Qs. 8. Qs. 26. «« Gs. 8. »» Gs. 17. 8 7

BENEVOLENCE

147

Arda-Viraf found that those, who, Jaad committed

and embroiled people

slander

had their tongues put

to'gether,

mitting slander

a

is

world

in the

very heinous

Com-

out.^°

"Com-

sin.^

mit no slander, so that infamy and wickedness

may

not happen unto thee.

slander

is

For

said that

it is

more grievous than witchcraft rush of every fiend

in hell the

is

;

and

to the front,

but the rush of the fiend of slander, on account of the

grievous sinfulness

Slander

is

one

the

of

to

is

the soul full of blemishes.^^ abstain from

slander,

not depart through .and

good works,

his antagonist

be

the

who has

A man

should

the performance of duties

so long as

of

sins.

he does not make Slander

eaten

dead matter. "^^

said to

like

is

The

Angra Mainyu.^°

" the evil

abjures

is

"Every one who

slander about any one

pride was created by thustra

render

the sin of which ''doe&

satisfied."^''"

greatest

indulges in

the rear."^-

which

vices

mind, and

obedience, arrogance and falsehood."

^^

him

sin

of

Zaraall dis-

'^'Goin-

mio no sin from stubbornness or shame. "^^^ "JSe f'« AV. 189, 174, 9iMkh;73. 9 2 Mkh. 9.

ITS.

9 3

9 ,

Dk. IV^

4 Sd. 306.

-9 5

sd. 356.

233. '

96 yd. 97 Ys.

XXXIII.

>> An

Atni.

I.

11.

7.

6.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

148

proud of and

not

indifferent to every

and every thing." °^

Hatred, discord, revenge-

A man

fulness are depreciated.

enmity by

days

hate

A man

cruel. ^^^

do

no

terrible

should not in his palmy

Harbour

anybody. ^°-

and

against

should subdue

Enmity makes men

peace.^°°

and

person

wrong

to

no revenge

any

man.^^^

Revenge, oppression and tyranny denote want of charity.

^^"^

necessary.

^^^

unhappy

To oppose revenge patience

The thought

of rendering

is

man

increases through revenge^^

MINOR VIRTUES

We

will

now

deal with other virtues and

which receive

Tices

less

elaborate

in the Zoroastrian writings than

mentis ned.

The reverence

for

treatment

those already authority, es-

pecially of the sacred beings, of priests elders, is

is

inculcated.

Much

stress,

on the virtue of obedience.

laid

that all rightly constituted persons to

be in harmony

•divine

mind, and

wishes of 99

all

in

with

the

and

of

therefore,

means

It

must

strive

dictates

of

the

due subordination

to

the

having claims upon

their reverence

MINOK VIRTUES and regard.

Obedience

terms

highest

the

constitute

way

referred to

most

the

to

beneficent

Along with the Good Mind

Ahura Mazda.^

enables us to draw near to God.- Sraosha

the will

of

God

is

who

In

practise

will

Several persons had

their

stench,

their father

souls

of

strongly

women,

reverence and obedience to their

husbands and lords

mud and

is

the

world,

other

the

an

condemned.^

strongly

In the Pahlavi writings this virtue upheld.

is

it

Disobedience or opposition

angel of obedience. to

the

in

being said to

Gathas,

the

in

is

14i^

be quite

because

well

chests plunged in

they

" distressed

and mother, in the world."

those

who had

off."

been

^

The

disobedient

unto their rulers in ihe world were likewise punished.^

Obedience

is

necessary part of a virtuous

emphasized

man

as

a

in the Ganj-i

Shayigan and Andarz-i Atarpat-i Maraspand.

A man

should not do any wrong either to his

parents or to his masters.^

Children of good

behaviour and wives who abide by the wishes of their husbands, afford the greatest delight 1

2 3

XXVIII. 6. XLIV. 16. Ys. XXXIII. 6. Ys. Ys.

* 5 6

AV. 162. AV. 188. AV, 202.

7

Gs. 27.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

150

Obedience

world. ^

this

in

parents and preceptors

respect,

listen

and

him)."^^

and act up

their words,

to

orders."

superior

(

''Love

^"^

do

not

your

be

him

''Have respect

your

Obedience in the

must

and

head

live

in

towards

(

accept

Consider

).

his

words." ^-

wishes of

accordance with the " The final

(obtained)

life is

through ready and willing obedience

and ready and willing obedience life."

'^^

the

master,

are

is

in

for

one

" obtaining the favour

:

that

God

to

God

to

deeds

Meritorious

passage described as of

man

the chief

for

to

who merit it is highly praised To obtain deliverance a man

to all

Dinkavd,

Ahura Mazda.^^

final

of

and

master

careless

your religion and community

of

orders

" Treat your father and mother with

thing.^

their

the

to

the most honourable

is

is

the

employer

whose orders one works, obedience

under

to the master,

submissiveness to the ruler, behaving respect"

fully towards everyone

duty of the child towards

its

Gs.

9

Gs. 19.

i«

An

11

14.

Atni.

1

7.

i

and ^^

to secure his

" Be

it

An Atin. 1. An Atm. 4.

i^ Dk.

And

I.

61.

known i •* i

it

is

the

and respectful

to be obedient

father

keep him pleased." «

"

^^

'

ic

love

that

among

Dk. V. 4oS. Dk. IX. 629. Dk. IV.

and

l>63.

MINOR VIRTUES deeds

the

submission kings."

men, the deed that

of

world

the

beneficial to

the habits

(

worthy teacher."

b}^ *'

is

death

not

is

or

father,

them,

mother

a sin or crime

by disobeying is

saved

forgiveness for sin.^^

;

and

if

people receive

much

and harm arising from

certainly not desirable that they

is

it

of his

desirable to distress one's priest,

disquietude,

trouble,

)

(

of his masters or lords,

obtaining his master's

It

)

The man who has become

^'^

the wages of which

commands

acknowledge

in the footsteps

Margarjan punishment

liable to

the

masters and just

disciple should

or follow

highly

is

remaining in

the

is

to one's meritorious

"The

^"

151

should give them back a reply with an aggravation.

Because their satisfaction

with the satisfaction

One should that

I

may

:

"

What

the

sacred

beinor."-o

is

your

will

think and speak and do

Obedience should be shown of

connected

therefore say always in the presence

persons

of these

of the

is

high

priests

to

the

and every

;

So

?

it."^^

commands duty

that

people perform they should perform by their authority. 17

18

*
Dk. I. 9. Dk. V. 283.

it

is

declared in the good

19 Dk. V. 271.

20 Sd. 301.

21 Sd. 302.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

152

religion that

grains

many good

they accomplish as

if

works as the leaves of the of the

or

desert,

trees,

the

or the sand-

drops

of

rain,

which they do not perform by command of the high

or to their satisfaction, no merit

priests,

whatever attains to their souls, and.

the

for

good works they have done they obtain sin as a recompense."

than one,

it

"As two wisdoms

^^

becomes

makes

therefore

enquire of the high

priests."

of age

years

fifteen

it ^^

more

expedient to *'

it

are

When man

is

necessary

that he should take one of the angels as his

own

one of the wise as his own

protection,

and one

sage,

own high

of the high

priest.

"^'^

as his

priests

In every

matter

that

comes forward, one should enquire of the wise

and

relations, so

have their advice, and

as to

not transact any business according to

own

idea

and opinion.

Frequent references the

to

humility are found in

To oppose anger man needs

Dinkard.

meekness. ^^

one's

^^

'*

A man

improves

himself

by

humility when he rises in rank by his wealth

and

good

deeds.""

''One

8 2 Sd. 266.

2 4

2 3

2« Sd. 349.

JSd.

290.

sa. 289.

should 2G Dk. 2 7

not

II. 81.

Dk. VII.

447.

be

MINOR VIRTUES sovereignty and

elated with

153

power

verily his good altogether recedes."

may

creatures,

regard

mankind

and not

in

such a way that he

of

may

because verily

towns he will be regarded as an arrogant

man and

people will be exceedingly vexed with

"

From humility God and from the

him.'^ of

;

that

best

the

as

think himself to be the best in the

A man way

should conduct himself in such a

he

because

;

^^^

spiritual belief." arises violent

arises the recognition

recognition

God

of

But from overbearingness

^^

speaking and ultimately a

loses his reputation.

man

The man who always own wisdom and

''

has such an opinion of his

good

that

qualities

intelligent

and

him,

— such

a

man

not

he

)

that he

;

is

is

is

inferior

deforms and weakens his

soul with these two vices of others). "^^

believes

is

and the other

superior to another, to

he

(

another

He who

is

(

pride and contempt

arrogant

is fit

to

be

contemptible.^^

A

feeling of healthy contentment

necessary for a good is

good which 2 8 Dk. XII. 53. '9 Dk. XII. 62.

life.

is

deemed

That act of charity

is

done with the wealth of

3

Dk. XII. 65. Bk. III. 130.

3

1

3 2

Dk. V.

