World of Sports Science

WORLD of

SP ORTS SCIENCE

WORLD of

SP ORTS SCIENCE

1

VOLUME

A-L

K.Lee Lerner and BrendaWilmoth Lerner, E D I T O R S

WORLD of

SP ORTS SCIENCE

2

VOLUME

M-Z

GENERAL INDEX

K.Lee Lerner and BrendaWilmoth Lerner, E D I T O R S

World of Sports Science K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, Editors

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA World of sports science / K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-4144-0614-5 (set hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-4144-0614-2 (set hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-1-4144-0615-2 (vol. 1 : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-4144-0615-0 (vol. 1 : alk. paper) [etc.] 1. Sports medicine–Encyclopedias - 2. Sports sciences–Encyclopedias. - I. Lerner, K. Lee. - II. Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth. RC1206.W672007 617.1’02703–dc22

2006013088

ISBN-13:

ISBN-10:

978-1-4144-0614-5 (set) 978-1-4144-0615-2 (v1) 978-1-4144-0616-9 (v2)

1-4144-0614-2 (set) 1-4144-0615-0 (vol. 1) 1-4144-0616-9 (vol. 2)

This title is also available as an e-book, ISBN-13: 978-1-4144-0613-8, ISBN-10: 1-4144-0613-4 Contact your Gale sales representative for ordering information. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

CONTENTS

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

A CK N O W L E D G M E N T S

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INTRODUCTION

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HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY

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ENTRIES VOLUME 1: A-L VOLUME 2: M-Z

1 455

SOURCES CONSULTED

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GENERAL INDEX

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In compiling this edition, we have been fortunate in being able to rely upon the expertise and contributions of the following scholars who served as academic and contributing advisors for World of Sports Science, and to them we would like to express our sincere appreciation for their efforts to ensure that World of Sports Science contains the most accurate and timely information possible. Contributing Advisors William Atkins, MS Normal, Illinois

Bryan Davies, LLB Journalist (Sports Columnist) and Coach (Basketball) Whitby, Ontario, Canada

Antonio Farina, MD, PhD University of Bologna Bologna, Italy

Larry Gilman, PhD Sharon, Vermont

Brian D. Hoyle, PhD Nova Scotia, Canada

Peter Lonergan, MEd Director of Athletics and Head Coach, Women’s Basketball Medaille College Buffalo, New York

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Bill Pangos, MPhysEd Sports Administrator and Head Coach, Women’s Basketball York University Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Alexandr Ioffe, PhD Russian Academy of Sciences Moscow, Russia

Acknowledgments The editors would like to extend thanks to Connie Clyde for her assistance in copyediting. The editors also wish to specially acknowledge Adrienne Wilmoth Lerner and Alica Marie Caferty for their diligent and extensive research on selected entries. The editors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of many at Thompson Gale for their help in preparing World of Sports Science. The editors wish to specifically thank Carol Nagel and Debra Kirby for their help and advice in launching this project. Special thanks are also offered to Gale Senior Editor Kim McGrath for her timely, skilled, and gentle guidance through various project complexities.

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INTRODUCTION

Sports offer both competition and a path to fitness. Accordingly, sports science has grown beyond the exclusive application of science toward improving competitive performance to applications that improve the quality of life and health. Sports and the advances in sports science have, however, increasing impact on broad segments of society— from advanced competitors wishing to enhance Olympic-caliber performance to those wishing modest improvement in the quality of their health and life through the practice of yoga or Pilates. Intended for high school-aged students and readers at the start of their studies of sports science, World of Sports Science is designed to be an interesting and useable introduction to the field. Sports often captivate younger audiences, and World of Sports Science is specifically designed to allow younger students to relate fundamental terms and concepts taught in the science classroom to their often passionate pursuit of sports. In so doing the science becomes more relevant to their daily lives and, in turn, participation and capabilities in sport are enhanced by a greater understanding of issues related to exercise physiology, biomechanics, drug use, etc. The editors have not shied from the controversies in sport related to the use of performance-enhancing drugs and have taken special care to identify the dangers and ethical concerns related to such use. The controversy in the wake of the 2006 Tour de France, in which the winner Floyd Landis was reported to have tested positive for the use of a banned substance (testosterone, an anabolic steroid) took place after World of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Sports Science went to press. At the time of this writing, Landis proclaims his innocence and official action remains pending against Landis, who faces being stripped of his Tour title and a ban from professional cycling for two years. Such incidents are becoming increasingly common across the world of sport and although the editors can not forecast the news, World of Sports Science is designed to provide students and readers with resources and readings that enable them to more fully understand the complexities of such evolving news stories. For example, entries on the World Anti-Doping Agency, WADA director Richard Pound, the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency, and Court of Arbitration for Sport provide insight in to the agencies and processes used to investigate and enforce provisions against banned substances while entries on anabolic steroids, testosterone, cycling, and a specialized article on the Tour de France (Cycling: Tour de France) provide examples of entries offering essential background reading that empower critical thinking about events in the news. World of Sports Science is a collection of nearly 600 entries that evidence the wide application of science to sport and that place special emphasis on the basic science related to introductory concepts related to muscular strength and endurance, cardiovascular efficiency, oxygen use, and the importance of flexibility—all critical elements of fitness and athletic performance. The science in this book is simplified so that the it offers straightforward but accurate descriptions of measurements of both general and specialized topics—ranging from entries related to anatomy, physiology, and kinesiology to more specia-

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INTRODUCTION

lized treatments of injury prevention, nutrition, and the calculation of muscle to fat ratios. In addition to students and a general readership, World of Sports Science is designed to be a valuable general reference for a range of specialized interests—from physical education teachers wishing to provide content-related readings that support their curriculum objectives to personal trainers wishing to give their clients fundamental reading material related to the changes in the body induced by exercise. In an effort the enhance readability and interest, the editors include biographies of athletes and others involved in sport science, technology, and history who are more readily known to students and a general readership. This is not intended as insult to the thousands of men and women who skillfully labor to advance sports science, and who are due recognition in future volumes, but rather as a calculated attempt to capture student interest by, as exemplified in the entry on champion cyclist Lance Armstrong, relating athletic achievement to some aspect of sports science or technology. The editors hope that World Sports Science serves to inspire students and readers to examine the linkage of science to sport, and encourages them toward further study. K. Lee Lerner & Brenda Wilmoth Lerner Editors London, U.K. July 2006

How to Use the Book The articles in the book are meant to be understandable by anyone with a curiosity about the relation

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of science to sport. World of Sports Science carries specifically selected fundamental topics in genetics, anatomy, physiology, physics, etc., that provide a basis for understanding the application of science to sport. This first edition of World of Sports Science has been designed with ready reference in mind:  Entries are arranged alphabetically, rather than by chronology or scientific field.  ‘‘See also’’ references at the end of entries alert the reader to related entries not specifically mentioned in the body of the text.  The Historical Chronology includes many of the significant events in the advancement of sports science.  A Sources Consulted section lists the most worthwhile print material and web sites we encountered in the compilation of this volume. It is there for the inspired reader who wants more information on the people and discoveries covered in this volume.  A comprehensive General Index guides the reader to topics and persons mentioned in the book. Bolded page references refer the reader to the term’s full entry. A detailed understanding of biochemistry is neither assumed nor required for World of Sports Science. Accordingly, students and other readers should not be intimidated or deterred by the complex names of chemical molecules. Where necessary, sufficient information regarding chemical structure is provided. If desired, more information can easily be obtained from any basic chemistry or biochemistry reference.

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HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY

c. 5000 The first water craft are developed in various indigenous cultures throughout the world (canoes, kayaks, and wind-powered vessels). c. 3500 BC The traditional Indian holistic medicine practices known as Ayurveda are traced to this period, as is the practice of yoga. c. 3000 BC The oldest written references to traditional chinese medicine (TCM), including various herbal medicine techniques and acupuncture, are dated to this period. c. 1000 BC Baggataway, the forerunner to lacrosse, is first played by the indigenous peoples of North America during this period. c. 1000 BC The ancient Scottish highland sports, including the caber toss and putting the stone, originated with the clan gatherings of this period. c. 800 BC The Mayan peoples of southern Mexico participate in organized high diving from cliffs into the Pacific Ocean. c. 776 BC The first Olympic Games is held at Athens. The competitions are restricted to men only; the credo of the ancient Games, ‘‘Higher, Faster, Stronger,’’ remains the inspiration of the modern Olympics.

Athens to proclaim the victory over the Persian army. The modern marathon is named for his feat. c. 275 BC Herophilus’s younger colleague, Eristratus (c. 310–c. 250 BC), asserts that veins and arteries are connected. 36 BC The first swimming races are held in Japan, as a part of the training of the Samurai warrior class. c. 100 The sport of sumo, a competition that first evolved within the Shinto religion of Japan as a means of appeasing the gods, was developed in this period. c. 393 The Olympics are abolished by Roman emperor Theodosius I, on the grounds that the Games were pagan. c. 850 Arab scholar Yaqub ibn-Ishaq al-Kindi (c. 800–870) advances an anatomical and physiological explanation of vision. c. 1200 Versions of football (soccer) are being played in various regions of Europe. c. 1275 William of Saliceto creates the first established record of a human dissection. c. 1300 Cricket is being played in a variety of forms across the south of England.

c. 700 BC The use of anatomical models is established in India.

1490 Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) designs the world’s first bicycle.

490 BC Phillipides, a messenger with the Greek army, dies after running from the site of the Battle of Marathon to the city of

1505 Leonardo da Vinci adds to a series of anatomical studies by creating the first wax cast of oxen brain ventricles.

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1540 Servetus offers the first description of the pulmonary circulation of blood. c. 1550 Early forms of tennis are being played in various regions of Europe. 1658 Dutch naturalist Jan Swammerdam publishes records of observations of red blood cells. 1660 Marcello Malpighi makes publishes works describing vascular capillary beds and individual capillaries. 1664 The idea of reflex action, formulated by Rene´ Descartes (1596–1650), French philosopher and mathematician, is made public. The assertion is included in a French edition of his posthumously published work on animal physiology. In his analysis Descartes applied his mechanistic philosophy to the analysis of animal behavior and first used the concept of reflex to denote any involuntary response the body makes when exposed to a stimulus. 1665 Robert Hooke publishes Micrographia, an account of observations made with the new instrument known as the microscope. Hooke presents his drawings of the tiny box-like structures found in cork and calls these tiny structures ‘‘cells.’’ Although the cells he observes are not living, the name is retained. He also describes the streaming juices of live plant cells. 1680 Posthumous publication of On Motion in Animals by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (1608–1679), Italian mathematician and physicist. Borelli studied the human body from the standpoint of Descartes’s mechanistic philosophy, describing physiology as a branch of physics and offering a mechanical analysis of the skeletomuscular system. 1746 Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis publishes Venus Physique. Maupertuis criticizes preformationist theories because offspring inherit characteristics of both parents. He proposes an adaptationist account of organic design. His theories suggests the existence of a mechanism for transmitting adaptations. c. 1750 Cricket increases in popularity throughout England. The rules are codified and formal cricket clubs are established in London. 1757 Albrecht von Haller 1757–1766), publishes the first volume of his eight-volume

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Elements of Physiology of the Human Body, subsequently to become a landmark in the history of modern physiology. 1770 Captain James Cook, English explorer, observes the sport of surfing practiced by native people in the Hawaiian Islands. 1771 Luigi Galvani (1737–1798), Italian anatomist, discovers the electric nature of nervous impulses. 1772 Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), English theologian and chemist, discovers that plants give off oxygen. 1774 Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794), French chemist, discovers that oxygen is consumed during respiration. 1796 Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin, and Francis Galton, publishes his Zoonomia. In this work, Darwin argues that evolutionary changes are brought about by the mechanism primarily associated with Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, that is, the direct influence of the environment on the organism. 1820 First United States Pharmacopoeia is published. 1823 The invention of rugby is credited to William Webb Ellis at Rugby School, England. The rules of rugby are formalized in England in 1845, the first stage in a rise in rugby’s popularity as a world game. 1829 The first Oxford-Cambridge rowing race is held on the Thames River, London. 1839 Theodore Schwann extends the theory of cells to include animals and helps establish the basic unity of the two great kingdoms of life. In Microscopical Researches into the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants, Schwann asserts that all living things are made up of cells, each of which contains certain essential components. He also coins the term ‘‘metabolism’’ to describe the overall chemical changes that take place in living tissues. 1846 The first recorded game of organized baseball is played at Elysian Fields, New Jersey. Alexander Cartwright (1820–1892) had written the first comprehensive set of rules for baseball in 1845. 1848 The Cambridge Rules, the first codefication of the rules of soccer, are created at Cambridge University, England.

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1851 The first race of what would become the America’s Cup yacht racing series was contested. 1854 Gregor Mendel begins his study of 34 different strains of peas. Eventually, Mendel selects 22 kinds for further experiments. From 1856 to 1863, Mendel will grow and test over 28,000 plants and analyze seven specific pairs of traits. 1855 Barolomeo Panizza (1785–1867), Italian anatomist, first proves that parts of the cerebral cortex are essential for vision. 1858 Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow publishes his landmark paper ‘‘Cellular Pathology’’ and establishes the field of cellular pathology. Virchow asserts that all cells arise from preexisting cells (Omnis cellula e cellula). He argues that the cell is the ultimate locus of all disease. 1859 Charles Robert Darwin publishes his landmark book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. 1863 The Football Association, the world’s oldest soccer league, is founded in London, England. 1870 Gustav Theodor Fritsch (1838–1927), German anatomist and anthropologist, and Eduard Hitzig (1838–1907), German physiologist and neurologist, discover that electric shocks to one cerebral hemisphere of a dog’s brain produces movement on the other side of the animal’s body. This is the first clear demonstration of the existence of cerebral hemispheric lateralization. 1870 Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet shows the importance of statistical analysis for biologists and provides the foundations of biometry. 1873 Franz Anton Schneider describes cell division in detail. His drawings included both the nucleus and chromosomal strands. 1873 John Trudgen introduces a swimming stroke to swimmers in England that is a precursor to the modern front crawl. The Trudgen technique dramatically increases the speed and the efficiency of swimmers; the Trudgen stroke remains the staple in swim races for 30 years. 1873 Walther Flemming discovers chromosomes, observes mitosis, and suggests the modern interpretation of nuclear division.

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1874 The first American football game, a variation of rugby, is played between McGill University (Montreal, ON, Canada) and Harvard. Harvard will play Yale in the first ever American intercollegiate game in 1875. 1875 The first organized ice hockey game is played in Montreal, ON, Canada. 1876 North American baseball’s National League is founded. 1878 A.G. Spalding establishes the sporting goods company that bears his name in Chicago. Spalding products form the backbone of the first ever sporting goods empire. 1878 Charles-Emanuel Sedillot introduces the term ‘‘microbe.’’ The term becomes widely used as a term for a pathogenic bacterium. 1881 FIG, the international governing body of gymnastics, is founded in Paris. 1882 Robert Koch (1843–1910), German bacteriologist, discovers the tubercle bacillus and enunciates ‘‘Koch’s postulates,’’ which define the classic method of preserving, documenting, and studying bacteria. 1882 Shihan Kano of Japan develops the sport of judo. 1882 Walther Flemming publishes Cell Substance, Nucleus, and Cell Division, in which he describes his observations of the longitudinal division of chromosomes in animal cells. Flemming observes chromosome threads in the dividing cells of salamander larvae. 1884 Elie Metchnikoff discovers the antibacterial activity of white blood cells, which he calls ‘‘phagocytes,’’ and formulates the theory of phagocytosis. 1884 Louis Pasteur and coworkers publishes a paper entitled ‘‘A New Communication on Rabies.’’ Pasteur proves that the causal agent of rabies could be attenuated and the weakened virus could be used as a vaccine to prevent the disease. This work serves as the basis of future work on virus attenuation, vaccine development, and the concept that variation is an inherent characteristic of viruses. 1887 The game of softball is invented by George Hancock in Chicago, Illinois.

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1888 Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried Waldeyer coins the term ‘‘chromosome.’’ Waldeyer introduces the use of hematoxylin as a histological stain. 1891 Charles-Edouard Brown-Sequard suggests the concept of internal secretions (hormones). 1891 Hermann Henking distinguishes between the sex chromosomes and the autosomes. 1891 James Naismith, a physical education instructor with the YMCA, invents the sport of basketball in Springfield, Massachussets. 1893 Senda Berenson Abbott, a physical education instructor at Smith College, Massachussets, revises the Naismith rules of basketball to create a version of basketball for women. 1895 Physical education instructor William Morgan, a friend of James Naismith, invents volleyball in Springfield, Massachussets. 1896 The Olympic Games are revived by Baron Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), and are held in Paris. The International Olympic Committee is established to organize all successive Olympic Games. 1897 The inaugural Boston Marathon (26.2 mi [42.2 km]) is run on a course from Hopkington, Massachussets, to Boston; 15 runners take part. The Boston Marathon becomes the most famous road race in the world. 1897 The world’s first bobsled run is constructed at St. Moritz, Switzerland. 1899 Scientist Felix Hoffman invents aspirin (acetysalicylic acid) in Germany. Aspirin, originally designed as an analgesic is the most consumed medication in history. 1900 Karl Landsteiner discovers the bloodagglutination phenomenon and the four major blood types in humans. 1901 Jokichi Takamine (1854–1922), JapaneseAmerican chemist, and T.B. Aldrich first isolate epinephrine from the adrenal gland. Later known by the trade name Adrenalin, it is eventually identified as a neurotransmitter. This is also the first time a pure hormone has been isolated. 1902 Walter Sutton presents evidence that chromosomes have individuality, that chromosomes occur in pairs (with one member of each pair contributed by each

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parent), and that the paired chromosomes separate from each other during meiosis. Sutton concludes that the concept of the individuality of the chromosomes provides the link between cytology and Mendelian heredity. 1903 The first Tour de France is organized, a 1,500-mi (2,500 km) race. Over one hundred years later, the Tour de France is the most famous cycling race in the world. 1905 Nettie Maria Stevens, American geneticist, discovers the connection between chromosomes and sex determination. She determines that there are two basic types of sex chromosomes, which are now called X and Y. Stevens proves that females are XX and males are XY. Stevens and Edmund B. Wilson independently describe the relationship between the so-called accessory or X chromosomes and sex determination in insects. 1905 The Isle of Mann motorcycle races are organized for the first time. The Isle of Mann competition remains one of the most famous motorcycle challenges in the world. 1907 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1910) investigates the conditioned reflex (1904– 1907). A great stimulus for behaviorist psychology, his work establishes physiologically-oriented psychology. 1909 Jean de Mayer, French physiologist, first suggests the name ‘‘insulin’’ for the hormone of the islet cells. 1909 The Indianapolis Speedway is constructed; this race track becomes the permanent home of the annual Indianapolis 500 auto race. 1920 The National Football League (NFL) commenced play. 1923 German-born Joseph Pilates, developer of the exercise training program of the same name, opens his first studio in New York. 1928 Alexander Fleming (1881–1955), Scottish bacteriologist, discovers penicillin. He observes that the mold Penicillium notatum inhibits the growth of some bacteria. This is the first antibacterial, and it opens a new era of ‘‘wonder drugs’’ to combat infection and disease. 1928 The Summer Olympics held at Amsterdam are the first to provide a significant number of women’s events.

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c. 1930 Anabolic steroids are discovered by German scientists. The chemicals are not used in sport applications until the 1950s. 1930 The first World Cup of soccer is held in Uruguay; the host nation beat Argentina in the championship final. The World Cup is today second only to the Olympics in global sporting popularity. 1932 Charles ‘‘Chuck’’ Taylor puts his signature on the logo of the Converse All Star basketball shoe; Converse are the most popular basketball shoe in the world for almost 40 years. 1934 George Nissen of Iowa builds the first trampoline intended for the commercial market. 1935 Effa Manley becomes the first woman to both own and administer the day to day operations of a professional baseball club when she assumes control of the Newark Eagles of the Negro League.

one mile in under four minutes. Bannister’s rivalry with Australian John Landy and American Wes Santee to be the first sub-four-minute runner is one of the most compelling in the history of sport. 1956 Mary F. Lyon proposes that one of the X chromosomes of normal females is inactivated. This concept became known as the Lyon hypothesis and helped explain some confusing aspects of sex-linked diseases. Females are usually ‘‘carriers’’ of genetic diseases on the X chromosome because the normal gene on the other chromosome protects them, but some X-linked disorders are partially expressed in female carriers. Based on studies of mouse coat color genes, Lyon proposes that one X chromosome is randomly inactivated in the cells of female embryos.

1946 Bloch and Purcell develop nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) as viable tool for observation and analysis.

1957 Francis Crick proposes that during protein formation each amino acid is carried to the template by an adapter molecule containing nucleotides, and that the adapter is the part that actually fits on the RNA template. Later research demonstrates the existence of transfer RNA.

1947 Jackie Robinson becomes the first black man to play major league baseball when he is signed to a contract by the Brooklyn Dodgers.

1959 The Daytona 500 auto race, the most prestigious of the American NASCAR events, is first run at the Daytona speedway this year.

1948 The Stoke Mandeville Games for disabled persons, the forerunner to the modern Paralympics, are held at Stoke-on-Trent, England.

1961 ‘‘Wide World of Sports,’’ the groundbreaking American weekly sports program, airs for the first time. ‘‘Wide World of Sports,’’ featuring host Jim McKay, runs until 1998.

1949 Joseph Sobek of Conneticut creates a new game that he calls ‘‘paddleball’’ the game is ultimately named racquetball and it would be come a very popular sport by the 1970s throughout North America.

1962 James D. Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins are awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for their work in elucidating the structure of DNA.

1950 The first Maccabiah Games to be hosted by the state of Israel are held in Tel Aviv. Styled in the manner of the Olympic Games for Jewish athletes from around the world, the Maccabiah Games become a quadrennial event in 1957. 1951 Rosalind Franklin obtains sharp x-ray diffraction photographs of DNA. 1954 Danny Biasone of the National Basketball Association (NBA) devises the 24-second shot to clock to speed the game. His innovation will become an integral part of the game both in the United States and in all international championships. 1954 Roger Bannister of England, a medical student, becomes the first person to run

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1965 A primitive form of the modern snowboard, the ‘‘Snow Surfer’’ is developed in the United States. 1965 Dr. Robert Cade of the University of Florida and a team of researchers create the sports drink Gatorade, a product that became the largest selling sports drink in the world. 1965 Franc¸ois Jacob, Andre´ Lwoff, and Jacques Monod are awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzymes and virus synthesis. 1966 Marshall Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana lead teams that decipher the genetic code. All of the 64 possible triplet combinations of the four bases (the codons)

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and their associated amino acids are determined and described.

and other prohibited substances at the Summer Olympics in Montreal.

1966 Sex testing (gender verification testing) is introduced at the European track and field championships.

1978 The Hawaii Ironman is started as a 2.4-mi (4 km) swim, a 112-mi (191 km) cycle, and a 26.2-mi (42 km) run. Twelve athletes finish in the 15-person starting field. Ironman events are now held throughout the world.

1967 Kathryn Switzer becomes the first woman to enter and to complete the Boston Marathon. 1967 The sport of windsurfing claims a number of different inventors; it begins to receive popular attention this year. 1968 American long jumper Bob Beamon shatters the world record by over 21 inches (53 cm) at the 1968 Summer Olympics at Mexico City. 1968 Dick Fosbury, American high jumper, introduces a revolutionary style of jumping, nicknamed the ‘‘Fosbury Flop.’’ Fosbury wins the Olympic gold medal in the event. 1972 Eleven Israeli Olympic team members are taken hostage and ultimately murdered by an Arab terrorist cell, ‘‘Black September’’ at the Summer Olympics at Munich. 1972 The shoe soon to be popularized as the Nike ‘‘waffle’’ sole is designed by U.S. track coach Bill Bowerman. 1972 The United States government passes Title IX of the Civil Rights Act into law; Title IX establishes a framework within which female athletes are entitled to equality of opportunity in all aspects of American amateur sport. Title IX was the impetus for the creation of female athletic scholarships and female sports organizations across the United States. 1973 Dr. Frank Jobe of Callifornia performs revolutionary elbow ligament surgery on American baseball pitcher Tommy John. This procedure will prolong the careers of thousands of athletes. 1973 The Iditarod sled dog race is run from Anchorage to Nome, Alaska. The Idiatord established a reputation as one of the toughest sporting challenges in the world. 1976 Romanian gymnast Nadia Comaneci, coached by Bela Karolyi, is awarded the first ever perfect score in the history of gymnastics at the Summer Olympics in Montreal. 1976 The International Olympic Committee institutes testing for anabolic steroids

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1980 The United States men’s hockey team defeats the favored Soviet Union to win the Olympic gold medal at Lake Placid. 1982 The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves the first genetically engineered drug, a form of human insulin produced by bacteria. c. 1983 Dr. James Andrews continues to develop arthroscopic surgery techniques that both repair athletic injuries and reduce the time require for rehabilitation. 1984 Michael Jordan is selected in the National Basketball Association draft by the Chicago Bulls. Jordan wins six league championships with the Bulls and acclaim as the greatest player in NBA history. 1986 Former world-class marathoner Brian Maxwell invents the PowerBar, a popular energy bar used by endurance athletes. 1986 Greg Lemond of the United States becomes the first American to win the Tour de France. 1986 The United States Department of Energy officially initiates the Human Genome Initiative. 1988 Canadian Ben Johnson is disqualified as the Olympic men’s 100-m champion and world record holder when he tested positive for steroids at the 1988 Summer Olympics. Johnson is the highest profile drug cheat in the history of sport. 1988 The Human Genome Project officially adopts the goal of determining the entire sequence of DNA comprising the human chromosomes. 1992 Jackie Joyner Kersee, American heptathlete, wins the Olympic gold medal at Barcelona, Spain, to become one of the most decorated female athletes in Olympic history. 1994 The United States passes the Dietary Supplements Health Promotion Act, a law intended to regulate aspects of the growing supplements market in America.

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1998 Several cyclists in the Tour de France are found to have taken the hormone erythropoetin, EPO, a practice known as ‘‘blood doping.’’ Allegations of EPO use will plague the Tour and leading riders such a seven-time champion Lance Armstrong through 2006. 1999 Scientists announce the complete sequencing of the DNA making up human chromosome 22. The first complete human chromosome sequence is published in December 1999. 1999 The World Anti-Doping Agency, WADA, is created after several years of international organizational efforts in the sports community. WADA will become one of the most influential sports organizations in the world.

2003 The BALCO (Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative) scandal surfaces in the United States; BALCO principals are involved in the distribution of nandrolone, an anabolic steroid, and other prohibited substances, to high profile American athletes, including world record sprinter Tim Montgomery and baseball home run hitter Barry Bonds. 2003 Following initial publication in 2001, The Human Genome Project for the National Institutes of Health culminates in the completion of a more complete human genome sequence, published in the journal Nature. 2005 Lance Armstrong wins his record seventh Tour de France and retires from competition.

2001 Tiger Woods becomes the only golfer in history to hold all four major championships simultaneously.

2005 Major League Baseball (MLB) players are subpoenaed to testify before Congress concerning the use of steroids in the sport.

2003 Paul Lauterbur is awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in recognition of his contributions to the invention of the magnetic resonance imaging technology, MRI; the technology is a extremely important diagnostic tool in assessing athletic injuries.

2006 Several leading riders are banned from competition on the eve of the start of the 2006 Tour de France under suspicion of links to use of performance enhancing drugs raised by a Spanish sport and police inquiry.

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A Senda Berenson Abbott 3/19/1868–2/16/1954 AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION INSTRUCTOR

Almost 80 years before Title IX became the bedrock upon which female sports participation was constructed in American intercollegiate sport, Senda Berenson used the newly invented game of basketball to promote both physical fitness and sports participation among young women. Senda Berenson (Berenson took the surname Abbott after her marriage in 1911) was a unique figure on the landscape of collegiate athletics in 1890s. Intercollegiate sports had gained popularity in the previous ten years as a result of ad hoc contests in sports such as the newly developed American football and rowing races in the 1880s, and the rivalries that sprang up between schools such as Harvard, Princeton, and Yale would spread across the United States by the early 1900s. This newly tapped excitement regarding athletics was restricted to male teams and male sporting pursuits. At age 22, Berenson had commenced her own teaching career with her admission to a newly established women’s teaching college, the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics in 1890. Gymnastics had been a recognized program of physical education instruction for men for a number of years, as gymnastics schools had been founded in various parts of the United States, modeled after the European institutions that specialized in gymnastics training for men. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

In January, 1892, Berenson left the Boston Normal School to join the faculty at Smith College, an allfemale institution located in Northampton, Massachusetts. Berenson became the first director of physical education at the school. Shortly after assuming her duties at Smith, she learned of a game called basketball that had been invented only one month earlier by James Naismith, a physical education instructor at the nearby International Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts. Berenson learned of the new game when she read an article written by Naismith about basketball in a YMCA publication Physical Education. Berenson was intrigued by the prospect that the game could be one that might have potential benefits for her female students. Berenson met with Naismith on several occasions throughout that year to discuss basketball. As a result, Berenson organized a trial game for her female students at Smith in March 1893, using the same rules that Naismith had devised for his male participants. Consistent with the social standards of the times, men were prohibited from watching the women play. Berenson believed that the game could provide an excellent physical outlet for her students, notwithstanding the fact that women did not play team sports of any kind, nor did women participate in any athletic activities that permitted physical contact. It was not a concern regarding the physical ability of her students to play basketball in accordance with Naismith’s rules, but a regard for the accepted

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standards of behavior for young women in the late Victorian era, that prompted Berenson to modify the Naismith rules for female play. Berenson’s revisions were intended to make the game less strenuous and more inclusive for all players. It was a part of Berenson’s personal athletic philosophy to advocate aspects such as cooperative play and socialization over pure competition; Berenson remained opposed to women’s intercollegiate competition throughout her career in education, preferring intramural athletics. Berenson’s modified rules emphasized orderly play that she believed would prevent the players from becoming overly stressed. Berenson was also concerned that any game that was overtly physical for female athletes would simply be outlawed. Berenson permitted six team members to play on the court at one time. She also divided the court into three sections to which players were assigned and where they were required to remain throughout the course of the game. Berenson reasoned that these divisions would prevent the players from overexerting themselves by running all over the court; exceptional players would be prevented from dominating the game. To eliminate physical contact, the Berenson rules prevented players from grabbing the ball from another player’s hands. Players could not dribble the ball more than three times before passing or shooting the ball, nor could players hold the ball for more than three seconds when the player was stationary. The ball could only be shot with one hand, as using two hands was believed to alter the muscle structure of a woman’s chest, and thus flatten out the natural female form and to restrict breathing. Guarding, in the sense of physically preventing an opponent from moving in a desired direction, was forbidden. If a player fell down to the floor, the player was charged with a foul. Berenson could never have foreseen the trend in recent years at every level of basketball, including National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) play, to impose fouls on those players who deliberately fall to the floor in an attempt to draw an offensive foul. At Smith College, Berenson’s physical education interests expanded beyond basketball. She introduced other activities, such as fencing and folk dancing into the Smith physical education curriculum. Berenson also brought remedial gymnastics to students with special physical needs. In 1901, she introduced the sport of field hockey to Smith, and she assisted in the formation of the Smith College Gymnastics and Field Association. As a part of her

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ongoing search for new physical education and sports activities to bring to Smith, Berenson was the second American woman to attend the Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, Sweden, where she studied advanced fencing. The rules of women’s basketball were not implemented in a orderly way once other American schools discovered basketball. In 1901, the sporting goods company A.G. Spalding published the first Women’s Basketball Guide, edited by Berenson. Also in 1901, Berenson wrote the first ever women’s basketball text, entitled Line Basket Ball for Women, which provided not only rules for playing the game, but also Berenson’s philosophy regarding the sport’s positive psychological and physiological effects on women. In 1905, Berenson organized the Basketball Committee for Women and she chaired the organization until 1917. This committee later became known as the National Association for Girls and Women in Sport. Upon her retirement from education in 1921, Berenson devoted her time to other pursuits, most particularly the study of art and music. In considering the impact of Berenson’s contributions to basketball, it is clear that on one level, her version of the game was eclipsed by the desire of female athletes to play basketball as a sport, as opposed to basketball cast as a strictly female activity. The modern game played at the high school, university, and professional levels by women bears no resemblance to the almost dainty sport devised by Berenson in 1893. The importance of Berenson’s contributions to female sport in America are not rooted exclusively in her rules of basketball, but in the ethos that women be given an opportunity to play a sport on their own terms. It is this determination and effort on the part of Berenson that makes her a true women’s sports pioneer. Berenson was enshrined in the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1984, and she was inducted into the Women’s Basketball Hall of Fame in 1999. SEE ALSO Basketball; Gender in sports: Female athletes; Title IX and United States female sports participation.

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar 4/16/1947 AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL BASKETBALL PLAYER

In a sport where notable performers are often judged by the standards of the era in which they WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

KAREEM ABDUL-JABBAR

played, the skills and the achievements of Kareem Abdul-Jabbar are transcendent, both as an American college player and as a professional. Most basketball experts place Abdul-Jabbar at the same exalted level as the legendary Michael Jordan, Ervin (Magic) Johnson, Larry Bird, and Wilt Chamberlain, as the five players who occupy the pinnacle of all time basketball supremacy. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar was a renowned basketball player from the first day he attended Power Memorial High School in New York City, until the end of his final NBA game. In the intervening period of 30 years, Abdul-Jabbar achieved every single badge of greatness that the basketball world could bestow—highly recruited high school All-Star, All-American and national collegiate basketball champion, and the best and most dominant player of his professional era. In many respects, the biography of Abdul-Jabbar begins with a measurement, 7 ft 2 in (2.15 m), AbdulJabbar’s height when he enrolled at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) in the fall of 1965. Prior to his conversion to the Muslim faith in the late 1960s, Abdul-Jabbar legal name was Lew Alcindor, and as Alcindor he was the most hotly pursued and the most highly coveted high school basketball player in the history of American sports to that time. Alcindor had dominated the tough New York high school leagues in a manner never before seen, leading Cardinal Power High School to a New York schools championship, while setting records for both most points scored and most rebounds. His coach at Power, Jack Donahue, parlayed his success at Power, as well as his success coaching Alcindor to become a well-respected international coach with the Canadian men’s national basketball program. Upon his graduation from Power, Abdul-Jabbar had his pick of virtually every American college program. He selected UCLA, led by coach John Wooden, and a team that had won a national championship the previous season. In 1965, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) had a three-year player eligibility rule in place, meaning that freshmen such as Abdul-Jabbar were not permitted to play on varsity teams. It is an interesting footnote to Abdul-Jabbar’s personal history that his 7 ft 2 in (2.5 m) height caused him to be exempt from the national draft and any potential involvement in the Viet Nam war, as he was deemed to be too tall for military service. Once he was eligible for the UCLA varsity as a sophomore in 1966, Abdul-Jabbar was a significant force in leading UCLA to three consecutive national championships, from 1967 until he graduated in 1969. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Abdul-Jabbar was named NCAA Player of the Year in 1967 and again in 1969. His stunning combination of unusual height and lithe athleticism was a key factor in the NCAA decision to institute a ten-year ban on the dunk shot in college basketball, a ban that was instituted in 1967, the commencement of Abdul-Jabbar’ junior year at UCLA. Abdul-Jabbar was able to turn this apparent stymie into an advantage, as he added to his already formidable offensive skills through the perfection of a particular style of hook shot. Unlike many hooks developed by previous earlier players, Abdul-Jabbar’s technique involved a more straight-armed approach, with the ball delivered from well behind his head, rendering the shot almost impossible for a defender to block. The shot, dubbed the skyhook, became both Abdul-Jabbar’s most formidable offensive weapon and his signature shot for the duration of his collegiate and professional careers. Upon his graduation from UCLA in 1969, AbdulJabbar was as coveted a professional basketball prospect as he had been sought after when entering college four years earlier. The Milwaukee Bucks of the National Basketball Association (NBA) held the first selection of the 1969 NBA entry draft and they selected Abdul-Jabbar, whose play that season made an instant and emphatic impact upon both the NBA and the Bucks franchise. Abdul-Jabbar helped elevate the Bucks from league doormat to NBA champions in three seasons. Abdul-Jabbar averaged almost 29 points per game in his first season and he was named NBA Rookie of the Year. The Bucks had improved on their previous season’s victory totals by a remarkable 29 wins. The 1971 NBA season was even more rewarding for Abdul-Jabbar than his rookie year had been. He led the NBA in scoring and he was named the league’s Most Valuable Player. Milwaukee won the league championship, a feat that he was to repeat in 1972, when Abdul-Jabbar again led the league in scoring and collected a second Most Valuable Player award. Abdul-Jabbar had established himself as the unquestioned dominating force in NBA basketball. Abdul-Jabbar’s conversion to Islam at the beginning of his NBA career was sometimes a point of contention between the national basketball media and Abdul-Jabbar. Much was made in the press of his formal change of name from Alcindor to AbdulJabbar. With on-court dominance came a greater ability on the part of Abdul-Jabbar to control his professional destiny. Abdul-Jabbar, who won a third Most

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for his supreme talents was evidenced by the fact that his player number, 33, was retired by both the Milwaukee Bucks and the Los Angeles Lakers. At his retirement, Abdul-Jabbar held nine individual NBA records, including most points scored, most seasons played, and most blocked shots. Abdul-Jabbar was named to both the NBA list of Top 50 players of all time. He was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1995.

Basketball; Basketball shot dynamics; Basketball: Slam dunk.

SEE ALSO

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations

Young Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (in UCLA game, wearing number 33). ª B ETT MAN N/ COR BI S

Valuable Player award in 1974, asked to be traded at the conclusion of the 1974-75 season. The Bucks honored his request and in one of the true blockbuster player transactions in the history of sport, Abdul-Jabbar was traded to the Los Angeles Lakers in return for four players in 1975. Abdul-Jabbar and his dominance elevated the Lakers in precisely the same fashion it had rejuvenated the Milwaukee Bucks. Abdul-Jabbar won a fourth Most Valuable Player award with the Lakers in 1976, and he added a fifth award in 1977. In 1979, the phenomenal Ervin (Magic) Johnson was signed by the Lakers. As a collegiate player, Johnson was almost as renowned Abdul-Jabbar had been a decade earlier. The 1980 playoffs culminated in a Lakers’ championship, and Abdul-Jabbar won a record breaking sixth league Most Valuable Player award. The Lakers, powered by Johnson and AbdulJabbar, became the premier franchise in the NBA, winning championships in 1982, 1985, and 1987. In 1989, after 20 seasons of professional basketball, Abdul-Jabbar retired from the NBA. The respect

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The human skin is the largest organ of the body, providing a protective coverage for the internal structure and organs. Skin comprises an area of between 16.1 ft2 and 21.6 ft2 (1.5 m2 and 2.0 m2), at an average thickness of 0.00394 in (0.1 mm), accounting for between 15% and 18% of the total body weight. The layer of skin enveloping the body comprises three separate components: the epidermis (the outer shell), the dermis (the middle layer), and the sub cutis (the lower layer). Given its role as the protective shell for the internal organs and structure, the skin sustains constant contact and consequently, it is the most injured human organ. Skin is often subjected to cavalier, uncaring treatment on the sports field. The athletic injuries sustained to the skin are typically classified as abrasions, cuts, lacerations, and blisters. Each has a distinct meaning that is, in essence, a description of the nature and the severity of the injury sustained to the skin. In general terms, abrasions and cuts are types of less serious, more superficial skin injuries, while lacerations are often regarded as a more serious wound, posing a threat to the health to the body beyond its skin covering. The depth of each injury is the chief distinction between each term. An abrasion is an incident of superficial damage to the surface of the skin, with the injury generally penetrating no deeper than the epidermis, the skin’s outer layer. An abrasion causes the skin to be roughened and take on a reddish color, sensitive to the touch. A common cause of an abrasion is the friction produced between the unprotected skin of an athlete contacting a rough surface, such as artificial turf or pavement. While most typical abrasions occurring in a sports context involve the skin, the cornea, which is the clear surface of the eye that covers the iris, can WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ABRASIONS, CUTS, LACERATIONS

Techniques have been developed to assist athletes in speeding recovery from cuts and lacerations.

also sustain an abrasion when a sharp object such as a fingernail scrapes the corneal surface. Abrasions will generally heal within a few days of the incident. Where small foreign particles are lodged in the surface of the skin, these are commonly removed with tweezers. To ensure that the risk of infection is reduced, a topical antibiotic is often applied to the surface of the affected area. A cut is a penetration of the skin that generally results in the epidermis being punctured, causing the underlying circulatory system to be damaged, with blood being drawn into the opening. A cut may be of sufficient depth or extent to require repair through stitches to close the opening; a typical cut will not impair athletic performance beyond the time required to bandage the injury. A cut is often caused by contact with a sharp object, such as a stick or puck in ice hockey, or a cleat in sports such as rugby or soccer. The time required for a cut to heal will depend upon the extent of the damage caused to the skin. A period of from 5 to 14 days is the general healing parameter. The medical attention to resolve a cut will WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

E VEN I NG S TA NDA RD/G ET TY I MA GE S

include the cleaning of the damaged area, the removal of any foreign objects from the skin, the stitching or suturing of the opening to close it where required, and the covering of the injury with a bandage. While a cut exposed to the open air tends to heal more quickly than one bandaged, the covering will help reduce the risk of infection. Depending upon the location of the cut on the body, once bandaged and protected, this injury will not generally limit an athlete’s participation in training; most competitive sport organizations have protocols concerning the return to competition by a player who has been cut and where blood flow resulted. These procedures are directed at the safety of other participants from possible infection through blood-borne causes. A laceration is a more serious injury, described as a tearing or ripping of the skin and the fatty tissues or muscles beneath it. A laceration is often associated with a significant blood flow from the opening in the skin, as well as damage to the underlying structures. Where a cut is generally a neat symmetrical injury, a laceration will often result in jagged edges to the affected skin, and of sufficient depth that the

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blood flow from the opening is heavy. The repair of a laceration may require intricate suturing, and it may also result in a permanent scar. The depth of a typical laceration to the skin creates a significant risk of infection, as foreign particles all types have access to the tissues and the bloodstream. Tetanus, a serious disease of the central nervous system caused by microbes present in the soil, is a prime concern in treating a laceration; a tetanus injection will often be administered. The nature and the depth of the laceration will almost always require stitches to close the wound. As with the treatment of a cut, the laceration will typically be bandaged to protect the skin and the sutures. An athlete whose skin has been lacerated will often be restricted in both training and competition until the sutures have been removed (often a period of from 10 to 14 days from the insertion of the sutures in the skin), perhaps longer depending upon the extent of any other injury. As the ability of the skin to regenerate slows as the body ages (the epidermis of a 60-year-old person may be 30–80% thinner than that of a 20-year-old person), the healing time for a laceration will be significantly longer for the older athlete. As of the early 2000s, techniques have been developed to assist athletes in speeding recovery from cuts and lacerations. Octylayanoacrylate, an adhesive-like compound marketed commercially as Dermabond, has been used successfully to repair injuries of up to 2.3 in (6 cm) in length, that would have otherwise required stitches.

Blisters; Immune system; Road rash; Skin and muscle blood flow during exercise.

SEE ALSO

Acclimatization Acclimatization is an athletic training system whereby the body is forced to compensate for the stresses of a new or different climatic condition. Through compensation, the body is able to tolerate such physical stresses in a more efficient fashion, and the athlete will usually achieve better physical performance. The tolerance developed to the particular training condition will generally result in better competitive results, in competitions where the training climatic conditions exist, as well as in the athlete’s accustomed environment. Acclimatization methods consist of two types, heat and altitude acclimitazation. Heat acclimatiza-

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tion, sometimes referred to generically as heat training, is a technique directed to improving athletic performance in warm climates. The process of acclimatization is distinct from heat acclimation. Heat acclimation is the process by which an athlete becomes accustomed to increased heat, over the course of a 4- to 14-day period. Heat acclimatization is the entire spectrum of heat training, including both the initial acclimation period as well as the timeframe leading to the competition where the heat training practices will be employed. Heat training is a common technique employed in such sports as marathon running. The improved ability of an athlete to combat heat and accompanying humidity will bear a vital relationship to performance. As an example, where the athlete is accustomed to living and training in a temperate climate such as the northwestern United States or England, acclimatization to hot weather will be essential if the athlete competes in an environment such as a September race in southern California. Heat training will be tied closely to the corresponding factor of dehydration, and the ability of an athlete to replenish fluids. As there are few athletic activities that are contested at high altitudes (the exceptions include mountain climbing, alpine skiing, and events contested in high altitude locales such as Mexico City, Mexico, and Denver, Colorado), altitude acclimatization, or altitude training, does not prepare an athlete for high altitude competition, so much as develop the ability of an athlete to better utilize oxygen, which makes the athlete more effective in sea level competitions. At sea level, the atmosphere is 20.93% oxygen; this percentage becomes progressively less at greater altitudes, due to the combined effects of decreased gravity and temperature. At higher altitudes, the body compensates for the decrease in available oxygen by increasing its production of erythrocytes, commonly known as red blood cells, which transport oxygen through the body. This increased production in red blood cells begins in the kidneys, through the production of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO). The athlete who trains at altitude will develop— over a period of one to three months—a greater physical ability to utilize oxygen for performance in the thinner, less oxygen-rich air of high altitude; once trained, the capacity to produce greater numbers of red blood cells will remain a factor for a number of weeks, in an ever-decreasing amount. Altitude training is used by a wide variety of athletes, including those in sports where aerobic capacity is of prime importance, such as swimmers and cyclists, as well WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ACHILLES TENDON RUPTURE

athlete within three months of the completion of altitude training. The principle common to the theories underlying heat and altitude acclimatization is that of passive stress versus active stress on the bodily systems. Passive stresses are those features of a different training environment that will impact an athlete without special effort. For example, day-to-day living at a higher altitude or in a warmer climate requires the body to adapt to change. Active stresses are the deliberate introduction of training factors in the new environment, such as workouts in the new environment. While both types of stresses will contribute to the acclimatization process, heat without exercise will not be as effective. The human body is very adaptable to heat, and to corresponding humidity. The major physiological adjustments will be made by a trained athlete within 10 to 14 days of the commencement of heat training; most athletes will reach an acclimatization of approximately 75% (defined as an ability to perform to 75% of their top level) within five days of their exposure to a warmer climate. The most successful heat training programs will follow a progression: Altitude acclimatization, or altitude training, helps the athlete’s body to better utilize oxygen. ª JOHN NORRIS/CORBIS

as athletes in sports where the body’s anaerobic system is the focus, including sprinters and team sport athletes. Altitude training is broken further into three types: ‘‘live high/train high,’’ whereby the athlete both lives and trains at altitude; ‘‘live high/train low,’’ a regime where the athlete lives at altitude but trains at sea level; and sea-level training, where the reduced oxygen environment of higher altitudes may be replicated through an artificially configured house or training ‘‘tent.’’ The extensive scientific research regarding altitude training confirms that all three methods will enhance sea level performance. At altitude training conducted at 8,000 ft (2,500 m), the reduced level of oxygen compels the body to increase production of red blood cells, the agents for the transport of oxygen in the bloodstream. Increased red blood cell production is triggered by the releases in the kidneys of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO). Altitude training will increase oxygen capacity by between 2% and 3% within three months of commencement, a significant factor in many sports. This benefit will be lost to the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

1. Training volume and training intensity are at first reduced on the athlete’s first exposure to the hot environment. 2. Both volume and intensity are increased as the athlete begins to adapt. 3. The body mass, hydration rates, and other physical indicators must be monitored through the heat training phase. 4. Extreme care to ensure the proper hydration of athletes must be maintained.

Heat exhaustion; Hormonal response to exercise; Running strength training and exercises.

SEE ALSO

Achilles tendon rupture Tendons are the fibrous connective tissues that connect muscles to bone in the human body. A key feature of all tendons is their capacity to withstand significant forces; the Achilles tendon is the largest tendon in the body, extending from the gastrocnemius (calf muscle) to the calcaneus (heel bone). The Achilles tendon is essential to effective and graceful human movement, an integral component to all walking, running, and jumping actions that the body performs. The Achilles tendon is engaged every time

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the calf muscle contracts to propel the body forward, through the process known as plantar flexion. The mythical Greek warrior Achilles was said to be invincible, until an arrow pierced the lower leg tendon that bears his name. An injury to the modern Achilles tendon may not be fatal, but there is no question that a rupture of this critical structure can have devastating consequences on athletic performance. The Achilles tendon is liable to sustain injuries for which the consequences range from mild impairment of its function to a total disabling. Achilles tendonitis is a condition in which the tendon fibers become inflamed by friction between the tendon and its covering cellular sheath, usually through either overexertion or a lack of flexibility in the tendon and calf muscle. An Achilles tendon tear is partial separation or detachment of the fibers, caused when the tendon is overstretched. A rupture describes the condition in which either the tendon is completely torn or has become entirely detached from the heel bone. When a rupture of the Achilles tendon occurs, the athlete will not be able to move very efficiently, as the lower leg structure is now disconnected and unstable. It is impossible to walk or run normally with a ruptured Achilles tendon. A tendon rupture will often occur without warning, as the victim will often experience a sudden pop or similar stabbing sensation in the lower leg, indicating the damage to the tendon has occurred. A ruptured Achilles tendon can occur in a variety of athletic activities. As the rupture often occurs in persons who do not stretch properly prior to their athletic participation, the ‘‘weekend warrior,’’ the prototypical male athlete between the ages of 30 and 50 years who is interested in recreational sports participation, but not necessarily injury prevention, is a common Achilles casualty. The leading causes of Achilles tendon rupture include: overuse or overtraining; excessive hill running; running on hard surface such as pavement or earlier generations of artificial turf; a direct trauma to the tendon; poor or nonexistent stretching regimes; tight calf muscles; poor quality or worn out athletic shoes; and structural deficiencies such as flat-footedness. A ruptured Achilles tendon will swell noticeably soon after the injury has occurred, with bruising usually visible. Immediate first aid should be the application of ice, to reduce swelling, and moderate pressure to the injury with a compression bandage. Such an injury will require further medical attention, as a failure to treat this serious injury may result

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in an improper mending of the tendon fibers, and a corresponding crippling of the leg function. To determine whether the Achilles is ruptured, a physician will often employ what is known as the Thompson test. This test involves a seating of the patient in a chair, permitting the foot on the leg suspected as damaged to dangle towards the floor. If upon a squeeze of the calf muscle the toes of the foot do not point toward the floor, the tendon is considered ruptured. The repair of the damaged tendon will involve one of two procedures. With surgery, the ruptured pieces of the tendon will be reattached to the heel bone from which it became detached. Upon the completion of surgery, the patient will wear a cast to keep the lower leg stable, for between 6 to 12 weeks. However, if there are inherent risks in surgery, such as an unrelated physical condition, the patient’s foot will be placed in a cast. There is a greater risk of rerupture when this procedure is employed. A common fear regarding the resumption of training with the rehabilitated Achilles tendon is a loss of flexibility in the tendon. In sports such as basketball and soccer, which place a premium on lateral quickness and explosive movement, extreme care must be taken in the tendon rehabilitation process. The athlete must take care to gradually return to the level of play obtained prior to the tendon injury. Rehabilitation should be undertaken with the following considerations: 1. Assess the quality and construction of the athletic shoes to be worn. To reduce the risk of a recurrence of the tendon rupture, the shoe should be well cushioned in the heel to lessen the forces of the heel strike on impact. Where the alignment of the lower leg is believed to be a factor in the cause of the rupture, an orthotic should be considered. 2. A thorough warm up, with attention paid to the stretching of the entire lower leg structure, is of critical importance. 3. There should be a very gradual increase in both training intensity and duration in the rehabilitative process; such increases should not exceed 5% to 7% per week. 4. Hard running, such as hill running or sprinting, should be avoided in this phase.

Achilles tendonitis; Ankle anatomy and physiology; Lower leg anatomy; Lower leg injuries; Skeletal muscle; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ACHILLES TENDONITIS

An on-track collision resulted in a severely damaged Achilles tendon for Mary Decker (1984 Olympics).

Achilles tendonitis The Achilles tendon, the largest tendon in the human body, is the fibrous connective tissue that links the gastrocnemius (calf muscle) to the calcaneus (heel bone) in the lower leg. This structure is essential to the efficient movement of the leg in walking, running or jumping, as the tendon maintains the stability of the leg when the calf muscle contracts, in conjunction with the flexor muscles of the foot, to generate the power necessary to move. Achilles tendonitis is the inflammation that occurs between the tendon and the sheath in which it is encased, primarily through overuse, in combination with factors such as an improper or incomplete warm up prior to an activity, a misalignment of the heel, or structural weaknesses such as a lack of flexibility in the calf or foot muscles. As opposed to a rupture of the Achilles tendon, which is a completely incapacitating injury for an WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª B ETT MA NN/ COR BI S

athlete, tendonitis may persist for a period of time. It is possible to continue with athletic activities while suffering from Achilles tendonitis; however, this injury can progress to a rupture, and it will inevitably cause significant discomfort, with resultant loss of function and range of movement, unless properly treated. An Achilles tendonitis condition may be caused or further aggravated by an increase in either the intensity or duration of running workouts, a sudden introduction of either hill training or a stair-climbing program, an overly intense return to training after an absence or a layoff, a traumatic force applied to the tendon, either through a sudden, explosive movement such as a sprint start, or a jump in basketball. There are a number of sports in which the participants are particularly prone to Achilles tendonitis. Running, both on the track and on the road, exposes a participant to such risk; cross country running, with its emphasis on trails and natural surfaces, places less

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ACL INJURIES AND FEMALE ATHLETES

stress upon the tendon. Sports requiring quick, explosive movement such as basketball and American football have a significant incidence of Achilles tendonitis. Physical discomfort is a part of athletic activities, especially at an elite level. The distinction between the inherent discomfort of training or competition, and pain generated as a signal from the body that it has sustained an injury to a component part, is often a difficult assessment for an athlete. The diagnosis and subsequent treatment of Achilles tendonitis are often problematic for this reason. A mild pain that persists after training, a lack of vigor and explosiveness in running, and a slight swelling and tenderness experienced 1.1–1.9 in (3–5 cm) above the heel are the symptoms of Achilles tendonitis. Such symptoms may arise intermittently, or they may persist on a daily basis, for a period of months or years. The treatment of Achilles tendonitis will vary depending upon the severity of the condition, and the treatment regimen will typically consist of one or more of the following components:  A rest period of from 7 to 10 days will often be recommended. The athlete does not participate in any running or jumping in this period. Athletes will often engage in swimming as a way of maintaining fitness during their recovery from tendonitis, as swimming movements do not place stress on the tendon.  Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications, of which aspirin and ibuprofen are well-known examples, do not cure tendonitis, but are intended to assist with the management of pain and inflammation, in conjunction with other treatment.  An orthotic device designed and custom fitted to correct misalignments in the lower leg that may contribute to tendonitis may be prescribed.  A compression type bandage may be worn to support the tendon and to restrict its movement.  Ultrasound treatment, the direction of high frequency waves into the injured tendon, can be employed. The generation of such waves creates a warming of the damaged tissue, which in turn increases blood flow and facilitates healing.  Acupuncture has been employed to reduce discomfort and to facilitate healing in persistent cases.  Stretching exercises, designed to increase the strength and the flexibility of the quadriceps (upper thigh muscle) and calf and muscles of the upper foot, to create a better balanced, more harmonious leg function.

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The precautions to be followed by an athlete upon a return from Achilles tendonitis are similar to those required where the tendon is ruptured. The footwear to be used for sport must be in good condition, with special attention paid to the cushioning provided in the heel. A thorough warm-up, with a focus on the stretching of the tendon, and corresponding cool-down are of prime importance, as is a gradual, and not sudden increase in both training intensity or distances.

Ankle anatomy and physiology; Athletic shoes; Lower leg injuries; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

ACL injuries and female athletes The ACL has become one of the best-known acronym in sport. The ACL is the expression employed to describe the anterior cruciate ligament, one of the important connective tissues in the knee joint. The ACL is often associated with serious knee injury. With the rise to prominence of female athletes in numerous sports in recent years (with the passage and implementation of Title IX), the corresponding increase in the incidence of ACL injuries among female athletes has been a subject of both considerable concern on the part of sports organizations, as well as the subject of intensive sports science research. The knee is a hinge joint, created by the junction of the femur (thigh bone) and the tibia and the fibula (lower leg bones). There are six distinct sets of ligaments in the joint that provide various types of connectivity between the bones in the joint. The ligaments of the knee generally assist in maintaining the stability of the joint when it is subjected to the extension and flexion forces required for running and jumping, movements that are powered by the combined action of the quadriceps (thigh muscles) and hamstrings. The most important ligament with respect to knee function is the anterior cruciate ligament, or ACL, which is positioned in the center of the knee, providing a connection between the femur and the tibia. The passage within the knee through which the ACL connects these two bones is the intercondylar notch. The two chief stabilizing functions of the ACL are the prevention of the tibia from excessive forward movement, as well as the limitation on the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ACL INJURIES AND FEMALE ATHLETES

degree of rotation permitted to the tibia when the lower leg is extended. When the ACL is damaged, the athlete will not be able to move dynamically, as the affected knee is unstable and the joint cannot support the forces of movement to any significant degree. While ACL injuries are relatively common as a result of a blow delivered into the knee from either the lateral side (outside) of the joint, or a direct frontal blow, the majority of all athletic ACL injuries occur in non-contact situations. Non-contact causation is especially prevalent in the ACL injuries sustained by female athletes. Numerous studies conducted by both sports science researchers and major governing bodies of women’s sports such as the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) have determined that the ACL injury rate among female athletes is between three and six times higher than for comparable male athletes. While female athletes may sustain an ACL injury in a wide variety of sports, basketball and soccer are the two female sports with the greatest incidence of these occurrences. The non-contact scenarios that commonly produce injury are usually ones involving a degree of sudden or explosive leg movement on the part of the athlete. Athletic movements such as a sudden deceleration that is accompanied by a pivot by the athlete, or a forward stride where the athlete plants the leg, intending to cut in the opposite direction, are two such actions that carry a greater risk of ACL injury. Jumping actions have also been identified as creating a similar risk. When a player stops suddenly to jump, as in basketball or volleyball, performs a straight knee landing from a jump, or when the landing creates a hyperextension of the knee joint (the joint is straightened beyond its normal alignment by greater than 10%), each of these mechanisms places significant additional stresses on the joint. A number of explanations for the greater risk of ACL injury among female athletes have been presented through the course of a considerable number of research studies conducted throughout the world. The research suggests that the female ACL injury rate is attributable to the combination of one or more of the following factors: the width of the female pelvis relative to the length of the femur, known as the Q line; an imbalance in the relative strength of the quadriceps and hamstrings; naturally greater joint laxity among women than men; and the use of ankle braces. The female anatomy tends to create a lower leg structure where the femur descends from the hip WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

joint toward the knee at an inward angle, departing from the perpendicular orientation of the upright body to the ground. This Q line will vary from person to person given the individual build of each person. This structure tends to make a female athlete more knock-kneed than a male. In such structures, the forces that are directed into the knee on sudden movement can overpower the ACL, as the Q line creates an inherently greater degree of instability in the joint. This anatomical difference is magnified by the tendency among female athletes to possess a greater degree of joint laxity, which contributes to the ability of the knee to withstand force. The female anatomy also provides a smaller intercondylar notch and a smaller ACL tissue structure than that found in males. The structural differences are also exaggerated by the strength imbalance commonly observed in female athletes’ quadriceps and hamstring muscles and their connecting tendons. The ideal relationship between the relative strength in these two muscle groups is generally regarded to be a 3:2 ratio in favor of the quadriceps; when one of these structures is able to overpower the other, the knee may not be able to withstand the stress, leading to ACL injury. In sports such as basketball and soccer, female athletes are often encouraged to wear ankle braces to protect the ankle against sprains. Many commercially available ankle braces worn by young female athletes are stiff, tending to radiate the forces of running and jumping upwards into the knee, forces that would otherwise be dissipated at the ankle. The repair of an ACL injury will depend on the extent of damage observed within the joint. In a serious occurrence, other connective tissues in the joint may also be damaged, such as the meniscus (the cartilage that provides cushion and absorption of force in the space between the tibia and femur). When such damage is determined, surgery will be required. Different surgical techniques are employed depending on the nature of the ACL tear. When the tear is partial, arthroscopic surgery is an option, using techniques that limit the extent of the incisions and the disruption to the surrounding structures of the knee. In serious ACL tears, when the tissue is completely torn apart, some surgeons favor techniques that employ grafts from other living tissues or from artificial products, each of which is connected to the existing ACL remnants. Given the nature of the injury, any fragments of tissue and bone are removed during this surgery.

11

ACTIVE INGREDIENT

Erik Schlopy (USA) during the first run in the World Cup giant slalom. Later in this race, Schlopy suffered a season-ending torn ACL. Studies have determined that the ACL injury rate among female athletes is between three and six times higher than for comparable male athletes. ª JO NATHAN SE LKOWITZ/NE WSPORT/C ORBIS

The recovery rate from ACL surgery for female (and male) athletes is dependent to a large degree on the quality of the rehabilitation undertaken by the individual. When the athlete avoids the temptation to rush the recovery process and not undertake movements that are unsafe for the injured knee, a typical recovery time from a torn ACL is approximately nine to 12 months, with a complete recovery expected in over 80% of such cases.

Knee injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Women and sports: Exercise data, goals, and guidelines.

SEE ALSO

Active ingredient The active ingredient in a pharmaceutical product is the working element, the component that is designed to affect a desired change in the physical condition of the recipient. Active ingredients are present in a wide range of sports-related substances, from nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

12

(NSAIDs) such as aspirin and ibuprofen, corticosteroids medications (including cortisone), a multitude of dietary supplements, and athletic aids such as sunscreen. Most commercially available drugs are manufactured in one of four formulations: capsule form, tablets, liquids (such as cough syrups), and as fluids designed for intravenous delivery (most often used in hospitals). In each case, the active ingredient of the drug is usually a very small percentage of the weight or volume of the entire product. To deliver the active ingredient in a fashion that will permit the body to best absorb it, the active ingredient is packaged with a substance known as an excipient, a chemically inert substance that transports the active ingredient. The excipient also tends to protect the active ingredient from deteriorating (such as might occur if the active ingredient were exposed to oxygen for prolonged periods), as well as assisting in its absorption once the product is in the digestive system. Flavoring, coloring, and the coating of medications are well-known excipients. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ACUPUNCTURE AND EASTERN HEALING THERAPIES

Many pharmaceutical products and dietary supplements are marketed under the name of the active ingredient contained within the product; creatine supplements are an examples of products that are marketed in this fashion. Creatine supplements are used by strength-training athletes to enhance energy production and to shorten recovery times. In a typical 0.5 oz (13.5 g) serving of powdered supplement, creatine constitutes only slightly more than 0.1 oz (2.5 g) of the product, the balance being polydextrose, used an excipient, and a variety of other compounds. The manner in which active ingredients are described in the commercial packaging of the product is subject to government regulations that mandate certain prescribed amounts of active ingredients to be included and described by labeling. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the regulatory authority. Examples of this regulation are the commonly used topical painkiller, lidocaine, often used to treat minor injuries, and sunscreens that are advertised as zinc oxide products. Lidocaine must, in fact, contain between 2% and 5% of the active ingredient; a zinc oxide sunscreen may not exceed 25% of the compound by weight.

Dietary supplements; Dose and dosage; Herbs; Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs); Supplement contamination.

SEE ALSO

Acupuncture and Eastern healing therapies Acupuncture and certain herbal remedies are the best known components of the broader Chinese healing therapies known as traditional Chinese medicines (TCM). For many years, the established medical communities in the United States scorned TCM practices as a pseudoscience, and TCM was not recognized as a legitimate branch of American medical practice. Traditional Chinese medicines have a long history; the earliest medical monograph concerning TCM was compiled approximately 2,500 years ago. The North American acceptance of the acupuncture procedure occurred essentially by default, when afflicted persons, often those who suffered chronic pain from a muscle or back injury, sought out TCM treatments as a last resort to conventional medicine and prescribed pain medications. The widespread use of TCM techniques in Europe, especially in the 1970s and 1980s in the sports medicine communities of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

former Eastern bloc nations, hastened a more objective consideration of TCM practices in American athletic therapy. Today, TCM has established itself as an entirely reputable, if not yet entirely mainstream, aspect of American sports medicine. Acupuncture involves the introduction of specialized needles into the skin at predetermined pressure points. The needles are constructed of very thin steel, of varying sizes. Each pressure point is a part of a larger, interconnected system of muscular and skin channels, which act as energy pathways, or meridians, throughout the body. Acupuncture is premised on the belief that the introduction of the needles to provide pressure at the appropriate points will enhance the release of the body’s natural energy, the metaphysical energy force known as qi (or chi), which in turn assists in the restoration of proper blood flow, and a corresponding reduction in pain and increased health and recovery at the injured area. In essence, the therapy is designed to encourage the body to release its own natural recuperative powers. The needles are directed into the pressure point to a depth of approximately 1 in (2.5 cm). In a typical treatment, the needles will remain in position for between 20 and 40 minutes. Omoxibustion is a variant of the acupuncture application, in which heat is applied to the acupuncture points for the same purpose. Acupuncture places emphasis upon the optimal flow of blood and bodily fluids; improved blood flow to the injury is a fundamental purpose of acupuncture. Further, acupuncture stresses the relationship between types of injuries to a particular organ that is said to govern the injured body part in question. For example, tendon injuries are related to liver function, as the liver is the organ responsible for blood production. Muscular damage is related to the spleen, as the spleen is the organ involved in the transport of nutrients in the body. Bone damage is assessed in relation to the kidneys. Athletic injuries were a useful proving ground in the American context for the efficacy of acupuncture. Athletes found that common sports injuries, such as contusions (bruising), overuse injuries such as lateral epicondilytis (known as tennis elbow), and muscle sprains, when treated through acupuncture, were often resolved more quickly than through conventional applications. The application of Chinese herbal remedies has the same underlying principle as that of acupuncture. The selection and preparation of these Chinese mixtures is directed at the whole body, as opposed to the

13

ADHESIVE CAPSULITIS

Bees sting the knee of a patient suffering from rheumatism, combining traditional Chinese medicine with acupuncture.

ª XIAN G

SH ER EN/ EP A/ CORB I S

treatment of a discrete symptom, injury, or pain. Herbal remedies encompass a very broad range of stated applications, many of them beyond the range of sports science. Specialty natural herbal remedies evolved over many hundreds of years in China, directed at health issues as diverse as skin conditions, depression, digestion, and urological function, in addition to muscular or skeletal injuries. Two herbs have been the subject of particular interest in enhanced sports performance: ma huang and ginseng.

to concentrate its healing effect. Herbs are also mixed in desired combinations to be ingested in powder, extract, and tablet forms. Certain herbs acquired a reputation in the treatment of the injuries sustained in the practice of martial arts; these substances are mixed in a poultice and applied to the injured area. Chinese herbal remedies are available from both specialized practitioners, as well as through a multitude of both conventional pharmacies and Internet distribution.

Ma huang was developed by Chinese practitioners as a means of increasing the energy of a subject; athletes took ma huang as it was a stimulant, a natural form of ephedra. Ephedra, and its derivative ephedrine, are banned substances in international athletics and many team sports. Ginseng was reputed to have invigorating qualities, and it is widely employed as an additive with other herbal mixtures, often taken as a tea.

SEE ALSO

Chinese herbal remedies are prescribed in a number of forms. Herbal teas are a common practice, as the boiling of water and the mixing of the herb tends

14

Dietary supplements; Massage therapy; Stimulants.

Adhesive capsulitis Adhesive capsulitis is a physical condition that affects both the range of motion and the overall function of the shoulder. This affliction is also known as ‘‘frozen shoulder,’’ which is a general description of the sensation commonly associated with the condition. Adhesive capsulitis is often WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ADIPOSE TISSUE MASS

difficult to diagnose, especially among athletes, as the physical symptoms are very similar to those of rotator cuff tendinitis, bursitis, tendinitis of the bicep tendon (which attaches the muscles of the upper arm to the shoulder joint), and more generalized arthritis complaints. The shoulder is one of the most complex musculoskeletal structures in the body. The humerus bone (upper arm), the scapula (shoulder blade), and the clavicle (collarbone) are the bones that form the shoulder joints. The rotator cuff, a four-muscle formation positioned on the top of the shoulder, is responsible for the degree of motion available for upward arm movement. The joint that is most vulnerable to injury is the scapulohumoral joint, the largest of the shoulder joints, which has a joint capsule in which it is encased. The capsule encases a small amount of synovial fluid, which assists the smooth, friction-reduced movements of the bones within the joint. The precise cause of adhesive capsulitis is not well understood. The limitations in shoulder movement are often attributed to a formation of scar tissue in the scapulohumeral joint, often the result of the individual having sustained a previous injury. The medical name of the condition is attributed to the fact that the joint capsule tissue adheres to the head of the humerus bone where it meets the scapula. The condition is typically first noted by a person when the shoulder becomes stiff, followed by a loss of range of motion in the joint and a significant degree of pain that accompanies any vigorous movement, such an attempts to throw an object or to lift any significant weight. The mechanism that causes frozen shoulder is unique to the shoulder structure, as no other human joint has an equivalent disorder. Statistically, approximately 70% of adhesive capsulitis cases occur among women, most often in the non-dominant shoulder (the shoulder of their opposite hand). It is also a condition that rarely reoccurs once it has apparently completed its progression from stiff to frozen to thaw. Once the initial stiffness is noted in shoulder movement (a sensation that may persist for between three to six months), the frozen shoulder phase may also continue for a similar period. The ultimate thawing of the shoulder is a further process of usually three to four months. Treatments will often consist of stretching exercises that seek to gradually extend the available range of motion in the joint. The administration of corticosteroids will provide a measure of anti-inflammatory benefit in some cases. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Musculoskeletal injuries; Shoulder anatomy and physiology; Shoulder injuries; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

Adipose tissue mass Adipose tissue is a specialized form of connective tissue that acts to support, connect, or protect organs. It consists of triglycerides, which is are lipids that comprises a glycerol backbone with three associated fatty acids. White adipose tissue that surrounds organs helps provide cushioning to the kidneys and the lymph glands. Adipose tissue also serves an important function as an insulator against cold. The insulation property is due to subcutaneous adipose tissue, which is located in the subcutaneous layer of the skin. The adipose tissue does not conduct heat nearly as readily as do other tissues. The degree of insulation depends on the amount of subcutaneous adipose tissue that is present. In athletic endeavors, when insulation is not as critical due to the generation of heat during exercise, adipose tissue mass in athletes can be less than in nonathletes who rely on the tissue’s insulation property. For example, excess adipose tissue translates to more body weight and increased exercise effort for a marathon runner or cross-country skier. In contrast, mountain climbers benefit from the increased insulation afforded by an increased supply of adipose tissue. Adipose tissue also plays an important role as an energy source. Energy stored as adipose tissue represents a reservoir that can be drawn on when other, more easily utilizable sources of energy (carbohydrate and protein) have been exhausted. Little water is present in adipose tissue; as a result, the energy available per gram of fat is more than double the energy available per gram of either carbohydrate or protein. This energy store is not, however, as easily accessible other energy sources such as dietary glucose. The human body is not efficient in the conversion of lipid to carbohydrate. As well, the brain normally uses carbohydrates as the energy source. Finally, foods provide a ready supply of carbohydrate and protein, which will be utilized first. Excess dietary carbohydrate and protein that is not immediately utilized can be converted to fat and ultimately stored as adipose tissue. In a healthy person, this backup energy source is advantageous. For example,

15

ADIPOSE TISSUE MASS

Adipose tissue, magnified 100 times.

ª LE ST ER V. B ERGM AN/ COR BIS

a marathon runner will draw on adipose tissue as the more readily accessible energy sources are exhausted during the course of the run. However, over time, the continued intake of excess energy can lead to the creation of the plentiful adipose tissue that is a hallmark of obesity.

or ‘‘apple’’ distribution. The latter term denotes the body shape. Correspondingly, women, who generally have more adipose tissue on the lower body, are described as having producing a ‘‘pear’’ distribution of adipose tissue (other terms include gynoid, female, and lower-body segment).

The reason that white adipose tissue is an excellent energy reservoir is explainable by its structure. Up to 85% of the weight of a cell is occupied by lipid. The lipid occupies almost all the volume of a cell, with the nucleus and mitochondria typically being relegated to the periphery.

Aside from gender, ethnicity, and diet, the distribution of adipose tissue and even the amount that accumulates over time can be dictated in part by an individual’s genetic makeup. In females, the physiological changes that accompany menopause influence adipose tissue distribution, with a post-menopausal shift to an upper body distribution. Exercise is an important means of reducing the accumulation of adipose tissue.

The process whereby fat is liberated from adipose tissue is termed lipolysis. In lipolysis, the triglycerides in the adipose cells are enzymatically broken down to free the fatty acids from glycerol. The fatty acids are then available for use in muscle regeneration or as a source of energy. The distribution of adipose tissue in the body varies from person to person. In general, adipose tissue tends to be located more on the upper body in men than in women. This pattern is variously called an android, central, male, upper-body segment,

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Shedding adipose tissue as a consequence of athletic activity can bring an unhealthy risk. Since approximately four percent of body fat is vital to maintain organ function, having too little fat can be a health hazard. The standard measure of body fat is termed the body mass index (BMI), which is calculated by multiplying body weight in pounds by 700 and then dividing the results by the square of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AEROBICS

Aerobic activities are designed to increase the oxygen available to muscles by increasing the capacity of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels. ª M ARK G AM BA /CO RBI S

height in inches. A BMI lower than 18 is considered a risk factor for premature death. Elite athletes will monitor their BMI during the normal course of training and alter their diet to compensate for a decreasing reserve of fat. SEE ALSO

Body fat.

Aerobics Aerobics is a term that was coined in the late 1960s by Dr. Kenneth Cooper, then a physician at the San Antonio Air Force Hospital, to identify a series of cardiovascular exercises he had developed to combat coronary artery disease. The exercises were designed to lessen the buildup of a form of cholesterol on the walls of the coronary arteries, which are the arteries that are the conduit of blood to the heart muscle. The cholesterol buildup (plaque deposition) reduces the internal diameter of the arteries, which restricts the flow of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

oxygen-laden blood to the heart. Plaque formation can also stress the heart by making the pumping of blood to other areas of the body more difficult. The consequences can include chest pain (angina), high blood pressure, and/or a heart attack. Aerobics involves oxygen; aerobics literally means ‘‘with oxygen.’’ In contrast, anaerobic means ‘‘without oxygen.’’ Oxygen is a vital part of the energy-generating process for muscles. In concert with fats and glucose, oxygen is used to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which fuels most cellular activity. As oxygen, fats, or glucose are depleted, muscles can acquire energy from anaerobic processes. However, the generation of lactic acid as a byproduct of anaerobic pathways more rapidly fatigues muscles. Establishing a higher level of aerobic fitness permits more strenuous and prolonged exercise before the aerobic threshold is reached. Following the publication in 1968 of Aerobics, Cooper’s book about the exercise system, aerobics quickly became a popular form of exercise. Ten years later, the estimated number of Americans who

17

AEROBICS

Walking combines the cardiovascular and muscular activities necessary to strengthen the heart. Here, Japanese walking exercise guru Duke Saraye (center) gives a lesson on technique. YOS HI K AZU TS U NO/ AF P /G ET TY I MA GE S

regularly did aerobics was six million. By 1987, the estimated number had reached 22 million. In devising aerobics, Cooper viewed the cardiovascular benefits of aerobics as being central to overall physical fitness. The initial military version of aerobics concentrated on endurance, specifically, completing a 1.5-mile (2.4-km) run in 12 minutes. At about the same time, the sport of running was growing in popularity; aerobics helped boost the sport’s appeal. Following his military service, Cooper founded The Cooper Aerobics Center in Dallas, Texas, where he adapted the military-fitness focus of aerobics to fit the general population. His approach has proven to be spectacularly successful. Now called The Cooper Fitness Center and The Cooper Institute, the 30-acre facility has burgeoned into a health- and lifestyle-

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improvement complex staffed by hundreds of exercise physiologists, physical therapists, and dieticians. Additionally, aerobics research is carried out at another facility in Denver, Colorado. During the 1970s, aerobics evolved from its running base to encompass cardiovascular activity, calisthenics, and dance. Aerobics became synonymous with a music-based group workout involving choreographed dance moves or repetitious motion. Celebrities such as Richard Simmons and Jane Fonda popularized different versions of aerobic workouts in the 1980s, from milder versions that beginners or less physically able people could handle to intense sessions that challenged even elite athletes. Other seminal personalities include Judi Sheppard Missett, who devised a fusion of aerobics and dance called Jazzercise, and Billy Blanks, who in the 1990s popularized Tae-Bo, an aerobic WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AGE-RELATED RESPONSES TO INJURY

workout that incorporates martial arts movements. Aerobic workouts remain a staple of fitness club classes in 2006. Aerobic activities are all designed to increase the oxygen that is available to muscles by increasing the physical capacity of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels. The number of red blood cells—which transport oxygen throughout the body—also increases. These aerobic benefits are produced by a regular exercise regimen involving activities that are prolonged (a typical aerobic workout lasts about 60 minutes), use large muscle groups such as the arms and legs, and are rhythmic. The general consensus among physicians and exercise physiologists, including aerobics founder Cooper, is that aerobic exercise should be the main component of a fitness program, but that it should be complemented by strength training. The latter becomes more important with age, as the loss of muscle and bone mass becomes more of a concern. In addition to studio-based aerobics, many traditional athletic activities combine the cardiovascular and muscular activities necessary to strengthen the heart. These include running, walking, swimming, cross-country skiing, bike riding, basketball, and rollerblading. Exercise machines that mimic stair climbing and bicycle riding also offer aerobic workouts. One of the main benefits of aerobics is the elevation of the basal metabolic rate, which is the rate at which energy, measured in calories, is used up (burned) to maintain the normal function of the body. This elevation occurs as the body adjusts to the increased physical demands being imposed. The visible result for the majority of people is the loss of weight. Aerobics is vitally important for competitive athletes, as many athletic endeavors require cardiovascular fitness. SEE ALSO

Pilates.

