Wallace, Darwin, and the Practice of Natural History

Journal of the History of Biology DOI 10.1007/s 10739-007-9126-8

B. FAGAN

MELINDA Department Indiana

of Natural History

and the Practice

Darwin,

Wallace,

Springer 2007

?

(2007) 40:601-635

and Philosophy

of History

of Science

University

Goodbody Hall 130, 1011 East Third St Bloomington, IN 47405 USA me fagan

E-mail:

Abstract.

natural

of

in

contrast

the

natural early and Wallace

R?ssel

Alfred

selection,

and the Malay

from South America

writings

of

writings Darwin.

history Charles

the

In his

1854-1862),

(1848-1852,

Archipelago

these descriptions separated Darwin's In contrast, organisms.

and genera, emphasized species of individual briefer discussions

consistently his rarer and

from

edu

is a pervasive

There

co-discoverers

Wallace

indiana,

@

and

writings during the Beagle voyage (1831-1836) emphasized individual organisms, and mingled descriptions of individuals and groups. The contrast is explained by the different field

different

and experiences interests. theoretical

and

responsibilities

in the field.

naturalists

educational

Wallace social

in

These

species

on

focused

practice practices natural diverse individuals

history

groups

between

relation

material, the

in

light natural

integrative

that

of textual

at

shaped

center

turn

starting Victorian

groups point natural

the by

in different

resulted in

routines

the

field.

and

Placing conceptual products. these connections reveals among

of

history.

to

constrained

of different inventory intense less collecting These different organisms.

individual

analysis on Wallace and

and

individuals

an

provides social factors

observations

different

practices throws and

products, and

and

detailed in

resulted

went

and Darwin

connections,

and working habits i.e., different history practices; a complete at activities intense aimed collecting at many localities. Darwin's distributions and their

natural Wallace's

the

two

the

of

practices different

with

treatment Darwin's of respective clarifies this approach particular, of natural in Wallace's selection, theory of the broader for further investigations In

history

and

practices

their

scientific

products.

Keywords: natural

Alfred selection,

R?ssel

Charles

Wallace,

specimen

collecting,

Darwin,

Beagle

voyage,

natural Malay

scientific

history,

practice,

Archipelago

Introduction Then the

a host

of new and

country, Paridisea apoda,

species burst its intimate L.,

Pregia,

upon me, revealing with connection

L., Microglossus

the richness New

aterrimus,

Guinea. Wagl.,

of

602

MELINDA B. FAGAN B.

Temm.,

Macklotti,

Brachyurus

novae

Vieill., gularis, and thrushes,

sp., Eurystomus small flycatchers, of the swallow-tribe, magnificent siptera, several

were

I now

what and

species

Tany Schlegel, with n.s., Carpophaga, most and that shrikes,

guineas,

Less., mystaceus, Macropteryx are abundant in families following are common birds" They everywhere

The

obtained...

in individuals.

(italics in original)1 I shot a condor, it measured from tip to tip of wing 8 & 1/2 feet; from beak to tail 4 feet. seated birds; when They are magnificent on a pinnacle over some steep precipice, view the sultan-like they plains where

beneath

them.

away

in majestic

I believe

these birds

are never

found

excepting there are perpendicular cliffs: further up the river, where the the bed of the river, I found a regular lava is 8 & 900 feet above ten & twenty of it was a fine sight to see between breeding place; start heavily these Condors from their resting spot & then wheel

These Alfred

circles.*"

a pervasive contrast in the early illustrate passages Both naturalists R?ssel Wallace and Charles Darwin.

in the field

before

Wallace

selection.3

their independently developing as a specimen worked collector

(1848-1852) and theMalay Archipelago 1862), while

of

writings

theories in South

spent years of natural America

(present-day Indonesia; 1854?

Darwin

his specimens the Beagle voyage during acquired In America. his South and from notes, essays (1831-1836), primarily the Wallace from field, consistently correspondence emphasized species and genera, from his rarer and briefer and separated these descriptions The first passage discussions of individual from an above, organisms. 1857 article

describing an enthusiastic

provides to miss

his

species

and

1 Wallace,

distinction individuals,

1857d, pp. 476, 479.

2

3

Keynes,

in the Aru is typical: Wallace Islands, and of families It is easy genera. litany species, at the end of the passage, between families, in ternis of "abundance." Yet this too is

collecting

1988,

p.

237.

Darwin and Wallace, 1858, Darwin, 1968 [1859]. McKinney (1972, pp. 97-155), Brackman (1980) and Brooks (1984, pp. 200-269) argue that Darwin drew on Wallace's 1858 essay for his own theory. Browne (1980), Beddall (1988), Kohn (1985, pp. 245 257), and Raby (2001, pp. 129-142) effectively criticize this 'conspiracy theory.' The current pp.

consensus

14-45).

is that

the

theories

were

conceived

independently

{cf. Browne

2003,

WALLACE, DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY

603

from the field. At a given locality, writings more or or fewer and contain families contain more species species, or not these Wallace confuse fewer individual did organisms. collapse sorts of abundance. different between levels, but carefully distinguished clear In general, his natural history writing species, with emphasized

characteristic

of Wallace's

distinctions

individual

between

as illustrated

By contrast,

organisms by the second

and groups.4 passage, Darwin's

notes

the

and

individual

voyage Beagle emphasized The of individuals and groups. descriptions with is laced from above, 1834, entry April journal representative of individual observed details of wing birds: measurements carefully are at individual the details numbers site. span, Though breeding during correspondence and mingled

organisms

the "magnificent birds" as a group, to to condors in general, from the condor he shot, are juxtaposed with of condors. General observations

Darwin

prominent, shifting

rapidly views

particular anecdotes

also

discussed

events. of description These mingled modes of particular a to for vivid and engaging make parse precisely. style that is difficult as to level of description on individual details and ambiguity Emphasis are characteristic

of Darwin's writings in the two naturalists'

contrast

The two

from

the field.

First, aspects. Darwin described many

the field

from

writings

thus has while

of

Wallace

groups organisms, emphasized details of individual Second, organisms.

Wal?

while Darwin lace clearly distinguished between groups and individuals, can was more in be Both aspects by differences explained ambiguous. and Wallace and Darwin's habits natural contrasting history practice. were

in the field routines working circumstances and motivations. with

and

different

training and different

The

different connections, theoretical interests. These

to practice natural and standards. methods

different using were activities and

4

not

I do

viduals groups the

and

earth,

My groups

a complete at obtaining at many localities. their distributions

the metaphysical

engage

the

and

is robustly

the

races,

requires drawn,

only

concerning

1997; Gould,

organisms, former assemblages

varieties,

argument

debate

1989; Ghiselin,

individual

Populations,

history Wallace's

aimed

(see Hull,

latter of

being these

and genera, species, that the distinction

whatever

by their different went to the field

social

responsibilities, Wallace and Darwin

species

in turn shaped two naturalists

its metaphysical

contrasts

at different

inventory Darwin's

led

intensities,

intense

biological

and

finances

of

collecting different intense

less

groups

and

indi?

2002). I assume everyday notions simply treated

animals as

and

entities

plants in their

of

that

live on

own

right. sense.

taxa are groups in this higher between individual organisms basis.

and

MELINDA B. FAGAN

604 but meticulous and

collecting individual

interesting of historians number

A

of Wallace's

networking work by offering Darwin

have

organisms. have recently

at detailed examined

the staggering scope as his pioneering role in bio re? has been extensively studied;

voyage its importance

Beagle

highlighted

and

of new

observation

as well

activities,

collecting Darwin's

geography.5 cent studies

aimed

practices

for Darwin's

scientific

This

career.6

study goes beyond previous subsequent at the center of analysis, natural practice history placing an integrative account of the contrast between Wallace and that

nat? social contexts, respective of natural Over selection. time, the and material, literary conceptual

their

links between

reveals

ural

and

history naturalist's

theories

practices, routine yields practice to animals and of specimens; collections writings products: pertaining case these In and about of theories the of concepts study. plants; objects and theories Darwin and Wallace, the collections, writings resulting on contrasts. show interrelated Focusing respective practices an in the field thus provides of their practices integrated explanation social and scientific these different factors without linking products, their

from

contrast the pervasive in Wallace specifically, treatment from the field, their differential of from social and theoretical constraints emerges

them. More conflating and Darwin's writings individuals on

and groups,

their

respective practices. on the throws light conceptual of natural selection developed. contrast

inWallace

in terms

of

and Darwin's

The

contrast

frameworks In

in their writings which their

within

this paper, from writings

I aim

their differing circumstances framework for their theories integrative examining and the between individuals for relation tion, clarifying own

Wallace's

Circumstances Both Wallace as amateur Three finances

5 6

Camerini, Desmond

Herbert,

2005.

the

and

it explain sets up This of natural selec? and

groups

in

theory.

and Motivations

collectors,

in natural history lifelong careers but under very different circumstances.

significant

here:

and Darwin

specimen are contrasts and

to establish

the field, and motivations.

an

in turn theories

began

responsibilities;

their

and

and social connections; training theoretical interests. Darwin's

1996, 1997; Raby, 2001; Shermer, 2002; Fichman, 2004; Slotten, 2004. and Moore, 1991; Browne, 1995, 2003; Keynes, 2003; Stott, 2003;

WALLACE, DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY were

circumstances family, he was and to make

into a wealthy and well-connected to train in natural history opportunities and with botanists, zoologists, leading Born

fortunate.

with provided social contacts the day.

of

geologists

He

605

began

as a naturalist

work

marine and microscopically examining collecting the Robert anatomist medical Grant.7 Finding by to Cambridge, where Darwin moved his cousin

in Edinburgh,

invertebrates,

guided

uncongenial, Darwin Fox

training William

to beetle-collecting to John Henslow, the new and with became In his final year, Darwin Professor of Botany.8 acquainted Adam several other influential (Professor Sedgwick notably professors, introduced

him

tour of Wales in the summer who of Geology), took him on a geological set the stage for and expeditions of 1831.9 These Cambridge connections career. When of H.M.S. Darwin's Robert FitzRoy, Captain subsequent cast about for a gentleman Beagle, companion vant to accompany him on a voyage of mapping circle recommended Henslow and his Cambridge

panion.

history and circumnavigation, Darwin.

the voyage (December 1831 to October

Throughout occupied

and natural

sa?

