The health of a population is very accurately reflected in the rate of growth of its children. It is this theme that un...
175 downloads
845 Views
12MB Size
Report
This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form
The health of a population is very accurately reflected in the rate of growth of its children. It is this theme that underlies the analysis and presentation of what is by far the most comprehensive collection of human growth data ever assembled. In this second edition, new data collected between 1976 and 1988 are presented and analysed, making this volume an essential supplement to the first edition (published in 1976). In addition, the results of a large number of recent studies made of the rate of maturation, as evinced by bone age and pubertal development stages, are included. Through the comparison of recent data from all parts of the world, and with older data, the authors show in practical terms how surveys of human growth may be used to disentangle the effects of environment and heredity. All those professionally concerned with child health throughout the world will find this book of interest.
WORLDWIDE VARIATION IN HUMAN GROWTH
WORLDWIDE VARIATION IN HUMAN GROWTH PHYLLIS B. EVELETH Deputy Associate Director, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
JAMES. M. TANNER Emeritus Professor of Child Health and Growth, Institute of Child Health, University of London and Visiting Professor, University of Texas School of Public Health, Houston, Texas, USA SECOND EDITION
\
gre V;'
5
inr
The right of the University of Cambridge to print and sell all manner of books was granted by Henry VIII in 1534. The University has printed and published continuously since 1584.
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS CAMBRIDGE NEW YORK MELBOURNE
PORT CHESTER SYDNEY
Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1RP 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia © Cambridge University Press 1976, 1990 First published 1976 Second edition 1990 British Library cataloguing in publication data Eveleth, Phyllis B. Worldwide variation in human growth.—2nd ed. 1. Children. Growth variation I. Title II. Tanner, J. M. (James Mourilyan) 612.65 Library of Congress cataloging in publication data Eveleth, Phyllis B. Worldwide variation in human growth/Phyllis B. Eveleth, J.M. Tanner. — 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0 521 35024 7 - ISBN 0 521 35916 3 (paperback) 1. Children—Growth. 2. Children—Anthropometry. I. Tanner, J. M. (James Mourilyan) II. Title. GN63.E94 1990 573'.6—dc20 90-34824 CIP ISBN 0 521 35024 7 hardback ISBN 0 521 35916 3 paperback Transferred to digital printing 2003
PP
Contents Foreword
ix
Acknowledgements
xi
1
Introduction to comparative growth studies: methods and standards
2
Europeans in Europe
17
3
European descendants in Australasia, Africa and the Americas
44
4
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry
63
5
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
90
6
Indo-Mediterraneans in the Near East, North Africa and India
117
7
Australian Aborigines and Pacific Island peoples
130
8
Rate of maturation: population differences in skeletal, dental and pubertal development
145
Genetic influence on growth: family and race comparisons
176
9
1
10 Environmental influence on growth
191
11 Child growth and chronic disease in adults
208
Appendix
224
References
339
Index
385
Vll
Foreword The health of a population is most accurately reflected in the growth of its children. Naturally, child growth, in all its aspects, is of priority concern to the World Health Organization. The origin of this book lies in the Human Adaptability section of the International Biological Programme: the authors, working at the Institute of Child Health of the University of London and using various resources of WHO and UNICEF, collated contemporary data on the growth and maturation of children gathered by physicians and anthropologists all over the world. The result was published in 1976 as the first edition of Worldwide Variation in Human Growth. Since that time, the collection of data has not only continued, but in most parts of the world increased. The methods of collection of growth data, largely due to the influence of the book, have become more sophisticated and the scope of inquiry more extensive. Now the distinguished authors have brought together these new data, covering 19761988, in a second or companion edition. Dr Eveleth and Professor Tanner have assembled by far the largest series of growth data, and given a judicious analysis of the complex issues involved in growth and maturation in different parts of the world, factors influencing them, and trends over time. One of their main preoccupations has been to disentangle the effects of environment and heredity on growth. The book provides fascinating reading with practical tips explained in simple terms, for those who plan to conduct different kinds of growth studies and surveys, as well as those interested in public health implications of measuring growth and maturation of individuals and population groups. They have added analyses on the secular trend towards greater body size and incorporated a new theme in afinalchapter on the significance of growth in height, weight and fatness for epidemiological studies of chronic diseases in adults and research in longevity. Substantial reductions in the mortality of infancy and early childhood have been achieved throughout the world in recent decades. This achievement unfortunately has not always been accompanied by a corresponding improvement in the level of health of surviving children. In this connection, growth data, as an indicator of health and nutritional status of children, assume ever-increasing importance. As the authors emphasize, growth monitoring in children can serve as a powerful tool for appropriate action to promote improved health and nutritional status. On a worldwide scale, it can be assumed that weight differences among children under five years from different countries that might be due to their genetic origin would be relatively small in comparison with large differences between and within countries observed due to environmental ix
x
Foreword
factors (infectious disease, insufficient diet and overall poor socioeconomic situation). There are still many parts of the world where environmental, and especially nutritional, conditions are such that the genetic potential of the children is not known; but the material in this book is sufficient to indicate the possibilities for improvement in growth in large areas of the world. The book should be of interest to those working in the fields of maternal and child health, infant and pre-school nutrition and the health of the adolescent; it should also commend itself to those human biologists who have at heart the diversity of man and the human potential for change. Angele Petros-Barvazian Director, Division of Family Health World Health Organization Geneva
Acknowledgements This book has been completely revised with new growth data that have been collected since the first edition was published in 1976. As with the first edition, few of the data reported here were collected by us personally. We have been responsible for collating, arranging and interpreting them, and bear the blame for mistakes and misemphases. Many of the studies in the first edition were made under the auspices of the International Biological Programme (IBP); none of the studies in this edition was, since the IBP terminated in 1974. Once again we have gone to our colleagues to request their newest data and their response has been overwhelming and encouraging. The result is that much data is unpublished or published in obscure journals or monographs. We have also searched the literature and these data are included as well. We wish to thank those colleagues for their contributions, without which this book could not have been revised. They are: Dr E. Andersen, Frederiksborg County Hospital, Denmark; Dr L. Attallah, King Faisal Military Hospital; Dr R. C. Bailey, University of California, Los Angeles; Dr L. Benso, Universita di Torino; Dr G. Beunen, Catholic University, Leuven; Dr E. Capucci, University of Rome; Ms J. F. Coy, Tasmanian Department of Health Services; Dr C. Dacou-Voutetakis, Athens University; Dr D. P. Davies, Chinese University of Hong Kong; Dr H. Danke-Hopfe, Universitat Bremen; Dr P. Dasgupta, Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta; Dr A. Demirjian, Universite de Montreal; Dr O. Eiben, Institute of Anthropology, Eotvos-Lorand University; Dr J. Faulhaber, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico; Dr W. J. M. Gerver, Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen; Dr H. Gilmour, University of Glasgow; Dr M. Gracey, Princess Margaret Children's Hospital, Perth; Dr Luigi Greco, Naples; Dr M. Hediger, New Jersey School of Medicine and Dentistry; Professor M. Hernandez, Instituto de Crecimiento, Bilbao; Professor V. Hesse, Universitats Kinderklinik, Jena; Dr C. Jenkins, Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research; Dr P. Khanjanasthti, Ramathibodi Hospital; Dr J. Knudtzon, University of Bergen; Dr J. Kopczynska-Sikorsdka, National Research Institute of Mother and Child, Warsaw; Dr En-Su Lai, Changhua Christian Hospital; Dr H. Lejarraga, Buenos Aires; Dr S. Leung, Chinese University of Hong Kong; Dr M. Lopez de Blanco, FUNDACREDESA, Caracas; Professor R. Malina, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas (Austin); Dr M. Mantzagriotou-Miemarides, Aghia Sophia Children's Hospital, Athens; Dr E. Marcondes, Sao Paulo; Dr R. Martorell, Stanford University; Dr J. McCullough, University of Utah; Dr H. Mendez-Castellano, xi
xii
Acknowledgements
FUNDACREDESA, Caracas; Dr N. N. Miklashevskaya, Moscow University; DrW. Mueller, University of Texas (Houston); Dr A. Nicoll, University of Nottingham; Dr H. Palti, Israel; Dr C. Prado, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid; Professor A. Prader, Kinderspital, Zurich; Professor Z. Prebeg, University of Zagreb; Ms J. E. Pyke, Australian Council for Health, Physical Education and Recreation; Dr M. A. Rocha, Instituto de Antropologia, Coimbra; Dr M.-F. Rolland-Cachera, INSERM, Le Vesinet; Dr R. Rona, St Thomas & Guy's Hospital, London; Ms J. Schall, University of Pennsylvania; Dr L. Schumacher, University of California, San Francisco; Dr L. S. Sidhu, Delhi; Dr R. Singh, University of Delhi; Professor G. F. De Stefano, Universita degli Studi Di Roma; Dr C. Suzanne, Universite Libre de Bruxelles; Dr S. Stinson, State University of New York; Dr M. Y. Sukkar, King Abdulaziz University; Dr M. Takaishi, Institute of Public Health, Tokyo; Dr J. Taranger, University of Goteborg; Dr W. Van Lerberghe, University of Antwerp; Dr L. Vargas, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico; Dr J. C. Wieringen, Wilhelmina Kinderziekenhuis, Utrecht; Ms B. Zemel, University of Pennsylvania; Dr X. Zhang, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences. We also owe thanks to Janet Baines Preece and Trish Boutwell for typing some sections of the manuscript and to both the Division of Research Grants and the National Institute on Aging of the National Institutes of Health for providing a supportive and encouraging environment.
Introduction to comparative growth studies: methods and standards A child's growth rate reflects, perhaps better than any other single index, his state of health and nutrition; and often indeed his psychological situation also. Similarly, the average values of children's heights and weights reflect accurately the state of a nation's public health and the average nutritional status of its citizens, when appropriate allowance is made for differences, iiany, in genetic potential. This is especially so in developing or disintegrating countries. Thus a well-designed growth study is a powerful tool with which to monitor the health of a population, or to pinpoint subgroups of a population whose share in economic and social benefits is less than it might be. Indeed as infant mortality rate goes down during a country's development, so the importance of monitoring growth rate increases. There is no guarantee, however, that all populations have the same growth potential. There are certainly large differences between populations, in height and weight and the age of puberty for example, and it is now clear that a portion of these differences is genetic in origin, a portion (in the developing countries a large portion) environmental. Thefirstedition of this book, published in 1976, was the outcome of the International Biological Programme (Human Adaptability Section) which extended over the years 1964-74 under the auspices of the International Council of Scientific Unions. This worldwide effort resulted in 340 growth projects in 42 countries, and we made use of these, as well as other data, in a tabulation and summary of growth in populations around the world. We set out to report and analyze, we said, all serious studies of child growth in the world in the period 1964-74, adding somewhat earlier studies if they had something special to recommend them. This time we have set out to report all the studies from 1974 to 1988. For the most part, we have let be the earlier studies, including here from the first edition only occasional ones which have not been superseded by anything later. Somewhat to our surprise the volume of studies, as well as their sophistication, has increased in the last 15 years and our world coverage this time is greater than it was before. Thus the reader who wants to survey the whole material of the last 30 years should have thefirstedition on the desk, as well as this one. We repeat what we said in 1
2
Introduction to comparative growth studies
that edition: that this is by far the largest series of growth data ever assembled, and we hope it may be a worthy successor to the pioneering compilations of W. M. Krogman (1941, 1956) and H. V. Meredith fc, 1969, 1971a,b). Content of the book
We discuss first the growth in height, weight, skinfolds, limb circumferences and skeletal diameters of European populations (since these are the most studied to date), both in Europe (Chapter 2) and elsewhere (Chapter 3). Sub-Saharan African populations and their descendants in the Americas are next (Chapter 4), followed by Asiatic populations (Chapter 5). We have defined these (with some difficulty) as peoples originating in Asia, including Chinese, Japanese, Southeast Asians and Amerindians (who migrated to America across the Bering Strait land bridge; see Stewart, 1973). Bengalis and Indians, however, are not included. (The recent popular designation of Indians as 'Asians' in Britain has further befuddled an already intolerably indeterminate nomenclature.) The Indo-Mediterranean peoples of the Near East, North Africa and India are considered in Chapter 6 and the Australian Aborigines and Pacific Island peoples in Chapter 7. The data on which these chapters are based come from a variety of surveys. Some are cross-sectional, a few longitudinal; some haphazard in sampling, a few highly structured and truly representative of the populations considered. The second part of the present chapter discusses in an elementary fashion the different types of survey and the statistical methods used to derive growth standards and to make comparisons between population groups. In Chapter 8 population differences in rate of maturing are described. Our knowledge of these is less than our knowledge of heights and weights for given age, but in the last 15 years considerable quantities of data have been amassed, for example on bone age in different populations, on puberty stages, and above all, on age at menarche. One of the interests of the human biologist, no less than of the artist, is the enormous and enchanting diversity of man. What sense does it make to 'prefer' the Nilotic to the Balinese, the Swede to the Punjabi, the Nigerian to the Maya? Or what sense to pretend, still worse to wish, they were all identical (and resembling, of course, the wisher)? Every human being is unique, in his beginning as well as his end. Thus persons who are genetically similar grow up resembling each other more closely than those who are genetically far apart, even in optimal environments. In Chapter 9 we exemplify this in two ways. First we discuss family likenesses; how closely twins, brothers, parents and offspring, on aver-
Content of the book
3
age, resemble each other and differ, on average, from the children of all other families. Secondly, as a convenient way of selecting relatively large groups of people sharing a higher percentage of genes than would a random sample of all people in the world, we compare Europeans, Africans and Asiatics. We presume that these groups were more geographically isolated long ago than nowadays, and that they have evolved in different habitats. Selective pressures - towards ability to radiate heat in the Nilotic, for example, and to conserve it in the Eskimo - led to different physiques and different growth patterns. Present-day populations will reflect the genetic differences underlying these differing phenotypes, unless, indeed, the phenotypic differences are all due to the immediate effect of the environment on the growing child. This is a question we can answer, for today we have descendants of Africans growing up in the temperate climate of North America and, in some groups, sharing the same nutritional habits and style of life as their European-descended neighbours. We have, too, Africans still in Africa but living a more European style of life than previously. In Chapter 9, then, we set out to determine what proportion of differences in growth patterns between present-day populations of Europeans, Africans and Asiatics are due to genetical causes. In Chapter 10, in contrast, we examine what differences in growth, within and between families, and within and between population groups, are caused by differing environments, and especially by differing levels of nutrition. To the human biologist heredity and environment are the two eyes through which he simultaneously views the world, to maintain always that sharp stereoscopy which is his peculiar contribution to modern thought. Environmental differences are pervasive, complex and powerful. Their effects depend to some extent, and in certain instances, on the genotype on which they act. The interaction of genes and environment is not always simply additive, but often more complex. In the present context we have not ventured to define an optimal environment. On a worldwide scale the majority of environments are clearly worse than those developed in Europe and North America. But already in these 'developed' areas nutrition is excessive and obesity has replaced starvation as a major disorder of childhood. Children have been growing up progressively faster and adults reaching progressively greater sizes. Admittedly, both these trends appear to be slowing down in the last decade or so, but we still cannot say whether such rapid maturation and great size signifies an optimal or an excessive environmental input. Small people may do physical work more efficiently than large ones, in terms of food conversion and energy supply, and rapidly-maturing children may be more at medical or social risk than those whose pace is steadier. These
4
Introduction to comparative growth studies
are questions we do not discuss here, but which cannot be avoided in the long-run. They are part of the still larger question as to what range of environment is appropriate for the human genotype, and whether in creating our recent industrial-urban high population densities we have not in the end overstepped the range's limits. This is too philosophical a question to be considered here, but it constitutes a very legitimate subject of human biological enquiry. The last chapter, 11, was devoted in thefirstedition to a comparison of growth in some extreme ecological systems, as these extremes were a special concern of the International Biological Programme as a whole. We have replaced this by a chapter devoted to the relationship between growth and development and susceptibility to disease, a topic scarcely able to be addressed 20 years ago. Now through a considerable number of epidemiological studies we see that conditions during childhood may have a close relationship to the outcomes during the adult period. The book concludes with an Appendix giving those basic tables of worldwide data for which no room has been found in the text. Methods in growth studies Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies In a comparative survey of children's growth in different populations we are more concerned with the means and variabilities of groups of children than with the growth patterns of individuals. Generally, therefore, the information we have used is from cross-sectional studies or, in some instances, from longitudinal studies where the material has been analysed as though cross-sectional. A cross-sectional study is one in which individual children are measured once only. Typically, a large number of children is measured at each age and the means and variabilities are calculated. Thus we might measure the heights of all the children in a random sample of London schools. We might divide the age groups by years, and report the mean heights for boys and girls aged 8.0 to 8.99 years, 9.0 to 9.99 years and so on. (Using age as decimals of a year instead of years and months greatly simplifies subsequent calculations and we strongly recommend it. The way to convert calendar age to decimals is given in Table 1.) We would observe that the distribution of height about the mean in each age group was approximately Gaussian, or Normal, and calculate the standard deviation as a measure of dispersion. We could also calculate the centiles of the distribution. The 3rd centile is that height below which 3% of the children lie, the 10th below which 10% lie, and so on. The 50th centile is the median. When the distribution of the characteristic considered is
Methods in growth studies
70
60
50 £
40
Single-time standard (cross-sectional)
30 • 3
Repeated-visit standard (longitudinal) I
I
I
1
2
3 4
I
I
I
I
I
I
97 • 50 3
I
I
I
I
I
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
1
I
I
I
Age (yr) Fig. 1. Cross-sectional and longitudinal type standards for boys' height, British data. (From Tanner etal., 1966.)
Gaussian these centiles are best estimated by calculating the standard deviation and multiplying by the appropriate value (see Healy, 1986); but when the distribution is non-Gaussian, or skewed, as it is for body weight or skinfolds, then the centiles are best estimated by direct counting. The centiles from cross-sectional studies are often used as the basis for population standards, as in Fig. 1. Conventionally, the 3rd, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th and 97th are those displayed. One has to remember that the outer centiles such as the 3rd and 97th (unfortunately those of most clinical use) are subject to considerably greater sampling error than the 50th (Goldstein, 1986; Healy, 1986). This is why much larger numbers of subjects are necessary for creating effective standards than for simply comparing the means of two populations.
Table 1. Conversion of calendar age to decimal age
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
1 Jan.
2 Feb.
3 Mar.
4 Apr.
5 May
6 June
7 July
8 Aug.
9 Sept.
000 003 005 008 Oil 014 016 019 022 025 027 030 033 036 038 041 044 047 049 052 055 058 060 063 066 068 071 074 077 079 082
085 088 090 093 096 099 101 104 107 110 112 115 118 121 123 126 129 132 134 137 140 142 145 148 151 153 156 159
162 164 167 170 173 175 178 181 184 186 189 192 195 197 200 203 205 208 211 214 216 219 222 225 227 230 233 236 238 241 244
247 249 252 255 258 260 263 266 268 271 274 277 279 282 285 288 290 293 296 299 301 304 307 310 312 315 318 321 323 326
329 332 334 337 340 342 345 348 351 353 356 359 362 364 367 370 373 375 378 381 384 386 389 392 395 397 400 403 405 408 411
414 416 419 422 425 427 430 433 436 438 441 444 447 449 452 455 458 460 463 466 468 471 474 477 479 482 485 488 490 493
496 499 501 504 507 510 512 515 518 521 523 526 529 532 534 537 540 542 545 548 551 553 556 559 562 564 567 570 573 575 578
581 584 586 589 592 595 597 600 603 605 608 611 614 616 619 622 625 627 630 633 636 638 641 644 647 649 652 655 658 660 663
666 668 671 674 677 679 682 685 688 690 693 696 699 701 704 707 710 712 715 718 721 723 726 729 731 734 737 740 742 745
Jan. 1
Feb. 2
Mar. 3
Apr. 4
May 5
June 6
July 7
Aug. 8
Sept. 9
11 Nov.
12 Dec.
748 751 753 756 759 762 764 767 770 773 775 778 781 784 786 789 792 795 797 800 803 805 808 811 814 816 819 -822 825 827 830
833 836 838 841 844 847 849 852 855 858 860 863 866 868 871 874 877 879 882 885 888 890 893 896 899 901 904 907 910 912
915 918 921 923 926 929 932 934 937 940 942 945 948 951 953 956 959 962 964 967 970 973 975 978 981 984 986 989 992 995 997
Oct. 10
Nov. 11
Dec. 12
10 Oct.
Decimal age. The year is divided into 10, not 12. Each date in the calendar is marked (from the table above) in terms of thousandths of the year. Thus 7 January 1962 is 62.016. The child's birth date is similarly recorded, e.g. a child born on 23 June 1959 has the birthday 59.474. Age at examination is then obtained by simple subtraction, e.g. 62.016 — 59.474 = 2.542, and the last figure is rounded off. This system greatly facilitates the computing of velocities, since the proportion of the year between two examinations is easily calculated.
8
Introduction to comparative growth studies
A warning should be added about age-groups classification. Authors are often imprecise about their age grouping and tables of results should always be carefully scrutinized with this in mind. A useful convention is to designate groups of children aged 8.0 to 8.99 years as 8+, 7.5 to 8.49 years as 8± and aged exactly 8 years as 8.0. When constructing a standard from data on children classified by yearly age groups the amount of variation has to be a little decreased, since the actual use of the standard involves a child aged exactly 8.43, say, and the variation shown by such children is less than that of all children 8.00 to 8.99 (Healy, 1986). In making cross-sectional standards the numbers of children measured in each age group should be approximately proportional to the rate at which growth is taking place. Thus about three times as many children should be measured in the first year after birth as at age 8 to 9 years, for example. Put another way, the first year should be broken up into three periods (0 to 0.32 year, 0.33 to 0.66 year, 0.67 to 0.99 year) in each of which the same number of children should be measured as in the middlechildhood year. The second year should be broken into two periods (1.00 to 1.49 year, 1.50 to 1.99 year) and the years of the adolescent growth spurt (different in boys and girls) also into six-month periods. An example will be found in Jordan etal. (1975). Major standardizing studies sample about 1000 boys and 1000 girls in each age group (that is, some 20-25 x 103 of each sex in all) but half this number produces useful, if slightly imprecise, centiles. Samples of less than about 300 in each age group are unsuitable as cross-sectional standardizing series. There are limitations to the usefulness of even large-scale crosssectional studies. They tell us nothing about individual increments from one year to the next, that is about individual rates of growth. Though they give us an estimate of the mean rate of growth of a population (by subtracting the mean height of 8.0 for example, from that at 9.0) they tell us nothing about the variability around that mean. In a clinical context this is precisely what we most usually need to know, so that we can compare a given individual's velocity or rate of growth with standards for velocity at his age. To obtain such standards we need a longitudinal study. In a longitudinal study each individual is measured periodically over a number of years. To obtain the simplest type of velocity standards individuals have only to be measured twice. This is what was done in the large-scale London standardizing study of 1966-7 and the Cuban National Study of 1972-4. Velocity standards (see Tanner, Whitehouse & Takaishi, 1966) are best presented in growth rates per whole calendar year, since the variation of growth rate with season of the year in many countries (see Marshall, 1971, 1975) renders any smaller interval imprecise. Thus the group of children measured once is measured again a year
Methods in growth studies
9
later, and the means, standard deviations and centiles of the increments, adjusted to exact yearly rates, are calculated. More intensive longitudinal studies follow the children over longer periods. The investigator then has to fit a growth curve to the serial measurements of each individual. For many purposes graphical fits (see Tanner et al., 1966) are sufficient, but mathematical curves may also be employed (Marubini & Milani, 1986). The principal drawback of the comprehensive longitudinal study is the time it takes to complete and the relatively small number of subjects that can usually be followed. For some purposes a good design is that of linked longitudinal studies, that is studies covering the ages 0 to 6, 5 to 11,10 to 15,14 to 20, for example. Efficient sampling of the population is crucial to obtain smooth joins in the data; but in the space of only six years the whole range is spanned, with considerable longitudinal elements covering, for example, adolescence and the pre-school years. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies are complementary and both are required for a full understanding of the growth process. The aims of a study govern, as always, the method selected. For the construction of national standards of height and weight, at least till puberty, crosssectional study is the method of choice. For the study of growth at adolescence in a population a five-year longitudinal study is necessary, combined with cross-sectional backing on larger numbers. For an intensive investigation of the relation between continuously unfolding events in individuals, and very often for clinical investigation of growth disorders, long-term longitudinal studies, even from birth to maturity, are necessary. For some 'outcome' types of problem follow-up studies suffice, wherein a cohort is studied at relatively few ages. The British National Child Development Survey is an example, wherein a national sample of all children born in one week of March 1958 was studied again at ages 7,11 and 15 (Davies, Butler & Goldstein, 1972; Goldstein, 1971). A point of great importance is that in working out the results of each type of study the appropriate statistical method should be used. Often in the past investigators have applied only the simple methods appropriate to cross-sectional studies to their cherished and costly longitudinal data, and thus thrown away vast quantities of information, wasting their whole great effort. Methods are available for extracting the maximum information from a mixture of longitudinal and cross-sectional data (Tanner, 1951; Goldstein, 1987). They should be used if the data are from a mixed longitudinal series, that is, one in which children enter and leave at different ages, giving various degrees of longitudinality. In some circumstances the straightforward use of just the increments derived from each individual measured twice or more is reasonably efficient and simpler.
10
Introduction to comparative growth studies
The means of such increments may be used to calculate attained 'distance' means at successive ages. This is done by taking the mean value of the measurement at the age at which the greatest number of subjects is available (say i) and working forwards and backwards from it. Thus the next mean upwards (t + 1) is obtained by adding the mean increment from t to t + 1 of children present at both occasions. The same is repeated from occasion t + 1 to t + 2 and so on. The investigator should always formulate precisely the method to be used in his work-up of the data before he sets out to collect it. Nine times out of ten an investigator who brings collected data to a statistician for analysis sight unseen is wasting his and the statistician's time. The same applies, of course, to choosing the sample of children to be measured (Goldstein, 1986; Chinn, 1988). Rigorous thought should precede collection of data, with precise planning of sampling procedures, and careful training in anthropometric methods of the specialized team of workers. The Cuban National Growth Survey provides a model suitable for many workers undertaking to construct national standards, and a full account of its methodology has been given by Jordan et al. (1975). Growth standards
Standards for height, or other measurements, should ideally be constructed by using a combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal data (Tanner, 19866). The two differ in results at puberty, because of the great variation between individuals in the time at which the adolescent growth spurt occurs. In a given individual the spurt is a marked and quite rapid affair; but when the spurts of different individuals, each occurring at different ages, are averaged then the curve becomes spread out along the age axis and its peak is lowered. For this reason no individual at adolescence actually follows the 50th centile cross-sectional type curve shown in the lined and open centiles of Fig. 1. The average or typical child follows the dashed 50th (and shaded) centiles. The difference is more striking when displayed in the velocity curves of Fig. 2. A child whose velocity followed the low-level broad-backed cross-sectional 50th centile curve through puberty would be pathological. The same occurs for other anthropometric measurements, of course, and for measures such as skeletal maturity (Buckler, 1984) though for this latter there are no longitudinal-type standards. Height standards that simplify the charts of Figs 1 and 2 are given in Figs 3 and 4. The distance curve (Fig. 3) centiles are longitudinal-type ones, so that a child followed for a year or more should come to lie within them. But on the first occasion he is seen, an early-maturing child may lie in the upper shaded area and be within the 97th limit, and a late-maturing
Growth standards
11
23 Single whole-year increment (chronological age base)
22 21 20
Repeated whole-year increments (peakvelocity age base)
19 18 17 16
"t 1413 * •"S 12
o •§ 11
1 10 £
9
1
2
i
I
I
I
i
i
3 4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
i
I
i
Age (yr) Fig. 2. Cross-sectional and longitudinal-type standards of height velocity for boys, British data. (From Tanner et al., 1966.)
child may be in the lower shaded area and within the 3rd centile limit (Tanner & Whitehouse, 1976). The velocity curves (Fig. 4) are likewise longitudinal: a child with the peak of his spurt at the average time follows one of the centile curves shown. If he has an earlier or later spurt his curve will follow the same shape but will be in one of the shaded areas. If it lies to the left of the shaded area he is spurting abnormally early, and if to the right, abnormally late. In the height for age, or 'distance' charts a child will generally maintain the same centile during most of his growth, though his position may change somewhat from the beginning of puberty to adulthood due to his having a larger or smaller than average adolescent spurt. During adoles-
12
Introduction to comparative growth studies
70
Limits for single occasions (cross-sectional)
60
50
40
30
97 90 75 50 25 10 3
50 I
1 2
I
I
1
I
I
I
3
4
5
6
7
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
20 I
I
I
I
I
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Age (yr)
Fig. 3. Tanner-Whitehouse standards for boys' height. Children followed for a year or more should come to lie within the centiles, but a child seen on one occasion only may lie in the shaded areas without being outside the 3rd and 97th centile limits. (From Tanner & Whitehouse, 1976.)
cence an early- or late-maturer will move out of his centile but on average return to it when growth is completed. In velocity charts, on the contrary, only the child at the 50th centile stays at the same centile. A child who is at the 90th centile at age 2, say, would end up a giant if he maintained this velocity centile throughout growth. Thus a different interpretation must be given to centile changes in velocity from centile changes in distance. Investigation of discrete events {menarche, etc.) Particular events, such as menarche, the first menstrual period, play a most important part in the comparison of rate of maturation
Growth standards
13
23 22 — 21
A
20
C
Longitudinal whole-year centiles when peak velocity occurs at average age
19 _
97
^^.ZZ
When peak velocity occurs at early and late limits of age (entire curves fall within shaded limits)
18 17 _ 16 _
50
/\
97
•
50
V
3
£ 15 5 13 _
1 12
_ -
I io 9 8
w
7
""-t>—1.
6 5 4 3 2
—
1 i
6
i
7 8
V
1
1
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 i
i
i
i
i
i
rioVs | * ,
Age (yr)
|
Fig. 4. Tanner-Whitehouse height velocity standards for boys. A child having his adolescent spurt at the average time will follow one of the centile lines shown. If he is earlier or later his curve will be of similar shape and located within the stippled areas which define 97th and 3rd centile limits of age for the adolescent growth spurt. (From Tanner & Whitehouse, 1976.)
between different populations. When the age at which an event occurs has a Gaussian distribution in the population (as has menarche, for example), the most appropriate technique for finding the median age of its occurrence is the status quo method. A sample of girls aged 9 to 17, say, is selected and each girl is asked only her age and whether or not she has had her first menstrual period. This alone suffices; no inquiry is made as to what age the period occurred at, a statistic fraught with errors of recall, and also errors of bias in any series which includes girls who have not yet menstruated. The percentages of girls who are post-menarcheal at
14
Introduction to comparative growth studies
successive years or half-years of age are fitted by a probit or logit curve and the medians and ranges thus derived. The same technique can be used for the ages of occurrence of the pubertal stages 2 to 5 of pubic hair, genitalia and breasts (see descriptions in Tanner, 1962). Estimates of age
In developing countries, sometimes a severe problem is posed by the age of the children not being known accurately. There is no satisfactory way around this difficulty. All standards for children's size are agebased and usually the best solution is to make detailed enquiries about historical events occurring at about the time of a child's birth. These may establish it to within a few months. In some countries with a malepredominant culture parents knowingly increase the age of boys so as to get them as early as possible into school. They may correspondingly decrease the age of girls. Thus spurious sex differences and odd reversals have been known to occur. No estimate of chronological age can be made from skeletal maturation or bone age, for that may be advanced or retarded. If a subsample of the population has known ages then the remainder may be matched to them by taking bone ages of both groups, but this assumes that the subsample is a truly random one and not from the well-off, which is the usual situation. Age may be estimated from the number of primary teeth erupted better than from other physical traits, because the primary teeth pass much of their development in utero and hence are less retarded by the effects of postnatal environment. However, this is not to say that they are totally immune to malnutrition. In any individual case the error of estimating age this way is too large to be acceptable, but in comparing groups of children, mean ages of the groups may be estimated relatively successfully (McGregor etal, 19686). Standards have been proposed in which the centiles are more or less constant over a range of ages, making variation of age within the range apparently unimportant. The most frequently used is upper arm circumference, between the ages of 1 and 5 years. Even such 'constancy' as exists is biologically quite spurious, however; it so happens that a considerable loss of fat during this age range is on average nearly balanced by a considerable increase in muscle. That degree of undernutrition which affects fat rather than muscle will not, therefore, have the same result over all the age range, but is greater at younger ages. At older ages the child will have to be more undernourished before this is shown by arm circumference. Standards of one measurement against another may be somewhat more age-independent, depending on which two measurements are
Growth standards
15
taken. Theoretically what is necessary is that the regression, or slope, of y on x when children of a given range of ages are all pooled equals the slope of y on x within each year of age. This is not the case with most pairs of measurements. In this book we consider chiefly the pairs weight-forheight and sitting height-for-leg length. Both regressions vary with age, though in an orderly fashion for which a mathematical correction could be made. Complexities such as these, however, are beyond the scope of the present volume. The best advice to reseachers in developing countries is to start registering births, or at least a sample of them. One reference standard or many? There is a long-running discussion amongst auxologists, nutritionists and public health workers about the desirability or otherwise of a single universal reference or standard for growth. Clearly we need to distinguish, here as always, between a reference or standard for individuals, and one for populations. The individual growth curve differs from the population curve and the use of an individual standard differs from the use of a population standard. If an individual falls below the appropriate standard he is treated, clinically and individually, for growth failure. If a population or subpopulation falls below a suitable reference then that is an indication that the population should be treated - with better health care, increased roads, better sanitation, better food distribution, more jobs, less discrimination, whatever public health and political action is appropriate. In regard to standards for individuals, it used to be said that the growth of all healthy populations, at least up to agefivewas about the same and so one universal standard would do for all (Habicht et al., 1974). The data in this book make it plain that this is a misconception, based on an inadequate sample of populations. It simply will not do to use an American or a British standard to judge the growth of Japanese or Hong Kong infants or children (see Davies & Yamamuro, 1985; Leung & Davies, 1989; Baldwin & Sutherland, 1988; and the general reviews of Goldstein & Tanner, 1980; Johnston etal., 1984). Both the size, and the tempo are different (see Chapter 9). Even the use of such standards in Africa has been severely criticized (van Loon et al., 19866). Clearly what is needed - and what is very actively in progress - is for countries, or at least broad regions, to generate their own standards. These should be based on well-nourished healthy individuals, or the nearest approach to that ideal that is practicable, and if used over adolescence they should be longitudinal and have separate channels for early and late maturers (in technical jargon, be 'tempo-conditional'). An example has recently been given for North American children (Tanner & Davies, 1985).
16
Introduction to comparative growth studies
When it comes to comparing populations or subpopulations, 'standards' are irrelevant. One may compare straightforwardly the rich and the poor, the employed and the unemployed. For international comparisons a 'reference' population has been proposed, specifically that of the United States NCHS survey. This assumes that all populations are genetically the same so far as growth is concerned, and a glance at Chapter 9 shows this assumption to be unfounded. However, we will grant that in some specific instances use of a reference for comparisons may be useful as long as it is recognized that it is only a 'reference' and not a 'standard' to be attained. In making population comparisons here we have chosen broad areas such as Europe, plotted the means of a large number of groups and used the envelope generated by the spread of these means as an approximate characterization of the region as a whole.
2
Europeans in Europe
As in the first edition, Europeans in Europe have been chosen as the baseline population against which comparisons will be made with other world populations. The reason for this is the large number of investigations that have been carried out on Europeans in the past using standardized techniques. Europe also has the advantage of a population that is close to being genetically homogeneous. European populations do vary considerably in adult size, however, and this variation also is seen in the size of the children.
Selection of European studies
One of the main difficulties in making a comparative growth survey is that the various samples of children are rarely comparable in the strictest sense. Different investigators have often used different methods, not so much of measuring technique, but of sample size and selection, age grouping, number of measurers, and area sampled. For this reason, we have never pooled data from different studies in a country to calculate a national average. In some countries genuinely national samples have, been measured, and when these are available, we have used them. When they are not, we have used urban samples in preference to rural ones, for all the evidence at present shows that when there is a difference, children in cities grow better than those in rural areas. At times when we have found two good studies from the same country, we have recorded both in the tables. Many countries collected and analyzed new data in the 1970s and 1980s and only these are presented here in Table 2. Data from 1955-70 will be found in the first edition of this book. We use the older data for comparative purposes in some of the figures since secular trends in worldwide growth will be an important focus in this edition. We have selected cross-sectional rather than longitudinal studies when both were available. This is first, because the numbers are greater; second, because they are mostly more recent; and third, because for our purposes in comparing populations, it is better to have each child only represented once. 17
Table 2. Summary of growth studies on Europeans Sample size/age group Country
Place
Years
Authors
Boys
Girls
Study type* Age (yr) Sampling; methods
Belgium
Brussels
1980-82
Vercauteren, 1984
31-209
22-156
CS
national
1967-74
L*
12-19
1979-80
Ostyn etal., 1980; Beunenefa/., 1988 Beunen etal., n.d.
587-4278 0
national
0
c.700
CS
6-19
Czechoslovakia
national
1985
Blaha,1986
250-385
235-393
CS
6-18
Denmark
national
1973-77
Andersen et al, 1982
c.225
c.225
CS
0-6
France
national Paris
1971-72 n.s.
Andersen et al., 1974 Rolland-Cachera & Bellisle, 1986 V. Hesse, 1988, unpubl. Danker etal., 1981 Danker etal., 1981 Brandt, 1980 Reinken etal., 1980
c.300 102-326
c.300 82-337
CS CS
7-18 6-18
Schools sampled; techniques of Twiesselman Mixed longitudinal; Flemish Multistage sampling; Flemish Representative of population Representative of population Urban and rural areas Mixed SES
—
—
CS
0-16
School survey
49-97 58-118 n.s. 709
46-100 54-106 n.s. 711
CS CS L CS
8-16 8-16 Ck5 1.5-16
c.225
c.225
CS
6-18
Urban schools Rural schools — Mixed socioeconomic groups All regions; 12 teams
c.100
c.100
CS
6-18
German Democratic Republic Jena
1979-87
German Federal Republic
Bonn Dortmund
n.s. n.s. n.s. 1968-78
national
1983-84?
Athens
1979
Greece
Bremen
MantzagriotouMeimarides, unpubl. Dacou-Voutetakis
etal., n.d.
3-25
Middle class in public school
Hungary
national
1982-85
Eiben & Panto, 1986
240-1730
268-1563
CS
3-16
3-18
Kormend
1978
Eiben,1982
23-121
21-108
CS
Ireland
Dublin
n.s.
Hoey etai, 1987
c.100
c.100
CS
5-19
Italy
national Aosta Naples
1970-71 1974-79 1984
2-3000 60-560 60-560
1-2500 55-568 55-568
CS CS CS
4-15 7-15 3-12
Netherlands
national
1978-80
c.150
c.150
CS
0-19
Oosterwolde
1979-80
Capucci etal., 1982-83 Kramer, 1983 L. Greco & G. Capozzi, unpubl. Roede & van Weiringen, 1985 Gerver, 1988
17-59
19-56
CS
0-18
Norway
Bergen
1971-74
Waaler, 1983
37-430
50-408
L*
3-17
Oslo
1975
Brundtland et al., 1980 c.200
Poland
Bergen Warsaw
n.s. 1976-80
Warsaw Kurow Spain
Bilbao Galicia various regions Cuenca
Knudtzonera/., 1989 KurniewiczWitczakowa et al., 1983 1972-present Z. Niedzwiecka, unpubl. 1966-70 Wronska-Weclaw, 1984 Hernandez et al., 1985 1980s Tojoetal., 1981 1977-79 Sandin-Dominguez, n.s. 1988 1983-84 Prado etal., 1985, 1986
c.200
CS
8-14
c.1500 36-112
c.1500 22-110
CS CS
(M 0-18
56-93
50-91
L
4-16
46^135
36-140
L
11-15
c.50 331-949 c.200
c.50 306-904 c.200
L* CS L*
0.25-14 6-18 ^15
c.30
c.30
CS
7-17
Regionally stratified sample based on census; 4 measurers Population followed up every 10 years Urban and rural areas; skinfolds — — Urban; 75% manual workers 198 measuring teams Health centres and schools Measured yearly 1971-74; SES II & III 8-13 yr 10% random sample Standards 14-18 yr high school attendees High income, university educated parents Urban and rural Low middle class Urban, lower middle class Standards; various regions Capital, 2 rural areas
Table 2. (Cont.) Sample size/age group Country
Place
Years
Authors
Boys
Girls
Study type" Age (yr) Sampling; methods
Sweden
Stockholm 40 towns Stockholm
1955-76 1964-73 1983
Karlbergefa/., 1976 Lindgren, 1976 Lindgren & Strandell,
122 380 c.800
90 360 c.800
L L CS
0-16 9-17 7-15
Switzerland
Zurich
1954-67
Prader & Budliger,
United Kingdom
England, Scotland 1981
USSR
Moscow Caucasus
Yugoslavia
Representative of urban SES differences studied Sample of schools
1 Q8A IVoO
206
209
L
0.25-12
Representative of Zurich
Rona & Chinn, 1984; Rona, unpubl.
117-540
142-515
CS
5-12
1973-79 1982-84 1979-81
Fox etal., 1981, 1984 Godina etal., 1987 Miklashevskaya et al.,
2000+ 103-135 c.300
2000+ 85-106 c.300
L CS CS
1-4 8-17 8-16
National Study of Health & Growth; Stratified random 10% school population Representative areas — Abkhazians; schools
Croatia
1981-84
Z. Prebeg, unpubl.
c.3000
c.3000
CS
6-19
Zagreb Croatia, urban
1973 1970s
Prebeg,1978 Buzina, 1976
93-362 15-45
84-719 9^2
CS CS
1-18 1-18
1 Q77 IV / /
a
CS, cross-sectional; L, longitudinal; L*, semilongitudinal. n.s., not stated.
Representative of selected schools — Town & 2 industrial centres near rural area
Selection of European studies
21
170 d
160 /
r
150
/
/
Of
,40
130
120
110
100
v' i
i
i
i
i
i
4
5
6
7
8
9
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
10 11 12 ,13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 5. Comparison of height means using different methods of age grouping. Data are for Brussels boys, after Twiesselmann (1969). • # , interpolated O, mean heights at mean ages that mean heights at whole year ages 0.5 yr; O are 0.5 yr greater, or age at last birthday.
We have dealt with the problem of age grouping as we have in the past, making all samples comparable by using yearly intervals comprising the birthday ± 6 months. Unfortunately, there is still lack of standardization in the reporting of growth data. Many investigators still report data as a completed year, e.g. '6 years' when actually the mean age of the sample is close to the half-year, e.g. 6.5 years. Unless otherwise stated, in our tables 6-year-olds comprise children aged 5.50 to 6.49 years; they are labelled '6±'. When the data in the original study were reported in age intervals different from this, mean values for our preferred age intervals were obtained by linear interpolation. In the first edition we illustrated how false conclusions may be arrived at by comparing two populations whose height means were not comparably plotted. We think it is worthwhile to show this example again (Fig. 5)
22
Europeans in Europe
since some investigators still report data plotted at whole years when they are actually centred at half years. This example is taken from Twiesselmann (1969) who in his major study of Belgian children explains in his text that the mean values for each age group relate to the centre point of the year, e.g. 6.5 (and indeed were obtained by the rather precise procedure of taking the mean for 6.25 to 6.49 and that for 6.50 to 6.74, and interpolating between these to 6.50). In his graphs, however, these values are all plotted at 4, 5, 6, 7, . . . years. Thus the casual reader who fails to see the author's introduction might well suppose that the plots relate to an age centre 4.0, 5.0, etc. Clearly, a better procedure would have been to plot the points at 4.5, 5 . 5 , . . . years. In Fig. 5 the dashed line is exactly as the author gives, and the solid line represents the same data plotted the way we have described above, that is, by taking his 5.5 and 6.5 values and interpolating to obtain a value for 6.0 (or in our terminology, 6±). The two are naturally separated by half a year of growth and the values come together as growth ceases. Techniques for measuring growth Only a few words are necessary concerning the techniques for measuring growth, or auxological anthropometry. There are several good volumes which describe in detail how to measure children and which instruments to use. The IBP Handbook (Weiner & Lourie, 1969) has been revised as Practical Human Biology (1981). Noel Cameron, who worked with the authors in London and learned to measure from R. H. Whitehouse, has published a volume, The Measurement of Human Growth (1984). In the United States, a conference was held in 1985 (supported by the National Institutes of Health) with the purpose of standardizing anthropometric measurements (not limited to growth studies). The recommendations have been published as Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual (Lohman, Roche & Martorell, 1988). It is only in doing comparative analyses, as here, that one appreciates to the full the necessity of standardization of techniques across studies. The technique for measuring stature is shown in Fig. 6a. Younger children who are not able to stand are measured in a supine position as shown in Fig. 6b. Some studies have employed supine length from birth to 2 years, others birth to 3, 4, or even 5 years. Two years is the recommended age at which to begin stature measurements, but from 2.0 to 3.0 (inclusive) both measures should be taken. Supine length averages approximately 1 cm more than stature, but the variability of the differences between the measurements is quite large with a range of 0 to 2 cm. A child measured in a standing position generally will be shorter later in the day than in the morning. In order to counteract this diurnal effect
Fig. 6. Method for measuring standing height (a) and supine length (b). (By courtesy of J. M. Tanner & R. H. Whitehouse.)
24
Europeans in Europe
Fig. 7. Method for measuring sitting height (a), crown-rump length (b), triceps skinfold (c) and subscapular skinfold (d). (By courtesy of J. M. Tanner & R. H. Whitehouse.)
Techniques for measuring growth (c)
25
26
Europeans in Europe
some measurers apply slight pressure upward to the mastoid processes (see Whitehouse, Tanner & Healy, 1974). Techniques for measuring sitting height and crown-rump are shown in Figs la and 7b. Figs 1c and Id show triceps and subscapular skinfold measurements. Height and weight growth As we have said already, the European populations are fairly homogeneous from an auxological point of view. This is seen in the striking similarity of height and weight means among the European samples. In Figs 8 and 9 height and weight means of national or urban samples of boys from countries in Europe have been plotted. Each line on the chart represents a different country but the curves are so close together that it is impracticable to label each one. The tabulations for this and additional material are given in Appendix Tables 1-4. At 1 year of age the difference in mean length between the tallest and the shortest population is 3 cm in boys. At 4 years the range increases to about 3.5 cm and by 16 years it is 9.4 cm. In girls (not shown) it is about 4.8 cm at 4 years, and 7.7 cm at 16 years. A similarly increasing difference occurs in weight means. All these European populations have weight means within 0.8 kg of each other at 1 year of age. By 4 years, the range for boys is 1.6 kg and for girls 2.1 kg. At 16 years it is 10 kg for boys and 4.9 kg for girls. This is a much greater difference for 16-year-old boys' weight than we reported in the previous edition and may reflect a higher prevalence of overweight and obesity in some populations. Very generally, the tallest boys and girls are those living in the Netherlands, Sweden, Oslo (Norway), Bremen (West Germany), Jena (East Germany) and Czechoslovakia; the smallest children from urban
^
185 175 165 155
I 145 I 135 % 125 X 115 105 95 85 75
I
1 2
3
4
5
6
9
10
I
11 12
I
I
13 14
J_ I 15 16 17
18
Age (yr) Fig. 8. Height means of European boys; data from urban and national samples from Bergen, Bilbao, Brussels, Denmark, Hungary, Netherlands, Stockholm, and Warsaw.
Sex differences
27
70 60 50
S
40
•3 30 20
10 0
I
1
2
3
J_ J_
4
5
I
I
I
I
I
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
I
J_
I
I
Fig. 9. Weight means of European boys; data from urban and national samples as in Fig. 8.
areas are in Paris, Athens, Naples, and Bilbao. Although we may assume that these differences are partly genetic in origin, they also reflect dissimilarity in environmental conditions. The heaviest children are to be found in Athens, Warsaw, and Zagreb; the lightest are in Paris (France), Belgium, England, Stockholm (Sweden) and Kormend (Hungary). In the rural areas of most countries the children are smaller and later-maturing than those represented above. Data are available from rural populations in Yugoslavia, Italy, USSR and Spain. Within a given population the standard deviations of height and weight increase as the means increase, i.e, as children get older. However, during adolescence variation is further increased as individual children enter puberty at quite different ages; following adolescence the variability decreases again. Standard deviations are included in the appendix tables of this edition when they are available. There is evidently no association of mean value for given age with the variation around it amongst these populations, so that a population of smaller children has a similar variation to a population of larger-sized children. Sex differences
In every country boys are slightly taller than girls until the girls' adolescent growth spurt begins. At that time girls become taller for the period during which their spurt continues, but the boys' spurt is yet to occur. Because of the two-year difference in age of the spurt, 11-, 12- and 13-year-old European girls are, on average, taller and heavier than 11-, 12- and 13-year-old European boys. This age of girls-taller-than-boys is remarkably constant in all European populations. The sex differences in all countries are much larger after puberty than
28
Europeans in Europe
before it, since the boys' adolescent spurt is greater than the girls'. Sex dimorphism, however, differs from one population to another, both before and, more strikingly, after puberty. Weight-for-height We have dealt so far with differences in the size of European children of various countries. Now we turn to differences in shape. The amount of weight per unit height is a measure of this, though scarcely the ideal one; for one thing weight reflects all types of tissue. In the first edition we plotted, at various ages, each population's weight mean against its height mean and then drew the (unweighted) linear regression line against the means; this for each sex separately. We have often promoted the use of regressions for comparing two parameters since they are statistically less objectionable than ratio indices (Tanner, 1949; Eveleth, 1975, 1978). Though weight/height2 or the body mass index is frequently used to estimate overweight and obesity, Garn, Leonard & Hawthorne (1986) have pointed out its limitations. The index (1) is not independent of stature in children, only in adults; (2) is related to body proportions so that individuals with relatively shorter legs will have higher body mass index; (3) reflects not only fatness but also lean body mass. We will therefore continue to use regression graphs to show the relationship of weight for height, though we are aware that these also have some of the limitations listed above. In Figs 10, 11 and 12 weight means are plotted against height means at ages 3, 8 and 16 years. For each country both boys (squares) and girls (circles) are given with boys and girls for each country joined by a heavy line. Not all countries are represented at each age, due to lack of relevant data, and each country is represented by only one sample. There is a regression of weight on height for all age groups, as expected, so that populations which are taller are also heavier. The regression line for each sex represents the unweighted average for European populations. Groups which fall above that line are heavier for height, on average, than the European average and, conversely, those that fall below are lighter for height than the average in Europe. This shows differences in shape; placement of a population from left to right shows differences in overall size. At age 3, girls in Paris, England, Zurich and Hungary and boys in Zurich, Hungary, Stockholm and Jena are lightest for height; boys in Naples and Bergen are heaviest. At age 8, the more slender children above have been joined by Dublin and Moscow girls, but not boys. The Italians remain heavier than average. Children in Warsaw, Zagreb, and Bilbao are heaviest for height. Bergen children are no longer among the heaviest for height: boys are average and girls are below average.
17 i-
M
15
Weight
16
14 Stockholm Dortmund
13 12 92
J
93
I
I
I
I
I
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
Height (cm)
Fig. 10. Weight means plotted against height means for 3-year-old European boys (•) and girls (•). Fine lines are regressions, points equally weighted. Zagreb \
Czechoslovakia Netherlands / / f/
Moscow
°
Denmark
27 _ Dortmund ^^^^-""^
| 25
England
9^
., Stockholm
24 23 122
1
i
1
1
1
1
|
|
|
|
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
Height (cm)
Fig. 11. Weight means plotted against height means for 8-year-old European boys (•) and girls (•). Fine lines are regressions, points equally weighted. 65 64 63 62 61 ^ 60 5 59 s\ 58
Greece
Brussels ' Czechoslovakia
/ / Stockholm Moscow / /j e n a Zagreb^ • / / •
•? 57 2* 56 55 54 53 52 51
Czechoslovakia
•
3reece#
•
158
160
Paris • I
162
f
6
rf^^-^-^*
Hungary ;ary* * TT Warsaw Dublin I
Netherland • ^ - ^ - —
•
Moscow a| Jena^^^^^ Hungary ™_ w" ^B • 'irsaw^B^"'^— Zagreb ^*+^ ^ Netherlands Brussels ^ ^ ^*>t Dortmund +*WL DenmarkB • Bergen Stoc kholm )ublinH • Pans
Bergen lerge: ©Denmark
• Dortmund 1 I
164
166
168 170 Height (cm)
172
174
176
178
Fig. 12. Weight means plotted against height means for 16-year-old European boys (•) and girls (•). Fine lines are regressions, points equally weighted.
30
Europeans in Europe
The length of the line joining the sexes of each country gives a measure of sex dimorphism in size; the slope of the line (in relation to the slope of the regression line) is a measure of dimorphism in shape. At age 8, sex dimorphism varies considerably from country to country. In the samples from Zurich and Bergen there are large sex differences in size (length of lines); in Brussels and Bilbao, small ones. At 16 years (Fig. 12), most girls have ceased growing in height, though they are still gaining weight. Boys are still increasing slightly in both height and weight. Sixteen-year-old boys in Greece and Czechoslovakia 140
Old data
138
New data
136 134 132 130 128 126 124 122 120
Brussels
Denmark Czechoslovakia
Athens Moscow
Bergen Netherlands
Naples
Place (a)
140 138 136 134 132 130 128 126 124 122 120 Denmark
Brussels Czechoslovakia
Bergen
Athens Paris
Netherlands
Place (b) Fig. 13. Secular change in height of 8-year-old boys (a) and girls (b), comparing data from first edition with those from this one.
Weight-for-height
31
are the heaviest for height, while those in Dublin, Paris, Denmark and Stockholm are the lightest. Girls in Greece, Zagreb, Moscow and the Netherlands are heaviest relative to height, and the slenderest are in Paris and Dortmund. Secular trend
We have compared height data in the first edition and from the current one at ages 8 and 16 (Figs 13 and 14). We have used only those countries where we had fairly similar data on the two occasions. Accord180
Old data
178 New data
176 174 172 170 168 166 164 162 160 Brussels Denmark Czechoslovakia
Netherlands Moscow
Warsaw Bergen
Stockholm
Place (a)
170 168 166 164 162 160
158 156 154 152 150 Brussels Denmark Czechoslovakia
Netherlands Moscow
Warsaw Bergen
Sweden, urban
Place
(b) Fig. 14. Secular change in height of 16-year-old boys (a) and girls (b) comparing data from first edition with those from this one.
Europeans in Europe
32
ing to these data, a secular increase is still occurring in these European countries. There is considerable variation in the amount of increase: at 16 years it is greatest in the Netherlands, Bergen and Warsaw. Roede and van Wieringen (1985) have discussed the continuing secular increase among the Dutch who already are among the tallest people in the world. They point out that from birth to about 2 years of age lengths were actually smaller in 1980 than in 1965, and this is discussed further below. However, beginning at 3 years, the 1980 data show increasingly greater stature; at 10 years there is a 2.5 cm increase in stature and for adults, 4 cm in men and 2 cm in women. In addition, there is an increase in sexual dimorphism in stature which accompanies the overall increase in stature and a decrease in weight-for-height resulting in a more linear body shape. Infants from birth to 18 months
Infants from birth to 18 months of age have been dealt with separately in order to provide more detail during this period of rapid growth. The ages at which measurements are most frequently reported are birth, 1 month (4 weeks), 3, 6, 9, 12, and 18 months. Comparisons of length and weight of boys at these ages are shown in Figs 15 and 16 and detailed for boys and girls in Appendix Tables 5 and 6. Infant boys in Denmark and Warsaw are heaviest at most ages; Danish boys are also the longest, along with the Dutch. Three-month-old boys are very similar in weight in all six populations though they vary in length.
\ ' ' ] Bilbao 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 4 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months
18 months
Age
Fig. 15. Mean length of European boys from urban and national samples from birth to 18 months of age.
Infants from birth to 18 months
33 | Netherlands
|
| Warsaw
R$$$$$| Denmark
f
) Sweden
|
I U S I Zurich
| Bilbao
12 11 10 9 8
I 1
I £
6 5
4 3 2
4 weeks
3 months
1
6 months
9 months
12 months
18 months
Age
Fig. 16. Mean weight of European boys from urban and national samples from birth to 18 months of age.
85
Netherlands, 1971
|
| Zurich. 1977
Netherlands. 1985
|
| Stockholm. 1968
Zurich, 1972
l i P ? Stockholm. 1976
80 75
1 70
1? 65 60 55 50
4 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months
Age
Fig. 17. Secular change in length of European boys from 4 weeks to 12 months in the Netherlands, Stockholm and Zurich, comparing data from first edition with those from this one.
34
Europeans in Europe
4 weeks
3 months
Netherlands, 1971
(Zurich, 1977
Netherlands, 1985
| Stockholm, 1968
Zurich, 1972
J Stockholm, 1976
6 months
9 months
12 months
Age
Fig. 18. Secular change in weight of European boys from 4 weeks to 12 months in the Netherlands, Stockholm and Zurich, comparing data fromfirstedition with those from this one.
Very recently Whitehead and his colleagues (1989) have reported that present-day infants in England are smaller in size, both weight and length, than they were in the 1970s. They believe that this is the result of changed infant feeding practices. We have compared our data from the first edition with the current data and confirm this observation. In Figs 17 and 18 infant boys from the Netherlands, Zurich and Stockholm are shown to be smaller in the late 1970s and the 1980s than in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Not shown, but also observed, is that the same phenomenon occurs in Spain and Poland, although in Poland it is in boys only, as it is also in Stockholm. Other length and width measurements Sitting height Sitting height is a measure of the length of the trunk and head taken in a sitting position. The measurement may be taken with an anthropometer, a sitting height table or, as Cameron (1984) has suggested, a sitting height box placed in front of a stadiometer. The International Biological Programme (Weiner & Lourie, 1981) and Lohman et al. (1988) have recommended that the subject sits up straight on a table top with knees bent at right angles, feet hanging free, and head held in the Frankfort plane (Fig. la). Cameron (1984) recommends that the feet be supported. In infants the nearest comparable measurement is crown-rump
Other length and width measurements
35
length, taken in a supine position with the knees bent at right angles and a movable footboard brought up to the buttocks (Fig. 7b). Data on this measurement are detailed in Appendix Tables 7 and 8 and illustrated in Figs 19 and 20. In Fig. 21 sitting height means at successive years of age are plotted against subischial leg length means at corresponding years for Bergen and Hungary (boys.) Subischial leg length may be calculated as stature less sitting height or supine length less crown-rump length. From infancy to adolescence the trunk grows more slowly than the legs so the lines have less slope than the diagonal or 45 degree line. At adolescence, however, the spurt is greater in sitting height than leg length so the slope of the line increases. The proportions in Norwegians and Hungarians are very similar; the more interesting comparisons are among Europeans, Africans and Asiatics given in Chapter 9. In male European adults nearly half the total height is in leg length and in African males exactly half. There is considerable difference between the sexes after puberty; women have shorter legs in relation to trunk than men since their preadolescent period lasts a shorter time, and this is when the legs are growing relatively fastest. There is a small amount of data on arm length which is given in Appendix Table 9. Shoulder and hip widths Two other measurements of value in assessing body shape or build are shoulder width and hip width. We have considered data only from studies in which shoulder width was measured as biacromial distance and hip as the distance between the iliac crests (biiliac or 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
I
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 19. Boys' sitting height means compared in six European populations: Belgium ( • • ) , Bergen, Bilbao, Hungary, Stockholm and Zurich.
95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45
1
i
I
i
I
i
i
i
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
i
i
I
i
i
i
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 20. Girls' sitting height means compared in six European populations as in Fig. 19. 90 i-
80 £ 70 6fl
.5 60 50 I 40
45
50
I
I
60 65 70 Leg length (cm)
55
75
80
85
90
Fig. 21. Boys' sitting height means at successive years of age plotted against the corresponding leg length means. Samples are from Bergen ( • Waaler, 1983) and Hungary ( • Eiben & Panto, 1986). 40 35 30 25
(b)
20 15 10
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr) Fig. 22. Means of (a) biacromial and (b) biiliac widths in boys from Bergen, Hungary and Warsaw. 8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 23. Means of (a) biacromial and (b) biiliac widths in girls from Bergen (•), Hungary (#) and Warsaw (A).
16 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18,
18
20 22 24 Biiliac width (cm)
26
30
(b)
Hungary
14
16
I 18
I I I 20 22 24 Biiliac width (cm)
I 26
28
30
Fig. 24. Biacromial width means at successive years of age (2-18 yr) plotted against corresponding biiliac width means for boys (a) and girls (b). Samples are from Bergen ( • Waaler, 1983), Hungary ( • Eiben & Panto, 1986) and Warsaw (A Kurniewicz-Witczakowa et al., 1983).
Europeans in Europe
38
bicristal). These are given in Appendix Tables 10-13. There is a striking similarity amongst European populations in these measurements. In Figs 22 and 23 data are plotted for only three populations: Hungary, Bergen and Warsaw. We also show the relation of biacromial width to biiliac width in Fig. 24. Hungarian girls have slightly wider shoulders to hips, while the Warsaw girls have wider hips to shoulders than the other groups. Boys in all three populations are quite similar in this relationship. Circumferences
Next to height and weight, chest circumference has been the most commonly studied measurement, both in children and adults. Because of the recognized inaccuracy of this measurement, we have decided not to report it in this edition. The principal problems result from the fact that some investigators measure at maximal inspiration, some at maximal expiration and some average the two measurements. In adolescent girls an additional inaccuracy is introduced by breast development. Whether the measurement is taken over, under or around the breasts seems a matter of personal preference. Mid-arm and calf circumference are more standardized measurements; we have data from eight countries for mid upper arm circumference and from four countries for maximal calf circumference (Appendix Tables 14, 15 and 16). The differences among the populations are slight until adolescence as can be seen in Figs 25-28. Arm circumference means are greatest among Warsaw boys and girls; calf circumference means greatest among Hungarian boys and girls.
28
— • Warsaw - " • Bilbao
£ — A Bergen X~'~X Hungary
1 10
I 13
^
26 £> 24 22 20 18 16
S 14 1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 9
I 11
I 12
I 1 I 14 15 16
1 I 17 18
Age (yr) Fig. 25. Upper arm circumference means compared in European boys from Bilbao, Bergen, Hungary and Warsaw.
Circumferences
39 Bergen Hungary
> Warsaw I Bilbao
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 Age (yr)
11
12 13 14 15
16
17
18
Fig. 26. Upper arm circumference means compared in European girls from Bilbao, Bergen, Hungary and Warsaw.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
• — • Belgium
£
*
\--M Hungary
X
X Zurich
9 10 Age (yr)
11 12
13 14
Stockholm
15 16
17
18
Fig. 27. Maximum calf circumference means compared in European boys from Belgium, Hungary, Stockholm and Zurich.
40
Europeans in Europe Belgium
A—•
Hungary
X—X Zurich
Stockholm
36 34
i 32 X 30
I 28 S 26
I 24 i+- 2 2
° 20 18 16
1
2
3
4
I
I
I
5
6
7
I
I
I
I
I
9 10 11 12 Age (yr)
I
I
13 14
I
15
I
I
16 17
j
18
Fig. 28. Maximum calf circumference means compared in European girls from Belgium, Hungary, Stockholm and Zurich.
Skinfold thickness
Whereas arm and calf circumferences are measurements that include skin, fat, muscle and bone, the skinfold is a measurement of skin and fat only. The two sites most commonly measured were those reported in the first edition: triceps (over the left triceps muscle) and subscapular (the area immediately below the angle of the left scapula). The former estimates limb fat and the latter trunk fat. Currently, skinfolds are commonly measured at several additional sites: suprailiac, midaxillary, chin, thigh, biceps, abdominal and calf. These are mostly useful in studies of obesity and of fat patterning. In the interest of maintaining a reasonable size to this edition, we report only triceps and subscapular skinfolds. Various calipers have been used in these studies but all reported here exert a constant pressure at the openings, such as the Holtain, Harpenden or Lange. In Appendix Tables 17-20 we have given medians and 10th and 90th percentiles when these were available. Because of the skewness of the distribution of skinfolds in most populations, means and standard deviations do not give sufficient information. There is considerable variation in skinfolds among populations, particularly in girls. Figs 29-32 show median or mean skinfolds at three ages: 3, 8 and 16 years. Hungarian children have somewhat larger skinfolds than the others. At every age the median triceps is greater than median subscapular skinfold. In girls, there is a considerable increase after
Skinfold thickness
41
20 18 16 Tna ?ps skin fold
[III)
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Hungary
Turin
Bergen
Warsaw
Bilbao
Stockholm
Zurich
Dortmund
Place
Fig. 29. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) in eight samples of European boys at 3, 8 and 16 years.
20 18
I
16
l'6yr
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Belgium
Hungary
Turin
Bergen
Warsaw
Bilbao Stockholm Zurich Dortmund
Place
Fig. 30. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) in nine samples of European girls at 3, 8 and 16 years.
42
Europeans in Europe
10 9
18 T3
7
I 6 o
3
1 0
r
I
Hungary
J Turin
J_ Bergen
Warsaw
Stockholm
Zurich
Place
Fig. 31. Medians of subscapular skinfolds (mm) in six samples of European boys at 3, 8 and 16 years.
14 12
S 10
Belgium
Hungary
Turin
Bergen
Warsaw
Stockholm
Zurich
Place
Fig. 32. Medians of subscapular skinfolds (mm) in seven samples of European girls at 3, 8 and 16 years.
Skinfold thickness
43
puberty in fat deposited under the skin, both at the triceps and subscapular sites. Sixteen-year-old boys, however, do not have larger triceps skinfolds than they did at 8 years, and have only slightly larger subscapular ones.
3
European descendants in Australasia, Africa and the Americas
The period of European exploration in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries resulted in the establishment of colonies abroad. Migrants from Europe were widely distributed over the globe and formed permanent populations which have persisted in the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Africa. Though the last large-scale European migrations were those to North and South America in the early decades of this century, some migration still continues, particularly to Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. In this chapter we shall attempt to consider populations that are comprised almost entirely of European, rather than of mixed descent. However, such distinctions are sometimes not stated in reports on child growth, especially those from Latin America. The growth studies
The populations selected for analysis are listed in Table 3. From Canada we have new data only on French-speaking children: two longitudinal studies, one in Montreal and one in the city of Trois Rivieres. The latter study primarily involves physical performance and includes separate analyses of a rural area as well as the city itself. Since our last edition the United States National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) has published data from two National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys: NHANES I, collected from 1971-4, and NHANES II, collected from 1976-80. We will use only the latter. This publication (Najjar & Rowland, 1987) gives means for the entire sample which includes approximately 15 percent Afro-Americans. Since we wanted to separate the data on Euro-Americans from that on Afro-Americans, we have had the NCHS data tapes analyzed by ethnic group through the courtesy of the University of Texas Houston School of Public Health. The only other recent growth studies which we know about from the United States are from Bogalusa, Louisiana, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. They both have as their major thrust the study of possible predictors in children and adolescents of adult cardiovascular disease. Growth, body composition and maturation are included in their protocols. Several new growth studies have been carried out in South America 44
Table 3. Summary of growth studies of European descendants Sample size/age group Study type" Age(yr)
Country
Place
Years
Authors
Boys
Girls
Canada
Montreal, Quebec
1975-
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985
163-208
107-169
Trois Rivieres, Quebec
n.s.
Shepharde/a/., 1984
289
257
L
6-12
national
1976-80
145-418
135-396
CS
0.5-19
USA
0-6
Bogalusa, Louisiana
1973-74
NCHSunpubl.;Najjar& Rowland, 1987 Foster etal., 1977
92-151
90-137
CS
5-14
Argentina
urban
1974-75 &1981
Lejarraga etal., 1986 Lejarraga, 1986a,b
n.s.
n.s.
CS
0-19
Brazil
Santo Andre, Sao Paulo
1978
185-441
173-475
CS
1-19
Pelotas, RGS Riberao Preto, Sao Paulo
1982
Marques et al., 1982; Marcondes et al., 1982; Goldberg etal., 1986 Victoria et al., 1987 Desaie/a/., 1981
c.700 9-22
c.700 11-37
L CS
0-1.3 5-14
LaPaz
n.s.
Greksaefa/., 1985
9-24
11-29
CS
9-20
LaPaz
n.s.
Stinson, 1982
11-36
21-48
CS
8-14
Santiago
1974
12-162
16-140
CS
7-18
399
389
L
5-20
CS
7-16
488-1637
477-2154
CS
0-19
Bolivia
Chile
Colombia
Cali
n.s.
Valenzuela & Avendano, 1979 Avendano & Valenzuela, 1988 Spurn; a/., 1982
Cuba
national
1972-74
Jordan, 1979
Guatemala Venezuela
Guatemala City Caracas
1953-present Johnston^ al., 1984 1973-77 Mendez-Castellano et al., 1986
56-253 39-233
31-205 32-242
L CS
5-18 0-19
Australia
national
1985
Pyke, 1986
450-494
405^97
CS
7-15
Perth
1979 1983
Gracey & Hitchcock, 1985
76-85
76-88 70-169
L CS
0.1-3 5-16
Hitchcock et al., 1986
92-209 L
6&7
Birkbeck & Guthrie, 1980
Total: 894 L
0-3; 7, 10 13-15
1973-85
New Zealand
Dunedin
Tasmania
Hobart
n.s., not stated. " CS, cross-sectional; L, longitudinal.
1970-83
15-20
198-391 Coy et al., 1973, 1976, 1986
455
Sampling; methods French-Canadian; recruited women in last trimester; right-forgestational age Francophone; exercise intervention NHANES II; national probability sample 91% target population; middle-low income Graphs drawn from data of various origins to give national standard Trained observers; measured in schools Birth and 1 follow up Private school; one measurer; also periurban slum Private schools; European ancestry, 89% parents born in Bolivia European ancestry; French School (private) Middle socioeconomic status schools; mostly middle & lower socioeconomic status Birth certificate; not malnourished; medical exam Random sample of entire population High SES; private school Upper socioeconomic status; trained observers 104 schools throughout country; survey teams; fitness survey 2nd generation Australian Schools; representative sample of ethnic groups Examined within 2 weeks of birthday Trained school nurses Mixed socioeconomic groups
Height and weight growth
47
and the Caribbean. There are national surveys from Venezuela, Argentina and Cuba. The latter is a national probability sample and a model for growth surveys in small countries. The population does have some black admixture, but it seems more appropriate to place it here than in the chapter on African descendants. A more recent Cuban survey has now been completed but the values obtained are not available at the time of this writing. Thus, we will use the data from the first survey. In the national survey recently completed in Venezuela the data have yet to be analyzed for the country as a whole; therefore, we have selected the part of the survey that relates to the capital city of Caracas. Data are available also from the Northeastern Region, the Midwestern Region and the Zulia Region of Venezuela. The study team in the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, has given us new data on large numbers of children from working class families in the highly industrialized area of Santo Andre, in the State of Sao Paulo. We shall refer to this population as Sao Paulo since the state name is much more familiar to most readers. There are also two other growth studies we know of from Brazil; they are referenced in the table but the data are not presented here. We now have data on some children and adolescents from Norte de Santiago, Chile; Cali, Colombia, and La Paz, Bolivia. There are two studies from La Paz on European descendants living at high altitude. As each covers the same age groups, we have elected to use data from the more recent of the two. These children are from well-off families and attend private schools. There are both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies from Santiago; we have selected the cross-sectional one which is from mostly middle socioeconomic status families. Children in Cali are from the lower socioeconomic strata, but are reported not to be malnourished. From Australia there is a national fitness survey which has reported some anthropometry, and cross-sectional growth studies on schoolchildren in both Perth and Busselton. We have used the Perth sample because there are also some longitudinal data from that city on infants. From Tasmania there is a longitudinal study. There is virtually no new information from New Zealand or South Africa. Height and weight growth
Height and weight data for these populations will be found in Appendix Tables 21-24. Children at 1 and 2 years, and sometimes at 3 years, were measured in a supine position. The tallest boys and girls at most ages are those in the United States, Australia, Caracas, and Sao Paulo. As in the previous edition, we have compared the height means from the groups of descendants with those of the corresponding European sedentes at 8 and 16 years (Figs 33 and 34). We have found similar
48
European descendants abroad
results as before: European descendants appear to be generally shorter than European sedentes. The differences, visible at 8 years, become more pronounced at 16 years. This is surprising since most migration studies report positive correlations between height of migrants and migration. Secular trend It is interesting to look at height and weight trends in the old and new data (Figs 35 and 36). It is, of course, preferrable to compare data drawn from the same populations, but this we were not always able to do. Strictly comparable data come only from the United States. From
134 (a)
6 8 yr
132 130
1
128 126 124 122 120
USA Can Arg Brz Chile
Venz
Cuba
Czech
A us Belg
Grce
Denmk
180
Italy Hung
Nrwy
' ^thlds
Spain
Po ad
6 16yr
178 -
(b)
176 174
r—i
172
fPMWM
170 -
j
rn
168 166 -
j
164
_
n
162 160
' i USA
i Arg
| 1 t .1 .1 Brz Chile Cuba Venz Belg Czech
j
Denmk
European descendants
\ . ,, ,1,, i ,,L Grce
Hung
..1... ...L. Nrwy Polnd
Nthlds
European sedentes
Fig. 33. Comparative height means (cm) of boys of European descent and European sedentes at (a) 8 and (b) 16 years.
Height and weight growth
49
Argentina the old data are from La Plata and the new from La Plata and other cities. From Brazil both populations are working class but from different industrialized cities that are situated close to each other in the State of Sao Paulo. The Cuban data are secondly from the national survey and the earlier study was carried out in schools in Havana only. From Australia we are comparing new national data with old data from Sydney. In Quebec similarly we compare data from Montreal with Trois Rivieres. Only in some countries are 8-year-old children taller in the new data. These are Australia and Brazil, and Cuban girls, but not boys. Argentine children actually have smaller mean heights in the more recent survey while mean heights in the remaining countries are virtually unchanged. 134 132
(fl)
130
I11
128 126 124 122 120
USA Can Arg Brz Chile Venz Czech Grce Italy Nrwy Spain Cuba Aust Belg Denmk Hung Nthlds Polnd
USA Arg
Brz
Chile Cuba Venz Belg Czech Grce Hung Nrwy Polnd Denmk Nthlds
European descendants
European sedentes
Fig. 34. Comparative height means (cm) of girls of European descent and European sedentes at (a) 8 and (b) 16 years.
50
European descendants abroad 132 131 130 129 128 127 126 125 124 123 122
| Old data (a) |
1 New data
121 120 Argentina
132 131 130
Australia
Brazil
Quebec
Cuba
USA
I Old data
(b)
I New data
29 28 27 26 25 24 23 T>
21 120 Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Quebec
Cuba
r USA
Fig. 35. Secular change in height at 8 years comparing data from first edition with those in current edition for (a) boys and (b) girls.
Differences in weight means parallel those for height with the exception of Cuba where both boys and girls are lighter in the newer survey (Fig. 36). Unfortunately, there are too few populations with both old and new data at age 16 years to illustrate the comparisons here. What we do have demonstrates that at 15 years Australians show a secular increase in both height and weight, while United States and Cuban children appear to have virtually no secular increase. Weight-for-height
In Figs 37-39 weight means are plotted against corresponding height means at 3, 8 and 16 years. The stippled area represents that
Weight-for-height
51
30 I Old data
29
I New data 28 27 26 25 24 23
\ Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Cuba
USA
I Old data 27
1 New data
26 25 -4 23
21 20 Argentina
Australia
I
Brazil
Cuba
USA
Fig. 36. Secular change in weight at 8 years comparing data from first edition with those in current edition for (a) boys and (b) girls.
occupied by European sedentes discussed in Chapter 2, pp. 28-31. We have not used any statistical procedure to arrive at these areas; we simply have hand drawn a generous envelope around the means as plotted in Chapter 2. The regression lines have been calculated by least squares from population means, each given equal weighting. At 3 years some populations fall outside the area of the European sedentes. Cuban children and United States and Argentine girls are shorter and lighter. Children in Sao Paulo, Montreal and Caracas are well within the range of the Europeans.
52
European descendants abroad 17 i16
3 15 | 14 13 12 92
93
94
95
96 97 Height (cm)
98
99
100
Fig. 37. Weight means plotted against height means for 3-year-old children of European descent: • . boys; • , girls. Stippled area is that occupied by the European sedentes of Fig. 10; fine lines are regressions.
28 r27
26 25 24 23 22 21 20
120
121
122
123
124
125 126 127 Height (cm)
128
129
130
131
132
Fig. 38. Weight means plotted against height means for 8-year-old children of European descent: • , boys; # , girls. Stippled area is that occupied by the European sedentes of Fig. 11;finelines are regressions.
Other length and width measurements
53
65 63 61 ^
59
I 55 *
53
LaPaz
51 49 47 154
I
156
158
160
162
I
I
164 166 168 Height (cm)
|
I
I
170
172
174
176
178
Fig. 39. Weight means plotted against height means for 16-year-old children of European descent: • , boys; # , girls. Stippled areas are those occupied by the European sedentes of Fig. 12;finelines are regressions.
At 8 years as well, several groups are outside the European range. Children in Cuba and Santiago are shorter and lighter, while Argentine girls are shorter only. By 16 years all children except those from the United States and Perth (Australia) are outside the European area; the other samples are all from Latin American countries. Boys in Argentina, Caracas and Sao Paulo State are up to the Europeans in weight but they are shorter. Girls from La Paz, Argentina, Caracas and Sao Paulo are of similar height to Europeans but lighter. Infants from birth to 18 months Growth of boys from birth up to 18 months for weight and length is shown in the bar graphs in Figs 40 and 41. The data for both sexes and for head and chest circumference are given in Appendix Table 25. There is much similarity in the growth of these infants. Those in Caracas and Cuba are somewhat smaller at 12 and 18 months; those in Sao Paulo are somewhat larger. Other length and width measurements Sitting height Sitting height means are shown in Figs 42 and 43 (Appendix Table 26). Children in Caracas, Argentina, Montreal and the United States are similar in sitting height means, but those in Cuba and in Santiago are
54
European descendants abroad
85 80 75 70
r>o .5 5 50 45 Bin
4 weeks
* months
^months
\2 months
IS months
Fig. 40. Length means of infant boys of European descent from birth to 18 months.
^ ^ ^ Montreal
[
|
B | | | l Caracas
| Argentina
| Cuba
F l x p l Sao Paulo
12 11 10 9
I 8 DO
5 6 4 3 2 1 Birth
4 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months
18 months
Fig. 41. Weight means of infant boys of European descent from birth to 18 months.
Other length and width measurements
55 Quebec
X
Argentina U Santiago A
5
6
7
8
-X Cuba U Caracas A USA
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 42. Sitting height means of boys of European descent. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
• Quebec X • Argentina • • Santiago •
9
X Cuba • Caracas A USA
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 43. Sitting height means of girls of European descent. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
56
European descendants abroad • Jk
I
I
I
I
3
4
5
I
I
I
I
I
• Montreal A Santiago
I
I
I
X•
I
-X Cuba • Caracas
I
I
I
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 44. Means of (a) biacromial and (b) biiliac widths in boys of European descent. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
Montreal Santiago
3
4
5
6
X•
X Cuba - • Caracas
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 45. Means of (a) biacromial and (b) biiliac widths in girls of European descent. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
Circumferences
57
somewhat shorter. They are also lower than the range of European populations as shown by the stippled areas in the figures. These stippled areas which we have used in all the following chapters are not, of course, the 'normal' ranges for a single population that one generallyfindson growth charts, but represent the approximate ranges of means seen amongst European urban and national populations. Shoulder width and hip width Shoulder and hip widths are plotted (against the background of the range of European sedente means) in Figs 44 and 45 (Appendix Tables 27 and 28 for data). While these widths are quite similar among the four populations from which we have data, they are somewhat smaller than the European populations except for some populations at some ages. Circumferences
There are data on arm circumference from seven populations (Figs 46 and 47; Appendix Table 29). Australian children have the greatest arm circumferences and are above the range of European means at all ages in girls and from 11 years in boys. Montreal children (to 6 years), Caracas, Cali boys and Santiago girls are within the European range. The remaining populations are smaller. Data on calf circumference come only from Quebec and Cuba; they have not been plotted but are in Appendix Table 30.
26
r
B 24
Montreal X • Argentina • -—A Santiago X • Cali I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
XCuba • Caracas -X Australia I
J_
I
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 46. Means of upper arm circumference in boys of European descent. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
58
European descendants abroad
~*'-'X
Montreal X Argentina • Santiago X
D
1
2
3
4
5
I
I
I
X Cuba • Caracas X Australia I
I
1
I
I
I
I
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 47. Means of upper arm circumference in girls of European descent. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
Skinfold thickness
Triceps and subscapular skinfolds have been reported from Montreal, United States and several Latin American countries. The figures show medians at 12 years as well as at 3, 8 and 16 (Figs 48-51; Appendix Tables 31 and 32). Girls, but not boys, have constantly increasing triceps with age in all populations; the greatest variation among populations is at the older ages. Boys at 12 years have greater triceps than at 16 years, reflecting the decrease in subcutaneous limb fat deposition in adolescent males. The well-off children of European ancestry in La Paz have some of the largest triceps skinfolds among the European descendants. Girls at 16 years and boys at 12 years seem to have far larger triceps than the other age groups. With the exception of La Paz, the European descendants are quite similar to many populations in Europe. The subscapular skinfolds in both boys and girls generally become larger with increasing age, but girls increase their folds at adolescence much more than boys. These groups are quite similar to most European populations in subscapular skinfold medians. It would be of much interest to examine secular trends in skinfolds. We have data from both time periods from the United States and Argentina. In the United States NHANES II data, there is no strong pattern of a secular trend in triceps skinfolds; in the 1976-80 data, adolescent girls had somewhat larger folds while adolescent boys had somewhat smaller ones (Fig. 52). For subscapular skinfolds, it is clear that both boys and girls had
Skinfold thickness
59
16 14
§ 12 2 10
& 6 H
4 2 0 Quebec
Argentina
La Paz
Sao Paulo
Cuba
Caracas
USA
Place Fig. 48. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) of boys of European descent at 3, 12 and 16 years.
20 18 16 14 12
Quebec
Argentina
La Paz
Sao Paulo
Cuba
Caracas
USA
Place Fig. 49. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) of girls of European descent at 3, 8, 12 and 16 years.
60
European descendants abroad
14
| 3 yr
12 yr
I 8 yr
16yr
2 10
a 5
6
Quebec
Argentina
Sao Paulo
Cuba
Caracas
USA
Place
Fig. 50. Medians of subscapular skinfolds (mm) of boys of European descent at 3, 8, 12 and 16 years.
12yr
I
14 -
l
1 6 yr
? 12 2 o
10
•§
6
a
3
4
X)
0 Quebec
Argentina
Sao Paulo
Cuba
Caracas
USA
Place
Fig. 51. Medians of subscapular skinfolds (mm) of girls of European descent at 3, 8, 12 and 16 years.
Skinfold thickness — - • 1963-70, girls 1976-80, girls
Fig. 52. Medians of triceps skinfolds of USA boys and girls comparing NHANES data from 1963-70 and 1976-80.
— - • 1963-70, girls 1976-80, girls
Fig. 53. Medians of subscapular skinfolds of USA boys and girls comparing NHANES data from 1963-70 and 1976-80.
62
European descendants abroad
lower skinfold medians in 1976-80 than in 1963-70 (Fig. 53). In Argentina (not shown in the figure), we see smaller triceps skinfold medians in the more recent time period. We consider these trends should be viewed positively as an indication of some reduction of overweight in children.
4
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry
Disease and malnutrition continue to be the major problems of Africa's children. Droughts and other natural disasters in various regions (Abbas, 1978) civil wars and guerrilla warfare have exacerbated these problems. Many international agencies such as the World Health Organization, the United States Agency for International Development, United Nations Children's Fund and Oxfam have been attempting to help in development and education, and relief when necessary. Some countries are also using their own resources for programs in maternal and child health and nutrition education. Intestinal parasitism is widespread in Africa. We now know that infestation with Ascaris lumbricoides affects nutrition and growth of children. Not only do parasites deprive their hosts of nutrients, they impair intestinal absorption of fat, nitrogen and vitamin A and may reduce food intake (Crompton & Nesheim, 1982). Unfortunately, we do not have data, as we had for European and European-derived populations, to assess whether secular increase in size has taken place in specific African populations. We have no new studies on the same populations that we reported in the first edition. However, some investigators have considered secular change in Africa. Billewicz & McGregor (1982) have pointed out that in 25 years there has been no secular increase in the Gambian villages of Keneba and Manduar. Prazuck etal. (1988), comparing the individual tribal groups, reported no change in adult male stature in Mali since 1885. There are many new data from different regions, coming from well-off, rural and tribal groups. In general fewer parameters have been reported than for the groups we discussed in the first edition. Here we have mostly weight, height, arm circumference and triceps skinfold. Since these are the major variables that have been recommended for assessing nutritional status, the aims of the researchers are clear. The growth studies
Summary descriptions of the growth studies are presented in Tables 4 and 5. Some further description of the African groups is required. To start with we may classify them into the traditional, although 63
Table 4. Summary of growth studies of Africans Sample size/age group Country
Place
Years
Authors
Boys
Girls
Study type" Age (yr)
Benin
Porto Novo
1975
Cresta & Avoundogra, 1980-81
49
51
L
0-5
Botswana
Gaborone
1980s
Corlett, 1986
22^7
21-60
CS
6-15
Sampling; methods Infants born in Jan .-Feb. in maternity hospital; nutrition survey Urban, well-cared for; one measurer; most birth dates accurate; no shoes Kalahari San; in 3 age groups; transition study Age known; light clothing, no shoes Urban; upper SES Nursery schools Rural Kitui; most ages known precisely Rural; subsistence farmers, school uniforms, no shoes Ages not precisely known; pastoralists Hottentots; accurate ages not always known Rehoboth Basters; accurate ages not always known Urban slum & well-off, trained measurer
Dobe area
1975-80
Hausman & Wilmsen, 1985
CS
2-16
Gambia
Keneba & Manduar
1951-75
89-129
94-109
L
0-25
Kenya
Nairobi Nairobi Nairobi
1980 1979 1980
Billewicz & McGregor, 1982 Kuline^/,,1982 Alnwick, 1980 Kulineraf.,1982
13-81 35-255 7-20
7-66 25-226 16-28
CS CS CS
10-14 3-7 10-18
Machakos
1975-80
Stephenson et al., 1983
59-102
12-88
CS
2-18
South Turkana
1981-82
Little etai., 1983
1-14
1-18
CS
1-14
Warmbad, South Africa
1961 & 1964
Singer & Kimura, 1981
7-17
7-17
CS
3-17
1961 & 1964
Singer & Kimura, 1981
7-21
7-19
CS
6-21
Ibadan
1962-70
Janes, 1970 & unpubl. data
16-97
12-125
L
0.08-10
Osegere Benin City
1965-80 n.s.
Omololu et al., 1981 Diejomaoh & Faal, 1982
c.150 —
c.150 4-147
L CS
0-5 11-20
Tutsi
1957-58
50
50
CS
6.5-17.5
Hutu
1957-58
Heintz, 1963; Hiernaux, 1964 Heintz, 1963; Hiernaux,
Poor Yoruba village Mostly well-off, urban 2 measurers; ages known Schools; ages known
50
50
CS
6.5-17.5
Schools; ages known
Senegal
Dakar
1954-62
L
0.02-15.5
South Africa
nr Capetown
Maternity hospital; ages known; random sample Cape Coloureds, Bonnytoun School Ages known; schools Representative of Soweto 6 schools 4 schools; shirts & shorts Shirts & shorts Elite; ages known; light cotton clothing Some ages estimated Farming, Yatenga plateau Warega of eastern Zaire rain forest; mining villages; ages known Oto villagers; wgt only Twa pygmies; wgt only Small town, all in a limited part; used health centre files Rain forest mining village Savannah, agricultural
Namibia
Nigeria
Rwanda
V.
small
1961 & 1964
tyo4 Masse etai., 1961; Masse, 1969 Singer & Kimura, 1981
1-7
1-5
CS
1-6
Somalia
Cape Flats Soweto Soweto Soweto Bochem region Mogadish
1979 1975 1971-73 1976 1976 1975
Power, 1982 Richardson, 19776 Richardson, 19746 Walker & Walker, 1977 Walker & Walker, 1977 Gallo & Mastriner, 1980
10-301 36-48 60-161 c.60 c.45 22-67
3-262 34-50 52-206 c.60 c.45 35-61
CS CS CS CS CS CS
6-9 0-6 7-17 8-^1 8-14 6-18
Togo Zaire
Mogadish Mossi tribe Kalima
1975 1974-81 1974-78
Abbas, 1978 Manshande et at., 1985 Van Loon et al., 1986a
c.50 47-336 c.60
c.50 — c.60
CS CS CS
1-11 0.5-5 0-6
Lake Tumba Lake Tumba Kasonga
1977-80 1977-80 1974-77
Pagezy & Hauspie, 1985a,b Pagezy & Hauspie, 1985a,b Van Lerberghe, 1987
c.80 c.30 163-345
c.80 c.30 156-340
L L L
0-4 0-4 0-5
Rega tribe Zimba tribe
1974-81 1974-81
Manshande et al., 1985 Manshande et al., 1985
58-110 38-86
— —
CS CS
0.5-5 0.5-5
" CS, cross-sectional; L, longitudinal.
(total c.300)
Table 5. Summary of growth studies of African descendants abroad Sample size/age group Country
Place
Years
Authors
Boys
Girls
Study type"
Aruba
—
1973-74
CS
—
Cali
11-139 10-19
10-138
Columbia
van Wering, 1978 Spurred/., 1982
9-16
12-24
c.75 c.60
—
Age (yr)
Sampling; methods
cs
0-14 6-16
CS
4-17
c.60
cs cs
11-17 5-11
cs
10-18
Ages known Birth certificate; medical exam Ages known; well-off; private school West Indian migrants West Indian migrants; measured by trained nurses; selected schools Lower and middle income compared Schools; not random; lower middle to middle SES Schools; lower-middle to middle SES Representative US children NHANES II trained teams of measurers
United Kingdom
England
1982-83
Ashcroft&Lovell, 1964; Ashcroftera/., 1966 Ulijaszekera/., 1979 Rona & Chinn, 1986
United States
Texas
—
Shutte, 1980
c.12
c.12
Philadelphia
1966-67
26-88
20-83
cs
11-16
Philadelphia
1956-66
S. H. Katz, unpubl.; Eveleth etal., 1979 Krogman, 1970
35-167
35-147
L
7-17
national
1976-80
NCHS, unpubl.
21^6
25-46
cs
2-19
Jamaica
a
Kingston
CS, cross-sectional; L, longitudinal, n.s., not stated.
The growth studies
67
by no means unequivocal, ethnic groups: (1) Nilotes and Nilo-Hamites; (2) Sudanese; (3) Bantu; (4) Khoisan and related people (Bushmen, Hottentots); (5) pygmies. These in turn have been separated into tribal or village groups and urban groups. Growth data are available from the following groups. 1. Nilotics and Nilo-Hamites Tutsi of Rwanda. According to Hiernaux (1964) the Tutsi inhabited different niches of the same environment as the Hutu, but the Tutsi lived under better conditions at the time the study was done, when both were in tribal villages. Para-nilotic herders in the area of South Turkana District of Kenya, known as the Ngisonyoka Turkana (Little, Galvin & Mugambi, 1983). 2. Sudanese Infants in a longitudinal growth and nutrition study of all babies born in January and February 1975 in the maternity hospital of the town of Porto Novo, Benin (Cresta & Avoundogra, 1980-1). Somali schoolchildren from well-off, urban families in Mogadish (Gallo & Mestriner, 1980). Children mostly of the Mandinka and Jola tribes in the villages of Keneba and Manduar in Gambia (Billewicz & McGregor, 1982). Yoruba in the village of Osegere, Nigeria (Omololu, Hussain &Mbojung, 1981). Yoruba and Ibo in the Nigerian city of Ibadan, both poorly and well off (M. D. Janes, unpubl.) Well-nourished, urban girls in a boarding school in Benin City, Bendel State of Nigeria (Diejomaoh & Faal, 1982). Infants of the Ouoloff tribe living in Dakar, Senegal (Masse, 1969). 3. Bantu Hutu of Rwanda living in the same area as the Tutsi (Hiernaux, 1964; Heintz, 1963). Urban preschool children from representative blocks of houses in 3 demarcated areas of Soweto and schoolchildren from 6 black schools (Richardson, 19776). Children in the Bochem region of northern Transvaal in the Lebowa homeland (Walker & Walker, 1977). Urban children (62% Kikuyu, 13% Luyhia, 12% Kamba) in Nairobi in 3 primary schools; most were from educated families
68
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry and were well-cared for (Kulin et al., 1982), and well-off preschoolers from 16 fee-paying nursery schools (Alnwick, 1980). Children from two adjacent rural villages in a densely populated coffee growing area in Machakos District in Kenya; most are from the Wakamba tribe; all preschool children were studied and all those attending two village primary schools; children above 14 years of age may not be representative since children of that age usually do not attend primary school (Stephenson, Latham & Jansen, 1983). Urban Tswana children attending randomly chosen state-run primary schools in the capital city of Gaborone, Botswana; wellcared for and well-dressed (Corlett, 1986). Warega in the rain forest of east-central Zaire; the children live in mining villages (van Loon et al., 1986a). Kasongo villages in Zaire (van Lerberghe, 1987). 4. Khosian and related peoples Nama-speaking Hottentot children from Warmbad, Namibia and children of Rehoboth Basters from Namibia and Cape Coloureds from Bonnytoun School near Cape Town; the latter two are Hottentot-European mixtures (Singer & Kimura, 1981). Although these data were collected in 1961-4, they have been published only recently. Since it is unusual to have accurate data on these groups, we believe it is valuable to include them. 5. Pygmies Weight of infant Twa pygmies of the Lake Tumba region in Zaire has been observed (Pagezy & Hauspie, 1985a, b) and Aka and Ituri pygmy children were measured and the results reported, but not in a manner to make them usable here (CavalliSforza, 1986). In order to convey a more complete picture of African children some of these data from Nigeria, Rwanda and Senegal have been carried forward from the first edition.
There are few new studies on children of African descent in the Americas so we have carried forward some of the studies from the first volume. African descendants in the United States (Afro-Americans) have European admixture varying between 20-25% on average. For this population we have data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey II (NHANES II). Height and sitting height have been published by Martorell et al. (1988), but weight and skinfolds by ethnic group have not yet been published. For the above parameters, the
Height and weight growth
69
National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) data have been analyzed for us through the kindness of the University of Texas School of Public Health, Houston. There are also data on middle- and lower-income black male adolescents in Texas and lower income adolescents in Philadelphia. In Cali, Colombia, schoolboys of African descent were studied for body size and physical fitness. From the Caribbean there are new data on black Aruban children who have some Dutch admixture. For the first time there are published data on children of Caribbean migrants to England. We have also included the Jamaican data from the first edition. Height and weight growth
There are several studies which cover the entire age range from birth to maturity. One of them is from a well-off group in Mogadish, Somalia. Indeed, there are now a number of studies of well-off, presumably well-nourished, African children which could be used perhaps as reference standards (Appendix Tables 33-36). In Figs 54-57 we have plotted means of heights and weights from 1 to 7 years against a background representing the range of all means found in Europe. The tallest and heaviest children are in Ibadan, Nairobi, Soweto and Aruba and, after 4 years of age, in Mogadish. Around that age Soweto children drop off in height and weight. The values for these groups fall within the European range of means much of the time. Although not shown on this graph, United States NHANES II height means from 1 to 4 years are somewhat lower than those in Ibadan well-off. The Turkana are Nilotes and are generally considered to be tall, thin people. We can see in the figures that the young children are very low in weight, but not in height. Very generally speaking, these samples of African children seem to be better off, using height as an indicator, than the samples we described in the first edition. This does not appear to be the case, however, when weight is the indicator. We have plotted some data for adolescents separately in Figs 58-61. Nairobi and United States NHANES II adolescents appear to be quite similar in height and are within the European range. Soweto, Mogadish and Tswana adolescent boys are shorter but more comparable to each other. As for girls, those in Soweto and Mogadish are close to Europeans while Tswana girls are quite a bit shorter and more similar to Turkana and Machakos. The Turkana data are rather uneven probably due to the small sample sizes. While Turkana adolescents are quite small, 17- and 18-year-old girls approach the European range of means and as adults have an average height comparable to Europeans. As with the NiloHamitic Tutsi described in thefirstedition, this is likely to be a function of
70
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry # # Ibadan A-—-A Soweto • - • Nairobi X - - X Mogadish X-—-X Machakos • Cape Coloured M M Turkana • -
125 i120 115 110 105 100 \95 90 85 80 75 70 65
mi
X 1
3
4 Age (yr)
Fig. 54. Height means of boys in Africa and of African ancestry, from 1 to 7 years. The stippled area shows the range of European means.
# •X B
# • X j
Ibadan Nairobi Machakos Turkana
• • X X • • #——#
Soweto Mogadish Aruba Cape Coloured
125 115 ^
105
o
~ 95 .SP '53
K
85 75 65 Age (yr) Fig. 55. Height means of girls in Africa and of African ancestry, from 1 to 7 years. The stippled area shows the range of European means.
71
Height and weight growth # • Keneba • - - - - • Nairobi X X Machakos • • Turkana
• -A Soweto X X Mogadish • A Aruba •—- —• Ibadan (well-off)
24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Age (yr) Fig. 56. Weight means of boys in Africa and of African ancestry, from 1 to 7 years. The stippled area shows the range of European means.
• • Keneba •-—-•Nairobi X X Machakos • • Turkana
A----A X X A A • •
Soweto Mogadish Aruba Ibadan (well-off)
24 22 20
'eighi
"wo 18
16 14 12 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Age (yr) Fig. 57. Weight means of girls in Africa and of African ancestry, from 1 to 7 years. The stippled area shows the range of European means.
72
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry • X • •
• Botswana X X Mogadish X Machakos A A US national (NHANES II) • Nairobi A----A Soweto • Turkana
175 170 165 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 10
11
12
13
14
15
16
'
X
17
18
Age (yr) Fig. 58. Height means of adolescent boys in Africa and of African ancestry, from 10 to 18 years. The stippled area shows the range of European means.
# X • •
# Botswana X X Machakos • • Nairobi • • Turkana
X Mogadish A US national (NHANES II) • Soweto
165
X
160 155
-X
150 145 140 135 130 125 10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Age (yr) Fig. 59. Height means of adolescent girls in Africa and of African ancestry, from 10 to 18 years. The stippled area shows the range of European means.
Height and weight growth
73 # X • •
# X • •
Botswana X Machakos • Nairobi • Turkana
X Mogadish A US national (NHANES II) • Soweto
Fig. 60. Weight means of adolescent boys in Africa and of African ancestry, from 10 to 18 years. The stippled area shows the range of European means.
• X •-
• Botswana X X Machakos A • Nairobi • I Turkana
65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 10
11
12
13
14
15
X Mogadish A US national (NHANES II) • Soweto
16
17
18
Age (yr) Fig. 61. Weight means of adolescent girls in Africa and of African ancestry, from 10 to 18 years. The stippled area shows the range of European means.
74
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry 170
Turkana boys
160
Tutsi boys
Turkana girls I Tutsi girls
t
Height (cm)
150 140 130 120 110 100
6
I
I 12
17
Age (yr) Fig. 62. Height means of Nilotic boys and girls at 8,12 and 17 years demonstrating the similarity of growth patterns until 17 years in boys.
delayed growth compared to other groups; adult male Turkana have a mean height of 175.1 cm (Little et ai, 1983), which is as tall as US AfroAmericans and taller than most European groups, yet at age 18 they are still only about 162 cm. In Fig. 62 we have compared the heights of Turkana and Tutsi at three different ages. They are quite similar in height until age 17 years when Tutsi boys are around 10 cm taller than Turkana boys. At this age Turkana boys are still shorter than Turkana girls, a situation which obtains in well-nourished European or Afro-American data at about age 12 and 13, but not beyond. Tutsi boys are the same height as girls at 16 years but are taller at 17, corresponding to the European situation around 14 years. Thus the tempo in these Africans is considerably retarded, especially in the Turkana. Afro-American adolescents in the United States are high in weight with females at the top of, or even above, the European range. Overweight and obesity are indeed major health problems amongst AfroAmericans in the United States. In Africa, Nairobi and Soweto adolescents are close to or within the European range for weight. Turkana and Machakos adolescents are low in weight and, with age, become lower relative to the other groups. The small stature of pygmy populations in Africa, New Guinea and Malaysia has long interested auxologists. For over 10 years, Dr Luigi Cavalli-Sforza directed a number of expeditions to the Central African Republic (CAR) to study the genetics and ecology of Aka and Ituri pygmies. The results have been published recently (Cavalli-Sforza, 1986). We have put no growth data in our tables from this publication because they have not been presented in a manner enabling them to be
Height and weight growth
75
handled like other growth data. Aka pygmy children were measured in 1975-7. Ages were estimated from important events. The authors reported that pygmy children grow in a fashion similar to that of Bagandas (Bantu) until puberty, but claimed that no adolescent spurt occurred. They linked this with the cross-sectional data on insulin-like growth factor I (IGF I) levels believed also to show no rise at puberty (Merimee et al, 1987). In fact, the claim rests on a misinterpretation of auxological data. The graph (Cavalli-Sforza, 1986, p. 96) which represents the only presentation of actual values is entirely compatible with the familiar S-shaped distance curve for height, with a clear adolescent spurt in girls and a rather smaller-than-average one in boys (Tanner, unpublished). A more recent multi-disciplinary project, begun in 1980, on the Efe pygmies of the Ituri Forest (the smallest pygmies known; Bailey & DeVore, 1989), includes a mixed longitudinal growth study of children from birth to 5 years, whose birth dates were known, and older children whose ages are estimated. Adult heights averaged 143 cm and 136 cm, men and women respectively. Newborns averaged 44.6 cm in length and 2.69 kg. These children were consistently below the 3rd centile of the NCHS standards with mean standard deviation scores for height of -2.7 at 6 months, —4.0 at 5 years, and —5.5 for males and —4.5 for females near maturity. Their weight-for-height was, however, above the NCHS 50th centile (Dietz et al, 1989). The mean velocity curves showed clear pubertal growth spurts with peaks at about 14 years in girls and 16 in boys, of amounts about as much below the relevant US curves as were the prepubertal velocities (Bailey, 1989,1990). It is clear therefore, that pygmies provide no exception to the general shape of the human growth curve. Discussion on New Guinea pygmoid groups will be found in Chapter 7. It is also worthwhile to discuss another unusual population group: American slaves from Africa. Recently several economists studying the economics of American slavery have collected data from ship manifests which give the height, age, sex, and color of each slave transported through the coastal and inland waterways from 1820-60 when slavery was still legal but importation of slaves was not (Steckel, 1986, 1987). Comparison of the American slaves with modern Africans living in two areas which furnished slaves and with modern Afro-Americans (Figs 63 and 64) reveals that they had a growth pattern that is very similar to the coffee farming Machakos of Kenya until the age of 14 years after which the slaves surpass the Machakos. This supports Steckel's view that the growth of slaves, at first very poor, improved during adolescence. It may also demonstrate survival selection with the smallest, weakest children dying before puberty. US slaves were shorter than modern Afro-
76
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry 180
> US slaves • • Dakar X
170
• Machakos X US national (NHANES 1
X—XT"
-X—X
160 ^ 150 S 3 140
Jj> 130 X
120 110 100 90 3
4
5
6
7
8
I
I
I
I
i
I
i
i
i
i
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Age (yr) Fig. 63. Height means of boys, comparing a sample of US slaves in 1820-60 with recent samples of Afro-Americans (NHANES II), Africans in Dakar and Machakos.
' US slaves Dakar
A
• Machakos
X
X US national (NHANES II)
170 160 150
?
140
o JS 1 3 0 .2?
& 120 110 100 i
90 3
4
5
6
7
9
i
10
11
i
12
13
14
i
i
i
15
16
17
J 18
Age (yr) Fig. 64. Height means of girls, comparing a sample of US slaves in 1820-60 with recent samples of Afro-Americans (NHANES II), Africans in Dakar and Machakos.
Weight-for-height
11
Americans and, even though they appear to have had a more extended growth period with later maturation, average adult height was not equal to that of modern Afro-Americans. The third comparative group is the only one from West Africa with extended data. These are urban children from Dakar who are taller, on average, than American slaves were. Weight-for-height
In Figs 65-67 we compare mean weight for mean height in African children and those of African ancestry at ages 3, 8 and 16 years. The thin lines are the regressions calculated from the population means, each given equal weight. The stippled areas show the range of means of all European series, in the same way as in previous chapters. At ages 3 and 8 there were small, consistent, but non-significant, differences between male and female regressions. Turkana and Mogadish boys and girls, Cape-Coloured girls and Nairobi boys are lowest in weight-forheight at age 3 years and most groups are below the European range; exceptions are in the United States, Nairobi, Aruba and Ibadan (welloff). At 8 and 16 years, most groups continue to be outside the European range but are rather close to the regression line, showing that body shapes are similar. Rehoboth Basters are heavier for height than most groups. Soweto, Ibadan (well-off), Jamaica and the United States 8-year-olds are up to the European populations in weight-for-height. By 16 years Rehoboth Basters and Somalis in Mogadish are close to European girls. Afro-Americans and Jamaicans are within the European ranges. For the United States we have shown the data from NHANES I, as well as NHANES II. Girls in 1976-80 averaged greater stature but not 17 i—
16 15 ^
14
ian (well-off) Cape-coloured
£
13
£
12
Zain
11 10 9
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
l
l
I
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 Height (cm)
Fig. 65. Weight means plotted against height means for 3-year-old Africans and African descendants: • , boys; # , girls. Stippled area represents that occupied by Europeans in Fig. 10;finelines are regressions.
78
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry 28 27 26 25 24 23 22
USA I So we to ^ Rehoboth Basters
Mogadish
Arub Ibadan (well-off)
Botswai
amaica Bochem
21
20 19 18 17 16 112
Dakar ^Machakos
I
114
I
I
116
I
^ Turkana
I
118
I
I
I
120
I
122
I
USA I = NHANES I U S A II = N H A N E S II I I I I I I
124
126
128
130
I
I
132
Height (cm)
Fig. 66. Weight means plotted against height means for 8-year-old Africans and African descendants: • , boys; • , girls. Stippled area represents that occupied by Europeans in Fig. 11; fine lines are regressions. (Note that USA I = NHANES I and USA II = NHANES II.)
Philadelphda
66 62
¥ ,
USA II
58 Rehobot
^ 54 $
50
•f
46
^
42
38 34 30
1 + 1
J
L
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
144 H 6 148 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 172 174 176 178 Height (cm)
Fig. 67. Weight means plotted against height means for 16-year-old Africans and African descendants: • , boys; • , girls. Stippled areas represent those occupied by Europeans in Fig. 12;finelines are regressions. (Note that USA I = NHANES I and USA II = NHANES II.)
A dult Africans
79
weight than in 1963-70, while boys averaged only greater weight. As we noted in the first edition, the African groups do not discriminate well in weight-for-height by sex at 16 years as Europeans do. Machakos, Hutu, Tutsi and Kutui groups do not show the near-adult sex dimorphism in height seen at 16 years in the United States and Jamaica. This is because the boys, at least, will still grow considerably. Hottentot and Nilotic herder boys are still more delayed, since 16-year-old girls are actually taller and heavier than boys, indicating that the boys' spurt has hardly yet begun. As before, the African samples at 16 years show a steeper regression than European ones, and they are very heterogeneous. This means that populations of the smallest body size amongst Africans have a lower weight-for-height than the smallest-sized population amongst Europeans. In European populations mean weight-for-height is practically independent of mean overall size. Since weight-for-height reflects to a considerable extent (though not solely, of course) environmental influences, this implies that the size differences amongst European groups are to a greater degree genetically controlled than the size differences amongst African groups. Among the latter, privation affects both size and weight-for-height. Thus the slope of the mean weight for mean height curve may reflect the relative importance of environmental and genetic effects amongst different population groups. A study to evaluate possible socioeconomic differences among AfroAmericans in the United States revealed that low-income AfroAmerican adolescent boys in Texas were shorter and lighter than middleincome Afro-American boys (Shutte, 1980). This is the first study of a sample of middle-income Afro-Americans large enough to make a socioeconomic comparison valid. Previously, we and others had pointed out that Afro-Americans are on average taller and more mature than Euro-Americans. However, this was based mostly on low-income AfroAmericans. The fact that middle-income boys are taller than low-income ones emphasizes the difference more strongly and raises the possibility of separate growth standards for Afro-Americans. Adult Africans
The recent studies of pygmy populations have produced data on several groups from Zaire and the Central African Republic (Appendix Table 37a). A difference of 27.5 cm separates them from the tall Mali men, who, however, are not as tall as Afro-Americans. Ituri Forest and Efe pygmy women are 27.3 cm shorter than Afro-American women (there are no data from Mali). Afro-Americans and Nilotes are the tallest Africans and the former are among the heaviest.
