Voices from Ancient Egypt: Contemporary accounts of daily life

Voices of Ancient Egypt

Recent Titles in Voices of an Era Voices of Ancient Egypt: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life Rosalie David, editor Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life David Matz, editor Voices of Civil War America: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life Lawrence A. Kreiser Jr. and Ray B. Browne, editors Voices of Early Christianity: Documents from the Origins of Christianity Kevin W. Kaatz, editor Voices of Early Modern Japan: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life during the Age of the Shoguns Constantine Vaporis, editor Voices of Revolutionary America: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life Carol Sue Humphrey, editor Voices of Shakespeare’s England: Contemporary Accounts of Elizabethan Daily Life John A. Wagner, editor Voices of Victorian England: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life John A. Wagner, editor Voices of World War II: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life Priscilla Mary Roberts, editor Voices of Early Christianity: Documents from the Origins of Christianity Kevin W. Kaatz, editor Voices of Victorian England: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life John A. Wagner, editor

Voices of Ancient Egypt Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life

Rosalie David, Editor

Voices of an Era

Copyright © 2014 by ABC-CLIO, LLC All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Voices of ancient Egypt : contemporary accounts of daily life / edited by Rosalie David. pages cm. — (Voices of an era) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-313-39782-0 (hardback) — ISBN 978-0-313-39783-7 (ebook) 1. Egypt—Civilization—To 332 B.C.—Sources. I. David, A. Rosalie (Ann Rosalie) editor of compilation. DT61.V65 2014 932'.01—dc23 2014016388 ISBN: 978-0-313-39782-0 EISBN: 978-0-313-39783-7 18

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This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook. Visit www.abc-clio.com for details. Greenwood An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC ABC-CLIO, LLC 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America

To KNH and her unique contribution to Egyptology “We usually think of time as a river, a river like the Nile, with a strong, swift current bearing us further and further away from what we have been and towards the time when we will not be at all—birth, death and the brief transit of life in between. But perhaps we should think of time as a deep, still pool rather than a fast-flowing river. If time were a pool, we could kneel at its edge and gaze at our reflections and then beyond them to what lay deeper still. Instead of looking back at time, we could look down into it—we could peel back the layers of the palimpsest—and now and again different features of the past—different sights and sounds and voices and dreams—would rise to the surface: rise and subside, and the deep pool would hold them all, so that nothing was lost and nothing ever went away.” From the Prologue written by Katherine Frank to Lucie Duff Gordon: A Passage to Egypt, 1994. “having examined hundreds of the rooms, and having discovered all the ordinary objects of daily life as they were last handled by their owners, I seem to have touched and realised much of the civilisation of that remote age; so that it is hard to realise that over 4,000 years have glided by since those houses last echoed to the voices of their occupants.” From the journal of Sir William Flinders Petrie (1890), regarding his discovery of Kahun, the town once occupied by pyramid builders and their families.

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CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments Introduction: The Background of Ancient Egyptian Civilization Evaluating and Interpreting Primary Documents Chronology of Egypt from the Predynastic Period to the Arab Conquest

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DOCUMENTS FROM ANCIENT EGYPT Domestic Life and Personal Beliefs 1. Training Children: A Father’s Advice to His Son (Papyrus Insinger) 2. Advice on Marriage: Found a Family (The Instruction of Any (Papyrus Boulaq 4 )) 3. Family Values: Be Grateful to Your Mother (The Instruction of Any (Papyrus Boulaq 4 )) 4. How a Man Should Treat His Wife: Treat Thy Wife Well (The Instruction of Any (Papyrus Boulaq 4 )) 5. The Status of Royal Women: The God’s Wife of Amun (Statue Inscription of Harwa) 6. Love Songs: The Sayings of Great Happiness (Papyrus Chester Beatty I ) 7. The Contendings of Horus and Seth: A Homosexual Encounter (Papyrus Chester Beatty I ) 8. Offerings for the Tomb Owner: The Coffin Texts (Coffin Text of Nakht-Ankh) 9. A Skeptical View of the Afterlife: The Song from the Tomb of King Antef (Intef ) Economic Life 10. Justice for Everyone: The Story of the Eloquent Peasant (Papyri Berlin 3023, 3025, 10499; Papyrus British Museum 10274 ) 11. A New Royal Residence: Poem in Praise of the City of Ramesses II (Papyrus Anastasi II )

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12. A Response to Social Upheaval: The Admonitions of Ipuwer (Papyrus Leiden 344) 13. A Trading Venture: The Report of Wenamun (Papyrus Moscow 120 ) 14. The Advantages of the Scribal Profession: The Satire of the Trades (Papyrus Sallier II, Papyrus Anastasi VII ) 15. Financial Transactions: The Report of Wenamun (Papyrus Moscow 120) 16. Slavery and Servitude (The Annals of Tuthmosis III ) 17. Expeditions to Nubia (The Autobiographical Inscription of Harkhuf ) 18. Craftsmen’s Tools and Working Conditions: The Satire of the Trades (Papyrus Sallier II, Papyrus Anastasi VII ) Intellectual Life 19. Educating Boys: The Instruction of Ptah-hotep (Papyrus Prisse) 20. Health and Medicine (The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus). 21. Personal Piety (Votive Stela of Neferabu with Prayer to Ptah) 22. Praising the Role of a Scribe: Advantages of a Teaching Career (Papyrus Lansing ) 23. Writing as a Means of Communication (Papyrus Chester Beatty IV ) 24. Mathematics: Knowledge and Application (The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus) 25. Calendar of a Military Expedition (The Israel Stela / The Poetical Stela of Merneptah) Material Life 26. An Agricultural Disaster (The Famine Stela) 27. An Offering Which the King Gives: The Coffin Texts (Coffin Text of Nakht-Ankh) 28. A New House for the Teacher: A School Text (Papyrus Lansing ) 29. An Adventure at Sea: The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor (Papyrus Leningrad 1115)

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Political Life 30. Advice on Government: The Instruction of King Amenemhet I for his Son Senusret I (Papyrus Millingen) 31. Behavior toward Superiors, Equals, and Inferiors: The Instruction of Ptah-hotep (Papyrus Prisse) 32. The Strategy of Warfare: The Kadesh Battle Inscription of Ramesses II (The Poem: Temples of Abydos, Luxor, Karnak, Abu Simbel, and the Ramesseum) 33. Weapons of Warfare: Equipment of a War Chariot (Schoolboys’ Fictitious Model Letters (Papyrus Koller)) 34. Taking Booty at the Siege of Megiddo (The Annals of Tuthmosis III )

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Recreational Life 35. Advice to Artists and Intellectuals: The Wisdom Instruction of Ptah-hotep (Papyrus Prisse)

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36. Worship through Dancing (Hymn to Hathor, Hall of Offerings, Temple of Denderah) 37. The Role of Music in Divine Worship (The Shorter Hymn to the Aten, Tomb of Ay, Tell el-Amarna) 38. Sacred Drama at the Temple of Edfu: The Battle between Good and Evil (The Triumph of Horus, Temple of Edfu) 39. The New Year Festival (The Victory Stela of King Piye) 40. The Dangers of Drinking Beer: Exhortations and Warnings to Schoolboys (Papyri Anastasi IV, V, and Sallier I ) 41. A Sporting Pharaoh (The Great Sphinx Stela of Amenhotep II at Giza) Religious Life 42. Creation Mythology: The Memphite Theology (The Shabaka Stone) 43. Atenism, Monotheism, and a Religious Revolution (The Great Hymn to the Aten in the Tomb of Ay, Tell el-Amarna) 44. The Ritual Use of the Egyptian Temple: The King Presents Food Offerings to the Gods (Gallery of the Lists, Temple of Sety I, Abydos) 45. Political Propaganda: The Tale of King Khufu and the Magicians (Papyrus Westcar) 46. Magical Treatment of Disease (The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus) 47. A Sacred Space: Temple Architecture (The Stela of Amenhotep III from His Mortuary Temple in Western Thebes) 48. Preparing the Burial: Techniques of Mummification (Herodotus, The Histories, Book 2: Paras. 86–88) 49. The Day of Judgment (The Book of the Dead, Chapter 125 (Several Texts)) 50. The King’s Relationship with the Gods (The Pyramid Texts (Several Pyramids)) 51. Advocating Suicide? The Dispute between a Man and His Soul (Papyrus Berlin 3024 ) Appendix 1: Biographical Sketches of Important Individuals Mentioned in the Text Appendix 2: Glossary of Terms Mentioned in the Text Selected Bibliography Index About the Editor

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PREFACE The aim of this book, Voices of Ancient Egypt: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life, is to introduce the reader to the world of ancient Egypt through texts written by the Egyptians themselves. Excerpts from 51 documents are included, which cover the period when ancient Egyptian writings were available, from ca. 3100 bce to the 4th century ce. The extensive time span of Egyptian civilization and its domination of the surrounding geographical areas ensured that it exerted a profound influence on the development of some fundamental concepts. In many instances, these were passed on through the Greek and Roman civilizations, to become the basis of some important aspects of modern thought in the Western world. Indeed, the wealth of evidence preserved from ancient Egypt has enabled modern scholarship to reconstruct the Egyptian way of life with a fair degree of accuracy. Increasingly, modern research is identifying the extent of our debt to ancient Egypt, a civilization that continues to provide inspiration for films, television documentaries, popular publications, and Internet sites.

PRIMARY DOCUMENTS Studying the literature associated with a particular civilization or period of history gives the reader the opportunity to gain direct access to the thoughts, views, and beliefs of the original writers. This provides a unique insight and understanding that cannot be gained from secondary sources colored by the views of a modern author. A wealth of evidence has survived from ancient Egypt—monuments, artifacts, paintings, sculpture, human remains, and literature. The literary sources are of particular value because they not only amplify the archaeological data but sometimes present a different, even contradictory, perspective. Early scholars, basing their studies of ancient Egyptian civilization on Classical and Medieval sources, often arrived at fantastic, sometimes ludicrous, conclusions. The decipherment of hieroglyphs in the 19th century ce gave direct access to primary literary sources for the first time, and allowed these speculations to be corrected.

ORGANIZATION OF SECTIONS The 51 document excerpts are placed in 51 sections, which in turn are divided into seven categories that cover main areas of Egyptian civilization. The nine sections in “Domestic

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Life” deal with family values, the status of women, sexuality, and personal attitudes toward death, burial, and the afterlife. The nine sections in “Economic Life” consider political and economic matters, rural and urban life, the social structure, trading at home and abroad, finance, slavery and servitude, work choices and conditions, and travel. In “Intellectual Life,” seven sections examine education, health and medicine, language and writing, literature as a means of communication, mathematics, and the calendrical systems. Food, drink, clothing, housing, and domestic and long-distance transportation are considered in the four sections in “Material Life,” while the five sections in “Political Life” cover aspects of government, warfare and military equipment and uniforms, and advice on sociopolitical behavior. The seven sections in “Recreational Life” describe art and intellectual pursuits, music, sacred drama, festivals, leisure, and sports and games. “Religious Life” includes 10 sections, which address religious beliefs and propaganda, temple architecture and rituals, the use of magic, and concepts and practices associated with death, burial, and the afterlife. The document sections, which reflect the wide range of literature available from ancient Egypt, are taken from a variety of texts. They include Instructions in Wisdom, schoolboys’ model letters and exercises, the Pessimistic Literature, prayers, hymns, poems and love songs, narratives, historical inscriptions, medical and mathematical papyri, and religious and funerary texts. In addition, there is an account of mummification by the Greek author, Herodotus. With one exception (Herodotus, who wrote in Greek), all the documents were composed in Egyptian hieroglyphs, hieratic, or demotic. The translations of the texts included in this book exemplify the choices made by different scholars in preparing ancient texts for a modern readership: some have used archaic diction (e.g., thou, shouldst), while others have opted for contemporary language (e.g., you, should have). Conventions used within the excerpts are as follows: (pharaoh): parenthesis containing a word indicate that, although the original word/ phrase is missing from the text, the translator can confidently provide this restoration. pharaoh(?): parenthesis containing a question mark placed after a word indicate that the translator’s restoration is uncertain. [then the king spoke out]: square brackets enclosing text indicate that the translator/ editor has inserted an explanation of an Egyptian word/phrase, or is providing a link to the next part of the text. . . . : a series of dots indicates that the editor has omitted a line/section. In addition, the reader should be aware that some modern authors use the Greek form of an Egyptian ruler’s name whereas others give the Egyptian version (e.g., Amenophis (Greek) or Amenhotep (Egyptian)). In this book, the Egyptian spelling is used, but where the Greek name is particularly well known, this is given inside parenthesis after the Egyptian name: for example, Khufu (Cheops). It should also be noted that variant spellings of some words, especially royal names (e.g., Tuthmosis/Thotmes; Tutankhamun/Tutankhamen) often occur in books on Egyptology. This is because the scripts in which the Egyptian language was written—hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic—preserve the consonants of each word but omit the vowels, and although Egyptologists have devised an artificial system that adds vowels to the words, this vocalization is not universally followed. Each of the 51 sections provides background information to assist the reader to understand the historical context, meaning, and significance of the individual document excerpt.

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There is an “Introduction” that identifies the source and historical context for the document; a “Keep in Mind as You Read” section that provides some context points to help evaluate the document; and an “Aftermath” section that analyses the consequences which resulted from the document content. In an “Ask Yourself ” section, questions are posed about the document and the circumstances it reflected, sometimes relating both to the modern world. “Topics and Activities to Consider” sets out several themes or ideas to explore in an essay, paper, drama production, or class presentation. Finally, “Further Information” lists important print and electronic resources. Each section also includes a sidebar that highlights and expands a topic or concept found within the document, such as “Childhood,” “The Scribal Profession,” or “Homes and Gardens.” Listed websites provide illustrative images, articles, and further information about the subject matter of each section.

OTHER FEATURES The book also includes a general introduction that introduces the reader to the geographical and historical background, social organization, and religious context of ancient Egypt, and explains its importance and significance as one of the world’s greatest civilizations. Appendix 1 provides biographical sketches of most of the important individuals mentioned in the document excerpts; Appendix 2 includes brief definitions of unfamiliar terms mentioned in the sections associated with each document. Names and terms included in Appendices 1 and 2 are cross-referenced in the document text, where the first mention of any of these entries in each section is highlighted in italicized bold (e.g., pharaoh). To assist the reader’s understanding, any unfamiliar terms in each document excerpt are highlighted in nonitalicized bold (e.g., pharaoh) and briefly explained in the associated “Definition Fact Box.” The section “Evaluating and Interpreting Primary Documents” demonstrates how a series of questions—Who wrote it? When and where was it written? Who was it written for? Why was it written?—can be used to assess the historical context and importance of a document. Readers will also be advised how to identify key passages, the main thesis of the document, and the assumptions the author brought to the document from his or her era and social, economic, and religious background. This section will also consider who produced these ancient Egyptian documents, and the techniques that they employed. A chronology of Egyptian history is included; this covers the time span from the Predynastic Period (ca. 5000 bce) to the Arab Conquest (seventh century ce), and provides an overview of the main historical periods, dynasties, key events, and prominent rulers. A detailed bibliography of print materials and websites gives the reader the opportunity to extend an exploration of primary sources, contemporary studies, and illustrative material, while a detailed subject index provides easy and rapid access to information covered in the document sections.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I should like to thank the staff at ABC-CLIO, particularly George Butler, Denver Compton, and Mariah Gumpert, for their encouragement and advice throughout the production of this book. I am grateful to my husband, Antony, who has always provided so much support for my writing endeavors.

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INTRODUCTION: THE BACKGROUND OF A NCIENT EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING The civilization of ancient Egypt was profoundly influenced by the country’s geography and climate. A glance at a map of modern Egypt will show that, as in antiquity, most of the country is desert, but there is fertile land in the Delta, the Nile Valley, and the scattered oases of the Western (Libyan) Desert. The country has a negligible rainfall; over the millennia, the annual inundation of the Nile, Egypt’s great river, has created the cultivatable areas of this landscape. In the words of the Classical writer, Hecataeus, Egypt is the “gift of the Nile,” and no other civilization has ever been so dependent on the regular occurrence of one natural event. The Nile, Africa’s longest river, flows from south to north, starting its journey three degrees south of the equator in the region of the Great Lakes. Today, it passes through several countries: its course within Egypt covers some 600 miles between the southern city of Aswan and the Delta, where its two main branches enter the Mediterranean through the towns of Rosetta in the west and Damietta in the east. Between Khartoum (the modern capital of Sudan) and Aswan, the course of the Nile is interrupted by six cataracts, each comprising a group of rocks strewn across the river’s width. None of the cataracts is distinguished by a dramatic waterfall, but they all affect the flow of the stream, and the Fourth, Second, and First Cataracts obstruct river traffic. In Egypt, over the past few decades, a series of dams have been built across the river to retain the volume of water and allow its release into a network of canals as required, but previously the natural effects of the inundation were experienced throughout the whole of the country. In antiquity, this annual event was generally regarded as a miracle that restored life and fertility to the parched land. However, the level of the floodwaters, swollen by the summer rains in Ethiopia, was capricious and uncontrollable, and an excessively high Nile could devastate the countryside, its inhabitants, and their dwellings, while a low Nile could result in famine. From earliest times, the Egyptians recognized the need to utilize the floodwater to create an irrigation system that would provide communities with water to cultivate their crops. This common activity, pursued throughout the Nile Valley and the Delta, was a key factor in the unification of Egypt and the creation of a nation state. The length of the country and

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its geographical division into a northern and southern region have always made it difficult to rule and control, but scattered towns and villages were brought together by the Nile as a means of transport and communication, and by the need to develop and sustain cooperative irrigation schemes. The Egyptian landscape is one of sharp contrasts. In antiquity, the inundation deposited rich black mud on the riverbanks of the Nile Valley and the Delta; this produced a fertile environment for growing crops, rearing animals, and accommodating the population. The ancient name for Egypt was “Kemet” (the “Black Land”); this referred to the color of the cultivated area, and its associated symbolism of life and fertility. Beyond the cultivated strip lay the desert, a habitat of wild animals, regarded as a place of terror and death. The Egyptians called this region “Deshret” (the “Red Land”) on account of its sandy, barren landscape—a term from which the English word “desert” is derived. Because the cultivated area was limited, it was not used for burial of the dead, and from the earliest periods, graves were located on the desert edges. This juxtaposition of fertile strip and desert, life and death, had a profound influence on Egyptian perspectives and religious beliefs. Egypt’s relations with neighboring lands were also molded by geographical features. Natural barriers included the Mediterranean to the north, the Red Sea and Eastern Desert to the east, and the Libyan Desert to the west; these provided protection against early foreign invasion, enabling the Egyptians to develop a unique and distinctive civilization. Trade and warfare brought Egypt into contact with her northern neighbors. Since predynastic times (ca. 5000 bce–ca. 3100 bce), maritime routes and the land bridge across northern Sinai (providing the only relatively easy overland access to Egypt) had facilitated trading connections. Later, these same routes were used by Egyptian military expeditions travelling to Syria/Palestine (the region known today as the Levant, which includes Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Gaza). To the south of Egypt lay Nubia; according to historians and archaeologists, this land occupied a stretch of the Nile Valley from the First Cataract to the central region of modern Sudan (between the Fourth and Fifth Cataracts). It was divided into Lower Nubia (the northern section, extending between the First and Second Cataracts), and its southern counterpart, Upper Nubia. Various names were given to parts of Nubia at different historical periods although the precise locations of these regions have not been identified. Old Kingdom texts refer to Wawat, and its southern neighbors, Irtjet and Setju, which sometimes formed one state but at other times acted as independent kingdoms; beyond them lay the southernmost region of Yam. Irtjet and Setju eventually became Kush, the region most frequently mentioned in later sources. Egypt and Nubia traded with each other from earliest times; Egypt also colonized Nubia; and, in Dynasty 25 (ca. 780 bce–656 bce), a line of Nubian rulers conquered and briefly ruled the Egyptians. The border between Egypt and Nubia changed several times over the millennia, reflecting the vicissitudes of warfare and colonization; originally fixed at the First Cataract, it was moved further south as the Egyptians made military gains in Nubia.

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND In earliest times, before 5000 bce, the climate and environment of ancient Egypt underwent some profound changes. Originally, the southern region of the Nile Valley was dominated by marshes and swamps, and supported prolific vegetation, including papyrus and lotus plants. In the Delta, vast papyrus swamps provided a habitat for waterbirds, the sacred ibis,

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crocodiles, and hippopotami. The environment and climate made these areas unsuitable for human habitation, and so people lived on the higher desert spurs, where they hunted the abundant wildlife of leopards, lions, ostriches, ibex, and oryx. Gradually, as the climate became drier, the vegetation in the Delta and Nile Valley thinned out; many animals and birds found new habitats in the southern Nilotic regions, although they always remained part of the Egyptian consciousness, and appeared in the religion, art, and writing of later periods. Throughout the Predynastic Period (ca. 5000 bce–ca. 3100 bce), people moved down from the desert spurs into the Nile Valley and the Delta, and established themselves in a series of scattered communities. Because no textual evidence has survived from this era, information about the political and social structures, and religious beliefs and practices of these early societies is limited, although literature from later times occasionally provides some insight; also, many details of everyday life are not forthcoming because most of the archaeological finds are derived from necropolises rather than settlement sites. Nevertheless, extant evidence indicates that the communities shared certain features: a similar social organization, with farming and agriculture gradually replacing hunting; the production of fine quality pottery, tools, weapons, and domestic utensils; and burial practices that demonstrate a reverence for the dead, and perhaps already indicate a religious awareness and belief in an afterlife. Prompted by a common need to protect themselves against external attack, irrigate the land, and increase food production, these communities gradually drew together to form larger political and social units, each with its own area capital, chieftain, and major deity. By ca. 3400 bce, further amalgamation resulted in the establishment of two kingdoms: the White Land (Upper Egypt) in the southern reaches of the Nile Valley, and the Red Land (Lower Egypt), situated in the Delta and northernmost part of the Nile Valley. Although they were politically independent, and had their own capital cities and rulers, these kingdoms shared a common culture. Both were influenced by new ideas: monumental brick architecture was introduced for a new type of tomb (the “mastaba-tomb”) that accommodated elite burials; significant advances in the arts and crafts; and writing (although it probably first appeared in Egypt at this date, only texts from later times can be properly read and understood). Scholars have debated whether these were indigenous changes, or whether they were instigated by contact (through trade or warfare) with neighboring peoples who perhaps originated in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). In due course, the rulers of the White Land set out to conquer the north, an ambition realized in ca. 3100 bce when their leader, Menes, unified the two kingdoms and became Egypt’s first king. Although he and his descendants now ruled the whole country from the new capital city of Memphis (located at the apex of the Delta), the Egyptians always retained an awareness of the dual origin of their nation, and frequently alluded to the “Two Lands.” The unification of the country marked the beginning of dynastic Egypt. Source material for Egyptian chronology is flawed or incomplete. The King-lists, inscribed on some temple walls or on large stelae, are not historical records. Their purpose was religious: these lists of names represented the Royal Ancestors to whom the ruling king regularly presented offerings in order to gain their acceptance of his reign. Another difficulty arises because the lists present an incomplete roll call of rulers: they only include previous rulers from Menes down to the king who commissioned the list; kings were excluded if priestly tradition did not acknowledge them as “legitimate”; and no lists later than Dynasty 19 have been discovered. The other major primary source is a chronicle of kings attributed to Manetho (ca. 305 bce– 246 bce), an Egyptian priest whose writings have survived in edited extracts in the works of four other early authors. Manetho would have had access to king-lists and registers in

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temple archives, and his account, although not always reliable, is still recognized as the most comprehensive ancient source for the sequence of rulers and dynasties. He was the first to divide Egyptian rulers into dynasties, although he offers no explanation why he used this system. There is no clear definition of the meaning or employment of the term “dynasty” within the context of Egyptian history. Most dynasties consisted of a line of rulers who belonged to one family; however, sometimes a single family spanned more than one dynasty, and in these cases, the transition from one dynasty to the next seems to have been smooth and amicable. In other instances, a change of dynasty came about if there were no direct descendants to inherit the throne or if another family seized power. Modern historians have retained Manetho’s 30 dynastic divisions (with a later chronographer’s addition of a 31st dynasty), and grouped them into a series of “periods” and “kingdoms,” which are characterized by particular historical, political, and religious developments (the Chronology section of this book provides a resume of these key events). The major divisions are: the Archaic Period (Dynasties 1 and 2); the Old Kingdom (Dynasties 3–6): the First Intermediate Period (Dynasties 7–11); the Middle Kingdom (Dynasty 12); the Second Intermediate Period (Dynasties 13–17); the New Kingdom (Dynasties 18–20); the Third Intermediate Period (Dynasties 21–26); and the Late Period (Dynasties 27–31). These Egyptian dynasties were followed by the Ptolemaic Period, when a line of Macedonian (Greek) kings ruled the country, and then by the Roman Period, when Egypt was incorporated into the Roman Empire.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Following unification, Egypt developed into a theocracy; the kingship was believed to have a divine origin, and each king was regarded as the son of the chief god of that period. In the Archaic Period (ca. 3100 bce–2890 bce) and early Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce– 2613 bce), the king was the personification of Horus, the falcon-headed sky-god; from Dynasty 5 (ca. 2494 bce–2345 bce), he became the son of Re, the sun-god; and from the late Old Kingdom (ca. 2345 bce–2333 bce), all deceased rulers were identified with Osiris, god of the dead, while the reigning king was the incarnation of Horus, the son of Osiris (confusingly, a separate deity from the sky-god mentioned earlier). Egypt’s social structure and the king’s divine role can best be observed during the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce), when centralization of power and effective bureaucracy ensured an ordered and peaceful society. On the basis of his dual nature as the son fathered by a creator-god but born to a human mother, the king claimed to be the divine incarnation and earthly representative of all gods. In theory, he alone could mediate between the deities and mankind, but although his authority was far-reaching, it was not absolute and he did not exercise unlimited power. He was supported and advised by a group of counselors, the most important of whom was the First Minister (a title sometimes translated as “vizier”), and his many religious, political, and judicial duties were often delegated to these officials. In theory, every king was the sole possessor of Egypt (its people and resources were entirely at his disposal), but in reality, it was customary for temples and even individuals to exercise a considerable degree of autonomy regarding private ownership and personal freedom. A king had two special names that represented his personal identity, and these were always inscribed within a cartouche. From the New Kingdom onward, the customary title for an Egyptian ruler was “pharaoh”; this comes from the Egyptian words per-wer (“great

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house”), the term used for the royal palace. In this book, the dates given in parenthesis after an individual ruler’s name refer to the dates of his or her reign; the numbers are followed by either “bce” (“before the Christian era,” i.e., before the birth of Christ) or “ce” (“Christian era,” i.e., after the birth of Christ): for example, Tuthmosis III (1504 bce–1450 bce); Septimius Severus (193 ce–211 ce). The royal family, nobles, minor officials, and craftsmen probably comprised about 20 percent of the total population, but the vast majority of Egyptians were peasants whose agricultural labors fed the whole country and also produced the offerings for tombs and temples. Although significant political and social changes occurred over the millennia, the basic structure of this society remained intact, providing the ordered and generally peaceful conditions from which one of the world’s greatest civilizations developed.

THE RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND Religion permeated almost every aspect of ancient Egyptian civilization. Egyptologists categorize Egyptian deities as “state gods,” “local gods,” or “popular” (or “domestic” or “household”) gods. State gods include those associated with the cosmos and elements of nature, or who attained universal significance throughout Egypt because of their powers and attributes or their leading roles in mythology. The importance of state and local gods was widely recognized, but apart from their appearance at festivals, they played little part in people’s daily lives. Most people worshipped the “popular gods” to whom prayers were addressed and offerings presented at small household shrines. Originally, each predynastic community worshipped its own deity or family of gods, but as political amalgamation progressed, these individual gods were assimilated into a pantheon. By the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce), this process had become highly formalized, creating the inaccurate impression that all Egyptians worshipped many gods. Although it is true that, apart from one brief period when a monotheistic state cult (Atenism) was introduced (ca. 1379 bce–ca. 1361 bce), the Egyptians were polytheistic, it is likely that each person directed his or her worship toward only a small number of deities. The reader of this book will see that the word “god” appears in some of the traditional hymns and prayers. This is not a specific reference to a supreme deity but was used as a generic term, with the intention that the user of the text would insert the name of the god whom he or she was praising or petitioning. The Nile and the sun, the two great life-forces of Egypt, which both symbolized natural cycles of life, death, and rebirth, were represented by two major deities: Osiris and Re. The sun (Re) was reborn each morning after spending the night in the underworld, while the annual loss and regeneration of vegetation were reflected in Osiris’ death and resurrection. Observation of these events doubtless inspired the Egyptians to believe that a similar pattern was reflected and repeated in individual human existence. Osiris probably originated as a god of vegetation who personified the annual agricultural cycle of life, death, and rebirth. In the Osirian Myth, this role is linked with the god’s other identity as a human ruler who was murdered and ultimately brought back to life to become lord of the underworld realm. The annual Osiris Mysteries celebrated Osiris’ death and resurrection during the springtime Festival of Khoiakh, emphasizing his roles as life-giver, source of fertility, king and judge of the dead, and victor over evil and death. Re personified the sun’s eternal, self-generating force that played a major role in the creation of the universe and mankind. His cult and role as royal patron, which first achieved

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prominence in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce), suffered when the Old Kingdom disintegrated. His status was only restored when the rulers of Dynasty 18 (1567 bce– 1320 bce) combined his characteristics and strengths with those of the Theban god, Amun, to create Amen-Re who became the supreme deity of Egypt and its newly established empire. Toward the end of Dynasty 18, Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] (1379 bce–1362 bce) briefly promoted monotheistic worship of the sun’s disc, the Aten. In the Predynastic Period (ca. 5000 bce–ca. 3100 bce), most gods were represented in animal or fetish form. In the Archaic Period (ca. 3100 bce–2686 bce), a gradual process of anthropomorphization took place, when these animal forms were often replaced by hybrid versions incorporating animal or bird heads with human bodies, or more rarely, by fully human forms. It is evident that the Egyptians did not worship animals as such, but regarded these animal forms, and specific animals associated with gods’ cults, as symbols through which a deity’s divine power could be made manifest. However, throughout the historic period, most gods retained some animal characteristics, many animals were mummified, and animal cults remained a distinguishing feature of the religion. The Egyptians may have promoted the veneration of animals because they believed that some creatures assisted humankind, while they feared others and tried to propitiate them in this way. State and local gods were worshipped in the temples, regarded as divine dwelling places where deities were served by priests who performed the daily rituals and attended to their needs. The priesthood probably developed from the early role of the village chieftain who performed rites in a simple reed shrine for the cult image of the community’s god. By the historic period, the king was recognized as the high priest of all gods. He delegated his ritual duties to the priests of each temple, who became a powerful bureaucracy, exercising great influence in politics and economic matters. They played a crucial role in the royal succession by giving or withholding acknowledgment and support for a particular candidate; the potential conflict between the king and the priesthood was never entirely resolved. In the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce), full-time, professional clerics became the norm in the main temples; however, in the Old and Middle Kingdoms (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce; 1991 bce–1786 bce), the priesthood functioned on a part-time basis, male priests combining their rota of temple duties with a career as a doctor, lawyer, scribe, or teacher. The priesthood included men and women, but even in the early periods, male priests greatly outnumbered their female counterparts, and women’s cultic role virtually disappeared from the New Kingdom onward. There were several ways in which a person could be initiated into the priesthood. Most priestly offices were gained through family inheritance, subject to royal approval; however, some individuals were selected and appointed by the king, while others were able to purchase a position. The requirement to attain a state of physical purity distinguished a priest from the laity; this allowed him to enter the presence of the god’s statue, or handle the divine ritual possessions. While he was undertaking his temple duties, a priest had to observe a standard set of regulations regarding personal hygiene, and he was prohibited from eating certain types of food and wearing clothing (leather and wool) derived from animal sources. Although priests were not celibate, they were required to abstain from sexual intercourse in sacred places and throughout their period of temple duty. The priests’ most important function was to perform the temple rituals for the gods; they also stage-managed the oracles, a key feature of the festival processions; composed and copied sacred texts in the temple scriptorium; taught in the temple schools; practiced medicine; performed burial rites; and participated in national political and religious missions.

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THE PRINCIPLES OF RELIGIOUS ART Most examples of Egyptian art are derived from religious contexts, usually the wall scenes found in tombs and temple. The main aim of Western art (sometimes termed “perceptual art”) is to provide an accurate depiction of a scene, person, or object, captured from the visual standpoint of the artist, who will use perspective, light and shade, and the representation of different textures to achieve a realistic, recognizable result. The rationale behind Egyptian art (sometimes described as “conceptual art”), which first appeared in tombs in ca. 2700 bce, is very different. The formalized scenes and figures, arranged in horizontal registers to illustrate a sequence of actions (similar to a cartoon), were expected to conform to a set of specific principles based on religious requirements. The primary aim of this type of art was not to record an historical event, decorate a building, or provide spiritual inspiration: the way in which these human figures and associated scenery were represented (which some modern studies have criticized as immature and primitive) was dictated by the requirements of sympathetic magic. The Egyptians believed that the activities depicted in these scenes—daily rituals in the temples, or the tomb owner’s funeral and requirements for the afterlife—would be activated once the priest had performed a ceremony known as the “Opening of the Mouth” at a funeral service or the consecration of a temple. Using an adze (carpenter’s tool) to touch the mouth, hands, and feet of figures depicted in the scenes (as well as the mummy and tomb statues and models), the priest “brought these figures to life,” magically activating them so that, in perpetuity, they could continue to function and fulfill ritual requirements for the gods or the dead. Many of the most puzzling features of Egyptian art are explained by a basic principle: the belief that magic rituals could only activate those elements that were visible in the scenes. In order to meet these magico-religious requirements, the artist was required to provide a kind of diagrammatic representation that captured the essential character, features, component parts, and details of a figure or object. It would have been unacceptable to employ the principles of perspective here, which might obscure or omit some of the features or parts of the whole, and thus render them incapable of magical activation. The main principles of Egyptian art are probably best observed in the artist’s representation of the human figure. The gods, royalty, and the upper classes were always depicted as youthful adults with no physical defects, so that they could enjoy youth and health for eternity. Each figure is represented in a stiff, formal pose; the head is in profile with only one eye depicted; a frontal view of the torso is presented; and the legs and feet are again shown in profile. The artist thus provided as complete a diagram as possible of the human body, which would allow the owner to maximize the use of his limbs throughout eternity: even although only one eye or breast was depicted, magic would enable both to function in perpetuity. The adults, only identified by accompanying inscriptions, have indistinguishable, “idealized” faces, and display no extreme emotions, and when small groups of people are depicted, no attempt is made to convey any interaction between them. A tomb-owner’s sons and daughters would normally have reached adulthood at the time of his death, but in tomb scenes, they are always shown with the characteristics of children below the age of puberty: small stature, nakedness, and a hairstyle, the “Sidelock of Youth,” which involved shaving most of the hair but leaving a plaited lock on one side of the head. The relative size of figures in religious art is a key indicator of status: the largest figure always represents the most important person in a scene, whereas servants and menials are shown much smaller. Whereas strict conventions were applied to the depiction of the gods, royalty, and the elite, these rules were relaxed for the portrayal of peasants, servants, and attendants,

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who are shown much more naturalistically, interacting with each other, and sometimes expressing a range of emotions including anger, joy, and humor. The human figures act out their parts against minimal scenic backgrounds: a single tree, a garden pool, or a short stretch of the river may illustrate an outdoor event, while a few items of furniture indicate an indoor venue. Buildings, lakes, gardens, furniture, and other inanimate objects are always shown in diagrammatical form, and maximum information is provided about individual features (for example, the internal layout of buildings, species of garden plants, fish swimming in ponds or the Nile). This was to ensure that they could be magically “activated” in their most complete form. The ancient artists’ skills are perhaps shown to best advantage in their close observation and depiction of the birds and animals that inhabited the landscape. Here, once the strict rules that governed the representation of the human figure were relaxed, the artists were free to provide realistic representations of the flora and fauna, and their work demonstrates a close attention to detail and an exquisite use of color.

Bibliography Butzer, K. W. Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: A Study in Cultural Ecology. Chicago, 1976. David, R. Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt. Harmondsworth, UK, 2002. Hornung, E. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. London, 1983. Kemp, B. J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation. London and New York, 1991. Pinch, G. Magic in Ancient Egypt. 2nd rev. ed. London, 2006. Robins, G. Women in Ancient Egypt. London, 1993. Schäfer, H. (tr. and ed.) J. Baines. Principles of Egyptian Art. Oxford, UK, 1974. Shafer, B. E., Arnold, A., Haeny, G., Bell, L., and Finnestad, R. B. Temples of Ancient Egypt. Ithaca, NY, 1997. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B. J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. (eds.). Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge, UK, 1983. Wilkinson, R. H. The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London, 2003.

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EVALUATING AND INTERPRETING PRIMARY DOCUMENTS HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The earliest writings to appear in Egypt at the start of the dynastic era (ca. 3100 bce) provide only brief records or list the names of persons, places, and events. They cannot be regarded as literature; the first examples of literary texts (defined as writings that include a creative element, even if their basic purpose is practical) occur in the pyramids and tombs of the late Old Kingdom (ca. 2375 bce–2175 bce). Egyptian literature evolved over 3,000 years, culminating in the Coptic writings of the Christian era (ca. 190 ce–7th century ce), and the absence of invasion or conquest in the early historical periods ensured that external influences did not affect literary development in its formative stages. The closest parallels to the Egyptian sources are to be found in the ancient Near East, in the literatures of Mesopotamia and the biblical Old Testament. It is generally acknowledged that only a small proportion of the Egyptian documents have survived, but the extant texts contain a wide range of subject matter. However, because translations of many of these documents can only be found in specialist publications, the general reader is far less familiar with the content of the literature than with the monuments and the often-spectacular archaeological discoveries that have been widely reported over the past two centuries. Egyptian literary texts can be arranged according to type (genre), a system which will be familiar to modern readers. However, some Egyptian documents incorporate more than one genre, and scholars sometimes disagree about the allocation of a piece of literature to a particular category. Some modern studies have divided the literature into three main groups: lyric, instruction, and narrative, with several sub-genres. Others propose a wider range of main categories, an arrangement that will be followed here. Each document reflects its own specific historical and religious context; this is true of texts belonging to a specific genre that only survived for a particular period, and also those that continued throughout the millennia, which evolved to reflect changing historical and social circumstances. The documents reflect the stability and certainty of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce); the self-analytical philosophy of the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce), which inspired the best literature; the empire building, cosmopolitan attitudes of the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce); or the period of decline, culminating in Egypt’s absorption into the Roman Empire (1089 bce–4th century ce). The

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uncertainty of these final years caused personal distress but also inspired a quest for new solutions, and even included a brief native revival of earlier literary forms.

Religious Texts Tomb inscriptions include the Autobiography (a verbal self-portrait of the deceased that emphasized his lifetime achievements, thus confirming his suitability for the afterlife), and an Offering List (or its shortened version, the Offering Prayer). This list, together with other funerary spells (the Pyramid Texts for royalty, and the Coffin Texts and Book of the Dead for nonroyals) were designed to provide perpetual and indestructible offerings for the deceased tomb owner and ensure his attainment of the afterlife. The Pyramid Texts, Autobiography, and Offering List, which date to the Old Kingdom, are Egypt’s earliest extant literary inscriptions. Thereafter, the Pyramid Texts were discontinued; the Coffin Texts were introduced in the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2181 bce–1991 bce) and Middle Kingdom, and ultimately replaced in the New Kingdom by the Book of the Dead and other funerary texts. The Autobiography attained its full length in Dynasty 6 (ca. 2345 bce–2181 bce), and became a major literary genre in the Middle Kingdom; examples continued to be inscribed, either on tomb walls or votive stelae, until the GrecoRoman Period (332 bce–4th century ce). Other documents include cosmogonies, which explain the gods’ role in creation, and myths that focus on the lives of significant deities. Temple inscriptions (from the New Kingdom to the Greco-Roman Period) preserve details of the rituals, festivals, sacred dramas, and hymns and prayers to the gods. The number of divine hymns and prayers, which originated in the Old Kingdom and continued until the end of Egyptian history, increased throughout the Middle and New Kingdoms. The concept of a transcendent, universal god was introduced toward the end of Dynasty 18 (ca. 1400 bce), culminating in the Aten hymns, which provide details of the god’s monotheistic doctrine and cult (Atenism). Religious texts were also inscribed on votive stelae, dedicated by the owner and set up at a religious location; some were inscribed with penitential hymns, a literary form found only in the New Kingdom, which provides evidence of personal piety, humility, and the concept of divine retribution and salvation.

Royal Historical Inscriptions Three types of royal inscriptions had developed by the end of the Old Kingdom, which record individual events, annals, or royal decrees. In the New Kingdom, accounts of military conquests and lists of tribute and booty brought back from campaigns appear on large royal stelae and temple walls. These emphasize the king’s divinity, personal bravery, and physical prowess, but their portrayal of the Egyptians as undisputed victors cannot be regarded as an accurate historical record. This genre survived into the Greco-Roman Period.

Instructions in Wisdom (Wisdom Texts) These teachings were probably first introduced in the Old Kingdom (providing the earliestknown written evidence of a code of morals and ethics). New forms emerged throughout the Middle and New Kingdoms and later periods, and the genre continued until the Roman era (first century ce). As a keystone in the education of young boys, the texts give advice on how to gain advancement in society through one’s behavior: the main attributes were politeness, kindness, moderation, self-control, and good judgment.

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Other Didactic Literature The Schoolboy Miscellanies (model essays and letters either composed by teachers and students or copied from older texts) extol the virtues of education and good behavior. They first appeared in the New Kingdom and continued until the Greco-Roman Period. Other didactic texts include medical, mathematical, and astronomical manuals, some of which incorporate magico-religious spells alongside practical instructions. The extant mathematical papyri date to the Middle Kingdom, while the medical documents date from the Middle Kingdom through to the Greco-Roman Period.

Narratives and Tales The earliest narratives appeared in the Middle Kingdom, when the finest example of this genre, the Story of Sinuhe, was written. New Kingdom examples are longer, have more complex storylines, and demonstrate a cosmopolitan awareness, with some stories set in “exotic” locations; these include identifiable foreign locations but some are drawn from the realms of fantasy. Most of these texts are works of fiction, which combine elements of myths, religion, and folk history (although the Report of Wenamun may describe the circumstances of a real event). They were generally created to entertain popular audiences but not all were simple adventure stories: some texts, such as the Tale of King Khufu and the Magicians, incorporated religious or political propaganda. This popular genre continued until the GrecoRoman Period.

Lamentations and Dialogues The Pessimistic Literature, which first appears in the Middle Kingdom, discusses the reversal of divine order and the problem of order versus chaos; it questions the belief in individual survival after death, a theme that is also explored in funerary hymns of the Middle and New Kingdoms (the Harpers’ Songs and Songs at Banquets). These texts seem to contradict the supreme confidence in eternal life, which found expression in the Egyptians’ funerary monuments and elaborate burial preparations.

Lyric Poetry A unique feature of Egyptian secular literature, the Love Songs only appear during the New Kingdom. As with the contemporary Narratives and Tales, they sometimes include references to exotic places.

HOW TO READ PRIMARY DOCUMENTS A primary source is an original text produced by a writer who had firsthand experience and knowledge of a historical period, people, or event; a secondary source, produced at a later date, reflects the opinions and conclusions of an author who often bases his evaluation on a primary document. Both are important, but a primary source has a significant advantage: it allows the reader not only to assess the accuracy and credibility of the original author’s comments, but also to evaluate any opinions made in a secondary source, and to reach a personal and independent conclusion about the document. The study of primary documents also makes the reader aware of the subjective nature of history, by emphasizing that all historical observations and conclusions are based on personal assessment, whether they

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are sourced from primary or secondary literary documents, archaeological sites and artifacts, or human remains. The reader should always be aware of the many difficulties associated with the translation and interpretation of ancient texts. These documents reflect a wide range of beliefs and opinions; each work, which represents its author’s unique historical, political, social, and religious background and perspectives, should be considered within its own historical and social context, and compared with any other known sources from the same period. These texts were composed or copied for a variety of reasons (see earlier); some were intended for widespread distribution while it was assumed that others, especially those in burial contexts, would remain hidden. Our own reasons for writing or compiling a document may be very different from those of ancient writers, but it is important to try to identify the aims and objectives of the author, and to understand his or her thesis, since their works provide unique and otherwise irrecoverable information about their own civilization. Readers should use the following list of questions and attached comments to help them understand and interpret the primary sources given in this book: 1. How was the document written or produced? The method used to produce an ancient Egyptian literary text was mainly determined by the type of material—papyrus, wood, or stone—on which it was inscribed. A reed pen and black or red ink (for headings, corrections, divisions approximating to modern paragraphs, and account totals) were employed to write on the flat surfaces provided by papyrus, wooden writing boards covered in stucco (plaster), and ostraca. Texts on coffins, statues, and stelae, which were generally made from stone or wood, were either carved or inscribed with ink. In pyramids and temples, wall inscriptions were carved and then painted; this procedure was also used in many tombs, although some funerary texts were painted directly on to the wall surface. 2. Who wrote or produced it, and is anything known about this person’s life or career? A distinction should be made here between the original author who created a document and the copyist/artisan who reproduced it. Most of the literature cannot be attributed to individual authors. The funerary, historical, lyrical, and narrative texts are all anonymous, with the exception of the Great Hymn to the Aten, which, although attributed to Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] and probably a reflection of his teachings, may have been written down by someone else. It was customary to accredit individual Instructions in Wisdom to famous sages, to give additional credibility to the text and honor the named “author.” However, there is no firm historical evidence to support these attributions, and the texts may be pseudonymous. The uncertainty surrounding individual authorship is offset by the availability of general information about the people who actually inscribed or carved the texts. Scribes were undoubtedly the anonymous authors of some original texts, but more often they can be identified as the copyists of older documents (their signatures were sometimes added at the end of these compositions). They also selected and supervised the execution of the texts that sculptors, stonemasons, wood-carvers, and painters added to various funerary items, or engraved and painted on the walls of pyramids, tombs, and temples. Excavation of the towns of royal necropolis workmen has revealed a wealth of evidence about the lives and working conditions of these scribes and artisans. For one particular genre, the Schoolboy Miscellanies, teachers and their pupils are generically credited as the creators and copyists of letters and model compositions, although individual authorship is unattributed. The content of these works provides illuminating information about the teaching profession and educational methods. xxviii

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3. When was the source written or produced? Does it describe contemporary events, or past or future happenings—if so, what date? Accurate dating of documents raises many issues. Some literary examples are copies of earlier works. Sometimes, although a document is attributed to a named author who lived at a particular period, it impossible to allocate a specific date because this authorship cannot be confirmed (see earlier). In some instances, documents were produced as political propaganda; although they appear to describe contemporary events and people, they were actually later compositions that used the device of “prophecy” to predict the success of a particular dynasty or to extol the virtues of an individual king. Sometimes, an ancient context or association is used to give a document authority and credibility. For example, the Famine Stela purports to be a decree issued by King Djoser (ca. 2667 bce–2648 bce) although it actually dates to the Ptolemaic Period (305 bce–30 bce), and was probably composed by the priesthood of the Temple of Khnum at Elephantine, to support their claim to revenues from the area. Scholars are uncertain whether the Pessimistic Literature describes a social revolution that occurred at a specific historical period, or whether it simply provides a philosophical discussion of order versus chaos. In view of these complications, scholars must rely on the context of an inscription (e.g., temple or tomb wall) and its internal evidence (language, style, and method of composition) as the most reliable means of dating a text. 4. Where was the document produced? What region/locality/site? The content and/or find-spot of a text will often identify the place where a document was produced—tomb, temple (walls or scriptorium), royal court, school, or civic records office. Some sites can be even more precisely located if material from specific archaeological contexts (e.g., the walls of monuments or ostraca discarded in rubbish heaps near the scribal school at Deir el-Medina) is available. However, it should be noted that any portable item may not have originated at its find-spot and, in the case of papyri acquired through purchase rather than excavation, the find-spot will probably be unrecorded. 5. Does it survive in its original form, or was it based on any preexisting material? If so, what form did the original take? The evidence rarely provides straightforward answers to these questions. Probably only a small proportion of the original source material survives, and modern evaluations of Egyptian literature are limited by the quantity, range, and state of preservation of the surviving documents. On rare occasions, Egyptologists have identified a single, complete text, or discovered a new papyrus, but generally only fragmentary texts are preserved. Some problems arise from the fragility of the writing materials themselves: insect damage or general deterioration can destroy large sections of a papyrus, including its beginning and end, although it is sometimes possible to fill in the lacunae (gaps) or confirm a translation in a known text by referring to other fragmentary copies on papyrus or ostraca. Even texts inscribed on harder writing surfaces, such as potsherds, limestone flakes, or tomb and temple walls, are often damaged or eroded. The translator also has to contend with the ancient copyists’ numerous spelling and grammatical errors. 6. Why was the source written or produced? What was its creator trying to do? Again, the context and content of a document will usually clarify why it was written, and identify its author’s aims. For example, the Pyramid Texts were placed inside some pyramids to facilitate the deceased king’s journey to heaven and ensure his place among the gods. The king would have instructed the priesthood of Re, the patron god of royalty at this period, to compile these inscriptions. xxix

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7. Who was the target audience for whom the document was written or produced? What do we know about the audience? In most instances, the content and context of a document will identify its specific audience. Documents were prepared as public announcements, popular entertainment, or addresses to the gods, kings, the dead, and schoolboys. The Pessimistic Literature and Harpers’ Songs, which represent conflicting, thought-provoking viewpoints, were aimed at both the living and the dead. 8. How reliable is this source material? How credible or valuable is the evidence it provides? Literary sources vary greatly in terms of their reliability, and each document must be judged on its own merits. In some cases, external evidence is available, which can either refute or confirm the document’s credibility. For example, whereas Egyptian sources claim an outright victory at the Battle of Kadesh, their opponents, the Hittites, record their own overwhelming success; however, in another instance, modern scientific studies have overturned doubts expressed by scholars about the accuracy of Herodotus’ description of the mummification process.

Bibliography Černý, J. Paper and Books in Ancient Egypt. London, 1952. Loprieno, A. (ed.). Ancient Egyptian Literature: History and Forms. Leiden, The Netherlands, New York and Cologne, 1996.

Websites Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus: http://www.realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/ Misc/Writing/The_first_ancient_writing.htm.

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CHRONOLOGY OF EGYPT FROM THE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD TO THE A RAB CONQUEST Includes the names of many significant rulers Alternative form of name given in square brackets: Mentuhotep [Nebhepetre] Grecized form of name given inside parenthesis: Khufu (Cheops)

PREDYNASTIC PERIOD (CA. 5000 BCE–CA. 3100 BCE) ca. 3400 BCE

Establishment of two kingdoms (the Red and White Lands) in the north and south; introduction of the mastaba tomb.

ca. 3200 BCE

Irrigation system established.

ca. 3100 BCE

Menes conquered the north and unified the two kingdoms.

ARCHAIC PERIOD (CA. 3100 BCE–2686 BCE) Key Developments: The beginning of the historical period; Memphis founded as the capital city of a unified Egypt; early political institutions including kingship were established; development of hieroglyphs; supporters of the god Horus overthrew King Peribsen and worshippers of Seth; military campaigns were sent to Nubia. Dynasty 1 (ca. 3100 BCE–2890 BCE) ca. 3100 BCE–?

Menes

ca. 3042–2995 BCE

Djer

ca. 2985 BCE–2930 BCE

Den

Dynasty 2 (ca. 2890–2686 BCE) ca. 2700 BCE

Peribsen

OLD KINGDOM (CA. 2686–CA. 2181 BCE) Key Developments: Djoser and his architect Imhotep erected the Step Pyramid at Saqqara (the world’s first major stone building); other pyramids were built at Meidum, Dahshur, Giza (by Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure), Abusir, and Saqqara (earliest Pyramid Texts).

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Chronology of Egypt from the Predynastic Period to the Arab Conquest

Mummification and mastaba tombs (with introduction of the Offering List and Autobiography) were developed for the nobility. Gods were organized into a pantheon, and cosmogonies were developed at major cult centers: Heliopolis, Memphis, and Hermopolis. The Wisdom Texts were introduced as educational tools. Royal power declined under Pepy II and the political structure of the kingdom disintegrated. Dynasty 3 (ca. 2686–2613 BCE) ca. 2667–2648 BCE

Djoser

ca. 2637–2613 BCE

Huni

Dynasty 4 (ca. 2613–2494 BCE) ca. 2613–2589 BCE

Sneferu

ca. 2589–2566 BCE

Khufu (Cheops)

ca. 2558–2533 BCE

Khafre (Chephren)

ca. 2528–2500 BCE

Menkaure (Mycerinus)

ca. 2500–2496 BCE

Shepseskaf

Dynasty 5 (ca. 2494–2345 BCE) ca. 2494–2487 BCE

Userkaf

ca. 2487–2473 BCE

Sahure

ca. 2473–2463 BCE

Neferirkare

ca. 2463–2422 BCE

Niuserre

ca. 2414–2375 BCE

Isesi

ca. 2375–2345 BCE

Unas

Dynasty 6 (ca. 2345–2181 BCE) ca. 2345–2333 BCE

Teti

ca. 2322–2283 BCE

Pepy I

ca. 2282–2270 BCE

Merenre

2269–ca. 2175 BCE

Pepy II

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (CA. 2181–1991 BCE) Key Developments: The Old Kingdom collapsed, followed by a period of political and social upheaval characterized by civil war and independent provincial centers of power. Eventually, local rulers at Herakleopolis and Thebes seized power and reunited the country. The Pessimistic Literature may describe the conditions of this period. Dynasty 7 (ca. 2181–2173 BCE) A succession of kings ruled briefly from Memphis.

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Dynasty 8 (ca. 2173–2160 BCE) A further succession of brief reigns centered at Memphis. Dynasty 9 (ca. 2160–2160 BCE) and Dynasty 10 (ca. 2130–2040 BCE) Achthoes I, a local ruler of Herakleopolis, seized power (ca. 2160 bce); he and 17 successors ruled over parts of Egypt. Dynasty 11 (ca. 2133–1991 BCE) Antef (Intef ), a local ruler at Thebes, founded this dynasty; his successor, Mentuhotep [Nebhepetre], reunited Egypt. The last ruler of the dynasty, Mentuhotep [Nebtowyre], was assassinated by his First Minister, Amenemhet, who seized power and founded Dynasty 12. 2060–2010 BCE

Mentuhotep [Nebhepetre]

2009–1998 BCE

Mentuhotep [S’ankhkare]

1997–1991 BCE

Mentuhotep [Nebtowyre]

MIDDLE KINGDOM (1991–1786 BCE) Key Developments: Reorganization and reunification of the country included the introduction of co-regencies and abolition of the powers and privileges of the provincial nobility. Pyramids were reintroduced for kings, and the elite were buried in rock-cut tombs in the provinces. Trading relations were renewed with Syria/Palestine; a program to colonize Nubia was started. Major projects in the Fayoum included land reclamation and pyramid building (the royal workers’ town of Kahun). Democratization of religion reflected the influence of the Osiris Myth and the cult of Osiris, and included new concepts of the afterlife and the introduction of the Coffin Texts. This era represented the peak of Egyptian literary achievement (including medical and mathematical documents). A period of gradual decline was followed by disintegration of the kingdom. Dynasty 12 (1991–1786 BCE) 1991–1962 BCE

Amenemhet (Amenemmes) I

1971–1928 BCE

Senusret (Sesostris) I

1929–1895 BCE

Amenemhet (Amenemmes) II

1897–1878 BCE

Senusret (Sesostris) II

1878–1843 BCE

Senusret (Sesostris) III

1842–1797 BCE

Amenemhet (Amenemmes) III

1798–1790 BCE

Amenemhet (Amenemmes) IV

1789–1786 BCE

Sobekneferu (queen regnant)

SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1786–1567 BCE) Key Developments: Sixty kings based at Thebes controlled parts of Egypt during Dynasty 13, while another line (76 kings of Dynasty 14, a breakaway line established at the end of

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Dynasty 12) ruled simultaneously from Xois. The Hyksos invaded Egypt and ruled as kings during Dynasties 15 and 16. They were driven out by the Theban rulers of Dynasty 17 who subsequently established the New Kingdom. Dynasty 13 (1786–1567 BCE) Dynasty 14 (1986–ca. 1603 BCE) Dynasty 15 (1674–1567 BCE) ca. 1570 BCE

Auserre Apophis I

Dynasty 16 (ca. 1684–1567 BCE) Dynasty 17 (ca. 1650–1567 BCE) ca. 1575 BCE

Seqenenre Ta’o II

ca. 1570–1567 BCE

Kamose

NEW KINGDOM (1567–1085 BCE) Key Developments: The Hyksos were expelled and replaced by native Egyptian rulers who established an empire by expanding the colonization of Nubia and attempting to secure the allegiance of Syria/Palestine: military conflict, exemplified by the Battle of Megiddo against the Mitanni and the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites, was eventually replaced by diplomacy, royal marriages, and a peace treaty. Major trading expeditions went to Byblos for timber and Punt for incense. Rock-cut tombs in Valley of the Kings (built by the workmen housed at Deir el-Medina) replaced pyramids as royal burial places; separate mortuary temples were built on the west bank at Thebes. Spells inscribed on papyri (e.g., Book of the Dead) replaced the Coffin Texts; other literary forms included Wisdom Texts, Love Poems, narrative texts, and schoolboy exercises. Polytheism was briefly replaced by Atenism; the newly built capital of El-Amarna was briefly occupied prior to restoration of the traditional gods. Egypt’s empire was reinvigorated in Dynasty 19, but the successful defeat of coalitions of Libyans and Sea Peoples was followed by slow decline, marked by loss of prestige abroad, economic hardship, and widespread tomb robbery. Finally, rulership of the country was divided between a legitimate line of kings in the north and the high priests of Amun in the south. Dynasty 18 (1567–1320 BCE)

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1570–1546 BCE

Amosis I

1546–1526 BCE

Amenhotep [Amenophis] I

1525–1512 BCE

Tuthmosis I

ca. 1512–1504 BCE

Tuthmosis II

1503–1482 BCE

Hatshepsut (queen regnant)

1504–1450 BCE

Tuthmosis III

1450–1425 BCE

Amenhotep (Amenophis) II

1425–1417 BCE

Tuthmosis IV

Chronology of Egypt from the Predynastic Period to the Arab Conquest

1417–1379 BCE

Amenhotep (Amenophis) III

1379–1362 BCE

Amenhotep (Amenophis) IV [Akhenaten]

ca. 1364–1361 BCE

Smenkhkare

1361–1352 BCE

Tutankhamun

1352–1348 BCE

Ay

1348–1320

Horemheb

Dynasty 19 (1320–1200 BCE) 1318–1304 BCE

Sety (Sethos) I

1304–1237 BCE

Ramesses II

1236–1223 BCE

Merneptah

Dynasty 20 (1200–1085 BCE) 1198–1166 BCE

Ramesses III

1160–1156 BCE

Ramesses V

1140–1121 BCE

Ramesses IX

1122–1112 BCE

Ramesses X

1113–1085 BCE

Ramesses XI

THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (CA. 1089–525 BCE) Dynasty 21 (ca. 1089–945 BCE) Key Developments: Egypt was nominally ruled by a line of seven kings, based at Tanis in the Delta. However, in reality, they only exercised power over the north while the south was controlled by a dynasty of high priests at Thebes. Advances in mummification techniques, including subcutaneous packing of the body, were introduced but later abandoned. Kings (ruling from Tanis) 1089–1063 BCE

Smendes

1063–1037 BCE

Psusennes I

959–945 BCE

Psusennes II

High priests (ruling from Thebes) 1100–1094 BCE

Herihor

1064–1045 BCE

Pinudjem I

985–969 BCE

Pinudjem II

Dynasty 22 (945–730 BCE) The kings of this dynasty were the descendants of the Libyans who fought against Merneptah and Ramesses, and subsequently settled in the Delta. xxxv

Chronology of Egypt from the Predynastic Period to the Arab Conquest

945–924 BCE

Shoshenk I

874–850 BCE

Osorkon II

Dynasty 23 (ca. 818–793 BCE) This line of kings, also of Libyan descent and based at Tanis, may have ruled simultaneously with Dynasty 22. Dynasty 24 (ca. 727–715 BCE) These kings controlled a limited area of Egypt from their capital at Sais (in the Delta). Dynasty 25 (ca. 780–656 BCE) Key Developments: Nubian rulers from Kush conquered and ruled Egypt, adopting many Egyptian beliefs and traditions. They increased the status and power of the God’s Wife of Amun (a position established by earlier rulers). The Assyrians invaded Egypt and the Nubians retreated to Kush. ca. 780 –748 BCE

Kashta

747–716 BCE

Piye [Piankhy]

716–702 BCE

Shabaka

690–664 BCE

Taharka

664–656 BCE

Tanuatamun

Dynasty 26 (664–525 BCE) Key Developments: The Assyrians installed the Prince of Sais as their vassal ruler in Egypt. With the Assyrian retreat from Egypt, the Saite rulers established Dynasty 26, with the military support of Greek mercenaries. They also encouraged foreigners to live and trade freely in Egypt, but the native population objected to these immigrants who were subsequently confined to designated cities. The last Saite ruler was defeated by a Persian king, Cambyses, at the Battle of Pelusium (525 bce). 664–610 BCE

Psammetichus I

610–595 BCE

Necho II

595–589 BCE

Psammetichus II

589–570 BCE

Apries

570–526 BCE

Amasis

526–525 BCE

Psammetichus III

LATE PERIOD (525–332 BCE) Key Developments: During the First and Second Persian Periods, Egypt was ruled as a satrapy (region) of the Persian (Achaemenid) Empire. In the intervening years, native Egyptian dynasties regained partial control of the country. The Persians were finally overthrown by Alexander the Great in 332 bce.

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Dynasty 27 (525–404 BCE) The First Persian Period: Egypt was ruled by a line of Persian kings. 525–522 BCE

Cambyses

521–486 BCE

Darius I

Dynasty 28 (404–399 BCE) Egyptian kings ruling from Sais restored limited control over Egypt. Dynasty 29 (399–343 BCE) Another native line, based at Mendes, ruled over part of Egypt. Dynasty 30 (380–343 BCE) Another line of native kings (who included Nectanebo I, 380–363 bce) ruled from the city of Sebennytos. Artaxerxes III revived the Persian Empire, and reclaimed Egypt in 343 bce. Dynasty 31 (343–332 BCE) During the Second Persian Period, Egypt was ruled by the Persian kings Artaxerxes III, Arses, and Darius III. Conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great, ruler of Macedon, in 332 BCE Egypt remained part of Alexander’s empire until his death in 323 bce. He founded the city of Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast.

THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD Key Developments: During this period, Egypt was ruled first by a line of Macedonian rulers—the Ptolemies—and subsequently by the Romans. Many foreigners, especially Greeks, settled in Egypt. Some adopted Egyptian funerary beliefs and practices, especially mummification, described by Herodotus (late fifth century bce) and Diodorus Siculus (late first century bce). The Ptolemaic and Roman rulers of Egypt encouraged the building of traditional-style Egyptian temples. Christianity was introduced to Egypt in the first century ce.

THE PTOLEMAIC PERIOD (305–30 BCE) When Alexander the Great died, his Macedonian general, Ptolemy, became satrap (governor) of Egypt; subsequently, as Ptolemy I Soter, he founded the Ptolemaic dynasty. 305–283 BCE

Ptolemy I Soter

283–246 BCE

Ptolemy II Philadelphus

246–221 BCE

Ptolemy III Euergetes

221–204 BCE

Ptolemy IV Philopator

204–180 BCE

Ptolemy V Epiphanes

145–116 BCE

Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II

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115–107 BCE; 88–80 BCE

Ptolemy IX

51–30 BCE

Cleopatra VII, queen of Ptolemy XII, Ptolemy XIII, Ptolemy XIV

Conquest of Egypt by the Roman emperor Augustus (Octavian) in 30 BCE Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.

ROMAN EGYPT (30 BCE–CA. 600 CE) 193–211 CE

Septimius Severus

306–337 CE

Constantine I

379–395 CE

Theodosius I

The Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western parts in 395 CE As part of the eastern half, Egypt was now ruled from Constantinople (Byzantium). The Arab conquest of Egypt and the introduction of Islam (seventh century CE).

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DOMESTIC LIFE AND PERSONAL BELIEFS

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1. TRAINING CHILDREN INTRODUCTION The Wisdom Texts originated in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce) (see Document 19) and provided instructions in morality and piety that were copied out by generations of schoolboys (see Documents 2, 3, 4, 11, 14). This excerpt is taken from the Seventh Instruction in Papyrus Insinger (probably first century ce) and provides advice to a young boy about his conduct and behavior. The document carries the name of J. H. Insinger who bought it for the Rijksmuseum in Leiden, The Netherlands, in 1895. Different versions of the text occur in four papyri in the Carlsberg Museum in Copenhagen, Denmark, and other fragments held elsewhere.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Deities associated with childbirth included Tauert, a goddess who protected women and children; Bes, a dwarf-god, who was also responsible for fertility; and Meskhenet, the female personification of the birthing stool on which babies were delivered. 2. Women and male lector-priests would have recited magical spells for procreation, safe pregnancy, and to protect children against diseases brought by evil spirits (see Document 46). Some spells are preserved in two important papyri from the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce): Papyrus Ramesseum IV and Papyrus Berlin 3027. 3. The school curriculum included training in Egyptian language and literature (see Document 19), geography, mathematics, and geometry (see Document 24), and sometimes, foreign languages needed for trade and administration of the empire. Emphasis was also placed on morals, piety, and behavior (see Documents 19, 22, 35), and schoolchildren engaged in sporting activities and physical training (see “Sports and Games,” Document 41). 4. Toys and games have been found in children’s burials. These were intended to provide enjoyment for the deceased owner in the next world, but examples uncovered in houses at Kahun are particularly interesting because these were the playthings of living children.

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Document: A Father’s Advice to His Son (Papyrus Insinger) Do not rage against him who reprimands you because he reprimands you in public. Do not let yourself be called “the bad man” because of merciless evildoing. Do not let yourself be called “the rude one” because of ignorant shamelessness. Do not (let) yourself be called “fool” because of your thoughtless gluttony. Do not let yourself be called “who collects by abuse” because Him who reprimands you: the of violence. Do not let yourself be called “the prattler” because your teacher tongue is everywhere. Do not let yourself be called “idiot” because of silence when it is time to speak. Do not let (yourself ) be called “stupid” because of weariness which your words cause. Do not do what you desire with a woman by cajoling her. Do not speak arrogantly when counselling in public. Source: Boeser, P.A.A. “Demotic Papyrus from Roman Imperial Time.” Egyptian Religion 3 (1935), 27–63. Reprinted in Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 3. The Late Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980: 187.

CHILDHOOD The ancient Egyptians were devoted to their children, and across the classes, parents took great care to raise and educate their offspring (see “The Mother’s Role in the Family,” Document 3; see Documents 2, 4, 14). Pregnancy, childbirth, and its immediate aftermath were regarded as times of great danger: many women suffered miscarriages, or, together with their newborns, died during or soon after childbirth. Counteractive measures included the employment of professionally trained midwives, prayers to special gods, and the recitation of spells to protect mothers and children (see “State Gods,” Document 36; “The Medical Papyri,” Document 20; “Magic and Medicine,” Document 46). Children were breast-fed for up to three years by their mother or by a wet nurse who probably moved into the family home. Wet nurses employed in the royal family had a high status, some being related or married to royalty or leading officials. Youngsters faced many diseases throughout childhood, which were treated with prayers, magical spells (see Document 46), and medicine. They were also subjected to surgery: some boys were circumcised, although this was not a universal practice. Parents loved and protected their children who were educated at home by their mothers until they were four years of age. In poorer families, mothers trained their daughters in household skills for future marriage (see “Marriage,” Document 2; “The Mother’s Role in the Family,” Document 3), while sons accompanied their fathers to the fields. However, from early times, even a boy of humble origin could gain an education and aspire to a high-level career (see Document 14). Boys from elite families attended special schools (see Document 14). Temple schools provided instruction in liturgical texts and some may have provided specialized medical training (see Document 26). There were also government schools that trained officials for state departments. Another type of school was located in the palace harem, a special institution that had its own administration (see Document 16), where princes were taught in the company of selected children (see Document 16). Girls from elite families sometimes attended these palace schools, although most of them probably received private tuition at home.