Age-related responses to injury It is one of the great and enduring ironies of sport that while fitness and athletic competition are often perceived as important components to a healthy and enjoyable passage into middle age and beyond, the aging process limits athletic performance as emphatically as any other barrier. The age-related response to injury must be considered in two ways: how age affects the physical WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ability of the body to recover from a particular injury, and the impact age has on the mental and psychological capability of an athlete to deal with the stresses of rehabilitation and recovery. In general terms, aging is a process of often gradual change to the physical structures and organs of the human body. The aging process is unrelated to, but may be accelerated by, disease, traumatic injury, or accident; aging also impacts upon the manner in which the body recovers from an injury. As the body ages, muscle mass will decrease, typically in a more pronounced fashion after age 45, as the muscle protein rebuilding and repair processes become slower and less effective, resulting in decreased physical strength. The power of the heart, and the corresponding ability of the body to transport oxygen by way of the red blood cell system, also begins a slow but perceptible decline in performance at age 40. These general aspects of aging in athletes are each influenced by the specific makeup of each athlete. Age is of particular importance in the consideration of how athlete injuries are managed and treated. In general terms, a younger person will heal from injury more quickly than an older subject with a similar injury; the recovery rate is directly related to the speed with which the body can grow new cells to repair itself. Various sports science studies have illustrated that an injured athlete of age 45 and over will recover at a rate of between 15% and 18% slower than a similarly injured 30-yearold person. Skin thickness is reduced by as much as 30% by age 50, making the skin more susceptible to cuts and lacerations. Bone density naturally decreases by approximately 10% by age 50; conditions such as osteoporosis (a common disease in persons who do not consume proper amounts of bone-building minerals) will tend to reduce bone density still further, making the skeleton more prone to fractures. From elite athletes to the recreational competitor, an injury can be as emotionally devastating as the physical limitations that result. The age of the injured athlete will often play a role in how each of these factors is resolved. Such psychological factors associated with injury include:  Maturity: How will the athlete respond to any rehabilitation or physical therapy regime that may be directed?  Self-confidence.  Importance of sport in the life of the injured athlete.

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AGING AND ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE

The incidence and treatment of this potentially serious injury has been the study of intense research. A 16-year-old high school football player will often return to play within two or three days of sustaining a concussion; peer pressure is a common motivator, as opposed to an absence of symptoms. The recovery rate for an injured 16-year-old is as much as 100% longer than that for a 20-year-old college football player who has sustained a similar concussion. The differing rate results from the slower healing process in the 16-year-old athlete, who is not yet fully grown, and whose body’s capacity to repair itself is correspondingly less. In a similar fashion, for young athletes who have not yet reached physical maturation, injury recovery and a return to athletic activities must consider the long-term consequences upon the epiphyseal plate, known as bone growth plates. The plates are developing tissues found at the epiphysis, the ends of long bones (such as the femur, or thigh bone). Both injury and a failure to consider the consequences of damage to a growth plate may have serious long-term consequences to a healthy bone structure.

Australian athlete Stewart Vance claimed to be the world’s oldest marathon runner. KE YS TON E/ GE TTY IMA G ES

 In a team sport, how does the athlete perceive their role on the team in the context of the injury?  The culture of the sport itself—many sports, such as American football and rugby, have significant injury rates; the notion of ‘‘playing through pain’’ borders upon expectation with many types of injury, including muscle sprains, bruising, and broken fingers. In other sports, particularly technique-specific activities such as track and field or gymnastics, what are relatively minor injuries in relation to bodily function may significantly limit competitive abilities.  Individual pain threshold and experience with earlier injuries often assist an older athlete in better dealing with the psychological stresses of injury. While as a general proposition, injury has a more pronounced impact on athletes over age 40. Concussions and other blows to the head introduce an additional factor to recovery. Concussion, a bruising of the brain caused by a blow to the head, is a common injury in contact sports such as American football.

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Injuries are the first component of a cycle that progresses through rehabilitation and recovery, to full participation. This cycle will be repeated throughout the career of any athlete, as injury to some degree is inevitable. In some sports, the mental hurdles associated with recovery are as demanding as physical rehabilitation. For the downhill skier returning from an anterior cruciate ligament tear and a bad fall, or the NASCAR auto racer who was badly injured in a crash, the injury may prompt a retirement, even where the physical rehabilitation is complete.

Aging and athletic performance; Mature athletes; Sport psychology.

SEE ALSO

Aging and athletic performance There are certain immutable truths concerning the performance of the human body as it ages, particularly as the athlete reaches age 40. The physical peak for most humans, in most sports, is between 25 and 35 years of age; during this peak period, the well-conditioned athlete can create a confluence of muscular strength, peak cardiovascular and oxygen transport, speed and reaction time, and mental capabilities (including the ability to deal with competitive pressures), all bound together by a desire to succeed. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ALTITUDE ILLNESS

The heart, as with every other human muscle, will gradually lose efficiency and power over time. A typical rule-of-thumb calculation to confirm the physiological fact of reduced heart capacity is that utilized by the American College of Sport Medicine: in males, 220  age ¼ maximum heart rate (beats/minute); in females, 226  age ¼ maximum heart rate. Athletes cannot train at a maximum heart rate for extended periods; the usual target training rate for a fit, healthy athlete will be approximately 80% of the maximum rate. It is for this reason that, as an athlete ages, the heart’s ability to work is reduced. The rule of thumb is not an accurate predictor in every case; extensive research in the triathlon and distance sports communities demonstrates that maximum heart rate may vary significantly between athletes of equal abilities. In sports such as tennis, golf, and baseball, or at specific team sport positions, such as ice hockey goaltender or the American football quarterback, the mental training and experience components are of greater importance to athletic performance. With more training and experience, an athlete can remain competitive for a longer period. The competitions sanctioned by both the Professional Golfers Association (PGA) and its European counterpart are evidence of ability of older athletes to compete, as the so-called seniors tour in each organization has a minimum age limit of 50 years or older. Jack Nicklaus won the prestigious Masters championship in 1986 at age 46; there are individual tournament winners on the PGA tour each season who are over 40 years of age. However, for sports in which strength (both muscular strength and bone density), oxygen uptake, and cardiovascular efficiency are vital to success, the aging process may be slowed, though never halted or reversed. Since 1950, the average age of world champion distance runners in the 3-mi (5,000 m) races through to the 26-mi marathons (42.2 km) ranges between 28 and 32 years of age. From this peak of ability, runners will continue to perform at levels close to their personal best into their late 30s and early 40s; performance then declines at a rate of approximately 2% per year through age 80. Swimming, which like running places a premium on cardiovascular strength, shows a similar regression from best performance times as an athlete ages. The success of female swimmers at early ages (there have been numerous Olympic gold medals and world records set by female swimmers under the age of 20) is related to both the earlier physical maturation WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

of female athletes, as well as the physical dynamics of the female swimmer in the water; the progressive decline in the performance of female swimmers due to age is similar to that of male swimmers. Consistent with these physiological constants, the oldest gold medalist in the history of all Olympic track and field events was Patrick McDonald, an American hammer thrower, who won the 1920 competition at age 42. The oldest Olympic track champion in the 1,500-m race was 31-year-old Albert Hill of Kenya, in 1988. Female competitors have the added variables of prospective pregnancy and childrearing, which will remove the athlete from intense training and competition for an often-significant period. Childbirth may also change the physical shape of a female athlete, particularly in a widening of the pelvis, which may impact subsequent athletic performance. In addition to the generalized impact that age presents on injury and the body’s ability to recover, age is a significant reducing factor in the assessment of reaction time in athletes. ‘‘Reaction time’’ is the expression used to describe a complex sequence of related actions when the body is called upon to respond to a stimulus. Every competitive sport involves a reaction time; examples include the cricket batsman deciding whether to swing at a particular ball, an ice hockey goalie moving to stop a shot, or a sprinter exploding from the starters’ block. The speed with which the athlete reacts is a combination of their ability to recognize the required response, the choices available to them, the type of reaction required, practice in responding to this situation, fatigue, and the age of the athlete.

Mature athletes; Muscle mass and strength; Osteoarthritis; Women and sports: Exercise data, goals, and guidelines.

SEE ALSO

Alpine, skiing

SEE

Skiing, Alpine

Altitude illness Altitude illness refers to physiological changes that occur at higher elevations in a body that has not adapted (acclimated) to the higher altitude. Typical symptoms of one type of altitude illness, known as acute mountain sickness, include a severe headache, nausea, and physical weakness. However, much more severe, even life-threatening altitude

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ALTITUDE ILLNESS

illnesses—called high-altitude cerebral edema and high-altitude pulmonary edema—can develop. Altitude is measured as the distance above sea level. High altitude is considered to be 8,000–12,000 ft (2,400–3,700 m) above sea level. As examples, the coastal city of Los Angeles is at sea level, while the city of Denver, Colorado, is located at an elevation of 5,000 ft (1,575 m) above sea level. A plane trip from a coastal city such as Los Angeles to Denver represents a rapid elevation change. A further elevation change, such as a hike into the surrounding mountains, can place someone in an environment to which he or she has not been acclimated. Altitude illness can result from this rapid altitude change. The principal reason for altitude illness is the reduced intake of oxygen that occurs at altitude. At both sea level and higher altitudes, oxygen constitutes about 21% of the gases that comprise air. However, the number of oxygen molecules present in a set volume of air (measured as the barometric pressure, which is the weight of the atmosphere over a set portion of the Earth) decreases with increasing altitude. At sea level, for example, the barometric pressure is 760 millimeters (mm) of mercury. But at an elevation of 12,000 ft (3,700 m), the barometeric pressure is only 483 mm of mercury. Put another way, there are less oxygen molecules in each breath of air at the higher altitude. For example, at the summit of Mount Everest (approximately 29,000 ft [8,839 m] above sea level), the available oxygen is only one-third that at sea level. While individuals such as seasoned mountain guides have climbed Mount Everest without the aid of oxygen, most climbers will need the assistance of oxygen tanks at this altitude. At higher altitudes, the body will attempt to compensate for the reduced oxygen level by increasing the heart rate and by breathing faster. Yet, even these increases will not restore the oxygen level in the body to the oxygen level at the lower altitude. As a consequence, physical adaptation to a reduced amount of oxygen must occur. If the change from a lower to a higher altitude is gradual, the physiological adaptations will occur in plenty of time. These include the production of more oxygen-carrying red blood cells, increased production of an enzyme that releases oxygen from the blood cells, and an increased pressure in the pulmonary arteries (which essentially forces air into regions of the lung that are nor normally required for breathing at sea level).

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Symptoms of altitude illness vary from mild to life-threatening. In the majority of people who are not acclimated, elevations over 10,000 ft (3,000 m) will produce headache, shortness of breath, a feeling of fatigue, dizziness, nausea, loss of appetite, and disrupted sleep. These symptoms of acute mountain sickness usually begin from 12 to 24 hours after the elevation change, and they tend to increase over the first few days, as part of the body’s acclimation process. As acclimation occurs or with descent to a lower altitude, the symptoms subside. A drug called acetazolamide speeds up breathing by blocking an enzyme in the kidney, which makes the blood more acidic. In turn, this is interpreted by the brain as a signal to increase blood alkalinity by more rapid breathing. The increased breathing rate increases the intake of oxygen. However, allergic reactions to the sulfonamide drug can occur. More moderate symptoms of weakness, shortness of breath upon exertion, and decreased coordination (ataxia) may not be relieved by routine medication. Descent to a lower altitude is the typical course of treatment. Time spent at the lower altitude can produce acclimation, and ascent to higher altitudes can recommence. Severe altitude illness, which most often occurs when the ascent to higher altitudes is done quickly, manifest with the same moderate, as well as shortness of breath when resting, the complete inability to walk, mental confusion, buildup of fluid in the lungs (pulmonary edema), and fluid leakage in the brain that produces swelling (cerebral edema). An immediate descent to a lower altitude is necessary to prevent persistent or permanent neurological injury or death (which can occur within several days). During descent, administering dexamethasone or nifedipine can lessen the symptoms of cerebral edema and pulmonary edema, respectively. The drugs do not help in acclimation, however. Altitude illness can also be treated on the mountainside using a Gamow bag. A person is placed inside the bag, which is then inflated and sealed. By pumping air into the bag, an atmosphere enriched in oxygen is created, simulating a lower altitude. After several hours inside a Gamow bag, acclimation to the artificial lower altitude will have occurred. This acclimation will persist for some hours after exiting the bag, providing enough time for a real descent to the safety of a lower altitude. SEE ALSO

Aerobics; Rock climbing and wall climbing. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AMERICAN ARBITRATION ASSOCIATION (AAA)

On the Mt. Everest Trail, a warning posted in front of the medical clinic run by the Himalayan Rescue Association. The association treats altitude-related illnesses and educates trekkers about the hazards of ascending too high, too quickly. ª J OH N VAN H AS S EL T /COR BI S

American Arbitration Association (AAA) The American Arbitration Association (AAA) is a private corporation that provides a wide range of legal services that are defined as alternate dispute resolution (ADR). Arbitration, mediation, and other related types of more informal conflict resolution are the component parts of ADR, which has become an integral part of the international sports landscape since the late 1970s. Arbitration is a process by which two parties in a dispute agree that they will avoid the conventional legal process of trial and judgment through an agreement where each undertakes to be bound by the decision of an arbitrator. Arbitration is generally a much faster process than that of civil litigation. The arbitrators available to the opposed parties also tend to have specialized knowledge and experience with respect to the issues in the dispute. In some instances, the parties in a dispute will engage the services of a mediator. The key distinction between WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

arbitration and mediation is that mediation is a nonbinding process, where the recommendations of the mediator are not binding on either party; the work of the mediator is designed to achieve a settlement or, alternatively, a reduction in the number of argued issues between two parties. In almost every case, the services of either arbitrators and mediators are funded by the parties to the dispute. In sports disputes, arbitrators are selected from a list maintained by the organization providing the arbitration services. The arbitrators will be further subcategorized on the basis of their experience in particular sport arbitrations. Many arbitrators may be lawyers, but not exclusively so; in sports arbitrations involving financial issues, the arbitrator may have a financial background. Arbitration as a tool to resolve sports disputes gained prominence in North America in the mid1970s after professional baseball players, by virtue of a ruling by the United States Supreme Court, gained the right to seek free agency, which frees a player to seek employment with the highest bidder

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AMINO ACID SUPPLEMENTS

for services at the expiration of a current contract. Arbitration became a frequent means by which contract disputes were resolved between players and teams. In amateur sport, the role of the arbitration took on special prominence with the rise of doping testing and the challenge made by some athletes as to the legitimacy of a positive test and a resultant competition ban. When athletes resorted to formal legal action to assert a claim that a doping test was flawed, the athlete invariably found that world organizations, such as the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF), were not inclined to honor an order from a court based in a particular state or country, as that court had no jurisdiction beyond the boundaries of the state or country in question. The most prominent example of litigation achieving a dubious end was that initiated by American 400-m runner Butch Reynolds in 1992, in the wake of a positive steroid test. A Cincinnati court ordered Reynolds reinstated by the IAAF, and that Reynolds was to receive $27 million in damages—neither event ever occurred. The court ruling had all of the appearance of favoring a local athlete, and the ruling lacked the credibility that would be needed to sway a powerful international organization such as the IAAF from its course of action. The creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and the establishment of it as the world authority in the ban on performance-enhancing drugs in athletics served to establish arbitrations as a preferred means for resolving drug-related disputes. The Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) does on a global basis what the AAA offers principally in the United States (although the AAA also does arbitrations work in various countries throughout the world). The AAA is specifically named in the constitution and bylaws of the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) as a designated agency for the administration and resolution of amateur sports disputes. The AAA, in this role, assists in the arbitration and mediation of matters such as the eligibility of athletes and doping infractions. The AAA also establishes on-site arbitration services, to deal with disputes that may arise in the course of a multi-day athletic event, when the resolution of the issues cannot be delayed to a better time. An example of the relationship that exists between the various sports bodies in approaches to athletic dispute resolution is found in the Zach-Lund case, determined prior to the 2006 Winter Olympics. Lund, an American skeleton racer, tested positive for the banned substance finasteride, a diuretic. Lund

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had disclosed his use of this substance as a component to a hair loss product that he had been using for a period of years; WADA banned the use of finasteride through its inclusion on the WADA Prohibited List in 2005. When Lund tested positive for the substance, he availed himself of the arbitration procedures provided by the USOC constitution; the USOC deemed that a warning was a sufficient sanction for Lund. WADA disagreed with the USOC decision, and it ultimately requested the CAS to arbitrate the matter again in advance of the 2006 Games; the CAS arbitrator expressed a measure of sympathy for Lund’s position, but varied the penalty to a one-year suspension from all international competition. SEE ALSO Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS); United States Olympic Committee; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

Amino acid supplements Amino acids are often described as one of the building blocks of human life. Amino acids are a group of 20 organic acids (containing carbon), each of which has nitrogen and hydrogen atoms in its construction. Amino acids are most numerous chemicals in the body. Amino acids are present in the thousands of different proteins that are employed within the body to construct and maintain its muscles, skin, bone, and organs. Proteins are also required in the manufacture of hormones, the chemical-signaling agents secreted in the various glands that constitute the body’s endocrine system, controlled by the thyroid gland. Proteins are also the key ingredient in the formation of collagen, the elastic tissue that permits the ligaments, tendons, and all connective tissues of the body their range of movement. Of the 20 amino acids utilized in a variety of body functions and processes, nine acids are classed as essential amino acids. These chemicals are not capable of being produced or synthesized within the body, and each must be obtained through dietary sources. The remainder are classed as nonessential amino acids, substances that are manufactured within the body, chiefly through the action of the liver. Amino acid supplements are a part of the broader range of protein supplements used by some athletes to obtain specific training advantages. Sports that place a premium on muscle mass and strength, such as weightlifting, wrestling, American football, and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AMINO ACIDS

various track and field events such as the shotput, are those athletes often seek to gain the perceived benefits of additional amino acids to assist them in their strength training. The theory in support of amino acid supplements is straightforward in its reasoning. A traditional balanced diet will be composed of 60-65% carbohydrates, 12-15% protein, and less than 30% fats, in addition to proper vitamins, minerals, and an ample supply of phytochemicals consumed as a part of the carbohydrate/protein/fat regime. Athletes endeavoring to build greater strength will often correspondingly increase the amount of protein; the desired amino acids will be extracted from these protein sources through the digestive and absorption process. Proteins are not created equal; not all protein sources contain the same amounts or quality of protein, as measured by the quality of the amino acids contained in the food. In the assessment of protein quality, the amino acid structure of an egg is the standard against which all proteins are measured. Athletes who use protein supplements will seek an increase in both the quantity of amino acids ingested, as well as a high quality protein to supply the best and most useful amino acids. It is a cardinal rule of the twin sciences of diet and nutrition that all macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) and micronutrients (all vitamins and most minerals) are most efficiently absorbed into the body through food, as the body is constructed to best receive and absorb these substances through digestion. On that basis, a protein supplement is an inferior means by which to consume proteins. The secondary issue concerning amino acid supplements is the linear assumption that if the athlete wishes to build more muscle, the athlete will require more protein to be metabolized into amino acid. The modern trend in sports science is directed away from significantly increased amino acid consumption. The formation of additional muscle tissues in response to training demands can be achieved through increases of amino acids consumption of less than 5%. Excess amino acids are not stored within the body in the manner of fats (through adipose tissue) or carbohydrates (either through glycogen or through conversion to fats). The body tends to dispose of excess amino acids through the breakdown of the acid and disposal through the renal system. Protein breakdown creates urea, which precipitates stress on the renal system. Amino acid supplements carry all of the other risks inherent in any form of dietary supplementaWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

tion. Unless the product is obtained from a known and proven source (or the athlete has the means to test the product themselves, an unlikely proposition), supplementation carries with it an element of risk. The risks assumed are both legal and physiological. The legal risks for an elite athlete in the use of amino acid supplements is the history, within the industry, of adding substances to the formulation that are either not disclosed to the consumer or are disguised in the packaging. Studies conducted in the United States after 2000 determined that up to 25% of the tested protein or amino acid supplements contained forms of anabolic steroids, or anabolic steroid prohormones (precursors)—chemicals that facilitate the production of testosterone in the body. Such substances are clearly added to supplements by manufacturers to promote greater strength and weight gains among its users, all of which would be attributed to the ‘‘legal’’ ingredients listed on the commercial packaging. The consumption of hidden anabolic products may pose a significant health hazard to consumers. If an elite athlete were the subject of a doping test and failed the test on the basis of these unknown additives, the prevailing legal view of anti-doping agencies worldwide is that of strict liability on the part of the athletes: they will be generally held accountable for anything that they ingest into their bodies.

Dietary supplements; Glutamine supplementation; Protein supplements.

SEE ALSO

Amino acids Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. The 20 naturally occurring amino acids are linked together in different sequences to generate the many forms of proteins that exist. The arrangement and chemistry of the constituent amino acids are fundamentally important in determining the shape and function of the resulting protein. For all but one of the naturally occurring amino acids, a central carbon atom is chemically bonded to a hydrogen atom (H), amine group (NH2), and a carboxylic acid group (COOH). The remaining bonding site of the carbon atom is occupied by various chemical groups, which are generically termed R groups. The R group varies according to the particular amino acid. It is this variable chemistry that is key in

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ANABOLIC PROHORMONES

dictating the contribution of the particular amino acid to the protein’s shape and function. An R group can be simple. For example, the R group of alanine is simply a hydrogen atom. However, R groups may be far more complex. One example is phenylalanine, which consists of an aromatic ring attached to CH2. Other R groups contain sulfur atoms, or various arrangements of amine, carboxylic acid, and/or a carbon to which an oxygen atom is double-bonded. The differing R group chemistries bestow varying degrees of charge to the amino acid, which in turn determines the tendency of the amino acid to associate with water. A ring structure, such as that present in phenyalanine, is more hydrophobic (‘‘water-hating’’) than R groups such as hydrogen. An amino acid containing a more hydrophobic group will tend to avoid water. In an intact protein, such amino acids will tend to be associated with pockets or recesses in the protein’s three-dimensional structure. The exception to the common amino acid arrangement is proline, which contains a five-carbon, pentagon-shaped ring with an associated amide and a carboxylic acid. Amino acids form bonds with one another to generate a chain known as a peptide. Peptide chains then bond together to generate the protein. The tendency of the constituent amino acids to associate with water or avoid water drives the protein to adopt a three-dimensional shape that is the most thermodynamically stable. Thus, proteins can be more spherical, with the hydrophobic residues buried, or can assume a flatter shape reminiscent of a pleated (zig-zag) piece of paper. The various protein configurations are important to the overall function of the protein. For example, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions (enzymes) can contain a site that can be occupied by a portion of another protein. This ‘‘lock and key’’ fit is crucial in allowing the enzyme catalyzed reaction (such as the removal or addition of chemical groups) to take place. Amino acids are important in sports precisely because they constitute proteins. Growth or repair of muscles requires the availability of protein. Supplementation of the diet with amino acid-enhanced nutrients is used to increase available amino acids used to build muscle mass. Because there are risks to nutrition alteration, all nutrient enrichment programs, especially those having controversial side

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effects, should be taken only after consultation with a physician and with the approval of a sports governing body.

Amino acid supplements; Creatine supplementation; Dietary supplements; Glutamine supplementation; Malnutrition.

SEE ALSO

Anabolic prohormones Anabolic substances or processes within the human body are those that either stimulate or facilitate the growth of bodily tissues. Anabolism is the antonym of catabolism, the term describing any process that breaks down or reduces tissue. Weight training causes micro-damage to muscle tissues; this damage is a catabolic process. An anabolic process occurs when the regeneration and repair of the tissue results from new cell growth. Hormones are the chemical messengers of the body. Hormones are produced and released by the glands that constitute the endocrine system. Each hormone is in essence a signal to an organ or a bodily process to act in a particular fashion. Examples of hormonal responses include the body’s various systems being spurred into action by the production of adrenaline from the adrenal gland, and the growth of various bones and tissues being stimulated by the release of the human growth hormone from the thyroid gland. Prohormones are chemicals that are either ingested into or created within the body. A prohormone is often described as a precursor to the formation of a hormone, without itself creating the effect of a hormone on the body. The prohormone will typically have a chemical composition that is near to that of the desired anabolic compound; enzymes produced by the liver act as catalysts in the conversion of the prohormone to anabolic hormone. Since the refinement of anabolic steroid practices in the early 1960s, the consumption of these compounds became an approach favored by many athletes seeking to become stronger and bigger. When anabolic steroids were banned from a number of international athletic competition in the 1970s (most notably, the Olympic ban in 1976), the use of steroids by athletes evolved into a contest where the primary objective was to defeat the doping test procedures, first through sophisticated masking and diuretic techniques, and later through the use of ‘‘designer’’ steroids, anabolic products whose chemical composition was slightly alerted to deceive WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ANABOLIC STEROIDS

known scientific testing procedures. Nandrolone was the best known of these designer products, subsequently banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 2003. Since the mid-1990s, athletes engaged in strength training have sought to stimulate the production of the body’s natural anabolic agent, the male sex hormone testosterone, as a means of building greater muscle size and strength, without ingesting a banned performance-enhancing substance. Prohormones were seen as the means to this objective. The commercial marketing of anabolic prohormones invariably makes reference to these supplements as being the closest product to testosterone that an athlete can obtain. The most popular of the initial anabolic prohormones was androstenedione, more familiar to strength athletes as ‘‘andro,’’ available in a number of different chemical formulations, each of which had an intended anabolic effect. Consumed as a powdered supplement, andro was effective in its role as a testosterone prohormone, as it was capable of converting, on average, between 5% and 6% of its mass into testosterone. Andro also had well-established side effects, particularly the development of enlarged breast tissue in males, a condition known as gynecomastia, as well as the risk of an enlarged prostate gland. Boldenone, an anabolic steroid used in the equine industries (horse training and horse racing), was another chemical that has been employed by body builders and strength athletes, as it is known to convert to the hormone estrogen within the liver. Anabolic prohormones are ingested in different ways: as a dietary supplement, as a transdermal (skin) patch, and as slow-release formulations through pills placed under the tongue or by way of nasal sprays. Like anabolic steroids, anabolic prohormones are consumed in defined cycles, a period of time within which a particular dose of the product is taken. Cycles are typically calculated to produce maximum benefit with minimum side effects. Anabolic prohormones are often stacked, meaning that the product is taken in conjunction with other prohormones or strength-directed products such as creatine or protein supplements. Many manufacturers of dietary supplements have added prohormone mixtures into the supplements without disclosing the nature or quantity of the prohormone on the commercial label. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) commissioned a study in 2002 that determined as many as 15% of the products WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

tested contained an undisclosed anabolic prohormone. In 2004, WADA classed andro as an anabolic androgenic steroid (a steroid that promotes the increased growth of male features), and deemed the substance a prohibited substance. There is significant evidence that the introduction of andro into the bloodstream through supplementation reduces the amount of high density lipoprotein (HDL) in the blood; HDLs are the proteins that contribute to the reduction of plaque within the walls to the arteries. Reduced levels of HDLs is counter to good cardiovascular health. Dehydroepianrosterone (DHEA) is another wellknown anabolic prohormone. Like andro, its advocates believe that because DHT is chemically close to testosterone, increased consumption of the product through diet will lead to similarly increased testosterone levels. There is no clear scientific evidence that DHT acts as an effective prohormone for testosterone.

Anabolic steroids; Coalition for Anabolic Steroid Precursor and Ephedra Regulation (CASPER); Dietary supplements; Nandrolone; Testosterone.

SEE ALSO

Anabolic steroids Of all of the substances ingested by athletes to gain a competitive edge, anabolic steroids are the most notorious. Steroids have taken on a broad, and sometimes inaccurate, range of meanings in the public consciousness, as the term is popularly and incorrectly used to describe any type of drug that enhances athletic performance. Steroids are a class of substances that share a fat-soluble, carbon-based molecular structure. Unlike water-soluble minerals like potassium and sodium, steroids are stored in cell tissues. Vitamin D, testosterone (the naturally occurring male hormone), and a range of anti-inflammatory compounds, such as corticosteroids, are steroids. Anabolic steroids are a form of synthesized testosterone, which is primarily intended to stimulate muscle growth. Anabolic steroids were first produced in the 1930s, when the international medical community began to better understand the relationship between testosterone and the development and maintenance of increased muscle mass. Russian weightlifters were the first athletes known to use steroids in a monitored, medically supervised sense; it was discovered

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ANABOLIC STEROIDS

Canadian Ben Johnson (L) shattered the existing Olympic and world records in the 100-m sprint. Johnson was later stripped of his medal when it was determined that he and others on the Canadian track team had engaged in years of systematic steroid use. S TA F F/ AF P / GE TTY IM AGES

that when anabolic steroids were ingested in cycles ranging from 14 to 30 days, the muscle-building and work capacities of the athlete were increased. Russian success in the 1952 Olympics spurred steroid research and development in the United States. By 1958, anabolic steroids were broadly available, and through the 1960s steroids became popular, albeit on an underground basis, finding a ready market among athletes in sports that placed a premium on strength and power. Anabolic steroids have a number of limited conventional medical applications, chiefly when the body produces too little testosterone, or to combat muscle wasting caused by disease. Dreams of enhanced

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performance gave anabolic steroids their athletic preeminence. Athletes who are driven to succeed are often prepared to assume risks; in the early days of steroid popularity, that risk was the unknown, as relatively little research existed as to the long-term effects of these substances on the human body. It is now beyond dispute that anabolic steroids are an exceedingly harmful substance on the body when ingested. Anabolic steroids will assist an athlete to train harder, with fewer rest periods required, and they help the body produce muscle mass at a greater rate than can be achieved in conventional training. Track and field events, particularly the Olympic sprint WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

JAMES R. ANDREWS

competitions in 1988, were the first dramatic worldwide proof of the power of steroids. Canadian Ben Johnson shattered the existing Olympic and world records in the 100-m sprint; Johnson was later stripped of his medal when it was determined that he and others on the Canadian track team had engaged in years of systematic steroid use. In recent years, prominent international soccer players, track athletes, and American baseball and football players have all been exposed to have illegally taken steroids. Despite the presence of competitive sanctions in virtually all professional and international amateur competitions, coupled with unassailable evidence of the physical and psychological risk to steroid users, its use has been documented in significant numbers in North America and Europe among athletes as young as 14 years. A significant industry devoted to the science of masking steroid use when the athlete is tested at competition—usually through urine sample—has enjoyed a parallel growth to the use of the drug itself. Steroids have been declared illegal in all international sport events, due primarily to the very serious physical risks they pose to all athletes who ingest them. These risks include liver disease, high blood pressure and cholesterol, acne, severe mood swings (often referred to as ‘‘roid rage’’), and psychological dependence. Men who take anabolic steroids are also prone to develop prostate disease; women are more susceptible to baldness and disrupted menstrual cycles. The pursuit of athletic excellence will inevitably include the challenge of surpassing an established physical limit. Anabolic steroids represent risks to the modern athlete that far outweigh any shortterm competitive benefits that may be gained through their use.

Doping tests; Muscle mass and strength; Nandrolone; Stimulants; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

James R. Andrews 1942– AMERICAN ORTHOPEDIC SURGEON

Sports medicine pioneer James Andrews attended Louisiana State University, where he was the South East Conference indoor and outdoor pole vault champion in 1963. After completing his medical WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

degree, Andrews continued his orthopedic specialty studies in France with Andrew Trillant, a pioneer with respect to various types of knee surgery. Upon his return to the United States, Andrews soon became one of the first practitioners of sports medicine in the country. Andrews began to develop his specialty in orthopedic surgical techniques for athletic injuries in the early 1970s. Among other developments, Andrews refined the tissue graft techniques that were first employed by Dr. Frank Jobe, the American surgeon who developed the ulnar cruciate ligament repair procedure best known by its most famous patient, baseball pitcher Tommy John. Andrews subsequently performed successful arthroscopic surgery upon noted athletes such as pitcher Roger Clemens, football quarterback Troy Aikman, golfer Jack Nicklaus, and dozens of other high profile sports persons. Andrews was one of the founders of the American Sports Medicine Institute in 1986, one of the first medical clinics established in the United States that was devoted to sports injury treatment. Andrews continued to mix surgical practice, athletic injury consultancy, and teaching duties as a professor at both the University of Virginia and the University of Kentucky. Throughout his medical career, Andrews continued his own personal athletic pursuits as a sailor; he was a part of one of the America’s Cup challenge syndicates in 2000. The early work of Dr. James Andrews centered upon the area of orthopedic practice known as arthroscopy, a surgical and investigative procedure where the arthroscope, a thin surgical device, can be used to permit a comprehensive examination of a joint and suspected damage within the structure in a way that is less invasive than traditional surgery. The arthroscope can be inserted into a very small incision, equipped with both lights and a small cameras. The arthroscope is then positioned to relay images regarding the condition of the interior of the joint to the attending surgical team. The arthroscope can also be used to perform a biopsy, where tissue samples from the desired area can be retrieved for later analysis. In previously conventional surgical practices, particularly those involving the knee, the orthopedic specialist was required to make a deep incision the length of the joint. This procedure caused damage to much of the surrounding tissue of the joint. Andrews refined his arthroscopic techniques, so that knee operations could include a variety of repairs to torn cartilage (meniscus), damage to the articular

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ANKLE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

cartilage at the end of the bones that comprise the knee joint, and various types of ligament repair. As with many innovations to impact upon sports science, the significance of Andrews’s work is not through invention, but through the development and enhancement of existing arthroscopic techniques. Andrews was one of the first orthopedic surgeons to stress both pre-operative as well as post-operative rehabilitation in arthroscopic procedures. Andrews developed programs of physical build-up as preparation for surgery to ease the patient into a vigorous recovery. These two factors have been demonstrated by Andrews in numerous cases to significantly shorten recovery time, while reducing the risk of subsequent injury to the surgically repaired joint. The importance of comprehensive orthopedic expertise to modern professional sport is immense. Sports medicine experts such as Andrews are now able to repair and rehabilitate serious joint injuries more effectively than ever before. A well paid professional athlete who performs for his or her team is an asset to the organization; an injury to such an athlete is often a significant drain on the team payroll. The quicker and more thorough the repair and rehabilitation of an athletic injury, the better the financial position of the team with respect to the player. Andrews remains on the leading edge of joint repair techniques. In addition to continue refinements of arthroscopic surgeries, Andrews has assisted in the development of non-surgical shockwave lithography, where an injured connective tissue that naturally is the recipient of poor blood flow, such as the plantar tissue in the foot, and the patellar tendon below the knee, is bombarded with waves to stimulate healing. SEE ALSO

Sports medicine education.

Ankle anatomy and physiology The human ankle is the joint created at the point where the tibia (the shin bone) and the fibula (the outer bone running from the knee to the ankle) meet the talus (the ankle bone). Running parallel to the tibia and fibula, behind the ankle, is the Achilles tendon. The talus is positioned above the calcaneus (heel bone). The joint created where these three bones meet is known as the synovial joint, a joint where the component parts function due to the presence of a viscous, fluid lubrication between the bones. The ankle is a structure where its function is a compromise between the greater flexibility and

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range of motion as found in joints such as the shoulder, and the less flexible and more limited range of motion found in the very stable joints, such as the pelvis. The human ankle has a deceptively simple construction; understanding its strengths and its limitations is a critical component to efficient, stable human movement and athletic success. The epiphysis, which is the surface of the ends of the tibia and fibula where the ankle is joined, are lined with a smooth cartilage that is 0.07–0.11 in (2–3 mm) thick. The bones and cartilage are contained within the synovial membrane cavity, the space surrounding the tibia, fibula, and talus, which creates a friction-reduced surface in the joint. The ankle is provided further support through the bursa, which are sealed fluid sacs positioned between the bones of the ankle. The propulsion necessary to walk, run, or jump is achieved in a combination of movements coordinated between the flexors located on the top of the foot, and the ligaments of the ankle, which connect the ankle bones. The ligaments, which have a somewhat elastic construction, radiate from the talus to each of the calcaneus, tibia, and fibula. The ankle is required to bear forces of 1.5 times the body weight through walking; running, or jumping forces will exceed 3-4 times body weight. When additional twisting forces, referred to as torque, are generated through sport performance and are added to the regular weight-bearing stresses, the risk of ankle injury is pronounced. The majority of injuries involving the ankle and its related structures are sprains, a relatively straightforward and treatable condition; it is where the injury is either treated incorrectly, or where the athlete returns to training or competition too quickly, that the uncomplicated injury can escalate into a chronic problem. Everyone has a natural foot strike: the manner in which the foot comes into contact with the walking or running surface. For over 80% of athletes, the natural motion is ‘‘pronation,’’ in which the foot turns inwardly upon contact with the running surface; the less common ‘‘supination’’ is when the foot rolls outward. The manner and the degree to which the foot strikes the surface place pressure on the ankle. The natural foot strike is mimicked in the mechanisms of the ankle sprain, referred to as inversion and eversion, which are circumstances created when the ankle becomes unstable. Inversion is the common result when an athlete seeks to change direction, or ‘‘cut’’ on the playing surface, and the ankle joint moves inwards as the forces are applied. Eversion WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ANKLE SPRAINS

is the result when the ankle is rolled outwards on movement being made. Both mechanisms result in the ligaments becoming strained. Inversion may also result when a player jumps or strides and lands on an unequal surface, such as another player’s foot or a hole in the playing field. In a more serious circumstance, the ankle ligaments may become torn, requiring medical intervention. A high ankle sprain is a condition usually caused by a force being applied to the leg above the ankle, causing a degree of rotation to occur in the lower leg above the ankle joint, while the foot remains planted to the surface. In this circumstance, the tibia and fibula become separated from where these bones meet the talus, causing the ligament that connects these bones to the talus to become strained. The ankle may also be injured through damage to the Achilles tendon, either through irritation of the tendon fibers and sheath, referred to as Achilles tendonitis, or through a tear or rupture of the tendon fibers. These injuries are typically caused by either overuse, such as dramatically increased training levels in a short period, or through a sudden explosive motion that is not properly supported due to tight calf or quadriceps muscles. Any of the bones that comprise the ankle joint may become fractured through a direct blow. In sports such as field hockey or soccer, the ankle is exposed to such traumas. In addition, the ankle can become dislocated, where the tibia/fibula and talus are forcibly separated. Further, the tibia or the fibula may sustain damage known as shin splints, a micro tear of thin muscle covering the shins, through overuse or poor fitting footwear. The ankle is a joint that can be significantly protected from injury through a commitment to a specialized stretching program. In addition, many sports require athletes to either wear a brace (volleyball is a sport in which braces are a part of the competitive culture), or to tape the ankles in advance of training or competition. The basic components of good ankle care include warm-up and cool-down practices involving ankle and lower leg stretches; stretching exercises (as a part of the over all fitness program); careful attention to the heel wear and the support in athletic shoes; and shoe fit, as an improper fit may cause the foot to strike the surface and cause inversion/eversion.

Achilles tendonitis; Ankle sprains; Heel spurs; Lower leg anatomy.

SEE ALSO

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Ankle sprains There may be no more common an injury in ball sports than the sprained ankle. Conversely, there is no part of the competitive human body that is afforded less respect in both its immediate care and return to sport than the injured ankle. An effective and pain-free return to competition from the misunderstood and often minimized ankle sprain requires a thorough understanding of its mechanics. In any activity where a premium is placed upon advancing an object toward an opponent’s goal, using speed and power, the ankle is the joint that bears a relentless strain. Ankle sprains occur because the ankle joint, through either sudden forces being applied to it or through the misadventure of an athlete landing on an opponent’s foot, is forced to move in a direction beyond what it is constructed to do. The most common cause of an ankle sprain due to motion is when an athlete seeks to change direction at speed, and the ankle sustains an inversion, whereby the ankle joint moves inward as the player travels outward. The ‘‘plant’’ foot is placed in the opposite of the intended direction of travel. As force is applied to shift from the plant foot to the changed direction, or ‘‘cut,’’ the anterior talofibular ligament (one of the three ankle ligament groupings) is the most frequent recipient of the excessive stress that causes the sprain. Eversion, the movement of the ankle outwards from its natural plane, is caused where the ankle joint is subjected to outward forces with the foot remaining fixed to the surface. A syndesmosis, or high ankle sprain, is a more serious type of injury. This situation can occur when the foot is planted and the lower leg is rotated, causing the talus (ankle bone) to wedge itself further between the tibia (shin bone) and fibula (outer lower leg bone), straining the ligament structure that connects these bones. This type of condition will usually be a more disabling sprain for the athlete, and requires a correspondingly longer recovery time and more intensive rehabilitation. The severity of an ankle sprain will depend upon a number of factors, including the severity of the movement causing the sprain, how quickly the athlete receives medical attention, and whether the athlete has a history of sprains. There are three categories of sprains. A Grade 1 sprain is a microscopic tearing of the fibers in one of the three sets of ankle ligament. This type of sprain will likely prohibit the athlete from continuing with the activity that

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ANKLE SPRAINS

In activities where a premium is placed upon using speed and power, the ankle is the joint that bears a relentless strain.

ª 2 005 N BA E

(PH OT O B Y BI LL B AP TI S T/N BA E VI A G ETT Y I M AG ES )

day; there will be a mild level of discomfort, and a corresponding degree of swelling, either at the time of the injury or in the following one or two hours. In a Grade 2 sprain, noticeable swelling will be observed in the vicinity of the joint. There is a complete tear of some of the ligament fibers. The athlete will have difficulty moving without assistance; some instability in the ankle joint will likely be observed as well. In a Grade 3 sprain, the ankle joint will be noticeably unstable and the athlete will be unable to bear weight on the ankle without assistance. The ligament will be completely torn or ruptured, with significant swelling and pain. Ankle sprain first aid is simple, but it is a discipline that requires thorough attention to all steps of the process. For a Grade 1 sprain, the treatment progression is known by the acronym PRICE: Protection of the injured joint, by way of compression bandages and similar devices; Rest, by not walking on it to permit the sprain to recover; Ice, to be applied at regular intervals to reduce swelling; Compression, pressure applied in conjunction with ice; and Elevation, with the injured joint elevated above the level of

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the heart for the first 48 to 72 hours after the injury whenever possible, to prevent the pooling of blood at the point of the injury. For the treatment of a Grade 2 sprain, the same PRICE principles apply; in addition, depending on the circumstances of the athlete, the ankle may be immobilized for a period of one to two weeks. When a Grade 3 sprain is diagnosed, a physician will be required to assess the surgical option or whether a cast should be applied, likely for two or three weeks. Most athletes who encounter longer term problems with a sprain are those who either come back to competition too quickly after a sprain, or those who fail to follow a proper program of rehabilitative exercises. They must also take into consideration the overriding principle that any return from any injury must be carried out progressively, with a gradual increase in workload and intensity. Exercises should include a thorough warm-up, which requires both an elevation of heart rate and resultant blood flow to all muscle structures. The athlete should be careful to work out on even surfaces. They should also ensure that their athletic shoes are in good condition. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ANTIOXIDANTS

Finally, they should include stretches of the Achilles tendon, foot flexors, and calf muscles, as well as ankle rotation exercises.

Achilles tendonitis; Ankle anatomy and physiology; Athletic shoes; Sprains and strains.

SEE ALSO

Anterior cruciate ligament

SEE

ACL injuries and female athletes

Anti-Doping Agreement

SEE

Anti-inflammatory drugs

SEE

International Anti-Doping Agreement

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

Antioxidants Antioxidant is the descriptive term given to a group of organic substances that generally function within the body to promote health through their counteraction against the potentially destructive effect of oxygen in human tissues, as carried out by agents known as free radicals. The best known antioxidants are vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin E, selenium (a mineral), and the carotenoids, the class of the pigmentation substances that color many fruits and vegetables. An example of a carotenoid is betacarotene, the substance that produces the color in carrots. Human diet is subdivided into two general classifications for the purpose of basic nutritional assessment. The first classification is macronutrients, the term that refers to all of the food products that contain carbohydrate, protein, and/or fat. The second classification is micronutrients, the term that defines all of the vitamins and most of the minerals that are absorbed into the body through food digestion. Phytochemicals are the trace substances found in plants and plant food products that are absorbed into the body as a part of either macronutrients or micronutrients; many phytochemicals also possess antioxidant properties. An understanding of the function of antioxidants begins with the process of oxidation within the body. Oxidation occurs in a number of biological processes that are beneficial to the body. The essential role of oxygen within the aerobic energy system, and the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

oxidation of various harmful bacteria that invade the body are two examples of oxygen and its positive relation to human cell function. Oxidation has a negative impact on the health of cells in certain conditions. While the oxygen molecule, described by the chemical equation O2, is often present in the body, it is not always as a stable, electrically neutral substance, but as the chemical structure known as free radicals, in which either atoms or molecules have one or more unpaired electron. When the cells have used oxygen, free radicals are often created as a byproduct of that process. Atoms or molecules in which all electrons within the structure are paired tend to be stable; free radicals are unstable and are therefore highly reactive with other molecules. The free radicals seek out atoms or molecules from which they may ‘‘steal’’ an electron to create electrochemical balance within the radical; this results in instability in the unbalanced molecule, which will in turn seek to address its newly unstable state. This process will lead to a chain reaction of electron theft, which produces damage to both the membrane of cells and the contents of cells. Heart disease, increased incidence of stroke, diabetes, cancer, macular degeneration (a disease affecting the function of the macula, a small but vital area of the retina within the eye), and the acceleration of the general aging process have all been scientifically linked to the actions of free radicals within the body. The micro-effects of oxidation within the body are similar to commonly observed oxidation in the world at large, such as the formation of rust (iron oxide) when bare steel is exposed to the elements. Antioxidants do not attack these free radicals so much as they are scavengers of them. Antioxidants possess the ability to ‘‘donate’’ electrons, typically from a present hydrogen atom with the antioxidant structure, to electrically neutralize the free radical. Different types of antioxidants perform specialized types of scavenging and free radical-neutralizing work within the body. Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin, meaning that it may be stored within the body, either in the adipose (fat storage) tissue or in the liver. Common sources of vitamin A and other betacarotenoids are carrots, squash, and broccoli, as well as all other brightly colored fruits. Vitamin E is also fat soluble; it operates to specifically protect the free fatty acids in the bloodstream and the cell structures from oxidation; the presence of these fatty acids places an important role in the overall healthy function of cells. Vitamin E is present in many types of nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, and many types of whole grains.

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ANTIOXIDANTS

The antioxidant role performed by vitamin C within the body is one of the many important functions of this chemical; vitamin C is essential to the manufacture of collagen, the protein that is the primary building material in bones and connective tissue. Vitamin C is water soluble, and it acts as a scavenger against waterborne free radicals before these agents can act against fat-soluble compounds, an event that creates the damaging chain reactions associated with cellular damage. The chemical reaction between vitamin C and the encountered free radical results in the donation of a hydrogen atom to the oxidizing radical. The presence of enzymes creates a recycling effect on the vitamin C, permitting it to scavenge other radicals. The rate at which vitamin C can scavenge free radicals is increased by a factor of approximately ten times if the scavenging process occurs in the presence of phosphates. Vitamin E has been to shown to work as an excellent co-antioxidant with vitamin C. Vitamin C is present in all varieties of citrus fruits, as well as broccoli, strawberries, and tomatoes. Selenium is plentiful in fish, red meats, and grains. It most commonly acts as an antioxidant in conjunction with glutathione peroxidase, a nonessential amino acid (an amino acid produced by the body), to protect white blood cells from the adverse effects of free radicals. The antioxidants that are contained within various phytochemicals have also been the subject of specialized research in recent years. The best known of these substances are the flavanoids, a group of polyphenols (compounds with a hydrocarbon-based structure), found in soy, red wine, raw grapes, and cranberries. Lycopene, the chemical that is responsible for the red pigmentation of tomatoes and watermelon, is a powerful carotenoid. Lignan, a chemical found in flax, barley, and oatmeal, has also been identified as a water-soluble antioxidant. Lutein is the antioxidant linked to the onset of macular degeneration; research suggests that a lutein deficiency is an underlying cause of the degenerative condition. The body is capable of producing its own antioxidant defenses through its manufacture of two different enzymes, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Enzymes are proteins manufactured by the body, primarily in the liver. Enzymes function as catalysts for a specific chemical reaction or series of reactions. When it comes into contact with a free radical oxygen molecule, SOD is the fastest reacting antioxidant available, in that it can neu-

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tralize more free radicals more quickly than any other substance within the body. Significant publicity has been generated worldwide as to whether the consumption of antioxidants through dietary supplements, in larger quantities than are otherwise available through regular diet, will have a proportionately greater and beneficial effect on health. Numerous antioxidant products are marketed on the basis of claims that the products will either eliminate or reduce the risks associated with various types of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and a multitude of conditions that occur as a result of aging. Scientific research has proved inconclusive as to whether this type of supplementation in fact achieves an antioxidant result. Studies that were specifically directed about the relationship between supplement consumption and the effect on the low density lipoproteins (LDLs) present in the blood vessels were conducted between 2003 and 2005 in the United States. LDL molecules were known to be particularly vulnerable to oxidation by free radicals, tending to cause the LDL molecules to proliferate on arterial walls, leading to the formation of plaque and creating stenosis, an unhealthy narrowing of the blood vessel that renders the individual more vulnerable to arteriosclerosis and stroke. The research in this area has proved to be inconclusive. Further studies where the test subjects were provided with large doses of vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E as supplements failed to establish any evidence of increased disease prevention. It is well established in the diet and nutritional sciences that the best manner in which to ingest nutrients of any kind and to have the nutrients effectively absorbed into the body is through food, and not supplements. The reduction of LDL and other unhealthy cholesterols in the bloodstream is most effectively addressed by examining the components of the foods consumed, as opposed to eating poor foods and then addressing a perceived cholesterol or LDL concern. Most nations of the world have published food guidelines that are similar in their scope to those advanced by the United States Department of Agriculture (the ‘‘Food Pyramid’’) and the American Heart Association. In general terms, the guidelines state that, as an alternative to antioxidant supplements, a healthy adult, eating six or more servings of grain products (bread, pastas, etc.), five servings of fruit or vegetables, between two to four servings of low fat dairy products, and a maximum of 6 oz (200 g) of lean meat or fish, will ingest 100% of the recommended daily allowances of the vitamins and minerals with antioxidant properties. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ARCHERY

Cardiovascular system; Minerals; Phytochemicals; Vitamin C; Vitamin E.

SEE ALSO

Arbitration

SEE

American Arbitration

Association (AAA)

Archery Archery is a sport that is among the oldest of recorded competitive activities. Cultures as diverse as the Chinese, indigenous North American peoples, and early Europeans placed value on the ability of men to skillfully use a bow and arrow. The legends of William Tell and Robin Hood centered upon the talent of each character to shoot an arrow with unerring accuracy. When archers were displaced in English armies through the development of firearms and cannon in the 1600s, archery gained popularity as a competitive sport. Archery was introduced to the Olympics in 1900, and the sport was contested through the Games of 1920, when it was removed from the Olympic roster as a result of disputes among the competing nations regarding the appropriate rules for competition. Archery was reinstated to Olympic status at the Summer Games of 1972. Archery is also included at the Summer Paralympics as a wheelchair sport. As with the sports of the ancient Olympics that are still part of the modern games, archery is a sport that has not changed to a significant degree since medieval times. FITA, the international archery federation, is the governing body for the sport worldwide. Modern archery is organized into men’s and women’s divisions, both as individual competitions and as team events. The usual international events require a competitor to deliver a prescribed number of arrows into a target from a variety of distances. For men, the distances are 30 m, 50 m, 70 m, and 90 m; for women, the maximum competitive distance is 70 m. The targets are divided into ten zones, with zone widths varying depending on the distance from which the archer shoots. The sport is very simple in its execution, as the archer with the most arrows delivered closest to the bulls’ eye, the center of the target, is the winner. While physical strength and general fitness are important to an elite-level archery competitor, archery is a sport where physical size is not of primary importance. As a machine, a bow is any stringed projectile weapon designed to shoot arrows. The modern bow WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

used in archery competition is of the same approximate shape and dimension as the long bows first used by the English army at the Battle of Crecy in 1346 to defeat their French enemy. The modern bow is constructed from carbon fiber and other similar composite materials to create a maximum degree of response to the pull of the archer. The shooting of an arrow involves the application of a series of physical principles. The expression, ‘‘translation of energy,’’ is important in the understanding of how the arrow is delivered with maximum effect. As the archer prepares to draw back the bowstring, the potential energy available to the arrow rests in the muscles of the archer’s arm and shoulders. Once the bowstring is drawn, the potential energy is transferred from the archer to the bowstring. When the bowstring is released, virtually all of the stored potential energy in the bowstring is transferred to become the kinetic energy that powers the arrow into flight. The flight of the arrow is a product of a number of physical factors. The velocity at which the arrow is released, the angle (calculated as the number of degrees above horizontal that the bow and arrow are aimed), the mass of the arrow, and the impact of air resistance and wind all contribute to the manner in which the arrow will travel. Archery is a deceptive sport in terms of the approach to physical training and fitness required of the competitive archer. The general desirable physical qualities in an archer are strength, particularly in the core strength elements of the abdominal, lumbar (lower back), and groin, to provide stability to the archer as the arrows are shot. Flexibility is also an important quality, as is muscular strength in the upper body, to effectively draw back and deliver the arrows. Aerobic fitness and a corresponding ability to control the heart rate of the athlete in the stress of competition is of critical importance to the competitive archer. Aerobic fitness assists an archer in offsetting the fatigue that results from standing for several hours through a competition, where during the delivery of the arrows the athlete must be strong and physically prepared to compete. The high level of mental focus required to concentrate during every attempt at a target (the archer may deliver over 50 arrows in a single session) is best supported by a body that is fit. Archers employ a variety of mental conditioning techniques to prepare themselves for an event. Many of these devices include both visualization of the physical movements that the archer will complete to shoot a perfect arrow; other techniques encourage the athlete to use imagery to relax prior to the event.

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LANCE ARMSTRONG

Archery is a deceptive sport in terms of the approach to physical training and fitness required of the competitive archer.

MA NP REE T

ROM AN A/A FP/ GE TTY IM AGES

As a general proposition, the lower an archer’s heart rate, the steadier the aim. The rate at which the heart beats is a function of the autonomic nervous system, which controls other involuntary systems such as respiration. Most competitive archers employ one of a variety of deep breathing techniques prior to the actual delivery of an arrow to take the pulse to its lowest possible rate to create the greatest degree of stability and control over the delivery of the arrow.

Heart rate: Target heart rate; International Olympic Committee (IOC); Motor control; Wrist injuries.

SEE ALSO

Tour de France, Armstrong became one of the best known athletes in the world of international sport. Armstrong’s wins in the Tour de France were all the more remarkable as they were achieved after Armstrong had been treated for testicular cancer. Armstrong enjoyed cycling success from an early age. Competing in what was a new sport at the time, Armstrong won a youth triathlon at age thirteen; it was an accomplishment that ultimately spurred Armstrong into prize money races in both cycling and triathlon. At age sixteen, he was earning approximately $20,000 a year in race prize money.

9/18/1971– AMERICAN BICYCLE RACER

Armstrong’s precocious talent caught the attention of the United States Cycling Federation, and Armstrong was invited to train with the American developmental team in 1989. As a result of this introduction to elite level cycling, Armstrong competed in the World Junior Cycling champions that year in Moscow. By 1990, Armstrong was racing as a member of the senior U.S. National team.

Lance Armstrong is the most celebrated cyclist in American sports history. With a record seven victories in the world’s most prestigious cycling race, the

The meteoric rise of Armstrong as an international level cyclist continued through the Barcelona Olympics of 1992, when the 21-year-old Armstrong

Lance Armstrong

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WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

LANCE ARMSTRONG

finished a highly credible fourteenth in the men’s road race of approximately 120 mi (200 km). From the Olympics, Armstrong entered a series of prestigious European road races. He was admired for his talent but not necessarily respected by the cycling world for his racing demeanor or attitude towards his opponents. The dichotomy between talent and attitude marked Armstrong’ attempt at the Tour de France in 1993. Armstrong scored a stage win during the Tour, but he could not maintain the pace of the 21day event and he dropped out after 11 days. Armstrong did become the youngest ever World Road Race champion later than year. Armstrong began to understand that his approach to racing, an all out blitzkrieg on both course and opponents would not lead him to the ultimate success he desired. Elite road-racing cyclists must be multi-dimensional racers, a class known by the French expression ‘‘rolleur,’’ or all rounder. The rolleur is the type of rider who can win the Tour de France because he or she can sprint through the time trials, as well as endure long stretches of paced cycling, with the ability to power up the grades of the steep mountain stages. Most cyclists are better at one of the three aspects; to challenge for a Tour de France title, the racer must be a master of all of them. Armstrong added training sessions in both the Rocky Mountains and European Alps to make him more proficient at the climbing portions of multi-stage races. Although not yet a challenger for an overall Tour title, in 1995 Armstrong was the seventh ranked cyclist in the world. He also enjoyed significant commercial success, with earnings in excess of $750,000. The 24-year-old Armstrong entered a future with his best cycling evidently ahead of him; Armstrong’s demonstrated abilities to this point in his career were confirmed over the next 10 years, in a fashion that no one could possibly have foreseen. In the spring of 1996, Armstrong’s early season training had not progressed as well as he had hoped. He withdrew from the Tour de France after only six stages, and Armstrong performed poorly by his standards at both the 1996 Summer Olympic and the fall road races in Europe. Armstrong sought medical advice in October of 1996 regarding a swelling he had noted on one of his testicles; he was soon diagnosed with testicular cancer. Armstrong’s perilous physical situation became critical when its was determined that the cancer had spread to his brain. Armstrong had brain surgery, went through a number of months of aggressive cheWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

motherapy, and, in 1997, Armstrong bested odds of survival that had been only 40%. In recovery from cancer, and with no race team sponsorship available to him in Europe, Armstrong returned to training in 1997. By 1998 he recaptured his previous cycling prowess, and Armstrong intensified his training to move beyond any of his previous standards of performance. Armstrong did not enter the 1998 Tour de France, but he overpowered the 1999 Tour field, racing with greater confidence and strength than he had ever displayed prior to his bout of cancer. Armstrong was the target of very pointed allegations in the French press (many tinged with a considerable measure of either Eurocentric commentary or a blunter anti-American sentiment) regarding blood doping with the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), but he never failed a drug test of any sort that year (or at any time during his career). A report released in May 2006 by an independent Dutch agency (appointed by the International Cycling Union to investigate the charges in Armstrong’s case) ‘‘exonerates Lance Armstrong completely with respect to alleged use of doping in the 1999 Tour de France.’’ Armstrong joined Greg Lemond (three victories between 1986 and 1990) as the only Americans to have won a Tour de France title. It is ironic of Armstrong’s 1999 win that both he and Lemond, who was badly wounded in a hunting accident in 1987, each overcame profound physical adversity in the course of their Tour success. Armstrong’s victory in 1999 also placed his team, the United States Postal Service Pro Cycling Team, into the international spotlight. In multi-stage events such as the Tour de France, the individual cyclist receives the glory; without a hard working and effective team to support him, even the most gifted of cyclists has no hope of a Tour victory. A cycling team will usually determine in advance of competition who will be their featured rider. The team is then arranged to bring the team leader to the finish line. At various times, particularly in the flat sections of the race, the leader will ride behind a teammate, using the partial vacuum created by their movement through the air stream ahead to be pulled forward into the less dense air, a technique that requires the cyclist to use less energy to move at the same speed as the lead riders. This is the process known as ‘‘drafting.’’ Team members will also ride in flanking positions to protect him from collisions with other riders. When a cyclist on an opposing team makes a break from the pack of riders (the peloton),

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LANCE ARMSTRONG

Lance Armstrong has won the Tour de France seven times.

PIE RRE AN DRIEU /A FP /G E TTY IMA G ES

a team member will sometimes be tasked to ride the other cyclist down, establishing contact with the opponent and in some instances deliberately riding with greater speed to tire the opponent. Armstrong’s consummate individual cycling gifts and the strength of his supporting team were an irresistible combination from Armstrong’s first victory in 1999 until his seventh Tour championship and announced retirement in 2005. Armstrong’s supremacy in the Tour placed incredibly talented cyclists such as Jan Ulrich, whose record of a 1997 victory, five other second place finishes and a third place result would be remarkable, if it were not achieved in Armstrong’s shadow. There are several physiological aspects to Armstrong’s Tour de France success that have been examined in the course of his career. The first is the fact that Armstrong became a stronger, more powerful cyclist after the onset of his cancer and its suc-

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cessful treatment in 1997. Testing carried out at the University of Texas Human Performance Laboratory determined that Armstrong had improved his ability to use oxygen in the production of muscular energy (VO2 max) by an astounding 18% between age 21 and age 28. Armstrong was found to have a VO2 that was as much as 40% greater than healthy and trained athletic men of the same age. Coupled with this finding was the calculation that Armstrong had improved his muscular efficiency by 8% during the same period. Armstrong also possesses a heart that is approximately 30% larger than that of a sedentary person. His resting pulse rate during his peak years of competition was 32 beats per minute. Armstrong’s femurs (thigh bones) are longer than found in a typical male of his height, a distinction that permits Armstrong to develop better leverage on the pedal with each stroke, rendering his pedaling motion more biomechanically efficient. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

LANCE ARMSTRONG

Lance Armstrong and teammates celebrating during 2005 Tour de France.

ROB ER T LAB ERGE /G ETT Y IM AGES

Another conclusion reached in the physiological analysis of Armstrong conducted during this period was his body’s ability to process the lactic acid that is a natural by-product of muscular activity. In sprints or in intense efforts to climb a mountain road, when athletes are at or above their anaerobic thresholds, the point at which they are functioning at or above the 90% of their maximum heart rate, lactic acid accumulates in the working muscles. The muscles are not getting sufficient oxygen and they are relying upon the anaerobic systems. Excess lactic acid is usually communicated to the athlete through discomfort in the muscles, making efforts less efficient. Armstrong was found to have a very low rate of lactic acid production, even at very high levels of activity.

actions, such as sprinting or jumping. Slow twitch fibers are directed by the body for long term, endurance activities. The definitions ‘‘slow’’ and ‘‘fast’’ relate to how quickly the neuron that governs each fiber is fired; slow twitch fibers are fired 10 times less frequently that fast twitch fibers.

The most interesting physiological finding with respect to Armstrong and his superiority as a cyclist was with respect to the relationship between the slow twitch and the fast twitch muscle fibers in his body. In general terms, fast twitch fibers are those that are utilized by the body for short term, powerful

The various exceptional physical characteristics present in Armstrong, coupled with his powerful competitive and training instincts, are proof that a champion is both born and made.

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

It is an accepted physiological proposition that the distribution between fast twitch and slow twitch fibers through out the body is genetic. The studies in relation to Armstrong concluded that through years of hard training, with sessions ranging between three to six hours per day, Armstrong’s body had undergone an adaptation where his slow twitch proportion had reached 80%, an important development in his overall cycling success.

SEE ALSO

Cycling; Cycling: Tour de France; Oxygen.

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ARTHROSCOPY

Arthroscopy Arthroscopy is a surgical procedure that allows an orthopedic surgeon to view, diagnose, and treat problems inside joints such as the knee, shoulder, wrist, elbow, ankle, and hip. The procedure has been a boon to athletes because it can repair a joint problem without significantly compromising training or the loss of an athlete’s level of fitness. In a famous example, marathon runner Joan Benoit Samuelson won the 1984 United States Olympic Trials marathon only 17 days after receiving arthroscopic knee surgery. A few months later, she captured the gold medal in the 1984 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles. The term arthroscopy is derived from two Greek words: arthro (joint) and skopein (to look), and literally translates as ‘‘to look within the joint.’’ This inspection is done via an incision that is about the size of a buttonhole, large enough to accommodate the insertion through the skin of a series of instruments that are the size and shape of a pencil. Each instrument houses a fiber optic light source and a surgical tool (such as a cutter, vacuum, or ultrasonic probe) at the end that is inserted into the incision. The other end of the instrument is connected to a television camera, which allows the surgeon to view the inside of the joint. Arthroscopy can be done using a single incision, where the inserted probe contains both the fiber optics and the surgical tool. Alternately, two incisions can be made: one accommodates the optic probe and the other the surgical probe. The ability to see the joint without having to surgically expose the region is the reason why arthroscopy is relatively noninvasive and comfortable, compared to traditional surgery. Arthroscopy typically complements other noninvasive diagnostic procedures such as x-ray imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, or computed tomography. These imaging techniques can provide a lot of information about the nature of the joint problem. Arthroscopy is important in providing the final diagnosis and in actually remedying the problem. When used as a remedy, general surgery is often the final option for many injuries and illnesses. This is also true for arthroscopy. Options such as the icing of the affected joint following activity, stopping the athletic activity for a period of time, and the use of medications such as cortisone will be tried first. If these fail to alleviate the problem, arthroscopy may offer relief. The joint problems that can be successfully remedied using arthroscopy occur commonly with recrea-

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tional and elite athletes. One example is damage to the rotator cuff, which is a group of four muscles and associated tendons that surround the shoulder joint. Inflammation of a tendon or the adjacent sac of lubricating fluid (the bursa), a tear in one of the tendons or muscles of the rotator cuff, or the pinching of a tendon against the socket joint of the shoulder disrupts the normal functioning of the shoulder. In organized sports, rotator cuff injuries are most commonly associated with baseball pitchers. Similarly, inflammation or muscle/tendon damage can occur in the joints of the wrist, elbow, hip, and knee. The injuries can result from overuse of the joint, which is a hazard of all sports, or from a traumatic impact in a sport such as football, rugby, hockey, skiing, or soccer. As with other forms of surgery, an anesthetic is required prior to arthroscopy. While sometimes general anesthesia is used, more frequently a local anesthetic suffices. Indeed, depending on the severity of the injury and the physical condition of the patient, arthroscopy may be performed during a regularly scheduled office visit to an orthopedic surgeon. More typically, however, arthroscopy is done in the hospital setting. Following the insertion of the arthroscope into the joint, fluid is introduced to expand the joint to make it easier for the surgeon to view the damage. Repairs can then be made. These include removal or remediation of a torn cartilage (meniscus) in a knee, realignment or repair of the patella (the bone of the kneecap), reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) of the knee, relief of wrist and arm carpal tunnel-induced numbness and pain, ligament repair or reattachment in other joints, removal of the inflamed lining (synovium) of a joint, and removal of loose bone or cartilage from a joint. As one example, shoulder instability resulting from a torn tendon can be repaired using an arthroscopic procedure called Bankart repair. In this technique, the arthroscope functions essentially as a staple gun. The torn ends of a tendon are reattached by means of inserted tacks. The method has a claimed success rate of upwards of 90% in preventing re-dislocation. After surgery, which typically lasts for an hour or less, the incision is sutured shut and is covered by a protective dressing to prevent infection. Discomfort is usually minimal, with only non-prescription pain medication given, if at all. Recovery from an arthroscopic procedure is typically swift and uneventful. The wound dressing is WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ASTHMA, EXERCISE INDUCED

sensitive and prone to becoming irritated, a condition known as airway inflammation. When irritated, the passages are restricted due to the presence of mucus buildup in the airway, limiting the flow of air into the lungs. The passages can also become restricted when the muscles surrounding the airways either tighten or spontaneously spasm, a condition known as bronchoconstriction. Asthma is characterized by wheezing, an inability to get the required amount of air into the lungs, as well as by a chronic inflammation of the passages. Environmental factors such as dust and air pollution may either exacerbate or trigger an asthmatic episode. There is no physical attribute more important to an athlete than being able to breathe effectively and without hindrance. Asthma is the most common and the most debilitating illness to affect the lungs and breathing passages, with approximately 17 million people afflicted with this condition in North America alone. While generally a condition that is of greater concern regarding quality of life than as a cause of death, asthma, both as a free-standing condition and in combination with other factors, can be fatal. Asthma manifests itself in a number of variations, all of which are believed to share a common genetic basis.

Arthroscopy is a surgical procedure that allows an orthopedic surgeon to view, diagnose, and treat problems inside joints. T ED H ORO WI T Z/CO RBIS . RE PRO DUCED BY P ERM I SS ION .

usually replaced with an ordinary bandage within hours of surgery. Patients usually resume their normal activities within several days. Athletes may resume a training regimen within days or a few weeks, depending on their physical condition, and under the supervision of a trainer.

ACL injuries and female athletes; Cortisone steroid injections; Piriformis Syndrome; Sports injuries.

SEE ALSO

Asthmatics who engage in athletics will commonly experience one of two related conditions during sports: an exercise-induced asthma attack, or an exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB). The progression of an exercise-induced asthma attack commences with vigorous exercise. Exercise places a demand upon the body for a greater amount of oxygen, which in turn results in an increased breathing rate. The rush of air through the passages of the lungs tends to cool and dry out the surface of the passages. Structures in the lungs known as the mast cells are believed to produce a chemical substance, a mediator, which stimulates the surrounding muscles to go into a spasm. The spasm constricts the airways, making it very difficult for the athlete to get sufficient air into the lungs.

Asthma, exercise induced

Exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB) causes particular and more frequent problems for young athletes, who may not possess the knowledge of their bodies to fully understand the asthma mechanism or its dangers. It is believed that some children will lose their susceptibility to asthma attacks as they advance through puberty, and outgrow the illness by age 20.

Asthma is an affliction of the respiratory system in which the airway passages in the lungs are hyper-

EIB will commonly occur immediately after six to eight minutes of vigorous exercise, with the attack

Artificial limbs

SEE

Prosthetic research

and sport

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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ATHLETE LOCATION FORM

persisting for between 10 and 15 minutes; it is most severe at this initial stage. There follows a period of between 30 to 90 minutes, during which the athlete will likely experience few, if any, effects from bronchospasm. In some cases, there may be a further recurrence of EIB one to two hours later. Other factors that contribute to the onset of an EIB episode are cold air conditions, dry air, airborne pollution and particles, preexisting allergies, and fatigue. EIB is more common in athletes who engage in sports that place a constant, high-level demand on the respiratory system, including distance running, cycling, soccer, and Nordic skiing. Swimming represents an exception: although it places significant demands upon the aerobic system, it takes place in a moist air environment. Anaerobic sports such as field events in athletics, boxing, tennis, volleyball and American football, in which the demands on the respiratory system are often intense but intermittent, place less stress on an asthmatic’s airways. There is also a strong relationship between the occurrence of bronchospasm and the intensity of the activity: the more intense the training or competition, the greater the likelihood of EIB. In some aerobic sport athletes, it has been observed that the athlete has been able to ‘‘run through’’ the asthma attack; the body’s production of the natural hormone epinephrine is believed to assist in the lessening of bronchospasm during endurance activities. Asthma is an episodic illness, and its attacks can vary in their severity from mild to acute. As a preventative, asthmatic athletes can follow several different precautions. They might use medication inhaled through a bronchodilator, known as a puffer. Such medications are typically a form of anti-inflammatory known as a corticosteroid; they are intended to reduce airway inflammation. It is also recommended that the asthmatic athletes indulge in longer low-intensity warm-ups, to lessen the risk of an EIB episode; they should also do a longer, similarly lowintensity cool down. While exercise-induced asthma must be considered a serious condition by the athlete, coaches, and parents, it is not a barrier to elite level athletic participation. Both Joan Benoit Samuelson, the first Olympic women’s marathon champion, and Jackie Joyner Kersee, a double Olympic gold medalist, are asthmatic.

Cardiorespiratory function; Cold weather exercise; Exercise, high intensity; Sport performance.

SEE ALSO

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Heptathlete Jackie Joyner-Kersee uses asthma medication after winning the women’s 800-meter race at the 1993 World Athletics Championships. ª REU TER S/ CORB IS -BE TTM AN N. RE PR ODUCED BY P ERM I SS I ON .

Athlete Location Form The Athlete Location Form is one of a number of administrative tools developed by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) for use by national anti-doping organizations in the supervision of all out-of-competition drug testing. Prior to the growth of WADA as the most important anti-doping organization in the world, out-ofcompetition drug testing was administered by national sports bodies in general accordance with the direction given by international federations such as the International Olympic Committee (IOC), as directed by their member national organizations. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ATHLETE’S FOOT (TINEA PEDIS)

These testing protocols were often administered in an irregular and inconsistent fashion from nation to nation, as there was no supreme recognized authority as to how such programs must be implemented and administered. Soon after the creation of WADA in 1999, and the corresponding adoption of WADA’s procedures as the standard by which all out-of-competition drug testing would be administered, WADA devised the Athlete Location Form and related testing procedures with the intent of providing certainty to the administering agency as to where an athlete could be located for testing at any given time. Each international sport federation or other body administering the tests could amend the form to suit the individual circumstances of the sport; out-of-competition is an expression that will have a distinct meaning in different sports, as the competitive season will vary in each. The most important aspect of the form is the disclosure by the athlete as to the training schedule and training location every day of the week. The primary training venue, any secondary training venue, the athlete’s work and study schedule, and all residences must be clearly set out for the supervising body. All training camps and competitions must also be itemized. The athlete has the ability to change any information submitted, if notice is provided in advance to the agency by way of a properly completed Change of Plan form. The strength of the WADA procedures are in their certainty, which permits transparent enforcement. A failure to accurately set out athlete location information, with an intent to hinder or defeat an outof-competition test, is a potential doping violation that may subject the athlete to a competition ban, as if they had tested positive.

Doping tests; Out-of-competition testing; U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA); World AntiDoping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Athlete’s foot (tinea pedis) Athlete’s foot is a commonly occurring skin infection, primarily of the foot, but capable of spreading to other parts of the body, particularly the toe nails and other areas of the skin where the environment is moist. It is a fungus, a type of mold similar in its organic construction to yeast and mushrooms; fungi thrive in dark, warm, moist places, spreading through spores that may survive for up to two years. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

There are more glamorous ailments to impact upon an athlete’s ability to perform than the presence of microscopic fungal spores between the toes or that are attached to the crevices of the human foot. For many, athlete’s foot is an irritant, something of an unpleasant rite of passage, especially in team sports where unhygienic communal locker rooms and shower facilities are a fact of life. Athlete’s foot will often first appear on the human foot between the toes, presenting as a red, itching patch of skin. The skin may develop a blister, leading to an increased risk of infection if the foot is not treated. In more advanced stages, athlete’s foot causes a painful, burning sensation. The condition is highly contagious, easily spreading through contact to either other parts of the host skin, or to other persons who have contact with the fungal spores, often in communal areas or by the sharing of footwear. A person suffering from the persistent itch of athlete’s foot will tend to scratch the affected area. The spores that cause the athlete’s foot infection to spread readily attach beneath the fingernails of the itching person. The particular places where the infection is most likely to spread are to the groin and the armpits, as these areas are similarly fungus friendly, being as warm and as moist environments as the foot. Athlete’s foot has a similar biology to that of the infection known as ‘‘jock itch’’ (also known as tinea cruris), a fungus that will cause significant redness and itching on the surface of the male groin. For most athletes, the athlete’s foot infection is an irritant, as opposed to a debilitating injury. However, in most sports, any distraction caused by foot discomfort will undoubtedly detract from performance. Untreated, the infection will spread, first between the toes, and often to the skin on the top of each toe, with the potential of reaching the toenail. If a toenail becomes badly infected with the fungus, the athlete will experience considerable discomfort, and the toenail may have to be removed. As athletic shoes are designed to provide support to athletes during competition, the shoe will not alleviate the condition. Athlete’s foot sufferers often find themselves in a situation where they are both distracted by the irritation and itching sensation of the foot, as well as experiencing an inability to put full pressure of the foot during running, throwing, kicking, or jumping movements. The infection should be treated immediately upon the first observation of its symptoms. Most conditions will respond readily to a topical, commercially available fungicide, which is designed to kill

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ATHLETIC SHOES

the fungal spores. In cases where the infection is resistant to these medications, more powerful pharmaceuticals may be prescribed by a physician. As with all types of infection, the fungicide should continue to be applied after the symptoms such as skin redness and itching have disappeared, to ensure that the underlying fungal spores are destroyed. An occurrence of athlete’s foot, once successfully treated, does not create any form of permanent immunity from a later infection. Good foot hygiene, especially with respect to limiting contacts with the skin of other persons in public changing rooms, swimming pools, hot tubs, and other potentially warm, wet environments, is crucial in reducing the risk of contracting athlete’s foot. An effective foot hygiene regimen will include: daily washing of the feet with soap and hot water; careful drying of the feet with a towel, paying particular attention to the spaces between the toes, to eliminate a fungal environment; wearing dry shoes and socks, selecting types that are breathable and not tight fitting; never sharing shoes or socks; using foot powders or other drying agents; wearing shower sandals or other footwear in public showers or changing areas. Diabetics must take particular care with respect to the thorough treatment of athlete’s foot. Diabetes tends to weaken the human immune system, and the opening of foot sores caused by athlete’s foot in an advanced stage may heighten the risk of a more serious infection entering the body through the openings.

Athletic shoes; Foot: Anatomy and physiology.

SEE ALSO

Athletic shoes The motto of the Olympic Games, ‘‘Higher, faster, stronger,’’ is the essence of true athletic competition: the desire to achieve. The nature of competition has spurred the development of better and more efficient athletic equipment in all sporting disciplines, since the time of the ancient Olympics more than 2,700 years ago. The footwear used by modern athletes is a most prominent example of technological progress in sport. Since the late 1800s, athletic footwear has moved from the custom product of an individual athlete who made modifications to seek a competitive advantage, to its modern status as a branch of sport science.

