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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Irarning Xhosa:an enrichingadventure Definitions. Abbreúations L. Noun classes 2. The Dresenttense:long form 3. The iresent tense:sho-rtform: negative 4, Subièctand obiect concoÍds 5. Subïectconcorôsbefore vowels 6. Fuúre tenses 7. The perfect tense 8. Absolute pronouns 9. Copulative prefixes stems cbncords.Possessive 10. Poôsessive possessive KA concord 11, The 12. Relativedemonstratives and emphaticpronouns 13. Possessive Jojo and his world 14. Possessives: 15. Copulatives of nouns and possessivepÍonouns 16. Demonstratives 1st,2nd and 3rd place demonstratives Copulativesof demonstratives Prépositionalformativesplus demonstratives 17. Quantitatives 18. Enumeratives 1.9. Adjectives:copulativeand attributive forms: thelr nesatlves 20. Relativãs: copulative and attributive forms: their neqatives 21. Adiectú and relative stems 22. Fuither usesof the reÌative formatives 23. Copulativesof 'Where?' of 'Here, there,yonder' Co-pulatives 24. Vocatives 25. Locatives 26. Initial prefix vowels n. Interrosatives 28. Commõn derivatives 29. Relative clauses The antecedent as the subject The antecedentas the direct object The antecedent as the indirect object The antecedentas úe Possessor The relative concord Relative coniunctions 30. The irtdicatiie mood:primary tenses 31. The indicative near past continuous tense 32. The indicative mood: other neaÍ past tenses The indicativemood: remote past tenses 34. The participial mood: primary tenses 35. The participial near and remotepast tenses 36. The subiunctive mood 37. The teniporal mood 38. The passive
Page 1 L6 17 T7 18 18 L9 20 20 2L 2l 22 23 23 aÁ
25 26 26 26 26 27
n
28 28 29 29 30 30 JI
3t 32 JJ JJ JJ
34 34 35 35 36 36 36 37 37 38 39 40 4l 42 42 43
Section 39. Imperatives 40. Peifectstemsof verbs 41. Verbalsuffixes 42. Stativeverbs 43. Thepotentialformwith NGA (can) .Can'' 44. Otherwaysof expressing 45. The guxilialySE'(atreadly) The formatiúeXÀ (not Ìotyet) yêi) 46. The formativesYA" KWA KIVA (also),YAWA (again) till), negative n (no longèr) !1. lh9.fgrmative SA (still), 48. Deficientverbs of thecoputative !2. T" ggnjugation 50. The Xhõsãsoundsvstem 51. Consonant andvoúel changes 52. Numerals 53. Usefulphrases 54. Keyto iluizzesandquestiorÌs 55. Wordliits Bibliography
Page 44 44 44 45 45 45 46 46 46 46 47 48 50 51 52 53 54 56 60
PREFACE
This concisemanuaìwith its encouragingintroduction will help students
tg gaina sound.undersranding of úe ïtríctur" ãf x;tró.ahìii-ïrrËïìtrïiì tnerebysavlngtime andeffortfor studentsandteachersalike.
The clear tableswill speedthe learning Y::1":f-":l_t^"1*rnC process, Kelatedtormsls,ylsgal. are showni1 neighbouring columlsor on oppositã comparison, retention practTce. a-nd ïhe stopsu.eã *iú t3g:r^f9l:1r; promote an ettor essgraspof the structureof complexwords. New formswill be more easily.understood andrememberedonce are re.latedto the tabtes,from úhich turther forms neiãeã-;aí b" they õítuã wtn conÌldence.Conciserules and information have been included, as well asusefulwordlistsandphrases. A knowledge of Xhosais becomingincreasingly importanttodav. is an rnterestlngand expressivelanguage,renderèddifficult- ofXhosa access horvever^b.y iis compte;lty.lt is trop-"dïriiiii, ,Ài",ìur wirl reãuceúï effort of learninsaì0 úu turn tlie studyof >c,õïìrtôìlôfr;i;ã rewardingexperiõnce.
LEARNING XHOSA AN ENRICHING ADVENTURE SOME OF YOUR OTIERIES ANSWERED HOW WILLTHIS BOOKHELP ME? If you are only starting Xhosa. read through the first two pagesand try the first fòur quizzes. Then read úe notes on each section befoÍe studying the tables themselves.Glance at úe notes below each table, only noting lvhat will help you to understand the table itself. Refer to the definitions and abbreviations on page L6 if necessary. Try howeverto join one of the many Xhosa coursesbeing offered. It is more fun studyingwith oúers. This book wiU make learning easier.You will not needto take down many notesrmuch of what you will be taught is already-herein the clear, systematictables and sumniaries. lf vou alreadv know some Xhosa vou üll realise that úe tables will help vou to set a sood language.Comparethe tablesand seêhow theíord-inits @ related. Use úem to check on the structure and meaning of are õomposedand how they are your owrÌ accuracywhen you speak or write Xhosa. Use words you encounter, or to check on them also for practice, by substituting other nouns, verbs or adjectives for those in the tables. The concisenótes and exampleswill remind you of what you have learnt, or will answerfurther questions. If vou are teachine Xhosa your studentswill find this book invaluable, since it will help them to gil-ãear ihe complex structure of the language.You will spend iess time o"ãtew;f preparing lessonsor lectures, and your students will spend less time taking down notes. You heef onl} refer to the relevantpagês.Important gramriatical points have béen summarisedin the concisenotes.The tablescan be usedfor oral practicein class:your studentscan substitute words from the word lists to increaseúeir vocabulary. HOW WILL I MANAGE ALL THOSE CLICKS? Don't worry. You will only find a dozen words úth clicks before page 45 in úis book, and section 50 explains how to pronounce them.
If you learn two new words a day, you will have learnt over seven hundred in the Íirst year more úan you need to communicate effectively! Many Xhosa words have been taken over from Engìish or Afrikaans, often adding i as a prefü. They can use y or w to separateúe soundsin diphthongs.They can use a vowel to diüde consonantgroups.They usuallyadd a final vowel.Thus: i.keyiki (cake), i.tawuli (towel), i.bhotile (bottle), i.bhokisi (box). There is no separatearticle in Xhosa;i.keyiki = 'the cake','a cake','some cake' or just'cake', depending on the context. Xhosa words are soundedjust as they are spelt. The syllables,and the words themsÉt*tÈ; usually end in a vowel. The secondlast syllableof a word or phrase is usually slightly Ìonger than the rest.There are five vowels,pronouncedroughlyas follows: g asin far; e as in end; i as in is; g asin mqre; u asin ryle. Later you will find that the soundsa, 9 and o can changeslightly (see page 50). lfyou enjoypuzzlesto which you can find the answer,you will enjoy - - Xhosa. fú ttre tótÍowingquizzes.yoirwitt find the answersoó page54. 1
Ouiz L: Whatwouldyoube lookingat, if yousawi.garaji,i.moto,i.teksi? ouiz 2: H:rc aresomethingsyoumightfind in a study.Sayúe wordsaloud. canyou guess whatsomeof themmean? i.desika,i.foni, i.inki, i.pensile,i.rabha, i.rula, i.foto. ouiz 3: Here aremanythingsyor mightfind in a kitchen?saythe wordsaloud. If youcan unoerstanc whatten ot themmeancongtatulate yourself! i.ketile,.i.glasi,i.ti, i.tipoti, i.kofr:, i.soseji,ijam, i.orenji, i.apile,i.spagetti, i.rayisi,i.pleyiti,i.saladi,ijeti, i.phudïú.
[You want tostart talking Xhosa you will need a few verbs.Here are some useful verb stems. rne !IIÍ!IÌ- o tnanda'soundsÌike tun- in'tunnel" only longer,with a slight h soundingafter 1. funa (want), bona (see), thanda(like, love).
Xhosayou.don't.need a separare pronoun. Jusrprefixthe R,.g'l^._.-"!jlr?lti'I.like'in suojefi concord 'ndl' to the verb stem, to show that you arè referring to úe firìt person
singular,'I'. Thus:
Ndi.bonai.moto (I seeúe car). Ndi.funa i.kofu (I want somecoffee). Ndi.tunai.pensile(I want a pencil). Ndi.úanda ijam (I lovejam). ouiz 4: Read-orerthis pageagain,then try to translatethe following phrasesinto Xhosa.See page)4 tor the answers.How manydid you get right? I seethe apple. I want-some_tea. I like pudding. I want a taxi. I like the photo. r seea caKe. l want a clesk.I seesomesalad. I love iellv. HOW SOON Iü|4LLI BE GOOD ATXHOSA? How keen are you to learnlHow much time can you spare?What help can you get? English,and Afrikaans are fairly similar in structure. They use different words. but on the wnole they use them in the--same wqy.The structureof Xhosa however,like that'of Zulu aná otner Arncan languages,dittêrs markedlyfÍom that of English. You will.soon manâge.iriendì.ygeetings and simple conversationin Xhosa without knowins now rne,languagels burlt up (see page 53). but once you want to read, write or speakit wei you wu naveto masterlts structure. And that is where this book will help you. Section1. Noun Classes Turn to page 17 and studythe fust four columns. The first column (C.1)-sh-orvsthat there are 15 classesof nouns in Xhosa- Nouns are the names ol personsor thinqs.like 'faúer' or 'tree'. Classes12and 13of other African languagesare not foúnd in Xhosa,bút Cl.la and Ct.2a up irìãìiiieão. -at" The secondcolumn (Ç. 2) showstlat eacbclassusesa distincüveprefix. This is pre-fixedto the belongingto this class.class 1 and class3,nounsbdth use the prdfix um, but cl.1 l!1}_,"_t-*r":
:lillTf,lgï1.^-l:l:1inC cnecK tn$. rt vou llKe.
to people,andCl.3doesnot.Glanceat úe wordiistson págeS6iõ
The third column (C.3) showshow this works in practice. The noun hmfazf, meaning toman', fuife', is a word-unit, composedof a prefix g4q-joined to a stem -fazr. Stopshave been added here to separate the prefix and the stem. This makes it easy to see to which class a noun belongs. The plural of a noun falls into a different class. The prefix will differ, but the noun stem remains the same. The plural of Cl.1 is C1.2,wiú the prefix aba- hence the plural \romen' = 'aba,fazi'.The plurals of classes1a, 3, 5, 7 al:td9 are classes2ao4, 6, 8 and 10. Check this by looking at úe'English in C.4. Clú Í1 Sharesthe class tO prefix-(á)iN for its plural. Nouú belonging to classes14 and 15 normally have no plural forms. Study the first four columns on page 17, then read the first eight lines of notes which explain the prefixes (li), iI[ i(z)iN and u(lu). The letters in brackets are omitted before nouns with stemsof more than one syllable,like hashe,taka or sana.The symbolN showsthat the n ofthe prefix can causesound and spelling changes,so we must expect surprises. Now try úe following quiz. Seepage 54 for the answers. Ouiz 5:
a) To what classdoes each of the following nouns belong? izi.lo, uku.tya, i.moto, um.thi, izin.to, oo.bawo. b) Here are somemore nouns.Can you guesstheir class? ' ili.tye (stone), um.fundi (studení), ãna.úli (wheels), ii.kati (cats), isi.kolo (school), ubu.lumko(wisdom).
Section2. PresentTenseVerbs: I-ong Form Look at columns5 to 7 on page 77,which link up with the first columns.We dont only use nouns- the namesof people or úings. We alsouse verbs,like 'come', 'go', 'laugh', 'cry', to tell what they do. In the phrases'the cars appear','the baby cries', the nouns'cars' and 'baby' are the subjectsin úe phrases:they are doing the action mentionedby the verbs'appear','cries'. In Xhosa each verb needs a prefix reflecting its subject. This prefix, called the subject concord (or the SC), is derived from the prefix of the subject.Studythe column of noun prefixes (C.2), then the column headedSC (C.5), and comparethe two. Note that Cl.la and Cl.2a use the SCb of classes'L and 2, How are the SCs u i, A i derived from úe prefixes u1q, !Íni, ama and in, which contain the nasal consonantsm and n? How are the other SCs (ba, !i si, zi, zi, ]u bu, ku) derived from the prefixes aba, iü, isi, izi, izin,
ulìÌ,ubu,uku?
Can you think up two suitable rules? If you can see how to derive the SCs you will enjoy learnlng )Crosa! try to learn the subject co-ncords.You will use them again and alain.
Y
Present-tenseforms of the verb uku.vela (to appear, to come from) are shown in column 6 (C.6). In each case the stem vela prefixes the relevant SC for each class of noun and adds the infix y4 for extra stress. Glance at lines 9 - 14 of the notes.then" readinqaloud. taking the noun in C.3 as the subiect. find its correspondingverb form in C.6 startin[ with íbe coirect SC. This will give you thé following: um.faziu.ya.vela (the/a woman appears,is appearing) u.bawou.ya.vela (úe/a father appears,is appearing) aba.faziba.ya.vela (the women/womenappear,are appearing) Now. readinealoud. eo throuqh all fifteen classesof nounsfollowed by their present-tenseverb fornl to getïsed tó ïhe concórds.Always read or practiseXhosa.by-speakiirgaloud. You will learn tlree times asfast if you pronounceand hear the words aswell as seeingthem!
:
Oniz6:. a) Usingthe verb stemvelq howwouldyou saythe following? úe horse,appears, birdsareappeâring,foodappears,treesappear, an arlmal N appeanng.
b) Here are more nouns. Decide on their clgss(look úem up in úe word lists on page 56, if necessary)then use.úem as subjectsfollowed by the long form (with p) oitlé présent rerÌseot uKru.veta, usrngthe coÍïect SC. aba.fundi(students-),i.kofu (coffee), u.dade(sister). izi.bane(lamps), u.donga(nòt a mónosyllable;cheókits class). c) Now try further.phrases.use the nounsgivenbelow as subjects,followed by the present tenseof the verb uku.khula (to grow),wi:ththe stem khula; e.g.givenu.sana(baby):u.sanalu.yakhula (úe babv is soüns). oo.dade(sisters), iin.donga(waìls), ubir.bi-(eül),-' izin.dlu(houses), un.nnvãnà(ctriÍd). Section 3. Present Tense Verbs: Short Form: Negative. Here, on page l.8,.column4 headedSC showsthe,subjectconcordsndi, si, u, ni which link the verDto rts sJrbJ:ctü the subJectis I we, yoll (singular,i.e. one person)or ygu (plual, more than one person). I nus: ndi.ya.vela(I appear), si.ya.vela(we appear),
ornouns, somewhar rike the ""'i#itiiSgëlJ.à'Jtrl#tfrSif;Jlãfi?r9?*lË,J"llntì;,es
pronounshe.she,it or the],in English.
In section2 you sawthat ya is addedasan infix in presenttenseverbsif the verbis stressed. lf the verb is not stressed however,e.g.if the stress-fallson a followingnoun,or on an adverb (like'here','quickly','now'), theny4ìsomitted. The verb formsin C.5are followedby plf (where?),which caries the stress,so the shortform of úe presenttenseis used,withoutúè infii va.Thús: u.velaphi?, (youcomefrom where?f whêredo youcomefrom?) i.motoi.velapbi? (wheredoesúe carcomefroúr?) ,
To expressa p.hrasein.the-negative,e.g. 'the car doesnot appear',the final a of the verb stem Decomes! and a negativeform of the SC is used,startingwith a. CompareeachSC in C.4 with lbe negativ-eSC-in C.6. The latter alwaysprefixesg, anã the SC itselï is modified at times: u becomesaqu. aka or awu in the negative,dependingon the person or class,and the SC i becomesavi. (c.7) which shows negative forms of the present tense for all persons and P9k -t!e "::l.u+17 classes. Note that yA is neverincluded in the nesative. You (sing.)do not appearf are not appeariãg= aLu.u"11. Uarsdon't appear/ aren't appearine= ii.moto azi.veü. Here are furthei phrasesin the ìèeativá usingthe verb uku.khula (to erow). the babydoesn'tgrow 1 isn't grbwing = u.iana alu.khuli. the trees do not grow / are not growing = imi.thi ayi.khuli. Aú27: Seewhethervou can chansethe foilowing phrasesinto the,negative.Prefix the negativeSC (as in C.7), omit-ya and changi the final a of-tlie úf stãtn,o u e.g.ni.ya.hanba(you [pl.] are going) / ani.hambi(you [pl.] aren t going). oo.bawoba.ya-hamba,isi.losi.ya.hamb4 izìn.tozi.ya.khul4
ndi.ya.hamba um.thiu.ya.khula, ama.hashea'ya.hamba"si.ya.khula, i.móto i.ya.hamba"ulu.vò lu.ya.khula,ili.fu li.ya.hamba. Section4. Subjectand Object Concords Studythe phrases:I seethe woman. I seeher (the woman). I see a tree. I see it (a tree)' I see theú. In thesephrases'l' is the subiect,'see' is the verb. and the words koman', 'her', 'tree', 'it', 'úem are ôbjectsof the verb 'sêe'.The words koman',- 'tree', are nou:rÌs;the -words'her', 'it', 'them' are oìónouns,standingfor a noun. The form of the pronoun points to the noun for which it stands.You wouldn't say 'I seeit', referring to a woman,or 'I see them', referring to a singletree. Xhosa has to use a subiect concord before an indicative verb, even if úe subject itself is not mentioned.In 'a.ya.khulâ'(they are growing)the subjectbelongsto class6. Xhosa can alsouse an object concord(OC) before a verb stem,reÍ-erringto a noun or pronoun object, which can be expressedor implied. In column 8 (C.8) on pase 18 vou will find the obiect concordsfor all the persorÌsand classes. Each is placeàjuót beforé the íerb stem.The infirya is addedfor extra streìs if a present-tense verb includes an OC. Here are examplesof OCs usedwith the verb uku.thanda(to like, to.love): um.fazi u.yá.m.úanda,u.bawo (the womanloveshim. the father) (hey 1= aba.fazillike it [= i.moto]) ba.ya.yi.th-anda u.sãnálu.ya.zi.thand4iin.taka (the baby lovesthem. the birds) If verb stemsbeein úth a vowel the consonantform of úe OC is used.This is shown in column 9, headedOCc (Qbject Concord,eonsonantform). iompare columìi I and 9. How doesthe OCc differ from úe OC? Can you think of a rule for this?'ln the caseof the OCs ku and !u the OCc is usuallyhll Iu, but just k I if followed by the
vowelo. Here are examplesusingan OCc before the vowel stem erza of úe verb ukw.enza (to do, to make): (we are making it, the tea) i.ti si.ya.y.enza, aba.faziba.ya.\g.enza (the women aré makingit = the food, C1.15,OCc kw) Ouiz 8: a) Can vou understandthe followinSphraseswith the verb stembona (see)? Rewrite them, ' repldcingthe word for the objeõ by the correct OC or OCc placedjust before the verb stém.Inõludethe infix ya úeithe SC; e.g.Oo.bawoba.boirai.moto / Oo.bawoba.ya'yibona. Ndi.bãnauku.tva. Ni.thandaama.fu' Aba.faziba.bonau.sana. Iin.taka zi.thanãaum.thi. I.hasheli.bona isi.lo. b) Seewhether you can translate the following, using the vowel stem azi of the verb ukw.azi (to know); ' e.s.tlíe horseknowsthem, the cars/ i.hasheli.ya.z.azi,ii.moto. You (-sine.)know him. the faúer. The animalsknow them, the trees' fne àttrõís know it, the opinion. The babyknowsme. The woman knowsus. Phraseswith OCs can alsobe usedin the negative,as shownbelow: U.sanalu.ya.ü.thanda,imi.thi. / U.sanaalu.yi.thandi,imi.thi. isi.lo. / Um.fazi aka.s.azi,isi.lo. Um.fazi urya.s.azi,
Here. as exoected.a negative SC is used, ya is omitted, and the final a of the verb stem tale place evenif an OC is included.Re-readthe above.When becor:nes i. t'hese túree ch-anges you are sure that you understand,try the quiz.
Ouiz 9: Canyou changethe following,with their OC, into the negative? Isi.losi.ya-1i.bon4 i.hashe.Um.faziu.ya.bu.thand4 ubu.suku. izin.to. (OC = u.bawo). U.sanalu.ya.m.bona fldi.ya.z.enza, Nt.ya.y.enz4 i.moto. I.basheli.ya.ba.thanda (OC = aba.fúi) Section5. SubjectConcordsbeforeVowels You alreadyunderstandcolumns1-4andc.7 on page19.Here,in column5 headedscc, you find the consonant form of the sc, usedjust tefoie ïvoúeiuãó iìJá, iit*"'qiãïr befoíean infix a in a verbtense,asin the reáote pãsttense,shòú rn c.o. Horr doesúe scc differ from the sc? comparec.4 andc.5. can youform a rule?If úe sc is gnly?vow-e.l'J!.en uÌ. u., i > y and4dropi.vowelsdrop"fdiõ"*;;t.,iìïu'r wafter!, !, or dropsif followedbv o. Nowcorìr-pare the negaíiveSCin C.7andits consonant form (usedbeforevowels)in C.g.What is the diffèrence? Thãfinal vowerdropsin ttrenègãiivãscc aìã, orrcããÂã"u ü ;'w t, i, ã; d.ropsif folJowedby s. Similaú úe infix p beco"mes y beforeã "rË [ly:ü ãg. ,"ì.ráì (the womanknows). "ã*"tiïõã] Readthroughthe áboveagain,úen try the quiz. Ouiz 10: a) $IudyC.6,whichgivesth-eremotepasrtenseof uku.vela" with the infix a. ttere are.phrases usin^g úe presentlenseof uhljka (to arrive).C* yoì chansetheminto me Íemotepasttense?Omi._t yA,.adda beforethe stemfika, adduseúe SCc;e-.g. ndi.ya.fika (I am arriviirg)/ nd.a.fika(I frived). i.hasheli.ya.fika,u.bawou.ya.fika,uku.tvaku.va.fikau.bu.ql.ku bu.ya.fika,izin.to-zi.ya.fika.ama.fuá.va.fiká. sr.ya.trka (wearearriüng),u.ya.fika (you[sing.lareiniüng). b) The phrasesbelow use verb stemsstarting.with g vowel, namely: (be at (be at ease, ease,trapply, happ!), oytm olka (feaí). ,...az_iJknow), lreai;. lri($9*I,onwaba -onwaba
(A{ )oiosavêrb stemsênd in s.eícepì'ú, ú;à--tsìô.
verbsdo not changein úe nesative.) Try chaneinethe fãllowins ohïasesii
The final vowelsof theserhree
use úenegative SCc, ffi1frf,i,ïfijij[ïitt"ïï^13,ï:Íã':r'*,1',",ì:ïï'iïÌlïg"*e. omit yg (heréI beforethãvbwel)andchangittrennafã to i. izi.Ìoz.y.oylKa, tzr.ro zily.ofika,l.hasbe i.hasbeli.y.azi, li.y.azi,aba.faziba.y.onivabã. aba.faziba.v.onivaba. u.sanalu.y.onwab4 ndi.y.-azi,ama.fua.y.oyÍka.
c) The passive form of ukw.ç. i (to know) ukw.aziwa (to be Ì<nown). Its negative present .is tenseis shownin c.9. The.final s of pasiive ueru stemsìJrèt"i"iá i"iïËïiãitir"; e.g.u.y-,aziwa al
contused,you are making good progress!Do you realise how much you know lïJ:ã"i"t You réalisethat Xhosahasan interestingstructure,whichmustbe mastered.There are fifteen classes of nouns,with prefixesdeterminiígtheir cÉs. Subl'ect p;;ã.*ãoto u"rbs, andtbe scs changeslightlyin the.negarivelor beforevoweË.úe"rr;dõ;; i;ìú ya isãâ'âãfi tr,eu.ru i. stressed, andobjãctco-nco'rds, wnicnïióitrangã ;iiãitry droiã,oriãl':rteil, ;; Ëeincruded.