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Training Children

AFTERMATH Children undoubtedly played an important role in pharaonic Egypt. The Wisdom Texts instruct children to love and honor their parents, and they all shared in the eldest son’s obligation to bury their father and mother and continue their funerary cult after death. Neglect of these duties could result in disinheritance. There is currently little evidence that children were accorded the same elaborate burial procedures as adults. Archaeologists have found some child burials interred with their parents, or buried in their own tombs in adult cemeteries; others have been placed in special cemeteries or under the floor of the family home. However, a countless number of infants and children died over the millennia, but the locations of their burials remain unknown. This apparent lack of concern for the physical remains of children may arise from some belief that they did not acquire a separate spiritual identity until adulthood, but there is no real textual evidence to support such an idea. Tomb scenes show boys and girls participating with their parents in funerary rites and events in the afterlife, indicating that children were expected to be part of the next world. The matter remains unresolved. Evidence provided by elaborately wrapped and decorated mummies of children dating to the Greco-Roman Period (305 bce–600 ce) demonstrates a significant change in burial procedures. These mummies belonged to members of indigenous Egyptian families, and also to Greek and other settlers who adopted Egyptian burial and funerary customs, including mummification (see “Mummification,” Document 48). Perhaps these immigrants held different views about the significance of children, their role in the afterlife, and the need to provide them with funerary preparations equal to those of adults. Biomedical studies carried out on child mummies have provided interesting observations on their state of health; however, it is usually impossible to identify the cause of death, perhaps indicating that infectious disease was often responsible for a child’s demise.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why did later civilizations, including the Greeks, hold the Egyptian educational system in such high regard? 2. Why were infancy and childhood particularly dangerous times?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H What was it like to be a child in ancient Egypt? Draw up a list of the ways in which the experience might have differed from your own childhood. H Discuss the reasons why, alongside formal tuition in academic subjects, the Egyptians placed such value on instruction in behavior and morals, and on sport and physical training. Do you think that this provided a balanced education? H In your opinion, to what extent was the longevity and stability of the Egyptian state due to its methods of bringing up and training children?

Further Information David, A. R. The Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt. London, 1996. Foster, J. L. “Texts of the Egyptian Composition ‘The Instruction of a Man for his Son’ in the Oriental Institute Museum.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 45 (1986): 197–211. Janssen, R. and Janssen, J. J. Growing Up in Ancient Egypt. London, 1990.

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Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 3. The Late Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980. Lichtheim, M. Moral Values in Ancient Egypt. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 155. Göttingen, 1997. Pinch, G. Magic in Ancient Egypt. 2nd rev. ed. London, 2006. Robins, G. Women in Ancient Egypt. London and Cambridge, MA, 1993. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Smith, H. S. “The Story of ‘Onchsheshonqy.’ ” Serapis 6 (1980): 133–57. Tait, J. W. “Demotic Literature and Egyptian Society.” In J. H. Johnson (ed.). Life in a Multi-Cultural Society: Egypt from Cambyses to Constantine and Beyond. Chicago, 1992: 303–10. Williams, R. J. “The Sages of Ancient Egypt in the Light of Recent Scholarship.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1981): 1–14.

Website Child Mummy Board (cartonnage 5): http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/manchester/pages/ cartonnage%205.htm.

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2. A DVICE ON M ARRIAGE INTRODUCTION The Instruction of Any is a New Kingdom imitation of the Wisdom Texts of the Old and Middle Kingdoms (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce and 1991 bce–1786 bce) (see Documents 3, 4, 35). Although the original composition probably dates to Dynasty 18 (1567 bce–1320 bce), the most completely preserved version dates to Dynasty 21 or 22 (1085 bce–730 bce) and survives as a schoolboy exercise in Papyrus Boulaq 4, now in the Cairo Museum. Small sections of the text have also been discovered on a schoolboy’s writing tablet (8934) in the Berlin Museum (Dynasty 22); on four ostraca and in a papyrus from Deir el-Medina; and in papyrus fragments, three in the Musée Guimet, France, and one in Papyrus Chester Beatty V (British Museum). Translation of the text has posed considerable problems because the schoolboy copyist made many mistakes with this exercise. The Instruction retains the traditional format used in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, with an older man passing on his wisdom to a younger person (see Document 1). However, instead of being couched in terms of the king or First Minster giving advice to the country’s future leaders, in this Instruction, Any, a minor official, gives advice to his own son. The evolution of a middle class in the New Kingdom produced a changed society: these families now expected to participate in education so that they could gain entry to the professions, and this in turn generated the need for new school instruction manuals that reflected different values and aspirations (see Document 19). This excerpt gives advice on marriage.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Marriage was regarded as the normal and ideal state for adults; people were usually only single because of divorce or a partner’s death, and not because they chose to remain unmarried. Those affected by death or divorce frequently remarried. 2. People tended to choose their marriage partners from the same social background and locality (see Document 6), and some couples came from the same extended family. However, there are instances of marriages across social and geographical boundaries: for example, between slaves and free persons (see “Slaves and Serfs,” Document 16),

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Voices of Ancient Egypt

or Egyptians and foreigners (either when Egyptian men resident abroad married local women or foreign men domiciled in Egypt took Egyptian wives). 3. Where a man had several wives, these were usually examples of serial monogamy (where one wife was divorced and succeeded by another) rather than bigamy or polygamy.

Document: Found a Family (The Instruction of Any (Papyrus Boulaq 4)) Take to thyself a wife when thou art a youth, that she may give thee a son. Thou shouldest beget him for thee whilst thou art yet young, and shouldest live to see him become a man(?). Happy is the man who hath much people, and he is respected because of his children(?). Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 235.

MARRIAGE Marriage was an important cornerstone of Egyptian society, under the protection of specific deities (see “State Gods,” Document 36); it was regarded as a private undertaking that essentially facilitated the establishment of a household and ensured the protection and inheritance rights of any children born to the union. There are no official records of marriages and, although marriage may have been celebrated with religious rites, no evidence of these has survived. A man was encouraged to marry as soon as he had acquired property and established a household, so that he could become a young father. Monogamy was the norm, and bigamy was rare, although the kings were always polygamous. There were also royal consanguineous (sibling) marriages but there is little evidence of these among the general population before the Greco-Roman Period (332 bce–4th century ce). Arranged marriages were customary for the king; his Great Royal Wife was often a close female relative, although some rulers broke this pattern. Amenhotep III (1417 bce–1379 bce), for example, married Tiye, the daughter of royal courtiers. Marriage alliances between nonroyals were not formally arranged, and sentiments expressed in the Love Poetry (see Document 6) suggest that people were expected to “fall in love” and choose their own partner. However, parents undoubtedly influenced this choice, and once plans for marriage were in hand, the suitor sometimes presented the bride’s family with gifts. Few careers were open to women, and a girl’s main ambition was to marry and fulfill the role that, in wealthy families, carried the title of “Mistress of the House.” The law however protected the marital rights of all women, whether rich or poor. A women retained ownership of any property she brought to the marriage and, if her husband divorced her, she kept her property and also received compensation from him. Within the marriage, a man and his wife had equal legal rights and shared joint ownership of the marital property, which included their tomb and its contents. Legal documents were drawn up to ensure the transfer of valuable property and possessions after the owner’s death. These usually indicate that the wife and any children of the marriage were the rightful heirs, and that the wife often inherited at least one-third of her husband’s estate.

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Advice on Marriage

AFTERMATH If a marriage did not succeed, divorce proceedings could be started either by the wife or, more commonly, by the husband. Like marriage, divorce was not officially recorded by the state, but involved the dissolution of a couple’s household and re-apportioning of their joint property. It was a frequent occurrence in ancient Egypt; it was easily arranged, apparently carried no social stigma, and divorcees often remarried. Literary sources infer that adultery was the most common cause of marriage breakdown. Other reasons included incompatibility and infertility although, in this situation, couples often preferred to adopt a child or take a female slave (see Document 16) into the household to provide the husband with heirs who could then inherit his property.

ASK YOURSELF 1. How does the Instruction of Any differ from the Wisdom Texts of the Old and Middle Kingdoms? 2. Why did the Egyptians recommend early marriage? 3. There is apparently little evidence for polygamy or sibling marriage among the general population of Egypt. Why then did the kings practice these customs?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Discuss the legal and social rights of ancient Egyptian women in terms of marriage, property ownership, and divorce. How do these rights compare with those of modern women? H In ancient Egypt, royal and nonroyal women alike held positions of considerable influence within their families. On what basis did these women command their powers and how did they choose to use them?

Further Information Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Černý, J. “Consanguineous Marriages in Pharaonic Egypt.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 40 (1954): 23–29. Eyre, C. J. “Crime and Adultery in Ancient Egypt.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 70 (1984): 92–105. Gardiner, A. H. “A Didactic Passage Re-examined.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 45 (1959): 12–15. Janssen, J. J. “Marriage Problems and Public Reactions (P. BM 10416).” In J. Baines, T.G.H. James, A. Leahy, and A. F. Shore (eds.). Pyramid Studies and Other Essays Presented to I.E.S. Edwards. Occasional Papers, 7. London, 1988: 134–37. Johnson, J. H. “The Legal Status of Women in Ancient Egypt.” In A. K. Capel and G. E. Markoc (eds.). Mistress of the House, Mistress of Heaven: Women in Ancient Egypt. New York, 1997: 175–86. Montserrat, D. Sex and Society in Graeco-Roman Egypt. London and New York, 1996.

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Pestman, P. W. Marriage and Matrimonial Property in Ancient Egypt: A Contribution to Establishing the Legal Position of Women. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1961. Robins, G. Women in Ancient Egypt. London and Cambridge, MA, 1993. Schulman, A. R. “Diplomatic Marriage in the Egyptian New Kingdom.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 38 (1979): 177–93. Simpson, W. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966.

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3. FAMILY VALUES INTRODUCTION The Instruction of Any is a New Kingdom Wisdom Text (see Document 2) that reflects some of the social changes that occurred in the New Kingdom. In this excerpt, Any gives advice to his son about the qualities needed to become the “ideal man,” in particular praising the role of the mother. This Instruction emphasizes the need for kindness toward others, particularly members of the family circle (see Document 4).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Mothers breastfed their children until they were three years of age. 2. Bread and beer were the staple diet of ordinary Egyptians; according to this text, it seems that beer, an alcoholic drink, was part of a child’s daily food (see “Magic and Medicine,” Document 46). 3. Although there were many gods in the pantheon (see “State Gods,” Document 36), most people (as in this excerpt) probably addressed their daily prayers to one deity, or a single family group of deities.

Document: Be Grateful to Your Mother (The Instruction of Any (Papyrus Boulaq 4)) Double the food your mother gave you, support her as she supported you; she had a heavy load in you, but she did not abandon you. When you were born after your months, she was yet yoked (to you), her breast in your mouth for three years. As you grew and your excrement disgusted, she was not disgusted, saying: “What shall I do!” When she sent you to school, and you were taught to write, she kept watching over you daily, with bread and beer in her house.

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When as a youth you take a wife, and you are settled in your house, pay attention to your offspring, bring him up as did your mother. Do not give her cause to blame you, lest she raise her hands to god, and he hears her cries. Source: Educational instruction made by the Scribe Any of the Palace of Queen Nefertari. Reprinted in Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 141.

THE MOTHER’S ROLE IN THE FAMILY At all levels of society, the mother played a key role in the Egyptian family, and was treated with affection and great respect. It was not unknown for women of every social level to become closely involved in their husbands’ work: they might share in agricultural labor or help to supervise the couple’s country estate. On occasions when a husband was away from home, his wife might look after his business interests, and in the event of a father’s death, the widow brought up the couple’s children and supervised their inheritance (see “Childhood,” Document 1). If a king died while his heir was still a child, the queen could rule as regent until her son reached adulthood. Unlike the Romans, the Egyptians did not abandon unwanted children, and welcomed the arrival of both boys and girls. On one hand, infertility was considered a great sorrow and even a reason for divorce, but the Egyptians also used contraceptives to control the size of their families, perhaps because there was only limited cultivatable land to support the population. Several of the Medical Papyri (see “The Medical Papyri,” Document 20), including the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus, contain prescriptions for contraception and to counteract infertility, as well as tests to determine sterility, pregnancy, and the sex of unborn children. If these spells were unsuccessful, then couples could adopt a child. The Kahun Papyrus part of an archive of papyri discovered during the excavation of Kahun (1889 ce), dates to 1825 bce. Now held at University College London, it is the world’s oldest extant gynecological document.

AFTERMATH Most Egyptians, even the wealthy classes, could only expect to live until they were forty or fifty. The Prologue in the Instruction of Ptah-hotep (Lichtheim 1975: 62–63) provides a compelling picture of the deteriorating health that often accompanied the declining years, and whenever possible, people tried to ward off the effects of old age. Both men and women wore cosmetics to protect their skin, and the Medical Papyri (see “The Medical Papyri,” Document 20) contain prescriptions to remove wrinkles, prevent baldness, and change the color of graying hair. However, great respect was shown to older people for the wisdom they had gained through a lifetime’s experience, and legal documents show that a couple would provide a place in their home for a widowed mother. An ageing man could take on a son or other nominee as his “staff of old age,” who was expected to support, and eventually to succeed, the father in his work. Ultimately, in return for an inheritance, a man’s eldest son, or another selected person, undertook to fulfill the obligation of burying his parents with appropriate religious rituals.

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Family Values

ASK YOURSELF 1. If they did not have offspring, what steps did people take to ensure that their needs would be met during this life and in the next world? 2. Why did mothers play such an important role in the family? 3. How were girls prepared and trained for motherhood?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Look at translations of the Medical Papyri, and list the cosmetic prescriptions. Consider how effective they were in comparison with modern cosmetic preparations. H Modern analytical studies have been undertaken of the pregnancy tests and contraceptive measures mentioned in some Medical Papyri. Discuss the conclusions that have been reached about the efficacy of these ancient methods of family planning. H The Egyptians held conflicting views about the desirability of youth versus the benefits of old age: advantages of the former included fitness, good health, and beauty, while the physical disabilities endured by the elderly were offset by their wisdom and experience. What measures did people take to accommodate and balance these differing viewpoints?

Further Information Griffith, F. Ll. Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob. London, 1898. Janssen, R. and J. J. Getting Old in Ancient Egypt. London, 1996. Janssen, R. and J. J. Growing Up in Ancient Egypt. London, 1990. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Manniche, L. An Ancient Egyptian Herbal. Austin, TX, 1989. Manniche, L. Sacred Luxuries: Fragrance, Aromatherapy and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt. London, 1999. Nunn, J. F. Ancient Egyptian Medicine. London, 2000. Pinch, G. Magic in Ancient Egypt. 2nd rev. ed. London, 2006. Robins, G. Women in Ancient Egypt. London and Cambridge, MA, 1993.

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4. HOW A M AN SHOULD TREAT HIS WIFE INTRODUCTION Any, author of this Instruction, adopts a homely approach, typical of New Kingdom Wisdom Texts (see Document 2), when he offers advice to his son. In this excerpt, he recommends that the boy should treat his future wife with humility and kindness.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Women had equal legal and social status with men in ancient Egypt. They could own, inherit and sell property. A wife was regarded as an equal partner in marriage (see “Childhood,” Document 1; “Marriage,” Document 2; “The Mother’s Role in the Family,” Document 3), although men and women had different roles: men went outside the home to earn a living, while the house was the woman’s domain. 2. When a couple married and established a home, the woman was regarded as the “Mistress of the House.” Within this social context, Any offers his son the sound advice to love and respect his wife and not to annoy her by questioning her housekeeping skills!

Document: Treat Thy Wife Well (The Instruction of Any (Papyrus Boulaq 4)) Act not the official over thy wife in her house, if thou knowest that she is excellent. Say not unto her: “Where is it? Bring it us,” if(?) she hath put (it) in the right place. Let thine eye observe and be silent, that so(?) thou mayest know her good deeds. (She is) happy when thine hand is with her. . . . Thereby the man ceaseth to stir up strife in his house. . . . Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 240.

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THE NEW KINGDOM INSTRUCTIONS IN WISDOM The New Kingdom Instructions in Wisdom were used to educate schoolboys being prepared for careers as officials (see “Instructions in Wisdom,” Document 19). The texts emphasize middle-class values and behavior such as honesty and humility rather than the aristocratic virtues seen in the earlier Instructions (see Document 35). A common feature of Instructions from all periods was an epilogue that summarized the teachings in each document. However, whereas epilogues in the earlier texts express the assumption that the pupils will accept the teachings without argument, and the pupils express their gratitude to the advisor, a new concept is introduced in the Instruction of Any. Here, the son questions his father’s teachings, complaining that they are too difficult to follow, before the father finally wins him over. A famous Wisdom Text of the New Kingdom, the Instruction of Amenemope (in which Amenemope, a resident of the town of Akhmim, provides advice for his youngest child) appears to introduce other new ideas (see Lichtheim 1976: 146–63). The complete text of this composition (the original probably dates to the Ramesside Period, 1320 BCE–1085 BCE) is preserved in British Museum Papyrus 10474, and smaller sections survive on a papyrus in Stockholm, an ostracon in Cairo Museum, and three schoolboy writing tablets in Paris, Turin, and Moscow. Possibly the most significant new concept in this Instruction (see “Instructions in Wisdom,” Document 19) is the belief that only the gods are perfect: consequently, humans, who can never expect to achieve this absolute state, should treat the gods with respect and humility.

AFTERMATH Scholars agree that there are notable similarities between the Instruction of Amenemope and Chapters 22 and 23 in the biblical Book of Proverbs. The Egyptians and the tribes of Israel may have had close contact during the Ramesside Period (1320 BCE–1085 BCE)—the suggested date of this Wisdom Text—and many scholars support a probable date for the biblical Exodus within this period (see Document 25). However, while there is consensus that there may have been an opportunity for contact, and that the content of the Egyptian and Hebrew documents is similar, scholarly opinions differ about the route of transmission— does the biblical version borrow from the Egyptian or vice versa, or do they both come from a common but now lost source?

ASK YOURSELF 1. At what age would people get married? 2. How were the households run? How did the Egyptians decorate and furnish their homes? 3. Aristocratic and middle-class homes employed servants and slaves—where did they come from? How were servants paid? 4. The Egyptian family was usually made up of a father, mother, and children. How were unmarried or widowed female relatives accommodated?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Using the Instruction of Any as a starting point, discuss the moral, ethical, and practical considerations of a middle-class family in the Ramesside Period. To what

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How a Man Should Treat His Wife

extent do these values reflect the political, religious, and economic background of the period? H Look at archaeological evidence from the Ramesside Period (particularly the tombs of the nonroyal, wealthy officials who lived and worked at Thebes), and discuss the extent to which archaeological and literary sources, particularly the New Kingdom Wisdom Texts, contrast with or complement each other.

Further Information Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Gardiner, A. H. “A Didactic Passage Re-examined.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 45 (1959): 12–15. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Manniche, L. An Ancient Egyptian Herbal. Austin, TX, 1989. Manniche, L. Sacred Luxuries: Fragrance, Aromatherapy and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt. London, 1999. Petersen, B. J. “A New Fragment of the ‘Wisdom of Amenemope’.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 52 (1966): 120–28 and pls. xxxi–xxxiA. Robins, G. Women in Ancient Egypt. London and Cambridge, MA, 1993. Simpson, A. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966. Simpson, D. C. “The Hebrew Book of Proverbs and the Teaching of Amenophis.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 12 (1926): 232–39. Williams, R. J. “The Alleged Semitic Origins of the ‘Wisdom of Amenemope’.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 47 (1961): 100–106.

Website Tombs of Deir el-Medina: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/artisans/tombes_deir_el_ medineh/e_tombes_deir_el_medineh_01.htm#.

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5. THE STATUS OF ROYAL WOMEN INTRODUCTION The title of “God’s Wife of Amun” came to great prominence in the period from Dynasty 23 to 26 (ca. 818 bce–525 bce). This position was held by the king’s unmarried daughter who was established at Thebes as high priestess of the god Amun; in this capacity she exercised unrivalled religious and political power as the king’s delegate. Royal authority was less secure now than in the New Kingdom (1576 bce–1085 bce), partly because Egypt was ruled by dynasties that had no established legitimacy (some were of foreign origin). Also, these rulers were determined to avoid the situation that had developed in Dynasty 21 (ca. 1089 bce– 945 bce), when the high priests of Amun at Thebes had assumed additional powers and lessened royal authority. By giving his own daughter this new supremacy at Thebes, each of these later kings ensured that they retained control of the south and prevented any usurper from seizing this power. This excerpt is from an inscription carved on a black granite statue belonging to Harwa (Berlin Museum No. 8163). Eight statues of this man are now held in the Berlin Museum: he was the high steward (chief official) of the God’s Wife of Amun, Amenirdis I, daughter of King Kashta (ca. 780 bce–747 bce), a position that carried considerable administrative authority at Thebes.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. During Dynasties 23 to 26 (ca. 818 bce–525 bce), the God’s Wife of Amun was the leading officiant in temple rituals at Thebes (the priests, her co-participants in this cult, were male). Temple wall scenes show her in the preeminent ritual role, usually reserved for the king, which was intended to please the gods and obtain the destruction of Egypt’s enemies. 2. During this period, each God’s Wife of Amun handed on her title and position to a female successor; this was achieved through an adoption process that required the king’s approval. 3. Also during this period, the God’s Wife took the additional titles of “God’s Adorer” and “God’s Hand.” The title of “God’s Hand” probably referred to the

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A thousand of bread, beer and all good things: recitation of this formula (the h. tp-dì-nsw or “Boonwhich-the-king-gives”) ensured that, through the king’s bounty, a commoner would derive full benefits from food and funerary goods offered at his tomb Amun: supreme deity of the Egyptian Empire Ba who is in Thebes: Amun Divine fathers: high-ranking priest, sometimes associated with the royal family Embalmer-priest-of-Anubis: jackalheaded Anubis was the god of mummification and cemeteries God’s Adoress: designation of high priestess of Amun God’s Hand: designation of high priestess of Amun God’s Wife: designation of high priestess of Amun Ipet-sut: the “Southern Harem,” Temple of Luxor Justified: epithet used to denote a deceased person, with the implication that he/she had been declared innocent at the Day of Judgment Ka-chapel: area of the tomb where offerings were made to the deceased owner Ka-priests: men who performed a person’s mortuary rites Lector-priests: distinguished by their ability to read the sacred texts, they recited the liturgy in temples and at funerals Monthly priest: rotas of part-time priests served in the temple on a monthly basis Osiris: god of the dead and judge of the underworld Prophets: highest rank of priests

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creator-god’s act of masturbation that brought the universe into existence (see “Creation Myths,” Document 42). Personification as the god’s hand enabled the God’s Wife to fulfill her important role in the sexual stimulation of Amun, which ensured that universal creation and renewal were repeated continuously. 4. Scholars have disputed whether the Gods’ Wives of Amun (and their female religious attendants) of these later dynasties were obliged to remain unmarried in order to ensure that the Gods’ Wives did not produce any offspring who might attempt to establish a separate dynastic line at Thebes. However, although there is no record that any God’s Wife had a husband or children, neither is there any conclusive evidence that they remained celibate.

Document: The God’s Wife of Amun (Statue Inscription of Harwa) [On the front of the statue:] The prince, count, royal seal-bearer; true, beloved King’s friend; keeper of the diadem of the God’s Adoress; royal servant in the royal harem; embalmer-priest-ofAnubis of the God’s Wife; prophet of the God’s Adoress, Amenirdis, justified, in her ka-chapel; steward of the ka-priests; prophet of Osiris Giver of Life; the Steward Harwa, son of the scribe Pedimut, justified, he says: O prophets, divine fathers, priests and lector-priests, all who enter the temple of Amun of Ipet-sut, to perform rites, to make offerings, to perform the service of the monthly priest . . . [On the right side of the statue:] The one honoured by the King; the High Steward of the God’s Adoress; embalmer-priest-of-Anubis of the God’s Wife; true, beloved King’s friend; master of the servants of the God’s Adoress of Amun, Harwa; he says: O prophets, divine fathers, priests, the whole temple-priesthood of Amun, everyone who passes by this image: that ba who is in Thebes shall live for you, the august god who presides over his secluded place, if you will say: A thousand of bread, beer and all good things, for the ka of the one honoured by the God’s Hand, the King’s friend, Harwa, justified, honoured . . . Source: Gunn, B. and R. Engelbach. BIFAO 30 (1931): 791–815 (the eight statues). Reprinted in Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 3. The Late Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980: 25–26.

The Status of Royal Women

THE GOD’S WIFE OF AMUN Women in the royal family held a variety of significant roles. Very occasionally, due to exceptional circumstances, a woman ruled Egypt as a “queen regnant” when she exercised the full powers of kingship, or sometimes, a queen acted as regent on behalf of her young son and royal heir. More usually, however, queens played important but subsidiary roles to the ruling king. The king’s mother and his principal wife (Great Royal Wife) were queens of the highest status since they played a vital role in the transmission of kingship: every legitimate ruler was believed to be the offspring of the chief god’s union with the Great Royal Wife who was often, but not always, the king’s own sister. There were also minor queens and concubines, whose sons occasionally acceded to the throne. However, one royal title is of particular interest. Early in Dynasty 18 (ca. 1560 bce), the king began to bestow the title of “God’s Wife of Amun” on his principal queen or a significant daughter; as a position of national importance, this enhanced the status of the newly promoted god, Amun, and helped to unite Egypt. The title-holder received the perpetual rights to a newly endowed estate and priesthood, and enjoyed the associated independent revenue. By the end of Dynasty 18 (ca. 1417 bce–1320 bce), the title occurs only infrequently—presumably because the dynasty was well established and did not require this additional support. However, the position reemerged as a powerful means of political and religious control in Dynasties 23 to 26 (ca. 818 bce–525 bce): it was held by one woman in Dynasty 23 (ca. 818 bce–793 bce), two in Dynasty 25 (ca. 780 bce–656 bce), and two in Dynasty 26 (664 bce–525 bce). This title, to which the king’s daughter (not his wife) was now appointed, implied that she was the consort of the chief god, Amun. On behalf of her father, she acted as the head of the god’s temple and estates at Thebes, one of the largest and most important economic centers in Egypt, which gave her considerable economic independence and religious authority. Her reciprocal duty was to secure the loyal support of Thebes and its local nobility for the king.

AFTERMATH The line of rulers from Nubia who conquered Egypt and founded Dynasty 25 (ca. 780 bce– 656 bce) (see Document 39) immediately recognized the potential of the position of God’s Wife of Amun: to ensure a smooth transmission of power from Dynasty 23 to Dynasty 25, and to establish their own control over Thebes and the south of Egypt. These rulers acted quickly, and even before completing the conquest of Egypt, Kashta (ca. 780 bce–748 bce) had arranged that Shepenwepet I should adopt his daughter Amenirdis I as her successor. Amenirdis I travelled north to Egypt, probably accompanied by her mother and sister, to be installed as the God’s Wife of Amun. The kings of Dynasty 25 soon faced Assyrian invaders entering Egypt from the north; when the Nubians eventually withdrew south to their original homeland, the Assyrians installed a line of native princes from the Delta city of Sais to rule Egypt as their vassals. However, the Saites soon established themselves as independent kings of Egypt, and Psammetichus I (664 bce–610 bce), the founder of Dynasty 26 (664 bce–525 bce), used adoption to achieve a smooth transition of dynastic power. He appointed his own daughter, Nitocris, as God’s Wife of Amun; she was adopted by the incumbent God’s Wife, the Nubian princess Shepenwepet II, which confirmed Nitocris’ legal claim to the position. The transfer of power was ratified by an official deed in which Shepenwepet II (and her previously adopted Nubian successor, Amenirdis II) named Nitocris as the new beneficiary of the title and all its associated property. When the Persian invasion of Egypt (525 bce) brought Dynasty 26 to an end, the office of God’s Wife of Amun disappeared and was never reinstated.

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ASK YOURSELF 1. How did queens exercise power in ancient Egypt? 2. Apart from the God’s Wife of Amun, did royal or nonroyal women hold important positions as priests or other religious functionaries? 3. What was the extent of women’s religious and secular power in ancient Egypt?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Summarize the main duties and powers of the God’s Wife of Amun in Dynasties 23 to 26. Why was this position so important in enabling the kings, usually domiciled in the north of Egypt, to retain overall control of the whole country? H Describe the most important ways in which senior women in the royal family influenced political and religious developments. To what extent were their roles regarded as “political tools” that the kings could employ to ensure the stability and safety of a dynasty?

Further Information Ayad, M. F. God’s Wife, God’s Servant: The God’s Wife of Amun (c. 740–525 BC). Abingdon, UK, and New York, 2009. Ayad, M. “Some Thoughts on the Disappearance of the Office of God’s Wife of Amun.” Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 28 (2001): 1–14. Capel, A. K. and Markoe, G. E. (eds.). Mistress of the House, Mistress of Heaven: Women in Ancient Egypt. New York, 1996. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 3. The Late Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980. Ritner, R. K. “Fictive Adoptions or Celibate Priestesses?” Göttinger Miszellen 164 (1998): 85–90. Robins, G. “A Critical Examination of the Theory that the Right to the Throne of Ancient Egypt Passed through the Female Line in the 18th Dynasty.” Göttinger Miszellen 52 (1983): 67–77. Robins, G. Women in Ancient Egypt. London and Cambridge, MA, 1993. Teeter, E. “Celibacy and Adoption among Gods’ Wives of Amun and Singers in the Temple of Amun: Re-examination of the Evidence.” In E. Teeter and J. A. Larson (eds.). Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente. Chicago, 2003: 405–14. Troy, L. Patterns of Queenship in Ancient Egypt: Myth and History. Uppsala, 1986.

Websites Ankhnesneferibre, God’s Wife of Amun: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/nubian%20mu seum,%20aswan/pages/archer’s%20bracer001.htm. Saite Chapels of God’s Wives of Amun, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/ medinet%20habu/index.htm (see under Chapel of Divine Adoratrices).

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6. LOVE SONGS INTRODUCTION The Love Songs or Love Poems are found in Papyrus Chester Beatty I, which dates to the later New Kingdom (1320 bce–1085 bce). The following excerpts are from one love song, but Papyrus Chester Beatty I contains another ten love poems. In addition, other songs occur in Papyrus Harris 500 (British Museum 10060), and a few other examples are preserved in Papyrus Turin 1966, and on fragments from the Cairo Museum Vase. This genre of literature is known only from the New Kingdom. This document is arranged in seven stanzas, which contain the alternating speeches of a young man and his girlfriend; the excerpts given here are from the second and sixth stanzas. The couple address each other, praising each other’s qualities, particularly their beauty and physical attributes. They also describe some of the torments associated with being in love—the fluttering of the girl’s heart, the anguish of even a brief separation, and the boy’s lovesickness that no physician can cure: his symptoms can only be healed by the presence of his beloved. The lovers ask Hathor, goddess of love, to help them overcome family opposition, so that they can announce their relationship and be together.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. In terms of world literature, these poems provide some of the earliest known expressions of romantic love. 2. As goddess of love, beauty, and fertility (see “State Gods,” Document 36), Hathor was the appropriate recipient of the lovers’ prayers and pleas in this poem. Two of her most important temples were located at Denderah and Deir el-Bahri; at some religious centers, her cult was served by female priests. 3. The love poems provide ample evidence that romantic love was an accepted concept, and that young people were free to socialize and even to contest parental disapproval (see “Marriage,” Document 2). Many couples probably met through neighborhood introductions: according to this excerpt, the families of the young man and his beloved lived near each other.

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Document: The Sayings of Great Happiness (Papyrus Chester Beatty I) Second Stanza: My brother torments my heart with his voice, He makes sickness take hold of me; He is neighbour to my mother’s house, And I cannot go to him! Mother is right in charging him thus: “Give up seeing her!” It pains my heart to think of him, I am possessed by love of him . . . Sixth Stanza: I passed before his house, I found his door ajar; My brother stood by his mother, And all his brothers with him. Love of him captures the heart Of all who tread the path; Splendid youth who has no peer, Brother outstanding in virtues! He looked at me as I passed by, And I, by myself, rejoiced; How my heart exulted in gladness, My brother, at your sight! If only my mother knew my heart, She would have understood by now; O Golden, put it in her heart, Then I will hurry to my brother! I will kiss him before his companions, I would not weep before them; I would rejoice at their understanding That you acknowledge me! I will make a feast for my goddess, My heart leaps to go; To let me see my brother tonight, O happiness in passing! Brother: a term of endearment here, not a reference to a sibling Golden: the “Golden One,” a term for Hathor, the goddess of love

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Source: Budge, E.A.W. Facsimiles of Egyptian Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, Second Series. London, 1923: 41–46. Reprinted in Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 184–85.

Love Songs

LOVE POETRY The Love Songs or Love Poems provide a unique example of secular lyrical literature from ancient Egypt. Some 50 examples have survived, preserved in texts that date to the Ramesside Period (1320 BCE–1085 BCE). Although these songs introduced an innovative concept, they were not representative of an informal exchange between lovers; composed as lyric poems, their sophisticated style and mode of expression indicate that they were an addition to Egypt’s formal literature. The songs, perhaps with musical accompaniment, may have been sung or recited at social occasions when the wealthy provided entertainment for their guests. These anonymous poems often consist of a discourse between two lovers. Each song is quite short (20 to 30 verse lines), and in most cases, each has a separate theme; however, in few examples, several songs are linked together by a common narrative. The main themes of this poetry are obsession with the beloved, description of the emotional and physical symptoms associated with “being in love,” and requests for divine intervention to bring the lovers together. The songs contain many allusions to nature—birds, animals, the wind, plants, and gardens with their trees, flowers, and water features (see “Marriage,” Document 2).

AFTERMATH The secular literature of the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce) included both love poetry and imaginary tales such as The Doomed Prince and The Two Brothers. However, although similar prose stories continued to be composed after this period, no later examples of love poetry have been found.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Is there any evidence that women composed any of the love songs? 2. Which musical instruments might have accompanied the performance of these songs? 3. Can any of the political/social developments of the New Kingdom explain the brief appearance of this genre of literature during that period?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Using the descriptions given in the New Kingdom love poetry and narrative tales, discuss the evidence they provide about contemporary gardens, flora and fauna, travel, and the Egyptians’ perception of geography and other countries. H Consider and discuss the evidence that the love poetry provides about contemporary social customs, and the general attitude toward love, courtship, and marriage.

Further Information Foster, J. L. Echoes of Egyptian Voices: An Anthology of Ancient Egyptian Poetry. Norman, OK, 1992. Foster, J. L. Hymns, Prayers and Songs: An Anthology of Ancient Egyptian Lyric Poetry. Atlanta, GA, 1996.

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Foster, J. L. and Davies, N. M. Love Songs of the New Kingdom: Translated from the Ancient Egyptian. Austin, TX, 1974 (reprinted ed. 1992). Fox, M. V. The Song of Songs and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs. Madison, WI, 1985. Gardiner, A. H. The Library of A. Chester Beatty: Description of Hieratic Papyrus with a Mythological Story, Love-songs and Other Miscellaneous Texts. The Chester Beatty Papyri, No. 1. London, 1931. Griffith, J. G. “Love as a Disease.” In S. Israelit-Groll (ed.). Studies in Honour of Miriam Lichtheim, Volume 1. Jerusalem, 1990: 349–64. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2: The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Manniche, L. Sexual Life in Ancient Egypt. London and New York, 1987. Robins, G. Women in Ancient Egypt. London and Cambridge, MA, 1993. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003.

Website Nebamun Tomb Chapel: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/ room_61_tomb-chapel_nebamun.aspx.

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7. THE CONTENDINGS OF HORUS AND SETH INTRODUCTION Preserved on Papyrus Chester Beatty I (recto), which dates from the reign of Ramesses V (1160 bce–1156 bce), this document from Thebes describes the formal judgment of the gods Horus and Seth. Its main theme is to establish that Horus’ claim to the throne is superior to that of his rival, Seth. The two gods present their case to Egypt’s supreme tribunal, the Ennead. This panel of judges must convict either Horus or Seth of wrongdoing, and ultimately decide which deity should inherit the kingship of Egypt, an office previously held by Osiris, the murdered father of Horus. The judgment is a key event and the final stage in the famous story of Osiris, Horus, and Seth, which represents the age-old struggle between good (personified by Horus and Osiris) and evil (embodied by Seth). Various elements of this myth describe the murder of the divine ruler, Osiris, by his brother Seth; Osiris’ subsequent restoration to life; and the violent dispute between Seth and Osiris’ son, Horus, who sets out to avenge his father’s death. The excerpt below describes one event in the judgment process: Seth’s sexual attack on Horus, and his subsequent, unsuccessful attempt to persuade the tribunal that they should give him the throne because this act proved his superiority over Horus. Although the judges ultimately find in favor of Horus and allocate him the throne, Seth is not entirely banished from the divine sphere but is allocated a subsidiary role as an attendant to the sun-god.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. References to homosexuality are rare: the above encounter between Horus and Seth is the best-known example. Other evidence includes a Dream Book (second century ce), which lists its female owner’s erotic dreams. These include sexual partnerships with various animals, a peasant, a foreigner, and another woman. 2. Literary sources demonstrate the Egyptians’ ambivalent attitude toward male homosexuality. The above text provides opposing viewpoints: Seth claims that his sexual attack on Horus has proved his superior strength, which should provide the divine tribunal with a valid reason to give him the throne; however, Isis (Horus’ mother) is repelled by Seth’s actions, and the tribunal is not persuaded to grant his wish. Elsewhere, in the Negative Confession (see Document 49), copulation with a boy is included in a list of sins and misdeeds that should be avoided (Simpson 2003: 270, note 8). 27

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Document: A Homosexual Encounter (Papyrus Chester Beatty I) Then Seth said to Horus: “Come, let us have a feast day at my house.” . . . Now when evening had come, a bed was prepared for them, and they lay down together. At night, Seth let his member become stiff and he inserted it between the thighs of Horus. And Horus placed his hands between his thighs and caught the semen of Seth. Then Horus went to tell his mother Isis. . . .  He opened his hand and let her see the semen of Seth. She cried out aloud, took her knife, cut off his hand and threw it in the water . . . Then Seth went and said to Horus: “Come, let us go, that I may contend with you in court.” [The brothers then go to the law court where they contend for the office of ruler in front of the judges]. Then Seth said: “Let the office of ruler be given to me, for as regards Horus who stands here, I have done a man’s deed to him.” [Horus claims that this is false, and so the semen of Horus and Seth is called upon to testify; the judges find in favour of Horus:] . . . And the Ennead said: “Horus Horus: posthumously conceived is right, Seth is wrong.” Then Seth became very angry and cried out divine son of Osiris and Isis aloud. . . .  Isis: Egypt’s supreme mother-goddess, wife of Osiris and mother of Horus Source: Gardiner, A. H. Late-Egyptian Stories. Bibliotheca AeSeth: god of destruction and desert gyptiaca, 1. Brussels, 1932: 37–60. Reprinted in Lichtheim, M. Anplaces; the personification of evil cient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 219–20.

SEXUALITY Archaeological, pictorial, and literary sources of evidence provide some indication of the Egyptians’ attitude to sexuality. The concepts of sexuality, death, and rebirth were closely associated, and there are many metaphorical allusions to sexuality in wall scenes found in nonroyal tombs. However, erotic symbolism in religious contexts is never overt: for example, “banqueting scenes” in tombs express sexuality in terms of alluring clothing worn by female guests and dancers, and the large quantities of intoxicating drinks that will be consumed at the event. Some tomb assemblages also include pottery model beds, sometimes incorporating a reclining “concubine” figurine, which were closely identified with the owner’s rebirth after death. In the temples, royal and divine sexuality is again expressed symbolically. Scenes in some New Kingdom temples (ca. 1450 bce) represent the divine marriage (theogamy) between the chief queen and the supreme god, Amun, which gave legitimacy to the royal succession. Temple scenes also depict the miraculous act of conception when the goddess Isis used her magical powers to beget a son, Horus, by her dead husband, Osiris; she is shown, in the form of a bird, hovering over the god’s reinvigorated corpse. Despite exercising restraint in religious art, the Egyptians were not prudish: in the Erotic Papyrus (ca. 1200 bce) (now housed in the Museo Egizio in Turin, Italy), a cartoon includes 12 erotic illustrations, depicting an orgy in which men and women participate. Erotic drawings also occur on the interior wall of a house and on some ostraca found at Deir el-Medina.

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The Contendings of Horus and Seth

AFTERMATH The sexual nature and attributes of some deities were emphasized to enhance their creative powers. These joyful deities included Min, a powerful fertility god depicted as an ithyphallic figure holding a cos-lettuce (symbol of fertility); Bes, god of marriage and fecundity; and Hathor, the cow-headed goddess of love, beauty, and joy. Seth, however, was generally regarded as the possessor of negative qualities—a god of confusion, disorder, and violence whom the Egyptians had no choice but to accommodate in their pantheon. He was associated with deserts and foreigners—both regarded as potential dangers by the Egyptians. In literary sources that describe Seth’s continuing conflict with Osiris and Horus, he is portrayed as a murderer, and his overt sexuality is associated with violence rather than the benefits of fertility ascribed to other deities. Seth’s negative image probably came about because, as the chief deity of factions of the population defeated in the Predynastic Period (ca. 5000 bce–ca. 3100 bce) and in Dynasty 2 (ca. 2890 bce–2686 bce), he was regarded as a loser. His later association with the Hyksos compounded this negative image. However, the Ramesside rulers promoted his worship (1320 bce–1200 bce); two of them carried the god’s name (Sety), and he was given equal status with Re, Amun, and Ptah. Scholars have tended to identify Seth as the “devil” of the Egyptian pantheon, but recent research indicates that this viewpoint is too simplistic. The Egyptians probably had a more ambivalent approach: at some periods, they venerated Seth but from 700 bce, when the cults of other deities were in the ascendancy, Seth was demonized. A one-sided, biased interpretation of Seth’s nature has doubtless arisen because the best-preserved accounts of the god’s conflict with Osiris, Horus, and Isis, which date to the later periods (see Document 38), all provide Seth with an evil persona.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why did the Egyptians avoid any overtly specific expression of sexuality in their religious art? 2. Why do conquerors demonize gods like Seth (i.e., gods of defeated tribes or groups)?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Look at pictures of wall scenes in Egyptian tombs and identify the elements in those paintings that might be construed as sexual symbolism. H Archaeology, literature, and pictorial images all provide information about Egyptian attitudes to sexuality. Evaluate the various categories as sources of evidence, and consider the contribution they make to our understanding of the subject.

Further Information Allam, S. “Legal Aspects in the ‘Contendings of Horus and Seth’.” In A. B. Lloyd (ed.). Studies in Pharaonic Religion and Society in Honour of J Gwyn Griffiths. London, 1992: 137–45. Gardiner, A. H. Late Egyptian Stories. Brussels, 1932. Griffiths, J. G. The Conflict of Horus and Seth from Egyptian and Classical Sources. Liverpool, 1960. Lesko, L. H. “Three Late Egyptian Stories Reconsidered.” In L. H. Lesko (ed.). Egyptological Studies in Honor of Richard A. Parker. Hanover, NH, 1986: 98–103.

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Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Manniche, L. Sexual Life in Ancient Egypt. London and New York, 1987. Miosi, F. T. “Horus as a Trickster.” Journal of the Society of the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 9, no. 2 (1979): 75–78. Monserrat, D. Sex and Society in Graeco-Roman Egypt. London and New York, 1996. Parkinson, R. B. “ ‘Homosexual’ Desire and Middle Kingdom Literature.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 81 (1995): 57–76. Parkinson, R. B. Voices from Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Middle Kingdom Writings. London, 1991: 120–21. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Te Velde, H. Seth, God of Confusion: A Study of his Role in Egyptian Mythology and Religion. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1967. 2nd ed. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1977. Turner, P. J. Seth—A Misrepresented God in the Ancient Egyptian Pantheon? Oxford, UK, 2013.

Website Late Ramesside Letters: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/Deir%20el%20Medina/index .htm (see under Documents from Deir el-Medina).

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8. OFFERINGS FOR THE TOMB OWNER INTRODUCTION This text is painted on to the outer surface of one of the coffins belonging to Nakht-Ankh, a priest who lived at Shashotep, a town midway along the Nile (ca. 1900 bce) (see Document 27) . In 1907, a team led by the famous Egyptologist, William Flinders Petrie, discovered and excavated the complete burial of Nakht-Ankh and his brother Khnum-Nakht. This rock-cut site, known today as the “Tomb of Two Brothers,” was situated high in the cliffs above the modern village of Rifeh. Its intact state at the time of discovery ensured the preservation of the tomb contents, including the mummified bodies of the brothers and a wealth of fine-quality funerary equipment, making it one of the most important undisturbed tombs from ancient Egypt. Subsequently, the whole tomb group was moved to the Manchester Museum at the University of Manchester, United Kingdom, where the mummies (see Document 48) have been the subject of continuing scientific and historical investigations since 1908. This excerpt is taken from the Coffin Texts, a set of spells painted on coffins during this period. Here, the spell states that the king is presenting an offering to Osiris in order that the god will make food and other goods available to the deceased tomb owner, Nakht-Ankh. This spell also confirms that Nakht-Ankh is accepted by all the gods (including the Great and Little Enneads) and even has dominion over the Nine Bows, ensuring his powerful status in the afterlife.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The Egyptians believed that supernatural force could be used to change the form of things or influence events (see Document 46). Today, Egyptologists use the word “magic” to describe this force, although this inadequately conveys the power attributed to the concept in antiquity. Magic, brought into existence by the creatorgod (see Document 42), was the exclusive prerogative of the gods, although they could make it available to the king as their divine son and agent, who could in turn delegate the power to the priests. Magic made creation possible, retained the balance of the universe, and was essential in the struggle between order and chaos.

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Relief from the Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri, depicting the god Amun before a table piled high with food offerings. Gods as well as humans were believed to need food and drink. (Instructional Resources Corporation)

Humans might pervert magic for evil ends, but ultimately this would fail because the power itself was subordinate to the supreme creator-god. 2. Nakht-Ankh and his brother were born into a wealthy, important local family. The tomb inscriptions confirm that they were sons of Khnum-Aa, a woman of high status in Shashotep, and also that they descended (perhaps as sons or grandsons) from district governors, although these men are not named. Nakht-Ankh and Khnum-Nakht may have been full-brothers or half-brothers, or one may have been an adopted child; scientific analysis of their mummified remains has indicated that they were physically very different, although DNA studies have failed to confirm whether or not they were brothers. 3. The tomb goods belonging to each brother included a body coffin (mummy shaped) that fitted inside an outer box coffin (rectangular). Nakht-Ankh also had a Canopic Chest that held four jars to contain his viscera (liver, stomach, intestines, and lungs), removed from the body during the mummification process. The coffins and chest

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were decorated with brightly colored geometric designs and vertical and horizontal bands containing a selection of Coffin Texts, written in Egyptian hieroglyphs. 4. Even when an intact burial is found, the contents are not usually kept together as one collection, but individual objects are distributed to museums in different countries. Because this tomb group—one of the finest nonroyal burials of the Middle Kingdom—has remained together at the Manchester Museum, it has provided a unique opportunity for studies on living conditions, death, and funerary customs in a provincial town of a specific period.

Document: The Coffin Texts (Coffin Text of Nakht-Ankh) HORIZONTAL TEXT ON THE FRONT OF THE BOX COFFIN OF NAKHT-ANKH An offering that the king gives (to) Osiris, lord of Busiris, the great god, lord of Abydos, in all his places, that he may give voiceofferings of bread and beer, oxen and fowl, alabaster, clothing and incense, all things good and pure on which a god lives, to the kaspirit of the revered Nakht-Ankh, offspring of Khnum-Aa. Utterance: The Great Ennead praises you, the Little Ennead worships you, the Upper Egyptian Conclave praises you, the Lower Egyptian Conclave names you, your poison is destroyed, the Nine Bows follow you. Source: David, R. The Two Brothers: Death and the Afterlife in Middle Kingdom Egypt. Bolton, UK, 2007: 75–76. (Author’s translation.)

AFTERMATH

Conclave, Lower Egyptian: group of gods associated with northern Egypt Conclave, Upper Egypt: group of gods associated with southern Egypt Ka-spirit: the spiritual element of a person believed to survive death and continue existence in the next world Lord of Abydos: title of Osiris, asso ciated with his southern center of worship Lord of Busiris: title of Osiris, asso ciated with his northern center of worship Voice-offerings: recitation of food and other commodities

Kings of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce) had expected to spend eternity with the gods in the heavens (see Document 50), and everyone else hoped to achieve some kind of vicarious afterlife through the king’s bounty. However, democratization of funerary beliefs in the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1991 bce–1786 bce) gave rise to new ideas, including three main concepts about the location of the afterlife. To some extent, these ideas overlapped and were interchangeable, but they were closely identified with, and clearly defined by, the social organization and expectations of the people. It was believed that the king continued to sail in the heavens, while nonroyal, wealthy people prepared elaborate tombs where they could spend time after death; these burials were furnished with food, drink, clothing, and many items that they might need in the next life. The poor expected to go to a kingdom ruled by the god Osiris; sometimes referred to in the texts

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THE COFFIN TEXTS Magic always played a very important role in Egyptian religious belief and practice (see “The Egyptian Temple,” Document 44; Document 46), but was perhaps most significant in relation to funerary beliefs and customs. Following the religious upheavals of the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2181 bce–1991 bce), a new concept emerged in the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1991 bce–1786 bce); this claimed that everyone, not just the king, could aspire to an individual eternity, provided he or she had pursued a good and worthy life on earth (see Document 9). As part of this process, the Coffin Texts were adapted from the Pyramid Texts (see Document 50), and developed so that nonroyal persons could use them. These spells attempted to ensure that the deceased person continued to exist after death in the company of the gods, and enjoy an eternal supply of food and reunion with his/her family (see “The Concept of Suicide,” Document 51). For those who could not afford a decorated coffin, the same texts could be written on papyrus. The Coffin Texts only featured prominently during this period, with a brief revival in the 26th Dynasty (664–525 bce), but they were reworked and expanded into the funerary “books” of the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce) (see Document 49).

as the “Fields of Reeds,” this eternal paradise was believed to mirror the verdant, cultivated areas of Egypt, but its inhabitants also enjoyed the additional benefits of eternal springtime, unfailing harvests, and freedom from sickness and suffering. Here, rich and poor were given identical plots of land to grow food crops, but wealthy people who did not want to carry out these labors could use magical figurines (ushabtis) as agricultural servants to do the work for them, while they enjoyed the pleasures of life depicted in their tombs.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why did the Egyptians build their tombs away from towns and villages? What impact did this have on the preservation of their burials? 2. What are the benefits that Nakht-Ankh’s Coffin Text inscription seeks to provide for him? How would this help him in the afterlife? 3. How do their tomb contents provide us with information about the lives of the Two Brothers? What detailed information can we obtain about everyday life in the Middle Kingdom? Did it differ significantly from modern conditions?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Describe the main contents found in a tomb of a wealthy person who lived during the Middle Kingdom. How were they intended to help the owner in the next world? Draw/paint some examples of tomb equipment (for example, coffins, canopic chest, canopic jars, etc.) and copy out the hieroglyphs in one of the inscriptions visible on this material. H Describe how some of the scientific techniques used to examine mummies, such as radiology, histology, or DNA studies, can provide information about ancient people’s lifestyle and health. What have such investigations told us about the lives of the Two Brothers, and can we relate this to disease occurrence in the modern world?

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Further Information de Buck, A. The Egyptian Coffin Texts. Chicago, 1938. David, R. The Two Brothers: death and the afterlife in Middle Kingdom Egypt. Bolton, UK, 2007. Drower, M. S. Flinders Petrie: A Life in Archaeology. London, 1985. Faulkner, R. O. The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts. 3 vols. Warminster, UK, 1973–78. Murray, M. A. The Tomb of Two Brothers. Manchester, UK, 1910. Petrie, W.M.F. Gizeh and Rifeh. London, 1907. Pinch, G. Magic in Ancient Egypt. 2nd rev. ed. London, 2006. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003.

Websites Coffin Texts (scribe’s copy): http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/bm_egyptian/pages/bm_ dec2008_0612.htm. Two Brothers: http://ancient.egypt.co.uk/manchester/pages/Body%20coffin%20of%20 Khnum%20Nakht.htm.

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9. A SKEPTICAL VIEW OF THE A FTERLIFE INTRODUCTION A set of compositions known as Harpers’ Songs or Songs at Banquets preserves the hymns or songs that were probably sung or recited at the funerary banquet and subsequent celebratory meals held at the tomb on special feast days. Lavish hospitality, including food, wine, and music, was provided for the spirit of the deceased tomb owner and his relatives and friends, who were adorned with flowers and perfume. Following the meal, the deceased’s relatives and friends would recite special songs or hymns to the accompaniment of harpists. The purpose of the songs was to reassure the deceased that he would experience eternal life and to praise the benefits of death and the tomb. In order that the deceased could draw on the magical potency of the songs to revive him after death and ensure his immortality, these hymns were often inscribed on the interior walls of tombs or on mortuary stelae (for other protective inscriptions, see “The Coffin Texts,” Document 8). However, during the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce) or even earlier in the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2160 bce–ca.2040 bce), a new idea was introduced: these songs henceforth displayed the skepticism found elsewhere in the Pessimistic Literature (see Document 31), and the tomb owner was warned of the uncertainties of the afterlife and exhorted to enjoy the pleasures of this world. The excerpts given later in this chapter are from one famous example, the Song from the Tomb of King Intef. This text is preserved in Papyrus Harris 500 (British Museum 10060), which dates to Dynasty 20 (1198 bce–1166 bce), and in a wall inscription, now in Leiden, from the tomb of Paatenemheb at Saqqara (reign of Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten], 1379 bce–1362 bce). Both are copies of a lost Middle Kingdom text; the original composition may have existed in the tomb of a ruler called Antef (Intef ) (ca. 2133 bce). Instead of praising the joys of the afterlife, this song appears to question the concept of personal immortality, although one study (Fox 1977) has suggested that, rather than being an outright denial of the afterlife, the text simply points out that the living are unable to confirm its existence, especially since the dead do not return to reassure the living. Even a well-provisioned tomb—including the royal pyramids—cannot guarantee a person’s eternity, because the buildings themselves do not survive (see “The Decipherment of Egyptian Scripts,” Document 23). Because man’s ultimate fate is so unpredictable, the text encourages the living to enjoy earthly pleasures while they can, which may ease the pain of not knowing what lies beyond death.

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KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Laments for the dead were traditionally included in the funerary service to prevent the deceased from suffering the “second death”—a state of complete oblivion or semi-existence that awaited those who had led evil lives or whose burial preparations were inadequate. However, this text implies that lamentations are ineffectual because the gods do not listen to them.

Document: The Song from the Tomb of King Antef (Intef) The gods that were aforetime rest in their pyramids, and likewise the noble and the glorified, buried in their pyramids. They that build houses, their habitations are no more. What hath been done with them? I have heard the discourses of Imhotep and Hardedef, with whose words men speak everywhere—what are their habitations (now)? Their walls are destroyed, their habitations are no more, as if they had never been. None cometh from thence that he may tell us how they fare, that he may tell us what they need, that he may set our hearts at rest(?), until we also go to the place whither they are gone. Be glad, that thou mayest cause thine heart to forget that men will (one day) beatify thee. Follow thy desire, so long as thou livest. Beatify: a blessing ceremony at the Put myrrh on thine head, clothe thee in fine linen, and anoint thee funeral with the genuine marvels of the things of the god. Day of lamentation: the funeral, Increase yet more the delights that thou hast, and let not thine when laments were recited for the heart grow faint. Follow thy desire, and do good to thyself(?). Do deceased what thou requires(?) upon earth, and vex not thine heart, until Genuine marvels of the things of the that day of lamentation cometh to thee. Yet He with the Quiet god: perfumes Heart heareth not their lamentation, and cries deliver no man from Gods: the ancient kings the underworld. He with the Quiet Heart: a title of Osiris, god of the dead Myrrh: an aromatic substance, used REFRAIN in religious rituals and for personal toilette Spend the day happily and weary not thereof! Lo, none can(?) Whose words: wise sayings take his goods with him. Lo, none that hath departed can come again. Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 133–34.

AFTERMATH New hymns had been introduced by the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce), which emphasized the blessings of the afterlife, in an attempt to counteract the skepticism

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A Skeptical View of the Afterlife

THE PESSIMISTIC LITERATURE Egyptologists use the term Pessimistic Literature to categorize a group of texts that share several common themes. Some provide detailed accounts of political and social disorder, and of general reactions to the overthrow of a stable society. Disillusionment with many aspects of life is expressed, together with an acute awareness that death itself can no longer offer the chance of a better existence: the prerequisite of a well-provisioned tomb cannot be ensured because social and political upheaval has resulted in scarcity of the materials necessary for tomb building and funerary provision. The conditions, and perhaps even the existence, of an afterlife are questioned, prompting a new emphasis on enjoying life on earth. Several famous examples of this type of literature have survived, including The Admonitions of Ipuwer and The Prophecy of Neferti, which both describe appalling social conditions (see Document 12). Both the Complaints of Khakheperre-Sonb and the Dispute between a Man and His Soul (see Document 51) provide a personal response to times of upheaval, while the Harper’s Song from the Tomb of Antef (mentioned earlier) conveys a message of uncertainty and skepticism about the afterlife. The Pessimistic Literature probably represents the pinnacle of literary endeavor in ancient Egypt: some of the texts demonstrate an unprecedented level of maturity and compositional ability that was never surpassed in pharaonic times. Comparisons have been drawn between these works and the much later Book of Job in the biblical Old Testament, which describe Job’s personal anguish and response to traumatic events.

expressed in the Harper’s Song from the Tomb of Antef. The Harper’s Song from the Tomb of Neferhotep (Lichtheim 1976: 115–16), inscribed on the walls of a tomb owned by a priest named Neferhotep (reign of Horemheb (1348 bce–1320 bce), sets out three separate viewpoints. The first tries to refute the earlier pessimism: it takes a traditional approach, reassuring the dead and gods of the necropolis that the deceased owner believes in the afterlife, but also recommending that, in addition to making funerary preparations, Neferhotep should enjoy his life on earth. The second version totally rejects the pessimistic sentiments found in Antef ’s Song, and emphasizes the joys of the afterlife, while the third provides a traditional description of life after death. However, even much later in the Ramesside Period (1320 BCE–1085 BCE), some songs show that the Egyptians continued to question their belief in immortality while still making lavish preparations for eternity.

ASK YOURSELF 1. What steps did the Egyptians take to deal with their own conflicting beliefs about immortality? 2. Why did the Egyptians begin to question their beliefs about the afterlife? 3. Why were tomb owners allowed to express such skepticism in their formal tomb inscriptions? 4. In view of their uncertainty about death and the hereafter, why did Egyptians continue to build and prepare lavish tombs? 5. Why do tomb scenes often depict harpists as persons who suffered from blindness? Who chose to pursue a career as a harpist? What were their professional duties?

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TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H The Egyptians believed that there could be several different, sometimes conflicting, solutions to a particular question or problem. How did they apply this principle to questions relating to immortality and life after death? In your opinion, how successful was this approach? H Read the Harper’s Song from the Tomb of Antef and the Harper’s Song from the Tomb of Neferhotep; compare the responses and explanations they offer regarding individual survival and rebirth after death.

Further Information Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Fox, M. V. “The Entertainment Song Genre in Egyptian Literature.” Egyptological Studies: Scripta Hierosolymitana 28 (1982): 268–316. (For bibliography of the Harper’s Songs, see 302–5). Fox, M. V. “A Study of Antef.” Orientalia 46 (1977): 393–423. Goedicke, H. “The Date of the Antef Song.” In J. Assmann, E. Feucht, and R. Grieshammer (eds.). Fragen an Die Ältagyptische Literatur: Studien Zum Gedenken an Eberhard Otto. Wiesbaden, 1977: 185–96. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Lichtheim, M. “The Songs of the Harpers.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 4 (1945): 178–212, pls. 1–7. Simpson, W. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Wente, E. F. “The Egyptian ‘Make Merry’ Songs Reconsidered.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 21 (1962): 118–28, pls. 16–19.

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10. JUSTICE FOR EVERYONE INTRODUCTION The Complaints of the Peasant or The Eloquent Peasant presents a story, preserved in four manuscripts dating from the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce). Three are in the Berlin Museum collection: Papyrus Berlin 3023, Papyrus Berlin 3025, and Papyrus Berlin 10499; the other, Papyrus Butler 527/Papyrus British Museum 10274, is in the British Museum. The narrative, consisting of an introduction, nine speeches, and a conclusion, has two main themes: to show how elegant speech, as illustrated by the peasant’s nine addresses to the authorities, can influence the outcome of events; and to emphasize the need for justice and demonstrate how, despite corruption in the law courts, it will triumph in the end. The following excerpts are taken from this story that is set in the reign of King Nebkaure (Akhtoy), one of the line of rulers from Herakleopolis who restored unified rule to Egypt in Dynasties 9 and 10 (ca. 2160 bce–ca. 2040 bce).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The man referred to as “the peasant” lived in a remote desert area known today as the Wadi Natrun; scarcity of food, and the need to feed his family, forced him to travel into the cultivation, taking the goods he owned so that he could exchange them for corn. 2. En route, the peasant met Nemtynakhte who pretended to befriend him but was intent on stealing the peasant’s possessions. Nemtynakhte plotted to seize the peasant’s asses, and despite his pleas, refused to return the goods. 3. The peasant then went to Herakleopolis to place his case before the Chief Steward, Rensi, who denounced the thief to the magistrates sitting with him. However, they were unhelpful and biased: they made no inquiry into the facts and, because the peasant had already acted on his own behalf, they chose not to punish the thief. Rensi did not respond to this but neither did he reply to the peasant. 4. Next, the peasant addressed nine speeches to Rensi, praising him but also reminding him of his duty to uphold justice. At the conclusion of the first petition, Rensi took the matter to the king who advised that the peasant should be detained but given

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no immediate answer, to encourage him to divulge more details of the affair. These should then be written down and brought back to the king. 5. The king demonstrated his humanity when he asked Rensi to provide care for the peasant and his family while the case was under consideration, although this was to be done anonymously. 6. Having received no response after the ninth petition, the peasant decided to report the Chief Steward to the god Anubis. However, Rensi sent two guards to bring him back to hear the outcome of his petitions.

Document: The Story of the Eloquent Peasant (Papyri Berlin 3023, 3025, 10499; Papyrus British Museum 10274) There once was a man whose name was Khunanup. He was a peasant from SekhetHemat . . . [He addressed his wife] . . . ‘Behold, I am going down to Egypt in order to bring provisions from there for my children. Go and measure for me the barley which is in the storehouse, that which remains from last year’s barley’. . . . So the peasant then set out for Egypt, having loaded his donkeys with reeds, herbs, natron, salt . . . [Khunanup now travelled south] . . . in the direction of Neni-nesut, and arrived at the district of Per-Fefi to the north of Medenit. [Here, he met a man called Nemtynakhte who worked for the Chief Steward Rensi, the son of Meru.] Then this Nemtynakhte, when he had seen the peasant’s donkeys which greatly delighted his heart, spoke saying, ‘Would that I had some kind of charm endowed with power through which I might confiscate the possessions of this peasant!’ [Nemtynakhte then invents an excuse to steal Khunanup’s asses] Then he [Nemtynakhte] took for himself a switch of green tamarisk, beat his [Khunanup’s] whole body with it, confiscated his donkeys and drove them to his estate. . . . So the peasant made his way to Neni-nesut in order to petition the Chief Steward Rensi . . . Then the Chief Steward Rensi . . . laid a charge against Nemtynakhte to the magistrates who were under his jurisdiction. [However, the magistrates saw no reason to punish Nemtynakhte for this minor offence, saying he would be ordered to return the natron and salt. Meanwhile, the Chief Steward Rensi did not respond to eiCharm endowed with power: an ther the magistrates or Nemtynakhte.] amulet charged with magical [The peasant then makes the first of nine petitions to Rensi who potency takes the case to the king and receives this response]: Then said Magistrates: members of the law his Majesty: ‘As you desire to see me healthy, cause him to remain court here without replying to anything which he says. And so that he Medenit: the 22nd nome of Upper may keep on speaking, remain silent. Then let his words be brought Egypt to us in writing, that we may hear them. However, provide the Neni-nesut: Herakleopolis, capital means so that his wife and his children may live, for behold, one of city in Dynasties 9 and 10 these peasants comes to the city only when there is nothing in his Per-Fefi: unknown location house.’ [In the third petition, the peasant implores Rensi to act apSekhet-Hemat: Wadi Natrun, a small propriately, and on the final occasion, the Chief Steward sends the oasis west of the Delta petition to the king who instructs him to give Nemtynakhte the verdict that Khunanup will be reimbursed for his loss by receiving

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Nemtynakhte’s possessions]. He was brought in and a list was made (of his property . . .) six servants, along with (. . .) his barley, his emmer, his donkeys, his pigs, and his flocks (. . .) of Nemtynakhte (was given) to the peasant (. . .). Source: Gardiner, A. H. “The Eloquent Peasant.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 9 (1923): 5–25.

THE LEGAL SYSTEM The concept of law had its origins in religion: the Egyptians believed that the gods had given law to mankind at the time of creation (see “Creation Myths,” Document 42), and that the goddess Ma’at had overarching responsibility for the system. In theory, only the king, as the gods’ earthly representative, could legislate, but in practice, this power was largely delegated to others. The First Minister, who headed the judiciary system, and officials in the law courts all belonged to the priesthood of Ma’at. The law courts were a key feature of the legal system: most cases were judged in local courts (kenbet), staffed by a panel of magistrates that included local dignitaries under a chairman. However, the High Court, located in the capital city and presided over by the First Minister, dealt with more serious crimes, especially those that entailed the death penalty. Petitioners could present their own cases, and the courts considered both oral and written evidence. A judgment would then be reached, but a case could only be closed when the defeated party accepted this decision. Generally, punishments were severe; they involved the death penalty, mutilation of various body parts, imprisonment, forced labor in the mines and quarries, beatings, and confiscation of property. However, people from all social classes had equal standing in the courts, and could even take their petitions to the king. Even if magistrates were unscrupulous, the system was robust and usually produced a successful result for the petitioner. Although all laws, including those relating to marriage and property ownership, were drawn up by men, property rights were often invested in female members of the family, and regulations protected the financial status of women and their children.

AFTERMATH The story had a satisfactory outcome. The king, impressed by the eloquent petitions, authorized Rensi to inform the peasant that he would be reimbursed for his stolen goods and recompensed with all the thief ’s confiscated possessions. The narrative emphasized the importance of rhetoric as a means of achieving a successful result. In line with other Egyptian texts, it also promoted the belief that eloquence and wisdom were not the strict prerogative of the elite; as in this text, these qualities could be displayed by a person of humble origin.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Who were the officials of the legal system, and how were they selected and trained? 2. What checks and balances did the legal system incorporate to limit abuse and corruption? Were these deterrents successful? 3. How effective is The Story of the Eloquent Peasant as a didactic text?

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TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES H Why is The Story of the Eloquent Peasant such an important document? What does it add to our knowledge of society and the legal system in ancient Egypt? H Read the complete text of The Story of the Eloquent Peasant, and summarize the information it provides about rural economic conditions, such as trading routes, methods of transport, commodities, and exchange of goods.

Further Information Allam, S. “Egyptian Law Courts in Pharaonic and Hellenistic Times.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 77 (1991): 109–27. Allam, S. “Social and Legal Aspects Regarding the Trader from the Oasis.” Lingua Aegyptia 8 (2000): 83–92. Blackman, A. M. “Oracles in Ancient Egypt.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 11 (1925): 249–55, and 12 (1926): 176–85. Bontty, M. “Images of Law and the Disputing Process in the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant.” Lingua Aegyptia 8 (2000): 93–107. de Buck, A. “The Judicial Papyrus of Turin.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 23 (1937): 152–57. Černý, J. A Community of Workmen at Thebes in the Ramesside Period. Cairo, 1973. Gardiner, A. H. “The Eloquent Peasant.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 9 (1923): 5–25. Loprieno, A. “Literature as Mirror of Social Institutions: The case of the Eloquent Peasant.” Lingua Aegyptia 8 (2000): 109–24. McDowell, A. G. Jurisdiction in the Workmen’s Community of Deir el-Medina. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1990. Parkinson, R. B. The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant. Oxford, UK, 1991. Shupak, N. “A New Source for the Study of the Judiciary and Law of Ancient Egypt: The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 51 (1992): 1–18. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003.

Website Tomb of Menna: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/nobles/menna69/e_menna_01.htm#.

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11. A NEW ROYAL R ESIDENCE INTRODUCTION This poem, dated to the reign of Merneptah (1236 bce–1223 bce), praises the city built by his predecessor, Ramesses II (1304 bce–1237 bce), in the northeastern Delta. This has been identified as the city of Piramesse, referred to as “Raamses” in the biblical source (Exodus: Ch.1, verse 11). Egypt’s traditional capital cities were at Memphis (about 20 kilometers/ 13 miles south of modern Cairo) and Thebes (in the area occupied by modern Luxor), but in the later New Kingdom (1320 bce–1085 bce), it became necessary to build a new capital on the edge of the Delta to deal with the military threat posed by neighboring countries in the Near East (see “Egyptian Society,” Document 31; see “Artists and Artisans,” Document 35). For nearly 200 years, Piramesse functioned as the capital city and main royal residence of the kings of Dynasties 19 and 20 (1304 bce–1085 bce). This extract comes from Papyrus Anastasi II. It is the longer of two poems on the same theme that were copied down as schoolboy exercises (see Documents 1, 14), and describes the royal palace at Piramesse. So far, excavation at the site has only revealed traces of the walls, but other evidence indicates that, in addition to residential accommodation, the royal complex included gods’ temples (see below), large stables, and workshops that produced the beautiful glazed tiles and faience inlays that once adorned the building’s door frames and furnishings.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. A system of centralized government was probably established from ca. 3500 bce; this relied on a network of regional and subsidiary capitals to which localized responsibilities and powers could be delegated. 2. Each royal workmen’s town probably included a residence that accommodated the king during periodic visits to inspect progress on his burial site. Some other palaces functioned as small towns: Gurob, for example, not only provided living quarters for the local harem of Amenhotep III (1417 bce–1379 bce), but also workshops where, between the king’s visits, the harem women produced fine textiles for the royal household.