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High-quality athletic shoes are essential to athletic success, a product that represents an intersection between research and real-life applications. In some disciplines, the footwear is referred to as a ‘‘shoe’’; in many parts of the world, there is the soccer and rugby ‘‘boot’’; in the United States, football ‘‘cleats’’ is a common term; in track and field, athletes will refer to their specialized footwear as ‘‘spikes.’’ The evolution of specialized athletic shoes can be traced to unconnected events in England and the United States. The ‘‘plimsoll,’’ (so named for its color), which resembled the plimsoll line on cargo sailing ships (the mark placed on the hull to show where the loaded ship would be riding in warmer or colder saltwater oceans), was the first mass-produced canvas, rubber-soled shoe. As tennis became more popular in the later part of the nineteenth century, the plimsoll became the first English all-purpose sport shoe. The plimsoll concept was a motivation for the development of the American ‘‘sneaker,’’ named for its quiet wear ability, and patented as the Keds brand in 1916. The sneaker in turn led to the development in the late 1930s of an iconic basketball shoe, the Converse ‘‘Chuck Taylors,’’ made with a canvas upper supported by a thick rubber sole. When the game of soccer was in its early stages of development in England in the 1880s, players usually wore durable work boots, weighing approximately 1.1 lb (500 g), without modification. Wet playing fields in England inspired the development of lighter, cleated boots, often constructed from supple kangaroo hides. In the 1930s in Germany, Adi Dassler, the founder of Adidas, began to experiment with a more functional soccer boot; Adidas later became the first soccer shoe manufacturer to employ a system of removal cleats. Modern soccer shoes, constructed primarily of synthetic materials, weigh less than 0.5 lb (250 g). Athletic shoes, irrespective of the discipline for which they are designed, have four basic components: the upper, the insert, the midsole, and the outsole. Each component has a specific function in the overall efficiency of the performance of the athletic shoe. The upper serves to hold the shoe together, as well as to secure and protect the foot. It is designed to be as lightweight as possible and yet perform its function. The insert is the support mechanism for the foot, particularly the arch. The insert may also be designed to accommodate an orthotic, a specialty structure used to correct misalignment in the foot or legs. The midsole is the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ATHLETIC SHOES

Since the 1970s, results of studies in biomechanics have aided in the development of athletic footwear.

ª 2 00 5 NB AE (P HO TO BY

G L E NN J AM ES /N BA E VI A G ET T Y IM AG ES . )

primary cushioning component that was formerly a rubber structure, and is now commonly rubber, air, or fluid gels. The outsole is designed to provide traction and prevent wear. The chief purposes of any athletic shoe are the combined objectives of stability, flexibility, protection of the foot, and maximum traction on the running surface. To achieve these purposes, athletic shoe research in the past 50 years has emphasized the utilization of ever-lighter materials, and designs encouraging efficient movement. The thin, hard rubber of the original plimsoll sole evolved to one of molded rubber, and then injection molded PVC (plastic) by the 1970s. The modern athletic shoe sole, no matter what the sporting discipline, is now generally constructed of lightweight plastic and nylon materials. A corollary development in the athletic shoe industry has been the popularity of many types of athletic shoes with the general population that use them for casual street wear. The attraction of these products is tied to the marketing of the shoes and the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

fashion appeal, as opposed to their performance characteristics. The study of human movement, known as biomechanics, has featured prominently in athletic shoe research since the 1970s. Studies and development as to how to make the athlete most functional have been directed toward two general areas: the control of motion of the foot, known as pronation, that rolls the foot inward upon impact with the surface, which reduces running efficiency; and the effective cushioning of the foot without sacrificing weight or control. Virtually every sport in which running or lower body stability are important has benefited from the development of a specialized type of footwear; shoes are now further specialized for use in different events within the same discipline. The track spikes worn by a 100-m sprinter will have a very strong sole, to withstand the explosive power applied when the sprinter leaves the sprint blocks; the shoes worn by 1,500-m runner may appear similar, but will often employ flatter soles and shorter spikes. American football cleats for use on natural grass surfaces employ a

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AUSTRALIAN SPORTS DRUG AGENCY (ASDA)

cleat at the toe for better pivoting; the shoes worn on artificial surfaces tend to employ a greater number of shorter cleats; a large football lineman, who will weight as much as 325 lb (147 k) or more, will wear a high-topped shoe that emphasizes stability and protection of the ankle. A smaller, faster receiver will often wear a lighter, low-cut shoe that permits greater flexibility, consistent with the position played.

Basketball shoes; Foot: Anatomy and physiology; Lower leg anatomy; Orthotics; Running shoes.

SEE ALSO

Australian Sports Drug Agency (ASDA) The formation of the Australian Sports Drug Agency (ASDA) was a product of the anti-doping drive by various international sports organizations in the late 1990s, an effort that culminated in the founding of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)

in 1999. Australia had been an active participant in the various international debates regarding the constitution of a world sports drug organization in the period prior to the creation of WADA. Australia was one of the first sports nations to declare drug-free sport as a goal that was as important as competitive athletic success. Australia has taken considerable national pride in the success of its individual athletes and teams at an international level. As a nation with a large geographic area and a relatively small population (approximately 20 million people of 2006), Australia has a higher level of athletic participation than that of the populations of United States, Canada, or any nation of the European Union. Australia is a world power in rugby, cricket, swimming, diving, and the triathlon. The ASDA has marketed its national anti-doping campaigns as a concept interwoven with national athletic pride. The stated mission of the ASDA is to protect Australia’s sporting integrity through the elimination of doping. As with all other national anti-doping agencies, the ASDA is responsible for the administration of all

Australia was one of the first to declare drug-free sport as a goal. Here, ASDA members watch during a Brisbane Broncos pre-season training session. ROB ER T CI AN FL ONE /G ET TY I MA GE S

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WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AUTO AERODYNAMICS

WADA-formulated testing procedures, with respect to competitions held in Australia, on both a national and international level. One example of ASDA supervision is the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the largest athletic event in the world after the Summer Olympics. The ASDA also provides contract doping testing services—when retained—at any sports event held in Australia. The ASDA is a signatory to the WADA AntiDoping Code. The ASDA operates in accordance with three general operating principles: deterrence, detection, and enforcement. In addition to these principles, the ASDA provides anti-doping health and education programs throughout Australian athletics. The ASDA, like its companion body, the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA), is responsible for all of the administration and bureaucratic support provided to all testing programs. The ASDA maintains the Athlete Whereabouts Form, known as the Athlete Location Form in other jurisdictions, which facilitates the conduct of out-of-competition testing programs. In a similar fashion, the ASDA supervises the Therapeutic Use Exemptions sometimes claimed by athletes regarding a prescribed medication.

Athlete Location Form; Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport; Change of Plan Form; U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA); World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Auto aerodynamics Automobile aerodynamics is a subscript of the broader science of aerodynamics, the study of air and the interaction with solid bodies moving through air. Aerodynamics is itself a part of fluid dynamics, which is the study of the properties of a solid object moving through a fluid such as air. An automobile is being used here as a general term describing any motorized vehicle, including cars or trucks. The aerodynamic properties of an automobile are fundamental to the performance of the machine. While the engine, suspension, transmission, and tires are the first structural components of a motor vehicle considered when automotive performance is assessed, the efficient performance of the automobile requires optimum aerodynamic performance. Aerodynamic principles are most often considered in the context of racing cars, where slight adjustments to the profile of the vehicle can affect both speed and performance characteristics such as handling and braking. For the performance of a typical WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

passenger car, aerodynamics are an important consideration in the achievement of maximum fuel economy, as well as in creating auto body styling that is visually appealing. The creation of desired aerodynamic effect in an automobile begins in a testing facility known as a wind tunnel, where models can be subjected to varying types of wind effect. The test results will include an assessment of the fundamental components of auto aerodynamics, drag and lift. Drag is the combination of all of the aerodynamic forces that act on an object as it moves through air. The force of drag operates in an opposite direction to the motion of the object. The friction created by the surface of the automobile as it moves through the air is one of the separate types of drag forces created. The principles of drag that apply to an automobile are identical to those created by the hull of a canoe or kayak in the motion through water, as air and water are both fluids for the purpose of the application of the principles of physics in determining drag forces. As a common sense proposition, drag force may be understood through the comparison between a sleek racing car and a large transport truck; the truck will more affected by drag forces than the racing car. The effect of drag on an automobile increases as a square of velocity. The power (the rate of work) required to propel the automobile through the air increases as a cube of velocity. The drag coefficient may range from a factor of 0.2, for a very sleek and highly buffed race car, to 0.4 for a standard passenger vehicle, to 0.6 or more for a pickup truck, a more angular shape. To counter the effect of drag, automobiles designed for performance will maximize down force. The faster a vehicle travels through air, the more it becomes affected by the forces of lift. The Bernoulli effect is a physical principle applicable to lift and down force. The Bernoulli effect is observed when any fluid (including air) flows around an object at different speeds; the slower fluid imposes greater pressure on the object than does the faster moving fluid. As a result, the object is forced toward the faster moving fluid. The force of lift acts on the moving automobile in a direction perpendicular to the flow of air over the vehicle. The faster the vehicle travels, the greater the effect of lift, and the more inherently unstable the vehicle becomes. Down force is achieved to counter lift by designing the bottom of the vehicle to imitate the shape of a wing of an airplane; when the air

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AUTOMOBILE RACING

General Motors employee working at new supercomputer which simulates appearance and aerodynamics of new car designs at research labs. HAN K MOR GA N/ T I ME L I FE P I CTUR ES /G ET TY I MA GE S

flowing below the vehicle is moving faster than the air above, the vehicle moves closer to the ground, as the air pressure there is less than above the vehicle: the reverse of the principle by which an aircraft takes off from the ground. Down force is enhanced in performance vehicles such as racing cars through the addition of ground effects packages, specialized components that are built into the chassis or body. One such device is a ‘‘venture,’’ a tunnel-shaped addition to the body to create further localized low air pressure. The greater the vehicle’s down force, the more maneuverable the vehicle will be at higher speeds, especially in cornering. The wings that are attached to race cars are also designed to increase down forces. The wings are angled to create a faster airflow below than above the wing. The larger the surface area of the wing, coupled with the tilt of the wing, creates down force. The wings, or ‘‘spoilers,’’ sometimes seen on passenger vehicles usually do not create an significant aerodynamic effect.

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Automobile racing; Canoe/kayak: Hydrodynamics; Formula 1 Auto Racing; NASCAR Auto Racing; Rowing: Hydrodynamics.

SEE ALSO

Auto racing, Formula 1

SEE

Formula 1 auto racing

Auto racing, NASCAR

SEE

NASCAR auto racing

Automobile racing Automobile racing is one of the world’s most popular forms of sport. The popularity of the many components of automobile racing is not through actual participation in competition; in relative terms, there are far fewer racing car drivers, mechanics, pit crew, and support personnel than there are soccer, basketball, or cricket players around the world. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AUTOMOBILE RACING

popularity of automobile racing is manifested in its global fan base. Additionally, the NASCAR racing series in the United States regularly attracts television audiences second only to American football. Automobile races such as the international Formula 1 series or the Indianapolis 500 have popular recognition and a devoted following on every continent. The first true automobile race was contested in France from Paris to Bordeaux in 1895; a race in Chicago was held later the same year. These earlier races were not tests of tactics or the aerodynamic capabilities of high-technology vehicles. The internal combustion engine was in its infancy, and a primary objective of the first automobile racers (who were often the manufacturers and developers of the engines and transmissions used in these early vehicles) was to test the engine and other mechanical designs. The growth in automobile popularity after 1900 was a stimulus to more determined forms of automobile racing. The automobile races, like the 100-m sprint in track and field or any other sport founded upon speed, provided a simple objective: the first vehicle across the finish line was the champion. The Federation Internationale de L’Automobile (FIA) was created in France in 1904; for many years, it was a supreme authority in international automobile racing. The modern world of automobile racing is fragmented into distinct racing disciplines, each governed by a body that does not necessarily give allegiance to the FIA. The first races were held on open road courses, where public streets and highways were used. As the motor vehicle evolved, becoming capable of achieving greater speeds and enduring significantly greater mechanical stresses, different types of automobile racing became available. There are now a myriad of automobile competitions, as automobile racing is organized according to car type, engine size, the nature of the race course, speed, or endurance objectives. Formula One racing, or F1, is the most popular of the automobile racing series sponsored by FIA. F1 racing represents the progression from the open wheeled road races in the early years of racing. F1 races are held in two different kinds of venues, road courses and closed circuits. Road courses are race venues created from actual street layouts within a particular city; the roads are closed to other vehicular traffic for the race, but are not otherwise especially modified from their daily urban usage. Closed circuits are race courses created to F1 specifications; WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

these courses mimic a street layout in the sense that there are differing types of curves, straight sections, and bends that require the driver to change gears, vary speeds, and execute turns and cornering maneuvers on a constant basis throughout a race. Albert Park, constructed for F1 racing near Melbourne, Australia, is an example of a closed circuit race course, with a 3.2 mi (5.3 km) irregular circuit; a race is 58 laps, totaling 191 mi (307 km). As with most types of automobile racing, F1 conducts the competitions in accordance with strict rules as to vehicle weight, horsepower, engine displacement, the ability to turbo charge the engine (a device by which greater quantities of air are introduced into the engine to permit greater combustion with the fuel and greater resultant power), aerodynamic features in relation to the ground effects achieved by the vehicle on the race course, and a host of other technical specifications. An F1 race car can possess a top speed of in excess of 200 mph (325 km/h). F1 racing has long held a reputation as the most glamorous of the automobile racing competitions, for a number of reasons. The first is the international scope of the annual F1 circuit, with races, often referred to as a Gran Prix, held on every continent. Each race is organized with a festival-like atmosphere, with a buildup to the F1 competition that consists of a number of slower racing classes and the qualification racing for starting position in the race itself, culminating in the F1 race. The preliminary qualification of drivers for an F1 race is also a feature of other forms of automobile racing, particularly NASCAR and Indy-style racing. The drivers and their teams run qualifying laps one or two days in advance of the race; the drivers with the fastest qualifying times start at the head of the field, with the slower qualifiers arranged in a grid in descending order. F1 glamor has also been founded on the nature of the competition itself. F1 has two championships in its series, the top driver and the constructor’s championship. F1 drivers receive points determined by their place in a particular race; the point total winner at the end of the season is the F1 World Driving Champion. The constructor’ s championship is the contest between the developers and manufacturers of the F1 vehicles. A constructor might have two or three different vehicles being raced as a team. A prominent example of a long-time F1 constructor is the Italian luxury automotive manufacturer, Ferrari. Each team, and its individual drivers, tends to attract

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a worldwide and passionate following. F1 vehicles are extremely sophisticated, with technical advances that may be five to 10 years ahead of what a consumer could expect on a domestic production vehicle. Another aspect of the interest in F1 racing, also applicable to all other forms of high speed racing, is the constant risk of misadventure and death to the racers. The excitement lies in the speed of the vehicles and the close proximity of the machines to one another for the entire competition. The cars might be as close as 2 in to 3 in (5–8 cm) while maneuvering at almost 200 mph. The death of an F1 racer is mourned throughout that community. The deaths of Canadian racer Gilles Villeneuve in 1982, and Brazilian world champion Ayrton Senna in 1994, did not reduce the appeal of the sport by any means. Open-wheeled automobile racing took a different direction in the United States. The Indianapolis Motor Speedway was built in the early 1900s to attract enthusiasts of the burgeoning sport of auto racing; the first Indianapolis 500, the most famous of the American auto races, was held in 1909. Known as the Brickyard, due to the covering of the rough and pitted racing surface with bricks after the first few years of racing, Indianapolis became the mecca of American open-wheeled racing. The Indianapolis racecourse is a 2.5-mi (4-km) oval circuit, with each corner banked. The Indy cars, as the vehicles that raced at Indianapolis became known, are similar in appearance to the F1 racers, but each weighs as much as 30% more, with different regulations concerning aerodynamics, turbo charging, suspensions, and other technical specifications. The Indy cars use methanol as fuel (F1 vehicles are powered by gasoline), and the Indy cars use a racing ‘‘slick’’ tire while the F1 tires have treads. The vehicles are constructed differently due to the nature of the Speedway oval. The driver at Indianapolis or any other oval race course is not required to maneuver the race car to the same degree as does an F1 driver. The heavier Indy car aids the driver in remaining low to the race track at high speeds. Champ Car is an American-based racing series that is very similar in its technical respects to the races held at Indianapolis. The distinctions between the Champ Car series, which has operated in the United States and selected international venues since 2003, and Indy car racing are born of politics, not technical specification. Champ Car series races are held throughout the United States on oval race tracks.

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The FIA also sponsors an international racing series known as the World Touring Car Championship (WTCC). These racing vehicles are specially modified production sedans, in that the vehicles appear identical from their outward appearance to the usual products offered for commercial sale by manufacturers such as Mercedes-Benz, Saab, Honda, or BMW. The WTCC races take place at a series of venues, with a European emphasis. Famous races in the WTCC series include the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the Sebring race in the United States. The widely popular NASCAR series in the United States is similar in its orientation to that of the WTCC competitions, as the NASCAR race vehicles bear the outward appearance and body silhouette of a typical North American production sedan. The outer shell of the vehicle is the only similarity between the race cars and vehicles available for public purchase, as the entire engine, suspension, and internal mechanisms of these vehicles have been custom built for racing. NASCAR, an acronym for the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing, had its beginnings in southeastern United States; vehicles that had been specially modified to outrun law enforcement agencies were raced against one another. NASCAR was founded in 1948, with the Daytona 500 one of its signature events. The modern NASCAR races are now international in scope, with events that attract huge television audiences and corporate sponsorships. The television ratings for NASCAR are generally second only to those of the National Football League in North America. Drag racing is another motor sport with particularly American origins. The natural desire of motor vehicle developers and race enthusiasts in the early 1900s evolved into a distinct sport, where the vehicles had no connection to either the race track or the production models. Known after World War II as ‘‘hot rods,’’ these machines were built with differing engine sizes and a long, low aerodynamic frame, the driver positioned in a cockpit. The fastest of these dragsters are capable of speeds in excess of 300 mph (500 km/h) over a quarter-mile (0.4-km) track. The dragsters race in pairs, accelerating at a signal provided by the activation of a light positioned at the starting line. The National Hot Rod Association (NHRA), founded in 1959, is the governing body for this sport. Rally car racing is another distinct form of auto racing, bearing a similar relationship to WTCC competition as mountain biking races bear to cycling on road courses. Rally cars are specially adapted production cars, with reinforced frames, specialty WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

AUTOMOBILE RACING

The U.S. NASCAR racing series regularly attracts sports television audiences second only to that of American football.

DAR REL L

I N GH A M / G E T T Y I MA GE S

suspensions, and safety features such as roll cages built around the driving compartment. Rally races are often held on closed road courses, where the surfaces are gravel or dirt trails. The race is often conducted in stages, where the winner is the driver (and navigator) who achieve the best overall time. The most famous of the rally races is the annual Paris to Dakar rally. Vehicle durability and driver fatigue are the two of the most important considerations in that event.

the tire, the greater the ability to maneuver and to corner the vehicle. Racing slicks are the tires used by NASCAR races cars and dragsters for this reason. In wet weather, racing slicks are a more dangerous option, as water will come between the tire surface and the road, creating the potential for a condition known as hydroplaning, where the tire loses contact with the road surface as it glides along the layer of water. A vehicle that is hydroplaning cannot be readily controlled through braking or steering.

There are a multitude of science and technical issues involved in the function of all types of vehicles used in auto racing. The methods by which power is maximized in a racing engine, and the various techniques used in automobile design to achieve maximum aerodynamic effect, are two of the most technologically intense areas of motor sports. Two areas that are crucial to racing and represent applications of well-known principles of physics are tire technology and the use of banked turns on racing speedways.

The treaded tires are not as fast on dry track conditions as racing slicks; the treads in the tire function to funnel water from the road away from the tire surface to permit stability to be maintained.

Tires are manufactured from a combination of polymers and rubber compounds. As a general rule, the larger the tread pattern, the greater the contact between the tire and the road, which creates greater traction and the faster the vehicle will roll; the softer WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The tires are particularly important when the physics of the automobile racer’s ability to corner at high speed is considered. As a vehicle enters a curve, the driver must initiate the force required to change the vehicle in a direction toward the center of the curve, or the vehicle would continue in a straight line and crash. It becomes subject to a force known as centripetal force, which operates in a direction perpendicular to the direction of travel of the vehicle. Centripetal force is created by the friction between the road and the tire surface, and it is subject to two

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different physical relationships: it is proportionate to the square of the velocity of the vehicle (expressed as v2), and centripetal force is inversely proportionate to the size of the radius of the curve. When the curve has a large radius, a smaller centripetal force will be necessary to pass around the curve; a tight, hair pin turn will require a correspondingly greater degree of centripetal force to maintain control of the vehicle. The banking on some turns is a device through which the tires will have greater contact with a friction developed as the turn is made.

It is considered that the classic definition of an athlete, one who possesses physical strengths and prowess, did not apply to automobile racing. Modern race car drivers have a number of imperatives that tend to direct their physical fitness. The first is the combination of hand-eye coordination, reaction time, and general motor control, all of which are essential to the successful piloting of a high-speed racing machine. The second group of athletic skills useful to the automobile racer is a collection of mental skills like emotional control and stress management.

Race-car drivers have been disparaged over many years as not meeting the definition of an ‘‘athlete,’’ as theirs is a machine-centered, technology-driven sport.

SEE ALSO Auto aerodynamics; Computer simulations as a training tool; Formula 1 auto racing; Mental stress; Motor control; NASCAR auto racing.

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WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

B B-complex vitamins In the early 1900s, medical science began to extend its research beyond how the body processes functioned, into the realm of why such dynamic systems as body metabolism, cell growth, and the skin developed as they did. This approach led to the isolation of what is now referred to as B-complex vitamins, commencing with the discovery of vitamin B1, thiamin, in 1903. The B-complex is so named because, while all of its eight components are chemically distinct, carbonbased, freestanding structures, they share similar characteristics. These vitamins are typically found in combination and they have been found to be most effective when working together. The B-complex vitamins are of particular importance to the proper function of the human metabolism, healthy skin, the development of proper muscle tone, the fostering of a healthy immune system and nervous system, optimum cell growth and cell division, particularly with regard to red blood cells, and the reduction of stress and cardiovascular disease. Proper amounts of the B-complex are essential to the maintenance of general health in an athlete. All vitamins of the B-complex are water soluble, meaning that they are not stored for a lengthy period within the body, and are excreted through the kidneys and urine. The B-complex must be replenished on a daily basis to ensure good health and the proper functioning of the systems. While there are a number of commercially available B-complex vitamin suppleWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ments, it is believed that a proper balanced diet will be as effective in ensuring that an athlete is consuming the optimal amounts of each B-complex component, each day. Each vitamin within the B-complex has a specific relationship to a bodily function or system, and there is a recommended daily allowance (RDA) for healthy adults. The eight different B-complex vitamins include:  B1: Thiamine is essential to the conversion of the carbohydrates into glucose that the body converts into energy. Thiamine is also important in the creation of neurotransmitters, which serve as a chemical relay between the muscle fibers of the body; RDA 1.0-1.5 mg/day.  B2: Riboflavin is also important to the breakdown of carbohydrates. It is essential to the maintenance of healthy skin; RDA 1.2-1.8 mg/day.  B3: Niacin is important to the metabolism of food, as well as the health of the digestive tract; RDA 1.2-1.8 mg/day.  B6: Pyridoxine is also involved in the metabolism of food in glucose; it plays an important role in both the production of red blood cells as well as the creation of amino acids, which are important to the creation of proteins; RDA 1.4-2.0 mg/day.  B12: Cyanocobalamin is also important to the production of red blood cells; it is an important agent in the development of the sheath fibers that protect the nerves; RDA 2.0 mcg/day.

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 B9: Folic acid, panothenic acid, and biotin are the three components of the B-complex believed to act together in the production of hemoglobin, the chemical compound essential to the transportation of both oxygen and carbon dioxide waste in the bloodstream. Folic acid, in combination with vitamin B12, is of importance to the synthesis of DNA and the resultant proper growth of cells in the body. Both panothenic acid and biotin are produced in the human intestines; RDA 150-180 mg/day. The B-complex vitamins are found in a wide variety of foods, including yeasts, whole grain cereals, rice, nuts, milk, eggs, many green vegetables, and liver. Given the water-soluble nature of these compounds, the athletic diet should be planned to provide for daily intake of sufficient B-complex foods. Given an athlete’s usual energy level, it would be a rare occurrence that a serious B-complex deficiency would occur; for the athlete, assuming that the B-complex is being ingested, the important issue will be insuring that all of the B-complex is being obtained on a daily basis for optimum functioning of the affected systems. A shortage in any of the forms of vitamin B will impact an athlete’s ability to metabolize food into energy, or the ability of the body to transport oxygen, two essentials of athletic performance. Serious B-complex vitamin deficiency is most often noted in pregnant or nursing mothers, vegetarians, and alcoholics who do not eat regularly. This condition can cause equally profound physical problems, ranging from skin disorders and stomach upset, to significant impact on muscle reaction and mental performance. There is evidence that vitamin B-complex deficiency will impair the ability of an athlete to concentrate.

Metabolic response; Minerals; Nutrition and athletic performance.

SEE ALSO

Back anatomy and physiology Whether the human body is propelled forward, backward, upward, or downward, the back is an essential component of every movement. The back is a complex structure, part rigid support and a protective, bony sheath, part intricate musculoskeletal device capable of both bearing significant forces, as well as flexing and extending through a remarkable range of movements.

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The back consists of the entire posterior, or rear, of the body from the neck to the buttocks. The back and its characteristics are best understood through an appreciation of each of its components. The spine, or backbone, is the bony structure that is divided into four separate regions: cervical spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, and sacral spine. The cervical spine comprises seven vertebrae referenced as C1 through C7, with C1 at the top of the spine. The cervical spine has three essential skeletal functions: it supports the weight of the skull; vertebrae C1 and C2 are the structures responsible for the neck and head being able to turn; and vertebrae C6 and C7 permit the flexion and extension of the neck and head. The thoracic spine is made up of 12 vertebrae (T1 through T12). This structure is capable of very little motion, as it is primarily protective. The lumbar spine, commonly referred to as the lower back, is responsible for the support of the torso when the body is upright, and to bend, extend, and rotate at the waist when the body moves accordingly. The lumbar structures are the most stressed and the most injured of any portion of the back. The sacral spine is the base of the spine that connects the spine to the pelvis. Its chief components are the sacroiliac bone and the coccyx, or tail bone. Other components of the spine include the vertebrae, the small ring-shaped bones that form the spine. The spinal column is the collection of vertebrae forming the backbone. The disks are sacs filled with a cushioning liquid that rest between each vertebra to absorb shocks to the spine. Without the disks, the vertebrae would rub and grate on another, and the spine would not be capable of a smooth, efficient range of motion. The spinal cord, which is the vital nerve structure running from the brain inside the spinal cord, is protected by the spinal column; the cord is subdivided into nerve roots that radiate into the body. The neural foramina are the openings in the spinal column for the nerve roots to branch out into the torso. Facets are the joints that hold the vertebrae together, both for the stability of the spine and to permit movement. The ligaments, tendons, and muscles stabilize the spinal column. Finally, there is the sciatic nerve, the most prominent of the nerves radiating from the nerve roots into the buttocks, below the sacral spine. The muscles that are critical to the proper movement of the spine are divided into three types: extensors, flexors, and oblique. The extensors are large muscle structures located on the posterior of the spine. The primary purposes of the extensors are to support the back when the body is in an upright position and to provide support and stability to acts WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BACK INJURIES

of lifting. Weightlifters, for example, pay particular attention to the development of these muscles. The erector spinae, a pair of muscles set on either side of the lumbar spine, and the gluteal muscles, located in the buttocks and upper thighs, are the most prominent of the extensors. The flexors are the muscles located on the anterior (front) of the spine. These muscles permit the body to flex in all directions, with particular importance to the motions of bending forward, lifting, and the arching of the lumbar (low back) spine. The flexor muscles include the abdominal muscles. The oblique muscles are on the medial, or middle, of the spine. These muscles are necessary in the rotation of the spine as well as in the maintenance of proper posture. Optimum back health is impacted upon by a variety of factors. Poor general fitness will often place undue stress on the back in daily living, stresses that become even more pronounced when the body is subjected to the stress of athletic competition. Poor posture and the repetitive strain of a number of movements, such as twisting, turning, or lifting, all may place stress on the back structure, particularly the weight-supporting lumbar area. Age is a factor in the preservation of good back health. Muscles will naturally weaken with age. A failure to exercise all back muscle groups, or the creation of imbalances in the back muscles, will place stresses upon the back muscles that may pose long-term problems.

Back injuries; Bone, ligaments, tendons; Skeletal muscle.

SEE ALSO

Back injuries It is remarkable that the back—a complex structure that is an essential component of effective athletic performance—is exposed to a variety of serious risks, and yet tends to be injured in a rather limited number of ways. The back consists of four regions: the cervical spine, the thoracic spine, the lumbar spine, and the sacral spine. Approximately 20% of all sports injuries involve either the lumbar spine (the lower portion of the back) or the cervical spine, which is the neck area. Outside of athletics, between 50% and 80% of all people will sustain a back injury at some time during their lives. The injury commonly known as a lumbar strain, or low back strain, arises in one of two ways: a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

repetitive motion or a weight-bearing motion. A repetitive motion is when lumbar spine is required to perform a twisting motion that generates significant forces upon the spine and the supporting muscles, without a corresponding degree of control of the motion. The swing of a golf club or the motion required to produce a tennis serve are examples of this type of action. A weight-bearing motion can be a series of repetitive actions or a single movement such as when an athlete lifts a weight that is either more than the body is capable of lifting or the lifting technique employed places the lower back in a position where the strain of the weight overloads the lower back structure. Weight training or the movement of any heavy object, such as improper blocking technique in American football, may cause a lumbar strain. Cervical spine injuries include neck injuries, which are more commonly caused by direct application of force to the neck, causing the neck to move when it and the supporting cervical structure are not in a position to bear or absorb the force applied. The common term ‘‘whiplash’’ is a description of a type of cervical spine injury. More serious cervical spine injuries occur when an extreme degree of force is applied, such as a blow to the head, or when the head is struck, causing it to move in one direction while the body is traveling in another, as often occurs in alpine ski racing crashes and motor vehicle collisions. A blow delivered to a receiver by a defensive back in American football or to a rugby player by an opponent as they move with the ball in a direction opposite to the force applied are also examples of the kinds of applications of force that can cause a neck injury. Injuries to the thoracic spine, sometimes referred to as the upper back or mid back, are less common. As the purpose of this component of the spine is primarily to protect and to stabilize, there is little movement by the spine. What injuries do occur in this area are most often blows delivered to the muscles of this region in contact sports, or when there is a dysfunction in one of the joints. A more debilitating back injury is a herniated disk. Any of the disks throughout the spine can become herniated; the most common is the herniated lumbar disk. This injury can occur through either repetitive stresses placed on the structure, such as in repetitive lifting or by direct trauma. The hernia arises when the soft gel within the disk ruptures and then pushes into a nerve root, causing pain. A herniated disk will often require surgery or other significant medical attention. Other common injuries to the low back region are sciatica, an irritation of the sciatic nerve that radiates

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Lumbar strain is a common injury in tennis, as motion required to produce a tennis serve generates significant forces upon the spine and the supporting muscles. CL I VE BR UNS KI LL /G ETT Y I MAG E S

from the back into the buttocks; coxodymia, an injury to the coccyx, or tailbone; and fractured vertebrae, where a vertebra sustains a fracture as a result of a direct blow. As with most sports-related injuries, there are a number of preventative measures that an athlete may take to limit the risk of a damaged back. Such measures are of added importance when the athlete has sustained a previous back injury. A stretching program, aimed at the improved flexibility of the back and its supporting structures, is essential. Back stretches should be performed on a daily basis, as well as part of a warm up prior to training or a competition. In addition to enhancing the flexibility of the structure, stretching will develop improved circulation in the back muscles. For persons who wish to become active in sport generally or those who wish to seek an athletic outlet that represents a lesser risk of back injury, sports in which the back is not subjected to high impact or twisting motions include road cycling and cross country skiing. Moderate levels of back stress will be found

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in sports such as soccer, distance running, volleyball, or basketball. Sports such as Alpine skiing, American football, wrestling, and weightlifting all present a greater risk to the health of the back and spine. Back injuries will require treatment commensurate with the nature of the injury. Minor back strain is often treated with minimally invasive measures such as ice, rest, and the use of an anti-inflammatory such as ibuprofen to reduce pain. For more serious spinal injuries, chiropractic manipulations have often been found to be helpful, as have deep-tissue massage and acupuncture. There are few drug therapies that provide any long-term assistance for a back injury, particularly lumbar injuries. Surgery is typically reserved for worst-case situations. Low back stabilization exercises, designed to strengthen the lumbar region, are essential to aid in recovery from a back injury.

Back anatomy and physiology; Herniated disks; Low back pain; Neck injuries; Skeletal muscle; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BADMINTON

Back pain

SEE

Low back pain

Badminton The game of badminton is one with two distinct histories. Badminton can trace its roots over 2,500 years to a number of cultures, primarily China and India (where the game was known as poona). The modern game takes its name from Badminton House, in Gloucester, England, where soldiers familiar with the game through their service in India played the game on their return home. In the initial years of its introduction to English society, the game was regarded as a genteel pastime; the rules of the sport were codified in 1895, and remain virtually unaltered today. The International Badminton Federation (IBF) was formed in 1934. The IBF has over 140 member countries. Badminton is contested in a singles’ competition format for both men and women, doubles events for both men and women, and mixed doubles. An international professional circuit, involving significant prize money, has grown significantly since 1990. In 1992, badminton was introduced to the Summer Olympics as a full medal sport. Badminton has been played in many parts of the world as a recreational activity. It is a deceptively simple sport, requiring a net, two or four people with lightweight metal or composite material rackets made in a similar shape to that of a tennis racket, and a lightweight, feathered object called the shuttlecock or shuttle. The goal is to deliver the shuttle over the net, with the intent to place it where it cannot be returned by the opponent. Badminton was traditionally viewed as a sport that anyone could play. As with many sports with relatively simple rules, sporting excellence in badminton is achieved through execution and precise movement by the athlete. As with the sports of tennis and volleyball, the badminton net regulates the nature of the game. The badminton court is a relatively small space at 44 ft by 17 ft (13.4 m by 5.2 m) or 20 ft (6.1 m) wide for four players. The net stands 5 ft (1.5 m) high. The games are scored to 15 points (women’s singles play is scored to 11 points), with points only permitted to be scored on the player’s serve. The shuttle may not be touched while in the air above the opponent’s court, and the shuttle may not touch the surface of the court. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Badminton can be played in singles or in doubles. The game was added to the event list of the Olympic Games in 1992. AP PH OTO / AL AS TAIR G RA NT

The simplicity of badminton that makes it an attractive recreational activity remains its hallmark at the elite level. The speed and the power of the shots transform badminton from recreation to a significant athletic challenge. The sport requires extremely well-developed agility and hand-eye coordination. The tactics of the game demand a command of a deft touch, to drop a shot into a precise area of the opposing court, as well as the power to deliver a smash; elite competitors can deliver the shuttle at speeds in excess of 150 mph (250 km/h). The placement of shots and the tactics to be employed are also important components of badminton success. Given the height of the net and the dimensions of the court, a tall player would seem to be at an advantage in badminton. However, the Olympics badminton championships and recent world championships have been dominated by athletes from Asian countries. The genetic traits of these athletes, which include slighter builds and smaller statures than most persons of European or North American ancestry, are ideally suited to the sport. Lateral quickness, balance, and a capacity for explosive movement are essential to badminton success. The

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technique required to deliver the primary power shot, the smash, is not a pure strength movement. When the player sees an opportunity to return the shuttle forcefully, the player will often leap, combining a scissor kick and fast arm action with the racket at the point of impact with the shuttle. The jump effectively transfers significant potential energy to a position where, on impact, the athlete converts that energy store into kinetic energy, most of which transfers to the shuttle. The physical training program for effective badminton will combine several features. Stretching and flexibility is of primary importance, as the lateral movement and explosive reactions required place a significant stress on the lower leg joints and groin tissues. Exercises that assist in plyometrics training and intervals will support the movements required in a small space. While the sport is primarily anaerobic in terms of its energy demands, it is common for badminton matches to be extended over multiple sets, with more than one match played per day. Aerobic fitness assists these athletes in their recovery from the anaerobic exertions of the sport. SEE ALSO

Exercise, intermittent; Shoulder injuries.

Balance

SEE

Gymnastics balance

Balance training and proprioception Proprioception is the internal regulatory system of the body that governs the ability to generate and maintain an effective upright posture and physical balance. An internal sensory feedback system, proprioception is the complex series of communications that signal a variation in muscle contraction made in response to any external factors. The important proprioceptors located within the body are the vestibular system (the organs and nerves of the inner ear) and the stretch receptors, nervous system components that are located in the muscles of the joints. These receptors assist in permitting the body to know where the joints are positioned at any time. A prominent stretch receptor, the Golgi tendon organ, is located at the junction of various tendons and corresponding skeletal muscle, relaying the degree of muscle tension present at any time to the brain.

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Proprioception and its importance to human movement is best understood in contrast to two other sensory concepts, the first of which is the physical senses. The five senses of taste, touch, smell, sight, and sound are all sensory devices that act as both a monitoring system and as an early warning defense for the body in relation to its environment; information is received by each sensory organ and transmitted to the brain for processing and, where required, action. In contrast, proprioception is the method by which the body regulates itself, both in terms of physical position, as well as orientation to the ground or other fixed objects. The second contrasting concept to that of proprioception is that of the human kinesthetic senses, the related notions of muscle memory and hand-eye coordination. The kinesthetic sense is similar to proprioception, in that it is an internal mechanism, but distinct by virtue of the role of proprioception in coordinating joint motion and acceleration. Proprioception has been referred to as the ‘‘sixth sense,’’ as it will continue to function in the event the physical senses cannot function. A common feature of cases involving an amputation is the sensation on the part of the amputee that the absent limb is producing pain. The vestibular system of the inner ear is a delicate bone and tissue structure that coordinates balance, orientation, and the detection of acceleration in objects near the body. The inner ear can recognize changes in each of these physical areas more quickly than the coordinated efforts of the eye (through the optic nerve) and the brain. There are two primary sub-mechanisms within the inner ear that provide data for proprioception. The cilia are very fine hairs located along the inner ear canal. These structures sense changes in acceleration, transmitted to the brain by way of the vestibular nerve. The function of the vestibular system is prominent whenever an athlete is endeavoring to track an object that has been sent into the air on a trajectory, such as a fly ball in baseball or a rugby ball kicked down the field. The vestibular system provides continual input regarding speed and body orientation to the ground as the player closes in on the ball. In addition to sports where an object must be followed in the air, airborne sports, in which the athlete’s physical equilibrium are distorted through the movements required by the sport itself, are those where proprioception skills must be developed to their fullest extent. Diving, gymnastics, and aerial WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BALANCE TRAINING AND PROPRIOCEPTION

To fully develop keen proprioception (balance) skills, gymnasts endure countless hours of training.

PH OTO BY G UA NG NI U/ G ETT Y I MA GE S.

events in skiing and snowboarding are all examples. For these athletes, training programs will be designed with the elements of the sport uppermost, and include proprioception principles that equip the athlete with the physical tools to ensure that physical balance can be maintained in any circumstance.

and connective tissues, permits the athlete to incorporate stability into every movement in sport. A welldeveloped core strength also permits a stable and maintained athletic stance, the couched playing position with knees and hips flexed, head erect, that is at the heart of numerous sports.

Balance has components that are genetically based. As a very general proposition, smaller people tend to possess better balance skills and the related features of physical coordination than do larger people, by virtue of the physiological fact that the smaller person is required to control a smaller mass, with a smaller neuromuscular system to be managed. Further, when persons of any size have structural imbalances, such as leg length discrepancies, which create unequal generation of forces in movement, it is likely that such persons will be less coordinated and less balanced in their movements.

Once core strength is in place, the athlete can develop a series of physical attributes that contribute to quickness, performed on a stable physical platform. The ability to transfer weight effectively and seamlessly is a hallmark of athletic balance. Exercises that place the athlete in a continuous series of constant and dynamic movements reinforce for the body its proprioception system.

Balance training is intended to complement the proprioception system. The first and most important aspect of balance training is the building and maintenance of the core strength of the athlete. A maximum level of core strength, the integrated efforts of the abdominal, gluteal, lumbar, and groin muscles WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Any exercise that requires the body to respond instantly to physical position will aid in balance training. Activities as varied as juggling and the use of a wobble board (a device where the athlete is positioned at the center of the board to maintain balance) are employed to perfect balance.

Gymnastics balance; Motor control; Nervous system; Trampoline; Visualization in sport.

SEE ALSO

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SIR ROGER GILBERT BANNISTER

Banks and curves SEE Physics of banks and curves

Sir Roger Gilbert Bannister 3/23/1929 ENGLISH NEUROLOGIST

On May 6, 1954, at Oxford, England, Roger Bannister became the first runner in history to run a one mile race in under 4 minutes, crossing the finish line in 3.59.4 minutes. Bannister’s achievement was also notable because his daily training program never exceeded 48 minutes per day. The world record had stood at 4.01.2 minutes for nine years at the time of Bannister’s achievement. Many experts believed that the 4-minute barrier might be physiologically impossible to break, as there had been concerted efforts by a number of talented runners to break the mark in that period. The 4-minute mile had a particular allure due in part to the symmetry of four minutes, four laps, and 60 seconds or less for each. Bannister was a 25-year-old medical student when he broke the 4-minute barrier. His achievement was all the more remarkable as he was concluding his medical studies and as a result, was under significant academic pressure throughout all of 1953 and 1954. To ensure that his studies were not compromised by his athletic training, Bannister ran during his one-hour lunch period. He compressed his running workouts into sessions of 48 minutes per day, where he focused upon intense interval training to build a sustained finishing kick. Bannister’s methods, born out of necessity, were in stark contrast to the usual training undertaken by mile runners at the time, where weekly totals of 70 miles (115 km) or more were common. Bannister’s two main rivals in the quest for the first four minute mile were Australian John Landy and American Wes Santee. Unlike the modern world of elite track and field competition, where there are numerous opportunities for athletes to compete against one another in any given year, Bannister, Landy, and Santee challenged the 4-minute barrier independent of one another. Landy lowered the record set by Bannister to 3.58.2 in June 1954, setting the stage for a titanic battle at the British Empire Games in Vancouver in August 1954. Landy led Bannister with less than 300 yds (270 m) to the finish line, when Bannister unleashed a remarkable

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Roger Bannister leads the first 1-mile race in history in which two runners finished in under four minutes. A P P HOT O

sprint at the precise moment that the front running Landy turned his head to see where Bannister was positioned. Bannister beat Landy with a time of 3.58.0 minutes; Landy also ran under 4 minutes to finish second. These games were the only time that Landy and Bannister would ever appear in the same race. After winning the European 1,500-m championships later in 1954, Bannister retired from competition. He became a well respected neurologist and sports administrator; Bannister headed the British Sports Council in the 1970s, where he was a key figure in an early campaign against the use of anabolic steroids in sport.

Exercise, high intensity; Running: Middle distance events; Track and field.

SEE ALSO

Baseball Baseball is a sport that encompasses more than the usual athletic features of performance, competition strategy, and player training and preparation. In WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASEBALL

the United States, baseball is a part of the social fabric. Baseball is part athletic endeavor and part folklore, defined as much by its place in American culture as by the game itself. Baseball, played on a triangular shaped playing surface, is believed to have evolved from the English game of ‘‘rounders.’’ Rounders was a variation of the sport of cricket, sharing the common features of bases being run by the offensive team and a thrown ball being batted to produce a score. By 1869, it is believed that Abner Doubleday was the first to codify the rules of what would become modern baseball. The recognizable modern elements of baseball include nine players in the field and a diamondshaped field consisting of home plate and three bases 90 ft (27.4 m) apart. The essence of the game is the confrontation between pitcher and batter, 60.5 ft (18.4 m) apart, with an inning represented by three batters being called out. Professional baseball and amateur play alike grew in popularity into the early 1900s. The National League was founded in 1876; the rival American League was formed in 1901. The first World Series, named not to signify a world championship, but in honor of the competition sponsor, the New York World newspaper, was first played in 1903. Every small town in America had baseball diamonds and teams. The cloud of illegal gambling and an effort to rig the outcome of the 1919 World Series, known as the ‘‘Black Sox’’ scandal, so named for the Chicago team at the epicenter of the controversy, was regarded as a national disgrace. The rise of players such as Herman ‘‘Babe’’ Ruth and Lou Gehrig, and the New York Yankees team in the 1920s returned baseball to a positive public light. Baseball was the unquestioned favorite team sport in the United States until the 1950s. Major league baseball was in turn supported by a vast minor professional league structure, from where prospective major leaguers were developed. The nature of the game changed after World War II, as the infamous baseball ‘‘color line,’’ an unspoken but well-enforced prohibition against African-American players competing in major league professional baseball, was first crossed by Jackie Robinson, a member of the Brooklyn Dodgers. Other baseball icons were created in the 1950s and 1960s, such as Mickey Mantle, Willie Mays, and Henry (Hank) Aaron. Like the game itself, baseball heroes occupied a place in popular culture unlike other American athletes; there was a name recognition that was bigger than the sport itself. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Until World War II, baseball was only played to any significant degree in North America (the game had enjoyed significant growth in Canada in parallel progression to that in the United States). The wartime presence of U.S. servicemen in countries such as Japan, Australia, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, and the Dominican Republic served to introduce the game to those regions. Today, each of those countries has thriving baseball cultures, with a noticeable presence in the American major leagues. However, baseball is not on the same plane as sports such as soccer, cricket, rugby, or basketball in terms of global sport status. The sport has enjoyed official status an Olympic medal sport since 1992; the International Olympic Committee has determined that the Beijing Olympics of 2008 will be the last such baseball competition. One enduring international baseball championship has been the Little League World Series, a competition for teams of youths aged 12 and under. Teams from various parts of the world participate in regional play downs for the opportunity to advance to the World Series, held each year in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, at a specially configured stadium. Modern American professional baseball, which for more than a century was said to be as ‘‘American as Mom and apple pie,’’ has undergone significant stresses in recent years. The stoppage of league play in 1994, and the corresponding cancellation of that year’s World Series, due to a dispute between the owners of the major league teams and the players union had a significant impact upon the popularity of the game. The widely held concerns regarding whether major league players were routinely taking anabolic steroids or other performance-enhancing drugs, which concerns were the subject of seemingly unending media coverage as well as a United States Senate review, impacted upon the popularity of the game; in the 60 years since the end of World War II, baseball, while remaining popular in absolute terms, has fallen from first place to fourth in American sports culture behind professional football, college football, and professional basketball as a spectator sport. Baseball has developed a number of variations over the past century. In the United States, baseball is the generic term applied to all varieties of the game. There are different types of competition that involve the batted ball as the chief manner of scoring against an opponent. Baseball, occasionally referred to as ‘‘hard ball,’’ is the traditional game, as played in the

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United States major leagues and throughout the world. Softball is a distinct form of baseball. The field of play is smaller, and the four bases are 60 ft (18.2 m), as opposed to 90 ft (27.4 m), apart. The ball is larger in circumference and is of a less dense composition than that of a baseball, which makes it much more difficult to hit as hard or as far as a baseball. The pitcher stands 40 ft (12.2 m) from the batter, and the pitch is delivered underhand, in a windmill motion. This game is the most popular women’s baseball in the world. Lob ball, or slow pitch, is similar in its rules and field of play to softball, with the key exception being the speed and trajectory of the ball when it is pitched to the batter. The game is designed to encourage the batter to hit the ball, whereas in all other forms of baseball the pitcher employs the opposite tactic. Lob ball came to prominence in the 1970s in North America as a less-taxing, more recreational and participatory form of baseball. There are a number of reasons as to why baseball has endured as a part of American sporting culture, and to a lesser degree, as an international game. The first is the absence of time constraint in the competition. Baseball and cricket (from which baseball owes some derivation) are the only team sports where there is no time limit within which the game must be completed. The inning and the ‘‘at bat’’ (the period spent by an individual batter facing a pitcher in an inning) are not regulated by time, but by the result achieved—a hit, a walk, a strike out, or an out in the field. For these reasons, a team can, at least in theory, always come from behind to win a game. Baseball is also one of the few sports where there is a series of one-on-one encounters that make up the competition. Unlike other team sports, such as football, basketball, soccer, or rugby, in which the team must function in a harmonious unit to achieve a goal, both offensively and defensively, there is a typical baseball sequence: pitcher versus batter; fielder versus runner, when the ball is hit in the field of play; and fielder versus runner, when a base runner attempts to advance on a hit or by a steal. Baseball teams must work together in the field to succeed, however, it is these individual encounters that are at the heart of the game. Baseball is also noteworthy in the sense of what type of athlete will be most successful in

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the sport. While hitting a fast moving, spinning baseball with power is aided by the development of powerful muscles, particularly in the arms, shoulders, wrists, and core (lower abdominals, trunk, and thighs), many highly successful hitters rely on exceptional hand-eye coordination, anticipation, and speed to make regular contact with the ball and generate hits. Defensively, the position of catcher has often lent itself to a larger athlete, due to the often physical contact required of the position. A bigger player is able to better withstand collisions at home plate and foul tips, where the batted ball is directed at high speed backward at the catcher. (It was these dangerous balls that led to the catcher’s protective equipment being dubbed the ‘‘tools of ignorance.’’) In other areas of the game, there is a decided premium on speed and agility. Defensive players such as shortstops, second basemen, and outfielders, and particularly the center fielder, cannot be effective unless they are able to cover significant distances and make split-second decisions as to where the ball must be thrown. Baseball also combines a unique pairing of objects making contact that gives more dimension to the game. The object of the sport is to strike a round ball with a round bat, contact that frequently produces unusual movement by the struck ball. Baseball has been the subject of many learned dissertations concerning the application of physical principles, such as what causes a pitch to curve (Magnus effect of subtle differences in air pressure on the thrown ball), why an aluminum bat will cause a baseball to travel further than a wooden bat (different coefficients of restitution in aluminum versus wood), or how an outfielder is able to track down a high fly ball (relationship between eyes and the inner ear/balance function). No sport has adherents that follow the flow of the play with a greater fascination with playing statistics than does baseball. To its devotees, the absence of time limits and the essential battle between batter and pitcher give baseball a cerebral quality.

Anabolic steroids; Baseball injuries; Baseball strength and training exercises; Softball: Slow pitch vs. the fast pitch.

SEE ALSO

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASEBALL BAT SPEED

Despite the heavy protective equipment for catchers, there are still periodic injuries. Here, New York Mets catcher, Mike Piazza, was accidentally struck by the bat during the follow-through. ª R EUTE RS

Baseball bat speed Within baseball, the term bat speed is defined as how fast a bat moves through its arc when a batter swings it. Bat speed is generally recorded as the speed from the bat’s center of mass, which is near its ‘‘sweet spot’’ (the most effective section with which to hit a ball). A batter has about one-half second to swing the bat from the time the ball is released by the pitcher to the time it enters the catcher’s mitt—what is called swing time. When considering the mechanics of the bat swing, researchers often model it based on its similarity with how a person swings a weight at the end of a rope. In both cases, the forces on the swung WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

object are exerted through the person’s hands and directed along the axis of the object. Thus, the bat speed can be determined as the swing proceeds through a series of motions involving first the hips, and then the shoulders, arms, and lastly the wrists, as the bat is driven powerfully around from the rear to the front of the batter. Before the pitch, the batter usually stands congruently above a point halfway between his or her feet. As the ball is released by the pitcher, the batter shifts his or her weight backward by rotating (or cocking) the hips toward the rear foot. The batter then steps into the pitched ball by pushing forward off his or her rear foot. A typical major league player pushes off with a force of around 250 pounds-force

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(1,110 newtons). During this initial period of about 0.2 seconds, from which the shoulders are brought around roughly parallel with the hips, the bat has reached a speed of about 6 mph (10 km/h).

is a 1.57–2.0-in (3.8–5.1 cm) variation in the location of the sweet spot between different bat types. On average, the sweet spot occurs between 5 and 7 in (12.7 and 17.8 cm) from the barrel end of the bat.

The batter then begins to rotate his or her body around the fixed front foot. As the batter continues to rotate his or her body approximately within a horizontal plane, the bat is brought across the plate with the arms. During this stage of the swing, which lasts about 0.08 seconds, the hands transmit increasing amounts of force to the bat as the body continues to rotate while pulling the bat through its arc—eventually reaching nearly 50 pounds-force (220 newtons). During the last 0.01 seconds of this period, the bat speed reaches about 20 mph (32 km/h).

The sweet spot’s location for maximizing how far the batted ball travels after being hit can be calculated scientifically. When a batter hits a ball, the bat will rebound from the force of the collision. If the ball is hit closer to the handle end, a translational (straight-line) force will occur at the pivot point. If the ball is hit nearer to the barrel end, a rotational force will occur at the handle end near its center-ofmass—causing the handle to move away from the batter. This rotating motion causes a force in the opposite direction at the pivot point. However, impacts at the sweet spot results in these two opposite forces being balanced, causing a net force of zero—something that can be measured by scientists.

In the 0.06 seconds left for the batter to complete the bat swing across the plate, most of the energy has been transferred to the bat from the thigh and torso muscles (with the arm and hand muscles serving primarily as a way to transfer energy). At this point, the force on the hands and arms attain a value of about 200 pounds-force (890 newtons). Just before the bat meets the ball, the wrists are straightened out as the remaining energy is transferred to the bat. About 0.04 seconds before the bat hits the ball, the bat speed reaches about 70 mph (113 km/h). If the ball is struck properly on the sweet spot, about 50% of the energy stored within the swinging bat is transferred to the ball. The speed of the bat is quickly reduced by approximately 30% from the reaction of the collision—to a speed of about 50 mph (80 km/h).

Baseball bats: Sweet spots and tampering; Baseball curve ball.

SEE ALSO

Baseball bats: Sweet spots and tampering Sweet spots on a baseball bat are the locations best suited for hitting pitched baseballs. At these points, the collision between the bat and the ball produces a minimal amount of vibrational sensation (sting) in the batter’s hands and/or a maximum speed for the batted ball (and, thus, the maximum amount of energy transferred to the ball to make it travel further). On any given bat, the point of maximum performance and the point of minimal sting may be different. In addition, there are variations in their locations between bats, mostly depending on the type of bat and the specific manufacturer. Generally, there

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The tampering of baseball bats to modify the bat with the intention of enhancing its performance is an illegal activity. In many cases, it involves modifying a bat by drilling a hole about 6–9 in (15.2–22.9 cm) into the barrel end. The hole is then left empty or is filled with some type of lightweight material such as cork, cork balls, or rubber. A solid wooden plug, which matches the bat’s color and grain, is then placed over the hole. The plug is sanded and varnished in order to hide the modification. Such modified bats are often called aberrant or corked bats. The modified bat differs from the original bat by its lighter weight and smaller moment of inertia (resistance to drag). Bats drilled out in this way are not allowed to be used within the various member organizations of the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues (of which the National and American Leagues are members) under the Official Baseball Rules. Other illegal ways to tamper with bats have been used in the past. Wet pine tar (a sticky substance) has been used to improve a batter’s grip on the bat. Nails were sometimes secretively driven into bats to provide a harder surface for the collision with the baseball. In the early 2000s, engineers at the University of Massachusetts Baseball Research Center in Lowell, Massachusetts, tested illegal cork bats and legal wooden bats. The test is viewed within the sporting industry as one of the most exacting scientific laboratory studies ever performed on bat efficiency. A mechanical hitting machine was used to compare the bats swung at exactly 66 mph (106 km/h). The measurement was taken at the ‘‘sweet spot,’’ which is about 6 in (15.2 cm) from the tip of the bat. A mechanical ball-throwing machine pitched the balls WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASEBALL CURVE BALL

at exactly 70 mph (113 km/h). The center’s director, James Sherwood, stated the test results showed that baseballs traveled farther when hit by corked bats because they deformed to a higher degree and this increased the energy of impact with the pitched ball (maximizing the energy changes as a result of the hit and increasing the distance the ball could travel). However, the corked bats also showed obvious stress (such as cracking) after only a few collisions. Within the study, Sherwood stated that a corked bat produced about a 1% increase in the speed of the batted ball, which related to about a 2% increase in distance traveled. For instance, a 400-ft (122 m) fly ball hit with a legal bat would produce a 408-ft (124 m) fly ball hit with a corked bat. Thus, a corked bat allowed a batter to swing the bat faster and the ball to rebound quicker. On the other hand, a corked bat, which is about 1.5 oz (42.5 gm) lighter than a solid wood bat, has less mass. A less-massive bat means that it will have a less-effective

collision with the ball. With this tradeoff—faster swing speed and springier impacted ball versus smaller mass—many experts state that the difference between the two bats is negligible. However, other experts note that such differences are why the bat continues to be illegal to use. Some studies describe a psychological benefit when using corked bats. Batters ‘‘think’’ they are able to hit the ball further and, therefore, are more efficient at hitting greater numbers of balls. Whether such physical and psychological differences warrant that the corked bat remain illegal has been difficult to determine. SEE ALSO

Baseball curve ball A curve ball is a type of pitch thrown by a baseball pitcher in which the way the ball is gripped and

Curve ball as thrown by Carl Hubbell, pitcher for the New York Giants.

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Baseball bat speed; Baseball curve ball.

PHO TO BY G JON MIL I/ /TIME LIFE P IC TURES/ GETTY I MAGES.

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released and the arrangement of stitching on the ball causes additional rotation, which results in the ball traveling in an exaggerated, or curved, flight. When thrown as intended, curve balls curve distinctly as they approach the batter—what is called the curveball’s break. Credit for the invention of the curve ball in the late-1800s is generally given to American baseball player William Arthur ‘‘Candy’’ Cummings (1848– 1924). The curve ball’s first acknowledged public demonstration occurred on August 16, 1870, by major league pitcher Fred Goldsmith (1856–1939). However, for years afterward, baseball fans debated as to whether a curve ball actually curved. The controversy was settled when fast photography (photographs taken in the dark with stroboscopic lighting) was first used in 1941 by researchers associated with Life magazine, who viewed the curve ball’s path. Certain forces act on a baseball regardless of how it is thrown. When a pitcher throws a baseball, the forward movement of the arm propels the ball with a force that produces a velocity. (In the major league, pitchers often throw baseballs in excess of 85 mph [136 km/h].) A countering force called drag (air resistance) slows the ball down. Simultaneously, the force of gravity places a downward motion onto the ball. In the case of a curve ball, spin (rotation) is added to the ball when the pitcher snaps his or her wrist downward as the ball is released. Because of this action, another force called the Magnus force is able to explain the motion of a curve ball. The Magnus force, named after German physicist Heinrich Gustav Magnus (1802–1870) who described it in 1853, acts on a baseball due to the stitches located on its surface. The spinning of the stitches causes air pressure on one side to be less than the pressure on the opposite side. The ball is compelled to rotate faster on the side with less pressure than on the side of greater pressure. Because of this difference, the ball curves. When the so-called Magnus effect is used by a pitcher to throw a curve ball, a difference of forces as little as one part in a thousand—when a ball is thrown at 75 mph (120 km/h)—can produce a curve just over 1 ft (0.3 m). A baseball traveling from a right-handed pitcher rotates at about 1,800 revolutions per minute. Thus, on its trip of about 56 ft (17 m) from the mound’s edge to the plate, the ball will rotate about 16 times. According to statistics, the ball’s surface facing the third base side will rotate at about 85 mph (137 km/h), while the first base side will rotate only at about 55 mph (89 km/h). Drag is

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greater on the faster rotating side (and less on the slower side) so the ball is deflected toward the first base side—and away from a right-handed hitter. Therefore, a right-handed pitcher has a better chance of striking out a right-handed batter because curve balls will break down and away from the batter, making the ball much more difficult to hit. Likewise, a left-handed pitcher prefers to throw curve balls to left-handed batters. SEE ALSO Baseball bat speed; Baseball bats: Sweet spots and tampering.

Baseball injuries Classic baseball confrontations are decidedly physical, all-or-nothing encounters in an otherwise non-contact sport. The forces generated by playeron-player collisions can be significant, creating a risk of serious injury. Knee and lower leg injuries and concussions are common occurrences when two players collide at home plate. However, while most baseball injuries are far less dramatic than those occurring at home plate, they are often as debilitating in the longer term. Baseball has historically placed significant emphasis on training programs that stress the repetition of various physical movements, in the development of throwing, hitting, and base-running skills. The sport has a correspondingly very high incidence of injuries resulting from an overload on the ability of a structure to endure the repetitive movement, particularly arms and shoulders. The structural overload is made worse in players that employ poor mechanics in their execution of a particular baseball fundamental, which accelerates the breakdown of the joint or structure in question. The over-hand throwing of a baseball by a pitcher is an unnatural motion for the elbow and the shoulder to endure. For this reason, pitchers sustain more injuries than any other baseball player. By contrast, the underarm motion employed by a softball pitcher places a low degree of strain on these structures; it is not uncommon for softball pitchers to be active well into their 40s. The mechanism of the baseball pitch involves rotation of the shoulder joint, twisting of the upper arm and elbow, extension of the forearm, and flexion of the wrist. All of these actions are performed at a high speed, placing considerable stress on every part of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASEBALL INJURIES

Head and facial injuries, especially at home plate, are not uncommon in baseball.

the arm. In a typical high-level amateur or professional game, a pitcher may throw 100 pitches or more in the game itself, with as a many or more pitches as part of a warm up. The stress placed upon a pitcher’s arm does not begin when the player reaches the upper echelons of competition; the nature of baseball is such that pitchers are groomed at young ages, and the physical problems that they encounter as adult athletes often have their roots in the player’s activities as a youth. A study conducted by the American Sports Medicine Institute determined that approximately 58% of pitchers under the age of 18 sustained a significant elbow injury either during or after competition. It is believed that the most physically difficult baseball pitch to throw, the curveball, is the primary cause of both elbow and shoulder injuries in pitchers. The curveball requires both the pitching shoulder and elbow to be rotated as the ball is being delivered so as to impart spin on the ball that will cause it to dip, or curve. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PH O T O B Y P A U L J A SI E NS K I / G E T T Y I MA GE S.

Elbow injuries occurring in baseball have three separate causes. The first and most devastating is an injury to the medial aspect of the elbow, the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL). As the pitcher delivers the ball, it is raised behind and above the shoulder. A significant force is then generated as the arm moves past the ear and rotates, and the UCL pulls the forearm of the throwing arm forward. As the UCL is a small structure that, as the ball is pitched, is subjected to the entire force of the arm’s movement, this force can cause the UCL to sustain a micro tear. In typical circumstances of muscle or ligature strengthening in the body, a micro tear is a part of the building and strengthening process. With the constant exposure to this force that occurs in baseball pitching, the UCL micro tear will often progress to a larger, more complete and disabling tear. The second common elbow injury sustained by pitchers is when the radius (arm bone) is brought into contact with the humerus (forearm bone) in the

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joint, resulting in bone chips that may move within the joint, causing pain. The third common elbow injury is created by the straightening of the elbow on the delivery of the ball at the point where the ball is released, which through repetition causes the elbow components to grind together. This also may result in bone chips in the joint, which can disable the pitcher. Each of these injuries will usually require surgery, and an extensive period of rehabilitation. The surgery perfected by Dr. Frank Jobe, whose most prominent patient was major league pitcher Tommy John, involves the grafting of a transplanted ligament to the damaged UCL. This procedure has extended the career of numerous injured major league pitchers. The serious shoulder injuries sustained by pitchers primarily relate to the rotator cuff. The rotation of the shoulder during a pitching motion will often lead to a grinding or displacement of the structure. Another common injury is a tear of the upper part of the bicep muscle. All of these injuries have their foundation in poor mechanics that are employed for a number of baseball seasons and have a negative cumulative effect. The swinging of the bat during a baseball game is rarely the cause of a serious injury. However, batters develop strained muscles in their arms and low back, the result of repetitive strain caused primarily in training. The explosive movement of swinging a baseball bat as hard as possible may cause a spontaneous tear or rupture of a muscle or ligament in the shoulders or back. Such occurrences are rare. As with any sport where the athlete is stationary for large portions of competition, the requirement of sudden, explosive movement such as running can pace significant strains on the body. Groin strains, as well as muscle pulls in the quadriceps (thigh) and hamstrings, are a common result. Sliding to avoid the tag of the defensive player may also cause injury to the gluteal muscles (buttock) and legs. With the exception of plays when a base runner collides with another player, baseball running injuries are rarely serious. Diving for a ball in the outfield, especially on harder artificial surfaces, may cause abrasions to the skin. Whether it is the catcher being struck by the ball with a foul tip, the batter being struck by a pitch, or

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the pitcher facing a ‘‘come backer’’ from a batter’s ball, a baseball has the potential to cause a serious injury. Both catchers and batters wear protective helmets. However, head injuries caused by a player being hit by a baseball almost always occur on line drives that strike a pitcher or infielder.

Baseball; Baseball strength and training exercises; Elbow injuries; Shoulder injuries.

SEE ALSO

Baseball strength and training exercises As with any other sport, baseball training and strength exercises must be tailored to a specific physical purpose related to competitive success. Baseball training programs are unusual in that there are significantly different physical requirements for the various positions. Improved hitting technique is a constant for all players, with variations in the training approaches of ‘‘power hitters’’ and ‘‘singles,’’ or ‘‘contact,’’ hitters. A starting pitcher in major league baseball is expected to play one game in every four or five; each performance will impose terrific and often debilitating stresses on the pitching arm. The training program for this pitcher will bear little relationship to the work out regime determined for a fielder, whose success will involve a combination of agility, speed, explosive power, and concentration skills. The training program for any baseball player will have the following components:  Speed training: Players must be able to run with speed from the batter’s box, on the bases, and tracking down balls hit into the outfield.  Agility training: This trains a player to react with total control of the body, from a variety of body positions, such as a crouch and a batting stance, while moving.  Strength training: While baseball does not require extreme muscular strength, it does require strong, supple musculature. Proper strength training will protect the baseball player’s arm and shoulder, which is vulnerable to injury through overuse or poor mechanics and will focus on the player’s core strength and the lower back, which is vulnerable to repetitive strain injury through the twisting and extension of the hitting motion in batting practice. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASKETBALL

 Mental training: Baseball places unique mental demands on its athletes by virtue of the long periods when a player is inactive, either by being on the bench or when the play is not directed in his direction (such as the outfielder who does not have the ball hit in his direction for a number of innings). Given the nature of the sport, with the premiums placed on speed and agility, an effective baseball strength training program will not primarily center on the development of bulk and large muscle mass. Free weights that are used on a low weight/high repetition basis are often very effective in developing muscles that perform well, both contracted and extended. Squat-type exercises, using light weights, lunges, and leg presses will also enhance the core strength required in the hips, buttocks, and low back. The use of exercise tubing also permits the athlete to extend arm or leg muscles through a range of motion against resistance, without significant risk of overloading the muscle structure in question. Medicine ball training is another very safe and highly effective way to combine strength training in combination with the full range of the athlete’s motion. Lifts and squats with a medicine ball, performed in sets of 20–30 repetitions, are ideal. Baseball players must be wary of any exercise that requires significant amounts of weight to be lifted over the head; overhead lifts common to the methods of strength training in other sports place stresses on the shoulder and on the rotator cuff in particular, which is a muscle structure essential to baseball performance. The rotator cuff is an assembly of four small muscles in the shoulder that permit the arm to be raised over the head; the rotator cuff also holds the upper arm bone (humerus) in place as the shoulder is taken through its desired range of motion. To keep the rotator cuff structure strong, exercises that employ the athlete’s own body weight are a safe but progressive method of building strength; chin-ups, push-ups, and lightweight dumbbell presses are good examples. Interval running is a speed training technique that mimics the short bursts of acceleration and running required in many aspects of baseball. Base running and fielding all require quick speed and reaction time. Training in intervals builds the ability of the muscle fibers present in the legs, known as ‘‘fast twitch fibers,’’ to react quickly, as well as builds muscular endurance. In a similar fashion, plyometrics will enhance the ability of a player to generate both speed and explosive power in the leg muscles. Plyometric programs, which include repetitive jumping WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

and bounding exercises, can be made a component of a baseball training program, as long as attention is paid to the significant demands placed on the leg muscles through this form of training. The intermittent nature of baseball player’s movement during a game requires that all competitors maintain a thorough stretching program. All players are inactive for the half of the game when their team is at bat, save for the batter or players on base. In the field, the pitcher and the catcher are moving on a regular basis, with 10- to 20-second intervals common between pitches; the other fielders are stationary until required to react to a thrown or batted ball. Effective stretching for these athletes will place particular emphasis on flexibility throughout the body. As befits a sport in which mental concentration is required both as a hitter and to assist a player to move instantly from the inactive phases of the game to brief, vigorous activity, mental training is important. Exercises that enhance an athlete’focus and ability to block out both crowd noise and opposing player comments will complement the physical training of the baseball player.

Baseball injuries; Mental stress; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch; Plyometrics; Quadriceps pulls and tears.

SEE ALSO

Basketball In December of 1891, the administration at the School for Christian Workers in Springfield, Massachusetts, faced a problem. The excess energies of a rambunctious class of 18 men, in training to become administrative secretaries, were causing difficulties in daily school life, as these students were bored with the standard winter exercise fare of gymnastics and other indoor recreation offered at the school. These students were studying to join the work of the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA). For safety reasons, the more dangerous games of indoor football and rugby were not permitted at the institution, which would later become Springfield College. The school athletic director asked his physical education instructor, James Naismith (1861– 1939), to invent an activity that was safer than the traditional contact sports, yet one that would require the players to expend reasonable amounts of energy. Naismith was given two weeks to create such a sport. The new game Naismith rendered to his director was a sublime invention: basketball. The game

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BASKETBALL

The 2004 NBA finals: Los Angeles Lakers vs. the Detroit Pistons. The Pistons won the championship title.

included such diverse components as a modified soccer ball, nine players per side, 13 rules of the game scribbled on a piece of foolscap, an emphasis on finesse and limited physical contact, and peach baskets for goals were hung 10 ft (3 m) above the school gymnasium floor. After the players were explained the rules, the first basketball game was played December 13, 1891. Naismith officiated, and it was evident that the players greatly enjoyed his sports invention. The final score of 1-0 proved to be an ironic birth to the high scoring, supremely athletic contests that are the hallmark of the modern game. The Naismith invention was an immediate success, as basketball garnered significant interest over

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ª M I KE B LAK E/R EUT ERS /C ORB IS

the next 20 years across the United States, particularly at the college level. The first women’s basketball game, played with the modified rules created by Senda Berenson Abbott (1868–1954), took place at Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1893. The original Naismith basketball rules are proof of the prescience of their creator. The evolution of basketball has lead to a modern game in which agility, strength, hand-eye coordination, lateral quickness, and vertical leaping ability are the most desired physical attributes sought in a player. In 1891, Naismith had seen such characteristics as required for the competitors in his nascent sport, as WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASKETBALL

evidenced by the language of his original rules: ‘‘The ball may be thrown in any direction with one or both hands. . . The ball may be batted in any direction with one or both hands, but never with the fist. . . A player cannot run with the ball. . .. The player must throw it from the spot on which he catches it, allowance to be made for a man running at good speed. . .. The ball must be held by the hands. The arms or body must not be used for holding it. . . No shouldering, holding, pushing, striking or tripping in any way of an opponent.’’

The claim to James Naismith as a native son is made by Canada, where Naismith was born and educated, as well as by the United States, the physical birthplace of the game as well as Naismith’s home for the final 50 years of his life. The inventor lived long enough to see the sport develop into a true world game, as Naismith attended the first-ever Olympic basketball game in Berlin in 1936. As the athletic director at the University of Kansas for 39 years, Naismith was a mentor to the legendary American university coach Forrest (Phog) Allen (1885–1974).

The 1891 rules also provided for both a fivesecond period in which a player was permitted to inbound the ball, as well as establishing the concept of player fouls, two provisions that continue in the rules of modern basketball. It is evident that the spirit of the Naismith creation remains intact today; Naismith could not have contemplated the sheer size and corresponding ability of those who would play his game in the twenty-first century.

The American origins of the sport were reflected by the dominance of American teams in international competition for the first 80 years of the history of basketball. The intense popularity of basketball in both high schools and universities in the 1930s and 1940s were the significant factors in the founding of the National Basketball Association in 1946. The NBA has been the world’s premier professional basketball league throughout its entire history.

The significant rule changes in modern North American basketball have often been in response to the impact of the talents of either an individual player or a particular tactic. There are many notable examples of such rule changes. For instance, George Mikan, the first of the talented big men to play professional basketball, stood 6 ft 10 in (1.85 m) tall, weighing 245 lb (111 k). The lane between the free throw line and the basket was widened from 6 ft (1.82 m) to 9 ft (2.7 m) in the National Basketball Association (NBA) in 1947 to limit the ability of Mikan to obtain a position closer to the basket. The distinctive key shape of this earlier lane gave rise to the term by which this area is often referred in the modern game. In 1944,Mikan’s physical talents had prompted the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) to ban the blocking or deflecting of a shot by a defensive player when the ball was above the rim of the basket, a technique known as goaltending.

Television coverage promoted the game to further popularity in the United States through the 1960s, which led to the creation of a rival to the NBA, the American Basketball Association (ABA), in 1967. The two leagues merged in 1976. The Harlem Globetrotters were created in the late 1940s in New York, in part as a response to the latent racism that existed in all North American professional sports at that time. The Globetrotters also contributed to the popularity of basketball with cross-country barnstorming tours, featuring outstanding players who combined athletic talent and a lighthearted showmanship.

Another example was brought about because of Lew Alcindor (later known as Kareem Abdul Jabbar). The NCAA banned dunking in competition from 1967 through 1976, in part as a response to the 7 ft 2 in (2.19 m) Alcindor’s size and skills. Concerns regarding slow and uninspired play prompted the invention of the 24-second shot clock by the NBA in 1954, a rule that required a team with possession of the basketball to take a shot at the opposing basket within the 24-second time limit. Both the NCAA and international basketball made similar shot-clock provisions in later years, a factor contributing to the offensive aspects of the sport.

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Institutions such as Syracuse University and others in northeastern United States began to organize men’s basketball teams in the late 1890s. The growth of the American university championships competition has continued virtually unabated since the end of World War II. Known popularly as the NCAA’s ‘‘March Madness,’’ the annual 64-team single elimination tournament in the top divisions for both men’s and women’s teams is a major media and cultural event in the United States. While basketball has been played at a high level throughout the world since the early part of the twentieth century, American dominance of the sport was unquestioned until the latter part of the twentieth century. The United States captured successive Olympic and world titles using university players, without any need to rely on the best American professionals available. The history of the game as a world sport was altered forever at the 1972 Munich Olympics. In a shocking and highly controversial result in the gold medal game, a contest highlighted

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by uncertainty as to the precise time remaining, the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics beat the United States for the championship. In 1992, the United States for the first time entered an Olympic team comprised only of the best NBA players, including legendary talents Michael Jordan, Ervin ‘‘Magic’’ Johnson, and Larry Bird. The ‘‘Dream Team,’’ as it was dubbed by the media, easily won an Olympic championship. While subsequent American Olympic and world championship competition Dream Teams have been composed of equally talented players, the world basketball talent pool has rapidly expanded. The 2004 Olympics competition, in which the United States men’s team was beaten by Argentina in the tournament semifinals, is a prominent example of this growth. A further indicator of the global nature of the sport is reflected by the extensive efforts made since 1990 by NBA franchises to seek out talented foreign players, both by way of the annual player selection draft, as well as through the process known as free agency, which is the obtaining of the services of a player not under contract or other obligation to another team. As an example, the 2005 NBA draft of the 60 best available players included 14 foreign selections. There are a number of theories concerning the rise in the standard of play in international basketball. There is no question that the United States remains the preeminent world power in the sport, both in terms of the sheer number of players (there are more than 1,000 NCAA member institutions alone that compete in basketball), as well as the dominance of exceptional individual American players. However, there are two important contributing factors to the leveling of the competitive field in world competition. One is that, in recent years, the American game has focused on individual player development. Athleticism and an ability to make plays by the individual have been stressed, including offensive techniques such as the slam dunk and the three-point shot, at the expense of earlier team-oriented fundamentals such as foul shooting, passing, and defensive play. The vast majority of American-born NBA players are produced by the NCAA system. Another factor in the leveling of the world competition is that the international game has developed along different lines. Sport clubs are a popular development concept, employed in Europe and elsewhere to identify and nurture exceptional athletes. Basketball sport clubs tend to encourage the development of well-rounded, multidimensional players. For this reason, a 7 ft (2.13 m) athlete such as Dirk Nowitski of

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Germany, an exceptional NBA player, would have been assumed to possess a lower level of athletic ability in the traditional American basketball culture. Nowitski was encouraged as a youth to build an elite-level range of shooting and passing skills that were formerly associated with the traditional American guard position. The international rules (known as the FIBA rules) differ in some respects from those used in North American basketball. With a wider lane and a closer three-point line, the international game encourages greater perimeter play, with a corresponding emphasis on ball-handling and passing skills for all players, irrespective of position. Vibrant professional leagues in countries such as Italy, Spain, and Brazil have created higher level playing opportunities for international players. The game created by James Naismith as a means of providing his active college students with a safe physical outlet for their energies is now one of the most popular team sports in the world.

Basketball: Strength and training exercises; FIBA: International basketball; National governing bodies; Title IX and United States female sports participation.

