Writing for Science and Engineering: Papers, Presentations and Reports by Heather Silyn-Roberts, Silyn-Roberts
ISBN: 0750646365 Publisher: Butterworth-Heinemann Pub. Date: December 2002
Acknowledgements
This book has come about as a result of working with hundreds of graduate students and staff. I would particularly like to thank those in the following institutions: the University of Auckland, in particular the School of Engineering, and those attending courses at the Centre for Professional Development; the University of Tiibingen, G e r m a n y - the Graduate Schools of Neurobiology, Interphase Chemistry, and Cell Biology; the Interdisciplinary Clinical Research Centre; the Department of General and Environmental Hygiene; the faculties of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, and Biology; and the Max Planck Institutes of Biological Cybernetics, Tiibingen, and Immunobiology, Freiburg, Germany. For their support and organization of the programmes at the University of Tiibingen and Max Planck Institutes, Germany, I am very grateful to Jutta Bachmann, Konrad Botzenhart, Susanne Braum, Heinrich Biilthoff, Gerd D6ring, Klaus Eichele, Hans-Dieter Frey, Wolf Frommer, Friedrich G6nnenwein, Sabine Hirsch, Wulf Kriiger, Peter Pilz, Davor Solter, Thomas Tritschler, and Friederike Wolf-Oberhollenzer. For contributing ideas or commenting on specific points: Keith Bailey, Simon Bickerton, Martyn Bowis, Richard Christie, Stewart Forsyth and the staff at Worley Consultants Ltd, Mike Johnston, Liz Godfrey, Stas Gorb, Enrico Hammerle, Patsy Hulse, Peter Jackson (for allowing me to adapt material for Chapter 9), Keith Jones, Sharlene Peterson, staff at the Purdue Online Writing Lab, and Fiona Stevens-McFadden. And, as ever, Sign and Gretel Silyn-Roberts, for their knowledge and editing skills, their humour, and keeping me buoyant.
Introduction
This book has been designed with the needs of science and engineering graduate students and junior professionals in mind. It is the result of working with hundreds of you in Europe and Australasia- how you access information, the type of information you want, and the kinds of books you don't like. These are the sorts of things that many students have said: 9 You appreciate prescriptions. This book is prescriptive; it's almost a recipe book. Some people may criticize it for that reason. But science and technical writing c a n be guided to a great extent by prescriptions. You may not achieve high style but you'll get professional competency. 9 You don't like black text. I've had many disparaging comments about books with 'too many words'. 9 You need to be able to read any chapter in isolation. In this book, you don't have to have read the previous parts of the book to understand the later ones. 9 Looking things up and cross-referring is second nature to scientists and engineers. This book has lots of cross-references within it to other parts of the book. 9 You appreciate knowing the mistakes to avoid, and that you are not alone in your difficulties. This book lists the common difficulties and errors. 9 Many of you have not had enough guidelines on the requirements of technical writing and presentation during your undergraduate years. This book assumes no basic knowledge, but it is not simplistic.
The basic structure of the book Chapter 1
The General Structure of a Document
How to decide on a structure for a document.
Chapter 2
The Core Chapter: Sections and Elements of a Document
The requirements for all the sections likely to be found in a graduate document.
Chapters 3 - 13
Specific Types of Documents
The requirements for each type of document. Extensively cross-referred to Chapter 2:
The Core Chapter. Chapter 14
Referencing
The conventions for referencing within the text and for the List of References.
Chapter 15
Editorial Conventions
The conventions for such things as formatting equations, rules for capitalization, etc.
Chapter 16
Revising and Proofreading: Strategies
The techniques for revising a document and proofreading the final version or editor's page proofs.
Chapter 17
Problems of Style
Recognizing and correcting common problems of writing style.
Chapter 18
A Seminar or Conference Presentation
The techniques for a formal oral presentation.
Chapter 19
Presentation to a Small Group
The techniques for a presentation to a small panel of people, e.g. PhD oral or a design presentation.
Appendix 1
Sl Units
Appendix 2
The Parts of Speech Tenses and Forms of the Verb
Appendix 3
Style Manuals for Specific Disciplines
INTRODUCTION
xi
How to use this book If you need the primary information about: 9 the basic skeleton of headings of a technical document 9 how to choose sections for a document 9 how to guide a reader through a document go to Chapter 1: The General Structure of a Document. If you need to write a specific type of document, or an oral presentation go straight to that chapter. It will be extensively cross-referred to the detail you need in other parts of the book. The other chapters give the supporting information on the conventions of technical documentation: referencing, editorial style etc.
Chapter I
The general structure of a document
This chapter covers: 9 AIMRAD: the classic structure of an experimental report. 9 When AIMRAD isn't an appropriate structure for your document. 9 The basic skeleton of section headings. 9 Building an extended skeleton of section headings. 9 Using the Outline mode of Microsoft Word| to help organize your document. 9 The importance of overview information: building a navigational pathway through your document. 9 Deliberate repetition of information in the basic skeleton.
The basic skeleton of section headings for a technical document This section covers: 9 The classic AIMRAD structure for an experimental report. 9 When AIMRAD isn't suitable: choosing section headings. 9 The basic set of headings forming the skeleton of a document, whatever its topic or length.
RIMRAD: the classic structure of an experimental report The classic, traditional structure for an experimental report, particularly a journal paper, is the AIMRAD structure: Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
When A I M P ~ D isn't an appropriate structure for your document The classic AIMRAD structure may not be suitable if you are reporting on: 9 Experimental work, but the structure needs to be expanded from the restrictive AIMRAD form. 9 Work that is not of an experimental nature. In this case, you will need to construct your own set of headings. There is no single structure that can be applied to all reports. The following sections give guidelines for this.
Choosing a set of main headings The basic skeleton of all professional technical documents is made up of a set of main headings. The headings don't depend on the topic or length of the
Table 1.1. A basic, general skeleton for a generalized short and a long document to show the similarities A short document
A more complex document (Note: You may not need all of these sections).
Title
Title page Abstract or Summaryor Executive
Summary
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations or List of Symbols (may not be needed) Introduction or Background (Middle part of text- your choice of headings) Conclusions Recommendations (if needed) Alternatively, placed immediately after the Summary.
Appendices (may not be needed)
Summary
Recommendations (if needed) Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Illustrations Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations or List of Symbols Theory (if needed) Introduction or Background (Middle part of text- your choice of headings) Discussion Conclusions Recommendations (alternative position) or merged as Conclusions and Recommendations Acknowledgements (alternative position) References and/or Bibliography Appendices
THE GENERALSTRUCTURING OF A DOCUMENT
3
report, or whether it presents experimental or investigational work that you've done, or material that you've researched only from the literature (e.g. a generalized project report). Documents tend to start and end with the same sections; the middle part will depend on the subject matter of your document. To show this, Table 1.1 compares the basic format for a generalized short and a long document.
Choosing section headings: building an extended skeleton This section describes how to: 9 Build up the general skeleton into an appropriate extended skeleton of sections for your document. This covers every type of document that is not of a strictly AIMRAD structure. 9 Use the standard sections frequently used in longer documents.
Steps to take Step I: Working from the basic skeleton, plan an enlarged skeleton
/or your document Use Table 1.2 to help: it does the following: 9 It lists many standard sections used in postgraduate science and technological documents, in the approximate order in which they would occur in the document. 9 It gives the purpose of each section. 9 It cross-refers you to the pages of this book that give guidelines on how to write each section.
Step 2: Work out your own headings for the central part of the document Think about what the reader needs. 9 Ask yourself: What does the reader need to be able to assess my material most readily? How can I best tell this story for the reader? 9 Don't ask: How do I want to present this material? This is quite different; it is looking at it from your point of view, not the reader's. Documents that are written from the writer's point of view run the risk of being difficult for a reader to readily understand.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
Table 1.2. Use this table to determine what sections you will need for a document. It shows: (1) the possible standard sections of a graduate technical document, (2) the purpose of each section, (3) how often the section is used, and (4) the relevant cross-reference to guidelines in this book Section heading
Purpose of section
Frequency of use
Cross-reference. Unless otherwise stated, the material is in Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Title
To adequately describe the contents of your document in the fewest possible words.
Necessary
See 'Title', page 16
The Title Page
This is usually the covering page (first page) of a document, giving the title of your document, information about yourself and your institution, and any declaration that you may need to make.
Longer documents
See 'Title Page', page 19.
Abstract or Summary or Executive Summary
9 To give the reader a miniaturized version of the document, so that they can identify the basic content quickly and accurately. 9 To give the reader a brief overview of all of the key information. Vitally important to help the reader assess the information in the rest of the document. 9 To help readers decide whether they need to read the whole document.
Necessary
See Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/ Executive Summary, page 64.
Usually only for a journal paper
See 'Keywords', page 23.
Keywords
A brief list of keywords I relevant to your document that will be used by electronic indexing and abstracting services.
Acknowledgements
To thank the people who have given you help in your work and in the preparation of your document.
If needed
See 'Acknowledgements', page 23.
Table of Contents
Gives the overall structure of the document. Lists the headings and subheadings, together with their corresponding page numbers.
Longer documents
See 'Table of Contents', page 24.
List of Illustrations
To give a listing - separate from the Table of Contents of the numbers, titles and corresponding page numbers of all your figures and tables.
Longer documents
See 'List of Illustrations', page 26.
To define the specialist terms and abbreviations (including acronyms) that you use in the main text of the document.
If needed
See 'Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations', page 27.
-
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations (or List of Symbols)
THE GENERALSTRUCTURING OF A DOCUMENT
Section heading
Purpose of section
5
Frequency of use
Cross-reference. Unless otherwise stated, the material is in Chapter 2: The Core chapter
Introduction
9 To clearly state the purpose of the study. 9 To allow readers to understand the background to the study, without needing to consult the literature themselves. 9 To indicate the authors who have worked or are working in this area, and to describe their chief contributions. 9 To indicate correlations, contradictions, anomalies and gaps in the knowledge. 9 To outline the approach you will take. 9 To provide a context for the later discussion of your material. 9 In longer documents to describe the structure of the document.
Common
See 'Introduction,' page 28.
Background
Often used as an alternative heading to Introduction. But where a document needs both an Introduction and a Background:
If needed
See 'Background', page 32.
If clear statement needed
See 'Objectives' page 32.
Introduction: usually a restatement of the brief and a description of the structure of the document. Background: gives the history of the subject matter and the objectives of the study. Alternatively, the objectives can be stated in a separate Objectives section. Objectives
To describe the aims of your study.
Purpose Statement
To state the purpose of the document (equivalent of the Objectives section).
Scoping Statement or Scope
To describe the topics covered in the document.
Procedure Statement
To describe the processes you followed in investigating the topic of the document.
Problem Statement
To describe the problem and its significance.
See 'Purpose statement, page 33.
These four sections are sometimes found in management reports.
See 'Scope statement', page 34. See 'Procedure statement', page 34.
See 'Problem statement', page 34.
WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
6
Section heading
Purpose of section
Frequency of use
Cross-reference. Unless otherwise stated, the material is in Chapter 2: The Core chapter
Literature Review
To review the literature in your field of work. Shows that you have a good understanding of the historical development and current state of your topic.
Research document
See Chapter 4: A Literature Review, page 78
A section covering your planning of tasks (suggested headings: Schedule of Tasks or Time Management)
To describe how you propose to schedule the various tasks that you will have to do.
Often in management reports
See 'Schedule of Tasks or Time Management', page 35.
Allocation of Responsibilities
To describe the person(s) who will be responsible for each task.
May be needed in a report from a project team
See 'Allocation of Responsibilities', page 37.
Ownership/ Confidentiality
An agreement between you and the commercial organization funding you that gives you some right of publication of your results, while assuring the organization that you will not divulge commercially sensitive information.
May be needed in a research proposal
See 'Ownership. Confidentiality, page 37.
Requirements
To describe what you expect to need from your funding organization.
If needed
See 'Requirements', page 38.
To describe the expected costs that you are asking the funding organization to I cover.
If needed
See 'Costs', page 38.
i To describe your experimental procedures. Aim: repeatability by another competent scientist.
Research reports
See 'Materials and Methods', page 39.
Results
To present your results, but not to discuss them.
Research reports
See 'Results', page 41.
Discussion
To show the relationships among the observed facts that you have presented in your document, and to draw conclusions.
Common
See 'Discussion', page 45.
Conclusions
To give an overview of the conclusions that you have already stated previously in the document, most likely in the Discussion section.
Necessary
See 'Conclusions', page 48.
Recommendations
To propose a series of recommendations for action.
If needed
See 'Recommendat ions', page 50.
Suggestions for Future Research
To propose directions for further development of your work.
If needed
See 'Suggestions for Future Research', page 51.
Costs
I
Materials and Methods or Procedure
THE GENERALSTRUCTURING OF A DOCUMENT
Section heading
Purpose of section
7
Frequency of use
Cross -reference. Unless otherwise stated, the material is in Chapter 2: The Core chapter
References or List of References
A list of the works that you have cited in the text. Strict conventions govern this process.
If your sources have been cited in the text
For full details of the conventions for citing references in the text and compiling the 'List of References', see Chapter 14: Referencing, page 167.
Bibliography
A list of works that you have not cited in the text, which you think will be of interest to the reader.
If your sources have not been cited in the text
See 'Bibliography', Chapter 14: Referencing, page 186.
Appendices
At the end of a document for complex material that would interrupt the flow of your document if it were to be inserted into the main body. For example: raw data, detailed illustrations of equipment, coding, specifications, product descriptions, charts, etc.
When complex supporting material needed.
See 'Appendices', page 52.
Index
Used in long documents: at the end of the document, a list in alphabetical order giving topics mentioned in the book and the pages where they occur.
Longer documents
See 'Index', page 54.
The Outline mode of Microsoft Word| a document
organizing
This section very briefly describes the Outline mode of Microsoft Word| This mode helps organize a document, revise it, and produce a document that looks professional.
The Outline mode of Microsoft Word | will:
1 Help organize a set of headings and subheadings of various levels. This is useful for the first stage of organizing a document. You decide on your headings, the subheadings and their divisions, and then assign them to their various levels (level 1 for a main heading, level 2 for a subheading, etc). They can be easily reassigned to different levels at any time in the writing process.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
The text is then inserted under the headings to produce the full document. 2 Collapse the document to display only selected levels of headings. This gives an overview of the whole document. You can select the level of overview. By collapsing the document and selecting to display only the level 1 headings, you can check the overall structure of the document in terms of only its main headings. By progressively displaying greater levels of subheadings, you can obtain an increasingly more detailed view of the structure of the document. This also helps in revising the first draft of the document. 3 Enable a heading to be dragged and dropped to a different place in the document, or to a different level. This helps to organize and revise the document. When a heading is dragged and dropped, the corresponding text is also moved. 4 Automatically produce a Table of Contents with the corresponding page numbers.
The importance of overview information: building a navigational pathway through the document This section describes how to help readers navigate their way through your document. In this way they will understand and assess the information much more readily. This is done by using (1) the basic skeleton and (2) section summaries to provide overview information.
Even though technical documents have side headings, they are very often difficult to assess and extract information from. This can be because the readers can't see a pathway through it, something to help them to navigate their way. You can construct a navigational guide through your document by using the basic skeleton and building on it. Your readers should then be able to use this - probably unconsciously - to gain a much readier understanding of your material.
Building a guide by giving overview information throughout Psychological studies have shown that our brain needs initial overviews to better assess the full information that follows.
THE GENER/~LSTRUCTURINGOF /q DOCUMENT
9
Title
stract/Summary/Executive Summary
Body of information
~
Conclusions
Figure 1.1 Diagrammatic representation of the structure of a complete document or a section of a longer document. The level of detail is low at the two narrow ends- the initial and final overview information (Title, Abstract or Summary or Executive Summary, and Conclusions)
To use this concept, think of structuring information in the shape of a diamond (see Figure 1.1). 1 First, think of the whole document as being diamond shaped. At the narrow ends, the information is brief, focused and concise. 9 The Summary or Abstract at the beginning and the Conclusions at the end each give overview information. 9 The Summary prepares the reader for the whole document, the Conclusions confirms the findings. 2 Next, think of each section of a long document as also being diamond shaped. It will also have two narrow ends: a Summary or Abstract at the beginning and a Conclusions section at the end. To get an undetailed understanding of the key information in the document - the rule of thumb is: read the Title, Summary/Abstract, Recommendations and Conclusions. These sections- together with the section summariesshould form a navigational aid that orientates the readers and guides them through the document. They also give the non-expert reader a means of obtaining an undetailed overview. (For an explanation of the varying levels of detail delivered by certain sections, see Table 1.3). Let the non-expert readers know that they can obtain an overview of the document by reading these particular sections. Suggested wording (placed immediately before or after the main Summary):
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WRITING FORSCIENCEAND ENGINEERING:PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
For overview information about this document, please read the Summary, Recommendations, and Conclusions together with the section summaries at the beginning of each section.
Table 1.3. Explanation of how the sections of the basic skeleton deliver overview information at increasing levels of detail
Section
Level of detail: increases from first to fourth
What the section does for the reader
Title
First level
Gives instant access to the main point.
Summary or Abstract
Second level
Gives an undetailed overview of the whole document.
Recommendations and Conclusions
Third level
Gives succinct overview information about your recommendations and conclusions.
For each section: Section Summary Section Conclusions
Fourth level
For the middle sections (the sections where you choose appropriate section headings). Give overviews of the material in each section. If the material in the section does not lend itself to being summarized: substitute a Scope Statement, which describes the topics covered in the section.
Deliberate repetition of information in a document This section describes how information is deliberately repeated in the various sections of the basic skeleton.
THE GENERAL STRUCTURING OF A DOCUMENT
II
People are sometimes concerned because they see information repeated throughout a report. But it has to be remembered that this repetition is deliberate and controlled- the basic skeleton calls for it. The repeated information forms part of the navigational pathway described above and guides the reader through the document. Table 1.4 shows the information that is repeated, and the sections where it occurs.
Table 1.4. The deliberate repetition of material throughout a document The section of the basic skeleton
The information
Abstract or Summary Undetailed overview of or Executive the whole document Summary The main conclusion(s)
Conclusions
The places in the rest of the document where the information is repeated
Throughout the document Conclusions
Possibly: the main recommendation
Recommendations
Overview of the conclusions you draw throughout the document
Elsewhere in the document. Probably in the Discussion. The main conclusion(s) will also be repeated in the Abstract or Summary or Executive Summary.
Recommendations
Appendices
A list of your recommended actions
The main recommendation(s) might be repeated in the Abstract or Summary or Executive Summary. Summaries of the Appendix material might appear in the main body of the document.
This deliberate restatement of undetailed information in the basic skeleton is a feature of a professional document. But information that is repeated because the document has been sloppily assembled is another matter.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENT/~TION AND REPORTS
Specific types of documents: using this book This section describes how to use this book if you are writing a specific type of document.
Specific types of documents are dealt with in Chapters 3-13. Each of these chapters gives extra material relevant to the type of document (including a suggested structure), and is cross-referred to the material in Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. Table 1.5 lists the various specific types of documents covered in these chapters, and additional appendix material that may be helpful.
Table 1.5. Specific types of documents dealt with in this book, and the relevant chapter and page number Type of document
Relevant chapter and page number
Chapter 3, pages 64-77 Abstract or Summary or Executive Summary: 9 A short Abstract/Summary (200-300 words) 9 A journal paper Abstract 9 A conference Abstract (about two pages) 9 An Executive Summary (10-25% of the whole document) Literature review
Chapter 4, pages 78-91
Research proposal
Chapter 5, pages 92-98
Journal paper
Chapter 6, pages 99-106
Progress report
Chapter 7, pages 107-112
Consulting or management report A project team's progress reports A recommendation report
Chapter 8, pages 113-117
Engineering design report
Chapter 9, pages 118-122
Formal letters
Chapter 10, pages 123-133
Emails, faxes and memos
Chapter 11, pages 134-140
Thesis
Chapter 12, pages 141-150
Conference poster
Chapter 13, pages 151-166
Additional material: SI units The parts of speech and verb forms Style manuals for various disciplines
Appendix 1, page 268 Appendix 2, page 271 Appendix 3, page 274
THE GENERAL STRUCTURING OF A DOCUMENT
13
Checklist for the structuring of a document Are you using the necessary headings of the basic skeleton? [--1 Are the headings of your expanded skeleton appropriate to your topic? [-1 Are your headings in a logical order? [-1 Have you built a navigational pathway for the reader by giving overview information throughout your document: an Abstract or Summary or Executive Summary, Recommendations, and Conclusions, and in a long report, section summaries? D Have you deliberately controlled the repetition of information throughout the document?
Chapter 2
The core chapter: sections and elements of a document
This chapter covers the requirements for each of the sections and elements required in the various types of documents you may have to prepare as a postgraduate. Any one document will not need all of the following sections. Note= It is essential to check whether your institution has specific requirements for the sections and formatting of the document. 9 Each document section is described under most or all of the following headings: - Purpose Difficulties How to write it Common mistakes - Tense of the verb - Checklist 9 For a specific type of document, use the relevant chapter for that document type in combination with this chapter. 9 The sections are listed in the approximate order in which they are usually found in a document. -
-
-
The following sections and elements of a document are covered in this chapter. Some elements are cross-referred to other chapters that give a detailed treatment: Letter of Transmittal or Covering Letter (see Chapter 10: Formal Letters) Title Title Page Authorship and Affiliation (particularly in a journal paper) Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary (see Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/ Executive Summary) Keywords Acknowledgements Table of Contents
THE CORE CHAPTER: SECTIONS AND ELEMENTSOF A DOCUMENT
15
List of Illustrations Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations or List of Symbols Introduction Background Theory Objectives Purpose Statement Scope Statement Procedure Statement Problem Statement Literature Review (see Chapter 4: A Literature Review) Schedule of Tasks or Time Management o r s i m i l a r Allocation of Responsibilities Ownership/Confidentiality Requirements Costs Materials and Methods Results Discussion Conclusions Recommendations Suggestions for Future Research References o r List of References (see Chapter 14: Referencing) List of Personal Communications (see Chapter 14: Referencing) Bibliography (see Chapter 14: Referencing) Appendices Index Illustrations: figures and tables Many sections are described under most or all of the following headings: 1 2 3 4 5
Purpose: the aim of each of the sections. Difficulties when writing the section. How to write the section. Common mistakes to avoid. The tense of the verb to use. See Appendix 2 for guidelines for using tense in technical documents, and definitions and examples of the various tenses of the verb. 6 Checklist.
Letter of transmittal, covering letter Letters that accompany a document. See Chapter 10: A Formal Letter, pages 123-133.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCEAND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
The title Purpose 1 To adequately describe the contents of your document in the fewest possible words. 2 To give the reader immediate access to the main subject matter.
Difficulties Devising a title that is: 9 short enough 9 contains all the key information 9 makes sense (i.e. is not ambiguous, is not syntactically problematic)
How to write it For the rules of capitalization in a title, see 'Titles of journal articles', page 193. Chapter 15: Editorial Conventions.
9 Work out the information that a reader would need to gain immediate access to the main point of your document. 9 It should be not too general, not too detailed, and should contain the necessary key information. 9 After your efforts to make it short, make sure that it makes sense. The structure can be lost during the quest for the minimum number of words, making it muddled and ambiguous.
journal paper title 9 Think along the lines: 'How would I look for this kind of information in a database?' 9 It is a mistake to believe that a general title will suffice for a journal paper, and that the list of keywords that you supply will indicate the specifics of your document. Many papers are selected for reading from the titles as they appear in a List of References. An inadequate title may not be followed up. 9 Avoid a general title. Make sure that it contains all the information that you would look for when deciding whether or not to read a paper. In ascending order of usefulness: Genetic control of changes in root architecture. (Too general, but suitable for a review paper.)
THE CORECHAPTER:SECTIONSP,ND ELEMENTSOF A DOCUMENT
17
Genetic control of nutrient-induced changes in root architecture.
An Arabidopsis MADS gene that controls nutrient-induced changes in root architecture. (Gives very specific information.)
9 A journal may allow a declarative title: this gives the key conclusion of the study. Herbivore-infested plants selectively attract parasitoids.
However, some journals prefer indicative titles: titles that state what the study is about, but do not give the key conclusion. This may be considered scientifically more acceptable; the readers' own conclusions as to the significance of the work will not have been preempted. 9 A sentence as a title. Some journals do not allow a title to be a sentence {i.e. there must not be a verb). Herbivore-infested plants selectively attract parasitoids would not be allowed by some journals.
9 A hanging title. A colon or dash joins parts of the title. This is a useful way of avoiding a long, grammatically difficult title. Either the first or the second part of the title can be used to describe the overall area; the other part gives more specific material. TiCI, Till and Till § bond energies: a test of a correlation-consistent Ti
basis set. A biomechanical profile across the patellar groove articular cartilage: implications for defining matrix health.
9 A question as a title. Some journals allow the use of questions in the title (see below, 'A conference poster title', page 18.) Does the southern dominance of solar activity really exist in solar cycle 21?
Questions can also be used as the second part of a hanging title. Replenishment of populations of Caribbean reef fishes: are spatial patterns of recruitment consistent through time?
9 Series titles. Some journal editors do not like series titles. If the various papers appear in different journals, there are problems with the timing of publication, with the result that papers can get out of sequence. However, they are still sometimes used. Small-scale topology of solar atmosphere dynamics. IV. On the relation of photospheric oscillations to meso-scale flows.
9 Abbreviations in the main title. Any abbreviations that you use should be widely known in your discipline. Many journals have a list of the abbreviations they will accept.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
9 Running titles (running heads). These are the short titles required by journals for the tops of the pages. In contrast to the main title, running titles can use abbreviations.
Full dtle: Separation and identification of growth hormone variants with high-performance liquid chromatography techniques. dt/~: H P L C separation of GH variants.
Running
~1 eonferenee poster title 9 A poster title needs to contain the key information but also draw the attention of the poster viewers. For this reason it can be shorter, more punchy and possibly more querying or controversial than a title for a journal paper. Questions as titles can be provocative; but they can also imply that your results are in question. If it's too long it will take up too much space and overwhelm the poster, since the letters will be large. Long; informative; suitable for a journal paper: Dropping rates of elaiosome-bearing seeds during transportation by ants (Formica polyctena Foerst.): Implications for distance dispersal. Gives the conclusion; shorter; more direct: Dispersal distance of elaiosome-bearing seeds is determined by ants' dropping rates. A question; attracts the viewers' attention; but it could imply that your results are ambiguous: Do ants' dropping rates determine the distance dispersal of elaiosomebearing seeds? Too short to contain the required information: Do ants affect the dispersal of seeds? 9 Many people who attend conferences are interested in new methodology. If you have used a novel method, show it in the title. A new method for detoxification of mycotoxin-contaminated food. 9 Place the title at the top of your poster. Don't be tempted to try a trendy configuration such as placing it vertically along one side.
Common
mistakes
1 Uninformative. Too general or too catchy: no good indication of the content. 2 Too long and clumsy. 3 Misleading: do not accurately reflect the content. 4 Too much information crammed in, leading to ambiguity.
THE CORE CHAPTER: SECTIONS gND ELEMENTSOF • DOCUMENT
19
Checklist for the title [ZI Does it give the reader immediate access to the main point of your work? [-1 Does it adequately describe the significant features of your document? [-1 Does it use the fewest possible words and still make sense? [--1 Is it too long? Is it too general? Is it too detailed? [Z] Does it make sense ?
The title page Purpose This is usually the covering page (first page) of a longer document, giving the title and information about yourself and your institution, and any declaration that you may need to make. How
to write
it
It should in general state: 9 the title of your document 9 your name and department, university or institution. (For guidelines on multiple authorship, see 'Authorship and affiliation', page 21) 9 the date of submission 9 the name of the relevant person, organization or tertiary level course to which it is being submitted. 9 Other possible elements: - a declaration that it is your own work may be needed.
Typical wording: I declare that this report is my own unaided work and was not copied from or written in collaboration with any other person. Signed...
- For a thesis: the degree for which the thesis is being submitted, and the institution.
Typical wording: A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Middletown
9 Layout: - Graduate courses will often have specific instructions about how to lay out the title page. - It should make a pleasing arrangement, with plenty of white space. - It should be free of gimmicks such as ClipArt pictures.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCEAND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
Example of how to lay out a title page
55.593 Technology and Society
Development of the Rail System in the Nineteenth Century
Nicholas A. Ashford D e p a r t m e n t o f the H i s t o r y o f S c i e n c e University of Middletown
This report is my own unaided work and was not copied from or written in collaboration with any other person
Signed
Date
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21
Checklist for the title page Does the title page show: [3 an informative title? [-1 your name? I-1 the name of your department/faculty/organization? El the date of submission? V7 possibly, a declaration that it is your own work? V] for a thesis, the degree for which the thesis is being submitted and the name of the institution to which the thesis is being submitted?
Authorship and/~ffiliation (particularly in a journal paper) Purpose To show the people who did the work presented in the paper, the institutions where it was done and, if necessary, the present addresses of the authors.
How to write it The journal's Instructions to Authors will define how to present the author/ affiliation information.
Difficulties There are two delicate aspects here, either of which can lead to misunderstandings if not handled well. 1 The name(s) that should appear on the manuscript in addition to yours: Prestige In the eyes of the scientific and technological community, the authors of a paper become identified with its work. A paper is very rarely known by its title; it is always referred t o - in conversation as well as in texts - by the surnames of its authors, or as 'Smith et al.', if there are several authors. The quality and number of papers a person has published are the major determiners of respect in this community.
The anxiety to be included People can often, therefore, be eager to be included as one of a paper's authors. This can lead to uneasy relationships, if you feel that their contribution doesn't merit inclusion in a paper where you think you have done all or most of the main work.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS. PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Author or acknowledged? A difficult problem can be to decide whether to include a person as an author or whether instead to mention him or her in an Acknowledgements section. Sole or co-authorship? Some universities and departments state that supervisors must appear as co-authors. Others will allow the graduate student to be sole author. This must be resolved with your supervisor. You should also discuss whether other people, such as other staff members, students or technical staff should also be co-authors. 2 The order in which the names should appear: Author sensitivities When a paper has several authors, the order in which they appear under the title is very important. The sensitivities of authors run high. But there are no ground rules for deciding the order, and arguments are by no means unknown among co-authors for each one's place in the hierarchy. A neutral way of approaching this issue is to place all authors after the first author in alphabetical order. First name position The first name carries the most prestige. This is the person who has written the paper, and who has generally done most or all of the work. As a graduate student, you are likely to take this first position with your supervisor(s) succeeding you. Group leader or senior professor If there are a number of authors, one of whom is being included because of his or her rank in the organization - and who may not have been very directly connected with the progressing of the work - this person's name is often included as the last author.
Abstract (can also be called a Summary) The Abstract or Summary is important for the understanding of the whole document. It is often poorly written and does not give adequate information. See Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary. This gives information on the following: 9 The different types of content in a Summary or Abstract: descriptive, informative and descriptive/informative. 9 The short type of Summary or Abstract that is part of a larger document. It is generally from 200 words to half a page, but will be longer in a thesis or large document. 9 Material specific to a journal paper Abstract (usually about 300 words) and to a longer Abstract for a conference paper (usually about two pages). 9 An Executive Summary.
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Keywords This is a short list of words relevant to your work - usually required only by a j o u r n a l - that will be used by electronic indexing and abstracting services. It is important to work out the keywords that a potential reader might use to search for information. They should include both general and specific items.
Acknowledgements Purpose To thank your supervisor(s) and other people who have given you help by: 9 9 9 9 9
sending you material (experimental or literature) giving you technical help in your laboratory work discussing your work with you putting you in touch with other people giving you emotional support, particularly members of your family etc.
How to write it 9 State very simply that you would like to thank the following people, and state also the type of help they gave you. I would like to thank the following people:
9 If you feel particularly grateful to someone, start by saying I am particularly grateful to... f o r . . . I would also like to t h a n k . . , then list their names and state what they did. 9 Make sure that you include: - not only the surname of a person you are thanking but also the first name or the initials - the person's correct title (Dr, Associate-Professor, Ms, Mr, etc.). If you don't know it, make a point of finding it out, if necessary by telephoning their institution - their department/institution/organization
Common mistakes 1 Using flippant wording. It is possible to sound patronizing or silly. 2 Not including (1) people's first names or initials, (2) their department and institution.
Wrong: I would particularly like to thank Dr Stevens for giving me samples of...
Corrected: I would particularly like to thank Dr. A.J. Stevens, Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Middletown, for giving me samples of...
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WRITING FOR SCIENCEAND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
Table of Contents (or Contents Page) Purpose To give a listing of the headings and subheadings, together with their corresponding page numbers.
Difficulties 1 Deciding on an appropriate layout. 2 Formatting it correctly so that the indentations are consistent. 3 Making sure that the page numbers in the text correspond with those on the Table of Contents. All these problems can be eliminated by using the facility on your word processor that automatically constructs and formats your Table of Contents. See 'The Outline mode of Microsoft Word| organizing a document' page 7, Chapter 1: The General Structure of a Document.
How to write it If you are not using the word processor's facility, use the following guidelines: 9 Decide the lowest level ofheading to display on the Table of Contents (e.g., whether you want to go down to subheading level or to subsubheading level). 9 List all the sections and all their subheadings down to your chosen level down the left-hand side of the page. - Number the sections and their subheadings by the accepted conventions, using the decimal point numbering system (see page 195). - If you are indenting for subheadings, make sure that the indentations are consistent for each level of heading. 9 Place the corresponding page numbers at the right-hand side of the page. - Use the accepted conventions for numbering the pages (see page 198). 9 Don't list individual figures on the Table of Contents. If you have a lot of illustrations (as in a thesis, for example), you need a section called List of Illustrations, which immediately follows the Table of Contents (see List of Illustrations, this chapter). 9 Conventionally, the Abstract or Summary is not listed on the Table of Contents. However, it may help the reader to do so, even though it is placed immediately after the Title Page and is therefore easily found. This has been done in the example below.
Common mistakes 1 Mismatches between the text and Table of Contents in the wording and numbering of the various headings, together with their corresponding page numbers. 2 Inconsistent formatting and indenting of the various levels of headings.
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Example: Table of Contents Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgements List of Figures Glossary of Terms 1.0
Introduction
2.0
Theory 2.1 Flow visualization 2.2 Volume data sets 2.3 Flow visualization techniques 2.3.1 Scalar fields 2.3.2 Vector fields 2.4 The IBM RISC System/6000
3.0
Direct volume rendering techniques 3.1 Ray tracing 3.2 Point clouds 3.3 Scan conversion of volume primitives 3.4 Polygonal approximation to scan conversion
9 11 12 14
Use of colour in volume rendering 4.1 24-bit RGB colour 4.2 Assigning colours to fluid variables 4.2.1 Accumulating colours 4.2.2 Threshold colours
16 17 17 19
5.0
A new method for faster volume rendering
20
6.0
The Render3D program
21
7.0
Results 7.1 The continuous casting process 7.2 Velocity fields in the continuous caster model 7.3 Dye concentration fields 7.4 Isosurfaces
22 23 26 27
Discussion 8.1 Validity of new method for volume rendering 8.2 Usefulness of volume rendering 8.3 Further development
28 31 34
9.0
Conclusions
36
10.0
References
37
4.0
8.0
Appendices Appendix 1 Source code: Ray tracing Appendix 2 Interpolation and error Appendix 3 Input file formats (a) Data files (b) Palette files
A-1 A-2 A-3 A-3a A-3b
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WRITING FOR SCIENCEAND ENGINEERING: PAPERS. PRESENTATION /qND REPORTS
Checklist for the Table of Contents I-1 Does it list the preliminary pages, and give their page numbers in Roman numerals? I-1 Does it list the: chapter headings? n section and subsection headings? [] the References section? each appendix? I-1 Does it give the correct section number of the sections, subsections, the References section and each appendix? V-1 Does each appendix have a title? I-1 Do the page numbers match up with those in the text? Is it consistently formatted? Are the indentations of the sections and subsections consistent? I-1 In the main text: does each chapter heading and subheading match the sequence and numbering of those given in the Table of Contents?
List of Illustrations Purpose To list - separate from the Table of Contents - the numbers, titles and corresponding page numbers of all your tables and figures.
How to write it 9 The term illustrations includes tables and figures (graphs, line drawings, photographs, maps, etc). Use the title List of Illustrations if your document contains both tables and figures. If it contains only tables, call it List of Tables; if only figures, List of Figures. 9 If you are using List of Illustrations, list all the figures first, and then list all the tables. 9 List the number, title and page of each illustration. 9 Place the List of Illustrations immediately after the Table of Contents. If both of them are brief, put them on the same page with the Table of Contents first.
Common mistakes Mismatches between the features of the text figures and tables and the way they are listed in the List of Illustrations.
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27
Checklist for the List of Illustrations [Z] Are all the figures listed first, then the tables? D Is the number, title and page of each illustration given? D Do the page numbers match up with those in the text? [--1 Conversely, in the main text, do the illustration numbers in the text match those in the List of Illustrations?
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations (or List of Symbols, when dealing with only mathematical symbols)
Purpose To define the specialist terms, symbols and abbreviations (including acronyms) that you use in the main text of the document.
How to write it 9 Decide the terms that need definition. Remember that a term self-evident to you may not be as generally well known as you think. Even when you are writing a specialist document that will be read only by experts - such as a thesis - your referees will appreciate a list of clearly defined terms. Make sure, though, that you don't include terms that are generally very well known; to define them would look silly. 9 Terms that need to be dealt with include: - specific technical terms - Greek or other symbols - abbreviations (usually called acronyms). These are often in the form of the initial letters in capitals of a series of words, e.g. PCR: polymerase chain reaction; PLC: programmable logic controller. For the conventions for also defining these in the text, see Chapter 15: Editorial Conventions. 9 Before you list the terms and abbreviations, it may be appropriate to state: S.I. (Systeme International d'Unit~s) abbreviations for units and standard notations for chemical elements, formulae and chemical abbreviations are used in this work. Other abbreviations are listed below.
Where to put it The Glossary of Terms can be placed either at the beginning of the document immediately after the Table of Contents or the List of Illustrations (this is the optimal position for the reader), or at the end, immediately before the Appendices.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE/qND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATION/~NDREPORTS
If the glossary is large and you feel that it needs to be at the end of the document, readers would appreciate a note placed immediately before the Introduction, referring them to the page number of the glossary. Suggested wording: Explanations of terms and abbreviations used in this document are given in the Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations, page x.
Introduction Purpose 9 To clearly state the purpose of the study. 9 To allow readers to understand the background to the study, without needing to consult the literature themselves. 9 To indicate the authors who have worked or are working in this area, and to describe their chief contributions. 9 To point out the relationships between the various authors' works - the correlations and contradictions. 9 To indicate correlations, contradictions, ambiguities and gaps in the knowledge. 9 To outline the approach you will take with respect to the correlations, contradictions, ambiguities and gaps that you intend to address. 9 To provide a context for the later discussion of the results. 9 In a longer document: to describe the structure of the document.
Difficulties This can sometimes be a difficult section to write. The most common problems are: 1 Deciding how much background detail to include. This is especially difficult when your readers are made up of both specialists and nonspecialists. 9 For specialists: a thorough introduction to the topic may sound patronizing. 9 For the less knowledgeable: too little information may leave them puzzled about what you are trying to achieve. 9 Graduate students trying to gain familiarity with the subject often find Introductions too short and uninformative. 2. Deciding how many references to include. 3 Writing a good first sentence. The first sentence shouldn't be a banal statement of general knowledge. It needs to provide an overall introduction, but be specific to your particular problem. It can be difficult to think up, and people can resort to a trite statement of the obvious. For example:
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Toxic waste is a very serious problem in the world today.
Even pompously dressing it up can't disguise a banality: The quantity of toxic waste currently generated in the world is a problem of the utmost seriousness. How
to write
it
1 Clearly show the main purpose of the work. 2 The way you write it, and the particular focus that you take, will depend on the type of document and the readers you are expecting. The Introduction is one section in particular that needs to be tailored to your specific audience, because the interest of each type of audience in your work will come from a different viewpoint. For instance, the Introduction in a thesis will be different from that in a document for general readership, or a report to your funding body. (See the chapters on the various types of documents for more specialist information.) 3 Review the literature and show the relationships between the various areas of work. Show the background of the previous work in this area. Show the contributions of others, with correct reference citations of their work. The references that you cite should be carefully chosen to provide the most important background information. Show the correlations and the contradictions. For guidelines for writing a self-standing literature review see Chapter 4: A Literature Review. This is often required as a chapter in a thesis or as a separate assignment. 4 Use only references that are really relevant. You don't need to prove how broadly read you are. This can be a problem when you are writing up a paper from a thesis. 5 Show where there are correlations, contradictions, ambiguities and gaps in the knowledge. 9 Show the scope of the problem. 9 Show how your work will address them. 6 Make it simple and brief. But keep your reader adequately informed. 7 Define the specialist terms used in the document. 8 Structuring the Introduction. The Introduction tells a story- it should have a logical flow: 9 Show the logic by using signalling words and phrases such as: It was previously believed that... However, recent studies have shown... Thus, it appears that...
The be~nning: Briefly summarize relevant current knowledge, supporting your statements with references as necessary. The m/dd/e. Move on to what is not known (or a problem with the known). Having summarized the established facts, move on to areas
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
where there is less or no knowledge, or where the evidence is conflicting. The end. In the final paragraphs: (a) clearly state the purpose of your work. Then (b) briefly summarize your approach, if this is appropriate and, possibly, your results. (a) State the purpose of your work. Every study sets out to answer a specific research question. This should be stated explicitly in the final paragraph of the Introduction. Make sure it follows logically from the preceding sentences; these should have been structured so that the gaps or controversies in the knowledge are obvious. 9 Use a new paragraph to state why the study is being done. Don't state it clumsily, for example: The reason for doing this study w a s . . .
I Instead, use signalling words and phrases to highlight the question: However, it is not known whether... To answer this question (such-and-such) was investigated... To clarify the role of X in Y, w e . . . To determine whether... To compare the properties of A and B . . .
(b) Summarize your approach (if appropriate). Having stated the research question, it may be appropriate to state how you set out to answer it. Mention the experimental method and the material or species. If appropriate, briefly state your results. 9 Long documents: final paragraphs. After stating your purpose and approach, in a fresh set of paragraphs briefly describe the structure of the document. Section 4 gives the historical background... Section 5 reviews the current techniques.., etc.
10 For a document that contains both an Introduction and a Literature Review. The Introduction in this case will be made up of a description of the general background to the study, with only a few references, together with a description of the structure of the document.
Tense of the verb See Appendix 2 for guidelines for using tense in technical documents, and definitions and examples of the various tenses of the verb. The example below shows a mixture of present and past tenses, since you are describing both the established body of knowledge and what people have discovered.
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Example: It has been previously shown (past) that plants flower (present, because it's established knowledge) under environmental conditions that maximize seed set and development... Much work has been done (past) towards understanding the environmental, physiological and genetic regulation of flowering in the species under study . . . Brown (1998) showed that the mutants flowered (past) later than wild-type plants; GI was therefore proposed (past) to be a floral promotion gene. This work describes (present) research undertaken to verify the isolation o f . . .
Common mistakes 1 The main point is not clearly obvious- the reason for doing the study isn't clear. 2 The literature has not been adequately reviewed. For example, the pivotal references may not have been cited; only a few references may have been cited for a thoroughly researched area of work; the correlations and contradictions may not have been pointed out etc. 3 Too long, rambling, unspecific, unstructured, with irrelevant material. 4 Conversely, much too short and general. 5 Does not summarize the approach taken. 6 Specialist terms are not defined. 7 For a journal paper: 9 indistinguishable from other papers in terms of material and the references cited 9 sentences split by large numbers of references.
Checklist for the Introduction Does the Introduction: V1 adequately review other people's work? gl identify the correlations, contradictions, ambiguities and gaps in the knowledge in this area of research? V1 If appropriate, give a historical account of the area's development? n put your study into the context of other people's work? [3 in the final paragraphs, clearly state the purpose of your study? [3 then follow by briefly summarizing your approach? V1 In a long document, briefly describe the structure of the document?
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENT/qTION AND REPORTS
Background You may prefer to call your section Background instead of Introduction. If so, all the guidelines given above for an Introduction apply also to a Background section. Some organizations, in particular consulting engineers, may require both an Introduction and a Background. In this case, the differences are: 9 In the Introduction there is usually a restatement of the brief and a description of the structure of the report. 9 The Background gives the history of the subject matter and the objectives of the study. Alternatively, the objectives can be stated in a separate Objectives section.
Theory If a description is needed of the theoretical background of your work, it should be written for a busy professional in your discipline who has a good, broad understanding of the area but no detailed knowledge. This means that the description of the theory should not start at an elementary level, should include the material that you think such a person would need, and be no longer than needed.
Objectives Purpose To describe the aims of your study. H o w to w r i t e it 9 This section should be very brief and concisely stated. 9 The objectives can be listed: The objectives of this study were: 1. To (establish the...) 2. To (determine the...) etc.
In a longer document such as a thesis or a research proposal, it is effective to first state the broad purpose and then follow with the specific objectives: Aims of this study The purpose of this study was to investigate the development and structure of bacterial biofilms grown on different specific substrata in a subsurfaceflow wetland.
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The specific objectives of the research were to: 9 develop methods for investigating biofiims grown on different substrata in a constructed wastewater treatment wetland 9 investigate the initial adsorption of bacteria to different wetland substrata, namely... 9 study the early development of biofilms and their population structures etc.
Purpose Statement Scoping Statement or Scope Procedure Statement Problem Statement Some documents, particularly consulting/management documents, require one or more of these four sections. They present material that is in other reports covered in sections such as the Introduction, Background or Procedure/Methods. They answer the following questions: Question
Section that answers the question
What is the purpose of this report?
Purpose Statement
What are the sections of this report?
Scope Statement
What procedures were used to investigate the problem?
Procedure Statement
What is the problem? What is its significance ? Who or what caused the writer to write about the problem?
Problem Statement
Purpose Statement Purpose To state the purpose of the document (the equivalent of the Objectives section).