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3. The Apiru were members of the gangs who manufactured bricks and acted as laborers on Ramesside building projects. They may have included the biblical Hebrews who probably settled in the eastern Delta when they first entered Egypt many years earlier.

Document: Poem in Praise of the City of Ramesses II (Papyrus Anastasi II) Amun: supreme god of Thebes Ariseth in its horizon, and setteth within it: the king spends day and night in the palace Astarte: Asiatic goddess originating in Syria/Palestine who was absorbed into the Egyptian pantheon Buto: a city in the Delta Hermonthis: a city near Thebes Its duration is that of Memphis: the writer hopes that the new residence will survive as long as Egypt’s first capital city, Memphis, founded ca. 3100 bce Joy-of-Egypt, Beloved-of-Atum: official attribute of the king Month-in-the-Two Lands: official attribute of the king Orient: east Ramesses-Beloved-of-Amun: official attribute of the king Sun-of-Princes: official attribute of the king Sutekh: Asiatic god originating in Syria/Palestine, absorbed into the Egyptian pantheon and often amalgamated with the Egyptian god Seth Victuals: food

The recital of the victories of the Lord of Egypt. His majesty hath builded him a castle called Great-of-Victories. It lies betwixt Palestine and Egypt, and is full of provision and victuals. It is like unto Hermonthis, and its duration is that of Memphis. The sun ariseth in its horizon, and setteth within it. All men forsake their towns and settle down in its territory. Its western part is a temple of Amun, its southern part a temple of Sutekh. Astarte is in its Orient, and Buto in its northern part. The castle which is within it is like unto the horizon of heaven. [The king is then identified with a list of official posts; alongside the king, the holders of these titles carried out the most important duties in the palace:] RamessesBeloved-of-Amun is in it as god: Month-in-the-Two Lands as herald; Sun-of-Princes as Vizier [First Minister]; Joy-of-Egypt, Beloved-of-Atum, as mayor, to whose dwelling the world goeth down. Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 270–71.

AFTERMATH

The Saite rulers (Dynasty 26 (664 bce–525 bce)) used Greek mercenaries to help them seize the throne, and continued to rely heavily on foreigners to support their dynasty against threats posed by local princes. They welcomed foreigners who brought expertise in trading and military matters, and encouraged Greeks, Jews, Carians, and Syrians to settle in Egypt. However, this move antagonized the indigenous population, and so King Amasis (570 bce–526 bce) made Naucratis, a commercial settlement established in the reign of Psammetichus I (664 bce–610 bce), the only city in Egypt where Greeks could engage in free trade. Its commercial importance was only eclipsed when, following his conquest of Egypt, Alexander the Great founded Alexandria in 332 bce. Situated on the Mediterranean coast, with excellent harbors, this was the most significant new city built in Egypt in the later period. Alexander’s intention was to open up links with the rest of the Hellenistic world, and Alexandria soon became the most important commercial city in the Mediterranean—a conduit through which goods passed between

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A New Royal Residence

TOWNS AND PALACES There are two opposing viewpoints regarding urban development in ancient Egypt. Some believe that geographical features (deserts, mountains, seas) and the early establishment of a strong, centralized state provided the inhabitants with sufficient protection so that fortified cities were not required, and consequently never developed across Egypt. Others argue that cities and towns were widespread, with perhaps 17 cities and 24 towns linked to a national capital whose location varied from one period to another. Building materials, location near the Nile, river floods, and constant erosion of the banks have destroyed much evidence of domestic sites (see “Temple Architecture,” Document 47; “Homes and Gardens,” Document 28). Accordingly, the archaeological record is scanty, even for the great capital cities of Memphis and Thebes, each of which, at its peak, had between 30,000 and 40,000 inhabitants. Tell el-Amarna, built as a new capital and a religious center for the Aten cult (see Document 43) but abandoned soon afterward, provides the best available archaeological evidence of town planning and construction methods. Over the millennia, cities and towns were built in response to the requirements of trade, religion, administration, and military defense. Two main types of urbanization emerged: most were unplanned, continuously occupied, and grew randomly out of predynastic villages, while others (fortresses or accommodation for the royal workforce) were purpose built to a specific plan. These were situated in a particular location, and abandoned when the projects with which they were associated came to an end. Royal palaces were an important feature of most urbanizations; however, due to their mud-brick construction, very little physical evidence of their layout or decoration has survived. Multifunctional state palaces were constructed in capital cities; these incorporated accommodation for the royal family, audience halls for receiving dignitaries, and the headquarters of state administration. The king also had palaces in other places where he stayed when travelling around Egypt.

Egypt (and its southern hinterland) and the great centers of Hellenistic and Roman commerce. Alexandria was a Greek city: it had a predominantly Greek population, and Greek institutions (state administration, temples, palaces, mansions, marketplaces, etc.)—all accommodated in buildings designed in the Hellenistic style. It also had Egyptian residents: the wealthier ones often became “hellenized,” adopting Greek culture and customs, and living in houses built and decorated in the Greek style. Other areas of the city were occupied by workshops, local markets, shops, and humbler houses where the poorer classes (both Greek and Egyptian) lived. Alexandria remained the country’s capital and retained its powerful status until the Arabs invaded Egypt in the seventh century ce.

ASK YOURSELF 1. How were the palaces decorated and furnished? 2. What was the social composition of the ruling elite in the cities? How did they interact with central government? How much control did they have over local administrative, economic, and legal matters? 3. Why did most people choose to live in towns and cities instead of rural areas? 4. Which professions/trades were undertaken by the urban population?

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TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Urbanization in ancient Egypt developed as a network of cities and towns controlled by a centralized state. This differed from the model found in early Mesopotamia (an area now occupied by Iraq) where city-states evolved independent of any overarching state control. Discuss some of the factors that may have influenced these different patterns of urban development. H Some ancient Egyptian cities flourished for over 5,000 years, and some exerted considerable international influence. Discuss the reasons why they were so successful over such a long time-span.

Further Information Bietak, M. (ed.). House and Palace in Ancient Egypt: International Symposium in Cairo, April 8 to 11, 1992. Vienna, 1996. Bietak, M. “Urban Archaeology and the ‘Town Problem’ in Ancient Egypt.” In K. Weeks (ed.). Egyptology and the Social Sciences. Cairo, 1979: 95–144. Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Eyre, C. J. “Work and the Organisation of Work in the New Kingdom.” In M. Powell, Labor in the Ancient Near East. New Haven, CT, 1987: 167–221. Gardiner, A. H. “The Delta Residence of the Ramessides.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 5 (1918): 179–200. Greenberg, M. The Hab/piru. New Haven, CT, 1955. Kemp, B. “The Amarna Workmen’s Village in Retrospect.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 73 (1987): 21–50. Kemp, B. “The Character of the South Suburb at Tell el-Amarna.” Mitteilungen des Deutschen Orient-Geselleshaft Zu Berlin 113 (1981): 81–97. Kemp, B. J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation. London and New York, 1991. Kemp, B. J. “The Early Development of Towns in Egypt.” Antiquity 51 (1977): 185–200. Kemp, B. J. “The Harim-Palace at Medinet el-Ghurab.” Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 105 (1978): 122–33. Kemp, B. J. “The Palace of Apries at Memphis.” Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 33 (1977): 101–8. Lacovera, P. The New Kingdom Royal City. London, 1997. Uphill, E. P. “The Concept of the Egyptian Palace as a ‘Ruling Machine’.” In P. Ucko (ed.). Settlement and Urbanism. London, 1972: 721–34. Uphill, E. P. Egyptian Towns and Cities. Aylesbury, UK, 1988. Zinn, K. “Temples, Palaces and Libraries.” In R. Gundlach and K. Spence (eds.). 5th Symposium on Egyptian Royal Ideology: Palace and Temple. Wiesbaden, Germany, 2012.

Website Tebtunis, A Ptolemaic Town: www.tebtunis.berkeley.edu.

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12. A R ESPONSE TO SOCIAL UPHEAVAL INTRODUCTION The Admonitions of a Prophet or The Admonitions of Ipuwer provide advice and prophecy attributed to a wise man, Ipuwer, who attends the court of an elderly king. Protected by his courtiers, the king is ignorant of the social upheaval that his country faces, but Ipuwer provides a vivid picture of the situation: the collapse of society; violence and robbery; famine, disease, and even foreign infiltration. Ipuwer begs the courtiers to take urgent action by fighting the causes of chaos and reinstating the worship of the gods. However, they do not heed his advice, and the country plunges into total anarchy, culminating in the removal of the king. The following excerpts are from a text preserved in Papyrus Leiden 344, which dates to Dynasty 19 (1320 bce–1200 bce), but the events described may refer to Dynasty 6 (ca.2345 bce–ca. 2181 bce) and the earlier part of the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2181 bce–ca.2040 bce) (see “Egyptian Society,” Document 31). There are other texts with a similar theme—response to social, political, and religious upheaval (see “The Pessimistic Literature,” Document 9). In one, The Prophecy of Neferti (see Erman, 1966: 110–15), a wise man, Neferti, foretells the future for King Sneferu (ca. 2613 bce–2589 bce). He describes the chaos that will engulf Egypt at a later date, and how order will eventually be restored by King Ameny (possibly Amenemhet I, 1991 bce–1962 bce). Although preserved in Papyrus Leningrad 1116B, which dates to Dynasty 18 (1567 bce–1320 bce), this text may describe events experienced during the First Intermediate Period. A third example, The Complaints of Khakheperre-Sonb (see Lichtheim 1975: 145–49), is preserved on a writing board (British Museum 5645) dating to Dynasty 18 (1567 bce–1320 bce). The author, a priest at Heliopolis, again speaks of disorder in the land, but in this instance, his comments are addressed to his own heart.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The text describes the social and political horrors that the Egyptians always feared: the disintegration of society, with the roles of rich and poor reversed; widespread chaos, violence, and murder; and the inability to rely upon a neighbor’s goodwill and help (see Document 51).

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2. Breakdown of the centralized administration resulted in collapse of the irrigation and agricultural systems, which in turn led to famine, hunger, and disease (see Document 26). 3. Because of all these tribulations, the Egyptians welcomed death, but even this could not bring the usual benefits of a secure afterlife: for many people, the resources were no longer available to build and equip their tombs, and even if burial did take place, the tombs and their contents were often plundered. 4. However, in his account, Luria (1929, discussed in Lichtheim 1975: 149–50), highlights a major inconsistency in the text: despite the conditions of chaos and utter deprivation, the newly rich are still able to acquire fine possessions.

Document: The Admonitions of Ipuwer (Papyrus Leiden 344) FROM THE FIRST POEM Nay, but the Nile is in flood, yet none plougheth for him. Every man saith: ‘We know not what hath happened throughout the land.’ . . . Nay, but poor men now possess fine things. He who once made for himself no sandals now possesseth riches. . . . Nay, but many dead men are buried in the river. The stream is a sepulchre, and the Pure Place is become a stream. . . . Nay, but the high-born are full of lamentations, and the poor are full of joy. Every town saith: ‘Let us drive out the powerful from our midst.’ . . . Nay, but great and small say: ‘I wish I were dead!’ Little children Bier: the stand on which a mummy say: ‘He ought never to have caused me to live.’ was placed Nay, but the children of princes, men dash them against walls. Children of the neck: probably The children of the neck, they are laid upon the high ground. infants carried by their parents Hawk: the king as the earthly embodiment of the sky-god Laid upon the high ground: children FROM THE SECOND POEM are left to die on the desert edge because of lack of resources to feed Behold, a thing hath been done, that happened not aforetime; it is them come to this that the king hath been taken away by poor men. Pure Place: the place of embalming Behold, he that was buried as a hawk lieth on a bier. What the Sepulchre: a grave; burial place pyramid hid will become empty. Uraeus: the serpent on the king’s Behold, it is come to this, that the land is despoiled of the kingforehead; associated with the ship by a few senseless people. sun-god, Re, it protected the ruler Behold, it is come to this, that men display enmity against the against his enemies Uraeus, the (defender?) of Re, which caused the Two Lands to be What the pyramid hid: the sarcophin peace. . . .  agus containing the king’s mummy Behold, they that possessed clothes are now in rags. He that wove not for himself now possesseth fine linen.

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A Response to Social Upheaval

Behold, he that never built for himself a boat now possesseth ships. He that possessed the same looketh at them, but they are no longer his. Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman.  The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 94–102.

ORDER AND CHAOS The Egyptians believed that the gods in the sky and the underworld, and the king on earth, employed magical forces to wage a continuous battle against chaos (see Document 46), and to attempt to maintain the equilibrium of the universe and the orderly balance of society. However, from time to time, they were faced with the reality that centralized government collapsed, resulting in widespread disorder and upheaval. Some scholars (following Gardiner 1969, see in “Further Information”) have interpreted the texts mentioned earlier (known collectively as the Pessimistic Literature, see “The Pessimistic Literature,” Document 9) as historical accounts of events that actually took place at the end of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2345 bce–ca. 2181 bce) and in the early years of the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2181 bce–ca.2040 bce). Although all the extant texts describing chaos and breakdown of society date to later periods, it has been argued that they are probably copies of much earlier accounts composed at the time of the upheavals. If this interpretation is accepted, the king referred to in The Admonitions of Ipuwer is probably Pepy II (2269 bce–2175 bce). However, other scholars (following Luria 1929, see in “Further Information”) have suggested that all these texts are purely rhetorical and have no historical content: they serve as a literary device for discussing the concept of order versus chaos and, by describing the dreadful conditions resulting from the overthrow of the established order, they emphasize the need for constant vigilance. Even so, the vivid descriptions given in the texts must surely reflect memories of events that once occurred, perhaps handed down through oral traditions. The texts also confirm that peace and prosperity rested on the existence of central authority embodied in a strong king.

AFTERMATH Archaeology supports the theory that the Admonitions of Ipuwer and similar texts probably describe events that actually occurred at the end of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2345 bce–ca. 2181 bce) and throughout Dynasties 7, 8, 9, and 10 (ca. 2181 bce–ca. 2040 bce). Evidence suggests that, by the end of Dynasty 6 (ca. 2181 bce), there was dissolution of the country’s central administration, and this enabled the Bedouin to infiltrate along Egypt’s northeastern border (see Document 31). In the final years of Pepy II’s long reign (2269 bce–2175 bce), the situation was doubtless exacerbated by the king’s failing faculties, which would have hastened the decline of royal power. Egypt soon returned to the state of political fragmentation that had existed during the Predynastic Period (ca. 5000 bce–ca. 3100 bce). Civil war followed the collapse of the Old Kingdom, with succeeding dynasties setting up power bases in different areas of the country but failing to reestablish overall control. Eventually, Mentuhotep II [Nebhepetre] (2060 bce–2010 bce), a Theban ruler of Dynasty 11, took steps to reunite Egypt. Amenemhet I (1991 bce–1962 bce) then usurped power and founded Dynasty 12 (1991 bce–1786 bce), and he and his successors restored peace and prosperity to Egypt. However, lacking any royal blood, these rulers may have felt it necessary to use every available means, including literary propaganda, to justify their claim to rule

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the country (see “Divine Kingship and Regicide,” Document 30). The Prophecy of Neferti may provide one example of this propaganda: although probably composed during or after the reign of Amenemhet I, the document describes events that apparently occurred at a much earlier period. The text “foretells” Amenemhet I’s crucial role in bringing order to the country, thus bolstering the strength and authority of his reign and dynasty. This literary device—using prophecy to convey a political message—is found elsewhere (see the Tale of King Khufu and the Magicians in Document 45).

ASK YOURSELF 1. What impact did the geography of Egypt have upon its political and social stability/ instability? 2. What other examples of “literary propaganda” have been found in ancient Egyptian texts? 3. How did the kings of Dynasty 12 eventually restore political and social unity?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Consider the evidence found in the Pessimistic Literature, and discuss whether The Admonitions of Ipuwer and similar documents represent true historical events or whether they are rhetorical accounts of the continuous conflict between order and chaos. H Look at the archaeological evidence from the later Old Kingdom (the decline in pyramid size, increased importance of the sun-temples, etc.), and discuss the main reasons for disintegration of society at the end of the Old Kingdom. Given Egypt’s political, religious, and social concepts and institutions, was the collapse inevitable, or could steps have been taken to avoid it?

Further Information Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Edwards, I.E.S. The Pyramids of Egypt. Harmondsworth, UK, 1985. Faulkner, R. O. “Notes on ‘The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage’.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 50 (1964): 24–36. Gardiner, A. H. The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage from a hieratic papyrus in Leiden (Pap. Leiden 344 recto). Leipzig, Germany, 1909 (reprinted ed. 2011). Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975. Luria, S. “Die Ersten werden die Letzten sein.” Klio 22 (1929): 405–31. Simpson, W. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Winlock, H. E. The Rise and Fall of the Middle Kingdom in Thebes. New York, 1947.

Websites Abusir: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/abusir_jul_2006_0002.htm. Giza Plateau: http://www.aeraweb.org/projects/gpmp/pyramids.

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13. A TRADING VENTURE INTRODUCTION Papyrus Moscow 120, an Egyptian text now in Moscow, was purchased in Cairo in 1891 ce (see Document 15). Written early in Dynasty 21 (ca. 1000 bce), this major literary source describes a journey undertaken by a temple official, Wenamun, toward the end of Dynasty 20 (ca. 1080 bce). Either a fictional account or the report of an actual journey, the document preserves accurate details of the geographical background and historical context in which the narrative is set. It relates how Wenamun, on the orders of Herihor, High priest of Amun at Thebes, is sent to the city of Byblos to buy cedarwood to restore the sacred barque used to transport the statue of the god Amun (Amen-Re) during festivals (see Document 39). The document describes the difficulties encountered by Wenamun during his journey. Although he is accompanied by a statue of “Amun of the Road” (a god who at one time had enjoyed great prestige abroad), and supplied with letters of introduction from Herihor’s co-ruler, Smendes, he discovers that Egyptian envoys are no longer welcomed in Byblos. Egypt’s political status has declined after losing an empire, and Wenamun has great difficulty in fulfilling his mission. In this excerpt, Wenamun tells the Prince of Byblos that he has come to buy timber to repair the sacred boat. Wenamun reminds the prince that, in earlier times, the prince’s father and grandfather had welcomed the trade, but the prince responds by recalling the wealth that the Egyptian kings had formerly sent as payment. Finally, the sale proceeds on the basis that the Egyptians agree to pay a substantial fixed price for the timber.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Egypt was always most successful when united under one strong ruler. This document was written at a time when a weak king, Ramesses XI (1090 bce–1080 bce), had delegated control of the country to Smendes and Herihor, a division of power which, together with the loss of an empire, greatly lessened Egypt’s importance and influence abroad. 2. Wenamun’s circumstances have been compared with those of a Middle Kingdom court official, Sinuhe (see the Story of Sinuhe (Erman, The Literature of the Ancient

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Egyptians: 15–29)). Sinuhe’s travels were set in a period (1991 bce–1786 bce) when Egypt’s international prestige was high and he was well received wherever he went.

Document: The Report of Wenamun (Papyrus Moscow 120) He answered and said unto me: “Upon what kind of behest art thou come hither?” I said unto him: “I am come after the timber for the great august vessel of Amunre, king of gods. Thy father used to do it, thy grandfather used to do it, and thou wilt do it also.” So I spake unto him. And he said unto me: “They Deben: Egyptian standard unit of did it in sooth, and if thou wilt give me something for doing it, weight (approximately 3 ounces I will do it. Of a truth my people did execute this behest, but the or 91 grams) used for measuring Pharaoh had six ships sent hither, laden with wares of Egypt, and metals they unloaded them into their storehouses. So do thou bring someEvery kind of silver: vessels, ingots, what for me also.” And he had fetched the daily registers of his fapieces of silver, among others thers, and he had them read aloud in my presence, and it was found In sooth: in truth that it was a thousand deben of every kind of silver that was enVessel of Amunre: the sacred boat tered in his book. used to transport the statue of the god Amen-Re during his festivals Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 179.

TRADING VENTURES ABROAD Domestic trade never played a significant part in Egypt’s economy, and was probably largely limited to local markets. However, foreign trade was well developed because Egypt, rich in some commodities such as building stone and precious metals and gems, lacked other important materials or needed additional supplies, which had to be imported. From earliest times, the Egyptians sent trading expeditions to Nubia (see “Egypt and Nubia in the Old Kingdom,” Document 17), to obtain hard stone for building projects and gold for domestic use and foreign trade; the gold was transported in the form of rings, bars, and gold dust in sacks. Other regular expeditions involving sea travel went to Punt (see “Transport,” Document 29; “Egypt and Nubia in the Old Kingdom,” Document 17). Contact also existed between Egypt and the Aegean islands: international diplomacy was underpinned by an exchange of goods between their ambassadors and the Egyptian royal court. Asia provided Egypt with copper, silver, semiprecious stones, horses and horse carriages, musical instruments, wine, and weapons. Egypt lacked good-quality timber, and imported cedarwood from Byblos for the construction of coffins, doors, tombs, and ships. Information about trading ventures is preserved in scenes on Egyptian tomb and temple walls, and in papyrus documents; traded objects have also been found at archaeological sites in Egypt and elsewhere. The king initiated major expeditions that were led by princes or important officials, and accompanied by scribes and interpreters; soldiers provided military protection, naval captains supervised the sea voyages, and conscripted laborers and prisoners of war (see Document 16) supplied the manpower. Smaller expeditions were also authorized, led by lesser officials such as Wenamun.

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AFTERMATH This document marks a high point in New Kingdom narrative literature, providing a fascinating insight into sailing and trading ventures in the eastern Mediterranean, and the attendant political circumstances: Egypt’s lost international status, which was never regained.

ASK YOURSELF 1. 2. 3. 4.

What type of ship would Wenamun’s expedition have used? How long would it have taken the Egyptian expeditions to reach Byblos? How was the god’s statue used in religious festivals? How and why did Egypt lose its empire?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Make a map of Egypt and neighboring countries during the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce) (see Baines and Malek, Atlas of Ancient Egypt) and mark the routes of important Egyptian trading voyages. H Compile a list of commodities that the Egyptians imported; discuss why they needed these items and how they made use of them.

Further Information Baines, J. “On Wenamun as a Literary Text.” In J. Assmann and E. Blumenthal (eds.). Literatur und Politik im pharaonischen Ägypten. Cairo, 1999: 209–33. Baines, J. and Malek, K. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Oxford, UK, 1980. Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Egberts, A. “The Chronology of The Report of Wenamun.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 77 (1991): 57–67. Egberts, A. “Hard Times: The Chronology of ‘The Report of Wenamun’ Revised.” Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 125 (1998): 93–108. Hudecz, A. and Petrik, M. (eds.). Commerce and Economy in Ancient Egypt. Oxford, UK, 2010. Kitchen, K. A. The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC). Warminster, UK, 1973. Landström, B. Ships of the Pharaohs, 4000 Years of Egyptian Ship-building. London, 1970. Liverani, M. Prestige and Interest. International Relations in the Near East ca. 1600–1100 B.C. Padua, Italy, 2002. Jones, D. Boats. London, 1970. Simpson, W. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B. J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. (eds.). Ancient Egypt. A Social History. Cambridge, UK, 1983. Vinson, S. Egyptian Boats and Ships. Princes Risborough, UK, 1994. Zingarelli, A. P. Trade and Market in New Kingdom Egypt. Oxford, UK, 2010.

Website Expedition to Punt, Deir el-Bahri: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/.  .  ./pages/deir_el_ bahri_jul_2006_0048.htm. 57

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14. THE A DVANTAGES OF THE SCRIBAL PROFESSION INTRODUCTION The document from which these excerpts are taken is known either as The Satire of the Trades or The Instruction of Dua-Khety. Although it is a Wisdom Text (see “Instructions in Wisdom,” Document 19; see also Documents 31, 35), the giver of advice (a father speaking to his son) comes from humble origins rather than a royal, upper- or middle-class background, as in other examples of the genre. The text relates how Dua-Khety takes his son, Pepy, to school. Although his family comes from the lower classes, Pepy has gained a place in the school at the royal palace (see “Childhood,” Document 1). During the river journey, in order to encourage Pepy to engage with his studies, Dua-Khety extols the benefits and rewards of the scribal profession, and contrasts this career favorably with 18 other trades and professions (see Document 22). To make his point, Dua-Khety provides critical characterizations of these other occupations, emphasizing the unpleasantness and hardship associated with them (see Document 18). The personal names used in the text indicate that it was probably composed sometime between the Old and Middle Kingdoms (ca. 2170 bce). However, it has only survived in schoolboy copies that date from the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce) (see Documents 11, 23, 40). The most complete versions are found in Papyrus Sallier II and Papyrus Anastasi VII, now in the British Museum, which were written by the same scribe (Dynasty 19, ca. 1300 bce). More fragmentary passages, dating to Dynasty 18 (1567 bce–1320 bce), are found in Papyrus Amherst (Pierpoint Morgan Library), Papyrus Chester Beatty XIX (British Museum), and on a writing board (the Louvre), as well as on ostraca, which date to the Ramesside Period (1320 bce–1085 bce).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Although ancient Egypt was a hierarchical society, and most sons followed their fathers’ professions and trades, it is evident from this text that the opportunity existed for talented boys to gain an education that could enable them to enter the highest profession (see Document 1).

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2. Egyptologists have disputed whether or not this was a satirical text. Perhaps it did not seriously reflect the Egyptians’ true evaluation of these occupations, but was simply intended to caricature and exaggerate their disadvantages in order to be humorous. On the other hand, it may express a genuinely critical assessment of many tasks in which people were engaged. 3. As well as the occupations mentioned in the excerpts earlier, the document describes many other workers; these include metalsmith, carpenter, field laborer, jeweler, reed cutter, potter, farmer, arrow maker, courier, stoker, cobbler, washerman, bird catcher, and fisherman.

Document: The Satire of the Trades (Papyrus Sallier II, Papyrus Anastasi VII)

Fate of a man is on his shoulders on the day he is born: the name of Renenet, goddess of the harvest and good fortune, was branded or tattooed on the upper part of a scribe’s arm, to indicate that he belonged to her Judgement hall: the scribe’s place of work Place to which he has been sent: craftsmen must remain where they are sent, without the opportunity to travel about Placed you on the path of God: Dua-Khety has set his son on the right track Residence: the palace Royal house l.p.h: the palace, followed by the customary abbreviation of the phrase “life, prosperity, health,” which was often associated with the words “king” or “palace” School of writings: a school for scribes Tjel: Sile, a town in the northeastern Delta: Dua-Khety and Pepy are from the borders of Egypt, far from the urban centers of learning and sophistication

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The beginning of the teaching which the man of Tjel named DuaKhety made for his son named Pepy, while he sailed southwards to the Residence to place him in the school of writings among the children of the magistrates, the most eminent men of the Residence. [Dua-Khety then addresses Pepy]. Since I have seen those who have been beaten, it is to writings that you must set your mind. See for yourself, it saves one from work. Behold, there is nothing that surpasses writings!. . . . I do not see a stoneworker on an (important) errand or a goldsmith in a place to which he has been sent, but I have seen a coppersmith at his work at the mouth of his furnace. His fingers were like the claws of the crocodile, and he stank more than fish eggs. . . . The barber shaves until the end of the evening .  .  . He takes himself from street to street to seek out someone to shave. I shall also describe to you the like of the mason-bricklayer. His kidneys are painful. When he must be outside in the wind, he lays bricks without a loin cloth . . . His strength has vanished through fatigue and stiffness, kneading all his excrement . . . The vintner hauls his shoulder-yoke .  .  . A swelling is on his neck, and it festers. He spends the morning in watering leeks and the evening (with) corianders . . . . . . If you understand writings, then it will be better for you than the professions which I have set before you . . . See, I have placed you on the path of God. The fate of a man is on his shoulders on the day he is born. He comes to the judgement hall and the court of magistrates made for the people. See, there is no scribe lacking sustenance, the provisions of the royal house l.p.h. Source: Erman, A.  The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927, 67–72. Reprinted in Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003: 432–36.

The Advantages of the Scribal Profession

THE SCRIBAL PROFESSION The scribe—namely, an educated man who could read and write—belonged to a privileged and distinct group who, over the millennia, was responsible for organizing and maintaining the structure of society. Hieroglyphs—the pictorial writing of ancient Egypt—were believed to have their own religious and magical powers (see Document 22), and it was knowledge of writing and mastery of the divine words that gave the scribe his special significance. He was not simply expected to record facts: a love of education instilled in the scribe during his training produced someone who would contribute intellectually to society and use his learning to influence others. The scribe’s most important duties were associated with religion: in the temple scriptorium, he composed and copied religious and other texts (see “The Egyptian Temple,” Document 44; Document 26). Other scribal activities included imposing and collecting taxes, keeping army records and accounts, and controlling the law courts; many held part-time priesthoods, and some passed on their knowledge and expertise by teaching the young (see Document 28). Thoth, god of wisdom, learning, and writing, was the patron deity of all scribes, a profession held by individuals across the social spectrum, from royal princes to minor functionaries. Scribes were revered and honored, and enjoyed many benefits: often exempted from paying taxes, they could afford good food and expensive clothing; they did not have to engage in agricultural or other onerous tasks; and they controlled their own work and directed that of others. However, this privileged position carried certain obligations: the Wisdom Texts and other teaching documents make it clear that a high standard of moral and ethical behavior was expected of the scribe.

AFTERMATH A scribal training was the entry to various professions: doctor, lawyer, educator, administrator, civil servant, diplomat, and priest. The ability to read and write—the essential requirement for all who intended to become scribes—formed the basis of an academic education and was provided by various institutions (see “Childhood,” Document 1).

ASK YOURSELF 1. In this socially hierarchical society, why were some children from a humble background given the opportunity of an academic education? What effect did this have, both for the individual and the society as a whole? 2. Does the document provide an accurate or biased description of the hardships associated with various occupations?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Read the whole text of the Instruction of Dua-Khety (see “Further Information,” Simpson: 431–36), and see if you can identify depictions of the occupations described in the texts, in the scenes that occur on the interior walls of tombs of the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms. H Select one of the professions for which a scribal training was required, and discuss the duties and advantages it involved. 61

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Further Information Foster, J. L. “Some Comments on Khety’s Instructions for Little Pepi on His Way to School (Satire on the Trades).” In E. Teeter and J. A. Larson (eds.). Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F Wente. Chicago, 2000: 121–29. Gardiner, A. H. Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, 3rd Series: Chester Beatty Gift. 2 vols. London, 1935. Hoch, J. “The Teaching of Dua-Khety: A New Look at the Satire of the Trades.” Journal of the Society of the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 21–22 (1991–92, issued 1995): 88–100. Parkinson, R. and Quirke, S. Papyrus. London, 1972. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Wente, E. Letters from Ancient Egypt. Atlanta, 1990. Williams, R. J. “Scribal Training in Ancient Egypt.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 92 (1972): 214–21.

Websites Tombs of the Kings, Queens and Priests, Thebes: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/pha raohs/e_ph1.htm#. Tomb of Ptahhotep and Akhethotep: http://www.osirisnet.net/mastabas/akhethtp_ptahhtp/ e_akht_ptah_03.htm.

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15. FINANCIAL TRANSACTIONS INTRODUCTION Papyrus Moscow 120 (now located in Moscow) dates to ca. 1000 bce (see Document 13). It describes the journey of a temple official, Wenamun, toward the end of Dynasty 20 (ca. 1080 bce). This excerpt relates how Wenamun’s difficulties in purchasing timber from the Prince of Byblos are finally resolved: Wenamun asks the prince to let him send a message to Smendes and his wife Tentamun, requesting Smendes to advance the necessary funds for the timber, which Wenamun will repay on his return to Egypt. There is a positive response: the document lists various goods provided by the Egyptian rulers, and also other items that Tentamun sent personally to Wenamun. On receipt of this payment, the prince was willing to supply some of the timber, which is then cut and prepared for transport to Egypt.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Egyptian gold and other precious metals, often worked into vases and vessels, were often traded with other countries. Wenamun’s report also lists fine linen and papyrus; manufactured from flax and papyrus plants cultivated in Egypt, these luxury goods were always in great demand abroad.

Document: The Report of Wenamun (Papyrus Moscow 120) Let my scribe be brought unto me, that I may send him to Smendes and Tentamun, the officers of the land, whom Amun has given to the northern portion of his land, and they will send all that is needed. I will write

Amun: principal god of Thebes

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to them, saying: “Send it, until I be come to the south and send thee all that I owe thee.” So spake I unto him. And he gave my letter into the hand of his messenger . . . And his messenger went to Egypt and came back to me to Syria in the first month of Winter. And Smendes and Tentamun sent me: Gold: 4 ewers and 1 kakment-vessel; Silver: 5 ewers; Garments of royal linen: 10 pieces; Good Upper Egyptian linen: 10 khered; Fine papyrus: 500; Oxhides: 500; Ropes: 500; Lentils: 20 sacks; Fish: 30 baskets. They also brought to me: Garments of good Upper Egyptian linen: 5(?) pieces; Good Upper Egyptian linen: 5 khered; Lentils: 1 sack; Fish: 5 baskets. And the prince rejoiced, and appointed three hundred men and three hundred oxen, and set overseers at their head, in order that they might fell the trees.

Ewer: narrow-necked vessel Khered: unknown meaning, perhaps a type of garment Syria: source and supplier of Egypt’s cedarwood, Syria included the area known today as Lebanon

Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 181–82.

THE TRANSACTION OF GOODS Coinage was only introduced to Egypt during the Persian Period (ca. 525 bce). Until then all domestic and foreign trade was conducted through barter—an exchange of goods that was acceptable to both parties. However, by ca. 1580 bce, set standards of valuation based on metals (gold, silver, and copper) had been introduced, against which goods could be measured. Although standard commodities such as grain and cereals were weighed in bushels, the standard units for measuring metals were called deben (approximately 3 ounces or 91 grams) and kite (one-tenth of a deben). Made specifically for commercial transactions, deben were gold rings of variable thickness and a uniform diameter of about five inches. Tomb wall scenes depict treasury officials using scales to weigh out deben against fixed weights, which were made of hard stone, incised with a weight mark. Since other countries used different systems of weights and measures, itinerant merchants had to carry their own sets of weights with them so that they could trade locally. In theory, the king possessed the whole country, and this allowed him, through his administrators, to control the produce of mines, quarries, and vineyards throughout Egypt. He also determined which goods should be traded with foreign countries. Taxes—also a royal monopoly—were levied on goods from Mediterranean lands and those that had been brought along the Nile from the south.

AFTERMATH In the years following Wenamun’s account, Egypt experienced a gradual but inevitable decline and, as the kings’ influence and power decreased, foreigners came to play a greater role in the country’s economy. During the Greco-Roman Period (332 bce–4th century ce), the Ptolemaic and Roman rulers of Egypt introduced new commercial and economic measures. Egyptian exports included textiles, glass, papyrus, and, most importantly, grain that was sent through Alexandria to Rome, Constantinople, and other parts of the Mediterranean. Imports such as wine, honey, meat, and fish reached the homes of the Greek settlers in Egypt, but made little contribution to the lives of most Egyptians.

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ASK YOURSELF 1. How did people store and redistribute goods acquired through barter? 2. How were people paid for their services in Egypt, and who paid them? 3. Why was coinage introduced? What advantages does it offer over the barter system?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Discuss the extent to which the king’s apparent political and economic monopoly influenced the development of domestic and foreign trade in Egypt. H Consider how Egypt acquired its vast wealth; discuss why and how it was lost, and the impact this had on Egypt’s relationship with other countries.

Further Information Bagnall, R. S. Egypt in Late Antiquity. Princeton, NJ, 1993. Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Bowman, A. K. Egypt after the Pharaohs, 332 BC-AD 642. London, 1986. Green, M. “Wenamun’s demand for compensation.” Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 106 (1979): 116–20. Janssen, J. J. Commodity Prices from the Ramessid Period: An Economic Study of the Village of Necropolis Workmen at Thebes. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1975. Kemp, B. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation. London and New York, 1991. Simpson, W. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B. J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. (eds.). Ancient Egypt. A Social History. Cambridge, UK, 1983.

Websites Expedition to Punt, Deir el-Bahri: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/deir%20el%20bahri/ index.htm. (See under Reliefs inside Hatshepsut’s temple: Expedition to Punt: pages/deir_el_bahri_091 .htm). Mines and Quarries: www.touregypt.net/featurestories/minesandquarries2.

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16. SLAVERY AND SERVITUDE INTRODUCTION The “Annals” of Tuthmosis III (1504 bce–1450 bce), inscribed on the walls of two halls behind Pylon VI in the Temple of Amun at Karnak, record the annual campaigns that this king led to Asia over a period of at least 16 years (see “Egypt’s Relations with Syria/ Palestine,” Document 33; Document 41). Temple decoration, as well as depicting divine rituals once performed in the building (see “The Egyptian Temple,” Document 44), also customarily celebrated the success in battle achieved by the king who had built the temple. These scenes were included to emphasize his role as divine ruler and son of the gods, and although the descriptions probably exaggerate the king’s military prowess, Egyptologists nevertheless regard them as a type of historical record of events that once occurred. More detail is given of the first campaign than subsequent expeditions, with particular focus on the Egyptians’ conquest of Megiddo, an important city-state occupied by the Canaanites, and their confederates (see Document 34). This excerpt lists some of the booty taken by the army, including a large number of slaves and their offspring (see Document 42).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Families of the conquered rulers of city-states in Syria/Palestine were taken to Egypt as hostages, where the princes’ sons were educated in the highest educational institution (the k3p—“Royal Nursery or Harem”), alongside the children of Egyptian officials (see “Childhood,” Document 1; Document 14). They received training in the language of Egypt and were indoctrinated into its culture; this “Egyptianization” was intended to ensure that they would support Egypt’s political and military objectives when they returned home as vassal rulers. 2. The large number of foreign captives and their descendants who settled in Egypt had a profound effect on Egypt’s demography. In one instance, it is recorded that an individual was assigned 19 male and female “slaves,” while a temple might be allocated thousands of workers (see Document 25). The Brooklyn Papyrus (Late

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Middle Kingdom, ca. 1842 bce–ca. 1786 bce) states that foreign workers from Syria/Palestine outnumbered the native-born Egyptians employed alongside them. 3. Duties undertaken by “dependents” included domestic and agricultural work on private estates; singing and dancing in temples (see Document 36); crafts associated with temple and palace workshops; and laboring on state-building projects. Some served in the army or at garrison sites (see “Trading Ventures Abroad,” Document 13), alongside conscripted peasants (see “Egyptian Society,” Document 31), while others became doctors, magicians, interpreters, administrators, and estate managers. Some were even employed in the royal harem or as cup-bearer to the king, and in Dynasty 19 (1320 bce–1200 bce), one rose to become First Minister.

Document: The Annals of Tuthmosis III

Amun: supreme god of the Egyptian empire Appointed the rulers anew for (every town): it was customary for Egyptian victors to replace the leaders of conquered city-states and towns with new rulers who would comply with their wishes Maryan-warriors: probably chari oteers—the descendants of the Indo-Aryan groups who introduced horses and chariots into Syria/ Palestine On the journey south: this group of conquered rulers was taken to Egypt

Now the princes of this foreign land came out on their bellies to kiss the ground to the might of his majesty, and to beg breath for their nostrils, because of the greatness of his strength and the extent of the power of (Amun over all foreign lands) . . . all the princes captured by his majesty’s might bearing their tribute of silver, gold, lapis lazuli, and turquoise, and carrying grain, wine, and large and small cattle for his majesty’s army; one group among them bore tribute on the journey south. Then his majesty appointed the rulers anew for (every town) . . . [The text then lists the booty that the Egyptians carried off from Megiddo and the captured towns that had supported Megiddo:] (Maryan-warriors) belonging to them: 38. Children of that enemy and of the princes with him: 84. Maryan-warriors belonging to them: 5. Male and female slaves and their children: 1,796. Pardoned persons who had come out from that enemy because of hunger: 103. Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 33–34.

SLAVES AND SERFS It is probably unhelpful to use the term “slavery” with reference to ancient Egypt, since the specific condition that defines a “slave” in the modern context—a total absence of individual rights—did not occur in pharaonic times. Egyptologists generally prefer to identify tied-workers as “dependents” or the “unfree.” Various levels and forms of servitude existed, and workers were probably categorized according to their individual degrees of liberty, employment restrictions, and personal rights. However, the ancient records provide

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no precise definition of the names used for these different groups. One form of servitude—corvée-duty— was introduced in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce): although all Egyptians were expected to undertake this limited period of annual paid work for the state, only the peasants (freeborn serfs) actually fulfilled this obligation. They worked at royal or temple-building sites, or undertook mining, quarrying, or military expeditions. Later, a more extreme type of forced labor was introduced. Although foreign slaves formed the core of this system, it also involved some Egyptians, perhaps acquired by the owner through inheritance, or deprived of freedom because they were criminals or had sold themselves into servitude to pay off a debt (known as a “self-sale”). From the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce) onward, soldiers and others arrived in Egypt as prisoners of war, while others came as royal gifts, annual vassal dues, or from slave trading. The kings presented these captives to temples, labor colonies, or favored individuals such as soldiers who had performed well in battle. Owned by a master or mistress, a dependent could be disposed of through inheritance, gift, or sale. However, they retained some legal rights: they could own and dispose of property, negotiate commercial and legal transactions, and marry other slaves or even freeborn partners. They could also be set free, either through royal or other intervention, adoption by their owner, or marriage to an Egyptian (see Document 2).

AFTERMATH The practice of importing foreign captives into Egypt reached its zenith in the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce); these prisoners of war and their descendants became a significant demographic factor that, in later times, continued to form a distinct underclass and workforce (see Document 47). By the Late Period (525 bce–332 bce), a form of slavery was recognized by the legal system, according to which an individual could be bought, owned, and sold, and had very little freedom. However, theoretically, all people were still regarded as equal under Egyptian law, and even “slaves” retained the legal right to argue against these transactions. This meant that their status still fell short of the Athenian or Roman definition of slavery (a person without any legal rights). Most of this underclass was descended from foreigners, but it also included native-born Egyptians. For example, there is evidence that Egyptians acted as tied-workers for Jewish mercenaries in their community at Elephantine. “Self-sale” contracts also continued: in some cases, the vendor sold his children as well as himself into servitude, or the purchaser acquired all the vendor’s possessions. True slavery was only introduced to Egypt in the Ptolemaic Period (305 bce–30 bce), and it developed, particularly in the cities, when Egypt became part of the Roman Empire (30 bce). According to Roman custom, large numbers of unwanted female babies were now left to die, but an increased demand for female slaves was probably partly met by rescuing some of these infants.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Do you think that the system of corvée-duty excluded the necessity for true slavery in Egypt? 2. How did the Egyptians replenish the supply of tied-workers over a period of hundreds of years?

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TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H The peace treaty drawn up between Ramesses II (1304 bce–1237 bce) and the Hittites (see Document 32) included an agreement that foreigners attempting to escape beyond the borders of their captors’ country would be returned to their native lands. Why do you think the Egyptians and the Hittites agreed to this provision? H What impact did the large numbers of foreigners resident in Egypt over a long period have on Egyptian beliefs and culture?

Further Information Bakir, A. el-M. “Slavery in Pharaonic Egypt.” Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte, Supplement 18 (1952). Eyre, C. J. “Work and the Organisation of Work in the Old Kingdom.” In M. Powell (ed.). Labor in the Ancient Near East. New Haven, CT, 1987: 167–221. Faulkner, R. O. “Egyptian Military Organisation.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 39 (1953): 32–47. Gardiner, A. H. The Wilbour Papyrus. 4 vols. Oxford, UK, 1941–1952. Griffith, F. Ll. The Petrie Papyri: Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob. London, 1898. Hayes, W. C. A Papyrus of the Late Middle Kingdom in the Brooklyn Museum (Papyrus Brooklyn 35. 1446). Brooklyn, NY, 1955. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Nelson, H. H. The Battle of Megiddo. Chicago, 1913. Pestman, P. W. Marriage and Matrimonial Property in Ancient Egypt. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1961. Redford, D. B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton, NJ, 1992. Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B. J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge, UK, 1983. Yadin, Y. The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands in the Light of Archaeological Discovery. London, 1963.

Website Bound Prisoners and Captured Towns, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/ medinet%20habu/index.htm. (see under Temple of Ramesses III: pages/Picture%20220001.htm).

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17. E XPEDITIONS TO NUBIA INTRODUCTION The Autobiographical Inscription of Harkhuf is engraved on the facade of his tomb at Elephantine (modern Aswan), situated at the First Cataract on the Nile; he was an important official of Dynasty 6 (ca. 2345–ca. 2181 bce) who held many titles and became Governor of Upper Egypt. This inscription provides an account of his major career achievements, particularly the expeditions the king ordered him to take, to ensure that Egypt’s trading access to Nubia was maintained. The first expedition took place in the reign of King Merenre (2283 bce–2269 bce) when Harkhuf accompanied his father to the land of Yam. He then led two more expeditions to the same place, and a fourth followed early in the reign of Pepi II (2269 bce–2175 bce), who ascended the throne as a small child. An appendage to the formal account of this fourth journey—a copy of a letter sent to Harkhuf by Pepi II—was carved on the right side of the tomb facade. In this letter, the royal child expresses his delight and excitement at Harkhuf ’s news that the expedition will bring him a dancing pygmy— the first to come from the land of Yam, although one had been brought back from Punt earlier, in King Isesi’s reign (ca. 2414 bce–2375 bce). In this excerpt from the letter, Pepi II, anxious to see the pygmy as soon as the expedition returns home, gives advice to Harkhuf on how to take care of this precious prize during the journey. The letter ends with the king’s assurance that, once Harkhuf and the pygmy have arrived safely at the palace, Harkhuf will be amply rewarded with gifts supplied from the town and temple storehouses.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. There was no real distinction between the combined military and trading objectives that prompted the Egyptians to send expeditions to Nubia during the Old Kingdom. 2. Harkhuf ’s first expedition to Yam lasted for seven months, while a later journey took eight months. 3. Egyptian expeditions to Punt are recorded from Dynasty 5 (ca. 2494 bce–ca. 2345 bce) onward, although contact probably existed at an even earlier date. However, most extant evidence of trade with Punt dates to the Middle and New Kingdoms (1991 bce–1085 bce) (see Document 29). Punt was the source of the incense and

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Temple at Esna in Egypt, built in the second century bce for the worship of the ram-headed god Khnum, one of Egypt’s creator deities. Temples played an important economic as well as religious role in ancient Egypt. (Corel)

myrrh, which the Egyptians used in their temple and funerary rituals. Scenes and inscriptions from the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce) show that the Egyptians bartered with the people of Punt, trading daggers, axes, necklaces, beer, wine, meat, and fruit in exchange for incense, myrrh trees packed in baskets, ebony, ivory, gold, scented woods, eye pigments, leopard and panther skins, monkeys, dogs, baboons, and cattle.

Document: The Autobiographical Inscription of Harkhuf You have said in this dispatch of yours that you have brought a pygmy of the god’s dances from the land of the horizon-dwellers, like the pygmy whom the god’s seal-bearer Bawerded brought from Punt in the time of King Isesi. You have said to my Majesty that his like has never been brought by anyone who did Yam previously . . . Come north to the

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residence at once! Hurry and bring with you this pygmy whom you brought from the land of the horizon-dwellers, live, hale and healthy, for the dances of the god, to gladden the heart, to delight the heart of King Neferkare who lives forever! When he goes down with you into the ship, get worthy men to be around him on deck, lest he fall into the water! When he lies down at night, get worthy men to lie around him in his tent. Inspect ten times at night! My Majesty desires to see this pygmy more than the gifts of the mineland and of Punt! When you arrive at the residence and this pygmy is with you, live, hale and healthy, my Majesty will do great things for you, more than was done for the god’s seal-bearer Bawerded in the time of King Isesi, in accordance with my Majesty’s wish to see this pygmy. Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975: 23–27.

Dances of the god: ritual dances God’s seal-bearer: the king’s official in charge of the royal seal Land of the horizon-dwellers: a general term for foreign peoples living to the south and southeast of Egypt Mine-land: Sinai, where copper and turquoise were mined Neferkare: a name of King Pepi II Residence: the royal palace Yam: Egyptian name for a kingdom in Upper Nubia, perhaps south of the Fifth Cataract on the Nile

EGYPT AND NUBIA IN THE OLD KINGDOM The ancient Egyptians regarded Nubia as an essential trading partner: as well as providing hard stone and gold (see “Trading Ventures Abroad,” Document 13), it was a corridor along which products were transported to Egypt from other parts of Africa. These included incense, ebony, ivory, oil, panther skins, ostrich feathers and eggs, monkeys, dogs, cattle, and exotic animals such as panthers and giraffes. A rock carving located at the Second Cataract on the Nile depicts a battle scene accompanied by the inscribed name of King Djer, indicating that, as early as Dynasty 1 (ca. 3100 bce–ca. 2890 bce), the Egyptians were prepared to take military action to maintain this access. Toward the end of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2494 bce–ca. 2181 bce), inscriptions carved on the walls of rock-cut tombs at Elephantine (modern Aswan) record that Harkhuf and other local governors led official expeditions to Nubia. These journeys, undertaken partly by river and partly overland, were primarily trading ventures, but they were accompanied and protected by soldiers. The tomb record of the expeditions led by Harkhuf is the most important extant account of Egypt’s contact with Nubia during this period, and contains references to various kingdoms—Wawat, Irtjet, Setju and Yam—that comprised Nubia at that time.

AFTERMATH From the Old Kingdom through to early Dynasty 18, Lower Nubia was occupied by a nonliterate people whom archaeologists have termed the “C-Group.” They are identified by a particular type of grave and associated burial goods. Egypt’s internal conflicts during the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2181 bce–ca. 1991 bce) led to a cessation of trading contact with Nubia, but when unified rule was restored in Dynasty 12 (1991 bce–1786 bce), the kings adopted a different policy toward the region. Instead of pursuing a trading relationship with the kingdoms to the south, the Egyptian rulers Amenemhet I (1991 bce–1962 bce) and Senusret I (1971 bce–1928 bce) now launched a campaign to conquer and colonize

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Wawat, the area occupied by the C-Group; further south, the land of Kush replaced earlier kingdoms. Senusret III (1878 bce–1843 bce) consolidated Egypt’s hold on Nubia with further military action; he established a new frontier at Semna at the southern end of the Second Cataract, but Egyptian influence went even beyond this, reaching as far as the region of the Third Cataract. The Egyptians built a series of brick fortresses across the region to defend and safeguard their newly acquired territories, thus ensuring that trading ventures were no longer disrupted. During the internal and external conflicts of the Second Intermediate Period (1786 bce–1567 bce), Egypt again lost control of its gains in Nubia. The Kushites, moving northward into the territory occupied by the C-Group, now gradually eroded the indigenous C-Group culture and replaced it with their own. In the New Kingdom (1567 bce– 1085 bce), the Egyptian rulers made repossession of Nubia one of their top priorities. Early in Dynasty 18, several kings led military campaigns into Nubia, and eventually Tuthmosis III (1504 bce–1450 bce) completed the process and established the southernmost outpost at Napata near the Fourth Cataract. The New Kingdom rulers built a new string of brick fortresses that more adequately fulfilled Egypt’s greatly extended strategic requirements in the area. However, despite these gains, it was realized that permanent control of Nubia could only be achieved through political measures, and a programme of colonization was now introduced. An Egyptian viceroy known as the “King’s Son of Kush” was appointed to control an area extending from just south of the Egyptian city of Nekhen down to the new frontier between the Fourth and Fifth Cataracts. Nubia was now under Egypt’s direct control, and paid an annual tribute of gold, ostrich plumes, leopard skins, animals, precious stones, and slaves to the Egyptian treasury. Egyptian monuments were constructed in Nubia as part of a focused effort to impress and “Egyptianize” the local population.

ASK YOURSELF 1. How did Harkhuf prepare for his expeditions? What kinds of provisions would have been needed for journeys lasting several months? 2. What was the Egyptian attitude toward dwarfs and pygmies? How did they regard and treat them?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Draw a map of Egypt and Nubia to include its main divisions and kingdoms; the locations of the Egyptian frontiers in the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms; and the sites of the Middle and New Kingdom fortresses. H Itemize the goods and products that the Egyptians brought back from Nubia, and discuss how the Egyptians used them.

Further Information Adams, W. Y. Nubia: Corridor to Africa. Princeton, NJ, and London, 1977. Bietak, M. “The C-Group and Pan-Grave Culture in Nubia.” In T. Hagg (ed.). Nubian Culture Past and Present. Stockholm, 1987: 113–28. Goedicke, H. “Harkhuf ’s Travels.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 40 (1981): 1–20. Kendall, T. Kerma and the Kingdom of Kush, 2500–1500 B. C.: The Archaeological Discovery of an Ancient Nubian Empire. Washington, DC, 1997. Kitchen, K. A. “Punt and How to Get There.” Orientalia 40 (1971): 184–207.

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Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975. O’Connor, D. Ancient Nubia: Egypt’s Rival in Africa. Philadelphia, 1993. O’Connor, D. “Early States along the Nubian Nile.” In W. V. Davies (ed.). Egypt and Africa: Nubia from Prehistory to Islam. London, 1991: 145–65. Perdu, O. “Ancient Egyptian Autobiographies.” In J. Sasson (ed.). Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Volume IV. 1995: 2243–54. Shinnie, P. L. Ancient Nubia. London, 1996. Silverman, D. P. “Pygmies and Dwarfs in the Old Kingdom.” Serapis 1 (1969): 53–62. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Trigger, B. G. Nubia under the Pharaohs. London, 1976. Wenig, S. Africa in Antiquity: The Arts of Ancient Nubia and the Sudan—The Essays. 2 vols. Brooklyn, NY, 1978.

Websites Archaeological Survey of Nubia: http://www.knhcentre.manchester.ac.uk/research/nubia project. Sudan and Nubia: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/room_ 65_sudan_egypt_nubia.aspx.

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18. CRAFTSMEN’S TOOLS AND WORKING CONDITIONS INTRODUCTION The Satire of the Trades (also known as The Instruction of Dua-Khety) describes the working conditions and equipment associated with 18 occupations, contrasting them unfavorably with the profession of a scribe (see Document 14). These excerpts refer to the carpenter and his tools, and to the weaver who has to endure the dark, cramped, and suffocating conditions of the workshop, only being allowed outside when he bribes the doorkeeper.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Documentation found in the rubbish heaps at Deir el-Medina records the number of men employed on the royal gang who worked on the king’s tomb in the Valley of the Kings (ca. 1530 bce–1085 bce); it also records their working methods, wages, and labor relations, as well as their legal and educational arrangements, and religious beliefs and practices. These texts, written on papyri, ostraca, and stelae, provide insight into the independent attitudes, wit and humor of this unique community.

Document: The Satire of the Trades (Papyrus Sallier II, Papyrus Anastasi VII) Every carpenter who bears the adze is wearier than a labourer. His field is his wood, his hoe is the axe. It is the night that will rescue him, for he must labour excessively in (his) activity. But at night-time he (still) must light (his lamp). . . .

Adze: carpenter’s tool Night that will rescue him: he can only cease working at night

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His knees are drawn up against his belly: the weaver sits on his haunches on the ground He has to give food to the doorkeeper: the weaver bribes the doorkeeper so that he will let him step outside the workshop

The weaver inside the weaving house is more wretched than a woman. His knees are drawn up against his belly. He cannot breathe the air. If he wastes a (single) day without weaving, he is beaten with fifty whip lashes. He has to give food to the doorkeeper to allow him to come out to the daylight. . . . Source: Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003: 433–34.

TOOLS AND WORKING CONDITIONS Textual evidence provides information about working conditions and tools; in addition to general statements in the Instruction of Dua-Khety, specific working practices have been recorded in inscriptions discovered in rubbish heaps at Deir el-Medina (see Document 21). Evidence has also survived at Kahun, a site closer in date to the Instruction of Duauf. For some unknown reason, this site was apparently abandoned in antiquity. Here, and at the associated pyramid site of Lahun, archaeologists discovered many of the workmen’s prized and valuable stone and metal tools, including flint axe and adze blades, knives, scrapers and flakes, and chisels and knives. They also recovered wooden wedges, offset pieces and clamps, and stone and clay plummets, as well as a caster’s shop where the metal tools and earthenware molds for metal casting were found in situ. The finds demonstrate that Kahun stood at a technological juncture, when stone, copper, and bronze tools were used alongside each other; the choice of implement was probably dictated by its appropriateness to the task in hand. This kind of evidence greatly augments information gleaned from tomb wall scenes that depict craftsmen at work, or from tools or model tools sometimes included in graves; it was believed that, once magically activated, these could be used to make repairs to the tomb throughout eternity.

AFTERMATH Modern analysis of the Kahun metal tools has shown that the smiths of 4,000 years ago had quite a sophisticated knowledge of metallurgy. By adding certain alloys to metals, or tempering the metals, they were able to make tools to the required strengths and specifications for particular tasks. According to the records from Deir el-Medina, the royal gang was tightly supervised; at the tomb site, the authorities regularly distributed to the workmen the supplies of materials needed for the construction and decoration of the king’s tomb. These included new metal tools (to replace ones that required sharpening), wood, paint colors, and oil and wicks to light the tomb interior. The gang also received ample wages from the king for their work; the basic rations of bread, fish, wicks, timber, charcoal for fuel, gypsum, oil, and jugs of beer (see Document 40) were more than sufficient for their needs, and could be bartered with other people for different goods.

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ASK YOURSELF 1. Where did the raw materials used to make the tools—wood, metals, and stone— originate? How did the Egyptians organize their manufacturing processes? 2. Over the millennia, can we determine any change or evolution in the materials, design, functions, or production methods of tools? 3. Why were the royal tomb builders accommodated in special purpose-built towns such as Kahun or Deir el-Medina?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES H Study the tools illustrated in the archaeological reports: discuss their functions and whether they were suitable for their intended purpose. H Look at the evidence from Kahun and Deir el-Medina; compare and contrast their similarities and differences, with particular reference to the purpose, geographical location, date, layout, population, and archaeological discoveries that have been made at the two sites.

Further Information Bierbrier, M. The Tomb-builders of the Pharaohs. London, 1982. Černý, J. A Community of Workmen at Thebes in the Ramesside Period. Cairo, 1973. David, A. R. The Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt. London, 1996. Foster, J. L. “Some Comments on Khety’s Instructions for Little Pepi on His Way to School (Satire on Trades).” In E. Teeter and J. A. Larson (eds.). Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F Wente. Chicago, 2000: 121–29. Hoch, J. “The Teaching of Dua-Khety: A New Look at the Satire of the Trades.” Journal of the Society of the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 21–22 (1991–92, issued 1995): 88–100. Hodges, H. Technology in the Ancient World. Harmondsworth, UK, 1970. Lesko, L. H. Pharaoh’s Workers: The Villagers of Deir el-Medina. Ithaca, NY, 1994. Lucas, A. and Harris, J. R. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries. London, 1962. Rev. ed. Mineola, NY, 1999. Nicholson, P. T. and Shaw, I. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK, 2000. Petrie, W.M.F. Illahun, Kahun and Gurob. London, 1891. Petrie, W.M.F. Kahun, Gurob and Hawara. London, 1890. Petrie, W.M.F. Objects of Daily Use. London, 1927. Petrie, W.M.F. Tools and Weapons. London, 1917. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003.

Websites Kahun, A Pyramid Workmen’s Town: http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/lahun/index.html. Deir el-Medina Database: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/nino/dmd/dmd.html. Theban Mapping Project: http://thebanmappingproject.com.

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INTELLECTUAL LIFE

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19. EDUCATING BOYS INTRODUCTION The Instruction of Ptah-hotep was probably named after a notable First Minister of King Isesi (ca. 2414 bce–2375 bce). The text takes the form of an address from Ptah-hotep to his son, to whom he conveys his advice in a series of 37 maxims (see Documents 31, 35). The Instruction may have originated during the Old Kingdom but, although it is attributed to Ptah-hotep in order to establish the authority of its content, this version was probably composed some time later (ca. 2200 bce). The text only survives in documents dating from the Middle (1991 bce–1786 bce) and New Kingdoms (1567 bce–1085 bce). Three are inscribed on papyrus: the most complete, Papyrus Prisse (Middle Kingdom), forms part of the collection of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, while the others, from the Middle and New Kingdoms, are in the British Museum. Another copy, dating from the New Kingdom and now in the Cairo Museum, is written on a wooden tablet, Carnarvon Tablet 1. In this excerpt, advice is given about standards of behavior that a guest should observe when invited to a meal at an influential man’s home.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The document outlines the behavior that is acceptable: the guest should not stare at his host nor look greedily at the man’s plate; he should only speak when the host addresses him, and should flatter him by laughing at his jokes. 2. Caution is advised: since the influential host’s intentions are not known, it is wise to keep in his favor. 3. Even when people ate a communal meal, the food was served on low, individual tables; in the scene described in this text, the host’s table appears to have been surrounded by his guests’ tables. The most important guests sat nearest to the host, who handed them the best pieces of food. 4. The text includes an interesting comment on the concept of the ka, regarded as a vital force that controlled a person’s disposition and conduct. Here, the host’s ka is said to have the ability to influence his attitude toward his guest; therefore, the guest should not annoy the ka if he wishes to gain the host’s approval.

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Document: The Instruction of Ptah-hotep (Papyrus Prisse) CONCERNING BEHAVIOR AS A GUEST If you should be one of those sitting (as guests) at the table of someone who is greater than you, accept what he serves when it is placed in front of you. Look only at what is right in front of you, and do not stare at him constantly, for to force yourself upon him is an irritation to his spirit. Do not speak to him until he invites you (to so do), for one never knows what may be annoying. You should Constantly: perhaps to try to attract speak only when he addresses you, and (then) what you say will the host’s attention be of interest. You should laugh only when he laughs, and (this) Once night has come: when the evewill be very pleasant to his heart. As for a nobleman when he is at ning meal is served the table, his demeanour is determined by his mood [ka]. He will The eating of bread is under the be generous to the one whom he favours, for such is the way once governance of God, and it is only night has come. It is his mood which prompts him to be generous; a churl who complains about it: a nobleman may give, but an (ordinary) man should not presume Simpson (2003: 134, note 14) upon him. The eating of bread is under the governance of God, suggests that this means: “Be and it is only a churl who complains about it. satisfied if you are invited to eat, and don’t complain if you are not Source: Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: given the royal treatment.” An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003: 133–34.

INSTRUCTIONS IN WISDOM Several Instructions in Wisdom (sometimes referred to as Wisdom Literature) have survived from various periods of Egyptian history. The texts, which represent a set of rules for conducting personal relationships, played a key role in educating boys intended for high office, and early examples continued to be used as models for successive generations of schoolboys to copy (see Documents 1, 22, 23, 28, 33, 40). Famous Wisdom Texts probably composed in the Old Kingdom include the Instruction of Hardedef, the Instruction of Ptah-hotep (see Documents 31, 35), and the Instruction for Kagemni. In the latter, set in Dynasty 3, the First Minister provides instruction and advice for Kagemni, the son of King Huni (2637 bce–2613 bce). There is evidence that a person named Kagemni lived several hundred years later, but the document probably dates from the end of Dynasty 6 (ca. 2175 bce). Although the Wisdom Texts are usually attributed to a king or renowned sage, their true authorship has never been identified. The documents provide information about the Egyptian concept of ethics and morals (see Document 14), and the earliest examples summarize the behavioral standards of the Old Kingdom, when an ordered state hierarchy ensured the existence of a stable society. Practical measures indicated in the texts include modesty, self-discipline, caution in speech, moderation, prudence in friendship, the benefit of establishing a family, and correct behavior toward others. It was believed that these actions would not only bring personal advancement and contentment in life, but would also promote the virtues required in the ruling class.

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AFTERMATH The Instructions in Wisdom attributed to the Old Kingdom continued to provide an important teaching tool in the Middle (1991 bce–1786 bce) and New Kingdoms (1567 bce–1085 bce) (see “The New Kingdom Instructions in Wisdom,” Document 4), and new compositions such as the Instruction of King Amenemhet I (see Document 30) were added. By the New Kingdom, increased administrative demands resulting from organizing and running an empire meant that an expanded bureaucracy was required and so, in addition to the members of elite families who had always entered the scribal profession, scribes were recruited from the middle classes. New Wisdom Texts composed at this time reflect the beliefs and aspirations of boys from this expanded social group (for example, the Instruction of Any (see Document 2)). The Instruction of Amenemope (ca. 1250 bce) (see “The New Kingdom Instructions in Wisdom,” Document 4) illustrates an even stronger break with tradition. Whereas earlier texts emphasize the importance of wealth and status and give advice on how these can be attained, this Instruction, while still promoting the idea that a good and pious life will bring material success, advocates a different aim. The ideal man is no longer necessarily one who holds an important position. Other qualities are now paramount, and the most desirable personal qualities are identified as honesty, endurance, self-control, perseverance, kindliness, and humility in dealing with gods and men.

ASK YOURSELF 1. What teaching methods were used to train boys to become officials and administrators? Did school children have to take examinations? 2. What duties did scribes undertake in their daily work? Why were they so important? 3. What proportion of the society was literate?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Compare the virtues and values found in the Wisdom Texts of the Old and New Kingdoms, and discuss how and why they differ. H Using wall scenes from Egyptian tombs, describe the main features of a banquet held in the home of a New Kingdom official (these could relate to the host, his family, their guests, clothing and cosmetics, food, eating habits, eating and drinking vessels and utensils, and furniture).

Further Information Bleiberg, E. “Economic Man and the Truly Silent One: Cultural Conditioning and the Economy in Ancient Egypt.” Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 24 (1994): 4–16. Faulkner, R. O. “Ptahhotep and the Disputants.” In O. Firchow (ed.). Ägyptische Studien. Berlin: 1955: 81–84. Gardiner, A. H. “The Instruction for King Merykare.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 1 (1914): 20–36.

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Gardiner, A. H. “The Instructions Addressed to Kagemni and His Brethren.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 32 (1946): 71–76. Gardiner, A. H. “New Literary Sources from Ancient Egypt.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 1 (1914): 20–35. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003.

Website Tomb of Ptahhotep and Akhethotep: http://www.osirisnet.net/mastabas/akhethtp_ ptahhtp/e_akht_ptah_03.htm.

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20. HEALTH AND MEDICINE INTRODUCTION These excerpts are taken from Case 8 (the First Examination) in the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. This document, the world’s earliest known treatise on surgery (ca. 1570 bce), is now in the New York Academy of Medicine. The papyrus was purchased by Edwin Smith from a dealer in Luxor in 1862 ce, but its provenance is uncertain. Its damaged condition implies that it had been handled many times in antiquity; the document perhaps belonged to a doctor who used it in his practice, and subsequently it may have been placed in his tomb. This surviving copy dates from ca. 1570 bce, but archaic aspects of the grammar and vocabulary have led some scholars to suggest an Old Kingdom date (ca. 2686 bce– ca. 2181 bce) for the original composition. Possibly compiled by Imhotep, the document may indicate a high level of sophistication and remarkable status of scientific knowledge at a very early date. The papyrus includes 48 case studies, each demonstrating the methods employed by a surgeon to examine his patient and reach a diagnosis. Each case is divided into a number of sections: the title of the injury; an examination of the patient, detailing a list of symptoms; diagnosis; verdict (recovery, probably recovery, or, as in Case 8, an uncertain outcome); and recommended treatment. In Case 8, the discussion records two separate examinations of the patient, which both reach the same negative verdict. Notably, these case studies exclusively describe the condition of male patients, prompting the suggestion that the document may have been composed as an instruction manual for the treatment of injured soldiers or men working at building sites. In his translation and commentary, Breasted (1930) emphasized the uniqueness of this document. It contributes significantly to the history of medical science, providing the earliest extant evidence that some medical practitioners pursued an objective, scientific approach to their work, based on observation of the patient and an excellent knowledge of anatomy. With its focus on general surgery and surgery of the bones, the papyrus shows that specialization within the medical system already existed. Case 8 is of particular interest because, for the first time in the history of science, it shows an awareness of the localization of different functions within the brain: “The surgeon notes that the affected eye is on the same side as the injury to the skull. He also observes that the partially paralysed leg is on the same side as the wound in the skull. It must be, therefore, that the case which he is recording was one in which the contre-coup on the opposite side

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of the patient’s skull resulted in paralysis on the same side as that which had received the blow” (Breasted 1930: 205).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The document records two examinations of the patient (i.e., a second opinion has been sought). The first is divided under the headings of Title, Examination, Diagnosis and Verdict, and Treatment; this is followed by the Second Examination, Second Diagnosis, and No Treatment. 2. In this First Examination, the surgeon makes a very important observation on the localization of functions in the brain: he notes the effects of a cranial injury on the lower limbs, correctly assuming that they have resulted from the occurrence of the injury on a specific side of the skull. 3. In the Second Examination, the surgeon opens the injury and observes the pulsating brain. 4. Both Examinations reach the verdict that the case is beyond cure or alleviation of the symptoms, and therefore no treatment, other than complete rest and quiet, is recommended. This case is typical of the Medical Papyri in that, when there was no hope of recovery, the medical practitioner prescribed palliative care for his patient, and still undertook a thorough examination and recorded his findings—a search for knowledge that has been described as “. . . remarkable evidence of his scientific interest” (Breasted 1930: 206). 5. The surgeon does not identify disease or an internal cause (i.e., an evil force emanating from the gods or the patients’ enemies) as the cause of the injury. Instead, he correctly attributes it to an external cause, although no mark of a blow to the head is visible. This demonstrates that he has a rational approach to examination and diagnosis.