In tle neeativeDÍesenttense the final a changesto i and ya is omitted. The concordsadd to úe beaut! of thè hnguage.Just try sayingthe-followingaloud: in.to i.ya.vela"ili.fu li.ya.vela, izi.lo zi.ya.vela. If you go over the first five sectionsagain,_and.trythe quizzesonce more, ygu.will feel more coífide-nt. You are not expected to kn-owall tbis by heart, only to understand the structue of Xhosa - how it works in practice. So far vou have onlv useã a few nouns and verbs, in order to concentrate on the structure. Tum to the word lists ori page 56. The nouns are grouped in classes,and singular and plural forms are given in full. Yoú cãn now widen your vocabulary at ü11. You will soon find Mcl-aren's New Concise Xhosa-English Dictionary' invaluable. Words are will see that words witlr different meaningscan be formed $ouoed under their steÍÍLand you -changingthe prefix or úe final vowel. This will help you to írom a single sterq merely by recogniseaid understandriewwordsyoú encoúnter,and evento form new words yourself. Remember that you will learn Xhosa far quicker if you practise by saying everyúing_aloud. Talk Xhosa to y
v
In F,lglish we,can contract our future tenses.we can say'I'm going to come', 'I'll come'or'I won't come'.Xhosa alsousescontractedfutures. column 5 gives a__commoncontracted future üth its negative, each form now written as a sfng.!e. yo_rÇ-unit. How- does the contiacted negative comfare with the ftút forms of c.3 and C,4?(C1.1is an exceotion.) And how doesthe côntraótedpositivecompaÍeúth the forms in c.3 and c.4? what has been omitted? What happensto the vowel SCsuand !? Could you erpect this? Section 7. The Perfect Tense The last qglLmngI page.20shovs úe lolg and short forms of the perfect tense.How are rhêy çomlosed?The scis followed by the verb stenl but the final a becbmesilE in the lons perfeci (used when the veÍb is süessed,e.g. if an oc is included); ile is contractedto g in úè short perfe$, qsed if stress is on a following-.noun or advéiblhe negative sc iì used in the negative form of-the the pedect tense; here the-final 4 > anga. S:ag thg perfect tense.out aloud with úe nouns in c.2 as subjects.Add 'izolo' (yesterday) after the short tbrÍÌ, and finish with úe nesative: um.faziu.velile, um.fazi u.veleizõlo. um.faziaka.vel.ansa. the woman appeared/ hasappeared,...appearedyesterdãv....didn'taDDear. Read out all the nouns in this üãy, followed by the-three fõrms of the'ferfect tense.This is excellent practice. Now-seewheúer you can use the tenseof the verb fika (arrive). ^pe-rfect Think carefullyarid translatethe fbllowing; then checkyour answers. night arrived,. the thingsarrivedyesteiday, the food didn't arrive, the cloudsarrived, we arrived yesterday,the animal didn't arrive. Section8. Absolute Pronouns Subjectconcordsare prefixed to verbs, but there are also stressedpronouns.calÌed ,absolute pronouns',for all personsand classes.These can stand on úeir oún. They âre shown in the third column (Ç.3) page21..How are theJ composed?They all end in ría.Alì from class2 -ondistinctivecoÍÌsonant onwarosstart wth the for that class(seethe OCc on pase lg) followed bv the vowel o. Read them our aloud. They are all two-sylÌablewords (the,ríof ú.na io.rr-á syllable). what happ_ens,if a'formatiJe' ra, ku or nga,servingas a preposition,is prefixed to an absolute pronou? IroI gt columns4 to 6. The úord-unitistart iryitn!3, hr ot'aga, but they stilÌ oúy contain two syllables.The final na has dropped throughout! Read the.first eight lines of úe notes on page 21.,tben see whether you can translate the phrÍIsesgrvenbelow,usingthe absolute-pronountableson page21,; e.g. it (ili.tu) lg,na, with them (oo.báwõ) = na.bo, to you (plural) = ku.ni, by meansof it (i.moio) = nsa.vo. it (ubu.suku), she (um.fazi), it (the animal), tÌrev (iziir.to).- ' with it íum.thi). with him (g.bawo1,.tothem (aba.fazi), to you'(sing.), ' by mêãnsof it (dü.vo), " DymeansoÌ tnem (lml.tbt). Try to remember úe absolute_pronounsgiven in C.3. Apart from the first five they are fairly easy.tolearn. once you graspthe systemãnd the meaning'ofthe formativesna, ú a;o nga vãï will know the rest. Section9. CooulativePrefixes. This,sectio:ron pSgq2l introducesa distinctivefeature of Xhosa - úe copúative prefix, or cp tor sbort,the equivalentof it is'in English.Each personand eachclassofnoun nasits oím Cp, shownin column 7. I-ook down the colurrn. SomeCPs look farniliar - all exceptfive are fiké
the OCs in S.4. Five however start úú ng. The CPs corresponding to úe tÌree SCs in u are ngu. Those correspondingto SCswhich include an g are nga. How would Vousav'it is I'. 'it is she'(the woman) or'it's thev' (the cars)? You would first fiád the ábsoluteprònoun for 'Í, 'she' or 'íhey' from e.3, namely m.rur.yç.na, zo.np-You would then prefix the relevant CP from C.7, namely ndi, ngu. zi. What do you think mi4t happen? Yes, the.final na will drop, leaving you with the compact, two-syllable woro-u [s MIJIL nsu.ve.zl.z). I-ook at column 8. There vou have the copulativeform (or 'cop' for short) of all úe absolute pronoÌurs.If you want the -negaüve,e.g.'it ìs not I', just piefix adi.You wil finO all the negative copulative forms in column 9. Distinguish,betweenthe copulativeprefix (CP) whicl helps to form the 'cop', and the 'cop' or copulativeitself (a word-unit which includesthe eqüvalent of a verb). Studyúe last eight lines of noteson úis pàge.You will seehow useful the CPsare going to bé. Using columns 7 qg.|: qnd lgferrllì-Cto C.2, try translating úe ghrasesbelow; e.g.it is it (ili.tu) = li.lo, it's not they (iin.taka) = asi.zizn. it is she (um.fazi), it is they (izi.lo), it's not it (in.to), it is I, it's they (imi.thi), it is not you (singular), it is it (uku.tya), it is not he (u.bawo), it is we, it's not they (aba.fazi). Ifyou got at least six right, congratúations! If not, go over this section again and try once more. Section10.Possessive Concords.Possessive Stems Xhosa has a characteristic way of expressingthe word q[. Once you understand the systemyou will eniov using it. Glance at úe first five columnson Daqe22. wherc new nouns have been includtid,with ïheir meaning.Read the first ten lines of th--enoÍes carefully,then study C.1 to C.5 again. The possessiveconcords (PCs) in column 4 refer to the nouns of classesL to 1.5.How are they composed?They all end in g. They all start with the distinctive consonantfor their class,that of the SCc(seeC.5,page 19).As with the SCc,the PC for class6 has no initial consonant,and the PCbfor cÌasses13 and 15 start with l& hg, since followed by g. How can you derive tbe possessivestem of úe absolute pronouns? Ilok at C.5 on page 22, headedPS. The first five'possessivestemswill just have 'to be learnt. After that you aÌ'ready know them. They are úe absolutepronouÌÌs(see page 21) with the final na omitted, as you might expect,sincethe PC úll be prefixed. How would this work in practice? Read through lines L to 10 of the notes agaiq study the following examples,then try translatingthe phrasesbelow. The beautyof it (the blue crane) = Ubu.hle ba.yo. Their lamps(the mOúers') = Izi.baneza.bo. a) The milk of it (the baby). The stonesof them (úe farmers). The beauty of it (the animal). The singing of them (the birds). The opinion of them (the fathers). b) Its tree (the cat's). Their cars (the farmers'). Its food (the horse's). Their trees (the birds'). Is fires (úe night's). So far we have only used the possessivestem (PS) for third person classes.The PS for 1st and 2nd personsis shown in C.5: -m, -ithu. -kho. :!zu. The right-hand side of úe page has sìx columns, showing the PC for all tbe noun classes, prefixed to 1st 2nd and 3rd person possessivestems. Since nouns referring to people usually
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belong to clas:es1,_1a,(sing.),or 2,2a, @L\, the possessive stems-khe (sing.) and gq (plural) naveDeenusedÌor Jro personpossessors; thus: 'her moúer' = u.mamawa.khe.and 'their mother' = u.mamawa.bo. The final a of úe PC combines vdth the initial i of -ithu and -inu. hence u.mama we.úu (our mother) and u.mama we.nu (your [pl.] mother). I-earn úe first line, úth its Cl.l PC wa. Repeat it severaltimes aloud - wa.n4we.thu,wa.kho, we.nu, wa,.khe, you know tÌris line by heart you will -wa.bo 1 and enjoy its =musical sound. Once know all the others! Thus 'my Íamp' isi.bane sa.n! 'our Íiies' = imi.lilo ye.thu'ad 'théir milk = u.bisi lwa.bo. Stydy page 22 and the above notes again, theg see whether you can translate the following, usingthe possessive stems-khe and -bo for 'his/her' and 'their': c) my fire, our lamps, your (sirng.)cat, your (pl.) singing, his moúer, úeir beauty, gy things, their opinion, . your (pl.) trees, my car, your (sing.)fire, your (pl.) food,. Ìus sÌones, our m k, tnerr lÍImp, If you have less than ten corect go over thìs section once more and try again. Section11.The Possessive ConcordKA A specialPC is used before the namesof personslike u.Fani, u.Nomsa.These all belong to clasì la. Other Cl.1a nouns like u.mama,u.bawo can be treated as proper nouns,and fall ínto this group. The PC usedbefore thesenouns is ka if the PC refers tb a-noun úth a vowel SC, and the SC plus !g in other cases. Studythe first five lines of notes on page23 togetherwith columns1 to 5 (the SC is given as a refeiencein C.4), úen translatethe frhrãsesbel-owand checkthe result: the children of mother, the fire of Fani, the food of Nomsa, mother's car, Sipho'sson, Nomsa'sbaby. Section 12. Relative Demonstratives The relative demonstratives,an important group of formatives, are listed in column 6, headed $D,.o-nqagg23,They correspondtõ the Entlisli relative or demonstrativepronounsin phrases Ìike 'the baby,$at of yours' or 'the cats,th,ospof mother'. They refer to (úd point to)-a noun or pronoun which can be erpressedor implied: 'those of yours ( = they, the cats) want fôod'. The RDs, consistingonly of vowels,are prefixed to words or word-units,and you wilì use them again and again.Compareúe vowelsofthe SCslisted in C.4, and the RDs iri C.6: i is lowered to e, u is lowered to e, and a remainsa. Once you know the subject concordsyou can derive the RDs at will. Section13.Possessive and Emphatic Pronouns Study lines 6 to 14 of the notes on page 23. How are the RDs used in practice?In column 7 they are prefixed to the lst person singularpossessiveto form úe possèssivepronoun 'mine' for all classesof nouns:they õanequallÍ well be usedbefore other possessives:ours (our fres) = e.ye.thu; theirs (íhe farmers'opinion) = o.lúa.bo; his (the horse'sfood) = o.kwa.lo; úeirs (the cats mothers) = a.ba.zo. The RDs gan glso be prefixed to absoluteironouns to form'stressedor emphaticpronouns. Comparethe absolute.p.ro-nouns (C.3, pagelt) and the emphaticpronouns(C.9,pageZS): the very one (the child) = o.yena; the very ones(the countriei) = a.wona.
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Reüse úe possessives in section 10. Study the notes on sections11 to 13, together with the relevantcolumnson page 23, then seewhêther vou can Íanslate tbe followiní ohraseswhich all start with a relativè démoristrative(RD). How rnanycan you get right? a) that of_qrng (the son), úose of his (the children), those of ours (the dishes), that of theirs (the singing), that ofhers (the dish). b) that of Fani (the homestead), úat of father (the house), rhoseof Sipho (the sheep), thoseof mother (the countries), that of Nomsa(the singing) c) the very one (the farmer), úe very ones(the houses), the very one (the honey), the very ones(the stones), the very one (the lamp). Section14.Possessives: Jojo and his World So far you have only used the possessive concordsshownin section 10 before possessivestems which are pronouns,e.g.Ìrm.ntwanawa.m (úe child of me, my child). If the possessivestemis a noun, the final a of the PC mergeswith the initial vowel or vowels of ú e n o un :a +a >a , a +i >e , a +i i >ee,a+u > o, a+ oo>oo. This section on page 24 introduces mâny new nouns, and shows how the PC for each class mergeswith, different noun prefixes. Exarnples of PCs in ka are added, as well as examples of pronouns. aDsoluteano possesslve Study the first three lines, which use the Cl,L noun um.ntwana as a base, to understand the pattern of úis page.Refer to sections10 to 13if necessary. Um.ntwanákã.Jojo:Cl.l nounsuse ka as a PC before-Cl.la nounslike u.Jojo. o.ka.Jojo:the Cl.l r-e!a1rçdemonstrative(RD) o is prefixed to ka.Jojoto fbrm a possessive pronoun'that-of-Jojo'. o.wakhe;the Cl.l RD q is prefixed to the possessive wa.khe(um.ntwanawa.khe = his pronoun this'. child) to form the possèssive Yena: This is the Cl.l absolutepronoun (seepage21) referring to um.ntwana. wama.dlelo,we.langa,wo.moya:úe PC of um.ntwana(C1.1)is wa-which mergeswith the initial vowel of ama.dlelo,i.langa,u.moya.The relevantPC and the prefix-vowelsof the nouns are shown in brackets. Nouns from classes2 to 15 are used as a base in the other setsof examples. Read the Xhosa phrasesof each set severaltimes, aloud. You will get used to úe different concords,and you will enjoy their musicalsound.The stopsin VakheÌ, 'bakhe', etc. havebeen omitted, sinceyou now pnderstandtheir construction. Section15.Copulativesof Nouns and Possessive Pronouns You were introducedto the copulativeprefix (CP) meanine'it is'on pase21.There it wasused before absolutepronouns,whièh all stait üth'coósonants.Ìn this seciio; the CP is usedbefore nouns.andpossessivepronouns. Since these all start with a vowel the consonant form of úe CP N USed.
Comparethe CP givenin column2 with úe CPc,its consonantforn4 in column3. What is the difference?The vowelhasdropped,asyou might expect,soyou knowúe CPcalready. Readúe first sevenlinesof úe notes,úen look at column5. Here the relevantCPcis prefixed to the noun givenin column4 to form a copulative,or'cop' for short.Read acrois these columnsfor practice:um.lirni ng.umlimi(a farmer is a farmer), u.nyanang.unyana(a son is a son),etc. prefixinethe correctCPcto the followinsnouns? Canvoubuild copulatives. Clasiesaregivenwherepiéfixesin-uo,u or i do not showthe class."
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a) um.tundi (student, Cl.l), in.kwen-kwe(boy), i.sela (thief, Cl.5), iin.komo (cattle), ama.polisa(police,pl.), imi.lambo (riven), um.gubo(flour, Cl.3), i.nyama(meat, Cl.9), izi.tena (brick), aba.hlobo(friends), isi.tulo (chaiÍ), i.swekile (sugar,Cl.9), i.langa (sun,Cl.5), u.Jojo (Jojo, Cl.la), u.donga(wall, CI.11), ubu.lumko(wisdom), uku.hleka (laughter), oo.mama(mothers). pronoun o.wam(mine) for aIì úe classes.It CoÌumn6 showstbe CPc prefixed to the possessive can also be prefixed to the possessiveso.wethu (ours), o.wabo (theirs), etc. and to their alternativeversionsa.bethu,e.yethu,etc.,in eachcaseadaptingthe CPc to sút the context: i.kati ya.khe(her cat), e.yakhe(hers, = the cat), y.e.yakhe(it's hers). l,ook over C.6 and the above paragraph again, then see whether you can give the 'cop' of the possessivepronouÍrs corresponding to the following phrases. Use Cl.1 and Cl.2 forms for the possessive stemsof 'his'/'her' and 'their'. b) it is yours( =your [sing.]child), itistheirs(= their country), it is his ( = his singing), it is theirs ( = their dishes), it is hers ( = her sons), it is yours ( = your [pl.] honey), it is ours(= our homesteads), it is hers(= let 6r1t;, it is yours ( = your [sing.]stick), it is ours (our houses). Read lines 8 to L3 of úe notes and study C.7 and C.8 which qive the neqative form of the copulatives.Can you give the negative of the following 'cops'? c) l.u.sana, s.isi.lo, k.u.ku.tya, ng.ama.fu, y.ini.thi, z.ii.gusha, ng.um.fazi, y.i.moto, l.ili.tye, ng.oo.bawo, y.e.yakhe, ng.a.bethu, k.o.kwakho, z.e.zabo, l.o.lwakhe, ng.o.ka.mama,z.e.zenlJ,ng.a.wabo, s.e.sika.Fani,b.o.bakho. Studvthe noteson'PersonalCopulatives'on paqe25. It is helpfulto recoqniseand be able to usefersonal 'cops'at will. Canyóu alreqdyunderitand the follo'wingplrraseï?Find the meaning of nèw nounsfr'omthe word li-sts.pp. 56/7,looking them up undeÍ'theírprefix. d) u.Fani u.s.isi.denge,zona (ii.kati) zi.ng.ama.sela,wenau.l.i.üla, aba.ntwanaaba.ngo.ba.fundi,u.Siphoaka.ngo.m.limi, nina ni.ng.aba.pheki, andi.ngo.makhulu(Cl.la), i.dadaali.yo.n.tlanzi(C1.9). ,
Section16.Demonstratives Study tables A and B and the notes on pase 26 to understand the demonstratives and úeir copulativeforms. C.1 of table B givesthe fu-llCP, and C.2 givesits consonantform. Their use wiil dependon wheúer úe demo--nstrative beginswith a corúonantor a vowel. Comparetables A and B to seewhat happens. Table Ç continued on page 27, shows the formatives M nga. ku and kwa prefixed to demonstratives.As expected,their final g drops before a vowel; ku and kwa becomè kw before a and e, and k before o. Possessiveconcords (see p. 22) all end in a. PC-slose their vowel before the initial vowel of demonstratives,and !9, loÀi> t k befoie o. Thus: C1.5,PC la: Ili.zwe la.lo m.limi, l.esosi,lo, l.ezaan taka. (The countryof this farmer, of that animal,of yonder birds.) C1.15,PC kwa: Uku.tya kwa.lekati, lav.ezogush4 k.olwaasana. (The food of this cat, of úose sheep,ofyonder baby.) Study section 16 including tle notes aqain. then test your understandinebv translating the phraies below. Most of th--enouns are Éom page?A, úhere their initiat íoúels are grven rn brackets.Can you work out their full prefix yourself?Check their classin the word lisú:which also give translationsofUg ku and nga.The meaningofthe locatives(+ kwa) used iì iâble C
is eiven in 5.25.4.paee 32. Use the short demonstrative forms before the nouns, and úe longer onãsaspronounóãttér úe nouns,or on their own. a) this child. tiat suÍt vooderwhd, thesepastures,thosefaúers. b) it is ttris únd, it is ihât lioq it is yonderipringbuck (pl.), it is theseanimals, it is those rivers. c) the animal,úis one; the cattle, úose ones; the farmer, yonder one. d) úis one (úe dish); úose ones(the shoes);yonder one (the cup). ei with this thief. with úat iudee. úth thosefools. fí throueh theseplanks, bimeãns of thosebrick, about yonder clay. d) to thiífamilv. io that cliief. to vonderwomen. f,i to the rieht ói thesehouses,in hont of that village, beyondyonder sea. ii' the opinìon of this clerglman,of úat family, of yonder students; the pãrens of theseyoúús, of those girls, of yonder child. If you get half the above right you aÍe well on your way to understandingthe demonstratives. When you try úese phrasesãgainyou wiU do still better. Section17.Ouantitatives Quantitatives form a small group, used either as qualifiers or as pronoÌrns. The varying forms oÌ o.nke and o.dwa (stems ike, ãúa) are easily reõognised.They prefix the SCc as a concord, but some forms of o.dwa show changes. 21, with the forms using úe stem íLua:we.dwa Comoare úe absolutepÍonouns in C.3, page 'g ye.na, fust syllable;m.na (originally mi.na), thi.na iã their an use and ie.dwa. Iike we.na ànd g (nde.dwa, se.dwa,ne.dwa);otherwisethe first in and íi.na ai times have corrêspondingforms pronouns, g. is Thus: vowel.aswith the absolute ili.zwe lo.nke (the wholè country), isi.tyaso.úe (everydish)m.na nde.dwa(I alone), ubu.sibo.dwa(úe honeyonly). The first vowel is also o in the so.ba.bini group. These quantitatives, meaning 'boú', 'all three', 'all four', etc., are bf ttreir nature all-pluial. Once- you have studied numerals you will understand theiÍ construction. Section 18. Enumeratives The enumerativesphil and mbl like demonstrativesand quantitatives,are _usedeither as oualifiers or as pro[ouns. ThJv úefix classconcordssimilar tõ OCs (cf. page 18), exceptthat their Cl.l concoid is wu. They irs-ethe standardCPs(seepage2l), at times with g low-eredto o, and i to e. They can precede'orfollow nouns,but in the lãttèr caseúe initial vowel of the noun drops.Thus: ã.ohi izi.lo? íwhich animals?). nso.wu.phiuÍÍLlimi? (it is which farmer?), u.tuna kati yiìphi (which cat do you-want?), yi.yi.pbi?(it's wbich one?), li.mbi ili.avê (anoiher country), zin.dlu zi.mbi (other houses)' ng.um.thiwu.ìnbi (it's a diffeient tree), ngu.wu'mbi(it's a different one). Phi can prefïx possessiveconcords or prepositional formatives. Phi is often followed by ua to stressthe question: u.mamàwa.lu.phiu.sana?(úe mother of which búy?)' ku.ü.phi na in.ãlu? (to which house?). For pú meaningfuherè?'seepage31. Section 19.Adjectives: Copulatives and Attributive Forms. Their Negatives' Xhosa diúdes the qualiffing words that w9 -call adjectivesinto so-calJed'adjectives' and 'relatives'. since diffèrení coïcords are used for each gfoup. There are only about twenty
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3djective' stems in Xhos4, including six numerals.you will find them in s.2l.a on oaee 30. secuon Iv showsyou how they are used,taking the stem 'de' (long tall) as an example.' " The basic prefix (BP), explaine^din, note l, is used as a copulativeprefix for .adiectives,. c.4
showsits uie aftei thê scl or after the nouís stroú in õ.j, ããffi"d"'o;miãirtlãü-a.rari ta.oe (thewomenaretall), etc.TheBp up to class3 is rn for thJ singuË, ;ì ú-ffïÉJiì"rar. c.5 showsúe attributivefo."l 9t'adjective'stems:um.faziom.de(úe womanúat is tall, úe tall woman).Glanceat c.6 which eryesthe.RD meaning.ttra.i;l-atìãào/ o"j'il s.rzy,'unã comparec.4, c.6 andc.5, in that oider, to find how the 'ãdjective"co"cóo9t(ec; is iormeíri.
by leapingaloudacross thecotumns, e.g.um.tilo .fo1.ns |1tÍ::l.fyk1":,?19, om.oem.oe{me tar tlre"14P,1'ti"" is tail),_etc;,then substituteother ,adjective'stemsfrom 5.21.afor turtherpractlce,e.g.um.faziom.hlem.hle(thebeautifulwomanis beautiful).
c.8 givesthe nesativecooulativeforms:.andi.m.de -- (I am not tall), isi.baneasi.si.de(the lamp isn't-tall),etc.Thlese just frefix the negativJSò.- '- Cj shgwsan imp_ortant concord- the-relativeconcord(RC), alsomeaninq,úat,. How doesit dífferfrom the RD in c.6? It is used,foilowedby ngetròtt, íitit'ã *gãit"J"tïrïürtl"e forms of 'adjective'sterÌÌs,assbownin C.9: e.g.aba.faziaba.nge.bade (wómenthat arenot tall). s.tudythe notes,especially N.6.ut]gN.7.Referto N.7,to s.26.Aandto s.51.1if you are przzted aboutthe concordirsedfór an .adiective' stem.
r"_bJç.t (Sc).andthewidely-used cgpcgrd relariveconcord(RC)shownin 9i.:::l_$gyL!: L,./ on page zõ' you wrll be able to use relative
stems,adverbs,and many other üorcÍ-unitsand phrasescorrectlvat will. Common relative steÌnsaÌe give.nin Ç.2!b on page30. Someperfect stemsof verbsare treated as relative
stems;a few aré givenin S.2r.c.'Tie.te- thústu;-(*àiõ lãii'ii"ur"o u, *
examplein section20.
The copulativeform of the relativemerelyprefixestlre !ç: ndi.shushu(I am hot), um.lilo u.shushu (úe fire is hot).The attributiveforinbrefixesthe RC: (thefire thatis hot.the hoì fire). um.liÌoo.shushu izin.toezi.shushu (úe thingstbat arêhot,tie hoi'úings). Readaloudacrossthe columnsfor practice:ili.tyeeli.shushu li.shushu(the stonethat is hot is hot),etc.substituteotheÍrelativestèms or perfeótst".s a-ãÃS.zi.t;; fò;Àr.th'*ïactice; e.g.um.fazio.diniweu.diniwe(úe womànthatis tiredis tiredj -'- --- ---*'-- r' Negative'cop-'fgnnq showl_in,c.5prefix.thenegativegc: andi.shushu (I'm not bot), etc. Negative.aurìbutive forms(not shown)useúe negitiv" i"fi"-ltlE +l; e.g.uku.tyaoku.nge.shuàhu (foodíhatisn'thot). "ftã;ìhË-nËiï"Ëïot. Adverbs,alsoprefix th.eserelative formatives.Columns7 and 8 showthe formativesusedwith ,n" 'khona'usedas.a locativeadverb(in thatplace,there,present); ?Djo-tll?plo;oun e.9..+g.tí{g (l am present),aba.kho(theyaren'tthere), um.lilou.kho(a fire is présent,úere'is a fire), uku.tyíât r.ttto (thereisn'tanyfood). studythe-notes-on this section, N.6 andN.7.Referto N.7 andto s.26.Aif you are -especially. puzzledaboutthe concordusedfof a relaiivestem.
t4
Further Sections Section 22 is a brief summary of the wide use of the relative formatives. Refer to this section for help if you are uncertain-abouta form encountered,e.g.i.hasheeli.phaya(yonderhorse), i.veki e.za.yo(the comingweek). Sections?3 to29 are largely self-explanatory.Glance through them to seewhat they cover, and refer to úem to check on forms when necessary.Section 28 on 'common derivatives'. for instance, üll help you to derive nouns from ierb stems, or to build abstract nouns or diminutives yourself. Sections30 to 40 cover verbs. Severaltensesare conjugatedin full for easyreference. Stopsare used throughout to stressthe construction. Distinctive participial SCsin e, and subjunctive and temporal SCs in ê, are underlined. Note the use of the infix si or s before monosyllableor vowèl stems in the present tense of the participial, since gl or Swill also be found before these stemsin compound tenses. The remote past (page 19) and the past subjunctive (page 42) both use subject concords followed by g thus nda.bonain eachcasefor the verb bona.They'are pronounceddifferently. The a of úe remote past is long, starting high and falling in tone; the a of úe subjunctiveis short and low. The a of the temporal (page 42),alwaysfollowed by S1 is short and high. The translation of tensescan vary according to the context. The near past perfect tense of funa" for instance,translatedas 'I had sought' on page 38, could also be rendered by'I had been seeking', 'I sought', 'I did seek'; etc. Xhosa tenses may seem confusing at first, but their construction is clear and logical. You will enjoy analysingand mastering them. to Study the verbal suffrxesin section 41 to widen your vocabulary. Sections 41 to 48, relating-will verbó,are of generalinterest.Checkthesesectio-ns if in doubt óver a particular form. You only use section 49, on the conjugation of copulative forms, when you are fairly advanced. Section 50 is a brief suÍìmary of the Xhosa sound system.Section 51 is important for an understandingof consonantand vowel changesin Xhosa. Refer to it often, until you know all thesechanseí.Section52 coversnumerals.You will seldomcome acrossor use lóns numerals in practiceisince they are more often written as numbers, or expressedin English. Iram to say a few of the useful phrasesin section 53. You will immediately get a warm ÍespoÍìse.Irícrease youi treasure-stóre of words from the word lists in section 55 ád practise using them. Speak aloud to yourself at home. Borrow or buy easy Xhosa readers. Enlist the help of Xhosa speakers,watch Xhosa television,or listen to Xhosa broadcastsand tapes.Wiú pra-cticeyou will learn to read, speak and understand Xhosa really well.
15
DEFINITïONS Affix:. a prefix, infix or suffix forming part of a word-unit. Bilabialtonsonants:úose pronounõeãwith both lips (e.s. b. bh. ph. m). Concord: a prefix or affïx-in a word-unit, forming â faúmaiícaÍ liíú with another word, expressedor implied. Coprrtãtive: a wordlunit which includes the equivalent of a verb. It functions as a verb and can be coniueated. Copulativép-refix:a prefix tuming the resultantword-unit into a copulative. Formative:an affrxúhich adds!o, or modifies,the meaningof a word. Infix: a formative element within a word-unit. Iatent-! verb: a verb whose stem formerlv had an initial i. Ilcative: an expressiondenotine.or relaiins to. a olace.Palatalisation:ihe.drawingofthé articulatio-npôinì 1e.g.of a consonant)closerto the palate, ÌnereDvcnangns lts sound. Prefix: a fórmatiie ãlementat the besinnineof a word-unit. QualiÍier or Qualificative: a w-ordwhïú quãlifies a noun or pronoun. Stativeverb: a verb capableof expressingthebeginningand'continuation of a state. JUrrD(:a lonnauve elementat the enclot a word-umt. Vowel verb: a verb whose stem starts with a vowel. Word-unit: an expressionwritten as.asingleword, but composedof different particles,suchas sreÍr! preru(,concordsor Ìormattves,
ABBREVIATIONS Abs.Pr. absolutepronoun eÇ eÇl adjectiv-econcord(s) Adj. adjective,adjectivestem Ant., Antec.,Anteced. antecedent BP basic prefix C consonant / column cf. comDare Cl clasl C1.1,Cl.1a etc. class1, classla etc. Cont.,Contin. continuoUs contd continued CP, CPs copulativeprefix(es) CPc consoriantforni of úè Cp CPnee neqative CP form DV, DVs ãeficient verb(s) e.g. for example etc. etcetera.and so on
Fut. future
Ind.Obj. indhectobiect [V initial vowel or íowels l!, NN note(s),footnote(s) N symbolfor an n subjectto consonantmodifications Neg..neg nesative Og OCí obiect concord(s) OCc consonantform of the OC P. past P" PP. page,pages Part..Particio. particioial PC, PCb pòssestivecoìcord(s)
Perf. perfect (plur) plural Posit. positive Poss. óossessive P.P.,P.Pli.,P.PIur. personplural l'res. presenttense PS,PSs possessive stem(s) p.s..p.sq.,p.sins. personsincular ' relãtiveconcord($ 8C, RG RD relativedemonstrative Rel. relative.relative stem Rem. past remote past RP relative particlè SC,SCs subjectconcord(s) SCc consonantform ofthe SC SCc neg negative form of the SCc SCneg negativeform ofthe SC (sing) singular Sub. subject V vowel Vb, v. verb lps, -lpp first personsingular, flrst personplural Zps,Zpp , secondpersonsingular, seconopersonplurat > Decomes < comesfrom. comingftom / indicatesa followin{addition or alternatrve + plus, prefixed to, followed by, combinedwiú S. section(s)
T6
1. NOUN CIASSES Standard C-iassifi-cation eiass-Preff *Prefix + Noun Stem
2. THE PRESENTTENSE:LONG FORM SC
Present Tense Vb
EngTõrm
#Alternative Class-fficaÌï-on --Câss
(appears)
1 \a
um u
um.fazi u.bawo
(woman,wife) (father)
u-
u.ya.vela
2 2a
aba oo
aba.fan oo.bawo
(yo,men,wives) (fathers)
ba-
ba-ya.vela (appear)
J
um
um.thi
(tree)
u-
u.ya.vela
(appears)
2 sing.