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WRITING FOR SCIENCEAND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
How to write it 1 State the purpose clearly. The purpose of this report is . . . (to solve whatever problem made the report necessary, or to make whatever recommendation). 2 Name the alternatives if necessary.
Scope Statement Purpose To describe the topics covered in a report.
How to write it 9 For a feasibility study or recommendation report: name the criteria you used to formulate the requirements. 9 For other types of reports: identify the main sections or topics of the report. 9 Specify the boundaries or limits of your investigation.
Procedure Statement Purpose To describe the processes you followed in investigating the topic of the report. This statement establishes your credibility by showing that you took all the proper steps. In a standard experimental report, this material would be covered in the Procedure/Materials and Methods/Methodology section.
How to write it Explain all the actions you t o o k - the people you interviewed, research performed etc.
Problem Statement Purpose To describe the problem and its significance.
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THE CORE CHAPTER: SECTIONS AND ELEMENTSOF A DOCUMENT
How to write it Probably in this order: 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Describe the problem, giving the basic facts about it. Explain what has gone wrong. Specify the causes or the origin of the problem. Describe the significance of the problem (short term and long term). Give the appropriate data and state their sources. Specify who is involved and in what capacity. Discuss who initiated action on the problem, or what caused you to write the report.
Literature Review Purpose 9 To review the literature in your field of work. 9 To show that you have a good understanding of the history and current state of your topic. See Chapter 4: A Literature Review.
R section covering your planning of tasks Suggested headings Management.
for this
section:
Schedule
of Tasks
or
Time
Purpose To describe how you propose to schedule the various tasks that you will have to do.
How to write it This will involve intelligent and informed guesswork. The most convenient way of showing a time schedule is to use a Gannt chart. This subdivides your proposal into tasks together with the dates when you propose to begin and end each one. It is a version of a bar chart (see Figure 2.1).
Points to remember when compiling a Gannt chart 1 You need to assess: 9 The number of tasks. 9 How long each task is going to take. 9 How you can fit each task with another.
PLANNING SCHEDULE- 2000 Research Project: Modification of a pulsatile pump for an isolated heart
Figure 2.1
Example of a Gannt chart for time scheduling
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37
2 Most tasks will overlap with each other. For instance, if your first task is to get a preliminary understanding of the literature, this is likely to overlap with the first stage of your experimental process.
RIIocation of responsibilities This section may be needed in a report from a project team. 9 In a preliminary report, describe the person(s) who will be responsible for each task, and the roles of the subsidiary individuals. 9 In a final report, you may need to give a more detailed account of the various roles that each person has played in the progress of the work and the writing of the report. In addition, you may be asked for a peer review of each person. This calls for an objective assessment of the effectiveness with which each person fulfilled his or her roles.
Ownership/confidentiality Purpose An agreement between you and the commercial organization funding you that gives you some right of publication of your results, while assuring the organization that you will not divulge commercially sensitive information.
When needed This section may be needed in a research proposal. For academic projects it is essential that the rights to publish scientific papers and theses are retained. On the other hand, many commercial organizations will want to own the rights to the outcomes of your research so that they can commercialize them. Moreover, all commercial organizations will expect you to maintain in confidence any commercially sensitive information that they provide to help the research, or that results from the project.
How to write it The wording of the proposal should be tailored to the specific circumstances. Terms for ownership should be agreed before any work starts but at the proposal stage it may be sufficient to state that these are to be negotiated.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Requirements Purpose To describe what you expect to need from your funding organization during your research.
How to write it Possible wording: To complete this work we will need the following from (name of the
organization): Then give a list of your requirements. The types of things that you may have to request are: 9 Guaranteed access to the field site/the organization's laboratories/test hall etc. 9 Access to specified items of the organization's equipment. 9 Assistance with the preparation and/or installation of specified items of equipment. 9 A laboratory base with access to power, water, bench space, etc.
Costs Purpose To describe your expected costs during the course of your research that you are asking the funding organization to cover.
How to write
it
It needs to be an itemized list of the various costs. You may need to include such things as: 9 9 9 9 9
student stipend supervisory costs materials and equipment travel costs overheads
State the total final cost (the so-called bottom line).
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Materials and Methods (can also be called Procedure)
Purpose 1 2 3 4
To describe your experimental procedures. To give enough detail for a competent worker to repeat your work. To describe your experimental design. To enable readers to judge the validity of your results in the context of the methods you used.
Difficulties 9 Not many. This section is often the easiest part of a document to write. Describing experimental methods is usually very straightforward. 9 Therefore it is often the best place to start writing. Writing a document is often difficult, and there is absolutely no need to write it in sequence from beginning to end. Start with the section that is going to give you the fewest problems.
How to write it 9 Logically describe the series of experimental steps so that the whole procedure could be repeated by a competent worker in your field. You have to tread a fine line between giving the right amount of detail for a colleague, and giving the sort of trivial detail that such a person would not need. Think in terms of describing only the essentials. 9 Ask yourself whether you might be too familiar with the techniques. You might make the mistake of leaving out descriptions of procedures that are essential but which you take for granted. If you think this is the case, give your description to a colleague to read. 9 You also need to give the rationale behind your experimental design. This section should not just be a list of the experimental steps you took. A reader must be able to understand from the Introduction and the Materials and Methods sections why you chose to do it this way. 9 Make sure that you don't introduce some of the results. It is quite easy to accidentally do this when you are describing a particular set-up or procedure. The Materials and Methods section and the Results section need to be very strongly separated from each other in their contents.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
9 However, if you need the results of one experiment to justify using the subsequent methods, it should be acceptable to say so, briefly. 9 This section is often presented chronologically. However, we often do things in a certain order simply for convenience. The Methods section should not be a diary of what you did; it should have a logical flow. Related methods should be described together. 9 How much detail? Established techniques: don't describe in detail. Novel techniques or variations on an old one: give detail. 9 Tables can also be used in the Materials and Methods; they don't just belong in the Results. A table is often the best way to describe a complex procedure. 9 Headings: if you are writing to the conventional AIMRAD (Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion) format, the Materials and Methods is the first section where subheadings can be used. When possible, use headings that match those that will be used in the Results. The reader can then correlate a particular method with the related results. 9 We is usually acceptable. I is rarely acceptable. Most academic assessors and journal editors will allow you the occasional use of We in an active construction. Beware, however, of using We too often: it will sound like a child's description of a day out. 'We did this, then we did that.' 9 Referencing in the Materials and Methods section: - If you have to refer to literature to explain a technique, give enough information for the reader to get an outline of the technique. Good: Cells were broken by ultrasonic treatment as previously described (Smith, 1999).
Poor: Cells were broken as previously described (Smith, 1999). When you cite a technique, which reference do you give ? The original one, or the most recent? Cite the earliest reference in which this form of the technique was used.
Tense of the verb See Appendix 2 for guidelines for using tense in technical documents, and definitions and examples of the various tenses of the verb. 9 For experimental work, use the past tense. You are describing work that you did. Correct: Seeds were placed on damp non-sterile filter paper... Incorrect: Seeds are placed on damp non-sterile filter paper...
9 For description of morphological, geographical or geological features, use the present tense.
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The eucervical sclerites are connected to the postcervical sclerites, each of which is differentiated into a relatively hard sclerotized base and a flexible distal part. All three paleosols show a greater degree of development than the surface
soils. Better development is displayed in terms of greater clay accumulation, higher structural grade, harder consistency and thicker profiles.
Common
mistakes
1 Not enough critical detail to enable someone unfamiliar with the method to repeat it. It happens probably because the techniques are too familiar. 2 Conversely, too much trivial detail. 3 Detailed text, where an illustration would be more appropriate. 4 Illogical description. This can happen when several procedures are described together. 5 Being referred back to the literature with not enough summarized information to be able to understand the method. For example, . . . as described previously (Brown, 1998).
6 Introducing some of the results.
C h e c k l i s t for the M a t e r i a l s and M e t h o d s / P r o c e d u r e
Does the Materials and Methods section: [3 give enough information to allow another competent worker in your field to repeat your work? 1-1 give the necessary detail about the equipment used, e.g. the model number of an instrument? [3 avoid detailed description of standard instrumentation and techniques? D give the necessary details of: o modifications to standard instrumentation and techniques? [] new techniques? any organisms used, e.g. species, variety, age, weight? [3 State precise treatment/drug regimens?
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Purpose 9 To present your results, but not to discuss them. 9 To give readers enough data to draw their own conclusions about the meaning of your work.
Difficulties 9 Deciding how much detail to include.
How to write it C~eneral comments 9 It is the core section of the d o c u m e n t - the new knowledge you are presenting. 9 Your results need to be clearly and simply stated. 9 It needs to be presented as a story. If it is interrupted by material that is too detailed or is not directly relevant, your readers are going to become disorientated and lose the thread. 9 It is often the first place that readers familiar with the topic will look (after first, the title and then, the Abstract). Studies of the way in which experimental reports are read show that many readers, after first reading the Abstract, then look at the illustrations. (This highlights the need for illustrations to be as self-explanatory as possible, by means of informative titles and captions).
Compiling it 9 In the text, highlight the most important aspects of the results. You need to guide the reader what to look for in the tables and figures. A Results section is not just made up of a series of graphs and tables; there must be explanatory text linking the illustrations. After the fourth day, the number of cells increased exponentially (Figure 2). 9 Amount of detail. You do not need to include every item of data you obtained, even though you worked hard to get it. It should not be a blowby-blow diary of your data. In any piece of research there will inevitably be results that are not worth presenting. 9 Dealing with repetitive data. Do not be tempted to give them all. Present representative data, and state that they are representative. In a thesis you will probably be expected to present all the repetitive data in an appendix (see 'Appendices', this chapter). In a report you can state that the data are available if required.
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9 Make sure that data are presented in only one way: don't repeat in the text what has already been presented in a table or graph (see 'Illustrations', this chapter). However, the most important results and trends should be pointed out in the text. 9 It is important to include anomalous results that do not support your hypothesis. 9 Subheadings: if possible, they should be matched with those that you used in the Materials and Methods. See next section, 'Structuring of corresponding headings for Materials and Methods and Results sections', page 43. 9 Tables and figures should be carefully chosen to illustrate the points you are trying to make. 9 Tables and figures should be as self-explanatory as possible, by means of good titles and captions (see also 'Illustrations', this chapter). 9 Do not discuss the results. 9 The Results section is the next easiest section to write, after the Methods section. It is efficient to be able to write the Results as soon as you have finished the Methods.
Common mistakes 1 Inadequate textual description: the trends are not pointed out and readers are left to deduce the results from the illustrations. 2 Too much detail. Readers do not need every item of data collected. 3 Illustrations that are not self-explanatory. Inadequate subtitling and captioning. 4 Repetition in the text of large amounts of material that is already shown in the figures and tables. Only key material should be pointed out in the text. 5 Being wordy in citing figures and tables.
Incorrect: It is clearly shown in Table 2 that the highest tensile stress occurs in the third phalanx of Pteranodon ingens. Correct: The highest tensile stress occurs in the third phalanx of Pteranodon ingens (Table 2).
Structuring of corresponding headings for Materials and Methods and Results sections If your work has a number of separate experimental elements to it, group the procedures and the results for each element together. Don't describe all the procedures in sequence, and then follow with all the results in sequence. This will result in a poorly structured d o c u m e n t - one that is very difficult for your assessor to read. If it is appropriate, you can include a short
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WRITING FOR SCIENCEAND ENGINEERING:PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
Discussion section for each separate part, and follow up with an overall main Discussion. Schematic Efficient structure
Poor structure
First experiment Procedure Results Discussion
Procedure: First experiment Second experiment Third experiment Fourth experiment
Second experiment Procedure Results Discussion
Results: First experiment Second experiment Third experiment Fourth experiment
etc.
Discussion
o Q o
Overall Discussion
Tense of the verb See Appendix 2 for guidelines for using tense in technical documents, and definitions and examples of the various tenses of the verb. Use the past tense. You are describing the results you obtained. High numbers of the subgroup were found in areas with limited nutrients and dissolved oxygen.
Checklist for the results IZl Are your illustrations well chosen? V1 Are the illustrations well presented and self-explanatory? I-1 Is there an explanatory text pointing out the key results and trends? g] Have you avoided giving a blow-by-blow account of the data? I--1 If you have a lot of repetitive data, have you given only representative data in the Results? V1 Have you avoided discussing the results? I-1 Have you included the results that do not support your hypothesis? 1-1 Have you avoided citing references?
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Discussion Purpose This section is hard to define, and is therefore one of the most difficult sections to write. 1 To give the answer to the research question that was stated in the Introduction. 2 To explain how your results support the answer. 3 To show the relationships among your observations, and also to place them into the context of other people's work. 4 To draw conclusions.
Difficulties Not knowing where to start or what to put in it.
How to write it 1 In a Discussion, you present the significance of the work described in the rest of the d o c u m e n t - the principles, relationships, and generalizations. 2 Your conclusions need to be stated as clearly as possible. 3 In a good Discussion, you d i s c u s s - you do not just restate the material. 4 You need to point out in your own work any exceptions, or any lack of correlation, and define unsettled points. 5 Show how your results and interpretations agree - or contrast - with previously published work. 6 Never try to cover up data that do not quite fit. It will be obvious to an expert reader that you are fudging. Do not avoid mentioning them either. Be open and honest about inconsistencies or gaps in the data. 7 Summarize your evidence for each conclusion. Never assume anything. 8 Avoid any far-fetched hypotheses: keep all your speculation within reasonable bounds. 9 Don't be afraid to defend your conclusion. But in doing this, treat other studies with respect. 10 State any limitations of your methods or study design. 11 State any important implications. 12 Overall structure for the discussion: (a) Beginning. State the aim again. Then briefly summarize the results. (b) Then make the main point. Do not work up to the main point at the end. State the strongest conclusions and arguments at the beginning.
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WRITING FORSCIENCEAND ENGINEERING:PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
(c) Then work down to the subsidiary points. Many people make the mistake of making the reader wait until the end for the main point (see 'Common mistakes', page 43). (d) If possible, present the main conclusion again in the last paragraph. This rounds off the document effectively. 13. Choice of words Prove is too strong a word. Your assessors will prefer you to state your conclusions less equivocally. In descending order of strength: These results show/demonstrate . . . Very positive. These results i n d i c a t e . . . Slightly less strong.
These results support... Useful if you need to demonstrate agreement with a hypothesis or someone else's work. These results suggest... Useful as a politeness if your results contradict a body of evidence. These results imply...
Appear is also a useful word. Thus, CD9 appears to be essential for sperm-egg fusion.
sounds positive, but much less dogmatic than: Thus, CD9 is essential for sperm-egg fusion.
It is acceptable to use hedging words; science is rarely cut-and-dried. May be Might be Could be Probably Possibly
But don't go to extremes of hedging.
Acceptable:These results suggest that A is the cause of B. Acceptable:These results suggest that A may be the cause of B. Too cautious:These results suggest the possibility that A may be the cause of B.
Tense of the verb See Appendix 2 for guidelines for using tense in technical documents, and definitions and examples of the various tenses of the verb. As in the Introduction (see page 30), a mixture of past and present tenses. Use the past tense for results (yours and those of others), but use the present tense for established fact, to describe existing situations, and for your answers to the research question
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Example The bacterial biofilms were found (past: your results) to vary in structure over time. A possible reason for this variation is (present) that they could have been (past) subject to predation. The presence of protozoa has (present: established fact) a significant impact on biofilm structure. For example, Brown (1992) found (past) that the numbers of protozoa increased (past: other people's resu|ts) in mature biofilm... The results of this study suggest (present) that Nitrosomonas species are (present: your answer to the research question) slow-growing and very sensitive to environmental change.
Common mistakes 1 Main point not clear. A poorly planned Discussion runs the risk of obscuring the main conclusions from the work. 2 Too long, unstructured and wordy. A Discussion should not be an unstructured brain dump. You need to have clear in your mind the points you want to make and the lines you want to pursue, and then state them as clearly and briefly as possible. 3 Creating the suspenseformat: starting with the more trivial aspects and working up to a climax in the last paragraph. Always start with the strongest conclusions and arguments. We usually have the inbuilt feeling that we first need to give our justifications to ensure that the main conclusions are well founded. But this results in a tedious Discussion that will probably disorient and bore the reader. 4 Poorly planned. This follows on from the last point. You need to devise a proper plan, and follow it. 5 Too short. A n assessor may complain that the Discussion is too short and limited. This probably means one or both of the following: 9 you haven't thought out all the implications of your work 9 you aren't familiar enough with the literature to be able to place your work in context 6 The significance of the material is not discussed adequately. You should not just recapitulate the material; you need to place it in the context of other work, and draw conclusions from it. 7 Conclusions insufficiently backed up. Unspecified assumptions are made, leading to unjustified conclusions. Each conclusion that is drawn should have a sound basis. 8 Some results are ignored. 9 The true meaning of data can sometimes be obscured by the interpretation in the Discussion. 10 In a journal paper: papers can be rejected by a reviewer on the basis of a faulty discussion, even when the data are valid and interesting.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Checklist for the discussion IZI Is it well structured and logical? I--1 Is your main point at the beginning? D Are the other points given in descending order of importance? I--1 Does it give an interpretation of the results, rather than a reinstatement of them? [--1 Does it show how your results and interpretations agree or contrast with previously published work? I--1 Is each conclusion well grounded? Do you give the evidence for each one? [--1 Have you avoided far-fetched hypotheses? I--1 Is the Discussion free of vague statements? I--I Is it accurate, fair and objective regarding other studies' findings? r--1 Is it frank in acknowledging anomalies in your work? [-q Is it able to explain most anomalies?
Conclusions Purpose To give an overview of the conclusions that you have already drawn previously in the document, probably in the Discussion. Note: In a professional document, the Conclusions is regarded as another
aspect of the summarizing process. The rule of thumb should be that a person in a hurry should be able to read the Title, Summary/Abstract, Conclusions and Recommendations of a document and obtain a complete but undetailed overview of it.
How to write it 1 Important: There should be no new material in this section. Each conclusion must be based on material that has already been presented in the main body of the report. 2 Each conclusion should be related to specific material. 3 Each conclusion should be brief (since the full explanation is given elsewhere in the document). 4 The Conclusions section not only reviews the results or observations- it also interprets them. In this section, as in the Discussion, you can therefore point out: 9 what is important and significant 9 why the results or observations are valid 9 any criticisms or qualifications you may have of your own work 6 A numbered or bullet-pointed list can be used if appropriate. Start with your main conclusion, then present them in descending order.
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7 A Conclusion section is required by some journals. This serves the purpose of rounding off the document and summing up your conclusions and opinions. However, most technical reports require a Conclusions section - a listing of your conclusions as described above.
Common mistakes 1 Vague, general statements. It is important to realize that this section is not meant to be the same as a conclusion to a literary piece of writing (for that reason it shouldn't be called Conclusion, unless this is specifically called for). It is inappropriate to write an overall, general, concluding paragraph. It should be a statement of the conclusions you can draw from your results and your interpretation of their significance. 2 Producing conclusions out of nowhere. Each conclusion must have been previously stated in the document.
Example of a Conclusions section for a journal paper (it has been presented here as a list. It could also be written as connected text in one or two paragraphs)
Conclusions A statement to place the conclusions in context
A method was presented to estimate the surface area to mass ratio of dendritic shaped snow crystals that form between air temperatures o f - 1 3 and-17~ The following conclusions were drawn:
1: Main overall conclusion.
1. For the 50 dendritic snow crystal samples, the average specific surface area was 0.182 m2/g.
2 and 3: Specific conclusions stated quantitatively.
2. With rime particles covering 10% of the entire snow crystal, the average specific surface area increased to 0.188, 0.276, and 0.286 m2/g for hemispherical, needle and plate shaped rime particles respectively. 3. For a 20% coverage, these values increased to 0.194, 0.346, and 0.343 m2/g respectively.
4: A conclusion as to how the results could be improved in the future.
4. Specific surface area estimates would be improved by analysis of scanning electron microscope images. This could assist in adjustment of the various geometric assumptions and other assumptions such as the existence of micropores, and the shape, size and coverage extent of rime particles.
Adapted from Fassnacht, S.R., Innes, J., Kouwen, N. and Soulis, E.D. (1999) The specific surface area of fresh dendritic snow crystals. Hydrol. Process. 13, 2945-2962.
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Checklist for the Conclusions I--1 Is there any material in the Conclusions that does not appear elsewhere in the document? If so, go back and incorporate it. [3 Is there a sound basis for each of your conclusions? F-1 Is your first conclusion your main one? l-1 Are the other conclusions given in descending order? D If necessary, do you point out the importance, significance, validity, criticisms or qualifications of your work?
Recommendations Purpose To propose a series of recommendations for action as a result of the conclusions drawn from your work {e.g. a design improvement, management strategies etc.).
Position in the document In a formal technical document, the section Recommendations is usually placed either: 9 at the start of the document, immediately after the Summary, or 9 at the end of the document. In this case it can often be usefully combined with the Conclusions into a section called Conclusions and Recommendations
How to write it 1 Recommendations are your subjective opinions about the required course of action. But this doesn't mean you can go into wild flights of fancy. 2 Recommendations can be of various types. Their character will depend on the purpose of your report, e.g.: 9 To choose a new procedure or technique, and show why it is preferable. 9 To identify a need, and suggest a way to fill it. 9 To explore a new concept, and show how it should be applied to existing problems. 9 To propose a new project and show why and how it should be carried out.
9 To analyse a problem, find a solution and propose a remedy. 3 Recommendations are usually best given as a numbered list. Each item should be brief. 4 Make the main solution to the problem your first recommendation. This usually fulfils the purpose of the report.
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5 Then list your other recommendations in a logical way. 6 No recommendation should come out of the blue. The supporting information should exist elsewhere in the document.
Tense of the verb See Appendix 2 for guidelines for using tense in technical documents, and definitions and examples of the various tenses of the verb. Either in the conditional, subjunctive or present form. It can also be worded as a series of instructions (the imperative form of the verb).
Examples It is recommended that: The test equipment should be modified as shown in Figure 4.3
(conditional). The test equipment be modified as shown in Figure 4.3 (subjunctive). The test equipment is modified as shown in Figure 4.3 (present).
or: The recommendations are: Modify the test equipment as shown in Figure 4.3 (imperative).
Checklist for the recommendations V1 Is your first recommendation your main one ? F-1 Are the other recommendations presented in descending order of importance? V1 Is each recommendation brief, clearly stated and unambiguous? [3 Is each recommendation feasible? V1 Is each one related logically to material presented elsewhere in the report?
Suggestions for future research Purpose To propose directions for further development of your work. Research usually opens up more avenues than you have time to answer. Many people are unwilling to draw a line under their research and start writing up, because it always seems that just a bit more work will tie it up better. This can be professionally acknowledged by including this section. It may be called Suggestions for Future Development, or Suggestions for Further Study.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE/qND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTgTION/qNDREPORTS
How to write it Outline the following: 1 Suggestions for the immediate development of the work, i.e. the areas you may not have been able to tie up to your satisfaction. If your project is to be developed by a subsequent student, this will be very useful to both student and supervisor. 2 The possible long-term development of the work, if any.
List of References or References (see
Chapter 14: referenc-
ing, page 167)
List of Personal Communications (see Chapter
14: referenc-
ing, page 174)
Bibliography
(see Chapter 14: Referencing, page 186)
Appendices Note the singular and plural, sometimes a source of confusion: one Appendix, two or more Appendices.
Purpose The appendices are for complex material that would interrupt the flow of your document if it were to be inserted into the main body, for example raw data detailed illustrations of equipment, coding, specifications, product descriptions, charts etc. Appendices are placed at the end of the document.
How to assemble the Appendices 1 Material included in an appendix should be there for a specific purpose. It is all too easy to use the Appendices as a sort of rubbish bin into which you tip all the bits you've collected and don't know what else to do with. To avoid an irrelevant, jumbled mess, be selective. 2 They should contain well-structured information, not a formless mass. 3 Related material should be grouped into separate Appendices. 4 Give each appendix a number or a letter (e.g. Appendix 1, Appendix 2 . . . . . or Appendix A, Appendix B . . . ) . 5 Give each appendix a title following the appendix number, e.g. Appendix 3: Input file formats.
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6 The number and title of each appendix should be listed in the Table of Contents (see 'Table of Contents', this chapter). 7 Every item that is included in an appendix should be referred to at an appropriate place in the text. For Twintex TPP specifications, see Appendix 3: Technical Data and Specifications, page 3-11.
For the conventions of page numbering, see Chapter 6: Editorial Conventions, page 197.
Common mistakes 1 2 3 4
Too much unrelated and unnecessary material in the Appendices. Lack of organization of the material. Lack of numbering and titling of each appendix. Some or all of the Appendices not referred to in the text.
Checklist for the Appendices r-1 Is the body of the document unnecessarily cluttered? Could some of the material be more appropriately placed in the Appendices? [-1 Is there material in the Appendices that might be better placed in the main text of the document? Does it weaken the argument to have it in the Appendices? r-] Do the Appendices look like a rag-bag of assorted bits gathered together because you didn't know what else to do with them? [] If so, can you order the material more logically? [] Does it all really need to be included? Vl Are complex sets of data in the Appendices summarized at the appropriate points in the main body text? [3 Is each appendix titled? r--1 Does the title of each appendix appear in the Table of Contents? r-1 Is each appendix referred to in the text? I--1 Is the first reference to it in the text at the first appropriate p o i n t - or should it be earlier? [-q Should you refer to it again later in the text? r-l Have you given enough details for your examiner to be able to interpret the appendix? Are the Appendices numbered or lettered consecutively? I--1 Does the title of each appendix correspond with that listed in the Table of Contents? r-1 Does each of the illustrations in the Appendices have: [] an appropriate number (e.g. Figure 1: Appendix B)? [] an informative title? [3 enough information to be interpreted? [-! Is each of the pages in the Appendices numbered?
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Index Purpose Used in long documents: at the end of the document, a list in alphabetical order giving topics mentioned in the book and the pages where they occur. An index makes your material more readily accessible to your readers.
How to compile an index: guidelines 9 A helpful index is one that has been compiled with the readers' needs in mind. 9 Think about how you yourself would look for this item in an index about how you would classify it, what subsections you would look under, to which other entries you might cross-refer. 9 There are features available in word processing software that allow you to mark the items that should be included in an index. However, a manually assembled index is often much more intelligent. 9 Include every important subject, topic, subtopic and proper name. 9 Entries are usually not capitalized. 9 Most indexes consist of two levels of entries: main headings and subheadings if necessary. Occasionally a third level heading may be needed. 9 Use cross-references at appropriate places to guide the reader to other, related, entries in the index. A cross-reference is usually placed either after the main heading, or at the end of the list of subheadings, with see also in italics before the cross-reference. Example of a three-level index entry with a cross-reference to another entry
hovering, 218-224 see also flight actuator disc theory, 218-19 blade element theory, 220-1 applied to animals, 221-2 hummingbirds, 223-4 mandarin fish, 222 wasps, 222-3
Illustrations This section gives guidelines about the subject of illustrations in general. It does not aim to tell you how to produce effective graphics. Here your best guide is the expertise of other students.
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Definition of terms Caption/legend Each illustration has a figure number, a title and an explanation. This explanation is supplied by the caption and the legend. These two terms are sometimes distinguished from each other, but they are more often confused or considered synonymous (A Manual of Style, University of Chicago Press, 1969). To avoid confusion, this book uses only the term caption to describe the explanatory material that follows the title of an illustration.
For the conventions for numbering illustrations, see 'Numbering of Illustrations' page 196, Chapter 15: Editorial Conventions.
Each illustration must have a clear purpose. Ask yourself what your readers will need to help understand the text. For instance, they may not need a diagram of a standard piece of equipment, but they may appreciate a diagrammatic representation of how you modified it. Make each illustration as self-contained as possible. Remember that, to make a preliminary assessment of the work, readers often skim through a document looking first at the figures before they read the text. Each graph, table or diagram should not need the reader to refer to the text in order to make its overall meaning clear. Guidelines for doing this: 1 Make sure each illustration: 9 has an informative title (for the principles of devising titles, see 'The Title', page 16, this chapter). 9 Has a clear, explanatory caption following the title. 2 Use as few abbreviations as possible in an illustration. If you must use abbreviations, include a key in the illustration itself. For instance, if you have been sampling at sites that you have, for convenience, called AO3, BV4 etc., try not to use these as headings in a table. Instead, either: 9 think up short labels that give a better description of the characteristics of each site, or 9 include a key to the labels in the illustration 3 Make your illustrations look professional. Find out from other students the best software packages to use. 4 Emphasize the data, not the axes. The axes should be thinner than the curve or plot lines. Most graphing programs will do this. 5 Make sure that the axes on each graph are fully labelled. Each axis must be labelled with (1) what is being plotted and (2) the units. (Common mistake: leaving out the units.)
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6 Don't extend the axes too far. The x and y axes should extend only to the next tick mark after the maximum value for the data. Graphing programs usually do this. 7 Make sure that there are not too many lines on your graphs. It is better to create two graphs than to have one that is overcrowded. Graphs with more than four lines are likely to be difficult to read, especially if the lines overlap. 8 Make each line on a graph easily distinguishable from the others. Some software packages do not create symbols that adequately distinguish one line from another. 9 Include in an appendix the raw data on which important graphs are based. Refer to the appendix at the appropriate point in the text. This enables the reader to assess the exact values of the data. 10 Make sure that your illustrations will be big enough. It is very easy to compress an illustration until it is almost unreadable. Take particular care that any labelling is large enough, particularly subscripts and superscripts. 11 Keys: usually the key is given in the illustration itself, but sometimes it can be included in the title. 12 Numbering of illustrations (see 'Numbering of Illustrations', page 196, Chapter 15: Editorial Conventions). With all the reformatting that a large document may need, it is all too easy to get the figures out of sequence or to refer in the text to a figure that doesn't exist. It is worthwhile using the feature of a word processing package that automatically correlates text references to a figure with its figure number. 13 If your document has a lot of illustrations, you need to include a List of Illustrations. For the conventions, see 'List of Illustrations', page 26, this chapter. 14 Using other people's illustrations and data. Cite the source at the end of the caption to the illustration, and include the source in your List of References. See 'Copying or adapting illustrations', page 174, Chapter 14: Referencing.
Designing figures for a journal paper 1 Follow the Instructions to Authors very carefully. Journals give detailed instructions on how figures should be set out. 2 The journal will not publish the same data in both figure and table form. Use the most appropriate form. 3 You may have to submit backup data for figures. Some journals ask for the data to be submitted in table form as backup to the figures. This gives the reviewers the value for data points, instead of having to interpolate them from the graphs. However, this does not mean that the data will be published. Check with the Instructions for Authors to see if the journal requires this.
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4 Keys. The Instructions to Authors usually include instructions on where to insert the key to a figure. It is usually in the graph itself, but in some journals is included in the figure caption. 5 Figure titles. Journals usually require you to submit the figure titles on a separate sheet from the figure itself, since they go through a different reproduction process. 6 Using someone else's figure, or adapting it. If you need to reproduce a figure that has already been published by another author, you must get permission in writing to use it. Write to the editor of the journal in which the original publication appeared, asking for permission to reproduce it, and saying in which journal you plan to publish it. Journals usually give such permission. You may be asked to write to the original author as well. The journal will usually require you to use, at the end of the caption to the reproduced figure, a standard wording in acknowledgement, e.g. 'Reproduced with permission from...'. Some journals have rules on whether figures can be adapted or redrawn in any way. The usual form of acknowledgement is, at the end of the figure caption: 'Adapted from' (reference), or 'Redrawn from' (reference).
Checklist Figures l-1 Is the figure needed? O Could it be simplified? [-1 If it is a graph, are there too many lines? Would it be better to consider having more than one graph to illustrate the point? FI Is the material better presented as an illustration in the text or as an illustration in the Appendices? [-1 Are all the figures numbered consecutively, logically and consistently? l-1 Is there enough detail in the figure's title, caption and keys for an overall interpretation of the figure without reference to the text? [3 Does the title correspond with that given in the List of Figures? F-1 If you have used or modified someone else's figure, or used someone else's data to construct your own figure, have you: - cited the source in the caption to your figure? - used the wording required by referencing conventions? - cited the source in your List of References? D For any document other than a journal paper, Is the figure close to but following the place where it is first mentioned in the text? F-I For a journal paper, are the figures prepared exactly according to the Instructions to Authors?
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Graphs Vq VI 1-1 I-1
V1 I-7 I-1 g-I V1
Are the x and y axes labelled? Are the units of measurement stated on the axes? Are the lines clearly distinguishable from each other? Are the symbols marking the points clearly distinguishable from each other? Are all the components of the figure clearly labelled? Are abbreviations explained? If not, are they well known? Are you sure ? Does the arrangement of the figure proceed from left to right? Does the figure look cluttered and illogical? Is the figure correctly positioned on the page? Is the raw data of important graphs presented in the Appendices?
Designing tables For more information specific to: 9 tables for oral presentations, see 'Tables', page 253, Chapter 18: A Seminar or Conference Presentation 9 tables for posters, see 'Tables' page 160, Chapter 13: A Conference Poster Tables are essential for looking up specific data and facts. Good design can help the reader find the information efficiently. Disorganized, poorly designed or cluttered tables are visually hurtful and can easily put a reader off.
W~hen to use a table
9 When you do not need to show trends pictorially (c.f. a graph). 9 When you need to present accurate data and specific facts (c.f. graphs: these present data that have to be interpolated and are therefore only approximate). 9 To demonstrate the relationships between numerical and/or descriptive data. 9 Do not use unnecessary tables. Your data might be better presented as a graph, or given more concisely in the text.
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Guidelines for designing tables Spanner head Column head
Stub head ,
,
,
Column head
Column head
Column head
Box Head
,,
Body spanner Column entry Body spanner Column entry
Figure 2.2
The parts of a table
Boxhead The horizontal region across the top of the table containing column headings.
Stub head The vertical column to the far left of the table in which you list the various line headings that identify the horizontal rows of data in the body of the table.
Spanner head A region that spans the head of two or more columns. Used for related parameters and to reduce repetition in the column heads.
Body spanner A region that spans across two or more columns in the body of the table.
Column heads Must all have headings. 9 The headings should include units of measure, where appropriate, and any scaling factors used. 9 Headings should be short. A maximum of two lines is a general rule. If absolutely necessary use abbreviations and define them in footnotes. But avoid abbreviations if at all possible.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: P~qPERS,PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Direction of reading information 9 Information always reads down from the boxhead 9 Information reads down from the stubhead. 9 Information described by the stubhead reads across.
Guidelines for designing tables 9 The independent variable (e.g. time) usually reads across the table. 9 The dependent variable (e.g. test number) reads vertically. 9 Every column or spanner head needs a unit of measurement (or some explanation if the values are arbitrary rather than measurements). 9 It is more clear to put the unit in the head rather than in the entries, e.g. This is b e t t e r . . ,
than this
Temperature (~ 40 60 100
Temperature 40~ 60~ 100~
9 Spanner heads help to (1) combine data and (2) avoid repetition. Instead of repeating the unit of measurement after two or more column heads, a spanner head can be used: Average daytime temperatures ~ 1999
2000
9 Body spanners are effective ways to divide data sets, for example data from males, data from females. 9 Important. Columns are easier to compare than rows, since we are more used to running an eye down a column to compare data than running them across (see Tables 1 and 2). 9 Plan your table so that there is adequate spacing of columns and to avoid splitting the table across two pages. 9 Any table too wide to fit upright on a page should be presented in landscape mode so that it is read from the right-hand side of the page. 9 The table number and title is placed above a table: the title of a figure below it. This is just one of those strange conventions that you have to stick to. 9 Make the table as self-contained as possible. Readers will often look at tables and figures first to assess the key points of the results without first
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61
Table 1 Maximum tensile and compressive stresses of the bones of the wing of Pteranodon ingens. (From M. Johnston (1997) An aeroelastic model for the analysis of membrane wings and its application to yacht sails and Pteranodon ingens) In Table 1, it is very easy to see by running down the columns that the third phalanx of Pteranodon ingens has higher tensile and compressive stresses than the other bones. This is not obvious from Table 2, where the data in the rows and columns have been transposed.
Bone
Tensile stress crt (MPa)
Compressive stress o'c (MPa)
68 70 113 215 146
73 75 123 230 174
Metacarpal 1st phalanx 2nd phalanx 3rd phalanx 4th phalanx
Table 2 Maximum tensile and compressive stresses of the bones of the wing of Pteranodon ingens. The same data as in Table 1, but the rows and columns are reversed.
Bone
Metacarpal
phalanx
2nd phalanx
3rd phalanx
4th phalanx
1st
Tensile stress r (MPa)
68
70
113
215
146
Compressive stress ~c (MPa)
73
75
123
230
174
reading the text. To make sure that it contains the key information needed: Give it an informative title. The readers should be able to understand the table without looking for the relevant part of the text. The title should typically include: * the independent variable(s) * the dependent variable(s) * the concept or the species studies A comprehensive but concise caption that includes definitions of the symbols. - Footnotes can be used: * to define abbreviations * to explain a missing entry * to explain an entry that seems anomalous
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-
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* to explain where an entry had different conditions from those in the rest of the table * to expand a shortened entry. But don't let footnotes take over the table. If there are too many, you need to reassess the method of presentation of the data. A table may not be appropriate. 9 If any table is taken from another source, the reference should be cited in the legend to the table. See 'Copying and adapting illustrations' page 174, Chapter 14: Referencing.
Designing tables for a journal paper 1 Follow the Instructions to Authors very carefully. Most journals give detailed instructions on how tables should be set out. 2 Most journals require that each table (together with its title and legend) should be typed on a separate page. All the tables and figures are then placed at the back of the manuscript. Even if you think it is more logical to include the tables in the text, d o n ' t - many journals will send your paper straight back to you. 3 Check the Instructions to Authors to see whether the journal allows you to use the tables function on your word processor. Some may specify that you have to use the old system of tabs and spaces, because their typesetting software is incompatible with word processing software. 4 Don't use vertical lines in tables in papers. Most journals don't allow you to use vertical lines, however appropriate you think they are. This is a hangover from the days when typesetting vertical lines was difficult. 5 Use horizontal lines to define the key areas. Most journals require you to use horizontal lines to: 9 separate column headings from the body of the table 9 demark the top and bottom of the table Within the body of the table, use spaces rather than lines to demark groups of row headings.
Checklist for tables F-1 Is the table needed? V1 Could the data be better presented as a figure? V-1 Is the material better presented as a table in the text or as a table in the Appendices? I-1 Does each table deal with a specific question? V1 Does the table have a clear, uncluttered layout? Could it be simplified? I-1 Does each table show what the text says it shows? V1 Are all the tables numbered consecutively? V-1 Is your numbering system consistent throughout the document?
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63
I--1 Does the title correspond with that given in the List of Tables or List of Illustrations? [Z! Does the page number where the table appears correspond to that given in the List of Tables or List of Illustrations? F-1 Are all the tables of a similar format? [-1 Does each table have an informative, explanatory title? D Is the wording of the stubhead and the boxhead(s) also contained in the title of the table? V-! Is there enough detail in the table's title, caption and keys to interpret the table? D Is the table as self-explanatory as possible, without the reader having to refer to the text to understand it? [--1 Are symbols and abbreviations explained? If not, are they well known? Are you sure? r--I Are you using too many decimal points? V-1 Are there missing or extra numbers? I--1 Are units of measurement stated? [--1 Is there too much detail? V-1 Are column entries aligned? r--1 Are column headings short (no longer than two lines)? 1---I Is the table positioned correctly on the page? F-! For a document other than a journal paper, is the table close to but following the place where it is first mentioned in the text? I-1 For a journal paper, Does it match the journal style (as set out in the Instructions to Authors) in all its features?
Chapter 3
R b s t ra ct/S u m m a r y / E x e c u t ive summary
This chapter covers: 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
The purpose of an Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary. Definitions: Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary. Difficulties in writing. General information for all types of Abstract or Summary. The different types of content of an Abstract/Summary (descriptive, informative, descriptive/informative). Length of an Abstract or Summary. A journal paper Abstract (about 250-300 words). A conference paper Abstract (two to three pages). The process of submitting a paper to a conference. An Executive Summary: purpose, length and format. Common mistakes of Abstracts and Summaries. Checklists.
The purpose of an Rbstract/Summary/Executive Summary 9 To give the reader a miniaturized version of the document, so that they can identify the key information quickly and accurately. 9 To provide a navigational tool for the whole document. Overview information is very important in helping the reader understand and assess the information in the rest of the document. 9 To help the reader decide whether they need to read the whole article. 9 Journal paper Abstract. Effective abstracts have become crucial in a journal paper, since they may be distributed electronically. Abstracting services are used by people to obtain the main points of your work, and to decide whether they need to read the whole of your paper. If the Abstract is weak, your work won't get the advertising that it may deserve. 9 Conference Abstract. Conference organizers will decide from your conference abstract whether to invite you to present a paper.
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65
Definitions: Rbstract/Summary/Executive Summary Note. In technical documentation the words Abstract and Summary are often used interchangeably to mean the same thing. The specific differences are given below.
In different circumstances, you may be asked to write an Abstract, a Summary or an Executive Summary. Each of these presents an overview of the material in your document, but they differ in their purpose and wording. An Abstract presents the overview to an expert audience. It is required in specialized documents such as journal papers, conference papers and posters. A Summary presents the overview to a less specialized audience. Anyone reading it should be able to gain an understanding of the main features and findings of your document, without the detail. It is required at the beginning of every document you write, if an Abstract or Executive Summary is not specifically asked for. An Executive Summary presents the overview to an executive audience in non-specialist language. It is generally longer than a Summary, possibly a tenth of the whole document. It should present the work in greater detail than a standard Summary does. It is required in a management or consulting document, specifically for the management personnel of an organization. They may have no scientific or technical expertise. The language therefore needs to be understood by non-experts.
Difficulties Many people find it extremely difficult to adequately summarize their document in a specified number of words. The difficulties arise from: 9 Not knowing the difference between descriptive and informative abstracts. 9 Deciding on the core information. 9 Making sure that all aspects are covered. 9 Making sure that the abstract is not concentrating on only some aspects at the expense of others. 9 Linking the information up into a coherent story. 9 The final cutting-down process. For instance, you have written a good 400-word abstract, but only 300 are stipulated. The final process of paring it down even further, without dropping important information, can often be very difficult.
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How to write it: general information for all types of Abstract or Summary 1 The elements of information n e e d e d - probably in this o r d e r - are: (a) A statement that places your work in context. This is a statement that presents the big picture. But avoid an overall statement of generally known fact. (b) If appropriate, your method of investigating it. This might be a description of an experimental technique, an analytical method, a design technique, a system design etc. (c) Your main results or observations. This could be an experimental finding, a theoretical result, an improved design or system, a body of information (if you have done a literature search on a specific topic) etc. (d) Your main conclusion(s). Your deduction about what your work means. An Abstract/Summary should contain only one or two main conclusions; the complete set of conclusions is then presented in a Conclusions section (see 'Conclusions', page 48 Chapter 2 The Core Chapter). (e) (If appropriate) Your main recommendation(s). If you have several recommendations, use a section called Recommendations (see 'Recommendations', page 50, Chapter 2. The Core Chapter). 2 Aim for an informative, not a descriptive, Summary/Abstract (see below). This is important. 3 An Abstract/Summary should not contain any information that does not appear in the main body of the document. 4 Don't use tables, figures, or literature references in a brief Abstract/ Summary. However, they are needed in a conference abstract of the longer type (see 'A Conference Abstract', page 72, this chapter), and if appropriate in an Executive Summary. 4 Write the final version of the Abstract/Summary after you have completed the paper. If you write it early in the process to focus your thoughts, revise it later. It is vital to get the same emphasis and perspective as in the main body of the paper. 5 Section summaries. Larger documents may benefit from having short summaries at the beginning of each section, in addition to the main Abstract/Summary. Section summaries give an overview of the information in that section, and are useful navigational tools for the reader. Each one should be headed Section Summary. (See Chapter 1: The General Structure of a Document, page 9.)
Aiming for an informative Abstract/Summary Based on their content, Abstracts/Summaries are generally classified into the following types:
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67
1 Descriptive or indicative. This type should be avoided. 2 Informative. This is the type to aim for. 3 Informative-descriptive. A thesis may need this type.
1 The descriptive or indicative Abstract~Summary Example of a descriptive Abstract~Summary. Avoid writing this type
Title of document: On-road monitoring of ambient carbon monoxide levels Abstract This study aims to measure the on-road spatial distribution of levels of carbon monoxide, a health hazard known to be increasing in Middletown. Methods of measurement are discussed and the difference between on-road and fixed-site data is analysed. The influence of temperature, wind speed and humidity is considered. Conclusions as to the effectiveness of this method of carbon monoxide monitoring are given, together with suggested recommendations for future air quality sampling programmes.
You need to actively avoid writing this type. This describes the structure of the document. It does not give the main findings and conclusions. It is like a road map. This structural description is generally used only in a long selfcontained literature review. Postgraduate writing nearly always needs the informative type of abstract (see below). Assessors, journal editors and conference organizers often ask for the descriptive type to be avoided. Care is needed to avoid drifting into its typical phrasing and structure. How to recognize this type of Abstract~Summary. Many people write this type in the mistaken belief that this is what is needed. You can recognize it by the following: 9 It describes the structure of the document, instead of giving the facts. 9 It gives no real information. It doesn't help the reader to understand what the writer actually did and concluded. 9 It uses stock phrases that are easily recognized. If you find yourself writing any one of the following words or phrases, you can be almost sure that you are in a sentence that describes structure instead of one that gives real information: 9 9 9 9
is is is is
analysed/analyses considered/considers described/describes discussed/discusses
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68
9
9
9
is examined/examines is presented/presents is given/gives
2 The informative Abstract~Summary Example of an informative abstract ~tle of document: On-road monitoring of ambient carbon monoxide levels A statement to place your investigation in context
To state why you have done the study.