331.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

154

He who

contentment.^^ is

and

wealth

and In

''^

spent in innocence

by thee ) show no sorrow Dlnkard, this virtue is

(

the

Those who are possessed of

often referred to.

the three attributes of contentment,

rank and industry, tions

with

the

quality,

when

doubt hold

without

Contentment

it

is

from

free

wanting contentment the

sown

(

mind and of

in

man )

he

is

nature,

is

If

coming world

becomes perverted of

The thought

"^^

rendered

of self-content the vice of greed

The honest

"

harmless

by

Again by increasing the virtue

self-content.

**

a good

evil seed of riches of

bereft of intellect."

injuring others

is

idleness.^^

the world and the poverty of the is

rela-

and know the

Self-existent,

necessary. ^^

is

superior

To oppose ambition content-

Self-existent.'^

ment

the

us

gives

" For things that

rest/''

cannot be obtained or grief."

the most contented

contentment

of

ease

greatest

is

life

A

the least needy.^"*

effort

is

removed.''^

accruincr from a ricrhteous

the result of appropriate habits of

contentment which are devoid of any propensity to ambition,

devoid of avarice, anxiety,

An Atm.

3 3

Gs.

11.

3c

3 4

Gs.

13.

36 Gs.

18.

Dk. 38 Dk. 3

7

1.

3 9

Dk.

II.

so.

-io

II.

81.

4

Dk. III. Dk. VII.

1

II.

lust,

84.

158.

440.

:

MINOR VIRTUES harmonious

and improved by

A

story

is

155

tendencies."

who were

told of two talented priests

drawing water from a well and supplying

work

the

of

"mobed

them accepted two

of

some one who

we

;

ness,"

a

is

them

given of

is

under

contentment

less

provided than

much

for

)

rest

Give them

•' :

better

" sinful, idle, discontented-

law-breaking

good illustration

*

(

Similarly,

use."'^^

much

is

he might need

mobeds."

of

and the

jujus,

were sent back with the words to

to

it

They were each given

tillage.

two-thousand jujus by the

Each

'^-^

courage and

ixioral

" Atropat,

misfortune.

son of Mahraspend, said thus

calamity come upon me

:

A

quality.^'*

evil

" Never has any

which

have

I

not

received with six objects of delight therefrom first ( is

that

only

)

passed

calamity

might

since worse than that

Secondly, that out of the calamities

happen.

which

my

myself that

bless

I

this,

been

have away.

in

Thirdly,

liappened not to

my

store

for

that a

soul

but

me

*2 Dk.

is

so

virtuous

has caused this

VL

424.

+3 Dk. XII.

that

to

my

the

body. I

am

4* Dk.

a

accursed

calamity unto 81.

has

calamity has

Fourthly, that I bless myself that

man who Aharman

one

11.

me 84.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

156

owing

my

to

individual

goodness.

evil

comes

me and

to

(

my )

children

me

to

(

therefore

rendered so

much

by

(

the treasures of Aharman, and he (

it

are kept

and whatever

lessens

)

but

;

children.

Aharman

of calamities for the good,

comes

my

does not reach

Sixthly, that the treasures of full

they cause

calamity that

or

reaches either myself or

every

that

Fifthly,

much

so

( is )

)

therefore

incapable of doing (wrong)

)

unto another good (man)."'^^

An

appreciation of intellectual excellence as a

factor in moral life

is

met with.

''

We

worship

the perception; we worship the intellect; we

worship the conscience." son of

'^^

Ahura Mazda,

"Give me,

knowledge

sagacity

;

quickness of tongue; (holiness of ) soul

memory

;

has

immense experience and learning

;

good

most advantageous

learned arc most

shining.'*''

most competent who Dk. XII. 35. 46 Yt. XIII. 74.

attained

is

ihe most

The companionship

eligible of men/''

46

a

not acquired

is

He who

through learn in or."'*''

is

;

and then the understanding that goes

on growing and the one that

learned

Atar,

4

is 7

;

That

the wisest. ^^'

Ny. Y.

48 Gs.

14.

10.

of the

the acts of the

*'->

-'f

man

is

From Gs.

18.

Gs.

7.

the this

MINOR VIRTUES

157

much

importance of learning, education derives of

its

Do

"

value.

not refrain from educating

your wife and children, your countrymen and

you have a son send him

to

school from his early years, for education

is

yourself."

''

^^

[f

the life-giving eye of man."

^^

^i\ j^gj^ should

try to educate themselves in a religious institution, so ihat to

know

and

(

them is

Wisdom

^^^

)

good

it

which

happens it

to

He who

than

wealth

world. ^^

of

perfect

is

rich.^^

every

the

manage and

spiritual

wisdom

in

better

is

kind

the

in

In the Dinkard, the foundations of

**

in

knowledge and

From good knowledge

wisdom, and from good wisdom disposition,

2.

An At m.

5.

^^Gs. 25. «4 Mkh. 7.

good

arises arises

and from good disposition

»iAnAtm. »•

Of

power of

Wisdom

other

(

wisdom

)

the

also

virtue are found to be laid

wisdom.

*'

through wisdom,

provide

should be considered

men

to

oneself through

foT

wisdom. "^"^

keep aloof from

possible to

is

existence

possible

existence

to

highly extolled.

is

because

;

worldly is

be able to pray (to God),

knowing

thus

the benefit

the

may

they have committed any sins

if

by

they

good arises

«»Mkh.

70.

Mkh.

89.

««

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

158

good

and from

good nature,

nature

arises

righteous action and by righteous action the

draj ^*

be

will

The source

and

of all morality

knowledge

of wise

God

originator

the

is

Creation."

from

dispelled

^^^

wise knowledge

is

wisdom and wisdom in divine

divine of

''Education

5^

world."

the

;

the

is

life

of

man-

^ind."59

Many

other virtues are referred

ation has full recognition and one of the ijolden

mean

Moderation

of Confucius. tivoid excess sin

is

and

this is

it

and of maxims

*'

The essence whereas

;

in

(

Mean

is

the mean.

x\nd from

thus manifest that virtue

is

supreme

of

the

" Everything

the Mean."^^

is

faultless

Religion,

the

^"^

and Deficiency

Excess

is

Moder-

reminded

that which would

is

deficiency.

essence of virtue

should be

of Aristotle

to.

Golden

)

Mean,

and the

this;

good thought, good

word, and good deed."^^

Every virtue has a

tendency

corresponding vice.

(Golden)

to give place to a

This follows from the psychological fact that every

man

tendencies.

fis

Dk. VII.

f'».:Dk.

constituted

is '*

These

442.

XII. 28.

,6

several

1

6 2

by

a

variety

goodnesses

Dk. Bk. VI. Vol K. 11/ Dk. Bk. VJ. Vol X. 12.

of

and

MINOR VIRTUES

159

blemishes do not subsist in a particular person

and

at

and

in every age."^^^

but in every person

particular time,

Temperance

in drinking

and eating

upheld

is

as a conspicuous form of moderation.

and bad temper

possible for good

It is

^'

to

come

to

He who is a when he drinks wine, is

manifestation through wine."^''

good-tempered man,

such like as a gold or silver cup which, how-

much more they burn

ever

and

brighter.

It

words, and deeds more virtuous

thoughts,

his

and he becomes

;

and pleasanter unto wife and

gentler

companions and

friends,

in every duty and good is

becomes purer

it,

keeps

also

and

is

work.

more

And

child,

diligent

he who

when he drinks wine,

a bad-tempered man,

thinks and considers himself more than nary.

He

carries

displays insolence,

and

makes

acts arrogantly to a

his

tresses

servant

;

own

wife

ridicule

peace,

child,

and brings

But the moderate drinking

is

72.

«*

He slave

and

the good,

of in

dis-

discord."^^

good since -fit

digests the food, kindles the vital

^^3" Dk. XII.

and mockery,

good person.

and

and dissipates the joy

''carries off

ordi-

on a quarrel with companions,

fire,

increases

Mkh. 467^ «* -Mkh.

47.*

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

160

understanding and

the

removes

blood,

and

inflames

the

In the Dinkard also this

complexion." ^^

From immoderation

**

recosfnised.

semen and

intellect,

vexation

is

arises full

heaviness, and from full heaviness unhealthiness -and

from unhealthiness death."

Gratitude

a good

is

not to be ungrateful

^^

One ought

quality.^*^

towards the good

spirits

and towards mankind.^^ One should pronounce thanksgiving

for

the

welfare

(

emanating

)

good people, but one should not curse

from

the evil people for the mischief **

work.^°

When

a

upon any one

or kindness

which

person confers a it

is

they

benefit

necessary that

the latter should understand the value of

it,

and lay the obligation upon himself; and,

if

he be able he should provide a benefit to that

amount great

that person."

for

sin

;

the

himself and

A

sinner

sense

^^

is

Ingratitude

akin to

is

Aharman

punished by him.^^

is

of justice

is

essential.

Justice

man should not take worthy man or that a learned

requires that an unworthy

advantage over a ««

Mkh.

« T

Dk. XII. 67

a

47. ;

also B. VI. V.

XII. 52. B. VI. V. XII. 49. «• Dk. II. 72.

•» Dk. XII. 63. ^ « Dk. XII. 9. ' »

Sd. 357.

'« Sd. 357.