4
imi
imi.thi
(trees)
i-
i.ya.vela
(appear)
2 plur.
5
içD
ili.tu
(cloud) (horse)
li-
li.ya.vela
(appears)
3 sins.
i.hashe
ama
ama.fu
(clouds)
a-
a.ya.vela
(appear)
3 plur.
7
isi
isi.lo
(animal)
si-
si.ya.vela
(appears)
4 srng.
8
ízí
izi.lo
(animals)
zi-
zí.yaxela
(appear)
4 plur.
9
ü{
in.to in.taka i.moto
Iiltr9) (car)
i-
tr"i:"
(appean)
(thines) (bird5)' (cars)
A-
zi.ya.vela
(appear)
i
ama.hashe (horses)
10 i(p)iN izin.to ü
iin.taka ii.moto
**.
l/1a'' 1plur. ll1.a"
l'ït '_lt
5 plur.
11
u{lu) ulu.vo u.sana
(opinion) (bàbv)
lu-
lu.ya-vela
t*p""*; ;.;
14
ubu
ubu.suku
(nigh|
bu-
bu.ya.vela
(appears)
7 Gt"g)
15
uku
uku.tya
(food)
ku-
ku.ya,vela
(appears)
8 (sing)
#)' This alternative classification of nouns is found in Mclaren's 'New Concise Krosa-English Dictionarv' and elsewhere. i) The initial vowelsof the prefix are at times omitted (see5.26). ' Bracketedsectionsof the prefix are onlv usedbefore monosYllabicnouns. Class 1.0nouns however include (z), úd Class 1.1nouns cân use (lu), in úe vocative or axiomaticnesative(S.24.5.26.A$. SeealsoS.25.3b. The underlinédN can lead to coúonant changes(see5.51.1). Xhosahasno separatearticle; u.sana= 'the baby','a baby',or 'baby'. SC = SubjeglConcord (derivedfrqp $e prefix, attachedto the verb, linking the verb with its or lmDlleol. suDlect.exDresseo SCswith consónúts ãre termed 'strong';vowel SCs(u, i, a) are called \peak'. Third person forms.of qku.velq (to appear, ,q come into sight, to come from...) are given above;thus l.ya.vela.(tor.l.qtotol.va.velal = l[ (lne car) appear.s. úe piesentiênseãdàsthãìnÍilEa GEorínaboìe) if ttíe stressis on the vert). Class11 nounsuse the i(z)iN form of Class10 as their plural. Classes12 and 13 of oúèf .Africanlanguagesare not fdund in Xhosa. (usedhere to stressúe constructionof words) are neverfound in practice. -Note: Stoos Thús'èloudsappear/ are appearing'= amafu ayavêla
r7
3. PRESENTTENSE:SHORTFORM:NEGATIVE 4. SUBJECT/ OBJECTCONCORpS Bersonor Noun (expressed or implied)
se
PresentTense SEor-ForÍn-
se Nee
Lstpersonsineular(I) lst personpluïal (wè)
ndi si
ndi.vela phi? si.vela pËi?
a.ndi a.si
2ndpersonsinzular(vou) ' irersonplúal (you) !n$ Jro personctasses
u ni
phi? u.vela 'phi? ni.vela
a.ku a.ni
Prefix Çlass r um
PresentTense
OC
OCc
ndi s1
nd s
aku.veü ani.veli
ku ni
rkw n
m
Negative
NouJr .
#se u
u.vela phi?
a.ka
aka.veli
m
la
u
um.tazl u.bawo
2 2a
aba oo
aba.fazi oo.bawo
ba
ba.vela phi?
a.ba
aba-veli
bab
3
r1m
um.thi
u
u.vela phi?
a.\ru
awu.veli
\ryu
4
imi
imi.thi
i
i.vela phi?
a.yi
ayi.veli
yl
v
r
Í(")
i.hashe
ili.tu
li
li.vela phi?
a.li
ali.v.eli
ü
I
ama
ama.fu
a
a.vela phi?
a.ka
aka.veli
isi
isi.lo
s1
si.vela phi?
a.si
asi.veli
i^
izi.lo
zi
zi.vela phi?
a.zi
azi.veli,
zl
iN
in.to i.moto
i
i:vela phi?
a.u
aü.veli
vt
izin.to iin.taka ii,moto
n
zivela phi?
a.zl
azi.veli
zi
lu
lu.v"ela phi?
a.lu
alu.veli
lu
-l,Y
I
10
iíz)iN ii
l1
uflu)
ulu.vo u.sana
t4
ubu
ubu.suku bu
bu.vela phi?
a.bu
abu.veli
bu
b
15
uku
uku.tya
ku.vela phi?
a.ku
aku.veü
ku
*kw
,'
ku
personclassesreter to nouns \virrrvrivs \
either qinìgula'ror plural, aíd refleòfthèir ciasi. --
SCneg= NesãtiveSC.Thusn$!il++!a_= I appear;and,i.veJi = I don't appear. OC = ObjecíConcord(placedbê_fore theverb-stem,TeFiilng to rheobjèct). OCc = Cõnsonant formbf the OC,usedbeforeverditlms srarungwrrna vowel. Thegeq,of,uFavelE_(9.1n_Rear, to comeinto sight,to comefrom...) is vela; its root is vel. I he > iinaÌ in the-fresent -A -j tensenegativé.úhich never inÍixêsva- ' _ qr$rTlt-.""ryf-e.gsitiye; addsya when tlrç verb is srressed,e.g. if aí-OC is included; .f^hi ya $ omitted if the Stressis on a fõllowing obiect or adverb. , l hus: ba.yp.vFla(they appear);ba.velapfii? (they comefrom where?) ya Decomes y Detorevowel stemsand ye beÌ'orelateút_istems(S.51.4). Th.eindefinite pronoun (it) and-th,eloc-ative (there) useCl. 1.5forms -"' of the SC. *) b, lu becorhe k, ! (rìoÍ kw, lw) before ttìe voríeio fS.5t:cf
18 it
5. SUBJECTCONCORDSBEFORE VOWEI-S Personor Noun (@ressãd or i-mplied)
Se
See Be$otçPast# SÇ. Ses Pres.Passive (lnrü
Lstpersonsinzular lst irersonplu-ral
ndi s is
nd
2ndpersonsinzular 2ndbersonplúal 3rdpersonëlasses
ulv
Class
Prefix
1um la u 2 2a 3um
Negatlve
@-
nd.a.vela s.a.vela
andi and asi as
and.aziwa as.aziwa
w.a.vela n.a.vela
aku *akw
akw.aziwa ataziwa
w
w.a.vela
aka
ak
akaziwa
b
b.avela
aba
ab
ab.aziwa
n in
Noun um.fazi u.bawo
aba oo
a)
u
aba.fazi ba oo.bawo um.thi
u
w
w.a.vela
a\ryu aw
aw.:Ìawa
4
imi
imi.thi
i
y
y.a.vela
ayi
ay
ay.azíwa
s
(li)
ili.tu
li
I
l.a.vela
ali
al
alaziwa
6
arna
ama.fu
a
-
-,a,vela
aka
ak
ak.ulwa
/
lsl
isi.lo
si
s
s.a.vela
asi
as
as.zziwa
8
izi
izi.lo
zi
z
z.a.vela
azi
az
az,aziwz
9
rN
in.to
i
y
y.a.vela
ayi
ay
ay.aziwa
10
i(r)tìl
izin.to
zi
z
z.a.vela
azi
az
az.aziwa
11
u(lu)
uly.vo
lu
*lw
lw.a.vela
alu
*alw
alw.aziwa
1,4
ubu
ubu.suku bu
b
b.a.vela
abu
ab
ab.aziwa
15
uku
uku.tya
ku
rkw
kw.a.vela
aku
rakw
akw.aziwa
--
ku
*kw
aku
Íakw
Indefinite (it)
Before latent-i verbs (551.4) tìe final a of an SC or SCneqbecomese. the infix a beforé the verb ítem. #)' The remote pãsttensèis cháracterised-by nd.a.vela-=I aooeared(at úat time.lonq aso).
Befforevgwel rèrú{Gitt }{èq5ìtítìliig *i1ttã-íb*el) úe infix a combineswith s but Beforelatènt-iverbsthisa > e. dropsbefore e. o (S.51.3ab). Thé deficientv1r:b)anee( ='never.5.48.1)is used.withõr uÃihoutan SCneqandfollowed bv the subiunctive íS36Lìo form úe reríotepast-nesative: " (aka)zánge a.veìe= Íe neverappeared(ai that tiíne,then).
Pres.Passive= Presentterse of the oassive. pasSivestem of the verb ukw.azi (to know). uiye Qe known) is the-prese-nt_ The infix w is characteristicof thè oassiveísee S.38). and.azi:wa(I am not known); info av.aziüa(the thine is not known). The-final a of'the oassivestení Aoesì6ïìEansè to i in"the nesative. .) u of ku,- aku, alu does not > w but dro-psbefbre the voïel Ig. o (S.51.3c).
19
6. FUTURETENSES Person ryggrFqture -Cl or-FIFun / rìegauve lst p.sing. Lstp.plur.
7. PERFECTTENSE
Conlr=asted Future
Eqture.
/ Neganve
/ Negatlve
ndi.zakuvela ndi.vakuvela andi.zi kuvela údi.vi kuvela si.za kuvela si.va krivela asi.zi kuvela asi.yi kuvela
2ndp.sing. u.za kuvela 2ndp.plur. 1 uÍrfazi
Perfect I-ong/S-E-oiTNeqative
ndo.vela ndi.velile ndi.vele andi.kuvela andi.vel.anga so.vela si.velile SÌ.vele asi.kuvela asi.vel.anga
u.va kuvela aku.zi kuvela - aku.vi kuvela ni.zakuvela ni.va kuïela - aniyi kuvela ani.zi kuvela
wo.vela aku.kuvela no.vela ani.kuvela
u.velile u.vele aku.vel.anga ni.velile ï.vele ani.vel.anga
u.zakuvela u.vakuvela - akayi kuvela aka.zikuvela
wo.vela akayu.vela
u.veüle u.vele aka.vel.anga
bo.vela aba.kuvela
ba.velile ba.vele aba.vel.anga
2 abafaa. ba.za kuvela
aba.zi kuvela
ba.va kuvela aba.fi kuvela
3 umúi
u.za kuvela u.ya kuvela awu.zi kuvela -awuyi kuvela
wo.vela u.velile u.vele awu.kuvela awu.velanga
4 imiúi
i.za kuvela ayi.zi kuvela
i.ya kuvela - ayi.yi kuvela
Yo.vela - ayi.kuvela
i.velile i.vele ayi.vel.anga
5 ilitu
li.za kuvela ali.zi kuvela
ü.yakuvela - ali.yi kuvela
lo.vela ali.kuvela
li.velile li.vele ali.vel.anga
6 amafu
a.zakuvela a.va kuvela aka.zi kuvela - aka.yi kuvela
-o.vela aka.kuvela
a.velile a.vele aka.vel.ânga
7 isilo
si.za kuvela asi.zikuvela
si.ya kuvela - asi.yi kuvela
so.vela asi.kuvela
si.velile si.vele asi.vel.anga
8 izilo
zi.zatxwvela azi.zi kuvela
zi.va kuvela - azi.yi kuvela
zo.vela azi.kuvela
zi.velile zi.vele aziste!.anga
9 into
i.zakuvela ' ayi.zi kuvela
i.ya kuvela - ayi.yi kuvela
Yo.vela - ayi.kuvela
i.velile i.vele ayi.vel.anga
10 izinto
à.zakltlela zi.ya kuvela - azi.yi kuvela azi.zikavela
zo.vela azi.kuvela
zi.velile zi.vele azi.vel.anga
11.uluvo
lu.za kuvela lu.ya kuvela - alu.yi kuvela alu.zi kuvela .
lo.vela alu.kuvela
lu.velile lu.vele alu.vel.anga
bu.ya kuvela -abuyi kuvela
bo.vela abu.kuvela
bu,velile bu.vele abu.vel.anga
ku.za kuvela ku.ya kuvela -aku.yi kuvela aku.zi kuvela
ko.vela aku.kuvela
ku.velile ku.vele aku.vel.anga
14 ubusuku bu.za kuvela
abu.zi kuvela
15 ukutya
fi*lÍâ*i:tâ=1ffi-"f ,ïËBËl'(,1,'*iJlyiuappear(now,soon)' 7',,fi Ihe contractedtutures ,. pCg.ÌiuJelaretc. (not use{ in .CI.l) and ndo.vela,etc. have
ïãiïHffi i'ïï;'t*ffi;#*._*tf I.iH..r*!Í',;lffi ;",:ï; "dtgifi wnen tne verb N stressed,not a tollowlng adverbor noún,etc. 20
l
9. COPUI-ATIVEPREFDGS
8, ABSOLUTEPRONOIINS
m"
ffiffiffi
lst p.se. lst b.pl.
rn.na thi.na
na.m na.thi
2nd p.ss. 2nd f.pï.
we.na ni.na
1 La
um.fazi u.bawo
2 2a
cl
nsa +
CP
Copulative Prefix +
ffiÍPr
íItist
Abs-E--@
ku.m ku.thi
nsa.m nEa.thi
ndisi-
ndi.m si.thi
na.we na.ni
ku.we ku.ni
nga.w.e ngunga.ru Ìì1-
ngu.we asi.nguwe
Ye.na
na.ye
kuJe
n81;Ye
ngu-
ngu-ye
aba.fazi oo.bawo
bo.na
na.bo
ku.bo
ngp.bo
nqa-
nga.po asi.ngabo
J
um.thi
wo.na
na.wo
ku.wo
nga.\ro
ngu-
ngu.wo
asi.nguwo
4
imi.thi
yo.na
na.yo
ku.yo
nga.yo
yr-
yl.yo
asiyiyo
5
ili.tu
lo.na
na.lo
ku.lo
nga.lo
li-
li.lo
asi.lilo
6
ama.fu
wo.na
n?.wo
ku.wo
nga.ìÍo
Írga-
nga.wo
asi.ngawo
isi.lo
so.na
na.so
ku.so
nga.so
sr-
si.so
asi.siso
8
izi.lo
zo.Íta
ku.zo
Iìga.zo
zi-
n,zo
asi.zizo
9
in.to i.moto
yo.na
'ta.zo na.yo
ko,'yo
ncqyo
yt-
u.yo
asl,vrvo
10
izin.to ii.moto
zo.ia
ta.zo
ku.zo
nga,izo
zt-
zLzo
así.zizo
11
ulu.vo
lo.na
na.lo
ku.lo
nga.lo
lu-
lu.lo
asi,lulo
1.4
ubu.suku
bd.na
na.bo
ku.bo
nga.bo
bu-
bu.bo
asi.bubo
lf,
uku.tya
#ko.na
na.ko
ku.ko
nga,ko
ku-
ku.ko
asi.kuko
.rÌl
asi.ndim asi.sithi asl.nmt
asl,nguve
The absoluteDronoun(Abs.Pr) for eachperson and classcan be used on its ovn as a stressed oronóú (subiector obièct): úna ndi.vahamba(I, I'm going), ba.funathina (theywant us). '#) The fcìrmkbo.na is âlso used;e.g.si.na.khouku.dada(cf.S.44.b). The formativesua-,,b-, nga-sgrveasprepositionsetc. in Xhosa. na- = with:ãnó.ãlso:ãc. (thus ná.wé = wiú vou; vou too; etc.) 6- = to. ai. in'from. amoòs (see5.25.1);in cômpãrisonwith, than; etc. nea- = bú mêarisof. úroushi üth, bv, on; about,õoncerning;etc. If tbe-seare prefixed to âbsoluïepronouós,the latter drop their'tinal -na. CP = CopulativePrefix.The CPsshownabove,meaning'it is', calt be pqefixed,to pronounsor (S.15)or deúonstratiVes(5.16'8), replacingthe üerb uku.ba, possessives nô'uns(S.A,1S), 'to be'. Ifa CP is prefixedto absolutepronounsthesedrop their final -na: _ ngu.wé(it isyou) asi.ngu.we(itis notyou). ,, " _ vowels _ -Í_ ,,ìrì^\ ^. -_ further (CPc) and tsoÍ trre corÌsonanrtorm df the ìopulatiíe prefix used before examolesseeS.15.16.8. Negativã ÕF fõúÀ can prefix asi- or ayi'; e.g. ayi'ngu.we (it is not you). -) LI
':
10. POSSESSIVECONCORDS . POSSESSIVESTEMS
or Noun Berson (expressed or -implied)
PE
PS
lst personsinzular lst personpluÍal
(that those) ot --m -
-ithu
2ndpersonsinzular 2ndpersonplu-ral
-
-kho -inu
mv
I um.limi (farmer) wa7a u.mama (motheí)
-khe
wam
2 aba.limi (farmers) ba-
-bo
ba.m
2a oo.mama (motheri)
#our
vour
#your
(plur)
his E-er
their
we.thu wa.|ho
w9;nu
wa.khe
wa.bo
be.thu ba.kho
be.pu
ba.khe
bu,Po
fti-ng)
(fire)
wa-
-wo
wa.m we.thu wa.kho
we.nu
wa.khe
wa.bo
4 imi.lilo
(fires)
ya-
-yo
ya.m
ye.thu
ya.kho
ye.nu
ya.khe
ya.bo
5 ili.tye
(stone)
la-
-lo
la.m
le.thu
la.kho
le.nu
la.khe
la.bo
6 ama.tye (stones) a-
-wo
a.m
e.thu
a.kho
e.nu
a.khe
a.bo
7 isi.bane (lamp)
sa-
-so
sa.m
se.thu
sa.kho
se.nu
sa.khe
sa.bo
8 izi.bane (lamp$
za-
-zo
za.m
ze.thu
za.kho
ze.nu
za.khe
za.bo
9 in.dwe (blue crane) vai.kati ' (cat)
-yo
Yl;m
ye.thu
va.kho
ye.fu
va.khe
va.bo
10 izin.dwe cranes) zaiin.taka bird.s)'
-zo
za.m
ze.thu za.kho
ze.nu
za.khe
za.bo
lwa.m lwe.thu lwa,kho
lwe.nu
lwa,frhe lw"a.bo
ba.m
be.nu
ba.khe
J
um.lilo
(ofl me, it, etc.
ü.kati
ca$)
11 ulu.thi u.bisi
(stick) (Ínilk)
*lwa- lo
14 ubu.hle (beauty) ba-
-bo
15 uku.cula (singing)*kwa- -ko *kwaI-ocative -kho
be.thu
ba.kho
ba.bo
kwa.m kwe.thu kwa.kho kwe.nu kwa.khe kwa.bo
Xhosapossessives corresoondgg_tgposse,ssive adjectives,my',,its',etc. startwith a pc {re (Po3sessive Concord)ïel
rhi.ÌJ.io_ilï;":8"üïil$tËï'ï!ljï$Jï,iõilitfi!ïi3:iï:!,onq,",np absorute pronoun (s.B), rndrcating thepossessor(s). The absolúiepronbunfor the locativeËkliõ;á--'---
The PÇsfor all c-lasses, and the PSsfor all personsandclasses of pronouns,are shownin the tableabove.Many'combinations areoo'siible:thG -' !0ylamp_=,*tlqryt,ftt'qt) of.[PCCl.7],(of) me [PSlst p.sing.], = tsr.Danesa= lslbanesam -m. itS milk = úe milk, that of it (the cat;-= u.6isi lwa- -vo = ubisi lwavo. (Nole rnarpos.s.esslves are normally placediinmediatelvaftér their nouãl)ror íLs louowedby nouns(e.g.the lamp,that of niother)seeS.11,14. #) a + i> e(S.51.3a);thus wa + ithu > we.thu; wa + inu > we.nu. etc. their a befor.eth^e^I^! (gitial vqyel) of demonstratives(NN.pp.24.26)and LÇtloqç pc attnbutive
pronouns (5.19,20). Thecl.6
ú ãfieidèmoiítiãtiïè(6i.zs,ul. s- prefixes
*) lwa, kwa + i,e > lwe, kwe (S.51.3a,b);lwa, kwa + u,o > lo, ko,
22
11. THE POSSESSTVE CONCORDKA
/ EMPHATIC PRONOUNS 13. POSSESSIVE
12.REI-ATIVE DEMONSTRATTVES
of mother
Possessive RD Pronouns taat/ ih-at/iEose thos'eof mine/of mother
milouní meverv '
ka.mama
o-
o.wam
o.ka.mama
o.yena 't'
baka.mama a-
a.bam
a.baka.mama
a.bona
The PC ka
sc +-ema
Cl Noun I
um.ntwana (child)
la u.nyana (son)
u
2 aba.ntwana(children) ba 2a oo.nyana (sòns)
one(s)
um.zi (homestead)
u
ka.mama
o.wam
o.ka.mama
o.wona
imi.zi (homesteads)
I
ka.mama
e.yam
e.ka.mama
e.yona
ili.zwe i.khaya
li
lika.mama
e-
e.lam
e.lika.mama
e.lona
ka.mama
a-
#a.w.an
a.ka.mama
a.wona
e.sika.mama
e.sona
e,zam
e.zika.mama
e.zora
countrv) home)"
aÍna.z\re (countries)
.ì'-
Emohatic
isi.tya
(dish)
izitya
(dishes)
zl
zika.mama
(house) (sheep)
i
ka.mama
e-
e.yqn
e.ka.mama
e.Yona
zl
zika.mama
e-
e.zam
e.zika.mama
e.zora
9 in.dlu i.gusha
sika.mama
10 izin.dlu (houses) ii.gusha (sheep)' 1 1 u.sana
(baby)
lu
Iuka.mama
o.lwam
o.luka.mama
o.lona
74 ubu.si
(honey)
bu
buka.mama
o.bam
o.buka.mama
o.bona
ku
kuka.mama
o.kwam o.kuka.mama
o.kona
I
15 uku.cúa (singing)
nourÌs with consonantSCs.
RD = Relative Demonstrative. The RD can be derived from the SC vowel of the noun to which it refers,with ! loweredto e, and u loweredto o. The RD can be prefixed to: (S.10)to form Dossessive pronouÍÌs: 1) possessives umlilo wà.m ímv fire):'o.wam (mìne.mv own): nq.o.wam(it's mine): its ovün): ubisi lwa.voíits-milk': the cat'ò): o.lwavo(itó tmilkl. pr'onoìns;-thusfor Cl.9 in.dlu: 2)' nounsshowirísp'ossessors to form pôSsessivé e.ka.bawoïhat of father): e.va + u.sana! e.vo.sana(the babv's): 3) absoluteoronoìns (S.8)to fóím êmDhaticnronoúns:e.soòasi.wa1S.26.A4ithe verv dish). s.e.sona(it's the veìy ohe), Theseoften cqinbinewiú attributiíes ìo form superlatíves: e.sonàsi.wasi.dala.the (verv) oldestdish. 4)' copulatives of adjectiús, to irrodúceattri-butiveforms (S.19): ' rrm.ffii o.m.dé (a treé úai is tall. a tall tÍee). Cooulativeorefixescaì be usedbefore RD forms: ns.o.ka.mama(it is mother's). #)The infii w is usedbetweenúe RD and the clasí6 PC a to sefarate vowels.'
23
14. POSSESSIVES: JOJO AND HIS WORLD Um.ntwanaka.Jqjq;o.kaJojo; o.wakhe. The child of J; thatof J; his. (C1.1, Yena wama.dlelo.we.lansa.wo.mova. PC wa + á. i. u.) He (the child) of the flastures,of the sun,of the wind] Aba.zalibaka.Joio;a.baka.Joio:a.bakhe.The parentsof J: thoseof J: his. Bona bama.séla. la. bezi.denÁe. bezi.dense.boo.tsotsi. íC1.2PC ha + a, i, oo.) ëï.2"pïbï? They (the párents) oarents)of ìhé thieves, thieves-of oí the fools, of the tìotsis. Um.zi ka.Joio;o.ka.Joio:o.wakhe. The homesteadof J: úat of J: his. Wona.wáma.doda,-wêen.komo, wo.mbona. (C1.3'PCwa + a, ii, u.) .' It (the homestead)of the men, of the cattle,of úe maize. lmi.buzo ka.Joio:e.ka.Joio:e.yakhe.The questionsof J: thoseof J: his. Yona yaba.fundi,yenlnÍerikwe,yom.ntüana. rc14 PC va + a. i. u.) Thêy (the queótions)of the siudents,of the boy, of thè child. I(li).zwe lika.Joio;e.lika.Joio:e.lakhe. The land of J: that of J: his. ' (C1.5PC la + a^i. u.) Ì-ona lama.bhadi,len.gõnyama,lom.limi. It (the land)ofthe spiingbuck(pÌ),ofthe lion, of theïarmer. Ama.nzi ka.Joio:a.ka.Joiol#a.w.akhe. The water of J: that of J: his. Wona.a.ma.dama, eni.lambo, o.l-wandle. (Cl.ó PC a + a, i, u.) It (the water) of the damd,of úe rivers,of the sea. Isi.Wasika.Joio:e.sika.Joio: e.sakhe.The dishof J: that of J: his. Son_a sa.má.gandq (Cl.Z tC sa + a, i, u.) se.íyar44 soku.ryg. It (the dish) of eggí,of meat,oífood.
8 Izi.hlanguzika.Joio:e.zika.Joiol e.zal
It (ttreopinion)'ofiúãpãtìõóffil), ól tte thief,of thejììgè.
14 Ubu.lumkobuka.Joio;o.buka.Joio; o.bakhe.Thewisdomof J: that of J: his. Bonabama.úego.be^n.kosi, (C1.1,4 PC bâ + a, i, u.) lom.fungisi. . _ It (thewisdom)of the old men,of the chief,of the cldrgrman. 15 Uku.culakuka.Joio;o.kuka.Joio: o.kwakhe. The sinsineof J: that of J: his. Ko1a.\waQa.fpnq, kween.tómbi, ko.saphg. PC'*kwa+ a, ii, u) _(C1.15 It (thesinging)of theyoungmen,oï the girls,of the family. For the use of the RD (thatlthose). and the PC ka before Cl.la nouns.seeo.23. The PC vowel combinèsúth fe_'pçefixvowel õf the_noun, as showi aboïe: a+ a> a; a+r > e: a+u>o; a+ii>ee;_a_+oo>oo (S.51.3a,b). It dropsbeforetlíe,initial vowel,always4 e or o, or (S.1ó.4)or attributivepionouns1S.19.20) demonstratives and lw. kw> l.k before'o. uku.tyakw.eli li.zwe / kw.aba.dalaffood of thÍs land / of úe old folk). The shortprefix of Ç1.5can be qsçd fôr monosyllablest'emsbefore possêssives: i.zwelika.Joio (the land of Joio). #) For the infii wìn a.wakhe,sée'page23.N. *) lwa + u > lo; kwa * u > ko.
