Viseonti III Ihis "Iudy. dlt' firsl ill the EII!-.di"h lallgllagf' 10 ("olIsidt'r Luchillo Vi"("olIti·,.; t'lIlin' W'U\T(, . Hellry HacolI t'xalllill(,S dlt' tilms of 0I1t' of Ilaly'" pn't'lllillt'lIl filmmakt'rs. agaillsl tilt' cultural. hi"lorical. alld biographind t'ollft'xh ill which dlt'\" Wt'rt' madt'o The author funlSt'''' 011 tllft'(' fUlldalllt'lllal tlH'IlIt',; of \'i,;('OIlIi"" cillt'malic OU'l"lt: hi" varyillg ;,Iyl<'" alld "Iralq~i('" of audiovisual lIarralioll. \\·hid. (Tealt' ellthrallillg imagh of individuals alld :;ocit'lit'S al a gi\"l'lI m01l1t'1I1 ill dlt'ir de\"('lopIIH'/lI: his ability 10 takl' lilt'ntry work,., alld other n.tlUral illtlut'IICt's illlo hi,.; possI's;,ioll alld n'(T"alt' Ih('m a" a highly ilHJividualized cillema: alld dlt, illtt'lVlay Iwtw(,t'1I th(, lilllllllakt'I:"; illlt'lIst' feelillg for life. art. alld beauty ami hi;, crilical deladlllll'lIt. disillusioll. and painful awart'lIt'SS of dead. and dt'(·ay. In Hacoll' S Hllalysis ViSI'OIlI i t'nH'rgt'S as a tW(,lItil'lh-I't'lIIl1ry illllt'ritor alld /'t'llt'Wl'r of lilt' llillt'lt'I'1l1 h-"t'lllury Ilarfali\'(' tradition. l'spt"'ially thal of dlt' 1l0H'1 alld dH' opera. Ht'nfY Bacon is :hsociate Proft'''sor of Fillll alld Tt'lt'\'isioll al lIlt' l Ilin'rsil \' of Ht'binki. Finland.
Viseonti EXPLORATIONS OF BEAUTY Al"D DECAY
Henry Bacon
RI CAMBRIDGE ~ UNIVERSITY PRES¥
1'1 Bl.hllU) /1\ TIlE P/lESS
SY~IlIC.\TE
OF TilE I "IVE/lSITY OF C.\\\IlHII)(;E
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1'1.
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lilt' Brili.~h !.ihral'Y.
J.ibl'w;t' 0/ ('"IIW''''''' ('lIlalu/!ill/!-ill-l'uhliclllilJlI!)a/u Ha'·III1. lleury. Yisl'lHlli : explllralillll. Ill' h .. allly a11l1 decay / 1I"nry BaCilli. p. ('Ill. Fillllll/!rllphy: 1'. IlIdlld,', hihliographil'al ...·f,·n·IIt·'·s alld illd,·x,·,. ISB" D-;):! 1-;)9U;): -i. - ISB:-- D-':>:! 1-;)'lIJhO-1 (phk.) I. \'i'l'ollli. i.uchillo. I '10h-19:h - (:rilicislll and inlcrprt'lulifln. I. Till,·. P:\ I 'l9H.:i. \';):B:li I'I'IH :'It.i:I'O:!:l;,l'O!J:!- c11':!1 '1:-IQh:l.l ClP
Dedicated to fhe dear m elll ory o/my late/atlwr, 11 'alter BacolI, Ii'ho wwd 10 be Ihe first r{'wler 0/ lily t'lglish fe.l'ts, illcludillg this stll(~l·.
Contents
l/lt rodllction \ISCO:\TI ..\:\J) :\EOHE\US\\
Ussessiolle All ari~tolTat and a filllllllaker The making alld reception of ()sses.~iolle Melodramatic realism Background. tht·ory. alld practice of nt'oreali~1Il Birth of a t'oncept Theory and idt'al~ La terra trelllll Realism after t he war Fate and alteration Bellissifll([ III ~eart:h of a st yle I11l1sion~ of art alld reality Ollr 11 omen TilE HISOH(;I\IE:\TO FII.\IS
.";e/lso Opera and realism The format iOIl of Se/lso RisorgiIlll'nto as history and lIIythology ~It·lodrallla as niticislIl of histOl'Y The l.eopard Reasst'ssillg tlte Risorgilll('ntn Stagnation alld (,hangt· Toward a lIo\'('li~ti(' ('illt'lIIa
puge 1
CO"lI~"TS
\ III
;)
\.'\D \J()DEB:\ 1'1':\1..1:\:\ ~()CIE'rY
TilE I· :\\111.'
\"i",,'omi';; Iwo
familie~
Ilo('('o alld /lis Brolhers ProdUl'lion LIIHIC,'n:;or;;hil' Social Hlld lil,'rury I,aekl-!rollllll Fin' altel'llalin'" for h\'l' hrolhers \Idodra/lla a:; uo:;tal~ia aud u social ,'ollullt'ntary
('OIII'I'I'SO I iOIl
n~
Piece
\ISCO:\T1 .\:\D CEH\I.\:\\
\'i:;l'oIll i, ThoIllas \lalll1, alld two aspeCI!; of Europe
t:N
The Job 11/1' lJwl/l/ed
H~
:\ de:;c('1I1 10
hl,lI
lJealh ill I ('lIi(:(' Adapl iug \lann awl \[ahler Trall;;formilll-! lill'mry illlo HlltiiU\isllal splelldor Llldll'it,( Thl' ba I tie for Llle/wit,( A film abolll Ludwil-! II Tht'llWlic COIll'l'l'Ib HIId I1L1rralin' Slrlll'llIJ't' AUlliovi:;ual "Ide r-
1O~ 1O~
TIH' i>lory and the dWnlclt'rs SI \' 11' and I ht'IlJ(';; TIIf' It ilch BlIl'lled ,tlil'(,
TlH' illYl'rSl' sidl' of CenlluIlv
~)
<)8
to-t 107 11,) 119 119 125 I:W
Sa 11 e/m
-t
98
\
I~C():\'rl :\~
H-+ H-+ I-t8 135 155 101 17~
17~
17-+ 179 18-+
.\\ I\'I'EBPBETEH ()F El B()PE:\\
I.ITEIL\Tl BE
Exp,'rieIl('iIlI-! lilt'rat un' aIld cillellla \" i,,('(lIIt j'" lilt'ran ideal" The probl"lIb of adapting 11 hill' ,\"lfdtlS The 81(,([lIgl'f' Being Fn'llt'h iIl ;\II-!,'ria Tlte Slrallger a~ film aIld litt'rat ure Relllclllbl'wU'e rl Things Past
188 188 I <):~
1<>7 :20:2 ~O:2
:2(H 208
(:()\TE\T~
The Iwwc/:,lIt O'AIlIlUIlZio and Yisconti as tlt'cadl'lIb
Thl' power of adapting :Vutes Fi/mu~f"(lph,l' St(l~('
Prodllctiolls I '1I,.('a/i::,/:,d Film Projel'fs
1,\
:! I 1
:2 11 :21:) :2:21 :2-t7 :2bl :271
Bib liogmp h,l,
:27:~
IlIde,l'
:27l)
Viseonti
Introduction
Sandra i~ hoslin~ a t'ocklail pany wllt'n she SIIUdl'lIly l){'colII"s awarp lltal SOIllPOlIt' is Jllayin~ Cesar FralH'k' " Prellld('. ('/wrale (lnd FII{(IIt'. TIll' pit,(", Ib('d 10 Iit' ill tilt' repertoire of her piallist lIIother. atHl now il tills her mind with billpr melllories. :\~ tilt' fillll - fa!{/It' slt'l/e del/'Orsa (Swu/m) - progn'ss,'s. she i" forced 10 rede/illt' Iwr n'lulionship will. her family allll her hll"hulld. her past and hl'r future. Whell siit' finally dpcidt's to sewr h,'r lies wilh Ihe past. :-illt' pay:-i a hi~h price for her fn'pdolll. TIlt' problt'llIs of rplatin~ to tillle alld history conslilult' OJII' of tilt' JIIosl pertinent the lilt'S of Luchillo \'i:-i(,()Jlti\; (P)06-?h) arti:-itic Olllpllt. I k cOllld n'lII"lIIlwr how as a slllall lJOY Ill' could hear his lIIotlll'r play thal pipce afl!'r hedtillle, '1'1\1' lIIaill rllt'nlt' of Franck \, Preludt' has IIl1wh till' "alll(' fllJlt'tioll in Sane/m a,~ till' I('a ill which \larn'l soab his "1H'tilt' lIIa
.)
\
I~t:()\
TI
\ou",.;ef bhaghpour points out. ill Yiseonti's film,.; it takes the form of a ,'ouslant dissonance between the pursuit of an ideal and reality, between aspiration and immanence::1 ." Aspiration toward something else, like a glaw'", carries beyond phenOlllella. toward that which illuminates them from yonder. a light which reveals beauty in tlwm. but unly as a path. hnmanelH't' is attached to the here and now, it wallts to posses,.; imlllt'diatt'ly tIlt' ahsolute and take the phenomenon for a complete "reality': in passiun. " .. Yisconti'::; characters are uften caught in the mesh uf their past. dis~atisfit'd with their presellt awl unable to assume respun~ibility for tht' future. TIlt'y may bt' driven by aspiration. but their attempts to realizt' their most cherished hop!':; are ofteu cruslwd by tilt'ir own spirituallimitations. tlwir social condition. or the historical circulllstances of their lives, l\Iany of them would like to free themselves of all responsibility. find a quiet pool of rest beyond the relentless stream of time. But no one can escape that inexorable flux: what has passt'd cannot Iit' regained: life d!l)l'ives us of all that we huld dear. The struggle against the fugacity of things. the attempt to creatt' a havell of peace and pleasure for oneself by ignoring all other eOlllluitlllellts can all too easily lead a person 10 betray idt'als. friends. a loved one, and be crowned by self-dect'ptioll. In d,,picting this struggle Vi~I'onti assumes tht' role of willlt'ss and accomplice: Agaill alld ,again "isl'ollti returlls ill hi~ lilm~ to the phenOlllt'lIOII of betrayal. .. , WI' call see Ihis as an I'xpre~sioll of his basic allll pas~ionatt' striving 10 cover en'ryihing. Ill' who wallh to represellt bod. tht' past alld the future, both to gin' shape to his own traditiolls and Ilt'long to youth, fan's thl' t1allger of hetrayillg olle or the other, prohahly bOlh. This mighty aspiralioll. thi,; tremt'lIdoll~ passion to Ill' t·\'t·I·ythillg Yiseonti t'xpress('s ill lilm after film.;'
Visconti's need to I)t'conlt' a ""Illaswr of tilll(:' grt'w from the conflict between his ari:;tocratic IlIlckground and the marxist view uf life and ;;0I'it,ty that ht, adopted ill his thirties. He attt'lllptt'd to find a balalll'e IteIweell ,'motion allll intellecl. Iwtween the private net'ds allll tilt' plllJlic dt'JlIaJul" illlplls,'d by till' past awl the flllure. His wurk was imbued with two o!'positt· It'mporal pt'rspt'ctiws. which together t'nablt' him to study and ,It'pict characters in their historical and socialllliliell with intellectual rigor alld dt,t'ply felt eOllll'assioll. This duality i~ not rt'stric(t'd to \'is('(Hili's historical films but call ,,1,,0 Ill' sel'lI ill those with a ('1II1wmporary settillg. III tlte~e tltert' also ellll'rges lilt' n'Vt'rse sidt· of temporal experienn'. illllllutaltility allll stagnatioll. as opp,,,,ed to fugacity alld tl'allsition, \Vorkt'r~ alld fj"IIl'I'IIlf'II fal'" tilt' illt'xorable laws of natltl'!' and tilt' allllost
I\THOOI CTI()\
:~
equally fixed ~tructure~ of power in t heir pur~uit of happine~s. At tillles they seek to change things. but the time is not yet ripe; at times t1wy find it difficult to eope with the changes imposed on them. In ~horL Vi~conti" s view of life and society is conflict-ridden through amI through. His characters are torn between llIutually incompatible desires. Money and love. cynicism and idealism, loyalty and betrayal are the ever-present alternative means of survival or pursuit of self-interest. Such eontliets cft'ate a bunting desire to return to some kind of peae(', to reach a final synthesis. Visconti"s starting point was an all-t'1H'ompassing social vision rooted in marxism. hut when working on a gi\'l.'n subject. Iw would never let hillls('1f be confined by dogma or theoretical analysis. Instead. he neatI'd a complex. multilayered. t'quivocaL and rich imagt' of the illlerrelationships betwt't'n the individuals ami the society IH' was depicting. The illleraction of the :;ubjt'(,t maltt'r with the exprt':;sivt'llleans at hand. ti\(' resistance of material that all artist;; encounter in their work . is an essential part of the nt'ative process. It can t'\'I'n be sl't'n as a nH'Wphor of human intt'raction with the world ..-\n arti:;t can succet'd only hy Iwing in a dialectical relationship with his material and tht' world he Ii \'{'s in. As Yisconti grew older. his artistil' work acquired a tone of n'sigllatiorl. .-\n almost O"l'rsensit ive feeling for time and plact' t'wnt ually h'd him to CO/H't'ntmte on the questions of old age and decay. Though t'ven at this stagc he could han.lly be descrilwd as an idealist. his eoncem with fugacity led to all IIndt'r~taIHlillg of pefJnaJwnce, and to UIl almost n'verse pt'rspectiw of the world. The ~radllal tranl'lforIllation in hi:; work retlectt'd a lteightellt'd l'Iellse that art itself il'l the Illtimate manift'statioll of immanence. aspirat ion. and their interdependence. In Thomas ;\Jann' s \\'ords: (:onn'i\"ing the world as a colourful and turhulenl phantaslllagory of iJllage,; through which the ideal. the spirilllal glow~ is sonll'thing t'llIillt'lltly artistic and allows tilt' artist 10 tilld his tfllt' nat un'. 11., cHnlw S(,lI~lIollsly and ,inflllly all ad It'll to tht' world of pll('1I01ll.'1I01l ami upp"aralll"'s, 1H' .. all~t' he know,", h., he long' to Ih., spllf'rt,,; of both idt'as alld tilt' spirit. as tilt' magician who makt's appearat)(,l's trall"'part'lIt for tlwllI"
This book l'xarnillt's \'iscotlti's fihlls agaill:;t tlwir cultural, historieaL awl social buckgrollIHk TIll' sOllletimt's tortuolls production histories alld practical problems that shapt'd certaill tilms as \\,(,11 as \'is('onti's pt~r:-;olwl lift, are tn'ated Iwrt' only insofar as they slwd light Oil the formatioll of his film,; or offer a kl'y to richer illterpn'tatiolls (If tllt'lll. The apprond, is alltt'lIri~ti(' ill a fairly broad >'I'IISI' of tltl' word. tlt('
\ 1 :O;CO,\(I
Im ... ic as"llluptiuns being that the maker of the fuurtel'n featurl'-Iength
awl thn'l' short films tiiscussed ill this volume is to a meaningful extent Luchiuo Yiscollti allfl that his celltral role IIll1st be taken into account to fully. understand the l'OIlJlt'ction Iwtwet'n his films allti the socil'tv. anti tlH' ideolugical cOlllext from which Ihey emer~ed. This is not to i~nol'l' the contribution of all tilt' other peoplt' ill\"oh-ed ill making t1w~t' film". llor tlw eeOllOlllic. social. ami practical faetor~ that influenced their production. Tht' point is. it was Yiscomi who organized this process and ~athl'red round him a leam of faithful collahorators whose efforts would add up 10 a single artistic whole. He taught his collaborators not only to n'cognize what he wanted LHIt also to cont rihutt' actiYt'ly to the creatiw process and to eXlI'ud their limits in doing so. "'ithout the "worbhop" that he insti~all'd. his la ... 1 film. The IflIwrenl. would probably not han' heen cOlnplt'led with Ihe 100'in~ care Ihat il dl'served. and LLldu'ig would certainly nol haw been posthumously re~lort'ti 10 its full four-hour heauty. The slrenglh of Yi,,('onti"s visioll can lit' seen also in his ahility to coax his aclors to give Ihe hest perfOflnanl'eS of their lives. This has often been IlOtl'(1. for exalllpll'. of Alida Yalli anti Farll'Y Gran~er in St'IIIW (known in Ihe l'niled State" as The 1I'([nloll ('onle.~s((). Helmul Bt'r~er in Lwlll·ig. and Launt Al\tonl'lIi in The Innocellt. Ralher than follow a "trict ('hronolo~il'al ordl'r. I han~ grouped \'is(,OIIIi's films al'cording to IIH'ir most inlt'n'sting and rele\'aul characteri:-;Iics. This datisificatioll is by 110 lIU'allS "1'111'1'." of ('UurSI~, For exampll'. 1110 ... 1 of \' is('owi' S fillllti are adapt a tious. To \'aryill~ dt'~rees. I haw Irealed Ihem as su('h. although I deal spl'('ifi('ally with \'i,,('onli's reialiollship with lileratllfl' ouly iu ('omwctioll with Ihe Ihree filllls diseussl'd ill tilt' lasl chapter. The treatnlt'lIl of the films withill eadl dwpter follows Ihl' orell'r of their lIIakill~. Because till' first chapter Ilt'als with neo('l'aiislIl alld till' :-econd with the RisorginwJllo films. the disCllstiiou follows \'isCOli Ii's early carel'r dlI'UllOiogically all till' way lip 10 Sellso. \lallY Ilt'o!,lt, haw ew'ouraged alld helped JIle ill "hapill~ my idea~ awl local ill~ matl'rial for Ihis stlldy . .\1lI01lg Ihelll are Dlldlt,y Alldrew. Peter \'011 Ba~ll. Peter BOlI(ialwlla. FnIlH't's('o BUllo. Salll K yi.isola. SalU Laa\,;SOl1t'II. Lillo \liccidIP . .IanJlo \liiellpaa. allti Elilla SlIolahli. 11I!t'rviews with (;lIielo Aristar('o. Ciall Piero Bnllwtta. Suso Cecchi D' .\mico. awl Ellril'o \ledioli. ill particular. have hl'lpeu mt' gaill all IIl1uerslallding of how \'i"COllli' s works t'\'oIYed anel how tllt'V. re/aiI'd to Italian society. at till' tilllt' uf t1H'ir making. Thi ... sludy ll1i~ht 1101 hm'e ('01111' ahout had I lUll lWI'll iuviled 10 I,,'I'selll
1:\ T H () [) l ('I 1() :\
.)
a pap"r at till' enormuusly inspiring C'ulI/'egllu illlenw:,t'ullale cli sll/{/i l'iscollliall; held in ROllle in Dec('mber 1 q<)-t and chaired by Prof"ssor Lino Micciche. At this lIleeting Millicent \larclls and Roy Armes I'I'COIIImended that I translate 111\' hook ill Fillllish on VisCllllti. Tiikerikis,wlI aika (PN:!). into English. Instead. I deeid,'d to rt'writ,· that work ('xh'lIsively ill the light of recent re",'aJ'('h both I)y myst'lf awl by mallY other scholars. Aho\'l' all. I ha\'(' incorporated ideas that I dt've\op,'d ill lily doctoral diss,'rtalion. which IWllditl'd enormousl" frolll the f,',·dhack of Professor Dudlt'y Andr,,\\'. \\'ho ac(('d as the "o-call,·d 0pl'onellt m Ill\' p"blic del'ell"e at the l'niwrsity of Ilt-I"iuki in ~Iay I <)<)-t.
1
Viseonti and Neorealism
An
aristo(~rat
and a filmmaker
TIlt' early 19;H)s Wt'rt' a thrilling t iJlle for a handsollle, restless young ari"totTat to Le in Paris. A !';uceessful career as a horse trailler had lIot lWI'll t'nollgh for Luchillo Visconti. He kllt'w Iit' had the JJotential for sOlllt'thillg grt'ater. But to realize that potential he needed llIore stimulation than hi:; natiw ~Iilan of the Fascist era could pos"ibly provide. Alld "u. afll-r about F);3:.!. Visconti\; vi:;its to Paris Iwcalllt' increa"ingly fre'1uellt. Soon Iit' became acquainted with tilt' latest intellectual and artistic trend:;. Ill' participated in riotous society life and met (:0(,0 Chanel. who fell for him ami introduced him to mallY of Paris's leadillg artists. He got to kllow people likt, Serge Lifar. Jt-an Cocteau. Henry Befll:;tein. Kurt We iI I., and \larll'ne Dietrich. and their art. He also saw lIIallY controversial films that were ballned in Italy. ranging from the avant garde works of Lui" BuiiueL Cocteau. and ~Ian Ray to the revolutiollary works of Vse\'olod Pudovkill alld Sergei Eisenstein. I The IJI'riod in Paris was a formalin' one fur Visconti. 011 a per:;ollal "-\'1'1. althou~dl it would 1)1' sometime before Iit' could fully ackllow/t'dge hi:; IlOmo,;t'xuality. living alllid the I'IIHlIIcipated lIIellllwr" of Pari"ian high ,;ociety Ilt'll't-d cOlbiderably. He formed a close n-Iation"hip willt a young Cerman. Ilor,;( P. Hors( (llor"t Paul Boltrmallll), who had jll:;t embarked 011 a ,;pt'ctacular can-er a,; a pllOtograplwr. ViscoIlti dl'veloped a greater political awart~lw,;:; a,; well. Fa:;ci:;1II had cOllie into fashioll in Pari,;. but 1101',,1.. with hi" 0l't'nIlt-"s and fraIlkness. Iwlpt·d VisCtlllti see through it allll distUlWt' hilll:;elf frolll false nationali:;tic pridt-. Fa:;cist rhetoric. ami his habit of I'lIlpha"izillg hi~ aristocratic background.:! Viscoltl i'" valllt's dWIli!t'" 1'\'1'11 Ilum- markedly ill 1t):lo aftt'r (;lwnl'l
introduced him to film dirt'ctor Jeall Renoir and his colleagues, all of whom were members of tilt' Popular Frollt or wen' at least sympathetic to it. The time was propitious: the Popular Front had just won a major election victory - although the sense of optimism it generatt'd would SOOIl dissipate as the new government turned out to 1)(> ineffective and dOWIlright reactionary in its cultural policy. Getting to know Renoir's group must have bet'1I somewhat disconct'rting for Visconti. who had lwt'I1 brought up to think of comUlunists as a major threat to civilization. The feding of strallgt'IH'ss was reciprocal: he was unable to dowllplay his aristocratic mallners. and Iit' canw from a fascist COllllt rv. The aesthetic infiuenct' of Viscollti\ associates was t'qually sigIlifinlllt. Renoir was on his way to becomiIlg olle of Europe's lIIost promineIlt directors of the thirties. Ilis TUlli (19:3S) Iwralded a changt' in French as well as Europettn film in gt'neral. There had been other films shot in alfresco style. but. in tilt' words of RaYlIloIld Durgnant. this was ·,tlw point at whieh the whole dOl'lllnelltarv 1Il0VellwIlt of tht' Frendl cinema achieved its fullest eoalt'sct'I\I'e with the fictioIl till\l.";1 As Helloir hiIllsdf put it: ~a~ that what characterized T(}IIi is tilt' abselll't' of any dOlllillatillg elt'mt'nl. whether star pt'ffol'lllt'l'. ~t'ttillg or ~ituation. :\ly aim was to giw tilt' impr('~,ioll that I wa~ t'arryillt-; a I'lUIlt'ra and micropholle in my l'(wkl't awl !'I'('onlillg whatl'\Tr came my way. reganilt'ss of its comparativt' imponan('l'. l\t'Vt'rthdess. I had givell myself a framework. T(Jlli i~ Ilot a t10t'lllllt'lltary: it is a IIt'Wti ilt'lIl. a Jml'-titory that really hapl"'IIt'tI in Lt'~ "artil!ue~ .... I ~t'art'l'Iy w't'tied to adapt it for thl' stTt'ell!
I think I ma\'
1'011; fort'shadowed I\('()f't'alislll in many ways: the dlarat'(t'rs are ordillary workers or peasants dt'pictf'd withollt resorting to sophisticatt'd p"ychology. dlt' actors were provincial alllateur!'; t'xpre,.;sing tht'll1:-.t,lvt·s in tlwir acclIstonlt'd way. and the film was shot on ItwutitJlI.;' Vi!';collti probahly saw it as Iwing close to Cionllllli \'t'rga in it:-. depiction of tilt' live!'; of lIIlt'dllcated (\1t'ditt'ITanean) pt'oplt' by lIleatb of elllot ionally dwrgt'd J't'alislll. VisCOlHi' s eventual adaptation of Vt'rga wu,.; to Iit' qllilt, difft'rellt in stylI'. hut Renoir ,wrwd as a gelleralmotlt'l. particularly with rt'sl'l'ct to some of his aestht'tic principiI'S: From till' mOlllt'nt whl'n I realizt'd till' important't' of unity I tri('dlll'\'t'r 10 shoot a ~t'''nt' without SOIllt' bat'kgruund fllOH'II1t'lIt mol'l' or le~s r"Jated to till' l\I't ion . . . . Anolllt'r of lily preot'I'ul'atioll~ was. awl still is . 10 a\oid fraglllt'Jltatioll. alld hy lIIeall~ of JOlIgt'r-playing shot~ to gin' tht' a('tor a dlalH'I' to dt'vt·lop his OWII rhythm ill lilt' sl'eakillg of tht' lillt's. To lilt' Ihi~ i~ 1111' only way of gl't t illg silH't,I'I' 61('1 i,,!~.h
.,
<>
\ISCO:\TI
:-iimilarh-, YiscoIlti's art was to he dost'l". tit'd to the actor, to his or her , abilit y to incarnate a character in a p:iven st'tting. And like Renoir. he was willillg to liSt' a literat'Y It'xt as his start illg point alld 10 anapt it according to his OWII expressive net'ds amI sociopolitical cOllct'rns. It is not lJuite c/t'ar at what stage YisLOnti got to know Rt'llOir. Accordillg to sOllle SOUITt'S. it happellf'd as early as 19:~-f. ill cOIlIlt'ction with the shoot ing of TOlli. bl1t if so Iit' was prohahly a mere ohserver. - III allY cast'. that yt'ar Yisconti had hi~ first tastt' of filmJl1aking. Horst had taught hilll tht' basic,.;. and he lIIad(' a Buiiuelesyut' alllatt'ur fillll ahout a young lIIall who first has all affair with a yOlmg girl, t1lt'n a prostitute. alld finally all ideal womall. Thl'lI he kill,,; him:·;!'If. Tlw film has lIot ~urviwd but appan'lItly it was 1I0t a particularly prolllisillg start for a filJlllllaking can'er. a \'iscollti must ha\'!' gailH'd his first professional t'xperit'lwt' ill fillllJIlaking as tlw third absistallt director of Rt'lIoir' s (illl' parlie de CllIlIl)(lf{lle (A day in the coulltry. 19J(); n'least'd ill 19-f<». His actual ta,.;k was to desigll amI supervise the IlIaking of costUlllt'S. Thi,.; ht' did with ellthusiaSJll. lie studied the collectiolls of the MuseI' dt's .\rts D~coratifs alld wellt through a cOllsiderable allloullt of relt'vant literature. Blit he derivt'd his gn'att'st plt-asurt' alld /wuefit frolll following how Ht'llOir dirt'cted actors." Lalt'r ill JIlallY illterviews \'iscollti said that Iit' "ecall\t' politically COII,.;ciou;; alld dt'cided to start lIIakillg films while working with Rt'lIoir. Yet it appears that his allti-fascist cOII\'ictiolls were 1I0t particularly strollg, at lea:--t al thi:-- stag(' I k did Ilot takt' a staJltI Oil tlw Spalli"h civil war or on allY other JIIajor politieall'wllt II(.fort' tilt' S('('ond World \\'ar, 10 At tht' saillt' lilllt'. all till' illtlllt'JI('es he had ('01111' IIl1dt'r durillg his sojollJ'll" in Pari;; ga\'t' hilll a far hroader \'it'W of the world thall his aristotTatil' 111'bringillg 011 it,.; OWII cOllld possihly haVt' dOlII', For 11 while Iit' Ihollght of Iw('oJllillg a \\Titl'L alld two drafts for noYl'1s "uJ'\'i\'t' frolll this period. The first was a vagllely autohiographical work titled ,lllw,tu (.\lIgt'I), the ;;eeolld all allllO~t gothic horror story. I tre, /lIl t'sperilllellto ('1'111' Ihrt'l'. or tilt' I'Xpl'rillwlIt). Tht' draft,.; an' illwre:;tillg 011". Iw('aw;t' tht'Y. foreshadow SOliit' of tilt' tht'lIIt's of \'i~collli's lIIature OlltpUt. II Oil tlH' ;;lIrfat'e. then' art' sOllle oIJ,'iolls ('Oll/\t.'(·tiolls Ilt'twt't'lI IIIKeto alld \'isl'ollti'" fir:;t fillll. ()ss('ssiOlIl': "TIIt' saillt' :--ocial class. thl' ~allH' poetical digressiolls, tilt' SlIlII(' geographical sl'ttillg: tilt' Po valley. Pia('ellza ill ..illf.!,'etu. Ft'rrara ill ()s.H'ssiolle.'· 12 These f('arurt's also ('011111'1'1 .1I1ge/o wilh \'erga and wrisJII. while tht' tlwllle of :--icklles" lillk:-- it with till' tIt'cad('1I1 1II0\'t'lIIellt. Together with tilt' illtt'lIsity of tht' 1II0tll('r-:;01l (or dallghtt'r) J'('laliOlhhip. tllt'St' th('lIlt's wert' to l)('coJlIt' illll'ortallt ill till'
\ ISC():\TI .-\.'D 'EOHL\I.IS\'
second half of Visconti"s cinematic oeuvre. The draft also reveals ViscontCs obsession with details, which at times make the text quite blll'densome. This passion he was later able to turn to his advautage in films. There the pl)(,llomenal world in all its ricimess could be conveyed through what SeYlIlour Chatmall has called "tacit des(Tiption," which reft~rs to the powt'r of the ('iupmatie image to ('ouvey iufol1l1Htioll about the diegetic world (that is. the fictional world (Tf'ated ill the film) without having to halt the narrative tlow. Before his first serious attempt to make a film. Viscollt i t riI'd his hand at workillg in the theater. He had had SOl Ill' experif'lIce with amateur stage production ill his early youth iu the slllall thealt'r illside the Visconti faIlli1y residt'nce in ~'liIall: now he approached it as a professional. AfH'r returuing to Italy. he dt'signed the sets and ('ostlllues for a production of (;iannino Autolla Traversi' s Carila .l/olldwHl (Mundane charit y) at Teatro Soeiale in COIllO in 19;~() and for JaIl Mallory's Slt'eel A lues. produced in Teatro ~lallzoni ill ~liIan the same n'ar. Immediately. after the latter . ht, weut to Hollywood. wlwre he saw the studio systelll at it:; peak. Apparently the trip was 1I0t particularly slH:eessful. howt'ver. and he 1lI'\'('r talked lIlu('h about it. J:l All opportunity to return to filllllnaking arose whell Ht'lloir ,'aJlle to Home to direet a film H'rsion of La Tosca (19-+0). In a prinll' exam pit' of the illconsi~ten("y of its art policy. the Fa~l'ist Italiall gon:mlllt'nt had actually iuvited Henoir to teach and direct ill haly. Although his (,""(I//(/e Illusiofl (19;37) had "eeu banned in Italy. ~lusso1ini had a('quired it for his private eollectioll. and it was hi:; idea that Heuoir ;,hollld comt'. Henoir was an offin'r ill the French army. alld Fralu'(' had already dedared war 011 Gennally.ltaly·s ally at that time. Relloir had the support of the Frelldl gowl1IlIlellt.. which hoped that keeping up cllltural relations with Italy might help to sllstaill its Jlouiuvolvement. H Henoir' s aim in La Tosca was to combine feat IIres of both docllmclItary and crime films. Viseonti took him around Home. aIHlthev chose locations for shooting. They prepared the script together with the second assistant director. (:arl Koch. I .> Blit as the I'n'selll'e of Gennaw; in Home became illcreasillgly apparent. it was obviously unwise for the Frl'lIch memhers of the team to remain there. HellUir retllmed to Paris only shortly hefore Italy declared war on Franct' and Great Britain. Koch. who had a German passport. stayed and with Visconti" s assistance completed the film. TIlt' result was somewhat III11'WII. \'isconti later described it as "a horrihle film - it was all we could do"' lh The collahoration with Relloir helped Yiscollti estahlish I'Olltacts in the
1U
\ISC()\TI
Italian film world. aLove all with a woup of eritics who had gravitated around ('illemo magazine, notably. Gianni Puccini. Ciuseppe De Santis . .\Iidwlangdo Antonioni. and PiPlru IlIgrao. Many of them were cOInmunisb dreaming of lilt' overthrow of the Fasdst regime. It was most probahly at this stage that Visconti him::.elf adopted a marxist outlook and thus fl'lt drawn to these young intellectuals. I"' Politics could not be discllssed openly. of course. particularly as the chief editor uf the magazilll' was Viltorio Mu~solinL the SOil of 11 Duce himself. Vittorio did 1I0t takt' lIIl1ch part in tilt' actual running of the magazine. hut thank:; to hi:; positioll it almost had the status of an offidal puhlication. This did 1I0t prewnt it from priming articles that criticized national tilm policy alld maillstream productions. Indeed. Italv' s F ascisb ne\'er ('xerted t he sort of control over cinema t'Xercised by the totalitariall regimes in Germany or the Suviet Cnion. According to l\lartin Clark . at least. "In general, intellectual::. were toleralt·d and flattered. indeed bought off, rather thall persecuted. "11l Appan'lIt1y Mussolini believed that intellectuals producing art awl exchanging ideas would have little impact in a country rull by a party of tilt' masses and entertained hy a blossomillg film iIldu~try. And so. though it was wise for critically minded writers to exercise a degree of sdf(·ensorship. they wert' not l'omplt'lely silenced. A few w('re dt'ported to remott' corners of the south. where t Iwy actually expanded their understanding of the s'lualor behind till' facade of "official" Italy. Whell they returned. they were t'ven allowed to write about what t1wy had experienced. Ollly in the mid-thirties did the go"nlllllellt begill 10 exert sterner lIIeasun's in the form of prelimillary cellsorship. At the same time. it begulI promoting a lIational fillll culture. III 193 ... tllms became a part of tilt' \'t~lIit"l' Art Ft'~ti\"al. The following year the (;entro Sperimentale CinemHtugratico film school opened its doors under the highly competellt din~ction of Luigi Chiarini. Abo in 19:35 the government established a fund to finallce tilm production as well as a national tilm protiuctioncompallY. Elite :\azionule 1IlIIustrie Cilwmatograiichelle (E~IC). E:\I(; was givell a lIIollopoly on importing tilllls. This led the big Hollywood companies 10 withdraw from tilt' Italiall market for the time being. thu:. t'ollsirit-rably improvillg the prospt'cts of domestic tilms. In 19:37 Mussolini himself callle to opell the Cinecina studios, alld the Centro launched the ambitious Hill 11 co e IIl'm (Black anti white) magazilw. which wus to gaill worldwide recognition. \Io"t of these im;titutions are still ill operatitlll. I" SU'J'Iler ml'asun's were not lH'edetl ill part IWI'HUSe tlw film illdw;try -
11
in ~ood capitalist fashion - responded to the :sallle sellti1l1ent that had brought the Fascist party to pow!'r in tilt' first place. and so the ~0V('n1ment had little to worry about from the:se quarters. Though only a few films had an oVl'rtly fascist content. most wpre suppurtive of t Iit' traditional family and tilt' I'stahlislwd social ordl'r. Ilowever. the film:s also reflected an almust illvoluntary admiration for t'verything III'W and Alllt~r iean. James Hay has ddined thest' two opposite trends as "t'sst'ntialist pride" and "epocalist hopt':' There was a distinet ideulogil"Ul tension 111'tween the two, but it was usually Il'ft unrt·solvt·d. Films adhered 10 traditional values even in the ('onll'xt of modern sO"il'ty, although they also dt'picted t'XI'iting and/or amusing advl·ntures. oftt'n cOIIIlt'cted with temporary social mohility: typically a halldsollle but poor youllg lIIall would try to haw an affair with un upl"'r-class lady. ollly to n'alize that his true happint'ss lay amollg Ihe lIIembers of his own dass. Thest' light soeial ('onlt'dies wert· llicknalllt'd "white lelt'phone" films. ~II TIlt' Faseisl regimt' did 1101 Iry 10 qlll'lleh Ihe t'nthusiaslII thal thilll-(s .\mt·ricall ~ellerated. Althulll-(h Ihl' n·l-(illlt· wHnled 10 develop Italian eulturl' allll tht'refore in prilU'il'lt' 0ppos,·d t'vt'rythillg foreign. Anwrieallcullure a:-; such was not disparaged hilt rallwr involulllarily ad1l1in·d. \'iltorio ~lu~,;olilli. for ow' . was quile 0pt'n ahout hi,.; fel'linl-(s toward :\mt'rican cinema. He thought it was youthful and 1'/It'rgt'Iic - traib dlat at'('ordillg to official propaganda WI'l't' abo thl' distingui~hillg fealUrt's of fascislIl and thu~ it wa~ a lIIuch beller 1II0del for Italiall autiiPlwes Ihall IIH' dl'cadellt Europeall Cilll'llIa. TIlt' trouble wa,., Ihal Anlt'rinlll filllls I'0s"d all ohviolls threat to riit' dOllll'slic film illdllslrv. Tlw Cil\l'cillil ,.;tudio. "Hollywood 011 tilt' Tilwr:' wus Ihoul-(hl of a,; u lI\1'allS of hoostilll-( lIuliollal ~df-rt'sp('ct ill Ihe fan' of fort'il-(II Illt'diu illll'l'riali";III.~1 The altilUdt,,,; of Ihe tilllllllaker~ toward Alllt'ricall fillll,., wa,., 1"Jlwlly amJ,ivalt'lIt. Oil Ollt' hallll. tlH' fillll~ of hallk eaI'm. Johll Ford. \\illialll \\·yler. alld I..:illl-( \ idol'. ill parlicular. wert' 1lt'ld ill high t',.;II'I'1I1. Oil tilt' olher halld. lefli"l-orielltatt,d din't'tor .. ",oul-(llI to coulllt,rI,alallt·t· Ihi,., illnllt'lll'!' by abo ~Iudyilll-( tll(' works of Fn'lIch awl Soviel din'ctor,.,. ill"ofar as copie,.; of Iheir filII'" Wt'n' anlilal,lt'. TIlt' Frl'lIdl t'olllwctioll wa~ I''';IWcially illlportallt allll 1-(['lwro,.,.,ly w·kllmdl·dgt'd. Yi,.,l·ollti wa,., 1I0t tilt' ollly a,.;pirilll-( Italiall 10 work ulldt'r or Iit' illllu('llI't,d hy thl' F""llI'h ilia,.; 11'1',., . .\lItolliOlli ,.,('rved a~ \larn,1 (:an,,:' s a,.,,,i,.,liHlt 011 lA'S l';s;leu,.s d" ,WI;,. (Thl' dl'\·il' .. (,1I\'f'Y". PH:!) allt! Ihoul-(ht of hilll U,., 11 ,.,orl of pllt'1I01lll'II011. a lIIan who had brokl'lI tilt' harrier,.; ill tilt' 1IH111(' of 11 11'111' rn'I'dolll:'~~ It i.,., lellilll-( Ihat tilt' 1t'l'IlI l/I'o,.ellli.wl wa,., I'rollill,ly fin,t u,.,t,d Ily l '1111 II'rf 0 Barbam ill I'H:{ 10 dl',.;nillt' (Trfaill Fn'lwh filII.,., of tI((' Ihirlil''';. alld dral ill 00
12
\ ISCO\T1
I tl-t,) Luido Aristarco wwd it ill reft>renct' to the works of Renoir, Came, and .Iulit'n Duvivier. According to Hoy Armt's. what the Frt>nch did for Italian Iworealislll was Iu (,Ollllllllllicate "tht> complexities of cinematic stylf' all(\ an apprt'ciatioll of the artistic possibilities of stylization. both of which were later to pJ'Ovid(' a vital counterpart to tilt' IHm'Iy docuIllt'ntary illlpuls(' to rt'cord tilt' surface of war-torn Italy,"~;l ;\notllt'r illlportant deVt'loplllt'nt o('curred among the radicals who had gadwred around Cint'lI/a magazilH', They severely criticizt'd the white tl'leplume Wm,., for lwing lIlen' escapist elltertairllllt'llt. Cianni Pu('cini. Ciust'ppt' Dt, Santis, and l\Iichelange\o Antonioni argued that Italian cill1'lIla should go to Verga allll otllt'r turn-of-tlw-celltury wristic writers for tlwir inspiration, At the tilllt'. this wa" quite a rl'volutionary idea. 1I0t ollly in t enlls of cinellla bur Italian cult IIral history in gt'neral. ~~ Verism was tilt' Italian version of French IIaturali"m, Verga was its greatest lIIaster ami Luigi Capuana its major theoretician, The aim was to describe objl't't iwly thp life of peasants and other poor and oppressed people in ort!I'r to I'licit a 1II0ral response in the rpader, (:apuana also explort·d psychological pJ'Ol'esses t hrollgh de:;cript ions of external.. objecti\'e things, This was a kind of positivism that oftI'll degenerated into fatalislll, as tIlt' desniptions of realilY eOIlVt'YI·d a "eWie of sOlllething unbearable and imnllltaull'. dictat('d by naturt>, :\c('onlin~ to C, \1. Car:;aniga: "To be 'defl'alt'd by lift>' is a natural subject for I)tHlr~eois l'erislI/o, , , , [l']nable to free hilllsdf from his class idt>ology alld to ullderstand and exprt>ss reality. the I'f'rista can achie\'1' Jlothing lIIore significant than to ('elebrate cIIIlsciow,ly atlll conscienliollsly his own ddl'at by I'hronil'iilll! thl' defeat of his charactl'rs, "~,-. Ilow('\,er. :-.Olllt'Olle like V t>rga did not rest rict himself to IIl1'fI' sudan' realism and was ahle to circulllvent the pessimism, In allY ca:;I'. tht> l'J'itil'i,,1JI deliVt'red by the vt'rists was sharp ellough to generatt> fil'J'\'I' oppositioll amollg the representativl's of "ofticial Italy." who were loath to adlllit that sllt'h s'Iualor as descrilwd first by the vcrists at tilt' tum of the CI'lltur\" alii I 1 hI'li by tilt' 11I'0l'\'l:liisb a half CI'nltll'\" laler actually . . . . t>xistl'd. Yet till' n'ri~ts WI'I'\' IlIwb'" to hold the alll'lltioll of tilt' n'adin~ public for wry lOll!!, ami soon JIIany of tht'lIl chang,'d directiOlI. ;\lthou!!h they I'ontinlll'd 10 pur:-.IIt' a l'l'rlain d"gn't' of realism, they also sought I!n'att'r popularity t hWII!!h IIlt'lodrallla spic,'d wilh of'f-color material. \eon'alisJII wa,.; also to folio\\' a similar patll'J'll of dl'\('loltllll'nl in thi,., J't'SI)l'I't.~" Thou!!h hOlh tn'lllls \\'('1"1' n'lati\'ely ,.,llOrt-liwd. tllt'y pW\'t'd III haw all illllllt'nse ('fl'e('1 ill ITt'atin!! a \\,110'" lit'\\' CltlU'l'Plioll Ill' what an ('ould Ill' alulIl" III tilt' \'il'\\' of ('if/I'I//(/ cOlllrilHltllr:; ill tllf' ('al'l\- ftlrti('~ ill ad-
\ 1S (0.'\ T 1 .\:\ () :\ EO H L.\ I.I S \1
dition to tllt'ir sucial commitment. tilt' verists pro\"ided all aestht:'ti(' idt:'al. It was seven years Lefort' Vis('oJlti had an opl'ort unit y to start rt'alizin~ his ideas ahout adapting Vt'r~a in his La lam Irt'flllI (TIlt' earth treIIIhies), although Iit' had Iwen lookillg for JIImlels "\"1'11 t:'arlil'L Ill' wrote ill his essay "Trar/i=iol/t' (' illl'('II:;iol/l'" (Traditioll alld in\I'lItioll): It lIIay sOUlui obyiow; but I ha\l' oft('I1 asked IIIyS('If'. as 11 WI'« , is a ~()Iid lilt'ran· traditioIl whit-h ill IIlnuln'd~ of nm·C'I,.; awl storit's has realiz(,d in fantasy sw'h I!C'IlIIinl' and pun' "tmths"' about human life, why ~hould the ('iIlt'lIIa, which in it~ more ('x!t'rior atTes,.; to life could al'llIall~ 1)1' dOt'lIlIH'ntary, cOIllplacently act'lhtom the audit'(u'(' to petty plotting and POIlIl'0US mdodrama thl' ml'('hanical IOl!ic of whidl PI'OIt'«'" tlu' spectator from tht' ri~b of whim and illvention, III SUdI a ~illlation it I)t'conl('~ nalllral for tho~(' who sint'l'f('ly bdil'\(' in tilt' I'iIH'nIa to turn their ('y!':; no~tal!!inlll~ to thl' I!raud narrative stnlt'tun'~ of European literature ami to think of tlWIII a~ tilt' true~t :;ourn' of inspiration of our tinlt', It i~ Wltulto hmI' lilt' ,'OUI"a1!1' to ,ay "tnH'~t"' I'VC'U thoul!h ~01Ilt' I1t'0pl(' mil!ht labl'l it as imI'O!t'IH'(' or at lea~t as a lack of ciu('IIlatic purity ,~7
,\r this stagl' \'iSCllllli al'pan'lIt1y aln'ady had a dl'ar idt'a of Iht' kiwi of rilll'IIIali(' n'i.t1islII hI' was aftl'r, Ill' took as his starting pOill1 tilt' abilily of thl' film 10 creUle all illusioll of a fictiollal world, BUI Iit' was also awan' that ill ordl'r tu lIIakl' a statl'llll'lIt about J't'alil\'11t' lIeedl'd a firm lIarrati\'(' ",tl"llCtUI't', TIlt' way thl' story t'volv('s ami the dIanteters de\t'lop wu" 10 play a major part ill CJ'('atillg the all-importallt St'IISI' of \'t'ri~imilitlldt' ill hi!> film,,;, To a('hiew all thi", tll4' a('tillg had to lH' d""ply ft'1t alld I"
\'iSI'Ollti, too, walltl'd 10 COII\I'\' tilt' illtt'rllal lifl~ of Ili" cham('II'rs their I",hm'ior alld their f('lati(JIIshil' 10 the ('lIvirOIIlIlI'Il\. 10 ('aptlln' tllt'ir ('"S('IW(' by ;;IIOWilll-! thelll as all orgallic part of a ('('rtaill slwial throu~h
1-+
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n'ality. which in variuus ways con:;tantly comJition:; and guide:; their beIwvillr. their thoughts. and feelings. In hi~ artide --11 cinema alltropoII/(Jljiro" (AnthropoIllorphic cinema) published in Cinema in 1943, he expoulldt'd his ideas ahout the relationship between acting and reality: Of all my dlllit'~ as a din,(·tor tilt' OIl(' that I find Il\o~t fascinating i~ working with till' acturs: human matt'rial frolll which I I'onstruct tlio;.e new people, who. whl'n a~ked to lin- in it. gl'neJ"ale a new reality. a rt'ality of art. Thi~ is because an actor i~ abuw all a human being. He has tilt' key human Ilualities. On these I seek to ha~e my work. to gradt~ the" .. in cOllstfUctinl-! a character: up to tilt' point wherc the hUlllan-actor aud Ihe human-charal"ter bel'ome in a certain sen"e ont' .... Thl' lIIo"t humble gesture of a human being. hi" steps. his hesitations and his impul"es alone give poetry and vibrations to the things that surround thelll aut! within whit-I. they an' nmtiued. Ally other "olution to this problt'm appean; to 1111' like an allclllpt to de~troy reality as it opellb to our eyes: iliad!' by meu aud coutinually IIlouitil'u by thelll.;m
By the time the article appeared, VisCOllti had beguJl realizing his idea:;.