MINOR VIRTUES

161

person should not be governed by an unlearned

man

person or a vicious

should not exercise

man."

authority over a virtuous

embodiment

the

His

Rashnu

of the principle

administration

of justice

^'

of

is

justice.

renders

no

favour on any side, neither for the righteous, nor yet the wicked, neither for the lords, nor

As much

yet the monarchs. will not

it

he who

is

equally,

and has no

turn,

a

partiality

and monarch

lord

it

and

;

considers

with him who

in its decision,

is

the

^^He who keeps his own

least of mankind.""''

and law,

self to justice

as a hair's breadth

will not then practise

own

injury to others for his

benefit

;

and

will

not do for others whatever he does not think

proper for his

own

self.""^

and impartiality

fairness

"

towards other religions.

any

there be

The same is

If in

worth

writings

to

be

spirit of

observed

other countries reading,

new,

ameliorating, good, and divinely inspired, these

should

be

And whatever

procured....

writings of other nations

not be accepted." <*

refers to 7

3

Gs. 16.

7

4

Mkh. 11

the

18. also

^^

A

is

Dk. Bk. VIII.

the

unbelievable should

section of the

advantage

in

Dinkard

from just judges,

73.

7* Dk. XII. 70. ?« Dk. IX. 605.

ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS

162

harm from unjust sentencing and

sxnd the

false

So, also, the advantage from truly

decisions.

demanding, truly answering, and assisting th& just."

The reason why

-^

Mazda, and

of -Ahura

lire

is

moon and sun

created better than the stars and

and

man

a righteous

called

is

in

revelation greater and better than the spiritual

and worldly creation,

lies in

wisdom and

his

justice."'''

An

appreciation of the

security is

found

is

in these writings.

disapproved of:

weapon

"

his hand,

in

brandish

it

it,

is

reign

[f it

man

a is

law and

of

All violence

rise

up

wir.h a

an Agerepta

an Avaorishta

;

if

;

smite a man, with malicious after-thouo-ht

an Aredus

;

upon the

a Peshotanu."

"'^

All

fifth

The

praised.

A man

desirable.

7 7

Thrift

Self-control

is

is

on a

is

very

should not submit to bodily

That man commands our greatest

^^

aft'ection

is

" Let the wrath

thrifty tiller of the soil

level with the righteous. ^^

desires.

it

attempts at employing

rapine be cast down."'^^

of

he

Aredus he. becomes

brute force are condemned.

demon

if

he actually

"

who

well represses his evil passions

Uk. Bk. VIII.

7« Dd. 11. 7» Va. IV.

17.

102.

«o Ys. «i Ys. «8 Gs.

XLVIII.

XXIX. 7.

5.

7.

MINOR VIRTUES by

sense

his

of

fear

evil

of

shame,

of

endurance,

powers

163

his anger

reputation,

avarice

his

contentment, and his quarrels by justice." '*

Cheerfulness

^^

Open-mindedness

virtues,

is

and

b}^

his his

his

his sense of )

(

a recognized virtue^

cheerfulness

whereof the opposite

(

are

)

(is) cynicism,"'^''-

manifest that mournfulness and cynicism

It is

should be done away with/'^ insio'ht

(as

by

by

his jealous}^

'^

it

ation

into

)

There

nature of the

the

makes trouble"

is

a keen

human mind

for itself

by imagin-

''One should not have

in the precept:

worry and sorrow for anything that has not

Prudence

reached him."^'= it

known

that he

is

is

mentioned.

prudent among

''Be

men who

abstains from utterino- and commitiincr the sin that has occurred to his mind.

prudent (man)

is

And

the more

he who abstains from thinking

him in desire. he who adopts ways

of the sin. which has occurred to

And

the most prudent

and means that

Want The

his

of decenc}^

Avill

is

is

may

refrain from sin,"

^^

considered want of sense.

who " walked without ran about uncovered, made water on the

souls of the persons

shoes, 8 3.

Gs, 14.

8 4

Dk. XII.

.

43.

8 6

Dk.XII.

47.

8 6

Dk..XIL.

54.

8 7

Dk. VI.

392.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

164

had

foot "

to suffer

*'

severely.*^**

possible one should not expose (the -cold

as

far

body);-"

and hot winds should be guarded

winds

And

^against.

As

besides

clean

a

this

dress,

protecting the body, should be put on according

work

to the requirements of one's

Good reputation

tion."^^ -of

praise.

It

most fragrant thing

the

is

The man «ecureth good name the world.^^

best recompense."

cultivated *'

He who

and

or occupa-

always an object

is

'*

who is

in

the obtainer of the

Good company should be

*^^

evil society

should be avoided.

walks in good society makes

business of his to injure people."

of the good

men

in

both the worlds

is

'^^

The

the best thing.-^

no-

it

society ''

One

should always be diligent in (one's) conference with the good people."

'K)ne should

^"^

•co-operate nor consort with stupid, selfish lustful

men

;

not

and

since he always comes to disgrace

and helplessness who co-operates and enjoys company with stupid, selfish and lustful men." -"^

A

life

of

public

usefulness

which people have no right 8 8

AV.

172.

«» Dk. IX. 037. »• Gs. 19.

»i

Dk. IX.

»« (Is-. •a Gb.

12.

17.

is

a duty from

to shrink.

627.

<*

To

Dk. XII. 12. «« Dk. XII. 50.

»-»

MINOR VIRTUES

men who

those wise

choose

161V

to

from

retire

the post conferred on

them by the king, or

who, in order that they

may

in content-

live

ment, give up the business or service which was entrusted to them, tain such

no

—

enter-

good notions of securing happiness,

benefit can accrue in life

ment

those that

to

(of their work)."^^

by this relinquish-

For the proper care

the kings should

of public interests,

fulfil

the

upon them.

A

king should possess certain good qualities.

He man

high obligations incumbent

must be of good

religion; he

of good conscience

;

must be a

he must possess forbear-

ance, love of his subjects, cheerfulness of heart,,

He

simplicity.

should look to the prosperity

of his subjects, promote the worthy

and punish

the wicked, do justice to people in open courts

and above

follow the will of God.^^

It is

often emphasised that above all a king

exists

all

that

governments

not peoples for

governments.

for the sake of his subjects,

are for peoples and

'*^A best

worthy sovereignty

is

(means of) protection of

sovereign

is

great

»T

Dk.

its

^^

of the

subjects.

dignified by

or

the care of his people." »« Dk. IX. 608.

the result

A.

reason of

" The learned kings^

III. 180-3.

9 8

Dk. VI. 422.

;

ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS

Jee

-of

the

with the view

State,

high degree of fulfilment

),

efficiency,

by

Divine

noble aspirations, learned, the

such

illustrious,

of ruling with a

should strive (for the Grace, as

of

new and

encouraging

the

and the churitable

being grateful towards those who are loyal to

and have

aftection for the State;

conferring of

bounty on the supplicants, and on those that -are in

solicitude

owing

to

poverty

;

gratifying

with a good and befitting remuneration annually the learned

men who may

be in constant

anxiety for having, to labour for their food and livelihood."

^9

»o Dk. IX. 009.

CHAPTER

IX

THE ETHICAL IN LEGAL KEEERENXES ZOROASTRIAN LITERATURE

IX

The main document regarding the criminal law of ancient Iran, which has survived

own

times,

the Vendldad,

is

of the Iranians.'

us

V

I

reef

e.

g.

to

our

Leviticus

the

Some Pahlavi

information

legal

writings give

Shayast

the

la

Dadisfan-l-Dinih and the Arda

the

Shaijast,

'

yamah.

Two

types

breakers

of

law —penalties

of

some main kinds. grave

punishments

they

inflicted here.

sin,^

punishment 1

2

earth

and

But some crimes are so not warded ofi' by

Vd. I. 12. Vd. VII. 23.

These are called

Among

these are

the eating

dead matter,^

and

self-pollution.'*

the burying of the dead,^ •Capital

on

for

are

^^anaperetha' 'unatonable.' the unnatural

store

in

Of the former, there are

penalties hereafter.

that

are

penalties

is

reserved 3

4

Vd. I. 13, Vd. VIII.

for

certain

17.

27,

.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

168

Margarjan' is often The term employed to mean worthy of death/ This punishment is meted out expressly in two cases. The man who carries a corpse alone and the man who pretends to cleanse one oftences.

'

'

dead matter or one infected with

defiled with

a

disease,

pestilential

without the necessary

knowledcfe, render themselves

liable

punishment. One instance indeed

where an attempt person

seems

treated

is

be

to

more

man

its

defilement

train general

affects seriously

Another punishment

only.

""

The reason

of

sort in

murder usually

disease, while

mentioned

But generally

lightly.

the

that

mentioned above brings one

this

to take the life of another

said to deserve death.

is

murder

is

to

is

the

cutting off of the hands and similar parts of

punishment

the body.

Darius

on a

But the most common punishment

is (

^

rebel.^

that of inflicting a certain

upazanas

ashfra

(

'

the

),

» «

number

of stripes

with the two implements, aspahe

whip

horse

charana (scourge). of five

this

inflicted

stripes,

)

and the Sraosho-

The lowest penalty

the

highest

is

that

is

that

of ten

Karnamaki^ArtakhshirPapakan, IX. 16-17. Old Persian Inscriptions on Mount liehistan, IL 74,

8fl.