Method of investigation
The results, quantitatively expressed
Your conclusions
Your recommendation
Note. Do not refer to any figures or cite any references in a Summary
This study measures the on-road distribution of levels of carbon monoxide, a health hazard known to be increasing in Middletown, and compares the levels with those obtained from fixed-site monitors. Data from fixed sites have been previously used in air-quality monitoring programmes, but there has been doubt about their accuracy in determining levels of carbon monoxide at the adjacent on-road sites. Levels of carbon monoxide at 1.5 m above road level were monitored during commuter traffic at peak hours, using a moving vehicle on a selected route where fixed monitors were located. The on-road concentrations were found to be greater by three times than than those recorded at the adjacent fixed sites (mean values of 11.4 + 2.0 SD ppm and 3.9 + 0.8 SD ppm relatively). Levels were also found to increase with decreased temperature and wind speed, and increased relative humidity. It is concluded that fixed-site data are significantly under-representing ambient levels, and that the methods were effective in measuring the spatial distribution of carbon monoxide, estimating commuter exposure and assessing the effectiveness of fixed-site monitors. An on-road monitoring programme is recommended as a supplement to the present system of monitoring air quality.
ABSTRACT/SUMMARY/EXECUTIVESUMMARY
69
Aim for this type of abstract. It describes the purpose of the work, the methods, results, the main conclusion(s), and possibly the main recommendation(s) as briefly and quantitatively as possible. It is almost 100% certain that this is the type of abstract needed for any post-graduate writing. 9 For an experimental investigation. It gives specific, quantitative information about methods, results and conclusions. 9 For other types of document. It gives specific information about the topic under investigation, including hard facts and your main conclusions. 9 Wording. It avoids the stock phrases of a descriptive Abstract/ Summary (see above). If you find yourself using one of these stock descriptive phrases when you are writing an informative Abstract/ Summary, it probably means that a piece of information seems too large to summarize. Reassess it and work out the information that the reader needs. 3 The informative-descriptive abstract. This is a combination of the two types. It gives specific information about the main results, together with general information about the contents of the rest of the document. A PhD or Masters thesis could possibly need this type of abstract. The final results should be specifically stated, and the various kinds of supporting information outlined in a more general way. But you need to make sure that you don't slip into too many generalizations.
Length of an Abstract or Summary For a conference or journal, the specific word number required will be stated. When it is your choice, it should be brief: a lengthy abstract defeats its purpose. As a rough guide to lengths: 9 A short document (up to 2000 words): 200-300 words may be enough. 9 A relatively long document: 300 words to half a page. 9 A PhD thesis: usually about 500-800 words, or one to two pages.
A journal paper Abstract Very many people will read a journal paper Abstract, either in the original, or in electronic indexing and abstracting services and other secondary publications. Your Abstract needs to be very carefully crafted; from it, people will decide whether it's worth reading the rest of your paper.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCEAND ENGINEERING: PAPERS.PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
How to write a journal paper Rbstract See also 'General information', page 66, and 'Aiming for an informative Abstract/Summary', page 66 this chapter. 9 Work out the information that a reader doing a database search would like to find in the abstract. 9 Aim for a fully informative Abstract. Avoid the wording of a descriptive Abstract (see page 67, this chapter). 9 Keep the methods in the Abstract brief (unless it is a paper presenting a new method). 9 The results of the study should make up most of the Abstract. Make the description as quantitative as possible. 9 Make sure that the main point of your work is clearly and briefly stated. 9 Avoid non-standard abbreviations. Abbreviate a long term in the Abstract only if it is a widely recognized abbreviation. Most journals have a standard list of abbreviations that can be used in abstracts and titles without being spelled out. 9 Do not cite references in the Abstract. 9 Most journals require that the Abstract should be a single paragraph. 9 Don't exceed the stipulated number of words. Abstracting databases may truncate it, and some of your information will be lost.
Structuring the information 1 Overall scheme, probably in this order: (a) state the principal objectives and scope of the investigation (b) describe the methodology used (c) summarize the results as quantitatively as possible (d) state the principal conclusion(s) and (e) if appropriate, the main recommendation(s)
A BSTRACT/SUMM~ RY/EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
2 The beginning, the middle and the end: .
The beginning
A statement to put your work in context. Avoid a general overall statement, for example:
Poor:Carbon monoxide is a major health risk. This study aims t o . . .
Better:This study measures the on-road distribution of levels of carbon monoxide, a health hazard known to be increasing in Middletown, and compares the levels with those obtained from fixed-site monitors.
The middle (Part 1)
A description of the approach you are using. This might be: 9 9 9 9 9 9
an analytical method experiments a system concept a scheme of testing a design technique a statistical analysis of an ecological problem etc.
Make sure that: 9 you describe the methods in enough detail for the conference organizers to see that they are valid, but that 9 you leave out all the fiddly detail 9 you present the methods in such a way that they can be readily correlated with the results. If you are describing two or more related experiments, make sure that they are clearly demarcated so that the results can be similarly presented The middle (Part 2)
Your main result. This might be: 9 an experimental finding 9 a theoretical finding 9 an improved design 9 a recommended course of action 9 a description of the characteristics of a habitat etc. Make sure that you give a truly quantitative description of the results. Do not make vague statements such as: X was much greater than Y.
The end
The main conclusion(s) or outcome. A brief description of the conclusion(s) you draw from your work, or the outcome of it. If appropriate your main recommendation(s).
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Example of a well-constructed informative Abstract From: Le Naour, E, Rubinstein, E., Jasmin, C., Prenant, M. and Boucheix, C. (2000). C. (2000). Severely reduced female fertility in CD9-deficient mice. Science, 287 (14 January), 319-324. Sentences 1 and 2: the context of the work Sentence 3: very brief method Sentences 4 and 5: the results Sentence 6: the conclusion
CD9 is a widely expressed cell surface molecule that belongs to the tetraspanin superfamily of proteins. The tetraspanins CD9, KAI-1/CD82, and CD63 are involved in metastasis suppression, an effect that may be related to their association with 131 integrins. Knockout mice lacking CD9 were created to evaluate the physiological importance of CD9. CD9-/- females displayed a severe reduction of fertility. Oocytes were ovulated but were not successfully fertilized because sperm did not fuse with the oocytes from CD9-/- females. Thus, CD9 appears to be essential for sperm-egg fusion, a process involving the CD9-associated integrin oL6131.
A conference Abstract Background information: the process of submitting a paper to a conference 1 The general details of a conference are first made known by means of brochures and notes in journals. 2 If you or your supervisor register your interest, you will receive a Call for Abstracts. The abstract is used to judge whether you will be invited to attend the conference. 3 If you are invited to attend the conference, you will then later receive the Call for Papers. 4 You will be told whether your presentation is oral or a poster. 5 Usually at large conferences, the collected abstracts are published so that they are available to the participants at the time of the conference. 6 Occasionally, abstracts that have been rejected for the conference (i.e. you won't be asked to attend) are still made available to the conference participants, so that they know what work is being done elsewhere. These are sometimes called Unpublished Abstracts. 7 The collected papers - usually from all of the participants, sometimes only from selected ones - will be published in the conference proceedings, either in a bound volume or series of volumes, or as CD-ROMs. These can appear some time after the conference itself.
ABSTRACT/SUMMARY/EXECUTIVESUMMARY
Formatting and appearance of the r
73
Jqbstraet and paper
Most conferences require them to be in 'camera-ready' copy; that is, when they are reproduced, they will look exactly as they do when you submit them. Conference organizers strive for a uniform appearance; the Instructions to Authors will give precise requirements for font type and size, margin size etc. Be sure that the Instructions to Authors are followed in every detail. Even if you think you can improve the appearance by using a different font or size from those that are stipulated, don't do it. You don't want your work to stand out in any way other than in its content.
Purpose of a conference Abstract 1 Initial purpose: to enable the conference organizers to decide whether to invite you to present your work at the conference. There are several aspects to this. They need to decide: (a) whether your work fits in with the theme of the conference (b) whether your work is good enough (c) if you are invited to the conference, whether you will be asked to present your work orally or as a poster presentation 2 Purpose during the conference: to enable each conference participant to decide whether your work is of interest to her/him. They may then: (a) attend your oral presentation or seek out your poster (b) try to make personal contact with you during the conference (c) contact you after the conference, if they haven't met you during it
How to write a conference Abstract (two to three pages) See also 'General information' page 66, and 'Aiming for an informative Abstract/Summary', page 66, this chapter. To get the organizers' invitation to attend the conference, you have to present the problem, your methods and your results clearly and in enough detail, without any other supporting information. This is hard discipline: it's not easy. You have to write a self-contained, mini-paper. Therefore the following are important: 9 You need to strip away the detail and decide on the hard-core material of your work. 9 Avoid writing in descriptive terms (see above, page 67). 9 You will not be able to fit in more than one or two small figures or tables. 9 You will need to restrict the number of references, so that the List of References does not take away too much of your limited space. 9 Think of it as a short story. It will have a beginning, a middle and an end. Each one of these parts needs to be clearly defined, and in the correct order.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCEAND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
9 Use the same scheme for the beginning, middle and end as for a journal paper Abstract (page ???).
Possible headings Short abstract (100 words to about half a page): no headings. Longer conference abstract (two to three pages): Conference organizers usually require the standard AIMRAD (Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion) structure of the journal paper.
Section
Cross-reference to detail in this book
Title
See 'Title', page 16, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Authorship and Affiliation
See 'Authorship and Affiliation', page 21, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Abstract (very brief)
This chapter.
Keywords (possibly)
See 'Keywords', page 23, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Introduction
See 'Introduction' page 28, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Materials and Methods
See 'Materials and Methods', page 39, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Results
See 'Results', page 41, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Discussion (or combined Results and Discussion section)
See 'Discussion', page 45, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
List of References
See Chapter 14: Referencing, page 175.
Common mistakes of Abstracts or Summaries 1 Too long and too detailed. 2 Conversely- in the attempt to cut it down to the required number of words - large editorial inconsistencies (usually gaps in the logical flow of the information).
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75
3 4 5 6 7
Vague, imprecise information. No clear statement of the main problem. No clear description of the methods. Non-quantitative description of the results. A descriptive abstract: describes only the structure of the document, gives no real information 8 A journal paper Abstract: 9 A frequent comment: the point of the work isn't clear; no clear conclusion. 9 An illogically presented story. 9 Too many small facts. 9 Important information often missing, e.g. a clear indication of the methods used, a quantitative description of the results. 9 Unfamiliar abbreviations.
Rn Executive Summary See also 'General information', page 66, and 'Aiming for an informative Abstract/Summary', page 66, this chapter.
Purpose 9 To provide a document in miniature that may be read instead of the longer document. It is directed at managerial readers who may not read the whole report, and who may not have the appropriate technical knowledge. 9 To explain your work in terms understandable by the non-expert reader.
Length An Executive Summary is longer than the conventional Abstract/Summary (apart from some conference abstracts): typically 10-25% of the whole document.
Format 9 Unlike a standard (short) summary, it should be organized under descriptive headings, numbered blocks of information and highlighted by bold-facing. 9 It should be formatted for accessibility of information, and the speed and convenience of the reader.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Structure and content 9 The structure should follow that of the body of your report. 9 Although the body of your report may contain technical or scientific terminology, the Executive Summary should, as far as possible, be written in non-expert terms.
Checklist for Summary/Abstract/Executive Summary C] Does it include the following (if appropriate to the subject matter): [] A statement that places your work in context? [] Your method of investigating it? [] Your main results or observations? D Your main conclusion(s)? [] Your main recommendation(s)? If these are inappropriate to your subject matter, does it give real information? Vi Have you avoided writing a descriptive type of Abstract/Summary? V1 Is there any information that doesn't appear elsewhere in the document? If so, incorporate it somewhere. VI No tables, figures, literature references (except for a conference abstract, see below)? V1 Was the Abstract/Summary written as the final stage of the document? V1 A journal paper Abstract: [] Is your conclusion clearly stated? [] Is the story presented logically? [] Does it have a beginning (the context), a middle (methods and results) and an end (the conclusions or outcome)? [] Does it contain the sort of information that a reader doing a database search would like to find? [] Is the description of the methods brief (unless the paper is presenting a new method)? n Do the results make up most of it? D Have non-standard abbreviations been avoided? [] Have citations been avoided? n Have you kept to the word limit? If not, databases may truncate it. ~ A conference Abstract: [] Does it conform to the conference guidelines (page number etc.)? [] Have you included only one or two small illustrations? [] Does the story have a beginning (the context), a middle (methods and results) and an end (the conclusions or outcome)? n Have you included an appropriate number of citations and a short List of References?
ABSTRACT/SUMMARY/EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
7'7
F-1 An Executive Summary: D Does it give the information appropriate to a managerial readership? D Is it written so that a non-technical person can understand it? [] Does it follow the structure of the main document? D Does it have appropriate descriptive headings, numbered blocks of information and is it highlighted by boldfacing? n Is it written for accessibility of information, and the speed and convenience of the reader?
Chapter 4
A literature review This chapter covers: 9 9 9 9 9
When you are likely to have to write a literature review. Purpose of a literature review. Common difficulties. What makes a good review? The process of researching and writing the review: A few general hints - Types of source material Steps in putting together a review Step 1: Consult a librarian about searching techniques Step 2: Be systematic about keeping records of the citations Step 3: The first stage of finding information: find a book if possible Step 4: Find review articles by prominent researchers Step 5: Choose the KEY papers Step 6: Select and note information from KEY papers Step 7: Choose the topic headings for your review Step 8: Sort your information into the headings Step 9: Select the FRINGE papers Step 10: Select, note and file information from the FRINGE papers Step 11: Re-read your original review papers Step 12: Write up the review A possible structure for a literature review. Why your initial review won't be good enough for a thesis. Common mistakes. Checklist.
-
-
9 9 9 9
When you are likely to have to write a literature review 1 As an assignment, probably before you start your research work for your thesis or project. Preparing a literature review is often one of the first things a supervisor asks a new graduate student to do. It can seem overwhelming, especially when you've had an initial look at the sheer volume of literature out there, or perhaps the sheer lack of it.
A LITERATURE REVIEW
79
2 As part of a longer document such as a report or thesis. 3 As an initial scoping for possible thesis topics.
Purpose of a literature review To show that you have a good understanding of the background of your topic of research or investigation. To do this you need to do the following: 1 Give a coherent account of the various areas of research relevant to your topic. 2 Give a historical account of its development. Its history may span many years or very few, if it is a recently developed area. 3 Show that you know who has done the relevant work, by citing at the appropriate points in the text the names of the authors and the years in which the work was published. 4 Show the links between the various areas of the body of knowledge - the correlations, contradictions, ambiguities and gaps. 5 Show the weaknesses of other work and techniques. 6 Provide a summary of available techniques and materials. 7 Show how your work will form an original contribution.
Common difficulties 1 Getting to grips with the sheer quantity of literature. 2 Sometimes, having to cope with a lack of literature. 3 Getting started. It is often very difficult to know where to look in the literature in order to be able to get the general overview you need to be able to start. 4 Knowing how broad or how narrow to make your review. 5 Knowing which papers to discard and which to keep. Your understanding increases over time, and it's important not to discard papers that initially don't seem relevant. As understanding develops, papers need to be constantly reviewed. 6 Having the mental discipline to constantly re-read papers to gain fresh understanding.
What makes a good review? A good review presents the facts, but as well as this, it also should also go behind the facts. It needs to: 9 show the issues that have been dealt with in the past 9 show the issues that need to be currently addressed
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS. PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
9 show the correlations, contradictions, ambiguities and gaps that exist 9 show the conflicts between research 'camps' 9 give an analysis and commentary that makes it clear that you understand the issue 9 show that you are imposing your view on the issue A poor review is just an account of who did what and when it was done, without comment on relevance and quality. By doing this, you don't show your competence and involvement; you show that you haven't fully understood the real purpose of a literature review. It happens when: 9 you believe that it's not up to you to comment 9 you believe that your role is that of a neutral observer 9 you don't understand the topic sufficiently
The process of researching and writing the review A few general hints 1 Do not worry about the volume of literature that you know exists, or the fact that your supervisor may have given you a few specialized papers to start you off. 2 Be systematic. It is all too easy to skitter around when doing a search. You need to be focused and to keep good records. 3 Don't rely solely on books and review articles. A literature search put together from only books and review articles will lack depth. 4 You are going to have to be cleverly selective about your choice of literature to search for. At some early stage you begin to realize that the whole thing can grow exponentially and get out of hand. Each review paper that you read may have a multitude of references cited in it. Each journal paper will have anything from a dozen to fifty or more. You cannot possibly chase each one. 5 View the process of searching, extracting and filing material as an iterative process, during which your understanding of the topic will increase.
Types of source material In the initial survey of the field, you need to work from the general to the specific. This means working your way from tertiary and secondary sources of information to primary sources. 9 Tertiary sources. Textbooks are the chief tertiary source, and can sometimes be useful in giving an overview of a field. Some textbooks become acknowledged as authorities, and can be acceptable as references. However, postgraduate work usually demands the searching-out of, first, secondary sources (review articles) followed by primary ones (original papers).
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9 Secondary sources. Summaries of information gathered from primary sources. Review articles in particular. 9 Primary sources. First-hand accounts of investigation: journal articles, theses and reports.
Steps in putting together a review The scheme described here and shown schematically in Figure 4.1 is an idealized version of the real process, which is obviously more complex and iterative.
Step I" Consult a librarian about searching techniques They are experts in literature searching. Don't be shy about talking to them and asking them for the benefit of their experience. To search efficiently, you will need to know: 9 The relevant searching strategies for your topic. There are a variety of indexing and abstracting services, CD-ROMs and various Internet-based databases. You may need more than one of them to do an adequate search. 9 How to do an efficient keyword search on these databases. A librarian will be able to help you define your subject in terms of keywords. Inefficient choice of keywords can result in a lot of wasted time and effort.
Step 2: Be systematic about keeping records of the citations Before you start searching for sources, work out how you will keep records of them. Very much time can be lost by keeping inadequate records at the beginning of the process, and then later having to find the source material again. 1 Use a computer or cards to keep very good records. You don't want to waste time by having to return later to find missing citation details. 2 Keep copies of every key document so that you can come back to them later. 9 With a better grasp of the topic you may later find more information than you initially did. 9 There may be aspects that seemed initially unimportant or even irrelevant. Later on, your work may go in this direction or you may develop further insights. 3 Note down the full details of the citation. Whenever you make a copy, ensure that you have all the details you will need for the List of References
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Stages in the process Step 1 Consult a librarian
The process
Notes. Relevant sections of this chapter Page 81
Learn techniques for keyword searching of databases
Step 2 Be systematic about record-keeping
Page 81
Step 3 Find books (possibly no relevant material available)
Page 84 I
Books
I
Step 4 Find review articles (1--4 needed)
Page 84
Review article
Material from these will form the general skeleton of your review
I
Review articles should be re-read often during the process of compiling the review to aid understanding. Step 5 Choose your KEY papers from the reviews' List of References Step 6 From the KEY papers, select and note the information needed
-]
Page 84
V7
Material from these will form the expanded skeleton of your review
I ~r info
Page 85
~v info
~r info
If info
I Ir info
Step 7 Choose your initial topic headings Step 8 Sort your information from the KEY papers into the topic headings
Page 87
~r Initial topic headings
Page 88
1. 2. 3.
etc Step 9 Select FRINGE papers by less prominent authors. Start assessing 'philosophies', scientific rigour, the results etc.
From the FRINGE papers, analyse, take notes and file under a revised set of topic headings Step 11 Re-read your original review papers: reassess your understanding of the topic Step 12 Start writing the review
Page 88
V7 Revised topic headings
Material from these will build up the outer edges of the review
1. 2. 3. etc Page 88
The processes are iterative. Meanwhile your understanding of the topic will increase
Page 88
Figure 4.1 Schematic of the stages in writing a literature review. The scheme as shown is idealized: the whole process is iterative.
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(for more information about the requirements, see Chapter 14: Referencing). It wastes an enormous amount of time if you have to come back and - for instance - find out the final page number of the article, or the name of the editors, or whether it was the second or the third edition of a book. Not everything can be found on CD-ROM if you have to find a citation detail l a t e r - much better to save yourself time by making sure that you have it all in the first place.
Material from journals Note= Make sure that the photocopier does not cut off the citation details at the foot of the page. Make sure that you have for each paper: 9 9 9 9
the name and initials of each author the year the title of the paper in full the full name of the journal. If you have only the abbreviated form, you can look it up later in standard reference books found in all university libraries. One of the most convenient is Periodical ~tle Abbreviations, Volumes 1-3, edited by L.G. Alkire, published by Gale Research Company, Detroit, Michigan 9 volume number 9 part number 9 page n u m b e r s - both the starting number and the number of the final page (some journals may want only the starting number, others want the start and finish)
Material Jrom books Note. Don't forget that copyright laws allow you to photocopy only a stated proportion of a book. Check with a librarian. 9 Always photocopy the title page. 9 Always photocopy the next p a g e - this one will give you the details about the edition, the publisher and the place of publication. 9 Write on one of these pages the total number of pages in the book. If you are citing a chapter in a book with multiple authors, make sure you note: 9 9 9 9 9 9
the the the the the the
chapter title authors of that chapter start and finish page numbers of the chapter title of the book name(s) of the editor(s) publisher and the place of publication
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4 Photocopy the Table of Contents and the index of books. As you increase your grasp of the topic, you will often want to read further around the topic, and this will make it easier to retrieve the information.
Step 3: First stage of finding information: find a book if possible This will give you a basic understanding from which you can work up. However, books are frequently no help.
Step 4: Find some really good review articles by prominent researchers You will need from one to four. These will be your key resources that you need to keep re-reading. Books may cite them. Some databases can be used; also, try searching on keyword together with the word 'review' but expect a possibly untidy result. If necessary get help from a specialist librarian. From a good review article, you should be able to establish: 9 the general overall sense of the topic 9 the areas that are relevant to your topic 9 who are the most active researchers, and who are the authorities. Those frequently cited are the most prominent 9 the papers that are regarded as the most important and fundamental. Again, they will be the ones most frequently cited
Material from the review articles will give you a general skeleton on which to build.
Step 5: Choose the papers that appear to be the KEY papers From the large number of citations in the Lists of References in the review articles, you can now select the KEY papers. They will be: 9 9 9 9
the most frequently cited papers in the review articles the most frequently cited authors in the review articles the titles that are the most relevant to your topic the most recently dated. Later in the process you may need to chase papers that are older, in order to show the development of the topic
Material from the KEY papers will form the expanded skeleton of your review.
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Step 6: Select and note the information you need from the KEY papers
The in[ormation to look/or Choose references that will enable you to answer the following questions: 9 9 9 9
How does this topic fit into a broader view of the research area? Why is it an important topic? What is known about the topic? What is ambiguous, in dispute, unknown? Why?
If you are writing a literature review as anything other than a preliminary overview of an area of work, you will also need to answer the following: 9 9 9 9
Why do these gaps need to be filled? Which gaps do you propose to fill in your research? Why have you chosen them? How do you propose to do it?
It is very important that these questions are answered as well as you can, because it is very easy to forget how much you know and how little your readers know in comparison- and that can include your examiners. When we forget this, we tend to think that the facts will speak for themselves- that if they are just presented, they will form a coherent account. But they rarely do. A good analysis of the literature should set the whole context of your work and demonstrate your competence in the area.
1 First read the abstract. (a) Prioritize your papers initially by reading the abstracts. From the abstract you can establish the paper's relative relevance to your needs. (b) Then establish from the abstract which parts of the paper you will need to read. For instance, if you need details only of the method, it could be a waste of time to read the whole article in detail.
2 Read the relevant part of the paper. Then skim-read the rest of the article. From this you can establish whether there is additional relevant information.
3 Interact with a document: highlight and annotate. Even if you make good notes - on paper or a computer - while reading a document, you will probably find that when you come to write up, you will need to look at the original document again. Most people's memories are far from perfect, and explanatory notes that you made at the time of reading will often not make sense when you come back to them later on. There are always bits that you will have overlooked, distorted or oversimplified.
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Therefore, you will save a lot of time later if you do the following when you first read it: (a) Do the main work on the paper itself: highlight and annotate. Highlight the bits that seem significant: write comments and questions in the margins. This will make it much easier to come back later and reassess the document. (b) Create more margin to write on. Some people like to photocopy onto A3 paper or reduce to 80%.
4 Copy directly from the reference document, and then reshape the ideas later. When you need to note more than just keywords and comments, don't be afraid to copy information from the document in the original words. Everyone knows that one isn't supposed to plagiarize, i.e. claim someone else's wording as one's own (Chapter 14: Referencing). But since the choice of words in the document is likely to be good, save time by using it and then reshape the ideas later when you write up. Obviously, it is important to note the sources immaculately, so that they can be cited in the final document.
5 Write up key findings under major headings. For example: Aim of research Methods Key findings Questions it raises The following types of things should be noted: 9 9 9 9 9
Key bits of the original data and wording. An overall summary of the document. Key discussion points from the original document. Keywords. Your own comments and queries in the margins.
Make enough notes to jog your memory later.
6 If you find an article difficult to understand: Put it aside for a while and come back to it. There are two reasons why you may be finding it difficult: (a) Your understanding of the topic is not yet sufficient. Later in the process you may be able to understand it with no difficulty. (b) It may not be your fault that it is tricky to understand: remember that a hallmark of a good writer is the ability to explain even complex topics clearly. If the text seems muddy, it could well be because yet another article has got into print with poor structure and unclearly expressed ideas. Deciding between (a) and (b) at this early stage can be difficult. Keep the paper and come back to it later.
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7 Read all the important documents at least twice: come back to each one at a later stage in your work. You will find extra material and insights in a paper when you re-read it some time later. At this time, you will have a better grasp of your area of research and of the place of your own work within it. Useful things to do at this point are: (a) Once again, use the pen and highlighter. (b) You are probably also now in a better position to check calculations. You may be surprised how many errors it's possible to find. You will add depth to your review by discussing them. (c) You may now have the experience to be able to ask such things as: 9 Why didn't they do such-and-such an experiment? 9 Surely that conclusion isn't justified? 9 Aren't their statistics a bit poor here? When you have developed even a little of the depth of knowledge necessary, you may be surprised at the inconclusive quality of some of the published material. Discussing this in an informed and objective way will add depth to your review.
Step 7: Choose the topic headings for your review 1 Work out the topic headings. 9 Do not think that these headings should be fixed. As the review evolves, you will probably find that new topics emerge and others become less significant or merge with others. 9 Make your topics specific. Instead of having a small number of overall, unspecific topics such as Issues associated with bacterial adhesion, think of a number of topics, each one explicitly stating the specific issue. For example: Methods for investigating... Historical background Standard techniques Current technology etc.
2 Establish either (a) one file containing these topic headings or (b) separate files for each topic. If your review is going to be a major work, separate files are usually more convenient. You will file information under the headings after reading and extracting information from each source. Under these headings, also note cross-references to various papers, if you are also keeping a filing system of photocopied papers. This saves having to copy out large amounts of information; at the final stage of sorting information, you will come back to these papers and extract from them the information needed.
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Step 8: Sort your information into the uarious topie headings 9 Your information will come from: - the material you have placed on file (either on one large file, or separate ones under various topic headings) - the papers' abstracts - material extracted directly from the photocopied papers - your own comments on the photocopies - your written notes 9 Sort your information into the relevant heading or file. 9 If some papers span more than one topic, duplicate the material to each heading or into each file. You can decide later where it fits best.
Step 9: Select the FRINGE papers 9 These are the papers by the less prominent authors. 9 Find them from: - the work cited in your KEY papers - database searching. From your initial reading you should now be able to compile the keywords you need for efficient database searching. If you have problems, consult a librarian again. 9 Assess the research philosophies, the scientific rigour of the techniques, the results and the interpretations.
Material from the FRINGE papers will build up the outer edges of your review.
Step i O: From the FRINC~Epapers, analyse, take notes, and file the information under headings as you did for the KEY papers
Step ! I" Re-read )/our original review papers: reassess your understanding of the topic 9 You will find that your perspectives will change and your understanding increase if you approach this as an iterative process. 9 Repeat the re-reading and analysis of your review papers and your other important papers during the whole process of assembling the material for your review.
Step 12: Write up the review as a final stage Don't try to write up the literature review before you have assembled all the information. The more you investigate, the greater will be your understanding of the topic; a review written up too early is likely to need rewriting.
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At this final stage you will have either: 9 a large file with the relevant material under separate topic headings or 9 material contained in separate files for each topic The steps to take from here are:
1 Connect all the material for each topic together. (a) Take the material under each heading or file. Sort and re-sort it. (b) Look for possible subheadings (c) Look for similarities, contrasts, inconsistencies, gaps in the knowledge, links between the topics and subtopics. (d) Write the text to link these ideas together. At this stage, the text should almost write itself.
2 Connect all the topics together into one file under a series of headings. Work out a logical order in which to place your separate topics. If you are working within one file, cut and paste into your chosen order of topics. If you are working with separate files import each file into one master file.
3 Keep reworking it. It will take many reworkings to produce a coherent review. The material within each topic and the overall structure of the document will need a lot of work before it is satisfactory.
4 Compile the List of References The cross-referencing between your text and the List of References, and the details needed for listing each reference, is riddled with convention. You need to be absolutely sure that there are no discrepancies. See Chapter 15: Referencing for details. A referencing software package that interacts with your text file will do this cross-referencing automatically. It is well worth using one. However, the endnote function of a word processing package has only very basic functions; don't use it.
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A possible structure for a self-standing literature review (i.e. not part of a thesis) Section
Comments
Cross-reference to detailed material
Title
In contrast to the title of most other documents that you may have to write, the title of a review will be a general description of the research area.
See 'Title', Chapter 2: The Core Chapter, page
Abstract
In contrast to most other Summaries/Abstracts that you may have to write, a short Summary of a review may need to be a description of the document structure rather than give only informative material. But give informative conclusions if possible.
See Chapter 3: Abstract/ Summary/Executive Summary, page 67.
Introduction
Give the following information: 9 The general historical development of the topic. 9 The various areas of the topic. 9 In the final paragraphs, the document structure.
See 'Introduction', Chapter 2: The Core Chapter, page 28. Particularly 'Structuring the Introduction/final paragraphs, page 30.
Summarize the various conclusions, including any contradictions, ambiguities or gaps in the knowledge.
See 'Conclusions', Chapter 2: The Core Chapter, page 48.
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Sections appropriate to the subject matter
Conclusions
List of References
See Chapter 14: Referencing, page 151.
Why your initial literature review won't be good enough for a thesis If you are writing a thesis or a n o t h e r major body of work, your initial literature r e v i e w - done at the start of your s t u d y - can never be good enough to be the version incorporated into your final document.
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The understanding that comes through time, and the re-reading of the material and the discovery of new material will result in a final literature review that will be very different from your first. Make sure that the review contained in your thesis is written up as a final stage of putting your thesis together.
Supplementary tabulated presentation for a thesis Consider supplementing the literature review material with a tabulated presentation to summarize the content of each of the relevant papers. See Chapter 12: Thesis, page 145.
Common mistakes 1 The most grave error: finishing the literature review before you have started to understand the issue. 2 Just giving an account of who did what and when. An inadequate literature review is one that is little more than a who-did-what-and-when list, for example: Brown (1999) showed that.., and Smith (1998) found that...
3 Not telling a coherent story. This is often the result of point 2. 4 Not pointing out the gaps in the knowledge, and any ambiguities. Not becoming involved. 5 Referencing errors (see 'Common mistakes', page 187. Chapter 14: Referencing.
Checklist for a literature review Does your literature review: F-1 show the issues that have been dealt with in the past? V1 show the issues that need to be currently addressed? show the correlations, contradictions, ambiguities and gaps that exist? [~ show the conflicts between research 'camps'? V1 give an analysis and commentary that makes it clear that you understand the issues? V1 avoid giving just an account of who did what and when? V1 cite the key reviews on the subject? The key papers? The more fringe papers?
Chapter 5
A research proposal This chapter covers: 9 Types of proposal: as an assignment at the start of graduate work - to a funding body to a commercial organization 9 Writing for the non-expert reader. 9 Writing for the commercial sector. 9 Checklists. -
-
Types and purpose 1 As a possible assignment at the start of postgraduate work. Purpose: so that your supervisor can see that you have a clear idea of previous work in the area, the research problem, and the procedures you will use to tackle it. 2 Together with the supervisor, as a proposal to a funding body or an outside organization to persuade them to fund your research. Purpose: to convince the body or organization that your work will be of value to them, and to persuade them to fund it. In some cases, this can occur after you have already been working on the research topic for some time.
How to write it As an assignment at the start of your postgraduate work You need to clearly explain: 1 2 3 4 5
The objectives of your proposed research. Previous work in the area. How you are proposing to tackle it. The time frame for each stage. Facilities, resources, laboratory equipment and technical help needed.
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A possible structure Summary
See Chapter 3: Abstract/ Summary/ Executive Summary, page 64
Research Objectives
See 'Objectives', page 32, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Literature Survey or Background Supervisors will realize that at this early stage you will not have got to grips with very much of the literature. But they will expect a clear explanation of the general framework of the research that has been done in your area, together with appropriate specific work.
See Chapter 4: A Literature Review, page 78 and 'Background', page 32, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Materials and Methods or Procedures This will need a description of the expected stages of the research, and an outline of the techniques you expect to use during each one. It may be effective to describe each expected stage and its procedures under an appropriate series of headings.
See 'Materials and Methods' page 39 Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Tense of the verb Use the future form. A Materials and Methods or Procedures section in other types of papers uses the past tense: The bacteria were cultured on solid and liquid media (past tense).
In a research proposal: The bacteria will be cultured on solid and liquid media (future).
For tightly defined topics (such as those for some Masters theses or smaller projects, e.g. Diploma projects): You and your supervisor may already know almost exactly how you are going to tackle the project. It will be relatively straightforward to explain this. For those topics that are less well defined (such as PhD projects, and projects where you will follow research leads, and possibly construct equipment or devise methods of which you may not have any clear idea at present): State clearly how you propose to tackle the first stages of the project. Then follow with a reasoned description of the framework that the research is likely to follow, and the possible procedures that may be needed. Example The initial stage of this study will be made up o f . . . This will be followed by . . . If it is found that . . . . then the next stage will consist of 9
.
.
If needed: Schedule of Tasks or Time Management or Expected time frame
Resources The facilities, resources, laboratory equipment and technical help needed.
See 'Schedule of Tasks/Time Management', page 35, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
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As a proposal to a funding body or to a commercial organization: General criteria by which an application for financial support is judged: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The validity of the central concept. The soundness of the experimental design. The significance of the research. The relevance to the funding organization's programme. Your competence and that of the other personnel who will be involved. The adequacy of the research facilities. The appropriateness of the budget. (Remember that too modest a budget proposal can be as damaging as an overblown one; it shows your poor judgement.) 8 If appropriate: the validity of the evaluation mechanism. The more novel the project, the more it will need an effective programme for evaluating it.
~qfunding body A funding body will use expert assessors who will be familiar with the topic.
Jq commercial organization There are two aspects that will influence the way you write your proposal: 1 The main concern of the organization's personnel will be their business plan, and whether your work will contribute to the company's competitiveness and profitability. They may have little or no interest in the academic implications of your proposed work. Some large companies are wealthy enough to be able to fund 'blue-skies' research, knowing that they will eventually be able to use the intellectual information to contribute to their wealth. However, many companies have to concentrate on their immediate or mid-term plan; they will therefore be more receptive to projects that will require minimum additional development and/or commercialization costs and will provide quick returns to the company. 2 Your report may need to be understood by people with no expertise in your particular field. There may be no one who is familiar with the basic knowledge and terminology of your subject. Even in companies that have the expertise, your report may be passed on to people such as financial personnel. Your report should therefore: 9 Sell your research to the organization, without misrepresenting, exaggerating or appearing pushy.
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9 Emphasize the potential advantages of your research to the organization's profitability. 9 Assure the organization that they will have full and uninterrupted access to your progress at all times. 9 Use a Glossary of Terms to clearly explain terminology that may not be familiar to the organization. 9 Be written in language that does not need expert knowledge to be understood. But it shouldn't be oversimplified. 9 Be very concise, well presented and clearly worded, without elaborate justifications or full descriptions of complicated techniques. 9 Be easy to navigate through, with a clearly defined pathway that enables a non-expert to understand the material. (See 'The importance of overview information: building a navigational pathway through the document', page 8, Chapter 1: The General Structure of a Document.)
~uestions to ssk yourself While you are putting together the proposal, you need to ask yourself: 9 What is the commercial significance of my proposed research? 9 What questions will they expect to be answered? 9 How can I write this so that it will be understood by a person without specialist knowledge in my field?
Possible structure of a research proposal To a lunding body Application forms are usually provided; therefore the recommended sequence of sections is automatically determined. Otherwise, the standard AIMRAD structure of a journal paper is acceptable (Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion), with emphasis on the significance of the proposed work with respect to the concerns of the funding body. In addition: 9 Evidence of your ability to carry out the work (your position, publications, honours, awards). 9 Facilities available to you. 9 Cost estimates. To a commercial organization Depending on the type of organization, you may need to avoid the classic, scientific AIMRAD format of Abstract, Introduction, Materials and
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Methods, Results and Discussion and aim instead for a structure that is more suited to a commercial organization. Here is a suggested structure for an initial approach. You may not need all of the following sections.
Cover Page with name of organization to which the proposal is being submitted, title of proposal: Proposal to (description of what you propose to do)
See 'Title Page' page 19, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Executive Summary (on a separate page following the cover page) A summary written in non-specialist language outlining what you propose to do and how it would benefit the company.
See 'Executive Summary', page 75, Chapter 3: Abstract/ Summary/ Executive Summary
Research Objectives Clearly and briefly describe the aim of the research. In presenting the focus from the company's point of view, do not try to anticipate your results. Just say what you are aiming to do. At the end of this section state that:
See 'Objectives' page 32, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
9 Results will be presented in the form of a report to be used by (name of the organization). 9 The research personnel will be available for discussion on any part of the document for a mutually agreed period of time after completion of the report. 9 Submission of the final report will be approximately (x months) after the start of the project.
Present the expected stages of the work in sequence At the end of each stage, use a subheading Outcomes; in this, say what you expect the outcome of each stage of the work to be. This does not mean anticipating the results; it means stating that at this point you will be able to say, for example, which one of the several growth media is the most efficient at promoting cell growth. Schedule of Tasks or Time Management or Expected Time Frame State your expected time schedule of: 1 The various tasks (possibly with a Gannt chart, see Figure 2.1, page 36) 2 The reports that you will write for the organization, e.g. 9 Preliminary report: 3 months 9 Interim report: 6 months 9 Final report: 9 months
Expected contents of the final report 1 State what you expect the final report to contain. For example: 9 The report will present the results of (...), together with analysis and discussion appropriate for consultancy purposes. 9 The report will discuss (the various aspects of the experimental work) 9 The report will discuss the design, operating and maintenance strategies of (equipment that you may be developing).
See 'Schedule of Tasks/Time Management', page 35, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
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You may also need to state that: 2 The report will be finalized in consultation with members of (name of the organization). This ensures that the organization knows that they will be involved in the final version of the report. 3 Discussion of the results and oral presentation of the work will be available on request.
This ensures that the organization knows that they have full and uninterrupted access to your progress at all times.
Requirements A description of what you expect to need, other than money, from your funding organization during your research.
See 'Requirements', page 38, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Costs A description of the money you expect to need from your funding organization during your research. This should be discussed and agreed with your supervisor/immediate superior/university commercialization division before submission of the proposal to the potential funding organization.
See 'Costs' page 38, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Ownership/Confidentiality An agreement between you and the commercial organization funding you that gives you some right of publication of your results, while assuring the organization that you will not divulge commercially sensitive information.
See 'Ownership/ Confidentiality' page 37, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Evidence of your ability to carry out the work Your position, publications, honours, awards.
Checklist for a research proposal at the start of academic work Does the proposal contain: [-1 a clear explanation of the general framework of the previous research in your area, together with appropriate specific work? a clear statement of your objectives? [-1 the expected stages of the research and the expected methodology for each one? [3 a description of the time frame for each stage? [-1 facilities, resources, laboratory equipment and technical help needed?
Checklist for a proposal to a grant-giving body or a commercial organization [-1 Does the title give instant access to the main point of the proposal? l-1 Does the Executive Summary or Abstract give an accurate and informative overview of the whole document, without being vague? I-1 Are your research objectives clear?
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I--1 Does the Introduction briefly identify: [] the critical problems? and [] your main purpose? I--1 Do you show all the facilities and resources needed for the project? I-1 Do you describe the expected stages of the research and the expected outcome of each? 1--1 Do you describe your qualifications and those of other personnel for carrying out this work? V1 Do you show the expected time frame for completion of: [] the next stage? n the whole project (if necessary)? I-1 Do you itemize the costs as accurately as possible? [] Have you under-budgeted? [] Is your budget overblown? Vl For a funding body, do you show the relevance to its overall programme? !-1 For a commercial organization: []
[] [] D [] []
Do you emphasize the potential advantages to the organization's commercial activities? Do you show that you are going to fill a need for the organization? Does it assure them that they will have full and uninterrupted access to your progress at all times? Is it written in terms that can be understood by a person without specialist knowledge in your field? Do you clearly show what is expected from the organization? Are ownership and confidentiality issues adequately addressed?
Chapter 6
A journal paper This chapter covers: 9 The overall structure of a journal paper, and cross-referred to: - sections of Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. - Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary. - Chapter 15: Referencing. 9 The process of publishing a journal paper: Submitting it. Dealing with the reviewing process. -Proofreading the typeset copy, cross-referred to 'Proofreading', Chapter 17, Revising and Proofreading: strategies. -
-
The general structure of a journal paper A journal paper will follow the classic AIMRAD pattern (Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion) in its general format. Many papers will need these actual sections: others will need to contain the basic skeleton and follow the scheme in its general plan. The elements generally found are: Title (and Running Title if needed) Authors(s) and Affiliation(s) Abstract Keywords Introduction Materials and Methods Procedure Results Discussion Sometimes: Conclusions and Recommendations Acknowledgements List of References The table below shows the purpose of each element, and cross-refers you to the relevant part of the book. Information specific to a journal paper is also noted.
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Sec~on
Purpose in a journal paper
Cross-reference to relevant part of this book
Title
To adequately describe the contents of your document in the fewest possible words.
See 'Title', page 16, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. In particular: 'A journal paper title' page 16
Running title (if needed)
The short title required by journals for the tops of the pages. Running titles can use abbreviations.
See 'Running title', page 18, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Author(s) and Affiliation(s)
To show the people who did the work presented in the paper, the institutions where it was done and, if necessary, the present addresses of the authors.
See 'Authorship and Affiliation', page 21, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Abstract
To give the reader a brief overview of all of the key information in the paperobjective, methods, results, conclusions.
See Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/ Executive Summary, page 64, in particular: 'A journal paper abstract', page 69
Keywords
This is a short list of words relevant to your work that will be used by electronic indexing and abstracting services.
See 'Keywords', page 23, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Introduction
9 To clearly state the purpose of the study. 9 To allow readers to understand the background to the study, without needing to consult the literature themselves. 9 To indicate the authors who have worked or are working in this area, and to describe their chief contributions. 9 To indicate correlations, contradictions and gaps in the knowledge, and to outline the approach you will take with respect to them. 9 To provide a context for the later discussion of the results.
See 'Introduction', Page 28 Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Materials and Methods/Procedure
To describe your experimental procedures. Aim: repeatability by another competent worker.
See 'Materials and Methods', page 39. Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Results
To present your results, but not to discuss them.
See 'Results', page 41, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
Discussion
To show the relationships among the observed facts that you have presented in your paper, and to draw conclusions.
See 'Discussion', page 45, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
A JOURNAL PAPER
I01
Section
Purpose in a journal paper
Cross-reference to relevant part of this book
Sometimes: Conclusions
To give an overview of the conclusions that you have already drawn previously in the paper.
See 'Conclusions', page 48, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Recommendations
To propose a series of recommendations for action.
See 'Recommendations', page 50, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Acknowledgements
To thank the people who have given you help in your work and in the preparation of your paper.
See 'Acknowledgements' page 23, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
List of References
A list of the works that you have cited in the text. Strong conventions govern this process.
For full details of the conventions for ( 1) citing references in the text and (2) compiling the List of References, see Chapter 14: Referencing, page 167.
Illustrations (figures and tables)
For general guidelines, see 'Illustrations', page 54, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. In particular: 'Designing figures for a journal paper' (page 56) and 'Designing tables for a journal paper' (page 62).
The process of publishing a paper: what is involved Choosing a journal We'll assume that your supervisor will have suggested an appropriate journal. If not, you will need to consider factors such as:
9 The level of prestige of the journal. Those of greater prestige will have a higher standard and a greater rejection rate than those lower on the scale. But acceptance will increase your professional standing. 9 The lead time to publication. Some journals have extensive delays before publishing. This can be due to a slow refereeing process, editorial delays,
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: DqPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
and the difficulties of production schedules. You can find this out by asking other people who have published in it, or contacting the editor. 9 Whether the journal has page charges. Some journals publish papers with no charge to the author. Others have quite a high rate per page, which can mean a substantial cost. 9 Costs of reprints. Some journals supply a given number of reprints free; others charge for them. You will need to decide how important reprints are to you. In many cases, photocopies may be good enough to distribute to other people. But if your paper contains material that does not photocopy well, reprints may be preferable.
Submitting the manuscript Usually needed are the stated number of copies of the typed manuscript and a letter of transmittal.
Style and formatting of the manuscript Journals have reasonably straightforward instructions to authors. In some journals, they are available in each issue under headings such as Instructions to Authors or Information for Contributors. In some cases, the journal asks you to request a booklet from the editorial office. For many journals Instructions to Authors are available on the Internet. Typical information in the Instructions to Authors includes: 9 The format in which the manuscript must be typed (size of font, margins, heading style etc.). 9 The style of the graphs, tables and line drawings. 9 The style and size of photographs. 9 The number of copies required. 9 Mailing instructions. You can also contact the editor and ask about: 9 The lead time to publication. 9 Any special issues that may delay your paper. 9 Any specific criteria for acceptance.
Formatting the manuscript 9 Follow the Instructions to Authors immaculately, even if you don't like the result. 9 Look at the most recent issue of the journal and note the formatting of the individual papers in it.