The making and reception of Os.'le.'ls;one After La Tosca was completed, Vis('onti decided
to make a film of his own. TogPlher with Giuseppe De Santis. Pietro Ingrao. amJ \'Iario Alicata. he drafted scenarios for several films. Alllong them was an adaptation of a Yt·rga novel. but like so Illany of the ideas of the Cinema group. it was rejected in the prdimillary round of censorship. There was a note writtell in red Oil the first pagl': .. Enough of briganus!' ';\1 While shooting .4 Day ill the ('oulltry, Reuoir had giVl'n Viseonti a prest'lIt that was to proviue a decisive impulse to his creative can'er. It wa" a typewritten translation into French of james \1. Cain's novel The PostmulI .·t/u'ays Rillgs Twice (193-1). Renoir had rcn'ived it from Julien Duvivier allll perhaps contemplated directing it himself. Duvivier also gaw a copy to Pierre Chenal, who ba:;ed his Le demier toumalll (1939) 011 it. ,'ist'ollti prepared his script with the help of Alicata . Puccilli . and De Santis ill 19-11-:2. A" the project proceeded, various other people also part icipated ill shaping tllt' text, including Alberto \Iof
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most of the original political allusions, although Visconti changed some of them. The other \\Titers apparently wanted to make OsseSSiOflf' a lIIallifesto, whereas Visconti steered it firmly toward a passionate yet critical melodrama set in a definite social cOlltext. His fierce determination in pursuing his arti;;tic ideas and visions together with his aristo('('atic background kept hi;; friends in Cinema at bay.:l:! For the male lead of Ossessiolll' .. Viscollti chose Massimo Cirotti. whom he had come to kllow and admire during the shooting of La 1'OS('(I. The other writt'rs preferred Audrea Girotti. who would have llt'ell bt,tter suited to portray the Italian type they had ill mind. The main female part was eventually givell to Clara Calamai. who had previously played mainly high-society women. EwryoIlt' knew Visconli was a beginner in filmmaking. but he had absohlh'ly no inhibitions in directing ('stablished film stars. According to CalamaL he beha Icd like a medieval prince with a whip. He ordered Calamai to he made up to look scruffy and dishevelled. Calamai and Cirotti wen' rising stars of Italian cinema. but by determinedly stripping the glamour and polished mallllerisms from their performances. Vis('onti was able to capture tht' ruggt~d lJuality of Cain's novel and to use it for his own IHlfJ,ose~.;l:l Viscollti could be dictatorial on the set also because. although the 110/11inal producer was lndustrie Cillematografiche Italiatw (1.t.1.), he produced and to a large extent finClllct'd the film himself. He also astolli~lwd the fillll new with hi~ enonnou:; store of energy and ahility to nJIltrol tilt' shooting ~ituation. Although he had no formal education in thi~ field and not that much experience either. he was ahle to mak(' decision~ about t'olllpo~ition, camera locatioll. alld length of shot without the ~lightest hesitation. He also handled littlt> details on the St't with lovillg care - this was to be a halllllark of his art throughout his t'aree['.;H Mario Serandft~i, who wa~ editing the fillll. had sOllle difficulty in t'omprelwnding that Visconti was aiming for a style quilt, differellt from that of standard Italian film". for a rhythlll generaled by "hots of cOIbiderahle dlll'ation. Visc'ollti himst'1f completed the edit illg.'\~' All the whilt,. politicall'rt'ssllre,.; were rapidly increasing. In Dt'cl'mlwr 19.... :! Alicata alld Cianni Pllt'cini awl hi" brotht'r Dario were arrested. \·ist'ollli alld his erew were Iwing obs('rn·d. bill tl\t'ir work was 1101 illlt'rfen·d with. The premiere of Ossessiol/(' took place at a fillll festival ho:;ted by \"ittorio \tu,.;solini ill !\\ay 1<) .... ;~. Vi~t'ollti 110 doubt tllOught thi:; showing would he a mark of official apprO\'al and tlH'reby hoped to ein'III11Vt'lIt IHln'aw'J'atic and Ct'II:;OJ'ship problems. According to De Santis. the film was a Sllt'Ct'SS amollg tilt' illtellt'ctllals who had ~atlH'l't·d to ~t'I' it. ill ad-
1tl
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dition tu which Vittorio Mussolini passed along to Viseonti the favorable opinion of his father. Visconti himself. however, has rdated that the invited spectators, in their furs and diamonds. were shol:ked. The most wellknown and comlllonly accepted version is by another Cinema group mCllllwr., Aldo SeagnPtti. Aewrding tu his account the auuiellce did applaud ellthusiastically. but that Vitlorio Mw;solini dashed away shouting: ··This is not ltalyl"·;lt. The critil:s were 011 the whole positive. Most of them thought that the film had truly captured something of the material and sjJiritual reality of Italy. Even the review ill dlt~ Fascist p,.imi pialli magazine agreed that tilt' film captured certain national sentiments. So at least the ltaliaJlizatioll of Cain's novel had been SIHTt~ssful. But as the reported cry of outrage from Vitturio l\lw;solini suggestpd. this also caused the film some prubI"IIIS.: I -:' In each of t he handful of cities where it was initially shown, OssessiollP was sharply attacked. Fascist officials rl'l"u8('d 10 accept its depictiun of inllllorality atlll squalor as reality. The fillll· s i:iociall·ealism. especially its o\'l'rt pessimism. was the exact opposite of the optimism espoused hy Fascist propaganda. Although the film was 1I0t actually censored. several officials impeded its distrihution. In Salsolllaggiore. the archbishop was invited to cleanse through his bellediction the cinema in which the film had heen screened. III Rome. the first public showings did not take place ulllil May 19... 5. although there had heell a special sereening in June 19... 3. in the same Ihealer where it had its premiere. The film had 110 suoller begulI thall it was interrupted by the police. who took down the nallJes of everyone there.: m Not long after the Fascists confiscated the original negative and carried it to their film studio in Venice. where they edited it into a fortyllIinute version. Subsequently the negative was either mislaid or destroyed. Thus the extant copies of Ossessiollt' have heen made from a duplicalP negative. which according to Viseonti" sown statemt'nt is incolllplt-tt'. The ori~dnal ver:;ion that had its premiere ill May 19... 3 i:; reputed 10 haw Iwen 1... 0 minutes long. whereas 1:35 minutes appears 10 be the maximum lellgth of the copies.: I "
Melodramatic realism TIH' plol of Cain· s novel is much mort' complicated than that of Viscontj's film. The maill dramatic inllly - a Illall is acquitted of all actual IIl1lrder. tlH'1I fillds himself charged with murdering a merl' accident victilll - and till' arhitrariness of jllri,.;t/iction have bl'en left out or kt'pt in
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the backp;round. The events have beell transferred to the Po Valley. the characters have been thoroughly ltalianized, ~o and certain important details have been addt'd. With all these changes, the crucial themes became aligned with Visconti" s perva:;ive concenlS. The most obvious change is ill the character of the protagollist. III the book, Frank is quite active and shrewd, but at times the complexity of the situations in which he finds himself overwhelms him. The story is laconically narrated by Frank himself. In the film, Gino. no longer in the position of the narrator, drifts with the tide of events and constantly sllllnuts to tht' will of others. unable to think of alternatives for himself. Although Cain's protagonist cannot Lw called evil. he does 1I0t appear to be heavily endowed with moral scruples. Drivt'1I by his passion for Cora. a young woman marrit'd to an older Illan who owns a "sandwich join!.'· he plots to kill the husband. His plan fails and he leaves. But after tryillg in vain to forget her. he retUnls. hatches yet allother plan . amI this time sllcceeds in carrying it out. All this he does apparently without any qualms. In Viscollti's story. Lino would probably lIot have killed tilt' husbaud had he not been goaded by the womall. Giovanna. And toward the end of the story. whereas Frank goes to Mexico with another woman to have fun . Gillo goes to a proiotitute for consolation ami to ennfesio what he has done. Despite sudden and at times violent bursts of anger, he is a gentle man deeply tonnt'nted by the situation he has let himself be driven into. As the film begins. a 10lTY arrives at an out-of-the-way trattoria that also functions as a petrol station. The driver discovers a vagrant sleeping in the baek and wakes hiIII up. The vagrant wanders off tu find some food while Bragana, {he owner of the petrol station. starts tillill~ the tank of the lorry. The vagrant's attention is suddenly caught by the voice of Bragana' s young wife, CiovaIUla, singing in the kitchen. He goes to the kitchen door. aud we see his back and beyond it, her legs. There is a cut to the first shot of her face as she notices him and interrupts her song. A eOllntershot brings LIS the tirst glimpse of the vagrant Cino's face. The moment is further emphasized by a slight track -in to a close-up and a momentary lack of ambient sound. The erotic tension between them is immediate; from their first gaze, they cOllllllunicate in the language of their bodies. They will soon find in eaeh other a chanee to realize some of their innermost hopes and desires . as well as an incarnation of tilt'ir worst fears. For GillO. it is a chance to assuage the 101ll~liness t hat comes with his vagabondish frf'edoTII. He yearns for human contact hut is unable to tie
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himself down and form stable relationships. For Giovallna, the encounter suggests a way out of her stagnating life. As she herself remarks, earlier on she had "to let JIIen offer her supper," implying some degree of prostitution. Bragana rescued her from that by marrying her, and she has no illtemion of t'\'t'r returning to it. however much she might he r"lllilsetl by her obese and somewhat loud husband. Passion apart, CiovU/lIla's aIld Ciuo's situations and needs are thus lIIutually incompatible and this fact guidt',,; their relationship to the wry end. If they want to stick together, they havt' hut two ('ourses of action open to them: eitlwr Gionmna mllst lean' with Gino 01' they mwit get rid of Bragana and stay at tilt'trattoria. This is the basil' coIltlict in the fill\l: between insecure freedom and secure contint'ment. In Youssef Ishaghpour' s words, the painful tension between aspiration and immaw'nce appears as the basil' opposition of Yisconti's oeuvn' right from the Iwginning. \loney ami economic relationships are immediately posited as a crucial factor eontrolling human and sexual relationships. After having something to eat, Cino leav!'s the trattoria, Giovanna hides tht' coins he has I'llt on the table and tells her husband that he left without paying. Bragana runs after Cino and insists that he pay for the food by doing some work around the plaee. Gino recognizes this as Giovanna's love call and agrees to ret urn and r!'pair Bragana' scar. Gino trick;; Bragana into going into town to buy a spare part for the car, and while he is gone CionulIla amI Cinu make love. Gino stays on for a while working for Bragana. and soon he alld Giovallna are so deeply involved with each other that they are forced to choose between their two airt'l'Ilativ{'s. They first decide to leave, picking a day when Bragana happens to he away. Blit exhausted by the walk ill the SUll, Gio\'anna quickly realizes that she is not prepared to pay the necessU/'y price for this kind of freedolll. Her choice is made easy by Gino, who takes no notice of the difticlliry :-.he i:,; having in keeping up with his stride. She returns to the dull eeonolllic security of life with her husbaJl(I. But after they part COlllpallY, CillO is IIl1ahle to forget her. Before tUl'lling to tht' other way Ollt of his pl't'di(·alllt'nt. yt't another possihlt' cOllrse of action appears to open up 10 Gino. All itinerant vendor who calls himself Spagnuolo (Spaniard) pays Cillo's train fare and they share a 1'00m in AII('olla. Spagnuolo's act might at first Lw illterpreted as an a('t of solidaritv, but in a seenI' in their bedroolll the wa\'. he looks at Cillo together with some of his n'marks Iwtray a IHllllost'xllal illtt'rest.~' Gillo does lIot appear to ,'esptmd to Spaglluolo's implied offer of un altt'I'IJativ(' to lilt' destrllctin' attraction he ft>els toward CiOyalIllH. (;ino is
out
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aware of the danger Giovanna po~e~ for him, but wIlt'n they happt'n to meet again he is unable to curu his passion. Gino spots Giovanna and Bragana at a market ~lJuare where Spagnuolo i~ puttillg on a show to sell his junk to people. Cino is carryillg largt' salldwich board~ advertising a singing contest. Bragana is then' to enter the ('ont('~t. The tilm now reaches its tuming point. On the way back to the trattoria. Giovanna and Gino kill Bragana and stage it as a car accidt'nt. All that the audience sees. however. is their nocturnal drive through the Po Valley - with Bragana extn'll1t'ly drunk after ,'elebrating his victory ill the conlt'sl. This is iIllmediately followed by a police investigation at tilt' scene of the crime. Cillo awl CiovanIla are lIot apprehended, but they ft'main uuder suspicion and are closely watched. All too soon. their aspirations tum out to be illusory. Cillo had thought they would be able to sell the trattoria and move somewhere elst'. but IH' was obviously dt'l't~i\' ing himself. As Gioyanna poinh oul. they will "itllt'r hay,' to nlt"'t peoplt' face to face or stay OIl the run for the rt'~t of tlwit" li\"t~s. And so Cioyanna's life cOlllinues to lit' om' of 1IIIIIIdnuII toil wbilt- Gillo starts behaving like a caged animal. His anxiety real'ilt's a high pitch during a party Giovanna has arranged to boost salt's at II){' trattoria . .lust thell. Spagnuolo happens to pass by. and he atHl Lino enter into an inneasingly heated discussion. It "tHh with Cino pUIlchill1! Sl'agllllOlo who app,'ars to ue criti(,izing him as mlll"h for the :iuspected niBit' as for betraying their male comradeship uy "hacking up with a WUBHlIl. Cino tells him a bold-faced li,' - ""I am fed up with trawling lif,'" - whil'h i~ too blatant to pa~s en'lI for SI'If-d,'ceplion.":! Soon after Ihis Spagllllolo is St'('n arriving at all oftin' at the polit'e station. pt'rhal's to lWlray his friend. Ilis sillllJlIette ill the window of tilt' door echoes t hat of (~io\"anna allll (;illo when they left tilt' san1l' room. Yel anotlH'r incidelll in!t'f\"W'S Iwfon' tilt' IraI' dost's on tlWIII. During U \'isit to Ft'ITan\. Lino makt':'; an allt'mpt III Iln'ak off frolll CiOVanllll only 10 di"t'()\'('r tllat Ill' i,; lit'd 10 ht'r lIlort' do",'ly Ihall ('\'t'r I Jt'fo("e. \X'hilt' wailing for (;io\uJlna in a park. Ill' I'lwolllllt'("!'. .\nita. a pn'lIy )"Ollllg WOlllall who tlln." Ollt to Ill' a pro"titlll". :\ lild" lal,'r Ciovlllllla arrin's alld tl,lI,; hilll siit' h,,,", ju"t "ollt't'II'd tilt' ill"llralw,' 1II0llt'y.":I CiJlo is illfllrialt'd 10 Ihillk tlwy an' prolitilll! frolll tllf'ir nillll'. Ill' Ilt'ads oH ill a raw' to .\Ilila·" lodgillgs. :\IOIwy III'H'r nll'alll 111111'11 10 hilll Hllyway. bllt 1I0W Ill' i" obviously t'al!er to dis"ohl' his d,'nl"lalillg n'lation"hip wilh (;io,",lIlIla ..\lIiw. howt'H'r. call1lol oH,'r a g"lIl1illl' alt,'rllalin' for Cillo. "\"I'll ill till' way Spagllllolo could. Cio\allllu "t't's Iht'lll Oil tilt' sll·(','1 as tht'Y go 0111 to do o;Olllt' "hoppillg alld ill a lil of jl'alollsy 1111'1'1111'11" 10 1111'11 hilll ill.
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Lino ~ilelH'p" her by hittin~ ht'r and n'turJIs to Anita. \rllt'n. shortly afI"I"\\"ard. Iit' n'alizes ht' is twing shadowt'd hy a plainclotllt's policemall. he jumps 10 tIlt' t'fl'OIWOUS conclusioll that Cio\"arllla really has betrayerl hint. He :;Ul'cet'ds in pscaping and heads back to the trattoria. The la,;1 episode of Ihe film depicts a desperate ath'ml)! 10 ('onHate IlIlItually ilH'OInpatihlt' 1It'I'(J,.; alld wishes. dreams awl rl'ality. Ciovalllla slll'ct'pds in convillcing Cillo that :;1)(' did nOl Ilt'tray him and then 1t'lIs hilll that ~Ilt' is pregnant. For a lllOlIIl'nt a new po"itin' dimension appear,; to open up in their n'lationship. Thl're is all allllost drl'allllikt' selJ"t'IIt't' Oil a desolate Iwacl. that call~ to lIIind another. III 0 re tranlJllil world. But thnl' is no escapt' frolll tilt' thrt'at of pllnishment. They /c'aH' the trattoria in Bra~ana'~ car and with tragic irony end lip having an accidl'lIt similar to Ih ... one tht'y sta~t'd eariipr 011. CiO\anna dies: thl' police arriw and arrest Cino. The themt's of the tilm do not develop as they would ill a typiml crime st(II~. The I'0lict' ~wquellt~es. in particular. appear 10 Le illsl'rts and make tilt' otherwise steadily unfolding narratiw hobble sli~htly. Aftt'r tht' iJl'I I It'st r ... port has beell signed. the police investigation~ cOlltilllJt' in two short SI'IJIlt'[)C(,S. In till' lirst. Spaglluolo is seell arriving at the police ,;tatioll apparl'lIt1y to betray Gillo. Or perhaps he llUii just heell ill\'ited to allswer some questiolls - t1Wrt' is \'t'ry titde of all illcriminating nature that Ill' could pos~ihly tell tht' polil't'. The t'l'isodf' dot's 1I0t fit comfortably wit h the otllf'l'wi:;t' lillear lIarratioll. awl it has to bt' Iholl~hl of a" the film' s ollly lIao.hforward. But the idea of betrayal i~ t'xtft'llIe1y illlportant tlwlllatically. Benlllse SpagllllOlo's appt'arallce at the potiCt' statioll follows SOOIl after his ami Gillo's fight. tilt' l'OJIIlI'l'liOJl Iwtweell th .. n'jt'ctioJl of friendship - and possibly hOlllo:·;t'xuallon' - alld tilt' thn-at of pUJli:;hllIellt is st rtJJlgly under/illt'd. TIlt' polit't' appear u:; all illllwr~o"al fOlT(, whost' task is to pllnish not ouly a judit'ial hilt also all t'xi;;tl'Jltial I'riJlIf': the illaltilitv. to l'IlIltrol destrul'tin' drives or to n'main loval to 0111"" . fri"Jld~ alld perhaps 1'\'1'11 to SOillt' of 0111'':, iJllll'nllost de,..in's. howt'H'r IlIul'h it llIi:..d1l 1)1' a c(llt'stioll of trying to ,.,atisfy Illutllally ilH'lIIl1patil.tl .. 11t'1"
J,;.
\" a d"pil'tioll of all exi"tl'lItial sitllatioll. Cionllllla·,., alld CiJlo':; ,.,1'1'111' at tilt' dl',..olatl' river IWlIl'h fore,.;hat!ow,.; :\lItollioni' s filII),; of tlw early ,.;ixt il'''', H There i,.. no apparellt 1lI0t ivat ion for tlWIIl to Ill' tlwrt'. ~.-. Blit wlll'l'I-<\"; tilt' de,..olate lalldsnlpl'''' ill Antolliolli·,.; film,.; ft'llt'l't till' alil'lIatioll of hi,; protagolli,.,.,... ill ()ssf'ssiul/l' till' 1 It',.,olal iOIl oHI'r" Cionllllla alld Cillo a 1I101I.ellt away 1'1'11111 :;ol'ic,ty alld it,.; 1'1'1''';,.,111'1'''; alld thll" abl) a IHhsiltility for di,..playillg gt'llIlilll' tl'llIlenw"". '1'111' ,.,n'III' flllll't iOIl"; to I"dallce hoth
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the literal and ti~lIrative darkness that has become increasingly oppn'ssive throllghollt the film. Partil'lIlarly in the first half of the film shabby interiors have gradllally l)t'cOlIlt, a IIwtaphor for Giovanna" s suffocating ,.;ituatioll . when'as open air has bt'en the realm of Gino"s freedom. Bragana"s lIlurder takes place in the open air. and it is as if this act would force Gino to conlint' him,wlf insidt' the traltoria. Whell Cino does COlIW out during the party ~cene. Iw t'lIds lip giving SpagllllOlo a pUllch. which in turn ~t'ryes to spring tilt' trap 011 hilll. TIlt' Ft'rrara se'lw'nce ill IlII"11 repn'sellb all UlbllCt't's~flll altt'lIIpt to get away from all this. Cino eIII'OIlIl!t'rs :\nila oUbide in tilt' Iwautiflll sUlIshine. hut Iit' SOOJI finds himself e~caping to Ilt'r apartnlt'lIt. III cOlltrast to the trattoria. it is quilt, cozy. hill Iwcatb(' the poliet, art' already on his heels Iit' ('(mnot stay there for very long. Aftt'r this the trattoria apl'(~ars eH'n gloOIni,>r than befon>. for it can no 10llger Iit' a ,.;afe han'lI for tht' guilty couplt'. Finally. tilt' scene on tilt' riwrbank ~er\"l';; as a reminder of hnw illusory calm and tranquility han' Iwcolllt' to tllt'lII. \' an "'arson has pointed Ollt that. as opposed to standard l'ineJllatic practice. ill which - as Hnalyzl'd by Laura \luh-ey in her faJllous aJ1idt' .. , ["sua/ Plewwrp and Yurrafil't' ("ill(,II/(1" - tilt' fl'male is ~ubjt't,tl'cI tn tilt' mall' gazt', in Ossf'ssioll(, Lino is subjt,(,tt'd lirst to Cionlluw's feminine allll then to Spagnllolo'" homo"exlwl gaze. Lino walks throu!!h 1II0st of tilt' first half of the film in a slt'eH,lt'ss nost. and his hroad ~llOuld('rs oftt'n feature (,(lIIspicllously. particularly wllt'n Iit' is I,ein~ watdwd by Cio\,anna or Spa!!nuolo.~" :\11 thi,.; emphasiz('s his pa~si\·ity and Ciovanna",; al'tin' role. III ('olltrasl to the swalllike w'qlli""'\"('lIt Alliw. CiovallllU is I'rt'l'an'd to t /"I''';I'HS,.. bOI h law alld IIlOralil y ill ordt'r 10 illlpron' IlI'r 101. Oil dlt' odlt'r halld. Lillo \Iin'idlt~ ,.,t't'~ ill IlI'r all illlaw' of dlt, ,·ft'llIillillt' I'tllHlilioll" ill Fasci"t lIaly, 11('r IlIarriag:e to BragullU ,.,liJlltls for farllily rl'ialiolb Ihal ha ye dt'W'lI('ralt,d illlO ill"litllliollalizt,d I'rostitlllioll 1'1"01'1'"d Ill' by a ("al'ilali~1 "lIlth. "lIlbodi"d ill lilt' 1,10alt,d IH,dy of Bra~alla. -+--:"
.\lIila. jlbl likl' Cioqllllla Iwfo/"(' Ilt'r 11 la rria!!,'. lIIakt'~ a li\·ill~ thf"CIlI~h I'ro~liltllioll. l)i~l'layill~ "If('h dlilra("(t'r~ till lilt' "ITI't'lI illfllrialt'd IIlOs(' ill 1'0"I'r lIot ollly ill hhCi;:.t 11111 al"o ill 1'0~I"ar (:hri"liall 1)('IIII1ITalic Italy. TIll'/"(' an' it wt'alth of 01111'1" d,'lai('" ill ()sst'ssi()/It' lllal 1111' "olllt'llIllI,rary llaliall audit'lIlT lIli!!11I \\t'lI hm(' illlt'rl'/"('I\,d iJ~ l"('ft'/"I'IH't'S 10 lilt' "iltlalioll ill dll'ir ,'olllllry. Sl'aglluolo wa,., ~o lIallll'd 1H't"illbt' Ill' had workl'cI ill Spaill-Ihi,., /IIi~ht wt,lI laa\I,lwt'1I IIl1d,'rSIOI 11 I ,h all allll~ioll to 1111' Sl'alli~h ci\·il war. Cillo ill IIII"Il 11,11" Cim'allllil IIIUI Ill' 0111'1' workt'd ill Tri"";II'. Thi,.; I'ollld 1)(' a /"I'fp/"I'llt"t' 10 a di"I'IIIt, O\Tr lilt' o\nll'r,.,hil' Ill' 1111' dlwk" ill Tril,,,It,
\1::;(:0:\'1'1
and to their being bombed after Italy had declared war on Great Britain.-+1I III the F errara ~cene. a troop of boy~ man'hing through the park resemble~ a Fascist youth squadron. and on the street ~cene in front of Allita's home invalid~ and aieoholics can lw seen as the camera follows them briclly. (:ertain detail~ in Ossessiolle have subtle ~ymbolic and often ironic fUlwtion;;. The Ferrara scene opens with the eamt'ra ~howing a swanshaped ice cream cart just before Gino eneoullter~ Anita, and it can be easily a~~ociated with her. As they talk and flirt with each other. a dragonshaped cal1 appear~. Later it crosse~ CiovallIla'~ path as she comes to the park and its black .:olor matches her mourning dress. Thus the two cart;; fonll a clear, slightly amusing parall('l to Cino' ~ view of the two women. Some details foreshadow dramatic momellts, sudl as the razor seen when BragaJla alludes to the life in~urance he ha~ taken out. :\Iore s('rioll~ and melodramatic is tilt' scene in which Ciovanna and Gino. after having lIIade love for the tirst time. converse 11t'Xt to tile mirror of the wanlrobe. As t1wy IIJ(we back to the bed in a pa~sionate embrace. the wardrobe door swings open. revealing Bragana's ;;uit~ and other clothes. Sometimes tlleSt' devices art' al"o illfu~ed with irony . .Just lwfore the party at th(' trattoria. Cino says: "Watching the house of someone who has died is not a proper job'" Just then a tall. stout womall dresst·d in black appears at the door. Half in shadow with a large s.ytllt' in her hand. she seems to he a comic iIllage of tilt' grim n·ap,'r. Yet JIlore importallt than such realistic or symholic details. is \'iscOIJli"" ahility to en'ate alJ organic relation~hip betwet'n the characters and their elJvironJllent. De Santis. who together with Anrollio Pielrallgeii worked a" the m;;;istallt director. recalled ill later \'(,Hr;;: I illllt'ritt'd the 10llged-for dUly of caring for tilt> Jillll':; backgrouuds - i.e. of all that ",hid, OtTIIlTed behind or on tilt> peripht'ry of tht' foreground actioll: life. to put il brit·tJy - lift' which nllllillued flowing 011 it:; OWII. wilh it:; daily cadt'lIn'~ ill ~pile of tilt' tragic fet'lillt(~ expn's~t'd by tilt' at·toni .... Tht, JIlajor achit'HlI1t'llt of ow' who pr('sidt'd 0\('1' Ihb ta~k COIhi"tt'd of forcillg tilt' hackgroulld 10 play a rolt· of ... Jllllt ....l'oillt so as 10 obtain a killd of vi"ual alld allral cOIIHi,·t yit,ldiut( a di"agn·t·alol .. .,fre,·1 but Ollt'. w'\"('rtllt'lt's". which gmt' tilt' "ll('clator a "PIISt' of lift' a.' lin·d and tllI .....,.Of(· a ,,!'[bt' of tI ... "01111'11':\ n'ali~IIl "nact"d ill frout of tI ... (·(I ••
u'ra ....·'
'1'111' contra,,1 wid. cOlllt'lIIporary Italiall cillt'lIIa. which had w,ilht'r IIIll("h Iwckgroulld lWli"ity lIor allY ,"ocial or historical depth. wa" cowiidt·rablt'. ()ssf'ssioIW may 1)(' compan·d wilh two olher major Italiall lilms mad,· at tll(' ('lid of the Fasl"ist pt'riod: Blasf'tti"" ()I/ollm passi/,'({ If' I/I//"o/f' (Four
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steps in heaven, 1(42) and De Sica's I bambini ci gllardmw (The childfl'I1 are looking at us, 194:3), In OHt' way or anotiwr, all IIm'e treat the dissolution of the "sacred institution" of the famil\'. Bul wlU'reas the other two films look hackward aesthPlically and hang 011 to I'ollvenliollal morality, Visconti's films prl'::wnl an Opt'lI challell~t' on all It'veh.. To a considerahle extt'lIt. thanks to the thoroughly assimilalPd inllllt'lIce of ReIloir and other contemporary French directors, Visconti was able 10 dt'viatt' from certaill standard patterns of represelllatioll that characterized Italiall cinema of the time. In \Iicchich~'s wonls: "As fI'gards sex till' ('then'al spiritual sublimation hecame a dell se physiological camality; as regards the family the cell of society became all inhuIllall prison: as regard,.; riit' people, the beautified unity challgt'd illto the sour solitude of all aggregatt' of illdividuals: as regards tlw world of pea";Hllb the silt, of unity hecame a site of fragmt'lItatioll; as regard,.; the lalHlIicape the idyllic backdrop lwcallle a turbid ::'I'enery'" It wa,.; a film that would destroy "all till' I-Xisting stereotypes. "~,(I The charring of a certain human ,.;ituatioll had lwcolIU' at It-a,.;t as important as the tdlillg of a story, actioll had hecome le,.;,.; dett'nnilled by plot requirements than, say, in das,.;ieal Hollywood cinema or its Italian equi\'alt'lIt of the Fascist era. On the level of tilt' shot,.;, in Cilles Deleuze"s words, "Objt'Cb and ,.;ettings [milif'IJ.l·] take 011 an alltOllomOIlS. material reality whieh give::. them an importance in themsdw,.;,'·:;\ Aftt'r Ciovalllla and Gino makt' lo\'e. for example, slH' tells how she ended up as Bragalla"s wife. Gilw's attention. howcyt'r. i,.; fOl'useu on a sea shell. which he prcs,.;c,.; against his ear. The ge,.;ture reyeals hi::; lack of intert'st in Ciovanlla's ,.;tory. which moti\·ates his actions in what follows. :\cwrthdl's,.; tilt' gt'stun- appt-aI's randolll and fret' from any dircl't plot fUlIct ion, Such lingt'rillg on ~cenes as if to t'xplort' how till' characters behave in a giyt'n situation - spatiotemporal. historical. social, psychological. and existential - became one of the ideals of nt'orealisUl and started a lille of development that led to the films of Hossellini ill thc 1950s, those of Antoniolli in the {'arly 19bO::., alld through thelll to the l\ew Wave in France. III a slightly differt'I11 way. it also becalllt' ont' of tlH' lIIost cl'llcial elements of risconti's own style. In Ossessiolle the situation the protagollis!S find thclII,.;elves in iIllposes ('I~rtain o.cven-Iy limiting nmuition,.; 011 them. Their passion is pitted against their intellectual limitations and inability to conceiye any viable alternatives for themselves, This st'vere realism keeps the lIH'lodramatic gestures under striet control withollt.. howen'r. even ";0 lIIuch as subduing it. On the contrary. the realistic framework t'n,.I\l·t''' t hat tilt' JIIelodraIlla aplwars IIlt'uningful and relevant.
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a" a way of evoking reality in its flesh awl blood with maximum emotional and t'xistcntial illtensity. Such meludmlllulic realism in ewr differing patkms is one of the distinguishillg features of \'isconti's an. The call1Pra work in OssessiulIl' is fairly restrained, maintainiug just a slight seuse of detachmellt aud observatioll rather than thorough iuvolvemeut with the chara('ters. as iu couvelltional fillll lIIelodrama. At times. howcver. the camera plays a Cfuciall'Ole in conveying feeling and passion. The best example is Gillo' s entrance to the kitdlt'n described earlier. 1111mediatt'ly afterward tllC erotic tension betweell Cino and Gio\'auna remaius stroug. as they allllost playfully compt'te for coutrol over the situatiun and ex('hauge looks 1'\'('1)' time Uragaua turus away. As the positiolliug of the camera is often quite surprising - for (,xample. holdly tlauuting the ISO-degree rule - it is at times difficult to follow the 1Jl00emt'lIts of the ('haracters in the small kitdlt'u. Later on. after Gino decides to stay in tilt' trattoria, the lowrs emhrace as Uragana goes out to kill a howling cat. Tlwre is a dramatic Clll that throws the camera to their opposite side, suddellly reversillg their left and right positions. Because then' are ouly a few shots defining the differeut rooms of the trattoria as a whole, it is difficult to get a dear picture of the layout of the huilding. All altogether w'w view opens up even at the end of the film as a little girl is uuexpectedly seen iu a corridor that presLUnably leads to lilt' bedroOlns above the trattoria.':! All this enhan('es the atmosphen· of claustrophobic disorientation. It reaches its peak in the scene in whieh Giovanna ami Cino retufll to the trattoria after the invcstigation: the movements of the camera surround them and make Cino·:,. anxious wallderin~ arollnd appear like the paeiug of an animal in its cage. Then' is a full range ot' camera work from cOIIH'ntiollal shot!t-oUlllt~r shot se
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characterization. Right at the begirllling. as the truck stops ill front of tilt' trattoria. the aria "Di provenza it mar. il suol" from Verdi"s La Tml'iata is heard. TIU' ,;inger turns out to Iw Bragalla. As GirlO steps in,;ide. hi,; attention is nrst caught by Ciovarllla',; ,;ong. "Fiorin norello . I'alllore (> bello vicino ate" (Flowt'1". little flower, love i,; beautiful neur you). and this is the song she u~es to cull Cino to IlI'r after Bragana has gmit' off to buy the spure part. Later on, Gillo expresses hi" ,;ense of freedom by playing jolly tllllt'S on his mouth organ. The music of ('aeh of the characters retlects their illitial situatioll and aspirations. The operatic lIumbers during the singing competitioll. particularly Gilda',; and Duke',; duet, --~~ it sol dell" anima ,. from \' erdi',; Higoletto. ~;ung by a l'Ouple grote,;quely ir)('onsislt'lIt with the character,; tlH')" art' portrayillg. form an ironic purallel with the protagoni,;ts of the tilm. After tilt' competition tllt'n' is wry little diegetic lIIusic. t'xcept whell the orchestra plays at tilt' party at the trattoria. TIlt' ahsence of sOllg emphasizes tilt' sense of isolation alld loss of hope.
BACKGROt.;ND. THEORY, AND PRACTICE OF NEOREALlSl\I Birth of a concept IlIitially. imnwdiatt·ly after the war. olle of tht' major distillguishillg features of lIeorealislll was its anti-fascism. The ClIITent Jlolitical situation awl the nH'lIl11ries of the resistarlt'l' fighl!·r,. provided a ,;tock of compelling stories that w(,re of great rdevarH"e to tilt' audiellce alld that could lw ,;hot 011 locatioll. which was important sillce llIost !"Itudio facilitie!"l had beell destroyed ill the war. :\11 important cOIlIlectioll was Idt to exist between thi" IIt'W aesthetic mO\'elllellt alld the lIlultiparty govt~rrlllH'rlt that had taken owr after the fall of Fascism. At this tirrlP 1II0St Italialls agn'ed that it was esst'lItial to cn'ate a rww allti-failcist Italy. But the cOlllltry was soon di,·ided ill tilt' dehate about how it was to he cleansed (If fascism. Some saw tilt' t'IHire Fascist era a,; a mere aherratioll that should simply he for~otten: (ltlH'r,; dt'manded that tilt' elltire period he thoroughly analyzt'd and that the goverrllllellt and !>oci!'ty be purged (If tht' people and illStitutiOIl" that had iliad!' it (los::.ihle for the Fascists to gaill pow('r allll to maintain it for twenty-two Years. After all t ht' pOlllpOUS lIatiollalistie rhetoril'. lllallY art ists sought to cn'ate a style that would make possiblt· the rebirth of a genuillt' art of tilt' p"ople alld that would plllmh the depths of the lIatioll'" tormt'lIted "0111.
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It wa~ a call for a new kind of realism that the cinema appeared particularly suited to portray. According to Albel10 Lattuada: Ah .... the la~t war, espt·cially ill haly. it was this wry lIt'ed for r(,flIily which forct'd u~ out of the studios. It i~ tflll' that our studios wcrl' partly destroyed or occupied by ..efuW·t'~. hut it is (''1ually true that the decision to shoot eH'rything "on 10catioll" wa" abon' all dictatt'C1 by the dcsin' to ('xpres:i lift' ill ib lIlost cOllvincing nUUlIlt'r and with tilt' har~llIlt's, of dm·IIllIt'lltaril's. TIlt' very spirit of walb corruth'cl by tiJlll' allll full of thl' tirt'd sigllS of history. took 011 all al'sthetie consisIt'lll·Y. The actor's costUJIlt's Wt're thos(' of the lIlall of the streN. Actresst's Lecame WOJllI'Il again. for a mOlllent. It was poor but strong C illl'lIl a . with lIlany things to say in a hurry and in a loud voice., without hypocrisy. in a Lrief vacation from ct'nsorship: and it was an unprejudiced ciuema., personal allll not industrial. a cinCllla full of n'al faith in the language of film. as a n\f'an~ of education amI ~llcial progrl'ss ..-·:I
Tlw period after the war was felt to be a "springtime": it was as if new buds were elllcrging in all fields of cultural life after a dreary winter. This alt i t ude led people to forget or ignore the fact tha t lIlany fille tilms had been Illade during the Fascist regime and that in Illany ways these tilms foreshaumwd neorealism amI provided it with Illodd~. The attitude toward OSSf'SS;OIlt' provides all example. Because it had heen made within the Fascist produl'tioll system. it did not fit tht> cOllcept of lIeorealism as a total n'newal of Italiall ciw'ma. III their anti-fascist fervor, the IIlOst ardellt of till' propagandists of neorealisllI explailled that FaseislII should ha\'(' bl~en condeIllned more clearly in Ossess;u/I(:' for it tu deserve the accolade of neorealislll"-'~ The allti-fascist ethos did not survive the war as a politically unifying factor. and this had an immediate effect on the l'illema. The nl'orealist IllO\'l'IlWnt was soon at loggerheads with the Christian Dellloefatic party. which was to govern Italy on its own for the next few decaues. l\eorealist filllls were cOlldemued as attempts to slllother the international reputation of tilt' lIatioll. and through indirect measures the film industry was ill t,ffeet plan'd largely tinder state control. After the so-called :\ndn'otti Law wa" Ilassed in Decelllher 1q-+(,. an official body call(,d Direzione Cenerale wa" ('stablished through which all governIlll'nt loans and subsidies wen' i~~LH·d to film;; ('ollsidered "stlitahle.'· The governnlt'Ilt coulu also ban I'tlhlic scn'elling" of filllls aJl(ltheir exportation 011 the groullus that they wen' 1I0t "ill the Lwst illtert'st of hal\,." Prillle \\illister \lario Selba made the attitude of the goveJ'lllllellt toward the film indll~try perfectly dear: --FillII is meIThamlist'. If the go\,('nmwnt has tilt' right to ('ontrol the I'X-
port of vegetables anJ fruits to make sure that tlwy are not roUen, it also has the right, and the duty. to prevent the circulation of filllls inft'cted with the spirit of neo-realislII. "-.~. Leftist erities in particular saw all t his a" a post-Fascist react ion again:it all kinds of :iocial eriticislII. After all. no actual policies were proposed in !lw lIeorealist films. The measures exerted bv till' Christian Delllocrats also app,'ar exaggerated, cOllsidering the SIIIalll\ll1ll1ler of tllt~se filllls and the Illt'ager success that 1II0st of thelll were able to achi,'v('. Of the 8:!:! films made in Italy in the years I <)-t;)-5;~, only 90 can Lw nlllsidereJ lIeorealist. Hoberto Rosst'llini" s Rome, Opell Ci(l' (Hollla. citta apt'11a) was tlu> most popular fillll ill Italy durillg 19-tS-b. his /'ai.wl was tilt' lIillt h ill 19-tb-:. awl Vittorio De Sica's 1'lIeBityr/p Thitf(Ladri di Ilicidette) the elnelllh in 19-t8-9. But 1Il0st lIeorealist films failed to lIIakt, a profit and wert' oftI'll torn apart by tilt' ('rit ics. ;,h Success ('a 11 It' lIIaillly ahroad, a1ll1 th!' most eloqUt'nt proponellt of the 1II0H'1IIt'lIt was Fnlllct; s :\lIdn~ Bazin. ;\;eorealislIl had nothing to do with lIIainstream Italian cilwma. \Iost audielln's went to st~e melodramas. adn'I\tun·s. and ('ollwdit>s. as tlw)" had Jotlt' Iwfore and everywhere else in the world. TIlt' significance of n('on~ali;,m sprang largely from the ae;,thetic and ethical ideal it provided. as \\"1'11 as the theoretical debate that it prompted. These lIIade it a crucial pan of fillll history.