Document: The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus CASE 8. COMPOUND COMMINUTED FRACTURE OF THE SKULL DISPLAYING NO VISIBLE EXTERNAL INJURY Title Instructions concerning a smash in his skull under the skin of his head.

The First Examination Ailment not to be treated: the verdict is hopeless, and no treatment can be offered Smash in his skull: a compound comminuted fracture Something entering from outside: an injury arising from an external cause

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If thou examinest a man having a smash of his skull, under the skin of his head, while there is nothing at all upon it, thou shouldst palpate his wound. Shouldst thou find that there is a swelling protruding on the outside of that smash which is in his skull, while his eye is askew because of it, on the side of him having that injury which is in his skull; (and) he walks shuffling with his sole, on the side of him having that injury which is in his skull [concludes below in The First Diagnosis].

Health and Medicine

The First Diagnosis Thou shouldst account him one whom something entering from outside has smitten, as one who does not release the head of his shoulder-fork, and one who does not fall with the nails in the middle of his palm; while he discharges blood from both his nostrils (and) from both his ears, (and) he suffers with stiffness in his neck.

The First Treatment An ailment not to be treated. Source: Breasted, J. H. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. Volume 1. Chicago, 1930: 203–6.

THE MEDICAL PAPYRI The major source of our knowledge about the ancient Egyptian medical system is provided by 12 surviving Medical Papyri, which appear to represent at least three different types of documents. There are instruction handbooks for doctors’ use, outlines for medical lectures, and the lecture notes and clinical notebooks belonging to medical students. None of the papyri has a structured approach that follows a single theme; each includes material on a variety of subjects, and some topics are covered in more than one papyrus. Possibly some documents—particularly those describing the concepts associated with the body’s functionality—were used to instruct students; these may have been composed and compiled in temple libraries. Other papyri, especially those prescribing pharmaceutical treatments (see “Ancient Egyptian Beer,” Document 40), were perhaps written by individual doctors to use as reference works in their community practice. Generally, the papyri contain case studies of injuries and diseases, each describing the symptoms, diagnosis, verdict, and recommended treatments, which include pharmaceutical, surgical, and magical prescriptions (see “The Mother’s Role in the Family,” Document 3). There is no consistency across the papyri regarding the proportion of treatments that are “rational” or “irrational” (magical) (see “Childhood,” Document 1). The Edwin Smith Papyrus differs from the other papyri in several ways. Apart from the distinct section on Incantations and Spells (see Document 46), it has no “irrational” (magical) content but provides the earliest surviving evidence of the attribution of medical conditions to physical rather than demonic causes. This document—unequalled in its systematic and organizational approach—does not simply list prescriptions; it is an instruction manual (perhaps a firsthand account of clinical experience) that deals exclusively with surgical procedures.

AFTERMATH The extant Medical Papyri undoubtedly represent only a small proportion of similar documentation that would have represented a time-span of over 2,000 years. This missing material may be irretrievably lost or destroyed; however, there is always the chance that new texts may be discovered at archaeological sites or identified in library or museum collections. The surviving examples date from the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce) through to the Greco-Roman Period (ca. 250 ce), although some of these are probably copies of earlier originals. Their provenance, where known, includes houses that possibly belonged to

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doctors, an archive from Kahun, and the tombs of scribes or medical practitioners. Three of the papyri are named after their modern owners (Edwin Smith, Chester Beatty (V, VI, VII, VIII, XV) and Carlsberg (VIII)); four are called after their present locations: London (BM 10059); London/Leiden (BM 10072); Berlin; and Brooklyn; Papyrus Hearst carries the name of the sponsor who funded the University of California expeditions to Egypt when this document was acquired; the Kahun, Ramesseum (III, IV, V), and Crocodilopolis Papyri are called after the sites where they were discovered; and the Ebers Papyrus was named after its modern owner and editor, Georg Ebers. Increasing evidence indicates that the Egyptians developed many concepts and treatments in medicine and pharmacy, which some scholars have attributed to the Greeks who lived thousands of years later. In the Edwin Smith Papyrus, Breasted (1930) identified some significant medical advances: for example, he noted that each case study discussed the patient’s symptoms in groups (syndromes) rather than considering each individual symptom in isolation, although some modern studies have attributed this procedure to the Greeks. His study also proposed that the Egyptians were already familiar with the procedure of counting the pulse, thousands of years before the Greeks first wrote about the process.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why have so few of the Medical Papyri survived or been discovered? 2. Despite the evidence provided by the Medical Papyri, which were composed many centuries before the Greek era, why do you think that the Greeks, rather than the Egyptians, have been credited with particular advances in medical practice and treatment? 3. Who were the medical practitioners? Was the profession open to both men and women? How were doctors trained and how did they pursue their careers?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Look at the contents of some Medical Papyri. Discuss why they include both “rational” (practical) and “irrational” (magical) treatments, and describe how a complementary approach was used when attempting to cure a patient. H How have modern biomedical and scientific studies enhanced our knowledge of Egyptian medicine and pharmacy? Discuss the extent to which ancient Egyptian medical prescriptions were therapeutically efficacious, and give examples of treatments that would still be viable today. H Consider the role of the doctor in ancient Egyptian society, and discuss the part that religion and magic played in his training and career as a medical practitioner.

Further Information Breasted, J. H. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. Volume 1. Hieroglyphic Transliteration with Translation and Commentary. Chicago, 1930. David, R. (ed.). Egyptian Mummies and Modern Science. Cambridge, UK, 2008. Dawson, W. R. “Studies in the Egyptian Medical Texts,” I: Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 18 (1932): 150–54; II: 19 (1933): 133–37; III: 20 (1934): 41–46; IV: 20 (1934): 185– 88; V: 21 (1935): 37–40. Ebbell, B. The Papyrus Ebers. London, 1937.

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Gardiner, A. H. Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum. London, 1935. Gardiner, A. H. The Ramesseum Papyri. Oxford, UK, 1955. Iversen, E. Papyrus Carlsberg, No. VIII. Copenhagen, 1939. Leitz, C. Magical and Medical Papyri of the New Kingdom. London, 2000. Nunn, J. F. Ancient Egyptian Medicine. London, 2000. Sauneron, S. Un Traité Égyptien d’Ophiologie. Cairo, 1960.

Websites Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus: http://www.realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/ Misc/Writing/The_first_ancient_writing.htm. Kom Ombo Medical Instruments: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/kom%20ombos/index .htm (see under Kom Ombo: Picture%20148001.htm). van Middendorp, J., Sanchez, G. M., and Burridge, A. L. “The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus: A Clinical Reappraisal of the Oldest Known Document on Spinal Injuries.” European Spine Journal 2010 November 19(11): 1815–23: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pmc/articles/PMC2989268/.

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21. PERSONAL PIETY INTRODUCTION This Votive Stela belonged to Neferabu, a wealthy draughtsman employed as a member of the royal gang engaged to build and decorate the tombs in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. Now in the British Museum collection (No. 589), the stela dates to the later New Kingdom (1320 bce–1085 bce). Two figures are shown on the obverse of the stela: the god Ptah seated in front of an offering table, and Neferabu kneeling to pray; the first part of the prayer is also accommodated here, while the text from which this excerpt is taken occurs on the reverse side. Many of the extant votive stelae were discovered at Deir elMedina, originally set up in chapels where the workmen prayed and made offerings to their gods. The prayers on the stelae are addressed to various deities who had special relevance to this community (see “State Gods,” Document 36): Ptah, the recipient in this document, was particularly favored as the patron god of artisans. These inscriptions include some remarkable penitential hymns or prayers with the very unusual themes of confession and salvation, where the owner thanks the deity for recovery from an illness or affliction brought about as divine punishment for his sins. This document provides an interesting example of such a prayer: Neferabu thanks Ptah for restoring his health, acknowledging that he had blasphemed against the god who had punished him with “darkness by day” (see below).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Some of these votive prayers express the owner’s gratitude for restoration of his own health, whereas others thank the god for a relative’s recovery. 2. The prayers include a number of references to “darkness by day.” Some scholars interpret this as physical blindness that may indeed have affected many royal necropolis workmen who had to spend long periods of time decorating badly lit tombs. However, the phrase may describe some kind of emotional state or depression, especially as it seemed to be regarded as a particular punishment for impious behavior or swearing a false oath against a god.

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3. Like many other craftsmen working on the royal gang, Neferabu was able to acquire sufficient wealth to build a well-provisioned tomb for his family at Deir el-Medina. 4. Neferabu is known from other inscribed artifacts. A votive stela, now in the Turin Museum, is attributed to him; this is addressed to Mertseger, the goddess of the “Peak” (a mountain resembling a pyramid in the vicinity of Deir el-Medina), whom he thanks for restoring his health (see Lichtheim 1976: 107–9). He is also named in inscriptions on two other stelae and an offering table in the British Museum.

Document: Votive Stela of Neferabu with Prayer to Ptah REVERSE SIDE OF THE STELA Beginning of the recital of the might of Ptah, South-of-his-Wall, by the servant in the Place-of-Truth on the West of Thebes, Neferabu, justified. He says: I am a man who swore falsely by Ptah, Lord of Ma’at, And he made me see darkness by day. I will declare his might to the fool and the wise, To the small and great: Beware of Ptah, Lord of Ma’at! Behold, he does not overlook anyone’s deed! Refrain from uttering Ptah’s name falsely, Lo, he who utters it falsely, lo he falls! Darkness by day: either physical blindness, or a psychological state, He caused me to be as the dogs of the street, depression I being in his hand; Justified: (sometimes translated as He made men and gods observe me, “vindicated”): this was placed after I being as a man who has sinned against his Lord. the name of a deceased person, Righteous was Ptah, Lord of Ma’at, towards me, indicating that he/she had satisfied When he taught a lesson to me! the divine tribunal at the Day of Be merciful to me, look on me in mercy! Judgment Overlook: forgive Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. Place-of-Truth: the royal workmen’s The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 109–10. town, known today as Deir el-Medina Ptah: creator-god, supreme deity of AFTERMATH Memphis, and patron of crafts and artisans, Ptah was always portrayed The penitential prayers are closely associated with Deir elas a mummiform human figure Medina, and must be considered within that context. ExcavaWest of Thebes: on the west bank of tions at the site have revealed a town and the associated tombs the Nile, opposite the city of Thebes and chapels provided for the families of the royal workforce. Built during the reign of Tuthmosis I (1525 bce–1512 bce),

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PERSONAL PIETY Early studies of the penitential prayers and hymns inscribed on some votive stelae concluded that their emphasis on personal piety, humility, confession of sins, and salvation was probably a new development in ancient Egyptian religious thought, possibly introduced by immigrants entering the country at this time (Breasted 1912: 350–52). However, another interpretation (Gunn 1916) proposed that these attitudes had always been present among the poor, but that the relatively high level of literacy at Deir elMedina (the provenance of most of these prayers) ensured that they were now committed to writing. More recently, these texts have been described as expressions of an emerging individualism in the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce), representing an evolutionary rather than entirely innovative development (Lichtheim 1976: 104). Lichtheim notes (1976: 104) that the importance of humility that these inscriptions emphasize also occurs in Old Kingdom Wisdom Texts (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce), and comparisons have been drawn between them and biblical penitential psalms. According to Baines (1982), concepts of forgiveness and salvation also appear much earlier, although in a secular rather than religious context: the Story of Sinuhe, a famous Middle Kingdom composition (1991 bce–1786 bce), which describes Sinuhe’s welcome return and reception in Egypt after many years of self-exile.

the town was continuously occupied for about 450 years (ca. 1530 bce–1085 bce), until the Valley of the Kings ceased to be used for royal burials. Although their primary remit was to construct and decorate the king’s tomb, once this was finished, the workforce would be directed to prepare other burial sites for queens, princes, and high officials. Deir el-Medina has provided a wealth of information about the royal workmen’s community: archaeologists have discovered unique inscriptional material, in addition to the well-preserved remains of the houses and chapels, and the finely decorated tombs and contents that the workers prepared for themselves. As well as Egyptian families, the town appears to have housed an immigrant population; certainly, gods from Syria/Palestine (see “Egypt’s Relations with Syria/Palestine,” Document 33) as well as Egyptian deities were worshipped there. The women played an important role in this society, largely organizing the life of the town while the men worked away at the tomb site for eight-day periods. The workmen received regular monthly wages, which included emmer and barley, fish, vegetables, water, wood, pottery and, less frequently, cakes, ready-made beer, dates, salt, natron, sesame oil, and meat. Since these supplies generally exceeded their needs, the workers could obtain other goods by bartering some of their payments with other people. Their prosperity was assured as long as the government wages were regular, but when granary supplies were low and payment was delayed, the workforce decided to withdraw its labor. The world’s first recorded major industrial action occurred at Deir el-Medina in Year 29 of Ramesses III’s reign (ca.1158 bce); this was followed by shorter strikes in later years, and the last recorded dispute took place in Year 13 of Ramesses X’s reign (1135 bce). The site was eventually abandoned when the kings of Dynasty 21 (1085 bce–945 bce) decided to move the royal burial site from Thebes to Tanis in the Delta. They may have been encouraged to take this action because of general unrest at Deir el-Medina, and the involvement of some members of the community in the tomb robberies in the Valley of the Kings in Dynasty 20 (1200 bce–1085 bce).

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ASK YOURSELF 1. How unusual was the level of political and social independence enjoyed by the inhabitants of Deir el-Medina? How was this expressed? Why were they able to adopt this approach? 2. What do the archives found at Deir el-Medina tell us about the organization of the royal workforce?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Using the sources provided in “Further Information,” discuss the working conditions, and domestic and legal organization of the royal workforce at Deir el-Medina. H What is the religious significance of the penitential prayers and hymns from Deir el-Medina? Consider and discuss why they evolved and flourished in this period at this particular site.

Further Information Baines, J. “Interpreting Sinuhe.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 68 (1982): 31–44. Baines, J. “Practical Religion and Piety.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 73 (1987): 79–98. Bierbrier, M. The Tomb-Builders of the Pharaohs. London, 1982. Breasted, J. H. Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt. New York, 1912 (reprinted ed.: Harper and Row, 1959). Černý, J. A Community of Workmen at Thebes in the Ramesside Period. Cairo, 1973. de Buck, A. The Egyptian Coffin Texts. Chicago, 1938. Edgerton, W. F. “The Strikes in Ramesses III’s Twenty-Ninth Year.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 10 (1951): 137–45. Faulkner, R. O. The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts. Warminster, UK, 1973–1978. Gunn, B. “Religion of the Poor in Ancient Egypt.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 3 (1916): 81–94. Kemp, B. J. “The Early Development of Towns in Egypt.” Antiquity 51 (1977): 185–200. Lesko, L. H. Pharaoh’s Workers: The Villagers of Deir el-Medina. Ithaca, NY, 1994. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Peet, T. E. “Fresh Light on the Tomb Robberies of the 20th Dynasty at Thebes.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 11 (1925): 162–64. Peet, T. E. The Great Tomb-Robberies of the Twentieth Egyptian Dynasty. 2 vols. Oxford, UK, 1930. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Wilson, J. A. “Egyptian Hymns and Prayers.” In J. B. Pritchard (ed.). Ancient Near Eastern Texts. 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ, 1969: 380–81.

Websites Tomb of Sennedjem: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/artisans/sennedjem1/e_sennedjem1_ 03.htm#. Tombs of Deir el-Medina: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/artisans/tombes_deir_el_ medineh/e_tombes_deir_el_medineh_01.htm#.

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22. PRAISING THE ROLE OF A SCRIBE INTRODUCTION Students preparing for a scribal career were required to copy out a range of writings to give them practice in composition, vocabulary, grammar, and spelling. Schoolboy exercises include copies of Wisdom Texts, documents relating to business and legal matters, hymns and prayers, and actual letters, presumably selected because they demonstrated an elegant style of writing or because they contained useful educational material or moral concepts that were expected to have an influence on the pupils (see “The Scribal Profession,” Document 14; Documents 19, 35, 40). However, teachers and their pupils also composed model or fictitious letters and essays for schoolboys to copy, and large numbers of these texts, inscribed on papyri and ostraca, have survived. They often have specific themes such as praising the scribal profession as a career, or expressing pupils’ gratitude to teachers. Papyrus Lansing (P. British Museum 9994), which dates to Dynasty 20 (1200 bce–1085 bce), consists of a series of essays compiled by a teacher. The main purpose of this schoolbook was to persuade students that the scribal profession was preferable to any other career—a theme found in earlier literature (see Document 14)—and to offer advice on how to achieve that goal. In this excerpt, the boy is instructed that he must devote himself wholeheartedly to his studies and ignore frivolous distractions such as hunting, fishing, eating, and drinking (see Documents 23, 40).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. We can illustrate how the Egyptians used ideograms (see Sidebar: Writing) by giving the following example in English: the word “grave” has two distinct meanings in the following sentences: (1) “The man had a grave expression” and (2) “The body was buried in a grave.” According to the Egyptian system, you would differentiate between “grave” in these two sentences by adding an ideogram of a sad face at the end of the word in sentence (1), and of a burial place after the word in sentence (2). 2. Vowels were omitted from pharaonic texts, and therefore it is impossible to know how the words were pronounced or how the spoken language sounded in

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antiquity. Egyptologists use an artificial vocalization that they have devised (see Sidebar: Writing), but this pronunciation may be very different from the language actually spoken by the ancient Egyptians.

Document: Advantages of a Teaching Career (Papyrus Lansing) Apply yourself to this noble profession . . . Write with your hand, read with your mouth. Act according to my words . . . Your will find it useful . . . You will be advanced by your superiors. You will be sent on a mission . . . Love writing, shun dancing; then you become a worthy official. Do not long for the marsh thicket. Marsh thicket: a main location for Turn your back on throwstick and chase. By day write with your finhunting and fishing gers; recite by night. Befriend the scroll, the palette. It pleases more Palette: part of a scribe’s writing than wine. Writing for him who knows it is better than all other proequipment fessions. It pleases more than bread and beer, more than clothing and Throwstick and chase: hunting ointment. It is worth more than an inheritance in Egypt, than a tomb in the West.

WRITING The earliest script that the Egyptians employed for writing their language (known today as “Egyptian hieroglyphs” or “Hieroglyphs”—from the Greek words “sacred carvings”) was in use before ca. 3100 bce, and continued for over 3,000 years (the last known hieroglyphic text was inscribed on a temple wall at Philae in 394 ce). Hieroglyphs were derived from pictographs—simple drawings of things that early peoples observed in their prehistoric environment but which, as a means of communication, had limitations. For example, although pictographs could be used to depict the meaning of concrete objects or actions (“man,” “dog,” “to fish”), and would have been universally understood by people who spoke different languages, they could not convey abstract ideas or tenses of the verb (i.e., whether an action took place in the past, present, or future), or represent specific words in a particular language. The Egyptians retained the pictorial form of their writing but, at an early date, developed a fully comprehensive language system with its own grammar and vocabulary. This utilized over 600 individual hieroglyphs, and combined phonograms (“sound signs”) and ideograms (“sense signs”). Phonograms retain the appearance of pictorial symbols but, unlike universally recognized pictographs, they can only be understood by people who speak a particular language. Essentially, they “spell out” the individual sounds that make up a specific word. Egyptian phonograms include 24 alphabetic signs (i.e., where one hieroglyph represents a single consonant or sound value). In the texts, alphabetic signs appear more frequently than any other hieroglyphs, but the Egyptians never restricted themselves to an alphabetic system (this key feature of many modern languages uses a series of single signs to spell out an individual word). Instead, a purely pictorial element was retained alongside the phonograms: an ideogram (a picture that has no intrinsic sound value) was added at the end of a word to depict that word’s precise “sense” or meaning. This avoided confusion with any other word that sounded the same and was spelt out with similar or identical phonograms.

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Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 168.

AFTERMATH Over the millennia, Hieroglyphs continued in regular use, particularly for religious or formal inscriptions. However, writing or carving these symbols was time consuming and required special skills, and therefore two cursive scripts, Hieratic and Demotic, were developed to provide a quicker, more convenient method of writing. Each character in these scripts was derived from a hieroglyphic sign, and whereas many hieroglyphic texts were engraved on stone, hieratic and demotic texts were often written on papyrus. Hieratic and hieroglyphs were used simultaneously from the earliest dynasties onward, and both were retained, mainly for religious and formal texts, even after demotic was introduced in ca. 700 bce. Following Alexander the Great’s conquest of Egypt (332 bce), Greek became the country’s official language, although the indigenous Egyptians continued to speak their own tongue and to decorate their temples with hieroglyphic inscriptions (see discussion of Ptolemaic Egyptian in “Worship through Dancing,” Document 36, Introduction). Christianity reached Egypt in the first century ce, and subsequently, the converted local population (known as “Copts”) began to write their own language—previously inscribed in hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic—in a script known as “Coptic.” This used consonants and vowels found in the Greek alphabet, and a few signs from demotic, which expressed sound values not present in Greek.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Since texts written in Coptic preserve both the consonants and vowels of individual words, they may provide some indication of how the Egyptian language sounded in its final stage. However, to what extent do you think that Coptic documents can throw light on the many changes and variations in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation that would have occurred over the course of Egyptian history? 2. What kinds of writing materials did the Egyptians employ?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Copy out the list of hieroglyphic alphabetic signs given in Gardiner (1964, p. 27; see “Further Information”). Write out your own name in hieroglyphs, choosing signs from this list, which give approximate sound values for the consonants in your name. Select an ideogram to place at the end of your name; choose this from Gardiner’s Sign-list (see “Further Information,” pp. 442–47 (Section A: Man and his Occupations), or p. 448 (Section B: Woman and her Occupations)). H Texts inscribed in cuneiform have been excavated at early sites in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). These predate examples of writing found in Egypt. However, whereas the cuneiform inscriptions were imprinted on clay tablets, it is likely that the earliest Egyptian records (probably now lost) were inscribed on fragile materials such as wood and papyrus. Does this “evidence” confirm where writing originated in this region, or prove that it occurred earlier in Mesopotamia than Egypt? Or are the facts distorted by a significant difference in the nature of their writing materials?

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Further Information Blackman, A. and Peet, T. E. “Papyrus Lansing: A Translation with Notes.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 11 (1925): 284–98. Collier, M. and Manley, B. How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself. London, 1998. Davies, W. V. Egyptian Hieroglyphs: Reading the Past. London, 1987. Faulkner, R. O. A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian. Oxford, UK, 1962. Gardiner, A. H. Egyptian Grammar. 3rd rev. ed. London, 1964. Janssen, J. J. “On Style in Egyptian Handwriting.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 73 (1987): 161–67. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Ray, J. “The Emergence of Writing in Ancient Egypt.” World Archaeology 17.3 (1986): 307–16. Williams, R. J. “Scribal Training in Ancient Egypt.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 92 (1972): 214–21. Zauzich, K-T. Discovering Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Practical Guide. London, 1992.

Websites Rosetta Stone: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/room_4_ egyptian_sculpture.aspx. Ancient Writing: http://www.realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Misc/Writing/ The_first_ancient_writing.htm.

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23. WRITING AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION INTRODUCTION This scribal miscellany (Papyrus Chester Beatty IV = Papyrus British Museum 10684, now in the British Museum, London) contains a selection of schoolboys’ essays (see Documents 14, 22, 40; compare with the Wisdom Texts, see “Instructions in Wisdom,” Document 19). This document dates to the Ramesside Period (1320 BCE–1085 BCE). One side of the papyrus (the recto) contains hymns, while the other side (the verso) includes passages praising the scribal profession. In this excerpt, it is claimed that authorship of texts ensures immortality far more than tombs or tombstones. This is an amazing concept in a society that devoted a considerable portion of its wealth to funerary provision for the afterlife and commemoration of the deceased on earth. The skepticism observed here about death and the afterlife reflects and even surpasses similar sentiments found in earlier texts (see Document 9).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Coptic preserves some elements of the grammar and vocabulary of the ancient Egyptian language (see Sidebar: The Decipherment of Egyptian Scripts). Because of its close links to Hieroglyphs, Hieratic, and Demotic, it became a point of reference for scholars attempting to decipher the ancient scripts and establish their grammatical principles (see Document 22). 2. The black basalt Rosetta Stone was inscribed with a decree issued by the Egyptian priesthoods in honor of Ptolemy V Epiphanes (196 bce). 3. At first, Champollion—along with many other early scholars—believed that hieroglyphs had an entirely symbolic function, but he came to accept Young’s proposal, and went on to identify and read the names of Ptolemaic rulers in the Egyptian scripts on the Rosetta Stone, and the names of Egyptian rulers found in other hieroglyphic sources.

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Document: Writing as a Means of Communication (Papyrus Chester Beatty IV) As to those learned scribes, of the time that came after the gods, they who foretold the future, their names have become everlasting, while they departed, having finished their lives, and all their kin are forgotten . . . They gave themselves (the scroll as lector-) priest, the writing-board as loving-son. Instructions are their tombs, the reed pen is their child, the stone-surface Lector-priest: a cleric defined by their wife . . . Be a scribe, take it to heart, that your name become his ability to read and write who as theirs. Better is a book than a graven stela, than a solid tombrecited the services at the tomb enclosure. They [i.e., books] act as chapels and tombs in the heart Loving-son: a tomb-owner’s son or of him who speaks their name; surely useful in the graveyard is a appointed priest who kept up the name in people’s mouth! Man decays, his corpse is dust, all his kin prayers and offerings at his/her tomb have perished; but a book makes him remembered through the Stela in the temple: a wealthy person mouth of its reciter. Better is a book than a well-built house, than could set up a personal votive tomb-chapels in the West; better than a solid mansion, than a stela statue or stela in the temple so that in the temple! his/her spirit could benefit from the daily performance of the rituals Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. and food offerings The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 176–77. They who foretold the future: one of the scribe’s gifts was the ability to prophesy future events; he would be AFTERMATH remembered because of his writings, even after his relatives had died and Champollion continued to produce major publications in could no longer make offerings at his which he developed his analysis of the Egyptian language. Nevtomb ertheless, some scholars still refuted his conclusions that only Time that came after the gods: achieved general acceptance among the academic community in the earliest period of Egyptian 1837 ce. His great contribution to Egyptology is now univercivilization when it was claimed sally acknowledged, and as a result of his discoveries, scholars that men had succeeded the gods as can read and translate Egyptian texts as easily as other languages. rulers on earth Furthermore, his work ensured that Egyptologists are not limited Who speaks their name: the family to the archaeological evidence provided by monuments and armember/priest who continued to tifacts; they can read an extensive literature, and thus gain some recite prayers at the tomb; it was idea of the thoughts and beliefs of an ancient people. Today, the believed that frequent mention of ability to read and translate Egyptian Hieroglyphs is considered the deceased’s name would help to an essential skill for most Egyptologists, and university courses ensure his/her immortality in Egyptology usually include formal training in Egyptian language and scripts, alongside history and archaeology.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why did early scholars think that Egyptian hieroglyphs were purely symbolic? 2. Why did the Egyptians come to believe that it was the authorship of books and writing, rather than the provision of tombs and funerary goods, that ensured individual immortality?

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THE DECIPHERMENT OF EGYPTIAN SCRIPTS The Egyptians regarded writing as the most important way of preserving, communicating, and handing down their wisdom and knowledge to future generations (see “Writing,” Document 22; Document 9). However, as Christianity gradually replaced the ancient religion in Egypt, and Coptic and then Arabic replaced Egyptian as the country’s spoken and written languages, the ability to understand inscriptions in Hieroglyphs, Hieratic, Demotic, and Ptolemaic Egyptian (see Document 36) disappeared. Later, scholars retained the ability to read ancient languages such as Greek or Latin, but the key to deciphering the Egyptian scripts was lost. Greek writers and early European scholars assumed that hieroglyphs were symbols, representing mystical beliefs, instead of the written form of an early language, which had its own grammar and vocabulary. From the 17th century ce onward, due to the increasing number of European travelers visiting Egypt, and the Coptic manuscripts that were imported into Europe, a new awareness of ancient Egypt developed, which inspired fresh attempts to decipher hieroglyphs. The first studies were largely unsuccessful because scholars retained the false belief that hieroglyphs represented religious symbols. Discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799 ce, uncovered during the construction of coastal defenses in the Delta, provided a unique opportunity. Originally set up in Memphis, this large stone was inscribed in three different scripts: Greek, hieroglyphs, and demotic. Scholars could easily translate the Greek text; they made a correct assumption that the content of this section was repeated in the other two inscriptions, and were able to use the translation of the Greek section as the basis for deciphering the Egyptian scripts. At first, there was little progress, but in the early 1800s, Thomas Young made some important discoveries; in particular, he recognized that the Egyptian texts contained both alphabetic and nonalphabetic signs (see Document 22). However, it was a French scholar, Jean-François Champollion, who finally deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs.

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Imagine that you are an archaeologist living 2,000 years in the future. Although many books and inscriptions have survived from the 20th and 21st centuries ce, they are written in a language and script (English) that is no longer recognized or understood. What can you learn about that society just from the evidence of their buildings and manufactured possessions? What aspects of their culture are inaccessible to you because you cannot read their inscriptions and literature? To what extent does this imbalance affect your ability to reach an accurate assessment of their civilization? H How do scholars set about deciphering ancient scripts? Describe some of the problems they face, and how they attempt to resolve these issues.

Further Information Adkins, L. and Adkins, R. The Keys of Egypt: The Race to Read the Hieroglyphs. London and New York, 2001. Andrews, C. The Rosetta Stone. London, 1981. Clayton, P. A. The Rediscovery of Ancient Egypt: Artists and Travellers in the 19th Century. London, 1982. Davies, W. V. Reading the Past: Egyptian Hieroglyphs. Berkeley, CA, and London, 1987. Dawson, W. R. and Uphill, E. P. Who Was Who in Egyptology. 3rd rev. ed., M. L. Bierbrier. London, 1995.

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Gardiner, A. H. Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, 3rd Series: Chester Beatty Gift. Volume 1: 38–39. Volume 2: pls. 18–19. London, 1935. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Pope, M. The Story of Archaeological Decipherment: From Egyptian Hieroglyphs to Linear B. New York, 1975. Ray, J. D. “The Emergence of Writing in Egypt.” World Archaeology 17, no. 3 (1986): 307–16. Williams, R. J. “Scribal Training in Ancient Egypt.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 92 (1972): 214–21. Wilson, J. A. Signs and Wonders on Pharaoh. Chicago, 1964. Wortham, J. D. British Egyptology. Norman, OK, 1971.

Websites Champollion’s autographed letter to M. Dacier: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/ highlights/highlight_objects/aes/c/champollions_hieroglyphic_hand.aspx. Rosetta Stone: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/room_4_ egyptian_sculpture.aspx.

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24. M ATHEMATICS INTRODUCTION The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, originally one complete document, is currently mounted as two separate pieces (10057 and 10058) in the British Museum collection. The Hieratic text is inscribed in black and red ink, the latter used for headings and to highlight particular figures in the mathematical examples. The papyrus was bought by A. H. Rhind at Luxor in 1858; its local discoverers claimed that it had been recovered from a chamber in the ruins of a small building in the vicinity of the Ramesseum (the mortuary temple of Ramesses II), together with fragments of a medical papyrus later sold to the collector Edwin Smith. These documents may have been part of a cache of scientific documents placed in this location during the New Kingdom. According to its copyist, a scribe named Ahmose, the Rhind Papyrus dates to Year 33 of the Hyksos king, Auserre Apophis (ca. 1788 bce–1580 bce), but was itself a copy of an older version produced in Dynasty 12 in the reign of Amenemhet III (1842 bce–1797 bce). Other extant examples of mathematical papyri written in hieratic all date to Dynasty 12. Mathematics was taught as part of the school curriculum (see “The Scribal Profession,” Document 14; Document 1), but none of the known documents includes any kind of mathematical treatise setting out a series of rules for application to different types of problems. Instead, they provide tables, and practical examples to demonstrate how the tables can be used for problem solving. Intended as training handbooks for teachers and pupils, examples in the mathematical papyri reflect everyday situations that administrators might be expected to encounter, such as how to divide loaves among workers in equal and unequal proportions; how to calculate land acreage, reckon livestock, and estimate food for a poultry yard or ox stall; and how to assess the proportionate values of precious metals.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Relatively few documents are available for the study of Egyptian mathematics. Papyri inscribed in Hieratic, which all date to the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce– 1786 bce) include the Moscow Papyrus (now in the Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow); fragments found by the archaeologist Flinders Petrie at Kahun; and Berlin Papyrus 6619. Although later in date, the Rhind Papyrus is apparently also based on Middle

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Kingdom documents, and all these documents may have drawn on material from the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–2613 bce). In addition, two wooden writing tablets from Akhmim, now in the Cairo Museum (Numbers 25367 and 25368), are inscribed with lists of servants and mathematical calculations. Later documents include a papyrus inscribed in Demotic, Coptic tables of fractions, and the Akhmim Papyrus, but scholarly assessments of Egyptian mathematics do not usually take these later works into account because they may have been influenced by Greek mathematics. However, although the Akhmim Papyrus probably dates to between the sixth and ninth centuries ce, when knowledge of advanced Greek methods was widespread, it still retains the procedures used in pharaonic mathematics. 2. Some scholars believe that Egyptian mathematics stagnated from at least the Middle Kingdom, and that the cumbrous system of multiplication and division in particular prevented any further advancement. However, the Egyptians clearly had a system that worked for them, and since so few mathematical documents have been discovered to date, it is possible that at least some of their achievements have not yet been recognized. 3. The term used for the process of multiplication/division was w3 ḥ tp—“to incline the head”—perhaps referring to the physical movement that accompanied the counting process. The example below shows how multiplication worked (based on Peet 1923: 13): To multiply 15 by 13. The number 13 is first broken down into smaller constituent numbers, which are then multiplied by 15. These totals are then added up to provide the answer: 1 × 15 = 15 2 × 15 = 30 4 × 15 = 60 8 × 15 = 120 Total (13 × 15) = 195 4. The Egyptian and Babylonian mathematical systems were largely contemporary, but it is difficult to compare them because of an imbalance of evidence. The Babylonian records, inscribed on clay tablets, have survived in far greater numbers than the Egyptian records written on papyrus. Also, the two archives provide significantly different information: whereas the Egyptian documents show how mathematics was applied to practical situations, the Babylonian material, based on earlier Sumerian records (a civilization also based in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)), gives an account of the sources that were used in calculations: tables of multiplication, division, squares, squared roots, and cubed roots.

Document: Knowledge and Application (The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus) Example No. 2 (Plate F) To divide (2) loaves (among 10 men). You are to multiply [1/5 by 10].

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The Doing as It Occurs: (–) 2 (4)

⅓ + 1/15 ⅔ + 1/10 + 1/30 (1 and ⅓ + 1/5) + 1/15

(–8)

(TOTAL 2.) This is (the number) in question. Example No. 39 (Plate M) Division of Loaves into Unequal Proportions. Method of finding the difference of share. A hundred loaves to 10 men, fifty to 6 and fifty to 4. What is the difference of share?

sic

1

4

1

6

10

40

2

12

2

8

4

24

/

2

8

48

12

/

13

12½

8 and ⅓

12½

8 and ⅓

12½

8 and ⅓

12½

8 and ⅓

2

8 and ⅓ 8 and ⅓ Difference of share: 4 and 1/6. Example No. 49 (Plate O) Example of calculating (?) the land. If it is said to thee, A rectangle of land of 10 khet by 2 khet, what is its acreage? The doing as it occurs: 1

1000

10

10,000

100

100,000

/ of 100,000 is 10,000

1 10

/ of 1/10 of it is 1000

1 10

This is its content in land. Example No. 65 (Plate S) Example of reckoning out 100 loaves for 10 men, a sailor, a foreman, and a watchman with double.

Its working: how the calculation is reached Khet: a rod, used as a measure of length The doing as it occurs: how to work out the calculation With double: these men are to receive double portions of the rations

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Its working: You are to add up the crew, result 13. Reckon with 13 to find the hundred loaves: result 7and ⅔ +1/39 Then you shall say, this is the ration of the 7 men, and of the sailor, the foreman and the watchman with double. 7 and 2/3 +

1 39

/

7 and 2/3 +

1 39

7 and 2/3 +

1 39

7 and 2/3 +

1 39

7 and 2/3 +

1 39

7 and 2/3 +

1 39

7 and 2/3 +

1 39

/ / / / / /

Sailor

15 and 1/3 +

1 26

/

+

1 78

/

Foreman

15 and 1/3 +

1 26

/

+

1 78

Watchman 15 and 1/3 +

1 26

/

+

1 78

/

/

TOTAL 100. Source: Peet, T. E. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: British Museum 10057 and 10058. Introduction, Transcription, Translation and Commentary. London, 1923, Plates F, M, O, S.

EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS Egyptian mathematics provided pragmatic solutions for specific problems. For example, most of the instances found in the Rhind Papyrus are not worked out on the basis of general formulae; individual methods were used for each case. Again, abstract numbers do not appear: they are always expressed in concrete terms, that is, six loaves, five sheep. Arithmetic included addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division; sums were set out under the headings of title, statement (which detailed the data), working out, and proof (which demonstrated that the results obtained could solve the problem). The Egyptians had a decimal-based counting system, with different hieroglyphic signs representing numbers 1 to 9, 10 to 99, 100 to 999, 1,000 to 9,999, 10,000 to 999,999, and 1,000,000. Addition and subtraction were straightforward procedures, if only whole numbers were involved. For fractions, different methods were employed. With the exception of ⅔, the Egyptians only worked with fractions that have a numerator no greater than unity (e.g., ½, ⅓, ¼, etc.); thus, a fundamental procedure was developed to find different series of fractions that together added up to unity. Multiplication consisted of repeated doubling; for division, the process for a multiplication sum was reversed. Did the Egyptians understand and use the principles of the theorem generally attributed to Pythagoras (ca. fifth century bce)? Scholarly opinions differ, but the proportions of the Dynasty 4 pyramid of Khafre at Giza (2558 bce– 2533 bce) and of later pyramids, as well as some pyramid problems exemplified in the Rhind Papyrus, indicate that they possessed and applied knowledge of the 3, 4, 5 triangle many centuries before Pythagoras lived.

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AFTERMATH A basic difference existed between the Greeks and the Egyptians in the way they pursued knowledge. In the simplest terms, the Egyptians asked the question “How?” and the Greeks asked the question “Why?” Generally, the Greeks took a theoretical approach, searching for underlying principles and applying them universally, whereas the Egyptians adopted a more pragmatic course, seeking out specific solutions to individual problems that confronted them. This difference is evident in the mathematical systems that the two peoples developed. The Greeks achieved unprecedented heights in mathematical science, but they acknowledged that their knowledge of mathematics and geometry came from Egypt. A country heavily reliant on agriculture, Egypt had long utilized mathematics to provide solutions to practical problems. In this context, Herodotus (The Histories, Book 2: 109) describes how the Egyptian king Sesostris (Senusret) divided up and allocated land among his people, and then made subsequent adjustments in land rent if part of the land was carried away by the Nile inundation. Herodotus then comments: “It appears to me that geometry was discovered in this way and that it afterwards came over into Greece.”

ASK YOURSELF 1. Did Egyptian mathematics really stagnate at a relatively early period in their history? If so, what were the main reasons for this? 2. Why did the Egyptians and Greeks have such apparently different attitudes toward the use and development of knowledge, particularly in mathematics? 3. What were the main types of practical problems for which the Egyptians sought solutions through using mathematical applications?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Taking the example of No. 39 in the Rhind Papyrus (see earlier, Plate M), the “Division of Loaves into Unequal Proportions,” describe the steps by which the end result is achieved. H Taking the example of No. 49 in the Rhind Papyrus (see earlier, Plate O), “Calculating the Land,” describe the steps by which the end result is achieved. H Suppose that you have been asked to demonstrate some ancient mathematical applications to a group of ancient Egyptian children. Based on the examples given in this Document and others encountered in your wider reading, compose a set of new examples that will illustrate your points.

Further Information de Sélincourt, A. (tr.). Herodotus: The Histories. Book 2. Harmondsworth, UK, 1961. Griffith, F. Ll. Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob. London, 1898: 115–18; pl. VIII. Parker, R. A. Demotic Mathematical Papyri. Rhode Island, RI, 1972. Peet, T. E. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: British Museum 10057 and 10058. Introduction, Transcription, Translation and Commentary. London, 1923, Plates F, M, O, S. Robins, G. and Shute, C.C.D. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: An Ancient Egyptian Text. London, 1987.

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25. CALENDAR OF A MILITARY EXPEDITION INTRODUCTION An account praising the victory of Merneptah (1236 bce–1223 bce) against the Libyans and his dominance over the inhabitants of Syria and Palestine is inscribed on the verso of his Poetical Stela. This piece, now housed in the Cairo Museum (No. 34025), is also called the Israel Stela because the only extant reference to Israel in Egyptian literature is found here in a list of defeated enemies; it has been argued that, since Israel was already an established fact by this reign, then Merneptah’s father, Ramesses II (1304 bce–1237 bce), may have been the pharaoh of the biblical Exodus (see Document 4). This large stela was originally set up in the Theban mortuary temple of Amenhotep III (1417 bce–1379 bce), and inscribed on the recto with an account of some of his building activities (see Document 47). However, Merneptah usurped the stela, and it was re-inscribed and transferred to his own mortuary temple in western Thebes (see Document 47). Merneptah’s poetical text is duplicated on another stela erected in the Temple of Karnak where a prose version of his Libyan war is also inscribed on one of the walls. The Israel Stela inscription effectively demonstrates the Egyptian practice of recording exact dates for important events, placing the Libyan campaign firmly in the fifth year of Merneptah’s reign. This event is confirmed by other historical information, but there is no conclusive evidence that Merneptah actually led campaigns against Egypt’s western Asiatic neighbors (see “Egypt’s Relations with Syria/Palestine,” Document 33), as described in the following excerpt. The passage extols the king’s military prowess in this arena but it may simply be an example of poetic license, included here to enhance the king’s glory.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The Egyptian calendar (see Sidebar) was an effective, straightforward system of time management. There were some adaptations (for example, Hellenistic astronomers adopted and introduced a Babylonian system, making the hours of the day and night equal and dividing each hour into 60 minutes). However, European scholars continued to make use of the Egyptian civil calendar for their calculations until the

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Middle Ages, and some aspects (the division into days, months, and seasons) have survived until now. 2. Texts on papyri dating to the Persian Period (ca. 340 bce) and Greco-Roman era (305 bce–ca. 600 ce) indicate that some changes were introduced in later times: the 12 calendar months, instead of being numbered and allocated to one of the seasons, were named after particular feasts.

Document: The Israel Stela/The Poetical Stela of Merneptah Year 5, third month of summer, day 3, under the Majesty of Horus: Mighty Bull, Rejoicing in Ma’ at: the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Banere-meramun; the Son of Re: Merneptah, Content with Ma’at, magnified by the power, exalted by the strength of Horus; strong bull who smites the Nine Bows, whose name is given to eternity forever. Recital of his victories in all lands, to let all lands together know, to let the glory of his deeds be seen . . . lord of strength who slays his foes, splendid on the field of valour when his attack is made  . . .  [there follows a description of the onslaught against the Libyans; the final passage then asserts Merneptah’s authority over Syria/Palestine:] The princes are prosAshkelon: a city-state situated in Canaan trate saying: “Shalom!” Not one of the Nine Bows lifts Gezer: a city-state situated in Canaan his head: Tjehenu is vanquished, Khatti at peace, CaKhatti: the Land of the Hittites, an important naan is captive with all woe. Ashkelon is conquered, people who both fought and co-operated with Gezer seized, Yanoam made non-existent; Israel is Egypt wasted . . . all who roamed have been subdued by the Israel: the tribe of Israel King of Upper and Lower Egypt . . . Princes: rulers of places conquered by Egypt Tjehenu: Libya Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Yanoam: a city-state situated in Canaan Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 74, 77.

AFTERMATH Merneptah (1236 bce–1223 bce) successfully repulsed the attempted invasion of Egypt undertaken by a coalition of Libyan tribes and Sea-Peoples in Year 5 of his reign (ca. 1231 bce). During a six-hour battle, many enemy troops were killed, the disgraced Libyan leader was forced to return home, and the Egyptians captured over 9,000 prisoners and large amounts of booty. However, the threat did not disappear, and Merneptah’s successor, Ramesses III (1198 bce–1166 bce), faced similar crises. In Year 5 of his reign, he overcame a coalition of Libyan tribes who, driven by hunger, once again attempted to enter Egypt and settle in the Delta. An even greater danger occurred in Year 8 when a confederation of Sea-Peoples attacked Egypt by land and sea. Although they were utterly defeated (the battle action is graphically depicted on the walls of Ramesses III’s temple at Medinet Habu), a further conflict occurred in Year 11, when Ramesses III again defeated a Libyan coalition who tried

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Calendar of a Military Expedition

THE EGYPTIAN CALENDAR AND CALCULATION OF TIME The date of an event in a historical inscription is given as the regnal year of a particular king (as above, Year 5 of Merneptah’s reign), followed by a specific season, month, and day. The Egyptians devised a civil calendar that consisted of 365 days: it was divided into 12 months, each of 30 days, plus five added (epagomenal) days at the end of the year. The months (four in each group) were then allotted to one of three “seasons” that reflected the annual agricultural cycle (see “Agriculture and Famine,” Document 26). They included 3ḫt (akhet): inundation (from late June in the south to late September in the north); prt (peret): winter, when the water levels dropped, the fields emerged again, and crops could be sown; and šmw (shemw): summer, when the crops were harvested. Whereas the astronomical year has approximately 364¼ days, there were 365 days in this civil calendar, which resulted in a serious discrepancy: four years after the beginning of the astronomical year had coincided with the first day of the civil calendar, New Year’s Day (see “Festivals,” Document 39) in the civil calendar would occur one day earlier than the first day of the astronomical calendar; after 120 years, the civil calendar would be a month in advance of the astronomical year. The Egyptians addressed this difficulty by including the epagomenal days so that the agricultural and civil calendars were brought in line with each other. The modern civil calendar deals with the problem by introducing a leap year, which adds an extra day at the end of February in every fourth year. The Egyptians divided the day and night into 24 hours, although the hours were not of equal length: in summer, the daylight hours were longer than the night hours, and this was reversed in the winter.

to invade the Delta. In a land battle, the king’s troops killed more than 2,000 enemies and took many prisoners as well as large quantities of booty. There were no further attempts at direct invasion, but numbers of Libyan campaigners, many captured as prisoners of war (see Document 16), managed to remain in Egypt: some joined the Egyptian army and were rewarded with gifts of land in the Delta. It was a descendant of this prosperous group who founded Dynasty 22 (945 bce–730 bce) and became king of Egypt.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why did the Egyptians base their calendar on the agricultural events of the year? 2. Why did the Egyptians depict victorious battle campaigns in their temples?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Make a list of the advantages and disadvantages of the Egyptian calendar. Discuss whether this system was better than the one we use today. H Discuss the contribution made by the calendar to the ancient Egyptian way of life; what difference did it make to the kind of activities they were able to undertake?

Further Information Ahlström, G. W. and Edelman, D. “Merneptah’s Israel.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 44 (1985): 59–61.

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Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Depuydt, L. Civil Calendar and Lunar Calendar in Ancient Egypt. Leuven, Belgium, 1995. Edgerton, W. and Wilson, J. A. Historical Records of Ramesses III. Chicago, 1936. The Epigraphic Survey, University of Chicago, Medinet Habu. 8 vols. Chicago, 1930–70. Hasel, M. G. Domination and Resistance: Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Levant, 1300–1185 BC. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1998. Kitchen, K. A. Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical. Volume 4. Oxford, UK, 1968: 12–19. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Parker, R. A. The Calendars of Ancient Egypt. Chicago, 1950. Parker, R. A. “The Calendars and Chronology.” In J. R. Harris (ed.). The Legacy of Egypt. Oxford, UK, 1971: 13–26. Yurco, F. J. “Merneptah’s Canaanite Campaign.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 23 (1986): 189–215.

Websites Funerary Temple of Merenptah: http://www.osirisnet.net/monument/temple/merenptah/e_ temple_merenptah.htm#. Religious Calendar, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/medinet%20habu/ index.htm (see under Temple of Ramesses III: pages/medinet_habu_jul_2006_0222.htm).

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26. A N AGRICULTURAL DISASTER INTRODUCTION This text, which dates from the Ptolemaic Period (305–30), takes the form of a decree issued by Djoser (ca. 2667 bce–2648 bce), a much earlier king of Dynasty 3 (ca. 2686 bce–2613 bce); indeed, it may be a copy of a long-lost original dating to Djoser’s reign. Carved on a rock face on Sehel Island at Egypt’s southern border, the decree is addressed to a “Governor of the South,” based at the nearby town of Elephantine, who is ordered to carry out the king’s instructions regarding a famine. A priest, asked to gain insight into this problem, has sought information at a famous temple library, and presented the king with his findings: he describes another temple, situated in a town called Yebu, which is surrounded by the Nile. The god of the Nile, Hapy, lives there, and the temple is ruled by the ram-headed god, Khnum, who has the power to increase the flow of the river and govern the supply of food. The priest also provides the king with a list of the minerals, precious stones, and building stones that occur in this area. On the cleric’s advice, the king makes an offering to the deities of Yebu, and then in a dream, he encounters Khnum who promises him many blessings and an end to the famine. To show his gratitude, the king issues a royal decree granting Khnum’s temple a share of all revenue from an extensive area stretching southward from Elephantine, as well as a division of all Nubian imports donated to the temple.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. A wise ruler could offset the threat of famine by building up reserves of grain (as in this excerpt), or, if some areas of Egypt were more badly affected than others, supplies could be moved around. 2. A unique but incomplete scene on a wall in the pyramid causeway of Unas (ca. 2375 bce–2345 bce) at Saqqara depicts emaciated victims of a famine. Egyptologists have suggested that the starving people were foreigners who, in missing scenes, would have been shown as recipients of food from Egypt’s reserves. These images were probably included here to enhance Unas’ reputation as a prudent and beneficent ruler.

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Ancestors: former kings of Egypt Chief lector-priest: in charge of temple liturgy and sacred texts Chief of Nubia: one of Khnum’s titles Flow of Hapy: the inundation of the Nile Hapy had failed to come in time: Hapy was the god of the Nile; the annual river flood had not occurred, resulting in continuing famine House of Life: the temple library where sacred books were kept I shall make Hapy gush for you: make the Nile waters rise Khnum: the ram-headed god responsible for the Nile inundation Lord of the cataract region: one of Khnum’s titles, this refers to Egypt’s earliest southernmost borderland at the First Cataract Mansion of the Net: temple of Thoth at Hermopolis Magna Souls of Re: sacred books Staff of the Ibis: scribes employed as priests of Thoth, patron god of writing

Document: The Famine Stela I was in mourning on my throne, those of the palace were in grief, my heart was in great affliction, because Hapy had failed to come in time, in a period of seven years. Grain was scant, kernels were dried up, scarce was every kind of food. Every man robbed his twin . . . I directed my heart to turn to the past, I consulted one of the staff of the Ibis, the chief lector-priest of Imhotep. [He responds:] ‘I shall go to the Mansion of the Net . . . I shall enter the House of Life, unroll the Souls of Re, I shall be guided by them.’ He departed, he returned to me quickly, he let me know the flow of Hapy, (his shores) and all the things they contain. He disclosed to me the hidden wonders, to which the ancestors had made their way, and no king had equalled them since . . . As I slept in peace, I found the god standing before me. I propitiated him by adoring him and praying to him. He revealed himself to me with a kindly face . . . [The god then tells the king:] I shall make Hapy gush for you, no year of lack and want anywhere, plants will grow weighed down by their fruit . . . I shall let your people fill up, they shall grasp together with you! Gone will be the hunger years, ended the dearth in their bins . . . hearts will be happier than ever before! . . . [The king then responds:] I awoke with speeding heart. Freed of fatigue, I made this decree on behalf of my father Khnum. A royal offering to Khnum, lord of the cataract region and chief of Nubia. Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 3. The Late Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980: 95, 96, 98, 99.

AGRICULTURE AND FAMINE In order to feed themselves, the Egyptians had to organize a complex irrigation system that used river water and its deposits of black silt to cultivate as much land as possible on either side of the Nile (see “The Egyptian Calendar and Calculation of Time,” Document 25). The construction of earth dykes divided the land into compartments; when the annual inundation came, river water was directed into these compartments through a series of canals. As the river level gradually decreased, any remaining water was drained away from the compartments, and the peasants planted their crops in the rich soil deposits left behind. The main crops were cereals: two kinds of wheat (spelt and emmer) and barley produced the ingredients for the staple diet of bread and beer (see “Ancient Egyptian Beer,” Document 40). Cultivation of orchards and gardens produced figs, grapes, pomegranates, and sycamore figs and dates, as well as onions, beans, lentils, herbs, lettuces, chickpeas, fenugreek, and radishes. The food of the wealthy differed from that of the peasants (see Document 44), whose basic vegetarian diet was augmented with some fish, meat, or poultry on special holidays. Although food sources included fish, poultry, and animals raised for meat (cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs), crops were the most important items in the diet, and inability to cultivate them could lead to famine. Various texts, including the Pessimistic Literature (see Document 12), describe famines, identifying their causes as failure of the Nile flood, or neglect of the irrigation system following a civil war or the lack of strong centralized government.

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AFTERMATH The exact purpose of the House of Life, an institution attached to many major temples, is unclear, but it was regarded as a microcosm of the universe where life, and sacred and secular wisdom, were created and preserved. Located either within the temple itself or in the temple precinct, its activities fostered and developed the sacred rituals and writings that afforded protection to the gods and the king in life and in death. It was probably designed to accommodate a group of scholars—physicians, philosophers, and scientists—who, to achieve these ends, practiced magic and medicine and directed artistic and funerary works. The institution was first and foremost a scriptorium, where priests prepared new compositions associated with the mythology and liturgy of the temples, and where scribes copied and revised earlier texts. These included temple liturgy and theology, magical incantations, astronomical tables, funerary books, and medical documents. The House of Life may have also functioned as a school or university, and some may have been centers for medical training and healing the sick (see “The Scribal Profession,” Document 14). An associated institution, the House of Books or temple library, was probably located either inside the House of Life or in an area adjacent to it, and accommodated theological manuscripts, liturgical texts, and drafts of the scenes and texts engraved on the temple walls. These libraries had a long history: evidence shows that they had existed since at least Dynasty 6 (ca. 2345 bce–2181 bce), and as late as the second century ce, Clement of Alexandria refers to an archive of books on medicine. Although the main function of the library was to preserve manuscripts, it also played an important role in disseminating information and knowledge. The above excerpt, which relates how a priest travelled across Egypt to consult an important archive, is mirrored in the works of Galen (a renowned Greek physician): writing in the third century ce, he describes a visit by Greek physicians to consult the archives at Memphis.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why did the Famine Stela, which dates to the Ptolemaic Period, describe events that are supposed to have happened thousands of years earlier? Do you think that it may be based on a genuine decree issued by Djoser, or is it more likely to be a work of fiction? 2. What information can wall scenes in nonroyal tombs provide about the components of the Egyptian diet?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H The Famine Stela refers to a seven-year period of famine and the measures taken to overcome this problem—subjects that echo the story of Joseph in the Bible. Research has revealed that reference to a seven-year famine is not confined to these texts, but occurs more generally across the literature of the ancient Near East. Nevertheless, some parallels can be drawn between the two accounts. Read the full text of the Stela and the biblical story (Genesis 41), and make a list of these similarities. H Look at the wall scenes in nonroyal tombs that depict land cultivation; use this information to describe the main features of irrigation and land cultivation, and discuss why these processes played such a vital role in the development of the Egyptian state. 119

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Further Information Butzer, K. W. Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: A Study in Cultural Ecology. Chicago, 1976. Goedicke, H. “Comments on the ‘Famine Stela’.” Varia Aegyptiaca, Supplement 5. San Antonio, TX, 1994. Haiying, Y. “The Famine Stela: A Source-Critical Approach and Historical-Comparative Perspective.” In C. Eyre (ed.). Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Egyptologists. Leuven, Belgium, 1995. Hassan, S. “The Causeway of Wnis at Sakkara.” Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 80 (1955): 136–44. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 3. The Late Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980. Raslan, M.A.M. “The Causeway of Ounas Pyramid.” Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte 41 (1973): 151–69. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Wilson, J. “The Tradition of Seven Lean Years in Egypt.” In J. B. Pritchard (ed.). Ancient Near Eastern Texts. 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ, 1969: 31–32.

Website Tomb of Menna: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/nobles/menna69/e_menna_01.htm#.

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27. A N OFFERING WHICH THE K ING GIVES INTRODUCTION This text is painted on the outer surface of one of the coffins belonging to a priest, NakhtAnkh (ca. 1900 bce) (see Document 8), which was part of the burial assemblage of NakhtAnkh and his brother, Khnum-Nakht. The spell (below), inscribed horizontally across the back of Nakht-Ankh’s rectangular coffin, is taken from the Coffin Texts (see Document 8); it is an example of the Offering List, which requested that the deceased owner should receive certain benefits in the next world.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Anubis, and his cult animal the jackal, were closely associated with the dead, cemeteries, and mummification (see “Mummification,” Document 48). The Egyptians probably observed jackals destroying shallow graves in the earliest necropolises; this may have prompted them to choose this animal to be the protector of the dead in the vain hope that divine status would deter further attacks. Anubis played a key role in many activities associated with death and burial; he appears in scenes of the Day of Judgment (see Document 49). 2. Nakht-Ankh is described as the “son of a hatia-prince.” Inscriptions on the tomb goods indicate that Nakht-Ankh and Khnum-Nakht were both born to a woman named Khnum-Aa, but the patrilineal descent is recorded differently for each man. In Nakht-Ankh’s case, only his father is mentioned, whereas both the father and the grandfather of Khnum-Nakht are recorded: the individual names of these men are not given but they are all referred to as “hatia-prince.” Since the mummies of Khnum-Nakht and Nakht-Ankh display considerable anatomical differences, it is unlikely that they were full brothers; it has been suggested that they may have been half-siblings, sharing the same mother but having different fathers. 3. A hatia-prince was the governor of a town and its surrounding agricultural land. This was a powerful and important position and Nakht-Ankh’s family would have exercised considerable influence in the district. The position was often hereditary—according to the coffin inscriptions, Khnum-Nakht’s father inherited the title from his own father.

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Document: The Coffin Texts (Coffin Text of Nakht-Ankh) Anubis: god of the dead, mummification and cemeteries; he is usually portrayed as a jackal-headed man Hatia-prince: a mayor, local governor Justified: an epithet given to deceased persons whose innocence had been confirmed by the divine tribunal at the Day of Judgment Place of embalming: the workshop where mummification was carried out; it was one of the residences of Anubis, the god of embalming

HORIZONTAL TEXT ON THE BACK OF THE BOX COFFIN OF NAKHT-ANKH: THE H . TP-DI-NSW FORMULA An offering which the king gives (to) Anubis, he who is upon his mountain, he who is in the place of embalming, lord of the sacred land. May he give a good burial in the western necropolis, in his tomb of the underworld, revered one, son of a hatia-prince, Nakht-Ankh, justified. Source: David, R. The Two Brothers: Death and the Afterlife in Middle Kingdom Egypt. Bolton, UK, 2007: 72. (Author’s translation.)

THE OFFERING LIST The Offering List was placed in a nonroyal tomb to ensure that the deceased owner would be well received in the next world; it also supplied him/her with provisions (particularly food and drink) that would meet material needs in the afterlife. Priests known as “Ka-servants” were employed to place food offerings at the tomb but they frequently neglected their duties, and the Offering List was included in the burial as a substitute source. It formed an important part of the concept, firmly established by this date, that a nonroyal tomb owner would spend the afterlife inside the tomb where the wall scenes and inscriptions, as well as the tomb contents, made ample provision for the deceased’s material needs (see “The Coffin Texts,” Document 8). A large statue of the tomb owner, wall scenes showing the production and provision of food, and figurines and models of workers all ensured a perpetual supply of food and other goods for the deceased. The “Opening of the Mouth” ceremony was believed to revive the life force of inanimate objects in the tomb, and enable the owner’s spirit (Ka) to enter his statue and gain sustenance from the spiritual essence of the offerings represented by the objects and inscriptions. This guaranteed the tomb owner a comfortable eternity without reliance on any human agent.

AFTERMATH The most complete form of the Offering List and Autobiography had been developed by Dynasty 6 (ca.2345 bce–ca. 2181 bce). In the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2181 bce–ca. 1991 bce) and Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce), they continued to be essential features of Egyptian funerary beliefs, often inscribed on an autobiographical stela. Some stelae continued to be placed with the burial, but others were erected elsewhere,

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especially at the sacred city of Abydos. Many stelae were set up by people of humble means, but rich and poor alike believed that they would serve as an enduring memorial and ensure individual immortality. As in the above example, the Offering List was also an important feature of the Coffin Texts (see Document 8).

ASK YOURSELF 1. What kind of food, drink, and other offerings did the Offering List contain? 2. What does the Offering List tell us about the diet of the Egyptians, particularly the priests? 3. Who were the Ka-priests? What were their duties and how were they expected to perform them? Why did they often fail to fulfill the requirements of their office?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Describe the items of food, drink, and other goods usually found in the Offering List. What do these tell us about the Egyptian concept of the next world? Using the contents of the Offering List, consider the Egyptians’ worst fears about the afterlife, and discuss the measures they took to avert these threats and dangers. H Study the contents (wall scenes, statues, figurines, tomb models, etc.) of ONE tomb belonging to a wealthy but nonroyal person of the Old Kingdom, First Intermediate Period, or Middle Kingdom. Discuss the information these examples provide about the contemporary everyday lives of wealthy families and their servants.

Further Information Blackman, A. M. “The Ka-house and the Serdab.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 3 (1916): 250–54. David, R. The Two Brothers: Death and the Afterlife in Middle Kingdom Egypt. Bolton, UK, 2007. Englund, G.“Gifts to the Gods—A Necessity, for the Preservation of Cosmos and Life. Theory and Praxis.” In T. Linders and G. Nordquist (eds.). Gifts to the Gods: Proceedings of the Uppsala Symposium 1985. Uppsala,1987: 57–66. Faulkner, R. O. The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts. 3 vols. Warminster, UK, 1973–78. Hassan, S. Excavations at Giza. Volume 6. The Offering List in the Old Kingdom. Cairo, 1948. Murray, M. A. The Tomb of Two Brothers. Manchester, UK, 1910. Petrie, W.M.F. Gizeh and Rifeh. London, 1907. Smith, W. S. A History of Egyptian Sculpture and Painting in the Old Kingdom. London, 1946. Winlock, H. E. Models of Daily Life in Ancient Egypt from the Tomb of Meket-Re. Cambridge, MA, 1955.

Website Stelae: http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/projects/egyptian_stelae_in_the_museum.

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28. A NEW HOUSE FOR THE TEACHER INTRODUCTION Some Schoolboy Exercises record pupils’ gratitude to their teachers, and express a desire that the teacher will enjoy a fitting reward. In one section of Papyrus Lansing (Dynasty 20, 1200 bce–1085 bce), a scribe describes how he wishes to thank his teacher, Raia, by constructing a mansion for him. In this excerpt, the teacher, who was the royal scribe and chief overseer of the cattle of the god Amen-Re, describes the fine mansion he has built for himself. The implication is that he thoroughly deserves this good fortune because of his devotion to his teaching duties (see Document 22).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The status of a family dictated the quality of its household furnishings, although the range and variety of items did not differ greatly across the classes (see “Egyptian Society,” Document 31). There were beds, stools and chairs (often used with thick cushions), footstools, chests and baskets for storing possessions, small tables, cooking utensils, and domestic pottery. Rugs, mats, and wall hangings added color to decorative schemes. Furnishings were manufactured from wood, stone, rushes, and palm leaves, while items designed for the wealthy sometimes incorporated expensive imported materials such as ebony and ivory. 2. Sunlight was only admitted to the houses through small, barred windows set high in the walls, or small holes in the roof; additional lighting was provided by lamps and wicks. 3. Villa gardens included indigenous varieties of plants (poppies, cornflowers, iris, lilies, chrysanthemum, delphinium, and mandrake), mixed with imports (the pomegranate and fig tree); pools were stocked with blue and white lotuses. Townhouse owners enlivened the exterior of their properties with trees and shrubs planted in pots and containers. 4. In houses of the Ptolemaic Period, color was introduced into interior spaces by painting the walls with the same kind of traditional borders and dados found in earlier Egyptian houses. However, Greeks who lived in Egyptian-type houses may have tried to preserve their identity by opting for Greek-style decoration.

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Document: A School Text (Papyrus Lansing) Raia has built a beautiful mansion; it lies opposite Edjo. He has built it on the border. It is constructed like a work of eternity. It is planted with trees on all sides. A channel was dug in front of it. The lapping of waves sounds in one’s sleep. One does not tire of looking at it. One is gay at its door and drunk in its halls. Handsome doorposts of limestone, carved and chiselled. Beautiful doors, freshly carved. Walls inLapis lazuli: a semi-precious stone laid with lapis lazuli . . . Its barns are supplied with grain, are bulging imported from the region known with abundance. Fowl yard and aviary are filled with geese; byres filled today as Afghanistan with cattle. A bird pool full of geese; horses in the stable. Barges, ferryPoor have come to live around it: boats, and new cattle boats are moored at its quay. Young and old, the the poor established themselves poor have come to live around it. Your provisions last; there is abunhere in the expectation of receiving dance for all who come to you . . . Its west side is a pond for snaring food from Raia’s wealthy estate geese of all kinds, a resort of hunters from the very beginning. One of its ponds has more fish than a lake . . . Happiness dwells therein. Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 173.

HOMES AND GARDENS The home was the center of Egyptian life. Wealthy people tried to ensure that they would continue to enjoy their villas and country estates after death, by representing them in wall scenes and models in their tombs. The Medical Papyri provide advice on how to deal with insects, rodents, and bad odors in the home (see Document 46). Relatively few houses have survived because, unlike the stone-built temples and tombs, more fragile construction materials—mud brick, wood, and reeds—were used for domestic architecture. Also, in towns and cities occupied for thousands of years, evidence of housing has been lost because of continuous leveling and rebuilding at the sites. The best-preserved houses are found in purpose-built towns such as Kahun, Tell elAmarna, and Deir el-Medina, where there was only one level of occupation. Two styles of housing predominated: the townhouse, built for the poorer classes in the cities, towns, and purpose-built habitations; and the villa, the type of home chosen by wealthier people. Some villas were part of urban developments, but most (like Raia’s fine house) were built in the countryside, surrounded by gardens or the owner’s estate where his servants were engaged in agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, and various crafts. The finest villas included accommodation on three levels: private rooms for family living (often on the first floor), a reception area and a north-facing terrace on the ground floor for entertainment, and a storage area in the basement; there were also bathrooms and lavatories. The facilities for servicing the home—kitchen, servants’ quarters, stables, and kennels—were situated in an outside area surrounding the house. The interior walls of houses were plastered and often decorated with painted borders or scenes; these varied in their complexity and design, according to the owner’s ability to pay for the work. The finest villas were surrounded by gardens designed to provide privacy and seclusion. Set out in a formal style, with rows of trees (selected to provide shade) and enclosed beds of flowers (chosen for fragrance and visual impact), gardens were sometimes subdivided into “rooms,” each containing a specific variety of plants. Tomb scenes often show a pool, well stocked with fish and water plants, as a major feature of the villa garden.

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AFTERMATH Raia’s house is typical of villas dating to the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce). Few studies have been made of housing during the Third Intermediate Period (1089 bce–525 bce) and Late Period (525 bce–332 bce), but the New Kingdom model probably continued, with some additional features that may indicate a gradual transition to the domestic styles of the Greco-Roman Period (from 305 bce). During the Ptolemaic Period (305 bce–30 bce), a new, typically Greek house appeared alongside the traditional Egyptian-style home. However, personal status and wealth rather than ethnicity seem to have been the overriding factors in determining home ownership, and both types of property were owned by Greeks and Egyptians from different social backgrounds. Wealthy Greek settlers probably built typically Greek houses in their own cities of Alexandria, Ptolemais, and Naucratis, and also in the Fayoum towns that were established for immigrant occupation. However, wealthy Egyptians could also aspire to these homes. In urban and other contexts, the traditional Egyptian townhouse survived to accommodate not only the indigenous population but also poorer Greek residents. The architecture and decoration of the Ptolemaic-Greek house was probably based on patterns developed at Greek and Hellenistic locations outside Egypt. The most elaborate may have had two stories, with between six and twelve rooms and bathrooms at ground level. The traditional Egyptian townhouse was similar to earlier examples discovered at Kahun or Amarna: an entrance hall opened directly off the street, and gave access to living and reception rooms, bedrooms, and a kitchen and storage area. Examples of house construction dating from the third to eighth centuries bce are found at sites in the Fayoum and elsewhere: “high-rise” homes predominated, each designed with several stories built around a central staircase from which rooms led off at every level. Thick mud-brick walls provided excellent insulation for all homes in Egypt: small windows, set high in the walls and sometimes incorporating a wooden or stone grille or shutters, provided an efficient means of controlling the amount of light and heat admitted to the building, thus ensuring that the house interiors could be kept cool and dark.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why was the house such an important part of the Egyptian way of life? 2. What architectural parallels can be drawn between the domestic house (the home of a living person), and the tomb (“Mansion of the Ka”) where the spirit of a deceased owner resided?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Evidence relating to houses and gardens in ancient Egypt includes tomb scenes, funerary models and equipment, literary and archaeological sources, and collections of ancient plants. Study these resources and discuss the contribution they make to our understanding of the subject. H Consider the essential features (plan, type of accommodation (urban/rural; wealthy/poor), room layout and use, climate control, building materials, garden design, etc.) of the main types of houses used by the ancient Egyptians. To what extent were these features successful, at different social levels, in achieving a safe and comfortable domestic environment?