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry
80
Infants from birth to 2 years
In the previous edition we demonstrated how growth in weight and length falls off after birth among African infants. Weight gains diminish from around 6 months of age and length gains from around 12 months. This is the usual village pattern which still seems to be demonstrated in the data we have (Appendix Table 37b). It is not the pattern among the privileged urban infants in Ibadan, who are quite similar to European populations. Thus, this population from Ibadan is used as a reference standard in Figs 68 and 69.
100 r-
Ibadan (well-off)
3 Kasongo
Ibadan (slum)
M Dakar
80 60 40 20
4 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months
18 months
24 months
Age
Fig. 68.
Length means of infant boys in Africa from 4 weeks to 24 months.
Ibadan (well-oft)
J U
Dakai
Twa
1
1 Warega
|
1 Kasongo
15 i -
I
"
Otos 10
4 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months
18 months
24 months
Age Fig. 69.
Weight means of infant boys in Africa from 4 weeks to 24 months.
Other length and width measurements
81
The Twa, a pygmy group, and the Otos live together, sometimes in the same villages, near Lake Tumba in Zaire. As far as weight is concerned they are quite similar to each other while being lighter than infants in Ibadan or Dakar, though not until 6 months of age. Unfortunately, there are no length measurements reported from these groups.
Other length and width measurements Sitting height New sitting height data are available only from the United States: from the national NHANES II survey and from the Philadelphia Blood Pressure Project (S. H. Katz, unpubl.; Eveleth, Bowers & Schall, 1979; see Katz etal, 1980, for a description of the project). The data from Africa is from Ibadan and has been carried over from the first edition (Appendix Table 38). In Figs 70-72 where the means have been plotted against the European populations, it can be seen that African means, even those of Afro-Americans, are mostly lower than those of Europeans. However, as has been shown frequently, the Africans have a longer leg relative to trunk than do Europeans, and, thus, have mean heights similar to Europeans (Eveleth, 1978). In Fig. 12a,b sitting height means are plotted against leg length means for Ibadan well-off and the United States (NHANES II). The lines are very similar for both populations.
Ibadan (slum) Philadelphia
9 10 11 Age (yr) Fig. 70. Sitting height means of boys in Africa and of African descent. The stippled area shows the range of means for European sedentes.
• Ibadan (well-off) i NHANES II
95
• -
• Ibadan (slum) Philadelphia
90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13 14 15 16
17
18
Age (yr) Fig. 71. Sitting height means of girls in Africa and of African descent. The stippled area shows the range of means for European sedentes. (a) 90
• Ibadan (well-off) • USA (NHANES II)
85 height (;cm)
80 75 70
^&*
r
65
00
Sitt
c 60 55
50 45' 40 30
i
i
i
i
i
I
I
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
I 70
75
80
85
90
Leg length (cm) O)
• Ibadan (well-off) A USA (NHANES II)
Sitt ing ]lieight (cm)
80 H-
'A
70
60
50 ^*FA
40
1 30
1 35
1 40
1 45
1 50
1 55
1 60
1
1
1
1
65
70
75
80
85
Leg length (cm)
Fig. 72. Sitting height means at successive ages plotted against the corresponding leg length means for (a) boys and (b) girls. Samples are Ibadan well-off Africans (M. D. Janes, unpubl.) and NHANES II Afro-Americans (NCHS, unpubl.).
Other length and width measurements
83
Shoulder and hip width The mean values of shoulder and hip widths are plotted in Figs 73 and 74 (Appendix Tables 39 and 40) against the range of European means. The only new data are from Philadelphia adolescents; we have carried the data from Ibadan and Accra over from the first edition. The Philadelphia children are as large as Europeans in hip width. This is not unexpected since the typical body shape amongst Africans is marked by narrower hips compared to shoulders than amongst Europeans, as we pointed out in the first edition. Ibadan (well-off) Accra
40 -
• •
• •
35 -
A
A Philadelphia
^A
j)
30 -
As^rT^' — ^
^
25
>--*-
-A
20 15 10
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
i
i
i
i
i
i
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 73. Means of (a) biacromial and (b) biiliac widths in boys in Africa and of African descent. The stippled area shows the range of means for European sedentes.
40
• — - • Ibadan (well-off)
35 -
—• Accra A - - - —A Philadelphia
(a)
30
I 25
-+ (b)
20 ;
•
15
• - ^
10 1
^
1
I
i
1
I
1
1
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Fig. 74. Means of (a) biacromial and (b) biiliac widths in girls in Africa and of African descent. The stippled area shows the range of means for European sedentes.
84
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry
Circumferences There are data reported on upper arm circumference from seven populations in Africa (boys) but none from African descendants (Appendix Table 41). Most groups have smaller average arm circumference at each age than Europeans; however, children in Ibadan and girls in Mogadish and Nairobi are as large, on average, as Europeans (Figs 75 and 76). Turkana Nilotes have very slight arm circumferences. Calf circumference has been reported only from the Turkana and is not given here. • • •--•• A - -• X—-X
Botswana Nairobi Kutui Machakos
Turkana X — X Mogadish " Ibadan (well-off)
26 24 22 20 18 16 &
14 12 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 75. Means of upper arm circumference in boys in Africa. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes. • - —# Botswana
•- - • •
Nairobi A- —A Kutui X- —X Machakos
X-^< •—•
Tuirkana Mogadish Ibadan (well-off)
22 20
•3 18 £ 16
12 0
i 1
3
4
5
6
7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 76. Means of upper arm circumference in girls in Africa. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
Skinfold thickness
85
Skinfold thickness
The data on triceps skinfolds are illustrated in Figs 77 and 78 (Appendix Table 42). New subscapular skinfold data are available from the United States and Turkana only and are given in Appendix Table 43 and Figs 79 and 80, along with Ibadan data from thefirstedition. Whereas in European infants, skinfolds increase rapidly during the first 6 months after birth and then decrease steadily until around 7 years of age, in nonEuropean infants apparently a different pattern is often followed (Eveleth, 1981). There we see a small, sharp post-natal increase followed by a decrease during thefirstyear, and then a second rise from around 2 years of age lasting until 3 or 4 years of age; only after that time is there a dropping off (Fig. 81). This pattern has been noted in Africans in Ibadan (both poor and well-off), Tanzania, Malawi, and Dominica, as also in Maya Indians and Guatemala Ladinos (Malina et al., 1974). Large triceps skinfolds are seen at 3 years of age in all groups except Turkana boys. At 8 years of age, triceps skinfold means (medians, USA) are quite similar in Tswana, Machakos, Ibadan and Afro-American boys. Although Turkana boys have rather lower values at 8 years, at 12 years they are similar to the Tswana and at 16 years similar to Machakos and Kutui boys. Eight-year-old Afro-American girls have greater triceps skinfolds than Ibadan or Tswana. By 16 years of age females in all groups from which we have data have large triceps approaching the adult pattern. Afro-American adolescents, especially in Philadelphia, tend to have large subscapular skinfolds. At 3 and 8 years the populations in Africa and the United States are quite similar to each other. I 12 yr
3yr
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
I 16 yr
1i Botswana
Nairobi
Kutui
Machakos
Turkana
i.
USA
Ibadan
Fig. 77. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) of boys in Africa and of African descent at 3, 8,12 and 16 years.
86
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Botswana
Nairobi
Kutui
Machakos
Turkana
USA
Ibadan
Fig. 78. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) of girls in Africa and of African descent at 3, 8, 12 and 16 years.
2 10 o
0
Turkana
Ibadan (well-off)
USA
Philadelphia
Fig. 79. Medians of subscapular skinfolds (mm) of boys in Africa and of African descent at 3, 8, 12 and 16 years.
Skinfold thickness
87 3yr
! 12 yr 16yr
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
r
Turkana
USA
Ibadan (well-off)
Philadelphia
Fig. 80. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) of girls in Africa and of African descent at 3, 8, 12 and 16 years.
I
1
3
5
7 Age (yr)
9
Fig. 81. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) in boys showing pattern of gain and loss in well-off ( • • ) and poorly-off (x x ) groups of children plotted against British skinfold percentiles.
Africans in Africa and of African ancestry 1963-70,boys 1976-80, boys
1963-70, girls ' 1976-80, girls
Fig. 82. Medians of triceps skinfolds of Afro-American boys and girls comparing NHANES data from 1963-70 and 1976-80.
I 1963-70,boys 11976-80,boys
>-—• 1963-70, girls •—• 1976-80, girls
•a
Fig. 83. Medians of subscapular skinfolds of Afro-American boys and girls comparing NHANES data from 1963-70 and 1976-80.
Skinfold thickness
89
Since we have comparable data from the United States national survey for two time periods, we have looked for secular change in skinfolds (Figs 82 and 83) as we did in Euro-Americans (Chapter 3, Figs 52 and 53). While in Euro-Americans there was a decrease in subscapular medians, in Afro-Americans there has been virtually no change. As for triceps skinfolds, neither Euro-Americans nor Afro-Americans showed an obvious trend. The girls' medians in NHANES II have some peaks and valleys probably because there were some very fat (or thin) girls and fairly small sample sizes.
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
In this chapter we are concerned with a third major group of peoples, here designated 'Asiatics'. We employ this name to refer to the groups of peoples originating in the Far East: we include the classical Mongols of Mongolia, Tibet and northern China; the Arctic Eskimos; the American Indians or Amerindians who, although inhabitants of the Americas, originally migrated from Asia (MacNeish, 1971); and the IndonesianMalays. The last group probably has had a varying amount of admixture with Indo-Mediterranean and African peoples (Montagu, 1960). Japanese, Chinese, Filipinos and Thais are some of the populations designated as Indonesian-Malay. There is great diversity in adult Asiatic populations, and this is reflected in the growth of the children. The growth studies
A description of the recent growth studies we have selected is given in Table 6. There are two studies on growth in Tibetan children in Nepal (Beall, 1981; Pawson, 1977). We have one new study only on Alaskan Eskimos; this is on a small group on St Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea (Johnston et al., 1982). There are a number of new studies on Amerindian and mestizo populations; notable among them are the various high-altitude projects in the Andes. Mueller and his colleagues have reported on the Multinational Andean Genetic and Health Program which consists of multidisciplinary studies of the Aymara in Chile and Bolivia (Mueller et al., 1978a,b\ 1980; 1981). Stinson (1980; unpubl.) also has been studying the Aymara in the Lake Titicaca region outside La Paz and, with Frisancho, the Quechua in highland and lowland towns in Peru (Stinson & Frisancho, 1978). Frisancho has reported data from other growth studies on the Quechua (Frisancho et al., 1975; 1980), and Haas and coworkers (1982) have a study on Aymara infants in La Paz (high altitude) and Santa Cruz, Bolivia (low altitude). Tropical forest inhabitants, the Chachi of Ecuador (Stinson, 1989), and the Kayapo of Brazil (Black et al, 1977) also have been studied. In Central America there have been studies of ladinos (Amerindian European mixture) in Guatemala City (Bogin & MacVean, 1978) and in 90
Table 6. Summary of growth studies on Asiatics Sample size/age group Boys
Girls
Study type* Age (yr)
Zhang & Huang, 1988
150-200
150-200
CS
0-7
Zhang,1977 FangetaL, 1987 Fung etal., 1985
c.150 total 250 total 1183
150
cs L
total 1349
CS
0-18 0-6 mos 7-18
Jakarta
post 1984 1982-84 n.s.
Leung etai, 1987 Ling & King, 1987 Sudjarwoera/., 1978
91-178 c.500 49-75
86-177 c.500 43-94
CS L CS
3-7 12-13 1-5
national
1980
very large
CS
5-17
national
1980
CS
1-5
National survey
Koreans
1978
Min. Hlth. Welfare, unpubl.; Kikuta & Takaishi, 1987 Hayashi & Takaishi, 1981 Kim, 1982
Many trained measurers; urban & suburban Suburban Enrolled before birth 5 schools; good health birthdates known 7 schools in Shatin; medical survey; random schools Well-off; playgroups & random MCH centers All schoolchildren
11-62
14-79
CS
6-17
1977 1971 1971 1981-84
Beall, 1981 Pawson,1977 Pawson,1977 Khanjanasthti et al.,
2-10 c.10 c.10 total 8080
1-11 c.10 c.10
Thailand
Mugu Sherpas Tibetan Bangkok
CS CS CS CS
5-22 0-22 0-22 0-18
Born in Japan; schools in Tokyo & Osaka 3800 m.; Tibetans Khumbu; 3500-4000 m. Refugee center Upper income
Taiwan
Laotian Khmer Changhua
n.s. n.s. 1983-84
Olnesscfa/., 1984 Olnesse/a/., 1984 Lai & Yaung, 1987; Yaung&Lai, 1988
CS CS CS
1-13 1-13 9-18
Refugee camps Refugee camp Schools; measured in p.m.
Country
People or place
Years
Authors
1985
Guangzhou Southern Chinese
1975 1984-5 1984
Indonesia Japan
Chinese, Japanese and Southeast Asians China 9 cities (People's Republic of)
Hong Kong & Kowloon
Nepal
n H 11. U.
very large
total 450 total 791 80-249
84-268
Sampling; methods
Table 6. {Cont.) Sample size/age group Country
People or place
Years
Authors
Boys
Girls
Study type" Age (yr)
United Kingdom United States
London San Francisco
1980-81 n.s.
Wheeler & Tan, 1983 Schumacher & Kretchmer, 1988
4-13 10-53
4-9 10-45
L CS
0-5 5-11
Measured at home Schools for recent migrant Chinese, SE Asian, Filipino, Hispanic
n.s. n.s. n.s. 1975 1975
Black etal., 1977 Haas etal., 1982 Haas etal., 1982 Mueller et al., 1980 Mueller etal., 1980
total 80 total 114
very small total 40 total 39 total 86 total 105
CS L L CS CS
0-adult 0-12 mos 0-12 mos 0-adult 0-adult
n.s.
Stinson, 1980
10-58
Study of nutritional status Indian & mestizo; high alt. Low altitude Villages of Turco & Toledo; ages not verified; one measurer Lake Titicaca region, high altitude; ages known Mostly Cree 3 altitudes: coast, sierra, altiplano; 2 measurers 90% ages known; tropical river bank; subsistence farmers & hunters Urban community in Guatemala City; refugees from earthquake Ladinos; low SES; students as measurers
Amerindians and Eskimos Brazil Kayapo Bolivia La Paz Santa Cruz Aymara mestizo
10-21
CS
6-20
21^8 total 312
L CS
0.1-5 0-adult
1986
Coodin etal., 1980 22-52 Mueller et al., 1978a,6, total 329 1981 Stinson, 1989 7-16
6-18
CS
4-65
El Progresso
1981-84
Johnston et al., 1985
40-108
41-197
L
1-7
Guatemala City
n.s.
Bogin & MacVean, 1978
70-90
49-65
L
8-13
Aymara Canada Chile
Manitoba 1972-75 Aymara & mestizo 1973-
Ecuador
Chachi
Guatemala
Sampling; methods
Mexico
Nicaragua Peru
United States
Oaxaca
1972 & 1977
Chiapas
1981
Maya
1976
Maya Mexico City Mexico City Mateare nr Managua Quechua
1975 1957-70 1977-80
n.s.
Quechua
n.s.
Quechua
n.s.
Puno Alaskan Eskimo Minneapolis
1980 n.s.
Austin, Texas
n.s.
Southwest
1980
Brownsville, Texas 1983 a
CS, cross-sectional; L, longitudinal; L*, semilongitudinal.
R. M. Malina, pers comm. Villanuevaef a/., 1982 Arechiga & Serrano, 1981 Arechiga, 1978 Faulhaber, 1976 Faulhaber, 1989a,/? Capucci, 1986
68-166
34-183
CS
6-14
20-56
17-57
cs
7-13
11-40
15-36
CS
6-15
3-19 268 26-154 21-38
— 255 22-116
cs
19^4
L L* CS
3-16 0.08-13 10-15.5 0.5-6
15 communities in State of Oaxaca; low SES Mestizos, schools in Villa de las Margaritas Chiapas; schools; birth dates known Boys; Chan Kom, Yucatan Middle class Middle class Ladino
9-17 14-26
6-18 8-23
cs cs
7-15 7-15
Lowland village, Pamashto Highland town, Ondores
41-66
23-42
cs
6-20
Lowland town, Lamas
144-190 total 57
6-17 total 56
cs cs cs
7-19 6-17 6-12
Mostly Chippewa
Stinson & Frisancho, 1978 Stinson & Frisancho, 1978; Frisancho et a/., 1975 Frisancho et al., 1980; Frisancho et al., 1975 Gonzalesefa/., 1982 Johnston etai, 1982 Schell & Johnston, 1990; Johnston & Schell, 1979 Zaveleta & Malina, 1982 Martorellefa/., 1988
15-19
0
cs
9-14
72-126
73-120
cs
2-17
Malina etal, 1987/?
22-53
29-51
cs
6-17
Highland town
Mexican-American; low SES one measurer Mexican-Americans in Hispanic HANES Schools; low SES
94
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
Mateare, a town near Managua, Nicaragua (Capucci, 1986) and earthquake refugees in El Progreso, Guatemala (Johnston etal., 1985). From Mexico there are several studies: middle-class children in Mexico City (Faulhaber, 1976; 19896); mestizos in Chiapas (Villanueva, Saenz & Serrano, 1982); Maya Indians in Chiapas (Arechiga & Serrano, 1981) and in the Yucatan (Arechiga, 1978); Zapotecs and mestizos in Oaxaca (Malina et al., 1980; 1981; 1985); and rural children in the State of Michoacan. In North America there are data on Mexican-American children in the southwestern United States from the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Study (HHANES) (Martorell etal., 1988), and two studies of Mexican-Americans in Texas (Zaveleta & Malina, 1982; Malina et al., 19876). Amerindian children have been studied in Canada (Coodin etal., 1980) and Minneapolis (Schell & Johnston, 1978). A review of physical growth of various groups of North American Indians has been published (Schell & Johnston, 1990; Johnston & Schell, 1979) and will not be discussed here. For the first time we have data from the People's Republic of China (Zhang, 1977; Zhang & Huang, 1988). In addition, there are new studies from Taiwan (Lai & Yaung, 1987; Yaung & Lai, 1988), from Hong Kong (Fung et al., 1985; Leung et al., 1987), from Bangkok (Khanjanasthti, Chawewan & Siripat, n.d.), and from Jakarta (Sudjarwo et al., 1978). There is also a small longitudinal study of 50 Chinese families living in London (Wheeler & Tan, 1983), and a cross-sectional study of Chinese, Southeast Asians, Filipinos and Hispanics in special Newcomer Schools in San Francisco (Schumacher & Kretchmer, 1988). We will use the Chinese data only. In addition to data on Japanese in Japan (Japan Ministry of Health and Welfare, unpubl.; Kikuta & Takaishi, 1987), there are data on Koreans born and raised there (Kim, 1982). Political problems in southeast Asia are reflected in one study of Khmer and Laotian children living in refugee camps in Thailand (Olness etal., 1984). Height and weight growth
The mean heights of children (Appendix Tables 44 and 45), aged 1 to 7 years have been plotted in Figs 84 and 85. Heights of IndonesianMalay adolescents are in Figs 86 and 87 and of Amerindian youths in Figs 88 and 89. Following our custom, the stippled areas represent the range of European means. In contrast to the results from the studies of the 1960s and 1970s that we reported in the first edition, Indonesian-Malay groups in the 1980s are within the European range for height until 12 to 13 years of age. The single exception is Chinese immigrants in California who are shorter, on average. After 13 years of age all Indonesian-Malays are
Height and weight growth
95 # # •—• •--# X—X
125 120 115 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65
China Hong Kong Bangkok Bolivian Aymara
A---A Nicaragua X—X Chilean Aymara • - - • Japan • — • Jakarta
I
0
3
4 Age (yr)
Fig. 84. Height means of Indonesian-Malay and Amerindian boys from 1 to 7 years. Stippled area shows the range of European values.
125 120 115 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65
> China • — « Hong Kong • — • Bangkok X—X Bolivian Aymara
3
X—-X Chilean Aymara * - - * Nicaragua • — • Japan • — • • Jakarta
4 Age (yr)
Fig. 85. Height means of Indonesian-Malay and Amerindian girls from 1 to 7 years. Stippled area shows the range of European values.
96
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
China • Hong Kong • H Taiwan
175 170 165 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 125 120
• Bangkok • Japan, Koreans • Japan
I 10
11
12
13 14 Age (yr)
15
16
17
18
Fig. 86. Height means of Indonesian-Malay boys from 10 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the range of European values.
• China • Hong Kong • Taiwan
•— —• Bangkok • • Japan, Koreans •— —• Japan
165 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 125
1
10
11
12
13 14 Age (yr)
15
16
17
18
Fig. 87. Height means of Indonesian-Malay girls from 10 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the range of European values.
Height and weight growth
97
At—-A Guatemala City
• — •
Mexican-American II
A r — • • Oaxaca X — X Chachi X X Highland Quechua • - • - • Chippewa X
X LowlandQuech.ua A- • -A Maya
Fig. 88. Height means of Amerindian boys from 6 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the range of European values.
A A
— A Guatemala City -A Oaxaca
A
A Mexican-American II
X
X Chachi
X
X Highland Quechua
•
• Chippewa
X
X Lowland Quechua
A
A Maya
160 150 ~ 140 o
£ 13 ° a 120 110 100 >
7
8
9
10
11
12 13 Age (yr)
14
_L
i
15
16
17
18
Fig. 89. Height means of Amerindian girls from 6 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the range of European values.
98
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
smaller than Europeans. This is probably because the cohorts in the late adolescent age group would have been infants and young children in the 1970s, that is, the ones that we reported in the first edition as being below the European height means. Thus, it is not unexpected that they are still low in height in late adolescence. On this basis one might predict that in the 1990s older adolescent cohorts will be as tall, on average, as Europeans. However, Indonesian-Malays mature earlier than Europeans, so they stop growing at an earlier age with a final adult height lower than that of Europeans (see Chapter 9). In order to reach an actual adult height similar to Europeans, they would have to be taller at ages 14 (boys) and 12 (girls). As for weight (Appendix Tables 46 and 47; Figs 90-95), the means of young Indonesian-Malay children 1 to 7 years are generally, but not always, within the European means. During adolescence most Indonesian-Malays are within the European range except for Chinese in the People's Republic. In the late adolescent years all Indonesian-Malay girls are seen to level off in weight and end up below the Europeans. This is quite different from what one sees in most populations, where older adolescent girls continue to gain considerable weight. Most of the new data we have for Amerindian populations are from South and Central America. Until 7 years of age Aymara in Chile and Bolivia are quite similar to one another in height and weight means, while Nicaraguan ladinos are only somewhat larger. They are all below the Indonesian-Malays and well below the European range of means. After 7 years we also have data from another Andean population: Peruvian Quechua. While highland Quechua are similar to highland Aymara, lowland Quechua in the province of Lamas are considerably shorter and lighter during childhood. It is quite the opposite for lowland adults who are taller than those in the highlands. This seems to be due to a longer growth period among lowland Quechua (Frisancho et al., 1975). As for other groups, Zapotec Indians and ladinos in the State of Oaxaca, Maya and Chachi Indians are not very different in size from the highland Quechua and Aymara; ladinos in Guatemala City are somewhat taller and heavier, on average, but data end at 13 years. Chippewa Indians in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Mexican-Americans in southwestern United States are the tallest and heaviest of these groups; their weight means are mostly above the European range and their height means are at the lower edge of the European range. The Mexican-Americans level off in weight at an earlier age than the Europeans, and, thus, at 18 years boys have a lower average weight than Europeans while girls come within the European range.
Height and weight growth
99
24 22
X Chilean Aynara • Nicaragua
•• Hong Kong • — — • Bangkok X X Bolivian Aynara
20
• Japan
^g
4
5
'So * 18
I 16 14 12 10 0
1
2
3
6
7
Age (yr) Fig. 90. Weight means of Indonesian-Malay and Amerindian boys from 1 to 7 years. Stippled area shows the range of European means.
24
• • •——-• • — —# X X
22 20
China Hong Kong Bangkok Bolivian Aynara
X X Chilean Aynara • • Nicaragua • — — • Japan • ©Jakarta
18 i6 14 12 10 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Age (yr) Fig. 91. Weight means of Indonesian-Malay and Amerindian girls from 1 to 7 years. Stippled area shows the range of European means.
100
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas China Hong Kong Bangkok
•~ •
" • Taiwan • Japan Koreans
• - — —• Japan
65 60 55 ^ 50
r 45 #40 ^ 35 30 25 20
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Age (yr) Fig. 92. Weight means of Indonesian-Malay boys from 10 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the range of European means.
65
China Hong Kong
• M
Bangkok
•
- • Taiwan • Japan Koreans
—• Japan
60 55 50
45 40 35 30 25 20 10
11
12
13 14 Age (yr)
15
16
17
18
Fig. 93. Weight means of Indonesian-Malay girls from 10 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the range of European means.
Height and weight growth
101
-A Guatemala City
—A
A Oaxaca
— X Chachi
X— - - X Highland Quechua
—•
Mexican-American Chippewa
— A Maya
Lowland Quechua
60 55 50 ^
45
$40
§ 35 *30 25 20 15'
11
10
12 13 Age (yr)
14
15
16
17
18
Fig. 94. Weight means of Amerindian boys from 6 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the range of European means.
60
•
A Guatemala City
A
A Mexican-American
A-
A Oaxaca
X
X Chachi
X-
X Highland Quechua
•
•
X
X Lowland Quechua
A
A Maya
Chippewa
55 50 ^
r
45
40
§ 35 ^
30 25 20 15'
10
11
12 13 Age (yr)
14
15
16
17
18
Fig. 95. Weight means of Amerindian girls from 6 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the range of European means.
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
102
Secular trend As stated above, Indonesian-Malay children appear to be taller and heavier today than they were in the 1960s and 1970s. Figs 96-99 show that at 10 and 16 years, both height and weight means for boys and girls exceed means from similar populations described in the first edition. Lau & Fung (1987) have noted an increase in height and weight in Hong Kong from 1965 to 1985. This was pronounced during childhood and early adolescence. The rate of increase for boys was 3.5 cm per decade and for girls 2.8 cm per decade. At 18 years the rate was reduced to 1.2 cm per decade for boys and 0.8 cm per decade for girls.
Y///\
140
|
Old data ] New data
135 130 125
120 115 J_
110
Taiwan
Hong Kong
Japan
I
Quechua
(a)
170 r165 160 155 150 145 140
I iI I
I
Hong Kong
Taiwan
I
Japan
Highland Quechua
(b)
Fig. 96. Secular change in height at (a) 10 and (b) 16 years in Asiatic boys comparing data from the first edition to those in the current one.
Height and weight growth
103
In China as well there has been a significant secular increase in height and weight from 1975 to 1985 with height increases at 6 to 7 years of 1.5 cm and 1.2 cm in urban boys and girls, respectively, and 2.0 cm in rural boys and girls (Zhang & Huang, 1988). The principal contributor to the increase in height is subischial leg length since sitting height increases were small. Since 1950, we have witnessed a dramatic increase in height among the Japanese which is a result of both an increase in size and an earlier maturation (Matsumoto, 1982). In 1977, young Japanese men were 4.3 cm taller, on average, than in 1957; young Japanese women 2.7 cm taller.
I Old data New data
140 135 130 125 120 115 110 Hong Kong
IIr Taiwan
Japan
Quechua
(a)
160 155 150 145 140 135 130
I iI I
Hong Kong
Japan
Taiwan
Highland Quechua
(b)
Fig. 97. Secular change in height at (a) 10 and (b) 16 years in Asiatic girls comparing data from the first edition to those in the current one.
104
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
Even so, they were 6 cm shorter than the average young British adult (Tanner et al., 1982). Matsumoto (1982) believes the secular height increase in Japan is due to increased urbanization and industrialization which has led to a change in life style. In some Amerindian populations there is no secular trend, probably because environmental conditions have not improved. Malina et al. (1980) report no trend for the Zapotec of Oaxaca, Stinson (pers. commun.) none for the Chachi of Ecuador and Eveleth etal. (1974) none for the Xingu of Brazil. Frisancho and his coworkers (1975) describe the deterioration of the economy of lowland Peruvian populations which has led to the small size of lowland Quechua children and possibly a reverse secular trend. This is not the situation throughout all the Andes, however. A study from high altitude Puno, (Peru) reports a significant secular
40
j Old data New data
35 30 25 20 15 10 Hong Kong
Taiwan
Japan
Quechua
Japan
Quechua
(a)
60 55 50 45
40 35 30 Hong Kong
Taiwan (b)
Fig. 98. Secular change in weight at (a) 10 and (b) 16 years in Asiatic boys comparing data from the first edition to those In the current one.
Height and weight growth
105
increase in height from 1945 to 1980 averaging 2.7 cm per decade at 13 years of age (Gonzales, Crespo-Retes & Guerra-Garcia, 1982). In Figs 96 and 97 we also see an increase in height during childhood in highland Quechua. However, average adult height of Quechua over 35 years is almost unchanged. Nutrition and health supplementation programs in Texas border counties are likely to have contributed to the secular increase in height, weight and skinfolds from 1972 to 1983 that Malina and his colleagues (19876) reported among Mexican-American children in Brownsville, Texas. Differences were particularly in fatness rather than stature; in fact, adolescents over 14 years of age showed no increase in height. Fat patterning and overweight in this population will be discussed further in Chapter 11.
40
j Old data New data
35 30
J2? - 5 20 15 10 Hong Kong
Taiwan
Japan (a)
r Quechua
60 55 50 45 40 35 30 Hong Kong
Taiwan
Japan
Quechua
(b)
Fig. 99. Secular change in weight at (a) 10 and (b) 16 years in Asiatic girls comparing data from the first edition to those in the current one.
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
106
Weight-for-height
Mean weight-for-height at ages 3,8 and 16 years is plotted for the Asiatic groups in Figs 100-102. The stippled areas indicate the range of European means. Regression lines have been calculated from the population means by least squares without weighting. At 3 years only Mexican-Americans, well-off in Jakarta and Bangkok and Cree boys are within the European range. Most other groups are smaller and lighter. The Chinese are as tall as Europeans but lighter. Cree Indians and Chilean coastal mestizos are relatively heavier for height than other Asiatics. Aymara girls both in Chile and Bolivia are taller and heavier than the boys. At 8 years, there is less consistency in the pattern of sex differences in the weight-for-height relationship: girls are sometimes taller and/or heavier than boys. Only the Chippewa and Mexican-American boys are within the European range. Amerindians, except Mexican-Americans and middle-class Mexicans in Mexico City, are shorter, on average, than Indonesian-Malays, whereas most Indonesian-Malay groups are relatively lighter than the Asiatics as a whole. By 16 years, boys in every population, except lowland Quechua, are taller than girls. In contrast to the African populations we examined in the last chapter, the adult height sex difference of some 12-13 cm is fully established by 16 years in Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Taiwanese, Thais and Mexican-Americans. The regression line for girls lies above that of boys as at 8 years indicating that girls tend to be relatively heavier than boys. Although no population is within the European range for weight16 15 Chile mestizo, coast
Jakarta
~ 14
3
i 10
I
83 84
I
I
85
86
87
I
I
I
I
I
88
89
90
91
92
J
93
94
I
I
I
J
95
96
97
98
Height (cm)
Fig. 100. Weight means plotted against height means for 3-year-old Asiatics: • , boys; # , girls. Stippled area represents that occupied by Europeans in Fig. 10; fine lines are regressions.
Weight-for-height
107
-
MexicanAmerican I 0,'^^S^^^ Mexican\ i B ;tt: ' ^"JP1*^' American II ^^yy^\\^^<^^ Mexico City J3^^^*^ >K9^M<^ Japan
28 26 'So £ 24 -
Highland Quechua
f 22 — Lowland _ Quechua
20
\ ^*r^^ :
~
^S^TV^^*
18 16
Gu atemala City ^^5==***^
Maya
1
1
^-4 ^y -^"^ Bangkok/ Vr# Hong Kong
r
M Japan-Korean >C•h i n a
Chiapas
OaxaC£ \
Bolivian Aymara
1
1
1
1
1
106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120 122
1
1
1
124 126 128 130
Height (cm)
Fig. 101. Weight means plotted against height means for 8-year-old Asiatics: • , boys; • , girls. Stippled area represents that occupied by Europeans in Fig. 11; fine lines are regressions. (Note that Mexican-American I is from Malina et ai, 1987, and Mexican-American II is from Martorell et al., 1987.)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 Height (cm)
Fig. 102. Weight means plotted against height means for 16-year-old Asiatics: • , boys; # , girls. Stippled areas represent those occupied by Europeans in Fig. 12; fine lines are regressions. (Note that Mexican-American I is from Malina et al., 1987, and Mexican-American II is from Martorell et al., 1987.) The asterisk indicates no data for girls.
108
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
for-height, many, especially Amerindians, are not actually low in weightfor-height. The short, stocky physique of Amerindian and mestizo children in Latin America has been discussed by Eveleth & Micozzi (1988) and of Mexican-American children by Martorell and coworkers (1987). Drawing upon a large number of populations from Central and South America, thefirst-namedauthors pointed out that in relation to the US National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) reference standards for weight-for-height, means of 6-year-old Latin American children fell between the 50th and 90th percentiles, while height-for-age and weightfor-age were considerably below the NCHS 50th percentile. It is not clear how severe a public health problem there is in populations such as these, that would be labelled as 'stunted' according to the Waterlow classification. Adult Asiatics
Mean heights and weights of adults are given in Appendix Table 48. Where possible, the data are restricted to young adults. In the Americas these are the same populations for which we have data on children. Mexican-American adults in Texas and ladinos in Nicaragua are the tallest of those groups listed and are within the European range. Aymara, Quechua, and Maya are all below the European range. In weight means, however, most Amerindians are as heavy or heavier than Europeans. Mexican-American means exceed the European means.
Infants from birth to 18 months
Weights and lengths in boys from birth to 18 months are shown in Figs 103 and 104 and Appendix Table 49. Data from Polish infants in Warsaw are shown as a European reference in Figs 103 and 104. Chinese infants in the People's Republic of China are longer and heavier than the other Asiatic groups, including Chinese in Hong Kong. Up to 6 months of age they are as heavy or heavier, on average, than Polish infants and at all ages they are as long. Infants in Hong Kong, Bangkok, La Paz, Santa Cruz and Mexico City are quite similar to one another in weight until 9 months of age. After that Thai infants continue to grow well while the Bolivians fall off. La Paz is a highland city in Bolivia while Santa Cruz is at low altitude. Infants in these two groups are similar in weight but the high altitude ones are shorter. In contrast, they had larger skinfolds than the lowlanders. Haas et al. (1982) concluded that linear growth is affected by altitude but weight gain is not.
Infants from birth to 18 months
109
China
Mexico City
Bangkok
Hong Kong
LaPaz
Warsaw
85
Santa Cruz
75
5 65 55
45 Birth
4 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months
18 months
Age Fig. 103.
Length means of Asiatic boys from birth to 18 months.
China
I Mexico City
Bangkok
H i
Hong Kong
LaPaz
v.v.v/J Warsaw
Santa Cruz
Birth
4 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months
Age Fig. 104.
Weight means of Asiatic boys from birth to 18 months.
18 months
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
110
Other length and width measurements Sitting height The sitting height means for different populations of Asiatics are shown in Figs 105 and 106 (Appendix Table 50). Chinese children in the People's Republic of China, Japanese and Mexican-Americans are within the range of the Europeans. In the previous edition we did not have data from the People's Republic; however, Chinese in Hong Kong and Japanese were within the European range. The remaining Asiatic populations are quite similar to each other except the lowland Quechua who are much smaller in the trunk. •
95
X •
• Bangkok
•
- • Oaxaca
X
-X Highland Quechua
X Lowland Quechua • Mexican-American II
M -- ^ • •
Japan Maya
85
Sit ting 1
i
75 65 55 J
45
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Years Fig. 105. Sitting height means of Asiatic boys. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
95
•
• China
X
•
• Bangkok
•
X Lowland Quechua • Mexican-American II
A-
•
Oaxaca
•
• Japan
X- — -X Highland Quechua
A
A Maya
85
~ 75
•a 55 J
45
1
I
2
3
4
5
i
i
i
6
7
8
I
I
I
1
I
I
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Years
Fig. 106. Sitting height means of Asiatic girls. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
Other length and width measurements
111
In Figs 107 and 108 sitting height means are plotted against leg length means for Chinese and Mexican-Americans. Adolescent MexicanAmericans have somewhat longer legs relative to sitting height than Chinese and Japanese (not shown). At any given age, Mexican-American boys have both greater trunk and leg length than Chinese and Japanese boys. Recent Japanese populations have shown a markedly lower difference from Europeans in relation of trunk to leg length than former ones 90 r 80
11 yr ~ 70 60 50
40 20
30
40
50 60 Leg length (cm)
70
80
90
Fig. 107. Sitting height means at successive ages in boys plotted against the corresponding leg length means. Samples are People's Republic of China (•, Zhang & Huang, 1988) and Mexican-Americans (A, Martorell et al. 1988).
90 r 80
11 yr ^
70
60 50
40 20
30
40
50 60 Leg length (cm)
70
80
90
Fig. 108. Sitting height means at successive ages in girls plotted against the corresponding leg length means. Samples are People's Republic of China ( • , Zhang & Huang, 1988) and Mexican-Americans (A, Martorell et al. 1988).
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
112
(Tanner et al., 1982). As we pointed out above, Japanese have shown a large increase in stature since 1950. However, there has been virtually no change in sitting height in that period. Thus, height increase has been due entirely to an increase in leg length with the result that body shape has altered. Although similar results were reported for Chinese (Zhang & Huang, 1988) and Norwegian conscripts (Udjus, 1964), the opposite was found among Philadelphia Afro-Americans (Eveleth etaL, 1979). Shoulder and hip width Data comparing shoulder and hip widths in Asiatic populations are illustrated in Figs 109 and 110 (Appendix Tables 51 and 52). All Asiatic populations are below the range of European means in shoulder Mexico City Mexican-Americans I Hong Kong (1969) Malays
40 35 30 25 20 15 10
I
I
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr) Fig. 109. Means of (a) biacromial and (b) biiliac widths in Asiatic boys. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes. Mexico City
40
Hong Kong (1969) Malays
35 30
20 15 10 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Age (yr) Fig. 110. Means of (a) biacromial and (b) biiliac widths in Asiatic girls. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
Upper arm circumferences
113
width. Only Mexicans in Mexico City have hips as wide as Europeans, while other groups are smaller. Upper arm circumference
Although arm circumference (Figs 111 and 112; Appendix Table 53) has been studied in many Asiatic populations, for some reason calf circumference has not. Arm circumference means are mostly below the European range except those of Mexicans in Mexico City and MexicanAmericans in the US Southwest. In fact, Mexican-American girls have
28 r-
•
• Bangkok
A-
-A Oaxaca
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
X •
X Lowland Quechua A Mexican-American
X A
X Chachi A Mexico City
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Fig. 111. Means of upper arm circumference in Asiatic boys. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes. X
26
X Lowland Quechua
Bangkok
•
• Mexican-American
• - — -A Oaxaca X—--X Highland Quechua
X •
X Chachi • Mexico City
24 22 20 18 16 14 12 1
i
i
1
1
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
I
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 112. Means of upper arm circumference in Asiatic girls. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
114
mean circumferences that far exceed European girls. Quechua are smaller than Indonesian-Malays, Chachi and Zapotees in this dimension. Skinfold thickness
Triceps skinfolds have been studied among many peoples in Asia and the New World; subscapular skinfolds less so. The data are shown in Figs 113-116 (Appendix Tables 54 and 55). We do believe that subscapu20 18 - 16 E a 14 2 12 = 10
8 yr 12 yr 16yr
I8 ^
4
Taiwan
Bangkok Bolivian Oaxaca Highland Lowland MexicanAymara Quechua Quechua American
Chachi
Maya
People or place
Fig. 113. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) of Asiatic boys at 8, 12 and 16 years. (The asterisk indicates data at 17 years.)
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Taiwan
Bangkok Bolivian Aymara
Oaxaca Highland Lowland Mexican- Chachi Quechua Quechua American
Maya
People or place
Fig. 114. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) of Asiatic girls at 8, 12 and 16 years.
Skinfold thickness
115
I
| 16 yr
S
—
— r-
H Hong Kong
Nagoya
Aymara
Chachi
Highland Quechua
Lowland Quechua
Mexico City
People or place Fig. 115. years.
Hong Kong
Medians of subscapular skinfolds (mm) of Asiatic boys at 8,12 and 16
Nagoya
Aymara
Chachi
Highland Quechua
Lowland Quechua
Mexico City
People or place Fig. 116. years.
Medians of subscapular skinfolds (mm) of Asiatic girls at 8, 12 and 16
116
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
lar skinfolds, as an estimate of trunk fat, should always be taken in addition to triceps. It was noted in the previous edition that Asiatics tended to have large subscapular skinfolds relative to triceps. Among boys, the greatest triceps means are found among Thais in Bangkok and Mexican-Americans in Brownsville, Texas; among girls we find Taiwanese in Changua City can be added to this list. All are comparable to European populations such as those in Warsaw, Stockholm and Zurich. Chinese immigrants to California appear to be quite slight in fat deposition. In order to compare subscapular skinfolds, we have carried forward data on Hong Kong, Chinese and Nagoya Japanese. These groups along with Mexicans in Mexico City and highland Quechua boys have the greatest subscapular skinfolds.
Indo-Mediterraneans in the Near East, North Africa and India The inhabitants of the Near East, North Africa and the Indian subcontinent have been grouped together here under the name TndoMediterranean'. They have much in common physically, though there are also differences. We include the dark Hamites and Indo-Dravidians along with Egyptians, Kuwaitis, and Libyans. Even within India itself, Guha (1944) distinguished 51 different ethnic groups. However, as far as child growth is concerned, it seems that the principal dissimilarities are brought about by socioeconomic differences rather than by minor ethnic variations. Mediterranean peoples dwelling on the northern shores of the Mediterranean Sea have already been considered in Chapter 2, dealing with Europeans. The growth studies
As can be seen in Table 7, data from these population groups are not numerous. From Egypt there is a growth study of the Egyptian Nubians (El-Nofely, 1978) who were resettled after the construction of the High Dam south of Aswan City. Whereas formerly they lived in small villages, they now live in urban centers. Two groups speak dialects of the Nubian language: the Kenouz and the Fededji; the third group are Arabic-speaking. There are new studies from mostly Arabic-speaking peoples in rural Khartoum (Sukkar et al., 1979), from schoolchildren in Libya (Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985), from infants in Israel (Palti et al., 1981, 1982) and from groups in various areas in India. These latter comprise children in private schools (Sidhu, Bhatragar & Dubey, 1982; P. Malhotra, unpubl.) and another group of lower socioeconomic school children (Singh, Sidhu & Malhotra, 1987) both in Patiala City, Punjab; infants in Chandigarh, Punjab (Bhalla, Kaul & Kumar, 1986); boys in Calcutta (Pakrasi et al, 1988) and Bod boys of Ladakh (Malik & Singh, 1978). There are now studies using random sampling techniques from Bahrain (Musaiger, Gregory & Haas, 1989), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (Al-Hazzaa, 1990; Wong & Al-Frayh, 1990), and Kuwait (Bayoumi & Moussa, 1985a,fo).These studies are interesting because of the rapid modernization in these countries due to the booming oil industry. The last study 117
Table 7. Summary of growth studies in North Africa, Near East and India Sample size/age group Country
People or place
Years
Authors
Boys
Girls
Study type" Age (yr)
Bahrain
Bahraini
1986
Musaiger etal., 1989
22-76
23-84
CS
6-18
Egypt
Kuwait
Kenouz Nubian Arab Nubian Fededji Nubian East Cairo national
1965-67 1965-67 1965-67 n.s. 1983-84
27-49 19-59 32-71 30-82 145-700
14-25 11-37 23-61 — 137-636
CS CS CS CS CS
6-12 6-12 6-12 9-16 0-9
Libya
Tripoli City
1983-84
36-130
37-121
CS
6-17
India
Calcutta, Bengal
1982-83
El-Nofely, 1978 El-Nofely, 1978 El-Nofely, 1978 Hafez etal., 1981 Bayoumi & Moussa, 1985a ,6 Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985 Pakrasi et al., 1988
36-97
—
CS
7-16
Patiala City, Punjab
1974
Singh etal., 1987
60-126
—
CS
6-12
Patiala City, Punjab Patiala City, Punjab Chandigarh, Punjab Bods of Ladakh national
1973-74 1973-74 1978-81
86 20-59 (69 804)
n.s. n.s. 68 — (58 062)
CS CS L CS CS
8-12 6-12 0.08-1 11-19 1-21
Israel
Jerusalem Abu Ghosh
1971-73 1972-78
S\dhu etal., 1982 P. Malhotra, unpubl. Bhalla etal., 1986 Malik & Singh, 1978 Ind. Coun. Med. Res., 1972 Paltitf al., 1981 Palti etal., 1982
Varied SES; birth dates known Birth records; schools low SES; urban Private schools Private schools 37-42 wks gestation High altitude Not all ages verified
c.250 86-210i
c.250 86-191
L L
0.08-2 0.08-2
Low-middle SES; Jewish Moslem community; semi-
Nepal
Terai region
1980-81
Martorell et al. 1984
14-48
10-58
CS
3-10
Kathmandu valley
n.s.
Farquharson, 1976
total(2137)
CS
0.08-12
i
91-619
CS CS
6-14 0-5
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
1956-65
n.s. 1985
Al-Hazzaa, 1990 Wong & Al-Frayh, 1990
Khartoum
1975-76
Sukkar etal., 1979
17-56
13-80
CS
1-13
Boutourline-Young, 1968; BoutourlineYoung etal., 1973 & unpubl. Neyzi etal., 1973
c.40
c.40
CS
0-16
47-70
32-58
CS
9-17
Marshall etal. (n.d.)
50-20C1
50-200
CS
3-11
Tunis
1966-73
Turkey
Istanbul
n.s.
United Kingdom
Nottingham & Leicestershire various counties in England national
Tunisia
Democratic Yemen
a
37-179 88-622:
Riyadh Riyadh
CS, cross-sectional; L, longitudinal, n.s., not stated.
1982-83
Rona & Chinn, 1987
total (2518)
CS
4-12
1982-83
Bagenholmertf/., 1988
total(3407)
CS
0-7
Sampling; methods 5 Measurers; random sampling from schools Schools in New Nubia Birth certificates Birth certificates 4 schools 2 SES districts; stratified sample Random sample of schools
rural Mostly middle-low caste Hindu; subsistence farming Newar/Chetri/Brahmin, privileged & non-privil. Schools, random sample Representative of all SES & areas Birth certificates; mostly Arab Well-off, urban
Well-off, urban; Turkish origin; one measurer Sikhs, Pakistani Moslems; Hindus, Bangladeshis Urdu, Gujarati, Punjabi & other Asians Urban & Slum >80% birth certificates; rural 22%
120
Indo-Mediterraneans
includes both well-off Kuwaitis and recently resettled Bedouins. We have a study of rural, urban and slum children in Democratic Yemen (Bagenholm, Kristiansson & Nasher, 1988). Urban children are taller than the other two groups but the data have been reported in the paper for all groups together. There are two studies from Nepal (Farquharson, 1976; Martorell, Leslie & Moock, 1984). Nepal has a great number of ethnic groups; we have reported data from the groups which are considered to be mostly Indian. In the previous chapter we cited studies on Tibetans in Nepal. 'Asian' migrants in Great Britain (W. A. Marshall et al., unpubl.; Rona & Chinn, 1987) now have been included. In order to give a better picture of this entire geographic area, we have taken data from the first edition on well-off children in Tunis (Boutourline-Young, 1968; Boutourline-Young etal., 1973) and Istanbul (Neyzi, Alp & Yalcindag, 1973) and from the national survey in India (Indian Council of Medical Research, 1972). In contrast to the first edition, the growth data are no longer mostly from infants and small children. In fact, school-age children and adolescents comprise the major part of the tables. Unfortunately several studies do not have data from girls. In those regions of the world where there may be a tendency to favor boys over girls it is especially important to document growth of both sexes and to note the gender differences. Height and weight growth
Sikhs and Pakistanis living in Britain and Sikhs and Hindus in Patiala City in Punjab, as also Kuwaitis, are somewhat taller than the other groups and are just below the European range until 9 years of age (Figs 117-120 and Appendix Tables 56-59). The range of European means is shown by the stippled area. These Punjabi children are well-off and attend expensive private schools. (The data for Punjabi boys' height have not been plotted pending confirmation of the data from the authors.) Boys and girls in rural Khartoum, Tripoli, Bahrain, and Riyadh all show quite a similar pattern of height growth, being somewhat lower than the Europeans. At adolescence the gap between European populations and the Indo-Mediterraneans increases. Kenouz Nubians, Yemenese, Indians (national) are lower in height and Nepalese in the Terai region are the smallest. The latter is a very poorly-off population with children showing progressive stunting until 5 years of age. Agricultural productivity is low and infants are breast fed until 3 years of age (Martorell et al., 1984) We now have longitudinal data from India. Hauspie et al. (1980) have analyzed data collected in 1952-60 on children from middle-class families
Height and weight growth
121 • Bahrain
•
• Nepal
• Kenouz Nubian
A-
A Khartoum
• Tripoli • Riyadh
X •
X UK Sikhs • Kuwait
90'
3
4
5
6
7
10 11 12 Age (yr)
13
14
15
16
17
18
Fig. 117. Height means of Indo-Mediterranean boys from 3 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the European range of means.
• • •
• Bahrain • Kenouz Nubian • Tripoli
X
X Patiala (well-off) •
10 11 12 Age (yr)
13
14
• A X
• Nepal A Khartoum X UK Sikhs • Kuwait
15
16
17
18
Fig. 118. Height means of Indo-Mediterranean girls from 3 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the European range of means.
122
Indo-Mediterraneans # • • •
Bahrain Kenouz Nubian Tripoli Kuwait
10 11 12 Age (yr)
13
B A X •
14
B • X •
15
Nepal Khartoum UK Sikhs Riyadh
16
17
18
Fig. 119. Weight means of Indo-Mediterranean boys from 3 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the European range of means.
•
60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20
• Bahrain
•
•—— - • Kenouz Nubian A • • Tripoli X X X Patiala (well-off) •
10 11 12 Age (yr)
13
14
• Nepal A Khartoum X UK Sikhs • Kuwait
15
16
17
18
Fig. 120. Weight means of Indo-Mediterranean girls from 3 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the European range of means.
Weight-for-height
123
in a semi-urban area of Calcutta. They have reported that both boys and girls have peak height velocity (PHV) and age at PHV quite similar to that of British children. Indian children were smaller at take-off for the spurt and the authors have concluded that the differences in adult height between these Indians and British were mainly due to differences in prepubertal growth. The effects of poor nutritional status during early childhood on pubertal growth among Indian boys also has been studied serially (Satyanarayana, Nadamuni Naidu & Narasinga Rao, 1980). Although actual peak height velocities (PHV) were similar in both normal and the previously severely malnourished boys, the time of PHV was approximately 1 year later in poorly nourished boys and 2 years later compared with British boys. For weight, both the intensity and timing of the spurt was smaller and later in boys who were undernourished at 5 years. There are also longitudinal data from rural Khartoum (Sukkar et al., 1980). Peak height velocity was about 1 year later in Sudanese boys than British, while girls were quite similar in timing. Velocities were mostly lower in Sudanese during prepuberty and puberty compared with British. In weight (Figs 119 and 120), Kuwaiti children and UK Sikh boys are just on the edge of the European range. Bahraini, Libyan and Saudi children and Punjabi girls are quite similar to each other. Children in rural Democratic Yemen, Khartoum, New Nubia, and Nepal are lighter. Weight-for-height
There are few data at 3 years for weight-for-height (Fig. 121). Tunisian, Kuwaiti and Saudi children have the greatest weight and 17 16 15 'too
5
14
•5 13 12 11 10 82
I
84
86
I
90
I
L
92 94 Height (cm)
96
98
100
Fig. 121. Weight means plotted against height means for 3-year-old IndoMediterranean boys, • ; and girls, • . Stippled area represents that occupied by Europeans in Fig. 10;finelines are regressions.
124
Indo-Mediterraneans
30 29 28 27 26 25 24 — 23 •SP 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 106 108
-
Kuwait Arab UK Hindu 1 UK Sikhs *££' NubLins \ \ \ Riyadh Kenouz \ Bahrain \ | A I Nubians \ / U K Pakistani \ poli • India \ • Patiala (nation al) \ _ , ^ K h a r t o u m \ r (well-ofO 1
^t%
m
J^
•
^&
, ^ ^ ^ v i
110
112
114
*" i
116
Patiala (Punjabi)
1 1 118 120
1 122
—
"
•
1 124
\
Calcutta
1 126
1 128
130
Height (cm)
Fig. 122. Weight means plotted against height means for 8-year-old IndoMediterranean boys, • ; and girls, • . Stippled area represents that occupied by Europeans in Fig. 11;finelines are regressions.
140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 Height (cm) Fig. 123. Weight means plotted against height means for 16-year-old IndoMediterranean boys, • ; and girls, • . Stippled areas represent those occupied by Europeans in Fig. 12;finelines are regressions.
Infants from birth to 18 months
125
height; Tunis boys are within the European range. The Indian national sample is lowest, but all populations have a similar weight-for-height relationship. At 8 years (Fig. 122) no groups are up to the Europeans in weight-for-height, although Kuwaitis, Sikhs in Britain, Tunisians (boys only) and UK Pakistanis are fairly close. As in other population groups we see that boys are not always taller nor heavier than girls; Bahraini and UK Hindu girls are both taller and heavier than boys in the same group. At 16 years (Fig. 123) in many groups, boys, although taller than girls, have similar weights. They have heights, but not weights, similar to those of European girls. Only boys in Cairo and Istanbul (well-off) have weights comparable to European girls. This demonstrates the continuing small size of children in these populations. Adult Indo-Mediterraneans
Adult Indian average heights and weights are lower than European and North American ones (Appendix Table 60). Infants from birth to 18 months
Weights and lengths in boys from birth to 18 months are shown in Figs 124 and 125 and Appendix Table 61 (girls also). Data from Polish infants in Warsaw are shown in the figures as a European reference point. The groups from which we have data are quite comparable to one another in length and weight, except that Jewish 12-month-old infants have a somewhat greater average weight. Polish infants are always longer and heavier and the differences between them and the others increase with age. 85 r-
80
j Chandigarh [
j Kathmandu
j Jerusalem
I Warsaw
f
Riyadh
75 ^
-g 70 6
65
3
60
S
y
55 50 45 Birth
4 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months
18 months
Age Fig. 124. Length means of Indo-Mediterranean boys from birth to 18 months.
Indo-Mediterraneans
126
] Chandigarh {|ilf||| Kathmandu I Jerusalem 12
11
3 Riyadh
-
_
10 9 :-
S
7-
£
6
di1
-
5 4 2 1
B
-
Ii
Birth
m
mmm
^ s / \ / S
' s
^ :: ;! E
i
/ S
4 weeks
3 months
6 months
|
I ; I :
ii '/\
•
:
E
1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1
3
Fjx^xl Warsaw
9 months
12 months
18 months
Age
Fig. 125. Weight means of Indo-Mediterranean boys from birth to 18 months.
Birth weights and infant lengths and weights continue to be low in India and many investigations have been carried out to look at risks and causes. In a longitudinal study of two rural villages in Bangladesh, Brown et al. (1982) reported that 90% of the girls at 8 months and boys at 15 months of age were below the NCHS/WHO 5th percentile for weight, and below the 10th percentile for length. They noted that all were breast fed but that boys were given more supplemental foods than girls and were larger. They also found seasonal changes in nutritional status, related to monsoons and the rice harvest. Sanitation also is related to infant growth. Hebert (1985) has found positive correlations between growth status and bathing and drinking water quality in south India. Infants and preschool children who are undernourished are more disposed to disease. Kielmann et al. (1977) have found that children who are low in weight have a generally decreased immune capacity. They reported that cell-mediated immune response, serum IgA and C3 were directly correlated with weight status. Among Punjabi infants 1 to 36 months of age mortality doubled on average for each 10% decline below 80% of the Harvard weight median (Kielmann & McCord, 1978). Circumferences
Data on upper arm circumference are listed in Appendix Table 62 and line graphs for 6 population groups are in Figs 126 and 127. In the first edition we complained about the paucity of data on arm circumference. This is no longer the situation; we now have data from 9 populations, although in all except two the children are above 6 years of age.
Circumferences
127
This apparently reflects the increased interest in assessing nutritional status using arm circumference and triceps skinfolds. Boys in Cairo and Tripoli have greater arm circumferences than the other populations until 12 years of age. In fact, boys in Cairo are comparable with European boys. Above 12 years, boys in Bahrain and Tripoli are quite similar to each other. There are no data from girls in Cairo, but girls in Tripoli have greater arm girths than the other groups and after 13 years they are up to the European girls. Among girls there appears to be greater variation than among boys, that is, the arm circumferences cover a wider range.
28
Bahrain Kenouz Nubain A - —A Tripoli
26
X——X
•—— • Nepal A— - -A Khartoum • - — • Cairo
•—— • •-- -•m
Patiala
24 22 20 18 16
14^ 12 1
2
i
I
i
I
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Age (yr)
Fig. 126. Means of upper arm circumference in Indo-Mediterranean boys. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes. Bahrain Kenouz Nubain , Tripoli
26 24
X X Patiala H H Nepal A - - - - A Khartoum
22 20 18 16
14f-' 12
1
2
3
4
l
I
l
l
l
5
6
7
8
9
l
I
I
I
i
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Age (yr) Fig. 127. Means of upper arm circumference in Indo-Mediterranean girls. The stippled area represents the range of means for European sedentes.
128
Indo-Mediterraneans Skinfold thickness
We have data for skinfolds from the same 9 populations as have reported arm circumferences (Appendix Tables 63 and 64). Bar graphs (Figs 128-131) show triceps and subscapular skinfolds from 7 groups at ages 3, 8, 12, and 16 years. Triceps and subscapular skinfolds increase 20 18
3yr
12yr
16
Syr
16yr
14
12 10
|L
8 6
#1
4
Bahrain
— Kenouz Nubian
iii
s s
Arab Nubian
Tripoli
— •(—
Patiala
Nepal
Khartoum
Riyadh
People or place Fig. 128. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) of Indo-Mediterranean boys at 3, 8, 12 and 16 years. I 3 yr I 8 yr
20
I
| 16 yr
18 skinif old (cm
16
K
14 12 10 8
CJ
\
6
1 \ s Bahrain
Kenouz Nubian
Arab Nubian
Tripoli
Patiala
Nepal
Khartoum
People or place Fig. 129. Medians of triceps skinfolds (mm) of Indo-Mediterranean girls at 3, £ 12 and 16 years.
Skinfold thickness
129
with age in girls, whereas in boys age changes are minimal. This is not unusual and occurs in most populations. Children in Tripoli, Riyadh and Bahrain generally have the greatest average skinfolds. Sixteen-year-old girls in Bahrain and Tripoli are comparable to Europeans in such countries as Hungary and Belgium. All other groups are leaner than the Europeans, on average. The Arab Nubians and Nepalese are particularly lean. 20
|8yr
18
|l2yr
16
I 16 yr
14 12 10 8
11
6 on
4 2
:•:•:•:•:•:•:
mm Bahrain
Kenouz Nubian
Arab Nubian
Tripoli
Patiala
Khartoum
Riyadh
People or place Fig. 130. Medians of subscapular skinfolds (mm) of Indo-Mediterrancan boys at 8, 12 and 16 years. 20
S$$^8yr
18
=112yr S i 16 v r
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Bahrain
Kenouz Nubian
Arab Nubian
Tripoli
Patiala
Khartoum
People or place Fig. 131. Medians of subscapular skinfolds (mm) of Indo-Mediterranean girls at 8, 12 and 16 years.
7
Australian Aborigines and Pacific Island peoples
As we said in the first edition, geography alone is the reason for grouping inhabitants of the Pacific Islands together under one chapter heading. Ethnically, there are such dissimilar physical types as Australian Aborigines, Polynesians, Melanesians, Micronesians, Negritos and probably mixtures of at least the last four. The Australian Aborigines always have presented classification problems for anthropologists (Montagu, 1960, pp. 440-3).
The growth studies
In Chapter 3 we considered the European populations of Australia and New Zealand; in this chapter we discuss the aboriginal inhabitants of those areas (Table 8). There have been new studies of the growth and nutritional status of Australian Aborigines in the Kimberley region of Western Australia by a group of reseachers in Perth (Gracey et al., 1983, 1984; Gracey & Sullivan, 1988; Hitchcock etal., 1987). The authors state that the people live in a wide range of conditions, from remote, partly tribal communities to partly urbanized groups outside of country towns. All school-age children are enrolled in school although absenteeism is very common. The group of infants included some nontraditional Aborigines living in towns. There also are some data from two aboriginal settlements in eastern Australia: Cherbourg, near Brisbane, and Palm Island in Queensland (Fysh et al., 1977). From New Guinea we have new data on the Bundi (Zemel & Jenkins, 1988) which form part of a larger survey of health and nutrition in villages and urban areas by the Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research. We also have new data from Pere village on the island of Manus (J. Schall, unpubl.). This population was originally studied in 1928 by Margaret Mead and subsequently studied at various intervals by Barbara Heath Roll (pers. comm). Over 80% of the village children were measured and over 60% of Manus adolescents no matter where they were living (some attend the high school in the provincial capital of Lorengau). There are two studies on the Mountain Ok-speaking people of the New Guinea highlands (Lourie et al., 1986; Schwartz, Brumbaugh & Chiu, 130
Table 8. Summary of growth studies in Australasia and the Pacific Islands Sample size/age group Country
People or place
Years
Authors
Boys
Girls
Study type" Age (yr)
Australia
Aborigines
1983
Hitchcock etal., 1987
24-111
33-110
CS
4-16
1981 1984-85 1972
Gracey etal., 1983 Gracey & Sullivan, 1988 Fysh etal., 1977
c.150 n.s. c.20
c.150 n.s. c.20
CS
cs CS
0-2.5 0-1 0-2
n.s.
Boulton & Weinstein, 1978 Clegg, 1989 Bindon & Zansky, 1986 Lourie et al., 1986
95-485*
cs
2-4
13-26 15-24 20-37
cs cs cs
6-20 6-11 0->40
Zemel & Jenkins, 1988 & 9-37 unpubl. 5-16 J. Schall, unpubl.
9-29
cs
1-20
5-17
cs
1-18
Schwartz etal., 1987; Schwartz & Brumbaugh, unpubl.
4-12
4-12
CS
3-19
Cook Islands
Mangaia
Fiji Hawaii, USA Papua New Guinea
1985 Melanesian 1975-77 Samoans Wopkaimin Mountain 1982-83 Ok 1983-84 Bundi
14-32 14-24 22-46
Manus
1982
Mountain Ok
1983
Samoa, American
Samoans
1978 & 1982 :
Bindon & Zansky, 1986
18-40
15-24
CS
6-11
Samoa, Western
Samoans Apia
1979 & 1982 n.s.
Bindon & Zansky, 1986 Wigg,1978
19-31 9-28
14-20 9-21
CS CS
6-11 0-5
1975-76 1975-76 1966-72 1978-80
Ramirez & Mueller, 1980 12-36 Ramirez & Mueller, 1980 6-55 Friedlander, 1987 2-14
12-32 3-48 2-14
CS CS CS
5-17 5-17 2-50+
Tokelau Islands New Zealand Solomon Islands
Tokelauans Bougainville Malaita & Ontong Java
" CS, Cross-sectional; L, longitudinal. * Both sexes.
Sampling; methods 53% children in Kimberley schools; ages known Aboriginal communities Aboriginal communities Cherbourg & Palm Island; clinics Ages estimated 4 schools in Suva suburbs Oahu, urban & suburban Ages not known; mining develop, in Western Prov. 20 villages & 2 urban areas; ages known 71% from Pere village; 69% birthdate known; one measurer West Sepik highlands, ages verified 40 villages on Tutuila & 1 on Ta'u Rural villages Outpatient clinic; one measurer Non-migrants Migrants Ethnogenetic & health study; Melanesian except Ontong JavaMicronesian-Polynesian; 1 followup
Height and weight growth
133
1987). The former provides baseline data on the Wopkaimin Mountain Ok of the Ok Tedi region of the Star Mountains in the Western Province where economic and cultural changes are occurring due to major gold and copper mining projects. The second group, also highlanders, lives in the West Sepik Province. Samoan populations have been studied by a team from Pennsylvania State University under Professor Paul T. Baker as part of a project to look at the effects of modernization and migration on health (Baker, 1984). Three regions have been surveyed: rural villages in traditional Western Samoa, villages on two islands in American Samoa, and urban and suburban communities on Oahu, Hawaii, where migrants from Samoa reside (Bindon & Zansky, 1986). Samoan migrants to California also have been studied but we have no data on them. Another study of Polynesian migrants has considered physique changes, particularly fat deposition and blood pressure, among Tokelau Islanders on Tokelau and those who migrated to New Zealand (Prior et al., 1974; Ramirez & Mueller, 1980). There are also reports on the growth of Polynesian children in under-five clinics in the Samoan capital of Apia (Wigg, 1978) and on Mangaia in the Cook Islands (Boulton & Weinstein, 1978). The Harvard Solomon Islands Expedition, which was part of the International Biological Programme, has now published a full report following a resurvey in 1978-80 (Friedlander, 1987). The samples drawn from the Bougainville cluster are Aita, Nasioi, and Nagovisi; those from the Malaita cluster are Lau, Baegu, Kwaio, and Ulawa. These are Melanesian people, although Lau have some Polynesian as well. The expedition also studied the Ontong Java who are PolynesianMicronesian and culturally and ecologically different from the other groups. They and the Lau are more 'modernized' while the Aita and Kwaio are more traditional.
Height and weight growth Samoans on Hawaii and American Samoa and Australian Aborigines are the tallest among the Pacific groups; mean heights of Samoans fall within or close to the range seen in European children (Figs 132 and 133; Appendix Table 65). Traditional Western Samoans and Aborigines are somewhat shorter. As we showed in the previous edition, Maori schoolchildren in New Zealand are also similar to Europeans in height, but we have no new data from this population. Children in Papua New Guinea - the Bundi, Manus, Ok-speaking people in the West Sepik Highlands and the Ok Tedi region of the Star Mountains - are less tall
134
Aborigines and Pacific Islanders Aborigines
•
• American Samoans
Hawaii Samoans
B
B Western Samoans
A Jk
A Manus • Mountain Ok
11
12
Wopkaimin - • Bundi
5
6
7
9
10
13
14
15
16
17
18
Fig. 132. Height means of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island boys from 5 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the European range of means.
• B
• Aborigines • Hawaii Samoans
A— — • Wopkaimin A- — - • Bundi
— • American Samoans - - - • Western Samoans • Manus — A Mountain Ok
16
17
18
Fig. 133. Height means of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island girls from 5 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the European range of means.
Height and weight growth
135
than Aborigines and Samoans. Bundi and Mountain Ok are among the shortest people in the world. Serum growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) have been measured in the Mountain Ok and found to be within the normal range for subjects of normal stature in the United States and Africa (Schwartz etal., 1987). Among African pygmies with similar small stature, IGF-I levels were found to be low (see Chapter 4, pp. 75) (but serum IGF-I reflects nutritional status and only secondarily or not at all the tendency to grow). As for weight (Figs 134 and 135; Appendix Table 66), Samoan children are mostly as heavy or heavier than the Europeans although at some ages Western Samoans are lighter. There is a progression, with children in Hawaii being the heaviest, those in American Samoa the next heaviest and those in Western Samoa the lightest. Larger size is associated with increased modernization as Samoans move from farming and fishing on Samoa to skilled and professional jobs on Hawaii. In fact, changes involving diet, activities and health, have led to an increased prevalence of obesity in children as the families migrate to Hawaii or become westernized. There is considerable concern that this will put them at greater risk of developing obesity-related diseases as adults (Bindon & Zansky, 1986) (see Chapter 11 for more discussion). The Australian Aborigines from Kimberley, Western Australia, are shorter than those reported previously from the Northern Territory (Fig. 136) and are smaller than the Europeans. However, one probably should not speak of a secular decrease in height since these data are not from the same population. Fortunately, we do have data from Papua New Guinea of two populations that are strictly comparable: the Bundi of the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea and the Manus. The Bundi are somewhat taller than they were in 1958-60. There have been changes in economic conditions and diet in those 25 years: wage income is more common and the traditional diet is being supplemented with western food items purchased in stores (Zemel & Jenkins, 1988). The Manus girls appear to be somewhat larger in 1982 than in 1968, though boys are unchanged at most ages. However, the Manus are taller than the Bundi on both occasions. Australian Aboriginal and Wopkaimin boys are below the European means but are heavier than Manus, Bundi and Mountain Ok boys. Bundi and Mountain Ok girls are lightest, while adolescent Aboriginal girls have mean weights as great as the Europeans at some ages. There is little consistent change in mean weights from those previously reported (Fig. 137), though Bundi are significantly heavier at some ages (Zemel & Jenkins, 1988).
136
Aborigines and Pacific Islanders > Aborigines I Hawaii Samoans
I American Samoans I Western Samoans > Manus i Mountain Ok
i Wopkaimin * Bundi
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Age (yr) Fig. 134. Weight means of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island boys from 5 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the European range of means.
• American Samoans
• Aborigines M Hawaii Samoans A Wopkaimin • • Bundi
10
h
• Western Samoans
: ;
A Manus • Mountain Ok
11 12 Age (yr)
Fig. 135. Weight means of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island girls from 5 to 18 years. Stippled area shows the European range of means.
Height and weight growth
137
140
| Old data p::::::::::| New data
130 120 o
I no 100 90 80 Aborigine boys
Aborigine girls
Bundi boys
Bundi girls
Manus boys
Manus girls
(a)
| Old data
170
I New data 160 150
1
140
I 130 X 120 110 100 Aborigine boys
Aborigine girls
Bundi boys
Bundi girls
Manus girls
(b)
Fig. 136. Secular change in height at (a) 8 years and (b) 15 years in Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island boys comparing data from thefirstedition to those in the current one.
138
Aborigines and Pacific Islanders
| Old data
30
I New data
r
25 20 15 10 5 0 Aborigine boys
Aborigine girls
Bundi boys
Bundi girls
Manus boys Manus girls
(a)
I Old data
60
New data
50 J 40 30 20 10 0 Aborigine boys
Aborigine girls
Bundi boys
Bundi girls Manus boys
Manus girls
(b)
Fig. 137. Secular change in weight at (a) 8 years and (b) 15 years in Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island boys comparing data from thefirstedition to those in the current one.
Weight-for-height
All groups from which we have data are below the Europeans at 3 years in the relation of weight means for height means (Figs 138-140). At 8 years, Samoans in Hawaii and American Samoa and Maori are within the European range, while Western Samoans are below. In New Guinea, people are short but stocky and muscular as we pointed out in the previous edition. Children in Manus and Wopkaimin are larger than Bundi and Mountain Ok. Manus and Australian Aborigines are rela-
Weight-for-height
139
tively lighter for height than the other Pacific populations. We have plotted weight-for-height at 15 rather than 16 years since there were few data on 16-year-old girls. No groups are within the European area (16 years). While Australian Aboriginal girls are taller than Manus at 15 years, they are not heavier; boys are both taller and heavier. Girls in some populations are taller and heavier than the boys, an observation we had also made for New Guineans in the previous edition. : ;
^ H"
16 i -
15 Wopkaimin
^
14
%
13
^
12 11 1
10 83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
Height (cm)
Fig. 138. Weight means plotted against height means for 3-year-old Pacific Island boys, • ; and girls, • . Stippled area represents that occupied by Europeans in Fig. 10;finelines are regressions.
30 28 26 wo
es 24
20 18 16 108
110
112
114
116
118 120 122 Height (cm)
124
126
128
130
132
Fig. 139. Weight means plotted against height means for 8-year-old Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island boys, • ; and girls, • . Stippled area represents that occupied by Europeans in Fig. 11;finelines are regressions.
140
Aborigines and Pacific Islanders 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 135 137 139 141 143 145 147 149 151 153 155 157 159 161 163 165 Height (cm) Fig. 140. Weight means plotted against height means for 16-year-old Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island boys, • ; and girls, • . Stippled area represents that occupied by Europeans in Fig. 12; fine lines are regressions.
Adult Australian Aborigines and Pacific Islanders
Data on adult measurements are given in Appendix Tables 67 and 68. Australian Aborigines and Samoans are as tall as some European populations, although shorter than the top of the range - Norwegians and Dutch. Mountain Ok and Yonggom adults are smaller than Bundi and fall within the range of African pygmy groups. Samoans greatly exceed the European adult weight means. Some of the Solomon Island groups are at the European level for weight, but other groups including those from Papua New Guinea are lighter. One should also note particularly large subscapular skinfolds in almost all the populations except the Ningerum and A win of Papua New Guinea. Infants from birth to 1 year
We have weight data on infants from 4 Australian Aboriginal groups, Kimberley, Cherbourg, Palm Island and Western Australia and from 2 Papua New Guinea groups, Manus and Bundi. In mean birthweight the Aboriginal groups are quite similar to one another, but are somewhat lower than the Warsaw (Poland) infants we are using as a reference point (Figs 141 and 142; Appendix Table 69). Manus birthweights are lower than Aborigines. Kimberley and Manus infants seem to grow as well in weight as Warsaw infants until 6 months of age, after which they fall behind. Aboriginal girls on Palm Island do not do quite as well as the other groups. The latter study was carried out in 1972 and at
Infants from birth to 1 year Kimberley
141
|
| Bundi
85 I Western Australia
W$M
Warsaw
80 75 70 65 60
I
55 50 45 Birth
4 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months
18 months
Age
Fig. 141. Length means of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island boys from birth to 18 months.
UlllliI Manus
Kimberley
Western Australia {
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Cherbourg
] Bundi
| g | S1 Warsaw
Palm Island
I Birth
4 weeks
3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months
18 months
Age
Fig. 142. Weight means of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island boys from birth to 18 months.
142
Aborigines and Pacific Islanders
that time it was reported that growth in weight had not changed since 1953 (Fysh et al., 1977). The health of Aborigines is said to be improved (Cameron & Debelle, 1986); the high infant death rate has fallen at Cherbourg, but not on Palm Island (Fysh et al., 1977) As for length, Kimberley infants are up to those in Warsaw until 3 months of age. Bundi infants are smallest. Other length and width measurements
There are no new sitting height data for any of these populations. Thus, we have reprinted the table from the previous edition (Appendix Table 70). As we noted at that time, the relation of sitting height to leg length among the Aborigines is particularly interesting as they have the longest legs to trunk length of any population we have discussed (Fig. 143). Even though the Bundi (old data) have very short stature, they have longer legs in relation to trunk length than London children. Shoulder and hip widths We have data from only two samples, both from New Guinea, for shoulder and hip width means (Appendix Tables 71 and 72). As we pointed out previously, these measurements tell a good deal about body shape. Moreover, hip width may be the denominator of a predictor for adult-onset diabetes in individuals. Manus children have broader 90
80
Z 70
.S 60
50
40
50
60
70
40 50 Leg length (cm) I 80
60
70
Fig. 143. Sitting height means at successive ages plotted against the corresponding leg length means compared with the London regression line (bold line). Samples are Maori (O, New Zealand Dept of Health, 1971); New Guinea Bundi ( • , Malcolm, 19706, 1971) and Australian Aborigine ( A , Abbie, 1967).
Skinfold thickness
143
shoulders and hips than the Bundi; they do not seem to differ from the Manus cohort reported by Heath & Carter (1971). Circumferences
Upper arm circumference has been reported from three Papua New Guinea populations, the Bundi, Manus and Wopkaimin (Appendix Table 73). Manus children have somewhat greater circumferences than Bundi children. The girls also surpass Wopkaimin girls. Skinfold thickness
In addition to the three Papua New Guinea populations, there are also skinfold data on Polynesians, the Tokelau Islanders living on Tokelau and in New Zealand (Appendix Tables 74 and 75; Figs 144 and 145). The Bundi who are smaller than the Manus in all other measure(a)
25 20
2 15 ,9 10
PI
I
Bundi
Manus
I
Tokelau
New Zealand
People or place
(b)
Bundi
Manus
Tokelau
I
Z£ Zealand New
People or place Fig. 144. Medians and means of triceps skinfolds (mm) of Pacific Island boys (a) and girls (b) at 7, 11 and 15 years.
144 <«>
Aborigines and Pacific Islanders 15
3 io
Bundi
Manus
Tokelau
I
New Zealand
People or place
(b)
25 20 15 10
II
5 0 Bundi
Manus
Tokelau
New Zealand
People or place Fig. 145. Medians and means of subscapular skinfolds (mm) of Pacific Island boys (a) and girls (b) at 7, 11 and 15 years.
ments reported here have larger triceps and subscapular skinfolds than the Manus (except subscapular in 14- and 15-year-old girls) and larger triceps than the Wopkaimin. The Tokelauans have larger skinfolds than the Bundi at most ages, and, in turn, the Tokelauans in New Zealand have means that exceed all the others. In fact, their mean subscapular skinfolds exceed those of the United States national survey sample (NCHS) at many ages (Ramirez & Mueller, 1980). Here we have an example of an increase in trunk adiposity with migration and modernization in a western culture.
8
Rate of maturation: population differences in skeletal, dental and pubertal development
So far we have been concerned with body size and shape as exemplified by height, weight and their relationship. But growth is a movement through time, and progress may be fast or slow. Two children may reach an identical ultimate height, but one with a tempo of growth (to use Franz Boas' phrase adopted from classical music) which is slow, another with a tempo which is rapid. One girl reaches menarche, the first menstrual period, at 11.0 years, another at 15.0 years. Within a particular population final adult height is not related to the speed with which it is reached; on average, early and late developers end up almost exactly the same in height. Even in shape there is only a small difference, late-maturers ending usually as more linear people with a lower weight-for-height. Thus tempo of physical development has to be studied separately from body size; there are differences in tempo between populations and no a priori reason why these differences should be related to differences in height and weight. Rate of maturation in body size may be measured by the percentage of mature height reached at successive ages, but this is only known for any individual after his whole growth has been completed. More widely used measures of maturity, therefore, are skeletal maturity (or bone age), dental maturity and pubertal maturity (or secondary sex character age). These measures are not dependent on childhood or adult body size. Each measure reaches the same final point in all normal persons (unlike height and weight). The bones fuse, the teeth emerge (we exclude third molars from the scale), and the secondary sex characters develop. This is a property essential for a useful scale of maturation. The lack of a common final point disqualifies 'height age' or 'weight age' from consideration; however, bone age and tooth age are definable and useful. Given a particular appearance of the bones on a radiograph, the child's bone age is the age at which that radiographic appearance is shown by the average child of his population. Rate of maturation is influenced both by heredity and environment. Identical twin sisters growing up together in a good environment differ in age at menarche only by one or two months; sisters by an average of nearly a year (see Chapter 9). Poorly-off children, on the other hand, have a later menarche than better-off children in all populations studied. 145
146
Rate of maturation
Indeed the first effect of under-nutrition is to slow down growth and postpone the ages of appearance of the various criteria of physical maturity. Not all maturational systems are equally affected, however. Dental maturity is less influenced by the postnatal environment than is age of sexual maturation, because the teeth are laid down early in growth and require little interaction with the environment later. Thus, different measures of maturity measure different things; one population might be advanced in dental age but delayed in bone age, a second population, the reverse. Skeletal maturity
Populations have been compared in two ways: (1) by contrasting the mean skeletal maturation or bone ages of hand-wrist radiographs at given chronological ages, and (2) by comparing the ages at which various bone centers first become visible. In principle, all parts of the skeleton may be used for estimating skeletal maturity, but the hand is convenient and informative. Two systems have been used for assigning hand-wrist maturity: the GreulichPyle Atlas (1959) and the skeletal maturity scores of Tanner, Whitehouse & Healy (1962) (TW1 system), revised in Tanner et al. (19756, 1983) (TW2 system). The Greulich-Pyle Atlas consists of a set of some 30 standard radiographs for each sex, each representing a particular bone age, based on a relatively small number of very well-off Euro-American children in the 1930s (Brush Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio; see Tanner, 1981) The radiograph of the child in question is matched to one of these plates, and given the bone age of that plate. There is, in addition, a method for assigning a bone age to each bone individually, but it has seldom been used (see below). The Tanner-Whitehouse standards are based on a large random sample of not very well-off British children studied in the late 1950s, with the result that the means of the two systems differ by about 0.8 'year' (Roche, Davila & Eyman, 1971). Thus an X-ray called 10.8 'years' in the Tanner-Whitehouse system will be 10.0 'years', in the Greulich-Pyle. In the TW2 system, each of the 20 bones is considered separately and carpal bones are given a separate maturity score from the score for radius, ulna and short bones (metacarpals and phalanges). The latter combination is called RUS score Greulich-Pyle standards Various populations whose mean bone ages have been assessed on the Greulich-Pyle system at successive chronological ages are listed in Appendix Table 76. In Figs 146 and 147 some of these have been compared in reference to the diagonal line showing chonological age
Skeletal maturity
147
o
i
i
i
i
i
i
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Chronological age (yr) Fig. 146. Mean skeletal age of boys in reference to Greulich-Pyle standards (and assessed by the Greulich-Pyle Atlas). Samples are Melbourne Australians (•, Roche, 1967), Hong Kong Chinese (A, Change^/., 1967; Low ef a/., 1964), Zurich Swiss (O, Budliger & Prader, 1972) and Nurioa Quechua Amerindians (•, Frisancho, 1969). The bold line represents skeletal age equal to chronological age.
equal to bone age, that is, the Greulich-Pyle standard means. Until the 1960s no other population reported approached the degree of advancement represented by the Greulich-Pyle standards of 1930. More recently, however, Euro-American children in Philadelphia (mixed socioeconomic classes) were slightly in advance (Johnston, 1963) and children of European descent in Pretoria (Levine, 1972) and Melbourne (Roche, 1967) corresponded closely. European children, however, in Zurich (Budliger & Prader, 1972; Prader & Budliger, 1977), Denmark, (Andersen, 1968; Mathiasen, 1973) and Helsinki (Koshi, Haataja & Lappalainen, 1961) as well as in Britain are delayed in reference to the GreulichPyle standards. In both Zurich and Aarhus, Denmark (Mathiasen, 1973), the boys were delayed by about 0.8 'year' and the girls by only 0.5 'year'. Since both series agree, the discrepancy between the sexes probably reflects more on the Greulich-Pyle standards than on the European samples.
148
o
Rate of maturation 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
I
I
I
1
I
1 I
I
I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Chronological age (yr) Fig. 147. Mean skeletal age of girls in reference to Greulich-Pyle standards (and assessed by the Greulich-Pyle Atlas). Samples are as in Fig. 146. The bold line represents skeletal age equal to chronological age.
A particularly important series is that reported by Roche et al. (1974, 1975, 1976, 1978). It is by far the biggest sample of radiographs ever assembled; nearly 14 000 children aged 6 to 17 were selected as a national sample in cycles II and III of the United States Health Examination Survey of 1963-70. Also this is the only population study in which the much more accurate bone-specific Greulich-Pyle method was used, a system not unlike the Tanner-Whitehouse, in which each bone is given a bone age separately and the results averaged. It is apparent that the US population as a whole in the 1960s was considerably behind the GreulichPyle standards; boys by 0.3 years at age 8, rising to a full year at 12 and reducing to 0.2 year at 14: girls by 0.5 to 0.8 years consistently from 9 to 15. In fact, the average North American values of the 1960s are very similar to those of North West Europeans, and agree much more closely with the Tanner-Whitehouse norms than the Greulich-Pyle ones. At ages 6 to 11 years Afro-Americans were about 0.3 year in advance of Euro-Americans, equally in both sexes, but after this age the differences were, in this sample, negligible.
Skeletal maturity
149
Chinese in Hong Kong (Low etaL, 1964; Chang etal., 1967; Low, 1978) and Quechua Amerindians in the Peruvian Andes (Frisancho, 1969, 1975) are also shown in Figs 146 and 147. The Quechua are delayed considerably and consistently at all ages. Chinese show a very different pattern. Delayed from 3 to 10 years in girls and 3 to 12 in boys, they swiftly change to become equal at 12 and 14 respectively and then are advanced until the end of growth. A similar observation has been made on Japanese in California (Greulich, 1957) and also holds for Japanese in Japan (see below). Thus, Chinese and Japanese begin their puberty earlier than the Euro-Americans and their bone age (because of the nature of the bone age scale) has at this time a considerably greater velocity, advancing about four Greulich-Pyle bone age 'years' in three chronological years. A correspondingly early adolescent growth spurt in height is discussed in Chapter 9. Children of four ethnic groups in Pretoria, South Africa, were studied by Levine (1972). The boys of European origin were up to the GreulichPyle standard. The remaining groups were below: Indians by a margin of about 0.4 'year', Bantu by 1.3 'years', and 'Coloured' (mixed AfricanEuropean in this case) by 1.1 'years'. Brown and Grave (1976) have given bone ages for Australian Aborigines. The boys, like the Europeans, are some 6 months behind the standards, but the girls are only 2 to 3 months behind. Tanner-Whitehouse standards Since 1976, when our first edition appeared, nearly all studies of the differences between populations have been done using the TW2 system rather than the Greulich-Pyle or TW1. The TW2 system was standardized on the same group of subjects as the TW1 so that the means of the systems should be the same; however, a number of investigators have found that from about age 7 onwards the TW2 reads about 0.2 years lower than the TW1 on the same radiograph in boys, 0.3 in girls (Kimura, \911a; van Venrooij-Ijsselmuiden, 1978; Baughan, Demirjian & Levesque, 1979; Malina & Little, 1981). This has to be borne in mind when comparing the first edition Appendix Table 105 (TW1) with the present Appendix Table 77 and 78 (TW2). Comparisons of some representative populations are illustrated in Figs 148 and 149, and the results from 13 populations are listed in Appendix Tables 77 and 78. These are in terms of mean bone age, either of the full 20-bone score and/or the RUS score, at successive chronological ages (the UK TW2 standards, of course, have their bone age means exactly equal to their chronological ages).
150
Rate of maturation
18 I-H
16
— TW2 — • Tokyo X .-•••X Philadelphia Afro-Americans
•
Philadelphia Euro-Americans • Utrecht
oc *& 12 O
(N D
c« CD
10 « 8
O (N
6
H
4 2
8 10 12 Chronological age (yr)
14
18
Fig. 148. Mean skeletal age of boys in reference to Tanner-Whitehouse 2 bone age (20 bones). Samples are Tokyo (Kimura, 1911 a); Philadelphia AfroAmerican (Malina, 1970); Philadelphia Euro-American (Malina, 1970); and Utrecht (van Venrooij-Ijsselmuiden & van Ipenburg, 1978).
The three European series represented are from Utrecht, Holland (van Venrooij-Ijsselmuiden & van Ipenburg, 1978); Aarhus, Denmark (Wenzel & Melsen, 1982); and Graz, Austria (Wenzel, Droschl & Melsen, 1984), all assessed in the 1970s. Mean bone ages are very similar to those of the UK standards (which come from average-income families in the 1950s). The Dutch boys, illustrated in Fig. 148, are slightly delayed at ages 9 to 13 (and particularly so in RUS); the girls, illustrated in Fig. 149, are slightly delayed at ages 8 to 11; both sexes are fractionally advanced after these ages. The Danish children are very similar to the Dutch though at 14 and 15 the boys are a little more advanced. Data from Copenhagen agree with those from Aarhus (Helm, 1979). The Austrians follow the same pattern; slight delay prior to puberty relative to the standards, changing to equality or slight advancement at about the time of puberty. The children of a Swedish longitudinal study in Stockholm in the period 1955-75, however, were some 0.5 year ahead of the standards in 20-bone score up to the age of 10 years (boys and girls equally) and thereafter the same as the standards. In RUS bone age, however, they remained a little ahead of the standards of all ages (Taranger etal., 1976a, 1987). Children in the parallel London Longitudinal Study were also slightly ahead of the standards, though children in the town of Nottingham were slightly behind (Kristmundsdottir et al., 1984). Relatively well-off children of professional parents in Warsaw in 1972-80 had 20bone ages that closely followed the standards (Kopczynska-Sikorska &
Skeletal maturity
16 •-•
14
x
X
151
TW2 Tokyo
Philadelphia Euro-Americans • Utrecht
•
Philadelphia Afro-Americans
/
12 ,&&
10
9
8 6 4 2
^ ^
I
1
1
1
8 10 Chronological age (yr)
i
i
12
14
16
Fig. 149. Mean skeletal age of girls in reference to Tanner-Whitehouse 2 bone age (20 bones). Samples are as in Fig. 148.
Niedzwiecka, 1984). Studies of TW2 bone age have also been made in Turin (Benso etal, 1980) and Florence (Nicoletti etal., 1978). French-Canadians in Montreal in 1969-70 were studied by Baughan et al. (1979), with results very similar to those for the Dutch and Danish series. Both boys and girls were a little behind the standards in 20-bone score at ages 7 to 12, and then some 0.4 years ahead in boys and the same as the standard in girls. Americans of European origin studied in Philadelphia in the 1960s (Malina, 1970, corrected to TW2 by Malina & Little, 1981) had 20-bone ages close to the TW standards from 7 to 12 (where the series ends, see Table 105). Americans of African origin in the same city had similar scores in the case of boys, but the girls were advanced by about 0.4 years during this age period. The sons of Mexican peasants andfishermenin Michoacan were nearly a year retarded though the daughters were barely half this (Faulhaber, E. S., 1981; Faulhaber, J. 1981; and see Villanueva etal., 1982). Middle-class Mexicans in Mexico City were about 0.3 'years' behind the standards. Well-off Indian children living in Chandigarh had mean bone ages very close to the UK mean from 6 until 12 years in boys and 6 to 11 in girls: at 13 and 14 in boys and at 12 in girls these children were nearly a year advanced (Prakash & Cameron, 1981). In poorly-off Indians the bone age was about a year retarded during the preschool years (Prakash & Balan, 1979; Prakash & Chopra, 1978; and see Gaind et al, 1980, for a middle social group). Tokyo children of 'above the middle socioeconomic level' studied by Kimura {1911a) in the late 1960s are illustrated in Figs 148 and 149. The
152
Rate of maturation
boys' means are close to the standard from age 3 to 8, but thereafter become increasingly advanced, the advancement reaching its greatest value, 1.4 'years', at ages 14 and 15. At age 16.0 the mean is already 17.2 'years', indicating effectively, an end to the growth period. The girls are throughout in advance of the standards; by only a small amount till age 8, but thereafter increasingly. The greatest advancement is 1.4 'years', like that of the boys, but of course earlier, at 11,12 and 13 years. By age 15.0 the bone age is 15.7, virtually adult. Other Japanese series are not quite so advanced: in Sapporo in 1959 both boys and girls were some 0.5 years, retarded till 11, then reached a maximum advancement of 1.1 'year' at 14 in boys, 0.7 'year' at 12 in girls (Kimura, 1911b). A more recent study in Nomozaki, a ruralfishingtown near Nagasaki gave values rather closer to Sapporo than to Tokyo (Takai & Akiyoshi, 1983; see Appendix Tables 77 and 78). A study in Harbin, in the north of China, in 1981-83 (Zhen & Baolin, 1986) gave a curve very like that of the Japanese: slight advancement only at ages 7 to 9, then an increasing advancement, with a maximum of 1.3 'years' in boys at 15, and 0.7 'years' in girls at 12. Waldmann etal. (1977), using the TW1 system, found children of average socioeconomic level in Hong Kong to be about 0.1 to 0.2 'years' in advance of the UK standard in the preschool ages. There is also a necessarily small-scale study of Hottentot and Rehoboth Baster children in Namibia (Singer & Kimura, 1981) showing a large delay in the Hottentots of up to 2.0 'years' in boys and 1.8 'years' in girls, but a considerably smaller delay in Rehoboth Basters (essentially Hottentot-European mixture). Kimura (1976) has reported on children from Japanese Euro-American mixed marriages seen in 1958-65 in Japan. As expected these children fall between the curves for Japanese and Roche's series (Roche, 1967; Roche et al., 1971) from Melbourne. Japanese bone ages, as well as heights, weights and dental development are reviewed in a valuable summary by Kimura (1984). Jamaicans were a little advanced until 10 years, after which they matured at a slower rate than the standard (Marshall, Ashcroft & Bryan, 1970). A longitudinal study of Africans in Dakar (Michaut, Niang & Dan, 1972) showed girls and boys both retarded at age 11 but catching up during puberty, so that at age 15 girls actually reach the TW1 standards; boys were only 0.5 'years' retarded. Skeletal maturation is slower in lower socioeconomic groups than in upper and middle groups. An example from Hong Kong is shown in Fig. 150; the middle groups were intermediate (Low et al., 1964). The characteristic Asiatic increase over Europeans at adolescence began a year earlier in the better-off boys than in the worse-off and earlier still in the better-off girls (not shown in Fig. 150). On the other hand, Johnston
153
Skeletal maturity
18 17
C*
16 15 C
14
3
12
3
9
°
8 7 6 5
1 1 1 1 9 10 11 12 13 14 Chronological age (yr)
I 15
16
17
18
Fig. 150. Mean skeletal age of boys of high ( • • ) and low (O O) socioeconomic groups in Hong Kong assessed by Greulich-Pyle standards (after Low et al., 1964). Bold line represents skeletal age equal to chronological age.
et al. (1984) failed to find a significant bone age difference between Mexican 4- to 7-year-olds who had chronic undernutrition judged by height and weight and those who had not. Some of the undernourished later showed a degree of catch-up in weight and skinfolds, but no increase in velocity of bone age was evident. One might conclude that bone age is a less sensitive measure of undernutrition than length or height. However, in an earlier study in New Guinea, the same investigator working with Lampl and Malcolm (Lampl, Johnston & Malcolm, 1978) reported that undernourished boarding school children supplemented with skim milk had greater increments of TW1 bone maturity scores as well as of weight and height than unsupplemented children. Moreover, in a study of children aged 0 to 14 years, transferring from a poor nutritional situation in Korea to adoptive homes in Denmark, Melsen et al. (1986) found that in the first year in these improved circumstances TW2 bone age showed a catch-up similar to those of height and weight.
154
Rate of maturation First visibility of ossification centers
The second method used for comparing skeletal development between populations is by the median ages of first visibility on the radiograph of ossification centers in the hand and wrist. In the first edition of this book we gave a table (Appendix Table 106, p. 424) of median ages of appearance of seven of these centers. Afro-Americans, even those with low income, were more advanced than other groups at least until 7 years, the last age considered (Garn et al., \912a\ Owen et al., 1974). There is indeed much evidence that Africans in Africa as well as North America are more advanced than Europeans at birth, judged by centers in the lower limb as well as the hand (see Tanner, 1962). West Africans in Dakar were advanced in the first appearance of centers for the third metacarpal, third distal phalanx and first proximal phalanx (Masse & Hunt, 1963). But in Africa this advancement seldom persists; Dakar children had a relative delay in first appearance of centers after one year of age. Chinese, although not delayed in the earlier-appearing centers, were reported by Lee (1968) as delayed in the late-appearing carpals, radius and ulna. More comprehensive and recent data however (Low, Fung & Cerny, \916a,b) showed Chinese even in poor socioeconomic circumstances to be ahead of Americans (in total number of hand-wrist centers present) from birth till about age 3, and about equal from 3 to 9 years. Children in Central America are delayed (Blanco etal., 1973). Frisancho, Garn & Ascoli (1970«,fc) found a median retardation of some 15% in infancy, 12% to 39% in early and late childhood (according to center considered), and 5% to 9% in adolescence, with respect to the US Fels Research Institute standards (well-off children). Preschool children in Delhi (Banik et al., 1970) are delayed also, but the greatest retardation in the populations considered here is found among the highland Quechua Amerindians (Frisancho, 1969). Delays of 14% to 58% (according to center) in boys, and 11% to 91% in girls have been reported for the early childhood ossification centers. Bone age from birth to age two Neither the Greulich-Pyle nor the TW system of bone ageing works well during the first two years because an insufficient number of hand-wrist centers are present, or, if present, do not provide enough variation in appearance. Consequently, other systems, either based on the ankle and foot, where there are more advanced centers (Sanchez et al, 1984; Neyzi et al., 1984) or the whole upper limbs (Vichi et al., 1980) have been developed. Sanchez et al. give a scoring system somewhat similar to the TW system, with standards for Spanish boys and girls; Neyzi
Dental development
155
etal. combine knee, ankle, hand and wrist, using age of appearance, and give data for Turkish newborns. Vichi et al. report on Italian children from age 12 to 15 months. Population comparisons at this age are less well documented than at later ages. Summarizing the comparisons described above, then, together with the older results (summarized in Tanner, 1962, p. 62) we may conclude that African children under good nutritional and environmental circumstances are more advanced than Europeans in skeletal development from birth until adolescence. There are no data showing whether the advancement continues into adolescence, though it seems probable. Quite a different picture emerges for Asiatics, represented by Chinese and Japanese. Although similar to Europeans during childhood they become advanced at adolescence. It is clear there are genetic differences between populations, and differences which involve age-population interaction as well as simple differences over all ages. There may also be differences between different parts of the hand skeleton, but this is not certain at present (Marshall etal., 1970; Sproul & Peritz, 1971; Wingerd, Peritz & Sproul, 1974). Dental development
Undoubtedly the best method for studying the development of the teeth is by taking radiographs and scoring the stages of formation and calcification of each tooth in the manner of the Tanner-Whitehouse system for skeletal maturity (Demirjian, Goldstein & Tanner, 1973; Demirjian & Goldstein, 1976). There are as yet few comparative data obtained using this approach. Moorrees, Fanning & Hunt (1963) described such stages in relation to the deciduous teeth; Demirjian and his colleagues in relation to the permanent ones. Ideally, the Demirjian system uses a panoramic view of the jaw and rates the states of all seven mandibular teeth of the left side (there are, however, no significant between-side differences, just as there are none in hand-wrist radiographs). Scores are assigned to the stages, leading to a dental maturity score entirely comparable to the skeletal maturity score, and like it, translatable, if desired, into a dental age. The dental maturity score for the permanent teeth has a simple S-shaped curve when plotted against age, with the most rapid increment occurring at about 7.5 years in both sexes. A similar system is available for the sets of four teeth more simply visualized by apical radiographs, notable Ml, M2, PM1, PM2 and alternatively II, M2, PM1, PM2. A more commonly used method is simply to record emergence of the teeth above the level of the gum, either by oral examination, or in a dental impression. Most authors consider a tooth emerged if any part pierces the
156
Rate of maturation
gum, but a few use the criterion of being halfway between gum and final position. Three types of standards have been drawn up. The first gives the average number of teeth emerged at specified ages; the second, the average age when 1, 2, 3, etc. teeth are emerged, and the third, the median age in a population for the emergence of a specific tooth or pair of teeth. The last method is preferable for permanent teeth because of the considerable individual variation in the order of emergence of each tooth pair. In comparing this 'occurrence-of-event' type of data (both in tooth emergence and in attainment of puberty stages) a difficult and insufficiently discussed problem arises. One can either try to estimate the mean age in a population at which the tooth first emerged or the puberty stage was first reached, or one can estimate the mean age of all persons who have that tooth, or are in that pubertal stage. The former (age-at-entry) parameter is estimated in a cross-sectional study by a probit or logit analysis of status quo data (just as in the case of menarcheal age, described below, pp. 165-6). The latter (in-stage) parameter is obtained by determining the mean age of all members of a population who are in a certain stage, say breast stage 2+ or 12 teeth emerged. The relation between the two depends on the length of time the stage in question lasts. If long, the median age at entry will naturally be considerably earlier than the mean or median age of all children showing the stage. A similar problem arises in comparing longitudinally-derived data with probit-type data (Dahlberg & Menegaz-Bock, 1958). If the longitudinal data come from subjects examined only at annual intervals, interpolation backwards 0.5 year has to be made to obtain median age at entry.
Deciduous dentition The order of emergence of the 20 deciduous teeth is practically fixed and only occasional individual variations occur. Twin studies indicate the importance of genetic control in the age of emergence (Hatton, 1955; Garn, Lewis & Kerewskey, 1965; Bailey & Garn, 1986); opinion is divided as to whether there is a significant environmental influence also. The development of the primary teeth begins early in the prenatal period, and the survival value to the infant of having a full set of teeth early in life must be very high. While most aspects of growth can be slowed up with relative impunity under poor conditions, non-eruption of teeth could result in increased malnutrition. Probably infants with severe malnutrition do suffer some small delay, but the effect is certainly much less than the effect on weight, height or skeletal development (see the papers contributed to a symposium in 1973 by Cifuentes & Alvarado;
Dental development
157
Meredith; Neil etal., Robinow; and Truswell & Hansen). Infants who are small for gestational age have a delayed emergence. Rantakallio & Makinen (1983, 1984) studied the influences on the number of teeth emerged at 12 months in a large cohort of Finnish children. The major influence was the infants' weight and height at that age: infants with weights below the 25th centile had about 6.2 teeth, and those with weight above the 75th centile had about 7.2 (see also Table 13 in Taranger et al., 1976a; and Infante & Owen, 1973). Birthweight had a smaller independent effect, and oddly enough maternal smoking in pregnancy was associated with an increase in the number of teeth (which was greater at four months than at 12). There was no influence, in this well-off country, of social class or number of children in the family, and no sex difference once size was accounted for. There has been a running battle in the literature as to whether boys or girls, on average, emerge earlier, with the majority of authors concluding that, in this index of maturation in contrast to nearly all others, boys are the faster-maturing sex. Some evidence points to boys being ahead in the laying down of teeth during fetal life, and in the early stages of deciduous eruption. In later stages girls catch up or go ahead (Infante, 1974). The result above, confirmed by the studies of Tanguaye^/. (1984,1986), seems probably to give the definitive answer - no difference at the same body size - at least by age 12 months. In the first edition there is a table of the number of deciduous teeth emerged at 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 30 and 36 months, for nine populations (Appendix Table 107, p. 425). To these we have added new data from Sweden, United States (Euro-Americans and Afro-Americans), South India, and Finland (Appendix Table 79). At six months, populations run all the way from having 0.2 teeth (Australian Aborigines) to 2.0 (Nigerian well-off); at one year from 4.0 (Australian Aborigines, also low income Bengalis 4.2) to possibly 9.0 (Nigerian well-off, see below; Chinese are 5.5 and European range is 5.9 to 6.7). By two years the differences have become less. In addition there are probit estimates of age of emergence of individual teeth (cf. first edition Appendix Table 108, p. 425) for Punjabis (Bhattnagar, Sidhu & Singal, 1981), Swedes (Taranger, Lichtenstein & SvenbergRedegren, (1976c), Icelanders (Magnusson, 1982) and Japanese (Fujita, 1965, tables given in Kimura, 1984)). A big difference according to economic circumstances was described in Nigeria by Enwonwu (1973) with rural villages having only 5 teeth erupted at 12 months, compared with a surprising 9 teeth for the well-off elite. The economic difference is probably as large as it is possible to find within a single ethnic group (Yoruba) so this would represent, if con-
158
Rate of maturation
firmed, an extreme case. European data give little indication of social class differences. Indeed various authors (Bailey, 1964; Brook & Barker, 1973; Malcolm, 1973; Billewicz, 1973) have advocated the number of emerged primary teeth as a useful guide to chronological age in tribal groups where age is not known, on the grounds that it is less affected by sex, race and poor nutrition than any other indicator. The order of emergence, II, 12, Ml, C, M2, is the same in all populations. The mandibular first incisor emerges on average before the maxillary, but the second incisor emerges first in the maxilla, and subsequent timings vary between upper and lower jaws. Some teeth seem to show greater variation between populations than others. The maxillary first incisor and the first molar, for example, are quite similar in timing in all the populations shown, while the second incisor and second molar are more variable. Permanent dentition Unlike the deciduous dentition, the permanent dentition is subject to the same postnatal environmental influences as, for example, skeletal maturation. Nutrition, social class and urban living have been reported to affect emergence ages, but their effect on the teeth is not so great as on growth in body size, or skeletal and sexual maturation. Nor are the results reported in the literature so conclusive (see, for example, Clements, Davies-Thomas & Pickett, 1953; Tanner, 1962; Lee, Low & Chang, 1965fo; Sapoka & Demirjian, 1971; Garn et al., 1973). Secular trends in emergence have been described as conditions improve (Clements et al., 1953; Niswander & Sujaku, 1960; Chrzanowska & Lubera, 1984). Children of Japanese immigrants in Brazil (who were better off than sedentes) erupted the incisors, canines and upper first premolars significantly earlier than Japanese in Japan (Eveleth & Freitas, 1969). In Poland, children in poor rural villages were delayed compared with city children (Charzewski, 1963; Wolariski & Jarosz, 1969). There are also differences, on average, between ethnic groups. In all groups girls, on average, are ahead of boys. In the first edition of this book there is a table (Appendix Table 109 a, b, pp. 427-8) giving the mean emergence age of each pair of teeth (that is, left and right sides averaged) in 17 populations. To this we may add populations in rural settlements in Israel 1970 (Koyoumdjisky-Kaye, Baras & Grover, 1977), Kenyan Africans and Kenyan Asians (Hassanali & Odhiambo, 1981), Khasis (a Mongolid hill-tribe in N. E. India) (Jaswal, 1983), Canadian Eskimos (Mayhall, Belier & Mayhall, 1978), Canadian Indians (Mayhall, Belier & Mayhall, 1977), French-Canadians
Dental development
159
(Perrault et aL, 191 A, 1975), Swedish (II, 12, M only, Taranger et al., 1976a), Western Australians and Australian Aborigines (Brown, 1978) Japanese (Kimura, 1984) and Spanish in Madrid (Mesa, 1988). In this edition we have chosen to report data in what we think is a more meaningful way. There are two active phases in permanent tooth emergence, separated by a period of quiescence (see Butler, 1960; Moorees, 1965; Filipsson, 1975; Brown, 1978; Moorees & Kent, 1978; Kent etal., 1978). In the first active phase, which lasts one and a half to two years (when we consider the means for populations) Ml, II and 12 emerge. In the second phase, lasting slightly longer, C, PM1, PM2 and M2 emerge. The quiescent phase in between lasts a generally similar time, between two and three years in the male in nearly all populations and between 1.7 and 2.7 years in the female. We have examined the population data, noting the mean ages of the start and finish of the first active phase and the start of the second active phase. Summary statistics are given in Appendix Table 80. In each case teeth on the right and left sides are averaged. In practically all populations the teeth with the lowest average ages of emergence are the first molars, so the values for the start of the first phase are the averages of the means of upper and lower Mis. In all populations the last tooth of the first phase is 12, so the values for the end of the phase are the means of the upper and lower I2s. However, in the same way that individuals differ in the sequence of emergence of their teeth (so-called sequence polymorphism; see Smith & Garn, 1987) population means differ, though, of course, much less. The start of the second active phase is typically signalled by the emergence of PM1 in the upper jaw and C in the lower; hence the values are mostly the averages of these two ages. In a few populations, however, the average time of emergence was lower for the upper canine and/or the lower premolar, and where this occurred these lower values have been used. Table 9 summarizes this material. It shows the ranges for these three ages and the duration of the quiescent period within each of the ethnic groups, together with the simple averages for each group. The most striking thing is the considerable overlap of the ranges between the ethnic groups: evidently the amount of variation between these populations is largely due to causes other than ethnicity. However, there are, on average, some ethnic differences. Africans begin the first phase a little earlier than Europeans, with Asiatics intermediate. Africans end the first phase slightly earlier than Europeans, but Asiatics end as the last of the three groups. Asiatics, however, start the second phase earliest, so the quiescent period for them is on average 2.0 years in boys, compared with 2.5 years in Africans and Europeans, and 1.8 years in girls compared with
Table 9. Mean ages for beginning and end of first period of tooth emergence and beginning of second period in different ethnic groups
Europeans & descendants (10)
Start of firstphase
End of firstphase
Start of second phase
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
6.1
6.1
7.8
7.5
(6.0-6.3) Africans & descendants (4)
5.9
(5.5-6.3) Asiatics & descendants (7)
6.0
(5.5-6.2) Indo-Mediterraneans (1) Aborigines (1) New Guineans (2)
6.1 — 5.7
(5.5-5.9)
(5.9-6.3) 5.7
(5.3-6.1) 5.9
(5.5-6.2) 5.9 — 5.6
(5.5-5.6)
(7.4-8.3) 7.7
(7.3-8.0) 8.0
(7.8-8.7) 7.9 8.5 7.5
(7.1-7.8)
(7.0-8.0) 7.4
(7.2-7.6) 7.6
(7.3-8.2) 7.6 8.1 7.2
(7.1-7.3)
10.3 (9.6-10.9) 10.2 (10.0-10.5) 10.0 (9.6-10.8) 10.3 9.9
10.2 (10.1-10.3)
Quiescent period
Girls
Boys
Girls
9.8
2.5
2.2
2.5
2.3
(9.3-10.1) 9.7
(9.3-10.1) 9.4
2.0
1.8
2.4 1.4 2.7
2.1 1.0 2.2
(9.0-10.1) 9.7 9.1 9.4
(9.1-9.7)
The values in the brackets represent the ranges of the means of the populations comprising the ethnic group concerned, and the number of series in each group.