Theory and ideals Ft'w nlOVt'nlt'IIts or trt'lHls in tilt' hi!>!tory of cillt'Jlla Iravl' ~in'lI rise to a!>! !IIuch theorizillg alld explallatioll 1.1:-; Ilt'0reali:-;1II has. "tallY lists have bet'lI t'OIl1piled of tht, hasit' criteria of lIeon'ali~JII. but tllt'r\' is 110 t'onst>lIsu:-; a:> to whit'h of tllt'st' would dj·fine its e:-;sent'j'. Ilanlly any filJlls thought to lit' Ilt'orealistic 1lJ(:'t't all tlH' critt'ria. Tog"tllt'L the"t' criteria silllply characterize in a general fashion the direction t'ertaill Italiall diret'tors took after the waL~': The fOlllHler of Hiaflciu p I/('m lIIa~azilw alld it!>! long-tilllt' editor. Lui~i Clriarini. has defined four c1raraclt'ri:>ties of tire 1II00Tlllellt: (1) IIIt'II deriH'd from the alldit'lIn'~' OWIl rt'alilY replacl'd riit' pn'-collct'ivt't! chara,'lt-r" in cOIlH'llliollal Ilarrali\t'" of riit' pa"l: (~) riit' chronic/t' (if Wt~ call eall il I hal). t'\Tllb allt! fae'" clIlI"d from lilt' daily exi~It'Ilf"t' of 1Ilt'1I. n'phwt'd I he fahricalt'd atiwnllln-, of 1I0Vt'l, alld cOlllt'dit's: (J) IIIf' Ihrohhillg pholographic tlOt"tIIllt'1l1 n-plact'd pit-Iorial and tigtlnnin virlllo,ily: (-t) Ihe cilit'~ and eOlllltl'Ysidt'. wilh peoplt, t'ffeeliwly living Ihen'. replat't'J riit' p((pil'r-IIU/c/tl; ~n'lIl'ry of I he pa"t.,-·H
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Chiarilli abo thought that neoreali~m was born out of all inner need to express thoughts and sensat ions that were Ilot tied to cOllceptual systems but that Hrose fwm reality itself'. h depicted the social reality of lllan as \\"1,11 as his relatiollship with ··nature. his inulIediate environJlH'nt. and society:';'" TIlt' veracity of representation was to be fllrtlll'r enhanced by the use of real people frolll the ;,treeb to play roles that were supposedly close to tllt'ir own lives. This uever becallle conllllOn practice. however. De ~ica wwd uonaetors for tilt' leading roles of TIll:' Hi(ycle Thief awl llJ/!Jertu U (19;j~). but Viscollli"s La /erra /relllu (19-+8) was the ouly lillll iu which the eluire east C()u~isted of "urdinary people. ,. Eveu in tlu'se cases the directors succeeded in plllling Ollt great performances from their actor,.; within a strong narrativ(' structure. \lost tilmmakers awl theorist,.; saw Ileoreali,.;m e,.;sentially a,.; a moral stand rather than an aesthetic position. Acconling 10 theoretician and screenwriter Ce,.;are Zavaltini. the goal of Il('orealislll was to prolllote the love and understanding of others as they actually are. This JllI'ant mainly 1'001' people. as "misery ... is one of the most vivid realities of O!lf tillle:' This was to be achieved in large part by eliminating plot. at It'ast ill the conventional sense. Zavattini did not mean that then' should he no narrative structure at aiL but rather that a lillll ~ho\lld nlllct'ntrate 011 ~itu atiolls wken dirpctiy from the live~ of ordinary peoplt· ...o The crucial poillt was that ordillary [It'ople should recogllize thelll~dv('" ill a film instead of idt'lItifying with the charactt'rs of escapist falltasy. AI't"ordillg to (:hiarilli. the audielll'e~ of tilt' lirst lIeurealisl fillll~ saw Oil the "ereI'll their OWII tragedy: ":\0 10llger followillg a lIIere story. but history, tilt' audi"nct' saw lif" n'tIect!'d Oil the ~("feell:'hl These objecti\"t's wen' rooted ill the idea that the lIIediuIII of lillll elljoys a privilegt~d ("t'lation"hip to reality. The major lilies of Iilm tllt'my UlHil about the early 19()Os call lit' roughly divided into reali"t awl formative traditions. The fornlt'r elllphailizes the way that the (:iIlt'matic apparatus call lit' uSl'd tu regist!'r awl ClJllvey all image of the phellomt'nal world l'hoto-Ilwdlanically: till' latter fOI'II,.;e~ Oil Iilm as all artifact. a COllstructioll of imagt's a lit I soulld". (:olltro\"t'rsy raged as to ,,·hich is tilt' tnlt' vocatioll of ("illemallluilalllOn.balallced view emerged ill tilt' work of scholars ~Il('h a" Jeall \Iitry. who ill his 1II01lullIt'lllal "tudy E~/ht>ti(Jlw 1'/ p.~H·I/()lugie dll eilthllo (1 9();{-:») fu!">"d tIll' extremes. \Iodel"ll film theury elllt'rged as approaches ::.lIch as stru(,turalislll. "t'miotic~, and certaill hralll'hes of the so("ial sei"lIn',.; alltl psychology led "dlOlars to pOS(' Ht'W que::.tioll~ oftI'll far remO\'ed frolll the ,'arlit'!" t'sselltialist Iht'orit's. But iwfon' alllhis. III'0realislll was set'lI by IIHllIy as the "twllg,>,.;t IIIHllift'"tatioll
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and vindication of cinematic realism. To some of the more extn'IIW of it!"> proponents, cinematic apparatus provided a way of apl'roachill~ r('alily to the point of diss()lvin~ all the cOlIstrainh of tht' medium. Fdix A. Morlion, for example. claimed: :\I,o-realism's thesis i~ that the SI'I"('I'n i~ a ma~!i(" window whi("h opell~ Ollt 011 to the "real"'; that eilH'I1Iati(" art i~ thl' art of retTeatin/!. through tilt' I'XI'ITiM' of frel' choi!'t' upon tht' material world. tht' luost intt'nSt' vision possibl" of the iuyisible rt'ality illlwrt'nt in till' moveml·Ilts of the milld. The ha~is of eVl'ry good work of art i~ Ilot what pt'o]lll' thi"k ahout f(·ality. hut what reality actually is. Through a shared \'ision of I'xi~tellt·t'. hoth arti~t~ alld audil'llI"l's forget with plt'a~url' tiUN' artistic inH'ntiolls which nlt'rl'h ",'r\I·d as I1Ieans for tilt' tTI'atioll of that llt'Wbont thing ..... TIlt' nl'o-rt'alist SdlOOI ha~ takl'lI a great ~1t.1' forward. It has forswom nlllity to f('at'h till' tflle aim of ("ilH'IIW: to expn'ss reality."" :\ \"I'sti?!c of positi,ismcan Iw Sel'lI ill this rather nai\"(' idl'a that n'ality call Iit' captun'd a!"> it "aclllally i,~'-' r\ phenomellological approach madl' the idea of cint'matic n'alism far mon' resollanl. Frellch film critic :\l1dr~ Bazin. in particular. piUI'd what ht' thought was the tfllt', "pht'nonwnolo?!ical"' realism of cillt'ma agaillst "till' tradit iOllal dnllllatic systems alld also [again"t] tilt' \ariolls other kllOWII kinds of realism in litl'ratun' and tillll with whidl we are familiar'-' III his opillioll. "aliall nt'oJ"eulism diffl'red froJlJ natllralisJlJ allt! Vt'rislIl ill that it n'jt·clt'd ·'analysis. whether political. llIoral. psyclwlo?!ical. logical. or sl)t"ial. of lilt' dlaral·ters alld tlwir actiolls'-' Ili,; goal was to look "011 reality as a whole. not illt'OIllpn·llt'lI,.;ibl,'. certaillly. IIIIt illSl'parably Ollt· ... "\ (:t'rtaill cillt'lIratic IIlt'all~ '\"t'n' lIIort' cOIHluci\'I' to this visual ('xploratioll thall otllt'rs. Bazill comJIIPlltlt·d riit' dt·ep fllt'lIS and lOll;! ~hots. which. ill tilt' films of' :-'01111'0111' likt' \\'illiam Wyler. Ilt'lped to achil'\"(' "a cilwlllatowaphic ulli\t'r~e. Ilot ollly ri~orously cOllsistellt with n·ality. 11111 al,;o as liltll' Illodilil'd as possible by tilt' optics of riit' call1t'ra.-·(d Such IIwall~ aIlO\\"I·1I reality 10 "shim'" throu;!h tht' t·illelllatic apparatlls. :\Iso Bazill would likt' to haw dOllt' away with till' plot. as it is alway~ likely to diwrt tilt' lillllIllakl'r from rl'ality. Ill' poilltt·d out that "n'dllt't'd 10 tilt' 1'101. t1lt'y [llt'orealisl tillll";] an' of II'll jusl moralizillg lIwlodnHlIas. IlIlt Oil tilt' scn't'll ('wrylllldy ill tilt' film is owrwlwlmill;!ly n·al." Ill'. too. thought Ihat tilt' chil'f IIlt'rit of tlIt'SI' lilm,., was thl'ir dt'I'p Illllllallislll."-' Ht· t·lIlph<\.~izt·d that tlw ailll'; of all tilt' "'adill~ III'orealists wen' basically tilt' salllt'. Tlwy all walllt·d to ~i\"l' a IIllifit·d picturl' of hUIIWIIS tllat would 1101 sl·paralt· tllt'llI frolll till' !!I'o!!raphic. hislorical. alld social situatioll to ",hid. tllI'~ 1... ltllI!!. Thi,., I'ollld Iit' adlit'\I'" "Iit'll th!' llt'l iOIl i,,; 110 IOllgl'"
:HJ
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ju;;t a skeletoIl but an integral part of what is being depicted in the film. when it eIller~f'S from the very pattern of life. hh Similarly, though many other theorists felt ullcomfortable with plot structures. they were basically arguing again,;t the kino of narratioll which. in neoformalist terms. proceeds more 011 the basis uf eompusitiollal alld trallstextual motivation rather than realistic lllotivatioll.'" What they wanted was actioll generated hy the psychology of the character,;, which would be shaped by the relatiollship between individuals and their social situation and f'nvironmt'nt. This view approached what Visconti himself had proposed in his essay ··Anthropomorphic cinemu." In efff'ct. tIlt' Ilt'orealist fillllmakers were after what Hungarian literary scholar Ceorg Lukacs called typical as upposed to average characters. that is. characters who in their rich individuality would exemplify the general. Y(~t tbis kind of realism can hy no means do away witb clear narrative structures. 011 tilt' contrary. the lIotion of the realism of the eillf'lllatic image has tu he complemented hy Aristotf'lian poetics. accordin~ to which the plot uniwrsaJizes till' characters. not the otber way around. From this poillt of view, tlJt> fact that lIeorealist films - as Wt·lI as all mainstream films and lIIost so-caHed art films - rely 011 various plot stnH"tures is 1I0t a flaw with reslwct to their rt'alislll. 011 tbe contrary, it could he argued that lIarration is flIP way of articulatillg the conct'fIIs of h!lmall beillgs as t,·mporallTt'atures. To understand how fiction rdatt's to rf'ality it is necessary to reexaminf' Aristotll'',; cOllceptioll of mimctiis. The traditional translatioll of this word as ··imitation ,. is misleading. says literary scholar Paul Hicot'ur. as it teuds to sugge:;t naturalism in the sentie of copying reality. But mimesis is constituted by fflyllws. the the plot. the cnH'ial element of which is cOlljip:llratiol/. The configurational dimension 0ppOSf'S tilt' efJi"odic dilllensioll awl dill:; transforms ··the !:HHTl'ssion of eH:'lIts illto a meaningful whole:· ..B Because it illHIlves composition and construction. milllesis dut's not COIIsi"t :;illlply of duplicating reality. Ratiwr it is a way of modelillg the basi". po!">sibilities. lIIotivations. and cOllseqw'IICt':o. of 1IIIIIIall action: ··a (('nsioll is rn·l·all·t! at till' n·rv. heart of millJt>sis.lwIWt'en the ~\Illmi~:o.ioll to ft'alit,-. - to humClIl action - awllh!' ITI·atin' actioll which is ptWlry as such .... TIlt' creativI· dillll'll~ion i" ill"I'parable from thi;; refen·nlialm()\'{'lIIellt:·'·'· III tlw nht' of him. thi" illlplit''; the IWI,d for u cow·eptual ;;eparatioll hetwel'n Ihl' illdexical relatioll"hil' the I·illelllalic illlagl' ha,., with the profilmic ",·elll and tht' organizalioll of the cilH·matic discollr:o.(· ill tl'rlll,; of mimetic cOllfiguratioll. that i,.,. ,,101. The illdt'xicality awl inlllic tplali ty 7t1 of Ihe photographic imit!!t' ill Cilll'lIIl1 d,>rin's it:; IIwalling frolll its conlext.
since it is incOIvorated into a lliscours('. usually a narratin'. Thi,; in turn has its plaee in the rea/Ill of lIarratil'es, that is. all the accounts iJoth factual and fictiunal through which the human world is rendered for a given COI1lIlltlllity in its historical allll social conditionness. In this sphere the daim of realism of a giwn film narrat ive is negotiatl·d in respect of and possihly in contradiction to tilt' prevailing codes uf realism in that communit\".71 Ricoeur·s conception of mimesis cOllllecb with the notion of classical realism in fiction. the ideal of which is to capture the ('sseIW(' of reality through t'mplotlllent guided Ly tht' laws uf necessity and prohability. Reality is understood as a dynamic process that human action might hdp tu mow in a better or a worse direction. ~aturalism. 011 the other hand. which arose in France in tllt' nineteenth century in the wakt' of positivism, seeks to presellt reality objectiwly without taking any kind uf moral stand. The ideal there is to relate holl' ratlH'r than Il'hy things happen as they do. In practice howt'\"t,r. the Fn'nch naturalists no more than the Italian verists in t1l1'ir best works did not adhere rigorously to the prindple of detachment. Similarly. when the group that gathered round Cinema magaziJlt, in tht, 19-+0s turned to the \'eri~b for inspiration in their pursuit of a new kind of Italian. ami-fascist. and humanist film. tllt'y w('ft'looking for a socially committed narrative tradition rather than a posit ivbt modt' of objective obsen'atioll, As Giuseppe Of' Santis ami \Iario Alicata lIoted:
..\t allY ralt', it is Ilt't"essar\" 10 make dear that the cillt'ma tind,., its IlI'st direction in the realist tradition IlI'callsl' of its strict narrati\'t~ natllre; as a matll'r of fact, J"I'alislll b tilt' true and eterllalmt'aSllrt' of I'very narrati\"!' "ignitil'alllT - realism intelldetlnot as tilt' pa,sivt' homage to ano"jectiw, ,tatic truth. hilt as tilt' imaginative alld creativl' power to fashion a story cWllposeJ of rt'al dlaracters and eVI'IllS, It rt'mains evidl'lIt that when till' dlll'ma Iwgan 10 IT('atl' characters. and 10 examille the change in men's souls ill ft'lation,.,hip to tllI'ir t"WIITI'tt' e/lvironment. il was 1H'I't'ssarily intlut'nl'ed hy \'illt,It'(,lIth CI'II111ry Ellropt'an r('alism,'~
The writers end lip :'lImlllunin~ Vt'r~a, who ··miraculously stark and n~al, , .. cOllld gin' inspiration to tIll' imaginat ion of our cinellla which looks for thillgs ill the space-tillll' of reality to redt'elll itself from tilt' ('asy su~ gestions of a moribund bourgeois stat""· Visctlllti realiz('d this drl'am of translating \'t'rga to till' s("reen ill his s(,Ctllld f"atuft' fillll. La tt"T(I trelll(l, Ht' Iwn'r t'lIIbnll'ed the mosl farrt'aehing idt'als of Italian neon'alislll. ('vt'n if his OSSl'ssioll1' Gill bt' ("011!>id('red an important precursor of that movement. as ("all his La terra
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Irl:'lIIl1 a~ i", I",uk. He certaiIlly had no ue~ire to uo away with the plot. t'Vt~lI if in hi~ later filllls the dramatic tempo could slow down considerahly. III the last instance. Vi~colltj"s reali~m is based not ollly on his celebrated meticulolls (re )construction~ of setting;, but also onusillg the plot as a means of lIlodeling hUlllall Iwhavior in gi\'ell circulllstances. La Terra Irefllll is a primt' examplt' of how to articulate ~ocial criticism by meaIlS of t ragie lIIyllws.
LA. TEIlIlA T/lEMA
Realism after the war In 19... ;~ Italy hecame a hattleground. ~lussolilli wa~ depo~ed in JUlle awl a govcnllllent headed by Mar~hal Pietro Badoglio took over. After tilt' Allies made a suecessfullal\(lillg ill Sicily ill July and August. Badoglio sought to sign an arlIli~tict' with theIll. But by thell tht' Cerman~ had OITupied the country and were in control t'verywhere t'xI·ept ill area~ the Allies had not yet reached. At the same time. an allti-fa~dst partisan moVt'lIlellt that tran~('ended all party boundaries had sprung up and was growing rapidly. Among thost' as~i~tillg the parti~aw; was Visconti. who offered them shelter ill hi~ apartmellt ill Rome. But he was disappointed whell they would not accept him for activt' duty awl give him a chalice to Iw a ht'ro in battle. The Illaill n'asoll was prohably that he was wdl known and thert'fore thought to Iw of 1lI0re USI' as a eolllact person. It is also likely that his aris(ocrati,· background alld kllown hOlllosexual tt'lItiencies had built up some prejudice against hilll. In l\lareh 19++ Iit' was imprisolled as part of a retaliation for the f'xplosioll of a partisan bomb that killed thirty-two and woulIded IIlallY members of a German detaeiullent. He was beaten and loekt'd in a filthy lavatory without food for twelve days ill order to I/Iake him talk. but he remained silent. lie was rdt~ased shurtly bt-fore the Allies arrived ill Rome. Later 011 he would exaggerate his expnit'III'es ill tilt' resistallce movemellt, hut at least he hau beelllllore actin' thall lIIost ltaliall illtellect uals. Aft,'r Italy was liberated. Yi::.conti helped film Ollt' of tit(' few Italiall dOl"ulllelltaril';' iliadI' illllllt'diatdy after the war, Ciomi di gloria (The dap of glul'Y, 1
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events OIl the streets of Rome. among them the lynching of Donafo Carrdta, the govt-r!lOr of t he Re~illa Copli prison ill ROlllp. From Viscollti· s point of view. t lIP 1II0st interesting episode was the trial and ext-,'ution of Pietro Koch. tlw govel1lOl" of the prison wlll'rp Iit' had Iwen Iwlt!. TIlt' strong feelings that ellwrged after tilt' fall of Fascism. abovt' all tilt' hysterical thirst for rewnge. \WJ'{- captured n-It'ntless)y in the Iynchillg and the trial t-pisodes of Giumi di gloria. In contrast. the ex('cutions appear plain and undramatic. LikemaIlyotllt.rcrt.atiYe pt-oplp al the time. Visconli ft''' the Iwed to exprpss his feelings about the war in hction. Already in JIII\t' alld July of 19"H he and the (·ineIlUl magazilll' group had Iwgun planning a film tit It'd Peflsiolle Oltrell/arl'. It wa" to lit' bas('d partly on his own prison t'Xpf~ri elll'!, aIlrl was to he aboul a youllg lIIall summarily illlprisoned and lortured by the FascislS. Evelltually his political cOllsciousness begins 10 grow. but inlhe t'lHI he is executed by tilt:' Ct'rmans. Later Viscollti draftpd two scripb wilh \Iichelangelo Anlonioni. One of tltem was about an allft'male orchestra assiglled to (,lIIer/ain soldiers at fronl. The otlll'r was titled 11 proCf'SSU di Jlaria Tanw/i'slw (Tlw trial of \1aria Tarnowska). It was tltt' story of a Vent'tian heauty who persuades two of Ilt'r lowrs to kill her hallct~. Site is subsequently illlprisOllt'd. but Iwnlllst' she captivates all men. her guards havt' to I,e changed daily. Tht' produ('pr. Alfrpdo Cuarini. insisted on haYing his wife. Isa Miranda. ill the It'ading rolt,. but.. at least according to AlIlonioni. Yiscollti soon got fpd up with Iwr childislllle~,.; and mannerisms and wit hdrt'w from the I'roje,·t. ~e\"t'rthel('ss. tilt' story was dose to Visconti" s Ilt'art. alld appart'lItly tilt' idt'a of filming it.. with Romy Schneider as the /ell/llle fil/ale. haullted him (,yt'n ill the
"11'
19()Os.~:'
Although Visconti had begulI writillg and plallnillg nowls and play,.;. he soon decided to chmlIlt'1 his ('featiw t'llt'rgies illto theatrical productions. Les parf'flts terriblcs had its I'rt'lIlit'l'e at HOIllt'·:; Eli~f'o theatt'r on January :{o. 19... ;). allll it f'stablished Vis('ollt i" s reputat iOIl as all artist. Few had set'1I Ossl'ssiulle. a III I lip to this poillt he had beell dismissed as an el'CI'lltric aristocrat who elltertaillt'd himsdf I,y making films. I\ow Iit' proved that Iif' was a proft'ssional. Tlw play was an ('nonnous sucn·ss. lIIade all the greatpr by occasiollalprotests from tIlt' audienc('. The production was a landmark in tilt' history uf stagp productions ill Italy. The unwavering rt'alism ill particular kept tilt' audipl,,"e nailt,tJ to tht'ir ~wats.:~ His lH'xt prodllction. IIt'millgway"s The Fijih Culumn. callSI'd a political scandal. TIlt' reason was partly that till' "lay tr{'ated tilt' Spallish civil war from till' point of \'in\' of Italy·,; t'l11'11 ". at tlrat tillw
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performance coneiuded with the Intnnalioflal. The furor was one of the llIany indications that Italy had not yet been purged of fascism, and it was only a prelude to the problems Visconti was to encounter because of his marxist outlook.':; Durill~ the next ft'w years VisC
nted IlIoral re:;l'0n~ibilily. without which Ill' might have succumhed to vacuous aestheticism awl adoration of heauty.:: ViscoIlti was 1I0W 011 thl' yt'rgt' of disco"eriIlg his own artistic IiIle. which would draw from his backgroulld. his political vi,·w .... alld hi:; at's-
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thetic inclinations. Tlwre wai; also i;ome interchange hetween his work for the stage and for the screen. TIlt' cint'matic intlut'nce led him to aspire to a more natural form of nwal expn'ssion in the theater. to weater wealth of detail. more variety in till' Sl'elll'l:. and challenging texts. \'isconti also demanded unprecedented discipline and accuracy from the actors. All this could create an intensiw theatrical experielH'e. although at times he would emphasize the visual aspect at the cost of the dramatic t'ffect. By concentrating on objects. he oftell enticed audiellct's to imagilw they were st'eing a dose-up on film. Correspondingly. theatrical experit'nces enriched \'isl'onti" s work as a filmmakt-r hy giving him a st'nst' of dramatic form that would help him kct'p the clemcnts of melodrama and spectadt, in check.-:'II Working in the thcater did /lot dampt'n Visconti's desirc to make films. The opportuIlity came wlll'n tht' (:ollllllunist party conll/lissiont'd him to make a documcntary ahout fishermen that was to lit' used as prol'agallda ill the t 948 e1t'ction campaign. Appart'nt Iy t he party expectt'd the projt'ct to be mmplt,ted quite rapidly. especially sillCl' it had ollly limited fillallcial n'sou/"t't's to allocatt' for this purposl'. III allY case Vis,'ollti had somt'lhillg more amhitious in milld. For somt'linlt' Ill' had dreanH'd of adapting \"'rga's / J/a/w'og/ia (The house by the medlar tre'e) for the Sl'l'el'n. alld Iit' had eVt'n acquired the right:-. for it ill 1941. :\ little lalt'r Ilt' had lIlati(' a trip to Sil'ily. to the fishing \'illagt' of .\ci Tr('zza. ill which tht, ewnts of the lIowl take plact'. The vil"lgl' had hardly challgl'd since \'t'rga'i; day. Frolll thi;; grt'w tilt' idea of s!tootillg tilt' fillll Oil actual Siciliall locatiolls alld of using the people of Aci Trezza as actors. 7 " Yis("I)Ilti directed the tislwl"Jllt'n hy explainillg to tlWIIl the scelleS that were 10 he filmed and thell letting thelll illlpro\'ise the dialogue. Frallco Zt'ffirelli, tile st'cOlld assistallt director. IlIade 1IOIt's and showed th(,1II to older natin's, who then spoke thelll in their lIIore allcil'nt dialt'ct. which even the urhan Sicilian population of till' tin\\' fOllnd it difficult to UIIderstand. llt! Extracts from / .I/a/al'oglia also WI'III through thii; treatlIlelH. III Finally Zdfirelli coad\l'd the actors to speak lhese lIew lillt's. There has 1.)('('11 some d('oate about how autlll'lItic tilt' result I't'ally is. Decades latl'r Agllese Ciallllllolla. who played thl' part of Lucia, r('called: "Zeffil't'lIi, how h(' prett'ntkd to know Siciliall Iwltl'r than we do:'I\:! TIlt' openillg titles state that "haliall i" lIot tht' langllagl' of the poor ill Sicily:' hilt Pill Baldelli. alllong others, has !,oillted out that Iwitiwr is thl' lallgl/age Iward ill Viscorlli' s lillll. hI ('ontrast to \'t'rga, who ill accordarH'I' with wri,.,tic idl'uls IIst'd a lIatural. spolltant'owi. and clear langllaw~, YisCO/Hi sought a langllagt' that would SOl/lid archaic arid lIIix well with tlH'
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othel". t'lfually controlled, sounds in his film,a;\ The resulting dialugue has bet'lI described by Stefallia Parigi as -'more expressionistic lhallnaturalistic," But ill it,; Owll way, it is drawn, just like Verga"s language, --both from literary high culture and the expressive universe of the people:'a~ In any case. mainland Italians foulld the dialogue incomprehensible, '('hi:; was a shock ill a cOUlltry where Illost foreigll film~ are dubbed and wlwre suund is :;eldolJl recorded while shootillg, Yet \'isconti cherished the Illusicality of the soulld track alld. wallting to keep it intact. eyell cOlltemplated u:;ing subtitles to guide the audienee through the film, In tilt' elld the film was Illade mon' acces:-;wle by adding a ,'oice-over cOInlIlentar" written by Antollio Pit'trall"t'li, ' . /:l The use of local people as actors caust,d many other problems durillg :;liooting, Vi:;conti stated ill an illterview for C(lltiers cl" ('inhllll: I worked hours alld hour~ with my fisllt'rs while making LII (t"Ta (I't'flW [The earth tl'l'lItbles] just to make them say a little bit of dialogut'. I wanted to obtaill from thelll the saillt' result as from an actor, If tht')' wert' talent(·d - and that they truly were (abow all they had oue special trait: their lack of inhibition in front of the camera) - they reached this stage very quickly. The real task with actors is to get tht'm to oVt'l'come their inhibitions alltlmodcsty. But the~e pt'opll' wereu't modt'st at all. I got what I walllt,d fmlll tlH'1ll 1I111ch ljuicker than I would haH' frolll actors,XC,
EI:-;ewhere, howt'wr. Vi:;conti talked about how ridiculous it was to talk about "actors taken from tilt' stJ't't'\." In hi:; mind tlle ollh· reason fur using Ilonprofes:;ional a{'tur~ in a lilm wa:; that they cOllld orillg inlo play tht' trlllh ahollt tht'llbcln':; as opposed to assuming role~. This WW:i ollt' of tilt' gowJ'lling ideas ill tllf' making of Lo lerm Irel//o.
Fate and alteration III Ihl' I'lallllillg stage. Vi:;collli's second major film projl'ct welll far beyond either tilt' idea of a doeuIllelltary about fisht'rmen or the adaptatioll of I Jla/a/'oglio, Ht' cOJl(;eived an ('min' trilogy. tilt' first pal1 of which was to IIt' a :;tory about fisllernlt'11. the sel'tJlld allow peasallb, and the third about millers, The title La lerm Irell/(l originally rdern,d to this cuw'pp!. alld thu", the lillal hIm carries the title LjJi:wc/o del/a I//ore (The episodl' of tllt' "'t'a) ill it:; opellillg credil'>, 0111'1' it became al'parellt that tht> last Iwo I'pisodes wOllld Ilot l,e shot, La 11'1'1'(( Irel//o bpt'ame the Iwmt' of tilt' :;ingle t'pi",oJe that was filll It'd , And eWIl this part wenl Ihrough mallY changes ill the :;eripl stage, Alllollg tht' original idt'as was that a big motor trawler would t'xl'loit the fish ft'SOUt'!'!"'S alld tht'rel,y ('()(htitute a
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threat to the whole traJe. But for the sake of dramatic l'Ollcentration and in orJer to make the social cOmlllt'llt more pointed, the wholesalers wen' made the principal OppOllt'Ilt:; of tilt' prota~ollists. The second episode would have told about miners who form a cooperative in order to excavate an ullused sulphur mine. When the will gives out. their enterprise seems dose tu failure, but tlwy find a lIew vein and are able to continue. Evell so. life remains hard. The third episode would have beell the must optimist il'. It was to show a ~roup of peasants wait ing for a mall who is tu instruct them in cultivating previuusly ullused lalld. t:pon his arrival Iit' is shot Ly the Mafia. Lefore he even has a challct' to get started. Howewr. he is replaced by a man who leads tilt' peasant:; illto battle against tIlt' selllifeudal ordt'r. III a show of 11IIity awl power. they organize a l'ooperatiH'. TIlt' \Ialia tries to frig-hten them by firin~ machille-guns at them at an open air festival. but the funeral of the victims becomes a mighty display of solidarity. The I't'asallb take OWl' the lalld aJl(lnH'et official resbtaIH'e. but workers from towns ami cities arrive to support tltem. Victory is finally tlwir;; when fi;;lwrmen. farlll lallOrer;;, and industrial workers join together to oppose the exploitation and repres;;ioll. Bh The first epi;;ode would thus ha\'!' ended ill defeat. tilt' second ill a stalemate between the exploiters awl the exploit(,(!, alld t he third ill a triumph of solidarity of the oppressed. The three stories would ha\"(' proceeded ill parall('1 ill four I'ha;;('s. This would 110 doubt have ellhalll't,d by turns both the optimistic alld the pessimi~tic asp,'cts of each story. There would also have bet'lI a fourth story. which Lillo t\li('cidH~ ha" l'alled "the t'pisode of the city." fIllllling through till' thn'(' maill el'isodt's. It would haw helped t'mphasize that urball alld lIonurban workt'rs IlI't,dl'd to joill together. But as the weight of the "episode of tile sea" illl'J'east'd ill its asso('iatioll wit h Verga. the n'mainillg plalls were gradually aballdolled. This. of ('ours(', had a substantial effect 011 the impli('d political cOlltellt of the film: illstead of elHling ill miraculous victory. tlH' film ('olldudes 011 a notl' of resigllt'd def('at. It is 1I0t ewn dear whetlwr Vist'llllti uct ually illtt'lHh,d to realizt, the elllin' proj('ct. Fnlll\:('s('o Ho:;i. who was all assi:-.tallt dire,·tor. tog('tllt'r with Frallco Zl'flirelli. has stated that "Llwhillo always kllew that we would make only Ollt' of tilt' tilrl't' ('pisodl's."KLa i{,/HI il't'IIUl ('all be divided illto a I'rologlH'. tlln't' maill phases. and all epiloglll'. The pl'Olog,H' illtl'Ot/u('es the :;ocial structure aJl(1 eC(JnOlnic I'llllstraillts surroullding the dlaraf'ters. celltral relatiollships. alld till' gelleral atlllO"pllt'rc ,,·ithill the (,Ollllllllllity as a whole allt! withill tilt' \·alastro family. TI\f' fir~t pltas(' tells of tilt' ii!'iheflllcll's attcmpt to impl'Ow tlH'ir
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C('OllOlIIi(' cirnllllstanees. Led by 'Ntoni. the t'ldest son of the VaIastro family. th .. y dellland a bettt'r price fmm the wholt'salers for the fish they ea(ch. Tlw attt'mpt l'I1ds in a hrawl duriIlg which ·Ntoni. in a powerful rhetorical gesture. throws a pair of scales into the sea. In Millicent Marcus's wonk "Whell 'l'toui seizes the scales and liSt'S them as his call to anus. lw counteract:, the wholt':,alt'n;' bet rayal of justice aIld reinvellts the origiIlal iCllography [of the scales as the traditioIlal symbol of distributive j ustin-] by COIlst~!TatiIlg their symholism to the fisherllleIl' s caust'. "Ha 'J\toni and his colleagues are illlprisoIled. hut the whole"alers. realizing that IIl1'ir profits have plullIllleted. argue that the fishermeIl are of 11101'1' use at sea than iIl the prison and have thclIl released. ':\toni, howt'W'r. now tries to get the others to forlll a cooperative. When they rt'fuse, the Valast ms dceide to try to do it on their own. Th!'y have to mortgage their ('ntire ancestral honw. hut since the first catch is big. their prospects look good. TIlt' sequence ellds in a festive mood with tilt' villagers joining the Valastms in salting tht' fish. III IIw secOll(1 phase. the vuhH'rahility of tilt' Valastms' entt'rpri"e IwcOllles apparent. Being heavily in deht. they have to go to sea even in storm" and cnd up losing all their fishing equipment.II'I The wholesalers and ('H'n some of the fishermen mock them, now more convinced than eH'r of lilt' illllllutability of the pn'\'ailing social order. During tht' third "ha,,(' of 1he fillll. tilt' sodal and p:,ychological const'lJuences of the Valast ros' aUt'lIIpt to change things an- gradually revealed. :\0 one wallts to gin~ them work. and the wholesalers arc abll' to s('1 tht' price for their fish. They lo~e their home . and the family's unity breaks down: the grandfalht·r dit's (as so oftI'll happt'ns ill Visconti" s films, the father died even ~wfore tilt' :;tory Iw~ins); 'Ntoni's hrother Cola leaves to seek his fortllllt' on the l'olltillt'llt; their sister Lucia loses her reputation by yielding to the temptations of \Iarshal don Salvatore; 'Ntoni starts drinkillg, Ollly the elder sistt'r \Iara relllains strong. although she loses all hope of e\'Cr gelling married. Fillally. in the epilogue, 'Ntoni swallows his pride and n'turnli with his two younger hrothers, Vanni alltl Alessio. to work for tlH' wholesalt'rs. who in their prosperity ha\'f~ bought I1I'W hoats alld nt't,d all the lahor they can gt-t. TIlt' tilm draws on \'t'r!!u' sI .\Ja/ul'o!{/iu ill a sOlllewhat ('omplex way. III his 19... 1 essay "T'mdiziolle e illl't'lIziulI!'." Viscollti descrilwd the impa," that \' t'rga' s wurks. partil'ldarly I.l/u/w·u!{lia. had had on him. HI' "lIIphasiz('d its at'stllt'til' value alltl deslTilwd its suggt'stiw power as )wing supported hy "all internal alii I musical rhythm":
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Pt>rhaps tht> kt>y to a ciIlt'matographic rendering of I J/a/ul'oglia is to attt'mpt to
fed again ami to catch thp magic of the rhythm, of the vaglH' ypaming for the unknowll, the realization that things are lIot right or that they could Iw bettef. which i, the Jloetie suhstaJlce of that play of destinies whil'h I'ross ... without ever eJlcolllllt'ring [0111' ilIlOther ]."0
A cOllple of years latt>r Viscollti spelled Ollt lIIon' preci::wly tilt' kind of film he wanted to make. emIJhasizing tI\I' role of the adors and their inneflnost t.{lIalities. which he felt shollld be the SOIlfCt' of the characters they portrayed. so that the ··actor-person" and tlH' "characlI'r-l'ersoll" (1'1101110attore e r lIoIllo-personaggio) would 1Ieconlt' one. The first sh'P was to gl't rid of all the acclIIlIlIlated acting dich~s ami to uncover the instiuctive expressive aLility of the actor. Only this. a gelllline humunl're::wllce . cOllld animate allll poeticize a fihn.'" But this wa:. jllst oue sidt' of the coin. Viscollti also wanted to show how lIatllre and socil,ty control the way 111'01'11' liH' their lives. Visconti·:. wartime ('xperiences and his involvement in the ,;ubsefJuent political struggle waged uudt'r t he aegis of marxislII gavl' form to his id('as ahout how ··gt'lIIlillt' human I'n'scllt'!'" is ('OJl(Jitioned by a given l'nvirOIllIlent anti social ,;itllation. All tllt's{' itit'a" played a crucial role ill the way ht' used IlJaterial from I J/a/w'of(lia to dewlop a story lillt' and a gt'J11lilll'ly cilH'lIIatic at'sthetic stratl'gy for his La terra I rell/a. III Verga's novel tilt' 1'\"I'lIt,; are structured around tht' character of the grandfatlwr. He believes that fat .. has delt'fIllilled tilt' ('oursl' of things. alltl that the social hierarchv in which Iit' find:; himself is a din'ct cOlltinlIatioll of the natural ordt·r. This also appears to Iw the messa~e of the (in S.. ymollr Chatmall' s lent IS) implied a lit hor.":! Jlowt'wr. V I'rga' s social allaly~i:; does 1I0t SlOp then'. A singlt' slorm is a catastrophe for the Malavoglia" as they los(' tilt' load of bealls they haw I.ollght 011 credit. bllt this probably only adds to tilt' fOJ1ulles of old Cippola. who elm afford to kt'ep his boa I safely ashore. During lIlt' t'Oluse of tilt' II0V .. 1. Ihl' IIll'llllwrs of Ihe \lalavoglia family I'xllt'riell('e a st'ril''; of Illisfort lilies. mallY of which aft' a direct result of their ewr-illcrt'asillg l'0n'rty. They lose not only their wealth bllt also Ilwir "ocial statlls. En'nluallv ';\jtoni loses his faith ill hi" I'rospt·I·t:; ill lift' a" wI'II. He start:; drinkillg alltl soml gains a bad reputation. III utlt·r dt',;!wrarioll. he thillks of joining a band of ,;Illuggl('r:i but is ollly too aware of tilt' dangers involvt'd: ..\nd dlt'n thert' was I hat odwr 0111 raw'. whit-It IIwaIl1 t hat to land foft'il!lI I!0od,. you had 10 pay a tax. and dOll \Iidlelt' alld hi" policl'mt'1I had to slick their 1I0"I'S
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ill! Tllt'y ,'ould lay tllI'ir hand 011 {'\,{'~,thillg, alld take what they wanted: but tllf' otiwrs, if they riskt'd their liws t~'ing to lalld tlwir f1;oods. wl'rl' regarded as thil'\"~, allll wel'l' hunll'd down worst' than wokes with pistols amI rillt,s.'>:!
As for the othl'l' villager", tllt'y ('aJlJlot think of a Ot'!ter n~ason for duties and taxes than "to pay the soldiers. who ('ut such a dash with their ulliforms, alld we'd de\'our each otlwr like wolves if we didll't have soldiers,""" TIlt' Italiall kill~d(Jm is such a remoll' cOII('ept to thest' peoplt' that it cOllld welllw a part of tilt' natural order. There is not the "lightest hopt, that thillg" could bt· any differellt from what t1lt'y have always been. alld it seen.", tilt' only way to achil'w' Iwrsonal prosperity is through marriage, I" sut'h fatalist ic circulllstances. rei,dlioll against 011{: s ('ondit iOIl i" nothing tIIon' than the illahility of a wt'ak character to accept the basil' fach of life, rather thall a heroic strugglt, to lIIake thillgs betlt'r. Again and again ':\tolli vent" hi" hitterness, At one point when the grandfather aC(,lIses Ilim of loitering. Iit' responds; You lot don't know thl' world. allll you'rl' like kittells wilh your I'yt'~ slill do~ed, Do you I'al Ihe lish you catch? Do you know who you'rt' wurking for. frulll \Ionday 10 Saturday, worn away 10 such a stall' that 1I0t {'\'I'II Iht' hospilal would wanl your You'r!' workillg for people whu dOll't do anything, awl have lIlolley by thl' spadt'ful!'C,
Yet the grandfatlwr':; cOllst'rvat i\'t, fatalism does not prc\'t'/lt hilll from t'lIgagillg ill tillatll'ial speculation, which Iwgim a chaill of ewnts that lead to the famih"s ruill, \'is('ollti·,.; La ler,.a IreITw can Iit' taken a" a modern critical n'adinl! of \ t'rga's now\. The lilm lwgiJls with the words: The 1'\"'lIb rqm'st'lIted ill thi~ film take plan' ill Italy, or to Ilt' /lIOI'!' pret'i~t' ill Sicily, tilt· \'illage of At'itrezza. hy the IOlliall Sea a lillll' di~talll'" frolll (:atullia, The ~tol'y which the film tells is the same all 0\'1'1' the world and i" rqwalt'd t'wry year I'wrywhl'rl' Ihat people exploit otilt'r peopl,', TIlt' hOIlSt'S, thl' streets, tht' boats, tht' sea un' those of :\citrt'zza, .\11 thl' aclors hav!' heell s,'let'red from amollg the illhahitallb of thi" cOIJlltry: fi~hl'r~, girb. labon'rs, hril'klaY"rs, ",holt'sulers, TIIt'~,· p""pl(' kno", 110 otllt'r lallgllagl' thall Sicilian to t'xpn',~ their r..tlt'llioll, ,O/TOWS, hlll"''', TIll' ltaliall lallguag" i, JllIt the laJlgmtgt· of till' poor.