24
15. COPUI.ATTVESOF NOUNSAND POSSESSIVEPRONOUNS CP
rCPc
1 La
nzu
nq
um.ümi u.nyana
2 2a
nqa
nq
aba.limi ng.abalimi ng.apam oo.nyana ng.oonyana
ngu
ng
um.zi
ng.umzi
ng.owam
asi.ng.o.mzi
asingo.wam
4
r
v
imi.zi
y.imizi
y.eyam
asi.y.o.mizi
asiyo.yam
5
li
I
ili.zwe
l.ilizwe
l.elam
asi.l.o.lizwe
asilo.lam
6
nga
ng
ama,zwe ng.amzìzwe ng.av/am
asi.ng.o.mazwe asingo.wam
7
si
s
isi.tya
s.isitya
s.esam
asi.s.o.sitya
asiso.sam
I
zl
z
izi.tya
z,izitya
z.ezam
asi.z.o.zítya
asizo.zam
9
yt
v
in.dlu
y.indlu
y.eyam
asi.y.o.ndlu
asiyo.yam
10
zí
z
izin.dlu
z.izindlu
z.ezam
asi.z.o.zindlu
asizo.zam
11
lu
I
ulu.úi
l.uluthi
l.olwam
asi.l.q.luthi
asilo.lwam
14
bu
b
ubu.si
b.ubusi
b.obam
asi.b.s.busi
asibo.bam
15
ku
k
uku.cula
k.ukucula
k.okwam
asi.k.q.kucula
asiko.kwam
cl
trii E
Noun
is) -CPg(It + NOUn
CPc(IÍis) .. CPc(Itis) + +
mrne
ng.umlimi ng.orvam ng.unyana
#not
Noun
asi.ng.q.mlimi aslng.o,nyana
CPc(It is)
#trotffi
asingo.wam
asi.ng.o.balimi asinso.bam asl.ng.q.o.nyana
'.t
= lhe consonant
nq.o.wam.etc. (seep.23). Column 6 = CPc + RD + Dossessive: #) NeeativeCPc forms canbrefix asi- or-aü-l e.s.aü.nÈ.o.Íilimi (cf.p.2l.N). ' Thë initial vowel of úe ioun prefx is élidedìn f he íegative còpúlative and replacedby o. Both vowels drop in the caseõf ii. rrie.22.23\follow the abovepatternt thus for Cl.9 indlu (house): Aìl possessives è.yethu(ourb)i y.éyefhu(it's ours), asiyb.yethu(it's not ours). PersonalCooulatives mFousE-iEël-mDersonalcopulativeorefix ( = 'it is') is at times translatedas 'helshe is' or 'thev are' for"conveniênce,the túe pçrsoiralcofulative (I am, he/she/it is, úey are, etc.) is clearly distinguishedin Xhoía. Personal coDulativesuse the relevant SC, and at times a noun or pronoun, before the impersonalcboulative.which can belonqto a different class: 'ns.umfazi ïit's a wóman). but ndi.nã.umfazi(I am a woman): uir.limi u.y.indoda(Cl.í) /-yena u.y.ïndoda (the farmer is aman / he is a man). In the neeativeDersonalcopulativethe negativeSC (p.18)replacesasi: asi.ndú.we(it's not vou). but aka.nzu.úe(he isnT you); (cloiidsare not birds). andi.].o.katì(t'm nót a'cat), ama.fríaka.z.b.ntaka
16. DEMONSTRATTVES A lst. 2ndand3rd PlaceDemonstratives#
!bis/ thal/
B. Copulativesof Demonstratives#+
1 um.limi lo
lowo, loo
lowa, laa
it is CPc fuflJleil/ vonder. e1c. ngu ng ngu.lo ngu.Ioo ngu.laa
2 aba.limi aba
abo
abaya,abaa
nga
3 um.zi
lo
lowo, loo
lowa, laa
ngu ng
ngu.lo
ngu.loo ngu.laa
4 imi.zr
le
leyo, loo
l"yq
yry
yrJe
yi.loo
yi.laa
5 ili.zwe
eli
elo
eliya, elaa
ül
Leli
l.elo
l.elaa
6 ama-zwe la
lawo, loo
lawa" laa
nga
nga.la
nga.loo nga.laa
7 isi.tya
esr
eso
esiya, esaa
s is
s.esi
s.eso
s.esÍuI
I
ezi
ezo
eziy4 ezaa
z iz
z.ezi
z.ezo
z.ezaa
9 in.dlu
le
leyo, loo
leya, laa
viy
yr.le
yi.loo
yi.laa
10 izin.dlu
ezi
ezo
eziya, ezaa
z iz
z.ezi
z.ezo
z.ezaa,
11 ulu.thi
olu
olo
oluya, olwaa
lu l
l.olu
l.olo
l.olwaa
14 ubu.si
obu
obo
obuya,obaa
bub
b.obu
b.obo
b.obaa
15 uku.cula oku
oko
okuya, okwaa
kuk
k.oku
k.oko
k.okwaa
Cl Noun
izi.tya
these those
CP
Yalder
laa
ng
ng
ng.aba ng,abo
ng.abaa
C. PrepositionalFormativesplusDemonstratives#+ Cl
!g'
(with, and, etc.)
Noun#
nga* (through, about, etc.)
Noun#
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 15
na.lo n.aba na.lo na.le n.eü na.la n.esi n.ezi na.le n.ezi n.olu n.obu n.oku
na.loo n.abo na.loo na.loo n.elo na.loo n.eso nezo na.loo n.ezo n.olo n.obo n.oko
m.limi ba.limi m.zi mi.zi li.zwe ma.zwe sitya zr.wa n.dlu zin.dlu lu.thi bu.si ku.cula
nga.Io ng.a.Da nga.lo nga.f9 ng.elr nga.la ng.esl ng.ezr nga.le ng.ezr ng.ofu ng.o,Du ng.oKu
m.limi ba.limi m.zí mi.zi ü.zwe
na.laa n.abaa na.laa na.laa n.slaa na,laa n.esaa i.ezaa na.laa ÍL.ezaa n.olwaa n.obaa n.okwaa
nga.loo ng.apo nga.loo nga.loo ng.elo nga.loo ng.eso nE e?o nga.loo ng.ezo ng.olo ng.obo ng.ot(o
nga.faa ng.abaa nga.!aa. nga.laa ng.elaa nga.laa ng.esaa ng.ezaa nga.laa ng.ez,aa ng.o_lwaa ng.o_baa ng.okwaa
ma.Nte
si.tya zr.wa n.dlu zin.dlu lu.thi bu.si ku.cula
Demonstrativescan be used algy:] tF^.t pronouns,the contractedforms usually as qualifiers,andúe fult formsmÍuruvasDronouns: -g:-^as loo n.dlu.(that-house); in.dluleyo(tïe house,thatone);levo(thatone). .LÍ)c:nrve anornoetrÍntedemoÌ.rstÍqqves (afteí that). ugecI.15forms: cP = copulative =-ÕPTõrm einva'k.oÌo
Prefix(s.e.N)-CPC
ìi$A bõfóì;;õèj.'fS:Ì5.iïi.''
The longer.2ndand 3rd place demo-nstratives are not shorvnin (B) and (c) above. Note: thé final a of the tônger3rd pracèdeúóniúãìivèíi-J üilòuáëiì'ràïúy-rïïgì' jts.Iv *) {|loJ_np_ r999oeoDya demonstrativelosesìts los.es (inirialvowel fV (initial vowel or or vowels): vowels): fl1o;gnp^p;..j^.^9 a.pjrDa.r.azr (these_by^{qponstrative women), z.gzomoto (it is úosei cars).
+)' CPs preposltlonaltormatives.can urs ano andp1e'positional foriíaÌìvéi èãíúêãóãed be addedto t,;à[ all dêmonstratives,includine the placetorms, longer ronger 2rid ztr(I ahdJro ano 3rd place foús. Nesãtive Neqatlve õpi;;ãfi' .. Cps Dre
')
gï'ü?HâxiÍit'ru:Jruii jï1?3i'JÌ;:',v",hmg#,r,i'it{üsì? na, !ga, kwa and PG lose their a beïore the IV of
16. pEMONSTRATTVES(CONTp)
c. PrepositionalFormativesp_lusDemonstratives(contd) cl
b*
I
ku.lo kw.aba ku.Io ku.le kw.eli ku.la kw.esi kw.ezi ku.le kw.ezi k.olu k.obu k.oku
2 3 À 5 6 8 9 10 11 t4 15
À
(to, at, etc) ku.loo kw.abo ku.loo ku.loo kw.elo ku.loo kw.eso hv.ezo ku.loo kw.ezo k.olo k.obo k.oko
ku.laa kw.abaa ku.laa ku.laa kw.elaa ku.laa kw.esaa l
Noun#
Locatives+ kwa' (see5.25.4)
Naus#
m.limi ba.limi m.zi mi.zi lt.z;ute ma.zvte si.tva n.Wa n.dlu zin.dlu lu.thi bu.si ku.cula
ekhohlo kwa.lo lora.loo ekunene kw.aba kw.abo phambi kwa.lo kwa.loo Ìrhakathi kwa.le kwa.loo èntla kw.eli kw.elo oheshevakwa.la kwa.loo bhezu' kw.esi kw.eso èntla kw.ezi kw.ezo phantsi kwa.le kwa.loo èzantsi kw.ezi kw.ezo ekunene k.olu k.olo phezu k.obu k.obo èmva k.oku k.oko
m.limi ba.limi m.zí mi.zi li.zwe ma.zwe
kwa.laa kw.abaa kwa.laa kwa.laa kw.elaa kwa.laa kw.esaa l*t.ezaa kwa.laa lçlezaa k.olwaa k.obaa k.oloraa
si.-rya
zr,wa n.dlu zin.dlu lu.thi bu.si ku.cula
g_bçfgrg p,.s,and.kbefore-q. \u andthe locativePC@ (S.lO)become A nounpreceoedDya oemonstrattve loseslts tV (lrutlatvowelor vowels). 17.OUANTITATT'VES
cl
o.nke o.dwa everv.all onlvãlone
1pt rpp
ndo.nke so.nke
nde.dwa+ se.dwa+
2ps
zbp
wo.nke no.nke
we.dwa ne.dwa+
2
wo.nke bo.nke
ye.dwa bo.dwa
4
wonke yo.nke
wo.dwa yo.dwa
5 6
lo.nke o.nke
lo.dwa o.dwa
8
so.nke zo.nke
so.dwa zo.dwa
9 10
yo.+e zo.rtKe
yo.dwa zo.awa.
11 14 15
lo.nke bo.nke ko.nke
lo.dwa bo.dwa ko.dwa
J
-bini /thathu /ne. etc.* both.all 3.4.8.10. etc.
18.ENUMERATIVES# ohi? which? other. another. a diffêrent, eti.
ilb-I
so.ba.bini/-thathu/-ne so.si.bhoz'o, so(li)shumi no.ba.bini/+hathu/-ne no.si.bhozo,no(li)ihumi bo.ba.bini/+hathu/-ne bo.si.bhozo,bo(li)íhumi yo.mi.bini/-thathu/-ne yo.si.bhozb,yo(li)shumi o.ma.bini/-thathu/-ne o.si.bhozó,o(li)shümi zo.zi.bini/-thathu/-ne zo.si.bho2o/-(li)shumi
e!
CP
1 2
ngu/ngo wu.phi nga ba.phi
wu.mbi ba.mbi
4
nsu/nso qU.PÌú ví/ve- yl.pm
wu.mbi I.mbi
5 6
Ii/le nga
J
8
si/,se
phú
li.phi .
wa.pnl
li.rnbi wa.mbi
si.phi
si.mbi zi.mbi
nlze
zilhi
9
u/ve 2ifze
vi.ohi
11
lu/lo bú/bo ku/ko
lu.phi bu.phi ku.Èhi
zo.rn.bini. zo.n.tathu 10 zo.ne,zo.si.bhozo/-(li)shumi 14
i5
mbi
zi.bhi vi.mpi 21.mDl lu.mbi bu.rnbi ku.mbi
Quantitatives usually have úe samefirst svllable as absolute DÌonourìs: yg.dwa(he aloné,cf. ye.na), bo.ba.bini(the nvo of them,õf. bo.na) + ) The foròs ndo.dwa.ío.dwÍi no.dwaareàlso found. *)' Numeralsup to six âre adiectives (S.21a.19): the BP zin > n in Cl.lO: ' for zo.n + b',th,nseeS.51.1.Numeìalsoíeíóix are no-uns;([ì) is optioíal. #) ohi usesstandardCPs (S.9)and CPswith loweredvowels(5.51.5). mbi can precedenouns,büt if it follows them úeir first voüel dróps: wu.mbi úm.limi (anotherfarmer), ufuna mi.thi yi.mbi (he wans oiher trees:cf.S.26.410)
n
v
19. ADJECTTVES:COPUI-ATIVE AND ATTRIBUTIVE FORMS : NEGATTVES Attributive
Nee.Cooulative Nes.AttÌibutive -lEãt -
mãiïtare
2p.se (wena) 2ir.pI (nina)'
uni-
Prefix el Lum
Noun [nr-lazi
2
aba.fazi ba.de aba.de um.lilo
m.de ba.de
m.de
isTare
not long,tall
e
RC SCnes+ BP+Adi -endi ---ãïtmÍleesi asi.ba.de
o e
o eni
aku.m.de ani.ba.de
o
aka.m.de
RC + nge + BP+Ãdi o'ngemãF
aba
aba.ba.de
aba.nge.bade
awu.m.de
o.nge.mde
RD
lp.se (mna) lb.p'l (thiná)
3um
nof loirg,tall
long, tall
Person
aba
Ã7Flfre
+ Adi AC -õm.ãê-
m.de om.de
4
imi
imi.ülo mi.de emi.de
e
ayi.mi.de
e.nge.mide
5
ili
ili.tye
eli
ali.li.de
eli.nge.lide
6
ama
ama.tye ma.de ama.de
a
aka.ma.de
a.nge.made
7
isi
isi.bane si.de
esi.de
esi
asi.si.de
esi.nge.side
8
izi
izi.bane zi.de
ezi.de
ezí
azi.zí.de
ezi.nge.zide
e
ayi.n.de
e.nge.nde
eÌ !
in.to
li.de
'!n.de
eli.de
*en.de
10
izrN
izin.to *zin.de *ezin.de
ezí
azi.n.de#
ezi.nge.nde#
1,1
ulu
ulu.úi
olu
alu.lu.de
olu.nge.lude
1,4
ubu
ubu.sukubu.de obu.de
obu
abu.bu.de
obu.nge.bude
15
uku
uku.tya ' ku.de oku.de
oku
aku.ku.de
oku.nge.kude
Indefinite (it)
lu.de
olu.de
ku.de
aku.ku.de
1. An adjgctivestemures the relev.antBP (basicprefix) as.a CP to form its copulative.The minqs its firs! yowèl; Cl.9 retainsi. . . E.P =_!henou-nprefix The BP usedfoi personsafter the SCssho'wnaboveis ú (sineular)and ba íolural). (4fiectivè co.ncord), prefixedin 2. Ihq AC (g$jectiv'e.cglrsord)rprefixed attributiveToìm,ïsttré thé noúriprËfil nounlrëfix úÍh úítl ttre Jhe AC i! úe ËreattribltiveToìm,ïs first vowél lõwered.(The AC-= the RD 'that' + the BP.) 3. The nesativecooulativeof the adiectiveprefixesthe pegiative neú SC (S.5) to the copulative of "the adjëctive, adiõctive.aqï anï ofteq often addsthe,úegativè the úesativèverbal suffix --ang4 (I'm not tall).e.e.andi.m.d.anea 4. Nega-tive. (relatìvecgncord)and the negative infix nge to attributivã forms prefix the_R_C the copulativeof the adiectìve.The RC. rireanine'that'. cah be seenas-theRD (relative demonstrative,aboveand p.23.N),plusSCscontaininga consonant.
$ì ;ò;èiiffi;;;!.(iË'Ãë':'r,;Bii
5. ClassesLa and 2a use the concordsof classes1and2. 6. Attributives usedaspronounscan prefix a CPc (S.15):ng.om.de.asi.ns.omde.
In someconstructioú (seeS.26.AfadiectivesquàlifyingÍouns withouían initial vowel use their BP, not their AC:'lo rnlilo ri.delúis tall'fire)l *) changes(5.51.1). lhe N_-ofthe BP.andAÇ inCl.9 and 10may cause'consonant #) The BP zin > n in the C1.10negative.
28
20. REÍ,ATIVES: COPUI-ATIVE AND ATTRIBUTIVE FORMS : NEGATIVES
Person
Cop,Irlqtive Attnbqtive am/ls/are mal É/are warm,hot warm,'hot
Nes.Copulative armïrs@q not waÍm,not SCnes+ Rel
Adverb Example
+EloSereçïreE am/ N/ aÍe
present/not present
lo.se lb.pI
(mna) (thiná)
SC + ReI nd-sr-ushil si.shushu
ãndi:ì[usfiu asi.shushu
ndi.kho si.kho
andi.kho asi.kho
2p.sq
(*.""e) (mna,
u.shushu ni.shushu
aku.shushu ani.shushu
u.kho ni.kho
aku.kho ani.kho
cl 1
Noun llmãzi
u.shushu
aka.shushu
u.kho
aka.kho
2
aba.fazi
ba.shushu aba.shushu aba.shushu
ba.kho
aba.kho
um.lilo
u.shushu
o.shushu
awu.shushu
u.kho
awu.kho
4
imi.lilo
i.shushu
e.shushu
ayi.shushu
i.kho
ayr.kho
5
ili.tye
li.shushu
eli.shushu
ali.shushu
li.kho
ali.kho
6
ama.tye
a.shushu
a.shushu
aka.shushu
a.kho
aka.kho
7
isi.bane
si.shushu
esi.shushu asi.shushu
si.kho
asi.kho
8
izi.bane
zi.shushu
ezi.shushu azi.shushu
zi.kho
azi.kho
9
in.to
i.shushu
e.shushu
i.kho
ayi.kho
10
izin.to
zi.shushu
ezi.shushu azi.shushu
zi.kho
azi.kho
11
ulu.thi
lu.shushu
olu.shushu alu.shushu
lu.kho
alu.kho
L4
ubu.suku
bu.shushu obu.shushu abu.shushu
bu.kho
abu.kho
15
uku.tya
ku.shushu oku.shushu aku,shushu
ku.kho
aku.kho
aku.shushu
ku.kho
aku.kho
2b.pr
Indefinite(it) --
,
RC + Rel o.shushu
ku.shushu
ayi.shushu
1 . A relative stem usesthe relevant SC as a CP to form its copulative. 2. The RC (relative concord,seeS.19),prefixed in the attribütive form, can be seenas the RD ímednins 'that'. S.19).olus SCi cõntaininsa consonant. The RC, also"meanins"tÉât',can be renderedby tho', lrhich', tuhom' etc. íFor a fuiler emlanation of úe RC. seeo.36.) J. Ìhe negativeiopulative ofthe relãtiveprefúes the negativeSC (S.5)to the relative,and often aõds,thgnègativeverlal suffix -Eriga e.e.andi.shushï.ansa(I'm not hot):-u > w beforea (S.51.3c). L infix nge to the relative: Negaïiveattributive foims'preÍix úe RC and the negativè (thè womanwho isn't hot). ìrmfazi o.nge.shushu
5. Classes1aand2a usethe concordsof classesI and2, (S.15): pronouÍìsciìnprefix CP.c.l canprefixa CPc form; used upçdas as.propoulìs 6. Attributive ributiveforms =izin.to). ( (it is is/-it it iSn't iSn t the thr hot.ones) asi.z.ezi.shushu, / z.ezi.shushu nour nouns without-aninitial voweluse inmeconstnrìÍions íséé (séé 5.26.4ì relatives oualifuins relat!ç'quaúffing 5.26,A) 7. In sgr4e ço,nstruòdons the SC of the noun as d concord. úot its RC: um.lilo o.shushu(a warm firé), but: lo m.lilo u.shushu(this warm fire) *) kho < locativekho.nàcan alsoúean'there'; ku.kho = theie is/are.
29
21.ADJECTTVEAND REI-A,TTVESTEMS g)_Adjectivestems.about20in all: nye,one;some,other;bini,two; thathu,three;ne,four; hlanu.five;thandathu.sü; ÍNumerals) (thoseabovesú arenouns).
'#"ü,â',!oP-rinh/Hfi ,ffi ï%iËfl [id[tsË;&ï^1"Ëer5,--,ï2i&tr$,ïsfi ngapnlí now manyT gêlê, otd, stale;tsha.ne% young,fresh;ninzi, much,many. -
b) $omq Relative stems: luhhelH.yellow; luhlaza blue, green; mhlophe, white, clear, ctean; Í_Ljrloglt',bg++_1,red black, dark; ntsundu, dark brown: etc. çÌnvÍÌm?,
dulu. !gj|tgf.ì^.9.?iFi.,,y9",broalL;b4e!e!guq1gl;b+l!!eu,, pain{rJ;dikidiki,.tukewarm;
jt"-#ffi .$'ãlffia"fid#fHr ;üË:lJ3'"t*,.i,il'l;iffi #-'o"if là,ffi oüÌrcult;nzulu,deep;krakr4 bitter; krwada.raw, rude,unripe;sfiü5hu,warm,
ffiË*"I*ry,
IrerÌect $la!Àë: steÍÌÌs
of certain verbs are used to qxpless a state (see s.42). These are treated as
ffi,"'f,o'W"i',ïffi ,$ffi''t;:fafffi ,ìïf'ltJìi;ffilí:l'#i*i lïËï:i,'fi DUSV.
22. FURTHER USES OF THE RELATTVE FORMATTVES The relativ-eformatives shovrnon page2! can be to relalive.stems,but to Brefixed,ngt_on^ly other.words a{ y9ll. The SG form c-opuratives (is/are);-tËe nôiÌõrm âitììLïÍvï w<jia-ufuì., ._-(that is/are) which can tunction as quatìfiers.Relàtr'véfórmãiivìiõaã-bãüõ:& Éfoiè: a) Adverbs: um.lilo u.phaya(SC:the fire is vonder) um.liloo.phaya... (RC: the fire ihat is !,onder= yonderfire...) b) Locatives: u.Joiou.s.ekhavaíSC: Joio is at home) u.Jojo o.s.ekhaya..ì (RC: Jojo who is aí home...) c) Cop-ulatives formed from nouns(cf.S.15): ln.doda i.y.imfama(SC; the.rìan is [ii's] a blind pan, the man is blind) in.dodaery.imfama.ì.(RC: the man úã't'íã bli;d;an;iÍábli"d;ffiìl d) Coqgl tjvep,formedfrom numeralsover six (all _nouns): aba.taziba.li.shumi(SC: úe womenare fit'sl ten) aba.faziaba.li.shumi...(RC: the women tìatãre íen, the ten women...) e) Na (with) +. nouns,whereb;r'(that) is/are wi16, = ,(that) has/have': i.hasheli.n.amúdla (SC: the hórséis with / hasìirèíeú.ió itÍóis) r.hasheeti.n.amandla... (RC: a horsethat is wiú stren-gt[/ that is-étrong...)
f) Verbs.inrelativeclauses(pp,34-36), at timesfunctioningasquali{iers:'# ilni.thi e.khula(yo)...CRC:treeó'thatareerowins.thãt srów...) qku.tyaoku.banda(yo)... (RC: foodthat iícold. õôldfoõd...) but: loo mi.thii.khula(yo)...(SC:thosetreeóthat srow...') (SC:thiscoldfoodl.Ì _ oku ku.tyaku.banïa(vo)... in negative clauslsuseparticipialfoírns(pp.40,41)after theRC or Algte:.verbs _relativè SC. wiú thenesaìive inB ry-.(1"9p34ìN);hCa>'ageinúõr[_'urii3 *ítn iãÌ*iir,)ìIrüi (present)or a CP,whichrunctronasverbs: um.ntuo.hamba.vo / o.ngê.hambi.yo (RC: the manwtrogoes/ doesn't.go) q.kho.yo up.nt! (RÕ; ìtè úáïwúo rs nere/ rsnor nerel _. I'olnge.Ëho.yo -. l). linal ys is droppédif an õbjectór aàverbfoltówi.úÉ$ [óÌ foisìì"risï'# ') Ketatrves oualrlvrns a nounwithoutanrv at timesuseits sc asa.concord(see - ** s.26.A). " TheyalsoúsetÌíeSCto qualifuotherType-Santèceãénii Ìp.f?.ili*'*"'
23. COPULÁTIVESOF'WHERE?' : OF TIERE.THERE. YONDER'
U.Nomvuyoasks
The othersall reolv
*U.l.apha. Ni.l.dpha (Wherearevou?) Ndi.l.ãpha (Whereareyou?) Si.l.apha.
(WhereamI?) lp..g Ndi.phi? Si.phi? (Wherearewé?)
lP.Pt zp.sq U.bhi?
2b.prNiiphi?
You are here.) You people aie here.) I'm h-ere,her son replies.) We're here, her chifdren reply.).
cl sc
Whereis/aremy...?
Here/
1u
U.phi um.yeniwam?
Na.nku, nanko,
nankuya
umyeni
2ba
Ba.phiaba.ntwana bam?
Na.ba,
nabaya
abantwana bakho.
3u
U.phium.gubowam?
Na.ngu, nango,
nanguya
umgubo
wakho.
4i
I.phi imi.funoyam?
Na.ntsi, nantso,
nantsiya
imifuno
yakho.
5li
Li.phi i.cephelam?
Na.Ii,
naliya
icephe
lakho.
6a
Aphi ama.qandaam?
Na.nga, nango,
nangaya
amaqanda akho.
7 si
Si.phiisi.tyasam?
Na.si,
naso,
nasiya
isitya
sakho.
8 zi
Zi.phi izlhlangt zam?
Na.zi,
nazo,
naziya
izihlangu
zakho.
9i
I.phi i.maliyam?
Na.ntsi, nantso,
nantsiya
imali
yakho.
l0 zi
Zi.phi ii.tapile zam?
Na.nzi,
nalzo,
nanziya
iitapile
zakho.
11 lu
I-u.phiu.sanalwam?
Na.Ìu,
nalo,
úaluya
usana
lwakho.
L4 bu
Bu.phiu.boyabam?
Na.bu,
nabo,
nabuya
uboya
bakho.
15 ku
Ku.phi uku.tyakwam?
Na.ku,
nako,
nakuya
ukutya
hrakho.
there/
nabo,
nalo,
vonder
is/are vour... wakho.
I
cooulative'is/ aie where?'ícf.5.20.22.a\. phi?are.pronounced.wi^tha The.SCppd-theinterrggative hightong: is...?) ba'ohi'abantwana?-(wherã are...?Ili'phi' icephe?(whe-re to avoidconfusionwith òimilarforms'ofthe enuineratiìephi?,méaningïhich?' (S.18),since theseall startv/ith a low tone: baphi' abantwana?(which children?) li,phi'icephe? (which spoon?) SCsofl.st and 2nd persòns ndi,phi? (úìerè am I?) si,phi? u,fhi? ni,phi? keep their usual low tone, sinceno cônfusionút[Í'which?' is possible. Nanku, nanko,nankuya.etc. are.locativecopulatives(it's herq lrere is, etc.).Final -ya is long. ohi? arid locativecooúlátivesreferrins to loèativesusèclass15 forms: --lu.phi kwaJoio?'na.kukwaJoio íwhere is J's place?/ here is J's place) *) aohâ,aoho refain an original ! -afteran affix, betoming -lapha,-!aÉ4. ' JI
24.VOCATTVES The initial vowel.,(IV) of the noun prefix is dropped in the vocative (i.e. when addressing someone or sometnrns): cl.5: hashe!(horsõ!);cl.ó: ma.doda!(men!):cl.9: veka.kati! ístoo.cat!) The prefix oï Cl.24.nôw.gq w^asabo;'it betbmesbg jí the ìocâíive;'!g is seldomused, nowever,rn me vocatlvepluralot DroDernouÍÌs. Cl.l / 'la:molom.ntúanamarha" Fani! ftullo child.mother.Fani!) Cl.z'/ 2.2;ba.ntwana!bo.mama!Fani! (òhildren!úothers!'Fani ándCo.!) In Cl.!0 (the pl.uralof Cl.9and.Cl.l1)the vòcativeusesthe full preÍix izin (or'rz1for borrowed woros,DeÌoreoropplngtne l ttatvowel: CI.10:ewe,zin.tbmbi!(ves.sirls): üzani zi.kati!(come.cats!) Cl.l! oftenusesthe fuUprèfixüu béfóredroppinqtÈeIV:' Cl.11:lu.sana!/ sand!(baby!) CI.10:hayì,zin-t.sana! (no,babies!) 25.LOCATTVES The locativeformatives$, b{ê andlocativee, replacingthe prepositions at, to, from,in. into, onJamongetc.'areuseoastollows: 1. ku is used before pronounsof all kinds, before demonstratives.before Cl.la and Cl.2a nounsrandbefore nouns,4nd b,e-fore SomeCl.1 Some Cl.1 and and Cl.2 Cl.2 nouns nouns(s.9. kinshinterms (e.g..liinghip terms aird and aqents agentsderived derivedfrom from
ku.we,(from.youl,ku.len.dlu(aíúis hoüse),koo.mamã(to the mothers), ,"9+! [S.4,1): ((among tru.Da.rundl KU,Oa.runql among tne th^esruoents students). l. ku is at timeà used'before other íoun classes, in which case the locative is stressed, and the
noun is often oualified: ku.ma.dodá(amongthe men). kw.isi.kolosa.bo(from their school) a u of the noun prefix'ilrop aftei fu; fu > kw beforè ç, i and k before'o.