1836), Darwin

as Captain a privileged friend and com? FitzRoy's position father paid all expenses, Since his wealthy including his keep on or financial He was had no official duties Darwin constraints.

board, also well-supplied

a and storage, for collecting including equipment new Bancks microscope.10 and his The Beagle's library was extensive, sent Darwin of whatever books he lacked.11 A number brother Erasmus with

crew members allowed

to his natural

contributed to make

him

several

extended

and FitzRoy collection, history was thus Darwin inland.12 trips

to do and well-equipped at liberty to pursue his own research interests, so. He was appreciative in first letter his of his good fortune, remarking ever no went "I home during the Beagle believe person voyage: verily in the different branches out better provided & observing for collecting a I certainly In found hist. multitude of counsellors of Natural

7 8

CCD

1, p. 538, 543 note

CCD

l,pp.

9 Herbert, 10

The

initial

outlay

Amazon

56,432.

2005,

expense

14.

39-47.

pp. was

of ?600.

considerable: In contrast,

nearly Wallace

collection at ?200 (Wallace,

?1,200 cleared

en route plus requested insured insect sold; Stevens

in drafts 3? per

1906, pp. 303-309; Slotten, 2004, pp. 42^3,

an his

88

89). 11

CCD

12 CCD 1995,

pp.

l,pp.

553-566.

1, pp. 540-542; Keynes, 164-165,

226-228.

1988; Darwin,

1987 [1839]. Summary

in Browne,

MELINDA B. FAGAN

606

that supported him also restricted his movements; good."13 The system a a on was effectively Darwin passenger government-sponsored paying route or schedule.14 His work voyage, with no say as to the expedition's but by little in natural orders, history was constrained by the Beagle's well-trained else. Well-equipped, to study "all branches pared

and well-connected, of Natural History

was

Darwin that

I can

pre?

possibly

manage."15

contrast sharply with Darwin's privileged origins were class, but a series of bad parents originally middle background. over the 1820s to decline decisions caused the family finances business Wallace's

humble

His

14 his parents could no longer support him, a to out make In school of 1841, year-old living.17 a business as a land-surveyor in Wales, slump gave Wallace working into natural history.18 He began by identifying leisure for his first forays on botanical a shilling book with orders of wildflowers classification, and

In 1837, when was taken

1830s.16

Alfred

published by the Society for theDiffusion of Useful Knowledge.19 A few as

later, working

years

a teacher

in Leicester, Wallace in knitwear manufacturing)

met

amateur

Henry Walter entomologist (and apprentice him to beetle-collecting. returned introduced After Wallace Bates, who recent to Wales, and In the two corresponded about books. specimens the Natural Creation late 1847, inspired by reading Vestiges History of of

(1844) and W. H. Edwards' A Voyage up the Amazon (1847), Wallace to the Amazon to study "the origin to journey of as their After collectors.20 way specimen paying professional an agent and some hasty to acquire in in London training

and Bates

decided

species," stopping collection

and

Brazil, arriving a few months, years

collecting

13 CCD 14

Wallace and Bates sailed for preservation techniques, as a team for in Para on May 26, 1848.21 They collected next most of the then separated. Wallace fourteen spent

1995,

pp.

the Malay

Archipelago.

227-228.

15 Entry of December

13, 1831 (Keynes

Darwin's theorizing. early 16 1906, pp. 55-79. Wallace,

20 Wallace, 21 Wallace,

equipment,

and

1, p. 202.

Browne,

life. early 17 Wallace, 18 Moore, 19 Wallace,

in the Amazon

specimens

1906,

p.

191.

p.

191.

See

1988, 14). See Gruber in note

references

5 for

recent

(1985) for more accounts

on

of Wallace's

1997. 1906,

See McOuat,

1996,

1906, pp. 254-255, 264; Wallace, 1969 [1853] p. 1. For details see Slotten,

2004,

pp.

42-45.

2001.

1969 [1853] p. xi. of Wallace and Bates'

training and

607

WALLACE, DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY

was those years abroad, Wallace self-supporting, largely During contact with other had and isolated from English only sporadic society, was lim? to books, conversation and naturalists. His access periodicals ited

and

Samuel

intermittent.

Wallace's

Stevens,

London

and

agent

was

his principal of London, the Entomological Society to the London natural and conduit information history source of money was and Wallace's sole Stevens also community.22 to "museums of sale upon satisfactory specimens contingent equipment, con? constant under financial Wallace and amateurs."2^ thus worked treasurer

of

source

of

on

that fetched good prices and plan? specimens or shortfalls from to anticipated profits according interest The "constant and ever-varying employment

straint, concentrating ning his movements his of

collections.24 a collector's

life" was

balanced

by

"craving

for

and

intellectual

congenial Wallace

society."25 isolated, but he was hardly alone may have felt intellectually some society in a network" "colonial in the field.26 A diffuse provided as vital facilitated the and centers Ternate and few Malacca), (such in South America colonial network tribes.27 Though was a dislocated and its East Indies counterpart

of native

assistance had

ties,

strong English and fluid mixture of travelers, miners, doctors, missionaries, socially to of around Due land from countries. businessmen many clearing set? to live outside often found it necessary towns, Wallace European more thus depended His day-to-day work tlements while he collected.

on his assistants tribal hunters: Malays, and Papuans, immediately men his tribes. their support, provided from other With and local Dyaks to raise enough money could sold well, Wallace stay in the specimens field. Apart from economic own his itinerary. plan

constraints,

to these different

In addition

came

and Darwin

work

22 Camerini,

1996,

pp.

different

initially motivated

collecting origin of species, apparently wrote to Bates 1846, Wallace that anonymous

socio-economic

to the field with

career was

"serves

62-64.

27

See Camerini, The

term

both

Wallace

also

from

Browne,

1992.

to

at liberty

Wallace circumstances, aims. Wallace's theoretical

by his

interest

theoretical

as an incitement

1996, 1997.

is borrowed

a free agent,

sparked by reading Vestiges. that the transmutation theory

George Spruce. 23 1979, pp. 503-514. George, 24 1859b, p. 129. E.g., Wallace, 25 1856b, Wallace, p. 5117.

26

he was

corresponded

in the

In December

proposed to the collection

with

Bates

and

in of

botanist

MELINDA B. FAGAN

608 an object

and

facts,

they can be applied

to which

when

A

collected."28

letter of September 1847went further: "I begin to feel rather dissatisfied with a mere local collection; little is to be learnt by it. I should like to take some

one

to study

family

thoroughly, principally I am By that means

theory of the origin of species. that some definite results may Bates

be

arrived

this as the motivation

recalls

for

at."29

their

with

a view

to the

of opinion strongly In his 1863 memoir,

trip:

to me a joint expedition to the river Amazon, the Natural of its banks; of exploring the History a to of objects, make for ourselves collection of dispose plan being to pay expenses, in London and gather facts, as Mr. the duplicates

Wallace...proposed for the purpose

Wallace problem conversed

it in one of his letters, "toward solving expressed a subject on which we of the origin of species," much and corresponded together.30

was collecting financial constraints.

his

one

expeditions: personal There passenger no need official

Wallace

planned, to cover his

sold

scientific was

These

As

collections.

duplicate

by both his dual motivations

thus driven

Wallace's

made

expenses,

scientific

interests

the had

and

in resulted literally on both two collections

the other

set aside

for his

use.31

never

A paying for Darwin. of duplicates any question all his collections the Beagle, he owned and had outright no economic to collect, to sell them.32 With incentive and no was own to to free do Darwin his so, indulge responsibility on

in natural took precedence. these, geology history. Among to this effect: contains remarks many Beagle correspondence in every branch of Nat. History..." "I am seeing the country & collecting the day;" "Since this "But Geology carries leaving Valparaiso, during in Geology," cruize little excepting it "even pursuing [sic], I have done interests

Darwin's

to to the neglect Darwin Unlike Wallace, of marine began Zoology."33 transmuta? the problem of the origin of species, and consider tion as a possible answer, days had ended. He only after his collecting own the about later dated his of species" first "vague doubts" "stability to the end of the Beagle to keep species notebooks in and began voyage,

consider

28 Wallace,

1906,

p. 254.