Sexual development
161
2.2 to 2.3 years in Africans and Europeans. Australian Aborigines end the first phase late, but start the second phase early, having a much shorter period of quiescence than other groups. The inhabitants of New Guinea, in contrast, are the earliest in all aspects of permanent tooth emergence. At present we have no very clear ideas as to the physiological influences on tooth emergence; diet and the early or late loss of previous teeth may exert an influence, but there are endocrine influences also, especially for the second phase. The emergence of the third molars has not been considered above, since so many fail to emerge at all. Hassanali (1985) gives ages for Africans and Asians in Kenya. Africans are earlier, by about two years, in both sexes. Kaul & Pathak (1988) give total number of emerged teeth in Punjabi children against chronological age, to see whether age could be estimated in this way. The errors are large; between 11% and 35% in the average case, depending on age and sex. This is scarcely surprising; teeth have a developmental clock of their own. To a small degree the permanent dentition participates in a general component of tempo, but it is to a small degree only. In Hong Kong, skeletally advanced children had more permanent teeth erupted than skeletally retarded children (Lee et al., 1965a). Dental maturation is only slightly, though positively, correlated with age at peak height velocity (Hagg & Taranger, 1982) and percentage of final height attained, for taller and heavier children tend to have more teeth erupted than smaller children of the same age (Garn et al., 1965; McGregor, Thomson & Billewicz, 1968a; Billewicz et al., 1973). However, dental age is not as highly correlated with chronological age, height and weight as is skeletal age (Green, 1961; Filipsson & Hall, 1976). Sexual development: stages of puberty
Progress along the path towards reproductive maturity is assessed by stages of appearance of secondary sex characteristics: breast development and onset of menstruation in girls, penis, testis development and voice change in boys, pubic and axillary hair growth in both sexes. Menarche The most commonly used indicator has been the age of menarche. Recent data are listed in Table 10. All of these are based on status quo investigations, with medians estimated by probits. All are believed to be reliable. There are three methods for collecting menarche data: (1) status quo, (2) prospective, (3) retrospective. Differences between populations may
162
Rate of maturation Table 10. Age at menarche in various populations
Country Europe Belgium: Brussels Denmark: North Zealand England London Northeast, suburban Northwest, all Newcastle Finland: all France Paris Rural Germany, West: Bremerhaven Greece: Athens, middle-class Holland Utrecht All Hungary West North Komarom All Szeged Iceland: Reykjavik Irish Republic Italy Cararra Naples, rural Veneto Turin Sardinia Yugoslavia: Zagreb Norway: Oslo Poland Warsaw Rural Silesia, towns Cracow Romania Towns Villages Spain Madrid, middle-class Madrid, manual Estepone town, Malaga, all Sweden Stockholm
Year Mean SE
Source
1980 1983
13.1 13.0
0.06 0.05
Vercauteren & Susanne, 1985 Helm & Helm, 1984
1966 1967 1976 1975 1969
13.0 13.3 13.3 13.4 13.2
0.03 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.02
Tanner, 1973 Roberts etal., 1975 Roberts etal, 1986 Billewiczefa/., 19816 Kantero & Widholm, 1971
1966 1976
13.0 13.1
0.11 0.18
Crognier & da Rocha, 1979 Crognier & da Rocha, 1979
1980
13.3
0.03
Danker-Hopfe, 1986a
1979
12.6
0.07
Dacou-Voutetakis et al., 1983
1972
13.4
0.09
1980
13.3
0.04
van Venrooij-Ijsselmuiden et al., 1976 Roede & van Wieringen, 1985
1965 1976 1980 1981 1983 1972 1985
13.1 12.8 12.8 13.1 12.7 13.1 13.5
0.01 0.02 0.09 0.03 0.02 0.10 0.05
Eiben,1972 Panto, 1980 Farkas & Nagy, 1981 Eszter& Eiben, 1984 Farkas etal., 1985 Magnusson, 1978 Hoey etal., 1986
1968 1969 1976 1984 1986 1982 1975
12.6 12.5 12.8 12.6 12.8 12.7 13.2
0.04 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.02 0.03
Marubini & Barghini, 1969 Carfagna et al., 1972 Gallo, 1977 Benso etal., 1986 Floriseffl/., 1987 Prebeg,1984 Bruntlandeffl/., 1979, 1980
1976 1976 1981 1983
12.7 13.4 13.1 13.1
0.03 0.02 0.01 0.05
Laska-Mierzejewska et al., 1982 Laska-Mierzejewska et al., 1982 B'\e\\ck\etaL, 1986 Chrzanowska et al., 1986
c.1960 c.1960
13.5 14.6
0.06 0.07
Cristesqu, 1969, recalculated Cristesqu, 1969, recalculated
1980 1980 1985
12.1 12.3 12.8
0.04 0.04 0.04
Prado,1986 Prado,1986 Prado,1986
1967
13.1
0.08
Furu,1976
Sexual development
163
Table 10. (Cont.) Country
Year Mean SE
Source
Sweden (continued) Stockholm
c. 1969
13.0
0.10
All towns Switzerland: Zurich
c. 1970 c. 1970
13.0 13.4
0.06 0.10
1970 1979 1979
13.0 12.5 13.0
0.08 — —
Miklashevskaya et al., 1972 Miklashevskaya et al., 1983 Miklashevskaya et al., 1983
12.5
0.05
Lejarraga et al., 1980
13.0 13.2
— —
Jones etal, 1973 Jones etal., 1973
13.1
0.04
Jenicek & Demirjian, 1974
12.2 12.8
0.03 0.03
Colli, 1986, 1988 Colli, 1986, 1988
12.6 12.8
0.12 0.07
Rona & Pereira, 1974 Avendano & Valenzuela, 1988, prospective
1973 1973
12.8 13.3
0.01 0.01
Jordan & Gutierrez-Muniz, 1984 Jordan & Gutierrez-Muniz, 1984
1969
13.0
0.02
New Zealand Department of Health, 1971
1968 c. 1973
12.8 12.8
0.04 0.05
MacMahon, 1973 Zacharias et al., 1976, prospective
1976 1978 1978
12.0 12.2 12.7
0.04 0.10 0.10
Limongi, 1977 Farid-Coupal^fl/., 1981 Farid-Coupalera/., 1981
1966
15.2
0.30
Valsikefa/., 1970
1964
13.0
—
Martins, 1968
1974
14.5
0.11
Oduntan^fl/., 1976
USSR Moscow Tbilisi Sukumi
Descendants of Europeans abroad Argentina: La Plata, middle-class 1978 Australia Sydney 1970 Inland towns 1970 Canada: Montreal, French 1969 Brazil Sto. Andre, State of Sao Paulo well-off 1978 poorly-off 1978 Chile: Santiago, middle-class 1970 Santiago, all c. 1980 Cuba Havana Rural New Zealand Non-Maori United States European origin, all Newton, Mass., middle-class Venezuela Caracas, middle-class Carabobo, non-manual Carabobo, manual Africa Egypt Nubian Mozambique Lourenc,o Marques (Bantu) Nigeria Rural
Taranger et al., 1916a, prospective Lindgren, 1976, prospective Largo &Prader 19836, prospective
164
Rate of maturation
Table 10. (Cont.) Country Nigeria {continued) Ibadan, university-educated Ibadan, illiterate-urban Enugu, better-off Rwanda Tutsi Hutu Somalia Mogadish, better-off South Africa Bantu, rural Sudan 'Prosperous' village Khartoum, better-off Khartoum, poor Tanzania (Nyakyusa) Transkei (Bantu) Uganda Kampala, better off Zaire urban, better off worse off Descendants of Africans abroad United States African origin, all African origin, Philadelphia Indo-Mediterraneans Egypt Cairo, well-off Cairo, middle-class Cairo area, rural villages India Madras, well-off Warangel, poor Hyderabad, rural Ladakh, 3500 m Punjab, Patiala, well-off poor Iraq Baghdad, well-off Baghdad, poor Israel: Jerusalem Sri Lanka: Jaffna Tamil, middle-class Saudi Arabia: Asin region, 1-5 sibs
Year Mean SE
Source
1974 1974 1978
13.3 13.8 13.2
0.06 0.11 0.13
Oduntan etal., 1976 Oduntan etal., 1976 Ucha & Okorafor, 1979
1958 1958
16.5 17.0
0.16 0.30
Heintz, 1963 Heintz, 1963
1975
13.1
0.18
Gallo & Mestriner, 1980
1955
15.0
—
Walker etal., 1965
1975 1980 1980 1965 1955
14.0 13.4 14.1 14.9 15.2
0.10 0.14 0.18 — 0.02
Sukkar etal., 1980 Attallah ef a/., 1983 Attallah era/., 1983 Hautvast, 1971 BurreW etal., 1961
1960
13.4
0.16
Burgess & Burgess, 1964
1979 1979
13.2 14.7
0.67 0.04
Kolasa etal., 1988 Kolasn etal., 1988
1968 1977
12.5 12.4
0.11 0.09
MacMahon, 1973 Hediger&Stine, 1987
1976 1976 1976
12.6 13.1 13.9
0.29 0.17 0.18
Attallah, 1978 Attallah, 1978 Attallah, 1978
1975 1975 1977 1980
12.9 14.1 14.6 14.1
0.10 0.10 0.08 0.24
Roberts etal., 1977 Roberts etal., 1977 Satyanarayana & Naidu, 1979 Malik &Hauspie, 1986
1986 1986
12.5 13.7
0.13 0.18
Singh & Malhotra, 1988 Singh & Malhotra, 1988
1969 1969 1977
13.6 14.0 13.3
0.06 0.05 0.45
Shakir, 1971 Shakir, 1971 Belmaker, 1982
1981
13.4
0.07
Prakash & Pathmanathan, 1984
1988
13.1
0.16
Attallah etal., 1989
165
Sexual development Table 10. (Cont.) Country
Year Mean SE
Turkey: Istanbul, well-off Istanbul, poor
1970 1970
12.4 13.2
0.10 0.10
Neyzi etal., 1975a Neyzi etal., 1915a
1957 1985 1965 1957
13.2 13.4 12.9 13.2
0.11 0.12 0.12 0.08
Foil, 1961 Greksa, 1989 Eveleth & Freitas, 1969 Foil, 1961
1978 1978 1988
12.4 12.7 12.5
0.18 0.18 0.01
Low etal., 1982 Low era/., 1982 Tzuzaki, 1990
1966
12.6
0.05
Malinaefa/., 1977
1966 1985 1976 1981
12.8 12.3 14.3 16.2
0.08 0.05 0.20 0.13
Malinaetfa/., 1977 Faulhaber, J., 1989 Malinae/tf/., 1977 Beall, 1983
1968 1968 1968
12.4 12.7 13.0
0.09 0.09 0.04
A w & T y e , 1970 A w & T y e , 1970 Aw & Tye, 1970
1971
13.2
0.04
Kondo & Eto, 1972, recalculated
1980
12.7
0.04
Ducros & Ducros, 1987
1967 1967
18.0 15.6
0.19 0.25
Malcolm, 19706 Malcolm, 1969
1969
12.7
0.07
New Zealand Department of Health, 1971
1985
13.6
—
Clegg, 1989
Asiatics in Asia and the Americas Assam Bolivia, 3600 m, Aymara Brazil, Japanese Burma Hong Kong Better-off Worse-off Japan, Tokyo Mexico Tampico and Merida, urban Mexico City and Xochimilco, workers Mexico City, middle class Oaxaca, rural Nepal: Chumik, 3250 m Singapore Rich Average Poor USA, California Japanese Pacific Islanders Tahiti New Guinea Bundi, highlands Kaipit, lowlands New Zealand Maori Fiji Melanesians
Source
be obscured or magnified by the use of unreliable methods so it is important to recognize the advantages and disadvantages of each. (1) Status quo method. In the status quo method, each subject in a representative sample of the population need only be asked her precise age at the time of the questioning (or her date of birth) and whether she has yet begun to menstruate. This leads to a record of the percentage of affirmative answers at each successive age. To this percentage distri-
166
Rate of maturation
Age (yr) Fig. 151. Determination of age at menarche by the status quo method. The sigmoid curve indicates the percentage of girls in the sample (made at London, 1966) who had experienced menarche by each age. From this, the probits are determined and a straight line fitted through them (from Marshall & Tanner, 1986).
bution, a probit or logit transformation is applied. This method does not reveal the age of menarche in any individual, but it is the best method for estimating the median and variance for the population. Fig. 151 illustrates the method. The percentage of postmenarcheal girls at each age is shown, and the probits corresponding to those percentages are plotted. A line is fitted to these probits, and the age corresponding to 50% as indicated by this line is the median. It should be noted that the plotted percentages are estimates from samples and do not represent exact single observations. It is therefore not appropriate to use the simple least-squares method for fitting the line. The reader is referred to standard statistical tests dealing with probit analysis for further discussion of this point. (2) Prospective method. In the prospective method, a group of subjects is seen repeatedly, and each girl is asked on every occasion if she has yet begun to menstruate. If the interval between visits is short or if a diary is scrupulously kept, the precise date can usually be determined with confidence. This is the most accurate method of determining the age at menarche in individuals, but a large and properly chosen representative sample is required to give a reliable estimate of the population mean. This involves greatfinancialand administrative difficulties. However, Zacharias, Rand & Wurtman (1976) succeeded in following prospectively 633 middle-class, European-descended girls living in Newton, Massachusetts. Billewicz, Fellowes & Thomson (19816) followed a similar number in Newcastle, and Benso etal. (1986) followed 500 girls in Turin by means
Sexual development
167
of telephone calls every three months. One advantage of this method is that it provides a frequency distribution curve in addition to the mean. It is from these studies that we know that the distribution of age at menarche is at least approximately Gaussian, something which is assumed in the status quo method of probits. Hediger & Stine (1987) have described a method of censored likelihood which permits the inclusion of information from girls who have not yet menstruated. Though designed for use with retrospective data, it is probably best applied to prospective surveys. (3) Retrospective method. In the retrospective method, each subject is asked the age at which she began to menstruate. This is unsatisfactory because the subject's recollection may be inaccurate, and perhaps biased (Lindgren, 1976, remarks that 'early menarche has a high status in Swedish schoolgirls so they would probably tend to remember it earlier than it really was'). In the Swedish longitudinal study (BergstenBrucefors, 1976) the known ages at menarche in 339 girls were compared with the ages recalled some four years after the event. The correlation between the actual and recalled age was only 0.81 ± 0.05. Only 68% of the girls recalled the date correctly to within three months. Damon et al. (1969) found a correlation of 0.78 between the actual date in 60 women and the date recalled 19 years later. Since both series concerned subjects whose attention has been particularly drawn to developmental events throughout their childhood, it is likely that correlations for the average population would be even lower than these. A second problem with the retrospective methods concerns the sample taken. If it is one of schoolgirls it may include a number who have not yet menstruated. If these are simply excluded (as still occurs in some illconducted studies) the resulting mean is of course biased downwards. If it is one of older women, frequently it consists of women who are pregnant. Not all women enter that category and the exclusion of infertile women probably also biases the mean downwards, if (in large series) only slightly. Bias also results from the common practice of stating one's age as that at the preceding birthday. Thus, for example, a girl who experienced menarche at the age of 12.75 years may say that the event occurred when she was 12. In a large sample this kind of error would lead to the mean being underestimated by just 0.5 years but, in a smaller sample, the bias is less consistent. Thus the method of recollection is clearly unsatisfactory, but it was used in nearly all the older surveys. As Table 10 shows, the populations of Northwest Europe have only a small range of difference in their average ages of menarche; from 13.0
168
Rate of maturation
years (Sweden) through 13.4 (Holland, Switzerland, Northern UK) to 13.5 (Irish Republic). Menarche in the Mediterranean countries is clearly earlier, ranging from 12.1 in Madrid through 12.4 in Istanbul, 12.5 in Naples, 12.6 in Athens and Zagreb and Cairo to 12.8 in Venice. Some populations in relatively underdeveloped rural areas have menarche later, however, as did all the populations of Europe a hundred years ago. Girls of European ancestry living in the United States (12.8), Canada (13.1), Australia (13.0) and New Zealand (13.0) tend to be fractionally earlier than their parent populations; those in South America (Venezuela 12.0, Brazil 12.2, Mexico 12.3, Bolivia lowlands 12.3, Argentina 12.5, Chile 12.6, all for the well-off) are the same as or fractionally earlier than their parent populations. Japanese (12.5) and well-off Chinese (Hong Kong, 12.4; Singapore 12.4) are as early or earlier than the majority of Mediterranean populations. Similarly the Maori in New Zealand (12.7) are earlier than the mostly Northwest European non-Maori (13.0). Japanese living even in a rural area in Brazil had a median of 12.9. Well-off Indians in the Punjab (12.5) and Madras (12.9) are not unlike Mediterranean populations, though in poor rural populations in India the average age is around 14.0, as it is in Egypt and Iraq and Meso-America. Though Africans in Africa, even the apparently better-off, are relatively late (Somalia 13.1, Nigeria, 13.2, Sudan and Uganda 13.4) AfroAmericans are early, averaging 12.5. It seems likely that in good environmental conditions Africans may be as early-maturing in this parameter as Asiatics or Mediterranean populations, and earlier than the peoples of Northwest Europe. The populations with the latest menarche are those in New Guinea (15.6 to 18.0), Nepal (16.2), and the poorer areas of sub-Saharan Africa (15.0 to 17.0). Equally late, according to recollection data, are the Negritos of the Philippine tropics, and Southern African Bushmen (Goodman et al., 1985) as well as some tribal Dravidian groups of India (Rohini & Reddy, 1986). Menarche occurs later in populations living at high altitude, even if well-nourished. The difference between well-off European-descended children living in La Paz, Bolivia, at 3600 m and those at sea level was 0.8 years (Greksa, 1990). Menarche is delayed by chronic undernutrition. In the poor rural area of 'Appalachia' in the United States South 30 undernourished EuroAmerican girls followed longitudinally had a mean menarcheal age of 14.4 years against 12.4 in the well-nourished controls (Dreizen, Spirakis & Stone, 1967). They were likewise delayed in skeletal maturation and shorter in height during childhood, though they reached the height of the controls at maturity.
Sexual development
169 Age of menarche (yr)
12
13
14
15
I France
Paris
Rural
Poland
Warsaw-
Rural
Romania
Urban -
- Rural
Cuba
Havana-
Rural
Nigeria
Ibadan well-off
Egypt
- Rural
r
poor
Cairo -
Rural villages well-off
12
middle class 13
14
15
Fig. 152. Median ages of menarche in rural and urban population samples. Shaded areas show difference between median ages in each geographical area.
Improvement in environmental conditions, chiefly nutritional and infective, is a principal cause of earlier maturation. Amongst almost all populations for which we have data the well-off girls reach menarche earlier than the poorly-off, and urban girls earlier than rural (Fig. 152) (see especially Bielicki et al., 1986; Laska-Mierzewjewska, Milicer & Piechaczek, 1982; Farkas, 1982; Billewicz etf a/., 19816) (see Chapter 10). Exceptions are a recent Norwegian study (Brundtland, Liest0l & Wall0e, 1980) and a French-Canadian study in Montreal (Jenicek & Demirjian, 1974). In these studies girls of the upper social classes had a significantly later menarche (by 0.1 year) than the others. In Oslo it is clear that this proceeds from two factors: social conditions becoming very similar for all occupational groups, hence removing the causes of late development in the under-privileged; and the diet and exercise habits of the lower social classes leading them, in these conditions, to have a greater weight-forheight than the upper classes. There is a connection (though quantitatively not a very strong one) between fatness and a faster tempo of growth in both individuals within a population, and, it seems, amongst populations. Hence the slimmer upper social classes in some countries are beginning to show a slightly later age of menarche than the others.
170
Rate of maturation O— •—•• O
16.0
Finland Sweden Norway Italy (north) UK (south) USA (middle-class)
15.0
14.0
13.0
12.0
1860
1880
1900
I 1920 1940 Year of menarche
1960
Fig. 153. Change in age at menarche 1860 to 1980 (from Marshall & Tanner, 1986).
In industralized countries there has been a trend towards earlier menarche over the last hundred or so years (see Danke-Hopfe, 19866). Fig. 153 shows a selection of data, most of them necessarily obtained by recollection. The general trend has been about 0.3 years per decade. Helm & Helm (1987) examining the figures for Denmark find a trend that is practically linear, and amounting to a total of 3.0 years during the period 1840-1940; in 1840 the average age was a little over 17.0 years. The detailed study of Oslo Maternity Hospital records by Brudevoll, Leist0l & Wall0e (1979) on the other hand, shows a rather rapid decline from 1860 to 1890 followed by a period of little or no decline from then until around 1920, when a steep decline began, continuing to 1960, after which there has been little change. In general there has been a marked slowing down of the trend in Europe in the last 20 years, amounting to stabilization in most of the better-off countries. In the United States a similar trend to the European one has occurred at least from the 1920s onwards. Wyshak's (1983) data on middle-class Euro-American girls gives a value of 0.4 years per decade from 1925-55 (year of menarche) and Goodman's (1983) data give a value of 0.3 years per decade for European-descended Hawaiians 1915-55; Hawaiians of Japanese or Chinese descent had a steeper trend, amounting to 0.5 year
1980
Sexual development
111
per decade, over the same period. The Japanese in Japan have experienced the steepest trend of all; over the period 1950 to 1975 it was approximately 1.0 years per decade in the general populations (Nagai et al., 1980; Nakamura etal, 1986) and about half this in the well-off (Hoshi & Kouchi, 1981). Here also the trend has now virtually stopped. As to genetically controlled differences between populations, the earlier menarche of southern Europeans clearly must be either due to genetic causes or to climatic influence. Roberts (1969) analyzing 39 populations came to the conclusion that mean age of menarche did indeed relate to mean temperature but not closely (r = —0.40) and that when this and, so far as possible, other environmental factors were allowed for statistically, significant ethnic group differences still remained. Jones, Hemphill & Meyers (1973) showed that in Sydney girls born in Australia to immigrant parents from Northwest and Central Europe had a median menarcheal age of 13.1 years, while those born in Australia but to parents immigrant from Southeast Europe had a median age of 12.5 years. The difference was significant and confirmed by the menarcheal ages of children born before the parents arrived in Australia (13.0 for those from Northwest and Central Europe and 12.4 for those from Southeast Europe). These values correspond closely to those of sedente Europeans and seem also to indicate that the Northwest-Southeast European difference is due to genetical differences rather than climatic or nutritional ones, unless of some highly specific nutrient. Similarly the present-day difference between Japanese and other Asiatic means and the means for Northwest Europe are likely to be due chiefly to genetic factors. The old idea that climate exerted a major influence and that girls matured earlier in tropical climates and later in circumpolar ones is clearly erroneous. American girls growing up in the hot, humid environment of Rio de Janeiro had a median menarcheal age (12.6) equal to that of girls of comparable socioeconomic status in the temperate United States (Eveleth, 1966). Eskimo girls (Milan, 1970) in Alaska (recollection data) are said to have a mean age of menarche of 13.8 years. Amongst environmental influences, social conditions in infancy may be particularly important in determining the age at which menarche occurs. In Norway, for the period between 1900 and World War II, Leist0l (1982) found that the correspondence between the gross national product and the age of menarche was greatest when GNP was related to the year of birth of the women concerned. When values of the GNP corresponding to later childhood were used, the correlation was lower. Liest0l also found that in English longitudinal data of the National Survey
172
Rate of maturation
of Health and Development done in the 1950s, age at menarche was related to the interval between the birth of the girl being considered and her next-earlier sibling. The longer the spacing between children, the earlier the menarche of the second of the pair. Ellison (1981) demonstrated among many countries a parallelism between declines in menarcheal age and infant mortality, with a lag of about 30 years. Factors that are difficult to classify in socioeconomic, climatic, or genetic terms may also influence the age at menarche. Girls who are blind and also those who are deaf seem to have a significantly earlier menarche than controls (Zacharias & Wurtman, 1969; Malina & Chumlea, 1977; Buday, 1981). The reasons for this are not clear. Girls who take up ballet dancing, track athletics or gymnastics (but not, oddly enough, competitive swimming) on average have a delayed menarche (Warren, 1980; Frisch et aL, 1980, 1981; reviewed in Malina, 1983; Eiben et al., 1986; Brooks-Gunn & Warren, 1988). Here also the causative factors are unclear; the extreme expenditure of energy during training may be one, but social pressure causing self-selection for participation in athletics is probably another. Stages of puberty
A number of studies have been carried out on other signs of sexual development. The methods employed are not always comparable though the stages described by Tanner (1962, 1978; Marshall & Tanner, 1986; and see van Wieringen etal., 1971, for the best photographs) based on earlier work by numerous authors, are the ones most frequently used. In this system there are five distinguishable, though arbitrary, stages for breast, genitalia and pubic hair. These are serially numbered; thus Bl is the prepubescent breast stage, followed by B2, B3, B4 and B5, the adult stage. The terminology has some importance: B2 represents a point in time, that is, in principle, the moment when the appearance B2 first occurs. The subsequent stage lasts from B2 to B3. It may be called the B2+ stage. The usual manner of determining median ages for entry to a stage (or transition from one stage to another) is by probits or logits, just as for menarche. Thus for B2 the percentage of girls who have passed the point B2 is tabulated at successive ages. This gives the median age for the point in time B2. Thus it corresponds to a point in longitudinal studies which is a little earlier than the time when B2 is first observed, since in general one cannot observe the very first moment. (The same considerations apply to tooth eruption and age of appearance of ossification centers.) As in the case of menarche, the probit method for obtaining median ages is the most appropriate. The stages are assigned by a trained observer who compares the appearance of the subject with the standard
Sexual development
173
photographs. Recently there have been proposals for subjects to rate themselves (see Duke, Litt & Gross, 1980). This is not recommended for population comparisons. The currently available data are shown in Appendix Tables 81 (boys) and 82 (girls). All represent median ages of transition, estimated either by probits or logits or by back-interpolation in prospective, longitudinal studies. Considering first boys: in Europeans and their descendants the average age for G2 runs from 9.1 (Sao Paulo, Brazil) to 12.5 years. In all populations studied except Brazil G2 occurs later than the girls' B2, by an amount ranging from zero (Maoris) to 1.2 years (Swedish, Californians). The difference averages 0.5 years amongst the populations represented, if we except the Brazilians and Chinese, the two extremes. The means for PH2 range from 11.4 to 12.8 (except for Hong Kong 13.3, and boys in the Himalayas, 13.5). PH2 in boys occurs on average from 1.0 to 2.3 years later than PH2 in girls, depending on population: the mean difference is 1.4 years. There are no good data for Africans. Harlan et al. (1979) report data for American boys examined in the National Health Examination Survey, Cycle III, 1966-70. In boys, no difference in the age of attainment of late puberty stages was seen between the European- and African-descended, though a difference was seen in girls (see below). It seems that in Afro-Americans it is specifically the girls, and not the boys, who have a fast tempo. Mexican-Americans of low socioeconomic status are later than other Americans (Villareal, Martorell & Mendoza, 1989). There are somewhat more series for girls than boys,. In most European countries represented, B2 is reached on average at about 10.8 years. Girls in Istanbul reach B2 as early as 10.0 years, and the same value has been reported by Benso et al. (1986) for girls in Turin, Italy (not shown in Appendix Table 82, as data for B2 only). B3 follows about a year later (range 11.9 to 12.5). The range for B4 runs from 12.8 to 13.4, with the exception of Greece at 12.2. The B5 range is from 13.9 to 14.4 with the exception of Sweden at 15.6. It seems likely that the early B4 value for Greece and the late B5 value for Sweden represent problems over the use of the rating scale rather than true differences. Israeli girls are early, as are Chinese girls in Hong Kong and girls in Santiago, Chile, and Sao Paulo, Brazil. In general, the ages of the successive stages of the breast sequence follow closely the order established by age at menarche, as can be seen from Table 10. An exception is Israeli girls, whose breast development seems early for their menarche. The stages of pubic hair are probably a little less reliable than those for the breast. In most populations PH2 occurs after B2, by some 0.2 to 0.6
174
Rate of maturation
years (the Danes at 1.0 years are an exception) but in Greece, Poland and Switzerland PH2 is given as occurring on average before B2. In Chinese girls there is a considerably greater interval from B2 to PH2 than in European girls, the pubic hair clearly starting later in the puberty sequence. This is in line with the generally lesser development of pubic hair in Asiatics. The only data for African subjects comes from the relatively deprived Bantu population around Johannesburg, some of whom served as controls in a study of the effect of clinical malnutrition (Cameron et al., 1988). Naturally enough, they are the slowest-developing in Appendix Table 82. As in Chinese girls the interval B2-PH2 is more than a year. For North American girls we have given the old data from the wellknown longitudinal studies at the Fels Research Institute (where the puberty stages were first described in their presently used form) and in California. There are no comprehensive population surveys, though Harlan, Harlan & Grillo (1980) reported on American girls examined in the National Health Examination Survey Cycle III, 1966-70. These authors give tables of the numbers of girls in each cell of a crossclassification of breast by pubic hair stages at ages 12, 13,14 and 15 to 17 for 2688 white and 500 black girls. The girls are too old to permit valid calculations of ages at entry to stages other than 4 and 5. Americans of African descent were significantly earlier-maturing in both breast and pubic hair stages than were Americans of European descent. This is in line with thefindingfor menarcheal age, but Harlan etal. (1980) state that the racial difference in secondary sex character ratings remains significant even when only premenarcheal and only postmenarcheal girls are compared. Recent data for Mexican-Americans, mostly of low socioeconomic status, give values considerably greater (Villareal et al., 1989). Testis development The size of the testes enters into the genitalia ratings recorded above, but direct measurements of testes are more accurate and provide a finer-spaced scale. The method used in most studies is comparison with the Prader orchidometer (Zachmann et al., 1974), a series of plastic or wooden testis models of volumes increasing from 1 ml through 2, 3, 4, 6, 8,10,12,15,20 to 25 ml. Thefirstsign of puberty is usually testis size 4 ml; the usual adult value is 20 ml, though the range is 15 to 25 ml. Testis sizes at successive ages have been reported for Swiss (Largo & Prader, 1983#), Swedish (Taranger et al., 19766), Chilean (Avendano & Valenzuela, 1988), Dutch (Roede & van Wieringen, 1985) and Indian (Kaul et al, 1980) boys. Colli (1988) gives the mean ages of attainment of 3 ml, 4 ml, and 12 ml in Brazilians as 10.3, 11.2, and 13.5 years. Daniel etal. (1982)
Sexual development
175
reported testicular volumes (estimated by a different method) for each puberty stage (these being genitalia and pubic hair averaged) in American boys. Age at peak height velocity (PHV) Another measure of tempo of growth in a population is the average age at which the maximum velocity of height is reached during the pubertal growth spurt ('peak height velocity'). In cross-sectional studies of a population this can best be estimated by fitting a PreeceBaines Model I (1978) curve to the successive height means; age at peak height velocity is obtained directly from the equation. The Preece-Baines curve was designed to follow the growth of individuals, who have sharper peaks than those shown by population means, for the reasons discussed in Chapter 1. However, the curve is actually unable to model the individuals' peaks precisely, because it cannot go quite sharp enough. In contrast, it models population curves excellently. An example of its use is given in Tanner et al. (1982). No values for PHV are given here, but the interested reader could construct a large series from the tables given in the Appendix. Age at PHV means have been given for most of the longitudinal studies cited in Tables 2 and 3 and can be found in the papers listed there. Though the average intensity of the peak for individuals is greater than the mean intensity for a population, the ages at which the peaks occur are approximately the same in the two cases. Relations between different measures of maturity It cannot be assumed that because a population is delayed in sexual maturation it will be delayed in dental or skeletal maturation as well. New Guineans, for example, are the most delayed in menarche but among the most advanced in permanent tooth eruption. A good deal is known about the relations between the various measures of tempo in individuals within a given population (see Tanner, 1962), but it does not necessarily follow that similar relations hold between the means of various populations. In fact, in general the same sort of relationships mostly do seem to hold; populations early in puberty stages tend to be early in skeletal maturation, for example. But the interaction between ethnic group and particular measure of tempo - one group being relatively earlier in breasts than in bone age, for instance - is an area scarcely yet explored.
9
Genetic influence on growth: family and race comparisons
The ultimate size and shape that a child attains as an adult is the result of a continous interaction between genetical and environmental influences during the whole period of growth. Such interaction may be complex. Two genotypes which produce the same adult height under optimal environmental circumstances may produce different heights under circumstances of privation. Thus two children who would be the same height in a well-off community may not only both be smaller under poor economic conditions, but one may be significantly smaller than the other. This type of interaction, called non-additivity of genotype and environment, may be quite detailed and specific in its effects. If a particular environmental stimulus is lacking at a time when it is essential for the child (times known as 'sensitive periods'), then the child's development may be shunted, as it were, from one line to another. We know, as yet, little of the details of such interactions, but quite enough to make oversimplified models scientifically suspect. Statements about the relative contributions of heredity and environment to adult size and shape must therefore always specify the circumstances with some exactness. A biologically permissible statement (provided all the evidence is really available), is, for example: 'Eighty-five per cent of the variance of height in the population of young adults growing up in middle class homes in a London suburb in the 1980s is due to genetical factors'. In a population growing up under famine conditions the percentage of variance due to genetical factors would be expected to be less. A particularly lucid discussion of these points may be found in Thoday (1965). Families
The most striking similarity in growth is seen in monozygotic twins, who share the same genes and most aspects of the family environment. Siblings share fewer genes, and possibly fewer aspects of the family environment also, but they resemble each other a great deal more than unrelated children. Thus family patterns of growth exist, and the closer the genetic relationship, the closer, in general, the growth pattern. This is probably because growth and adult size and shape are controlled, it is 176
Families
111
Table 11. Mean differences between lengths of monozygotic twin pairs (~140 pairs) and same-sexed dizygotic twin pairs (—90 pairs) from birth to 4 years, and within-pair correlation coefficients Mean difference in length (cm)
Birth 3 months 6 months 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years
Correlation coefficient
MZ pairs
DZ pairs
MZ pairs
DZ pairs
1.8 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.1
1.6 1.6 1.9 1.8 2.4 2.9 3.2
0.58 0.75 0.78 0.85 0.89 0.92 0.94
0.82 0.72 0.65 0.69 0.58 0.55 0.60
From Wilson (1976).
thought, by numerous genes, each of small effect, rather than by a few major genes comparable, for example, to those underlying the blood groups. However, this is not an easy distinction to make on our present information and much more work needs to be done on the genetics of growth and physique. Data on monozygotic (MZ) twins reared together and apart have been reported by Shields (1962). Those reared apart differed more in adult stature than those reared together, but they still resembled each other more than dizygotic (DZ) twins do. However, Shields illustrates some individual cases of MZ twins reared apart where one twin was subject to illness or neglect and in these very considerable differences in size ensued, showing the over-riding effect of a poor environment. There have been several longitudinal studies of twin growth. In the Louisville Longitudinal Study (Vandenberg & Falkner, 1965) twins were followed from birth. Wilson (1979; 1986) has reported on the growth to age nine of some 250 pairs. At birth MZ and DZ same-sexed pairs do not differ in their degree of resemblance; such is the predominant effect of the maternal uterus. But immediately after birth, when the influence of the newborn's own genes can make itself felt, the MZ twins rapidly grow to resemble each other while the DZ drift further and further apart. Table 11 (from Wilson, 1976) shows that the mean difference in length between pairs of MZ twins diminishes from 1.8 cm at birth to 1.3 cm by 1 year and 1.1 cm by 4 years. In contrast, the difference between DZ twins increases from 1.6 cm at birth to 1.9 cm at 1 year and 3.2 cm at 4 years (see also Chapter 10, p. 192). The analysis of individual growth curves indicates a strong genetic control both of the rate of growth and of overall growth
178
Genetic influence on growth
tempo (see especially the paper of Wilson, 1978). Another longitudinal study of twins, this time throughout the school years, in Sweden (Ljung, Fischbein & Lindgren, 1977) showed a strong influence of zygosity on age of peak height velocity (PHV) in the pubertal growth spurt, age at menarche and age at the appearance of secondary sex characters (Fischbein, 1911 a,b). For age at PHV the MZ correlations were 0.85 and 0.78 for boys and girls; while for DZ twins the corresponding values were 0.42 and 0.39. In age at menarche the correlations were 0.93 for 28 MZ pairs and 0.62 for 48 DZ pairs, giving average differences between members of a pair of 0.3 years for MZ twins and 0.7 years for DZ twins. Amongst other studies of twins are those in Wroclaw, Poland, (see Bergman, Grzesiowski & Szmyd, 1981), in Japan (see Kimura, 1981, 1983), in Quebec City (Bouchard etaL, 1985) and in Chandigarh (Sharma, 1983). Studies of the development of resemblance between siblings and between offspring and parents have been comprehensively reviewed by Mueller (1986). Correlations between siblings at the same age, allowance being made for sex, have been reported from the Fels Longitudinal Study by Garn & Rohmann (1966) and Byard, Siervogel & Roche (1983^). These correlations are of the order of 0.3 to 0.6 up to puberty, but then drop due to tempo differences between sibs. Similar sibling correlations have been reported for a poor agricultural community in Mexico (Little et al., 1987; see also Martorell etaL, 1977). In some measurements sistersister values are said to be higher than brother-brother, perhaps indicating a contribution from sex-linked genes (Mather & Jinks, 1963; Garn, Hertzog & Rohmann, 1969; Byard etaL, 1983a,6). Siblings are also highly correlated in birthweight, but this is principally the result of maternal uterine factors (Tanner, Lejarraga & Turner, 1972, amongst others). The resemblance of body measurements between parents and children is also marked, though not before the children are aged about 2 years and showing more effect of their own genes than the effect of the uterine environment in which they grew. From 3 to 9 years correlation coefficients of height between parents and offspring are slightly under 0.5 and have been made the basis of standards for childhood height allowing for height of parents (Tanner, Goldstein & Whitehouse, 1970; see also Welon & Bielicki, 1971; Byard, Siervogel & Roche, 1988). Despite popular belief to the contrary, there is little evidence that on average one parent predominates in the effect on size, or that sons resemble fathers and mothers daughters more than conversely. The diminution of the range of expected adult height when parents' height is known is from about 26 cm (3rd to 97th centile) in the general male population, to about
Pop ulations
179
17 cm in a given family. The ± 2 standard deviation range seen amongst a group of brothers is in agreement, averaging 16 cm (see Howells, 1966). Amongst pairs of monozygotic twins the same range is only 1.6 cm (Osborne & DeGeorge, 1959). These figures indicate very well the family-line control of height. There is less information about other measurements, but it seems probable that lengths of limbs and trunk are equally under genetic influence, while skeletal breadths, muscle and, of course, fat are less so (Mueller, 1986; Kaplowitzeftf/., 1988). Livshits (1986), Fischbein & Pedersen (1987) and Byard et al. (1988) have analyzed the relative importance of genetic and environmental factors at successive ages each in a well-nourished population. These studies confirm the impression that even in these populations differences in the family environment exert their greatest effects in the first 2 years, particularly from 8 to 18 months. (See also discussion in Chapter 10, p. 194.) Populations Differences between populations in adult size and shape are due to differences in their gene pools, in their environments, and in the interactions between the two. Thus far in this book we have mostly been comparing genetically similar populations with each other and with a reference which we have called the 'European range of means'. In this chapter and the next we shall discuss differences in growth between various sorts of populations. Thus we shall compare populations that are well fed and those that are poorly fed; urban and rural populations; and populations living at high altitude and in the tropics. In this chapter we concentrate on differences in growth due to differences in gene pools represented by the rather arbitrary classification of race. As in our previous chapters, we have relied on geographical and historical origins for our criteria of the major population groups, which we refer to as European, African and Asiatic. As before we include members of each group now living outside their continents of origin. Ideally, for the purposes of this chapter, we should compare representative groups of each race growing up, so far as possible, under similar, and preferably optimal, environmental conditions. In practice this presents difficulties; but in selecting one population from each major group we have kept as close to this desideratum as data permit. We do not suppose, however, that the selected series are perfectly representative of their ethnic groups; we have had to be influenced also by availability of adequate data.
180
Genetic influence on growth
Height and weight Figs 154 and 155 show height curves of populations from three major racial groups; Europeans, Afro-Americans and Asiatics. They were chosen because all were living in good or relatively good environmental conditions. As representative of the Europeans we have taken the Danish sample of the 1970s because they are closer to the average of all European populations than the other group with an excellent 0 to 18 year survey, the Dutch. (The Dutch are currently the tallest recorded population.) For Afro-Americans the choice is difficult. Though almost all American samples enjoy a more favorable environment than any groups in Africa of which we have a good sample (the well-off in Ibadan only run to age 10), most are from relatively low income groups in the American context. The only survey covering our whole age range was that of Verghese etal. (1969) from Washington DC, used in ourfirstedition. But we have preferred to use the more recent sample obtained in the national NHANES II Survey (1976-80), though numerically small (data from Martorell et al., 1988, and National Center for Health Statistics, unpublished). The data do have some shortcomings and do not plot well for height increments. Thus, we have used data published by Martorell et al., 1988, interpolated for our usual age groups which has the effect of smoothing the data. It does have to be recalled that people classified as Afro-Americans in the USA are not genetically identical to Africans in •
•
Denmark (European)
Jk
•
NHANES II (African descent)
X
-X Japan (Asiatic)
9 10 11 Age (yr) Fig. 154. Height means of European boys (Denmark), Asiatic boys (Japan) and American boys of African origin (NHANES II, interpolated from Martorell etal., 1988).
Populations
181 # # Denmark (European) A — A NHANES II (African descent) X XJapan (Asiatic)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11
12
13 14
15 16
17 18
Fig. 155. Height means of European girls (Denmark), Asiatic girls (Japan) and American girls of African origin (NHANES II, interpolated from Martorell et a/., 1988).
Africa. They have varying degrees of European admixture, which may influence their growth and development to some degree. The Asiatic population represented is Japanese from the recent national surveys (Hayasi & Takaishi, 1981; Kikuta & Takaishi, 1987). A sample of Chinese from Hong Kong, consisting of children in good health in a random selection of schools (Fung et al., 1985; Leung et al.y 1987) gives very similar results, only two of the means differing by more than 1.5 cm. The Afro-American boys are a little less tall than the Europeans from 3 to 8 years, but then become as tall until 15 or 16, when the European group catches up and may slightly surpass them. The Afro-American girls are also slightly less tall till 8, then taller till 14, when the Europeans catch up. There is little difference in final height. This is a pattern of faster tempo, with an earlier pubertal spurt, in Afro-American girls. Comparisons of Euro-Americans and Afro-Americans can be found in the first edition (p. 225) and in Martorell et al. (1988). The well-off Ibadan, Nigeria, group, incidentally, resembles closely the Danish from birth till age 5, after which it falls a little to initially equal and then, by 10 years, to be slightly shorter than the NHANES sample. The Asiatic children are shorter than the Europeans by about 3 cm at age 3, and by 5 cm at age 5. The boys remain about this much shorter at ages 7 and 8; the differences progressively diminish to a little under 1 cm at ages 13 and 14, before increasing again to end at about 8 cm, a little
182
Genetic influence on growth • A X
12 11 10 9 8
• Denmark (European) • NHANES II (African descent) X Japan (Asiatic)
7 6 5 4 3
1 0
1
I
I
i
I 7
I 8
I 1 I I 9 10 11 12 Age (yr)
I I 13 14
1 15
I I 16 17
I 18
Fig. 156. Height mean increments (derived from cross-sectional means) of European boys (Denmark), Asiatic boys (Japan) and American boys of African origin (NHANES II, interpolated from Martorell et al., 1988).
# •
# Denmark (European) A NHANES II (African descent)
X - - - - X Japan (Asiatic)
11 10 9 8
7 6
*...
5
4 3 2 1 I
I 3
4
I
I
1
5
6
7
1
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 157. Height mean increments (derived from cross-sectional means) of European girls (Denmark), Asiatic girls (Japan) and American girls of African origin (NHANES II, interpolated from Martorell etal., 1988).
Populations
183
over one standard deviation of the population variation. The girls close the gap earlier, reaching a 1 cm difference at age 11. Thereafter the difference increases again to the adult value of about 8 cm. The temporary closure of the gap results from the earlier puberty of the Asiatics; when height is plotted against years before and after menarche, the Europeans are always taller (see Chapter 10, Fig. 167). Figs 156 and 157 show the mean increment curves. The Afro-American girls probably have their peak earliest; the data are poor, but indicate about 10.5 years. Asiatic girls have their maximum increment at about 11.5 years and European girls at about 11.75 years. Asiatic boys peak earlier than Europeans (12.5 compared with 13.5 years); AfroAmericans are probably later at 14.5 years, but again this value is very illdetermined. Other data on Afro-American boys in Washington (Verghese et«/., 1969) and Philadelphia (S. H. Katz et al., unpubl.) show the spurt about a year earlier than Europeans. Asiatic children are similarly advanced over Europeans in bone age as well as in height velocity, the difference between Tokyo and Danish children being a little over 1J 'years' in boys at chronological ages 12 and 13 and a fraction over one 'year' in girls at ages 11 and 12 (see Appendix Tables 77 and 78). Philadelphia Afro-Americans are some 6 months to a year in advance of Danish children at similar ages (which leads us to question the value for male maximum increment given above). In age at menarche the differences between the three groups are less. Tokyo girls are 0.5 years ahead of Danish girls, and Philadelphia Afro-Americans 0.6 years ahead (see Table 10, Chapter 8). It would seem therefore that the interval from maximum increment to menarche is a little longer in Asiatics than in Europeans, but we have to remember these are crosssectional population comparisons. The ascertainment of age of maximum increment may be slightly biased from the true mean of age of peak height velocity ascertained from a random sample of individual longitudinal curves (just as the size of the peak is very considerably biased downwards; Tanner, 1986&). These conclusions therefore must await confirmation from individual longitudinal studies. Figs 158 and 159 show the same comparison for weight attained. The picture is much the same as for height, though the Asiatic-European differences are slightly less throughout, indicating a generally greater weight-for-height in Asiatics. The NHANES II Afro-American boys are heavier than the Europeans at several points and the NHANES II girls are very much heavier from age 10 onwards. The tendency for AfroAmerican females to put on more weight and fat during puberty and early adulthood than their Euro-American counterparts has become clear in the last few years (see Najjar & Rowland, 1987).
184
Genetic influence on growth Denmark (European) NHANES II (African descent)
x—- ~"X Japan (Asiatic)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Fig. 158. Weight means of European boys (Denmark), Asiatic boys (Japan) and American boys of African origin (NHANES II).
# •X
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
• Denmark (European) • NHANES II (African descent) X Japan (Asiatic)
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Age (yr)
Fig. 159. Weight means of European girls (Denmark), Asiatic girls (Japan) and American girls of African origin (NHANES II).
Populations
185
Bodily proportions In previous chapters we have used regression lines to compare two variables at successive ages in different populations (e.g. sitting height for leg length). We continue these comparisons here. In Fig. 160 sitting height means at successive ages are plotted against the corresponding leg length (subischial) means. We have taken the Bergen data to represent Europeans, the Chinese data from the People's Republic for Asiatics, and the NHANES II Afro-American data. We have retained the Australian Aborigine data from the first edition (Fig. 175, p. 230). These first two sets of data generate lines that are very close except that Chinese display somewhat greater sitting heights to leg lengths particularly at older ages. The relatively longest legs characterize the Australian Aborigines and the Afro-Americans, with the former far exceeding the latter. For a given sitting height, Africans, in the USA and in Africa, have
90 r
30
40
50
60 70 Leg length (cm) (a) I Bergen 1 China
90
80
90
* — A Afro-Americans NHANES II * " ~ * Australian Aborigines
80 70 60 50 40 l 30
1
1
40
50
60
70
80
90
Leg length (cm) (b) Fig. 160. Regression of sitting height means on leg length means at successive ages for boys (a) and girls (b) in Europeans (Bergen), Asiatics (China), AfroAmericans (NHANES II), and Australian Aborigines.
186
Genetic influence on growth
considerably longer legs than Europeans. At a sitting height of 60 cm, for example, Bergen boys have a leg length averaging 45 cm, AfroAmericans 51 cm and Australian Aborigine boys 61 cm. These differences are certainly genetic in origin, for better environmental circumstances appear to produce relatively longer, not shorter, legs. Tanner et al. (1982) showed that during the very marked secular trend towards greater height in Japanese children between 1957 and 1977 almost all the increment was in leg length with very little change in sitting height. The same has occurred during the secular trend of the 1970s and 1980s in China (Zhang & Huang, 1988). Currently Japanese (and Chinese in China and Hong Kong) have leg lengths only 1 to 2 cm less than Europeans at a given sitting height up to the time of their puberty. The earlier puberty of the Asiatics then results in an adult with relatively shorter legs, though only 3 to 4 cm at a given sitting height. This difference is due to the fact that immediately before puberty the legs are growing relatively faster than the trunk, so that during the extra year or more that the Europeans have for growth before puberty the legs are paramount. Exactly the same mechanism is responsible for the relatively greater leg length in men as compared to women of the same ethnic group. Mexicans and Mexican-Americans have somewhat shorter legs relative to trunk from age 4 onwards, but it is likely that most of this difference is due to environmental factors, given the situation of the Japanese above (Malina et al., 1987a; Martorell et al., 1988; and see the valuable general review of Mexican-American growth by Malina, Martorell & Mendoza, 1986). In Fig. 161 the comparison of Olympic track athletes of African and European origin (the photograph has been enlarged so that both men have the same trunk length), illustrates graphically the racial difference in limb and trunk proportions. Not only do Africans have longer legs relative to sitting height compared with Europeans and Asiatics, they also have longer arms. Fig. 162 shows means from Philadelphia children of African and European origin both studied by the same investigator (Krogman, 1970), with Chinese in Hong Kong measured by similar techniques. The proportionately longer arms of the African are evident, whereas there is. little difference between the Chinese and the Euro-Americans. The relation between forearm and upper arm varies only slightly between the three ethnic groups though prepubertal African children do have somewhat longer forearms relative to upper arms. The data are sparse and it would be valuable to collect more information on arm segment lengths in additional populations, keeping in mind the necessity of using standardized techniques.
Fig. 161. Comparison of European and African physiques with photographs enlarged so that both have the same sitting height in order to show the relatively longer leg of the African. (From Tanner, 1964.)
18 yr
16 yr 14yr 14 yr
00
w
50
9-L
I
I
I
40 45 50 55 60 Total arm length (cm)
40 45
50
J_
I
55
60
65
I
I
I
70
75
80
65
70
Fig. 162. Relation of sitting height means (cm) to arm length means (cm) at successive ages of boys and girls of European (O O) and African ( • •) origin from Philadelphia, USA, and Asiatics (A A) from Hong Kong. (Fitted by eye.)
188
Genetic influence on growth
Racial differences in shape can also be seen in the relation of biacromial to biiliac width (Fig. 163). Afro-American boys and girls have considerably narrower hips relative to shoulders than either Londoners (Tanner, unpubl.), Norwegians (Waaler, 1983) or Hong Kong Chinese (Chang, 1969). Children of African origin in Philadelphia, Havana and South Africa (Pedi) all show the same picture in comparison with Europeans and Asiatics. Chinese, on the other hand, are not greatly different from Londoners in the aspect of proportion except that adolescent girls appear to gain more in hip width. Asiatic populations may have relatively broader frames than others. Mexican-Americans, for example, have a higher weight/height2 than 40
38
36
34
Biacrom ial width (cm
32
30
28
26
24 London Hong Kong Chinese Washington (African origin) J_
1
20
9 14
16 _|
6
16
18
20
18 20 Biiliac width (cm) I
I
24
26
J_ 24
26
Fig. 163. Regression of biacromial width means (cm) on biiliac width means (cm) at successive ages in Europeans (London), Asiatics (Hong Kong) and AfroAmericans (Washington, DC).
Skinfold thickness
189
Europeans or Afro-Americans, and this is not accounted for by fatness (Martorell etal., 1987; Eveleth & Micozzi, 1988; Boutton etal, 1987; see Chapter 10, p. 202, for further discussion). Skinfold thickness
In the first edition we said that most of the available evidence pointed to Afro-American children having smaller triceps skinfolds than Euro-American children living in roughly comparable circumstances. This is confirmed by the new data from NHANES II (Fig. 164). Africans in Africa mostly have lower skinfolds than Europeans, but it is not known if 14 -
Euro-Americans
(a) Afro-Americans
Triceps si:info Id (mi
12 10 T 8
II
•
6 4
•
i
.
1 9
10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Age (yr)
20 18 (LU
B
ski
"o c
a CD o
Euro-Americans (b)
Afro-Americans
16 14 12
I
10 8
•c
6
H
4
5
6
I
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Age (yr)
Fig. 164. Median triceps skinfolds (mm) of Euro-American and AfroAmerican boys (a) and girls (b) from NHANES II showing greater skinfolds in Euro-Americans.
190
Genetic influence on growth
there is a genetic component underlying what looks on the surface to be purely an environmental difference. Children in Hong Kong (Fry et al., 1965) and Japan (Kondo & Eto, 1972) have triceps values which are similar to those in London. A number of publications (reviewed in the first edition, p. 235) suggest that wellnourished populations of Asiatic origin have greater subscapular skinfolds, however, than populations derived from Europe or Africa. Hispanic HANES data reported by Martorell et al. (1987) quoted above and by Kaplowitz, Martorell & Mendoza (1989) bears this out: MexicanAmericans have greater subscapular (but not triceps) skinfolds than Euro- or Afro-Americans in the same poverty classification. Johnston et al. (1984tf) found a similar situation in upper-class Guatemalan children whose triceps values were below, and subscapular above, the American national norms (see also Bogin & Sullivan, 1986). A lot of work has been done on fat patterning during the last few years, and it is clear that subcutaneous fat over the limbs, especially in males, is controlled by different physiological mechanisms from those regulating subcutaneous fat on the thorax or abdomen. It would not be surprising if fat patterning were more under genetic control than the absolute level of fat. However, for the moment this remains speculative. Body weight is the sum of fat, muscle and bone. If fat does not contribute as much to total weight in well-off Africans as in Europeans then the former must have larger or denser bones and perhaps more muscle, since weights are about the same. In studies on adult body composition it has been shown that the bones of African skeletons are indeed denser than bones of Europeans (Trotter & Peterson, 1966) and African males at least have a greater amount of muscle tissue (Malina, 1973, pp. 75-6). Race mixture
In the first edition we reviewed the extant studies on the growth of children of parents of different races (p. 236ff). Interpretation of the results is difficult, because not infrequently the three groups, African Jamaicans, European Jamaicans, and Afro-European Jamaicans, for example, live each in their own social niche and under different environmental circumstances. In general, as one might expect, the growth of the mixed-parent children lies in between the growths of the parental groups, both as to size and tempo. None of the studies shows a significant heterosis effect.
10 Environmental influence on growth
A considerable proportion of the mean differences in body size among the populations we have been examining is due to the effects of environmental conditions. Some of the differences between individuals within populations are also due to differences in environment. In the better-off populations of industrialized countries these latter differences are relatively small, while in the developing countries the gap between well-off and poor is greater. A child may receive numerous insults during growth and yet survive, but bodily adaptations for survival are made which may result in a slower tempo of growth and a smaller body size. If a whole population receives similar insults, such as a diet low in calories or protein, a small mean adult size results. If environmental conditions improve, the size both of children and adults increases. 'Human height' wrote Louis-Rene Villerme, the founder of public health in France, 'becomes greater and growth takes place more rapidly, other things being equal, in proportion as the country is richer, comfort more general, houses, clothes and nourishment better and labour, fatigue and privation during infancy and youth less; in other words, the circumstances which accompany poverty delay the age at which complete stature is reached and stunt adult height' (1829, cited in Tanner, 1981, p. 162). There are many environmental factors which affect growth, and which combine in various proportions to constitute the environment of poverty; but in the final analysis most of them hinge upon the level of nutrition in conjunction with the prevalence of childhood infection. During an illness, even quite a mild one, growth tends to slow down, but in countries where nutrition is adequate this slow-down is followed by a catch-up (see below) which rapidly restores the child to his normal growth curve. Thus the slowing can only be demonstrated by weekly or even daily measurements with an instrument such as the knemometer specially designed to measure short-term growth (Hermanassen et al., 1988). The energy intake needed to sustain the catch-up velocity, however, is considerably above the normal-velocity requirement and in countries where the level of nutrition is suboptimal this intake is not achieved, and stunting occurs. The energetics of measles, in particular, has been investigated in children in Africa. During the disease the energy intake was lowered and nearly all 191
192
Environmental influence on growth
the children went into negative energy balance. To recover from this an energy intake of about double maintenance requirement was needed (Duggan, Alway & Milner, 1986; Duggan & Milner, 1986). In most developing countries, it seems that the diarrhoeal diseases of infancy are the most potent cause of growth restriction. Martorell (1980) found that rural children in Guatemala who had been relatively free of diarrhoea during their first 7 years were on average 3.5 cm taller at age 7 than children who had frequent bouts of diarrhoea. The subject is well reviewed in the book Social and Biological Predictors of Nutritional Status, Physical growth and Neurological Development, edited by Greene & Johnston (1980); see also Rowland, Cole & Whitehead (1977). Catch-up growth
The effect of unfavorable conditions on growth seems to depend upon the duration and the severity of the insult and also the age at which it occurs. A child who suffers for a short period of time from an illness or starvation is able to return to, or at least to approach, his regular course of growth when conditions improve. In doing this his initial growth velocity upon recovery is above that normally to be expected for children of his age, or even of his skeletal maturity. Such a higher-than-normal velocity has been named 'catch-up growth' (Prader, Tanner & von Harnack, 1963). It occurs, for example, in children treated for malnutrition (Hansen et al., 1971), growth hormone deficiency (Tanner et al., 1971) and hypothyroidism (von Harnack et al., 1972). An example of catch-up is shown by Lampl et al. (1978) who gave a food supplement to children aged 7 to 13 living on an insufficient diet (Fig. 165). The children were Bundi in Papua New Guinea, and their average height was below the British 3rd centile when supplementation of their diet with 10 g (or 20 g) of protein per day began. The children's mean standard deviation score for height velocity changed to +0.6 on the 10 g supplement and +0.9 on the 20 g supplement; the unsupplemented control's score averaged — 1.4. The bone age velocity scores changed to +0.2 and +0.3 for the supplemented groups in contrast to —0.4 for the controls. Thus in the catch-up relatively more height was gained than bone age, so that the prediction of the final height was considerably increased. Catch-up growth may completely restore the situation to normal (Fig. 166) or it may be insufficient to do so. In less favorable circumstances, where treatment is incomplete or less effective, the child may resume growth at a normal, but not supranormal, velocity. The result of this may still be relatively satisfactory, since if skeletal maturation is delayed, as is usual in such circumstances, the growing period will be extended and thus the final adult height will be close to normal, though reached late.
Catch-up growth
193
|
| Control
I *"•<
| Supplemented I 10 g protein
ISNNNNX] Supplemented Fftvvvvl 20 g protein
< 1
Height
Weight
r
I Ui
Skeletal age
Triceps
Fig. 165. Effect of protein supplementation in boarding school children in New Guinea over 8 months, showing increased weight and skeletal maturation in supplemented groups (data from Lampl et ai, 1978; from Eveleth, 1985).
1
5 6 7 Age (yr)
9
j _
I
10 11 12
Fig. 166. Catch-up growth in weight of three children (A, B and C) after treatment for malnutrition. The 3rd, 50th and 97th percentiles are also shown. (Redrawn after Hansen etal., 1971.)
194
Environmental influence on growth Nutrition
Infancy In many populations the period when the child is most at risk from the combination of malnutrition and infection is from birth to 5 years. However, malnutrition may begin during intra-uterine life. In some developing countries weight at birth (for given length of gestation and birth rank) is quite highly dependent on maternal nutrition and in such populations supplementing the diets of pregnant women with extra calories and protein may increase the birth weight, typically by some 60-200 g (Metcoff, Klein & Nichols, 1981; Prentice et al, 1983; and Metcoff, 1986, for fuller discussion). The supplemental food given under the Women, Infants and Children (WIC) Program in the United States to mothers living in poverty increased birth weights by approximately 100 g (Kennedy & Korelchuck, 1984). Many populations in developing countries, however, have mean birth weights at the same level as those in industrialized communities. In such countries, it is only after thefirst6 months that the weight gains diminish, as a result of interactions of undernutrition and infection. The slowing down of growth in some areas coincides with age of weaning and the substitution of high-starch, low-protein foods. It is also the age at which the mother's lactating ability declines so that satisfactory growth cannot be achieved on breast milk alone (see, for example, Rowland, Rowland & Cole, 1988; van Lerberghe, 1989). In such areas it is at this time that increased growth can be obtained by supplemental feeding (Delgado et al, 1982). However, as Mora et al. (1981) have emphasized 'simple provision of food supplements without effective prevention of infections . . . is likely to have limited effects on prevention of growth retardation'. By the age of 2 years much of the deficit characteristic of the adult has already been accumulated. The same is true of the deficit associated with poverty in developed countries (see below, p. 198). Factors affecting growth in early childhood have been reviewed by Martorell & Habicht (1986) who give more detail on all the points mentioned here. They, and others (Boutton et al, 1987; Eveleth & Micozzi, 1988) emphasize that nutritional stunting in height in a population may co-exist with a normal level of weight-for-height (i.e. no 'wasting'). Children in Honduras and Guatemala, for instance, had weight-for-height values equal to those of Americans during thefirstyear after birth; they decreased sharply during the second year, when much of the stunting was occurring and then returned to 'normal' again during the third and fourth years. Analysis of Peruvian preschoolers using 1802 dilution method showed that they did
Nutrition
195
not have a greater percentage of fat or muscle mass than American children (Boutton et al., 1987). In fact, their absolute levels of skinfolds were low (Trowbridge etal., 1987). The conclusion of these investigators, as yet unproven, is that the children must have a greater percentage of body water. The question of whether undernutrition in the first one or two years of life necessarily leads to an adult deficit in body size has been discussed frequently and inconclusively. It seems that children with severe proteincalorie malnutrition in early infancy due to surgical causes make a complete recovery to normal when brought up in well-off homes in a developed country (Valman, 1974). This also occurred in children whose mothers were subjected to severe undernutrition in the wartime famine in Holland between October 1944 and May 1945. Pregnant women starved in the last trimester had babies with birth weights lowered by 9 percent and birth lengths by 2.5 percent. The males amongst these babies were measured at conscription at age 19: their heights were the same as controls from parts of Holland which had not been subjected to famine (Stein et al., 1975). Evidently much depends on the circumstances obtaining when the severe episode of undernutrition is over. Children under five years admitted to hospital in tropical countries with kwashiorkor or marasmus (both severe diseases of protein-calorie malnutrition) have been followed up after discharge. In most of them complete equality of height and weight with sibling controls was attained before puberty, though in others possible long-term effects have been reported. Some studies related the subjects' growth not to that of siblings but to the general population, a less appropriate control. A major problem in these studies is the lack of knowledge and control of the home diet after discharge from hospital (see Hansen et al., 1971; Graham et al., 1982; Grantham-McGregor et al., 1982). Certainly prolonged periods of undernutrition may have lasting effects on adult size. The question arises as to whether this matters (provided the brain escapes any lasting effect). Under some ecological conditions, shortness would seem to be an advantage, at least to Nature, if not to the men and women themselves. Such an argument may well apply to people who are short for genetical reasons; but those in whom shortness is merely a proxy for poor environmental conditions in childhood belong to another category. Body shape is more resistant than body size to nutritional stress, or even disease. It seems that the amount of material in the cells is open to variation, but the number of cells and where they are placed is scarcely modifiable after the very early foetal stage. However, there is at least one
196
Environmental influence on growth
exception. With the amelioration of conditions of life in Japan between 1950 and 1980 there was a large secular trend in stature, and that secular trend was almost entirely in leg length and not sitting height (Tanner et al., 1982). This is presumably because the legs are the fastest-growing part of the body in the early childhood period when the impact of a better environment is greatest. Peasants, said the great artist Albrecht Duerer, in 1528, should be drawn with short legs, close to the soil; burghers and aristocrats taller and more slender with longer legs and arms (see Tanner, 1981). Adolescence A second period when the child may be especially sensitive to the influence of undernutrition is at adolescence. Although we do not see a dramatic effect on morbidity and mortality as we do in early childhood, we might see some negative effect on adolescent growth. Satyanarayana et al. (1989), however, found that even in rural Hyderabad children, severely undernourished from birth to age 5, the total height gained at puberty (which was, of course, delayed) was equal to that of the normally nourished. Other studies are in agreement with this (Eveleth, 1985). The effect on adult height is established before puberty and the amount gained during puberty may even be greater in some poorly-off groups than in the well-off. It has been assumed that energy requirements increase during adolescence in line with the increased growth during the adolescent spurt and the recommended dietary allowances are higher for adolescents (FAO/ WHO, 1973; National Academy of Sciences, 1980). However, Durnin et al. (1974) have shown that Glasgow 14-year-olds who had energy intakes below the FAO/WHO recommendations were neither shorter nor lighter than British means. Lack of sufficient calories in principle might result in a smaller spurt but we do not have any evidence from longitudinal studies, which we really need. There are several accounts in the literature which attribute the difference in height between Indians and English, or even between Japanese and Americans, primarily to lessened growth at adolescence. These claims rest on a faulty understanding of auxology. Japanese adults are, as we have seen, some 6 cm less tall than English adults. But Japanese 14-year-old boys are approximately the same height as English 14-year-olds. The reason for this is that the tempo of growth differs between the two populations; the Japanese are earlier-maturing. Populations have to be equated for tempo before an analysis can be made of when any size differences come about. When this is done, both in the case of the Indians and the Japanese, it is seen that the size difference
Nutrition
170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80
20
197
1
l
30
40
1
50
00
70
1
1
1
80
90
100
1
1
J
110 120 130 140
Percent age at menarche (b)
Fig. 167. Mean heights of Japanese and United Kingdom girls (a) plotted against age. Mean heights plotted against percent age (b) at menarche.
comes about progressively throughout growth, most noticeably in the early years. Only the smallest portion, if any at all, is attributable to differences in the magnitude of the spurt (see Satyanarayana et al., 1980, 1989; Hauspie et al., 1980). This is illustrated in Fig. 167. In the upper panel (a) the British and Japanese mean heights for girls are plotted against chronological age: from 8 to 12 the means are very close and the Japanese mean is actually greater at age 11. In the lower panel (b) the means are plotted against a scale of percent menarcheal age, thus allowing for difference in tempo. The Japanese mean is now smaller throughout.
198
Environmental influence on growth
Nutrition and growth tempo Undernutrition affects tempo of growth, and perhaps undernutrition at levels which still leave final size unaltered. This is reflected in bone age which is delayed in the undernourished compared to the wellnourished (see review in Tanner etal., 1983). It is cumulatively reflected, too, in a late age of peak height velocity of the pubertal growth spurt and a later age at menarche. Socioeconomic level
Children from families belonging to the high or middle socioeconomic groups in nearly all countries are on average larger in body size than their coevals in the lower economic groups. In consequence the height of children in the various divisions of society - as well as their tempo of growth - may be used as a measure of the health and general well-being of the group in question; perhaps the inner-city poor, the dwellers in outlying rural communities, the ethnic minorities. (With the last, however, there has to be allowance for any genetic differences in height potential between the host and immigrant populations.) This aspect of growth and development has been called epidemiological auxology (Tanner, 1981; Schell, 1984). Its history and use has been extensively reviewed by Bielicki (1986) in regard to modern populations. In the same way, height of children and of conscripts in earlier times provides an excellent measure of the economic and social status of people in past centuries, and Fogel and his co-workers have recently developed a whole new branch of economic history of the 18th and 19th centuries using height as a proxy for social conditions and nutrition (see Fogel & Engerman, 1982; Tanner, 1986a; Fogel, 1988; Steckel, 1987; Brinkman, Drakker & Slot, 1988; Floud, 1989). Fig. 168, partly taken from Martorell & Habicht (1986), compares, in boys aged 7.5 years, the differences in height attributable to social class within a number of populations to differences between the well-off (or relatively well-off) amongst these populations. The total range amongst the relatively well-off is around 6 cm. The within-population betweensocial-class range varies from practically nothing in some populations to as much as 12 cm in others. A portion of the socioeconomic class differences seen in childhood is due to differences in growth tempo. Fig. 169, from Bielicki (1986), shows the relation between social class and age at menarche in urban girls in contemporary Poland. Skeletal maturation is also delayed in low socioeconomic groups compared with high ones (see Chapter 8, p. 168). In adulthood the social class differences may be somewhat less, though they are certainly not negligible. In British adults, for example, manual
Socioeconomic level
199 Poorly-off
130 128 126 124 122 120 118 116 114 112 110 108 106 104 102 100
I Well-off
Oslo
USA Sweden
UK 1960s Hong Kong Jamaica Guatemala UK 1980s Japan Nigeria India Costa Rica
Fig. 168. Approximate mean heights of boys aged 7.5 years in boys of high or low socioeconomic status in various populations. Oslo from Brundtland et al. (1980); Sweden from Lindgren (1976); USA from Jones, Nesheim & Habicht (1985); UK from Whincup, Cook & Shapiro (1988), Goldstein (1971). Japan and Hong Kong this volume, total populations, social class differences surmised only; Nigeria from Janes (1970); Jamaica well-off from Ashcroft & Lovell (1964) and Ashcroft et al. (1966); India well-off from Pakrasi et al. (1988); remainder from Martorell & Habicht [1986, p. 244].
and non-manual classes differ by 3 cm in men and 2 cm in women (Rosenbaum et al., 1985). However, Schmitt & Harrison (1988) investigated the 62 populations whose adult heights and weights were reported in papers published between 1974 and 1987 in the Annals of Human Biology or Human Biology. They rated each in terms of affluence. The average adult heights for males and females in societies rated affluent was 174 and 160 cm; in non-affluent societies, 165, and 153 cm. When these differences in mean height were accounted for there remained no significant regression of the variances of height on degree of affluence; the less affluent did not have a higher variance, as expected. Perhaps the explanation of this seeming discrepancy with Fig. 169 is that in developing countries the number of rich people giving rise to the 'well-off plots in Fig. 169 is so small that their effect on the whole population variance is negligible. Differences in heights between social classes are established in early childhood. In the British National Pre-school Surveillance of the 1970s the differences for boys of classes I, II, III (non-manual) and IV/V were 1.2 cm at age 2.0 and 1.6 cm at age 4.0 (Department of Health & Social Security, 1981; see also Smith, Chinn & Rona, 1980; Elwood etaL, 1987).
200
Environmental influence on growth 12.8 » Managers
12.9 > Police
•S 13.0
Professionals
* x # Technicians ClerksX
> Foreman
Engineers
*g 13.1
Other > skilled workers
Small Businessmen • Machine-tool • operators
13.2 Unskilled •
13.3 -
I
4
5 6 7 Rank in SES
10
•
Coal-miners I
1
11 12
Fig. 169. Menarcheal age in Polish big-city girls from 12 occupational groups (father's occupation) from Upper Silesia, in relation to the group's rank in socioeconomic status (SES). Rank in socioeconomic status of each group is the mean rank of that group, among the 12 groups considered in five indices: (1) father's education; (2) mother's education; (3) dwelling conditions; (4) family income per capita; and (5) proportion of families with less than three children. Sample size is N = 19 000. The broken line is the fitted least squares line of regression of menarcheal age on rank in socioeconomic group (from Bielicki et al., 1986).
Very similar values apply to the United States (Garn, Pesick & Pilkington 1984). In all studies the social class effects are greater for boys than for girls (e.g. Malina et al., 1985; Billewicz, Thomson & Fellowes, 1983); indeed all environmental effects impinge more on boys, as has been known since the investigation on the effects of the atomic bombing of Japan (Greulich, Giswan & Turner, 1953). Height and social mobility Though most of the social class differences are certainly due to differences in nutrition and infection associated with poverty and with under-education, a portion may not be. Classes are to some extent endogamous, and movement from one social class to another in some
Socioeconomic level
201
cultures is linked with size as well as ability. In Belgium, young men who were moving up the scale occupationally (i.e. entering a more prestigious and better rewarded occupation than their fathers) were larger, healthier and scored higher on an intelligence test than those who stayed in the same or equivalent occupation (Cliquet, 168; Bielicki & Charzewski, 1983; and see also Tanner, 1962, 1966). The downwardly mobile showed approximately the opposite picture. Unemployment This layering-out of society may be partly responsible for the association between shortness in the child and unemployment of the father. Rona, Swann & Altmann (1978), in the British National Survey of Health and Growth of 5-11-year-olds, obtained the results shown in Fig. 170. The difference between the employed and the unemployed, amounting to some 2.5 cm at age 5 in the children of unskilled workers, can scarcely be explained by conditions of the family stemming from 6 months to a year of unemployment itself; it is simply too large. The tendency to become unemployed must characterize the family, just as short stature and chronically poor nutrition does (see also Cole, Donnet & Stanfield, 1983). This is the culture of poverty: a culture which in the Scandinavian countries seems to have been virtually eliminated. The situation in the UK was unchanged in 1983 when a national survey found an average height difference of 2.4 cm in 10- and 11-year-olds between employed and unemployed families (Department of Health & Social Security, 1989). 0.2 Employed
0.0
^
~02
Q
Unemployed
r -0.4 X
\
\
-0.6 -0.8 -1.0
b I
I
I
I-IIIA
IIIB
IV
i
Social class Fig. 170. Mean standard deviation scores for height for children age 5-11 years, according to employment/unemployment of father, within social class (from Rona etai, 1978).
202
Environmental influence on growth
Number of children in the family Children from large sibships tend to be less tall at a given age than children from more limited families. In 1965 in the UK the difference between 7-year-old children of unskilled workers who had no sibs and those who had three or more was 2.5 cm (Goldstein, 1971). In 1972, Rona et al. (1978) found the same for the manual class but no differences amongst the children of the non-manual classes until the sibship size reached five or more. The effect is mainly related to nutrition and child care, but larger sibships get more infections also (see Reves, 1985). Weight-for-height: obesity In industrialized countries there tends to be a social class gradient of weight-for-height, the lower classes having the greater values, and tending more towards obesity (see review in first edition, p. 251; also Brundtland^fl/., 1980; Garn, Hopkins & Ryan, 1981; Bogin & Sullivan, 1986; Power & Moynihan, 1988; Flegal, Harlan & Landis, 1988a,b). Though present in some data in childhood this tendency becomes chiefly emphasized as fat is gained just prior to puberty. This applies only in countries where calorie supply (though not necessarily a good diet) is adequate at all income levels. In developing countries the opposite occurs: the poor are thinner. Urbanization
Urbanization cannot be judged to result in a wholly stressful environment, as there are advantages as well as disadvantages to life in cities. In fact, children in urban areas are usually larger than children in the surrounding rural ones. Indeed, the tendency towards greater size and more rapid maturation in Europe in the last hundred years has been held to be largely a consequence of urbanization (see Tanner & Eveleth, 1976). By urbanization, however, we do not mean simply a high population density. Other features must be present, such as a regular supply of goods, clean water, health and sanitation services, large medical institutions, and educational, recreational and welfare facilities. These are some of the positive aspects of urbanization. Many areas of high population density in developing countries are really shanty towns created because of the rapid migration from rural areas into the margins of the cities. These areas have only a minimum of these services and institutions and lie outside our general definition. This topic was extensively reviewed in the first edition and is also treated by Bielicki (1986) and Eveleth (1986). In Poland the height of 18year-old conscripts coming from the largest towns is 3 cm greater than that of conscripts from the rural villages, even when fathers' social class
Season and climatic variation
203
and the sibship size have been allowed for. Other European countries, at least in the 1960s, seem to show similar results. However, in Australia and North America no urban-rural differences in children's heights were found, at least when the very poorest (mostly rural) families were eliminated. Age at menarche also is earlier in cities than in rural areas in many countries, though not in Australia or the Netherlands. From non-European countries as diverse as Korea, China, Mexico, Brazil, and Papua New Guinea come accounts of greater growth among children in urban areas, but the urban groups usually were economically better-off than the rural. These groups can take advantage of the positive aspects of urban life. Season and climatic variation In temperate zones children tend to grow faster in height in the spring and slower in the autumn. In the tropics seasonal variation is governed more by dry and wet periods and the varying availability of foods. This was reviewed in the first edition; see also Frisancho's (1979) comprehensive review of human adaptation and growth. High altitude The effects of altitude on growth were accorded a short chapter in the first edition. In general, dwellers at altitude are smaller than those at sea level and this begins at birth or earlier. Yip, Binkin & Trowbridge (1988) studied low-income European-descended families in eight mountain states in the USA, comparing them with similar families in Oregon. Birth weight was lower by some 150 g in infants above 2000 m. At age 1.02.0 such children averaged 0.6 standard deviations below the controls in length, even allowing for the birth weight difference. A threshold operating at about 1500 m was suggested. Linear growth in infants may be more affected than weight, Haas et al. (1982) reported, since wellnourished, highland Bolivian infants, who were smaller than lowlanders at birth, had similar weight gains but smaller length gains than lowlanders in the first months. From 3-12 months, high-altitude infants were actually fatter with larger skinfolds. Whether the cause of lowered growth is hypoxia and cold stress or inadequate nutrition is an open question. Confounding of these causes may have led to the inconsistent results from high-altitude studies in the past. Some recent reports from the Andean region help to clear the picture. A more recent project in Nunoa, Peru (an IBP project discussed in the first edition), has revealed that seasonal food scarcities may play a larger role than previously thought (Leonard & Thomas, 1989). In preharvest periods caloric intakes were low among lower-income
204
Environmental influence on growth
Nunoan agriculturalists, but unchanged among the upper-income families who earn wages and purchase market foods. Growth data collected in 1985 indicated that children from the former showed no secular change from 1964 in height and only a small weight increase, while children from the upper-income families averaged one standard deviation greater in both height and weight. Another method used to distinguish the two possible causes is to study well-off children of European ancestry living at high altitude. Greksa et al. (1985) and Stinson (1982) have done this in La Paz, Bolivia (altitude 3600 m), comparing different samples of Bolivian private school children with well-off Guatemalans with Spanish and European surnames living at 1500 m in Guatemala City (Johnston etal., 1976; see first edition). Both studies agreed that stature in La Paz was similar to that of upper-class Guatemalan children, although well below the US 50th percentile. United States children are not considered to be as comparable to Bolivians as Guatemalans are, and in these studies surnames were used to obtain more adequate and comparable samples. However, weight was lower in La Paz children than in Guatemalan but triceps skinfold medians were larger. It was concluded from both studies that linear growth was relatively unaffected by hypoxia in school age children. Schmitt & Harrison (1988) in their analysis of 62 recently studied populations (see above) found average heights of 162 and 150 cm for adult men and women at high altitude, against 170 and 159 cm in similar ethnic groups at low altitude. However, when the estimated difference in affluence was allowed for, the effect of altitude per se was not statistically significant. Psychosocial stress
There is now clear evidence that in some children psychological stress causes relative failure to grow. It does this by affecting the secretion of growth hormone. When the stress is removed secretion of growth hormone returns to normal and, in clinical cases, a catch-up occurs which is indistinguishable from the catch-up following administration of human growth hormone to a child permanently deficient in growth hormone for structural reasons. Just how far such clinical cases may be extrapolated into the life of the ordinary child is hard to say. Fairly severe stress seems usually to be involved, and, of course, the majority of children, given sufficient food, continue to grow even in astonishingly stressful circumstances. The famous experience of Widdowson (1951), however, does furnish some evidence that the stresses of 'normal' life as represented by a sadistic school teacher may cause a mean slowing of growth in pupils in her
Secular trend or change
205
charge. Many years ago it was said (Friend & Bransby, 1947) that in termtime certain boarding-school boys grew more slowly than they did in holiday time at home, and the experience of one of the authors appears to verify this (Tanner & Whitehouse, unpublished data). Smoking and other toxins Smoking by the mother in pregnancy is well known to affect both the birth weight of the child and its subsequent growth. Rona, Chinn & Florey (1983) also found that passive smoking, that is, living in the home of smoking parents, also was associated with reduced height, even when the mother's height, her smoking in pregnancy and child's birth weight and social class were allowed for. Elwood et al. (1987) found a difference of 1 cm at age five between children of pregnancy-smoking and pregnancy-non-smoking mothers when all other factors were allowed for. The possible effects of other toxins and pollutants have been less investigated, but Paigen et al. (1987) found a significant reduction of stature in children living near the notorious Love Canal toxic dump in the USA. The children were compared with local controls matched for parents' heights, social class, birth weight, illness history and state of nutrition. Secular trend or change Over the past 100 years in industrialized countries, and recently in some developing ones, children have been getting larger and growing to maturity more rapidly. This has been referred to as 'the secular trend' in growth; factors such as improved nutrition, control of infectious disease through immunizations and sanitation, reduced family size, more widespread health and medical care, and population mobility (both geographically to urban areas and socially upward) appear to be responsible. On the other hand, deprivations, typically such as occur during wartime, may cause a decrease in growth, as occurred in Japan, Germany, Russia (see first edition) and during the Nazi occupation of Norway (Brundtland et al., 1980). Since 'trend' may be taken to imply a monotonic increase, auxologists now prefer the term secular change; it is under this title that van Wieringen (1986) has recently reviewed the subject. Other reviews are those of Himes (1979) and Malina (1979a,b). The occurrence of a secular increase in height and weight has been well documented from many European countries - Sweden, Finland, Norway, France, United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, the Soviet Union, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland and Austria. From the rest of the world there are reports from
206
Environmental influence on growth
Canada, the United States, Jamaica, Chile, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, China and Hong Kong, showing increase in height over the decades. Even the adult height of Kalahari bushmen in South Africa (Tobias, 1962) and Australian Aborigines in the Northern Territory (Barrett and Brown, 1971) has increased in this century. In both populations a transition has occurred from the traditional hunting and gathering life to a more settled existence where the food and water supply is dependable. As noted in Chapter 7, economic and dietary changes have resulted in an increase in height over 25 years among the Bundi of Papua New Guinea. The lack of a secular increase has been reported among several groups: Manus boys of Pere village in New Guinea (J. Schall, unpubl.), Xingu Indians of Brazil (Eveleth, Salzano & DeLima, 1974), and Zapotec of Mexico (Malina et al., 1980). The average secular increase in height in Europe and North America in the period 1880-1980 has been greatest during adolescence because of the tempo effect (2 to 3 cm per decade), less during childhood (1 to 2 cm per decade) and least for adults (about 1 cm per decade or less). Comparable changes have been occurring in weight and other body dimensions. In developed countries weight has usually risen a little more than height, with increase of weight/height2. Skinfolds, too, have often risen (Chinn & Rona, 1987). In Japan, where the secular trend was exceptionally strong over the period 1950-80, the increase in height was almost entirely due to increase in length of the legs; between cohorts of 1957 and 1977 adult sitting height was practically unchanged while leg length increased 3.8 cm in men and 2.8 cm in women (Tanner et al., 1982). This result has been confirmed in Japanese students (Takamura et al., 1988) and also Chinese children (Zhang & Huang, 1988). The trend in Harvard students from the late nineteenth century to the 1930s was also predominantly in leg length (Himes, 1979). As already mentioned, the legs are the fastest-growing part of the body in early childhood which is when the impact of a better environment is greatest. In most developed countries the trend seems to have slowed down or even stopped during the last 10 or 15 years (for example, in the UK, see Cameron, 1979; Chinn & Rona, 1984). But there are exceptions. In the Netherlands young men increased 4 cm and young women 2 cm in height between the surveys of 1965 and 1980. Bock & Sykes (1989) were able to study the entire growth curves of a number of parents and children, both of whom had been subjects in the Fels Longitudinal Research Study in Yellow Springs, Ohio. The height differences between father and son and mother and daughter had not diminished as time went by from the 1930s to the 1970s. For young adults the increase was about 3 cm per gener-
Secular trend or change
207
ation; a little more, as usual, for males, a little less for females. These are middle-class subjects, well-off and paying attention to the current techniques of child-rearing. The Dutch and American data make simple explanations in terms of overall calories in childhood suspect; something a bit more specific seems required. The secular change has been alike in size and in tempo of growth. Age at menarche, for example, has been getting earlier during the last 100 years by some three to four months per decade in most European countries. In some countries, for example Denmark (Helm & Helm, 1987), the trend from 1860 to 1960 has been practically linear. In others, for example Norway (Brudevoll etal., 1979), there have been periods of rapid decline (1870-90; 1920-40) and periods of little movement. In most industrialized countries the trend has now stopped or is stoppjng. In the period 1965-80 in the Netherlands when women gained 2 cm in height, they maintained practically the same age at menarche.
11 Child growth and chronic disease in adults In this edition we address a question which has recently engaged the joint attention of epidemiologists and auxologists. There is mounting evidence that the seeds of some adult chronic diseases with their resulting fatalities are sown in infancy and childhood. Such diseases, it is said, are, at least in part, the long-term outcome of environmental events impinging on the infant and child, events not necessarily productive of clinical disease at the time of their occurrence. Growth, as we have shown in previous chapters, mirrors the cumulative effects of such events better, perhaps than any other index. So it is reasonable to ask: do differences in growth, as reflected in the end result of adult height or adult body build, relate to adult disease-specific morbidities and mortalities? The question may be addressed in two ways. The more direct is to ask within a given population whether tall individuals, for instance, have a lower all-cause mortality than short ones. The less direct is to ask whether between or amongst populations there is an association between the mean height of the population and all-cause mortality. In the two instances the factors operating to cause the associations between stature and the endpoint are not necessarily the same. Height
An example of the first approach has been presented by Waaler (1984), who linked height and weight measurements of all Norwegians aged 15 years and above taken between 1963 and 1975, with the death registry data in the Central Bureau of Statistics. The sample consisted of nearly 1.8 million individuals. He found that all-cause mortality declined with increasing height for both sexes and for all age groups except for some of the tallest individuals (Fig. 171). Information on specific-disease mortality was sparse, but he did observe reduced mortality from obstructive lung disease and cardiovascular diseases in those who were tall. No significant associations with nonspecific-site cancers were found. In contrast to this within-population study, correlational betweenpopulation studies have revealed associations with cancer. These studies reported positive correlations between height and site-specific cancer risk. One study (DeWaard, 1975) found an association of breast 208
209
Height i i Females
Males
100 80 60 40
20
•S io
o
1 0.8 0.6 0.4
0.2 150
160
170
180
190
140
150
160
170
180
Body height (cm) Fig. 171. Association between body height and all-cause mortality by sex and age (from Waaler, 1984).
210
Child growth and chronic disease in adults
Table 12. Cross-cultural correlations of age-specific anthropometric dimensions with age-adjusted breast cancer mortality rates among 32 populations" Correlation of breast cancer mortality rates with age-specific: Age (y)
Stature (N)
Weight (A0
Biacromial width (N)
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
0.49 0.38 0.56 0.56 0.53 0.45 0.57 0.65 0.62 0.75 0.77 0.74 0.72
0.48 (22) .0.39(28) 0.40 (28) 0.42 (28) 0.37 (30) 0.37 (29) 0.42 (29) 0.43 (27) 0.50 (27) 0.58 (25) 0.69 (23) 0.68 (20) 0.75 (15)
ns (12) ns (17) 0.44 (15) 0.40(15) 0.45 (16) ns (16) ns (17) ns (16) 0.41 (16) 0.47 (14) 0.68 (12) 0.78(10) 0.71 (8)
(23) (29) (29) (29) (31) (30) (30) (28) (28) (26) (24) (21) (15)
From Micozzi (1987). Controlling for sample size at different ages did not alter the results of the correlation analyses. N = number of paired observations at each age. ns = not significant at p < 0.005.
a
cancer risk with body size, most of which was attributable to stature. The contribution of childhood size to later breast cancer rates and mortality was estimated by Micozzi (1987). He correlated anthropometric data for ages 6 to 18 years from 32 populations, abstracted from thefirstedition of this book, with age-adjusted breast cancer mortality rates from those same countries. Significant positive correlations, which became stronger with increasing age, were found between height, weight, and biacromial width and breast cancer incidence and mortality rates (Table 12). No significant correlations were found with sitting height, biiliac width or chest circumference. Not all measurements were available for all population groups, effecting small sample sizes for these latter parameters. Since growth reflects overall nutrient intake, these observations are believed to support the hypothesis of a dietary link for breast cancer risk (see Wynder, 1979, among others). The between-populations approach was used also by Barker et al. (1989) who compared different geographical areas in England and Wales using data from the 1970 British Births Survey, the 1946 British National Child Development Survey and death certificates for 1968-78. They found that in areas of high cardiovascular mortality children aged 10 years
Weight-for-height
211
were shorter, on average, and had higher resting heart rates than those in areas with low cardiovascular mortality. Furthermore, they believe geographic differences in cardiovascular disease mortality in England and Wales to be associated with the intrauterine environment, citing as evidence that systolic blood pressure at ages 10 and 36 years showed a significant inverse relationship to an individual's birth weight, even when current weight was allowed for. If body height is associated with risk of disease, it follows that the secular increase in height that has been occurring in many populations should be accompanied by secular changes in patterns of morbidity and mortality. In previous chapters we have discussed secular changes in body size, especially for those populations for which we had data in the first edition and follow-up data in this edition. To sum this up: in the industrialized world and in some developing countries as well, there is a trend toward an increase in body size, as evidenced by height and weight, as well as earlier maturation. Not only are children becoming larger, on average, but adults are, too. Changes in a whole complex of environmental conditions, are likely to be responsible for this. There are some populations where there is an absence of any secular increase in height and weight, as among Mexican-American 6-year-olds in Texas (Malina & Zavaleta, 1980), Zapotecs of Mexico (Malina et al., 1980), Xingu Indians of Brazil (Eveleth et aL, 1974), and Manus of Pere village in New Guinea (J. Schall, unpubl.). It is probably fair to assume that in those groups no improvement has occurred in the environmental situation. At the same time that there has been an increase in body size, there has been an increase in life expectancy resulting in an extraordinary increase in the number of people aged 65 years and over throughout the world (Torrey, Kinsella & Taeuber, 1987). In most developed countries (those with a secular increase in height), life expectancy exceeds or approaches 75 years; in some developing countries, it is below 50 years. Thus, life expectancy is vastly different between the developed and developing world, as is the occurrence of secular increase in body size. It may be assumed that the same economic, health and dietary changes that have led to increase in body size also have contributed to an increase in life expectancy. Weight-for-height
In addition to height, adult weight-for-height may reflect conditions during childhood and/or during adulthood. The recent trend towards an increased prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults, especially among lower socioeconomic groups in industrial-
212
Child growth and chronic disease in adults
ized nations, is of considerable public health concern in view of the known associations of obesity with the long term risk of certain chronic diseases in adults, such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, gallbladder disease and some site-specific cancers (Johnston, 1985; NICHD, 1986; NIH, 1989). Dietary patterns have changed among less well-off economic groups in industrialized countries; today we see that many are consuming a high-energy and high-fat diet. There have been a number of analyses comparing large data bases from different populations relating adult weight/height2 (body mass index) by age group to all-cause mortality (Andres, 1980; Hoffmans, Krombout & de Lazenne Coulander, 1989; Rissanen etal., 1989; Waaler, 1984,1987). Most of these show a U-shaped or J-shaped curve, that is, mortality is higher at the lowest and highest weight-for-height values. It has been assumed that the excess mortality at higher body mass index is due to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease and diabetes, while the excess mortality at the lower weights is a result of existing disease, especially certain cancers (lung and stomach) and chronic obstructive lung disease (Hoffmans et al., 1989; Waaler, 1984). An exception is found in the study of Finnish men: cardiovascular disease mortality was increased also in thin, young non-smokers (Rissanen et al., 1989). Andres (1980), using data from various populations, has shown that mortality is lowest at body mass indices that are 10 to 15% above the 'ideal' values set in the Metropolitan life tables. Many investigators disagree with his conclusions and several criticisms have been published. These relate to failure to control for smoking habits in the mortality data, and failure to control for subclinical disease in the leanest, and choice of an inappropriate control for biological effects of overweight (Manson et al., 1987). Age group also is a factor since older age groups in many populations have minimum mortality at higher body mass indices (Hoffmans et al., 1989). Weight-for-height is a factor in elevated blood pressure in adults. Individuals at the upper quintiles of weight-for-height have higher systolic and diastolic pressures than those at the lower levels (Higgins et al., 1987), and blood pressure can be lowered through losing weight. Weight change itself is an important factor; young adults who gained weight were more frequently hypertensive than those who maintained their weight (Blair et al., 1984), and individuals who showed a pattern of alternate losses and gains were at more risk for coronary heart disease than those who remained overweight (Blair etal., 1989). In Framingham, Massachusetts, changes in weight were significantly related to changes in serum cholesterol, blood pressure, blood glucose and serum uric acid, all chronic disease risk factors (Higgins et al., 1987). In Tecumseh, Michi-
Skinfolds and obesity
213
gan, fatter individuals, estimated by sum of four skinfolds, systematically had higher blood pressure, serum cholesterol, and serum triglycerides (Garn, Sullivan & Hawthorne, 1988). Furthermore, young adults in Tecumseh who had been fat children tended to have higher blood pressure than those who had not (Higgins et aL, 1980). Atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease may, in fact, begin in childhood. Blood pressure tends to follow a channel throughout the growth period, so that those children with higher pressures will be at greater risk of being hypertensive adults. Tracking of blood pressure of 12 to 13-year-old children through young adulthood has been reported from Berlin (Martin-Bothig et aL, 1989) and several other cities, including Philadelphia where children who were taller and heavier had both higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure than those who were shorter and lighter (Katz et aL, 1980). This was probably a maturation effect since blood pressure was more highly correlated with bone age than chronological age. However, not only were similar results observed in a rural community in Kentucky, but earlier-maturing adolescent males (female sample not suitable) continued to have higher blood pressure as young adults (Kotchen et aL, 1989). Noninsulin-dependent diabetes is another chronic disease linked to high body mass index. Mexican-Americans who are at a high risk for noninsulin-dependent diabetes have a high prevalence of obesity and overweight even as young adults. When compared to NHANES I data, we find that Mexican-American adolescents, while well below the 50th percentile for height, are at the 50th percentile for body mass index. After 20 years of age increasingly greater percentages of the population are near the 90th percentile for body mass index. Moreover, the ratio of body fat shifts from predominant lower body fat in adolescents to predominant upper body fat in adults, signifying a higher risk for diabetes (Mueller et aL, 1984) (see below). Moreover, Mexican-American children are becoming heavier; a secular increase, particularly in weight, among Mexican-American children in Texas was noted in Chapter 5. Skinfolds and obesity
In North America a major problem in child health which is associated with the secular increase in body size is childhood obesity (NICHD, 1986; NIH, 1989). In the period from 1963 to 1980, prevalence of obesity, estimated by skinfolds, increased 54 percent in children aged 6 to 11 years and 39 percent in adolescents (Eron, 1988). Obesity is also a growing problem among some segments of Latin American populations, particularly in urban areas (WHO, 1986), among South African adoles-
214
Child growth and chronic disease in adults
cents of various ethnic groups (Richardson & Wadvalla, 1977), and among some Pacific Islanders (Bindon & Baker, 1985; Zimmet & King, 1982). Obesity in adults is a very serious health problem; it is considered that obesity in children is also unhealthy (Johnston, 1985; NIH, 1989). An important issue is whether fat infants become fat children and whether fat children become fat adults. Several studies have looked at the same children at different time periods in an attempt to answer this. In one, data were analyzed from six longitudinal studies in the United States. Individuals who were in a given percentile for body mass index in infancy tended still to be in the same percentile when they were adolescents (Cronk et al., 1982). Reexamination of 2177 children in NHANESI also showed that, based on skinfolds, there was a strong tendency for obese children (6 to 11 years) to be obese adolescents (Zack etal., 1979). Other evidence based on longitudinal data shows that all fat infants do not necessarily become fat children. Whereas some fat babies do remain fat as children, the majority return to normal weight-for-height status in early or late childhood (Johnston, 1985; Shapiro et al., 1984). However, children who are obese or overweight, even at one year of age, are at a greater risk of being obese as adults (Johnston, 1985). (Johnston's criteria for obesity were based on either weight/height2 (body mass index) or on skinfold percentiles, and whether body mass index or skinfolds were used as the indicator, similar results were obtained.) Analyses from the Paris longitudinal study agree with Johnston's conclusions (Rolland-Cachera, Deheeger & Guilloud-Bataille, 1987) and, furthermore, showed the age of the second increase in fat deposition (around 6 years) to be related to the amount of adult adiposity: the earlier this occurs, the greater the adiposity in young adulthood. Thus, while a fat infant or child will not absolutely become an obese adolescent or adult (since the age-to-age correlations are low), those children certainly are at a greater risk for obesity than are lean ones. There is some controversy as to whether body fatness and/or weightfor-height is inherited. The study of Stunkard and his coworkers (1986) concluded that body fatness is highly heritable. They used self-reported height and weight from the Danish Adoption Register and found that adopted children, as adults, were significantly more like their biological parents in body mass index than they were like their adoptive parents. In earlier studies in Great Britain and the United States, the opposite conclusion was reached. These earlier studies analyzed skinfolds rather than body mass index and correlated children with parents. They concluded that fatness is largely determined by environmental, not genetic, factors (Garn, Bailey & Cole, 1976; Hawk & Brook, 1979).
Fat patterning
215
Fat patterning
In addition to amount of fat, it has become apparent that fat patterning or where the fat is deposited in the obese has important health implications. We can only touch on this topic here but a recent review will be found in Bouchard & Johnston (1988). Patterns of fat distribution have been designed as ratios: (1) 'trunk to extremity' or 'centralized versus peripheral' in which subcutaneous fat on the trunk (usually subscapular) is related to subcutaneous fat on the limbs; and (2) 'upper to lower body' in which waist circumference (located in different places by different measurers) is related to hip or buttocks circumference (again some lack of consistency in body landmarks). As discussed in previous chapters, populations (and individuals) differ in the amount of lean body mass and adipose tissue in their bodies. They also differ in patterns of fat deposition to which there are both environmental and genetic contributions. Kaplowitz and coworkers (1988) observed (using principal components analysis) that although fatness age-to-age correlations were high in London children, fat-patterning correlations were generally lower (Fig. 172). Both sets of correlations increased with age. Baumgartner & Roche (1988) (using log ratio of skinfolds) agreed that fat patterning in adolescents cannot reliably be predicted from early childhood for many individuals. In fact, fat patterns appear to change in adolescence from a more peripheral to centralized pattern. In the London data, parent-child correlations in trunk to extremity fat distribution were low but tended to increase with age, with a strong rise at adolescence, whereas parent-child correlations for upper to lower body fat patterning tended to decrease with age (Kaplowitz et al., 1988). Father-child correlations were lower than mother-child. Evidence from a number of sources has demonstrated ethnic differences in the amount of fat deposited subcutaneously. Children of African ancestry appear to have less subcutaneous fat than white or American Indian or mestizo children, as seen in Fig. 173 (Eveleth, 1986). AfroAmericans had less fat on the arms and legs than Euro-Americans, even those living in the same cities (Johnston, Hammill & Lemeshow, 1974) (see also Fig. 164). Trunk skinfolds were also smaller among AfroAmericans, except for subscapular skinfolds which were similar. As mentioned in the first edition, American Indian children, even those who were nutritionally stressed, had trunk fat (but not arm fat) comparable to Europeans. Quechua Indians in Peru and Eskimos in Alaska had mean subscapular skinfolds that were similar to the median of the British standard. Among Guatemalan Ladinos, it has been noted that in the first year of life, loss of fat was greater in the limbs than in the trunk (Malina et
216
Child growth and chronic disease in adults 1.0 r-
0.8 c
£
r"
0.7 0.6 -
Corre latior
O o 0.5
\
/ \ \
^
PCI trunk-extremity
\
\ /
/
-v /
0.3 i\ 0.2 - • \ 0.1
\
\
0.4
0.0
MLS fatness level
zX
\
1
PC2 upper-lower
/
- V 1
1
i
1
i
i
i
i
I
i
1
1
1
1
I
I
Age (yr) (a)
/v/
0.4
fc 0.3 o 0.2
v
MLS PCI
U
PC2
0.1 0.0
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
l
I
I
I
i
I
Age (yr) (b) Fig. 172. Age-to-age correlations of year-to-year values in fatness and components of body fat distribution in girls (a) and boys (b) from London Longitudinal Growth Study (from Kaplowitz et al., 1988). (MLS, mean log skinfold; PCI, principal component 1; PC2, principal component 2. Note that PC2 was not found in girls, aged 12, or in boys aged 13 and 14 years.)
Fat patterning
15r
217 I Swedish
|
j Mex-Amcrican
I Euro-American
|
| Chachi
Afro-American
2
10
"o
El
w
i
3 years
7 years
1 5 years
Age (yr) (a) I Swedish
20
Euro-American Afro-American
n f
S 10
3 years
7 years Age (yr)
|
| Mcx-American
[
j Chachi
il 1 5 years
(b)
Fig. 173. Triceps skinfold medians (mm) in boys (a) and girls (b) at 3, 7, and 15 years of age in five populations: Swedish, Euro-American, Afro-American, Mexican-American, and Chachi Indians.
218
Child growth and chronic disease in adults
al., 1974), so that relative to the British standards, the Ladino triceps skinfolds were between the 3rd and 10th percentiles, but their subscapular skinfolds were between the 25th and 50th. Epidemiological studies have shown that fat deposited on the trunk and upper body ('centralized'), measured by subscapular skinfold, has a stronger association with risk of coronary heart disease than body mass index (Larsson, 1988). In one study of Mexican-Americans in Texas, those with centralized obesity had higher blood pressures, higher glucose and higher serum cholesterol levels than those with generalized obesity or the nonobese (Reichley etaL, 1987). Interestingly, advanced maturation seems to be related to a more centralized fat pattern. An analysis of NHANES I data for boys and girls showed that advanced maturers, estimated by bone age and menarche, were likely to have relatively more fat on the trunk than the limbs at all ages (Frisancho & Flegel, 1982). Little is known of the factors that influence fat patterning. American Indians and Polynesians both have a high prevalence of centralized obesity. This may reflect genetic influences, as Euro-American children tend to have a more peripheral distribution of fat than MexicanAmerican, Japanese-American or Afro-American children (Mueller, 1988). However, environmental factors may also be demonstrated as in the study of children of migrants from Tokelau to New Zealand. After periods of 10 years to a lifetime residing in New Zealand, they were not only more obese than the nonmigrants, but the fat was more centrally deposited, thus, theoretically putting them at higher risk for diabetes and coronary heart disease (Ramirez & Mueller, 1980). Similarly, among Manus residents, migrants from the fishing village of Pere to town were not only heavier and fatter, but the men had more centralized deposition of fat than nonmigrants (Schall, 1989). Fat patterning is used to estimate the risk for noninsulin-dependent diabetes, and fat localization in the upper body is a strong risk factor (Kissebah, Peiris & Evans, 1988; Mueller et al, 1984). Pacific Island populations have some of the highest prevalence rates of noninsulindependent diabetes and this has long been associated with obesity (Zimmet & King, 1982; Zimmet etaL, 1981). However, Zimmet and his colleagues believe that in addition to obesity and urbanization, other factors such as physical activity and stress may be involved, and the exact role of obesity remains unclear (Kissebah et al., 1988). Fat patterning is also a factor in hypertension although the magnitude of association is not large. Using data from the United States NHANES I, investigators have found that both triceps and subscapular skinfolds were correlated with blood pressure in children (Blair et al., 1984). Adoles-
Over- and undernutrition
219
cents who had greater fat deposits on the trunk also had higher systolic blood pressure than leaner adolescents. Thus, having fat deposited on the trunk seems to be more directly related to cardiovascular complications of obesity than fat on the limbs (Higgins et al., 1987). As pointed out above, a second type of fat distribution used is the ratio of waist circumference to hip circumference. These measurements are not generally taken in anthropometric studies to assess growth and, thus, there are no data for this ratio in this book. The advantage of the ratio is that the measurements are fairly easy to do and no special instrument is required other than a good measuring tape. Disadvantages are that no specific body tissue is measured and, as yet, there is no standarization of measurements among researchers (Workshop on Basic and Clinical Aspects of Regional Fat Distribution, NIH, September 11-13, 1989). A high ratio, i.e. upper body obesity, is associated with an increased prevalence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease and gall bladder disease independent of overall ponderosity (Hartz, Rupley & Rimm, 1984; Higgins etaL, 1987).
Over- and undernutrition
From epidemiological studies in human and experiments in animals, we see that an excess intake of fat, protein and total calories may be associated with increased chronic disease mortality and decreased longevity (Stini, 1978; Stern etaL, 1975; Waaler, 1987). Overnutrition in children is as important a risk factor as is malnutrition. Overnutrition may lead to an increase in chronic diseases in adulthood, such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease and site-specific cancers; malnutrition leads to poor growth and an increase in infectious diseases. Thus, nutrition in early life may be an important variable for the risk of chronic disease in later life.