THE ETHIC AL

IN

LEGAL REFERENCES

The crime

thousand.

or

16»

criminal deserving-

two hundred stripes are called Pesho-tanu or Tanii-peretha

(

which means 'One ), own body' and payment

Tanafur

who pays with

his

'

There are varying degrees-

with one's body,'

between the lowest penalty and Pesho-tanu.

Now many

scholars are led to believe that

it

extravagant that minor crimes could actually

is

accompanied

be

with

heavy

such

physical

punishments, and some other interpretation sought.

murder

For instance,

ten

stripes.

derived not

is

to strike, but

Hence

the

the

from Av. ''Az"

drive

offender

many

of those

tit

to be driven

so

many

term

from Av. ''Zan"' to drive.

the translation of the formula runs thus

so

is-

the

that

perpetrator the punishment

its

thousand

*'upazana"

absurd

is

water-dog could have actually

of a

brought upon of

it

Then *'

Let

away (from the country)

noxious animals,

which are

away with the horse-whip and

with the Sraosho-charana.

Thus the

community will derive some substantial benefit and at the same time punishment will be inflicted."^ Or as we see in the later Pahlavi writ-^ 7

This view

is

strongly

supported by

Civilisation of Ancient Iran.

Geiger.

The

;

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

170

ings,

punishment

the bodily

stripes are

It is

hundred and

is

fifteen

rupees

reasonable to inquire into the principle penalties

Here

various crimes.

Vendidad

the

are

adjusted

useful to

not a civil

to

remember but

code,

administered mostly

law

Hence we observe that while

the priests.

transgressions

is

it

is

includes a criminal l)y

for

hundred

therefore ec^ual to nearly six rupees.

upon which these that

remitted

considered equal to three hundred

stars or thirteen

a stripe

is

In the Revaets, two

a money-tine.

against

precepts are

religious

severely punished, offences against public order,

which are

tried

by

secular

the

tribunal

are

accompanied by milder punishments.

But we

while

homicide

arc is

still

surprized to find that

punished with ninety stripes, ihe murder of

a water-dog carries ton thousand

that affect

all

with

violations

disastrously

it

of the

the

a homicide affects one

the

punishment of

The reason seems

stripes.

to

he

hiws of sanitation

whole population, but

man

only.

The ancient

priests might have based the severity of punish-

ment

in the case of a

value for

the

general

dog upon the enormous well-being

^ittachcd to that creature.

which

they

THE ETHICAL

LEGAL KEFEKENCES

IX

171

by

All punishments are generally dealt out

But

the priests or the legal authorities. certain cases, any

man

can take the law

in

into

own hands and inflict the punishment Thus any man who catches in the

his

himself. ..act,

the sodomite, the courtesan, the highway-

man, the corpse-burner, might however, offences,

these

and non-repetition of the act

are suthcient fur him.

'^

Id ambio'uous cases where identify the ;

If,

without knowing the sinfulness of his

actions, confession

to

him.

commits

non-Zoroastrian

a

kill

offender,

it

was not easv

to

the ordeal was resorted

appealing thus to the invisible powers to

Siyavush passed through

decide the matter.

two burning piles of wood and issued safe

;

and

thus his innocence was established. Sometimes the ordeal was performed Avith boiling water.

Now

us turn to offences.

let

All

breach of

^contracts was accompanied with severe punish-

rments.

a

If

man

broke a word-contract, he

^was punished with

^ach

type,

^

if

three

hundred ^^

liiindred stripes of ea<jh type, ^

Yd. IIL

40.

stripes of

he broke a hand-contract, six

»

Vd. IV.

11.

•

If

he broke a

10 Vd. l¥. 12.

)

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

172

sheep-contract, if

with seven hundred

^^' ;

an ox-contract was broken, the punishment

was of eight hundred man-contract and a

punished

ively

A

^-

stripes.

field- contract

with

but his near

relations in all

held to be a party to the

breach of a

were respect-

hundred and

nine

thousand stripes of both kinds.

to

stripes

a

Not only he

^^

these cases will be

and

sin,

undergo similar punishment.

will

be liable

^"^

Bodily injuries also brought with them penal-

Seven types of outrages are mentioned

ties.

in

the Vendidad.

The crime hand stance

of rising

is

five stripes,

Araorishta

weapon, stripes

and

*'

he is

hundred

repetition. ^^ is

guilty

of

a

this

times

the

wTYvTls.

1

»

V(l.

IV.

14.

1

»

»

;

V(i.

IV.

15, 16.

1

«

2

but

Ten time

seventh

Here the it

rises to-

^^ for the sixth repetition.

»* V(l. IV. 5-10.

»

first

the

for

(

brandishes a

(8) A)'ednt< (wound).

1

^^

offence.

fifteen stripes at first,

two hundred stripes

first in-

reaches two

it

man

the punishment for

two

penalty

blow" when is

till

eighth time.

for the

stripes,

in the

in one's

but with the repetition of

the act, the punishment rises

himdred

''stroke.'*

up with a weapon

The penalty

agerepta.

is

(1) Agerepta

^^

Vd. IV. va. IV.

17.

is-20.

17 I

«

Yd. IV. Va. IV.

22, 25.. 26.

29_

THE ETHICAL -/4)

Xvara

IN

LEGAL REFERENCES

wound,'

^sore

thirty stripes for the

hundred

wound first

'

the

carries

Tepetition

first

is

punished

which

is

The

bone-breaking.'

seventy

haodhah

single

-"^

(6) Asto-hid

first oflPence is

stripes

and

'

tanafur

the

is

(7) Fraza-

unconscious

rendering

punishable

causing

or

The penalty is ninety stripes and repetition makes a tanafur.^^

Thefts

a

and robberies were duly punished.

The punishment

fining or mutila-

either

is

tion or imprisonment.

Theft of a dirham cost

the oftender two dirhams, one ear,

and

two

hundred

raised to two

reached on the third repetition.-^

•death.'

to

(5) For takat-vohiini ^bloody the punishment is fifty stripes for the

ofif'ence,

with

fifth

stripes.^-

stripes, for the fourth repetition. '*

with,

crime and the

punishment

17^

a slight imprisonment.--^

dirham meant a

fine of four

ten blows

Theft of another

dirhams, forfeiture

of both ears, thirty blows and double imprisonment.^''

third

The

hand was cut

right

repetition

and

dirhams was punishable by

was compelled

2 1

Vd. IV.

37, 39.

on the

hundred

hanging.-'-^

A robber

of

restore property four times

to

19 Vd. IV. 30, 33. «o Vd. IV. 34, 36.

of^

five

theft

2 t

Vd. IV.

2 3

Sd. 326.

4

Sd.327.

2

40, 42.

2 ^

Sd. 327.

ZOKOASTKIAN ETHICS

17J

i\>

much

had taken and was even

as he

if

public safety required

is

held a serious crime.

The defilement hundred

stripes

buried.-^ if

of the earth, a sacred element^

It

A

inflicted

is

on a

man who

he luiows

fails

to

be

the period extends to a year.-^ If the neglect

extends

two

to

the

years,

A

unatonable.-"^

otl:ence

becomes

penance

severe

of

state

culprit

taken

is

where he

will be

way

lonely

place,

given the coarsest food and

Avorn-out clothes. this

dry

a

to

is

The

ordained for carrying the corpse alone.

of

five

a thousand stripes,

to

rai.scd

is

punishment of

which

a corpse

disinter

to

killed^

it.-^

his neck

Mazda docs not

And is

Avhen

he grows old in

ot!'.^^

If a

cut

fasten

'

worshipper

the well, so that the

corpse eating dogs, and birds carry the bones to the water

and the

trees,

his sin

amounts

to

The punishment amounts to four hundred stripes, where a man who has touched a corpse touches water and trees without being

tanafiir.''^

a person

cleansed.-^'-

If

matter

water

to

_______

'

2 7

va.

ii[.

3(3.

2« Vd. III. 37. 2'-»

Vd.

III. :w.

and

wilfully fire,

he

carries is

worthy

so va. III. 15,21. 3 Vd. VI. 47, 48. 3 2 Vd. VIU. 104, 106. 1

dead of

THE ETHICAL Waste

de.itli.^^^

unnecessary cloth on the

of

dead bodies brings with ing from four hundred

worshippers

If the

Avhereon

do^js

Peshotanus.^^^

they shall

thousand

Mazda

of

man

Feshotanus,

are

also

for

may

they are

be there.

a

till

it

and

is

it

on

thirty

if

grease or

ground,

the

to

reaches a thousand

orround.-^-^

The man who

a house in which a nicrhts in

man

winter and a

the

The penalty

stripes."

the body or the dead dog or a

on the

-^^^

dead man, as large as the

gradually for greater and gre.iter

ment,

if

any bones^

throw on the ground a bone of

marrow How from punishment

ground

They

of the little finger

top joiuL

of

^-^

sow or

died,

dead dog, or of

rises

shall

not look on the ground

shall

stripes.

and men have

dung, urine, or blood that

hair,

a

punishment rang-

a

it

to a

withia the year, the piece

water,

if a

REFERENCES

IN LE(iAL

stripes,

man

is

when

thrown

brinc^s fire into

has died, within nine

month

in

summer

be-

comes a Peshotanu.^'^

The

sin of cooking a corpse

34 3 5 3 6

331).