:\,.; ,\li,'Cicllt~ has poilllt'd out. each of tllt'st' stalt'JIIt'lIt~ lJIakes explicit u poetic choict' and iJllplit~s a tllI'oreticul position that coillcidt,,,; with till' lJIaill ideals of nt'(H't'alislIl, Thl' lirst stalt'llWllt plan',; tilt' 1'\'t'lIts ill a "'1'1'rilic locatioll alld clJIl'hasiz,'s represefltation: tilt' SI'('olld alllloulICt·s that
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the s/u')" to ue told ha~ univen;al validity. The third aud fourth statelllt'lIb indicate that the locatiolls art' authentic and that nOllprofel"il"iionul actors are beiug ul"it'd to play parts that could be lifted from tllt'ir wry own livt'~. The lal"it two statt'mt'nb stn'l"i" the autht'nticity of tht' languag,' of the 11/111 ami illdicatt' that its Ul"il' can IH' takt'n al"i a form of l"iociul protest ." .. Although the fillll transft'r,; the I'H'nb to the coutelllporary world, as iudicatt'd by detaib such al"i n'ferences to the Fa,;cist era that has just ended, thil"i has Hot Ht'(,t'ssitated 11lany ('hall?!!'s in the story 11laterial: life ill the villag" of Ad Trezza ha~ challged but little Iwtwt'l'u the tinH' that Yt'rga wrote his veristic uovel and that Yiscollti shot hi,.; Ileorealistic film. BUL for the purposes of cOllceptual darity awl lIarrative concentratioIl, tht' !">tory line hal"i uet'n silllplified. certaiul'WUtl"i have beell cOlllbilH'd with others. awl their narrati\'e and thelllatic fUIldioll has been changed. Only the characters doseh' relatt'd in Ollt' wa\' or another to till' \'alastro" have Ilt'ell pi('kl'd lip from t ht' lllOtll'y nowd of till' novel. TIll' dowllfall of till' Yalastros. in particular. is dt'picted with lllarwlous dramatic I'conom)" ill a series of SCt'IU'S ill which olle ('\'('nl. ont' blow, ilH'Xorabh' follows another. Just as ':\wlli is ahout to enter the tavl'nl wlll'n' tilt' ·'mall with .\merinln cigan'ttl's" is talking Cola inlO leu\'ing for tht' comineu!. \'armi ,'Ollles to tdl him drat the rt'l'rl's('ntati\','s of tht' bank han' arri\'l~d to t'xallliIH' (and t'H'lltually tak,' o\'l'r) their alICI'!">tral hOlllt'. After thi,; Cola i" ';(,I'n lea\'illg, graudfathl'r fall,; ill aud is takt'1l to a hospital. awl Lucia briugs shame 011 Ilt'rself by "ecomill~ dUll Salvator',.; mist n',;,;. We lIever It'arn what happt'lb to thl'm: ollt' by one. all thrt'" simply disapl't'ar frolll tilt' story. As oppo!'led to YI~rga' s gO!'l!'lil'ing awl bickl'rillg villag,'rs. Yil"icollti' s charactt'rs display 11 stoic lIohility that giw,; ';'I;tolli's full tilt' di~nily of tragedy. Ht'llOir's TOfti COIlIt'~ dost'r to Yerga in this n~spt'ct. La /(',.,.a trt'flUl is struetured around ':\toni' s couragl'(Hb attt'1I1l't to ehauge tilt' fortunes of his family. I It- fails. but it is not Ill'cau!'lt' of SOil\(' imlllutal,le fate or because the laws of lIat un' an~ aguin!'lt him. lit' kllOWS he is fightiug against all opprt'ssin' social alltl t'('oIl01l1ic ordl'r. This IW("(HlH's apparent particularly ill tilt' SCI'IIt' ill which tilt' \'alastros art' forced to sell their li!'lh to Ihl' wholesalt'r!">: tIlt' lalll'r kllow the family is ill troubh' allll that tllt'y ,'all dictate thl' prices of fish. Gradually ':'\itoni ht'comt's aware that tilt' "ocial order is 1I0t a fixed entity. It can be changed. hut ollly through collectiw aetioll. This poillt is mad .. t'xplicit whl'll, close to tire end of thl' tillll, ':\toni r('ct'iws sYlllpatllY froIll a little girl. and Iit' tt'lIs hl'r that challge ('all ouly takl' plact' when all the lisllt'rs art' ready to unitl' ill a collet·tin' effort. ,
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In the film. ecol\omic factors dt'tenllille the way most human relationship;; are structllred. For a brif"f momellt it appears that 'Ntoni will be ahle 10 reach his belmwl :'-iedda. the daughter of a rich family. hut as his fOrlllnf"S change. he call1lot eV\'1I get to see her. Toward the end of the film sIll' is seen in tilt' arms of the successful wholesaler Lorenzo. Mara' s beloved :\icola feels that as a poor bricklayer he is not worthy of her after her family launches a private ellterprise. Aftt'r thf" \' alastms' downfall.. !\Iara in I urn ft'cls that since she is a woman wilhout a dowry. she is no IOllger a suilahle candidate for marriagt·. TIlt' Valastros' struggle against the prnailing social etmdiliolls alltl I'rI'judices also leaves them at the mercy of nature. Because the community lives in close contact with nature. the two are not wry far from each olhpr. The \' alastros' attempt to introduce change is ill effecl all attempt to impose a linear concept of time as opposed to the prl·dominantly cyclical time that gowrns life in the village of Aci Trezza. III I he present sdwrne of things. the only way the inhabitants can escape the wheel of cyclical lime is to leaw Ihe village. as 'Ntoni's brother Cola doe .... Linear time manifests itself only in wear alld tear. in growing old. in the loss of possihilitit·s. Pal11y ht'cause of the voice-over ("'As always tilt' day in Aci Trezza hegins .. "", "Every night the boats leave .. "'). Ihere is a strong iterative sense at the beginning of Ihe film. hut it quickly becomes what Chard Genf"tte has called "pseudo-iterative" in that although something is pre~:jf"nted as itf"rative, it displays details that are unlikely to occur rept'atcdly. When we first St't' Ihe Valastro gids. \Iara and Lueia, the latter is looking at the family photo~raph and the memories it evokes in her serve as an f"xposition of the falllily"s past. The act itself is obviously Hol likely to occur too often. and Ihus it helps 10 change from iterati"e to singulative. from general (the fishermen of Aci Trezza and their morning routint:') to the panicular (the Valastros Oil the mOffling when the story starts). Soon the chain of ewnts that fonns the backhOllf" of the film begins with the singular en'nl of '''toni's rebellion. As Marsha Kinder has poillted out. ill many neorl'alisl films. the "slippage" from itf"ratiw to "singulalive" mode sugge ... t;; that lire singular events are rI'presentalive awl typical rath .. r than sOllletltillg exceptiollal t'ntergillg frolll ordinary life. What Iraplwns to the Valastros is. of course. extraordinary. but the itt'rative aspt'ct of I he hegilllling t'mphasizes that they are ordinary pt·ople sf"eking a solution to the basil' problems of their IiveS."7 A,-; things grow worse for them. Ihe rI·lies of stability gain new signiticaIlCt'. Millicenl ;\lan'us Iras fo('ust'd on how the family photograph ~wen
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in passing at crucial moments during the film serves as an image of continuity and family unity. Yet because the pil'ture is slrougly eharacterized by studio artifice, it also emphasizes the illusory lluality of stahility. OIlCl' the family has eho:;en a path of dlange. In ils sI illness, the photop.-raph is an image of escapist fantasy outside the realities of lillt'ar tillle.'/1I At tht' end of the film. as the men once again leave for the St'a. Mara in a sad gesture of hope hangs thl'" picture 011 the wall of their nl'"w home, The weight of the opprl'"ssiw conditions is felt strongly also oeeausl'" the camera never leaves Aci Trezza. excl'"pt in the seenes at sea at the hegiuning and end of the film, The outside world appears only indin'l'tly when '~toni is taken off' to prisOl!. when tilt' family goes to sign a contract with the bank, when a strange IIlan offering Americall cigarettes appl'ars to tempt lilt' youngsters to IIlO\'t' to the continent. and whell lilt' old harouess hunol's the inauguration of the IIt'W boats with her presen('e, '1'111'1'1' al'e also allusions to modt'm Italian hi:.tory, All image of a hamlller allll sickle ean oe SI'I'U 011 the wall of the n'staurallt. Hailllollllo. 0111' of tht' wholesalers. says: --The COllutry is full of cOllllllunism!" And his eollt'ague all:;wers: ., Haimondo is always right." in Cl parody of th ... Fas('isl slogan. "11 DuCt, is always right.·· AI 1111' end 41f tllP fillll. a fadt'd t('xl ('an lit' ~;eI'J1' hehind Raimondo: "Co with (it-tt'J'Iuinutioll toward the pl'oplt" MII!;"olini, ...... ':\toni ha:, lived 011 the ('olltillellt for some time, awl apl'an'lltly that is when' his mind has heen opl'lIed 10 lIew thoughts, He is IIUW ill I'hal'~(' of the family because his fathel' has died al s('a alld his gralldfathl'r is old, 'i\wui feels that he bl'lou?!s to Aei Trl'zza, that Ihis is wht're lw has to fi~ht his haltles, His thoughts takt' shape gradually. mainly in IhI' 01'('11 air. at work, Cola dOt~s 1I0t ha\'(' such a strollg rt'latiOlbhip with his work or lIalurt', awl, aoon' all. Ill' is nol n'''IHllbiblt, for the family, lit' call I'SCapl', Ill' is sel'lI takill~ It lIuJIIlwr of photographs oul of ':\"tonj"~ Il'unk, images from Ihe bi~ world OUbidt' A('i Tn'zza, III 0111' of Ihl' lillll's \'isually alld psychologically lIIosl cOlllplex S('I'III'~, the b)'(lllll'r~ an' Sl't'lI ill 1'1'0111 of a lIIirJ'llr 011 which Cola Iws pilI a photo~raph of ';\toni ill his army IIniforlll alld which refll'cb his 11\\"11 fan'. The IIt'xt shot l'ap1ll1'I's till' pllOtugraph alld ':\"toni's imagl' ill tilt' JIIirror ulltilllll' t'allll'm pall'; 10 ':\tolli'~ sad fal'l' ill till' lighlesl do~l'-up of tllt' I'wire lillll, as Ill' says: '·E\"t'rywlll'l'I' ill Ihe world tlH' walt'r is salty. if WI' go lH'yolld the Fal'agliolli [tilt' J'lwb ill 1111' "I'a Ihat ~lIard tht' pOl'1 of Aci Tn'zza], the ('111'1'1'111 ('all I'arry liS away," '1'111' dinl'n'II1 iJllagl''; - phulugraph. lIIirJ'tll'. tlH' Cillt'lIlalit' imagl' ibelf - n,l1t'('1 alld 1'1'111"1'';1'111 till' past. tilt' PI'I'SI'IIt. alld Ihl' fUlul'l'. tilt' tellsioll 1)('1\\"1'('11 illlllHlIlt'llI't' alld aspiral iOIl al tlH' 1'411'1' of \" is('OIlI i' s art. 100
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As ':\toni proct'eds on his I'ia du/orosa. he exhihits almost a toueh of saintliness. Wht'1I he and his brotllt'rs \' allni alld Alfio bow their heads allll approach the wholesalers for work. they takt' the :,tin~ out of Lorenw' s 1II0ckilll! laughter with tilt' ;;illlplt' dignity of t heir start'. And earlier OIl. wlwlI tilt' whole~alers offt'f a ridiculuusly low prict' fOf the \' alastros' eatch of tish. as i" so often the caSt' in nt'ort'alist tilllls. t he faces of tilt' childft'n re~ister alllazt'nlt'nt at tIlt' cnll'lty of the adults. which in this narrativt' cOlltext can almost be sel'll a~ tlw tin;t sil!ns of awakening 1'011sciuu~Ilt'ss. Similarly. just when ':\toni i,.; ahout tu ft'cognize the trut' caust' of tile problt'JII~ of his kind awl hi" c1as~ and see tire need for collective action. tilt' sympathy shown by the liult, girl Rosa helps him m'en'omp Iris pride and ,.;el'k work from the wholl'salers as a day lahorer. TIll' ~;rll,.,e of lIobility is t'nhallced by the \'isual style. a crucial ft'at urt' of which is the ust' of fadt',., to ;;('varate alld mark transitiolls from ont' main sequence to anothel' and Ji;;,.,olves to 1'00l11ect/separate subst'qut'w't's with/from ont' anolhl'r. In his liscuflti p i/ !VpurealislI/o. Lino ~lit"('ich~ Ira,., made a thorou~h study of tilt' USt' of fadt's allJ dis"olvt's (as wl'lI a" allllost t'very other cOllceivablt, formal aspect) ill La terra trema and d(,lIIollstratl'tl how they too have a definite fUllction in creating a distinct narrativt' rhythm in the tilm. FurtlH'1"I110fl'. Iit' poillt,; out that this cillt'matic strat('~y has a pn'ct'dt'lIt in \'I'rga's !.1lallll'oK/ill. In tt'n cases out of fourkt'n. a IIt'W chal'tf'r IJt'~ill'; witlt the salll" subject alld "ometinll';; allllost a paral'hrast' uf tilt' la"t ,-;elllt'nc,> of tire lu·t'\·ious chapter. as can Iit' St"'11 at thl' ,>nd of chapter 1() alld tiff' be~illllilll-! of chal'lt'r 11: "Collle que! . '\jtolli ~Iala\"0l-!Iia lil. 1"11(' va gin'lIolli a qllt'st" ora 111'1 pa,'st'!" a lit I "l'lla volta ':\Ioni \\alavo,glia. alldando l-!in'lIolli IlI'I papst'" (I.ih tlrat ':\tolli \Iala\0I!Iia tllt'rt'. loiterillg rolllld dlis beautiful cOlllltry!/OIH"t' ':\tolli \\ala\0l!lia. loiterill,!! rOlllld till' Iwautiful ('oulltry ... ). Similarly. Witllill tilt' dlaptt'rs \'er~a'~ naJTation rullS tltlt'ntly from Ollt' topit' to anotlH'r.101 :\ Ilalllt' mil!llt elllt'rgl' ill tilt' ("ourse of tilt' dialogllt' and tlrt' Ilt'xt parawaplr will It,ll sUllwthing about that illdividual and wlrat IH' or "Iit' IHlp\,,'l\s to Ill' doillg at tlrat tillH': .. , ha\(' IlIlI 1'11111101 a hll"l.alld." "1l
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1\0 onc cuulJ help thinking that that wind and raill were pun' gold for tilt' Cipnlla family: that is how thing~ go in this world. allll once rt'asslIred that their hoat was well-moored. they w,'re ruhbillg t1wir halld~ ill glee al the storlll: whilt' the \Jalavoglia had tUflll'd quite whitt' allll w!'re tearing tlwir hair. I"-I"au:;(' Ill' that cargo of lupins they hat! bought 011 cn'dit fWIIl zio (:rolisso. DUlIlb 1,.-11. "'~
The text is full of !"\uch "Iilt'rary dissolws'" as \Iiceidlt-; calls thelll. It gin's the impressioll of a liwly flow of "\"I'lIts and characters cOllstantly gw;sil'illg about each other. In tht' filtn. however. the USt' of fades and dissolves lTt'ates all almost solemn t,Heet of tinlt' pas"ing while people are I'ngagt'd ill tht'ir "arious tasks. There are several long takes ill det'l' focus. the pails an' serenely slow. the camera is illvolH'd with but ~Iightly distallt from tilt' charactt'rs. \0:1 Particularh' Lwautiful is the finil lish market "Cellt'. ill which tilt' camera follows closely" tilt' way Valllli IIlUVI'S alllOnO" the 1I0isv e . mt'll ha(J'(rlilllT ee e OVt'r prices. The shot ('Ollveys the urgency of the trading. which looks likt' a fight for oue's daily bread. allll Oflt' has tilt' !">ellse that this same set'llt' is acted again awl again. e"ery mortling. with mort' or less the same resuits. III colltra"t. the tradillg that takes place tilt' IIt'xt mortling wlwn ':\tolli tries to lIegotiate Iwtter prices COllsists of fairly short shots. mainly COIIfused images of fightillg llIell. As IOllg as the \' alastros prosp,'r ill their t'ntt'rl'rise. the lovillg couples are set'n ill fairly lengthy takes. The st'eoud half of tilt' scene hetwet'll \Iara allll :\icola after tlte Yala"tros ha,"~ start,'d their t'lIterprise is captured in a IOllg take. a t'lJlltilllltlllS IIIOH'lIll'lIt as tlwy pllsh Iwr cart forward. Tht' SCt'lle dlall~es tltrou~h a dissoln:, allll ':\tolli alld ;'\t'dda are ,,1'1'11 ill a particularly beautiful and long take a" tllt'y rl'tllnt to the village from tilt' SUIlIIY cliffs by tilt' sea. TIlt' It'ngth of tilt' lakes helps to I"OIIVt'y tltl' feeling of trallyuility: tilt' SUII alld li~ltt ~i\t, at least "toni allll ;\;edda a 1'I1alll't' to exchan~e gest ures of \t'lIdl'ntt'''s. Hut aftt'r tI\t' falllily's ,'conOlllic downfall. toward the end of the fillll. instead of showing bustling crowd" Hilt I loving couples. lite long takes rneallollely ligun~s in dl'solate I'lIvironlllt'nts or ppople ill confrolltation witlt Ollt' anotlH'r. Thert' art' also many long takes ill till' ",'t'III'S illside till' Valastros' I1011 It' . At first lIIost of tlw doors of till' hmN' are 0P"I\. awl the family n\t'lIl),t'r" nltlve effortlessl, frOlIl room to room, frolll outsid,' to in"id". allll vice versa. Th,' It'"gth of tilt' takes, lo~wtht'r witlt the deep fOl'llS and the polyphollY of space witlt the two rooms allll till' yard outsid". ,'111phasizes tilt' organic relatiollship betwet'1I till' characters al\(l tlwir ell,'iWlIlllt'nl. Thi" is wllt'rt' tlwy Hilt! their predect'ssors ha\!' lin'd a" long a"
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anyolle can rC'lIH'mber. At this stage the Valastros are still all illtt~gral part of the conllllunity. The point is made ('ven more manifest in the scene after tilt' Vala::.tros rdum frolll the hig city wher(' tllt'y haw completed the Ilt'n~ssary hank transactions to start tlwir t'n!l''llrist'. As tilt' camera pails and t he angles change in an inspirt'd and lIIouile shot/reVt'rse-shot pat tern. neighhors are seen at ,·arious distances frolll tilt' call1era ouserving and cOlllmenting curdially 011 ·]\tolli" s high spirits. This lIIarks the lH'ak of his n'latiolls with the cOllllllunity. llIade appan'nt uy an ingenious cinelllatic realization. As Marcu,.; has put it. ··ViscOIlli· ~ "tagillg provides "patial analogw's to Verga·s lIIultilayen'd chorality"·lO" Although a sense of open space is cOII\"eyed in SIJIIIt' scent'". lIlon' often tilt' characters are framed by doors. windows. mirrors. and the like. They all define social spheres and indicate limits. Sexual transactions. for exaliiI'll'. are negotiated through wiwlows: Mam and :\icola have Cl coy conversation owr a pot of basil (the traditional sign indicating that there is an eligihle young wOlllan in the house) rest ing on the window sill dislTeetly uelwt'en thelll . while dOli Sal vat ore allllost pt'net rates the hous(' in order to lure Lucia into a relationship. As the Valastro:, fall illto misfort une. doors and windows tend to be closed. tht' people inside become isolated. and the house begills to appear like a t rap ill which tllt'y art' caught. TIlt' camera follows the characters relt'ntles"ly as tllt'y pace around likf' cagt·d animals. But eH'n at thi" stagt'o It'avillg the house mealls uprooting the whole family. They relit a house. but ,·el~· little is seen of it. alm()~t a" if its individual fealllr!'s were entirely irrt'lnanl. The scpnt'S illside the allcestral hOJllt' are also shown in IOllg shot/nmlltf'rshot seqllt'lIct'S mainly ill COIlIlt'ctioll with conversatioll~ about the fate of tilt' family. Tht' earlier set'lIe with tilt' ~altillg of thf' fish from the Valastros· first big ("apturt' in turn has SOlllt'(illles heen compaft'd with Ei"t>lIslt'in's lIIolltagt' technique. 10"> This is a slight exaggt'ratioll as the shot:; art' not arrangf'd ill the killd of counterpoint that Eisl'lblt'ill thought to Ill' tIlt' pssl'nce of mOlltage. but the pact' of t'diting is at its highest and ("t'rtainh-. r('millisc('nt of tilt' Russian styli, . of the 19~Os ..\flt'r tilt' downfall of the Vala"tl"O,; llas Ilt'gulI. tht'rp is a hrit'f returll to rapid lIIolltagt' t'ditillg as a sprit'S of shob of tilt' fac(,s of the 1IIt'llIlwrs of t Iit' family - IIlt'n alld WOlIlt'II. of thrt,t, gt'lwrations - t'lnl'ha"izes tllt'ir silent d('sl't>mtion as t1lt'ir fish are Iwillg "old at all ahsurdly low price. But howeH'r 10llg the shots. tilt' illlages. with tllt'ir careful {"olllpositions alld ("Olllra"t of light a lit I shadow. hoth give tht' lIIiliplI alld till' fatt's of tilt' chamctt'rs a St'IISt' of "erplIp heauty and a lIIythind aunt. Theft' is a COIIII('ctioll with tilt' heroic
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proletarians of early Soviet film:;. hut hen' the iIlla~e:; evoke pity rather than admiratioll. A vast majority ofthe shot~ are no dose I' Ihan IIwdium ~hor:,. According to Min'iehe's count. one-fifth of the :;hob are medium long :;hot:-; and three-fifths range from full shots to mediulll shot:-;. The rt'st tt'lId to 1)(' long shots. There are only ahout a dozen dose-ups. Only in olle shot is the framin~ tiglu. though not yet all extrt~me dmw-up. nanu·ly. the scene in which ':'itoni tries to assuage Cola's hUrIling dt'sire to lean:, Aci Trezza. Appart'ntly this style was chost'n in part IWl'allse of the use of nonprofessiollal actors. who could nut he t'x!wl'ted to al't with the prt'ci"ioll required hy a more I'haracter-centered caJl\('ra style. In any I'ase. the charaett'rs muw around within their "pan' as if guided Ly a spontallt'ously invented choreography. Already in hi~ second film Viswllti showt,d himself to Iit' a mash'r of mise-l'Il-SI'Plle. hm'ing an impeccahle :-;ellse of how ohj('l'ts and character:; need to he distrihuted in space in ordt'r to achie\'t' maxi1Il11111 clarity of expression. TIlt' impression is that tilt' people and Ihe thingil are then' 1I0t for tlw camera and for the plot. hut Iwcawit' they belong theft'. \'isconti could adli{~Vt' this effel't hecaus(~. as I"haghpour has pointt'd out. he "think:; in tt'nns of scellt's. as opposed to Mumau or Eist'nstein who thiuk of the take or montage." Wh The use of a call1era style that keep:; the spectator at a slight distallce frolll the character:; awl event:-; is hOlh au at':;thetic and an ethical choi('('. a ge~ture of respect for tht' life of lhe peopl{' of Aci Tr{'zza. Togetlwr with the ealm pace of the film. it prevents the ideological ohjet'tive and till' need to fonnulatp it as a stury from taking over the do('ullwlltary or allthropological aspect of the fillll. Totwther with the ("t)1ll1llt'lItat'Y' this makes \'iscollti's narratin' strategy IIlw·h lIlon' d{'tadwd thall Verga·:;. which. with it;; abundalJ('(' of direct and free iJl(lirel·t discourse. gives Illuch more of all ill;.ide view of the life of tlw villagers. Vist'onti gin'S ;\('i Trezza and its people enough span' to establish tlwir illdividuality awl their particular :;it uat iotl. as opposed to tilt' ulliversalizillg aspecI of the plot. '1'111' two have to Iit' ill halam'" so that all "n~lIt call 1Jt' apprecialf'd hoth ill ih uni'lut'IIt'ss alltlulliversality. Ceorg Luk.lcs would han' approved of the way Vist'ollli tn'ats his suhject Illattl'r. A" Cuidu Aristan'o ha:; poilltt'd out. ":\aturalislll slOp" at desnihing phenolllt'na ill the presl'lIt: realislll of pl\t'II01l1l'lla f{'veals tilt' essellt.·... it illdicates Ihe 'frolll where' aJl(1 the 'wllt're to: "1Il7 III otllt'r wun!;; - as was argued earlier ill t'OIl1ll't·tioll with the theory of lIeorealislll - cint'lIlatic J"t'alislll i:; nol just a tl'lt'stion of reprOdllt'lioll. it is al:;o all
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attempt to penetrate beyond the superficial to the underlying structures. Tht' most effective meam tu do so is, in the Lukacsian sense, through a typical as opposed to an an'ragt' dmractt'r .. a figure whu embodies some of the relevant (,ontradietiow; of his age. An average eharacter can be used in descriLing situations. but through types it is possible to analyze those situations allll embody the relt'vant social, moral. and psychological oppositions of a giwn historical situation. \011 Pursuing this line of thought, one llIay ~ee in La terra trelllll a movelllent "from chronicll' to history, from pht'II01l1etta to their es~wnce. from the average to tilt' typical." However. Lukacs' s idea cannot be separated from the narrative Illode ~H' is discussing. III his The Historical N()l'el he writes that "both drama and large epic, to give a faithful image of human life. llIust reflect correctiy the dialectics of freedom and J1t·cessity." Aecordillg to Lukac~. drama focuses on individual illitiative, alld thus "it is only in tht' collisioll and its COli sequence that the human deed is shown to be restricted and limited. to be socially and historically detennined. ,. In contrast, the vast t'pic emphasizes necessity, "those general objective forces which are necessarily strollger than the will and resolve of the individual.·' III La terra trema. Visconti appears to steer between these two form!; of Ilarrative. Oil the olle hand. individual initiative does ()('cupy the foreground: 011 the other hand, "the circumstances which ... give rise to thi~ initiative" art' indicated more than just "in their general outline" and "the element of necessity is present and prevalent throughout,"' as is typical of the epic. So although ill tenns of cinematic tradition La terra trf'lfla can conveniently be classified as an epie - primarily because of its It'ngth. leisurely pace, and cydic features, which together create the feeling of time passing solemnly, irrespective of all human activities - tht're is also a sense in which the film has a distinct dramatic quality. namely. the tight organization of the plot. The dramatic and epic features. together with the purely cinematographic, give the film a rich sen!;e of Loth the natural and the social environment, as well as an aesthetic qualiry that is ill pt'rfect harmony with the underlying social analysis alld psychological sensitivity. Within this schemt' Visl"onti also realized his ideal of that "iJllernal and lIIusical rhythm" that already in 19... 1 he thought would be the key to adapting Verga for the screell. He and Willy FeITt'ro took the nondi'~getil" lIlusic from Sicilian folk melodies. 011 the whole music is quite "pan;!' in the tilm. LUl it illtTeabl'S toward Ill(' end to emphasize the fate of the Valastros. There is all abundance of dil·getic music in the funn of sOllgs. don SalYatore whi,.,t1iJlg tlltH'S from operas. and lh,· poi~'Hl/It mel-
owes played by unde l\iulIzio OIl his oboe. Furthermore, the soumls of the wind ami the sea, of ships returuing to the harbor. cries from the streets, and the musicality of tilt' Siciliall dialect create their own archaic atmosphere. Much of the deLate surroundiug La terra trl'lIlll has celllered on the questiou of its realism with respect to its considered aesthetic quality. Millicellt Man'us quotes Visconti"s "TradiziOlw (. illl'eIlZiofw": if it is Iht' lIIu~it'altrl'atJl1t'1II that will t'lt'\"uIP Iht' ~Iory from Iht' le v'" of "pt'a~allt chrOllidt'" to thal of allcie/ll lra~t'dy. we realize how far wt' an' from a critical realist pt'rspe('tiw whose Illl'anS would be rigoroll~ly intellectual. and whose I'/HI would be the cineIllatic equivalent of the hi~torit'al /lowl. as Luk,lcs ""fillt,,, it. 10"
But the film does haw a critical realist per~pt'!'tive. and evcn the wordless passages can lw seen not as illerI' aesthetic indulgence or dot'umental'Y description, Lut as llleditation~ 011 time aud spat~e. The point is that here time aud space t'lllphatically constitute the euvironllu'ut that the characters inhahit. Whereas iu Alltonioni"s films the desolalt' urhan SllITllundiugs call lit' seeu as a metaJ-lhor of alieuation and spiritual t'lIIptillt'SS. in La term trelllo the characters live in very dose relationship with lIat IIn~. In the storm sequence they almost hecome oue with it as the wOllwn are seen in their black ganueuts among the equally hlack rock:; anxiously gazing at the sea. waiting for signs of their mellfolk n'turnillg from llature's vehement emhrace. The tone alld atmosphere of the scene is stuic alld unsentimental. The indexicalpotelltial of film, its capat'ity for"phellomellOlogical realism" within a nan-ative structure. is t'xploitt'd tu the full to make a profouud alld movillg :;tatemellt about the st'vere (·tIIulitiulls imposed by nature on those who have been o:,tracized from their COlIlmUllity. ;\ature is strollgly present iu the images while the relationship of the characters to the eonlIllullity is shown through the plot. Some confusion has arisen iu assessing this film owing to the use of the voice-over t'ollunentary. which was addt·d after the film was l'omplt'wd. Apparently even Visconti himself thought of it as a compromise. Nevertheless, it serves to make an important point. regarding the film's opening statcmelll ahout Italian uot heing ""the lallguage of the poor." Sin!'1' the commentary is in ltaliall. it reminds us that the allalysis has beell provided and tht' film has been conceived hy non-Sicilians, foreigners from ahroad. 110 But the comllwlltary also has important narrative and thematic fUllctiollS ill the ullfolding of the story. The poetic quality of the voice and the words are a part of the classical unity of till' film. The COlllmt'lItary n'pf'ats or rt'slImt';; -;ome of tlJ(' dialoglw - paI11y for the
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llt'ndit of most of the Italian audiell('p. to wholll the dialect is incompreIwnsiLle - but it also mediates hetween the particular and gem'ral spheres hy pointing out the factors that ~o\"Crn the Iwha\'ior of the characters and the cOIIIIllunity as a whole. particularly its traditions. III The commentary i:; thw; a crucial part of the stl'llctllre. which in \licciche' swords "deterlIIine[s] the greattlt'ss of this film ... the perfect fusion bNween anthropological discoVt'ry. lyrical nllltemplation. ideological enunciation and narrati\"(, practice."II:! TI\pr.. is .vet another. ('ven more basic reason wh\". La tl:'r,.a trelll(l can Iw called a realistic work. Visconti has often been aCt'ust'd of Letraying his ideal:; in making this film. :h already lIIentiont·d, t he film wa:. at one point going to Le a docu1l1elltary about Sicilian fishers. The idea lIIay have been to show that Italy was in a revolutionary situation in the marxist sense and that a film about the poverty of the sout.h IIlight make people more aware of the contradictions hetween the south and the north. The way tht' film turned out retIects. or at least is curiollsly parallel with. the changed political circumstances in Italy. After tht· defeat of the left in the election of April 19-.8. the prospects of a socialist revolution (or evolution) probably secIlled increasingly utopian. Visl'onti's an is anything but utopian. Making the film was a continuous interaction with the subject matter at hand. and thus reality imposed its own conditions on the film. The poor of the south were not prepared to ri:'>e against t he prevailing order. and the ollly prote:.t they engaged in was to support reLt'ls such as the bandit Sah-atore Giuliallo. Thus Visconti could not depict collective action according to the marxist ideal without blatalltly distorting the actual si tuation. I1.1 This callnot be set'n as a betrayal unless loyalty to all ideolu~y is undt'rstood to J't'quirt' blind dogmatism. Viscollti could hardly he accused of di:.tort ing reality and its richness by sticking to an ideologically burdt'ned intnpretation of it. For him marxislIl was 1I0t a way of l'xplailling tilt' world in its t'lItirety. as it was for many of its supporters ill the heat of the ('old war. Tu Visconti. it wa:; more of all ethical stand and a way of analyzing certain features of socicty. In La terra tn:'ftUl the )'t'aSOIl!:i for the Valastros' failure are carefully slwlled out ill the narrative structure. which dt'arly portray:, econolllic relationships a:, the all-illlportant factor gO\'t'fIIing the activities of individual:, and the cOllllnllnity as a whole. The subjl'ctivt' poilll of Yit~W ('Ollvl'yl'd through tilt' characters ellables t hI' spectator to experiellce tilt' human signilicalH'l' of the social relationships dqlicted. La te,.,.a trellUl offen'd \', 'j'j,"rlllllity for O(lI't' to sidt' UII-
\ ISeO\ TI .\'\ I> \ LOHE.\ LlS:\1
equiv(wally with his characters. As YOtlssel' Ishaghpollf puints 0111. it is olle of the few lilms in tilt' history of eillt'ma in which"povcrty is neither a degradation nor tIlt' SOIllTt-' of miserablellt'ss madt' ('omfurting by lwstowing on it tht' halo uf salll"tity:'IH Iw;tt-'a(1. as Vit'iconti had already hinted ill his essay "/1 cinema (LfltropumOlfico··. the at-'stlwlic quality uf the film. its poetic formalism. the allt'itere lIeallty of its images. and its solemn tempo giw the charactt'rs the quality uf HUIllt'ric heroes. To some extent. this miglll appt-'ar to slIhslTiile to the fatalistic notion of humall affairs. but at least man is shown to have had a hawl in shaping his destiny. The at-'slllt'lic - as well as tllt' passionate and IIwlodramatic quality in Vis('unti's films is always hpt in check by Ihe umlerlying analysis and ideological commit llIt'nt. La te,.ra t,.elllll was H'ry poorly rt-'C('ived when il pn'miered at the Venice 61111 festival. A group uf protesll'rs pronoulH'ed it an artistic fail 11ft'. Zt'ftirelli becanlt' enraged and got into a fistfight with thelll. II~, The shouts. whistle". and fights were in r('spollse not only to the film. but also to till' political scent'. The Christian Dt'nlOcralie gO\l'nllllel1l had jusl lalllH'lwd an attack against the t-'ll1ire nt-'oreali:-.tie IIlOH'lIIt'lIt. alld the bourgt'ois audit'lIce at Ihe festival wa:-. probahly strollgly prejudiced against tht' holIlosexual COllllllllllist ari:-;tocrat who. 011 top of n"erything. dart'd to din'cl films. Fllrthenllore. lIlallY leftist critics accust'tl Vis('ollti of fonnali:-;m and of intlul~ing in aestheticislll. To~liatti. for example. ('oultlllot uuder:-;Iaud why \'i"collti":; film had uot depicted till' activilit':-; of Ih(' pUI1y aut! till' trade IllliOlb. \"ist'ollli n·l'lied: "Tlwn' are 110 parties. lIot to 1Ilt'lItioll trad,' ullions [ill A,~i Trezza):' 011 the wholt>. Italian ("filiI'S rt'lIlaillt'd cool. alld it was ollly afll'r Ih,' prellli,'n':; ill Paris. I ,olldoll. allll :\,'w York that tIlt' film bel!an 10 Iit:' al'pn'cialt'd. 11h
BELLlSSBIA
In search of a style.' Aflt'r \-isl'ouli cOlllpl"I,-d IAI te,.,.(( In'III((. Ill' n'"ullwd hi,., ("art','r as a tllt'atl'r director. 'Iow Iit' wallted 10 1T,'alt' "ollll'thill!! !!J"alldiost-'. 10 lak,' :-;ollle di:;lall('e fro/ll n'ali,,1l1. III a prodlll'tioll or.l~ l()ll Like i/llt' "xplol"ell Ihealrind pos:-;illilitil''' to rllI'ir full,'"'' l/to ,bk,'d Sah"ador Dali 10 (It',,i!!" till' "ph. till' rococo-slyle I"O;;IUIIII'". alld riit' lil!htiJl!!_ TIH' IllllSic for Shak,'"pean:" It'XI:; was by ThOlllas \lor/,'Y' 11"llry Pun'"ll. Tholllas AnII'. alld ""il/iam Hoyct'. \'is"oJlti Itill.,..elf d,'scrilll'd Ihl' productioll as "a fallla"y. " .1..,':1111" a ,. " 'i \ Iillt," ,'arialioll" from tilt' tllI'lII" of 10vl'." The
- .} .)-
\I~(.()"TI
alldiencl:' loved the production. but so III I:' leftist cfitics accusl:'d Viscollti of hetraying I1t'oreali:;1I1. III feply. Viscollti protested that neorealism should not Iw reduced to "H COIlIiIlt'lIlt'nt. a law'-' but that it should Iit' ulI(lt'r~tood as "a IIwtllOd. all approach'-' Ht' called fur "lIeither realism 1I0f lIt'o!"t'alislII, but falltasy, cUlllplett' liberty of display'-"': \'iscollti"s lIt'xt pruductioll, Tt'l1llt'ssee \\illialll~'s...t Streelcar SWlled /)esire, was t~asit'r fOf the propllllt'lIh of reali~1II tu stomach. alld it was favorahly feceiVt'd. Ac,'ordin!! to ('fitil' Silvio (L\.lIIi,'o, \'iscollti 1I0W slH't"l:'ed,'d ill l'Olllllillill1! his "ultra realist it"" alld hi!"> "l:'xis\('lItialist" approaches. Ciulllli HUlldolillo recalled tllt'se productiolls ill his ~tudy 011 Viscollti: "The 'Tude!">t lIaturalisllI was tralls/igured into a dramatic tellsioll that llIade tilt' !'>I'ectade 1I0t ollly a "lice of life but U gralld lIIetaphor of hUIlHlI1 t'Xistt'lIt'e.-'IIH \'ist'ollti's lIext projl:'cts werl:' \'ittorio Altieri's Oreste alld Shakespeare's Troillls alld Cressida at tilt' ~Iaggio ~Iusit'alt' festival. which gave him allotllt'f chalice to producl:' gralld spectade~. Although lllallY of his productions at this tilllt'. particularly the gralld sp('ctadt's. were successful and help!'d Viscollti Iwcollw illlt'J"IHltiollally kllOWII, they wert' an artistic dead-elld, Despitl:' his love of fantasy alltl his skill in creating it on stage, his true strl:'ngth lay ill chartillg the hUlllall sodal and spirirual conditioll through lictiollal characters studit·d as the agt'llts of can'fully cOllstructed plots St't ill lIIf'ticulously (fe )collstrut'ted t'lI\'irolllllt'lIh, This kiJlt I of t'mphat ically lIIillH't ic approach pro\'es awkward ill tlw t1watt'l" a~ l'olllpan~d with tilt' Cillt'II1h \'isl'ollti'" dl'"in' to IlIakl' filrll~. Blit thill,!!,; 1.. ,,1 ('''all~,'d "illt'(, tilt' fin
\ 1S C () \ T 1 .\ \ Il \ El) H L \ L b \1
realislll. After tilt' Chri~tiull DellltHTah had WOII the 1()-tS electioll. tilt' \'aticall I'XI'OlllJllllllinltl'd all tho';I' who YolI,d for tilt' l'Olllllllllli"t~ or who sympathizl'd or I·ollaborat .. d with tllt'lIl. Tlwn' wI'n' ~Irikl'" alld polilical unrest. Sodally. I'ollllllilted lillll~ WI'I"I' U ri"ky. illn,,.alllt'lIl ill Ihi~ cOlltexl for th(,y could 1101111' np,'cted to oblain go\'('nlllll'lll ~lIb,.;idy. III fact. tilt' tilm could ('vell Iit' t"lHltiscaled. 120 Although hy 110 IIlt'aJl,.; wt'r.. all Ilt'ort'ali~1 dirt'Clor~ It'hisl - Hoiwrlo Rossdlilli. for t'xalJlplt'. wa~ w'n'r far n'lIIt1\l'd frolll Ih .. Chri~liall 1)1'111otTat~ - tht' (,lIlirt' 1II0n'II1t'Jlt \nl~ hralld('d as IwiJlg "(wiali,,t. Cilllio AIHln'olti. at that tilllt' 1Illd.. rsl'tTt'tarv of ::ilalt'. altaekt'd D .. Sicu' ~ { .11/berto
JJ:
\\.l' ask peoplt- of .. ulturl' 10 n'cogIlizl' Iht'ir
~()l"ial rt'~poll~ihilil~,
whi .. h
~hould
1101
Lit' nmlillt'd 10 nili .. iziIll! tlH' lIIalpra"lin'~ alld IlIi~t.'fil'" of a n'rlaill "ysll'lIl alld a l!I'IIt'ralioll .... [E]H'II if il \\'l'rl' Irul' Ihal ,'\il .. all ollly Iit' fOIll!hl hy hriIlgilll! illlo !iglu il~ 1110,,1 lIIi", ...abl" a~p""h. il i~ al", Inlt' Ihal Dl' Si .. a ha~ d01l1' a di,,· ~l'nicl' III hi~ .. olllllry if 1'(,01'1" aroulld tilt' world h"l!ill 10 Ihillk Ihal Italy ill Iht' IW"lIlit'lh "1'111 un· i~ Ih,' "alII" "" { 1II/JI'rlo f). I!.