Migration Studies of migrant groups offer some information in this regard since they have made fairly rapid changes in their living habits, including their diet. This frequently leads to an increase in overweight and obesity. Investigators have reported that Mexican and Japanese migrants to the United States have increasing prevalence rates of cancer, coronary heart disease and other chronic disease over time and even over generations (Buell & Dunn, 1965; Marmot & Syms, 1976). The changing rates are believed to be at least partly due to changing dietary intakes since the
220
Child growth and chronic disease in adults
migrants adopt some parts of the diet of North Americans. As we have seen, children of migrants become taller and heavier than sedentes. Samoan migrants from traditional Western Samoa to American Samoa and Hawaii have a high prevalence of obesity and hypertension. Migrants from traditional areas of Samoa to Hawaii had higher blood pressures than those who stayed in Samoa (McGarvey & Baker, 1979). Samoan migrants to Hawaii were overweight, being considerably above the United States standards for weight and skinfolds although with a similar stature (Hanna & Baker, 1979). The high weight of Samoan children was noted in Chapter 7. Even within the island of Manus, New Guinea, young men who migrated from the traditional fishing village of Pere to the westernized town were heavier and had an increased prevalence of borderline hypertension - 46 percent as compared to 2 percent for those who remained in Pere (Schall, 1989). Migration is associated with the emergence of noninsulin-dependent diabetes. The prevalence of diabetes is higher in Japanese migrants to Hawaii than Japanese in Hiroshima; Asian Indian migrants to various parts of the world, such as Trinidad, Fiji, and Singapore have higher noninsulin-dependent diabetes rates than Indians in India (Everhart, Knowler & Bennett, 1985). This is believed to be related to differences in lifestyle, especially changing diet and activity levels. MexicanAmericans, who are Mexican migrants, and descendants of Mexican migrants living in the United States, are at considerable risk for noninsulin-dependent diabetes which occurs in 10-12 percent of the adults. This is 2.8 times greater than in men of European ancestry in the United States and 1.5 times greater than in US women of European ancestry (Stern, 1985). Breast and colon cancer may be associated closely with total fat intake. Japanese consuming a high-fat Western diet had a higher risk of colon cancer than those on a low fat Oriental diet. Moreover, with the increased westernization of the diet in Japan since World War II, colon cancer rates have increased (Wynder, 1979). Looking at evidence from a migrant group, we see that there is an increased rate of breast cancer among Japanese migrants to the United States where breast cancer rates are high and the diet is high in fat. Fig. 174 shows incidence rates for EuroAmerican and Japanese-American women in Los Angeles, California, by age cohort. Japanese women in the younger cohort had higher breast cancer rates than older age groups. In fact, the rates were more like those of Euro-Americans at ages 45 to 50. In the first edition we pointed out that Japanese children raised in California were taller and heavier than those who stayed in Japan. The women with higher breast cancer
Over- and undernutrition
221
Fig. 174. Age-specific breast cancer incidence rates per 100 000 in EuroAmerican ( • • ) and Japanese-American ( • • ) women in Los Angeles, California. Older cohorts were raised in Japan or were less acculturated than younger cohorts (from Micozzi, 1985).
incidence would be part of this cohort with larger body size. Older Japanese women, who were either raised in Japan or were less acculturated, had far lower rates (Micozzi, 1985). Cancer is thought to be a multi-stage process with a long latent period. Thus, early nutritional patterns which influence child growth and maturation may also influence the adult risk of cancer. Stature, sitting height, and body mass index in adults reflect nutritional patterns during childhood. Correlations both within and between populations show associations with cancers. Among 750000 men and women in the United States, increased relative weight was a major risk factor for several sitespecific cancers, including biliary, breast, cervical, colon, endometrial, ovarian and renal (Lew & Garfinkel, 1979). In Great Britain the trend for cancer mortality paralleled that for increased intake of fat, animal protein and sugar from 1911 to 1971 (Hems, 1980). Cross-cultural correlations carried out on different populations using data from the first edition (see above) showed that triceps skinfolds and upper arm circumference during childhood and adolescence were significantly correlated with breast cancer incidence but not mortality rates in 32 populations (Micozzi & Schatzin, 1985). The possibility that, as developing nations become more affluent, they might also experience an increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity should be considered because of implications for development of
222
Child growth and chronic disease in adults
later disease and the potential for prevention (World Health Organization, 1986). For example, in the large cities of Latin America and in the Caribbean countries, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases are increasing rapidly. Indeed, cardiovascular disease is now the principal cause of death in the Caribbean, and temperate and tropical South America (PAHO, 1982). As health status improves and life expectancy increases, diabetes becomes more important and is now also a significant cause of death (PAHO, 1982). Dietary restriction Relevant to the discussion above are the numerous studies of caloric restriction in laboratory animals and the few natural studies in humans. An excellent review of these has been published by Weindruch & Walford (1988). A low-energy diet that is nutritionally adequate has long been known to increase life span and to reduce the incidence of cancer and other diseases that occur late in life. Dietary restriction that occurs during the growth period in rodents slows the tempo of growth, delays puberty, and, obviously, results in a lower body weight. It also delays the onset of diseases that occur late in life. Tumors developed at a later age in these animals than in non-restricted animals; in those already having cancer, the size of the tumor was reduced when the animals were put on a low-energy diet. The question of whether these studies are translatable to man is answered only by limited data on humans. For example, insulin resistance is decreased in caloric-restricted humans, as well as rodents. Okinawan schoolchildren who consumed only 62 percent of the recommended caloric intake for Japan, had reduced heights and weights; the population as a whole also has far lower mortality rates for cerebrovascular disease, cardiovascular disease and cancer. Any recommendation of caloric-restricted or of cholesterol-lowering regimens for children should not be made at the current stage of knowledge since we do know enough about possible effects on other systems, such as the neuroendocrine. However, investigators are beginning to look at early child environment and growth as important factors in determining health in later years. They are questioning nutritional practices that maximize human growth (Stini, 1977, 1978) since smaller, not larger, body size may lead to better health later in life and a longer life span. But as we have pointed out above, several European studies showed the opposite, greater height being associated with reduced allcause mortality (Waaler, 1984) and reduced cardiovascular mortality (Barker et al.y 1989). In the studies of cancer risk, greater height was
Over- and undernutrition
223
associated with increased site-specific cancer mortality. Tallness is believed to reflect good living conditions during the growth period, and, thus, what appears to be an advantage for lessening later cardiovascular disease may be acting disadvantageously in regard to some adult cancers. Body size and composition, growth velocity and maturational rate are all factors that, by reflecting conditions of early childhood, may offer important clues to the genesis of adult diseases.
224
Appendix
Appendix Table 1. Table 2. Table 3. Table 4. Table 5. Table 6. Table 7. Table 8. Table 9. Table 10. Table 11. Table 12. Table 13. Table 14. Table 15. Table 16. Table 17. Table 18. Table 19. Table 20. Table 21. Table 22. Table 23. Table 24. Table 25. Table 26. Table 27. Table 28. Table 29. Table 30. Table 31. Table 32. Table 33. Table 34. Table 35. Table 36. Table 37 a. Table 37 b. Table 38. Table 39. Table 40. Table 41. Table 42. Table 43. Table 44. Table 45. Table 46. Table 47. Table 48. Table 49. Table 50.
Height of European boys (cm) Height of European girls (cm) Weight of European boys (kg) Weight of European girls (kg) Mean weight, length, chest and head circumference of European infant boys Mean weight, length, chest and head circumference of European infant girls Sitting height of European boys (cm) Sitting height of European girls (cm) Arm length of European children (cm) Biacromial width of European boys (cm) Biacromial width of European girls (cm) Biiliac width of European boys (cm) Biiliac width of European girls (cm) Upper arm circumference (relaxed) of European boys (cm) Upper arm circumference (relaxed) of European girls (cm) Calf circumference of European children (cm) Triceps skinfold of European boys (mm) Triceps skinfold of European girls (mm) Subscapular skinfold of European boys (mm) Subscapular skinfold of European girls (mm) Height of boys of European ancestry (cm) Height of girls of European ancestry (cm) Weight of boys of European ancestry (kg) Mean weight of girls of European ancestry (kg) Mean weight, length, chest and head circumference of infants of European ancestry Sitting height of children of European ancestry (cm) Biacromial width of children of European ancestry (cm) Biiliac width of children of European ancestry (cm) Upper arm circumference of children of European ancestry (cm) Calf circumference of children of European ancestry (cm) Triceps skinfold of children of European ancestry (mm) Subscapular skinfold of children of European ancestry (mm) Height of boys in Africa and of African ancestry (cm) Height of girls in Africa and of African ancestry (cm) Weight of boys in Africa and of African ancestry (kg) Weight of girls in Africa and of African ancestry (kg) Mean size of adults in Africa and of African ancestry Mean weight and length of African infants Sitting height of children in Africa and of African ancestry (cm) Biacromial width of children in Africa and of African ancestry (cm) Biiliac width of children in Africa and of African ancestry (cm) Upper arm circumference of African children (cm) Triceps skinfold of African children (mm) Subscapular skinfold of children in Africa and of African ancestry (mm) Height of Asiatic boys (cm) Height of Asiatic girls (cm) Weight of Asiatic boys (kg) Weight of Asiatic girls (kg) Mean size of adult Asiatics Mean weight and length of Asiatic infants Sitting height of Asiatic children (cm)
226 228 230 232 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 257 258 259 260 261 262 264 266 268 270 272 274 275 276 277 278 279 281 283 284 286 288 290 292 294 296
Appendix Table 51. Table 52. Table 53. Table 54. Table 55. Table 56. Table 57. Table 58. Table 59. Table 60. Table 61. Table 62. Table 63. Table 64. Table 65. Table 66. Table 67. Table 68. Table 69.
Biacromial width of Asiatic children (cm) Biiliac width of Asiatic children (cm) Upper arm circumference of Asiatic children (cm) Triceps skinfold of Asiatic children (mm) Subscapular skinfold of Asiatic children (mm) Height of Indo-Mediterranean boys (cm) Height of Indo-Mediterranean girls (cm) Weight of Indo-Mediterranean boys (kg) Weight of Indo-Mediterranean girls (kg) Mean size of Indo-Mediterranean adults Mean weight and length of Indo-Mediterranean infants Arm circumference of Indo-Mediterranean children (cm) Triceps skinfold of Indo-Mediterranean children (mm) Subscapular skinfold of Indo-Mediterranean children (mm) Height of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island children (cm) Weight of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island children (kg) Mean size of adult Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island males Mean size of adult Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island females Weight, length and head circumference of Australian Aborigine and Papua New Guinea infants Table 70. Mean sitting height of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island children (cm) Table 71. Biacromial width of New Guinea children (cm) Table 72. Biiliac width of New Guinea children (cm) Table 73. Upper arm circumference of New Guinea children (cm) Table 74. Triceps skinfold of Pacific Island children (mm) Table 75. Subscapular skinfold of Pacific Island children (mm) Table 16a. Mean skeletal age (yr) of boys assessed by Greulich-Pyle Atlas Table 16b. Mean skeletal age (yr) of girls assessed by Greulich-Pyle Atlas Table 77. Mean skeletal age (yr) of boys assessed by Tanner-Whitehouse 2 method Table 78. Mean skeletal age (yr) of girls assessed by Tanner-Whitehouse 2 method Table 79. Mean number of deciduous teeth erupted of both sexes considered together Table 80. Average age of start and finish of first phase and start of second phase of emergence of permanent dentition (yr) Table 81. Secondary sex characteristics development in boys (yr) Table 82. Secondary sex characteristics development in girls (yr)
225 298 299 300 302 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 312 313 315 316 318 320 321 322 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 337 338
ON
Appendix Table 1. Height of European boys (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
Brussels national
Vercauteren, 1984 Ostyn etai, 1980
Czechoslovakia Denmark
national national
Blaha,1986 Andersen et al., 1982
France
Paris
German Democratic Republic German Federal Republic
Jena
Sempe etal., 1979; Sempe, 1987 V. Hesse, unpubl.
Bremen
Danker etal., 1981
Greece
Dortmund
Reinkenefa/., 1980
national
national
M. MantzagriotouMeimarides, unpubl. C. Dacou-Voutetakis et al., n.d. Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben, 1982
Dublin & rural towns national Aosta
Hoey etal., 1987
Naples
L. Greco & G. Capossi, unpubl.
Athens Hungary
Ireland Italy
Capucci et al., 1982-83 Kramer, 1983
1±
2±
3±
_
_
_
78.0 — 73.0 — 77.1 2.9 _ — _ — _
88.5 3.5 85.0 — 87.0 3.3 — — 88.5 2.7 _
97.2 3.6 93.7 3.5 95.3 — — — 98.3 3.4 —
mean
—
—
mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean" mean s.d. mean
— _ — — — —
— _ — — — —
— — _
_
median mean s d. mean" mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median
_
—
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
102.5 109.5 116.1 122.1 127.5 132.5 137.3 .142.2 147.8 153.9 15.1.3 61 124.0 129.0 134.0 140.0 146.0 150.0 157.0 104.7 111.2 118.8 124.1 129.0 134.0 139.1 143.8 148.8 154.8 5.4 6.0 6.0 3.9 4.4 4.9 5.8 6.4 7.0 8.2 100.5 107.0 113.5 119.5 125.0 131.0 136.0 141.0 147.0 154.5 4.9 5.0 4.7 5.3 5.3 3.8 4.2 5.6 6.1 7.3 103.3 110.5 117.0 125.1 130.8 136.0 140.8 145.8 151.5 157.9 5.7 4.1 5.3 5.3 4.7 5.4 8.4 8.0 6.1 7.3 _ 131.3 137.2 140.6 148.1 151.2 157.9 _ — — — — — — 5.3 6.2 6.1 6.9 8.6 7.6 105.3 112.2 118.4 125.1 130.9 136.5 141.4 146.1 150.7 158.1 4.0 4.9 5.2 3.9 4.3 5.5 5.9 6.4 7.3 8.1 _ _ 117.0 122.6 128.1 133.2 138.3 143.3 148.7 155.5 —
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
160.5 157.4 69 165.0 161.7 9.0 162.0 8.1 164.4 8.2 164.9 8.5 165.2 8.7 163.0
166.9 165.2 74 172.0 168.2 8.7 168.5 7.7 169.8 7.8 172.9 8.8 172.1 7.7 169.8
171.5 171.6 65 175.0 173.8 7.5 172.5 6.4 176.0 9.9 175.4 7.0 174.6 6.4 173.1
174.1 174.8 59 177.0 177.0 6.9 174.0 6.0 _ — _ — _ _ 174.2
175.3 176.5 5 4 178.0 179.0 6.3 175.0 6.0 _ — _ _ _ _ 174.8
— 119.0 122.0 127.0 131.0 136.0 142.0 148.0 155.0 164.0 169.0 173.0 175.0 176.0
97.5 103.0 109.3 116.2 4.5 4.6 5.1 5.5 97.6 102.2 108.7 115.7 3.5 4.0 5.1 4.2 — — 108.1 114.2 — — 5.1 4.8 111.0 117 0 _ _ — — _ _ 96.7 102.9 109.7 115.6
122.3 5.6 121.2 5.4 120.0 5.4 123 0 120.1 5.4 121.2
127.6 5.8 126.9 6.1 125.6 5.6 128 0 125.5 5.7 126.8
133.2 6.3 132.9 6.4 131.0 5.9 133 0 130.7 5.6 131.7
138.6 6.4 139.1 6.3 136.2 6.1 138 0 135.8 6.2 136.6
143.3 6.8 142.5 6.2 141.3 6.5 143 0 142.0 6.6 141.7
149.0 7.6 148.3 6.9 146.4 7.0 148 5 147.3 7.3 146.5
155.6 8.5 155.2 8.4 151.9 7.4 155 0 153.0 7.7
162.7 8.7 162.9 7.7 158.7 7.8 162 0 159.0 8.4
168.8 172.4 174.2 175.3 8.0 7.0 6.9 6.7 166.8 170.6 172.2 172.8 8.0 6.4 6.7 7.7 166.1 171.5 175.0 175.5 7.0 6.4 7.6 6.6 167 5 165.1 _ _ _ 8.3
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Spain Sweden
Switzerland United Kingdom
USSR
Yugoslavia
Oosterwolde
Roede & van Weiringen, 1985 Gerver, 1988
Oslo Bergen
Brundtlandefa/., 1980 Waaler, 1983
Bergen Warsaw CS Warsaw L. Bilbao
Knudtzone/a/., 1989 Kurniewicz-Witczakowa etal., 1983 Z. Niedzwiecka, unpubl.
national
Stockholm CS Stockholm L Zurich
Hernandez etal., 1985, 1988 Lindgren & Strandell, 1986 Karlbergef«/., 1976 Prader & Budliger, 1977 Rona&Chinn, 1984
England, Scotland England
Fox etal., 1981; Fox, 1984
Scotland Moscow
R. Rona, unpubl. Godinaefa/., 1987
Caucasus Zagreb
Miklashevskaya et al., 1983, 1988 Prebeg, 1978
Croatia
Z. Prebeg, unpubl.
" Values adjusted for age grouping.
mean s.d. median s.d. mean mean s.d. median mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean 0 mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
76.4 2.6 77.9 2.7 — — — 76.9 77.2 2.9 _ _ 75.0 2.4 — _ 76.4 2.3 76.2 2.5 — — 75.6 2.8 — _ — — — — — —
88.6 3.5 89.9 3.4 — — — 88.2 86.5 3.5 — _ 86.7 2.9 — _ 88.9 3.0 88.3 3.9 — — 87.2 3.2 — _ — — _ — — —
98.2 4.0 99.0 4.0 — 99.4 3.8 — 95.5 4.1 _ — 95.2 3.4 — — 96.0 3.5 97.2 3.8 — — 94.9 3.6 — _ — — — — — —
105.7 4.2 107 0 4.5 — 105.8 4.4 104.5 103.8 4.4 104.2 3.6 102.5 3.9 — _ 103.1 3.8 104.8 4.0 — — 102.1 3.8 — _ — — — — — —
—
—
—
—
112.4 118.8 125.0 131.0 136.6 5.0 5.5 4.6 4.9 4.8 114.1 120.6 126.5 132.1 137.6 6.0 5.7 5.1 5.4 4.8 — — — 130.6 135.5 112.4 118.7 124.3 130.0 135.4 5.9 5.3 4.8 5.3 5.5
142.2 6.1 142.9 6.3 141.0 139.7 5.8
147.3 6.3 147.9 6.6 145.2 145.4 6.2
152.1 6.9 153.1 7.0 151.2 150.4 6.8
157.5 7.5 159.1 7.4 157.2 156.4 7.7
165.8 9.0 166.5 7.7 ''164 163.8 8.5
173.2 8.3 174 2 7.8 170.9 169.9 7.8
177.4 7.6 178.8 7.7 175.7 174.9 6.8
123.0 5.8 124.3 4.5 120.2 5.1 124.6 5.2 122.7 4.9 123.7 5.3 121.1 5.2
173.7 176.8 176.8 7.0 6.4 7.8 _ _ 174.6 — — 7.2 170.9 173.7 175.6 6.0 5.7 6.8 — — — — — — — — 174.8 — — 7.3 — — — — — — — — — — — —
179.6 180.9 6.7 7.0 181.2 _ 7.5 179.4 180.0 — 176.6 — 7.1
128.4 6.0 130.0 5.1 126.1 5.2 127.9 5.4 128.6 5.3 129.8 5.7 126.7 5.7
134.2 6.4 135.2 5.4 131.7 5.8 135.4 6.5 134.1 5.6 135.3 6.0 131.7 6.2
139.0 6.6 140.4 5.7 136.5 5.7 141.0 6.2 139.1 5.9 140.4 6.2 136.6 6.3
144.3 7.0 144.9 5.9 141.5 5.6 144.0 6.3 144.1 6.1 145.0 6.6 141.6 6.7
149.2 7.4 150.1 6.2 146.7 6.2 150.6 7.2 149.3 6.5 150.0 7.1 145.4 6.8
156.0 7.7 157.3 7.3 152.8 7.3 156.8 8.0 155.6 7.7 — — — —
162.8 8.4 164.8 7.4 160.0 8.3 165.7 9.2 163.0 8.6 — — — —
170.0 8.0 170.5 7.8 165.5 8.1 169.7 8.3 170.1 8.2 — — — —
— 115.0 120.5 122.5 — _ _ 128.8 — — — 5.7 — — — 122.5 — — — 6.5 — 125.7 128.9 — — — 5.0 5.7 — 120.8 124.8 129.6 5.5 5.7 6.1 —
127.0 134.0 6.1 127.2 4.9 134.4 6.8 134.9 6.4
132.0 137.6 5.5' 131.7 5.6 139.6 8.0 140.1 6.9
137.5 144.9 6.4 133.7 6.3 144.5 7.5 145.0 7.2
— 149.1 6.6 139.6 7.2 148.8 7.3 149.9 7.8
— 155.0 8.2 143.2 5.5 156.1 8.1 156.1 8.6
— 163.2 8.9 149.2 8.2 163.8 9.0 163.1 9.6
— — — — — 168.8 174.4 175.8 — 7.6 6.9 6.2 — — — 156.5 — — _ 9.2 168.9 172.7 174.8 175.1 8.0 7.1 7.1 7.7 169.6 174.0 176.7 177.6 7.1 6.6 8.8 7.8
111.0 5.6 111.4 3.7 108.7 4.4 — — 110.1 4.2 111.4 4.5 109.9 5.0
117.8 5.8 118.2 4.3 114.1 4.4 — — 116.6 4.6 117.6 4.9 115.1 5.2
Appendix Table 2. Height of European girls (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
Brussels Flemish
Vercauteren, 1984 Simons etal., 1990
Czechoslovakia Denmark
national national
Blaha,1986 Andersen et al., 1982
France
Paris
German Democratic Republic German Federal Republic
Jena
S e m p e r al., 1979; Sempe, 1987 V. Hesse, unpubl.
Bremen
Danker et al., 1981
Dortmund national
national
Reinkene/a/., 1980 M. MantzagriotouMeimarides, unpubl. C. Dacou-Voutetakis et al., n.d. Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Dublin & rural towns national Aosta
Hoey etal., 1987
Naples
L. Greco & G. Capossi, unpubl. Roede & van Weiringen, 1985 Gerver, 1988
Greece
Athens Hungary
Ireland Italy
Netherlands
national Oosterwolde
Capucci et al'., 1982-83 Kramer, 1983
1±
2±
_ — _ —
_ — — —
78.0 — 72.2 — 75.9 2.9 — — — —
87.1 3.2 84.0 — 86.0 3.5 — — 87.8 —
mean
—
—
mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean" mean s.d. mean
— — — — — — — — — —
— — — — — — — — — —
mean s.d. median s.d.
74.8 2.6 77.2 3.0
87.7 3.4 89.7 3.2
median mean s.d. mean" mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean median
3±
5+
4±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15 ±
16±
17±
18±
_ 101.0 109.0 115.0 121.0 127.0 132.3 138.0 144.0 150.0 155.8 159.8 162.0 163.0 163.0 163.5 — 116.5 121.1 127.0 132.3 138.0 144.0 150.0 155.8 160.2 162.1 163.2 164.0 164.2 — — — — 6.1 7.0 6.4 7.2 7.0 6.6 6.2 6.0 4.9 5.8 5.9 5.8 5.1 — — — — 123.5 128.0 134.0 140.0 147.0 153.0 158.0 161.0 163.0 164.0 165.0 165.0 — 96.5 103.5 111.0 117.2 123.4 128.1 132.9 3.4 4.2 4.0 6.0 4.8 5.5 5.3 92.3 98.9 105.6 111.3 118.4 124.0 130.0 4.0 3.2 5.0 3.5 4.3 4.8 4.6 95.0 102.8 110.1 116.9 124.4 130.0 133.8 — 6.4 4.7 4.5 6.2 4.8 4.8 — — — — — 131.4 135.0 — — — — — 5.0 6.2 96.8 104.5 111.1 117.9 124.7 130.7 135.9 — 116.5 121.5 126.7 132.1 — — —
—
138.4 6.3 135.2 5.4 141.0 7.1 142.7 5.9 141.6 137.9
144.1 6.5 143.0 5.8 148.5 8.4 146.3 7.0 147.1 144.4
150.4 7.2 149.5 6.4 152.8 6.2 152.1 5.9 153.5 150.7
156.5 6.9 155.5 6.0 158.7 7.4 158.8 6.5 159.0 155.7
160.6 6.3 159.0 5.7 163.1 6.9 161.2 6.2 161.7 158.4
163.1 5.3 161.0 5.7 163.7 5.9 163.6 6.1 164.2 159.5
164.9 165.6 166.6 6.0 5.9 5.3 162.0 162.5 163.0 5.6 5.6 5.6 _ _ 165.1 — — 6.1 — — 166.2 _ _ 6.6 — — 163.5 160.1 160.3 160.4
— 115.0 122.0 128.0 134.0 141.0 148.0 154.0 159.0 162.0 163.0 164.0 164.0 164.0
97.2 102.0 109.2 116.0 121.4 127.0 132.4 138.3 4.0 5.0 4.6 6.0 6.6 5.3 6.1 5.5 96.7 102.0 109.1 114.9 121.0 126.2 132.6 138.0 4.9 3.5 5.5 5.9 7.2 4.7 6.8 5.1 — — 106.8 113.0 118.9 124.5 129.9 135.3 — — 4.7 5.1 6.0 5.7 5.4 6.3 — — 110.0 116.0 121.0 127.0 132.0 138.0 — — — 118.8 124.4 130.0 135.8 — — — — — 6.1 5.5 6.8 5.6 95.1 101.1 107.7 115.4 120.1 125.8 131.2 137.5
144.7 7.0 144.1 5.4 141.1 6.9 143.5 143.2 7.0 142.1
150.7 7.6 148.1 6.2 147.3 7.2 150.0 148.6 7.2 149.4
156.0 6.9 155.8 6.5 153.7 6.7 155.0 154.2 6.9 _
159.3 161.2 161.9 162.1 162.3 6.4 6.0 6.3 5.9 5.9 158.3 160.5 160.0 161.2 161.2 6.3 4.9 5.8 5.3 5.2 158.6 161.3 162.6 163.0 163,0 6.1 5.7 5.8 5.8 5.7 — — — — 158.0 — — — _ 157.1 — — — — 7.2 — — _ _ _
97.0 104.8 111.9 118.3 124.4 130.4 135.8 141.4 147.2 154.4 160.6 164.0 166.4 167.7 168.0 168.2 4.2 7.0 4.6 6.2 7.2 6.6 6.2 5.9 5.9 3.8 5.6 4.8 5.8 7.8 6.1 5.2 _ 98.6 106.5 113.6 120.2 126.2 132.0 137.7 143.4 149.4 155.7 161.7 165.4 167.5 168.8 169.8 4.1 7.0 7.1 6.9 6.7 6.4 6.2 3.3 3.6 4.6 5.9 5.5 6.7 6.3 5.1
Norway
Poland
Spain Sweden
Switzerland United Kingdom
USSR
Yugoslavia
Oslo Bergen Bergen
Brundtlandefa/., 1980 Knudtzon etal., 1989 Waaler, 1983
Warsaw CS Warsaw L. Bilbao
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa etal., 1983 Z. Niedzwiecka, unpubl.
Stockholm CS Stockholm L Zurich
Hernandez era/., 1985, 1988 Lindgren & Strandell, 1986 Karlberg etal., 1976 Prader & Budliger, 1977
England, Scotland England
Fox etal., 1981; Fox, 1984
Scotland Moscow
R. Rona, unpubl. Godina etal., 1987
Caucasus Zagreb
Miklashevskaya et al., 1983, 1988 Prebeg, 1978
Croatia
Z. Prebeg, unpubl.
' Values adjusted for age grouping.
Rona&Chinn, 1984
mean median mean sd mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
— 7^.3 _ — 75.5 2.5 — — 73.3 2.4 — — — _ 74.5 2.5 — — 74.2 2.8 — — — — — — — — —
— 86.9 _ — 85.2 3.3 — — 85.4 2.8 — — — _ 86.6 2.5 — — 85.8 3.1 — — — — — — — — —
— 96.0 97.3 4.3 94.9 3.9 — — 94.1 3.3 — — 94.8 3.4 95.4 3.4 — — 93.7 3.8 — — — — — — — — —
— 104.0 104.3 4.7 103.0 4.4 102.7 3.7 101.5 3.8 — — 102.2 3.8 102.9 3.7 — — 100.8 4.2 — — — — — — — — —
— 110.6 4.7 109.8 5.0 109.6 4.1 108.9 4.2 — — 109.1 4.3 109.5 4.1 109.6 4.7 — — — — — — — — — —
— _ 117.3 4.6 116.1 5.4 116.6 4.3 114.0 4.5 — — 115.6 4.7 115.7 4.4 114.3 4.8 _ — 115.0 — — — — — — 120.0 5.2
— _ 123.2 4.9 121.5 5.8 123.0 4.3 120.0 4.9 124.0 5.2 121.6 5.1 121.7 4.8 120.5 5.5 _ — 120.5 — — — — 125.7 5.7 124.0 5.6
129.3 _ 128.5 5.6 127.1 5.9 128.8 4.6 126.0 5.2 127.0 5.5 127.4 5.5 127.7 4.9 126.1 5.5 _ — 126.5 128.9 5.4 121.2 5.7 128.0 5.8 128.7 6.2
135.0 _ 133.9 5.9 132.1 6.4 133.9 5.4 131.4 5.7 134.0 6.4 132.7 5.8 133.2 5.0 131.8 6.0 _ — 132.0 133.3 5.4 124.8 4.6 133.7 6.2 134.1 6.4
140.2 _ 139.1 6.3 137.7 6.7 139.0 5.4 136.6 5.9 141.0 7.0 138.2 6.3 138.3 5.7 137.3 6.2 _ — 136.5 137.2 6.3 129.8 5.8 139.4 6.8 139.5 7.1
146.2 _ 145.0 7.1 145.0 7.6 145.4 6.6 142.5 6.4 145.0 6.9 144.3 7.0 144.0 6.2 142.4 7.6 _ — 143.7 6.8 138.3 7.2 145.8 7.7 145.8 7.7
152.9 _ 151.4 7.9 152.0 8.4 151.6 7.4 148.4 6.3 154.0 7.9 150.9 7.5 150.0 6.9 146.7 6.8 _ — _ 151.4 8.2 140.8 6.1 151.6 7.5 152.0 7.8
158.7 162.8 165.6 166.9 166.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ 157.5 162.1 164.5 165.9 165.9 7.0 6.3 5.8 5.9 6.6 157.8 160.5 162.5 163.0 163.1 7.3 6.2 6.0 5.9 5.6 156.7 160.1 162.8 163.9 — 6.8 5.7 5.5 4.8 — 153.7 156.8 158.3 159.9 160.8 6.3 6.0 6.0 5.7 5.5 158.0 162.5 164.0 — — 6.7 6.5 6.0 — — 157.1 161.3 163.2 162.4 — 7.2 6.5 6.1 6.3 — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ 157.3 160.1 161.6 162.9 164.0 6.7 6.5 6.2 5.4 5.4 146.0 153.2 154.9 155.9 — 7.4 5.9 5.2 5.0 — 156.6 159.5 161.4 161.6 162.1 6.4 6.1 5.8 5.6 5.8 157.4 160.6 162.7 163.9 164.0 7.2 6.6 6.2 6.1 6.0
166.7 _ — — 163.1 5.6 — — 161.3 5.7 — — — — _ — _ — _ _ — — — — 162.0 6.1 164.5 6.0
Appendix Table 3. Weight of European boys (kg) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
Brussels national
Vercauteren, 1984 Ostyn etal., 1980
Czechoslovakia Denmark
national national
Blaha,1986 Andersen et al., 1982
France
Paris
German Democratic Republic German Federal Republic
Jena
S e m p e r a/., 1979; Sempe, 1987 V. Hesse, unpubl.
Bremen
Danker et al., 1981
Dortmund
Reinkene/fl/., 1980
Greece
national
national
M. MantzagriotouMeimarides, unpubl. C. Dacou-Voutetakis et al., n.d. Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Dublin & rural towns national Aosta
Hoey etal., 1987
Naples
L. Greco & G. Capozzi, unpubl.
Athens Hungary
Ireland Italy
Capuccic/fl/., 1982-83 Kramer, 1983
median mean s.d. mean 0 mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
_
17.0
19.0
21.0
23.5
26.0
29.0
32.0
35.5
39.5
— 17.4 1.9 16.0 1.6 16.9 1.9 — — 17.4 2.0 _
— 19.3 2.2 17.9 1.9 18.7 2.4 — — 19.1 2.5 —
— 21.4 2.5 19.9 2.2 20.8 2.6 — — 21.6 2.8 22.0
24.0 24.8 3.4 22.2 2.8 24.0 3.0 — — 24.2 3.6 24.3
26.5 26.5 3.9 24.7 3.2 27.0 4.0 27.2 3.4 27.0 3.6 26.7
30.0 29.1 4.3 27.5 3.8 29.5 4.4 31.0 5.3 29.7 4.1 29.5
33.0 32.2 5.0 30.3 4.3 32.6 5.0 33.7 4.2 32.9 4.9 32.9
37.0 35.3 5.8 33.3 5.0 35.4 6.7 38.9 7.2 35.3 5.7 36.5
41.0 39.0 7.2 36.7 6.0 39.3 7.2 40.4 6.2 39.1 6.6 40.6
44.5 41.2 7.3 46.0 43.5 8.2 41.6 7.4 45.2 8.7 45.8 8.9 46.1 8.2 45.8
50.0 46.1 8.1 53.0 49.2 9.5 47.7 8.6 51.1 9.1 52.7 10.0 50.9 9.2 53.0
55.0 52.3 8.7 60.0 55.1 10.0 54.0 9.2 56.1 10.0 58.1 9.3 56.7 6.8 59.7
60.0 58.4 8.7 64.0 60.0 9.1 58.4 8.6 62.4 11.2 61.3 8.2 60.9 6.5 64.2
63.5 63.0 8.6 68.0 63.6 8.2 61.3 7.7 _ — — — — — 66.6
66.0 66.7 9.0 71.0 66.3 8.9 63.3 7.3
1±
2±
3±
_
_
—
—
—
10.9 — 9.8 1.1 9.8 1.0 — — — — _
13.4 1.5 12.2 1.2 12.6 1.3 — — 12.8 1.2 —
15.4 1.8 14.1 1.4 14.6 — — — 15.5 1.6 _
— — _ — _ 67.0
mean
—
—
—
—
—
—
26.0
29.0
32.0
36.0
40.0
44.0
49.0
55.0
60.0
65.0
67.0
68.0
mean s.d. mean s.d. median
— _ — _ —
— _ — _ —
15.0 2.0 14.9 1.4 —
16.1 2.1 16.0 2.0 _
18.0 2.5 17.6 2.0 18.3
20.5 3.4 19.9 2.7 20.3
22.8 3.8 23.0 3.7 22.4
25.4 4.5 27.1 4.3 24.8
28.6 5.8 28.9 5.3 27.4
32.2 6.7 32.3 6.4 30.2
35.4 7.6 34.4 6.4 33.1
39.5 9.2 38.8 7.7 36.4
44.6 9.9 43.8 9.2 40.6
51.3 11.0 50.9 10.3 46.3
58.0 10.7 54.3 8.6 53.3
62.5 10.6 59.3 8.5 58.8
65.4 9.7 59.4 7.8 62.2
67.0 10.0 64.4 8.0 63.5
mean" mean s.d. mean
— — — —
— — — —
— — — 16.0
— — — 18.0
20.0 — — 19.8
22.0 — — 22.3
24.5 22.8 3.5 24.0
27.5 25.1 4.0 27.4
30.0 27.3 4.0 30.0
33.5 30.4 5.2 33.9
37.0 34.0 5.8 36.4
43.4 38.4 8.0 41.0
46.0 42.6 8.0 —
52.0 47.6 9.2 —
57.0 53.6 10.2 —
_ — _ —
_ — _ —
_ — _ _
Netherlands
Oosterwolde
Roede & van Weiringen, 1985 Gerver, 1988
Norway
Oslo Bergen Bergen
Brundtlandefa/., 1980 Knudtzon e/a/., 1989 Waaler, 1983
Poland
Warsaw CS Warsaw L. Bilbao
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa etal., 1983 Z. Niedzwiecka, unpubl.
Spain Sweden
national
Hernandez etal., 1985, 1988 Lindgren & Strandell, 1986 Karlberg et al., 1976
Switzerland
Stockholm CS Stockholm L Zurich
United Kingdom
England
Rona, unpubl. Fox etal., 1981; Fox, 1984
USSR
Scotland Moscow
R. Rona, unpubl. Godinae/fl/., 1987
Caucasus Zagreb
Miklashevskaya et al.. 1983, 1988 Prebeg, 1978
Croatia
Z. Prebeg, unpubl.
Yugoslavia
" Values adjusted for age grouping.
Prader & Budliger, 1977
mean
10.1
13.1
15.4
17.6
19.6
21.7
24.2
26.8
29.8
33.0
36.3
39.9
44.5
50.9
57.1
62.1
65.9
69.0
median s.d. mean median mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean s.d. mean" mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
10.2 1.0 — 10.3 — — 10.7 1.1 _ — 10.1 1.1 — — 10.2 1.1 10.1 1.1 — 10.2 1.2 — — _ — — — _ —
13.1 1.5 — 13.0 — — 13.0 1.2 _ _ 12.7 1.3 — — 12.9 1.5 12.7 1.3 — 12.5 1.5 — — _ — — — _ —
15.3 1.8 — — 16.1 — 14.8 1.5 _ — 14.9 1.7 — — 14.8 1.6 15.0 1.6 — 14.7 1.8 — — _ — — — — —
17.5 2.1 — 17.0 17.6 2.1 16.9 1.8 17.2 1.9 17.0 2.0 — — 16.8 1.9 17.1 1.9 — 16.6 1.9 — — _ — — — _ —
19.7 2.4 —
21.9 2.7 —
24.3 2.9 —
26.9 3.2 27.1
29.8 3.7 29.5
32.9 4.4 32.6
36.2 5.2 35.3
39.9 6.2 39.0
44.6 7.0 43.8
50.5 7.7 50.2
57.5 8.1 58.0
62.8 8.2 61.0
65.6 8.2 66.1
— — 67.3
19.8 2.3 19.2 2.1 19.7 2.3 18.8 2.7 — — 18.6 2.3 19.1 2.2 —
21.9 2.7 21.8 3.5 22.3 2.8 20.9 3.1 — — 20.8 2.7 21.2 2.6 20.4
24.1 3.1 24.7 3.5 25.0 3.3 23.6 4.2 24.0 3.4 23.2 3.4 23.7 3.2 23.0
26.9 4.0 27.0 4.1 27.7 3.8 26.1 4.2 25.2 3.8 25.7 3.6 26.2 3.8 25.7
30.0 4.5 30.0 4.7 30.8 4.4 28.8 4.6 29.4 5.1 28.6 4.1 29.1 4.1 28.3
32.7 5.1 33.0 5.6 34.0 5.0 31.8 5.5 32.8 5.6 31.5 4.7 32.0 4.7 31.2
36.7 6.2 37.0 7.1 36.9 5.0 35.2 6.3 34.8 6.4 34.6 5.6 34.9 5.1 —
40.2 7.1 41.6 8.4 40.7 6.4 38.8 7.2 39.0 7.7 38.0 6.4 38.1 6.8 —
44.5 7.5 46.2 9.1 46.1 7.4 43.3 8.6 44.0 8.9 42.7 7.5 — — —
50.3 8.5 51.6 9.5 53.1 8.2 49.1 9.8 53.0 10.2 48.7 8.5 — — —
56.3 9.4 57.1 9.2 60.2 9.4 56.2 10.3 56.2 10.2 54.6 8.5 — — —
61.1 8.6 62.0 8.8 64.0 10.4 61.5 9.9 — — 59.8 8.5 — — —
65.1 8.8 65.0 8.0 — — 66.0 10.4 64.4 9.0 — — — — —
— — 66.1 7.2 — — 66.8 9.5 66.5 8.8 — — — — —
— — — — — — — —
—
—
—
—
20.6 — — — — — _ 22.7 3.9
22.5 — — — — 26.4 4.8 24.9 4.3
25.6 27.4 4.6 23.4 4.0 27.4 5.2 27.4 4.7
28.4 30.6 6.0 26.2 3.4 30.6 5.9 30.3 5.5
30.8 32.5 5.6 28.0 4.4 34.2 6.8 33.6 6.5
— 37.2 6.1 30.1 4.9 37.8 8.5 37.1 7.3
— 41.4 8.6 32.6 4.7 40.0 7.8 40.8 8.3
— 45.7 9.4 34.7 5.5 45.8 9.3 45.6 9.4
— 52.3 10.3 38.7 6.6 52.9 10.5 51.5 10.8
— 57.4 9.1 45.2 9.0 57.3 9.8 57.7 10.4
— 63.1 10.7 — — 62.2 9.8 62.7 9.8
— 68.1 9.6 — — 65.7 9.1 66.8 9.2
— — _ — — 67.2 8.9 68.8 8.5
—
Appendix Table 4. Weight of European girls (kg) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
Brussels Flemish
Vercauteren, 1984 Simons et al., 1990
Czechoslovakia Denmark
national national
Blaha,1986 Andersen et al., 1982
France
Paris
German Democratic Republic German Federal Republic
Jena
S e m p e r al., 1979; Sempe, 1987 V. Hesse, unpubl.
Bremen
Danker era/., 1981
Greece
Dortmund
Reinken etal., 1980
national
national
M. MantzogriotouMeimarides, unpubl. C. Dacou-Voutetakis et al., n.d. Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Dublin & rural towns national Aosta
Hoey etal., 1987
Athens Hungary
Ireland Italy
Naples
Capucciera/., 1982-83 Kramer, 1983 L. Greco & G. Capozzi, unpubl.
1+
2+
median mean s.d. mean" mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median
— — — 10.2 — 9.2 1.0 9.3 1.1 _ — — _ —
— — — 12.6 1.4 11.6 1.2 12.1 1.4 _ — 12.3 1.6 —
3+
4+
5+
6+
7+
8+
9+
10+
11 +
12+
13+
14+
15 +
16+
17+
— _ — 14.9 1.6 13.6 1.4 14.4 — __ — 14.6 1.6 _
16.5 — — — 16.7 1.9 15.4 1.6 16.5 2.2 — — 16.8 1.9 —
19.0 — — — 19.1 2.5 17.2 2.0 18.7 2.3 _ — 19.0 2.2 —
21.0 21.0 2.8 — 21.2 3.0 19.0 2.2 20.8 2.8 — — 21.4 2.8 21.5
23.5 23.0 3.4 24.0 23.7 3.6 21.3 2.6 23.6 3.0 — — 24.1 3.6 23.7
26.0 25.6 4.4 26.5 26.1 4.2 23.8 3.0 26.4 4.2 27.3 3.9 26.8 4.1 26.1
29.0 28.6 5.0 30.0 28.7 4.7 26.7 3.5 28.2 4.0 29.9 4.1 29.3 4.6 29.1
32.0 32.2 6.2 33.0 31.8 5.5 29.6 4.2 32.4 5.0 34.4 4.2 32.6 5.0 33.1
36.0 36.0 7.4 37.5 35.6 6.4 33.4 5.1 36.5 8.3 36.4 6.0 36.5 5.7 37.6
41.0 40.6 8.0 42.0 40.4 7.9 37.8 5.9 40.4 7.6 40.8 6.5 40.3 7.3 42.8
46.5 46.2 9.0 47.0 45.6 8.0 43.2 6.5 46.0 9.2 46.5 8.3 45.7 8.9 48.5
51.0 50.9 9.1 51.0 49.9 8.1 47.8 6.8 52.6 6.7 48.7 6.6 46.9 7.2 52.4
54.0 53.3 7.8 54.0 53.2 7.8 50.8 7.0 55.1 8.5 52.0 7.3 51.2 6.4 54.3
55.5 53.3 8.9 56.0 54.8 8.0 52.1 6.6 56.6 7.9 55.7 7.8 52.2 7.2 55.6
56.5 57.0 56.4 57.0 7.9 7.7 57.5 58.0 56.0 57.8 7.6 7.2 52.6 52.8 6.4 6.3 — — — — _ _ _ •— — — _ _ 56.5 57.2
18 +
median
—
—
—
—
—
22.0
24.0
27.0
30.0
32.5
38.5
44.0
50.5
54.0
56.0
57.0
58.0
58.0
mean s.d. mean s.d. median
— —
— —
—
_ —
14.1 1.7 14.7 1.8 —
15.5 2.1 15.8 2.1 —
18.0 2.5 17.9 2.3 18.1
20.4 3.6 19.5 2.9 20.2
22.6 3.9 22.7 3.7 22.4
25.0 4.4 24.7 4.2 24.7
28.5 5.7 28.8 4.2 27.2
31.3 36.4 8.0 6.3 31 1 35.3 7.0 5.7 29.9 33.1
41.0 9.4 40.3 8.3 37.2
47.0 9.7 45.4 8.5 42.3
50.1 9.1 48.8 8.3 48.2
53.2 8.8 51.2 8.2 52.6
54.2 8.1 51.9 7.0 54.8
54.8 9.0 54.9 9.1 55.5
55.7 9.2 52.4 6.2 56.0
mean" mean s.d. median
— — — _
— — — _
— — — 14.8
— — — 17.0
20.0 — — 19.0
22.0 — — 22.2
24.5 21.8 3.3 24.0
27.5 24.7 4.2 27.2
30.0 27.4 5.0 30.5
33.5 30.8 6.1 35.0
37.5 36.0 7.7 38.0
42.0 39.4 7.7 44.1
46.5 44.7 9.2 _
50.5 47.8 9.5 _
— 48.4 6.9 _
— — _ _
— — — _
— — — _
Netherlands
national Oosterwolde
Roede & van Weiringen, 1985 Gerver, 1988
Norway
Oslo Bergen Bergen
Bruntlandefa/., 1980 Knudtzonefa/., 1989 Waaler, 1983
Poland
Warsaw CS Warsaw L. Bilbao
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa et al., 1983 Z. Niedzwiecka, unpubl.
Spain Sweden
Hernandez etal., 1985, 1988 Lindgren & Strandell, 1986 Karlbergef«/., 1976
Switzerland
Stockholm CS Stockholm L Zurich
United Kingdom
England
USSR
Scotland Moscow
R. Rona, unpubl. Godinaefa/., 1987
Caucasus Zagreb
Miklashevskaya et al., 1983, 1988 Prebeg, 1978
Croatia
Z. Prebeg, unpubl.
Yugoslavia
1
Values adjusted for age grouping.
Prader & Budliger, 1977 Rona, unpubl. Fox etal., 1981; Fox, 1984
mean
9.5
12.5
15.0
17.2
19.3
21.4
24.1
26.9
29.8
33.2
37.2
42.4
47.8
52.1
55.6
57.5
58.5
59.4
median s.d. mean median mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean sd mean 0 mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
9.8 1.2 — 9.7 _ — 9.9 1.1 _ — 9.6 1.1 — — 9.8 0.8 9.5 1.0 — 9.6 10
12.5 1.5 — 12.2 _ — 12.3 1.3 _ — 12.1 1.4 — — 12.4 1.2 12.0 1.2 — 11.9 1.4
14.8 1.8 — — 15.1 2.0 14.5 1.5 _ — 14.5 1.9 — — 14.5 1.5 14.2 1.5 — 14.1 20
17.4 2.1 — 16.7 17.1 2.2 16.4 1.9 17.0 2.0 16.7 2.5 — — 16.7 1.9 16.2 1.8 — 16.0 2.2
19.7 2.6 —
21.9 3.1 —
24.4 3.7 —
27.1 4.3 26.3
30.3 5.0 29.2
34.2 5.7 32.2
38.9 6.5 36.1
44.3 7.2 40.8
48.8 7.7 45.0
52.6 7.9 51.2
55.5 7.8 53.8
57.6 7.4 55.9
59.1 7.0 56.5
— — 58.6
18.9 2.4 18.5 2.5 19.5 2.2 18.4 2.9 — — 18.6 2.3 18.2 2.1 —
21.0 2.4 20.9 3.0 21.8 2.6 20.7 3.6 — — 20.8 2.8 20.2 2.5 20.0
23.3 3.0 24.0 4.0 24.3 3.2 23.3 4.2 23.7 3.8 23.2 3.4 22.8 3.0 23.0
25.9 3.7 27.0 5.0 26.9 3.8 26.3 4.8 25.0 3.8 25.8 3.9 25.3 3.6 25.6
28.7 4.5 29.3 6.0 29.3 4.2 29.3 5.4 28.8 6.2 28.8 4.7 28.2 4.4 28.4
32.3 5.5 32.5 7.0 32.9 5.3 32.5 6.2 32.7 6.5 32.1 5.5 31.6 5.2 31.2
35.8 6.4 37.0 8.0 34.8 6.1 36.4 7.2 35.0 7.6 36.3 6.7 35.3 6.4 —
40.5 7.5 41.5 8.7 36.5 6.3 40.7 7.5 42.0 9.9 40.9 8.2 40.2 7.8 —
45.8 7.2 47.0 8.9 41.5 7.8 45.4 8.1 45.9 9.3 46.3 8.4 — — —
50.1 7.8 51.1 8.7 45.9 8.5 49.7 8.0 52.5 9.3 50.5 7.7 — — —
53.5 7.0 53.5 7.9 50.6 7.8 51.9 7.7 54.0 8.6 53.4 7.0 — — —
55.8 7.5 54.5 7.0 54.4 7.4 53.1 7.5 — — 55.9 7.4 — — —
56.6 8.4 55.0 6.5 54.7 6.8 53.5 6.4 — — — — — — —
— — 55.0 6.0 — — 54.5 6.3 — — — — — — —
— — — — — — — —
— — — — — — — —
— — — — — — — —
— — — — — — — —
— — — — — — — —
20.5 — — — — — — 22.4 3.8
22.5 — — — — 25.5 4.5 24.3 4.4
25.7 26.0 3.7 22.4 3.0 26.6 4.7 26.8 5.0
28.3 28.7 4.4 24.1 3.0 30.7 6.2 29.9 5.8
30.9 31.6 5.6 27.3 3.7 34.1 7.0 33.1 6.7
35.2 6.3 31.7 6.3 38.0 7.6 37.6 8.0
41.0 8.5 32.6 4.9 43.0 8.4 42.3 8.8
46.5 7.5 37.7 7.0 47.9 8.2 47.7 8.8
51.1 9.1 43.7 6.4 52.0 8.6 52.0 8.6
53.8 7.0 47.9 7.9 55.0 7.6 55.4 8.3
56.8 7.1 49.1 5.9 56.4 7.3 56.8 8.9
57.4 7.3 — — 57.0 7.0 57.7 7.5
— — — — 57.6 7.6 58.5 7.4
Appendix Table 5. Mean weight, length, chest and head circumference of European infant boys Age Birth
4 wks
3 mos
6 mos
9 mos
12 mos
18 mos
WT LT HC WTfl LTfl
— — 3.43 51.5
4.06 54.1 37.3 4.50 56.0
5.64 60.4 40.7 6.40 61.5
7.56 68.1 44.1 8.50 70.0
9.73 75.3 46.7 9.90 74.5
10.06 76.4 47.1 10.90 78.0
11.80 82.8 — 12.40 84.0
WT° LTfl HC WT LT HC CC WT LT HC CC WT LT HC LT
3.50 50.2 34.9 3.53 — 35.0 33.1 — — — — — — — 51.8
— — — 4.33 55.4 37.6 37.4 4.01 54.1 36.9 34.6 3.87 53.7 37.0 55.4
6.24 60.4 41.2 6.24 62.4 41.1 42.2 5.91 61.3 40.2 39.3 5.76 60.9 40.5 62.0
7.99 66.7 44.1 8.38 69.7 44.1 4.8 7.78 68.0 43.3 43.6 7.66 67.9 43.8 69.4
9.74 71.1 46.0 9.74 73.4 46.1 47.6 9.14 72.4 45.1 45.6 9.04 72.6 45.8 73.5
10.14 75.1 47.3 10.66 77.2 47.3 48.7 10.22 76.4 46.4 47.3 10.13 76.2 47.0 77.2
11.49 81.4 48.7 11.73 81.9 48.3 49.3 11.74 83.4 48.0 49.2 11.60 82.6 48.6 83.3
Place and authors
Variable
Netherlands Roede & van Wieringen, 1985 N = 81-204 Denmark Andersen et al., 1982,
N=c.225 Bilbao, Spain Hernandez etal., 1985,
N=c.5O Warsaw, Poland Kurniewicz-Witczakowa et al., 1983,
N=c.S0 Stockholm, Sweden Karlbergefa/., 1976, Af=c.llO Zurich, Switzerland Prader & Budliger, 1977,
N = c.m
Bonn, West Germany Brandt, 1980
' Median. WT, weight (kg); LT, length (cm), HC, head circumference (cm); CC, chest circumference (cm).
Appendix Table 6. Mean weight, length, chest and head circumference of European infant girls Age Birth
4 wks
3 mos
6 mos
9 mos
12 mos
18 mos
WT LT HC WT" LT°
— — 3.40 51.8
3.93 53.5 36.6 4.20 55.0
5.33 59.3 39.7 5.75 62.5
7.15 66.4 42.8 7.60 67.8
9.16 73.7 45.6 9.10 72.0
9.46 74.8 45.9 10.20 76.0
11.30 81.8 — 11.60 82.0
WTfl LT a HC WT LT HC CC WT LT HC CC WT LT HC LT
3.32 49.1 34.0 3.37 — 34.3 32.9 — — — — — — — 51.5
— — — 3.90 53.4 36.5 36.4 3.83 53.7 36.1 34.0 3.75 53.0 36.4 54.7
5.75 58.9 40.1 5.74 60.2 40.0 41.0 5.59 59.9 39.2 38.7 5.40 59.4 39.7 60.8
7.42 65.3 42.8 7.00 68.2 43.2 44.6 7.49 66.4 42.1 43.1 7.15 66.0 42.6 67.8
8.59 69.4 44.7 9.74 71.9 45.3 46.7 8.86 71.1 44.0 45.3 8.47 70.9 44.6 72.3
9.56 73.3 46.0 10.66 75.5 46.3 47.4 9.85 75.2 45.2 46.8 9.50 74.5 45.8 75.7
10.90 79.9 47.3 11.73 80.3 47.3 48.1 11.25 82.2 46.6 48.2 10.85 80.8 47.4 82.1
Place and authors
Variable
Netherlands Roede & van Wieringen, 1985, N = 81-204 Denmark Andersen et al., 1982,
N=c.225 Bilbao, Spain Hernandezes/., 1985, N=c.5O Warsaw, Poland Kurniewicz-Witczakowa et al., 1983,
N=c.S0 Stockholm, Sweden Karlbergeffl/,,1976,
N=c.no Zurich, Switzerland Prader & Budliger, 1977, 7V=c.l8O Bonn, West Germany Brandt, 1980 a
Median. WT, weight (kg); LT, length (cm), HC, head circumference (cm); CC, chest circumference (cm).
Appendix Table 7. Sitting height of European boys (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
national
Beunen etal., 1988
Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Netherlands
Oosterwolde
Gerver, 1988
Norway
Bergen
Waaler, 1983
Spain
Bilbao
Hernandezetal., 1985
Sweden
Stockholm
Karlberg et al., 1976
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
" Crown-rump length.
mean s.d. mean sd mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
1±
2±
— — — — _ — 50.1" 1.8 — — 47.1" 1.8 49.0" 1.6 47.5" 1.7
— — — — _ — 54.2° 2.0 — — 51.9" 1.9 54.3" 2.1 52.9" 2.2
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
— — 56.2 2.5 55.7 2.4 58.5 2.1 58.1 2.2 55.4 2.0 55.6 2.2 56.1 2.2
— — 58.5 2.7 58.6 2.6 61.6 2.3 60.7 2.3 58.7 2.2 58.7 2.2 59.0 2.4
— — 61.4 3.0 60.0 2.4 64.4 2.4 63.5 2.4 61.8 2.5 61.6 2.3 61.8 2.6
— — 64.4 3.0 64.0 2.7 67.3 2.6 65.9 2.6 64.2 2.5 64.1 2.6 64.7 2.8
— — 67.8 2.9 66.3 3.2 69.9 2.7 68.2 2.6 66.8 2.8 66.6 2.6 67.7 2.8
— — 69.1 3.0 69.0 3.0 72.1 2.9 70.3 2.7 69.0 2.9 68.9 2.8 70.4 2.8
— — 71.3 3.2 71.3 3.3 73.8 3.1 72.8 2.8 71.4 3.4 71.5 2.8 72.6 2.9
— — 73.4 3.4 73.8 3.1 75.5 3.3 74.6 3.0 73.3 2.8 73.5 2.9 74.4 3.0
— — 75.2 3.5 75.0 3.2 77.3 3.5 76.5 3.0 75.1 2.9 75.5 3.0 76.3 3.1
— — 77.4 3.8 77.3 4.0 79.4 3.7 78.3 3.4 77.2 3.0 77.6 3.2 78.2 3.5
77.9 3.1 80.3 4.4 80.4 4.4 82.2 3.9 80.7 4.0 79.8 3.8 80.5 3.9
80.8 3.3 84.0 4.8 84.6 4.9 85.6 3.9 84.8 4.4 83.5 4.4 84.0 4.6 _ —
—
15±
16±
84.7 88.2 3.7 3.4 87.3 89.6 4.5 3.9 85.6 88.5 4.4 3.9 89.8 92.8 3.9 3.8 87.8 90.4 3.9 3.5 — — — — 87.6 90.6 4.4 4.0 _ _ _ — —
17±
18±
90.4 3.0 90.9 3.6 89.3 3.5 94.4 3.6 — — — — — — _ —
91.3 2.9 91.7 3.6 89.8 3.8 — — — — — — — — _ —
Appendix Table 8. Sitting height of European girls (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
Flemish
Simons etal., 1990
Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Netherlands
Oosterwolde
Gerver, 1988
Norway
Bergen
Waaler, 1983
Spain
Bilbao
Hernandez et al., 1985
Sweden
Stockholm
Karlbergera/., 1976
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
3
Crown-rump length.
1± mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
2±
— — _ — _
— — _ — _
49.1" 2.0 — — 46.0° 1.7 48.5° 1.6 46.5° 1.6
53.8° 2.0 — — 50.8" 1.9 53.6° 2.0 52.2° 1.6
3±
_ 55.5 2.5 54.9 2.1 57.8 2.1 56.4 2.3 54.6 1.9 54.8 2.0 54.3 1.9
4±
5±
—
—
57.7 2.7 57.6 3.2 61.2 2.2 59.3 3.1 57.9 2.3 57.9 2.1 57.8 2.1
60.9 2.9 60.0 3.0 64.1 2.3 61.9 2.4 61.5 2.5 60.9 2.2 60.6 2.3
6+ 64.0 2.5 63.9 3.0 62.9 2.8 66.7 2.4 64.7 2.3 64.3 2.6 .64.1 2.4 63.5 2.5
7+
8+
9+
10+
11 +
12+
13+
14+
15+
16+
17+
18 +
66.0 2.6 66.3 2.9 66.1 3.2 69.0 2.6 67.4 2.5 66.8 2.6 66.6 2.4 66.5 2.6
68.4 2.9 68.5 3.2 68.2 3.2 71.2 2.8 69.2 2.7 69.2 2.7 68.2 2.6 69.2 2.5
70.5 2.8 70.6 3.2 70.9 3.6 73.3 2.9 71.6 3.1 71.1 2.8 71.2 2.8 71.4 2.5
72.9 3.2 73.0 3.5 72.4 3.6 75.6 3.2 73.9 3.3 73.3 3.2 73.2 3.0 73.5 2.7
75.3 3.6 75.8 3.8 75.6 3.5 78.2 3.4 75.9 3.4 75.8 3.2 76.0 3.6 75.8 3.0
78.3 3.9 78.9 4.2 77.9 3.7 81.1 3.5 79.1 3.9 78.4 3.5 78.9 3.8 78.7 3.7
81.4 4.0 81.9 3.9 82.9 3.8 84.4 3.5 82.3 3.9 81.0 3.6 82.3 3.8
83.9 3.6 84.0 3.6 83.6 2.9 86.8 3.4 85.1 3.2 83.3 3.1 85.1 3.5
85.3 3.4 85.3 3.5 84.0 3.6 88.3 3.3 86.6 2.9 —
86.1 3.2 86.0 3.2 84.1 2.7 89.4 3.2 87.7 2.9 —
86.9 3.0 86.0 3.1 84.8 3.2 90.3 3.2 — — —
87.2 3.0 86.5 3.2 84.8 3.0 — — — — —
86.4 3.2
87.2 3.2
—
—
—
—
—
—
00
Appendix Table 9. Arm length of European children {cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Boys Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
USSR
Caucasus
Miklashevskaya et al., 1983
Girls Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben, 1982
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
USSR
f^^i iir*QCiic
3±
1983
mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
— — — — 31.0 1.5 _ —
— — — — 37.0 1.8 _ —
39.6 2.8 39.3 2.1 41.4 1.9 _ —
42.3 3.1 41.5 2.3 44.8 2.1 — _
45.4 2.9 44.7 2.2 47.8 2.2 — —
48.8 3.1 48.3 3.7 51.0 2.5 — —
51.9 3.2 51.2 2.9 53.5 2.6 — —
54.5 3.2 54.1 3.5 56.2 2.8 52.7 3.7
57.2 3.5 57.0 3.7 59.1 2.9 55.0 2.5
59.7 3.4 60.7 3.6 61.4 3.0 57.6 2.9
62.0 3.8 61.8 3.6 63.4 3.1 59.1 2.9
64.8 4.1 64.6 3.4 66.0 3.4 61.0 3.6
67.9 4.6 67.5 4.5
71.5 4.6 71.7 4.6
74.2 4.5 73.4 5.6
75.8 3.9 74.8 4.0
76.5 4.1 75.7 3.1
76.4 4.2 76.0 3.4
62.5 3.4
66.8 4.9
69.7 4.5
— —
— —
— —
mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
— — — — 29.9 1.7
— — — — 35.6 1.7
39.3 2.6 38.9 1.5 40.1 1.8
41.6 2.7 41.1 2.8 43.6 1.9
45.1 2.9 44.5 2.5 46.3 2.1
48.1 2.9 47.4 2.8 49.5 2.2
50.6 3.1 51.6 3.1 52.2 2.4
53.5 3.3 53.6 3.7 54.8 2.5
56.0 3.3 56.8 4.6 58.7 2.6
64.7 4.1 64.5 3.4 65.4 3.3 61 2 3.5
68.6 3.7 68.7 3.4
69.3 3.8 69.8 4.6
69.5 3.7 69.2 3.5
69.2 3.6 69.3 3.0
69.2 3.4 68.5 3.2
2.2
61.8 3.8 62.3 3.2 62.6 3.0 59 5 3.5
67.3 3.9 67.3 3.6
3.0
58.8 3.7 59.6 4.0 59.8 2.7 55 8 2.6
63.8 3.9
66.7 3.4
67.6 2.8
68.3 3.5
— —
— —
s.d.
Appendix Table 10. Biacromial width of European boys {cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
national
Beunenefa/., 1988
Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Netherlands
Oosterwolde
Gerver, 1988
Norway
Bergen
Waaler, 1983
Poland
Warsaw
Sweden
urban
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa etal, 1983 Karlberg et al., 1976
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
USSR
Moscow
Godinaefa/., 1987
Caucasus
Miklashevskaya et al., 1983
1± mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
2±
_ — — — — _ — — — 20.3 — 1.4 _ _ _ _ 18.0 1.0 20.4 1.0 19.3 1.4 _ — — —
21.1 1.0 22.5 1.1 21.7 1.2 _ — — —
3±
22.6 1.5 23.0 0.9 21.9 1.3 22.6 1.1 22.5 1.0 24.0 1.1 23.4 1.3 — — — —
4±
23.2 1.5 23.5 1.1 23.5 1.3 23.8 1.2 23.3 1.0 25.0 1.2 24.8 1.3 — — — —
5±
24.5 1.6 24.8 1.3 25.0 1.3 25.0 1.2 24.7 1.0 26.1 1.1 25.6 1.5 _ — — —
6±
25.9 1.7 25.8 1.5 26.2 1.2 26.2 1.2 26.2 1.1 27.2 1.2 26.8 1.2 _ — — —
7±
27.0 1.7 27.6 1.7 27.3 1.3 27.3 1.4 27.2 1.2 28.3 1.2 28.0 1.5 _ — — —
8±
28.2 1.7 28.3 1.4 28.3 1.3 28.4 1.4 28.2 1.3 29.3 1.4 29.4 1.4 27.9 1.3 27.2 1.9
9±
29.3 1.8 29.7 1.6 29.3 1.4 29.6 1.4 29.0 1.3 30.3 1.5 30.2 1.5 28.8 1.5 28.7 1.3
10±
30.4 1.8 31.1 2.0 30.3 1.6 30.4 1.6 29.9 1.3 31.4 1.6 30.9 1.5 29.5 1.5 29.4 1.4
11±
31.4 2.0 31.6 1.6 31.3 1.7 31.4 1.6 31.0 1.6 32.6 1.6 31.7 1.5 30.6 1.4 30.2 1.6
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
32.5 2.2 33.0 1.8 32.3 1.8 32.5 2.0 32.2 1.9 33.8 1.8 32.9 1.7 31.8 1.7 31.4 1.6
32.7 1.8 34.0 2.4 34.1 2.4 33.6 2.0 33.6 2.0 33.9 2.2 35.2 2.0 — — 33.3 2.1 31.6 1.4
33.6 1.9 35.8 2.6 36.4 2.5 35.2 2.1 35.7 2.1 35.7 2.4 36.8 2.3 — — 34.8 2.4 33.2 1.8
35.8 2.1 37.6 2.5 37.3 2.2 37.0 2.2 37.2 2.5 37.1 2.2 38.3 2.2 — — 36.3 2.2 35.0 2.6
37.6 2.0 38.8 2.3 38.0 2.2 38.6 2.2 38.4 2.4 37.9 2.1 39.7 2.2 — — 37.7 2.1 — —
38.4 1.9 39.6 2.4 39.2 2.2 39.6 2.3 — _ 38.4 2.1 — _ — — 38.6 1.9 — —
39.4 1.5 40.1 2.1 40.0 1.8 — — — _ 38.7 2.2 — _ — — — — — —
Appendix Table 11. Biacromial width of European girls {cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
national
Simons etal., 1990
Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Netherlands
Oosterwolde
Gerver, 1988
Norway
Bergen
Waaler, 1983
Poland
Warsaw
Sweden
urban
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa era/., 1983 Karlberge/a/., 1976
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
USSR
Moscow
Godina etal., 1987
Caucasus
Miklashevskaya et al.. 1983
1± mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
— _ — — —
2±
3±
— — _ 22.3 — 1.5 — 23.1 — 1.8
4±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
26.2 1.3 27.0 1.5 27.2 1.2 26.5 1.4 26.9 1.3 26.4 1.0 28.1 1.4 27.2 1.4 — — —
28.3 1.6 29.0 1.7 29.3 1.7 28.8 1.6 28.8 1.5 28.1 1.2 30.1 1.7 29.3 1.2 28.3 1.4 28.1 1.2
29.3 1.6 30.2 1.9 30.3 1.5 30.2 1.6 30.1 1.6 28.9 1.4 31.4 1.7 30.4 1.4 29.2 1.4 29.0 1.5
30.6 1.6 31.6 2.0 31.7 1.9 31.6 1.7 31.0 1.8 29.9 1.6 32.8 1.9 31.3 -1.5 30.2 1.8 30.6 1.6
31.7 1.9 33.0 2.1 33.0 1.7 32.9 1.8 32.2 1.9 31.1 1.9 34.2 2.1 32.4 2.9 31.8 2.0 30.9 1.7
33.0 1.8 34.3 1.9 34.4 2.0 34.1 1.8 33.5 1.9 32.2 2.0 35.5 1.9 _ — 33.3 1.7 32.4 2.1
34.0 1.7 35.1 1.8 35.3 1.7 35.0 1.8 35.0 1.7 33.8 1.7 36.4 1.7 _ — 34.3 1.9 33.8 1.4
34.5 1.7 35.6 1.8 35.1 1.7 35.7 1.8 35.7 1.5 34.7 1.6 36.6 1.6 — — 34.5 1.7 34.9 1.6
35.0 1.6 35.9 1.7 35.6 1.8 36.2 1.7 36.6 1.3 35.1 1.5 37.1 1.6 _ — 34.9 1.3 35.2 1.2
35.1 1.5 36.0 1.6 36.1 1.8 36.2 1.6 _ _ 35.4 1.5 _ — _ — 35.4 1.6 —
35.4 1.6 36.2 1.6 35.8 1.4
_ _ 35.5 1.6 _ — _ — _ — —
—
27.2 1.5 28.0 1.6 28.0 1.9 27.6 1.5 27.8 1.5 27.2 1.1 29.1 1.4 28.6 1.3 27.5 1.2 27.3 1.6
—
—
—
— 24.4 1.5 24.0 1.3 24.6 1.2 24.6 1.1 24.3 1.2 26.0 1.3 25.1 1.2 — — —
25.3 1.3 25.7 1.5 25.7 1.6 25.7 1.3 25.8 1.1 25.6 1.0 27.2 1.4 26.1 1.1 — — —
—
—
17.8 1.1 20.2 1.1 19.1 1.1 _ — —
19.9 1.6 _ — 20.9 0.9 22.4 1.1 21.4 1.0 — — —
21 3 1.4 22.3 1.1 22.2 1.2 23.8 1.2 23.0 1.1 — — —
23.0 1.3 23.4 1.3 23.0 1.3 23.5 1.1 23.1 1.4 24.9 1.3. 24.1 1.2 _ — —
—
—
—
—
_ —
5±
Appendix Table 12. Biiliac width of European boys (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Netherlands
Oosterwolde
Gerver, 1988
Norway
Bergen
Waaler, 1983
Poland
Warsaw
Sweden
urban
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa era/., 1983 Karlberg et al., 1976
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
USSR
Moscow
Godina etal., 1987
Caucasus
Miklashevskaya et al., 1983
1+ mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
_ — _ 13.2 0.9 — — 13.2 0.8 13.4 0.8 13.1 0.8 — — — —
?+
3+
4+
5+
6+
7+
8+
9+
10+
11 +
12+
13+
14+
15 +
16+
17+
18 +
_ — — 14.8 0.9 — — 15.3 0.9 14.9 0.8 14.7 0.8 — — — —
16.3 1.3 16.6 0.9 16.0 1.0 16.4 0.8 16.3 0.9 16.1 0.8 16.1 0.9 — — — —
16.7 1.3 17.4 1.2 17.0 1.0 17.2 1.0 17.0 0.9 17.7 0.9 17.1 0.9 — — —
17.5 1.3 18.2 0.9 18.0 1.0 18.1 1.0 17.9 1.0 17.9 1.0 18.0 1.0 — — — —
18.5 1.4 18.8 1.1 18.8 1.1 18.8 1.0 18.8 1.0 18.8 1.0 18.7 1.1 — — — —
19.1 1.4 19.7 1.2 19.6 1.1 19.5 1.1 19.6 1.1 19.5 1.1 19.6 1.3 — — — —
19.9 1.5 20.5 1.5 30.3 1.1 20.3 1.1 20.2 1.2 20.3 1.1 20.3 1.3 20.6 1.2 20.4 1.3
20.6 1.6 21.4 1.8 21.0 1.2 21.2 1.3 21.0 1.4 21.0 1.2 21.1 1.3 21.3 1.3 21.2 1.0
21.5 1.7 22.4 1.8 21.7 1.3 21.8 1.3 21.7 1.5 21.7 1.3 21.6 1.3 21.6 1.1 21.6 0.9
22.1 1.8 22.8 1.7 22.4 1.4 22.5 1.4 22.5 1.6 22.4 1.4 22.2 1.4 22.6 1.5 22.2 1.5
22.9 2.0 23.9 1.8 23.1 1.4 23.4 1.8 23.2 1.7 23.1 1.5 23.0 1.5 23.5 1.6 23.0 1.5
24.1 2.1 25.0 2.2 24.0 1.5 24.3 1.7 24.2 1.9 24.0 1.6 — — 24.5 1.7 23.7 1.2
25.2 2.1 26.2 2.3 25.2 1.6 25.8 1.7 25.4 1.8 25.2 1.8 — — 25.9 1.8 24.4 1.4
26.4 22 26.8 1.8 26.4 1.6 26.8 1.6 26.5 1.7 26.4 1.7 — — 26.6 1.7 25.6 1.8
27.1 1.9 27.8 2.0 27.4 1.7 27.5 1.7 27.2 1.5 27.2 1.7 — — 27.6 1.6 —
27.5 2.0 28.2 2.2 27.8 1.7 — — 27.7 1.7 _ — — — 28.0 1.7 —
27.6 2.1 28.6 1.6 — — — — 27.8 1.9 — — _ — — — —
—
—
—
—
to
Appendix Table 13. Biiliac width of European girls (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
national
Simons et al., 1990
Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Netherlands
Oosterwolde
Gerver, 1988
Norway
Bergen
Waaler, 1983
Poland
Warsaw
Sweden
urban
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa etal., 1983 KarlbergrtaZ.,1976
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
USSR
Moscow
Godina etal., 1987
Caucasus
Miklashevskaya et al., 1983
mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
1+
2+
3+
4+
5+
6+
7+
8+
9+
10+
11 +
12+
13+
14+
15 +
16+
17+
18+
— _ — — — 13.1 0.9 _ — 13.0 0.7 13.2 0.8 12.8 0.7 — — —
— — — — — 14.8 1.0 _ — 15.2 0.9 14.7 0.7 14.4 0.8 — — —
— 16.0 1.3 16.7 1.1 15.8 1.1 16.0 0.9 16.5 1.0 15.9 0.7 15.9 0.8 — — —
— 16.5 1.2 17.0 1.1 16.9 1.1 17.0 0.9 16.9 1.0 16.9 1.0 16.9 0.9 — — —
— 17.4 1.3 17.9 1.4 17.8 1.2 17.6 0.9 17.8 1.0 17.8 1.0 17.8 1.0 — — —
18.1 1.0 18.3 1.4 18.6 1.4 18.6 1.2 18.5 0.9 18.6 1.0 18.6 1.1 18.6 1.0 — — —
18.7 1.1 18.9 1.4 20.0 1.3 19.4 1.3 19.3 1.0 19.2 1.2 19.4 1.2 19.4 1.1 — — —
—
—
—
—
—
21.1 1.5 21.4 1.9 22.1 1.5 21.9 1.4 22.0 1.5 21.3 1.7 21.9 1.5 21.8 1.3 21.8 1.4 21.6 1.2
22.1 1.7 22.6 2.0 23.3 1.9 23.0 1.4 22.8 1.7 22.6 1.7 23.0 L7 22.7 1.4 23.0 1.6 23.1 1.4
23.2 1.8 23.7 2.1 24.3 2.0 24.2 1.5 23.8 1.6 23.7 1.9 24.2 1.8 23.8 1.6 24.3 1.0 23.3 1.3
24.6 1.9 25.0 2.0 25.8 1.9 25.4 1.6 25.1 1.6 25,1 1.8 25.5 1.8 — — 25.5 1.6 24.7 1.9
25.6 1.8 25.7 1.9 26.5 2.1 26.1 1.6 26.3 1.5 26.0 1.7 26.5 1.7 — — 26.7 1.7 26.5 1.7
26.2 1.6 26.3 1.9 27.2 1.7 26.5 1.7 27.3 1.4 26.7 1.4 27.1 1.6 — — 27.2 1.4 27.4 1.6
26.7 1.7 26.7 1.9 27.3 2.1 26.8 1.7 28.1 1.6 27.1 1.4 27.3 1.5 — _ 27.7 1.6 27.6 1.5
27.2 1.6 27.1 1.8 27.5 2.3 — — _ — 27.4 1.2 — _ — _ — — _
—
20.2 1.3 20.5 1.7 21.3 1.7 20.9 1.3 21.0 1.4 20.5 1.5 21.1 1.3 21.0 1.3 21.2 1.2 20.6 1.0
27.1 1.6 26.8 1.8 28.1 1.9 27.1 1.7 _ — 27.4 1.3 — _ — _ 29.9 1.4 —
—
19.4 1.2 19.6 1.5 20.1 1.7 20.1 1.3 20.1 1.2 19.9 1.3 20.2 1.2 20.3 1.2 20.5 1.1 19.7 1.1
—
—
Appendix Table 14. Upper arm circumference {relaxed) of European boys {cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
national
Beunenera/., 1988
Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Netherlands
Oosterwolde
Gerver, 1988
Norway
Bergen
Waaler, 1983
Poland
Warsaw
Spain
Bilbao
Sweden
urban
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa etal, 1983 Hernandez etal., 1985, 1988 Karlberg^a/., 1976
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
Yugoslavia
Dalmatia
Buzina, 1976
USSR
Moscow
Godina etal., 1987
Caucasus
Miklashevskaya et al., 1983
3
Values not adjusted for age grouping.
1± mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean s.d. mean s.d.
_ — — — — _
2±
3±
_ _ — — — 16.7 — 1.3 — 15.1 1.6 _
16.3 1.2 — — 16.0 1.2 16.0 1.1 15.4 1.1 15.8 1.2 —
17.0 1.2 — — 16.5 1.2 16.3 1.1 16.0 1.2 16.2 1.1 16.3
17.4 1.2 16.4 1.1 16.6 1.2 16.7 1.1 16.3 1.1 16.7 1.2 16.5
— —
— —
— —
—
—
—
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
_ —
_ —
16.8 1.3 15.3 1.4 17.6 1.2 16.8 1.2 16.8 1.2 17.0 1.2 16.6 1.1 17.3 1.2 16.6
17.0 1.4 15.5 1.0 17.7 1.2 17.3 1.2 17.3 1.2 17.2 1.7 16.7 1.2 17.6 1.2 16.7
17.4 1.7 15.8 1.2 17.9 1.2 17.6 1.2 17.9 1.4 17.4 1.7 17.1 1.3 17.9 1.2 17.0
17.8 1.8 16.4 1.5 18.2 1.2 18.0 1.3 18.6 1.7 17.8 2.0 17.6 1.4 18.4 1.4 17.4
18.5 2.0 16.8 1.6 18.8 1.3 18.8 1.7 19.2 2.1 18.2 2.0 18,1 1.5 19.0 1.5 18.0
19.3 2.4 17.8 2.0 19.5 1.4 19.7 1.9 19.9 2.2 19.2 2.3 18.8 1.6 19.4 1.6 18.7
20.1 2.6 18.6 2.3 20.0 1.6 20.3 2.0 20.6 2.4 20.0 2.4 19.6 1.8 20.0 1.7 19.4
20.8 2.8 19.2 2.2 20.7 1.8 21.2 2.3 21.4 2.5 20.4 2.6 20.3 1.9 20.7 1.9 20.0
21.6 3.0 19.9 2.4 21.5 2.0 21.9 2.6 22.1 2.6 21.0 2.5 21.1 2.1 21.5 2.0 20.8
22.5 3.0 20.7 2.9 22.5 2.2 22.4 2.2 23.0 2.6 21.8 2.8 22.0 2.2 — — 21.0
23.8 3.0 22.4 3.0 23.5 2.2 23.5 2.3 23.8 2.6 22.5 2.6 23.1 2.3 — _ 22.9
25.2 2.8 22.9 2.0 24.5 2.3 24.3 2.6 24.9 2.5 23.9 2.6 24.2 2.5 — — 23.2
26.2 2.9 24.0 2.0 25.5 2.3 25.6 3.0 26.1 2.4 25.0 2.9 25.2 2.5 — — 24.6
26.9 2.7 25.0 2.2 26.3 2.4 _ — 26.8 2.2 26.0 2.8 — — — — 25.6
27.5 2.7 25.4 2.1 — — — — 26.8 1.9 26.6 3.3 — — — — 26.8
— — —
— —
— —
— —
21.7 2.4 19.6 1.5
22.7 2.9 20.6 1.3
23.7 2.9 20.5 1.6
24.5 2.8 21.3 1.9
25.3 2.5 22.8 2.4
— —
—
20.8 2.4 18.8 1.4
28.2 2.7 —
—
20.2 2.4 18.6 1.4
26.8 2.8 —
—
19.6 2.2 17.8 1.4
—
—
—
Appendix Table 15. Upper arm circumference {relaxed) of European girls {cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
national
Simons et al., 1990
Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Netherlands
Oosterwolde
Gerver, 1988
Norway
Bergen
Waaler, 1983
Poland
Warsaw
Spain
Bilbao
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa e/fl/.,1983 Hernandez et al., 1985, 1988 Karlberg et al., 1976
Sweden
urban
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
Yugoslavia
Dalmatia
Buzina, 1976
USSR
Moscow
Godinaera/., 1987
Caucasus
Miklashevskaya et al.. 1983
1
Values not adjusted for age grouping.
1± mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean s.d. mean s.d.
_ — — — — —
2±
3±
_ _ — — — 16.5 — 1.3 — 15.3 1.1 _
4± _ —
5+ _
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
17.6 1.6 17.8 2.1 16.6 1.6 18.7 1.6 18.1 1.4 18.7 1.7 18.1 2.0 17.9 1.5 18.4 1.4 18.0
18.2 1.7 18.4 2.2 17.3 1.7 19.3 1.7 18.6 1.6 19.4 2.0 18.7 2.2 18.6 1.6 18.9 1.5 18.2
19.0 1.9 19.3 2.5 18.1 2.0 20.1 1.8 19.6 2.2 20.1 2.4 19.6 2.5 19.3 1.7 19.4 1.6 18.9
19.8 2.2 19.8 2.6 18.6 1.9 21.1 1.9 20.7 2.3 20.9 2.5 20.5 2.5 20.2 2.0 20.4 2.0 19.6
20.5 2.4 20.7 2.7 19.4 2.7 22.1 2.0 21.2 2.4 21.7 2.6 21.6 2.7 21.0 2.2 21.1 2.2 20.4
21.3 2.4 21.5 2.8 20.2 2.6 22.9 2.1 21.3 2.1 22.2 2.6 22.0 2.5 21.8 2.2 22.0 2.3 20.8
22.3 2.6 22.7 2.9 21.1 2.4 23.7 2.2 22.3 2.3 22.8 2.5 22.7 2.8 22.8 2.1 — — 22.3
23.2 2.6 23.4 2.7 22.0 2.6 24.3 2.3 23.5 2.5 23.4 2.4 23.3 2.6 23.7 2.2 _ _ 23.2
23.7 2.4 24.2 2.6 22.5 2.4 24.9 2.4 24.6 2.4 23.9 2.2 23.8 2.7 24.3 2.0 _ — 24.4
24.2 2.5 24.6 2.4 23.1 1.9 25.3 2.5 25.8 2.5 24.3 2.1 23.6 2.4 24.8 2.0 — — 24.6
24.5 2.4 24.6 2.5 23.7 2.4 25.6 2.5 _ — 24.4 2.0 24.1 2.3 — — _ — 25.0
24.6 2.3 24.9 2.5 24.0 2.1 — — _ — 24.5 1.9 24.0 2.1 — — — — 25.8
19.0 1.9 17.5 1.1
19.9 2.1 18.0 1.3
20.6 2.3 19.0 1.5
21.0 2.3 20.0 2.4
21.9 2.4 20.2 1.7
23.2 2.2 21.2 2.2
24.5 2.7 22.5 1.7
25.6 2.4 24.0 2.8
26.2 2.2 24.1 1.9
26.4 2.2 —
— —
—
—
_ 17.2 1.5 15.6 1.2 17.9 1.4 17.4 1.3 17.4 1.2 17.2 1.8 17.0 1.3 17.4 1.2 16.6
17.0 1.3 17.6 1.8 16.0 1.4 18.3 1.5 17.6 1.3 18.0 1.5 17.5 2.0 17.4 1.3 17.8 1.2 17.4
16.4 1.1 _ _ 15.3 1.1 15.7 1.1 15.3 1.0 15.4 1.0 —
16.9 1.2 _ _ 15.9 1.0 16.1 1.1 15.8 1.0 15.8 1.1 16.0
17.3 1.3 16.2 1.2 16.5 1.2 16.7 1.3 16.3 1.0 16.4 1.2 16.2
16.7 1.4 15.3 0.3 17.6 1.4 16.9 1.2 17.0 1.2 17.2 1.4 16.7 1.2 17.0 1.2 16.5
_ —
— —
— —
— —
— —
_ —
— —
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Appendix Table 16. Calf circumference of European children (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Boys Belgium Hungary
national national
Beunen et al., 1988 Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Netherlands
Oostenvolde
Gerver, 1988
Sweden
urban
Karlbergefa/., 1976
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
Girls Belgium
national
Simons et al., 1990
Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Netherlands
Oosterwolde
Gerver, 1988
Sweden
urban
Karlberg et al., 1976
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
median mean sd mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
— — — _ 19.0 1.2 19.1 1.3 18.8 1.4
— — — _ 20.8 1.3 20.4 1.4 20.4 1.3
21.4 1.4 20.4 i.o 22.1 1.3 21.1 1.2 21.3 1.3
21.8 1.5 20.6 1.4 23.1 1.4 21.8 1.4 22.2 1.3
22.4 1.6 21.5 1.2 23.8 1.4 22.4 1.5 23.0 1.4
23.3 2.0 22.5 1.6 24.4 1.5 23.3 1.6 23.8 1.5
24.5 2.1 23.7 2.0 25.2 1.5 24.3 1.8 24.8 1.7
25.6 2.3 25.0 1.9 26.2 1.6 25.5 1.8 25.7 1.8
26.7 2.6 26.2 2.5 27.4 1.8 26.4 2.0 26.7 1.9
28.0 2.8 27.2 2.7 28.4 2.0 27.5 2.0 27.6 2.1
29.0 3.0 27.9 2.5 29.5 2.2 28.6 2.2 28.6 2.2
30.2 3.2 29.1 2.7 30.6 2.3 29.6 2.4 29.6 2.4
22.7 1.6 22.0 1.6 24.1 1.7 23.0 1.6 22.8 1.4
23.5 1.6 23.8 1.9 22.7 1.5 24.8 1.8 24.0 1.7 22.6 1.5
24.3 1.7 24.6 2.0 24.1 1.8 25.6 2.0 25.0 1.9 24.7 1.7
25.2 1.9 25.6 2.3 25.0 2.1 26.5 2.1 26.1 2.0 25.6 1.8
26.3 2.1 26.9 2.5 26.3 2.5 27.6 2.2 27.1 2.1 26.5 2.0
27.4 2.3 28.0 2.8 27.1 2.7 29.0 2.3 28.2 2.3 27.7 2.2
28.5 2.6 29.5 3.2 28.5 2.9 30.4 2.5 29.6 2.6 28.8 2.4
29.8 2.7 30.8 3.2 29.6 3.2 31.7 2.6 30.8 2.8 30.2 2.7
— — — — 19.2 1.3 19.0 1.1 18.4 1.4
— — — — 20.9 1.4 20.5 1.4 20.0 1.3
21.4 1.4 20.6 1.8 22.2 1.4 21.3 1.2 21.0 1.3
21.8 1.5 21.1 1.4 23.2 1.5 22.1 1.4 22.0 1.3
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
30.8 31.5 3.2 30.7 3.3 31.8 2.4 30.9 2.4 _
31.9 33.1 3.3 32.7 3.2 33.1 2.5 32.3 2.5 _
33.2 34.5 3.0 33.4 2.4 34.4 25.0 33.3 2.4 _
34.1 35.3 3.0 34.5 2.5 35.4 2.6 34.3 2.5 _
34.7 35.8 2.7 33.9 2.3 35.9 2.6 —
35.1 36.0 2.8 34.8 2.2 _ _ _
—
—
—
—
—
—
31.1 2.8 32.5 3.2 30.9 2.8 32.9 2.6 32.3 2.7 _
32.4 2.7 33.2 3.0 32.2 3.0 33.9 2.7 33.3 2.5 _
33.1 2.4 34.3 2.9 32.7 2.5 34.7 2.7 34.1 2.3 _
33.7 2.4 34.7 2.6 33.2 2.1 35.4 2.7 34.7 2.4 _
33.9 2.4 34.8 2.7 33.4 2.6 35.9 2.7 _
34.0 2.2 35.0 2.7 33.0 1.9 — _ _
_
_
_
Appendix Table 17. Triceps skinfold of European boys (mm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
Flemish
Beunen era/., 1988
France
Paris Rolland-Cachera & Bellisle, 1986 German Federal Dortmund Reinken etal., 1980 Republic Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben, 1982
Ireland
Dublin
Hoey & Cox, 1987
Italy
Turin
Morisio Guidetti etal., 1985
1± median lOperc 90perc mean s.d. median lOperc 90perc mean s.d. mean s.d. median lOperc 90perc median lOperc 90perc
— _ _ — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
2±
3±
4±
— _ _ — — 9.8 6.8 13.1 — — — — — — — — — —
— _ _ — — 9.2 6.5 11.9 11.5 2.6 11.8 2.6 — — — 6.4 4.9 9.1
— _ _ — — 10.0 7.4 12.8 11.2 2.6 10.7 2.8 — — — 6.7 5.0 9.7
5±
6±
—
7±
—
_ _
_ _
— — 10.0 7.4 12.9 10.6 2.9 9.8 2.2 9.8 7.3 14.3 6.9 5.1 10.2
— — 9.3 7.3 12.9 10.3 3.4 9.5 2.6 9.4 7.0 13.4 7.1 5.2 10.8
8±
— _ _ 6.8 2.7 8.8 6.3 12.4 9.9 3.6 8.9 3.3 9.2 6.8 13.0 7.4 5.3 11.3
9±
— _ _
_ _ 8.3 2.5 9.0 6.3 13.1 10.3 3.9 9.6 4.0 9.0 6.7 12.7 7.6 5.4 11.9
10±
— _ _ 8.1 2.5 9.4 6.4 14.3 11.1 4.7 10.3 4.0 9.1 6.7 13.8 7.9 5.6 12.5
11±
— _ _ 8.3 2.6 9.6 6.6 14.2 12.2 5.3 10.3 4.5 9.4 6.8 15.2 8.2 5.7 13.1
— _ _ 10.0 4.1 9.8 6.5 15.6 12.9 5.8 10.3 5.4 9.8 7.0 17.1 8.5 5.9 13.7
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
—
8.6 5.8 15.3 — — 10.2 6.8 17.6 12.5 5.7 10.2 5.3 10.3 7.3 18.9 — — —
8.3 5.7 14.8 — — 9.0 5.9 17.1 11.8 5.6 9.9 5.3 9.9 7.1 18.3 — — —
8.0 5.4 14.3
7.5 5.0 13.6
7.0 4.6 13.1
6.7 4.4 12.9
—
—
8.1 5.2 12.0 11.4 4.6 9.0 3.8 9.3 6.6 16.8
7.8 5.4 10.6 11.2 4.7 8.7 4.0 8.8 6.1 15.2
_ — 11.2 4.8 8.1 4.1 8.2 5.7 14.2
— — 11.1 5.0 8.2 3.2 8.1 5.5 13.9
— — 10.1 7.2 16.4 13.2 5.9 10.8 5.0 10.1 7.2 18.4 8.8 6.0 14.3
Norway
Bergen
Waaler, 1983
Poland
Warsaw CS
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa etal, 1983
Spain
Bilbao
Hernandez et al., 1985, 1988
Sweden
Stockholm Karlberg etal., 1976
Switzerland
Zurich
United Kingdom England
USSR
Yugoslavia
Prader & Budliger, 1977
R. Rona, unpubl.
Moscow
Godinaefa/., 1987
Caucasus
Miklashevskaya et al., 1983,1988 Buzina, 1976
Dalmatia
Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 3 perc 97 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
—
—
_ 10.8 8.1 14.8 9.6 6.5 14.1 9.8 7.8 12.2 11.0 8.0 13.5 — — — _ — — — 6.9 1.7
_ 9.8 7.4 12.6 9.5 6.1 14.7 9.7 7.5 12.9 10.5 8.0 13.0 — — — _ _ — _ 6.3 1.2
8.9 7.3 10.9 9.4 7.0 12.6 9.0 5.8 14.1 9.9 7.7 12.0 10.0 7.5 12.8 — — — _ — — — 7.7 2.2
8.5 66 10.7 9.5 6.8 12.7 8.6 5.5 13.3 9.8 7.7 11.7 9.5 7.0 12.2 — — — — — — — 8.2 1.7
7.8 6.1 10.1 9.4 6.5 12.8 8.6 5.2 14.0 9.4 7.0 11.2 9.0 6.8 12.0 9.0 6.4 12.4 _ — — — 7.4 1.6
7.4 5.5 9.3 9.4 6.7 13.4 8.6 4.8 15.6 9.0 7.1 11.3 8.9 6.5 11.9 8.4 6.2 12.7 _ — — — 7.0 1.4
7.1 5.4 9.4 9.6 6.7 13.9 9.0 4.7 17.4 8.6 7.1 11.4 8.5 6.1 11.9 8.8 6.0 14.2 — — — — 6.9 2.0
7.4 5.5 10.4 10.0 6.8 16.0 9.4 4.4 20.3 8.5 6.8 11.5 8.2 6.0 11.9 8.6 6.0 14.6 8.5 3.3 6.1 1.3 7.9 3.5
7.5 5.5 10.4 10.3 6.9 18.2 9.2 4.5 18.9 8.4 6.5 11.7 8.2 6.0 12.0 9.6 6.3 18.0 9.2 3.8 6.8 1.6 8.5 3.6
8.0 5.4 11.7 11.0 7.0 19.5 10.5 4.6 23.6 9.0 6.3 12.6 8.2 6.0 12.0 10.0 6.4 18.6 9.2 3.2 6.5 1.9 8.9 4.3
8.0 5.3 13.0 11.9 7.0 20.6 11.2 4.9 25.3 8.8 6.4 12.7 8.3 6.0 12.1 — — — 10.2 4.4 6.4 1.6 7.7 2.4
8.1 5.8 13.3 11.9 7.0 20.5 12.4 5.2 29.6 8.8 6.2 13.6 8.4 5.9 12.5 — — _ 11.0 4.9 7.0 2.0 8.8 3.9
8.2 5.5 12.4 11.2 6.2 20.4 11.6 5.2 25.9 8.9 6.2 13.2 _ — — — — — 10.2 4.6 6.8 1.6 _
8.0 5.7 12.3 9.8 5.9 16.9 11.0 5.0 24.6 8.7 5.8 13.2 — — _ — — — 9.4 3.6 6.4 1.5 _
—
—
7.7 5.4 13.7 9.4 5.6 15.0 10.3 4.8 22.9 7.8 5.2 11.8 — — — — — — 8.4 3.8 6.2 1.2 _ —
7.5 51 13.8 9.1 5.6 14.5 10.2 5.0 23.2 7.8 4.7 12.4 — — — — — — 8.8 4.1 — — — —
—
—
_ 8.9 5.6 13.9 11.2 4.4 27.1 — — _ — — — — — — 8.9 3.7 — — — —
_ 8.8 5.6 13.0 10.3 4.1 28.6 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Appendix Table 18. Triceps skinfold of European girls (mm)
Place
Authors
Belgium
Flemish
Simons etal., 1990
France
Rolland-Cachera & Paris Bellisle, 1986 German Federal Dortmund Reinkenef a/., 1980 Republic Hungary
national
Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben, 1982
Ireland
Dublin
Hoey & Cox, 1987
Italy
Turin
Morisio Guidetti etal., 1985
Norway
Bergen
Waaler, 1983
Poland
Warsaw CS
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa etal., 1983
Spain
Bilbao
Hernandez etal., 1985, 1988
Sweden
Stockholm Karlbergeta/., 1976
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
United Kingdom England
R. Rona, unpubl.
USSR
Moscow
Godinaefa/., 1987
Caucasus
Miklashevskaya et al., 1983, 1988 Buzina, 1976
Yugoslavia
Dalmatia
1± median 10 perc mean s.d. median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d. mean s.d. median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 3 perc 97 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
2±
_ _ — — — — — — — 9.4 — 7.1 — 11.8 _ _ — — _ _ — _ — — _ _ — — _ _ — — — — _ _ — — _ _ 10.2 8.2 13.9 10.0 6.7 14.9 9.8 7.8 12.3 10.5 8.0 13.6 — — — — _ — _ 6.9 15
10.0 7.1 13.5 9.6 6.0 15.5 10.1 8.4 12.8 10.4 8.0 13.2 — — — — _ — _ 6.6 1.8
3±
4±
5±
_ — — —
_ — — —
_ — — —
10.1 7.5 12.9 12.1 2.9 11.9 2.8 — _ — 7.1 5.1 10.4 9.4 7.6 11.9 9.6 7.1 13.0 10.0 6.5 15.6 10.3 8.5 12.4 10.2 8.0 12.9 — — — — — — _ 7.8 2.1
10.4 7.3 13.5 12.2 3.7 11.8 2.8 — — — 7.4 5.4 11.1 9.4 7.2 11.8 10.0 7.4 13.1 9.5 6.0 15.0 10.3 8.0 12.4 10.0 7.9 12.8 — — — — — — — 8.8 2.3
10.8 8.3 14.3 12.4 3.2 11.2 2.9 12.2 8.7 17.4 7.8 5.6 11.8 8.9 7.2 11.5 10.4 7.6 13.8 9.5 5.8 15.6 10.2 8.1 12.3 10.0 7.8 12.8 10.6 7.8 14.8 — _ — — 8.5 1.5
8±
6±
7±
10.0 2.5 10.7 3.6 10.7 7.6 14.5 12.3 3.7 10.8 2.9 11.7 8.3 16.8 8.2 5.8 12.5 8.6 6.4 11.2 10.8 7.8 15.2 10.6 5.8 19.2 10.4 8.2 13.5 10.0 7.6 13.0 10.6 7.8 15.4 — _ — _ 9.7 3.3
10.4 10.6 3.2 3.2 10.0 10.4 3.5 3.5 10.4 10.3 7.4 7.6 15.0 15.5 11.9 12.4 4.0 . 4.5 10.6 11.2 4.1 4.0 11.6 11.6 8.1 8.1 16.9 17.9 8.7 9.2 6.4 6.1 14.1 13.3 8.4 8.8 6.4 6.5 11.3 12.3 11.2 11.5 8.0 8.0 19.0 17.7 12.2 11.2 6.2 6.3 20.5 23.5 10.8 10.8 8.4 7.9 13.9 14.9 10.0 10.3 7.2 7.3 13.4 14.5 11.2 11.8 7.6 7.6 17.7 19.2 — 9.9 _ 2.6 — 6.8 _ 1.0 9.6 8.3 2.4 3.6
24;
Age (yr) Country
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
11.8 4.0 9.5 4.2 11.0 7.6 16.2 13.7 5.0 12.0 4.2 12.1 8.6 19.0 9.6 6.7 14.9 9.0 6.5 13.4 12.0 8.1 20.4 12.6 6.5 24.3 10.8 7.7 15.2 10.8 7.2 16.0 12.8 8.0 21.4 10.8 2.9 7.6 2.1 10.7 4.2
12.5 4.6 12.1 5.1 11.4 8.1 16.8 14.3 5.3 12.1 4.1 12.6 9.1 20.0 10.2 7.0 15.8 9.7 6.7 17.2 12.4 8.2 20.9 13.8 7.1 26.9 10.8 8.1 16.1 11.0 7.1 17.4 13.0 8.4 22.2 11.5 3.6 8.3 2.4 10.4 4.1
12.9 4.8 — — 10.9 7.9 15.4 15.0 5.6 11.7 4.2 13.0 9.3 20.9 10.7 7.4 16.8 9.7 6.9 16.6 13.0 8.2 21.7 14.8 7.5 29.0 11.0 8.0 16.1 10.9 7.0 17.8 — — — 11.4 3.4 8.7 3.1 10.5 36
13.0 4.8 — — 10.2 7.9 15.8 15.4 5.6 12.2 5.0 13.3 9.4 21.9 11.3 7.7 17.8 9.3 6.6 13.2 12.9 8.3 21.0 15.0 7.5 29.9 10.8 8.1 16.6 10.4 7.0 17.5 — — — 11.5 3.3 8.3 2.4 11.1 3.1
13.6 5.0 — — — — — 16.3 6.0 12.9 5.6 14.2 9.4 22.2 — — — 9.7 6.8 14.6 12.8 8.4 20.1 15.1 7.3 31.4 11.6 8.6 16.9 — — — — — — 12.4 3.5 8.7 2.5 —
14.8 5.4 — — — — — 17.3 5.7 14.2 5.6 15.5 9.7 22.8 — — — 11.8 8.2 18.3 12.7 8.3 19.4 16.2 8.4 31.5 13.2 9.2 19.1 — — — — — — 13.3 4,0 9.7 2.6 —
15.2 4.8 — — — — — 18.8 5.7 14.7 4.9 17.0 10.4 24.4 — — — 14.0 9.4 19.1 12.3 8.0 19.3 16.3 8.8 30.2 14.4 10.2 20.8 — — — — — — 14.7 3.3 11.6 4.5 —
15.9 5.2 — — — — — 19.2 5.4 16.2 5.4 17.7 10.9 25.9 — — — 15.4 12.0 23.0 13.0 8.8 21.6 16.6 9.2 29.9 14.5 10.1 20.3 _ — — — — — 16.2 3.4 12.0 3.8 —
16.0 4.9 — — — — — 19.0 5.4 17.0 5.9 17.4 11.3 26.7 _ — — — — _ 13.7 9.7 21.1 16.3 9.3 28.7 _ — _ _ — — — — — 15.6 3.2 — _ _
16.2 5.1 — — — — — 19.2 5.3 15.6 8.1 17.2 11.2 26.1 _ — — — — _ 14.3 10.5 20.1 16.1 10.2 27.0 _
—
—
—
—
—
—.
_ _ — — — _ — — — — _ —
Appendix Table 19. Subscapular skinfold of European boys {mm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
1±
Belgium
national
Beunen etal., 1988
— — _ — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 8.5 6.4 12.0 7.2 5.3 9.5 6.8 5.0 9.0 — — — — _ — —
median lOperc 90perc France Paris Rolland-Cachera & mean Bellisle, 1986 s.d. Hungary national Eiben & Panto, 1986 mean s.d. Kormend Eiben, 1982 mean s.d. Ireland Dublin Hoey & Cox, 1987 median lOperc 90perc Italy Turin Morsio Guidetti median etal., 1985 lOperc 90perc Norway Bergen Waaler, 1983 median lOperc 90perc Poland Warsaw Kurniewicz-Witczakowa median era/., 1985 lOperc 90perc Sweden Stockholm Karlberg etal., 1976 median lOperc 90perc Switzerland Zurich Prader & Budliger, 1977 median lOperc 90perc German Federal Dortmund Reinken et al., 1980 median Republic lOperc 90perc USSR Moscow Godina etal., 1987 mean s.d. Caucasus Miklashevskaya etal., mean 1988 s.d.
Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
2± — — _ 7.1 2.3 — — — — — — — — — — — — — 6.2 5.0 8.9 6.3 4.6 8.2 5.8 4.5 7.7 5.2 4.3 7.0 — _ — —
3± — — _ — — 6.9 2.2 6.0 1.6 — — — 4.9 4.0 6.6 5.7 4.5 8.4 5.6 4.1 8.3 5.5 4.5 7.8 5.2 4.3 6.8 5.3 4.0 7.1 — _ — —
4±
5±
— — _ 5.8 1.9 6.3 2.0 6.1 2.8 — — — 5.0 4.0 6.8 5.2 4.1 6.9 5.8 4.1 8.6 5.3 4.1 6.9 4.9 4.0 6.2 5.3 4.1 6.8 — _ — —
6±
— — _
— — _
— — 6.1 2.3 6.0 2.1 5.7 4.5 8.2 5.0 4.0 6.9 4.9 4.0 6.3 5.8 4.1 8.9 4.7 3.8 6.1 4.6 3.9 6.0 5.0 4.1 6.4 — _
— — 6.1 2.8 5.9 2.4 5.5 4.4 7.9 5.1 4.0 7.1 4.8 3.8 6.2 6.0 4.1 9.2 4.6 3.7 5.9 4.5 3.7 5.9 5.0 4.1 6.6 —
— — _
5.1 2.1 6.1 3.1 5.2 2.8 5.4 4.4 7.8 5.2 4.0 7.3 4.7 3.9 6.3 6.3 4.1 10.3 4.5 3.6 5.9 4.5 3.7 5.8 5.0 4.0 6.6 — _
— —
8±
— — _
_ — —
7±
— —
4.8 1.2 6.6 3.5 6.8 5.1 5.4 4.4 7.8 5.3 4.1 7.5 5.0 4.1 6.7 6.7 4.1 11.1 4.6 3.6 6.1 4.4 3.7 6.0 5.1 4.0 7.0 5.2 2.1 4.6 0.7
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
— — _ 4.9 1.6 7.4 4.5 6.9 4.3 5.6 4.4 8.5 5.4 4.2 7.8 5.1 4.1 7.2 6.9 .4.2 12.6 4.7 3.6 6.7 4.5 3.7 6.2 5.2 4.1 7.7 5.7 3.0 4.7 0.8
— — _ 5.2 1.4 8.3 5.4 8.1 5.6 5.8 4.5 9.7 5.6 4.3 8.1 5.3 4.1 7.9 7.1 4.2 14.0 4.9 3.8 7.5 4.8 3.8 6.6 5.4 4.1 8.6 6.0 2.8 4.8 0.8
— —
— —
5.8 4.5 10.5 — — 9.5 5.8 9.2 6.8 7.2 5.2 13.3 — — — 5.6 4.5 9.2 7.7 4.9 15.3 5.6 4.4 9.2 — — — 6.4 4.4 11.5 7.2 3.9 5.2 1.2
6.5 4.9 10.6 — — 9.7 5.6 9.2 5.8 7.5 5.6 13.6 — — — 5.7 4.7 9.3 7.9 5.2 15.1 6.1 4.6 10.2 — — — 6.3 4.8 11.1 6.9 2.7 5.1 0.8
7.1 5.4 11.0 — — 10.1 4.7 8.8 3.7 7.8 6.0 13.3 — — — 5.9 4.8 9.0 8.1 5.5 12.8 6.5 4.8 9.1 — — — 6.5 5.2 8.8 7.2 3.2 5.6 1.0
7.6 5.8 11.7 — — 10.6 5.1 6.7 4.2 8.1 6.3 13.7 — — — 6.5 5.0 10.0 8.2 5.9 11.8 6.9 5.4 10.0 — — — 6.7 5.3 9.2 8.0 3.1 — —
8.1 6.3 12.4 — — 11.0 4.6 9.5 4.3 8.5 6.5 13.9 — — — — — — 8.5 6.3 12.4 — — — — — — — — — 8.5 3.7 — —
8.5 6.6 13.1 — — 11.4 4.8 11.3 5.4 8.8 6.5 14.2 — — — — — — 8.7 6.6 11.9 — — — — — — — — — — — — —
_ _ 6.0 — 1.8 — 8.9 9.5 5.7 6.1 8.4 9.0 6.1 5<9 6.2 6.7 4.7 4.9 11.0 12.2 5.8 6.0 4.4 4.6 8.4 8.8 5.5 5.5 4.2 4.3 9.0 11.3 7.3 7.5 4.4 4.7 15.5 15.5 5.1 5.3 4.1 4.2 8.9 9.8 5.0 5.1 4.0 4.0 7.2 8.0 5.8 5.9 4.1 4.6 9.1 10.4 6.3 7.7 3.2 4.6 5.0 5.2 1.5 1.3
to o
Appendix Table 20. Subscapular skinfold of European girls (mm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Belgium
national
Simons etal., 1990
France
Paris
Hungary
national
Rolland-Cachera & Bellisle, 1986 Eiben & Panto, 1986
Kormend
Eiben,1982
Ireland
Dublin
Hoey & Cox, 1987
Italy
Turin
Morisio Guidetti etal., 1985
Norway
Bergen
Waaler, 1983
Poland
Warsaw
Kurniewicz-Witczakowa et al., 1983
Sweden
urban
Karlberg et al., 1976
Switzerland
Zurich
Prader & Budliger, 1977
German Federal Dortmund Reinkenefa/., 1980 Republic USSR
Moscow
Godina etal., 1987
Caucasus
Miklashevskaya et al., 1988
Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
1± mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d. mean s.d.