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103
9 Formatting instructions for most journals usually include the following: - Use double spaced typing and generous margins. - Type on one side of the page only. - Number each page, including the figures and tables. - Illustrations are usually submitted separate from the text, with each type (tables, graphs, line drawings, photographs) being kept separate. - Photographs should be glossy, sharp and of good contrast. Identify each photograph on the back, and, if necessary, indicate which edge is the top. 9 For formatting equations, see 'Formatting equations', page 192, Chapter 15: Editorial Conventions. 9 Proofread it carefully (see 'Proofreading', page 205, Chapter 16: Revising and Proofreading: strategies)
The letter of transmittal See 'Letter of Transmittal', page 130, Chapter 10: A Formal Letter. This is an accompanying letter sent together with the paper to the editor of the journal. 9 It needs to be very simple, stating only that you would be grateful if the enclosed paper could be considered for publication in the journal. 9 Address it to the editor. The most recent issue of the journal will give the name and address.
Posting the manuscript 9 Hard copies together with the file on diskette. The Instructions to Authors will tell you the exact number of copies of the manuscript needed and the format for the file on diskette. Usually at least three hard copies are needed for reviewing purposes. 9 Protection in the post. Because the number of copies will make it a bulky package, you need to make sure that the postal system will not damage it. Consider using padded envelopes for manuscripts (they can burst out of simple envelopes). In addition, backing cardboard should be used for manuscripts with photographs. 9 Send it by the most rapid system of mail. 9 If you have not had an acknowledgement in two weeks, follow up with a phone call or a second letter.
What happens next This depends on the type of journal. In general, the following happens: 1 The editor sends the manuscript to the referees. 2 The referees may take a long time to review it.
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3 They will then send their comments back to the editor, together with their recommendations about publication. Each referee may recommend any one of the following: 9 That the manuscript is published with no alterations needed. This is rare. Most referees recommend some sort of amendment to the manuscript. 9 That the manuscript is published subject to the referees' recommended alterations being made. These alterations can vary from small amendments of style to major changes of structure and/or content. 9 That, if the changes needed are major, the manuscript will be once again refereed before a final decision. If the required amendments are only minor, it may be necessary only for the editor to check to see that they have been made. 9 That the manuscript is not suitable for publication. On the basis of all the referees' decisions, the editor then chooses from the following possibilities: 1 whether to accept your manuscript for publication subject to amendment, or 2 to subject it to a further refereeing process after major alteration, or 3 to decline it. You will be told the decision in the editor's letter, and also be given copies of each of the referees' comments. The identity of the referees may not be known to you. Alternatively, the editor may send only a summary of the referees' comments.
How to deal with referees' comments and amend your paper 1 General advice: All of the comments should be read with great care. Most referees' evaluations are usually helpful, and you can take advantage of a fresh viewpoint on both your writing and your work. The final version of the paper can be considerably strengthened by using the comments of a good referee. 2 How to deal with comments that you don't agree with: If the suggested changes seem unnecessary or, with good reason, unacceptable to you, then the editor can be given a reasoned argument as to why you believe that a particular change need not be made. There are several things you need to address when evaluating a comment from a referee. (a) Does the fault lie with you or them? Some referees' comments can show that they have misunderstood or misinterpreted your material. You then have to establish whether this is (1) because you haven't explained it well enough or (2) the referee doesn't know what he/
A JOURNAL PAPER
10_5
she is talking about. It is easy in the heat of the moment to assume the latter, but it needs careful reflection. (b) Is the referee possibly not an expert in the field? The referees may not be the ultimate authorities on your topic. This may be no fault of the editor; it is extremely difficult to find the right referees for each of the hundreds of manuscripts that an editor has to deal with each year. (c) Is there a political reason for the comments? Rivalry between research groups and institutions may cause biased refereeing. Your supervisor should be able to advise you on this. (d) Are the remarks trivial? In a few cases you may have just cause to feel peeved. Some referees, if they are unable to make substantial comments, feel the need to justify their appointment by pointing out minor errors such as, for example, in the wording. Such comments can often reflect personal quirks, and may not make for a valid comment. (e) Are the comments dull, mechanical or generalized? A comment such as 'Poorly organized' with no suggestions as to how it could be improved is a comment of no use. A referee who is not lazy will make comments that are specific and show a real interest in your topic. (f) Are all of a referee's comments negative? This either means that your paper has no worth at all, or that he/she is prejudiced, or trying to impress the editor. Whatever your conclusions about the referees in terms of these questions, you cannot use words such as lazy, trivial, useless etc. in your rebuttal. If you decide not to abide by a referee's suggested amendment, you need to send the editor a calm, well-reasoned and well-written defence that avoids perjorative terms. Your arguments should be contained in the formal covering letter when you resubmit your amended manuscript to the editor. The editor will take note of your argument. If your facts are correct and your reasoning sound, he or she will be able to use your argument as justification for reversing a negative decision. 3 If the reports from two assigned referees are contradictory you can ask the editor for a third referee.
Resubmission of the manuscript in its amended version 9 Send the required numbers of copies of your amended script to the editor. 9 The file on disk is usually also needed. 9 Your covering letter should indicate whether you have incorporated the referees' suggestions, and also give your reasoned arguments if you have rejected any.
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if your paper has been rejected Give it a good hard look, alter it as you think necessary, and submit it to another journal.
If your paper is accepted The next stage is to receive the typeset version to proofread. This needs to be done meticulously and, to correct it, you will need to use standard proofreading symbols. See 'Proofreading', page 205, in Chapter 16: Revising and Proofreading. Alternatively, the editorial staff on the journal may do the final proofreading.
Checklist for a Journal Paper Use the checklists for the various sections of a journal paper. See the individual sections in Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Chapter 7
Progress reports This chapter covers: 9 Reports to an outside organization or funding body, to show the progress of your research, in relation to your original research proposal. See also Chapter 5: A Research Proposal. 9 Progress reports of a project team. 9 Checklists.
R progress report to the funding body or organization Purpose To a grant-giuing body To give a description in academic terms of your progress.
To a commercial organization 1. To show to the organization that their money is being well spent, and they will eventually reap benefit from your work (see point 1, 'How to write it'). 2. To give them a report that they can understand in their own terms. (Remember there may be no expert in your field on the staff (see point 2, 'How to write it').) 3. That your work is progressing along the lines of your original proposal. See also Chapter 5: Research Proposal. 4. That your results are valid and non-trivial. 5 Possibly that your work is opening up into other directions that will be of
benefit to the organization.
How to write it A grant-giving body usually has guidelines for progress reports. Follow these, using the principles given in this chapter.
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A commercial organization: two points need to be kept in mind: 1 The organization or company is specifically interested in how your results are going to benefit them. Rather than the academic implications of your work, the company will be more interested in how your results will contribute to its competitiveness and profitability. This may not be the case for some large companies, which may be wealthy enough to be able to fund 'blue-skies' research, knowing that in the long term the academic information will contribute to their wealth. However, many companies have to concentrate on their immediate or mid-term business plan. Moreover, if your work is suddenly opening up into an academically interesting and unexpected direction, they may be less enthusiastic than you about pursuing it. 2 Your report may need to be understood by people with no expertise in your particular field. There may be no-one who is familiar with the basic knowledge and terminology of your subject. Even in companies that have the expertise, your report may be passed on to people such as financial personnel. Your report should therefore: 9 Be written so that the organization can clearly see the benefits to the company's activities. 9 Show that you have carried out the work as originally proposed. 9 Be written in language that does not need expert knowledge to be understood. 9 Use a Glossary of Terms to clearly explain terminology that may not be familiar to the organization. 9 Clearly state your proposals for the next stage of the work.
Possible structure If you are directing the report to company personnel who are predominantly research based, it may be appropriate to use the classic AIMRAD structure (Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion). If not, the following structure or variations of it may be appropriate.
PROGRESS REPORTS
109
Section
Cross-reference to relevant part of this book
Title Page This may need to contain the following features:
'Title' and 'Title Page' page 16, 19, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
9 Title of the project. 9 The number of the report in the series that you are preparing (e.g. Report number 2). 9 Date. 9 Suggested wording:
Completed for (name of company) to fulfil the requirements stipulated in the (name of the contracting organization) contract, (date). 9 Your name, department, institution, contact phone and fax numbers, email address
Executive Summary A summary of no more than one page of your main results and main recommendations. Keep in mind the two points in 'How to write it', above.
Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary, page 75.
Table of Contents
'Table of Contents' page 24, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations, page 27, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Terms explained so that a non-expert in the field can understand them.
Recommendations
'Recommendations' page 50, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Techniques
'Materials and Methods' page 39, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Your techniques may have developed or altered from the ones you originally projected. They need to be described clearly, but not necessarily in the detail required for a journal paper. If your procedures have remained the same, you still need to describe them briefly with reference back to the previous reports.
Sections appropriate to the topic, describing the results
Conclusions A description of your conclusions from the work to date.
Updated project plan and expected time frame for the remaining activities A clear description of the expected remaining stages of your research. If appropriate, show how your plan has developed and possibly altered from your original, projected plan. State your expected time schedule of: 9 the various future tasks (preferably with a Gannt chart) 9 the schedule of future reports that you will write for the organization. If appropriate:
Requirements for the next stage A statement of what you expect to need from your funding organization for the next stage of research.
'Conclusions' page 48, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. Schedule of Tasks/Time Management page 35, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
'Requirements' page 38, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
References or Bibliography
Chapter 15: Referencing
Appendices
'Appendices' page 52, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
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Intermediate progress reports should briefly refer back to previous reports. The final report should: 9 tie up all the work into a logical story 9 concentrate particularly on the overall results, conclusions and recommendations 9 if appropriate, give guidelines about how the work could be further developed (see 'Suggestions for Future Research' page 51, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Checklist for a progress report to a commercial organization Does your report: clearly show how your work will benefit the company's activities? F-1 use language that can be understood by a non-expert in your immediate field? explain terminology that may not be familiar to the company's personnel? F-1 clearly show the direction your research is taking? I-1 refer back to your previous progress reports? D explain your progress since your previous report? CI describe any procedure that you have used and was not projected in previous reports? D show the expected time frame for future activities? C] In the final report: [] tie up all your work into a logical story? [] clearly describe your recommendations? [] show how the work could be further developed?
A project team's progress reports Purpose To report at intervals on the progress of a management project undertaken by several individuals.
Possible structures for a series of progress reports 1. Initial report at the start of the activity This is likely to be similar to a project proposal, in which you describe how you will approach the task. As with any plan, it will involve intelligent and informed guesswork. Use the principles given in Chapter 5: A Research Proposal.
PROGRESS REPORTS
III
You will probably need the following elements: Cross-reference to relevant part of this book
1 Executive Summary
Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/ Executive Summary, page 75.
2 Objectives
'Objectives' page 32, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
3 Initial analysis of the problem
'Problem statement' page 34, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
4 A preliminary literature survey
Chapter 4: A Literature Review, pages 78-91.
5 A clear statement of how you propose to tackle the first stages of the project, together with a brief description of the methods you will use.
'Materials and Methods' page 39, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
6 If needed, Schedule of Tasks.
'Schedule of Tasks/Time Management' page 35, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
7 Allocation of responsibilities A description of the roles of the various individuals in the team.
'Allocation of responsibilities' page 37, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
2 Intermediate reports For intermediate progress reports, use the principles given in this chapter for 'A progress report to the funding body or organization', page 107. 3 The final report Again, use the principles given above for A progress report to the funding body or organization, page 107, and also take the following into consideration:
9 This report will probably need to be longer than the preceding reports. 9 It will need to tie up the whole body of work into a logical story. 9 It should concentrate on the results, conclusions and recommendations. 9 If required, a description and possibly a peer review of the tasks undertaken by the various individuals. 9 If appropriate, a description of how the work you have done could be further developed in the future.
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Checklist for a project team's progress reports Does your first report: V1 give your team's objectives? I--1 give an initial analysis of the problem? I-1 give a brief preliminary survey of the literature? I-1 describe the various tasks you foresee? Vl describe the techniques you will use? I-1 give a schedule and time frame for the various tasks? I-1 describe the roles of the various individuals? Do your intermediate reports: I-7 clearly show the direction your work is taking? F-1 describe your progress since your previous report, with brief reference to those reports? I-1 describe any method or technique that you have used and was not projected in previous reports? C] give your conclusions from the work so far? F-1 show the expected time frame for future activities? Does your final report: V1 tie up the whole body of work into a logical story? 7-1 concentrate on results, conclusions and recommendations? I--1 if required give a description of the tasks and peer review of the various individuals in the team? V1 if appropriate show how the work can be developed further?
Chapter 8
Consulting or Management report and Recommendation
report This chapter covers types of reports that might be written as though they were to be directed to the management personnel of an outside organization: 9 A consulting or management report. 9 A recommendation report. See also 'A project team's progress reports' page 110, Chapter 7" Progress Reports
A consulting/management report Purpose To write a report as though you have been doing consulting work for the management personnel of another organization.
IMPORTANT. This report should be written so that someone with no technological or scientific knowledge can understand the overview, meaning and implications of it.
A management report is likely to be read by non-experts. When writing this report, imagine that the academic staff member who will assess it is a senior manager in a commercial organization. The staff member will, of course, read the whole report and has the background to understand the science or technology behind it. But, in imagining this organization where your report is going, the following points need to be remembered: 1. Senior management may not read a whole report. They rely heavily on the Executive Summary, Recommendations and Conclusions to give
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
them an overview of the substance of the report. A longer report may also need section summaries. They will expect to understand from these: 9 What your work means. 9 How it will benefit the company's activities. # Any further work that needs to be done. 9 Possibly, what it will cost. See: 9 'Executive Summary' page 75, Chapter 3: Abstract~Summary~Executive Summary, and 9 'Recommendations', page 50, and 'Conclusions', page 48, in Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. 2. Senior management of an organization may not be technically or scientifically qualified. They may be accountants or lawyers etc. Moreover, your report may be passed onto other people whom you didn't expect to read it. It may, for instance, be read by financial or local government personnel. This means that: 9 Your report should be able to be understood by non-experts- at least in overview, meaning and implications. 9 It also needs to be written so that everyone can extract from it what they need, without having to read the whole document. 9 Even if they read the whole document, readers will need a pathway to help them navigate through it. The Executive Summary, Recommendations, Conclusions and section summaries are crucial parts of this. See 'The importance of overview information: building a navigational pathway through the document', page 8, Chapter 1: The General Structure of a Document
Possible structure of a
management report
Sec6on
Cross-reference to relevant part of this book
Title Page
See 'Title' and 'Title Page' page 16, 19, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Letter of Transmittal (cover letter), if needed
See 'Letter of Transmittal' page 130, Chapter 10: Formal Letters.
Executive Summary
See Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary, page 75.
Recommendations
See 'Recommendations' page 50, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Table of Contents
See 'Table of Contents' page 24, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
List of Figures
See 'List of Figures' page 26, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
List of Tables
See 'List of Tables' page 26, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
CONSULTING OR MANAGEMENT REPORTAND RECOMMENDATION REPORT
Sec~on
Cross-reference to relevant part of this book
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations
See 'Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations', page 27, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Acknowledgements
See 'Acknowledgements' page 23, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter
II 5
The following four sections may be required in a consulting report: Purpose Statement
See 'Purpose Statement' page 33, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Scope (or Scoping) Statement
See 'Scope Statement' page 34, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Procedure Statement
See 'Procedure Statement', page 34, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Problem Statement
See 'Problem Statement' page 34, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Background or Introduction or both
See 'Background' page 32, and 'Introduction' page 28, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
The body of the report: (structured under a series of headings appropriate to your topic) Conclusions (if not placed at the beginning) or Conclusions and Recommendations
See 'Conclusions' page 48 and 'Recommendations', page 50, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
References (if needed)
See Chapter 14: Referencing, page 167.
Appendices
See 'Appendices' page 52, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Checklist for a consulting/management report 1-71 Is it written in a style that enables a reader with no specialist knowledge in this area to understand it? I-1 Does it contain a navigational pathway for the reader made up of overview information throughout your document: an Executive Summary, Recommendations and Conclusions, and in a long report, section summaries? These are vital sections to aid a non-specialist's understanding. V1 Will the reader understand how your work will benefit the company? El Do you state what needs to be done next?
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& r e c o m m e n d a t i o n report Purpose To make a recommendation or a series of recommendations, supported by a reasoned argument, together with appropriate background material, facts and data.
How to write it 9 A recommendation report is focused towards the future: it should show the ability to objectively assess a set of conditions, and to recommend actions to be taken. 9 Recommendations are your subjective opinions about the required course of action. But this doesn't mean you can go into wild flights of fancy. 9 No recommendation should come out of the blue: your report should contain adequate supporting information for each recommendation.
Possible structure of a recommendation report Sec~on
Cross-reference to relevant part of this book
Title Page
See 'Title' and 'Title Page' page 16, 19, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Executive Summary or Summary or Abstract Summarize the background material and your investigation.
See 'Abstract~Summary~Executive Summary', page 64, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Recommendations List your recommendations. Or instead, use a section called Conclusions and Recommendations and place it at the end of the report (see below).
See 'Recommendations' page 50, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Table of Contents
See 'Table of Contents' page 24, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
List of Illustrations (if needed)
See 'List of Illustrations', Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
The following four sections may be effective in a recommendation report, either before the Introduction/Background or as sections of it:
Purpose Statement
See 'Purpose statement' page 33, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Scope (or Scoping) Statement
See 'Scope Statement' page 34, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Procedure Statement
See 'Procedure Statement' page 34, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
CONSULTING OR MANAGEMENT REPORTAND RECOMMENDATION REPORT
Secuon
Cross-reference to relevant part of this book
Problem Statement
See 'Problem Statement' page 34, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Introduction or Background
See 'Introduction' page 28, and 'Background' page 32, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
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Subheadings appropriate to the topic, and covering the methods and results.
Conclusions Note: You may be required to write a section called Conclusions and Recommendations. In this case, place it here at the end of the report and omit the Recommendations section after the Abstract.
See 'Conclusions', page 48, and 'Recommendations' page 50, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
List of References
See Chapter 14: Referencing, page 167
Appendices
See 'Appendices' page 52, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Checklist for a Recommendation report El Are your recommendations clearly stated? V1 Are your reasons for making these recommendations clearly stated and supported by reasoned argument?
Chapter 9
Engineering design report This chapter covers: 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
The purpose of an engineering design report. Its readership. The general characteristics of design documentation. The Summary. Development of a model. Design calculations. Checklist.
Purpose of a design report Design reports are used to communicate your solution of a design problem, usually to your boss or a colleague.
Readership The report should be written for another person of equal or greater competence than yourself.
General characteristics of design documentation 1 The report should be self-contained, except for references to other specific documents {contracts, drawings, textbooks, standards etc.). 2 Your report must contain all the information needed for someone to check how you arrived at your recommended solution. While carrying out your design you will have used analysis to demonstrate that your design will actually solve the problem. This needs to be clearly set out in your documentation.
The workbook The workbook is maintained throughout the process of designing your solution. All of your analysis will therefore be documented in your workbook as well as in your final report.
ENGINEERING DESIGN REPORT
II 9
Suggested structure of design documentation 1 Summary. 2 Development of a Model. 3 Design Calculations.
The Summary Purpose of this section The Summary should state precisely what the report is about, and answer the following questions. To make sure you don't solve the wrong problem, write up the first two before you start the design. 1 What problem does the report address? 9 If the problem was defined in writing (assignment, tender or contract document), just refer to this briefly and accurately rather than restate the whole problem. Your reader will already know what you were supposed to be doing. 2 What criteria were set for deciding on an adequate solution? 9 You can only make a sensible design recommendation if you understand the criteria that are to be used in judging the success of your design, and obviously you must know this before you start designing. Again, if these were defined in writing just refer to the original document. 9 Sometimes there are other constraints such as national standards that must be met. These should also be stated. 9 If the criteria were incomplete or contradictory, for example between the cost and durability of a new product, you need to decide the relative importance of the criteria to be used in making your decision. You need to explain this in a subsequent section. 3 How did you model the problem? Outline very briefly the factors influencing how you went about your design: 9 The analysis that was needed. 9 How many different options were considered. 9 The main factors influencing the design. Note If you are designing something that is routine, this section would be very short. 4 What did you conclude? State the following simply: 9 What you concluded. Refer to drawings or other details of your recommended solution. 9 If you considered various options, summarize why you chose your particular solution.
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Development of a model Purpose of this section The first step in an engineering design is to be able to conceptualize the problem in a way that allows standard methods of analysis to be used. This section should explain how you went about this.
The form of this section You should use diagrams and equations as needed, but tie them into a logical presentation using text. Again, for a routine design this section need not be very long. This section would typically answer the following questions: 1 What assumptions were needed? 9 Every analysis of a real system has some assumptions built into it, because the physical world does not behave in the way that engineers need to assume. 9 Often these assumptions are taken for granted. 9 But sometimes you need to make unproven assumptions in order to simplify the problem enough to be able to model it for analysis. This is quite acceptable, provided that you state what the assumptions are and that you check them later. 9 Your assumptions should therefore be stated clearly at the start of this section. 2 How was the problem modelled? 9 You should now be able to represent the object or system by a simple conceptual model that is capable of being analysed. Use a diagram (stick, block, circuit, flow etc.) to show this and discuss it if needed. 3 What analysis was used? 9 State the laws that you have applied. You should state the relevant physical or other laws that you have needed to apply. State them by name; you don't need to write them out or include any proofs. 9 These laws will probably result in equations. These should be written out in full, using well-defined variables (include a named list or label to your conceptual sketch). 9 Simply state the method of analysis you used and make a reference to it. Nearly always, the method of analysis used is quite standard and can be found in textbooks. 9 If the analysis is repetitive (because the solution has many components of the same type), you need document all this only once.
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Design calculations Purpose of this section This is the part which proves that your design will work as it should, and will consist mostly of small sketches and steps in solving equations.
Form of this section Use subheadings to make it clear what each section is about, and underline the important results. 9 Add numbers to your design and then show by using the conceptual modelling that the design will function as it should - that is, that it will meet the design criteria stated at the beginning. 9 The numbers needed are those that would enable someone to actually make your design. Include details of all components (material and dimensions of parts, electrical components etc.) plus all the physical properties you have used (strengths, elastic modulus, density, specific heats etc.). 9 Your design report should contain only your final recommended solution. In your workbooks you may have needed to guess some of the numbers in order to carry out the analysis. If it subsequently turned out that your design did not meet the criteria for success, then you would have changed the guesses and tried again. You may also have tried out several quite different design options before finding one that worked. No matter how long they took you, the details of the designs that did not work are irrelevant. If they should be needed later, they can all be found in your workbook. 9 Where you looked at several very different design solutions, you may want to include detailed results from the best of each to justify your final choice. 9 For repetitive designs you may want to use a spreadsheet. In that case document one example calculation right through as above, and just show the results of the remaining components on a table (which must include enough of the intermediate results that it can be checked easily).
Checklist for a design report I--1 Is it written for another person of equal or greater competence than yourself? I-1 Is the report self-contained (except for references to such documents as standards, textbooks, contracts etc.) ? I-1 Is all your analysis also contained in your workbook? Does it state the design problem? I-1 Does it describe the design criteria?
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[E] Does it describe how you modelled the problem so that standard methods of analysis could be used? I-1 Does it state the assumptions you made? I-1 Do you tie up diagrams and equations with explanatory text into a logical presentation? V1 Does it state the laws you applied and the method of analysis you used? V] Do you show that your design meets the design criteria? I-1 Would the numbers on your design enable someone to make it? !-1 Does it state your conclusions? V1 Do you present only your final recommended solution? [~ If you considered various design options, does it state why you chose your particular solution?
Chapter I 0
A formal letter This chapter covers: 9 9 9 9 9
The parts of a formal letter. Overall layout. Structure of the information. Style for letter writing. Various types of letters: covering letter letter of transmittal letter of application 9 Checklists. -
-
-
The components of a formal letter need to be arranged in a particular sequence, as dictated by the conventions of formal letter writing.
The parts of a formal letter All left justified, except for the subject heading. 1 Your address or institution's address (or letterhead) 2-line space 2 The date 2-line space 3 Name and address of the person you are writing to 3-line space 4 The greeting (salutation) 2-line space 5 The subject heading 2-line space 6 The body of the letter 2-line space 7 The closing Leave a 6~8-line space for your signature 8 Your written signature with your typed name and position below it 2-line space 9 The letters 'Enc'. if you are enclosing additional documentation with the letter
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1 Sender's address
2-line space 2 Date
2-line space 3 Address of the person you are sending it to
3-line space 4 The greeting
2-line space 5 Subject heading
2-line space
6 Body of the letter
2-line space 7 The closing
618-line space 8 Your signature. Below it, your typed name and position
2-line space 9 'Enc'. (if you are enclosing something)
Figure 10.1
Parts of a formal letter
A FORMAL LETTER
12.5
1 Your address or institution's address (or letterhead). 9 Left justified. (Note: The conventions of a few years ago dictated that it should be right justified. This is now regarded as old fashioned.) 9 If you are using letterhead paper, an address isn't needed. 9 It is now no longer the convention to put a comma at the end of each line. 2 The date. Use the format: Day (in figures) Month (written out) Year (in figures). No commas.
Correct: 8 October 2001 Incorrect: 8/10/01 (different countries use different formats when using only figures; it can cause confusion.); 8th October 2001 (is going out of fashion); October 8, 2001 3 Name and mailing address of the person you are writing to. 9 Left justified. 9 Commas not needed at the end of each line. 4 The greeting (salutation). According to the tone of the letter, choose from:
Dear Sir or Dear Madam (used in formal situations, either when you don't know the family name of the person, or when it would b e inappropriate to use it).
Dear Sir~Madam (used in formal situations when you don't know the family name or the gender of the person you are writing to).
Dear Mr surname; Dear Mrs surname; Dear Ms surname (used when the marital status of the woman is not known or has not been specified);
Dear Dr surname; or Dear Prof surname. Dear (first name) used when you are on familiar terms with the person you are writing to, but still need to use a formal letter format. 5 The subject heading (title). 9 A concise title, two lines below the greeting, centred, boldfaced for emphasis. It should give the reader instant access to the main point of the letter. 9 Don't use Re: before the title. It's meaningless and old fashioned. 9 Don't underline - this is old fashioned. Use boldfacing. 6 The body of the letter (see below: 'Structure of the information', page 128). 7 The closing. 9 Classical letter-writing conventions dictate the following: If you have used Dear Sir, Dear Madam, Dear Sir~Madam: You must use Yours faithfully as the closing. If you have the surname in the salutation: You must use Yours sincerely.
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9 This rigid convention has now been considerably relaxed. Many companies now favour Yours sincerely whatever the initial salutation. If the letter is not strictly formal, the tone of the letter can be softened by using Regards or Kind regards or Best wishes, either before the closing or alone. 8 Your written signature. Below it, your typed name and position. 9 After the closing leave about eight blank lines for your written signature. 9 Then (left-justified) your name. Use your full first name and surname (e.g. Joe Bloggs), not initials and surname (not J. E Bloggs). This conveys to the reader your gender- making you easier to c o n t a c t - and the sense of a real person behind the letter. 9 On a new line, your position. 9 The letters Encl. if you are enclosing additional documentation with the letter.
Checklist for the parts of the letter I-1 All left justified, except for the subject heading V1 Date format: 8 October 2001. I-1 Name and address of person you are writing to: Left justified: no commas at end of each line. I-1 The salutation:
Dear Sir, Dear Madam, Dear Sir~Madam: Dear M r . . . / M r s . . . / M s . . . / D r
.../prof... I-1 Subject heading: Describes the main point of the letter. Centred, boldfaced. P-1 The closing: Yours sincerely or Yours faithfully Your signature Your typed name: including your first name (not just your initials and surname) Your position I-1 Enc. (if you are enclosing something).
Overall layout 9 Choose a simple serif (e.g. Times Roman) or sans serif (e.g. Arial) font. Elaborate fonts are more difficult to read and give the wrong impression. 9 10 or 12 point font. 9 In the text of the letter: single line spacing, one blank line between paragraphs. 9 Ample margins.
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9 If the letter is short, adjust the various spacings so that it isn't squashed
into the top part of the page. 9 The last page shouldn't contain just the signature. If necessary, reduce the font size. 9 All the elements should make a pleasing arrangement on the page (Figure 10.2).
Composites Laboratory School of Engineering University of Middletown PO Box 123 Middletown 8 October 2001 Dr Lesley Green Director, Research and Development Composites Construction Ltd Middletown. Dear Dr Green, Research Seminar to the Board of Directors , _ _ _ _ . . _ . _ - - . - - . . . - . . . . . . . - . . - . .
....
. - - . . . - - . . . - - ]
! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! !
'I
B o d y o f the l e # e r
! I I I I I I
'! I I I I I ! I
~m~mmmm~mm~mmmmmmmmmmmmm~mmmmmmmm~ummm~mmmmmmmmmJ
Yours sincerely,
Pat Black (Dr) Isaac Newton Research Fellow, Composites Development
Figure 10.2
Sample letter
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Checklist: overall layout [2 [3 [3 D
Simple font, 10 or 12 point. Single line spacing. One blank line between paragraphs. Pleasing arrangement on the page.
Structure of the information Main point at the beginning: supporting information after the main point.
9 First paragraph: if appropriate, a courteous acknowledgement of letter/ phone call etc. 9 Second paragraph: the main point. - This is very important. It applies to all letters, including those conveying bad news. - D o n ' t build up to the main point. Main point at the beginning: supporting information below. (As a rule of thumb: this is not a detective story. Don't lead up to the disclosure at the end; start with it.) 9 Last paragraph: don't finish abruptly. Courteous final paragraph needed, e.g. 'I am looking forward to your response'.
Checklist: structure of the information If appropriate, does the first paragraph courteously acknowledge their letter/phone call? r--1 Is the main point at the beginning of the letter? D Does the supporting information come after the main point, and not lead up to it? [2 Have you avoided finishing abruptly? [--1 Does your final paragraph make a courteous finish?
Style of writing Write as you would speak in comfortable, serious conversation.
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1 Use plain language. Write to inform, not to impress. 2 Make the letter sound personal. 3 Put yourself in the reader's mind, and work out how he/she would react to your language. 4 Avoid the old-fashioned, stuffy phrases associated with classic formal letter writing. 5 Make sure the spelling and grammar are correct.
1 Use plain language" write as you would speak in comfortable, serious conversation. Imagine that you are across the table from the person to whom you are writing, or on the telephone. Write in the way you would speak in these situations, but without colloquialisms or contractions (don't, wouldn't etc. - S e e 'Contractions', page 210, Chapter 17: Problems of Style). 2 Put yourself in the reader's mind, and work out how he~she would react to your language. It is possible to innocently write something that could be interpreted quite differently by the reader. For this reason, stand away from your personal involvement in what you have written, and try to interpret it in the way the reader may see it. It's not easy, but it's absolutely necessary. 3 Avoid the old-fashioned, stuffy phrases associated with classic formal letter writing. Express the idea in plain English. Do not use phrases such as:
Use these instead:
As per Attached hereto or herewith
In accordance with I am or We are attaching or Attached i s . . . I am or We are enclosing or Enclosed i s . . . Following your request... Thank you for your letter We are pleased or I am pleased to tell you that/let you know that... This letter is to let you know that... Please contact me
Enclosed hereto or herewith Pursuant to your request We are in receipt of your letter We are pleased to advise or I am pleased to advise You are hereby advised Please contact the writer
4 Make sure the spelling and grammar are correct: 9 Spell check at the very end of writing. 9 But proofread it thoroughly afterwards once again. The spell-checker can pass words that you did not mean (e.g. as instead of at, hit instead of him etc. - see Chapter 17: Problems of Style). 9 If you know your grammar may be faulty, give it to someone to check.
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Checklist: style of writing I--1 Have you used plain language? El Is your letter easy to understand for someone without your level of knowledge? l-1 Have you made the letter sound personal? V1 Have you checked it to see if your phrasing could be misinterpreted? V1 Have you avoided using the classic, stuffy letter-writing phrases? UI Have you spell-checked the absolutely final version? 1-1 Are you sure that it is grammatically correct?
Types of formal letter Letters that accompany a document
1 A covering letter is any letter that is sent together with any document. The purpose of a covering letter: (a) To provide the recipient with a specific context within which to place the document. (b) To give the sender a permanent record of having sent the material. (c) To show willingness to provide further information.
2 A letter of transmittal accompanies formal documents such as reports or proposals. The purpose of a letter of transmittal is to achieve one or more of the following:
(a) To identify the report topic, and scope or extent of the study. (b) To give an overview outlining the main aspects of the primary document.
(c) To identify the person who authorized the report, and the date of authorization.
(d) To call for a decision or other follow-up action. (e) To emphasize any particular points you may want to make. (f) To show willingness to provide further information. The structure of a letter of transmittal should be brief: (a) First paragraph: describe what is being sent and the purpose of sending it. (b) Middle section: a longer letter may summarize key elements of the proposal, and provide other useful information. (c) Final paragraph: establish goodwill by thanking the recipient and showing willingness to provide further information.
A FORMAL LETTER
131
Letters of application Purpose To convince a prospective employer that you are a worthwhile candidate for an advertised position. This type of letter accompanies your CV (r~sum~).
How to write it Since it is your first approach to your prospective employer, the letter should be polished and professional, free of mistakes, and well formatted. It should contain the following information: 1 In the first paragraph: state the specific position that you are applying for, with the job title and the vacancy number if there is one. State where the position was advertised. For example: I would like to apply for the position o f . . . (job title, reference number) advertised in . . . (source) on Thursday 8 October.
2 In the second paragraph: your qualifications and experience that are particularly relevant to the position. For example: I have a Masters degree in Resource Management (Upper Second Class Honours) from the School of Environmental Science, University of Middletown, specializing in water quality.
3 In the third paragraph (a fourth paragraph may also be needed): 9 Refer to your CV. 9 State why you are interested in the position and in the specific organization. This can include work experience and your aspirations. 9 State what you have to offer the organization. Relate your academic record and work experience to your knowledge of the activities of the organization, stating the relevant skills and abilities you believe you can bring. This requires some previous research into what the organization does. Human Resources personnel often state that they take as m u c h sometimes more - notice of the covering letter than of the CV; they look for evidence that the applicant has done some homework and thought about her or his skills in relation to the organization's activities. 4 In the final paragraph, ask for an interview and show your willingness to expand on the information contained in the CV and letter. Include information on your availability and where you can be contacted (preferably a phone number where messages can be left, an email address or a fax number). See Figure 10.3.
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I Youraddress I Date
I
Recipient's address
I
Dear Ms. White,
Vacancy No. AFI34: Environmental Planner, EnviroCorp Paragraph 1: Specific position/job title/vacancy number/source.
Paragraph 2: Qualification and experiencerelevantto the position. Show knowledge of the organization.
Paragraphs 3 and 4: Refer to CV. Your goal. Relate goal and qualifications to the organization.
I would like to apply for the position of Environmental Planner within the Environmental Planning Section of Peterson Associates Ltd (Vacancy Number AF/34), which was advertised in The Independent on Tuesday 14 March 2000. I have a PhD in Environmental Science from the University of Middletown; the thesis topic was 'Biofilm Development in a Subsurface Flow Wastewater Treatment Wetland.' I am very interested in developing my career as an environmental planner, in particular with an interdisciplinary team in an organization with an international reputation for water quality issues such as EnviroCorp. I found your recent work on the Wylie Stream intake particularly interesting because of the difficult nature of the associated water quality issues. As my enclosed CV shows, my PhD topic and activities over the last six years have been directed towards my goal of becoming an environmental planner. In addition to the experimental work, my PhD also required me to be very conversant with water quality legislation. This was also needed for the three-months project for the Farleigh Community Board, which resulted in a detailed written report and a presentation to three community groups. I expect to be able to bring my skills in data analysis and my understanding of legislative procedures to the position of environmental planner, and hope to expand them considerably. In addition to a good academic record, I also have wide-ranging interests and I enjoy working with people, particularly with community groups. My communication skills are well developed: I have made several presentations on water quality issues to community groups and also written several reports.
Last-but-one paragraph: Ask for interview. Information on your availability. Contact information.
I would very much like an opportunity to discuss my application more fully with you. I am available for interview at any time that is convenient for you. My telephone number is 012 453-6824; messages can also be left for me on 014 584-8834. I can also be reached by fax, number 014 473-8356, or by email:
[email protected] Final paragraph: courteous closing.
I very much look forward to hearing from you. Yours sincerely,
Jane Brown (Dr) Enc.
Figure 10.3
Example of a letter of application
A FORMAL LETTER
133
Quidelines on style Don't be too modest or hesitant. You need to sound enthusiastic and confident, striking a balance between that and sounding bumptious. Do not be afraid to use I, together with suitable verbs to describe your achievements. For example: I have developed..., I have initiated..., I
managed... Use clear, direct language. Don't try to impress with long sentences and big words.
Chapter II
Emails, faxes and memos This chapter covers the transmission of formal, professional material by: 9 Email.
9 Fax. 9 Memo (Note: Memos have now been mostly superseded by the email and fax systems, but are included here for those people who may still be required to write them.)
Emails, faxes and memos, together with letters (see chapter 10), form an important part of the essential paper-trail that accompanies work in scientific and technological fields. If this paper-trail is incomplete, the consequences can be far-reaching. This chapter gives guidelines for these types of communication.
Emails to communicate matters of work The email system as a means of communication has novel features, in particular the immediacy of both receiving and sending; this has caused some organizations to have policies of etiquette for its use. When using email to communicate matters of work, you need to take into account the following:
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Style of writing
1 Take as much care writing an email as you would in writing a letter. Be careful what you say and how you say it. 2 Don't use the pop conventions of the email culture. Lower case letters at the start of sentences, i instead of I, u instead of you, will make a poor impression. 3 For people you know, it may be appropriate to start the message with their name followed by a colon. 4 For someone you don't know or are on formal terms with, start with the conventional Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms/Dr/Prof. (see Chapter 10: A Formal Letter). Close with the corresponding closing. 5 Structure the content of your message in the same way as you would a letter. Don't do a brain dump.
Confidentiality
Assume that mail travelling via the Intemet is not confidential. Never put in a mail message something that you wouldn't want other people to read.
Permanence
Don't regard your files - sent or received - as in safe keeping. Networks are not fail-safe. Print out hard copies of anything important.
Commercial sensitivity
No commercially sensitive material should be sent by email.
Contractual material
Avoid using email for contractual material unless it is followed by hard copies.
Attachments
1 When sending or receiving attachments, scan them for viruses. 2 Check the size of file attachments before you send them. If they are large, zip the file first; this avoids transmission decoding problems. 3 Any files sent via email must have the permission of the author.
Unnecessary messages
Don't send unnecessary messages, particularly when forwarding material to large groups. The minor effort involved in doing it is far outweighed by the irritation it can cause.
Content of autosignature
Make sure your auto-signature contains your name, address of your institution, and telephone and fax numbers. You may also want to include such things as the URL of a personal website. If your system doesn't carry an auto-signature function, then make up a template and use that for each message.
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Faxes As with emails, take as much care as you would when writing a letter. 1 If possible, use a fax template for the cover document. This will lay out all the necessary material such as recipient's name, institution, fax number etc. 2 If you are faxing to someone you don't know or are on formal terms with: 9 If possible, do not hand write it. 9 Use the conventions for starting and finishing letters (see Chapter 10: Formal Letters page 123). 9 Structure the content of the fax as you would a letter. Don't do a brain dump.
Memos
Purpose 9 A memo (short for memorandum) is a very short document, usually up to a page long. In effect, it's an adaptation of a business letter, now being rapidly superseded by email for short messages that are less formal than a letter. 9 In the context of graduate work, the types of memos that you are most likely to write are: - information memos - recommendation memos
How to w r i t e it The memo heading 9 The distinctive element of a memo is the formatting of the preliminaries. They are quite different from those of a letter. 9 A memo is headed by the word M E M O R A N D U M and followed by the sideheadings: To: c: From: Date: Then either the side-heading Subject: or (in a longer memo) a centred title. The use of these headings is shown in the following sample structures
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A very short memo (about half a page) MEMORANDUM To: c"
From: Date: Subject:
(Name and title of the person to whom you are writing) (Names and titles of other people to be sent copies of your memo (if required)) (Your name) (In the style 8 October 2001, not 8/10/01) A clear, informative title, containing the main message of your memo.
In separate paragraphs: Purpose of the memo Your conclusion(s) or main point Facts/data to support the conclusion(s)
All headings justified to the left-hand margin.
See Title, page 16 Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Note that the supporting data are placed after the conclusion(s) or main point. Don't lead up to them and place them at the end. See 'Structure of the information' page 128, Chapter 10: A Formal Letter.
Recommendation (if necessary) Note. NO salutation or closing, i.e don't use Yours sincerely/faithfully.
Compare 'The Parts of a formal letter' page 123, Chapter 10: A Formal Letter.
Your signature
Figure 11.1
A very short memo (layout)
A longer memo (about one page long) 9 Begin with a short summary. Even though it is a very short document, your readers will appreciate having a very brief summary. This will orient them so that they can better assess the information in the main part of the memo. See 'The importance of overview information', page 8, Chapter 1: The General Structuring of a Document. 9 Organize the topics of the main body of the memo in order of importance: key statement first, details afterwards. 9 Side headings and white space. Don't give your readers a page of unbroken text. It will look boring and daunting. Even in a one-page memo, use appropriate side-headings and format it for white space. As an example of the structure for a longer memo, we will use a recommendation memo (see Fig. 11.3).
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MEMORANDUM To:
Dr Peter Brown, Department of Mechanical Engineering Prof. Jennifer Green, Head of Department, Mechanical Engineering
From:
Pat Black
Date:
8 October 2001
Subject:
My visit to Composites Construction Ltd
This is to let you know that from 14 to 17 November I shall be visiting the research labs at Composites Construction Ltd in Middletown. As we previously discussed, my main activity will be to discuss the progress of our joint research programme, our proposals for future development and the next round of funding. I look forward to discussing the visit with you on my return.
Figure 11.2
A very short memo (example)
Purpose To come to a conclusion, and make recommendations concerning an issue that you have investigated.
Checklist for formal emails V] Have you used the conventions for the salutation and the closing of a letter? V1 Is the content of the email structured as you would a letter? V1 Have you avoided sending commercially sensitive or contractual material by email? g-1 Have you made hard copies of important emails, both sent and received? V1 Do you scan attachments for viruses? V1 Do you zip large files if they are to be sent as attachments? 1-1 Do you avoid forwarding unnecessary messages? I-1 Does the auto-signature contain your name, address, telephone and fax numbers?
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MEMORANDUM (Name and title of the person to whom you are writing)
To:
(Names and titles of other people to be sent copies of your memo (if required))
From:
(Your name)
Date:
(In the style 8 October 2001, not 8/10/01)
Title An informative title, centred, bold-faced
All headings justified to the left-hand margin.
See 'Title' page 16 and 'Title Page', page 19. Chapter 2: Core Chapter.
Summary Very briefly state: 1. The purpose of the memo. 2. Your main conclusion. 3. Your main recommendation.
See 'Abstract/ Summary/Executive Summary', Chapter 3: Abstract/ Summary/Executive summary.
Purpose A brief statement of why you are sending the memo.
See 'Purpose', page 33, Chapter 2: Core Chapter.
Background A brief description of the background to your work.
See 'Background', page 32, Chapter 2: Core Chapter.
Further appropriate heading(s) Conclusions and Recommendations
See 'Conclusions', page 48 and 'Recommendations', page 50, Chapter 2: Core Chapter.
Note: NO salutation or closing (i.e. don't use Yours sincerely/faithfully etc.)
Compare Chapter 10: A Formal Letter, page 123.
Your signature
Figure 11.3
A longer memo (suggested headings and structure)
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Checklist for formal faxes V1 Have you, if possible, used a fax template for the cover document? I-1 Does the fax use the conventions for starting and finishing letters? 1-1 Is it structured like a letter?
Checklist for formal memos I-1 Have you used the conventions for the preliminaries of a memo? I-1 Is the memo structured so that the key statement (your main point) is at the beginning of the memo, and not at the end? [El For a longer memo: is it structured under suitable headings, with use of white space? I-1 To close the memo, have you avoided using Yours sincerely or similar wording?
Chapter 12
Thesis
This chapter covers: 9 The purpose of a thesis. 9 Difficulties of writing a thesis. 9 Writing up as a process to be managed. - to write up as you go along, or at the end? - stages of the final write-up 9 Structure of a thesis. - elements likely to be needed - other possible useful sections for a thesis
Purpose of a thesis To show to a very small number of expert assessors (probably fewer than five) your competence in pursuing and writing up a body of independent research.
Implications of this 9 Your writing should be aimed at a level appropriate to experts. 9 The main material of your work will be - or may have already been written up as conference or journal papers. The papers will represent a concentration of the work in the thesis. 9 The thesis therefore needs to describe all the work you have done, without being a blow-by-blow account of every piece of data you collected.
Difficulties of writing a thesis 1 The sheer size of a thesis. One essential difference between a thesis and any other piece of graduate writing is that of size. Because of this, a thesis is for many people a worrisome event at the end of the experimental work. Very few graduates enjoy writing up their work more than actually doing it; to many, writing up can be a stressful process. It can also take very much longer than expected.
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For these reasons leave more time to write up than you would expect it to take, especially for a PhD.
2 File handling. Because of the ultimate size of the document, it is worthwhile consulting an IT specialist for information about file handling, importing graphics etc. 3 The need for backups.
This can't be stressed enough. In every institution there will be stories about disasters occurring from files not being backed up. In spite of this, it is still remarkable how casual people can be about adequate backup. Ideally, keep backups at different locations (e.g. work and home) and update them regularly- at least once per week. An effective way of scaring yourself into backing up fully and frequently is to make a mental list of all the ways you could lose your flies. These include: 9 Burglary of your home or institution. 9 Theft of your car. 9 Viruses. 9 Collapse of the hard drive. 9 Diskette failure. 9 Power supply failures. 9 Errors by other people using the same computer. 9 Unfamiliar keystrokes on a mainframe, etc.
How to write it: writing up as a process to be managed To write up as you go along, or at the end? Supervisors often try to encourage students to write up while doing the experimental work. Is this a good thing to do?