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Further Information Bietak, M. (ed.). House and Palace in Ancient Egypt: International Symposium in Cairo, April 8 to 11, 1992. Vienna, 1996. Blackman, A. and Peet, T. E. “Papyrus Lansing: A Translation with Notes.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 11 (1925): 284–98. Bowman, A. Egypt after the Pharaohs. London, 1986. David, A. R. The Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh’s Workforce. London and New York, 1996. Kemp, B. J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. London and New York, 1991. Chapter 4: “Model Communities.” Kemp, B. J. “The Early Development of Towns in Egypt.” Antiquity 51 (1977): 185–200. Lesko, L. H. Pharaoh’s Workers: the Villagers of Deir el-Medina. Ithaca, NY, 1994. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Lucas, A. and Harris, J. R. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries. London, 1962. Rev. ed. Mineola, NY, 1999. Moens, M.-F. “The Ancient Egyptian Garden in the New Kingdom: A Study of Representations.” Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica 15 (1984): 11–53. Nicholson, P. T. and Shaw, I. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK, 2000. Tooley, A.M.J. Egyptian Models and Scenes. Princes Risborough, UK, 1995. Uphill, E. P. Egyptian Towns and Cities. Aylesbury, UK, 1988. Wilkinson, A. The Garden in Ancient Egypt. London, 1997. Winlock, H. E. Models of Daily Life in Ancient Egypt from the Tomb of Meket-Re. Cambridge, MA, 1955.

Website Nebamun Tomb Chapel: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/ room_61_tomb-chapel_nebamun.aspx.

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29. A N A DVENTURE AT SEA INTRODUCTION Returning to the town of Elephantine on Egypt’s southern border, a high official who had taken part in an expedition sent to a region south of Egypt (for trade, exploration, or perhaps military ventures) was concerned because the undertaking had been unsuccessful, and he feared how the king would receive this news. To lift the man’s spirits, one of his subordinates related his own adventures, telling how he was sent on an expedition to the royal mines, but was shipwrecked on an island; all his shipmates perished in the storm, and he was the sole survivor. In this excerpt, the man describes how, frightened and uncomfortable, he was approached by the island’s only inhabitant, a large snake; this creature offered help, speaking of its own misfortunes but prophesying that a ship would come to the island and take the castaway back to Egypt. The prediction came true, and the man returned home where he was rewarded by the king. However, although the narrative tries to show that unfortunate events can be overturned, it did not succeed in lifting the high official’s despondent mood. Only one copy of this popular story has survived: the original provenance of Papyrus Leningrad 1115, which dates from the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce), is unknown, but it was discovered by the Egyptologist Golénischeff in the Imperial Museum of St. Petersburg, and is now in Moscow.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Scholars have disputed the exact whereabouts of the unnamed, unidentified island in the Shipwrecked Sailor: it may have been located off the Red Sea coast or in the Nile, south of the Egyptian border. 2. Wall scenes in the Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri record a famous seagoing expedition to Punt in Dynasty 18 (ca. 1500 bce) (see Document 17). The five ships comprising the fleet are depicted as sailing vessels (perhaps the type described in the Shipwrecked Sailor); they are similar in design to the largest contemporary river boats, with sharply pointed bows and very large sails, and also have banks of oars for 30 rowers. Known as “Byblos Ships,” these vessels were used for coastal

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journeys around the Red Sea and elsewhere; the name may either indicate that they were built at Byblos, or used to travel there, perhaps on the sea route from Punt.

Document: The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor (Papyrus Leningrad 1115) . . . I shall tell you something like it that happened to me. I had set out to the king’s mines, and had gone to sea in a ship of a hundred and twenty cubits in length and forty cubits in width. . . . A storm came while we were at sea, before we could reach land . . . The mast—it [the wave] struck (it). Then the ship died. Of those in it not one remained. I was cast on an island by a wave of the sea. I spent three days alone, with my heart as a companion. Lying in the shelter of trees I hugged the shade. . . . Then I stretched my legs to discover what I might put in my mouth. I found figs and grapes there, all sorts of fine vegetables . . . Fish were there and fowl; there is nothing that was not there . . . I stuffed myself and put some down, because I had too much in my arms . . . Then I heard a thundering noise and thought, “It is a wave of the sea.” Trees splintered, the ground trembled. Uncovering my face, I found it was a snake that was coming. He Cubit: a measurement of about 20.6 was of thirty cubits; his beard was over two cubits long. His body inches/0.523 meters was overlaid with gold; his eyebrows were of real lapis lazuli. [The King’s mines: a source of precious snake then addresses the sailor:] “Who brought you, who brought metals and stones near the Nile or you, fellow, who brought you to this island of the sea, whose two in the Eastern Desert sides are in water?” [The sailor explains the circumstances of his arIsland of the Ka: the meaning is rival, and the snake responds:] “Don’t be afraid, don’t be afraid, felunclear: possibly “enchanted island” low . . . It is god who has let you live and brought you to this island or “phantom island” of the Ka . . . It is full of good things. You shall pass month upon Lapis lazuli: a highly valued blue month until you have completed four months in this island. Then stone, imported from the region a ship will come from home with sailors in it whom you know. You known today as Afghanistan shall go home with them, you shall die in your town.” You shall die in your town: Egyptians never wanted to die or be buried Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. outside Egypt The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975: 212–13.

AFTERMATH The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor is a good example of a narrative text—a simple account of a castaway’s adventures. However, the apparent naivety of this story belies its origin: its literary style suggests that it was a scribal composition written for a sophisticated audience. The narrative is reminiscent of the Tale of King Khufu and the Magicians (see Document 45), although it does not share its objective of political propaganda. The location of the island setting of this Tale may have been real or imaginary; according to the prediction of the talking snake, it would sink beneath the waves once the sailor departed. Storytelling continued

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TRANSPORT The Egyptians used water transport for most journeys inside their country and beyond. However, they also required some type of land transport, either to cover the distance between the Nile and the traveler’s destination, or to reach mines and quarries across the deserts. The peasants rode donkeys but the sedan chair, carried by servants, was the vehicle of choice for the upper classes. Horses and chariots with spoked wheels, introduced into Egypt from Syria/Palestine by the Hyksos rulers, were probably only brought into use by the Egyptians toward the end of this period (ca. 1575 bce). Horses remained the highly prized possessions of kings and the nobility (see “Provisions and Booty,” Document 34), and were generally used to draw light, two-wheeled chariots, especially in arenas of war; there is little evidence that they were ridden for transport or sport. Within Egypt, the river and its network of canals provided the best means of transporting people, cargo, and some of the divine statues that travelled in festival processions. Many different types of boat were used on the Nile, from papyrus skiffs made from bundles of reeds, to sophisticated wooden vessels with on-deck cabins and teams of rowers. The Egyptians also built seagoing craft, sometimes to provide back-up support for overland military ventures (see “Provisions and Booty,” Document 34), but more usually for trading journeys to Punt (see Document 17) or Byblos (see “Trading Ventures Abroad,” Document 13). The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor describes a substantial ship, probably of the seagoing type used to reach harbors on the Red Sea. This journey was fraught with dangers, but sailors also required considerable skill on the Nile, especially to negotiate the string of cataracts that impeded river transport south of Egypt.

to be popular in later times. Examples include The Doomed Prince, a late New Kingdom fairytale (ca. 1198 bce–1166 bce) that describes a contest between a prince and three fates, enlivened by talking animals that possess magical powers. A series of Demotic texts from the Greco-Roman Period (305 bce–300 ce) recount the amazing activities of a magician, Prince Setne Khamwas, who was a son of Ramesses II (1304 bce–1237 bce). Literature of much later times (for example, Shakespeare’s The Tempest, and the stories of Sinbad the Sailor and Robinson Crusoe) recalls this early description of an island castaway.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Who were the intended audiences for narratives such as the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor? 2. How would the ancient Egyptians have organized their storytelling sessions? 3. Why did exotic locations (real and imaginary) feature in the narrative texts? In your opinion, what did they add to the audience’s experience of these stories?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Read the full version of the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor (see below Lichtheim, 1975: 211–14), and write a short play based on this story, which can be dramatized and presented to an audience. H Draw up a list of the different kinds of ships and boats used by the Egyptians; describe the various functions and uses of these vessels, and identify the materials (and their sources) from which they were constructed.

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H Discuss the problems faced by Egyptian sailors pursuing seagoing or river travel. To what extent did geographical factors influence Egyptian attitudes toward travelling by water or launching major naval expeditions?

Further Information Baines, J. “Interpreting the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 76 (1990): 55–72. Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman, The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Blackman, A. Middle Egyptian Stories. Brussels, 1932. Bradbury, L. “Reflections on Travelling to ‘God’s Land’, and Punt in the Middle Kingdom.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 25 (1988): 127–56. Bryan, B. “The Hero of the ‘Shipwrecked Sailor’.” Serapis 5 (1979): 3–13. Faulkner, R. O. “Egyptian Seagoing Ships.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 26 (1940): 3–9. Foster, J. L. The Shipwrecked Sailor. Cairo, 1998. Goedicke, H. “The Snake in the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor.” Göttinger Miszellen 30 (1980): 27–31. Ignatov, S. “Some Notes on the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 80 (1994): 195–98. Jones, D. Boats. London, 1970. Landström, B. Ships of the Pharaohs, 4000 Years of Egyptian Ship-building. London, 1970. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975. Meltzer, E. “The Setting of the Shipwrecked Sailor.” Göttinger Miszellen 22 (1976): 47–50. Rendsburg, G. A. “Literary Devices in the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 120 (2000): 13–23. Säve-Söderbergh, T. The Navy of the Eighteenth Egyptian Dynasty. Uppsala, Sweden, 1946. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003.

Website Expedition to Punt, Deir el-Bahri: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/deir%20el%20bahri/ index.htm (see under Reliefs inside Hatshepsut’s temple: Expedition to Punt: pages/deir_ el_bahri_091.htm).

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30. A DVICE ON GOVERNMENT INTRODUCTION Every Egyptian king was regarded as the immortal divine son whom the gods protected against all enemies. Regicide (killing the king) conflicted with this concept, and apart from its treatment in this unique document, it is not discussed elsewhere in the literature. The purpose of this Instruction, set in Dynasty 12 (1991 bce–1786 bce), was political propaganda (see Documents 12, 19). It takes the form of an address by King Amenemhet I (1991 bce–1962 bce) to his son, Senusret I (1971 bce–1928 bce) in which he reveals the details of an assassination attempt he suffered in the 30th year of his reign. In this excerpt, he explains the role of the ruler: he must be aware of treachery, trust no one, and have no intimate friends; only by observing these precautions will he survive. When scholars first translated the text, they attributed the composition to the king himself, and concluded that he had survived the attack. However, it is now generally believed to be a posthumous account, probably composed by a scribe at the court of his successor, Senusret I, after Amenemhet I had been assassinated. The main purpose of the Instruction would have been to give Senusret I credibility and authority. The statement that Amenemhet I was assassinated in the 30th year of his reign is supported by historical evidence. However, according to an alternative interpretation of this document, the king survived the attack, but in order to overcome instability in the country and ensure political continuity, a new concept—the co-regency–was introduced. This would have enabled Amenemhet I and Senusret I to share rulership of Egypt for a time, and consolidate the dynasty. Various copies of the Instruction have survived: Papyrus Millingen (Dynasty 18, 1567 bce–1320 bce), the main source of the text, is now lost but its contents were copied in 1843 ce; additionally, portions of the work survive on three wooden tablets (Dynasty 18, 1567 bce–1320 bce), various New Kingdom ostraca (1567 bce–1085 bce), and some fragmentary papyri.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Some scholars have argued that any valid interpretation of kingship in Egypt must rest on the assumption that the concept functioned on more than one level (divine

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and human), a dualistic approach that would have allowed virtually conflicting beliefs to be held simultaneously (Trigger et al. 1983: 73–74; Goedicke 1954). Thus, the king could be regarded both as an indestructible, omnipotent god, and also a human ruler, vulnerable to treachery and assassination. These divergent perceptions of kingship are addressed in the literary sources.

Document: The Instruction of King Amenemhet I for His Son Senusret I (Papyrus Millingen) Risen as a god, hear what I tell you, that you may rule the land, govern the shores, increase well-being! Beware of subjects who are nobodies, of whose plotting one is not aware. Trust not a brother, know not a friend, make no intimates, it is worthless. When you lie down, guard your heart yourself, for no man has adherents on the day of woe . . . [following this advice to his son, the king describes the personal attack he has suffered:] It was after supper, God’s son: the king night had come. I was taking an hour of rest, lying on my bed, for I would hand over to you: transfer I was weary. As my heart began to follow sleep, weapons for my the throne protection were turned against me, while I was like a snake of the My heart began to follow sleep: I desert. I awoke at the fighting, alert, and found it was a combat began to fall asleep of the guard. Had I quickly seized weapons in my hand, I would Risen as a god: this may indicate that have made the cowards retreat in haste. But no one is strong at Senusret I had recently become night; no one can fight alone; no success is achieved without a king helper. Thus bloodshed occurred while I was without you; beSeal is in its place: symbol of kingship fore the courtiers had heard I would hand over to you; before I While I was without you: Senusret had sat with you so as to advise you. For I had not prepared for I, perhaps because he was fighting it, had not expected it, had not forseen the failing of the servants abroad, was not present to . . . [The king concludes by confirming that he has taken measures safeguard his father’s life to ensure that his son inherits the throne:] I have made the past White Crown: worn by the king as and arranged the future, I gave you the contents of my heart. You ruler of Upper Egypt wear the White Crown of a god’s son, the seal is in its place, assigned you by me . . . Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975: 136–38.

AFTERMATH As usurpers of the throne, the kings of Dynasty 12 (1991 bce–1786 bce) possessed no royal lineage and no religious or official mandate to rule Egypt. This insecurity, combined with the destabilizing events described in Amenemhet’s Instruction to his son (above), probably prompted these rulers to introduce the co-regency as a political mechanism aimed at ensuring the continuity of the dynasty and a peaceful transition from one reign to the next. The co-regency provided a senior king with practical assistance throughout his reign and,

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DIVINE KINGSHIP AND REGICIDE The concept of divine kingship dominated the political scene for over 3,000 years. The basic premise—that the ruler’s divine origin gave him absolute authority—continued throughout pharaonic times, and subsequently Egypt’s Ptolemaic and Roman rulers adopted divine kingship for their own purposes. Tradition asserted that the country was governed by an unbroken line of immortal rulers (the Royal Ancestors) who, when they died, were united with the gods and spent eternity in the sky. The reality was, of course, very different: theoretically, the king was an absolute ruler, but even he had to obey the dictates of Ma’at, the goddess of truth who personified the principles of balance and order, and his decisions and actions were subject to her will. Periodically, new lines of kings seized the throne following times of internal chaos, dramatically described in several documents including the Admonitions of Ipuwer (see Document 12), which recounts how the king was overthrown by the rabble. An even more surprising concept—that a ruler could be vulnerable and possibly even mortal—is presented in the above Instruction of Amenemhet I for his son Senusret I.

by establishing the legitimacy of his heir, helped the royal family to avoid any power struggle after the king’s death (see Document 41). This political device, employed throughout Dynasty 12 as well as in later periods, provided an effective addition to the governance of Egypt (see Document 31).

ASK YOURSELF 1. How does the Instruction of Amenemhet I for his son Senusret I compare with other examples of “literary propaganda”? What is the author trying to achieve in this composition? Is he successful? 2. Do you think the advice given by Amenemhet I would have helped Senusret I to rule Egypt more effectively?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H What does the Instruction of Amenemhet I for his son Senusret I tell you about the concept and status of kingship in ancient Egypt? H Look up information about the political, religious, and architectural achievements of Amenemhet I and his successors in Dynasty 12. Summarize their aims and objectives, comment on whether the ventures were successful, and suggest reasons why this impetus was not sustained beyond the end of the dynasty.

Further Information Anthes, R. “The Instruction of Amenemhet.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 16 (1957): 176–90; 17 (1958): 208–9. Faulkner, R. O. “Some Notes on the ‘Teaching of Amenemmes I to his Son.’ ” In Studies Presented to F. Ll. Griffith. London, 1932: 69–73. Foster, F. L. “The Conclusion to the Testament of Amenemmes, King of Egypt.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 67 (1981): 36–47.

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Goedicke, H. “An Approximate Date for the Harem Investigation under Pepy I.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 74 (1954): 88–89. Goedicke, H. “The Beginning of the Instruction of King Amenemhet.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 7 (1968): 15–21. Goedicke, H. “Studies in the Instruction of King Amenemhet I for his Son.” Varia Aegyptiaca, Supplement 2, fasc. 1 and 2. San Antonio, TX, 1988. Griffith, F. Ll. “The Millingen Papyrus.” Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskund 34 (1896): 35–51. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975. Parkinson, R. B. The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems, 1940–1640 BC. Oxford, UK, 1997. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Thériault, C. A. “The Instruction of Amenemhet as Propaganda.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 30 (1993): 151–60. Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B. J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge, UK, 1983.

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31. BEHAVIOR TOWARD SUPERIORS, EQUALS, AND INFERIORS INTRODUCTION The Old Kingdom Wisdom Text entitled The Instruction of Ptah-hotep (see Document 19) sets out the virtues that the Egyptians most valued in their society and expected young people to follow. This excerpt provides advice on how they should behave in particular circumstances toward their social superiors, peers, and inferiors (see Document 14).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Many maxims in the Instruction of Ptah-hotep deal with behavior in social circumstances: they warn against trusting in riches, arrogance, covetousness, making inappropriate advances to women in friends’ homes, and slighting those whose social status in the world has increased. The need to balance work with recreation and to behave appropriately toward family members is also emphasized. 2. The maxims are introduced by a prologue that provides a brief biography of the author. In this text, the prologue explains that Ptah-hotep has written down his wisdom as instruction for his son, while in the epilogue, he recommends that his son should follow his advice so that he may enjoy a good life and successful career.

Document: The Instruction of Ptah-hotep (Papyrus Prisse) CONCERNING BEHAVIOR TOWARD AN ADVERSARY If you come up against an aggressive adversary (in court), one who has influence and is more excellent than you, lower your arms and bend your back, for if you stand up to him, he will not give in to you. You should disparage his belligerent speech by not opposing him in his vehemence. The result will be that he will be called boorish, and your control of temper will

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have equalled his babble. If you come up against an aggressive adversary, your equal, one who is of your own social standing, you will prove yourself more upright than he by remaining silent, while he speaks vengefully. The deliberation by the judges will be sombre, but your name will be vindicated in the decision of the magistrates. If you come up against an aggressive adversary, a man of low standing, one who is not your equal, do not assail him in accordance Magistrates: law court officials who sit with his lowly estate. Leave him be, and he will confound himself. in judgment Do not answer him in order to vent your frustration; do not alleviate your anger at the expense of your adversary. Wretched is he who persecutes one who is inept. Things will turn out in accordance with your will, and you will defeat him through the censure of the magistrates. Source: Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003: 131–32.

EGYPTIAN SOCIETY The structure of Old Kingdom society (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce) was defined in terms of divine kingship (see Document 50), and facilitated an extensive state building programme, most clearly exemplified by the pyramids. At its pinnacle was the king; he was supported by the nobility—often descendants of secondary branches of the royal family, whose loyalty was gained by appointment to senior political positions, and royal provision of lavishly equipped tombs. The next level of minor officials and functionaries operated government departments including the treasuries, armory, granaries, and public works. The kingdom was ruled from a capital city; its location changed over the millennia, and in addition to accommodating the royal residence, it was Egypt’s administrative hub (see Document 11). Fine furnishings and equipment for the tombs and homes of the elite (see Document 28) were produced by highly trained craftsmen and artisans; in the Old Kingdom, most lived in the capital city, Memphis, but at different periods, other regional centers of art developed. The whole society was supported by peasants who worked on the land and, at certain periods, were conscripted for military duties (see Document 16), or for expeditions to the quarries and mines.

AFTERMATH The political stability exemplified by the Old Kingdom did not survive, and in the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2181 bce–ca. 1991 bce), a structured, well-organized society was replaced by the turmoil of civil war (see “The Concept of Suicide,” Document 51; Documents 9, 12). Although a powerful, centralized state was reestablished in the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce) (see Document 30), the earlier absolute certainties were never fully restored, and the Egyptians always regarded the Old Kingdom as a golden age, which later generations tried, without complete success, to emulate. The reasons for the collapse of the Old Kingdom are complex and not fully understood, but religious, political, economic, and social factors all contributed to the country’s decline. The massive building programmes that provided the kings with their pyramid complexes were a continuing drain on resources (see Document 50); additionally, each ruler had to take on the upkeep of his ancestors’ monuments. As royal power decreased, the nobles whom the king had rewarded with lifetime

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provincial governorships became more independent, establishing hereditary lines of local rulers who eventually broke away from central administration.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why was society so stable during the Old Kingdom? How and why did it collapse? 2. How much do the virtues praised in the Instruction of Ptah-hotep reflect the morals and ethics of Old Kingdom society? 3. Why is this Instruction attributed to Ptah-hotep? Who was he? What kind of career did he pursue?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Based on information provided in the Wisdom Texts, describe the values and virtues that the Egyptians considered most important. H Discuss the main political, religious, and social reasons for the disintegration of the structured society of the Old Kingdom. Consider and assess the contributions made by geographical and economic factors to this upheaval.

Further Information Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Kemp, B. Anatomy of a Civilisation. London and New York, 1991. Loprieno, A. (ed.). Ancient Egyptian Literature: History and Forms. Leiden, The Netherlands, New York and Cologne, Germany, 1996. Simpson, W. K.(ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B. J., O’Connor, D., Lloyd, A. B. (eds.). Ancient Egypt. A Social History. Cambridge, UK, 1983.

Website Tomb of Ptahhotep and Akhethotep: http://www.osirisnet.net/mastabas/akhethtp_ ptahhtp/e_akht_ptah_03.htm.

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32. THE STRATEGY OF WARFARE INTRODUCTION Under their king, Suppiluliumas, the Hittites began to expand their power, subduing their neighbors in Asia, including the Mitannians whom Tuthmosis III (1504 bce–1450 bce) had faced earlier at the Battle of Megiddo (see “Provisions and Booty,” Document 34). By the reign of Ramesses II (1304 bce–1237 bce), the Hittites had made considerable strategic gains in northern Syria; these included the important city-state of Kadesh, which now aligned itself with the Hittites against the Egyptians. The Hittites and the Egyptians, the two great powers of the day, were now set on a collision course to establish dominance in the region (see Document 33). In Year 4 of his reign, Ramesses II started his onslaught against the Hittites, taking his army as far north as the Nahr el-Kelb (“Dog-river”), a few miles beyond modern Beirut. In Year 5, he followed up this victory, marching to northern Syria with a large army of infantry and chariotry provided by four Egyptian cities. His attempt to remove the Hittites reached its climax at a battle in the vicinity of Kadesh. Detailed descriptions of this campaign are preserved in two separate accounts (currently termed the Poem and the Bulletin or Record). After the battle, the Bulletin and the Poem were inscribed on the walls of the Temples of Abydos, Luxor, Karnak, and the Ramesseum, while the Poem is also found in the Temple of Abu Simbel, and on some now-fragmentary papyri. The Bulletin provides a factual, textual commentary to accompany the Pictorial Record—a dramatic sequence of battle scenes carved on the temple walls. The Poem, from which this excerpt is taken, highlights the battlefield emotions of Ramesses II and the Hittite leader.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Many years before, Tuthmosis III pursued his ultimate objective of conquering the kingdom of Mitanni, and defeated the Prince of Kadesh (who had formed a coalition of city-states in northern Syria to stop the Egyptian troops) at the Battle of Megiddo (see Document 34). In Dynasty 19 (1320 bce–1200 bce), when the Hittites had replaced Mitanni as the main power in Syria, a Prince of Kadesh once again supported Egypt’s enemy.

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Part of one of two colossal statues of Ramesses II that once stood at the entrance to the Temple of Luxor. Ramesses II was one of Egypt's greatest and most powerful kings. (Library of Congress)

2. The descriptions of the Battle of Kadesh, probably based on firsthand oral accounts, give great prominence to the king’s personal bravery. However, although some details are probably accurate, the accounts must surely exaggerate the king’s singlehanded action in slaughtering all his Hittite enemies, as well as the large number of Hittite chariots (2,500) that he had to face. It is more likely that the Egyptians averted potential disaster because the special force from Amor arrived, and their other divisions finally rallied to fight off the Hittites.

Document: The Kadesh Battle Inscription of Ramesses II (The Poem: Temples of Abydos, Luxor, Karnak, Abu Simbel, and the Ramesseum) Now the wretched Fallen one of Khatti, together with the many foreign countries which were with him, stood concealed and ready to the north-east of the town of Kadesh, but

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his majesty was alone . . . with his followers, the army of Amun marching after him, the army of Pre crossing the ford in the neighbourhood south of the town of Shabtuna at a distance of 1 iter from where his majesty was, the army of Ptah being to the south of the town of Aronama, and the army of Sutekh marching along the road, and his majesty had made the first battle-force out of all the leaders of his army, and they were upon the shore of the land of Amor. But the wretched Chief of Khatti stood in the midst of the army which was with him and did not come out to fight through fear of his majesty. But he had sent men and horses exceeding many . . . They had been made to stand concealed behind the town of Kadesh, and now they came forth from the south side of Kadesh and broke into(?) the army of Pre in its midst, as they were marching and did not know nor were they prepared to fight. Thereupon the infantry and the chariotry of his majesty were discomfited before them, but his majesty stood firm to the north of the town of Kadesh on the western side of the Orontes. Then they came to tell it to his majesty. Then his majesty appeared in glory like his father Mont . . . Then his majesty started forth at a gallop, and entered into the host of the fallen ones of Khatti, being alone by himself . . . So then his majesty went to look about him and he found 2,500 chariots hemming him in on his outer side . . . Source: Gardiner, A. H. The Kadesh Inscriptions of Ramesses II. Oxford, UK, 1960, 8–9.

AFTERMATH

Amor: a state on the Phoenician (Palestinian) coast Army of Amun: troops provided by the city of Thebes for Ramesses II’s campaign Army of Pre: troops provided by the city of Heliopolis for Ramesses II’s campaign Army of Ptah: troops provided by the city of Memphis for Ramesses II’s campaign Army of Sutekh [Seth]: troops provided by the city of Piramesse for Ramesses II’s campaign Aronama: an unlocated town or village south of Shabtuna Fallen one of Khatti: the Hittite king; this description, written after the battle, emphasizes his defeat Iter: a distance of about 7½ miles Kadesh: a city-state [the modern site of Tell Neby Mend] of considerable strategic importance because it lay near the exit from the Bika Valley, which was used by every army travelling northward if they wished to avoid the route along the Phoenician [Palestinian] coast Khatti: the kingdom of the Hittites in Asia Minor; Khattušaš [Boghazköy] was its capital city Mont [Montu]: the Egyptian god of war Orontes: Kadesh stood on the left bank of this river that flowed northward Shabtuna: a town on the Orontes, south of Kadesh

One of the most important results of the Battle of Kadesh was recognition by both sides that neither would ever be able to assume complete control of the region. Indeed, although the Egyptian records proclaim a great victory for Ramesses II, texts inscribed in cuneiform discovered at the Hittite capital, Boghazköy, provide a very different version of the event. It seems that neither the Egyptians nor the Hittites were outright winners, and both now sought noncombative ways of resolving their conflict. In Year 21 of Ramesses II’s reign, a peace treaty was concluded between the Egyptian king and the Hittite ruler, Khattusilis III. Separate copies of the treaty have been found: the Hittite version, inscribed in Babylonian cuneiform on two clay tablets, was found at Boghazköy, while the Egyptian account is inscribed in hieroglyphs on a stela in the Temple of Karnak. Although not identical, the texts confirm the main clauses of the treaty: namely, in the event of either king’s death, the treaty would still be honored; neither country would encroach on the other’s lands; both signatories pledged assistance to each other in the event of attack by a third party; and refugees could be extradited to either country, but should not be treated as criminals once they returned home. This treaty laid the basis for friendship between the two royal courts, and the Boghazköy archive preserves some of the personal

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BATTLE STRATEGY The Battle of Kadesh inspired some important literary innovations. The Bulletin, the Poem, and the Pictorial Record combined to present a new, fast-moving type of narration that, although silent and static, has been likened to the action of modern cinema films. These sources also represent the earliest-known literary description of military strategy. When Ramesses II arrived in the vicinity of Shabtuna, he was approached by two Beduin in Hittite employ who told him that they wished to defect to the Egyptian side, and that the Hittites were about 120 miles away to the north, in the neighborhood of Khaleb [Aleppo]. Acting on this misleading information (the Hittite troops were in fact hidden near Kadesh, ready for battle), Ramesses II and the Amun division of his troops crossed a ford on the Orontes and reached an area northwest of Kadesh. Meanwhile, the other divisions of the Egyptian army were some distance away (see the earlier excerpt). While the king waited for his soldiers to pitch camp, the Egyptians captured two Hittite scouts who admitted that the Hittite king had sent them to ascertain the exact whereabouts of the Egyptian army. Ramesses II sent two officers to bring on his other divisions, but a section of the Hittite chariotry attacked the marching Egyptian troops, causing them to panic; they broke ranks and, pursued by the Hittites, fled north toward the king’s camp. When this news reached him, Ramesses II mounted his chariot and proceeded to attack the Hittite army. The Egyptian troops now deserted Ramesses II, and he had to fight single-handedly against the enemy, who surrounded him in 2,500 chariots; however, he fought his way out of the encircling forces and killed all his opponents. His position was now reinforced by the arrival of a special group of soldiers from Amor who had previously been detached from the main army and sent forward by a different route. By nightfall, the deserting soldiers returned to support Ramesses II, and on the following day, the Hittite king (who, according to Egyptian sources, had suffered a devastating defeat) sent a letter to him, begging for peace—an overture that the Egyptian king was willing to accept.

correspondence between members of the Hittite and Egyptian royal families. Much earlier, in Dynasty 18 (1567 bce–1320 bce), Egypt rulers had used diplomatic royal marriages to consolidate their reconciliation with erstwhile enemies: for example, Mitannian kings had sent their daughters to become the wives of Tuthmosis IV and Amenhotep III. Now, arrangements were made for a daughter of Khattusilis III to marry Ramesses II, and in Year 34 of his reign, the Hittite princess was received at the Egyptian court and given the name of Manefrure. The marriage was announced in inscriptions on the walls of temples at Karnak, Elephantine, Abu Simbel, and Amara.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why did the Egyptians commemorate their great military victories on the walls of major temples? 2. Does the Battle of Kadesh represent the zenith of Ramesses II’s power as a ruler?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Read the full account of the Battle of Kadesh in translation (see below, Lichtheim 1976: 57–72). Using information from Kitchen 1982: 50–68 (including the plan of the Battle of Kadesh on p. 52), summarize the main stages of the battle, providing plans/illustrations where appropriate.

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H Consider why the Egyptians and Hittites both exaggerated their success at the Battle of Kadesh. H Summarize the reasons why the peace treaty between Khattusilis III and Ramesses II represents such an important advance in international diplomacy.

Further Information Beckman, G. Hittite Diplomatic Texts. Atlanta, GA, 1996. Breasted, J. H. The Battle of Kadesh, a Study in the Earliest Known Military Strategy. Chicago, 1903. Gardiner, A. H. The Kadesh Inscriptions of Ramesses II. Oxford, UK, 1960. Goedicke, H. “Considerations on the Battle of Kadesh.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 52 (1966): 71–80. Goedicke, H. (ed.). Perspectives on the Battle of Kadesh. Baltimore, MD, 1985. Gurney, R. O. The Hittites. 3rd ed. New York, 1990. Kitchen, K. A. Pharaoh Triumphant. The Life and Times of Ramesses II. Warminster, UK, 1982. Langdon, S. and Gardiner, A. H. “The Treaty of Alliance between Hattusili, King of the Hittites, and Pharaoh Ramesses II of Egypt.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 6 (1920): 179–205. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley, CA, and Los Angeles, 1976. Macqueen, J. G. The Hittites and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor. London, 1986. Murnane, W. J. The Road to Kadesh: A Historical Interpretation of the Battle Reliefs of King Sety I at Karnak. 2nd rev. ed., Chicago, 1990. Schulman, A. R. “Diplomatic Marriage in New Kingdom Egypt.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 38 (1979); 177–93. Schulman, A. R. “The ‘N’rn’ at the Battle of Kadesh.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 1 (1962): 47–52. Schulman, A. R. “The ‘N’rn’ at Kadesh Once Again.” Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 11.1 (1981): 7–19.

Websites Count of captives’ hands, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/ . . . /pages/me dinet_habu_jul_2006_0041.htm. Karnak Great Hypostyle Hall Project, Sety I War Scenes: http://www.memphis.edu/hypo style/sety i war scenes.php. Warfare scenes, Ramesseum: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/ramasseum/ramasseum_ reliefs/pages/ramesseum_048.htm.

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33. WEAPONS OF WARFARE INTRODUCTION Papyrus Koller (which dates to the later New Kingdom (ca.1250 bce)) contains a schoolboy’s model letter (see Documents 19, 22, 40). Although many of these works focus on the relationship between the teacher and his pupils, others have wider themes; the selection of model letters, which includes this document focuses on instructions given by officials to their underlings, and the preparation and equipment of royal and military expeditions. These texts were intended to convey some important messages to the schoolboy copyists: they praised the king, and emphasized the strength and importance of the Egyptian empire and its relationship with neighboring states. The excerpt below describes the preparation of a war chariot and associated weaponry for a campaign in Syria; warfare and elite stateof-the-art fighting equipment were doubtless subjects that would have appealed greatly to schoolboy copyists.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Horses and chariots were probably introduced into Egypt during the Hyksos Period (ca.1684 bce–1567 bce). From the reign of Tuthmosis III (1504 bce -1450 bce), the main components of the New Kingdom army were infantry and chariotry; there was no cavalry, since the available horses were probably too small to support riders (see Document 34). 2. The chariotry was divided into squadrons: each comprised 25 chariots and was commanded by a “Charioteer of the Residence.” The two-wheeled chariots, constructed of wood, leather, and metal, were drawn by two horses, and each chariot was manned by a driver and soldier, armed with bows, arrows, shield, sword, and javelin.

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Document: Equipment of a War Chariot (Schoolboys’ Fictitious Model Letters: (Papyrus Koller)) Cuirass: body armor, consisting of a backplate and breastplate joined together Khatti (Hittites): Egyptian term for the occupants of Hittite Anatolia Staff of the watch: the rod of office carried by the sentry on duty for each time division of the day and night Their points: the weapons’ points They: the horses

Furthermore: Take good heed to have made ready the pair of horses bound for Syria, together with their stablemen and their grooms. Their coats are  .  .  .  ; (they are) full of provender and straw, and rubbed down twice over. . . . Their chariots are of berri-wood and full of weapons. Eighty arrows are in the quiver; (there is) the . . . , the lance, the sword, the knife, . . . the whip of zaga-wood fully supplied with lashes(?), the chariot-club, the staff of the watch, the spear of the land of Khatti, the . . . Their points are of bronze of six-fold alloy, graven, . . . Their cuirasses lie beside them. The bows . . .  Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 211.

EGYPT’S RELATIONS WITH SYRIA/PALESTINE There was military, trading, and cultural contact between Egypt and Syria/Palestine (the Levant) from prehistoric times (see Document 21). Down to the end of the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce), this relationship was characterized by intermittent fighting, especially against the Bedouin who often attempted to infiltrate Egypt’s northeastern border; and by trading contacts with various communities in Syria/Palestine. In the Second Intermediate Period (1786 bce–1567 bce), the Hyksos from Syria/Palestine established their rulership in Egypt, but they were later expelled and pushed back into Palestine by Egyptian princes from Thebes. The native princes then assumed the kingship of Egypt, inaugurating Dynasty 18 (1567 bce–1320 bce) and the New Kingdom. Egypt’s relations with her northern neighbors now underwent a profound change; this was a result of their attempts to establish an empire which, at its zenith, reached from southern Nubia to the river Euphrates. The kings led regular military campaigns to subdue the petty princedoms and city-states of Syria/ Palestine, and bring them under Egyptian control. They came into conflict with the Mitannians, occupants of the land between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, who were now attempting to expand southward (see “Provisions and Booty,” Document 34; Document 16), a move that looked set to thwart Egyptian ambitions to establish its empire’s northern boundary at the Euphrates. This led to many years of military conflict between Egypt and Syria (see Document 41): not only did major confrontations take place in northern Syria, but the Egyptians and Mitannians also fought each other in Palestine, vying to turn the local cities into client states.

AFTERMATH The Hittites, a people of Anatolia, replaced the Mitannians as Egypt’s main threat and rival; toward the end of Dynasty 18 and during Dynasty 19, Egyptian kings campaigned

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vigorously against them in Syria/Palestine (see Documents 25, 32). Military equipment undeniably played an important part in Egypt’s successful campaigns, although their weaponry generally demonstrates a conservative approach to design and use of materials. Early equipment included different types of bows and arrows; close combat weapons such as spears, daggers, maces, and axes; and leather and wood shields. However, from the end of the Hyksos Period (ca. 1567 bce) and during the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce), weapons and fighting techniques used by northern neighbors were introduced into Egypt alongside more traditional forms. In addition to the horse and chariot, these included the composite bow, the khepesh-sword and protective body armor. The Egyptians traditionally used stone, copper, and bronze in weapon manufacture, but some foreign advances in metalworking techniques were introduced in later periods. Ultimately, however, it was access to resources of iron, and knowledge of the associated smelting techniques, which gave the Hittites and the Assyrians a military advantage over the Egyptians who only developed this weaponry for themselves between 1000 bce and 600 bce.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Who made the weapons and how were they produced? 2. Why were the Egyptians so conservative in their response to weapon development? 3. Where did the horses come from? Were they bred in Egypt or introduced from elsewhere?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Look at the main sources of evidence about weapons used in ancient Egypt, including wall scenes in tombs and temples, tomb models of soldiers, inscriptions, and the weapons themselves. Compile a list of the weapons, and discuss how they were employed in military conflicts. H Draw a map of Egypt and the Near East during the New Kingdom, and include the most important states, petty princedoms, city-states, and vassals.

Further Information Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Gardiner, A. H. Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, 3rd Series: Chester Beatty Gift. 2 vols. London, 1935. Gardiner, A. H. Late Egyptian Miscellanies. Brussels, Belgium, 1937. Katary, S.L.D. “Cultivator, Scribe, Stable Master, Soldier: The Late Egyptian Miscellanies in the Light of Papyrus Wilbour.” Ancient World 6 (1983): 71–94. Kitchen, K. A. Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II. Warminster, UK, 1981. Kitchen, K. A. “Some New Light on the Asiatic Wars of Ramesses II.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 50 (1964): 47–70. Kitchen, K. A. Suppiluliumas and the Amarna Pharaohs. Liverpool, UK, 1962. Langdon, S. and Gardiner, A. H. “The Treaty of Alliance between Hattusili, King of the Hittites, and Pharaoh Ramesses II of Egypt.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 6 (1920): 179–205.

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Littauer, M. and Crouwel, J. H. Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1979. Oren, E. D. (ed.). The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives. Philadelphia, 1997. Schulman, A. R. “Chariots, Chariotry and the Hyksos.” Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 10.2 (1979): 105–63. Schulman, A. R. Military Rank, Title and Organisation in the Egyptian New Kingdom. Berlin, Germany, 1964. Shaw, I. “Battle in Ancient Egypt.” In A. B. Lloyd (ed.). Battle in Antiquity. London, 1996: 239–69. Shaw, I. Egyptian Warfare and Weapons. Princes Risborough, UK, 1991. Simpson, W. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Weinstein, J. M. “The Egyptian Empire in Palestine: A Reassessment.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 241 (Winter, 1981): 1–28. Yadin, Y. The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands in the Light of Archaeological Discovery. London, 1963.

Websites Soldiers, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/medinet%20habu/index.htm (see under Temple of Ramesses III: pages/medinet_habu_jul_2006_0236.htm). Warfare scenes, Ramesseum: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/ramasseum/ramasseum_re liefs/pages/ramesseum_048.htm.

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34. TAKING BOOTY AT THE SIEGE OF MEGIDDO INTRODUCTION A highlight of the first military campaign that Tuthmosis III (1504 bce–1450 bce) led to Syria/Palestine was the successful assault on the heavily fortified town of Megiddo; this excerpt from the Annals (see Document 16) provides details of some of the booty which his army captured.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Temple scenes and inscriptions record that the Egyptians amputated the hands and penises of enemies killed in combat; this gruesome evidence, piled up on the battlefield, enabled them to obtain a more or less accurate tally of slain soldiers. 2. This list of booty includes over 2,000 horses, reflecting the Egyptians’ high regard for the horse (see “Transport,” Document 29), and their need to increase the domestic bloodstock for breeding programmes at stud farms in Egypt. Horses were in great demand by members of the Egyptian royal family and the nobility who used them to pull chariots in battle or at royal ceremonial events.

Document: The Annals of Tuthmosis III (List of the booty which his majesty’s army brought from the town of ) Megiddo. Living prisoners: 340. Hands: 83. Horses: 2,041. Foals: 191. Stallions: 6. Colts:  .  .  . One chariot of that foe worked in gold, with a pole of gold. One fine chariot of the prince of (Megiddo), worked in gold. (Chariots of the allied princes: 30). Chariots of his wretched army: 892. Total: 924. One fine bronze coat of mail belonging to that enemy. One fine bronze coat of mail belonging to the prince of Megiddo. (Leather) coats of mail belonging

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Allied princes: the petty princes of Syria/Palestine, confederates who fought with the Prince of Megiddo Bronze coat of mail: this type of body armor, highly prized by the rulers of Dynasty 18 (1567 bce–1320 bce), was introduced into Egypt at the end of the Hyksos Period (ca. 1570 bce–1567 bce) Hands: the limbs amputated from the slain enemies Megiddo: an important Canaanite city-state; located today in northern Israel, this imposing archaeological site overlooks the Plain of Esdraelon

to his wretched army: 200. Bows: 502. Poles of mry-wood worked with silver from the tent of that enemy: 7. And the army of (his majesty) had captured (cattle belonging to this town) . . . : 387. Cows: 1,929. Goats: 2,000. Sheep: 20,500. Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 33–34.

AFTERMATH

The most unusual tribute that Tuthmosis III brought home from his campaigns in Syria/Palestine was a collection of flora and fauna. Although this was perhaps initially inspired by the king’s personal interest in natural history, Tuthmosis III’s collection of plants and animals also served to underline the political control he exercised over exotic territories. Time was set aside during a campaign undertaken in Year 25 of the king’s reign to allow the samples to be gathered, and when Tuthmosis III returned to Egypt, he donated the collection to Amun, chief god of Egypt and its empire. This presentation followed a pattern established by victorious rulers in the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce), who regularly returned with captives and booty for Amun’s temple at Karnak (see Document 16). A selection of Tuthmosis III’s natural history specimens (the socalled “Botanical Garden”) is depicted in wall scenes in two rooms in his Festival Temple at Karnak. These illustrate 275 plants, including a number of foreign species, and 52 animals

PROVISIONS AND BOOTY Egyptian military campaigns in Syria/Palestine relied on extensive administration and organization (see Documents 32, 41). Regular expeditions required food supplies as well as soldiers, auxiliary manpower, transport (see “Transport,” Document 29), and weapons (see “Egypt’s Relations with Syria/Palestine,” Document 33). Although the Egyptians engaged in some sea battles, the main purpose of the navy was to provide logistical support for the army. Tuthmosis III made good use of ships during his campaigns, transporting troops and army supplies from Egypt to the coastal cities of Syria/Palestine. He ensured that these harbors were brought under Egyptian control, and equipped to provision his troops when they marched inland to fight. He also had boats built at Byblos, which his army then transported overland and used to cross the River Euphrates. Food supplies were requisitioned from the towns and countryside conquered by the Egyptian army as it advanced. It was customary for victorious armies to seize booty from their enemies; in this way, rulers acquired additional wealth and prisoners of war while their soldiers were able to augment their wages (see Document 42). The earlier excerpt lists some of the commodities and trophies the Egyptians chose to bring home: living captives who would become slaves in Egypt (see Document 16); amputated hands of slain opponents; various types of weapons and top quality military attire, perhaps intended for wear or as design prototypes; and large numbers of animals that either provided meat and milk for the army, or were transported to Egypt for use in breeding programmes.

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and birds, depicting some strange, fantastical creatures as well apparently genuine examples of wildlife imported into Egypt.

ASK YOURSELF 1. How did the Egyptians transport a wide variety of booty, including plants and animals, back to Egypt? 2. Why did the Egyptians preserve lists of campaign booty in their temple inscriptions?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Read the complete translation of Tuthmosis III’s first campaign to Syria/Palestine (see below, Lichtheim 1976: 29–35), and discuss the Egyptians’ strategy in taking the city-state of Megiddo. H To what extent did the opportunity to take prisoners of war and booty influence Egypt’s decision to engage in warfare in Syria/Palestine during the New Kingdom? What other motives may have prompted their actions?

Further Information Faulkner, R. O. “Egyptian Military Organisation.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 39 (1953): 32–47. Houlihan, P. F. The Animal World of the Pharaohs. London and New York, 1996. Houlihan, P. F. The Birds of Ancient Egypt. Warminster, UK, 1986. Kempinski, A. Megiddo: A City-State and Royal Centre in North Israel. Munich, Germany, 1989. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Nelson, H. H. The Battle of Megiddo. Chicago, 1913. Shea, W. “The Conquests of Sharuhen and Megiddo Reconsidered.” Israel Exploration Journal 29 (1979): 1–5. Yadin, Y. The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands in the Light of Archaeological Discovery. London, 1963.

Websites Count of captives’ hands, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/.  .  ./pages/ medinet_habu_jul_2006_0041.htm. Medinet Habu Epigraphic Survey: http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/epi/#Projects. Megiddo Gallery, University of Chicago Museum: https://oi.uchicago.edu/idb//.

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RECREATIONAL LIFE

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35. A DVICE TO A RTISTS AND INTELLECTUALS INTRODUCTION The Instruction of Ptah-hotep is the earliest extant, most important Wisdom Text. These Instructions not only gave moral guidance but also provided a model of writing style that the schoolboy copyists were expected to emulate (see Documents 14, 28). The convention of attributing these Instructions to named authors may simply have been a device to give them credibility and authority. In this excerpt, the author advises his readers to be modest about their knowledge and expertise.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. In this excerpt, the author makes the point that, however well educated or skilled a person may be, he/she will never know everything, and new insight can be gained even from the lowliest in society. 2. The Egyptian education system emphasized the all-round development of a young person’s character (see Documents 14, 19, 41). Thousands of years later, the Greeks praised and adopted this process of creating a “complete person.”

Document: The Wisdom Instruction of Ptah-hotep (Papyrus Prisse) THOU CANST LEARN SOMETHING FROM EVERYONE Be not arrogant because of thy knowledge, and have no confidence in that thou art a learned man. Take counsel with the ignorant as with the wise, for the limits of art cannot

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be reached, and no artist fully possesseth his skill. A good discourse is more hidden than the precious green stone, and yet it is found with slave-girls over the mill-stones.

Learned man: one who has received an education Slave-girls: people of lowest social status

Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 56.

ARTISTS AND ARTISANS Few works of art were attributed to individual artists in ancient Egypt; gangs or teams in workshops, consisting of qualified artisans and apprentices working under a master artist, were responsible for the construction of monuments and decoration of walls in tombs and temples. Some information about these people is forthcoming from the excavations of the royal workmen’s towns, and from tomb Autobiographies of individual architects and artisans, where a man’s titles and position are recorded, and occasionally, his professional contribution to a particular monument. All major building works, including royal tombs, palaces, and temples (see Document 11), were initiated by the king, who also authorized the construction of tombs for favored courtiers and officials. A skilled workforce was brought together to design and construct a tomb or temple; this included administrators who drew up the design and oversaw the whole process, and the quarrymen, sculptors, painters, carpenters, and metalsmiths who executed the plan. Records from Deir el-Medina (see Document 21) indicate that some young men, sons of members of the royal gang, were recruited into the workforce as apprentices. There were also special schools where artisans were trained; an example has been discovered in the precinct of the Ramesseum (the mortuary temple of Ramesses II at Thebes).

AFTERMATH By the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce), the middle classes had access to new compositions as well as copies of the earlier Wisdom Texts (see Documents 2, 3, 4, 14, 19). This change sprang largely from the need to educate and train an increased number of scribes who were required for the expanded bureaucracy that had developed to deal with Egypt’s empire and domestic policies.

ASK YOURSELF 1. What teaching methods were used to train artists and artisans? What kind of tools and implements did they use? 2. Where were the schools located? Were pupils charged for their education? 3. How many years were devoted to education and schooling? Was it available to rich and poor alike, and to both boys and girls?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Use a description of one of the royal workmen’s towns (e.g., in Bierbrier, The TombBuilders of the Pharaoh; David, The Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt) to discuss how young men were trained as artists and artisans in those communities.

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H Compile a list of sources that provide information about the lifestyle of artists and artisans; using this evidence, assess the range and quality of their working methods, techniques, and equipment.

Further Information Bierbrier, M. The Tomb-builders of the Pharaohs. London, 1982. Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Černý, J. A Community of Workmen at Thebes in the Ramesside Period. Cairo, 1973. David, A. R. The Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt. London, 1996. Eyre, C. J. “Work and Organisation of Work in the Old Kingdom” and “Work and Organisation of Work in the New Kingdom.” In M. A. Powell (ed.). Labor in the Ancient Near East. New Haven, CT, 1987: 5–47; 167–221. Faulkner, R. O. “Ptahhotep and the Disputants.” In O. Firchow (ed.). Ägyptologische Studien. Berlin, Germany, 1955: 81–84. Lesko, L. H. Pharaoh’s Workers: The Villagers of Deir el-Medina. Ithaca, NY, 1994. Lucas, A. and Harris, J. R. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries. London, 1962. Rev. ed., Mineola, NY, 1999. Nicholson, P. T. and Shaw, I. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK, 2000. Simpson, W. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003.

Websites Deir el-Medina Systematic Bibliography: http://www.wepwawet.nl/dmd/bibliography.htm. Tomb of Kha, Museo Egizio, Turin: http://xy2.org/lenka/TurinKha.html.

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36. WORSHIP THROUGH DANCING INTRODUCTION Some hymns in praise of the gods were inscribed on papyri, tomb walls, stelae, and statues, but a specific group, which occurs on temple walls, was recited during temple rituals (see “The Egyptian Temple,” Document 44). The two examples given here belong to a set of four hymns addressed to the goddess Hathor; they form part of the wall decoration in the Hall of Offerings in the temple at Denderah, a cult center dedicated to Hathor, in association with her husband Horus, and child Ihy. The city of Denderah (ancient Egyptian name: Iunet; Classical name: Tentyris) was the capital of the Sixth Nome of Upper Egypt, and its magnificent temple (dating to the Greco-Roman Period, 332 bce–4th century ce) still survives. Between 237 bce and 57 bce, a similar monument (the best preserved temple in Egypt) was built at Edfu, capital of the Second Nome of Upper Egypt (see Document 38). Here, the principal god was Horus, and the temple cult also included his wife Hathor. The two hymns from Denderah are written in a form of the Egyptian language known today as “Ptolemaic Egyptian,” a stage of the language that dates to the Ptolemaic Period (332 bce–30 bce). Although Ptolemaic Egyptian was written in hieroglyphs (see “The Decipherment of Egyptian Scripts,” Document 23; Document 22) and has the superficial appearance of earlier formal texts, its grammar and vocabulary are very different, and this often impedes translation of a document.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Scenes on the interior walls of Egyptian temples usually show figures of the king in the presence of gods and goddesses (see “The Egyptian Temple,” Document 44). These are accompanied by inscriptions that provide the title of the rite, offering formulae, and the speeches of the king and gods as they address each other. The hymns quoted here, inscribed in vertical columns on the temple walls, are associated with a scene that shows the king offering a jug of wine to Hathor who is seated on a throne. 2. Hymns to deities inscribed on temple walls would have been recited by the high priest during the daily rituals or festivals (see “Festivals,” Document 39) that

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provided cultic worship for the temple’s resident deity. This hymn focuses on Hathor’s importance as goddess of love and beauty, and the role played by dancing, music, and wine in the temple rituals offered to her. 3. This set of hymns provides details of the offerings that the king brings to Hathor: ritually purified bread, jewelry, and eye makeup—items that were presented during every daily ritual (see “The Egyptian Temple,” Document 44). He also brings the sistrum to provide musical entertainment for the goddess. Carvings of this tinkling rattle—an important feature of Hathor’s cult—decorate the capitals surmounting the columns in the Hypostyle Hall at the Temple of Denderah.

Document: Hymn to Hathor, Hall of Offerings, Temple of Denderah

Darkness: malice Horus: according to Heliopolitan mythology, Horus was the divine son of Osiris and Isis, a role that continued until the Greco-Roman Period (332 bce–4th century ce). Every king who ruled on earth was regarded as the incarnation of Horus Horus Eye (Eye of Horus, wedjateye): according to mythology, this eye (which symbolized health and completeness) was plucked from Horus’ head when he fought with his enemy, Seth Inmost open: the king hides nothing of his inner thoughts Malachite: the copper ore with a fine green color, which occurs in Sinai and Egypt’s eastern desert; it was used mainly as an eye paint, and more rarely, for jewelry and small carved objects Sistrum: a tinkling rattle, especially associated with the goddess Hathor, and used in temple rituals and dances Straight: straightforward, honest

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Hymn 1: The King, Pharaoh, comes to dance, He comes to sing; Mistress, see the dancing, Wife of Horus, see the skipping! He offers it to you, This jug; Mistress, see the dancing, Wife of Horus, see the skipping! His heart is straight, his inmost open, No darkness is in his breast; Mistress, see the dancing, Wife of Horus, see the skipping! Hymn 4: He comes to dance, He comes to sing! His bread is in his hand, He defiles not the bread in his hand, Clean are the foods in his arms, They have come from the Horus Eye, He has cleansed what he offers to her! He comes to dance, He comes to sing! His bag is of rushes, His basket of reeds, His sistrum of gold, His necklace of malachite.

Worship through Dancing

His feet hurry to the mistress of music, He dances for her, she loves his doing! Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 3: The Late Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980: 107–9.

STATE GODS Hathor maintained her position as a state god throughout Egyptian history. As the personification of the sky, she had strong associations with the cosmos (see Document 42), and her power and influence as the preeminent goddess of love also guaranteed her universal acceptance (see Document 3). She symbolized fertility, and was usually represented in the form of a cow or as a female with the horns or head of a cow. Hathor was often associated with Isis, the supreme mother-goddess of the Egyptians, and her many sacred titles included goddess of foreign lands and jewelry (as such, she was patron deity of the mining community in Sinai). “State gods” and “local gods” were part of the “official” religion of Egypt; their prime role was to maintain the stability of the universe and the king’s divine status (see Document 50), and they usually received cultic worship in the temples (see Document 44). Sometimes deities who had originated as local gods were elevated to the pantheon of state gods because at some stage they enjoyed royal patronage or universal popularity. Both state gods and local gods received cultic worship in their own temples, but local gods had no significant influence outside a particular geographical area (for the specialized role of gods at Deir el-Medina, see Document 21). Personal worship was directed toward a different set of gods who had particular associations with marriage (see “Marriage,” Document 2), childbirth (see “Childhood,” Document 1), and individual happiness.

AFTERMATH Dancing enlivened both secular and religious occasions. People danced for their own amusement, and tomb wall scenes often depict professional performers entertaining the guests at banquets held in the homes of the wealthy. These entertainers put on a unified performance in which individual dances were executed by separate groups of men or women. Blind harpists are sometimes shown among these troupes of dancers and musicians: this was a career they were able to pursue despite their disability. Religious dances, performed at different stages during nonroyal funerals, are first recorded in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce). A special form of the funerary dance, which dates to the Middle and New Kingdoms (1991 bce–1786 bce; 1567 bce–1085 bce), was performed to honor the goddess Hathor, and ensure that she provided a safe passage into the next world for the deceased. Dances also featured in religious ceremonies that emphasized rebirth; these included the jubilee rituals when the king’s ability to rule was renewed, and important celebrations, particularly the New Year feasts (see “Festivals,” Document 39), in the agricultural calendar. Dancing and music also featured significantly in temple rituals (see “The Egyptian Temple,” Document 44), praising the god’s daily rebirth and delighting his senses; they also contributed to the magico-medical treatment of the sick (see “Magic and Medicine,” Document 46). Inscriptions on the walls of temples built in the Greco-Roman Period indicate that the religious function of dance survived until the Roman emperor Justinian (527 ce–565 ce) discontinued cultic practices throughout Egypt.

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ASK YOURSELF 1. Who sang the hymns and performed the dances within the temples? 2. Was each hymn recited by a solo performer or by a group? 3. Apart from the inscriptional sources, what other evidence of singing and dancing has survived?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Find examples of tomb scenes showing dancing, and compile a pictorial survey of the dance steps and movements that they show. H Using evidence from the Temple of Denderah, discuss the main features of Hathor’s personality and the most important characteristics of her cult.

Further Information Bleeker, C. J. Hathor and Thoth: Two Key Figures of the Ancient Egyptian Religion. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1973. Daumas, F. Dendara et le temple de Hathor. Cairo, 1969. Hornung, E. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. London, 1983. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 3. The Late Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980. Pinch, G. Votive Offerings to Hathor. Oxford, UK, 1993. Shafer, B. E. (ed.). Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths and Personal Practice. London and Ithaca, NY, 1991. Shafer, B. E. Temples of Ancient Egypt. Ithaca, NY, 1997. Watterson, B. The Gods of Ancient Egypt. London, 1984. Wild, H. “Les danses sacrées de l’Égypte ancienne.” In Les danses sacrées: Source Orientales. Volume 6. Paris, 1963: 33–117. Wilkinson, R. H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London, 2000.

Websites Hypostyle Hall, Denderah: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/dendara/index.htm. (see under Temple of Dendara: pages/Dendara%20069.htm). Tomb of Kheruef, Thebes: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/nobles/kheru/e_kherouef_01 .htm#.

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37. THE ROLE OF MUSIC IN DIVINE WORSHIP INTRODUCTION The Shorter Hymn to the Aten is inscribed on a wall in the tomb of Ay at Tell el-Amarna. Variant forms of the hymn are found at the same site in the tombs of four other officials. These inscriptions date to the Amarna Period (1379 bce–1361 bce) (see Document 43). In this excerpt, the Aten is addressed as the creator of the universe, and the role of the king as the god’s agent on earth is emphasized. Hymns to gods, inscribed on monuments or papyrus, are an important genre of New Kingdom literature (1567 bce–1085 bce); many are addressed to the sun-god in one of his several forms.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Some temples included provision for medical centers, where music and singing were sometimes used to treat patients (see Sidebar and “Magic and Medicine,” Document 46).

Document: The Shorter Hymn to the Aten, Tomb of Ay, Tell el-Amarna Beautiful you arise, oh Harakhti-who-rejoices-in-the-horizon-inhis-name-Shu-who-is-in-Aten. You living sun beside whom there is no other, who gives health to the eyes with his rays, who has created everything that exists. You arise in the horizon of heaven to give life to all that you have created, to all men, (all animals), all that flies and soars, and to all reptiles that are on earth. They live when they see you, they sleep when you rest. You cause your son Neferkheprure-Sole-One-of-Re to live with you forever, and (to do what) your heart (wishes), and to see

Harakhti-who-rejoices-in-thehorizon-in-his-name-Shu-whois-in-Aten: the official name of the Aten, demonstrating how effectively the doctrine of one god had been imposed during the Amarna Period: here, Harakhti and Shu, worshipped previously as individual gods, are subsumed into the Aten

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A wall-scene from the tomb of Rekhmire at Thebes, showing women playing a harp and a lute. Music, provided by male and female performers, was an important feature of both religious and secular life. (Corel)

The Role of Music in Divine Worship

what you have made every day. He makes jubilation when he sees your beauty. Grant him life, joy and happiness so that all you encompass may be under (his feet). He administers them for your spirit. Source: Davies, N. de G. The Rock Tombs of El Amarna. 6 parts. London, 1903–1908, Pt. 3: pl. xxix. (Author’s translation.)

Neferkheprure-Sole-One-of-Re: one of the names of King Akhenaten, emphasizing his role as the sun-god’s offspring

MUSIC AND WORSHIP In another version of this hymn, singers and musicians are exhorted to “shout with joy” in the Aten sanctuaries and temples at Tell el-Amarna (Akhetaten) (see Document 47). Singing and music were performed to honor the gods, and in the temples, choirs and musicians accompanied the daily rituals and festivals with hymns and chants. Wall scenes in tombs and temples illustrate musical instruments used by the Egyptians, and some examples have also been discovered in tomb assemblages. The range included drums, tambourines, clappers, trumpets, flutes, double clarinets, double pipes, and various types of harp; performers accompanied the music with hand clapping, and shook and rattled a menat [large bead collar] and metal or faience sistrum [tinkling rattle]. The lute and the lyre were imported to Egypt from Asia after ca.1500 bce. No musical scores have survived; some modern studies, based on art representations of musicians and their instruments, as well as the instruments themselves, have had some success in reconstructing the method of playing lutes, lyres and harps, but generally we do not know how Egyptian music was played or how it sounded.

AFTERMATH The exclusive worship of one god, the Aten, only survived during the reigns of Akhenaten and his successor, Smenkhkare. The next king, prompted by his courtiers and advisors, restored traditional religious beliefs and values. He changed his name from Tutankhaten (an acknowledgment of the Aten’s supremacy) to Tutankhamun, emphasizing his restored allegiance to Amun [Amen-Re], the most important god of the earlier New Kingdom (1567 bce–1379 bce). The Royal Court moved away from Tell el-Amarna, and Memphis became the main capital city while Thebes was reinstated as Egypt’s most important religious center. Directives inscribed on Tutankhamun’s Restoration Stela indicate that the king took measures to rectify widespread chaos. Major building and restoration programmes were initiated for the traditional temples, and new priests were appointed to serve the reinstated gods. Tutankhamun’s short reign (1361 bce–1352 bce) ended in untimely death, but his successor, Ay (1352 bce–1348 bce), continued this policy, which was fully achieved under Ay’s successor, Horemheb (1348 bce–1320 bce), when all traces of Atenism were finally obliterated. Over this period, Tell el-Amarna was deserted, and its building stones were moved to other sites; at Thebes, the Aten temples were dismantled and their blocks used in construction work at nearby traditional temples.

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ASK YOURSELF 1. What was the purpose of a hymn? Why did the Egyptians think that music and singing would appeal to the gods? How were the temple choirs and musician groups organized? 2. Why does Atenism differ so much from traditional Egyptian religion? How much influence did it have on the beliefs of the general population? Why did it fail? 3. The gods, the king, and the people were expected to derive particular benefits from divine worship—what were they? What duties did the king perform on earth for the god, and why did he assume this role?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Collect examples from tomb scenes that show musicians performing in religious and secular events. Study the detail in these scenes and summarize the information they provide about music, musicians, singers, and dancers. Can you use this evidence to recreate an Egyptian dance sequence? H Compile a list of the differences between the worship of the Aten and traditional gods, and explain why Atenism had such an impact on Egyptian society and religion. H Use descriptions of the tomb goods found in the Tomb of Tutankhamun to assess the role he played in reinstating the traditional religion.

Further Information Carter, H. The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen. 3 vols. London, 1923–33. (reprinted ed. 1972). Davies, N. de G. The Rock Tombs of El Amarna. 6 parts. London, 1903–1908, Pt. 3: pl. xxix. Hickmann, H. Ägypten. Musikgeschichte in Bildern Band 2, Musik Des Altertums, Lieferung 1: Ägypten. Leipzig, Germany, 1961. Manniche, L. Music and Musicians in Ancient Egypt. London, 1991. Murnane, W. J. Texts from the Amarna Period in Egypt. Atlanta, GA, 1995. Reeves, C. N. The Complete Tutankhamun. London, 1990. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003.

Websites Nebamun Tomb Chapel: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/ room_61_tomb-chapel_nebamun.aspx. Sistrum: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/  .  .  .  /Metropolitan%20NY%20Nov-2005%20 1004.htm. Tomb of Tutankhamun Excavation Records: http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/griffith.html.

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38. SACRED DRAMA AT THE TEMPLE OF EDFU INTRODUCTION This inscription comprises Act I, Scene ii in the sacred drama known as The Triumph of Horus. The text of the whole play is located on the inner (east) face of the west enclosure wall that surrounds the Temple of Horus the Behdetite at Edfu (see Document 36). The drama would have been performed from at least the date when this wall decoration was completed—during the reign of Ptolemy IX Soter II (ca. 110 bce). However, scholarship suggests that the play was probably enacted at Edfu from the temple’s foundation in 237 bce, and its composition may even date some thousand years earlier, to the late New Kingdom. The wall decoration, arranged over three registers, consists of reliefs that depict scenes in the acts of the play, indicating the main characters and the actions mimed by the actors; associated with the reliefs, the main inscriptions, arranged in vertical columns, provide the words spoken by the actors. The basic themes of the drama are the renewal of the reigning king’s power, and the triumph of good over evil. The action of the play focuses on the ancient conflict between Horus and Seth (see Document 7), visually and dramatically represented here as the harpooning, slaughter, and dismemberment of Seth in the form of a hippopotamus. The drama was enacted annually, and combined two important myths. The first commemorated the prehistoric conflict between Horus and Seth to gain overlordship of Egypt, which culminated in Horus’ victory, the unification of northern and southern Egypt, and the foundation of Dynasty 1 under the Horus kings (who worshipped Horus). The second, the famous Osiris Myth, celebrated Horus’ personal victory over Seth (see Document 7). However, the drama did not merely celebrate Horus’ defeat of his enemy and assumption of the crown: most importantly, it sought to ensure the king’s success as the earthly embodiment of Horus, as well as the prosperity of all Egyptians. The drama includes a Prologue that praises the king and the joyful occasion [the festival] which formed the context for this play; it also “prophesizes” the successful outcome of the drama—the defeat of Seth and the triumph of Horus and the king. Each of the five scenes in Act I enact the ritual harpooning of the hippopotamus, as the embodiment of Seth, thus ensuring that Seth was defeated by Horus. In Act II, a victorious Horus is invested with the insignia of kingship and crowned as ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt. The final celebrations take place in Act III when the slaughtered hippopotamus, represented in the form of a cake, is dismembered and

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the portions distributed to the gods. There follows a proclamation of the triumph of Horus, the gods and the king over their enemy Seth, which is formally reiterated in the Epilogue.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Not all scholars agree that this text represents a primitive religious drama, but argue that it describes a ritual designed for a specific religious purpose. Indeed, no building has ever been archaeologically identified as an ancient Egyptian theatre, but Fairman (1974) conflated the evidence of reliefs and inscriptions at Edfu to demonstrate that this is a play. His conclusion has been substantially supported by identification of stage directions and actors’ characters and roles in the text. 2. The concept of sacred drama was based on the Egyptian belief that the spoken word could magically create a desired outcome. Thus, it was not significant that most of the onlookers could probably hear little of the speeches; also, since the language used in the play was archaic (a debased form of Middle Egyptian spoken some 2,000 years before), only some senior priests and scribes would have been able to understand its meaning. 3. The play probably incorporated songs and possibly musical accompaniment. Although music was not used to create any special ambience, it may have provided an introduction to each scene, highlighted a dramatic climax, or emphasized the rhythm of particular passages. 4. The two boats shown in Act I, Scene ii, carry Horus Lord of Mesen and Horus the Behdetite. A bull-headed Demon, carrying a harpoon and a knife, accompanies each god who, armed with a harpoon and rope, thrusts his harpoon into the head of a small hippopotamus. The boats sail toward the king who stands on a piece of land and raises his hands in adoration. 5. One of the main themes of this drama—harpooning the hippopotamus (representing the ritual of kingship and royal victory)—is recorded as early as Dynasty 1 (ca.3100 bce). Frequent references also occur in the Pyramid Texts, the Coffin Texts, and in sources from the New Kingdom through to the Late Period. The drama was performed at Edfu for a Ptolemaic king, and its historical meaning as a kingship ritual had significant political undertones. For the Egyptian priests and onlookers, the drama was a tool of secret nationalistic propaganda; its magical potency was expected to hasten the departure of the foreign Ptolemaic rulers and return Egypt to the true, native Horus kings. 6. There would have been considerable practical issues regarding the supply and maintenance of live hippopotami, and so a model hippopotamus was probably used which, along with all other elements of the play, could be magically “brought to life.”