AccordiJlI! to th .. <:ltri"tiuJI Dt'lllolTats. a good hllll should off.. r Ih .. I'0S"il,ililY for n,laxatioJl. By cOlltrollillg produclioll grallts alld tilt' 1''\1'01"1 atioll of filllls. the gOYt'I'II1IH'11t ('HI",tinly l'xt'ITi"ed a prt'lilllillary ('('Jlsor"hip with tilt' illtl'Jltioll of dirt'I'liJl!! produclioll away frolll 11 11 I' It,w.,allt "ubj"cts . .-\1 tilt' SUJlII' lilllt'. 11111 all doglllalic IlIarxisJ;, al'prtJ\, .. d of Ilt'on'alisl lillll". \'st'\olod Pudod.;ill. "pI'akill!! al a cOIlft-n'lu'I' 011 ('illl'lIla iJl P,'nl!!ia. t'lu'OIlrag('d filllllllakl'r" 10 t'OIJ("('lItrall' 011 ,'01111'111 iJl,,"'ad of 1'01'111 alld 10 depict "I'osilin' 111'1"01'''''' Thi~ 1I11'""agt' was "dilli'd hy I 1111)1'1'10 BarlH.lro. who as 11 It'adll'r at tllt' (:l'lllro sl'l'rilllt'lIwll' di (:ill"1l1a durill1! tilt' Fa""i~1 I'ra had hl'lp .. d shal'" Ilt'on'alisll1. :\ow Iit' tTiti .. iz .. d ()sSf'ssiofle for if;, t'roti .. islII allll La terra !r('lt/u for ih lell'k of a d,'ar id"a. 12~ To lIIake Illalter:.. \\'()r~I'. tilt' fillll illdu"ln. was hit I,y. all 1"'OIlOlllil' l'I'isi~. \\IIt'I'I'a" ill I ()-t() Ilaly produn'" "ixty-fiH fillll~. hy I <)-tS tlll' 1Il1ll1lwr had drupp,'d Iu fortY-lIillt' .. \lIl1'ri"lll1 fihus 1'IIIIII"OIkd tilt' lltarkl'!. alld ill till' y,'ar" t <)-t:)-.)0 tllt'y "ollllualllkd a ()()-;,) p,'n'I'1I1 sltan' of tilt' l'illl'lIta!!"ill1! audil'IW", (;o\','nllIIl'1I1 all"lIlph 10 rt'~lril'l tilt' illlporlalioll of 1'01'"i1!1l fillll" a lit I 10 t'llI'Ollnl!!" till' t'XI'"'" uf Italiall fillll" 10 tilt' l'lIill'd Slall's \\"1'1'1' hy alld larg" 111.,.,111'"(,,,,,1'111. TIll' as"ulllt'd low I'rodllt'lioll I"U"\:.. of 1I,'on'alisl fillll,., was of lilll,' 111'11' ,'itlwr. ill thal 111",,1 of lI1t's,' tillll,~ did 1101 rl'ad. a ",idl' alldi"III"'. Abu. ill I'nll'lin' till' II'l'illlintl diftindli,':" ,'11-
\ISCO\TI
produt:tion had to Le extended, and ~o the possiLle ~avings were easily eaten away.I:!:l Thus the pressun's hoth from the side of the audience and the political parties were great. 7vlore aud more features of American gangster films ami sex begau to creep into neorealist films. Auother way to attract attention was comedy, and this gave rise to Tleurealisfllu rosa. or pink neoreali;;IlI. Its roots were in tilt' light comedy of the Fascist era, and the message was the same: everyone should stick to his or her place ill society. Poverty and misfortuue were romanticized. Often the comedies offered the further attractioIl of a ,;t'XY Gilla Lollobrigida or Sophia Loren. These filJU~. more than the actual neorealist ones . helped to create a fairly wide audi"lIl·(' for Italian cinema. I:!-+ Vi,;eonti"s Bellissi11la Lelong~ to this strain of comic Ilt'oreali~m, Lut in a way that i~ consistent with the director's ethical cOlllmitment. The initiative for the film came from Salvo ..I" Angelo, who had lost money iu financing La terra trema but not his faith ill Visconti. The director himst'1f was enticed by the possiLility of finally having a chance to work with Anna Magnani. I:!:; The idea and the first syllop~is wen' Cesare Zavattini"s. but the script went through many changes that departed considerably from his original plan. In any case, the script wa~ more or les~ put aside WiICII Magnalli entered the picture. She tended to improvise and follow only the substance of the text. Viscunti knew that the Lest way to get a good performance out of her was to giVt~ her as much freedom as possible alld to COIlCl'lIIrate UII keetJillg the other t'lelllt'nts together alld focused 011 IIt·r.l:!tJ
Illusions of art and reality Th .. (·elltral themes of Hellissilll{l an' illtroduced during tilt' opt'lIillg n .. dil~. TIlt' Ctlldiellt·(· tirst sees differellt sections of an orchestra. and after the tir~t ft'w shot~ the enlire orchestra appears. A soluist and a femalt' choir join in. Tilt' music is frolll scene 11. -t of Donizetti" s L 'elisir d'a11lure. alld il turll"; out to ha\'(' a certaill sYUlboli(· functioll ill tilt' film. The 0pt'ra i,.; allOlIt tilt' dlanlb of love aIH/IlI01lt'y alld tite exploilatioll litat they both imilc. ri~conli in lllrtl ln'ab the illllsion~ of the tillll wurld alld doe~ il ill a sonlt'whal irollical \\11\'. The IIl1bi(· heard al tilt' opcnillg of the fillll i" parI of a radio broadca"t a1I1IOIIIICillg 11 (·ollllwlitioll 10 tilld du' p]"(,ttic,.,t little girl ill HOIIIC for a part in a IIt'W tillll. ··Oggi. dOlllalli. 11Iai·· (Today. tOIlUIITOW. 1I(,\"I'r). to II(' dinT,,'d by tlw fUIIIOIh AI .. ,.,,,alldl"O Blasetti. A lhrollg of lIIodwrs i,.; ~('t'1I I'lIshillg their way inl0 tll(' Cill('(·illl't sludio:;. Oil!' of tlH'1I1. ,"'ddlll .. IIH
\ I ~ CO" T I A" D "E () H L\ Ll S ~l
Cecconi. moves away from the crowd because she has lost her daughter. \laria. She is found playing by a pow!' This scene immediately establishes conflict betwet'n her own needs and the wishes awl ambit ion of l\t'r dlOleric mother. A young mun. Alberto Annovazzi. appears and offers his help. He turns out to Iw a typical opportunist who hangs around tht, studios in order to further his career and make a little 1ll0lU'\' whew'vcr possible. He does not s('em truly unpleasant. however. (\'isc()nti would always have sympathy for the yotmg scoundrels he lh'picted.) After \laria passes the first ~;creen test. the film mO\,I's to t'l'isodes in the daily life of the Cecl'oni family and ~laddalena' s attelllpts to tum her daughter into a film star. Her husband. Spartaco. has gra\'e doubts about the project but knows he has 110 hope of restraining his tellll'l~stuolIS alld energetic wife.I~: First. ~laddalena is seen I'arning a bit of extra incoll\t' by helping to give injections to the diahetics li\'illg ill the neighborhood. The Cet:conis are fairly poor and ha\'!' difficulty saving enough to buy a new flat. The money \Iaddalena spends in training her daughlt'r thlls rt'presellt;, considerable lo;,s for the falllily. :\ext to the building they live in there is all open-air cinema. Abollt halfway through the film. ~Iaddalena and Spartaco follow a screening of Hawk:;' s Red Rirer through their bedroom window. She i:-; quite taken by what she sees. whereas he dismisses it as just fiction and says she should forget about films alto~ether. The cattle-driving scene of the Ilawks film dissolves into a scent' at the gate of Cillecitta. where a herd of mothers can be seen ushering their daughters to the sereen test - with sound of the cattle continuing ulltil the next shot. Bellissimo contains several such ironic plU'allels between reali,y allll fiction. Man), employee:-; of the CiIlecina play themselves in this film. Among tlH'1Il is B1atlt,tti. who plays the pan of the din'ctor of the tilm to he made. Appan'lltly Iit' was not aware of the ironic aspects of his role or the fact that the t1wmc from L 'elisir in his see/ll'S in the film is associated with the charlatan in the opera. When he discowrt"d this I'olllwction . he was furious. hut \'isconti succeeded in calming him dow/I by :suggesting that are all charlatans. WI' director~. It i~ wt' who put illu"iou" illto lhe heads of dall~hlt'rs. h i~ \\"1' who take Ilt'ople from tilt' "tn'I'1S and thal i" wlll'fl' we do WTOlIg. We sdi a low potion whil'h i" 1101 a pOlioll at all: [as] ill the opt'ra. it is just Bordt'au.'< willt'. The 1I11'1I1t' of tlH' dwrlalall drWSlI't n,fl'r jusl 1.0 you but also to IW'. I~H wt'
moth!'rs ami
Bla ..,(,tti was satisfied with this explanation. and till'\' \\,l~n> n'collcilt'd. It i~ ",,.,' 'n :"',./',. I,·id, 'nwpll-Slllilh who enlllha:-;izl's ,hat Yi"r'ollti did 110t
\I:-;<:O\TI
('ollsider himself to be above tilt' film world he was depicting and criti(·izing. He. too. is in the line of fire. I:!" AI Ihe salTle lime. as l\lichele Lagny has poillted out. inasmuch as Ihe film pleases us. it "suggests that as danl!t'rous a!"i Ihey may be . illu:;ions are indispensable 10 us." 1;10 Before Maddalt'lIa tillally discovers how Ihe film industry works. she devoII>!"i all her t'lIergy to makinl! Ilt'r daughler a slar. An opportunity to improve \-\aria' s chances tllt'n appear!"i. in tilt' guise of forml'r actress who ha!"i heard aLwut ~Iaddalena' s ambitiom;. She offers to leach Maria the basil'S of actillg. The IWo wallder illlo Ihi> garden while ~Iaddalella stays inside and wnts her douLts aboul this quainl old lady. This is one of \Iaddalena' s bravura arialike :;olilolJuies ill which l\lagnani displays to dlt' full her actillg talents and charm. The:;e solo paris also reveal Ihat Maddalena is completely illllllersed in her own world and unaware of lIlt' lrue needs of her little daughler. MeaIl\vhile. Maria appt'ars to join in the galll\' of Ihe old actress alld 10 enjoy herself. but t1u~ scene. like :;0 mall)" in this film. end:; in an argument., because Maddalena ('aunol stop interfl'rillg with tilt> "lesson." TIIf' :;ubsequent visit;; 10 the photographer. the ballet school. the dothillg sIOI"l>., £lilt I the barber are comic episodes that illuslrate how lIIuch money awl efforl can go into ereating a superficial effect. Yel Ihese are ml'J't> bagalelles compared with Iht' trick thal Annonlzzi plap 011 Maddalt>na. SI le gives him money to ll~t' his "inJlllence" to help Maria gt't the part. It soon he comes clear thal Iit' has spent tht' lIIoney Oil a W'W motor scooter amI 011 enlertailling his girl friend. This dot's llot upset \Iaddalena to any great extenl sincl' lwr plans appt'ar to Lit' proceeding in till' right directiun anyway. An alleviating faclor i" 110 doubl Anllovazzi\; charm. Lo which ~laddaJella is ct'rtailllv 1101 illlmUllt'. He consid"rs her a desirable WOlllall awl starts flirting with her. It looks as though she might even be slH·culllbing. but then lie starts talkillg about not wanting to have ilIusion~ and disappoinlII)('lltS ill lift' and pits Ihis against the ideal of livillg for the 1I101llelll. Ill' is inadVt'rll'lIt1y guidillg Maddalt'na toward a llIon' lllatun' altilllde IowaI'd lift'. ;,Olllt'lhill;! Ileyolld tilt' pursuit of hOlh illusiolls and plt'a"un>. \Iaddalt'na I'ast's ht'l'self oul of till' situalion with a Iwarty laugh. alld Allllovazzi makl's all ('Illbarnl,;!"il,d J't't J't·at. As hl' It'a\'t'~. Iit' sugge;,{,; thal ~laddall'lta should vi"il hi" friend Iris who is working at Cin('cilta. SIlt' could show tilt' "crl'I>1I 11',,1 that wa" lIIadl' of \Iaria. Iris lurw; out tu he a fril'wlly youllg woman. and \laddall~na 1'1>1'ognizes her as the slar of Castdlalli's fillll Sottu if solt' di RUfII(t (L'n-
\1~C()\Tl\\\)
\EOHE.\L1::;.\1
der tIlt' :;1111 of Home. t 9-+S). Iri:; - play I'd by Liliulla \1allcini ht'rs('/f bllt going ullder the mUl\(' of the dJamctl'r in Castt'lIalli' s film - tt'lIs ~laddalt'na what ha~ hapP"llI'd to her SillCt' that film was lJIad,'; after aCling ill a couple of films. she had 110 lJIon' rol('s oITert'd to h(,1". tilt' illusion wore off. alld she ('lId(,d IIJl a:; an onlinary 1'lJIploy('(' at tilt' film studio (whidl was rollghly what act ually happeIH'd to \Iant"ini). Maddal('na i:; shll('ked but lIt'vert hdt'ss SII('('(,l'ds ill I't'rsllading Iri;; to let lH'r amI \Iaria into tilt' projection roOIJl as Bla;;etti and his a:-.si;;tants an' watching the !:">('J"t't'1J tests. TIlt' tt'st fillJl :-.lIow;; \\aria burst illg illto t,·ars. and JlwllllH'rs of the film crew Iuul!h crtH'lIy. Only Blasetli !'I'maills calm and al'l"'ars slightly alllloY"d hy thl' n'actiolJ of hi:-. assistants, In the projection roolll. \laddalt'lIa is dt'va~tated. TIlt' monlt'nt is particularly touching IWC'i.lllst' her cryillg fat,(, is tie,'1I ill do:;,'-up. tllt' OIlIY . om' of tht' t'ntin' film. From that mOIllt'nt 011. sht' will not tr\". to substitute tln'allls alld illusions for n'al life. Perhaps an "\"I'll murt' important t1WIlIt' in nt'lIissilllll t hall tilt' conflict bt'I\H"'1l illusions alii I a sellSI' of the rt'al world is tilt' notioll that tilt' practin':; of tilt' fillll illdustry lead to thl' misus,' of I','opl,'. III tilt' t'1I(\. \Iaria is offert'd the part ill Blasetti\ film. Lut \laddall'lIa n,fll:;(,:-' to acc('l't it. evell thoul!h it tlll'llS out that .\Iaria has made all impJ"l'ssioll I)('caus,' of her lIalUrallwhavior alld lIot tht' IIJallJlt'ri:-.llb cllltinlled ill acting and dancing lessons. Life with Sl'artaco may not 1)(' particularly ,'xciting. but Iit' repn'seuts tht' st'curity and IlIlJnan warJllth without whidl lift' wOllld be meaningless. Tht' t'ndillg. with its reafJirmation of family IIlJity. i:; unique amollg Yis('ollli" s film,.;, 1:11 Bellissillla can altio bt' illlt''l''·t't t·d as a crit iqllt' of tilt' IIS(' of nonprofessiollal actor:; ill nt'ort'alist films - Lilialla \Iancini" s fatt' wa:; ill 110 wa\" exceptiollal. /,(1 .l/a{!,"fI(lIIi in the I,>adillg rolt, was a major slt'l' away froJII this policy. Ilt'r ~trollg pn'sew't' gin's Maddalella· :-.Iint'. ··1 too. could have become an actress. had I walltl'd to'-· a deli/!htflllly irolli('f1a\"oJ'. Equally cumic is the illstrut'tioll sIit' gin's to her daught.·r. "'1'0 Iw('ollle all artist 0I1t' mu,;tll' t '"'llt'ak HOJllallt's('o."· whil,> \Iagllalli"" OWII torn'lItial spl'edl lIuws throllghout in this Homall dialect. 011 Ihe wllOl,'. ~Iagllallj aJIIl'ly d"IIIOJlst ralt'" how t hea t ri('ali t .\" alld "t .dizat iOJl 1'<111 1)(' used to J't~v('al asp('Ch of J"(>ality that might otllt'rwi:-.,' n'muill hidd"11. Though Maddal"Jla is hardly a typical lIIother. ill 11t'J' OWII JIt'f'lIliar way :-.Ilt' ('mbodi,'s all till' a,..piratioJl:i that mother" witll ,;('allt klluwlt'dge of tilt' hig world lIIight haw for their little daughlt'J"s. '1'111' typit·al i" ('oJl('(,lItrat,'d ill tilt' I'XtraordiJlar\" .
\bCO:\TI
OCR WOMEN JUSI as lovable as Maddalt'na Cecconi i~ the second character that Magnani and Visconli ('ft'att,d togelher. in the epi~odt' film Siwllu durllle (Ollr womt'n. 1(53). Agaill the origillal idea came from Zavattini. This lillle ht' wanted to lear down mylhs huilt arollnd great star~ and to give certaill one!"> all opportunity to make a sinct're personal confession. Again. tll\' final n'sult was far from what Iit' was aiming for. The film Iwgill!"> wilh all illlrodll("tion directed by Alfredo Guarini, in which sOllle girls and young wOIll('n arrive for screen test~. The situalioll i~ rt'milli~ct'nt of the corresponding scene ill Hellis.~iflla. in that Ilwse girls. too. walk past a row of JlIt'II who haw the power to choose them for funher te~ts or reject them. Again there are mothers present, Lut they are soon ignored and the girl~' own aspirations are Lrought into focus. Some lines refer to the film itself even more directly than was tilt' case ill Bellissillla. One of the girls dreams of stalTing in films with IlIgrid Berglllan. Alida "alii, and Isa ~liranda. that is. with the slar::. of the other episodes (directed by Rossellini. Cialllli Franciolilli. and Luigi Zampa. re~pel"ti\'e1y). ali(I the actress cho:;en ill thi:; SlTeell test. Elllllla Danieli. Visconti':; t'pisode i:; arguably the mo:;t amusing and charming. :\laglIani is again at her lwst as a Human singer with a fierce tell1peralllcut alld little cuntrolowr lier feelillgs. The hUlllOr i!"> derived mainly from her t'xCt'ssive nt'ed to make a display of herself and attract as much attention a~ po::.siLIt,. Tlie story unfolds whell a taxi driver demands that ~lagnalli pay extra fare for her dog. arguillg that t he small ercatul"t' is uul a lapdog., wliich would be l'lltitled to travel free of charge. \lagllani ~oon Ireats this as a matter of prillciple., and they end UJI !">orting it out at a polin~ statioll. Before tlie di!'>IHllt' is resolved. it is discovered that site lias failt·d to pay ha dog tax and has 10 do it there and Ihen. Because tlie Jriver cliarges lier fur driving her 10 t he police statioll alld then to the tlwater wlwre siit' is to perform. "Ill' t'nd" up paying thirty times IllOre than sit!' was chargl'd originally. But £11 le1lsl tlie police an' 011 Ilt'r side and agree that her pet is a lapdog. The theater ut which \Iagllalli Iwrforlns appt'ar~ almost as chaotit' as \Iagllaui's slall' of lIIiutl. but ill the t'lId everything worb out nlle. :\ partindarly alllu"illg detail i" tilt' elllry of the choru,., girls: the lIloment they walk unto the "tag\, th\'y put a smilt' Oil their fuce and make a lu-
\ 1:- C ()" T I .\" [) "L () H Le\ LI ~ \1
t!iITOUS dalH~1' g('slure. Finally, we hear Magnani :-;illging her cOllfe,.;siou uf lov(' for Rome. TIlt' film is a mere anecdote aud is ba,;pd all1lo:-.1 t'Xcill"iveiy 011 Magllulli's l'xuheraJlI pl'rsoJlalily. Bill thuJlb 10 Iwr. it i:-. 0111' of the lUost illlloCl'lltiV fllllllY work,.; in \'i"COllti's ('illt'matic (Jell\TI'.
The Risorgimento Films
Opera and realism III additioll to /JellissiIllH. Vi~('Ollli ~h()t a shurl dOl'ulllt'lItury ill 1931 tillt-d Appllllti S/I IlII/Cltto di ('roll(l('a (:\ote:; ahoul a 1It'\\"; itelll). It was part of a film put together by \Iarco Ff'rrf'ri alld Riccardo Chiotlt,. with De Sin .. Carlo Lt'vi. alld Allwrto \1ora\'ia ill charge of tilt' other parl!,. \'ist'.llllli· S cOlllriLutitJlI wa:; l)Used 011 a IIt'W~ itl'lIl about a girl who had het'1l rapl-tJ alld whoSI' hody wa:; disc()\'I'reti ill a \\'ell. ;\ lIlall had lwell U1T('skU alld lit' had l'ollfe~,.,t'd. but ill tIlt' trial Iit' wiliuln'w his stat(,lIlt'lIt alld claillled Iit' had givt'lI il ullder torture. "i",('OIlti begall his lilrll by "howillg illlag('~ of childr('1I playillg alld ('I HII'd it with shot;; of tilt' well alld the girl'" gran'. By t'OIW('lIlral illg 011 thl' t'xtt'mal factor,.,. Iit' apparelltly sOllghl to dl'llloll,;trale lilt, dft.t'I of t'1I\'irolllllt'lIt 011 humall hl'hu\'ior. The donllllt-lIlarY. was lmllllt'd ill italY. . lHIt il was fairly. \\l·1I rt'Ct'in'd ill FraIWI,.1 Thl' 1It'X1 yt-ar '-i"('Ollli w()rk(~d wilh SlhO Ct'cchi O·.\lIIi('o ill pn'parillg a ,;cripl l.a"I'd Oil Eridl \011 Slrolwim'" lIeddillg .\1arch (1():2g). Bt'(,atbt' tilt' film lIIight ha\-t' IlI't'lI iIlIPrl'['t'It'd as a t'Olllltlt'llt 011 1111' debalt' o\"t'r tilt' qUI',.,lioll of di\'oJ't'I' ragillg ill Italy at tilt' tilllt'. Lux !-'illll r('j(,t'tt'd the snip!. prolmbly illtilllidatl'ti hy lite uproar D(, Sinl'" I 'lIIher/o /) (193:2) had jlbt ('all,.,I'(!. Tlllh for a ",hilt, Vis('ollt i COIl("t'IIlJ'aI(,d Oil liwalril'al I'WtillcliollS. Olll- of tlWIII was Cllt'kh()\·,., Thr('1' ,..,'is/I'''S. ClwkllO\' wa,., a rdalivcly lall' ilhpiralioll for "i,,('ollli IHIt IlInlt'd tlul 10 Iw alllollg Ihe 11101'1' illll'onallt. lit, 01H'1' "Iall'd: "Sll'lIdhal wislwd his t'pilal'h 10 ['t'ad: '111' ado['t·tJ Cillwro,;a. \Iowrl alld Shakt'~pt'an'.' I would likt' millt, 10 rt'ad: -I k adored Shakt·slH'ilI·('. (:Ilt'kltov alld Vt'rtii.' .. ~ Cllt'kllO\' wa" I'xl n'IlIt'I" nil it'al aboul tilt' ,.,o('ial t'olldilioll" ill Hu""ia.
rilE IlI:-iOIH,I\lE\TO 1·\U1:-
tl
I
lit, cOllwyed hi!' politi(,al illsi~hh throu~h the total palll'rn of psydlolo~ ical alld !'ociul rehlliollships Iit' depi('tc'd. rathc'r thall by brillgill~ forth all explicit mes~age throu~h all illdi,'iduul "posilin- 111'1"0:' As all evoluliolli~t. h(' 1)('lieVt'd ill tlw possibilily of pro!!n'"s. Ilowc'wL social dt'wloplllt'lIt often doe,.; 1101 coilwidt, with the wishe" of his dlanH'ter,.,. who prefer 10 look backward ill lillle. bUI il appear" to Iit' tilt' ollly altl'rnalin' to a lIumlJlless that reduce:; life to I'atillg. drillkill!!. allll slt-I'pill!!.! Tllt'y IlIi/!ht be illlelli~ellt alld >iellsitin' yet ullabll' 10 build a futun' for t hl'llIsplw!' alld to adapt to the illl"'itable challgl':-' that tak" pla('e aroulld tllt'lIl.~ Clwkllllv (,fI'att'd a dralllatic frallll'work ill whil'h by dt'pictillg ollly a few mOlllt'lIlS ill till' >itn'alll of tillll' II(' could !'rc'ate a "ell,.,C' of cllallgl' - a feature that \'isl'lmli wa,; Iu adopt alld treal ill diffen'lIt ways ill lIIall) of his filllls. (:hekho" also had all ideal of si age expn'ssioll t hal ellablt'd hilll to CIIIlH'y feelill!!" without rt'sortillg tOllwlodralllatil' !!t':-.Iures. III this IIt'W ';Iylt'. till' cham('It'rs had to I... 1I0t ollly roulld but also typ"s who,.,c' Iwhavior would rellc'ct hoth their illtt'mal life alld tilt' parI tlwy playt'd ill tilt' "cwial falll·ic. The dwrac\t'rs an' 1101 ju,.;t illdi"idllall'asl''', but all t'lIlin' sClC'ial structure alld "ituaticJIl are 1'I'"stallized ill tlwllI." III a sellst'. ClwkhO\ illtrodul't'd to the stagc' a prilll'iple that Lubic's thou~ht 10 II(' dwraelt'ri:-.til' of tIll' historical IIOW\. :h has 11I't'1I poillted OUI. silllilar idc'Wi call Iit' foulld ill Vi,,('ollti's ('011l'el'I of alllhropomorphil' C'illt'llIa. III thl' early part of hi,., career. his "oeial psycholo~ical tn'atllH'IJts. particularly ill hi,., tlu-atrical prodllc'tioll"', appt'ared to Ill' sqwrate from tilt' trelld toward lIIelodrallla allll ";1 1('('1 adt'. Cradually. howen~L Ihest' two a,;pc'cts uf his arl lH'gall to 1'01ll1'11'1I1t'IIt ("ach olher ulltil t01!,"lht'r tlwy 1!a\"t" rist' to Ililt' CIf thc" lIIost crllciallt"lbiollS ill his art. TIll' productiClII of 1'111"1'1' "";i~/t'''s wa~ a lalldlllark frolll Ihi,., pClillt of view. :\ lIew killd of rt'alisllI t'lIIergl'd through the Ullioll of spectacle alld a critil'al allalysis of n'ality." It allowc'cJ Vi:-.I'tJIIli 10 giw artistiC' forlll to tilt' tt"lbioll IIt'IWt~c'lI hi,., c'motiollal allal'hllwlIl lCl the past alHI his illI('lIc'ctual C'Ollllnitlllellt to tilt' fUllIrc'. Iwtwt'c'lI hi" aristocralif' bal'k~roulld alld his lIIarxist ilJc.ClIClI!Y' bt,t WPI'II his c1el'adl'lI I alld his progn'"sive t rai 1";.Thi" duality i". CIf C'tHlrsc'. partic'ularly (',idl'llI ill tilt' hisloricallilllls. 1101 ollly ill Ihe tn'allllt'1I1 CIf tilt' "uhjl'C't IIHIItI'r 1/111 also ill i." rl'ialiollship with tilt' IIlt'cliulII: tilt' IIIO"t dlllntcteri"lic IIlt'allS of C'XI"'t'"sioll of Ill(' IWc'lIlieth 1'1'111 ury flll'led by t Iit' art of pa,.,1 CTllt IIric's: IIlc'C'hallinti n"producI iOIl tnlll"ft"ITt'd inlo tilt' aura of arl./\ The Cllt'kho,,-likt' quality Iwc'ollle" illlTc'a,.,illgly "pparc"lIt ill \'i,.,collti·" lalc'r lillll". It takc'" tilt' fortll CIf rc'sil!lIatiulI to "cwial ideals alld
hi~lOri('al
im·vitability. but toward which he felt an ever-growing nostalgia. Viscomi always depicted the past through a colllbination of involveIIwnt ami detadllnenl.. oftell through the double perspective of nostalgia and irony. Verdian I1wlotirama colorillg tlw former. Chekhovian atmo~plwre the lath·r. Smile of the most powerfullllollWllls in Verdi"s operas ari;;t· frolll Illerl'iles~ {'onilicrs between the puhlic duties of the protagonists awl their prinlle a~pirations. the ultilllate t'xpres!>ions of which can bc found in I dut' Fos("ari.....,.imoll iJo("('wwgra. iJOII Car/os. and Aida. The dlaraeter!> an' n'!ent!ess ill their ft'eling~ and pa~sions. uut they art' de"troyed hy the grinding wlwels of fate or the inexorable mardl of events. Vi"conti·s characters are destroycd because their feelings and passioIls blind thelll. prevent thelll frolll undt'rstamling and/or accepting the oujectin- factors that condition their lives. By dosing their eyes to 11Ilpleasant n·ality. Visconti\, ··heroes" lose whatewr ahility they lllay have to affect tltl' course of evellts. In this respect. their feclings and attitudes appear slightly ridiculous, lllu('h as the elllotional reactions of ClwkhO\·· s characters do. Hardly any of Viscollti's characters fail to ue touchillg in their frailty. Tlwy drift with t he tide of cvents uecause they are so illtensely hUlllan. EH'1l at their dwapes1. they are pitiable in the way they desperately stiLk to whatever they think is valuable or irreplaceable in their li\'t's. This. if Huything. is what makes thelll "operatic" characters. Over time. Yisconti moved increasingly toward depicting the loneliness of people caged in the ideals of the past. This change of focus can be seen in hi~ two hlms set in f he time of the Risorgimcnto. tilt' struggle for halian unity and illdependt'lwe. One of these is St'flSO. a still predominantly Verdiall work. The other is Tlte Leopard, which is essentially Chekhovian. The protagonist of the lattt~r is the first great resigned hero of Viseonti" s cint'lIlatit' output. It 11Ian who looks into the past but who has the strength alltl courage to fan' the prest'nt allll adapt to it. ln Viseonti's later films the characters arf' oftI'll frustrated. elllbittt'red. secluded by their loneliness. They are t'Xt'!'l'tional people - a compost'r. a king. an aesthete - but even at their 11Io"t extraordinary tlwy f'lllbody certain basiL llucstions about humanity. \" isctlllIi told lIt'llri Chaplt'r ill 195R I I""" III e10dra III a IW"albt' it i~ I"<'illt'd al tilt' bOfd('r~ of lift, a III I tllt'atre .... Tlwaln' alld 0l't'ra. Ihe world "f tilt' hanH(I"': tllt'~t' an' tilt' 1Il0Ii\t'~ whi .. h tit' lilt' to IIlt'lodrallla. I aliI illtfiglwd b~ tilt' idea of a ··diva.'· This rafe tTeatllfe. whosl' rol" ill tilt' ~pt' ... adt, should Ill' n'a~~t'SSt'tl. III tilt' lIlytllologies of 0111' lilllt' Ihe diva is tilt' illcafllatioll of tilt' raft'. tilt' I'Xtra\lIgallt alld tilt' t'x ... ·l'tiollal. ..
THE HIS () R (; 1\1 E :---1 0 F I L ..IS
Yisconti" s somewhat obscure statement Le('ollles dearer when cOlllpared with his ideal of anthrol'omOlvhic cinema. according to which the "actorperson" and the "character-person" had to beconlt' OIlC for either of thelll to find their essence. The ailll is to r('aeh a level of inli'nsitv at which an intuition of what it is to be human and an intellectual view of thl' world can Le cOlllbined and r('waled on bOlh the level of livt''! experiencl' alld understanding. This is how tll(' extraordinarily singular can stand for Ih(' universal: this is something that call Le achiewd by means of a slrictly controlled ··diva." Viseonti had inde('d lIlowd SOli\(, distanc(' away from the idea of IIsing an entire east of nOllprofessiollal actors. He had a chance to test his theories when in 195-+ he was invi\t>d to product' Spontini's La l'('stale for La Seala. with Maria Callas in the leading female mlt·. Callas and Visconti shan·t! nol only a elt'ep love for opera bUI also an aI"tistic passion alld integrity that could Ilot tolerate allY obstacles. For \'iseomi slw was "a marvelous instJ"Umellt which I could play according to my will allll who ft'aeted with inspinllioll." 1O Lu l'e,~la'e also offered Visconti an opport ullity to ('Hlke Ilw spirit of a eertaill period. This was not that of the settillg of the opera. imperial Home. but that of the first ~apoleoni(' Empire. Ilis intention was to remilld viewers what l\apoleon had lIIeant to Italialls: lIot a cOIl4\lwror bllt a liberator whose accomplishments inspired the Risorgimento. To get ideas for the sets allll costumes, \"iseonti tllmed to the pai[Jtillg~ of that period. He was out 10 revitalize opera as an art form alld 10 explof(' the p~ychological aHd social depths of works obscured by stah· l'OIIVt'lltioll" of perfonnallce. Thus he was making a way toward a wholly lIew kind of operatie productioll. Blit his production of \" erill' s La /rurillta ill t 4;);) iliadI' sOllle critics aC('lIst' \' isconti of reducing tht' music to a IIIt're accompaniment of a "Iu'uta!' veristic. and vulgar" drama. Others. howewr. realized that \'i:-,co/lli had givell new life to thest' works and that ill fact ht' had been much more faithful to \'erdj's dramatic aspiratiolls thall had become customary over the long production history of this helm't'd work. 11 Dllring his caft~er. Viscollli produced more than twenty OpCnts alld works of lIIusical theater. III panicular. his production of La /mria/a al La Scala ill t (().) allll of /)on ('ar/os at the Royal Opera House. Covent Cardell. in t 9;)S are considelwl to Iw among till' higllt'st peaks with lIIodt'1'lI staging of opt·ra.
The formation of Seww \'i,,("(lllti's love of opera is apparent abo ill IWIIIY of his films. above illI ill .'l1'IIS0. Tlw projt~l"t started Wh('ll Lux Fillll. aftl'r hm'illg rejl'cll'd thl'
\1~C()\T1
scripl for /lee/dillE{ J/arch. cOlllllli"sioned Yis('ollli to cn'ate a "~pectade of hi~h an i"t iI- lewl.·· Ill' and Cecchi IYAlllico proposed live idea,;. one of which was ba"ed Oil Call1illo UoilO' s novella Sellso, which had just n'appeared ill a collt'ctioll ediled by (;ior~io Bassani. The events rdated ill tilt' novella take pla('e at the linlt' of tilt' Hisorgilllellto. ~Iany of \'is"ollli'" illlllwdialt' family and other n'lati"es had tak .. n all actin~ part in Italiall ullilication and thus he felt Ill' had a per"onal COIlIlt'Ctioll with that Iwriod ill hislory .I~ .\" a boy. Yis('ollti had ofti'll "t'ell tilt' brotlwrs (:amillo and Arrigo Boitt) ill tilt' audit'llc(' at La Scala. The latter was a 11OIabl,~ compo~er and the lihrt>tti"t uf. alllOIl~ other work;;. Yenli'" Olel/o alld Fa'.~/a}I ami Poncchi('lli'~ La (,'iocofl(/a. According to Colill Partridge "Each hrother found tilt' IIltallCes and d'~ploy .. d th .. resonanee~ of words. Tlwy were cardul craftslIlell of language and not major litt'rary artists: '1;1 They Iwlollged to a gt'neratioll disillusioned by till' political and social development in Italy after the Hi~orgimento, particularly by the so-called Ims/ormisllw. till' policy of endless ('ynical compromise that characterized Italian 1'0lit i('allife after the lIllilication- alld that has continued !'yell to till' presellt day. Arrigo lwlon~ed to a group of art is." kllown as Scapigliatllf"U (tilt' di~ht'velled). They sought to renew Italiall artistic and spiritual life out ill I'raet ice wt're I'aralyzed by their pessimism. which extended from politic" to mt'taphysic". From the poillt of ,-iew of the prudellt pruducers. Sensu probably appeared illllocellt ellough as a ba~is for the film sillce the historical setting i" IIsed lIlen,ly a~ a backdrop. An Italian IlOblewomulI, Livia, tells the slory of a luw affair she has had durillg tilt' war for Yl'nicl'. I It-r IOlIe is alld the storY. ('entered entirelv. Oil herself. It is told in cold and cVllical . tilt' malllwr of a confe~~ioll, but with aggressive self-justification. All the 01 her characwrs an' Illerely superIluIlu·raries. Evell Remigio Huz, all Austrian of/icer awl till' object of her mad passion, does 1I0t ellwrge with any dt>gn'j' of per"ollality in Livia' ~ narration. Thi" t>lIlpha"ize~ Livia' s merciless egocelltri~m. Sltt' IlI'r""lf slates at the bt'~illllill~ of Iwr ~tory: "Th!'y "ay th .. slim of philosophy t"llIlsislS of knowing Ollt'~elf: I have ~tudied IlIysdf with "uch apprehensioll for so many years. hour by hour. miJllIl!' by lIIinult', thal I I,di .. ve I kllow myself thruugh and through alld call nlll~ider IIlY"l'lf to Iit' a I'erft'ct lady philosopher [}i1wliff'ssa] .'~ And "ltt' cl'rlainly i" 1111.1,,1' 110 illll,.,iolls. Sht' desnibes lH'r ft·,'lillgs for her lo\'('r: "I lis lack of fidi·lity. of how'slY. of delicacy. of n'strailll Hppl'ared 10 lilt> as "iglls of arcatlt' vi~ollr. real lIligltl ulldn which I wa" happy. proud 10 suhmit 111"".. 11' as slav,'. "1.-,
TIll:.
HI~()H(;I\lE:\"IO
Th(~
F11.\1~
war is IIlt'rely all ob"tad(' for IIl'r to m'en'ollw ill Ilt'r pun;uit of :;ellsatioll" alld t'motiollal,'xlH'ri(,IICt''', Tlw war Im'aks Ollt ,,0011 after siit' falls in love with Hl'mil!io, alld slw ;.!i\'t's him mon('y (0 ol,taill a fals(' doctor's t't'rtitinllt' n'li"\'in/! hilll of military ,,('r\'in', Tht' war separates thl'lII, but she travels alTos:; tllt' battle fields to joill him, (Jllly to find him in the arllls of allothel' womall, Ha\ill/! dellollllt'ed him, sill' attellds his ext'('utioll, It stir" ill her lIIelllUries of tllt'ir ('lIIbrac(>s, and she eX(leri('IICt's a IIIOIllt'lIt of n'llIors(:', but as she se,~s his IIC'W lo\'('r throw Ilt'l'self 011 his dead body, siit' collects herself: "Seeill/! tllat di"l!lIstill;.! WOlllall llIadt' lily scorll clller;.!t' al!aill alld with tllat SCOnl also lily di/!lIity alld fOlTl' 1'0",', I wa" ('ulIsciuus of my ri/!hts: I It'ft call1lly, proud of ha\'illg r(Jlllplt'tt'd a Iwm'y duty,"·!' Boito sllows 110 illterest ill tllt' Hisorgilllt'lIto or if" I'0litirul alld s(H'ial cOII"eqlll'lIces alld COllcelllrates 011 his silll!lt' cynical prota/!ollist. This n'ry omission, of eour"e, call be sel'lI as a ('(III11IIt'lIt 011 the supposed glory of the historical eVl'llts, \'iscollti's \'iew of the Hisorgillll'llto could also be d,'stTibed as cYllical. but at least Iit' was 1I0t apathetic allOlII it. The adaptatioll took a lOll;.! tillle, and IIUIlIt'I'OUS challges wen' iliad" both Iwfof{' allo after the shoot ill/!. Viseollti allll Ct't'ehi 1)'..\lIIico tirst wrote a synopsis alld thell a script tOI!"tht'r with Bassalli. Gior/!io Prosperi. alld (:arlo AIiallt'lIo.· 7 III this fin;! Hrsioll. tht' story I'l"On>,'d" ill tllrt'e flashbacks that COlllltt'SS Li\ia Serpil'ri alld her (,oll~ill l :ssolli relate to each other ill a \'erollt'~e hospital aftt'r the baltl,> of (;u~toza, The war alld till' political changes are carefully outliw'd. The Cllstoza hattle scene, for cxalllplt,. Iwings out dearly the rdllt'lallt'(' of the ufticial army to c(HIIWrafe with the \'olulltar\' ~oldiers aIIII LlII' traumatic effecls of the lost Iwltlt,.·1I A st'('(md version writtl'lI h\ \'i~l'ollti ami (;t'('chi I)' :\lIIi('o und,~r tilt' title l'mgwlO d'estate (.\ !::iUlllnwr storlll) !::ioon 1'0110\\'1'(1. This wa!::i to /'" the final n'r~i()lI. MallY S(,,'IIt'S relatillg to the military alltl political aCfivitit'" wen' left oul. and l ';;"olli lo"t his statu" as a lIarrator. Livia dot'S 1I0t appear as cYllical as 1",1'0 re. allll Ilt'w themt';; t'lIlt'rg" ill till' 10\'1' SC'~IIt'S. At thi" sta/!t' till' idea wa" to "l'I!ill with tht' t'x(,(,lItioll of a lieutellallt ('all,~d Frallz. alld thell to rt'latt' tilt' "tory as if from Li\'ia'" point of view. TIll' :,tory would have begllll in St. ~Iark' s Sqllare with li""olli dla11t'lI/!illg Franz to a duel, follow,'d hy a ,,(,(,lIe at the La F"lIice op,'ra hOllse. As ill tilt' first \'ersioll. Li\'ia would ha\'(~ ill th(' elld ew.'olllllt'red Frallz ill pri~oll. Iltn Frallz wOllld have hiddell his fear bt'itilld a ma"k of crue! iroll\'. TIH' role of tht' opportunist COUIll Serpieri was nmsiderahly reollt"'(1. For exaIllplt'. the SCt'IIt' of his di;;hollorablt, dead. whilt' tryillg ollce 11101'1' to switch "id,'s wllt'lI it app,'a/'t'd thal tilt' Austrialls lIIi;.!ht still will tlH' war
\I~C():\Tl
\\a" deleted. Serpieri"s behavior wa:; perhap:; cunceived as a metaphur for Italy's conduct in the Iwo world wars. :;itting on Ihe fence uutil it was dear which side was to be the victor. III Ihe context of the film as a whule, however. it might not have been t'ffel"tin'. Because buth Lux Film alld Visconti wanted to use fureign stars, the 1I('xt stage was to translate the w'w versioll intu English. Viseonti asked for hell' frum Tellnesst'e Williams, who reconunended the services of his frielld Paul Bowles. Bowles. howeH'r. did not appear to be ahle tu write sufficiently cuncise dialogue for cinematic purposes., su in the end William,,; was enlisred anyway. The translation is quite fairhful to the Italian, hilt some of Livia awl Franz' s dialogw', their conversation in their lovers" Iit'S\. and some of rlwir scenes at tilt' Serpieri country mallsion in Aldeno wert' added lJy the trallslators. I <' Visconti wallted lngrid Bergman awl \larlon Brando to take the leadillg rules. Accurding to Gaia Sen·adio. Hobel10 HWisdlini. Berglllan's husballd at that time., did not allow her to make the film and the Lux came 10 the sOlllewhat dislT/'dited cunclusion that Brando was already passe while Farle)" Granger was the great star of the futur/,.~(I The leading femalt, role was eV/,lItually givell to Alida Valli. It i:; difficult to imagine what Sellso would have been like had Viscollti been able to us/' the actors he originally wallled. In any case. he sueceeded OIH'e again in :;lJueezing excellent performances out of the actors he did use: both "aHi and Granger reached the peak of their careers ill 8ellso.~1 The story was altered in many ways in the shooting stage as wdl. The openillg s('ene. at St. \Iark's Square, was deleted, and so the film begins with tilt' scelle at La Fenice opera house. III addition, mallY scenes that wen' not rt'lated to the lovt' story between Livia allll Franz were left out. Livia' ~ VOiCC-OH'r wa:; almost omitted but even tuallv it remained.~:! TIlt' visual style was greatly affected by the death uf the director of I-'howWaphy, Ald(', Craziati (known as G. H. Aldb) ill a ear accident during the shooting. He had been using all his talent experimelltillg with the Techllicolor ,.;tock ill order to creatt' colon; and hues that would give depth and intensity tu the hlm's characters, emotions. and theme:;. He was now replaced by Hollt'rt Kra~k('r and Ciusl'ppe Hotunllo. ;!;l The sn'w's in \'elliet' wt'n' ,.;llUt hy Kraskt'r. the eX('('ution by Rot 1II11lU. and all thl' rt'st by Aldi). It has heell estimau'd that the op('ning scenl' at La Fellict'. for exaJllple. would ha\(' ht'l'n very difft'n'lll had it l,et'lI shot by Aldb. Ill' would probably have ,>ought to ('n~a\(' the eHect of candlelight of the periud.;!~ In the origillal do:-.illg scellt' Ihat wa,; actually shot. Livia. aft('r having Ill'tntyt'd Frallz by informing his military ~111)('riors about his false doc-
HI E H 1~ 0 H C 1'I L :\"1 () I· 11. \1 :-'
tor's eertifieatt\ walks amollg the .twllkl'll Austriall"; CI'lebmt ing tllt'ir victory. According to Vis('ollti: One left Franz 10 his OWII affair~: we Ihn'w away Frallz·., story! It did 1101 maller whether he died or 1I01! 0111' Il,ft him after till' ~n'lH' ill the apartlllelll dllrin~ which he showed how repugllllllt h(' i,.;. Then' wa~ 110 (loilll ill ,.;el'illg him eXI'I"lI !t'1 I. So we wen' II'ft with her who rail to dellClUlwe hilll alld ru;;hed 10 the ~ln'I't. SIH' passed allHlII/! whort's allll Iwcallll' a sort of laM IlI'r,.;df. going from ont' soldier to allother. Then ~he lied sho\ltill~ ·'Frallz! Franz!" alld we p/llllled 011 to tlH' young soldier. symbol of thosl' who paid for the \·jctories and really ITied. slll'd hot tears while shouling: '·Long live :\lIslrja!··~·-'
Lux thought this "IHling was too
-·dan~erolls'·
It was replaced by the sCt'W' in which Fnmz is
and hunlt'd lht' Ilt'gatiw. t'xt'cllted,~"
In the editillg stage tilt' I'rodut't'r slIggested aitogPlher jiftl'en cub. and Viseollti had to light fit'n:ely to pres('rH' the ullity of his tillll. TIlt' /"I'IIIII',.;h wen' apparelltly Illade to avoid cell"orshil' alld to cut riit' fillll to a COIIImercially suitable lengtlL rather than to IWlld to ideological or lIIoral serul'le~. Yiscol1ti. however. stres,.;ed the 1II'l,d to mailltaill the narrative clarity and colu'rellce of his IiIIlL ~7 \lany of tlwSl' challges rdlt'cted till' film's political ,'xplosiH'lIess: Hisorgiml'llto was a sore point for official Italy. alld its annv. . Hi~orgimento a~
history ami mythology
OIl!' of the lirst artidt~;; to discll";s the "I'lIsorill~ of .""I'II.HJ was aptly titled '"TIII' Fear of I tistory"'~1I AlIllatiolls mytllOlo~izt' tllt'ir pa"t. particularly their birth alld fOrJllalioll. UenUl!>e ltaliulI unili('ation took plaC'!' at a time of fairly advanced historio~raphy. an outri~ht di"lortioll of ('vents was Ileed.. d to make possihl,' a natiollalistically /"I>spt'ctahl .. hi,.,tory of tilt' birth of the Killgdolll of Italy.:!" III tHoU. after Italian unification wa~ mon' or It,,.,s coml'll,lt'd. tilt' IIl'xl tar~ellll'caml' the ullllexation of '·t'lIin'. which at that ,;ta~I' was still part of till' AII~lriall EJIIl'i/"l·. :\I'goliatioll" with Pnb.~ia w('("(' slarted. Bismar('k· s ailll was to ~lIaralltl'I' Prussiall hl'gl'llIOIIY ill tilt' C,'nnall an'as alld k""I'\u"lria ollhide tilt' Ct'rtllan IIl1ioll Ihat was wilt' forllled ill tlH' lI .. ar fUllln'. '\"ht'lI tilt' :\1I,.,triall,., /"I'aliz .. d Ihal Ihey W(,I"I' caUl!hl h.. t\\I,,'1I a IWJlllllt'r alld all all\i!. tlwy offt'/"I'd to ("t'de \"('lIit'" ill t'xchallg(' for 11t'1Itrality:'" Blit tilt' Italialls walltl'd to will \"Pllict, I,,·. mililary. IIl1'al.". Stall',.,1I1H1I Fmllt't's"o Crisl'i d .. li\"l'n'd a sl"'t,,'h ill Par/ianlt'lIt alld n'n'ivt,d a I n'1III'IIdolls ovalioll wlwlI Iit' dt'lIlalHled tltal tilt' IIf'W horll killgdolll Iit'
\
I~U)\II
baptized ill Illood. Ct'IIt'ral :\ino Hixio. a IIwIIlLt'r of Par/iament at that tillle. a"surt't1 till' lIation that it» arlllY was spll'lIdid. tilt' navy incontestably superior. alld Italiall eOmlll"lIt to a relIllllt' sector Ill' South Tyrol. wllt'IIt't, they adnllll't,d slowly to tilt' gates of Tn'ntillo, \Io;;t of the,.;e an'as Wl're retUrJlt'd to ;\ustria ill the pe,H't' llt'gotiatitlll";, But what allgl'n,d Carihaldi t'\'t'1l II10n' WWi that tilt' \'t'llt'tiall'; had d'HII' preeillu;; little to liheratt' th,'m,.;,''''('''. III "l'rtaill an'a" they had ('\"t'1I fought agaill"t their "colllltry1111'11." :1.\
III tilt' I','w't' IIl'gotiatiulI!'> . .-\u:,tria agrt'(,d to c(,d" \'t'lIil'(' to Frallcl', which wtluld tllt'1I hand it 0" .... to Italy. Thl' idea of \'(~lIiet' beillg treated a" a gift frolll Frallct' was ulJ\'itlusly hUllliliatillg for tilt' Italiall'" t'''pl'eiaily IWI'1II1S(' tlwy could 1I0t really t'xplaill away their 10"""" lb Ilt'roi .. d('feat,.;. a~ the pn's,; had already ;;uggestt'd.:I~ But tilt' 1'lIlharraS"IIII'lIl was SUOll forl!ottt'll. and the war for \'eHiet' Iwc3nw part of Hisor~illlt'llto lIIythology alld official rlwtol'ic, Historialls tried to put the Ilt'st fact' 011 thillg". for I'xallll'l,'. by playing down the disastrous rolc' tilt' kiug had played at Cu",toza.: IC• Pc'op!.' WI'[,1' ct'rtainly 11tH unaware of Italy's hUllliliatiug alld 1I1111t'I',',.,sary d.'feats. hut it wa,; just ,.;olllething thal could not Iit' openly di,.,nh" .. d. TIlt' \'I'r,.,iOIl of "\'1'11(" that dill'; "lIl1'rgt,tJ wa" 11tH allow.. d 10 Iit' '1111'''tiollt'd a,., it \\'0111.1 haYl' "lliIkl'n the \I'n' flllllldali'lIb of tilt' lIatioll. Th .. Hi"orgiHII'lIttl had 1101 1It'I'II dte' killd of ",wial n'\'I.llIlioll to forg(' a IIt'W nalioll. For 1110,.;1 Italiall.,." it wa" jlht anotllC'r dlllptl'r ill hi,;tol'Y, :"01' wa,,,, il giYl'1I Illtwh ,.,dlolarty allt'lItioll IIlItil .\lItonio Crallhl'hi, dllring his illlI'ri,.,ol UIII'Il I ill dlC' Fa"ei"t YI'al''';. ,;tarted r!'writillg Italian hblOry. Cralll" .. hi·s lIWill "OllC'lu"ioll was Ihat thl' Hi!'>orgilllt'lIto \\,u" Iltl\ a tnlt' peopl .. ',.,
TilE HbOIlLI\IE\TO F11.\1:-i
will and activity of tilt' pt'oplt' "as silllply Ullt nit', III IIIaIlY pro\'illcl'~ tilt' Iwopll' actually n',.,ist,'d Iwill~ sul,jl'c·tt'd
ItJ
tilt' Pil'dlllollh',.,,' killp:: tilt' ollly
~ro\lp:; n'ally illt"I'l'sh,d ill tilt' IIlIilication wcn' tilt' indu,.,trialis\S alld tilt'
illtell"ctuub, \\'ho for 0111'" had foulld a 1'0111111011 illlt,!'t,,.,t .'1" Cralllschi's ideas took root afll'r t Iit' Fa~('i,.,t pt'riod, \\'h"1I Italialls kit a gn'at lWI'd to affirlll tlwir Iwtiollal idl'ntity alld to Sl'ttlt' thl'ir an'llIlIIb with till' past.