2. bg3 (to, at, from, etc. the place of)ìs prefixg_d-to.proper nouns,or to place namesseenas the namesofpeople. and the initial võwel (IV) dioos: kwa.Fani(at Fani's place), kwa.Langa(in langã) 3. Ilcati-ve e is.prefixed to nouns,which lose their IV, and often modifo their final vowel: pìçqr,,eì.eryri>ini,. o >weni, u>wini. Howevero>eni and u>iniafterf,v,w,andafter DllaDlals ( D. bn. rÌL mD. mD. Dh):
in.dlu'> e.n.dlwiniíinihè líouse). ama.fu > e.ma.fini(in the clouds) a) Cl.5 monosyllabicnbunscan use'theshort prefix !, replàcingit with q: eI.zwe < llr.zwe. or e.zwent< l.zwe (to. ln. Ìrom the countrv). b) C1.10and Cl.l 1 nouú of more than one svllâblêuie the full prefix í/in or izi. -ulu: . - ii.moto > ezi.mqtweni(to the cars), u.daka > elu.dakeni'(inthe-mud)l' c) ,It nounsend in o, u ãfter bílabials,theseare at times palatalisèdbefore -éni. -ini: b > tJ, bh >i m > ny, mb > nj. mp.>ntsh,ph,>tsh (cf.S.38.3). t.gumDr(room) > e,gumD.lru. but um.tamDo(nver) > em.lant.erìr. d) PlacenameSprefú e, bu-tnormally.donot add a sìffix:'i.Kapa > é.Kapa. e) Quite a few nbunsuse locative9 without a suffix: e.khaya(at home), _e-busuku_(at night), e.garaji(to, in the garage). __ Notg: Pre-loêatives (S.51.3d)is prefüed tõ lóóatiüesrn e ro separarevowelsarrer Íbrmativesor concordsendingin a vowel,e.g.u.s.ekhaya(lie/she is at home). 4. The following locativesuse their PC kwa ( = of, S.10)before nouns.Dronounsand demonstrativès(seepage27.Cfor examples).Thev óanbe precedeilbv nsa( + pre-locativeg beforé a vowel),e.g.nga.s.êkhohlo(on thè left).
ekhohlo (on to. úe left) ekunene lon to. the rislít) *phambi (in froít. befõreÍ phakathi Oetweeí,withiú) (above) èntla
oheshevaacros.s,beyond) *irhezu up, above,on top) phantsi oowÌr,below) ezân$r emva
below.beneáth) behinil, after) '
h.efore gk!ol+p,ekunc.ne^use Cl..lanouns-(c{.p.p). $fu kudp(!ar) ald kutuptri (near)usena(at times!!1 bèfoíepronouns):
kuile ía.loo ndlú ífai froú that hoüse). kuilohi naboTkuboínéar themì *) When usedwithoüt kwa úe longer foíins phdmbili,pliezulu àre preferréd.
26.INTTÏAL PREFIX VOWEI,S
*) After droppedinitial vowelsjn stemsusethe BP (S.19) theseqs,es(as shown)^adjective ' and relativè stemsusethe SC (S.20) of the Ìroun quaÍifieil.
E. L or ilIf5)]n futuretenaes-favaku.hamba(thev'lleo) 2. if the a oúmoseíusuaüvafterÍa or za) ='comeForilei-to ícóme'and Ìeed =-come fi-order'tofeedthebabv) babv vizaku.tvisausãna(cdme andfeed (
28.COMMONDERIVATTVES
1. NumerousCl.l nounsaredelive{ fro,mverbstemsby prefixingqm andchangingthe final a to i: e.s.um.fundi(student)< funda: um.pheki(c-oôk)< pheka.
rèlativestems: 2. ManvCl."laabstractàounspíefixubu tb nouh,adje'ctive'or
(heat) ubú.hle(btauty), ubu.shúshu ubu,lye(stoniness), The suffír -Ì
J.
29. REIá,TTVECI-AUSES 1. f.lX jfp^ç:plfl-+liy: ll19;: gr_e,fou,nd, introduced bycfncordsreferringto úe antecedenr, ìüno_se-retattonsntp to wordsln the clausecanbe thaf of: o.hamba phaya... The whowalksthere... . I. lqbjeçt^, U-fpri, 'lhewoman, (JDJec z. urrecr umÌ-i\z I, e.ndl.m.bona.yo... woman,whomI see... 3. lndirectObjecr _I-lmtari, e.ndi.thetha kíyé...me womahl:fqrvtrqõïiaÌt... 4. PossessorUmfazi,o.njayakhenaíyi.bona.yò-. üõse:TijlïnË.j_-'
The .con;truçtion ur.
th9copulative.of a noun,of anabsolutepronoun,or âl;'3::lgiç.S1tq,"Sf(r-1lf3l),,o1 phi?(n!.umfazí, gf*["_glgqgrqtive ngu.yé, ïáuwuritrii).
Typç-Bantecedgnt:
A noun uiltbout an initial prefix vowel (m.fazi), or a pronoun (yena. lowo). or the copulativeof an emphaticprónoun,or of a òemóníhãtivõpiônòuï1,[õj,Ënâliìfílto*o1.
2.
a) Arrer a rwe-A antecedenttne clausers lntroducedby the reÌativeconcord (Rc) of the (cf.S.20).
antecéilent
b) After a Type-B.a4teç9Ílent the clauseis introducedby the subjectconcord (sc) of the
antecédent(cf.S.20.N7).
CI 1, z J
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 T4 15
wno Knqws
Upe-B Anlecedent She
RC + Volyel.Vb nAbs.Pr -o.w.azr(yo) yena ab.azi(y-o)- bona *o.wazi(yó) wona yona 'e.y.azi(yo) eÍ.azi(ío)' Iona wona 'a.w.az. igg) es.azi(yo) sona ez.azi(yo) zona yona 'e.y.a?i.(yq) zona .e?.azr\yo) 'olw.a?i$S) lona ob.azt(yo) bona kona 'okw.azi(yo)
who appears
SC t Vèìb-u.velaívo) ba.velàívó) u.vela(vó)' i.vela(Vo)' ti.veiâívã) a.vela(Íol si.velaívo) zi.velalvo) i.vela(iô)' zi.velâ1vó) lu.vela(yo) bu.vela(vó) ku.vela(j,o)
#)
TheRC (sholìpolq.28),meaning.that,, is essentially.the RD (pp.23,28) plusSCswith a consonant. TheRC cú alsobe-given ásïho'. lvnrcn.etc. For the strucrureof the RC and i"tsusewith compóünãièiri'es seepage36.
##'l
Relativeclauses usethe indicative(withoutva) for positivetenses,bur participialforms
rp9{gt191ttrè orbCÌõiir6ãâèeãiiíË."'rÍò-neããïú;'pËffüì rense, and k1.19f.1Ì.e'ç \c thus rne negaÌrveÍuture tense,would be: um.tazio.nga.vel.anga {the woman who didn't appear) yenau.nga.yikuvela.(shewho will not appear) ' '
*)
as an infix after the vowel RCs A,.q,and y after s. but contracted Y^gy:l^l:tt_tfrEy Ì^orÍÌìs are tound: ama.zwea.w.aziVo> azivo 0ands that kno'w). ConsonantRCs drop their final vówel áná-aÌú;ú-;Aw;"tóbefore a, e.
**)
lst and.2ndp.ers.on forms-wiú similar Type-B antecedentswould be: rÌÌnanor.vela(Jo),thina si.veta(yo),wenã u.vela(yo), nina ni.vela(yo).
yq:
relses. rt isusuatly added topositive or ll:9;:.I:*9_eif 191U:9yfllo_ryqgtmd
ií;ir"d;#tìâii;.,y lf.c?Íi::"pf:.F1:Tp,:ïq'-1$.t9,-p.os;ti11ipérrãd'"ï;õ;ãì; thãstress,e.g.if no oUlectòr áCvérb'fotiówi: u.nyana, u.nyana, o.vela.yo.../ ôvela.yo.../ o.velaapha.../ o.vela apha... o.ns: o.ndi.bona.vo... / o.nga.veli.yo.../ the son, son,who who afpeais.../ appears.../appeãrs appeãrshêre.../ hère.../ doesã,i doesfi,táóÉãì.::7-iedíË... appear.../ seeómt
29. REI-ATTVE CI-AUSES (CONTD) If either the direct obiect in the clause(whonr,which), q the indirect object in the clause(to' from, frth, in, etc.TTfi-om,which) referÈto the antecédent,then: a) After a Tvoe-A antecedent(p.34.1): ' úe cláüseis introducedòv úe RC (p.34.N)of the subjectof the clause. b)' After a Tvoe-B antecedent(ó.34.1): thecláüseisintroducedÌiythe.SCofthesu.bjec!oftheclaltse.^ . c)' In eachcáse,however,the cláuseis introtluceefS the concorda if the subjectof the clause belongsto class1, (seea-c above): t see, I, etc.
Sub.#Ant. mla lnla lnla m.la lnla lnla lnla mla lnla lnla lnla mla lnla lnla lnla lnla mJa
R C +OC +V b endi.ü.bona(vo) ' esi.yíbona(yõ) o.ví.bona(võ) ediyi.bonã(Ío)
Subject* mna thina wena nina um,ntu aba.ntu um.zt imi.zi
ili.tu ama.fu
isi.lo izi.lo in.dwe izin.dwe ulu.thi ubu.suku uku.fa
Ant. ìêïa fe nja le nla le nìa
fe nja nla le le nla le nja
Subject* s c + oc + v b IÌÌNA ndifr:bon-ãTïô'
si.yiibona(yÌr) u.vl.bona(voI ni.yi..bona(yó)
u.
thina wena nina um.ntu aba.ntu um.zi imi.zi
ili.tu ama.fu isi.lo izi.lo
!e nja nla le re nla le nìa |e nja re nla
in.dwe izin.dwe ulu.thi ubu.suku uku.fa
|e nla nla
le le nJa
in the Çlausgrgfersto the All$:çedent(seea-c above): 4. " ThÈlndirec! QbjEct= Thií(i-land)I come from'it, l, etc. I,etc. ffit, Sub.# AÍtt.
lp. rpD 2bi Too
t'
z ^
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 l)
ìIì-zwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe ilizwe
R C +V b end-içêia esi.vela o.vela eni.vela a.vela ãba.vela o.vela e.vela eli.vela a.vela esi,vela ezi'vela e.veÌa ezi.vela olu.vela obu.vela oku.vela
Subject* Ant. SC + Vb Ind.Obi Subject* IE4Obj mna êti- ffitvêIã- F:aKu.lo mna ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo
thina wena nina um.ntu aba.ntu um.thi imi.thi ili.tu ama.fu isi.lo izi.lo in.dwe izin.dwe ulu.thi ubu.si uku.fa
eli eli eli eli eli eli eli eli eli eli eIi eli eli eli eli eli
si.vela u.vela ni.vela a.vela Sa.vela u.vela i.vela li.vela a.vela si.vela zi.vela i.vela zi.vela lu.vela bu.vela ku.vela
ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo kuJo ku.Ìo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo ku.lo
#) The first column showsthe person/ classof the subjectof the clause. *) The subiect(implied bv the RC or SC) can be omitted. ' Foi tÏe ttruèurè of thé lst and 2nd pérsonRCs endi. egl,q, eni, seep'36.6. For the use of the negative,vowel verbsand (yo), seethe footnoteson p.34.
35
thina wena nina um.ntu aba.ntu um.thi imi.thi
ili.tu ama.fu isi.lo izi.lo in.dwe izin.dwe ulu.thi ubu.si uku.fa
29. REr-ATIVE Cr-AUSES(CONTD) 5.
a) Ane-ra lype-A antecedent (p.34.1):
the clá"se is introducedÈy the íelative concord(RC) ofthe antecedent.prefixed -' r' v."rYs to the replacinqits initialìoúêI. . ^ nameof tlre thing possessêd, b) After e; a-!ype-p (p.34.1): a Type-B anteõêdent anteõéden1 (p.34.1):
úe cláü-se is introducedb'ythe'subject concord(sc) of the anrecedent, prefixedto the nameof úe thingpossessêd, replatingits initial'võúel
ent. -Tìpe-AÁntççed. r ne woman wnosebeautv CI 1, 2 +
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 15
Antgcqd. um.Ìazr aba.faà um.thi imi.úi
ili.tu ama.fu
isi.lo izi.lo in.dwe izin.dwe ulu.thi ubu.suku uku.cula
$eeqÁlseedcat òne wnoseDeauw
RÇ t=Noun Antec. SÇ +,Noun
o,Du.nle aba.bu.hle o.bu.hle e.bu.hle eli.bu.hle a.bu.hle esi.bu.hle ezi.bu.hle e.bu.hle ezi.bu.hle olu.bu.hle obu.bu.hle oku.bu.hle
vena bona wona yona lona wona sona zoÍa. yona 2ona lona bona kona
u.Du.rue ba.bu.hle u.bu.hle i,bu.hle li.bu.hle a.bu.hle si.bu.hle zi.bu.hle i.bu.hle zi.bu.hle lu.bu.hle bu.bu.hle ku.bu.hle
End,ofeit]rgrclauFe# or wnom I lt adrÌnre.etc. íPoss.)* (ba.khe) fta.bo)(ba.wó
lba.voY (ba.loI ôa.wó) (ba.so)' (ba.zo) (ba.vo) ndi. (ba.2o) fta.loI (ba.bó) (ba.ko)
#) or (.-o/u.bu.hle) bu.si.wyisa(yo), (...whose beauty)it usdelights, etc. brackpted caìí b'é òmitièã. ) Ihè fossessivds t,or theuseot the negative, vowelverbsand(yo),seethe footnoteson p.34.
{i"*8ffi"#retative particle a prefixed to thesSC,and influencedbv the followins vowel,,.so vowel. so that thata tnata + > g a t u :_'s, +.j a' +..! * > anda a ì_9, a.RCsfor 'r the first two persorÍsare thus endi @+ndi),est(a-+s. , giveri belów, explains its use in compound tenses. e.s. in the
lï':'S,'Àffi Í"il"Ì"Ì. '3."'iÌ#(h-cï'}'"ffi tãçËi ,ïï*"^ÌirÉ'i,!ã.ïaïâ'ffïi,ï'iï;iì"Ëì&r ïuiãïPfFè'SJ,:ïãìL {;iinü.iip ?Ë.s.iï.j$i the neaf Dast- ânÍl the contrâcfêíì
neqr qn?l rcmnta noc-r
2í 22\
^+.e ar€orìútted. in.iheiliõiiei formJ(;óúõffi sõì,';ìd and thé ih.'ïBiüË'"d'6-,'d of be befoíe .B_1?gt:J",0 e vowels). Infixed "1:.tions w and y are underlined.
cl 1
2 J
4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 L4 15
RP+SC>RC a +u > o a + ba> a.ba a +u > o a +i > e a +li > e.l i a +a > z a +si > e.s i a +zi > e.z i a +i > e a +zi > e.z i a +l u> o.l u a + bu> o.bu a + ku> o.ku
Noun umãzi aba.fazi um.zi imi.zi ili.zwe ama.zvÌe isi.lo izi.lo in.dwe izin.dwe ulu.thi ubu.suku uku.tya
NgarP4st/Rem.Past Contracted
o.b.eivela. a.De.De.vela o.b.u.vela e,D.r.vela e.be.li.vela a.b.e.vela. e.De.sl.vela e.be.zi.vela e.b.i.vela. e.De.zl.vef a o.be.lu.vela o.be.bu.vela o.be.ku.vela
o.wa.-y.e.veìa a.ba.be.vela o.wa,ry,u,vela e.va.v.t.vela e.Ia.l-ivela a.w.a.y.e.vela e,sa.sl,vela e.za.zi.vela e.ya.y.i.vela e.za.zr.vela, o.lwa.lu.vela o.ba.bu.vela o.kwa.ku.vela
I Rel#ive Conjuuctions: l.hese,. hke xa,xenikweni(w.hgtr), mhla (the daythat),okuya(thenwhen),kuseloko(from úe gqe t!pO,_saqgona, nokcì(atth'óugh), àe usúárii rólrõ;õ'd Ëi'úè ;;Í;t'iËìã-rËìdìË';;õ -- (withCl.Í SCa)l at timesbvìbe par"tiéíoial fS:4.Sjl: e.g.xa a.tunda.yo / xag-.fundã(whênhd reads).'
36
30. THE INDICATIVE MOOD: PRIMARY TENSES NegativeInfinitive: uku.nga.hambi(not to go).
Infinitive: uku.hamba(to go).
lps
PresentTense(I go /^l aq going) (seepp.17,18) "- 'ShortForm Negajive{Idon'tgo / l'm not going) ÏitËÍdifi-'úilì.hambi ndtEa-mba ãã-r-ETãm-ba
los
PerfectTense(I went / I haveeone) (seep.20) Nesative(I didn't go / haven'tgone) ShortForín Ens Form ããìli.ï-amlìanea ndifambendtffimUife
I ps
Remote PastTense(qeep.:19) nd-a-5ambt(-v/ent(then))'
Neg*live (seenote re zange,p.19) (andr)zangenü.namDe (l neveÍ wenl)
lps
p.20) NearFutureTense(see ' nA.zaFlamUa I shall/ will go (now,soon)
Neeative andiZihr.hamba I shall / ú11 not go (now, soon)
trSçjleuse (seep.2j) Short Form
Nesative
Fu-l[Fprm.
I os '
F-ullForm ndo.hamba ndi.va ku.hamba I shall / will go (then)
_ IDS -
(Full Form) FgÍure,Cgnting,oJrs nor.vaKu,Dânol.namDa I shall / will be going
Nggatiye,(FullFonq)
Shgrt,For.m
andi.üku.hamba andu.hamba I Shall / will not go (then) nor.va KuDancl.nqa.namDl I shall / wiÌl nõt be going
31. THE INDICATTVE MOOD: NEAR PAST CONTINUOUSTENSE i + Nea! PastCon;tinuousNggative ,. I wasnot / havenot DeenseeKlnq
* + Nea=r PastÇontirluous I was/ havebêën-seekine
FqlLFor+-
lDs
1bo 2bl Zbo Clil " 2 ". 3 4 " 5 ' 6 ' 7 " 8 ' 9 ' 10 ' 11 " 14 " 15 Indef.
ndl.be ndl.tuna
si.besi.funa u.beu.funa ni.beni.funa u.bee.funa ba.bebe.funa u.beu.funa i.bei.funa ' li.beli.tuna a.bee.funa si.beìi.funa zi.bezi.funa i.bei.tuna zi.bezi,funa lu.belu.funa bu.bebu.funa ku.beku.funa
Fgil For,f Çslgaged nüDenol.nga.Ìuru oenlfinsa.funi sibesi.nea.frini besi.nealfuni ubu.nÈa.funi ubeu.ne-a.funi beni.n-ea.funi nibeni.ísa.funi pbeg.ngã.tuni #ubg.ngã.tuni. babebe.n&a.tuÍu Deog.nga;ru{x ubu.nga.ïuÌÌl ubeu.nga.ïuru ibi.neã.funi ibe i.nsã.funi beli.iea.tuni übeli.ãsa.tuni apeg.n!'a.fgni. #qbepg-a.funi. Desr.nqa.ruÍu slDesl.nsa.Ìuru zibezi.n'ea.funi bezi.nÉa.funi ibi.neã.tuni ibe i.nsaltuni bezi.Ísa.funi zibezínea.funi lubelu.n-sa.funi belu.n-sa.funi bubebu.isa.funi bebu.nlea.funi kubeku.nEa.funi beku.nEa.funi
çsrqpç!çd rte.nol.Íuna
be.si.funa u.b.u.funa be.ni.funa #u.b.e.funa be.le.-funa u.b.u.funa i.b.i.funa be.li.tuna #a.b.e.funa be.si.funa be.zi.funa i.b.i.tuna be.zi.funa be.lu.funa be.bu.funa be.ku.funa
ÍÍ'íl
*) The main verb uku.funa is iq lts plesent.participial form (p.40) after the auxiliary verb, ' henceSCswith e in C1.1,2and 6 and lhe negativeiÍürx sga' ftrè mãin verUh-encealío usesüe infix si béfore the stèú of monosyllableand vowel verbs (seepaqe40) if there is no other infix (like an OC.qr nga): bè.nïi.si.tya(I waseating), but be.ndi.nga.tyi(l wasnot eatrng). vowel verbssÌ > S,and the negatrvenga > !Ig' Before --'iiriuãnaÏs.èúã7
(vËrbsteõ-eÍìztA;Ï doing) wasI have,been ten-oï.s.enza
ndibe ndi.ng.enzí/ bendi.ng.enzi(I wasnot / havenot beendoing)
forms. +) Seep.38 for úe auxiliarv.showingwhat is omitted in the contrac-ted. #J Ci.lïnd Ct-6atsòuse th'ésimplifíedforms: e.b.e.tuna/ ebe.nga.tuni. 3I
32. THE INDICATIVE MOOD: OTHER NEAR PASTTENSES *NearPesJPgrfect,(InngForm) r naosousht
'Near PastBçrfe$ (ShprtForm) r naosouqnt -Çongaçrçd Fgg FoW" ndibendi.fune bendiEne sibesi.fune besi.fune ube u.fune ubu.fune nibeni.fune beni.fune pb-eg,fuqe #ubg.fune bgbebp.tune bebe.fune ubeu.fune ubu.fune ibe i.fune ibi.ftrne libe li.fune beli.fune abee.fune #abg.fune eÌc. etc.
rps #il.u€-*#.*,"ffr*iiÊ#"
lÉp zbi Tpp Cl.l " 2 ' 3 " 4 " 5 ' 6
si.besi.funile u.beu.funile ni.beni.funile u.bee.funile ba.bebe.funile u.beuEnile i.bei.tunile li.beli.tunite a.bee.funile etc.
besilfunile ubu.funile benj.funile #ube.funile beEe.funile ubufrúGibi.tunile beli.tunile #abg.funile etc.
*NeaJ Pa{t PerfectNegative I had not sousht FyllFonA. Çontracted -lps ndi.be.ndi.nga.funanga beniiinsãfunanga si.nga.fiinanga besi.ngalfunanea' 1pp si._be ubu.nÀa.funanÈa 4ps u.beu.nga.tunangã zpp ni.beni.-nga.funaãga beni.nïã.funànïa pl u.bee,ngã.tunangã #ube.ngã.fiqnangã Da-Dep:9.nga.runanga..bebg.nga^.funanga ,_,t a.De_ g.nga.runanga Lr.o #abg.nga.funangã etc. etc+ * Fururein LheNçqr,Past (Colditional) I WOUTO
FqllFor$
nave SOUSht
-+ps ndr.be-ndr.ya kutuna
lpp 4ps 2lp
pt
sr.besr.ya-ku^tuna u.beu.yakutuna nirbeni.yakufuna
kuf4a y.-bge,yá
'eolgaçred
bendi.valruftrna besi.yãkufuna ubu.Íakufuna beniJakufunã
#1úg$a\rfq"
ul. o a.bee.yakufuna #abe.yâkufuna etc. etc. + *Futurein LheNçErPasJ(Condirional)Negative r woulonot navesought fullForm eorirracted ndl.be.ndl.nga.yi^kufuna bendi.nea.vi bendi.nga.yi kufur kufuna 1p, IDD si.besi.nea.ükirfuna besi.ngaly!'kufuna u.beu.nsã.ükufuna ubu.nÈa.ü kufuna nibe ni.Ígá.yi kgtuna beni.nga.yi beni.n-ga.yi kufuni kuftrna u.beg.ngã.yrkutuna #pb.e.nga.yr *yAp."{".íi|"q"ã ,2 KuQna ba.bebq.ngayi(utuna bebe.igã.yi Depe.nga.y Kurun kutuna cl.6 a.bee.nga.-yi kufuna #abg.ngã.yi kufuna
ãi
etc.
etc.
*) The main verb uku.funa takes its correspondingparticipial form (see page 40) after the ' auxiliary verb ul
38
33. THE INDICATIVE MOOD: REMOTE PASTTENSES tRemote PastContinuous Túas fhad beenieekine (úen) Full Forú Contrãcìed noa.nol.runa noa.venol.Iuna sa.si.funa sa.yési.funa 2Ps wa.veu.funa wa.w.u.funa na.Íe ni.funa na.ni.funa wa.v.e.funa wa.ve e.funa ,2
ïBi
'tf, "3 '5 'ó
n.f
ba.fe5-e.funa
wa.veu.funa va.íei.funa Ia.úeli.funa a.yeg.funa
wa.w.u.funa va.v.i.funa la.Íi.funa a.y.g.funa
2atren.f:una lwá.velu.funa ba.vêbu.funa kwã.veku.funa
2a.Z|funa lwa.lu.funa ba.bu.funa kwa.ku.funa
sa.vesl.ïuna za.'vezi.funa va.Íe i.funa
,8 ,9 "10 '1 1 ,T4 '1 5
ba.fuz-.funa
sa.sl.Ìuna za.zi.funa va.v.i.funa
FullEorm
ã-
wa.yeu..nga.$n1 u..nga.+rm. na.yeÍu,nga:Iun] na.ye Íu,nga:tun] wa.vee.nga.runt bì.õga.tuni ba.Íe le.õga.fun ba.ye
wa.ye.u.nga^.tu wa.ve u.nga.IuÍ
ya.ye r,nqa,ÌuÌu va,vei,ngã.funi Ia.fe li.n-ga.fr:ni
a.vee.neã.funi si.ãga.$ni. sa'.ye za.yea.nga.rult va.ve 'za.ïel.nsa.turÌr zi.õea.funi lwá.velu.íea.funi ba.vêbu.nsã.funi kwá.yeku.-nga.funi *Remote PastPerfçct.($hortForm) I had sousht(then) - 'ConÍracted Full Form nãandihíe ã-dãr"erufi.fune wa.y.e.funeetc. wa.yêe.fune
*Remote PastPerfect í[.ons Form) I had souqht(tnenl 'Cgnir+cled..
.. ^ noa.venor.nr le FqllFor+
_lDs
wa.yêg.funile
Cl.l
noa.nol.runlle wa.y.e.funile
ì
-"í'-
ps
noa.' 1ps noa.yenol.nga.runanga cl.1 wa.yee.nga.runanga wa.y
lbP zps Tpp I 2
Full form
Ei
n?lã.velli.vakutuna wa.yêg.yakufuna etc.
J
wa.y.e.ya eÌc.
#*Future in the RemotePastíConditionalìNegative I would not havesought(thgn)
Full Form lPs niia-yenriì.nsa.yi kufuna cl.1 wa.yêg.nga.!ikufuna etc.
wa.w.u.ng?.nrm na.ru.nga.Ìurì1 , wa.J.9.nga.^rury ba.be.nga.ruÌìr ,
Conlraited kufuna rula-rufinea.ü kufuna wa.y.e.ngã.yí etc.