Wallace,

1906,

pp.

29 30 Bates,

1863,

p.

254-256.

i.

31 Wallace,

1869,

p. vii; Wallace,

1995,

pp.

1906,

32 Browne, 33

CCD

geological

1, pp.

230,

background.

185,

232,

206-209,

432,

436;

219,

p.

266,

306.

230-232.

see Herbert,

2005,

pp.

1-47,

for more

on Darwin's

WALLACE, DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY

609

interests the voyage, Darwin's theoretical During primary as in theories he Charles Lyell's enthusiastically applied geological, various localities. 1837.

July were

thus came

and Darwin

Wallace

to the field with

different

educational

and constrained and connections, by different responsibilities are contrasts motivations. These specific biographically which in the wider embedded social and scientific context, changed in the twenty their field years expeditions. considerably separating of natural the three traditional branches and zoology, Geology, botany experience theoretical

as publications to fragment and into distinct disciplines, The in in London and centers.35 provincial proliferated nomenclature establishment of rules for zoological (in which Darwin

history, societies

began

in the of the British Museum and the rise in prominence participated), in a him to target gaps 1840s, focused Wallace's by allowing practice of Yet the methods and equipment taxonomic stable framework.36 and Dar? Wallace underwent little natural history collecting change.37 win's

different

natural

loca? reflected their different practices within and motivations, circumstances

history

tions, framed by their personal context. this wider

Natural

History

Practice

in in intensity, and Darwin's differed natural history practices in used. the and standards activities the principal they performed, in at least two re? than Darwin's intense Wallace's practice was more Wallace

spects: overall length of work Most of Darwin's

in the field,

time

in natural

and took

history

routine. working in the four first place

daily

years of the voyage (late 1831 to late 1835) while the Beagle mapped South

American of South

than half

the voyage

fairly

34

short

Darwin

Seward,

onboard. Darwin

1903,

collected along specimens mainly less islands, spending slightly adjacent were most his ashore of of Though trips made inland expeditions eight significant

and

America

duration,

and

Darwin

coastline.38

the coast

the

Volume

1, p.

367;

de

Beer,

1960;

Barrett

et al.

1987;

1980.

Herbert,

35

Allen, 1976; Farber, 2000, pp. 33, 47. Desmond and Moore, 1991;McOuat, 1996, 2001. 37 2001. Larsen, 1996; Allen, 38 CCD I pp. 540-542; Keynes, 1987 [1839]. Summary 1988; Darwin, 36

1995,

pp.

164-165,

226-228.

in Browne,

610 on horseback, sites (Botofogo

MELINDA B. FAGAN or more

lived for a month

at four different collecting and Maldonado, Bay, Valparaiso, Chilo?).39 also spent four years in South America Though Wallace (1848-1852), never crossed Darwin's his route along the Rio Negro earlier path.40 He stayed Travel had

and

a month or more. site for several weeks, collecting usually to travel in certain areas in the tropics was arduous. Permission to be secured, local assistants and porters abandoned expeditions at each

was frequently the weather illness and warning, uncooperative, threats. In his eight years in the Malay injury were constant Archipelago more movements than Wallace undertook (1854-1862), "eighty [of

without

house] averaging the islands, and lated

that

"as

one

a month,"

frequently I travelled

and

sites.41 He

revisiting collecting fourteen about thousand or

made

and

back

criss-crossing

seventy loss of time,

miles

forth

among later calcu?

within

the each

separate I do not

sixty journeys, some preparation and think that more involving in collecting."42 than six years were really occupied as As well being of longer duration, Wallace's collecting practice was more on a daily basis. Wallace's than Darwin's schedule in the intense Archipelago,

field was

rigorous:

to arrange and five, bath, and coffee. Sit down up at half-past set insects them in a safe place of the and put away my day before, our insect to dry. Charles sometime mends [Wallace's assistant] our at and gets ready for th? day. Breakfast nets, fills pin-cushions,

Get

about a quarter eight; out to the jungle at nine. We have to walk with perspira? mile up a steep hill to reach it, and arrive dripping in the delightful about shade along paths tion. Then we wander made wood-cutters till two or three in the after? by the Chinese some very rare fifty or sixty beetles, a few butterflies. clothes and sit Change to kill and pin insects, Charles the and flies, wasps, doing at four, then at I do not trust him yet with beetles. Dinner

noon, generally returning or beautiful, and perhaps down bugs; work

with

six: coffee. Then read again until or nine. work till numerous, again eight

39 Ibid. 40 Wallace,

1916,

p.

42 Wallace,

43

1869,

pp.

68; Wallace,

1869.

vii-viii.

Letter from Singapore (written May 28, 1854). Wallace, longer but essentially similar description is included inWallace, Reports

and

essentially

very

1969 [1853].

41 Marchant,

or talk, or if insects to bed.4"' Then

letters

from

his Amazon

travels

indicate

1906, pp. 337-338. A 1855a, pp. 4805-4807.

that Wallace's

the same (Shermer 2002, pp. 60-61; Slotten 2004, p. 60).

schedule

there was

611

WALLACE, DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY The

entire

mens A

was

of speci? around capture organized collecting: afterwards. and early afternoon, and preparation was about 12 h long, "with hardly half an hour's 6 am till 6 pm, four or five of the hottest hours being

routine

in the morning

typical

intermission,

workday from

spent entirely out of doors."44 net was finished, the second

half

to be prepared and mammals

had

specimens birds, reptiles, treated with alum new

Once Wallace's

or arsenic

and

of

hunt with

daily

his

began. killed

workday insects arranged:

skinned

and

soap.4~ All had of a few annotated

and

gun Dozens

of

and pinned; fur or feathers

dissected, to be identified

as known

or

the help classification texts.46 Then from the and drying taking notes, specimens labeling, protecting one All this the whole time insects. of of person, with ravages "fill[ed] up or to do two Yet Wallace three native assistants".47 sought always species,

with

came

"a travelling collector be expected, less than might

of

that

with dissatisfaction more, observing like myself does so much limited means to do".48 than he would himself wish

or

on land or at sea, was more relaxed. Often typical workday, on the Beagle to calm days. The seasick, he limited natural history work schedule was set with naval rigidity: Darwin's

We

breakfast

at eight oclock. The one has done eating, &c.

invariable

is...bolt

maxim

off

is the weather sea, when ocean the at with whole I which work marine animals, calm, to I am either sick or contrive if there is any sea up. abounds. on or Travels. At one we dine....[comments read some voyage the minute

...At 5 we

and drink.]

food

Darwin's Though here he suggests

have

at marine

"work

At

tea.49 was more

animals"

it was

substantial

(see below), work "with hardly regularly the Beagle's shore, though he did collect intensely during del Fuego, Tierra Bahia Blanca, St. Jago (Sao Tiago), him the Beagle's Islands. When allowed pagos itinerary he

did

weeks

or months

on

land at a stretch,

pp.

111-113.

44 Wallace,

1859a,

45 Wallace, naturalists'

Darwin

1906, pp. 328-330. See also Wallace equipment

in the

1840s

to

than

an all-day affair. Nor typically on? intermission" half an hour's

not

1860s

pursued

visits

short and

to

the Gal??

to spend his "Usual

a few quiet

(1855a); Slotten (2004). For details of

see Larsen

an overview

for

(1996);

F?rber

(2000). 46

Wallace's

and

47 48 49

principal

Bonaparte's

sources

Conspectus

were

Generum

Boisduval's Avium

MM, Ibid.

.18(July-August

CCD

1, p. 248 (Letter to Susan Darwin,

Histoire (1850);

Wallace,

Naturelle 1906,

des

Insectes

pp.

327-329.

1856). 14 July - 7 August

1832).

(1836)

612

MELINDA B. FAGAN

one occupations; days of collecting

He alternated & the next arranging."50 days collecting and preserving his terrestrial with days of describing and processing rather than doing both each day. Collecting his sur? time to appreciate at this relaxed pace gave Darwin

specimens,

specimens I ride some few miles, put my horse & start by "Commonly roundings: mass Whilst some track into the impenetrable of vegetation. seated on the a tree, & eating my of the forest, in the sublime solitude luncheon no to at need With work is I experience pleasure unspeakable."51 intensive, Wallace

natural pace, Darwin's grueling and on a daily basis. overall in the field work and Darwin's

principal

activities.