0111'
re",dt of th,' "lbUillg dt'balt' "a" tw,''''e filllls, iliadI' ill
19... 9-,") .... ill "hich tilt' Histlrgilll"lIto fl'atuI'I'd in ont' "ay or anotllt'r. \\o,.,t
of tht'1II p:anwrt't1 linl" attention. \'i"COllli'" ,';CIIS() \\'U,., all "XCI'IJlioll, TIlt' dirt'ctor hilll,.;elf told of tht' difiiculJil.'''' hi,., fillll l'III'ollllt"I'I'd wilh till' officials: wa~ lily ol'i~illal !!uidl·lirw, I "\1'11 \\'Hlllc·d 10llalllC' il ('IIS/0='1I ill al'C'onlarlC'(' wilh lite lIIajor Italiall (ltofl'al. BUI tltc're' \\a" art uproar: I.IIX, dw l\lilli,;tI'Y [of Defl'use], the c','rb"r,." ' , , TIlt' haltl,· \\a, ori!!irtally "uppo"ed 10 Iit' 1I1lI1'1t 1II0re' irllpOl'lUll1. \Iy idea wa' 10 cTt'alt' art 0\ c'rall piclllre' of Iwliart lti~lol'~ from which Ihe illtii\'idllul 'IOI'~ of I.i\ia SC'I'piC'l'i ari,,'s, a (:Olllllc',.,,,, \\ho i" basic'ally jusI a repre'''t'rllali,,' of a cerlaill cia"", \\hat illlt,!'t"It'd lite' \\a, to tdl a "Iory about it lIIiSlllalla!!C'd war. fou:.:11I by a ,ill!!lc' ..la,,, alld 1'lIdill:': ill a di"aslt· ... lc
TIlt' hi"lorinll ""I)I'c'l
Ahholll,dl IIHlIly uf tilt' ,.,n'llI', Ihat w,'n' related to hi~lorical 1'\'('11'" had actually heen dro),p"" ill tilt' ,.,nipt ~tap:t'. th,' n''';1I1t "a,.; 11I'\l'rtlll'll''';''; political dYllalllit'" Till' politi,'al Hip:ht (C11I·i,.,tiall Dt'IIIIHTah alld tilt' lih) ucclI,.;ed \'isconli of ~Iin'ill~ up tilt' du"tl,ilh of hislory, "hilt· till' Il'flisl t'rilit-s (hut 1101 tilt' C('lIIll1uni~1 party) cOIII)'laillt'd hittl'rly OIlCI' agaill abollt whal Ihl'\' cOlIsidl'l'I'd I,..tra\'al of III'olTali,.,1I1. .\lId tilt' al'lll\. was . , gn'atly off"lIdt,d to sl'e ih (It'f,'ab. C'\"'II if allllOst a c"'lIlury old, 011 ),lIhlic' di"play, Perhaps tilt' lIlililary al,.,o f,,1t Ihat ,,(HilI' of tI ' ,'\'1'11(,.; \'i~('OIl1i depict!'d had a l'Olllwctioll wilh
11101'1'
n'('I'1I1 "\"'lIb,'H\
\\'hell fi~htillg brokt' 0111 ill Italy IowaI'd Ihe 1'lId or LII' SI'i'Olld World War. Ihl' Allil's rl'fll",,'d to hu\(' allY official cI,'alill;!s wilh lilt' part i,.;a 11 " , Itblead. they IIt';!oliatl'd all a;!I'I"'lIlt'lIt wilh till' Iligh (:0111111111111 of till' haliall al'llH'd 1'01'1"',.,. Thi,., prol,'c·tl'd tilt' lIlilitary - "hidlhad liltl\' 10 "ho" ill tile' "ay or Slte'c '!',.,,, I'll I actioll or politil'al illlc'!!rily - frolll havillg to fan' po"t,,·ar Iria\"', \01 ollly wa,., tilt' n'"i";latlc·C' 1110\"'1111'111 i!!lIon'cl. "offi('ial Italy" had 011('1' a!!aill ('hall!!I'd ih allq!iaw'" al all 01'),01'111111' 1II01llC'III. ,\lthough allli-f,b('i,,1 \alllc'" \\"1'1' illC'lIrl'"rall'd ill official rllt'toric' at tilt' 1'lId of tilt' war, tilt' parti"atl 1110\1'1111'111 had as 111111'11 diflinlhy gaillill)! polilic'al recogllilioll. Ih''''pilt, ih roll' ill tilt' lilH'ralioll of Italy, as ltad CarilJUldi alld hi,.; 1111'11. dt'''l'ilt, tllI'ir roh' ill tilt' O\('rt hrow of tilt' BOllrboll
\ 1:-. t. ():\I 1
t'i\ iI ",'ITall!,; of lilt' Fa",'isl period l'OlllillUl'd ill oflin' as if uOlhiug had happt'11t'11. TIlt' AUli-Fa,,('isl Sall('li,1J1 (:oulluitt ..t' was ~O()I1 disbaudt'd awl its lask" Iralhf"ITt'd 10 onlillary l'tIllrt" ('haired IJY tilt' salll" 1111'11 as ill th,' Fas('isl ,wriod,!" .\ltllOul!h tilt' (:OIIlUIIIUist party had participated iu Ihl' (;Ollllllilll'" of :\aliollal Lilwratioll allt! ill tilt' ,'abillt·( aft"J' the fall of Fa"I'i"ul. part y (,ooperatiou ,'alii" Iu all elld aft"r tilt' 19.... X el('ctioll, wheu Christiau D"lllotTali(' Prillw \Iillist,'r De Caspi('ri fOrlllt'd a IIt'W cabiu!:'t witlwul iucludiug (:UlIlllllllli!'lh or Suciali"b, Th!' t'utin' Ll'ft ft'1t it had bl"'1I Iwtntyed, Its 1111'1111)('1'" had fou~ht al!aiusl Fa"ci"m alld helped eslab/i"h lilt' n'IJllbli,', bUI 1l0W the fruits of tllt'ir \'i('lOrit'" \\'t'f(' takell 1'1'0111 tllt'ir hallt"''''' \ t'I ,.,,1111" would ,..ay that "illlplc ,'olllparisolb "llOuld lIot Iit' drawll 111'1\\""'11 tilt' Hisorgill\t'1I1tl alld tilt' Ik,.,i",taw't', Smll" It'hist illtelll't'tuals. for "xalllplc, s,'e tilt' lillt'nltiou ill larg" part a" a pl'opl,:s rnolulioll. lu (;uido Arislal'l'o' S opilliou. 100. Ihnl' is all ,',.,,.,'>1 11 ial difft.n'IIt'" Iwtwl'l'lI tilt' 1\\'0 "\Tllb: lilt' Hi"or1!iIlIt'II10 wa" a 111(/\ ('11 It'll I of lilt' dilt,. lilt' l'arti"alllllo\'t'III,'1I1 was TIlt' l'arli"a11S "alllt' 1'1'0111 alll'arli,'''. illdlldillg lilt' (:hri"liall D,·IIHltTat.-. TIlt' Hi"or1!illl"1I10 111'\"'1' had -11"" 1'''l'lIlar .'III'I'0r\. h i- a pari of a ,·,·rtaill r1l1'lorj,- to "'ai 11 I thal lilt' \\ hilt-
a g"lIl1illl' p,'op":,, 1110\"1'1111'111. which i,.. "'Ollll'thill!! qllilt' diff... n·IIt,
I'ani"all" w,' ... ' a """011.1 Hi"or1!iIlIt'II10 1110\"1'1111'111."1
\\'11t'1'I' tilt' 1\\'0 an' silllilar is tllUt ill bOlh nb'·,., Itah' 10,,1 tilt' opportuuity c1wlIg,' ,."wial si nIt'll Irt'" IlI'l'au",· th,' rulillg clas" or party was primarily illlt·J't·sll'd ill """urillg ih OWIl ,'('olltlJllil' aud political powel'. :\Ild iu bOlh I"h'·,., lilt· gO\'t'I'II1Ut'llt alld tilt:' anlll'd forl'!'s. dt'spit" lIlt'ir ('olll'l'it alld a rrogUllI"'. had slwI,t',·dl'd ollly ill fllrtlll'r d,·~troyillg tilt' t'olllllry whilt, \\'illllillg hollm\ allll Illltil'''''r\'t'd polil it'al vi,·lori,·,,;. SlblJ (:"'Thi ,I' .\lIlil'o, \\·11t'1I a"k"d wllt'IIwr ,.,111' alltl \i"I'Ollli I'olll'"i\t'd tllI'ir lihll a." a "01111111'111 Oil Ihl' politi('al ,.;illlalioll ill Ill(' lal,· war alld po"l\\'ar ~,·ar.-, ,;Iall·d: "I d01l'1 Ihillk s,), .. , \\" J't'ally Ihollght alll))1I lilt' slol'\ i",,·If·,"·~ \\·hal,·\ .... 1111' lilllllllak"I< illlt'lllioll, tilt' IIlilitan. \\"", 1101 p ... ·pan·d 10 al'I"'pl thal killd of 'Tili,·i"'lIl. al It·a,.,t 1101 frolll a "Olllllllllli,,1 t'1'Jt.III'ity, III lilt' filial \,,·r,.,ioll of Ih""'Tipl for ,'-"('/lSII, dlt'l't· i" a "",·IIt· ill \\'llit'h l ""olli oIT.... " lilt' al'llly lilt' 11t'1" of tilt' \ 0111111,·,·1'" Iit' ha" n·tTllil,·d. 11,· ... ·llIilld." all oflit'l'r dHlt all Italial'" ha\,' 111"'11 "IIIIIIIIOlIl'd 10 allla"" a ('oll""li,,' dforl for lilt' fatlIt'r1alld, Tilt· of/in' I'. hO\\,·\,.·1', dailll" Ihal ,.:\pt'ri"III'" ha" ,,1111\\11 \Ollllll"!'r" 10 Ill' of lilll,· I"'" 10 tilt' l'I'glllar al'llly. Billt'l'ly di"ap/,oilll,·.1. I ""olli rqdi.·" Ihal tilt' '·lIli ... · <11'111\. 1'1'0111 C"llt'ral 10
,
-:'1
TilE HI:-OHI,I\lL\TO 1'11.,\1:-
l.alllanllOl"a 011 dOWlI, are Iwr\"OIl"; aholll "Olllllt('('r" alld ,.;illlply wallt to ket'p thelll 011101' hall 11,,";\ Before tilt' r('lea,.;(' of St'lI,W, appHJ'l'lIl1y ";0111(' officiab who had ";('PII H presCfeellillg J'l'l(LIt',.;Jt'd ('{'rtaill ('hHllg(',,; ill tlH' dialogut', alld Vi,,('ollli hHd agreed, BUI afler tht' p\'('llli('n' rill' army dpmallllt,d thal Ih(' ('lit if'(' ";('('11t' Iw delelt'(!. Lux Film did as it was told, It al,.;o agrt'('d 10 c('rtaill dlHllg",,; deIllalHIt,d by till' Office of C('lIsorship lwfort, di,,1 riblll iOIl ('opi(',,; w,'\'(' madt', Tht'lI till' ('('1"'01'" suddellly d,'malltll,d lip to tW('lIly lilO\'(' CUb, AI this poillt. Lux Fillll, ft'arillg that till' ,'ollllllt'rcial ,'iability of till' fillll was ill j,'opardy, pmlt'sled, ,\flt'r a 10llg baltl", till' 1I(lIl1lH'r of cllb was f'('duc('d to 1'0111', ,,-hiell w('n' 1I1t'II lIIad(' s('parat('ly to ,'adl disl rillllt iOIl ('opy, TIlt' t'llb Wt'f'(' short. sOllletilll('" jll:.t a lillt' SlIch a,., Li"i,,',., "Oh Frallz, I Iwg YOII 10 stay" ill tilt' ,,('e III , at ,\ld"lIo, alld Frallz's imllical "SIit' [Li\ia] i:. all Italiall aristocrat" al his lodgillgs ill V('l'OlIa, It i" dirticlllt to IIl1d,'rstalld 1111' poillt of all rllt'se Cllb, ,\"; \'iscollti stall,d: "\\hy clIl half of a Im'" S,','lll' alld It'a\'(' tht' r('st ki,.;"e,,('H
r
Why del"t" jllsl a certaill lIulIIIII'r of
B"CClU"t' part of th(' c"lIsorillg look plH{,(' al Ihi,., lall' "Iag(', HI 1('Wil ,.,Olllt' of thl' ,'lIts could t'\"t'lItllally Ill' 1't'"lort'd 101\10,,1 copi"s 0111'" tilt' IIproar suh"ided - ill fact. SOlll,' copies w,'rt' Idl illla,'t. Bul most of tht' eadi,'r Cllb an' prohaldy lost fort,\,(,r. III addilioll to till' S{,('11I' with l ;""OIli alld tht' onicef. tilt' 1II0st illlportallt loss is probably lilt' firsl half of IIll' SI"'IH' ill which l.i\'ia walks throllgh tilt' streets of \'('lIi,'e ",'archillg for Frallz, Sht' L,'comes aware that Italy i,.; prt'parillg for war alld riit' "ff('CI of Ihis 011 pl'oplt" S liv('s Cl" she :.t'I'S IWW:ipapt'r Iwadlill"s hlarillg tlw II"W"; alld people beillg ("'IWllal"d, The S,'I'II" wOllld ha\(' ('llIpha"iz('d I j,-ia',.; 1)('trayal of h('r id,'als alld iliad" IIw ,'OIlIleCliollS wilh tilt' polili("al {'W'/I'" IIltH'h Slrollg,'r, :\lIotllt'r Sl't'IW thal is :itill lIIissillg 1'1'0111 1I\ally ('opie:. of the tillll is till' 01\(' ill which the ,'Ollllt got',., 10 tlw grallHry Iwfme 1('H\'illg with till' lallOn'rs to 111,1" pili Ollt tilt' fire, "" '\'I'll as tilt' s('ell,' ill which Lw'a, olle of l'"sollr~ trll,.;t!'d 11 lI'lI , I'IHlIt',; to Li"ia to eoll,'ct lilt' 1110111',' left to l.i"ia'" ,;afl'k""pill~""'
Melodrama as ('ritidsm of history \\'hat did I.IIX Fihll !'xp('et~ \'i"collti'" polilind leallillgs Wl'rt' 1'"1,lie'" kllOWII alld hi" ability to rt'prt'sellt tlwlII hy cillelllutic III1'all" had 111'1'11 Illad(' 01" iou,; ill his two tirst fillll,;,'\ppart'lltly the compally wallll'd a "'pI'I'tad,' that would 1)(' ,'usy 10 mark"t alld that ,'",dd "ill a nitically f",'oral.h' n'spolI,,", ('olllbillillg lilt' !!f'Ulld"I',dl-,;tudd,," IlolI\,wood-
\
"l~
I~(.()"
11
It' "pt'('ladt' wilh till' pn·slig.· of all arl fillll director. The llIelodralllalic lopi(' wa~ prohahly tllOu1!ht to Ill' politi('ally Iwulral. and a~ the script was pro.'.·,.,~ .. d ,.,tage by staW' it Iuight ltan' "PIH'art'd that Yiscol\ti was willillg to ('OIlt·.·lIt ra It' UIl till' IOH' "ton', \\'hat was 1101 IIluit-rstood was that \'i";(,(lIIti wa,., going to I"'" llIelodrallla a" a llIetaphor for a radical reilllt'rprt'tatioll of hi~ltlry and the hi"tori('allmckWOlllld to pllt tilt' llIelOdralllatic I!('"tures illto .... iticall't'r,.,pectiw. Pt>rhal's this "illlply could Hot Ill' fon·~(·I'IJ. \'i"colltj's irollY i" I.. :;" apparell! ill tlH' plot thall ill its audio\'i"ual realization, III particular, by mo\'ing away from the literary tir"t -person JlUrra!ion 10 a IIlOre ullj.·ctin· narrat iUII typical of what is ('oll"iden·d 10 Ill' r('ali~ti(' si .\'1(, ill cillt'ma ilH'\'itabh. resulted ill a drastic rethinking of Livia'" moti\'ation,~. alltl in a major chaIl!!e in tilt' halaIlce lH'twet'JI the 1'0111' maiIl character" ill till' lilm. who act as foils 10 olle allOtlwr ill the suLtl .. interplay of irony and lIlelodrallla.~" :\ duI' tu the narrative ~trategy is already provid('d ill the opt'llillg cn·dih. The third act of \'erdi's 11 trol'atore is just about to reach its conclusion at La \'elli('(' tlwalt'r iJl \'('nice, \\'J'itillg appear" on the StTel'lI explainillg the tillle, place. awl pulitical ~ituatiou.~7 The perfurmance has J'('ached tilt' point wllt'rt' the tenor I\('ro. ~Ianric(). ha!'> decided to attack hi~ eJwmies. :\~ if to "pur hi" lIlen to batt"·. Iit' siugs the rousing aria "Oi qllt'lIa "ira." He advaw't't> toward the audience., awl th.· eaJueI'U turns to reveal the spectator:-. for the lirst tiJll" . .\Iunrico· s aria i" ch-arly a lIIessage also to the alldieJl(· ... Ou OJl(' lewl the t('uO[ playing ~Iunrieo ol"'iously Willlh to win ov('r his autiielH.·e. but he is also t'\,okiul! riit' nationalistic selltiJllt'nh of his cOJlJpatriots. As hi!:>lIIen join in tlH' call "All 'anlli!" (to JIIen nJill~ling aIII()n~ tilt' audience who ill their dark tailann,.,). Wt' coab call Iw dearly distiuguislwd frolll the Austrian soldi .. rs in their white cloak!:>. :b tlH' pt'rfOrIlI illto al'plaut>e awl pat rio." 011 tlH' balcollY begin to shout their "Iogau~. Suddenly the air it> tilled Wil h ~n·.·JJ. white. aJl(I red propaguJlda I.'alleb awl bOllqllet:-. of flowers ill tlw ,.,mlle colon;. TIlt' "... ·n'· Iw:-. a d.·lillilt' ba",i" ill hi,.,tory iJl that opera IItH",e,; w,'n' the IJIosl iJllporlUlI1 silt·" of d"1Il0Ihlratioll,; ill IIltluy of tilt' p"uillsllla's eight "talt·" Iwfon' the ullilicatioll. Foreign ru!t'rs w,'f'(' of tell IInabl,' to (,lIrb hurst,.; of Ilatiollali,.,li.· ;'(,lItiJllelll ill pnfonuauc,'s of tlH' iu"piriug works of ('OJllpO"n" ,.,lIeh lb \'.·nli. En'lI hi" lIallH' be('alllt' a slogulI of tilt' royalist slIpporter" of tlte IIl1ili('atioll: I itlorio L:.lumalllu·1. H.· /)i Italia (\'ictor EmmUlluel. lhe killg of Italy). Highl froJ\J it:-. premi .. re. " trol'utvr., Iw('alllt' OJH' of \'erdj'" JIIO:-.t poplllar opera:-. d(..~pilt· i", eOllfu:-.ed libn·tlo. Hegardillg i h (,Ollt radict iOlls. \. i lWI'll t Codd'roy Ita" aptly COllllllt'lIlt'd:
S.·.·
III E H I~()I{(,I \11-.\ TO F 11. \1~
BUI a
SOrl
hi:;wrieal
of oh:;cllrily d,,('~ IH'l"\'ad(' Ihi~ (1)('1'11. pari" h('cawi(' il ~l'(,III~ 10 1)('
yl'I il is 1101 lilt, hislory w(' an'
rl'l'fe"('III('d hy
tall~11I al ~dIOOI: alld I'arlly 1)(,1"l11l"(' ill
jll~1 (',lahli"IIIIIl'1I1 alld a ~dfi~h rel)('lIioll
law alld ord('r an' tlU' harilollP villaill. whilt- tI\(' Il('roi(' 1('1101' i" 011 tll(' ~idt' of Ill('
ils dash IWIWl'('1I
11
tl'OlIble 11 lal.; ('1',... ~o w(' ~l't a tOI'''y-IIIJ'\'y I'i('tllrt, of t.'\"llt", 0111' loyalti('" an' IIli~ directed: 0111' (,Ollll'rt'h"lIsioll IlIisl(,(!. <x
TIlt' prola~olli,.;ts of "ituatioll
ib
:)I:'IISV
appt'ar 10 Iw a,.; l'Ollfll,,('d abolll Ihe hi"lorical
the pw;"illllalt' dlantl'tt>r,.; of" //'Ora/f)re. But thl' poilll i" 11111
,.;illlply that tlll'y art' pn,,.;t'lItt'd a" IIlt'lodntlllatic Iwrol';' ill ('ollflit't wilh reality. Tht' world of 0pI'm alld of"
//'(/1'(//01'('
ill parlit'ldar ";0011 1)('1 '011 It'
parts of tilt' \\'l'11 of nH'taphor,.; throu~h which till' politil'al alld Ih .. "Iwial upheaval i" depicted.
As tht' perfonllallt't' of lilt' 0pt'ra n';'Ulllt''';. it turll" out thal l',;"lIl1i ha" (,Ildt,d up ill jail- just like \Iallrico at Iht' 1H'~illllilll-! of Al'l of of Iht' opl'ra. Thu,; Iht' I'OUlllt'flH1rt of the Ill'roit' 1t'llor ill thi,.; fillll i" 11tH Frallz. tll(' cOlllely 10\1'1". IllIt this hotheaded idt'alist. :\o\\' Iit' hih I-! 0 I hilll"t'lf illlO troublt' hl'Catht' Iit' rt'('kle,;sly challell~I'd Frallz to a dllt'l aftt'r IIt'ari Ill-! his (,Ollllllellt about Italians: "This is Ihl' killd of war Ihal "lIilS tlH' Italialls: sho\\'I'rs of cOllfetti to tilt' soulld of lIIalldolil."." .\" a It'a"er of tllt'patrioh. l',;:;olli ha" 110 hllSilIt'S" I'xposill;!! hilll"I'lf' to
till' t'1lt'lIIy ..\;, \Iillit't'llI \Iar-
t'lb has poillted out. tilt' 1'\'I'lIt "n'I"'I>St'lI(:-; ill a !!t'nllillal form. tilt' militar~ fUlure of thl' t'ntin' "ton': Frallz will tlt't' cOlllllat latt'('
Oil
whil,' l',;solli
will seek nut bard,' agaillst all lIIilitary-blln'alllTatic odds."~" !.alt'r 011. l s"olli'" heroic,.; 011 tht' haltlt'lit'ld of (:ustoza prm'(' wilt' a:; \Iallrico-likt, a,.; hb opt'lIin;!! folly. Tht' fact tllUt " /ro/'(//Of't' Ilt'lpt'd hoosl lIaliollalistic St'lIlilllt'lIl ill Italy lJt'fort· tht' Bisor!!illH'IIIU I-!iw" tilt' irollY yt·t a fllrtllt'r t wi"t ..-.0 l.ivia allll Fnlllz hr,,1 1II!'!'t aft('r tilt' pt'l'fOnllallt't' Iw.- fillally n'slllllt'd: Oil
"tal-!(·' \Iallrico'~ Iwltl\'(,d Lt'ollora i" sill~illg ill 1'1'0111 of Ih .. jail \\'1lt'I'I'
\Iallri .. o i" awailillg t'Xl't'lIIiOIl. For a IIltlllll'lIl. Li\·ia. Fl'Hllz. alld Lt'ollora art' "'('t'lI Ihrolll-!h a mirrol". tilt' fralllt' of whit'h di"apl't'ar" Ilt'yolld tilt' frallll' of tilt' ";ITt·('1I a" tilt' nllllt'ra Il'
tilt' story progn'".-,'''' it 11II'lh 0111 dW1 ,I,
-.', IlIudl Iwtlt'I". .\,.;
',..;111 as \\,1·11 ha\'(' Iwt'lI lalkillg
\ bU).'T1
a" a 1Ilt'IaplHlr for Li,·ia·s ft'elill~s for l'ssolli: tilt' IWO WOJlIt'Il are paralIdl'd bOlh Ily juxtaposilioll withiJl IWO "hots alld a nil from Li"ia to LeoIlom jU,,1 as Frallz has 1llt'IlliOlll'd l ':-,solli'" HlTe,,1 al tilt' vl'ry 1II00Ilellt wllt'lI Ll'ollma i" "ill~ill1! abolll Ilt'r ft'elill~s for Ihl' iJllprisolll'd :\lallrieo ..-.r Blit tilt' real irollY lit'S ill Ihe facl tllal she i,; ullablt, to liw up 10 the stalldards st'l Ily tilt' romalllic Ilt'roilll'. SIit' SOOIl for~t'!!' aluHII IlI'r \lallrico a:; sht' 1I('I"IIIIIt'S irresi"tibly dWl"lllt'd by Fnlllz. Thi" illll'lie" thal sIit' is forsakillg her pulllie allt'~ialwt'''' for I'rinlll' CtIllt't'l"IlS. I jYia i" thell ,,('ell "ayill~ farewell to l·sslIlli. who i" Ileill1! carried illto nilt' ..\s :;ht' lea \"1'". Fmllz folluw" lit'/". SIit' lIIakl's weak atteJllp!!, to get rid Ill' him. bill tllt'y hal'Pt'1l to di,.,cuwr the body of all AII:;I riall soldie/". .lust tht'll a ~roup IIf .\IISlriall ,.,oldit'r" appear. alld Frallz is auft' to act as Livia's prott'ctor by hidill~ her from his t'oulltr~ 1I1t'11. Thus illslt'ad of :'1'1'\'ill~ as a rt'lllinder of tilt' political siluation Ihat should st'parate thelll, tilt' t'\'t'llt St'n't's III III'ill!! tllt'm clost'r togetlll'r. Livia slili Irit'" to rt~si:;t. but as lhe)' walk throu~h tilt' \'l'lIeliall lIight she gradually yields tu tt'lIlptatioll. Sht' suddellly Illt'lIliOIlS Ihal l·s,;olli was Ilot ht'r lowr. Frallz might well Le aware of this. Lut ri~dll frum the IIt'~illllilll-! allllosl {'verytllillg Iht'y say to t'ach other has a difft'rellt fUllctioJl from what their wurd" slIggt's!. Frallz qUlllt's Ilt~illt': "Ti" Lill' judgt'IIIt'llI day/ tht' dt'ad rise to ('(ernal joy. or to e({'rtlal paill'! Wt' si ill I'mbrat'{'. het,tlles:, of all. bOlh Paradise allt! IIt'II:' Bill wllt'rea" Livia reall" lin's. fet'\';' alld lwhan'" ill accordallcl' with Ilwlodralllali(' models, Frallz'" refen'IH't~S 10 thl' romalllic 'it'lltilllt'lllS of llt'illt' art' hardlv ultJre Ihall parI of hi" "t,dW'litlll "Iralt'gy. lie lin's for t~1t' plt'a:;uJ't~ of till' 111111l1t'1l1. Ikfon' lOll;! Livia alld Frallz an' "l't'll IlIgt't!lI'r ill a 1'!'lILt,d rot III I. Tht' sct'IIt' chart,., I ht' pt'rpt'lual ~ilIlH' I11'1 W(~t'1I lilt, wi"h 10 I'o""t''';!') tilt' otilt'r alld till' IIt,t'd III llrailllaill OIlt"S iIIlJqlt'lIdt'lH't'. ",hic" i" a fealure of IllOS1 illtt'/bt' 1IIIIIIilII l't'laliolbbil's ..\ part (If Ibt' l'al1l~nr i,., dral I.ivia·", w(lrd" C(llblalltlv ('lIlIlradi('1 Ilt'r illlltTlllOSI wi"IIl'''; ablllll dlt' 1It>('d 10 (t'nlliwllt' tllI'ir aHair. Frallz kllll\\,s Li,'ia'" IlI't'd,.; 1)('lIt'r Ihall "II(' 11I'1'"t,lf allll is 11111 illll'J't's,.,t,d hy ,,"dl !alk. Tlwir rdalillll,;hip is 't'ry ",illlilar 10 dral of Cill,all/la alld Cillll ill ()ss('ssiIJ/It, ill Ibal il ,,11t"''' lilt' \\('avillg Ill' a web Ill' llt'lm~ als alld ,.,,,If-dt'(·('pliolb. \\hat Li,ia - likt, ,.,11 lIIitlly Ill' \'i"c(lll1i·,., dramclt'r" - wlluld I't'all~ likt' 10 do is III ";It'p 1111 ",idt, limt'. hi,.,llIry. alii I all of lif'to·,.. n'''IHllbil,ililit'''', SIit' "ay,,: ·'11' I 'Ub lold: 'YolI ha\'!' IIl1ly Ihi,.. 111011 It'll I. 1111 IIIIIIOITO\" I wOllld ft,t,l as if a doctor had lold lilt': 'YOII an' abouI 10 dit·. you'Vt' gol ollly a ft'W 11101'1' hllllr,., ID lin': I kilO\\, il i" Inlt'. \\·t' ha'·t' 011" Ihi" IIIOIllt'1I1. 1111 l(lJlI(lITO\\· ... -·~ III otllt'r wllrd,., . ..,I ... "'lld"
lit E IlI:-- () Il (. I \11"," I () I' It. \1 :--
,
,)
likt' to Iit' likt' all opentlil' Ilt'l'Ililh' ,.,iIIgiIll-! all aria. sl'paralill;': Iwr,.,I,lf frolll all al'lioll alld tilt' t'xlI'mal world ill ordt'l' 10 t'OIH't'lIlralt' 011 Ilt'r ft'l'lillg,." Livia is l-!i\'t'1I pn'ciolh ft,,,, IIIOIlIt'IIIS of Ihis killd, l :",,,,olli has scanTly bl'('1I IUl'lwd 0111 of \'I'lIict' ",Iit'll Ilt'r affair ",ilh Frallz IlI'gilh, .\lId tlli,.; affair dot'''' 1101 lasl 1011;': I'itllt'r. ,\fll'r 1101 Ilt'arillg
1'1'0111
hilll for a ft,\\, day,."
she gOt'''' 0111 10 tilt' sln't'b of \'l'lIil'I' 10 lilld him, SIit' faik Fillally. hmillg retllrlled hoult' ill a slalt' of I'XhaL.,.,lioll. ,.,11t' rt't'I'in',., all aIlOIl\IIH1I1S IIIt'S,;agt' "1'1'0111 a yOllllg IlIall" I/'"iug Ilt'r 10 ('Oillt' 10 a t'l'r1aill plan', III Ilt'r excilt'IIlt'1I1 ,.,11t' 11,11" her dUIIlIllI'l'IlIaid sht' illlt'lIds 101('(\\'1' Ilt'r hll,.,halld aud ru,.,lws 10 tilt' IIWt'lillg phll't' - witlt (:011111 St'rpit'ri followillg Ilt'r alld catchillg her jl.,.,' a"
,.;11t' klltH'''''
011
tilt' door of tilt' IlIel',illl-! plal't" l.ivia
cOllfl''''''/''' Ilt'r adllht'fy alld ,.,\\"t'ar,., silt' will It'ml' St'rpit'ri for her lo\'t'!'. Tht' door Opt'II~. allt! Ihl' tilm rl'adll'''' ib lin;! irollil' dillIUX, for il IlInt,., OUI Ihal tilt' Ilwssagl' ha,; t'WIIl' from l :sslIlIi. who has :;I,tT/'IIy r!'llIl'Ilt'd from exilt-, Serpit'l"i thillks Livia ha" simply Iried 101'1'011'1" lilt' palrioh. alld I't'rl'ei\'illg all opl'orlllllily Ill'gills III Ilt'goliall' will, tlWIIl ill o/'dl'r 10 st'I'ure hi" positioll ill l'a,.,I' 1111' halialls should Will, Thallks 10 lilt, lIIisImder"talldillg., Li\"ia',.; lIIuhiple IWlrayal is 1101 I'Xlltls/'tl. alld a Iaq!t' ,.,11111 of 1II0llt'y tltal lilt' palrioh hav/' t'ollt,(,It,d for IIwir call"t' i,., Idl ill Ilt'r saft'kt,t'l'illg, Togelllt'r wilh Ilt'r hll"halld. sht' :;ioll ill ,\ldt'llO. She Ihill""
1110\'1''';
It) ""'ir ('olllllry lIIall-
,,11t' ha,., n't'oH'n,d from Ilt'r ft,t'lillgs ,,"Iit'll Frallz sllddt'lIly
appt'ar" alld successflllly n'killdlt'" Ilt'r 10\'1:', Ili,.; aim.lumt'n'r. i" to ohlaill mOIl('Y fromllt'r ill ordt'r 10 bribe a dOt'lor 10 forgt' a I'erlitical(' dtal wOllld rclint' him uf military. dill\'. . Full\'. ('tJIIs('iolls of lilt' I'Xt!'lIt of Ilt'r I11'1 I'a\'al. . Li\'ia halld,~ lilt' I'alrio"" 1I1OIII'y o\"t'r 10 Frallz, Lalt'r 011. ih 11", 1'01'1 11 11 I'S of war appI'ar 10 "I'pamlt' tllt'm. siit' aballdoll,., Ilt'r hl.,.,I"lItd. Ilt'r frit'llds, alld her ,.;lalll" ill "ot'il'ly alld gOt'S 10 \'t'rtlua 10 Iit' ",illt Frallz, SIll' tillds a dirly. drullkt'lI IIlall who has 10,.,1 all hi" ,.,t,lf-n''''III'''1. an'olllpallil'd by a pn'''y yOllllg I'rtI,.,t il lilt'. Clam. TIlt' S('t'llt' tTI'alt',., \i\'id 1'llIlIrash wilh lIlallY I'arlit'r Oll/'S ill thl' tilm, For I'xalllpll'. Frallz Il'arillg Ihl' veil frolll I.i\'ia'" fat'!' is ill t'Olllra,,1 10 all early ,.,('('W' of IIwIIl 10gl,lIlt'r ill whidt Ill' ;':t'llIly lifb Iwr \'t'il. Frallz Iyillg lilt' lan'" of (:Iara·,., ('or"l'ln't'alls all l'arlil'l' "n'llt' ill whit'h Iit' I it'd Li\"ia'" ('orst'l ill IIlI'il' Im I' 111''';1. AI"o, Li\'ia'" blu('k dn'",.. i,., ('olllras\t'd ",idt <:Iara·,.; ",hill' IIq,dig(:", .-\1'11'1' a IT I. It' I "'I'ldillg of aITOUllb, I.i\"ia gOt'" 10 lilt' ,\Ihlriall Ilt'adqllarl,'r,., alld dt'II01I1WI'" Frallz - tilt' very opposill' of ",hal dlt' sdf-,.,acrilit'illl! I.t>ollora dOl'''' al 1111' 1'lId of" /rol'll/O/'(', Frallz i" illllllt'dialt'''' arn,,,tl'd alld ('XI'I'IIII'd. l.i\ia is 1('1'1 ill tilt' ,.,In't'h ('ryillg hi,.; ltalllt'. TIlt' 111",.,1 illtlllt'di,II" "ff,'('1 "I' ;llldi,,\ i-lIali"ill!!
HII\
fil'~l-pl'r"olllill'rary
\ I:,U)\ 11
lIarratioll i;; dwt it OP"lh up all the character,; ";0 alldi"III'''~ call ~et' allll a,.,:;t',.,~ dWIII for th,'IlI,;"I"",;. The "xpn'~siow; 011 Farlt'y Crall~t'r':; fan' ha\"t' " particularly illlpOrlalll flllwtioll. IlOt ju:;t ill Wlllldilll! out hi:; dlUnlClt'r hut ,,1,,0 in nJll\"l'yill~ tlH' dlt'lIle:; of tht' tilrll. :\or call Li\"ia tillll refllge IH'hilld Iwr narration and cOlltrol tilt' ulltiipWT'" illlpn'';'';ioll of her. The dHlII~I' i,., fllrtht'r I'mpha~izt'd by the fat't that Alida Yalli":-; appparallt'e alld perfontlUlln' depict a totally differelll killd of IH'r"OIl frolll Ihal ill the 110\"1'11 .... She look" IlIllcb older Iban her IW,'lIfy-lwo-y,'ar-old lilerary cOllnt,'rp ... rt. She i,., ~till beallliful. hUI Ilt'ill~ marri,'d 10 a "ollu'wllHl le;;~ dlall dwrtning opporlullisl "IH' ha;; little hope of WlIlallce ill her life. Tbll"; Ilt'r romantic aspiraliolls easily ~aill al "'a:;t ";01111' "ylllpalhy frolll the "pl'clator. Tbis i" ellhallced by h"r \"oic,'-o\"er. whid) for il,., part din','b dlt' audit'III'I' 10 idemify wilh her. As Li\"ia's aClion" LW('OIllI' ill('rea,;ill~ly ~radllally disappear. III Ihe lillll. Livia' s 10\'1' affair i:; 1'111 inlo pI'r:;p"l'li\t' hy her ,.,iding with Iht' paLriOb at tilt' Iwgillllilll! of Ihl' fillll. 11t-!' helrayal uf Ihl'ir cau,.;1' ,,1'1:; till' 10111' of Iwr story anti cn'al('~ tilt' lIIajor IIlt'laphor of the hislorical illtl'rpn'lalioll thal i~ Lwill!! 1'"1 forward. J-It'r betrayal of t1lt'ir ,'(lu"e i" al lir:;1 "ollly" 1Ilt'Iaphorical - she falls ill lo\'!' wilh all ellelllY soldier. \\'110 ha" jll"l had a I'IHlfrolllatioll with a patriot. thl' pn'\"iolls ol,j,~ct of IlI'r adllliraliotl. This Il'ad" her alollg a path of lit's. \\'hidl 1'lId,., "l' ill tllt'literal IIt'I rayal of tilt' patrioh \\'lwlI sill' hallds tllt'ir 1I100H'y on'r 10 her 11e\\·lo\",'r. TIlt' \\'ay Illany of tilt' set'W',; han' 111'('11 "hul gin'", fllrther irolli,' 1'111plw,.;i" 10 die gallle of I,etrayab tilt' prola;!Ullish play. Sf'IIS{) do,'''; !lot 1"I\'e IIHllly ,;llOl/n'\'('r:;I,-"llOt ~t'qllt'IH'I'~. Durill;! tire mu,,1 illlporlallt dialo~lII'''' the illt"r!O('lllor,; cHt' sl'ell logt'lIlt'r ill 1II0,;t of tlJ(' shut,;. Oflt'!l tllt'y do 1101 fat", ,'adl olllt'r Inll ill,.,tead ofkr Iht' Llutiit'lIce a pri\'ile;!t'd vie\\' uf tilt'ir facial exprt':-.,.,ioll';. Abo\'e all. i!l the Ald"lIo ;"et'llI' Frallz',; fa,',' n~\t'al" hi,.; Inlt' fl"'lill;!", 10 tilt' "pl'('lator as Iit' gradually ('oaXl'" Li"ia (0 gi\'t' hilll the 1l101H'y .. \" Iit' spl'ak,.;. he dOl'S 1I0t look al Li"ia: al 1II0Sl. Iit' ;!Ialll'/':-' al Ilt'r 10 du,t'k \dlt'tllI'r hi,.; \\'(Jl'fl,., an'ha"ill~ Ihe desin'd I'Ht't'1. .\" Iit' tillally eli"i", fro 11 I Ilt.'r the su~gl''''lioll of bribillg a dot'tor. Frallz a~k,;: "Do you Ihillk I ('Ollld do "Ollll'llrill!! "0 dt'''picabl,'(·:.:I ,:1'111' "'pe('wlllr allllO,..1 ".\P''I"IS Li\'ia to all»\\'l'r: ·-Y .. "." TIlt' .. xpn's"ioll 011 Frallz·,.; fat'1' ";1I!!g"",,,, Ihat Ill' IlIi;!ht \\'1'11 atTl'pt thi" as tilt' ril-dJl all";\\'l'r. TIlt' \\a~ \'i"nlllli tt'lb thi" story n'II"t'(S IH,dl a ;!l'lluillt'ly "Ylllparilt'lic alld a "t"'l'r"ly lTili('al \'i,'\\' of l\r .. pWla!-!olli,,(S alld is ulldoulllt'dly 1'11111I1'(,tt'd with hi,., 11H('k;!l'Olllld as a IIlarxi,,1 of UI'i.~I'l('rali(' d(':-'/>"II1. H,' had
It Iit''' I iOllahle. I he \"oice-oVt'rs
a IIl1iqul' ability 101'1'I''''l'lIt a,., III1,lt'r"lallllal,1t- alld 10,'al,l .. "\t'1I tlIO"" dlal'a('I!'I''; \\,ho'i(' ~('lfi-III\(,"" 1"'11'''' ;.1 ,,,,d "'pl"ilatioll of otlWI'- '1('1' tllf' I ..