Vd. VIII. 23-25. Vd. VI. 4, 5. Vd. VI. 8, 9.

unatonable and

The man who

punishable with death. '^^ ^^ Sd.

is

3 7 3 8 3i.

4

Yd. VI. 10, 11. Vd. VI. 24, 25. Vd. V. 43, 44. Vd. I. 17. VIII.

has^

73-4.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

176

carcase

the

of

-«atea

is

His barrow shall be dug out,

unclean for ever. his heart

dog or a man

of a

be torn out,

shall

bright eyes

his

shall be put out/^

penalties attached to any maltreatment

The <>f

dog

kills .thous-

of the creatures of the Evil Spirit

and

sheep

protects

-smite a shepherd's for

A

dogs are very rigorous.

ands

man

a

If

cattle.

dog so that

becomes

it

and shall unfit

work, he shall pay for the loss due to the

The

mischief."^-

means

The from

killing

hundred

penalty of eight

a

shepherd-dog

a

of

stripes.'*'

penalty as regards some other dogs varies five

hundred

to

a thousand

But the murder of a water-dog punishment

the heaviest stripes or

thousand

equivalent.

its

He

stripes

piously bring

He

shall

pay ten

godly

shall

into the fire of

it

thousand

ten

of *'

stripes.''^

carries with

and

Ahura Mazda

ten thousand hard, well-dried, well-examined

wood, to redeem his own soul

^odly and piously

Baresma

He

tie

;"

or "

He

shall

ten thousand bundles of

shall offer

up

to

the

good

waters ten thousand Zaothra libations with the 4

1

4 2

Va. VII. 24. va. XIII. 10.

*3 Vd. XIII. 4 4 Vd. XI II.

12. 4, 12-15.

THE ETHICAL

Haoma and

liS

LEGAL REFERENCES

He

milk.

the

shall

177

ten

kill

thousand snakes of those that go upon the

Other noxious creatures such as

belly."

may

waterfrogs,

land-frogs,

toises,

ants,

tor-

worms,

men

be killed, or he shall give to godly

twice the set of seven implements for the

fire,

or war- implements to warriors or agricultural

implements

the husbandman,

to

or procux'e

water for them or stables for their oxen, or he

promote marriage between the

shall

Heavy

penalties

attached

are

with

offences connected

faithful. to

"^-^

various

A

sexual relations,

worshipper of Mazda who suppresses the issue of

woman

a

Peshotanu.''^

with If a

the

man

lasciviously touch the

has the

whites

or

becomes

whites,

shall again

a

and again

body of a woman, who

sees

blood,

the

that

so

whites turn to the blood or the blood turns to the whites,

the

penalty for

the

first

time

is

thirty stripes, for the second time fifty stripes, for

the

third time

seventy

fourth time ninety stripes/^ lie

stripes,

for

Whosoever

in sexual intercourse with a

the shall

woman who

has the whites or sees blood, does no better 4* VdrXIV. *6 Vd. XVL

12

1-18. 13.

*7 V(l.

XVL

14-16.

ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS deed than

own

If the act

man

the

wilfully,

ment

he should burn the corpse of his

if

son/^

shall

thousand

of a

done by both parties

is

undergo the punish-

and atone

stripes,

by other meritorious deeds such thousands sacred

it

as killing of

creatures,

and building

offerings,

The crime a

noxious

of

for

making

of

of

bridges/'-

woman who has brought forth child and who drinks water to

of a

still-born

quench her

thirst

amounts

to a tanafur.^^^

A

man who has intercourse Avith a pregnant woman and if the pregnant woman comes to grief

becomes a Peshotanu.^^

thereby,

unnatural sin

unatonable

is

But

if it is

submitted

to.^-

penalty

is

eight hundred stripes.

deed

done with a

to

if

punishment.

if

1

Vd.

is

woman

then the

forced ^^^^

The same

is

equally liable

Va.

A'lII. 27.

^^

4 8 Vd. XVI. 16, 17. 49 Vd. XVIII. 67-74. 5 Vd. VII. 70-72. 5

it

XV.

S.

-'^

-3 Vd. VIII. ^-'4

The

voluntarily

Sd. 26S.

26.

CHAPTER X THEOTJMUCAJ. AND METAPHYSICAL IDEAS Principles of moral conduct

are

generally

rooted in philosophical and religious concep-

A man's conduct may depend very much upon his view concerning his own nature

tions.

and place

in the

universe.

The general

about himself and his relations

and

God

to

to the

ideas

universe

largely determine a man's stand-

point in morality.

The

ethical

and theological

aspect of thought being thus closely connected

with each other, the nature and character of

one

bound

is

to

intiuence

character of the other.

Hence

trianism. idea

of

This

the is

to arrive at

Zoroastrian

ethics

nature

and

true of Zoroasa

well-defined

we must

briefly

examine the fundamental principles of Zoroastrianism in their ethical connection.

Central in Zoroastrianism

God,

the

supreme

power

is

the doctrine of

dominating

the

J

ZOKOASTHIAN ETHICS

so

and

universe,

and

and prayers are

are sacred

tire

Ahura Mazda.

called

before them-, but

is

it

The sun oftered up

always understood that

these are nothing more than symbols.

Zara-

thustra preaches no worship of natural forces in the

modern sense

of

The Gathas

worship.

show that no natural object however great powerful

may

in

any way occupy

or

a position

similar to that of

Ahura Mazda.

means that there

are higher categories in the

This clearly

philosophy of Zoroaster than those of matter an d

force.

spiritual

The is

means the

It

element

as fundamental

evident.

If

the universe

atoms,

life

must be

chance.

As nature

directed,

and

also

of his

to

be

()f

ethics

something more

a chaotic whirl of

more than

man, having

impulses.

is

appears

controlled,

there seems

relation to

forces^

in reality.

upon Parsi

influence of such beliefs

than a blind play of

of the

recoo^nition

to

a

game

be

of

guided,

by some agency, so a superior eflect

power

in

upon the play

this Zarathustra

in

the

Gathas has no shadow of doubt. Mention of two powers Parsi religious writings; the

made in most Good and the Evil,

is

Ahura Mazda and Ahriman.

What, relation

THEOLOGICAL

.S;

METAPHYSICAL IDEAS

to the other

have these, one

?

"

Thus

181

are the

primeval spirits who as a pair and yet each

(They

(of old).

are) a better thing, they two,

as to thought, as to word,

and a worse

'^Yea

deed."^

been famed

have

independent in his action,

when

two

the

as to

come

spirits

at the first to make life, and life's and to determine how the world at

together absence, last shall

be

the worst

life,

(

for the

ordered

),

for the

holy

mental state."-

(

wicked

heaven

hell

(

)

the best

)

This seems to mean that there

were two powers from the beginning, the one the author of

good things, the other the author

all

But the two powers have not equal

of all evil.

Zoroastrianism recognises the absolute

status.

and unqualified superiority

of the

The

evil

omniscient and almighty.^^

He

over the

one.

evil

good

spirit is

spirit

is

not

in darkness;

he has a backward understanding; and he will not exist in future/ as

Dy

If

we

place

independent origin, evil spirit, t

«

is

impotent. ^

Casartelli sajs, the question

terms.

of

He

Ys. Ys.

is

Thus,

a question

emphasis upon the

and the capacity of the

the system becomes dualistic.

XXX. XXX.

3.

-i

4

4

Bd. Bd.

I.

16.

I.

3.

«

Bd.

I.

22.

If

:

ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS

182

we, however, lay greater stress on his

ence and ultimate extinction,

impot-

system

the

is

monistic.

The

therefore,

universe,

analysis

is

is

in

Evil

But while

it.

upon

based

which

here established evil,

of death, *'

the forces of

is

there,

conflict

ethical structure

sharp

the

Ahura says

only a temporary

evil

securely

and the

is

The whole

inexorable.

is

ultimate

its

to be regarded as the expression of

the goodness of God.

phase

in

distinction

between life

the

to

is

the

i'ood

and the forces wicked one

Neither our minds are in harmony, nor our

precepts, beliefs,

nor

comprehensions,

our

nor

our

nor our words, nor our action^, nor our

consciences, nor our souls."

The supremacy be seen from

Ahura Mazda may

of

the

^

attributes ascribed to

Ahura Mazda means

the

''

wise lord."

also

Him.

He

is

omniscient," almighty, righteous,^ the creator'^

He has no beginning and no end.'^ He is the discerning arbiter.-- He is He is self-existhe same now and for ever.^'^

and benevolent,

fi

Ys.

XIX.

7

Ys.

«

Ys.

XXXIV. 9. XXIX. 11.

15.

^'^'

» Ys. i« Ys. 1

1

Ys.

XXIX. 4. XLV. o.

XXX.

8.

12 Ys. i3 Y^.

XXIX. XXXI.

4. 7.

THEOLOGICAL

He

tent.^'*

He He

^'^

Ahura Mazda

Him

help

"^urround

Manah,

''

is

;

^^

183

kind father ^^

like a

unlimited

of

is

time and

wise and sagacious.

^"^

willing instruments to

finds

which

ministering angels,

the

in

METAPHYSICAJ. IDEAS king

like a

is

or a judge. ^"

knowledge.