Wallace's

objects,

history also

consisted

and

collected, arranged, They Wallace's different methods. typical

using

was

practice

of different

described quarry

less

were

different insects

(beetles or butterflies), which he hunted with nets. His field equipment a net, collecting of arrack and bottles for box, forceps or and shot he More birds, trapped reptiles rarely, preservation.52 In South America, shells. Wallace land-snail and gathered mammals, fish and plants, and kept a small live menagerie.53 also collected During consisted

of

in the Malay last 4 years all the species of specimens

his

Archipelago, of Paradiseae

to acquire sought To this of Paradise). (Birds took the better part of which Wallace

each five different end, he made voyages, or New Guinea/4 He thus collected in Islands of a year, to the Aru in of the solidifying of several branches zoology, primarily discipline did not collect Wallace Unlike and ornithology. Darwin, entomology geological

for Darwin's admiration Journal Nor, of despite discus? extensive emulate that work's geological in had a life-long interest another matter. Wallace

specimens. did he

Researches, sions.55 Botany

was

reasons

His

"botanizing." as

financial, Silk: "I cannot

in a

bluntly afford to collect

would

being

too much

pay unless in zoology."56 interested

50 Keynes,

1988,

on zoology in the field were focusing friend George letter to his childhood for a living, and I cannot else, which do, his in the time Throughout

I have plants. I collect nothing

not

plants

51

for

stated

160.

66,

pp.

to work

1, p. 247 (Letter to Catherine, 5 July 1832, Rio de Janeiro). 52 1855a, p. 4805; MJb (March 1858). Wallace used forceps, Wallace, panels 1996,

CCD

joined by pp. 373-375.

53 Wallace,

a hinge,

to capture

1862,

1869,

55 Marchant,

1916,

p.

p.

1906,

pp.

575.

See

21.

56 Wallace,

wasps

1852, pp. 3641-3643; Wallace,

54 Wallace,

bees,

191,

411-412.

also

and moths.

Further

details

1969 [1853], 1906, pp. 303-309.

Camerini,

2002,

pp.

103-141.

two gauze in Larsen

WALLACE. DARW?N, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY field, Wallace sell,

tailored

his collecting that groups

on

concentrating

and butterflies, determine pletely

beetles.

activities

would

birds, prices: tropical did not com? pressures His theoretical interest

good

economic

However,

to what

according

fetched

613

Wallace's

collecting practice. in characterizing the species in a given area, their relative abundance, and relations at different between the species localities, composition career. remained In letters to the his strong throughout collecting

of London, for example, Wallace that Society Entomological complains amateur naturalists "small in favor of and obscure...groups" neglect and true "a handsome" idea of the Ento? "large species, obscuring at each he preached: as could be found, species at revisited sites, returning

of this country."57 Wallace practiced as many different site, he sought collecting showy or drab, new or familiar. He often

what

mology

seasons

different details

to get a more complete locales. collecting

of his

and

sampling,

recorded

precise

were quite different. activities For one collecting interests often his zoology and botany.58 thing, his geological trumped the relative This is evident from and frequency length of geological to in discussion Darwin's (compared zoological) diary, notes and cor? Darwin's

principal

between respondence remarks.59 Accordingly, geological Darwin's

much

of his own 1836, as well as from many was of his time onshore with occupied

rather

than zoological

1831 and

investigations geologizing such trips

horseback;

often

logical collecting. hard riding, but most in the these

collecting. areas of terrain on covering large zoo? afford opportunities for extensive

not

did

Bones

and botanical

involved

and

seeds might have withstood the shocks of would have been dust plant and animal specimens even if there had been time to collect them. Since

saddlebags, did not mesh activities and

botanical

well, work.

the first

recorded

uses

Darwin's

on geology

focus

meant

less

zoological After main natural history interest during the Darwin's geologizing, was was marine His method maritime voyage Beagle zoology. collecting one

of

of a plankton

net:

"a bag

four

feet deep,

made of bunting, & attached to [a] semicircular bow this by lines is kept &

upright,

behind

dragged

-

the vessel.

57 1856b, pp. 5113-5117; Wallace, Wallace, (16 July 1858). 58 59

See Herbert, CCD

those

1, pp.

2005, 232,

418,

for

pp.

especially 432,

495. 2000,

ix). Well

zoology (Keynes, of single invertebrates; descriptions specimens a few lines. See Herbert pp. get only (2005, during

the Beagle

voyage.

evening

it brought

up

a

see also MJc

1858b, pp. 6120-6124;

98-128.

Darwin's p.

this

geology over run 140-176)

were

notes half to 5-6

of

the

pages.

for Darwin's

four

than longer concern marine

times

latter

Vertebrates geological

typically writings

MELINDA B. FAGAN

614 mass

of

small Darwin

vest."60

& tomorrow animals, examined his harvests

I look

to a greater har? invertebrates under his

forward

of marine

in his zoology observations superbly new7 to identify to describe he also attempted Eager species, resources the of the each specimen considerable Beagle's library. using one could not simply wait for one's net to fill, Darwin where Onshore, as opposed to for specimens little time hunting still spent comparatively detailed

making

microscope, notebook.61

for

"extensive

collections

attention", detail.63

leaving

Darwin extent

also

the

rest

of

of birds & him

hours

to observe

individual

to a much greater collecting alone worked in South mostly

Though in the Archipelago: assistants employed regular a young Malay son an and of the Ali, Allen, carpenter, English remainder of his with Wallace the who for remained 1855, men Wallace shoot and Both young prepare specimens, helped he

America,

much more competent. apparently one or two native hunters and

was

Ali

engaged

localities.

He

in

specimens

to do his

Wallace

than Wallace.

one

the

time

little

on others

relied

in collecting keeps me In Wallace's contrast, day."62 "constant insects" demanded personal

"I find

observations:

detailed making full employment

Wallace

hired

in

travels.64 though

also

for guides local hunters

sometimes

Charles

intermittently short periods

in

for

paid specimens, were alive birds, which caught using specialized worked his Wallace But when his health permitted, alongside use own. to not to did He assistants labors his their assistants, adding different activities.65 pursue or to collect while he geologized, assistants Darwin did employ particular

Paradise

notably methods.

In July 1833, while harvests. examined his marine living microscopically crew member, a Beagle to in Maldonado, he hired Syms Covington, wrote Darwin their assist him in ornithology. arrangement, Regarding to Fox: "You ask me about Ornithology; labours in it are my frankly to shoot & skin birds, & I give I have taught, my servant very simple.

60

61

Keynes,

1988,

p.

21.

For further detail, see Sloan (1985, pp. 87-103).

62 Keynes,

1988,

63 Malay Diary

p.

64.

I, 35 (1 Oct

1856).

64 Wallace, as Baderoon, Charles

65

382-383; 1906, pp. 338-340, man a young of Macassar,

Camerini, worked

and Ali.

See, for example, MJa,

35 (1 Oct

1856).

1996, for Wallace

1997. Other for

shorter

assistants, periods

such than

WALLACE. DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY him money. I collect small quadrupeds, reptiles, are however marine invertebrate animals,

615

& fishes

The

industriously. Darwin delight..."66

my

and able to pay for specimens, his policy as also willing epitomizing or will will be Darwin's mine."67 get them, gold galloping they as as net and social networks, his wealth well and position, plankton

was "if

him

enabled

microscopic spent more tradeoff,

his

in geology

interests

of particular

of his

time actively hunting on less detailed observations.

and

fields,

to pursue observations

in his personal

noting

to make keeping them will

any brief

like

thing notes

of

to make

and

detailed

in contrast, specimens. Wallace, for specimens in the jungles and aware of this He was keenly that

journal extensive

of

collections

the most

facts

&

birds

insects, with

connected

interesting two or three fill up the whole with time of one person, cannot native assistants. He absolutely do much else, and is often even obliged secure to abridge in order to his notes the safe pres? ervation of his specimens.68 to their col? and Darwin different standards applied with his for micro? Darwin, lecting practices. preference painstaking a to describe few of a aimed scopic observation, specimens thoroughly a to rather than whole A letter Henslow makes collect "series." species a far greater number this explicit: I might of "Most collect assuredly over of animals if I time But I took less each: Invertebrate specimens

Finally,

Wallace

come

have

to the conclusion, their original that 2 animals with colour & to Naturalists will be more valuable than 6 with only

shape noted down, dates & place."69 features

likely when

duplicates

Ever meticulous, Darwin to degrade after preservation

to record

took

pains or drying,

and

any dissected

possible. a species with "2 animals," de? however Representing meticulously was reason was concen? not his Wallace's for this scribed, way. One in the 1850s tration on insects and birds, groups far better-characterized concern in the 1830s. But Wallace's for series than marine invertebrates was

of specimens 66

CCD

1, p.

68 MM, 69 CCD variation he

due

to passive

1, p. 316 (Letter to Fox: 23 May

CCD 314, 321. 67

not merely

398.

See

also

Keynes,

1988,

of the natural

uptake

1833, Maldonado). p.

Also CCD

thus may

[1844]; Stott, in an unsettled

have

seen

occurred between plants no benefit to representing

2003,

pp.

146, 241-242).

state,

and

characterizing

Moreover, new animals

1, pp. 312,

160.