Till,: H b 0 H (. 1\I E " T () I, 1I. \I :--
p:et,; of lIis 1Tltlt'ISIII. Livia alld Frallz's IWlrayab an' paralll'l(,d by lilt' n'\'l'lalioll IlIal lilt' \'alw'" dwy an' "lIppoSl'd 1o Ilt' fip:hlillp: for - lIaliollal pride, lIIilitary ~.dtlry - 1111'11 0111 (() I,,' fal";I', All Ihi,.; "Yllil'i,,1II is 1'01111'1,,mt'lItl'd by, I ht' " IOn, , ,., alldiovi"lIal fl'aIIlH'", 011 0111' In'l'l. 1111' 1'1"'01 \:-;1 1'111'lioll of a hi;;torical era sl' ..n's a,., all ,'\I'IISe 10 [t'\'I,1 ill 1111' "IIt'I'r "ealllY of
tilt' illlagl'''', till' p:lowillp: color,." alld tilt' gOl'gl"HIS lI11bil'. all of which an' ti~dltly illtl'grated illto tht' overall di",,'our,.,t', You",.,t'!' Ishap:hpour ha,.; "lIg-
gbteJ that for \'iSCOllli, "0101' i" "a way of 'TI'alillg a differelll world alld rewalillp: its 'lIa,'o\lJ'.' ib illlt'l'IIaIIOllalily,"-'~ TIlt' Illllsic ill Ihl' filII!. extracts frolll lilt' lir,.,1 alld s('colld 1110\'1'1111'11'" of BI'Ill'kner's Sevellth Sylllpholly, 1'lIlpha,.,iz,'" Li,'ia',.; ft,t'lillp:,.;, TIlt' 01'1'11illg of tht' symphony is hl'ard as sht' walb through lilt' \'l'lIi('I' lIighl wilh Frallz hOI 011 her ht'l'J,;. The Ih"IIIt, Oil tilt' I-'n'llI'h hoJ'll, ri"illg fro 11 I a sIring t"l'lIlolo, leads 10 lilt' lIlaill 1I1t'1I1t' of thl' sylllpholly, a warlll, 1"'011.1 melody Oil the cl'lIos, Sl'lISUOlh alld 1'1111 of 101lgill/-!, TIlt' saillt' e,xI ra,'1 is Iward at lilt' t'lId uf Ih .. \'ellil'" Sl'qlWIICt', a" a gl'lItly irollic
('011111 It'll I Oil
Li\'ia'" romanl'e as l'""olli "ay"': .. \\" han' 110 righl", Li"ia, ollly dUlies, We han' to forgel ollrsl'h,''''' Li,ia, I do 111)\ Iwsiwtl' 10 sOlllld pOlllllt llb, ,b Ita'" is al war, It is our war, ollr n'\'oltllioll."~'~' First whl'lI Liyia decide" 10 lean" 111'1' IlIIslwlld allll agaill "hl'll sht' d,'cid"s 1o forget abolll till' palrio!;; - al Ihe t'lId of Ihl' \"'Ilic,' alld lilt' Aldl'llo "e'llwllcI'S - a dralllali .. passa!!,' frolll Ihl' dl"l'lol'lII('11I sectioll of tilt' fir,..1 1l1O\'t'1I1t'1I1 call Iit' IlI'ard, startill!! wilh lilt' ill\'('I'siOIl of 1111' 0Pt'IIill!! bar,.. alld I('adill!! 10 a turllllkllt tn'alllll'Il1 of Iht' mall'rial of tlw maill 11 It'1I It', III 1111' \'l'lIi('l'';''''I)(', a,.. ,..11t' alld Ihe 1'011111 ('1111'1' tilt' palrio1;;' hidill/-! plac,', lilt' nllhi .. dil''; oul ,'omplelt'ly, Ilt'r fl't'lill!!,.., Wo, Ilavl' died - or ,,0
,.,11t' Ihink", OtlH'r ('xlraCh from lilt' fir,,1 1II00('nll'lIl of tilt' "'YIIII'IIOII)" an' ubo Iward ill ~Cl'III'~ ill whil'll Li,"ia i~ alolll' wilh Ilt'r fl,t'lillg,.., ,\fll'" siit' Il'uYes Aldello for !!oOlI alld Iran'''' ill Ilt'r dos"d I'arria/-!t' Ihrollgh lilt' military lillt's, 11 ,.;t'ril's of "llOn I'Xlral'b i" IlI'ard, whil'h 1'0111.1 I)t' illll'rprt'lt'd
,lOo
all ('xprt's"ioll of h,'r ~Ialt' of lIIind - allllOlI!!h lilt' fra!!"lt'lIlalioll
IIli!!hl jll"l Iit' a 1'01"'1'(1'11'111'1' of 1111' "Xlt'l",i\I' \'Illlill!! lilt' film "uH('n',1. Tht, n:lracb frOlIl till' ,..(,I'olld IIIO'Tlllt'lIl of Bnll'klll":" sYlllphollY art' ('WIIII'I'I\,d almo,,1 (',xd",.;i, ('''' wilh tilt' 1110111,'111" tlwl l.i\ia alld Frallz ha,"" 10gt'tllI'r. TIll' fir"t is IlI'ard ill tilt' "lIi,dll ill \ "lIin:' ,.."1'111', aft('" IIlt'y 1,,1\(' ('",'apt'd bt'ill)! 1I01il'l,d I,y 1I1t'\1"'lriulI gllard,.;, TIlt' 1'01lllil'I IIt'IW"t'1I tilt' lIol,ility of tilt' lIIu"ic alld tilt' d"l'nl\'(,d 1II0Ii",,, of till' jtl'lllagollish i,., Oil" of tilt' lIIajor "lrtll'llIral "OIIlPOIII'lIb of tilt' fil III , TIlt' IIlIlsil' brill!!~ 0111 Li,ia',.. ft,,'lill/-!'" alld Iit'll''' thl' ,"inn'r idl'lIlify wilh 111'1' 1'lllIlallli,. 101l!!illg, Tht' 1('lbiOIl IH'I'\I'''I' flit' 11I'1,!!i.'. ;)11" .Ill' dt'''l'nd:tlioll l'I'a.-l ... " il,.. pI'al.: ill
· ii
\ ISUlY!!
tilt' "1'1'111' ill .\ldl'lIo. 0/11' lIighl Frallz suddellly appears ill Livia's bedroOIll allll gradllally si art,., sl'dllcillg 111'1' again. The gently can~ssillg lIlusic, 10gl·tllt'r with the rolllantic settillg, evokes ft·t'lillgs that for Livia appear to offn a gl'llllilW altl'rtlalllc extract is Iward agaill dllrill/-l till' closillg tirIl's, ju"t after Frallz has 111'1'11 "ho\. \'iscollti's style has oftI'll lll~I'1I chanU'terized a!'> "operHli(''' or "IIIe1odralllatic'" ofwn usillg till' word" loosl·ly. without IIllll'h cOllsideratioll uf what i,., ul'tllally at iSSllt', III allllost all of \'i"WOllli's fillll"" at least SOliit' of Ihl' diameter" illdul/-lt' ill 1II(·lodralllatil' gt'stlln'~ with which Ihe alldiclH't' is, 10 a .I q.:TI'I' , ill\'ited to idt·lItify. At rIll' "a III I' tillW, rite characters an' illlllllillatt·d by th .. floodlights of irollY and then·by "hmul ill the dear pl·rspl·(·lin· of the gin'lI historical and "ocial "itllatioll. III -"eIlSO, the can'flllly 1'01111'0"1'.1 color SclWllI1' and rIll' lIubic ITeall' an atlllosplwn' of ,.,1'11slIality alld 1'lIwtioll that gin's cn·dew'l· hoth to Liviu's pri\a\t' alltl 10 l ",,,olli's pul,li,' aspiratiolls, Yet tllt';.(· IIwlodralllulic fl'allll'l'" an' kt'!,t in clwck 1,\, Ihe "t'II"I' of dt'tadlllwllt n(·all·t! L\, Ilw ('alllt'J'il work - rIWH' are olllya \'I'ry 1'1'\\ !'oillt-of-\-il'w "ho.,., alld 110 actual l'IO,.,I·-II!'" - alld abo\-t' a!1 by rIit' alltirolllHlltic story lilw wilh all ir;; irollic twi"ts, The lell,.,ioll IwtwI'1'1I rllt· IliIllllling \-i"lIallwallty and rIit' son lid slory i,., a part of rill' slralt';ry, wllidl IUl'lb a plot illvohill/-l a fn' characlI'rs illto a lIIl'tapllUr for I't'rlaill hi"torical ('\1'11"", III this way, Livia alld l'''SOlli'" a"piratiolls an' IIladl' to appl'ar illtellst·ly II10piuII allll dt'ceptin', .111,,1 11t)\\- 1,IalHlIt Livia's self-dt'I't'ptioll is ht'('OIlU'" al'parcllt wl ... 1I Frallz l'UiIH'" 111'1' 10 /-live hilll till' IIIOIWY Iit' m·l·d" to hrilw a do(,tor, The 1"l'n'""iulI" 011 hi,~ fal'c, ,,1'1'11 I,y till' audil'IU'I' hut IWI by I.ivia, 1'"1 tilt' IIl1'lodrallta ill a fan·icalli/-lh\. The fanT ahllo,,' O\Tn'OIlW,; tlH' lIIelodrallla aftl'r I.i\'ia del'idl'" 10 ;ri\«' hilll till' patriob' 1I101\t·y, ,\" Frallz nawls 011 till' tloor IIt'ar I.i\ia'" 1'1'1'1 10 1'0111'1'1 coills alld jt'\\'t'I" drol'pt'd frolll till' box, 111'1,,"""1'''; "Oh lily I'0or. dl·"lwral,·lwlo\,('d, In'u"un', In'a"urt"I'0or tn·a"un· ... Li\ ia'" allxil'IY, IU)\\I·\t'r. I'n"I'lIb till' "1'1'111' 1'1'0111 di""oh-illf( ,'olllplt-II·I, illlO fa 1'1'1', \ klodrallla a lid i I'llIlY ih ill'~tllI'l i,' ca ft'f(oril'" an' oft "11 "1'1'11 a" I'0lar Ol'l'o"ill'''. ,b Zdzi"law "ajder ha" put it. "\\hill' Illl'lodrallla hlow" ul', iroll~ dl·tlall·","-", Allw ... lkl'lllt'llllak(·" a "illlilar di,.,tillt'lioll; III a tl'ag"dy
tilt' I'rolagolli,,1
COlbl'ioll"l~ or 1I11"OIl""iou"ly wilb alld t'i1ll"1'" hi" OWII
Iit-"Inwlioll \\Iten'a" ill Illl'lodnlllla Ili" dowllfall i" 1"IlI'o,·d I,,' all all'a~o-
J liE HI:-;oHCI\IE\TO FII.\I:-;
lIist. The differellce /wtwet'lI IIlt'lodl"
1)(' set'lI as tilt' joillt illtlUt'IICt' of Yt'nli alld (:llt'kho\'. tilt' Venli-illspin'd f1lt'lodrallla Ilt'illg cOllstalltly cOllstraillt'd by refillt'd (:llt'khO\"iall irollY, Chek ho\", too, moves adroitly belWt't'll lIIelodrama alld farcl', Whl'lI \' oi /1ibky, al Ihe elld of tilt' third act of { '1Ic1.· I ([11.1'0, Irit's to shouI SI'n,briako\", his IIwlodralllalic g:t',.,Wrt· allllo,.,t dissoht'''' illto fan'l' whell Iit' shollts "Ballg' , UpOIl pullill/! Ihl' Irigger alltll'allwlically llIiS"I'''' hi" largt·\. \"1'1 thl' "illt'erity of his dt'sl't'ralio/l pn'\Tllh tht' farcical aspl'cl fro 11 I lakillg o\"er t'lItireh-,;·1I III St'IIS0, Li\'ia Ilt'han',., likt' Iht' Iwroillt' of a IIwlodrallla, which 1"1.lIis Ilt'r to Iit' tIlt' dllpe ill a fan'., IIl1til "he lillally IlI'colII"s tilt' agt'II1 of Frallz's alld lillally of her 0\\"11 trai'dc dl'strllcl iOll, \It-allwhilt' lSSOlli'" Ilt'wislII i,., dl'lIil'd tilt' digllily of tragt·dy alld is rl'ducI'd to poilllIt'ss alld "ill\" farct' 011 tilt' batt"·field al Clhloza, As ill tilt' C1wkho\' t'XaliiI'll', Iheir IIwlodralllaric dt's/It'nttioll pn·\"t'lIts lilt' irollY from lumillg illto 1T11t'1l\', TIlt' resltit is whal ['ollld Iit' rdt'ITt'" to as mel()drafl/atic r/'alislII, a modt' of pn'st'lItalioll that gin's filII ....I'dellct· 10 tilt' ft't'lill;.!;" alld I'a,.,~iolls of Ihe characlers, allowillg Ihl' vi.'wer to idt'llIify wilh lilt' characlt'r whill' kt'epillg tilt' illlellt'Clllal. Ihl' critical 1111111 .. ill COllstall1 operaI iOll,
Youssd bhaghpour ha,., poillll,d 0111 that
tilt' illllt'rt'llt It'lIsioll,, ill tilt'
slylt' of rt'l'n'St'lIlatioll ill SI'IIS() grow frolll tilt' OPIH,,.,ilioll of 0pt'ra alld 110\1'1. bOlh as rt'latt'd 10 historY: Opera
J,.,hal!hpollr St't's lIillt'lt'I'1I1 h-I't'llIury 0l'l'ra a,., a I ,ulIrl-!l'oi:; al'l forlll, which ill thl' la", il"'laIlCt· i,., dl·lIi.·d by history gllidt'd by bOllrgl'oi" n'volul iOIlS, 0l't'ra I!an' tin' to a tll'\'t'lopnll'lIl thal IlIadl' I hal lire appI'ar illu"ory, A,; lhe ct'lIllIry won' 011. tilt' dWSllllwtwl'l'lI "ideology alld rl'ality, lIIagic alld di"I'lIciwlltlllt'lll"" I!rt'w t'\"I'r widl'r, a tlnl'101'"1I'1I1 Ihat was 10 all l'xll'lIl n'cord,'" ill "1I'~rt'al Fllropl'HII rt'uli,.,1 1111\"1''''-
\I~C()\TI
All ill all. Ill(' opposit iOIl Ilt't Wl'l'lI Ilwlodrallla and realism is used as a "(Tl'ativt:" potentiar' to produce a cilwlllatic aw;wer to tire hermeneutical I'rol>ll'lI\ of reconstitutin/! the temporal horizolls of a past era ill a way t hat will Ile accessiLle and rneallill~flll ill terms of our OWII temporal horizoll awl sellsihilities. The meallillp: of the battle ~cellt' in the film - as it exi~ts - nlll aJ,so he appreciated frolll this point of view. Its "lIovelistic" attelltioll tu detail. tilt' sell ill/!. and action hardly carTY the plot forward bill they do prm'ide a spectadl' in which idt'alislll ill tilt' public sphere takl'lI illlo melodramatic extremes dashe" violt'lIIh-. with the realit\'. of dealh. disa"tl'r. ami defeal."" It i" illlllwdiau'l\'. followed b\'. a similar l'unlIil't ill 1111' pri\'ah' "phen' a" the IIw"till~ uf Li\'ia alld Frallz demoll"trates till' emptiness of hoth emutional alld hcdonistic e/!occlltrism. of illh'lIectual di"honesty awl cynicism. which I'itlwr knowingly or through sdfdeceptioll nq~ate all cOIllIllunal values. All this amounts to a refutat ion of the world of upera in the most lovingly operatic llIallllt'r conceivaLle. In cont rast to lissolli's idealism. Franz'!> C\nicislII allows him to sce beyond the official values of his class and society. 10 criticize tit(' ,.('ulpolilik of natioll-states, alld to see with darity till' human !>ufferillg they caust'. It also helps him to see Iwyoml J'Omalltic illll!'iiolls. Ill' is prt'pared to exploit tllo"e myths. hut ht' sillks into Iotal llihili:;lIl and is destroyed from two quarters. \rIit'll we first llIet't Frallz. Ill' i~ cUIlvillCl'd that livillg for 0111" s OWll plea:;urt's i!> tht' rip:ht dling for a llIall of his cltarllls to do . .\t the elld uf tI\I' fillll. Iwvinp: n'linqui"hed the cude of honor uf hi" dass alld milk ami hm'ing pro!>titllted him!>elf.lw has lost hoth his social standillp: and his "t'lf-n'''IH'ct as 11 nlall. l'nlikt' Li\·ia. he i!> unahlt> tu hid!' his dl'gratiatiull frolll hilllself. Durillg his last hours. however. Frallz at lea"t appears to understand the l~ntirt' historical :;ituatiull. He poillt:; out to Li\'ia tltat the victory of his (,OIJllt rylllt'lI at Custoza is futilt' as ··tltey will lose till' war anyway. And llot only the war. III a few yt~ars. the wholl' of Austria will (,Olllt' to an eIld. :\ml an entirt' world will disappt'ar. the 0111' ill which you alld I LdOII/!. " h i In t1wir dinen'llt ways. IlIlth Franz aIld Livia haw alll'lIIpll'd to "h'P olltsid,' hi"tor\'. awl to !lliwl t1H'lIbe!n'" moralh·. l'ither h\' decisioIl or . . dl'ceptioll. to till' way t1wy exploit lIdwr 1'1"01'11' in dedicating tlwmsl'lw" to hedonism 011 hi!> part. to romantic fanta",il':- on hers. Paradoxically. tltis shanwll''''; I'ur!>uit of "elf-illten'",t t'pitollli.le" the n'ry lIature of till' Iti,,(urical evellts illt'xoral,ly IlI0Vill/! along in the l,al·kgruulId. On dw strengtlt of this metaphorical t"II:-ioll. tlte fil/ll tnlll!>Cl'luls both the hi,.,torical context it depicts awl that of it;, /IIakillg and opens the possihility of \'il'\\'ill!~ it frolll 1'\'('1' IIt'W Itorizoll.~ Ill' ,'Xlwctalillll.
TilE Il I ~ () H C I \I L :\ I () I· I I. \I
~
tI 1
l's,;olli is ill IllallY \nlY,; Frallz' S cOlllllt'rpart ill thi,; pallt'J"Il. III hi" rolIIalltic idealisJII alld lIatiollal s,'1I1 illH'llt. Ill' J"('l'rt':i"lIb a risillg tiJI' ill EUl"Ol'eall history. Ihe hllal Sla!!" of Iht' forlllatioll of Ih,' lIatioll-stalt's ht'fore tilt' First World War. Blit till' ra!!illg war i" abolll a IIl1l1'h lIIorl' acutt' strugg!t' for I'0w,'r alld ,'collolllic illt"("l'Sh. l',;solli' s "lII'rgy cOllld w('1I s,'rn' as a drivillg forc!' Oil Oil" :-idl' or till' oth!'r ill this ("(JIIt1ic\. W{,!"t' it 11111 for hi:; hlilld idl'ali:illl. which lea\"(',.; hiJII wilhollt 1'0\\"1' rfll I allies. \-llleh lik,' Li\"ia. Ill' filld,; hi,; acliolb I'atlll'tically at "arialll'" wilh till' factors thal ultilllalt'ly go\"c .... till' "iluatioll. Thu,.; the olll\" OIW who ,;uryin',.; Ihl' hi"torind "\Tllt" IIIbcatlll'd i,., COIIIII Sf'I'l'il'l'i. III till' lH'gillllillg. Ill' i" ,,""11 1'01l1'Iillg Ihl' l"ayOl' of till' .\II"triall rlllers: ,'\idt'lIt1y Iit' i" a ("('slll'ctl'd 1111'111111'1' of Iht' ,',.,lahli"IIIIII'1I1. \\'111'11 Li\'ia accidt'lllally I,'ads hiJII to tilt' patrioh. Ill' ha" a III'W challc,' to rl'\"t'al his II"Ut' nature. III blatalltly opport IIl1isl fa"hioll. Iit' ,;Iarts 10 IlI'gol iall' a deal wilh l'S"IHli shollld \'t'lIil'l' aClllally 11I','olllt' pari of Italy. 1I is It'ft to the ";I't'clator tu J"('ly 011 hi" or 111'1' kllow!t'dg" of history 10 p;rasl' tilt' full irullY of till' settill!!: Irn',,()I'ctin' of till' I'fforh of Ihl' idt'alists. a III'W Italy \\ill Ill' fUl'lllt'd for the IWlwht of opporlullist,.; slIch as SI'l'l'it'l'i. Likt' tilt' polilil'iall" of his "Ollllll'y. Ill' illtelld,; to sil 011 tht' ft'lIc(' IIlltil till' Willlll'l' el1l1'q.!6. Illwl"estillgly "lIollgh. Ihollgh Iit' i" a cnll'ialfi!!II("(' fl'oJII tilt' poillt of \'i"w of Ihe histori,'al iJltt'rl'n·tatioll PUI fonnll'd ill tl ... fihll. his rol,' i;; fairly "lIIall- Yisl'ollti \\a,., al"'ay" 1110('(' illtl'l'('stl'd ill tilt' \'HIIlJllisllI'd thall ill tI ... \.ictorl'>, .. ~ The jllxtapositioll of tilt' two 1I ... lodnllllali,' dWnlclt,l's. Liyia alld l'ssOlli, reH'aI" that Ihe great tIollrish Hi,.;orgilllelllO was I'Olldllt'tt'd w('n' like Sel"pieri and the \'8llity of tht, "illt'lIIati .. III ea 11:. Cralll~chi' s \i,'\\'
alld tilt' Walld gt'"IIII'I';; with which tlH' a 1111'1'1' \"t'il 0\""1' tilt' aYaricl' of "I'oplt' IlIilitary, It i" a way of arliclllalillg by I hal tilt' Hi,;orgillH'lIto wa" a takt'oVl'r
by all "Iitl'. not "y riit' IlI'oplt', III tilt' ,.,,','11" hl'hilld till' lilll':' durillg Ihe "attlt" peasall(,.; an' ';1'1'11 workillg d""pilt, thl' lIIilitary IIHIlIt'II,"!'I"" lakillg pial'!' around thl'lII, Accordillg to (;uido :\ri,.,larco, thi~ ~JIIall detail i,; ,'xln'IIH'ly sigllificalll: "Politi,'" of powt'r nHllillUt' hilt it dot'Sll'1 bOlher Ihl'lII, It is a~ if tlH'y Wt'n' sayill!!: 'You do whal YOII wallt. gt'IIt1"lJIt'lI: il do,'" 1I11! cO/lt'enl I.,." It i" Iltl! our war,' "h.1 Cuido .\l'i"wn'lI was Oil" of SI'IIS()'" 1110,,1 ard"1I1 ';111'1"111,,1''' ill tilt' d,,I,atl' ill whil'h \'isl'ollli \HI:- al"'I.,.",d of lH'tI'Hyill!! 1I,'on'aIi,,1I1. TIlt' story \\"a" 1101 tak"1I frolll ,'olll"lIIporaI'Y n'alily, alld tilt' fillll \\"a,; audim'isually "pll'lIdid, particularly ill 1'''lIll'al'i~1I11 wilh IIl'orl'alisl filllls, Ll'ftisl illll'l"'I'tllab "Iill a,.;",wialt,d Ili"tori ...d Ih"IlIt',; alld op,'rali,' lIIalllH'rislll" wilh F.1~,'i~1 .. ill"llla. ~""lf'dlill!! dl;ll 1H'III't'ali,,11I had i'\III't'~,..h "lIlf!!hl 10
\ 1:-;(.():\1I
(I. )
0_
I·Olllltt·r. :\ristal,(,O ar.!!!II·d that Se/Iso wa" all illstalll'l' of lIt'on'ali~1II lil'velopillg illto l'I·ali,,1l1. with sllrfal'l'" d,·t'\)t·lIill~ ill to allalysi,.;. Blit IH' was IIIWhll' 10 t'OIl\'iIlCI' Ihe 1110,,1 vocal critics of lhi" \'it'w., ",;pel'ially (;psarl' Zayall illi alld Luigi ( :hiarilli. '1'111' 1'01'111('1' daillled Ihal ollly cOIllt'mpomry alii I ,;ocially rt'It'\'all! "ubje"h could I·ducatl' the publi,' alii I stir il!i political l·oWiI'iou;,IH·";". The lall"r lhoughl that all t'xl·I.',;,;in' Cillt'1llatic ;,t)'l(' would dro\\'I1 out allY political or IlIoml 1I1I'!'i,;a~,' a fil1ll lIlight Iif' l'Oll\'t'yilll!'''~ Thnl' i;, a d"gn'" Ill' 1I\0mli!'illl ill till'SI' argullu'l\ls: failh ill asCI'! ici,,1ll as a pn·!'I·lJui"itt· of fi,klily 10 rl'alilY. 13uI .....·Pl/SO. which i!'i rt'aliy a lIlereiles!'i nit iqul.' of IIl1'lodl'alllati(' gl':iltln'~. is effl'clin' pl'l'ci"dy IJI'nlll!'ie tin' !'il)l"'talOl'. too. g"h 10 shan' till' lun' Ill' f"l'lillgs alld ",·IlSatiolls.
TilL LLOPAHJ)
Heassessing
tlll~
HisOl"giuu.'nto
Dt':ipill' till' I'lltllllSiu";lI\ for IIl1ificatioll ill I'('rtailllJuarters. il wa" 1101 ,',bY 10 achil'H' a political alia "ocial ullioll of till' t·ight. hi~hly diwrsl' slate" of tilt' Italiall pl'llin,;ula. Their "tag"" of ,.;ocial,Jt.n·10(l1l11'1It nlried fl'tllll till' fairly achalll't'd lIorth 10 tilt' basically t't'udal Bourboll goVt'J'JI1I1"lIt of tilt' h:illgdolll of Ihl' Two Sil'ili,·s. Territorial c1ai1lls. a" well a,; the "olllpl"'xity of ethllic backgroulI(k gUH' ri,.;t' to ('lldl,'ss debates abollt whidl an'a" Iwlollgt·d 1o a ullili,·d Italy. TIIt'I'I' were al,.;o dis(llll""; alld pn'judi('e,; alllOllg till' pa/'lwhial-lIIilldl·d pro\·iIH·e,.; ...·-· \losl of lwrtllt')'IJ Italy joilll'd thl' Pit'dnwllll',.;1' h:illgdolll ill IHhO as a /'I'SIlIt of till' ilhlll'f'l'l·tiIJII~ "parkl'd by till' war Iwtwl'l'lI Fmlwl' awl :\u"tria Iht' pn'\'iOlb yl'ar. Tht' d,'ci"in' ('Y"llb Il'adillg to cOlllplett' llllificatitlll hegall wlll'lI Ciu",'pP" (~urillUldi. with SOillt' tlwll"allll Illell kllOWII a" till' H"(J"hirt,,. lallded ill Si"ily ill W(IO. Thollgh humble. perhaps ,'WII qui I,' :;irnl'it-. thi" dHlri"IIIHlil' "HIli was abh· to rai",' all army that dllrillg its brief l'Xi"t"lu't' was allllosl im'illt'iblt·. Caribaldi'" fit-ry spirit lIIip:itl haw It-d to 1"'1'1 11 HI It'll t /'t'"IIIt!'i had the Pi,·dllloJlII·,.;t· I'rillll' lIIilli"II·1'. COUIII (:alllilk (:"'0111'. IItl1 rorgl'd tllt,,,t' rt'pllblit'
l "illg
1J1I(·"h.
(:<1\'0111'
TIlt' ,·II·I·tioll resul", Wt'/'I' t'lblll'l'd by "lIl'pn'"sillg tilt' p/'('~" lH'hilld Ihl' ol'l'lhitillll allclt,\, lI"i',~~ ,·I'·I·lioll rUIII·li"lIarit·" whohacl ,WOi'll ;11\ tI
TilL HI:; () H L 1\1
r
\1
(j
~
11. \1 :-
loyalty to tilt' kill~ alld who did 1101 1'\"1'11 pl"t,lt'll\l 10 Iit' illlpHl'lial. III tilt' fac(' of a ci\il war. Caribaldi halldl'd hi,., \il'loril'''; OWl' 10 tilt' kill;! of Pit'drrlOlltl', Thi,.; ~a\'(' mallY rt'\'ollll iOllaril'''; alld !'t'plIl,lil'all'" all I'XCII,.,(' 10 10 Ih(' royalisl ,.,idt',""
~witch
For
tilt' ro\'alish, who fOI'lllt'd "official Ita"," Caribaldi 1I0W 1)('t'11111t' , .
a IIlt'n' 11 ui,.;alIt'(',
By Ihl' 1'11.1 of Ihl' ullificatioll prol'I',.,,.,. his adlil'\'I'IIII'III";
w('n' 1II0rt' or It'ss dl'lIied, Forr IIt'r 1'llt'llIil'" sudl a,.; tilt' \I'apolitall royali,.;t:-. wI'rt' Irealt'd Iwtlt'r thall Cari\laldi'" \Ohllllt'I'r", who";I' SUCI'('S"I'''; had 1)('('11 all I'llIbarnbSlllt'lIt to tht' Pit'dlllolllt'SI' ~('llt'ra"'- SOOIl till' lIIaill fUIIClioll of lilt' army was
10
'111t'1l illtt:'rrwlullrt,st. alld ill tlli,., n'sllt'ct tilt' \I'apolitall
IlI'lIdllllt'1I had bt'III'r tTt'dl'lIlia\'" thall Caribaldi·,., lroop"', By lilt' tilllt'
1111'
sit lIat iOIl was fillally brou~hl ulldl'r SOliit' 1'0111 rol ill I B().). lIItU'I' soldi('rs had dil'd ill this turllloil or as a n',.,ull of di",(',h(' Ihall ill thl' aClual war for ullifinlfioll."Bisorgilllt'lIlo did 1101 n'"ult ill allY ,.,il!lIilit'1ll1t "ocial dlall~(" \\"llt'rt'Hs lilt' old "ocil't)" had 11t'('1I ~O\('nlt'd by th(, ari,.,tonacy. tllt'y
wt'("('
1I0W
"'(llalt'd by tilt' hllll/e-I)()Ilf;!{t>ois I'lIricllt'd by illdust rializalioll. TIlt' lIIo"t illlportallt clas"I'" of tilt' IIt'W stalt' w(>n' lilt' bi;! lalld()\\lIer,., - ilItT,'a,.,illl-\ly tilt' bOllr~I'oi,., - alld tilt'
lilOI'('
st'lIior I'i\il sl'l'\allh. :\lthough SOliit' of lilt'
IIH",I gloriolls yictori('s of Iht, Hi,.,or~illlt'lrto had 11('('11 worr by pl'Hsall1 folk rdH'llillg a~aillst the lalldowllt'r".
1111' IH'W political sitllalioll was solidi/it'd
by s,'curirrl! tilt' 1'0\\'1:'1' of tilt' lalldowlH'rs. III tilt' south. pO"I'rty was a,.; rampallt a,., (',,('r ami ('roded tilt' ,.,ell,.,1' of lIatiollalullity jlbl as il had dOllt, dlll'ill~ thl' Bourboll n'~illlt'."a III fac\. I'\'('ll at tilt' b('~illllill~ of tilt' lI)h()s
- illdt'('d. ('\,ell toda\' - tht' di\'isioll l,elw!:'t'lI tilt' lIorth alld tilt' south was slill as del'p as it had ht't'lI at the lillle of tilt' Hisor~illlt'IIIO. Sicily',., lalld rt·form of till' lI):)Os had failed. alld lIIon' alld IIlon' Pt'OP'" wt're lIIo\'ill~ from rural an'as
10
riit' cilit's. frolll tilt' ,.,olllh to tilt' 1I0rlh. alld frolll Itah'
10 other ('olllllri!:'".\1I thi,., tTeall,d ('n'r IIt'W social prohl!:'IIIS."" \\'halt'\er tilt' IHI,.;I or tilt' ClIITI'lI1 probl(,lIIs mi~hl han' bl'l'll. BolH'rto HO""'I'llilli was COli 1111 i,.,,.,iollt'd to lIIakl' a fillll t't,lt'hratill~ tilt' first c{,lIll'lIary of tilt' Hisor:!iIlIt'IIIO. Alld so. tlloul-!h I it'll ri/alia (1 ()()O) l'OIlIailb SOIlIl' 1,11'11\1'111:; lTitit'izill~ lilt' way lilt' 1'0111(111',,1 of Sit'ily tllrlu'd Oil\. I'0lilind f'wltrml'r"it'" an' laclfully ~id""'I"I'IH'd I,y IlIytllOlo~izillg CarillUldi. pn'~t'lItill!! hilll ,,11110,.,1 a~" (:hri"I-lik,'fil-!lIn'. Ilf'hallds 1IIIIIII"t'ad Oil it 11101111taill. Iit' di"l'lay~ 1'lIdll'''~ lllldl'rslalldill~ alld IlIf'n'y. tllf' I'l'asall'" \'f'llt'rall' hilll. 11I"lt'ad of f(lIt''''liollill~ or dl'I'oll,.;tnlt'lilll-! tllt',;t' fl'atllrt'''. tilt' lIarratioll k"('lh a n'''IH'('lflll di"larlt't' frolll hilll.-" III 1111'11. \'i"'('ollti'~ 711f' 1-1'11/)(11"11 nlll IH' "1'1'11 bOlh a" a ('rilit'iSIII flf tilt' ofii('ial \it'w "f till' Hi"'or'!illlt'lIltl
\ ISC()\TI
al'lllal ";Iarlillg poiul. hmn',er. was tilt' novel by Ciusepl_)t:' Toma::io. Ihe duke of Palrlla alld prillce of Lalllpt'dusa. all amaleur hisloriau wilh a special illl('n'sl ill till' Hi"orl!illlt'IIlO. Ht'fure wrilillg hi~ novel. Tumu::io tli Lalllpt,dlhil had ,,;pt'lIl yt'ars COllt't'lillg lIlalerial. goillg Ihrough archives alld iUleniewinf! pt'ople who had kllt)\\"I1 his grandfather. Ciulio. He wa::; to ser\'(' a,., riit' 1II0del for tilt' lllain clwral"ter of Iht' nuvel. dOli Fabrizio. tlH' priuct' of Salina. The gwlltlfatlwr·,., nickname. 11 gal/opardo (The leopard). had (,Olllt' frolll the It'opanl ill till' TOIlla,.,o di Lalllpedllsa ('oal of arm" alltl thlh was all apl IWIlIt' for the titlt, charat'tt'r.~' Tht' I,asie "tory line is n'lllarkably ~implt, iu ,-iew of the riclllless of Ihe tlwnlt',., that TOlllaso di Lalllpt'dllsa explores Wilhill its bOllndarie~. As IIt'W,., uf Caril'aldi',; latHling n'adws tilt' htJlbt' of Saliua. till' prilll'e's Ilt'plww. Tan('rt,di. It'aws to join riit' ft,llt'l", Lalt'r the family mtJ\t',; to its SUllllller n'sidt'lIce in DOllltafllgata. where dwy are ablt' 10 follow tilt' IlIrbuleut t'\"t'llb al a ::iafe di::itan('t', Ollt' i,., rellliudl'd of the Ollbidl' world lIlainly by tilt' vote for all "undi,ided alld unitit'd Italy" and till' al'pearaW't' of a ct'rlaill Cht'valley, who ('OUIt'S to ask tilt' priut,t' to joiu the lit'\\' Sellatt' ill Turill - Iit' tlatl, /'I,fuses, III J)ullllafllgata. Tallcrt'di lIlt't't;; the beautiful :\ugt'lint. daughlt'r of thl' 1I()/ll'I'WI ridw dOli Calogertl, They aplwar to be a pe rfel' t utatcll. 1101 ouly IWt'illlSt' of tllt'ir pt'rsonal charlll bill al"o I)('('au,.,e they cOJllplellwut t"lt'h otlwr',., ,.,o('ial alld t'('oJltJlllic ,hpiratiolls - all which i,., of little l'OUsolatitJll to tilt' priuce'" daughter. (:tJIWl'tta, who ha;; always Ill't'n ill loyt' with her t'(Jlllt'h', ctJIbill, E\'elltllalh" till' familY rt'llIrtb to Palerllw and allt'lId" a ).!raud hall at whil'h ,.,igns of till' social chan!!t' thal i,; takin!! plal'l' an' already apparent. TIlt' IWJIlllriJllatt' chapter deserilws don Fabrizio' ~ d(,Hlh in t mn. which i,; aboul l\\t'lIt\' war" aht'r the Intll. In the la;;l dwplt'r. whidl takes "Ial'e in 1/» 0, hi,; llllllWlTit'd daughtt'r" IJllm all array of family n,lit',." TIlt' widowed ,\llgt'lieH yi,.,its rllt'lll and re,'i\'t':-> painful IlIt'lIlories ill tht' two Spill~lt'r:->, 111'1' JIlarriagt' 10 TawTt'di has St'J'\,(,tJ it,; ~tJcial fUIlt'liOIl, but t'lIlotiollally awl physically it dit,d IOllg bdon' TalltTt'di, TIlt' Iltalllb.... il't "-a,, cOllll'ielt'd ill I <),){). hili UlIt it "illgk pul,li:.lll'r \\,b illll'n',.,t(,d ill it. Aher LaJllpt'tllba',., dealh, till' nWlllbt'J'ipl t'lItlet! up ill rill' haluf,., of Ciorgio Ba",.;aui, wlHl lOok it 10 Ciallgiw'olllo Fdlrillt'lIi, a rich, t'('t't'lltril'. a lit I allHrchi,.,til' 1'1I1,li,.,lwr who W,h illlllll'dialdy wkt'u hy il. Slill. 110 Olll' tllUlI).!hl it woult! ,-whinT Illlldl sw'n's,;, alltl till' lirst t'ditillll wa" limilt'd tll :U)(JO t'ol'it's, Tu till' "lIrl'ri::w of all t'Ollt't'l'IIt'Ii. il IH't'<1IJ1t' Italy's all-lilllt' Iwst-sdl('r alld W,h awardt,t! lite Strega prizt' for lilerallllT, \'i,,('ollti W1l"; aJll()II~~ tilt' ('Ill hra I(.-" , 11 .. tllOIl!,rlll riif' 1111\'1'1 t'/lIIII'I"IIli'I::, ,!
'111/"
1l1~()HLI\II,\T()
Ill,""
well whal Vl'r~a, Piralldc'lIo, alld De HolH'rlo had wrilll'lI aboul Sicily al lilt' timc' of thl' Bi~orgilllt'lIto, HI' also atimirt'd l.amlH'du,.;a's a/,ilily 10 illtl'rwl'an' 1111' illller lifc' of hi,.; prota~olli,;h wilh rlH' scwiallllilit'1I he \\a,.; dt'sCTibing, sOIlH'thillg that ill hi:- ,"ic'w slrtlC'k a good Imlalln' lH'twt'1'1I Vc'rga"s folby yet art fill n'alislII alld Proust",., ,.,ophi"tinltt'd an of 1111'111()P',7:!