Document: The Battle between Good and Evil (The Triumph of Horus, Temple of Edfu) ACT I. THE HARPOON RITUAL. SCENE II CHORUS: Praise to thee, Horus the Behdetite, great god, lord of the sky, Wall of stone round about Egypt,

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Excellent protector, guardian of the temples, Who drives back the Perverse One from the Two Outpourings, The goodly Watchman of the Fortress. DEMON: I am Bull-of-the-Two-Lands. I assault him who comes to profane thy palace; I gore with my horns him who plots against it. Blood on my horns and dust behind me For every violator of thy nome. KING: Make a slaughtering! Let its barb bite into the neck of the Hippopotamus! HORUS LORD OF MESEN: The third harpoon is stuck fast in his neck, Its barbs, they bite into his flesh. CHORUS: Hail to thee, the one that sleeps alone, That communes with his own heart only, A man to seize the mooring-post in the water. ISIS: Cast thy harpoon, I pray thee, At the mound of the Savage Beast. See, thou art on a mound clear of bushes, A shore free from scrub. Fear not his awfulness; Flee not because of them that are in the water. Let thy harpoon fasten on to him, My son Horus. READER: Isis, she says to Horus: ISIS: Thy foes are fallen beneath thee, So eat thou the flesh of the neck, The abomination of women. The noise of lamentation is in the southern sky, Wailing is in the northern sky, The noise of the lamentation of my brother Seth. My son Horus has him fast holden. CHORUS AND ONLOOKERS: Hold fast. Horus, hold fast!

Black Bull: the name of one of the two bull-headed demons in this scene Bull-of-the-Two-Lands: the name of one of the two bull-headed demons in this scene Caitiff: an insulting name used for Seth Horus Lord of Mesen: the god Horus worshipped at Mesen [a name for Edfu] Horus the Behdetite: the falcon-god worshipped at Edfu [Behdet is a sacred name of Edfu] Perverse One from the Two Outpourings: an insulting name for Seth; the Two Outpourings, a name for Egypt, refers to an Egyptian belief that there were two Niles, one in the south and one in the north, with their sources at Elephantine and Heliopolis Savage Beast: a term of abuse for Seth in the form of a crocodile Seth: often regarded as the Egyptian “devil” or personification of evil, Seth was the god of deserts and foreign countries; an important deity in southern Egypt, he also had northern cult centers in the Delta

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DEMON: I am Black Bull. I eat the flesh, I swallow the gore, Of them that cause alarm in thy temple. I turn my face toward him who comes against thy house, I drive away the Caitiff from the temples. Source: Fairman, H. W. The Triumph of Horus: An Ancient Egyptian Sacred Drama. London, 1974: 87–89.

SACRED DRAMA AT EDFU The drama was performed every year at Edfu on Day 21, second month of winter, and on each of the following four days (January 9–13). It was a major event in the Festival of Victory that celebrated the triumph of Horus over Seth, and Horus’ coronation as ruler of a unified country (see “Festivals,” Document 39). According to the texts, the play was performed at the temple’s Sacred Lake, but practical considerations of space, accessibility, and visibility suggest another location—inside the enclosure wall and perhaps slightly to the south of the pylons, where a model of the Sacred Lake may have been erected. This would have provided the townspeople and visitors, watching from the rooftops and windows of houses encircling the temple in a natural amphitheater, with a good view of the play. The performers consisted of nonprofessional actors (members of the priesthood), a chorus (drawn from temple staff, especially musicians and singers), and the public audience who were important participants in the drama. The audience included a group of privileged spectators, who were allowed to gather near the stage, and the other onlookers who watched from the rooftops. Generally, there was little attempt to create character parts, or to express mood or emotion, and the performers did not act in the modern sense: some of the actors stood on pedestals, and their movements were limited to formal gestures and mime. The drama was primarily designed to have visual impact: this was achieved by setting the play against the magnificent backdrop of the temple, and by dressing the actors in elaborate costumes and masks, as shown in the wall reliefs. The chorus played a vital role, developing the sequence and atmosphere of the action on stage and providing direction for the audience, with exhortations to give vocal expression to their religious fervor.

AFTERMATH This type of drama would have grown out of earlier “Mysteries” that were performed during religious festivals. Some episodes in the most famous drama—the annual Osiris Mysteries (see “The Day of Judgment,” Document 49; Document 42) —were enacted outside the temple, accompanied by mimed actions, dancing, and singing, which allowed people to encounter the god; however, the most sacred rites associated with the god’s resurrection took place inside the temple. So far, only the sacred play at Edfu has been identified as a true drama, but the existence of the Mysteries suggests that other, probably much earlier, dramatic performances and dramas existed in Egypt. However, the plays may never have been written down, or if they were, the texts have not yet been discovered or identified.

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Classical writers support the claim that a dramatic tradition existed in Egypt: for example, Herodotus (The Histories, Book 2: 63) describes enactments during ceremonies at Papremis, when priests, armed with weapons, staged a fight at the temple doorway. Greek drama and later medieval plays may have preserved and built on earlier Egyptian works. Fairman’s translation and interpretation provided the basis for three modern performances of “The Triumph of Horus” at St Mary’s College, Cheltenham (United Kingdom) (1969); and at Padgate College of Education (United Kingdom) and the Nuffield Theatre Studio, University of Lancaster (United Kingdom), where the Padgate Department of Drama in Education and Theatre Craft presented the play in 1971 and 1972. Staff and students in these institutions had the remarkable opportunity to present the first enactment of this ancient drama in over 2,000 years.

ASK YOURSELF 1. How can a true drama be distinguished from a ritual, and does the Sacred Drama at Edfu meet these criteria? 2. What is the main purpose of Act I, Scene ii (The Harpoon Ritual) in The Triumph of Horus, and how are dramatic devices (e.g., actions of characters, use of verse and language, musical accompaniment, etc.) employed to achieve this? 3. Consider the roles of the chorus and audience in this drama. How significant are they to the construction of the play?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Using Fairman’s book (1974) (see below), list all the characters and parts found in the drama. Write brief descriptions of the gods, humans, and demons, and discuss the significance of their contributions to the play. H Arrange a performance of The Triumph of Horus, Act I, Scene ii. H Using the illustrations in Fairman’s book (1974) or the original facsimiles of the wall reliefs at Edfu (see Chassinat VI (1931), pls. CXLVI–CXLVIII; XIII (1934), pls. CCCCXCIV–DXIV), make costumes and properties that can be used in the production of the play.

Further Information Blackman, A. M. and Fairman, H. W. “The Myth of Horus II: The Triumph of Horus over his Enemies: A Sacred Drama.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 28 (1942): 32–38; 29 (1943): 2–36; 30 (1944): 5–22. Chassinat, É. Le Temple d’Édfou. Volumes VI: 60–90; X: pls. CXLVI–CXLVIII; XIII: pls. CCCCXCIV–DXIV. Cairo, 1931, 1928, and 1934. de Sélincourt, A. (tr.). Herodotus: The Histories. Book 2. Harmondsworth, UK, 1961. Drioton, E. “Le Théâtre a l’époque pharaonique.” Revue des conferences français en Oriente, 13me année 10 (October 1949): 459–68. Fairman, H. W. The Triumph of Horus: An Ancient Egyptian Sacred Drama. London, 1974. Gillam, R. Performance and Drama in Ancient Egypt. London, 2009.

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Mikhail, L. B. “The Egyptological Approach to Drama in Ancient Egypt, I-IV.” Göttinger Miszellen 75 (1984): 19–26; 77 (1984): 25–33; 78 (1984): 69–77; 79 (1984): 19–27. Van de Walle, B. “Les origines égyptiennes du théâtre dramatique.” Chronique d’Égypte 5 (1930): 37–50.

Websites Temple of Edfu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/edfu/pages/plan_of_edfu_temple.htm. Temple of Edfu Mammisi: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/edfu/pages/Picture%20200001 .htm.

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39. THE NEW YEAR FESTIVAL INTRODUCTION This important historical text is inscribed on the Victory Stela of Piye [alternative translation “Piankhy”] (747 bce–716 bce), the Kushite ruler whose conquest of Egypt established a line of foreign rulers in Dynasty 25 (ca. 780 bce–656 bce). The Stela recounts Piye’s military encounters with the Egyptians and celebrates his successful invasion of the country. Although a foreigner, he continued to promote Egyptian civilization (emphasized in this document), and he worshipped the Egyptian god, Amun, at Thebes and in his own Nubian capital city, Napata. This stela, originally set up in the temple of Amun at Napata where it was discovered in 1862, is now in the Cairo Museum (No. 48862). The account describes Piye’s actions as he faced a coalition of leaders from the north of Egypt who intended to extend their rulership southward. He had already successfully conquered the south of Egypt and returned to Napata, leaving some troops behind in Egypt. He now sent reinforcements, but when this army failed to deal with the new threat, Piye returned to Egypt. In the 20th year of his reign, he led his army victoriously along the Nile, stopping en route at Thebes to celebrate the Feast of Ipet (Opet). This was one of Amun’s most important festivals (see excerpt below). Then, he led his army northward, forcing the surrender of his adversaries one by one, until, having finally subdued the whole of Egypt, he was able to return to Napata.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Festival processions provided the opportunity for ordinary people to approach the god’s statue, in the hope of receiving an affirmative or negative oracular response to a specific question (see Document 13). The statue, carried and handled by the priests, would “nod” in approval or “walk backward” to give a reverse decision; sometimes, the deity addressed the petitioner directly, speaking through an attendant priest. 2. The Festival (Feast) of Opet, introduced in Dynasty 18 (1567 bce–1320 bce), was celebrated at Thebes. Sacred barques were carried or sailed on the Nile from the Temple of Amun at Karnak to the temple of his consort, Mut, at Luxor, where Amun (merged with the king) and Mut celebrated their marriage. These sacred rites became a key event in the official state religion, enabling Amun to affirm the

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pharaoh’s right to rule; when the king appeared in public after the ceremony in the Luxor temple, people believed that he had been transformed from a man into a divine being. 3. The Nubian leaders who ruled Egypt adopted the main principles of Egyptian religion. Piye would have celebrated the New Year’s Festival in his Nubian capital, Napata (the inundation and the advent of the new year would occur there before moving northward into Egypt); he subsequently took part in the Festival of Opet at Thebes in order to obtain divine confirmation of his right to rule Egypt.

Document: The Victory Stela of King Piye They wrote to report to the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Piye . . . on every attack they had made, on every victory of his majesty. His majesty raged about it like a panther: “Have they left a remnant of the army of Lower Egypt, so as to let some of them escape to report the campaign, instead of killing and destroying the last of them? I swear, as Re loves me, as my father Amun favours me, I shall go north myself! I shall tear down his works. I shall make “Abiding in Thebes”: a festival him abandon fighting forever! When the rites of the New Year are Amun: the supreme god of Thebes performed, and I offer to my father Amun at his beautiful feast, “Bringing in the God”: a stage in when he makes his beautiful appearance of the New Year, he shall the Festival of Opet when the god’s send me in peace to view Amun at his beautiful feast of Ipet. I shall statue was brought into the temple convey him in his processional bark to Southern Ipet at his beauFeast of Ipet (Opet): a principal tiful feast of ‘Night of Ipet’, and the feast of ‘Abiding in Thebes’, Theban festival, which annually which Re made for him in the beginning. I shall convey him to his celebrated the marriage of Amun house, to rest on his throne, on the day of ‘Bringing in the God’, to his wife Mut in the third month of the inundation, second day. And I shall let House: temple Lower Egypt taste the taste of my fingers!” New Year: New Year’s Day, an important date in the Egyptian Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 3. calendar, occurred on the first day Th e Late Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980: 71. of the first month of inundation (see Document 25) “Night of Ipet”: the Ipet (Opet) AFTERMATH festival Processional bark: a ritual procession The Nubian rulers who succeeded Piye founded Dynasty 25 of priests carried the god’s statue in (ca. 780 bce–656 bce) and established their Egyptian capital at a special boat between the temples Thebes (see Document 5). However, King Taharka (690 bce– of Karnak and Luxor 664 bce) became embroiled in wider politics, which gave the Re: the sun-god Assyrians a reason to invade Egypt. Although their first attempt Southern Ipet: The Temple of Luxor, failed (674 bce), their ruler, Esarhaddon, later launched a successful dedicated to the goddess Mut campaign (671 bce), destroying Memphis and removing people and Taste the taste of my fingers: booty to Assyria. Taharka fled from Memphis and, although he later experience Piye’s punishment regained the city, the Assyrians eventually forced him out, and then Third month of the inundation, finally dispatched his successor, Tanuatamun (664 bce–656 bce), second day: the calendar date of to Napata. When their rulership of Egypt ended, the Nubians relinthe festival quished any control of the country, and confined their activities to their own southern kingdom where they established a new capital

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FESTIVALS Festivals were times of celebration and rejoicing, which allowed local townspeople and pilgrims to participate in a temple-god’s mythology and worship, and express their religious fervor (see Document 36). Free food and drink were provided, and the populace could enjoy continuous entertainment provided by sideshows, acrobats, dancers, and singers. Whereas daily rituals were enacted exclusively inside the temples, festivals combined events performed in the sacred areas of the temple and outside its enclosure, and were attended by large numbers of pilgrims who travelled from all over Egypt. The deity’s main statue remained in the temple sanctuary, but a portable version was carried in a sacred barque and paraded among the crowds, providing the only opportunity for them to see the god and take part in his worship. The statue’s progress was accompanied by a procession of priests, dancers, and musicians. Whereas daily temple rites followed the same pattern throughout Egypt, the festivals differed from one other, each enacting events associated with a particular mythology. Every temple had its own calendar of festivals: held at different locations, these were celebrated at regular (often annual) intervals. One important festival was held on New Year’s Day (see “The Egyptian Calendar and Calculation of Time,” Document 25), while another—the famous Khoiakh Festival—was held in the fourth month of the inundation season (see “Sacred Drama at Edfu,” Document 38; “The Day of Judgment,” Document 49). Some events, including the renowned Festival of Opet (see above), celebrated the gods’ conjugal visits.

at Meröe. Here, aspects of Egyptian culture continued, including hieroglyphic writing and the construction of Egyptian-style temples and pyramids. The Nubian rulers had adopted many features of Egyptian religion, modeling the cult of Amun at Napata on the god’s worship at Thebes. Now, although pyramid building had long since been abandoned by the Egyptians, Piye and his successors, doubtless inspired by early examples they had seen in Egypt, revived the custom and built their own pyramids at Kush.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why did the Nubian conquerors of Egypt adopt Egyptian religion? 2. What did festivals add to the religious experience of the Egyptians?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H From an examination of literary and pictorial evidence, describe the key features of some important Egyptian festivals. Discuss the spiritual, emotional, and physical experiences that might have affected the different groups of participants (kings, priests, musical attendants, and pilgrims). H Write a short play based on one of the Egyptian festivals, and present this to an audience. Additional activities could include designing and making costumes, masks, and theatrical “props.”

Further Information Bell, L. “Luxor Temple and the Cult of the Royal ka.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 44 (1985): 251–94. Bleeker, C. J. Egyptian Festivals: Enactments of Religious Renewal. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1967.

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Curnow, T. Oracles of the Ancient World. London, 2004. Gardiner, A. H. “Piankhy’s Instructions to his Army.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 21 (1935): 219–23. Leprohon, R. J. “Ritual Drama in Ancient Egypt.” In E. Csapo and M. Miller (eds.). The Origins of Theater in Ancient Greece and Beyond: From Ritual to Drama. Cambridge, UK, 2007. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 3. The Late Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980. Simpson, W. K. The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Spalinger, A. “The Military Background of the Campaign of Piye (Piankhy).” Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur (1979): 273–301. Spalinger, A. “Notes on the Military in Egypt during the XXVth Dynasty.” Journal of the Society of the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 11 (1981): 37–58. Teeter, E. Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, UK, 2011.

Websites Archeological Survey of Nubia: http://www.knhcentre.manchester.ac.uk/research/ nubiaproject. Kush: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/cultures/africa/ancient_Sudan.aspx. Processional barques, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/. . ./pages/medinet_ habu_jul_2006_0076.htm.

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40. THE DANGERS OF DRINKING BEER INTRODUCTION The collection of model schoolboy exercises that date to the Ramesside Period (1320 bce– 1085 bce) (see Documents 14, 22, 23, 28, 33) includes Papyrus Anastasi IV and V, and Papyrus Sallier 1, now held in the British Museum collection. In this excerpt, the teacher warns his pupil against the evils of excessive alcohol consumption, describing how drink will cause him to stagger, appear foolish, become violent, and drive others away (see also Document 22). There seems to have been quite a range of alcoholic beverages available to the student—this short passage refers to several different types, both local and foreign (see Document 18).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The Wisdom Texts provide advice on social behavior. For example, the Instruction of Ptah-hotep includes a set of rules regarding conduct as a guest (see Document 19), while in the Instruction of Any, a father warns his son against drinking beer. He describes some of the unfortunate results of overindulgence—garrulous talk and collapsing to the ground. The author also warns that drinking companions will quickly turn against a drunken friend. 2. In addition to beer, a staple of the Egyptian diet, the student clearly has access to other intoxicating drinks such as wines, which, by this period, included foreign beverages. Egypt’s acquisition of an empire during the New Kingdom (1567 bce– 1085 bce) brought society into contact with other countries and civilizations, which resulted in the import of foreign products including wines.

Document: Exhortations and Warnings to Schoolboys (Papyri Anastasi IV, V, and Sallier I) I am told thou forsakest writing, thou givest thyself up(?) to pleasures; thou goest from street to street, where(?) it smelleth of beer, to destruction(?). Beer, it scareth men (from thee),

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it sendeth thy soul to perdition(?). Thou art like a broken steering-oar in a ship, that is obedient on neither side. Thou art like a shrine without its god, and like a house without bread. Thou art encountered climbing a wall and breaking the . . .; men run away from before thee, for thou inflictest wounds on them. Shedeh: a sweet intoxicating drink Would that thou knewest that wine is an abomination, that thou Telek: a foreign word found in wouldst take an oath in respect to shedeh, that thou wouldst set not Egyptian texts, meaning some thine heart on the bottle(?), and wouldst forget telek. kind of beverage Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 190–91.

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BEER Alcoholic beverages were offered to the gods and the dead, featured in social entertainment, and were used as medicinal ingredients (see “The Medical Papyri,” Document 20). From earliest times, bread and beer were staples of the Egyptian diet (see “Agriculture and Famine,” Document 26; Document 3), and since bread was an essential ingredient for beer production, there was always a close association between the processes of baking bread and brewing beer. Scientific analysis of beer residues has demonstrated the presence of cereals, yeasts and water: in most beers, the basic ingredient appears to have been barley (Hordeum vulgare), although some used either emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) or a mixture of the two cereals. The theory that dates from the date palm tree (Phoenix dactylifera) were a major ingredient in the standard brewing process has not been substantiated by residue analysis. However, some additives may have been used to provide different flavorings. The earliest archaeological evidence for brewing is provided by the predynastic mud-brick vats and their residues found at Abydos and Hierakonpolis. From the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce) through to the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce), tomb scenes and models of brewers are an important source of information about brewing techniques. Egyptian and Greek literature supplies further information: for example, Ramesside educational texts preserve remarks about the dangers of beer consumption (see earlier and Document 22), while the Classical author Strabo commented that “barley beer” was unique to the Egyptians. Although small quantities of beer were imported from Asia in the pharaonic period, this was probably regarded as a novelty and a luxury; much later, the home product retained its unequalled status, with the Classical writer Diodorus Siculus praising its smell and sweetness as “not much inferior to wine.”

AFTERMATH The passage continues with a warning against unseemly behavior in the company of girls, precipitated by excessive drinking. The text provides a vivid picture of the student, evidently an accomplished singer and musician, entertaining a group of girls, but his intake of alcohol causes him to fall over on to the ground. The aim of all the exhortations to behave well, which occur in these documents, is to implore the pupil to return to his studies so that he can succeed in becoming a scribe—the career for which these schoolboys were being trained (see Document 14).

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ASK YOURSELF 1. From which countries/areas did Egypt import wine? 2. What does this passage tell you about young people’s leisure activities in ancient Egypt?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES H Wall scenes in nonroyal tombs of the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce) usually show a banqueting scene in which the seated guests are served with alcoholic drinks. The conventions of Egyptian religious art ensured that, whatever the true picture, the upper classes were always portrayed as young, healthy, good looking, and dignified; tomb artists would have been forbidden to depict them in a state of drunkenness. However, these banquets were obviously times of general overindulgence, although the artists could only hint at this by sometimes portraying the serving girls in a merry or drunken state. Look at banqueting scenes in tombs of this period; discuss the elements—the host, guests, servants, clothing, furniture, drink, utensils, eating and sitting arrangements, and so on—that the artist has included, and consider the extent to which such scenes provide an accurate representation of the event. H Look at the literary and archaeological evidence, and write an essay on the manufacture and uses (recreational, religious, and medicinal) of beer in ancient Egypt. H Consider the role that wine played in ancient Egyptian society. Using the available inscriptional and archaeological evidence, describe how wine was processed in Egypt, and comment on the trade routes by which foreign wines were imported.

Further Information Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Engelbach, R. “Mechanical and technical processes, materials.” In S.R.K. Glanville (ed.). The Legacy of Egypt. Oxford, UK, 1942: 120–59. Forbes, R. J. “Chemical, Culinary and Cosmetic Arts.” In C. Singer, E. J. Holmyard, and A. Hall (eds.). A History of Technology. Volume 1. From Early Times to Fall of Empires. Oxford, UK, 1954: 238–98. Gardiner, A. H. Late Egyptian Miscellanies. Brussels, Belgium, 1937. Geller, J. R. “From Prehistory to History: Beer in Egypt.” In R. Friedman and B. Adams (eds.). The Followers of Horus. Oxford, UK, 1992: 19–26. James, T.G.H. “The Earliest History of Wine and its Importance in Ancient Egypt.” In P. McGovern, S. Fleming, and S. Katz (eds.). The Origins and Ancient History of Wine. Luxembourg, 1995: 197–213. Lesko, L. “Egyptian Wine Production during the New Kingdom.” In P. McGovern, S. Fleming, and S. Katz (eds.). The Origins and Ancient History of Wine. Luxembourg, 1995: 215–30. Lucas, A. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries. 4th rev. ed., J. R. Harris. London, 1962: 10–27. Lutz, H. F. Viticulture and Brewing in the Ancient Orient. Leipzig, Germany, 1922.

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Murray, M. A., Boulton, N. and Heron, C. “Viticulture and Wine Production.” In P. Nicholson and I. Shaw (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK, 2000: 577–608. Nunn, J. F. Ancient Egyptian Medicine. London, 1996. Samuel, D. “Archaeology of Ancient Egyptian Beer.” Journal of the American Society of Brewing Chemists 54/I, 1996: 3–12. Samuel, D. “Brewing and Baking.” In P. Nicholson and I. Shaw (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK, 2000: 537–76. Samuel, D. “Investigation of Ancient Egyptian Baking and Brewing Methods by Correlative Microscopy.” Science 273, 1996: 488–90. Simpson, W. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966. Simpson, A. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Wilkinson, C. K. and Hill, M. Egyptian Wall Paintings. The Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Collection of Facsimiles. New York, 1983. Wilson. H. Egyptian Food and Drink. Aylesbury, UK, 1988. Winlock, H. E. Models of Daily Life in Ancient Egypt from the Tomb of Meket-Re at Thebes. Cambridge, MA, 1955.

Website Banqueting scenes, Tomb of Nebamun and Ipuky: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/no bles/nebamon_ipouky181/e_nebamon_ipouky_01.htm.

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41. A SPORTING PHARAOH INTRODUCTION A renowned warrior, Amenhotep II (1450 bce–1425 bce) ensured that Egypt retained the empire that his predecessors had established (see Documents 16, 33, 34). Military inscriptions of the reign describe his physical abilities and prowess on the battlefield. He was also probably Egypt’s greatest royal sportsman, and epitomized the tradition that the rulers of Dynasty 18 (1567 bce–1320 bce) prepared for leading military campaigns by undergoing training in various sports. The following excerpt relates the king’s expertise in target shooting with bows and arrows, rowing, and driving teams of chariot horses. The account is inscribed on a round-topped limestone stela, discovered in 1936 ce, which Amenhotep II ordered to be set up on the northeast side of the Great Sphinx at Giza, to commemorate his frequent visits to the site when he was a young man. The inscription is accompanied by badly damaged scenes that show Amenhotep II making offerings to the sphinx.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Amenhotep II probably ruled for some years as co-regent (see Document 30) with his father, Tuthmosis III. His skill with horses was so great that Tuthmosis III allowed him to train the finest animals in the royal stables, and by his late teens, he had apparently mastered all the skills of warfare. 2. The Great Sphinx at Giza (the finest example of an Egyptian sphinx) was carved from the natural rock and formed part of the pyramid complex of King Khafre (ca. 2558 bce–2533 bce); it functioned as the guardian of the sacred buildings in this area. 3. Egyptian games (see Sidebar) included one known today as “tipcat” (which was played on the streets of the United Kingdom until the early 20th century ce). Players competing against each other use a bat or stick to hit the “cat” (wooden peg) into the air, and then strike it again to drive it forward before it falls to the ground. The person who hits the “cat” farthest wins the contest.

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Document: The Great Sphinx Stela of Amenhotep II at Giza Strong of arms, untiring when he took the oar, he rowed at the stern of his falcon-boat as the stroke-oar for 200 men. Pausing after they had rowed half a mile, they were weak, limp in body, and breathless, while his majesty was strong under his oar of twenty cubits in length. He stopped and landed his falcon-boat only after he had done three miles of rowing without interrupting his stroke. [The text then describes his archery skills:] He drew 300 strong bows, comparing the Asiatic copper: a metal imported into workmanship of the men who had crafted them, so as to tell the unEgypt from Syria/Palestine and skilled from the skilled. He also came to do the following . . . EnCyprus tering his northern garden, he found erected for him 4 targets of Cubit: a measurement about Asiatic copper, of one palm in thickness, with a distance of twenty 20.6 inches/0.523 meters cubits between one post and the next. Then his majesty appeared on Falcon-boat: the boat’s prow was the chariot like Mont in his might. He drew his bow while holding fashioned to represent the divine four arrows together in his fist. Thus he rode northward shooting at falcon them, like Mont in his panoply, each arrow coming out at the back Harmakhis: the Great Sphinx at Giza of its target while he attacked the next post. It was a deed never yet Memphis: the northern capital city, done, never yet heard reported: shooting an arrow at a target of copsouth of modern Cairo per, so that it came out of it and dropped to the ground . . . [The Mont: the god of war king’s love of horses and his equine abilities are then praised:] He Palm: palm-breadth, a measurement raised horses that were unequalled . . . He would yoke (them) with of length: 7 palms equal 1 cubit the harness at Memphis and would stop at the resting place of HarResting-place of Kings Khufu and makhis. He would spend time there leading them around and obKhafre: their pyramids serving the excellence of the resting-place of Kings Khufu and Khafre, the justified. Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 41–42.

AFTERMATH Inscriptions from the reign of Amenhotep II boast about his athletic physique—a claim that is generally confirmed by the evidence from his mummy which was discovered by the French archaeologist, Victor Loret, in 1898 ce, still housed in its own sarcophagus and tomb in the Valley of the Kings. The burial also contained the mummies of several other royal persons; these had been transferred there by the high priests of Dynasty 21 (ca. 1089 bce–945 bce) because their original tombs had been desecrated by robbers. The mummy of Amenhotep II was taken to the Cairo Museum where it was examined first by Gaston Maspero, director of the Egyptian Antiquities Service, and then in 1907, by Sir Grafton Elliot Smith, who undertook a major survey of all the royal mummies discovered up to that date. His investigation showed that, at 1 meter 673 millimeters, Amenhotep II was taller than his father, Tuthmosis III (1504 bce–1450 bce) or his son, Tuthmosis IV (1425 bce–1417 bce). The skin on the neck, shoulders, chest, and abdomen of the mummy is covered with small nodules, but it has never been determined whether this was caused by some disease or the

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SPORTS AND GAMES Inscriptional evidence, tomb wall scenes, gaming boards, and other equipment indicate that the Egyptians were active people who engaged in a variety of sports and games. It was believed that physical training, a feature of the educational system (see “The Scribal Profession,” Document 14; Documents 1, 35), helped to build a child’s character. Boys and girls usually played in separate groups, and their activities included ball games, juggling, acrobatics, and leapfrog. Boys also ran, jumped, walked the tightrope, wrestled, shot at targets, fished with sticks, and used slings and stones to hunt birds and small animals. Children’s toys and games, including dolls, leather balls, whiptops, and tipcats, have been discovered at Kahun (ca. 1895 bce). Adults from all levels of society enjoyed sports and games. The upper classes engaged in the same sporting activities as royalty, and also watched contests in javelin throwing and wrestling—these were developed as a training activity for military recruits. Board games, another form of popular entertainment for adults and youngsters, included “serpent,” “dog-and-jackal,” and “senet.” Gaming boards and playing pieces (knucklebones and casting sticks) for senet have been found at Kahun and also in the Tomb of King Tutankhamun (1361 bce–1352 bce), emphasizing that the game was popular at all levels of society. However, whereas the examples belonging to Tutankhamun were beautifully made from ebony, ivory, and gold, the gaming boards from Kahun consist of rows of squares roughly incised or painted on stone slabs or, in one case, a wooden box lid.

mummification process itself (see Document 48). Based on the evidence of the king’s anatomy, his well-worn teeth, and the abundant white strands in his wavy brown hair, Elliot Smith tentatively suggested an age at death of between 40 and 50 years; subsequent radiological studies (see Harris and Wente 1980) have narrowed this down to 47 or 48 years. These studies have also shown that, in his later years, the king suffered from ankylosing spondylitis (fusion of the spine). This is a very painful condition that would have limited his movement, and by the end of his life, enthusiastic participation in active sports would have been just a fond memory for Amenhotep II.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why did the Egyptians use their horses to pull chariots but did not ride them? 2. Why did the Egyptians consider that sport and physical exercise were good character-building activities? How does this compare with modern perceptions of sport and games?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Read the accounts of anatomical and radiological investigations undertaken on the mummy of Amenhotep II (see below, Smith 1912; Harris and Wente 1980), and write your own “medical report” on his condition. Discuss whether these findings support the claims of his physical fitness that are promoted in inscriptional evidence from this reign. H Look at examples of gaming equipment found in the tomb of Tutankhamun and at Kahun; construct a senet board and some gaming pieces and, after consulting the bibliography below, try to work out the rules of the game. Would it have widespread appeal today?

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Further Information Carrol, S. T. “Wrestling in Ancient Nubia.” Journal of Sport History 15 (1988): 121–37. Carter, H. The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen. 3 vols. London, 1923–33 (reprinted ed. 1972). David, A. R. The Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt. London, 1996. Decker, W. “The Record of the Ritual.” In J. M. Carter and A. Krüger (eds.). Ritual and Record: Sports Records and Quantifications in Pre-Modern Societies. New York, 1990: 185–215. Decker, W. Sports and Games in Ancient Egypt. New Haven, CT, 1992. Finkel, I. (ed.). Board Games in Perspective. London, 1998. Harris, J. E. and Wente, E. F. An X-Ray Atlas of the Royal Mummies. Chicago, 1980. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Littauer, M. A. and Crouwel, J. H. Chariots and Related Equipment from the Tomb of Tutankhamun. Oxford, UK, 1985. Smith, G. E. The Royal Mummies. Cairo, 1912 (reprinted ed. 2000). Touny, A.E.D. and Wenig, S. Sport in Ancient Egypt. Leipzig, Germany, 1969.

Websites Great Sphinx, Giza: http://www.aeraweb.org/projects/sphinx. Wrestling scene, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/medinet%20habu/index .htm (see under Temple of Medinet Habu, First Courtyard: Picture%20285001.htm).

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42. CREATION MYTHOLOGY INTRODUCTION Egyptian priests used creation myths (cosmogonies) to explain the origin and creation of their world (see “State Gods,” Document 36). Various versions were developed at different religious centers, where the local priesthood promoted the supreme role of their particular god in creating the universe, all other gods, and mankind (see “The Coffin Texts,” Document 8). The Creation Myths were probably first formalized and written down during the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce), when the three most important versions evolved at Memphis, Heliopolis, and Hermopolis. The inscription below, which sets out the theological beliefs held by the Memphite priests, is carved on a large black granite stone (the “Shabaka Stone”) now held in the British Museum collection (No. 498). Scholars have provided different interpretations of this text: according to one theory, it represents a dramatic play that was enacted as part of religious celebrations (for a discussion of Egyptian drama, see Document 38); alternatively, it may be a treatise that sets out the “Memphite Theology”—the version of creation advocated by the priests of Ptah at Memphis. It emphasizes the importance of Ptah’s role as the creator of the world, and of Memphis as Egypt’s capital city and the center of Ptah’s cult. The inscription dates from Dynasty 25 (ca. 780 bce–656 bce) when King Shabaka (716 bce–702 bce) reputedly ordered that the worm-eaten original (probably written on leather or papyrus) should be replaced by a more enduring copy. The language and subject matter of the text indicate that the original composition dates to the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce). This excerpt describes the unique character of Ptah’s creation. Whereas the rival Heliopolitan mythology explained creation in terms of a physical act (the world and mankind came into being as the result of Re-Atum’s masturbation (see Document 5)), the Memphite Theology describes a nonphysical creation. All animate and inanimate created forms occur first as concepts in Ptah’s mind (his “heart”) and are then brought into existence through his “spoken word.” The text claims that Ptah had “created . . . the gods”; it thus attempts to prove that Ptah, as the progenitor of all deities including Re-Atum, was the supreme creator-god, and that the Memphite cosmogony should take precedence over all others.

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KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The Great Ennead of Heliopolis included Re-Atum and his eight descendants. Re-Atum created Shu (god of air) and Tefnut (goddess of moisture) from his own semen, and their union brought forth Geb (earth god) and Nut (sky goddess). These deities together personified the physical elements—sun, air, water, earth, and sky—required for the creation of the universe. Geb and Nut in turn became the parents of Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys who, together with Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis, played leading roles in the mythology associated with Osiris (see Documents 7, 38). 2. In another version of the Hermopolitan Myth, a divine bird laid a cosmic egg on the Island of Creation. The egg contained either air (vital for life) or, according to another description, the god Re in the form of a bird, who emerged from the egg to create the world. 3. Ptah was one of the few Egyptian gods to be depicted in entirely human form. His persona lacked color and Atum: the creator-god worshipped at interest, and despite the advanced philosophy of creation Heliopolis where, united with Re, he and existence promoted at Memphis, he never enjoyed became a sun-god widespread popular appeal. Horus: a falcon-headed sky-god, the first divine protector of royalty; he was also unified with Re (who usurped his role as royal patron) to become a sun-god, Re-Harakhte Ptah: a creator-god; supreme deity at Memphis where he had been united with Soker, a funerary god, and TaHeart took shape in the form of Atum, Tongue took shape in tenen, an earth-god; he was the patron the form of Atum. It is Ptah, the very great, who has given god of crafts and artisans (life) to all the gods and their kas through this heart and Shu: one of the creator-gods of through this tongue, from which Horus had come forth as Heliopolis (son of Re-Atum and Ptah, from which Thoth had come forth as Ptah. Thus heart husband of Tefnut), he personified and tongue rule over all the limbs in accordance with the light and air teaching that it [the heart, or: he, Ptah] is in every body and Thoth: an ibis-headed, lunar deity who it [the tongue, or: he, Ptah] is in every mouth of all gods, all was worshipped at Hermopolis; as the men, all cattle, all creeping things, whatever lives, thinking scribe and messenger of the gods, he whatever it [or: he] wishes and commanding whatever it [or: was in charge of wisdom and writing he] wishes. His [Ptah’s] Ennead is before him as teeth and The Ennead of Atum came into being lips. They are the semen and the hands of Atum. For the Enthrough his semen and his fingers: nead of Atum came into being through his semen and his a reference to the creation myth of fingers. But the Ennead is the teeth and lips in this mouth Heliopolis in which Atum, a selfwhich pronounced the name of every thing, from which Shu created god, produced the whole and Tefnut came forth, and which gave birth to the Ennead. universe from an act of masturbation Sight, hearing, breathing—they report to the heart, and it Tefnut: one of the deities at Heliopolis makes every understanding come forth. As to the tongue, it (daughter of Re-Atum and wife of repeats what the heart has devised. Thus all the gods were Shu), she represented moisture, a key born and his Ennead was completed. For every word of the element in creation god came about through what the heart devised and the tongue commanded. Thus all the faculties were made and all

Document: The Memphite Theology (The Shabaka Stone)

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the qualities determined, they that make all foods and all provisions, through this word . . . Thus it is said of Ptah: ‘He who made all and created the gods.’ Source: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975: 54–55.

CREATION MYTHS Each creation myth (cosmogony) promoted a different creator-god, and emphasized the supremacy of that deity’s own cult center and priesthood. However, these myths also had some specific features in common: for example, each claimed that the temple of its god was the actual location where creation had taken place on the “First Occasion,” and was therefore a place of great spiritual potency (see “Temple Architecture,” Document 47; Document 44). After creation, the earth was ruled by the gods who established law, ethics, and the foundations of civilization; eventually, when they returned to the heavens, this legacy was handed on to the king, who reigned as their divine son and heir (see “The Legal System,” Document 10). The Heliopolitan Myth, recorded in the Pyramid Texts (see “The Pyramid Texts,” Document 50), was the most famous and influential cosmogony; it was associated with Heliopolis (Iwnw), the cult center of the sun-god Re-Atum (see “The Cult of the Sun-God in the Old Kingdom,” Document 45). At Memphis, a rival theology claimed that Ptah was the causative creative force. This god, in his personification of Nun (the state of nonexistence that prevailed before creation), fathered a daughter, Naunet, who became Ptah’s consort. They produced Re-Atum, thus establishing Ptah’s precedence over Re-Atum (here, the myth differed from the Heliopolitan doctrine, which claimed that Re-Atum had generated himself ). Through his thoughts and speech, Ptah conceptualized creation, and brought into existence not only the physical requirements of life—the world, the gods, humanity, cities, shrines, food, and drink—but also abstract ideas and principles. This interesting doctrine confirms that the Egyptians were capable of advanced philosophical thinking. The third Old Kingdom cosmogony, known as the Hermopolitan Myth, was promoted at Hermopolis, cult center of Thoth, the god of wisdom. According to one version of this myth, the world was created by an ogdoad consisting of four frog-headed male gods—Nun (the primordial ocean), Huh (eternity), Kuk (darkness), and Amun (air)—and their serpent-headed partners (Naunet, Hauhet, Kauket, and Amaunet). After death, these deities took up residence in the underworld where they continued to help mankind by ensuring that the Nile flowed and the sun rose every day.

AFTERMATH The rulers of Dynasty 18 (1567 bce–1320 bce) established a new political and religious capital at Thebes. They promoted Amen-Re as the country’s supreme god; this deity had been created by uniting Amun, the original god of Thebes, with Re, the ancient solar god of Heliopolis. Amen-Re’s main cult center was located in the Temple of Karnak at Thebes, and regular royal donations of booty (see Document 34) and prisoners-of-war (see Document 16) ensured that this became the wealthiest and most powerful religious institution in Egypt. Amen-Re’s priesthood now introduced and promoted the Theban cosmogony, a new myth that reflected their god’s preeminent role. The myth identified Karnak as the original site of creation, and claimed that Amen-Re had created all the gods, kings, and mankind (see Document 31).

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ASK YOURSELF 1. Is there any evidence that priesthoods associated with different gods shared a common vision of how creation had occurred? 2. Why did some gods play a part in creation myths whereas others did not?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Write a short play based on one of the creation myths. This could include a dialogue between the gods engaged in the dramatic action, and passages (read by a narrator) to provide a context for the play and carry the storyline forward. H Why do you think the Egyptians were able to accept and understand the coexistence of various, conflicting accounts of creation?

Further Information Allen, J. P. Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, CT, 1988. Breasted, J. H. The Dawn of Conscience. New York, 1933. Faulkner, R. O. The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. 2 vols. Oxford, UK, 1969. Hornung, E. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. London, 1983. Lesko, L. “Ancient Egyptian Cosmogonies and Cosmology.” In B. E. Shafer (ed.). Religion in Ancient Egypt. Ithaca, NY, 1991: 88–122. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975. Quirke, S. Ancient Egyptian Religion. London, 1992. Tobin, V. A. Theological Principles of Egyptian Religion. New York, 1989.

Website Giza Plateau: http://www.aeraweb.org/projects/gpmp/pyramids.

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43. ATENISM, MONOTHEISM, AND A R ELIGIOUS R EVOLUTION INTRODUCTION A hymn inscribed on the west wall of the Tomb of Ay at Tell el-Amarna provides the most complete statement of Atenism, a doctrine introduced by Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] (1379 bce–1362 bce). The new cult was truly innovative because it insisted that the Aten was the only god, and denied the existence of all other deities. This hymn, which undoubtedly owed its inspiration to the king, defines the main aspects of the faith. These were the unique and exclusive nature of the Aten as “Sole God”; the god’s roles as provider of life’s essentials (light, heat, and water), and creator of all mankind, including Egyptians and foreigners; the divine transcendent nature of the deity, who did not need to reside in sacred animals or temple statues but appeared to mankind as the sun’s disc in the sky; and the role of the king as the god’s human incarnation and sole representative on earth. A Shorter Hymn, expressing similar sentiments, occurs in other tombs at Tell el-Amarna (see “Music and Worship,” Document 37).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Similarities have been noted between ideas found in the Great Hymn to the Aten and Psalm 104 in the Bible. This may be the result of direct or indirect borrowing between the two sources, or both texts may come from a common tradition and are perhaps based on an undiscovered document. 2. As the new state religion, Atenism was followed by the king’s family and the royal court. Formal texts, including this hymn, claim that the king is the only intermediary between the god and the people. However, archaeological evidence from Tell el-Amarna indicates that, throughout this period, ordinary people still continued to worship their own gods in household shrines.

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Document: The Great Hymn to the Aten in the Tomb of Ay, Tell el-Amarna You appear in splendour in the horizon of heaven, O living Aten who originates life! When you shine forth in the eastern horizon You fill every land with your beauty. You are beautiful, you are great, You are radiant, you are high over every land. Your rays encompass the lands To the limit of all you have made. You are Re and you reach their limits. You subdue them (for) your beloved son. You are far away, but your rays are on earth. You are in sight, but your movements are unseen. . . . The entire land goes about its work, All beasts are content on their pastures, Trees and herbs become verdant. Birds fly from their nests, Their wings giving praise to your spirit . . . Who makes seed to grow in women Who makes life-fluid in mankind, Who gives life to the son in his mother’s womb, Who soothes him so that he does not cry. Nurse in the womb, Who gives breath To keep alive all that he has made . . . How manifold are your deeds! They are hidden from sight, O Sole God, like whom there is no other! You made the earth as you desired, you alone. All people, herds and flocks, All that is on earth that walks on legs, All that soars above, that flies on wings, The lands of Khor and Kush And the land of Egypt. You set every man in his place, You supply their needs,

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Each one has provision, His lifetime is reckoned. Their tongues are diverse in speech, And their characters likewise; Their skins are distinct, For you have distinguished the peoples. You made the Nile in the netherworld, You bring it when you so desire, To sustain the people, Even as you have given them life. You are lord of them all, Who toils for them, The lord of all lands, Who shines for them, Aten of the daytime, great of majesty. All far-off lands, you have made their life, You made a Nile in the sky That it may descend for them That it may make waves on the hills like the sea, To drench their fields and their towns. How excellent are your plans, O Lord of Eternity! A Nile flood in the sky, you appoint it for the foreign peoples, And all animals of every country that walk on legs. But the Nile comes forth from the underworld for Egypt . . . You are alone, shining in your form of living Aten Risen, radiant, distant, near. (But) you make millions of forms from yourself alone, Towns and villages, fields, roads and river. Every eye sees you ahead of them, For you are the Aten of the daytime on high, You are in my heart, There is no other who knows you Except your son, Neferkheprure-Sole-One-of-Re, You have made him skilled in your ways and in your strength. The earth comes into being as a result of your hand, For you have created them . . . . Source: Davies, N. de G. The Rock Tombs of El Amarna. 6 parts. London, 1903–1908, Pt. 6: 29–31 and pls. xxvii, xli. (Author’s translation).

Aten: this god was symbolized by the sun’s disc in the sky, depicted with descending rays ending in hands, which enabled the god to bestow bounty on the royal family and Egypt Khor: Syria Neferkheprure-Sole-One-of-Re: the name of Akhenaten Nile in the netherworld: the river, the source of most of Egypt’s water, was believed to originate in the underworld Nile in the sky: foreign lands received most of their water from rainfall which, according to Egyptian belief, descended from a river in the sky Re: the traditional name of the sungod, here assimilated by the Aten Sole God: a reference to the Aten’s unique, exclusive nature Your beloved son: Akhenaten

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ATENISM AND MONOTHEISM The Aten possessed three virtually interchangeable forms: the life-force present throughout creation; the sun’s disc as a visible symbol of the deity and source of light and heat; and the king as the god’s earthly incarnation and sole representative. When the texts from Tell el-Amarna were first translated, scholars decided that they were unique, but subsequent studies have shown that their only true innovation is an acknowledgement of the god’s unique and exclusive nature and denial of the existence of other deities. Aspects such as the god’s role as universal creator, transcendent nature, and even the title “Sole God” all occur in earlier texts dedicated to other forms of the sun-god or Amen-Re, the acknowledged “king of gods” who was ousted by the Aten. The Aten was not an entirely new deity: referred to as an aspect of Re in the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce), it was first promoted as a separate solar god under Tuthmosis IV (1425 bce–1417 bce), and achieved an increasingly important status under Amenhotep III (1417 bce–1379 bce). The motives behind Akhenaten’s “revolution” may have been religious but there were also political considerations: the Aten cult restored power to the king and curtailed the unprecedented power and influence of Amen-Re’s priesthood. In fact, it is likely that events were influenced by a combination of religious and political factors.

AFTERMATH In the early years of his reign, Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] lived at Thebes. Here, near the Great Temple of Amen-Re and its powerful priesthood, he developed the worship of the Aten and built special temples where the wall scenes depicted the god’s role as creator of all life, and emphasized the cultic significance of Akhenaten’s wife, Nefertiti. By Year 5 of his reign, probably due to increasing problems with the priesthood of Amen-Re, Akhenaten began to promote Atenism as a monotheistic cult: other gods were no longer tolerated, their priesthoods were disbanded, and their temple income was diverted to the Aten. The king and his queen also changed or took additional names to confirm their allegiance to the Aten, renouncing their former association with traditional gods. The king’s final action was to leave Thebes and build a new capital city, Akhetaten (Tell el-Amarna), where he could promote the Aten’s worship (see “Towns and Palaces,” Document 11). It accommodated the royal residence, the state headquarters, and temples for the Aten cult; tombs for the royal family and favored courtiers were prepared in the cliff sides nearby. However, Atenism did not survive beyond the reign of Akhenaten’s successor, Smenkhkare (see Document 37).

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why, at this period, was there a need to promote Egypt’s chief god as the creator of foreigners as well as Egyptians? 2. In what specific ways did the temples built for the Aten differ from those belonging to traditional gods? 3. How had the priesthood of Amen-Re come to wield such power and influence by the middle of Dynasty 18 (ca. 1400 bce)?

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TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Some religious studies have suggested that monotheism develops directly and naturally out of polytheism. Hornung (see below Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many) has argued that this cannot be readily demonstrated in ancient Egypt, where there may have been a different, dualistic approach to divinity: that a god worshipped as a unity, distinct from other deities, could also be manifest in many different forms. If this is accepted as a valid explanation of the traditional gods, to what extent does Atenism represent a truly original and innovative concept? H Why did the events of the Amarna Period occur at this particular date? Discuss this in the context of Egypt’s contemporary internal and external policies, and the influence of neighboring countries. H List the reasons why Akhenaten’s successors tried to obliterate Atenism. What measures did they take, and to what extent were they successful?

Further Information Davies, N. de G. The Rock Tombs of El Amarna. 6 parts. London, 1903–1908. Foster, J. “The Hymn to the Aten: Akhenaten Worships the Sole God.” In J. Sasson (ed.). Civilization of the Ancient Near East, III. 1995: 1751–61. Hornung, E. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. London, 1983. Lorton, D. “God’s Beneficient Creation: Coffin Texts Spell 1130, the Instruction for Merikare, and the Great Hymn to the Aton.” Studien zur Ältagyptischen Kultur 20 (1993): 125–58. Martin, G. T. The Royal Tomb at El-Amarna. 2 vols. London, 1974 and 1989. Mercer, S.A.B. The Tell el-Amarna Tablets. 2 vols. Toronto, 1939. Murnane, W. J. Texts from the Amarna Period in Egypt. Atlanta, GA, 1995. Redford, D. B. Akhenaten. The Heretic King. Princeton, NJ, 1984. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Smith, R. W. and Redford, D. B. The Initial Discoveries. Volume 1. The Akhenaten Temple Project. Warminster, UK, 1977.

Websites Amarna and Akhenaten: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/people/pages/akhenaten.htm. Amarna Letters: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/amarna/pages/bm_2007_may_0120.htm.

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44. THE R ITUAL USE OF THE EGYPTIAN TEMPLE INTRODUCTION This excerpt has been taken from a panel of inscription that accompanies a scene inscribed on the east wall of the Gallery of the Lists in the Temple of King Sety I at Abydos (ca. 1300 bce). This represents a final stage in the daily temple ritual, a ceremony performed in every Egyptian temple when food was offered first to the gods associated with the temple and then removed from the divine altars and divided among the priests as payment for their services. The scene shows Sety and his son, Prince Ramesses (who later became the famous king Ramesses II) presenting an offering list to 120 gods.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The high priest of the temple, rather than the king, was responsible for ensuring that the regular rituals were performed on a daily basis. The king probably only visited the temple occasionally (Abydos is hundreds of miles away from the northern and southern capital cities), although he would have participated in the ceremonies to consecrate the building. 2. Sety I started to build this temple during his own lifetime, and it was completed by his son, Ramesses II, and grandson, Merneptah. It accommodated the worship of six principal gods and Sety himself in his future dead, deified form. A magnificent structure, it contains a more complete set of wall scenes and inscriptions relating to the daily services than any other Egyptian temple, and thus provides a major resource for the study of these rituals. 3. Abydos, situated midway along the Nile, was the most important religious center in Egypt. Believed to be the home of Osiris, it was significant in earliest times as the seat of government, and subsequently as a place of pilgrimage and worship by all who wished to attain eternal life.

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Document: The King Presents Food Offerings to the Gods (Gallery of the Lists, Temple of Sety I, Abydos) Boon-which-the-king-gives [h. tpdì-nsw]: the offerings presented to gods or humans through the agency of the king Foremost of the Westerners: a title of Osiris whose realm was in the West Mansion of Menmaetre: the temple of Sety I Menmaetre: one of the names of Sety I Ptah-Soker-Osiris: a god who combined the titles and characteristics of three deities—Ptah (god of Memphis), Soker (god associated with Saqqara, the cemetery of Memphis), and Osiris (god of the dead) Reversion of Offerings: after it had been offered to the gods, the sacred food was removed from the altar and distributed amongst the priests Sety Merenptah: names of Sety I Son of Re: a title of Egyptian kings, which confirmed their relationship to the sun-god, Re

INSCRIPTION ABOVE THE LIST OF OFFERINGS Title of scene: Making a boon-which-the-king-gives, the Reversion of Offerings by his beloved son, the king’s eldest bodily son, hereditary prince, Ramesses, life, prosperity, health.

Main Text Making a boon-which-the-king-gives for Ptah-Soker-Osiris, Foremost of the Westerners, who resides in the Mansion of Menmaetre, and the Ennead who are in attendance upon him, by the king, Menmaetre, son of Re, Sety Merenptah. Come to me, PtahSoker-Osiris . . . . oh, ranger of the gods, come, at your invocation; oh, you swift gods, come to me; oh, Ptah-Soker-Osiris, come, oh, ranger of the gods, to King Menmaetre, your Majesty, your servant, who does not forget your body, with all these your provisions. You enter into this your bread, into your beer, namely choicest meat portions of cattle and fowl, in millions and hundred thousands, tens of thousands, thousands and hundreds. You have filled your house with all good things. Source: David, A. R. Religious Ritual at Abydos (c. 1300 BC). Warminster, UK, 1973: 199–200. (Author’s translation.)

AFTERMATH The Egyptians probably performed the same daily rituals over thousands of years, from at least the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce) down to the Greco-Roman Period (332 bce–4th century ce). The gods’ daily food offerings provided payment and rations for the priests’ families. The temple “menus” (detailed lists of these offerings) indicate that this food provided a very different diet from that of the general population (see “Agriculture and Famine,” Document 26). Whereas most people were mainly vegetarian (occasionally adding fish and a little meat), the god’s daily food included beef, wildfowl, bread, fruit, vegetables, cake, wine, and beer. A recent analysis of this diet has shown that it would have included high levels of saturated fat and other elements linked to accelerated atherosclerosis and increased coronary artery disease. This may explain why a relatively high incidence of atherosclerosis has been discovered in the mummies of priests and their families, confirming that this is a disease of antiquity rather than a 20th-century phenomenon.

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THE EGYPTIAN TEMPLE Every temple was regarded as the place of creation (see “Creation Myths,” Document 42), as well as the “House of the God,” a physical and spiritual home for its resident deity whose spirit could enter the divine statues and wall scenes inside the building, to receive continuous worship and attention (see “Temple Architecture,” Document 47; Document 36). Although the wall scenes show the king, as the divine son, undertaking these duties, it was the temple priests who regularly performed these rituals on his behalf. However, in this scene, the heir to the throne, Prince Ramesses, carries out the rite for the assembled deities, which include his father, Sety I, who would become a god when he dies. The rituals ensured continuing contact between gods and humans. Daily services provided the gods with everyday necessities, and involved routine cleansing of the statue, followed by the presentation of clothing and food (when the god would partake of (“enter into”) his bread and beer). The deity was also entertained with festivals held at regular intervals throughout the year (see “Festivals,” Document 39). In exchange, the god endowed the king with eternal life and provided Egypt and its people with wealth and good harvests; they also granted the king success over his enemies, a theme that frequently occurs in the battle scenes carved on the exterior walls of the temple (see Document 16). Individual scenes and accompanying inscriptions on the interior walls usually represent separate rites in a particular ritual; the priest would stand in front of the scene and recite the inscribed words, in the belief that this would generate a force that would bring the action to life. Indeed, it was claimed that all scenes and inscriptions within the building had been permanently “activated” through the performance of the ceremony of “Opening the Mouth” (see “The Coffin Texts,” Document 8). As the residence and resting place of the god, the temple was never a place of congregational worship (see “The Scribal Profession,” Document 14), and most areas were probably accessible only to the priests. The priests had no pastoral duties in the community; their essential function, as “servants of the god,” was to perform the rituals for the deity.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Apart from being the god’s house, what other functions did the Egyptian temple fulfill? 2. Why did Sety I have access to extensive resources that enabled him to build such a large temple? 3. What do you know about the lives of the men who constructed the royal tombs and temples? Were they skilled craftsmen? Where did the building materials come from?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Imagine you are a high priest at the Temple of Sety I at Abydos. What would your duties have entailed? What kind of education and training would you have received? Describe your family life, and discuss some of the illnesses you might have had. H Identify the six main gods who were worshipped in the Temple of Sety I at Abydos; describe their most important attributes and the roles they played in Egyptian religion. Why are six gods included here whereas most temples were dedicated to one god or a family group of three gods? (Some introductory comments are given in R. David, Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 2002: 252–54).

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Further Information Calverley, A. M., Broome, M. F., and Gardiner, A. H. The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos. 4 vols. London and Chicago, 1933, 1935, 1938, 1959. David, A. R. Religious Ritual at Abydos, c.1300 BC. Warminster, UK, 1973. David, R. Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt. Harmondsworth, UK, 2002. David, A. R., Kershaw, A., Heagerty, A. “The Art of Medicine. Atherosclerosis and Diet in Ancient Egypt.” The Lancet 375 (February 27), 2010: 718–19. Shafer, B., Arnold, A., Haeny, G., Bell, L., and Finnestad, R. B. Temples of Ancient Egypt. New York, 1997. Wilkinson, R. H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London, 2000.

Websites Karnak Great Hypostyle Hall Project: http://www.memphis.edu/hypostyle/. Karnak Great Hypostyle Hall Project, Interior Walls: http://www.memphis.edu/hypostyle/ interior_wall_scenes.php. Temple of Sety I, Abydos: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/abydos/index.htm.

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45. POLITICAL PROPAGANDA INTRODUCTION Papyrus Westcar (P. Berlin 3033) belongs to the genre known as narrative texts (compare with the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, see Document 29). It recounts events set in the reign of Khufu [Cheops] in Dynasty 4 (ca. 2589 bce–2566 bce), although the papyrus itself dates from the Hyksos Period (ca. 1684 bce–1567 bce). The complete text would have included at least five tales, but only the third, fourth, and fifth remain virtually intact. The common theme of the three excerpts given below is the attempt made by Khufu’s sons to entertain their bored father. In the earliest tales, each prince relates a wonder that a magician had performed in the past, but Prince Hardedef points out to his father that they cannot judge the accuracy of these accounts; instead, he describes the achievements of a living magician, Dedi, who can be brought to the royal court to demonstrate his skills. At the king’s request, Hardedef brings Dedi to the palace, and in his conversation with Khufu, the magician reveals that a new royal line will replace the king’s own dynasty. The final tale describes the miraculous birth of triplets, fathered by Re, the sun-god, and born to Rededet, the wife of a priest of Re. They will become the first rulers of Dynasty 5: Userkaf, Sahure, and Neferirkare. The final excerpt (below) describes Khufu’s unhappiness at this prediction, but Dedi assures him that the end of Dynasty 4 is not imminent, and that Khufu’s son and grandson will reign before the throne passes to the sons of Re. This is essentially a folktale that probably originated in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce). Its informal style indicates that it was an oral tradition, transmitted down the millennia by itinerant public storytellers. The introductory tales are colorful and entertaining, designed to attract and hold the attention of an unsophisticated audience, but the real purpose of this text was propagandist. It sought to establish in the minds of the populace that the earliest kings of Dynasty 5 were legitimate rulers because of their divine birth. The story also emphasized the supremacy of the cult of Re, and confirmed that the kings of Dynasty 5 were good and pious rulers who built and provisioned temples for the sun-god. It provides a good example of using the device of “prophecy” to justify the role or actions of a particular ruler or dynasty (see Document 12).

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KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The Westcar Papyrus contains some statements that are historically accurate: Khufu was succeeded by his son, Khafre [Chephren], and grandson, Menkaure [Mycerinus], before the throne passed to the rulers of Dynasty 5. However, the first three kings of Dynasty 5, although related, were not triplets: the inaugurator of the dynasty, Userkaf, was succeeded by his sons, Sahure and Neferirkare. 2. There is no historical evidence that a priest’s wife was mother of Userkaf, Sahure, or Neferirkare. In fact, it is likely that Userkaf ’s ascent to the kingship rested on his family connections with the kings of Dynasty 4: probably a descendant of a secondary branch of Khufu’s family, he married a daughter of Menkaure, and this would have consolidated his claim to the throne.

Document: The Tale of King Khufu and the Magicians (Papyrus Westcar) And Prince Hardedef stood up to speak and said: “Hitherto hast thou heard only examples of what they knew that have gone before (us), and one knoweth not the truth from falsehood. But even in thine own time there is a magician.” [When the king asks Hardedef the identity of this magician, Hardedef replies that he is named Dedi and that he lives] . . . in Ded-sneferu. . . . “He knoweth the number(?) of the locks(?) of the sanctuary of Thoth.” Now the Majesty of King Kheops was alDed-sneferu: a town situated north of ways seeking for himself the locks(?) of the sanctuary of Thoth, to the entrance to the Fayoum make for himself the like thereof for his Horizon. [The king then Heliopolis: the Greek name for the asks Hardedef to bring Dedi to him.] Now when he reached the Egyptian city Iwnw, center of the Residence, Prince Hardedef entered in to make report to the Majcult of the sun-god, Re esty of King Kheops. [He tells his father that he has brought Dedi Horizon: Khufu’s pyramid and the king asks to see him.] Locks: a device invented by Thoth, [The king then addresses Dedi:] “It hath been said that thou the god of wisdom, with which knowest the number(?) of the locks(?) of the sanctuary of Thoth.” Khufu wished to secure his own [Dedi replies:] “So it please thee(?), I know not the number thereof, pyramid O king, my lord, but I know the place where they are.” [The king Office: the kingship enquires about the location of this place, and Dedi responds:] Re: the sun-god “There is a chest of flint in the chamber named ‘The Inventory’ in Rededet: the wife of Rewoser, a high Heliopolis. (Lo, they are) in the chest.” [He then continues:] “O priest of Re; the mother of divine king, my lord, lo, it is not I that bring it thee.” [The king asks:] triplets who were fathered by Re “Who then will bring it me?” [Dedi replies:] “It is the eldest of Residence: the royal palace the three children who are in the belly of Rededet that will bring Sakhebu: a small town near Memphis it thee.” [The king then says:] “But I desire that(?) thou say who and Heliopolis she is, this Red-dedet.” [Dedi answers:] “It is the wife of a priest Sanctuary of Thoth: a place where of Re of Sakhebu, that hath conceived three children of Re, lord Thoth, god of wisdom and writing, of Sakhebu. He hath told her that they will exercise this excellent was worshipped office in this entire land, and that the eldest of them will be high priest in Heliopolis.” Then his Majesty’s heart grew sad thereat.

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[Dedi asks him:] “Pray, what is this mood, O king, my lord? Is it because of the three children? Then I say unto thee: thy son, his son, and then one of them.” Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 36–47.

THE CULT OF THE SUN-GOD IN THE OLD KINGDOM Re may not have originated in Egypt, but was perhaps brought in by immigrants during the Predynastic Period (ca. 5000bce–ca. 3100 bce). His cult achieved prominence in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce), when his main center was established at Heliopolis where he assimilated some features of an earlier god, Atum. Re became patron deity of the rulers of the Old Kingdom; although powerful rulers in their own right, they had already adopted the title “Son of Re” by Dynasty 2 (ca. 2890 bce–ca. 2686 bce), to demonstrate their allegiance to the god. Heliopolis (see “Creation Myths,” Document 42) was the site of the original sun-temple (see “The Pyramid Texts,” Document 50); although the complex has never been discovered, Egyptologists have suggested that it incorporated several enclosures and a roofless, paved court that contained a rectangular podium surmounted by a benben—a squat obelisk topped by a pyramidion (see Document 47). As the temple’s main feature, the benben provided Re with a cult symbol that he could enter at will. The benben may have represented a sun-ray, and probably influenced the shape and form of pyramids built from Dynasty 4 onward. The main purpose of the pyramids (which were associated with the sun-cult and the deceased king’s afterlife) was to protect the king’s body, and possibly to provide him with a means of access to heaven (the Egyptian word for pyramid, mer, is translated as “place of ascension”). The cult reached its zenith in Dynasty 5 (ca. 2494 bce–ca.2345 bce) when, as indicated in the Westcar Papyrus, the priesthood of Re played a vital role in establishing and supporting the new dynasty. Although the rulers of Dynasty 5 built pyramids at Abusir and Saqqara, the construction methods used for these monuments were inferior to those of Dynasty 4. This was because the country’s resources went instead toward the sun-temples that six rulers of this dynasty built at Abu Ghurab. This development clearly demonstrates how the ascendancy of Re’s priesthood was accompanied by the decline of royal power.

AFTERMATH As “foretold” in the Westcar Payrus, the kings of Dynasty 5 (ca. 2494 bce–ca. 2345 bce), supported by the Heliopolitan priesthood, ruled Egypt as Re’s heirs. Following the traditions of Dynasty 4 pyramids, Userkaf built his pyramid at Saqqara, but those of his sons, Sahure and Neferirkare, were constructed at Abusir. Sahure’s monument is the most completely preserved pyramid complex of this dynasty, and evidently provided the pattern for the later pyramids of Dynasties 5 and 6. It incorporated new architectural features; also, unlike the plain walls found in earlier pyramid complexes, it featured carved scenes that show a variety of activities including a voyage to Byblos to purchase cedarwood.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Why was storytelling an effective propagandist method? Why was it necessary? 2. Why were the priests of Re able to become more powerful than the kings? 3. Which features of the pyramids of Dynasty 5 were less well constructed than those of Dynasty 4?

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TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Using information provided in I.E.S. Edwards, The Pyramids of Egypt (see below), draw a plan of the classical pyramid complex of Dynasty 4, based on the monument of Khafre [Chephren], and then list the differences that can be observed between this and the pyramids of Dynasty 5. H Discuss the main features of the sun-cult, and assess the reasons for its success.

Further Information Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Edwards, I.E.S. The Pyramids of Egypt. Harmondsworth, UK, 1985. Eyre, C. J. “Fates, Crocodiles and the Judgement of the Dead: Some Mythological Allusions in Egyptian Literature.” Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur 4 (1976): 103–14. Eyre, C. J. “Yet Again the Wax Crocodile: P. Westcar 3, 12 ff.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 78 (1992): 280–81. Lehner, M. The Complete Pyramids. London, 1997. Quirke, S. The Cult of Ra: Sun-Worship in Ancient Egypt. London, 2001. Simpson, W. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003.

Websites Abusir: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/abusir_jul_2006_0002.htm. Giza Plateau: http://www.aeraweb.org/projects/gpmp/pyramids.

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46. M AGICAL TREATMENT OF DISEASE INTRODUCTION These excerpts are taken from the Incantations and Spells section in the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus (see “The Medical Papyri,” Document 20). The earliest known treatise on surgery (ca.1570 bce), the document contains a set of Incantations and Spells, in addition to surgical case studies. The content of these spells and their position in the papyrus indicate that they were not part of the main surgical treatise: the scribe appears to have abruptly abandoned copying out the surgical treatise, and this miscellaneous set of spells was added later, on the recto of the papyrus roll. Whereas the case studies provide the earliest extant evidence of an objective, scientific approach, the incantations and spells reflect the “irrational” or magical aspect of Egyptian medicine (see “The Coffin Texts,” Document 8; “Childhood,” Document 1). Eight spells are devoted to exorcising an annual epidemic or pestilence; there are also five recipes for improving facial complexion, and treating female troubles and an ailment of the anus. The underlying concept was that magical incantations could cure disease; this contrasts strongly with the main content of the Edwin Smith Papyrus, but similar examples exist in other medical texts such as Papyrus Ebers and Papyrus Hearst. Unlike the main case studies in the Edwin Smith Papyrus, these spells give no indication that any conclusion was reached regarding a physical location or rational cause of the disease. Also, no attempt was made to provide a scientific diagnosis, based on observation and examination of the patient and the knowledge and skills of the medical practitioner. It was generally believed that epidemics were brought by malignant deities, demons, the disembodied dead (male and female, human and animal), and the wind. The incantations in this document were directed against an annual, unidentified epidemic known as “the pest of the year.” They were addressed to benign gods and spirits who were expected to protect and heal the patients, and also to the disease bearers, particularly the lioness-headed deity Sekhmet whom the Egyptians worshipped as an important goddess of medicine, in the hope of placating her.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The texts specify exactly how some of the incantations were to be recited, and also the acts and equipment needed to accompany them. For example, in the Seventh

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Incantation (below), the required equipment includes a nefret-flower, a piece of deswood, and a strip of linen. The Eighth Incantation (XVIII 8–9; pp. 12–13) states that a man should protect himself against a disease-bearing wind by wearing a linen band inscribed with the Fifth Incantation around his neck; this will prevent the diseased air from entering his mouth and throat. 2. It is remarkable that some incantations in this papyrus identify the wind as a carrier of disease agents. This is the first known reference to the idea that pestilence could be transferred in the air. Directions given in the Second Incantation (below) indicate that the man must walk around outside his house while reciting the utterance, in order to prevent the plague wind from entering his home. 3. The Sixth Incantation (below) counteracts any undesirable effects experienced by a man who has accidentally swallowed a fly (regarded here as the potential bringer of disease). The incantation is not intended to cleanse the man himself but to render the fly ineffective by expelling it from the man’s stomach and intestines. Although this early identification of the fly as a disease carrier is striking, there is no indication that the Egyptians were aware of insects’ biological role in disease transmission. This knowledge has only become available as the result of modern analytical studies. 4. The Seventh Incantation (below) is intended to exorcise the disease pest from food, bedding, and household articles (see Document 28). This recalls modern attitudes to disinfecting food and items because they may harbor bacteria and viruses, but the Egyptians had no awareness of these disease-causing agents that microscopy has only revealed in recent centuries. As with the Sixth Incantation, the aim was to destroy the disease agent by means of a magical formula.

Document: The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus THE ANNUAL PLAGUE First Incantation: Conclusion (Vol.1: XVII 8–9; Vol. 2: Pls. XVIII; XVIIIA) Incantation against this year, with the breath of every evil wind. Horus, Horus, healthy despite Sekhmet, is around all my flesh for life.