_ — _ — — — — _ _ — _ _ — — — — — 10.0 7.0 12.8 7.5 5.9 9.7 6.8 5.0 9.0 — — — — — — —
21 _ — 7.1 2.0 _ — — — _ — _ — — — — _ — 7.0 4.8 9.8 6.5 5.3 9.1 6.0 4.5 7.8 5.7 4.5 7.4 — — — —
3± _ — — — 7.4 2.5 7.0 2.6 _ — _ 5.3 4.1 8.0 5.9 4.8 9.2 6.5 4.6 8.6 6.2 4.8 8.7 5.5 4.1 7.4 5.6 4.2 7.3 — — — —
4± _ — 6.3 2.2 7.2 2.6 6.5 2.5 — — _ 5.3 4.1 8.2 6.1 4.5 8.5 6.4 4.5 8.8 5.6 4.5 8.1 5.3 4.0 7.2 5.7 4.4 7.4 — — — —
5± _ — _ — 7.4 2.8 7.1 2.4 6.9 4.9 11.3 5.4 4.2 8.5 5.6 4.6 6.7 6.6 4.6 9.3 5.2 4.2 7.5 5.1 4.0 7.2 5.6 4.4 8.3 — — — —
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
6.0 2.0 — — 7.5 3.5 7.4 3.1 6.7 4.8 11.0 5.6 4.2 8.7 5.3 4.3 7.2 6.9 4.7 10.6 5.2 4.0 8.1 5.0 3.9 7.2 5.6 4.3 8.1 — — — —
6.2 2.5 6.4 2.5 7.3 3.8 7.9 5.0 6.7 5.0 11.4 5.7 4.4 9.1 5.4 4.2 7.1 7.4 4.8 11.8 5.4 4.2 7.2 5.0 3.9 7.4 5.7 4.2 8.5 — — — —
6.5 3.1 6.3 2.4 7.7 4.2 7.9 5.1 7.0 5.2 12.3 6.0 4.5 9.5 5.6 4.4 8.7 7.8 5.0 15.3 5.4 4.4 8.2 5.1 4.0 7.8 5.9 4.4 10.1 5.6 1.6 5.1 0.9
7.1 3.8 5.8 1.7 8.7 4.9 9.2 5.5 7.4 5.5 13.2 6.3 4.7 10.1 5.5 4.4 9.8 8.1 5.1 15.6 5.9 4.2 9.8 5.4 4.0 8.5 6.1 4.5 11.4 6.3 2.0 5.1 0.7
8.1 4.7 6.2 2.2 9.2 5.5 9.5 5.3 7.9 5.8 14.5 6.6 5.0 10.7 6.5 4.4 13.6 8.5 5.3 15.8 5.9 4.7 13.3 5.9 4.3 10.0 6.5 4.8 12.2 7.0 3.2 5.5 1.6
8.6 5.1 8.0 4.3 10.2 5.8 9.9 5.9 8.6 6.2 15.5 7.1 5.3 11.5 6.6 4.6 12.8 8.8 5.4 16.0 6.5 5.1 13.0 6.2 4.5 12.0 6.7 5.1 11.4 7.1 3.1 6.1 1.8
9.2 5.1 — — 11.0 5.8 11.2 7.6 9.5 6.6 17.2 7.6 5.7 12.5 6.3 4.9 9.6 9.1 5.6 15.8 6.9 5.3 13.5 6.9 4.8 14.2 6.8 5.0 12.5 7.5 3.0 6.1 1.8
10.1 5.2 — — 12.3 6.2 12.4 6.6 10.0 6.9 18.5 — — — 6.7 5.0 10.6 9.5 6.0 14.8 8.0 5.5 14.5 — — — 7.2 5.2 12.6 8.2 2.6 6.4 1.4
10.8 5.4 — — 13.1 5.8 13.6 6.2 11.1 7.7 20.6 — — — 7.7 5.4 12.6 10.1 6.5 15.8 9.6 6.3 16.5 — — — 7.5 5.4 13.4 9.4 3.5 7.3 1.9
11.3 4.6 — — 14.0 5.9 13.8 5.9 12.4 8.6 22.0 — — — 8.8 6.4 14.0 10.7 7.0 19.3 10.6 7.2 18.9 — _ — 8.3 6.2 13.8 9.8 3.2 9.6 4.2
11.8 5.3 _ — 14.5 5.5 15.1 7.3 13.6 9.1 23.0 — — — 9.7 7.1 18.4 11.0 7.7 18.8 10.6 7.4 18.4 — _ — 8.8 — 12.9 10.8 3.4 9.3 2.4
12.0 4.7 — — 14.5 5.8 16.5 6.4 13.8 9.2 24.2 — — — — _ — 11.2 8.3 18.3 — — — — _ — — — — 10.8 3.4 — —
12.4 4.9 — — 14.8 5.7 15.2 5.3 14.0 9.2 25.2 — — — — _ — 11.2 8.9 16.2 — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Appendix Table 21. Height of boys of European ancestry (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Canada
Montreal Trois Rivieres
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985 Shephardera/., 1984
USA
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile
Bogalusa national LaPaz Santo Andre Santiago
Colombia
Cali
F o s t e r s a/., 1977 Lejarraga, 1986/? Greksa etai, 1985 Marques et al., 1982 Valenzuela & Avendano,1979 Spurret al., 1982
Cuba
national
Jordan, 1979
Venezuela
Caracas
Mendez-Castellano etal., 1986 Pyke,1986 Gracey & Hitchcock, 1985 Hitchcock etal., 1986a,6 Birkbeck & Guthrie, 1980
Australia
national Perth Perth New Zealand Dunedin
median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean 0 median mean" median mean s.d. mean" s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean mean" mean
" Values adjusted for age grouping. Supine length, ages 1 and 2 years.
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
75.6 2.6 _ — 76.1 5.6 _ 76.0 _ 76.6 _ — — — 74.5 3.3 76.6 4.4 _ 75.9 _
87.4 3.2 _ — 86.5 4.1 _ 87.0 _ 88.8 _ — — _ 85.9 3.8 87.0 4.6 — 88.5 _
95.8 3.6 — — 95.0 4.4 _ 96.0 _ 96.9 _ — — _ 93.0 4.2 95.0 5.0 — 96.9 —
102.6 3.7 — — 101.6 4.4 _ 102.0 — 103.5 _ _ — _ 100.5 4.6 101.2 5.0 —
109.5 4.2 _ — 108.5 4.9 _ 108.5 _ 109.2 _ _ — _ 107.2 5.0 109.6 4.8 _
115.9 4.6 114.1 4.8 115.4 5.6 115.0 114.5 _ 115.6 _ — — _ 113.2 5.5 116.1 5.0 —
119.9 4.8 121.5 5.4 121.0 120.5 _ 122.5 118.8 — 121.6 4.5 119.1 5.9 122.0 4.9 —
125.4 5.1 126.9 5.3 127.0 126.0 _ 128.4 121.6 4.4 — — 124.5 6.1 127.8 5.4 127.5
130.9 5.2 133.2 5.3 133.0 131.0 _ 133.6 126.7 4.1 131.7 6.1 129.3 6.4 132.2 5.4 133.0
135.4 5.2 137.7 5.9 137.5 136.0 135.0 138.0 131.2 6.7 — — 134.0 6.6 139.1 5.9 138.0
140.4 5.3 143.4 7.7 142.5 140.0 139.0 142.0 137.3 6.2 141.1 4.8 138.5 6.9 142.8 6.9 144.0
144.7 6.1 148.4 6.9 148.0 145.0 145.0 146.2 141.1 8.4 — — 143.8 7.4 149.2 7.6 149.0
— — 157.0 8.1 155.0 151.0 150.0 153.1 149.2 8.0 154.4 6.2 150.0 8.9 156.2 8.6 155.0
162.4 8.5 162.5 158.0 157.0 160.8 155.1 8.4 — — 156.0 9.1 162.4 9.3 162.0
—
—
—
— —
15±
16±
17±
18±
— — 169.2 7.5 — 164.0 165.5 166.9 160.7 7.5 167.1 4.9 161.6 8.9 168.4 7.6 167.5
— — 172.6 6.5 — 168.0 168.0 170.6 165.8 6.9 — _ 165.9 7.8 171.6 6.9 —
— — 175.3 6.8 — 172.0 170.0 172.3 167.0 5.8 — _ 168.0 7.0 171.5 6.6 —
— — 176.8 6.6 — 172.0 — 172.9 167.2 6.0 — — 168.7 6.7 173.4 5.7 —
_ 116.0 122.0 127.5 132.5 137.5 144.0 148.0 155.0 162.5 168.0 172.5 — 108.5 114.7 _
_
—
Appendix Table 22. Height of girls of European ancestry (cm) Age (yr) Country
Authors
Trois Rivieres
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985 Shephardera/., 1984
USA
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile
Bogalusa national LaPaz Santo Andre Santiago
Cuba
national
Foster et al., 1977 Lejarraga, 19866 Greksa etal., 1985 Marques etal, 1982 Valenzuela & Avendano,1979 Jordan,1979
Venezuela
Caracas
Australia
national Perth
Canada
Montreal
New Zealand Dunedin
Mendez-Castellano et al., 1986 Pyke,1986 Gracey & Hitchcock, 1985 Hitchcock etal., l9H6a,b
Birkbeck&Guthrie.l980
median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" median mean" median mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean mean" mean
" Values adjusted for age grouping. Supine length, ages 1 and 2 years.
1±
2±
3±
4±
74.3 2.5 _ — 73.7 4.9 _ 74.0 _ 75.1 _ _ 73.5 3.2 74.9 4.1 _ 74.9 _ —
86.5 2.8 _ — 85.0 4.5 _ 85.0 _ 88.0 _ _ 84.4 3.8 86.2 4.9 _ 87.6 _ —
94.9 3.3 _ — 93.6 4.3 _ 93.0 _ 97.0 _ _ 92.1 4.2 95.0 5.0 _ 95.9 _ —
101.9 3.5 _ — 100.7 4.7 _ 100.0 _ 104.1 _ _ 100.2 4.6 103.2 5.9 _
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
108.8 115.3 _ _ _ 3.8 4.1 _ _ _ H2.8 118.7 124.7 130.0 — 5.6 5.2 5.5 5.9 107.5 114.4 120.6 126.1 132.0 5.2 5.4 5.9 6.8 6.6 _ 114.5 12O.O 125.5 132.0 106.0 112.0 118.0 124.0 129.0 _ _ _ _ _ 110.4 116.3 122.1 127.8 133.2 _ _ 114.7 123.3 127.2 _ _ 5.5 5.7 5.1 106.9 113.0 119.0 124.1 129.7 5.1 5.4 5.8 6.2 6.5 109.7 115.8 121.8 127.5 132.2 5.4 4.7 6.5 5.9 5.6 _ _ _ 127.0 132.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 115.0 121.0 127.0 132.5 — 108.0 113.3 _ _
10±
11±
_ _ 134.8 6.6 136.9 7.5 137.5 134.0 136.0 138.4 131.0 6.6 135.0 7.1 138.4 6.8 138.0 _ 137.5 _
_ 140.9 6.7 144.5 7.0 144.0 140.0 142.0 143.7 139.5 5.2 140.8 7.6 144.5 7.2 144.0 _ 144.0 _
12±
13±
_
_
_ 148.2 7.0 150.2 8.1 151.0 147.0 148.0 149.2 145.3 6.5 146.5 8.0 149.9 7.2 150.0 _ 150.0 _
_ — 157.1 7.1 156.0 153.0 152.5 154.7 149.1 7.6 151.0 7.3 155.4 5.2 155.0 _ 155.0 _
14± _ _ _
15± _ _ _
16± _ _ _
17±
_ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — 160.4 161.7 163.5 162.8 6.1 6.4 6.0 5.7 160.0 — — — 157.0 159.0 160.0 160.0 156.5 158.0 160.5 161.0 158.1 159.4 159.8 159.9 153.5 154.2 155.4 155.2 6.0 5.7 5.7 4.8 154.1 156.0 157.0 157.0 6.4 5.9 5.8 5.8 158.4 159.3 159.4 160.5 5.3 5.3 5.2 5.6 159.0 162.0 — — _ _ _ _ _ 160.0 162.0 — — _ _ _ _ _
18± _ _ _ — 163.8 6.7 — 160.0 162.0 159.9 156.5 5.1 157.0 5.8 161.2 5.6 — _ — _
Appendix Table 23. Weight of boys of European ancestry (kg) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Canada
Montreal
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985
USA
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Argentina
Bogalusa national
Foster era/., 1977 Lejarraga, 1986ft
Bolivia Brazil
LaPaz Greksa et al., 1985 Santo Andre Marques etal., 1982
Chile
Santiago
Cuba
national
Valenzuela & Avendano,1979 Jordan, 1979
Colombia
Cali
Spurrefo/., 1982
Venezuela
Caracas
Mendez-Castellano
Australia
national Perth
Pyke,1986 Gracey & Hitchcock, 1985 Hitchcock et al., 1986a,ft Birkbeck&Guthrie,1980
etal.A9S6
New Zealand Dunedin 3
median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d. mean" median 10 perc 90 perc mean median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d. median 10 perc 90 perc mean" s.d. median 10 perc 90 perc mean" mean mean" median
Values adjusted for age grouping. Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
9.9 8.6 11.4 10.3 2.2 — 10.2 8.7 11.5 _ 10.4 8.5 12.2
12.4 10.8 14.2 12.5 1.3 — 12.8 11.2 14.7 — 13.3 11.1 15.4 _ — 12.1 10.3 13.8 — — 12.6 10.5 14.5 — 12.8 — —
14.4 12.6 16.5 14.5 2 — 14.8 13.0 17.4 — 15.2 12.8 17.6
16.3 14.2 18.7 16.4 2.2 — 16.5 14.2 19.8 — 17.0 14.0 20.0 _ — 15.4 13.2 18.3 — — 16.5 13.6 18.9 —
18.4 15.9 21.2 18.6 2.6 — 18.5 15.7 21.9 — 19.2 15.3 23.4 — — 17.0 14.7 20.6 — — 18.5 15.6 21.9 —
20.7 17.7 24.4 21.1 3.7 21.0 21.0 17.2 24.9 — 21.7 16.7 26.7 _ — 18.7 16.1 22.8 — — 20.9 17.7 25.8 —
23.2 3.1 23.0 23.0 19.0 28.0 — 24.4 18.2 30.6 22.7 4.0 20.7 17.6 25.5 22.8 2.0 23.3 19.5 29.4 —
26.4 4,1 26.0 25.5 21.0 35.8 — 27.1 19.7 34.8 24.3 2.7 22.7 19.3 28.0 — — 25.8 21.4 33.7 27.0
30.2 7.5 30.0 28.5 23.3 39.5 — 29.6 21.4 38.2 26.4 4.1 24.9 20.9 31.0 28.4 2.8 28.8 23.9 37.5 30.0
32.9 5.8 33.5 31.3 25.9 44.0 29.0 32.2 22.2 42.2 29.5 6.3 27.2 22.9 34.4 — — 31.5 26.5 41.6 33.0
38.7 8.4 37.0 34.5 28.1 59.0 32.0 35.6 23.4 47.8 33.3 7.5 29.7 24.7 39.9 33.5 2.4 34.7 29.1 46.7 37.0
41.6 9.8 41.0 38.0 31.0 56.0 36.0 38.2 25.5 51.0 35.1 6.7 32.7 26.8 43.9 — — 39.2 31.8 53.4 41.0
47.9 10.8 47.0 43.5 34.5 63.0 39.0 43.0 30.2 55.7 41.5 9.8 36.3 29.4 49.3 43.9 4.8 45.1 35.4 59.9 46.0
53.0 11.8 52.5 50.0 39.0 69.5 43.0 49.0 36.5 62.0 44.8 7.8 41.3 32.5 54.7 — — 51.5 40.7 65.1 52.0
58.8 11.2 — 56.5 45.0 73.0 50.0 55.2 42.4 68.0 49.4 7.6 47.0 36.2 59.5 51.8 4.5 56.4 45.7 69.3 57.5
63.6 10.4 — 61.0 49.0 75.0 53.0 59.3 46.5 72.1 53.3 7.0 51.7 41.9 63.4 — _ 59.0 49.4 73.2 —
68.5 13.6 — 63.0 52.0 76.5 57.5 61.3 48.5 74.0 56.2 8.2 55.0 46.2 66.1 — — 61.2 51.6 74.8 —
69.1 12.0 — 64.5 54.0 _ — 62.0 49.2 74.7 57.9 7.1 56.8 48.4 67.5 — _ 61.9 53.1 75.2 —
— —
— 18.6
21.0 21.0
24.0
26.0
29.5
32.5
36.0
40.0
45.5
52.0
57.5
62.0
—
—
_ 9.8 8.3 11.4 — — 9.9 8.4 11.8 — 10.0 — —
_ 13.8 11.8 16.0 — — 14.4 11.8 16.8 — 14.9 — —
Appendix Table 24. Mean weight of girls of European ancestry (kg) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Canada
Montreal
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985
USA
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Argentina
Bogalusa national
Foster et al., 1977 Lejarraga, 1986ft
Bolivia Brazil
LaPaz Greksa etal., 1985 Santo Andre M a r q u e s s al., 198:
Chile
Santiago
Cuba
national
Venezuela
Caracas
Australia national New Zealand Dunedin
Valenzuela & Avendano,1979 Jordan,1979
Mendez-Castellano et al.. 1986 Pyke, 1986 Birkbeck & Guthrie, 1980
median lOperc 90perc mean s.d. mean 0 median lOperc 90perc mean* median lOperc 90perc mean s.d. median lOperc 90perc median lOperc 90perc mean 0 median
" Values adjusted for age grouping. Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
9.4 8.3 10.6 9.4 1.4 _ 9.2 8.0 10.8 _ 9.8 8.4 11.3 _ — 9.0 7.7 10.8 9.4 7.9 10.9 _ —
11.8 10.5 13.3 11.8 1.5 _ 12.0 10.2 13.9 _ 13.1 10.9 15.3 _ — 11.4 9.7 13.4 12.0 10.0 14.0 _ —
13.9 12.2 15.8 14.0 1.9 _ 14.3 12.2 17.7 _ 15.5 12.4 18.6 _ — 13.4 11.2 15.8 14.3 11.7 16.9 _ —
16.0 14.0 18.3 15.8 2.1
18.1 15.7 21.0 18.1 2.8
_ 16.3 14.0 19.3 _ 17.6 13.7 21.6 _ — 15.1 12.6 18.1 16.4 13.3 19.5 _ —
6±
7±
8±
20.4 _ 17.4 _ 24.0 _ 20.2 23.3 25.9 3.0 4.4 4.7 _ 20.5 23.0 26.0 18.0 20.2 22.5 25.3 15.4 17.0 18.5 20.8 21.8 24.4 27.8 31.0 _ _ _ _ _ 19.8 22.1 24.5 27.0 15.1 16.8 18.5 20.3 24.5 27.4 30.5 33.7 _ _ 21.1 24.5 — — 4.0 3.2 16.8 18.7 20.2 22.4 14.1 15.5 17.0 18.4 20.4 23.2 25.9 29.5 18.5 20.6 23.0 25.5 15.2 17.3 19.6 21.7 22.3 25.5 29.4 33.1 _ _ _ 27.0 18.3 20.0 _
9±
10±
11±
12±
_ _ _ 29.3 6.7 29.0 28.5 23.0 35.0
_ _ _ 33.3 8.6 32.5 32.0 25.2 39.0 29.0 32.8 24.1 41.4 30.0 5.2 27.3 22.1 37.9 32.6 26.6 43.5 33.0 _
_ _ _ 38.1 8.1 38.0 36.0 28.5 44.0 32.0 37.0 26.7 47.1 35.5 7.0 30.8 24.8 42.8 37.3 29.3 48.8 37.5 _
_ _ _ 42.1 9.5 44.0 41.3 32.0 50.8 37.0 40.5 30.1 50.8 38.6 6.7 35.0 27.7 48.3 42.0 33.2 52.9 42.5 _
29.6 22.1 37.2 26.4 4.0 24.8 20.1 33.7 28.4 23.9 37.9 30.0 _
13± _ _ _
14± _ _ _
49.9 11.9 47.5 45.8 36.8 56.0 42.0 45.1 34.7 55.4 42.8 7.2 40.0 31.1 53.1 45.8 37.0 56.9 47.0 _
15± _ _ _
52.5 10.8 51.5 49.0 40.5 59.0 46.0 49.2 38.8 59.5 48.1 6.8 44.0 35.0 56.8 49.3 40.9 60.6 51.0 _
55.1 10.9 — 51.9 43.0 61.5 50.0 51.7 41.3 62.0 49.2 6.7 47.0 38.4 59.0 51.1 43.4 62.0 54.0 _
16± _ _ _
_ _ _
56.6 9.2 — 52.0 45.0 63.0 52.5 52.8 42.5 63.1 51.1 6.3 48.9 40.7 60.3 51.8 44.5 62.4 — _ _
17±
18±
_ _ _ 57.7 10.2 — 53.0 45.5 63.7 52.5 53.1 42.8 63.5 52.8 7.7 49.7 41.5 61.0 52.5 45.3 62.5 — _
_ _ _ 60.2 11.8 — 53.5 45.7 64.0 — 53.2 42.9 63.7 52.9 7.5 50.0 41.8 61.5 52.9 45.7 62.6 — _
Appendix Table 25 Mean weighty length. chest and head circumference of infants of European ancestry Age Place and authors Boys Montreal, Canada Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985, W=c.l60 Argentina Lejarraga, 19866 Santo Andre, Brazil Marques et al., 1982 Cuba Jordan, 1979, N = c.600 Caracas, Venezuela Mendez-Castellanoef a/., 1986, TV - 12-71 Perth, Australia Gracey & Hitchcock, 1985, LT N = 76-104
Variable
Birth
WT LT HC CC WT LT HC WT LT WT LT HC WT LT HC WT LT
3.18 50.7 35.1 33.3 3.5 51.0 36.0
— — — 3.3 51.0 34.2 3.56 51.9
4 wks
4.3 54.0 37.4 4.6 53.5 37.5 —
3 mos
6 mos
9 mos
12 mos
18 mos
5.56 60.8 40.6 40.5 6.0 63.0 41.0 6.6 62.7 — — — 5.9 59.6 40.3 5.92 60.7
7.29 67.6 43.7 43.9 7.9 67.5 44.0 8.0 67.9 7.7 67.0 43.2 8.0 66.7 43.5 7.85 67.5
8.49 72.0 45.5 45.6 9.4 72.0 46.0 9.3 72.6 — — — 9.2 72.5 45.6 9.11 72.1
9.35 75.6 46.9 46.7 10.2 76.0 47.0 10.4 76.6 9.8 74.5 46 9.9 75.9 46.9 10.01 75.9
10.7 81.9 48.6 48.2 11.5 81.8 — 12.0 83.4 11.0 80.6 47.4 11.3 77.6 48.0 11.6 82.7
Continued overleaf
Appendix Table 25. (Cont.) Age Place and authors
Girls Montreal, Canada Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985, N=c. 160 Argentina Lejarraga, 19866 Santo Andre, Brazil Marques etai, 1982 Cuba Jordan, 1979, N = c.600 Caracas, Venezuela Mendez-Castellano et ai, 1986, N - 32-72 Perth, Australia Gracey & Hitchcock, 1985, LT N = 76-101
Variable
Birth
4 wks
3 mos
6 mos
9 mos
12 mos
18 mos
WT LT HC CC WT LT HC WT LT WT LT HC WT LT HC WT LT
3.18 50.1 34.3 32.8 3.4 50.0 35.0 — — — — — 3.2 50.9 33.9 3.47 50.7
— — — — — — —. — — 4.4 53.8 36.8 4.3 53.6 36.9 — —
5.56 59.2 39.5 39.7 5.25 59.0 39.5 6.2 61.3 — — — 5.6 60.6 40.3 5.61 59.3
7.29 65.8 42.4 42.9 7.0 65.0 43.0 7.6 66.4 7.3 65.5 42 7.5 66.8 42.5 7.44 65.9
8.49 70.4 44.4 44.4 8.4 70.0 44.9 8.8 71.0 — — — 8.9 71.7 44.9 8.56 70.6
9.35 74.3 45.7 45.6 9.4 74.0 46.0 9.8 75.1 9.0 73.5 44.8 9.4 74.9 46.1 9.5 74.9
10.71 81.1 47.3 46.8 10.7 80.0 47.0 11.6 82.2 10.4 79.5 46.2 10.6 79.2 47.2 10.93 81.7
WT, weight (kg); LT, length (cm); HC, head circumference (cm); CC, chest circumference (cm).
Appendix Table 26. Sitting height of children of European ancestry (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Montreal Trois Rivieres
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985 Shephard et al., 1984
USA
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Argentina Chile
national Santiago
Cuba
national
Lejarraga, 19866 Valenzuela & Avendano,1979 Jordan,1979
Venezuela
Caracas
Mendez-Castellano etal., 1986
Montreal
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985 Shephard et al., 1984
Boys Canada
Girls Canada
Trois Rivieres USA
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Argentina Chile
national Santiago
Lejarraga, 19866 Valenzuela & Avendano,1979 Jordan,1979
Venezuela
Caracas
Mendez-Castellano etal.. 1986
Crown-rump length, ages 1 and 2 years.
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d.
47.4 1.8 _ _ 47.2 2.9 47.0 _ — 47.3 2.2 47.8 2.5
52.8 1.8 _ _ 52.3 2.6 52.1 _ — 51.1 2.4 52.6 3.0
55.9 2.2 _ _ 55.7 2.5 56.1 _ — 53.3 2.5 56.0 3.0
58.1 61.5 64.1 _ 2.1 2.3 2.5 — — _ _ _ _ 68.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ 58.4 61.3 63.7 66.3 68.4 2.5 3.2 3.2 2.6 3.6 59.5 62.0 65.0 67.0 69.0 _ _ _ 65.6 67.1 — — — 3.3 2.2 56.3 58.8 61.0 63.2 65.1 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.2 57.8 61.3 63.9 66.2 68.6 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.2 3.0
_ _ — — 70.1 71.9 _ 71.0 72.8 3.1 3.0 71.0 73.0 68.7 70.0 2.0 3.7 67.1 68.8 3.2 3.2 70.5 73.0 3.0 3.6
median s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d.
46.5 1.6 _ _ 45.9 3.1 46.3 _ _ 45.8 2.2 46.7 3.0
52.1 1.7 _ _ 51.0 2.6 52.0 _ _ 50.6 2.3 51.7 2.8
55.2 2.0 _ _ 54.4 2.5 56.0 _ _ 53.8 2.5 55.6 3.2
57.6 61.0 63.7 _ 2.1 2.2 2.3 — — _ _ _ _ 67.8 _ _ _ _ _ _ 57.3 60.2 63.0 65.6 67.8 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.0 59.0 61.5 64.0 66.0 68.5 _ _ _ 63.3 66.2 _ _ _ 2.4 2.8 57.2 59.9 62.2 64.7 67.0 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.2 58.1 61.5 63.3 66.1 68.2 4.0 5.4 3.3 3.2 3.0
_ _ — — 70.0 72.5 _ 70.2 72.2 3.0 4.1 70.8 72.8 68.5 70.4 2.3 3.4 69.1 71.5 3.4 3.6 70.3 72.6 3.1 4.0
11±
12±
_
_
— 73.8 5.3 75.3 3.8 74.8 72.4 2.8 70.6 3.2 74.1 3.3
— 75.7 2.8 77.1 3.3 76.7 74.1 3.9 72.4 3.7 77.0 4.1
_
_
— 74.2 3.5 75.5 3.8 75.0 73.8 3.1 74.0 4.0 75.8 3.7
— 77.5 4.2 78.6 4.6 77.8 76.9 3.2 76.7 4.3 78.6 4.3
13±
_
14±
_
_
—
—
_
_
— 84.0 4.9 81.2 80.4 4.4 76.8 5.0 83.9 5.2
— 87.3 4.9 85.0 83.3 4.3 80.2 4.8 87.1 4.3
_
_
_
— — 82.4 4.3 81.2 79.7 4.4 79.0 4.0 81.9 3.3
_
—
— 81.0 4.6 78.8 77.6 4.3 74.5 4.5 80.3 5.0
_
15±
_
—
—
_
_
— 84.2 3.5 83.5 82.1 3.2 81.1 3.7 83.2 3.0
— 85.7 3.6 85.5 82.6 3.1 82.7 3.2 84.4 3.4
_
16±
17±
18±
_ — _ — 89.7 5.8 88.0 86.6 3.8 83.3 4.0 89.2 3.7
_ — _ — 91.6 3.8 92.0 88.2 3.6 85.0 3.7 89.4 3.3
_ — _ — 92.4 3.5 — 88.3 3.5 86.0 3.5 90.4 3.0
_ — _ — 86.5 3.2 — 83.3 3.0 83.2 3.0 84.6 2.8
_ — _ — 86.4 3.4 — 83.8 2.3 83.3 3.0 85.2 3.1
_ — _ — 87.4 3.5 — 84.4 2.4 83.3 3.0 85.6 2.9
00
Appendix Table 27. Biacromial width of children of European ancestry (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Boys Canada
Montreal
Chile
Santiago
Cuba
national
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985 Valenzuela & Avendano, 1979 Jordan, 1979
Venezuela
Caracas
Mendez-Castellano etal.,1986
Girls Canada
Montreal
Chile
Santiago
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985 Valenzuela & Avendano, 1979 Jordan, 1979
Cuba
national
Venezuela
Caracas
Mendez-Castellano era/., 1986
1±
2±
3±
median s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d.
17.6 0.8 _ — 17.3 1.2 — —
20.6 0.9 _ — 19.2 1.3 — —
22.1 1.0 _ — 20.8 1.3 21.7 1.7
median s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d.
17.2 0.7 _ — 16.8 1.2 — —
20.2 0.8 _ — 18.8 1.3 — —
21.8 0.8 _ — 20.4 1.3 21.1 1.3
4±
5±
23.3 1.3 _
24.2 1.5 _
— 22.2 1.3 22.1 1.5
— 21.8 1.4 22.4 1.8
25.6 1.6 _
— 23.4 1.4 23.2 2.1
23.0 0.9 _
6±
— 24.6 1.4 24.7 22.0
24.0 1.0 _
25.4 1.1 _
— 23.2 1.5 23.7 2.4
— 24.4 1.5 24.2 2.0
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
_ — 27.4 1.2 26.7 1.6 27.7 1.6
_ — 27.9 1.3 27.7 1.6 28.6 1.6
_ — 28.9 1.4 28.7 1.7 29.8 1.7
_
— 25.7 2.5 25.6 1.5 25.8 2.4
— 30.2 1.6 29.8 1.7 30.2 1.2
— 31.3 2.0 30.9 1.9 31.7 2.4
— 33.2 2.4 32.1 2.2 33.2 2.8
— 34.3 2.2 33.5 2.4 35.0 2.7
— 35.5 2.3 35.1 2.4 36.7 2.3
— — 26.3 1.4 25.6 1.6 25.9 4.0
— — 27.8 1.1 26.7 1.6 26.7 1.7
28.6 1.3 27.8 1.7 28.0 2.0
29.4 1.7 3.1 1.9 29.1 2.5
31.1 1.9 30.0 2.1 30.4 2.4
33.3 1.7 31.2 2.0 31.1 2.6
33.3 2.2 32.3 1.9 32.7 2.1
34.4 1.5 33.2 1.8 33.5 1.8
34.5 1.7 33.8 1.8 33.8 2.2
_
13±
_
14±
_
15±
_
16±
17±
18±
— 37.4 2.1 36.4 2.3 37.9 2.5
_ — 37.9 2.4 37.2 2.2 38.2 2.5
_ — 38.9 2.1 37.6 2.1 39.3 22.0
35.1 1.7 34.1 1.7 33.6 1.8
35.5 1.6 34.2 1.7 33.9 2.1
35.8 1.9 34.2 — 34.7 2.0
_
_
Appendix Table 28. Biiliac width of children of European ancestry (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
Boys Canada
Montreal
Chile
Santiago
Cuba
national
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985 Valenzuela & Avendano,1979 Jordan,1979
Venezuela
Caracas
Girls Canada
Montreal
Chile
Santiago
Cuba
national
Venezuela
Caracas
Mendez-Castellano et al., 1986
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985 Valenzuela & Avendano,1979 Jordan, 1979 Mendez-Castellano etal., 1986
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
median
12.5
14.7
15.8
16.6
17.2
18.1
mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d.
— — 12.5 0.9 —
— — 14.0 0.9 —
—
—
— — 15.2 1.0 15.3 1.5
— — 16.2 1.0 16.0 1.3
— — 17.0 1.0 16.8 2.0
— — 17.7 1.1 17.7 2.3
median
12.2
14.4
15.6
16.4
17.0
17.9
mean s.d. median s.d. mean s.d.
— — 12.0 0.9 —
— — 13.7 0.9 —
—
—
— — 14.9 1.0 14.9 1.4
— — 15.9 1.1 16.2 1.4
— — 16.7 1.1 16.9 1.7
— — 17.5 1.2 17.2 2.0
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
20.1 2.5 18.4 1.2 18.1 2.2
20.3 1.0 19.0 1.2 19.0 1.6
21.2 1.4 19.6 1.2 19.6 1.6
20.9 1.6 20.2 1.2 20.3 2.2
22.0 1.6 20.9 1.3 20.5 2.1
22.2 1.8 21.7 1.5 21.9 2.2
24.1 2.1 22.5 1.6 23.2 2.4
24.7 1.8 23.5 1.7 24.3 2.3
25.6 1.8 24.4 1.8 25.2 1.8
26.4 1.5 25.2 1.7 25.7 1.9
27.1 1.8 25.6 1.6 25.8 1.8
27.4 1.7 25.9 1.6 26.5 1.8
19.2 1.4 18.2 1.2 18.8 1.4
21.0 1.3 18.9 1.3 19.3 1.6
21.7 1.5 19.6 1.4 20.3 2.0
22.5 1.7 20.5 1.6 21.5 2.4
24.4 2.3 21.4 1.7 22.4 2.1
25.2 1.8 22.5 1.8 23.1 2.5
26.0 1.6 23.6 1.8 25.0 2.0
26.5 1.8 24.5 1.8 25.4 2.0
26.6 1.6 25.3 1.6 26.1 2.0
27.1 1.7 25.7 1.6 25.7 2.0
27.8 1.7 25.9 1.6 26.0 1.9
28.0 2.0 25.9 1.6 26.5 1.8
Appendix Table 29. Upper arm circumference of children of European ancestry {cm) Age (yr) Country
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
18.1 17.0 _ — — — 16.4 17.9 1.6 —
18.6 17.5 17.6 1.6 18.1 0.8 16.8 18.3 2.1 —
19.5 18.3 18.1 1.4 — — 17.2 19.2 2.4 19.2
20.4 18.8 18.5 2.0 19.9 1.3 17.7 20.0 2.2 20.0
21.5 19.4 19.4 2.5 — — 18.2 20.9 2.5 20.5
20 5 22.6 20.3 20.6 2.8 20.7 1.0 18.7 21.2 2.2 21.5
21 5 23.8 20.8 20.2 2.0 — — 19.4 22.3 2.9 22.5
24.4 — 21.4 2.6 23.4 1.8 20.2 23.2 2.7 23.5
25.8 — 22.8 22 — — 21.3 24.1 2.9 24.6
27.0 — 22.7 1.9 24.2 1.3 22.5 25.3 2.6 25.7
28.3 — 23.8 2.1 — — 23.7 25.7 3.0 —
29.0 — 24.3 2.3 — _ 24.7 25.6 3.1 —
29.8 — 25.3 1.7 — — 25.3 25.7 2.4 —
18.1 1.8 — 18.1 17.2 — — 16.6 17.1 1.6 —
— 18.6 17.5 17.9 2.2 17.0 18.1 2.1 —
— 19.5 18.2 18.1 1.5 17.4 18.4 2.1 19.5
— 20.5 19.2 19.0 1.7 18.0 19.3 2.1 20.3
— 21.9 20.2 19.9 1.9 18.6 20.1 2.8 21.1
20.7 22.6 20.5 21.2 2.9 19.3 20.5 2.4 21.8
21.6 23.8 21.5 21.7 2.8 20.2 21.1 2.4 22.5
— 24.4 — 21.8 22 21.1 22.0 2.6 23.5
— 25.7 _ 22.9 2.2 22.0 22.5 2.8 24.5
— 26.0 _ 23.7 2.4 22.9 22.8 2.5 25.2
— 26.2 — 24.8 2.2 23.5 22.6 2.3 —
— 27.2 — 24.9 2.7 23.7 22.5 2.3 —
— 27.5 _ 24.5 2.8 23.8 22.5 2.3 —
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
15.6 1.4
16.3 1.5
16.6 1.5
16.6 1.5
17.0 1.5
17.8 1.8
Jordan,1979 Mendez-Castellano era/., 1986 Pyke,1986
median s.d. mean mean" median mean s.d. mean s.d. median mean s.d. mean"
15.8 14.6 _ — — — 14.9 16.5 1.0 —
16.2 15.5 _ — — — 15.5 16.5 1.7 —
16.5 16.0 — — — — 15.7 16.6 1.3 —
17.0 16.4 — — — — 16.0 16.6 1.4 —
17.5 16.5 — — — — 16.2 17.4 1.4 —
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985 Shephard era/., 1984 Najjar & Rowland, 1987 Lejarraga, 19866 Valenzuela & Avendano,1979 Jordan,1979 Mendez-Castellano etal., 1986 Pyke,1986
median s.d. mean mean" median mean s.d. median mean s.d. mean"
15.2 1.2 — 15.0 14.0 — — 14.5 15.7 1.2 —
16.1 1.3 — 16.0 15.0 — — 15.1 16.2 1.3 —
16.6 1.5 — 16.5 15.7 — — 15.6 16.6 1.5 —
16.8 1.5 — 17.0 16.3 — — 16.0 16.8 1.5 —
17.2 1.6 — 17.5 16.8 — — 16.3 17.0 1.6 —
Place
Authors
Boys Canada
Montreal
USA Argentina Chile
Trois Rivieres national national Santiago
Colombia
Cali
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985 Shephard et al., 1984 Najjar & Rowland, 1987 Lejarraga, 19866 Valenzuela & Avendano,1979 Spurr era/., 1982
Cuba Venezuela
national Caracas
Australia
national
Girls Montreal
USA Argentina Chile
Trois Rivieres national national Santiago
Cuba Venezuela
national Caracas
Australia
national
" Values not adjusted for age grouping.
Appendix Table 30. Calf circumference of children of European ancestry (cm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Authors
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
Boys
Canada
Montreal Trois Rivieres national
Demirjian & B r a u l t - D u b u c , 1985 S h e p h a r d etal., 1984
median s.d. mean
18.9 1.8 _
20.4 1.7 _
21.0 1.7 _
21.6 1.7 _
_
Cuba
J o r d a n , 1979
median
18.3
19.4
20.2
21.0
21.8
Canada
Montreal
Demirjian &
median
18.6
20.2
20.9
21.6
22.7
B r a u l t - D u b u c , 1985 S h e p h a r d etal., 1984
s.d. mean
1.5 _
1.4 _
1.4 _
1.5 _
Cuba
Trois Rivieres national
J o r d a n , 1979
median
18.0
19.3
20.2
21.0
44.5 1.8
23.5 2.1 _
_ _ _
22.6
_ 23.4
_ _ _
24.2
_ _
_ _ 27.7
_ _ 28.9
26.7
27.6
_
_
_
_
_
_
_ 28.0
_ 29.4
_
_
27.3
28.6
_ 25.0
25.8
_ _
_ _ 28.9
_ _
_ _
_
_
30.2
31.6
_ _ _
_ 32.7
_ _ _ 33.3
_ _ _ 33.5
Girls 23.8
1.8 _ 21.8
_
2.1 _ 22.6
_
_ _
_ 23.4
_ _
24.3
_ 25.3
26.3
30.0
_
_
_
_
_
_
31.4
32.1
_ 32.4
_
_
_ _
_ _ 32.6
_ _ _ 32.6
Appendix Table 31. Triceps skinfold of children of European ancestry (mm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Boys Canada
Montreal
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985
USA
Trois Rivieres national
Shephard etal., 1984 NCHS, unpubl.
Argentina
national
Lejarraga, 1986ft
Bolivia Brazil
LaPaz Santo Andre
Greksa
Cuba
national
Jordan,1979
Guatemala
Guatemala City
Johnstons al., 1984a
Caracas
Mendez-Castellano et al., 1986
national
Pyke,1986
Australia
median 10 perc 90 perc mean median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc mean" median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
10.2 8.0 13.1 — 10.0 7.0 14.5 11.8 8.2 15.0 — — — — 8.0 — — — — — 10.3 7.7 14.2 — — —
10.6 8.2 13.6 — 10.0 7.0 15.0 10.8 7.6 14.0 — — — — 7.8 6.1 10.6 — — — 9.8 7.4 13.2 — — —
10.6 8.4 13.3 — 10.3 7.5 14.0 9.8 7.1 13.1 — — — — 7.6 5.9 10.4 — — — 9.4 7.3 12.6 — — —
9.5 7.3 12.4 — 9.5 7.0 13.0 9.2 6.6 12.5 — — — — 7.3 5.6 10.0 — — — 9.2 7.1 12.4 — — —
7.7 6.0 10.2 — 9.0 6.5 13.0 8.6 6.3 12.0 — — — — 6.8 5.2 9.3 6.6 4.9 10.3 9.0 6.8 12.1 — — —
7.2 54 9.8 — 8.5 6.0 13.0 8.3 6.0 11.7 — — — — 6.4 4.9 8.8 6.9 4.9 10.6 9.0 6.4 12.9 _ _ —
—
—
—
— — — — 8.5 9.5 6.0 6.0 12.6 17.0 8.1 8.0 5.8 5.6 11.7 12.0 — — — — — — — — 6.3 6.2 4.7 4.6 8.8 9.3 7.1 7.5 5.0 5.0 11.7 13.0 9.2 29.4 6.4 6.6 13.7 14.5 _ _ _ _ — —
— — 9.0 6.0 20.0 8.2 5.5 13.0 7.8 — — — 6.3 4.6 10.0 7.7 5.0 14.3 9.6 6.8 16.3 9.8 6.4 16.0
— — 10.6 6.0 20.8 8.5 5.6 14.8 10.5 8.9 6.4 12.4 6.4 4.6 10.6 7.9 5.0 15.2 10.2 7.2 17.4 — — —
—
8±
9±
10±
1±
12±
13±
14±
15±
—
—
—
—
—
— 8.7 11.9 6.5 24.0 8.8 5.7 16.5 9.6 9.8 6.8 15.0 6.6 4.7 11.0 8.1 5.0 15.6 10.5 7.1 17.8 — — —
— 9.2 11.3 6.0 25.6 9.0 5.8 17.5 14.0 9.6 6.6 13.4 6.6 4.7 11.0 8.1 4.9 16.1 10.3 6.8 18.6 10.2 7.2 20.0
— — 11.0 6.0 23.0 8.7 5.6 17.0 9.7 9.0 6.2 13.4 6.6 4.7 10.6 7.9 4.8 15.5 10.1 6.6 17.7 — — —
— — 9.5 6.0 19.0 8.2 5.3 15.5 8.5 8.2 6.0 11.8 6.4 4.7 10.2 7.7 4.7 14.6 9.8 6.4 16.8 — — —
— — 8.0 5.0 18.1 7.8 5.1 14.5 10.5 7.6 5.8 12.4 6.4 4.7 9.9 7.4 4.5 13.8 9.4 6.2 16.2 8.6 6.0 14.0
16±
17±
18±
—
—
—
— — 8.0 5.0 16.5 7.8 5.2 14.2 10.3 7.2 5.4 11.6 6.4 4.8 9.8 6.9 4.1 12.9 8.8 6.0 15.2 — — —
— — 8.0 5.5 20.0 8.4 5.5 14.8 11.3 7.2 5.2 13.0 6.5 4.8 9.8 6.4 3.9 11.6 8.6 6.1 15.6 — — —
— — 8.0 4.5 18.0 9.0 5.8 16.0 7.5 7.4 5.4 11.2 6.5 4.8 9.8 5.5 3.0 11.2 8.9 6.1 16.0 — — —
Girls Canada
Montreal
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985
USA
Trois Rivieres national
Shephardefa/., 1984 NCHS, unpubl.
Argentina
national
Lejarraga, 1986b
Bolivia Brazil
LaPaz Santo Andre
Greksa etal., 1985 Goldberg et al., 1986
Cuba
national
Jordan, 1979
Guatemala
Guatemala City
Johnston etal., 1984a
Venezuela
Caracas
Mendez-Castellano etal., 1986
Australia
national
Pyke, 1986
median lOperc 90perc mean median lOperc 90perc median lOperc 90perc mean" median lOperc 90perc median lOperc 90perc median lOperc 90perc median lOperc 90perc median lOperc 90perc
" Values not adjusted for age grouping. Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
10.0 7.8 12.9 _ 10.0 7.0 15.0 11.7 8.2 15.8 _ _ _ _ 8.2 6.2 11.0 — — — 9.5 7.8 13.0 _ _ _
10.9 8.5 14.0 _ 10.5 7.0 15.0 11.5 8.0 15.8 _ _ _ _ 8.2 6.3 11.0 — — — 10.0 7.6 13.3 _ _ _
10.9 8.6 13.8 _ 10.5 7.2 15.0 11.2 7.7 14.9 _ _ _ _ 8.2 6.3 11.0 — — — 10.3 7.5 13.9 _ _ _
10.4 8.7 8.6 — — 7.9 6.6 6.3 _ 13.6 12.4 12.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.5 14.0 15.0 14.0 17.0 16.2 10.8 10.3 9.8 9.7 10.0 7.4 7.2 7.0 6.8 6.8 14.0 13.7 13.9 14.5 16.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8.0 7.8 7.5 7.4 7.5 6.1 5.8 5.6 5.6 5.6 11.0 11.0 11.2 11.5 12.5 — 7.4 8.1 8.8 9.3 — 5.3 5.5 5.9 6.1 — 12.4 13.0 14.3 15.3 10.0 9.6 9.6 10.2 11.0 7.4 7.2 7.1 7.2 7.2 14.2 13.8 14.1 15.3 16.3 _ _ — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
—
—
_ _
_ _ _
12.0 7.0 20.8 10.5 7.1 17.5 12.2
7.8 5.6 13.7 9.8 6.1 16.5 12.2 7.8 17.8 12.6 8.8 20.6
14.0 7.5 22.5 11.1 7.4 19.0 11.8 n.2 7.8 15.8 8.2 5.8 14.8 10.3 6.3 17.5 13.2 8.4 19.3 — — —
— — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 10.3 10.2 _ _ _ _ 13.5 12.5 15.5 16.0 17.0 17.0 8.5 8.0 9.5 8.4 10.0 10.5 23.0 20.5 28.0 25.0 30.5 29.4 11.5 11.8 12.0 13.0 14.2 15.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 8.1 8.9 9.9 20.0 20.5 20.5 21.0 22.5 24.0 12.8 13.8 15.3 18.2 19.9 20.3 12.0 12.4 13.8 14.2 16.2 16.2 7.2 8.6 9.1 9.4 10.2 9.8 21.4 19.4 22.4 23.3 22.4 24.4 8.6 9.1 10.0 11.0 11.9 12.5 5.9 6.2 6.5 7.0 7.6 8.2 15.7 16.5 17.5 18.5 19.5 20.0 10.9 11.4 12.0 12.5 12.9 13.3 6.4 6.7 7.1 7.6 7.8 8.3 18.1 18.9 19.8 20.5 21.1 21.7 13.8 13.8 14.1 14.7 15.3 15.4 8.8 9.1 9.1 9.6 10.0 10.4 19.9 20.4 21.2 22.2 22.4 22.8 — 12.8 — — 16.6 — — 8.6 — — — — — 21.0 _ _ _ _
— _ _ _ 20.0 11.0 28.2 16.0 10.1 24.0 18.7 17.0 11.6 23.4 12.5 8.2 20.0 13.6 8.4 21.9 15.4 10.5 23.6 — — _
— _ _ _ 18.0 11.6 30.1 16.0 10.1 24.0 19.8 16.8 10.4 24.8 12.5 8.0 20.0 14.4 9.0 22.0 15.4 10.5 23.9 — — _
Appendix Table 32. Subscapular skinfold of children of European ancestry (mm) Age (yr) Country
Place
Boys Canada
Montreal
Brazil
1±
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985
Trois Rivieres national
Shephard et al., 1984 NCHS, unpubl.
national
Lejarraga, 19866
Santo Andre
Goldberg etal., 1986
national
Jordan,1979
Guatemala City
Johnston et al., 1984a
Caracas
Mendez-Castellano etal., 1986
median 10 perc 90 perc mean median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc
7.2 5.5 9.7 — 6.0 4.5 8.5 8.4 5.8 12.0 — — — 7.4 5.4 9.8 — — — 7.8 5.3 11.1
2±
6.8 5.2 9.2 — 6.0 4.5 9.0 6.6 4.9 9.4 — — — 6.8 5.0 8.8 — — — 6.6 5.1 9.7
3±
6.4 5.0 8.4 — 5.5 4.0 8.0 6.0 4.4 8.4 — — — 6.2 4.6 8.1 — — — 6.2 5.0 9.0
4±
5.6 4.4 7.5 — 5.0 4.0 7.2 5.6 4.2 8.0 — — — 5.8 4.4 7.7 — — — 6.1 4.8 9.1
5±
4.8 4.0 6.4 — 5.0 3.5 7.0 5.4 4.0 7.7 — — — 5.4 4.3 7.4 5.4 4.1 7.9 6.0 4.8 9.4
6±
4.6 3.8 6.3 — 5.0 4.0 8.0 5.2 3.9 7.5 — — — 5.2 4.2 7.3 5.5 4.2 9.0 5.9 4.7 9.6
7±
_ — — 4.5 3.5 8.0 5.2 3.9 7.6 — — — 5.2 4.1 7.3 5.8 4.4 10.3 6.1 4.7 10.6
— _ — 5.0 4.0 9.0 5.2 3.9 8.0 — — — 5.2 4.2 7.5 6.1 4.5 11.9 6.5 4.7 12.4
_ _ — 5.0 4.0 15.3 5.4 4.0 8.8 — — — 5.4 4.2 7.8 6.4 4.7 13.6 6.6 4.8 13.4
10±
1±
_ _ _ — 6.0 4.0 13.0 5.6 4.0 10.7 5.4 4.4 8.8 5.4 4.3 8.4 6.8 4.8 15.0 6.8 5.0 13.9
_ _ _ 5.6 7.0 4.0 17.2 6.0 4;2 13.0 6.0 4.4 9.0 5.6 4.4 8.8 7.1 5.0 15.9 7.2 5.2 14.7
12±
_ _ _ 6.1 6.5 4.0 24.2 6.4 4.5 14.5 6.0 4.6 8.8 5.8 4.5 9.0 7.5 5.2 16.4 7.4 5.2 15.2
13±
_ _ _ 7.0 4.5 18.0 6.7 4.7 14.5 6.2 4.6 8.4 6.0 4.4 8.8 8.0 5.4 16.5 7.8 5.4 14.5
14±
_ _ _
15±
_ _ _ _ 7.0 4.5 14.5 6.8 4.9 14.0 6.2 5.0 8.8 6.2 4.8 8.8 8.5 5.8 16.3 8.0 5.7 14.4
_ 7.5 5.0 17.6 7.2 5.2 13.5 6.8 5.2 9.0 6.6 5.0 9.2 8.9 6.1 16.1 8.4 6.0 15.7
16±
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ 7.5 6.0 20.1 8.0 5.8 14.0 6.8 5.6 9.2 7.0 5.4 10.0 9.5 6.5 16.1 8.7 6.2 16.0
17±
18±
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 9.0 8.5 6.0 6.5 20.0 18.0 9.0 9.8 6.4 6.9 14.8 16.0 7.8 8.4 6.0 6.2 11.8 9.6 7.7 8.2 5.8 6.2 11.0 11.5 9.9 10.4 6.8 6.9 16.0 15.7 9.0 9.1 6.4 6.6 16.0 16.0
Girls Canada
Montreal
Demirjian & Brault-Dubuc, 1985
USA
Trois Rivieres national
Shephard etal., 1984 NCHS, unpubl.
Argentina
national
Lejarraga, 1986/)
Brazil
Santo Andre
Goldberg etal., 1986
Cuba
national
Jordan, 1979
Guatemala
Guatemala City
Johnston etal., 1984a
Venezuela
Caracas
Mendez-Castellano etal., 1986
Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
median 10 perc 90 perc mean median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 Derc
7.6 5.8 9.9 — 6.5 4.5 9.0 8.5 5.9 11.4 — — — 7.5 5.6 10.4 — — — 8.4 6.0 10.8
7.2 5.5 9.5 — 6.0 4.5 9.5 7.4 5.2 10.0 — — — 6.8 5.2 9.2 — — — 7.5 5.6 9.8
6.8 5.1 9.2 — 6.0 4.5 9.0 6.8 4.8 9.6 — — — 6.6 4.9 8.8 — — — 6.9 5.2 9.3
6.3 4.7 8.4 — 6.0 4.0 9.0 6.4 4.5 9.4 — — — 6.4 4.8 8.8 — — — 6.6 4.8 9.8
5.6 4.2 8.0 — 5.5 4.0 8.9 6.2 4.3 9.4 — — — 6.2 4.7 9.0 6.1 5.0 10.9 6.3 4.7 10.2
4.1 79 — 5.5 4.0 10.5 6.0 4.2 9.6 — — — 6.2 4.6 9.2 6.4 4.8 11.4 6.2 4.6 10.4
— 6.0 4.0 10.5 6.0 4.2 10.3 — — — 6.2 4.6 9.8 6.9 4.9 13.7 6.2 4.7 11.1
_
_
— 6.0 4.0 12.6 6.2 4.3 11.5 — — — 6.3 4.7 10.7 7.4 5.0 15.3 6.8 4.9 12.6
— 6.5 4.0 12.0 6.6 4.4 13.5 — — — 6.5 4.8 12.0 7.9 5.1 17.1 8.7 5.1 15.4
_
_
— 7.4 4.5 22.5 7.0 4.6 16.4 7.0 5.2 11.2 6.8 5.0 13.0 8.6 5.4 18.4 8.3 5.4 16.4
6.8 8.0 5.0 23.0 7.8 5.0 18.5 7.8 5.0 19.8 7.2 5.2 14.0 9.2 5.7 19.0 8.3 5.7 16.7
_ 7.1 8.0 5.0 18.3 8.8 5.4 19.5 8.2 6.0 15.6 7.8 5.4 15.0 10.0 6.2 19.6 9.4 6.0 17.2
_
10.0 6.0 26.5 9.4 6.0 19.5 9.6 6.4 17.2 8.4 6.0 16.0 10.8 6.8 20.7 10.1 6.5 18.7
_
_ _ 10.0 5.5 22.0 10.2 6.6 20.0 11.2 7.4 20.4 9.4 6.6 17.2 11.6 7.4 20.7 11.0 7.1 20.1
_
_
_ _ _ 10.5 11.0 7.0 7.0 26.7 23.0 11.4 12.0 7.5 8.1 20.5 21.0 12.8 13.6 7.8 7.6 21.8 23.4 10.4 11.0 7.0 7.4 18.3 19.0 12.4 13.2 8.0 8.4 21.9 23.8 11.5 11.7 7.6 7.8 20.4 20.4
_
_
_ 12.5 7.0 25.7 12.3 8.3 21.5 14.8 8.6 22.8 11.5 7.6 19.5 13.9 8.6 25.5 11.8 8.0 20.7
_ 12.0 7.5 30.0 12.3 8.4 21.5 14.8 10.0 28.2 11.5 7.6 19.8 14.5 8.6 28.5 11.8 8.0 20.8
Appendix Table 33. Height of boys in Africa and of African ancestry (cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
1±
Africa Benin Botswana Gambia
Porto Novo Gaborone Keneba
Kenya
Nairobi
Cresta & Avoundogra, 1980-1 mean mean 0 Corlett, 1986 Billewicz & McGregor, 1982 mean s.d. Alnwick, 1980 mean Kuhnetai, 1982 mean" Kulin etal., 1982 mean" Stephenson et al., 1983 mean" s.d. Little etai, 1983 mean s.d. Singer & Kimura, 1981 mean s.d. Singer & Kimura, 1981 mean s.d. M. D. Janes, unpubl. mean s.d. M. D. Janes, unpubl. mean s.d. Hiernaux, 1964 mean 0 Hiernaux, 1964 mean"
70.5 — _ _ 73.2 81.4 3.5 4.7 — — _ _ _ _ — 78.6 — 3.6 74.6 81.8 6.4 4.6 — — — — _ _ — — 77.6 89.2 2.2 3.0 72.8 83.0 2.6 3.2 _ _ _ _
Kitui District Machakos Turkana Namibia
Hottentots
Nigeria
Ibadan (well-off)
Rehoboth Basters
Ibadan (slum) Rwanda
Hutu Tutsi
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10+
11±
85.0 — 103.7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 116.0 123.0 128.0 133.0 138.5 88.2 95.5 100.9 — — — — 126.8 — 4.2 4.7 5.2 — — — — 5.1 — 96.3 101.0 109.8 115.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 144.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 131.0 85.9 93.8 100.3 106.0 110.6 116.8 120.0 124.2 128.2 5.1 5.2 5.5 5.7 6.0 6.2 6.2 7.0 5.7 89.2 96.2 101.4 106.2 113.9 119.9 122.9 127.8 131.6 6.3 7.1 3.0 5.7 6.2 6.9 8.2 4.9 — 87.4 — — — 99.3 116.0 118.4 117.5 125.4 — — — — 2.6 3.7 1.6 7.0 5.4 _ _ _ _ 115.1 121.2 123.5 128.2 135.4 — — — — 6.4 3.5 8.4 3.8 7.9 97.3 104.3 111.1 116.7 122.3 127.4 133.1 136.9 3.3 3.7 4.0 4.0 4.2 5.8 4.9 3.7 — 90.2 96.6 102.6 108.3 113.7 118.6 124.9 127.9 3.7 3.5 4.1 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.2 5.9 — _ _ _ _ 113.5 117.8 121.2 125.8 131.0 _ _ _ _ 117.5 121.6 126.0 132.0 137.5
12±
13±
_ 141.5 — — _ 147.5 134.0 134.2 — 139.4 4.6 127.1 3.6 133.6 7.9 _ — _ — 135.0 141.0
_ 145.0 — — _ 154.0 139.5 138.0 — 143.8 5.3 130.1 7.5 142.8 0.2 _ — _ — 139.5 146.0
14±
15±
16±
17±
_ _ _ _ _ 148.5 — — — — 146.5 — — — 8.0 — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 145.0 150.0 156.0 159.0 140.8 145.0 151.0 156.5 — — — — 139.6 155.1 148.1 154.8 11.1 — 7.4 4.8 140.4 142.1 145.3 153.4 6.2 — 4.9 2.0 146.6 153.8 164.7 168.3 7.0 12.1 8.8 6.2 _ _ _ _ _ — — — — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — 142.8 146.2 151.8 155.0 149.5 152.2 158.5 164.3
18±
_ — — — _ _ 162.0 — — 162.1 10.0 — — 168.6 7.5 _ — _ — — —
Senegal South Africa
Dakar Cape Coloured
Masse, 1969 Singer & Kimura, 1981
Soweto
Richardson, 1977a
Soweto
Walker & Walker, 1977
Bochem
Walker & Walker, 1977
Mogadish Warega Kasonga
Gallo & Mestriner, 1980 Van Loon et al., 1986a Van Lerberghe, 1987
Americas and Europe Aruba — Colombia Cali Jamaica Kingston United Kingdom England United States national
van Wering, 1978 Spurred a/., 1982 Ashcroft & Lovell, 1964 Rona&Chinn,1986 NCHS, unpubl.
Somalia Zaire
Texas (mid income) Philadelphia
Shutte, 1980 G. H. Katz, unpubl.; Evelethefa/., 1979
" Values adjusted for age grouping. Supine length, ages 1 and 2 years.
104.6 110.5 118.7 122.8 128.8 134.5 138.7 142.9 148.0 153.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 96.2 106.7
mean" mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean" mean s.d.
74.5 — — 76.8 5.5 _ — _ — 71.0 70.0 72.1 4.3
83.0 80.7 4.7 85.3 5.8 _ — _ — 80.0 80.0 81.5 5.1
90.2 86.5 5.5 91.6 5.5 _ — _ — 89.0 85.5 89.0 5.5
mean mean s.d. mean" mean s.d.
74.1 — — — 76.1 5.1 _ _ _
87.0 — — — 85.7 5.2 _ _ _
94.5 102.0 109.0 115.0 120.0 — — — — 119.3 — — — 115.3 121.5 — — — 117.0 124.0 94.6 103.1 111.6 116.2 120.8 5.7 5.6 5.7 5.1 6.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
98.1 92.5 4.5 99.7 5.1 _ — _ _ 99.0 92.0 95.9 5.7
T
— _
— _
— _
— _
4
105.0 109.9 118.1 — — — — 140.9 — — — — 162.1 164.4 5.5 3.9 6.3 — — — — 6.9 — — — — 8.7 6.6 — — — 126.1 — 137.1 — 143.0 — 154.1 — — — — — — — 5.1 — 5.1 — 5.4 — 7.4 — — — — — — — 126.1 — 131.5 — 140.7 — 152.0 — — — — — — — 5.8 — 5.8 — 6.4 — 7.1 — — — — 107.5 112.5 118.0 124.0 128.0 132.5 137.0 140.0 146.0 152.5 160.0 166.0 170.0 171.0 96.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 101.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 6.4 — — — — — — — — — — — — —
125.0 130.0 135.0 — 131.2 — 126.5 131.5 138.0 129.0 134.0 139.0 127.7 134.4 138.6 6.0 6.7 7.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
139.0 143.0 149.0 — — 136.6 — 149.4 — 164.4 142.7 147.2 152.0 158.8 165.5 146.0 _ _ _ 145.1 147.6 153.7 159.4 171.2 5.9 9.8 10.0 7.4 8.3 146.0 152.5 157.5 162.5 145.8 150.5 157.2 163.1 6.8 8.0 8.4 8.5
— — — — 170.5 171.5 _ _ _ 171.2 174.7 4.5 6.4 168.0 171.5 168.6 173.0 7.8 7.2
— — 174.5 _ 175.1 6.8 175.5 175.6 6.6
Appendix Table 34. Height of girls in Africa and of African ancestry (cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
1±
2±
3±
Africa Benin
Porto Novo
Botswana Gambia
Gaborone Keneba
Kenya
Nairobi
Cresta & Avoundogra, 1980-1 mean s.d. Corlett, 1986 mean" Billewicz & McGregor, 1982 mean s.d. Alnwick, 1980 mean Kulin etal., 1982 mean" Kulin etal., 1982 mean" Stephenson etal., 1983 mean 0 s.d. Little et 0/., 1983 mean s.d. Singer & Kimura, 1981 mean s.d. Singer & Kimura, 1981 mean s.d. M. D. Janes, unpubl. mean s.d. M. D. Janes, unpubl. mean s.d. Heintz, 1963 mean" Heintz, 1963 mean"
69.9 2.5 _ 72.0 3.9 — _ _ — — 69.5 5.8 _ — _ _ 75.5 3.4 71.2 2.7 _ _
— — _ 80.1 4.1 — _ _ 77.2 4.6 80.2 5.0 _ — _ _ 87.0 2.9 81.8 3.1 _ _
84.9 — 105.5 _ _ _ 4.2 — 4.5 — — — — _ _ _ _ H6.0 122.0 125.5 87.7 94.7 100.1 — — — — 4.5 5.0 5.7 — — — — 95.2 101.3 109.2 114.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 85.4 93.5 99.9 107.0 112.6 116.6 120.0 4.5 4.6 5.1 4.9 5.5 5.4 5.9 91.2 99.6 102.2 105.7 117.3 119.6 125.7 5.1 4.5 4.4 7.3 7.9 5.9 8.3 _ _ _ _ 103.2 113.9 126.8 — — — — 5.2 3.2 7.1 _ _ _ _ _ 119.5 124.4 _ _ _ _ _ 8.9 7.8 96.2 103.0 109.4 116.0 121.5 127.1 131.8 3.4 3.7 4.3 4.4 4.6 5.2 5.0 89.5 95.2 101.4 107.1 113.3 118.4 123.7 3.4 4.3 4.6 5.0 5.1 5.0 5.3 _ _ _ _ H2.8 116.9 122.4 _ _ _ _ 116.9 122.0 126.4
Kutui District Machakos Turkana Namibia
Hottentots Rehoboth Basters
Nigeria
Ibadan (well-off) Ibadan (slum)
Rwanda
Hutu Tutsi
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
_ _ _ — — — 129.0 133.5 138.0 126.6 — — 5.7 — — _ _ _ 147.0 150.0 130.0 141.0 127.0 130.0 135.0 7.6 6.5 — 128.9 134.0 140.1 7.8 11.7 8.5 124.9 126.3 133.3 9.4 3.4 8.9 128.5 135.2 138.8 3.3 5.4 10.5 137.2 _ 5.7 — — 128.2 _ 2.9 — — 128.0 131.7 135.1 130.5 134.6 138.0
13±
_ — 142.0 — — _ 152.5 144.0 140.5 — 144.2 9.6 135.9 7.9 143.4 9.3 _ — _ — 140.0 144.0
14±
_
15±
16±
17±
_ _ _ _ — — — — 146.5 — — — — 149.1 — — — 7.2 — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 145.5 150.5 154.5 156.0 145.5 149.0 150.5 151.5 — — — — 150.1 152.4 152.4 158.7 8.1 9.0 7.7 9.1 143.3 138.5 149.0 154.5 5.1 7.2 7.0 6.6 150.3 156.4 157.4 159.0 8.5 4.6 5.6 3.9 _ _ _ _ _ — — — — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — 144.8 149.2 151.4 152.7 150.0 155.0 158.2 160.5
18±
_ — — — — _ _ — 153.0 — 164.4 7.1 — — 163.0 5.4 _ — _ — 155.0 162.3
Senegal South Africa
Somalia Zaire
Dakar Cape Coloured
Masse, 1969 Singer & Kimura, 1981
Soweto
Richardson, 1977a
Soweto
Walker & Walker, 1977
Bochem
Walker & Walker, 1977
Mogadish Kasonga
Gallo & Mestriner, 1980 Van Lerberghe, 1987
Americas and Europe Aruba — Jamaica Kingston United Kingdom England United States national Philadelphia
van Wering, 1978 Ashcroft & Lovell, 1964; Ashcroft et al., 1966 Rona & Chinn, 1986 NCHS, unpubl. G. H. Katz, unpubl.; Eveleth etal., 1979
" Values adjusted for age grouping. Supine length, ages 1 and 2 years.
mean mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean mean s.d.
72.5 — — 75.5 5.3 — — — — 69.0 71.2 4.6
80.5 77.0 5.5 84.5 5.2 — — — — 79.0 81.1 4.9
90.3 90.9 11.0 91.4 5.3 — — — — 88.0 88.7 5.0
96.1 98.0 3.3 98.2 5.8 — — — — 97.0 95.4 5.9
103.0 110.3 117.4 123.7 127.9 132.7 138.7 143.8 151.0 155.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — — — — 105.4 104.7 115.9 — — — — 146.3 — — 5.7 2.8 7.7 — — — — 7.7 — — — — — 125.8 — 139.0 — 145.7 — 155.1 — — — 4.9 — 5.7 — 7.1 — 8.1 — — — 123.5 — 133.0 — 144.3 — 152.6 — — — 6.0 — 6.0 — 6.6 — 7,3 107.0 114.0 119.0 123.0 129.0 135.0 140.0 145.0 151.0 156.0 101.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 6.4 — — — — — — — — —
158.3 — — — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — 157.6 — — — 5.9 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 159.0 159.0 159.0 160.0 _ _ _ _ _ — — — —
mean mean
— —
85.0 —
95.0 102.0 107.0 115.0 120.0 125.0 130.0 135.0 141.0 147.0 153.0 _ _ _ _ _ — — — 115.3 121.7 126.8 133.8 140.0 147.5 153.5 156.0 159.0 160.5 160.5 160.9 160.0
mean mean s.d. mean s.d.
— 75.0 4.9 — —
— 84.7 4.2 — —
— — — 117.0 122.5 130.0 135.0 139.0 146.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 93.8 103.2 109.1 115.8 123.2 127.7 133.1 140.3 147.6 154.1 156.2 159.8 162.2 165.1 164.2 — 4.8 5.8 5.8 5.0 5.5 7.3 6.2 8.6 5.2 6.9 6.2 5.6 5.7 5.3 5.7 — — — — — — — — — 150.7 154.1 158.4 160.2 161.3 162.1 162.5 165.0 — — — — — — — — 6.0 7.6 6.7 6.2 5.8 5.5 6.0 5.3
Appendix Table 35. Weight of boys in Africa and of African ancestry (kg) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
Africa Benin Botswana Gambia
Porto Novo Gaborone Keneba Nairobi
7.8 — 8.3 1.1 — — — — — 8.4 1.2 — — — — 10.1 1.1 8.1 1.0 — —
— — 10.4 1.4 — — — 10.4 4.3 10.1 1.4 — — — — 12.5 1.4 10.4 1.2 — —
11.4 — 12.4 1.5 13.4 — — 11.8 1.6 11.3 1.9 — — — — 14.8 1.5 12.6 1.5 — —
— — 14.2 1.6 16.4 — — 13.6 1.5 12.7 2.1 — — — — 16.7 1.8 14.2 1.6 — —
15.6 — 15.5 1.7 18.6 — — 14.8 2.0 13.4 1.0 — — — — 18.9 2.2 15.7 1.6 — —
-_ — — — 20.1 — — 16.1 2.0 15.1 2.5 — — — — 20.7 2.6 17.1 2.0 — —
— 20.5 — —
Kenya
Cresta & Avoundogra, 1980-1 mean mean Corlett, 1986 Billewicz & McGregor, 1982 mean s.d. mean Alnwick, 1980 Kulin era/., 1982 mean mean Kulin era/., 1982 mean Stephenson et at., 1983 s.d. mean Little etal., 1983 s.d. Singer & Kimura, 1981 mean s.d. Singer & Kimura, 1981 mean s.d. M. D. Janes, unpubl. mean s.d. M. D. Janes, unpubl. mean s.d. Hiernaux,1964 mean Hiernaux, 1964 mean
— 23.0 — — _ — — 19.2 2.8 19.3 2.3 17.9 1.5 22.2 1.3 25.4 3.6 20.3 2.6 20.3 21.0
Kitui District Machakos Turkana Namibia
Hottentots
Nigeria
Ibadan (well-off)
Rwanda
Hutu Tutsi
Rehoboth Basters
Ibadan (slum)
— — 17.2 2.1 17.6 1.8 14.9 1.1 22.3 3.7 22.9 3.3 18.7 2.2 18.8 19.6
— 24.8 — — _ — — 20.6 2.9 20.2 2.8 19.3 1.3 23.0 1.8 28.0 4.5 22.4 2.5 21.7 22.4
10±
11+
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
— 26.8 24.1 2.8 _ — — 22.2 2.9 23.2 3.4 19.4 2.7 24.0 2.4 29.9 2.2 23.7 2.6 23.7 24.9
_ — — _ _ — _ _ 29.8 32.5 35.0 38.2 — — — — — — — — 35.2 — — — — — — — 5.2 — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 38.0 38.5 42.3 _ _ _ _ _ 26.2 27.8 30.5 34.0 36.2 41.8 44.5 47.2 24.0 27.0 28.2 30.0 33.5 37.3 42.0 — 3.6 — — — — — — — 24.0 26.9 29.9 28.1 35.6 31.7 38.1 39.5 — 1.6 4.2 4.8 — 4.8 2.7 8.1 21.8 26.7 26.4 29.3 34.0 32.8 34.2 — 2.5 6.4 3.2 2.5 2.0 1.4 1.7 — 28.3 27.0 34.0 35.0 40.1 49.5 54.7 54.6 3.6 4.0 5.2 6.8 8.7 8.1 5.5 10.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — — 26.1 28.1 30.5 32.6 34.9 38.8 42.6 — 27.5 29.4 32.0 33.8 36.0 40.4 45.5 —
Dakar Cape Coloured Soweto
Masse etal., 1961 Singer & Kimura, 1981 Richardson, 1977a
Soweto
Walker & Walker, 1977
Bochem
Walker & Walker, 1977
Mogadish Warenga Kasonga
Gallo & Mestriner, 1980 Van Loon et al., 1986a VanLerberghe, 1987
Americas Aruba Colombia
— Cali
van Wering, 1978 Spurr et al., 1982
Jamaica
Kingston
United States
national
Ashcroft & Lovell, 1964; Ashcroftefa/., 1966 NCHS, unpubl.
Senegal South Africa
Somalia Zaire
Texas (mid-income) Shutte, 1980 Philadelphia G. H. Katz, unpubl.; Evelethefa/., 1979 3
Values adjusted for age grouping.
mean" mean mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean" mean s.d.
mean 0 mean s.d. ' mean 0 mean s.d. mean 0 mean s.d.
9.2 — 10.5 1.6 — — _ — 8.5 8.2 8.9 1.5
11.1 9.8 12.3 1.7 — — _ — 10.0 10.5 10.9 1.5
13.7 12.0 13.8 1.7 — — — — 12.0 12.1 12.9 1.6
15.2 13.3 15.6 1.9 — — — — 14.0 13.9 14.4 1.7
16.9 13.7 17.0 2.2 _ — _ — 16.5 14.7 15.4 2.0
18.4
20.9
21.9
24.7
27.0
29.5
31.5
34.1
36.5
45.1
—
—
—
18.1 2.0 — — — — 18.0
21.2 3.0 — — — — 20.5
_ — 24.9 7.0 24.0 5.1 22.5
_ — _ — — — 24.5
_ — 28.8 6.0 27.2 5.3 26.2
— — — — — — 29.0
33.0 6.0 35.8 6.3 32.2 5.8 31.0
— — — — — — 33.5
— — 43.5 7.3 39.6 6.8 37.0
— — — — — — 41.5
— — — — — — 47.0
50.8 8.4 — — — — 50.0
— — — — — — 50.5
— — — _
12.5 — — _
14.0 — — _
15.0 — _ _
18.0 — _ _
19.5 — _ 19.9
22.0 22.8 1.8 22.8
24.0 — — 25.0
27.5 27.9 1.7 27.1
29.0 — — 31.2
31.0 32.1 2.0 33.8
35.0 — — 36.1
39.0 40.6 3.8 40.1
— — — 46.0
— 50.5 3.3 51.7
— — — 56.1
— — — 59.1
— — _ 61.0
10.4 1.4 — — —
12.4 1.6 — — —
14.4 1.7 — — —
16.8 2.2 — — —
19.8 3.1 — — —
20.5 2.6 — — —
24.7 6.1 — — —
24.8 3.1 — — —
29.9 5.0 — — —
33.0 6.4 — — —
38.6 8.6 34.5 39.5 11.0
40.0 12.8 40.0 42.8 13.0
44.5 11.4 46.0 48.0 12.6
49.9 9.7 51.5 52.2 13.1
59.0 8.5 56.0 59.0 14.8
64.2 12.7 60.8 63.2 15.6
68.2 10.7 65.8 68.7 15.5
67.6 13.4 — 79.8 19.0
Appendix Table 36. Weight of girls in Africa and of African ancestry (kg) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
1±
2±
3±
Africa Benin
Porto Novo
Botswana Gambia
Gaborone Keneba
Kenya
Nairobi
Cresta & Avoundogra, 1980-1 mean s.d. mean mean" mean s.d. Alnwick, 1980 mean mean Kulin etal., 1982 mean Kulin etal., 1982 mean Stephenson et al., 1983 s.d. mean Little etal., 1983 s.d. mean Singer& Kimura, 1981 s.d. mean Singer & Kimura, 1981 s.d. M. D. Janes, unpubl. mean s.d. mean M. D. Janes, unpubl. s.d.
7.4 1.2 _ 8.1 1.0 — — — — — 7.6 1.4 — — — — 9.0 1.0 7.6 0.9
— — _ 10.1 1.3 — — — 9.6 1.3 9.6 0.9 — — — — 11.5 1.1 10.0 1.2
10.1 1.4 _ 12.3 1.4 14.7 — — 11.4 1.4 12.2 1.5 — — — — 13.7 1.4 12.1 1.3
Kitui District Machakos Turkana Hottentots Rehoboth Basters Nigeria
Ibadan (well-off) (well-off) Ibadan (slum)
Corlett, 1986 Billewicz & McGregor, 1982
4±
5±
— 15.4 — 1.8 _ _ _ 14.0 15.1 1.3 1.8 16.0 18.6 — — — — 13.1 14.5 1.4 1.6 13.3 13.4 0.8 2.0 — — — — — — — — 16.0 17.8 1.7 2.1 13.7 15.1 1.7 1.9
6±
_ — — — 19.7 — — 16.1 1.8 14.4 2.0 — — — — 19.8 2.5 16.6 2.1
7±
8±
9±
10±
_ — 20.5 — —
_ — 23.0 — — _ — — 19.1 2.4 18.4 2.9 18.2 2.9 24.0 5.2 24.8 3.8 20.0 2.2
_ — 24.3 — — _ — — 20.4 2.5 21.7 4.5 24.4 2.9 26.0 3.1 26.6 3.5 21.5 2.9
_
— — 27.8 2.3 18.3 2.7 14.8 — 21.9 4.6 22.1 2.9 18.3 2.2
— 27.2 23.9 3.1 _ — — 23.5 3.4 23.2 3.5 25.2 7.4 27.7 4.3 31.4 4.8 24.2 2.2
11±
_
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — — 30.2 31.8 34.7 38.0 — — — — — — — — 38.7 — — — — — — — 6.8 — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 38.0 40.8 45.5 _ _ _ _ _ 28.0 32.0 33.0 35.0 38.5 43.3 46.0 — 24.3 27.0 31.0 35.0 38.0 38.5 40.0 — 2.7 — — — — — — — 24.4 29.3 29.7 32.8 34.8 34.0 38.6 47.0 5.7 5.4 5.2 5.6 4.3 6.0 7.8 6.4 22.0 26.8 28.1 32.0 30.1 34.4 43.8 — 3.0 4.2 6.1 5.3 4.9 5.8 6.4 — 30.0 34.1 41.4 47.7 50.3 57.7 56.2 — 6.2 6.3 8.9 7.1 3.2 3.4 9.9 — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — —
Rwanda Senegal South Africa
Hutu Tutsi Dakar Cape Coloured Soweto
Heintz, 1963 Heintz, 1963 M a s s e s a/., 1961 Singer & Kimura, 1981 Richardson, 1977a
Soweto
Walker & Walker, 1977
Bochem
Walker & Walker, 1977
Somalia Zaire
Mogadish Kasonga
Gallo & Mestriner, 1980 VanLerberghe, 1987
Americas Aruba Jamaica
Kingston
United States
national Philadelphia
1
Values adjusted for age grouping.
van Wering, 1978 Ashcroft & Lovell, 1964; Ashcroftefa/., 1966 NCHS, unpubl. G. H. Katz, unpubl.; Evelethera/., 1979
mean mean mean" mean mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean s.d.
— _ 16.1
— _ 18.2
18.5 18.7 20.2
20.0 20.5 22.3
22.3 22.5 24.5
25.0 24.4 28.2
26.9 26.0 29.9
28.8 27.9 33.6
31.3 31.1 39.0
34.5 35.4 41.5
37.6 39.4 47.0
39.7 42.9 —
43.0 45.3 —
48.9 42.4 —
17.0 2.3
16.2 1.7 _ — _ — 19.0
20.5 3.1 _ — _ — 20.5
— — 25.3 6.7 22.6 4.8 22.0
— — — — — — 25.0
— — 29.9 5.7 27.8 6.2 28.0
— — — — — — 31.0
36.3 7.5 36.5 7.1 33.1 6.8 34.0
— — — — — — 38.0
— — 47.3 7.7 42.6 6.7 44.0
— — — — — — 47.0
— — — — — — 49.5
51.9 6.3 — — — — 49.5
— — — — — — 49.5
14.0 15.0 17.5 _ _ _
20.0 20.4
20.5 22.1
24.0 24.9
25.5 29.8
29.0 34.0
32.5 38.5
36.0 42.9
41.0 45.0
48.1
_ _ _ _ _ 51.4 52.5 52.2 51.5
13.9 1.9 _ _
36.0 10.3
_ _
44.2 12.4 42.4 8.1
50.1 14.7 47.7 11.3
50.4 10.0 52.6 12.0
53.0 10.8 55.7 12.8
57.1 11.9 57.0 11.3
8.6 — 10.0 1.6
11.0 9.3 11.9 1.7
13.1 11.9 13.5 1.9
14.8 13.9 15.2 2.2
8.5 8.3 1.5
10.0 10.5 1.5
11.2 12.6 1.5
13.8 14.1 1.8
mean" mean"
— _
12.0 _
mean s.d. mean s.d.
9.7 1.3 _ _
11.7 1.4 _ _
16.4 2.7 _ _
16.3 15.5 2.0
18.4 3.2 _ _
20.8 3.4
24.4 5.2 _ _
26.5 5.3 _ _
29.9 5.6 _ _
_ _
58.9 14.0 58.8 10.8
59.0 9.7 60.2 11.6
62.6 16.7 66.2 13.0
Appendix Table 37a. Mean size of adults in Africa and of African ancestry Authors
Ht. (cm)
Wt. (kg)
Sit. ht. (cm)
Arm Circ. Triceps. (mm) (cm)
Subscap. (mm)
Male N = 427; 18-50 yr Central African Republic pygmies Bagandu pygmies N=4S Ituri pygmies N=7l Bagandu & Issongo N=50 N= 17; 19-29 yr Efe pygmies Zaire N= 23; 19-29 yr Lese N= 2158; 20-50 yr Malian Mali N=359 Fur Sudan United States national, NHANESII N= 121; 18-24 yr
Pennetti et al., 1986 Cavalli-Sforza, 1986 Cavalli-Sforza, 1986 Cavalli-Sforza, 1986 Dietz et al., 1989 Dietz ef a/., 1989 Prazuck etal., 1988 Sukkar, 1976 Najjar & Rowland, 1987
152.9 152.7 144.4 161.2 144.9 159.3 171.9 167.9 176.7
47.9 48.3 — 54.6 43.3 51.4 — 57.6 72.2
— 78.0 75.9 81.6 — — — — 89.7
— — — — 20.6 22.5 — 26.9 30.7
5.6 — — — 6.6 8.6 — 7.0 9.7
8.9 — — — 8.5 10.2 — 10.1 12.6
Female Central African Republic pygmies Bagandu pygmies Ituri pygmies Bagandu & Issongo Efe pygmies Zaire Lese Fur Sudan national, NHANESII United States
Pennetti et al., 1986 Cavalli-Sforza, 1986 Cavalli-Sforza, 1986 Cavalli-Sforza, 1986 Dietz etal., 1989 DiQtzetaL, 1989 Sukkar, 1976 Najjar & Rowland, 1987
144.3 145.0 136.0 154.4 136.1 152.9 159.2 163.2
42.2 42.7 — 50.4 40.6 53.0 51.8 63.1
— 75.7 71.9 78.0 — — — 84.5
— — — — 18.8 21.5 25.9 28.2
8.3 — — — 11.6 13.6 12.3 20.6
9.6 — — — 10.6 11.4 12.2 19.1
Country
People or place
Sample size; ages
N = 392; 18-50 yr N = 4S N=3S N=62 N= 11; 19-29 yr N = 14; 19-29 yr N=202 N = 147; 18-24 yr
Appendix Table 37b. Mean weight and length of African infants Age Country
People or place
Authors
Variable
Birth
4 wks
3 mos
6 mos
9 mos
12 mos
18 mos
24 mos
Boys Nigeria
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
WT LT WT LT WT LT WT LT WT WT WT* WT LT
— — — — 2.9 — 3.2 — — — — 3.4 51.6
4.5 55.2 4.1 53.7 3.7 49.8 — — 4.2 4.0 4.8 4.3 55.1
6.3 62.4 5.7 60.0 5.3 57.3 6.4 62.0 6.0 5.6 5.5 6.1 60.2
8.2 69.0 6.9 65.8 6.1 61.6 8.0 67.5 7.4 6.8 6.7 7.5 65.0
9.3 73.8 7.5 70.0 6.7 66.8 8.7 71.0 8.1 7.5 8.0 8.3 69.2
10.1 77.6 8.1 72.8 7.3 69.5 9.2 74.0 8.6 8.0 8.5 8.9 72.1
11.3 83.9 9.4 78.6 9.0 76.0 — 79.4 9.5 9.0 9.2 9.9 77.2
12.5 89.2 10.4 83.0 10.1 81.1 11.1 83.0 10.2 10.0 10.5 10.9 81.5
WT LT WT LT WT LT WT LT WT WT WT LT
— — — — 2.8 — 3.1 — — — 3.2 52.2
4.1 53.8 3.8 52.3 3.6 48.8 — — 4.0 3.8 4.1 54.3
5.8 60.5 5.3 58.5 5.1 56.8 5.8 60.0 5.6 5.3 5.6 58.9
7.3 66.8 6.3 64.0 6.0 60.2 7.3 65.0 6.9 6.5 6.9 64.0
8.4 71.5 7.0 68.0 6.8 63.7 8.1 69.5 7.6 7.1 7.7 67.9
9.0 75.5 7.7 71.2 7.5 67.8 8.6 72.5 8.2 7.6 8.3 71.2
10.3 81.6 8.9 77.0 8.8 74.4 — — 9.1 8.6 9.5 76.8
11.5 87.0 10.0 81.8 9.8 79.8 11.0 80.5 10.0 9.4 10.5 81.1
Osegere
Omololu etal., 1981
Senegal
Dakar
Masse etal., 1981
Zaire
Otos Twa Warega Kasongo
Pagezy & Hauspie, 1985a,b Pagezy & Hauspie, 1985a,b Van Loon etal., 19866 VanLerberghe, 1987
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Girls Nigeria
Osegere
Omololu etal., 1981
Senegal
Dakar
Masse etal., 1981
Zaire
Otos Twa Kasonga
Pagezy & Hauspie, 19S5a,b Pagezy & Hauspie, 1985a,/? Van Lerberghe, 1987
a
Mean, adjusted for age grouping. WT, weight (kg); LT, length (cm).
ON
Appendix Table 38. Sitting height of children in Africa and of African ancestry (cm) Age (yr) Country Boys Africa Nigeria
Americas United States
Girls Africa Nigeria
Americas United States
People or place
Authors
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Philadelphia
S. H. Katz, unpubl.; Eveleth etal., 1979
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Philadelphia
S. H. Katz, unpubl.; Eveleth etal., 1979
" Crown-rump length ages 1 and 2 years.
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
mean" s.d. mean" s.d.
47.5 1.6 44.6 1.7
52.3 1.8 49.0 1.8
56.0 2.2 53.1 1.8
58.5 2.1 55.0 2.2
61.2 2.3 57.4 2.3
63.0 2.1 60.0 2.6
65.2 2.3 61.8 2.8
67.2 2.2 63.5 3.3
69.4 2.6 65.9 2.7
70.4 1.7 67.0 3.1
mean" sd mean s.d.
46.4 2.6 — —
51.3 2.9 — —
54.3 2.8 — —
57.1 3.1 — —
60.3 2.7 — —
62.3 2.8 — —
64.3 2.0 — —
66.7 2.1 — —
69.2 2.9 — —
70.8 3.2 — —
mean" s.d. mean" s.d.
45.8 1.6 43.6 1.8
50.8 1.8 48.4 1.9
54.4 1.9 52.0 1.8
57.0 2.1 54.0 2.2
59.6 2.3 56.6 2.4
62.4 2.3 58.9 2.5
64.8 2.4 61.5 2.4
66.6 2.8 63.2 2.3
68.5 2.5 64.9 2.5
70.7 3.0 66.8 1.4
—
_ — _ —
mean" s.d. mean s.d.
45.6 49.7 2.4 2.3 _ _ — —
53.1 2.4 _ —
56.7 3.1 _ —
59.0 61.8 64.5 66.6 69.2 71.3 2.9 2.8 3.3 4.1 2.8 4.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — —
75.9 3.2 76.7 3.6
78.1 4.1 775 3.9
—
_ — _ —
73.2 3.2 74.5 3.3
74.6 5.4 75.6 3.9
—
—
13±
_
14±
_ —
_
15±
_ —
_
16±
_ —
_
_ —
_
_
—
—
—
—
77.0 5.0 79.1 4.4
79.9 4.5 82.3 4.5
86.2 4.8 84.2 4.1
86.3 2.3 86.3 3.6
_
_ —
_
_ —
_
_ —
_
17±
89.3 2.9 — —
_ —
_
_
—
—
—
—
79.2 3.3 80.6 4.0
81.4 3.3 82.3 2.8
84.3 3.5 83.4 3.0
84.0 2.7 85.0 3.0
_ — _ —
_ — _ —
84.0 3.1 — —
18±
_ — _ —
88.7 4.5 — —
_ — _ —
84.0 3.0 — —
Appendix Table 39. Biacromial width of children in Africa and of African ancestry (cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Boys Africa Nigeria
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Accra & north
Agbenu, 1969
Ghana Americas United States
Girls Africa Nigeria
Ghana Americas United States
Philadelphia
Krogman, 1970
Philadelphia
S. H. Katz, unpubl.;
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Accra & north
Agbenu, 1969
Philadelphia
Krogman, 1970
Philadelphia
S. H. Katz, unpubl.;
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
26.3 1.2 24,2 1.4 26.1
27.4 1.1 — 1.5 27.0
28.5 1.2 26.2 1.4 26.5
29.3 0.4 26.9 1.1 27.7
mean s.d. mean s.d. mean
— — — — _
— — — — _
21.8 1.1 20.1 1.0 _
22.9 24.1 25.2 1.1 1.2 1.2 21.1 22.2 23.2 1.1 1.0 1.3 _ _ _
mean s.d. mean s.d.
_ _ _ —
_ _ _ —
_ _ _ —
_ _
—
—
—
—
mean s.d. mean s.d. mean
— — — — _
— — — — _
21.0 0.9 19.9 0.9 _
22.3 23.6 25.0 1.0 1.2 1.2 20.7 21.7 23.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 _ _ _
25.9 1.3 24.1 1.3 26.5
27.2 1.3 25.1 1.3 27.0
28.1 1.2 26.1 1.5 27.4
mean s.d. mean s.d.
_ — _ —
_ — _ —
_
_
— _ —
_ _ _ —
_ _ _ —
_ — _ —
27.3 1.7 _
_
_ — _
— _
—
27.1 1.8 _
—
28.3 1.7 _
28.0 2.2 _
—
29.4 2.4 _
_
29.2 2.4 _
—
_ —
11±
12±
13±
_ — _ — 30.2
_ _
_
— 32.0
— 31.9
— 33.6
30.3 31.7 33.3 5.0 3.8 3.2 _ _ — — —
34.7 5.9 34.5 2.6
35.9 6.2 35.5 2.6
37.3 7.3 36.8 2.3
29.4 1.5 27.5 0.9 29.5
_
_
— 34.1
— 34.7
— 34.6
34.7 4.0 34.5 1.7
35.4 4.3 34.9 2.0
36.3 5.2 34.8 1.8
— — 29.4
— — 31.4
30.5 31.9 2.5 3.3 _ _ — —
_ — _ — 31.7
33.2 4.1 —
14±
_ —
_
15±
_ —
_ —
_
_ —
16±
_
— 36.7
_ — _ — —
— — 38.1 2.5
— — 39.3 1.8
— — — —
— 34.8
_ — _ — 36.5
_ — _ — —
— — 35.4 1.6
— — 35.7 1.7
_
_ —
_
18±
_ — _ — 39.0
— _
_ —
17±
_ —
_
_
— — 36.4 1.6
00
Appendix Table 40. Biiliac width of children in Africa and of African ancestry (cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
mean s.d. mean sd mean
12.2 0.6 11.4 0.7 _
13.8 0.6 13.0 0.8 _
15.0 0.7 14.2 0.8 _
15.8 16.5 0.7 0.8 15.0 15.7 0.8 0.8 _ _ _
17.1 0.8 16.3 0.9
17.5 0.9 16.8 0.9 16.9
18.3 0.9 17.4 1.0 18.0
19.0 l.o 17.9 0.9 17.8
19.7 0.6 18.3 0.7 19.1
mean s.d. mean s.d.
_ — _ —
_ — _ —
_ — _ —
_
—
—
—
—
mean s.d. mean s.d. mean
11.7 0.7 11.1 0.7 _
13.3 0.8 12.8 0.9 _
14.5 0.8 13.9 0.7 _
15.4 16.2 16.9 0.8 1.0 1.1 14.7 15.3 16.0 0.8 0.8 0.9 _ _ _
17.4 1.1 16.6 0.8 17.7
18.3 1.2 17.3 0.8 17.7
18.8 1.3 17.8 0.9 17.8
mean s.d. mean s.d.
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
_ — _ — 19.5
_
_
— 20.4
— 20.7
— 21.7
25.4 2.3 23.3 2.0
25.7 2.4 23.5 1.9
25.4 1.5 24.5 1.9
_
_
16±
17±
18±
Boys Africa lMgena
Ghana Americas United States
Girls Africa Nigeria
Ghana Americas United States
luaaan ^wen-oirj
jvi. u. janes, unpuoi.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Accra & north
Agbenu, 1969
Philadelphia
Krogman, 1970
Philadelphia
S. H. Katz, unpubl.;
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Accra & north
Agbenu, 1969
Philadelphia
Krogman, 1970
Philadelphia
S. H. Katz, unpubl.;
_ — _ —
— _
—
_ _ _
_
_ — _
_ _ _
_
19.7 1.3 _
19.I 1.7 _
_
19.2 1.3 _
_ _
20.0 2.0 _
_
20.7 1.7 _
_
_
_
_ _
— 18.8
21.3 22.2 1.9 2.7 _ _ — —
19.7 1.2 18.8 0.6 18.7
20.6 1.7 _
—
23.6 1.9 —
_ — — _ _ — — 20.5 20.6
21.8 23.3 1.6 1.7 _ _ _
23.9 2.5 1.9
_
_ —
_
_
—
_
— 23.7
_ — _ — 25.0
_ — _ — —
— — 25.1 2.1
— — 25.3 1.9
— — — —
— _
— _
_
_
_
—
_
— _ — 22.8
—
— 23.5
— 24.0
— 24.3
24.9 2.0 24.0 2.2
25.5 1.8 24.7 1.9
27.1 2.2 24.9 2.1
— — 25.5 2.0
_
— _
_
_ — _ — —
— — 26.0 2.4
_ — _ — —
— — — —
Appendix Table 41. Upper arm circumference of African children (cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Boys Botswana
Gaborone
Corlett, 1986
Kenya
Nairobi
Alnwick, 1980 Kulin era/., 1982
Kutui
Kulin etal., 1982
Nigeria
Machakos
Stephensone/a/., 1983
Turkana
Little etal., 1983
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Somalia
Mogadish
Abbas, 1978
Zaire
Wareea
van Loon et a/., 1986a
mean" s.d. mean mean s.d. mean" s.d. mean'' s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d. mean"
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
— — — — — — — — — 13.6 0.8 15.7 1.3 13.7 1.2 15.6 — 12.4
— — — — — — — 14.6 1.1 14.2 0.9 15.9 1.2 14.3 1.2 15.7 — 13.3
— — — — — — — 14.9 1.1 13.5 1.1 16.5 1.1 15.3 1.2 16.0 — 13.9
— — 15.9 — — — — 15.3 0.8 13.8 1.3 16.8 1.1 15.7 1.2 18.1 — 14.4
— — 16.1 — — — — 15.2 1.0 13.7 0.4 17.4 1.2 15.7 1.1 17.9 — 14.3
15.5 2.0 16.0 — — — — 15.2 1.0 13.5 1.5 17.6 1.4 15.8 1.0 16.5 1.6
15.8 2.0
16.5 3.0 _ — — — — 15.6 1.5 14.3 0.8 18.6 1.7 16.4 1.1 17.2 1.8 _
16.9 1.8 _ — — — — 16.1 1.3 15.1 0.9 19.2 2.2 16.9 0.9 18.0 1.8 _
17.3 2.1 _ 20.7 3.1 15.9 1.0 16.3 1.3 16.3 1.4 19.1 1.2 17.1 0.6 17.0 2.3 _
18.0 18.4 19.0 19.9 — — 2.1 2.1 1.6 2.3 — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 20.2 20.0 21.7 _ _ _ 2.5 2.4 3.7 — — — 16.2 16.7 17.3 17.8 18.5 20.1 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.2 1.5 1.8 16.9 17.7 18.1 18.8 19.6 20.8 1.4 1.2 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.0 15.4 16.9 17.7 16.5 19.0 17.4 — 0.6 1.8 1.0 — 2.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — 18.0 _ _ _ _ _ 1.9 — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _
— — — — 15.4 1.0 13.7 0.9 18.0 1.6 16.0 1.1 17.0 1.8 _
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
— — — — _ _ _ _ — — 20.4 20.5 1.8 1.9 21.8 21.2 2.0 2.1 19.5 18.5 0.6 2.2 _ _ — — _ _ — — _ _ — — _ _
Continued overleaf
Appendix Table 41. (Cont.) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Girls Botswana
Gaborone
Corlett, 1986
Kenya
Nairobi
Alnwick, 1980 Kulin etal., 1982
Kutui
Kulin et al., 1982
Nigeria
Somalia
Machakos
Stephenson et al., 1983
Turkana
Little etal., 1983
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Mogadish
Abbas, 1978
mean" s.d. mean mean s.d. mean" s.d. mean'' s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median s.d.
1±
2±
3±
_ — — _ — _ — — — 13.6 1.0 14.8 1.2 13.6 1.2 15.0 —
_ — — _ — _ — 14.2 1.2 14.1 1.2 15.5 1.1 14.3 1.2 15.3 —
_ _ _ 15.2 15.9 — — — 1.7 1.8 16.3 15.8 16.5 16.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — 14.6 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.6 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.0 14.2 13.6 13.7 13.7 14.9 1.4 0.7 1.6 1.7 1.3 16.1 16.7 16.9 17.3 17.8 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.3 15.4 15.8 15.9 16.1 16.4 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.2 17.0 16.9 17.5 17.5 17.0 — — — 1.8 1.5
° Values not adjusted for age grouping. h Ages 11-18 years, values not adjusted for age grouping.
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
16.7 1.4 _ _ — _ — 15.9 1.1 14.5 1.6 18.5 1.5 16.8 1.0 18.0 1.7
16.7 1.4 _
17.2 1.4 _ 20.0 2.7 16.6 2.1 16.8 1.2 16.2 0.9 20.5 1.4 18.0 1.4 19.0 2.1
17.9 18.0 18.2 19.2 — — — — 2.0 2.1 2.1 3.1 — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 21.0 21.3 23.5 — — — — — 3.9 2.9 1.7 _ _ _ _ _ 17.1 17.7 18.4 18.6 20.0 21.4 21.3 — 1.7 1.3 1.7 1.7 2.4 1.6 l.« — 17.6 18.4 19.7 20.7 21.2 21.1 22.2 22.0 1.6 1.5 2.0 2.4 1.7 2.1 2.6 1.9 16.7 17.8 18.5 19.2 20.4 19.9 21.2 22.9 2.5 1.6 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.9 2.5 1.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — — 19.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _
— — 16.2 1.0 15.8 1.8 18.9 1.3 17.2 1.4 19.0 2.2
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
Appendix Table 42. Triceps skinfold of African children {mm) Age (yr) Country Boys Africa Botswana Kenya
Nigeria
Rwanda Senegal Americas United States
People or place
1+
2+
3+
4+
mean 0 s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d. mean'' s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean mean"
_ — _ — — — — — 9.1 1.9 8.6 1.9 7.9 1.7 10.5 —
_ — _ — — — 10.2 2.2 8.4 2.7 8.6 1.7 8.5 2.1 11.6 8.2
_ — _ — — — 9.5 2.1 6.3 1.5 8.9 2.0 10.5 2.2 8.6 9.3
_ — _ — — — 8.9 2.2 6.6 1.9 8.4 1.8 10.0 2.6 _ 8.2
_ — _ — — — 7.7 1.7 5.0 0.9 7.9 1.8 8.9 2.3 _ 7.6
5.6 1.9 — — — — 6.8 1.8 4.0 1.3 7.5 2.1 7.8 2.0 6.1 7.2
5.9 1.6 _ — — — 6.0 1.6 4.1 1.6 7.1 2.3 6.7 1.6 6.1 7.6
6.3 1.1 _ — — — 5.6 1.2 4.3 1.4 7.2 2.6 6.0 1.5 6.1 5.6
median 10 perc 90 perc mean
10.6 10.0 7.1 6.0 16.0- 15.0 — —
9.2 6.0 14.2 —
, 8.3 6.0 12.0 —
8.0 5.5 12.0 —
6.0 5.0 12.6 —
6.0 5.0 28.3 —
6.3 4.7 9.0 —
Authors
Gaborone
Corlett, 1986
Nairobi
K u l i n ^ a / . , 1982
Kutui
Kulinefa/., 1982
Machakos
Stephenson et al., 1983
Turkana
Little era/., 1983
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Tutsi Dakar
Bennett etal., 1968 Masse etal., 1961
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Philadelphia
S. H. Katz, unpubl.
5+
6+
7+
8+
10+
11 +
12+
13 +
14+
15 +
16+
17+
18+
7.0 2.6 _ — — — 5.5 1.3 4.2 0.8 7.3 2.7 5.8 1.2 6.1 5.6
6.7 2.0 16.2 8.3 4.7 1.2 5.6 1.3 5.8 1.7 7.6 4.0 6.2 1.2 6.5 5.2
6.3 1.6 14.2 6.8 5.9 2.2 5.8 1.5 4.5 — — 1.5 — — 4.6 8.0
6.6 1.5 12.3 6.2 4.7 0.9 5.8 1.7 6.2 1.6 — — — — 5.9 7.4
6.4 2.1 12.7 9.3 5.9 1.2 5.9 1.8 5.8 1.9 — — — _ 5.3 8.2
6.6 2.3 _ — 5.7 2.2 6.0 1.8 5.5 2.6 — _ — _ 6.2 7.4
_ — _ — 6.3 2.1 6.2 2.1 6.2 _ — _ — _ 6.4 7.7
— — — — 5.7 1.3 6.0 1.7 6.7 5.5 — _ — _ 6.9 —
_ — _ — 6.2 1.6 6.1 2.0 6.8 2.7 — _ — _
_ — _ — 5.1 0.7 5.7 1.4 4.8 1.6 — _ — _
_
_
7.5 4.9 15.0 —
8.0 4.8 18.0 —
8.5 5.5 26.3 10.4
7.7 3.3 18.2 10.0
8.5 4.5 17.7 9.2
7.8 4.0 18.4 8.4
6.5 4.3 12.7 8.4
1.1 5.0 34.2 7.9
7.0 4.0 14.7 7.9
6.0 4.5 18.2 11.6
9+
Continued overleaf 00
Appendix Table 42. (Cont.) Age (yr) Country Girls Africa Botswana Kenya
Nigeria
Rwanda Senegal Americas United States
a
People or place
Authors
Gaborone
Corlett, 1986
Nairobi
Kulin etai., 1982
Kutui
Kulin etai., 1982
Machakos
Stephenson et al., 1983
Turkana
Little er al., 1983
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Tutsi Dakar
Bennett et al., 1968 Masse etai., 1961
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Philadelphia
S. H. Katz, unpubl.
1±
mean a s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d. mean'' s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean mean median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d.
2±
3±
4±
5±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
8.2 1.9 5.3 2.3 8.9 2.0 10.2 2.5 — 8.6
6.8 2.1 — _ — — 7.6 1.8 5.0 1.3 8.2 1.9 8.8 2.5 7.6 7.9
6.3 1.9 — _ — _ 6.9 1.5 5.3 1.6 8.4 2.2 7.9 2.3 7.6 7.8
8.9 2.3 — — — — 7.2 1.8 4.4 1.6 8.8 2.6 7.4 2.2 7.6 8.0
7.7 1.8 — — — — 7.0 1.5 5.3 1.7 8.7 2.6 6.7 1.7 7.6 9.5
7.0 1.1 15.4 6.4 7.4 4.8 7.2 1.3 6.2 1.8 10.9 3.4 7.1 2.5 7.9 9.7
6.5 2.1 16.1 6.9 7.6 2.3 8.0 2.3 5.7 2.5 — — — — — 9.7
7.3 1.8 17.2 7.6 7.5 2.3 8.3 2.1 6.4 2.0 — — — — 8.6 9.6
11.3 1.9 20.9 6.3 9.0 4.6 9.6 3.2 7.2 3.2 — — — — 11.1 11.2
11.6 2.7 — — 9.3 4.7 10.4 3.7 7.6 3.4 — — — — — 11.6
— — — _ 11.5 5.6 10.0 2.5 8.0 2.7 — — — — 14.8 10.2
— — — _ 13.7 5.2 10.4 3.3 9.1 2.5 — — — — — 12.1
— — — — 14.7 5.7 11.6 4.3 8.5 3.0 — — — — — —
— — — _ — _ 11.6 4.3 11.6 4.2 — — — — — —
8.5 6.0 12.6 —
9.5 5.4 14.8 —
8.5 5.1 15.3 —
8.5 5.5 20.6 —
10.5 6.5 19.1 —
9.7 6.7 19.0 —
11.7 6.3 20.9 —
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
14.5 7.5 25.2 13.1 6.3
15.1 7.0 31.6 13.8 6.8
12.4 6.5 31.2 13.8 6.4
12.4 7.2 31.5 14.1 6.8
13.8 6.6 23.1 14.2 6.3
13.9 10.3 30.9 14.5 6.2
13.6 10.5 31.1 14.3 6.7
17.9 9.0 65.0 14.9 6.1
— — — _ _ _ 9.6 2.4 8.8 3.2 9.8 2.0 11.5 2.8 — 9.3
— — _ _ — _
— — — _ — _
9.6 2.2 8.6 1.7 8.3 1.9 — —
_ — _ _ — _ 9.0 2.2 9.2 1.8 9.2 1.8 9.4 2.4 — 8.7
9.1 2.0 5.8 1.8 9.7 2.0 11.0 2.4 — 9.5
10.2 7.0 13.6 —
10.0 6.0 14.4 —
9.0 5.5 12.7 —
—
—
—
_ — — _ — _ — _
6±
Values not adjusted for age grouping. h Ages 11-18 years, values not adjusted for age grouping. Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
Appendix Table 43. Subscapular skinfold of children in Africa and of African ancestry {mm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Boys Africa Kenya
Turkana
Little et al., 1983
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Philadelphia
S. H. Katz, unpubl.
Turkana
Little etal., 1983
Ibadan (well-off)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
Ibadan (slum)
M. D. Janes, unpubl.
national
NCHS, unpubl.
Philadelphia
S. H. Katz, unpubl.
Nigeria
Americas United States
Girls Africa Kenya Nigeria
Americas United States
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
1±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
5.5 1.3
5.4 1.3
5.8 1.1
5.8
5.0 3.0
6.6 2.1
5.9 1.5
mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
5.2 0.8 6.3 1.4 5.6 1.3
5.0 1.5 6.0 1.1 5.8 1.5
4.1 0.8 5.8 1.1 6.3 1.5
4.2 0.6 5.6 1.0 6.5 5.5
3.8 0.7 5.5 1.2 5.6 1.5
3.7 0.8 5.4 1.6 5.3 1.2
4.1 1.4 5.5 2.6 5.1 1.0
4.2 1.1 5.7 2.2 4.9 0.8
4.5 1.0 6.3 3.8 4.9 0.6
4.6 0.6 5.9 1.1 5.2 0.6
median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d.
7.0 5.0 9.6
6.0 4.0 11.0
5.7 4.5 8.3
5.0 4.0 7.6
5.0 4.3 7.5 — —
4.0 3.3 7.7 — —
5.0 3.5 16.5 — —
5.0 4.0 7.0 — —
5.0 3.7 11.0 — —
5.1 4.0 15.0 — —
5.4 4.0 29.2 8.5 5.0
5.0 4.7 17.1 9.1 6.9
6.2 4.5 19.0 8.9 6.4
6.5 4.4 17.6 8.6 5.8
7.4 5.0 10.6 8.9 6.3
8.7 6.0 48.3 8.5 5.5
10.0 6.0 18.6 9.7 6.7
9.9 5.8 16.4 16.3 11.6
mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
5.5 1.2 6.3 1.2 5.9 1.4
5.6 1.6 6.3 1.3 6.2 1.6
4.9 1.6 6.4 1.2 6.8 1.5
4.2 0.8 6.2 1.1 6.7 1.8
4.1 0.8 — — 6.5 1.6
4.3 0.8 5.7 1.1 6.1 1.8
5.0 1.1 5.8 1.1 5.8 1.2
3.9 0.9 6.0 1.1 5.9 1.5
4.6 1.1 6.0 1.2 5.7 1.2
5.0 1.0 7.6 2.1 6.3 1.8
5.2 1.1 — — — —
4.8 2.0 — — — —
5.5 2.1 _ — — —
6.1 2.1 — — — —
6.2 1.7 — — _ —
6.8 2.5 — — _ —
6.4 1.8 — — — —
8.4 2.0 — — — —
median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d.