.^^

—

These are Vohu six Him. Good Mind," Asha, " Eighteousness,"

Khshathra Vairya

''

wished

for

kingdom," Arm-

"Devotion" Haurvatat ''Perfection" and " Immortality." Each of these

aiti,

Ameretat,

embodies some

specific virtue

some function there

are

as

a

for sanctity

which are the

ones,"

They

are

the

sacrifices

and Geush animal

the

14 Dk. ^'

If-

''

holy

on another order " adorable ones."

People

to

offer

prayers

them and they grant boons

in return.

1

of

innumerable and embody abstract

ideas or natural objects.

and

spirit

Spentas, the

later

of spirits, the Yazatas,

Then

Ashi standing

spirits of

Amesha

we meet with

fire,

Tashan

Geush

and

Next to the

life.

also performs spirit.

Sraosha representing the

Obedience, Atar representing

Urvan,

and

guardian

I.

33.

Dk. I. 36. Dk. VII. 441.

Dk. VII. 473. Dk. IX. 594. 19 Dk. XII. 26. 17

1

«

ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS

184

Against Ahura Mazda and his angels stand

Ahriman and

He

army. Evil

death

He

as

He

independent of the Good

is

regards his

He

/''^

is

He

origin.

full

is

and the worst

a tyrant,

of

liar.

a great deceiver and leads people to de-

is

He

struction. -^^

the

is

author of disease and

But his ultimate annihilation

death.^^ tain.

styled

spirit.

spirit

demons who constitute his '* Angra Mainyu " or the

the

is

is

cer-

His followers are his creation and they

^^

They

support his cause.

are

doomed

also

to

misery and destruction. glimpses

All

ed

moral

vouchsaf-

truth

Zarathustra and to the other saints are

to

due

into

to

from

inspiration received

the

according to their faith. Ahura Mazda

have appointed " a

'^

to

he has made. "

whom

those

teach

ness."

Creator,

us the

"And

-^

just, controlling

come

The Gathas

to

are all

with told

He

is

said to

guide for

besought

through righteous-

paths

Lord, the great

do thou,

me

-^

is

God

Thy Good Mind."

by

Ahura Mazda

-^

to

As regards Mathre, it is said that ''no portion of them is (composed) by the

Zarcosht.

-'

2" Yt. 111.18. 2

1

22

Vd. XIX. lid.

111.

3.

17.

-« Ys. XXVIH. 23 Bd. I. '^. 37 Dk. 1.3. ^4 Ys. LI. 5. 2K Ys. XXXn.l'J.

7.

THEOLOGICAL & METAPHYSICAL IDEAS wisdom

of

man and

number

from a

(

not obtained by

man ),

but

it

portion) of that wisdom,-

reasoning faculty

the

made known by

is

er."

But God does not

beloved in tjets

There

sleep.

questions of the

truth

for

strive

supreme

The

;

"Be

through

known

it

who

All ethical

spirit.

the saints

saint

he must ask

and religious truth comes from God especially

to the

here no Yogi

divine illumination in trance.

must actually

man,

to

and prophets.

the Yazds shine in

that,

of

Reveal-

its

give truth is

(

the giver of

existence to Mazdiasni religion and -^

"The Mazdi-

for the professors of the

asni religion-every is

they could not be composed

of current traditions."-^

wisdom intended

18&

men

owing to (their) g-oodness and cease to shine owing to(their) evil."

^^

" Be

it

known that,

of the

many

evidences of the Mazdayasnian faith being the

word that it

of it

God, these three are the chief

contains perfect wisdom.

:

—

First

Second, that

contains more of the truth than other faiths.

Third, that to

gion

it

him who

is

anxious about

gives a complete knowledge about

existence of God." 2 8 2 a

Dk. Dk.

^-

I.

-2.

3.^

Dk. VIII.

I.

54.

3!

Dk. VII.

436. 467.

reli-

the

ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS

186

Turning

to the question of the

relation bet-

ween God and man, we find that God helps the righteous in

Man

divine.

Him and deemed

all their

endeavours for a

worship Him.

Firmness of

pleasure

God

to

'^'

•'

faith in the religion of

trust in

God

God

becomes more

every

own

his

A

recognised.

one

affair,

The

has no wisdom."''^

)

with

behoves

''(It is)

his

except

efficacy

One should

'^

and prayers on behalf

person

has

"From

'^

trust,

him who

of prayer

is

prayer should be recited when

a person dies. tions

Ahurmazd."

arises a heroic heart. "-^^

Whom

in

regarding

It

and the keeping

A man

more good by putting more and more

and

"

is

the remaining

is

lirm in the Mazdiasni religion

people righteous.

faith

The deed which

absolutely necessary.

produces

life

must in return place his trust in

whom

any

of

(

deceased

one had acciuainiance."

pay homage

to

us,

supplica-

offer

to,

that

-'^

to

is

worship, Spenamino Auharmazd, the Creator of the good creation,

with thought, word and

deed, for His gift of Life and Body." special reverence 3 2 3.T

Dk. Dk.

is

I.

9.

:<4

I.

r>o.

•'-'

To

due; because we owe

Dk. XII. tJ9. Dk. Xf. r)'2.

*c J-

Dk. IX. Dk. IX.

lire

to

648. (>4I.

it

THEOLOGICAL

.S:

METAPHYSICAL IDEAS

the existence and sustenance of man."

187

''

'"^^

It

should be scrupulously guarded, and be held

symbol of worship." ^°

as the

-'The

demon-worship are clearly repudiated. Mazdayasnian

should

and

Idolatry

instruction

receive

as

regards the abhorrence of the demons, and the rejection of idolatry."

Man There

is

is

'^o

between good and

free to choose

predetermines the course of his

They

And between

word and deed.

thought,

'*'

life.

they two, and a worse, as

are a better thing, to

evil.

no dominating necessity which entirely

'^^ these two let the wisely acting choose aright.

^'

then with your ears

Hear ye

bright flames It

is

for a

with eyes of the

all

men

themselves from

Fate or the

man and God has

for himself."'^-

sufficient

sin as

unknown

which often

ability

well as from

the source of their sins and

situations,

better mind.

decision as to religions,

man, each individually given to

see ye the

;

to

save

Ahriman

woes."^^

factor

decides

in

all

human

events

in

a

mysterious way

is

Menali-hhraf.

^'Even with the might and the

3 8

3 9

Dk. IX. Dk. IX.

644. 645.

recognised especially in the

4« Dk. IX. 635. 1 Ys. XXX. 3.

4

4- Ys. XXX. 2. ^3 Dk. VII. 44L

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

188

powerfulness of wisdom and knowledge, even

then

is

it

not possible to contend with destiny.

Because when predestination as to virtue, or as to the reverse,

wanting

comes

in duty,

intelligent

;

the

the wise becomes

forth,

and the astute

in evil

becomes

faint-hearted becomes braver,

and the

braver

becomes

diligent

becomes

lazy,

faint-hearted

and

;

lazy

the

the acts

"As to him who is a lazy, and bad man when his destiny becomes

diligently.""''

ignorant

a helper, that laziness of his then becomes like

unto diligence, that ignorance unto knowledge,

And

and that vileness unto goodness.

as to

him who is a wise, worthy, and good man, when his destiny is an opponent, wisdom of his then turns to stupidity

ignorance

that worthiness to ledge, skill secluded."'*-'^

brity

and foolishness and ;

and

his

''Happiness and adornment, cele-

and dominion,

skill

and

suitability are

not through the will and action

of

men, but

through the appointment, destiny and the sacred being."

"^'

It is

However, something

*

Mkh.

54.

*r.

Mkh.

will of

evident here that a

man's part in his own making out.

know-

and worthiness become manifestly

is

almost wiped

is still left 93.

+«

to

Mkh.

man's 10.

THEOLOGICAL & METAPHYSICAL IDEAS ^'

exertion.

one's is

self,

189

not possible to provide for

It is

through exertion, that benefit which

not ordained

but a morsel of that which

;

is

ordained comes on by means of exertion. Yet the exertion,

when

it is

fruitless in the worldly

existence, through the sacred beings not being

with

it,

comes, afterwards, to one's

still

assist-

ance in the spiritual existence, and outweighs in

the balance."

also,

an attempt

of the ^'

Dadistan-i-Dinih

In the

"^^

made

is

to

adjust the claims

human agency and super-human

agency.

There are some things through destiny, and

there are

and

some through

action... that

life,

wife

and wealth are through

child, authority

destiny and the righteousness and the wickedness of priesthood, warfare, and husbandry are

through action."

'^^

Another question

whether any modification of fate,

any change

in

operations of destiny,

A

and good works.

in

that which

is

is

programme

the

possible through prayer

distinction

is

drawn

4

7

),

bet-

^'DcvStiny

ordained from the beginning,

and divine providence sacred beings

raised

the otherwise irreversible

ween destiny and divine providence. is

is

is

that which they

also grant otherwise.

Mkh.

54.

4 8

Dd.

215.