Jqduantages o[ writing up as you go along 1 You are writing something up while it is still fresh in your mind. This shouldn't be underestimated. It is very easy to forget after a year or so the details of a procedure that was once second nature to you. 2 It lessens the burden of a massive piece of writing at the end.
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Jqduantages of leaving it until the end 1 It is often difficult enough to keep up the momentum of the experimental work, without having to deal with writing as well. 2 If you hate writing, it allows you to put it off. 3 Students have commented that it is a waste of effort if you don't know what you're talking about at that particular time. This is an instance of gaps in your knowledge, not of muddled thought; understanding of a topic and its implications usually increases with time. 4 If you do leave it until the end - as many do - it is essential that you keep exceptionally comprehensive records of your work in progress. It is horrifying what you can forget.
Conference or journal papers If you have already written up papers from your work, you'll find that this will help to tighten ideas about how to process your thesis.
Stages of the final write-up 1 Keep in mind what you've done, how you've done it, and what's new about your research. 2 Work out a basic structure for your thesis. There will be several ways in which your work can be structured. You need to work out the optimal way to present your material. It may be quite different from that of other people in your work group. Given the mass of information that you are likely to have by the end of your experimental period, deciding on an appropriate structure can be a problem. Many people find that while they can't work it out on paper or a word processor, they can describe it adequately to a friend; this person could take notes for you or use a tape-recorder. See 'Structure of a thesis', page 146, this chapter.
Using the Outline mode and Master Document mode of Microsoft Word @ It is worth becoming familiar with the Outline mode of Microsoft Word | . This mode will help in the initial organization, revising and editing of your document. See 'The Outline mode of Microsoft Word| organizing a document', page 7, Chapter 1: The general structure of a document. You can also use the Outline mode in conjunction with the Master Document mode. A master document is a 'container' for a set of separate files (or subdocuments). You can use a master document to set up and manage a multipart document, such as a thesis with several chapters. For example, you can view, reorganize, format, proof, print, and automatically create a Table of Contents for multiple documents treated as a whole.
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3 Draw up a preliminary outline of headings and subheadings. It will look like a Table of Contents without the page numbers. See 'Table of Contents', page 24, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. Work out your system of headings and subheadings. But keep it flexible; you'll need to keep changing it as your ideas evolve. The worst way to work with an outline is to try to shoehorn your ideas and results into an initial rigid structure. Your initial Table of Contents may not bear much resemblance to your final one. You can only do it as far as you can see. The final Table of Contents and the finalized structure may take its final form only very late in the write-up.
4 Write the easiest parts first. This is usually anything do with experimental procedures (see 'Materials and Methods', page 39, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter). If you are dealing with complex mathematical solutions you may find that writing appendix material, where lots of derivations may be needed, can help in clarifying your thoughts.
5 Other late-stage tasks. Graduates say that most of the time is spent working out how to analyse and present your data optimally. Some of the tasks involved here are: (a) Thinking about what the data means. (b) How it relates to the published literature. (c) How to discuss it accurately and succinctly. You'll probably find that you can't think about these three things for more than a few hours at a time. (d) Reading the current literature. (e) Data analysis and presentation: 9 Everything in a science or engineering thesis hinges on how you analyse and present your data. 9 If you have large spreadsheet files, it may take days on each file before you can finally work out how to present the data optimally. 9 Once you know what your data are saying, the linking text should readily follow. (f) A great deal of time on the final formatting. (g) In addition, rewriting; losing the disk; crashing, etc.
6 Writing the literature review. The literature review needs to be written as one of the final stages of the process, since your understanding of the interconnections within the literature and of your work will increase with time. It also needs to incorporate the relevant literature that appears immediately before submission of your thesis. For these reasons, your initial literature review that you may have written at the beginning of your research will be inadequate for your thesis. See Chapter 4: A Literature Review, page 78.
THESIS
i45
7 For referencing, tables can be an effective way of presenting large amounts of material. Tables can be very useful in, for example: $ A section called Review of Methods, particularly for mathematical work. The references can be effectively tabulated, so that the various mathematical methods of solution are displayed alongside their author(s). 9 The Literature Review or State of Knowledge. As an addition to the text, it may be worth considering using a tabulated presentation to summarize the content of each of the relevant papers.
Date Listed chronologically
Author(s) Title Comments Your comments on the content of the paper.
Reference number If the numbering system is being used, the unique number in the text and the List of References.
Various headings in the list of the cited papers could be used. For example, the general review books and papers could be listed first, followed by other sections appropriate to the topic, with papers listed chronologically in each section. 8 Revising and proofreading the thesis. For the guidelines for revising and proofreading - both essential processes to ensure a professional d o c u m e n t - see Chapter 16: Revising and Proofreading: strategies, page 199. 9 Formattingfor appearance. Your institution will have specific regulations on aspects of formatting. If your thesis topic is one where there are a number of related previous theses, then you have a good range for getting ideas of formatting, style, requirements etc. But be cautious if there are only one or two: you won't know whether they are good models. Errors tend to be propagated in this way. Specialist textbooks are good models for structure, headers and footers, formatting etc., particularly if you are printing your thesis two-sided. Allow much more time than you would ima~ne for the final formatting processes and adjusting of the illustrations. The amount of time needed takes most people by surprise.
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S t r u c t u r e of a thesis Also read Chapter 1: The General Structure a Document for the following information: 1 The basic skeleton of section headings (page 1). 2 Choosing section headings: building an extended skeleton (page 3). 3 The Outline mode of Microsoft Word| organizing a document (page
7). 4 The importance of overview information: building a navigational pathway through the document (page 8). 5 Deliberate repetition of information in a document (page 10).
Elements likely to be needed in a thesis The elements that a thesis should probably contain are those of the standard skeleton and several from the extended skeleton. See 'The basic skeleton of section headings' for a technical document, and 'Building an extended skeleton', Chapter 1: The General Structure of a Document) and 'Other possible useful sections for a thesis', this chapter.
Element
Purpose in a thesis
Cross-reference to rele. vant part of this book
Title
To adequately describe the contents of your document in the fewest possible words.
See 'Title', page 16, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Main Abstract or Summary
To give the reader an overview of all of the key information in the thesis- objective, methods, results, conclusions, contributions to originality.
Chapter 3: Abstract/ Summary/Executive Summary, page 64.
Acknowledgements
To thank your supervisors and the other people who have given you help in your research and in the preparation of your thesis.
See 'Acknowledgements', page 23, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Table of Contents
Gives the overall structure of the thesis. Lists the sections, chapters, headings and (possibly) subheadings, together with their corresponding page numbers.
See 'Table of Contents', page 24, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
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Element
Purpose in a thesis
Cross-reference to relevant part of this book
List of Illustrations List of Figures List of Tables
To give a listing- separate from the Table of Contents - of the numbers, titles and corresponding page numbers of all your figures and tables.
See 'List of Illustrations', page 26, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations or List of Symbols
To define the symbols, terms and abbreviations (including acronyms) that you use in the main text of the thesis.
See 'Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations', page 27, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Objectives
To give the main aims of the research.
Introduction (or the introductory material under various headings)
9 To clearly state the purpose of the study. 9 To allow readers to understand the background to the study, without needing to consult the literature themselves. 9 To describe the historical development of the topic. 9 To provide a context for the later discussion of the results.
See 'Introduction', page 28, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. And 'Other possible useful sections', page 148, this chapter.
Literature Review (if the literature is not surveyed in the Introduction)
9 To show that you have a good understanding of the historical development and current state of your topic. 9 To indicate the authors who have worked or are working in this area, and to describe their chief contributions. 9 To indicate correlations, contradictions and gaps in the knowledge, and to outline the approach you will take with respect to them.
See Chapter 4: A Literature Review, page 78.
Chapter summaries
To give an informative (not descriptive) overview of the material in each chapter.
See below, page 149.
Overall Conclusions Chapter conclusions
To give an overview of the conclusions drawn from (1) the whole work or (2) each chapter.
See 'Conclusions', page 48, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Other sections appropriate to the topic
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Element
Purpose in a thesis
Cross-reference to relevant part of this book
Recommendations (if appropriate)
To propose a series of recommendations for action.
See 'Recommendations', page 50, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Recommendations for Further Research (if appropriate)
To propose directions for further development of your work.
See 'Suggestions for future research', page 5 l, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
List of References
A list of the works that you have cited in the text. Strict conventions govern this process.
See Chapter 14: Referencing, page 167.
Appendices
For complex material that would interrupt the flow of the thesis if it were to be inserted into the main body. For example, raw data, derivations, detailed illustrations of equipment, coding, specifications, product descriptions, charts etc.
See 'Appendices', page 52, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Other possible useful sections for a thesis
(Note: All of the sections below can also be used as subsections of the Introduction). 1 Statement of the General Problem. A statement of the problem that the thesis work is designed to address or alternatively: Objectives or Aim of the Study (see 'Objectives', page 32, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter). 2 State of Knowledge. A summary of the present state of knowledge in the area. Another name for a Literature Review, perhaps more appropriate to a major work such as a thesis. See Chapter 4: A Literature Review, page 78. 3 Contribution Summary. A summary of the areas of advancement or originality contained in the study. 4 Scope of the Study. The areas that were and were not studied: the limitations of the study. 6 Thesis Structure. A brief description of the various sections of the thesis, and what they contain. This is likely to need descriptive statements rather than informative ones. See 'Informative/Descriptive', page 69, Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary.
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Example Note the phrases used are those of descriptive rather than informative statements (discusses, is stated, is described, deals with, ~ves a review of,
chronolo~cally surveys...).
Thesis Structure
Chapter 3 discusses the integral boundary-layer methods used to calculate the viscous component of the study. The boundary-layer equations and other associated definitions are stated. The implementation of Thwaites' (1949) laminar integral boundary-layer method is described and validated against an experimental velocity distribution... Chapter 4 deals with the interaction between the inviscid and viscous flow components. It gives an extensive review of available interaction schemes, the methods used to match the two flows, and chronologically surveys over thirty viscous-inviscid interaction studies. Chapter 5 . . . etc.
7 A Model Algorithm as a map of the whole thesis. 8 Each chapter should have: (a) A chapter Summary: 9 This gives an overview of the material in the chapter. See Chapter 3: Summary/Abstract/Executive Summary, page 64. 9 Placed at the beginning or the end of the chapter? The optimal position for the assessors is for the summaries to be placed at the beginning of the chapter- this helps them to assess the rest of the information (see 'The importance of overview information': building a navigational pathway though the document, page 8, Chapter 1: The General Structure of a Document). They have traditionally been placed at the end of chapters: this is not the best position for the readers' understanding of the chapter. 9 Suggestion: also copy all the chapter summaries to make a chapter of their own. This can provide a useful overview that is more detailed than the main Summary. (b) A set of Conclusions. If appropriate to the material, a set of Conclusions at the end of a chapter reinforces the material in the assessors' minds, and should
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form part of the intellectual pathway into the material in the next chapter. (c) At the very end of each chapter, probably immediately after the Conclusions, outline what the next chapter covers. The assessors' understanding of the current chapter is helped by the knowledge of how this chapter will lead into the next one.
Checklists for the sections of a thesis Use the various checklists for the relevant elements in Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Chapter ! 3
R conference poster
This chapter covers: 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Attending a conference and presenting a poster: the basics. The purpose of a conference poster. Advantages and disadvantages of a poster. W h a t conference participants like in a poster. W h a t facilities do you have? Planning the poster. Design of the layout. Possible headings for a poster. Figures and tables. Structure of the text. Style of font. Final production. Common mistakes. Checklist.
For a conference you can be asked to present either an oral presentation of your work (see Chapter 18: A Seminar or Conference Presentation, page 235) or a poster. Posters are a very common way of presenting w o r k particularly student w o r k - at a conference. This chapter covers the preliminaries of preparing for a conference and gives guidelines for producing a poster. The information applies both to posters made up of individual elements attached to a backing, and to onepiece posters that are printed on an A0 printer.
Rttending a conference and presenting a poster: the basics There will be three things to prepare for a poster presentation at a conference: a conference abstract, a paper and a poster. They are all different in their requirements. 1 You will first be asked to submit an abstract of your work. The required length is usually between two and three pages. See Chapter 3: Abstracts/
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Summaries/Executive Summary, particularly 'A conference abstract', page 72. The abstracts will be used by the conference organizers to decide on the people to be invited to present their work at the conference. 2 If you are accepted, you will then be invited to submit your manuscript. This will be in the form of a standard scientific paper (see Chapter 6: A Journal Paper, page 99). You will be given a maximum page number, and specific instructions about how to prepare it. The papers from all the participants are then collected together and published as the conference proceedings. In most cases, the proceedings will be published some time after the conference, either in book form or as CD-ROMs. 3 If you have been asked to present a poster, you will be given the required dimensions and told the specific time and place at which you can display it. You then stand alongside it at the specified time so that people can discuss your work with you.
Purpose of a conference poster 9 To present the main points of your work as an enlarged graphic display (usually upwards from 1.5 x 1 metre in size). 9 To give enough information to inform, but to be simple, clear and creative. 9 To present it so that it is visually pleasing and does not look too dense, ill conceived or sloppy. An effective conference poster is a blend of selected information and aesthetic design.
/ dvantages of a poster 9 Presenting a poster is a far less nerve-wracking experience than giving an oral presentation. 9 Conference participants can choose to quickly scan posters or study them intensively. 9 They are a visual medium, and can be presented very attractively. 9 The presenter gets personal contact with those interested in them.
Disadvantages of a poster 9 You do not have a captive audience, as in an oral presentation. You therefore have to attract people to your poster, which will be one of many in the same display space.
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9 Space is limited (usually upwards from 1.5 x 1 metres), so you have to select the information carefully. 9 A poster takes more time and can cost more to prepare than the visual aids needed for an oral presentation. But if you are on a low budget, it is still possible to produce an elegant result. 9 You may feel somewhat deflated: many people drift past posters and take away very little impression of your work.
What conference participants like in a poster A survey of frequent conference participants showed that they liked the following aspects. This gives us some guidelines from which to work. 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Something that looks as though it wouldn't take long to read. Only a small amount of text. Lots of white space. An interesting, catchy title in a large font. Can be read at a distance of 2 metres. Colour. The poster structured so that the viewer is led through the material. Figures with good titles and captions so that they are self-explanatory.
What facilities do you have for producing a poster? 9 If you haven't got many, don't worry. With care in its production, assembly and final finishing, an effective poster can be produced with a minimum of facilities (word processor, black-and-white printer, metal ruler and sharp knife). 9 With a presentation software package such as Microsoft PowerPoint | and a colour printer, you can make superb material and attach individual pieces to a backing sheet or board. 9 With Microsoft PowerPoint | and an A0 printer, you can produce a onepiece poster that is highly effective, and simple to transport and assemble.
Planning the poster Planning what to include and how to lay it out are the two most crucial parts of producing a poster.
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IMPORTANT: Don't just use your conference paper and attach it to the board, perhaps with a few extra illustrations.
Many presenters adopt the quickest, least creative method and use the poster as a mounting medium for their paper. The result is very poor; too much text, small, dense and squashed- overwhelming and discouraging.
Planning steps Step I: When you plan the title [or the abstract, consider how it will appear on a poster If it's too long, it will take up too much space. If you're presenting a novel technique, show it in the title A New Method/Technique for...
See 'Title' page 16, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter, particularly 'A conference poster title', page 18.
Step 2: Work out what your message is Define the 'take-home message'. What do you want people to remember about your work after viewing your poster?
Step 3: To expand the take-home message, pick no more than a
few points and focus on them If your viewer can remember only one point after leaving you, then your poster is successful. You will probably want to put more information into a poster than is realistic. You have to be very selective.
Step 4: Work out h o w to make the illustrations tell the story Most viewers look at the illustrations first and only skim the text. The illustrations need to tell the story and show the flow of information. They also need to be simple, with proportionately chunkier lines and larger labelling than those in a paper. The illustrations will probably need to be different from those in your conference paper. You may need additional illustrations such as schematics and flow diagrams, and your existing ones may need simplifying and chunking up.
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Step 5: Make sure you know the size and shape of your poster Don't take the dimensions for granted: they will vary from conference to conference. Consider the following: 9 The size will determine how much to limit the information: the shape will determine the layout. 9 It could be anything from 1.5 x 1 metre upwards. 9 The length/breadth ratio can vary, so that some formats have a longer axis than others. 9 The long axis can be horizontal or vertical.
Step 6: Find out the length of the viewing session It can vary from an hour to a day. You may not be standing by your poster for the whole of the session. This means that the essential points need to be understood without your explaining them personally.
Step 7: Work out how much detailed information is needed Too many presenters think that a poster packed with information gives the impression of productive research. It doesn't: it's likely to obscure the central ideas. Remember that very few people will bother to read every word of a densely packed poster. Most viewers of a poster want something that looks clear and easy to absorb; however, there will always be a very few people who will argue for including lots of fundamental material. Arguments for limiting the information are: 9 You can give out a handout sheet with more detail. The people who are really interested in your work will approach you and would appreciate more detailed supplementary information. It is better to have a detailed handout than to try to present the same degree of detail on the poster alone. 9 Participants' own preferences (see 'What conference participants like in a poster', page 153) 9 Studies have shown that poster viewers absorb the information much more readily if a few points are clearly stated and well presented, rather than given as a mass of detailed information. 9 The level of lighting may be poor, and the background noise level high. The venue for the poster display is likely to be a foyer to a university building or a convention hall, where conditions are often not optimal for concentrating on detailed material. Moreover, many of your viewers will have reached the bifocal age and won't appreciate small print under these conditions.
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Step 8: Plan for the text and illustrations to be easily read from at least a metre away, preferably 2
This means large font, probably larger than you feel comfortable with. Graphic artists often suggest using a font as large as 30 point for your text. However, you have to tread a fine line between giving it impact with a large font and running the risk of making your work look superficial because of a lack of information. Test some different sized text and see what is comfortably readable at 2 metres. A good compromise for the main text is 18 point.
Design of the layout It is difficult to give absolute advice about poster design. Some people have an instinctive feel about the aesthetics of design, others are woefully inadequate and need help. There are almost no limits to ingenuity. You want to aim for a well-finished product, with a good balance between text and illustrations. Suggestions:
1 Put the title at the top of the poster, not the bottom. It will be in a large font, and can therefore be read above eye-level or from a distance. 2 The progression of information should be logical and obvious to the viewer. Plan for the poster to be read from top to bottom and from left to right. Don't make the viewers' eyes jump around. In particular, avoid placing the text first, and then filling up the gaps with the illustrations. Group the information so that related pieces of information are adjacent and the flow to the next item of information is obvious. Arrows can also be useful, but keep the arrangement simple; multidirectional flows are confusing. A conventional layout is shown in Figure 13.1; if you are aiming for a more eye-catching presentation, take especial care with the information flow. 3 If the poster is wide, divide the space into three or four sections. The viewer will be able to stand in one place and then move to the right to read the next section. It is also convenient when a number of people are simultaneously reading it. 4 Do a rough layout of the individual elements. To visualize the size and position of the individual elements, sketch a rough plan. It should show the approximate positions and size of the figures and the individual items of text.
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Title
I Abstract t t
!
/ Background/Intro /
Author(s)and affiliation I
~ Results (1) i ,
.~Results(3) / '
! ;
i
i
v Results(2)
.~ Results (5)
"
'
/
i
/ Results (4)
~~
Meil~dS
/
,,, ,,,
J 9176 o9
e;Tds
Conclusions~ I & T I Future devel~ ment ,
t
J.
References '
,,,
I I
Figure 13.1 A simple, conventional poster layout where the flow of information is obvious. The various sections are separated by grouping the text and figures within each one, and by leaving space between the groups. The grouping can also be emphasized by the use of colour Here are some guidelines for doing a rough layout: 9 Decide on your take-home message, your main points and how you will build the story around the illustrations. 9 Sketch an outline that has the scaled-down dimensions of the shape of the poster. 9 Pencil in different sizes and positions of the elements, and ways of fitting this information together. 9 Group the information spatially so that the flow of information is clear. The connections between the text and the relevant illustrations also need to be clear. Don't let the information flow disappear in the trial repositionings of the various elements. Later, in the final version you can enhance the groupings by using colour and boxes. 9 Don't allow the final layout to look as though you've been truffle hunting for space and shoe-homing information into gaps. 9 Place your illustrations as close as possible to where they are referred to in the poster text. Viewers will get frustrated if they are made to jump around the poster looking for the relevant illustration. 9 Don't try to increase the number of illustrations or amount of text by scaling things down or squeezing them together. 9 Be single-minded- don't lose sight of your few main points.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION /qND REPORTS
9 Your final plan should give a general idea of: - how much text - how many figures approximate positioning and size of text and figures -
Possible headings for a poster 9 Choose your headings to show the flow of information. # Your choice of section headings is far less constrained than when writing a paper. There is also no need to use the rigid, classic A I M R A D headings (Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion). There are probably more logical, attractive ways of presenting your methods and results. 9 But if you do want to use some of the A I M R A D headings, the table below gives some information about how to use them in a poster, and the relevant cross-references to more detailed information in the book.
Section heading
Notes
Cross..reference to
detailed information Title
See 'Title', page 16, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. In particular, 'A conference poster title', page 18.
Author(s) Place of work (usually called affiliation)
See 'Authorship and Affiliation', page 21, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
A very short Abstract
Some people will maintain that since the text of a poster is short, there is no need for an Abstract. This is not so. An initial overview will always help the reader to better assess your work, whether it's a paper or a poster. The abstract should be very short: 100 words or fewer. Make sure it contains the bare outline of the methods you used and your results. Place it in the logical position where people will expect it: up the top, immediately under the title/authors/ affiliation, probably to the left.
See Chapter 3: Abstract/Summary/ Executive Summary, page 64.
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Section heading
Notes
Cross-reference to detailed information
A short Introduction or Background
This should give the background to your work and include the main references to other people's.
See 'Introduction', page 28 Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Methods
If you have used a standard method: do not describe it in great detail.
See 'Methods', page 39 Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
If the main point of your work is to present a novel experimental method: give enough details of it, and also be prepared to discuss it in detail with the viewers of the poster. Also make sure that your title indicates a novel method (A New Method for...). Results
Best presented as figures with a small amount of linking text. Avoid tables if possible, unless they are absolutely necessary and very simple.
You may want a short Discussion section. It may not be necessary.
See 'Results', page 41 Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. See 'Illustrations', page 54, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. See 'Discussion', page 45 Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
A brief Conclusions section.
It could be in the form of a short list, concisely worded, starting with your major conclusion. Position it at the logical end of the information flow, probably at the bottom right or centre.
See 'Conclusions', page 48, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Future Research
It may be particularly relevant at a conference to show how you are planning to extend this work.
See 'Suggestions for Future Research', page 51, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
A very short List of References, if your poster cites other people's work.
See Chapter 14: Referencing, page 167, for the conventions.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Figures and tables Viewers look first at illustrations Very often, the illustrations are the only part of a poster that people really study. So illustrations should be well presented, clear, and readily understood as far as possible without reference to the text. They need to have explanatory titles, clear captions and keys. See 'Illustrations' page 54, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Make your illustrations look outstanding There will be other students in your institution with experience of using software to produce superb illustrations. Don't be afraid to ask them for advice.
quidelines for illustratior~ 1 Plan the poster around the figures: use them to tell the story. Well-captioned figures need very little linking text to be able to convey the story-line. 2 Make each figure self explanatory. A figure with explanatory text in the caption is more convenient for the viewer than having to move from figure to text and back again to be able to understand the argument. 3 If an illustration has a number, it must be referred to at the appropriate place in the text. If the reference in the text to the illustration is made prominent (e.g. by being in bold, upper case or italics), it is easier for the viewer to crossrefer from text to illustration or vice versa. 4 Cross-referring between text and illustrations. Figures should be positioned as near as possible to where they are mentioned in the text. Make sure that during the arrangement of all the elements of a poster, the figures don't end up being used to fill gaps; this produces an illogical layout. 5 Schematic diagrams of equipment and procedures are particularly effective in describing methods. 6 Graphs must be large, with chunky lines and labelling in large font. 9 Don't use enlarged copies of your paper's graphs. They will appear too thin and spidery. 9 Limit the amount of information and number of lines. 9 Make the points, axes and lines clearly visible from 2 metres away. 7 Tables 9 Avoid tables if possible. They are usually not effective on posters, unless they are extremely simple. If possible, present the information in other ways.
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9 Any tables should contain far less information than those in written documents. In particular, don't photocopy tables straight from your paper. 8 Photographs. Make sure that they are not enlarged beyond their capabilities.
Structure of the text Viewers often scan the text quite rapidly. Therefore: 9 Don't use longish paragraphs as in your paper. Use short, simple and separated statements (Figure 13.2). 9 Every section of text should have a heading to make the flow of information clear. Differentiate the headings from the text by using: UPPERCASE
or
Boldface
or
SMALL CAPITALSor
A DIFFERENT
FONT
9 Use plenty of white space in the text. Use indenting of blocks of text and listing within the text to create a variable left margin. Avoid solid blocks of text; they are known to put viewers off reading them (Figure 13.2).
Style as in written text
Short, simple, separated text suitable for a poster
Sandwich composites are used on aircraft because of excellent
BACKGROUND
stiffness-to-weight ratios. However, they have low damage tolerance and are frequently impacted in normal operation, because of their locations in the aircraft. To date, virtually no information has been available on the effects of impact damage.
Sandwich composites on aircraft" 9 have excellent stiffness-to-weight ratios 9 have low damage tolerance 9 are frequently impacted because of their location. To date, virtually no information has been available on the effects of impact damage.
Figure 13.2 Example of text style as in a conference paper, and the same material presented for a poster. Text can be understood much more quickly when it has been separated: here, white space and a variable left margin have been created by indenting and listing within the text.
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Style of font Use a simple font Elaborate fonts are difficult to read and can look unprofessional. 9 Don't use too many fonts. The usual guideline is no more than two, but use them discreetly; for instance, one font for the text, one for the headings. 9 Serif or sans serif font? A serif font (e.g. Times Roman, Palatino) is one that has fine ticks on the letters. Commonly used in documents, serif fonts are sometimes regarded as too elaborate to be used in a poster. A sans-serif font is simple, clean and easily read. It lacks the fine ticks at the extremities of the letters. Examples are Arial, Helvetica, Avant Garde, Univers. Some of these are almost identical; otherwise, they differ in letter shape and line spacing. Some appear more dense than others (see Figure 13.3). 9
PROPERTIES Sandwich composites have excellent stiffness-to-weight ratios.
Arial, Helvetica
PROPERTIES Sandwich composites have excellent stiffness-to-weight ratios.
Avant garde
PROPERTIES Sandwich composites have excellent stiffness-to-weight ratios.
Univers
PROPERTIES Sandwich composites have excellent stiffness-to-weight ratios.
Univers condensed
PROPERTIES Sandwich composites have excellent stiffness-to-weight ratios.
Times New Roman. Serif font: usually regarded as not suitable- too elaborate for posters.
Figure 13.3 The difference in letter shape and line spacing of various sans-serif fonts suitable for posters, and a serif font for comparison. All the examples are in 18-point font; the headings are in boldface.
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9 Bold-facing, Upper case and italics. Use bold-facing only for special emphasis, such as the title and headings. Solid text in bold-facing looks harsh and can be difficult to read. Use UPPER CASE only for emphasis, such as headings. Avoid blocks of text in upper case or italics; they are known to be difficult to read and discouraging. 9 Using colour. Use colour inventively. With an intelligent use of colour you can: - Unify poster parts by coloured backgrounds. - Make the flow of information easier to follow with colour-coded keys and arrows. - Make your poster eye-catching. We are visual animals; colour attracts our attention. How much colour, and what sort? Not too many different ones. Vivid, clashing colours may work; toning colours that complement each other can produce a very elegant result. 9 Using presentation software. A presentation software package such as Microsoft PowerPoint | can produce superb poster material. You can readily produce either individual slides to be attached to a background, or together with an A0 printer, a one-piece poster. This can look very professional and is easy to transport. - Beware of some of the presentation software standard backgrounds: they can be fussy and ill-coloured. Choose carefully and customize the colour, or design your own. - The standard backgrounds are easily recognizable. Viewers can get the impression of a hasty job. - Choose the background and colour combinations so that the text and illustrations stand out clearly. There may be a considerable difference between the monitor image and the final printed product. - D o n ' t be tempted by the ClipArt. It has no place in a formal presentation.
Final production Trimming The quickest way to make a poster look amateurish is to carelessly trim the components. Use a paper cutter or a sharp hobby knife and a metal ruler, and make sure that you are trimming to right angles.
Material for mounting poster components 9 Poster board and mat board come in different colours. Poster board is relatively easy to cut; mat board is not.
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9 Large sheets of coloured paper are also available, but the result can look amateurish because of its lack of stiffness. However, it is easier to transport.
Rttaching the components to the mounting board To stick the sheets of paper to the mounting board, use: 9 For very small items: a glue stick. This is difficult to apply evenly to large items, and the result can look lumpy. 9 For sheets of paper: a spray adhesive. This coats the paper evenly. 9 Avoid rubber cement and contact adhesive in tubes; they give lumpy results. It generally looks amateurish to use a differently coloured piece of paper as background for each individual component of your poster.
The background provided at the conference Most conferences provide free-standing surfaces made up of buff-coloured cork board or white fibre-board. They are not very inspiring. Colour is essential.
Final finishing of the individual components Laminating of the individual components or of the complete poster looks professional and gives good protection.
Attaching your poster to the conference board 9 You can use drawing pins, but it can look very amateurish. 9 Better: individual components of the poster can be attached to the mounting board using Velcro TM. This can be used either in strips or in sheets large enough to be tacked to the edges of the mounting board. Strips of the corresponding tape are then stuck to the back of the poster components. This gives a rapid method of accurately lining up the components, and of quickly rearranging them.
Transporting your poster If a poster needs to be transported by plane, it has to be lightweight and compact. Some suggestions: Large mailing tubes can be used for A0 printouts and large pieces of backing paper.
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9 Posters mounted on large sections of board can be cut and the edges hinged by tape. 9 Plan your individual components so that they will fit into a suitcase or a heavy corrugated mailing box. 9 There are methods for transporting complete posters: find out about them from the airline.
Common mistakes 1 Very common: to include far too much information- a minimally altered conference paper or a copy of the paper itself. 2 Main points not made clear. 3 Too much information crammed in: trying to cover too many points. 4 Too much detail. 5 Font too s m a l l - unable to be read from 2 metres. 6 The flow of information is not clear. 7 Figures and tables placed illogically in relation to the text. Probably added in the gaps after the text was placed. 8 Tables contain far too much information. 9 Information not grouped. 10 Illustrations too finely drawn and therefore difficult to see. 11 Photographs enlarged beyond their capabilities. 12 Too much black text: lack of white space.
Checklist for a conference poster [-1 I-1 E] [-q D [3 D [3 D
Have you avoided just attaching your conference paper to a board? Have you planned the poster around the illustrations? Have you avoided trying to present too much information? Does it look as though the information is easily extractable by a viewer? Is the flow of the story self-evident to a viewer? Is there plenty of white space? Is there only a relatively small amount of text? Is the font of a size that is easily readable from 2 metres away? Is the text in a simple serif (Times Roman, Palatino) or sans-serif (Arial, Univers, Avant Garde) font? If it is wide, is the poster divided into three or four sections?
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F-1 Illustrations: n Are they self-contained, with self-explanatory titles and captions? D Can they be understood in overall terms without needing to refer to the text? D Are the lines chunky, with clear labelling? D Have you avoided squeezing the illustrations into spaces left between the text items? [] Have you avoided tables if possible? If a table is needed, is it simple? I-1 Is colour used inventively and intelligently? [3 Have you planned the most professional method of attaching your poster to the board? !-1 Is the poster transportable?
Chapter 14
Referencing This chapter covers: 9 How to cite your sources (called references) in the text. The types of sources include: - works on paper (books, journals etc.) - e l e c t r o n i c sources (Internet material, CD-ROM, electronic databases) - other types (e.g. video and audio cassettes) 9 How to present the section called List of References (or References) and/or a Bibliography. It assumes no prior knowledge of this area.
Referencing a document: the basics 1 There are two linked elements to referencing a technical document: 9 The sources that you used in preparing your document (journal papers, books, articles etc.) are cited at the appropriate places in the text. 9 All the sources are then listed at the end of your document in a section called List of References (which can also be called just References). Much more rarely in technical documentation, a Bibliography may be included; this is a list of material you have consulted but not cited in the text. 2 There are two basic systems of referencing technical documents: 9 the author-date (Harvard) system 9 the numerical system 3 Do not use the referencing system used in arts-related disciplines. Arts-related disciplines use a referencing system using ibid. and op. cit. to cross-refer to previously cited sources. This system is not used in technical documentation. Neither are footnotes. 4 Referencing is one of the most convention-ridden areas of scientific and technical documentation. Many assessors expect the conventions to be observed in the minutest detail. This chapter assumes no previous knowledge; the aim is to give you all the information required in this area.
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Purpose of referencing 9 To acknowledge other people's work or ideas in relation to your own. All scientific and technological work has to be placed in the context of other work in the field. Your reader has to know that you are familiar with the literature in your area, and that you can assess your work in relation to it. 9 To enable readers to find the source material. Other people must be able to find the reference if they wish. This means it has to be cited accurately, in detail, and according to certain conventions. 9 To avoid plagiarism, or literary theft. Failure to acknowledge sources is plagiarism and is a form of stealing. It is regarded very seriously in the academic world. People who do not fully acknowledge their sources are copying the work of others and implicitly claiming that the work is their own. They face ostracism and, sometimes, legal action and adverse publicity. Students risk failing their assignment, exclusion from their course and, sometimes, suspension from university. Block copying of text. It is important to note that plagiarism also includes the copying of blocks of text. Writers sometimes think that a single citation of a source is sufficient licence to copy large blocks (sometimes pages) of text, unaltered or with occasional minimal paraphrasing such as the alteration of a word here and there. This is unacceptable. If you present so much text that has been written by someone else, you are implicitly claiming that the wording is your own, even if you acknowledge the source. It is essential that anything you write about someone else's ideas or work should be in your own words, with the original author appropriately cited. If you need to quote short passages word for w o r d - and this is seen only very rarely in technical d o c u m e n t a t i o n - then the conventions for quotations should be used (see page 185).
When references should be used You need to use references: 1 When you cite factual material taken from other sources. This is the commonest form of citation in a science or engineering document. The sources may include: (a) Material on paper such as: 9 papers in professional journals and conferences 9 books or book chapters 9 theses 9 lecture or laboratory documents 9 magazine articles
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9 9 9 9
newspaper articles an organization's publicity material engineering standards and specifications government documents, such as Acts of Parliament and reports of committees etc. (b) Electronic sources such as: 9 World Wide Web pages 9 online journal papers 9 online conference proceedings 9 CD-ROMs and electronic databases (c) Visual and audio material such as: 9 videos 9 tapes 9 CDs 2 When you need to quote word for word from another work (see 'Using direct quotations', page 185).
The difference between a List of References and a Bibliography 9 A List of References is a list of all the sources that you have cited in the text of your document. It is the preferred section for most graduate technical documents, because: it is the system used in scientific literature such as journal papers it shows that you can integrate your work with that of others 9 A Bibliography is a list of all the sources you have consulted while preparing your document, but have not referred to in your text. In a technical document, it is almost never found alone; however, it may be used in addition to a List of References. If both are used, a citation should not be listed in both the List of References and the Bibliography. (For guidelines for formatting a Bibliography, see page 186). 9 The List of References - and the Bibliography when n e e d e d - are the final sections of your document, coming immediately before the Appendices. -
-
The two main systems of referencing There are two main systems commonly used in technical documentation for cross-referencing citations in the text with the full reference in the List of References. The two systems are described in overview in Table 15.1. For full details: 9 The a u t h o r - date (Harvard) system (see page 170). 9 The numerical system (see page 175).
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WRITING FOR SCIENCEAND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
Table 14.1 Overview of the two referencing systems (full details on pages 170-175).
The author- date (Harvard) system
The numerical system
In the text of the document
In the text of the document
9 Surname of the author and the date of publication placed in parentheses. For example: (Brown, 1999). 9 Page numbers of a book can be included if needed. For example: (Smith, 2000, 103-121 )
9 Each citation in the text is given a unique number, either in square brackets, e.g. [5], or superscripted, e.g.5. Each is numbered in the order in which it appears in the text. 9 If you need to cite a reference more than once in the text, the number of its first appearance (its unique number) is used each time you cite it.
List of References
List of References
9 Listed in alphabetical order of the surnames of the authors.
9 Not listed alphabetically. It is a list numbered from 1 to n, the number of each listing corresponding to the unique number that each source was assigned in the text.
Choosing between referencing systems 9 Journals will always specifically state the system required to be used. 9 Individual staff members usually have a preference for one or the other system. It is essential to find out which system you are required to use. 9 If you have a choice of system, use Table 14.2 to assess the advantages and disadvantages of each. 9 Either one system or the other must be used in a document. Care must be taken not to use a mixture of both.
The author-date (Harvard) system Citing referenees in the text Overview The sources cited in the text are in the form of (Author, date).
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Table 14.2 Advantages and disadvantages of the two referencing systems
The author~date (Harvard) system.
The numerical system
Advantages
Advantages
9 Allows the source to be recognized by author and date in context within the text of the report. (Note: this is seen as a considerable advantage by people familiar with the literature). 9 Provides an alphabetical list at the end of the document. 9 Inserting an extra reference into the text is easy.
9 The text of the document is not interrupted by wordy citations. 9 Only a number needs to be repeated: prevents repetition in the text of the same wordy citations.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
9 Can create disruption to the text when there are many citations in one place.
9 While reading the text, readers familiar with the literature cannot recognize the work that you are citing. They have to turn to the List of References to match a numerical reference to its source. 9 It can be difficult to add another citation and renumber all successive ones. But this can be overcome by using the word processor endnoting function or a referencing software package. 9 The numbers give no information about the work, and it is easy to forget to use the earlier number when you need to refer to it again later in your report. Again, the word processor endnoting function or a referencing software package will overcome this.
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Examples Author's surname and date placed in brackets.
The wind velocity and behaviour of a geographical region is a function of altitude, season and hour of measurement (Johnson, 1985).
Author's surname cited in the text.
Miller (1978) showed that glucose and cellobiose are taken up and metabolized to succinate, acetate and small amounts of formate.
References precisely placed.
This runoff has also introduced heavy metals (Louma, 1974), pesticides (Schultz, 1971), pathogens (Cox, 1969), sediments (Gonzalez, 1971), and rubbish (Dayton, 1990).
The paper cited is by two authors.
The considerations are developed by assuming the general mathematical scheme defined in the case of a single slit (Zecca and Cavalleri, 1997). Martin and Zubek (1993) compiled a comprehensive list of dust activity on Mars from 1983 to 1990.
The paper cited is by more than two authors. Cite the surname of the first author and add 'et al.' (italicised in some house styles).
In the soft X-ray band pass, the solar X-ray flux varies by about one order of magnitude during the solar cycle (Peres et al., 1999). or Peres et al. found that in the soft X-ray band pass, the solar X-ray flux varies by about one order of magnitude during the solar cycle.
Several sources are cited within one set of brackets. Depending on house style: separate them by semicolons, and cite them in order of either (1) publication date or (2) by alphabetical order of the author.
The locomotion activity of a given species may be a source of considerable error in estimating energy budgets (Boisclair and Sirois, 1993; Facey and Grossman, 1990; Hansen et al., 1993; Lucas et al., 1993; Ney, 1993; Ware, 1975).
Two or more papers written in different years by the same author.
To develop a mathematically based understanding of cell death dynamics, Wu et al. (1993, 1994) separated the cell death process into two phases.
The author has written several papers in one year. Distinguish between them by adding a lower case letter to each paper. These letters must be added to the listing's date in the List of References.
Previous analysis of the Clock gene in mice (King et al., 1997a,b) has shown that Clock is expressed in a manner consistent with its role in circadian organization. In mice (King et al., 1997b) the CLOCK locus lies distal to...
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There is a large body of work, but you are citing only a few representative examples. Use e.g. within the brackets.
Martian dust storms, also called Martian yellow storms or Martian yellow clouds, have been observed for a long time (e.g. Antoniadi, 1930; Martin and Zurek, 1993)
Referencing a large body of information contained in a review paper.
Zebrafish generate large numbers of transparent embryos that develop synchronously to a free-swimming hatchling in a period of three days (for review, see Driever et al., 1994).
You have been unable to obtain the original reference, but have seen it cited in another paper:
Smith (1928) as cited by Brown (1999) showed that...
9 It is acceptable to cite the secondary source provided the primary source is included. 9 Include full citation details of both references in the List of References. Different authors with the same surname, publishing in the same year.
It has been shown by Smith, C.W. (1998)... whereas Smith, J.G., (1998)...
Where the publication date of the source is known only approximately: Use a small c before the date:
All the branches of a tree at any degree of height, if put together, are equal to the cross-section of its trunk (Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1497).
Sources where author is not stated. Use the first few words of the title, and the date if known. For example, where the citation is: 9 Wylie Stream Intake Feasibility Report (1997). James Consultants Ltd, Contract TKA 97/101. Prepared for Middletown Central Electricity Generation. 9 CORINAIR Working Group on Emission Factors for Calculating 1990 Emissions from Road Traffic, 1 (1993). Commission of the European Committees (Office for Official Publications, Luxembourg). 9 Twintex TPP fact sheet (undated). Verdex International S.A.
. . . as shown in a previous study (Wylie Stream Intake, 1997).
. . . in accordance with a previous study (CORINAIR Working Group, 1993).
. . . as specified (Twintex TPP, undated).
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Personal communications These refer to information given to you personally, in discussion or by letter, e-mail or fax. 9 Usually cited only in the text as (Initials, Surname, pers. comm). 9 Not cited in the References section.
Example The sample was maintained at 25~ and pH 5.0 (D.J. Wilson, pers. comm.)
However, if you have a number of them, and to give them authenticity, it may be appropriate to have a separate section for them, after the List of References, headed List of Personal Communications. This should list in alpabetical order the surnames, initials and places of work of the people cited. You may also want to include the means of communication and its date.
Example: List of Persona/Communications
1 Adams, B.A., Department of Physics, University of Technology, Middletown. By letter, 8/7/2001. 2 Wilson, D.J., Department of Environmental Science, University of Middletown. In discussion, 5/7/2001. 3 etc. Alternatively, you may prefer not to use the pers. comm system and to refer to these people in the Acknowledgements section.
Copying or adapting illustrations You have used an exact copy of an illustration from someone else's work.
Figure 4 A typical graphite block heat exchanger (reproduced from Hewitt, 1990)
You have redrawn an illustration from someone else's work.
Figure 4.2 Apparatus for examining isoclinics in a stressed transparent model (redrawn from Alexander, 1983)
You have adapted someone else's data or figure, and incorporated it into a table or figure of your own.
Figure 3.5 Schematic diagram of AFLP analysis (adapted from Vos et al., 1995)
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Numerical system Citing references in the text 9 Each source cited in the text is given a unique number, in the order in which each is cited. 9 If you need to cite a reference more t h a n once in the text, the number of its first appearance - its unique n u m b e r - is used each time you cite it.
The wind velocity and behaviour of a geographical region is a function of altitude, season and hour of measurement [1]. Mylona [2] has analysed changes in sulphur dioxide and sulphate concentrations in air during the period 1979-1986. or: The wind velocity and behaviour of a geographical region is a function of altitude, season and hour of measurement 1. Mylona 2 has analysed changes in sulphur dioxide and sulphate concentrations in air during the period 1979-1986.
Compiling the list of references Overview 9 The List of References (which can also be called References) is made up of a list of the papers, books, articles etc. that you have cited in the text of your work. 9 It is placed at the end of your document, immediately before the Appendices. 9 For the author date system, the sources are listed in alphabetical order of the surname of the author, or first author if there are more than one. 9 For the numerical system, the sources are in the form of a sequentially numbered list, the numbers corresponding to the unique number that each source was assigned in the text.
Points to note: 1 The aim of a citation in the List of References is to allow the information to be retrieved again. You therefore need to provide the information that will allow your reader to retrieve the material you cite. 2 There are minor variations in the way the lists are formatted for different house styles. It is essential to establish the formatting required, and to keep to it rigidly and consistently. 3 There are standard abbreviations for the journals. Don't make them u p refer to one of the standard publications found in libraries. One of the
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most convenient is Periodical Tztle Abbreviations (1996), 10th Edition, Volumes 1-3, edited by L.G. Alkire, and published by Gale Research Company, Detroit, Michigan. Volume 1 enables you to search by abbreviation, Volume 2 by title. 4 Be sure that every full stop or comma is in the right place, and all other aspects of the formatting are correct. Formatting of references is riddled with convention, and assessors often check this area very thoroughly.
Listing the uarious types of sources A generalized scheme is shown here. But be aware that there can be minor variations in order and formatting of the individual items; it depends on the house style of the institution or journal.
Journal papers 9 Surname and initials of the author(s) (surname first, followed by the initials). 9 The year of publication in round brackets (). 9 T/t/e of the paper. 9 The name of the journal (in its correctly abbreviated form (see Note 3, above). 9 The volume number of the journal, usually in bold face (with the issue number, if there is one, in brackets, see examples 1 and 2 below). 9 The numbers of the pages on which the paper begins and ends. Note: The actual page from which your information is taken is not cited.
Single author
Zizzi, P.A. (1999) Quantum foam and de Sitter-like universe. Int. J. Theor. Phys., 38 (9), 911-918.
Two authors
Rippon, P.J. and Stallard, G.M. (1999) Iteration of a class of hyperbolic meromorphic functions. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 127 (11), 3251-3258.
Multiple author
Dufton, P.L., McErlean, N.D., Lennon, D.J. and Ryans, R.S.I. (2000) An exploratory non-LTE analysis of B-type super-giants in the small Magellanic cloud. Astronom. and Astrophys., 353 (1), 311-321.
Paper in the proceedings of a conference. As for a journal paper but in addition: State the number of the conference, its title theme, the place it was held and the date.