4 5 6 7 I 9 10 11 t4 I)
sa,be wa.be na.be wa.be ba.be wa.be va.be la.be a.be sa.be za.be
ya.pe
za,.De lwa.be ba.be kwa.be
sa.slwa.vr'.una.niwa.v.eDa.newaF;uva.v.iIa.Íia.v.esa.slza.ziYa.Y:iza.zl.lwa.luba.bukwa.ku-
*) The main verb uku.funausesits oarticipial form (p.40)after the auxiliarv. ' The presentparlffii-al 'at times âddsgi'or s (p.37.N),é.g.nda.ndi.si.tya.verb.uku.yais usedfor all the,compot'ld remote past +) The remotepast tenseof the uKu.ba(noa.De,etc.,snowrÌseparately)can replacenoa.ye, tenses,but the remote past ot-auxiliary. etc. thioushout pasl.auxiliary,omitting yg (or be), is the samefor all remote past The contrácted -reÍnote y.ls needed an lntD(.Detoreç. L an(lw beto-reu. as !eÍÌse9; (Final'áis weakenedto e in the remotè pasttenseof thë auxiliaries.) #)' Ihe auxiliarynda.yendi.yais the remote past.continuousofukuJ4. The future ií mêÌémõid past can useuhi.za insteadof uku.vat
39
34. THE PARTICIPIAL MOOD : PRIMARY TENSES
1os lbp Tos too I
2 J
4 5 6 7 I 9 10 L1 14 15
Positive itive . , Nçgativq agreemg/not.agreemg . ndi.úma -' nli.riga.vu{ri slvuma sl.nga.wmr u.vuma u.nga.wmr. Iìl.vuma ol.nga.vuml g.Vuma e.nga.vumr. Qg.vuma De.nga.vuqu ÌLvuma u.nga.vuÌÌr l.Wma Lnqa,vtrml li.vuma li.rì'ga.vumi q.vuma q.nga.vumr. slvuma slnga.vumr zlvuma zlnga.vurm l.vuma l.nga.vtrml. zl.vuma zl.nga.wml lu.vuma lu.nïa.vumi bu.wma bu.nlea.wmi ku.vuma ku.nãa.vumi
#Perfpct,Participial naunqagreeo 1Ps ndi.wmile - ndi.vume lbo si.wmile si.wme 2b^s u.wmile u.vume tpp ni.vumile ni.vume I +e.wmile, +e.wme 2 De.vutrÌe Dg.vume 6 +e.wmìle +c.wme etc. etc. ##Futurg Participial / ,. golng to agree Kuwma 1pt nü.va si.yã kuvuma lpp zDs u.Ía kuvuma níva kuvuma pìn kuvuma pe.yaKuwma 2 6 e.yaKuwma
T
Monosvllable Verb -:ruintnoÌTãIE-ns nol.sl.wa sl.sl,wa u.sr,\üa ru._sr.wa 9.s1.Ìva be.sr.wa u.slwa l.sl.wa li.si.wa e,.si-wa sl.sl.\Ã/a zr.sr.wa l.ll.lva zl.sl.\va lu.si.wa bu.si.wa ku.si.wa
nglnga.yr sr.nga.wl u.ngâ.u/l. ru.nga.Yl g.nga.M . 0g.nga.Yl y.nga.$ l.nqa.wl li.nlsa.wi e,.n!awi. sl.nga.wl ?r.nga.i!r Lnga.wr. a.nga.wl lu.n-ea.v/i bu,n''sa.wi ku.nla.wi
PerfectPart. Nes. ---notTãüneãFeed ndi.nga.vumãngã sr.nga.vumanga u.nga.vumanga m,nga.wmanga 9.nga.vumanga De.nga.wmanga Lnga.vumanga etc.
Neeative ..not golng to agree nol.nsa.vrkuvuma si.neãvíkuvuma u.nõa.vikuvuma ni.n-ea.ükuvuma g.ng-a.úkuwma os.nga.ylKuvuma e.nga.ylKuvuma
VowelVerb refusing ..refusing/-not ndi.s.aÌa ldi.ns.ali si.s.ala si.ne.ãli u.s.ala u.nÈ'.ali ni.s.ala ni.n-e.ali g.s.alq e.nglali,. De.s,ala
be.ns.al
us.ala ilirs."ali i.s.ala i.nelali ü.s.ala li.ri's.ú e.s.ala e.nã.ú etc. etc. * *RemotePastParticioial --Iãün-Ã-ãffeãd-GEênf
lps
-niÍa.uumE(rgl
r wa.wmatvol 2 ba.vuma(íoJ ó a.vuma(yõ),etc. r *Remote Past Ìart,Negative _ neverhavinsãsreed lp, ndi.nga.zangenïi.iume ! 9.Lga.zaryea.wme z De.nga.zangeDa,vume o e.nga.zange a,vume,etc.
1pt lpp .U U
1^ 2 J
4 5 6
sl.za t.za rli.za g.za
ba.za LZA
i.za li.za e.za etc.
Theparticipial1noo!r.ro1 g.vuma(I heardhim agreeing), onlyexpresse.s '-ing',e.g.nda.m.va but al^solvhgn].'before','after',-etc. in adverbïauïes, e.g.ndi.fikeg.rìúile (I camele haíing / afterhe left). Thismoodis alsoused: i) bv úe mainverbin compoundtenses. ii) aftersomeDVs (5.48.4). (p.41). iii) ãftercertainconiunctioirs iú afterkutheni?(Èhv?)." TheparticipialhasSCswith e iriCl.Í:2.6 anduóesthe nesativeinfii nâa. Auxiliaryvèrbsuseparticipialformsfoi compoundtenses-of tbepartiffial. ')
#) +) r *)
Thepresentparticipialaddsúe infix si beforemonosyllable andvowelverbsif thereis no ot-herinfËJli\e 4r QÇ of ng+);g[and4galosetheìrvowelbeforevowelstems(see p.37.N).Auxiliaries-dón't examples, addsi. The lonq perfect form is usedwhen úe verb carriesthe stress(cf.o.20.M. In the pérïect tensethe SCs in Cl.l and Cl.6 dropsbefore a vciweÌverb.' The reìnote pastparticipialãdds (vo) when stressìed. For its nesativeit usesthe participial foÌm oï the DV zange(p.19.N),followed by the subiunctive.
##) Theseformscanbe contracted: e.g.e.nea.ükuvuma> e.nqa.vu.vuma. + +') Thepresentparticipialof uku.AarépTacés.ihat of uku.yeaúríauxiliary for úe near ruturetense,e.g.g.zakuwma (ne bemgaboutto agree). 40
NeqrPq,st . Çontinuous haungbeenaseemg,etc. 1ps 2bs Í J
^
5 6
FqllFoní
ndl.be ndr.vuma
@qeeled De.nor.wma
e.bee.vuma 5e.be-be.vuma u.be u.vuma i.bei.wma li.be li.vuma e.beg.vuma etc.
g.b.e.wma be.E.vuma u.b.u.wma i.b.i.vuma be.li.vuma g.b.e.wma etc.
u.beu.vuma
NeEr4ast P,erfeqt, haonot beenagreerng
ndi.bendi.vumile u.beu.wmile g.bee.wmile ËãËõiiJ..''lìiúte ã-$eer/umile
u-bu.nga.wmanga ebe.nsa.vumanga Eçfu.ãga.vumaãga ebg.nga.vumangaetc'
âB: I 6
u.b.u.vuma
Ne4r Pist Perfect . Near PastPerfect . ---Txf5êen hadbeenagreeing aerèeine
FullFoqr0ríg)
2
-
Near P4stÇontinuousNegative etc. not havinebeen aqreelnq, ' FuLl Foqn çEol4aeled Denol.nga.vurru ndibe ndl.nga.wml u.Du.nga.vuÍÌÌl ube u,nga.vumr gbe.nga.wml . gbe e.nga.vumr Deug.nga.vunx bebebe.nga.wmr uou.nga.vuml ube u.nga.vumr ibe i.ngã.vumi_ ibi,t-tgã.wmi. beli.íga.vumi li-beli.õga.vumi ebe.nga.vuml e.nga.vumr Ebe elc. etc.
-
"[!$rye-_ çoilpd4{!lnqë44]_ Dendl.nga.vuÍÌranga be.ndi.vumile bendl.vume u.b.u.wmile g.b.e.wmile Ëê-.&.vumile I.b.e.vumile
ubu.vume gbe.vume bebç.wme ebe.vume
# PasÍ/ Nçgative #*Future iÍr=theNe=aJ would / would not haveDeen,agreemg bendi.nga.ulovtrma 1ps bendi.vakúwma gbg.za e.be g.za ubu.nga.Y!.kuvuma ubu.ydkuvuma Neggtive Kuwma Çontr=?cted. Ebg.yakuvuma 9D9.Dga-Y1 Lr,endl.nga-21 Ips Kuvuma beDg.nga.yl 2 bebè.yakuvuma r eDe.nga4 etc. kuvuma ebe.nga'yl kuvuma 6 Ebç.yã RemoteBaStCìítiÈ./ConqÌactgd tRemote PastContinpoul / Negativp noa.nolza lDs nda.benol ndl,za .J)s noa.De wa.b,eza wa,oe wa.be e.za I (tnen) 9.za agreerng havrng been not hay.rng / Negative nda.ndt.vuma nda,nor.nga.wml lps Çpntraçted los nda.ndi.nea.zi wa.w.u,nga.wmr wa.w.u.wma wa.y.g.ngã.zi 1 wa.y'e'nga.wmr ]vat.g.vuma Da-Dg.nga.vulì! 2 ba.be.vuma CoqjunptioJs fploygd a.y.9.nga.vumretc. a.y.e.vuma 6 raruclplal Dy tFe -- . - Decause *Remote Past + lauba Perf.(LongFonr.r)/ N,ega.tive + Ngo.kuba - because hacl/ haclnot beenagÍeerng(üen, Neoko.kuba- because nda.ndÍ.nga.vudranga 1ps nda.ndi.ïumile' NEo.ba- because wa.w.u.ngã.vumânga wa.w.u.wmile NEa.kuba- because wa.y.e.nga.vumanga wa.y.g.vuqlle " (after a negativeclause) ba.be.nga.vumanga 2 ba.Ug.vumlle Na.kuba àlthoueh etc. a.y.e.nga.vumanga a.y.g.vumiÌe 6 Nqa.ngo.kuba- aï much as, so much úat #*Future ir.rthe Rggrqlg Past,/ Negativq Nje.ngo.kuba (tnen) - as, ,. agreelng have been wouldn't would / accoroüìqas nda.ndi.ya,kuvuma nda.ndi.nga.yl,kuvuma inasmuch aI, E.kub.eni wa.w.u.yakuwma wa.w'u.nga.yl.Kuvuma whereas wa.y.g.yakuvuma wa.J.e'nga.yl.Kuvuma for', + )These.when meaning ba.bg.Vakuvuma ba.Ug'nga.lnKuvuma 2 'take the indicative. Kuwma etc. a.y.e.nga.yl a.y.e.yâkuvuma ó
,P" ,P'
,P'
li:
Seenoteson úe use and characteristicso,fúe participial mood on p'4O' The presentparticipial usedin compoundtensesat tlmes addssl or Ë(seep.J/.1\).
*) Theseare contracted.Full forms follow ttroseqf thç indicative,but use the participíal of the ' auxiliaries.(Note: auxiliariesdo not use the lntx 51-) uku.yain the near futures-of near and^remotepast Íenses: #) uku.zareplace.s ' gËe.za*uvuÉa (he havingbeen about to agree). ".g.
4L
36. THESUBruNCTTVEMOOD
1pt lpp zDs
tv 2 J
4 5 6 8 9 10 11 L4 15
lps lpp ô:-LUU
I
2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 15
PresentSubiunctive Positive - *Nesative and I see and I don't see that I mav / mav not see ndi.bone -niü.neá.boni si.bone si.nsãboni u.bone u.nÃa.boni ni.bone ni.n--sa.boni p.bgne s.ngã.boni. Da.DOne Da.nsa.boru u.bone u.nsã.boni i.bone i.nsã.boni li.bone li.rì'ea.boni a.bone a.nÃa.boni si.bone si.nla.boni zi.bone zi.nËa.boni i.bone i.neã.boni zi.bone zi.ãsa.boni lu.bone lu.n-ea.boni bu.bone bu.i'ea.boni ku.bone ku.nla.boni
I saw nda.bona sa.bona asa.bona wa.bona akwa.bona na.bona ana.bona wa.bona aka.bona ba.bona aba,bona wa.bona awa.bona va.bona ava.bona la.bona ala.bona a.bona aka.bona sa.bona asa,bona za.bona aza.bona ya.bona aya.bona za.bona íza.bona lwa.bona ahfa.bona ba.bona aba.bona kwa.bona akwa.bona
I arrive when I arrived
nda.ku.fika iB; sa.ku.fika 2bs wa.ku.fika
2w I' 2 J
4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 74 15
1ps
2bs 1
2 6
37. THE TEMPORALMOOD
na.ku.fika a.ku.fika ba.ku.fika wa.ku.fika ya.ku.fika la.ku.fika a.ku.fika sa.ku.fika za.ku.fika ya.ku.fika 2a.ku.fika lwa.ku.fika ba.ku.fika kwa.ku.fika
I don t arrive when I didn't arrive
nda.ku.nsa.fiki sa.ku.nsalfiki wa.ku.íea.fiki na.ku.nÃa.fiki a.ku.nsã.fiki ba.ku.ísa.fiki wa.ku.nïa.fiki ya.ku.nsã.fiki la.ku.nõa.fiki a.ku.nsã.fiki sa.ku.ãsa.fiki za.ku.nÉa.fiki ya.ku.nÃa.fiki 2a.ku.nÃa.fiki lwa.ku.ísa.fiki ba.ku.nsã.fiki kwa.ku.ãga.fiki
when I amlwas nda.kuba ndi.fika wa.kubau.fika a.kubag.fika ba.kuba!e.fika a.kuba g.fika etc.
P"tiri*Y""Ì*Tffi* when I havearrived -when
;i: 2 6
when I had arrived nda.kubandi.fikile wa.kuba u.fikile a.kuba e.fikile ba.kubabe.fikile a.kubae.fikile etc.
I haven'tarrived when I hadn t arrived nda.kubandi.nsa.fikansa wa.kubau.nqa.Íikanea' a.kub,ae,ngalfikangã Da.KuDa De.nga.trkanga a.KuDae.nga.tlkanga etc.
The PresentSubiunctive is used: l. afterconjunctions pu{pose,.etc. like hleze (lest),ukude(until), 19,_:1qr^",.: 1,rn9hr.,!99ire, uSuzg or ulQpa (tÌÌat, so that), at tlmes omitted. ^ after kha-ma,maze,ze, 2. (S.39.4g.1).
used'iosuggestor exhort action 3. after verbs like buJia.!a. h!ê, sukafúhen usedas auxiliariès(S.4S.l:2), 4. m orclersor narTativesto expressa sequenceof actions.replacine,and,: ylza:u.ty9(co.me_andeat), uyalesaê.nga.lali(he reaásahd doEsnl sleep). ). po rs usegwttr the short intinatlveto tbrm an emphaücfuture subiunctivej' . a.bo(ku)yeka(he will haveto stop), a.nga.bo(ku)lila(t e slouÍOniini: rs.oj)ggnatexcept.betore.vowel q verbs:4,nga.bo.k.ona(he must not sin). _ I ne rasÌ suDJunctrvq touowsother verbsin a narrativesequenceof actions: wa.zawa.tya(he cameand ate), wa.vúa aka.lila (6e woke and didn't cry).
TheJemporal. often precerlgdby uku.thi (to do thus),hasa present,past or future meanins. _r.n:ETpo"rarot ukr*.bqis usedwith.the presenrand perfect partícipial of the main ver6, as snown, to ÌoÍïn two tufiher temDoÍaltenses, *) a of nda, 4g4, etc. dropsbefore vbwel stems; a > e before latent-i stems.
42
38. THEPASSIVE c consonantstems
vowel stemsadd the in-fixiw in the passive: enz.iw.a(be made)
Other stèmsadd w: bona (see) > bìn.w.a.(be seen);eyika fear) > oyik.w.a(be frightened) 2. Perfect Tense PassiveStems @anddisyllabicvowe|stemschange-ile,.eto-irveinthepassive; thuí: ph.ile. ph.s > ph.iwe: enz.ilé,enz.e > enz.iwe (stemi pha, enza) Oúer stens châãge-ileìo -1we,and -e to -we; úus for steinsbona, ofika: bon.ile > boòiwe, bon.e > bon.we; oyik.ile > oyik.iwe,oyik.e > oyik.we 3. Palatalisation
ú".tïr3fft*"
stems,unlesstheyform úe first
Perf.Passive Further examoìes:
b > bh> m+V > m,+C> mb > mp > ph >
ry j hy+V ú+C nJ . ntsn tsh
onwaEiaa > onwaryis.wa khary.wa m-awlwe khaba(kick) bhaj.iwe bhuhhela > bhujel.wa bhabha(fly) bhaj.wa luIy.lÌve rumana > rulyan.wa lu4y.wa luma(bite) phuqla.(rest). phuJtyul.waohúnvul.iwe ohumza > ohunwz.wa khumbula > khunìul.wa bamba(catcn) , b?nJ.wa, baníFwe mpol4Ba(pump)mpo!!!sn.wamDontsh.lwemDomDoza>mDontsnoz.wa botsh.wa bdlSb':ïwe atüphTta > alü$ilalrva b
rasslve Verb verD 4. The lne Asent oÍ of a Passive 'l-he (S.9.15.1ó.8) ls used tor the agent - u.bon.wa y.rnla (ne K seen Dy lne oog torm coDulative @B)isused'fortheagent,-9.b9.rr.w1y.inja.(t'"il.:E.ul:L"'dg
ay.enz.iwangu.ye(iÌ is'nót máde by t"t) - eicept in the aiiomatic negative(5.26.A5 ì: aka.bon.wa DJa(he rsnot seenDyanyoog). 5. PassiveTensesof uku.bon.wa(to be seen) Chss 1 forms aiè given below to ihow the use of the participial in compound tenses. Indicative (d.oo.37-39)* Present ì.vâ.bon.wa,u.bon.wa/ aka.bon.wa(cf.p.19) (he is seen/ not seen) Perfect u.bon.iwe.u.bon.we / aka.bon.wanqa Remote Past wa.boir.wa/ (aka)zangea.bon.üe(seep.19.N) Future# u.vaku.bon.wa / aka.viku.bon.wa (cf.p.20) FurureConúacted wo.bón.wa / aka.yu.bon.wa Near PastContin. ub(e) g.bon.wa / ub(e) e.nga.bon.wa Near PastPerfect ub(e) e.bon.iwe / ub(e) g.bbn.we / ub(e) e.nfa.bon.wanga Future in the Near Past# ub(e) e.yaku.bon.wa / ub(e) c.nga.yiku.bon.wa Remote PastContinuous wa.y(e)e.bon.wa / wa.y(e)e,nga.bon.wa wa.y(e)e.bon.iwe/e.bon.we/ wa.y(e)e.nga.bon.wanga RemotePastPerfect Future in úe Remote Past wary(e)e.yaku.bon.wa/ wa.y(e)e.nga.yiku.bon.wa
;
Particioial ícf.oo.40.41) FÍesen-i- ' èbon.wá / E.nga.bon.wa(he being / not being seen) Perfect e.bon.iwe.e.bon.we/e.nqa.bon.wanga Remote Past wa.bon.wáfro) / g.igazaíge g.bon.w:e(seep.40) Future# e.yaku.bon.wa / e.nga.Yku.bon.wa Subiunctiveícf.o.42\ ' abon.we a.nga.bon.wa(and he is seen,that he may be seen) FreGnt/ Past wa.bon.wa / aka.bon.wa Temooral kf .o.42\ EêSnt ã.kú.bon.*a / aku.nga.bon.wa(when he is/was seen/ not seen) Remote Past a.ku.bae.bon.iwe / a.ku.baç.nga.bon.wanga *\ ,
\-
1-l!\t )
:
The contractedform omits the bracketed(e); ube úên at times becomesebe: e.s.ub(e) e.vaku.bon.wa> ub.e.yaku.bon.wa,eb.e.yaku.bon.wa NearTuturèïorins with the auxiliaryuku.zaare alsofound (cf.p.20).
43
39.IMPERATIVES consor,rantverbsof over one syllableus.eúeir stem for the 2nd p.s.,adding4j, for the 2nd p.pl: v. thenga:2ps.thensa!(buv!).2pp.thenea.ni!(buvve!) Monosylìable siemsprãfix [: zís. vi.Wat f eãt!). 2bp] ú.ú.ni ! (eat ve!) Vowel stemsprefix y: 2ps.y.ak[a! (búild!), 2óp. v.âkfra.ríit(buìtd vé!)' If an oC (object coícorã) i'sadded,then úirat'd j é, ããOü,Varãíõiâeeueo: _ [.thenge!(buy ít!), zi.tye!(eat úem!), z.akhe.ni!(build ye them!) ,ljì: lgÇ,ltlyelmusa! (don't!), musa.ni!(don't ye!) are üsedb-eforeinÍnitives ro form negarive lmperauves. uontracted torms are corrÌmon: musauku.hamba!mus'uku.hamba! (don't eo!) suku.hamba! . musa.niuku.thetha! musa.n'uku.thetha!sanuku.tlìetha!ído'n,tve talk!) OG come,before rhe infinitive (aoÈt feaí tnémiÍ 'I be negativesubjunctive(5.36)stem:mus'uku.ba.betha! can be usedfor neqativeòrders: u.nga.vumi(you shouldn'tagree) ni.nga.ba.betÍi(ye shouldn'tbeat them) J!.e DV.s-kbg (used for 2nd persons)and ma. maze.ze..(used for all personsand classes)are followed by the subjunctive(5.36,48.Í).Thev ailìiEãactron. kha: kha.ü.u.tye!(iirfix w; iuÀtyou ear'!) khã.ni.zi.tie!(iust ve eat them!). ma addsw beforeú, and k-befõrea, bút mazeis nót usëdúth an infix: ' ma,.w.u.hambe, ma.k.a.hambe(let.y.ou/himgo),^b_ut mazea.hambe(let hirn go). ze: znd personsu.ze,ni.zecombinewiú following SCsto eiveu.z.u.ze.ri; _ uzu.thule(ygu shouldbe qujet), ?eni.zi.thengé(ye shoïld 6uVttremf Ine negauvesubjuncttve usesthe lnlú nga: ma.si.nga.hambi (let us not go). 40. PERFECT STEMS OF VERBS The final a of the basic stem becomesile (short Íorm 9) in the perfect: vúa > vul.ile, vul.e. *ene. *ethe -' polysylÌabic Most Most polysylabic verbsending verbs endingin ala a,thahave haveptrfects pérfectsiiÌ ii *ele, ala,aIA ana,'a,tha -ele v9rqs tlgl+ rn athg (9:$t phatha) have (e.9.phatha) have regular regularpertèct pertèctstgms, stems,but but take take-e;èerhg-efte: erhe whe,nusedsrarively when )grllq u,.l?! ).o*.\ *ele
(1,+z).-tata, thwãi-a,ìú,'zata {J.42). t-Ala. thwala. sala. zzla aád and úãntï;ibiï manv verhs in çbb;úï;ih;6'-.="'=."1;iì;Ë, ela nnlv rrse fhe fnrrn llclt tlüJËëìü zele, etc.).
Somedisyllabicand au polysytlabic verbsin çla, ola, ula only havepedecrsin *e, rhussela > godola godole.vá sele, selergodôla-> (mile, godole. Ma me) hasa sia-tivê-perrú, (wirt srativeperfeit,mi. Étiãir" ÉIlala"tttirtta='-ithu hluúa"'mitha(*irh -> "ruu.rne, peÍtects 'blale, "hlülhe,-"grg|ç) use use the úe forms Ïorms hleli, hlell, hluthi,míthijn hluthl,mithi P€flec$ -trr4te' in tbe tbe stative. stative. Thi Thi and and ba'only ba only pertêcts (the. {ÌÌl!9) use se short short pertêcts (rhe,be). be). Tsho Tsho > tshilo T;ho tshilo (nes. ínes. tshonsnì with tshilo.(neg. tslrongo), tshonqo). q"_{..J!_ç!_"-,},"1 wiú aa shnrt wiú shon fnrm short form,rshn tsho. ïl?:1911
) ln this caseshort and long forms only diÌfer-in theiipi'onunciation. 41. VERBAL SUFFIXES
Thesecan replacethe. final E of the-stemto extendor changethe significanceof the verb. 'I heir more usualmeaninqis given below. Causalive:isa; also la > 24 sorietiineska > za, sa (cause/ help to do): (buy), thengisa.(cause to buy, sell); vukà (wakê),vúsa(roúse) ^ ..thenga Applrçd: ela (do tor,,to,against,towards;go to); ela + ni? (whatfor? whÍ?): . thunga(sew).,tlungeta (sewfol); u.thungela.ni?(why are you sewin-g?) Ì(ecÌprocar: ana (oo lor eachother,Ìor one another): nceda(help),ncedana(heloeachother) Intensive:isiàaCdijwell, thoròuehlv.persisreítlv): funa (seek),firnisisa(seek-diÍieèntlv) " Perfective:g!4!a"elela (do well, úoíousÉÍv. efficientlv): bamba (catch),bambelela(hold o:nt-o) Persistive:azèla,ei,èla(do persisìently.repéatedlv): bhabha(fl utter). bhatihazela(flúttef aroundl Neuter (expreisinga'state):ekg,akala, lu > ka ftê do-able.be / eet done):
R"d"fi ï,!Ì38's,ry"ïff,thiirËlË[:iiËi"15?i,ï]l?fi ïf,iïa,!iii,sJ),,,r, phinda (repeat), pbindaphinda-(keep iépeating) .
'.rurmer. examples .show that combinations are common, tlus: bona (see). bon.isa (show). (show to), bonjs.ana (sh.oweach other), bon.akâla(be üsible, appêar),uòn.àtcat.iíd ,bolris.ela (make clear to). tmaKeappear),bon.akal.rs.ela
44
42.STATIVEVERBS Manv Xbosa verbs can expressúe beeinningof a state, like uku.lamba (to become hungry). present,itc'ú if can continuinsín úe present, bezu-lrin the past Wheir the oerfect stem indìcatesa state-.bezuì oast and continuinq Wheh (sèe prefix relaiive formativesand function as qualifier examplesS.21.c). S.21..c). ás a õualifier À perfect tense using a perfect stem 'stativêly'can 6e translafedby úe presenttense.A verb ïerb. thát can be usedin tÈ'isúay liav is called calleda stative stativeVerb. hun[ ' still in tlúat state) = I am hungry ndi.lambile = I became re hungry hunsrv (and íand am still sining) ='he is seatedu-hleli í< nUa hlala-sit) = he 1t" saidoün (and is still sittine) ;n-fE-(<
usèdstativelv(S.40). The perfectí df neúter verbs in -ka or -eka (S.41) expressinga state are often used statively; thus:-u;akekile (you are busy) < xakeka(be busy). Stativesformerly used the suffix -ile in the negative; úe widely-used-anga (cf.S.20.N3)is acceotednow.bút -ile is still consideredmore correct: akâ.file (he isn't dãd), andi.lambile/ andi.lambanga(I'm not hungry)
43.THE POTENTIALFORMWITH NGA (CAN) PresentTense
t.