18 (July-August 1856). 1, p. 251; also Keynes, 1988, p. 207. At the time Darwin in animals

history

species species as marine was

and

with

a sensible

believed that most not within

varieties, "series"

invertebrate and

them;

(Darwin

1987

taxonomy

was

productive

strategy.

MELINDA B. FAGAN

616

of Wallace's

the combination of his day. Rather, interests led him to collect whole economic

Standards and

from

his

first

particular species, 1840s, to his hunt for Paradise incentives later.70 The financial

true

of

than

"mere

from

species of

degree

on

expeditions birds in the Aru to collect

such as showy theoretical

ularly salable species, obvious. But Wallace's

series

of

the Rio Islands

multiple

Lepidoptera

theoretical

collect

specimens and Paradise

some

For

his distinction interests, specifically on the basis of constancy rather also demanded of specimens multiple

and female such

species, a "good

plumage,

he found

many Cole?ptera Wallace and Darwin's

for

or

sale

individuals. to

aimed

of different

specimens as Paradise birds

series"

of partic? birds, are

varieties"

differentiation, To determine

both male

in the

Negro over a decade

what he had, either species species.71 to Wallace needed theoretical examine multiple speculation, indicate that Wallace 1856 onwards from His field reports each

for

specimens

with

stages of maturity.72 variable ontogenetically

over

twenty required three sufficient.73

specimens;

while

for

in the field thus history practices at different in three significant inten? differed ways. First, they worked their principal routine sities, both overall and on a daily basis. Second, were different. Wallace for activities spent 5 or 6 h each day hunting natural

and classifying and an equal amount of time processing his specimens, less time actively haul. Darwin for specimens, spent much searching or come net to to him via and them much more networking, allowing to with special attention time minutely individual describing specimens, different standards for collect? marine invertebrates. used Finally, they one or two specimens to meticulously aimed describe per ing. Darwin while Wallace and was most excited by novelty; sought "a good to represent each species and a complete of specimens inventory were in turn at a given different of species These locality. practices and motivations that brought Wallace and shaped by the circumstances to the field: economic, Darwin social, and scientific. species series"

Material Their results.

Results different

practices,

Darwin's

zoological

70 Wallace,

1850b,

Wallace,

1860,

pp.

71

72 Wallace,

p.

Wallace,

1869,

p.

yielded collection

494-496.

107.

1850b, pp. 494-495;

73

unsurprisingly, and botanical

539.

1856c, 1857c, p. 415; 1861.

different from

material his Beagle

617

WALLACE, DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY was

voyage

and provided

1830s,

His

well-received

of history community by the natural a solid basis for his subsequent illustrious

specimen

"not in spirits."74 and 3921 specimens spirits of wine," it is 5430. listed of specimens is thus number However, or individual to infer numbers of either difficult species "in

specimens The total somewhat

from collected organisms to jars containing multiple cies, or parts of a single

(see below).

as his

professional

and

new

zoologists and fossils.76 of Wallace's

as a respected

his?

and his work, praised of birds, insects, reptiles,

colleagues

specimens

over

is

collection

material

natural

staggering: alone. Archipelago

His collected in the Malay specimens are much lower: totals 10,000 mostly specimens, roughly or lack of effort. and beetles. This was not due to inexperience

125,000 Amazon butterflies Most

old mentors

crisp distinctions and quality of his

the number

notwithstanding, to launch Darwin classified

fish, mammals extent The

refer

numbers

specimen

with Wallace's

and contrasts

Ambiguities was sufficient

specimens

as some

totals,

of a single spe? specimens species, multiple Such after dissection.75 individual, separated and of animals of Darwin's descriptions

the voyage,

during

torian,

these

is characteristic

ambiguity plants

career.

totals: 1509

show the following

lists from the Beagle

the late

collection, along with his journals, on to England, when his the return voyage lost second sank ten days into the voyage.77 Wallace's

South

of Wallace's

and notes, ship caught fire and was more expedition

drawings

doptera,

100 reptiles, and Cole?ptera,

specimens, 83,200

74

2000.

Keynes,

Darwin's

a stupendous

yielding

productive, 1000 of which

over

specimens, mammal

American

was

125,660 310 species:

entirely 7500 shells, 13,100 other insects.78 Wallace

represented 8050 birds, 13,400 notebooks

geological

total of new

3913

record

specimens

Lepi later (Herbert,

2005, p. 99). 75

and Moore

Desmond

Darwin's

report

as

collection

consisting

advice with

include

numbers

specimen of spirits between

are

species on

some

as containing and Darwin's

listed

labeling

the advantage

and

redundant multiple specimen

shipping

of hindsight,

358-361;

invertebrates

Keynes, remained

2000,

pp.

specimens; rather than Darwin's

ix, xi. Most

unpublished;

later (Love, 2002; Stott, 2003). 77 1852, pp. 3641-3643; Wallace, 78 Wallace, 1869, p. viii; Wallace

he

in

species

and

some

jars

relationship contains The Journal of Researches an ideal, describe however, these passages

species. numbers.

(Darwin, 1987 [1839], pp. 598-602). 76 CCD 1, pp. 512-514 (Letter to Henslow, 354,

is not

There

as (n)," a one-to-one

"same

labeled

species,

1529

of

1991, p. 129). But these

wine spirits and 3907 dried specimens (Desmond and Moore,

took

actual

30-31 Oct of Darwin's up

barnacle

1906, pp. 269-270, 1906, pp. 362-363.

practice

during

1836); Browne,

1995, pp. 348

painstaking

work

systematics

himself

303-315.

the voyage

on marine a decade

MELINDA B. FAGAN

618

at approximately his private 3000 bird skins of collection and butterflies 1000 species, and approximately of 20,000 beetles to he have his about 7000 species. Unlike Darwin, appears organized track of the number collection by numbering species, as well as keeping estimated

about

of

of each.79

specimens

from the Field

Writings Wallace

and Darwin's

though collections

these were

comitantly

with

natural

history

yielded writings, same way as the were produced con

in the

(of course) produced above. The relevant writings

described

those material

jects: living things, natural history practice, to the former. difference

in the sense In what

including from journal

early writings,

portions the Malay

and one

concern

and

collections, and habitats.

their habits

personal notes (1855-58),

also

practices

not

These

result

on Wallace's

I draw

correspondence,

a

published as well as his

(1856-1861),

Archipelago notebook

theoretical

ob? from

writings in the latter made

that differences

follows, of his

the same

zoology

Comparable (1855-59).80 sources for Darwin include his Beagle diary, field notebooks, zoological and his correspondence and geological of specimens, notes, catalogue various exhibit the contrast with and friends. These writings family introduced isms,

above.

while Wallace

Also, while

Wallace

Darwin

this

of

and most and Darwin from

by Wallace

(ten history The graphic Society).81 lows: collecting reports 79 Wallace, 80

See

Five reveal

the

the

with

the

with which frequencies in their individual organisms

Of

remaining (25), private

84 pieces

Sources'

below.

Most

can

of Wallace's

be

of Wallace's

published writings.

as fol?

subdivided (23),

correspondence

short

articles

1855-58. Amazon

the fire 81 from author. See available dataset Complete by request at http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/home.htm lace Page" (Charles Smith)

hensive bibliography

connections

relative vs.

1850b, pp. 494-495; Zoology Notebook

'Manuscript on the Helen.

organisms. and groups individuals, lines of evidence show the

groups and letter extracts 96 published papers not mention twelve do between 1848 and 1862, to the Royal Geo? letter extracts, and two reports

the field.

natural

are

coarsely, mention

of organ?

groups emphasized of individual details between

and

contrast, above.

pervasiveness discussed practices

writings written

many

clearly distinguished was more ambiguous.

Darwin

First, Wallace

consistently

described

"The

writings

Alfred

were

lost

R?ssel

Wal?

for

a compre?

in

WALLACE, DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY (20), and longer articles classificatory, regional, but one letter extract mention species or higher

619

or theoretical

(16). All taxa, while only about When half the pieces in each category mention individual organisms. are mentioned, both groups taxa) are higher (species, populations, at greater than individ? discussed length and given greater prominence uals (organisms, Wallace's exhibits the same diary Malay specimens). over two-thirds of natural of 78 separate discussions pattern: history, are con? 4 and focus on groups taxa); only exclusively (species higher of with individual In contrast, about one-third cerned organisms. are exclu? of natural in his Darwin's discussions Beagle diary history with while three-fourths individual organisms, roughly sively concerned mention mention and about individual two-thirds organisms, species or same in his Beagle is observed taxa.82 The correspon? pattern higher this coarse

from the level of analysis, Wallace's writing while Darwin's individual groups gave emphasized organisms, them roughly with individuals slightly. predominating equal emphasis, his in his correspondence Wallace described Second, consistently

dence.

at

So,

over

field

own

on species, while Darwin of working reported new most in & For animals."83 interesting example, by the affinities Wallace described his work as connecting

in terms

activities

being "occupied a letter to Bates, and

distribution geographical asserted cies," and elsewhere it is the wonderful relations which

and constitute

Darwin

but

sea"

creatures."85

such

refer

was

plainly not on under his microscope.