6.5 5.0 9.9 —
6.0 4.3 9.0 —
6.0 3.5 9.9 —
5.5 4.0 9.0 —
5.5 4.0 9.7 —
6.0 4.0 11.6 —
6.0 4.0 12.3 —
6.1 4.0 14.1 —
5.8 4.8 13.4 —
7.0 6.0 29.0 —
—
—
—•
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
11.0 5.5 27.3 12.2 7.1
10.6 5.5 37.8 13.1 7.7
10.5 7.0 37.4 13.3 7.6
12.1 6.0 30.0 14.0 8.5
10.5 8.0 19.8 14.0 7.2
10.0 7.0 38.5 14.4 7.7
13.0 9.7 38.3 15.2 8.6
13.5 7.6 65.0 16.0 7.8 00
Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
N 00
Appendix Table 44. Height of Asiatic boys {cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
1±
2±
3±
4±
mean s.d. median mean mean s.d. mean" mean median mean s.d. mean"
76.5 2.8
87.9 3.5
95.1 3.7
— 79.4 4.1 — — 74.9
— 86.1 4.2 85.0 — 86.3
— 101.1 96.9 103.1 5.0 5.2 92.0 99.0 — — 95.6 102.8
—
—
mean" s.d. mean'' mean"
— — — 76.0
— — — 85.5
Asia China (PRC)
urban
Hong Kong
Chinese
Indonesia
Jakarta
Japan Thailand Taiwan
national Koreans Bangkok Changhua
United States
Chinese
Amerindians and Eskimos Bolivia mostly Aymara, altiplano Aymara, altiplano Canada Manitoba
Zhang & Huang, 1988; Zhang,1977 Fung etal., 1985 Leung etal., 1987 Sudjarwo et al., 1978 Kikuta & Takaishi, 1987 Kim, 1982 Khanjanasthti et al., n.d. Lai & Yaung, 1987 Yaung&Lai, 1988 Schumacher & Kretchmer, unpubl.
Mueller etal., 1980 Stinson, 1980 Coodin etal., 1980
—
—
87.2 — 6.4 — — — 93.5 100.5
108.6 4.5 — 107.6 108.4 4.7 106.0 — 108.0
130.6 5.6 128.8 — — — 130.0 130.5 130.4 — — — 110.0 115.5 120.5 127.0
99.5 4.9 _
114.7 4.8 — 113.8 — — 113.0 — 113.8
_ _ _
120.6 5.2 120.6 119.4 — — 119.0 119.0 120.0
125.3 5.5 123.9 — — — 125.0 125.0 124.3
134.4 139.2 144.2 149.8 156.5 162.0 165.6 167.7 — 5.8 6.1 6.6 8.0 8.0 7.4 6.3 6.1 — 134.9 141.4 148.0 154.1 160.0 164.0 167.4 169.6 170.5 —
135.0 135.5 135.5 135.2 5.8 132.5
140.0 140.0 139.2 140.1 7.0 135.0
147.0 147.0 142.5 145.3 7.6
154.0 155.0 152.3 150.4 7.1 _
161.0 162.0 157.5 158.7 6.8 _
166.0 169.0 166.0 168.0 161.5 167.4 164.0 166.8 6.2 5.3 _ _ _
170.0 169.0 168.1 168.3 168.2 167.6 6.6 5.4 _
108.9 — 119.5 — 129.2 — 137.5 — 153.4 — 160.0 — 5.5 _ 6.6 — 5.4 — 10.1 — 8.3 — 5.3 — 107.5 112.5 117.0 123.0 127.5 132.0 135.5 141.5 148.0 152.0 154.0 159.0
Chile
Aymara, altiplano
Mueller etal., 1978a
mestizo, sierra
Mueller etal., 1978a
Ecuador
mestizo & nonAymara coast Chachi
Stinson, 1989
Guatemala Mexico
Guatemala City Oaxaca
Mueller etal., 1918a
Bogin & MacVean, 1978 Malina, pers. comm. Villanuevaera/., 1982
Chiapas Arechiga & Serrano, 1981 Maya (Chiapas) Faulhaber, 1976 Mexico City Faulhaber, 19896 Mexico City Nicaragua Peru
United States
7
Mateare Quechua, highland Quechua, lowland Mexican-American Mexican-American Chippewa
Capucci, 1986 Frisancho et al., 1975; Stinson & Frisancho, 1978 Frisancho et al., 1975; Frisancho etal., 1980 Malina etal., 19876 Martorell etal., 1987 Johnston & Schell, 1979
mean s.d. mean'' s.d. mean'' s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean" mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean"
— — — — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ 73.7 2.4 _ _ 72.0 —
— — — — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ 85.6 2.7 _ _ 80.5 —
mean"
_
_
mean" mean" mean"
_ —
_ —
86.4 6.6 90.3 2.5 91.1 5.3 83.0 5.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ 92.8 3.7 _ _ 89.0 —
— _ — — — — 93.8 4.2 — — — — — — 99.8 3.9 — — 95.5 —
99.2 6.5 102.0 5.4 101.7 4.7 99.2 4.5 — — — — — — 106.8 4.1 _ — 101.5 —
— — — — — — 102.8 4.8 — — _ — 104.2 5.3 112.8 4.5 — — 107.2 —
111.3 6.5 110.7 4.6 115.6 4.8 110.7 5.3 — 110.0 113.2 5.3 107.9 5.5 118.9 4.8 — —
— _ — — _ — 112.5 5.5 119.0 116.0 118.2 6.1 113.0 4.8 124.9 5.2 _ —
119.5 5.8 120.6 5.3 122.5 4.6 114.0 3.1 123.5 120.5 122.0 5.8 117.4 4.3 129.9 5.7 _ —
— _ — — — — 118.3 4.9 128.0 124.5 126.9 4.9 119.6 6.0 134.3 5.8 — —
129.4 6.0 132.0 6.3 132.6 4.8 124.5 6.5 133.0 129.0 130.3 5.9 125.3 5.3 139.2 6.6 140.2 6.2
— — — — — — 128.9 8.0 137.5 133.0 134.7 7.1 127.8 6.4 143.3 6.1 146.2 7.0
142.4 6.3 142.5 8.4 142.4 6.0 129.3 5.4 142.5 138.0 138.6 7.4 134.1 9.2 152.3 7.4 151.3 7.1
— _ — — _ — 139.3 8.4 — 143.0 — — 135.7 8.4 _ — 157.8 7.0
— 155.0 — 153.0 _ 5.0 — 7.3 _ _ — 155.5 — — — 5.8 — 168.8 — 154.6 — 2.7 — 6.7 143.7 146.9 151.8 155.0 9.9 10.1 4.9 3.3 _ _ — — — — — — — _ _ — — _ — — — — — 141.8 — — — 7.8 — _ — — — — — — _ _ _ 162.7 — — — 6.2
109.0 113.0 117.0 123.5 127.0 130.0 131.0 141.0 148.0 149.5 154.5
—
104.0 108.0 115.0 119.0 120.0 124.0 128.5 134.0 140.0 145.0 154.0
—
— 121.0 127.0 131.5 135.5 140.5 147.0 153.0 158.0 162.0 164.5 168.0 _ — — 95.0 101.0 108.0 115.0 120.0 126.0 132.0 136.0 143.0 149.0 156.0 163.0 166.0 169.0 170.0 122.5 129.0 134.5 138.0 142.0 148.0
— —
_
_
_
_
Values adjusted for age grouping. h 2-year age groups.
to 00
to
00
ON
Appendix Table 45. Height of Asiatic girls (cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
75.1 2.7 — — 79.1 4.5 — — 72.8 — — —
86.6 3.5 — — 84.8 4.8 85.0 — 85.0 — — —
94.2 3.7 — — 97.2 5.0 92.0 — 94.6 — — —
101.2 4.1 — 100.6 102.2 4.8 97.0 — 101.3 — — —
107.6 4.2 — 106.8 107.3 5.9 105.0 — 107.4 — — —
113.9 4.9 — 113.0 _ — 112.0 — 112.7 — — 111.0
119.3 5.3 119.0 118.6 _ — 114.0 118.5 118.4 — — 115.5
124.6 129.5 134.8 5.5 5.4 6.4 124.0 130.3 136.8 _ _ _ _ _ — — — 125.0 130.0 136.0 124.0 130.0 137.0 122.8 128.4 133.7 — — 135.3 — — 6.0 120.0 125.5 131.0
— —
— —
91.5 7.1
— —
96.7 6.9 — _
74.5
86.5
12±
10±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
Asia China (PRC)
urban
Hong Kong
Chinese
Indonesia Japan Thailand Taiwan
Jakarta national Koreans Bangkok Changhua
United States
Chinese
Amerindians and Eskimos Bolivia mostly Aymara, altiplano Aymara, altiplano Canada
Manitoba
Zhang & Huang, 1988; Zhang,1977 Fung etal., 1985 Leung etal., 1987 Sudjarwoera/., 1978 Kikuta & Takaishi, 1987 Kim, 1982 Khanjanasthti et al., n.d. Lai & Yaung, 1987 Schumacher & Kretchmer, unpubl.
Mueller*?/ a/., 1980 Stinson, 1980 C o o d i n ^ a / . , 1980
mean s.d. median mean mean s.d. mean" mean median mean s.d. mean"
mean s.d. mean" s.d. mear°
92.5 100.0
140.6 6.6 143.1 _ _ — 143.0 144.0 139.6 140.6 6.8 137.0
146.6 150.7 153 7 155.5 156.8 157.4 — 6.8 6.3 5.5 5.6 5.5 5.4 — 148.4 152.7 155.6 157.2 157.8 157.6 157.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — 149.0 153.0 155.0 156.0 157.0 157.0 — 149.0 152.5 155.0 156.5 157.5 158.5 — 146.2 150.8 153.9 153.9 156.2 156.1 156.6 147.6 152.0 153.9 156.2 156.2 155.8 156.8 6.9 7.5 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.1 3.9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _
— 108.4 — 121.2 — 129.3 — 134.7 — 148.0 _ 6.5 — 4.2 — 4.6 — 4.9 — 2.1 — 108.0 115.0 118.5 123.0 127.5 132.5 137.5 140.0 144.0 _ 6.0 2.7 4.5 6.1 4.9 4.2 6.3 5.2 4.9
— 150.5 — 3.6 — — — —
Chile
Ecuador Guatemala Mexico
Nicaragua Peru
Aymara, altiplano
Mueller e/fl/., 1978a
mestizo, sierra
Mueller et al., 1978a
mestizo & nonAymara coast Chachi Guatemala City Oaxaca Chiapas
Mueller etal., 1978a Stinson, 1988 Bogin & MacVean, 1978 Malina, pers. comm. Villanuevaera/., 1982
Maya (Chiapas)
Arechiga & Serrano, 1981
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 1976
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 1989ft
Mateare Quechua, highland
Capucci, 1986 Frisancho etal., 1975; Stinson & Frisancho, 1978 Frisancho et al., 1975; Frisancho et al., 1980 Malina et al., 1987ft Martorell
Quechua, lowland United States
Mexican-American Mexican-American Chippewa
'' Values adjusted for age grouping. h 2-year age groups.
mean s.d. mean'' s.d. mean'' s.d. mean mean" mean" mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean"
mean mean" mean"
88.2 4.8 88.1 3.0 89.9 5.7 84.1
71.9 2.1
84.2 2.7
90.8 3.8
71.0
80.5
89.0
—
—
—
— — —
— — —
100.1 109.8 5.7 6.0 11.2 100.5 5.1 4.6 100.7 112.6 5.6 5.8 89.7 93.6 102.9 105.5 109.1 117.5 110.0 115.0 108.6 116.4 5.2 6.8 — 103.1 107.1 110.0 — 4.7 4.6 6.0 98.4 104.9 111.1 117.7 122.4 4.5 4.6 4.3 5.3 5.4
119.5 6.0 121.5 6.7 126.4 6.1 116.2 123.0 119.5 122.2 6.2 115.6 6.3 127.9 5.6
— — — _ — _ 120.7 128.0 124.0 125.9 6.1 118.8 4.9 133.4 6.0 134.2 5.4
133.2 6.6 133.3 4.7 135.9 8.5 127.1 134.0 129.0 133.2 6.7 125.2 6.5 139.0 5.9 140.8 5.8
— — — _ — — 130.4 140.0 134.5 140.5 6.0 130.1 6.8 146.3 5.5 146.9 6.2
142.0 143.9 4.8 146.9 6.6 136.0 144.0 139.0 141.8 4.9 133.6 4.4 152.0 4.9 151.7 5.6
— 147.8 — 5.4 _ — — — 151.8 — 3.7 140.3 143.2 _ 142.5 — _ — — 136.2 141.6 5.2 4.2 _ _ 154.5 156.0 5.4 5.1
— 149.8 — — 1.7 — _ _ _ — — _ — 151.8 — — 3.7 — 142.9 147.3 148.3 _ _ _ _ — — — _ _ _ _ — — — — . — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
93.0 102.5 108.0 — — — — 109.0 115.0 119.0 122.0 127.0 132.5 137.0 142.5 144.0 145.0 —
—
— 104.0 108.5 115.0 119.0 124.0 130.0 135.0 140.0 143.0 145.0
—
—
—
—
— — — — 119.0 124.0 129.0 135.0 142.0 148.5 152.0 154.0 156.5 156.5 — 93.0 100.0 107.0 115.0 120.0 125.0 131.0 137.0 144.5 150.0 155.0 157.0 158.0 159.0 159.0 — — — — 121.0 127.0 133.5 140.0 145.0 150.5 _ _ _ _ _
— — _
K 00 00
Appendix Table 46. Weight of Asiatic boys (kg) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Asia China (PRC)
urban
Hong Kong
Chinese
Indonesia
Jakarta
Zhang & Huang, 1988; Zhang,1977 Fung etal, 1985 Leung etal., 1987 Sudjarwo £•/«/., 1978
Japan
national Koreans Bangkok Changhua
Kikuta&Takaishi, 1987 Kim, 1982 Khanjanasthti et al., n.d. Lai & Yaung, 1987
Thailand Taiwan
United States Chinese
Schumacher & Kretchme unpubl.
Amerindians and Eskimos Bolivia mostly Aymara, altiplano Aymara, altiplano
Stinson, 1980
Canada
Coodin etal., 1980
Manitoba
Mueller et al., 1980
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
mean s.d. median median mean s.d. mean" mean median mean s.d. mean"
9.9 1.0 — — 10.1 1.1 — _ 9.6 _ — _
12.2 1.3 — — 11.7 1.4 13.0 _ 12.3 _ — _
14.0 15.6 17.4 19.2 21.0 1.5 1.8 1.8 2.1 2.4 — — — — 21.7 — 15.2 16.9 18.7 20.8 14.7 16.6 17.7 _ 1.8 2.7 2.7 — — 14.0 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 _ _ _ _ 22.0 14.6 16.1 17.2 19.9 21.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — _ _ _ 18.0 20.7
mean'' s.d. mean" s.d. mean"
— — _ — 10.4
— — _ — 12.8
12.0 3.1 _ — 14.8
— — _ — 16.5
6±
16.4 1.5 _
— — _
—
— _
7±
19.3 2.6 18.5 1.7 _
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
23.1 2.3 23.7
25.3 3.0 26.5 _ _ — 28.0 28.0 27.5
_ — 25.0 25.0 23.8 _ — — 22.4 25.0
27.2 3.5 30.0 _ _ — 31.5 31.0 31.1 30.2 6.3 28.0
30.1 33.0 36.9 42.0 46.9 50.9 4.0 4.5 5.9 6.6 6.5 5.9 33.9 38.0 42.0 46.0 49.5 52.6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.5 56.0 59.0 34.2 39.0 45.0 49.5 53.7 57.2 32.7 35.6 39.9 44.2 47.0 55.2 33.3 35.6 40.6 45.2 50.9 53.6 7.6 7.4 9.1 8.4 8.5 8.5 29.8 _ _ _ _ _
— — 20.5 2.3 _
22.5 2.8 22.5 2.1 _
— — 26.0 2.8 _
27.4 — 32.8 — 3.7 — 6.2 — 29.0 31.5 33.5 37.0 3.4 6.7 3.9 4.4 _ _ _ _ _
42.4 4.3 42.0 5.6
16±
17±
18±
53.2 — 5.8 — 55.1 57.0 _ _ _ _ — — 61.0 — 58.8 — 52.1 54.7 55.4 55.0 6.5 7.3 _ _
— 50.4 — 4.4 47.0 49.0 7.7 6.3 _ _ _
— — 52.5 3.7 _
Chile
Ecuador Guatemala Mexico
Nicaragua Peru
Aymara, altiplano
Mueller etal., 1978a
mestizo, sierra
Mueller etal., 1978a
mestizo & non-Aymara Chachi
Mueller etal., 1978a
Guatemala City Oaxaca Chiapas
Bogin & MacVean, 1978 Malina, pers. comm. Villanuevaef al., 1982
Maya (Chiapas)
Arechiga & Serrano, 1981
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 1976
Mexico City
Faulhaber. 19896
Mateare Quechua, highland
Capucci, 1986 Frisancho et al., 1975; Stinson & Frisancho, 1978 Frisancho et al., 1975; Frisancho et al., 1980 Malina et al., 19876 Martorell ef a/., 1987 Johnston & Schell, 1979
Quechua, lowland United States Mexican-American Chippewa
Stinson, 1989
' Values adjusted for age grouping. h 2-year age groups.
mean s.d. mean'' s.d. mean'' s.d. mean s.d. median" mean" mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean"
— — — — — — — — _ — _ _ _ _ 9.1 0.9 _ _ 9.0 _
— — — — — — — — _ — _ _ _ _ 11.6 1.2 _ _ 10.8 _
mean"
_
_
mean" mean" mean"
_ — —
_ — —
12.4 1.5 14.1 0.6 14.4 1.7 11.4 1.6 _ — _ _ _ _ 13.6 1.6 _ _ 12.8 _ _ _ 15.0 —
— — — _ — — 15.3 1.4 — — — — — — 15.7 1.9 — — 14.5 —
16.4 3.2 17.0 1.7 17.5 2.0 15.8 1.6 — — — — — — 17.8 2.2 — — 16.0 —
— — — — — — 16.6 1.3 — — — — 17.2 1.9 19.7 2.6 — — 18.0 —
20.0 2.6 20.2 2.7 21.3 2.4 20.6 2.1 — 19.0 19.7 2.4 18.0 2.2 22.5 3.3 — —
— — — — — — 21.2 2.1 22.5 21.0 22.0 2.9 19.9 2.4 25.4 4.4 — —
19.0
_
—
_
17.0
— 17.0 —
— 18.0 —
— 21.0 —
23.0 24.0 24.2
23.1 2.7 24.5 4.0 26.2 2.6 22.2 2.2 24.5 23.0 24.6 4.3 21.7 2.2 28.6 4.8 — —
— — — — — — 23.9 2.2 27.0 24.5 26.0 3.6 22.8 3.1 31.1 5.6 34.7 6.8
28.2 3.3 30.1 4.0 32.0 4.0 27.4 4.0 29.0 27.0 28.6 5.0 25.4 2.7 34.1 6.3 38.8 8.5
20.0
22.0
25.0
19.5
21.0
23.0
27.0 27.0 27.5
30.5 30.0 31.5
33.5 34.5 35.0
— — — — — — 30.7 4.7 32.0 29.5 30.4 4.8 26.7 4.2 37.0 7.3 42.4 8.2
35.5 4.4 36.2 5.5 37.0 6.6 30.5 3.8 34.0 32.5 34.5 5.8 30.9 5.5 44.3 8.6 47.4 8.4
— — — — — — 36.4 6.5 — 36.0 — — 33.9 4.9 _ — 52.1 8.2
44.5 6.7 48.2 6.5 45.6 6.0 41.9 8.6 — — — — 37.7 6.8 _ — — —
— — — — — — 45.6 9.4 — — — — — — — — — —
28.5
30.0
35.0
41.0
47.0
52.5
54.0
—
24.0
25.0
28.0
32.0
36.0
42.0
49.0
—
37.5 40.0 39.7
42.0 44.0 43.0
46.5 49.0 —
49.5 55.5 —
53.0 59.0 —
56.0 62.0 —
60.0 64.0 —
— — —
51.4 5.1 _ — 55.3 7.4 49.6 6.1 — — — — — — — — — —
— — _ — — — 53.1 4.5 — — — — — — _ — — —
Appendix Table 47. Weight of Asiatic girls (kg) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Asia China (PRC)
urban
Hong Kong
Chinese
Indonesia
Jakarta
Zhang & Huang, 1988; Zhang, 1977 Funget al., 1985 Leung etal., 1987 Sudjarwo et al., 1978
Japan Thailand Taiwan
national Koreans Bangkok Changhua
United States
Chinese
Amerindians and Eskimos Bolivia mostly Aymara, altiplano Aymara, altiplano Canada Manitoba
Kikuta & Takaishi, 1987 Kim, 1982 Khanjanasthti etal., n.d. Lai & Yuang, 1987 Yuang & Lai, 1989 Schumacher & Kretchmer, unpubl.
Mueller etal., 1980 Stinson, 1980 Coodin etal., 1980
1± 2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
mean s.d. median median mean s.d. mean" mean median mean s.d. mean"
9.2 1.0 _ — 9.9 1.3 — _ 9.1 _ — _
11.7 1.2 _ — 11.5 1.0 11.0 _ 11.7 _ — _
13.4 15.2 16.8 18.7 20.3 1.4 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.4 _ _ _ _ 21.5 — 14.8 16.4 18.2 19.9 14.6 15.5 16.8 _ 2.4 2.4 3.8 — — 14.0 15.0 17.0 19.0 22.0 _ _ _ _ 22.0 14.0 15.6 17.6 18.8 21.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — _ _ _ 18.0 20.0
mean* s.d. mean 0 mean"
— — _ 9.7
— — _ 12.6
13.6 2.5 _ 14.8
— 15.5 — 18.8 — 2.5 — 2.3 _ _ _ _ 16.5 _ _
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
22.4 2.7 22.8
24.6 3.0 25.7 _ _ — 23.0 27.7 25.9
_ — 25.0 24.0 23.5 _ — — 22.0 23.5
27.0 3.7 29.5 _ _ — 31.0 33.8 29.1 28.9 6.0 26.4
30.5 34.7 38.5 42.3 45.4 4.6 5.4 5.8 5.5 5.6 33.7 37.7 41.3 44.2 46.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — 35.0 41.0 45.0 43.0 51.0 36.0 40.0 43.5 46.8 49.2 33.1 37.0 40.3 45.3 46.4 31.8 37.4 40.2 42.6 46.1 6.8 6.9 7.5 5.7 5.7 30.8 — — — —
— — 19.0 _
23.7 2.9 22.0 _
— — 24.0 _
28.4 — 33.0 — 47.7 — 56.3 3.0 — 6.0 — 6.6 — 9.1 26.0 28.0 32.0 35.0 39.0 44.0 — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
18±
47.4 5.4 47.7
48.6 — 5.4 — 48.4 48.7 _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — 52.5 53.0 — 50.0 51.0 — 48.4 48.6 48.9 46.3 47.3 46.5 5.7 5.1 3.9 — — —
— — — _
Chile
Ecuador Guatemala Mexico
Aymara, altiplano
Mueller et al., 1978a
mestizo, sierra
Mueller et al., 1978a
mestizo & nonAymara, coast Chachi
Mueller era/., 1978a
Guatemala City Oaxaca Chiapas
Bogin & MacVean, 1978 Malina, pers. comm. Villanueva etai, 1982
Stinson, 1989
Maya (Chiapas)
Arechiga & Serrano, 1981
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 1976
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 19896
Nicaragua Peru
Mateare Quechua, highland
United States
Mexican-American
Capucci, 1986 Frisancho era/., 1975; Stinson & Frisancho, 1978 Frisancho era/., 1975; Frisancho et al., 1980 Malina era/., 19876 Martorell era/., 1987 Johnston & Schell, 1979
Quechua, lowland
Chippewa 0
Values adjusted for age grouping. b 2-year age groups.
mean'' s.d. mean'' s.d. mean'' s.d. mean s.d. median 0 mean 0 mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean" mean 0
— — — — — — — — _ _ _ — _ _ 8.4 0.9 _ _ 8.6 _ _ _
— — — — — — — — _ _ _ — _ _ 11.0 1.3 _ _ 10.8 _ _ _
mean 0 mean 0 mean 0
_ — _
_ — _
12.7 — 16.3 — 19.3 1.9 — 2.0 — 2.2 13.3 — 17.1 — 19.3 1.4 — 2.4 — 1.7 13.9 — 16.8 — 20.4 1.9 — 3.2 — 1.7 11.5 13.2 13.9 17.2 18.0 1.6 0.9 1.9 2.0 3.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 18.5 _ _ _ _ 17.4 — — — — 1.8 _ _ _ 16.5 18.1 _ _ _ 2.4 2.4 12.9 15.2 17.0 19.2 21.8 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.7 3.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 12.5 14.2 16.2 17.6 _ _ _ _ _ 18.0 _ _ _ — _ _ _ _ 16.0
— 23.3 — 2.9 — 24.7 — 3.5 — 26.8 — 4.1 19.1 23.1 3.0 5.6 22.0 23.0 20.5 22.5 20.6 22.9 2.8 3.4 18.7 21.2 2.6 3.0 24.3 27.0 4.5 4.7 _ _ _ _ 21.0 22.5 _ _ 18.0 20.0
— — — — — — 24.6 4.4 26.0 24.5 25.2 4.3 22.9 2.2 30.7 5.7 31.1 4.7 — 24.0 _ 22.0
30.2 — 37.9 — 46.4 — 51.4 — 3.6 — 5.2 — 5.4 — 2.1 — 30.8 — 38.8 — 46.5 — — — 4.4 — 4.0 — 6.1 — — — 32.9 — 42.7 — 48.4 — 50.2 — 5.6 — 8.6 — 10.3 — 4.3 — 28.7 30.5 35.4 40.1 45.4 45.5 46.9 51.1 5.0 5.1 3.5 6.6 6.4 10.0 2.4 4.7 29.0 33.5 38.0 _ _ _ _ _ 27.5 30.5 34.5 39.0 — — — — 29.7 34.0 35.1 — — — — — 5.6 6.6 5.5 — — — — — 26.3 29.5 31.8 35.4 39.3 — — — 4.2 3.5 2.9 5.2 7.2 — — — 34.2 38.5 45.8 — — — — — 7.6 8.1 8.1 — — — — — 35.4 41.1 44.1 47.2 49.5 — — — 6.8 8.4 7.6 6.9 7.2 — — — _ _ — _ _ _ _ — 27.0 30.5 34.5 40.0 43.5 47.0 52.5 — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 24.5 27.5 32.0 36.0 40.0 43.0 44.0 —
_ 14.0 _
25.0 26.0 28.0
33.5 35.5 38.2
39.5 40.0 42.5
_ _ _ 16.0 18.0 21.0 _ _ _
22.5 24.0 24.2
28.0 30.0 34.0
43.5 44.5 47.7
48.5 50.0
52.0 54.0 _
52.0 53.0 54.5 55.5 57.0 56.5 _ _ _ _
— — _
to
Appendix Table 48. Mean size of adult Asiatics
Country Males Nicaragua
United States
Mexico Ecuador Chile
Peru
Bolivia
Sitting Biacrom. Biiliac Height Weight ht. width width Triceps. (mm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (kg)
People or place
Sample size; ages
Authors
Miskito Sumo Rama Subtiava Ladinos Mexican-Americans barrio transitional suburban Maya Chachi Aymara coast sierra altiplana Quechua highland lowland Aymara
TV = 3 0 TV = 2 0 TV = 2 7 TV = 2 5 TV = 5 0 yr 25-44 TV = 8 3 TV = 4 7 TV-73 TV= 14; yr 25-29 TV= 25; yr 25-29 yr44 fl TV = 6 6 TV = 4 5 TV= 70 yr 20-40 TV = 6 2 TV= 57 yr 20-29; TV = 25
De Stefano & Jenkins, 164.0 158.6 1972 163.3 163.3 169.0 Malinaeffl/., 1983 168.4 170.9 171.4 McCullough, 1982 156.1 S. Stinson, unpubl. 156.1 Mueller etal., 1978a 164.1 160.0 163.0 Frisancho et al., 1975 159.9 163.1 Mueller etal., 1980 162.0
Arm Circ. (cm)
69.4 61.4 61.6 57.3 62.6
89.4 — 86.9 84.8 88.1
39.7 40.2 38.9 39.8 41.3
27.8 27.6 27.2 28.9 28.1
— — — — —
— — — — —
80.5 82.4 82.9 — 56.6
— — — — 85.3
— — — — —
— — — — —
16.3 15.4 16.2 — 8.1
32.7 34.2 34.7 — 27.3
64.3 60.7 61.1
86.7 84.5 85.8
34.1 32.1 32.8
— — —
— — —
27.8 25.7 25.5
54.5 58.5 58.1
— — 85.4
— — 32.7
— — —
4.0 — —
23.3 26.4 24.3
Females Nicaragua
United States
Ecuador Chile
Peru
Bolivia
Miskito Sumo Rama Ladinos Mexican-Americans barrio transitional suburban Chachi Aymara coast sierra altiplano Aymara highland lowland Aymara
Age adjusted for 44 years.
N= 32 N=6 N=25 N=22 yr 25-44 N = 144 N=78 N= 101 N= 25; yr 25-39 yr44° N=66 N=69 N=90 yr 20-40 N=5S N=60 yr 20-29; N = 3 9
DeStefano & Jenkins, 154.0 147.2 1972 152.5 155.8 Malina
— — — —
— — — —
— — — —
69.3 65.3 61.8 48.3
— — — 78.8
— — — —
58.7 55.3 52.8 — 52.0 47.0 52.4
80.6 80.0 80.0 — — — 79.1
30.2 29.6 29.5 — — — 30.1
—
24.9 22.3 23.6 10.3
31.2 30.3 29.9 24.8
— — —
27.6 24.8 24.0 20.1 23.7
—
23.3
to
Appendix Table 49. Mean weight and length of Asiatic infants Age Country
People or place
Authors
Variable
Birth
4 wks
3 mos
6 mos
9 mos
12 mos 18 mos 24 mos
Boys China (PRC)
9 cities
Zhang & Huang, 1988
Hong Kong
Chinese
Davies & Leung, 1985
Thailand
Bangkok
Khanjanasthti et ai, n.d.
Bolivia
LaPaz
Haas etal., 1982
WT LT WTfl LTfl WYb LT* WT LT WT LT WT LT WT LT
3.2 50.2 — — 3.4 50.6 3.0 49.1 3.0 50.2 — — —
4.9 56.5 — — 4.3 54.2 3.9 52.2 3.8 54.7 — — 4.0 53.8
6.7 62.4 6.0 62.0 6.1 60.1 6.1 60.0 5.6 62.6 — — 5.7 60.3
8.4 68.6 7.5 67.5 7.6 66.2 7.8 64.8 7.5 68.0 — — 7.2 66.0
— — 8.5 72.0 8.8 70.8 8.6 68.8 8.3 71.5 8.6 70.0 8.2 70.2
9.9 76.5 9.0 75.3 9.6 74.9 9.3 73.2 9.0 74.5 9.0 72.8 9.1 73.7
Santa Cruz
Haas etai, 1982
Nicaragua
Mateare
Capucci, 1986
Mexico
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 1976
10.9 81.6 10.5 82.0 10.8 80.0 — — — — 9.8 76.4 10.4 79.9
12.2 87.9 12.0 87.0 12.3 86.3 — — — — 10.8 80.5 11.6 85.6
Girls China (PRC)
9 cities
Zhang & Huang, 1988
Hong Kong
Chinese
Davies & Leung, 1985
Thailand
Bangkok
Khanjanasthti et al., n.d.
Bolivia
LaPaz
Haasefa/., 1982
Santa Cruz
Haasefa/., 1982
WT LT WT* LT° WT6 T T^ i-« 1
Nicaragua
Mateare
Capucci, 1986
Mexico
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 1976
a
WT LT WT LT WT LT WT LT
Read from author's graphs. b Median. WT, weight (kg); LT, length (cm).
3.1 49.6 — — 3.2 50.0 3.0 48.2 3.3 49.5 — — —
4.6 55.6 — — 3.9 52.4 3.8 52.1 4.0 53.7 — — 3.7 52.8
6.2 61.1 5.7 60.0 5.7 59.3 5.6 58.9 5.7 60.4 — — 5.2 58.8
7.8 67.0 7.2 66.0 7.2 65.4 7.5 63.3 7.6 66.5 — — 6.7 64.4
— — 7.8 71.0 8.2 69.2 8.3 67.9 8.5 69.7 7.8 68.4 7.6 68.1
9.2 75.1 8.8 74.5 9.1 72.8 9.0 72.3 9.5 73.2 8.6 71.0 8.4 71.9
10.3 80.4 10.0 80.0 10.4 78.7 — — — — 9.9 76.8 9.8 78.3
11.7 86.6 10.5 84.5 11.7 85.0 — — — — 10.8 80.5 11.0 84.2
O ON
Appendix Table 50. Sitting height of Asiatic children {cm) Age (yr)
Country
People or place
Authors
Boys China (PRC)
9 cities
Japan Thailand Ecuador
national Bangkok Chachi
Zhang & Huang, 1988 Zhang,1977 Kikuta & Takaishi, 1987 Khanjanasthti et al., n.d. Stinson, 1989
Mexico
Oaxaca Chiapas
R. M. Malina, pers. comm. Villanuevaefa/., 1982
Maya
Arechiga & Serrano, 1981
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 1976
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 1989fc
Peru
Quechua, highland Quechua, lowland United States Mexican-American
Stinson & Frisancho, 1978 Stinson & Frisancho, 1978 Zaveleta & Malina, 1982 Martorell
1±
mean s.d. mean" median mean s.d. mean" mean sd mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean" mean" mean"
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
47.9 53.3 55.9 58.7 61.5 64.5 66.6 68.7 70.7 72.3
74.4 3.0 75.5 70.4 68.0 3.2 70.0 70.8 2.7 67.2 2.6 73.0 2.9 73.2 2.8 70.5 65.0 71.0 75.5
76.7 3.4 78.5 72.5 70.2 2.9 71.0 72.3 3.8 68.5 3.1 74.2 2.7 76.1 3.4 70.0 66.0 73.5 78.0
79.5 4.2 82.0 78.4 70.1 2.7 73.0 72.9 3.2 71.3 4.5 78.6 4.0 79.0 4.0 70.5 67.0 76.3 81.5
83.0 4.7 85.5 80.5 74.2 4.4 75.7 _ — 72.2 4.1
86.3 4.2 88.0 81.5 77.0 5.4 _ — _ 74.9 4.7
88.8 3.7 90.0 85.5 78.4 6.0 _
90.3 3.5 90.5 86.4 81.1 3.7 _
— — — 88.0 85.2 1.4 —
_ _ _
_ _
—
_ 82.5 4.1 75.0 69.5 78.5 85.0
— 85.3 3.8 78.0 72.5 — 87.0
_ — 79.0 75.5
_ — 80.5 78.0
— — —
89.0
90.0
—
2.0 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.7 _ _ _ _ _ 64.5 46.3 51.3 54.3 55.7 58.7 60.2 — — — 54.4 57.1 58.1 — — — 2.4 2.1 3.8 — — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 53.0 _ _ _ _ _ 3.2 47.6 53.0 55.2 57.5 60.3 62.7 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.4
_ _ _ —
_ _ _ —
_ _ _ 56.0
7±
3.0 66.5 61.8 61.4 3.6 62.0 63.0 2.3 58.9 2.4 65.3 2.6
8±
2.9 69.0 63.5 63.1 2.5 64.0 65.4 2.9 62.2 2.4 67.9 2.8
9±
2.9 71.0 67.7 63.3 2.2 66.0 67.2 2.9 64.1 3.1 69.8 2.8
2.9 73.5 69.7 65.7 2.3 68.5 69.1 2.7 63.8 7.7 71.5 2.7
_ _ _ _ 64.0 65.5 _ _ _ _ 60.5 62.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ 59.0 62.0 64.0 66.0 69.0 71.0
68.0 64.0 69.0 73.0
Girls China (PRC)
9 cities
Japan Thailand Ecuador
national Bangkok Chachi
Zhang & Huang, 1988 Zhang,1977 Kikuta & Takaishi, 1987 Khanjanasthti etal., n.d. Stinson, 1989
Mexico
Oaxaca Chiapas
R. M. Malina, pers. comm. Villanueva et al., 1982
Maya (Chiapas)
Arechiga & Serrano, 1981
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 1976
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 19896
Peru
Quechua, highland Quechua, lowland United States Mexican-American 1
Stinson & Frisancho, 1978 Stinson & Frisancho, 1978 Martorellefa/., 1988
mean s.d. mean" median mean s.d. mean" mean c H S.u.
mean sd mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean" mean"
46.9 1.9 — 45.1 — —
52.4 2.2 — 51.2 — —
55.2 2.2 — 52.6 — —
58.0 2.3 — 54.7 51.8 2.1
60.6 2.4 — 56.7 53.2 2.2
63.8 2.7 63.5 58.9 58.0 3.1
— — 46.3 1.6
— — 52.0 1.7
— — 54.0 2.2
— — 56.4 2.5
— — 59.1 2.5
58.1 2.4 61.5 2.4
55.0
58.0
61.0
64.0
65.8 2.9 66.0 61.2 59.0 3.1 61.0 60.8 3.2 59.7 2.4 64.2 2.7 _
68.2 2.9 68.5 63.3 60.5 2.6 64.0 64.1 3.2 61.1 2.5 66.6 2.9 _
70.2 2.9 71.0 66.0 64.7 3.2 65.5 66.9 3.1 63.3 3.4 68.7 2.6 _
_ _ 65.5
65.0 60.0 67.5
66.0 62.5 70.5
72.5 3.2 74.0 67.7 66.5 4.2 67.5 68.6 3.4 64.7 3.1 70.7 2.8 70.3 2.7 67.0 64.0 74.0
75.3 3.6 77.0 71.2 69.3 3.6 70.0 71.7 3.1 67.3 3.4 73.2 2.8 73.8 3.0 69.5 66.5 76.0
78.4 3.8 80.0 74.6 70.9 3.6 72.0 75.2 3.3 69.5 4.1 76.7 2.9 77.0 3.3 72.0 69.0 79.0
80.7 3.7 82.5 76.8 74.5 2.0 74.0 76.5 2.5 71.1 2.0 79.1 2.1 80.3 3.2 74.0 71.5 82.0
82.6 3.4 84.0 78.7 76.4 3.7 77.0 — — 72.1 3.0 — — 82.4 2.9 77.5 73.0 84.0
84.1 3.0 85.0 79.7 77.9 3.2 — — — 75.9 2.7 _ — 83.4 2.6 79.0 74.0 84.5
85.0 3.0 85.0 79.9 77.6 3.6 — — — _
85.5 2.8 85.0 82.5 — — — — — —
— — — 83.5 80.4 2.9 — — — —
_ — _
_ — _
_ — _
79.0 75.0 85.0
79.0 76.6 85.0
— — —
Values adjusted for age grouping.
to
Appendix Table 51. Biacromial width of Asiatic children (cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Boys Guatemala Mexico
Maya Mexico City
Mendez & Behrhorst, 1963 Faulhaber, 1976
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 19896
United States Mexican-Americans
Zavaleta & Malina, 1982
Hong Kong Singapore
Chinese Malays
Chang, 1969 Wong et al., 1972
Girls Guatemala Mexico
Maya Mexico City
Mendez & Behrhorst, 1963 Faulhaber, 1976
Hong Kong Singapore
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 19896
Chinese Malays
Chang, 1969 Wong et al., 1972
° Values not adjusted for age groups.
1±
2±
mean mean s.d. mean s.d. mean 0 s.d. mean mean
_ 16.4 1.0 _ — _ _ _ —
mean mean s.d. mean s.d. mean mean
_ 15.8 1.0 _ — _ —
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
_ _ _ _ _ 23.8 24.4 25.6 18.4 20.6 22.4 23.9 25.3 26.6 28.0 29.2 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — — _ _ _ — _ _ _29.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1.4 _ _ _ _ 23.8 24.8 25.8 26.8 — 20.4 21.7 23.0 23.9 24.5 25.6 26.5
26.6 30.0 1.5
28.4 31.9 1.7 32.2 1.7 32.2 1.2 29.8 29.4
29.5 33.8 1.9 33.1 1.9 33.1 1.8 31.5 30.5
31.5
— 28.9 3.3 27.7 27.5
27.7 31.1 1.6 30.8 1.6 30.6 2.0 28.7 28.5
32.2 32.9 34.9 36.3 _ _ _ _ _ — — — — 36.6 — — — 1.6 — — — — — — — — — — — 35.0 36.2 36.9 37.4 — — — —
_ 18.0 1.1 _ — _ —
27.3 29.8 1.5 29.7 1.3 27.8 27.8
28.8 31.0 1.8 31.2 1.5 29.1 29.1
29.7 32.1 1.7 32.7 1.6 30.5 30.5
29.9 34.0 1.3 33.8 1.6 32.0 31.3
31.0
_ _ _ _ 24.5 20.4 22.2 23.6 25.0 26.4 1.4 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — _ _ _ 23.9 24.7 20.0 21.5 22.7 23.9 24.7
8±
25.6 27.5 1.4 _ — 25.6 25.3
9±
26.2 28.6 1.3 — 26.6 26.5
— 34.8 1.8 34.5 2.0 33.4 32.0
— 34.6 1.6 33.1 31.9
16±
17±
18±
32.7 32.9 33.2 — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — 35.4 — — — 1.4 — — — 33.6 33.9 34.0 34.1 — — — —
Appendix Table 52. Biiliac width of Asiatic children (cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Boys Guatemala Mexico
Maya Mexico City
Mendez & Behrhorst, 1963 Faulhaber, 1976
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 19896
United States
Mexican-Americans
Zavaleta & Malina, 1982
Hong Kong Singapore Thailand
Chinese Malays Bangkok
Chang, 1969 Wong etal., 1972 Khanjanasthti etal., n.d.
Girls Guatemala Mexico
Maya Mexico City
Mendez & Behrhorst, 1963 Faulhaber, 1976
Hong Kong Singapore Thailand 1
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 19896
Chinese Malays Bangkok
Chang, 1969 Wong et al., 1972 Khanjanasthti etal., n.d.
Values not adjusted for age groups.
1±
2±
3±
4±
mean mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" s.d. mean mean median
_ 12.5 7.0 _ — _ — _ — 11.9
_ 14.0 8.0 _ — _ — _ — 13.1
_ _ _ _ 16.9 15.6 16.9 17.8 18.7 19.6 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — _ _ _ 17.7 18.3 14.7 16.0 17.1 17.5 18.0 14.3 15.5 16.0 16.6 16.8
17.7 20.7 1.4
mean mean s.d. mean s.d. mean mean median
— 12.1 0.7 — — — — 11.3
— 13.7 0.7 — — — — 13.2
— 15.2 1.1 — — — 14.7 13.6
— 16.5 1.2 — — — 16.0 15.2
5±
— 17.6 1.1 — — — 17.1 16.0
6±
— 18.6 1.1 — — 17.6 17.8 16.2
7±
18.1 19.6 1.4 — — 18.1 18.1 17.2
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
18.3 21.5 1.4 _ _ — — 19.8 — 1.2 19.0 19.6 18.5 19.4 17.4 18.1
18.7 22.3 1.5
19.9 23.6 2.0 23.2 1.7 22.3 1.3 21.8 21.5 21.1
20.8 25.6 1.8 24.0 1.5 22.9 1.0 23.0 22.3 21.7
21.9
— 20.6 1.7 20.2 20.2 18.9
19.2 23.1 1.6 22.3 1.5 21.3 1.3 21.0 21.0 19.8
22.2 22.4 23.7 24.0 _ _ _ _ _ — — — — 25.9 — — — 1.5 — — — — — — — — — — — 25.3 25.9 26.4 26.4 — — — — 22.9 23.8 23.1 24.3
19.3 20.5 1.4 — — 18.8 18.5 17.8
20.4 22.7 1.7 22.7 1.4 20.5 20.7 19.0
21.6 23.7 1.9 23.9 1.8 21.6 22.3 19.8
23.4 24.8 1.8 25.3 1.9 22.8 23.8 21.3
23.9 26.6 1.7 26.3 1.7 24.1 24.4 21.8
25.3
19.6 21.5 1.6 — — 19.5 19.5 18.2
— 25.0 1.5 23.7 1.8 24.2 22.6 22.5
— 26.9 1.6 25.2 24.9 23.2
16±
17±
18±
25.4 26.5 26.8 — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — 27.4 — — — 1.5 — — — 26.0 26.3 26.4 26.4 — — — — 23.4 23.0 23.4 24.1
Appendix Table 53. Upper arm circumference of Asiatic children (cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
1±
2±
3±..
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
14.7 1.1 14.7 1.0 14.5 _ — — — 13.3 1 . _ — _ _ _ 15.4 1.1 _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — —
15.2 1.1 14.9 1.0 15.4 _ — — — — 2 — _ — _ _ _ 15.9 1.3 _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — —
15.5 15.6 15.7 16.2 _ _ 1.1 1.1 0.5 1.4 — — 16.3 17.0 16.9 _ _ 1.3 1.6 1.4 — — — 15.7 15.9 16.1 16.5 16.7 17.4 _ _ _ 15.0 15.3 15.6 — — — 0.8 1.0 0.9 — 16.1 15.7 16.1 17.2 17.5 — 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 14.7 — 15.3 — 15.9 1 . 0 — 1 . 1 — 1.1 _ _ _ 16.0 16.6 17.0 — — — 1.3 1.4 1.3 _ _ _ _ 16.2 17.0 _ _ _ _ 1.0 1.2 _ _ _ _ 15.9 16.0 16.5 16.8 17.3 17.8 18.5 19.5 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.5 2.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 15.8 15.4 16.1 _ _ _ 0.8 1.1 0.9 _ _ _ 13.4 14.9 15.3 — — — 0.6 0.8 1.1 — — — 18.1 18.5 20.3 — — — 1.5 1.5 2.2 — — 16.4 16.6 18.0 17.3 — — 1.7 1.5 1.8 1.3 — — 16.1 15.9 16.6 17.4 — — 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.7
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
Boys Zhang & Huang, 1988 China (PRC)
9 cities
Indonesia
Jakarta
Thailand
Bangkok
Sudjarwo et al., 1978 Khanjanasthti Stinson, 1980
etal.,n.d.
Bolivia
Aymara
Stinson, 1989
Ecuador
Chachi
Johnston et al., 1985
Guatemala
El Progreso
R. M. Malina, pers. comm.
Mexico
Oaxaca
Villanuevaefa/., 1982
Chiapas Maya Mexico City
Arechiga & Serrano, 1981 Faulhaber, 1976 Faulhaber, 1989ft
Peru
United States
Quechua, highland
Frisancho et al., 1975
Quechua, lowland
Frisancho et al., 1975
Mexican-American
Malina era/., 1987ft
Chinese
Schumacher & Kretchmer, 1988 Schumacher & Kretchmer, 1988
Southeast Asians
mean s.d. mean s.d. median mean" s.d. mean s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d. mean s.d. mean mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d.
_
_
_
— _ — 18.5 16.1 1.0 17.6 1.4 _ _ 17.7 1.4 17.8 1.9 16.6 20.4 2.0 _ _ 16.7 1.1 15.6 1.1 20.8 1.9 18.9 2.4 18.0 1.6
— _ — 19.3 17.2 1.4 18.2 0.9 _ _ 117.9 1.4 18.0 1.3 16.6 20.9 2.2
17.6 1.0 16.1 1.0 21.5 2.1 18.9 2.2 18.6 1.8
_ —
—
_ — _
_
—
_
_
_
— 19.4 17.8 2.3 19.1 1.3 _ _ 18.7 1.5 18.5 2.1 17.0 21.6 2.2 20.9 2.4 17.5 2.4 16.2 1.0 22.3 2.5 19.5 2.2 18.7 1.8
— — — 20.2 20.4 21.6 18.4 18.8 19.9 1.3 1.4 1.6 20.0 20.0 21.2 1.7 1.4 2.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ 19.2 19.9 20.8 1.5 2.0 2.5 19.3 20.1 1.7 1.1 — 17.6 18.5 21.8 23.5 2.3 2.7 — 21.9 22.6 23.4 2.8 2.7 2.5 18.6 18.7 20.3 1.5 1.1 1.5 16.4 16.9 18.5 0.9 1.4 1.6 23.5 24.1 24.3 2.8 2.7 3.3 _ _ — — — _ _ — — —
_
_ _ _ — — — _ _ _ — — — — 22.0 23.9 23.6 24.0 21.1 21.8 22.7 23.8 2.1 1.8 1.2 1.8 22.5 23.8 25.4 25.6 2.6 2.4 2.1 1.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — 24.2 — — — 2.4 — — — 21.4 — 23.2 — 1.4 — — — 19.1 22.5 — — 1.7 1.1 — — 25.8 26.5 27.8 — 2.6 2.6 3.2 — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — —
_
_
Girls China (PRC)
9 cities
Zhang & Huang, 1988
Indonesia
Jakarta
Sudjarwo et al., 1978
Thailand Bolivia
Bangkok Aymara
Kjanhanasthti et al., n.d. Stinson, 1980
Ecuador
Chachi
Stinson, 1989
Guatemala
El Progreso
Johnston et al., 1985
Mexico
Peru
Oaxaca
R. M. Malina, pers. comm.
Chiapas
Villanuevaera/., 1982
Maya Mexico City
Arechiga & Serrano, 1981 Faulhaber, 1976
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 19896
Quechua, highland
Frisanchoefa/., 1975
Quechua, lowland
Frisancho et al., 1975
United States Mexican-American Chinese Southeast Asians
Malina etal., 19876 Schumacher & Kretchmer, 1988 Schumacher & Kretchmer, 1988
'J Values not adjusted for age grouping.
mean s.d. mean s.d. median mean" s.d. mean s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d. mean s.d. mean mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d.
14.3 1.1 14.7 1.2 14.2 _ — — — 13.3 0.8 _ — _ — _ 14.8 1.0 _ _ _ — _ — _ — — — — —
15.0 1.1 14.9 1.1 15.1 _ — — — — — _ — _ — _ 15.6 1.1 _ _ _ — _ — _ — — — — —
15.4 1.1 16.4 1.5 15.8 _ — — — 14.9 3.4 _ — _ — _ 16.1 1.2 _ _ _ — _ — _ — — — — —
15.6 15.8 16.0 _ _ 1.2 1.2 1.3 — — 17.0 17.1 _ _ 1.5 1.8 — — — 15.7 16.3 16.2 16.7 17.3 _ _ 15.4 15.8 16.6 — — 1.4 0.9 1.0 15.3 15.3 16.6 16.8 16.9 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.2 — 15.2 — 15.9 — 1.2 — 1.2 — _ _ 16.4 16.8 17.4 — — 1.3 1.1 1.4 _ _ _ 15.7 17.0 — — — 0.9 1.4 _ _ _ 15.9 16.0 16.8 17.2 17.9 18.6 19.4 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.7 2.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 15.2 15.8 15.9 — — 1.3 1.1 0.9 _ _ 14.5 14.7 15.3 — — 0.9 0.9 0.9 _ _ 18.9 19.1 19.9 — — 2.0 1.2 1.6 — 16.8 16.7 17.3 17.4 — 1.7 1.8 1.5 1.5 — 15.9 16.4 16.8 17.6 — 1.4 1.0 1.3 1.3
_
_ —
_
_
—
—
_ —
—
_
_
_
— 18.0 16.7 1.3 18.4 2.4 _ — 17.9 1.4 17.7 1.4 16.5 20.1 1.9 _ _ 16.8 1.1 15.9 0.9 20.1 2.3 17.8 1.7 17.8 1.1
— 18.5 17.3 1.2 18.7 1.6 _ — 18.6 1.4 18.4 2.1 16.9 21.0 2.3
— 19.5 17.8 1.4 19.7 1.5 _ — 19.3 1.5 19.5 2.3 17.9 21.7 2.5 21.0 2.4 18.2 1.7 17.1 0.8 22.7 2.8 20.3 1.8 19.9 1.1
— — — 20.2 20.6 21.6 18.8 19.8 21.3 1.3 2.4 1.9 20.1 21.4 23.0 1.6 1.3 2.3 _ _ _ — — — 20.1 21.3 22.4 1.8 2.0 2.0 20.2 20.1 1.9 1.6 — 18.6 19.0 22.1 23.7 2.5 2.6 — 22.1 22.6 23.6 2.6 2.4 2.1 18.9 20.1 21.1 2.9 1.6 2.0 17.3 20.0 21.1 1.1 5.0 2.8 23.8 23.9 25.1 3.0 2.4 2.7 _ _ — — — _ _ _ _
17.0 1.0 16.3 1.0 21.6 2.0 18.9 1.9 18.2 2.1
_
_ —
_
_
_
_
_ _ — — — _ _ _ — — — — 22.8 22.8 23.1 22.7 22.3 — — — 2.4 — — — 24.3 24.4 24.7 26.3 1.8 2.6 0.9 1.6 _ _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — — 24.4 — — — 2.2 — — — 21.9 — — — 2.0 — — — 21.0 23.7 — — 1.5 4.0 — — 25.1 25.0 24.8 — 2.3 2.2 2.5 — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ —
_
_
Appendix Table 54. Triceps skinfold of Asiatic children {mm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Boys Taiwan
Changhua
Lai & Yuang, 1987
Thailand
Bangkok
Khanjanasthti et al., n.d.
Bolivia Canada Ecuador
Aymara Manitoba Chachi
Stinson, 1980
Guatemala
El Progreso
Johnston etal., 1985
Mexico
Peru
Coodmetal, 1980 Stinson, 1989
Oaxaca
R. M. Malina, pers. comm
Chiapas
Villanuevaefa/., 1982
Maya (Chiapas) Mexico City
Arechiga & Serrano, 1981 Faulhaber, 1989/?
Quechua, highland
Frisancho et al., 1975
United States Mexican-American Chinese
Malina etal., 19876 Schumacher & Kretchmer, 1988 & unpubl.
median" 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median 0 median" median s.d. mean" s.d. mean 0 s.d. mean s.d. mean mean s.d. median 0 s.d. median 0 s.d. median 0 10 perc 90 perc
1±
2±
3±
— — _ 10.0 7.6 12.1 _ 9.0 — — 8.5 2.0 — _ — — — _ — _ — — _ — — —
— — _ 10.5 8.1 12.8 _ 9.1 — — — — — _ — — — _ — _ — — _ — — —
— — _ 10.8 8.5 13.0 _ 9.2 — — 9.5 1.8 — _ — — — _ — _ — — _ — — —
4±
— —
5±
— —
_ _ 10.4 10.9 7.6 7.7 13.2 14.1 _ _ 9.1 9.6 7.8 1.4 1.2 — 8.6 — 1.8 — — _ _ — — — — — — _ _ — — _ _ — — — — _ _ — 6.4 — 4.6 — 12.9
6±
— —
7±
— —
8±
— —
9±
9.1 6.0 _ _ _ 16.0 12.0 11.8 12.8 14.1 7.1 7.8 8.4 8.5 16.8 15.7 17.1 19.7 6.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 _ _ _ _ 7.2 7.8 7.0 6.9 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.4 — 7.9 — — — 1.9 — — 6.2 6.0 6.0 5.8 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.7 — 7.7 7.9 9.0 — 1.4 1.9 3.8 — 6.5 6.1 5.8 _ _ _ _ _ — — — — 10.5 7.0 6.5 7.0 7.0 6.5 7.0 7.0 8.3 9.3 10.5 11.5 3.I 2.3 6.0 4.5 6.7 7.9 6.8 8.0 4.8 5.6 4.8 5.2 10.8 12.7 9.9 15.4
10±
8.8 5.9 18.0 14.6 8.5 20.8 6.0 _ 7.8 1.3 — — 5.9 1.6 8.7 2.0 5.9 — 7.0 6.5 14.1 5.7 8.2 5.0 13.1
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
9.3 9.7 7.8 7.0 6.6 7.0 6.1 5.8 5.3 5.2 5.0 5.1 16.4 14.3 13.2 14.0 12.8 13.7 14.4 13.6 11.4 11.7 11.3 12.9 8.9 7.7 6.1 5.4 5.4 3.8 20.0 19.4 16.7 18.0 17.3 22.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8.0 7.6 8.0 7.4 8.2 7.1 1.3 1.0 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.7 — — — — — — — — — — — — 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.6 6.0 — 1.8 1.9 2.3 1.3 1.4 — 9.4 9.0 9.3 — — — 3.6 2.0 1.7 — — — 5.9 6.1 6.0 — — — 12.O 12.0 11.4 10.5 9.6 — 4.8 5.0 4.8 4.5 3.3 — 8.0 8.0 8.0 9.0 9.5 — 8.0 6.0 7.0 7.5 7.0 — 14.6 11.5 10.5 7.6 8.5 7.5 5.8 7.6 7.4 4.8 4.2 2.6 7.6 — — — — — 5.0 — — — — — 15.0 _ _ _ _ _
17±
18±
6.9 — 5.0 — 11.8 — 12.7 17.3 5.7 10.2 19.7 24.3 7.0 7.0 _ _ 8.0 7.1 1.7 2.4 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 10.5 — 8.0 — 7.5 — 3.3 — — — — — _ _
Girls Taiwan
Changhua
Lai & Yuang, 1987
Thailand
Bangkok
Khanjanasthti etal., n.d.
Bolivia Canada Ecuador
Aymara Manitoba Chachi
Stinson, 1980 Coodin et al., 1980 Stinson, 1989
Guatemala
El Progreso
Johnston etal., 1985
Mexico
Oaxaca
R. M. Malina, pers. comm.
Chiapas
Villanueva et al., 1982
Maya (Chiapas) Mexico City
Arechiga & Serrano, 1981 Faulhaber, 1989ft
Quecha, highland
Frisancho etal., 1975
Peru
United States Mexican-American Chinese
1
Malina etal., 1987ft Schumacher & Kretchner, 1988 & unpubl.
Values not adjusted for age groups. Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
median 10 perc 90 perc median 10 perc 90 perc median median median s.d. mean" s.d. mean" s.d. mean sd mean mean s.d. median s.d. median s.d. median 10 perc 90 perc
— — — 10.1 7.5 12.7 — 8.4 — — 9.5 1 . — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
— — — — — — — — — 10.7 11.3 11.5 8.5 8.1 8.0 13.0 14.5 15.0 — — — 10.0 9.6 9.4 — — 8.9 — — 1.7 _ 9.8 — 9 — 2 . 0 — 2 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
— — — 12.3 7.8 16.7 — — 9.0 1.4 9.2 . 1 — — — — — — — — — — — 7.2 5.6 13.9
— — — 11.7 8.3 15.1 8.0 — 8.0 1.7 — _ 7.2 1.9 — — — — — 8.0 8.0 — — 7.3 5.4 11.4
— — — 12.7 8.4 17.0 7.0 — 7.2 1.0 9.5 2.5 7.3 1.6 9.0 1.6 6.6 — — 8.5 7.5 12.1 4.8 7.7 5.8 12.7
— — — 13.2 8.5 18.0 6.5 — 7.8 1.6 — — 7.4 1.9 9.3 2.0 6.6 — — 8.0 8.5 13.5 2.8 7.8 5.7 14.1
9.7 6.5 15.3 14.4 9.0 19.9 7.0 — 8.2 3.9 — — 7.5 2.0 10.0 1.6 6.8 — — 8.5 7.0 12.6 3.1 7.6 6.0 12.6
10.6 6.8 16.7 15.1 9.6 20.5 8.0 — 7.8 2.2 — — 7.8 2.2 10.8 2.5 6.9 13.0 3.6 9.0 8.5 12.1 6.8 8.9 6.7 15.7
10.7 8.2 16.8 16.1 8.4 23.8 7.0 — 8.0 1.4 — — 8.0 2.3 12.3 5.9 6.4 13.5 4.2 11.0 8.5 16.3 5.1 11.8 5.8 15.3
11.9 7.5 18.6 15.8 9.4 22.2 8.5 — 9.6 2.1 — — 8.7 2.5 12.1 2.6 6.8 14.1 4.4 11.5 8.0 17.5 7.2 —
12.4 14.4 14.6 16.2 7.3 8.6 10.1 11.8 19.8 21.0 20.4 22.8 17.0 17.6 17.1 18.5 10.2 11.6 10.9 11.9 23.9 23.6 23.2 25.1 9.0 11.0 12.0 — — — — — 10.0 13.1 13.3 12.8 1.4 2.6 2.8 3.4 — — — — — — — — 9.7 11.3 — — 2.9 4.0 — — 10.4 _ _ _ 1.7 — — — 6.4 — — — 14.2 15.1 15.7 — 4.4 4.4 4.1 — 14.0 14.5 12.5 — 11.5 11.5 13.5 — 15.4 16.5 20.3 17.5 8.2 6.8 7.4 8.5 _ _ _ _ _ — — — — _ _ _ _ _
15.5 10.7 22.4 19.8 14.3 25.2 — — 12.5 1.4 — — — — _ — — — — — — 18.1 6.1 _ — _
— — — 21.3 18.0 24.5 — — 15.4 2.0 — — — — _ — — — — — — 16.6 7.1 _ — _
Appendix Table 55. Subscapular skinfold of Asiatic children (mm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Boys Hong Kong Japan Bolivia Ecuador
Chinese Nagoya Aymara Chachi
Fry etal., 1965 Kondo & Eto, 1972 Stinson, 1980 Stinson, 1989
Mexico
Mexico City
Peru
Quechua, highland Quechua, lowland United States Chinese
Faulhaber, 19896 Frisancho et al., 1975 Frisancho et al., 1975 Schumacher & Kretchmer, unpubl.
Girls Hong Kong Japan Bolivia Ecuador
Chinese Nagoya Aymara Chachi
Fry et al., 1965 Kondo & Eto, 1972 Stinson, 1980 Stinson, 1989
Mexico
Mexico City
Faulhaber, 19896
Peru
Quechua, highland Quechua, lowland United States Chinese
Frisancho et al., 1975 Frisancho et al., 1975 Schumacher & Kretchmer, unpubl.
1±
mean mean median" median s.d. mean sd median" median" median" 10 perc 90 perc mean mean median" median s.d. mean s.d. median" median" median" 10 perc 90 perc
" Values not adjusted for age grouping. Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
2±
3±
4±
— — — 5.2 0.5 _ — — _ — — —
_ 4.7 0.7 — — — _ — —
5±
—
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
1±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
6.5 8.1 5.0 5.0 0.7 10.8 7.0 6.0 6.0 — —
6.7 8.9 5.0 5.5 1.2 10.4 5.9 6.0 6.0 — —
7.3 8.5 6.0 6.5 2.2 10.2 4.7 9.0 6.5 — —
7.9 9.3 6.5 6.9 1.6 _ — — — _ —
8.4 8.4 7.0 8.0 1.2 _ — 10.0 8.0 — —
8.8 9.3 7.8 7.8 2.4 _ — — — — —
— 4.2 0.6 — — — — 5.0 3.5 9.6
5.1 — 4.0 4.0 0.4 — — 5.0 4.0 4.9 3.9 8.2
5.2 5.9 4.0 4.8 0.8 _ — 4.5 5.0 5.6 4.1 10.3
5.3 5.5 4.0 4.5 0.6 _ _ 4.0 4.0 5.2 4.1 8.7
5.4 6.5 4.0 4.6 0.5 _ — 5.0 5.0 6.1 4.7 11.5
5.7 8.2 4.5 5.2 0.9 _ — 5.0 5.5 6.1 4.3 10.7
5.9 7.8 4.2 5.0 0.5 9.4 6.3 6.0 6.0 5.7 4.4 9.5
6.1 8.4 4.5 5.1 0.7 10.7 7.2 6.0 5.0 — — —
—
—
—
—
—
—
_ 4.7 0.8 — — — _ 5.8 4.9 13.0
5.9 — 4.2 4.9 0.6 — — 4.5 6.0 5.8 4.2 9.5
5.8 6.7 4.5 4.4 0.6 — — 5.0 6.0 6.2 4.5 10.8
5.9 6.6 5.0 4.9 1.0 — — 6.0 5.5 5.9 4.5 9.1
6.2 7.3 5.0 5.4 2.2 — — 6.5 5.0 5.8 4.8 8.6
6.4 8.7 5.0 4.9 0.6 9.4 4.5 7.0 5.5 7.0 4.9 12.6
6.7 9.0 5.5 5.3 0.7 11.2 6.0 8.0 5.5 9.3 5.5 13.8
7.7 10.3 6.0 6.2 .3 12.7 6.2 7.5 6.5 — —
8.8 9.3 7.0 6.6 1.4 12.2 5.4 11.0 7.5 — —
10.5 13.5 9.0 8.3 2.3 13.5 5.2 11.5 8.5 — —
11.7 12.6 9.0 9.3 2.0 15.0 5.4 16.5 6.5 — —
11.8 13.3 _ 10.5 4.6 — — — — — —
12.4 13.5 _ 9.2 2.3 — — — — — —
12.7 12.1 _ 12.4 3.5 — _ — — — —
Appendix Table 56. Height of Indo-Mediterranean boys (cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Bahrain
Bahraini
Egypt
Kenouz Nubian
1± Musaiger et al., 1989 El-Nofely, 1978 El-Nofely, 1978
Arab Nubian East Cairo Kuwait Libya India
Nepal Saudi Arabia Sudan Tunisia Turkey United Kingdom
Yemen, Democ.
1
national Tripoli City Calcutta Patiala City
Hafez et al., 1981 Bayoumi & Moussa, 19S5a,b Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985 Pakrasi et al., 1988 Singh etal., 1987
Patiala City BodsofLadakh
Sidhu etal., 1982 Malik & Singh, 1978
national rural Kathmandu valley Riyadh
Ind.Coun.Med. Res., 1972 Martorell etal., 1984 Farquharson, 1976 Al-Hazzaa, 1990; Wong & Al-Frayh, 1990 Sukkare/o/,,1979 H. Boutourline-Young, unpubl Neyzi era/., 1973 Marshall et al., n.d. Marshall et al., n.d. Marshall et al., n.d. Bagenholme/a/., 1988
rural Khartoum Tunis (well-off) Istanbul (well-off) Sikhs Pakistani Moslems Indian Hindus national
Values adjusted for age grouping. b Smoothed curve. c Read from graph.
mean mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean 0 median mean s.d. mean s.d. mean 6 mean s.d. mean mean" mean c mean mean' mean mean mean" mean" mean" mean s.d.
—
2±
85.0
3±
4±
92.0
— — 118.0 121.0 126.0 132.0 — 110.2 116.2 118.8 122.7 128.8 5.2 — 5.1 7.3 4.1 5.2 — 112.9 116.2 121.0 125.4 131.1 6.4 — 4.5 5.1 5.8 4.8 135.0 99.0 105.0 111.0 119.0 125.0 129.5 — 114.9 118.6 123.8 128.0 133.8 — — 119.3 124.1 128.5 133.0 — — 6.7 6.0 5.3 5.5 — 112.3 118.5 124.1 129.7 132.6 6.4 5.9 — 7.2 6.2 7.3 132.0 145.0 150.0
6±
7±
524)
62.0
72.0 78.0 72.6 — — — — 72.0 2.9
83.0 82.0 84.6 — — — — 83.6 4.2
92.0 97.5 104.2 114.0 117.4 91.0 98.0 104.0 110.0 129.0 93.6 100.2 107.2 112.0 118.3 — — — — — — 104.0 111.0 116.0 121.0 — 105.0 110.0 115.0 121.0 — 99.0 116.0 112.0 117.5 88.9 95.4 102.7 107.7 110.9 5.2 5.5 5.5 6.2 5.2
77.5
8±
9± 10±
12± 136.0 132.4 6.9 133.4 4.7 139.5
138.1 138.4 6.9 136.2 6.4 152.0 128.0 7.4 99.0 105.2 111.2 116.8 121.6 124.0 129.0 94.5 99.0 105.0 111.0 115.5 120.5 85.0 88.0 94.0 100.0 102.0 105.0 110.0
85.5 — 66.0
70.5
92.5 90.0 74.0
5±
122.6 124.0 126.1 — 125.0 126.0 121.0
127.6 129.0 130.1 131.5 131.0 131.0 129.0 _ — —
132.5 131.0 133.6 138.2 139.0 135.0 132.0 _ —
138.0 135.0 139.2 142.9
13± 14± 15±
16± 17± 18±
140.0 146.0 152.5 157.5 163.0 167.0 168.0 134.3 7.7 138.9 7.6 — — 144.0 149.0 157.0 163.0 167.5 142.4 143.0 8.8 140.9 6.7 158.0 133.7 3.5 136.0
147.5 153.0 159.6 164.6 166.7 151.5 157.1 162.4 165.7 — 7.8 8.6 6.2 5.2 —
135.9 143.4 150.3 157.9 161.1 163.7 5.7 5.3 7.7 5.9 5.9 3.9 141.5 147.0 153.0 157.8 160.8 162.5
115.0 120.0
140.9 141.0 141.0 150.2 _ _ _ _ _ — —
— — —
147.5 145.0 149.8 154.0 _ _ _ _ —
_
_
_
— _ _ _ _ 156.8 159.1 165.7 — 159.5 167.0 170.4 172.8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — —
— _ — — _ _ _ _ —
153.0
_ —
_ —
Appendix Table 57. Height of Indo-Mediterranean girls {cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Bahrain Egypt
Bahraini Kenouz Nubian
Musaiger et al., 1989 El-Nofely, 1978
Arab Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
national Tripoli City Patiala City
Bayoumi & Moussa, 1985a,b Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985 Singh etal., 1987
Patiala City national rural Kathmandu valley Riyadh rural Khartoum Tunis (well-off)
P. Malhotra, unpubl. Ind. Coun. Med. Res., 1972 Martorellera/., 1984 Farquharson, 1976 Wong & Al-Frayh, 1990 Sukkar etal., 1979 H. Boutourline-Young, unpubl. Neyzi etal., 1973 Marshall et al., n.d. Marshall et al., n.d. Marshall et al., n.d. Bagenholmera/., 1988
Kuwait Libya India
Nepal Saudi Arabia Sudan Tunisia Turkey United Kingdom
Yemen, Democ.
Istanbul Sikhs Pakistani Moslems Indian Hindus national
1± mean mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" median mean s.d. meanfr mean mean" mean" median mean" mean mean mean" mean" mean" mean s.d.
" Values adjusted for age grouping. h Smoothed curves.' Read from graph.
2±
3±
4±
8±
9±
10±
116.0 114.1 4.6 114.5 5.3 118.0 118.0 110.1 6.0 120.0 110.0 104.0 94.0 _ 109.0 118.0
120.0 118.8 4.3 120.1 5.6 125.0 123.3 115.9 7.0 126.0" 115.5 109.0 100.0 _ 121.0
125.5 124.3 6.2 125.1 5.4 130.0 127.8 121.0 7.0 132.0 120.6 112.5 105.0 _ 128.0
130.5 128.3 6.2 129.5 5.1 _ 133.5 125.8 6.2 135.0 125.5 119.0 108.0 _ 134.0
122.0 — 125.5 125.0 123.0
5± — — — — — 104.0 — — — — 98.0 93.0 85.0 103.0 104.0
— 108.1 5.2 113.1 3.7 111.0 113.6 102.5 8.1 119.0 104.2 97.5 88.0
—
84.0
91.0
98.0
68.0
76.0
52.0 70.4 72.0
62.0 83.0 78.0
83.7 — 66.0 91.0 88.0
90.8 90.0 74.0 97.0 99.0
71.7 — — — — 70.9 3.2
82.4 — — — — 82.4 4.8
91.7 98.6 104.9 110.0 116.7 — — — — — — 102.5 109.0 115.0 121.0 — 102.5 108.0 114.0 120.0 — 101.0 108.0 114.0 119.5 88.3 94.4 100.9 106.4 110.7 5.7 6.1 6.6 6.2 6.1
127.7 131.3 131.0 131.0 130.0 _ — —
12±
13±
136.0 132.5 9.6 134.1 7.0 _ 139.6 128.7 6.6 140.0 131.3
140.0 146.0 136.1 4.4 — 137.5 6.5 — _ 145.4 150.7 133.3 6.9 — 149.0 136.5 141.9 _ _ 112.0 120.0 128.0 _ _ _ 139.0 142.0 146.0
133.4 136.7 142.1 152.3 135.8 145.2 152.1 155.6 134.0 _ _ 135.0 _ _ 130.0 _ _ _ _ _ _ — — — —
14± 152.5 _ — _ — _ 153.4 _ — _ 145.8 _ _
156.3 158.1 _ _ _ _ —
15±
16±
17±
18±
154.0 156.0 156.0 155.0 _ _ _ _ _ — — — — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — _ _ _ _ _ 155.6 156.1 155.8 — _ _ _ _ _ — — — — _ _ _ _ _ 148.5 150.3 151.3 151.7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 156.8 158.1 — 159.2 157.8 159.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — —
— — _ _ _ _ —
Appendix Table 58. Weight of Indo-Mediterranean boys (kg) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Bahrain
Bahraini
Musaiger etal., 1989
Egypt
Kenouz Nubian Arab Nubian
Kuwait Libya India
East Cairo national Tripoli City Calcutta Patiala City Patiala City Bods of Ladakh
Nepal Saudi Arabia Sudan Tunisia Turkey United Kingdom
Yemen, Democ.
national rural Riyadh rural Khartoum Tunis (well-off) Istanbul (well-off) Sikhs Pakistani Moslems Indian Hindus national
mean 0 s.d mean El-Nofely, 1978 s.d. mean El-Nofely, 1978 s.d. mean" Hafez etal., 1981 mean" Bayoumi & Moussa, 1985a,b median Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985 median Pakrasi etal., 1988 s.d. mean Singh etal., 1987 s.d. mean* Sidhu etal., 1982 mean Malik & Singh, 1978 s.d. Ind. Counc. Med. Res., 1972 mean mean" Martorell et al., 1984 median Wong & Al-Frayh, 1990 mean Al-Hazzaa, 1990 mean ( Sukkar etal., 1979 H. Boutourline-Young, unpubl .mean mean Neyzi etal., 1973 mean" Marshall etal., n.d. mean" Marshall et al., n.d. mean 3 Marshall et al., n.d. mean Bagenholmefa/., 1988 s.d.
" Values adjusted for age grouping. h Smoothed curves.' Read from graph.
1+
— — _ _ _ _ — — _ — _ — — _ — 7.8 _ 8.8 — 8.0 9.6 — — — _ 8.5 1.2
2+
— — — _ _ _ 12.0 — _ — — — — _ — 9.3 _ 11.0 — 10.0 12.3 — — — _ 11.0 1.3
3+
— — — _ — _ 14.0 — — — — — — — — 11.0 _ 13.0 — 12.5 14.4 — — — _ 12.1 1.6
4+
— — — _ — _ 16.0 — — — — — — — — 12.7 12.5 14.5 — 14.5 16.4 — 17.0 17.0 14.0 13.6 1.8
5+
— — — _ — _ 17.5 — _ — — — — — — 14.2 13.4 16.0 — 16.0 17.9 — 19.0 17.5 17.0 14.9 1.8
9+
6+
7+
8+
3.1 17.5 2.1 19.6 2.0 _ 20.5 20.3 _ — — — — — — 15.7 14.5
20.0 2.3 19.0 3.1 20.2 2.5 _ 23.0 21.8 19.5 4.5 17.2 3.1 — _ — 17.3 15.8
21.0 24.5 4.8 3.7 20.8 21.5 2.2 2.4 21.8 24.0 3.8 2.7 _ _ 26.0 28.5 24.0 26.1 21.2 23.0 6.2 4.4 19.6 21.6 3.3 2.8 27.0 30.0 — — — — 18.8 20.6 17.3 18.9
20.3 17.0 19.3 — 21.0 19.0 19.0 16.4 2.9
21.4 23.9 19.0 21.0 21.6 24.8 — — 22.5 24.0 22.0 24.0 20.0 22.5 17.3 2.1
26.8 23.0 26.9 — 26.0 27.0 24.5
10+
11 +
12+
13+
15+
16+
17+
18 +
27.0 6.1 24.6 3.3 26.3 2.9 32.0 — 29.6 25.5 5.8 24.1 3.1 33.0 — — 22.5 21.1
30.0 7.4 27.5 4.0 26.8 2.8 33.0 — 32.4 28.5 7.9 25.7 3.0 38.0 24.5 1.6 24.6 —
32.5 8.4 27.1 4.4 29.7 4.7 35.0 — 36.1 31.0 8.0 27.7 3.9 42.0 26.9 1.9 27.3 _
37.5 43.5 47.0 12.5 12.6 15.0 — — — — — — — — _ — — — 38.5 44.0 50.5 — — — 39.4 44.0 49.0 36.2 40.0 44.0 8.4 6.4 8.2 — — 29.3 — — 3.8 — — — 27.8 32.2 37.7 6.9 4.0 3.0 30.2 34.0 38.0 _ _ _
51.0 8.2 — — _ — 58.0 — 52.7 47.5 10.0 — — — 43.9 5.8 41.4 —
56.0 14.0 — — — — _ — 56.0 _ — — — — 46.8 6.0 44.4 _
59.0 11.0 — — — _ — — — — — — — — 51.6 4.6 46.5 _
29.3 25.0 29.5 28.9 30.0 30.0 27.5
33.7 26.0 31.7 34.0 — — —
35.3 29.0 31.6 37.8 — — _
39.7 32.0 38.5 43.4 — — _
_ _ 46.9 51.7 — — _
— _ 53.5 59.5 — — _
— _ — 60.9 — — _
— _ — 67.8 — — _
14+
47.8 _ 43.9 47.8 — — _
00
Appendix Table 59. Weight of Indo-Mediterranean girls (kg) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Bahrain Egypt
Bahraini Kenouz Nubian
Musaiger et al., 1989 El-Nofely, 1978
Arab Nubian Kuwait Libya India
Nepal Saudi Arabia Sudan Tunisia Turkey United Kingdom
Yemen, Democ.
7
national Tripoli City Patiala City Patiala City national rural Riyadh rural Khartoum Tunis (well-off) Istanbul (well-off) Sikhs Pakistani Moslems Indian Hindus national
mean" mean s.d. mean El-Nofely, 1978 s.d. mean" Bayoumi & Moussa, 1985a,b Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985 median mean Singh etal., 1987 S.d. P. Malhotra, unpubl. mean mean Ind. Coun. Med. Res., 1972 mean" Martorellera/., 1984 median Wong & Al-Frayh, 1990 mean'' Sukkar etal., 1979 H. Boutourline-Young, unpubl. mean Neyzi etal., 1973 mean Marshall et al., n.d. mean" mean" Marshall et al., n.d. Marshall et al., n.d. mean" mean Bagenholmera/., 1988 s.d.
Values adjusted for age grouping. b Read from graph.
1+
— — — — — — — — — 7.0 — 8.3 7.5 9.0 — _ — _ 8.0 1.1
?+
— — — _ 11.0 — — — — 8.8 — 10.7 10.0 11.5 — — — _ 10.5 1.4
3+
— — — _ 13.0 — — — _ 10.5 — 13.0 12.0 13.6 — _ — _ 11.8 1.6
4+
— — — — 15.5 — — — — 12.0 12.0 14.0 14.5 15.4 — 15.0 15.0 15.0 13.1 1.7
5+
— — — — 17.5 — — — — 13.8 13.0 16.0 15.0 17.0 — 17.5 17.0 17.0 14.8 2.2
6+
7+
9+
10+
11 +
17 +
13+
14+
15 +
16+
17+
18+
17.7 3.5 19.4 2.9 19.5 19.7 16.2 2.2 20.0 15.0 13.8
21.0 22.5 18.4 20.1 7.0 1.7 19.5 21.1 2.6 2.9 22.5 25.5 21.7 23.8 17.5 19.2 2.0 3.0 20.0 22.0 16.6 18.5 15.1 16.2
25.0 22.5 3.4 23.0 2.7 29.0 25.8 21.1 2.7 24.0 20.3 17.9
28.0 23.1 3.5 26.4 4.6 — 29.9 23.0 3.3 25.0 22.5 19.9
32.5 27.1 4.7 29.7 5.7 — 33.9 24.5 4.8 29.0 25.0 _
37.5 27.8 3.5 29.6 5.5 — 38.8 26.9 4.6 36.0 28.0 —
42.0 — — — — — 43.8 — — — 31.5 —
46.0 — — — — — 49.1 — — _ 35.0 _
50.0 — — — — — 52.9 — — — 37.8 _
51.5 — — — — — 54.1 — — — 39.9 —
52.5 — — — — — 58.0 — — — 41.7 —
53.0 — — — — — — — — — 42.5 —
16.0 18.5 — 19.0 18.0 18.0 16.0 2 2
19.0 20.5 — 22.0 21.0 19.0 17.2 2.7
22.5 25.7 28.5 26.0 26.0 25.0
25.0 28.6 34.1 29.5 29.5 27.5
28.0 30.1 40.2 — — —
32.0 34.5 44.1 _ — _
34.0 44.0 48.2 — — —
— 50.0 53.4 — — _
— 49.1 55.0 — — _
— 51.9 52.8 — — —
— — 54.6 — _ _
— — — — _ —
8+
21.0 22.5 — 24.0 22.5 22.0
Appendix Table 60. Mean size of Indo-Mediterranean adults Country
People or place
Sample size; ages
Authors
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
Arm circ. (cm)
Triceps (mm)
Madras Ooty Gujarat (fathers) Gujarat (sons) Punjab students Alexandria
mean yr 35 mean yr 34 n = 61 n = 99 yr 20-29, n = 74 yr22,n = 86 young adult young, n = 250
Singh, 1975a Singh, 1975a Kaur & Singh,1983 Kaur & Singh, 1983 Singh,19756 Rao & Sastry, 1977 Attallah, 1987 Attallah, 1987
165.2 164.4 161.9 164.1 168.1 171.6 171.6 165.5
56.8 54.0 54.0 51.2 58.6 60.1 67.0 65.8
24.8 23.8 25.8 24.5 24.8 26.4 32.4 32.1
10.4 8.9 9.7 7.6 — 11.2 11.0 —
Gujarat (mothers) Gujarat (daughters) Punjab Alexandria Aden rural
n = 72 n = S>3 yr 19, n = 20 young adult mothers mothers
Kaur & Singh, 1983 Kaur & Singh, 1983 Singh & Raja, 1980 Attallah, 1987 Bagenholme/fl/., 1988 Bagenholmefa/., 1988
149.2 151.4 151.2 159.2 151.7 151.4
47.6 43.6 44.0 58.3 55.9 51.5
25.5 23.3 24.6 29.0 — —
15.5 11.9 — 13.6 — —
Males
India
Egypt Saudi Arabia Females
India Egypt Yemen, Democ.
Appendix Table 61. Mean weight and length of Indo-Mediterranean infants Age Country
People or place
Authors
Variable
Birth
4 wks
3 mos
6 mos
9 mos
12 mos
18 mos
24 mos
Boys India
Chandigarh
Bhalla etal, 1986
WT s.d.
2.9 0.4 49.1 4.6 3.2 0.5 — — 3.1 0.5 2.8 — 3.3 49.0
3.8 0.5 53.8 2.2 4.1 0.6 53.3 2.4 4.0 0.7 — — —
5.6 0.7 60.5 2.5 — — — — — — 5.5 61.0 5.6 59.5
7.4 0.9 66.2 2.4 7.7 0.8 67.2 2.6 7.3 1.1 7.2 67.0 6.8 63.8
8.3 1.1 70.2 2.5 — — — — — — 8.0 70.0 8.0 69.7
9.0 1.0 73.7 2.5 10.0 1.1 75.0 2.7 9.3 1.2 8.6 74.0 8.8 72.0
— — — — — — — — — — 9.2 78.0 10.0 78.0
— — — — 12.3 1.4 86.2 3.3 11.4 1.1 — — 11.0 83.0
LT Israel
Jerusalem
Paltieffl/,,1981
Abu Ghosh
VdXtietaL, 1982
Nepal
Kathmandu valley
Farquharson, 1976
Saudi Arabia
Riyadh
Wong & Al-Frayh, 1990
s.d. WT s.d. LT s.d. WT s.d. WTfl LTfl WT LT
Girls
India
Israel
Chandigarh
Jerusalem
Bhalla
Palti etai, 1981
WT
s.d.
3.0 0.3
3.8 0.5
5.4 0.6
7.0 0.9
7.9 1.0
8.7 1.0
LT
49.0
53.3
59.7
65.3
69.3
72.8
s.d.
1.6 3.2 0.5 — — 2.5 0.5 3.2
1.9 3.9 0.5
2.5 — — — — — — 5.1
2.3 7.3 0.8
2.6 9.4 1.1
2.3 6.8 1.0 6.4
3.0 — — — — — — 7.6
62.5
67.4
WT
s.d. LT s.d. Abu Ghosh
Paltiera/., 1982
WT
Riyadh
Wong & Al-Frayh, 1990
WT LT
s.d. Saudi Arabia
WT, weight (kg); LT, length (cm). a Both sexes; read from author's graph.
49.0
52.9 2.1 3.7 0.6 — —
58.0
65.7
73.9 2.6 8.7 1.1 8.3
70.4
— — — — — — — — — —
10.0 77.2
— — — —
12.0 1.5
85.4 3.5
10.9 1.4
10.7 83.0
Appendix Table 62. Arm circumference of Indo-Mediterranean children {cm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Boys Bahrain
Bahraini
Musaigerefa/., 1989
Egypt
Kenouz Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Arab Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Libya India
Cairo Tripoli Punjabi
Hafez etal., 1981 Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985 Singh etal., 1987
Nepal Sudan
Terai region Khartoum, rural
Martorellera/., 1984 Sukkar et al., 1979
Authors
Girls Bahrain
Bahraini
Musaiger et al., 1989
Egypt
Kenouz Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Arab Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Libya India
Tripoli Punjabi
Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985 Singh etal., 1987
Nepal
Terai region
Martorellefa/., 1984
Sudan
Khartoum, rural
Sukkar et al., 1979
1
Values not adjusted for age grouping.
1±
2±
mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean median mean s.d. mean" mean s.d.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
— 13.8 1.8
mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. median mean s.d. mean" s.d. mean s.d.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — — 13.9 1.1
3±
4±
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
— _ — — — — _ _ — —
— 14.9 1.8
13.9 15.0 1.4
14.1 15.4 1.2
_ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ — — 14.8 1.0
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 13.4 0.9 14.9 1.2
— — — — — — — — — 13.8 0.9 15.5 1.2
6±
5±
7±
8±
9±
1Q±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
— 15.3 15.5 16.3 16.7 17.3 18.1 18.9 20.0 21.2 22.6 23.2 24.1 25.2 3.9 2.3 4.4 3.5 4.3 5.0 2.2 3.0 2.7 3.8 1.1 1.3 1.5 _ — — — — — — — 15.3 15.4 15.8 15.8 16.7 17.4 17.4 — — — — — — — 0.9 0.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.9 — — — — — — — 15.2 15.0 15.4 15.7 16.4 16.4 17.1
14.0 15.4 0.8
1.0 _ 16.7 14.6 0.9 14.0 15.7 1.3
1.0 _ 16.9 15.9 1.3 14.5 15.7 0.8
1.0 _ 17.6 16.3 1.1 14.8 16.0 1.2
1.7 20.1 18.1 16.5 0.9 16.1 16.4 0.9
1.2 20.1 18.8 17.3 1.0 — 16.9 2.0
1.7 21.8 20.6 18.1 1.2 — 17.7 1.6
— 23.1 21.1 — _ — 18.4 1.7
— 24.5 22.0 — — — _ —
— 24.9 22.8 — _ — _ —
— 27.4 23.7 — — — _ —
— _ 24.2 — _ — _ —
— — — — — — _
— — — — — — — — — 13.9 1.0 15.9 1.2
16.2 1.6 15.2 1.2 14.9 0.9 16.7 14.5 0.9 13.7 0.9 15.8 1.2
15.8 2.0 15.6 1.2 15.2 1.0 17.1 14.9 0.9 14.3 1.1 16.1 1.5
16.9 2.9 15.9 1.0 15.5 1.4 17.6 15.2 1.2 14.1 0.6 16.5 1.3
16.7 2.1 16.6 1.5 15.7 0.9 18.1 15.7 1.2 15.1 1.0 17.1 1.3
18.3 19.4 20.4 3.2 3.6 3.1 16.7 18.4 18.7 1.5 1.5 1.5 17.6 17.7 18.6 2.3 2.0 1.8 19.2 20.0 21.3 16.2 16.3 16.9 1.4 1.2 1.6 — — 14.9 _ _ 0.9 17.6 18.5 19.2 1.4 2.1 1.9
21.3 3.7 — — — — 22.2 — — — _ 19.2 1.8
22.5 3.7 — — — — 23.6 — — — _ —
22.9 4.2 — — — — 24.3 — — — _ —
22.7 3.6 — — — — 24.8 — — — _ —
23.7 4.1 — — — — 25.3 — — — _
23.1 3.5 — — — — — — — — _ —
—
—
—
—
—
•
—
_
—
—
_
1.0 20.5 19.4 17.7 1.2 — 16.9 1.1
—
Appendix Table 63. Triceps skinfold of Indo-Mediterranean children (mm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Boys Bahrain
Bahraini
Musaigerefa/., 1989
Kenouz Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Egypt
Arab Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Libya
Tripoli City
Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985
India
Calcutta
Pakrasiera/., 1988
Punjabi
Singh era/., 1987
Nepal
Terai region
Martorell etal., 1984
Saudi Arabia
Riyadh
Al-Hazzaa, 1990
Sudan
Khartoum, rural
Sukkar et al., 1979
median 5 perc 95 perc mean s.d. mean s.d. median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d.
1+
2+
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ — — _ _ 8.3 1.6
_ _ _ _ — — _ _ 8.8 1.7
3+
4+
5+
6+
7+
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
— — — — — — — — —
— — — — — — _ — —
7.4 4.5 12.4 7.0 1.7 4.6 1.6 7.1 5.3 10?
_ _ _ _ 3.8 0.8 _ __ 8.9 1.5
_ — — — 3.7 0.8 — — 7.9 1.4
_ — — — 3.4 0.7 — — 6.9 1.6
7.6 7.3 7.2 7.2 5.6 4.5 4.5 4.8 11.2 14.7 13.7 17.1 6.3 6.4 5.8 6.8 1.7 1.5 2.6 1.5 4.6 4.6 5.3 4.4 1.2 1.6 0.8 1.1 7.7 7.9 7.2 8.1 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.2 10 8 12 5 13 5 14 2 8.4 10.0 8.2 7.5 3.5 4.0 5.4 3.0 6.7 7.0 7.0 6.8 1.7 2.2 1.7 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.6 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.5 8.2 7.7 8.7 7.3 3.2 3.0 1.9 3.6 5.7 6.3 6.2 5.9 1.4 1.8 1.5 1.5
— 7.2 1.8 3.1 0.6 7.4 1.4 6.4 1.6
8+
9+
10+
12+
13+
15+
16+
17+
18+
8.4 8.3 7.3 8.9 7.9 5.2 4.1 4.7 4.5 4.9 20.2 22.1 25.0 25.5 30.7 — — — 7.0 7.0 — — — 2.9 2.8 — — — 4.9 5.0 _ _ _ 2.1 1.5 9.7 9.5 8.4 9.4 8.8 5.9 5.4 5.4 5.7 5.7 15 0 18 6 18 7 18 3 16 8 9.3 10.2 9.3 9.3 8.8 4.2 5.4 4.4 3.8 4.1 — — — 6.9 7.1 — — — 1.8 1.9 — — — — — — — — — — — 9.9 9.7 12.5 10.1 — 4.9 4.4 7.3 4.6 6.8 6.7 5.9 7.3 6.8 3.2 2.6 1.5 2.9 3.3
6.9 4.7 16.5 — — — _ 7.8 5.0 147 9.0 3.9 — — — — — — —
7.2 .4.4 29.3 — _ — _ 7.8 5.1 13.9
7.4 5.0 24.7 — _ — _ — — —
— — — — _ — — —
— — — — _ — _ —
11 +
14+
Continued overleaf
Appendix Table 63. (Cont.) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Girls Bahrain
Bahraini
Musaiger et al., 1989
Kenouz Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Egypt
Arab Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Libya
Tripoli City
Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985
India
Punjabi
Singh et al., 1987
Nepal
Terai region
Martorellefa/., 1984
Sudan
Khartoum, rural
Sukkarera/., 1982
a
Values not adjusted for age groups. Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
median 5 perc 95 perc mean s.d. mean s.d. median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d. mean" s.d. mean s.d.
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
— _ — — — _ —
— _ — — — _ —
— _ — — — _ —
— _ — — — _ —
— 9.5 9.0 9.6 9.6 10.6 10.2 11.6 11.8 14.0 14.6 13.6 16.3 15.1 — 5.4 5.8 5.6 5.5 5.4 6.6 6.2 6.8 7.3 7.8 8.4 8.9 8.0 — 16.9 18.6 20.2 15.7 22.2 20.8 24.6 24.0 28.5 27.1 25.5 31.0 26.6 — — — — — — — 7.0 7.4 7.5 7.1 7.3 9.0 9.9 — — — — — — — 2.6 2.1 2.1 2.1 3.6 2.3 2.7 — — _ — _ — 5.4 6.7 6.7 4.8 5.5 5.1 5.3 _ — — — — — — — 1.0 2.2 1.7 1.7 3.0 2.3 2.4
— — — — —
— — — — — 9.6 1.7
— — — 3.9 0.7 9.5 2.1
— — —
— 12.6 12.7 14.2 16.1 19.7 19.4 23.5 23.7 27.2 26.3 26.4 29.2 — — — — — — 8.1 8.0 8.0 7.8 8.2 8.1 8.3 — — — — _ — 2.7 2.0 2.0 2.5 1.8 2.0 2.0
6±
83 6.0
8.7 1.7
3.5 0.6 8.9 2?
3.4 0.7 8.2 18
3.0 0.7 8.0 2.1
7±
8.7 6.3
2.8 0.6 7.2 15
8±
8.9 6.2
2.7 0.7 7.3 1.9
9±
9.3 6.1
2.6 0.4 7.6 2.2
10±
10.6 6.5
2.5 0.4 8.0 7 5
11±
11.0 6.9
— — 8.4 77
12±
12.4 7.4
— — 9.1 3?
13±
13.0 7.8
— — 9.3 78
14±
15.3 9.3
— — 11.9 4.0
15±
16.2 10.5
— — 11.7 44
16±
168 11.1
17±
18.2 11.8
18±
— — —
— — —
_ — — — — — —
—
—
—
Appendix Table 64. Subscapular skinfold of Indo-Mediterranean children (mm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Boys Bahrain
Bahraini
Musaigerefa/., 1989
Kenouz Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Arab Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Libya
East Cairo Tripoli City
Hafez etal., 1981 Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985
India
Calcutta
Pakrasi etal., 1988
Egypt
Punjabi
Singh etal., 1987
Saudi Arabia
Riyadh
Al-Hazzaa, 1990
Sudan
Khartoum, rural
Sukkarefa/., 1979
Girls Bahrain
Bahraini
Musaiger et al., 1989
Egypt
Kenouz Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Arab Nubian
El-Nofely, 1978
Libya
Tripoli City
AbounSja & Gilmour, 1985
India
Punjabi
Singh etal., 1987
Sudan
Khartoum, rural
Sukkar etal., 1979
'' Value read from graph. Abbreviation: perc, percentile.
1±
median 5 perc 95 perc mean s.d. mean sd mean median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean"
median 5 perc 95 perc mean s.d. mean s.d. median 10 perc 90 perc mean s.d. mean"
2±
3±
4±
5±
—
—
5.4
5.8
4.8
— — —
— — —
— — — — — — _ — — _ — — 6.4
— — — — — — _ — — _ — — 6.0
— — — — — — _ — — _ — — 5.9
—
—
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
8.6 6.0
4.7 3.7 7.5 4.9 1.0 3.0 0.7 _ 5.2 3.9 7.7 _ _ 5.1 1.2 4.3 0.9 4.5
4.7 3.4 6.2 4.8 0.7 3.4 0.7 _ 5.1 3.8 8.2 5.8 2.1 4.8 0.9 4.6 1.4 4.4
4.8 3.9 8.1 4.7 0.7 3.6 0.8 _ 5.3 3.7 9.1 6.4 3.7 5.0 0.8 5.2 2.5 4.5
5.0 3.7 9.9 4.7 0.9 3.4 0.9 3.4 5.5 3.8 10.1 6.5 3.2 5.1 0.8 5.6 2.9 4.3
5.0 4.2 14.2 5.2 1.4 3.5 0.5 3.7 5.8 3.9 10.9 7.2 3.7 5.2 1.0 5.9 3.1 4.4
5.4 4.1 22.3 5.2 1.4 3.4 0.6 4.4 6.0 3.9 12.0 7.8 3.9 5.1 0.8 7.3 4.9 4.4
5.6 4.2 18.0 5.0 1.2 3.8 1.3 4.6 6.7 4.1 14.0 7.8 4.3 5.4 1.3 7.4 5.3 4.8
5.6 3.9 28.3 — _ — _ 5.9 6.8 4.1 14.2 7.1 2.4 _ _ 7.1 4.7 5.0
6.6 6.4 4.6 4.6 29.3 35.0 — — — — — — _ _ 6.7 7.9 7.3 7.3 4.5 4.3 15.8 14.4 7.9 8.5 4.1 3.6 _ _ _ — — 11.1 — 8.3
7.1 7.6 5.6 4.8 17.8 27.3 — — — — — — — — — 10.5 7.7 7.3 5.2 4.9 12.6 12.6 — 9.2 — 3.8 _ _ — _ — — — —
5.6 3.8 15.4 5.4 1.2 3.3 0.8 6.0 4.2
5.0 3.2 15.0 5.1 0.7 3.3 1.1 6.1 4.3 10.0 5.1 1.1 5.0
5.6 3.8 18.7 5.2 0.9 3.9 1.8 6.3 4.2 11.3 5.3 1.3 5.0
5.6 4.3 12.0 5.1 0.2 3.7 0.8 6.3 4.0 12.5 5.4 1.3 5.1
6.4 4.4 24.8 5.8 2.1 5.6 3.5 7.7 4.5 16.4 5.6 1.5 5.2
7.4 4.8 30.0 6.5 1.3 5.6 2.1 8.2 5.0 15.7 5.7 1.9 5.6
8.6 5.0 25.1 7.7 1.1 4.6 2.6 9.4 5.3 19.7 6.0 1.6 6.3
10.1 5.8 23.8 — — — — 10.5 6.2 19.9 — — 6.2
13.4 14.3 6.3 7.3 29.6 35.6 — — — — — — — — 12.3 13.3 7.0 7.9 24.0 24.4 — — — — — —
12.6 5.6 26.1 — — — — 13.5 8.1 24.2 — — —
IO.O
5.2 1.2 5.2
15.0 8.6 33.6 — — — — 15.0 8.9 27.0 — — —
13.8 8.5 31.9 — — — — — — — — — —
h—^ ON
Appendix Table 65. Height of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island children (cm) Age (yr) People or place
Authors
Boys Australia
Aborigines
Cook Islands Hawaii, USA
Samoans
Graceyera/., 1983 Hitchcock et al., 1987 Boulton & Weinstein, 1978 Bindon & Zansky, 1986
Country
Papua New Guinea
Samoa, American Samoa, Western Solomon Islands
Wopkaimin
Lourieera/., 1986
Bundi
Zemel & Jenkins. 1989
Manus
J.Schall,unpubl.
Mountain Ok
J. Schwartz & R. C. Brumbaugh, unpubl Bindon & Zansky, 1986
Samoans Samoans
Bindon & Zansky, 1986
Apia Aita Lau Ontong Java
Wigg, 1978 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987
mean mean'' mean' mean s.d. mean" s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean s.d. mean" mean" mean" mean"
1±
2±
73.0 — —
82.0 — 88.4
3±
4±
— — — — — 103.4
5±
6±
— 106.0 —
112.0 118.0 123.0
67.0 — 72.1 3.6 — — — —
80.0 — 77.8 4.6 — — — —
91.8 9.4 85.2 4.9 90.5 5.3 84.1 7.2
94.3 91.8 16.6 7.1 98.0 103.8 3.3 5.6 [93.9] 105.4 12.7 19.5
76.0 — — —
88.0 80.0 81.0 85.0
94.0 88.0 92.0 95.0
104.0 92.0 95.0 99.0
108.0 95.0 105.0 107.0
7±
8±
116.3 123.2 129.8 7.2 6.0 5.0 110.0 118.6 121.0 7.6 — 97.0 106.2 110.1 5.5 5.2 6.0 109.0 112.3 [115.4] 6.4 6.4 1.3 103.3 114.5 114.2 6.4 15.6 8.5 116.9 121.2 127.3 4.1 4.8 4.9 115.0 115.8 119.5 4.7 6.4 5.6 102.0 107.0 115.0 115.0 116.0 123.0 125.0
9±
10±
1±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
129.0 134.0 140.0 145.0 151.0 156.0 162.0 167.0 136.2 138.5 6.7 6.3 _ — 110.6 118.4 4.4 4.8 123.6 126.2 7.3 7.2 [116.1] 126.8 12.1 10.3 131.9 139.0 7.3 6.0 126.9 131.5 5.1 4.5
143.6 6.3 _ — 123.6 5.0 [125.5] 7.4 [124.8] 7.7 143.6 5.8 134.5 5.8
— — — — 140.8 — — — — 7.6 — — — — 123.0 127.1 133.4 136.7 141.7 5.9 8.8 5.7 4.1 7.1 132.9 141.9 144.9 153.1 158.6 8.5 8.4 7.6 4.6 7.4 141.2 [126.4] 146.3 144.1 148.0 8.1 14.4 8.5 7.8 9.1 — — _ _ — — _ _ — — _ _ — — _ _
17±
—
18±
—
157.3 — 4.1 — 146.8 149.8 10.7 7.8 160.2 161.6 4.4 5.9 147.6 152.1 10.5 9.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
— [142] [145] 159.0 158.0 [118] 122.0 122.0 126.0 135.0 — — — 126.0 135.0 134.0 — 148.0 143.0 158.0 _ 134.0 _ 142.0 150.0 — — 163.0 — 168.0
Girls Australia Fiji Hawaii, USA
Aborigines Suva (Melanesian) Samoans
Gracey etal., 1983 Hitchcock etal., 1987
mean mean*
mean" mean s.d. mean d Lourie etal., 1986 s.d. mean Zemel & Jenkins, 1989 s.d. mean J. Schall, unpubl. s.d. mean J. Schwartz & s.d. R. C. Brumbaugh, unpubl. mean Bindon & Zansky, 1986 s.d. mean Bindon & Zansky, 1986 s.d. mean" Wigg, 1978 mean" Friedlander, 1987 mean" Friedlander, 1987 mean" Friedlander, 1987
72.0 —
81.0 —
— —
Clegg, 1989
Bindon & Zansky, 1986
Papua New Guinea
Wopkaimin Bundi Manus Mountain Ok
Samoa, American Samoa, Western Solomon Islands
Samoans Samoans Apia Aita Lau Ontong Java
70.0 75.0 71.0 5.6
78.7 4.1
94.2 11.3 85.0 4.1 90.0 5.9
76.0 — — —
85.0 80.0 81.0 74.0
94.0 82.0 88.0 91.0
— —
— 104.0
_ _ _ 112.0 118.0 124.0
— 117.3 4.7 100.0 105.0 110.0 — 99.2 90.0 96.2 4.8 6.2 4.8 97.7 96.3 111.7 4.8 4.7 7.1 [93.6] [93.2] 106.2 12.4 2.9 11.2 116.0 5.4 111.6 5.1 101.0 104.0 92.0 98.0 104.0 98.0 103.0 108.0 101.0 110.0 115.0
120.5 123.7 3.9 115.0 8.9 105.4 4.5 114.9 6.6 117.0 11.3 120.6 4.9 115.9 4.5
127.0 129.7 6.3 120.0 109.0 4.1 123.0 5.0 109.2 5.8 127.8 6.4 122.8 9.5
106.0 115.0 119.0 121.0 120.0 126.0
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ 130.0 136.0 142.0 148.0 151.0 154.0 156.0 130.0 138.0 144.5 134.3 140.8 145.6 6.4 5.3 5.1 — — 114.9 118.1 121.5 5.3 3.8 5.3 123.0 129.6 137.5 7.2 7.2 5.6 127.1 — — 6.6 133.6 137.5 145.3 9.4 4.9 7.7 128.4 131.5 137.3 6.2 6.4 3.9
148.0 — — 135.6 9.6 123.0 4.6 142.5 8.6 138.1 9.6 — — — —
— — [129] 132.0 128.0 134.0 [140] — 130.0 136.0 143.0 [145]
Numbers in square brackets indicate sample size < 5 . a Read from graph. b Values adjusted for age grouping. c Both sexes. d Average for age group.