SEE ALSO

Basketball injuries Basketball is a game of profound athletic contrasts. There are graceful, even elegant, movements that appear to defy gravity, that occur in a larger context of physical contact between large, powerful athletes. Impact will often occur between players with little warning and at full speed, with the athletes’ bodies contorted in different angles at the point of impact. The nature of these athletic movements creates a wide variety of forces upon the basketball player’s body, which in turn creates an equally broad range of potential athletic injuries. Injuries in basketball will arise both as a specific incident of trauma, as well as an overuse condition resulting over time. As basketball demands quick and explosive movements to be made by players both running and jumping, the most common injury sustained is to the ankle. Ankle sprains occur with some frequency, either as a result of the player landing in a position where the foot is not stable, causing the ankle to roll outward on impact, or where the player lands upon another player’s foot, which also creates an uneven surface and causes the foot and the ankle to roll WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASKETBALL INJURIES

Then Los Angeles Laker, Shaquille O’Neal lies on the court after injuring his knee in the first quarter of a game. C R A I G LAS S IG / AF P /G ET T Y IMAGES

outward. It is a rare competitive basketball player who has not sustained a number of at least minor ankle sprains in their career. Many players, especially at the upper echelons of competition, wear an ankle support or brace as a preventative measure; alternatively, one or both ankles will be taped to provide additional support to the ankle. Player size is also a factor in the severity of an ankle sprain. In the National Basketball Association (NBA), the average player is 6 ft 8 in (2.03 m) tall, weighing approximately 225 lb (102 kg); in the elite European leagues, average player sizes are only somewhat smaller. The greater size of these athletes, coupled with their general ability to leap higher than the average person, will magnify the forces applied to the ankle. A less common, and potentially devastating, ankle injury is an Achilles tendon rupture. This injury often occurs in circumstances in which the player is making an explosive movement, usually leaping for a rebound or to challenge an opponent’s shot. An Achilles injury of this severity will require surgery and significant rehabilitation, with the risk that unless careful rehabilitative attention is paid to the calf muscles and supporting structure, the athlete WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

will lose a degree of flexibility and corresponding leaping ability in future. Knee injuries are also a common feature of basketball. Knee sprains commonly occur when a player twists the knee, resulting in a tiny rupture of one of the three knee ligaments; the sprain typically does not immobilize the athlete, but will require rest, ice, and compression, and often a protective padding or a brace over the joint on the athlete’return to practice or games. A more serious twisting of the knee joint may often occur when the player is planting or pivoting a foot to change direction, and the knee is then unexpectedly struck from the opposite direction. This force may result in a torn cartilage (meniscus). Once a feared injury that necessitated extensive surgery and rehabilitation, this damage is now commonly resolved through much quicker arthroscopic surgery processes. ‘‘Jumper’s knee’’ is a common overuse-related injury to the patella tendon, the fibrous linkage running beneath the knee cap to the tibia (shin bone). Excessive jumping, sometimes in conjunction with a poorly aligned knee cap, will cause the tendon fibers to become irritated and inflamed, which causes the jumping motion to be painful. This condition is best

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Ankle sprains; Basketball strength and training exercises; Knee injuries; Wrapping and taping techniques.

treated with rest and ice. The player should also examine the shoes used for excessive wear or other evidence of improper cushioning on landing, factors which may contribute to the misalignment of the leg during jumping.

SEE ALSO

The most serious and potentially limiting knee injury sustained in basketball is the tear of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). The ACL connects the tibia to the femur (thigh bone), and is the ligament in the knee responsible for ensuring the stability of the center of the joint. A blow to the side of the knee or a sudden, non-contact change of direction by an athlete can cause this injury. An ACL tear, which may be accompanied by tears to the adjacent medial collateral ligament (MCL), will prevent an athlete from meaningful running or jumping. The repair of this injury requires surgery, and the rehabilitative process can extend from 9 to 12 months.

Basketball shoes

It is to be noted that female basketball players (and female athletes generally) are at a significantly greater risk of sustaining an ACL tear. This heightened risk is due to the different construction of the female body in contrast to that of males: the ratio of the hip width to femur length in a female (known as the ‘‘Q’’ line) tends to be greater than that in a male. The Q line illustrates that a female’s ACL will be subjected to greater pressure on impact or from explosive movement than the male’s ACL. Both the knees and the quadriceps (thigh) muscles located above the knees commonly sustain injury through contact with an opponent’s knee in competition. Such injuries are generally contusions (bruises). A blow from the knee of an opponent to a large muscle structure such as the quadriceps can be both painful and debilitating. The nature of basketball creates a number of potential circumstances for hand, wrist, and finger injuries. These injuries occur primarily from the player’s hand making contact with the ball at an angle where the joint in question is not in a position to absorb the shock, or where the player falls awkwardly on the fingers or wrist. The degree of force sustained will determine whether the joint is sprained, a common event for a basketball player, which is readily resolved by taping the joint or joints in question, or is fractured. Unlike movements such as a golf swing, passing a football, or throwing a baseball, the most fundamental action in basketball, the act of shooting, is not itself an activity that is likely to lead to a repetitive strain-type injury.

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From the one-model-fits-all era of the Converse All-Star ‘‘Chuck Taylor’’ Basketball shoes, where the only consumer choices were a high-cut or low-cut model, the modern basketball shoe is a high-tech enhancement of player performance, as well as a fashion accessory that has swept beyond basketball to penetrate the world at large. Basketball places significant and spontaneous forces upon the feet, ankles, and lowers legs of the participants, which their shoes must be able to both absorb and direct. The game places a premium on instant acceleration and deceleration, lateral movement, and jumping ability. For these reasons, a basketball shoe must be constructed with the combined features of support, cushioning to absorb shock, flexibility, and stability. Both the physical build of a player as well as the individual style of play will also bear upon the type of basketball shoe to be worn. Larger players, who are supporting a heavier frame, should wear a shoe that provides significant stability, ankle support, and cushioning to better protect this player when running and jumping. A smaller player will often seek a balance between those features, and a lighter, more flexibly constructed shoe that will give advantages in quick movements and acceleration. For both safety and performance reasons, female basketball players should seek out a specific women’s model rather than selecting a men’s shoe for competitive play. As the female foot is typically narrower than that of a male, wearing a shoe designed for the wider male foot may lead to a less-stable platform upon which to run, which in turn can contribute to decreased performance, ankle sprains, or other more serious leg injuries. As with any athletic shoe, the basketball shoe has four primary parts: the upper, the insert, the midsole, and the outsole. The importance of the characteristics of each component of the shoe should be assessed according to the player’s playing needs, physical structure, and athletic capabilities. The upper part of the basketball shoe is responsible for keeping the foot secure; a snug-fitting upper is essential to the performance of a basketball shoe. Loose-fitting shoes will tend to create blisters by WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASKETBALL SHOT DYNAMICS

The midsole of the shoe is the material designed to absorb the forces of running and jumping. As a general principle of physics, the stiffer the midsole material, the better able the player to explode from the floor; the softer this material, the better cushioned the player will be. Seeking the appropriate balance between these factors is an important function of basketball shoe selection. The midsole has been the focus of specific shoe research over the past 25 years, as various compounds, including EVA (a synthetic rubber-like compound), air, gel, and different combinations of synthetics, have been introduced. The outsole is generally flat, without a pronounced cut-out for the human arch, and with a tread designed to assist in maintaining traction. For those players who participate in outdoor basketball on paved courts, there are shoes designed with a heavier, more durable rubber outsole to resist wear.

‘‘Air Jordan’’ Nike shoes worn by then-Chicago Bull center, Michael Jordan. PH OTO B Y F O CUS ON S P ORT/ GETT Y I M AGES .

rubbing against and irritating the skin, and will also tend to be an unstable shoe, causing the player’s foot to strike the floor in a fashion that creates a risk of ankle rollover or cause excessive pressure on the Achilles tendon or the knee joint. The upper may be constructed in varying styles, including high-, mid-, or low-cuts. High cuts offer the greatest degree of support to the player’s ankle (assuming that the player does not wear an ankle support), while the lower the cut of the shoe, the typically greater degree of flexibility and turning capability for the player. The upper will also have a lacing or similar closure system for the shoe, which may be accompanied by a strap that adds support for the ankle by securing the top of the upper. The insert is a feature that appears on some basketball shoe models. It is a detachable insole designed to provide arch support. Some inserts are designed to fit with a custom orthotic, a device used to correct irregularities in the motion of the foot or ankle caused by the skeletal alignment. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Basketball shoes are the most important equipment associated with the sport. Modern advertising of the shoes is almost universally focused on the linkage of a particular brand with an identifiable National Basketball Association (NBA) superstar. However, the physical qualities of the product, particularly the capabilities of a shoe to withstand one or more of the particular forces that it will be subjected to in play, are rarely mentioned. The basketball shoe will have more potential impact on both the health and the performance of a basketball player than any other item of equipment. Therefore, individual research by an athlete as to the best type of shoe is of paramount importance to competitive success.

Ankle anatomy and physiology; Athletic shoes; Basketball injuries; Foot: Anatomy and physiology.

SEE ALSO

Basketball shot dynamics The offensive object of basketball is to direct the ball through an 18-in (45.7 cm) hoop, which is supported by a rectangular backboard. There are a multitude of angles, deflections, spins, and trajectories that the shooter can utilize to be successful. Along with the often jaw-dropping, gravity-defying physical moves made by offensive players to take the ball to the basket, good shooters maintain consistent core fundamentals in the delivery of every successful basketball shot. The basketball hoop has a number of synonyms, including the basket, the hoop, the hole, the cylinder, and the bucket.

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positioned in a stiff, straight line from the hip to the ankle. Further, if the shot mechanism is begun with the knees in a flexed position, the player is quicker, more responsive, and will be able to jump higher than if the player’s feet are not correctly aligned. The shooter should be positioned in a slight crouch so that the muscles and structures of the hips, low back, and shoulders assist the body in generating lift on its jump. All sports have a variation of the ‘‘athletic position.’’ There are similarities between the baseball fielder’s crouch, the football linebacker stance, the hockey player skating stride, and others: bent knees, a slight flexion at the waist, head erect. The position of a basketball player preparing to shoot the ball is a variation. The ball will be positioned resting in the palm and supported by the fingers of the shooting hand, while the shooter’s other hand is located on top of the ball, above the shoulder and approximate eye level. The position of the ball aligns with the hand, shoulder, hip, knee to the foot to form a straight line. Shooting the ball from a lower position, such as at chest level, tends to result in the ball being pushed, and not directed, toward the basket. Pushing the ball tends to reduce the arc of the ball; the lower the trajectory, the less likely the ball will go through the basket (the opening available for the ball to enter is smaller when the arc is lower).

There are four basic kinds of basketball shots, including the jump shot, shown here. ª G RE G F I UME /N EWS POR T/C ORB I S

There are four basic kinds of basketball shots: the jump shot, the fade-away jump shot, the bank shot, and the foul shot. Each involves the same combination of shooting mechanics, and jumping from the floor. The lay-up, and its aerial extension, the slam dunk, are more simplified applications of the general shooting principles. Good shooting begins with footwork. While highly skilled players may possess the ability to contort their bodies while successfully shoot the ball, the shooting mechanism employed by most players will begin with the player’s feet planted in a position that will ensure that the ball is delivered from a stable base. The feet should be at a position that best supports the body, approximately shoulder-width apart. To anticipate movement and to create lift in the delivery of the shot, the player will be on the balls of feet, not flat-footed. The knees will also be flexed and not locked. To generate lift through the legs, the upper leg muscles and calves will not function optimally if the leg is

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In shooting position, the player is now ready to jump and deliver the shot in a smooth motion. From the ball position at approximately eye level, a good shooter will extend the shooting arm so that the basketball will not be released until the arm is fully extended. The shooting arm and the ball will be released when the shooter has reached the top of the jump. It is a simple mathematical proposition that a player who can jump 12 in (30 cm) off the ground from a determined position will be slightly closer to the hoop than a stationary, or set, shooter. The fingers, as the ball moves across the palm at the point of release, impart spin to the ball. Spin will tend to create favorable deflections off the rim and through the basket at the point where the ball makes contact. Because the ball is released from a position where the shooter’s vision can track the rim of the basket (target) and the ball simultaneously, the shooter’s aim will be improved, and the likelihood of a successful shot is increased. While it is possible to score with deficient mechanics (a fact proven regularly by less skilled or inconsistent players), in a sport where a top professional player will shoot 45– 50% from the field, mechanics and adherence to proper form by the shooter will separate success from mediocrity. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BASKETBALL: SLAM DUNK

Most shooters will seek to shoot the ball directly into the rim, often visualizing the ball entering just over the front of the rim. When the shooter is at an approximate 45 angle to the backboard, an effective shot is to utilize the backboard to bank the ball into the basket. Such shots have identical mechanics to a regular jump shot; the trajectory created by the ball deflecting from the backboard permits the ball to enter a slightly wider opening to the basket than exists without the bank. The fade-away is an offensive weapon calculated to create space between a smaller shooter and a defender. Instead of jumping in a line perpendicular to the floor, the shooter ‘‘fades’’ by directing himself away from the defender, and delivering the shot at the top of the backward arc of his jump. It is difficult for all but the most proficient shooters to make this difficult shot on a consistent basis; further, fade-away shooter reduce their own chances of securing a rebound on the missed shot. The foul shot, awarded to a player for a variety of fouls committed in basketball, is of critical importance to the success of a basketball team. Statistics from high-level university and international leagues confirm that teams that shoot foul shots well tend to win games. A foul shot, delivered from behind a line 15 ft (4.5 m) from the basket, is most effectively made with the shooter in a stable position behind the foul line. The mechanics of the foul shot should mimic those of all other shots with respect to foot position, knee bend, and the alignment of the ball relative to the line between foot and shooting hand. Most foul shooters develop a personal rhythm while preparing to shoot the ball. This rhythm assists the shooter in slowing the heart rate after intense sequences of play, relaxing the body while maintaining focus and concentration. As a rule, foul shooters have 10 seconds to take the shot once the ball is handed to them by the referee. SEE ALSO Basketball; Basketball: Slam dunk; Plyometrics; Sport psychology.

Basketball: Slam dunk The slam dunk is a simple maneuver in basketball, defined as the delivery of the ball through the rim of the basket, or cylinder, by one hand or by two. Dunking is a relatively easy shot for the tall player, given that the 10-ft-high (3 m) basketball rim can be touched by the many National Basketball Association WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

(NBA) players standing flat footed beneath it. The ability to dunk the ball is more often a function of leaping ability; many dunks in competitive play are made by players shorter than 6 ft 2 in (1.8 m). From a physiological perspective, the presence of a larger number of fast twitch fibers in the calf and thigh muscles, the muscle construction that is capable of speedy reactions, is an important factor in the leaping ability of a player. The basketball slam dunk: it is only worth two points, the same value as a medium-range jumper or a simple lay up. A consistent three-point shooter will have a greater value to a basketball team than a flamboyant slam dunker. The dunk is so often an exclamation point, but not the story: a slam dunk is rarely a tactic that will win a basketball game. However, in many respects the slam dunk has come to represent basketball proficiency in the public consciousness. Lisa Leslie, a 6 ft 5 in (1.9 m) Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) player, slam dunked the ball to much acclaim. Sports television highlight packages accentuate flashy dunks, as do basketball advertising and basketball shoe promotional packages. Many players acquired an identity through their proficiency as dunkers, even when they possessed other, more sublime playing skills. Men such as Julius ‘‘Dr. J’’ Erving, Darryl ‘‘Chocolate Thunder’’ Dawkins, a notorious backboard breaker in the early 1980s, Dominique Wilkins, ‘‘The Human Highlight Film,’’ and Michael ‘‘Air’’ Jordan are notable examples. It is these players who elevated the dunk to an exciting example of body control, an emphatic statement that transcends the two-point value the shot is awarded on the score sheet. In specific game situations, the slam dunk has tactical advantages. The first is the certainty that the delivery of the ball directly into the basket brings to an offensive play. Players are taught that on an offensive rebound, they must be ‘‘strong to the rim,’’ meaning they are not to risk handling the ball for any longer than is necessary. The securing of an offensive rebound, a quick step to the basket and the dunk achieves this end, generates a possible additional benefit if the offensive rebounder is fouled, which creates a free throw opportunity, as well as the twopoint basket. The second specific tactic involving the slam dunk is the use of the lob, or ‘‘ally oop,’’ pass, where the ball handler lobs the ball to a point above the basket. The lob is taken by a team mate, who leaps to take the pass and then to slam the ball through the basket. Properly executed, the ally oop is very difficult to defend.

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20 seconds. For this reason, basketball places its primary demands on the human body’s anaerobic energy system, with secondary reliance on the aerobic energy systems. In general terms, aerobic systems utilize oxygen to burn the bodily energy sources: first, glycogen (the source stored in the liver and muscles), next, fats, and lastly, proteins. Sports such as distance running and road cycling are aerobic sports. Anaerobic activities are those in which the body burns energy for the purpose of movement without utilizing oxygen; such sports usually require intense effort over a short period of time, such as sprinting or the pole vault. Basketball, as a sport of short, intense sequences, which reoccur over a longer period such as the course of a game or a practice, places stresses upon both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. For this reason, the most effective forms of basketball training develop the physical skills necessary to play the game by placing emphasis upon both energy systems. In previous basketball eras, it was thought that conditioning was best achieved in practice sessions that involved lengthy scrimmages, as well as running drills that were as much punishment as they were productive. Modern basketball training, as with the development of any higher level athletic skills, requires methods that incorporate fitness and sport-specific skills into each element of training. To some, the slam dunk represents basketball proficiency.

ª MI K E

BLA KE/ RE UTE RS/ COR BIS

Basketball; Basketball shot dynamics; Plyometrics.

SEE ALSO

Basketball strength and training exercises Basketball is a sport that builds competitive success upon training and strength conditioning programs that encompass a broad variety of physical requirements. Like soccer and rugby, the basketball player must be able to perform all aspects of the game to at least a fundamental level. The object of the game is to put the basketball through the opponent’s basket and to, conversely, prevent the opponent from scoring. Every player is engaged at some point in a game, either ball handling, passing, shooting, and/or defensive techniques. Studies by the National Collegiate Basketball Association (NCAA) have found that an average segment of play during a game will last between 12 and

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To best achieve the objects of the game, basketball places a premium of the a number of physical attributes including: quickness, lateral mobility, agility and balance, jumping ability, coordination, physical strength, and a combination of aerobic and anaerobic fitness. Practices will involve several different elements. Drills that emphasize rapid, well-balanced and controlled movements in all directions, with the player sliding in a crouched, athletic stance, are very effective. Basketball is a fluid game, and the player’s ability to react to changing situations on the floor will be founded upon a proper stance. It is sometimes said that there are three types of basketball players: the player with the one-dimensional, straight-backed stance; the player with the two-dimensional stance, using the same upright stance and the feet wider apart; and the three-dimensional player, with feet apart, knees bent, and the body center of gravity lowered into a stable crouch. As with any other athletic movement, a crouched position will tend to be more explosive, as the athlete can utilize the large muscle structures in the body core (hips, buttocks, and thighs). Drills that reinforce to the athlete that a lower and wider stance is ultimately a faster and stronger one will be useful. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DAVID ROBERT JOSEPH BECKHAM

Sample drills reinforce speed and control and include ‘‘slide’’ drills, in which the payer mimics fullspeed defensive coverage. Shooting and passing drills are carried out at full speed with specific practice targets. Jumping ability will be developed through specific drills based upon plyometric principles. This manner of training is calculated to build explosion when jumping on the floor. As such drills are typically done at levels at or near 100% effort, rest periods of 48 hours or more should be built into the training. During practice, the ratio of work to rest should be at least 1:3 to 1:5. Effective plyometric drills include hops from a squatting position, rapid step-ups, calf raises, and repetitive leaps. Stretching of the target muscle groups is of prime importance, both before and after this drill. Hand-eye coordination and player agility can often be enhanced through individual drills with the basketball. Two- and three-ball dribbling exercises, in which the player must move at full speed keeping the balls under control with a proper dribble, are examples. Basketball was invented as a non-contact sport; it has evolved into a discipline that has very pronounced physical elements. In the center, or post, and forward positions, the physical strength of a player will determine the success in securing rebounds, driving to the basket when the floor is congested with other players, dealing with an opponent’s blocking techniques, and other maneuvers where significant contact is permitted in the course of play. Overemphasis by a player upon muscle mass and muscular strength will likely result in the loss of other aspects of the game, particularly agility, coordination, lateral quickness, and speed in moving up and down the floor. The optimum balance between strength and agility for most players will be achieved through weight training that is primarily low weights with high repetitions, as well as core strength exercises such as Swiss ball, abdominal crunches, and lunge-type exercises. SEE ALSO

Basketball shoes; Plyometrics; Stretching and

flexibility.

David Robert Joseph Beckham 5/2/1975– ENGLISH SOCCER PLAYER

David Robert Joseph Beckham, nicknamed Becks, is an accomplished soccer (football) player from England. His playing prowess is renowned; he WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

has been a member of the English national team since 1996, and team captain since 2000. It is expected that he will retain the captaincy of the English squad in the 2006 edition of the World Cup of soccer. Aside from his soccer abilities, Beckham’s charisma has made him a sought-after marketing draw for a variety of companies. He has become a prime example of the fusion between sports, entertainment, and business. David Beckham was born May 2, 1975, in Leytonstone, in the east of London. His upbringing was not one of privilege; his father was a construction worker and his mother was a hairdresser. Soccer was uppermost in the household, particularly the allegiance to Manchester United. A skilled cross-country runner, Beckman inherited his parent’s passion for soccer. In his 2003 autobiography entitled Beckham: Both Feet on the Ground, he recounts spending endless boyhood hours at a local park with his father, honing the skills that would later bring him prominence, fame, and fortune. His soccer skills were evident early. By the age of 11, Beckham had already been identified as a player of potential. Just three years later, he was offered contracts to join both the Tottenham Hotspurs and the Manchester United football clubs. On his 14th birthday in 1989, he fulfilled a childhood dream by joining the ‘‘Man U’’ organization. Playing first with the club’s youth team, he was part of the victorious Football Association (FA) Youth Cup team of 1992. That same year, he appeared as a first team player in a Premier League game, and soon thereafter signed a professional contract with the team. After a season on loan to Preston North End in the 1994–1995 season to gain playing experience, Beckham rejoined the Manchester United first team in April 1995. Over the next several seasons, he established himself as a starting player and a midfielder of great talent and influence on the outcome of a game. His ability to score from a corner kick—a feat that requires the ball to bend as it moves through the air to enter the net—made Beckham famous. His celebrity off the pitch began in 1998 when he began dating Victoria Adams, then a member of the popular singing group, The Spice Girls. They married in July 1999, and now have three sons: Brooklyn (born March 4, 1999), Romeo (September 1, 2002), and Cruz (February 20, 2005). In the 1998–1999 season, Beckham was part of a remarkable Manchester United team, which captured the championship of the Premier League, the FA Cup, and the Champions League (which consists of teams from the United Kingdom, Europe, and Russia).

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DAVID ROBERT JOSEPH BECKHAM

David Beckham. Photo by Denis Doyle/Getty Images.

Winning this ‘‘treble’’ was a first in English football, which, as of 2006, has not been repeated. Despite these heroics, his ejection from a crucial game in the 1998 World Cup, which ultimately eliminated England from further competition, made Beckham the object of derision in his country. Over the next two seasons, the relationship between Beckham and Man U manager Sir Alex Ferguson began to deteriorate, with Ferguson publicly questioning Beckham’s commitment to the game and his teammates. Despite the controversy, his play for the club continued to be stellar and endorsement contracts multiplied. By 2002, a renegotiated soccer contract (which included extra payments for the club’s use of his image) and endorsement income had made him the highest-paid soccer player in the world. Nonetheless, his career at Manchester United ended in July 2003, when Beckham signed a four-year contract to play with Spain’s Real Madrid.

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As of 2006, Beckham remains with Real Madrid. His play has been alternately exhilarating and disappointing, and the club’s record has not met expectations. As he enters the final year of his contract, it is not known whether he will seek to remain with Real Madrid or join another club. David Beckham’s career has been remarkable. If, as expected, he captains the English team at the 2006 World Cup in Germany, he would be just the sixth player from England to represent his country at three of the competitions, and only the third player to captain a team at more than one World Cup. His accomplishments were recognized by being awarded the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in June 2003. Despite the disappointment of his years at Real Madrid, his performance at the Euro 2004 tournament (in which England was eliminated after he missed a crucial penalty kick) and his alleged and unsubstantiated personal improprieties, David Beckham remains a formidable marketing tool, as his contracts with WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BETA-2 AGONISTS

sporting goods giant Adidas and razor maker Gillette attest. He is globally popular as a soccer player and celebrity.

Behavior modification

SEE

Diet,

behavior modification

Joan Benoit Samuelson 5/16/1957– AMERICAN MARATHON RUNNER, MOTIVATIONAL SPEAKER, AUTHOR

Joan Benoit Samuelson is a long-distance runner. The highlight of her competitive marathon running career came at the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Olympics, when she captured the gold medal at the inaugural women’s Olympic marathon. Her victory was all the more impressive as it came very soon following arthroscopic surgery on one of her knees. Samuelson’s running career began in the 1970s in Maine, the state where she was born and where she has lived all her life. Initially a pursuit to help her rehabilitation from a broken leg sustained in a crosscountry skiing accident, running became her passion while in high school. She was the sole female on her high school cross-country squad. In 1979, while a senior in college, she entered the Boston Marathon as an unheralded and unknown athlete. Yet, she prevailed. Her winning time of 2 hours, 35 minutes was 10 minutes faster than the existing women’s record time. She won the Boston Marathon again in 1983, after recuperation from Achilles tendon surgery, in a world-record performance five minutes quicker than the previous women’s world-best.

trials to select the members of the United States Olympic team. Despite a victory in the 1985 Chicago Marathon, Samuelson’s post-Olympic career was filled with injuries. She did, however, qualify for the 1996 Olympic trials, finishing thirteenth in a time of 2 hours, 36 minutes, 54 seconds. Early in her running career, Samuelson was a relentless trainer, typically running up to 200 mi (322 km) each week (an average of over 28 mi [45 km] per day). Later, with the additional commitments of marriage and motherhood, she became an example of how a balance between family and athletic excellence was possible. Retirement from competition did not end Samuelson’s involvement with the sport. She is the author of two books based on running (Running Tide and Running for Women) and has coached the women’s cross-country team at Bowdoin College, her alma mater. She is also a motivational speaker and provides sports commentary. In 1998, as a means of generating financial support for several children’s charities in Maine, Samuelson organized a 10,000-m (6.2 mi) road race held in her hometown. The annual Beach to Beacon Road Race, held during the first weekend in August, has since become very popular, and attracts over 5,000 runners, including a stellar field of elite athletes. The race has become a tune-up for the world famous Falmouth Road Race, held the following weekend in Cape Cod (and which Samuelson won twice). Samuelson’s victory in the 1984 Olympics provided a tremendous boost for the public acceptance of arthroscopic surgery. At that time, conventional surgery was the norm for the repair of knee injuries. Recovery from such invasive surgery could take months and was painful. Her victories at the Olympic trials and the Los Angeles Olympics were turning points in convincing people of the benefits of arthroscopic surgery.

Samuelson’s victory time of 2 hours, 24 minutes, 52 seconds at the 1984 Olympic marathon was over one minute ahead of the next competitor. Surging to the front of the pack only three miles into the race, she never relinquished the lead, and prevailed over a field that included dominant women’s marathoners, including Norway’s Grete Waitz and Ingrid Kristiansen, and Rosa Mota of Portugal.

SEE ALSO

This performance was remarkable, coming so soon after knee surgery. Even more impressively, Samuelson’s arthroscopic surgery to repair a meniscus injury came just 17 days before the marathon

Beta-2-adrenoreceptor (beta-2) agonists are drugs that act as bronchodilators. The drugs stimulate the airways in the lungs (bronchi) to open wider, permitting more air to pass.

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

As of 2006, Samuelson lives with her family in Freeport, Maine.

Arthroscopy.

Beta-2 agonists

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The drugs are especially helpful to asthmatics, who can suffer from insufficient air supply to the lungs due to narrowing of the bronchi. Athletes who take beta-2 agonists can also improve their athletic performance, because of the increased infusion of air. However, this type of athletic enhancement is illegal. Beta-2 agonists such as salbutamol, salmeterol, terbutaline, and eformoterol mimic the effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline that are naturally produced in the body. The latter drugs stimulate changes in the body such as bronchial dilation, which help prepare the body to react for action (the ‘‘fight or flight’’ reaction). When beta-2 agonists enter the lung bronchi, they interact with a particular receptor on the surface of the lung tissue. It is this agonist interaction with beta-2 receptors that stimulates the expansion of the bronchi. The drugs are typically delivered to the lungs via an inhaler, although they can be delivered via an injection, as a vapor produced by a nebulizer, as a tablet, or in syrup form. Bronchodilation is maintained for various lengths of time, depending on the beta-2 agonist used. For example, salbutamol stimulates dilation within 30 minutes, with maximum dilation reached three or four hours later. Eformoterol acts more quickly, with dilation occurring within three minutes after application, and maximum dilation reached after one to two hours. Both agonists are long lasting, with dilation persisting for approximately 12 hours. Other beta-2 agonists produce effects for shorter time periods. Beta-2 agonists such as salbutamol have become a concern in sports. At high doses, the drug can act as an anabolic agent to promote gain in weight, mainly in the form of muscle. However, this increased strength and the increased oxygen intake comes with a risk of health damage. As of 2006, the World Anti-Doping Agency permits the use of select beta-2 agonists (salbutamol, salmeterol, terbutaline, and eformoterol) in athletic competition only by asthmatic athletics to prevent or treat exercise-induced asthma or bronchial constriction, and then only using inhalation. Oral and injected forms of beta-2 agonists are illegal. If levels of beta-2 agonist are detected upon testing, an athlete is required to demonstrate that the drug was used for asthma. SEE ALSO

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Archery; Beta-blockers; Biofeedback.

Beta-blockers Beta-blockers are drugs taken to block the action of a chemical produced in the body (a neurochemical) called noradrenaline. It is most commonly taken as a prescription medication by patients with heart problems. By binding to beta-1 or beta-2 receptors in arteries and in the heart muscle, the normal binding of noradrenaline to the same receptors is prevented, or blocked. This slows down or blocks completely the noradrenaline-induced transmission of messages between nerves and muscles or between different nerves. As a result of injesting beta-blockers, arteries become wider. This is beneficial particularly if an individual has a heart problem, since the heart’s demand for oxygen and blood is reduced and does not have to work as hard to pump blood through the body. As well, artery dilation can relieve chest pain (angina), irregular heartbeat, glaucoma, lessen the occurrence of migraines, and even reduce nerveinducing muscle twitches and shaking. The calming effect of beta-blockers on muscle action has made the drugs a popular, though illegal, choice of some athletes whose performance depends on balance (such as gymnastics) or a steady hand (archery, shooting, and biathalon). Because an athlete will tend to use beta-blockers at the same dose that is used for genuine therapeutic use, the drug will not be detected in suspiciously large quantities. It is at that point that an athlete’s past history becomes important. If an athlete has no history of heart trouble or migraines, for example, the presence of a beta-blocker in submitted urine or blood samples may be cause for suspicion. Beta-blockers can be taken orally in the forms of tablets or capsules, an injection, or as eye drops in the case of glaucoma medication. A variety of different beta-blockers are available by prescription. Examples include: acebutolol, atenolol, celiprolol, levobunolol, pindolol, and timolol. Some beta-blockers are designed to be selective; they block beta-1 receptors more than beta-2 receptors. Beta-1 receptors are involved in heart rate and beat strength. Nonselective beta-blockers block both the beta-1 and beta-2 receptors; the latter are important in the function of smooth muscles such as the heart. Athletics who seek the illegal benefits of betablockers will likely experience side effects that include drowsiness or fatigue, reduced circulation through the hands and feet, dizziness, and a dry WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DANIEL BIASONE

mouth. Some of these effects detract from athletic performance. Rarely, more serious side effects, including memory loss and impotence, can result.

Archery; Beta-2 agonists; Biathlon; Biofeedback; Gymnastics; Shooting.

SEE ALSO

Beta-carotene Beta-carotene is one of the class of over 600 carbon-based compounds known as carotenoids. Beta-carotene is found in a variety of plants, and provides the color to oranges and carrots. In nature, beta-carotene protects these food sources from the degrading effect of oxygen. Beta-carotene is a fatsoluble chemical, requiring the presence of fatty acids to assist in its absorption into the body. In addition to carrots, beta-carotene is abundant in broccoli and other green vegetables. Beta-carotene is very similar in its structure to vitamin A (also known as retinol), a chemical essential to human health. Vitamin A is of particular importance to both vision and healthy bone development. Beta-carotene acts as a precursor to vitamin A, where the body will use beta-carotene to manufacture vitamin A if a deficiency in the vitamin is detected. It is for this reason that beta-carotene is also known as a provitamin A. Beta-carotene has attracted significant attention in the medical community in recent years due to its recognized powers as an antioxidant. Antioxidants are a class of chemicals that are ingested into the body from a variety of food sources. Each has an ability to neutralize the effect of the chemical agents known as free radicals, whose electrochemical composition compels them to seek out molecules within the body from which more electrons can be taken, so as to convert the radical into a stable molecule. The most common and the most potentially destructive of the free radicals are those composed of unstable oxygen molecules, O2. The actions of the free radicals, if unimpeded, will trigger a chain reaction of electron thievery, as each molecule attempts to correct its own electron imbalance. These chain reactions are at the root of the cellular damage caused within the body that potentially leads to the formation of cancers, and is believed to precipitate aging. Antioxidants such as beta-carotene scavenge the cardiovascular system, neutralizing the O2 radical through a donation of an electron to the radical.

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The beta-carotene found in fruits and vegetables is a powerful antioxidant. ª E LEA NOR T HOM PS ON /CO RBI S

There is considerable debate in the scientific community as to the effect of additional dietary supplements of beta-carotene as antioxidants, as opposed to the ingestion of these chemicals through natural food sources. There is a clear correlation between the increased daily consumption of fruits and vegetables, and the lower risk of cancers and heart disease. SEE ALSO

Antioxidants; Dietary supplements; Nutrition.

Daniel Biasone 2/22/1909–5/25/1992 AMERICAN OWNER, PROFESSIONAL BASKETBALL TEAM

In 1946 Danny Biasone founded the Syracuse Nationals, a team that became a charter member of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Biasone was the initiator of one of the most influential rule changes in the history of the sport; Biasone devised the rule commonly referred to as the 24-second clock.

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The style of play in the NBA of the early 1950s was far different than the up-tempo and very athletic modern contests. The 48-minute game had no rule with respect to how long a team could keep possession of the ball before taking a shot. When playing a dominant offensive opponent, such as 6 ft 10 in (2m) center George Mikan, teams were inclined to ‘‘freeze’’ the ball, keeping possession for extended periods to keep the score down and to neutralize players such as Mikan. In one notable NBA game in 1950, the Fort Wayne team held the ball for an entire half of one game against Mikan’s Milwaukee team. Biasone and his fellow NBA owners realized that the slow and sluggish offensive tactics were not popular with their fans, and a legitimate fear arose among the league principals that professional basketball would not succeed as a spectator sport unless the pace of the game was quickened considerably. In 1954, Biasone devised a solution that was both simple and brilliant. He calculated that if a team was permitted 24 seconds within which to take a shot, if both teams used their maximum time allotment for each possession in a 12-minute quarter, each team would take 15 shots, or 60 for the game. Biasone reasoned that so long as shots were being taken within a set time, the fans would enjoy the pace of the game. The 24-second clock rule change was implemented in the 1954 season, bringing immediate results. The scoring average per NBA team went from 79 points to 93 points in the first year of the new rule. The various tactics employed by coaches and teams in the management of the 24-second clock by the offensive team have become an essential aspect of modern offensive basketball. The shot clock rule was later adopted, with differing time limits, by both FIBA, the governing body of international basketball, and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) of the Unites States. Biasone has been recognized throughout the history of the NBA as the man who may have saved the game from extinction with his prescience regarding how the game could be played more quickly. Biasone owned the Syracuse Nations from 1946 to 1963. Biasone was posthumously inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2000, in recognition of his contributions to basketball.

Basketball; FIBA: International basketball; National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).

SEE ALSO

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Biathlon The biathlon is an athletic event that combines cross-country skiing with rifle shooting. The event’s combination of cycles of rigorous cardiovscular exertion of skiing, followed immediately by the need for controlled breathing and steady nerves necessary for target shooting, is very challenging and demands a high level of physical fitness. A biathlon is a form of duathlon, a generic term that refers to a sporting event that is made up of two different athletic disciplines. However, the term biathlon refers to the specific wintertime combination of skiing and rifle shooting. A summertime biathlon also exists, which comprises cross-country running and rifle shooting. The origin of the biathlon was as a military training tool for soldiers in Norway’s army. Centuries ago, when today’s armored machinery was nonexistent, it was advantageous for Norwegian soldiers to learn how to quickly move about and do battle in the winter. Cross-country skiing would allow troops to move relatively swiftly and silently through rough terrain. When in position, they could use the rifles strapped to their backs for offensive or defensive action. This military training grew to include competitions. The first-known example was in 1767, and involved border guards from Norway and Sweden. As time went on, these competitions expanded to include rifle and ski clubs throughout Norway and other Scandinavian countries, and Switzerland. Aside from the pleasure of competition, the sport kept club members, many of whom could be called up for active military service, fit and trained. Biathlon first appeared at the Winter Olympics as a demonstration sport in 1924. Then, it was known as ‘‘military ski patrol.’’ By the next Olympics in 1928, the sport had been approved as an official medal sport. In the early appearance of the Olympic biathlon, only a few Scandinavian countries participated in the sport. As well, there were few agreed-upon rules. The biathlon languished and was dropped from the Olympics after the 1948 competition. Rather than the signal of the sport’s demise, its exclusion from the Olympics galvanized resolve to organize the biathlon. In 1948, the Union Internationale de Pentathlon Modern et Biathlon was formed to standardize the rules governing both the biathlon and pentathlon (a sport involving five track and field events). WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BICYCLE: BMX

A biathlon world championship was held in 1957, and the sport returned to the Winter Olympics in 1960 as a men’s event and in 1992 as a women’s event. In its original form, the biathlon consisted of a skiing over a 12.2-mi (20 km) course with four targetshooting stops between the fifth and eighteenth kilometers. At the first and third stops, each competitor shot while lying down. Then, the target was 9.8 in (25 cm) in diameter with an inner 4.9 in (12.5 cm) diameter ring. At the second and fourth stops, shots were taken while the competitor was standing. Then, because aiming the rifle was more difficult, the target was larger; a 17.7-in (45 cm) outer ring with an inner ring of 13.7 in (35 cm) in diameter. In more recent times, while the prone and standing shooting positions have been retained, the targets have been modified. As of the early 2000s, during each round of shooting, a competitor tries to hit five 1.7-in (45 mm) diameter targets positioned 4.5 in (115 mm) off of the ground and 164 ft (50 m) away, with only one shot per target permitted. The object of the biathlon is to complete the course in as short a time as possible. Shooting accuracy contributes to a quick time; originally, a shot that hit the outer rings of either target added one minute to a competitor’s time, while missing a target entirely added an extra two minutes. Currently for each one of the five targets missed, a competitor either has one minute added to the time or must ski around a 492-ft (150 m) penalty oval (each lap takes elite athletes from 20 to 30 seconds to complete), prior to reentering the race course. As well, a competitor is supplied with three extra rifle cartridges that he/she can use to hit a missed target without incurring a penalty. Once these extra cartridges have been used, penalty times/laps apply for any additional missed target. During the cross-country portion of a biathlon, athletes must carry their rifle and ammunition. As with other athletic equipment, biathlon rifles have been especially designed for the competition. The rifle stock is typically hollow to reduce the gun’s weight. No automatic or semiautomatic rifles are permitted; the rifle must be manually reloaded between shots. Modern Olympics added more varied distances and team relay events to the biathlon schedule. These include a sprint of 6 mi (10 km) for men and 4.6 mi (7.5 km) for women; individual 12.4 mi (20 km; men) and 9.3 mi (15 km; women); races where competitors begin separately; mass start races of 9.3 mi (15 km; men) and 7.7 mi (12.5 km; women); relays consisting WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

of teams of four competitors who each ski 4.6 mi (7.5 km) and have two target stops; and pursuit races of 7.7 mi (12.5 km; men) and 6 mi (10 km; women). In the latter, athletes begin the race according to their finishing times in a previous race, with slower competitors starting first. The object is to catch up and pass competitors during the race. Biathlon largely remains a sport of more northerly nations, although at the 1987 Calgary Olympics one competitor represented Puerto Rico. SEE ALSO

Beta-blockers; Shooting.

Bicycle: BMX The BMX bicycle is a small human powered machine originally designed to mimic the performance of the motorcycles built for off road racing and trail riding. These motorcycles are today referred to as motocross or Moto X motorcycles. The initial appeal of the BMX styled bicycles was the fact that the rider could emulate some of the movement of a motocross motorcycle at a fraction of the cost. BMX is today the generic description given to any of the bicycle motocross styled machines. The BMX is distinct in both style and construction from the larger, all-terrain mountain bike. The precise origins of BMX cycling are not certain. It is likely that as early as 1969 BMX bikes were being used in California by teenagers to ride on selfbuilt tracks that incorporated both straights and manmade bumps and moguls. The BMX historians point to the 1970 film ‘‘On Any Sunday’’ as the first public display of the capabilities of BMX machines. By 1974, there were full-fledged organizations in California to promote BMX racing. The international body that governs all BMX racing, the BMX Federation, was founded in 1981. The favored original BMX designs were short, solidly constructed frames with 20 in (50.8 cm) diameter wheels. The BMX bike placed the rider lower to the ground, making the bicycle easier to maneuver around the obstacles of a race course, as well providing the rider with an ability to better absorb the forces directed upwards into the bicycle frame and the rider. The seat is angled upwards from the frame, often at an angle of approximately 70 , to provide the rider with an upright body position. Most frames of higher performance BMX racing machines are constructed from aluminum. The tires on a BMX bike are constructed with an aggressive tread to assist the rider in obtaining traction on the dirt race courses.

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In recent years, the BMX bicycles have been adapted for use as freestyle performance machines. BMX bicycles, with their low profile and handling characteristics, are used on skateboard facilities such as half pipes. BMX riders perform stunts involving the bicycle being used in jumps and flips. Where BMX racing had definite elements of danger created by the speeds of the bicycles and the unpredictability of the dirt racing surfaces, BMX freestyle was a bona fide extreme sport. As with any of the sports in the extreme classification, BMX freestyle is primarily aimed at the gratification of the rider and the conquering of the risks assumed in the freestyle routine. SEE ALSO

Cycling; Cycling gears; Extreme sports.

Biofeedback Biofeedback is a term that describes two distinct sports science concepts. Biofeedback is a methodology used to obtain data relating to various aspects of bodily function in athletic performance. Biofeedback is also a training and coaching method. As a methodology, biofeedback is a monitoring process by which different kinds of equipment are used to obtain information concerning a number of different functions controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Biofeedback data will commonly include heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and other quantifiable features of human performance. Biofeedback also describes the ongoing relationship between the physical performance of the human body in conjunction with the thinking and the emotional processes of the subject. In this sense, biofeedback is a training and coaching method, one that is designed to alter the behavior of the subject; biofeedback is intended to permit an athlete to acquire a skill that may be used to best manage the relationship between physical and mental performance. In the data-gathering sense, biofeedback utilizes a number of different tools. The most common of these devices is a heart monitor, which collects data with respect to heart rate and physical performance. Heart monitors are portable devices that do not interfere in the performance of an athlete to any significant degree. Sophisticated biofeedback technologies include the measurement of heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen uptake (VO2max, an expression as to how much oxygen can be processed by the body at different stages of exertion), and the perspiration rate (an indicator of how efficiently the thermoregulatory system functions under variable stresses). In addition

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to these factors, an electroencephalograph (EEG) may be employed to monitor the brain wave activity, coupled with an electromyography (EMG), which measures the amount of tension and electrical activity in the muscles at different times, when subjected to varying stresses. The data obtained through these biofeedback measurements may be readily compared with the results of other physical tests of autonomic function, such as the analysis of urine and blood. One of the prominent biofeedback applications employed by athletes is relaxation techniques. The ability of an athlete to relax in the stressful circumstances of competition is an important component of the overall emotional control required of the athlete in competition. The development of a relaxation strategy for the individual athlete begins with the biofeedback testing to provide the physical data concerning the function of the autonomic nervous system of the athlete. The data must be gathered in a fashion that simulates the athlete’s actual competitive performance. Once obtained, the information can be plotted in comparison to actual progress made by the athlete from the start to the finish of the simulated competition. The scientist or trainer conducting the testing then evaluates the results in conjunction with the athlete. The athlete must provide their subjective input concerning the various parts of their performance. The question for the athlete is ‘‘How did I feel at each segment of the competition? How do my subjective feelings about my performance compare with the measured heart rate, perspiration rate and other data?’’. This process permits the athlete and the trainer to compare the objective data gathered through testing of the athlete’s autonomic function with the athlete’s subjective assessment of his or her performance. By comparing objective biofeedback data with subjective athletic impression, the athlete can develop strategies to combat any competitive areas where they feel increased stress or nervousness. As an example, biofeedback techniques can be employed to assist a long jumper who repeatedly commits a foot fault (where the jumper’s foot goes past the end of the jump board, rendering the jump illegal). A trainer, with the athlete performing a simulation of the event, will use the biofeedback data to identify the precise moment of excess tension in the athlete’s body during the jump sequence to assist the athlete in developing a strategy to maintain a consistent emotional level throughout the jump. The moments of excess tension will be likely be apparent in the testing through indicators such as increased WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BARRY BIXLER

heart rate and breathing function, among other data gathered. To settle this athlete, a number of relaxation techniques may be employed, including deep breathing techniques and the use of positive mental images by the athlete as an aid to concentration. Breathing exercises are intended to relax the jumper before the approach by the athlete to the runway leading to the jump. Quick and irregular breathing patterns are evidence of stress and the corresponding invocation of the body’s ‘‘flight or fight’’ response, which also signifies an elevation in levels of the hormone adrenaline. An overly stimulated long jumper is much more likely to fault than a jumper who is calm and composed. The rhythm of regular breathing is designed to settle the athlete; imagery techniques such as directing the athlete’s attention to the sensation of the air on the jumper’s body as a successful jump is performed, or the sensation of the sand in the landing pit on the jumper’s entry, create a sense of focus and concentration for the athlete on the event at hand. Biofeedback can also be used to assist an athlete in the planning of future training sessions. The determination of an athletes maximum heart rate, a target against which individual workout intensity can be planned. At moderate training levels, the desired heart rate might be 65% of the athlete’s maximum rate; in more intense workouts, the athlete might seek to achieve a heart rate at 90% or more of the maximum. In warm weather environments, urine and perspiration samples can be tested to determine whether the athlete’s diet has sufficient sodium or other electrolytes commonly lost through the body’s fluid elimination. This biofeedback data assists both the athlete and coaches to develop an appropriate hydration strategy, to ensure that the athlete’s fluid and electrolyte intake remains sufficient both before, during, and after all training and competitive sessions. There is a powerful interrelationship between biofeedback techniques and the concept of visualization. Visualization is a technique that is intended to reduce stress, to enhance relaxation, and to sustain focus by directing the attention of the athlete to a specific aspect of the athlete’s routine or performance. In this fashion, biofeedback can assist the athlete in developing mental cues to help eliminate distractions such as crowd noise or movements. Auditory (hearing) clues can also be employed as the trigger to induce the athlete to maintain the desired level of autonomic function. The type of clue that will function best for a particular athlete will be WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

tailored to the athlete, as a result of the biofeedback process; there are no set rules as to which type of clue is likely to work best. In shooting sports, athletes seek to reduce their heart rate through deep breathing and other relaxation methods, as they are in their most physically stable position to deliver a shot when their body is between heartbeats. The more efficiently the shooter can breathe and reduce the heart rate, the quicker the shots can be fired. In some sports, biofeedback can be incorporated with the use of physical simulators to assist the athlete. Bobsledders are among the athletes who use a computer controlled simulator to precisely replicate the sensations that they experience on particular bobsled courses; the biofeedback data such as heart rate and its relationship to the effect of the gravitational forces experienced by the bobsledders is gathered as the simulation proceeds. When the bobsledder knows that a difficult corner or other physical element of the course lies ahead, he can anticipate that he will become more anxious or tense and prepare himself accordingly. The successful use of biofeedback data is dependent upon both the quality of the physiological testing of the athlete, combined with motivation of the athlete to use the biofeedback process effectively. The gathering of data alone will not provide a remedy to deficiencies in athletic performance.

Eccrine sweat secretion; Heart rate monitors; Heart rate: Target heart rate; Metabolic response; Visualization in sport.

SEE ALSO

Barry Bixler 6/10/1944– AMERICAN AEROSPACE ENGINEER

Barry Bixler is an American aerospace engineer who has made two significant contributions to modern sport science: first as the developer of a computer simulation used to study swimming strokes and second in the analysis and testing required in the development of the Speedo full body swim suits now worn by elite level racers. Computational fluid dynamics, or CFD, is the name of the software and related processes developed by Bixler to create effective simulations of swimming strokes. The purpose of CFD is to assist coaches and swimmers in developing optimal efficiency of the swim stroke. The previous methods used to analyze a swim stroke required expensive

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and time consuming physical simulations, using apparatuses such as wind tunnels and specially constructed pools. CFD is a sophisticated computer model that can account for variables such as hand and arm position, the angle of entry of the swimmer’s stroke into the water, and water turbulence. The animation involved in CFD can also take into account the individual contours of a swimmer’s body in the analysis. Since 2000 the United States Olympic swim team has made extensive use of the Bixler CFD product in the training of its athletes. The contributions of Bixler to the development of full-body swimsuits are natural extensions of his professional career in aerospace engineering. Bixler devoted considerable research to the effect of the drag forces exerted by water upon swim racers. Bixler sought to create a design that would reduce the amount of time that individual particles of water remain in contact with the swimmer’s body as the swimmer moves through the water. The shorter the time that water contacts the swimsuit surface, the less drag force is experienced. In elite swim competitions, where races are often decided by fractions of seconds, such technological applications have the potential to significantly influence the outcome of the race. Bixler and other researchers developed the idea of a cross-sectional ridge on the swim suit, designed to push the water in contact with the swimsuit away from the swimmer; this technology was incorporated into the Speedo Fastskin FSII in 2004; the technology is often compared with the skin of a shark, as the Fastskin surface is manufactured with similar contours, ridges known as denticles. The Speedo swimsuit has received significant international acclaim in the international swimming community. Bixler was recognized as contributing to one of ‘‘America’s 100 Best Innovations’’ for 2004.

Computer simulations as a training tool; Swimming; Swimming pool chemistry; Triathlon.

SEE ALSO

Blisters The blister is an irritating feature of sports participation, most commonly arising on the feet or hands of the athlete, where the athletic activity creates friction between an item of equipment making repeated contact against or along the surface of the skin. Often a very small object relative to the size of the athlete, blisters at their most innocuous are a distraction to the athlete as a result of their persis-

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tence; at their worst, they are an avenue for infection to enter the body and cause more serious harm. The most frequent type of blister found in athletic participation is the friction blister, caused when the epidermis, or outer layer, of the human skin becomes separated from the dermis, the layer of skin below. This blister will result in a bubble-shaped lump under the skin surface. The bubble is taut, filled with serum, a clear, thin fluid, formed by its leakage into the blister bubble from the immediately adjacent skin tissues. Common causes of friction blisters include: poorfitting shoes or socks; an orthotic or other device is used for the first time (creating a different wear against the skin of the foot); instances when an athlete is required to handle an object that tends to move or slide through the hands (such as the handlebars of a mountain bike, ropes and winches in sailing, or a tennis racquet); or participating sports in which an object is thrown repetitively, such as a pitch in baseball. The best treatment for a typical friction blister is to leave the blister alone. As annoying as this injury may be, a blister, properly bandaged and protected with an adhesive such as moleskin or protective gloves, will heal best if it remains intact. There is a temptation to puncture the blister dome, to drain off the seum beneath. This act increases the risk of infection entering the skin and removes the protective quality of the fluid. A small blister (less than 0.39 in [1 cm]) is known as a vesicle; larger blisters are referred to as bullae. If the blister is punctured, or within two to three days pus is noticed in the blister, or the blister appears red or is sensitive to the touch, there is a strong likelihood that the blister has become infected and the injury should be attended to by a physician. The second most common form of athletic blister is the aptly described blood blister. This type of skin injury results from either a direct blow to the skin, or when the skin is pinched as a result of being caught between two harder objects. An example of the pinching action causing the formation of a blood blister includes the hand of a cyclist caught in the chain of bicycle while making a repair. As with the friction blister, the puncture of the blood blister surface to drain away the underlying fluid and reduce the apparent pressure on the surface of the skin is not recommended. A significant risk of bacteria entering the puncture opening will result. The blister, which typically will manifest itself very quickly after a pinch or blow, should be treated with WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BLOOD DOPING

Other forms of blisters may arise in athletic activity, although less frequently than by friction or by pinching of the skin. Such problems occur chiefly through allergic reaction, through exposure to a chemical, or through contact with a poison such as poison ivy or poison sumac. Contact with such substances will cause the skin to blister and may be very contagious. Exposure to excessive sunlight, extreme cold, or extreme heat may also result in blistering to the skin.

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations; First aid kits for sports; Skin and muscle blood flow during exercise.

SEE ALSO

Blood doping

Tennis players often develop friction blisters on their hands and fingers from holding their racquets. TH OMA S COE X/A FP/ G ETTY

Blood doping is defined by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) as the use of products that enhance the uptake, transport, or delivery of oxygen to the blood. Blood doping was a relative latecomer to emerge into the media glare of international athletics from the underworld of illegal performance-enhancing techniques. Unlike old-fashioned stimulants such as benzedrine or caffeine, or the numerous varieties of muscle-building anabolic steroids available to athletes since the 1960s, such as nandralone, blood doping seemed to be more of a gray art than a black one.

IMAGES

ice and it should be kept clean and protected by a bandage that is changed on a daily basis. A blood blister will typically take between seven and 14 days to resolve. If the blister is so large that there is interference in the normal function of the body part affected, the blister may be drained and treated; ideally, such a procedure should only be carried out in the sterile confines of a medical office. If conducted at home, the athlete should thoroughly clean and dry the affected area. Then a needle should be heated and used to penetrate the side of the blister to drain its content. Once drained, an antibiotic ointment should be applied; the dressing of the blister should be changed and the antibiotic reapplied daily. Foot blisters are reduced, if not prevented, through careful attention to the fit of the shoes and socks to be used for the particular activity. Socks that direct perspiration away from the skin surface, a process known as ‘‘wicking,’’ are also effective in blister reduction, as is the wearing of two layers of socks, one thick and one thin. In demanding, highly repetitive sports such as distance running, a layer of petroleum jelly applied between the runner’s toes will reduce the degree of friction on the skin. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The more muted response in international athletics to blood doping practices has its origins with Finnish distance runner and four-time Olympic gold medalist Lasse Viren, the man believed to be the first successful practitioner of increasing his red blood count to correspondingly improve his body’s ability to transport oxygen. After winning the 5,000-m and 10,000-m races at the 1972 Olympics, Viren raced with indifferent results in events leading up to the 1976 Olympics. At the games, Viren repeated as the gold medalist in his 1972 events, setting a world record in the 10,000-m event. Two days later, Viren finished fifth in the marathon (26.2 mi [42.2 km]), despite never having run a marathon before. Viren’s astounding achievement led many observers to conclude that Viren had done something illegal to have so dramatically boosted his performance. Long after the events of the 1976 Olympics, it was determined that Viren had likely aided his performance through blood doping, acts that were not then illegal under Olympic rules: blood doping would not be banned until 1986. Besides the WADA definition of blood doping as the use of products that enhance the uptake, transport, or delivery of oxygen to the muscles, blood doping is also the use of blood or red blood cell products, of any

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origin, other than for legitimate medical treatment. Blood doping may be illegally used to increase red blood cell mass in an attempt to improve the amount of oxygen that can be delivered to the muscles in endurance events. Examples of products that enhance the uptake, transport, or delivery of oxygen include, but are not limited to, erythropoietin-modified hemoglobin products (or related substances), such as hemoglobin-based blood substitutes. Blood doping is an expression that conjures visions of injecting or introducing foreign material into the blood system. A more accurate term to describe the practice might be blood building. At its most elemental, blood doping is a process by which the amount of erythrocytes (red blood cells) is artificially increased. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a red-colored protein that is rich in iron. The hemoglobin within each red blood cell is the carrier of oxygen within the bloodstream. In sports such as distance running, cycling, and cross-country skiing, the body must rely primarily upon its aerobic energy system (also known as the mitochondrial energy system) to sustain the activity. The oxygen inhaled is used by the body to breakdown glucose (a sugar that initially is stored in either the muscles or the liver) into energy. The greater volume of oxygen that can be transported by the hemoglobin in the red blood cells, the more efficient the energy conversion process within the body. An increase in the number of red blood cells is an increase in this efficiency. The body will naturally increase the production of red blood cells in two circumstances. When the body is at a high altitude, there is less oxygen available to it than at sea level; as a consequence, the kidneys trigger the production of a hormone known as erythropoietin (EPO), which will in turn stimulate the body to produce a larger number of red blood cells. The body will also increase the amount of red blood cells, over time, where the muscle mass of the body has been increased and is subjected to strenuous training. The additional muscle mass creates a requisite need for greater energy, requiring additional oxygen to be transported. There is no question that the increase of red blood cells in an athlete’s system will likely improve athletic capacity to transport oxygen, and therefore the athlete functions with greater efficiency in competition. Blood doping, which is also known by the medical term induced erythrocythemia, has involved two techniques. Autotransfusion physically removes the blood from the bloodstream of the athlete and stores it to be returned to the system at a later time. The other technique of blood doping is the injection of a synthetic form of EPO.

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A typical autotransfusion will be performed between two and three months prior to the target competition. The process begins with the withdrawal of between approximately 500 ml and 1,800 ml of blood from the athlete. The blood is placed in a centrifuge, a machine that separates the plasma, the fluid component of blood, and the red blood cells. The plasma is immediately returned to the athlete through an intravenous procedure to help maintain an optimum fluid level. The red blood cells are packaged and placed in frozen storage. Prior to the target competition (typically between one to seven days in advance), the red blood cells will be intravenously returned to the body. Research regarding the effect of autotransfusion techniques suggests that the red blood count will be increased by up to 20%. In some instances, this form of blood doping has involved the athlete receiving the red blood cells of another athlete who has the same blood type. The athlete’s chief difficulty before competition with the autotransfusion process was the likelihood of anemia (a shortage of iron in the blood), resulting from the removal of a significant amount of red blood cells, which would make continued high-level training for the target competition difficult. The intravenous process also carries the risk of the needles or equipment being shared, and the consequent exposure to contagious blood-borne disease such as HIV. Further, the introduction of the large volume of red blood cells through autotransfusion places the athlete at risk of having blood that will clot too readily, which increases the chance of a stroke, heart attack, or pulmonary embolism (blood clots in the lungs). Further, the likelihood of dehydration occurring during an endurance event is high; dehydration reduces fluid levels, with a corresponding impact on blood volume, which makes the increased viscosity, or thickness, of the blood more pronounced. With the development of synthetic EPO in the mid-1980s, the injection of this hormone replaced autotransfusion as the preferred method to increase red blood cell counts in an athlete. EPO stimulates the body’s bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. The effects of EPO are substantially the same as those achieved by autotransfusion. EPO had been an especially attractive blood doping technique because a reliable test to detect it has only existed since 2000. As with all elements of the efforts of international anti-doping regulatory agencies such as WADA, for every test designed to detect the presence of illegal substances in the bodies of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BLOOD DOPING

A lab technician at work in the Doping Control Laboratory of Athens during the final days before the start of the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, Greece. PH OTO B Y I A N WALDIE /G ETT Y IM AG ES .

athletes, parallel forces are seeking ever-ingenious ways to foil the testers. Since the EPO test was first proven effective in 2000, a number of products have been developed to mask the presence of EPO, through seemingly expanding the plasma level in the blood. Plasma expanders, as they are known, represent a further testing target in EPO usage. EPO has become a focal point in several investigations into illegal blood doping. There has been a number of high-profile investigations regarding prominent international cyclists, including Tyler Hamilton and Lance Armstrong. Three Olympic cross-country skiers from Finland tested positive for a variant of EPO, darbepoetin, at the 2002 Winter Olympics. Testing is carried out on one of two reasons: to determine whether EPO is present in the urine of the athlete, or to measure the level of hemoglobin (red blood cell protein) in the blood in an effort to assess whether the level is within normal ranges. Current EPO testing is not susceptible to either masking techniques or false/positive results. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

One variation on the use of EPO was a scheme disclosed during the 2002 Tour de France competition by Spanish cyclist Jesu´s Manzano. Manzano alleged that he was approached by his team to use the blood of a relative who had taken EPO, and thus Manzano himself obtain the benefit of red cellenriched blood without risking a positive test for the hormone itself. Blood doping and EPO usage represent an attitudinal shift in sport ethics that has coincided with the creation of WADA and with the heightened interest in the illegal use of all forms of performance-enhancing substances. From the accomplishments of Lasse Viren in 1972 and 1976, the general societal view of cheating in athletics has become broader and less tolerant. Blood doping is a less dramatic, and arguably more natural, performance enhancement than using anabolic steroids; both are now clearly perceived as violations of the spirit of what athletic competition must be.

Acclimatization; Blood volume; Cardiovascular system; Doping tests; EPO.

SEE ALSO

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BLOOD VOLUME

Blood flow

Skin and muscle blood flow during exercise SEE

Blood volume As a general matter of health, optimum blood volume is essential to the proper function of the body’s cardiopulmonary and circulatory systems. Blood is a significant mass within the body, with an average volume for an adult of 5 l. liters (l); blood typically represents approximately 8% of body mass. For an elite-level endurance athlete, the blood volume may be 30% greater than that of the average adult. Blood is composed of solid and liquid elements. Plasma, composed of 90% water, is the liquid that transports various types of dissolved particles as well as blood cells. The cells contained the human blood stream are erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. Erythrocytes are the red blood cells that contain hemoglobin, the protein that transports oxygen within the body, as well as carry the waste carbon dioxide produced by the body. Leukocytes are the white blood cells that are responsible for attacking infection and other hostile organisms within the body. There are five different types of white blood cells operating within the bloodstream. Platelets are the colorless bodies that adhere to one another to create blood clots that stop bleeding both in exterior wounds as well as internal bleeding. The body regulates blood volume through the operation of the kidneys. When the kidneys determine that the blood volume is too high, water and sodium are excreted into the urine. To reverse this process, the kidney will retain sodium and increase water levels within the body. As blood, through plasma, is 90% water, this process has an immediate impact upon blood volume. The relationship between blood volume and blood pressure is an important one. Blood pressure is a function of the amount of blood pumped by the heart and the degree of resistance to the flow of blood made by the arteries. The circulatory system, the interconnected series of arteries, veins, and capillaries through which blood flows in the body, has a number of internal mechanisms by which blood pressure is controlled. When blood pressure is too great, the heart is required to work harder than is desirable, among other effects. When blood pressure is too low, it may be indicative of low blood volume, or other conditions. Increased blood volume can cause a corresponding high blood pressure.

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Blood volume is of particular interest to an endurance athlete. One of the first physiological changes observed in an athlete who begins an endurance training program is an increase in blood volume. This volume increase is the body’s response to the demands placed upon it by this type of training. Greater amounts of oxygen are required to be transported by the red blood cells, along with greater demands internally for fluid, due to increased needs to cool the body through sweating. The legitimate increases in the blood volume of an endurance athlete will be the result of determined and focused training. The natural expansion of blood volume can be enhanced through altitude acclimatization, or altitude training, as well as through heat training. The decreased amount of oxygen in high altitudes stimulates the body into the production of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO) made in the kidneys. EPO then triggers the production of more red blood cells to transport sufficient oxygen to make up the deficiencies at altitude. Significant blood volume benefits from altitude training occur within one to three months of commencement; the benefits are retained on a declining basis for up to three months. When endurance athletes train in temperatures in excess of 77 F (25 C), the body will become accustomed to retaining the mineral sodium, which is commonly excreted through the skin’ pores when the body is exposed to significant heat (sweating). The greater the level of sodium remaining in the body, the greater the amount of water that will be retained by the body, which has the effect of maintaining blood volumes. Blood volumes will be increased through hot weather training within 14 days. Since the relationship between blood volume, oxygen transport ability, and endurance performance became well established, athletes have used illegal methods to increase blood volume. In recent years, these efforts have centered on the injection of a synthetic form of EPO, to increase red blood cell production. A related class of pharmaceuticals, known as plasma expanders, also achieved the goal of greater blood volume. EPO and plasma expanders are prohibited substances in international competitions and world championships; detection of such substances in the urine samples of athletes will disqualify them, as well as subject them to a suspension from competition. Unless the person illegally ingesting these substances possessed a high baseline of physical conditioning, such as a very fit, highly trained endurance athlete, the additional red blood cell and blood volume capabilities these techniques afforded would be WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BOBSLED

negligible. Further, artificial increases to the red blood cell levels in the bloodstream expose the user to greater risk of stroke, due to the denser, more viscous nature of the modified blood. SEE ALSO Acclimatization; Blood doping; Cardiovascular system; EPO; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

Bobsled Sleds and sleighs have been a part of the winter transportation used in cold climates for many hundreds of years. Two thin runners, first constructed of wood and later of steel, are an efficient device for travel over snow or ice. The downward force of the weight supported by the sled is applied over the entire length the runners, which reduces the friction. At the Swiss resort town of St. Moritz in 1897, the bobsled was used for the first time. Visitors rode the invention for fun and recreation, descending along a natural ice track that was available on a hill at the resort. The early machines were simply a crude steering device attached to the runners of a sled; the name bobsled (spelled bobsleigh in Europe) derived its name from the rocking or bobbing motion that the occupants of the sled made in their attempts to make the sled go faster. It is a footnote of history that the name was the result of poorly applied science, as the laws of physics support the proposition that when sliding downhill, the less motion inside the sled, the less deviation from the optimal path of travel. The International Bobsleigh and Toboggan Federation, known by its French language acronym of FIBT, was founded in 1923. The related but distinct sport of skeleton racing, which employs a small sled operated by a single racer propelled headfirst down the race course, is also governed by the FIBT. The bobsled event was a part of the inaugural Winter Olympics in 1924. An annual bobsled World Cup circuit gained popularity in the 1980s, where the competitors race in a series that declares an annual world champion, in both two-man and four-man categories. Once exclusively a male sport, women’s bobsled became popular in the 1990s and is now included as a two-person category at the Olympics. The modern bobsleds are a product of intense technological development, where science operates to the very limit of the prescribed rules of the sport. The two-man sleds are a maximum of 8.3 ft (2.7 m) long, and weigh 858 lb (390 kg); the four-man sleds are 11.8 ft (3.5 m) long, weighing a maximum of 1,386 lb (630 kg); the permitted weights are that of crew WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

and sled combined. The steel runners must not be lubricated or heated in any fashion that would create less friction as the sled travels along the track. The modern bobsled run is an artificial ice track, constructed with a series of banked turns and straight sections. The modern St. Moritz run is a typical bobsled track configuration, with a length of 1.05 mi (1,772 m), a vertical drop of 399 ft (129 m), and an average grade of 8.1%. A four-man bobsled will typically reach a top speed of approximately 85 mph (140 km/h) during a run. The aerodynamics of the sled and the crew are crucial to bobsled performance. The sleds are a constantly evolving shape, a product of both racing and wind tunnel technology concerning the minimizing of drag on the sled. Drag is the force of the air resistance applied to both the bobsled and its crew as it moves through the air. The surface of the sled also generates skin friction, which can reduce the speed of the sled. The sleds for this reason are sleek and aerodynamically efficient; the crew members behind the driver take positions where their heads are below the line of the driver’s head, who sits at a height where only the eyes are above the top of the sled. The crew all wear sleek helmets, with uniforms constructed from materials that also reduce drag. Bobsled speed is a result of the power developed at the start and the piloting skills of the driver along the course. The start is initiated by the push from the gate, over a 165 ft (50 m) distance, within which the bobsled is pushed as hard as is possible, with the crew members ‘‘loading’’ into the sled in a synchronized sequence. As a general rule, every 0.1 seconds lost at the start, a cumulative 0.3 seconds will be lost in finishing time. The crew members wear specialized shoes with which to gain traction on the ice. Once loaded, the race is the responsibility of the driver, who must pilot the sled through the various angles and curves of the course. A driver often does not reach a competitive peak until after 10 or more years of competition, as the subtlest of driving errors in the selection of the line of the bobsled through a curve can mean the hundredths of seconds between victory and a fifth place finish. Bobsled is scored cumulatively, meaning that the total time for four runs is the measure of the competition. Drivers will typically spend hundreds of hours per year studying the courses where they will race. Modern bobsled simulators have made this aspect much easier, as the simulators may be programmed with the specifications of any bobsled run in the world, and the driver can pilot the simulator over the virtual course. Much like a flight training simulator, the devices can

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BODY COMPOSITION AND WEIGHT CONTROL

Body composition and weight control Body composition is the aggregate of the composite parts of the human structure. The body is made of water (as contained in both intracellular and extracellular formats, the latter being primarily blood plasma), fats, proteins, stored carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. The chief divisions of body composition are lean body mass and body fat, often expressed as the percentage of body fat. Lean body mass is the total of the internal organs, skin, bones, connective tissues, and muscle. Each of these structures is formed from one or more of the body’s essential ingredients. Lean body mass components are each active organisms, all of which consume energy at all times, either through function, as in the case of an internal organ or system; or through fueling and sustenance, as required by muscles, connective tissues, and bones.

The U.S. Bobsled Team at the 2005 World Cup Race.

P H OTO BY

EZRA S H AW/GE TTY IMA GE S .

replicate the effect of gravity (g force) on the driver, which on a world-class run will sometimes exceed 4.0 g forces. All members of a crew must be extremely fit. However, the drivers’ responsibilities create a specialized role for them, and they are not expected to be as powerful as the crew. Given the paramount importance of the starting push, the crew must be very fast and very powerful. In recent years, a number of former 100 m sprinters and American football players have been recruited into the bobsled for this reason. The bobsled start is a classic anaerobic exercise, lasting no more than approximately six seconds. Repetition of the sprinting starts, weight training directed at the development of muscle mass and strength (the heavier the crew, the lighter the sled and the easier the sled is to push faster), and plyometrics exercises to enhance explosion are all a part of bobsled physical training.

Computer simulations as a training tool; Exercise, high intensity; Strength training.

SEE ALSO

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Body fat is an expression that has developed a negative connotation in recent years, as elements of Western society become more conscious of factors that tend to impair general health; excess body fat is a contributor to many types of human illness and disease. Body fat is a natural part of healthy human function, essential to good health when in the correct proportion to lean body mass. The determination of the ideal proportion of lean body mass to body fat is not possible to a mathematical certainty. As a general proposition, body fat is defined as the dietary fats stored in the specialty cells of the body known as adipose tissues. Adipose tissues are predominant on females in the abdomen, hips, thighs, and breasts, while males have a greater proportion on the lower abdomen, chest, and buttocks. Body fat is also stored in both sexes near a number of internal organs; the amount of body fat stored in this fashion increases after age 35. The human body is constructed in such a fashion that this additional body fat serves to protect and insulate the body; it is excess amounts of body fat that pose significant health concerns. Body composition is also influenced by genetic factors. Body types can be classified as three general types: mesomorphic, a tall, muscular build; ectomorphic, a taller, thin, lightly boned build; and endomorphic, a shorter, stockier, rounder build. The correct proportion of body fat for an individual must be assessed considering a person’s overall general health, age, gender, and level of physical activity. The so-called ideal weight is therefore WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BODY FAT

variable, even between persons with similar builds. By way of very general boundaries, a healthy athletic male will expect to have a body fat percentage of 10% or less; a similar female, due to the genetic differences between male and female body composition, might possess body fat in the range of 14% to 18%. At the opposite end of the health spectrum, the obese male and female will exceed 30% body fat. There are a multitude of diets advertised as assisting in the reduction of body fat, and consequently, overall weight loss. In considering the benefits of such diets, it is important to consider how the body naturally uses foods. A governing rule of all bodily functions is the principle of seeking balance, a concept known as homeostasis. With weight control, where the amount of physical activity requires energy equal to that available from the amount of food consumed, the body will remain at a constant weight. When the amount of food consumed exceeds the body’s energy requirements, the body will gain weight, and the excess energy supply will be stored as body fat. When the energy requirements of exercise exceed the energy available through the food consumed, the body will, over time, use its stored body fat energy supply. This relationship is unalterable. The methods by which an individual can measure present body fat composition are varied, from the low technology and highly inaccurate body mass index (BMI) to hydrostatic weighing. The BMI is a calculation of the person’s total body mass divided by the product of height and weight. The BMI calculation is then assessed in relation to a scale. The BMI cannot provide a concrete body fat figure for an individual because the index does not involve any direct measurement. Skin fold measurement is conducted using skin calipers to measure the thickness of the skin fold in the upper arm/triceps, chest, abdomen, hips, and buttocks, each of which are areas where body fat naturally is stored in adipose tissue. Hydrostatic weighing applies the Archimedes principle, where the amount of water displaced by immersion of the individual represents the fat present. Hydrostatic weighing is accurate to within approximately 3%. Once the individual’s body fat percentage has been accurately determined, the individual can make intelligent decisions regarding the elimination of excessive body fat. For an athlete, the decision must be one of function, both present and future, as opposed to form. SEE ALSO Body fat; Cardiovascular system; Weight gain; Weight loss.

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Body fat Body fat is a much used but not always well understood physiological expression. Body fat is the stored fat that is a product of the ingestion of dietary fats, as well as any fats resulting from the conversion of carbohydrates and proteins in the body. Body fats are stored as triglycerides. These compounds are formed from three fatty acid molecules, attached to glycerol, a type of sugar. Body fats are stored within specially designed cells known as adipose tissues, which tend to be concentrated around the internal organs, under the skin (subcutaneous fat) in the chest, abdomen, and buttocks in males or in the breasts, abdomen, upper thighs, and hips in females. Body fat is capable of indefinite storage; if the body does not require the stored energy as contained in the fat cells, it will never degrade or otherwise metabolize. Body fat is an excellent source of energy, as 1 gram of body fat will produce 9 Kcal (calories) of energy; both proteins and carbohydrates are capable of only 4 Kcal per gram. Fat cells that contain body fat are metabolically inert, requiring very little energy for their maintenance, unlike the lean tissue structures of bone, muscle, and the internal organs. To access the stored energy of the adipose tissues, the hormone glucagon regulates the release of triglycerides into the blood for energy production. When released from their adipose cells, the triglycerides are divided into their fatty acid and glycerol components. The fatty acids are reconstituted in the bloodstream as lipoproteins, and they are transported to the various cells as a source of energy. The glycerol is directed to the liver for processing as a carbohydrate source of energy. The amount of body fat released into the bloodstream as triglycerides is a statistical tool concerning general cardiovascular health; excess quantities of triglycerides are a well-known contributor to arteriosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases. It is unhealthy for any human to possess too little or too much body fat. Body fat performs an important role in the insulation of the body from cold, therefore playing an important role in the protection of the internal organs as well as assisting in the general thermoregulatory function of the body. Excess body fat is harmful to health in a number of ways. Excess body fat is a simple drain on the energy resources of the body, in that the organs, respiratory function, and musculoskeletal system are transporting additional mass with every step, placing a strain on the cardiovascular system and all joints. Persons with excess body fat also compromise their balance and

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BONE, LIGAMENTS, TENDONS

coordination skills, as they are maneuvering a body too large for the sensory devices that the body relies on to achieve efficient movement.

Body composition and weight control; Fat intake; Fat utilization; Obesity.