Third, counts":

Wallace's

size, and colours, form, the entomologist's study."84 or other in terms of species of

of

activities

the numerous small & observing in observing & "curious, ...quite to determine it is difficult whether

of "collecting and his delight

undescribed" remarks

charm

wrote

often

in the

modification

the pre-eminent his describe

not

did

groups, animals

variety endless

their

out species by spe? "of a group, worked in detail, and that "Nature must be studied of the species of a group, their complicated

Though or to groups, Darwin's to individual focus organisms on new but and animals observed species, interesting from

the field

are

suffused

with

"species or orders in particular families of species at a given insects or birds) collected appear not locality. These (usually to notes in his and Wallace's papers, agent, but only reports zoology in correspondence he also with and friends. For family example, 82

83

tallies

of

Details

available

CCD

1, p. 206.

writings the number

by

request

from

author.

84 Wallace,

85

Keynes,

1906,

p.

358; Marchant,

1988, p. 22; CCD

1916,

p.

56.

1, pp. 370; also CCD

1, pp. 278, 391.

MELINDA B. FAGAN

620

in terms of species "taken" in the K? Islands up six days' work and subdivided in that time ("thirteen 194 insect species") bird species, When actual num? his Aru insect collection (1364 species) by family.86 a not given, Wallace included bers were nearly always qualitative summed

on of the species richness of his current site, often remarking or scarcity of "fresh "new abundance the relative species," species," are not or counts "common "handsome Species species," species."87 and Darwin's in Instead, Beagle diary prominent correspondence.88 assessment

often

Darwin

the numbers

recorded saw

"we 40 or 50 sighted: were within whales swimming man had shot 2 large bearded

of

animals

individual

or

killed

"two monstrous Foxes"; "this young of the shore;" & had left another dead in the

...small

pretty throw

stone

monkeys seven deer, 3 ostriches, and 40 of tree"; "the soldiers returned...[with] "several flocks of between their eggs, many & Armadilloes"; partridges 20 & 30 [Ostriches]"; tallies of individual and so on.89 Such remarks, seen or taken, appear over and over in Darwin's from animals vignettes

the field. Wallace and Fourth, and individuals, species meeting habits.

Darwin

friends,

my delight - beautiful

Clytus,

the

as

themselves

Wallace

or higher species For example, from

Imagine

described

frequently characteristic

respectively. taxa exhibiting

Borneo

Sarawak,

Wallace

in again meeting with many of my Singapore of the Glenea and genera Astathes, longicorns little Pericallus the pretty and Anthribidae,

elegant and many other insects. But my interesting as I daily got numbers of species, and many not met with before.90

also

individual

attributed

86 Wallace, and

zoology

87 Wallace, 88 for

The several

1857d,

p.

behaviors remarking,

organisms,

484.

or

behaviors

(1854):

Colliuris, increased I had

"meeting" to referred

Similar

counts

and for

pleasure genera

to species rather "For six weeks example: habits

occur

frequently

in Wallace's

was which

than

to

I have

Malay

diary

notes.

1850b, pp. 494-496;

I know only example months: "We have

of got,

1906, p. 269. is a letter almost

from Maldonado, every

bird

Brazil,

where

in this neighborhead

Darwin [sic],

lived

about

in number and nearly 20 quadrupeds" (CCD 1, p. 321). 89 Keynes, 1988, pp. 187, 139, 71, 188, 237, 156. 90 1854c, pp. 4394-4397; MJa Wallace, 1855a, pp. 4803-4807; also Wallace, 1857).

80

(1 Jan

WALLACE. DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY

621

or a new closely-allied seen Papilio but species, Ulysses? daily never a chance down of him; he flies high and strong, only swooping now and then, and off again to the treetops....I fear I shall never get almost

An

him."91

on

1857 article

Bird

the Great

the rare privilege enjoyed remarkable bird in its native

of

a

of Paradise

personal

begins:

acquaintance residence my

"Having this with

in the Aru haunts, during account its to give a more of habits..."92 complete and distribution the mating then describes abundance, displays, beautiful of all the beautiful of this "most winged plumage I am enabled

Islands, Wallace

opulent forms which

birds. mention of individual the earth," all without are to the behaviors attributed and traits genus orang-utan Similarly, had to individual than Mias rather orang-utans, though Wallace contact

extensive Wallace's from

adorn

with

the

latter.93

from

Borneo

writings 1854 to early

late

for over a year, (where he stayed case. In May include an exceptional and its after orang killing shooting in 1869 and his letters (one anonymous)

1856) do an infant

1855, Wallace adopted mother. In several published

attrib? and facial expressions, its behavior Wallace described memoir, in infant" to it, and described his care for the "abnormal uted emotions his with human babies.94 detail, Despite drawing parallels repeatedly the

efforts,

died

infant

after

about

on by malnutrition.

His writings to emphasize tendency general in his writings the field. However, from on species is evident. Wallace's emphasis brought Wallace's

of illness presumably to it are exceptions concerning than rather individuals groups

three months,

even In his

in this

unusual

articles

and

case, letters to

to the in? referred and family, Wallace friends, persistently colleagues, a "species "the mias" of baby," fant orang either as a "kind of baby," or "it." His popular "A New is titled Chambers' article Journal) (in "Not a newly born infant, but a really new Kind and begins: of Baby," baby,

to

or,

speak p. 325).95 Moreover, lace from preserving

91 Wallace,

1857b,

p.

a new species a naturalist, of baby" (1856e, for his "little pet" did not prevent Wal? fondness as part of his orang-utan its skin and skeleton

as

92.

See

4397; 1857d, pp. 473-485; Malay 1857, Sept 1857). 92

also Wallace,

1854b,

411.

Wallace,

1857c,

p.

Wallace,

1856c,

d;

1869,

Wallace,

1856a,

e;

1869,

93 pp.

51-53,

57-74.

pp.

53-57;

1906,

94 95 1856e,

p.

325.

pp.

3884-3885;

Journal (e.g., entries from Oct

pp.

343-345.

1854c,

pp.

4395

1856, Jan 1857, March

MELINDA B. FAGAN

622 collection, "dimensions

one

and of

article

an

with

concludes

impersonal Wallace's

of

summary

to tendency orang-utan."96 even case. in this emphasize exceptional species appears as "meeting" Darwin describe himself did not typically species, nor do his writings include of the habits and behaviors lengthy discussions of species as such. Instead, he vividly described meetings with individual Thus

young

and plants. General observations of natural such as history, and lizards, are liberally of Gal?pagos tortoises with sprinkled saw encounters: individual "one I "one large tortoise, which I killed," "one [egg] which Imeasured," "I have seen a large one which watched," animals those

one to a deep pool...and threw it in for a long time...and it pulled by the tail," to write Wallace and Darwin tended about

"I carried

twenty pounds," times" "I watched

weighed several

and many encounters

others.97 with

one

Thus, and habits

of

and

groups

individual

organisms,

respectively. and Darwin treated their respective Finally, Wallace 'de-emphasized wrote entities' Wallace to of individual differently. specimens mainly as in this about having of a species, complain only one representative

but

these

species...Of the rest I send

of

contain

not,

with

species

often

also

in two months

"Here

[Macassar]

six are

represented by fine specimens,

you thirty new."98 Since Wallace

something a "good

He

enough. (most

to Stevens:

letter

typical fifteen

series"

of

occasionally unusual

orang-utans,

how

butterflies

got

single specimens only, and they will, I doubt to represent aimed each

a single

specimens, described

I have

specimen

particular or Paradise

his specimens.99 Wallace caught or shot, thereby becoming new or controversial individual animals when describing

was

not

individuals birds) were also wrote of

observations or were on his of a given These based genus. species or on the many extensive in the wild, observations of animal behavior he performed in the course of specimen rough dissections preparation. For in several ornithological articles Wallace connected the example, about

the habits

contents fat, tough skin, and stomach beautiful features of its species, which 96 Wallace 97 and

1869, p. 57; 1856a, p. 390. 1987

Darwin, vivid

personal

[1839], style

pp. has

464-476, been

Herbert, 2005, pp. 131-135). 98 Wallace, 1857a, pp. 5652-5657. 99 1869, pp. 552-572, E.g., Wallace,

100 Wallace, 1860, 1861.

to the of "a freshly killed bird," are the main Though emphasis.100

1861, pp. 288-290.

also linked

pp.

126-127;

to Romantic

1988, p. 272. Darwin's Keynes, on his work influences (e.g.,

572-575.