155.0 161.0 — _ — — — — 126.4 134.1 7.5 7.2 146.9 146.4 8.4 9.3 126.9 137.0 5.5 17.9 — — — —
164.0 _ _ — — 140.7 8.9 152.5 4.8 141.6 9.1
_ —
_ —
_ —
164.5 — — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — 148.6 — — 4.5 — 144.6 147.1 147.5 4.0 6.2 4.8 150.0 153.0 154.7 1.2 4.1 4.6 148.1 149.2 146.6 4.4 4.9 4.8
— [138] 145.0 149.0 149.0 148.0 [149] [142] — 150.0 — 154.0 — 146.0 153.0 155.0 155.0 155.0
I
00
Appendix Table 66. Weight of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island children (kg) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Boys Australia
Aborigines
Cook Islands Hawaii, USA
Mangaia Samoans
Gracey et al., 1983 Hitchcock et al., 1987 Boulton & Weinstein, 1978 Bindon & Zansky, 1986
Papua New Guinea
Wopkaimin Bundi Manus Mountain Ok
Samoa, American Samoa, Western Solomon Islands
Apia Aita Lau
mean" meanfc meanc mean s.d. mean" Lourieefa/., 1986 s.d. mean Zemel & Jenkins, 1989 s.d. J. Schall, unpubl. mean J. Schwartz & mean R. C. Brumbaugh, unpubl. s.d. Bindon & Zansky, 1986 mean s.d. Bindon & Zansky, 1986 mean s.d. Wigg, 1978 mean" Friedlander, 1987 mean" mean" Friedlander, 1987
1±
8.8 — — — — 8.5 — 8.6 1.4 — — — — — — — 10.0 — —
2±
3±
10.2 — 13.1 — — 10.0 — 9.7 1.2 — — — — — — — 12.4 — —
— — — — — 13.9 2.3 11.5 1.6 11.8 11.5 2.5 — — — — 13.6 12.5 13.0
5±
— — — 17.0 16.4 — — — — — 19.0 20.0 — — 13.4 14.8 2.2 1.7 14.0 15.5 [14.0] 18.4 4.1 8.0 — — — — — — — — 16.0 — 14.0 15.0 14.5 17.5
6±
7±
_ _ 19.0 21.0 _ _ 23.3 25.4 3.0 3.1 21.0 22.4 — 3.9 15.2 18.3 2.0 2.0 17.3 18.2 16.8 21.2 3.2 7.3 22.6 24.7 4.2 3.4 19.8 22.1 2.5 2.6 _ _ 17.5 19.0 21.0 22.0
8±
9±
10±
1±
12±
_ _ _ _ 22.5 25.0 27.5 31.0 35.0 _ _ _ _ 30.0 35.9 38.4 43.7 — 5.4 8.2 12.1 12.5 — 24.0 — — — 35.4 — — — — 5.8 20.2 20.4 24.0 24.5 25.6 2.6 2.2 2.3 3.7 2.1 [18.7] 22.4 24.3 [23.4] 26.0 20.8 [21.3] [25.5] [26.0] 36.4 4.1 4.3 3.1 3.9 6.9 27.4 31.6 33.8 37.1 — 3.6 5.2 5.8 4.3 — 23.6 28.5 29.3 32.2 — 3.2 6.9 3.2 4.7 — _ _ _ _ 22.0 24.0 27.5 27.0 30.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 30.5 39.0
13±
_
14±
15±
16±
_ _ _ _ 44.5 50.0 54.0 _ _ _ _ — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 27.2 31.4 32.9 38.5 4.9 4.9 4.7 5.2 32.7 35.4 42.3 47.1 [26.3] [39.5] 40.1 45.2 6.7 7.6 6.4 9.1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — _ _ _ _ _ 34.4 _ _ _ 43.0 _ _ _ 39.0
_
17±
18±
_ — _ — — 53.4 6.5 42.7 10.8 50.6 42.5 9.2 — — — — _ _ _
_ — _ — — — — 52.0 9.7 56.5 50.0 11.6 — — — — _ _ _
Australia
Aborigines
Fiji
Suva (Melanesian) Samoans
Hawaii, USA Papua New Guinea
Wopkaimin Bundi Manus Mountain Ok
Samoa, American Samoa, Western Apia
Gracey et al., 1983 Hitchcock et al, 1987
mean" mean''
mean" mean s.d. Lourie etal, 1986 mean'' s.d. mean Zemel & Jenkins, 1989 s.d. mean J. Schall, unpubl. mean J. Schwartz & R. C. Brumbaugh, unpubl. s.d. Bindon & Zansky, 1986 mean s.d. Bindon & Zansky, 1986 mean s.d. mean" Wigg, 1978 Clegg, 1989 Bindon & Zansky, 1986
9.0
11.2 —
— — — 8.0 — 8.1 1.8 _ [8.9] 1.9 — — — — 9.5
— — — 9.9 — 10.1 1.2 _ _ — — — — — 11.0
— — _ 13.4 2.4 11.6 1.3 11.4 — — — — — — 13.0
— — — 16.0 — 13.2 1.6 13.6 [13.0] 2.2 — — — — 15.8
16.0
18.0
21.0
24.0
26.0
29.5
32.5
37.5
44.0
46.5
47.5
—
—
—
— — — 19.0 — 14.6 1.8 12.7 [14.0] 2.8 — — — —
— 23.4 3.7 19.9 — 15.9 2.5 17.2 18.1 4.2 21.5 3.0 19.2 2.0
24.0 26.8 3.3 20.9 3.2 18.0 1.7 19.4 22.4 6.6 24.8 6.0 24.3 9.1
26.2 30.8 6.3 22.0 — 18.3 2.3 21.6 17.9 3.3 28.1 5.3 25.6 4.8
28.0 35.0 6.2 — — 20.6 2.7 21.8 — — 32.3 4.1 27.2 3.8
32.3 41.6 8.6 — — 24.5 2.9 25.5 26.5 4.1 34.4 5.3 28.4 2.7
36.5 46.0 12.1 — — 24.1 2.6 30.0 [20.5] — 41.6 9.1 33.8 6.6
40.8 — — 32.6 7.6 26.8 2.9 35.0 34.4 9.1 — — — —
47.8 — — — — 27.0 4.4 38.1 27.3 4.9 — — — —
54.0 — — — — 31.8 7.2 38.3 36.0 9.7 — — — —
59.0 _ _ — _ 37.7 9.0 48.4 39.8 6.5 _ _ _ _
61.3 _ _ — _ — — — _ — _ _ _ _
62.2 — _ 42.8 16.4 — — — _ — — — — _
— _ _ — — — — — _ — _ _ _ _
Numbers in square brackets indicate sample size < 5 . a Read from graph. b Values adjusted for age grouping. c Both sexes. d Average for age group.
Appendix Table 67. Mean size of adult Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island males
Country
People or place Sample size; ages Authors
Western Samoa Salamumu American Samoa Manu'a Islands American Samoa Tutuilia Hawaii Samoans Papua New Guinea Wopkaimin Ningerum Awin Yonggom Boazi Gidra Bundi Manus (Pere) Manus (town) Mountain Ok Australia Aborigine Solomon Islands Aita Nagovisi Nasioi Baegu Kwaio Lau Ulawa Ontong Java Melanesian Fiji
N = 101;<45yr 7V=43;<45yr N=425;<45yr TV = 182; <45 yr N=47; 20-25 yr N=55 TV = 5 6 TV = 2 3 N=64 N=332 N=6;22 yrs N = 19; 19-29 yr N = 16; 30-39 yr N = 147;>20yr n.s. N= 39; 20-34 yr N = 2 9 ; 20-34 yr N = 28; 20-34 yr N= 39; 20-34 yr N = 4 6 ; 20-34 yr N = 20; 20-34 yr N= 37; 20-34 yr N= 75; 20-34 yr N= 16;18+yr
Bindon & Baker, 1985 Bindon & Baker, 1985 Bindon & Baker, 1985 Bindon & Baker, 1985 Lourie etal., 1986 Hyndman ef a/., 1989 Hyndman ef a/., 1989 Hyndman etal., 1989 Hyndman etal., 1989 Hyndman etal., 1989 B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl. Schwartz etal., 1987 Brown & Townsend, 1982 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Clegg, 1989
Height (cm)
Sitting Upper arm Triceps Subscap. Weight ht. circ. skinfold skinfold (kg) (cm) (cm) (mm) (mm)
170.4 172.8 170.8 171.5 159.6 157.5 158.4 155.6 166.8 165.2 157.6 164.3 165.2 152.7 172.1 159.6 160.5 163.2 162.0 161.0 164.0 162.9 166.2 176.1
73.4 81.2 84.8 88.1 58.8 51.7 52.5 52.1 — 55.7 58.2 58.1 67.0 — — 60.9 58.6 58.2 58.6 57.7 65.4 60.9 67.7 70.2
— — — 82.5 — — — — — — 83.7 82.9 — — 84.6 84.1 84.3 85.2 86.2 86.7 84.0 88.7 91.0
30.3 33.6 32.5 33.7 27.3 25.1 25.4 26.3 — 26.7 — — — — — 27.3 28.4 27.0 27.1 26.8 30.4 28.3 28.9 —
8.7 16.8 15.0 16.7 5.2 4.5 4.5 4.9 — 5.6 9.7 5.3 7.1 — — — — — — — — — — —
13.5 29.3 22.1 23.4 — 7.5 7.9 — — 9.8 11.6 8.9 16.6 — — — — — — — — — — —
Appendix Table 68. Mean size of adult Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island females
Country
People or place
Western Samoa Salamumu American Samoa Manu'a Islands American Samoa Tutuilia Hawaii Samoans Papua New Guinea Wopkaimin Ningerum Awin Yonggom Boazi Gidra Bundi Manus (Pere) Manus (town) Mountain Ok Australia Aborigine Solomon Islands Aita Nagovisi Nasioi Baegu Kwaio Lau Ulawa Ontong Java Fiji Melanesian
Sample size; ages Authors
Height (cm)
Sitting Upper arm Triceps Weight ht. circ. skinfold (kg) (cm) (cm) (mm)
Subscap. skinfold (mm)
N = i44 ; <45 y r N = 88; <45 yr N = 610; <45 yr TV = 280; <45 yr TV = 58; 20-25 yr TV = 5 9 TV = 7 7 TV = 2 6 TV = 7 1 TV = 4 1 9 TV = 9;20yrs TV = 17; 19-29 yr TV = 2 3 ; 19-29 yr TV = 150; >20 yr n.s. N = 49; 20-34 yr TV = 3 7 ; 20-34 yr TV= 24; 20-34 yr TV = 42; 20-34 yr N = 4 9 ; 20-34 yr TV = 38; 20-34 yr TV = 5 1 ; 20-34 yr TV= 119; 20-34 yr TV= 9; 18+yr
158.3 162.7 160.3 160.1 149.5 146.9 147.1 146.0 155.6 154.6 148.8 153.4 155.4 146.7 162.9 149.8 151.3 152.3 150.8 149.7 153.4 151.0 156.0 167.7
68.4 77.9 78.3 80.0 49.1 40.8 42.3 39.9 — 45.2 54.4 50.0 54.8 — — 54.1 49.1 48.2 49.1 48.6 55.9 50.0 59.5 67.5
22.4 41.0 35.1 32.6 — 7.6 7.8 — — 14.7 22.1 14.8 19.4 — — — — — — — — — — —
Bindon & Baker, 1985 Bindon & Baker, 1985 Bindon & Baker, 1985 Bindon & Baker, 1985 Lourit etal., 1986 Hyndman etal., 1989 Hyndman etal., 1989 Hyndman etal., 1989 Hyndman etal., 1989 Hyndman etal, 1989 B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl. Schwartz et al., 1987 Brown & Townsend, 1982 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Friedlander, 1987 Clegg, 1989
— — — 77.7 — — — — — — 79.7 80.8 — — 79.1 79.1 79.2 79.1 80.1 81.0 78.2 83.1 87.4
28.8 32.6 33.3 33.0 23.8 21.2 22.1 22.1 — 24.3 — — — — — 26.6 24.2 23.9 23.3 23.9 26.6 24.8 27.8 —
19.3 33.0 33.0 29.5 7.0 5.6 5.3 5.5 — 8.4 16.3 8.8 10.0 — — — — — — — — — — —
to to
Appendix Table 69. Weight, length and head circumference of Australian Aborigine and Papua New Guinea infants Age
Place and authors
Variable
Birth
4 wks
3 mos
6 mos
9 mos
12 mos
18 mos
Boys
Kimberley Gracey & Sullivan, 1988, TV = 20-25 Western Australia Gracey et al., 1983, N = tot. 340 Cherbourg Fysh etaL, 1977, N= 14-30 Palm Island Fysh et al., 1977, N = 18-27 Manusa J. Schall,unpubl., N =13-17 P. N. G. Bundi" B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl., N = 4-12
WT LT HC WT a LT a HC WT
3.1
4.4
6.6
7.9
8.7
8.8
50.5 34.0
54.5 37.3
61.2 41.0
66.0 43.1
70.0 44.5
72.1 45.2
3.1 — — 3.0
— — — —
6.0 —
7.1
7.8
8.5
— — — 9.8
63.0
69.0 43.9
73.0
79.0
—
— 8.2
— 9.8
5.9
— 7.4
41.2
WT
3.2
—
5.3
6.9
—
8.7
8.7
WT
2.7
4.1
6.0
7.4
8.2
8.6
9.2
WT LT
— —
— —
5.3
6.5
7.1
8.0
58.3
63.3
65.8
68.9
— —
Girls Kimberley Gracey & Sullivan, 1988, N = 15-25 Western Australia Gracey et al., 1983, N = tot. 340 Cherbourg Fysh etaL, 1977, N = 15-25 Palm Island Fysh etaL, \977,N= 13-17 Manus" J. Schall, unpubl., N = 6-21 P. N. G. Bundi" B.Zemel& C.Jenkins, unpubl., AT =8-14
WT LT HC WTfl LTfl HC WT
3.2 49.8 33.5 3.1 — — 3.3
4.2 55.0 36.9 — — — —
5.9 60.4 39.9 6.0 — 37.0 5.8
7.4 64.9 42.3 7.0 64.0 44.9 6.9
8.1 68.8 43.8 8.0 68.0 — —
WT
2.9
—
5.1
6.5
WT
2.8
3.8
5.1
WT LT
— —
— —
4.8 57.1
WT, weight (kg); LT, length (cm); HC, head circumference (cm). a Values adjusted for age groups.
8.5
71.5 44.6
— — —
72.0 — 8.4
10.1 77.0 — 9.2
—
7.2
8.0
6.8
7.3
7.6
8.4
6.3 62.6
7.2 65.8
7.7 68.9
— —
8.8
Appendix Table 70. Mean sitting height of Australian Aborigine and Pacific Island children (cm) Age (yr) Country Boys Australia New Guinea
New Zealand Girls Australia New Guinea
New Zealand a
People or place
Authors
1±
2±
3±
Aborigine B a Bundi MtHagen Karkarls. Maori
Abbie, 1967 Malcolm, 1971 Harvey, 1973 Harvey, 1973 N.Z. Dept Health, 1971
— 44.2'' — 45.2 _
— 46.4 — 48.0 _
Aborigine B" Bundi MtHagen Karkarls. Maori
Abbie, 1967 Malcolm, 1971 Harvey, 1973 Harvey, 1973 N.Z. Dept Health, 1971
— 42.4'' _ 42.7 _
Values not adjusted for age groups and ages estimated.
b
1.25 yr.
4±
5±
6±
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
— 53.6 55.8 49.0 51.1 53.4 — — — 50.4 52.8 56.1 _ _ _
57.8 55.1 60.1 58.0 63.0
61.5 56.2 62.0 60.3 66.0
63.2 57.9 63.2 61.4 68.7
63.7 60.2 64.9 62.4 70.7
— 61.4 66.8 64.7 73.0
65.4 63.6 68.6 66.9 75.2
70.9 63.0 70.0 67.7 77.3
76.8 65.5 71.2 68.5 80.5
— 65.5 72.9 70.2 84.0
— 68.5 74.3 — 87.2
— 71.3 75.8 — —
— 71.8 — — —
79.6 75.3 — — —
— — — 56.6 45.6 48.0 50.4 52.4 _ _ _ _ 46.6 49.7 52.9 55.3 _ _ _ _
59.7 54.3 60.1 57.3 6 2.5
— 56.7 63.2 59.3 65.2
— 59.1 64.2 61.3 68.0
63.6 60.6 65.5 62.9 70.5
— 61.2 67.5 63.8 73.0
— 63.1 69.1 66.0 76.0
68.5 63.4 71.4 68.8 80.0
_ 66.0 72.1 70.3 83.0
_ 68.6 76.0 72.6 85.0
_ _ _ 70.6 71.9 72.7 76.4 — — 75.6 — — 86.2 — —
75.1 75.2 — — —
Appendix Table 71. Biacromial width of New Guinea children (cm) Age (yr) Country Boys Papua New Guinea
People or place
Authors
Bundi
B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl.
mean s.d. mean s.d.
15.7 — _ _
— — _ _
_ _
B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl.
mean s.d. mean s.d.
— — _ _
18.4 0.8 _ _
_ _
Manus
Girls Papua New Guinea
Bundi Manus
Numbers in square brackets indicate sample size < 5 .
1±
2±
3±
4±
19.2 1.3
5±
21.0 1.3 _ _
19.0 1.3
_ _
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
32.4 2.9 35.0 1.9
33.6 2.7 36.1 1.4
21.0 1.4
21.6 23.0 24.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 [24.4] [24.4] [24.5] 0.7 1.4 1.2
23.9 1.1 26.2 1.8
25.6 27.9 1.4 1.4 26.8 [26.5] 1.5 2.1
26.6 1.3 27.6 1.4
27.8 2.7 29.8 2.5
29.0 1.8 31.1 2.1
29.8 30.7 1.9 1.7 32.5 33.7 2.9 2.3
21.0 1.2
21.4 22.8 1.9 1.2 [24.3] 24.6 0.9 1.5
24.7 1.5 26.1 1.5
25.2 26.5 1.5 1.2 27.2 28.8 1.6 1.8
26.7 1.2 30.3 0.9
27.5 2.1 30.7 2.3
28.6 1.5 30.7 2.3
30.5 30.9 32.3 2.1 2.0 2.1 32.9 [32.8] [32.4] 2.2 1.0 2.4
_ _
19.7 1.4 _ _
6±
23.6 1.0 26.1 1.0
33.8 1.6 33.7 1.7
Appendix Table 72. Biiliac width of New Guinea children (cm) Age (yr) Country Boys Papua New Guinea
People or place
Authors
Bundi
B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl.
mean s.d. mean s.d.
— — _ _
— — _ _
_ _
B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl.
mean s.d. mean s.d.
— — _ _
13.7 0.5 _ _
_ _
Manus
Girls Papua New Guinea
Bundi Manus
Numbers in square brackets indicate sample size < 5 .
1±
2±
3±
4±
14.7 1.0
5±
16.1 1.0 _ _
14.5 0.7
_ _
7±
8±
9±
10±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
23.7 1.9 25.1 1.5
24.2 1.7 25.4 1.5
16.1 1.1
16.5 17.4 18.1 0.6 1.0 1.2 [18.2] [18.0] [17.9] 0.7 0.4 0.7
17.9 0.9 19.1 1.1
19.2 20.2 0.8 1.1 19.8 [19.9] 1.2 1.1
20.0 1.1 20.5 0.8
20.2 1.3 21.9 2.0
21.4 1.6 22.6 2.0
21.7 22.8 1.3 1.7 24.2 24.5 1.9 0.9
15.8 1.0
16.6 17.5 1.4 0.8 [17.9] 18.4 0.7 1.1
18.0 1.2 19.3 1.4
18.8 19.6 0.8 1.3 20.4 21.5 1.4 1.4
19.8 1.5 23.2 1.3
20.4 1.7 23.6 2.1
21.8 1.6 24.3 2.3
23.2 24.4 25.7 2.0 1.2 1.0 25.7 [25.5] [25.8] 2.2 0.9 1.2
_ _
15.4 0.8 _ _
6±
17.9 1.0 19.3 1.2
25.4 1.6 25.7 3.0
Appendix Table 73. Upper arm circumference of New Guinea children (cm) Age (yr) Country Boys Papua New Guinea
People or place
Wopkaimin Bundi Manus
Girls Papua New Guinea
Wopkaimin Bundi Manus
Authors
1±
2±
3±
Lourie etal., 1986 B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl.
mean mean s.d. mean s.d.
0
— 14.1 1.6 _ —
— 14.0 0.9 _ —
14.5 — — 14.5 14.9 15.2 1.0 1.1 1.0 _ _ _ — — —
Lourie et al., 1986 B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl.
mean 0 mean s.d. mean s.d.
— 12.9 1.7 _ —
14.3 14.5 1.1 _ —
" Average for age group. Numbers in square brackets indicate sample size < 5 .
— 14.3 0.9 _
_ —
4±
5±
— — 15.0 15.1 1.3 0.9 _ _ — —
6±
7±
8±
11±
12±
13±
14±
15±
16±
17±
18±
— 16.3 — — 14.7 15.8 16.2 16.2 1.5 0.7 1.1 1.1 [16.4] [16.1] [16.4] 16.6 1.2 0.9 0.8 1.3
— — 17.2 17.4 0.8 1.5 17.4 [16.9] 1.1 1.4
19.7 17.4 0.8 17.6 1.0
— 18.0 1.5 19.4 2.1
— 18.5 1.0 20.0 1.6
— — — — — — 21.7 23.5 1.8 2.4
25.0 — — 24.1 2.0
— — — 26.0 1.9
— 15.9 15.5 15.8 1.1 1.0 [16.3] 16.9 1.0 1.5
— — 17.7 17.6 1.2 0.9 18.0 19.1 1.3 1.4
18.8 18.4 1.4 20.8 1.8
— 18.4 1.2 20.8 1.8
— 19.4 1.9 20.9 1.8
— — 23.1 — — — — — — 23.6 [23.9] [24.1] 2.9 0.9 1.5
— 15.8 1.0 17.0 1.3
9±
— 16.7 1.1 17.0 1.1
10±
— — — 25.9 1.3
Appendix Table 74. Triceps skinfold of Pacific Island children (mm) Age (yr) Country Boys Papua New Guinea
Tokelau Islands New Zealand Girls Papua New Guinea
Tokelau Islands New Zealand a
People or place
Authors
Wopkaimin Bundi
Lourie et al., 1986 B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl. Ramirez & Mueller, 1980 Ramirez & Mueller, 1980
Manus Tokelauans Tokelauans
Wopkaimin Bundi Manus Tokelauans Tokelauans
Lourie era/., 1986 B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl. Ramirez & Mueller, 1980 Ramirez & Mueller. 1980
1±
mean" median median mean mean
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
—
5.8
—
5.0
—
4.7
11.0 — — —
9.0 — _ _
10.0 — _ _
10.0 — _ _
9.0 — 9.5 9.0
9.0 [6.2] _ —
mean"
—
—
—
5.2
—
mean median mean mean
8.0 — — —
8.5 — — —
9.0 — — —
11.0 — — —
9.0 — 9.2 10.0
Read from author's graph. Numbers in square brackets indicate sample size < 5 .
5.0
7±
—
8±
4.3
9.0 10.0 [5.5] [4.6] 7.8 _ 8.5 —
9±
— 7.5 4.8 8.0 9.6
—
5.0
—
10.0 9.0 [5.9] 6.5 — 9.7 — 11.0
8.0 5.8 — —
9.0 6.0 9.8 12.2
10±
11±
12±
4.3
—
9.0 10.0 4.8 [5.1] — 9.1 — 10.6
5.1
13±
14±
4.8
—
4.9
—
5.2
—
6.0
7.0 4.7 — —
8.0 5.0 8.8 10.5
8.0 5.2 — —
7.7 5.5 8.1 9.8
7.2 6.0 — —
9.0 5.6 9.3 10.1
11.0 5.3 — —
—
7.0
—
—
5.5
—
6.0
10.0 9.0 6.0 6.6 — 11.9 — 15.0
11.0 7.5 — —
10.0 7.6 13.1 17.0
10.0 6.2 — —
15±
16±
17±
10.7 13.0 15.0 9.0 [10.0] [8.9] 14.7 — 19.1 21.5 — 20.1
18±
— 13.7 10.7 — —
Appendix Table 75. Subscapular skinfold of Pacific Island children (mm) Age (yr) Country
People or place
Authors
Boys Cook Islands Papua New Guinea
Mangaia Bundi
Boulton & Weinstein, 1978 B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl. Ramirez & Mueller, 1980 Ramirez & Mueller, 1980
mean"
—
7.2
—
11.3
_
median median mean mean
8.0 _ — —
7.0 _ — —
6.0 _ — —
7.0 _ — —
6.0 _ 6.3 6.5
6.0 6.0 6.0 [4.7] [4.1] [4.6] — 5.9 — — 6.4 —
B. Zemel & C. Jenkins, unpubl. J. Schall, unpubl. Ramirez & Mueller, 1980 Ramirez & Mueller, 1980
median median mean mean
7.0 — — —
8.0 — — —
9.0 — — —
7.0 — — —
6.0 — 7.2 8.4
9.5 [6-3] — —
Tokelau Islands New Zealand
Manus Tokelauans Tokelauans
Girls Papua New Guinea
Bundi
Tokelau Islands New Zealand
Manus Tokelauans Tokelauans
a
Both sexes. Numbers in square brackets indicate sample size < 5 .
1±
2±
3±
4±
5±
6±
7±
_
_
7.0 5.9 7.1 9.7
8±
_
9±
_
7.0 5.7 —
5.0 4.7 6.5 7.6
6.0 5.5 7.4 11.5
10±
_
11±
_
6.0 6.0 5.1 [4.8] — 7.1 — 9.9
9.0 6.5
8.0 6.5 10.0 — 15.8
12±
_
13±
—
14±
_
6.0 4.5 — —
6.0 5.4 7.4 10.0
7.0 4.8 — —
10.0 8.9
9.0 8.3 11.8 17.7
8.0 8.6
—
—
15±
_
16±
18±
—
_
8.3 7.7 10.5 10.0
10.0 9.5 — —
9.2 15.7 17.2 11.4 [13.4] [12.6] 21.7 15.8 22.5 — 23.2
17.0 14.7
7.0 5.9 8.0 9.2
_
17±
7.8 7.0 — —
—
Appendix Table 76a. Skeletal age (yr) of boys assessed by Greulich-Pyle Atlas Chronological age (yr)
Hong Kong*
Zurich6
Copenhagen*7
Aarhus Denmark^
Rarotonga Cook Is.c*
Melbourne^
Philadelphia White*
California Japanese'*
Nunoa Quechua Amerindians7
0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0
0.62 1.10 1.74 2.49 3.18 3.84 5.1 5.7 6.5 7.6 8.7 9.8 10.9 12.5 13.9 15.2 16.7 17.6 18.4 18.7
0.54 1.00 1.79 2.58 3.29 4.17 5.2 6.1 7.1 8.1 9.1 10.0 11.2 — — — — — — —
— — — — — — 6.4 7.1 8.5 9.6 10.6 11.7 12.6 13.5 14.4 15.3 17.1 18.0 —
— — — — — 5.2 6.2 7.1 7.9 9.2 10.0 11.1 12.2 13.4 14.3 15.4 — — —
— — — — — 5.9 5.7 6.5 8.2 8.9 11.4 12.0 12.0 13.2 14.5 15.5 — — —
— 2.01 2.95 3.89 4.90 5.97 6.99 8.19 9.24 10.32 11.19 11.93 12.85 — — — — — —
— — — — — — 6:94 8.15 9.30 10.58 11.65 12.59 13.45 14.32 15.41 16.37 17.42 — —
— — — — — 4.64 5.58 6.26 7.65 8.79 9.56 11.34 12.39 13.63 14.61 15.54 17.24 17.55 17.83 —
— — — (3.3)t3.15 — (4.7) 4.33 — (6.7) 6.0 — 7.9 — (10.9) 9.9 (12.4) 10.9 — (14.4) 12.9 — (15.9) 14.5 — (18.3) 16.9 —
Appendix Table 16b. Mean skeletal age (yr) of girls assessed by Greulich-Pyle Atlas Chronological age (yr)
Hong Kongfl
Zurich6
Copenhagen0
Aarhus Denmark**
Rarotonga Cook Is.c*
Melbourne^
Philadelphia White*
California Japanese^
Nunoa Quechua Amerindians7
0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0
0.54 1.18 1.97 2.48 3.09 4.18 5.4 6.0 6.9 8.3 9.5 10.7 12.1 13.3 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.1 17.5 17.8
0.54 1.08 2.08 2.83 3.62 4.67 5.67 6.67 7.50 8.33 9.25 10.25 11.17 — — — — — — —
— — — — — — 6.63 7.41 8.03 9.53 10.37 11.62 12.81 13.74 14.68 16.18 16.74 — —
— — — — — 5.8 6.4 7.5 8.5 9.1 10.4 11.4 12.8 13.9 14.8 15.8 — — —
— — — — — 5.83 6.56 7.12 8.52 9.28 10.89 12.36 12.37 14.42 15.00 — — — —
— 1.85 2.91 3.81 4.79 5.89 6.83 9.00 (sic) 8.03 (sic) 9.94 10.90 11.84 13.18 — — — — — —
— — — — — — 6.85 7.79 8.71 9.87 11.07 12.42 13.53 14.59 15.62 16.56 17.58 — —
— — — — 5.39 5.85 6.98 8.11 8.99 10.61 11.59 12.62 14.32 14.98 16.08 17.13 17.65 17.78 —
— — (2.8) 2.40 (3.7) 3.15 (4.7) 3.96 (6.5) 5.87 — — (8.8) 7.90 — (10.9) 10.32 — (13.5)11.1 — (14.6) 13.5 — — (18.2) 17.36 —
* Sample size very small, t Figures in parentheses give mean chronological age when it differs from that listed. a Chang et al. (1967); Low et al. (1964). Budliger & Prader (1972). c Andersen (1968). d Mathiasen (1973). e Fry (1960). f Roche (1967). 8 Johnston (1963). ; ' Greulich (1957). ' Frisancho (1969).
b
Appendix Table 77. Mean skeletal age (yr) of boys assessed by Tanner-Whitehouse 2 method Denmark Aarhus*
Chrono- Holland a (Utrecht) logical age (yr)* 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0
USA USA Euro-American Afro-American Philadelphia*7 Philadelphia'7
Austria, Graz r
20 bone RUS 20 bone RUS 20 bone RUS 20 bone _
_
_
_ — _
11.6 — _ — — _ _ _ — _
—
—
—
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
—
— _ 5.9 _ 7.3
_ — — _
_
_ —
_ — _ — 7.0 _ 8.2 _ 9.1 _ 10.2 — 11.1 _ 11.9 _ _ — _ — — — _ _ — _
8.5 — 9.2 — 10.1 — 11.5 — 12.2 — 13.2
—
11.6
11.2
11.2
11.9
12.7 — 14.1 _ 15.2 _ 16.2 _ 17.3
12.5 — 13.9 — 15.1 _ 16.4 _ 17.5 _
12.3 — 14.9 — 15.6 _ 15.9 _ _ —
—
—
—
7.8
_ _ — _ — — 7.1 — 7.7 — 8.3 — 9.1 — 9.9 — 11.2 _ (11.1) _ 13.0 — (12.8)
_
7.8 _ 8.4 _ 9.6 — 10.5
—
_
_ 6.6 _ 8.0 _ 9.9 _ 10.4 — 11.2
7.4
7.2
12.6 _ 14.6 — 15.5 _ 16.1 _ — _
7.9 — 9.3 — 10.4 — 11.4 — 12.2 _ 13.1 _ 14.9 — 15.2 _ _ — _
7.9 — 8.8 — 10.4 _ 11.9 _ 12.6 _ 13.4 _ 14.8 — 15.0 _ — _
_ — _ — — — _ _ — _
—
—
—
—
12.2
Canada, Montreal" 1
20 bone RUS 20 bone 20 bone RUS 20 bone RUS 20 bone
_
8.5 _ 9.1 — 10.0
_
China, Harbin*
_ _ — _ _ — _ — 7.0 — 7.9 — 8.7 — 9.5 — 10.5 _ 11.3 _ 12.7 — _ — — — _ — — _
_
_ 8.0 _ 8.9 — 9.6 — 10.4
_
to Japan, Japan, Tokyo* Nomozaki7
20 bone
20 bone 20 bone
_
_ — 6.1 — 7.1 _ 7.7 _ 8.5 _ 9.8 — 10.7
_
20 bone
Mexico, Mexico City India, Mexico, rural Oaxaca 6 Michoacan^ middle class^ Chandigiarh«
— 6.8 6.9
14.4 _
— — _ — 6.1 — 7.6 — 8.2 — 9.1 — 10.2 11.3
_ _ —
_
3.4 _ 4.2 _ 4.9 — 5.7 — 6.9 _ 8.0 _ 9.8 _ 10.5 — 11.4
_ _ 3.8 _ 4.1 — 4.6 — 6.2 — 7.0 _ 7.6 _ 8.9 — 10.1
4.3 _ 4.3 — 4.7 — 6.3 — 6.9 _ 7.3 _ 8.7 — 9.7
_ _ — _ _ — _ — — — — _ — _ — — —
(11.7) 13.0
11.2
10.9
13.9 — 14.9 —
13.9 — 14.8 — 15.6 — _ — — _
13.7 — 14.7 — 16.0 — _ _ — _
—
—
— — 7.1 — 7.8 — 8.1 _ 9.0 _ 9.9 — 11.7
— — _ — — _
_ _ — — —
—
—
14.2 _ 15.4 — 16.4 — 17.2 _ 17.7 _ 18.0
_ _ _ _ _ — _ _ 7.3 — 8.2 _ 9.3 _ 9.9 — 11.4
_ _ _ _ — 6.2 — 6.6 _ 7.8 _ 8.7 _ 9.5 — 10.3
—
12.3
11.6
— — — — — — — _ — _
13.9 — 14.8 — 16.3 _ 16.9 _ 17.9 _
13.3 — 14.4 _ 15.5 _ 16.3
—
—
—
17.1
* Midpoint age used. Numbers in parentheses indicate sic. a van Venrooij-Ijsselmuiden, 1978. b Wenzel & Melsen, 1982; 50th centiles, exact ages. c Wenzel etal., 1984; mean c. 15.2, not 15.5. d Malina, 1970; corrected by Malina & Little, 1981. e Malina etal, 1976. / E. S. Faulhaber, 1981; J. Faulhaber, 1981. 8 Prakash & Cameron, 1981. * Kimura, 1977a.' Takai & Akijoshi, 1983. * Zhen etal., 1986; exact age.'" Baughan etal., 1979.
Appendix Table 78. Mean skeletal age (yr) of girls assessed by Tanner-Whitehouse 2 method Chrono- Holland logical (Utrecht)" age (yr)* 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0
Denmark Aarhus b
USA Euro-American Philadelphia^
Austria, Graz f
20 bone RUS 20 bone RUS 20 bone RUS 20 bone — _
— _
— _
— _
— _
— —
— _
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_ — _ _
_ _ _ _
_ 6.0 _ 6.7
_ 6.1 _ 7.0
_ —
_ 6.9 _ 7.2
7.8
7.6
8.0
7.9
8.8
8.6
8.6
9.2
9.7 — 10.9 — 12.2 — 13.1 — 14.1 — 15.2 _ 15.7 _ 15.9
9.6 — 11.0 — 12.3 — 13.3 — 14.5 _ 15.5 _ 15.6 _ 16.0
9.4 — 10.9 — 12.2 — 13.3 — 14.0 _ 15.3 _
9.9 — 11.2 — 12.7 _ 13.4 _ 14.6 _ 15.7 _
_ — _ — 7.7 _ 8.4 _ 9.6 _ 10.7 _ 12.4 _ 12.6 _ 13.3
_
_
Mexico, USA Mexico City India, Afro-American Mexico, rural Oaxaca e Michoacan^ middle class^ Chandigarh* Philadelphia''
Japan, Japan, Tokyo'1 Nomoza iki'
20 bone
20 bone 20 bone RUS 20 bone RUS 20 bone
20 bone 20 bone
20 bone
20 bone RUS —
—
3.5
—
—
-
-
4.1
3.6
3.3
-
— 7.4 _ 8.2 — 9.6 _ 11.1 12.7 _ 12.8 13.5
14.9
15.3
_
_
_
_
8.1 8.9 10.0 — 10.8 — 11.6 — _ — — — _ _ _ _
6.8 _ 7.5 _ 7.9
— — 6 . 5 — — — 7 . 6 — — 7.5
— — 6.9 _ 8.0
9.3 _ 10.5 _ 11.4 _
— 9.3 — 10.4 — 11.6
8.7 _ 9.2 — 10.8 —
8.7 _ 9.7 — 10.9 —
12.5
—
11.9
11.7
China, Harbin*
5.5
-
5.1 6.7
_
_
5.2
5.0 _ 6.7 _ 7.3
— _ — _ —
— _ 7.0 _ 8.2
6.1 _ 6.7 _ 7.9
— _ — _ — _
9.1 _ 11.0 _ 11.4 _
8.7 _ 9.6 _ 10.3 _
12.9 12.9
8.6 _ 10.0 _ 11.4 _ 12.9 12.9
—
12.7
11.7
_ 7.0
7.1 _
4.0
4.5
6.4
5.3 _
_ 6.4
_
_
8.4
8.6
8.0
9.3
12.5 12.5
9.5 _ 10.0 _ 11.0 _ 12.9 12.9
9.7 _ 10.9 _ 12.3 _ 13.4 13.4
-
-
14.6
13.5
13.9
-
-
15.2
14.6
15.2
-
-
15.7
15.9
15.9
-
-
16.0
-
-
9.7 10.7
Canada, Montreal"1
7.2 8.6 _
_ 9.8
_
_ 11.7
_
_
13.6
13.1
14.5
14.1
15.5
14.8
—
16.0
16.0
* Midpoint age used. van Venrooij-Ijsselmuiden, 1978. h Wenzel & Melsen, 1982; 50th centiles, exact ages. c Wenzel etal., 1984; mean c. 15.2, not 15.5. d Malina, 1970; corrected by Malina & Little, 1981. e Malina etal., 1976. E. S. Faulhaber, 1981; J. Faulhaber, 1981. * Prakash & Cameron, 1981. * Kimura, 1977a.' Takai & Akijoshi, 1983. k Zhen etal., 1986; exact age.'" Baughan etal., 1979.
a f
Appendix Table 79. Mean number of deciduous teeth erupted of both sexes considered together Age (months) People or place
Authors
6
9
Sweden Finland Euro-Americans Afro-Americans South India Nigeria, elite Nigeria, village Australian Aborigines
Taranger et al., 1976c Rantakallio & Makinen, 1983 Infante, 1974 Infante, 1974 Reddy, 1981 Enwonwu, 1973 Enwonwu, 1973 Barrett & Brown, 1966
0.5 — 1.9 0.7 1.7 2.0 1.0 0.1
2.9 — — — 2.5 5.0 2.0 1.1
12 6.1 6.8 5.9 5.7 4.9 8.0 5.0 4.0
18
24
30
12.8
16.5
19.9
—
—
—
12.7 12.7 13.3 15.0 12.0 12.1
16.1 16.8 16.3 20.0 17.0 15.9
18.9 19.5 19.3 — —
19.0
36 — — — — —
20.0 20.0
Appendix Table 80. Average age of start and finish of first phase and start of second phase of emergence of permanent dentition (yr)a Quiescent phase Girls Boys
People or place
Approximate date
Authors
Start of first phase Boys Girls
End of first phase Boys Girls
Start of second phase Girls Boys
Europeans Stockholm England England Warsaw Poland, rural Madrid, poor
1970s 1950 1975 1960 1960 1978
Taranger et al., 1976c Clements etal., 1953 Lavelle, 1976 Charzewski, 1963 Charzewski, 1963 Mesa, 1988
6.3 6.1 6.2 6.1 6.0 6.2
6.1 5.9 5.9 5.9 6.0 6.0
7.8 7.7 7.8 7.4 7.9 8.0
7.4 7.4 7.4 7.0 7.6 7.8
— 10.5 10.5 9.6 10.3 10.4
— 9.7 9.6 9.3 9.5 9.9
— 2.8 2.7 2.2 2.4 2.4
— 2.3 2.2 2.3 1.9 1.8
1950s 1970 1970 1960 1970
Knott & Meredith, 1966 Garnet al., 1912b Perraulteffl/., 1975 Brown, 1978 Koyoumdjisky-Kaye etal., 1977
6.1 6.2 6.2 — 6.3
6.1 6.3 6.1 — 6.1
7.6 7.9 7.8 8.3 8.2
7.5 7.4 7.4 8.0 7.8
10.5 10.9 10.3 10.3 10.4
10.0 10.1 9.9 9.8 10.1
2.9 3.0 2.5 2.0 2.2
2.5 2.7 2.5 1.8 2.3
1970 1960 1960s 1970
Hassanali & Odhiambo, 1981 Houpt etal., 1961 Billewicz & McGregor, 1975 Garn etal., 1912b
6.2 5.5 5.8 6.3
5.9 5.3 5.6 6.1
7.5 7.3 8.0 7.7
7.2 7.3 7.6 7.4
10.0 10.2 10.5 10.2
9.3 9.4 9.8 10.1
2.5 2.9 2.5 2.5
2.1 2.1 2.2 2.7
USA, Iowa USA, Michigan Canada, French W. Australia Israel, rural Africans Kenya Ghana Gambia USA, Michigan
Continued overleaf
OS
Appendix Table 80. (Cont.) Asiatics Hong Kong Chinese Nagasaki Japan, all Brazil, Japanese Canada, Eskimo Canada, Amerindian India, Khasis Thailand Indo-Mediterraneans Kenya, Indians Pacific Islanders Australian Aborigine New Guinea, Bundi New Guinea, Kaipit
1960 1960 1960 1965 1970 1970 1980 1950
Lee etal, 1965 J. Niswander, unpubl. Fujita (Kimura, 1984) Eveleth & de Souza Freitas, 1969 Mayhall etal., 1978 Mayhallefa/., 1978 Jaswal, 1983 Kamalamathan et al., 1960
6.2 5.9 6.5 6.2 5.5 6.0 6.0 —
6.0 6.0 6.2 6.0 5.5 5.7 6.1 —
8.1 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.8 7.9 8.2 8.7
7.7 7.7 7.5 7.4 7.3 7.6 7.8 8.2
10.1 10.1 9.6 9.7 9.6 10.0 10.3 10.8
1970
Hassanali & Odhiambo, 1981
6.2
5.9
7.9
7.6
1970
Brown, 1978 Malcolm & Bue, 1970 Malcolm & Bue, 1970
5.5 5.6
8.5 7.8 7.1
8.1 7.3 7.1
' Upper and lower jaws averaged (see text); values obtained by probits.
5.9 5.5
9.5 9.4 9.2 9.2 9.0 9.6 9.7 9.8
2.0 2.2 1.7 1.8 1.6 2.1 2.1 2.1
1.8 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.7 2.0 1.9 1.6
10.3
9.7
2.4
2.1
9.9 10.3 10.1
9.1 9.7 9.1
1.4 2.5 3.0
1.0 2.4 2.0
Appendix Table 81. Secondary sex characteristics development in boys (yr)a Country Denmark England
Netherlands Poland Sweden Switzerland Turkey Egypt India Brazil Cuba Chile USA
New Zealand Hong Kong a
People or place
Harpenden Newcastle Leeds national Cracow Stockholm Stockholm Zurich Istanbul Cairo Himalayas Sao Paulo national Santiago Mexican-American midwest6 California6 Non-Maori Maori Chinese
Date
c.1960 1975 c.1975 1980 1983 c.1970 1975 c.1970 1970 1980 1985 1973 — 1982 1940 1950 1969 1969 1960
Authors Andersen, 1968 Marshall & Tanner, 1970 BiWewicz etal., 1981a Buckler & Wild, 1987 Roede & van Wieringen, 1985 Chrzanowska et al., 1986 Taranger et al., 1916b Ekstrom, 1982 Largo & Prader, 1983tf Neyzi etal., 1915b Hafez etal., 1981 Singh & Sidhu, 1981 ColU, 1988 Jordan & Guiterrez-Muniz, 1984 Avendano & Valenzuela, 1988 Villareal etal., 1989 Reynolds & Wines, 1951 Nicholson & Harley, 1953 N.Z. Dept Health, 1971 N.Z. Dept Health, 1971 Chang etal., 1966
Probits, logits or prospective. b Euro-Americans.
G2
11.6 — 12.5 11.3 — 12.2 — 11.2 — 11.1 10.6 9.1 11.8 11.1 12.4 11.5 11.8 10.7 11.0 —
G3
12.9 — 13.6 13.1 — 13.1 — 12.9 — 13.6 13.1 12.4 13.6 11.9 13.5 12.7 13.1 12.8 12.8 —
G4
13.8 — 14.3 14.0 — 14.0 — 13.8 — 14.9 14.5 13.6 14.8 13.1 14.6 13.4 13.8 14.2 14.2 —
G5
PH2
PH3
PH4
PH5
Axillary
Voice
14.9 — — 15.3 — 15.1 — 14.7 — 16.2 15.5 15.2 — 14.2 16.2 17.3 15.2 — — —
12.8 — — 13.2 11.7 12.8 12.5 12.8 12.2 12.3 — 13.5 11.4 12.7 12.5 12.7 12.2 — 12.3 12.5 13.3
13.8 13.9 — 13.9 13.1 13.7 13.4 13.6 13.5 13.8 — 15.1 13.0 14.1 13.5 13.6 13.3 — 13.6 13.3 —
15.2 14.4 — 14.3 14.0 14.3 14.1 — 14.2 16.1 — 15.6 13.8 15.0 14.3 14.6 13.9 — 14.5 14.4 —
15.1 — — 15.0 15.4 15.5 — 14.9 — — 17.3 16.0 — 15.5 16.0 16.1 — — — —
— 14.3 — — — 14.0 — — 13.6 — — 13.3 — — — — — — — 14.6
15.5 — 14.9 — — — 15.0 — — 13.7 — 14.2 14.6 — — — — — — — 13.7
Appendix Table 82. Secondary sex characteristics development in girls (yr)a Country
People or place
Denmark England
Date
Authors
B2
B3
B4
B5
PH2 PH3 PH4 PH5 Menarche Axillary
Andersen, 1968 Marshall & Tanner, 1970 Billewicze/fl/., 1981a Buckler & Wild, 1987 Roy etal., 1972 Roede & van Wieringen, 1985 Chrzanowska et al., 1986 Tarangerefa/., 19766 Ekstrom, 1982 Largo & Prader, 19836 Dacou-Voutetakis et al., 1983 Neyzi et al., 1915a Belmaker, 1982 Colli, 1988 Jordan & Gutierrez-Muniz, 1984 Avendano & Valenzuela, 1988 Villarealerfl/., 1989 Reynolds & Wines, 1948 Nicholson & Harley, 1953 N.Z. Dept Health, 1971 N.Z. Dept Health, 1971
10.6 11.2 10.8 11.1 11.4 10.5 10.9 11.0 10.9 10.9 10.6 10.0 10.3 9.7 10.8 10.3 11.0 10.8 10.6 11.0 11.0
11.8 12.2 12.0 11.9 12.5 11.7 11.9 11.8 — 12.2 11.8 11.6 11.0 10.9 12.3 11.4 12.2 11.4 11.2 12.4 12.2
13.5 13.1 13.1 13.0 13.4 12.9 12.8 13.1 — 13.2 12.2 12.8 — 12.1 14.0 12.5 13.9 12.2 — 13.8 13.2
14.4 14.0 — — 14.2 13.9 15.6 — 14.0 14.2 15.2 — 13.5 — 13.6 15.1 13.7 13.9 — —
11.6 — — 11.8 11.4 10.8 10.5 11.5 11.8 10.4 10.5 10.8 10.6 9.8 11.5 10.6 11.4 11.0 11.6 11.2 11.4
Harpenden Newcastle Leeds France Paris Netherlands national Poland Cracow Sweden Stockholm Stockholm Switzerland Zurich Greece Athens Istanbul Turkey Israel Jerusalem Brazil Sao Paulo Cuba national Santiago Chile Mexican-American USA midwest6 California6 New Zealand Non-Maori Maori
c.1960 1975 c.1975 c.1965 1980 1983 c.1970 1975 c.1970 1979 1970 1977 1985 1973
Hong Kong
all
South Africa
Bantu
1960 Lee etal., 1963 1970 Low etal., 1982 c.1980 Cameron etal., 1988
a
•
—
1982 c. 1940 1950 1969 1969
00
Probits, logits or prospective. b Euro-Americans.
12.5 12.4 — 12.3 12.4 11.7 11.6 12.0 12.9 12.2 11.6 11.6 11.4 11.2 12.2 11.8 12.4 11.9 12.5 12.3 12.3
13.4 13.0 — 13.8 13.2 12.6 12.6 12.9 — 13.0 12.6 12.3 — 12.1 14.2 12.5 14.0 12.5 13.2 13.7 13.7
13.2 13.5 13.4 13.2 13.0 13.3 13.1 13.0 13.3 13.4 12.6 12.8 13.3 12.6 13.1 12.8 — 12.9 12.8 13.0 12.7
— 12.5 — — — — 12.2 — — 11.6 11.3 — 10.6 — — — — — — —
10.7 12.4 12.8 — — — — 11.9 — — 12.5 10.5 11.3 12.8 13.9 15.4 12.4 13.4 14.1 15.4 14.2
13.4 — —
14.4 — — — 14.0 14.3 15.2 — 14.0 14.3 13.6 — 13.0 — 13.6 15.4 13.9 — — —
References Abbas, A. S. (1978). The Health and Nutrition Aspect of the Drought in Somalia. Ministry of Health, Somali Democratic Republic, Mogadisho. Abbie, A. A. (1967) Skinfold thickness in Australian Aborigines. Archaeology and Physical Anthropology in Oceania, 2, 207-19. Abounaja, S. & Gilmour, W. H. (1985). Standards for height and weight of Libyan children aged 6 to 17 years. Arab Journal of Medicine, 4, 13-18. Agbenu, E. (1969). Untersuchungen iiber die Korperliche Entwicklung von ghanesischen Schulkindern. 2 Mittlelung: Rumpfquermass, Brustumfang, Hals und Handgelenkumfang. Arztliche Jugendkunde, 60, 216-22. Agbenu, E. & Grimm, H. (1967). Untersuchungen iiber die Korperliche Entwicklung von ghanesischen Schulkindern. Arztliche Jugendkunde, 58, 149-55. Al-Hazzaa, H. M. (1990). Anthropometric measurements of Saudi boys aged 614 years. Annals of Human Biology, 17, 33^0. Alnwick, D. (1980). The weight, length, and mid-upper arm circumference of Kenyan children in Nairobi Nursery schools. (UNICEF) Social Statistics Bulletin, 3 (no. 1), 1-19. Andersen, E. (1968). Skeletal maturation of Danish schoolchildren in relation to height, sexual development and social conditions. Universitatsforlaget, Aarhus. Andersen, E., Andersen, H., Hutchings, B., Pietersen, B., Rosen, J., Thorn drup, E., Wichmann, R. & Nyholm, M. (1974). Hojde og vaegt hos danske skoleborn, 1971-1972. Ugeskrift for Laeger, 136, 2796-802. (English summary.) Andersen, E., Hutchings, B., Jansen, J. & Nyholm, N. (1982). Hojde og vaegt hos danske born. Ugeskrift for Laeger, 144, 1760-5. Anderson, N. E. (1977). The nutritional status of Auckland children. New Zealand Medical Journal, 85, 49-52. Andres, R. (1980). Influence of obesity on longevity in the aged. In: Aging, Cancer and Cell Membranes, ed. C. Borek, C M . Fenoglio & D. W. King, pp. 238-46. Stratton Intercontinental Medical Book Corp., New York. Arechiga, J. (1978). Antropometna nutricional en la poblacion infantil de Cham Kom, Yucatan. Estudios de Cultura Maya, 11, 31-55. Arechiga, J. & Serrano, C. (1981). Parametros antropometricos de crecimiento en un grupo indigena mayance (Tojolabal) Estudios de Cultura Maya, 13, 307-37. Ashcroft, M. T., Heneage, P. & Lovell, H. A. (1966). Heights and weights of Jamaican schoolchildren of various ethnic groups. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 24, 35^4. Ashcroft, M. T. & Lovell, H. A. (1964). Heights and weights of Jamaican children of various racial origins. Tropical and Geographical Medicine, 4, 346-53. Attallah, N. L. (1978). Age at menarche of schoolgirls in Egypt. Annals of Human Biology, 5, 185-9. Attallah, N. L. (1987). Adult medical students at Alexandria. South Asian Anthropologist, 470-2. Attallah, N. L., Matta, W. M. & El-Mankoushi, M. (1983). Age at menarche of schoolgirls in Khartoum. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 185-8. 339
340
References
Attallah, N. L., Sharkawi, N. J. & Campbell, J. J. (1989). Age at menarche of schoolgirls in Saudi Arabia, Asir region, with a note on adult heights and weights. Saudi Medical Journal (in press). Avendano, A. & Valenzuela, C. (1988). Seguimiento longitudinal de crecimiento y desarrollo 6 a 20 anos de edad, area Norte de Santiago. Pediatria, 31,4-57. Aw, E. & Tye, C. Y. (1970). Age of menarche of a group of Singapore girls. Human Biology, 42, 329-36. Bagenholm, G., Kristiansson, B. & Nasher, A. A. A. (1988). Growth and malnutrition among preschool children in Democratic Yemen. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 66, 491-8. Bailey, K. V. (1964). Rural nutrition studies in Indonesia. VII. Field surveys of Javanese infants. Tropical and Geographical Medicine, 14, 111-20. Bailey, M. & Garn, S. M. (1986). The genetics of maturation. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd ed., vol. 3, pp. 173-9. Plenum Press, New York and London. Bailey, R. C. (1989). The growth patterns of African pygmies: a longitudinal study from birth to age five (abstract). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 78, 186. Bailey, R. C. (1990). The pattern and tempo of African pygmy growth (unpublished manuscript). Bailey, R. C. & DeVore, I. (1989). Research on the Efe and Lese populations of the Ituri Forest, Zaire. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 78, 459-71. Baker, P. T. (1984). Migrations, genetics, and the degenerative diseases of South Pacific Islanders. In: Migration and Mobility, ed. A. J. Boyce, pp. 209-39. Taylor & Francis, London and Philadelphia. Baldwin, L. M. & Sutherland, S. (1988). Growth patterns of first-generation Southeast Asian infants. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 142, 526-31. Banik, N. D. Datta, Nayar, S., Krishna, P., Raj, L. & Gadeker, N. G. (1970). Skeletal maturation of Indian children. Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 37, 249-54. Barker, D. J. P., Osmund, C , Golding, J., Kuh, D. & Wadsworth, M. E. J. (1989). Growth in utero, blood pressure in childhood and adult life, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. British Medical Journal, 298, 564—7. Barrett, M. J. & Brown, T. (1966). Eruption of deciduous teeth in Australian aborigines. Australian Dental Journal, 11, 43-50. Barrett, M. J. & Brown, T. (1971). Increase in average height of Australian aborigines. Medical Journal of Australia, 2, 1169-72. Baughan, B., Demirjian, A. & Levesque, G. Y. (1979). Skeletal maturity standards for French-Canadian children of school-age with a discussion of the reliability and validity of such measures. Human Biology, 51, 353-70. Baumgartner, R. N. & Roche, A. F. (1988). Tracking of fat pattern indices in childhood: The Melbourne Growth Study. Human Biology, 60, 549-67. Bayoumi, A. & Moussa, M. A. A. (1985a). Kuwait nutritional survey: comparisons of the nutritional status of Kuwaiti children aged 0-5 years with the NCHS/CDC reference population. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 63, 521-6. Bayoumi, A. & Moussa, M. A. A. (19856). Kuwait nutritional survey: comparison of the nutritional status of Kuwaiti children, aged 6-9 years with the
References
341
NCHS/CDC reference population. International Journal of Epidemiology, 14, 415-9. Beall, C. M. (1981). Growth in a population of Tibetan origin at high altitude. Annals of Human Biology, 8, 31-8. Beall, C. M. (1983). Ages at menopause and menarche in a high-altitude Himalayan population. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 365-70. Belmaker, E. (1982). Sexual maturation of Jerusalem schoolgirls and its association with socio-economic factors and ethnic group. Annals of Human Biology, 9, 321-8. Bennett, F. J., Jelliffe, D. B., Jelliffe, E. F. & Moffat, M. (1968). The nutrition and disease pattern of children in a refugee settlement. East African Medical Journal, 45, 229-46. Benso, L., Battaglia, C , Conrieri, M., Gambotto S., Manzi, P., Martire, A. M. & Signorile, F. (1986). Early puberty stages and menarche in a sample of Turinese girls. Acta Medica Auxologica, 17, 307-10 Benso, L., Corradetti, R., Fabrio, M. T., Passona, C , Pastorin, L., Rova, A. & Statiowska-Randone, B. (1980). Evaluation of skeletal maturity velocity. In: Problems in Pediatric Endocrinology, vol. 32, ed. C. LaCauza & A. W. Root, pp. 341-7. Academic Press, London. Bergman, V. P., Grzesiowski, F. & Szmyd, A. (1981). Application of the logistic function for quantitative description of body height growth in twins. HOMO, 32, 81-9. Bergsten-Brucefors, A. (1976). A note on the accuracy of recalled age at menarche. Annals of Human Behavior, 3, 71-3. Beunen, G. P., Malina, R. M., Van't Hof, M. A., Simons, J., Ostyn, M., Renson, R. & Van Gerven, D. (1988). Adolescent Growth and Motor Performance. A Longitudinal Study of Belgian Boys. HKP Sport Science Monograph Series. Human Kinetics Books, Champaign, Illinois. Bhalla, A. K., Kaul S. & Kumar, V. (1986). A longitudinal study of growth in length and weight of Punjabi infants in Chandigarh, India. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 427-32. Bhattnagar, D. P., Sidhu, L. S. & Singal, P. (1981). Development of deciduous dentition in Punjabi infants and children. Acta Medica Auxologica, 13, 161-6. Bielicki, T. (1986). Physical growth as a measure of the economic well-being of populations: the twentieth century. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd ed., vol. 3, pp. 283-305. Plenum Press, New York and London. Bielicki, T. & Charzewski, J. (1983). Body height and upward social mobility. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 403-8. Bielicki, T., Waliszko, A., Hulanicka, B. & Kotlarz, K. (1986). Social-class gradients in menarcheal age in Poland. Annals of Human Biology, 13,1-12. Billewicz, W. Z. (1973). A note on estimation of calendar age on the basis of development of primary teeth. Environmental Child Health, 19 (2A), 243-6. Billewicz, W. Z., Fellowes, H. M. & Thomson, A. M. (1981a). Pubertal changes in boys and girls in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Annals of Human Biology, 8,21119. Billewicz, W. Z., Fellowes, H. M. & Thomson, A. M. (19816). Menarche in Newcastle-upon-Tyne girls. Annals of Human Biology, 8, 313-20. Billewicz, W. Z. & McGregor, I. A. (1975). Eruption of permanent teeth in West
342
References
African (Gambian) children in relation to age, sex and physique. Annals of Human Biology, 2, 117-28. Billewicz, W. Z. & McGregor, I. A. (1982). A birth-to-maturity longitudinal study of heights and weights in two West African (Gambian) villages, 1951— 1975. Annals of Human Biology, 9, 309-20. Billewicz, W. Z., Thomson, A. M., Baber, F. M. & Field, C. E. (1973). The development of primary teeth in Chinese (Hong Kong) children. Human Biology, 45,229-41. Billewicz, W. Z., Thomson, A. M. & Fellowes, H. M. (1983). A longitudinal study of growth in Newcastle-upon-Tyne adolescents. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 125-33. Bindon, J. R. & Baker, P. T. (1985). Modernization, migration and obesity among Samoan adults. Annals of Human Biology, 12, 67-76. Bindon, J. R. & Zansky, S. M. (1986). Growth patterns of height and weight among the three groups of Samoan preadolescents. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 171-8. Birkbeck, J. A. & Guthrie, A. M. (1980). Anthropometric studies on Dunedin five and six year old children. New Zealand Medical Journal, 659, 331-4. Black, F. L., Hierholzer, W. J., Block, D. P., Lamm, S. H. & Lucas, L. (1977). Nutritional status of Brazilian Kayapo Indians. Human Biology, 49,139-54. Black, R. E., Brown, K. H. & Becker, S. (1984). Effects of diarrhea associated with specific enteropathogens on the growth of children in rural Bangladesh. Pediatrics, 73, 799-805. Blaha, P. (1986). Anthropometric studies of the Czechoslovak population: from 6 to 55 years. Czechoslovak Spartakiade, 1985. (2 vol.) Prague. Blair, S. N., Collis, G., Brownell, K. D. & Lissner, L. (1989). Weight fluctuation and increased risk of cardiovascular disease death in men. Second International Conference on Preventive Cardiology, June, 1989, Washington, D.C. Blair, D., Habicht, J. -P., Simms, E. A. H., Sylwester, D. & Abraham, S. (1984). Evidence for an increased risk for hypertension with centrally located body fat and the effect of race and sex on this risk. American Journal of Epidemiology, 119, 526-40. Blanco, R. A., Acheson, R. M., Canosa, C. & Salomon, J. B. (1973). Sex differences in retardation of skeletal development in rural Guatemala. Pediatrics, 50, 912-5. Bock, R. D. & Sykes, R. C. (1989). Evidence for continuing secular increase in height within families in the United States. American Journal of Human Biology, 1, 143-8. Bogin, B. A. & MacVean, R. B. (1978). Growth in height and weight of urban Guatemalan primary school children of low and high socioeconomic class. Human Biology, 50, 477-88. Bogin, B. A. & Sullivan, T. (1986). Socioeconomic status, age and ethnicity as determinants of body fat distribution for Guatemalan children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 69, 527-36. Bouchard, C. & Johnston, F. E. eds. (1988). Fat Distribution During Growth and Later Health Outcomes. (Current topics in nutrition and diseases, vol. 17). Alan B. Liss, New York. Bouchard, C , Savard, R., Despres, J.-P., Tremblay, A. & Leblanc, C. (1985). Body composition in adopted biological siblings. Human Biology, 57,61-76.
References
343
Boulton, T. J. C. & Weinstein, S. (1978). A comparative anthropometric study of Cook Islands and Australian preschool children. New Zealand Medical Journal, 88, 489-90. Boutourline-Young, H. (1968). Etudes de VUniversite de Harvard sur VEvaluation du Developpement Social et Economique en Tunisie. Harvard Florence Research Project, Florence, Italy. (Mimeographed.) Boutourline-Young, H., Hamza, B., Louyot, P., El Amouri, T., Rebjeb, H., Boutourline, E. & Tesi, G. (1973). 'Social and environmental factors accompanying malnutrition', Symposium of Internal Association of Behavioral Sciences, Ann Arbor, Michigan, August 21-24, 1973. Boutton, T. W., Trowbridge, F. L., Nelson, M. M., Wills, C. A., Smith, E. O'B., de Romana, G. L., Madrid, S., Marks, J. S. & Klein, P. D. (1987). Body composition of Peruvian children with short stature and high weight-forheight. I. Total body water measurements and their prediction from anthropometric values. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 45, 513-25. Brandt, I. (1980). Perzentilkurven fur das Langenwachstum bei Fruh- und Reifgebornen in den ersten fiinf Jahren. Der Kinderarzt, 11, 43-51. Brink, E. W., Khan, I. H., Splitter, J. L., Staehling, N. W., Lane, J. M. Nichaman, M. Z. (1976). Nutritional status of children in Nepal, 1975. Bulletin WHO, 54, 311-8. Brinkman, H. J., Drakker, T. W. Y. & Slot, B. (1988). Height and income: a new method for the estimation of historical national income series. Explorations in Economic History, 25, 227-64. Brook, A. H. & Barker, D. K. (1973). The use of deciduous tooth eruption for the estimation of unknown chronological age. Environmental Child Health, 19 (2A), 234-9. Brooks-Gunn, J. & Warren, M.P. (1988). Mother-daughter differences in menarcheal age in adolescent girls attending national dance company schools and non-dancers. Annals of Human Biology, 15, 35^4. Brown, K. H., Black, R. E., Becker, S. & Hogue, A. (1982). Patterns of physical growth in a longitudinal study of young children in rural Bangladesh. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 36, 294—302.
Brown, R. (1978). Tooth emergence in Australian Aboriginals. Annals of Human Biology, 5, 41-54. Brown, T. & Grave, K. C. (1976). Skeletal maturation in Australian Aborigines. Australian Pediatric Journal, 12, 24—80.
Brown, T. & Townsend, G. C. (1982). Adolescent growth in height of Australian Aboriginals analysed by the Preece-Baines function: a longitudinal study, 1961-1971. Annals of Human Biology, 9, 495-506. Brudevoll, J. E., Liest0l, K. & Wall0e, L. (1979). Menarcheal age in Oslo during the last 140 years. Annals of Human Biology, 6, 407-16. Brundtland, G. H., Liest0l, K. & Wall0e, L. W. (1980). Height, weight, and menarcheal age of Oslo school children during the last 60 years. Annals of Human Biology, 7, 307-22. Buckler, J. M. H. (1984). Skeletal age changes in puberty. Archives of Diseases of Childhood, 59, 115-9. Buckler, J. M. H. & Wild, J. (1987). Longitudinal study of height and weight at adolescence. Archives of Diseases of Childhood, 62, 1224—32.
Buday, J. (1981). Age at menarche in girls with sensory deprivation. Ada Medica Auxologica, 13, 131-9.
344
References
Budliger, H. & Prader, A. (1972). Unpublished data from the Zurich Longitudinal Growth Study, May 1972. Buell, P. & Dunn, J. (1965) Cancer mortality of Japanese Isei and Nisei of California. Cancer, 18, 656-64. Burgess, H. J. L. & Burgess, J. L. (1964). The growth pattern of East African schoolgirls. Human Biology, 36, 177-93. Burma Medical Research Council (1968). Special Report Series No. 5. Physical fitness of the Burmese. Rangoon. Burrell, R. J. W., Tanner, J. M. & Healy, M. J. R. (1961). Age at menarche in South African Bantu girls living in the Transkei reserve. Human Biology, 33, 250-61. Bushang, P. H.,Malina, R. M. & Little, B. B. (1986). Linear growth of Zapotec schoolchildren: growth status and yearly velocity for leg length and sitting height. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 225-34. Butler, P. M. (1960). Tooth morphology and primate evolution. In: Dental Anthropology, ed. D. R. Brothwell, pp 1-13. Pergamon Press, Oxford. Buzina, R. (1976). Growth and development of three Yugoslav populations in different ecological settings. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 29, 1051-9. Byard, P. J., Siervogel, R. M. & Roche, A. F. (1983«). Familial correlations for serial measurements of recumbent length and stature. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 281-94. Byard P. J., Siervogel, R. M. & Roche, A. F. (19836). Sibling correlations for weight/stature2 and calf circumference: Age changes and possible sex linkage. Human Biology, 55, 677-86. Byard, P. J., Siervogel, R. M. & Roche, A. F. (1988). Age trends in transmissible and non-transmissible components of family resemblance for stature. Annals of Human Biology, 15, 111-9. Cameron, F. J. & Debelle, G. D. (1986). Nutrition of Aboriginal infants and children in the Murray Valley. Medical Journal of Australia, spec, suppl., 144, 55-8. Cameron, N. (1979). The growth of London school children 1904-1966: an analysis of secular trend and intra-county variables. Annals of Human Biology, 6, 505-26. Cameron, N. (1984). The Measurement of Human Growth. Croom Helm Ltd., Beckenham, Kent. Cameron, N., Mitchell, J., Meyer, D., Moodie, A., Bowie, M. D., Mann, M. D. & Hansen J. D. H. (1988). Secondary sexual development of 'Capecoloured' girls following kwashiorkor. Annals of Human Biology, 15,65-76. Capucci, E. (1986). II. Antropometria dei soggetti in accresimento (6 mesi6 anni). In: Ricerche antropologiche in una comunita del Nicaragua, ed. G. F. De Stefano. Extract from Rivista di Antropologie, 64, 185-98. Capucci, E., Damiani, S., Venerando, A., diRenzi, A. & de Stefano, G. F. (1982-83). Statura e peso in un campione della popolazione italiana in accrescimento (4-15 anni). Rivista di Antropologia, 62, 255-71. Carfagna, M., Figurelli, E., Matarese, G. & Matarese, S. (1972). Menarchealage of schoolgirls in the District of Naples, Italy, in 1969-70. Human Biology, 44, 117-25. Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (ed.) (1986). African Pygmies. Academic Press, New York.
References
345
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1986). Anthropometric data. In: African Pygmies, ed. L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, Academic Press, New York. Chang, K. S. F. (1969). Growth and development of Chinese children and youth in Hong Kong. University of Hong Kong. Chang, K. S. F., Chan, S. T., Low, W. D. & Ng, C. K. (1967). Skeletal maturation of Chinese pre-school children. Far East Medical Journal, 3, 203-6. Chang, K. S. F., Ng, D. H., Chan, S. F. & Lee, Marc (1966). Sexual maturation in Southern Chinese boys in Hong Kong. Pediatrics, 37, 804-11. Charzewski, J. (1963). Some problems of the cutting of permanent teeth in children and youth in urban and rural environments. Prace i Materialy Naukowe IMD, I, 65-80. (In Polish with English summary.) Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking. (1977). Studies on physical development of children and adolescents in new China. Chinese Medical Journal, 3, 364-72. Chinn, S. (1988). Mixed longitudinal studies: their efficiency for the establishment of trends over time. Annals of Human Biology, 15, 443-54. Chinn, S. & Rona, R. J. (1984). The secular trend in the height of primary school children in England and Scotland from 1972 to 1980. Annals of Human Biology, 11, 1-16. Chinn, S. & Rona, R. T. (1987). Secular trends in weight, weight-for-height and triceps skinfold children in primary schoolchildren in England and Scotland from 1972-1980. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 311-20. Chrzanowska, M., Bochenska, Z., Panek, S. & Golab, S. (1986). Children and youth from Cracow in the light of comparative ontogenetic surveys. Materialy J Prace Antopologiczne, 107, 21-44. Chrzanowska, M. & Lubera, T. (1984). Changes in the process of permanent teeth eruption in the decade 1968-78 in pre-school children from Nowa Huta (Cracow). Materialy I Prace Antropologiczne, 105, 85-94. (English Summary.) Cifuentes, E. & Alvarado, J. (1973). Assessment of deciduous dentition in Guatemalan children. Environmental Child Health, 19 (2A), 211-3. Claessens, A., Beunen, F. & Simons, J. (1986). Stability of anthroposcopic and anthropometric estimates of physique in Belgian boys followed longitudinally from 13 to 18 years of age. Annals of Human Biology. 13, 235-44. Clegg, E. J. (1989). The growth of Melanesian and Indian children in Fiji. Annals of Human Biology, 16, 507-28. Clements, E. M. B., Davies-Thomas, E. & Pickett, K. G. (1953). Time of eruption of permanent teeth in British children, vi, 1947-8. British Medical Journal, 1, 1421^. Cliquet, R. L. (1968). Social mobility and anthropological structure of populations. Human Biology, 40, \l-4?>. Cole, T. J., Donnet, M. L. & Stanfield, J. P. (1983). Unemployment, birthweight and growth in the first year. Archives of Diseases of Childhood, 58, 717-21. Colli, A. S. (1986). Maturaqao sexual na populaqao brasileira: limites de idade. Journal de Pediatria, 60, 173-5. Colli, A. S. (1988). Crescimento e desenvolvimento pubertario en crianqas e adolescentes brasilieros IV. Maturaqao sexual. Sao Paulo, Editora Brasiliera de Ciencas.
346
References
Coodin, F. J., Dilling, L. A., Haworth, J. C. & Ellestad-Sayed, J. (1980). Growth and nutrition of Manitoba preschool Indian children. III. Anthropometry. Human Biology, 52, 563-78. Corlett, J. T. (1986). Growth of urban school children in Botswana. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 73-82. Coy, J. F., Gibson, H. B., Longmore, E. A. & Ratkowsky, D. A. (1976). Longitudinal growth study of Tasmanian children. 2. The seven-year-olds. Medical Journal of Australia, 2, 566-7. Coy, J. F., Lewis, I. C , Mair, C. H., Longmore, E. A. & Ratkowsky, D. A. (1973). The growth of Tasmanian infants from birth to three years of age. Medical Journal of Australia, 2, 12-8. Coy, J. F. & Lowry, R. K. (1984). Comparative study over a 12 year period of the weights of Tasmanian children from birth to 3 years of age. Australian Paediatric Journal, 20, 105-8. Coy, J. F., Lowry, R. K. & Ratkowsky, D. A. (1986). Longitudinal growth study of Tasmanian children, 1967-1983. The 13-, 14- and 15-year-old girls. Medical Journal of Australia, 144, 677-9. Cresta, M. & Avoundogra, N. (1980-81). Risultati della studio longitudinale dalla nascita a 5 anni in un gruppo di bambini di Porto Novo (Repubblica Populare del Benin). Rivista di Antropologia, 61, 41-132. Cristesgu, M. (1969). Aspecte ale cresterii si dezvoltarii adolescentilor din Republica Socialista Romania. Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste Romania, Bucharest. Crognier, E. & da Rocha, M.-A. T. (1979). Age at menarche in rural France. Annals of Human Biology, 6, 167-70. Crompton, D. W. T. & Nesheim, M. C. (1982). Nutritional science and parasitology: A case for collaboration. Bioscience, 32, 677-80. Cronk, C. E., Roche, A. F., Kent, R., Berkey, C , Reed, R. B., Valadian, I., Eichorn, D., McCammon, R. (1982). Longitudinal trends and continuity in weight/stature from 3 months to 18 years. Human Biology, 54, 729-50. Dacou-Voutetakis, C , Kontza, D., Lagos, P., Tzonou, A., Katsarou, E., Antoniadis, S., Papazisis, G., Papadopoulos, G. & Matsaniotis, N. (1983). Age of pubertal stages including menarche in Greek girls. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 557-64. Dacou-Voutetakis, C , Lagos, P., Klontza, D. Mitsioni, A. (n.d.). Growth charts. Dahlberg, G. G. & Menegaz-Bock, R. M. (1958). Emergence of the permanent teeth in Pima Indian children. Journal of Dental Research, 37, 1123-40. Damon, A., Damon, S. T., Reed, R. B. & Valadian, I. (1969). Age at menarche of mothers and daughters with a note on accuracy of recall. Human Biology, 41, 161-75. Daniel, W. A., Feinstein, R. A., Howardpebbles, P. & Baxley, W. D. (1982). Testicular volumes of adolescents. Journal of Pediatrics, 101, 1010-12. Danker, H., Thiel, P. & Tsiakalos, G. (1981). Untersuchungen zur Bevolkerungsbiologie Norddeutschlands. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, 39, 82-8. Danker-Hopfe, H. (1986#). Menarcheal age in Europe. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 29, 81-112. Danker-Hopfe, H. (1986Z?). Die Sdkulare Veranderung des Menarchealters in Europa. Stuttgart, Schweizerbart. Davies, D. P. (1986). Genetic influences on growth in length with particular
References
347
reference to children of Asiatic origin. Hong Kong Journal of Paediatrics, 3, 193-203. Davies, D. P. & Leung, S. F. (1985). Growth of Hong Kong infants during the first two years of life. Early Human Development, 11, 247-54. Davies, D. P. & Leung, S. S. F. (1989). Triceps and subscapular skinfold growth from birth to 18 months in Hong Kong Chinese infants. In: Auxology 88, ed. J. M. Tanner. Smith Gordon, London. Davies, D. P., Senior, N., Cole, G., Blass, D. & Simpson, K. (1982). Size at birth of Asian and white Caucasian babies born in Leicester. Implications for obstetric and paediatric practices. Early Human Development, 6, 257-63. Davies, D. P. & Yamamuro, T. (1985). Growth of Hong Kong infants during the first two years of life. Early Human Development, 11, 247-54. Davies, R., Butler, N. & Goldstein, H. (1972). From birth to seven. Longman/ National Children's Bureau, London. De Stefano, G. F. & Jenkins, J. M. (1972). Richerche de antropologia biologica su popolazioni nicaraguensi. Rivista di Antropologia, 58, 289-302. Delgado, H., Valveda, V. E., Martorell, R. & Klein, R. E. (1982). Relationships of maternal and infant nutrition to infant growth. Early Human Development, 6, 273-86. Demirjian, A. & Brault-Dubuc, M. (1985). Croissance et Developpement de VEnfant Quebecois de la Naissance a Six Ans. Les Presses de l'Universite de Montreal, Montreal. Demirjian, A. & Goldstein, H. (1976). New systems for dental maturity based on seven and four teeth. Annals of Human Biology, 3, 411-21. Demirjian, A., Goldstein, H. & Tanner, J. M. (1973). A new system of dental age assessment. Human Biology, 45, 211-27. Demirjian, A. & Levesque, G.-Y. (1980). Sexual differences in dental development and prediction of emergence. Journal of Dental Research, 59,1110-22. Department of Health & Social Security (U.K.) (1981). Second report of the Subcommittee on Nutritional Surveillance. Medical aspects of food policy. Reports on Health and Social Subjects, No. 21. HMSO, London. Department of Health & Social Security (U.K.) (1989). Subcommittee on National Surveillance. The diets of British schoolchildren. Reports on Health and Social Subjects No. 36. HMSO, London. Desai, I. D., Garcia Tavares, M. L., Dutra de Oliveira, B. S., Desai, M. I., Cevallos Romero, L. S., Vichi, F. L., Duarte, F. A. M. & Dutra de Oliveira, J. E. (1981). Anthropometric and cycloergometric assessment of the nutritional status of the children of agricultural migrant workers in Southern Brazil, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 34, 1925-34. DeWaard, F. (1975). Breast cancer incidence and nutritional status with particular reference to body weight and height Cancer Research, 35, 3351-6. Diejomaoh, F. M. E. & Faal, M. K. B. (1982). The heights and weights of secondary school girls in Benin City, Nigeria. Tropical & Geographical Medicine, 34, 359-64. Dietz, W. H., Marino, B., Peacock, N. R. & Bailey, R. C. (1989). Nutritional status of Efe pygmies and Lese horticulturists. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 78, 509-18. Dreizen, S., Spirakis, C. N. & Stone, R. E. (1967). A comparison of skeletal growth and maturation in under-nourished and well-nourished girls before and after menarche. Journal of Pediatrics, 70, 256-64.
348
References
Ducros, J. & Ducros, A. (1987). Age at menarche in Tahiti. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 559-62. Duggan, M. B., Alway, J. & Milner, R. D. G. (1986). The nutritional cost of measles in Africa. Archives of Diseases of Childhood, 61, 61-6. Duggan, M. B. & Milner, R. D. H. (1986). Energy cost of measles infection. Archives of Diseases of Childhood, 61, 436-9. Duke, P. M., Litt, I. F. & Gross, R. T. (1980). Adolescents' self-assessment of sexual maturation. Pediatrics, 66, 918-20. Durnin, I. V. G. A., Lonergan, M. E., Good, J. & Ewan, A. (1974). A crosssectional nutritional and anthropometric study, with an interval of 7 years, on 611 young adolescent schoolchildren. British Journal of Nutrition, 32, 169-79. Eiben, O. G. (1972). Genetische und demographische faktoren und menarchealter. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, 33, 205-12. Eiben, O. G. (1977). Changes in body measurements and proportions of children, based on Kormend growth study. Anthropologai Kozlemenyek, 21, 43-58. (In Magyar; English summary.) Eiben, O. G. (1982). The Kormend Growth Study: Body Measurements. Anthropologai Kozlemenyek, 26, 181-210. Eiben, O. G. (1985). The Kormend Growth Study: Somatotypes. Humanbiologie Budapest, 16, 37-52. Eiben, O. & Panto, E. (1984). Preliminary data for the age at oligarche of urban and rural boys in Hungary. Anthropologai Kozlemenyek, 28,193-4. (English summary.) Eiben, O. G. & Panto, E. (1986). The Hungarian National Growth Standards. Anthropologai Kozlemenyek, 30, 1-40. Eiben, O. G., Panto, E., Gyenis, G. & Frohlich, J. (1986). Physique of young female gymnasts. Anthropologai Kozlemenyek, 30, 209-20. Ekstrom, C. (1982). Facial growth rate and its relation to somatic maturation in healthy children. Swedish Dental Journal, suppl. 11, 5-99. El-Nofely, A. A. (1978). Anthropometric study of growth of Egyptian Nubian children. Human Biology, 50, 183-208. Ellison, P. T. (1981). Morbidity, mortality and menarche. Human Biology, 53, 635^4. Elwood, P. C , Sweetnam, P. M., Gray, O. P., Davies, D. P. & Wood, P. D. P. (1987). Growth of children 0-5 years with special reference to mothers smoking in pregnancy. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 543-58. Enwonwu, C. O. (1973). Influence of socio-economic conditions on dental development in Nigerian children. Archives of Oral Biology, 18, 95-107. Eron, C. (1988). Young hearts. Science News, 134, 234-6. Eszter, P. & Eiben, O. G. (1984). Preliminary data for the age at menarche for urban and rural girls in Hungary. Anthropologai Kozlemenyek, 28, 191-2. Eveleth, P. B. (1966). Eruption of permanent dentition and menarche of American children living in the tropics. Human Biology, 38, 60-70. Eveleth, P. B. (1975) Differences between ethnic groups in sex dimorphism of adult height. Annals of Human Biology, 2, 35-9. Eveleth, P. B. (1978). Differences between populations in body shape of children and adolescents. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 49, 373-82. Eveleth, P. B. (1981). Growth and development of the infant and young child. In:
References
349
Maternal and Child Health Around the World, ed. H. M. Wallace & G. J. Ebrahim, pp. 131-A6. Macmillan Press, Ltd., London. Eveleth, P. B. (1985). Nutritional implications of differences in adolescent growth and maturation and in adult body size. In: Nutritional Adaptation in Man, ed. K. Blaxter & J. C. Waterflow, pp. 31-43. John Libbey, London. Eveleth, P. B. (1986). Population differences in growth: Environmental and genetic factors. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd edn, vol. 3, pp. 221-39. Plenum Press, New York and London. Eveleth, P. B. (1989). Growth, maturation and chronic disease risk. In: La Familia y El Nino Ibero Americano y del Caribe, ed. H. Mendez-Castellano & M. Lopez. Caracas. Eveleth, P. B., Bowers, E. J. & Schall, J. I. (1979). Secular change in growth in Philadelphia black adolescents. Human Biology, 51, 213-28. Eveleth, P. B. & de Souza Freitas, J. A. (1969). Tooth eruption and menarche of Brazilian-born children of Japanese ancestry. Human Biology, 41, 176-84. Eveleth, P. B. & Micozzi, M. S. (1988) Antropometria en el nino y enfermedades cronicas en el adulto. In: Crescimientoy Desenvolvimento; Hechosy Tendencias, ed. M. Cusminsky, E. M. Moreno & N. Suarez Ojeda., Pan American Health Organization Scientific Publication No. 510, Washington, D. C. Eveleth, P. B., Salzano, F. M. & DeLima, P. E. (1974). Child growth and adult physique in Brazilian Xingu Indians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology ,41,95-102. Everhart, J., Knowler, W. C. & Bennett, P. H. (1985). Incidence and risk factors for noninsulin-dependent diabetes. In: Diabetes in America, pp. IV. 1-35. U.S. Dept of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health Publ. No. 85-1468, Bethesda, Maryland. FAO/WHO (1973). Energy and Protein Requirements. Report of a Joint FAOI WHO Ad Hoc Expert Committee. FAO, Rome. Farid-Coupal, N., Contreras, M. L. & Castellano, F. M. (1981). The age at menarche in Carabobo, Venezuela, with a note on the secular trend. Annals of Human Biology, 8, 283-8. Farkas, G. (1982). On social and natural factors exerting influence on maturation of girls. Anthropologai Kozlemenyek, 26, 135-9. Farkas, G. Y., Hunya, P. & Szekeres, E. (1985). Relationship of the menarcheal age of city girls with socio-economic factors. Acta Biologica Szeged, 31, 183-90. Farkas, G. & Nagy, J. (1981). Uber das menarchealter von madchen aus komarom. Acta Biologica Szeged, 27, 223-7'. Farquharson, S. M. (1976). Growth patterns and nutrition in Nepali children. Archives of Diseases in Childhood. 51, 3-12. Faulhaber, E. S. (1981). Maduracion osea en una poblacion rural de Mexico. Anales de Antropologia. 18, 271-85. Faulhaber, J. (1976). Investigacion Longitudinal del Crecimiento 26. Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Collecion Cientifica, Antropologia Fisica, Cordoba (Mexico, D.F.). Faulhaber, J. (1981). La edad osea de un groupo de nirios mexicanos determinada segiun los metodos TW1 y TW2. Anales de Antropologia, 18, 286-98. Faulhaber, J. (1987). La relation musculo-grasa en las extremidades durante la adolescencia. Anales de Antropologia, 24, 347-84.
350
References
Faulhaber, J. (1989a). Peso, talla y menarquia en ninas adolescentes de Mexico. Estudios de Antropologia Biologica III. Coloquio Juan Comas. Instituto de Investigacciones Antropologicas, U. N. A. M. Mexico City. Faulhaber, J. (1989b) Crecimiento: Somatometria de la Adolescencia. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico City. Filipsson, R. (1975). A new method for the assessment of dental maturity using the individual curve of number of erupted permanent teeth. Annals of Human Biology, 2, 13-24. Filipsson, R. & Hall, K. (1976). Correlation between dental maturity, height development and sexual maturation in normal girls. Annals of Human Biology, 3, 205-10. Fischbein, S. (1911a). Intra-pair similarity in physical growth of monozygotic and of dizygotic twins during puberty. Annals of Human Biology, 4, 417-30. Fischbein, S. (1911b). Onset of puberty in MZ and DZ twins. Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellogiae, 26, 151-8. Fischbein, S. & Pedersen, N. L. (1987). Multivariate analysis of genetic and environmental influences for longitudinal height and weight data. Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemollogiae, 36, 171-82. Flegal, K. M., Harlan, W. R. & Landis, J. R. (1988a). Secular trends in body mass index and skinfold thickness with socioeconomic factors in young adult women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 48, 535^3. Flegal, K. M., Harlan, W. R. & Landis, J. R. (1988b). Secular trends in body mass index and skinfold thickness with socioeconomic factors in young adult men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 48, 544—51.
Floris, G., Murgia, E., Sanciiu, G. M. & Sanna, E. (1987). Age at menarche in Sardinia (Italy). Annals of Human Biology, 14, 285-6. Floud, R. (1989). Changes in the mean stature of the British population 17501912. In: Auxology '88, ed. J. M. Tanner. Smith Gordon, London. Fogel, R. W. (1988). Physical growth as a measure of the economic well-being of populations: the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd edn., vol. 3, pp. 263-82. Plenum, New York and London. Fogel, R. W. & Engerman, S. L. (eds) (1982). Trends in nutrition, labor, welfare and labor productivity. Social Science History, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 395-581. Fok, R. F., Lam, T. K., Lee, N. Y., Chow, C. B., Leung, N. K., Au-Yeung, C. L. & Davies, D. P. (1986). Intrauterine weight growth of Chinese infants - a comparative study. Hong Kong Journal of Paediatrics, 3, 108-15. Foil, C. V. (1961). The age of menarche in Assam and Burma. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 36, 302-4. Foster, T. A., Voors, A. W., Webber, L. S., Frerichs, R. R. & Berenson, G. S. (1977). Anthropometric and maturation measurements of children ages 5 to 14 years in a biracial community - the Bogalusa Heart Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 30, 582-91. Fox, P. T. (1984). 1981/82 Survey of growth in pre-school children. Report to the Department of Health and Social Security and the Scottish Home and Health Department from the Department of Human Nutrition, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, January 1984. Fox, P. T., Elston, M. D. & Waterlow, J. C. (1981). Pre-school child survey. Subcommittee on Nutritional Surveillance: Second Report. Dept of Health and Social Security, London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, pp. 64-83.
References
351
Friedlander, J. S. (ed.) (1987). The Solomon Islands Project. A long-term study of Health, Human Biology, and Culture Change. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Friend, G. E. & Bransby, E. R. (1947). Physique and growth of schoolboys. Lancet, ii, 67-81. Frisancho, A. R. (1969). Growth, physique, and pulmonary function at high altitude: afieldstudy of a Peruvian Quechua population. Ph.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University. Frisancho, A. R. (1975). Skeletal development. In: Man in the Andes, ed. P. Baker & M. S. Little. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Pennsylvania. Frisancho, A. R. (1979). Human Adaptation. C. V. Mosby Co., St. Louis. Frisancho, A. R. & Baker, P. T. (1970). Altitude and growth: a study of the patterns of physical growth of a high altitude Peruvian Quechua population. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 32, 279-92. Frisancho, A. R., Borkan, G. A. & Layman, E. K. (1975). Pattern of growth of lowland and highland Peruvian Quechua of similar genetic composition. Human Biology, 47, 233-43. Frisancho, A. R. & Flegel, P. N. (1982). Advanced maturation associated with centripetal fat pattern. Human Biology, 54, 717-28. Frisancho, A. R., Garn, S. M. & Ascoli, W. (1970a). Unequal influence of low dietary intakes on skeletal maturation during childhood and adolescence. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 23, 1220-7. Frisancho, A. R., Garn, S. M. & Ascoli, W. (19706). Childhood retardation resulting in reduction of adult body size due to lesser adolescent skeletal delay. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 33, 325-36. Frisancho, A. R., Guire, K., Babler, W., Borkan, G. & Way, A. (1980). Nutritional influence on childhood development and genetic control of adolescent growth of Quechuas and Mestizas from the Peruvian Lowlands. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 52, 367-75. Frisch, R. E., Gotz-Welbergen, A. V., McArthur, J. W., Albright, T., Witschi, J., Bullen, B., Birnhold, J., Reed, R. B. & Hermann, H. (1981). Delayed menarche and amenorrhea of college athletes in relation to age of onset of training. Journal of the American Medical Association, 246, 1559-63. Frisch, R. E., Wyshak, G. & Vincent, L. (1980). Delayed menarche and amenorrhea in ballet dancers. New England Journal of Medicine, 303, 17-8. Fry, E. I. (1960). Health survey of children from Rarotonga, Cook Islands. III. Skeletal age and skeletal observations. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 6, 75-9. Fry, E. I., Chang, K. S. F., Lee, M. M. C. & Ng, C. K. (1965). The amount and distribution of subcutaneous tissue in Southern Chinese children from Hong Kong. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 23, 69-80. Fujita, T. (1965). Essay on teeth: Tokyo, Iwanami. (In Japanese.) Cited in Kimura, 1984. Fung, K. P., Lan, S. P., Chow, O. K. W., Baber, F., Chu, S. Y., Tsoi, N. S., Lun, K. W., Chan, S. C. & Lam, T. K. (1985). A survey of growth of Hong Kong children. Hong Kong Journal of Paediatrics, 2, 105-16. Fung, K. P., Lan, S. P., Chow, O. K. W., Baber, F., Chu, S. Y., Tsoi, N. S., Lun, K. W., Chan, S. C. & Lam, T. K. (1986). Weight-for-height standards for Hong Kong children. Hong Kong Journal of Paediatrics, 3, 124-9. Furu, M. (1976). Menarcheal age in Stockholm girls 1967. Annals of Human Biology, 3, 587-90.
352
References
Fysh, W. J., Davidson, R., Chandler, D. & Dugdale, A. E. (1977). The weights of Aboriginal infants: A comparison over 20 years. Medical Journal of Australia, 1 (suppl. 4), 13-5. Gaind, B. N., Ghosh, S., Sarin, G. S. & Satvanath, S. (1980). Skeletal growth in healthy children from a public school in Delhi. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 72, 527-36. Gallo, A. (1977). The age at menarche in some populations of the Veneto, North Italy. Annals of Human Biology, 4, 179-81. Gallo, P. G. & Mestriner, M. F. (1980). Growth of children in Somalia. Human Biology, 52, 547-62. Garn, S. M. (1972). Advanced skeletal development of low-income Negro children. Journal of Pediatrics, 80, 965-9. Garn, S. M., Bailey, S. M. & Cole, P. E. (1976). Similarities between parents and their adopted children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 45, 539-14. Garn, S. M., Hertzog, K. P. & Rohmann, C. G. (1969). Evidence for X-linkage of tibial length and body length. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 31, 187-90. Garn, S. M., Hopkins, P. J. & Ryan, A. S. (1981). Differential fatness gain of low income boys and girls. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 34, 1465-8. Garn, A. M., Leonard, W. R. & Hawthorne, V. M. (1986). Three limitations of the body mass index. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 44, 996-7'. Garn, S. M., Lewis, A. B. & Kerewsky, R. S. (1965b). Genetic, nutritional and maturational correlates of dental development. Journal of Dental Research, 44, 228-42. Garn, S. M., Pesick, S. D. & Pilkington, J. J. (1984). The interaction between prenatal and socioeconomic effects on the growth and development in childhood. In: Human Growth & Development, ed. J. Borms, R. Hauspie, A. Sand, C. Susanne & M. Hebbelinck, pp. 59-70. Plenum Press, New York. Garn, S. M. & Rohmann, C. G. (1966). Interaction of nutrition and genetics in the timing of growth and development. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 13, 353-79. Garn, S. M., Sandusky, S. T., Nagy, J. M. & McCann, M. B. (1972«). Advanced skeletal development in low income Negro children. Journal of Pediatrics. 80, 965-9. Garn, S. M., Sandusky, S. T., Nagy, J. M. &Trowbridge, F. L. (1973). Economic impact on tooth emergence. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 39, 233-8. Garn, S. M., Sullivan, T. V. & Hawthorne, V. M. (1988). Effect of skinfold levels on lipids and blood pressure in younger and older adults. Journal of Gerontology, 43, 170-4. Garn, S. M., Werthheimer, F., Sandusky, S. T. & McCann, M. B. (1972b). Advanced tooth emergence in Negro individuals. Journal of Dental Research, 51, 1506. Gerver, W. J. M. (1988)). Measurement of the Body Proportions in Children. The Oosterwolde Study. Drukkerij Groenavelt B. V., Lordgraf. Godina, E. Z., Miklashevskaya, N. N. & Solovyeva, V. S. (1987). Some trends of growth and somatic development of Moscow schoolchildren for the last 20 years. Voprosi Antropolgii, 78, 82-8. (In Russian, English summary.)
References
353
Goldberg, T. B., Colli, A. S. & Curi, P. R. (1986). Crescimento e desenvolvimento pubertdrio en criangas e adolescentes brasileiros, v., Dobras cutaneas na faxia etaria de 10 a 19 anos. Editora Brasileira se Ciencias, Sao Paulo. Goldstein, H. (1971). Factors influencing the height of seven-year-old children. Results from the National Child Development Study. Human Biology, 43, 92-111. Goldstein, H. (1986). Sampling for growth studies. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd ed., vol. 3, pp. 59-78. Plenum Press, New York. Goldstein, H. (1987). Multilevel models in educational and social research. London, Griffin. Goldstein, H. & Tanner, J. M. (1980). Ecological consideration in the creation and use of child growth standards. Lancet, i, 582-4. Gonzales, G., Crespo-Retes, I. & Guerra-Garcia, R. (1982). Secular change for growth of native children and adolescents at high altitude. I. Puno, Peru (3800 meters). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 58, 191-5. Goodman, M. J. (1983). Secular changes in recalled age at menarche - Letter to the Editor. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 585. Goodman, M. J., Estioko-Griffin, A., Griffin, P. B. & Grove, J. S. (1985). Menarche, pregnancy, birth spacing and menopause among the Agta women foragers of Cagayan Province, Luzon, the Philippines. Annals of Human Biology, 12, 169-77. Gracey, M. & Hitchcock, N. E. (1985). Studies of growth of Australian infants. In: Nutritional Needs and Assessment of Normal Growth, ed. M. Gracy & F. Falkner, Nestle Nutrition, Vevey/Raven Press, New York. Gracey, M., Murray, H., Hitchcock, N. E., Owles, E. N. & Murphy, B. P. (1983). The nutrition of Australian Aboriginal infants and young children. Nutrition Research, 3, 133-47. Gracey, M., Spargo, R. M., Bottrell, C , Hammond, K., Mulholland, K. & Valentine, J. (1984). Maternal and childhood nutrition among Aborigines of the Kimberley region. Medical Journal of Australia, 141, 506-8. Gracey, M. & Sullivan, H. (1988). Growth of Aboriginal infants in thefirstyear of life in remote communities in northwest Australia. Annals of Human Biology, 15, 375-82. Graham, G. C , Advianzen, B., Rabold, J. & Mellits, E. D. (1982). Later growth of malnourished infants and children - comparison with healthy siblings and parents. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 136, 348-52. Grantham-McGregor, S. M., Powell, C , Stewart, M. & Schofield, W. N. (1982). Longitudinal study of growth and development of young Jamaican children recovering from severe energy deficiency. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 24, 321-81. Grave, K. G. & Brown, T. (1976). Skeletal ossification and the adolescent growth spurt. American Journal of Orthodontics, 69, 620-6. Green, L. J. (1961). The interrelationships among height, weight and chronological, dental and skeletal ages. Angle Orthodontist, 31, 189-93. Greene, L. S. & Johnston, F. E. eds. (1980). Social and biological predictors of nutritional status, physical growth and neurological development. Academic Press, New York. Greksa, L. P. (1990). Age at menarche in Bolivian girls of European & Aymara ancestry. Annals of Human Biology, 17, 49-54.
354
References
Greksa, L. P., Spielvogel, H. & Caceres, E. (1985). Effects of altitude on the physical growth of upper-class children of European ancestry. Annals of Human Biology, 12. 225-32. Greulich, W. W. (1957). A comparison of the physical growth and development of American-born and native Japanese children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 15, 489-515. Greulich, W. W., Giswan, C. S. & Turner, M. L. (1953). The physical growth and development of children who survived the atomic bombing of Hiroshima or Nagasaki. Journal of Pediatrics, 43, 121-45. Greulich, W. W. &Pyle, S. I. (1959). Radiographic Atlas of Skeletal Development of the Hand and Wrist, 2nd edn. Stanford University Press, Stanford. Guha, B. S. (1944) Racial Affinities of the People of India. Oxford University Press, London. Haas, J. D., Moreno-Black, G., Frongillo, E. A., Pabon, A., J., Pareja, L. G., Ybarnegaray, U., J. & Hurtado G. L. (1982). Altitude and infant growth in Bolivia: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 59, 251-62. Habicht, J.-P., Martorell, R., Yarborough, C , Malina, R. M. & Klein, R. E. (1974). Height and weight standards for preschool children. How relevant are ethnic differences in growth potential? Lancet, i, 611-5. Hafez, A. S., Salem, S. L, Cole, T. J., Galal, Q. M. & Massoud, A. (1981). Sexual maturation and growth pattern in Egyptian boys. Annals of Human Biology, 8, 461-8. Hagg, U. & Taranger, J. (1982). Maturation indicators and the pubertal growth spurt. American Journal of Orthodontics, 82, 299-309. Hanna, J. M. & Baker, P. T. (1979). Biocultural correlates to the blood pressure of Samoan migrants in Hawaii. Human Biology, 51, 481-97. Hansen, J. D. L., Freesemann, C , Moodie, A. D. & Evans, D. E. (1971). What does nutritional growth retardation imply? Pediatrics, 47, 299-313. Harlan, W. R., Grillo, G. P., Cornoni-Huntley, J. & Leaverton, P. E. (1979). Secondary sex characteristics of boys 12 to 17 years of age - United States Health Examination Survey. Journal of Pediatrics, 95, 293-7. Harlan, W. R., Harlan, E. A. & Grillo, G. P. (1980). Secondary sex characteristics of girls 12 to 17 years of age - United States Health Examination Survey. Journal of Pediatrics, 96, 1074-8. Harnack, G. A. von, Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H. & Rodriguez, C. A. (1972). Catch-up in height and skeletal maturity in children on long-term treatment for hypothyroidism. Zeitschrift filr Kinderheilkunde, 112, 1-17. Hartz, A. J., Rupley, D. C. & Rimm, A. A. (1984). The association of girth measurement with disease in 32,856 women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 119, 71-80. Harvey, R. G. (1973). A study of human biology of two New Guinea populations. Ph.D. thesis, University of New South Wales, Australia. Hassanali, J. (1985). The third permanent molar eruption in Kenyan Africans and Asians. Annals of Human Biology, 12, 517-24. Hassanali, J. & Odhiambo, J. W. (1981). Ages of eruption of the permanent teeth in Kenyan, African and Asian children. Annals of Human Biology, 8, 425-34. Hatton, M. E. (1955). A measure of the effects of heredity and environment on the eruption of the deciduous teeth. Journal of Dental Research, 34,397-401.
References
355
Hausman, A. J. &Wilmsen,E. N. (1985). Economic change and secular trends in the growth of San children. Human Biology, 57, 563-71. Hauspie, R. C , Das, S. R., Preece, M. A. & Tanner, J. M. (1980). A longitudinal study of growth in height of boys and girls of West Bengal (India) aged six months to 20 years. Annals of Human Biology, 7, 429-41. Hauspie, R. C , Das, S. R., Preece, M. A. & Tanner, J. M. (1982). Degree of resemblance of the pattern of growth among sibs in families of West Bengal (India). Annals of Human Biology, 9, 171^-. Hautvast, J. (1971). Growth in stature and head and face measurements in Dutch children aged 7 to 14. Human Biology, 43, 340-3. Hawk, L. J. & Brook, C. G. D. (1979). Family resemblances of height, weight, and body fatness. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 54, 877-9. Hayasi, M. Y. & Takaishi, M. (1981). Growth centile charts of infants and preschool children - weight and height. Shonihoker Kenkyu (Japanese Journal of Child Health), 40, 396-409. (In Japanese.) Healy, M. J. R. (1986). Statistics of growth standards. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd edn, vol. 3, pp. 47-58. Plenum Press, New York. Heath, B. H. & Carter, J. E. L. (1971). Growth and somatype patterns of Manus children. Territory of New Guinea: application of a modified somatype method to the study of growth patterns. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 35, 49-68. Hebert, J. R. (1985). Effects of components of sanitation on nutritional status: Findings from South Indian settlements. Journal of Epidemiology, 14, 143-52. Hediger, M. L. & Stine, R. A. (1987). Age at menarche based on recall information. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 133-42. Heintz, N. Petit-Marie (1963). Croissance et puberte feminines au Rwanda. Memoires Academie Roy ale des Sciences Naturelles et Medicales, 12, 1-143. Helm, P. & Helm, S. (1984). Decrease in menarcheal age from 1966 to 1983 in Denmark. Ada Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 63, 633-6. Helm, P. & Helm, S. (1987). Uncertainties in designation of age at menarche in the nineteenth century, revised mean for Denmark, 1835. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 371-4. Helm, S. (1979). Skeletal maturity in Danish schoolchildren assessed by the TW2 method. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 51, 345-54. Hems, G. (1980). Associations between breast cancer mortality rates, childbearing and diet in the United Kingdom. British Journal of Cancer. 41, 429-36. Hermanassen, M., Geiger-Benoit, K., Burmeister, J. & Sippell, W. A. (1988). Periodic changes of short-term growth velocity (mini growth spurts) in human growth. Annals of Human Biology, 15, 102-9. Hernandez, M., Castellet, J., Garcia, M., Narvaiza, J. L., Rincon, J. M., Ruiz, I., Sanchez, E., Sobradillo, B. & Zurimendi, A. (1985). Curvas de Crecimiento. Editorial Garsi, Madrid. Hernandez, M., Castellet, J., Narvaiza, J. L., Rincon, J. M., Ruiz, I., Sanchez, E., Sobradillo, B. & Zurimendi, A. (1988). Curves y Tablas de Crecimiento. Editorial Garsi, Madrid. Hiernaux, J. (1964). Weight/height relationship during growth in Africans and Europeans. Human Biology, 36, 273-93. Higgins, M., Kannel, W., Garrison, R., Pinsky, J. & Stokes III, J. (1987).
356
References
Hazards of obesity - the Framingham experience. Acta Medica Scandinavica, suppl. 723, 23-36. Higgins, M. W., Keller, J. B., Metzner, H. L., Moore, F. E. & Ostrander, L. D. (1980). Studies of blood pressure in Tecumseh, Michigan. II. Antecedents in childhood of high blood pressure in young adults. Hypertension, 2, 117-23. Himes, J. H. (1979). Secular changes in body proportions and composition. Monographs of Society for Child Development, 44, 28-58; 103-20. Hitchcock, N. E., Gracey, M., Mailer, R. A. & Spargo, R. M. (1987). Physical size of aboriginal schoolchildren in the Kimberly region. Medical Journal of Australia, 146, 415-9. Hitchcock, N. E., Gracey, M., Mailer, R. A. & Wearne, K. L. (1986^). The Busselton children's survey, 1983. Medical Journal of Australia, 145, 373-6. Hitchcock, N. E., Mailer, R. A. & Gilmour, A. I. (1986/?). Body size of young Australians agedfiveto 16 years. Medical Journal of Australia, 145, 368-72. Hoey, H. M. C. V. & Cox, L. (1987). Irish standards for triceps and subscapular skinfold thickness, Irish Medical Journal, 80, 312-5. Hoey, H. M. C. V., Cox, L. & Tanner, J. M. (1986). The age of menarche in Irish girls. Irish Medical Journal, 79, 283-4. Hoey, H. M. C. V., Tanner, J. M. & Cox, L. A. (1987). Clinical growth standards for Irish children. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, suppl. 338, 1-31. Hoffmans, M. D. A. F., Krombout, D. & de Lazenne Coulander, C. (1989). Body mass index at the age of 18 and its effects on 32-year mortality from coronary heart disease and cancer. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 42, 513-20. Hoshi, H. & Kouchi, M. (1981). Secular trend of the age at menarche of Japanese girls with special regard to the secular acceleration of the age at peak height velocity. Human Biology, 53, 593-8. Houpt, M. J., Adu-Aryee, S., Ghana, K. & Grainer, R. M. (1967). Eruption times of permanent teeth in the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana. American Journal of Orthodontics, 53, 95. Howells, W. W. (1966). Variability in family lines vs. population variability. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 134, 624—31. Hulanicka, B. & Kotlarz, K. (1983). Thefinalphase of growth in height. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 429-34. Hyndman, D. C , Ulijaszek, S. J. & Lourie, J. A. (1989). Variability in body physique, ecology, and subsistence in the Fly River region of Papua, New Guinea. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 79, 89-101. Indian Council of Medical Research (1972). Growth and physical development of Indian infants and children. New Delhi. Technical Report Series, 18. Infante, P. F. (1974). Sex differences in the chronological and deciduous tooth emergence in white and black children. Journal of Dental Research, 53, 418. Infante, P. F. & Owen, G. M. (1973). Relation of chronology of deciduous tooth emergence to height, weight and head circumference in children. Archives of Oral Biology, 18, 1411. Institut Reginal Pour La Sante (IRSA) (1984). Reperes pour La Sante, 6 a 18 ans. Credits Regionalises de Prevention du Ministere des Affaires Sociales et de la Solidarity Nationale, La Riche, Cedex. Janes, M. D. (1970). The effect of social class on the physical growth of Nigerian Yoruba children. Bulletin of the International Epidemiological Association, 20, 127-36.