Near Past Continuous / Contracted I could / could not swim bendi.nsa.dada ndibe ndi.nea.dada ndibe ndi.iee.dadi bendi.íse.dadi ubg / 9bp.nga.dada. ube e.nga.daãa. uDg/ eDg.nge.oaol uDee.nge.oaor
Remote PastContinuous/ Contracted I could swim (then) nda.ndinsa.dada ndavendi.nsa.dada wa.y.engã.dada wayêg.nga.ãada
Remote PastCont.Nee / Contracted I could not swim (úen) nda.ndinee.dadi ndavendi.nee.dadi wa.y.9ngã.dadi wayee.nge.õadi
FË':-
Los Ct.t
L*-
The potential form wiú its formative infix nea (< the deficient verb uku.nea) usesthe above tbredtenses.The Cl.l SC is a in the presentténsè.In the negativenqa > ngé,but the SCnegis ootional. Before vowel stemsnqa. nie > ns. The participial (p.40) is used for the compound ténses,and nda.becan çeplacenïá.yã (cf.p.39.N).(Êor thé perfêct pge of uku.ngasee5.48.4.) The potential form can express: a) abilitv: uFani a.nsa.vi.ôhekai.nvama(Fani can / is able to cook it, meat) bl oermission:u.nsãeódükansohi (vou'can/ mai so home now) cJ willinsness:ndiïsã.ku.ncedÍsa(Iian / aÍri wiltínEto help youJ d)' oossiËilitv:im.vula i.nea.nansoinsoGi can/ misht rain tbinoúow) When usédin this senïewithïku.ba'the SC caribe omitted:
(canit be / is it possiblethatyouarestudying?) (ku)nga.ba uya.funda? 44.OTHER WAYSOF EXPRESSING'CAN'
(I canplough) a) SC + na + infinitive:ndi + na + uku.lima> ndi.no.ku.lima .t na + short p-loueh) nes: S-CÍes+ shortinfin. í5.26.8.3):andi.na.ku.lima andi.na.ku.lima(I èan't can't o'loueÏ)' infin. (5.26.8.3): neq: nes: SCnes SCneg na.ktro+-infinit. (stressingability)í si.nakhouku.dadà(we can svãní) SC+ na.kÍo b) SC+ neg: SCneg+ na.kho +'infinitiú: asi.nákhouku.dada(we cannotswim) c) SC+ va iOC kw + azi + infinitive(implüne skill): UKU.tl [E.thu-nga (they can sèw,'tlieyìcrowhowto sew) baía.kwazi Da.Ya.KWAZr 'r nes: Sónes + kw.azi iífiiltiú: neg: l,<*.e"i+ lrnllllllv SÕneg Álg=!14,!'r a. o\/uçÈ, âba.kwaziuku.úunga (they can't sew,they don't know how to sew) i
I
45
Positive:I alreadysee
Negative:I don't seeyet
se.ndi.bona se.ndi.bonile se.nda.bona(vo) se.ndi.yakub"oía
andi.ka.boni andi.ka.boni andi.ka.boni andi.kayi kubona
*be.se.ndi.bona rbe.se.ndi.bonile *be.se.ndi.ya kubona
*be.ndi.nse.ka.boni *be.ndi.nEe.ka.boni 'be.ndi.n!e.ka.yikubona
*nda.ndi.se.ndi.bona * nda.ndi.se.ndi.bonile * nda.ndi.se.ndi.ya kubona
*nda.ndi.nqe.ka.boni *nda.ndi.nÃe.ka.boni * nda.ndi.n!e.ka.yikubona
(already, by theq now),fromsala,is a DV usedasanauxiliarvfollowedbv úe participial 3êlen úeforetË-sc é õÌõ:f;ïf C1.6.and w and v bn.fo,4t)iql.ef^orms sell!ï'sc.yappear (S.51.3dt ' ' can
be addedbefore u and i . Cl.l. u.selee.bona/ sel.!.Èona,2irsse.w.ubona.Cl.9 se.v.ibona se rs placedbeÍ'orethe SC, or beforethé last SC in cohpound ienses. ka $nolye.t).comes before the.mainverb ste.m(unl.essseparatedby an OC). Irt the tutuÌe tenseska js placedbefore the àuxiliarydtem. lÌìe neqatrveúllx nsa hecômesngebefore the non-verbalformative ka. Seenoìê (*) to secìì-on47 berow.
y4 givesg slight positivepresenrindicativeverbs(seep.lg.N): -st-ress_to o-drly.a.B99uke ({.m goingìome), u.ya.si.funa(he wantsus) , - (a$o, , Kwa rmplresstllulanw or inclusion: , ba.krva.fundaapha (íhey are alsostudlng here) yaüa (agam, lmplles dlsapprovalor censure: um.pheki u.yawa.riüla(the cook is druú aeain) . kwa and yawause the positionsof ka and sa beforé thé verb or its auxiliarv.
Positive:I'm still reaping ndi.sa.wna
andi.sa.vuni andi.bangasa.vuna andi.zanfendi.be sa.vuna andr.sa.vlkuvuna
ndi.sa.yakuvuna *be.ndi.sa.wna
*be.ndi.nqa.sa.vuni *be.ndi.nÃa.banqa sa.vuna *be.ndi.n!a.sa.yikuwna
rbe.ndi.sa.yakuwna Remote P.Contin. Remote P.PèEct Fut. Remote Past
Negative: I'm no longer reaping
*nda.ndi,sa.vuna
*nda.ndi.nga.sa.wni * nda.ndingã.zange ndibe sa.vuna *nda.ndi.nla.sa.fikuvuna
*nda.ndi.sa.ya kuvuna
sa comes,before the main verb stem (unlessseparatedby an oc). In the future tensessa is placedbefore the auxiliarystem. sa > sein non-verbalp.redióates (cf. úe negativensa > nqe,S.22.f.N): ")
_ se.m.hle(sbeis siÌll beautiful),aka.se.lhoaptr:a(neFriotõneér'heret l heseare contractedf'orms.The f-ul.lforms (usíngthe auxiliaries-nda.veôr 4(la.befor the remote pasttenses)can be derivedfrom pp.3Z-fq.
46
48. DEFICIENTVERBS )Crosais rich in so-called'deficientverbs' (DVs). Many of theseverbscan function normally on their own. Thev become deficient howevèr.usuallv úú a changeof meaning when used as auxiliaries befóre other verbs. addins to or modi-fuinstheir mõaning. DVs õften use forms endingin g even in úe negatiïe. Thãy are often contrãcted,e.g. by o-mittingan SC, and need to be followed by a specificmood or moods. Commondeficiéntvèrbs are listed below, úth some of their possiblemeanings.(For the many meaningsof thi seee.g.Mcl-aren's)ürosa-EnglishDictionary.)
+ pastsr n eodd time): sibehlesafika(we arrived in time) ( : rì'dobrryanilithembe (I'll hope again) uye,be (finallv. da.de un1il.tìll. asfar as): -'Eãde baúha (at lú thevaeíeed).phunrlade afike(resttill he comes) in vain): àimlesslv. fumana. fana.faneíor-+ oaíiidioiat):(casuallv. ---uffiâ ---[ffia fumane. õalled) atEdEêíhe--td-ks carelesilv). sítuúarie sífuúaÍie sabizâ(we iust êalled) atFd-hêíhe-tal-ks càrelesilv). hla hle (quickly,ià goodtime):uyalaihla abuye(hewill ìooir return) eíer. a little. at alì): ffi"Fndfiust. -i
abuzê(shedidn't ask) khanse.khansafnot. iot at all): (at<á)khanee àaúphilãt ;Ìust. mavl: mã.ã-úe f-ief-.S39: / mazeüphile! (mav vbu thrive!) nããh-leíooìsi6lv): íeúle'avufie (he wíll possiblvconsènt) (I'11never go) nevérgo) (andi)sozendìhambe ndìhambé,(I'11ffi,ìaze, Lrze. ìoze. só6e só6einever): frever): (andi)soze - hand): then.immediàtelvlon tíe bther
a-úFê7ïust.mêrelv.theieuoón. (hãjustsmiled),baiukabalile(
va (usuallv.then: stressesaction): uve waJika (he did arrive) ã. ze (shóuld.S.39:and then.tÉenÍ:wazawaÌhi (then he sâid) ng (nevei,p.19.N):(aba)2ange basebeÈe(theynevérworked) n"g",'
recentlv.at once): once): noÌv,ju.sl now. iust úen. úen, .recently,€t @ust agl ndlsand'r
njeukuvukawúarnba(hejustwokpan! left) sifanelauküm-aã(we're supposêdto know him) khova (iust after,ìust when,wliên, as soonas,havejust): akulhot' ukuvuka (as soonas he woke)
me!a,mele(passive: mèlwa.melwe+ CP)(must,shouldbe): (thevshouldhavebeencooked) zimelwekukuphekwa zimeleukuohekwa. musaído not. S39):m'usaukuzoükatdon t bd afrâidof úem) otratnàf + sbôrtiúinitive) (bv tuïns.àternatelv,first...then): -uphàtha kuhleka,aphátÌrékulila (shelaughêdandcried'inturn) : fudaecula.ufudulaecula(heusedto sins) to, ys):babehlalabezama(they (theÌ kepton trying tryin!) alúáys):,babehlala constântly, (DerslsÌentlv. keeg Keep on): onr: often, olten, always. Ìa íor muruuve) )'A(periistently,'al.ways, (theyare I bamana hzm.^n^ lllorhlekâ laughing) ailways arealwavs úkuhlekaítnev 6ãàanabehlelía7 íwnrrld shmrld rirrsht\: nsendihamha (I íI should be going) soins) be (wo.uld, úould ngendihamba óught): ngg should, soloko(alwavs):akasolokoevuma(sheooesn'talwaysagree) veta-Tfròm fírth, from longago,by àature):uvelaexôka(he'sa naturalliar)
47
49. TÍ{E CONJUGATION OF THE COPUI-ATIVE The copulativeincludesthe equivalentofa verb:'am/is/are'(pp.21.25-30), or 'has/have'with (S.22.e). It functions veqb, a conjugated with the auxiliãiies'uk".bí, uku.],aor uku.za. 4a ç SOmetenses are showlÌ below and on p.49.
A Class1 Subject(he/she) plus Adjective.na+Noun. Ilcative Present Indicative m.de, u.ne.nia.u.s.eKaoa ak3.m.de,alia.na.nj4 aÏa.kho eKapa Near Past# ube (e)mde / (e)nenja/ (E.s)eKapa _ ube g.nge.mde/ -nanja/ -kho eKapa tsuture' uya kuba (e)mde./ (e).nenja/ (e.s)eti aKaylKuDamoe / nznla / -kÌlo eKapa Futurein the Near Past* ' ube eya kuba (g)mde /(g)nenja /(es)eK ube s.nga.fl kuba mde / nanja/-kho eK. Remote Past+ wayes.mde / g.n9n1a/.e4.e.$apa-_ wayeg.nge.moe/ -nanJa/ -kno eÁapa Remoie Pasf(ContrãctedI wa.y.e.mde/ -nenja/ -kho eKapa wa.y.9.nge.mde / -nanja/ -kho èKapa
He / She... is tall. bas a dos. is in Cape Town. isn't tâll, hasn'ú dog, isft in CapeTown. was/ hasbeen tall, etc. was not / hasnot been tall, etc. will be tall. etc. will not be tall, etc. would havebeentall. etc. would not havebeen tall. etc. was / had been tall (then), etc. was not / had not been tall (then), etc. was/ hadbeentall (then),etc. wasn't/ hadn't been tall (then), etc.
Futurein the RemotePast'+ wayeeyakuba(e)mde/(e)nenja/(e.s)eIC would havebeentall (then),etc. wayeengaylKuDamoe / naÍla | -klìo elç Futureiin thé Remote Pastr (Coirtiacted) wa.y.syakuba (e)mde/(e)nenja/(q*)"$ wa.y.engayr KuDamde / ÍlanJa/ -kno eIç
wouldn't havebeen taìl (then), etc. would havebeentall (then), etc. wouldn't havebeen tall (then), etc. beine tall. etc. not Ëeing'tall,etc. havinsbeen tall. etc. not hãüng been'tall,etc. soins to be tall. etc. ãot g-oingto be'tall, etc.
-Subiunctive ilbe G)mde,abe(e)nenjaabe(e.s)eK. . a.nga.bimde'/ nanja/ --khoeKapa PastSribiunctive wmã-(e)mde/ (s)nenìa/ (e.s)eKapa akabi.(akaba) mde/ rianja/ -khoeXapa _r emDoral akuba($mde / (s)nenia/ (e.s)eKapa aku.nga.bi mde/ nanja/-kho êKapã
and is / that he, she may be tall, etc. and is irot / that he,shemay noi be / talì, erc. and wastall. etc. and was not tall. etc. when he, sheis / wastall, etc. when he, sheisn't/wasnt tall, etc.
The_characteristic c-1.1 sc_gof úe particp_ial, usedin compoundtenses,is underlinedabove. (e), partiiipial Bracketed also. also a Cl.1 SC, is optional. _. future^forms in iristead bf and cô-ntracted formsarealsofound(cf.p.20). -24 -y4 ). N.(cf.pp.37.38): > #) \-uuuaclËu Contractedrorflrs formsitrg + earesolt|mon; corÌÌmon;uoe common;lbe-+ (cf.pp.37,38); (fi.pp.J/,Jõr: ube-+ e- > ubguDgor o-r or ebgeDgebethus: thus:' Ìnu ì PQe: >.eb.e.ngg.qdq. g.hdé > EbE.mde. ubeE.nge.mde In the participialebe sbe + E.mdé +) The r-nearDolrary rne <--ur
49. THE CONruGATïON OF TIIE COPUTATTVE(CONTD)
(s.e,1s) It is he, it s a thief, etc. Present Indicative nzu.ve. l.isela aíi.ríruve. ' asi.losela Near Paít* -iue 1i;nguye,ibe (i)lisela lDer.nge.nguye/ -losela Future*
iyq\rlb+ (i)nguye/.(i)lisela auy1KuDanzuye/ lrsela FutUiein ttre,NéAlPast- , ,.,,. i6tiy-ãE5t(ì)ísur / Ç)lisela Lisela i.nga.yikuba nguye/ lisela ibe i.ngayi hiba nguye Remote Past+ -vave irrzuve. vavei.Iisela ïaíe i.nËelneuïe/ -losela Reúote,Paít (Õoítrá$gd) ya.y.Lnguye,ya.y-I.llselâ ya.y.l.nge.nguye / -Iosela
It is lisht.easy,etc., thãreis (present),etc. ku.lula ku.kho aku.lula aku.kho kube(ku)lula, kube(ku)-kho kubeliu.nge.lula / -lúo kuvakubaftu)lula / (ku)-kho akúyikubaÌulâ/ -k:ho kubekuvakuba(ku)lula/ (ku)-kho kubeku.nga.yikrìbalula / -kho kwaveku.lúa. kwayeku.kho kwayeku.nge.lula / -kho kwa.ku.lula.kwa.ku,kho kwa.ku.nge.lula / -kho kwavekuya kuba (ku)lula / (ku)-kho kwayekuirgayikuba lula /'-kào
kwa.kuyakuba(ku)lula/ (ku)-kho kuÈaÍula /'-lúo kwa.kuirgayi
Partl4piql Preqent
r.nsuve. l.lsela i.nãelnÉuve.i.nqe.losela Near FastParticioiãl# ibe (i)nguye,ìbg (i)lisela lbe l.nse.nzuve'/ -IoseE Future Pa-rticiõiál*
ly-ãË-bãGfnsuye/,Ç)lisela rngaylKubanguye/ llsela
Sublynclive
ibe (i)nzuve.ibe (i)lisela lisela i.neâ.binzuve/' liséla i.ngà5i-nguye PastSübjuncíivê vabâ(i)nsuve,yaba(i)lisela âyabi(âyãbâ)nluye / lisela Temooral ---ffi-ba (i)nzuve (i)lisela / yaku.ngà.biïjuyê/ lisela
ku.lula ku.kho ku.nge.lul4ku.nge.kho kube (ku)lula, kube (ku)-kho kube ku.nge.lula/ -kho
kuyakuba(ku)lula/ (ku)-kho kuhgayikubalula / -lúo kube(ku)lula, kube(ku)-kho ku.nga.bilula / -kho hvaba (ku)lula, kwaba(ku)-kho akwabi (akwaba)lula / -kho kwakuba(ku)lula / (ku)-lúo kwaku.nga.bilula / -kho
The Cl.9SCi is usedasan indefiniteSCbeforepronounoÍ nouncopulatives. iiiã ilã"fiúË-Sõ ku (it) is found as a CP beforeadjectiveand rèlativestemsand adverbs it usesthe C1.15formsof the auxiliaries. íoo.28-30): SCs(i) and(ku) areoptional'-khois writtenconjunctively. Ìlie bracÉéted *) Nearfutureformsirì'-zainsìeád.of-ya.andcontractedformsarealsotbund. folmsareõõmmon:ibe Ii- >-ibi-,while kube+ ku- > beku-. #l Óõ"tructeO y3;e,kwaye( 5 uku.ya)in thesetenses. i1' vaUe,kwábe( < uku.ba)canreplace, otherthanveros. > Note:The negativeinfix nga ngebetoreexpresslons 49
50. THE XHOSA SOUND SYSTEM Xhosa .is spelt as it is sounded, with conventions for the spelling of certain sounds. Aplrroximateequivalentsare given below. Xhosaspeakerswill willíngly È'elpyou to pronounce well-
There are five vowels in Xhosa: . -aas in far, E af in gnd, ias in !s, g asin more, u asin ryle. 4 iltott, uÍìstresseda soundslike u in qul. Under the inÍluenceof neighbouringsoundse and o at timesresemblethe first vowelsoundsin 'say'and'so'. s.yllablesarq.distinguish-ed in !!r,e,eways:by stress,length and tone. Tbe sremof a word carrìes the stress.Ihe secondlast syllable of a word or phrase is usually lonqer than the rest. Each syllablehas its own musicaltõne,which can be hígh,low, or high fálingïo low. Consonantsare sounded as follows: p-is.sg[t,like the b_insob,but lnqplosive,úth the breath úawn in. bh is like b in bat, but more resoiant. rh is like g in Afrikaans gaan;gr, its voicedform, is more resonant. I he consonantsare pronouncedroughly like the first consonantof the bracketed -touowing woro: d (doQ, f(fit),. g (got), j CIpb),k (key), I (let), m (met), n (not), p(pot), r(red), s(set), t(tin), v(vat), w(wer), y(yet), z(zipJ. Consonantscan be unvoiced or voiced (i.e. pronouncedwithout or with the resonanceof the vocal .cords)henc,ethe difference beween í/d, k/g, ch/j, t/v, and,sfz. English spèakeriìn]v parually votce b, o, g, J,v, z. I heseconsonantsare more voiced.i.e. more resônantìn Xhosa. The,following 9ouble consonantsare pronouncedroughly like the underüned soundsin the DracKeteo words:
);itÍr"+;l]"H"9,inÀ1"$ï#)'sh(5roe),tsh(chop),nd( Y,[i'ãft,l{,[dgf
is slundedwi^úthêtonguepressedagainsttheípper teethon oneside. 4l gI ls tne vorced toÍïn ot hl.
fg1-Qt,.wherethe,,hindicatesvoicing,.Xhosaconsonanrsfoilowed by h (ph, th, kh) are EI:94 sÌronglyasp[ateo (1.e.tollowed by an h sound). n can be combined with many sounds,its position changing to fit in with the following consonant,e.g.nt (ant), ndy (iaa!uce),ng (fiager). Cücksare suctionsounds.Tbe back of the tongueis raisedto meet the soft palate.as thoush to pronouncea velar k or g (as in book or goofl. The edge of the tonsue is bressedasainsïitr. outer edge ot.the.palate in a.semi-circle.The tongue i5 then lowerel in tlie centre ïo form a alg tfqlty r€Ieasedin one of three positionsto form a click, pronouncedin rhe same YaguP,m, syllableas the following vowel. .,
of the tongue almost-touchesthe teeth in front. It is releasedat this point, l"_t9.1!9,tip makrngthe soundusedto expressdisapproval. q: - !e1e the tip of the tongueis irressedagáinstthe front of the palate behind the teeth,where it is releasèdwith a plõp. x: here the tongueis põsitìonedasfor q, but one side of the tongueis releasedwith a clack. Varying click soundsand their combination with other soundsare shownbelow: cr Q,T: theseare unvoiced(try pronouncinga velar k at the sametime). ch, qh, xh: theseare unvoicedand aspirated(i-e. followed bv an h sound).' gc, gq, gx: tbeseare voiced (try pronõuncingâ velar g at thé sametime).' nc, nq, rx: unvoicedclicks,sòuhtledwith a velar nasa-l(tike ne in rincin!). ngg ngq,ngx: voicedclicks,soundedwiú a stronglvvoicedvelar-nasaf- "' nkc, nkq, nÌx: unvoicedclick-s,only soundedafteiá velar n as in i4k. The k (onìy usedto separaten and c, q, x) is not pronounced
50
51. CONSONANT AND VOWEL CHANGES L. Chansesinfluencedbv N Thesemânlv occur throúú the prefixesof certain Cl.9 and Cl.1Onouns.throuqh úe formation of C1.9and Ô1.10nouns fíom verb stems,and through the addition of Cl.9 anã C1.10BPs and ACs (seep.28) to adjectivestems. n > m before p,b,f,v n dropsbefore l,rn"n,r,h n + h - l >n tl n + s ,sh >n ts,n tsh n+c>ngc n + q >n g q n+x>n9( n + ph > -mp n + ú,kh >-n + t,k n + t vh >n tv n + c l ,q h ,xh >n k+c,q ,:<
C1.10BP zin + bini > zim.bini (two) Cl.9 orefix in + nvama > i.nvama (meat) Ct.gÃC en + hle-> en.tle íbeautiful) C1.10pref. iin + sana > iint.sana (ba'bies) C1.10bref. iin + canso > iine.canso (doors) vb. oumba > Cl.9inã.oumbd(anãer)' vb. 'xela > Cl.10iinË"ielo(reòorÌs)' vb. phatha > Cl.9 iõr.oathd ftreaúent) '(sticks) Cl.ld pref. izin + thi > izin.ti vb. whafa > Cl.9 in.tvafo (weàkness) vb. rihuba > Cl.9 in.li.qubo (progres's)
2. Palatalisationof bilabial consonants(b. bh. m. mb. mp. ph): see5.38.3. 3. Vowel Changes primary vowelsmerge,often becomingsecondaryvowels. a) Coalescence: (and / with the men) nf+ dma.doda> n-ama.doda a+ a > a nea+ i.bhola> nse.bhola( withthebail) a+i > e lüa + ii.kati > lwõe.kati(of the cats) a + ii > ee na + um.fazi > nom.fazi(and / with the woman) a+u > o b) Elision: a vowel is dropped(elided) before anothervowel. ' a droosbefore e.ee.ò.oo ndi.va + oüka > ndi.v.ovika(I'm afraid) ube-+ u.funa > ubu.funá(yoü were seeking) e droirsbefore a íoúé1, IV: e + i.khava > e.khava(at home) reolaces an butlocative e asi + oni-> as.oni(úe òon t sin) i drops betweenc'onsonantand vowel: c) Vowels become semivowels: Initial i > vbefore avowel , Initial u >-w before a vowel u > w between consonant and a,e,i, but úopi beforeo,u, or betwèena labial (b,w) and 4e,i:
sci + akha > v.akha(hebuilds)
makê) SCu+ enza>'w.enza'(vou ku + aba > kw.aba(to ìhese,p.27) ku + olu > k.olu(tothis, p.27) b u + enziwa> b.ensiwa(it is made)
d) A semivowelor consonantis addedbetweenvowels: ma.k.ahambe(S.39),SCnega + u > aku (p.18) a + 4u > aka,aku SCneea+ i >'avi(p.18).sé.v.ibona(S.45.N) a.e + i > aü.êü ' a.w.aú (mine) (ó.21),sé.w.u6ona(S.45.N) w is usedbe'úeén vowels: s is addedbetweena vowel and locativee: u.i.ekhaya(he is at home) an original I is retained: ndi.l.apha(I'm here),se.l.ebona(now he sees) 4. Iatent-i Verbs (about 10in all) a > e before thè followine stems.mainly by mergingwith a latent (i): ba (steal), hla (descend),-ma(stop,stúd), mbã (dig), mka (depàit), nyuka (ascend), sa (bring), suka (rise,leave), va (hear), za (come), 'e.g. úá + (i)rnka > we.nika(he left), si.ya + (i)va > si.yeva(we hear) 5. Vowel Correspondence vowels i, u are reflected in lowered secondaryvowels g, a (originally me h-isFlilddìreffi with a prefixedformativeg): derivedfrom coaÌescence um, ulu, ubu, uku imi, ili, isi, [zi, in, izin Classprefix: AC (p-.28): emi, eli, esi, ezi, en, ezin onr, olu, obu, oku o, o, o, o e, e, e, e, e, e RD 1p.23): yi y li lo, e, ngu/ngo, ht SeealsoènumerativeCPs / le, etc.(p.27). / / )l
52. NUMERAI.S There are adjectivestemsfor numeralsfrom one to six (S.21).These*-' are:
nye(1)*6ini-(2),thqthu(3),ne1+y,rrrúú(st; úà.iãrft?-6-i. _lnese pretu(
adlectlval lormatives for their copdative and attiibutive forms (see S.19).They can alsõprefix 'ísi' to becomeCl.7 nouns. Basic numerals, all nouns. are therefore: isi.nye(l), isi.bini (2), isi.rhathu(3), isi.ne(4), isi.hlanu(5). rsi.thandathu(6), isi.xhenxe. (7), isi.bhozo(8), i.thobaorìíi.thoba (9), i.shumi(t0),.i.ì
11 i.shumi(e 12 i.shumi(e 13 i.shumiíe 14 i.shumi(e 15 i.shumiíe 16 i.shumi 17 i.shumi 18 i.shumi(e)li 19 i.shumi(e
n+th >nt and n+hl>ntl.(S.SÍ.1).
.( = op .* i.lnyg).'or i.shumi(e)li.nanye i. or i.shumi(ê)li.nam.bini or i.shumì(e)li.nan.taüu i.shumi (e .shumi(e)li.nane rr i.shumiíe)li.nan.tlanu or (e)li.nan-tlanu
thandathu or i.shüíri (e)li.nan.tandathu
;i.bhozo thoba or i.shumi(e)li.nesi.thoba 20 ama.shuiú ama.bini
21 ama.shumi ama.bini(a)nesi.nyeor ama.shumi ama.bini(a)nanve 22 ama.shumi ama.bini(a)nesi.binior ama.shumi áúãÍini ÌãtnãúÍini 29 ama.shumi ama.bini(a)ne.thobaor ama.shumi ã-à.ul"i'iáXêsì.tiiãUa ama.ne ama.trtãí iq, !Q,tq,60,ama.shumi'aina.úathu f / /ànía-.itãiiàrtÍ" 70,80,90, ama.shumi a.(si)si.xheúe/ a.Gi)li.bhoto/ãti.ttãUu--'-*Relative. formqtives(S.20)canbe prefixedto copulatives of compoundnumerals,in whichcase the bracketedformsàreúsuallvoriútted.Thus: ' izi.tyazi(nga)ma.shumi (a)ina.bini/ zi.ma.shumi ma.bini(the dishesaretwentv) Lzt.tya' ezt\nga)ma.shumi (a)ma.bini/ ezi.ma.shumi ma.biril(dishesthat areffiéíw) The.subjunctive. gt !a'.çutt bp.Usedto.,express or4ers,desiresor intentions: nengarmr.rnrr.De (r.s.r)sr.bhozo (buytreesthat maybe eight/ buyeighttrees) second','the.third', etc.the possessive concordis prefixedto the nounform of Igl9içry l.m"uKu,qala numerals, uslng tor 'thetirst': _ um.ntuwoku.qala(rhefirst pgrson),in.dluyesi.úathu(rhethird house). Pronounsp,refix tlie RD (S.I2).Thevián prècèáeitie;õuriilexÉã;ì;;í' o.lwesí.hlanu (thefifth, Cl.il); é.ye.shïmii.kati (ttrèienttrcail- --'-""' Adverbsprgfix!A to adjectivestems,or to the full nounprefixminusthe IV: t
52
53. USEFULPHRASES Choosea few phrasesthat you are likely to use. Ask a Xrosa-speakerto help you pronounce t}em, and you'll soonenjoyhiendly cominunicationwith otheÍs.
Havi.ndiohilakakuhlé.eúosi. tvtrílúenimakhosikazi.banumzana.
Hullo mvfriend:hullo mvfriends. Hullo clíild: hulio childreln. Hullo father.moúer. miss.youngman. Hullo ladv.Áre voustill well? Yes,I am'stillwêtl / I amwelt. Hullo sir.How is it (withyou)? No.I amverywell.tìankïou. ' Huilo ladies,gentlêmen.
Wena.uphilaniani? Nina,niphilaníaninamhlanje? Haü. sióhilakákuhle,enkosr. Iniáú inkosikazivakho? Uíiani umyeniwâkho? bakho? Banianiabânnvana
You (sinzular).howareyou? You (plu-ral),liow are you today? No,üè areúêrywell,thankyou. How is vour wífe? How is Íour husband? How arê your children?