See also Wallace,

1854a, 1854b, 1856c, 1856d, 1857b,

WALLACE, DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY

are highlighted, the birds were individual enthusiastic observations. Simi? general of "seventeen in Borneo freshly killed Orangs"

the "beautiful

forms" winged sources of Wallace's

unlovely larly, his served

623

examination

as the basis

for

of the appearance and habits lengthy descriptions of different orang species, as well as classification proposals.101 Individual in Wallace's from the field in appear organisms writing another way as well. Nearly all his communiqu?s mention the relative abundance of species of interest. For Wallace, and species abundance rarity were repeated species single dance

his own

terms: operational the of number sampling, key

of

relative

individual

based on estimates, members of a given

at a collecting at a site. His practice of daily collecting a for month's estimates abun? of time, yielded locality, usually to characterize that Wallace used sites and relate them to one present

see hundreds of the "you may to one rarer either the of of [of Paradiseidce] species perhaps common at as while Santarem such Heliconia sorts;" insects, "many ever and Agraulis which we hardly Dido, Melpomone [are] abundant, saw at Para."102 thus appear Individual in his organisms obliquely For

example,

from writings This makes

the field.

another.

in Batchian

common

sense in the context 12 years, of Wallace's For practice. a hundred 5 or 6 h a day, at nearly different sites, Wallace spent more time with birds and beetles than he did with other humans. For for

were not irrelevant or absent, but simply too him, individual organisms to mention. obvious the medium for his work and suf? They provided not fused his daily routine. did Wallace confuse individuals Certainly to Bates: and groups, writing "The individual abundance is of beetles so large as the number I hardly of species would indicate. not, however, on an average more a day, collect in which than fifty beetles number there will be from thirty to forty species."103 Nor did Wallace conflate taxa. His include from the field higher longer communiqu?s separate discussions of each taxonomic with the most inclusive level, beginning to list and describe insects, orders, shells), and proceeds and of individual Wallace thus genera, species, (last all) specimens.104 uses to the concept of abundance between consistently distinguish

groups

(birds,

101 Wallace, 102 Wallace

1856c; 1856d. 1859b,

p.

113; Wallace,

Wallace, 1857d, p. 479, 484; Wallace, (entries of Jan 1857, Sept 1857) 103 Wallace, 1906, 104 E.g., Wallace,

53-55.

p.

1850a,

pp.

156-157;

also Wallace,

1858b, p. 6124; Wallace,

1849,

pp.

74-75;

1861, p. 285; Malay diary

352.

1857a,

pp.

5652-5657;

Wallace,

1906,

p.

358; Marchant,

1916,

pp.

MELINDA B. FAGAN

624

and genera, and so on. His organisms, species or rarity, coupled with his terse to species abundance references frequent as the basis for his individual remarks but significant about organisms and

species

individual

are not irrelevant or ab? that individual indicate collection, organisms for his writings. The relation sent in his work, but form the background and traversed with much is complex, between individual and species on Wallace's

effort

In contrast

part. to Wallace's

consistent

(though

distinc? oblique) are Darwin's writings

often

tions between specimens, species and individual as to level of description. His discussions of nat? strikingly ambiguous taxonomic shift rapidly between ural history levels, mingling general as in about individual with engaging anecdotes organisms, descriptions this diary

entry:

to two Guanaco In ascending I came close & in the bare summit, more. course saw These beautiful several animals the of my walk are truly alpine well become the in their habits, & in their wildness more I cannot imagine anything graceful surrounding landscape. than their action: through they start on a canter & when passing bred hunter. The they dash at it like a thorough rough ground they make of a colt.105

noise hing

is very

peculiar

&

somewhat

resembles

the neig?

In addition, of species are straightfor? of Darwin's many descriptions of single specimens.106 Such ward generalizations from his descriptions a one or come to two meticulous observer of would naturally ambiguity cases in particular be? per species. The careful details noted specimens come

raw material

which inform Dar? generalizations, as most The well. vivid and his writings history practice names Darwin are the familiar to significant gives particularly a diamond his most is "our old friend Crux Major," beetle

the

for

useful

natural

win's

examples species: prized

fossils

are

"Master

Megatherium an first called

barnacle, orange-colored "Mr Arthrobalanus."107 later rechristened Darwin did take an interest However, ones. species

in early 1834 Darwin example, in Patagonia, of ostrich eventually

For

105 Keynes,

1988,

pp.

126-127.

Guanaco

are

& Mastodon," and a small little monster," is "informed new in species, particularly a specimen of a new acquired named Rhea darwinii.l0H This

the wild

counterparts

of

llamas.

106 E.g., CCD 1, p. 236 (Keynes, 2000, pp. 14-16); CCD 1, p. 307 (Keynes, 2000, pp. 116-118). 107 CCD 1, pp. 232-233, 405; Keynes, 2000, pp. 305-307; CCD 3, pp. 305-308. 108 Keynes, 2000, p. 188; 2003, p. 186.

WALLACE. DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY in range with species overlapped mon and had been described Rhea americana, the type-specimen. Darwin secured what became smaller

ostrich

diary

of

in terms of individuals sighted or killed, shifting rapidly to species

references with

his

itself:

Conrad

Martens, realized

the future and

and

to individual

to sprinkle

tendency individual

about

darwinii Darwin

aware

first]

species) mainly keeping anecdotes

was

Darwin

to me) exis? is the unquestionable (as it appears Yet Struthio of besides the Rhea..."109 ostrich, species either ostriches and Zoology discussed notes, Darwin (of

brates, described tence of another

between

com? the larger, more only by rumor before

to Henslow "...what is of of his find, writing significance inverte? of marine interest observations [than Darwin's

the potential more general

in his

625

type specimen eaten for dinner.

that the bird was

neck, legs, wings, leftovers became

descriptions general One of these concerns was

large feathers, the type specimen! contrast the pervasive

To

recapitulate: by five supported

lines of evidence.

and most

during

Rhea artist, the meal

the head, salvaged of the skin. These

from the field is in writings on and Darwin's writings to individual in and groups organisms Wallace

history differ with respect in self-descriptions of mention, frequency

natural

the Beagle's

shot by

Fortunately, species, and

a new

some

vivid

with

organisms.

is in

This

organisms.110

of

in what

their work,

they

(literally) count and meet with in the field, and in how they draw dis? tinctions

to theorizing about and Darwin's

relevant

by Wallace

natural

history.

The

contrast

is

in the field.

different

practices on species and groups is understandable given his emphasis and natural history practice: twelve years of collecting doubly motivated a a at 12 h aimed obtaining complete arranging day, specimens, at many localities. of different inventory species and their distributions

explained Wallace's

clear distinctions

His

between

in

understandable

terms

are also and groups organisms Wallace's and theoretical practice.

individual

of

his

be represented series," by a "good more than sometimes individuals, twenty. multiple required to represent not Wallace of specimens thus used populations species, as Darwin one or two individuals, of did. Furthermore, the process financial

ends demanded

that

species

which

an individual of its species into a representative transforming organism raw or was The Wallace individuals shot laborious. provided caught were in a w7hile species and other groups material for his collection, sense

the

109 CCD

'output'

105; CCD

of cleaning,

1, p. 370 (Letter to Henslow, March

110 Keynes,

of his own work

1988,

p.

156. See

1: 276; Darwin,

also

Keynes,

2000,

sorting,

1834, E. Falkland pp.

1987 [1839], pp. 105-110.

100-102,

and

classifying.

Islands).

188-190;

1988,

pp.

104

MELINDA B. FAGAN

626 The man

who

hours each day of groups would the distinction

individual transforming organisms to be the last the conflate person representatives or to minimize between them. and two, Species higher taxa were what Wallace worked and receive more in attention towards, are his writings, but individual and necessarily, in the always, organisms spent

into

background. a different routine of motives, Darwin, lacking Wallace's developed on natural history His individuals from his practice. emphasis emerged routine practice, which little involved time for relatively actively hunting and more time carefully the minute features of species, examining to him via net or network. at a more He worked specimens brought on each sedate pace, attention he lavished and collected, specimen described their features. The distinctive of features his meticulously writing

dovetail

olating

from

with one

these

or

of his practice. His habit aspects to the characteristics individuals

two

is reflected in his tendency species and groups. Detailed observations to the species, result extrapolated in which

tail,

Conclusion:

terms

line between

Wallace's

contrast

The

the

of

of individuals descriptions individual specimen, readily in descriptions rich in individual de? of each

and

species

tends

in Wallace

and Darwin's

their practice,

to responds shaped Wallace

of their practice. other naturalists

is of

interest

and the explanation writing, in its own right. Moreover, as well. Historians significance

calls, connecting and Darwin's different

practices theorizing, anthropological This

activism).

for further

the wider

and

See,

e.g.,

Jones

social

context

the products of these (e.g., Darwin's on plants, re? and barnacle of theories, investigations spiritual?

experiments

a starting point also provides approach of the broader social and scientific that factors

investigations and Wallace's different shaped Darwin practices (e.g., ories and methods, and imperial politics colonialism). 111

of

to evolutionary This dualisms.111

with the results routines, can readily be extended to comparative approach Robert Walter Grant, Bates, (e.g., Henry Joseph and Thomas and to Wallace and Spruce, Huxley)

subsequent of Notebook

search; Wallace's ism, and socialist

such

in this

This

Richard

Hooker, Darwin's

to blur.

theory

has broader approach called for integrative recently approaches that move facile internalist-externalist beyond

which

years

to mingle

specimen

practice-based have biology theory account

of extrap? of entire

2002,

Hull

2005.

taxonomic

the?