SEE ALSO

Bone, ligaments, tendons As with any structure, the human body is built upon a framework that is constructed to carry out a wide range of functions. The bones, ligaments, and tendons are each essential parts of the human framework, integrated into a mechanism, the skeleton, that is crucial to the movement, stability, protection, and growth of the entire body. Because bone is a hard, white, and seemingly sterile object, it is perhaps difficult to regard the human skeleton as an organism. The bones, ligaments, and tendons are not only a coordinated frame upon which human muscles and organs are attached and contained, the skeleton and the rest of the body are an interconnected biological device. There are approximately 206 bones in the human body. Bones generally act as connective tissue within the body. All bones are composed primarily of the mineral compound, calcium phosphate, which is a very hard substance, with a lesser amount of collagen (a protein). For this reason, bone is structured as a relatively brittle matrix, although the softer collagen cells lend some degree of elasticity when a bone sustains trauma. Not all bones possess the same characteristics, nor do all bones fulfill the same purpose within the skeleton. There are two types of bones: cortical bones and cancellous bones. Cortical bone has a denser, more compact structure than does the cancellous bone, and comprises the greater proportion of the skeleton mass. Most of the longer bones in the body are cortical, such as the femur (thigh bone). The long bones are hollow, and the center of the bone is filled with a substance known as yellow marrow. At the end of each long bone is an area known as the epiphysis, which is usually composed of cancellous bone cells; the marrow in this portion of the long bones is red marrow. Bone marrow is the body’s manufacturing center for the production of erythrocytes (the red blood cells responsible for the transport of oxygen throughout the body), leukocytes (the white blood cells that neutralize and eliminate infection), and platelets (the organisms that cause blood to clot in the case of a laceration or internal bleeding). The red

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marrow generates the red blood cells required, and the yellow marrow produces the white blood cells. Bone cells are further subdivide into three types: osteoblast, osteocyte, and osteoclast. Osteoblast cells are also known as bone-forming cells, which are located on or near the surface of the bone, producing osteoid, the compound used by the body in bone formation. Osteocyte cells are also known as bonelining cells, which are essential to the maintenance of the bone structure. Osteoclast cells are usually inactive cells that will destroy other bone cell production. Ligaments are the skeletal components that connect bones to other bones to create a joint, a flexible structure that is capable of movement and of bearing both weight and external forces applied to it. Ligaments are made of collagen, formed into short, fibrous bands. All of the body ligaments are important to efficient physical movement. However, the ligaments that are of special significance are the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), the connector between the femur and the tibia (lower leg bone) essential to knee function, and the ulnar cruciate ligament (UCL), an elbow structure essential to the success of any baseball pitcher. Tendons have a similar construction to that of ligaments: they are strong, fiber-like connectors. However, rather than connecting bone to bone, tendons connect muscle to bone, providing stability and a significant degree of resistance to external forces. Large tendons such as the Achilles tendon, which connects the gastroceus (calf muscle) and the calcaneus (heel bone), are able to withstand force due to the flexing qualities of the supple collagen that forms a large portion of the tendon structure. As with an ACL or UCL injury, a tear or rupture of the Achilles tendon is a debilitating occurrence. The ACL is a commonly and severely injured ligament in the knee joint. Female athletes are far more prone to sustaining an ACL injury than males; National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) research suggests that ratio of female basketball players to male players with an ACL injury is approximately 5 to 1. This greater prevalence of this injury among female versus male athletes arises from the different shape of the female skeleton from that of the male. The relationship between the wider female pelvis and the shorter femur creates a more acute angle than that of the male anatomy. The line that one may draw between the hip and the knee is known as the ‘‘Q line.’’ This more acute Q-line angle in female athletes results in greater forces being generated and directed in the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BONE MINERALIZATION PATTERNS

knee joint. In a sport such as basketball, there are constant opportunities for the knee and the ACL to absorb the forces of explosive movements. The skeleton of an athlete provides a number of indicators regarding prospective success in a particular sport. The size of the skeleton at certain points in the development of a child into adolescence, and later at the point where an adolescent nears full maturity, will provide an indication of the likelihood of competitive success in a particular sport. If a female athlete is 5 ft 3 in (1.6 m) at age 16, it is unlikely that she will grow significantly taller; basketball would present competitive challenges. However, skeletal size is a persuasive, but never a determinative, factor in athletic success. A lack of height, while a physical reality that limits an athlete in many sports, may be overcome by other equally important athletic considerations, such as intelligence, muscle strength, speed, reaction time, or explosive power. The size of individual bones within the skeleton may also be a useful predictor of athletic ability. Tour de France cycling champion Lance Armstrong, regarded as a phenomenal climber, a rider able to master tough, mountainous routes, has a longer than normal femur (thigh bone), which gives him greater leverage as he delivers the pedal stroke to his bicycle. In a sport such as swimming, a narrow pelvis and broad shoulders will be an advantage in powering the body through the water, as the slimmer pelvis will generally create less drag. The relative sizes of the torso (upper body) and the lower body are another indication of what sports may be most suited to a prospective athlete. The point in the body where the weight of the structure is said to be equal is referred to as the ‘‘center of gravity’’ or, alternatively, as the ‘‘center of mass.’’ Considerations of the location of the center of gravity in sport are primarily those to do with stability of the athlete’s physical movements. A low center of gravity will often translate into an ability to make coordinated movements that combine speed, balance, and power. A higher center of gravity will be useful to athletes who wish to combine speed with efficiency. The center of gravity is lower the longer the upper body. American football running backs and alpine skiers are examples of athletes who require a low center of gravity; successful marathon runners will possess longer legs relative to their torso, thus possessing a higher center of gravity. Skeletal size and bone density are largely predetermined genetically. In addition to athletic injury or other trauma, there are a number of factors that will impact upon skeletal health. For example, osteopoWORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

rosis is a disease of the bones that occurs due to low bone mass. Reduced mass makes the bone generally more fragile and susceptible to fracture. This condition is thought to cause or contribute to 1.5 million fractures in the United States annually. Osteoporosis can affect persons at any age; as bone mass and density peak at approximately age 30, the disease more typically affects older persons. Approximately two-thirds of osteoporosis cases occur in women, due to combined impacts of menopausal onset and a naturally smaller, slighter bone structure. Athletic activities that require the body, and consequently bones, to bear weight will result in stronger bones, in that the natural loss of bone density will be slowed. The bones are a part of an organism that requires nutrients to remain viable. A deficiency in critical bone-maintaining minerals such as calcium (vitamin D) can create a weakened skeletal structure. Studies of girls who participate in high school sports suggest that they absorb approximately 7% more bone-building mineral than sedentary girls, a factor likely to provide them with greater resistance to osteoporosis in their later adult years.

Back anatomy and physiology; Calcium; Minerals; Skeletal muscle; Tendinitis and ruptured tendons.

SEE ALSO

Bone mineralization patterns Bone mineralization pattern refers to the types of minerals (calcium is of paramount importance) that are incorporated into bone, the amount of the minerals that are present (referred to as the bone density), and the possible differences in bone mineral composition and density in different regions of the skeleton. Calcium, in the form of calcium phosphate, is incorporated into bone as a highly structured crystal called hydroxyapatite. This crystallized mineral is essential for the hardness of bones, and for their rigidity—the latter is important, otherwise the bones may inadvertently bend when a force is applied. Hydroxyapatite makes up about one-quarter of the volume and approximately half the mass of normal adult bones. The calcium crystals tend to associate with fibrils of collagen in bones. The importance of calcium is underscored in osteoporosis, which involves the progressive loss of calcium. Bones become more fragile and more prone to fracture and breakage under stresses that would otherwise not be damaging. Post-menopausal women

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WILLIAM J BOWERMAN

are especially susceptible to osteoporosis. As well, female athletes who, as a result of training stress, cease menstruation (amenorrhea) can trigger premature osteoporosis, which may persist despite calcium supplementation. In female athletes, exercise can also produce increased bone mineralization in regions that are especially stressed by the athletic activity. As one example, elite figure skaters and gymnasts can have increased bone mineral density in the bones in the lower body. In another example, physical activity in adolescence can increase the bone density of the femur (the portion of the thigh bone with the socket into which the hip joint fits). A number of studies involving female athletes has established that the increased bone density that is a benefit of exercise outweighs the potential risk of bone loss due to osteoporotic loss of calcium. Nutrition is important in maintaining bone mineralization patterns. For example, vitamin D is involved in calcium regulation, and a vitamin D deficiency can lead to the depletion of bone minerals. This is relevant to athletics, where the need to maintain a slim, lightweight body may tempt an athlete to adopt an improper diet. SEE ALSO

Body composition and weight control;

Body fat.

William J Bowerman 2/19/1911–12/24/1999 AMERICAN RUNNING-SHOE DEVELOPER

Bill Bowerman was a long time track coach at the University of Oregon. Bowerman coached numerous Olympic and world champions and he is regarded as one of the finest track coaches in the history of the sport. Renowned as a master tactician, Bowerman was the head coach of the United States Olympic track team at the 1972 Olympics, and among his runners at Oregon was the legendary American middle distance runner Steve Prefontaine. Bowerman had been sufficiently distressed by the quality of running shoes available to his track athletes in the late 1950s that he made some of their shoes himself. The first of his runners to try a pair of Bowerman’s shoes was Phil Knight, a miler on the Oregon team. In the early 1960s Bowerman subsequently formed a partnership with Knight, to manufacture and market running shoes of their own design.

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The Knight/Bowerman partnership later became Nike, a company that ultimately became the most successful sports shoe and apparel company in the world. Bowerman used his coaching experience and his knowledge of running to advance a number of innovations in running shoe technology. In 1972, using a combination of latex rubber, leather, and glue, Bowerman created a lightweight outsole for distance running shoes through the use of his wife’s waffle iron, creating the now famous Nike waffle sole. This sole, with the squares created by the waffle pattern, provided greater traction to runners on any surface, particularly a wet roadway. Bowerman also contributed to the development of the wedge heel used in Nike running shoes to create greater cushioning and stability. Bowerman also assisted in the design of both the first cushioned insoles, as well as the now standard lightweight nylon upper, the top portion of the shoe in which the foot is laced and secured. Prior to these innovations, most running shoe uppers were manufactured from canvas, other heavier synthetic materials, or leather. In a separate technological advance, Bowerman is credited with being the first coach to advocate the rubberizing of the asphalt runways used at tracks for events such as the long jump and the pole vault, making the surface more absorbent and safer for the athletes.

Running shoes; Running: Middle distance events; Track and Field.

SEE ALSO

Bowling Bowling is one of the world’s simplest sports: the object of the game is to roll a ball with force at a set of target pins, endeavoring to knock over as many as possible. It is for this reason that forms of bowling have been played in many cultures for thousands of years. There is evidence that a primitive form of bowling was played in ancient Egypt at least as early as 3000 BC. The early German Christian monks bowled. Italian bocce is similar in concept to bowling. The English played games that evolved into modern bowling and the outdoor sport of lawn bowling through the Middle Ages; Sir Francis Drake is reputed to have awaited the coming of the Spanish Armada by playing a game of bowling. The modern game of bowling was developed in the United States as a result of the import of various forms by its early settlers. The first reference to bowling being played in America is likely contained in the famous Washington Irving (1783–1859) story, Rip Van WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BOWLING

Winkle, published in 1819, in which Van Winkle, asleep for 20 years, is described as awakening to the sound of ‘‘nine pins,’’ a Dutch variant of bowling. Bowling gained considerable popularity in the United States into the 1890s. The 10-pin variation of the game was the most popular, and in 1895, the American Bowling Congress was formed. The early 10-pin games were played with wooden pins and a wooden ball. There was no mechanization of the bowling lane, and all pins had to be reset by hand, a task usually performed by a ‘‘pin boy.’’ The first significant technological development occurred in 1905, with the development of a durable, hard rubber bowling ball. The construction of the ball permitted it to be thrown harder and with greater effect at the standing pins. In 1914, the first hard composite rubber ball was manufactured, a still greater advance in the ability of the bowler to play effectively. In 1952, the first automated pin setting machine was developed. The automation of the bowling lane coincided with the advent of televised bowling competitions in the United States. The popularity of televised bowling spurred a boom in participation and the construction of bowling lanes across the country. Bowling was perceived as a sport that was both inexpensive and accessible to the average person, as well as one providing high level competition opportunities for skilled players. In 1961, the Pro Bowlers Tour began, sponsoring large prize money tournaments in cities across the United States. Bowling had enjoyed a parallel popularity in many countries during the growth enjoyed by American bowling. In Canada, a 5-pin variant was invented in 1909, and in many Canadian centers both 10-pin and 5-pin games were played. The international bowling governing body, known by its French language name, the Federation National des Quilleurs (FIQ), was founded in 1952. It maintains authority over the 10-pin bowling game played in the United States and throughout the world, as well as the nine-pin game played mainly in Europe. The FIQ has a membership of over 120 countries, and while bowling is not a medal sport in the Olympics, the FIQ has been recognized as a full member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) since 1979. Whether contested in a 5-pin, 9-pin, or 10-pin format, the object of modern bowling has remained constant throughout its history: to knock down as many pins as possible with as few bowls as possible. The 10-pin game is the best example of the rules, strategies, and training procedures that exemplify bowling. Ten pins may be played as a head to head competition, or in a team format. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The 10-pin lane is 60 ft (18 m), measured from the first pin (the head pin) and the foul line, behind which the bowler’s feet must be positioned when the ball is delivered. The lane is 3.5 ft (1.2 m) wide, and it is typically constructed from either highly polished wooden panels or an equally slick, frictionless synthetic material. Bowlers wear specialized shoes constructed with a sole that permits the bowler to slide along the surface when delivering of the ball. The lane is bordered on each side by gutters; if the ball enters the gutter, it will not score. The ball must not exceed 16 lb (7.3 kg) in weight, nor may it be greater than 27 in (70 cm) in circumference. The ball must be constructed to be 100% solid, except for the permitted finger holes bored into the ball to permit the bowler to secure a firm grip. The smooth surface of the ball (usually a plastic composite material) and the construction of the lane creates very little friction on the ball when it is delivered. The pins are set in an equilateral triangular shape, with each pin placed precisely 12 in (0.3 m) from each other. The pins are set by an automated machine, and the toppled pins are swept out of the lane by the machine between the first and second bowls. The scoring of a 10-pin game is straightforward. The game is divided into 10 competitive segments, known as frames. In each frame, a bowler is permitted two bowls to knock down the assembled pins. If the bowler does not strike down all of the pins with the two deliveries, the points scored for the frame are the number of pins knocked down. If the bowler knocks down all of the pins using both bowls, a spare is scored, where the bowler scores 10 for the frame plus a bonus, calculated as the score for the first ball in the next frame. When the bowler knocks down all 10 pins with the first ball in a frame, a strike is scored; a strike is counted as 10 points, plus a bonus from the next two balls. For successive strikes, the bonus scores are cumulative, meaning that in a 10frame game, with bonuses, a player can conceivably roll 30 strikes for a perfect game of 300. Bowling has a significant physical and mental component when contested at a competitive level. There are a number of different accepted approaches to the delivery of the ball and the accompanying footwork needed to best combine power and accuracy. No matter what approach is employed, bowling is a classic repetitive-type activity, with the ball delivered from a crouched position that has the potential to place significant strain on the structures of the wrist, elbow, shoulder, and lumbar regions.

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BOWLING

Bowling a strike.

ª PA TRICK B EN NE TT/ CORB IS

The wrist is the joint most vulnerable to injury in bowling. The 16 lb (7.3 kg) ball is released at the end of a sweeping arc motion, where the bowler draws the ball back past the waist, so as to create additional distance through which the ball may be accelerated prior to release. The arm and wrist of the bowler are taken through an eccentric motion, where all of the forces of delivery are radiated through the wrist. When the wrist is itself not stable at the time that those forces are received, the tendons of the wrist, which connect the muscles of the forearm to the hand, and the ligaments of the carpal bones of the wrist joint have the potential to be overstretched; in time, this overstretching can cause a micro-tearing of these connective tissues. Many bowlers wear customfitted orthotics on the wrist of the throwing hand to provide extra stability to the joint in its repetitive motion. Although the aerobic requirements of the sport itself are modest, bowling requires a high level of focus and mental concentration and a welldeveloped ability to manage stress. Aerobic fitness will assist the bowler in maintaining a heart rate that will contribute to effective stress management.

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Stretching and flexibility exercises are also important to the prevention of muscle strains that are associated with the repetitive throwing and footwork required. Many elite bowlers employ different forms of mental training, including the visualization of their successful shots. A bowling alley has a number of highly distinctive sounds associated with success: the sound of the ball as it travels down the lane, the distinctive collision between the ball and the pins, and the sound of the pins falling. Visualization will seek to include all of these auditory clues in the visual image to be conjured as the bowlers concentrate on the next successful shot. As the physical demands of bowling are less than those encountered in many elite sports, with a mental component that can be developed with experience, bowling is a sport where its best competitors may continue to perform at a high level into their 40s. SEE ALSO Elbow injuries; Motor control; Visualization in sport; Wrist injuries.

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BOXING

Bowling, cricket

Cricket: The physics of how the ball is bowled SEE

Boxing Boxing is a physical contest between two combatants who use their fists to achieve supremacy over their opponent. Like wrestling, boxing has ancient roots, as it was well known to the cultures of Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea before it was first included in the Greek Olympics in 688 BC. Boxing was later known as pugilism, a derivative of the Latin term for a fighter, from which comes the slang term ‘‘pug.’’ Paradoxically, the often brutal and unsophisticated thuggery of the boxing ring earned the affectionate title ‘‘the sweet science,’’ as the sport became increasingly popular throughout the world in the twentieth century. In England, boxing was an underground activity into the 1700s. Fighters fought with bare knuckles, and the contests were wars of attrition, rarely decided by a single blow or flurry of punches, but through the cumulative effect of many rounds of combat. Deaths were not uncommon, and boxing, or prize fighting, was banned until the mid-1850s. A similar situation persisted in the United States during the nineteenth century, as many cities banned boxing matches. Two developments served to legitimize boxing to a significant degree. The first was the work of the Eighth Marquees of Queensbury, a member of the English aristocracy, who in 1865 published his nowfamous Rules. The 12 Rules of the Marquees have since remained the essence of boxing competitions throughout the world. The key elements of the Queensbury rules are the division of a boxing match into three-minute rounds, followed by a one-minute interval; permitting a boxer who is knocked to the surface of the ring an interval of 10 seconds to resume the fight; having each fighter wear propersized gloves; and ruling down a fighter that has been knocked to one knee. The second development to boost the public profile of boxing was the emergence of John L. Sullivan of Boston, the first world heavyweight champion in 1885. Sullivan was beaten for his title in dramatic fashion in 1892 by American ‘‘Gentleman Jim’’ Corbett, the first of the reputed scientific fighters, who relied on speed and finesse to exploit an opponent’s weaknesses. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Boxing made its debut in the modern Olympic Games in St. Louis in 1904. It has remained a sport where the competition is organized along weight classification lines, as it is presumed in boxing, like wrestling and judo, that the heavier competitor is generally the stronger competitor. With some variations as to categories, all professional boxing, as well as amateur competition, is determined by weight class. The governing body of international boxing and Olympic boxing is the International Boxing Association (AIBA; the acronym includes a reference to the term amateur that is no longer used by the AIBA). The only significant differences between professional and Olympic boxing are the use of protective gear and the length of the rounds in each bout. In Olympic competition, all fighters must wear protective headgear and each round is two minutes in duration, with one-minute intervals, and four rounds in total. Professional bouts can last from between eight and 15 rounds, depending on the weight classification and the sanctioning organization. (Professional boxing has a number of organizations, each of which claims to be the official authority regarding the rules of the sport.) Scoring in the sport of boxing is similarly varied between Olympic, amateur, and professional bodies, but the general principles are consistent across the sport. A knockout is the result of a legal blow delivered by a fighter that sends the opponent to the surface of the ring (often termed the canvas, in reference to the material used on the floors of early boxing rings), when the opponent cannot regain his (or her) feet within 10 seconds of going down. A technical knockout is one of a number of circumstances in which the referee determines that the fight cannot continue, including a fighter not being able to continue at the end of a round (‘‘answer the bell’’); or when the fighter has been knocked down repeatedly and the referee forms the opinion that the fighter cannot safely continue. Boxing matches are scored by the referee who is in the ring to maintain order and to enforce the rules of the sport, as well as by three judges stationed outside the ring who assess the fight based on a scoring system. Each punch that, in the opinion of the referee, lands on the opponent’s head or body will score a point. In Olympic competition, the gloves used by the fighters have a target area marked across the area of the fighter’s fists; only blows delivered with that part of the glove to the body or head will score. Penalties may be imposed in the scoring system for such items as a low blow, which is a punch

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BOXING

delivered below the belt line of the opponent; a head butt; or any other type of contact that is not permitted by the rules. When the fight is not concluded with either a knockout or a technical knockout at the end of the last round, the fighter with the highest number of points will be deemed the winner. If the points total is equal, the fight is declared a draw. There is no question that an elite-level heavyweight fighter, who may weigh as much as 240 lb (110 kg) or more, will possess the physical capability to deliver a powerful punch. No matter how strong a fighter may be, all boxers seek to develop a range of punches and corresponding tactics in which all types of punches are employed. All boxers typically assume a fighting stance throughout the course of a match. The fighting stance is similar to the traditional athletic stance common to the execution of many sports, with the knees bent and the hips flexed to permit agility and the establishment of a stable position. In the fighting stance, the boxer’s hands are maintained in a defensive position in front of the head, to protect against punches aimed there. The jab is a punch in the arsenal of every boxer. It is a blow delivered from the shoulder, the fighter square to the opponent, with the fist snapped forward. The jab is used as a punch to establish a tactical base from which other punches may be thrown. The hook is delivered from an angle to the opponent’s body, with the blow transcribing an arc, usually targeted to the opponent’s head. A cross is a shorter punch, delivered at an angle across the head of the opponent. An uppercut is a punch that begins with the hand positioned below the fighting stance being driven upward in a short arc toward the head of the opponent. There are a multitude of variations on these basic boxing blows. A counterpunch is a blow delivered in an immediate response to one received from an opponent. A combination is a series of two or more different punches thrown consecutively. The boxer’s footwork is of critical importance to the delivery of a strong punch from a balanced position. Footwork that permits the boxer to maintain balance as the blows are delivered and absorbed is the base on which an effective punch can be delivered; an ability to move gracefully and with agility will often permit a boxer to escape dangerous encounters with the opponent. The tactics employed in a boxing match are a combination of a particular boxer’s strengths, the opponent’s perceived weaknesses, and the status of the fight at a given time. When a fighter believes that he or she is ‘‘behind on points’’ as the fight enters the last scheduled round, the fighter will be compelled to go on the offen-

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sive and seek a winning knockout. The opponent, believing to be in the lead, will fight a correspondingly conservative fight, seeking to protect that lead. Boxing training is a very physically demanding process. Boxing is a sport that is anaerobic, in terms of the intervals of high intensity activity contained within each round; it is also aerobic in its requirements that the boxer build a powerful physical recovery mechanism, to assist the body in returning to its natural balance between each round. Effective boxing programs will make ample provision for the development of both energy systems. Boxers have traditionally employed skipping and running (roadwork) to enhance their cardiovascular proficiency. Boxing, with its emphasis on stability in delivering and absorbing a punch, requires outstanding core strength development. The abdominal, gluteal, lumbar, and groin muscles and connective tissues are areas of particular attention in a boxing training program. Abdominal crunches, Swiss ball exercises, and back extension work are examples of these core strength exercises. Agility, lateral quickness, and hand-eye coordination are fundamental to boxing success. Many boxers employ different types of plyometrics exercises to maintain quickness and explosive power. The mechanics of the delivery of a punch require the instant coordination of footwork with arm action; when the blow is attempted on an unstable base, the blow will result in an off-balance body position for the fighter at the end of the delivery, compromising both the fighter’s defensive position as well as the power that can be transferred to the target. Unless the boxer is a heavyweight and therefore not limited by the rules of a weight division, all other boxers must organize their weight training in accordance with the maximum size permitted by the rule. Weight training aims to reduce the percentage of body fat in the fighter to the lowest healthy level possible to permit greater muscle development. The physical risks of boxing are many; the larger the fighters and the more power with which they are able to throw a punch, the correspondingly greater risk of injury to the opponent. Lacerations to the face, fractured noses, damage to the ear cartilage (‘‘cauliflower ear’’), and similar injuries caused by punches to these areas are common to boxers. The most serious boxing injuries are those caused by a blow or a series of blows to the head, most commonly concussion and subdural hematoma. Concussion is a brain injury in which the brain is violently moved within the fluid that supports it within the skull. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BOXING, CORNER MEN

Competitive boxing follows the 12 Rules of the Marquees. Key elements of the rules include the division of a boxing match into threeminute rounds, followed by a one-minute interval of rest. ª DARR EN S TAP LE S/ REU TER S/ CORB IS

expression ‘‘punch drunk’’ describes the effects of repeated concussions on boxers: headache, nausea, disorientation, and reduced ability to reason. Subdural hematoma is a bleeding of the brain caused by the application of force; such injuries have similar symptoms to those of concussion.

man is a person who is permitted to be present in a fighter’s corner during a boxing match in order to provide advise or assistance to the fighter. The terms trainer, corner man, and cut man have technically distinct meanings in the sport; although each term is sometimes used interchangeably with the others.

Boxing strength and training exercises; Cardio-boxing; Cross training; Exercise, high intensity; Strength training; Stretching and flexibility.

The term corner man also refers to the physical position of the corner man during the fight. The actual work carried out by the corner man will depend upon his relationship to the overall training and preparation of the fighter.

SEE ALSO

Boxing, corner men The corner man is a boxing designation that is capable of more than one meaning. In general, a corner WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Boxing is an intensely individual sport; the actual battle is waged by the fighter alone. All fighters, however, enter a fight supported by a team that coordinates all aspects of a fight’s preparation, a process that typically extends over a period of many months.

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BOXING STRENGTH AND TRAINING EXERCISES

Most professional fighters have a manager who is responsible for the over all direction of the fighter’s career. The manager arranges for fights and handles the financial aspects of the boxing business for the fighter. The trainer works with the boxer on a day-today basis; the primary role of the trainer is to prepare the boxer for his bouts. The trainer oversees all physical conditioning programs, develops the fighting technique, footwork, and tactics to be employed by the fighter, and assists with all other related fighter preparation. A trainer will invariably be present in a fighter’s corner to provide both motivation and tactical advise as a fight progresses. A corner man (also referred to as a second in some jurisdictions) may be the fighter’s trainer. However, in most cases, the corner man is the physical support system for the fighter during a bout. The corner man generally has fixed duties, both immediately before and during a bout. In preparation for the bout, the corner man will usually assist the fighter in wrapping the fighter’s hands with elasticized tape that both protects the fighter’s hands and provides support to the fighter’s wrists, enabling them to better distribute and absorb the forces generated from the delivery of a punch. The corner man also applies a thin layer of a petroleum jelly such as Vaseline to the boxer’s face; this product assists in keeping the facial skin lubricated and less likely to be opened by a cut caused by an opponent’s punch. Under the rules of boxing, the fighter’s corner is a one-minute sanctuary between the physical battles of each round. During each interval, the corner man may provide the fighter with water or approved electrolyte replacement fluids. The corner man may sponge down the fighter, or attend to any injuries sustained by the fighter. It is in this role that the corner man is also referred to as a cut man. At the elite levels of boxing, the cut man may occupy a distinct position in the boxer’s corner. The cut man uses the one-minute interval between rounds to perform distinct types of first aid. Under the rules of boxing, both amateur and professional, where a fighter is cut and the resultant bleeding continues, the referee must stop the fight, and the opponent is declared the winner. The skill of a cut man in staunching the flow of blood is highly valued for this reason. In boxing history, Angelo Dundee (b. 1923) was admired for his ability to limit the damage done by cuts to the legendary Muhammad Ali during his long reign as world heavy weight champion. Most boxing organizations approve the chemicals that are permitted at a boxer’s corner for use by cut men in

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repairing a cut. Various coagulants (substances that tend to thicken the blood to make it resistant to flowing freely) and the drug, adrenaline hydrochloride, applied to decrease blood flow in the injured area, are common substances employed by cut men. A cut man will also have specialized equipment to assist in applying ice to the cut or lacerated region, as well as to reduce swelling from any larger hematomas (bruises) that occur in the vicinity of the boxer’s eyes, restricting his vision. The cut man uses both ice and a steel device known as an enswell, to apply cold directly to a cut. Cold is a natural vasoconstrictor, as it causes the blood vessels in the vicinity of the cut to narrow, reducing the flow of blood to the area that would otherwise promote bleeding. Boxing cut men are often not formally educated in any medical or athletic training discipline. Most cut men learn through experience the best means to stop bleeding or to reduce swelling within the one minute interval between rounds. The corner man, whatever his specific role may be in a particular boxer’s entourage, also has a responsibility to watch the fighter closely as a bout progresses. The corner man often has a deep knowledge as to the physical mannerisms of the fighter. If the corner man believes that their fighter is struggling and is at physical risk of harm should the fight to continue, the corner man can signal the referee that the fight should be stopped. It is this relationship between the fighter and his corner that gave rise to the expression ‘‘throw in the towel,’’ the traditional corner man’s signal to stop a fight was to toss a towel from the corner into the center of the ring. SEE ALSO

Abrasions, cuts, lacerations; Boxing; Head

injuries.

Boxing strength and training exercises The overall objectives of a boxing strength and training program are similar to those found in most contact sports, emphasizing physical fitness and endurance. Boxing is atypical in that it places equal emphasis on the ability of the athlete to deliver and to absorb powerful physical blows in competition, without significant protective equipment. Boxing has been variously described as the ‘‘sweet science’’ and as ‘‘show business with blood.’’ A successful boxer will be required to commit to a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

BRONCHOSPASM, EXERCISE-INDUCED

focused and demanding physical training program that will incorporate a number of overarching principles, including: intensity; physical strength; injury reduction; training regimen variety; and mental training, especially with respect to the boxer’s ability to deal with pain. It is the nature of boxing that the athlete will compete in a series of two- to three-minute segments, or rounds, interspersed with one-minute rest intervals. The length and the number of rounds will vary depending on the age of the competitor and the level of competition. There are often shorter periods of extreme activity, as in a flurry of punches exchanged or delivered. The punching mechanism, the defensive blocking mechanism, and the boxer’s movements within the ring require a smooth synchronization of arm, core, and leg functions. Leg strength is particularly important in the stability of a boxer, as well as assisting in the generation of power in a punch. Boxers adopt a stance that is a posture similar to the crouched position of athletes in other sports, such as a fielder in baseball; this position is generally referred to as the athletic position. In boxing, this position is known as a fighting stance. This stable stance permits the boxer to better react to the movements of the opponent, as well as provide an optimum physical platform from which to deliver a punch. The short intervals within which the boxer competes place high demands on the body’s anaerobic energy system; the efficient recovery of the boxer between rounds will depend on the aerobic capacity of the boxer, as aerobic fitness is a determining factor in how quickly the heart rate returns to resting level. The entire body must be trained for a boxer to successfully compete; particular focus is placed on the neck, shoulders, bicep, triceps, wrists and hands, and the abdominal, gluteal, and leg muscles. As boxing competitions are organized on the basis of weight divisions—athletes compete against an opponent of similar size—boxing strength training is centered on relative strength, which is the strength of the boxer in relation to his weight as opposed to absolute strength. The act of delivering a punch requires the development of ballistic strength, the term used to describe the starting strength available to a boxer at the commencement of a punch. The manner in which boxing blows are generated by the arm muscles is also a factor in how a boxing strength and training regimen should be developed. The delivery of a punch involves rapidly accelerating and decelerating the fist, and to a lesser degree, the attached musculoskeletal structure. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The various training goals of a boxer can be achieved through employing all or some of the following techniques: running, plyometrics; and arm (muscle), leg (muscle), and core strength development. Running, the legendary road work (or indoor training machine work) of the boxer, will develop the aerobic capacity of the athlete. Jumping rope and skipping are exercises that allow the boxer to both build aerobic capacity and develop footwork and agility. Plyometric exercises develop ballistic strength. The plyometric exercises used by boxers focus on the explosive capability of the upper body and arm muscles; they may include the rapid performance of push-ups or chin-ups, as well as rapid repeated throws with a medicine ball. A regimen designed for arm, and particularly triceps, development is enhanced with push-ups, or similar exercises that have the effect of extending the triceps through their full range. Sessions with the boxing heavy bag, the large punching bag weighted to provide extra resistance to a punch, place additional, muscle-building stress on the triceps. Boxers also train with a speed bag, a smaller, lighter object that helps them develop reflexes and build muscular endurance. Leg strength can be developed, in part, through aerobic running. Explosive leg strength will be developed through leg press exercises and plyometric training. Finally, core strength development, that of the muscle structure of the abdomen, pelvis, and gluteal muscles (buttocks), will provide both increased protection of vital internal organs, as well as contributing to the stability of the body. Core strength exercises include sit-ups, abdominal crunches, and rowing machine workouts. It is essential to a successful boxing strength and training program that the athlete incorporate appropriate rest intervals into the schedule and pay strict attention to diet and nutrition. The demands of highlevel strength training, coupled with the forces applied to the body through boxing competition, compel many boxers to maintain a training log, where all training, rest, competition, and nutritional matters are noted.

Calisthenics; Jump rope training; Plyometrics; Resistance exercise training.

SEE ALSO

Bronchospasm, exercise-induced Exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB) is a wellunderstood medical condition of the lungs and

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airways that affects respiratory function and consequent athletic performance. EIB is caused by a narrowing of the passages within the lungs; EIB is a reversible constriction of the airway structures. As air is inhaled into the respiratory system through either the mouth or the nose, the air travels through the throat and the trachea (windpipe), which divides into the left and right bronchi, the bronchial tubes that lead to each lung. If observed in isolation, the bronchi have the appearance of a branch or the spreading roots of a tree, proceeding from the thick stem nearest the trachea, to the tiny passages in which air travels to the equally minute alveoli, the clusters of air sacs within the lung, each supplied by the capillaries that receive oxygen from the inhaled air, and return carbon dioxide from the cardiovascular system to be exhaled through the lungs. These exchanges of air are a microscopic process, as there are up to 300 million alveoli attached to the surface of the lungs of a typical person. Asthma is a common condition of the bronchial passages. Asthma occurs when the cells of the bronchial tubes become swollen and inflamed, restricting the passages of air into the lungs. Asthma is believed to have a genetic origin, and it is a condition often aggravated by smoke, pollution, airborne pollens, and exercise. EIB may arise in asthmatic persons, but it is distinct from asthma as a condition (exerciseinduced asthma is a distinct subscript of asthma). EIB arises where vigorous exercise triggers a wheezing, painful cough, often associated with the sensation of a tight chest in the individual. Symptoms of EIB will usually be present between five minutes and twenty minutes after exercise begins. Persons with previously determined asthmatic conditions, exercise that takes place in cold or dry air, and a vulnerability to airborne allergies heighten the risk of developing EIB. As the colder and drier air passes along the bronchial tubes, the cells exposed to this air tend to tighten, causing the constriction of the passages. Sports where the duration of any exercise segment is less than five minutes tend not to aggravate or promote the onset of EIB. EIB is not a barrier to either general exercise participation, overall physical fitness, or competitive sports. However, care must be taken in the management of any symptoms that arise. Medications delivered into the bronchial airways by way of a bronchodilator (‘‘puffer’’), which is an inhaler device designed to deliver medication directly to the affected areas of the bronchi, are often very effective. A common active ingredient in these medications is the class

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of drugs known as B2-agonists, which relax the muscles of the airways to promote ease of breathing.

Cardiorespiratory function; Prescription medications and athletic performance; Upper respiratory tract infection.

SEE ALSO

James Nathaniel Brown 2/17/1936– AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL PLAYER

Jim Brown was arguably the finest athlete of his generation in any team sport. Brown dominated the National Football League so completely at the running back position that over 40 years after his retirement, he continues to hold many of the significant personal performance standards in the history of the National Football League (NFL). After Brown moved with his family from rural Georgia to Long Island, his potential as an all around athlete began to surface in the high school athletic leagues. Brown was a dominant football running back, basketball player, and an outstanding lacrosse midfielder. Brown was a much sought after university recruit; he ultimately accepted a football scholarship at Syracuse University in upstate New York. At 6 ft 3 in (2 m), 235 lb (107 kg), Brown was almost as large as the typical football linemen playing in the 1950s. He possessed the rare combination of brutish power and true breakaway speed, capped with a nimble footedness usually associated with a much smaller player. Brown shattered every rushing record at Syracuse, and he was touted as the leading professional football prospect at the time of his graduation from Syracuse in 1957, where he was named to the college All American team. What is less heralded but as impressive regarding Brown’s football career at Syracuse was his demonstrated ability in a number of other sports. Brown was a well regarded basketball player, talented enough to be one of the best Syracuse varsity players during his university career. Brown had elite caliber speed in the 100-m sprints; he finished a highly credible fifth in the 1956 Olympic trials in the most demanding of track and field sports, the decathlon. His decathlon result was a remarkable achievement for a 20-year-old man who did not specialize in track and field. Brown was also the best field lacrosse player of his generation. The combination of speed and power WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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that stood Brown so well as a football running back was tailor made for the lacrosse midfield position, a position that requires a tough, intelligent player who is generally the best athlete on the team. Brown was an All American in field lacrosse for three straight seasons at Syracuse; he is the only athlete to be inducted into both the football and lacrosse Halls of Fame. Brown was drafted in the first round of the 1957 National Football League draft by the Cleveland Browns, where he immediately established a reputation as the most dangerous offensive player in the league. Brown proceeded to break almost every record for yardage gained by a running back, operating out of a Cleveland offence that revolved around his talents. Between the years of 1958 and 1965, Brown was voted onto every NFL All-Pro team. Brown was a transcendent talent in the league and he was overwhelmingly popular in the city of Cleveland. His popularity proved so powerful that Brown led a player revolt against the Cleveland coaching staff when he protested his role in coach Paul Brown’s offense in 1962. The revolt resulted in the firing of coach Brown. Under a new coach, Blanton Collier, Brown set a new NFL rushing record in 1963, gaining 1,863 yards. At the end of season, in recognition of his achievements, Brown was invited to meet President Lyndon Johnson at the White House.

In the late 1980s, Brown worked on a number of projects that centered upon community outreach. Brown founded Amer-I-Can in 1987. Amer-I-Can is an organization that attempts to instill personal growth techniques and life management skills in gang members and prison inmates. Brown has frequently spoken out regarding his perceptions of racism and its prevalence in both American sport and the community at large. Brown won innumerable awards as an athlete, culminating in his election to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio, 1971. Other running backs have since superseded Brown’s career rushing yardage totals, all of whom have played far more games than did Brown. Brown’ most noteworthy record, unlikely to ever be eclipsed, is the fact that he never missed a game in his NFL career, despite taking at times a terrific pounding from defenses focused on stopping him.

Football (American); Lacrosse; National Football League (NFL).

SEE ALSO

Paul Eugene Brown 9/7/1908–8/5/1991 AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL TEAM COACH AND OWNER

After blazing such a definitive trail on the NFL fields, Brown began to extend his interest to pursuits beyond football. Brown began to study acting, with a view to a possible Hollywood career. Brown entered into a contract with Pepsi-Cola that permitted him to travel in the off season as an executive and spokesperson for the company.

Paul Brown was the most innovative coach in the history of American football. In his long coaching career, Brown successfully led three of the most famous teams at their respective levels of play to championships—Massillon High School of Massillon, Ohio; Ohio State University; the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League.

His role in the movie ‘‘Rio Conchos,’’ a story of the U.S. Cavalry in the 1800s, led to more movie roles for Brown, placing him in a conflict with his team. When the film ‘‘The Dirty Dozen’’ was set to begin filming at the same time that the Cleveland training camp was scheduled to open in July, 1966. Brown, at age 30, shocked the sports world by announcing his retirement from the NFL to concentrate on acting.

When Paul Brown was born in 1908, American football was in its infancy. The game was slowly building in popularity in a number of American universities at that time, but the game was intensely physical, characterized by ferocious line play. The forward pass was only legalized in American college football in 1909.

Brown’s movie career never achieved the standards Brown established in sport. He was dogged by a series of unflattering domestic violence allegations; Brown was convicted of two assaults involving women, and other breaches of court orders in relation to sentences imposed on Brown as a result of those occurrences. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Brown was one of those intelligent athletes who recognized at an early stage of their career that their true talent for the sport lay in the directing of the operation, as opposed to playing a leading role. Brown was a high school quarterback at Massillon High School, where he graduated in 1926. He entered Miami of Ohio University that year, where he played quarterback but took more serious steps to solidify his dream of becoming a successful football coach.

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Brown’s first head coaching post was at his high school alma mater, Massillon. High school football was beginning to acquire a significant athletic status in the small towns of America, particularly in Ohio, the state that was in many respects the cradle of modern football. From 1932 to 1940, Brown led the Tigers of Massillon to a remarkable 59 win, 1 loss record, building the Massillon program into the most feared opponent in Ohio. Massillon drew over 22,000 fans to their home games, and the revenues from football helped Massillon High School build a state of the art swimming pool and observatory. The coaching career of Brown at Massillon alone would be a proud achievement for most football coaches. It was to the undoubted relief of the Ohio high school coaching fraternity that Brown accepted the head coaching position at Ohio State University in 1940. Brown worked his magic at Ohio State with the same speed and success as he had brought to Massillon. In 1942, Ohio State were named national champions, and it appeared that the Brown legend would grow indefinitely in the collegiate football ranks. The national military draft and World War II altered the path of Brown’s coaching career, when Brown was drafted into the United States Navy in 1942. Brown was stationed as a lieutenant at the Great Lakes Naval Training Center, outside Chicago. There he initiated a football program, making contact with a number of service personnel with whom he would be reunited after the war. In 1946, the city of Cleveland, Ohio, had been awarded one of eight franchises in the newly created professional football league, the All-America Football Conference, (AAFC). Paul Brown assumed the roles of part owner, general manager, and head coach for the new Cleveland Browns. Brown sought players who would be a proper fit into the tough, disciplined systems he planned to implement. He intentionally sought obscure players at many positions, but chose quarterback Otto Graham, known as Automatic Otto, whom Brown knew from his military service experience. In their inaugural season the Cleveland Browns won their first five games by a combined score of 142–20. They finished with a record of 12-2 for the 1946 season, winning the first AAFC Championship over New York at Cleveland Municipal Stadium. Brown coached Cleveland to championships in each of the next three seasons, as the Browns became the preeminent franchise in the AAFC.

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In 1950, the National Football League (NFL) took the Browns into the NFL (along with the Baltimore Colts and the San Francisco 49ers). It was the end of AAFC, and the beginning of the most successful phase of Brown’s coaching career. The Commissioner of the National Football League, Bert Bell, was eager to exploit the marketing power of a season opening match up between the defending champions of the NFL, the Philadelphia Eagles, and the defunct AAFCs best, the Browns. The game was dismissed as being important by the Eagles head coach, Earl (Greasy) Neale, who publicly proclaimed that the Browns were an inferior product from an inferior league. In a game that illustrated the brilliance of Brown and his coaching approach to football, the Browns dominated their first NFL contest, demolishing the Eagles by a score of 35–10. The Browns’s precision passing game, sparked by the future Hall of Famer Graham, was a textbook display of both ball control and big play capability. The Browns, and Brown, gained instant credibility in the NFL. The Browns drive to ascendancy in the NFL ended with their victory over the Los Angeles Rams in the 1950 title game. The Browns would go on to win titles in 1954 and 1955, a powerhouse team that had Graham as a threat both as a runner and passer, the 250 lb fullback Marion Motley pounding the ball on the ground, and a disciplined, rock ribbed defense that played Brown’s intense and intelligent brand of football. As with most great sports innovators, Brown’s contributions to the science of football coaching were rooted in his personal experience. Brown was a teacher at heart, and he demanded of his players a scholarly approach to the tough and sometimes brutal physicality of professional football. When Brown introduced his methods to the Browns of the AAFC, he was regarded as a coaching revolutionary. When his players arrived for their first practice of the season, he handed out notebooks and made each player write their individual assignments for each play. Brown insisted that they commit each formation to memory. Brown is unquestionably the single greatest influence on the modern day approaches to football coaching. By 1950, he was organizing the filming of his upcoming opponents and then breaking down and analyzing the game film, to better develop his formalized game plans. Brown used intricate diagrams of pass patterns, and he invented the scheme whereby an offensive guard was substituted on each play to deliver plays to the quarterback. Brown was WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PAUL EUGENE BROWN

constantly following technological developments that might aid his ability to direct a team-the current helmet mounted ear pieces that coaches use to talk to their quarterbacks during stoppages in play is a also brainchild of Paul Brown. Brown was also a contributor to the design of the modern facemask, developed by his equipment manager in the late 1940s. Brown achieved his coaching success with a military rigor. His players were expected to study their detailed playbooks nightly. Brown saw professional football as an extension of the classroom, no different than those he had supervised at Massillon High School or at the Great Lakes Naval Academy. Brown developed an incredibly complex offensive system, and he possessed in Otto Graham a quarterback with the intelligence and physical skills to implement the system to its fullest extent. In contrast to the tight formations employed until the Browns came into existence, coach Brown opened up the field, spreading his receivers and creating gaps in the defensive coverages. Brown’s pyramidical system was so precise that he needed capable assistants to aid in its implementation. Brown was the first coach to develop the concept of a full fledged coaching staff. Paul Brown would not suffer a losing season in Cleveland until 1956. The Browns poor record permitted Brown to select the highly coveted Syracuse fullback Jim Brown in the NFL draft in 1957. Jim Brown quickly established himself as the best offensive player in the NFL, but he and coach Brown never

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could entirely agree on how Jim Brown should be utilized. In 1961 an aggressive advertising executive named Art Modell bought the Cleveland Browns for $4 million. Modell saw Jim Brown as a marketable commodity, and sought to promote him beyond the football field, contrary to the views of Paul Brown, who wanted a tight football ship run without distractions. In 1962, Paul Brown traded future Hall of Fame player Bobby Mitchell to the Washington Redskins without Modell’s permission. Modell, angered over being left out of the Mitchell trade process, ultimately fired Paul Brown in 1962. Brown was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame at Canton in 1967, located a few miles from Brown’s birthplace. He became the only Hall of Fame coach to return to coaching after his Hall of Fame induction when he assumed the positions head coach and part owner of the expansion Cincinnati Bengals in 1967. Brown remained as the Bengals coach for six seasons, retiring for good in 1973. More than a pioneer or an innovator, who sowed the seeds of coaching ideas that were better cultivated by others, Brown was a brilliant football mind, and he is a coach who is one of the greatest in the history of the sport, regardless of era.

Football (American); Football (American) strength and training; National Football League (NFL); Sports Coaching.

SEE ALSO

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C James Robert Cade 4/28/1927– AMERICAN UNIVERSITY PROFESSOR

The foundation of the global sports drink industry can be traced to the work of Dr. Robert Cade and the development of Gatorade, a process that Cade and a research team initiated in 1965. The hydration practices of athletes in 1965 were significantly different than they are today. Many coaches and athletic trainers actively discouraged players from drinking water or any other fluids during workouts, believing that the players would become incapacitated by cramps. Cade, a professor of nephrology (kidney function) at the University of Florida, was asked in August of 1965 by members of the varsity football team why the players lost considerable amounts of weight while practicing in warm weather, but the players never felt any need to urinate. Cade and a team of Florida researchers, including Dr. Dana Shires, turned their attention to this question. After conducting analyses of the players’ perspiration, urine, and other physical indicators both before and after warm weather workouts, Cade and his team concluded that the players sustained a significant electrolytic imbalance through the elimination of sodium by perspiration, as well as a corresponding reduction in blood volume. Cade reasoned that all of these factors would impair athletic performance. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Cade and his team devised a replacement fluid that contained sodium and a small amount of carbohydrates to assist the body in maintaining the desired electrolytic balance. The initial formulation tasted unpleasant, but after some discussion with the Florida coaching staff, the fluid was consumed by the freshman team during an inter squad scrimmage as a test. The beverage was found to be so effective in assisting the Florida football team in dealing with warm weather practice conditions, its use was mandated by the coaching staff in all games; in 1965, Florida went on to enjoy one of the best seasons in the history of the institution. The fluid was named Gatorade in recognition of the university nickname, the Gators. Cade registered a patent for the fluid; it became a commercial product when Cade sold the rights to the manufacture of Gatorade to Stokely Van Camp in 1967. With an explosion in mass participation in endurance activities such as running and triathlons during the 1970s and 1980s, Gatorade became the world’s best known sports drink. Cade ultimately arranged for a portion of the royalties generated by the sale of Gatorade to be directed to the University of Florida. By 2006, the university had received over $90 million as a result of Cade’s work. After developing Gatorade, Cade successfully continued his medical research career at the University of Florida. Cade lead various research projects that examined methods by which illnesses

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such as schizophrenia and autism could be better managed through diet. SEE ALSO

Exercise and fluid replacement; Hydration;

Water.

Caffeine Caffeine is the world’s best-known stimulant. Popular beverages such as coffee, tea, and cola-based soft drinks all contain significant amounts of caffeine, as do the cacao bean, the chief ingredient in chocolate products, and guarana, the South American root extract used in many forms. When the use of caffeine as a component of many popular analgesics is factored, or when consumed in a pure-form stimulant such as a pill, there is no question that caffeine is also the most-consumed stimulant in the world. It is believed that more than 95% of the adult population of the United States consumes caffeinated products of one form or another. Caffeine is generally believed to be mildly addictive. Caffeine is classified as a stimulant because when consumed in even small amounts, it will stimulate the central nervous system, the cardiac muscle (causing an increased heart rate), and the respiratory system. Caffeine will delay the onset of fatigue and it is a strong diuretic. Caffeine is chemically defined in the class of substances known as alkaloids, nitrogen-based compounds that are typically found in plants. Alkaloids produce a pharmacological effect on the human body when consumed; cocaine, nicotine, and ephedrine are well-known examples of alkaloids. The impact of caffeine on the body’s metabolism first occurs with respect to the substance important to the transfer of energy within the body: adenosine. When consumed, caffeine blocks the operation of adenosine, and as a result the body produces epinephrine (adrenaline), which quickly causes a higher heart rate, increased blood pressure, and greater blood flow. Athletes who are training or competing in anaerobic disciplines such as ice hockey or track and field events often consume caffeine (usually in the form of coffee or a sports supplement) to acquire a feeling of alertness and an ability to respond more quickly to the circumstances of competition. The actual effect of caffeine on performance for these sports may be more a psychological dependence on the belief that the caffeine stimulates more effective performance.

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Caffeine has a proven positive effect on the function of the body in endurance sports, where the it relies primarily on its aerobic system to provide the requisite energy to compete. The ingestion of caffeine will increase the level of circulating fatty acids in the bloodstream, which permits these fat stores to be oxidized, or burned, as fuel. Accessing these fatty acids as fuel means that the body’s stores of energy (known as glycogen), created through the processes that convert it from food carbohydrates, will not be exhausted in long competition. Marathon runners, long-distance cyclists, and cross-country skiers have been established as prime beneficiaries of caffeine when it is consumed approximately one hour before competition. The effect of caffeine on the conversion of fatty acids to energy is further enhanced if the athlete is not a regular coffee drinker or does not consume caffeine products. In an alternative to the precompetition consumption of caffeine by endurance athletes, further research has demonstrated the efficacy of caffeine in sports drinks. The carbohydrates in the caffeine-enhanced sport drinks were found to be absorbed by the body at a rate 26% faster than the rate achieved without caffeine. The ability of the body to utilize this portable energy source effectively saved bodily stores of energy. Caffeine is considered an illegal, performanceenhancing substance in Olympic competition only if found in an athlete’s system in levels in excess of 12 mcg/ml (micrograms/milliliter)—an amount that is the rough equivalent to the caffeine contained in eight to ten 6-oz (175 ml) cups of coffee—consumed within two hours of testing. In 2004, the World AntiDoping Agency (WADA) removed caffeine from its list of prohibited substances. It is unlikely that an athlete could ingest caffeine in excess of the Olympic standard without causing an adverse impact upon the body’s renal (kidney) and urinary systems, as the diuretic impact of high levels of caffeine will reduce hydration and stimulate urine production. Caffeine withdrawal is a general description of the physical symptoms noted in persons who reduce the amount of caffeine that they consume. Excessive caffeine consumption reduces the system’s resistance to the effects of caffeine, meaning more will be required to achieve the desired effect. Typical withdrawal will cause significant headaches, irritability, reduced sleep or insomnia, stomach upset, and cardiac arrhythmia. A toxic level of caffeine is the equivalent to the consumption of between 50 and 150 6-oz (175 ml) cups of coffee. There is a well-established connection in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CALCIUM

caffeine research between the ingestion of caffeine and a loss of calcium density in bones, which can lead to the onset of osteoporosis, a condition whereby the bones become brittle and more prone to fracture.

Ephedra; Free fatty acids in the blood; Glycogen depletion; Stimulants.

SEE ALSO

Calcium As the fifth most abundant element found on Earth, it is not surprising that calcium is the most prevalent mineral found in the human body. Calcium is chemically classified as an alkaline earth metal, a substance that forms ions, which are atoms with a measurable electric charge. Ions bind with free electrons in these metals to form metallic bonds, created when the electrons are shared between the atoms of the metal. The metallic bond formed by such metals tends to make these elements strong, capable of being formed or shaped, as well as being a good conductor of both heat and electricity. Calcium is not often found in its pure state in nature, as its atomic structure lends calcium to the ready formation of compound substances, such as calcium carbonate, or calcite, the essential component of limestone. Minerals are substances defined as elements that are mined from the earth; although not extracted in its pure form, calcium is defined as a mineral for the purposes of understanding its role in the function of the body. Between 2.2 lb (1 kg) and 3 lb (1.4 kg) of calcium, usually as a compound, are contained in the body of an average healthy adult person. Approximately 99% of the calcium store is located in the bones and the teeth, in the form of calcium phosphate. Calcium is also essential to the sophisticated physical processes of muscle contraction, blood clotting, and the regulation of heartbeat and the transmission of impulses through the central nervous system. Given the prominence of calcium in this variety of functions, it is imperative that sufficient quantities of calcium be consumed daily. This fact is even more profoundly important to athletes, who are placing regular and intense stress upon their skeletal structure and other systems. The stated recommended daily allowance (RDA) of calcium for a typical adult is 1,200 mg (milligrams); calcium is absorbed into the body through the action of vitamin D, which assists in the transport of calcium in food into the body. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble hormone, long identified as one of the essential vitamins to healthy human WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

function. Vitamin D is most commonly produced through the human skin by way of exposure to ultraviolet light; it is also an additive in dairy products. Calcium is available in a variety of foods as well as through mineral and athletic supplements. Foods that are rich in calcium include dairy products, sardines, salmon, green, leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach, and tofu. Healthy bone development, maintenance, and repair are directly related to optimum levels of calcium. Bones are constructed of calcium phosphate and collagen, a protein that gives the bone a measure of flexibility. The bone components form a mesh of the very hard calcium phosphate and the softer collagen. Bone formation is a dynamic process, as cells known as osteoblasts (bone-formation cells) and osteocytes (bone-lining cells) continually process calcium for bone construction. The body has a built-in fail-safe mechanism regarding bone structure: when the calcium level in the body falls below the amount required for the other processes, such as muscle contraction, calcium will be removed from the processes of bone formation and directed to the needs of the other process. For this reason, a calcium deficiency tends to impact on the skeleton more than on any other part of the body. In a similar fashion, too little vitamin D will inhibit calcium utilization, which leads to a similar consequence. A calcium deficiency is a potentially serious and progressive structural problem, the effects of which are cumulative in nature. If calcium intake is below what the body requires, bones tend to become thin and more brittle, a condition known as osteoporosis. This condition typically occurs in persons over the age of 45, and more commonly in women than men. A calcium deficiency in the diet of an athlete will create a number of interrelated consequences. Acts of resistance in training or competition, where forces are applied to the skeletal structure, tend to stimulate the growth of denser bones. When the calcium is not present as a store to be drawn upon by the skeletal formation process, the athlete’s bones will not be as strong or as supportive. As athletic activities usually require maximum muscle response in performance, a calcium deficiency has been shown to affect the reliability of the transmission of the body’ response signals, impacting upon the reaction time in given situations. Certain athletic supplements contain calcium. Calcium can be as readily ingested through a supplement as through the food diet. Excess intake of calcium leads to the risk of the formation of calcium

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oxalate, a compound that forms in the kidneys and is the chief component of kidney stones. The stones, which can vary in size, are a potential blockage of the passage from the kidney to the urinary tract, creating a usually painful impairment of kidney function. Kidney stones are caused by a combination of too much calcium, dehydration or poor hydration, and excess vitamins C or D.

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Minerals; Musculoskeletal injuries.

SEE ALSO

Calf strain or pull The calf muscle is exposed to a broad range of injury-causing forces in athletic activity. This structure is a two-muscle composition, with an outer, visible component (the gastrocnemius) and an underlying partner muscle (the soleus). The outer muscle is the mechanism by which the heel is raised—a process referred to as plantar flexion—essential to walking, running, or jumping. The inner soleus is utilized to raise the heel when the knee is bent, as in cycling. As the muscles essential to generation of both efficient and explosive leg movements, any injury to this structure can limit athletic performance. As these muscles are connected to the Achilles tendon at one end, and the femur (thigh bone) at the other, tightness or any other imbalance in the flexibility of the calf in relation to the other major companion muscle or tendon groups of the leg, particularly the Achilles tendon, will create a risk of injury in leg structures. A strain of the calf muscles, often referred to as a pull, is a term that is often, and incorrectly, used interchangeably with other athletic injury descriptors. Inexact language often arises among athletes because the location and the nature of the discomfort experienced are similar with each condition. The following are the common terms, with their respective distinctions:  Strain or pull: Generally, a stretch or a partial tear of a muscle or a tendon; a calf strain is a partial tear of the calf muscle fibers, usually, but not exclusively, occurring in the gastrocnemius. The strain is accompanied by sharp, sometimes piercing pain that persists. The muscle may appear to spasm, and there is the presence of tenderness to the touch, swelling, and possible discoloration at the point of the injury.  Sprain: A stretch of a partial tear of a ligament and corresponding joint. Therefore, a sprained calf muscle is not possible.

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 Cramp: A knotting or pulsing sensation in the calf muscles that may feel similar to a strain. The muscle may begin to twitch, causing intense discomfort. A cramp tends to be short-lived discomfort; unlike a calf strain, a cramp is not the result of muscle damage, but usually caused by low electrolyte levels (sodium and potassium, in particular) and poor hydration.  Lactic acid build-up: Lactic acid is a byproduct of the fuels burned by the body for energy during exercise. If the lactic acid wastes are not properly flushed from the bloodstream, the athlete will experience a burning sensation in the muscle, not unlike that of an injury to the muscle. Calf strains can be the result of any one of the following causes: a movement that stretches one or both of the calf muscles beyond their ability to stretch; a sudden or explosive movement that generated forces for which one or both of the calf muscles was not equipped to sustain; overuse of the muscle, or muscle fatigue; or, when the calf muscle sustains trauma, by way of a direct blow. While various athletic endeavors may cause a calf muscle to be stretched so as to cause an unpreventable injury, a failure on the part of the athlete to properly stretch, both prior to the intensity of competition and as a part of regular training, is a significant contributing factor to the incidence of calf strains. Attention to the stretching of the calf muscles, in combination with similar regular stretching of the Achilles tendon, quadriceps, and hamstrings, will serve to keep the leg muscles and tendons in balance. When these integrated systems are balanced, both sudden or explosive movements, as well as the forces directed to the calf, will be supported by the entire leg. When one or more of these groups becomes inflexible, or tight, it is that area that is more susceptible to strain. As with muscle strains generally, calf sprains are graded according to the severity of the injury. Grading assists in the facilitation of the proper level of treatment and rehabilitation for the injury. A first degree sprain is a mild overstretching or tearing of one or both of the calf muscles. The primary treatment for a first-degree sprain is the application of the RICE treatment: Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation. A short period of rest should follow the injury. A second degree strain is a moderate overstretching and tear of the muscle fibers. In addition to RICE treatments, anti-inflammatory medications are often prescribed. A third degree strain is a severe tear to one or both of the calf muscles, to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CALISTHENICS

Calisthenics Calisthenics is a time-honored training and conditioning component of many sports. Team sports such as American football often place a particular emphasis on calisthenics drills as a total team warm-up, although it is clear that these drills are carried out not so much for their physical benefits to the athletes, but due to their positive effect on team building and the cohesion gained from teammates performing the exercises in unison. Calisthenics is a form of exercise where various stretching and resistance type forces are applied in a systematic fashion to all parts of the body. Calisthenics are usually performed without additional free weights or machines to add resistance to the exercise. Calisthenics are performed in sets or patterns, whereby joints, muscles, and particular limbs are isolated in an exercise. Calisthenics as a recognized discipline is an outgrowth from the gymnastics training movements in the United States in the latter part of the nineteenth century. This relationship continues today in Australia, where calisthenics is the term used to describe a sport that combines elements of dance, gymnastics, and ballet. Calisthenics also shares many similarities with pilates, the exercise system developed by Joseph Pilates in the early 1900s.

A calf strain (or pull) can occur in virtually any sport.

P HI L COLE /

A LLS PO RT/ GE TTY IM AGES

Popular calisthenics exercises include: sit-ups, crunches, squats, push-ups, jumping jacks, and bounce drills.

Upon the athlete’s return to competition or training, there must be a focus on a gradual, and not immediate, return to previous intensity levels. Effective rehabilitation will demand involvement in a year-round stretching and flexibility program; heel raises and other exercises that build flexibility between the foot, Achilles tendon, and calf muscles are important. Proper warm ups prior to competition are also essential to the prevention of recurring calf injuries. The athlete must also pay close attention to hydration, as dehydration risks muscle contractions that will contribute to the onset of a calf strain.

In doing sit-ups, on a floor or flat surface, the athlete lies face up and with the knees bent. The object of the exercise is to bend at the waist with the knees remaining flexed and the feet planted on the floor, bringing the head straight up, with the arms typically behind the head. This exercise can place significant stress on the vertebrae of the lumbar (lower) back, but it is excellent for the development of the abdominal and hip flexor muscles (responsible for the flexing of the hips and the rotation of the lower spine). Crunches isolate the abdominal muscles as the individual starts from the same position as with sit-ups, the shoulders are brought forward toward the pelvis, with the lumbar back flat and not twisted in any fashion. The training effect of this exercise is heightened if the athlete reverses the motion, bringing the pelvis toward the shoulders, or if the athlete twists alternating shoulders in the crunching motion.

Lower leg anatomy; Lower leg injuries; Muscle cramps; RICE (Rest/Ice/Compression/Elevation) treatment for injuries; Sprains and strains.

The squatting exercise is aimed at the development of the quadriceps (thigh muscles) and gluteal (buttocks). Athletes extend their arms until they are parallel to the floor and then move to a squat position

the extent that the athlete will be incapacitated from use of the leg without assistance. Serious tears of this nature often require surgical repair, and extensive rehabilitation.

SEE ALSO

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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in one controlled movement, and then return to a standing position. This exercise can be made more difficult by holding weights in each hand. Push-ups (also known in England and elsewhere as press-ups) are the simplest and one of the most effective upper body strength exercises. A push-up begins with the athlete, face down to the floor, hands palm down under the shoulders on the floor, and feet together, legs fully extended. The athlete pushes the body up with the arms, with the legs assisting in keeping the body stable. When the arms are fully extended, the athlete lowers to the starting position and repeats the push up. While push-ups tend to strengthen the shoulder joints and upper back muscles, they are particularly effective in the development of the triceps and the strengthening of the rotator cuff, the muscle sleeve that aids in keeping the shoulder stable. For persons who are out of condition, or who have weak arms, push ups can be performed in a modified fashion on the knees, instead of the toes and feet, for stability. Jumping jacks require the athlete to jump from a set position with feet together, spreading the legs laterally on the jump, and then bounding back to the set position. As the bounding movement is being made, the athlete moves the arms from the sides of the body in an arc, touching hands over the head, and bringing the hands to the return position in coordination with the return of the feet to the set position. This exercise is used to generally warm up, increasing heart rate and respiration. And finally, bounce drills begin with a simple, rhythmic bouncing with the feet together, progressing to gentle lateral twofoot jumps, back and forth jumps, and progressing to jumping in a circle or a square pattern. Unlike the jumping associated with plyometric training, bounce drills are intended to stimulate heart and breathing rates, and to prepare the foot, ankle, Achilles tendon, calf muscles, and knee joints for more intense activity. Performed properly, calisthenics have a number of positive benefits to the fitness, strength, and flexibility of athletes in virtually any discipline. Calisthenics are intended to be performed in a routine, with careful attention paid to form and the completion of each movement. An example is the maintaining of calisthenic stretches for 20- to 30-second intervals, and the importance of engaging all muscle groups in the exercises. Calisthenics now fulfill a number of different athletic purposes. For the elite athlete, forms of calisthenics are used both for year-round stretching and

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fitness, as well as for pre-competition or pre-training warm-up routines. For a recreational athlete, a calisthenics program is a freestanding workout. Thirty minutes of active calisthenics is an excellent way to maintain fitness without resorting to the weight room or other equipment. For all levels of athletes, calisthenics are a useful cool down technique, to gently reduce cardiovascular stresses and to stretch overworked muscles.

Pilates; Stretching and flexibility; Warm up/ Cool down.

SEE ALSO

Caloric intake Caloric intake is defined as the amount of heat energy the body receives from eating food. The unit used to measure this amount of energy is called the calorie. It is also used to measure how much energy the body expends during human activity or inactivity such as running, walking, sitting, thinking, or sleeping. The calorie is the metric unit of measurement for energy. Specifically called the food calorie (sometimes the nutritional or dietary calorie) within the food industry, it is equivalent to the kilogram calorie, or kilocalorie (symbolized as kcal). The kilocalorie is defined as the amount of heat energy needed to increase the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree within the Celsius temperature scale. (As a note of clarity, outside the food industry the gram calorie, or the small calorie, is also referred to as the calorie and is defined as the amount of heat energy necessary to increase the temperature of one gram of water by 1 Celsius.) Thus, one food calorie is equal to one kilogram calorie, which is equal to 1,000 gram calories. The intake of food calories is an important part of how well any person maintains a healthy lifestyle. Food calories are especially important in how effectively an athlete trains and ultimately competes. Eating a balanced diet is a key part to sports nutrition. The correct combination of fuel (calories ingested), especially from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, gives a person plenty of energy for top performance whether it is running, walking, sitting, thinking, or sleeping. Carbohydrates are a very important source of caloric intake for the human body. They come in the form of such foods as fruits, vegetables, pastas, breads, cereals, rice, and honey. For a balanced diet, proper health, and peak performance, they should WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CALORIES

provide about 60–70% of a person’s daily caloric intake. Carbohydrates provide energy when the body changes the starches and sugars within carbohydrates into glycogen, which is then stored in the liver and muscles. Glycogen is easily converted into glucose in order to provide endurance and strength for short-duration/high-intensity sports activities and exercises. A person’s performance level will drop rapidly if the body eliminates its supply of carbohydrates and it is forced instead to intake proteins and fats for energy, which are less efficient fuels (calories) for the body. For maximum performance in such activities and exercises, a person should eat plenty of carbohydrates several days before the sporting event so that the body will possess plenty of glycogen within the muscles. During the event, if the competition lasts for more than an hour, the athlete should replace lost carbohydrates with additional ones. For instance, many bicyclists love to eat spaghetti before a long race because it is filled with carbohydrates. They then fill up with sports energy bars and drinks containing carbohydrates throughout the day of competition. Proteins should consist of from about 12% to 15% of a person’s daily caloric intake. They come in various foods such as beans, dairy products, eggs, and nuts. Proteins provide the human body with power to build new tissues and generate other essential functions. They are not stored in the body but are turned immediately into energy or changed into fat. Physically active people need more proteins then inactive people. Endurance athletes such as body builders often consume plenty of proteins as a way to produce fuel to build strong muscles. However, it is a falsehood that by eating plenty of protein and/or taking protein supplements a person can become a muscular person. Building muscles depends on heredity, the intensity of the workout, the amount of training, and getting sufficient calories in a daily diet. The average diet of a United States citizen contains sufficient proteins for regular muscle building. Thus, if a person does not eat enough carbohydrates, then proteins are consumed rather than allowed to perform their regular function of building new tissues. When a body has enough carbohydrates, then proteins produce about 5% of energy. If not enough carbohydrates are available, then proteins can produce up to 10% of energy. The caloric intake of fats are needed only in small amounts. They come as saturated fats in such foods as cheese, eggs, meats, and milk, and as unsaturated fats in such foods as canola oil, corn oil, and palm oil. Fats are used as the energy source primarily WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

when a person is inactive or during low to medium rates of exercise. When carbohydrates are used up, however, fats are burned instead, which decreases the performance level of an athlete because energy is produced less efficiently. For adults and for children over the age of two years, the American Heart Association (AHA) provides general dietary recommendations in order to maintain a normal weight-to-height ratio and to provide an adequate caloric intake of food. The AHA suggests that a diet should consist primarily of whole grains, beans, fruits and vegetables, low-fat and nonfat dairy products, fish, and lean meats. The diet should also consist of low caloric intakes of saturated fats, trans fatty acids (trans fats), partially hydrogenated oils, cholesterol, and supplemental sugar and salt. Caloric intake is important. The caloric intake of healthy foods is even more important to the health and well-being of all persons.

Calories; Carbohydrates; Fat intake; Protein ingestion and recovery from exercise.

SEE ALSO

Calories The calorie is generally defined as the metric unit of measurement for energy. In most fields, the calorie has been superseded by the joule, the SI unit (French for Syste`me International d’Unite´s, [International System of Units]) for energy. However, the calorie (cal) remains in common usage by nutritionists and others in the food industry as the unit of measurement for heat energy obtained from the digestion of foods. It is also used to measure the amount of heat energy expended by the human body when performing various activities. The food calorie—sometimes also called the nutritional or dietary calorie—is usually stated simply as the calorie. It is equivalent to the kilogram calorie (kcal), or kilocalorie. The kilogram calorie, or the large calorie, is defined as the heat energy necessary to increase the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree within the Celsius temperature scale. It is equivalent to about 4.185 kilojoules (where one kilojoule is equal to 1,000 joules). Further, the gram calorie, or the small calorie, is the amount of heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 Celsius. It is equivalent to about 4.185 joules. Thus, one food calorie is equal to one kilogram calorie, which is

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CALORIES

equal to 1,000 gram calories. When a label on food reads 4.5 calories, these 4.5 food calories are the same as 4.5 kilogram calories, or 4,500 gram calories. Many industrialized countries worldwide require their food manufacturers to label the caloric content of their products. Since 1994, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA)—through the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990—has required that most packaged food products contain a Nutritional Facts label. The FDA mandates that food manufacturers abide by these NLEA-stated guidelines with respect to the presentation of these labels, being regulated primarily by the type of food and its package size. Some of the information found on these labels includes total calories, calories from fat, total fat (and saturated fat), cholesterol, sodium, total carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron. Thus, the calories listed on these Nutritional Facts food labels are the amount of energy that these particular foods provide the body minus the energy that is expended during digestion. However, food calories are not technically measured as amounts of heat energy but, rather, as approximate comparisons of the energy density (in units of kilocalories per gram) for a large number of different food samples. Generally, a food product is first analyzed by separating it into its constituent parts (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, sugars, etc.). The results are then compared to standardized chemical tests in order to estimate the product’s digestible constituents. The results are converted into an equivalent energy value based on an internationally approved conversion table for energy densities of predetermined food samples. For instance, fats have an energy density of 9 kilocalories per gram (kcal/g), which is an especially high value. Proteins and carbohydrates have a value of 4 kcal/g. Special metabolic equipment can then be used to evaluate the caloric output (consumption) that occurs when performing specific physical activity such as running and walking. Although the calorie is used as the unit for comparing foods eaten, foods contain other substances that are needed in the human body. Some nutrients are needed because the body does not produce them or produces them in amounts that are too minute. These so-called essential nutrients are obtained from food sources such as carbohydrates, fats, minerals, proteins, vitamins, and water. Nonessential nutrients are those nutrients that are already manufactured in the human body and, thus, are not necessary to be acquired from the intake of food. One such nonessential nutrient is cholesterol.

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Each person requires various amounts of essential nutrients depending on such factors as age, gender, health, and certain other conditions. Specific health conditions such as illness, pregnancy, and breastfeeding often increase the need for certain essential nutrients. Dietary guidelines, which take many of these conditions into account, provide general information for daily nutritional needs. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) jointly publish Dietary Guidelines for Americans every five years. These guidelines, provided since 1980, help to communicate good dietary habits in order to promote health and well-being and reduce diseases and illnesses. The recommended daily energy intake values for adult men in the United States is 2,500 kcal (with a range, depending on size and age, of about 1,700 to 2,800 kcal) and 2,000 kcal (with a range of about 1,300 to 2,100 kcal) for women. When the human body eats food, a certain amount of energy is received by the body from the food. This amount of energy (number of calories consumed by humans) is called caloric intake. The particular amount of energy taken in depends on the specific foods, with some foods providing more energy than other foods. The average number of food calories for a few commonly eaten foods and drinks include:  coffee (one coffee cup, 0.46 pint; 220 ml): 15.4 calories  apple (4 oz; 112 g): 53 calories  brown bread (one medium slice): 74 calories  orange juice (one drinking glass, 0.42 pint; 200 ml): 88 calories  American cheese (1.5 oz; 42.5 g): 110 calories  doughnut (1.7 oz; 49 g): 140 calories  almonds (1 oz; 28 g): 171 calories  chicken breast (7.1 oz; 200 g): 342 calories  chocolate (3.5 oz; 100 g): 530 calories The amount of energy that the human body uses up during a specific activity is called caloric output. The size and weight of a person and the amount of effort and time needed for a particular activity affects the specific amount of caloric output. For the most part, more energy is required as the intensity and strenuousness of the sport increases. The average food caloric output for a 150-lb (68-kg) person in various sports activities is the following:  golf: 270 calories per hour  ice skating (leisurely): 300 calories per hour WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CALORIES

Since 1994, the U.S. FDA—through the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990—has required that most packaged food products contain a Nutritional Facts label. ª KEL LY A. QUI N . TH E GA LE G ROUP .

 walking on a level surface: 360 calories per hour  water skiing: 390 calories per hour  bicycling at 10 mph (16 km/h): 420 calories per hour  racquetball: 540 calories per hour  swimming (recreationally): 600 calories per hour  running at 7.5 mph (12 km/h): 750 calories per hour  walking upstairs: 1,050 calories per hour In any sport, food calories are an important part of how well an athlete trains and ultimately competes. Eating a balanced diet is critical to sports nutrition. The correct combination of fuel (calories) from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats gives a person plenty of energy for top performance. Carbohydrates are considered the most important source of fuel (calories) for the human body. They come in the form of such foods as breads, cereals, fruits, honey, pastas, rice, and vegetables. For a balanced diet, proper health, and peak performance, carbohydrates should provide at least half (usually about 60% to 70%) of a person’s daily calories. In addition, about 12% to 15% of a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

person’s daily caloric requirements should come from proteins. They come in such foods as beans, dairy products, eggs, and nuts. Proteins provide the human body with power to build new tissues along with other necessary functions. Proteins are not stored in the body but burned immediately for energy or converted to fat. Only small amounts of fats are needed. They come in the form of saturated fats from such products as cheese, eggs, meats, and milk, and as unsaturated fats from such products as corn oil, palm oil, and sunflower seed oil. Fats are used as an energy source primarily when resting or performing low to medium intensities of exercise. Whether planning for an endurance-type sporting event or exercising on a daily basis, the sportsminded and health-minded individual should consistently eat foods that provide the proper amount and types of calories. On the day of an extended sporting event or activity, a person is likely to perform better by following tips that include:  Eat a good meal in the morning in order to provide necessary nutrients and hydration throughout the day.

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 Eat meals high in carbohydrates.  Choose easily digestible foods and avoid high-fat and high-protein foods.  Eat three to four hours before the event, and drink liquids two to three hours before.  Avoid sugary foods and drinks within one hour of an event.  Drink sufficient fluids to ensure hydration—that is, about 20 oz (0.60 l) of water one to two hours before exercise, and an additional 10 to 15 oz (0.30 to 0.45 l) within 15 to 30 minutes of the event.  Consume sports drinks that contain a large amount of carbohydrates in order to provide extra energy; the most effective sports drinks contain over 0.53 oz (15 g) of carbohydrate in every 8 oz (0.24 l) of fluid.  Replace fluids lost to perspiration (generally drink 3 oz to 6 oz [0.9 to 1.8 deciliters]) of water or dilute sports drink every 10 to 20 minutes throughout the sports activity. Every person has different caloric requirements depending on such attributes as age, body size, health, and activity level. If a person is within his or her ideal weight range, then that person is probably getting the correct amount of calories. However, the correct type of calories must be consciously monitored by each person in order to maximize the good calories (those from healthy foods containing a high density of nutrients) and minimize the bad calories (those from unhealthy foods containing few nutrients).

Caloric intake; Carbohydrates; Energy drinks; Exercise and fluid replacement; Fat intake; Nutrition and athletic performance; Protein ingestion and recovery from exercise.

SEE ALSO

English rugby than any other sport. At the time of Camp’s death in 1925, college football was a vibrant national institution. Camp was acknowledged as the single greatest influence upon both the development of college football and its popularity with the American public. Camp introduced more innovations to the sport than any other person in the history of football. The various rule changes and innovations introduced by Camp as to how football was played made it a unique athletic contest. Camp devised the concept where each offensive play began at a designated line of scrimmage, where the offensive and defensive teams were separated from one another until the ball was put into play. Camp created a related rule whereby the offensive team would be permitted four plays, or downs, to attempt to gain 10 yards of territory on the field. Camp regularized the rules respecting the number of players per side at 11, and he created the modern scoring system of six points for a touchdown, three points for a field goal, and two points for a safety. Camp was among the first college coaches to use set offensive plays and formations in an effort to disguise the intentions of his offense. Camp also played a significant role in the formation of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in 1909; the NCAA would ultimately become one of the most influential amateur sports bodies in the world. Camp also initiated the concept of the year end All-American awards to honor the country’s best players. Camp was the selector of the annual All-American football team until his death. Camp was also an influential national physical training leader. He was appointed to direct the physical fitness initiatives of the United States Army during World War I.

Football (American); National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA); Sports Coaching.

SEE ALSO

Walter Chauncey Camp 4/7/1859–3/14/1925 AMERICAN COLLEGE FOOTBALL COACH

Walter Camp was the first of many larger-thanlife characters to be produced by the world of American college football. Camp captained the Yale varsity team for three seasons ending in 1881 when the game of football was in its infancy; the first ever American university game had taken place only five years earlier, between Yale and Harvard in 1876. When Camp began his collegiate career, the style of play and the rules of the game were far closer to

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Tullio Campagnolo 8/26/1901–2/3/1983 ITALIAN BICYCLE COMPONENTS MANUFACTURER

Tullio Campagnolo began his career in cycling as a racer, competing in various regional road races in Italy between 1921 and 1930. It is said that the inspiration for Campagnolo’s entry into the world of bicycle parts manufacturing came in a cold weather race in November, 1924, when Campagnolo could not WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CANADIAN CENTRE FOR ETHICS IN SPORT

remove the wing nuts holding his rear wheel to effect a repair of his gears, and he lost the race. In 1930, Campagnolo invented the first of many cycling components with which he is credited, the quick release rear hub. This device permitted the rear wheel to be released from the rear portion of the bicycle frame through the activation of a lever, without the need to remove wing nuts or any other attachment. The device would be the first of 135 inventions patented by either Campagnolo or his company. In 1933, Campagnolo his manufacturing company, an organization that would be one of the first in the sports world to make specialty components dedicated to improved sports performance. Campagnolo made the first of a series of derailleurs, the mechanisms that permit the gears of a bicycle to be changed without removing the rear wheel as had been the previous technology. The first Campagnolo derailleur was composed of two levers that were operated by the rider. The first lever was used to partially release the rear wheel from the frame to give the wheel a degree of lateral movement. Once the wheel was loosened, the second lever was used by the rider to move the bicycle chain from one cog to the other. Very skilled riders, with practice, could execute a gear change without stopping. The derailleur was a significant leap forward in cycling technology. Campagnolo’s initial design was greatly improved with the addition of a cable that permitted the rider activate the derailleur without changing position in the bicycle seat. Elite racers riding machines equipped with Campagnolo parts enjoyed significant success in the major European races. Campagnolo continued to develop cycling technology through his hands on relationship with racers, as Campagnolo believed his ability to design high quality components was directly related to the input he received from athletes. The Campagnolo derailleur was a seminal cycling invention, as the concept remains the standard by which most bicycles gearing systems are operated today. SEE ALSO

Cycling; Cycling gears; Cycling: Tour de

France.

Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson appeared to have struck a resounding blow for Canadian athletic pride WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

in September 1988, when he bested archrival American sprinter Carl Lewis to capture an Olympic gold medal and a world record on the 100-m (meter) track in Seoul, Korea. National euphoria dissolved into shock, followed by outrage, when Johnson tested positive for stanozolol, an anabolic steroid and a prohibited substance. Johnson was disqualified, stripped of his gold medal, and disgraced. In the months that followed the 1988 Olympics, a conspiracy of systemic steroid usage was found to have been at the core of the training programs of Johnson and a number of statesponsored Canadian athletes, revelations that triggered a formal inquiry. The intent was to determine how Canadian sport should be conducted in the face of widespread drug cheating in international athletics. Thus, the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) was created in 1995. While the CCES mandate is tied to the broad concept of ‘‘fair play in sport,’’ with an interest in ‘‘the ethical conduct of all sport in Canada,’’ it is the use of performance-enhancing drugs by Canadian athletes that has been central to the work of this agency. The CCES, as the arm of Canadian sport that is responsible for the administration of Canada’s anti-doping program, has worked closely with the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), whose headquarters is in Montreal, Canada, to promote the ethics of dopingfree sport in Canada and worldwide. The CCES has conducted thousands of various doping tests in conjunction with WADA since 2000. The advancement of the broader objectives of doping-free sport has also led the CCES to act as an informational clearinghouse on a wide range of sports ethics issues. Research and educational initiatives are a significant part of the work carried out by the CCES. The CCES is also responsible for the administration of the Sports Dispute Resolution Center of Canada (SDRCC), an arbitration mechanism available to any party to a dispute in Canadian amateur sport. Examples of the decisions made by the SDRCC include reviews of various sanctions imposed on athletes for a positive test for a banned substance, and the failure or refusal of an athlete to participate in the national out-of-competition drug-testing program.

Doping tests; National governing bodies; World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

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CANOE/KAYAK

Cancer

SEE

Exercise as a part of cancer

treatment

Canoe/Kayak Canoes and kayaks are two of numerous examples of boats defined as a small water vessel, typically open to the elements, and powered by wind, mechanical, or human power. Both the canoe and the kayak are relatively narrow, hollow shells, pointed at both ends, and propelled by human power over water by means of paddles. For these reasons, canoes and kayaks share similar, but not identical, characteristics in how they move over water. Modern canoe and kayak designs represent thousands of years of the gradual evolution of a craft whose purpose is maximum speed and efficiency across water. Hydrodynamics is the physical study of the forces created or acted upon by fluids; water is the common fluid studied. The hydrodynamics of a canoe or a kayak will involve an analysis of how the shape of the hull (body of the boat) is impacted as it moves through or over the water. The speed with which a boat can move over water is a function of the power applied to the vessel (in the case of the canoe or kayak, the power of the paddling), and the effect of the ‘‘drag’’ created against the hull of the boat as it passes through the water. Drag is a physical concept, similar to the principle of friction; the drag equation, employed by all designers of boats, will determine how much the flow of water against the hull of a canoe or kayak will impact the speed of the craft. The key relationship in the drag equation is the faster the boat travels, the greater its drag. Water drag increases with the square of the velocity of the boat hull. The greater the drag, the more power is required to move the craft at the same speed. Three design features of a canoe or kayak will have an impact on its overall hydrodynamics: primary stability, secondary stability, and rocker. Primary stability is a measure of how stable the craft is when the hull is resting flat on the water surface. The flatter the hull, the more stable the craft; boats with excellent primary stability tend to be slower as the flat hull will produce more drag in the water. Secondary stability is the stability gained by a vessel as it heels over on its axis in the water, requiring the side of the hull to bear the weight of the vessel. The more curved the hull, the greater the secondary stability of the vessel, and the less likely it will be to capsize. Rocker is the degree of curvature in the

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hull from bow to stern along its axis. The greater the degree of rocker, the more maneuverable and generally less stable the boat will be. As a general proposition, for both canoe and kayak sprint-racing—where there is little impact on the motion of the boat through wind, wave, or opposing currents—the craft will possess a longer and lighter hull. Such construction results in less drag caused by the water, as the longer hull displaces less water, meaning that the craft has less hull below the surface and more hull above. Long, narrow, lightweight hulls, with no stabilizing keel (a main beam that provides stability), are very difficult to paddle in less calm, unsettled water, as waves and wind tend to push the narrower crafts from their intended course. Current, wave action, and water obstacles all influenced how each type of vessel evolved. The racing versions of both canoes and kayaks reflect this evolution. Both canoe and kayak racing are organized at the international level in three general divisions: short distance sprints, with single-, two-, or fourperson classes (described by the short forms C1, K1, C2, K2, etc.). Sprint racing requires paddling over relatively calm water; whitewater races are contested in narrow, fast-flowing, turbulent rivers; long distance racing is generally an open, large water body event. Each racing category involves craft that has been substantially modified by adaptations of the basic form; racing designs are a true reflection of the maxim ‘‘function over form.’’ In sprint racing, the canoes used by elite-level racers bear little resemblance to the craft that are paddled for recreational purposes. These events are conducted on short (500 m [548 yd] or 1,000 m [1,094 yd]), sheltered race courses, with considerable protection from wind and resulting wave action on the boats. The courses are divided into lanes. For example, the C1 version is relatively long (16 ft [5.2 m]) in relation to both weight and width, with no minimum width required. C1 craft are constructed with a minimum weight of only 35 lb (16 kg). The C1 paddler propels this open deck craft from a kneeling position, using a single-blade paddle, controlling the boat through the stroke, as a rudder and a keel are not permitted. Stability is sacrificed in sprint canoe racing for straight-line speed. Sprint kayaks, when observed from a distance, appear similar in design to that of the sprint canoe. The K1 version is propelled by a paddler who is seated on a fixed chair (as opposed to the boat seats that move with the stroke of the athlete in rowing disciplines). The boat is steered through both the stroke of the double-bladed paddle and a rudder WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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operated by foot action. A K1 has a closed deck, the same 17 ft (5.2 m) maximum length as the C1, but even lighter weight at a minimum 26 lb (12 kg). Whitewater canoe and kayak racing, referred to in international and Olympic competition as ‘‘wildwater,’’ may be organized on either natural river courses or artificial water courses. The courses are configured with artificial gates, through which the paddler must steer the craft, or otherwise sustain a penalty. The race course will also present natural obstructions such as boulders, rock ledges that resemble small waterfalls, and fast currents, all of which are intended to maximize the paddler’s difficulty in completing the race course. The whitewater canoes and kayaks must be strong, durable, and highly maneuverable. The athletic qualities required of the paddler in each discipline include muscular power, speed and reaction time, and dexterity. The additional and critical athletic skill demanded in successful whitewater competition is tactical ability: the athlete’s choices as to the route from the top of the race course to the bottom will be a significant performance factor. A whitewater K1 craft imposes the same requirements regarding the position of the paddler as with any type of kayak. This K1 is shorter, at 14 ft (4.5 m), than the sprint version; it weighs a minimum of 24 lb (11 kg) and it has a minimum width of 1.8 ft (0.6 m). The result is a hull not much wider than the paddler’s torso, which places the athlete as close to the surface of the water as possible to heighten responsiveness in fast-fowing water. The whitewater canoe, referred to as a Canadian canoe in the international rules of the sport, is propelled from a kneeling position using a single-blade paddle. The C1 whitewater version, at 13 ft (4.3 m) long, a weight of 26 lb (12 kg), and a minimum width of 2 ft (0.7 m), is designed to be stable and maneuverable; an expert paddler can spin the craft on its axis to obtain optimum position on the race course. The canoes used to race over long distances are constructed to be propelled in an efficient, steady state, where competitive success will depend on the ability of the athlete to maintain a consistent paddling rate over time. Long distance racing has two distinct types of competition: marathon canoe racing and dragon boat racing. The international rules that govern marathon racing events are less structured than those regarding sprint and whitewater competition. A race course must be a minimum length of 12.4 mi (20 km), with no upper limit (races of 31 mi/50 km are relatively WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

common); the course may require portages, which is the crossing of land to avoid a barrier such as waterfall, the racer carrying the canoe, paddles, and any other gear without assistance. The athletes are expected to take the water conditions as they may exist at any given time. C1 marathon canoes are very lightweight for these reasons (22 lb/10 kg is the minimum). Dragon boat racing originated in Hong Kong, a part of the festivals that pay homage to the dragon, an ancient Chinese symbol. The sport captured international notice in the late 1970s, due in part to the color and the pageantry of the decorated race boats. The sport has grown in popularity throughout the world; in China, there are an estimated 20 million dragon boat participants. A chief spur to the worldwide interest in dragon boating has been the rise of corporate team participation. Companies and charitable groups have adopted dragon boat racing as a powerful tool for building employee morale, participant fitness, and notable charitable fundraising. Dragon boat racing involves a number of factors not present in other forms of canoe racing. A typical dragon boat has 20 paddlers, a drummer to provide the cadence to assist the paddlers to work in unison, and a steersperson/navigator. Dragon boat races can be many miles in length over open lake or ocean waters, with exposure to wave action. The boat is a heavy, stable craft—by international rule, the dragon boat weighs a minimum of 550 lb (250 kg), with a maximum length of 38 ft (12.48 m). The successful dragon boat crews function as one; synchronized paddling causes the boat to move with a stable forward motion, parallel to the direction of intended travel. When paddlers fall out of rhythm, they are directing forces with each paddle that are not complimentary to one another. This unsynchronized delivery of power causes the boat to rock along its axis, which moves the boat away from the optimum line of travel. The dragon boat will travel further and require more energy from the paddlers to reach its destination. Canoeing and kayaking place similar demands on the body in competition. Sprint and whitewater racing require the development of both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. The anaerobic system is used by the body in shorter, more intense forms of activity, where energy can be utilized without oxygen; the aerobic system is the primary energy system when the body requires steady amounts of energy to be delivered to its working muscles over a longer period of time. For this reason, both sprint work

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paddler during the extension of the arms in paddling, and the hip flexors, which assist in moving the body forward to make the stroke. Whitewater canoe and kayak racing places an additional training premium on shoulder strength and quickness. Dry land training for this aspect of performance will include weightlifting, especially those directed to the shoulders and upper arms. Wrist strength is essential to paddling grip. Modified plyometric shoulder and arm exercises are required to build explosive generation of the paddling power required to make sharp turns and the pulling of the craft sideways in the water (known as a ‘‘draw stroke’’). The muscular requirements placed upon the athlete in the long distance varieties of canoeing and kayaking are more focused on muscle endurance than explosive power and strength. As with all other forms of this sport, the more efficiently the athlete can use the paddle, the faster the boat will travel. Errors or weaknesses in paddling technique cause the craft to move less efficiently, or alternatively, place greater stress on both the muscular capabilities and the energy reserves of the paddler.

A kayak paddled by an expert can be taken through very rough, fast-flowing currents, with the double paddle permitting the hull of the craft to be readily spun in 180 changes of direction where necessary. ª C HA RLI E MU NS EY/ COR BI S

Canoe and kayak racing does not involve significant risk of injury by trauma. The combination of explosive power and repetitive movements, especially in the shoulders and arms of the athlete, is the chief cause of injury. Muscle strains through overuse or competitive stresses are common. The paddling mechanism in kayaking, involving the rotation of the shoulders, can lead to rotator cuff injuries.

Canoe/Kayak: Hydrodynamics; Endurance exercise; Plyometrics; Shoulder anatomy and physiology.

SEE ALSO

and whitewater training must be directed to the development of both systems. ‘‘Dry land training’’ is the term generally used by water sport athletes such as swimmers and divers to describe a workout regime that is apart from the water. The dry land program of a canoeist or kayaker designed to enhance the development of their energy systems will include aerobic training such as running, cycling, or the use of equipment such as an elliptical trainer. Interval running is a useful anaerobic dry land training method for canoeists. Both disciplines place a primary emphasis on the athlete’s shoulders, arms, and back muscles to drive the paddle quickly and effectively into the water. The kayaker, through the twisting motion required of a double paddle, coupled with the seated position in the boat, places significant stress upon the lumbar (low) back, the abdominal muscles that stabilize the

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Canoe/Kayak: Hydrodynamics The canoe and the kayak are both ancient forms of watercraft that have been adapted for a variety of purposes in modern times. In prehistoric times, both canoes and kayaks were used in cultures throughout the world for both hunting and transportation; the primary modern adaptations for both versions are recreational and athletic pursuits. Until recent times, kayaking was regarded as a subset of canoeing; today kayak racing and canoe racing are separate athletic disciplines, each with its own status at international and Olympic competitions. The chief reasons for treating the two sports WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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as one arose from the similarities in basic design and means of propulsion. While the fundamental concept of an open water craft propelled by human power delivered by paddles is common, the design of each craft, the characteristics of each as it is powered through the water, and the technique in which the paddle is moved through the water differ dramatically between the kayak and the canoe. Hydrodynamics—the characteristics of any craft as it moves through water—is a branch off of the physical science known as fluid mechanics. Hydrodynamics are contrasted with hydrostatic mechanics, the movements and characteristics of a craft that is stationary in water. A number of variables will be assessed in determining the optimal hydrodynamics of any boat, including the speed and the nature of the water through which the craft will travel, the pressure placed upon the hull, and the purpose for which the craft will be used. It is a generally held principle of boat hydrodynamics that the speed of a boat will be a function of the amount of power delivered, and the amount of resistance created by the water as the hull of the boat passes through it. It follows that the longer and slimmer the hull of a craft, the generally less pronounced the effect of friction will be. As the weight of the canoe is spread over a greater hull length, the hull will draw less water, and thus the craft will generally be less stable. Hydrodynamic research regarding the most efficient canoe hull designs suggests that 90% of the drag, or friction, on the boat is the water, while the remaining 10% is created by the hull and the paddlers moving through the air above the water. The sport of canoeing has created different competitions that take place in different conditions; small, very sleek canoes that are used to race on calm, sheltered water (flat-water); canoes that are used for competition in fast-flowing, often obstaclestrewn rivers (whitewater); and long-distance racing involving large crews paddling larger, heavier boats (dragon boats). In sprint canoe racing, the most important hydrodynamic consideration is generating maximum speed. Given the short distances traveled in a race (Olympic canoe races range from 500 m to 2,000 m), and the very calm water in which the hull sits, a long, narrow hull is used and the stability of the craft is a secondary concern. In whitewater conditions, the primary hydrodynamic considerations are stability and maneuverability; the paddler is required to both maintain balance while the canoe is subject to strong current and river flow, as well as move quickly to avoid river obstacles WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

such as boulders or other obstructions. For these reasons, a whitewater canoe will be shorter, wider, and more durably constructed than a racing canoe (whitewater canoes are usually constructed of Kevlar or a similar synthetic, flexible compound). The shorter axis of a racing canoe makes it easier to turn. Dragon boat racing and other forms of long-distance canoeing involve competitions that occur in large or open bodies of water, often with boat crews of 20 paddlers. Dragon boats, so named in reference to the origins of the sport in Hong Kong, are much longer and heavier than other canoes, as the stability of the boat is paramount to race success. Dragon boats are usually constructed with a keel, a device extending from the hull running along the axis of the craft. The keel increases the stability of the dragon boat—where a keel would impair the hydrodynamics of both a racing and whitewater canoe, it is essential in a craft that, fully loaded for racing, may bear a weight in excess of 4,000 lb (1,800 kg). Kayak racing has similar competitive distinctions, each of which affects the desirable hydrodynamics of the kayak. Kayaks are generally longer, narrower, and sleeker in design than canoes by virtue of the position of the paddler in the kayak; this design thus reduces the paddler’s center of mass to a point lower than can be achieved in a canoe. Further, the double paddle used by a kayaker is a more inherently stable and efficient method of propulsion, as power is generated in equal amounts on each side of the hull. The desirable optimum characteristics of a sprint race kayak are similar to those in canoeing: a long, narrow hull with a premium on reduced friction. Whitewater kayaks, sometimes referred to as slalom kayaks, are much shorter, with the primary focus on maneuverability. A whitewater kayak paddled by an expert can be taken through very rough, fast-flowing currents, with the double paddle permitting the hull of the craft to be readily spun in 180 changes of direction where necessary. For longer distances over open water, the sea kayak is utilized. Sea kayaks are built as either one- or two-person crafts, slightly wider and heavier given the prospect of rough waves. Unlike a canoe, the shape of the kayak hull permits the paddler, with practice, to right the hull from a submerged position. This maneuver is known as the ‘‘Eskimo roll.’’ As a comparison, if a canoe becomes submerged or otherwise swamped, it must be emptied or the craft will sink. Just as there are different hydrodynamic considerations for a canoe or kayak depending upon the nature of competition, related issues arise in

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determining what shape of paddle should be employed to achieve maximum effect. When the generation of speed is the primary consideration, most canoeists employ a bent shaft paddle, constructed with the blade at an angle to the shaft that will keep the blade perpendicular to the water and maximize power. Whitewater racers use paddles that have a shorter, squarer blade, as the nature of the sport will require the paddler to take numerous quick strokes. Distance canoeists often employ paddles with longer, narrower blades, to balance the desire to generate power and the fact that the paddler may make thousands of repetitive strokes. Kayak paddles require similar considerations. The kayak paddle carries the additional consideration of its aerodynamic properties, given that the paddle is above the head of the kayaker for a portion of every stroke, exposing the blade to the flow of air created by the kayak, as well as any wind. Kayak paddles are constructed with this consideration in mind. They have a thin handle and thin blades to make the paddle more aerodynamically efficient.

Canoe/Kayak; Environmental conditions and training; Rowing: Hydrodynamics.

SEE ALSO

Carbohydrate stores: Muscle glycogen, liver glycogen, and glucose The energy required to power the human body begins with the consumption of food, and the subsequent extraction by the body of the carbohydratebased sugars, known as glucose and glycogen. The manufacture, storage, and utilization of these sugar compounds for the energy needs of the body is an intricate and multidimensional process. Carbohydrates are compounds formed from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules. Carbohydrates are divided into two general groupings: simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates are the simple chemical structures of monosaccharides, or single sugars, such as glucose and fructose. Complex carbohydrates are composed of complex sugars known as polysaccharides, of which glycogen is the most prominent example. Foods are divided for nutritional purposes into three basic groups: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Each of these food groups is a primary source for different materials essential to the growth,

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development, and maintenance of the human body; individual foods may contain varying amounts of each of these groups. Seventy-five percent of the energy derived and stored by the body from carbohydrates is ultimately used by the body to sustain brain function; the balance is divided between muscle function and red blood cell production, essential to the transport of oxygen. The carbohydrate food group is composed of foods that are derived from plants (such as whole grain cereals and their byproducts such as breads and pastas); green vegetables, fruits, and dairy products are also rich in carbohydrates. Proteins, which are used primarily by the body to build and repair muscle tissue, are found in meat, soy products, dairy products, and some nuts. Fats, which the body converts into fatty acids, are essential to the absorption of a number of fat-soluble vitamins that are critical to body health, such as vitamins A, D, and E. Physical health will generally be maintained with a diet that comprises from 60% to 65% carbohydrates, 12-15% proteins, and less than 30% fat. When the intake of carbohydrates exceeds that which can be stored and converted to energy as glycogen or glucose, the body will store the excess carbohydrates as fat, often leading to weight gain. The body extracts carbohydrates from food sources through a process known as hydrolysis, whereby the warm fluids, commencing with the saliva in the mouth and concluding with the action of the small intestine, break down the carbohydrates in the food into glucose. As it is a simple sugar, glucose is able to be transported through the wall of the small intestine to be stored by the body in the liver. Once processed, glucose will take one of three pathways into the body. Irrespective of the route through which glucose is directed in the body, it will be metabolized into energy in the same fashion. While it is commonly stated that the body ‘‘burns’’ its stored carbohydrates, the actual chemical process has an additional component. No matter where the glucose is stored, when it is used it creates a compound known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the actual energy source within the body. The first and most direct route into the body for recently converted glucose from the small intestine is the bloodstream, where glucose is immediately available to be converted into ATP, in combination with the oxygen received into the bloodstream from the cardiorespiratory system. The second repository for glucose is the skeletal muscle system. Glucose is converted into its storage WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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form, glycogen, which is a long string of single sugars stored as a starch, a complex sugar. Once stored in the muscles, glycogen cannot be released into the bloodstream, but will be utilized as fuel to produce ATP by the muscle itself. The most important storage mechanism of processed glucose is performed by the liver. As the largest organ in the body, the liver performs a number of purifying and metabolic functions within the body, one of which is to store glucose in its glycogen form. The liver is capable of containing up to 10% of its volume in glycogen, in contrast to the 1% storage by volume carried on in the skeletal muscles. The liver both releases glycogen when it is needed for energy production, as well as regulates the amount of glucose present in the blood, critical to health (known as the blood sugar level). The process by which liver glycogen is converted into blood glucose is related to the actions of the pancreas, which monitors blood glucose levels. When the pancreas determines that blood glucose levels are too low, causing a condition known as hypoglycemia, the pancreas produces a hormone, glucagen, to stimulate a release of stored glycogen from the liver, in the form of glucose, into the blood to restore balance. When blood glucose levels are too high, which is, conversely, a hyperglycemic condition, the pancreas releases the hormone insulin to stimulate the liver to release less glucose. Impaired insulin production in the pancreas is the essence of the condition known as diabetes. When the production of insulin in the pancreas becomes impaired, careful attention must be paid to blood glucose levels, which may be tested on a frequent basis. Regulation of diet, including attention to the amount of carbohydrate consumed, is essential to the maintenance of healthy blood glucose levels. Exercise, although it may place pressure on blood glucose levels through the body’s use of carbohydrate stores to produce ATP, is believed to be an important tool in counteracting the serious potential impacts of a diabetic condition on the cardiovascular system.

Carbohydrates; Cardiovascular system; Glycogen level in muscles; Lactic acid and performance.

SEE ALSO

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are the fuel with which the body gains energy. Carbohydrates are the most prominent example of a substance that has a wide name WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

recognition, but a lesser understanding of their actual role in human energy production. Foods are generally classified for nutritional purposes into three groups: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. For the purposes of measuring how much fuel is involved in energy production, the calorie is the unit of measurement used. Nutritionally, there are simple carbohydrates (found in foods such as granulated table sugar or fruits) and complex carbohydrates (those present in typically more densely constructed foods such as rice, pastas, whole grains, and many kinds of vegetables). Complex carbohydrates are valuable both as energy and as a mineral source. Protein is the material required by the body to build muscle, as well as to repair and maintain all bodily tissues. Excess protein consumption places stress upon the kidneys, creating potential deficiencies of the mineral calcium. Proteins are present in meat of most types, fish, soy, and dairy products. Fats are essential to a healthy diet, as they are the source of fatty acids, which are crucial to the absorption by the body of fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamins A, D, and E. Fats also assist with the body’ insulation and proper cell function. As a general nutritional guideline, approximately from 60-65% of a healthy adult’s caloric intake should be derived from carbohydrates; proteins should constitute 12-15%; and fat sources should be less than 30% of a properly balanced diet. Carbohydrates are the substances that will produce the essential fuel for the demands of human movement. Carbohydrates are simple sugars, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms present in a ratio of 1:2:1. These sugars, once extracted from digested foods, are water-soluble compounds that are the fundamental energy source for many forms of organic life. In the single sugar form, carbohydrates are monosaccharides, of which glucose and fructose are the best known. The polysaccharides, also known as starches, are converted upon ingestion by the human body for storage into glycogen; as glycogen, the sugars can be converted for later use as a fuel source. The primary storage locations of glycogen are the skeletal muscles and the liver. While glycogen has a molecular structure similar to the starches found in certain green plants, there are few foods that contain glycogen; potato starches are closest in structure, and accordingly, potatoes have enjoyed a timeless reputation as a useful energy source for athletes. The complex carbohydrate starches are created in plants through the process

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of photosynthesis, whereby sunlight reacts with carbon and hydrogen atoms to create complex molecules. Plant products such as breads, pasta, cereals, beans, fruits, and vegetables will all possess varying amounts of carbohydrates. Many diets and other nutritional references make mention of ‘‘good carbs’’ and ‘‘bad carbs.’’ These descriptions are not a reflection on the chemistry of the particular carbohydrate being ingested as carbohydrates have a well-defined molecular structure. Good carbohydrates are generally those derived from whole, primarily unprocessed foods such as grains and vegetables. Consuming the requisite carbohydrates from these types of foods provides the added nutritional benefits of fiber, which assists in the good digestion of all foods in the human intestines, as well as providing vitamins essential to many metabolic processes. The so-called bad carbohydrates are those ingested through sugared, processed foods and snack foods, which have no nutritional value other than as a mediocre energy source. Excess carbohydrates, those that cannot be processed for immediate use in the bloodstream, or stored in the muscles or liver as glycogen, will be stored by the body as fat. Carbohydrates enter the body as foods in a variety of forms; the processing, conversion, and storage of carbohydrates as usable energy begins in the mouth. Hydrolysis is the process by which water and heat will break down a substance; this mechanism is present in saliva and it continues with the fluids of the small intestine. There, the complex starches are reduced to simple glucose. The glucose passes through the wall of the small intestine where it is stored in the liver as glycogen. As much as 10% of the total weight of the liver can be stored glycogen; twice as much glycogen is stored in the muscles throughout the entire body. The liver serves an additional, regulatory purpose with respect to how much glucose is entering the bloodstream at any time. Seventy-five percent of the glucose stored in the body will typically be directed to the functions of the brain, with the balance used for the purpose of red blood cell production and skeletal muscle and heart muscle activity. The function of carbohydrates both as simple sugars as well as stored glycogen is determined largely by which of the body’s energy systems is operational during athletic activity. The anaerobic energy system is the body’s method for fueling itself in shorter, more intense types of activity, in which the presence of oxygen in the muscle cells is not required to produce energy. The anaerobic system has two aspects: the anaerobic alactic system and

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the anaerobic lactic system. The aerobic system is the energy system predominately used to fuel activity that occurs over a longer period. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the fuel either used or created by each of the energy systems. It is the source of ATP that distinguishes one system from another. The anaerobic alactic system is the process employed by the body for very fast, intense physical activity that lasts no longer than 15 seconds. All muscles have a small amount of ATP contained within them, which recharges in relatively short periods; in this alactic system, the ATP is a form of instant energy to the muscle. In the anaerobic lactic system, muscle glycogen (the stored complex sugars) break down into simple glucose, which produces ATP and provides the muscle with energy. The creation of ATP is a slower process than the simple access to ATP in the cell as in the alactic system. For as long as there is muscle glycogen present, ATP energy will be produced; the usual duration of the muscle glycogen/ATP process is from 60 to 90 seconds. As this conversion to ATP energy occurs outside of the muscle cell, oxygen is not required to facilitate this metabolism. However, the chemical byproduct of the conversion of glucose to ATP is lactate, or lactic acid, which will hinder athletic performance due to its cramping effect on working muscles. As an athlete becomes more efficient, the lactate is recycled through the heart and liver and recycled into usable fuel. In the aerobic system, ATP is produced from glucose in the working muscles cells, a process using oxygen transported by way of the erythrocytes, or red blood cells. The process of the production of ATP in the aerobic system is longer than that of the anaerobic lactic, but the energy produced is for longer duration, less intense forms of muscle activity. The aerobic process of ATP does not create any waste products; the use of oxygen requires increased heart capacity to bring more oxygen-rich blood to working muscles. Fatty acids (produced by fats obtained through food) and amino acids (derived from protein) are stored in lean muscle tissue within the body. These sources of ATP, which are not as efficient as the glycogen/glucose system, work in a complementary fashion by delaying the depletion of glycogen energy reserves. ATP generated from muscle or liver glycogen is at least twice as productive in the satisfaction of the body’s energy requirements as the ATP production from fatty acids. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CARDIO-BOXING

Different types of exercise place differing demands upon the energy systems over time, and the corresponding rate by which glycogen is depleted. As a general proposition, the longer the period of exercise, and the greater the ongoing demand upon the reserves of stored energy, the greater the proportion of energy that will be derived from the fat/fatty acid component of energy production. As an example, when the athlete is exercising for 30 minutes, more than 60% of energy will be produced through either muscle glycogen or glucose released from storage in the liver. At the other end of the exercise spectrum, when the athlete has worked for 240 minutes, the fatty acid mechanism for the production of ATP energy will be in excess of 60%; muscle glycogen stores account for less than a 10% contribution. There is an interrelationship between the utilization of carbohydrate stores and the function of each energy system. In an event such as a cross-country ski race or a 31-mi (50 km) cycling race, the burst of desired energy to break from the starting line will be fueled by the anaerobic alactic system, using the readily available ATP reserve. As the race progresses, the athlete will draw energy from the aerobic system; a steep hill or sprint finish will engage the anaerobic lactic process. All three mechanisms are available at any time, with a system being predominate as opposed to exclusive. The carbohydrate demands of specific sports are also a consideration in training. An adult distance runner training at a seven-minute mile pace will burn approximately 920 calories per hour. A cyclist with similar characteristics training at a speed of 16 mph (26 km/h) will expect to consume 680 calories. A byproduct of the energy consumption by the body during exercise is the production of lactate; when oxygen depletion occurs in the burning of converted glycogen into ATP, lactate is a byproduct, which contributes to inefficiency and a sluggish performance. The commitment of an athlete to the restoration of glycogen stores within the body through proper carbohydrate intake after training or competition is of critical importance to long-term athletic success. The processes by which the body can reabsorb carbohydrates take place immediately after exercise. During training or competition, complex carbohydrate sources that can be easily consumed are energy bars and gels; however, products that contain significant amounts of simple sugars such as fructose and glucose should be avoided, as they cause a sugar spike that does not aid in carbohydrate processing into useful glycogen stored fuels. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Beans and other high complex carbohydrate foods

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FREE CORBIS

Carbohydrates are essential to the healthy functioning of the human body for athletes and sedentary persons alike. It is in this context that the so-called ‘‘low-carb’’ diets, such as the popular Atkins diet, must be understood. As a general proposition, while the low-carbohydrate diets may produce weight loss in sedentary, overweight persons, it is difficult to imagine a healthy athlete with significant energy demands being able to maintain training levels with reduced carbohydrate diets. Conversely, the growth of long-distance running, and the demands of that sport in terms of carbohydrate loading as a precompetition dietary strategy, has prompted significant research into the mechanics of precisely how the body utilizes the carbohydrates it ingests.

Carbohydrate stores: Muscle glycogen, liver glycogen, and glucose; Glycogen depletion; Glycogen level in muscles; Liver function; Muscle glycogen recovery.

SEE ALSO

Cardio-boxing Cardio-boxing is a combination of the traditional training movements of a boxer—including sparring, shadow boxing, and blows delivered to a boxing bag—structured so as to be performed in sequences, similar to those of aerobics classes, that have a primarily aerobic training effect. Cardio-boxing also developed its own offshoot, cardio kickboxing, where martial arts movements involving blows delivered with the feet are incorporated into the training routine.

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The rise of aerobics as a significant health and fitness regimen began in North America in the early 1980s. In its earliest incarnations, popularized by television versions such as the Twenty Minute Workout, aerobics was an outgrowth of calisthenics, with traditional stretching and resistance exercises performed in rapid succession, usually to music. Aerobics, through both the pace and the duration of the activity, utilizes the aerobic energy system to provide muscle energy; its exercises assist in the maintenance of cardiovascular (cardio) and cardiorespiratory health. Aerobics can be performed by a solo participant, at the participant’s own pace, or in group settings. Aerobics did not develop as an exclusively female activity, although a majority of aerobics adherents are women; it is seen as a user-friendly, non-competitive athletic alternative for people seeking the benefits of fitness, who may never have participated in other more structured, competitive sports. Over time, some aerobics enthusiasts sought out a more vigorous, total body fitness experience than that provided by regular aerobics classes. This desire led to the development and refinement of a number of aerobics variants. High impact aerobics, with an emphasis on the longer duration (sessions of one hour or more) of the fitness activity, combined with the introduction of adjustable portable platforms into the aerobics routines, to require more intense, increased resistance jumping and stepping exercises. High impact aerobics gained a measure of popularity for people who wanted a more demanding cardio workout; this variant also proved to result in a higher injury rate. It was in this context that cardio-boxing rose to prominence as a training and fitness program. Organized boxing requires an athlete to compete in matches, referred to as bouts, which are divided into segments known as rounds, which may number from four to 12 in the bout, depending upon the level of competition. Each round is typically two to three minutes in length, with a one-minute rest interval. Each round is generally a period of high energy, punctuated with periods of very intense activity, usually through exchanges of punches between the competitors. Boxing, for this reason, places significant demands on both the body’s anaerobic system for shorter energy sequences required in each round, and on the aerobic system to both provide the energy to carry the boxer through the entire competition as well as to facilitate recovery between rounds, primarily through the reduction of the heart rate to a normal level. Effective boxing training mimics these stresses

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upon the body; cardio-boxing training routines are an application of these training principles. The equipment required for cardio-boxing is geared to flexible, unencumbered movement. Shoes are preferably ones that provide maximum stability, given the physical movements required. Some cardioboxers do not wear shoes, given the martial arts influence. The participants’ clothing should permit ease of movement. Additionally, many boxers tape their hands, using a flexible wrap that is supportive of the entire hand from the knuckle to above the wrist; the tape will stabilize the wrist on contact when punches are delivered to the training bag, and also protect against the wrist being bent upon contact, a mechanism that exposes the wrist and the conjunction of the wrist, ulnar, and radial bones (bones of the forearm) to sprain or fracture. Other necessary items include boxing gloves and a boxing bag (typically a heavy bag, one that is stable, weighing 75-100 lb [34-45 kg]). While cardio-boxing routines themselves may be effectively employed as a warm up for other athletic activities, the athlete should engage in a period of stretching and loosening of the muscles prior to cardio-boxing, especially if the routine will involve blows delivered to a bag or other resistance device. Particular attention should be paid in this warm up to the hands, wrists, arms, and shoulders. As cardio-boxing is an application of boxing principles, the exercise routine includes both upper body and footwork components. There are many variations of cardio-boxing workouts, and individual preferences will create useful modifications; all involve the athlete assuming a fighting stance, the crouched athletic position adopted by boxers, with arms raised and fists positioned to both defend against and to deliver a blow. As blows are delivered, alternating left and right hands to the full extension of the athlete’s arms, there is a corresponding weight shift from each foot, so as to maintain balance. The quicker that the blows are delivered, the greater resistance to the fist, arm, and shoulder. Cardioboxing fighting stance routines can be performed with a bag, or by shadow boxing, which emphasizes the movements without the resistance of striking an object. The basic punches of boxing include the jab, the punch delivered straight from the shoulder; the hook, the punch made with a combination of a hip and shoulder turn and corresponding blow; the uppercut, a punch delivered with the fist moving forward and upward to the target. In cardio-boxing, all these WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CARDIOPROTECTION

punches can be thrown in various sequences and combinations to maximize training effect. For many athletes engaged in cardio-boxing, a heart monitor is a useful training tool. The monitor will provide an accurate count as to the athlete’s heart rate, and can provide instantaneous feedback. Heart rate is a useful, although not complete, predictor of how hard the body is working. The chief purpose of the heart monitor is to provide a guideline to the athlete as to whether the heart rate is approaching a critical range. In general terms, if a cardio-boxer determined that the workout had elevated the heart rate to what the athlete believed to near the maximum for an extended period, the athlete would consider reducing the intensity level; conversely, when the heart rate records a level of below 50% of maximum, the athlete might use that reading as a signal that the workout intensity could be increased. The kickboxing variation of cardio-boxing places greater emphasis on the legs and feet to deliver blows as part of the training sequence. As with various types of martial arts, the kick is delivered using a full rotation and extension of the body into the target. Strong leg muscles and coordination are required to be effective.

Boxing strength and training exercises; Calisthenics; Exercise, intermittent.

SEE ALSO

Cardioprotection As the phrase suggests, cardioprotection is any physical or nutritional measure that guards against injury or harm to the heart and its function, with respect to any of the bodily systems in which it is a component, including the cardiovascular, cardiopulmonary, and cardiorespiratory systems. There are various ways to help protect the heart. Regular physical exercise is important as there exists overwhelming scientific evidence that physically active people have both a lower incidence of coronary disease generally, as well less likelihood of sustaining a ischemia-reperfusion injury, commonly known as heart attack. Physically active persons also tend to survive the cellular damage caused to heart muscle by a heart attack better than physically inactive persons. Another good routine is taking nutritional antioxidants, including vitamins C and E. The principles of cardioprotection are best understood in the context of what happens to the heart muscles and arteries during an attack. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

coronary arteries (those that flow directly into the heart muscle) can become clogged with a plaque substance that is a buildup within the walls of the artery. The plaque is composed of cholesterol, a soft, fat-like, waxy substance that adheres to the artery wall, causing the artery to narrow—a condition known as arteriosclerosis. The clogged artery does not permit optimum blood flow, and there is a corresponding reduction in the ability of the body to deliver oxygen to the heart muscle. A heart attack will occur where there is an arterial blood clot that causes a reduction of blood to the heart. The period between the reduction in blood flow and the resumption of a regular flow is the measure of the severity of the heart attack. When the blood flow to the heart is interrupted for less than five minutes, the heart will typically recover normal function, with minimal damage. However, when the blood flow to the heart is interrupted for a period in excess of 20 minutes, the cells of the heart muscle sustain permanent, irreversible damage, as cardiac cell muscles do not regenerate. This cell damage results in a permanent loss of heart function and capacity to pump blood. Heart disease can be accelerated through a number of factors, such as cigarette smoking, the use of narcotics, or diet. Such factors aside, there is a clear correlation between the amount of exercise performed by an individual and the risk of coronary disease. While physical exercise is a certain cardioprotector, the quantity and the intensity of the exercise are factors that will determine the extent of the protection. Generally, the greater the intensity level of the regular exercise activity, the less risk of a heart-related illness. Regular physical exercise, defined as a minimum of four sessions of 30 minutes duration per week, where the energy demands are a minimum of 250 calories per session, tends to reduce the risk of other related heart conditions, chiefly hypertension (high blood pressure), high cholesterol, and diabetes. The same minimum level of physical exercise will protect the heart against the damage caused in attacks that threaten permanent cardiac injury due to heart cell death. Exercise promotes better collateral circulation in the body, providing the blood with a number of alternate avenues for circulation. Exercise is also believed to facilitate the production in the heart muscle of certain proteins, referred to as heat shock proteins, that strengthen these muscles when exposed to the stress of a heart attack.

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Antioxidants are those compounds that operate within the body to slow the destruction of cells. An antioxidant will tend to seek out and neutralize molecules known as radicals, which are a byproduct of chemical processes within the body and which, if left to operate within the bloodstream, tend to speed the destruction of cells. It is known that when vitamin C, vitamin E, and alpha lipoic acid are all present in the cells of the heart muscle, there is protection afforded against the cellular injury of prolonged heart attack. Vitamin E is a fat-soluble compound that is the most commonly found antioxidant in nature. Vitamin C is a natural, water-soluble substance that works in partnership with vitamin E. Alpha lipoic acid is a water-soluble acid that works with vitamin C. While all of the antioxidants identified as cardioprotectors occur naturally in foods, nutritional supplements are a further means to ingest these compounds. Multivitamins are a common source of these cardioprotectors. As with any supplement, the regular consumption of any supplement that is in excess of the daily requirements of the body creates another set of health risks. Each of these antioxidant compounds is toxic if consumed in excessive amounts.

Cardiovascular system; Dietary supplements; Genetics; Vitamin E.

SEE ALSO

Cardiopulmonary function Cardiopulmonary function is the interrelationship between the workings of the heart and lung organs. The most important function of the cardiopulmonary system is with respect to the flow and regulation of blood between the heart and the lungs, a process that centers upon the connection between the heart and the lungs made through the pulmonary artery. The function of the cardiopulmonary system is best understood when contrasted with the two interrelated, cardio-centered systems. The cardiovascular system is the method by which the heart and the entire network of blood vessels function together to direct the flow of blood through out the body. The cardiorespiratory system is a specialized component of the larger cardiovascular works. The cardiorespiratory system describes the function of the heart in relation to the body’s entire breathing mechanism, from the nose and throat to the lungs. These three systems function interdependently.

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The bodily blood volume of the average healthy person is approximately 5.8 - 6.8 qt (5.5-6.5 l). The heart, in conjunction with the action of the blood vessels, powers blood through 60,000 mi (100,000 km) of the typical circulatory system, with between 5,280 and 6,340 qt (5,000-6,000 l) passing through the hearts chambers each day. Consequently, the efficiency of heart function will depend directly on the strength of the heart muscle. Aerobic exercise makes the heart stronger and better equipped to propel blood. The power of the heart and the clear, unobstructed pulmonary artery passages performing in concert permit the efficient movement of blood to and from the lungs, where useful oxygen and waste carbon dioxide are exchanged in the microscopic lung compartments known as the alveoli. The most dangerous circumstance involving the cardiopulmonary system is a stoppage of the heart, known as sudden cardiac arrest, which prevents blood flow to the heart. Sudden cardiac arrest will generally lead to death if left unresolved for more than a few moments. Sudden cardiac arrest occurs approximately 1,000 times per day in the United States, and as frequently on a per capita basis through out the Western world. In many instances, especially for cases where the victim is over 35 years of age, the most common cause of sudden cardiac arrest is a form of coronary disease, a buildup of arterial plaque narrowing arteries and impeding blood flow to the heart. Where the victim is under age 35, and an athlete, sudden cardiac arrest has generally one of two causes. In up to 80% of such occurrences, the athlete has a congenital heart defect (an abnormality that has been present since birth), undetected through prior physical examination. It has been estimated that between 200 and 300 athletes in the United States under the age of 25 die from sudden cardiac arrest that has a congenital cause every year. The most common of these defects is a thickening of the wall of the left side of the heart (the chamber that does most of the propulsion of blood out of the organ). The other common cause of sudden cardiac arrest among younger athletes is heart arrhythmia, a condition in which the electrical system of the heart, which regulates heart beat, causes the heart muscle to quiver and then cease function. Sudden cardiac arrest rarely presents any symptom in advance of onset. The most common form of this condition is known as ventricular fibrillation. Heart arrhythmia has a number of underlying conditions, including a larger-than-normal heart, a defect or blockage in a coronary artery, an WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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inflammation of the heart muscle, or external influences such as the ingestion of a stimulant like cocaine, or a direct blow to the chest that causes heart trauma. For an athlete, while exercise is a proven cardioprotector, if one of these conditions is present the mechanisms of heart growth through exercise, coupled with increased exercise intensity, may in some circumstances lead to a sudden cardiac arrest. Such occurrences are rare when assessed in raw numbers of deaths per year, but the deaths of prominent athletes in the apparent peak of health and fitness never fail to resonate with the public. Major league baseball pitcher Steve Bechler, Cameroon soccer player Marc Vivien Foe, and basketball players Reggie Lewis and Hank Gathers are prominent athletic examples of death due to heart arrhythmia. In an ideal circumstance, particularly prior to engaging in a high intensity training program, an athlete should have a complete physical, including the review of the athlete’s personal risk factors such as a family history of heart disorder, or certain types of drug use, particularly stimulant use. This physical would also include an electrocardiogram, or ECG, a device that aids in the assessment of the regularity of heart function. The most well known understanding of cardiopulmonary function is cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). CPR is an emergency procedure used to stimulate heart and lung function when the heart stops suddenly (cardiac arrest) and when a combination of external cardiac massage (rubbing the chest forcefully) and artificial respiration is used to revive the afflicted person. If successful (CPR is more likely to be successful if administered within the first four minutes of cardiac arrest), the flow of oxygen in and out of the lungs, with corresponding flow along the pulmonary artery to the heart muscle, will be achieved. Once CPR has been administered, a defibrillator will often be used to spur a resumption of a regular heart beat. During a cardiac arrest, the organ at risk of permanent damage in the cardiopulmonary system is the heart, not the lungs. The lungs can survive an absence of respiration; the heart cannot survive an absence of oxygen-rich blood without a risk of the cells of the heart dying. Due to the nature of the construction of these cells, they cannot be regenerated in the same fashion as most other organs. SEE ALSO Cardioprotection; Cardiorespiratory function; Cardiovascular system; Oxygen; Stimulants.

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Cardiorespiratory function The cardiorespiratory system and its biological alter ego, the cardiopulmonary system, are the processes that utilize the same organs to perform distinct functions for human performance. The heart and its muscular power drive the approximate 5.8 qt (5.5 l) blood volume through the entire distribution network (the cardiovascular system). The heart operates in partnership with the lungs to ensure the efficient transport of blood to and from the heart to facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide (the cardiopulmonary system). The heart also works with the entire breathing mechanism for the operation of the lungs, to service the oxygen delivery and waste-air discharge (the cardiorespiratory system). The respiratory system is an integrated series of organs and openings designed to deliver oxygen-rich air to the lungs. It is essential to athletic performance that the lungs and the airways be clear, unobstructed, and fully functional. The body has no alternate means of counteracting or compensating for a substandard respiratory system; athletic performance will suffer, as it is an irrefutable biological fact that the body’s energy stores cannot be utilized without proper supplies of oxygen. Typical conditions that impair respiratory function in athletes are asthma (an often chronic inflammation of the lungs and its airways), the bronchial tubes that restrict the passage of air into the lungs, and the congestion of the lung with fluids caused by common colds and infections. Smoking and other forms of pollution will also inhibit proper lung function. The respiratory system begins where the air is inhaled into the body, through either the nose or the mouth. All air ultimately passes through the throat and into the trachea (windpipe). The air then passes into the bronchial tunes (bronchi), which lead into each of the lung sacs. Tubes known as bronchioles flow from the bronchi, tapering into ends composed of air sacs. The air sacs are groupings of tiny, round organic structures called alveoli. It is the alveoli that are the actual functioning exchangers of oxygen and air, the point of contact in the lung where air physically enters and exits the human body. A single alveolus is one-cell thick, which permits ease of movement by oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules between the body and the alveolus. The alveolus is encircled with capillaries, the tiny blood vessels that are the means by which oxygen is passed from the alveolus into the body and through which waste carbon dioxide is passed out. The alveoli are so densely packed into

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the lungs that, if placed on a flat surface, they would form a surface of over 120 yd2 (100 m2) for the average adult. From the capillaries that are the cardiovascular point of contact with the respiratory system, the blood is directed into the circulatory system, and ultimately passes through the pulmonary artery. The act of inhaling and exhaling air occurs due to the function of the diaphragm, located below the lung cavities in the abdomen. The lungs have no muscle structure of their own. One function of athletic activity is a strengthening of the diaphragm. In any sport in which athletic endurance is a component, training that will increase the amount of oxygen available to the athlete is essential to athletic improvement. Conversely, improvement of performance will be limited if the body cells cannot obtain enough oxygen to assist in energy production with available glycogen or glucose stores. When an athlete seeks to increase lung capacity, the training objective is defined as increasing the ‘‘VO2 max,’’ a short-form expression for the maximum amount of oxygen that the athlete can usefully consume during a maximum-effort exercise: the V symbol represents the volume measured, the O2 is oxygen, and the max represents the maximum level. VO2 max is measured as the volume capacity per minute, or as a comparative measure in relation to the weight of the athlete. Known as the training effect, exercise places demands on the body for increase energy to fuel muscle activity. Heart rate increases, in response to demands for oxygen transporting red blood cells to metabolize glucose stores. Respiratory rate increases to obtain more oxygen and to take away greater amounts of waste carbon dioxide. Intense exercise, on a regular basis, will increase the amount of red blood cells and corresponding oxygen uptake. Lung size is primarily a function of genetics. The lungs have no muscle structure of their own. Increased physical training will improve the ability of the lungs to inhale and exhale air due to the strengthening of the diaphragm, the muscle that power the respiratory portion of the cardiorespiratory system. The exercise training effect is not permanent, and it is reversible through a reduction or cessation of physical activity. If an athlete reduces the intensity of endurance training, or ceases workouts due to injury or voluntary inactivity, the VO2 max will decrease. Aging and the natural reduction in cell

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regrowth and reproduction also serves to reduce the VO2 max. Studies have determined that for an average healthy young male, age 20-29, a typical VO2 max test result is between 39.9 qt (44 l) and 46.3 qt (51 l) per minute. Olympic marathon champion Frank Shorter had a test capacity of 64.4 qt (71 l) per minute; Tour de France champions Miguel Indurain and Greg Lemond had maximum oxygen uptakes of more than 79.9 qt (88 l) per minute.

Cardiopulmonary function; Cardiovascular system; Oxygen; Upper respiratory tract infection.

SEE ALSO

Cardiovascular exercise

SEE

Low-

impact cardiovascular exercise

Cardiovascular responses to fluid replacement during exercise The fundamental purpose of the cardiovascular system is the efficient circulation of blood. When the blood is transported to the body’s organs and muscles efficiently, the body is equipped to utilize its energy stores and nutrients in an optimal fashion. As plasma, the fluid component of blood, is itself over 90% water, the proper replacement of fluids into the body during exercise is a essential. All athletic activities have a common feature that, in varying degrees, places an additional stress upon the body: the requirement of the additional generation of energy. Energy to power the movement of the body and its structures is demanded, either in a freestanding mode, in such sports as such as running, gymnastics, or wrestling, or when the athlete is propelling an object, as in bobsledding, canoeing, or cycling. The body possesses two main energy systems, the aerobic and the anaerobic systems. The anaerobic system comprises two separate mechanisms, the alactic and the lactic processes. Both processes rely on the ultimate production of the compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is produced through the metabolism of the body’s stores of glucose. The nature of the activity will determine whether the aerobic energy system, or one of the two anaerobic systems will produce ATP from the available glucose reserves. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

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Seventy-five percent of the energy generated through the metabolism of glucose is released from the body as heat. The remaining 25% of the energy is directed to muscular contraction and the other aspects of human function and movement. The heat produced through metabolism is very dangerous to the body, and it must not be allowed to build up. The mass of the athlete is also a significant factor in determining the impact of the generation of heat. As a general rule, the larger the athlete, the greater the amount of heat that will be produced, and the greater the prospective impact on the cardiovascular system. Heat dissipates from the body through the evaporation of sweat from the surface of the skin. In endurance sports, the replacement of these fluids is essential to performance. In sports such as marathon running, long distance cycling, and cross-country skiing, a rule of thumb regarding fluid replacement suggests that the athlete, in the course of the activity, consume between 6.7 oz and 27 oz (200-800 ml) of fluid per hour of competition. Like most human systems, optimal function of the cardiovascular system will follow optimal fluid levels within the vascular network. The thirst sensation is a very poor indicator that the athlete has a lower-than-optimum level of hydration; an athlete may have a deficiency of 1 qt (1.0 l) or more before actually feeling thirsty. Where the system begins to become dehydrated, the blood plasma will correspondingly become reduced in volume, creating two important consequences: reduced ability of the blood to transport oxygen and nutrients and reduced ability of the blood to dissipate heat. The result of dehydration to the cardiovascular system may have three progressive consequences for the athlete: heat cramps, heat exhaustion, or heat stroke. Heat cramps are a condition in which the body becomes dehydrated and the blood system is not able to efficiently deliver electrolytes (salts, such as sodium and potassium), essential to muscle function. Heat exhaustion is a more serious condition, in which the athlete becomes disabled due to the inability to dissipate heat, often resulting in elevated heart rate and lethargy. Heat stroke is an incapacitating heat illness, in which the body begins to shut down some of its process; body temperature frequently exceeds 105 F (40 C), and the athlete is often not coherent. Heat stroke is fatal unless the athlete receives immediate medical attention. Proper hydration is not the only factor that will impact upon the proper function of the cardiovascular system during exercise. Related to fluid intake are environmental issues such as heat, humidity, and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

presence of wind, as well as the rate or intensity of energy expenditure. When an athlete becomes dehydrated, the ingestion of fluids to correct the shortage will not have an instantaneous effect on blood fluid. The water or similar liquid must be digested and passed through to the small intestine, a process that usually takes a number of minutes to achieve a physiological result. For this reason, athletes in endurance events will consume fluids well before they expect to feel a thirst sensation. Just as too little fluid replacement will cause significant circulatory problems, an athlete cannot guarantee proper cardiovascular function simply through constant fluid intake. When an athlete is exposed to high temperature conditions, and excessive amounts of fluids are consumed, the athlete may be subjected to a condition known as hyponatrania. Too much fluid will dilute the proportion of important salts such as sodium in the bloodstream. When coupled with the natural loss of sodium through sweat, the loss of this important electrolyte may interfere with the functions of the brain, heart, and muscles, leading to apathy, confusion, and nausea.

Cardiovascular system; Energy drinks; Hydration strategy in distance running; Hyponatremia.

SEE ALSO

Cardiovascular system The cardiovascular system is the best known of the heart-centered processes in the body. Its actual functions are sometimes confused with other cardiac systems, and thus may be misunderstood. While sometimes characterized as including all of the organs involved in the entire relationship between the heart and the body, the cardiovascular system is the circulatory system, composed of the heart and the network of blood vessels that it anchors. The cardiovascular is the body’s distributor of oxygen and nutrients, as well as the mechanism for waste transport. Consistent with its primary function, the efficient circulation of blood, the cardiovascular system is interconnected with two other heart-centered systems: the cardiopulmonary system, which controls the relationship between the heart and the lungs, and the cardiorespiratory system, the interrelationship between the heart and the general breathing mechanisms in the body, including the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide that occurs within the lungs. The cardiovascular system is a complex and extensive network. The circulatory process begins

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with a pump action in the heart muscle, known familiarly as the heart beat. Each beat is a two-part action, the timing of which is regulated by the heart component known as the SA node, whose function is in turn tied to brain signals. The first part of each beat is the longer diastole, and the second is the shorter systole. Blood pressure in the circulatory system is calculated as a function of the two components of the pulse and the resistance of the arterial wall. Each beat sends a quantity of nutrient-rich, oxygenated blood into the channels known as arteries. The arteries are relatively thick walled and highly flexible cylinders, encased in a ring of muscle. As the pumping action of the heart creates pressure in the artery through the flow of blood, the arterial walls are constructed to contract and thus slow the rate of blood as it travels through the artery. The arteries ultimately narrow into arterioles. These become the tiny capillaries, which are the system’s exchange point for actual transfer of oxygen and nutrients to individual muscle and organ cells, and the corresponding receipt of waste carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is then transferred into small veins known as venules. The venules lead to larger veins; as the vein is not constructed with any muscle to regulate propulsion of blood through it, the blood travels more slowly on its return to the heart. Near the heart, the blood enters the pulmonary artery, located on the right side of the heart, which directs the blood to the lungs to be recharged with oxygen. The blood is then pumped back into the cardiovascular system from the left side of the heart. The fluid components of blood is called plasma and is comprised of more than 90% water. The erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are the organisms in the blood that carry the chemical hemoglobin, and are thus able to transport oxygen. Red blood cells are manufactured at a rate of two million per second from the bodily stores of bone marrow. Fluid replacement during exercise has the important effect of maintaining proper blood volume, which permits the efficient transport of oxygen.

every form of athletic activity through rigorous training, the level of improvement in cardiac output will dictate the ultimate level of the athlete’s success. Cardiac output is defined as the amount of blood that the heart can pump per minute. The greater the cardiac output, the greater the number of red blood cells available to transport oxygen to working muscles, essential to the generation of muscle energy. Diet and physical activity are the crucial factors to general cardiovascular health. The heart, like any muscle, requires the stimulation and muscle building of exercise to maintain heart health. The walls of the heart will grow as a result of exercise. Diets that are not a healthy mix of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats (usually consumed in the general ratio of (60-65% carbohydrates, 15-20% proteins, and 25% fats) typically lead to excess weight, which puts a strain on heart function. Diet, especially if it is high in fats, or the athlete smokes cigarettes, can cause a buildup of plaque in the arteries. This causes both a narrowing of the channel, known as stenosis, or the hardening and thickening of the artery, the condition known as arteriosclerosis. The unhealthy artery also presents the risk that the plaque material may break off and cause a clotting of the vessel, which blocks the flow of blood to the heart. This condition is known as a stroke, and it is often fatal. If heart function loss occurs from the stroke, the result may be damage to vital organs such as the brain. SEE ALSO Cardiopulmonary function; Cardiorespiratory function; Cardiovascular responses to fluid replacement during exercise; Endurance; Oxygen.

Carpal tunnel syndrome fracture

Approximately 25% of the body’s blood is filtered through the kidneys, the organs that purify the blood as it is directed through the cardiovascular system. Some fluid waste products and toxins are extracted by the kidneys and secreted into the bladder as urine, which is passed from the body.

Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a wrist injury that causes damage to the median nerve, which radiates from the forearm into the hand. The median nerve is responsible for the transmission of impulses to the thumb and the first four fingers of the hand. The median nerve is also the transmitter of impulses to the nine tendons that provide flexion capability to the fingers. The median nerve also provides the nerve transmissions to the muscle group at the base of the thumb.

The cardiovascular system is generally the most important of the heart-centered physical systems to athletic performance. While athletes can often significantly improve muscular strength and endurance in

The carpals are a series of eight bones that connect the forearm to the fingers of the hand. The carpals and the transverse carpal ligament, a thick fiber connective tissue that binds together the bones

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of the wrist, together create the carpal tunnel, an archway through which the median nerve passes. As the tunnel is a narrow passageway containing the median nerve and tendons, any external pressure or damage to the carpal tunnel, such as a fracture, will often result in the median nerve becoming compressed and irritated, causing a loss of function. The damage to the carpal tunnel can occur in a number of ways. A common cause of CTS is repetitive strain, such as that associated with occupations in which movements are repeated, or in which particular tools such as hand sanders and grinders are in constant use. Daily computer keyboard use is also a common cause of CTS. In non-athletic scenarios, the CTS usually occur in the dominant hand of the person. In some cases, there is a congenital basis for CTS, whereby the carpal tunnel is unusually narrow. Simple aching from repetition is not a symptom of CTS; the physical restrictions caused by CTS are manifested over a period of weeks or months. The median nerve will also be damaged through compression in cases of wrist facture, which events can occur through a fall on the wrist, a violent twisting motion to the wrist, or a blow to the wrist. Not all wrist fractures will cause or contribute to a CTS condition, but when the fracture is to one or more of the carpal bones, or the fracture otherwise places pressure on the carpal tunnel, the CTS syndrome may arise. When the median nerve becoming irritated through compression, in addition to pain, the nerve impulses along the median nerve are slowed, causing a loss of performance in functions involving the hand. The symptoms of CTS are primarily a tingling, numb sensation noticed in the thumb, or the first three fingers of the hand; CTS does not affect the small finger of the hand. Of primary importance to the athlete, the afflicted person will notice a decreased ability to grip objects, and there will be a corresponding loss of fine motor control and other manual tasks. There are a number of tests that may be performed to isolate CTS from among other causes of the tingling and loss of function in the hand. The Tinel test is performed with pressure being placed on the location of the median nerve, just above the wrist. If a tingling sensation is experienced in the thumb or fingers, the nerve is likely compressed. The Phalen test involves the person extending the arm and flexing the wrist inward; if tingling is experienced, CTS is a strong possibility. In many cases, when the wrist is fractured, the pressure leading to CTS may reveal itself after the wrist bones are subsequently healed. In such circumstances, the carpal tunnel pressure may be WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

released by way of surgery. An incision is made to the transverse carpal ligament that covers the tunnel through which the median nerve passes into the hand. The carpal bones are separated slightly, and in this fashion a greater space is created for the median nerve, which will serve to alleviate the pressure applied by the tunnel passage to the nerve. In some cases, the CTS condition may be treated by rest and immobilization, that is, placing the arm in a sling or through the use of a wrist brace). Anti-inflammatory medications such as ibuprofen or corticosteroids (a topical anti-inflammatory) may also assist in reducing the amount of swelling or irritation in the median nerve. Some sports are more prone to wrist fracture than others; CTS is more likely to manifest itself in repetitive wrist movement sports such as rowing, racquet sports, and cycling, or in contact sports in which the wrist has a greater likelihood of exposure to injury through the contact with sticks wielded by opponents, such as ice hockey or lacrosse.

Bone, ligaments, tendons; Nervous system; Wrist injuries.

SEE ALSO

CAS, Court of Arbitration for Sport SEE Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS)

CASPER SEE Coalition for Anabolic Steroid Precursor and Ephedra Regulation (CASPER) Cervical fractures The cervical spine is responsible for a variety of spinal movements that are crucial to sport success. The cervical spine is the support mechanism for the skull and is a multidimensional turning and lifting device in combination with the muscles of the neck. The cervical spine is also the bony protection for the spinal cord that runs between the spine and the interior of the body. The cervical spine comprises seven vertebrae, numbered C1 though C7 for identification, with the vertebrae connected by way of flexible ligaments known as facets. The vertebrae are each spaced from one another by disks, which are flexible, fluid-filled membranes that provide considerable

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cushioning for the spine both as it moves and as forces are applied to it. What are commonly classified as neck injuries primarily occur at two places in the cervical spine: one is at the C1 vertebrae (the cranial cervicojunction), referred to as the atlas, the bone upon which the skull is supported; the second occurs at C2, which is the axis upon which the C1 atlas and the skull are able to pivot, flex forward, and extend backward. Not every neck and cervical spine injury that occurs in sports is a fracture. The construction of the cervical spine is relatively flexible, given the mobility provided by the vertebrae facets. The muscles of the neck are vulnerable to strains, caused by the same kinds of forces that will produce injury in other muscle groups. Fractures of the cervical vertebrae are the more dangerous injury. Any bone in the body can be fractured if it receives a force that exceeds its tensile strength (resistance to breaking under tension), or its compressive strength (ability to either bend or to absorb the force). Given the position of the parts of the cervical spine, a fracture resulting from a direct blow to the vertebrae is rare. The common mechanisms that can result in a cervical fracture include: flexion, the bending of the spine; flexion-rotation, a combination bending and rotating movement of the spine; extension, a stretching movement of the spine; extension-rotation, a combination stretching and rotating movement of the spine; or vertical compression, in which force is applied to the top of the spine, causing damage through its downward pressure. The forces generated by these mechanisms on the body are commonly present in two distinct kinds of sport: high velocity sports, such as downhill skiing, ski jumping, bobsledding, and auto racing, and contact sports, including American football, rugby, and ice hockey. In high velocity sports where the athlete can often lose control, the athlete is vulnerable to a high-speed, unprotected collision. An example is a downhill skier who misses a turn on a race course at speeds in excess of 75 mph (120 km/h) and falls, a process bringing the skier into contact with the icy surface of the hill. This movement will often cause the neck to be twisted violently, a flexion-rotation movement that will often fracture the C2 vertebrae. Such accidents are difficult to anticipate and equally impossible to protect against. Violent crashes in auto racing will produce an extension force, a much-magnified form of ‘‘whiplash,’’ in which the neck and head

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In 2002, then-Atlanta Hawk DerMarr Johnson was sidelined for the entire season after suffering four cracked vertebra in his neck following a car accident. His recovery process took nearly a year. PH OTO B Y S COT T CUNN I NG HA M/ NB AE /G ET TY I MAG E S.

continue to move forward on impact and the body endeavors to brace itself by resisting the head and neck motion; such a fracture occurs typically at the C2 vertebrae. Contact sport has its share of both intended and unintended violent collisions; a large number of the cervical fractures occurring in these sports are a product of poor technique by the athlete. American football is the sport that produces the highest number of cervical fractures of almost any sporting activity. The defensive object of the game is to stop the opposition from advancing the football, which requires the execution of a tackle on every play. The defensive player is exposed to a neck injury and, at worst, a cervical fracture or spinal cord injury, if the tackle is executed when the player intends to make contact with the ball carrier by leading with his head. The head then is at risk of being snapped in a direction opposite to the motion of the tackler’s body, causing WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CHEERLEADING

a force that risks both a spinal fracture as well as a spinal cord injury. Improper tackling technique, as well as the forces incorrectly applied to the neck of an athlete in a rugby scrum may potentially lead to a cervical spine injury. Diving is another sport in which, as a result of the distance through which the body travels and the corresponding speed developed at entry, the force upon which the body strikes the dense water is significant. The diver’s neck and cervical spine become exposed to tremendous forces readily capable of causing a fracture. A severed spinal cord and the potential for paralysis are acute in such circumstances.

Back anatomy and physiology; Back injuries; Musculoskeletal injuries; Neck injuries.

SEE ALSO

training, educational, employment, competitive schedule, and planned vacations. The agency may then conduct out-of-competition testing within these parameters. It is a violation of all anti-doping codes for an athlete to fail to comply with the information set out in the Athlete Location Form; if an athlete is not at the location named in the Form when the agency seeks to conduct a doping test, the athlete is liable to be sanctioned. The CPF provides the athlete and the agency with a measure of flexibility in the course of the period first prescribed by the data in the Athlete Location Form. The athlete may change any competitive, training, or residency information through the CPF, and so long as the form is completed correctly, the revised data becomes binding and operative for all parties.

Athlete Location Form; Out-of-competition testing; U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA); World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

SEE ALSO

Change of Plan Form The Athlete Change of Plan Form (CPF) is one of the administrative tools employed by all anti-doping agencies that are signatories to the World AntiDoping Agency (WADA)-mandated practices regarding out-of-competition doping tests. The CPF is employed in conjunction with the Athlete Location Form to verify the whereabouts of all athletes who may be subject to such testing from time to time. When WADA was created in 1999, its mandate was to lead a worldwide battle against the use of illegal performance-enhancing drugs in international sport; at the time, there was no comprehensive international anti-doping strategy or protocol in place. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) had initiated doping testing at the Olympic Games beginning in 1976, with some member nations in the Olympic movement conducting out-of-competition testing, but the practices were not uniform. In addition to developing technical protocols for the manner in which testing and the obtaining of bodily samples from athletes would be submitted for analysis, WADA established procedures for the administration of all tests, which would be enforced by its national anti-doping member organizations; the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency and the Australian Sports Drug Agency are two such national agencies. Any athlete who is liable to be tested by the national agency will complete a Athlete Location Form at the beginning of the association with the testing process, which provides the agency with his or her comprehensive information concerning the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Cheerleading Cheerleading is an activity that has only recently been generally acknowledged as a bona fide sport. The evolution of cheerleading from a supporting player at university and North American professional sports contests, to an organized and structured competitive event is one of the more interesting athletic progressions in the post World War II period. The origins of cheerleading are defined by its name. In the early 1880s, the male supporters of the Princeton University football team began to organize yells, coordinated chants, and cheers led by a smaller group of students: the famous cheer ‘‘sis boom rah’’ originated at this time. This strictly vocal form of encouragement spread to other American institutions, and by the 1920s, cheerleaders were an established fixture at football games. The first female cheerleaders began to appear in the late 1920s, and by the 1950s, cheerleading began to incorporate tumbling and acrobatic routines. In the 1970s, cheerleading had two distinct aspects. The Dallas Cowboy cheerleaders of the National Football League (NFL) franchise became international celebrities for their sexuality and physical appeal; the Dallas cheerleaders did not perform any of the traditional movements of the university-styled cheerleaders. The second branch of cheerleading was an extension of the old fashioned precision tumbling and coordinated movements of the university-style cheerleaders. From

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Competitive cheer teams exist at thousands of high schools, colleges, universities, and competitive clubs throughout North America. ª L OUIE P SIH OYOS/ CORB IS

this second type, cheerleading became a recognized competitive sport by the late 1990s. Cheerleading is one American invention in sport that has not yet found widespread appeal in other parts of the world. There are over 25 countries that have a national cheerleading organization, particularly in Europe, where the activity is to a significant extent connected to the teams of NFL Europe. European cheerleading, unlike the American, is not connected to a high school or university, but is promoted through amateur community clubs. Contemporary cheerleading, labeled in some circles as the spirit sports and cheer team, has a number of subdivisions. Cheerleading consists of the activities at American sporting events, and also freestanding competitions. The two major forms of the cheerleading are cheerleading and dance team. There are overlaps between these two activities; it is also now common to see a cheerleading squad with two distinct components, dance and cheer team. Competitive cheer teams exist at thousands of high schools, colleges, universities, and competitive

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clubs throughout North America. Cheer team routines include male and female participants, a broad combination of the principles of gymnastics, with single person tumbling, acrobatics, multi-person human pyramids, throws, and other precision movements, combined with dance routines choreographed to music. At a sporting event, the athleticism and precision of the cheerleaders are intended to add spirit and enthusiasm to the game. In competitive cheer team, judges score the efforts of the team on a system similar to other subjective sports, such as gymnastics, synchronized swimming, or diving. Cheerleading, for all of the music and the generally perky, upbeat attitude of the participants, is a physically demanding activity. Cheerleading engages all of the fundamental components of fitness, strength, endurance, flexibility, and speed, all at a reasonably high level. A cheerleader must build significant stamina to support both practices and competitive events, some of which may exceed two hours in duration. Running, cardio machines, and any aerobic sport are a good cardiovascular fitness foundation to a cheerleading season. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CHEERLEADING INJURIES

Strength, both as a component of power and in terms of muscular endurance, is also of significance to the cheerleader. In movements where members of the team will either be supported by their teammates in a structure or thrown, individual cheerleaders are designated either as a base, a support person, or a flyer, those people on the top of the structure or those tossed in the routine. As with any gymnasticsrelated activity, the development of core strength, as centered in the abdominal, gluteal, and lumbar muscles, is essential. The cheerleaders responsible for throwing teammates either into the air, where they are caught before landing, or those occupying the base of the human pyramids, will seek to develop optimal strength in their arms, shoulder muscles, and quadriceps to execute these maneuvers. Stretching and flexibility are also crucial to cheerleading success. The bodies of these athletes are subjected to significant flexion/extension movements in a number of joints, as well as being subjected to forces from running, tumbling, and landing repeatedly. Training programs such as yoga and Pilates are highly recommended for competitive cheerleaders.

Calisthenics; Cheerleading injuries; Gymnastics; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Cheerleading injuries The perception of cheerleading as being separated from real sports in some segments of public opinion is at odds with the modern nature of the intense, highly athletic activity that has approximately one million participants in the United States alone. Cheerleading, through its primary association with high schools, colleges, and universities, tends to be a young person’s sport. As an adjunct to the generation of school spirit and the support of an institution’s athletic program, cheerleading is not regarded as a dangerous or injury-plagued activity. Cheerleading actually presents a number of specific injury risks for the participants. Data compiled by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the leading governing body of intercollegiate sport in the United States (which has formally recognized cheerleading as a varsity sport), suggests that while the injury rate among cheerleaders is relatively low in comparison to other sports, the severity of injury sustained per occurrence is relatively high. There are a number of common factors to the cause of a cheerleading injury. Among younger WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

cheerleaders, a lack of basic physical fitness among participants, especially in preparation for the coming cheerleading season is a prominent factor. At some high school and elementary schools, where proper training facilities may not always be available, the athletes practice on hard surfaces not conducive to the absorption of the forces generated in the repetitive exercise required by cheerleading. Improper coaching techniques, the failure to make available an adult spotter during movements of greater risk, and a general lack of coaching knowledge with respect to injury prevention and risk reduction in cheerleading are also contributors to the injury rate. Coaches, particularly at the younger age levels, do not always appreciate that the sport requires attention to preseason training, particularly in the areas of participant strength, endurance, and flexibility. Cheerleading has also become a yearround activity in many areas of the United States, where the cheerleading team will perform at school or institutional events throughout the entire school year in each of the traditional sports seasons of fall, winter, and spring; the cheerleaders then participate in additional competitive club cheer team events. These long seasons tend to create considerable wear and tear on the musculoskeletal joints, particularly those of the feet, ankles, knees, and wrists, as the athlete is given limited or no opportunity to truly recuperate from these physical stresses. Cheerleading, both as a practice activity and as a competitive event, is a long sequence of repetitive movements, most of which involve the leg muscles and joints. Studies indicate that over 35% of cheerleading injuries occur to the ankle or the knee. The run up and landing to the multitude of tumbling routines performed by cheerleaders are common causes of leg muscle strain and ligament sprain. It is a significant feature of cheerleading injuries that of the injuries that invariably compel the athlete to miss time from the sport, fractures and dislocations were the second most common, next to strains and sprains of soft tissue. Most cheerleading injuries are caused during a partner or multi-person team gymnastics maneuver. The most visually dramatic and the most physically catastrophic of these injuries occur when a person near or at the top of a human pyramid falls, or where the person thrown by two or three teammates in a ‘‘basket toss’’ is not caught or otherwise lands incorrectly. In such instances, the risk of a serious fracture, concussion or other head injury, or joint dislocation is significant. Less dramatic but physically debilitating injuries can occur in the pyramid structures themselves if the cheerleaders do not

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Cheerleading can create considerable wear and tear on the musculoskeletal joints—particularly those of the feet, ankles, knees, and wrists. ª P AU L A . SO UDERS/ CORB IS

possess the appropriate level of upper body strength to maintain their support position in the structure. The most common injuries sustained in these circumstances are shoulder and wrist damage. In the component of some cheerleading teams that performs only dance routines without the gymnastic elements, the injuries sustained are similar to those occurring with ballet dancers: plantar fasciitis (foot tissue inflammation), hip injuries, and other overuse injuries the most common. One specific injury cause identified in recent years among cheerleaders unrelated to the sport itself has been that of inadequate nutrition. The general public sense of cheerleading as something apart from a real sport has perhaps contributed to the failure of the sport itself to emphasize strong nutritional practices as essential to both health and competitive success. A cheerleader, participating in strenuous practices and competition, must be as aware of proper dietary and nutritional practices as any other athlete.

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In a related sense, the fact that most cheerleaders are female, and that the sport places emphasis on physical appearance, makes cheerleading a sport where coaches must be especially aware of any unusual attitudes toward eating. Bulimia and anorexia nervosa are risks in such circumstances, conditions that both psychologically and physically harm an athlete.

Calisthenics; Cheerleading; Gymnastics; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

Children’sports

SEE

Youth sports

injuries

Chinese ginseng Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng) is an herbal medication that has been employed in a variety of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CHINESE GINSENG

Some of the most physically catastrophic injuries can occur when the person thrown by two or three teammates in a ‘‘basket toss’’ is not caught or otherwise lands incorrectly. ª BILL LU ST ER/ CORB I S

forms since the origins of the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) practices almost 2,000 years ago. Ginseng roots are the part of the plant that has medicinal value; the plant is a perennial, similar in its structure to types of ginseng that grow naturally in North America and Siberia. The ancient cultures that first used ginseng in teas, medicines, and in combination with other herbs believed that it was a very powerful agent, prized for its ability to increase energy, counter gastrointestinal disorders, improve sexual function, and generally improve metabolism. Modern science has studied the effects of ginseng with respect to both athletic performance and general health. In spite of the long history of ginseng, any definitively positive effects on performance have not proven conclusive. The active ingredient in ginseng, ginsenoside, is classed as an adaptogen (a substance that aids in the development of the restorative processes of the body, assisting the bodily systems in achieving balance). Ginsenoside, present in concentrations of approximately 4% in commercial preparations of Chinese ginseng, operates on the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

hypothalamic-pituitary axis, one of the linkages within the endocrine system, the crucial interconnected glandular system that is responsible for the production of all human hormones—the chemical messengers that signal organs to act in a particular way. The presence of ginseng appears to increase the production of adrenal corticotropic hormone (ACTH), the chemical that stimulates sensations of motivation and intensity during sports competition. Ginseng is a common ingredient in a multitude of commercial energy drinks, herbal teas, and athletic supplements. Many consumers recognize the name and effects of this long-used herb, more so than other natural products, in part because of its longevity as a medicinal plant. Ginseng is commonly available as a dried powder or extract, or it can be sold as the entire root of the plant. While the objective evidence of athletic improvement from ginseng may be inconclusive, unlike many other herbal formulations consumed as dietary supplements, ginseng rarely has serious side effects. As an adaptogen, there is a significant basis for the

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CHIROPRACTIC MEDICINE AND SPORT

responsible for carrying all nerve impulses to the limbs from the brain, will not itself perform in an optimal fashion. Alternative medicine is defined as virtually any form of physical care or treatment of human ailments that is carried out by healthcare professionals who are not trained as medical doctors in Western medical schools. The treatments falling outside of the conventional Western medical techniques are sometimes the last resort of persons who cannot find relief, particularly those with chronic conditions. Well-known alternative medicines, if not practices entirely accepted by physicians and surgeons, include naturopathy (the use of natural remedies such as botanical medicines and a focus on the whole body), acupuncture (especially in the relief of muscle injuries and pain management), massage therapy, and chiropractic.

Ginseng root is used as an herbal remedy to promote healing and general strength. ª BOB K RI S T/C ORB IS

Chiropractic, a term derived from the Greek expression for ‘‘performed by hand’’ was first developed as a system of medical treatment by Daniel David Palmer (1845–1913), who determined that the proper alignment of the spine, through its interrelationship with the central nervous system, influenced a number of the body’s skeletal and muscular systems. The chiropractic view of injury treatment has never been entirely welcomed by medical governing bodies such as the American Medical Association; there is a grudging acceptance today on the part of most physicians that chiropractic has a role in the management of certain types of musculoskeletal injuries.