THE WIND AS CARRIER OF DISEASE Second Incantation: Title (Vol. 1: XVIII 11–12; Vol. 2: XVIII, XVIIIA) Another (incantation) for exorcising the plague-bearing wind, the demons of disease, the malignant spirits, messengers of Sekhmet

Second Incantation (Vol. 1: XVIII 13–15; Vol. 2: Pls. XVIII, XVIIIA) Withdraw, ye disease demons. The wind shall not reach me, that those who pass by may pass by to work disaster against me. I am Horus who passes by the diseased ones of Sekhmet, (even) Horus, Horus, healthy despite Sekhmet. I am the unique one, son of Bastet. I die not through thee.

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THE FLY AS CARRIER OF DISEASE Sixth Incantation (Vol. 1: XIX 14–18; Vol. 2: Pls. XIX, XIXA) The mouth of this man who is under my fingers, and so forth, is the mouth of a [hungry] calf, when he comes forth from his mother’s womb. This insect which has entered into this his belly, (although) he has entered, shall come forth alive, issuing to the ground as earth or as excrement, without injuring his belly, (but) coming forth as his excrement from him, having been assigned to Akeru.

EXORCISING THE DISEASE PEST FROM FOOD, BEDDING, AND HOUSEHOLD ARTICLES Seventh Incantation: Directions for Pronouncing the Seventh Incantation (Vol. 1: XX 5–8; 2: Vol. 2: Pls. XX, XXA) Let a man say this incantation before a nefret-flower, bound to a piece of des-wood, and tied with a strip of linen. Let them be passed over the things; the pest will be exorcised, (and) the passage of the disease demons by everything that is eaten, likewise by the beds, will be prevented. Source: Breasted, J. H. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. Volume 1. Hieroglyphic Transliteration, Translation and Commentary. Volume 2. Facsimile Plates and Line for Line Hieroglyphic Transliteration. Chicago, 1930.

AFTERMATH

Akeru: an earth-god associated with excrement Bastet: the cat goddess, depicted with a woman’s body and feline head, who represented the benevolent aspect of Sekhmet; her main cult center was at Bubastis Des-wood: an unidentified timber Diseased ones of Sekhmet: demons who brought the pestilence Horus: he was requested for help because, as a young god, his health and strength enabled him to prevail against his enemies Mouth of a [hungry] calf: the mouth of a newborn calf was regarded as clean and pure; by identifying the man’s mouth with this purity, the spell seeks to ensure that he is not contaminated by the fly (the bearer of disease) Nefret-flower: an unidentified flower Plague-bearing wind: disease-bearing demons travelled through the air Sekhmet: usually shown as a lionessheaded woman, she was the goddess of warfare, strife, pestilence, and healing; her main cult centers were at Memphis and Karnak Those who pass by: hostile, disease-bearing demons who were carried on the wind

Archaeological and literary evidence indicates that Egyptian magic existed for at least four and a half thousand years: amulets can be dated from as early as the fourth millennium bce, and magical texts continued in use down to the fifth century ce. There is no indication that there was any development from superstitious beliefs into a more structured approach, or conversely, that there was a decline into magic after an era of “rational” belief and practice. Magic remained an essential factor in Egyptian civilization, and was widely used at all levels of society: ordinary people purchased spells and amulets to ward off evil, cure disease, and solve personal problems; funerary magic ensured the survival of the dead and their resurrection into a new life; and the king and priests practiced “state magic” inside the temples (see “Order and Chaos,” Document 12). Although the Egyptians developed some entirely rational medical procedures, magic continued to play an important and integrated role in treating patients. This is borne out by the content of medical papyri (see Document 20) from the later periods; for example, although Papyrus Vindob from Crocodilopolis (ca. 150 ce) includes no magical remedies, the London/Leiden Papyrus (ca. 250 ce) contains both rational treatments and spells to kill enemies and cure disease. Despite the continuing

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MAGIC AND MEDICINE Magic permeated almost all aspects of Egyptian civilization, including some treatments used for healing the sick. Although modern scholarship differentiates between “rational” and “irrational” or “magical” methods, this separation and distinction would have been meaningless to the Egyptians, who believed that different types of treatment were equally valid and could be used in conjunction with each other (see “The Mother’s Role in the Family,” Document 3). Nevertheless, it is possible to determine two main influences in their medical procedures—one based on magico-religious beliefs, and the other on scientific observations. Both “rational” and “irrational” treatments occur in the Medical Papyri—the main source of evidence for Egyptian medical practices. Magical treatments usually incorporated three main parts. First, utterance of the spell or incantation was expected to reach and cure the patient who could be treated at a distance. Second, performance of a ritual enabled the practitioner to transform his patient’s condition; it provided acts and gestures to accompany the spell, and sometimes included dances and music designed to create a particular mental state (see “Music and Worship,” Document 37; Document 36). The ritual might also incorporate agents such as water, wine, oil, perfumes, and incense. Again, even if the patient were absent, this treatment could be effectively carried out on a doll or wax image. Third, amulets were employed to bring special protection and healing to the wearer. There was a close association between the role of the magician (examples of both men and women occur) and the practitioner of medicine.

use of “nonrational” methods to treat the sick, it is probably true, as one author has claimed, that the Egyptians can be regarded as “the first in History to dare look at the other side of the abyss that separates magic from science” (Ghalioungui 1963: 171).

ASK YOURSELF 1. Which groups of disease did the Egyptians attribute to rational causes or to invisible “disease pests”? 2. Were there significant differences in the treatments recommended for those diseases and illnesses that were attributed to “rational” or “irrational” causes? 3. Why did the Egyptians retain magic alongside “rational” procedures for treating the sick?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Look at the contents of some medical papyri, and identify: (i) a set of treatments based on magic, and (ii) a set of “rational” treatments. H Use the Incantations given in the Edwin Smith Papyrus as the basis for a role-playing exercise. To recreates the magical procedures outlined in the text, make copies of the equipment detailed in the document, and then recite the utterances and carry out the associated rituals.

Further Information Breasted, J. H. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. Volume 1. Hieroglyphic Transliteration, Translation and Commentary. Volume 2. Facsimile Plates and Line for Line Hieroglyphic Transliteration. Chicago, 1930. David, R. (ed.). Egyptian Mummies and Modern Science. Cambridge, UK, 2008.

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Ghalioungui, P. Magic and Medical Science in Ancient Egypt. London, 1963. Leitz, C. Magical and Medical Papyri of the New Kingdom. London, 2000. Nunn, J. F. Ancient Egyptian Medicine. London, 2000. Pinch, G. Magic in Ancient Egypt. 2nd rev. ed. London, 2006. Ritner, R. “The Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice.” In T. A. Holland (ed.). Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, No.54. Chicago, 1993. Ritner, R. “The Religious, Social and Legal Parameters of Traditional Egyptian Magic.” In M. Meyer and P. Mirecki (eds.). Ancient Magic and Ritual Power. Leiden, The Netherlands, New York, and Cologne, Germany, 1995: 43–60.

Websites Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus: http://www.realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/ Misc/Writing/The_first_ancient_writing.htm. Kom Ombo Medical Instruments: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/kom%20ombos/index .htm (see under Kom Ombo: Picture%20148001.htm). Mummy: The Inside Story: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/egypt/ mummy_the_inside_story.aspx.

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47. A SACRED SPACE INTRODUCTION There were two types of temple in ancient Egypt. Sun-temples, associated with the cult of the sun-god, had roofless courtyards and chambers, designed to allow the deity, in the form of light and heat, to have direct access to his sanctuary. They were central to the worship of the sun-god Re in Dynasty 5 (ca. 2494 bce–2345 bce) (see Documents 45, 50), and to the cult of the Aten at the end of Dynasty 18 (ca. 1379 bce–ca. 1361 bce) (see “Music and Worship,” Document 37; Document 43). However, there was another concept of temple building that probably had its roots in the reed shrines of the Predynastic Period (ca. 5000 bce–ca. 3100 bce). Two different types of temple developed within this tradition: the “divine” or cultus-temples and the “royal” or mortuary temples. This excerpt is from an inscription on a black granite stela originally located in the mortuary temple of Amenhotep III (1417 bce–1379 bce) at Thebes (see Document 25). Little remains today of Amenhotep III’s vast temple on the Theban west bank, apart from two gigantic statues now known as the “Colossi of Memnon,” which once flanked the entrance to the building.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The magical rites performed to transform the temple into a primeval island and spiritually “activate” the building and its contents were believed to make it a place of great spiritual potency where mankind could approach the gods. 2. The enclosure wall that surrounded the temple and its subsidiary buildings was constructed with bricks arranged in alternate concave and convex sections, to simulate the waves of the primeval ocean (Nun) from which the Island of Creation first emerged. 3. The registers of scenes on the exterior and interior walls of these temples depicted either historical events (successful military campaigns, coronation, consecration of the temple, etc.), or some of the rites regularly performed within the building.

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Document: Temple Architecture (The Stela of Amenhotep III from His Mortuary Temple in Western Thebes) He made as his monument for his father Amun . . . the building for him of an august temple on the west side of Thebes, a monument of eternity and everlastingness, of fine sandstone worked with gold throughout. Its pavements were made pure with silver, all its doors with fine gold. It is very wide and great and decorated enduringly. It is adorned with this very great monument, Amun: the god of Thebes whose main and enriched with statues of the lord, of granite from Yebu, of cult center was at Karnak; he was gritstone, and all kinds of costly stones, worked in enduring workalso worshipped in Amenhotep III’s manship. Their height rises to heaven. Their rays fall on the faces mortuary temple where rituals were like Aten when he shines at dawn. It is equipped with a station of also performed for the deceased king the lord, worked with gold and many costly stones. Flagstaffs are Aten: the sun-god whose cult set up before it, worked with fine gold. It resembles the horizon developed and flourished during of heaven when Re rises in it. Its pond is filled by great Hapy; it the reign of Amenhotep III. has fish and fowl and is adorned with plants. Its workhouse is filled Atenism was later promoted as a with male and female slaves and with children of the princes of form of monotheism by his son, every foreign country that his majesty despoiled. Its storerooms Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] (contain) goods that cannot be counted. It is surrounded by Syrian (1379 bce–1362 bce) settlements, inhabited by the children of the princes. Its cattle are Children of the princes of every like the sands of the shore; they total millions. foreign country: the offspring of conquered/vassal princes of citySource: Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. states in Syria/Palestine who were The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 44. brought to Egypt after military campaigns to be educated and “Egyptianised” (see Document 34) AFTERMATH Enriched with statues of the lord: statues of the king The Ptolemaic and Roman rulers of the Greco-Roman Period Flagstaffs: flag poles were an integral (305 bce–ca. 395 ce) chose to support the native Egyptian gods feature of a temple façade and their priesthoods. Their building programmes produced some Hapy: this Nile god, depicted with a of the best preserved, most impressive Egyptian temples, notahermaphrodite form, was regarded bly the cult centers dedicated to Hathor at Denderah, Horus at as a guarantor of food for Egypt Edfu, Haroeris and Sobek at Kom Ombo, Khnum at Esna, and Horizon of heaven: the place where Isis at Philae. Underpinned by the same mythology and ritual rethe sun-god Re appeared each dawn quirements as the pharaonic temples, these buildings retain all the Slaves: the prisoners of war brought main features of the earlier structures, and also incorporate some back to Egypt from military new ideas. For example, special subterranean crypts were built into campaigns in Syria/Palestine (see the walls to store the gods’ sacred possessions; and chapels and kiDocument 16) osks were constructed on the rooftop of the main temple, so that Station of the lord: the place where they could be incorporated into some rituals or utilized as way stathe king stood or sat during temple tions (resting places) for the heavy statues that the priests transceremonies ported during sacred processions. Columns were still decorated to symbolize the abundant vegetation of the Island of Creation,

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and a new capital composed of various plant forms was added. Minor architectural changes included the introduction of a different method of lighting the temple: small shafts were now cut into the stone roof to allow light to enter the chambers beneath, replacing the clerestory lighting (stone grids inserted between the roof and the top of the walls), which had been used in pharaonic temples. Perhaps the most interesting innovation was the Mammisi [birth house], a small building inside the complex, which copied the architecture of the main temple. Some temples hosted a divine triad of father, mother, and child; in earlier times, the divine child’s birth had been celebrated inside the main temple, but now the rites took place in the Mammisi. Because they identified the king with the divine child and emphasized his right to rule the country as the gods’ chosen heir, these rituals were particularly important to the Ptolemies and Romans because they legitimatized them as the bona fide rulers of Egypt.

Syrian settlements: the special accommodation within the temple precinct where captive foreigners were housed This very great monument: the stela of Amenhotep III West side of Thebes: the location of the royal cemeteries and mortuary temples during the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce) Yebu: Elephantine (near modern Aswan), the main source of granite supplies

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE The Egyptian temple was a sacred space. Unlike cities and palaces (see “Towns and Palaces,” Document 11), temples were built to last for eternity, accommodating continuous rituals that, it was believed, enabled the state to function effectively (see “The Egyptian Temple,” Document 44). Cultus temples were always designed to be freestanding buildings; early mud-brick structures were replaced by monumental stone buildings from the New Kingdom onward. Mortuary temples, which had their origins in the royal cult complex attached to the pyramid, were designed to accommodate the perpetual rites performed to sustain the king’s spirit after death. When the New Kingdom (1567 bce–1085 bce) rulers decided to discontinue pyramids in favor of rock-cut tombs in the Valley of the Kings, there was no space to build a dedicated temple adjacent to the tomb, and so the mortuary temple now became a separate, freestanding building, usually located on the west bank opposite the city of Thebes. Mythological and ritual considerations defined the basic form, layout, and architectural features of both cultus and mortuary temples. There is little variation in their design, except that, whereas cultus temples only accommodated the god’s rituals, mortuary temples provided additional space for rites performed to ensure the king’s immortality. Three principal mythological concepts dictated the design of these temples: each building recreated the “Island of Creation” (see “Creation Myths,” Document 42), and was also the “Mansion of the God” (see Document 44), and a microcosm of the universe. These concepts were also expressed in the main architectural features of the temple. Accommodation for the god (whose spirit was present in his cult statue) closely resembled domestic architecture: there was a reception space (a columned (hypostyle) hall), sleeping area (sanctuary), and storage rooms for the god’s cult possessions. Paintings on the temple ceilings represented the heavens, and emphasized the building’s cosmological significance, while other architectural features dramatically recreated the fertile environment and abundant vegetation of the Island of Creation. At the base of the interior walls, sculptured friezes depicted the island’s plants, while the stone columns and capitals were carved to represent palms, papyrus, and lotus flowers. The presence of these plant forms in the temple was intended to ensure the fertility of Egypt’s people and its crops.

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ASK YOURSELF 1. Why was the temple explained simultaneously as the god’s house, a microcosm of the universe, and the Island of Creation? 2. How many people (priests and laity) did the temples employ? 3. What building materials were used to construct and decorate the temples? 4. Apart from the main temple, what other buildings are likely to have been included inside the temple complex? Why have they not been preserved as well as the temple itself?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Study the plans and illustrations of some of the most important Egyptian temples. Draw a ground plan of a New Kingdom/Greco-Roman Period cultus or mortuary temple, and where the information is available, identify the area and space allocation used for each of the major rituals/processions. H Why did the Egyptians retain the same architectural designs for their temples for thousands of years? How effectively did their architects deliver concepts and buildings that could fulfill both practical and ritual requirements?

Further Information David, R. A Guide to Religious Ritual at Abydos. Warminster, UK, 1981. Dorman, P. F. and Bryan, B. (eds.). Sacred Space and Sacred Function in Ancient Thebes. Chicago, 2007. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Murnane, W. J. United with Eternity: A Concise Guide to the Monuments of Medinet Habu. Chicago, 1980. Quirke, S. (ed.). The Temple in Ancient Egypt: New Discoveries and Recent Research. London, 1997 Shafer, B. E., Arnold, A., Haeny, G., Bell, L., Finnestad, R. B. (eds.). Temples of Ancient Egypt. Ithaca, NY, 1991. Wilkinson, R. H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London, 2000.

Websites Colossi of Memnon, Funerary Temple of Amenhotep III: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/ memnon/pages/Picture%20070001.htm. Hypostyle Hall, Denderah: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/dendara/index.htm (see under Temple of Dendara: pages/Dendara%20069.htm).

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48. PREPARING THE BURIAL INTRODUCTION Herodotus’ writings describe the history and geography of Egypt, and include speculations about the Egyptians’ strange religious beliefs and customs. His writings are potent and credible because they provide a firsthand account of places he visited on his extensive travels, when he had the opportunity to talk to local people and gain information about monuments, customs, and beliefs. His journey to Egypt in ca. 450 bce may have taken him as far as the First Cataract on the Nile; however, since his descriptions concentrate on the north of Egypt and make no reference to the magnificent monuments in the southern capital, Thebes, some scholars have maintained that he probably never reached Egypt’s southern border. Although mummification was practiced in Egypt for over 3,000 years, there is no extant Egyptian description of this procedure. We have to rely on Classical literature: Herodotus is the most important literary source, and his description is augmented by the account given by Diodorus Siculus in the first book of his Universal History (late first century bce). The text below contains excerpts from Herodotus’ description of mummification.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. In addition to the literary sources, scientific and historical studies of the mummies have provided evidence about the mummification procedure (see Documents 8, 41). 2. Studies of individual bodies have demonstrated that there was considerable variation in mummification procedures, probably due to several factors including cost, and when and where the mummy was prepared. Evisceration and/or dehydration with natron were not universal, and some mummies received additional treatments with oils, ointments, resin, and plants or plant products. 3. Only two major innovations occurred in mummification over a time span of 3,000 years. The brain was removed from some mummies, from at least as early as the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce). In Dynasty 21 (1085 bce–945 bce), the embalmers attempted to make the body plumper, more lifelike, and readily recognizable to the owner’s spirit, by making small incisions in the skin through which packing (sand, sawdust, earth, butter, or linen) was inserted.

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Mummification preserved the bodies of deceased royalty and wealthy individuals from at least ca. 2800 bce. Natron was used to dehydrate the body, which was then embalmed with spices and resins before being wrapped in linen cloths and bandages. (Ridpath, John Clark, Ridpath’s History of the World, 1901)

Document: Techniques of Mummification (Herodotus, The Histories, Book 2: Paras. 86–88) The embalmers, when a body is brought to them, produce specimen models in wood, painted to resemble nature, and graded in quality . . .

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The most perfect process is as follows: as much as possible of the brain is extracted through the nostrils with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is rinsed out with drugs; next the flank is laid open with a flint knife and the whole contents of the abdomen removed; the cavity is then thoroughly cleansed and washed out, first with palm wine and again with an infusion of pounded spices. After that it is filled with pure bruised myrrh, cassia, and every other aromatic substance with the exception of frankincense, and sewn up again, after which the body is placed in natrum, covered entirely over, for seventy days—never longer. When this period, Embalmers: a special group of which must not be exceeded, is over, the body is washed and then hereditary priests, members of the wrapped from head to foot in linen cut into strips and smeared on guild of undertakers, who supervised the underside with gum, which is commonly used by the Egyptians the mummification process instead of glue. In this condition the body is given back to the famEmbalming: the process of intentional ily, who have a wooden case made, shaped like the human figure, mummification, designed to into which it is put. The case is then sealed up and stored in a sepulpreserve the body after death chral chamber, upright against the wall. Natrum: usually referred to as “natron” When, for reasons of expense, the second quality is called for, Sepulchral chamber: the burial the treatment is different: no incision is made and the intestines chamber are not removed, but oil of cedar is injected with a syringe into the body through the anus which is afterwards stopped up to prevent the liquid from escaping. [Herodotus then describes how the body is placed in natrum for a specified period; on the final day, the oil is drained off, bringing away the liquefied stomach, intestines and flesh so that only the bones and skin remain on the body.] [Finally, he describes the third method which]. . . . used for embalming the bodies of the poor, is simply to clear out the intestines with a purge and keep the body seventy days in natrum.

MUMMIFICATION The earliest burial custom universally practiced in Egypt was to place the dead in shallow graves in the desert (ca. 5000–ca. 3400 bce); this resulted in desiccation and preservation of the skeleton and body tissues (“natural mummification”) (see Documents 27, 50). From ca. 3400 bce, a new type of burial place—the mastaba tomb—was introduced for the elite, but because their bodies were now interred in underground brick-lined burial chambers, natural preservation no longer occurred, and decomposition rapidly developed. However, a preserved, recognizable body was considered essential, because the owner’s ka, when it returned to the tomb, needed to be able to enter the body in order to absorb spiritual sustenance from the tomb food offerings. To meet this requirement, the Egyptians experimented, and ultimately succeeded in developing an artificial method of preserving the body (known today as “true mummification” or “intentional mummification”). It is uncertain when this method was introduced, but it was used for royal burials from ca. 2650 bce. The process gradually became available to all who could afford it, but most people continued to be interred in shallow desert graves, where environmental conditions ensured natural preservation of their bodies. According to Herodotus, embalmers could offer three grades of intentional mummification, available according to cost: the key stages of the most expensive method involved removal of all the internal organs except the heart and kidneys, and the application of natron to dehydrate the body tissues.

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[After the second and third methods, the body is returned to the family without any further treatment.] Source: de Sélincourt, A. (tr.). Herodotus: The Histories. Book 2, para. 86–88. Harmondsworth, UK, 1961: 133–34.

AFTERMATH Herodotus visited Egypt at a time when the country was under Persian control. Later, in the Greco-Roman Period (30 bce–fourth century ce), foreigners from other parts of the Hellenistic world settled permanently in Egypt. Some adopted Egyptian funerary customs, including mummification (see Document 1). Radiographic evidence obtained from mummies of this period demonstrates that, although the bandaging and cartonnage that encases the mummies are often elaborate, the bodies inside the wrappings are often badly preserved. A number of factors probably led to falling standards: the pressure of increased demand for the service, a decline in professionalism among the embalmers, and the fact that mummification was now perceived as a demonstration of wealth and social aspirations rather than firmly held religious beliefs. Mummification survived the decline of ancient Egyptian religion, and continued to be practiced in the Christian era (first century ce–641 ce), only disappearing when Islam arrived in Egypt in the seventh century ce.

ASK YOURSELF 1. How, when and why did the Persians conquer Egypt, and what was their impact on the country? 2. Why was Herodotus so impressed with Egypt? Why did he think it was so strange? 3. Why did mummification survive for so long in Egypt? 4. What information can scientific and analytical studies of mummies provide about disease, lifestyle, mummification, and religious beliefs and customs in Egypt?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Scholars have questioned the accuracy of the “factual evidence” that Herodotus provides in his writings, claiming that his local informants were either ignorant or provided him with false information because they did not wish to share secret knowledge with an outsider. The priests are accredited as his source for mummification, but has scientific methodology been able to validate the mummification procedures he describes? (See Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries: 292–94; David, The Manchester Museum Mummy Project: 19–24). Discuss the contribution these studies have made to assessing Herodotus’ authenticity as a historian. H Read some reports of scientific investigations carried out on Egyptian mummies (many are summarized in Aufderheide, The Scientific Study of Mummies). Consider

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the advantages and disadvantages of the analytical techniques available for studying mummies, and assess the information they provide about disease, lifestyle, medical treatment, and funerary customs in ancient Egypt. H Discuss some of the ways in which data from mummies can contribute to modern disease studies.

Further Information Aufderheide, A. C. The Scientific Study of Mummies. Cambridge, UK, 2003. David, R. (ed.). The Manchester Museum Mummy Project. Interdisciplinary Research on Ancient Egyptian Mummified Remains. Manchester, UK, 1979. de Sélincourt, A. (tr.). Herodotus: The Histories. Book 2. Harmondsworth, UK, 1961. Lucas, A. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries. 4th rev. ed., J. R. Harris. London, 1962. Nicholson, P. T. and Shaw, I. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK, 2000.

Websites Hawass, Z., Gad, Y., Ismail, S. et al. “Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun’s Family,” The Journal of the American Medical Association, February 17, 2010, 303(7): 638–47: http://jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=185393. Royal Mummies Catalogue: http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/eos/eos_title.pl?callnum= DT57.C2_vol59. Theban Royal Mummy Project: http://members.tripod.com/anubis4_2000/mummypages1 /intro.htm.

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49. THE DAY OF JUDGMENT INTRODUCTION In Chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead (“Book of Coming Forth by Day”), the deceased owner recites the Negative Confession in which he/she protests innocence of a variety of sins and misdemeanors (see Document 7). The Egyptians believed that this declaration would take place in front of a tribunal of 42 gods (representing the nomes of Egypt) led by Osiris, the divine king of the underworld. If successful, this preliminary stage in the judgment of the deceased would guarantee his/her access to the afterlife. This denial of a series of misdeeds (some of which the deceased may have actually committed) attempted to fool the gods and ensure a good outcome in the ensuing judgment. The Book of the Dead, the best known of the “magical guides to the hereafter,” evolved directly from the Coffin Texts (see “The Coffin Texts,” Document 8; Document 27). Attributed to the divine authorship of Thoth, god of writing, it incorporated a series of chapters or spells intended to ensure the resurrection of the deceased owner and facilitate his entry into the underworld. The spells, arranged in chapters, were written in cursive hieroglyphs on mass-produced papyrus scrolls to which the owner’s name and titles were added at the time of purchase. The content of the text was illustrated with vignettes (small scenes drawn in colored inks, which provide details of contemporary clothing and hairstyles). The scrolls were readily affordable and available to a wide range of buyers, and could be placed either in the coffin, in a niche in the tomb wall, or sometimes inside a hollowed-out wooden figurine of the funerary gods Osiris or Ptah-Soker-Osiris. A universally accepted sequence of spells was not finalized until Dynasty 26 (664 bce–525 bce), and no single papyrus contains all the known chapters (192 have so far been identified). This excerpt is taken from an English translation of Chapter 125, which has been compiled from several manuscripts.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. Those who received a successful verdict at the Day of Judgment were given the additional title of “Osiris,” which prefaced a person’s own name: “the Osiris NAME.” When this title—intended to demonstrate that the owner, like Osiris, had triumphed over death—occurs in inscriptions, it is translated as: “the deceased, NAME.”

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2. The Negative Confession encapsulates ancient Egyptian morals and ethics. The excerpt below defines the expected code of behavior: piety toward the gods and honest treatment of fellow human beings. It makes many allusions to the agricultural environment of ancient Egypt. Aroura: A Greek word for an Egyptian land measurement (stjat), roughly two-thirds of an acre Bark of the Governor: the sacred boat in which the sun-god, Re (the Governor), sailed the heavens Cakes of the blessed dead: the food offerings regularly placed at the tomb during the rituals performed for the deceased tomb owner Cattle of the god’s property: the cattle that belonged to the estates owned by the temples Diverted water in its season: some people deflected the Nile water to benefit themselves when it was being channeled from the river to irrigate the land Encroached upon the fields: to take the land that belonged to someone else God in his procession: that is, during the festivals Neglected the days concerning their meat offerings: individuals were expected to present portions of meat—the most expensive food offerings—to the gods and the dead. Here, the person assures the gods that he has not shirked this duty Offering cakes of the gods: the food offerings presented to the gods as part of the regular temple rituals Offering loaves in the temples: this is a reassurance that the full quota of food offerings has been presented to the gods as part of the regular temple rituals, and not diverted to the speaker for his own benefit Place of Truth: the name for the temple and necropolis

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Document: The Book of the Dead, Chapter 125 (Several Texts) THE NEGATIVE CONFESSION I have not done injustice in the place of Truth. I do not know that which should not be. I have not done evil. My name has not reached the bark of the Governor. I have not debased a god. I have not deprived an orphan. I have not done that which the gods abominate. I have not slandered a servant to his superior. I have not caused pain. I have not caused weeping. I have not killed. I have not commanded to kill. I have not made suffering for anyone. I have not diminished the offering loaves in the temples. I have not damaged the offering cakes of the gods. I have not stolen the cakes of the blessed dead. I have not copulated. I have not been lascivious. I have not added to nor have I subtracted from the offering measure. I have not subtracted from the aroura measure. I have not encroached upon the fields. I have not added to the weight of the balance. I have not tampered with the plummet of the scales. I have not taken milk from the mouths of children. I have not deprived the flocks of their pasturage. I have not snared birds of the branches of the gods. I have not trapped fish in their marshes. I have not diverted water in its season. I have not erected a dam against flowing water. I have not extinguished a fire at its critical moment. I have not neglected the days concerning their meat offerings. I have not driven away the cattle of the god’s property. I have not stopped a god in his procession. I am pure, I am pure, I am pure, I am pure!

The Day of Judgment

Source: Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003: 269–70.

THE DAY OF JUDGMENT The concept of a Day of Judgment became widespread in the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce), as part of the general democratization of funerary beliefs and practices associated with Osiris (see “Festivals,” Document 39; Document 38). Individual eternity, now possible for commoners as well as the king, could be achieved through demonstrable personal devotion to the gods, burial according to the correct procedure, and a satisfactory verdict at the Day of Judgment. At this trial, every deceased person faced 42 divine judges who assessed his/her moral fitness to continue life in Osiris’ kingdom. The principal vignette that accompanied Chapter 125 on papyri and some coffin decorations shows a key event in the Day of Judgment—the scene of weighing the heart of the deceased owner. He/she stands before the gods, and is defended by Thoth, the ibisheaded god of writing; addressing each judge in turn, the deceased recites the Negative Confession to confirm innocence of serious crimes and offences. The scene depicts a large balance: one pan holds a feather, the symbol of Ma’at, goddess of truth and justice (who stands nearby), while the opposite one contains the deceased’s heart (symbolizing individual emotions and intellect). The goddesses of fate and destiny (Meskhenet and Renenutet) testify on behalf of the deceased’s moral character; if the gods decide in his/her favor, the heart and the feather will balance each other in the scales. The verdict is announced by Thoth who confirms the person’s innocence by declaring that he/she is “true of voice” or “vindicated” (this phrase, customarily added after the owner’s name, indicated that a person was deceased). Once the verdict has been ratified by the divine judges, the deceased, reunited with his/her ba, enters the underworld kingdom of Osiris. However, if the judges return a guilty verdict, the deceased’s heart will be thrown to a mythical, hybrid beast, known as the “Devourer,” who is shown crouching at the side of the balance. Once the heart has been eaten, any chance of eternal life will be lost, and the owner will face oblivion.

AFTERMATH The Egyptians generally aspired to the high moral values set out in the Negative Confession. However, they also believed that the efficacy of any religious ceremony depended more on the correct performance of the rite and accuracy of the spoken words than on truth and understanding. On this basis, it was possible for a sinner to obtain a verdict of innocence from the divine tribunal, if armed with the necessary knowledge of magic to respond appropriately at the Day of Judgment. Success depended on the ability to recite the Negative Confession, which denied all crimes, and utilize the magical ploys specified in the texts. However, it is not clear if they really believed that the divine judges would accept such a circumvention of the truth.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Based on the evidence of the Book of the Dead, what were the main moral and ethical criteria that provided the basis for life in ancient Egypt?

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2. To what extent do the New Kingdom funerary books demonstrate the success of religious democratization in ancient Egypt? 3. Why was Osiris such an effective role model, and why did ordinary people try to emulate his spiritual and moral victory over evil?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H On the basis of the detailed information provided in the Book of the Dead, discuss whether you would like to have lived in ancient Egypt. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of that moral and ethical climate, and compare them with behavioral standards in modern societies. H Hemmed in by seas and deserts, ancient Egypt functioned to some extent in a political and social vacuum, but empire and trading connections brought it into contact with other important civilizations in the area (e.g., the Minoans (Crete), Hittites, Babylonians, Assyrians). Look for some information about the moral and ethical criteria of these societies, and compare them with the contemporary Egyptian attitudes. H Look at a copy of a papyrus inscribed with the Book of the Dead, and identify a vignette showing the Day of Judgment scene. Write a play (dramatic sketch) that involves the main characters enacting their parts in the judgment procedure; put on a theatrical production of this play, designing and making scenery “props” (e.g., the weighing scales), and appropriate costumes for the characters.

Further Information Allen, T. G. The Egyptian Book of the Dead. Documents in the Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago. Chicago, 1935–60. Faulkner, R. O. The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Coming Forth by Day. San Francisco, CA, 2008. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976: 119–20, 124–32. Maystre, C. Les déclarations d’innocence (Livre des Morts, chapitre 125). Cairo, 1937. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003.

Websites Day of Judgment, Papyrus of Ani: http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_on line/search.aspx? searchTex=papyrus+ani. Weighing the Heart: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/ room_62–63_egyptian_mummies.aspx.

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50. THE K ING’S R ELATIONSHIP WITH THE GODS INTRODUCTION The Pyramid Texts were an important expression of divine kingship (see Document 31, 36). They provided a set of spells to ensure that the deceased king, buried within his pyramid, would ascend to the heavens where, transformed into a god, he would sail with the other gods in the sun-god’s sacred ship (see “Divine Kingship and Regicide,” Document 30). As shown in the following excerpts, it was believed that the force of magic would make these utterances potent and bring about a desired result. Many of these spells requested the gods’ assistance, and sought to ensure the king’s resurrection and ascent to heaven, whereas others asserted his strength and ability to use magic to threaten the gods and gain supremacy over them. One passage (usually referred to as the “Cannibal Hymn” since it encapsulates the belief that the powers of one’s enemies can be absorbed by eating their flesh) describes how the king eats the cooked limbs of the gods to avail himself of their powers. There is no evidence that cannibalism existed in Egypt at this time, but as this passage also mentions assembling the bones of the deceased, an early practice in existence before mummification was introduced (see “Mummification,” Document 48), the hymn may have its origins in the Predynastic Period (ca. 5000 bce–ca. 3100 bce).

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The Egyptologist Gaston Maspero first discovered these texts in 1880 ce while excavating the pyramid of Pepy I (2332 bce–2283 bce). The last examples were found by Gustave Jéquier in 1920 ce and 1936 ce. 2. Although Maspero was responsible for the first edition and translation of the texts, the earliest standard work was produced by a German scholar, Kurt Sethe, who based his study on inscriptions from the five Saqqara pyramids. Although the archaic style and vocabulary of the texts have always impeded translation and interpretation, they continue to attract scholarly interest and debate.

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Document: The Pyramid Texts (Several Pyramids) THE KING’S JOURNEY TO THE SKY Utterance 267: “An address to Osiris and another to Re” Para 365: A stairway to the sky is set up for me that I may ascend on it to the sky, and I ascend on the smoke of the great censing Para 366: I fly up as a bird and alight as a beetle; I fly up as a bird and alight as a beetle on the empty throne which is in your bark, O Re! Utterance 467: “An ‘Ascension’ Text” Paras 890–892: Someone flies up, I fly up from you, O men; I am not for the earth, I am for the sky. O you local god of mine, Bark [barque]: the sacred ship of Re my double is beside you, for I have soared to the sky as a heron, I in which the gods sailed in the sky have kissed the earth as a falcon, I have reached the sky as a locust Double: the ka or duplicate personality which hides (?) the sun. that accompanied an individual throughout life and beyond death The Cannibal Hymn Great Ones in the north of the sky: the circumpolar stars Utterances 273–274 Incense-burning: cleansing with Paras 403–406: It is the King who eats their magic and gulps incense down their spirits; their big ones are for his morning meal, their Stairway to the sky: possibly the middle-sized ones are for his evening meal, their little ones for his pyramid night meal, their old men and their old women are assigned for Thighs of their eldest ones: their his incense-burning; it is the Great Ones in the north of the sky limbs were used as fuel who set the fire for him to the cauldrons containing them, with the Those who are in the sky: probably thighs of their eldest ones. Those who are in the sky serve the one of the constellations King, and the hearth-stones are wiped over for him with the feet of their women. Source: Faulkner, R. O. The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Oxford, UK, 1969: pp. 76, 81, 156.

THE PYRAMID TEXTS The Pyramid Texts are the world’s oldest extant substantial source of religious literature. They were inscribed on the walls of the burial chamber and adjacent areas in pyramids at Saqqara, which belonged to five kings (ca. 2345 bce–ca. 2181 bce), and to a later king, Ibi (Dynasty 8, ca. 2137 bce). Although the spells were designed to secure the king’s afterlife, they are also found inside the pyramids of three queens of Pepy II (ca. 2190 bce). They were compiled by the priests at the cult center of Re at Heliopolis (see “Creation Myths,” Document 42). Most utterances occur more than once, and a few are repeated in all the pyramids; their physical arrangement on the walls may reflect the sequence of part of the burial service, perhaps indicating that the priests chanted these spells (“utterances”) as they accompanied the king’s body to its final resting place. By this

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period, economic, political, and religious factors had reduced the king’s power; smaller, poorer-quality pyramids were being constructed (see “The Cult of the Sun-God in the Old Kingdom,” Document 45), and centuries of tomb-robbing had demonstrated that architectural or physical devices could not effectively protect royal burials. The texts therefore provided an alternative method of securing the king’s eternity. Although the main emphasis was on the royal celestial afterlife and its association with Re, the texts also incorporated other mythology (especially the resurrection of the god Osiris (see Document 49)) that might enhance the king’s chances of immortality.

AFTERMATH The Pyramid Texts describe Re and Osiris as guarantors of the king’s survival after death. This continuity was assured because both gods represented the cyclical pattern of life, death, and rebirth observed in the natural world. However, by the Middle Kingdom, Osiris, who offered a chance of individual eternity to rich and poor alike, had triumphed and become universally popular, in contrast to Re whose cult now entered a period of decline. This greatly enhanced worship of Osiris had a major impact on the development of the Pyramid Texts during the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2181 bce–ca.1991 bce) and Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce): as an individual eternity was no longer regarded as a royal monopoly, the texts were modified for nonroyal use, and became the Coffin Texts (see “The Coffin Texts,” Document 8).

ASK YOURSELF 1. How do the spells in the Pyramid Texts attempt to ensure that the king’s journey to the sky is successful? 2. What were the economic, political, and religious factors that prompted the introduction of the Pyramid Texts? 3. Do we know anything about the events at the end of the Old Kingdom that led to the emergence of a more democratic concept of the afterlife?

TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H The Pyramid Texts were compiled by the priests of Re at Heliopolis. Consult further information given in I.E.S. Edwards’ Pyramids of Egypt (see below), and discuss why these priests were so important, and how they exercised their power. H Although the king, as the son of the gods, was theoretically an unchallenged ruler, in reality he did not have absolute power. Discuss the factors that circumscribed his authority, and consider the ways in which the Pyramid Texts, in contrast, attempted to make him supreme in the heavens.

Further Information Edwards, I.E.S. The Pyramids of Egypt. Harmondsworth, UK, 1985. Faulkner, R. O. The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Oxford, UK, 1969.

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Firth, C. M. and Gunn, B. Excavations at Saqqara: The Teti Pyramid Cemeteries. 2 vols. Cairo, 1926. (reprinted ed. 2007). Lauer, J-P. Saqqara. The Royal Cemetery of Memphis. Excavations and Discoveries since 1850. London, 1976. Mercer, S.A.B. The Pyramid Texts in Translation and Commentary. New York, London, and Toronto, 1952. Piankoff, A. The Pyramid of Unas. Princeton, NJ, 1968.

Websites Giza Plateau: http://www.aeraweb.org/projects/gpmp/pyramids. Solar Boat, Giza: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/giza_boat/index.htm.

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51. A DVOCATING SUICIDE? INTRODUCTION This unique text is preserved in Papyrus Berlin 3024, which dates from the Middle Kingdom (1991 bce–1786 bce). The early part of this interesting but controversial document is missing but probably described the unbearable conditions endured by the author that led him to the point of considering suicide. His Ba encouraged him to take this action but then refused to support him because it feared that, without a prepared tomb and the provision of tomb goods and funerary meals, it would face hunger and deprivation in the afterlife. The extant text, from which the following excerpts have been taken, consists of an introduction and four poems, which probably present the arguments of the man and his soul in support of and against the choice of suicide. The man fears that, if his soul deserts him, he will face annihilation instead of resurrection and immortal life; therefore, he tries to persuade the soul to remain with him by describing how he will safeguard it against any distressful conditions. However, the Ba counteracts this by emphasizing the sadness of death and urging the man to appreciate the joys of life. The man’s response is contained in the poems: the first two recount the sorrows of his life; in contrast, the third and fourth poems describe the release and happiness that death will bring. Finally, the soul agrees to remain with the man provided he will not hasten his own death (“if thou rejectest the West”), but will await a natural demise, so that the man and his soul can then continue together in the afterlife.

KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ 1. The First and Second Poems describe chaotic conditions of political and social unrest. However, unlike the general description of national upheaval, which is provided in other texts (see Document 12), this document appears to present a personal response to difficult circumstances. 2. In the final paragraph, the soul confirms that he will join the man when he finally meets a natural death and reaches the West. According to Egyptian belief, the Ba (depicted in funerary art as a human-headed bird) was one element of the individual human personality, but it retained its freewill, and could choose whether or not to be reunited with its owner after death. It could also leave the deceased’s

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body and move independently outside the tomb, travelling to places the owner had enjoyed visiting when alive. 3. Sometimes, a wooden figurine of the Ba, represented as a resting bird, was placed on the coffin, positioned above the chest area of the mummy inside. This recalls the assurance given by the Ba in this text that it will “alight after you rest” (i.e., after the man’s death).

Document: The Dispute between a Man and His Soul (Papyrus Berlin 3024) From the First Poem: Lo, my name is abhorred, Lo, more than the odour of carrion On days in summer, when the sky is hot. Lo, my name is abhorred. Lo, more than catching fish On the day of the catch, when the sky is hot. From the Second Poem: To whom do I speak today? Brothers are evil, Friends of today, they are not lovable. To whom do I speak today? Men are covetous, Every one seizeth his neighbour’s goods . . . To whom do I speak today? There are none that are righteous. The earth is given over to the workers of iniquity . . . To whom do I speak today? The sin that smiteth the land, It hath no end. From the Third Poem: Death is before me today As when a sick man becometh whole, As when one walketh abroad after sickness. Death is before me today As the odour of myrrh, As when one sitteth under the sail on a windy day . . .

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Death is before me today As the odour of lotus flowers, As when one sitteth on the shore of drunkenness . . . Death is before me today As when a man longeth to see his house again, After he hath spent many years in captivity. The Soul’s Speech to the Man This is what my soul said unto me: Cast aside (?) lamentation, my comrade, my brother .  .  . I will abide here, if thou rejectest the West. But when thou reachest the West, and thy body is reunited with the earth, then I will alight after that thou restest. Let us have an abode together.

Myrrh: an aromatic substance, used especially in religious rituals Sitteth on the shore of drunkenness: a feast on the riverbank Sitteth under the sail on a windy day: this probably means “released from rowing” Walketh abroad after sickness: this probably means “goes outside after confinement”

Source: Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927: 89–92.

THE CONCEPT OF SUICIDE The idea of suicide was anathema to the Egyptians: they loved life and sought to prolong it, using medical treatments and cosmetics to ward off old age and death. Through the provision of a well-equipped burial place, they tried to continue the joys of life, believing that the afterlife was an eternal, idealized version of this world, but without danger or illness (see “The Coffin Texts,” Document 8). This document, a literary masterpiece of the ancient world, presents an alternative viewpoint. Although unique in expressing the author’s personal response to social upheaval, the text belongs to the genre known as the Pessimistic Literature (see “The Pessimistic Literature”, Document 9). According to one scholarly assessment, the man is driven to contemplate suicide because of his individual circumstances. Another interpretation proposes that the man is not contemplating suicide but is weary of life and looks forward to a natural death; however, since burial arrangements cannot be guaranteed during a time of chaos, even death and the afterlife are to be feared. The text presents a profound exploration of individual fears and self-doubts about life and death.

AFTERMATH Literary sources do not always support the archaeological evidence. Whereas tombs and their contents imply that the Egyptians held an unquestioning belief in the hereafter, some literary sources suggest that they harbored doubts about their society and the existence of an afterlife.

ASK YOURSELF 1. Was the concept of suicide entirely alien to Egyptian beliefs, and if so, why? 2. What steps did the soul expect the man to take to ensure that they shared a comfortable existence in the next world?

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TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES TO CONSIDER H Discuss the similarities and differences between The Dispute between a Man and His Soul and The Admonitions of Ipuwer (see Document 12). H Describe the Egyptian concept of a nonroyal afterlife as evidenced by the tombs and tomb contents of the Middle and New Kingdoms, and contrast this with the skepticism expressed in some of the contemporary literary sources.

Further Information Blackman, A. (tr.) A. Erman. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Faulkner, R. O. “The Man who was Tired of Life.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 42 (1956): 21–40. Fox, M. V. “A Study of Antef.” Orientalia 46 (1977): 393–423. Goedicke, H. The Report about the Dispute of a Man with his Ba. Baltimore, MD, 1970. Leahy, A. “Death by Fire in Ancient Egypt.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 27 (1984): 199–206. Simpson, W. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Tobin, V. A. “A Re-assessment of the Lebensmüde.” Bibliotheca Orientalis 48 (1991): 342–63. Wente, E. F. “Egyptian ‘Make Merry’ Songs Reconsidered.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 21 (1962): 118–28. Williams, R. “Reflections on the Lebensmüde.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 48 (1962): 49–56. Winlock, H. E. The Rise and Fall of the Middle Kingdom in Thebes. New York, 1947.

Websites Banqueting scenes, Tomb of Nebamun and Ipuky: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/no bles/nebamon_ipouky181/e_nebamon_ipouky_01.htm. Nebamun Tomb Chapel: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/ room_61_tomb-chapel_nebamun.aspx.

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APPENDIX 1: BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF IMPORTANT INDIVIDUALS MENTIONED IN THE TEXT This list includes brief biographies of selected kings, peoples, or tribes, important Egyptians, and Egyptologists mentioned in the sections associated with each document reproduced in this volume. The first mention of any of these terms in any section is highlighted as a crossreference (e.g., in italicized bold: Alexander the Great). The alternative form of a name or an additional name is given in square brackets: Mentuhotep [Nebhepetre]. The Grecized form of a name is given inside brackets: Khufu (Cheops). The entries provide either the individual lengths of kings’ reigns, or the birth and death dates of Egyptologists. Alexander the Great (332–323 BCE): The son of Philip II, King of Macedon, Alexander conquered many countries. The native population welcomed him as a liberator from Persian rule when he arrived in Egypt in 332 bce. He established a Greek system of control over Egypt’s military and finance systems, and traced the foundations of Alexandria. Amasis (570–526 BCE): Originally an army general under Psammetichus II, Amasis became king following a national uprising to depose King Apries. Amenemhet (Amenemmes) I (1991–1962 BCE): Amenemhet I should probably be identified with the First Minister of the last ruler of Dynasty 11 who usurped the throne; he founded Dynasty 12, and reunified Egypt, reorganizing the internal administration, consolidating the power of the monarchy, moving the capital to el-Lisht, and initiating the colonization of Nubia. He was probably assassinated by palace conspirators. Amenemhet (Amenemmes) III (1842–1797 BCE): The reign of Amenemhet III witnessed the peak of Middle Kingdom prosperity. The country was well administered, and Nubia was firmly under Egyptian control. He expanded the economy by improving irrigation and land reclamation, exemplified by a project in the Fayoum, where 17,000 acres of arable land were reclaimed. Amenhotep [Amenophis] I (1546–1526 BCE): A military ruler, Amenhotep I campaigned in Syria, fought the Libyans, and regained control of Nubia, where he established the governor’s post later entitled the “King’s Son of Kush.” Discontinuing the tradition of pyramid building, his rock-cut tomb and separate mortuary temple at Thebes set the

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precedent for New Kingdom royal burials. He founded the workforce who built these royal tombs. Amenhotep (Amenophis) II (1450–1425 BCE): Probably Egypt’s greatest sportsman, Amenhotep II emulated the policies of his father, the great warrior Tuthmosis III (see later), and pursued aggressive military campaigns in Syria and Nubia, where he established the border at Napata, near the Fourth Cataract. Amenhotep (Amenophis) III (1417–1379 BCE): Heir to vast domains and great wealth, Amenhotep III ruled over the Egyptian empire at its zenith. Military campaigns were replaced by diplomacy and marriage alliances with Egypt’s erstwhile enemies. Amenhotep III commissioned many building projects, including his own Theban mortuary temple. He supported the traditional cult of Amen-Re at Thebes, but attempted to curtail its priesthood by promoting worship of the Aten. Amenhotep (Amenophis) IV [Akhenaten] (1379–1362 BCE): Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti (see later) were the unique promoters of a form of monotheism, the cult of the Aten (sun’s disc). When the Aten became the focus of exclusive royal worship, the names of all other gods were erased. Amenirdis I (God’s Wife of Amun) (740–700 BCE): The daughter of King Kashta (see later) who founded Dynasty 25, Amenirdis was adopted as the successor of Shepenwepet I (see later), daughter of the last ruler of Dynasty 23; she thus inherited the title and position of God’s Wife of Amun. In due course, the process was repeated when Amenirdis I adopted Shepenwepet II, the daughter of King Piye (see later), as her successor and heir. Amosis I (1570–1546 BCE): As successor to his father (Seqenenre Ta’o II) and brother (Kamose), rulers of Dynasty 17 who had terminated Hyksos rule in Egypt, Amosis I founded Dynasty 18 and the New Kingdom. His campaigns expelled the Hyksos from Egypt and subdued them in southern Palestine, preventing their return to power. His military actions also secured Egypt’s position in Nubia. Antef [Intef ] (ca. 2133 BCE): Antef was the family name of Theban nobles who founded Dynasty 11. King Antef (who apparently owned a tomb inscribed with a Harper’s Song, well known only from later texts) was probably a member of this dynasty, although nothing else is known of him. Any (ca. 1400 BCE): In the New Kingdom Wisdom Instruction attributed to Any (a scribe in the palace of Queen Ahmose-Nefertari, wife of King Amosis I (see earlier)), the author offers his own son some advice on life skills. Assyrians: An early civilization that developed around the city-state of Assur in northern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), Assyrian power was revived in the reign of Adad-nirari II (912 BCE–891 BCE). Their empire—greater than any other up to that date—functioned as a nation with its own constitution, rather than as a collection of vassal city-states (a system found in earlier empires). Assyria enjoyed unrivalled military power: its army drew on compulsory military service, and it was able to produce advanced weaponry from readily available supplies of iron. At the peak of its power, Assyria overthrew the Hittites (see later), and conquered Egypt. When domestic conflicts prevented the Assyrians from returning to Egypt, they installed the princes of Sais as vassal rulers, who quickly established themselves as independent rulers. However, Egypt and Assyria soon joined forces to face a new alliance of Babylonians (see later) and Medes; subsequently, after their successful attack on the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, in 612 bce, the Babylonians became Egypt’s prime enemy. Auserre Apophis I (ca. 1570 BCE): This Hyksos king of Egypt apparently faced no strong hostility early in his reign, but later, the Theban princes of Dynasty 17 initiated a conflict with him, which eventually removed Hyksos control of southern and middle Egypt.

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Ay (1352–1348 BCE): Ay was originally a close advisor and personal secretary of Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] (see earlier) at Tell el-Amarna, where he prepared (but never occupied) an imposing tomb. Then, as First Minister, he acted as regent for the child-king Tutankhamun (see later), and when Tutankhamun died without an heir, Ay married his royal widow, Ankhesenamun, and became king. He was buried in the Valley of the Kings. Babylonians: This early civilization was centered at Babylon, a city in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). The Babylonians enjoyed a resurgence of power under their king, Nabopolassar (626 bce–605 bce), and soon came into conflict with the Egyptian rulers of Dynasty 26 (664 bce–525 bce). Nabopolassar’s son, Nebuchadrezzar, defeated the Egyptians in a major battle (605 bce), which gave the Babylonians the opportunity to seize all the northern possessions of Egypt’s empire. Bedouin: Desert tribes whom the Egyptians called “Shoshu,” the Bedouin followed a nomadic lifestyle on the borders of Egypt. They traded with the Egyptians, but from earliest times, their incursions into Egypt posed a continuing problem, particularly along the country’s northeastern border. When central authority was strong, the Egyptians used dog patrols, military expeditions, and fortifications to keep them in check, but in periods of internal anarchy, they were able to penetrate the borders and threaten Egypt’s settled, peaceful communities. Canaanites: Inscriptions of the second millennium bce refer to Canaan (which encompassed an area to the west of the Jordan River, Phoenicia, and part of southern Syria) and the Canaanites. Their allegiance to Egypt was frequently challenged by the Mitannians (see later) and the Hittites (see later). Champollion, Jean François (1790-1832): Champollion’s crucial acknowledgment that most hieroglyphs were phonetic rather than symbolic (as set out in his famous Lettre à M Dacier . . . relative à l’alphabet des hieroglyphs phonetiques (1822)) enabled him to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs. Previously, he and many other scholars believed that hieroglyphs had an entirely symbolic function (with no equivalence to particular sound values), but by accepting Young’s theory (see later), he was able to identify and read the names of Ptolemaic rulers in the Egyptian scripts on the Rosetta Stone, and the names of Egyptian rulers found in other hieroglyphic texts. Cleopatra VII (51–30 BCE): Cleopatra VII (the last Macedonian queen of Egypt) ruled jointly with her father, Ptolemy XII; her brothers/husbands, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV; and her son by Julius Caesar, Ptolemy XV. Using her legendary intellect and beauty to advance her own political ends, she seduced Julius Caesar (Roman Dictator, 49–44 bce), persuading him to support her reinstatement as rightful ruler. Later, Cleopatra and her lover, Mark Antony (Roman Consul, 44 and 34 BCE; Triumvir, 43–38 bce, 37–33 bce), hatched a plot to share the eastern possessions of the Roman Empire. Recognizing that they posed a threat to Roman ascendancy, Augustus (Octavian) (Roman Emperor, 27 bce–14 ce) defeated Mark Antony at Actium (31 bce) and captured Alexandria. Mark Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide, and Egypt became part of the Roman Empire. Copts: The Christianized population of ancient and modern Egypt. Djer (ca. 3042–2995 BCE): Djer sent military expeditions to Sinai and Nubia. He and other early rulers marked their dominion over north and south by building a burial place at Saqqara and a cenotaph (an empty, symbolic tomb) at Abydos. Human sacrifice, briefly practiced in Egypt, reached its peak during Djer’s reign when some 600 royal servants were interred in graves subsidiary to the royal burial so that they could assist the king in the next world.

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Djoser (ca. 2667–2648 BCE): Founder of the Old Kingdom, Djoser, probably inspired by his First Minister and architect, Imhotep (see later), introduced the pyramid for royal burials. His unique Step Pyramid at Saqqara, representing a major development in stone construction, was the central feature of a complex of buildings that replicated the king’s court during his lifetime. His reputation as a great king survived until the Ptolemaic Period. Hardedef (reign of Khufu ca. 2589–2566 BCE): Hardedef, son of King Khufu (see later), was a renowned sage and the accredited author of an early Instruction in Wisdom. He seems to have been deified and worshipped by later generations. Hatshepsut (queen regnant) (1503–1482 BCE): When her husband, Tuthmosis II (see later) died, Hatshepsut acted as regent for her stepson, Tuthmosis III (see later), with whom she ruled as joint pharaoh. As senior king, she controlled Egypt for many years. Her magnificent mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri, designed by the architect Senenmut, was decorated with famous scenes of Egyptian trading expeditions to Punt. Herihor (1100–1094 BCE): Originally “commander of the army,” Herihor became high priest of Amun at Karnak, where he inaugurated a line of high priests who acquired great power in late Dynasty 20 and Dynasty 21. Although nominally subject to King Ramesses XI (see later), Herihor exercised virtual control over southern Egypt, a situation that continued under his successors. Herodotus (late fifth century BCE): Born at Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, Herodotus is known as the “Father of History” because, in his writings, he made the first serious attempt to separate historical reality from fantasy. The main theme of his great work, The Histories, is the conflict between Greece and Persia, but a diversion in Book 2 (called “Euterpe”) represents the first extant, comprehensive study of ancient Egypt provided by a foreign observer. Hittites: A people whose empire was established on the central plateau of Anatolia (modern Turkey) in ca. 1700 bce. Excavation of their capital city, Boghazköy, has revealed the state archive of cuneiform tablets, which has greatly enhanced knowledge of their civilization and relations with Egypt. During the religious upheaval in the reign of Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] (see earlier), Egypt largely ignored her northern empire and vassal states, giving the Hittites the opportunity to move into Syria. Sety I (see later) and Ramesses II (see later) eventually stopped this advance, and came into direct conflict with the Hittites, although the two peoples eventually ended their hostilities. In due course, Egypt and the Hittites were both conquered by the Assyrians (see earlier). Horemheb (1348–1320 BCE): Horemheb was appointed as “commander of the army” under Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] (see earlier) and “king’s deputy” under Tutankhamun (see later). Although a commoner, he inherited the throne from Ay (see earlier), perhaps because no living royal heir survived. He reversed Akhenaten’s “religious revolution” and reinstated the traditional priesthoods. His Restoration Edict claimed that he reorganized Egypt and took firm measures to restore law and order. Huni (ca. 2637–2613 BCE): The last ruler of Dynasty 3, Huni may have built the stepped pyramid at Meidum. This monument marked a change in design: the steps were filled in, converting the monument into a flat-sided “true” pyramid. It was never used for burial because the building collapsed before completion (the incline of its angles were too steep). Hyksos: Foreigners from Palestine who conquered Egypt and ruled as kings in Dynasties 15 and 16 (1674 bce–1567 bce). According to the historian Josephus, the Hyksos were a people of obscure racial origin who invaded Egypt from the east and took the country

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without a fight. He interpreted the name “Hyksos” to mean “Shepherd Kings,” which has lent support to the theory that their period of rule should be identified with the biblical account of the Hebrews’ stay in Egypt. However, the term “Hyksos” is in fact an Egyptian title meaning “Rulers of Foreign Lands,” and these people were probably a group of Palestinian leaders who had moved southward because of pressure from new migrations in the north. Imhotep (reign of Djoser 2667–2648 BCE): The First Minister of Djoser (see earlier), Imhotep is acknowledged as the architect of the world’s earliest extant major stone building, the Step Pyramid at Saqqara. The Egyptians regarded him as the founder of medical science, and he was personally deified and worshipped by later generations as a god of healing. Eventually, the Greeks identified him with their own god of medicine, Aesculapius. He was renowned for his wisdom and accredited as the author of an early Instruction in Wisdom. Isesi (ca. 2414–2375 BCE): Niuserre’s (see later) successor, Isesi, built his pyramid complex at Abusir. Throughout Dynasty 5, every king’s priority was to construct a sun temple to honor Re whose cult had reached its zenith. These temples could only be built by diverting resources from pyramid construction, and therefore the design and materials used at Abusir were inferior to those employed for earlier pyramids. Kashta (ca. 780–748 BCE): Ruler of the Nubian kingdom established to the south of Egypt, Kashta initiated the conquest of Egypt and founded Dynasty 25. His son, Piye (see later) eventually inherited both the Nubian and Egyptian kingdoms. Khafre (Chephren) (ca. 2558–2533 BCE): Khafre, son and successor of King Khufu (see later), built the second pyramid at Giza; the component parts of this complex—pyramid, funerary temple, causeway, valley building, and the unique Great Sphinx—are better preserved than those of Khufu’s neighboring monument. Khafre’s queens and children were buried in rock-cut tombs near his pyramid. Khattusilis III (King of the Hittites) (1275–1250 BCE): Khattusilis III exercised great authority over the Hittite kingdom. His prosperous reign was characterized by the peace treaty he concluded with Ramesses II (see later) in 1269 bce, which guaranteed peace and security for the Hittites, Egypt, and their vassal states in Syria/Palestine. This alliance was later cemented when one of Khattusilis’ daughters became Ramesses II’s Great Royal Wife. Khufu (Cheops) (ca. 2589–2566 BCE): Khufu built the Great Pyramid—one of the world’s most impressive monuments—at Giza, a site that he inaugurated as a royal necropolis. Mastaba tombs at the base of the pyramid accommodated family members and courtiers, while rock-cut pits housed five wooden boats to transport the deceased king around the heavens. This vast building project was only possible because Khufu, an absolute ruler, faced no major internal or external threats. Herodotus (see earlier) makes the unsubstantiated claim that both Khufu and Khafre (see earlier) were tyrannical rulers, much hated by their subjects. Libyans: The Greeks used this term for the inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast of Africa, but in Egyptian inscriptions of the Ramesside Period (1320 bce–1085 bce), the “Libu” are identified as one of the tribes who, in coalition with the Sea Peoples (see later), attempted to invade Egypt. The Libu and other ethnic groups lived in the region to the west of the Nile Valley, probably to the west of the north-to-south chain of oases that runs parallel to the Nile Valley. Menes [Narmer] (ca. 3100 BCE–?): Originally ruler of the southern kingdom (the White Land), Menes conquered the north, and unified Upper and Lower Egypt, establishing

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himself as the first king of Dynasty 1 and founder of the Egyptian state. He was credited with bringing civilization to Egypt, establishing the laws, and building the country’s first capital, White Wall (later Greek name, Memphis). Menkaure (Mycerinus) (ca. 2528–2500 BCE): Succeeding his father, Khafre (see earlier) and grandfather, Khufu (see earlier), Menkaure built the third and smallest pyramid at Giza. Although left unfinished at his death (possibly because the king died prematurely), superb royal statuary has been recovered from this complex. Herodotus (see earlier) describes Menkaure as a pious, beneficent ruler. His successor, Shepseskaf, broke with tradition and constructed a unique mastaba tomb instead of a pyramid. Mentuhotep II [Nebhepetre] (2060–2010 BCE): The political turmoil of the First Intermediate Period ended when a local ruler at Thebes, Mentuhotep [Nebhepetre], subdued Herakleopolis, seized the throne, and reunited Egypt. Establishing Dynasty 11, he sent expeditions against the Nubians, Libyans, and Bedouin, and reopened trading routes, mines, and quarries. His unique, impressive funerary monument at Thebes, adjacent to Hatshepsut’s temple (see earlier), incorporated a tomb and temple. Merenre I (ca. 2282–2270 BCE): Merenre I succeeded his father, Pepy I, as king. Inscriptions at Kerma (in modern Sudan) indicate that both he and Pepy I probably sent trading expeditions as far south as this region. Merenre II’s untimely death brought a young child, his half-brother Pepy II (see later), to the throne. Merneptah (1236–1223 BCE): Ramesses II (see later) outlived many of his children; his 13th son, Merneptah, eventually succeeded him as king. Merneptah campaigned in Syria/Palestine, and faced a new threat in Year 5, when he defeated a coalition of Libyans and Sea-Peoples who attacked the Egyptian Delta. Mitanni (Naharin): A powerful kingdom, Mitanni was situated to the northeast of the Euphrates River. Its population was Hurrian (a people who, from ca. 2300 bce, had migrated from their original homeland south of the Caspian Sea), but they were ruled by an aristocracy of Indo-Aryan origin who worshipped Indian gods and specialized in horse-breeding. The Mitannians acquired a large empire and fought the Egyptians for control of Syria/Palestine. Neferirkare [Kakai] (ca. 2473–2463 BCE): The Westcar Papyrus prophesied that triplets Neferirkare, Sahure (see later), and Userkaf (see later) would inherit the kingship instead of the descendants of Khufu (see earlier). Neferirkare (actually the son of Userkaf ) promoted the sun cult, building a sun temple at Abu Ghurab and a pyramid complex at Abusir, where the discovery of a collection of papyri has provided important information about the administration of the king’s funerary temple. Nefertiti [Nefernefruaten] (queen, reign of Akhenaten) (1379–1362 BCE): The chief wife of Akhenaten (see earlier) and mother of his six daughters, Nefertiti marked her allegiance to Atenism by changing her name to Nefernefruaten. Inscribed blocks from the Aten temples at Karnak (built before the capital was moved to Tell el-Amarna) show that her cultic role in the Aten rituals probably equaled that of her husband. Pepy II (2269–ca. 2175 BCE): Pepy II succeeded Merenre I (see earlier), to become Egypt’s longest-reigning king, ruling from early childhood into his hundredth year. He sent trading expeditions to Byblos and Nubia, and was the last effective ruler of the Old Kingdom, but his senility may have contributed to the collapse of centralized government (perhaps described in the Admonitions of Ipuwer). Persians: A line of rulers (the Achaemenids) had established an empire in Persia (modern Iran), and one of their rulers, Cambyses, conquered Egypt in 525 bce and annexed it to the Persian Empire. As rulers of Egypt for over 130 years, the Persian kings observed

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some of the pharaoh’s religious duties, and overhauled the legal system, but they did not have a significant impact on the Egyptian civilization. Petrie, William Flinders (1853–1942): A British Egyptologist who excavated many sites in Egypt and Palestine, Petrie emphasized the significance of all excavated items, and revealed the hitherto unsuspected Egyptian predynastic and early dynastic periods. He advanced methodological archaeology, inventing Sequence Dating, which uses the stylistic criteria of painted and decorated pottery to date associated material from various sites and periods. Piye [Piankhy] (747–716 BCE): Son of the Nubian ruler, Kashta (see earlier), Piye’s military campaign in Egypt (ca. 730 bce) overthrew the rulers of Dynasty 23; he reestablished order throughout Egypt before returning to the Nubian capital, Napata. Eventually buried at Kurru (in modern Sudan), his funerary monument—the first true pyramid to be built at the site—revived a type of architecture that the Egyptians themselves had abandoned many years earlier. Psammetichus I (664–610 BCE): Psammetichus I, heir to the vassal rulership of Sais granted to his father, Necho I, by the Assyrians, subsequently established his independence from Assyria. Dynasty 26, which he founded, witnessed a strong reassertion of Egyptian values and a revival of earlier traditions in religion and art. Ptah-hotep (reign of Isesi ca. 2414–2375 BCE): Renowned for his wisdom and learning, and credited with the authorship of a famous Wisdom Instruction, this man can probably be identified with a First Minister of the same name who owned an important tomb excavated at Saqqara. Ptolemy I Soter (305–283 BCE): Appointed satrap of Egypt by Alexander the Great (see earlier), Ptolemy became king in 305 bce. To ensure the dynasty’s stability, Ptolemy appointed his son as co-regent and married him to his own full-sister. Ptolemy reorganized the country, built Egyptian temples, and introduced cults for himself, Alexander the Great, and a hybrid Egyptian-Greek god, Serapis. Ptolemy V Epiphanes (204–180 BCE): In 186 bce, Ptolemy crushed native “pharaohs” who had seized control of the Theban area. He regained control of southern Egypt, but lost most possessions in Asia Minor, Palestine, and the Aegean. The Rosetta Stone, a decree (196 bce) commemorating his coronation, eventually facilitated the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs. Ptolemy IX Soter II (115–107 BCE; 88–80 BCE): Ptolemy IX reigned for two separate periods. During the first, he was replaced on two occasions by Ptolemy X Alexander (109–108 bce, and 107 bce); he returned to power when Ptolemy X died (88 bce), and ruled until his own death in 80 bce. Ramesses II (1304–1237 BCE): A famous warrior, Ramesses II campaigned in Syria/Palestine, and claimed defeat of the Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh. New buildings included the city of Piramesse, his mortuary temple (the Ramesseum) at Thebes, two rock-cut temples at Abu Simbel, and a temple at Abydos. He also completed the temple of his father, Sety I (see later), at Abydos, and the hypostyle hall in the Temple of Karnak. Ramesses III (1198–1166 BCE): Egypt’s last great warrior king, Ramesses III defeated coalitions of Libyans and Sea-Peoples in Years 5 and 8, and a Libyan attack in Year 11. Later, the royal workforce at Deir el-Medina went on strike because their food rations were delayed, and the royal harem conspired to replace Ramesses III with a young usurper. Ramesses V (1160–1156 BCE): Important documents dated to this reign include the Turin Papyrus (priestly embezzlement, theft, and religious offences), and the Wilbour Papyrus (land measurement and assessment in Middle Egypt). Although conflict

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and civil war may have enabled Ramesses VI to depose Ramesses V, biomedical evidence from his mummy indicates that he died from smallpox rather than any inflicted wounds. Ramesses X (1122–1112 BCE): The reigns of later Ramesside rulers (Ramesses IV to XI) are characterized by the slow disintegration of Egypt, and were marked by corruption, failing food supplies, strikes, and tomb robberies. Ramesses XI (1113–1085 BCE): Ramesses XI retained nominal control of Egypt, but a high priest of Amun at Thebes, Herihor (see earlier) and his descendants became the effective rulers of southern Egypt. From Year 19 of his reign, Ramesses XI remained nominal king, but the north and south were concurrently controlled by Smendes (see later) and Herihor. Rhind, Alexander (1833–1863): A wealthy Scottish lawyer, Rhind travelled to Egypt in 1855–1886 and 1856–1857, in order to alleviate a lung condition. He excavated at Thebes (Luxor), and collected Egyptian antiquities; most were bequeathed to the National Museum of Antiquities in Edinburgh (United Kingdom), but two important documents (the Mathematical Papyrus and the Bremner-Rhind Papyrus, which deals with magic) are now in the British Museum. Sahure (ca. 2487–2473 BCE): The son of Userkaf (see later) and brother of Neferirkare (see earlier), Sahure is mentioned in the Westcar Papyrus. He promoted the sun cult, and built the first pyramid at Abusir. Sea-Peoples: A confederation of peoples or tribes who were repulsed by Merneptah and Ramesses III when they attempted to settle in the Delta. Apparently originating in several homelands north of Syria/Palestine, they were perhaps driven southward by hunger or displacement. They attacked the Hittites, Cyprus, and the coastal cities of Syria, before moving down through Palestine to join the Libyans in invading Egypt, where they intended to settle. Senusret (Sesostris) I (1971–1928 BCE): Senusret I ruled as co-regent with his father, Amenemhet I (see earlier). As king, he campaigned against the Libyans, conquered and occupied northern Nubia, and employed diplomacy and a defensive strategy in Syria/ Palestine. His building projects included a large temple at Heliopolis, and a pyramid at el-Lisht, which reintroduced the layout of Old Kingdom complexes. Senusret (Sesostris) II (1897–1878 BCE): Senusret II developed Egypt’s prosperity at home and abroad. He built a pyramid of innovative design at Lahun; Petrie (see earlier) discovered an exquisite set of jewelry in the nearby tomb of Princess Sit-Hathor-Iunet. At the neighboring town of Kahun, he excavated papyri from the local records office, and the everyday possessions of the pyramid workmen’s families. Senusret (Sesostris) III (1878–1843 BCE): A legendary ruler, Senusret III built a string of fortresses to consolidate Egypt’s annexation of Nubia. He removed a great threat to royal power by abolishing the rights and privileges of local governors, and introducing a new, centralized administrative system. Magnificent jewelry was discovered in a family tomb in his pyramid enclosure at Dahshur. Sety (Sethos) I (1318–1304 BCE): Inaugurating a new era, Sety I campaigned extensively in Syria/Palestine to restore Egypt’s empire, in decline since the reign of Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] (see earlier). He built a temple dedicated to six gods and himself at Abydos, the magnificent hypostyle hall at Karnak, a mortuary temple at Thebes, and the finest tomb in the Valley of the Kings. Shabaka (716–702 BCE): The brother of Piye (see earlier), Shabaka continued the Nubian conquest of Egypt, and by 711 bce, he had established control over the whole country.