WALLACE, DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY The more has

contrast

focused

narrowly

between

as well. Differences significance in their theories for differences

theoretical made

of natural

theories and

opment

selection. of

articulation

In any case, Darwin's paper. own right, and the history

these of

A

in their natural

history of that the objects and literary contrasts.

about

As

noted

hypothesis win's work

of

extends

Wallace species

the

1830s

well

beyond

the

during theory, fully developed less attention. The practice-based and selection, theory of natural of both theories, with their obvious

to the field with

of

There

and

and biogeographical geological two theoretical field include

of

the devel?

his

the aim of testing the with Dar?

are parallels as a direct

species. 1840s, as well was influenced and Lyell, wrote by Malthus on own Journal and drew Darwin's notebooks, of

frameworks

detailed

theory its development

went

and

comparison the scope of this is beyond in its examined has been thoroughly

our understanding subtle differences.

above, Wallace of transmutation

inWallace

theories

Wallace's Beagle voyage.112 However, in far the has received years field, can throw on account Wallace's light thereby improve similarities and

and Darwin

Wallace

practice can be seen alongside which the material practice, In particular, the contrasting and distinctions emphases from the field indicate the conceptual Darwin's writings their

627

His

information.113

out

connection: his

ideas

of Researches from writings

in for the

in the 1855 "Law" essays: paper (written paper of 1858 (written season) and the Ternate was "On the ten? latter, entitled ill).114 The to depart from the indefinitely original type," was

Borneo

the rainy during on Gilolo when Wallace

dency

of varieties

at the July 1, 1858 meeting of the to write the (and quickly Society, galvanizing publish) events the have these been year. Origin of Species following Though examined in detail by various itself has been authors, Wallace's theory alongside

presented Linnean

Darwin's

theory Darwin

left (to paraphrase in the shadow of Darwin's.115 Shermer) not unanimous) There is a longstanding and historical (though consensus on of that Darwin's focused selection philosophical theory 112

See Darwin and Wallace, 1959 [1858]; de Beer, 1960;Darwin, 1968 [1859]; Stauffer, 1987 [1842-1844]. 1975; Burkhardt and Smith, 1985; Barrett et al. 1987; Darwin, Ospovat

(1981)

provides

a classic

account

of

the development

of Darwin's

theory;

see

also Kohn (1985). 113 Fichman, 2004; Slotten, 2004. 114 Wallace, and a more be

dealt

McKinney 115

See

1855b;

Darwin

and Wallace,

1959

account of the development thorough in future with For the timing papers.

essays, classificatory [1858]. Wallace's will of natural of his theory selection, see and 1858 essay, site of Wallace's

(1972), Slotten (2004). references

in note

3; also

CCD

1, pp.

xvii-xix,

107.

MELINDA B. FAGAN

628

on differential

Wallace's organisms, is often attributed difference

individual The

Bowler

part.

at

concept this into

struggle what would

of varieties.116 on Wallace's

that Wallace

claims

(1976)

of

survival or oversight

to confusion

the

individual when

happen

the Malthusian "recognized but translated level, immediately came varieties into permanent

never him more "Wallace (2002) harshly: judges as at levels he searched for the of all, question adapta? comprehended to any problems he could find it, oblivious raised by the tion wherever Slotten locus of its action." Kottler, 1985) circumspectly (following Gould

conflict."

notes

"it

that

among ulations from

if in

considered [Wallace] competition as among competition important subpop? received view of Wallace that emerges The

is unclear

in a species."117 these for

difficulty natural

assessments

representative

selectionist,

1858

to be as

individuals

is that

the mechanism about misguided this received view is that Wallace as acting on individuals. is explicitly individualistic:

selection

mechanism

he was

a group or both. One

either

of selection, His

did conceive evidently first description of

of the

remains physically the numbers unchanged, long as a country one species cannot If increase. of its animal population materially the same kind of food must diminish does so, some others requiring ...so

must that die annually in proportion. The numbers be immense; existence each animal and as the individual upon itself, of depends the very young, the aged, and those that die must be the weakest can only be their existence the diseased, while those that prolong are in and those who best able to the most health vigour perfect their numerous enemies. and avoid It is..."a obtain food regularly, existence," must always

organized then

Wallace relative

in which

for

struggle

succumb

the weakest

and

least

perfectly

(italics mine).118

in terms of the operation of natural selection an of "allied such that of different group," species a in the varieties of process parent species replace

discusses

abundance

better-adapted

116 1894, p. 245; Beddall, 1968; Bowler, 1976; Ruse, 1980; Gould, 1980; Osborn, Kleiner, 1985;Gayon, 1998, pp. 19-59; Ruse, 1999, p. 233; Gould, 2002, pp. 126-137; Browne,

p.

2003,

18. For

'neutral

theories'

see: Mayr, 1982, dissenting tionist of Wallace, interpretation view,

population bringing

ecology Bulmer's

117 Bowler, 118

Darwin

Wallace's

of

competing to my article

1858 Ternate

1959 essay,

494-497.

but

criticizes

species" attention.

1976, p. 24; Gould, and Wallace,

see Kottler,

pp.

(p.

1985;

Slotten,

2004,

p.

159. For

Bulmer him 133).

a

the group selec? (2005) rejects instead the for "misunderstanding an anonymous I thank reviewer for

2002, p.136; Slotten, 2004, p. 159.

[1858], pp. 56-57. All quotations unless otherwise noted.

in this

section

are

from

WALLACE, DARWIN, AND THE PRACTICE OF NATURAL HISTORY

629

and continued view of Wallace The received "progression divergence." as group selectionist is understandable, that much of his essay is in given terms of adaptation at the level of varieties. and replacement But, seen in the context of his practice and other writings from the field, Wallace's theory tional

is neither

nor misguided. Nor it posit an addi? does over on individual and above selection

confused

process occurring on After selection organisms. describing unusual from his typical emphasis), departure and varieties, the focus of most of his writing,

individual

(an organisms shifts to species routine practice

Wallace which

his

to emphasize:

led him

occur let some alteration in the district of physical conditions Now, - a to in of fact any change tending long period drought [etc.]... more to the species render in question, and existence difficult to avoid complete it is its utmost powers extermination; tasking evident the species, those that, of all the individuals composing the least numerous and most feebly variety forming organized soon become would suffer first, and, were the pressure severe, must extinct. The same causes in action, and parent continuing species next suffer, would diminish in numbers, would and with a gradually recurrence extinct.

of

the place

occupy

unfavourable

variety superior circumstances would

to favorable

As

similar

inWallace's

the extinct

alone

in numbers

increase rapidly species and variety

and

(p. 58).

from the field, the individual and group the number of individuals of abundance, a group. Wallace the best-adapted defines composing species as those a superiority that "obtain and preserve in population," while those that levels are

exhibit

other

of

also become might on a return and remain,

conditions

would

The

linked

"some

via

writings the notion

defect

of

in extreme numbers, and, of the Thus "continuance number Wallace's

of

best at obtaining their recognized

cases,

account

of Wallace's interpretation Darwin's individualistic focus.

119 E.g.,

CCD

7,

57). the average (p. 55). The core of the individuals that are

and

thetic

practice

in

of

up

like Darwin's, is survival of The two men thus rightly food and avoiding predators. as essentially the same, despite their different theories

emphases.119 The practice-based

between

...must diminish organization become extinct" altogether (p.

the keeping species amount to the same thing

individuals" theory,

or

power

1836 and

107; Wallace,

a more

provides theory,

and

nuanced

clarifies

and

its contrast

sympa? with

in Darwin's much Though changed on his individual 1858, organisms emphasis

1906

(volume

2), pp.

16-22.

MELINDA B. FAGAN

630

a feature of his writing and theorizing.120 remained examples and of hunting, Wallace's routine practice classifying shaped processing, in the midst In the the theory that he conceived of these activities. material and literary results of his natural history practice, groups figure and

vivid

form the base or starting-point. but individual organisms prominently, can be seen in his 1858 theory. Individual The same pattern organisms are in the background the basis for the of Wallace's theory, constituting account The practice-based claims he makes about species and varieties. in its proper context selection thus places Wallace's theory of natural it in Darwin's shadow. the field rather than leaving

Acknowledgments I thank

Jane Camerini, John Beatty, Steve Crowley, Gliboff, Rasmus the editor and Elisabeth Winther, Dickison, Lloyd, two anonymous discussion and comments; the reviewers for insightful to examine Wallace's Linnean for Society permission unpublished Sander

Michael

and

MSS;

Jane

writings. International

for Objectivity"

Quest

Prize

Hanson 20,

January helpful

for

Earlier

unpublished the Vienna 2005

Camerini

2006).

questions

guidance drafts of

Summer

on Wallace's

University

(Vienna, Austria,

Lecture

at

thanks Many and comments.

published

and

were

at presented on "The workshop

this paper

July 26, 2004) and as the

Indiana

University (Bloomington, on both occasions to participants errors are mine. Any

IN, for

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