References
357
Jaswal, S. (1983). Age and sequence of permanent-tooth emergence among Khasis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 62, 177-86. Jenicek, M. & Demirjian, A. (1974). Age at menarche in French-Canadian urban girls. Annals of Human Biology, 1, 339-46. Johnston, F. E. (1963). Skeletal age and its prediction in Philadelphia children. Human Biology, 35, 192-201. Johnston, F. E. (1985). Health implications of childhood obesity. Annals of Internal Medicine, 103, 1068-72. Johnston, F. E., Bogin, B., McVean, R. B. & Newman, B. C. (1984a). A comparison of international standards versus local reference data for the triceps and subcropular skinfolds of Guatemalan children and youth. Human Biology, 56, 157-71. Johnston, F. E., Hamill, P. V. V. & Lemeshow, S. (1974). Skinfold thicknesses in a national probability sample of U.S. males and females aged 6 through 17 years. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 40, 321-4. Johnston, F. E., Laughlin, W. S., Harper, A. B. & Ensroth, A. E. (1982). Physical growth of St. Lawrence Island Eskimos: body size, proportion, and composition. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 58, 397-402. Johnston, F. E., Low, S. M., de Baessa, Y. & MacVean, R. B. (1985). Growth status of disadvantaged urban Guatemalan children of a resettled community. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 68, 215-25. Johnston, F. E. & Schell, L. M. (1979). Anthropometric variation of native American children and adults. In The First American: Origins, Affinities and Adaptations, ed. W. S. Laughlin & A. B. Harper, pp. 275-91. Gustar Fischer, New York. Johnston, F. E., Sharko, J., Cravioto, J. & De Licardie, E. (19846). Growth and skeletal maturation of Mexican children 4 to 7 years, with and without diagnoses of chronic protein-energy malnutrition. In: Human Growth and Development, ed. J. Borms, R. Hauspie, A. Sand, C. Susanne & M. Hebbelinck. Plenum Press, New York and London. Johnston, F. E., Wainer, H. E., Thissen, D. & MacVean, R. (1976). Hereditary and environmental determinants of growth in height in a longitudinal sample of children and youth of Guatemalan and European ancestry. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 44, 469-76. Jones, D. L., Hemphill, W. & Meyers, E. S. A. (1973). Height, weight and other physical characteristics of New South Wales children. Part I. Children aged five years and over. New South Wales Department of Health, G. 96543-a K5705. Jones, D. Y., Nesheim, M. C. & Habicht, J.-P. (1985). Influences in child growth asociated with poverty in the 1970s: an examination of HANES I and HANES II cross-sectional vs. national surveys. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 42, 714^24. Jordan, J. R. (1979). Desarrollo Humano en Cuba. Ed. Cientifico-Tecnica, La Habana. Jordan, J. R. & Gutierrez-Muniz, J. A. (1984). The Cuban National Child Growth Study. In: Human Growth and Development, ed. J. Borms, R. Hauspie, A. Sand, C. Susanne & M. Hebbelinck, pp. 173-8. Plenum Press, New York. Jordan J., Tanner, J. M., Goldstein, H., Bebelagua, A., Ruben, M. & Hernandez, J. (1975). The 1972 Cuban National Child Growth Study as an example
358
References
of population health monitoring: design and methods. Annals of Human Biology, 2, 153-71. Kamalamathan, G. S., Hanck, H. M. & Kittiveja, C. (1960). Dental development of children in a Siamese village, Bang Chan, 1953. Journal of Dental Research, 39, 453-61. Kantero, R. & Widholm, O. (1971). A statistical analysis of the menstrual patterns of 8,000 Finnish girls and their mothers. II. The age of menarche in Finnish girls in 1969. Ada Obstreticia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, suppl. 14. Kaplowitz, H., Martorell, R. & Mendoza, F. S. (1989). Fatness and fat distribution in Mexican-American children and youths from the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. American Journal of Human Biology, 1, 631-48. Kaplowitz, H. J., Wild, K. A., Mueller, W. H., Decker, M. & Tanner, J. M. (1988). Serial and parent-child changes in components of body fat distribution and fatness in children from the London longitudinal growth study, ages 2 to 18 years. Human Biology, 60, 739-58. Karlberg, P., Tar anger, J., Engstrom, I., Lichtenstein, H. & SvennbergRedegren, I. (1976). The Somatic Development of Children in a Swedish Urban Community. Goteborg, Univ. Goteborg & Karolinska Institute, Sweden. Katz, S. H., Hediger, M. L., Schall, J. I., Bowers, E. J., Barker, W. F., Aurand, S., Eveleth, P. B., Gruskin, A. B. & Parks, J. S. (1980). Blood pressure, growth and maturation from childhood through adolescence: Mixed longitudinal analyses of the Philadelphia Blood Pressure Project. Hypertension, 2, 1-55. Kaul, K. K., Rajput, V. J., Phadnis, R. V., Puri, V. S. & Khurana, O. (1980). Growth of testicular size in upper class adolescent boys. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 72, 132-6. Kaul, S. S. & Pathak, R. K. (1988). Estimation of calendar age from the emergence times of permanent teeth in Punjabi children in Chandigarh, India. Annals of Human Biology, 15, 307-10. Kaur, D. P. & Singh, R. (1983). Parent-adult offspring correlations and heritability of body measurements in a rural Indian population. Annals of Human Biology, 8, 333-9. Kennedy, E. T. & Korelchuck, M. (1984). The effect of WIC supplemental feedings on birth weight: a case-control analysis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 40, 579-85. Kent, R. L., Reed, R. B. & Moorrees, F. A. Coenraad (1978). Associations in emergence age among permanent teeth. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 48, 131-42. Khanjanasthti, P., Chawewan, C. & Siripat, W. (n.d.). Growth of Bangkok Children, 0-18 Years. Mahidol University, Bangkok (In Thai, tables in English.) Kielmann, A. A. (1977). Weight fluctuations after immunization in a rural preschool child community. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 30, 592-8. Kielmann, A. A. & McCord, C. (1978). Weight-for-age as an index of risk of death in children. The Lancet, i, 1247-9. Kielmann, A. A., Uberoi, I. S., Chandra, R. K. & Mehra, V. L. (1977). Effect of
References
359
nutritional status on immune capacity and immune responses in preschool children in a rural community in India. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 54, 477-84. Kikuta, F. & Takaishi, M. (1987). Studies on physical growth standards for schoolchildren in Japan. Part I. Centile curves for height and weight based on cross-sectional data and a consideration of secular trend of the centile curves. Japanese Journal ofChild Health, 46,27-33. (In Japanese, English abstract.) Kim, Yoon Shin (1982). Growth status of Korean schoolchildren in Japan. Annals of Human Biology, 9, 453-8. Kimura, K. (1976). On the skeletal maturation of Japanese-American white hybrids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 44, 83-90. Kimura, K. {1911a). Skeletal maturity of the hand and wrist in Japanese children by the TW2 method. Annals of Human Biology, 4, 353-6. Kimura, K. (1911b). Skeletal maturity of the hand and wrist in Japanese children in Sapporo by the TW2 method. Annals of Human Biology, 4, 449-54. Kimura, K. (1981). Skeletal maturity in twins. Journal of Anthropology Society Nippon, 89, 457-78. Kimura, K. (1983). Skeletal maturity and bone growth in twins. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 60, 491-7. Kimura, K. (1984). Studies on growth and development in Japan. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 27, 179-214. Kissebah, A. H., Peiris, A. & Evans, D. J. (1988) Mechanisms associating body fat distribution to glucose intolerance and diabetes mellitus. In: Fat Distribution During Growth and Later Health Outcomes, ed. C. Bouchard & F. E. Johnston, pp. 203-20. Alan B. Liss, New York. Knott, V. B. & Meredith, H. V. (1966). Statistics on eruption of the permanent dentition from serial data for North American white children. Angle Orthodontist, 36, 68-79. Knudtzon, J., Waaler, P. E., Skjaerven, R., Solberg, L. K. & Steen, J. (1989). Growth data for Norwegian children 0-4 years and new clinical growth charts. In: Auxology '88: Perspectives in the Science of Growth and Development, ed. J. M. Tanner, Smith Gordon, London. Kolasa, E., Boran, S. & Wojewoda, A. (1988). Developpement des ecolieres zairoises dans differentes conditions de milieu. Materialy i Prace Antropologiczne, 109, 15-22. (In Polish, French summary.) Kondo, S. & Eto, M. (1972). Physical growth studies on Japanese-American children in comparison with native Japanese. In Proceedings of meeting for review and seminar of the US-Japan cooperative research on human adaptabilities, Kyoto, May 1972. Japan Society for the Promotion of Science and the National Science Foundation, Kyoto. Kopczynska-Sikorska, J. & Niedzwiecka, Z. (1984). Skeletal maturity in children brought up under good socio-economic conditions. In: Human Growth and Development, ed. J. Borms, R. Hauspie, A. Sand, C. Susanne and M. Hellelinck, pp. 397-406. Plenum Press, New York. Koppel, van de J. M. H. & Hewlett, B. S. (1986). Growth of Aka pygmies and Bagandus of the Central African Republic. In: African Pygmies, ed. L. L. Cavalli-Sforza. Academic Press, New York. Koshi, K., Haataja, J. & Lappalainen, M. (1961). Skeletal development of hand and wrist in Finnish children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 19, 379-82.
360
References
Kotchen, J. M , McKean, H. E., Neill, M. & Kotchen, T. A. (1989). Blood pressure trends associated with changes in height and weight from early adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 42, 735-41. Koyoumdjisky-Kaye, E., Baras, M. & Grover, N. B. (1977). Stages of emergence of dentition - improved classification and its application to Israeli children. Growth, 41, 285-96. Kramer, P. L. (1983). Adolescent growth patterns in a northern Italian community. Human Biology, 55, 687-706. Kristmundsdottir, F., Burwell, R. G., Marshall, W. A. & Small, P. (1984). Crosssectional study of skeletal maturation in normal children from Nottingham and London. Annals of Human Biology, 11, 133-40. Krogman, W. M. (1941). Growth of Man. Tabulae Biologicae, Amsterdam. 936 pp. Krogman, W. M. (1956). The physical growth of children; an appraisal of studies 1950-55. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 20, 1-91. Krogman, W. M. (1970). Growth of the head, face, trunk, and limbs in Philadephia white and Negro children of elementary and high school age. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 35, 1-80. Kulin, H. E., Bwibo, N., Mutie, D. & Santner, S. J. (1982). The affect of chronic childhood malnutrition on pubertal growth and development. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 36, 527-36. Kurniewicz-Witczakowa, R., Miesowicz, I., Niedzwiecka, Z. & Pietrzak, M. (1983). Rozwoj Fizycyny Dzieci I Mlodzieizy Warszawskiej. Institute of Mother and Child, Warsaw, Poland. Lai, E.-S. & Yaung, C.-L. (1987). A survey of growth and sexual development of adolescent students in Changua City. Growth of body height and weight. Proceedings of the National Science Council, R. O. C. Lai, E.-S. & Yaung, C.-L. (1988). Growth curves of adolescent students in Changhua City, Taiwan. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, 87, 633-40. Lai, E.-S. & Yaung, C.-L. (n.d.). Body height attained at the time of peak height velocity and at menarche - its relation with adult height. (Manuscript). Lampl, M., Johnston, F. & Malcolm, A. (1978). The effects of protein supplementation on the growth and skeletal maturation of New Guinea school children. Annals of Human Biology, 5, 219-27. Largo, R. H. & Prader, A. (1983a). Pubertal development in Swiss boys. Helvetica Paediatrica Ada, 38, 211-28. Largo, R. H. & Prader, A. (19836). Pubertal development in Swiss girls. Helvetica Paediatrica Ada, 38, 229-43. Larsson, B. (1988). Fat distribution and risk for death, myocardial infarction and stroke. In: Fat Distribution During Growth and Later Health Outcomes, ed. C. Bouchard & F. E. Johnston, pp. 193-202. Alan B. Liss, New York. Laska-Mierzejewska, T., Milicer, H. & Piechaczek, H. (1982). Age at menarche and its secular trend in urban and rural girls in Poland. Annals of Human Biology, 9, 227-34. Lau, S. P. & Fung, K. P. (1987). Secular trend of growth in Hong Kong children. Hong Kong Journal of Paediatrics, 4, 33^2.
References
361
Lavelle, C. B. (1976). The timing of tooth emergence in four population samples. Journal of Dentistry, 4, 231-6. Lee, M. M. C. (1968). The clustering phenomenon and group-insequence of hand-wrist ossification centres, as illustrated by Chinese children from Hong Kong. Human Biology, 40, 345-62. Lee, M. M. C , Chan, S. T., Low, W. D. & Chang, K. S. F. (1965a). The relationship between dental and skeletal maturation in Chinese children. Annals of Oral Biology, 10, 883-91. Lee, M. M. C , Chang, K. S. F. & Chan, M. M. C. (1963). Sexual maturation of Chinese girls in Hong Kong. Pediatrics, 32, 389-98, Lee, M. M. C , Low, W. D. & Chang, K. S. F. (1965/?). Eruption of the permanent dentition of Southern Chinese children in Hong Kong. Archives of Oral Biology, 10, 849-61. Lejarraga, H. (1986a). Peso y talla de 15,214 adolescentes de todo el pais. Tendencia secular. Archivos Argentina de Pediatria, 84, 219-35. Lejarraga, H. (1986/?). Criterios de diagnostico y tratiamiento: Crecimiento y Desarrollo. Sociedade Argentina de Pediatria. Lejarraga, H., Diaz, C. B. & Guerro, A. (1986). Fetal growth - cross sectional study of anthropometric measurements on 1,370 healthy newborn babies from urban Buenos Aires, and standards for birth weight, head circumference, and birth length at different gestational ages. Tables and graphs. Revista del Hospital de ninos, 18, 9-21. Lejarraga, H., Sanchirico, F. U. & Cusminsky, M. (1980). Age at menarche in urban Argentinian girls. Annals of Human Biology, 1, 579-81. Leonard, W. R. (1989). Nutritional determinants of high altitude growth in Nunoa, Peru. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 80, 341-52. Leung, A. A. F., Lam, Y. M., Liu, S., Lo, L., Mok, K. W., Wong, M. L., Cheung, L. P., Fox, K. M., Fung, S. C , Lei, W. K., Poon, K. F. & Davies, D. P. (1987). Height, weight and head circumference in Shatin children 3-7 years of age: further evidence for secular changes. Hong Kong Journal of Paediatrics, 4, 43-51. Leung, S. S. F. & Davies, D. P. (1989). Anthropometric assessment of nutritional status: a need for caution. In: Auxology '88: Perspectives in the Science of Growth and Development, ed. J. M. Tanner. Smith Gordon, London. Levine, E. (1972). The skeletal development of children of four South African populations. Human Biology, 44, 399^2. Lew, E. A. & Garfinkel, L. (1979). Variations in mortality by weight among 750,000 men and women. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 32, 563-76. Liest0l, K. (1982). Social conditions and menarcheal age: the importance of early years of life. Annals of Human Biology, 9, 521-38. de Limongi, Y. (1977). El desarollo puberal de los adolescentes venezolanos. Acta Cientifica Venezolano, 28, 160-4. Lindgren, G. (1976). Height, weight, and menarche in Swedish urban schoolchildren in relation to socio-economic and regional factors. Annals of Human Biology, 3, 501-28. Lindgren, G. W. & Strandell, A. (1986). Fysisk Utvecklingoch Hdlsa. Rapport 4. Hogskolan for Lararutbildning: Stockholm. Institutionen for Pedogogik. Ling, J. Y. K. & King, N. M. (1987). Secular trends in stature and weight in southern Chinese children in Hong Kong. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 187-90.
362
References
Little, B. B., Bushang, P. H. & Malina, R. M. (1988). Socioeconomic variation in estimated growth velocity of schoolchildren from a rural subsistence agricultural community in southern Mexico. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 76, 443-8. Little, B. B., Malina, R. M., Bushang, P. H. & DeMoss, J. H. (1987). Sibling correlations for growth status in schoolchildren from a rural community in Oaxaca, Mexico. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 11-22. Little, M. A., Galvin, K. & Mugambi, M. (1983). Cross-sectional growth of nomadic Turkana pastoralists. Human Biology, 55, 811-30. Livshits, G. (1986). Growth and development of body weight, height and circumference during the first two years of life: quantitative genetic aspects. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 387-96. Ljung, B.-O., Fischbein, S. & Lindgren, H. (1977). A comparison of growth of twins and singleton controls of matched age followed longitudinally from 10 to 18 years. Annals of Human Biology, 4, 405-16. Lohman T. G., Roche, A. F. & Martorell, R., eds. (1988). Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual. Human Kinetics Books, Champaign, Illinois. Lourie, J. A., Taufa, R., Cattani, J. & Anderson, W. (1986). The Ok Tedi Health and Nutrition Project, Papua New Guinea: Physique, growth, nutritional status of the Wopkaimin of the Star Mountains. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 517-36. Low, W. D. (1978). Standards of skeletal age for southern Chinese children. Society of Community Medicine of Hong Kong Bulletin, 9, 10-21. Low, W. D., Fung, S. H. & Cerny, E. E. (1976a). Biological age of southern Chinese boys. Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und Anthropologie, 67, 136-44. Low, W. D. Fung, S. H. & Cerny, E. E. (1976ft). Biological age of southern Chinese girls. Zeitschrift fiir Morphologie und Anthropologie, 67, 264—74. Low, W. D., Kung, L. S. & Leong, J. C. Y. (1982). Secular trend in the sexual maturation of Chinese girls. Human Biology, 54, 539-50. Low, W. D., Chan, S. T., Chang, K. S. F. & Lee, M. M. C. (1964). Skeletal maturation of southern Chinese children in Hong Kong. Child Development, 35, 1313-36. McCullough, J. M. (1982). Secular trends for stature in adult male Yucatec Maya to 1968. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 58, 221-5. McGarvey, S. T. & Baker, P. T. (1979). The effects of modernization and migration on Samoan blood pressures. Human Biology, 51, 461-79. McGregor, I. A., Rahman, A. K., Thompson, B., Billewicz, W. Z. & Thomson, A. M. (1968fl). The growth of young children in a Gambian village. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 62, 34152. McGregor, I. A., Thomson, A. M. & Billewicz, W. Z. (1968ft). The development of primary teeth in children from a group of Gambian villages, and critical examination of its use for estimating age. British Journal of Nutrition, 22, 307-14. MacMahon, B. (1973). Age at menarche: United States. Department of Health, Education and Welfare Publication No. (HRA) 74-1615, NHS, Series 11, No. 133. National Center for Health Statistics, Rockville, Maryland. MacNeish, R. S. (1971). Early man in the Andes. In: Early Man in America, pp. 69-79. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.
References
363
Magnusson, T. E. (1978). Age at menarche in Iceland. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 48, 511^. Magnusson, T. E. (1982). Emergence of primary teeth and onset of dental stages in Icelandic children. Community Dental and Oral Epidemiology, 10, 91-7. Malcolm, L. A. (1969). Growth and development of the Kaiapit children of the Markham Valley, New Guinea. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 31, 39-52. Malcolm, L. A. (1970a). Growth and mortality of the infant and toddler of the Asai Valley in the New Guinea highlands. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 23, 1090-5. Malcolm, L. A. (19706). Growth and development of the Bundi child of the New Guinea highlands. Human Biology, 42, 293-328. Malcolm, L. A. (1971). Growth and development in New Guinea. A study of the Bundi people of the Madang district. Institute of Human Biology Monograph Series, No.l. Institute of Human Biology, Madang, Malcolm, L. A. (1973). Deciduous dental development and age assessment of New Guinean children. Environmental Child Health, 19(2A), 240-1. Malcolm, L. A. & Bue, A. (1970). Eruption times of permanent teeth and the determination of age in New Guinea children. Tropical and Geographical Medicine, 22, 307-12. Malik, S. L. & Hauspie, R. C. (1986). Age at menarche among high altitude Bods of Ladakh (India). Human Biology, 58, 541-8. Malik, S. L. & Singh, I. P. (1978). Growth trends among male Bods of Ladakh - a high altitude population. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 48, 171-6. Malina, R. M. (1970). Skeletal maturation studied longitudinally over one year in American whites and negroes six through thirteen years of age. Human Biology, 42, 377-90. Malina, R. M. (1973). Biological substrata. In: Comparative Studies of Blacks and Whites in the United States, ed. K. S. Miller & E. M. Dregor, pp. 53-121. Seminar Press, Inc., New York & London. Malina, R. M. (1979a). Secular changes in size and maturity: causes and effects. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 49, 59-120. Malina, R. M. (19796). Secular changes in growth maturation and physical performance. Exercise and Sports Sciences Review, 6, 203-55. Malina, R. M. (1983). Menarche in athletes: A synthesis and hypothesis. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 1-24. Malina, R. M., Brown, K. H. & Zavaletta, A. N. (1987a). Relative lower extremity length in Mexican American and in American black and white youth. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 72, 89-94. Malina, R. M. & Chumlea, C. (1977). Age at menarche in deaf children. Annals of Human Biology, 4, 485-8. Malina, R. M., Chumlea, C , Stepick, C. D. & Lopez, F. A. (1977). Age at menarche of Oaxaca, Mexico schoolgirls, with comparative data for other areas of Mexico. Annals of Human Biology, 4, 551-8. Malina, R. M., Habicht, J.-P., Yarbrough, C , Martorell, R. & Klein, R. E. (1974). Skinfold thickness at seven sites in rural Guatemalan Ladino children birth through seven years of age. Human Biology, 46, 453-69. Malina, R. M., Himes, J. H. & Stepick, C. D. (1976). Skeletal maturity of the
364
References
hand and wrist in Oaxaca schoolchildren. Annals of Human Biology, 3, 211-9. Malina, R. M., Himes, J. H., Stepick, C. D., Lopez, F. G. & Buschang, P. H. (1981). Growth of rural and urban children in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 54, 327-36. Malina, R. M. & Little, B. B. (1981). Comparison of TW1 and TW2 skeletal age differences in American Black and White and in Mexican children 6-13 years of age. Annals of Human Biology, 8, 543-8. Malina, R. M., Little, B. B., Buschang, P. H., DeMoss, J. & Selby, H. A. (1985). Socioeconomic variation in the growth status of children in a subsistence agricultural community. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 68, 385-91. Malina, R. M., Little, B. B., Stern, M. P., Gaskill, S. P. & Hazuda, H. P. (1983). Ethnic and social class differences in selected anthropometric characteristics of Mexican American and Anglo adults: the San Antonio Heart Study. Human Biology, 55, 867-83. Malina, R. M., Martorell, R. & Mendoza, F. (1986). Growth studies of Mexican American children and youths: historical trends and contemporary issues. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 29, 45-79. Malina, R. M., Selby, H. A., Buschang, P. H. & Aronson, W. L. (1980). Growth status of schoolchildren in a rural Zapotec community in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, in 1968 and 1978. Annals of Human Biology, 7, 367-74. Malina, R. M. & Zavaleta, A. N. (1980). Secular trend in the stature and weight of Mexican-American children in Texas between 1930 and 1978. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 52, 453-62. Malina, R. M., Zavaleta, A. N. & Little, B. B. (1987ft). Body size, fatness, and leanness of Mexican American children in Brownsville, Texas: Changes between 1972 and 1983. American Journal of Public Health, 77, 573-7. Manshande, J. P., Vuylsteke, J., Vlietinck, R. & Eeckels, R. (1985). Arm muscle and fat in the evaluation of nutritional status - a study of African pre-school children in three different environments. European Journal of Pediatrics, 144, 32-6. Manson, J. E., Stampfer, M. J., Hennekens, C. H. & Willett, W. C. (1987). Body weight and longevity: A reassessment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 257, 353-6. Mantzagriotou-Meimarides, M. Unpublished Greek national growth curves. Marcondes, E., Berguo, E., Hegg, R., Colli, A. S. & Sampai-Zacchi, M. A. (1982). Crescimento e Desenvolvimento Pubertdrio en Crianqas e Adolescentes Brasilieros. I. Methodologia. Editora Brasileira de Ciencias, Sao Paulo. Marmot, M. G. & Syms, S. L. (1976). Acculturation and cancer: implications for clinical pharmacology. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 25, 164—75. Marques, R. M., Marcondes, E., Berguo, E., Prendi, R. & Unes, J. (1982). Crescimento e Desenvolvimento Pubertdrio en Crianqas e Adolescentes Brasilieros. II. Altura e Peso. Ed. Brasileira de Ciencias, Sao Paulo. Marshall, B. M., Marshall, W. A., Nicoll, A. G., Peters, J. & Ulijaszek, S. J. (n.d.). 'Asian heights and weights compared with standard centiles'. Unpublished manuscript. Marshall, W. A. (1970). Physical growth and development. In Brennemanns Practice of Pediatrics, pp. 1-34. Harper & Row, New York.
References
365
Marshall, W. A. (1971). Evaluation of growth rate in height over periods of less than one year. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 46, 414-20. Marshall, W. A. (1975). The relation of variation in children's growth rates to seasonal climatic variations. Annals of Human Biology, 2, 243-50. Marshall, W. A., Ashcroft, M. T. & Bryan, G. (1970). Skeletal maturation of the hand and wrist of Jamaican children. Human Biology, 42, 419-35. Marshall, W. A. & Tanner, J. M. (1970). Variation in the pattern of pubertal changes in boys. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 45, 13-23. Marshall, W. A. & Tanner, J. M. (1986). Puberty. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner, & J. M. Tanner, 2nd edn, vol. 2, pp. 171-210. Plenum Press, New York and London. Martin-Bothig, I., Eisenblatter, D., Classen, E. & Luder, H. (1989). Relationship between childhood and adult risk factor levels; The cohort study BerlinPankow. Second International Conference on Preventive Cardiology, June, 1989, Washington, D. C. Martins, D., da Costa (1968). Dinamica do crecimento e desenvolvimento da crianqa em Mozambique. Thesis, University of Coimbra. Martorell, R. (1980). Interrelationships between diet, infectious disease and nutritional status. In: Social and Biological Predictors of Nutritional Status, Physical Growth and Neurological Development, ed. L. Greene & F. E. Johnston, pp. 81-106. Academic Press, New York. Martorell, R. & Habicht, J.-P. (1986). Growth in early childhood in developing countries. In: Human Growth: a Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd edn, vol. 3, pp. 241-62. Plenum Press, New York. Martorell, R., Leslie, J. & Moock, P. R. (1984). Characteristics and determinants of child nutritional status in Nepal. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 39, 74-86. Martorell, R., Malina, R. M., Castillo, R. O., Mendoza, F. S. & Pawson, I. G. (1988). Body proportions in three ethnic groups; children and youths 2-17 years in NHANES II and HHANES. Human Biology, 60, 205-22. Martorell, R., Mendoza, F. S., Castillo, R. O., Pawson, I. G. & Budge, C. C. (1987). Short and plump physique of Mexican-American children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 73, 475-88. Martorell, R., Yarborough, C , Lechtig, A., Delgado, H. & Klein, R. E. (1977). Genetic environment interaction in physical growth. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, 66, 579-84. Marubini, E. & Barghini, G. (1969). Richerche sull'eta media di comparse della puberta nella popolazione scolare femminilie di Carrara. Minerva Pediatrica, 21, 281-5. Marubini, E. & Milani, S. (1986). Approaches to the analysis of longitudinal data. In: Human Growth: a Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, vol. 3, pp. 33-79. Plenum Press, New York and London. Mason, E. S., Davies, D. P. & Marshall, W. A. (1982). Early postnatal weight gain: comparisons between Asian and white Caucasian infants. Early Human Development, 6, 253-5. Masse, G. (1969). Croissance et developpement de l'enfant a Dakar. Biometrie Humaine, 4, 13-23. Masse, G. & Hunt, E. E. (1963). Skeletal matutation of the hand and wrist in West African children. Human Biology, 35. 3-25. Masse, G., Moreigne, F. & Senecal, J. (1961). Poids et tailles d'enfants dakarois
366
References
pendant les quatre premieres annees de la vie. Bulletin de la Societe Medicale d'Afrique Noir de Langue Francaise, 6, 661-72. Mather, K. & Jinks, J. L. (1963). Correlations between relatives arising from sexlinked genes. Nature, 198, 314-5. Mathiasen, M. S. (1973). Determination of bone age and recording of minor skeletal hand anomalies in normal children. Danish Medical Bulletin, 20, 80-5. Matsumoto, K. (1982). Secular acceleration of growth in height in Japanese and its social background. Annals of Human Biology, 9, 399-410. Mayhall, J. T., Belier, P. L. & Mayhall, M. F. (1977). Permanent tooth emergence timing of Northern Ontario Indians. Ontario Dentist, 54, 8-10. Mayhall, J. T., Belier, P. L. & Mayhall, M. F. (1978). Canadian Eskimo permanent tooth emergence timing. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 49, 211-6. Melsen, B., Wenzel, A., Miletic, T., Andreasen, J., Vagn-Hansen, P. L. & Terp, S. (1986). Dental and skeletal maturity in adoptive children: assessments at arrival and after one year in the admitting country. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 153-60. Mendez, J. & Behrhorst, C. (1963). The anthropometric characteristics of Indian and urban Guatemalans, 1961. Human Biology, 35, 457-69. Mendez-Castellano, H., Lopez Contreras-Blanco, M., Landaeta-Jimenez, M., Gonzalez-Tineo, A. & Pereira, I. (1986). Estudio transversal de Caracas. Archivos Venezolanos de Puericultura y Pediatria, 49, 111-55. Meredith, H. V. (1968«). Body size of contemporary youth in different parts of the world. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 34, 7, Serial No. 131. Meredith, H. V. (1968b). Body size of contemportary groups of pre-school children studied in different parts of the world. Child Development, 39, 335-77. Meredith, H. V. (1969). Body size of contemporary groups of 8-year-old children studied in different parts of the world. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 34, No. 1, Serial No. 125. Meredith, H. V. (1970). Body size of contemporary groups of one-year-old infants studied in different parts of the world. Child Development, 41, 551-600. Meredith, H. V. (1971a). Growth in body size: a compendium of findings on contemporary children living in different parts of the world. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 6, 154-238. Meredith, H. V. (1971b). Human head circumferences from birth to early adulthood: racial, regional and sex comparisons. Growth, 35, 233-51. Meredith, H. V. (1973). Gingival emergence of human deciduous teeth: a synoptic report. Environmental Child Health, 19(2A), 195-9. Meredith, H. V. (1982). Research between 1950 and 1980 on urban-rural differences in body size and growth rate of children and youths. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 17, 83-138. Meredith, H. V. (1985). Childhood studies on thickness of skin and subcutaneous adipose tissue at arm back: a review. Human Biology, 57, 525-62. Merimee, T. J., Zopf, J., Hewlett, B. & Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1987). Insulin-like growth factors in pygmies. The New England Journal of Medicine, 316, 90611.
References
367
Mesa, M. D. (1988). Permanent tooth eruption of Spanish children. Collegium Antropologico, 12, 141-6. Metcoff, J. (1986). Association of fetal growth with maternal nutrition. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd edn., vol. 3, pp. 333-88. Plenum Press, New York and London. Metcoff, J., Klein, E. R. & Nichols, B. L. (1981). Nutrition of the child: maternal nutritional status and fetal outcome. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 84 (suppl.), 651-817. Michaut, E., Niang, F. & Dan, V. (1972). La maturation osseuse pendant la periode pubertaire. Annales de Radiologie, 15, 767-9. Micozzi, M. (1985). Nutrition, body size and breast cancer. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 28, 175-206. Micozzi, M. (1987). Cross-cultural correlations of childhood growth and adult breast cancer. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 73, 525-37. Micozzi, M. S. & Schatzin, A. (1985). International correlation of anthropometric variables and adolescent growth patterns with breast cancer incidence. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 66, 206. Miklashevskaya, N. N., Solovyeva, V. S., Ghilyarova, O. A. & Peskina, M. Yu. (1983). Growth processes in Abkhazian children and adolescents of the longevity population. Garcia de Orta; Serie Antropobiologico, (Lisbon), 2, 169-74. Miklashevskaya, N. N., Solovyeva, V. S. & Godina, L. (1988). Growth Processes in Children and Adolescents. Moscow. (In Russian.) Miklashevskaya, N. N., Solovyeva, V. S., Godina, E. Z. & Kondik, V. M. (1972). Growth processes in man under conditions of the high mountains. Transactions of the Moscow Society of Naturalists, 43, 181-93. (In Russian with English summary.) Milan, F. A. (1970). The demography of an Alaskan Eskimo Village. Arctic Anthropology, 7, 26-43. Montagu, M. F. A. (1960). An Introduction to Physical Anthropology, 3rd edn. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois. Moorrees, C. F. A. (1965). Normal variation in dental development determined with reference to tooth eruption status. Journal of Dental Research, 44, 16173. Moorrees, C. F. A, Fanning, E. A. & Hunt, E. E. (1963). Formation and resorbtion of three deciduous teeth in children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 21, 205-13. Moorrees, C. F. A. & Kent, R. L. (1978). A step function model using tooth cavities to assess the developmental timing of the dentition. Annals of Human Biology, 5, 55-68. Mora, J. O., Herrera, M. A., Suescum, J., de Navarro, L. & Wagner, M. (1981). The effects of nutritional supplementation on physical growth of children at risk from malnutrition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 34, 1885-92. Morisio Guidetti, L., Berti. E., Benso, L., Gambotto, S., Orru, D. & Pastorin, L. (1985). Carte di distanza delle pliche tricipitale e sottoscapolare fra 3 e 11 anni. Rivista della Societa Italiana di Scienza dell' Alimentazione, 14, 201-4. Mueller, W. H. (1986). The genetics of size and shape in children and adults. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd edn, vol. 3, pp. 145-68. Plenum Press, New York and London. Mueller, W. H. (1988). Ethnic differences in fat distribution during growth. In:
368
References
Fat Distribution During Growth and Later Health Outcomes, ed. C. Bouchard & F. E. Johnston, pp. 127-46. Alan B. Liss, New York. Mueller, W. H., Joos, S. K., Hanis, C. L., Zavaleta, A. N., Eichner, J. & Schull, W. J. (1984). The Diabetes Alert Study: Growth, fatness, fat patterning, adolescence through adulthood in Mexican Americans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 64, 389-99. Mueller, W. H., Murillo, F., Palomino, H., Bedzioch, M. Chakraborty, R. Fuerst, P. & Schull, W. J. (1980). The Aymara of Western Bolivia: V. Growth and development in an hypoxic environment. Human Biology, 52, 529-16. Mueller, W. H., Schull, W. J. & Rothhammer, F. (1981). Studies of the Aymara of highland, intermontane and coastal Chile. In: Health in the Andes, ed. J. W. Bastien & J. M. Donahue, pp. 69-91. American Anthropological Association, Washington, D. C. Mueller, W. H., Schull, V. N., Schull, W. J., Soto, P. & Rothhammer, F. (1978«). A multinational Andean genetic and health program: Growth and development in an hypoxic environment. Annals of Human Biology, 5, 329-52. Mueller, W. H., Yen, F., Rothhammer, F. & Schull, W. J. (19786). Multinational Andean genetic and health program: VII. Lung function and physical growth-multivariate analyses in high- and low-altitude populations. Aviation Space & Environmental Medicine, 49, 1188-96. Mukherjee, D. K. (1973). Deciduous dental eruption in low income groups of Bengali Hindu children. Environmental Child Health, 19(2A), 207-10. Muller, M., Eaton-Evans, J. & Dugdale, A. E. (1984). Growth of Aboriginal infants. Medical Journal of Australia, 141, 228-30. Musaiger, A. O., Gregory, W. B. & Haas, J. D. (1989). Growth patterns of school-children in Bahrain. Annals of Human Biology, 16, 155-67. Nagai, N., Matsumoto, K., Mino, T., Takeuchi, H. & Takeda, S. (1980). The secular trends in the menarcheal age and the maximum growth age in height for Japanese schoolgirls. Wakayama Medical Reports, 23, 41-5. Najjar, M. F. & Rowland, M. (1987). Anthropometric Reference Data and Prevalence of Overweight, United States, 1976-80. Vital & Health Statistics, series 11, no. 238. National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, Maryland. Nakamura, I., Shimura, M., Nonaka, K. & Muira, T. (1986). Changes of recollected menarcheal age and month among women in Tokyo over a period of 90 years. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 547-54. National Academy of Sciences (1980). Recommended Dietary Allowances, 9th revised edition. Washington, D. C. Neill, J. J., Gurney, J. M., Kuti, O. R., Doherty-Akinkugbe, D., Hanafy, M. M., Kassem, S. A., El Lozy, M., Field, E. E., Mendoza, H. R. & McDowell, M. R. (1973). Deciduous dental eruption time and protein-calorie malnutrition from different parts of the world. Environmental Child Health, 19(2A), 217-22. New Zealand Department of Health (1971). Physical development of New Zealand schoolchildren, 1969. Special Report No. 38, Health Services Research Unit. Department of Health, Wellington. Neyzi, O., Alp, H. & Orhan, A. (1975a). Sexual maturation in Turkish girls. Annals of Human Biology, 2, 49-60.
References
369
Neyzi, O., Alp, H. & Yalcindag, A. (1973). Heights and weights in Turkish children. Environmental Child Health, 19(2A), 5-13. Neyzi, O., Alp, H., Yalcindag, A. & Yakacikli, S. (19756). Sexual maturation in Turkish boys. Annals of Human Biology, 2, 251-9. Neyzi, O., Gunoz, H., Uzel, T., Celenk, A., Ozsarfati, J., Sait, R. & Yenerer, N. (1984). Bone maturation in Turkish newborns. In: Human Growth and Development, ed. J. Borms, R. Hauspie, A. Sand, C. Susanne & M. Hebbelinck, pp. 375-86. Plenum Press, New York. NICHD (1986). Workshop on Childhood Obesity, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, March, 1986. Nicholson, A. B. & Harley, C. (1953). Indices of physiological maturity: derivation and inter-relationships. Child Development, 24, 3-38. Nicoletti, I., Cheli, D., Cocco, E., Salvi, A. & Socci, A. (1978). Individual skeletal profiles based on the percentiles of the bone stages: a method for estimating skeletal maturity. Ada Medical Auxologica, 10, 19-57. NIH, Office of Disease Prevention, Childhood and its role in adult obesity, Bethesda, Maryland, April, 1989. Niswander, J. D. & Sujaku, C. (1960). Dental eruption, stature, and weight of Hiroshima children. Journal of Dental Research, 39, 959-63. Oduntan, S. O., Ayeni, O. & Kale, O. O. (1976). The age of menarche in Nigerian girls. Annals of Human Biology, 3, 269-74. Olness, K., Yip, R., Indritz, A. & Torjeson, E. (1984). Height and weight status of Indochinese refugee children. American Journal of Diseases in Childhood, 138, 544-7. Omololu, A., Hussain, M. A. & Mbojung, C. A. (1981). A transverselongitudinal study of heights and weights of children in a Nigerian village. Nigerian Journal of Paediatrics, 8, 70-8. Osborne, R. H. & DeGeorge, F. V. (1959). Genetic basis of morphological variation: an evaluation and application of the twin study method. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Ostyn, M., Simons, J., Beunen, G., Renson, R. & Van Gerven, D. (1980). Somatic and motor development of Belgian secondary schoolboys. Leuven University Press, Leuven. Owen, G. M., Kram, K. M., Garry, P. J., Lowe, J. E. & Lubin, A. H. (1974). A study of nutritional status of preschool children in the United States, 196870. Pediatrics, 53, Supplement to No. 4, part II, 597-646. Pagezy, H. & Hauspie, R. C. (1985«). Seasonal variation in the growth rate of weight in African babies, aged 0 to 4 years. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 18,29-41. Pagezy, H. & Hauspie, R. C. (19856). Growth in weight of African babies, ages 0-24 months, living in a rural area at the Lake Tumba, Zaire. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics, 5, 41-7. PAHO (1982). Health Conditions in the Americas, 1977-1980. Pan American Health Organization, Scientific Pub. No. 427, Washington, D. C. Paigen, B., Goldman, L. R., Magnant, M. M., Highland, J. H. & Steegman, A. T. (1987). Growth of children living near the hazardous waste site, Love. Canal. Human Biology, 59, 489-508. Pakrasi, K., Dasgupta, P., Dasgupta, I. & Mazumder, P. P. (1988). Growth in
370
References
height, weight and skinfold thickness of Bengali boys of Calcutta, India. Anthropologischer Anzieger, 46, 1-16. Palti, H., Adler, B., Shamir, Z., Peritz, E. & Kark, S. L. (1981). Growth pattern in the first two years of life in an Israeli child population. The effect of biological and social factors on weight and length. Human Biology, 53, 239-49. Palti, H., Strozzi, B. & Avitzour, M. (1982). Growth pattern of children in a Moslem semirural community near Jerusalem Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 36, 187-91. Pang, C. H., Lau, H. M., Chu, C. K., Lai, F. & Quan, J. (1987). Growth and feeding practices of Guangzhou babies below 6 months. Hong Kong Journal of Paediatrics, 4, 52-6. Panto, E. (1980). Age at menarche and body development in girls based on a cross-sectional study in Eger (Northern Hungary). Collegium Antropologica, 4, 163-73. Panto, E. & Eiben, O. (1984). Preliminary data for the age at menarche of urban and rural girls in Hungary. Anthropologai Kozlemenyek, 28, 191-2. Parizkovo, J., Adamec, A., Berdychova, J., Cermak, J., Horna, J. & Teply, Z. (1984). Growth, Fitness and Nutrition in Preschool Children. Charles University, Prague. Pawson, I. G. (1977). Growth characteristics of populations of Tibetan origin in Nepal. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 47, 473-82. Pennetti, V., Sgaramella-Zonta, L. & Astolfi, P. (1986). General health of the African pygmies of the Central African Republic In: African Pygmies, ed. L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, pp. 127-34. Academic Press, New York. Perrault, J. G., Caumont, M., Jemicek, M. & Demirjian, A. (1974). Emergence des dents permanentes chez les enfants canadiens d'origine frangais. Journal of the Canadian Dental Association, 40, 306-13. Perrault, J. G., Caumont, M., Jemicek, M. & Demirjian, A. (1975). Emergence des dents permanentes chez les enfants canadiens d'origine franqais. Journal of the Canadian Dental Association, 41, 512-1. Power, C. & Moynihan, C. (1988). Social class and change in weight-for-height between childhood and early adulthood. International Journal of Obesity, 12, 445-54. Power, D. J. (1982). An anthropometric study of young school children in an area of Cape Town. South African Medical Journal, 61, 303-5. Prader, A. & Budliger, H. (1977). Body measurements, growth velocity and bone age of healthy children up to 12 years of age (longitudinal growth study, Zurich). Helvetica Paediatrica Acta, Suppl. No. 37, 5-44. Prader, A., Largo, R. H., Molinari, L. & Issler, C. (1989). Physical growth of Swiss children from birth to 20 years of age. Helvetica Paediatrica Acta., Suppl. No. 52, 1-125. Prader, A., Tanner, J. M. & von Harnack, G. A. (1963). Catch-up growth following illness or starvation. Journal of Pediatrics, 62, 646-59. Prado, C. (1986). Secular change and genetic influence in the menarcheal age. Acta Medica Auxologica, 18, 117-21. Prado, C , Holts Andersen, A. & Martinez, R. (1986). Variation ontogenetica y sexual en el peso y en la relation talla/peso en la provincia de Cuenca. Boletin Sociedad Espanol Antropologicas y Biologicas, 7, 51-8. Prado, C , Martinez, R. & Holts Andersen, A. (1985). Parametros longitudinales
References
371
transversales en la poblacion rural y urbana de Cuenca: Estudio ontogenetico y dimorfismo sexual. Acta IV Congresso Espanol Antropologicas y Biologicas (Barcelona), pp. 243-52. Prado, C. & Martin-Friere, J. (1988). Sexual maturation of girls from the Mediterranean Andalusia. Collegium Antropologica (Zagreb), 12, 135-40. Prakash, S. & Balan, K. (1979). Skeletal maturation in deprived preschool children of Chandigarh. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 70, 242-51. Prakash, S. & Cameron, N. (1981). Skeletal maturity of well-off children in Chandigarh, North India. Annals of Human Biology, 8, 175-80. Prakash, S. & Chopra, S. R. K. (1978). Hand-wrist ossification timing delay in Punjabi pre-school children from Rohtak. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 68, 531-9. Prakash, S. & Pathmanathan, G. (1984). Age at menarche in Sri Lankan Tamil girls in Jaffna. Annals of Human Biology, 11, 463-6. Prazuck,T.,Fish, A., Pichard, E. & Sidibe, Y. (1988). Lack of secular change in male adult stature in rural Mali (West Africa). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 75, 471-5. Prebeg, Z. (1978). Secular trend in the growth of Zagreb school children and youth. Jugoslavenska Akademija Zvanostiiumjetnosti (Zagreb), RAD 378, 5-25. Prebeg, Z. (1984). Secular trend in growth of Zagreb schoolchildren. In: Human Growth and Development, ed. J. Borms, R. Hauspie, C. Sand, C. Sausanne & M. Hebbelinck, pp. 201-7. Plenum Press, New York. Preece, M. A. & Baines, M. J. (1978). New family of mathematical models describing the human growth curve. Annals of Human Biology, 5, 1-24. Prentice, A. M., Whitehead, R. A., Watkinson, M., Lamb, W. H. & Cole, T. J. (1983). Prenatal dietary supplementation of African women and birth weight. Lancet, i, 489-91. Prior, I. A. M., Stanhope, J. M., Evans, J. G. & Salmond, C. E. (1974). The Tokelau Island Migrant Study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 3, 225-32. Pyke, J. E. (1986). The Australian Schools Fitness Test, The Australian Council for Health, Parkside, S. A. Ramirez, M. E. & Mueller, W. H. (1980). The development of obesity and fat patterning in Tokelau children. Human Biology, 52, 675-87. Rantakallio, P. & Makinen, H. (1983). The effect of maternal smoking on the timing of deciduous tooth eruption. Growth, 47, 122-8. Rantakallio, P. & Makinen, H. (1984). Number of teeth at the age of one year in relation to maternal smoking. Annals of Human Biology, 11, 45-52. Rao, D. H. & Sastry, J. G. (1977). Growth pattern of well-to-do Indian adolescents and young adults. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 66, 950-6. Reddy, V. R. (1981). Eruption of deciduous teeth among the children of Gulbarga, South India. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 73, 772-81. Reichley, K. B., Mueller, W. H., Hanis, C. L., Joos, S. K., Tullock, B. R., Barton, S. & Schull, W. J. (1987). Centralized obesity and cardiovascular disease risk in Mexican Americans. American Journal of Epidemiology, 125, 373-86. Reinken, H., Stolley, H., Droese, W. & van Oost, G. (1980). Longitudinale Korperentwicklung gesunder Kinder. II. Grosse, gewicht, hautfettfalter von
372
References
kindern in alter von 1, 5 bis 16 Jahren. Klinische Pddiatrie, 192, 25-33. Reves, R. (1985). Declining fertility in England and Wales as a major cause of the twentieth century decline in mortality. American Journal ofEpidemiology, 122, 112-26. Reynolds, E. L. & Wines, J. V. (1948). Individual differences in physical changes associated with adolescence in girls. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 75, 329-50. Reynolds, E. L. & Wines, J. V. (1951). Physical changes associated with adolescence in boys. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 82, 529-47. Rhoads, J. G. (1987). Anthropometry in: The Solomon Islands Project. A longterm study of health, human biology and culture change, ed. J. S. Friedlander, pp. 155-74. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Richardson, B. D. (1977a). Underweight, starving and wasting in Black and White South African schoolchildren: malnutrition or adaptation? Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 71, 210-6. Richardson, B. D. {1911b). Underweight - a nutritional risk? South African Medical Journal, 51, 42-8 Richardson, B. D. & Wadvalla, M. (1977). The bearing of height, weight and skinfold thickness of obesity in four South African ethnic groups of school pupils of 17 years. Tropical Geographic Medicine, 29, 82-90. Rissanen, A., Heliovaara, M., Knekt, P., Aromaa, A., Reunanen, A. & Maatela, J. (1989). Weight and mortality in Finnish men. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 42, 781-9. Roberts, D., Gracey, M. & Spargo, R. M. (1986). Nutrition and health of East Kimberley Aboriginal children. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia, 11, 105. Roberts, D. F. (1969). Race, genetics and growth. Journal of Biosocial Science, Suppl. 1, 43-67. Roberts, D. F., Chinn, S., Girija, B. & Singh, H. D. (1977). A study of menarcheal age in India. Annals of Human Biology, 4, 171-7. Roberts, D. F., Danskin, M. J. & Chinn, S. (1975). Menarcheal age in Northumberland. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, 64, 845-52. Roberts, D. F., Wood, W. & Chinn, S. (1986). Menarcheal age in Cumbria. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 161-70. Robinow, M. (1973). The eruption of the deciduous teeth (factors involved in timing). Environmental Child Health, 19(2A), 200-5. Roche, A. F. (1967). A study of skeletal maturation in a group of Melbourne children. Australian Paediatric Journal, 3, 123-7. Roche, A. F., Davila, G. H. & Eyman, S. L. (1971). A comparison between Greulich-Pyle and Tanner-Whitehouse assessments of skeletal maturity. Radiology, 98, 273-80. Roche, A. F., Guo, S. & Moore, W. M. (1989). Weight and recumbent length from 1 to 12 months of age: reference data for 1-month increments. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 49, 599-607. Roche, A. F., Roberts, J. & Hamill, P. V. V. (1974). Skeletal maturity of children 6-11 years, United States. National Center for Health Statistics, series 11, no. 140. DHEW Publication no. (HRA) 75-1622. Rockville, Maryland. Roche, A. F., Roberts, J. & Hamill, P. V. V. (1975). Skeletal maturity of children 6-11 years: racial, geographic area and socioeconomic differentials, United
References
373
States. National Center for Health Statistics, series 11, no. 149. DHEW Publication no. (HRA) 76-1631. Rockville, Maryland. Roche, A. F., Roberts, J. & Hamill, P. V. V. (1976). Skeletal maturity of youths 12-17 years, United States. National Center for Health Statistics, series 11, no. 160. DHEW Publication no. (HRA) 77-1642. Rockville, Maryland. Roche, A. F., Roberts, J. & Hamill, P. V. V. (1978). Skeletal maturity of youths 12-17 years. Racial, geographical area and socioeconomic differentials, United States, 1966-1970. National Center for Health Statistics, series 11, no. 167. DHEW Publication no. (PHS) 79-1654. Hyattsville, Maryland. Roede, M. J. & van Wieringen, J. C. (1985). Growth Diagrams, 1980. Tijdshrift voor Sociale Gezondheidszorg, 63 (suppl. 1985), 1-34. Rohini, A. & Reddy, G. G. (1986). Age at menarche among some tribal populations of Andra Pradesh. Ada Medica Auxologica, 18, 35-40. Rolland-Cachera, M.-F. & Bellisle, F. (1986). No corrrelation between adiposity and food intake: why are working class children fatter? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 44, 779-87. Rolland-Cachera, M.-F., Deheeger, M. & Guilloud-Bataille, M. (1987). Tracking the development of adiposity from one month of age to adulthood. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 219-29. Rona, R. J. & Altman, D. G. (1977). National study of health and growth: standards of attained height, weight and triceps skinfold in English children, 5 to 11 years old. Annals of Human Biology, 4, 501-24. Rona, R. J. & Chinn, S. (1984). The national study of health and growth: nutritional surveillance of primary school schoolchildren from 1972 to 1981 with special reference to unemployment and social class. Annals of Human Biology, 11, 17-28. Rona, R. J. & Chinn, S. (1986). The national study of health and growth: social and biological factors associated with height of children from ethnic groups living in England. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 453-71. Rona, R. J. & Chinn, S. (1987). National study of health and growth: social and biological factors associated with weight-for-height and triceps skinfold of children from ethnic groups in England. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 231^8. Rona, R. J., Chinn, S. & du van Florey, C. (1983). Exposure to cigarette smoking and children's growth. International Journal of Epidemiology, 14, 402-9'. Rona, R. J. & Pereira, G. (1974). Factors that influence age of menarche in girls in Santiago, Chile. Human Biology, 46, 33^2. Rona, R. J., Swann, A. V. & Altman, D. G. (1978). Social factors and height of primary schoolchildren in England and Scotland. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 32, 147-54. Rosenbaum, S., Skinner, R. K., Knight, I. B. & Garrow, J. S. (1985). A survey of heights and weights of adults in Great Britain, 1980. Annals of Human Biology, 12, 115-27. Rowland, M. G. M., Cole, T. J. & Whitehead, R. G. (1977). A quantitative study into the role of infection in determining nutritional status in Gambian village children. British Journal of Nutrition, 37, 441-50. Rowland, M. G. M., Rowland, S. G. J. A. & Cole, R. J. (1988). Impact of infection on the growth of children from 0 to 2 years in an urban West African community. Americal Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 47, 134-8.
374
References
Roy, M. P., Sempe, M., Orssand, E. & Pedra, A. (1972). Evolution clinique de la puberte de lafille.Archives Francaises de Pediatrie, 29, 155-68. Salans, L. B. (1979). Natural history of obesity. In: Obesity in America, ed. G. A. Bray. National Institutes of Health, publication no. 79-359, Bethesda, Maryland. Sanchez, E., Sobradillo, B., Hernandez, M., Rincon J. & Marvaiza, J. (1984). Standards of skeletal maturity of the ankle and foot in the first two years of life in Spanish children. In: Human Growth and Development, ed. J. Borms, R. Hauspie, A. Sand, C. Susanne & M. Hebbelinck, pp. 387-96. Plenum Press, New York. Sandin-Dominguez, M. (1988). Curvas semilongitudinale de crecimiento: Ninos entre 6 y 15 anos. Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Seccion de Antropologia, and Centro Municipal de Salud, Madrid. Sapoka, A. A. M. & Demirjian, A. (1971). Dental development of the French Canadian child. Journal of the Canadian Dental Association, 37, 100-4. Satyanarayana, K., Nadamuni Naidu, A. & Narasinga Rao, B. E. (1980). Adolescent growth spurt among rural Indian boys in relation to their nutritional status in early childhood. Annals of Human Biology, 7, 359-66. Satyanarayana, K. & Nadamuni Naidu, A. (1979). Nutrition and menarche in rural Hyderabad. Annals of Human Biology, 6, 163-6. Satyanarayana, K., Radhaiah, G., Munali-Mohan, K. R., Thimmayanmma, B. S., Rao, N. P. & Rao, B. S. N. (1989). The adolescent growth spurt and height among rural Indian boys in relation to childhood nutrition background; an 18-year longitudinal study. Annals of Human Biology, 16, 289-300. Schall, J. I. (1989). Fat patterns and blood pressure among the Manus of Papua New Guinea: A migrant study. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 78, 296. Schell, L. M. (1984). Auxological epidemiology, developmental plasticity and human risk assessment. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 663, 215. Schell, L. M. & Johnston, F. E. (1990). Physical growth and development of American Indian and Eskimo children and youth. In: Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 3, Environment, Origins and Populations ed. R. Ford. Smithsonian Institution, in press. Schmitt, L. H. & Harrison, G. A. (1988). Patterns in the within-population variability of stature and weight. Annals of Human Biology, 15, 353-64. Schumacher, L. B. & Kretchmer, N. (1988). Upper arm anthropometric characteristics of immigrant children in the Newcomer Schools of San Francisco Human Biology, 60, 623-38. Schumacher, L. B., Pawson, I. G. & Kretchmer, N. (1987). Growth of immigrant children in the Newcomer Schools of San Francisco. Pediatrics, 80, 861-8. Schwartz, J., Brumbaugh, R. C. & Chiu, M. (1987). Short stature, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factors, and serum proteins in the mountain Ok people of Papua New Guinea. Journal of Clinical Endocrinological Metabolism, 65, 901-5. Sempe, M. (1987). L Analyse de la maturation squelettique. La pediatrie au quotidien. Les Editions INSERM, Paris. Sempe, M., Pedron, G. & Roy-Pernot, M.-P. (1979). Auxologie: Methode et Sequences. Laboratoire Theraplix, Paris.
References
375
Shakir, A. (1971). The age of menarche in girls attending school in Baghdad. Human Biology, 43, 265-70. Shapiro, L. R., Crowford, P. B., Clark, M. J., Pearson, D. L., Raz, J. & Huenemann, R. L. (1984). Obesity; prognosis: A longitudinal study of children from the age of 6 months to 9 years. American Journal of Public Health, 74, 968-72. Sharma, J. C. (1983). The genetic contribution to pubertal growth and development studied by longitudinal growth data on twins. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 163-72. Shephard, R. J., Lavallee, H, LaBarre, R., Rajic, M., Jequier, J.-C. & Voile, M. (1984). Body dimensions of Quebecois children. Annals of Human Biology, 11, 243-52. Shields, J. (1962). Monozygotic twins. Oxford University Press, London. Shutte, J. E. (1980). Growth of black male adolescents. Human Biology, 52,193204. Sidhu, L. S., Bhatragar, D. P. & Dubey, A. P. (1982). Secular trends in heights and weights of Punjabi Boys. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, 40, 187-92. Simons, J., Beunen, G., Renson, R., Claessens, A., Vanreusel, B. & Lefevre, J. (1990). Growth and Fitness of Flemish Girls. HKP Sport Science Monograph Series, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, Illinois. Singer, R. & Kimura, K. (1981). Body height, weight and skeletal maturation in Hottentot (Khoikhoi) children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 54, 401-14. Singh, R. (1975a). Nutritional anthropometric measurements of male Tamil clerks in Madras (seacoast plains) and Ooty (hills). Annals of Human Biology, 2, 301-4. Singh, R. (1975b). A study of height, weight and arm girth measurements of Punjabi males. In: Physiological and Morphological Adaptation and Evolution, ed. W. A. Stini. Mouton Publishers, The Hague. Singh, R. & Raja, C. (1980). Use of girth measurements for estimating body volume and body density in Indian girls aged 10-19 years. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 43, 69-81. Singh, S. P. & Malhotra, P. (1988). Secular shift in menarcheal age of Patiala (India) schoolgirls between 1974 and 1986. Annals of Human Biology, 15, 77-80. Singh, S. P. & Sidhu, L. S. (1981). Pubertal development of Gaddi Rajput boys of Dhaula Dhar range of the Himalayas. Zeitschrift fur Morphologie und Anthropologie, 72, 89-98. Singh, S. P., Sidhu, L. S. & Malhotra, P. (1987). Growth performance of Punjabi children aged 6-12 years. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 169-79. Smith, A. M., Chinn, S. & Rona, R. J. (1980). Social factors and height gain of primary school children in England and Scotland. Annals of Human Biology, 7, 115-24. Smith, B. H. & Garn, S. M. (1987). Polymorphisms in eruption sequence of permanent teeth in American children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 74, 289-304. Sproul, A. & Pertiz, E. (1971). Assessment of skeletal age in short and tall children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 35, 433-9. Spurr, G. B., Reina, J. C , Barac-Nieto, M. & Maksud, N. G. (1982). Maximum
376
References
oxygen consumption of nutritionally normal white, mestizo, and black Colombian boys 6-16 years of age. Human Biology, 54, 553-74. Steckel, R. H. (1983). Height and per capita income. Historical Methods, 16,1-7. Steckel, R. H. (1986). A peculiar population: The nutrition, health, and mortality of American slaves from childhood to maturity. Journal of Economic History, 46, 721-41. Steckel, R. H. (1987). Growth depression and recovery: the remarkable case of American slaves. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 111-32. Stein, Z., Susser, M., Staenger, G. & Marollon, F. (1975). Famine and human development: the Dutch Hunger Winter of 1944-45.Oxford University Press, New York. Stephenson, L. S., Latham, M. C. & Jansen, A. (1983). A comparison of growth standards: Similarities between Harvard, Denver and privileged African children and differences with Kenyan rural children. Cornell International Nutrition Monograph Series, No. 12. Stern, M. P. (1985). Diabetes in Hispanic Americans. In: Diabetes in America, National Diabetes Data Group. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health Publication No. 85-1468, Bethesda, Maryland. Stern, M. P., Haskell, W. L., Wood, P. D. S., Osann, K. E., King, A. B. & Farquhar, J. W. (1975). Affluence and cardiovascular risk factors in Mexican-Americans and other whites in three northern California communities. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 28, 623-36. Stewart, T. D. (1973). The Peoples ofAmerica. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London. Stini, W. A. (1977). Accelerated growth and its long range consequences. Symposium Biologica Hungarica. 20, 83-95. Stini, W. A. (1978). Early nutrition, growth, disease and human longevity. Nutrition and Cancer, 1, 31-9. Stinson, S. (1980). The physical growth of high altitude Bolivian Aymara children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 52, 377-85. Stinson, S. (1982). The effect of a high altitude on the growth of children of high socioeconomic status in Bolivia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 59, 61-72. Stinson, S. (1989). Physical growth of Ecuadorian Chachi Amerindians. American Journal of Human Biology, 1, 697-708. Stinson, S. & Frisancho, A. R. (1978). Body proportions of highland and lowland Peruvian Quechua children. Human Biology, 50, 57-68. Stunkard, A. J., Sorensen, T. I. A., Hanis, C , Tesdale, T. W., Chakraborty, R. & Schull, W. J. (1986). An adoption study of human obesity. New England Journal of Medicine, 314, 239-40. Sudjarwo, S. R., Sularyo, S., Sudiyanto, S. & Rasjid, A. (1978). Height and weight of preschool children of well-to-do urban families in Jakarta City. Paediatrica Indonesiana, 18, 243-62. Sukkar, M. Y. (1976). Skinfold thickness and body fat in adult Fur men and women of Western Sudan. Human Biology, 48, 315-21. Sukkar, M. Y., Kemm, J. R., Ballal, M. A. & Ahmed, T. S. (1980). Growth velocity in children in rural Khartoum, Sudan. Annals of Human Biology, 7, 473-9. Sukkar, M. Y., Kemm, J. R. & Kardesh, M. (1982). Age-independent anthropometry: an examination of data from rural Khartoum, Sudan. Annals of Human Biology, 9, 265-75.
References
377
Sukkar, M. Y., Kemm, J. R., Makeen, A. M. & Kalid, M. H. (1979). Anthropometric survey of children in rural Khartoum, Sudan. Annals of Human Biology. 6, 147-58. Takai, S. & Akiyoshi, T. (1983). Skeletal maturity of Japanese children in Western Kyushu. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 62, 199204. Takamura, K, Ohyama, S., Yamada, T. & Ishinishi, N. (1988). Changes in body proportions of Japanese medical students between 1961 and 1986. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 77, 17-22. Tanguay, R., Bushang, P. H. & Demirjian, A. (1986). Sexual dimorphism in the emergence of deciduous teeth - its relationship with growth components in height. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 69, 511-6. Tanguay, R., Demirjian, A. & Thibault, H. W. (1984). Sexual dimorphism in the emergence of the deciduous teeth. Journal of Dental Research, 63, 65-8. Tanner, J. M. (1949). Fallacy of per-weight and per surface area standards and their relation to spurious correlation. Journal ofApplied Physiology, 2,1-15. Tanner, J. M. (1951). Notes on the reporting of growth data. Human Biology, 23, 93-159. Tanner, J. M. (1962). Growth at adolescence, 2nd edn. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Tanner, J. M. (1964). The physique of the Olympic athlete. George Allen & Unwin, London. Tanner, J. M. (1966). Galtonian eugenics and the study of growth. Eugenics Review, 58, 122-35. Tanner, J. M. (1973). Trend toward earlier menarche in London, Oslo, Copenhagen, the Netherlands and Hungary. Nature, London, 243, 95-6. Tanner, J. M. (1978). Fetus Into Man. Physical Growth from Conception to Maturity. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Tanner, J. M. (1981). A history of the study of human growth. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Tanner, J. M. (1986«). Growth as a mirror of the condition of society: secular trends and class distinction. In: Human Growth: A Multidisciplinary Review, ed. A. Demirjian. Taylor & Francis, London & Philadelphia. Tanner, J. M. (1986Z?). The use and abuse of growth standards. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd edn, vol. 3, pp. 95-109. Plenum Press, New York and London. Tanner, J. M. & Davies, P. W. (1985). Clinical longitudinal studies for height and height velocity for North American children. Journal of Pediatrics, 107, 31729. Tanner, J. M. & Eveleth, P. B. (1976). Urbanisation and growth. In: Man in Urban Environments, ed. G. A. Harrison & J. B. Gibson. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Tanner, J. M., Goldstein, H. & Whitehouse, R. H. (1970). Standards for children's height at ages 2-9 years allowing for height of parents. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 45, 755-62. Tanner, J. M., Hayashi, T., Preece, M. A. & Cameron, N. (1982). Increase in length of leg relative to trunk in Japanese children and adults from 1957 to 1977: comparison with British and with Japanese Americans. Annals of Human Biology, 9, 411-23. Tanner, J. M., Lejarraga, H. & Turner, G. (1972). Within-family standards for birth weight. Lancet, ii, 193-7.
378
References
Tanner, J. M. & Whitehouse, R. H. (1976). Clinical longitudinal standards for height, weight, velocity, weight velocity and the stages of puberty. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 51, 170-9. Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H., Cameron, N., Marshall, W. A., Healy M. J. R. & Goldstein, H. (1983). Assessment of skeletal maturity, 2nd edn. Academic Press, London. Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H. & Healy, M. J. R. (1962). A new system for estimating the maturity of the hand and wrist, with standards derived from 2,600 healthy British children. II. The scoring system. International Children's Centre, Paris. Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H., Hughes, P. C. R. & Vince, F. P. (1971). The effect of human growth hormone treatment for 1 to 7 years on the growth of 100 children with growth hormone deficiency, low birthweight, inherited smallness, Turner's syndrome and other complaints. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 46, 745-82. Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H., Marshall, W. A., Healy, M. J. R. & Goldstein, H. (1975). Assessment of skeletal maturity and prediction of adult height: TW2 method. Academic Press, New York & London. Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H. & Takaishi, M. (1966). Standards from birth to maturity for height, weight, height velocity and weight velocity; British children 1965. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 41, 454-71; 613-35. Taranger, J., Bruning, B., Claesson, I., Karlberg, P., Landstrom, T. & Lindstrom, B. (1976a). Skeletal development from birth to 7 years. In: The Somatic Development of Children in a Swedish Urban Community, ed. J. Taranger. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, Suppl. No. 258, 98-108. Taranger, J., Karlberg, J., Bruning, B. & Engstrom, I. (1987). Standard deviation score charts of skeletal maturity and its velocity in Swedish children assessed by the Tanner-Whitehouse method (TW2-20). Annals of Human Biology, 14, 357-66. Taranger, J., Lichtenstein, H. & Svenberg-Redegren, I. (1976c). The somatic development of children in a Swedish urban community III. Dental development from birth to 16 years. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, Suppl No. 258, 83-97. Taranger, J., Lichtenstein, H. & Svenbert-Redegren, I. (1976b). The somatic development of children in a Swedish urban community: VI Somatic pubertal development. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, Suppl. No. 258, 121-35. Thoday, J. M. (1965). Geneticism and environmentalism. In Biological Aspects of Social Problems, ed. J. E. Meade & A. S. Parkes, pp. 92-108. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh & London. Tobias, P. V. (1962). On the increasing stature of the Bushmen. Anthropos, 57, 801-10. Tojo, R., Fraga, J. M. & Pena, J. (1981). Nutritional and growth status in children and adolescents of Galicia: Anthropometric and biochemical survey. Bibliotheca Nutritio et Dieta, 30, 543-69. Torrey, B. B., Kinsella, K. & Taeuber, C. M. (1987) An Aging World, International Population Reports Series P-95, No. 78. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C. Trotter, M. & Peterson, R. R. (1966). Some variable factors in the adult skeleton. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 134, 841-5.
References
379
Trowbridge, F. L., Marks, J. S., Lopez de Romana, G., Madrid, S., Boutton, T. W. & Klein, P. D. (1987). Body composition of Peruvian children with short stature and high weight-for-height II. Implications for the interpretation for weight-for-height as an indicator of nutritional status. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 46, 411-8. Truswell, A. S. & Hansen, J. D. L. (1973). Eruption of deciduous teeth in protein-calorie malnutrition. Environmental Child Health, 19(2A), 214-6. Tsao, Y. C. (1986). Physical growth of Hong Kong children (editorial). Hong Kong Journal of Paediatrics, 3, 106-7. Twiesselmann, F. (1969). Developpement biometrique de Venfant a Vadulte. Presses Universitaires de Bruxelles, Brussels. Tzuzaki, S. (1990). Age of menarche in girls in Tokyo. Annals of Human Biology, 17 (in press). Ucha, G. O. & Okorafor, A. E. (1979). The age at menarche in Nigerian urban school girls. Annals of Human Biology, 6, 395-8. Udjus, L. G. (1964). Anthropometrical Changes in Norwegian Men in the 20th Century. Universitetsforlaget, Oslo. Ulijaszek, S., Evans, E. & Mumford, P. (1979). Anthropometric survey. Lancet, i, 214. Valenzuela, C. Y. & Avendano, A. (1979). Anthropometria y maduracion sexual de escolares de un area de Santiago de Chile. Boletin de Organisacion Pan American de la Salud, 87(2), 113-31. Valman, H. B. (1974). Intelligence after malnutrition caused by neonatal resection of ileum. Lancet, i, 425-7. Valsik, J. A., Strouhal, E., Hussern, F. & El-Nofely, A. (1970). Biology of men in Egyptian Nubia. Materialy i Prace Antropologiczne, 78, 93-8. Van Lerberghe, W. (1987). Child mortality and growth in a small African town. A longitudinal study of 6,228 children from Kasonga (Zaire). Universteit Antwerpen, Antwerpen. Van Lerberghe, W. (1989). Growth, infection and mortality: is growth monitoring an efficient screening instrument? In Auxology '88: Perspectives in the Science of Growth and Development, ed. J. M. Tanner, pp 101-10. Smith Gordon, London. Van Loon, H., Saverys, V., Vuylsteke, J. P., Vleitinck, R. F. & Eeckels, R. (1986a). Nutritional anthropometry in children from 0 to 6 years of age in differnt geographical areas. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics, 6, 79-92. Van Loon, H., Saverys, V., Vuylsteke, J. P., Vlietinck, F. F. & Eeckels, R. (19866). Local versus universal growth standards: the effect of using NCHS as universal reference. Annals of Human Biology, 13, 347-57. van Venrooij-Ijsselmuiden, M. E. (1978). Mixed longitudinal data on height, weight, limb circumferences and skinfold measurements of Dutch children. Human Biology, 50, 369-73. van Venrooij-Ijsselmuiden, M. E. & van Ipenburg, A. (1978). Mixed longitudinal data on skeletal age from a group of Dutch children living in Utrecht and surroundings. Annals of Human Biology, 5, 359-80. van Venrooij-Ijsselmuiden, M. E., Smeets, H. J. L. & van der Werff Ten Bosch, J. J. (1976). The secular trend in age at menarche in the Netherlands. Annals of Human Biology, 3, 283-4. van Wering, E. R. (1978). Growth and Development of Children on Aruba in 1974. Bouwcentrum, Rotterdam.
380
References
van Wering, E. R. (1981#). The secular growth trend on Aruba between 1954 and 1974. Human Biology, 53, 105-15. van Wering, E. R. (1981b). The anthropometric status of Aruban children-1974. Human Biology, 53, 117-35. van Wieringen, J. C. (1986). Secular growth changes. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd edn., vol. 3, pp. 307-31. Plenum Press, New York, van Wieringen, J. C , Wafelbakker, F., Verbrugge, H. P. & de Maas, J. H. (1971). Growth diagrams 1965, Netherlands. Walters-Noordhoff Publishing, Groningen. Vandenberg, S. G. & Falkner, F. (1965). Hereditary factors in human growth. Human Biology, 37, 357-65. Vercauteren, M. (1984). Evolution seculaire et normes de croissance chez des enfants beiges. Bulletin Societe Roy ale Beige d'Anthropologie Prehistorique, 95, 109-23. Vercauteren, M. & Susanne, C. (1985). The secular trend of height and menarche in Belgium: are there any signs of a future stop? European Journal of Pediatrics, 144, 306-9. Verghese, K. P., Scott, R. B., Teixeira, G. & Ferguson, A. D. (1969). Studies in growth and development. XII. Physical growth of North American Negro children. Pediatrics, 44, 243-7. Vichi, G. F., de Giali, S., Galluzzi, F., Milano, F., Salti, R., Gazzeri, A. & LaCauza, C. (1980). The assessment of skeletal maturity in infancy. In: Problems in Pediatric Endocrinology, vol. 32, ed. C. LaCauza & A. W. Root, pp. 381-7. Academic Press, London. Victora, C. G., Barros, F. C , Vaughan, J. P., Martinez, J. C. & Beria, J. N. (1987). Birthweight, socio-economic status and growth of Brazilian infants. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 49-57. Vijayaraghavan, K. & Gowrinath Sastry, J. (1976). The efficacy of arm circumference as a substitute for weight in assessment of protein-calorie malnutrition. Annals of Human Biology, 3, 229-33. Villanueva, M., Saenz, M. E. & Serrano, C. (1982). Crecimiento y desarrollo en escolares de la Villa de las Margaritas, Chiapas, Mexico. Anales de Antropologia, 19, 121-31. Villareal, S. F., Martorell, R. & Mendoza, F. (1989). Sexual maturation of Mexican-American adolescents. American Journal of Human Biology, 1, 87-95. Waaler, H.T. (1984). Height, weight and mortality: the Norwegian experience. Acta Medica Scandinavica, Suppl. 679, 1-51. Waaler, H. T. (1987). Hazard of obesity - the Norwegian experience. Acta Medica Scandinavica, Suppl. 723, 17-21. Waaler, P. E. (1983). Anthropometric studies in Norwegian children. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, Suppl. 308. 1-41. Waldmann, E., Baber, F. M., Field, C. E., Billewicz, W. Z. & Thomson, A. M. (1977). Skeletal maturation of Hong Kong Chinese children in the first five years of life. Annals of Human Biology, 4, 343-52. Walker, A. R. P., Richardson, B. D., Nurse, A. & Walker, B. F. (1965). The changing pattern of growth and other parameters in South African Bantu children. South African Medical Journal, 39, 103-4.
References
381
Walker, A. R. P. & Walker, B. F. (1976). What is the health hazard to children who are underweight and underheight for age? South African Journal of Science, 72, 203-8. Walker, A. R. P. & Walker, B. F. (1977). Studies on increases in growth rate of South African black schoolchildren and their significance to health. South African Medical Journal, 50, 707-12. Warren, M. P. (1980). The effects of exercise on pubertal progression and reproductive function in girls. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 51, 1150-7. Weindruch, R. & Walford, R. L. (1988). The Retardation of Aging and Disease by Dietary Restriction, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois. Weiner, J. S. & Lourie, J. A. (1969). Human Biology: A Guide to Field Methods. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Weiner, J. S. & Lourie, J. A. (1981). Practical Human Biology. Academic Press, London. Welon, Z. & Bielicki, T. (1971). Further investigations of parent-child similarity in stature, as assessed from longitudinal data. Human Biology, 43, 517-25. Wenzel, A., Droschl, H. & Melsen, B. (1984). Skeletal maturity in Austrian children assessed by the GP and the TW-2 methods. Annals of Human Biology, 11, 173-8. Wenzel, A. & Melsen, B. (1982). Skeletal maturity in 6-16 year old Danish children assessed by the Tanner-Whitehouse-2 method. Annals of Human Biology, 9, 277-82. Wheeler, E. & Tan, S. P. (1983). Trends in the growth of ethnic Chinese children living in London. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 441-6. Whincup, P. H., Cook, D. A. & Shapiro, A. H. (1988). Social class and height. British Medical Journal, 297, 980-1. Whitehead, R. G., Paul, A. A. & Ahmed, E. A. (1989). DHSS Present-day infant feeding practice and its influence on infant growth. In Physiology of Growth, ed. J. M. Tanner & M. A. Preece. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Whitehouse, R. H., Tanner, J. M. & Healy, M. J. R. (1974). Diurnal variation in stature and sitting height in 12-14 year old boys. Annals of Human Biology, 1, 103. Widdowson, E. M. (1951). Mental contentment and physical growth. Lancet, i, 1316-8. Wigg, N. R. (1978). The anthropometry of Western Samoan pre-school children. New Zealand Medical Journal, 87, 172-5. Wilson, R. S. (1976). Concordance in physical growth for monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Annals of Human Biology, 3, 1-10. Wilson, R. S. (1978). Synchronies in mental development: An epigenetic perspective. Science, 202, 939-^8. Wilson, R. S. (1979). Twin growth: Initial deficit, recovery, and trends in concordance from birth to nine years. Annals of Human Biology, 6, 205-20. Wilson, R. S. (1986). Growth and development of human twins. In: Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, ed. F. Falkner & J. M. Tanner, 2nd edn., vol. 3, pp. 197-211. Plenum Press, New York and London. Wingerd, J., Peritz, E. & Sproul, A. (1974). Race and stature differences in the
382
References
skeletal maturation of the hand and wrist. Annals of Human Biology, 1, 201-9. Wolariski, N. & Jarosz, E. (1969) Sequence and age of some permanent teeth eruption. Ada Medica Auxologica, 1, 122-30. Wong, H. B., Tye, C. Y. & Quek K. M. (1972) Anthropometric studies on Singapore children. I. Heights, weights and skull circumference on preschool children. Journal of the Singapore Paediatrics Society, 14, 68-89. Wong, S. S. & Al-Frayh, A. R. (1990). The effect of sex on anthropometric measurements of Saudi Arabian pre-school children. Annals of Human Biology, 17 (in press). World Health Organization (1986) Community prevention and control of cardiovascular diseases. Report of a WHO Technical Committee, Technical Report Series 732, WHO Geneva. Wronska-Weclaw, W. (1984). Dynamics of growth and maturation of countryside children in selected regions of Poland. Studies in Human Ecology, 5,241-72. Wynder, E. L. (1979). Dietary habits and cancer epidemiology. Cancer, 43, 1955-61. Wyshak, G. (1983). Secular changes in age at menarche in a sample of US women. Annals of Human Biology, 10, 75-8. Yanagisawa, S. & Kondo, S. (1973). Modernization and physical features of the Japanese with special references to leg length and head form. Journal of Human Ergology, 2, 97-108. Yaung, C.-L. & Lai, E.-S. (1988). Body height attained at the time of peak height velocity and at menarche: its relation to adult height. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, 87, 563-8. (In English; Chinese summary.) Yip, R., Binkin, N. J. & Trowbridge, F. L. (1988). Altitude and childhood growth. Journal of Pediatrics, 113, 486-9. Zacharias, L., Rand, W. M. & Wortman, R. J. (1976). A prospective study of sexual development and growth in American girls: the statistics of menarche. Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey, 31, 325-37. Zacharias, L. & Wurtman, R. J. (1969). Blindness and menarche. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 33, 603-8. Zachmann, M., Prader, A., Kind, H. P., Haflinger, H. & Budliger, H. (1974). Testicular volume during adolescence. Helvetica PaediatricaActa, 29,61-72. Zack, P. M., Harlan, W. R., Leaverton, P. E. & Coroni-Huntley, J. (1979). A longitudinal study of body fatness in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Pediatrics, 95, 126-30. Zaveleta, A. N. & Malina, R. M. (1982). Growth and body composition of Mexican-American boys 9 through 14 years of age. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 57, 261-71. Zemel, B. & Jenkins, C. (1989). Dietary change and adolescent growth among the Bundi (Gende-speaking) people of Papua New Guinea. American Journal of Human Biology, 1, 709-18. Zhang, X. (1977). Studies on the physical development of children and adolescents in New China. Chinese Medical Journal, 3, 364-72. Zhang, X. & Huang, Z. (1988). The second national growth and development survey of children in China, 1985: children 0 to 7 years. Annals of Human Biology, 15, 289-306. Zhen, O. & Baolin, L. (1986). Skeletal maturity of the hand and wrist in Chinese
References
383
school children in Harbin assessed by the TW2 method. Annuals of Human Biology, 13, 183-6. Zimmet, P., Faaiuso, S., Ainuu, J., Whitehouse, S., Milne, B. & DeBoer, W. (1981). The prevalence of diabetes in the rural and urban Polynesian population of Western Samoa. Diabetes, 30, 45-51. Zimmet, P. & King, H. (1982). The role of obesity in the high prevalence of diabetes in Pacific populations. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia (1982), 69-75.
Index Page numbers in italics refer to figures and tables.
Aarhus (Denmark), skeletal maturity study, 150 adolescent growth spurt in pygmies, 75 adolescent height and weight variation, 27 adult size Africans, 274 Asians, 292-3 Australian Aborigines, 320-1 Indo-Mediterraneans, 3Q9 Pacific Islanders, 320-1 affluence and altitude, 204 Relationship to height and weight, 199 African ancestry adult size, 274 biacromial width, 277 biiliac width, 278 growth studies, 66, 68 height, 266-7, 268-9 infant size, 275 sitting height, 276 weight, 270-1, 272-3 Africans adult, 79 adult size, 274 arm length, 186 biacromial width, 83, 277 biiliac width, 83,275 bone density, 190 disease, 63 ethnic groups, 67-8 fat patterning, 215 growth studies, 63, 64-6, 67-9 height, 69, 70, 72, 74-5, 76, 77, 266-7, 268-9 infants, 80-1, 275 malnutrition, 63 menarche age, 168 ossification centre visibility, 154 permanent tooth emergence, 161 privation effects on size and weight for height, 79
shoulder width, 83 sitting height, 81,52, 276 skeletal development, 155 skeletal maturity, 152 skinfold thickness, 85, 86-S, 89, 281-2, 283 slaves in America, 75, 76,11 upper arm circumference, 84, 279-80 weight for height, 77, 78, 79 weight, 69, 71, 73, 74-5, 77, 270-1, 2723 Afro-Americans, 68-9 adult height, 79 bone age, 183 fat patterning, 215 genitalia development age, 173 height, 69-77,180, 181,182, 183 hip to shoulder width relationship, 188 leg length, 185, 186 menarche age, 168 obesity, 74 ossification centre visibility, 154 population study, 180 sexual development, 174 sitting height, 112, 185 skeletal maturity, 148, 151 skinfold thickness, 85, 86-8, 89, 189, 215 socioeconomic differences, 79 weight, 73-7, 183, 184 age conversion of calendar to decimal, 6-7 estimates, 14-15 group classification, 8 intervals, 21-2 Aka pygmies, 68, 74, 75 altitude and affluence, 204 birth weight, 203 growth effects, 108, 203-4 infant growth, 108,109, 203 menarche age, 168 385
386
Index
Amerindians, 90 adults, 108 fat patterning, 215 growth studies, 90, 92, 93 height, 94, 95, 97 infants, 108,109 ossification centre visibility, 154 secular trends, 102, 104-5, 211 skeletal maturity, 149 skinfold thickness, 114-16 upper arm circumference, 113-14 weight, 98, 99,101 weight-for-height, 106,107, 108 anthropometer, 34 Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual, 22 Arab Nubians, 129 Arctic Eskimos, 90 fat patterning, 215 Argentina skinfold secular trends, 58, 62 weight for height of European descendants, 51, 53 arm circumference see upper arm circumference arm fat, see triceps skinfold thickness arm length Africans, 186 Europeans, 238-9 sitting height relationship, 187 Ascaris lumbricoides, 63 Asiatics adults, 108, 292-3 biacromial width, 112, 298 biiliac width, 112, 299 ethnic groups, 90 growth studies, 90, 91-3, 94 height, 284-5, 286-7 height and weight growth, 94, 95-7, 98, 99-101, 102-5 hip width, 112-13,299 infants, 108,109, 294-5 leg length and sitting height, 111 puberty and leg length, 186 pubic hair growth, 174 shoulder width, 112-13 sitting height, 110-12 skinfold thickness, 114, 115, 116, 190, 302-3, 304 upper arm circumference, 113-14, 300-1 weight, 288-9, 290-1 weight-for-height, 106,107, 108
atherosclerosis, 213 Australia menarcheal age, 171 national fitness survey, 47 secular changes, 48-50 upper arm circumference, 57, 58 urbanization, 203 Australian Aborigines adults, 140, 320-1 growth studies, 130,131, 133 height, 316-17 height and weight growth, 133,134, 135, 136 hip width, 142-3 infant mortality, 142 infants, 140,141, 142, 322-3 leg length, 185, 186 leg to trunk length, 142 nutritional status, 130 permanent tooth emergence, 161 secular change, 137-8 shoulder width, 142-3 sitting height, 185, 186, 324 weight, 318-19 weight for height, 138-9,140 Austria, skeletal maturity study, 150 auxological anthropometry see growth, measurement techniques auxology, epidemiological, 198 Aymara (Chile and Bolivia), 98, 108 Bantu, 67-8 Belgium, social mobility, 201 biacromial width Africans, 83, 277 Asians, 112-13, 29S European descendants, 56, 57, 261 Europeans, 35, 36-7, 38, 239, 240 Papua New Guinea, 325 racial differences, 188 bicristal width, 38 biiliac width Africans, 83, 278 Asians, 299 European descendants, 56, 57, 257 Europeans, 35, 36-7, 38, 241, 242 Papua New Guinea, 326 racial differences, 188 birth weight altitude, 203 blood pressure, 211 dental development effects, 157
Index maternal nutrition, 194, 195 siblings, 178 smoking, 205 blood pressure children, 213 weight change, 212 weight-for-height, 212-13 Bolivia altitude effects, 204 La Paz growth survey, 47 skinfold thickness, 58 bone centre visibility, 146 density, 190 bone age from birth to two, 154-5 population studies, 183 undernourishment, 198 see also skeletal maturity Brazil genitalia development age, 173 Sao Paulo study, 47 breast development, 172 feeding of Indian infants, 126 breast cancer anthropometric measurements, 210 childhood size, 210 fat intake, 220 Japanese incidence, 220, 221 Britain poverty, 201 social class effects, 198-9 unemployment effects on children, 201 see also United Kingdom British National Child Development Study, 9 British National Pre-school Surveillance, 199 British National Survey of Health and Growth, 201 Bundi (Papua New Guinea), 130 food supplementation, 192,193 height and weight growth, 135 leg to trunk length, 142 skinfold thickness, 143^ C3 and weight, 126 calf-circumference European ancestry, 259 Europeans, 38, 39, 40
387 Cali (Colombia) growth survey, 47 upper arm circumference, 57, 58 Canada menarche age, 169-70 Quebec studies, 44, 45 skeletal maturity, 151 upper arm circumference, 57, 58 cancer body weight, 212 child growth, 210, 221 dietary restriction, 222 fat intake, 220 height correlation, 208-9 migration, 219 nutritional patterns, 221 Caracas infant growth, 53, 54 upper arm circumference, 57, 58 skinfold thickness, 58, 59-60 cardiovascular disease body weight, 212 Caribbean, 222 child growth, 210-11 Caribbean, 222 skeletal maturity study, 152 catch-up growth, 192,193 growing period, 192 skeletal maturation, 192 velocity, 191, 192 centile cross-sectional studies, 5 height distribution, 4 Central African Republic, 74, 79 Chachi Indians, 98, 104 chest circumference European ancestry infants, 255-6 European infants, 234-5 European studies, 38 Chile, 47 Chinese genitalia development age, 173 hip to shoulder width relationship, 188 infants, 108 leg length, 185 leg length and sitting height, 111 menarche age, 168 ossification centre visibility, 154 puberty, 149 secular trend, 103, 206 sitting height, 110, 111, 185, 186 skeletal development, 155
388
Index
skeletal maturity, 149 skinfold thickness, 116, 189 weight-for-height, 106 Chinese immigrants to California, 94 skinfold thickness, 116 Chippewa Indians, 98 climatic variation, 203-4 Colombia, 57, 58 Cali growth survey, 47 colon cancer, 220 coronary heart disease childhood origins, 213 fat patterning, 218 migration, 219 Cree Indians, 106 cross-sectional study methods, 4-5, 8 numbers in age groups, 8 planning, 10 crown-rump length measurement, 24, 26 European studies, 34-5 Cuba infant growth, 53, 54 secular weight changes, 49, 50 weight for height of European descendants, 51, 53 Cuban National Growth Survey, 10 Dakar Comparison with slaves in America, 77 ossification centre visibility, 154 skeletal maturity 152 Denmark bone age, 183 height, 180-1, 182 menarcheal age, 170 skeletal maturity, 150 weight, 183,184 dental development, 155-9,160, 161 birthweight, 157 genetic control, 156 maternal smoking, 157 nutritional effects, 156-7 weight and height influence, 157 dental maturity, 145, 146 dental maturity assessment, 155-9,160, 161 deciduous dentition, 156-8 permanent dentition, 158-9, 160, 161 radiographs, 155 tooth emergence, 156 dentition, deciduous, 156-8 emergence, 157,334
order of emergence, 158 socioeconomic effects, 157-8 dentition, permanent, 158-61, 335-6 developing countries birth weight, 194 environmental differences amongst population, 191 infant nutrition, 194 supplemental infant feeding, 194 weaning effects, 194 diabetes bodymass index, 213 body weight, 212 fat patterning, 218 migration, 220 diarrhoeal diseases, 192 dietary restriction and adult disease, 222 disease, adult chronic cancer, 221 cardiovascular disease, 222 child environment, 222 child growth, 208 dietary restriction, 222-3 fat patterning, 215, 218-19 Japanese migrants, 219-20 Mexican migrants, 219-20 nutrition, 210, 219-23 obesity, 213-14 skinfold thickness, 213-14 disease in Africa, 63 diversity of man, 2 Egyptians, 117 Ehe pygmies, 79 England adolescent growth, 196-7 infant size changes, 34 environment body size, 191 growth effects, 3, 4 suitability for human genotype, 4 environmental influence on growth, 191— 207 boys, 200 climatic variation, 203^4pollutants, 205 psychosocial stress, 204-5 school, 204-5 season, 203-4 secular trends, 205-7 socioeconomic level, 198-202 toxins, 205
Index urbanization, 202-3 epidemiological auxology, 198 Eskimos see Arctic Eskimos European descendant infants chest circumference, 255-6 growth, 53, 54 head circumference, 255-6 weight, 255-6 European descendants biacromial width, 56, 57, 261 biiliac width, 56, 57,257 calf circumference, 57, 259 growth studies, 44, 45-6, 47 height, 47-50, 251, 252 height comparisons with European sedentes, 47-8, 49 hip width, 257 migrants, 44 secular trends in height and weight, 4850 shoulder width, 56, 57, 261 sitting height, 53, 55, 57, 260 skinfold thickness, 58, 59-61, 62, 262-3, 264-5 upper arm circumference, 57, 58, 258 weight, 47-50, 253, 254 weight-for-height, 50, 52, 53 Europeans, 17, 18-20, 21-2 arm length, 238-9 biacromial width, 240 biiliac width, 241, 242 bone density, 190 calf circumference, 38, 39, 40 chest circumference, 38 cross-sectional, 17 crown-rump measurement, 34-5 dental development, 160, 161 environmental height differences, 27 fat patterning, 215 genetic height differences, 26-7 genitalia development age, 173 height of boys, 226—7 height of girls, 228-9 height and weight growth, 26-7 hip to shoulder width relationship, 188 hip width, 35, 36-7, 38 infants, 32, 33, 34, 234, 235 menarcheal age, 168 permanent tooth emergence, 161 range of means, 179 rural populations, 27 secular height increase, 206
389 sex differences, 27-8, 29 sexual development, 173 shoulder width, 35, 36-7, 38 sitting height, 34-5, 36, 236-7 skeletal maturity, 148 skinfold thickness, 40, 41-2, 43, 85, 89, 246-7, 248, 249, 250 upper arm circumference, 38,39, 243,244 weight of boys, 230-1 weight of girls, 232-3 weight for height, 28, 29, 30-2 Europeans in America genitalia development age, 173 menarcheal age, 168 skeletal maturity, 151 skinfold thickness, 189 family body measurement resemblance, 178-9 environmental influence, 179 genetic influence on growth, 176-9 likeness, 2-3 number of children, 202 resemblance studies, 178 tendency to become unemployed, 201 fat absorption and intestinal parasites, 63 deposition and adult adiposity, 214 fat patterning, 190, 215, 216, 218-19 coronary heart disease, 218 diabetes, 218 genetic influence, 218 skinfold thickness, 40, 215 trunk, 218, 219 Fels Longitudinal Research Study, 206 Finland, dental development, 157 follow-up studies, 9 genetic differences, 3 genetic influence on growth, 176 families, 176-9 populations, 179-89 genitalia development, 172 Glasgow, adolescent growth, 196 Graz (Austria), skeletal maturity study, 150 Greulich-Pyle standards of skeletal maturity, 146-9 skeletal age, 330, 331 growth age intervals, 21-2 fatness relationship, 169
390
Index
measurement techniques, 22, 23—5, 26 potential, 1 growth hormone deficiency and catch-up growth, 192 Mountain Ok people, 135 psychological stress, 204 growth standards, 10-16 age estimates, 14-15 discrete events, 12-14 height, 10-12 individual, 15 menarche, 12-14 population, 15 pubertal stages, 14 single universal, 15 Guatemala, nutritional stunting in height, 194 Hamites, 117 hand-wrist maturity, 146 head circumference European ancestry infants, 255-6 European infants, 234—5 health and child's growth, 1 Health and Nutrition Examination Survey see NHANES height adult, 79, 108, 125,140 affluence, 199 African ancestry, 266-7, 268-9 Africans, 69-77, 266-7, 268-9 age grouping, 21, 22 Asiatics, 94-102, 284-5, 286-7 Australian Aborigines, 133-5, 316-17 boys, 5 cancer incidence, 208 cross-sectional study, 4 economic history, 198 Europeans, 226-7, 228-9 European descendants, 47-50, 251, 252 European sedentes, 47-8, 49 European studies, 26-7 family effects, 178, 202 genetic effects, 178 Indo-Mediterraneans, 120-3, 305, 306 mortality relationship, 208, 209 number of children in family, 202 Pacific Islanders, 133-8, 316-17 populations, 180-1,182, 183 secular trend, 30, 31-2, 205-6 social class, 198-200 social mobility, 200-1
standards, 10-12 velocity, 77, 12, 73 height-for-age charts, 11-12 Hindus, 120, 125 hip width Africans, 278 Asiatics, 112-13,299 Australian Aborigines, 142-3 Europeans, 241 European descendants, 56, 57, 257 European studies, 35, 36-7, 38 Pacific Islanders, 142-3 Papua New Guinea, 326 racial differences, 188 Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Study (HHANES), 94 Honduras, nutritional stunting in height, 194 Hong Kong dental development, 161 secular trends, 102 skeletal maturity, 152,153 hypothyroidism, catch-up growth, 192 hypoxia, 203, 204 Ibadan infant growth, 80-1 shoulder width, 83 sitting height, 81,52 skinfold thickness, 85, 86-7 upper arm circumference, 84 IgA and weight, 126 illness energy requirements, 191-2 growth pattern, 191 growth restriction, 192 immigrant populations, genetic differences, 198 immune capacity and weight, 126 Indians adolescent growth, 196 height and weight growth, 120, 123 infant weight and length, 126 menarcheal age, 168 nutritional status, 123 ossification centre visibility, 154 sex differences in infant feeding, 16 skeletal maturity, 151 weight-for-height, 125 Indo-Dravidians, 117 Indo-Mediterraneans adult height and weight, 125, 309 ethnic groups, 117
Index growth studies, 117,118-19, 120 height, 305,306 height and weight growth, 120,121-2, 123 infant size, 125-6, 310-11 skinfold thickness, 128-9, 309,313-14, 315 upper arm circumference, 126-7, 309, 312 weight, 307, 308 weight-for-height, 123,124, 125 Indonesian-Malays, 90 adolescence, 98 height growth, 94, 95-6 maturity age, 98 secular trends, 102-4,105 skinfold thickness, 116 weight, 98, 99-100 weight-for-height, 106 industrialization obesity in lower socioeconomic groups, 211-12 secular trends, 205-7 weight-for-height gradient, 202 infant feeding practices, 34 infant growth European descendants, 53, 54 factors affecting, 126 infant mortality Aborigines, 142 Punjab, 126 rate, 1 infant size Africans, 275 Asians, 294—5 Australian Aborigines, 322-3 Indo-Mediterraneans, 310-11 Papua New Guinea, 322-3 infants from birth to 18 months, Europe, 32, 33, 34 infection, childhood, 191 growth pattern, 191 insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) African pygmies, 75, 135 Mountain Ok people, 135 International Biological Programme Human Adaptability Section, 1 sitting height methods, 34 intestinal parasites, 63 Ituri pygmies, 68, 74, 75, 79 Jamaica, skeletal maturity study, 152
391 Japanese adolescent growth, 196-7 atomic bomb, 200 bone age, 183 breast cancer, 220, 221 dental development, 158 dietary restriction, 222 height means, 180, 181,182, 183 leg length and sitting height, 112 menarcheal age, 168, 171 migrants, 219-20 puberty, 149 secular trends, 103^1, 206 sitting height, 110, 112 skeletal development, 155 skeletal maturity, 149, 151-2 skinfold thickness, 116, 189 stature change, 112 weight study, 183, 184 Kenebar (Gambia), secular change, 63 Khartoum, peak height velocity, 123 Khosians, 68 knemometer, 191 Kuwaitis, 117 kwashiorkor, 195 La Paz (Bolivia) altitude effects, 204 growth survey, 47 skinfold thickness, 58 lactation, growth effects, 194 Latin American children, weight-forheight, 108 leg length environmental conditions, 186 secular trends, 206 subischial, 35 to trunk length of Australian Aborigines, 142 length, infants from birth to 18 months Africans, 80 Asiatics, 108, 109 Australian Aborigines, 140, 141 Europe,32, 33, 34 European descendants, 54 Indo-Mediterraneans, 125-6 Libyans, 117 life expectancy and body weight, 211 linear growth, altitude effects, 108 London Longitudinal Study, skeletal maturity, 150
392
Index
longitudinal study methods, 8-10 linked, 9 mixed, 9 planning, 10 Louisville Longitudinal Study, 177 Love Canal toxic dump, 205 lung disease, body weight, 212 Machakos (Kenya), growth comparison with slaves in America, 75, 76, 77 Mali, male stature, 63 malnutrition in Africa, 63 catch-up growth, 192 chronic adult disease, 219 subsequent feeding, 195 Manduar (Gambia), secular change, 63 Manus, 130 birth-weight, 140 height and weight growth, 135 secular change absence, 211 shoulder and hip width, 142-3 skinfold thickness, 143-4 weight-for-height, 138-9 Maoris height, 133 menarche age, 168 marasmus, 195 maturation rate, 3, 145 maturity environmental influences, 145 hereditary influences, 145 measures of, 145 nutritional effects, 146 Maya Indians, 98, 108 measles, 191-2 Mediterranean countries, menarche, 168 menarche, 12-14, 161,162-5, 165-72 age in different countries, 168 age and secular trends, 207 altitude, 168 blindness, 172 child spacing correlation, 172 climatic influence, 171 data collection methods, 165-7 deafness, 172 delayed, 192 genetic factors, 171 height at, 197 industrialization effects, 170 infant mortality correlation, 172 Mediterranean countries, 168
northwest Europe, 168 nutritional effects, 168-70 physical exercise, 172 prospective data collection, 166-7 retrospective data collection, 167 secular trend, 179-1, 207 slimness, 169-170 social class, 169-71, 198, 200 social conditions in infancy, 171-2 status quo data collection, 165-6 time of, 145 urbanization, 203 Mexican-Americans, 98 adult growth, 108 diabetes risk, 220 fat patterning, 218 leg length, 186 length and sitting height, 111 migrants, 219, 220 nutrition and health supplementation programs, 105 secular change absence, 211 sitting height, 110 skinfold thickness, 116, 190, 217, 218-20 upper arm circumference, 113-14 weight-for-height, 106, 108, 188 Mexicans leg length, 186 migrants, 219 skeletal maturity, 151 migration, 219-22 diabetes, 220 Samoans, 135 trunk adiposity, 144 Mogadish (Somalia) height and weight growth, 69 upper arm circumference, 84 weight for height, 77 Mongols, 90 Montreal (Canada) menarche age, 169-70 skeletal maturity, 151 morbidity, child growth, 208 mortality body mass index, 212 cardiovascular, 210-11 child growth, 208 height relationship, 208, 209 Multinational Andean Genetic and Health Program, 90 Namibia, skeletal maturity, 152
Index National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS),69 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys see NHANES Nepalese, 129 Netherlands age at menarche, 207 secular trends, 32, 206 skeletal maturity, 150 wartime famine, 195 NHANES, 44, 180 Afro-Americans, 77, 78 skinfold thickness, 88, 89 sitting height, 81,82 Nigeria, economic circumstances and deciduous dentition, 157-8 Nilo-Hamites, 67 Nilotes, 67 adult height, 79 height means, 74 Turkana, 69 Norway height and mortality, 208 leg length, 185, 186 menarcheal age, 169-70, 170, 171-2 sitting height, 185, 186 nutrition adolescence, 196-7 birth weight effects, 194 breast cancer link, 210 chronic adult disease, 219-23 developed areas, 3 growth effects, 191,222 growth tempo, 198 infancy, 194—6 leg length, 196 low and adult size, 195 maturity effects, 145-6 menarcheal age, 168-70 migrant groups, 219-22 permanent dentition effects, 158 sitting height, 196 skeletal maturity, 153 stunting in height, 194 nutritional status, 1 infant growth, 126 nutritional stress and body shape, 195-6 obesity adolescence, 214 childhood, 3, 213-14 disease risk correlation, 212
393 environmental factors, 214 inheritance, 214 skinfold thickness, 40, 213-14 socioeconomic level, 202 trends, 211-13 urbanization, 218 Ok-speaking people (Papua New Guinea) adults, 140 height and weight growth, 133, 134, 135 weight for height, 138 Oslo (Norway), menarcheal age, 169, 170 ossification centre visibility, 154 Otos, 81 overnutrition and chronic adult disease, 219-23 Oxfam, African work, 63 Pacific Islanders adult size, 140,320-1 growth studies, 130, 131-2, 133 height, 316-17 hip width, 142-3 infants, 140, 141, 142 secular change, 137-8 shoulder width, 142-3 sitting height, 324 skinfold thickness, 140, 143-4, 328, 329 weight, 136, 318-19 weight for height, 138-9,140 Pakistanis, 120 Papua New Guinea adults, 140 biacromial width, 325 biiliac width, 326 food supplementation, 192, 193 growth studies, 130, 131, 133 hip width, 326 infant size, 322-3 permanent tooth emergence, 161 relationship between measures of maturity, 175 shoulder width, 325 skeletal maturity, 153 skinfold thickness, 143-4 upper arm circumference, 143, 327 weight for height, 138 Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research, 130 peak height velocity (PHV) age at, 175 Indian children, 123
394
Index
Khartoum, 123 Preece-Baines Model I, 175 twin studies, 178 permanent dentition, 158-9,160, 161 emergence phases, 159,160 environmental influences, 158 nutritional effects, 158 quiescent period, 159, 161 third molars, 161 Peru, preschoolers and malnutrititon, 194-5 phenotypic differences, 3 Philadelphia (USA), skeletal maturity, 151 Poland dental development, 158 infant size, 140,141 infant weight and length, 108,109, 125, 126 skeletal maturity, 150 social class and menarcheal age, 198, 200 urbanization, 202-3 pollutants, 205 population density, industrial-urban, 4 population studies bodily proportions, 185-6,187, 188-9 bone age, 183 genetic influence on growth, 179-89 height, 7S0, 181,752,183 racial mixture, 190 skinfold thickness, 189-90 weight, 183,184 poverty birth weight, 194 culture of, 201 growth deficit in infants, 194 height effects, 191 Practical Human Biology, 22 Preece-Baines Model I, 175 protein-calorie malnutrition, 195 psychosocial stress, 204 pubertal maturity, 145, 146 puberty height and weight variation, 27 and leg length, 186 nutrition and, 196-7 stages, 161,162-5, 165-75 pubic hair growth, 172, 174 public health, 1 Punjabis dental development, 161 menarcheal age, 168 Puno(Peru), 104-5
Pygmies, 68 adolescent growth spurt, 75 adult, 79, 274 ecology, 74 genetics, 74 growth studies, 74-5 infant, 80, SI, 275 Quechuas, 98, 104, 105, 108 fat patterning, 215 ossification centre visibility, 154 sitting height, 110 skeletal maturity, 149 radiographs hand-wrist, 146 teeth, 155 recommended dietary allowances for adolescents, 196 Samoans adults, 140 growth studies, 132, 133 height and weight growth, 133, 135 migration, 220 weight for height, 138 sanitation, infant growth, 126 Santiago studies, 446, 47 upper arm circumference, 57, 58 Sao Paulo infant growth, 53, 54 Santo Andre study, 47 Scandinavia, poverty elimination, 201 school and pupil stress, 204-5 season food scarcity, 203-4 growth effects, 203^ secondary sex characteristics, 337, 338 age see pubertal maturity secular trends, 205-7 absence, 211 height, 31, 34, 48-50, 63, 102-5, 135, 737-^,211 infants, 33, 34 skinfolds, 58, 61,88, 89 weight, 50, 57, 105, 211, 213 sexual development, 161,162-5, 165-75 menarche, 161,162-5, 165-72 relationship between measures of maturity, 175 stages of puberty, 172^
Index testes, 174-5 twin studies, 178 sexual dimorphism African height, 79 Asiatic height, 106 height, 27-8, 29 size, 29, 30, 32 shoulder width Africans, 83, 277 Asiatics, 112-13,298 Australian Aborigines, 142-3 European descendants, 56,57, 261 Europeans, 240 European studies, 35, 36-7, 38 Pacific Islanders, 142-3 Papua New Guinea, 325 racial differences, 188 siblings, 176 birthweight,178 resemblance studies, 178 Sikhs, 120, 125 sisters, menarche, 145 sitting height Africans, 81,52,276 arm length relationship, 187 Asiatics, 110-12 Australian Aborigines, 324 European descendants, 53, 55, 57, 260 European studies, 34-5, 36, 236-7 Ibadan,81,52 and leg length, 15, 81, 82, 111, 142, 1857 measurement, 24, 26 NHANESII,81,S2 Pacific Islanders, 324 skeletal age Greulich-Pyle Atlas, 330, 331 Tanner-Whitehouse method, 332, 333 skeletal maturity, 145, 146-55 bone age from birth to two, 154—5 chronological age, 146-7 Greulich-Pyle standards, 146-9 nutritional effects, 153 ossification centre visibility, 154 population comparison, 146 socioeconomic group, 152-3 Tanner-Whitehouse Standards, 149-53 UK standards, 149-50 see also bone age skinfold thickness Africans, 85, 86-8, 89,283 altitude effects, 108
395 Asiatics, 114,115, 116, 302-3, 304 European descendants, 58, 59-67, 62, 262-5 Europeans, 85, 246-7, 248, 249, 250 fat patterning, 215,277 Indo-Mediterraneans, 128-9, 313-14, 315 obesity, 213-14 Pacific Islanders, 140, 143-4, 328, 329 population studies, 189-90 secular trends, 58, 67, 62, 88, 89 slaves, American from Africa, 75, 76, 77 smoking birth weight, 205 passive, 205 social conditions and menarche age, 171-2 mobility, 200-1 Social and Biological Predictors of Nutritional Status, Growth and Neurological Development, 192 social class adults, 198-9 height, 198-200 menarche, 169-70, 198, 200 sex difference effects, 200 weight-for-height, 202 socioeconomic level, 198-202 Afro-Americans, 79 deciduous dentition, 157-8 height and social mobility, 200-1 number of children in family, 202 obesity, 202 obesity in industrialized society, 211-12 skeletal maturity, 152-3 unemployment, 201 weight-for-height, 202 Solomon Islanders adults, 140 growth studies, 132, 133 South Africa, skeletal maturity, 149 stature measurement, 22, 23 stunting, 108 subscapular skinfold thickness Africans, 85, 86-8, 89, 283 Asiatics, 114, 775, 116,304 European descendants, 58, 60, 61, 264-5 European studies, 40, 42, 249, 250 fat patterning, 215-19 Indo-Mediterraneans, 128-9, 315 measurement, 26, 26 Pacific Islanders, 144, 329
396
Index
Sudanese, 67 supine length measurement, 22, 23 survival, bodily adaptations, 191 Sweden skeletal maturity, 150 twin growth study, 178 Tanner-Whitehouse Standards of skeletal maturity, 149-53 skeletal age, 332, 333 teachers and pupil stress, 204-5 tempo of growth, 196, 197 secular height increase, 206, 207 socioeconomic class differences, 198 testis development, 174-5 The Measurement of Human Growth, 22 Tokyo (Japan), skeletal maturity, 151-2 toxins, 205 triceps skinfold thickness Africans, 85, 86-8, 89, 281-2 Asiatics, 114, 116,302-3 cancer correlation, 221 European descendants, 58, 59, 61,62, 262-3 European studies, 40, 41, 43, 246-7, 248 fat patterning, 215-19 Indo-Mediterraneans, 128-9, 313-14 measurement, 25, 26 Pacific Islanders, 143, 144, 328 trunk adiposity with migration and modernization, 144 and limb proportion racial differences, 186,187 Turkana growth studies, 69, 74 skinfold thickness, 85, 86-7 upper arm circumference, 84 weight for height, 77 Tutsi, growth studies, 74 TW1 and TW2 system of skeletal maturity, 149 Twa pygmies, 68, 81 twins, 176 dizygotic, 177 growth, 177-8 maturity, 178 menarche, 145 monozygotic, 177 undernutrition adult size, 195
bone age, 198 height at puberty, 196 stunting, 194 unemployment, shortness in children, 201 United Kingdom skeletal maturity standards, 149-50 United Nations Children's Fund, African work, 63 United States Agency for International Development, African work, 63 United States of America children of African descent see AfroAmericans genitalia development age, 173 height secular increase, 206 height and weight of European descendants, 47, 48-9 menarcheal age, 170-1 skeletal maturity, 148, 151 skinfold secular trends, 58, 62 urbanization, 203 weight for height of European descendants, 51 weight secular changes, 48, 50 United States Health Examination Survey (1963-70), 148 United States National Center for Health Statistics, 44 upper arm circumference, 14 Africans, 84, 279-80 age estimates, 14 Asiatics, 113-14,500-7 cancer correlation, 221 European ancestry, 258 Europeans, 243, 244 Indo-Mediterraneans, 126-7, 312 Papua New Guinea, 143, 327 urbanization benefits, 202 influence on growth, 202-3 obesity, 218 shanty towns, 202 size of children, 202 US National Center for Health Statistics, 108 Utrecht (Holland), skeletal maturity study, 150 velocity curve, longitudinal-type, 11 velocity standards, 8-9 Venezuela, national growth survey, 47 Villerme, Louis-Rene, 191
397
Index vitamin A absorption and intestinal parasites, 63 Warsaw (Poland), 108,109, 125,126, 140, 141 skeletal maturity, 150 water quality and infant growth, 126 Waterlow classification, 108 weaning, growth effects, 194 weight African ancestry, 69-77, 270-1,272-3 Africans, 69-77, 270-1, 272-3 Asiatics, 288-9, 290-1 Australian Aborigines, 135-8, 318-19 change,212 European ancestry infants, 255-6 Europeans, 26-7, 230-1, 232-3 European descendants, 47-50, 253, 254 European infants, 32, 33, 34, 234-5 European studies, 26-7 Indo-Mediterraneans, 120-3, 307, 308
Pacific Islanders, 318-19 populations, 180-1, 183,184 secular increase, 205-6 weight for height, 15 Africans, 77-9 Asiatics, 106,107, 108 Australian Aborigines, 138-9,140 Europeans, 27 European descendants, 47 Indo-Mediterraneans, 123-5 Pacific Islanders, 138-9,140 studies, 28, 29, 30-2 WIC Program (USA), 194 Wopkaimin see Ok-speaking people (Papua New Guinea) World Health Organization, African work, 63 Zapotec Indians, 98, 104