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He probably chose Thebes as his capital and main residence, although he was ultimately buried in a pyramid at Kurru in Kush. Shepenwepet I (God’s Wife of Amun) (ca. 754–714 BCE): Daughter of the last ruler of Dynasty 23, Shepenwepet I adopted Amenirdis I (see earlier), the daughter of Kashta (see earlier), to succeed her as God’s Wife of Amun. The kings of Dynasty 25 were thus able to retain this position as an effective means of controlling Thebes. Smendes (1089–1063 BCE): Under Ramesses XI (see earlier), Smendes (Nesbenebded in the Story of Wenamun) and Herihor (see earlier) concurrently controlled northern and southern Egypt. Smendes then became sole ruler (perhaps through marriage into Ramesses XI’s family), founded Dynasty 21, and moved his capital to Tanis. An agreement recognized Smendes as pharaoh and the Theban high priests as effective rulers in the south. Smenkhkare (ca. 1364–1361 BCE): Smenkhkare’s reign is obscure: he may have been the co-regent and son-in-law of Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] (see earlier). A body discovered in Tomb 55 in the Valley of the Kings (which has a strong biological similarity to the mummy of Tutankhamun (see later)) may belong to Smenkhkare, Akhenaten, or another royal male. Smith, Edwin (1822–1906): An American antiquities dealer, Edwin Smith purchased the famous Medical Papyrus that carries his name. After his death, his daughter presented the document to the New York Historical Society. It was subsequently purchased by the Brooklyn Museum, and in 1948, donated to the New York Academy of Medicine. Smith, Sir Grafton Elliot (1871–1937): A renowned anatomist, Elliot Smith, examined the vast collection of human remains discovered during the Archaeological Survey of Nubia, and undertook the first anatomical investigation of the Royal Mummies in Cairo. Sneferu (ca. 2613–2589 BCE): Later generations remembered Sneferu, the founder of Dynasty 4, as a liberal, beneficent ruler, and accorded him divine status. He campaigned against the Nubians and Libyans, and traded with Byblos. He built two pyramids at Dahshur: the northern one, a smooth-sided structure, is the first example of a true (as opposed to a stepped) pyramid. Suppiluliumas (King of the Hittites) (1380–1340 BCE): An expansionist and great military commander, Suppiluliumas defeated the Mitannians (Egypt’s erstwhile enemies) in 1370 bce and, while Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] (see earlier) was preoccupied with religious reforms, he undermined Egypt’s empire throughout Syria/Palestine, setting the stage for the wars waged against the Hittites by Ramesses II (see earlier) and Sety I (see earlier). Taharka (690–664 BCE): A Nubian ruler of Egypt in Dynasty 25, Taharka initiated major building works, but he interfered with the politics of the Assyrian vassal states in Syria/ Palestine, which prompted the Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal, to invade Egypt in 667– 666 bce. Ashurbanipal’s forces drove Taharka southward to Thebes and subsequently, to Napata where he later died. He was buried in a pyramid at Nuri in Nubia. Tanuatamun (664–656 BCE): When the Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal, departed from Egypt, Tanuatamun, Nubian ruler of Egypt, briefly regained the country, reoccupied Memphis, and killed Necho I, whom the Assyrians had installed as local ruler at Sais. When Ashurbanipal returned to Egypt, Tanuatamun fled south to Thebes and then to Napata where he eventually died. Tutankhamun (1361–1352 BCE): Tutankhamun, possibly the son of Amenhotep III (see earlier) or Amenhotep IV [Akhenaten] (see earlier), acceded to the throne as a child and died in his late teens. He married Akhenaten’s daughter, Ankhesenamun. Following

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Akhenaten’s chaotic “religious revolution,” Tutankhamun restored order throughout Egypt, and reinstated the traditional gods. His tomb and its treasure—the only virtually intact royal burial in the Valley of the Kings—were discovered in 1922. Tuthmosis I (1525–1512 BCE): The reign of Tuthmosis I, a great warrior pharaoh, marked the peak of Egypt’s military power: his campaigns reached Mitanni (see earlier), and the region of the Fifth Cataract in Nubia. He built the first tomb in the Valley of the Kings, and the town site of Deir el-Medina to house the royal necropolis workforce founded by Amenhotep I (see earlier). Tuthmosis III (1504–1450 BCE): One of Egypt’s greatest kings, Tuthmosis III ruled first as junior pharaoh with Hatshepsut (see earlier). Later, as an independent ruler, he consolidated Egyptian dominion over Nubia, and led 17 campaigns against the Mitannians and their vassals, routing a coalition at the Battle of Megiddo. During his reign, Egypt became the greatest military power in the region. Tuthmosis IV (1425–1417 BCE): The marriage of Tuthmosis IV to a Mitannian princess consolidated a peaceful alliance between Egypt and Mitanni, initiated because they finally recognized that neither could gain complete supremacy through warfare. The offspring of this marriage, Amenhotep III (see earlier), inherited the throne. Userkaf (ca. 2494–2487 BCE): The name of Userkaf, the first ruler of Dynasty 5, occurs in the Westcar Papyrus. His sons, Sahure (see earlier) and Neferirkare (see earlier), succeeded him as king. He built the first of a series of sun-temples at Abu Ghurab, emphasizing the importance of the sun-god’s cult to this dynasty. Unas (ca. 2375–2345 BCE): Finely carved scenes on the causeway of Unas’ pyramid at Saqqara depict a trading expedition arriving in Egypt, possibly from Byblos, and emaciated people dying of hunger, probably representing foreigners in recipient of Egyptian famine relief. He was the first ruler to protect himself in death with the magical spells known as the Pyramid Texts; these were inscribed on the interior walls of his pyramid at Saqqara. Young, Thomas (1773–1829): An Englishman who made a significant contribution to the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs, Young was the first scholar to recognize that the inscriptions actually contained a combination of alphabetic and nonalphabetic signs.

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A PPENDIX 2: GLOSSARY OF TERMS MENTIONED IN TEXT This list includes brief definitions of terms mentioned in the sections associated with each document reproduced in this volume. The first mention of any of these terms in any section is highlighted as a cross-reference (e.g., in italicized bold: Amulet). Afterlife: Eternal existence after death. Amarna Period (1379 BCE–1361 BCE): The era when the cult of the Aten was promoted by rulers who lived at Tell el-Amarna. Amulet: An item of jewelry believed to possess magical, protective powers derived from its symbolic shape or the materials used in its manufacture. Artifact: A man-made object. Asia/Asia Minor/Asiatics: The region of Syria/Palestine; a collective term for the people/ enemies who lived on Egypt’s northeastern borders. Atenism: The worship of the Aten (sun’s disc), developed and promoted by Akhenaten during the Amarna Period. Autobiography/Autobiographical inscription: Inscribed on the wall of a nonroyal tomb, this text eulogized the owner’s virtuous nature and career achievements. Its purpose was to justify his/her claim to high status in the next world. Ba: A person’s soul, represented with a human head and a bird body, which was believed to have an independent continuing existence after death. Barque (bark)/Sacred boat: The boat that carried the god’s statue during festival processions. Biomedical studies: Research involving medical or biological investigative procedures. Birth-house: See Mammisi. Book of the Dead/Book of Coming Forth by Day: Introduced in the New Kingdom, the purpose of these funerary spells and instructions (inscribed on papyrus) was to facilitate the deceased owner’s passage into the next world. Byblos: An important seaport on the Lebanese coast, about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of modern Beirut; the Egyptians traded with Byblos for timber, which came from the city’s hinterland. Canopic jars/Canopic chest: A set of four jars that contained the major organs eviscerated during mummification; these jars were often stored inside a Canopic chest. The heart, believed to be the seat of the intellect and emotions, was usually left inside the mummy.

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Cartonnage: A material composed of papyrus or rags mixed with gum or glue from which masks, coffins, and other funerary equipment were made. Cartouche: The elongated oval (representing a loop of rope with a knot at the base) in which the king’s name was written to symbolize his control of the universe. Cataract: There are six cataracts on the Nile, each formed by a scattering of rocks across the river; they resemble mountain streams rather than waterfalls. Chapel: A small area within a temple or tomb where prayers and food offerings were presented to the god or deceased tomb owner. City-state: An autonomous city with its own ruler. In Syria/Palestine, these city-states often gave allegiance to a major power (Egyptians, Mitannians, Hittites) in return for their protection. Coffin Texts: These sets of spells, developed from the Pyramid Texts, were usually inscribed on coffins. Their purpose was to address a universal fear of death and lack of food and drink in the afterlife, by providing the deceased owner with protection and a magical supply of sustenance. Coptic: A script developed by the early Egyptian Christians to write their language, previously inscribed in hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic. Parts of the Bible were translated into Coptic as early as the third century ce, and until today it remains the liturgical language of the Coptic Church. Co-regency: A system whereby, at a certain point in his reign, a mature ruler would take a younger man (usually his son) to govern alongside him. Creation myths/Cosmogonies: Various myths that described how the universe and mankind came into existence. Cult: The worship and ritual associated with a particular deity. Cult center: The temple where a god received worship and rituals. Cultus-temple (Divine cult complex): Sacred buildings where the king or his delegate, the high priest, regularly performed rituals for the resident deity. Cuneiform: The writing system of Mesopotamia (approximately the region of modern Iraq); a stylus was used to imprint wedge-shaped signs onto wet clay tablets. Day of Judgment: At death, all commoners faced a trial before a panel of divine judges who assessed their moral suitability to be granted immortality. Delta: The inverted triangle of land that forms the northernmost part of Egypt; here, through its two main branches, the Nile feeds into the Mediterranean Sea. Demotic: A cursive script evolved from hieroglyphs, introduced ca. 700 bce and used particularly for legal, business, and literary texts. Dynasty: A line of rulers usually, but not always, members of the same family. Ennead: A group of nine gods. The most famous group, the Great Ennead (which played a vital role in the Heliopolitan mythology) included Re-Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys. Exodus: The biblical tradition that the Israelites, under the leadership of Moses, escaped from Egypt and, after wandering in Sinai for 40 years, finally established the two Hebrew kingdoms of Judah and Israel. Faience: Egyptian faience (to be distinguished from medieval European faience) is made of a kernel of quartz covered with a thin glaze (siliceous glass). A variety of colors are found: the most popular (a range from deep blue to pale green) was produced by using compounds of copper. Fayoum, The: This region in Middle Egypt lies to the west of the Nile. A large lake (Lake Moeris, the modern Birket el-Karun) located at its center contributes to the fertility of the agricultural land.

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Feast of Opet (Ipet): A major festival that annually celebrated the marriage of the supreme god Amun and the goddess Mut. Fields of Reeds: The kingdom of Osiris: the abode of the dead, situated somewhere either below the western horizon where the sun sets, or on a group of islands in the west. First Occasion: This was the time when the universe was created. Funerary art: The art forms associated with the tomb and burial provisions. Funerary cult: The burial ceremony, and the subsequent perpetual prayers and offerings presented at the tomb. Funerary rites/rituals: The sacred procedures that accompanied the burial, and the subsequent presentations of prayers and offerings at the tomb. Governor of the South (“Overseer of Upper Egypt”): the holder of this title (who first appears in the Old Kingdom) was responsible for controlling the southern provinces, and reported directly to the First Minister and the king. Great Royal Wife: The principal queen. She was usually the mother of the heir to the throne who, it was believed, was the offspring of the queen’s physical union with the chief god of the dynasty. Harpers’ Songs/Songs at Banquets: Guests attending banquets held at the funeral or on later feast days were entertained with hymns or songs intended to provide reassurance that both they and the deceased were immortal. Hellenistic: A term pertaining to the era, civilization, and kingdoms that followed the widespread conquests of Alexander the Great. Hieratic: A cursive script, developed from hieroglyphs, and used from earliest times for religious and secular texts. Hieroglyphs: The ancient Egyptians developed this script from pictographs; they regarded the hieroglyphic images as sacred and used the script extensively, but not exclusively, for religious texts. High priest/priestess of Amun: The holder of this post, which carried great wealth and influence, was the leading officiant in the cult of Amun at Thebes. House of Books: The temple library: wall niches were used to store papyrus rolls inscribed with theological and other texts. House of Life: Situated inside the temple complex, this building provided accommodation for scribes who composed and copied religious texts; it may also have been used for medical training and treatment. Island of Creation: The mythological location where creation occurred on the First Occasion. Jubilee Festival: The purpose of this ceremony, which traditionally marked a reign of 30 years, was to reaffirm and renew the king’s power and authority to rule. Ka: A person’s “double” or spirit, represented as a pair of upraised arms. The Egyptians believed that the ka remained with its owner throughout life and preserved his/her personality after death. King List: Inscribed on a temple wall or stela, this list of the legitimate rulers of Egypt was the focus for the daily ritual performed for the Royal Ancestors. King’s Son of Kush: One of the most important offices of the New Kingdom, the title holder (also known as “Viceroy of Kush”) controlled a large area of the south on the king’s behalf; he reported directly to the king rather than to the First Minister. Kush: In Dynasty 12, this name referred to a political entity located south of the Nile’s Second Cataract; by the New Kingdom, it was applied to the whole of Upper Nubia (modern northern Sudan).

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Lower Egypt: The northernmost part of Egypt, which formed a separate kingdom (the “Red Land”), before unification in ca. 3100 bce; this area included the Delta and part of the Nile Valley. Lower and Upper Nubia: The northern and southern parts of Nubia. Magician: A highly regarded practitioner of magic, often involved in healing the sick; magicians provided a link between the secular community and the temple priesthood (some individuals were both magicians and priests). Mammisi/Birth-house: An area in temple complexes of the Greco-Roman Period, where the birth of the god (and the king as his incarnation) was celebrated. Mansion of the God: The name for the temple, the god’s home. Mastaba tomb: A burial place usually built for wealthy commoners and regarded as the “house” of its deceased owner, these tombs incorporated a burial chamber and an offering chapel. Egyptologists use the Arabic word mastaba (bench, bench-shaped) for these buildings because their outer structure resembles a bench. Mathematical papyri: A group of documents (probably manuals owned by teachers or pupils) that preserve fragmentary information about the Egyptian mathematical system. Medical papyrus: A text describing human physiology and/or containing medical and magical prescriptions for treating the sick. Mortuary temple (Royal cult complex): The king or high priest performed rituals here for the resident god plus the deceased, deified ruler who had built the temple (in many instances, a living king would perform rites on behalf of his future, deceased self ). These temples also included provision for the cult of the Royal Ancestors (see later). Mummification: The preservation of the body, either through natural desiccation or evisceration and dehydration by means of natron (see later). Mummy: A preserved body. From medieval times, the Arabic word mumia (pitch or bitumen) came to be used for these ancient Egyptian corpses, in the erroneous belief that they had been coated with these substances. Mysteries: These included a priest’s initiation rites into a god’s cult, and the enactment of secret temple rites and public plays during the divine festivals. The most famous— the Mysteries of Osiris—enacted myths associated with the murder and resurrection of Osiris, and sought to ensure that everyone experienced personal victory over death. Mystery plays: These public performances, which recreated aspects of a god’s life and mythology, were enacted for pilgrims attending the major festivals. Natron: A mixture of sodium carbonate and bicarbonate found in natural deposits in the Wadi Natrun in Egypt; it was used for cleaning, purification rituals, and mummification. Necropolis (pl. Necropolises): A cemetery. Negative Confession: The statement recited by the deceased at the Day of Judgment (see earlier) to declare his/her innocence of crimes and sins. New Year’s Day Festival: This occasion, held at the beginning of each year, celebrated rebirth and regrowth. Nine Bows: The traditional enemies of Egypt, specifically the Nubians and the peoples living beyond Egypt’s northeastern border. Nome: A geographical, administrative district in Egypt. Nubia: Egypt’s southern neighbor, which extended along the Nile; it comprised the area politically defined today as southern Egypt and northern Sudan. Obelisk: This slender stone column, topped by a pyramidion (gilded pyramid-shaped stone, lit every day by the sun), was the cult symbol associated with worship of the sun. Today, some examples remain in situ in Egyptian temples, but others have been moved to modern cities (e.g., New York, London, Rome, Paris). 250

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Offering chapel: This was an area of the tomb where the priest presented offerings on behalf of the deceased owner. Offering List (h.tp-dì-nsw): This List or Menu or, in its shortened version, the Prayer for Offerings, was first introduced in nonroyal tombs in Dynasty 5 (ca. 2494 bce–ca. 2345 bce). Inscribed on an interior wall of a tomb or temple, the Offering List included the essentials presented to the dead or the gods during the mortuary and divine cults. Introduced by the phrase h. tp-dì-nsw (hetep di nesu) (“an offering that the king gives”), the text asked for the divine offerings to be made available to the deceased or the gods through the king’s beneficence and the agency of the god Anubis, which gave them additional power. Offering prayer: This prayer was recited by the priest when he made offerings to the dead or the gods. Offering table: The offerings presented to the deceased tomb owner as part of the mortuary cult were placed on a stone offering table. Ogdoad: A group of eight gods, such as those who featured in the Hermopolitan creation myth. Opening-of-the-Mouth Ceremony: The priests performed this ritual in tombs and temples, touching the mummy, statues, and tomb models with an adze so that they could be magically “brought to life” and given the ability to function. Osiris Myth: The famous story of how Seth murdered his brother, the human king Osiris, who was subsequently resurrected as the god of the underworld. Horus, Osiris’ posthumously conceived son, successfully fought Seth to avenge his father’s death, and thereafter each living king became the incarnation of Horus. Ostracon (pl. Ostraca): A pottery sherd or limestone flake used as a cheap alternative to papyrus for writing and drawing. Pantheon: The community of gods worshipped in a particular religion. Papyrus: The name of a plant (Cyperus papyrus L.), and also the writing material that was made from it. Pessimistic Literature: A literary genre that described national and personal doubts and despair about prevailing political conditions. Pharaonic Egypt: Egypt under the rule of the pharaohs, between ca. 3100 bce and 332 bce. Ptolemaic: Pertaining to the era when Egypt was ruled by the Ptolemies (305 bce–30 bce). Punt: A region that stretched inland from the Red Sea coast into the area which now forms the eastern part of modern Sudan. Egypt traded with the Puntites for incense. Pylon: Two stone towers that flanked the doorways either at the entrance to a temple or in the walls that separated various courts and enclosed areas. Pyramid: The royal burial place built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, the pyramid, associated with the sun cult, was regarded as the king’s means of ascent to heaven (hence its Egyptian name “Place of Ascension”). The word “pyramid” comes from pyramis (“wheaten cake”), the name given to these monuments by the Greeks, on account of their appearance. Pyramid Texts: Placed on the interior walls of some pyramids during the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686 bce–ca. 2181 bce), these magical texts attempted to ensure that the king had the requisite spiritual powers to ascend to the sky where he would pass his eternity as a god. Ramesside Period (1320 BCE–1085 BCE): This era covered the period from Dynasty 19 to Dynasty 20, when most kings were named “Ramesses.” Ritual of the Royal Ancestors: Following immediately after the Daily Temple Ritual, this ritual was performed in mortuary temples to affirm that the previous kings acknowledged the legitimacy of the current ruler. Royal Ancestors: All the legitimate, previous kings of Egypt. 251

Appendix 2

Royal gang/workforce: The men engaged in building and decorating the king’s pyramid or tomb. Sacred Lake: A Sacred Lake (which represented the primeval waters prior to creation) was included in each temple complex. Here, the priests washed themselves and the god’s possessions every day before performing the rituals. Sarcophagus: A rectangular stone coffin. Sed-festival: See Jubilee Festival. Sphinx: A statue or figurine with the body of a lion and the head of a king, the sphinx represented either Harmakhis (a form of the sun-god) or the king. Stela (pl. stelae): An upright stone block, usually round-topped, the stela was placed in a tomb or other religious location. It was decorated with scenes showing the deceased owner making offerings to the gods, and inscribed with prayers in praise of the king and the gods, and often the owner’s Autobiography, in order to ensure that the owner attained immortality. Sun/solar cult: The worship received by the sun-god Re and other solar deities. Sun-temple: A building that accommodated the sun cult. The most famous example was at Heliopolis where the rituals were centered round the sun-god’s cult symbol, the Benben Stone, a squat stone obelisk topped with a pyramidion. Temple rituals: In every temple, the priests regularly performed a series of actions accompanied by the recitation of spells and prayer. These were designed to honor the resident god and achieve benefits for the king and all Egyptians. Theocracy: A concept of political power in which the chief god controls the country through oracles, and through his delegates—the king and the priesthood. Tomb robberies: Tombs were always desecrated and plundered; the Tomb Robbery Papyri (Dynasty 20) record the famous trials of robbers who ransacked the kings’ burials in the Valley of the Kings. Two Lands: Two kingdoms (one in the north, the other in the south)—originally separate political entities –were united to form Egypt in ca. 3100 bce. Upper Egypt: The southernmost part of Egypt, which formed a separate kingdom (the “White Land”), before unification in ca. 3100 bce; Upper Egypt was located in the middle and southern areas of the Nile Valley. Ushabti (shabti): Placed in the tomb, this mummy-shaped figurine carried an inscription that confirmed that it would undertake agricultural duties in the afterlife (see earlier) on behalf of the deceased tomb owner. Valley of the Kings: Located on the West Bank at Thebes, this was the main site for the rock-cut tombs built for the rulers of the New Kingdom. Votive stela: People set up these stones in religious locations; they were inscribed with hymns and prayers that petitioned the gods for mercy and blessings. Wawat: A district, which, during the Old Kingdom, formed part or whole of northern Nubia. Weighing the Heart: This was a key event in the Day of Judgment (see earlier) when the heart of the deceased was weighed in the balance against a feather representing truth. The process confirmed if the person had given an honest account of his/her deeds during life. West, The: The land situated somewhere below the western horizon, where the dead lived. Wisdom Texts/Instructions in Wisdom: These texts provided a code of moral and ethical behavior; for thousands of years, they played an important part in Egypt’s educational system.

252

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY PRINTED WORKS Adams, W. Y. Nubia: Corridor to Africa. Princeton, NJ, and London, 1977. Adkins, L. and Adkins, R. The Keys of Egypt: the Race to Read the Hieroglyphs. London and New York, 2001. Allen, J. P. Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, CT, 1988. Allen, T. G. The Egyptian Book of the Dead. Documents in the Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago. Chicago, 1935–60. Anthes, R. “The Instruction of Amenemhet.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 16 (1957): 176–90; 17 (1958): 208–9. Arnold, D. Building in Egypt, Pharaonic Stone Masonry. Oxford, UK, 1997. Aufderheide, A. C. The Scientific Study of Mummies. Cambridge, UK, 2003. Ayad, M. F. God’s Wife, God’ Servant: The God’s Wife of Amun (c. 740–525 BC). Abingdon, UK, and New York, 2009. Bagnall, R. S. Egypt in Late Antiquity. Princeton, NJ, 1993. Baines, J. and Malek, K. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Oxford, UK, 1980. Blackman, A. Middle Egyptian Stories. Brussels, 1932. Blackman, A. (tr.). A. Erman, The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1927. Bleeker, C. J. Egyptian Festivals: Enactments of Religious Renewal. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1967. Bowman, A. K. Egypt after the Pharaohs, 332 BC–AD 642. London, 1986. Breasted, J. H. Ancient Records of Egypt. 5 vols. Chicago, 1906–7. Breasted, J. H. The Battle of Kadesh, a Study in the Earliest Known Military Strategy. Chicago, 1903. Breasted, J. H. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. Volume 1. Hieroglyphic Transliteration with Translation and Commentary. Chicago, 1930. Brothwell, D. and Chiarelli, B. A. (eds.). Population Biology of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1973. Butzer, K. W. Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: A Study in Cultural Ecology. Chicago, 1976.

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Capel, A. K. and Markoe, G. E. (eds.). Mistress of the House, Mistress of Heaven: Women in Ancient Egypt. New York, 1997. Caspo, E. and Miller, M. (eds.). The Origins of Theater in Ancient Greece and Beyond: From Ritual to Drama. Cambridge, UK, 2007. Černý, J. A Community of Workmen at Thebes in the Ramesside Period. Cairo, 1973. Černý, J. Paper and Books in Ancient Egypt. London, 1952. Collier, M. and Manley, B. How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself. London, 1998. David, A. R. (ed.). Egyptian Mummies and Modern Science. Cambridge, UK, 2008. David, A. R. The Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh’s Workforce. London, 1996. David, A. R. Religious Ritual at Abydos (c. 1300 BC). Warminster, UK, 1973. David, A. R. The Two Brothers: Death and the Afterlife in Middle Kingdom Egypt. Bolton, UK, 2007. David, R. Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt. Harmondsworth, UK, 2002. Davies, N. de G. The Rock Tombs of El Amarna. 6 parts. London, 1903–8. Davies, W. V. (ed.). Egypt and Africa: Nubia from Prehistory to Islam. London, 1991. Davies, W. V. Reading the Past: Egyptian Hieroglyphs. Berkeley, CA, and London, 1987. Decker, W. Sports and Games in Ancient Egypt. New Haven, CT, 1992. de Sélincourt, A. (tr.). Herodotus: The Histories, Book 2. Harmondsworth, UK, 1961. Edgerton, W. and Wilson, J. A. Historical Records of Ramesses III. Chicago, 1936. Edwards, I.E.S. The Pyramids of Egypt. Harmondsworth, UK, 1985. The Epigraphic Survey, University of Chicago, Medinet Habu. 8 vols. Chicago, 1930–70. Fairman, H. W. The Triumph of Horus: An Ancient Egyptian Sacred Drama. London, 1974. Faulkner, R. O. The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts. 3 vols. Warminster, UK, 1973, 1977, 1978. Faulkner, R. O. The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Oxford, UK, 1969. Faulkner, R. O. The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Coming Forth by Day. San Francisco, CA, 2008. Faulkner, R. O. “The Man Who Was Tired of Life.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 42 (1956): 21–40. Foster, J. L. Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology. Austin, TX, 2001. Foster, J. L. Echoes of Egyptian Voices: An Anthology of Ancient Egyptian Poetry. Norman, OK, 1992. Foster, J. L. Hymns, Prayers and Songs: An Anthology of Ancient Egyptian Lyric Poetry. Atlanta, GA, 1995. Foster, J. L. The Shipwrecked Sailor. Cairo, 1998. Foster, J. L. and Davies, N. M. Love Songs of the New Kingdom: Translated from the Ancient Egyptian. Austin, TX, 1974 (reprinted ed. 1992). Fox, M. V. “Two Decades of Research in Egyptian Wisdom Literature.” Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 107 (1980): 120–35. Fox, M. V. The Song of Songs and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs. Madison, WI, 1985. Gardiner, A. H. The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage from a Hieratic Papyrus in Leiden (Pap. Leiden 344 recto). Leipzig, Germany, 1909 (reprinted 2011). Gardiner, A. H. Egyptian Grammar. 3rd rev. ed. London, 1964. Gardiner, A. H. Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, 3rd Series: Chester Beatty Gift. 2 vols. London, 1935. Gardiner, A. H. The Kadesh Inscriptions of Ramesses II. Oxford, UK, 1960. Gardiner, A. H. Late Egyptian Miscellanies. Brussels, 1937.

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Gardiner, A. H. Late Egyptian Stories. Brussels, 1932. Gardiner, A. H. The Library of A. Chester Beatty: Description of Hieratic Papyrus with a Mythological Story, Love-songs and Other Miscellaneous Texts. The Chester Beatty Papyri, No. 1. London, 1931. Gillam, R. Performance and Drama in Ancient Egypt . London, 2009. Glanville, S.R.K. (ed.). The Legacy of Egypt. Oxford, UK, 1942. Goedicke, H. (ed.). Perspectives on the Battle of Kadesh. Baltimore, MD, 1985. Goedicke, H. The Report about the Dispute of a Man with his Ba. Baltimore, MD, 1970. Griffith, J. G. The Conflict of Horus and Seth from Egyptian and Classical Sources. Liverpool, UK, 1960. Harris, J. E. and Weeks, K. R. X-Raying the Pharaohs. New York, 1973. Harris, J. and Wente, E. F. An X-Ray Atlas of the Royal Mummies. Chicago, 1980. Hollis, S. T. “Tales of Magic and Wonder from Ancient Egypt.” In J. Sasson (ed.). Civilizations of the Ancient Near East IV. New York, 1995: 2255–64. Hornung, E. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. London, 1983. Houlihan, P. F. The Animal World of the Pharaohs. London and New York, 1996. Houlihan, P. F. The Birds of Ancient Egypt. Warminster, UK, 1986. Kemp, B. J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation. London and New York, 1991. Kendall, T. Kerma and the Kingdom of Kush, 2500–1500 B.C.: The Archaeological Discovery of an Ancient Nubian Empire. Washington, DC, 1997. Kitchen, K. A. Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II. Warminster, UK, 1982. Kitchen, K. A. Poetry of Ancient Egypt. Jonsered, Sweden, 1999. Kitchen, K. A. Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical. 8 vols. Oxford, UK, 1975–90. Rev. ed. Warminster, UK, 1996. Kitchen, K. A. The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC). Warminster, UK, 1973. Lacovera, P. The New Kingdom Royal City. London, 1997. Lehner, M. The Complete Pyramids. London, 1997. Leitz, C. Magical and Medical Papyri of the New Kingdom. London, 2000. Lesko, L. H. Pharaoh’s Workers: The Villagers of Deir el-Medina. Ithaca, NY, 1994. Lesko, L. H. “Some Comments on Ancient Egyptian Literacy and Literati.” In S. I. Groll (ed.). Studies in Honour of Miriam Lichtheim II. Jerusalem, 1990: 656–67. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 1. The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 2. The New Kingdom. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976. Lichtheim, M. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Volume 3. The Late Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980. Lloyd, A. B. (ed.). Battle in Antiquity. London, 1996. Loprieno, A. (ed.). Ancient Egyptian Literature: History and Forms. Leiden, The Netherlands, New York, and Cologne, Germany, 1996. Lucas, A. and Harris, J. R. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries. London, 1962. Rev. ed. Mineola, NY, 1999. Manniche, L. Music and Musicians in Ancient Egypt. London, 1991. Martin, G. T. The Royal Tomb at El-Amarna. 2 vols. London, 1974 and 1989. McDowell, A. G. Jurisdiction in the Workmen’s Community of Deir el-Medina. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1990.

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McDowell, A. G. Village Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs. Oxford, UK, and New York, 1999. McGovern, P., Fleming, S., and Katz, S. (eds.). The Origins and Ancient History of Wine. Luxembourg, 1995. Moers, G. (ed.). Lingua Aegyptia: Studia monographica 2: Definitely: Egyptian Literature. Göttingen, Germany, 1999. Murnane, W. J. Texts from the Amarna Period in Egypt. Atlanta, GA, 1995. Murnane, W. J. United with Eternity: A Concise Guide to the Monuments of Medinet Habu. Chicago, 1980. Nelson, H. H. The Battle of Megiddo. Chicago, 1913. Nicholson, P. T. and Shaw, I. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK, 2000. Nunn, J. Ancient Egyptian Medicine. London, 2000. O’Connor, D. and Silverman, D. Ancient Egyptian Kingship. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1995. Parker, R. A. The Calendars of Ancient Egypt. Chicago, 1950. Parkinson, R. B. Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A Dark Side to Perfection. London and New York, 2002. Parkinson, R. B. Reading Ancient Egyptian Poetry. Chichester, UK, 2009. Parkinson, R. B. The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant. Oxford, UK, 1991. Parkinson, R. B. The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems, 1940–1640 BC. Oxford, UK, 1997. Parkinson, R. B. “Teachings, Discourses and Tales from the Middle Kingdom.” In S. Quirke (ed.). Middle Kingdom Studies. New Malden, UK, 1991: 91–122. Parkinson, R. B. Voices from Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Middle Kingdom Writings. London, 1991. Peet, T. E. A Comparative Study of the Literatures of Egypt, Palestine, and Mesopotamia: Egypt’s Contribution to the Literature of the Ancient World. London, 1929. Peet, T. E. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: British Museum 10057 and 10058. London, 1923. Pestman, P. W. “Who were the owners, in the ‘Community of Workmen’, of the Chester Beatty Papyri?” In R. J. Demarée and J. J. Janssen (eds.). Gleanings from Deir el-Medina. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1982: 157–72. Piankoff, A. The Pyramid of Unas. Princeton, NJ, 1968. Pinch, G. Magic in Ancient Egypt. 2nd rev. ed. London, 2006. Powell, M. Labor in the Ancient Near East. New Haven, CT, 1987. Pritchard, J. B. (ed.). Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ, 1969. Quirke, S. Ancient Egyptian Religion. London, 1992. Quirke, S. The Cult of Ra: Sun-Worship in Ancient Egypt. London, 2001. Quirke, S. Egyptian Literature 1800 BC: Questions and Readings. London, 2004. Quirke, S. The Temple in Ancient Egypt: New Discoveries and Recent Research. London, 1997. Redford, D. B. Akhenaten. The Heretic King. Princeton, NJ, 1984. Redford, D. B. “Ancient Egyptian Literature: an Overview.” In J. Sasson (ed.). Civilizations of the Ancient Near East I-IV. New York, 1995: 2223–41. Redford, D. B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton, NJ, 1992. Redford, D. B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopaedia of Ancient Egypt. 3 vols. Oxford, UK, 2001. Reeves, C. N. The Complete Tutankhamun. London, 1990.

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Ritner, R. The Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice. Chicago, 1993. Robins, G. Women in Ancient Egypt. London, 1993. Robins, G. and Shute, C.C.D. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: An Ancient Egyptian Text. London, 1987. Sasson, J. (ed.). Civilization of the Ancient Near East I-IV. New York, 1995. Schäfer, H. (tr. and ed.) J. Baines. Principles of Egyptian Art. Oxford, UK, 1974. Schulman, A. R. Military Rank, Title and Organisation in the Egyptian New Kingdom. Berlin, 1964. Shafer, B. E. (ed.). Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths and Personal Practice. London, 1991. Shafer, B. E., Arnold, A., Haeny, G., Bell, L., and Finnestad, R. B. Temples of Ancient Egypt. Ithaca, NY, 1997. Simpson, D. C. “The Hebrew Book of Proverbs and the Teaching of Amenemope.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 12 (1926): 232–39. Simpson, W. K. The Ancient Egyptians: A Sourcebook of their Writings. New York, 1966. Simpson, W. K. (ed.). The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, Stelae, Autobiographies, and Poetry. New Haven, CT, and London, 2003. Smith, G. E. The Royal Mummies. Cairo, 1912 (reprinted ed. 2000). Spalinger, A. “Review of Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol. 2.” Orientalistische Literaturzeitung 74 (1979): 525–27. Starkey, J. and Starkey, P. (eds.). Interpreting the Orient: Travelers in Egypt and the Near East. Ithaca, NY, 2001. Strudwick, N. Texts from the Pyramid Age. Atlanta, GA, 2005. Szpakowska, K. Daily Life in Ancient Egypt. Malden, MA, 2008. Tait, J. W. “Demotic literature and Egyptian society.” In J. Johnson (ed.). Life in a MultiCultural Society: Egypt from Cambyses to Constantine and Beyond. Chicago, 1992: 303–10. Tait, J. W. “Egyptian Fiction in Demotic and Greek.” In J. R. Morgan and R. Stoneman (eds.). Greek Fiction: The Greek Novel in Context. London, 1994: 203–22. Thériault, C. A. “The Instruction of Amenemhet as propaganda.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 30 (1993): 151–60. Thomas, N. The American Discovery of Egypt. Los Angeles, 1996. Tobin, V. A. Theological Principles of Egyptian Religion. New York, 1989. Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B. J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. (eds.). Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge, UK, 1983. Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. Pharaonic Egyptian Clothing. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1993. Weeks, K. R. The Lost Tomb: The Greatest Discovery at the Valley of the Kings since Tutankhamun. London, 1998. Wente, E. Letters from Ancient Egypt. Atlanta, GA, 1990. Wilkinson, A. The Garden in Ancient Egypt. London, 1997. Wilkinson, R. H. The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London, 2003. Wilkinson, R. H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London, 2000. Wilkinson, T. Early Dynastic Egypt. London, 1999. Williams, R. J. “The Sages of Ancient Egypt in the Light of Recent Scholarship.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1981): 1–14. Williams, R. J. “Scribal Training in Ancient Egypt.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 92 (1972): 214–21. Winlock, H. E. Models of Daily Life in Ancient Egypt from the Tomb of Meket-Re. Cambridge, MA, 1955.

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Winlock, H. E. The Rise and Fall of the Middle Kingdom in Thebes. New York, 1947. Yadin, Y. The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands in the Light of Archaeological Discovery. London, 1963.

WEBSITES Abusir: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/abusir_jul_2006_0002.htm. Amarna and Akhenaten: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/people/pages/akhenaten.htm. Amarna Letters: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/amarna/pages/bm_2007_may_0120.htm. Ankhnesneferibre, God’s Wife of Amun: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/nubian%20 museum,%20aswan/pages/archer’s%20bracer001.htm. Archeological Survey of Nubia: http://www.knhcentre.manchester.ac.uk/research/ nubiaproject. Banqueting scenes, Tomb of Nebamun and Ipuky: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/nobles/ nebamon_ipouky181/e_nebamon_ipouky_01.htm. Bound Prisoners and Captured Towns, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/ medinet%20habu/index.htm (see under Temple of Ramesses III: pages/Picture%20 220001.htm). Champollion’s autographed letter to M. Dacier: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/ highlights/highlight_objects/aes/c/champollions_hieroglyphic_hand.aspx. Child Mummy Board (cartonnage 5): http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/manchester/pages/ cartonnage%205.htm. Coffin Texts (scribe’s copy): http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/bm_egyptian/pages/ bm_dec2008_0612.htm. Count of captives’ hands, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/medinet%20 habu/pages/medinet_habu_jul_2006_0041.htm. Day of Judgment, Papyrus of Ani: http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_ online/search.aspx?searchTex=papyrus+ani. Deir el-Medina Database: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/nino/dmd/dmd.html. Deir el-Medina Systematic Bibliography: http://www.wepwawet.nl/dmd/bibliography.htm. Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus: http://www.realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/ Misc/Writing/The_first_ancient_writing.htm. Expedition to Punt, Deir el-Bahri: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/deir%20el%20bahri/ pages/deir_el_bahri_jul_2006_0048.htm. Expedition to Punt, Deir el-Bahri: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/deir%20el%20bahri/ index.htm (see under Reliefs inside Hatshepsut’s temple: Expedition to Punt: pages/deir_el_ bahri_091.htm). Funerary Temple of Merenptah: http://www.osirisnet.net/monument/temple/merenptah/e_ temple_merenptah.htm#. Giza Plateau: http://www.aeraweb.org/projects/gpmp/pyramids. Great Sphinx, Giza: http://www.aeraweb.org/projects/sphinx. Hawass, Z., Gad, Y., Ismail, S. et al. “Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun’s Family,” The Journal of the American Medical Association, February 17, 2010, 303(7): 638–47: http://jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=185393. Hypostyle Hall, Denderah: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/dendara/index.htm (see under Temple of Dendara: pages/Dendara%20069.htm). Kahun, A Pyramid Workmen’s Town: http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/lahun/index.html. Karnak Great Hypostyle Hall Project: http://www.memphis.edu/hypostyle/.

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Karnak Great Hypostyle Hall Project, Interior Walls: http://www.memphis.edu/hypostyle/ interior_wall_scenes.php. Karnak Great Hypostyle Hall Project, Sety I War Scenes: http://www.memphis.edu/hypo style/sety i war scenes.php. Kom Ombo Medical Instruments: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/kom%20ombos/index .htm (see under Kom Ombo: Picture%20148001.htm). Kush: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/cultures/africa/ancient_Sudan.aspx. Late Ramesside Letters: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/Deir%20el%20Medina/index .htm (see under Documents from Deir el-Medina). Medinet Habu Epigraphic Survey: http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/epi/#Projects. Megiddo Gallery, University of Chicago Museum: https://oi.uchicago.edu/idb//. van Middendorp, J., Sanchez, G. M., and Burridge, A. L. “The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus: A Clinical Reappraisal of the Oldest Known Document on Spinal Injuries.” European Spine Journal 2010 November 19(11): 1815–1823: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pmc/articles/PMC2989268/. Mines and Quarries: www.touregypt.net/featurestories/minesandquarries2. Mummy: The Inside Story: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/egypt/ mummy_the_inside_story.aspx. Nebamun Tomb Chapel: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/ room_61_tomb-chapel_nebamun.aspx. Processional barques, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/ medinet%20habu / pages/medinet_habu_jul_2006_0076.htm. Religious Calendar, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/medinet%20habu/ index.htm (see under Temple of Ramesses III: pages/medinet_habu_jul_2006_0222 .htm). Rosetta Stone: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/room_4_ egyptian_sculpture.aspx. Royal Mummies Catalogue: http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/eos/eos_title.pl? callnum=DT57.C2_vol59. Saite Chapels of God’s Wives of Amun, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/ medinet%20habu/index.htm (see under Chapel of Divine Adoratrices). Sistrum: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/metropolitan/pages/Metropolitan%20NY%20 Nov-2005%201004.htm. Solar Boat, Giza: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/giza_boat/index.htm. Soldiers, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/medinet%20habu/index.htm (see under Temple of Ramesses III: pages/medinet_habu_jul_2006_0236.htm). Stelae: http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/projects/egyptian_stelae_in_the_museum. Sudan and Nubia: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/room_65_ sudan_egypt_nubia.aspx. Tebtunis, A Ptolemaic Town: www.tebtunis.berkeley.edu. Temple of Edfu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/edfu/pages/plan_of_edfu_temple.htm. Temple of Edfu Mammisi: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/edfu/pages/Picture%20200001 .htm. Temple of Sety I, Abydos: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/abydos/index.htm. Theban Mapping Project: http://thebanmappingproject.com. Theban Royal Mummy Project: http://members.tripod.com/anubis4_2000/mummypages1/ intro.htm. Tomb of Kha, Museo Egizio, Turin: http://xy2.org/lenka/TurinKha.html.

259

Selected Bibliography

Tomb of Kheruef, Thebes: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/nobles/kheru/e_kherouef_01 .htm#. Tomb of Menna: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/nobles/menna69/e_menna_01.htm#. Tomb of Ptahhotep and Akhethotep: http://www.osirisnet.net/mastabas/akhethtp_ptahhtp/e_ akht_ptah_03.htm. Tomb of Sennedjem: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/artisans/sennedjem1/e_sennedjem1_03.htm#. Tomb of Tutankhamun Excavation Records: http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/griffith.html. Tombs of Deir el-Medina: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/artisans/tombes_deir_el_ medineh/e_tombes_deir_el_medineh_01.htm#. Tombs of the Kings, Queens and Priests, Thebes: http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/ pharaohs/e_ph1.htm#. Two Brothers: http://ancient.egypt.co.uk/manchester/pages/Body%20coffin%20of%20 Khnum%20Nakht.htm. Warfare scenes, Ramesseum: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/ramasseum/ramasseum_re liefs/pages/ramesseum_048.htm. Weighing the Heart: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_egypt/ room_62–63_egyptian_mummies.aspx. Wrestling scene, Medinet Habu: http://www.ancient-egypt.co.uk/medinet%20habu/index .htm.

260

INDEX Abiding in Thebes, 178 The Admonitions of Ipuwer (Papyrus Leiden 344), 52 Advantages of a Teaching Career (Papyrus Lansing), 97 Adze (carpenter’s tool), xxiii, 77, 78 Afterlife: access to, 225; blessings of, 38–39; historical background, xix, xxiii, xxvi; Offering List, 122; skeptical view of, 37–40; social upheaval and, 52; suicide and, 233, 235; through king's bounty, 33; training children, 5; uncertainties of, 37; writing as communication, 101 Agriculture and famine, 113, 118, 182, 202 Ailment not to be treated, 88, 89 Akeru, 211 Alexander the Great, 48, 99 Allied princes, 153, 154 Amarna Period, 167 Amasis, King, 48 Amenemhet I, 51, 53, 73, 85, 135 Amenemhet III, 105 Amenhotep II, 185, 186 Amenhotep III, 47, 111, 146, 198, 215 Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten): afterlife and, 37; how a man should treat his wife, 16; introduction, xxii, xxviii; marriage advice, 9; religious revolution, 195 Amenirdis I, 9, 21 Amulets, 44, 211, 212

Amun: creation myths, 193; defined, 68, 178; financial transactions, 63, 64; monument for, 216; music and worship, 169; New Year festival, 177–79; offerings to, 32, 154; royal residences, 48; sexuality, 28, 29; slavery and servitude, 67–68; status of women, 19–22; strategy of warfare, 145–46; trading ventures, 55 Ancestors, xix, 118, 137, 140 Animal cults, xxii The Annals of Tuthmosis III, 68, 153–54 Antef, 37–39 Anubis, 20, 44, 121–22 Appointed the rulers anew for (every town), 68 Archaic Period, xx, xxii Ariseth in its horizon, 48 Army of Amun, 145 Army of Pre, 145 Army of Ptah, 145 Army of Sutekh, 145 Aronama, 145 Artifacts, 94, 102 Artists and intellectuals, advice to, 159–61 Ashkelon, 112 Asiatic copper, 186 Asiatic temple, 111 Assyrians, 21, 151, 178 Astarte, 48 Aten, 167, 196–97, 216 Atenism, xxi, xxvi, 169, 195–99

261

Index

A thousand of bread, beer and all good things, 20 Atum, 48, 192 Autobiographical Inscription of Harkhuf, 71 The Autobiographical Inscription of Harkhuf, 72–73 Autobiography, xxvi, 160 Ay, 169, 195, 196–97 Ba, 20, 233 Babylonian cuneiform, 145 Babylonian mathematical systems, 106, 111 Bark/barque, 55, 179, 230 Bark of the Governor, 226 Bastet, 210, 211 The Battle between Good and Evil (The Triumph of Horus, Temple of Edfu), 172–74 Battle strategy, 146 Ba who is in Thebes, 20 Beautify, 38 Bedouin, 53, 146, 150 Be Grateful to Your Mother (The Instruction of Any (Papyrus Boulaq 4)), 11–12 Behavior, toward superiors, equals, and inferiors, 139–41 Bier, defined, 52 Biomedical studies, 5 Black Bull, 173, 174 Book of the Dead, xxvi, 225, 226–27 Boon-which-the-king-gives, 202 Bringing in the God, 178 Bronze coat of mail, 153, 154 Bull-of-the-Two-Lands, 173 Burial preparations, 219–23 Buto, 48 Byblos, 55, 56, 63, 131, 154, 207 Caitliff, 173, 174 Cakes of the blessed dead, 226 Calculation of time, 113 Canaanites, 67, 154 Canopic Chest, 32 Cartonnage, 222 Cartouche, xx Cataracts, xvii, 71, 118, 131, 219

262

Cattle of the god’s property, 226 Champollion, 101, 102, 103 Chapels, 93, 95, 216 Charm endowed with power, 44 Chief lector-priest, 118 Chief of Nubia, 118 Children of the neck, 52 Children of the princes of every foreign country, 216 Christian era, xxv, 99, 103, 222 City-state, 67, 112, 143, 145, 150–51 Coffin Texts, xxvi, 31, 33–34, 121, 225, 231 The Coffin Texts (Coffin Text of Nakht-Ankh), 33, 121 The Complaints of the Peasant, 43 Constantly, defined, 84 Copts/coptic, xxv, 99, 101, 103, 106 Co-regency, 136 Craftsman tools and working conditions, 77–79 Creation mythology, 191–94 Cubits, 130, 186 Cuirasses, 150 Cult center, 163, 193, 216, 230 Cults: animal cults, xxii; defined, 195, 215, 231; funerary cult, 5; monotheistic state cult, xxi; sun-cult, 207 Cultus-temples, 215, 217 Cuneiform, 99, 145 Dances of the gods, 73 Darkness, defined, 164 Darkness by day, 94 Day of Judgment, 225–28 Day of lamentation, 38 Deben, defined, 56, 64 Ded-sneferu, 206 Delta, defined, xvii–xviii, 21, 48, 103, 112 Demotic script, 99, 101, 105 Demotic texts, 131 Des-wood, 211 Didactic literature, xxvii Disease, magical treatment of, 209–13 Diseased ones of Sekhmet, 210, 211 The Dispute between a Man and His Soul (Papyrus Berlin 3024), 234–35 Diverted water in its season, 226

Index

Divine fathers, 20 Divine marriage (theogamy), 28 Djer, King, 73 Djoser, King, 117, 119 The doing as it occurs, 107 Double (ka), 107, 230 Drinking beer, dangers, 181–84 Dynastic era, xxv Dynasties, xx, 19–20, 53, 99 Eastern Desert, xviii, 130, 164 The eating of bread is under the governance of God, and it is only a churl who complains about it, 84 Education of boys, 83–86 The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus, 88–89, 209–11 Egyptian calendar, 111, 113, 118, 178, 179 Egyptian deities, xxi–xxii, 95 Egyptian scripts, 37, 101, 103 Egyptian society, 8, 90, 140, 170, 183 Egyptian temple, ritual use of, 201–4 The Eloquent Peasant, 43 Embalmer-priest-of-Anubis, 20 Embalmers/embalming, 52, 122, 219–22 Encroached upon the fields, 226 The Ennead, 27–28, 33, 192, 202 The Ennead of Atum came into being through his semen and his fingers, 192 Enriched with statues of the lord, 216 Equipment of a War Chariot (Schoolboys’ Fictitious Model Letters: Papyrus Koller), 150 Every kind of silver, 56 Ewer, 64 Exhortations and Warnings to Schoolboys (Papyri Anastasi IV, V, and Sallier I), 181–82 Exodus, biblical, 16, 111 Faience, 47, 169 Falcon boat, 186 Fallen one of Khatti, 144, 145 Family values, 11–12 The Famine Stela, 118 Fate of a man is on his shoulders on the day he is born, 60

A Father’s Advice to His Son (Papyrus Insinger), 4 Fayoum towns, 127 Feast of Ipet (Opet), 177–79 “Fields of Reeds,” 34 Financial transactions, 63–65 Flagstaffs, 216 Flow of Hapy, 118 Foremost of the Westerners, 202 Found a Family (The Instruction of Any (Papyrus Boulaq 4)), 8 Funerary beliefs, 33–34, 122, 222–23, 227 Funerary cult, 5 Funerary rites, 5, 33, 72 Genuine marvels of the things of the god, 38 Gezer, 112 God in his procession, 226 Gods, defined, 38 God’s Adoress, 20 God’s Hand, 20 God’s seal-bearer, 72, 73 God’s Wife, 19, 20–21 The God’s Wife of Amun (Statue Inscription of Harwa), 20 Government advice, 135–38 The Great Hymn to the Aten in the Tomb of Ay, Tell el-Amarna, 196–97 Great Ones in the north of the sky, 230 Great Royal Wife, 8 Great Sphinx at Giza, 185 Hapy had failed to come in time, 118 Harakhti-who-rejoices-in-the-horizon-inhis-name-Shu-who-is-in-Aten, 167 Hardedef, 38, 84, 205–6 Harmakhis, 186 Harpers’ Songs, xxvii, 37, 39 Hatia-prince, 122 Hawk, defined, 52 Health and medicine, 87–91 He has to give food to the doorkeeper, 78 Heliopolis, 51, 145, 191–93, 206–7, 231 Hellenistic world, 48–49, 127, 222 Herihor, High priest of Amun, 55 Hermonthis, 48 Herodotus, 175, 219, 221–22

263

Index

He with the Quiet Heart, 38 Hieratic script, 99, 101, 105, 179 Hieroglyphs, 61, 99, 101–2, 145, 163, 225 High priest: of Amun, 19–20, 55; in Heliopolis, 206; hymns to, 163; Ka-priests, 20; lector-priest, 20, 102; mummies and, 186; of Re, 206; of the temple, 201, 203 High priestess, 19, 20 Him who reprimands you, defined, 4 His knees are drawn up against his belly, 77–78 Hittites, xxx, 143, 145, 146, 150 Homes and gardens, 126 A Homosexual Encounter (Papyrus Chester Beatty I), 28 Homosexuality, 28 Horemheb, 39, 169 Horizon, 206 Horizon of heaven, 216 Horus, 27–30, 164, 192, 210 Horus Eye, 164 Horus the Behdetite, 172 House of Books, 119 House of Life, 118, 119 House of the God, 203 How a man should treat his wife, 15–16 Human figure, representation of, xxiii–xxiv Hyksos, 29, 130, 149, 150–51, 205 Hymn to Hathor, Hall of Offerings, Temple of Denderah, 164–65 Imhotep, 38, 87, 118 Incantations and spells, 89 Incense-burning, 33, 71–73, 212, 230 Inmost open, 164 In sooth, 56 The Instruction of King Amenemhet I for His Son Senusret I (Papyrus Millingen), 136 Instruction of Ptah-hotep (Lichtheim), 12 The Instruction of Ptah-hotep (Papyrus Prisse), 83, 139–40 Instructions in Wisdom, 16 Ipet-sut, 20 Isesi, King, 71–73, 83 I shall make Hapy gush for you, 118 Isis, 27–29, 164–65, 173, 192, 216

264

Island of Creation, 192, 215–17 Island of the Ka, 130 The Israel Stela / The Poetical Stela of Merneptah, 112 Its duration is that of Memphis, 48 Its working, defined, 107 I would hand over to you, 136 Joy-of-Egypt, Beloved-of-Atum, 48 Jubilee, 165 Judgment day, 225–28 Judgment hall, 60 Justice for everyone, 43–46 Justified, defined, 20, 94, 123 Ka (double), 83, 221, 230 Ka-chapel, 20 Kadesh, 144, 145 The Kadesh Battle Inscription of Ramesses II (The Poem: Temples of Abydos, Luxor, Karnak, Abu Simbel, and the Ramesseum), 144–45 Ka-priests, 20 Kashta, 19, 21 Kashta, King, 19 Ka-spirit, 33 Khafre, King, 185, 206, 208 Khafre pyramid, 108, 186 Khatti, 112, 145, 150 Khattusilis III, 145–46 Khered, 64 Khet, 107 Khnum, 117–18, 216 Khnum-Aa, 32, 33, 121 Khnum-Nakh, 31–33, 121 Khor, 196, 197 Khufu, King, 54, 130, 186, 205–6 King-lists, xix The King Presents Food Offerings to the Gods (Gallery of the Lists, Temple of Sety I, Abydos), 202 King’s mines, 130 King’s relationship with the gods, 229–32 “King’s Son of Kush,” 74 Knowledge and Application (The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus), 106–8 Kush, xviii, 74, 179, 196

Index

Laid upon the high ground, 52 Lamentations and dialogues, xxvii Land of the horizon-dwellers, 72, 73 Lapis lazuli, 68, 126, 130 Learned man, 159, 160 Lector-priest, 20, 102 Legal system, 45, 46, 69, 193 Libyans, 111–13 Local courts (kenbet), 45 Locks, defined, 206 Lord of Abydos, 33 Lord of Busiris, 33 Lord of the cataract region, 118 Love poetry, 25 Love songs, 23–26 Loving-son, 102 Lower Egypt, xix, 112, 171, 178 Lower Egyptian Conclave, 33 Lower Nubia, xviii, 73 Lyric poetry, xxvii, 25 Magical figurines (ushabtis), 34 Magician, 68, 130–31, 205–6, 212 Magistrates, 44, 140 Malachite, 164 Mammisis (birth house), 217 Mansion of the God, 217 Mansions of the Net, 118 Marriage advice, 7–9 Marsh thicket, 98 Maryan-warriors, 68 Mastaba-tomb, xix, 221 Mathematics, 105–9 Medenit, 44 Medical Papyri, 12, 88–90, 129, 211, 212 Megiddo, 67–68, 143, 153–55 The Memphite Theology (The Shabaka Stone), 192–93 Menes, xix Menkaure, 206 Menmaetre, 202 Mentuhotep II (Nebhepetre), 53 Merenre, King, 71 Merneptah, 47, 111, 112, 201 Military expedition, calendar, 111–14 Mineland, 73 Mitannians, 143, 146, 150 Monotheism, xxi, 195–99, 216

Mont, 145, 186 Month-in-the-Two Lands, 48 Monthly priest, 20 Mortuary temples, 111, 160, 215, 217 Mother’s role, 12 Mouth of a (hungry) calf, 211 Mummification, 5, 121, 219–23, 229 Mummy/mummies, 5, 186, 219 Music in divine worship, 167–70 My heart began to follow sleep, 136 Myrrh, 38, 72, 221, 234, 235 Mysteries, 174 Nakht-Ankh, 31–34, 121–22 Narratives and tales, xxvii, 25 Narrative texts, xxviii, 25, 130, 131, 205 Natron (natrum), 95, 219, 221 Necropolises, xix, xxviii, 39, 121 Neferkare, King, 73, 205–7 Neferkheprure-Sole-One-of-Re, 167, 169, 197 Nefertiti, Queen, 12, 39, 51, 198 Nefret-flower, 210–11 Negative Confession, 225, 226, 227 Neglected days concerning their meat offerings, 226 Neni-nesut, 44 New Year festival, 165, 177–80 Night of Ipet, 178 Night that will rescue him, 77, 78 Nile in the netherworld, 197 Nile in the sky, 197 Nile Valley, xvii–xvix Nine Bows, 31, 33, 112 Nubia: Chief of Nubia, 118; expeditions to, 56, 71–75; imports, 117; line of rulers from, 21; New Year festivals, 178; Upper Nubia, xviii, 73 Offering cakes of the gods, 226 Offering List, xxvi, 121, 122, 201–2 Offering loaves in the temple, 226 Offerings, by the King, 121–23 Office, 206 Ogdoad, 193 Once night has come, 84 On the journey south, 68

265

Index

“Opening of the Mouth” ceremony, xxiii, 122, 203 Order and chaos, 53 Orontes, 145, 146 Osirian Myth, xxi, 171 Osiris: home of, 201–2; judgment day and, 225, 227–28; king’s relationship with, 231; offerings to, 31, 33; prophet of, 20; religion background on, xxi; son of, 27–29, 164, 192 Ostraca: marriage advice on, 7; role of a scribe, 97; scribal profession, 59; sexuality, 28; tools and working conditions, xxviii, xxix, 77 Ostracon, 16 Overlook, 94, 154 Palette, 98 Palm, 125, 182, 186, 217, 221 Pantheon, xxi, 11, 29, 48, 165 Papyri/papyrus: education of boys, 8; as export, 64; government advice, 135; health and medicine, 87; introduction, xxviii; judgment day, 225; marriage advice, 7; Medical Papyri, 12, 88–90; mother’s role, 12; role of a scribe, 97; texts written on, 34; tools and working conditions, 77; training children, 3; warfare, strategy, 143; worship through dancing, 163; writing as communication, 101 Papyrus Chester Beatty I, 27 Papyrus Chester Beatty IV, 102 Pepy II, 53, 230 Per-Fefi district, 44 Persian invasion, 21 Persian Period, 64, 112 Personal piety, 93–96 Perverse One from the Two Outpourings, 173 Pessimistic Literature, 37, 39, 118, 235 Petrie, William Flinders, 31, 105 Pharaoh: defined, xx–xxi; music and, 164; right to rule, 178; sporting pharaoh, 185–88; trading ventures, 56 Pharaonic Egypt, 5 Pharaonic temples, 216 Pharaonic texts, 97

266

Pharaonic times, 39, 68, 137, 182 Piye, King, 177–79 Placed you on the path of God, 60 Place of embalming, 123 Place-of-Truth, 94, 226 Place to which he has been sent, 60 Plague-bearing wind, 210, 211 Poem in Praise of the City of Ramesses II (Papyrus Anastasi II), 48 Political propaganda, 205–8 Poor have come to live around it, 126 Predynastic Period, xix, xxii Primary documents, xxv–xxvii Princes: allied princes, 154; burial sites for, 95; defined, 112; foreign relations, 150; major expeditions, 56; sacred spaces and, 216; scribal profession and, 61; slavery and, 69; status of royal women and, 21; teaching of, 4 Processional bark, 178 Prophets, 20 Psammetichus I, 21, 48 Ptah, 94, 192 Ptah-hotep, 83, 84, 139–40, 159 Ptolemaic Period, xx, xxix, 69, 137, 217 Ptolemaic rulers, 64, 101 Ptolemy IX Soter II, 171 Ptolemy V Epiphanes, 101 Punt, 56, 71, 129, 131 Pure Place, 52 Pylons, 174 Pylon VI, 67 Pyramids: building of, 140, 179, 207; discontinuation of, 217; Khafre pyramid, 108, 186; purpose of, 229; royal pyramid, 37; what the pyramid hid, 52 Pyramid Texts, xxvi, xxix, 34, 193, 229 The Pyramid Texts (Several Pyramids), 230 Ramesses-Beloved-of-Amun, 48 Ramesses II: battle strategy, 146; dangers of drinking beer, 181; Kadesh Battle Inscription of, 144–45; military expedition, 111; mortuary temple, 160; reign of, 143; royal residence, 47; temple rituals, 201; victory for, 145

Index

Ramesses III, 95, 112 Ramesses X, 95 Ramesses XI, 55 Ramesside Period, 16, 25, 39, 59, 101 Re, 178, 196, 202 Rededet, 206 Religious background, xxi–xxii Religious revolution, 195–99 The Report of Wenamun (Papyrus Moscow 120), 56, 63–64 Residences, 60, 73, 126, 206. See also Royal residences Resting-place of Kings Khufu and Khafre, 186 Reversion of Offerings, 202 The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, 106–8 Risen as a god, 136 Roman Empire, xxv Royal Ancestors, xix, 137 Royal gang, 77, 78, 93–94, 160 Royal historical inscriptions, xxvi Royal house l.p.h., 60 Royal residences, 47–50 Royal women, status, 19–22 Royal workforce, 49, 160 Sacred Lake, 174 Sacred space, 215–18 Sahure, 205–7 Sakhebu, 206 Sanctuary of Thoth, 206 Sarcophagus, 52, 186 The Satire of the Trades (Papyrus Sallier II, Papyrus Anastasi VII), 60, 77–78 Savage Beast, 173 The Sayings of Great Happiness (Papyrus Chester Beatty I), 24 School of writings, 60 A School Text (Papyrus Lansing), 126 Scribal profession, 59–62, 97–100 Sea adventure, 129–32 Seal in its place, 136 Sea-Peoples, 112 Sekhet-Hemat, 44 Sekhmet, 209–11 Senusret I, 73, 135 Senusret III, 74 Sepulchral chamber, 221

Sepulchre, 52 Seth, 27–30, 173 Sety I, 201–3 Sety Merenptah, 202 Sexuality, 20, 27–29 Shabaka, King, 191–92 Shabtuna, 145–46 Shedeh, 182 Shepenwepet I, 21 Shepenwepet II, 21 The Shorter Hymn to the Aten, Tomb of Ay, Tell el-Amarna, 167 Shu, 167, 192 Siege of Megiddo, booty from, 153–55 Sitteth on the shore of drunkenness, 235 Sitteth under the sail on a windy day, 234, 235 Slave-girls, 160 Slavery and servitude, 67–70, 160, 216 Smash in his skull, 88 Smendes, 55, 63 Smenkhkare, 169, 198 Smith, Edwin, 87–90, 209 Sneferu, King, 51 Social upheaval, 51–54 Sole God, 196 Something entering from outside, 88, 89 The Song from the Tomb of King Antef (Intef ), 38 Songs at Banquets, 37 Son of Re, 202 Souls of Re, 118 Southern Ipet, 178 Sporting pharaoh, 185–88 Staff of Ibis, 118 Staff of watch, 150 Stairway to the sky, 230 State gods, 165 Station of the lord, 216 Stela, 93, 145, 177, 215 Stelae, xxvi, 77, 163 Stela in the temple, 102 The Story of the Eloquent Peasant (Papyri Berlin 3023, 3025, 10499; Papyrus British Museum 10274), 44–45 Straight, defined, 164 Suicide, 233–36 Sun-cult, 207

267

Index

Sun-of-Princes, 48 Sun-temples, 216 Suppiluliumas, King, 143 Sutekh, 48, 145 Syria, 64, 150 Syrian settlements, 216, 217 Taharka, King, 178 The Tale of King Khufu and the Magicians (Papyrus Westcar), 206–7 The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor (Papyrus Leningrad 1115), 130 Tanuatamun, 178 Taste the taste of my fingers, 178 Teacher, new house for, 125 Techniques of Mummification (Herodotus, the Histories, Book 2: Paras. 86–88), 220–21 Tefnut, 192 Telek, 182 Temple Architecture (The Stela of Amenhotep III from His Mortuary Temple in Western Thebes), 215 Temple of Edu, sacred drama, 171–76 Temples: architecture, 217; Asiatic temple, 111; cultus-temples, 215, 217; high priest of, 201, 203; mortuary temples, 111, 160, 215, 217; offering loaves in the temple, 226; pharaonic temples, 216; rituals, 19, 201–4; ritual use of, 201–4; stela in the temple, 102; sun-temples, 216 Their points, defined, 150 They, defined, 150 They who foretold the future, 102 Thighs of their eldest ones, 230 Third month of the inundation, second day, 178 Those who are in the sky, 230 Those who pass by, 210, 211 Thoth, 192, 206 Throw stick and chase, 98 Time that came after the gods, 102 Tjehenu, 112 Tjel, 60 Tomb owner offerings, 31–35 Tomb robberies, 95, 231 Towns and palaces, 49

268

Trading ventures, 55–57 Training children, 3–5 Transaction of goods, 64 Transport, 55, 56, 131, 154, 216 Treat Thy Wife Well (The Instruction of Any (Papyrus Boulaq 4)), 15 Tutankhamun, 169–70, 187 Tuthmosis I, 94–95 Tuthmosis III: annals of, 67–68, 153–54; expeditions by, 74; height of, 186; horse skills, 185; military campaign, 143, 153, 154 Tuthmosis IV, 146, 186, 198 Two-Lands, xix, 48, 52, 173 Upper Egypt, xix, 71, 171 Upper Egyptian Conclave, 33 Upper Nubia, xviii, 73 Uraeus, 52 Userkaf, 205–7 Valley of the Kings, 77, 93, 95, 186, 217 This very great monument, 216, 217 Vessel of Amunre, 56 The Victory Stela of King Piye, 178–79 Victuals, 48 Voice offerings, 33 Votive stela, 93–95 Votive Stela of Neferabu with Prayer to Ptah, 94 Votive stelae, xxvi Walketh abroad after sickness, 234, 235 Warfare, 143–47, 149–52 Wawat, xviii, 73–74 Weighing the heart, 227 Western (Libyan) Desert, xvii West side of Thebes, 94, 216, 217 What the pyramid hid, 52 While I was without you, 136 White Crown, 136 Who speaks their name, 102 The Wisdom Instruction of Ptah-hotep (Papyrus Prisse), 159–60 Wisdom Text: artists and intellectuals, 159; dangers of drinking beer, 181; family values, 11; how a man should treat his wife, 16; instruction from,

Index

xxvi, 84, 85; marriage advice, 7; personal piety, 95; scribal profession and, 59, 97; training children, 3, 5; writing as communication, 101 With double, 107 Worship through dancing, 163–66 Writing as means of communication, 101–4

Yam, 72, 73 Yanoan, 112 Yebu, 216, 217 Young, Thomas, 103 Your beloved son, 196 You shall die in your own town, 130

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A BOUT THE EDITOR Rosalie David, OBE, PhD, FRSA, currently professor emeritus of Egyptology at the University of Manchester, Manchester, Britain, was until 2012 director of the KNH Centre for Biomedical Egyptology, University of Manchester. She studied Egyptology at University College London, and the University of Liverpool, Britain. Her published works include Egyptian Mummies and Modern Science; Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt; and Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt, Revised Edition.