(

the

But the

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

190

provide

beings

sacred

and manifest

the

in

spiritual existence little of that grant.""-

Almost doctrine

every

causation

some

has

religion

Though

atonement.

of

of

sort

law of

the

acknowledged by Zarathustra

is

in

the tield of ethics, that out of the good comes evil evil, if a man repents of much ground for hope. Expiamany forms; it includes the recital

good and out of his evil he has

tion takes

and the confession of

of prayers

man

Dastur or a righteous object

any other holy

and the sincere repentance experienced

one's soul and

in

of

before a

sins

punishments

undergoing

of

and the performance

of

the

many many

Not only words and deeds should

good deeds.

show the changed attitude

of the soul but

it

should be clearly expressed by altered charac" Again,

ter.

his if is '*

if (

a

man

repent by means of

)

tongue and deeds, of the smallest

mind

his

not a

(tit)

redeemer of

Expiation

tion,

not

is

is

that

for

sin,

and

forgiveness, then he

himself

wherein one

(from is

sin)."''^

in contri-

with repentance for a sin committed and

does not commit 4!>

Mkh.

r'^

Dk.

55.

II.

69.

that -»

sin

again."

^^

Other-

Dk. Vol. X. Bk. VI.

14.

THEOLOGICAL

former sin

wise, the

METAPHYSICAL IDEAS is

not expiated,

must

repentance

the

.^-

be

Further

^-

heartfelt.

191

When

-^-^

these conditions are well observed, repenXance is

said to have

a

few

power

known

to

remove

aiiaperefha

as

except

all sins

unatonable^

or

These are the burying or burning of corpses,

and eating dead

cooking

''The

intercourse.

matter,

any

committed

other

remitted by his repentance.

Mazda,

religion of

If

he

it

is

he has com-

If

is

absolved by

"The

repentance, for ever and ever."^"^

his

Spitama

Zarathustra

away from him who makes confession

takes

bonds

the

it

of

his

sin

(the sin of) breach of trust (

deeds

evil

mitted no other evil deeds he

of

unnatural

here hath repented of

thoughts, words and deeds.

all his evil

has

man

the

of

sin

atonement; usury

it

;

sinned."

for

it

takes it

takes

which there

away away is

no

away the worst sin of takes away any sin that may be it

takes

Thus even unatonable

-^^^

"

removed. perfect

deeds

)

;

;

A

man's sins are expiated by his

knowledge

his doing good 5 2

Sd.

5 3

Dk. 1.9

309.

sins could be

of the divine faith

works

and by

for his final renovation."

-+ Yd. III. 21. 5 5 Yd. YIIL 29.

5 6

Dk. YII.

476.

^^^

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

192

"Every is

sin that is not repented of, (i.e.

not expiated by countervailing good deeds)

condemnation

entails a

pure through

becoming

them

implore

to

is

contrition,

and

the Lord.

As

are

to

forgiveness,

their

Thus the punishment

other sins

expiation,

And

with

is

there

whole

death.

in

number, various.-^''

disobeying the

The expiation fines.

there

of

''Through

remains no passage to

non-expiation

passage to heaven.

The

is

express

to

grave sins such

justice,

by pecuniary

of

presence of

atonements for all

men without

behests of the king, all

many

the sins are

^^'

expurgation

the

repent in the

to

likewise

as killing

The and for

punishment."

for the expiation of sins

requirement

so

which

hell.

remains no

""^^

belief in future literature.

The

existence pervades the soul of a

destroyed with his death.

man

is

not

All the anomalies

and the imperfections of the earthly existence The rightare removed in the life Beyond. eous are rewarded, and the sinful punished here as well as hereafter.

heaven «7

and enjoy Dk. IX.

629.

»8 Dk. IX. 031.

its

The former go

pleasures.

Here

^» Dk. Vol. X. Bk. VI.

14.

to

we

)

THEOLOGICAL & METAPHYSICAL IDEAS note that paradise

an exalted

variously styled '*

Gathas^

the

in is

*^

193

the conception of

state

mind.

of

It is

Abode of Good Mind," Good Thought " and

the

the glorious heritage of

Hell

so on. called

a state of mental agony.

is

"the House

Thought" and

so

**The

on.

early

Sage announced the eternal truth rewards

Heaven and the

ot

Hell can only be from within.

may

fairly say

It is

*'of the worst

of the Lie,"

Iranian that the

punishment of

He

gave us, we

through the systems which he

has influenced, that great doctrine of subjective

which must

recompense,

change

in the

receives is

made

There

place for the

and the highest one

are

also

four

mixed

Zoroastrians

ly asserts that

types

and

of hell

always

6

hell. is

a

believed

" weal and immortality "

righteousness Mills. S.B.E.

the

in

Zarathustra repeated-

the lot of the' good and righteous.

who from 13

of endless

people, called Hamistagan.

immortality of the soul.

fall to

essential

In the later Avesta^ mention

it."^^

Intermediate between heaven

The

an

of four kinds of heaven, of thought,

of word, of deed light.

work

mental habits of every one who

(

in

mind and

VoL XXXI.

p. xx.

will ''

He

life

;

ZOKOASTRIAX ETHICS

194

shall verily perform

that which

on him earth."

is

for

me, for

Zarathiistra,..

my

most helpful (for

shall they bestow rewards

cause)

beyond

this

All the evidence points to a doctrine

^^

of personal immortality.

good persons

*'A11

will

obtain immortality and a final well-regulated constitution through the instrumentality of the will of the

Lord Creator having reference

**

His

the soul becomes immortal and adorned with

the ample *'

to

By communion with God

final intentions."*^-

Be

it

life

of eternity in the second life."

knoAvn that the duration of the soul

everlasting;" "the ideas

Along with

^"^

this

Ahura Mazda

is

belief appear

millennium and

of final renovation,

resurrection.

^-'^

will

come

at the

end of Creation and the great work of renovation will be accomplished. ^'

By

^^

a miracle

there will be a final renovation and

become immortal."*^

*'

and the

fruit of the soul

and the

fruit of the

The ( is )

men

fruit of the

will

body

the Kenovation '

joy."^'

"The

Renovation

(is)

undecaying^

world, shall be never dying, not

decaying, never rotting ever living, ever useful «i Ys.

XLVI.

19.

6 5

«9 Dk. I. 22. 6 3 Dk. VIII. 425. «4 Dk. V. 301.

cr. «•-

Ys. XLIII. 5. Ok. VII. 472.

Dk. XI.

87.

THEOLOGICAL /

profit-making

METAPHYSICAL IDEAS

.>c

having power to

),

195-

all

fulfil

when dead shall arise and immortal life shall come, when the settlements shall all be Again: "Let Angra Mainyi^ deathless." ^^ wishes,

the Evil Spirit, be hid beneath the earth -let the dead arise,

and

be sustained in these

now

the Devas disappear let

the bodily bodies."

lifeless

The

life

let

;

:

^"^

evil forces of the

universe are

sure

to-

succumb before the good ones and the ultimate triumph

of the latter

:

that

the firm faith of

is

But the optimistic

Zoroastrianism.

spirit goes

farther and secures salvation not for the good

but for the evil also.

only,

It

is

true that

the evil souls will be tried at the time of the

judgment and required

collective

final

through blazing process

for

purification.

fire.

But

this

is

to

go

the cleansing

them and it will lead to their Then Ahura Mazda will at last

take back to Himself

all

the creatures that are

The final triumph Spentomainyu over Angromainyu is by

his

may

be

by

created

sufiicient

Him."*^

superior

strength. ^^

It

of

noted that Soshyos or saviour prophets help the world in this process of redemption. 6 8 7

XIX. Dk. XII. Yt.

XIX.

11.

« »

Yt.

7.

7 1

Dk. YII.

12.

462.

ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS

196

We

come

how the consummatum, is.

to the final question as to

ultimate good,

the honutn

What

represented in these writings. bliss of the righteous is

The goal

?

of

is

the final

human

life

not conceived by the Parsis as in the Buddh-

ist

Here are two

idea of Nirvana.

*'ButAhura Mazda

passages:

significant

give both

will

universal weal and immortality in the fulness

of his righteous order and from himself as the

And he

of dominion, (with his saints).

head

will likewise

might

to

friend."

^-

time (of

Good Mind's vigorous

give the

him who

in spirit and deed is his Again " Then shall begin the infinite happiness) and then shall happen the

final renovation,

impoverishment of the

the

Drujj the resurrection of the dead, and the

attainment of the

body and the redemp-

final

and

tion (from hell) of the people of this world;

hence mankind shall live in eternal

and

in splendour,

will, action

and with immutable wisdom,

and (endless) time."'^ There

no absorption of the individual no annihilation of the the self in a fuller

self,

kingdom

and richer than

7» Ys.

felicity,

XXXI.

21.

is

is

here

in the Absolute,

but a realisation of

of God, a realisation^ possible here. 7 3

Dk. V.

332.

INDEX. ADARBAD MAKASPAND 26.

Atman

Adoption Adultery

Atropat 155. Authority 148, 149,

114. 123,

122,

124,

125, 126, 127, 128, 177.

Agriculture 32, 33, 34, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 162.

Aliriman 147,

52,

184, 195, 196,

Aim

41, 42, 49, 50.

Ahura Mazda 25,

Avarice 144, 145, 146, 163,

Bareshnum

46, 47.