Ngubaniigamalakho?/ ifaniyakho? Ie"ama laníngusipho.Ifaniyamngu... Ühhh phi?úse6enzaphi/ Ufuna 6ani?Ufuna nto'ni? Uvaohi?Nivaphi? NãivàeKapá.SiyaeKapa. HâÌíba kakuhle.Hamtianikakuhle. Salakakuhle.Salanikakuhle.
Whatis vourname?/ yoursurname? is ... Mv namêis Sipho.Mv-surname where? (sing.) work whe^rê_?-You sta'y Yqu you wallr want? do you want? What wnat oo dõ íou Whoà \,vhom do vou wantT Whereare yog (sing.)/.you (p1) gogg? I am eoine7 Wê aré soiiÌe totapê Town. (íúzular). Gb (plural). wãll (plural). Gã well w-ell(íúzular). Go wéll Go .Stay (plural). (siãgular). Stay well welf well(siãgulai). Stay
Ndifunaipetroli,ndifunaumoya. Ncedauzâliseitânki. Ncedaukhanqeleiovile,amanzi' Hayi, andifunìmarrÍ namhlanje. Haü. andifunioyile,enÌosi. Ndifunaukubhalala.Nantsiimali.
I want petrol, I want air. Pleaseïill the tank. Pleasecheck the oil, the water. No, Ì don't want water today. No, I don't want oil, thank you. I want to pay.Here is the money.
Wena.uvakwaziukuthethaisiNsesi? Mna.ídifuna ukufundaisiXhosã. Ndiyazamaukufunda isixhosa. Ndilusizi.andithethikakuhle. NdifunaukubaundifundiseisiXhosa'
You, do you know how to speakEnglish? I. I úantio learn Xhosa. I'm trvins to learn Xhosa. I'm sórrvlI don't speakwell. I want v-outo teacÊme Xhosa.
Ndivavuvaukukubona. namhtanie! Yhú! Kúshushu namhlanie!Ndivagodola! Kuvabanda Kuvanakãkhulu! Yhí! Kuvavuthuza!
I am elad to seevou. GoshTlt's hot toãav! It's cold todav! I'mfreezing! Gosh! It's úídy! It's raining heavily!
na? Yintoni? Ndineakunceda Ndidiniwe.Ndïlambile.Ndinxaniwe. Ndivazula.Andinamali. Andiohilanea. Ndizakukunceda. Khaúumeu-mzuzu.
What is the matter? Can I help vou? I'm tired. I'm hungry.I'm thirs'ty. I'm not well. I'm iIl.-I haveno money. Justwait a moment.I'll help you.
UMvulo. NeoMvulo. Ngomso. Ulwesibini Neol-wesiÈini. ULwesithathu.-Nsolwesithathu. Ulwesine. Nsolúesine. Ulwesihlanul Nsolwesihlanu. UMeqibelo. NeoJúeqibelo. ICaüa'.N eeCaúa.Nsèmpela-veki' Sobonana'neempela--vekì. Ndiza kukuõ'onangomso/ ngolwesine.
Mondav.On Monday.Tomorrow. Tuesdav.On Tuesdav. Wedneóday.On Wednesday. Thursdav.On Thursdav. Fridav. Ón Fridav. Saturitav.On Saúrday. Sundav.On Sundav.Át the week-end. We'll íee eachothêr at the week-end. I'11seeyou tomoÍrow / on ThursdaY.
Molo mhlobo wam: molweni búlobo bam. Molo Írntwanal molweni bantwana. Molo bawo, mama, nkosazana,mfana. Molo nkosikazi.Usaphila? Ewe. ndisaphila/ ndìphilile.
Kxijani(kuwe)? \{ol9 ry1u1rya1á.
53
54. KEY TO OUIZZES AND OUESTIONS Quiz 1:
a gaÍage,a car, a taxi.
Qliz 2:
a des\ a telephone, ink, a pencil, a rubber, a ruler, a photogaph.,
Qúz 3:
a kettle, a glass,tea, a teapot,coffee,a sausage.iaÍrl an oranse. an appÌe,spaghetti,rice, á plate, a salad,jellyl a pudding.
Quiz 4:
Ndi.bonai.apile. Ndï.funai.ti. Ndi.thandai.phudini. Ndi.tuna i.telsi. Ndi.úanda i.foto. Ndi.bonái.keüki. Ndi.tuna i.desika. Ndi.bonai.saladi. Ndi.thandaijeli.
Quiz 5:
a) class8, class15,class9. class3. class10.class2a. b) class5, class1, class6, class10,class7, ôlass1.4.
Quiz 6:
a) i.hasheli.ya.vel4 iin.taka zi.ya.vel4 uku.tya ku.ya.vela,imi.thi i.ya.vela, isi.lo si.va.vela. b) ba.ya.vela,i.kofu i.ya.vela,u.dadeu.ya.vela,izi.banen.ya.vela, {g,funïj u.oongalu,va.veh. c) gg.dqpeQaiyq..thpl4iin.dongazi.ya.!!rula, ubu.bi bu.ya.khuta, lzm.oruzt.ya.Knula,um.ntwanau.ya.kÌtula.
QuizT:
oo.bawoaba.hambi,isi.lo 4-si.hambi , izin.toazi.khuli,andi.hambi, um.t5i awu.khuli. ama.hasheaka.hambi, asi.khuli, i.rúoto ayi.hambi, ulu.vó aiü*núi. iti.rii;ii.Ë;bì:'
Quiz 8:
a) I seethe food. You love the clouds, The women seethe babv. Tbe birds love the tree. The horseseesthe animal. Ndi.ya.ku.bona.Ni.ya.wa.thanda.Aba.fazi ba.ya.lu.bona. Iin.taka zi.ya.wu.thúda. I.hasheli.va.si.bona. b) I-l.ya.m.aziu.bpwg. lzi.lo zi.ya.y.azi,imi.thi. Oo.bawoba.ya.lw.azì,ulu.vo. u.sana tu.ya.no.azr.Um.lazru.ya.s.azi.
Qüz 9:
Isi.lo asi.ü.boni,i.hashe. Um.fazi aka,bu.thandi,ubu.suku.[af,i.s.snzi. izin.ts. U.sanaalu.m.boni. Ani.y.enzi,i.moto. I.hasheali.ba.thandi.
Quiz 10: a) i.hashel.a.fika, u.bawow-.a.fika,uku.tyakw.a.fika,ubu.sukub.a.fika, rzrn.toz.a.fika, ama.fua.fika, s.a.fika.-w.a.fika. b)' izi.lo az.oyiki,'i.hasheal.azi,'aba.fazi'ab.onwabi, u.sanaal.onwabi, and.azi, ama.fuak.ovikr. c) y,aziú.a izi.lo az.aziwa, uku.tya akw.aziwa, and.aziwa, ulu.vo alw.aziw4 E!g, uÌu.Ìm av.azlwa. The folloúng arÌswersare given under their section number (S.ó = section ó).
5.6: Uku.tyaku.zaku.vela.Uku.Waaku.ziku.vela. Ama.fua.yaku.vela.Arria.fu'aka.yi ku.vela.
s.7:
ubu.sukubu-fikile,^.izin.tozi.fike izolo, uku.tyaaku.fik.anga, ama.tua.fikile, si.fike izolo, isi.lo asi.fik.angâ
s.8:
bo.na,ye.na,so.na,zo.na, na.wo,na.ye,ku.bo, ku.we, nga.lo,nga.yo.
s.9:
ng!.ye, zi.zo, asi.yi.yo,ndi.m, yl.yo, asr.ngu.we,ku.ko, asi.ngu.ye,si.thi, asi.nga.bo.
54
S.10: a) U.bisi lwa.lo. Ama.tyea.bo.
Ubu.hle ba.so. Uku.cula kwa.zo. Ulu.vo lwa.bo.
b) Um.thi wa.yo. li.moto za.bo. Uku.tyakwa.lo. Irri.thi va.zô. Imi.lilo va.bo.
c) um.lilo wa.m. izi.baneze.thu, i.kati ya.kho, uku.culakwe.nu, u.mamawa'khe, ubu.hleba.bó. izin.to ze.thu, ulu.volwa.bo, imi.úi ye.nu, i.moto ya'm, um.lilo wa.khô, uku.tyakwe.nu, Íma.tye a.khe, u.bisi lwe.thu, isi.banesa.bo. aba.ntwanabaka.mÍrma,um.lilo ka.Fani, uku.tyakuka.Nomsa, i.moto ka.mama, u.nyanaka.Sipho, u.sanaluka.Nomsa.
S.1.1:
s.13: a)
o.wa.Ín a.ba.khe,e.ze.tìu, o.kwa.bo, e.sa.khe. b) o.ka.Fani, e.ka.bâwo,e.zilia.Sipho,a.ka.mama,o.kuka.Nomsa. c) o.yena, e.zona, o.bon4 a.wona, e.sona.
S.15: a) ng.umfundi, y.in.kwenkwe,l.i.sela,
z.ìin.komo, rÍg.ama.polisa,. y.imi.lambo, nq.um.gubo,Y.l.nyama,z.tzt.Íenq nE.aba.Írlobo,s.isì.tulo,y.i.swekile, l.ílanga, ng.ú.Jojo,l.u.d-onga, b.ubuìlumkõ, k.üku.hleka,ìg.oo.mama.
b) ne.o.wakho( = um.twanawa.kho), l.e.labo( = ili.zwe la.bo), klo.kwakhe( = uku.culakwa.khe), z.e.zabo(= izi.ryaza.bo), (= oo.nyanaba.khe),b.o.benu(= ubu.sibe.nu), ns.a.bakhe ( = isi.Wasa.khe), v.é.vethu(: imi.zi úe.thu). s.e.Áakbe l.o.Íwakhrj(= ulu.úi lwaÍiho), z.e.zetlrrr(=-izin.dlu le.thu). c) asilo.sana asiso.si.lo,asiko.ku.Wa,asingo.ma.fu,asiyo.mi.thi, asizo.eusha. asineo.m.fazi.asivolmoto. ãsilo.li.tye, alingo.o.bawo, asivo.íakhe. asínso.bethú, asiko.lovakho,asizô.zabo,asilo'lwakhe, asihgó.ka.mam4ãsizo.zenu, asingo.wabo,asiso.sika.Fani,asibo.bakho. d) Fani is a fool. thev are úieves. vou are a lazvperson, the children áre nót students,Sifho is not a fãrìner, you, you are cooks, I'm not a grandmother, a duck is not a fish. 5.16: a) lo m.ntwana, elo langa, laa moya, la ma.dlelo, abo bawo.
nga.laama.bhadi,z,eziziJo, yi.loomi.lambo. b) l.eli li.zwe,yi.loon.gonyama, c) isi.lo,esi; iin.komo,ezo; um.limi,lowa. d) esi(isi.tya);ezo(izi.hlangu);leya(i.komityi). e) n.elisela,na.loom.gwebi,n.ezaazi.denge.
0
nga.lama.planga,ng.ezozi.tena,ng.olwaadongwe.
c) k,olusapho,ku.loonkosi, kw.abaaba.fazi. h) ekunenekw.ezizin.dlu, phambikwa.loom.zi, phesheyak.olwaalwandle. i) ulu.volwa.lom.fundisi,l.olosapho,lw.abaaba.fundi;
aba.zalib.ababa.fana,b.ezon.tombi,ba.laam.ntwana.
55
55. ìWORD LISTS Words listed in the following sectionsare not includedhere: Absolute pronouls, S.8,- Demonstratives,S.16. Numerals,S.52. Adjectivestems,S.2l. Interrogatives,S.2T. Rel.coniuirctíons.5.29.7.
coirjunctions, s.35.
Lretlcientverbs,S.48.
tocativËs, sis.t.
I-oc.copulatives, S.23.
ReÉ-i"Ëìl;m;:T.í1.'"' Stativeperfectí,S.21.
ury below.aregroupedaccordingto their classandprefix.Pluralformsare added, I:_ry, -titt.d but onlythe singularis trans-lateà. CI-ASS 1: UM
CI-ASS 2: ABA
CI,ASS3: UM
um.fana- aba.fana younqman um.fazi - aba.fazi ivomãn wife um.furdi - aba.fundi studerit um.fundisi- aba.fundisiclersvman um.hlobo- aba.hlobo frieíá um.khuluwa- aba... elder brother um.lirni - aba.limi farmer um.melwana- aba.melwana neishbour um.ninawa- aba... voungerbro-ther um.nini - aba... owder of: masteÍof um.nta.kwethu - aba.nta.kwethu our brother (usedby sisters) um.ntu - aba.ntu persón um.ntwana- aba.ntwana child um.nu[zana - aba... eentleman.siÍ um.ongameli- ab... p-. resident,étc. um.ongr,Kazr - ab.onqrkzrztnurse um.phãúi - aba... rõ'anager, etc. um.pheki- aba.pheki coók um.iebenzi- abã.sebenziworker um.yeni- aba.veni husband um.zali - aba.áli parent um.zukulwana- abã... erandchild
um.buzo- imi.buzo question um.dlaÌo- imi.dlalo s-ame um.funo- imi.funo ieeetable um.gubo- imi.eubo floir. meal um.hla- imi.hlã dav.dati um.llaba- ... eart6,ground,world um.hlakulo- imi... sóade.shovel um.khonto- imi.khontb sôear um.lambo- imi.lambo river um.lenze- imi.lenze lee um.lilo- imi.lilo fire um.nyaka-,imi... year(or.Cl.la:u) um.pü- rmr..pu. gun um.slnoo
- lml.smdo- wrath umÍliandazo - imi.thandazó prayer um.úi - imi.thi tree um.úunzi - imi.thunzi shade um.wndla - irni.vundla hare um.zi - imi.zi homestead,village Cl5: I(LD
Cl.2a:OO
u.bani?- oo.bani? who?whom? u.bawo- oo.bawo my/our father u.bawo.mkhulu - oo...Í'/"grandfather u.dade- oo.dade sistér u.gqirha- oo.gqirha doctor u.lo[we- oo.lotrwe üarn u.makhulu- oo...my/ourgrandmother u,mama- oo.mama my/our mother u.mbona- oo.mbona iiaize u.moya- oo... air,wind,spirit u.nina- oo... his/her,their moúer u.nyana- oo.nyanason u.tata- oo... mv/ourfaúer: daddv u.ühlo- oo.vihld'vourfaúe; .., ,gi.ise- oo...-his/lÍer,their father PeJso[ral nameqbelongto úis group: u.Fani- oo.Fani Faní etc.
Cl.6: AMA
stçmsMo_nosyllable llr.ru - ama,tu cloud ili.shwa- ama.shwa misfortune ili.tye - ama.tve stone ili.úa - ama.úa rock. cliff ili.zwe - ama.ãve laád. countrv ili.zwi - ama.àvi voice.word '
um / ama (plural in Class6) um.Xhosa-ãma.Xhosa a Xhosa
Cl. 1a:U
CI,ASS4: IMI
Non-monosvllabicstems i.bbadi - ama.bhadi sprinsbuck i.cephe- ama.cephe Soooã i.culo - ama.culo song.hvmn i.dada- ama.dada duïk. -swimmer i.dlelo - ama.dlelo pastúre i.gaba- ama.gaba lioe l.gama- ama.gama name i.Éazi- ama.sízi blood i.lhirha - amã.ghirha witchdoctor l.Bumot- ama.gumbr rooml.gwala - ÍÌma.qwata coward i.hashe- ama.hashe horse i.hlobo - ama.hlobo surÌÌmer i.hobe - ama.hobe dove i.fhaya - ama.khaya home r.langa- ama,langa sun
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CLASS5: I(LI) CIÁ.SS6: AMA (contd)
CI-ASS 9: IN CI-ASS 10: I(Z)IN
l.phepla- aTa.phephapaper l.phepha.noaba -.ama....newspaper polrceman
in '/ üt
r.pollsa- ama.po[sa i.ãabane- amâ... comrade.mate i.{anda - ama.qanda egg LÍhanuga- ama.rhanuga üamp i.sela- ãma.sela thieí i.takane - ama.takane lamb i.thuba - ama.thuba occasioo i.vila - ama.vila lazv person i.vili - ama.vili wheêf i.xesha- amaxesha time ixheso - amaxheqo old man -medicine i.vezã.- ama.veza i.âinvo - ama.zinvo tooth i.zolô -.,. vesteídav i.zulu - amá.,. sky,heaven, weather CI-ASS 6: AMA (plural only) am.andla sÍensú ama.futha fat, õil, grease ama.Írzl water ama.rhewu maize drinh üght beer CLASS 7: ISI CI-ASS 8: IZI is.andla- ü.andla hand isi.bane- izi.bane lamp. lieht isi.bhedlele- izi... hosôitaf isi.Bhulu - ... Afrikaads language isi.dense- izi.denee fool isi.fo - ïzi.fo siclõess,disease isi.fundo- izi.fundo lesson isi.hlanzu- izi.hlanzu shoe isi.kolo--izi.kolo slhool isi.lo - izi.lo animal isi.Ngesi- ... Englishl4nguage is.on[a - iz.onka-bread isi.pho- izi.pho gift. , lsl-tena- zl.tena DncK isi.trato - izi.trato street isi.tulo - izi.tulo chair isi.tva - izi.tva dish isi.úalo - izi.tvalo plant isiúobo - izi.nhob
CI-ASS 9: IN Plural CI-ASS 6: AMA in.doda- ama,doda man in.kosazana- ama.khosazana miss in.kosi.kazi - ama.k[osikazi lady in.kwenlqüe- ama.klwe nkwe boy in.tombazana- ama!!.t... little giÍl int.simi - ama.simi cultivated land nrkh > nk; n+s > nts (5.51.1)
before nonlabial monosvllablestems in.dlu - izin.dlu' house,dwelling in.dwe - izindwe blue crane inja - izinja(stemnja,n1n>n) dog rn.to - rzn.to thlng, oDJecÌ im / izim before labial (p,b,f,v) monosvllableìtêms im.oi - izim.pi armv.regiment im.vu - izimlu fat-íúleõ sheep in - '/ -iin before non-labial stems of more than one svllable in.dawo- iin.dawo place in.dlela - iin.dlela r-oad in.dlow - iin.dlovu elephant in.galo- iin.galo arm in.sonvama- iin.gonvama lion in.ãubô- iin.zubõ blanket in[athazo - iïn... trouble, worry in.kokeli - iin.kokeli leader in.komo - ün.komo head of cattle in.kosi - iin.kosi chief in.kuku - iin.kuku domestic fowl in.kunzi - iin.kunzi male animal in.taka - iin.taka bird in.tlakohlaza- iin... sprins -'
iii.itãiìãiïi*ttâ"ãi' rïsn
in.tüzivo- iin.tlizivo heart in.tlok-o- iin.tlok
ower
im / iim before labial (p.b.f.v) ' stems of over one svlTábie im.fene- iim.fene baboon im.púla - ìim.pahla goods,stock im.oela-veki- iim... week-end im.buku - iim.ouku mouse im.vula - iim.vula rain
Pc /.!inc beforec, q,x. ins.cinea - iins.cinsathousht unders-tanding in!.qoído.- ...-minã, lng.xelo- ung.xelo rePon rng.xoxo - ngJoxo olscusslon i/ ii
a) beforenasalstems i.mazi- ii.mazi femaleanimal,cow i.mela- ii.mela knife i.mini- ii.mini dav i.ncoko- ii.ncoko -conversation i.ncwadi- ii.ncwadi book letter i.ngca- ii.ngca grass l.nYama- [.nvÍrma meat lnyanga- ii,ríyanga moon,month i.nvaniso- ii.nvaniso truth i.níoka- ii.nvóka snake
57
.ü#
CI-ASS9: IN CI-ASS10:I(ZIN (contd)
u / iinr before nonlabial stems of more than one svllable u.bisi-... milk u.cango- iing.cango door u.qaKa- ... mud u.donqa- iin.donea wall u.donÃwe- iin.doiswe clav u.kwiõdla-... autúmn u.ncedo- ... helo u.nyawo - iinvawir foot u.sána- iint.s-ana babv u.sapho- iint.sapho fámilv u.si6a- iint.siba feaúer, óen u.sgku- iint... day,day aid night u.thando- ... lové u.\mvo- ... iov u.xolo - ... peâce,pardon x) n+ c> ngõ,n+n!r 1 n+s> nts( S.5 1.1)
i/ n
b) beforeborrowedstems i.bhasi- ii.bhasi bus i.bhaoi - ii.bbatvi iacket i.bholiwe- ii.bhólav'eeoat i.bhola- ii.bhola ball i.bhulukhwe - ii-. pair of trousers ii.dolophu towr i.{otpptrf_r.tÍì - lr.IÍÌm surname i.festile- ii.festile window i.folokhwe- ii.folokhwe fork i.foni - ii.foni teleohone i.gadi.-iigadi gartlen lgaralr - I.garalr garage r.zusna- u.zusha sneeD ' ilagu - ii.hãgu pig . r.nempe- [.nempe shrrt i.holide- ii.holide holidav i.kati- ii.kati cat itavrysi f .ii... sock,stocking i.ketile- ü.ketile kettle i.keviki - ii.keüki cake i.kofu - ii.koftí coffee i.komitvi - ii.komitvi cuo i.lekesé- ii.lekese- sweeì i.lokhwe- ii.lokhwe dress i.mali-... money i.moto- ii.moto -motorcaÍ pencil l.pensilg- ii.pensile r.petrolr -... petrol i.pleflti - ii.pÌèyiti plate r,rausl- ,., nce iselh.a- ii.sepha soap r.sosala - lr.sosalasaucer i.swekile- ... suqar i.tafile- ii.tafile -table i.tapile- ii.tapile Dotato i.teksi- ii.tekli taii i.ti - ii.ti tea i.tipoti - ii.tipoti teapot ì i.ti-ahala- iititshala -teacher i.titshala.kazi - ii... ladvteacher i.wuwa-... salt i.íeki - ii.veki week iven$le -.ii.venkile shop l.lvayrru- u.wayrÍu \ürne CI-ASS11:U(LU) CI-ASS10:I(Z)IN ulu / izin' beforenon-labial monosvllablestems ulu.hlu - izin.tlu iow. line ulu.ntu-..,. hgmqnity,humankind pr.\peapons ulu.r.rìl-: lzìrÌ.u izin-ti slrct(; glu.thi stiçk;pl.yeq *) n+hl>ntl,n+th>irt (5.51.1) ulu / izim beforelabial(p,b,lu) monosvllable òiems ulu.vo- izim.vo ópinion
q / iim before labial (p,b,f,v)stems of over one svllable u.fele - iim... skin, híde, leaúer u.fudo iim.fudo tortoise g / ii before stemsin l,m,n of more úan one svllable u.lwandle- ii.lwandle séa u.nyawo- ii.nyawo foot CI-ASS 14: UBU ubu.bele kindness ubu.bi evil ubu,dense foolishness ubu.hle-beautv ubu.lumko caútion, wisdom ub.ova wool ubu.3i honey ubu.sika wiíter ubu.suku nisht ubu.thongo -sleep CI,ASS 15:UKU uku.cula singinq
uFu.$p4afloãting,swimming
uku.hleka laushiãs.laushter uku.lima pl ou-shinï.culïivation uku.thandá loüns.-likins uku.thetha speakïíg, spãech uKu.Wa eatrns.Íood ukw.ákhe buiÍãing,construction LOCATIVES in e- (see525.3) Final a> eni is.onka > " e>eni i.hashe > i > ini " ama.nzr > " o > weni i.moto > " u > wini in.dlu >
58
es .oúeni e.hasheni ema.rzini e.motweni en.dlwini
ì
al
OTHERUSEFULWORDS
'J
lu,
ETC
apha here abho there e: in, at, to, ftom, etc. (5.25.3) e.busuku bv nieht at nisht e.mini bv dav. ín the daï emvakwé.mini in the afternoon ewe ves haú ïo ka:khúu much. a lot ka.kuhle well, fine ka.mnandi sweetlv.nicelv ka.msinyane sooq'early,'quickly kodwa but ku to. at. in. from. amone: in óoóparison iüth, thãn kuba becãuse ku.hle well. nicelv ku.kho there is. there are ku.luneile it is good ku.qalã first ku.sasa earlv ku.the.ni? whv? kwa of; at théplace of; even,just kwa (vérbal infix) see5.46 m.hla.wumbi perhaps -person) molo hullo (tõ one molweni huÍlo (to úore than one) na with; and, alÈo;has/have na = an interrosativeD'article namhlanie todãv nsa bv meansbf. throuú. úth. ' bv oh; about; at, in loItimel nsoì(o tfien nloku now ngomso tomorrow nle (after noun) one; (before noun) other, another;pl. some,other oKanve or phavá over there '-sa--(formative) seeSl47 se.seP (auxiliaú) seeS.45 uliuba Ìhat. so íÉat: if xa \4rnen vonke imi.hla evervdav ;i him/her/itself, íheniselves
IDEOPHONES Theseare onlv a few of manvused afteruku.thi(to do/become-thus) bhaxa- fall on. squelchin mud cwaka- be silént,calm, stilt dlabhu- tear, pierce,wound dunzu - scattei.disperse.flv off 9yoúp" - plop,pluirge intowater nlasr- snatch.snapup. qIaD mansa- marvel.be s-tarïed nqoo--go straiút on. keep on zõlè - bécome-tranoúil:súbside
VERB STEMS akha build, construct azi know, understand, know how to baleka run, flee, flee from bamba grasp,catch,retain, arrest banda b1 c
59 r-'
VERB STEMS(contd) luma bite
sikelelai favour.bless sinda escape.be saved suka ge1uir,go away;DV (S.48) sura' wlpe clean thanda lìke. love thandaza piav. nrav to thatha.thabatÉa' táke themba hope,trust thembisa causeto hope,promise tnensa buv úenEisa câuseto buv. sell thethïa speak,talk ták of thi* say,mean,thiú; do/become thus thula* be quiet tsha burn. be on fire: drv uo tshavela* sweeo tshq-' say,decláre;do thus tshona disappear;set (of sun) Wa eat úala plant ftv hand) úelela* üsiì (ï)va hear,taste,feel (S.51.4) vála close vela appear,come from; DV (S.48) vua open; coÌÌÌmence vuma aqree:adrÌut:srns wa fall,Tall ilown: 6rea[ down xela tell, mention: command xelela* tell to, inform ya. go (to a place); DV (S.48) yeKa stop.vreld.leavealone (i)za coire (S.51.a); DV (S.4S) zama struggle,strive,persèvere zrsa maKecome,Dnng
nceda help, assist(on one'sown) ncedisa hèlp (togeÌherwith...) nga seem;may, can,shall ngena qo rn. come ln. enter níka giíe,dêtiver, supplywith nqena DelÍEV odwaba be aÍ ease,be happy oyika be afraid. feár pha give as a eíft. Dresentto ir!ra$ã- toucÈ',hódle, ' manage,rule õheka boil (tr.). cook bhela come'to'ánend. cease fhendula answer bhila live, be well phinda-fold over; repeati DV (S.48) phulaphula* listen pluma come out, go out pnumla rest phunga sip (somethinghot) -besin: DV Aala íS.48)qìuba úiíe. proìeeú pushon with cionda undeistand;bé intelligent úla* stav.remain sebenza úork sebenzisa make work. use sela' drink (somethingcold)
r) SeeSection4},page 44,for úe perfect stem of theseverbs.
_.
KirschB. andSkorgeS.,MasithetheisiXhosa.CapeTown.1990. RiordanJ.,MathisoM., DavevA.S.,BenteleS.V.,MahlaselaB..Ianham L.W-. LumkoSelf-Instruction Couisein )Orosa.LumlioInstitute.lE69huw J.A, Handboekvan Xhosa.Johannesburg. 1963.
' Mcl-arenJ.,-ANev ConciseXhosa-EnglishDictionary,CapeTown. MaskewMiUerlongman.1.963. FischerA, WeissE.,lvídalaE., TshabeS.,English- XhosaDictionary. CapeTown.Offord UniversityPress.1985.-
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