Bhattacharya, B., Egyd, P. and Toussaint, G.T. (1991) Computing the wingspan of a butterfly. Proc. Third Canadian Conference in Computational Geometry (Vancouver), Aug 6-10. pp 88-91.
REFERENCING
Paper in language other than English, not translated. Put (in language) at end of the citation. The title may remain in the original language, or be translated into English.
177
MUller, R. (1955) Wasserfassungen in GeschiebefC~hrenden Fli3ssen. Wasser- und Energiewirtschaft, 9, 11-13 (in German). Gorb, S.N. (1989) Functional morphology of the arrester-system in Odonata. Vestn. Zool. 1989, 62-67 (in Russian).
Books
9 Surname and initials of the author(s) or editor(s) (surname first, followed by the initials). If editor, place Ed. after the initials. 9 The year of publication. 9 T/tle of the book (underlined or in italics, and with the 'main' words (everything except articles, prepositions and conjunctions) capitalized). For the conventions, see 'Capitalization of book titles', page 193, Chapter 15, Editorial Conventions 9 If there is a subtitle, it is separated from the main title by a colon (:) (see example 1 ). 9 ~tle of series, if applicable. 9 Volume number or number of volumes, if applicable. 9 Edition, if other than the first.
9 Publisher. 9 Place of publication (city or town). 9 Page numbers of the material quoted (if applicable).
One or more authors
Barrett, C.S. and Massalski, T.B. (1980) Structure of Metals: Crystallographic Methods, Principles and Data. Pergamon Press, Oxford,
One volume of a multi. volume work
Erd61yi, A. Ed. (1955) Higher Transcendental Functions. Vol. 3. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Second or later edition of book
Kornberg, A. and Baker, T.A. (1992) DNA replication. Second edition. W.H. Freeman and Co., New York.
A chapter or article in an
Kahn, R.A., Martin, T.Z., Zurek, R.W. and Lee S.W. (1992). 'The Martian dust cycle'. In: Mars. Eds: H.H. Kieffer, B.M. Jakosky, C.W. Snyder and M.S. Matthews. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona. pp. 1017-1053.
the
edited book 9 The chapter title is enclosed in speech marks. 9 The name of the book is preceded by In: 9 Page numbers preceded by pp.
Thomas, C.J.R. (1993) 'The polymerase chain reaction'. In: Methods in Plant Biochemistry, VoL 10: Molecular Biology. Ed: J. Bryant, Academic Press, London. pp. 117-140.
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Other types of sourees Note: If the author is not stated describe them as fully as possible, in the style of the relevant examples below. The order of the items cited is: 9 9 9 9
The title of the document should be cited first. Date (when possible). The organization/institution that produced the document. Any identifying number, such as designation code, or contract number.
For citation in the text: use an abbreviated form of the title.
Thesis
Johnson, C.E. (2000) A Study of Residual Stresses in Titanium Metal Matrix Composites. PhD Thesis, University of Middletown.
Student project
Bridges, A.J. (1999) Mathematical modelling of land-mine detection. Engineering Science Project, School of Engineering, The University of Middletown.
Lecture material
If the writer's name is stated: Carter, R. (1996) Robotics. Lecture handout, Engineering and Society, The University of Middletown. If the writer is unknown: Wetlands (1996). Lecture handout, Conservation Ecology, The University of Middletown.
Laboratory manual
Strain measurement (1998). Year Two Mechanical Engineering Laboratory Manual, The University of Middletown, 46-49.
Newspaper article
Author is known: Nicholson-Lord, D. (1995) Does work make you stupid? Independent on Sunday, 29 January, p. 21. Author is unknown: Could alcohol be good for your liver? The Week, 13 November 1999.
Magazine article
Author is known: Crystal, D. (1999) The death of language. Prospect, November 1999, 12-14. Author is unknown: Shades of green (1998). Consumer, Number 344, 21-24.
Technical report
Hilley, M.E. Ed. (1971) Residual Stress Measurement by X-Ray Diffraction. SAE Information Report J784a, Society of Automotive Engineers, New York.
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Microfiche
Buckley, D.H. (1985) Tribological Properties of Structural Ceramics. NASA, Washington DC. Microfiche.
Government and legal documents:
CORINAIR Working Group on Emission Factors for Calculating 1990 Emissions from Road Traffic, 1 (1993). Commission of the European Committees (Office for Official Publications, Luxembourg).
9 The first element of information is the government department, committee or body. The last two may also be referenced by the name of the chairperson. 9 Include the complete title. Section of an Act of Parliament
Risk assessment and notification requirements (1990) Environment Protection Act 1990 (c. 43), Part VI - Genetically Modified Organisms, Section 108. Act of Parliament, United Kingdom. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
Report by a professional body
Recycling Household Waste- The Way Ahead (1991). Association of Municipal Engineers, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London.
Engineering code
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete and Commentary (1989). ACI Committee 318, American Concrete Institute, Detroit.
Standard specification
Standard Specification for Urea-Formaldehyde Molding Compounds (1994). Designation D705-94. American Society for the Testing of Materials, Annual Book of ASTM Standards 1999. 08.01 Plastics (I), 92-93.
Standard test method
Standard Test Methods for Thermoplastic Insulations and Jackets for Wire and Cable (1996). Designation D2633-96. American Society for the Testing of Materials, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 1998, 10.02 Electrical Insulation (11), 25-38.
Standard practice
Standard Practice for Algal Growth Potential Testing with Selenastrum capricornutum (1993). Designation D-3978-80 (Reapproved 1993). American Society for the Testing of Materials, Annual Book of ASTM Standards 1997, 11.05, Biological Effects and Environmental Fate; Biotechnology; Pesticides, 29-33.
Patent
Kuhn, K.J., Wehner, W., Zinke, H. (2000) Stabilizer combination for chlorine-containing polymers. US Patent number 6 013 703.
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Map
Swansea and The Gower (1974) Ordnance Survey Sheet 159, 1:50 000, First Series. Director General of the Ordnance Survey, Southampton.
Consulting report Include name of consulting firm, contract number and for whom the report was prepared.
Wylie Stream Intake Feasibility Report (1997). James Consultants Ltd, Contract TKA 99/136. Prepared for Middletown Central Electricity Generation.
Undated documents Put (undated) where the date is normally placed.
Predicting Traffic Accidents from Roadway Elements on Urban Extensions of State Highways (undated). Bulletin 208, New Zealand Highway Research Board.
Fact/data sheet: no author, undated
Twintex TPP fact sheet (undated). Verdex International S.A.
CD article; video or audio cassette State whether a CD, or video or audio cassette.
Radio Frequency and Wavelength Ranges (1999) Microsoft Encarta. CD. The Life of Plants (1995). BBC Natural History Unit Production. Video-cassette.
Electronic references The conventions for bibliographic citation of electronic sources - such as W W W homepages, databases, emails and conference proceedings on the w e b - are covered very thoroughly in: Li, X. and Crane, N.B. (1996) Electronic Styles: a Handbook for Citing Electronic Information. Information Today, Medford, NJ.
Please refer to this book for the conventions for citing: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
discussion lists USENET Newsgroups personal mail Government and legal documents CD-ROM and commercial databases FTP sites Telnet sites W W W homepages audiovisual material conference proceedings and symposia radio/television transcripts theses and dissertations abstracts
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In general terms, the citation of an electronic source needs the following information: 1 2 3 4 5 6
author (if authored) its title date of construction of the material in round brackets () [Online] Available: followed by the URL the date you accessed it in square brackets []
To illustrate some of the conventions, here are details for citing: 1 2 3 4
a W W W page a paper from online conference proceedings an online journal article abstracts from databases: 9 conference proceedings 9 journal article
5 a personal e m a i l 6 a discussion list
W W W page If authored, author's name is the first item. Otherwise: 9 Title of the web page (in italics) 9 If it's a homepage: Homepage of . . . (in square brackets). If not a homepage, leave it out 9 Last update or copyright date (in round brackets) 9 Online (in square brackets) 9 Available: 9 URL 9 The date you accessed it (in square brackets)
Sports Wheelchairs(1999, 7 Maylast update). [Online]. Available: www.mobifityproducts, coml sprt-whl.htm [1999, September 9]
A paper from online conference
Silberberg, D.P. and Semmel, R.D. (1994). The Starview flexible query mechanism. In Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems III ASP Conference Series [Online], 61. Available: http:llcadwww.dao.nrc.cal A DASSladass_procl adass31papersl silberbergdlsilberbergd.html [1999, August 25]
proceedings Author Year (in round brackets). Paper title. In: Proceedings title Online (in square brackets) Volume and issue number Paging or length (if given) Available: Address/Path/File Access date (in square brackets)
Composites Manufacturing Technology (Penn State University) (1999, June 17 -last update). [Online]. Available: http :ll esmnac8, esm.psu, edulhtmlsl deptinfolcmtclcmtc.html [1999, September 8]
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Online journal article
Ansari, A. (1999) Langevin modes of analysis of myoglobin. Journal of Chemical Physics [Online serial], 110 (3). Available: http:llojps.aip.orgl journalsldoclJCPSA6-ftlvol_ 1101iss_ 311774_ 1-divO.html [1999, Dec. 15].
Abstracts from databases Include the database and the identification number of the citation. 9 Conference proceedings
Fukuda, T. and Kubota, N. (1998) Intelligent robotic systems - from a single robot to multiple robotic system. International Workshop on Advanced Motion Control, July 1998, [Online]. Available: Compendex Web/2361990 [2000, February 9]
9 Journal article
Novara, M., Putz, P., Marechal, L., Losito, S. (1998) Robotics for lunar surface exploration. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 23, (11-2), 53-63, March 1998, [Online]. Available: Compendex Web/2650548 [2000, February 8]
Personal email Because these are personal communications and cannot be readily retrieved by the general public, most authorities believe that no entry should appear in the List of References. Instead, either (a) acknowledge it in the text in round brackets
(a) The medium was maintained at a pH of 6.4 (H.R. Jones, email to author, April 1,2000).
or
or
(b) as a pers. comm. (see 'Personal Communications', page ???).
(b) The medium was maintained at a pH of 6.4 (H.R. Jones, pers. comm.)
A discussion list Treat a discussion list message as an email (see previous entry) or list it as follows:
Atkins, A.G. (2000, February 2) Parchment. Biomimetics Discussion List [Online]. Available email:
[email protected] [2000, February 8]
For a real-time message or discussion: Author Date (Year, Month, Day) Subject of message or discussion Name of Discussion List (in italics) Online (in square brackets) Available email: NAME OF DISCUSSION LIST@email address Access date (in square brackets)
REFERENCING
183
For a message obtained by searching the list's archive: Substitute LISTERV for DISCUSSION LIST in the email address. Note: If the message is unsigned, use the author's log-in name in uppercase letters.
Examples of text and the corresponding List of References for the two systems These examples show how to cite material in the text and construct the corresponding References section for ( 1 ) the a u t h o r - d a t e system and (2) the numbering system. T h e same text passage and citations are used for each one.
Example: ~uthor-date system
Preciseplating of reference, referring to the studentproj-
The recent reconstruction of a trebuchet, the mediaeval siege engine, as a student project in engineering (O'Connor, 1994) has provided fascinating new insights into the mechanical efficiency of these hurling devices.
Repeatof a previously reference
Used in ancient times to hurl everything from rocks to plague-ridden carcases of horses (O'Leary, 1994) and, in a modern four-storey-high reconstruction, dead pigs, Hillman cars and pianos (O'Connor, 1994), the trebuchet relied on the potential energy of a raised weight.
Notes
ect
cited
Author mentioned in text
Three references in a series,
placedin chronologica|
order, separated by semicolons
A n 'et aZ.'
referer,c~- more
than two authors
Preciseplacingof references in the text; one referring to the palintonon, and a different one to the onager
Its mechanical efficiency has been compared unfavourably by Gordon (1978) with that of the palintonon, the Greek hurling device, which could hurl 40 kg stone spheres over 400 metres (Hacker, 1968; Marsden, 1969; Soedel and Foley, 1979). This device incorporated huge twisted skeins of tendon, a biomaterial that can be extended reversibly to strains of about 4% (Wainwright et al., 1976). The palintonon utilized the principle of stored elastic strain energy - the fact that when a material that has been deformed is unloaded it returns to its undeformed state due the release of stored energy (Benham and Crawford, 1987). The motion of the palintonon (Hart, 1982) and that of its Roman equivalent, the onager (Hart and Lewis, 1986), has been analysed by use of the energy principle applied to the finite torsion of elastic cylinders.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCEAND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
References Book. Note publisher, place of publication (Harlow) and relevant pages
Book
Chapter in book. The book is Volume 9 of a series called Technology and Culture
Paper in journal
Paper in journal
Book
Article in magazine, no volume number Editorial in magazine
Article in journal with volume number More than two authors. An 'et al.' reference in the text
Benham, P.P. and Crawford, R.J. (1987) Mechanics of Engineering Materials. Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow, pp. 66-68. Gordon, J.E. (1978) Structures or Why Things Don't Fall Down. Penguin, Harmondsworth, pp. 78-89. Hacker, B.C. (1968) 'Greek catapults and catapult technology: science, technology and war in the ancient world.' In: Technology and Culture, 9, No. 1, pp. 34-50. Hart, V.G. (1982) The law of the Greek catapult. Bull. Inst. Math. AppL, 18, 58-68. Hart, V.G. and Lewis, M.J.T. (1986) Mechanics of the onager. J. Eng. Math., 2.0, 345-365. Marsden, E.W. (1969) Greek and Roman Artillery. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 86-98. O'Connor, L. (1994) Building a better trebuchet. Mechanical Engineering, January, 66-69. O'Leary, J. (1994) Reversing the siege mentality. Mechanical Engineering, January, 4. Soedel, W. and Foley, V. (1979) Ancient catapults. Scientific American, 240, 150-160. Wainwright, S.A., Biggs, W.D., Currey, J.D. and Gosline, J.M. (1976) Mechanical Design in Organisms. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp. 88-93.
Example: numerical system Notes
Another reference to Reference Number 1. Note that it is not assigned a new number Author mentioned in text
Three references in a series, separated by commas
Tex~
The recent reconstruction of a trebuchet, the mediaeval siege engine, as a student project in engineering [1] has provided fascinating new insights into the mechanical efficiency of these ancient hurling devices. Used in ancient times to hurl everything from rocks to plagueridden carcases of horses [2] and, in a modern fourstorey-high reconstruction, dead pigs, Hillman cars and pianos [1], the trebuchet relied on the potential energy of a raised weight. Its mechanical efficiency has been compared unfavourably by Gordon [3] with that of the palintonos, the Greek hurling device, which could hurl 40 kg stone spheres over 400 metres [4, 5, 6]. This device incorporated huge twisted skeins of tendon, a biomaterial that can be extended reversibly to strains of about 4% [7]. The palintonon utilized the principle of stored elastic strain energy - the fact that when a
REFERENCING
Precise placing of references in the text; one referring to the palintonon, and a diferent one to the onager
Article in magazine, no volume number Editorial in magazine Book. Note publisher, place of publication (Harmon&worth) and relevant pages Article in journal with volume number (240) in boldface Chapter in book. The book is Volume 9 of a series called Technology and Culture
Book
More than two authors
Book
Paper in journal
Paper in journal
185
material that has been deformed is unloaded it returns to its undeformed state due the release of stored energy [8]. The motion of the palintonon [9] and that of its Roman equivalent, the onager [10], has been analysed by use of the energy principle applied to the finite torsion of elastic cylinders. References 1. O'Connor, L. (1994) Building a better trebuchet. Mechanical Engineering, January, 66-69. 2. O'Leary, J. (1994) Reversing the siege mentality. Mechanical Engineering, January, 4. 3. Gordon, J.E. (1978) Structures or Why Things Don't Fall Down. Penguin, Harmondsworth, pp. 78-89. 4. Soedel, W. and Foley, V. (1979) Ancient catapults. Scientific American, 240, 150-160. 5. Hacker, B.C. (1968) 'Greek catapults and catapult technology: science, technology and war in the ancient world.' In: Technology and Culture, 9, No. 1, pp. 34-50. 6. Marsden, E.W. (1969) Greek and Roman Artillery. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 86-98. 7. Wainwright, S.A., Biggs, W.D., Currey, J.D. and Gosline, J.M. (1976) Mechanical Design in Organisms. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp. 88-93. 8. Benham, P.P. and Crawford, R.J. (1987) Mechanics of Engineering Materials. Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow, pp. 66-68. 9. Hart, V.G. (1982) The law of the Greek catapult. Bull. Inst. Math. AppL, 18, 58-68. 10. Hart, V.G. and Lewis, M.J.T. (1986) Mechanics of the onager. J. Eng. Math., 20, 345-365.
Using direct quotations Quotations A technical document very rarely uses direct quotations set in quotation marks. If they are needed, they should be very brief i n d e e d - no more than a few words. Avoid quoting blocks of text; instead of quoting word-for-word, it is much more important to develop the skill of rephrasing others' work and ideas into your own words. (For copying large blocks of text, see 'Plagiarism', page 168).
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Conventions for direct quotations A direct quotation. Enclose it in quotation marks
('...').
According to Huxley, 'science is nothing but trained and organized common sense'.
Very slight changes are needed to a quotation so that it fits into your prose. For example, a capital letter may need to be changed to lower case, or a noun substituted for a pronoun, or a noun or phrase inserted, so that it makes more sense. These changes are indicated by square brackets [].
Steven Jay Gould (1985) has stated that 'the history [of human races] is largely a tale of division -an account of barriers and ranks erected to maintain the power and hegemony of those on top'.
Part of a quote needs to be omitted because it is irrelevant to your document Use three dots to show the omission. It is important that t h e sense of a quotation is not altered by the omission.
Inkster (1991) has said that 'the role of technological change ... may be exaggerated but it may also be underestimated'.
(The original quote: 'The history is largely... '.)
Compiling a Bibliography The conventions used for compiling a Bibliography are: 9 9 9 9
Each listed citation is formatted as for a List of References (see above). The items are listed in alphabetical order. The list is not numbered. It is common practice to indent each line of a reference after the first. Use the hanging indent function on a word processor (Ctrl T on Microsoft Word|
Example of a Bibliography Bibliography Benham, P.P. and Crawford, R.J. (1987) Mechanics of Engineering Materials. Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow, pp. 66-68.
REFERENCING
187
Gordon, J.E. (1978) Structures or Why Things Don't Fall Down. Penguin, Harmondsworth, pp. 78-89. Hacker, B.C. (1968) 'Greek catapults and catapult technology: science, technology and war in the ancient world.' In: Technology and Culture, 9, No. 1, pp. 34-50. Hart, V.G. (1982) The law of the Greek catapult. Bull. inst. Math. AppL, 18, 58-68. Marsden, E.W. (1969) Greek and Roman Artillery. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 86-98. O'Connor, L. (1994) Building a better trebuchet. Mechanical Engineering, January, 66-69. Soedel, W. and Foley, V. (1979) Ancient catapults. Scientific American, 240, 150-160. Wainwright, S.A., Biggs, W.D., Currey, J.D. and Gosline, J.M. (1976) Mechanical Design in Organisms. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp. 88-93.
Common mistakes 1 Citing a reference in the text and leaving it out of the List of References, and vice versa. 2 The date of the text citation does not correspond with that of the citation in the List of References. These two faults tend to be regarded as unforgiveable by many assessors. 3 In the List of References: - Inconsistencies of formatting. - Using a non-standard abbreviation for a journal. - Insufficient details given: in particular, omitting the publisher and place of publication of a book. 4 Not inverting the author and the initials: for example, instead of the correct form of Smith, A.N., putting A.N. Smith. 5 Unobtainable references. 6 Incorrect volume and page numbers.
Checklist: References V! References are needed when: you cite factual material from the literature [] you quote directly from another work V1 Decide whether you need a List of References or a Bibliography. Most departments need a List of References.
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[--1 List of References: the two main systems- there are minor variationsof citing references are: [] the author-date (Harvard) system [] the numbering system [3 Formatting of the List of References: [] In the author-date system, the sources are listed alphabetically by the surname of the first author. [] In the numbering system, they are listed sequentially according to the number given them in the text. D Make sure each reference is formatted consistently and accurately. [--1 In the text cite each reference according to the conventions of the system you are using. I--1 For a Bibliography, use the same conventions for writing out each of the full references. Then list them alphabetically. Then check: [El For each one of your text citations, is there the corresponding reference in the List of References? And vice versa? El Does the date of the text citation match the date in the full reference in the List of References? [2 Are all the references in the List of References formatted consistently? Fq Are all the necessary details there?
Chapter I $
Editorial conventions This chapter covers the following most common aspects of confusion about editorial conventions: 9 Citing numbers in the text. 9 Formatting equations. 9 Rules for capitalization of: - titles of books, journals, journal articles in the List of References - text references to illustrations, sections, chapters, pages - headings and subheadings - figure and table captions 9 Defining terms by acronyms. 9 Placement of titles of figures and tables. 9 Numbering of: - chapters/sections illustrations - appendices - pages 9 Genus, species and variety names. -
Technical documents have specific rules and conventions of editorial style. This chapter describes the common ones that are generally observed and which cause the most confusion. Make sure, though, that supervisors do not have their own personal preferences.
For guidelines for formatting that are specific to your discipline, see Appendix 3: Style Manuals for Specific Disciplines, page 274.
Conventions for numbers in the text Figures or words? Measured quantities: use figures This includes, in particular, decimal points, dimensions, degrees, distances, weights and measures.
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For example: 2.4 seconds
$5000 50~ 9 kilometres 6 tonnes
3 amps
Counted numbers One to ten: use words O n e . . . seven . . . ten More than ten: use figures 11 t o . . . Measurements were taken in five areas. Measurements were taken in 11 areas.
A number at the beginning of a sentence: use words, regardless of its size. Two hundred and seventy samples were taken.
Ordinal numbers The rules for ordinal numbers (first, second, t h i r d . . . 11th . . . ) follow the same rules as those given above for counted numbers (one, two, t h r e e . . .
11...). ~q series of numbers Where there is a mixed series of numbers greater and less than ten, use figures: Samples were taken over periods of 3, 6 and 12 hours.
Percentages: use figures The results showed that 8 per cent of the samples were contaminated.
Note per and cent are two words, but percentage and percentile are single words.
Fractions: use words Fractions are usually spelled out unless they are part of a large number: During this period approximately one fifth of the bait was taken.
N o t e Such numbers are usually better represented in technical writing as percentages or decimals: During this period approximately 20% of the bait was taken.
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EDITORIAL CONVENTIONS
Dates and times: use #igure$ Sampling began on 8 October. Sampling began at 8.30 am (or 08:30).
For dates, use the format: Day (in figures) Month (written out) Year (in figures) (with no punctuation between the elements). Correct: 8 October 2001 Incorrect: 8110101 (different countries use different formats when using only figures; it can cause confusion) 8th October 2001 (is going out of fashion) October 8, 2001
Reference in the text to figures and tables: use figures Figure and table numbers are never spelled out: Figure 3 shows that... ...
( T a b l e 2)
Summary table Numbers
Rule~Convention
Example
Measured quantities
Figures
6 tonnes, 3 amps
Counted numbers One to ten More than ten
Words Figures
. . . in five areas . . . in 11 areas
Number at the beginning of a sentence
Words
Twenty samples were taken.
Ordinal numbers
Same as for counted numbers (above)
(first, second, t h i r d . . . 11th...)
A series of numbers above and below 10
Figures
. . . over periods of 3, 6 and 12 hours
Percentages
Figures
. . . that 8 per cent of the samples...
Fractions
Words
. . . one fifth of the bait was taken
(But better expressed as a percentage.) Dates and times
Figures
. . . on 8 October . . . at 8.30 am (or 08:30)
Reference in the text to figures and tables
Figures
Figure 3 shows t h a t . . . . . . (Table 2)
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Formatting equations in the text There are minor variations in styles of formatting equations. The following shows a good general style:
Notes
Text
Equation is centred
The value of the shear stress at a distance r from the axis is given by
Equation number in brackets is tabbed to the right margin. This is equation number 5 in Section 3 of the report. In the text refer to the equation as either 'Eq. (equation number)' or 'equation {equation number)'. Be consistent in your use of one or the other throughout your text.
T-'Or
dx
(3.5)
Eq. (3.5) shows that the shear stress acting on the circular cross-section is linear in the radius r.
For a sequence of equations in which the left-hand side is unchanged: Align the = symbol in each line.
C1x u (x ) = - A E
qo x2
(x-e)ae
+
2 AE
+
AE
Clx AE
For continued expressions in which the left side is long: Align the = symbol with the first operator in the first line.
[(Cll + /6/2) + (allSl + a21s2)]/[(bl + ib2)
+
(bllSl + b21s2)]
= f(x)g(y)+... For expressions in which the the right-hand side is long: Align the continuing operator with the first term to the right of the = symbol.
V(x) = - P ( x ) ~ + P ( x - a) ~ + P ( x - ( L - a)} ~
P(x- L ~
+ C 1
Built-up fractions should be avoided in text. Instead use solidus fractions
1/(x+y).
EDITORIAL CONVENTIONS
193
Rules for capitalization Titles of books and journals General convention: capitalize the initial letters of the 'main' words in the titles, i.e. the words other than small words such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, etc. (Table 15.1) (see Appendix 2 for the meanings of these definitions). Correct term: title case.
Examples Structure of Metals" Crystallographic Methods, Principles and Data Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A Table 15.1 Common words that do not have initial capitals, unless they are the first word in the sentence Articles
the
a Prepositions
across by for to
up down of Conjunctions
and but so since because for although
Coordinators
if... then b o t h . . , and either.., or neither.., nor whether.., or
Titles of journal articles Use capitals only for the first word. Correct term: sentence case.
Replenishment of populations of reef fishes: are spatial patterns of recruitment consistent through time?
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Referring in the text to figures, tables, chapters, rows or columns of tables, pages Examples
Figures, Tables, Chapters, Sections
Use initial capitals when referring to specific figures, tables, chapters or sections
. . . is shown in Figure 3. . . . as given in Table 2. . . . is described in Chapter 6. . . . is analysed in Section 5.
Rows or Columns of Tables, Pages
Do not use initial capitals when referring to rows or columns of tables, or to pages.
. . . as given in row 2 of Table 12. . . . as given in column 3 Table 12. . . . is given in Section 4, pages 3 8 - 4 1 .
of
Headings and subheadings in the text and table of contents Initial capitals can be used to distinguish between the different levels of headings (see example of a 'Table of Contents' page 24, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter). For example: Top level headings (e.g. for chapter titles): full capitalization. Next level down: title case (main words are capitalized) Next level down: sentence case (first word is capitalized)
Figure and table captions Use capitals only for the first word (sentence case). Figure 4
A
typical graphite block heat exchanger
Defining terms by acronyms in the text Abbreviations of terms are often in the form of the initial capital letters of a series of words, and are usually called acronyms, e.g. PCR: polymerase chain reaction; SEM: scanning electron microscopy. The convention: the terms are spelled out at their first use in the text, followed by the abbreviation in brackets. The sample was examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
In the remainder of the text, you may then use only the abbreviation, but still define the term in a Glossary of Terms. Because of the difficulty in
EDITORIAL CONVENTIONS
195
finding the first usage in the text, it helps the reader i f - as well as being defined in the t e x t - abbreviations are also included in a section called 'Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations'. See 'Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations' page 27, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Placement of titles of figures and tables The table number and title is placed above a table. The figure number and title is placed below a figure. This is just one of those strange conventions. However, some graphing programs don't conform with it.
Table (number, caption)
Figure (number, caption) Figure 15.1
Placement of titles of figures and tables
Numbering of chapters and sections of documents, illustrations, pages, and appendices and their pages Numbering of chapters and sections of documents This section describes the conventions for the decimal point numbering system for numbering chapters or sections of a document, and their associated subheadings and sub subheadings.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
The main chapters/sections are given arabic numerals. The subsections are denoted by putting a decimal point after the section number and another arabic numeral: 1.0
2.0
3.0
Title 1.1 1.2 Title 2.1 2.2
of first main chapter/section First subheading Second subheading of second main chapter/section First subheading Second subheading 2.2.1 First division in the second subheading 2.2.2 Second division in the second subheading 2.2.3 Third division in the second subheading 2.3 Third subheading Title of third main chapter/section
For the formatting conventions of a Contents Page and numbering of pages, see 'Table of Contents', page 24, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. Numbering
of illustrations
9 Every illustration (figure or table) in a document must have:
- a number - a title - and must be referred to at an appropriate place in the text Table 2.1 shows t h a t . . . . . . the number of species varied (Figure 3).
9 There should be two numbering series: - One for all the figures, i.e. everything that isn't a t a b l e - graphs, maps, line drawings, flow diagrams etc. - Another for the tables. This means that there will be Figure 1, Figure 2 . . . and Table 1, Table ... The conventions for the numbering and captions of these two series are: 1 Numbering and captions of tables and figures: (a) Each table/figure in a document must have a unique number and title. (b) Table/figure numbers should be in arabic numerals, not written out (e.g. Figure 6, n o t Figure Six), and should be assigned in the order in which the tables/figures are referred to in the text. (c) In a large document the table/figure numbers can reflect the number of the section or chapter of which they are part. For example, Table
EDITORIAL CONVENTIONS
197
6.2 (the second table in Section 6). Try to avoid subdivisions such as Figure 6.3.2 (the second figure in section 6.3): it becomes too complicated and is rarely necessary. (d) The word Table or Figure and its number are followed by two spaces and the title. There should be no fullstop after the title, unless the title is followed by some explanatory text. (e) The title must be unique and informative. It should be a phrase, not a sentence. (f) The title may contain abbreviations and symbols that have been defined in the text. (g) If the title is long enough to take more than one line, the first line of the title should be the longest. The second and subsequent lines may align with the letter T in Table or F in Figure if the caption is flush with the table's/figure's left edge, or it may be indented. If the caption is centred on the figure, each line should be centred. (h) If you need to identify a source, it is set in brackets as the last element of the caption.
Figure 4.1 A typical graphite block heat exchanger (adapted from Hewitt, 1990) 2 For numbering of tables and figures in the Appendices: see below.
Numbering of/ppendices Appendices can be named either: Appendix 1, Appendix 2, Appendix 3 etc. or Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C etc. The page numbers of the Appendices are separate from those of the main body of the document, and are related to the numbering of the Appendix. For example: Page 1-1, 1-2, 1-3 etc. or page A - l , A-2, A-3 etc.
Illustrations in an appendix Tables and figures in Appendices do not belong to the two series in the main body of the document. They are labelled as two separate series in their own right, according to the numbering of the Appendix. Figure 1-1 (Figure 1 in Appendix 1), Figure 3-2 (Figure 2 in Appendix 3) etc. or Figure A-1 (Figure 1 in Appendix A), Figure C - 2 (Figure 2 in Appendix C) etc. or Figure 2: Appendix 3 etc.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE,qND ENGINEERING:PAPERS,PRESENTgTIONAND REPORTS
Numbering of pages The conventions associated with page numbering in a large document are: 1 Page 1 is the first page of the Introduction. 2 All the preliminary pages, i.e. those before the Introduction (Title Page, Abstract, Acknowledgements, Table of Contents, List of Illustrations, Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations etc.) are assigned lower-case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, v etc.). The first page that is counted is the Title Page, but it is not labelled as such; it is left blank. Each of the other preliminary pages (starting at page ii) is labelled with its number. 3 The page numbers of the Appendices: see above.
Genus, species and variety names The name of a species is in two parts, consisting of two Latin names: a genus name and a species epithet, e.g. Rosa acicularis. The conventions for the more simple aspects are given here. Use a style manual for greater detail (see Appendix 3: Style Manuals for Specific Disciplines). 9 The initial letter of the genus name is capitalized. 9 The initial letter of the species epithet is always in lower case. Note: It is a common mistake to capitalize it: Rosa acicularis not Rosa Acicularis. 9 The whole name is italicized. 9 A genus name should always be followed by a species epithet or, if the species is unknown, by 'species', 'sp.' (singular) or 'spp.' (plural), none of which is italicized, e.g. Rosa sp. 9 A genus name should be spelled out on first mention in the text. Thereafter it can be abbreviated to the initial letter followed by a full stop and the species epithet, e.g.R, acicularis. 9 A variety is written as follows: Rosa acicularis var. rotunda.
Chapter ! 6
Revising and proofreading: strategies This chapter covers: 9 The stages of revising the first and subsequent drafts of your document, with checklists for each stage. 9 Proofreading the final version of a document.
Definitions To clear up confusion about the difference between revising and proofreading, the follow definitions should be noted:
Revising Purpose: to improve the technical and literary aspects of the first and subsequent drafts of your document. Revising involves: 9 9 9 9
Deleting Altering Adding material Correction of errors
Proofreading Purpose: 9 To get rid of errors in your final draft that occur in typing, type composition or preparation of figures. 9 To do the same thing when a typeset manuscript is returned from an editor of a journal or book, immediately prior to publication. Proofreading involves: 9 Meticulous reading of your final draft or a typeset manuscript. 9 Correcting errors such as small typos, errors in alignment etc.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
The final stages of revising a document and proofreading it are extremely boring processes. But they have to be done; a document with errors is very unprofessional.
Revising your document Guidelines before you start revising 1 Spell-check the document. 2 Do a printout. Do not try to do it off the monitor; it is easier to notice mistakes on paper than on screen. Moreover, the monitor doesn't allow you to see the document as a whole, and therefore get an idea of its overall structure. 3 To avoid 'memory-reading', put the document aside for as long as possible. When you have read the document a number of times, you become too familiar with the text. You will tend to read from memory and miss some of the mistakes. Wait at least a day or two so that you come to the document fresh. 4 As another measure to help seeing it through fresh eyes, some people advise altering the format of a document so that it looks different from the way it appeared on the monitor.
The four-stage revising process The process of revising a document is not straightforward, and is iterative. The four-stage process presented here is a simplified model of what in fact happens. Stage Stage Stage Stage
One: Two: Three: Four:
Structure and content only Style, grammar, punctuation and equations Formatting Document integrity
Stage One: Structure and content only Guidelines for this stage: 1 Concentrate on just the structure of the document. This means that you have to actively ignore errors of style, typography and punctuation. Ignoring minor mistakes isn't easy. When you are revising a draft for the first time, you will find that the things you'll notice are errors of style, spelling and punctuation. If you allow yourself to get immersed in this fine detail, you won't be able to pick out errors of organization, and you will have lost any advantage gained from standing back from it for a while.
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2 While you are concentrating on the structure, rapidly make margin marks to show errors of style. Don't linger over these errors: don't allow yourself to be drawn into correcting them. Come back to them at the Stage Two. Ignoring small errors is difficult to do; you may find you need practise. 3 If possible, use the Outline mode of Microsoft Word | (For the basic details of this mode see Chapter 1: The General Structure of a Document, page 7.) The word processor Outline mode is a powerful tool for this first stage of revision, in which the overall organization of the document is assessed. 9 By collapsing the document and selecting to display only the Level One headings, you can check the overall structure of the document in terms of only its main headings. 9 By progressively displaying greater levels of subheadings, you can obtain an increasingly more detailed view of the structure of the document. 4 When you have determined the optimal structure for the information: 9 Cut and paste the document into the order you require. With all cutting and pasting, be aware that it is easy to produce nonsense sentences, with discontinuities and repeated or omitted words. 9 Make a new printout. Having the information in the right order makes the next stage - correcting the style, grammar and punctuation - much easier. 9 This means that when you correct this second printout, you'll have to cross-check the margin marks for the non-organizational errors that you made on the first printout.
Stage one checklist: structure and content Examine your assignment critically in an overall way. Look only for errors of organization. V1 Have you followed your plan? I-1 Is the overall structure logical? V1 Are the sections in a logical order? V1 Are the subsections within a section in a logical order?
Stage two: Style, grammar, punctuation and equations After you have sorted out the structure of the document, go back and polish up detail of style.
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Stage two checklist: Style, grammar, punctuation a n d equations Page number Writing for your audience Are you writing for your readers, not for yourself?
Chapter 8: Consulting or Management Report and Recommendation Report, page 113. Chapter 7: Progress Reports, page 108.
Could your side-headings be improved? Paragraphs Are the breaks between the paragraphs logical?
224
Sentences Are you writing in 'real' sentences? Are your sentences too long? Are they bitty? Do they need linking? Verbs Are you using the distorted passive or other lifeless verbs? Are you using the right tense? Is there subject-verb agreement?
230 223
226, 228 229 228
Words Have you spell-checked it? Have you proofread it after the spell-check, to eliminate correctly spelled garbage? Are you using pompous words where short ones would be better? Are you using jargon or clich6s? Have you used phrases with too many words? Should you be using I or We, instead of a pompous construction such as 'It is the belief of the authors that ...'? Are you using I or We too often? Are there colloquialisms? Are there contractions (don't, can't, etc.)? Are you using the right word (affect~effect, led/lead, lose~loose, etc) ? Are you writing numbers correctly (ten or 10)? Does the capitalization of headings follow the conventions?
214 215 222 221
225 210 216 189 193
Punctuation Are your commas and full stops effective? Are the apostrophes used correctly? Could you use linking semicolons to vary the cadence of your writing?
212 109 213
Equations Are they correctly laid out?
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Stage three: Formatting This stage can often be combined with Stage Two. ~uidelines
1 A piece of professional writing should be visually strong. It shouldn't look boring or daunting. 2 Make sure that each formatting decision you make is for a good reason. If you just play with it, you'll end up with a document that looks disordered. Some of the options for formatting are:
Larger
For emphasis: boldface type; italics: f o n t or Different font for headings. But use these with discretion. Too many different fonts can look messy. The usual guideline is: no more than two fonts in one document. Avoid large blocks of text in italics or UPPERCASE. They are known to be difficult to read and discouraging. 9 Justified right-hand margins. Justified text looks more organized and professional. However, ragged text is known to be easier to read, because of the evenness of the spacing. 9 Reduce the packing density of the text. Information is more readily absorbed if it's not too dense on the page. Use: Wide margins. - Listing in the text: bullet points or numbering. Using bullet points can be a powerful method of bringing your main points to the readers' attention. But if they are used indiscriminately, they can fragment a text into chaos. - Indented left-hand margins, for instance when using bullet points, under headings, or for demarcating text that you want to emphasize. However, avoid indenting so many times that the text is squeezed towards the right-hand side of the page. 9 Effective page breaks. Avoid the following poor breaks: - A heading at the bottom of the page (there should be at least two lines of text following a heading). - A short line (a widow) at the top of the page. - A table that is cut in two by a page break. - A page that ends with a hyphenated word.
I
-
Stage three checklist: Formatting Does your document: r--1 look interesting (avoid large expanses of black text)? [--1 use no more than two differerent fonts? [--1 use boldface intelligently?
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I-1 use listing within the text (bullet points, numbered lists) intelligently? [ZI have effective page breaks?
Stage Four: Document integrity The changes made during editing may cause a mismatch between parts of a document. Common problems are discrepancies in: 9 9 9 9
the numbering of section headings referring to figures in the text referencing correlation between the page numbers on the Table of Contents and in the text 9 missing figures, tables or sections of text These won't arise if you use: 9 the Outline mode on your word processor for: - cross-referring figures and tables to their references in the text - automatically generating a Table of Contents (which will list the sections and subsections, and their corresponding page numbers) and 9 specialist software to automatically correlate text citations with the citations in the List of References IMPORTANT: Be aware that moving a document from one computer to another, particularly to print it, can cause significant formatting changes. It will need to be checked immaculately.
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Stage four checklist: doeurnent integrity Cross-reference for detail Illustrations
Is each of your illustrations: E] numbered? El titled? El adequately labelled? El correctly referred to in the text?
'Illustrations', page 54, Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Text
El Are the headings and subheadings numbered consistently?
'Numbering of chapters and sections of documents', page 195 Chapter 15: Editorial Conventions.
Contents page
I-1 Does the wording of headings match up with the text headings? [21 Is the numbering of each heading and its subheadings consistent? El Is the formatting (indenting) of the Table of Contents consistent? I-1 Are the page numbers correct? Bibliographic details I-1 For each one of your text citations, is there the corresponding reference in the List of References? And vice versa? El Does the date of the text citation match the date in the full reference in the List of References section? El Are all the references in the List of References section formatted consistently? El Are all the necessary details there?
'Table of Contents', page 24 Chapter 2: The Core Chapter.
Chapter 14: Referencing, page 167.
Proofreading the final version When you will need to proofread 1 It is vital to proofread any document you produce, as the final stage of the process. 2 In addition, if you have had a paper accepted by a journal, you will also need to proofread the typeset version sent to you by the editor. You will be expected to use the standard proofreading symbols used by professional editors.
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Purpose of proofreading By meticulous reading, to get rid of: 9 typographical errors (typos) 9 errors that have passed through the word processor (e.g. where you have typed it instead of is, etc.) 9 omissions 9 irregular spacing 9 mismatches in fonts and formatting 9 errors in punctuation 9 errors in spelling, particularly of non-standard words (such as brand names) that you may have told the spell-checker to ignore 9 errors in equations, figures and tables Authors are sometimes poor proofreaders because they are so close to the work. They simply don't see the mistakes. This may cause a problem.
Proofreading when you have finished writing your document Proofreading involves the capturing and correcting of detail. Even if you have created something well argued and structured, if proofreading is neglected it can damage your professional image and prejudice your efforts to produce an impressive document. The major proofread should be done after you have revised and edited for the last time. You may have done it along the way, in the interests of producing something readable, but its importance lies in the final process.
(;uidelines for good proofreading 9 To proofread well, you have to be fanatical about detail. Many people are not. 9 To be able to see the detail, you have to abandon your usual method of reading something, which usually involves skimming and predicting what's to come. 9 If you read it normally, you'll see only what you think you wrote. Don't let your document lead you by the nose; try to read it as objectively as you can.
Strategies Many of these strategies are for the people who usually work holistically and who don't see detail. They will force you to get away from your normal reading process, slow down and be methodical.
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207'
1 Stand back from it (as in revising - See page 200, this chapter). 2 Use a printout: don't try to do it off the monitor (as in revising - See page 200, this chapter). 3 Use a pointer (a pen or pencil), or a ruler to slide down line by line. This forces you to look at each word, letter and punctuation mark. 4 Read your document aloud, either to yourself or to someone who has a duplicate copy. 5 Ask a friend or colleague to proofread it as well. Don't use your supervisor for t h i s - they will expect you to get it right by yourself. But don't rely on the other person too much; they won't have your vested interest in getting it absolutely correct. 6 Alter the appearance of the document. You can make it look different from when you last read it by altering the margin width or the line spacing. 7 Read your draft more than once, concentrating on a different aspect each time. You could, for instance, look at the consistency of your headingstheir numbering, fonts and indentations. You will find different errors in the separate passes through your document. 8 Always check paired symbols such as punctuation marks and brackets, and particularly brackets enclosed by other brackets. 9 Check equations, figures and tables very carefully. 10 You may hear someone suggest reading the document backwards. Editors don't recommend this; it's too difficult.
Proofreading the printer's proof The printer's proof is the typeset version you receive back from the editor of the journal publishing your paper. You may receive either: 9 galley proofs: no page numbers, and with separate proofs of the figures, or 9 page proofs: the final layout, including figures and tables, and with the final page numbers At this point, it is absolutely essential to meticulously proofread it yet again. You will probably have submitted your paper to the editor on disk; therefore there shouldn't be too many errors. But you may still find that the process of typesetting it into its final form has introduced mistakes, and you will have to remove them. Use the above strategies yet again, but with the following additional procedures: 9 Show all the corrections in the margins of the proofs, using the correct symbols. 9 Pay special attention to the equations. You will certainly be more able to spot errors in your equations than any professional editor or proofreader,
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENT/~TION AND REPORTS
no matter how experienced. (See page 192, Chapter 15: Editorial Conventions, for guidelines on how to format long equations.) Check the headings and the figure captions. Check the tables carefully. Complex tables can become muddled during the typeseting process. Check the following: The vertical and horizontal alignment of the numerals. - The positioning of the headings. The numerical values against your original values. Check the final form of the figures. If graphs and figures have been redone, check: - The accuracy of the curves in graphs, and of the heights of bars in bar charts - The axis labels - Cropped photographs, to ensure that they have been cropped at the correct place If the proofs are page proofs, check that the figures and tables and their captions are correctly placed and numbered. -
-
9
9
Use the standard symbols. The copy-editor will need you to use the symbols used by professional editors. The journal may supply a list If not, you can find them in style manuals (see Appendix 3: Style for Specific Disciplines, page 274). There is a large variety of however, the ones you will use most are: cf7
standard of these. Manuals symbols;
Delete Insert (word, character, punctuation mark, or space)
r
Close up space
Y
Increase space Align I
t.ta
Indent Use italics Use Roman lettering (to change from italics into 'standard' symbols)
~---
Uppercase Lowercase
Chapter 17
Problems of style
This chapter does not try to give comprehensive guidelines on stylistic elegance. Instead, using simple terms, it deals with some of the straightforward, frequently asked questions about style. It covers: 9 Punctuation - The apostrophe - Commas, semi-colons and colons Exclamation marks: don't use them - Rhetorical questions: don't use them 9 Words - Spelling: check it Making plurals/irregular plurals Pairs of words that are often mixed up Jargon phrases to avoid - Small words, not pompous ones - The split infinitive - Sentence length Paragraph length 9 Verbs and vivid language: - The voice: active/passive/distorted passive - Lifeless verbs Excessive use of nouns instead of verbs - Subject/verb agreement - Using the correct tense/form of the verb 9 Recognizing and correcting incomplete sentences. 9 W h e n English is a foreign language. -
-
-
-
-
-
Punctuation The apostrophe There are two areas where an apostrophe is used: 1 The possessive - showing who or what something belongs to. 2 C o n t r a c t i o n s - where two words have been informally squashed into one.
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The possessive The apostrophe shows who/what owns something. Use's if there is only one: the cell's chromosomes (the chromosomes in one cell)
Use s' if there are more than one: the cells' chromosomes (the chromosomes in a number of cells)
But: there is no apostrophe in yours (e.g. the booR is yours), hers, ours, theirs or its (e.g. the cell and its chromosomes, see also next section).
Contractions: don't use them Note: This book uses contractions throughout, but it's not an example of formal writing.