Bodily

injuries

173.

78, 87, 108, 111, 122, 133,

Bribery

140, 141, 156,

162,

180,

182, 183, 184,

194,

195,

Airyana-vaega see

Casuistry 96. 70, 97, 183.

191.

Ardashir I. 39. Asceticism 65, 85.

A&ha63. Ashi Vanguhi 113, Asno Khratu 50. As8 33. Assemblies

Atar

36.

73, 183.

50.

33.

Casartelli Dr. 41, 181.

Araretat 70, 183.

Anaperetha 167, Anger 146, 163.

172,

Carlyle 76.

31.

Ahu.

Alexander 39. Amesha Spenta

162,

93.

CAMA 49, Camel

196.

48, 49, 50.

101.

Bartholomae C. 135. Benevolence see Charity.

Body

29, 36,43,

150^

151.

45, 59, 70, 73, 74, 76, 77,

Akho

37, 72.

43.

BAODHA 42,

70, 97, 100,

156, 160, 176,

155,

Athravan

Celibacy 65, 75, 111. Charity 66, 106, 107,

108,.

134,

135,

136,

137^

138, 139,

140,

141,

142,,

133,

143.

Cheerfulness 163. Children 74, 75, 79, 112„ 122, 183.

113.

Cock

33, 76.

Company

164,

Confucius 158. Conscience 42,

47, 52.

INDEX

198

ContentmeDt

163, 154, 155,

156.

FALSEHOOD

Contract 91, 94, 171, 172. Courtesy 97, 142.

Fame

Cow

Family

31, 32.

Criminal law 170.

DAENA

42, 47, 48, 68, 78,

Daeva 37, Dakhraas

56, 70, 71, 78.

Dead body

103,

105,

166, 168, 174, 175.

Dead matter

164.

104, 105, 166,

Fire 37,

78, 102, 103,

76,

79, 80, 85, 86.

Fravashi

42, 43, 44, 73, 119.

Freedom

of will 52, 53, 57,

187.

Frohar

168.

Death 71, 184. Decency 163, 164. Demon-worship 187. Dhalla Dr. 42, 44, Disease 71, 184.

50, 52. see

Fravashi

GAUTAMA BUDDHA 63. Gavashni

62.

Geiger Dr.

56.

30, 41, 47, 49,

115, 128, 169.

Generosity 139, 140.

Disinterestedness 68.

Geush Tashan 183. Geush Urvan 183.

33, 81,84, 176.

Drinking 139. Druj 37, 70, 91, Dualism 53, 60,

74.

Fasting 66, 85, 86. Fate 187, 188, 189. Firdausi 28.

Food

58.

102,

100.

104, 174, 175, 176, 186.

102.

Dannesteter

Dog

89,90, 91.

92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99^

Glory 73, 74. Golden Mean

97, 99.

181.

158.

Good thought, word and

EARLY RISING Earth

deed 76, 86.

174, 175.

59, 60, 61, 02,

105, 106.

(xratitude 160.

Eduard Meyer 38. Educated reason 51.

HABIT

Education

Hamistagan

Eugenics

52, 158.

Haoma37,

83.

Hang

Evil 182, 195.

Evil thought, word deed 60, 61, 62.

Expediency

52.

and

96.

Expiation 190, 191, 192.

193.

122.

50.

Haurvatat

Heaven

70, 183.

45, 193.

Hell 45, 193.

Herodotus

67, 89,

128.

64,

INDEX Holiness 105,

Honesty

10(5.

92, 94, 95, 98.

Hormazd Shapur Horse

26. j

Khratu 42, 50. Khshathra Vairya 78, 183. Khusrd Noshirwan 29. Killing 81, 82, 83, 84, 85,

33, 35.

168, 176, 177.

Horticulture 34.

Hosh

199

King

50, 51.

35, 165, 166.

Knowledge, see wisdom.

Hospitality 140, 141.

Huniata, Hukhata, Hvar-

LAW

shta 62.

Humility

152, 153.

Husband and wife

115, 116,

120,

117, 118, 119,

161,

68,

162,

170,

171.

Lehmann

121,

64, 67,

Leviticus 167.

122.

Life 64, 69, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 176, 177.

IDLENESS

Louis H. Gray 131.

87, 88.

Image-worship 39, 187. Immortality 45, 70, 192

MAHABAD 29.

193.

Indebtedness Industry

Manas

89.

7 66, 76, 78, 86, 87

88.

Innate reason

Mani 51.

Intellect 50. Intellij'ence 50, 51.

AH

40.

Manichaenism 27, 40. Manufacture 34, 38, 78. Margarjan 168.

Inspiration 184.

J

I

62.

Manashni, Gavashni, Kunashni 62.

Marriage

65, 74,

79,

111,

112, 177. I

122, 123.

Marriage

Jaini J. L. 63.

Mazdak

Jamshid

Medicine

82.

— age 34.

^Jan 42.

Mercy

Jaoshi Khratu 50. Jealousy 146, 163.

Metals

34.

Might

73.

Justice 93, 160.

163.

161,

162,

114.

40.

106, 107.

Mill Dr. 193.

Millennium

194.

Misappropriation

KARMA 55, Khart

42, 50.

62.

96.

Mithra

73, 90.

92,

95,

INDEX-

200

Moderation

Prosperity 72, 73.

66, 158.

Moksha 55, 60. Money 34, 38 Moulton Dr.

Prudence 163. Public Duties 164, 165.

25, 42, 48, 89.

Punishment

167, 178.

Purity 100, 101, 102,

NASU

Next of kin marriage Xvaetvadatha

see

Nietzsche 74.

Nirwana

103,.

104, 105, 106.

101,

196.

RAPE

125.

Rashnu 161. Ravan see Urvan. Regard

for

animals

31, 32,

Noshir^van 26. 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82,.

OBEDIENCE

83, 84.

See autho-

rity.

Optimism

58, 59, 73, 195.

Ordeal 171.

Renovation 194, 195. Renunciation 65, 75. Resurrection 124, 196.

Revelation 184,

Revenge

PASTORAL LIFE Peace 141. Penance 85.

31, 32.

63.

98, 100, 171, 173.

.

SALVATION

I'erjury 92.

Peshotanu

Righteousness

Robbery

185.

148.

72,

126,

169,

Samsara

196.

55.

Samyag-charitra 63.

175, 177, 178.

I'hilanthropy 143.

Samyag-darsana

Polygamy

128, 129.

Samyag-Jnaca

Position of

women

Poverty

Power

119.

Saoshyant

106.

101, 128,

178.

Pride 108, 109, 148, 153. Priesthood 35, 37, 38, 151, 152.

Procrastination 88. J*romise-keeping see Truthfulness.

59, 70, 195.

Self-control 162.

l*re-existence 45.

woman

Sanitation 101, 102, 103, 170.

95.

l*regnant

63.

63.

Shah Namah28,

141.

Shapur 11. 40. Sheep 32, 33. Siyavush 171. Slander 146, 147. Slaves 38.

Soul 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 52, 108.

.

INDEX Spirit 49.

Sraosha

183.

vState 35.

Strength

Sun

72, 73, 74,

7.'>.

Water 102, Wealth 98,

159.

94, 96, 98, 100, 173.

Thrift 66, 162. Truthfulness 67, 89, 90, 92,

COURSE

45,

INTER126,

Wisdom

127,

103, 174.

*

107, 108, 109.

51, 156, 157, 158.

Woman in menses 101,126. 177.

Work

93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99.

UNNATUKAL

26.

75, 183.

WARS 37.

169, 174.

Temperance 66, Tennyson 59. Theft

Viptak 127. Vir 42, 50, 51 Vistashpa 69. Vizorg Meher

Vohu Mano

180.

TANAFUK

201

76, 77, 86.

XVAETVADATHA

129,

130, 131, 132.

128, 167, 171, 178.

Upazana 168, 169. Urvan 42, 44, 45, 46, Utilitarianism 67.

YAZATA

ZARATHUSTRA 29, 69,

YACH Vadak Vaksh

62.

183, 185.

47, 48.

74,

180, 194.

124.

Zarir 28.

42, 52.

Zohak

82.

76,

25, 26, 77, 147,

Ancient Iranian and Zoroastrian Morals

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Zoroastrian Rituals in Context (Studies in the History of Religions)

Practical Ethics

Practical Ethics

Nicomachean Ethics

Narrative Ethics

Muslim Ethics

The Ethics

Pharmaceutical Ethics

Nicomachean Ethics

Food Ethics

World Ethics

Media Ethics

Formal Ethics

Resisting Ethics

Aristotle's Ethics

Ancient Ethics

Food Ethics

Construction Ethics

Evolutionary ethics

Zoroastrian Ethics

Ancient Iranian and Zoroastrian Morals

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Ethics

Zoroastrian Rituals in Context (Studies in the History of Religions)

Practical Ethics

Practical Ethics

Nicomachean Ethics

Narrative Ethics

Muslim Ethics

The Ethics

Pharmaceutical Ethics

Nicomachean Ethics

Food Ethics

World Ethics

Media Ethics

Formal Ethics

Resisting Ethics

Aristotle's Ethics

Ancient Ethics

Food Ethics

Construction Ethics

Evolutionary ethics

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