Chiropractic medicine and sport

Conventional chiropractic treatments center upon the alignment of the spine and other joints; the manipulation of the parts of the skeleton in question are performed by hand by the chiropractor, with the objective that the better skeletal alignment will occur in a pain-free fashion. Chiropractic treatments also often are combined with various other processes such as electronic muscle stimulation, ultrasound (the generation of sound waves that are directed at an injured tissue or structure to produce heat, with the aim of speeding the healing process), and massage therapy. Chiropractic treatment does not utilize pain-killing medications or anti-inflammatory drugs.

Chiropractic (sometimes referenced as chiropractic medicine) is one of the alternatives to conventional Western medicine that is now so well established in certain types of injury treatment as to be itself mainstream; chiropractors are now the third largest group of healthcare practitioners in the Unites States. It is the essence of chiropractic that when the vertebrae are misaligned, the spinal cord,

Given the stresses that many sports place upon the human structure, chiropractic has found favor with a significant constituency within the athletic community, both as a treatment resource and as a preventative technique. Within the discipline itself, there has emerged a specialist, the sport chiropractor, with specialized knowledge of musculoskeletal problems experienced by athletes, coupled with a

position that ginseng has a positive effect in the promotion of internal energy balance and harmony within the body, having at least an indirect assist to sports performance. SEE ALSO

Dietary supplements; Energy drinks; Ephedra;

Herbs.

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WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CHIROPRACTIC MEDICINE AND SPORT

Diver jumps from a 26-m high cliff in Brontallo, Switzerland during the 1998 Cliff Diving World Championships. KA RL MA TH IS/ AFP /GETT Y IMAGE S

focus on nutrition and other natural health concepts. In the United States, this aspect of chiropractic practice is governed by the American Chiropractic Board of Sports Physicians; similar bodies exist in many other nations where sport and chiropractic have intersected. The most common chiropractic manipulation, referred to as an adjustment, is that of the vertebrae. Injuries that are commonly treated, either exclusively through chiropractic manipulation or in conjunction with other massage or a therapeutic exercise regime, include sprained joints, muscle strains or pulls, tendonitis (particularly occurring in the elbow or Achilles tendon), bursitis, and generalized joint injuries. Many athletes have derived a benefit from chiropractic adjustments as part of a comprehensive treatment plan. Chiropractors will operate in conjunction with any other treatment professionals, including a team physician and physical therapists. A significant WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

benefit of chiropractic is that as the treatments are drug free, the athlete has no pharmaceutical masking of the condition; consequently, the biofeedback to the athlete, passed along to medical personnel, is not distorted by any analgesic. Further, a drug-free treatment regime has the additional benefit of insuring that the athlete will not be prescribed any substance that might be determined to be a prohibited substance, with negative consequences for both the athlete and a team. Chiropractic has also achieved notice as a preventative system, akin to regularly scheduled maintenance for the body. Many athletes believe that they have derived a significant benefit through both tuning their alignment to its best position prior to competition and aiding the body’s recuperation subsequent to an event. Sports that have seen a particular involvement of the sport chiropractor include gymnastics, with its high potential for overuse-type injuries and

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significant forces applied to the spine, and distance running, in which both recreational runners and elite competitors seek peek biomechanical function. Chiropractic is an option for both the prevention and the treatment of injury, with an understanding that it is a discipline with a finite limit. Chiropractic manipulations may, for example, assist with the resolution of a lumbar strain, or various types of joint pain; chiropractic will not solve structural damage such as a fractured vertebrae or a ruptured Achilles tendon.

Acupuncture and Eastern healing therapies; Back anatomy and physiology; Massage therapy; Nervous system; Skeletal muscle.

SEE ALSO

CLA

SEE

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)

Cliff diving Cliff diving is an ancient athletic activity with the modern attractions of all of the extreme sports where the effect of gravity plays the most significant role. As the name suggests, cliff diving involves the execution of various types of dives from natural features such as cliffs or other high, rocky precipices that over look a large body of water. Cliff diving is closely allied to high diving, an activity that can be pursued from any high place adjacent to or spanning water, such as a bridge or trestle. The English explorers who first visited Hawaii in the early 1770s noted the chief of the indigenous peoples diving from the cliffs into the ocean, deliberately making a feet first entry into the water so as to generate little or no splash. Cliff diving was also a part of the Mayan culture of southern Mexico; La Quebrada is the most famous of these diving locales and it remains a tourist attraction today. Cliff diving is now organized on an international basis through the World High Diving Federation (WHDF), with its headquarters in Switzerland. The WHDF sanctions an annual world championship and it has established a qualification and competition judging system that is akin to the manner in which dives are judged in the more conventional Olympic settings. A basic cliff diving technique is a dive that ends with an entry head first into the water. Cliff divers are taught to extend their arms with the palms of their hands held tightly together to protect the face

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from the impact of the water. On contact with the water, the hands enter the water first, and as the diver is moving at a high speed, the hands create a stream of bubbles in which the diver is surrounded as the diver’s body makes contact with the surface. At a height of 33 ft (10 m), the diver shall strike the water at a speed of over 30 mph (50km/h). With a dive from 100 ft (30 m), the diver strikes the water at a speed of over 53 mph (87km/h). These speeds contribute to the large forces generated when the diver enters the water. For these reasons the diver’s entry must be as precise and as efficient as possible. SEE ALSO

Diving; Extreme sports.

Coaching

SEE

Sports coaching

Coalition for Anabolic Steroid Precursor and Ephedra Regulation (CASPER) Founded in 2003, the Coalition for Anabolic Steroid Precursor and Ephedra Regulation (CASPER) is an American organization headquartered in Washington, D.C. The stated mission of CASPER is to work for the legislative control of anabolic steroids and ephedra that are sold as dietary supplements. CASPER also seeks to further the education of the American public concerning the perceived health risks presented by dietary supplements that contain either anabolic steroids or ephedra. CASPER has a membership composed of high level American sports and medical organizations, including the American Council on Exercise, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the National Football League (NFL), the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency, and the United States Olympic Committee. CASPER has publicly endorsed the efforts of various U.S. politicians to bring the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004 into law. This legislation prevents anabolic steroid precursors, also known as anabolic prohormones, such as androstenedione (or andro), from being sold as a dietary supplement. The legislation would classify all anabolic steroid precursors as drugs and subject them to more stringent control within the United States. Precursors are not themselves capable of promoting muscle growth, but like all hormones, they act to stimulate an organ into a particular action. Andro, dehydroepianrosterone WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

COLD-RELATED ILLNESSES AND EMERGENCIES

(DHEA), and similar chemicals act to promote the release of testosterone, the male sex hormone, which itself will stimulate muscle growth. Ephedra has been the subject of ceaseless controversy with respect to the regulation of its commercial sale in the United States. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States moved to ban the sale and distribution of all forms of ephedra and its inclusion in supplementation in 2004; this decision has attracted significant attention as various American interests sought legal action to overturn the ephedra ban. Ephedra, a well-known stimulant, is valued in many sectors of the public, among both athletes and non-athletes alike, for its claimed therapeutic qualities. Government authorities pointed to its apparent heightening of risk of heart attack through use as a basis for its ban. CASPER seeks to have ephedra regulated as a drug and not as a food supplement; the enforcement powers available to the government through the Anabolic Steroid Control Act are significantly more stringent.

temperatures below 40 F (4 C) exposure time to cold temperature wind speed and wind temperature dampness (the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere)  immersion in cold water    

In cold weather conditions, approximately 60% of bodily energy stores are used for heat. The body’s energy is derived from its metabolism of glucose, stored as a fuel within the muscles and liver. When the body is required to deliver energy to working muscles in cold weather, as in endurance sports such as cross-country skiing, the potential risks from cold weather are magnified, as the body uses significant stores for athletic power. When exposed to cold temperatures, the cardiovascular system will seek to protect itself by constricting the blood vessels near the skin surface.

SEE ALSO

The combination of cold weather and wind creates what is known as the ‘‘wind chill factor,’’ which quantifies the relationship between cold temperatures and wind on the body. Wind chill is an expression for the actual effect of the environment on the body in a given atmospheric condition.

Cold-related illnesses and emergencies

The wind chill factor is best understood, for example, when the air temperature is 0 F (13 C) and there is no wind, unprotected skin will freeze in 30 minutes; when the wind speed is 20 mph (32 km/ hr) at this same temperature, the wind chill is 22 F ( 30 C), skin will freeze in as little as 10 minutes, resulting in the condition known as frostbite.

Anabolic steroids; Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act, 1994; Ephedra; Nandrolone; Stimulants.

Cold weather presents an array of potential physical problems for anyone who is active in the outdoors. Winter sports can be of particular concern to the athlete, because the cold is a problem on its own, as well as often magnifying other inherent risks. Cold is a somewhat subjective state, as some people, through either acclimatization or body type, are better equipped to tolerate cold weather. Science has determined that the threat of cold-related illness is usually considered when the outdoor temperature reaches 40 F (4 C) or below. At these temperatures, the cold weather will begin to impact on the function of the body’s cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, both of which function best when the core temperature of the body is 98.6 F (37 C). Outdoor temperature is the most important, but not the exclusive, component when assessing the risk factors that contribute to a cold weather illness. In order of importance, the factors are: WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Frostbite is the freezing of the skin or underlying body tissue. It is a serious condition, as the damage done to the body, typically to the toes, the nose, fingers, cheeks or ears, may necessitate amputation of the afflicted part. Frostbite often, but not exclusively, occurs in conjunction with the coldrelated illness, hypothermia. Hypothermia has a very simple causal mechanism—if, exposed to extreme cold, the body temperature falls below 95 F (35 C), the gland that regulates body temperature, the hypothalamus, will no longer function. The body will then become too chilled to generate sufficient energy to produce replacement body heat to raise its temperature; the essential systems will ultimately cease function. Hypothermia requires immediate medical attention to reverse the body temperature drop. There are a number of circumstances that may accelerate the onset of hypothermia, including:  alcohol, caffeine, or nicotine (all serve to dehydrate the body)

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 athletic activity, causing loss of fluids  a cardiovascular system weakened by other factors, such as diabetes or high blood pressure)  gender: females have been shown to tolerate cold temperatures better than males; (the two most-cited factors are higher typical body fat, which insulates against the cold, and a greater degree of mental toughness)  fatigue  poor quality or wet clothing Hypothermia and frostbite can occur independently of one another. For example, if a cross-country skier or snow mobiler falls through the ice into a body of water, the water temperature will likely be close to 32 F (0 C), given it is not frozen. The skin of the victim will not freeze while in the water, but the person will die of hypothermia in less than 10 minutes in such conditions. Frostbite will typically appear as a pale or whitish-colored spot on the skin. In its initial stages, frostbitten skin may ache or cause an itching sensation. As the affliction progresses, the victim will usually experience a loss of feeling in the skin; to the touch, the skin may feel as if it has thickened. In a frostbite emergency, it is imperative that the injured limb or portion of the body immediately be protected from further exposure to the cold. The skin may then be slowly warmed, with a heated wrap or similar covering with which the skin temperature may be gradually raised. In a case of hypothermia, it is imperative that the torso and chest be warmed first, so as to maintain a supply of reasonably warm blood in the heart to be circulated; warming the extremities may cause a rush of cold temperature blood to the heart, which may cause a sudden cardiac arrest. The victim should be kept warm, but alcohol or narcotics should not be administered.

Cold weather exercise; First aid kits for sports; Hypothermia.

SEE ALSO

Cold weather exercise Cold weather is an subjective expression that may convey different meanings to different people. In an equatorial country, any temperature below 60 F (15.5 C) is often characterized as cold; in high northern latitudes, cold weather is said to exist when the temperature is persistently in the range of 20 F ( 28 C) or colder. Like extreme heat, the human

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body possesses the ability to adapt itself to the stresses created by cold. From a meteorological perspective, cold weather is generally said to exist where the air temperature is 40 F (4 C), or below. Accompanying climatic conditions such as snow, ice, and wind will increase the effect of cold temperatures on human performance. The prevalent wind chill factor, the correlation between temperature and wind velocity, is the most important of these factors, as increased wind velocity will increase the effect of cold upon the body. Sports such as speed skating, running, cross-country skiing, and cold weather cycling are of special note in assessing wind chill, because each activity, by virtue of the athlete’s movement, will generate its own wind forces. Cold weather affects the bodily systems in different ways. The cardiovascular system, the heartconnected network of vessels that distributes blood throughout the body, responds to cold stimulus by increasing blood pressure and heart rate, and reducing the amount of blood closest to the skin surface. The airway passages of the cardiorespiratory system, which governs the breathing mechanisms, tend to narrow, making the inhalation of air more difficult. Persons who are susceptible to asthma or exerciseinduced bronchitis have greater difficulty breathing in cold air. The bodily stores of glucose, stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles and converted to the energy component adenosine triphosphate (ATP), are depleted approximately five times more quickly in cold weather, a circumstance that forces the body to switch to the conversion of body fat to ATP for its energy requirements. In addition to the effect of cold weather upon the body systems, cold weather creates unique injury hazards. Hypothermia and frostbite are the two chief cold weather injuries. Frostbite is the freezing of a portion of skin or bodily tissue through exposure to cold. Hypothermia is the reduction of the core temperature of the body from its healthy, steady state of 98.6 F (37 C) to below 95 F (35 C). In this condition, the body cannot generate sufficient heat through metabolism to keep itself warm. The hypothalamus gland, which regulates temperature, ceases to function; if the hypothermia is not treated quickly, death may result. As serious as the consequences of cold weather injury can be, the precautions available to the cold weather athlete are both straightforward and effective. One of the most important steps to be taken for cold weather athletics wearing clothing that is WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

JOHN COLLINS

in cold weather. Protective screens and sunglasses are essential on bright days, especially when there is reflection on snow. In addition, water or an electrolytic fluid should be carried; dehydration is as significant a concern in the winter cold as it presents in summer heat, as a dehydrated cold weather athlete will have a correspondingly reduced blood volume. The consumption of alcohol and cold weather exercise should be avoided, as alcohol is a diuretic that tends to dehydrate the body. A thorough warm up and cool down of the body are essential to cold weather exercise. The warm up will lessen both the mental and the physiological shock of taking the body into cold. Finally, route planning is important to minimize wind chill effects for endurance sports such as running and cross-country skiing. The athlete should begin the workout by heading into the wind; in this fashion, the perspiration generated on the body will not be subject to wind chill effect on the return portion of the training.

Cold-related illnesses and emergencies; Exposure injuries; Hypothermia.

SEE ALSO

A swimmer washes himself after winter swimming at Shichahai Lake in Beijing, China. Winter swimming is a popular sport among Beijing residents. P HO TO BY CH I NA P HOT OS /G ETT Y I MAG E S.

layered to permit the athlete to remove of one or more layers, when circumstances permit. A useful layering system will include polypropylene, or a similar synthetic, next to the skin. This layer will allow perspiration to flow away, or ‘‘wick,’’ from the skin, keeping the skin drier and more insulated. The second layer will usually be a fleece for warmth. The third, outer layer will be a weather proof shell. Head covering is particularly important to the outdoor athlete because approximately 50% of all body heat generated in cold weather is lost through the head surface. Hats with polypropylene layers serve the same function for the wicking of head perspiration as on the body. A balaclava-type face covering will protect the skin from wind. Like the head, hands should be similarly protected. Also, a scarf or similar protection will assist in the warming of air as it enters the mouth and respiratory system. Harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays should also be taken into consideration. UV rays from the sun are no less powerful WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

John Collins 1933– AMERICAN U.S. NAVAL OFFICER (RETIRED)

John Collins is recognized as the developer of the world’s most famous triathlon, the Hawaii Ironman. Collins had been stationed with the United States Navy near San Diego in 1974 and 1975. It was there that he participated in some of the early triathlons organized by the local running and biking community. When Collins was transferred to Hawaii in 1977, he and a group of local athletes, including his wife Judy, discussed what type of athlete was the best, the toughest, and the fittest. From those discussions, Collins developed the idea of combining the courses and distances of three existing Hawaiian races into one ultimate athletic challenge. The Waikiki Rough Water swim (2.4 m, or 4 km), the Around Oahu Bike Race (112 m, or 191 km), and the Honolulu Marathon (26.2 m, or 42.2 km) were the distances combined by Collins into one event. The first Ironman competition did not have this name when the race was held on February 18, 1978.

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Collins had declared prior to the race that, ‘‘Whoever finishes first we’ll call the Iron man.’’ Fifteen athletes took up the challenge and twelve, including Collins, were able to finish the race. Collins placed a note in the race kits given to each of his entrants in 1978, a saying that was adopted and subsequently registered as a trademark for the Hawaii Ironman: Swim 2.4 miles! Bike 112 miles! Run 26.2 miles! Brag for the rest of your life! The Ironman went on to achieve considerable international media attention in the early 1980s as the world’s toughest sporting challenge. It spawned an entire series of international qualifiers. More importantly, the Ironman and the shorter distanced triathlons became synonymous with the concept of cross training. The various events in the Ironman require distinct training methods; an athlete could not focus upon one of the three disciplines and expect to succeed. The Ironman and triathlon boom of the 1980s and the 1990s also inspired the development of specialized clothing, such as wetsuits, as well as bicycles configured to permit easier operation and aerodynamic effect for the triathlete. Collins has been inducted into both the Triathlon and the Ironman Halls of Fame located in San Diego. SEE ALSO

Cross training; Ironman competitions;

Triathlon.

Common foot injuries With 26 bones, 33 joints, and 112 ligaments, the human foot is an intricate skeletal structure. The foot, in concert with the entire musculoskeletal system, is the launching pad for dynamic athletic movements that routinely generate forces that when absorbed by the foot, exceed four times or more the weight of the athlete. Different sports may demand repetitive foot movements, such as the strike of the foot on the ground or the track while running. Other athletic endeavors involve sudden, explosive footwork, such as in soccer or rugby. Each type of foot mechanics creates distinct prospects for foot injury. Foot injuries that occur to the bones or ligaments most often result from misalignment of the structure. Foot injuries may be placed within three general classifications: skin, toenail, or blister injuries. These injuries are not structural in nature, but are caused by an external agent. The most common examples of

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such injuries include athlete’s foot (tinea pedis), a fungal infection; ingrown toenail, in which the nail cuticle grows into the surrounding skin, causing infection; and blisters, which result from poorly fitting socks or shoes. Injuries caused by either overuse or as a result of a structural misalignment are similar in that only through significant activity do preexisting or underlying structural problems usually reveal themselves. The significant overuse sports injuries that occur in the foot include a sprained metatarsalphalangeal (MTP) joint, plantar fasciitis, misaligned bones or tendons in the foot, bunions, neuroma, calcaneal bumps, and stress fractures. A sprained MTP (big toe) joint often presents as ‘‘turf toe’’ so-called due to injuries created through running on artificial surfaces. This type of sprain is caused by a sudden bending of the big toe joint in an upward direction. This movement results in damage to the ligament of the big toe, which connects it to the metatarsal bone. Plantar fasciitis occurs when the tendon that extends beneath the sole of the foot from the heel to the toes becomes irritated, causing pain when the athlete places significant pressure on the foot through running or jumping. This condition is caused by the over-pronation (inward turning) of the foot as the foot strikes the ground while running. The condition is often corrected with the use of an orthotic, a device inserted into the athlete’s shoe to correct misalignment. The misalignment of the tendons of one or more toes cause a condition known as ‘‘hammer toe.’’ Overpronation causes the tendons to pull the toe structure out of its natural position, resulting in a bent toe and painful cramping of the foot inside a shoe. In its early stages, before the joint in question becomes immobile, a hammer toe can be corrected with an orthotic. A bunion is a bony outgrowth that extends from the base of the big toe. This condition is also caused by either over-pronation or as a result of wearing overly tight shoes. Bunions place significant pressure on the foot and can impair athletic performance. A very large bunion is often surgically removed; lesser bunions can usually be addressed with an orthotic. A neuroma is the constriction of a nerve in the forefoot between the third and fourth toe, usually caused by over-pronation; the motion of the foot as it pronates creates a measure of slackness in the metatarsal bones that then come into contact with the nerve. Depending on the extent of the damage to the nerve, the treatment for this condition will range WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

COMMON FOOT INJURIES

Argentinean tennis player Mariano Zabaleta is treated for a foot injury during game.

from the insertion of a metatarsal pad at the point of discomfort to provide better cushioning and thus limit irritation, a cortisone injection to reduce any inflammation caused by the constriction, or, as a last resort, surgery to remove the nerve. Metatarsalgia occurs when one of the five metatarsal bones is not aligned with the others; the misaligned bone will often cause pain in the forefoot during running, at the point where the metatarsal meets the toe. The condition may be corrected by a device as simple as a rubber pad inserted in the shoe at the point below the misaligned bone, so as to raise it to the same profile as the other metatarsals. Calcaneal bumps, also referred to as heel spurs, are bony growths that develop on the back of the calcaneus, or heel bone. Often associated with the development of a plantar fasciitis condition, the pressure created by the calcaneal bump irritates the tendon when the foot of the runner strikes the ground. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

PA SCA L GUY OT/ AF P /G ET TY I MAG E S

The condition is primarily managed through the use of cushioned shoes and anti-inflammatories. In severe cases, the bone spur is surgically shaved away. A stress fracture is a break in a bone of the foot that is most commonly caused by repetitive stress placed upon the structure, where the alignment of the bone to the rest of the skeleton of the foot is not symmetrical. Significant overtraining in running or high intensity training on a hard surface to which the athlete is not accustomed are common stress fracture mechanisms. A stress fracture will usually be revealed in an x-ray as a small crack, or fissure, on the bone surface. Foot stress fractures often occur in the second, third, or fourth metatarsals. Given the relative size of the bones of the foot, a fracture resulting from a trauma is a regular, if not common, occurrence in sport. Such injuries include an object falling on the foot, such as might occur in a

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weight training accident, or an object forcefully colliding with the foot, such as a fast bowled cricket ball or a baseball. The calcaneus (heel bone) often is chipped when the Achilles tendon ruptures, pulling the base of the tendon away from the bone.

Foot: Anatomy and physiology; Orthotics; Running injuries; Stress fracture of the foot.

SEE ALSO

Compression treatment for injuries SEE RICE (Rest/Ice/Compression/ Elevation) treatment for injuries

Compulsive exercise Compulsive exercise, also referred to in the scientific literature as obligatory exercise, is a psychological condition with a number of possible points of origin. As a general rule, compulsive exercise is defined by that level of physical activity that repeatedly exceeds the safe or usual limits for a particular athlete. Compulsive exercise is a symptom common to two separate and distinct types of emotional disturbances on the part of an athlete: the presence of an eating disorder, or the combined effects of obsessive/ compulsive behavior that stem from a narcissistic approach to personal fitness on the part of the individual. Eating disorders are a well-known problem in society generally, as young women are frequently faced with media depictions of the female ideal that are difficult to emulate. Eating disorders become a particular concern for female athletes who participate in sports in which body image is important to performance success, such as gymnastics, diving, and cheerleading. Eating disorders are one-third of the often-described female athlete triad: amenorrhea, osteoporosis (the loss of bone density, generally after menopause), and eating disorders. Amenorrhea is the interruption or complete cessation of a female’s menstrual cycle, usually caused by poor nutrition and compulsive exercise. Eating disorders stem from circumstances in which athletes feel an irrational desire to maintain an ultra-thin build. It is common for these athletes to engage in seemingly constant physical activity to burn calories, over and above any commitment to a well-balanced training program. The compulsive exerciser with an eating disorder may often engage

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in the cycle of binge eating and purging by the use of laxatives or induced vomiting, which are the hallmarks of the condition known as bulimia. When the athlete engages in compulsive exercise without a direct connection to an identified eating disorder, the athlete typically calculates personal self-worth by the value of athletic ability; such persons become addicted to a sport lifestyle of continual training, recordkeeping, and various obsessions that center around sport. It is common for these persons to make their training requirements primary to those of education, employment, family, or social obligations. These athletes commonly link exercise to their food consumption, exercising more if they eat more. They will often attempt to ignore any injuries, never permitting their bodies to completely recover from the stresses of training. Compulsive exercise, coupled with the abuse of diet pills, laxatives, and diuretics, is also a hallmark of some athletes who compete in weight classifications. Athletes who are compulsive regarding training and exercise are most liable to become profoundly depressed if they are prevented, for any reason, from participating in their usual training. Compulsive exercise in all of its forms places significant stress on the body. When the compulsion is combined with the binge/purge cycle of bulimia, additional strains are placed on the renal system (kidneys) and the general function of the cardiovascular system, due to lower than optimum fluid levels within the body.

Habitual physical activity; Overtraining; Psychological disorders; Sport psychology.

SEE ALSO

Computer simulations as a training tool The first crude computer simulations were applications developed using the physically cumbersome and mathematically limited mainframe computers of the late 1960s. The speed of these computers was directed to creating models that predicted athlete performance in sports where biomechanics was a central analytical component, such as sprinting. These number-crunching simulations gave way to the refinements of the 1970s and 1980s, where increasingly complex computer graphics packages were developed to increase the range of activities that could be both simulated and predicted with data linked in an underlying computer program. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID (CLA)

The growth of the computer-based video game industry has paralleled the use of computer simulations as a training tool in athletics of all kinds, as both products share common concepts. The first interactive computer baseball game was developed in 1971. Simulation is a process by which the specific anticipated effects that the athlete will experience in the course of performance are replicated through a computer. The outcome of an event can be predicted by using actual data gathered concerning previous similar events. The simulation may be designed to either mimic the desired competitive or racing environment, or to project what is a desired result for the particular athlete or team. The simulation is constructed on a series of mathematical codes that are used to build the programs that are the basis for the visual and graphic replication of the simulated event. Although used in some similar circumstances as simulation, a computer model is a more limited sports training tool than simulation. A computer model represents a component of a more comprehensive simulation; as an example, a computer-designed hull for a racing yacht is a model; how the hull performs in various simulated weather, wave action, and currents is the simulation. Computer simulations are now employed in most sports, either as an instructional tool regarding technique or strategy for an individual athlete or a team or as an aid to equipment design and modification. Prominent examples include:  Individual sports simulations, such as those that assist an athlete to achieve greater biomechanical efficiency and optimum body position in sports such as running, diving, skating, cross country skiing, and swimming.  High speed sports in which aerodynamics will significantly affect competitive outcomes, such as downhill skiing, bobsledding, and auto racing.  Team sports such as rowing and America’s Cup yacht racing are examples of how computer simulations of a particular course permit a team to race the event in advance, which permits the development of strategies and assessment of likely performance. Computer simulations used in sports represent the combined talents of four distinct disciplines: computer science, which governs the development of the appropriate programming for the desired simulation; mechanical engineering, which applies to the physical construction of a simulator and the interrelationship with the applicable software; kinesiology and human performance disciplines; WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

and sport-specific coaching expertise, which supplies the connection between the athlete and the value of the simulated activity. The processing power, ever-increasing memory capabilities, and the speed of modern computers have taken computer simulation to more realistic levels in its application as a sport training tool. In some instances, the simulator is itself a work of engineering genius, the product of a number of advanced scientific applications. The bobsled simulator is an example. As a sport-inspired offshoot of the simulators used to develop aircraft pilots, the bobsled simulator permits the athletes to be physically positioned precisely as they would be during a bobsled run. It also delivers the sensations of speed (a four-man bobsled will often reach speeds of more than 95 mph [150 km/hour]) and duration, as the races are contested on an icy track that is a minimum of 1 mi (1,500 m) long. The dimensions of the turns and the downward grade of every course on the world can be programmed into the simulator, permitting the athletes to experience the applicable G forces (a measurement of the acceleration forces felt by the body as the vehicle speeds through the turns of the racecourse). The bobsled simulator illustrates how an athlete may maximize training effect. The bobsledder can make as many ‘‘runs’’ as he or she may choose in a training day; difficult portions of the track may be driven repeatedly, and the simulator provides comprehensive feedback. Further, in a weathersensitive sport such as the bobsled, the athlete can practice year round, without the expense of travel and equipment transport. Other simulations have been developed in the traditional track and field events. Simulations are used extensively to permit sprinters to practice starts. In sports such as the pole vault, simulations are used to predict how a certain type of jumping pole will react in concert with the forces generated by a particular athlete. With the javelin and the hammer throw, an athlete may use a simulation tool to refine the precise point that will maximize the distance he or she is able to send the object. SEE ALSO

Sport performance; Sport psychology; Sports

coaching.

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) Linoleic acid is a naturally occurring polyunsaturated fatty acid of the omega classification (omega is

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the group of fatty acids that are generally believed to promote good health within the cardiovascular system). Linoleic acid is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, as expressed by the chemical formula C18H32O2. The chief function of linoleic acid within the body is in the production of prostaglandins, a synthesized form of fatty acids that assist in the contraction of various types of blood vessels. Fatty acids generally, including the omega-3 commonly found in fish products, perform a variety of important functions within the body. In addition to their contribution to the health of human cells, fatty acids assist in the body’s ability to absorb the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K and, when stored within the body’s adipose tissues, these fats are an important insulation and reserve energy source. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a natural substance created through the mixture of various linoleic acid isomers (substances that are composed of the same molecules, but in a different arrangement and possessing different properties). The best-known forms of CLA are found in the products of ruminant animals, those than chew and regurgitate their food, such as cows. Fish oils, vegetable oils, and sunflower oils are also common CLA sources. As CLA plays a role within the body in the regulation of body fat, studies have demonstrated that a balanced diet with CLA-rich foods assists in the manner in which the body will utilize stored fats. So far, there is no research that confirms a definitive cause-and-effect relationship in support of the proposition that increased consumption of CLA will prevent various diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, or arteriosclerosis. However, unlike other supplements touted for their beneficial qualities with respect to these types of illness, the efficacy of fatty acids such as CLA within the body in other respects is proven. CLA is not believed to be toxic in large amounts; the consumption of excessive quantities of CLA might contribute to the production of excess body fats ultimately stored in the adipose tissues, which is where such excess CLA would be stored within the body.

Body composition and weight control; Dietary supplements; Fat utilization; Weight loss.

SEE ALSO

Contact lens technology The evolution of the contact lens from cumbersome eyewear to sports performance aid has been a remarkable one. The original, and fragile, contact

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lens was not an ideal fit in the unpredictable world of sports, although for many athletes it represented a great step forward from the only other option—bulky and peripheral vision-limiting athletic eyeglasses. Contact lens technology has evolved from the hard, glass lens to a very soft, thin plastic composite product. The development of a sport-specific contact lens has occurred in recent years, driven by the desire of professional athletes to use not simply a lens that properly corrects their vision, but one that increases their ability to see more clearly. One of the first successes reported in the use of a sport-specific contact lens was that experienced by American drag racer Gary Scelzi, who had been diagnosed with an astigmatism, caused by an irregularly shaped cornea that tends to distort vision in the subject eye. Sclezi was prescribed lenses that corrected his vision to beyond the accepted standard or optimum, known as 20/20 (where the wearer can see at a 20 ft [6 m] distance what a normal person may see at 20 ft), to 20/15. The lens was also specifically created to give Scelzi an enhanced fine-depth perception. Sclezi noted a dramatic improvement in his ability to react to the starting lights that govern drag racing. The modern sport contact lenses can also be modified to filter out certain light wavelengths to accentuate a particular visual element in a sport, often in those disciplines that involve that athlete reacting to the position of a ball in relation to a background. The lens tint is used for athletes with myopia (nearsightedness) or hyperopia (farsightedness). In outdoor sports, such as football, golf, or running, the sport lens is tinted gray-green, which permits the wearer to better distinguish between the shades of a certain color, such as the green a golfer will see on a fairway, as opposed to that of the putting surface. A number of professional baseball players wear an amber-tinted contact lens for games played in variable lighting conditions. The amber tint blocks blue light from being received into the eye, and it is believed that this enables the player to better see fast-moving objects, such as a baseball, against a fixed background. The enhanced contact lens technology may provide a certain psychological lift to the athlete in addition to the physical correction of vision. In many sports where hand-eye coordination is the premium skill, if the athletes believe that they can see the target object better, they may in fact perform better because they will mentally simulate the activity more effectively prior to making the actual play. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CORTISONE STEROID INJECTIONS

Age-related responses to injury; Motor control; Visualization in sport.

SEE ALSO

Cool down

SEE

Warm up/Cool down

Core body temperature Core body temperature is the physical state at which the internal organs and bodily systems function at an optimal level. Core body temperature is an aspect of thermoregulation, the body’s ability to control its operating temperature within a constant range. The ideal core body temperature has traditionally been stated as 98.6 F (37.7 C). This stated ideal temperature is in fact the approximate midpoint of the range of optimal temperatures that are sought to be maintained by the body, from a low of 96 F to a maximum of 100 F (36 C to 39 C). Every human possesses individual physiological factors that contribute to the variability of a healthy core body temperature, including the base metabolic rate (BMR, the rate at which the body consumes energy while at rest), physical conditions such as pregnancy, and the ingestion of various medications. When the core body temperature approaches the lower part of the desired range, the body will take corrective measures through its temperature control regulation system centered in the hypothalamus region of the brain. The body approaches a hypothermic state at these lowered temperatures. To preserve the ability of the internal organs to function, the hypothalamus initiates a reduction in the volume of blood circulating near the surface of the body in order to retain a greater volume of warm blood near the internal organs. These conditions often occur during participation in cold weather sports, such as cross-country skiing, or other circumstances in which athletes have significant exposure to extreme weather. If the core body temperature increases beyond the upper safe limit of approximately 100 F (39 C), the hypothalamus takes an opposite action to that employed during hypothermic conditions. To counter a hyperthermic state, the hypothalamus initiates an increase in blood volume, directing the warmed blood toward the surface of the skin to promote its cooling. The body also seeks to dissipate the increased internal heat by promoting the production of greater amounts of perspiration, which is released from the eccrine WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

sweat glands for eventual evaporation at the skin surface. When the body has sustained an illness such as a fever or an infection, or when the internal temperature has increased due to warm weather exercise, the release of perspiration will also occur. A number of instruments and techniques exist to obtain a core temperature reading. The traditional method involves the insertion of a thermometer under the tongue of the individual; this technique is subject to variables, such as the manner in which the tongue is actually positioned in the mouth or the presence of fluids in the mouth that may affect the temperature reading. An accepted alternative means for determining body temperature is the positioning of the thermometer in the armpit of the person. Again, an incorrect position that created exposure of the thermometer to either cool skin or the air itself would also produce an imprecise reading. The two most accurate methods of taking core temperature are through the use of a rectal thermometer or a tympanic thermometer. Rectal thermometers are designed to be inserted a sufficient distance into the rectum of the individual to obtain a measure at a place close to the internal organs that are maintained at the optimum body temperature. The tympanic thermometer is a modern device that is attached to a handheld instrument and inserted into the inner ear; the blood flow in the vicinity of the tympanum, the middle ear, provides an accurate indication of the temperature at the body core.

Acclimatization; Cold weather exercise; Heat stroke; Thermoregulatory system.

SEE ALSO

Corner men

SEE

Corticosteroids

Boxing, corner men

SEE

Topical

corticosteroids

Cortisone steroid injections Injections of cortisone—a steroid hormone produced naturally by the adrenal glands and that can also be synthesized—is a therapy designed to minimize damage to joints. The relief provided can enable an athlete to continue the physical activity, or, in the case of a more severe injury, can be part of a rehabilitation program.

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Cortisone is essential for proper body function. Its absence causes Addison’s disease. If untreated, the disease is fatal. Treatment consists of administration of synthetic cortisone (brands include DepoMedrol, Celestone, and Kenalog). In the larger amounts used for therapy, cortisone acts by easing inflammation—a process in which the body’s immune system (especially the white blood cells) reacts to what is erroneously perceived to be an invasion by a foreign substance, or infection. The resulting joint stiffness can restrict movement and cause pain. If relief is not provided, inflammation can be long lasting (chronic). While a steroid, cortisone is different from anabolic steroids, which are derived from a compound called testosterone. Anabolic steroids can cause serious side effects in athletes seeking to gain muscle mass and strength from their overuse, and are banned from the Olympics and other competitions. Cortisone injections are typically used to provide relief from inflammation in joints, including the elbow (different injuries are popularly dubbed ‘‘tennis elbow’’ and ‘‘golfer’s elbow’’), the shoulder (such as for the inflammation of the tendon in the rotator cuff), and the knee. Typical conditions that can benefit from cortisone injections include bursitis (inflammation of the synovial fluid-containing sacs called bursa), arthritis, tendonitis (inflammation of tendons), plantar fasciitis, back pain due to injured discs, and carpal tunnel syndrome. As inflammation eases following the injection of cortisone, the associated pain will ease. However, cortisone itself is not a pain agent. Pain is also a signal that a joint, tendon, or muscle is injured. Lessened pain may tempt an athlete into resuming active training, when a period of reduced or no training following cortisone administration is often recommended. Injections of cortisone into tendons are avoided, since they could be weakened and rupture. Also, the same site should receive only a maximum of three treatments each year, since thinning of the cartilage and skin around the injection site and weakening of tendons can occur. More frequent injections have been associated with permanent joint damage. Injection is via a needle. Often the needle is small and discomfort is minimal. However, sometimes a larger needle is necessary or manipulation of the needle following its insertion is required to properly deliver the cortisone to the affected site. Then, discomfort can be more pronounced and longer lasting. Even with the discomfort, the benefit from the

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Athlete receiving a cortisone treatment.

P HO TO BY P AUL KA NE /

GE TTY IM AGES .

injection can outweigh the continued inflammation that would result if the procedure was not done. Additionally, cortisone can be injected along with medication that reduces the pain of injection. Examples of anesthetics used include lidocaine and bupivicane. The benefit of injected cortisone is that it is released into the circulation slowly, so its antiinflammatory effects last a long time. Relief, which typically begins a day or so after an injection, can then last for months. Despite the benefit derived from its use, cortisone injections are not without side effects. These include thinning of the bone (osteoporosis), weight gain, stomach upset (which can led to formation of an ulcer), and compromised immune function (and a consequent increased risk of infection). The most common side effect is known as ‘‘steroid flare.’’ This occurs when the injected cortisone crystallizes, causing pain. The pain lasts one or several days until the crystals dissolve. As well, as with any WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

COURT OF ARBITRATION FOR SPORT (CAS)

procedure that involves breaching of the skin barrier, infection is a possibility. This risk, however, is minimal, especially if the area is swabbed with an antibacterial agent like iodine or alcohol before the injection. A very serious side effect of a cortisone injection is the death of the bone at the injection site. The condition, called avascular necrosis, occurs most commonly in the hip, knee, and shoulder. The condition sidelined football and baseball star Bo Jackson in the early 1990s (although in Jackson’s case, the malady was caused by a traumatic hit delivered in a football game). Osteoporosis can occur with cortisone use because the hormone can interfere with the body’s production of vitamin D, which in turn limits the absorption of calcium from food. Since calcium is an integral part of bone, its diminished level affects bone growth and replacement. The body’s manufacture of prostaglandin and leukotriene can also be curtailed by excess cortisone, which adversely affects cartilage. Mainly because of these potential consequences, cortisone injections are typically done only when physical therapy or other anti-inflammatory agents (typically, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen, aspirin, and naproxen) have failed. Still, with prudent application by an experienced physician, a cortisone injection can be a valuable aid to rehabilitation from athletic injury.

Figure skating injuries; Golf injuries; Gymnastics injuries; Snowboarding injuries; Sports injuries.

SEE ALSO

Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) Since its creation as an arm of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1984, the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) has grown to the stature of a respected independent authority in the resolution of sports-related disputes of every kind. Based in Lausanne, Switzerland, with offices in Sydney, Australia, and New York, the CAS hears approximately 200 cases per year. While it was the international response to the rise in the use of performance-enhancing drugs and the resulting doping cases that fueled the creation of the CAS, the Court is called upon to assist in a wide WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

range of sport conflicts, including sponsorship disputes, the eligibility of a particular athlete in accordance with a sport’s constitution, as well as the resolution of disagreements concerning competition results. The determination of issues arising in doping cases remains a significant portion of the CAS caseload. Unlike a traditional civil court, the CAS acquires its jurisdiction in a particular case only through the mutual consent of the parties involved. This procedure, known as arbitration, is designed to create a resolution binding on all parties (there are very limited rights of appeal permitted from a CAS arbitration). The chief advantage of an arbitration conducted by the CAS is its expertise in sports-related disciplines (there are more than 300 arbitrators from 87 countries qualified to hear CAS disputes); a typical civil judge will not likely possess such sports-specific knowledge. CAS arbitration is also generally a much more expeditious proceeding, with the cases heard and determined within a few months, at a lower legal cost to the participants. The CAS also offers mediation services to any requesting parties of a sports dispute. Unlike arbitration, the mediation process is not binding—the mediator will provide recommendations, with solutions suggested, but these are not imposed as a result as in the case of arbitration. Mediations are designed to permit the adverse parties an opportunity to air their grievances in an atmosphere aimed at conciliation of the dispute. The respect afforded the CAS by the international sports community is evidenced by the importance and the impact of the cases that the CAS is requested to decide. In 2003, Canadian cross country skier Becky Scott successfully appealed to the CAS with respect to her claim that she be awarded the 2002 Olympic gold medal in the 5-km pursuit event. Russian skiers Olga Danilova and Larissa Lazutina finished first and second respectively in the competition, with Scott in third place, and each athlete passed their post-event doping test. Danilova and Lazutina each failed a subsequent doping test administered in relation to another Olympic cross-country event, when the presence of a prohibited blood doping agent, darbepoetin, was detected in each skier’s sample. Scott appealed her 5-km race result on the basis that both Russian skiers were engaged in ongoing doping practices. The Scott ruling was the first time in Olympic history that a gold medal had been awarded to an athlete as a result of a CAS ruling.

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The Swiss cycling team regained a place in the 2005 Pro Tour championship after the CAS reversed a lower court decision on the riders’ earlier doping tests. PA OLO COCCO /A FP /G E TTY IMA G ES

In 2005, the CAS arbitration panel ruled that American sprinter Tim Montgomery be banned from international competition for two years as a result of doping, in spite of the fact that Montgomery had never failed a doping test. The CAS ruled that it could find a doping violation on the basis of the third party evidence called against Montgomery, most of which connected Montgomery to the Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative (BALCO) athlete steroid scandal that had arisen in the United States in 2003. In addition to the resolution of specific disputes, the CAS provides one-time event-wide arbitration services, tailored to the mechanics of disputes rising in the course of competition, such as the Olympics or the Pan American Games. The CAS also provides legal opinions on requests on sports-centered issues; when an international sport organization contemplates legislative change such as a new disciplinary code, the CAS might be requested to offer its views regarding the proposed scheme.

Doping tests; International Olympic Committee (IOC); World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

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Cramps A cramp is a sensation that may be experienced by an athlete in a number of different bodily systems. Typically caused by an involuntary contraction of muscle tissues, cramps that occur during competition are especially common among endurance athletes, such as marathon runners, cyclists, and triathletes. The most common forms of cramps are muscle cramps, occurring either during or immediately after exertion by working muscles; stomach cramps, which often occur during competition, as opposed to training sessions; and menstrual cramps, experienced by some female athletes (and nonathletes) during their menstrual cycle, when the additional blood generated by the body in the female menstrual cycle passes through the cervix (the narrow portion of the uterus where it joins the vagina). Muscle cramps are one of the most common injuries sustained in sport. This condition is usually one of short duration, and it tends to respond well to immediate treatment. A muscle cramp is an involuntary spasm or contraction of the muscle WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CRAMPS

Typically caused by an involuntary contraction of muscle tissues, cramps are especially common among athletes.

PH OTO B Y C LI VE

B RUN SK ILL/GE TTY IMA GE S .

fiber that occurs during or immediately after strenuous physical activity. The cramp is often quite painful, to the point of disabling the affected muscles and rendering the athlete unable to continue without medical attention. The cramp will first appear as if the tissue below the skin has hardened, with the skin drawn tightly over the muscle. The calf muscles (the gastrocnemius and soleus) are particularly vulnerable to cramping as they are actively engaged in the generation of movement in all running, skiing, jumping, and cycling disciplines. It is estimated that in the endurance sports, which involve the utilization of the aerobic energy system, between 30% and 70% of participating athletes will suffer from disabling cramps at some point of their athletic career. Muscle cramps, which may exist alone or in combination, are caused in the following circumstances: fatigue or overexertion; dehydration; low levels of the minerals potassium, calcium, sodium, or magnesium; ingestion of various types of medications; excessive consumption of caffeine; or failure to properly warm up and stretch the muscles When an athlete has not properly prepared the body for a physical activity through the combined WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

effect of proper pre-event hydration and carbohydrate consumption, the likelihood of muscle cramp is much greater. Inadequate carbohydrate consumption prior to competition will create correspondingly reduced levels of glycogen, the stored sugars that the body utilizes for the creation of the fuel adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Without adequate production of ATP, the muscle will become prematurely fatigued, which can lead to cramping. Insufficient hydration, both prior to and during the activity, will usually cause a decrease in blood volume, which will impair the delivery of electrolytes and nutrients to the muscles in question. Deficiencies in the minerals calcium, magnesium, and potassium, all of which play a significant role in the transmission of nervous system impulses to a muscle, as well as the regulation of heart rate, will also speed the formation of muscle cramps. Caffeine, a substance commonly consumed by endurance athletes for both its stimulating as well as its glycogen-regulating qualities, is a contributor to muscle cramps by virtue of its diuretic (an increased urine output) properties. Caffeine will often speed the dehydration of the body.

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In sports that require anaerobic energy production, lactic acid, a byproduct of the production of ATP, may cause an involuntary muscle contraction. The initial treatment of a muscle cramp includes a gentle stretch of the affected area. If the cramp arises in competition, the athlete should not immediately attempt to return to full speed. The keys to the prevention of cramps are developing a high level of general fitness, regular and comprehensive stretching of the key muscle groups, and careful attention to nutrition practices, including carbohydrate, vitamin, and fluid levels. Stomach cramps can be as disabling as muscle cramps, and as stomach problems most often arise in the pressure of competition, these cramps can have a significant negative impact on performance. For endurance athletes, stomach cramps often occur when the athlete consumes too much food or liquid during competition. When athletes eat too much food prior to an event, or when they experiment during a competition with a drink or an energy gel to which they are not accustomed, cramping may also result. In circumstances where the athlete consumes a great deal of water without having an adequate amount of sodium present in the system (a mineral lost through perspiration), a condition known as hyponatrania will arise, which results in excessive water in the stomach, which is not capable of being processed by the body. When the athlete consumes an excessive or unaccustomed amount of dietary fiber in the one to two days leading up to an event, the athlete may experience stomach cramps that precede a bout of diarrhea. Menstrual cramps will vary in intensity among female athletes. For some women, menstruation does not impact upon their training or competitive schedules. Other female athletes will often experience menstrual discomfort that ranges from a mild ache to a temporarily disabling condition, with pain radiating from the lower abdomen to the upper legs. Contributing factors to this condition include mineral level deficiencies, particularly calcium and magnesium, as well as with the predisposition of the athlete to debilitating menstrual cramps. The discomfort caused by these cramps is often reduced through the use of analgesics such as aspirin, heating pads placed on the abdomen, and gentle exercise.

Exercise and fluid replacement; Heat cramps; Sodium (salt) intake for athletes.

SEE ALSO

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SEE

Heat cramps

Cramps, muscle

SEE

Muscle cramps

Creatine supplementation The amino acid creatine was first isolated as a component that contributed to the proper function of human muscles in 1825. Amino acids are the organic building blocks of the proteins that form muscle cells in the human body. In its form as creatine monohydrate, creatine is important to the metabolism of skeletal muscle. It is used in muscle cells to assist in the storage of energy, particularly in those sports that require explosive movement. Creatine is most applicable to the generation of muscular energy in the anaerobic alactic mode, in short-duration athletic activities of less than 10 seconds per interval, when the energy compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is available directly in the muscle, as opposed to being created through the other physical systems, which involve the metabolism of glucose and glycogen. The value of creatine as a possible supplement to enhance sport performance was first recognized by Russian sport scientists in the early 1970s, a research initiative that paralleled their work with respect to the potential applications of anabolic steroids. Creatine acquired an underground cult following among bodybuilders and weightlifters into the 1980s, who used the compound to prolong their training sessions. Creatine achieved a measure of international notoriety with the revelation that muscular British sprinter Linford Christie, 1992 Olympic 100 m champion, had used creatine supplements as part of his pre-Olympic training program. Various international rowing programs also made creatine a part of the regular nutritional supplements provided to their athletes. In the late 1990s, a number of professional American baseball players, most notably homerun record setter Mark McGwire, acknowledged that their training included regular creatine use. Creatine is not a banned substance in Olympic competition, nor is it found on the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) list of prohibited substances. There are a number of both chemical and philosophical distinctions to be drawn between creatine use and the other ergogenic (muscle-building) substances to which it is often compared, such as anabolic steroids. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CRICKET

process is used in the creation of ATP. As the muscle store of creatine phosphate is depleted, the body cannot restore the prior creatine level, which results in a corresponding inability to produce ATP in the muscle. The body must then switch to the companion energy system, the anaerobic lactic system, which will generate ATP without oxygen for a further 60 to 90 seconds. ATP, when present in the muscles, is used as an energy source only in anaerobic alactic activities, which by definition are high-intensity short-duration sports. Creatine supplements are consumed on the premise that the larger the store of creatine available to the body, the better the short-term high-intensity athlete, such as a 100-m sprinter or a weightlifter, will perform. Creatine is therefore of little or no benefit in any sport where the aerobic energy system is utilized. Creatine has a proven ability to increase body mass and muscle size when consumed in conjunction with an aggressive weight training program. In studies of athletes over a one-month period, where creatine was consumed at a rate of 15 g per day, the subjects typically gained an average of 3 lb (1.5 kg) of lean body mass.

Dietary supplement, creatine.

ª EN VIS IO N/ CORB I S

The first distinction between these substances is that creatine is a naturally occurring chemical in the human body. The muscle building benefits of creatine are indirect, given the relationship of creatine to the generation of cellular energy, and they are not nearly so pronounced as those attainable through either the consumption of steroids or the injection of human growth hormones (HGH). Further, any adverse physical side effects attributable to creatine use are far less than those known to result from steroid use. Creatine supplementation poses ethical considerations as opposed to legal consequences for athletes who seek to enhance performance. Creatine is not flushed from the system as are minerals such as sodium and potassium; once created in the body through its natural processes, or ingested as a supplement, most creatine will be stored in the muscle cells. The creatine bonds with natural phosphates produced or ingested by the body, to create creatine phosphate. When the muscle requires an instant source of energy, creatine phosphate breaks down, and the energy released in this WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Creatine users also have a demonstrated ability to train with greater intensity, and shorter rest intervals than athletes who do not use creatine. However, creatine has demonstrated benefits only where the accompanying training is focused and highly regimented. The simple ingestion of creatine will have little or no positive effect on the abilities of an athlete. There is no evidence that creatine will build up in a toxic fashion within the body; excess creatine is excreted through the kidneys and urine. Creatine has a number of side effects, which have been the subject of incomplete scrutiny and scientific analysis. There is considerable evidence that the ingestion of creatine supplements is a contributing factor in the development of muscle cramps in hot or humid conditions. As with any other supplement program that involves weight training and potential weight gain, additional stresses are imposed upon the body, which may result in the muscle strain or other musculoskeletal stress.

Anabolic steroids; Muscle mass and strength; Muscle protein synthesis; Protein supplements.

SEE ALSO

Cricket Cricket is a sport that generates a broad range of reaction from sports fans. Among those who are a

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part of more action-packed athletic traditions, cricket is variously seen as a boring, tedious game. To its hundreds of millions of fans united in an intense global following, cricket is a truly international sport, one of immeasurable subtlety, sportsmanship, and athletic skill. The international contests generate a passion that is only approached by soccer’s World Cup. To play cricket as a representative of one’s country is to achieve celebrity status in countries such as India, Pakistan, the various West Indies, and South Africa. Cricket was a product of the English countryside, an ancient game that was played in a formalized fashion at least as early as the 1500s. The rules of the game were first codified in 1744; the format of cricket has been only modified, as opposed to being subjected to wholesale reconstruction, since that time. As with American baseball, the fundamental distinction between cricket and virtually all other sports is the fact that traditionally there was no time limit imposed on play; the length of the game was determined by how long it took one team to retire the other side in their turn at bat, known as their ‘‘innings.’’ The game was an exclusively English pursuit until it was locally adopted into the various English colonies around the world in the nineteenth century. Ironically, the first international cricket match was played between two countries with a more limited current cricket tradition, when Canada played the United States in 1844. Cricket is a predominately, but not exclusively, male sport. Women’s cricket enjoys a following in various countries where cricket is widely played, but the women’s game has not enjoyed the attention nor the professional organization of men’s cricket. The rules of cricket are not complicated, but there are subtleties to the game that are best appreciated through actual participation, as opposed to observation. The rules of the game include:  The game is played on a field (usually a natural grass surface) that is oval shaped, measuring between 290 ft and 480 ft (90 m to 150 m) across.  Within the oval is a ‘‘pitch,’’ with two marked creases in which the two batsmen will stand awaiting the delivery of a ball from the opposing team’s bowler. One batsman faces the bowler at a time, measured by the delivery of six balls, known as an ‘‘over.’’ The batsman uses his bat to protect the wicket from being struck by a bowled ball. The wicket is composed of three upright posts, known as stumps, upon which are

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set two bails, square blocks that rest on notches cut into the stumps. The batting team, or side, begins the game with one batsman at each crease. The defensive team takes their positions, one player as the bowler, the remaining 10 players placed in the field positioned to either catch or stop the ball if it is hit toward them. One of the 10 fielders is a wicketkeeper, designated to catch the bowled balls that are not hit by the batsman when bowled. The primary object of the game is to score more runs than the opposing team. When the ball is bowled, the batsman generates a run by both hitting the ball in the field, and then running to the opposite crease while his teammate exchanges positions. One run counts when each batsman has reached the other crease; any part of the batsman body or bat that touches inside the crease prior to the arrival of the ball will score the run. The bowler delivers the ball with an overhand, straight arm motion (the throwing arm may not be bent at the elbow on delivery), thrown after a run up. The ball is usually delivered with a bounce in front of the batsman, and the ball is not permitted to bounce higher than the waist of the batsman to constitute a legal ball. There are generally two types of bowlers, the spin bowler, who delivers balls that tend to curve or break as they approach the batsman, and the fast bowler, whose ball is thrown with greater emphasis on speed than movement. An elite international fast bowler can deliver a ball at speeds in excess of 120 mi (180 km) per hour. The bowler delivers six balls, which comprise an over. At the conclusion of the over, the bowler changes sides and delivers the next six balls from the opposite end of the pitch. The cricket ball is a hard-surfaced, cork, string, and leather object, with a single raised stitch seam. The ball must be 8.81 in to 9.0 in (224 mm to 229 mm) in circumference, with a prescribed weight of 5.5 oz to 5.75 oz (160 g). Unlike the sport of baseball, a cricket bowler is permitted to scuff the ball, which is typically done to make the ball spin in the air. The batsman uses a bat constructed a willow wood with a flat side, a maximum of 4.25 in (108 rmm) width, and 38 in length (965 mm). Given the speed that the ball can be delivered by the bowler, the batsman wears gloves, a helmet and face protection, and leg pads. Other than the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CRICKET

The position of the batsman permits them to react quickly to both the line and bounce of the ball, while protecting the wicket behind them. ª JUTT A KLE E/C ORB IS

wicketkeeper, who is permitted gloves and protective gear, no other fielder has any special equipment. The batsman has a number of different strategies available to him. In some circumstances, the batsman may chose to take a defensive posture toward a ball bowled, where the batsman protects the wicket from being struck by the ball by using the bat as a blocker. In other instances, the batsman may direct the ball in any direction; he is not obligated to run. When the ball is batted, and the two batsmen on the field successfully exchange positions, crease to crease, one run will be scored. If the ball is hit far enough to permit the batsmen to run between the creases twice, two runs will score. When the batsman WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

strikes the ball and hits along the ground over the boundary of the oval, four runs score and the batsmen are not required to run between the creases. When the ball is hit in the air and it crosses the boundary to the oval in the air, six runs score. Consistent with the nature of a game that developed with no time limits, a batsman may remain at bat indefinitely, subject to any tactical decisions made about the conduct of the team’s innings, or the special rules associated with different formats such as one-day cricket. As with baseball, which owes some of its structure to cricket, the batsmen on a cricket side have different specialties and defined roles within the match. Some batsmen are required to occupy the bowler, especially if partnered with an adept

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batsman. These players typically take a defensive stance, protecting the wicket and running when their batting partner is facing the bowler and makes contact with the ball. Early in an inning, often the role of the batsman, known as the opener, will be to wear down the opposition by being on the receiving end of the fastest opposition. In games where a new cricket ball is being used in play, the new ball will often be faster. The batsmen in the middle of the team’s order will be the best, most free-swinging batsmen of the side. The last batsmen tend to be the weaker members of the side, often the team bowlers. A player who is both an adept batsman and a bowler is referred to as an ‘‘all rounder.’’ One of the many intricacies of cricket is found in the fact that there are 10 different ways in which a batsman may be called out on a bowled ball. The most common ways to get a batsman out are to be bowled out by the bowler (the ball strikes the wickets and dislodges the bails), caught out when the batted ball is caught by a fielder without the ball first hitting the ground, run out, if the batsman hits the ball but fails to reach the opposite crease, or ‘‘leg before wicket’’ (LBW), when the batsman swings and misses at a bowled ball, and part of leg or pad block the ball from striking the wicket. Games can have a variety of lengths and structures. The traditional cricket game consisted of one inning per side, and such a match could take hours or more than one day to complete. The English game was famous for the break for the teams to take tea and other refreshment. In international test competitions, the countries involved will set rules for how long the matches will take; test matches usually run for a number of days. In recent years, the one-day cricket concept has evolved to a relatively fixed series of rules, where each team gets a specified number of overs, the typical number being 50 overs. While there is no time limit as to how long each over may take, the overs limit greatly shortens the traditional cricket match. Kerry Packer of Australia (1937–2005), a cricket fan and television impresario, spearheaded the formation of the World Series of Cricket and the one-day, television-friendly cricket match in the 1970s. While cricket has enjoyed a growth in professional competition in a number of countries throughout the world, including Australia and England, cricket supremacy is measured on a world scale through the test matches. Countries are certified as being worthy of participating in test matches by the International Cricket Council, the supreme governing body of world cricket. Ascendancy to test status is the supreme indication of the cricketing status of a nation. The current

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test membership includes Australia, Bangladesh, England, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, the West Indies, and Zimbabwe. The longest held and best-known international competition is that of the the Ashes, which originated in the defeat of the English team by Australia in 1882, an event referred to as ‘‘the death of English cricket.’’ When England traveled to Australia to resume the rivalry in 1883, the English captain was presented with an urn, purporting to carry the ashes of dead English cricket. The urn and the Ashes have been the prize contested between those countries since that date.

Cricket batting; Cricket: Strength training and exercises; Cricket: The physics of how the ball is bowled; Exercise, intermittent; Shoulder anatomy and physiology.

SEE ALSO

Cricket batting Cricket, like baseball, is a team game that at its essence is a confrontation between two players; in cricket, it is between the bowler and the batsman, while in baseball, which is a sporting cousin of cricket, it is between the pitcher and the batter. The degree of the engagement in the game of the other 10 players in the field in support of the bowler, and the corresponding involvement of the batsman’s partner in the opposite crease, depends entirely on the outcome of each ball bowled at the batsman’s wicket. The bowler and the batsman face one another on the pitch, the portion of the cricket playing surface that contains the wickets. The distance between the two cricket wickets is 66 ft (20.1 m). As the batsman facing a bowler has a distance of 4 ft (1.2 m) from the wickets to the edge of the crease, a bowler will deliver a ball, at the end of the run up, from a point approximately 62 ft (19 m) from the batsman. As the ball may be delivered by an elite-level fast bowler at speeds approaching 120 mph (180 km/h), a competent batsman must possess both quick reflexes and considerable nerve to make quick and accurate decisions about each ball that he faces. The batting technique employed by a batsman will be dictated by the nature of both the bowler and each ball faced; it is difficult for the batsman to impose his will on a particular circumstance, by way of attempting to strike the ball in a particular direction or manner, if the ball bowled is unsuitable. Generally, a batsman will be adopting either a defensive or an offensive attacking approach; when a WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CRICKET BATTING

Game of cricket in progress.

PH OTO B Y P H IL WA LTE R/GET TY I MA GE S.

particular ball is not capable of being played as the batsman would like, it will generally be defended. Cricket batting is also a partnership between two batsmen. The batsman facing the bowler is the striker: the second batsman is the non-striker. The chief responsibility of the non-striker is to be prepared to run to the opposite crease on a struck ball, and to call to the striker as to whether they may run without being out. Often in a batting partnership, one batsman is the designated defensive player, whose role is to stand in, to occupy the bowler, to create possible arm fatigue, and place the other batsman in a position where he has a greater chance of success. Whether the batsman is seeking to drive the ball and create runs, or whether he is adopting a defensive posture, the physical stance of the batsman will have common features. The batsman will face the bowler in an athletic stance, the slightly crouched position similar to that of a defensive player in basketball, a baseball fielder, or a boxer. The batsman stands with his knees slightly bent, his weight WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

balanced on the balls of the feet, and his head level, aligned directly above the bat that is gripped so that the top of the bat is touching the ground at the batsman’s feet. This position permits the batsman to react quickly to both the line and the bounce of the ball, while protecting the wicket behind him. The bent knees allow for explosive power to be developed, both in a forward position and in a turning position, as the batsman may drive the ball in any direction once it is bowled. Cricket has a variety of terms to describe the different types of batting strokes employed by a batsman. The primary defensive, or blocking, strokes are closely tied to the foot position in relation to how the ball is bowled. When the batsman is facing a very fast bowler, the rear foot, that closest to the defended wickets, will be the foot on which the batsman’s weight will be placed when the bat is swung, as the movement of the batsman to his rear foot creates a slightly longer reaction time as regards the flight of the ball. A defensive shot has the dual purpose of

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both protecting the wicket and being driven directly into the ground, to prevent it from being caught in the air by a fielder and rendering the batsman out.

Cricket: The physics of how the ball is bowled

A variety of more aggressive strokes are employed by a batsman to put the ball into play and to create the potential for runs to be scored. Drive shots, where the swing of the bat is extended through the line of the ball’s path, are used when the batsman is seeking to hit the ball with force into a particular place in the field. The square cut is a shot to direct the ball in a perpendicular direction from that at which it was bowled. The pull stroke is a ball struck by the batsman driving the ball hard to the side of the cricket field aligned with his body. The sweep stroke is a motion in which the bat is drawn across the body in a wide arc. The lofted shot is a motion to drive the ball into the air, often aiming for the boundary. The rules of cricket (formally referred to as the ‘‘Laws of the Game’’) provide for 10 different ways in which a batter may be ruled out by the umpire. The four best known outs include:

As with most confrontations that can sometimes take on epic stature, the tools of the conflict between a cricket bowler and the batsman are very simple. The batsman strides into the crease, prepared to defend a three-posted wooden wicket with a flatsided willow bat, equipped with modest protective equipment and his reflexes. The opposing bowler has a single weapon, a hard-wound, leather-skinned ball, bound with a single raised seam, that is delivered by the bowler with a variety of spins and speeds.

 Bowled out is when the ball strikes the defended wicket, causing the bails positioned on the top of the wicket stumps to be dislodged.  Caught out is when the ball, when struck by the batsman, is caught in the air by any one of the 11 fielding players.  Run out is when one of the two batsmen, in exchanging positions after a ball is hit into the field, does not reach the opposite crease before the ball is thrown to the wicket and used to knock it down.  ‘‘Leg before wicket’’ is when a batsman swings at and misses a bowled ball, and his leg prevents the ball from otherwise striking the wicket. This determination is a judgment call for the umpire. No matter what changes are made to the format of cricket matches, the successful batsman makes his reputation on how many times in his career he has batted for 100 runs or more in a single match. This feat, known as the ‘‘century,’’ requires both batting skill and stamina, as the batsman may be on the field for several hours. Sir Garfield Sobers, of the successful West Indies Test teams of the 1960s, and Sachin Tendulkar, India standout in the twenty-first century, are two examples of batsmen who achieved legendary status for their ability to deliver centuries for their countries in international competition.

Cricket; Cricket: Strength training and exercises; Exercise, intermittent.

SEE ALSO

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The manner in which a cricket ball may be delivered is well defined by the rules of the game. The bowler is not permitted to flex the elbow of the arm used to deliver the ball, in the manner of a baseball pitcher. The arm of the bowler must generally be straight, with the elbow extended. At the conclusion of the delivery, as the bowler approaches the limit of the crease, the bowler will often incorporate a dynamic leap to bring greater force to the ball as it is released from his hand. The ball is not required to be bounced in front of the batsman, but is done so invariably to assist in the deception as to the ball’s movement as it is thrown toward the wicket. The pitch on which the bowler delivers the ball is 66 ft long (19 m); the ball must be delivered within an 8 ft (2.6 m) wide crease. There are two general methods for the delivery of a cricket ball, and two corresponding types of bowlers, representing terms as well as strategies: fast bowling and spin bowling. The type of bowling to be used will depend on both the nature of the opponent and the conditions of the pitch. A fast bowler is one who delivers the ball at a high rate of speed; a typical international caliber fast bowler will reach speeds of between 85 mph and 90 mph (140 km/hour and 150 km/hour). While the ball is delivered to achieve a measure of spin and resulting break when it bounces off the surface of the pitch in front of the batsman, the velocity of the ball is its primary feature. By contrast, a spin bowler uses a variety of techniques to induce the ball to spin sideways after contact with the pitch, to fool the batsman as to the ball’s trajectory. A typical spin bowler delivers the ball at speeds ranging from 45 mph to 60 mph (70 km/hour to 100 km/hour). By rule, an innings of a cricket match will commence with the use of a new, unmarked cricket ball. A new ball, and its tendency to bounce harder and WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CRICKET STRENGTH TRAINING AND EXERCISES

Swing bowling is a delivery intended to make the ball move in flight, through a combination of three different physical factors. These factors include:  the speed of the ball at delivery  the imperfections of the surface of the ball induced by the rubbing of the surface by the bowler, the application of sweat or saliva by the bowler, and the effects of prior play  the use of the seam As the ball leaves the bowler’s hand, the surface of the ball is exposed to two different types of airflow; the laminar flow is that of the air moving on the smooth, polished portion of the ball surface, and the turbulent flow is that directed to the roughened side of the ball. The combination of these effects is a net increase of forces directed to the turbulent side of the ball, which causes it to move in the air, or ‘‘break,’’ in that direction. There are further variants of swing bowling effect achieved through the imparting of different spins on delivery, which will result in the ball breaking in one direction in the air, and moving in the opposite direction after contact with the pitch.

Cricket player practices his bowling (throwing).

AL ES SA NDRO

A BB ONI ZI O /AF P /G ET TY I MA GE S

faster from the surface of the pitch, makes it a desirable ball to be thrown by the fast bowlers. As the match goes on and the ball is marked by the effects of play, as well as the permitted scuffing of its surface by the bowlers, a ball is created that is preferred by the spin bowlers. There are distinct physical principles underlying each of the fast bowling and the spin bowling techniques. Fast bowling is further subdivided into two categories: the seam bowling method and the swing bowling method. Seam bowling involves a delivery where the seam of the ball is vertical to the ground, and the rotation imparted to the ball on delivery is horizontal. When this ball strikes the surface of the pitch, it tends to move unpredictably and therefore is difficult for the batsman to hit. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Spin bowling relies more on the technique of the bowler on delivery than it does on the velocity of the ball. There are a number of different mechanisms for the imparting of spin by the bowler; each involves the application of the same physical principles. Using either the action of the wrist or the fingers being drawn along the surface of the ball, the ball is delivered with a sideways spin. This spin is intended to induce ‘‘drift,’’ the expression describing the deviation of the ball from a straight trajectory. Spin bowling allows for the generation of the ‘‘Magnus effect,’’ whereby the spin of the ball creates different velocities on each side of its surface, causing the path of the ball to be deflected. The Magnus effect, coupled with the different imperfections on the pitch when the ball strikes it, can create a very unpredictable ball for the batsman to contend with as it approaches. The rougher the ball surface, the better the ball may adhere at the point of impact, causing an even greater potential for erratic movement on the bounce. SEE ALSO

Baseball; Cricket; Shoulder injuries.

Cricket strength training and exercises Cricket is a game that would appear to require little muscular strength. Viewed from a distance,

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cricket is such a seemingly gentle pursuit that the notion of strength training and exercises would seem to have a limited application. However, as with many sports that involve relatively lengthy periods of low activity punctuated by intervals of extreme muscular focus, cricket is deceptively difficult and it also presents significant physical training challenges for the athlete, especially at an elite level. For batsmen, bowlers, and fielders, the primary energy system utilized during competition is the anaerobic lactic and alactic processes. In the acts of bowling, batting, and fielding, the intervals of activity requiring energy generation to power the athletes’ muscles will almost certainly be fewer than 40 seconds. As all players in cricket are at some stage of a match called on to bat and field, much basic fitness training will be common to all players. Cricket training is not exclusively an anaerobic focus. Players are often either stationed in the field or at bat for a number of hours at a time. Cricket, as both a traditional English summer sport as well as a competition played year round in warm, humid regions such as India, Australia, and the West Indies, places the demands of the environment on the players. Enhanced aerobic fitness and a strong cardiovascular system assist the players in dealing with the fatigue and impact on their attentiveness in the course of a long match. The areas of particular fitness attention at each cricket position include:  Bowler: The nature of the position requires that a bowler have the ability to move explosively in the run up to delivery, as a speedy run up will physically translate into a faster delivery of the ball; the arm, shoulder, and core body strength and stamina are essential to deliver the ball repeatedly.  Fielder: The fielder must be prepared to react to the ball when hit, and to get to a ball, field, and throw, all as a part of a game that may last six hours or more at one time. Speed of movement and agility are critical to this position.  Batsman: Brute muscular power is not a liability to this position, but reaction time, batting technique, and balance in the crease are of primary importance. A batsman may be required to maintain his position for a number of hours. The cricket batting stroke relies upon core strength, particularly in the abdominal and oblique muscle groups, the gluteal muscles, and the upper arms and shoulders.

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A cricket strength and training program will of necessity address anaerobic, aerobic, and weight training, and reaction time/coordination agility drills. The aerobic training necessary to assist the player in maintaining strength and to battle fatigue during a long match need not be intense. In the course of a weekly training program, two 45minute to one-hour sessions of moderately paced running, cycling, or other activity, at approximately 50-60% of the athlete’s maximum heart rate will be a strong base. The goal is improved stamina and recovery times in the course of the primarily anaerobic requirements of cricket competition. The anaerobic qualities of cricket are evident in the requirements of all positions. Plyometrics drills that stress jumping repeats and similar explosive movements are a useful drill for the cricketer. In a similar fashion, interval running exercises that mimic the conditions of the cricket fielder, by requiring short explosive runs of between 32.8 ft and 164 ft (10-50 m) at a segment, will tend to assist in developing the sprinting abilities of the fielder in tracking down a ball to be retrieved and thrown back to the wickets. These drills can be performed with the athlete beginning from a standing start, a running start, and a prone start, as if the fielder had dived for and missed a ball, so as to emulate the types of starts that the fielder would encounter in a game situation. Variations of interval training that develop the lateral speed of the fielder, to react to a batted ball, include foot speed drills, where the athlete must negotiate his way through a series of squares, moving sideways as quickly as possible. There is no physical size or weight limit placed on cricketers; the nature of the sport and its ‘‘all rounde’’ characteristics tend to encourage athletes with a measure of agility, at the expense of muscle. Muscle development is however an essential component of proper cricket training programs. Highrepetition, low-weight regimes are commonly seen as the best way to balance the contrast between muscular size and agility. The key muscle structures that should be developed for improved cricket performance are the triceps (important to both throwing and batting), the upper chest muscles (batting and bowling), and the abdominal and oblique muscles of the torso (stability in all aspects of the game).

Cricket; Cross training; Endurance exercise; Stretching and flexibility.

SEE ALSO

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CROSS TRAINING

Cross country

SEE

Running: Cross

country

Cross-country skiing

SEE

Skiing,

Nordic (cross-country skiing)

Cross training The concept of cross training is a relatively recent athletic application, in which a training regime includes the use of one distinct athletic discipline to build skills or fitness in another. In the not-so-distant past, sporting success was equated to the devotion of an athlete to the discipline. For an individual pursuit such as running or cycling, devotion was translated into the athlete spending every training opportunity engaged in one aspect or another of the sport to simulate competition. In team sports, the athlete would play or practice at every available moment; where there were no formal practices or games, the striving basketball player, soccer player, or ice hockey player would find a pick up game in their sport to continue the quest for excellence. Increased popular interest in multi-sport events such as the triathlon in the 1980s, and the appreciation by the wider sport community of the training demands that such sports required, spurred a broader interest in the use of cross training. It became a fashionable approach to physical improvements in a very wide range of sports. While the triathletes may have popularized multi-sport training regimens, the benefit of placing disparate—and sometimes contrary—demands on the body had its origins well before the Hawaii Ironman event rose to prominence in the 1980s. European sports trainers had advocated variety and intensity in athletic training regimens since the 1940s, usually through the introduction of cycling or an aerobic sport like soccer into an anaerobic training discipline, both for the building of strength as well as an understanding that, for the mental health of a serious athlete, ‘‘a change is often as good as a rest.’’ In the fabled 1972 Summit Series, an eight-game battle between the Russian and Canadian ice hockey powers, the superior skating speed, overall fitness, adept footwork, and balance demonstrated by the Russian players was later attributed to their cross WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

training that included cycling and intense soccer games. The physical preparation required in American football, a sport highly disciplined in its tactics and regimented through rules that stress positional play, has developed into a cross training emphasis that varies position by position. Running backs and receivers, the fast and powerful players who account for most of the scoring in a football game, have been engaged in high-level interval running, plyometrics, and weightlifting programs for many years. Long before the development of sport science as a freestanding branch of academic and physical study, running was a common training adjunct to a wide range of sports. The mechanisms by which running generally assisted athletes were improperly understood, but there was a general understanding among athletes and trainers that distance running added strength and stamina to a competitor. Boxers are a notable example of this long-held knowledge; the sport is anaerobic in nature, as the athlete is required to expend significant amounts of energy in short intervals. Running provides the boxer with the endurance that permits a speedier recovery to resting heart rate and respiration levels before the next round in a fight begins. Today, the principles of effective cross training are well established. Cross training generally is accepted as building a better all-around athlete, while providing a measure of protection for injury through increased fitness, as well as reducing the mental fatigue associated with a lack of training variety. Cross training also permits an injured athlete to continue with workouts and thereby reduce the degree of fitness that might otherwise be lost to injury. The specific areas of human performance that are addressed in a typical cross-training program include: cardiovascular fitness; power, through increased muscle strength; speed; agility/reflexes; the use of all three of the body’s energy systems, the aerobic system (endurance), the anaerobic lactic (intense energy demands of up to 90 seconds in duration), and the anaerobic alactic (short, very intense energy requirements); musculoskeletal flexibility; and mental acuity. In many sports, the effect of cross training is achieved through simple means. A marathoner will today often augment a training program that involves running in excess of 80-100 miles per week (130160 km), with a focused stretching, yoga, and weight training series, to assist with general fitness and help the body recover more quickly from the primary

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CURLING

U.S. speed skaters cross train via bicycle and inline skating as part of their training regimen.

activity. Weight training has become an equally common cross training component of virtually every sport, as the science supporting cross training is clear that overall muscle strength is important to general athletic success. The triathlon and the decathlon are the sports that most keenly bring into focus the principles of cross training. The triathlon, usually made up of swimming, cycling, and running segments that may be variable in length, is popular because it is a competitive sport for hundreds of thousands of participants who enjoy the training variety of the three disciplines. It is impossible to succeed in a triathlon unless the athlete spends significant training time and effort in each aspect. For events such as the Hawaii Ironman, the individual segments are so demanding (the run portion, after the competitor has completed a lengthy swim, followed by a road cycling segment, is a full 26.2-mi [42.2 km] marathon) that the training, which is a cross training schedule, will be very time consuming. The decathlon presents an even more difficult cross training proposition. The athlete must prepare

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P H OTO BY DOU G PE NS I NGER /GET TY IMA GE S.

for ten different sports, each of which will engage systems and techniques that are almost contrary to the others. The 100-m sprint, requiring the short-term power of anaerobic alactic energy system, is a virtual polar opposite to the combined speed and endurance of the 1,500-m race. The high jump, with its emphasis on the takeoff, finesse, and form, has vastly different physical demands than those inherent in the shot put or the javelin.

Decathlon; Fitness; Muscle fibers: Fast and slow twitch.

SEE ALSO

Curling Curling is a sport that is played on a sheet of ice. Long a popular wintertime sport in northern countries such as Canada (it is the official sport of the province of Saskatchewan), Sweden, Norway, Scotland, Switzerland, Denmark, Scandinavia, and the United States, it has become global and is now played in Japan, China, New Zealand, and Korea. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CURLING

Brushes sweep the ice in front of a stone during the 2005 European Curling Championship. P H OTO B Y SA NDR A BE HN E/ BON G ART S/ GE TTY IMAGES.