The apostrophe is used in a contraction to show that two words have been informally pushed together. Since contractions are informal, they should not be used in the types of writing covered in this book. The main contractions that cause confusion are: 1 it's 2 who's 3 everything ending i n . . . n't (wouldn't, hadn't etc.)
it's/its The mixing up of these two happens all the time, yet it's very easy to understand the difference. It's is the contracted, colloquial way to write it is or, less often, it has. Therefore: Never use it's in any formal writing. It's colloquial. It can only mean it is.
Wrong
Right
Because of overuse, the land has lost it's nutrients.
Because of overuse, the land has lost its nutrients
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211
Putting it right 9 Never write it's in formal writing. It's = it is.
For anything other than informal letters or notes, you will need the its f o r m - with no exceptions. A good way to check Read it aloud to yourself, saying every it's as it is. Does it is make sense? If so, write it. If not, write its.
Whose~who's This case is very like it's~its. Who's is a colloquial form of who is or who has.
Wrong
Right
Mr Smith, who's responsibility is the monitoring the outfall, says that...
Mr. Smith, whose responsibility is the monitoring the outfall, says that... (Does it m e a n who is? N o : so write
whose.) Mr Smith, who's responsible for
Mr. Smith, who is responsible for
monitoring the outfall, says that...
monitoring the outfall, says that... (Does it m e a n who is? Yes: so write
who is.)
Putting it right 9 If you mean who is or who has, write it. 9 All the other times, you'll need whose.
Euerything
ending in
...
n't
shouldn't, mustn't, wouldn't, didn't, can't, hadn't, etc. In any formal writing, the words should be written out in full: should not, must not, would not, did not, cannot, had not etc.
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Examples of contractions. Incorrect in formal writing
Wrong
Right
couldn't wouldn't wasn't weren't didn't shouldn't hadn't
The valve couldn't be opened.
could not would not was not were not did not should not had not
The young birds wouldn't feed. The stream wasn't polluted. The older birds weren't present. The water didn't contain PCBs. This procedure shouldn't have been followed. The company said it hadn't been informed.
....
Putting it right: summary Never use contractions in formal writing. Write them out in full. Particularly common are:
9 it's = it is 9 who's = who is 9 words ending i n . . . n't (don't, won't, can't, couldn't, shouldn't, etc. = do not, will not, can not, could not, should not etc.) Also: plurals are not made by adding 's. See 'Plurals', page 215.
Commas, semicolons and colons (For the use of quotation marks in referencing, see Chapter 14: Referencing, page 16 7.) Here are very brief guidelines to the main ways in which commas, semicolons and colons are used.
Using a
comma
A comma indicates a pause. You can often tell where a comma should be by saying the words to yourself. The places where commas are generally used are: 9 After each item in a series, but generally not before the final and" (Adjectives) The river is wide, turbulent and muddy. (Nouns) The most common birds on the island are sparrows, chaffinches, thrushes and blackbirds.
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213
(Phrases) The river-mouth is wide, with large shingle banks, extensive sand dunes and a small island. 9 To delimit a subclause from the main clause in a sentence: Increasing agriculture will cause an increase in global warming, the reason being that ruminants and paddy fields produce methane. When the engine was run on petrol the carbon dioxide emissions were higher, which was an indication of improved mixing.
9 After an introductory phrase or subclause: Although farmers have reduced their use of pesticides in this area in recent years, there is still local concern about the issue. By using better management practices, farmers have been able to reduce their use of pesticides.
9 To delimit material that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence: The island, although windswept, has a large number of different bird species.
Using a semicolon 9 Between two closely related independent clauses. The statement on each side of a semicolon should be able to stand alone as a sentence: The spill caused the level of toxins in the river to rise; as a result the entire fish population died.
9 Between items in a list when the items are punctuated by commas: Yesterday I ate muesli, bacon and eggs for breakfast; bread, cheese and pickles for lunch; and fish and chips for dinner.
Using a colon To introduce a list or series.
1 Before bullet points: The following topics will be discussed: 9 global warming 9 ozone depletion 9 volcanic hazards
2 Where it is all strung together, a colon precedes the listed points and semicolons separate them:
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Several features changed significantly during the sampling period: water temperatures decreased; ammonium levels increased to more than 150 ppm; dissolved oxygen fluctuated; and the pH rose at one stage to 8.3.
Exclamation marks: don't use them Breathless writing and exclamation marks are not appropriate in formal writing. Avoid phrasing such as: The world has a problem with carbon dioxide, of that we can be sure! There is now the possibility of restoring these sites back to their original (hopefully!) condition.
Rhetorical questions: don't use them These are questions asked so as to produce an effect rather than to gain information. They are usually not appropriate in a technical document. But they are frequently used by inexperienced writers, and sound very clumsy. Wrong: This study has shown that the nutrient level is low. What can be done about it? It can be remedied b y . . .
Corrected: This study has shown that the selenium level is low. It can be remedied b y . . .
Words Spelling: check it Never underestimate the effect that bad spelling has on the quality of a piece of writing. Some people don't notice when words are spelled wrongly; others are irritated because it interrupts the flow of the text. Many assessors fall into the second category. Use the spell-checker on the word processor: then proofread it: 9 Run everything through a spell-checker as a final stage before submission. The critical word here is final. Many mistakes creep in when last-minute amendments are done and spell-checking is then omitted in the general haste. 9 Even after spell-checking, never assume that a spell-checked assignment is error-free. Proofread it yet again. A spell-checker will pass words that you may not have intended - it instead of is, an instead of on.
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Example of post-spell-checked nonsense Here is a constructed example of something that would be passed by a spellchecker, but is nonsense. Each word has a maximum of only one mis-keyed letter: His technique cam also by applies to the analyses or gold bills. He surface oh a gulf bell hat dimpled an is, ant whet is travels thorough aid the flop around the bell it smother.
The intended version: This technique can also be applied to the analysis of golf balls. The surface of a golf ball has dimples on it, and when it travels through air the flow around the ball is smoother.
Commonly misspelt words in technical writing Wrong
Right
accomodation callibrated comparitive consistant equillibrium guage heirarchy intergrate proceedure recomend/reccomend rythm seperate speciman theoritical verses vise versa (and variations) yeild
accommodation calibrated comparative consistent equilibrium gauge hierarchy integrate procedure recommend rhythm separate specimen theoretical versus (as in describing a graph) vice versa yield ,,
Plurals 9 Never make a plural - more than one of s o m e t h i n g - by adding 's. Just add s. (-es if the word ends in o (potatoes) or sh (fishes)). 9 The plurals of abbreviations or dates don't have apostrophes.
Wrong
Right
Many river's Many plant's Many valve's PCB's The 1970's
Many rivers Many plants Many valves PCBs The 1970s
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Irregular plurals Words commonly used in science and technological writing that have irregular plural forms are: Singular
Plural
alga analysis antenna
algae analyses antennae (zoology) antennas (communications engineering) appendices axes bacteria criteria genera hypotheses larvae loci matrices media nuclei ova phenomena quanta radii species stimuli strata symposia vertebrae vortices
appendix axis bacterium criterion genus hypothesis larva lOCUS matrix medium nucleus ovum phenomenon quantum radius species stimulus stratum symposium vertebra vortex
Pairs of words that are often mixed up There are pairs of words or expressions that are often muddled. Some of the most common pairs are: Absorb/adsorb Affect/effect Complement/compliment Imminent/eminent It is composed of/it comprises Its/it's Lead/led Loose/lose Passed/past Principal/principle Their/there Whose/who's
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217
7tbsorbladsorb 7]bsorb 9 To take up by chemical or physical action. 9 The swallowing up or engulfing of something.
71dsorb The process of the adhering of atoms or molecules to exposed surfaces, usually of a solid. It should be used only when you need this precise meaning.
~iffeetleffect This is easy when you know how. Focusing on the commonest uses of the two words in most science and technological writing:
affect is a verb, effect is a noun (see Appendix 2 for guidelines on these terms). To affect something is to influence it (a verb): The pollution will a f f e c t the dissolved oxygen concentration. The pollution has a f f e c t e d the dissolved oxygen concentration.
The effect of something is the result or consequence of it (a noun): The pollution will have an e f f e c t on the dissolved oxygen concentration.
Wrong
Right
There are natural events, such as volcanoes or eruptions, which may effect the ozone layer.
There are natural events, such as volcanoes or eruptions, which may affect the ozone layer.
In some systems the fish were unable to be eaten, therefore effecting the food chain.
In some systems the fish were unable to be eaten, therefore affecting the food chain.
This report examines the affects of natural hazards on communities.
This report examines the effects of natural hazards on communities.
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Putting it right 9 Effect: Use effect or
effects as
nouns. This means:
a, an, the effect or the, some, several, a few, many, a couple of effects.
Wrong: this will effect the stream, this has effected the stream. 9 Affect: Use affects as a verb.
Correct: this affects something,
this will affect something, this has
affected something.
Wrong: the affects o f . . . 9 If it ends in
-ed,
you will almost certainly need
affected,
not
effected. Compliment and complimentary/Complement and complementary Compliments~complimentary Where you want to imply flattery:
He complimented the guest speaker on her presentation. You will receive a complimentary ticket to the dinner.
Complements~complementary 1 The finishing touches to a thing, fitting together, completing:
The formal garden complements the exterior of this superb house. 2 The scientific or mathematical meanings:
complementary complementary complementary complementary
angles colour relationship function
Imminent/eminent
Imminent: Soon, impending:
Their arrival is imminent.
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219
Eminent: Important, distinguished: She is an e m i n e n t scientist
It is composed of~it comprises There are two expressions that commonly get mixed up: is composed of and
comprises. Correct: It is c o m p o s e d of three parts or It c o m p r i s e s three parts. Incorrect: It is c o m p r i s e d of three parts.
Wrong
Right
The material used in dental fillings is an amalgam comprised of mercury and silver.
The material used in dental fillings is made of an amalgam comprising mercury and silver. or The material used in dental fillings is made of an amalgam composed of mercury and silver.
Putting it right
Comprised, comprises or comprising can never be followed by of.
Lead/led This has become confused because lead is pronounced in two different ways:
9 The element lead (Pb). 9 Will you lead the team? This word doesn't follow the same system as read, which is what often confuses people. The most common misuse is in:
Wrong
Right
This lead to pollution of the stream.
This led to pollution of the stream.
This has lead to more interest being shown in the hot air engine.
This has led to more interest being shown in the hot air engine.
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Putting it right Whenever you write/ead say it to yourself." 9 Does it sound like led? If so, write led (unless you mean the element lead, Pb). 9 Does it sound like leed? If so, write/ead.
Lose~loose In their most usual senses in science writing:
9 lose means to cease to possess or misplace 9 loose means not restrained
A loose fit. The cover was loose.
Wrong
Right
The breeding pairs will loose their chicks if conditions do not improve.
The breeding pairs will lose their chicks if conditions do not improve.
Passed/past Passed The law that has just been passed states t h a t . . . Somatic injury is not passed on to the next generation.
Past In the past. Past practices. Over the past year. The road runs past the waterfall.
Prineipal/p rineiple Principal The most important, the highest in rank, the foremost: The study was made up of five principal sections. The principal of the institution said t h a t . . .
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221
Prineiple A fundamental basis of something: Archimedes' principle. The chief investigator has no principles. The principles of the investigation w e r e . , .
Their~there Their is never followed by is, was, will, can, should, would, could, may, might. Wrong: Their was; their is; their could be/should be/would be; their will; etc. Right: There was; there is; there could be/should be/would be; there will; etc. On all other occasions (except when you are saying something is over there) you are likely to need their.
Wrong
Right
Their are a number of strategies that
There are a number of strategies that
countries can take.
countries can take. (You can't have
their and are together). In there advanced form they are superior to petrol engines.
In their advanced form they are superior to petrol engines.
Under high winds, small boats break from there moorings.
Under high winds, small boats break from their moorings.
Jargon phrases to avoid Some of the phrases to avoid: a window of opportunity all things being equal as a last resort as a matter of fact at the end of the day at this point in time comparing apples with apples conspicuous by its absence easier said than done effective and efficient if and when in the foreseeable future
in the long run in the matter of it stands to reason last but not least level playing field many and diverse needless to say on the right track par for the course slowly but surely the bottom line
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Write to inform, not to impress Guideline: write as you would speak in comfortable, serious conversation. When they write, many people tend to choose long words, thinking that they are more impressive than the shorter ones used in conversation. The result is pompous and tedious to read. When writing, think of the clearest way of expressing something. The reader will be impressed not by long words, but by clarity. The list below contains pairs of words that mean the same thing. Technical and professional writers will almost invariably choose the word in the first column, and end up sounding pompous. Your writing will be more direct if you choose the shorter word. But don't avoid the longer words altogether. Avoid using them exclusively, and aim for a mixture of long and short. This will help your reader not to be bored.
Pompous word
Short word
Anticipate Assist Commence Desire Endeavour Indicate, reveal Locate Purchase Request Require Terminate Utilize
Expect Help Start Want Try Show Find Buy Ask Need End Use
The split infinitive Split infinitives aren't nearly as important as they are often made out to be. There isn't, as many people suppose, a rule that says an infinitive should not be split; it is merely an invention observed by them in the mistaken belief that they are showing their knowledge of 'good' writing. Rigorously sticking to such outmoded ideas does just the opposite; it interferes with your ability to communicate effectively. Only misinformed pedants criticize a piece of writing because it contains a split infinitive. What is an infinitive? It is a verb form. When to is followed by a verb word (the 'doing' word), it is said to be an infinitive: to differentiate, to prepare, to analyse etc. A split infinitive is when words come between to and the verb word: They were urged to seriously reconsider their stand.
PROBLEMSOF STYLE
223
Pedants would insist that this sentence be rewritten. However, the three rewrites sound awkward: They were urged to reconsider seriously their stand. They were urged seriously to reconsider their stand. (This is ambiguous) They were urged to reconsider their stand seriously.
However, a lengthy interruption is not good: The political will is lacking to resolutely, wholeheartedly and confidently reform the tax system.
Sometimes, a split infinitive is needed to avoid ambiguity: He would like to really learn the language.
The alternatives are ambiguous: He would like really to learn the language could mean the same as He would really like to learn the language.
Putting it right Write whatever sounds the least awkward. Only misinformed people worry about split infinitives. However, you need to be aware that some assessors fall into this category. They will hunt split infinitives down and delight in pointing out each one. So avoid writing them if possible.
How long should a sentence be? Short sentences are more digestible. You can also get into less trouble with their construction. Modern writing and word processor grammar-checkers tend to describe sentences of over 25 words as too long. However, don't treat this as an absolute. Your readers will be bored if you deal them equal-length sentences one after another. The occasional longer sentence, if it is well constructed and not overloaded with ideas, will make your writing more interesting. Variety is important in sentence length. Aim for an average figure of 20-25 words per sentence, but oscillate around the mean.
How long should a paragraph be? As with sentences, varying the length of paragraphs is another way of avoiding boring your reader. Avoid very long paragraphs; black, uninterrupted text is discouraging.
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Many people find effective paragraphing tricky; knowing that long paragraphs are bad, many seem to decide quite arbitrarily on where paragraph breaks should be placed. The result is an incoherent text. It is difficult to give guidelines on how to paragraph effectively, but as a general rule it can be said: 9 One main idea per sentence. 9 One theme per paragraph. If there is a natural break in what you are writing, start a new one. 9 The first sentence of a paragraph - the topic sentence - should introduce the theme of each paragraph.
Verbs and vivid language Vivid language is not something that most people associate with technical writing. Yet if readers are given dull, impersonal prose, they get bored. A lot of technical writing is dull, and much of the problem is to do with the way we use verbs.
Rctive versus passive voice Many writing handbooks and word processor grammar-checkers tell us to use the active voice of the verb, not the passive. This is not useful advice - most scientists and engineers have no idea what the active and the passive voices of the verb are. We will now ask: 9 What is meant by the active and passive voices? 9 Is using the passive voice bad? 9 What happens when we distort the passive voice and make really pompous sentences?
Reeo~izing the active and passive Many people recognize a verb as the 'doing' word of a sentence. The following sentence has a subject (or actor) - acid-etching; a verb - removed; and an object or r e c e i v e r - rust. Acid-etching removed the rust. Actor verb receiver
Active voice of the verb
This sentence is in the active voice because the order of the flow is: actor, verb, receiver.
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If this sentence is turned around, we have: The rust was removed by acid-etching. Receiver verb actor
Passive voice of the verb
When the order of flow is receiver, verb, actor, the sentence is in the passive voice. What happens when an active sentence is turned around into the passive voice? 9 The emphasis has changed. In the active sentence the emphasis was on acid-etching; in the passive form rust is emphasized. 9 The order of the flow is reversed. 9 The number of words in the verb increases - removed becomes was r e m o v e d - as a result of adding forms of the verb to be. 9 An extra word is needed (by).
Is using the passiue uoice bad? No. The passive voice is not intrinsically bad, in spite of what many writing textbooks and grammar-checkers tell us. We need the passive; it stops us from having to use I and we. In technical writing we would write, quite naturally: The pH was maintained at 6.8 (passive) implying The pH was maintained by me at 6.8.
The active version is unacceptable: I maintained the pH at 6.8.
But sometimes we can actively choose which voice of the verb to use. For instance, if we were writing a paragraph about bees and their relationship with pollen, we would write: Bees carry pollen (active). If the paragraph were about pollen, we'd write Pollen is carried by bees (passive). Each of these is completely acceptable; it depends on which emphasis we need.
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Taking the passive uoiee one step further: the distorted passive What is bad is to take the passive one step further into a distorted form. Then the verb becomes hidden in a sort of a noun. This happens often in science and technological writing. Let's consider the progression in these sentences:
Acid-etching removed the rust.
Active voice
Acceptable
Passive voice
Acceptable
Distorted passive
Tedious, pompous
Turn this around and it becomes: The rust was removed by acid-etching.
If the verb was removed becomes hidden in a sort of noun, it becomes: Removal of the rust w a s . . ,
Hidden verb
by acid etching.
a missing verb
Ask someone to insert the missing verb and the suggestions are always the same:
The favourites are: achieved, accomplished, carried out, performed, undertaken.
Now we've lost the skeleton of the sentence. We've gone from Acid-etching removed, or The rust was removed - both of which are good - to Removal was carried out, Removal was achieved, and so on, which sound pompous. This distortion is a common way of writing tedious, impenetrable prose in science. It often sounds completely normal, because we have become used to seeing it:
The ohmmeter measured the resistance.
Active voice
Acceptable
Resistance was measured by the ohmmeter.
Passive voice
Acceptable
Measurement of the resistance was carried out by the ohmmeter.
Distorted passive
Tedious, pompous. Not needed.
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I measured the leaf area daily.
Active voice
Not generally acceptable
The leaf area was measured daily.
Passive voice
The
acceptable style for technical writing Daily measurements of leaf area were carried out.
Distorted passive
Unnecessary distortion
7] method of seeing its absurdity
We are so used to seeing the distorted passive in professional writing that the absurdity of the construction is only obvious when it's seen in an everyday context:
Cinderella dropped the glass slipper.
Active
Acceptable
The glass slipper was dropped by Cinderella.
Passive
Acceptable
Dropping of the glass slipper was carried out by Cinderella.
Distorted passive
Absurd
Putting it right How do you rewrite the distorted passive? 9 If you find yourself using achieved, accomplished, carried out, performed, undertaken, you are very likely to be in the distorted passive. So keep these words in mind as danger signals. 9 Find the hidden verb. It will be earlier in the sentence, probably in a word ending w i t h . . , ing, . . . tion o r . . . ment. 9 Use it to rewrite the sentence, using either a simple passive construction or the active.
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Lifeless verbs Lifeless verbs halt the movement of a sentence. The worst offenders are exist, occur, and various forms of the verb to be. Original lifeless version
Rewritten version
Increasing temperature occurred.
The temperature increased.
The purpose of this report is to describe the different stages of wastewater treatment.
This report describes the different stages of waste-water treatment.
Excessive use of nouns instead of verbs Some lifeless verbs can mutate into nouns, and the pace slows down: Indicates becomes is an indication of S u p p o s e becomes make the supposition
Original lifeless version with verb mutated to noun
Rewritten using verb
The colour of the outfall was an indication of severe pollution.
The colour of the outfall indicated (or showed) severe pollution.
We may therefore make the supposition that...
We may therefore suppose that...
Subject/verb agreement Make sure that the subject (actor) of your sentence agrees with the verb. Original incorrect version
Corrected version
Mazda are the only company that has persevered with the rotary engine concept.
Mazda is the only company that has persevered with the rotary engine concept.
The greatest loss of lives as a result of a volcanic eruption have occurred through pyroclastic flows and tsunamis.
The greatest loss of lives as a result of a volcanic eruption has occurred through pyroclastic flows and tsunamis.
Note: The verb is referring to loss (singular) not lives (plural).
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The correct form of the verb (For simple examples of forms of the verb, see Appendix 2: The Parts of Speech and Verb Forms.) Decisions about the proper use of tense can be confusing. There are no absolute guidelines. Here are suggestions for deciding which tense to use in technical documentation:
1 Past tense for describing: 9 procedures and techniques The samples were fixed in osmium tetroxide. (You are describing a
procedure.) 9 results (yours and other people's): Brown (1992) found that the numbers of protozoa increased in mature
biofilm. (You are describing other people's results.)
2 Present tense for describing: 9 established knowledge and existing situations: It has long been known that plants flower (present) under environmental conditions that maximize seed set and development.
9 for your answers to the research question: The results of this study suggest that Nitrosomonas species are (present) slow-growing and very sensitive to environmental change.
9 illustrations: Figure 10 shows the effect of temperature on the solubility of the salt.
9 morphological, geological and geographical features: The eucervical sclerites are connected to the postcervical sclerites, each of which is differentiated into a relatively hard sclerotized base and an elastic distal part. All three paleosols show a greater degree of development than the surface soils. Better development is displayed in terms of greater clay accumulation, higher structural grade, harder consistency and thicker profiles.
9 the theoretical background (you are describing established knowledge) 3 Specific uses: 9 The conditional, subjunctive or the imperative forms can be used when giving recommendations. 9 The imperative form is used in procedures or sets of instructions. 9 The future form will be needed in the Materials and Methods section of a research proposal.
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For examples of text, see: 9 Tense of the verb in 'Introduction' (page 30), 'Materials and Methods' (page 40), 'Results' (page 44), 'Discussion' (page 46) and 'Recommendations' (page 51), Chapter 2: The Core Chapter. 9 Chapter 5: Research Proposal.
Putting it right- Verb tense As a general indication: use past tense for almost everything, but use the present for describing: 9 9 9 9
established knowledge and theory for your answer to the research question illustrations morphological, geological and geographical features
Recognizing and correcting incomplete sentences The use of incomplete s e n t e n c e s - sentence fragments - is a common mistake, and can greatly irritate assessors. It's difficult to define incomplete sentences and their rewriting without resorting to classical grammar. But we'll try.
Rule-of-thumb: Anything between two full stops (i.e. a sentence) should sound complete in itself.
Finite verbs make a sentence sound complete Most people can find the verb, the 'doing' word, in a sentence. If the main verb in a sentence is what is termed 'finite', then the sentence sounds complete. Rather than define what makes a verb finite, let's just say that if a sentence feels complete, then the verb is finite: Many factors affected the resident population. The emissions increased. Chapter 12 presents the conclusions.
Now consider the following examples. In each case, the first sentence is complete; the second 'sentence' is incomplete, because the verb isn't finite.
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231
To test this, try saying the second part of each example completely in isolation; it will feel unfinished. More intensive agriculture will cause an increase in global warming. The reason being that ruminants and paddy fields produce methane. When running on petrol, the carbon dioxide emissions were higher. Which was an indication of improved mixing and less cylinder-to-cylinder variation.
Recognizing them and correcting them There are two main ways in which incomplete sentences creep into technical writing: 1 Where the incomplete 'sentence' has a word ending in -ing at or near the start of it (The reason being is a favourite), then: Method l" Join it up with the previous sentence with a comma. Method 2" Rewrite it using a finite verb. It should sound complete in itself.
Just use i n s t i n c t - it usually works. Ori~nal incorrect version
Corrected versions. Corrected using: 9 Method 1 (a comma) or 9 Method 2 (using a finite verb in the second sentence)
More intensive agriculture will cause an increase in global warming. The reason being that ruminants and paddy fields produce methane.
Method 1: More intensive agriculture will cause
There are a number of strategies that countries can take. For example, promoting non-wood fuel sources, paper recycling and pricing forest products more efficiently.
Method 1: There are a number of strategies that countries can take, for example promoting non-wood fuel sources, paper and pricing forest products more efficiently. Method 2:There are a number of strategies that countries can take. For example, they can promote non-wood fuel sources, recycle paper and price forest products more efficiently.
an increase in global warming, the reason being that ruminants and paddy fields produce methane. Method 2: More intensive agriculture will cause an increase in global warming. The reason is that ruminants and paddy fields produce methane
2 Where the second, incomplete 'sentence' starts with Which (when it's not a question). It's very common to see it in commercial material, for example: All of these plans have been designed with you in mind. Which is why you'll find one that's just right for you.
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However, this is unacceptable in technical writing. Method l: Use a comma instead of a full stop. Method 2: If putting a comma makes the sentence too long, rewrite the second part. You can generally start the second sentence with This is~was~ will b e . . . Original incorrect version
Corrected versions. Corrected using: 9 Method 1 (a comma) or 9 Method 2 (starting another sentence using This
is/was/will be...) When running on petrol the carbon dioxide emissions were higher. Which was an indication of improved mixing and less cylinder-to-cylinder variation.
Method l: When running on petrol the carbon dioxide emissions were higher, which was an indication of improved mixing and less cylinder-to-cylinder variation. Method 2- When running on petrol the carbon dioxide emissions were higher. This was an indication of improved mixing and less cylinder-to-cylinder variation.
Summary: Incomplete sentences Methods for recognising incomplete sentences: 9 Look for words ending in -ing at or near the start of a sentence. 9 Look for Which at the start of a sentence, when it's not a question. 9 Say it out loud. Use instinct. A sentence fragment will generally sound odd. If you say 'This being devastating for the farmers.' completely in isolation, it feels incomplete. On the other hand, 'This was devastating for the farmers.' sounds complete. 9 If it feels incomplete, it probably needs rewriting.
When English is a foreign language Anyone who is learning another language knows that writing is the most difficult task of all. This chapter contains a number of sections that are useful to the nonnative speaker of English. This section gives a few basic guidelines about writing a document in English when it is not your first language. 1 Think in English. You will have more success if you think in English and construct your sentences in English. If you compose in your own language and then translate, you might translate the constructions and idioms of your own language into English.
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If your language is a European language, your assessor will probably be able to understand a literal translation.
Example By a German speaker: This is known since long to affect development of the embryo.
But for languages that are not related to the European languages, there is a much greater possibility of constructing text that does not convey your meaning. 2 Write short, clear sentences. In a technical document, your aim is to present your material as clearly as possible. When you are working in English, it is better to write short, clear sentences, even if they are too short to be regarded as good style. Longer sentences can become complicated and your meaning may not be clear. 3 Collect typical mistakes. It is impossible to give meaningful examples here; mistakes in English will depend on the structure of your first language. But try to build up a list of typical mistakes that a speaker of your language makes; for example, by listing corrections made by your assessors.
How to write the English of your own specialist field Actively work at improving your written skills. If you do not understand English well, or can only speak it slightly, English can become a background noise. When this happens, your written skills will stay fixed at a low level. It is very easy to become involved in your experimental work, and speak mostly in your own language to friends and family. You need to actively work at increasing your skills. Here are some suggestions about how to do it. 1 Read as many papers in your field as you can. You will find that there are sentences and constructions that occur so commonly that you can modify them and use them for your own writing. 2 Look up words you don't know in a dictionary. It is too easy to get only the general sense of a paper when reading it, rather than using it to increase your word power. For technical terms you may need to use a scientific or technical dictionary or encyclopaedia. 3 Write things down. Words, constructions and idioms are easily forgotten if you don't actively work at remembering them. Making a list of them does two things: 9 Writing them down makes you remember them. 9 You have a reference list of useful material. Later, when you become more skilled in English, this list will look unbelievably simple; but at this early stage, it is essential.
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4 Actively listen to seminars and lectures. Keep adding to your list while you listen. This will also give you the sort of spoken English that is used in formal presentations. This can be more idiomatic than journal paper English and can cause more problems, since you can't go back and read it again.
Chapter 18
R seminar or conference
presentation This chapter covers: 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Guidelines for beginners: coping with nervousness. Types of speaker's notes. Structuring your talk. Spoken style. Suggested wording: your own, and for visual aids. Designing visual aids. Delivering your talk. Answering questions. Checklists.
Being faced - perhaps for the first time - with having to present your work orally to an expert audience is nerve-wracking. The problem can be even worse if you are a non-native speaker in an English-speaking country, or if the working language of your institution is English. Advice on public speaking often appears to forget that much of it can't be put into practice by a beginner. Most people are worried only about surviving the experience with their credibility more or less intact; they don't want to think about the subtleties of interacting with an audience and other sophistications. What this chapter tries to do
1 It accepts that the thought of public speaking is unsettling or even terrifying. It gives guidelines from this standpoint and tries to avoid giving advice that is of no use to a beginner. 2 It also gives guidelines on common mistakes to avoid. Being aware of the things that people can do when they are nervous can help you avoid or minimize them. What it does not do It doesn't give guidelines on how to produce effective presentation graphics. Consult specialist graphics books for this.
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The purpose of a seminar or conference presentation, and the constraining factors 1 To present your work orally to an audience that can vary from expert to non-expert to mixed. 2 To be able to operate the equipment provided for visual aids in a strange room. 3 To be able to present within a fixed time limit that seems beforehand to be very long, but which is usually too short when you're doing it.
When you may have to make an oral presentation, and the facilities you can expect To a large audience: 1 As an internal seminar to members of staff and other students. This may be anything from a short 10-minute presentation to anything up to a full seminar of 40-50 minutes plus time for questions. Facilities for visual aids: often only an overhead projector, possibly a slide projector as well. 2 Oral presentation of a paper at a conference. Usually a 15-20 minute talk plus five minutes for questions. Facilities for visual aids: very good, usually one or two overhead projectors, one or two 35 mm slide projectors, datashow presentation for software such as Microsoft PowerPoint | video player. To a small audience: 1 As a progress report to your funding body. For instance, as a short presentation to one or more of the managerial and/ or technical staff. Facilities for visual aids: if it is at their premises, often very limited. Possibly an overhead projector. 2 As a presentation of your work to a very small number of staff (e.g. presentation of a design to a review panel). Facilities for visual aids: Probably none. 3 Your PhD oral examination. Facilities for visual aids: Probably none. See Chapter 19: Presentations to a Small Group, page 263.
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Guidelines for beginners Overview: Guidelines for beginners 1 Accept that you are probably going to be nervous and have strategies to deal with it. 2 The best strategy: know your introductory material off by heart. 3 Put up your title visual aid immediately after your first few words of introduction. 4 Don't worry if your voice sounds funny to you. 5 Try not to read a script. 9 But if you do need notes, format them for easy reading and pathfinding. Use an annotated script (see 'Types of speaker's notes', page 239). 9 The text should be in spoken-type English, not in written English (see 'Spoken style', page 247, this chapter). 6 Try to look up at the audience as much as possible. 7 Longer term strategy: take every opportunity to give talks. 8 Be aware of the strange things that people can do when they are nervous, and try to avoid doing them.
1 Accept that you are probably going to be nervous. Have strategies to deal with it. Since the thought of being nervous is a major worry for many people, we will deal with it here before we go on to the other aspects. The symptoms of nervousness that are relevant to making an oral presentation are: thumping hearts; wobbling legs and hands; rapid breathing; and voices that crack embarrassingly. These can sometimes hit unexpectedly, just when the chairperson is introducing you. Here are a few ideas on what can be done about it: (a) Make sure there is water for you to drink immediately before you get up to speak, and also on the podium. Sipping water can have a calming effect. (b) Deep breathing can calm some people, but not everyone. Try it and see. Breathe from the diaphragm so that your belly moves, not from the chest: chest-breathing and gasping can make you giddy. (c) Walking briskly to the lecture theatre is sometimes suggested. It could work. Try it and see, but don't run; this increases your need for oxygen and can result in an even greater heart and breathing rate. (d) The only effective remedy: accept that when you get up to speak, you may be nervous but you know that you have strategies to deal with it.
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2 The most effective strategy for dealing with initial nervousness: know the first 30 seconds or so of your talk - your introductory material - off by heart. W h e n you are nervous, you are often on automatic pilot. Your mind can close down, you may not be aware of other things at all. This state usually gets a bit better after a minute or so. But during this time, you need to be sure that you can deliver the first part of your talk. Practice it until you could say it immediately if someone were to wake you from a deep sleep. 3 After your first few words of greeting, show your title overhead or slide. This has the effect of shifting your audience's gaze away from you and onto the screen. It's a relief. It also helps the audience to tune in to you and your work. For the material and format of the first visual aid see 'Designing visual aids', page 251', this chapter. 4 Don't worry about a cracking or squeaking voice. You may feel while you are speaking that your voice is cracking embarrassingly. There may be no reason to worry. It is very common to find that your friends afterwards will tell you that it was unnoticeable. Remember that what sounds to you inside your head like a funny voice may not sound very different from your normal voice to an audience. 5 Try not to read. But if you do need notes, format them for easy reading and pathfinding. The best technique is to have no notes and take all your cues from the overhead projector or the computer screen. see 'Types of speaker's notes', page 239, this chapter. 6 If you have to resort to reading your script, try to look up at the audience as much as possible. It gives a terrible impression if you never look at the audience. Try to force your gaze up as much as you can, even if it's all a blur. You can also trick the audience into thinking you are looking at them (see 'Eye contact', page 257, this chapter).
Very common mistake Going to great lengths to avoid looking at the audience: concentrating on the screen, the overhead projector, the notes - anything not to meet the audience's gaze.
7 Longer-term strategy. Take every opportunity to give talks. It's a tough strategy - but it's only by frequent practise that you will eventually conquer nervousness. Even very good presenters have had to do this.
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8 Be aware of the things that people can do when they are nervous. The mistakes listed in this chapter aren't meant to scare you. Being warned of them beforehand can help you develop strategies to avoid or minimize them.
Types of speaker's notes Overview: Types of speaker's notes 1 Brief notes. 2 Cards. 3 An annotated full script. Although people realize they shouldn't continuously read, many feel they need the comforting prop of written cues or full notes. Here are some suggestions. You can use three types of written aids: 1 Brief notes or 2 Cards. Both are for the relatively confident. They are much better than a full script, because they don't allow you to read word for word. 9 Format them as a series of headings. 9 Use large, lower-case f o n t - upper-case font can be difficult to read. 9 It is useful to include phrases needed to change direction, and to mark the points where you need to change the visual aids. 9 Number them, in case you drop them. 3 A full script. Many beginners are much more reassured by having a full script, in spite of advice from supervisors and in books to look at the audience and not to read. M i s t a k e s that can occur w h e n y o u take a full script into a presentation, e v e n if you don't m e a n to read it
Many beginners say after the talk that they found their nervousness made them rely on reading the script, even though they hadn't intended to read it completely. If you do read, the following mistakes could occur: 9 9 9 9
Your voice could become monotonous and dull. You could lose all appearance of enthusiasm, and bore the audience. Your stance could become rigid. The audience could feel that you aren't in contact with them, since you aren't looking at them. 9 You could lose your place when you have to take your eyes off your script to deal with your visual aids. Then you have the embarrassment of trying to find your way back into it.
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Suggestion: use an annotated full script This enables you to work from keywords, but also gives you the reassurance of the full script if you need it. (a) Divide your A4 paper so that one third of the sheet becomes a very large left-hand margin (Figure 18.1). (b) Write your full text in the remaining two thirds. Remember to: 9 Use spoken wording, not written (see 'Spoken style' page 247). 9 Use a large font, so that you can see it easily. The venue may have dim lighting. (c) In the wide margin, alongside each part of your complete script, write keywords that are relevant to the text opposite. Use large letters so they are easily read. Identify them (e.g. by colour) so that you can readily distinguish between the various points. (d) Number the sheets, in case you drop them. (e) During the talk, if you don't need to read the script, run vertically down the left-hand margin, using the keywords to prompt you. (f) If you need to read at a particular point (for instance, if you need to quote accurate data) write READ in the margin.
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~ ~ X X ~
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READ
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Figure 18.1 Schematic for a page of an annotated script. Keywords in the wide left-hand margin, full text to the right
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(g) As you finish each page, lift it off and lay it down alongside, keeping them in order. 9 Don't staple the sheets together: they are difficult to manipulate and can rustle. 9 Don't use double-sided printing: you can easily lose your place. 9 A double-sided stapled script is a disaster. (h) If you lose your place, stay quiet, don't fluster, control your body language, and navigate your way back by using the keywords. If you don't make it obvious, no one will notice.
Structuring your presentation Overview: Structuring your presentation 1 There are important structural differences between an oral presentation and a written paper. 2 There is a time sequence of the basic activities. 3 Be very selective about what you want to include in the rest of the talk. 4 Structure the whole talk as a diamond of detail: summary, main body, conclusions. 5 Start by giving a brief overview of the content of your talk, including your results. 6 Immediately after the Overview, place your work into the context of the field of research. 7 After placing your work in context, follow by having clearly defined diamond-shaped sections (for example, but not necessarily, Methods, Results, etc.). 8 Make sure there is a clear framework for the whole talk. 9 Dealing with detail: keep orienting your audience to the framework. 10 Make sure you have said your main point three times during the talk: in the initial overview, the main body and the conclusions. 11 Use the final minutes to restate your main conclusions.
Overall points to remember: 9 The major fault with many presentations is the structure of the material - not the visual aids or the manner of delivery. The way you structure the talk is vital to a listener's understanding; so is the way you deal with the detail within that structure.
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9 Anyone in the audience - whatever their level of knowledge - should be able to understand the broad concepts of what you are talking about. There is no complex system, no computational method - n o t h i n g - that cannot be explained simply enough for this to happen, provided the structure of the material in your presentation is effective. 9 It is a far greater achievement to be able to express a complex idea clearly than to bombard the audience with detail. 1 The structural differences between an oral presentation and a written paper. W h e n people absorb and process facts, there are large differences between the way they do so when they read the material and when they listen to it. This has great implications for structuring an oral presentation. If you want to present your material in the best way possible, don't just read out your written paper or even a reduced version of it. It may be perfect for publication in the conference proceedings, but it probably won't be for your talk. The table below compares how scientific material is understood and assessed (1) by a reader and (2) by a listener to an oral presentation. The
Table 18.1 Comparison: Information extraction when (1) reading a paper and (2) listening to an oral presentation
(1) When reading a paper
(2) When listening to an oral presentation
Can be read at the reader's own speed.
Listener has no control over speed. Understanding is impaired if the material is presented densely or at speed.
Can be re-read.
No opportunity to increase understanding by a re-run.
Overall understanding gained beforehand from the overview information in the Abstract.
Listener needs an initial overview.
Headings and subheadings can be scanned.
No opportunity to scan ahead.
Material can be skipped.
If listener switches off, he or she may not readily switch on again.
Scientific writing is neutral- it does not usually convey the writer's enthusiasm or lack of it.
Your manner of speaking can convey your enthusiasm or boredom with your work.
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processes are both quite different, and this has to be taken into account when you prepare a talk. For these reasons, an oral presentation needs a type of structure and wording to help the audience keep on track. And the manner of giving it will also play a large role. 2 The basic activities: time sequence. 1
Greet the audience, say who you are and what you are going to talk about.
2 I Introduction: Overview slide of the whole talk.
The context of your work - the overall view of the field and where your work fits in.
4 i, Probably: your method of approach.
5 I What your results were.
6 I What you think it means. ~
,, ,,
,
i
7 I The final few minutes: your conclusions from your work.
8 I Thank your audience in very few words (less than six).
9 I",Stop. Remain standing. Don't ask for questions. Figure 18.2
Basic activities of an oral presentation
3 Be very selective. You can't include very much of your material in a 15-minute oral presentation. Decide on your main points and an appropriate amount of detail to convey your work.
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4 Structure your whole talk as a diamond of detail (Fig. 18.3). Start and end your talk with summaries, with the main body in the centre: Part 1: The summary at the beginning should be a brief overview of all the material in the presentation. Part 2: The central part forms the main body of the material. Part 3: The overview at the end should be a summing up of the conclusions you've drawn. This scheme does the following: (a) It provides an initial summary of all the material, which is vital for your listeners to be able to assess the subsequent information. (b) It provides a summing up of the conclusions at the end, which confirms the main points of your talk in the listeners' minds. (c) It ensures that your take-home messages - your main p o i n t s - are heard three times, in each of the parts of the presentation. (d) It follows a well-known principle for presenting information: 9 Tell them what you're going to tell them. 9 Tell them. 9 Tell them what you've told them. 5 Start by giving a brief summary of the content of your talk, including your results. After your title slide, your second slide should summarize the content of your presentation in point form. (For design of the Summary visual aid, see 'Suggestions for wording', page 249, this chapter.)
Summary of all the material of the talk
The main body
A summary of your conclusions
Figure 18.3 Structure the presentation as a diamond of detail: start low (Summary); main body (detailed); finish low (Conclusions)
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Summarize into a list all the main points of your talk, including the results (the audience shouldn't be kept in suspense). This initial overview is vital for your listeners- it helps them to assess the information that will follow. It also helps them to tune in to you and your work. 6 Immediately after the Summary, place your work into the context of the field of research. It is essential to place your topic in context. Give an overall picture of where your work fits into the whole field and the research question that your work will answer.
Common mistake To leap in immediately with a mass of detailed material, and lose the audience.
7 After placing your work in context, follow by having clearly defined diamond-shaped sections (for example, but not necessarily, Methods, Results, etc.). Use a diamond structure for each section: 9 Start with an undetailed overview of the section. This orients your audience to what to expect in this section. 9 Then present the detail of that section. 9 Finish with a very brief undetailed summing up. This will reinforce the section in the audience's minds. 9 Then move onto the next section. Reorient your audience: start low in detail, then work up, then down. 8 Make sure there is a clear framework for the whole talk. Make sure that there is an obvious, well-constructed framework to the rest of the presentation. This helps your audience's orientation and gives you something to hang the detail on.
Common mistake Mass of facts: disoriented.
no
framework evident:
the
audience
becomes
9 Dealing with detail: keep orienting your audience to the framework. Make sure that your visual aids show clearly where you are in the scheme of the talk. When you need to present detailed material, ensure that your visual aid shows not only the detail but also some pointers to the general framework. This can be done by using headers at the top of your slides, so that the audience can see where you are within the structural framework (Fig. 18.4).
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Results: Analytical model (1)
Results: Analytical model (2)
The information
The information
Results: Testing of the rig (1)
Results: Testing of the rig (2)
The information
The information
Figure 18.4 How to keep the audience oriented: slides with headers that show where you are at any one point within your framework
10 Make sure that you have said your main points three times. W h e n the human mind listens, it needs repetition for the thread of your talk to be clear. Make sure that your main p o i n t s - your take-home messages- are said three times: once in the initial overview, again in the main body of the talk, and again when you are summing up your conclusions at the end.
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11 Use the final minutes of your talk to state the main conclusions of your work. Use a visual aid that lists them, starting with the main conclusion and working downwards. (For design of a concluding visual aid, see Suggestions for wording, page 249, this chapter.) This is an important section: it clearly presents the significance of your work and reinforces your material in the listeners. It is a far more effective way to finish your talk than merely coming to an unstructured end, as many people do.
Spoken style Overview: Spoken style 1 Use spoken English, not written English. 2 Use simple, clear words, but include the vocabulary. 3 Don't be afraid of using the personal I or We. 4 Don't read out subheadings.
correct
technical
1 For a presentation, you need to use spoken English, not written English. The whole point of an oral presentation is to talk to your audience. If you are going to read it, you might as well give the script to someone else and ask them to do it. If you are nervous you may find yourself relying on your notes more than you expected. But if your words sound as though you have thought them out as a spoken presentation and not as a written one, you have a much better chance of not boring your audience. Written wording sounds flat and dull. Enthusiasm is infectious, but so is a lack of it. (For more suggestions about how to avoid a dull presentation, see 'Delivering your talk', page 255, this chapter.) 2 Use simple clear words, but include the correct technical vocabulary. Think in terms of the style of comfortable, serious conversation. To do this, imagine yourself explaining your work across a table to a colleague or your supervisor, comfortably and without using colloquialisms. If you are going to use a written script, make sure that you use this type of conversational wording. Don't allow yourself to slide back into a written style of wording. 3 Don't be afraid of using the personal We or I in a presentation, even though you may have been told not to use them in a written paper.
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It livens up a presentation. But don't overdo it Highly appropriate in a talk (spoken style): We found that when we increased the temperature, the...
Inappropriate and boring (written style): It was found that when the temperature was increased...
4 Don't read out subheadings. This shows that you've devised your talk in written terms instead of spoken ones.
Common mistake
In novice speakers, it is common to hear oddities such as: Design objectives. The design objectives were... Sampling methods. Three sampling methods were used... Crystal growth directions. The directions of crystal growth showed that...
Suggestions for wording: your own, and for visual aids Overview: Wording
1 The first few words: greeting the audience; introducing yourself; the title visual aid. 2 Wording of the second visual aid: the Overview. 3 Wording of the final visual aid: the Conclusions. 4 The final few words: finishing up.
1 The first few words. Even if the chairperson has just introduced you by name and stated the title of your talk, don't just bowl into your material. Go through the following sequence: Greet the audience by saying (approximate wording): Good morning/afternoon, ladies and gentlemen. (Look at them, even if
you're petrified. ) I am/My name is (your name).
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I'm from (the name of your department/university/institution). I'd like to present the work we have been doing on . . .