Curling has been a medal sport at the Winter Olympics since 1998. Curling involves the controlled release and aim of heavy granite stones toward a target located at the other end of the ice (which, in the parlance of the sport, is called a ‘‘sheet’’). Two teams of four alternately each ‘‘curls’’ their allotted two stones at the target. During the period of time when each team delivers the total of eight stones (called an ‘‘end’’), team strategy can shift from trying to guide a stone nearest to the bulls-eye of the target (the house) to attempting to hit and remove the stones of the opposition. Depending on the number of stones nearest the target, a team can store no, one, or several points in an end. The object of curling is to outscore the opponent at the conclusion of the even number of ends (typically eight or ten). Curling dates back centuries. It may have begun in Scotland in the sixteenth century, or even earlier, in the Netherlands. By the seventeenth century, the sport was an active part of Scottish wintertime sports. Canada’s curling roots are just as deep. Indeed, the first organized sporting club in North America is the Royal Montreal Curling Club, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

which was founded in 1907. Just 25 years later, the first curling club was formed 1932 in the United States. One of the unique aspects of curling concerns the playing surface. While hockey and figure skating also take place on ice, the nature of the surface is much different in curling. Because an important facet of the sport is the ability to control the movement of the curling stones, the ice is specially treated to provide friction. This is done by spraying a mist of water over the solid ice surface. The spray freezes to create a pebbled texture. In contrast, the ice surface for skating and hockey is designed to be as smooth and frictionless as possible. As a curling match progresses, the ice pebbles are worn down by the stones. This changes the character of the ice during the match, which in turn alters the movement of the curling stones. Having to adjust to these changing conditions provides another challenge for the curlers. The ice sheet used for a curling match is 146 ft (45.5 m) long, almost as long as a conventional hockey rink, but at 14 ft 2 in (4.3 m) it is only about a third the width of the hockey surface. Indeed, in a

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curling tournament such as occurs at the Olympics, three ice sheets can be placed on the ice surface. Part of the appeal of a curling tournament (called a bonspiel) is being able to see three matches in progress simultaneously. The object of curling is to aim the stones to the center of the house. An ice sheet contains two houses, near each end (this allows play to be shifted from one end of the ice to the other end as the ice deteriorates). The bull’s-eye of each house is centered by a line drawn down the middle of the sheet. Two other lines called ‘‘hog lines’’ are drawn at a right angle to the center line. Each hog line is located 37 ft (11.3 m) from each end of the sheet. To score a point, a rock delivered from one end of the sheet must cross the hog line at the other end. If it does not, it is removed from play. A granite curling stone is heavy. At a maximum of 44 lb (20 kg), it is difficult to manipulate. To deliver the stone, a curler holds onto a handle positioned on top of the rock and then, by lifting the rock slightly as they push off from a foot-stop (the ‘‘hack’’), the curler slides forward and gently releases the stone. The release, which has to occur before the nearest hog line, is often accompanied by a gentle twist of the handle, which spins the stone. It is this spin that will cause the stone to move in the direction of the spin as the stone slows and the small portion of the concave underside that actually contacts the ice is affected by the pebbly ice surface. As the stone moves down the sheet, the ice in front of it can be kept clear of debris by two of the team members (usually the ‘‘lead’’ and ‘‘second’’) who sweep the ice. Originally, brooms were used for this function. Now, specialized brushes are used. All four members of a team curl stones. Each member has two attempts in each end. They curl in a defined order; the lead, second, third (also called the ‘‘vice,’’ or the ‘‘mate’’), and the ‘‘skip’’ (who is in charge of the squad and literally calls the shots). The last stone delivered (the ‘‘hammer’’) alternates between the two teams with each end. The ability to accurately deliver the heavy curling stone to within inches of the intended target requires great skill and makes curling exciting to watch. Furthermore, in each end of a match, the constantly shifting strategy as different combinations and locations of stones occur add another dimension to the sport.

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Curve ball

SEE

Baseball curve ball

Cycling Next to the various forms of competitive running, cycling is the most popular sport in the world where the human body provides propulsion power. The bicycle has captured the imagination of great thinkers and the mass of humanity alike for hundreds of years, commencing with the designs of the Renaissance scientist and thinker Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). The first truly functional two-wheeled machines were developed in Europe in the early 1800s, usually built with a large front wheel to overcome the absence of a gearing system to assist with the efficient delivery of power to the wheels. Bicycle technology grew quickly through the mid-1800s, and the first bicycle race was organized in France in 1868 in response to the rising popularity of cycling. The development of simple gearing systems, which made hill climbing and greater speeds more readily attainable, was followed by the advent of mass-produced bicycles. The twentieth century saw the introduction of rubber inflatable tires and the invention that made multi-geared bicycle systems a reality. Paul de Vivie (1853-1930), known by the evocative name Velocio, invented the first functional derailleur, which refers to the assembly of bicycle chain, sprockets, and supporting mechanism to move the chain between sprockets and therefore create multiple gearing. Bicycle racing on the roads began in earnest in 1903 with the inaugural Tour de France, an annual event that is contested on a demanding race course that loops through the regions of France. The Tour is the most famous bicycle race in the world, and the desire of cyclists to succeed in the Tour de France and the other European races that followed it spurred further technological developments in cycling. Frames became lighter, as first aluminum (in 1977) and later, carbon fiber composite frames, made the bicycles faster. The gears, handle bars, and other components also became more aerodynamic and efficient. The birth of the universally popular mountain bike is very difficult to pinpoint; there have long existed bicycle enthusiasts prepared to ride their machines over rough and difficult terrain. In California in the 1970s, there slowly grew a bicycling community that rode some of the uneven trails of the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CYCLING

Sierra Mountains on modified, heavy-framed bicycles that could absorb a significant pounding. In the 1980s, the mountain bike became a recognized cycling form, as these machines also became lighter, stronger, and more maneuverable. With the insertion of both front and rear wheel shock absorbers, the mountain bike became a very durable and relatively speedy vehicle. Mountain bike racing itself grew into a world event, with a first inclusion in the Summer Olympics in 1996. A third form of bicycle racing grew directly from the development of the road-racing bicycles in the early 1900s. The ‘‘velodrome’’ is a specially designed indoor oval circuit, typically 330 yd (300 m) in length, on which bicycle racers compete in a number of different formats. The velodrome became a prominent bicycle-racing venue in the early part of the twentieth century. These contests differed from the road races as they tended to be shorter, sprint races, often conducted as a time trial as opposed to the declaration of the race winner as the first racer past the finish line. The three types of bicycle racing have been precisely codified into separate disciplines; the tactics and the training associated with each is sufficient to permit each a designation as a separate sport, as opposed to existing as a subset of the sport of cycling. All types of bicycle racing are conducted at various times in most regions of the world; the Olympic Games is the only venue where all three disciplines are contested at one time. Road racing, of which the Tour de France is the most famous example, is today the preserve of yearround professional athletes. The most notable rivals of the Tour for international prestige are the Giro d’Italia and the Tour of Spain. Each of these races has individual and team components, in which the event is divided into segments referred to as stages; the overall individual champion is the rider who finishes the entire course in the shortest aggregate time. The winner of the Tour de France is regarded as a true international sports hero, and the race encourages a dynastic quality in its champions; since 1969, Eddie Mercyx (Belgium, five victories), Miguel Indurain (Spain, five victories), Greg Lemond (United States, three victories), and Lance Armstrong (United States, seven victories) are examples of this multi-year superiority. Road races that are conducted in one-day formats, as opposed to stages, are held either as a mass start, also referred to as an inline road race, or as a time trial. As the name suggests, the mass start involves the WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

racers heading off from the starting line in a pack; the combination of riders attempting to secure a better position, acceleration, and inevitable collisions often results in falls near the start. A time trial is conducted with each rider starting in 1.5-minute intervals. The winner is not the first to cross the finish line, but the rider with the best overall time. Both types of road racing are contested at the Olympics; a Tour de France-style multi-day stage race is not. The Olympic road-racing distances consist of mass start and time trial types of races. In the case of the mass start, the race is a number of circuits of a city road course; male competitors race between 135 mi and 150 mi (210 km and 240 km); women race between 50 mi and 75 mi (80 km and 126 km). The time trials type of race has more of what cyclists refer to as a sprint element; men race on a course between 28 mi and 34 mi (45 km and 55 km) long; the women race on a course that is between 15 mi and 21 mi (25 km and 35 km) long. Mountain biking is also a men’s and a women’s competition at the Olympics. The race course comprises a number of circuits, often with dramatic changes in elevation; falls and crashes are not uncommon. Track racing is the most varied of the Olympic cycling disciplines; it is common for an Olympic cyclist to race in a number of the distances provided for in velodrome racing. Velodromes are typically composed of a highly polished wooden track, two 180 -banked turns, and two connecting straights. Velodromes may vary in length; the Olympic velodrome at Athens used for the 2004 Games was 800 ft (250 m) long and 22 ft (7 m) wide. The best-known forms of track racing include the individual and team pursuit racing, the time trial, and the match sprint. In individual and team pursuit racing, the racers start at opposite sides of the track. This form of racing does not permit a standard cycling tactic, known as drafting. Drafting is the technique used in sports (auto racing is a prominent example) in which an opponent in the lead generates a wake in the air that results in a partial vacuum being created in the air behind the opponent. Cyclists will position themselves as close as they can to the rear wheel of the leading athlete to take advantage of the reduced air resistance of the vacuum as well as the minor drag of the air being pulled by the opponent. At an opportune moment, the trailing cyclist will accelerate to ‘‘slingshot’’ themselves past the leader. In a time trial event, the racer competes against the clock. In the match sprint, two racers simultaneously start on the track, with the first 875 yd (800 m) a slow jockeying for position, and the

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Mountain cycling race courses comprise a number of circuits, often with dramatic changes in elevation. Falls and crashes are not uncommon. ª S . AN D RE AS /Z E FA /CO RBI S

final 218 yd (200 m) a sprint for the finish. Tactics and position on the banked track are of critical importance in this form of racing. The training programs employed by all cyclists have a number of common features, given that the dynamics of powering a bicycle are essentially the same for a road, mountain, or track bicycle. An important aspect of any cyclist’s month-to-month training is a program of stretching and calisthenics, often accompanied by yoga or a Pilates program, to both increase flexibility and to assist with recovery from the rigors of long races. However, sprint racers will often add plyometrics exercises to assist in developing more explosiveness in the quadriceps and calf muscles. Mountain bikers must utilize their upper arm strength to negotiate the obstacles presented by the terrain; these athletes derive a

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significant benefit from structured weight-training programs. Road racers have found that a weighttraining/resistance program directed at the abdomen, lumbar spine, and related muscle structures provides them with strength in the saddle in long daily cycles. All cyclists will develop a training system that will incorporate a form of interval training into the workout structure, in which the intensity of work, both sprinting-based and hill climbing, is performed in repeated segments of varying distance, time, and intensity. As with many sports, the increase in professional competition and the corresponding financial rewards led to the use of a variety of performance-enhancing substances by cyclists. Prior to the development of reliable drug testing procedures in the late 1980s, a number of Tour de France riders were injured or WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CYCLING

Lance Armstrong is one of only a few multi-year winners of the Tour de France.

killed due to heart failure caused by the combination of ingested chemical stimulants and the exertions of the race. Stimulant usage in cycling by way of amphetamines, used to assist riders in battling fatigue and keeping them alert, gave way to more subtle applications, including the naturally occurring ephedra, or ephedrine. The demands of long-distance cycling had posed an often ultimate test for even the most skilled and fit of road racers. Blood doping, in the form of transfusions of the cyclist’s own blood, had been experimented with by various cyclists in the late 1970s, prior to the practice being outlawed. The removal of blood from the body of the athlete, freezer storage of the extracted blood, and the reinfusion of the blood into the body in the week before a competition was a process known to increase red blood cells available to the body for better oxygen transportation during the activity. The physical transfusion carried with it a number of risks, including that of excessive blood clotting that might lead to stroke. In the 1980s, the hormone produced by the body to stimulate red blood cell production naturally, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

ª WOLFGAN G RA TTA Y/ REUT ERS / CORB IS

erythropoietin (EPO), was first synthesized. Additional EPO was naturally generated by an athlete who had red blood cells depleted through injury, or when the athlete was training at an altitude where the body required more red blood cells to combat the lack of oxygen. When EPO could be injected into the body, with the resultant creation of additional red blood cells, a startlingly effective performance enhancement was created. EPO is a certain method for improving oxygen capacity, especially when combined with vigorous training. It was banned as a supplement, along with other plasma-expanding drugs, by various international sport bodies, including the International Olympic Committee, in 1996. Controversies have swirled over the reputations of a number of international cyclists regarding their actual or presumed EPO use. One example was the Phonak cycling team, competitors in many of the leading European races, had four of its members test positive for EPO or related compounds between the 2003 and the 2005 seasons.

Cycling strength training and exercises; Endurance; Exercise and fluid replacement; Road rash.

SEE ALSO

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Bicycle chains connecting gear wheels.

ª R OYA LTY- FREE /CO RBIS

Cycling gears Cycling gears are circular discs with teeth around the circumference that are used to generate torque (rotating) motions on bicycles. The use of several gears on a bicycle provides a variety of gear ratios for peak efficiency or comfort for the cyclist. The gear ratio is the proportional relationship between the speed of rotation and the used gear. Particular gear ratios are used in consideration of the type of terrain that the cyclist is traversing and of the particular ability and style of the cyclist. For instance, it may be more efficient to use a higher gear when biking down a hill, but it may be better suited to switch to a medium gear when cycling on a flat path and to switch to a lower gear when cycling up another steep hill. In such cases, a lower gear will require the rider to pedal at a faster pace but with less force (forward motion). Conversely, a higher gear provides for a higher speed at a given pace, but necessitates a greater force be exerted by the cyclist. Different cyclists have different preferences for pace and pedaling force in various situations.

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The switching of gears increases or decreases a particular pace by changing the amount of resistance on those gears. Such gearing can affect how much or how little the cyclist’s leg muscles, heart muscle, and lungs are exercised. In addition, the more gearing available on a bicycle, the easier it is to find the best pace (what is often called cadence). The number of speeds a bicycle possesses can be calculated by multiplying the number of chain rings (type of gear located near pedals) by the number of the cogs (type of gear located near rear hub). For instance, a 27speed bicycle with three chain rings in the front and nine cogs in the rear has 27 possible gear ratios. A 3speed bike with one chain ring and three cogs has only three possible gear ratios. Some of the earliest bicycles, which are now considered single-speed or fixed-gear bicycles, had one chain ring in front and one cog centered around the rear hub, which multiplies into only one possible gear ratio. Power is transmitted primarily from the cyclist’s legs to the rear wheel through the pedals, crankset (metallic piece that connects a pedal to the frame), chain, and rear hub. A cyclist can produce only so much WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CYCLING INJURIES

power and, thus, cycle at only so much speed. Gearing allows the cyclist to optimize this restriction in power generation. That optimization occurs through the shifting mechanism mounted on or near the handlebars. It gives the cyclist the ability to choose which gears the chain uses. During the shifting of the gears, the chain moves up and down on a cassette (series of cogs) and between the chain rings, thus, allowing the cassette and chain rings to work in unison with the pedals. The type of shifters varies depending on the style of bicycle, such as off-road (mountain), hybrid (cross between mountain and racing), and on-road (racing). However, in almost all cases, cables are connected from the shift levers to the derailleur gears. Most bicycles use derailleur gears to change the gears. That is, when triggered by levers, derailleurs mechanically guide (derail) the chain—by pushing it closer to or further away from the bike’s frame—so that it moves the chain from one gear to another while minimizing any excess slack in the chain. Specifically, a cable from the right shift lever runs to the rear derailleur that controls the rear cassette around the hub of the rear wheel. The rear derailleur moves the chain across the cogs for the smaller, more precise, changes in gear ratios needed for most shifting. Another cable runs from the left shifter to the front derailleur that controls the front chain rings (large circular rings) near the pedals. The front derailleur moves the chain across the chain rings to alter the large changes in shifting. For instance, one shift in the front derailleur can quickly and efficiently change from a slow uphill climb to a fast downhill sprint. All bicycles work better and last longer when properly maintained. Cyclists should regularly maintain their bicycle by cleaning and lubricating exposed moving parts. Especially important are the cycling gears, which will last longer when the chain and gear mechanisms are cleaned and lubricated on a regular basis. Gears should also be regularly checked to assure that they are working properly and that cables and other related mechanisms are moving freely. Many simple bicycle repairs can be done by the cyclists, though most gear repairs should be performed by professional cycle mechanics. SEE ALSO

Cycling.

Cycling injuries In a sport that requires the participant to maneuver relatively fragile, lightweight machines at high WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

speeds, the injuries sustained by cyclists range from those caused by overexertion, to those incurred in dramatic, high-speed collisions, sustaining traumas that severely impair the cyclist’s health. All forms of bicycle racing carry the risk of an injury caused by the forces generated through the mechanics of pedaling a bicycle. Each of the three varieties of cycling racing creates a risk of injury specific to the event. Cycling racing may be one of road racing, which is conducted as either a singleday competition on a road course circuit, or as a multi-day stage race, such as the Tour de France. Road racing in either format places a premium on the athlete’s endurance, generating significant stresses on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, as the races may last from four to six hours in length per day. The races are often conducted in very warm or humid conditions. Road racing also requires an ability to generate shorter, very powerful bursts of energy to sprint for position or to climb hills. Road racers do not alter their posture on the bicycle from a seated position, except to stretch or, depending upon the technique employed, to sprint or to climb hills. Racers commonly find themselves in a group of riders, universally known as a peloton, which in an elite road race may be moving at speeds in excess of 25 mph (40 km/h). A single jostling between two riders in these circumstances can lead to a multiple bicycle/ racer collision. The riders may also be in close quarters as they descend hills sufficiently steep that the cyclists often achieve speeds of 60 mph (100 km/hour) or more. Mountain bike races typically take place on rugged outdoor trails and involve significant changes in elevation. High-speed collisions between the competitor and trees, rocks, and other natural obstructions are common: as an outdoor event contested in summer climates, heat, rain, and wind are all potential injury factors. Unlike the relatively smooth ride of a road-racing bicycle, the ride of a mountain bike generates significant forces upon the body of the racer. The rider is required to change position frequently, to both absorb the shocks of the ride and to achieve optimum aerodynamic effect when available. In terms of environmental impact upon the athlete, track racing is the most sterile form of cycling. Conducted in facilities known as velodromes, which are most often a covered or enclosed oval racing facility, the speed of the racers and the banked nature of the tracks create a physical risk for the athlete.

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particularly in the gastrocnemius (calf muscle) or the quadriceps (thigh muscle). Knee strains are often caused by either the repetitive nature of pedaling, or by tightness in the illiol band, which runs from the knee joint to the hip, due to muscle imbalances in the thigh. Tendonitis in both the patellar (knee cap) tendon and the Achilles tendon similarly result. Head injuries in cycling occur in two circumstances. Notwithstanding the speeds that cyclists achieve in competition, both through the application of their own muscle power and as a result of the effect of gravity in the descents on steep hills, many cyclists do not wear adequate helmet protection. The human head striking pavement or a fixed object such as a tree branch creates a serious risk of permanent injury or death for the rider. Similarly, the speed generated places the cyclist at risk of being struck in the face by flying insects that can cause damage to the skin or eyes. Given the amount of time spent outdoors, cycling also presents a greater than usual risk of overexposure to the sun.

Competitive bicyclist after a fall.

PH OTO B Y A LE XAN DE R

HA SS EN ST EIN /B ONG AR TS /G ET TY IMAG E S.

The cycling injuries that arise in all three types of competition are those that involve the skin, the legs, and the head. ‘‘Road rash’’ is the universal euphemism for the abrasion damage done to cyclists’ skin when they slide or are dragged along the riding surface on a fall. A common mechanism for this injury is a missed turn, causing the bicycle wheels to lose contact with the surface. The damage caused by road rash is often magnified due to foreign particles being forced into the surface of the skin, including road tar and oils, which can lead to infection. Leg injuries can occur to any of the muscles, tendons, or ligaments that are involved in the production of power or the resistance applied by the stroke of the pedal. Common leg injuries are muscle strains,

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Road racers are particularly vulnerable to heatinduced injuries, due to both the existing environmental factors, as well as their exposure to the reflective heat from paved road surfaces. Dehydration and a resultant loss of electrolytes essential to proper bodily functions is a risk in this aspect of the sport, which commonly lead to potential heat exhaustion or heat stroke. When the rider is consuming fluids, but is not attentive to sodium levels, the debilitating condition known as hyponatremia may occur. Mountain bikers are exposed to a considerably greater degree of force to be absorbed by their bodies through the contact between the bicycle and the terrain of the race course. Much of this force is absorbed in the hands, through the vibration of the handle bars, which can lead to a variety of strain injuries to the muscles ranging from those in the wrist to those in the shoulder. Mountain biking also presents a risk of contact with outdoor allergens such as poison ivy and poison oak. Successful track racing places a greater emphasis upon explosive leg action than either road or mountain bike racing. Injuries that often result from a single movement, such as Achilles tendon ruptures and hamstring tears, are more prevalent in track cycling.

Cycling; Exercise and fluid replacement; Heat exhaustion; Lower leg injuries; Muscle cramps; Road rash.

SEE ALSO

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CYCLING STRENGTH TRAINING AND EXERCISES

Cycling strength training and exercises Whether a cyclist competes as a road racer, a mountain biker, or as a velodrome (graduated oval track) sprint specialist, the mechanics of cycling have common features. The legs of the athlete are used to propel the bicycle, with the body in a primarily seated position. This repetitive physical action places similar demands upon the bodies of each type of cyclist, both with regard to the musculoskeletal structure as well as the energy-producing body systems. The development of both the cardiovascular and the cardiorespiratory systems are essential to the physical demands created in all forms of cycling. The ability of the athlete to most efficiently inhale and utilize oxygen, referred to as the ‘‘VO2max,’’ has long been understood as a key performance benchmark for cyclists; the more oxygen the cyclist can consume while working at peak effort, the more energy can be expended. Conversely, the sprint racer, whose primary energy system is the anaerobic system, builds aerobic capacity as a recovery tool, as greater endurance will permit the rider to maintain short intervals of intense effort more readily. To build short-term speed and hill-climbing ability, road racers and mountain bikers apply the principles of interval training used by runners and swimmers. The intervals are typically of varying distances and, in the case of hill training, of varying degrees of difficulty. The intervals are performed, with an appropriate rest period between (a common work-to-rest ratio is 1:3, or greater). Research studies confirm that road racing success is as dependent upon the ability to generate powerful intervals as it is upon long-distance endurance capabilities. It is thought that for elite racers, given the large portion of a race that may be spent riding in the pack, or peloton, where the dynamics of the large group of riders in cutting resistance make large portions of the race relatively easy. The ability to make an explosive, anaerobic burst will define success. Interval training that does not involve the bicycle is equally beneficial to the lungs and anaerobic system training; the body does not differentiate between the activities that draw upon it for energy, the body answers the demand. For this reason, hill running and interval running will improve the ability of the cyclist to utilize the anaerobic energy systems. Given the importance of the cardiovascular system to effective cycling, any other form of exercise in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

which the athlete is required to move against resistance will be of benefit. Distance running, the use of stair climbers, other elliptical training devices, and rowing machines all create a cardiovascular benefit that is immediately transferable to cycling. All cyclists have an interest in a lean physique. The greater the amount of excess weight carried on the bicycle, the greater the effort demanded to propel the greater mass. Larger body size will create a more significant degree of wind resistance for the rider, as well as an increase in the rolling resistance between the tires and the surface of the road. Cycling exercises will address the secondary purpose of optimum weight maintenance for these reasons. In addition to the exercise derived from the sport itself, cycling places a premium on the strength and flexibility of the legs. A strength and training emphasis is an important part of a balanced program that develops all leg muscles, as imbalances between thigh and calf, Achilles tendon, calf and foot, or quadriceps and hamstrings will ultimately lead to inflexibility and the greater likelihood of leg injury, especially when the cyclist attempts to move explosively. The potential for the body to be rather rigidly positioned in the saddle for lengthy periods creates a need for training exercises that will counter this effect. Stretching programs, both those dedicated to the leg muscles and joints, as well as whole body stretches, will help negate the stiffness typically generated by long periods of riding. More dynamic programs that both stretch the muscles and tissues as well as build strength include traditional calisthenics such as push ups, crunches, and squat exercises, yoga, and Pilates. Leg strength is essential to cycling success, but as with the muscles of the leg itself, an imbalance between the power of the leg muscles and the muscles of a cyclist’s upper body can lead to strain, especially in the lower abdomen and lower back structures, which must resist the downward forces generated by the pedal action of the cyclist on every stroke. Swimming is an exercise that emphasizes an overall body balance, particularly through the development of the upper back and shoulders, without placing an additional strain of the leg muscles that are consistently worked to a high level in cycling. Weight training is another proven effective measure to achieve balance between the upper and lower body capabilities of the cyclist. As large increases in body mass are counterproductive to the cyclist, routines that require relatively low weights and higher numbers of repetitions will tend to create the desired

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Cyclists in a training session during a rest-day of 2005 Tour de France.

JAVIE R S OR I ANO /A FP / GE TTY IMA G ES

effect. To ensure that the leg muscles are exposed to resistance in ranges of motion other than that of the bicycle, exercise machines such as the leg press and routines using low weight dumbbells such as lunges and squats are very effective.

cycling in the public consciousness that is even greater than the Boston Marathon occupies for marathon running.

Cycling; Diet; Endurance exercise; Exercise, high intensity.

SEE ALSO

Cycling: Tour de France The Tour de France, also known as the Tour, is the most famous and the most important cycling race in the world. The Tour has an association with

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The Tour de France was founded by Henri Desgrange (1865-1940) as a newspaper promotion; Desgrange stated then that his idea of a perfect Tour de France would be an event where only one rider finished. This sentiment has influenced the Tour and its legendary difficulty since its inception in 1903. The enduring appeal of the Tour de France is rooted in a combination of a national passion for cycling in both France and all other European countries, coupled with a tough, sometimes hellishly demanding race course that traverses every region of the nation during the three weeks of the competition. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CYCLING: TOUR DE FRANCE

The first Tour of 1903 was over 1,500 miles (2,500 km) in length, divided into only six segments. Racers were expected to ride their bicycles through the night, and none of the racing machines was equipped with more than a single gear. The first derailleur, the mechanical device that permits the bicycle chain to move freely between the rear wheel cogs of the bicycle to allow the rider to change gears, was only permitted for use on the Tour in 1937, despite having being invented by Tullio Campagnolo some years earlier. It is a testament to the appeal of the Tour de France that American Lance Armstrong, the unprecedented seven time Tour champion, is likely the best known modern day foreigner in France. The Tour de France is primarily contested as stage race, where the competition is divided into daily segments known as stages. In the 2006 Tour, the race consisted of 20 stages that represented a total distance of 2,230 miles (3,600 km). Most stages commence with a mass start, where all of the cyclists begin the stage at the same time. The winner of an individual stage wins a prize as well as a measure of acclaim, but the most important consequence of the cyclist’ performance day to day is their accumulated time from the beginning of the competition. The winner of the Tour de France is not required to succeed in an individual stage to win the event, although many dominant Tour champions win stage races. In addition to the daily stages, the Tour contains a number of time trial stages. Unlike the mass start of the regular stages, where the riders race as a group, the time trial is conducted as a battle between the individual racers and the clock. Each cyclist is sent from the start at intervals, and the cyclist will spend most of the trial racing either on their own or in the company of a limited number of racers, depending upon whether the racer either catches a cyclist who started the trial ahead of them or if they are caught by a racer who started the trial behind them. The time trial results of each racer form a part of their Tour totals. At the beginning of each day’s racing, the current leader of the Tour de France wears a distinctive yellow jersey, known in French as the maillot jaune to signify to both the other racers and the spectators on the route the identity of the current Tour leader. In recent years, the Tour de France has begun with a stage known as the prologue. As the Greek origins of the name suggest, a prologue is the introductory event to a larger production. The Tour prologue has been held in places other than France, with the course covered in the prologue not contiguous with the rest of the Tour route. The Tour has opened WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

with prologues in Germany and Ireland, with the cyclists, their gear, and all team personnel flying to the first French stage the next day. Prologues raced in such venues are a recognition by the Tour organizers that the race attracts passionate fan and spectator support in every place where its racers compete. The traditional final stage of the Tour de France is a segment that finishes along the Champs-Elyeeses, the famous thoroughfare in Paris. The Tour de France regular stage routes are further categorized in terms of the terrain over which they pass. Tour success is dependent upon a number of diverse factors, none of which is more important that the ability of the racer to conquer the infamous mountain stages that take the racers through demanding sections of the French Alps. The stages of the Tour are described by the general classification of flat, medium mountain, and mountain. The mountain passes through which the Tour course winds for between seven and 10 stages depending upon the route selected by the Tour organizers are so grueling that the outcome of most Tours will de decided by the ability of the racers to climb and to descend the mountains. The mountain climbs are so important to the ability of the racers to successfully complete the Tour that the race has a separate sub category, the ‘‘King of the Mountain,’’ a prize given to the rider who demonstrates the best climbing ability. Mountain climbs are graded on a scale of 1 through 4, plus the ‘‘hors’’ (other) category, with points awarded for the fastest time to reach each peak. The rider who is the King of Mountain wears their own distinctive jersey, in red polka dots. A grade 3 climb is a 5% grade for at least 3 miles (5 km); a grade 2 climb is a grade of 8.0 to 8.5% for 3 miles. A grade 1 climb is a longer climb, usually between 9 and 12 miles (15-20 km or more), at a grade of approximately 5%. The hors category are the most difficult climbs, as these involve an elevation change of at least 1,000 ft (300 m), over an average grade of at least 7% It is a daily battle for the racers to ingest enough food to have sufficient energy available to battle the racecourse. The average racer will expend approximately 10,000 calories per day in the mountain stages and between 6,000 and 7,000 calories in the flatter portions. It is a frequent occurrence for a rider to ‘‘bonk,’’ the North American slang for simply running out of energy mid stage. Each of the great champions of the Tour de France has been what the French cycling fans refer

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to as a rolleur. A rolleur is, an all round talent who can perform well in the more sprint like time trials, who can ride with the mass pack of the cyclists (the peloton) for 90 miles (150 km) or more in the flay stages, and who possesses the strength and the will to race through the mountains. Racing tactics and sophisticated equipment are an important aspect of Tour success, but the physiological characteristics of the rider will also dictate whether a racer will become a Tour champion. As with many sports, particularly endurance sports such as distance running, cycling is an activity in which any one can participate, without necessarily being competitive. The elite cyclist must first possess a particular physical structure that permits an optimum strength to weight ratio. The strength to weight ratio consideration is of even greater importance when the rider is moving their mass and that of the bicycle against the force of gravity on grades in the Tour mountain stages that exceed the steepest grades that a motorist will encounter on a typical paved North American roadway. The physiological testing conducted on several Tour de France champions in recent years offers significant support for what physical characteristics are necessary to succeed in this demanding race. Lance Armstrong participated in a series of examinations conducted by the Human Performance Laboratory at the University of Texas during the period in which he won seven Tour championships (1998-2005). The first test studied Armstrong’s strength to weight ratio. At a race weight of 162 lb (74 kg), Armstrong generated over 490 watts of power, more than any other cyclist tested, including the legendary Miguel Indurain (a five time Tour champion between 1991 and 1995), who had competed at a weight of 175 lb (81 kg). Indurain was noted for his remarkable resting pulse of less than 40 beats per minute. Armstrong was also found to have improved his VO2max levels, the amount of oxygen used by muscles for energy production during a set interval (usually 1 minute), by over 18% Armstrong’s oxygen capabilities were measured at 85 ml of oxygen per kilogram of muscle mass per minute (a superior, well trained athlete would likely never exceed a reading of 55 ml). Armstrong’s capabilities are all the more remarkable as he successfully battled testicular cancer that had spread to his lung in the years prior to his Tour de France success. The physiological testing of Armstrong also revealed evidence that his body had undergone an adaptation with respect to the distribution of fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers. It is an accepted physiological proposition that the

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Lance Armstrong cycles toward the finish line of the 2004 Tour de France. The Tour de France is one of the most grueling events in sport. ª JACKY N AE GE LEN /R EUTE RS/CO RB IS

proportion of fast twitch to slow twitch fibers is genetically determined in each person. Fast twitch fibers are those that are fired more rapidly by impulses provided a governing neuron; fast twitch fibers are essential to short intense muscular effort such as sprinting. Slow twitch fibers are the structures that power the muscles in endurance events such as Tour de France cycling. The testing of Armstrong suggested that his training regimen of daily cycling, between three and six hours per day for many years, had altered his slow twitch structure to a percentage of representing greater than 80% of his muscle mass. As a general proposition, the more slow twitch fiber present in the body, the better suited the athlete will be to endurance sports. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

CYCLING: WIND TUNNEL TESTING

Armstrong was also found to produce less lactic acid in his muscles, resulting in less disruption of his rhythm in his mountain climbs due to the discomfort of lactic acid formation. It is a testament to the intense physiological demands of the Tour de France that doping has exerted an influence throughout the Tour history. In the early days of the race, alcohol, ether, and other substances were commonly used by the riders to dull the pain of their exertions. In the 1960s, the use of performance enhancing amphetamines were common. British rider Tom Simpson died as a result of amphetamine use in the 1967 Tour. In the late 1990s, the doping focus in the Tour turned to the use of erythropoietin (EPO), the synthetic variety of the naturally occurring human hormone that stimulates red blood cell production. EPO consequently provides the user with a greater capacity to transport oxygen, a significant advantage in endurance sports such as cycling. Several cycling teams were implicated in EPO use, with a number of individual cyclists banned for EPO use. Armstrong was at the epicenter of various EPO allegations, although he has consistently denied using performance-enhancing drugs and has never been the subject of a real-time positive doping test. SEE ALSO Cycling; Cycling gears; Exhaustion; Physiology of exercise.

Cycling: Wind tunnel testing A wind tunnel is an apparatus used to determine the complex interactions between a high-speed, velocity-controlled stream of air and the forces exerted on a solid object. The movement of air around an object, whether it is an airplane, bicycle, automobile, or person, is considered aerodynamic flow. When wind tunnel tests are performed on bicycles, they help to optimize the cyclist’s position on the bicycle and to improve the aerodynamic design of bicycles, cycling equipment (such as bottles, wheels, helmets, and handlebars), and clothing. Thus, wind tunnels are important tools for maximizing performance in cyclists competing in such international bicycle races as the Tour de France.

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

The wind tunnel’s structure consists of a large chamber where giant motor-driven blades are positioned at one end in order to simulate air flows comparable to actual wind conditions. The floor consists of a huge aerodynamic balance, where the smallest movement imposed on the test object can be measured, recorded, and analyzed by instruments and computers. Such equipment provides a relative measure of aerodynamic efficiency. The path of the air stream around the bicycle and/or cyclist can be studied by generating smoke streams to make the airflow visible, attaching materials (such as ribbons) that flow with the wind’s direction, or using optical devices. Generally, a bicycle is secured on the floor of a wind tunnel with two struts—the front strut is attached to the hub of the front wheel and the rear strut is attached to the bicycle’s frame. During the test, the wind speed and direction are changed to provide an assortment of force and moment of inertia data. Results taken from wind tunnel tests have shown that only a minority of drag (about 30%) comes from the bike itself. The majority of drag (up to 70%) is due to the cyclist, primarily the position of the cyclist; the positioning of the cyclist’s hands, forearms, and shoulders; and the amount of time spent to reach the best aerodynamic position. Specifically, tests have shown that for best aerodynamic position the cyclist’s thumbs should be placed above the handlebar extensions and parallel with the road; forearms positioned parallel with the road; elbows in front of the knees; shoulders positioned low; and head positioned up and stationary. Wind tunnel tests also show how to aerodynamically design clothing and equipment such as shoe covers and helmets in order to minimize drag. Such tests show that for the least amount of drag, the air should remain attached to a rider as much as possible, especially on the trailing side of the hips. Based on wind tunnel results, manufacturers use various orientations and types of textures to control airflow over rider wearing skin-tight clothing (commonly called skinsuits). Technology has advanced to the point that many skinsuit fabrics are considered better than shaved skin for aerodynamic flow.

Cycling; Cycling gears; Cycling strength training and exercises; Cycling: Tour de France.

SEE ALSO

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D Adolph Dassler 11/3/1900–9/6/1978 GERMAN MANUFACTURER

Adolph ‘‘Adi’’ Dassler was one of the world’s first designers and manufacturers of specialized athletic shoes. The soccer shoes and track spikes made by Dassler in the 1920s became the foundation of the international sports shoe company Adidas. Dassler and his brother Rudolph ‘‘Rudi’’ Dassler founded the world’s first athletic shoe company, Gerbruder Dassler (Dassler Brothers) in 1924. In 1920, Adi Dassler, who was an enthusiastic soccer player, designed the first cleated soccer boot; he also devised the first spiked track shoes at that time. The initial Dassler athletic shoe manufacturing was done in the home of Dassler’s parents. The track shoes were very lightweight, with a thin-soled construction and a leather upper. These shoes were designed to be a snug fit, to permit the runner to obtain a maximum benefit from each stride, as the amount that the runner’s foot moved from side to side on impact was reduced through this design.

company to found Puma shoes, an organization that would ultimately rival that of Adi Dassler in Europe. Adi Dassler renamed his company Adidas, an acronym formed from his own name. Dassler also introduced the now famous three stripe Adidas logo at that time. Dassler continued to develop new kinds of athletic footwear. In 1949, he patented the Adidas soccer boot with removable rubber cleats. The cleats were fitted with a screw, and the cleat length could be adjusted for weather or field conditions. This technology was credited by the German national soccer team as playing an important role in their World Cup triumph in 1954. Adidas began to manufacture other sporting goods, particularly sports clothing, in the 1960s. Adidas has been the official supplier of FIFA soccer balls and the balls used at the World Cup since 1970.

The Dassler company achieved considerable renown among track and field athletes during this period. In 1936, Jesse Owens, the legendary American track star who won four gold medals at the Summer Olympics, wore track shoes manufactured by Dassler.

Dassler was an effective marketer of the Adidas brand; it became synonymous with sports shoes through the 1960s, and into the 1970s held as much as 70% of the lucrative North American sports shoe market. Many notable athletes, including four-time Olympic gold medalist Al Oerter and basketball legend Kareem Abdul-Jabbar wore Adidas shoes. Dassler’s death in 1978 triggered a series of internal battles at Adidas that saw the company lose a significant portion of its market to Nike.

The Dassler brothers abruptly ended their corporate partnership in 1948, when Rudi Dassler left the

SEE ALSO

WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

Basketball shoes; Soccer; Track and field.

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GEORGE DE MESTRAL

George de Mestral 6/19/1907–2/8/1990 SWISS TEXTILE COMPONENT DEVELOPER

In 1948, George de Mestral, the inventor of VELCRO, was inspired in the development of his creation when he observed how the burrs produced by woodland plants adhered to the surface of his pants and his dog’s coat. When de Mestral examined the burrs under a microscope, he was fascinated by the hooks that extended from the burr, forming a secure connection with the attached material. It was this observation that led de Mestral to conceive of a two-sided fastener for clothing, with one side constructed of a series of tiny hooks, designed to catch the opposite softer fabric surface. The name VELCRO was also de Mestral’s invention. He joined two words, velour, a plush woven fabric, and crochet, the type of knitting performed with a hooked needle. de Mestral patented VELCRO in 1955, and the product became very popular in a wide variety of applications. Beyond its original appeal as a device to fasten articles of clothing, VELCRO soon became used throughout industry performing a multitude of functions. VELCRO is now a part of such diverse processes as medical operations and the carry bags used to transport laptop computers. VELCRO has become a very important part of sports performance. VELCRO fasteners can be readily adjusted to any desired tension, making them important in such devices as ski boots, gloves and many types of outerwear. In events where the athlete must make a speedy transition from one element of the activity to the next, such as is required in the triathlon, the VELCRO fasteners can be opened or closed faster than any other design. The helmets used in sports such as hockey, football, and auto racing are adjusted in various places on the helmet shell to customize the fit of the helmet to the athlete’s head using VELCRO straps. Safety equipment such as landing mats in gymnastics and track and field are often secured with VELCRO VELCRO closures have played a particular role in youth sports, as they render running shoes easier to use for very young participants. While there are other manufacturers of similar fastening products, VELCRO is the generic name by which all such products are known. de Mestral was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1999.

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Triathlon; Women’s sport clothing and protective equipment; Youth Sports Performance.

SEE ALSO

Death spiral

SEE

Figure skating: The

death spiral

Decathlon The decathlon is a supreme test of all-around athleticism, the sport competition whose champion may claim the title ‘‘world’s greatest athlete.’’ The term is derived from two Greek words, deca, meaning ten, and athlon, signifying competition. Although there are decathlons held throughout the world on a regular basis (e.g., the annual Gotzis, Austria, competition and the biennial World Track and Field championships) the most significant elite contests, the Olympic decathlon event, possesses the most notable history. It is an irony of this sport that the almost superhuman abilities of world class decathletes are largely ignored by the international sports community in the four-year interval between each Olympics. The men’s decathlon is a ten-event discipline, conducted in five-event segments over a two-day period. The decathlon is designed as a test of all aspects of athleticism—speed, strength, power, agility, and endurance—all within the context of the traditional track and field disciplines. From the track component of athletics, the decathlon draws the 100-m sprint, the 110-m hurdles, and the 400-m and 1,500-m races. From the field aspect, the decathlon includes the shotput, the javelin, the discus, the pole vault, the high jump, and the long jump. The first day of competition begins with the 100-m sprint; the final event of the competition on the second day is the 1,500-m race. The equivalent multi-sport competition for women is the heptathlon, a seven-part competition consisting of 100-m, 200-m, and 800-m races, and the high jump, long jump, javelin, and shotput. The heptathlon is an enduring symbol of the more historically prevalent distinctions between male and female athletics competitions. As women now compete in every individual competition that comprises the decathlon, there is no physiological reason as to why there is not also a decathlon for women. The decathlon was first contested in the Olympics in 1912. The winner was the legendary American athlete Jim Thorpe (1887–1953), who later starred in WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DECATHLON

the fledging American football leagues that lead to the creation of the National Football League (NFL) in 1920. American Bob Mathias (Olympic champion 1948 and 1952) and Daley Thompson of Britain (1980 and 1984 champion) are the only men ever to win multiple Olympic decathlon gold medals, a testament to the demands of the decathlon. In its earliest incarnation, the decathlon scoring system was weighted in such a fashion that an athlete who dominated in two or three of the ten events would likely win the championship. The modern decathlon champion is determined through a scoring system that makes all events nominally equal in value, but where an athlete will be scored in accordance with his or her performance relative to the world standards at the time of the competition in the specific event. The athlete thus is scored by the relative quality of his or her performance, and not against the other athletes in the competition. The International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF), the governing organization of track and field, sets points totals for each event on an annual basis that are correlated to both the event as well as corresponding achievements in each of the other nine events.

The high jump is one of the ten events of the decathlon. PH OTO BY MAR K DA DSWELL/GE TTY IMA G ES.

The decathlon is the ultimate test of individual athleticism for a number of reasons. The nature of the ten events place stress on the aerobic energy system (the 1,500-m and the general stamina required to perform multiple events to a high standard over two days), the anaerobic lactic system (the 400-m race is the best example), and the anaerobic alactic system (the short intense generation of energy demanded in the 100-m and the high jump utilize this energy system). With events that require running, jumping, and throwing, each in more than one technique, every part of the musculoskeletal system is directly engaged at a high level in every competition. The decathlon also places a premium on both extreme muscular power, highly developed finesse, and hand-eye coordination. The pole vault and the shotput are prominent examples of decathlon disciplines where speed, power, and grace must be effectively combined. It is for this reason that, while decathletes have tended to be large men, relative to both the general male population as well as male track and field athletes generally, the decathlon is less typecast in the effective and successful physiques than many other sports. There have been very large, highly successful decathletes such as world champion Christian Schenk of Germany, who competed at a height of 6 ft 6 in (1.95 m), weighing 240 lb (110 kg). Mike Smith of Canada was an elite international competitor in the 1990s with a build similar to WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

that of Schenk. At the opposite end of the elite spectrum, world champions Robert Zmelik of the Czech Republic and American Dan O’Brien each reached the pinnacle of this sport standing less than 6 ft 2 in tall (1.85 m), and weight less than 210 lb (95 kg). Given the decathlon structure, with running, jumping, and throwing balanced, champion decathletes are strong and exceptionally well-coordinated individuals who can tolerate extreme physical training stresses. Preparation for the decathlon competition is similar to embarking on the ultimate cross training program. The athlete must practice the technical aspects of every event to a high standard; the best Olympic decathlete in any of the ten disciplines will possess a personal best in that element that is likely quite close to a world standard. For example, the world record in the 100-m sprint is approximately 9.8 seconds, and the winning competitor in this portion of the decathlon will run a time of close to 10.3 seconds. Not only will the training for these events impose significant demands on a competitor, the decathlete will be required to engage in weight training and other specific supplementary programs to ensure balance and total fitness.

Cardiovascular system; Cross training; Exercise recovery; Pentathlon (women’s).

SEE ALSO

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DECONDITIONING

Deconditioning On a general level, deconditioning is a gradual physiological process whereby the level of physical conditioning and corresponding physical performance ability of the individual is reduced. ‘‘Out of shape’’ is the common expression used to convey this meaning. On a more sport-specific level, deconditioning is sometimes used as a planned period of inactivity to achieve a specific physiological end. Two vastly different circumstances are the best examples of the deconditioning process. When astronauts and scientists work for extended periods in the manned stations that function in the weightless environment of space, the most common observable physical phenomenon in the space station inhabitants is a pronounced loss of muscle mass, reduced cardiovascular function, and reductions in bone density. The space stations have no facility where the residents can use their muscles against resistance, the counterforce required to build muscle. The decline in cardiovascular function stems from the same reason. The loss of physical fitness is unrelated to the otherwise sound nutritional practices observed by these space travelers. Persons who have been bedridden with an illness for a significant time are subject to the same types of physiological deterioration as the astronauts. Muscles that are inactive and that are not required to perform the usual baseline functions associated with posture and support of the musculoskeletal system will decline over time. The process of deconditioning as it applies to overall general fitness ranges from a decline from peak fitness to a loss of competitive fitness, to a sedentary, non-athletic life, to a physically reduced condition where previously healthy body functions are at risk in the face of stress of any kind. The natural athlete, who is not required to train to compete on a high level, is more myth than reality. There are individuals who are fortunate enough to have either superior genetics, such as a higher-thannormal base metabolic rates (BMR), or tend to stay more naturally slim than other persons. Certain individuals have other natural qualities, such as balance and hand-eye coordination, which are available for use in what are otherwise deconditioned bodies. The rules regarding the preservation of muscle structure, bone density, and cardiovascular fitness are dependent on the exercise of each of these essential bodily systems to maintain strength and fitness. Deconditioning often occurs as the result of a cycle that begins with an injury, when the athlete

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does not maintain a level of physical activity through the period of recovery. Although the period within which deconditioning will occur varies from athlete to athlete, a measurable loss of muscular and cardiovascular fitness will be observed in most athletes after a period of inactivity of 14 days or longer. After the inactive period, it is common for the athlete to return to training at a level similar to that which he or she was accustomed at the peak level. When this approach is adopted on the athlete’s return to training, the athlete is exposed to a greater risk of injury due to the reduced physical capabilities created by deconditioning. The new injury will often trigger a further spiral of inactivity and physical reduction. In such circumstances, the athlete must be firmly directed to return to training at a very reduced level in comparison to any previous training standards, to undertake a slow and steady rebuilding process. In bodybuilding and strength training, deconditioning is used in a strategic manner. Strength training principles with respect to the building of muscle mass are founded on the principle of overload, in which the muscles are sufficiently stressed to produce micro-tears in the muscle fiber as a result of regular workouts. The body will naturally repair this damage with the production of myoblasts, the muscle cells that form in the areas of cellular damage. The repair cells ultimately produce a bigger and stronger muscle. Strength training research suggests that when the athlete has worked in accordance with a focused strength program, a structured downtime period at the end of the training cycle, which may extend from approximately five to ten days, will prove beneficial to ultimate muscle gain. The muscles at the end of the scheduled deconditioning will retain all of the myoblasts produced by the body to repair the micro-tear tissue, while preserving the ability to sustain further tears to generate new myoblasts. Deconditioning has also proven beneficial in the control of heart arrhythmia in athletes. Arrhythmia is a condition that can cause heart rate to accelerate out of control, leading to heart failure and death if first aid—in the form of defibrillation—is not immediately available. Arrhythmia is a condition that is both genetic in origin as well as presenting as a factor contributing to the overdeveloped heart muscle wall observed in some elite-level athletes. Deconditioning periods of approximately nine weeks, followed by a gradual return to athletic training, have proven to reduce the incidence of arrhythmia reoccurrence. SEE ALSO

Fitness; Health; Longevity; Overtraining. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DELAYED ONSET MUSCLE SORENESS (DOMS)

Frank Deford 12/16/1938– AMERICAN SPORTS WRITER

Frank Deford is the most acclaimed sport writer and commentator of the modern era in the United States. Deford joined the staff of Sports Illustrated in 1962, after his graduation from Princeton University. He pioneered a writing style that was virtually unknown in the sports writing genre, the essay, in which the writer’s opinions concerning a sporting event were as prominent as the events themselves. Deford and his association with Sports Illustrated has produced a wealth of material that covers almost every imaginable aspect of American sport, including reporting on the impact of science and technology on sport. Deford has also reported on use of illegal substances by athletes, and how their actions impact larger issues for both sports and society. In 2006, Deford’s weekly columns in Sports Illustrated included opinions regarding the issue of steroid use in baseball, boxer Joe Louis and racial issues in boxing, and the end of Catholic school supremacy in college basketball. He has addressed issues that were both popular such as the World Series or the Super Bowl, as well as issues that are more obscure or esoteric. As was the case with H.L. Mencken, the legendary Baltimore newspaper columnist and commentator who was prolific in his writing between 1910 and 1948, Deford has created a definable style to his work, that has enhanced both Deford’s broad appeal and his longevity as a writer. Deford’s style is often tinged with humor and irony. He often is irreverent in the support of a particular point, as evidenced by his famous observation, ‘‘I believe that professional wrestling is clean—everything else is fixed.’’ Deford is also the most decorated American sports writer in history. He has been named Sportswriter of the Year on six occasions. Deford has also won an Emmy award for his work on television as a commentator. Deford has written 14 books, and he has appeared as commentary on National Public Radio in the United States. SEE ALSO

Football (American).

Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) Delayed muscle onset soreness (DOMS) is a well-known consequence of many forms of muscular activity. DOMS is a delayed reaction to exercise, WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

typically not experienced or observed for 12 hours or longer after a particular athletic event. DOMS is characterized by acute soreness in the muscles, often in conjunction with localized swelling. The most common type of DOMS is experienced when the athlete has participated vigorously in a new or an unaccustomed activity, for instance, the athlete participates in a 15-mi (25 km) run where the longest distance previously covered was 5 mi (8 km). DOMS is a part of the natural adaptive processes of the body to the new muscles stress to which the musculoskeletal system has been subjected. DOMS is most common when the activity requires the muscles to perform an eccentric contraction, where the muscles are subjected to a nervous system impulse to produce movement while the muscle is being extended away from the body. Running downhill, the delivery of a boxing punch, and movements such as pushups are classic examples of eccentric contractions. An unfamiliar eccentric contraction often produces a micro-tearing of the muscle fiber, which is the cause of both the subsequent pain and the related swelling. DOMS must be contrasted with other manifestations of muscle pain that occur as a result of exercise. Muscles that are sore immediately during or after an activity are typically the subject of simple muscle fatigue, often more pronounced due to the inability of the body to efficiently remove waste products generated as a part of cellular energy production from the muscle; lactate is an example of waste. Muscle cramps also have a separate cause from that of DOMS, and result of reduced fluid levels and a corresponding disruption in the optimal level of electrolytes—particularly sodium—within the body. Reduced levels of sodium impair the ability of nerve impulses to be transmitted into the muscle to regulate the firing of the appropriate neuron that provides the muscle fibers with the command to contract. This condition is readily corrected by rest and an infusion of fluids and electrolytes. In addition to the requisite degree of caution that an athlete should observe in the attempt at a new and strenuous exercise without appropriate conditioning, the risk of DOMS can be reduced through the implementation of a focused warm-up and cool-down regime. DOMS may persist for a period of days after its onset; exercise of the non-affected areas will help the athlete preserve a better level of fitness while the DOMS-afflicted muscles heal, as will gentle manipulation of the muscles through stretching and massage.

Cramps; Exhaustion; Muscle cramps; Musculoskeletal injuries; Sprains and strains.

SEE ALSO

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DIET

Diet In its technical sense, a diet is a food schedule that represents a disciplined pattern of consumption. Diets are created or designed to achieve a particular state of health, including larger or smaller body mass, higher or lower levels of intake of particular food types, or to regulate the intake of accompanying vitamins, minerals, or other supplements to improve physical performance. Diet has both broader and deeper meanings in its use by both the general population and athletes alike. The expression ‘‘you are what you eat’’ is one with which everyone can identify. Technical aspects aside, a diet is both the checklist as well as the yardstick to determine how the body’s essential systems perform on the fuels provided. The quantity of a diet and its quality are measured in different ways. Quantity is determined by the number of calories contained in the total foods consumed. In physics, a calorie is defined as the unit of measurement that represents the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1  C; for dietary calculations, a calorie is 1 kilocalorie, or 1,000 calories. The dietary calorie is best understood with reference to what it represents. The most familiar comparison to quantify the dietary caloric measure is that 1 lb (2.2 kg) of excess fat on the human body represents 3,500 calories of either food intake or required energy expenditure. All foods are capable of being measured by their caloric value, because all foods will be converted by digestion into a form of energy, whether the substance enters the body as a carbohydrate, a protein, or a fat. When a diet is set out in writing, it will refer to both the size of the food product to be consumed, as well as its corresponding caloric value. The greater or smaller the portion of the food consumed will determine the proportionate calculation of the number of calories in the particular diet. The number of calories represented by the diet is of importance is determining whether the amount of energy available through the diet will sustain an athlete through the workouts and competitions. If a body has too little fuel available through food consumption, it will either resort to converting fat or protein stores into energy, which are not efficient processes, or the body will simply not be able to perform as intended. When the calories represent the quantity of the fuel available to the body, the components of the diet will represent the fuel quality: all calories, for the purpose of optimum human health and athletic

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performance, are not of equal value. All diets are composed of three general types of foods: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The proportion of each of these components in a diet is critical in the achievement of general health, as well as the specific desired benefits to enable an athlete to perform in a particular discipline that itself places specific demands on the body. Carbohydrates are broadly understood as the fuel used to power the body, both in its muscular movements as well as its nervous system, cardiovascular system, and organ function. Carbohydrates are the compounds found in many forms of plant life that are a byproduct of photosynthesis, the reaction between sunlight and the plant structure. Carbohydrates are generically classed as sugars, and they are typically divided into three subcategories: simple sugars, or monosaccharides, of which glucose is an example, so called because they possess a simple carbon/hydrogen/oxygen structure; double sugars, or disaccharides, such as sucrose; and complex sugars, also referred to as starch, known as polysaccharides, which are stored in the body for future energy uses as glycogen in both the liver and the skeletal muscles. Glycogen, reduced to glucose, is the product used by the body to create adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the ultimate fuel product converted to muscular energy. The most prevalent sources of carbohydrates typically found in the human diet are those derived from plant sources in their natural or harvested state, such as potatoes, grains, fruits, and vegetables, as well as those plant sources that are processed or refined into food products, such as bread, pastas, and all sugar products. In the typical diet of a healthy adult person, carbohydrates will form approximately 60-65% of the daily total caloric intake. Proteins are nitrogen-based molecules that are closely related to the body-building compounds known as amino acids. Proteins are essential to the building, maintenance, and repair of all muscles in the body. While protein can be utilized as a source of energy, it is inferior to both carbohydrate and fat supplies in this regard. Proteins are found in a number of food sources, the best known of which are animal meats, soy beans, and its derivatives, and dairy products. The body generally requires 12-15% of its diet as proteins. Fats are the third component of the diet structure. The term fat has a highly negative connotation in popular culture, as dietary fats are equated with the excess fatty tissue acquired in the human body when the output of calories, through exercise, is less than the caloric value of the foods consumed. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DIET

fats consumed for the purposes of diet are defined as organic compounds that are constructed in various combinations of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen molecules. Fats are a highly concentrated and inefficient source of bodily energy that are present in numerous foods, and are subdivided into two types. Saturated fats are those that are consumed primarily through animal meats, and excess consumption of animal fats in diet will often lead to a corresponding excess of cholesterol present in the body. Cholesterol is a type of fat known as low density lipoproteins (LDLs), which in excess amounts are a known inhibitor of good cardiovascular function. Unsaturated fats are found predominately in plants and fish products. Unsaturated fats contain high density lipoproteins (HDLs), which are a key to healthy cardiovascular function. The body extracts, or otherwise converts, some available fats into fatty acids, which play a vital role in the ability of the body to absorb and metabolize certain fat-soluble vitamins such as A and E, which are essential to healthy human function. The best known of these ‘‘healthy fats’’ is omega-3, which is found in salmon and tuna oils. Another form of fatty acid, trans fatty acid, or trans fat, is commonly found in fried foods made with vegetable oils and commercially prepared baked goods; trans fat has a negative effect on the cardiovascular system as it is believed to contribute to the clogging of arteries. A healthy diet, which is often referred to as a balanced diet, will not usually exceed 30% fat. In addition to an appropriate caloric value, suitable to the energy required by a person, and a balanced diet, certain food agents are desirable additions to assist with the digestion and the processing of the food consumed. Fiber (also known as roughage) is the term used to describe the food component that is desired not for its caloric or other nutritional value, but as a digestive aid. It cannot be processed for energy by the body, and fiber therefore does not have a caloric value. Foods such as apples, beans, and corn and other plants possess high amounts of soluble fiber, which assist slowing the digestive process and permitting nutrients to be better absorbed; insoluble fibers, present in foods such wheat and oat bran, make the elimination of solid wastes from the body easier by adding bulk to the waste products. Another essential aspect of diet that is not related to the caloric value of the food are the dietary vitamins and minerals consumed through food. As with fiber, vitamins and minerals are not a part of the energy sources, as the body does not convert WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

them in the fashion that carbohydrates are converted. Vitamins and minerals are commonly regarded as an interchangeable nutritional package; they are separately defined components of diet, that often work together to enhance health. Vitamins are a group of substances that are of critical importance to the body’s metabolism (the creation and processing of stored energy); vitamins are also an integral part of the growth and maintenance of the musculoskeletal system, as well as the prevention of disease. There are 13 vitamins that are essential to optimal human function, each referenced by a letter: vitamin A, the vitamin B complex (a grouping of eight separate but related compounds), and vitamins C, D, E, and K. All vitamins, with the exception of D and K, are obtained through diet; vitamins D and K are the products of synthesis within the body, a process that indirectly requires proper nutrition to occur. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat soluble, which require free fatty acids to facilitate storage and which will be absorbed into the body systems to function as required. The remainder of the necessary vitamins is water soluble, permitting absorption directly into the bloodstream through the digestive process and the working of the small intestine. Water-soluble vitamins are not stored within the body and each must be consumed on a daily basis. Minerals are inorganic substances found naturally in the earth; the name is derived from the ability to mine the substances underground. Minerals entering the body through foods are in some instances elements in their pure form as found in the periodic table; other minerals are elements in compound form. The most common example is table salt, or sodium chloride; sodium is the mineral required for the proper function of a number of the body’s systems. There are many minerals required to achieve optimum human function. The most important minerals are calcium (also, the most plentiful mineral in the body, essential to bones, teeth, the transmission of nerve impulses, and muscle function), sodium (which assists in the regulation of blood volume and related blood pressure), and potassium (known as an electrolyte, critical to athletic performance and essential to general body development and growth). An example of the chemical partnerships formed in the maintenance of the body is the relationship between vitamin D and calcium, which are interdependent in the formation of bones. Mineral stores can become quickly depleted through the stresses placed upon the human systems through exercise. A reduction in mineral levels cannot be compensated by way of assistance from

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of the amount of protein consumed. Given the body of each individual athlete may pose variations from the expected dietary requirements, two athletes on the same training program may have slightly different patterns of food consumption. Dietary supplements are commonly consumed by athletes to ensure that the proper daily nutritional requirements are met. Numerous investigations into the relative ability of the body to absorb vitamins and minerals from food versus pill or powdered supplements suggest that these nutrients are best ingested from food; for water-soluble nutrients, it is very difficult to ingest sufficient amounts in any fashion that poses a danger of overload, as the excess amount is passed out of the system. There is a risk presented from the over-consumption of fat-soluble nutrients: excess consumption of vitamin D may lead to the formation of calcium-composed kidney stones.

Carbohydrates; Fat intake; Protein supplements; Sport nutrition.

SEE ALSO

Diet, behavior modification The food pyramid.

ª GA BE P ALM ER /COR BI S

internal body processes. Mineral shortages can be addressed to a significant degree with the consumption of energy drinks during competition, and by way of supplements consumed as a regular part of diet. While the approximately 60% carbohydrate to 15% protein to 25% fat dietary ratio, together with optimum fiber, vitamin, and mineral consumption, will support a typical healthy adult, there are a multitude of dietary variations used to achieve specific athletic purposes. The low carbohydrate diets advanced for weight loss purposes and often popularized in the media are usually an unsuitable dietary basis for serious athletic training programs. Carbohydrates are the prime food source for the ultimate production of muscular energy; if the ratio of carbohydrates were significantly reduced in an athlete’s diet, the body would be required to seek energy production from either proteins or fats. Neither of these groups is as efficient in the production of ATP as is carbohydrate-derived glucose. In the specialized circumstances of elite performance, diet components can be strictly analyzed and adjusted for optimal athletic benefit. As an example, a weight training program aimed at building a greater degree of muscle mass might result in an adjustment

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Dietary habits are a complex amalgam of personal preference, ingrained custom, and societal influences. The modification of behaviors in relation to the pattern of food consumption is an intricate process, as these diverse factors are not readily addressed with one dietary tactic or approach. Diet is both the summary of the foods consumed by an individual, as well as the actual or predicted schedule of such consumption. When constructed in advance of any ingestion of food, the diet is a planning and organizational tool: athletes, persons with restrictions regarding food allergies or medication, or persons endeavoring to either gain or to lose weight employ diet in this fashion. When used as a review of precisely what a person may have consumed over a designated period, a diet is an analytical device, where past consumption can be compared to physical or performance changes noted in the body. For these reasons, diet is a powerful tool for the modification of behavior. The most common desired form of behavior modification in relation to food is the curbing of overeating and resultant obesity. The most straightforward method of weight reduction is based upon simple physics—if human caloric output exceeds caloric intake (where activity/exercise energy demands are greater than the food energy consumed), the human body will lose mass, because it must convert mass into energy. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DIETARY SUPPLEMENT HEALTH AND EDUCATION ACT, 1994

As with many simple, direct solutions, diet quantity restrictions alone have proven to be generally unsuccessful in controlling excess weight, especially over an indefinite period. A simple diet that proposes to reduce 500 calories per day will not succeed in a vacuum; the societal pressure to eat, as evidenced by the appearance of mass-marketed and sometimes unhealthy food choices, makes the maintenance of the required willpower to unilaterally cut back on food consumption a very difficult task for many people. Further, even those persons who have previously reduced weight in this fashion often discover their eating habits to have been only temporarily modified. This incomplete behavioral change often results in a ‘‘yo-yo’’ dieting scenario, where excess body mass is gained and lost on a number of occasions. A yo-yo weight gain and weight loss places significant additional stresses on the musculoskeletal structure. Initiatives to build a better diet must be supported by one or more additional behavior modifiers. These include exercising, maintaining a food diary, creating a list of foods to avoid, and counting calories. Exercise is key, especially those activities that require elements of endurance exercise, in increments of at least 30 minutes per day, four times per week. Endurance exercise, which utilizes the aerobic energy system to power the body during the activity, tends to have both higher energy requirements as well as providing a metabolic ‘‘afterglow,’’ where the body will experience an increase in its resting metabolic rate, meaning more energy will be consumed at rest. Within a food diary, individuals record the types and quantities of food consumed. These records serve to reinforce good dietary habits as well as provide a reference point on a review of the diet progress. Also, it can help individuals identify foods that stimulate excess appetite so that they can avoid them. Finally, it is important to count the calories both anticipated in a scheduled diet, as well as those actually consumed. Most national food guides and other nutritional sources provide accurate information as to the caloric value of foods, by portion size. The principles of behavior modification in relation to diet apply to all persons seeking a definable physical result in the performance of their bodies. Athletes who are outwardly very lean and fit, especially in aerobic sports where the body’s energy is derived from the consumption of carbohydrates, can fall into poor dietary practices and not be aware of WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

certain vitamin and mineral deficits based on their weight or body shape alone. For the athlete, it is sluggish performance, or a corresponding desire to improve performance, that will provide incentive to modify dietary behavior. Athletes and less active people also share the temptation to seek out a quick fix to their dietary concerns, often in the form of a supplement. For the athlete, the supplement may be vitamins, minerals, or weight-gaining, protein-type additives such as creatine. For the weight-loss person, there are numerous so-called diet or weight-loss formulas. Research into the efficacy of weight-loss formulas confirms that a broad-based modification of diet behavior is a far better long-term solution, as the modification is being made with the body’s well understood and natural mechanism, food. Appetite suppressants are sometimes employed by people who wish to lose weight on a long-term basis, as well as athletes such as boxers and jockeys, who must intermittently qualify for competition in a specific weight category. Such suppressants, which are often significant amounts of caffeine or other stimulants, are the antithesis of a modified behavior, representing an ultimately short-term solution to an ongoing dietary problem.

Dietary supplements; Fat oxidation; Free fatty acids in the blood; Metabolic response.

SEE ALSO

Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act, 1994 The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) was passed by into law by the Congress of the United States in 1994. The Act was itself the product of a long period of intense lobbying by both the broadly based nutritional supplements industry as well as a number of American consumer groups, whose goal was to have established a consistent legal framework for the regulation of the dietary supplement industry. It is believed that members of Congress received as much constituent commentary about the need to pass the proposed DSHEA as it did regarding any other national legislation at the time. The Act references indicators of this intense public interest, citing American surveys that determined that almost 50% of then 260 million citizens regularly consumed dietary supplements, including vitamins, minerals, or herbal products.

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DIETARY SUPPLEMENT HEALTH AND EDUCATION ACT, 1994

Dietary supplements had been a part of the American commercial food industry for decades prior to the passage of the DSHEA. In the 1938 predecessor to the DSHEA, the Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act, dietary supplements were generally regarded as ‘‘foods for special dietary use,’’ but the definitions employed in the 1938 law did not contemplate many of the modern supplements. For this reason, many forms of dietary supplements occupied a legislative netherworld until 1994, as they were not regulated food additives, such as coloring or tenderizing compounds, nor were they perceived as drugs, those substances used as medicines or as narcotics. Prior to 1994, many dietary supplements were regulated as pharmaceuticals by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This federal government agency had assumed responsibility for dietary supplement regulation by advancing the position that all supplements without a defined nutritional value were a food additive, and were to be regulated as such. The industry and consumers desired legislation that created a clear division between prescription drugs and dietary supplements. There were other societal factors that impacted upon the development and the passage of the DSHEA. American society, in step with most others in the Western world, was increasingly affected by the speed of change in all aspects of life. The lack of time available to many American citizens to prepare food in the home had, in part, contributed to the development of the sprawling fast food industry. The prevalence of relatively high-fat, low-nutrient fast food products sparked concerns regarding the nutritional needs of Americans, which in turn contributed to the desire to remedy dietary deficiencies with readily available supplements. The preamble to the DSHEA sets out many of the findings of the U.S. Congress that supported the enactment of a comprehensive dietary supplement law. The first of the key Congressional determinations in support of the legislation was that the weight of current scientific research underscored the importance of nutrition and dietary supplements in the general promotion of good health and disease prevention in the United States. The preamble also identified the proven linkages between the ingestion of certain dietary supplements and the prevention of chronic diseases such as cancer. Congress stated that healthful diets may mitigate the need of expensive medical procedures (when the DHSEA was passed in 1994, the United States was estimated to spend over one trillion dollars on health care, approximately 12% of its gross national product,

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with increases in this amount forecast if efforts such as the promotion of health were not successful). Congress also stressed the fact that American consumers were placing an increasing reliance upon non-traditional health care providers. Further, it was clear that consumers were taking a far greater degree of initiative in personal health care, through their own decisions concerning the use of appropriate dietary supplements. The legislative preamble also noted the economic aspects of the dietary supplements legislation. In 1994, the dietary supplements industry represented an integral part of the economy of the United States, with a positive balance of trade generated in a multibillion dollar industry. The industry required a proper balance between regulation of its activities and the ability of its members to effectively market and distribute its products. In an overarching manner, Congress also recognized in the preamble that dietary supplements had been determined to be safe for use in a broad range of circumstances, and safety concerns expressed about such products by members of the public were relatively rare. Many states created high-profile task forces or agencies to coordinate health and wellness issues at a state level, in the wake of the DHSEA. The New York State Taskforce of Life and the Law is one such example. As passed by Congress, the DSHEA balanced the continued availability of a very broad range of safe, high-quality dietary supplements, consumer access to better, more complete information about the products, and governmental enforcement. The first portion of the legislation seeks to clearly define the term dietary supplement. This term had been used interchangeably with expressions such as nutritional supplements, vitamin supplements, and protein supplements. The legislation defines a dietary supplement as a product, other than tobacco, that supplements the diet, containing either alone or in combination one of the following components: vitamins, minerals, herbs, amino acids, or any concentrates or extracts of these substances. Vitamins are a broad group of naturally occurring substances that enhance human function, growth, and development. Minerals, the naturally occurring elements required for the function of many body systems, are often consumed in combination with vitamins, as the function of some minerals is dependent upon the presence of a specific vitamin. The WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS

relationship between the mineral calcium and vitamin D is an example. Herbs or other botanical products may be dietary supplements either in their natural state or as extracts added to a supplement. Amino acids are the chemicals that function as the building blocks within the body to form proteins, essential to muscle development. The DSHEA also defines any product to be a dietary supplement that is not represented to be the sole meal in any diet or when the product is labeled as a dietary supplement, to meet the definition. The definitions also provide that a dietary supplement shall be deemed to be a food (as opposed to a drug), for the purposes of the DSHEA. The DSHEA set out its definitions of how a dietary supplement could be ingested. Powder forms, gels, gel capsules, and tablets were all permitted as forms of these products. In addressing the consumer protection aspects of the dietary supplement industry, the DSHEA provides a number of specific rules concerning the role of the FDA and the obligation upon the manufacturers of dietary supplements who make claims about the qualities of a supplement, and to properly label all products as to both the nature and the content of the package. With regard to the sale of a new product suspected of being a dangerous dietary supplement, the DHSEA establishes that the government, through the FDA, bears the burden of proof of establishing all such risks. The DHSEA permits manufacturers to use documentation such as academic articles or other publications or statements as to the value of the supplement, so long as the statements are not suggesting a medical treatment or cure may be affected through usage. Manufacturers are also required to list all ingredients and their quantities present as contained in a dietary supplement; failure to have 100% of the quantity of a stated ingredient or to otherwise misbrand or mislabel a product is an offense under the DSHEA. The DHSEA also provides for the enforcement of good manufacturing practices by the FDA among the members of the dietary supplement industry in the United States. The failure of a manufacturer to prepare, package, or store its products in reasonably safe conditions is a violation of the statute. The DSHEA sets out a mechanism by which the government may from time to time establish regulations to govern all aspects of the supervision of the manufacturing and distribution process. The dietary supplement industry has continued to grow since the enactment of DSHEA. As with many WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

aspects of government legislation, the legislative framework and the actual relationship between the industry, consumers, and government are not mirrored in real life. The FDA, while active in the monitoring of false or misleading claims about the efficacy of numerous products such as weight loss programs that often include a dietary supplement component, has initiated prosecutions regarding dietary supplements on an infrequent basis. The most notable instance was the FDA ban on the sale of ephedra in 2004, after a long and acrimonious exchange between the FDA and various producers of ephedra or ephedra-related products. Ephedra in its natural form is a plant, in which the known stimulant ephedrine naturally occurs. Ephedra has been a mainstay of traditional Chinese medicines for centuries, and it has been used for a variety of purposes, including colds, asthma, and headaches. Ephedra had been used more recently as an ingredient in various herbal weight loss supplements. Considerable controversy in relation to ephedra products developed in 2002, and after a lengthy study, the FDA banned ephedra on the basis of what was referred to as a ‘‘risk/benefit analysis.’’ The FDA determined that there was significant consumer risk in the ingestion of ephedra in these supplements, citing scientific research regarding increased risk of heart attack as one aspect. In April 2005, the Federal Court of the State of Utah overturned the FDA ban as it related to ephedra quantities of less than 10 mg per day. The court determined that the FDA had a specific obligation, as the overseer of the legislative framework and the regulations, to establish that low amounts of ephedra presented a specific and definable risk. The court specifically interpreted the DHSEA as providing no basis to conduct a risk/benefit analysis, but rather that the FDA was required to establish an unreasonable risk to the consumer through the ingestion of the product. The DSHEA in 1994 did not contemplate the sweeping purchasing powers available to consumers through the Internet and the corresponding ability of Americans to obtain all manner of dietary or other supplements offshore, in a manner not within the scope of the DHSEA.

Dietary supplements; Ephedra; Ephedra-free supplements.

SEE ALSO

Dietary supplements Dietary supplements are a very broad class of substances that are taken and consumed in the same fashion as food. Such supplements are generally

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intended to add nutritional value to the diet through their use. Supplements were well understood by native cultures throughout the world for thousands of years prior to the development of the scientific method. Examples include the addition of animal organs to the diets of the hunters of native tribes in early North America, the introduction of the herb ginseng by the Chinese into many foods to provide additional nutrition, and the harvest of guarana by Amazonians to fortify prepared foods.

kinds of foods dietary supplements, including vitamins (substances that assist in the healthy development and regulation of human metabolism and cell development); minerals (elements that are essential to musculoskeletal growth and function, as well as the operation of the central nervous system; herbs (botanical products that typically are used as sources of vitamins, minerals, or other substances); and amino acids (the central components of proteins used to build and maintain muscle and tissue).

Perhaps the most enduring symbol of a historic organized dietary supplement practice is the nickname given to British sailors in the seventeenth century; they were called limeys for their consumption of limes to counter the effect of scurvy, a potentially fatal vitamin C deficiency. Scurvy was a constant threat to seamen, who typically existed through long voyages on dried biscuits and salted meats. English sailors did not understand the biological mechanism of the limes that supplemented their diet, but they understood that the technique worked.

An important and frequently misunderstood distinction is that between a dietary supplement and a drug. A drug is a substance that is either an entire medication, or forms a component of a medication. Although the distinction between drug and supplement may be a fine one in some circumstances, drugs are generally closely regulated regarding use or requiring a prescription from a medical doctor, with the object of curing, treating, or preventing the recurrence of a disease or illness. For this reason, a drug administered by a physician might contain substances that in other circumstances are dietary supplements.

The science of diet supplements gained favor in the early part of the twentieth century, as the vitamin B complex began to be isolated in laboratories, starting with thiamine in 1903. Research conducted during World War II, both to assist in providing soldiers in the field with better rations as well as experiments directed to assist prisoners of war with speedier means of recovering lost weight, were a spur to further supplement development. In the United States and most other countries of the Western world, the science of diet supplements grew into a very robust industry by the early 1990s. The seemingly limitless speed with which society moved fostered a huge fast-food industry, where the desire for convenience dictated the use of processed foods with questionable nutritional value. In many nations, dietary supplements have been promoted as a preventative measure to combat the effects of diseases as diverse as diabetes and macular degeneration, a loss of vision caused by malfunction of the macula, the central part of the retina, attributed to an amino acid deficiency. In 1994, the United States, through an enactment known as the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA), established a comprehensive scheme of regulation for the manufacture, distribution, sale, and marketing of all dietary supplements; many countries throughout the world have similar legislation in place. The DSHEA created the term ‘‘dietary ingredient’’ to describe the component that would make certain

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‘‘Dietary supplement’’ is an umbrella term, one that may include a number of other more general expressions, some of which have meanings that tend to overlap with others. For many years, the phrase ‘‘nutritional supplement’’ has been used interchangeably with dietary supplement, including any food or food-like product that will add nutritional value to a diet. Vitamin supplements are an equally generic description of various kinds of vitamins, either as a single vitamin (such as vitamin C), a vitamin B complex (with the eight members of the complex taken together), or as a multivitamin (with numerous vitamins in varying amounts). Protein supplements are often a reference to amino acid supplements, or inaccurately, to chemically derived substances such as creatine. Like vitamins, mineral supplements refer to single minerals such as calcium, or to multiple minerals. No matter what kind of descriptors are used to define dietary supplements, these products traditionally had been consumed by both the general population as well as the athletic community. Supplements might be taken to improve general, day-to-day health. A body that has an optimal level of vitamins and minerals, in conjunction with a reasonable balance between carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, will tend to function better and more efficiently. Supplements are taken for a specific physical condition such as to address an iron deficiency (for cases of anemia), or to address a mineral deficiency such as calcium. WORLD of SPORTS SCIENCE

DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS

Supplements are also ingested as a preventative, such as fiber supplements to act as a defense to bowel or colon cancer, or to fine-tune and bolster athletic performance. For example, an athlete might take electrolytic drinks (containing among other substances sodium and potassium, minerals that are necessary to the function of the neurological and fluid systems) to maintain balance, or take creatine or amino acid supplements to build muscle mass. Most health and nutritional experts agree that the best way for the body to obtain the benefits of vitamins, minerals, and other dietary substances is through foods obtained through a properly balanced diet, as opposed to taking pill, powder, or other forms of supplements. However, there is no chemical distinction between a compound such as vitamin A in pill form and that contained in foods such as eggs or milk; taken in proper amounts, the impact upon the body will be the same. The chief risk of taking a dietary supplement in the concentrated form of a pill or tablet is the risk that a person might accidentally ingest too much of the supplement, as some vitamins and minerals are toxic in large quantities, such as vitamin A and vitamin D (working in conjunction with calcium). Other supplements can be harmful to the processes of the body, such as using high levels of sodium. The supplements that are taken for simple health promotion and protection do not specifically target a particular physical condition. These are dietary products intended to supplement existing good health and bodily function, an assurance