(brief
description of the work). This orients your audience and is a more polished way than repeating your name and the title word for word that the chairperson has probably just said. 2 Then put up the title visual aid (for general guidelines for preparing visual aids, see page 251, this chapter). Immediately after you have said Good morning, ladies and gentlemen and while you are saying where you work and what you have been doing, put up your title visual aid. It should state the title of your talk, your name, and your institution. The audience's gaze will move away from you and onto the screen, and you will feel far less exposed. The audience needs this too; it gives them immediate access to the main feature of your work, together with details about yourself. 3 Wording of the second visual aid: the Overview. For general guidelines for preparing visual aids, see page ??? this chapter. This can be called Overview or Summary. Briefly list the main points that you are going to cover, and then fill them in with the spoken material. This gives the audience the initial brief orientating overview. Make sure that the information you give on your list of topics is real information. Avoid meaningless headings.
Common mistake
To use a series of uninformative headings, and say something meaningless along the lines of: I'm first going to introduce the topic, then speak about what our objectives were; I'll then describe our methods, and finally give you our results.
4 Wording of the final visual aid: the Conclusions. For general guidelines for preparing visual aids, see page 251, this chapter. Use this for the concluding part of your talk. It could be titled Conclusions (not Conclusion, see page 49). It should be a list of the conclusions you can draw from the work that you've presented. This reinforces your work in the minds of your audience and is a very effective way of closing your talk.
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Effective list of overview points
Ineffective fist of meaningless overview points
Failure of Impacted Sandwich Composite Aircraft Panels
Failure of Impacted Sandwich Composite Aircraft Panels
OVERVIEW
OVERVIEW
Objective To determine the size of damage tolerated, without failure stress of the panel being reduced below allowable design limit.
Objective of the study Material tested Methods used
Material tested
Identical to that used on trailing-edge wing flaps of Boeing 747-700.
Results
Methods - comparison of:
1. Analytical model to determine wrinkling stress. 2. Experimental testing: panels impacted using pneumatic gun and solid indentor. Results
1. Critical damage size: 22mm. 2. General empirical model derived to approximate wrinkling stress behaviour.
Figure 18.5
The contrast between an effective and an ineffective overview slide
Common mistake
To display the same list that you gave at the start of your talk in your Overview visual aid. The two should be quite different. The first is an overview of the whole talk: the final one is a list of your conclusionswhat you think it all means.
Appropriate wording at this point: So, finally, I'd like to summarize the main points of what we can conclude from this work.
Then briefly run through the list. Try to avoid reading it word for word. 5 The final few words: finishing up. (See also 'Having to finish in a hurry', page 259, this chapter.) The best way to take your leave is to look at the audience, say a firm 'Thank you' with perhaps a slight nod of the head and a smile, and stop. Remain standing for the chairperson to ask for questions.
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Common mistakes 1 To end very feebly by a body shuffle, and words such as: Well, that's all I've got to say, really o r That's i t - so-urn - thank you. 2 Anything along the lines of: I'd like to thank you for your kind attention in listening to this paper. It sounds artificial. Are there any questions?/i'll be happy to take questions
In a formal conference or seminar, it is the role of the chairperson to ask for questions and to choose the questioners. Just conclude, keep standing there and wait for him or her to take over. (For guidelines on answering questions, see page 260.)
Designing visual aids Overview: Designing visual aids 1 Decide: overheads or datashow? How many slides/overheads? Two screens or one? 2 Reinforce what you are saying by simultaneously showing it in point form on the screen. 3 All key points should appear on the screen. 4 Make sure that the audience can read the text and see the diagrams clearly. 5 Use an uncluttered layout. 6 Use point form: don't write complete sentences. 7 Proofread your visual aids for spelling. 8 Be aware of how to use datashow presentation software effectively.
1 Questions to be decided. Overheads or datashow? This is purely a matter of personal choice. How many slides/overheads? There seems to be a rule-of-thumb answer to this question of one visual aid per two minutes. This is misleading. It is possible to use many more than this provided they are used effectively. Use as many as you think are appropriate to convey the information in the time available.
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Two s c r e e n s o r o n e ? If operated smoothly, two screens running simultaneously can be very effective. You can have, for example, text on one screen (slides, overheads or datashow) and illustrations on the other. 2 Reinforce what you are saying by simultaneously showing it in point form on the screen. It is not enough for your visual aids to show only diagrams and illustrations. You also need to have text that echoes in point form what you are saying at any time. For example: 9 Ineffective: to say There were three reasons why we modified the test rig in this way. One was t o . . . etc.
meanwhile counting them off using hand-waving body language, with nothing on the screen. 9 Instead, prepare a visual aid that lists it in point form, and expand on each one while you speak (Fig. 18.6). 9 It is important not to read the slide woodenly word for word.
Design of slide R e a s o n s for m o d i f y i n g t h e t e s t rig: 1. x x x
Possible spoken material There were three reasons why we modified the test rig.
The first was that we found that... We also found t h a t . . , so we
2. x x x
introduced a widget that would...
3. xxx
The third reason was that...
Figure 18.6
C o m m o n mistake, leading to an i n e f f e c t i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n
Insufficient planning of your visual material: ensure that what you're saying appears simultaneously on the screen in point form.
3 All the key points of your talk should appear on the screen. Remember: an audience will absorb and remember information far more efficiently if they hear and see it simultaneously.
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Having the key points in front of the speaker also serves as a useful set of notes. You can take your cues from the monitor, overhead platen or (more problematic since it's behind you) the screen. If you are experienced and it is done well, you may not need any written notes. Make sure that your points are informative, and that you fill in the information by the words that you speak.
Common mistake To put uninformative points on the screen, while simultaneously overwhelming the audience with detailed data.
4 Make sure that the audience can read your text and see your illustrations. 9 Text: use a large f o n t - probably much larger than you would think. At least 25 point for a 100-seat lecture theatre, larger if it's a big one. Make sure that it is big enough to be easily read from the back of the auditorium. 9 Diagrams should be large and chunky, and have large lettering. Do not just take unaltered diagrams out of your conference paper. They will be far too small and the lines too thin. Make them large and chunk them up. Also make sure that the lettering is chunky, particularly on the axes and legends of graphs. 9 Tables - if you really need them - should be very simple. It is not unusual in conferences or seminars to see tables, probably copied from a journal paper, that are full of minute text. The audience is told to ignore some of it and concentrate on just a part of it, which no one can see. Tables are best avoided for talks. If you feel you must use one, take the time to redesign it so that it is easily seen and understood. Every table will benefit from rigorous selection and cutting out of material. 5 Use an uncluttered layout: don't put too much on one overhead or slide. Crowded visual aids are fussy and difficult to read. They should be made up of only a few key points. 6 Don't write complete sentences on your visual aids. It is too much for the audience to read. Most of the text should be in point form. You can then expand on each one while you speak. 7 Proofread your visual aids for spelling. Use both computer and human resources, and do it immaculately. There will be people in your audience who are expert spellers, and errors can give a very sloppy impression.
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8 Be aware of how to use datashow presentation software effectively. Datashow presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint | or similar software can produce superb visual material, if it's handled intelligently. But there are a number of traps that you can fall into. (a) What looks good on a monitor may be poor when projected as a datashow. Because of the relative pixel numbers and other factors, colours and brightness can often appear different on a monitor. It is essential to project your material to judge the final effect. If they are too pallid, you risk having to excessively dim the lights and your audience will then lose all contact with you. Altering the slide's colour scheme may help. (b) Be very careful in your choice of background. Some of the standard backgrounds are not well designed. When words and diagrams are superimposed on them, the final effect can be messy. Choose a simple, uncluttered background. Or design your own, keeping it simple and effective. (c) Be careful in your choice of colours. Make sure that the colour combinations don't obscure detail or make it difficult to read the words. Some colour combinations are very poor for showing detail:
Good combinations: White/clear yellow on black/dark blue (not light blue). Black/dark blue on white.
Particularly problematic: Avoid using red; it does not have good resolution. For example, in a graph with several coloured lines, the red one will look unclear. (d) Don't be tempted to use cartoons, cute pictures or Clipart. They are inappropriate in a scientific presentation. (e) Don't be tempted t o go to extremes with the animation functions. Flying bullet points and dissolving transitions can be very beguiling at first sight, but they can irritate an expert audience.
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Delivering your talk Overview: Delivering your talk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Your voice. The way you stand. The gestures you make. Interaction with visual aids. Eye contact. Pointing. Losing your place or having to pause. Interruptions. Timing. Having to finish in a hurry. Getting to know the venue.
Your voice. 9 Unless there is good amplification, make your voice louder and slightly more deliberate than your normal speaking voice. This needs conscious control. It is not easy to do, because you always feel that you sound peculiar. 9 If you have the courage, try recording yourself. You'll probably be shocked when you hear yourself- most people are. 9 Verbal tics. A recording will let you know if you repeatedly and unconsciously use certain words. Favourites are basically, you know, sort of, like, uuuum and anduuh. Try to sort them out.
Common mistakes when you are nervous
1 Your voice speeds up. 2 Your voice is quieter than usual. For non-native speakers of English, the problem of a quiet, rapid voice is a common one, either because of (1) nervousness about making grammatical mistakes or (2) feeling that you are fluent enough but forgetting that you may have a strong accent or slur words together. Slow down, and try to speak deliberately and positively, and more loudly. It doesn't matter about grammatical mistakes. It is better to say something ungrammatical in a strong v o i c e - your audience will understand and be sympathetic. 3 Your voice becomes monotonous. Try hard to avoid this; it results in a very boring presentation. 4 You think your voice is cracking or wobbling. Most of the time it won't be apparent to the audience. Don't worry about it.
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2 The way you stand. Try to look natural.
Common mistakes 1 Standing rigidly at the dais, sometimes gripping the edge, with your head down. 2 Crouching over the overhead projector. 3 Pacing aimlessly up and down.
3 The gestures you make. Try to add gestures to your speaking, but move naturally. Most people when they talk use their hands.
Common mistake Nervousness can cause rigidity, over-extravagant gestures or a too laidback attitude.
What to do with hands: many people find that they suddenly become very conscious of their hands and don't know what to do with them. It can help to rest them lightly on the podium.
Common mistakes with hands 1 Putting them in pockets. It looks sloppy. 2 Putting them on your hips or hooking the thumbs into the waistband or pockets. It can look aggressive. 3 Fiddling with a pen, or with something in your pocket. 4 W o r s e - clicking a pen. 5 Fiddling with the overhead foils on the OHP. This makes the image twitch. It is amazing how many people cannot leave them alone.
4 Interaction with visual aids. It makes for a bleak presentation if you just put up your visual aids and don't interact with them. Leaving your place to point out a feature of interest livens it up. But in the stress of being centre-stage, there are a few traps to be aware of, particularly with overheads.
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Common mistakes 1 Leaving something on the screen long after you have finished talking about it. Your visual aids need to be planned so that whatever you are saying is backed up by what is on the screen. 2 Using the striptease system of displaying an overhead: sequentially revealing more and more by sliding a piece of paper down it. It is visually unappealing and can be irritating. There is no harm at all in allowing the audience to see the rest of the overhead before you deal with it. 3 Leaving the audience to navigate their way through a complicated figure. It is not good to put up, for example, a complex ray diagram and say something like: 'The angle ~ is much smaller than angle . . . ' and leaving the audience to find it themselves. Point it out. 4 Muddling the overheads. Make sure you manipulate the overheads logically. As you take each one off the projector, place it in a separate stack of the used ones. You need to make sure that your used stack stays separate from the ones that are still to come. Piling them all on top of each other often means you have the embarrassment of having to shuffle through them to find the right one. The used stack also needs to remain in order, so that they can be easily found again if you need them at question time. 5 Stripping the backing paper off each overhead foil on the spot. This can make loud crackling noises, use time and look unprofessional. Moreover, if it's done clumsily you can leave scraps of paper on the foil, which looks very scruffy.
5 Eye contact. Texts on public speaking will emphasize the importance of looking at people in the audience, and making each member of the audience feel that you are personally speaking to him or her. This, of course, is easy advice to give, but terrifying to put into practice; it is the feeling of all those eyes looking at you that is one of the most unnerving aspects of public speaking. Advice if you are nervous: Do try to make yourself look up at the audience
as much as possible. This gives a much better impression than just reading. But it is easier said than done. Advice if you are more than a be~nner: Looking people in the eye is difficult.
But you can fool them by looking at the level of their chins instead. If you scan across the audience at chin level, you will avoid people's direct gaze and, except for the people in the front row, they won't be able to tell. Don't scan above the heads of the people in the back row. This is sometimes given as advice but it is p o o r - you will look spaced out.
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What N O T to do
DON'T use the SOFA technique. A weighty professional engineering institution in a book on writing and speaking seriously advised this cherishably naff technique. Don't use it, unless you want to look very peculiar and (if I'm in the audience) reduce me to helpless laughter. (S)mile (O)pen your body (F)orward lean (A)cknowledge individuals by nodding to them 6 Pointing. You can point at either the screen or directly at the overhead platen. For the screen use: 9 the wooden pointer that is almost always a staple feature of lecture theatres or 9 a laser pointer - less trouble, but a problem if your hand is shaking
Common mistakes when using the screen 1 Turning your back on the listeners and forgetting about them. 2 Your line ofsight is different from the audience's. Therefore ifyou point from a distance at something on the screen and see it at the end of your fingertip or pointer, the audience won't know what you're pointing at. For the overhead platen use: 9 A pen or pencil with a tip to it. Not circular in cross-section- it will roll. If you are nervous and the pen is shaking, lay it down on the platen. 9 Not a f i n g e r - too blunt, sticky (will move the foil) and looks unprofessional.
Common mistakes when using an overhead projector 1 Blocking the view of a section of an audience. 2 Standing rigidly. If you use the screen it will force you to move from the projector to the screen and back again, which makes you look more dynamic. 3 The temptation to crouch over the projector and forget about the audience. 4 Fiddling with the overhead foil and frequently causing it to twitch. 5 When using a small pointer such as a pen to point at the overhead projector platen: 9 Moving the pen around too fast. 9 A visibly shaking pen. 9 A rolling pen.
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7 Losing your place or having to pause. Losing your place or having to pause for any reason is unnerving. To you the pause can seem embarrassingly obvious. But it's worth remembering that what seems endless to you will not be noticed by the audience, as long as you don't draw attention to it by flustering and muttering inanities. The best strategy is to say nothing, control your body language and as calmly as possible find your place again or collect your thoughts. 8 Interruptions. If there is an interruption beyond your control, and you find your audience's attention attracted away from you, just say 'I'11 repeat that' without flustering. It brings the control back to you. 9 Timing. The only way to fit your talk into the given time is to practise.
Common mistakes that lead to talks running over time 1 Major problem: when you are actually making the presentation, it is common to find that in the stress of the moment you deviate from your planned script and include something that you didn't intend to say. If this is done a couple of times, you've run seriously over time. 2 When you practise, you need to speak it out loud. When you read it to yourself or whisper it, you go faster than you would when you speak it. 3 When you practise make sure you also manipulate the overheads, point at the screen etc. This adds to the time needed. Novices often comment that they hadn't allowed for this in their timing practise.
10 Having to finish in a hurry. If you run out of time and the chairperson asks you to finish up, do the following: Without fluster, put up your Conclusions slide and say something like 'So to finish, these are the main conclusions from our work'. If you think you can sneak a few more seconds, you could very briefly talk about them. If not, just leave them there for the audience to read. 11 Getting to know the venue. Make sure that you find the time to visit the venue and check it out. It is vital to find out beforehand the positions of the various controls for the visual aid equipment and the lights. It is unnerving to have to fumble around for a control and to have to ask for help during your talk.
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Answering questions Overview: Answering questions 1 Work out the questions you may be asked. Don't be taken by surprise. 2 Use a supplementary set of overheads. 3 Make sure you understand the question correctly. 4 Don't be afraid to ask for further clarification. 5 Repeat the question if the audience hasn't heard it. 6 Be honest if you don't know the answer. 7 Don't be afraid to admit to research problems, but do it positively.
The thought of answering questions frightens many people, particularly nonnative speakers. Remember, though, that a good chairperson should help clarify questions. 1 Work out beforehand the questions that you might be asked. Try to visualize your presentation through the audience's eyes. You are unlikely to be taken by surprise if you've prepared well. 2 Useful strategy: prepare a supplementary set of overheads that are more detailed than the ones you used in the talk. They could perhaps show more detailed data, or greater detail of your procedures. The font does not need to be as large as that on your main visual aids. You can often use one of these to answer a question very efficiently. 3 Make sure that you understand the question correctly. This can be particularly problematic and worrying for non-native speakers of English. Do not answer a question until you are sure you have understood it. Suggested wording: I'm sorry; I didn't understand that. Could you repeat it, please?
Be prepared for the questioner who gives a mini-lecture. The main point can often be buried within a long discourse. If you can't understand where the question lies, ask them to clarify it. If it is obscure, the chairperson should help. 4 If you still don't understand the question, don't be afraid to ask for further clarification. It is better to ask for repeats than to be flustered into answering wrongly. Suggested wording: I'm sorry, I still didn't understand. Could you clarify
it for me, please?
After this point the onus must be on the questioner, and the chairperson should help to clarify it.
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5 If you think that the question has not been heard by the rest of the audience: repeat it yourself. Say 'The question was "How does t h e . . . . 9 , , ,, and then answer it. 6 If you do not know the answer to a question, be honest. Don't try to fudge your way through an answer and hope that the audience doesn't notice that you are trying to cover up. It is always very obvious when a speaker is doing this. Either say in a positive voice that you don't know, or offer to find out the answer. This is a clear indication of honesty and willingness to communicate the research, and that you are confident in your work. I don't know the answer to that question, I'm afraid
or
I don't have the answer to that at the moment, but I'll find out for you by tomorrow or something similar.
7 Be honest about your research problems, but not negative. Don't be afraid to m e n t i o n - briefly, objectively and without e m o t i o n any difficulties you may have had with your work. It's not a sign of weakness; everyone in the audience will be able to relate to it, and someone may be able to help. But make sure you don't present yourself as self-pitying.
Checklist
f o r an oral p r e s e n t a t i o n
Planning
D Have you been really selective, and concentrated on your main points? r-1 Are you aware of what people can do when they are nervous, and have you planned to avoid them? I-1 Have you planned the whole talk, and each section of the talk, as a diamond: starting and ending with overview information? V1 Have you planned your visual aids so that each key point will be simultaneously spoken and displayed in point form on the screen? F-1 Do you know the first couple of minutes of your words off by heart? I-1 Do you have a title overhead or slide, giving your name, institution and title of the talk? D Does your second overhead/slide give an overview of the whole talk? Does it give meaningful information? D Have you got a final slide to sum up your conclusions? V1 Are you using notes? Could you possibly do without notes and take your cues from the audiovisual material? If you are using notes
g-1 Are they in spoken style, rather than a formal written style? I-1 Is the printing large enough for you to be able to read them easily while under pressure ?
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D If you need a full script, can you work off an annotated script, using keywords? V1 If you lose your place, can you readily find your way back into your notes while under pressure? The presentation itself: [--1 Have you planned how you are going to greet the audience? V1 If you are using overheads: are they in order? Have you taken the backing sheets off? Do you know where the on/off switch of the overhead projector is? [3 If you are using computer datashow: have you checked the equipment at the venue? V1 Do you still know the first couple of minutes of your words off by heart? I-1 Is there a clear framework for the audience to be able to orient themselves to your material? Is it visible on your visual aids? Will the audience be constantly aware of where you are within the framework? [Z] Are you using the style of spoken English, not written English? I3 Are you avoiding pompous English? Are you speaking to inform, and not to impress? V1 Have you planned to look up as much as possible? I-1 You aren't using the SOFA technique, are you? F-1 Is your final Conclusions visual aid to hand, for use if you have to finish in a hurry?
Visual aids: V1 IMPORTANT: Will each key point be simultaneously spoken and backed up in point form on the screen? V-1 Is the font at least 25 point? V1 Have you avoided cramming too much on to the visual aids? V1 Are the visual aids simply designed? V1 Are the illustrations large, chunky and easily visible? I-1 Is the use of colour and pattern simple and effective?
Answering questions: V1 Have you worked out beforehand the possible questions? V1 Have you got a supplementary set of more detailed overheads that you can use for answering questions? I-1 Do you know how to deal with not understanding the questions?
Chapter 19
Presentation to a small group
This chapter covers: 9 The basic principles for preparation. 9 A PhD oral examination. 9 A presentation to a review panel, e.g. a design interview, a presentation to a funding organization. 9 Checklists.
Occasions when you might present to a small panel 9 A PhD oral examination. 9 A design interview. 9 A presentation to your funding organization.
Constraints The meeting is likely to take place across a table, with no means of projecting visual aids.
Basic principles for preparation 1 2 3 4
Visualize yourself and your material through the audience's eyes. Work out beforehand the questions you may be asked. Identify the main points of the work and its strengths. Identify the key weak points and problems, and prepare yourself for questions about them. 5 Think graphically. Clear graphical visual aids are an effective means of making points and answering questions.
A PhD oral 1 Allow adequate time to become thoroughly familiar with the material and thesis again. There is likely to be a gap of months between submission and oral - enough time for the detail and structural plan of your thesis to
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS.PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
become blurred. It may take more time than you think to become fully refreshed. 2 Prepare a summary of the work that you've done and its significance. Keep in mind what you've done, how you've done it, what's new about your research, and what's significant about it. After the initial small talk to make you feel more comfortable, many orals start with a request to the student to summarize their work. To prepare for this beforehand, you need to be able to stand back from the minute detail and prepare an overview. Make sure that you can answer the following possible questions: What is the significance of your work? What skills did you develop? If you were to do it again, would you approach it differently? Where do you see it leading? 3 Make sure you can navigate your way around your thesis without hesitation. You may need to refer to it to answer questions. 4 Near to the date of the examination, do a literature search for any new work that may have come out. The months between submission and oral can mean that you may be unaware of significant new developments. There is an opportunity to impress here: relate the new work to yours, and decide where you want the discussion to go. 5 During the examination, if you are asked a question that needs deliberation, allow yourself time to think without getting flustered. Don't let the pressures of the moment force you into a hasty answer. Your assessors will prefer a period of thought followed by a reasoned answer to an unconsidered, hasty one.
A presentation to a review panel (For example, an engineering design or a progress report to an outside organization.)
Visualize yourself through the audience's eyes You want the audience to listen to your message, understand it and be influenced by it. Keep in mind: 1 The particular concerns of the individuals in the panel (commercial, academic, etc.). 2 They may not have very much prior knowledge of your work. 3 What is obvious to you may not be so to them. 4 The significance to them of each point you make. For example, impact on part numbers, costs and assembly time without reducing the quality of the product.
PRESENTATION TO ~q SMALL GROUP
265
5 Summarize the take-home message. It can be couched in terms of economic feasibility, fixed and variable cost savings, projected break-even points, payback period etc. 6 The possible barriers to getting your ideas accepted need to be identified. 7 Concrete examples, not concepts, are preferred by the majority of the population.
Identify the key points and plan a flip-chart 1 Be rigorously selective in what you will present. There is never enough time to say everything. 2 Aim to present all your top material in the first few minutes. Use the same diamond structure as for a conference presentation: 9 initial overview of the main points 9 the main body 9 the summing up (see 'Structure your whole talk as a diamond of detail' page 244, Chapter 18: A Seminar or Conference Presentation) 3 Identify the take-home message - the main p o i n t - and don't be afraid to present it three times. Include it in your initial overview, the main body and the final summing up. 4 Collect the information into a flip-chart. You then have just one folder, not an array of drawings that can become muddled. Necessary information in the flip-chart: 9 The first item should be your initial overview slide containing the main points. 9 A graphic that summarizes your approach to the project. 9 If you are recommending solutions, make sure that the key recommendations are clearly shown. Don't overwhelm people with a large number of recommendations- prioritize, stating the important features. 9 An ongoing presentation that shows the current status of the project, so that it can be presented at a moment's notice. Don't be afraid of not having everything 100% correct.
Think graphically- there is no substitute for good graphical visual aids 1 The quality of the graphical presentation is vital. Scientists and engineers think graphically. Time can be saved by using presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint | 2 You don't need many graphical presentations, perhaps a few outstanding drawings and slides. 3 If you are using existing graphics, add value to what you already have and take away the clutter (use whiteout solution and photocopier). For example, you may not need the dimensions for an overview diagram.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCEAND ENGINEERING: PAPERS,PRESENTATIONAND REPORTS
Checklist for a presentation to a small panel Visualize yourself and your material through the audience's eyes. Work out beforehand the questions you may be asked. I-1 Identify the main points of the work and its strengths. [-1 Identify the key weak points and problems, and prepare yourself for questions about them. I-1 Think graphically. Clear graphical visual aids are an effective means of making points and answering questions.
For a PhD oral examination: Have you allowed yourself adequate time to become thoroughly familiar with the material and the thesis again? F-I Have you prepared a summary of the work that you've done? F-1 Have you thought about the significance of your work: what you've done, how you've done it, and what's new about your research? [3 Are you sure you can navigate your way around your thesis without hesitation? I-1 Have you recently done a literature search for any new work that may have come out since submitting your thesis? F-I Can you answer the following questions: What is the significance of your work? What skills did you develop? If you were to do it again, would you approach it differently? Where do you see it leading? [El Have you worked out other questions you might be asked? [-1 Can you identify the main points of the work and its strengths? l-1 Do you know its weak points, and are you prepared for questions on them?
For a review panel: 1-1 Do you know the particular concerns of the individuals in the panel (commercial, academic etc.) ? C] Do you know how much prior knowledge of your work they have? [--1 Can you gauge the significance to them of each point you make? F-1 Can you summarize the take-home message of your work? [-1 Can you couch it in terms that are meaningful to the panel (economic feasibility, fixed and variable cost savings, projected break-even points, payback period etc.)? [El Can you identify any possible barriers to getting your ideas accepted? [-1 Have you been rigorously selective in what you will present? r-1 Will you present all your top material in the first few minutes?
PRESENTATION TO A SMALL GROUP
267
D Have you prepared an initial overview of the main points and a final summing up? [--1 Will you present the take-home message - the main p o i n t - three times: initial overview, the main body and final summing up? F-1 Are you using a flip-chart? F-I Have you included the following information: [] An initial overview slide containing the main points? [] A graphic that summarizes your approach to the project? [] Clearly demonstrated key recommendations? [] An ongoing presentation that shows the current status of the project? C] Is the quality of your graphical presentation very good? [--1 Have you reduced the clutter of already existing graphics?
Appendix I
Si units (Syst me International d'Unit s) and their Abbreviations S! base units and symbols Quantity .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Name
Symbol
.
Base Units Length Mass Commonly used unit of mass Time Electric current
metre kilogram gram second ampere
m
kg g S
A
Temperature
Kelvin Celsius (acceptable for experimental temperature)
K oC
Volume
cubic metre cubic centimetre mole
m3 cm 3 mol cd
Commonly used unit of volume Amount of substance Luminous intensity Supplementary units Plane angle Solid angle
rad sr
Other units used with S! Name
In terms of other units
Symbol
Atmosphere Calorie Day Degree Hour Kilogram-force Litre Micron Minute Minute Angular second Tonne Torr
101 325 Pa 4.18J 24h ('rr/180) rad 60 min 9.8067 N 1 dm 3 10-6m 60s ('rr/10 800) rad (~/648 000) rad 103 kg 133.322 Pa
atm cal d o
h
kgf 1 min p
p!
t torr
APPENDIX I
SI UNITS AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS
269
Examples of S! derived units Quantity
Name
Symbol
In terms of other units
Activity of a radionucleide Acceleration Capacitance Current density Electric charge, quantity of electricity Electric potential, electromotive force, potential difference Energy, work, quantity of heat Energy density Force Frequency Heat capacity, entropy Illuminance Luminance Luminous flux Magnetic flux Moment of force Power, radiant flux Pressure, stress
becquerel
Bq
S-1 m/s 2
farad
F
C/V
coulomb volt
C V
A/m 2 sA W/A
joule
J
newton hertz
N Hz
lux
lx
lumen weber
lm Wb
watt pascal
W Pa
Nm J/m3 (m kg)/s2 S-2
J/K lm/m 2 cd/m 2 cd sr
Vs Nm J/s N/m 2
2?0
WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Standard prefixes used with S! units A prefix is a verbal e l e m e n t used before a w o r d to qualify its m e a n i n g , e.g. miUimetre ( m m ) - a t h o u s a n d t h of a m e t r e ; ki/ometre ( k m ) - a t h o u s a n d metres; millilitre (ml) - a t h o u s a n d t h of a litre etc.
Term
Mul@le
1024 1021 1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 102 101
1 000 000 1 000 000 1 000 000 1 000 000 1 000 000 1 000 000 1 000 000 1 000 1 O0 10 1 unit 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000 001 0.000 000 0.000 000 0.000 000 0.000 000 0.000 000 0.000 000
10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15 10-18 10-21 10-24
000 000 000 000 000 000
O01 000 000 000 000 000
000 000 000 000 000
001 000 000 000 000
000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
001 000 001 000 000 001 000 000 000 001
eref/x
Symbol
yotta zetta exa peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deca
Y Z E P T G M k h da
deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto zepto yocto
d c m tx n P f a z y
Appendix 2
The parts of speech and verb forms
Parts of speech
The work that words do in a sentence
verbs
Words that indicate action: what is done, or what was done, or what is said to be.
nouns
Names. Things.
The ship sailed.
Columbus sailed in the ship. pronouns
Words used instead of nouns so that nouns need not be repeated. He sailed in it.
adjectives
Words that describe or qualify nouns. The tall man sailed in the big ship.
adverbs
Words that modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. They often end in-ly. The big ship slowly sailed past the steeply sloping cliffs.
prepositions
Each preposition marks the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word in the sentence. The ship sailed past the cliffs and across the sea to America.
conjunctions
Words used to join the parts of a sentence, or make two sentences into one: and, but, so, because, as, since, while. The The The The The
gerund
ship sailed to America and came straight back. ship sailed to America but did not stay long. ship sailed fast, so it got there quickly. ship sailed slowly because (or as or since) the sails were torn. people on the dock waved while the ship sailed away.
A word ending in -ing that behaves in some ways like a noun and in some ways like a verb. She likes using a computer You can save electricity by switching off the lights.
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WRITING FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: PAPERS, PRESENTATION AND REPORTS
Tenses and forms of the verb This section describes, in very simple terms, the various forms of a verb. For guidelines in their use in various sections and documents, see 'The correct form of the verb', page 229, Chapter 17: Problems of Style.
Present Describes what is happening at the moment: 1 The sun shines. Chlorofluorocarbons cause ozone depletion. 2 The sun is shining. Global warming is developing into a major environmental issue.
Past Describes what happened in the past: 1 The sun shone. The burning of fossil fuels caused carbon dioxide levels to rise. 2 The sun was shining. By the end of the twentieth century, carbon dioxide levels were causing temperature levels to rise. 3 The sun has shone. The burning of fossil fuels has caused levels of carbon dioxide to rise. 4 The sun has been shining. Carbon dioxide levels have been causing concern for a long time. 5 The sun had shone. By the 1950s, carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere had risen to 315 ppm. 6 The sun had been shining. By the end of the twentieth century, carbon dioxide levels had been rising for a number of decades.
Future Describes what is going to happen in the future: 1 The sun will shine. Increased emission of greenhouse gases will cause a change in the global climate. 2 The sun will be shining. By the middle of this century, the increased emission of greenhouse gases will be causing a global change in climate.
APPENDIX2: THE PARTSOF SPEECHAND VERBFORMS
273
3 The sun will have shone. By the middle of this century, carbon dioxide levels will have risen to twice the pre-industrial level. 4 The sun will have been shining. By the middle of this century, carbon dioxide levels will have been causing concern for many decades.
Conditional Expresses a condition. Sometimes needed in recommendations: This result could imply t h a t . . . The test equipment should be modified as shown.
Subjunctive In technical writing, usually used only in recommendations. It is recommended that the system be upgraded. It is recommended that the manager assess the effects of the change.
Imperative The form of the verb that gives an instruction. The preferred form of the verb for a procedure or set of instructions: Turn the power off. Do not open Valve X before it cools to 18~
Appendix 3
Style manuals for specific disciplines One of the most used manuals in scientific style and format:
Biology, physical sciences and mathematics Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors and Publishers. 6th edition. Council of Biology Editors, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. This manual is usually known by its subtitle. The 6th edition covers, in addition to biology, the physical sciences and mathematics. Highly recommended. Chemistry American Chemical Society. Handbook for Authors. American Chemical Society Publications, Washington. Geography American Geographical Union. AGU Style: A Guide for Contributors. American Geographical Union, Washington. Medicine Huth, E.J. Medical Style and Format: An International Manual for Authors, Editors and Publishers. ISI Press, Philadelphia. Physics American Institute of Physics. Style Manual for Guidance in the Preparation of Papers. American Institute of Physics, New York. Psychology American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psycholo~cal Association. American Psychological Association, Washington.
Gelfand, H. and Walker, C.J. Mastering APA Style: Instructor's Resource Guide. American Psychological Association, Washington. General style The Chicago Manual of Style: For Authors, Editors, and Copywriters. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Index
Abbreviations: conventions, 194-195 in title, 17 Absorb~adsorb, 217
Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary, 22, 64-77 common mistakes, 74- 75 conference abstract, 72-74 database, citation, 182 definitions, 65 descriptive/informative, 66-69 Executive Summary, 75-76 general information, 66 journal paper abstract, 69-72 length, 69 purpose, 64 section summaries, 9 Acknowledgements, 23 Acronyms, conventions, 194-195 Act of parliament, citation, 179 Active voice of verb, 224-225 Affect~effect, 217-218
Agreement, subject/verb, 228 AIMRAD structure, 1 Allocation of Responsibilities, 37 Animation, for oral presentation, 254 Appendices: as part of basic skeleton, 2 numbering, 197 requirements for, 52-53 Assumptions, design report, 120 Audio cassette, citation, 180 Authorship and Affiliation, 21- 22
Background: as part of basic skeleton, 2 requirements for, 32 Basic skeleton of headings, 2
Bibliography, 186-187 Boldface, 163, 203 Book, citation, 177 Bullet points, 203
Calculations, design report, 121 Capitalization, 193-194 Caption/legend: capitalization, 194 definitions, 55 Cartoons, for oral presentation, 254 CD article, citation, 180 Chapter: conclusions, thesis, 149-150 citation, 177 summaries, thesis, 149 numbering, 195-196 Citations see sources Clipart, for oral presentation, 254 Codes, engineering, citation, 179 Colour, in poster, 163 Complement~compliment, 218 Composed of/comprises, 219
Conclusions: as part of basic skeleton, 2 for oral presentation, 244-245,249-250 requirements for, 48-50 Conference: abstract, 72- 74 paper, citation, 176 paper, see also journal paper poster see poster, conference presentation, see oral presentation proceedings, online, citation, 182 Confidentiality/Ownership, 37 Consulting report, see also Management report Citation, 180
276
Contribution Summary, 148 Costs, 38 Covering letter, 15 Data/fact sheet, citation, 180 Database abstracts, citation, 182 Datashow, for oral presentation, 254 Dates, writing, 191 Declarative/indicative title, 17 Deliberate repetition of information, 10-11 Delivery, oral presentation, 255 Design interview, 264-265 Design report, 118-122 Detail: in Appendices, 52-53 in oral presentation, 245-246 in Results, 42 Diamond shape: for document structure, 9 for oral presentation, 244-245 Discussion list, citation, 182 Discussion, 45-48 Electronic references, citation, 180-182 Emails: citation, 182 requirements for, 134-135, 138 Engineering codes, citation, 179 English as foreign language: writing, 232-234 oral presentation, 255, 260 Equations, formatting, 192 Executive Summary, see Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary Expertise see reader, non-expert Eye contact, oral presentation, 257-258 Facilities: oral presentation, 236 poster preparation, 153 Fact/data sheet, citation, 180 Faxes, 136, 140 Figures see Illustrations Finite verb, 230-232 Flip-chart use, 265 Font, 203
INDEX
Font size and style, in poster, 162-163 Font size, visual aids, 253 Formatting, a thesis, 145 Formatting, equations, 192 Fractions, 190 Gannt chart, 36 Genus names, 198 Geographical description, 40-41 Geological description, 40-41 Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations: requirements, 27-28 as part of basic skeleton, 2 Government documents, citation, 179 Graphs, guidelines, 55-58 Hands, oral presentation, 256 Hanging title, 17 Headings: basic skeleton, 2 capitalization of, 194 choosing, 2 corresponding, 43-44 extended skeleton, 3 literature review, 87-88 Hurrying, oral presentation, 259 IIWe:
in Materials and Methods, 40 in oral presentation, 247-248 Ibid, in referencing, 167 Illustrations: figures and tables, 54-63 adapting, 174 caption/legend, 55 journal paper, 56-58 for visual aids, 253 graphs, guidelines, 55-58 legend/caption, 55 numbering, 196 poster, 160-161 reference in text to, 191 tables: guidelines, 58-63 journal paper, 62 oral presentations, 253 poster, 160-161 review material, 145 visual aids, 253
INDEX
Imminent~eminent, 218-219 Indented margins, 203 Index, 54 Infinitive, split, 221-222 Interacting with document, 85-87 Interruptions, oral presentation, 259 Introduction: in basic skeleton, 2 requirements for, 28-31 Italics, 203, 163
Jargon, 221 Journal paper, 99-106 abstract, 69-72 choosing journal, 101 figures, 56-58 formatting, 102-103 letter of transmittal, 103 citation, 176-177 posting, 103 proofreading, 205-208 publishing, 101-106 refereeing process, 103-105 rejection, 106 structure, 99-101 submitting, 102 tables, 62 title, 16
Keywords, 23
Laboratory manual, citation, 178 Lead//ed, 219-220 Lecture material, citation, 178 Legal documents, citation, 179 Legend/caption, 55 Letters, formal, 123-133 closing, 123, 125 cover letters, 130 CVs, and letters131-132 date, formatting, 125 greeting/salutation, 123, 125 structure, 128 layout, 125, 126-127 letter of application, 131-133
277
letter of transmittal, 130 for journal paper, 103 parts, 123-126 style of writing, 128-129 Lifeless verbs, 228 List of Illustrations, 26-27 List of Symbols, 27-28 Literature Review, 35, 78-91 characteristics, 74 citations, keeping records of, 81-84 difficulties, 79 headings, 87-88 interacting with a document, 85-87 papers as sources, 85-88 primary sources, 81 purpose, 79 record-keeping, 81-84 researching and writing, 80-89 review articles for, 84 schematic of steps, 82 searching techniques, 81 secondary sources, 81 source material, 80-81, 84-89 steps, 81-89 structure, 90 tables, 145 tertiary sources, 80 thesis, 144-145 Loose~lose, 220
Magazine article, citation, 178 Management report, 113-115 Manuals of style, 274 Map, citation, 180 Master document mode, in thesis writing, 143 Materials and Methods, 39-41 Memos, 136-139, 140 Microfiche, citation, 179 Model Algorithm, in thesis, 149 Model development, design report, 120 Morphological description, 40-41 Mounting, poster, 163-164
Navigational pathway, creation of, 8 Nervousness before speaking, 237-239 Newspaper article, citation, 178
278
Notes for speakers, 239-241 Noun: definition, 271 instead of verb, 228 Numbering: Appendices, 197 chapters, 195-196 illustrations, 196 pages, 198 sections, 195-196 Numbers, 189-191
Objectives, 32-33 Online items, citation, 180-182 Op. cit., in referencing, 167 Oral examination, PhD, 263-264 Oral presentation: animation, 254 answering questions, 260-261 cartoons, 254 clipart, 254 Conclusions, 244-245,249-250 datashow, 254 delivery, 255-259 detail, 245-246 English as a foreign language, 255, 260 eye contact, 257-258 facilities, 236 font size, visual aids, 253 hands, 256 hurrying, 259 I/We, 247-248 illustrations, 253 interruptions, 259 nervousness, 237-239 notes, 239-241 overhead projector, 258 pausing, 259 pointing, 258 software, 254 stance, 256 structuring, 241-247 style, spoken, 247-251 Summary/Overview, 244-245 tables, 253 timing, 259 Vvenue, 259 visual aids, 248-254 interaction with, 256-257
INDEX
voice, 255 wording, 247- 251 Ordinal numbers, 190 Outline mode, Microsoft Word| for organizing, 7-8 in revising, 201 in thesis writing, 143 Overheads, see visual aids Overhead projector, using, 258 Overview information: as part of basic skeleton, 2 oral presentation, 244-245 importance, 8-10 use in navigational pathway, 8-10 repetition of information, 11 Ownership/Confidentiality, 37
Page: breaks, 203 numbering, 198 Paper, see journal paper Paragraph length, 223-224 Passed~past, 220 Passive voice of verb, 224-227 Patent, citation, 179 Pausing, oral presentation, 259 Percentages, 190 PhD oral examination, 263-264 Pointing, oral presentation, 258 Poster, conference, 151-166 advantages/disadvantages, 152-153 basics, 151-152 common mistakes, 165 dimensions, 155 facilities, 153 figures and tables, 160-161 final production, 163-165 font, 162-163 headings, 158-159 layout, 156-158 participants' preferences, 153 planning, 153-156 purpose, 152 rough layout, 156 structure of text, 161 title, 18 Presentation software: effective use of, 254 for poster, 163
INDEX
Primary sources of literature, 81 Principal~principle, 220-221 Problem Statement: in thesis, 148 requirements for, 33, 34-35 Professional body report, citation, 179 Progress report, 107-112 final, 111 for non-expert readers, 108 initial, 110 intermediate, 111 possible structure, 108-110 purpose, 1107 team, 110-112 Project, citation, 178 Proposal, research: at start of graduate work, 92 commercial organization, 92, 94-97 for non-expert reader, 94-95 funding body, 92, 94-97 structure, 96-97 Purpose Statement, 33-34
Questions: answering, 260-261 as title, 17 rhetorical, 214 Quotations, conventions for, 185-186
Reader, non-expert: helping, 9 progress report, 108 research proposal, 94-95 management report, 113-114 Recommendation report, 116-117 Recommendations: and Conclusions, 9 as part of basic skeleton, 2 requirements for, 50 Record-keeping, 81-84 Refereeing, journal paper, 103-105 Referencing, 167-188 abbreviations for journals, 175-176 author-date system, 167, 169-174 basic systems, 167, 169-171 basics of, 16 Bibliography, 169, 186-187
279
copying of text, 168 et al., 172 footnotes, 167 Harvard system, see author-date ibid, 167 illustrations, copying or adapting, 174 electronic sources, 180-182 sources, 176-180 Materials and Methods, 40 numerical system, 167, 169-171, 175 op. cit., 167 personal communications, 174 plagiarism, 168 purpose, 167 quotations, 185-186 Repetition, deliberate, of information, 10-11 Repetitive data, in Results, 42 Requirements, 38 Research proposal, see proposal Responsibilities, Allocation of, 37 Results, 41-44 Review articles, as sources, 84 Revising and proofreading, 199-208 definitions, 199-200 document integrity, 204 formatting, 203-204 Outline mode, 201 printer's proof, 207-208 proofreading, 205-208, 208 stages of revision, 200-205 Rhetorical question, 214 Running title, 18
Schedule of Tasks, 35-3 7 Scope Statement: in thesis, 148 requirements for, 33, 34 Searching techniques, 81 Secondary sources of literature, 81 Section: Conclusions, 9 Summary, 9 numbering, 195-196 Seminar see oral presentation Sentence: incomplete, 230-232 length, 223
280
Series title, 17 SI units, 268-270 Skeleton of headings: basic, 2 extended, 3 Slides, see visual aids Small words, 221 Sources: citation, 176-180 electronic, citation, 180-182 for literature review, 84-89 keeping records of, 81-84 Species names, 198 Specification, citation, 179 Speech, parts of, 271-273 Stance, oral presentation, 256 Standard practice, citation, 179 State of Knowledge, 148 Structuring, oral presentation, 241-247 Style, writing, 209-234 contractions, 210-212 it's~its, 21 O- 211 n't, 211-212
pairs of words, 216-221 plurals, 215-216 possessive, 210 punctuation, 209-214 apostrophe, 2 0 9 - 2 1 2 comma, 212-213 semi-colon, 213 colon, 213-214 exclamation mark, 214 question, rhetorical, 214 spell checking, 214-215 spoken, 247-251 Subject/verb agreement, 228 Submitting a paper: conference, 72-73 journal, 102 Suggestions for Future Research, 51 Summary, see also Abstract/Summary/Executive Summary as part of basic skeleton, 2 oral presentation, 244-245 importance, 8-10 Vuse in navigational pathway, 8-10 repetition of information, 11 Symbols see List of Symbols
INDEX
Table of Contents: automatic production, 8 requirements for, 24-26 Tables see Illustrations Technical report, citation, 178 Tense of verb: correct form, 229-230 definitions, 271-273 in Discussion, 46-47 in Introduction, 30-31 in Materials and Methods, 40 in Recommendations, 51 in Results, 44 Tertiary sources of literature, 80 Test method, citation, 179 Their~there, 221 Theory, 32 Thesis, 141-150 backing up, 142 difficulties, 141 formatting, 145 literature review, in a thesis, 144-145 Outline and Master document, 143 purpose, 141 stages of writing, 143-145 structure, 146-150 when to write, 142-143 citation, 178 title page, 19 Time Management, 35-3 7 Timing, oral presentation, 259 Title: as part of navigational pathway, 9 as part of skeleton, 2 capitalization, 193 conference poster, 18 declarative/indicative, 17 figures and tables, 195 hanging, 17 journal paper, 16 title page, 19-21 question as, 17 requirements for, 16-19 running, 18 Transporting poster, 164-165 Trimming, poster, 163
Undated documents, citation, 180 Units, SI, 268-270
INDEX
Untranslated paper, citation, 177 Upper case, in poster, 163
Variety names, 198 Venue, oral presentation, 259 Verbs, 224-232 active voice, 224-225 finite verb, 230-232 lifeless verbs, 228 passive voice, 224-227 subject/verb agreement, 228 tense: correct form, 229-230 definitions, 271-273 in Discussion, 46-47
281
in Introduction, 30-31 in Materials and Methods, 40 in Recommendations, 51 in Results, 44 Video cassette, citation, 180 Visual aids: interaction with, 256-257 preparing, 248-254 Voice, oral presentation, 255
Web page, citation, 181
Who's~whose, 211 Wording, for presentation, 247-251 Workbooks, 118