Ct'org Lllkacs has lIoll,d that. Ily rt'\"C'alill~ tile' COITllpl iOIl of /'ourgl'oi,.; n'alist 1I0n'b oflc'lI offc'r gn'atc'r illsight illto ,;ocial rt'alily - awllhus al"o a IIlOrt' eHt'clivl' wc'apolI for lIIarxi";lII - thall works Ihat strictly o/,SC'I"\I' till' ("C)(lt'" of ,.,ociali,.,t rl'ali,.,1I1. Similarly, Tomaso di Lalllpc'dllsa's pt'r"ollal ,'il'''' of thc ~iciliall ari"tOtTacy dllrillg tilt' tllrllloil of tI ... Hi"orgilllt'lIto offt.n,d \'i"c,t11l1i all opportllnity tt) l'xprt''''' his OWII lIIarxisl ,'it'W;; wilh only "Ii~ht adju::.tlllt'lIb, "\lthulI~h lilt' res 11 It appear,., Ic'"'' cYllical Ihall ,'''el/so, lilt' "it'\\" it pn''''e'lIts of Iht' I,irth of tilt' Italiall lIatioll is jll"l as fn't' of illtbiollS, There weft' IltallY, \\ho sCTiOl.,.,h,, dOIlI,tl'd Ihal \'i"collti \\"ollld IH' able to adapt Toma,;o di Lallll't'dll,.,a'~ illtilllatl' 1I00'c,1 illto a big blld~t,t "Iwc'tade, Ullt ill additioll to i", ~ralldc'llr. tlH' lillll was able, 10 ('OIlVt'y tlH' 111111101'. wlIl'IIl1h, alld ill,.;i~hh thal an' 1101 far fro 11 I Tomaso di Lalllp('dllsa'" 110'('1. For hi" hi"torintililllb, \"i,,('ollti dllhl' topi('" "'ith "hid. I... had ,,01lH' fallliliarity thallb to hi" ari"tllcruti(' bat'k~rolllld, This i" OIlC' of thl' n'a"Olb "'hy his IIIl't intlolls ci nC'lIWI ic n'Colbt nlt't iOIl"; of pa"t ('m,; ha n' "1'1dom lWI'll lIIaldlt'll, In 1'111' LeojJard, tI ... llralTia~1' IH'IWc't'lI till' poor y(lllll~ ariSlocrat alld tlH' rich bOllr~t'ois girl paralll'l,., thal of ViSCOllli'" OWII pan'lliS, Ihl' Dukt, (If \lodrolH' alld tI ... Iwin'"" of 1111' Erba illdllslrial fortlllll', TIlt' prl'ci,;ioll "il!. "hic!. \'i"collli allt'lIdl'd 10 tlH' ;;lIIall('sl dt'lail on tilt' sl'l for Thl' L('ujJ(/ullH'nlll'" It'~t'lIdary" For I'xamplt" tI ... shirl,,, of CariLliIldi'" IIIc'lI we're rill"l'd ill I('a, dric,d ill Ihl' ,,1111. alld Illlril'd ill till' grolllld for ,,01111' lillH' 10 lIIakc' tI ... nl look approprialely \\'("'11. (:arria~l'~ WlTt' di,.;('on'n,d ill flll ... ralpar/or" alld rill' ,.;lal,ll'''; of Iwlf-nlillt'd palac'!'s, Localpc'opl,' who plaYt'd Ihl' "Iinly lIpri~hl IlWllIll'r of Ih,' TIlt' gn'al ball "('(I'It'llt'C wa" of lilt' toWII'" ft'w I'alan'" ill li",d,-'
BOllrlHl1I "lIldi,'r" ""('I't' lallghl 10 ride ill 1111' lXb(J" ill 1111' kill;.t:dolll of tilt' '1\\11 Sicilic's_ ,,/rOI ill tilt' Palaao Call~i ill Pal(,l'Il1o, 011(' whidl 1't,lali,,'" of tilt' origillal OWller" ,.;Iill
D('''pit(, Ihl' gralldl'lIr of lilt' projt'('1. \i"(-lIl1li for
0111'1'
SIIlT"l'd"d ill
n'lIlaillill~ withill Ihl' IIIHIW'I Ill' had IW"II ~i"'11. Ullt w/ril,' nIl'IA'o/JIIrd
wa" slill ill tilt' snipt sla~(', tilt' "lId~"1 of allotllt'r fillll abo I'wdlH'l'd Ily Ti lallll" (Hol wn A Idrid I' s S()dulII 1111(1 (,'ulllorm!t, I ()():~) had j 111111'('" frolll 1"010 ,i\ IlIillioll dollar,~, (:oll~("IIIf'III" ,\lIl<'rinlll fllll(!" wl'l't'I(('(,d,'d for
\ ISI.O\TI
\'i"t'ollti'" tilm, ,\ItIIOII~h :201h (:"lIll1ry Fox wa,; illlt'rl'~tt'd, it delllallt!"d lIH1t 1111' fillll Iit' iliad .. ill EII~li,;h alld thal till' It'adill~ roll' lit' played by all illll'l'llaliollal star, 1I "\('lIl1wlh- w"1I1 10 Burt LallI'a,.;tl'!'. III Ihe I'nd, Fox ('olllrilllll,'d Iwo IlIillioJl dollar" ill t'xdran~1' for tilt' dislribution ri~hh,-·
E"'II "'0, \i"t'onli wa,.; \Try n,lul'lalll to al't't'lll Erlgli"h a,.; thl' lall~ua~e of his film, alld ill tilt' ('1111 it wa" (h'cit/I'd tlral bOlh all Italiall allll all EII~li"h wr,.,ioll wOllld 1)(' madl', Il0wl'\l'r, :201h (:l'lIllIry Fox iliadI' lIIallY
challgl'''' 10 tilt' lattt'r \('r"ioll, lIIaillly Ily ('lIllillg il from tilt' origillal :20S IIlillll1l'''' (1'111 1'\'I'lltllally lly Vi,.,collti hilll,;e1f to lS.) mi11111 ""') to lhi lIIillllll'';, Fo,\ al,.,o ,.;cakd tire filrll dowlI frolll ?O 111111 to :~,) IIl1n aIltllrall,;IHI"I,d it 1'1'11111 a T('l'illlinlllla forlllal shot Oil Ea"tlllltll (:0101', alld I"'on',,,.,,'" origillally Ily TI'dlllil'olor, to Fox's OWII (:illt'lnaSI'Op" ",ystl'lII prtlt'(,,,;,,,'d Ily tI"'ir sllb"idiary De LuxI', All tllis n'slIlt"" ill a fillll of t"O'biderahly illft.rior I!'chllind qllalily, III all Opt'lI II,ttl~r I'lIbli"hed ill tilt' Tilf/(,.~ of LOlldoll alld till' ....;uf/(/ay Tim ('s , \'is('ollti wrotl': "['/'lit' Leopard] was ill my \i('W badly Wllt'lI
nit
alld duhllt'd with ill-dlo,.,I'11. IIIbllitahl!' \'Ilicl''';, , . ,
1 "aw tilt' fillll ill :\ew York I had difficulty followillg lite plot.
\lon'oH'r, thl' fillll has lWI'll III'tIl'I',,;sl'd a,., if it wt'J'1' a bright pi,"'" uf 1101Iywoodialla, , , , It i" 1I0W a work for which I acknowled~1' no palt'mity at all,"--, Fo\ UIIJwulII'I'd Ihal il wa" cOlIsid,'rillg k~al actioll againsl \'is(,Ollli, "who "I'I'lIb illll'1I1 Oil hanIJillf( hi" OWII pictllre wilh slatt'lIlt'lIts whidl ";('1'111 10 dltlllag" the fillll, "-t. TIlt' ElIgli"h-lulIgllag" \','r"ioll ""I'IIIt''' unul,It, 10 tOllt'h audit'III'I'" ill Ihl' l'lIilt'd Slatl''';, It wa~ lIot IIl1til tilt' hllll wa" !'t'releu"I,d ill tilt' "lIbtitled Italiall "er"ioll tW,'lIt\' \I'ar,., later that it \\,a" gn'l't"d \\'illr alllll"'t Illlallillloll'; praise, III Fllropl' Tlu> I.('opuf'(/ wa" fairly well receiwd both by tilt' puhlic alld tilt' t'J'irics, althollgh n'actiOlb 011 thl' Jloliti"al Ldl wI'n' mixI'(\. \\rilers slIdl a" \Iario ,\Iicala, Guido .\riSlarco. alld Pi!'r Paolo Pa,.,olilli t'J'itil'izt'd tlw fillll for 111)( ",1I~g('~lillg a l'oSili\'I' ait,'nHlli\(' to tilt' Hi,.,orgilllt'lIlo history, I low('\' 1'1', tilt' lead!'r of tilt' COlIlIlIUllist parly, Palmiro Toglialli, 0lwllly "'''Plltlrt'''' tilt' fillll, In hi,., Opillioll, The IA'(J!J(I/'(""'l" a IIJa"lt'rpi,'('t', IH'II,'r Ihall thl' IIrigillal.
Stagnation and ehangt· ,\" all adaptatitlll, 'I'l/l' IA'o/JI/rr/ i" alllu".,1 tllt' tolal oppo"ilt, of St-'II,W ill tlral it i,., 1'I'llIarkallly fuithfllllo tllt' origillal work, al 1l',bt 011 tilt' ";UI'fat'I', Tht' 1110,.,1 o!l\'iol'" diffl'l'I'II('I' is tlral Ihl' la,,1 ('hapt!'r,.. Ill' tilt' hook Ira\'(' IWt'1I olllillt'd alld Iheir IIlajllr tllt'lIlalil' l'Ollt','n'" lIa\"11('1'11 ill"Prtl'd
TIlL 1l1:-.()IlLI\lE\TO
~IL\I~
(l
•
illto the dialoglles alld the illlagl'ry of the gl't'at IJaIl ";1'1 (l1t'1\('1·. :\1,.;0. lilt' basic approach is «(lIitt' diff,·n·lIt. \\h(,l't'as ill
.'i(,IIS0
till' kt'y wa,.; lilt' ill-
terplay of sYlllpathy alHj irollY. 1I0W it i:; tlw tl'lI,.,iOlI Iwtwt't'lI 1t'lId"r IIOStalgia for a ('t'I'laill way of lif,· alld tilt' bittel'llt·ss ill ha\'illg 10 a('('I'pl i", illt'\'ilablt' los!>. Ahholl!!h IIIlIt'h of Ihi,.; i,., t'ertaillly pl'e"'(,1I1 ill lIlt' 110\,(,1.
tI\t' fillll illll'lI,.;ili('s it. (''';IH'cially lilt' 1I0stalgia. Ihrollgh a ,.;plt·lIdid hislorintl l't't·OlbIJ'lll'tiOII. Abo clw billl·nlt's,., of tilt' agillg priw'l' as ht' Iw,·olllt·,., illt·J'(·a,.,illgly awarl' of tilt' prin' tllat Iw,., 10 lit, paid to ,'.\It·lId tilt' lif,· of hi,., lIIoriblllld s(wial rim;,; is fllrtllt'r t'.\at·(·rball'd wlll'lI ,.,I't·1I agaillsl I his rii'll alii I ",'11:;11011:; Lackgl'OlIlld. The "'llet'ladt' is clllI~ balallt't'd by I'lt'IIlt'llb Ihal cOllld he called <:hekho\'iall: Iht' rdellcl,'''':; lIIar('h of lilllt' alld lht' Sla!!lIalioll of "O('i"ly: tilt' slwlluwllt':;s of Imt' alld tilt' al'bill'Urillt,,,s of falllily rt'laliollships: lift'-I'rollltHillg alld de:;ll'lwti",' fon't'" ill a dialt't'lical illterplay. Tht' It'illllOl i\ of TOllHbO di La IIIl'l'dIIsa' s 110\'1·1 i,., t·.\IIJ·,·,.,,.,,·d ill words fir,.,t IIl1t'n'd by TaJltT"di, cllt' prilll'l:s Iwlon'd Ilt'phl'w: "If wc wallt thillg,., to Slay a:; tllt·y an', lhill/!" will haw 10 dwll!!(· ... Edltwd throllgholll tilt' hook a,. well as cllt' lillll, allll "lIhatH't'd I,y lOll!! dialo!!IIt·,.;, I'articlllarly IwIWt't'lI tilt' I'rilltT 1.11111 CIIt'\'aIlI'Y, a n'IIJ't':;I'lIlati,,' of tilt' gml'nllllt'll! of tilt' IIt'W haly, lht' ,.;tall·IlIt'lIt I!radllally 1'lIcollll'as:;t's tilt' l'olllJitioll ofSil'ily lhrolll!holll it,., history. All aW'llIp'" to ('hallgt' Ihillgs IIII'n'ly ,.,larl ,'\('1' lIt·w ('ydl's of OPI'OJ'llllli"lIl. \"'11 of tilt' old J't'l!illlt', "'lIl'h as lilt' pril\('t', I!i,,' way to 1lIl'1I of tilt' IIt'W aw·. ,.,Iwh a" dUll Calogl'/'o, who, ill lilt' prillf't:" words. "art' able 10 t'O\'I'/' t1lt'ir prinltt' illll·J't·,,'" by plIl,li(' idt·als." Tllt'ir I'lIrsllil of lJt'rsollul 1'01'11111(' will at It'asl kt't'l' tilt' sy","·IIII!0illl!. BlIllIOlhill1! will I'wr dWlIgI' lWl'LlllSI' Sil'ilialb do 1101 rl'ally will il. \\hy ,.,110111.1 Iht'y challg(', thl' I'rillt·(· ask,.,. ,.;ill(·t· tllt'y an' alrt'ady flnf('('1 ~ 'lId('I,d, how 1':111 till') dWllgl' wh"1I "lIwi/' ulllily i,., "lrolll!l'r Ihall tllt'ir IlIis"ry"!, Tht' lIalllJ't· of tilt' so('ial dWllgl' Ihat dot's lak,' I'la('(' i" Iliad.· al'l'an'lIl I,y lilt' fal'l Ihat lilt' lallds lilt' prilll'I' had 10 ",1,11 y('ar,., ago al'l' 1I0W ill lilt' flo"",·,.,,.,ioll of dOli (:alogl·ro. '1'1111,., parI of lilt' aJlI'il'lIl Salilla Ilt'rilagt' i,., J't·IIIJ'lIt·d 10 lilt' arisll""'al,, ill l'.\dlHllgt' for an't'plillg till' bOllrgt'ois illlo Ihl'ir (·olllpally. TIlt' forlllt'r hu\t' 110 aht'J'IJaliu·. alld lilt' IUII('r an' "a~t'r 10 m't'I'('olllt' IIw illft'J'iorily (·ollll'lt'.\t·'" Ihal lla\,,' 1H',.;lt·n·d IIwlIl for ('t'lIwri,'''. TIlt' IHllIl'gt·oi,., do 1101 \\'alll to tlt'"lroy lilt' Hri";lotTat'y: IIwy walll to 11t'('oll\t" like it. For lilt' lilllt' Iwillg HI I"'bl. dOll (:alogt'l'O Ilt·t'tf,., lilt' prillt't, of ~alilla to ,.,lIPP0rl hilll - a" call 1)1' ""'t'll witI'll dOll Fabrizio lif'" ltiJII ill Ihl' air alld ki,.,,.,I'''; ltiJII 10 ,.,t·al IIwir Hgn'I'lIlt'lll t'Ollt't'l'lIilll! lilt' IlIarria!!t' of .\lIg"lint alld Tallnt'di.
00
\
I~C()\TI
011 rill' I'0litical level. riit' lIext stl'l' for the aristocrah alld the hourgt'ois is to halld togel her in order 10 protl'ct I heir interests by curbing Ihl' forct's unlt'ashed hy Caribaldi. lit' has to 1)(' stol'l't'd as soon as he has dOlw what had to lit' dOlle: IH'II' m'erthrow riit' old regime. A 1IH'1Illlt'r of Caribaldi' ~ Red"hirts at riit' ht'gillllillg of tilt' fillll. Tal\(Tedi later al'l'l'ars ill thl' uniforlll of Ihe arlllY of the Pil,dlllOlIlI'sl' kin!!. lie alld hi" I'olllradl' do lIot like to Ill' reIllindl'd hy the I'rinCl' thal just a little earlier tht'\", werl' HI'dshirh. :\ow they, dl'nOlllu'e Carihaldi'o; lIIell and n'l't-r to thelll as a 1II0b, Thi,; l'uilH is canil,d further wht'lI the prince. strolling amulld in tilt' hall sequenct'. hears a l'I'rtaill Colollel Pallavicino hoa"ting dwt after tilt' bailie of A,;pnlIlIOlHt' Carihaldi thallked hilll for Iwlpillg hilll to "1'1' what all arl'llgalH and cowardly lot his nlt'l1 Wl'!'I', '1'111' Palla\'icillo ,,('ene has heell expallded I'ow;iderably froJII the origillal to allow dUll Fahriziu to exprl'''s his lIIoral outrage, FurtherlIlon'. rlw wry eliding of the film is Ilwtk hilll'r by the ";OUII(\ of a firillg squad: till' nl('n ,dw actually started tlw pron'",.; of unificatioll are now Iwillg I'XI't'utt'd. Don (:alogefO. Tallcredi's fUlIlre farl\l'J'-ill-law. COlllIlwllb: "11'" a good army. allll they're sl'rious, That's what's 1It't'ded, for Sicih'. . ,\lId IHlW. tllI'n'"" 110 11101'1' to \HIIT\,, about:' Tht' prillt'!' look,.; at all this a" if frolll aboH' - his Iwbuy is. appropriately 1'lIough. astrollomy. At tinlt',; he appear,; to soar so high ahove all tI\I' rl'st of tilt' character,; t hal they are allllost reducI'd to puppet,.; who"I' lIIaill fUII"tioll ill the fillll is to ellhallcl' his glory. :\00/11'. Ilot t'\'ell either of tilt' IlI'lIi!-!I'n'lIt sidl's. (1'1t'",tioll:- his di!-!Ility alld ril!hb. He is allowed to pas,.; Ihrough roadbl(wks. for example. while ordilla,'y mortal;; mllsl ,.;tay alii ( wail.~~ The pn':;ligt' tht' prilll,t, 1'lIjoys allows hilll to bos,~ 1'\"1'11 the family pri",.,t.~1\ Thus il is t'asy for tilt' prilll't' to fl'el n'"iglled ami to It,t thillgs lak!' tllI'ir COurSI'. Ill' will always be respt",!t'd as a leopard. a,., Opp'bt'd to till' bOllrgt'ois hYPllas. Ill' still represellb what i" fdt to Iit' Ihl' hesl ill Siciliall ,.,ocid\". -'I Yt't tilt' prilll"'. too. ha,., already t'lItt'red Oil till' path of cOlllprolllisl'. Ill' kllow,., all tuu \\"t'1I that TalllTl'di. wholll Iit' appan'"t1y IOH'" IIlOrt' thall hi" OWII childrt'lI. i,., poor alld will han' to lIIalTY illtu a rich hourgt'oi" falllily ill ordt'r to Illailltaill the ,.,talldanl,; l'Xpl'l,!t,d of all a"'pirillg YOIIlIg ari"lIl1'ral. '1'111' "rillcl' as"'llI'iatl's hillb,'lf slrlJlI~.dy with hi,., IIl'phew. a poillt llIadl' ril-dll al Iht' Iwgillllillg u,; TUllt'rt'di - play,'d by Alaill Dt'lolI - is lin.t ,.,,'1'11 a;; a n,II""tioll ill tilt' IIlirror ill I'Wilt of which till' prill('e i,., "IH"'illg. Thi" illlag"l!i\Ts notil't' of Ihe IIll'tapltol'il'al tl'lhiolllwtwl'l'lI till' Iwo 1111'11. ,\1 tilt' 1'lId of tilt' /illll thi,., ,,1'1'11,' i,., ('alled up ill allotlH'r illlagl' of tilt' Pl'illl't'
TilL HhOHLI\II.,\TO 1·11.\1:-;
l()okiJ\~
at himself ill a mirror. 1l0W feeling old alld alit'ltatl'l!. alld 110 longer di~ron'riJ\~ Tallrl"l,di·s haJl(lsome fart' liwn,.I\() Although till' prinrt' "I'(,S Tallcretii a~ his trllt' "W'I't'"SUr. Ill' abo fl,t+, his Ilepllt'\\ ('ml,otlies liH' illt'\·itahility of challge. lit' uIHlerstands thal TanlTt'di has dillit' what a dashillg yOllllg lIlall of high ambilioll should do. Tallrretii doe~ not hetra\·. his idea\,; - Ill' nen'r really ha". all\ ideals . to Iwtray. I le is al\\ay~ innocenliy loyal to hilllself. and that is a part of his charm. tilt' dtarm that cal'l inlles evell dOli Fahrizio. Thl' fan thal Tallcredi mlbt marry Iwlow his OWII social clas;, is pn'~ellled not only as all et'ollolllic a11l1 socialllt'cessily. hilI al"o as a hiological one. There is some speculal iOIl ill tilt' film ahOUI ari~tolTa Iic cousills marrying alld begettillg mOllkey-like progelly. while Ihe shet'r appeal uf the new is represl'nleti ill tlw Iwauty of Alll,wlica. a rirh hourgt'ois girl who \.WCOIlIt'S Tallcredi" ~ bride ..-\1111 jllsl ill rase Ihl' audil'llI"l' shuuld fail to appreciale the looks of Claudia Canlinalt-. AIl/.wlil'a·s lirsl elllralll't' is. a" ill Ihe book. alllply emphasized by the attelllioll she draw" to III'rs(,lf: Ihl' COll\·ersaliull is illlerrllpled by all expressioll of wOlltll'r Oil tilt' fares of lilt' prillt't'·s family UpOIl ~eeillg her heauly. Ihe illlt~lIsily of Ihe SI'II 111'1 \('t' of dose-llps of their faces. alld the gt'lItly can's"illg lllw,ic. A~ wilh Livia ill L,,'eIlSO. the alltiiellce is illvited to sympalhize with tht' yOllllg couple awl tht' attrarlioll Ih!'\" feelloward each other, As Ihe prillt't, hids farewell 10 ClH'vallt'y. he cOJIII.IUr('s himst'lf alld hi" ra!'t' 10 It'opards 1l0W Lt'illg slICI,t't'ded hy hyt'lIas, TIlt' poilll is iliadI' almost too oilyious throll~1r tilt' ('onlrast Letwt't'/l lire halld"OlJl('. digllilil'd princt' and .-\ugt'lica·s falher. don Calogt'ro. wlro . dt'spitt' his slrrewdnl''';s. acts like a "illy littlt' man. BlIl t11t'l't' is a hyt>lIa-likl' a"p('cl 10 TarHTt,di too. Iwwt'H'r outwardly I'ha1'llling Ire may appt'ar. lu tilt' greal hall "t''lllt'nl't:'. TautTt'di nH'lIliollS ill passing 10 Angelil'a and COUl't'IIa thal tilt' lIIt'll who It'l'l the regular army 10 join Caribaldi are 10 114' eXl'clIled al sllIlri"t' - al whiclr poinl th!'r!' is all ill~t'rt of dancing gut'st,;. Tht'n COIl('I'tla relllillds TalH'redi Ilral OIlI'I'IIt' wOllld nol \rave talked likt' Ilrat. 111'1' ('Ollllllt'lIl n'Hecls Ilt'r jealou"y of Angelica. hilI tlrell again. drangt'''; in Tan('n,di' s relaliolls 10 won It'll an' always in "1t'1' wilh Iris polilil'al opinion". Aftt'r SOIIlt' 11101'1' I,illt'r J't'lIIarks. (:oJlt't'tta rUII:; 0111 alld tilt' young ('0111'11' are It'fl to enjoy t'at'h other· s kis~t's. Tllt'y joill a chaill of nlt'l'J'Y dauCI'r". The parallel 114'1 wt'ell I he priIH't' and Taul'redi. 10gt'I her wit h Ihe fal'l Ihat alleasl al tilt' I)t'giullill~ uf tht'lillll Ihe princt:' "Iillhas st'xllal n,lalions wilh WUIl It.' II., suggl'sh thal had tlu'J't' hl'en chang('s iu IhI' I'0lil ieal "t't'llt'
\ l:--('() ''01 I
ill his youl h Iit' would ha\'C 111'1'11 as t'''gl'r as Talll'l'pdi to exploil 1'\I'ry illten',.,lillg OPPOI'IUllily that life lIIight possihly offer. TIlt' prillce has ,,11('(·t't,d('d ill n'lIlaining a It'opard partly Iwcausl' tilt' historical situation ha,. 1I0t off('I'I,d him tfw opportullity or fOI't't'd hilll to take sides ill ('olltlicts of loyalty. Bt'sid('s. hI' kllows ollly too wdl that Iwill~ a leopard. ill ail it" lIli)!ht alld glory. is a costly husilless alii I that to ITt'alt' the IIt'cessary w('alth wllt'II it call 110 101lg('J' Ill' illheritpd rt''1uin's mOJ'al cOlllprolllise. To lltake Ihis poillt. Viscollti I!lorifies the protagolli,,"" by havillg thelll played hy Iwautiful actoJ's. by foclI;.illg Oil tilt' yi"lIal spll'lIdoJ' of the palan's tllt'y illhabit. hy bat·kiltg this with .\ino Rota';. 1I0ble IIlIISic, alld thell Ily ('OI11I1t'rbalall('illg all this with tilt' "onlid aspects of till' political ewnt::, that cOII,.,talltly loom ill the IllIckgrolllld. III Iris IlOye\' TOlllaso di l.alllpedlba lIIelltiolls sevt'ral details that retlect the delTepit state of the Si('iliall ari"to('racy. The way Vi:;collti has dlOSl'1I to yiSlwlizt, the hook plays dowlI thi;. dl~IIlt'IIt. bllt Ill' cOllllwlISalPs for this loss by other IIwans . .\t tiltlt''' the family appeal's to Ill' posing in paillwrly and ('OIItIHlst'd immobility. as if to imply the walling of tlH' way of lift' tllt'y t'xemplify. Pal1icIIlarly durillg tilt' IIIass at /)01lI1afllgat1l. as tilt' nunt'1'a tra('b past the family 11 11'111 Iwrs. ('o\'('I't~J hy dust. it is a" if they \\,('1'1' 1I\('I't'ly a part (If tilt' dt'coratioll of tllt' alWil'lIt dlllrch. Fllrtherlllon'. tire sqllalor of the lo\\'!'r classt'" is llIad(' appal't'IIt. if ollly ill pa"sing. as when C1w\'allt'y 110t iCI'''' a pOOL appart'ntly falllisilt'd IIlOtllt'J' with her dlild. The WOIIUIII is sittillg ulldl'r a sigil. "Viva il plebis('iw" (Lollg liw till' pldJi"cilP). a hitlt·rly ironic n,fert'IIt'1' 10 the IIIt'allillglt·';;'IlI'';s of delllocratic gt'sture" 1'01' thost, toolo\\' Oil tlw social scale to t'xploit dlllllges ill tilt' political "ystelll.
Toward a Ilm'disli(' cinema Tit!' Leopard was a fairly easy hook to at/apl. Apart frolll a fl'w
1'1'-
lIIi1rk~ Illat n'\'I'allhe tnlt' IIlOtinltiolls of tlwciranlt'lt'r". lilt' lIarratordo('s 1I0t ('xl'lon' tllt'ir illllt'r lif(, to allY ~n'at depth. :\or an' tllt'il' oull'r ill'pt'aralll'l'''; dl'"nilwd ill allY dt,tail. Tlwn·forl' tilt' w·tor". witll tllt'ir strikilli! \i"ual appl'al'all(,(' alld ('al'l'i'lIily ('xl'cuted pprfOnllall(·('''. t'lIhall('j' ratlwr thall \ il' ",ith riit' drant('II'rizali()1I ill thl' 1I0\'!'1. Thi" hold" tnlt' a/"o for tilt' St'ttilll-!;". rallgilll-!; frolll riit' IHlttl,·fit,ld,., 10 tilt' palan',.,. ",hidl i!0 far Ilt'yolld whal tilt' Ilook n,lalt·,., or "tI~~""'ts. Vi",'olll i U"(',, to tilt' full tilt' ('iIIt'IIW'" nlpa('ilY 10 Iit' lik,' riit' rt'ali,.,ti(' IIl1\t'l a" t\(·jillt'd I,y C('org Lllku('s:
Sillt't· tilt' 110\'1'1 pOri my" Iht· "lUlality of ollj,"'''.'' il ll11hl p"llt'lratt' illto tilt' "lIIall d"lail" of "\"'r~ day lif.·. illlO tilt' ,'011''1','1,' lilll" of tilt' actioll; it 11111.,1 Ilrillf! 0111 \\·hat i, .,I'.·.·ili,· tll thi, tilllt' thr"u!!h lilt' """'1,1,·\ illft'r;lI'tillll "I' all tilt".· d.·taii-.
III L H 1:. ,() H L 1\1 L '\ 1 () 1 11, \I
'11
~
Th,·n·fon· till' f!"IIPral hi"IOl"i"iIY of lilt· 'TlIll"al ... ,IIi,i.,,1. whi .. h ""Iblillll'" tI ... hi,lol"i .. ,,1 dHlnlt·!t·1" of drallla. do,'" 1101 "lIni ... · 1'01" IIl1' 11"",·1. Ii 11111,1 Iw hi'IOl"i .. "II~ autlll'lIlic ill 1"001 alld Ionll ... h'" \\'h .. rea" TOIlIiISO di I.alllp"dll"a dol'S 1101 pro\'idt' IIl
tilt' sellillg" of. say. 1111' hall "t''IIIt'II('1'. Yi,.;t'ollli IIwk,'" Ihl'ir n'alizalioll a primary t'ww,'",1. lie ha" a"('olllpli"llI'd Ihi" ta"k wilh loving t'an'. bill a" YOIIS"I'f' I"haghpollr ha,.; poilllt·d 0111. 1111'1'1' i" 1I0lhillg 1','1 i"hisl it' or 11111st'olugit'al abolll "i,.;t'ollli'!> rdal iOllship to thl' obj,"'''' t hat till lilt, pla('('''; his dwraelt'r" illhabit. H2 III nit, IA·()/Hln/. I'artinllariy ill till' hall allll 1111' bat tit' "Ct'IIt',.,. lilt' dt'H'loplllt'lIt of lilt' "Iory i" allllo,,1 t'olllpl('II'ly n'l'la('l'd
hy llit'IIHlli(' illtert'';1. alld thl' ";"lIillg Iwt'olllt',.; a killd of dralllalit' agl'lIl. tlw pllt'lIolllt'lIal 1'01'111 of a "ot'ial ,;Inwllln' ill till' pro('(',.;,; of a ,.;Iow hilt illl'vitahl(' Irall"forlllalioll. It i" "'ft 10 tilt' tat'tll''''' dOli Calogl'm 10 "om1llt'II1
011
allll draw altt'lIliOIl 10 "'11111' of till' IIltll'('~lIl11pltllllh d(,tail" of 1111'
lIIaglli/i('t'lIl palat'1' iJl whit'h lilt' hall wk,·" pla(,(,. ,\ n'ali"lit' 1'/l('('1 i" Oll"{, agaill tTt'alt'd I,y 1111' IIlilit'lI a,.; dwnwlI'r" app(,ar 10 ,'xi";l aJld tiJlIt:' to pa,.,,.; illdqwlldt'llIly of tilt' story'" prtlgn·""ioll. Then' arl' a gl't'allllallY pt'ol'''' ill lilt' prilll":" family alld h(lIht'h4lld WhOll1 Wt' do 1101 gt'l 10 kllow hili who appt'ar to liv(' IIl1'ir OWII liv,'" ,,;olll('wlll'n' ill till' hat'kgrolllld. TIII'Y ""t'lIl pari of a llllWh hmadtT ti(,ld of ('xi.~I('IH,(, Ihall i" ,,1','11 011 tilt'
,.,('1'" .. 11.
alld ,,0 il ,.;,'('111" a,.; if 1111' tilm ha" 111'('11 "lblWlldt'd
111'1\\"1'1'11 a lIIilllt'tif'plol (a" IIl1d('r"lood hy Palll Bit'(wllr) alld a "lwt'landar alllliO\'i"lIal n'(·OlhtrtWlioll. TIlt' rdali\'(' laek of at'lioll ill\il('" till' "111'1'talOr 10 a,,";lllllt' a ('t'rtaill "Intl"gy of \il'willt(: Ill' or "Iit' is off1'1'1'" illlllll'dialt' ,,("hIlOlh I'xllt'ri,"w('. 011 lilt' 011(' halld. 1'1,11,'('1 iOIl 011 1111' olllt'r. wil h till' Iwo n·"ollalilll! ralllt'r thall ('Ollllll'tillg willl ,'adl otlll'r. III t'erlaill pa,"'" tilt' adaplatioll ha" ol)\ioll"ly IWt'1I ill"l'irt'd hy \lart'I'1 Thil/p:s IJusl. '1'111' 1,.111 "t'qllt'II('I'. ill pal'l it'll la r.
I'rol"'I'~ /{clllt'lIIhrul/('('
(l
partly Iwcallst' of 1"lIgtll alld Ihl' killd of n'l\t'('lioll it allow,;. i" n'lIlilli"""1I1 of till' part it,,, PWll"t dt'"lTill(''; with ,~lwh 10\ illg dt'lail. III TOllla"" di I,alllp(,dll"a'" I,ook. till' party dwplt'r takt·,.. IIp allllllt :2B pagt·~ olll of a lolal
:2-:'0
pag'·~. whil,· ill 1111' fillll 1111' ",'1'11"
tOlal Ill.') ,"illlltt·~ (whit'h allllllllll.~
10
la"" alltlllt
i(l
IlIilllll('''; Ollt of a
Ollt'-'IlIal'l"" (If lilt' fillll ill lilt' Ilaliall
\(·r~ioll. alld all "\ I'll "Iiglllly larg"r frat" iOIl
(iO/ I.-d) ill lilt' .\lIl1'rit'all
\ I'r~ioll)."" Bill ill Proll," a" c"'ranl Lt'IIt'Il,' ha"
"0111111',1.
\ISC().\II
alld !):i llit!!'·, 1,,11 aholl! Ih .. Prill,'''',,', soire!': ill olhl'l' words, ,,11110,;1 half till' ,"'1II1'W'l' i, for 1"'''1'1' Ihall t,'1I hOllrs of fa,hiollabl,' ~alht'rill!-(s,l\·
Prou,1 Wi(', the lllu"in' 1.·ll!!lh of hi~ work to cO\'l'r a 101lg pt·riot! of time, 1101 by llarratillt! a great 1ll11l1lwr of .'\, .. 11 IS IJllt hy dt',crillillg l'I'rtaill t'VPlIb with .·xtraordilHll'\'. dt,tail. ,\I~o. toward till' t'lId of tht' storY, the narration slow~ down as \,lIip,.,t's !!row lar;,wr alld "hort timt' spalls are cOVl'ft'd by .. \'1'1' 101lw'r ,,'.'lll'S. Similarly, till' It'isllrt'ly JIlallllt'r ill whidl \'iscollti' ~ n/(' Leopard ,'\'ohT, Cl't'alt:'s the ft'.'lillg of epic "'\''-''l'I'' Tht, hall selJ"ellce Iwgills. I'oilltedly ellollgh. with a dis"olw froJll !Jt'iballt:; working ill a tield, TIll' till II' alllollllt of story that t1wn' i~ ill this IOllg tillllnal'0rates allllo"t C1Hllpl"t .. ly as tllf' characters ",alldt'r aroulld tilt' palact', 011 the \'I'rLal 1('\'1'1. tllt'n' i, a g:n'at .It'al of sJIlall talk. cOllwrsatiollS alJllnt political eH'II1S alld JIlllsillg:; about mortality, del'adt'I\I·e. alld dt'gt:'lI .. ratioll. \Iost spirits an' kt'pt high. how,'\'I'('. hy till' "i:;ual t'Xtra\'agarlCe. tilt' plegance of till' 1Il1hil'. tilt' joy of dallCt'. Ahollt halfway through tilt' hall tllf'n' is a passagt' of almost :1 I/:! millutt'~ Wilholll allY dialogllp durillg which tht, prillCt' walks arolllld the palal'" alld (,lid,., lip ulollp ill a library. Tht'\,(, Iit' spps a pailltillg. defined ill till' llowl as a copy of Crl'lItz."s The /)I'allt vf 1111' Just ,Hall. lit:' :;P\'S himsplf ill tilt' dyillg JIlall alld ",olldt'rs whether his dpath ",illllt' like that ill tilt' pailllillg, TIlt' ,ht'.'ts willlw dirti,'r, hilI hopefully his dallghtt'rs will 1)(' dn',,,.,d lllOH' dt'(,plltly thall the womplI ill tht' piclllrp. The dyillg tt'll"iOIl III'IW.·.·II I'r()s alld IhlllUllos i" felt OIH't' 11101'1' ill him as AII{-wlica and TatltT,'di 1'1111'1' ulId till' yOllng lIHIII a"k~ C
TIlt' IIl1'allill!! i, "011",·,,·,1. 1101 jtbl
"'Hh"ioll"II""" Ill' till' Prill"", S" li"lindl~ il i, lit .. p .... f,·,·1 .. ill,·lIlali .. "'l'liHd"lIll1f
1-'1,1111 .. ,,,,', s/,'/" ;//(/i,.,','1 !;t.,.,.,":'
TilE HI:--ull(,I\lI.'\ I () 111.\1'
".
)
Thll:-., for eXollllpll', 1111' way AIlp:I'linl alld TUIIITI'di an' alllt- 10 di"lIIi"" till' idea of dl'ulh SlIp:;.!,',;h, ill IIl1' lIarralor'" wonk Ihal IIwy art' "lIl1kIlO\\illg actor,; s('1 10 play lilt' part" of .Il1li,'1 alld HOlIll'o hy a din'clor who had cOIH't'alt-d lilt' fw'l Ihal 101ll1t alld pOi:-'UlI WI'I'I' alwady ill till' "lTipl."gh III dlt' gralldtT desigll, dlt' tTolil'islIl illl'anwlt'd ill IIl1' YOIIIIP: cOllplt' is slllllly cundiliolled a III I ,'olhtril'l,'d by I hI' polilical alld ('I'OIlOlllil' I'Xp,'dil'llI'Y Ihal tiH'ir r('latiollsltip t'lIlhodi('", \\" nlll aln'ady "t~" IIwl whal i:-. :-'I'n:-'lIollS abollt it is doollll'd 10 fad,' away, lik,' tllt' world tltl' filII I ';0 Imillgly ('('cn-att':-', risl'ollti'" Irut' IIHlSlt'rY, call lie S(,t'lI ill tllt' way, this i" Itilllt,d at ill lite attillldt,s, actiOlh, alltl n'w'tiolh of tllt' cl WrHt'It'r" , En'lI ill tilt' rolt, riscollli ;.!in',;
10
,,"llSuality, Ill' appl'ar-, to tacitly a,;,~UIIII' a political ,;Ialld:
..\" Salll Holtdit' S(IY,,: \'i",'Ollli'" lIIis/"I'/I'sci>!w Iwloll!!" 110110 1I0"lal!-(ia, bIll 10 ""II,,ualily alld ,'roli"i,.,1I1. \vhill' n·l.-/mllill;! a n'a"liollar~ world, Ill' HI ka,,1 fnllUill;! it illllll"lal!-(ia, I... pia ... ·' a I'll,.," III11t.-r 11 ... dlllllll'"" Ill' a pro!-(n'".,in· 11 lit· , I It- dill'''' ,.,11 11111 III1I~ IW ... llhl· I... c.-/,·hrah',., a "'lbllilliIY ill 1111' lillll (1111' ohjl· .. I,.,), 11111 h~ pnll'li.-ill;! a ';"II"lIldiIY ill Ih,· ""I11P'hilioll of IIl1' lillll (ill 1111' way ohj""" an' d"pi",,'d alld IIrdt'n·d) .. \lId Ill' wilhhold" 1'1'11111 till' 111'\\' wllrld 1111' l'xC'itt'III1'1I1 alld allnll'lin·IIt·", Ill' ft't'l, fill'
till' 01.1,117 Vi""Ollti',, polilic,." "whiclt ""I,'llral,'s lil'tiOlI. de"in', s"lhualil\ ," a:-. Holldil' I'u", il. abo "ern'" 10 illlt'I'\\,'aVl' tilt' puhlic alld slwial "plan" wit la till' priYillt, liw,., of tI It' cha raI'l ,'1',." Tht' i III rod Ilct iOIl of An;.!I'lica alld Ilt'r fa tllI'r illto hi;.!h "ocil'ty IIlUrb thl' hall a" a ,.,inglllar \·\t'II1. "\"11 if. 011 till' tllI'matic 1,,\1'1, it slalllb for thl' ri",' of all "lItin,h· Ill'\\' cla"s awl "\TII if it ollll'rwj"" Illi;.!ht Iit' takclI a .. jllst allolher party of till' Si"iliall ari,.,tolTac~', Tht' exhilaratioll of till' illdi\idual dl·llII\aIl\t' 1'011\"\'; till' illl\'lbit\, of all , "lItin' hi"tori,'al 1I1OIIlt'IJI alld tilt' ~ol'ial dWIlf!t, il brillf!" alwlI\. TIlt' I'arlit'r dillllt'r pany at l)ollll1lfllp:ata llit" a .,ollll'\dwt "illlilar fllllt'tioll, Tllt'rt' art' illlponallt dillller sn'lIt's ill alllllbt all of Vi .. collti'" fillll,;, always fllllCtiollill;.! a,., the plan' wlwrt, ,.,(wial alld psydlolo;.!il'al alliallt't'''' allt! allta;.!olli"IIl" art' t'III'IHIIII,'n·d at tllt'ir d(,wit's\. Tllt'y show pl'ople ill tht' lIIid"t of all activity Ihal ill i", 1'\ ,'rydaYllt's" is hi~.dtly 1'1'\'t'alillf! of lilllt' alld plan', cia,.,,,, alld hi"rardlY, (:olllli,'''' l)\'t\\'t"'1I (It'opit, Ot't"1I IIl1ilt,d by biolo/!i" ..tl or fOrlllal lit'" ratilt'r t hUll hy 10\1' alld IIll1tual apprt"'iatioll 1'01111' tu a Ilt'ad ",ollll'tiIlW'" alld prodllc,' dra,.,ti" 1'01l",'C 1'11'111'1'" (Tlte [)(1I1/ fll'd, ('UfII'I"'.HII iUII / )il'ce ), I Il 'i'lli' /.1'1)/ )w'cI, tilt' dilllll'r S(,('III' Ilwrk" a tllrllill/! pOill1 ill Iht' falllily hi"tory, a,., 1111'111111'1',., of tilt· bOllr/!,'oi"it' art' for till' lir,.,t tillll' (In's''lIt Oil (altllt".,t) "qllal footill;.! ",itll tilt' HI'i,.,IIHTcth, 0111, .\II/!c·lic'a',., 10lld lallp:ht"r at TaIIlT,·di',., iJlop-
\
P0rllllH' jokt' n'n'ul thal
,;11t'
I~(
0" 11
ha,; lIot yt·t fully IIIU,;tt'ITd tlw nltlt's of tilt'
cla"s sht' i,; a"pirillg \0 joill. :\01 ollly tilt' ball ';(Tllt' alld tilt' dillllt'r parly 11111 IIlo"t of till' fillll. apart frolll tilt' hallle ill Pall'l"IlIo. i" ill t'ollllh'rpoillt to tlu' historical t·vI·lIls. till' n'\'olutioll takillg plan'IH'hilld the qui,·t alld llIlIl"Ouhlt'd lifl' Iht' t'stt't'med I'rillt"(' alld his hOlht·ltold liw tllI"OlIgllOUI tltl' lurhult·I\t·I·". TIll' ollly historical 1i~lIn' to fl'alurt· ill the film i" {:oIOlIt'I Palla\"icillo - I'rollllhly not W'llt'rally 1"I'(·ogllizt·d a" slIdl t'\"('1I ill Italy -
tlt·-
spill' all Ihl' ';1IIi111 lalk. all thal lit' really l"I'prt's('lIh i,., ,;ul'ft'SSt·cl. ;\ttt'lIIpt~ \0
ulldc'r"talld Ililll alld takl' him illto atTOUl1I ollh- "'ad the dlUral·lt·r~
ill t 0 ca,.,u i"t ry a lid III'W I"t·pn·s,.,ioll. III t'olltra"l. thl' Iwttlc' "(',,IIt·. all additioll to till' 1I0VI'1. mighl at firsl appl'ar cllriou,;(y dc,tadlt'd from tilt' Iwrratin'. (:Iwo,; l"I'iglh as tilt' battle for (>all'l"IIlO i,; wa;!,·d stn·l·t Ily ,;In·c·l. till' ft'rntr of ball I" on'n'OIlI('" all lIolth-r ill"tillt'h. Itrlltal \'iolt'II(,t' rt'iglh. alld :-.llIIlIlIary t'Xt'l'utiolls takt' plan' Oil both ,.,idc'". Lradually tll(' Rt'«(";(lirts will tilt' day.
The ",p('('ladt'
of war prm'ides a st'lIsatioll of illllllt'diH(,y, of till' lif" alld dl'ath of illtlividllal,; Iwillg al tll(' 1I1t'1"I'Y of dlalWt'. a.~ 0pp0';I·d to till' illl'\italtility wilh whil'h tlH' IIl1ificHlioll will takl' shal't" Partly hecatb(' 110111' of the maill I'hanw!t'r,; aplwar IIl1lil tilt' \"('ry t'lId of tilt' ,wqIll' 1It't'. tilt' ('n'lIb call he SI't'lI 10 ,;lalld for all tht' Imllks lakillg plal'l' durill;! thi,., "ta~e of tht' Hi"orgillH'lItO. Ollly at tilt' \Try 1'lId do WI' gt·t a glillll'::il' of TalltTt·di a"
11
dashillg yOllllg lH'ro. \Vitlltlllt this \'it'w of hilll. his blilld 01'1'0rlulli"lIllatl'l" 011 wOllld al'l'c'ar IIII'rl'ly d(·spical,I,': this way. tlWI"t' is a ,.,ad feeliIlg of YOllthflll I'xllltt'rHlH'I' lost. a "YIII·cdol'ilt' "'"g:ge~Iillg the o\"l'rall iIlterprt·tat iOIl of tilt' Bi"orgilllf'1I10 Iwill/-! 1'"1 forward ill tilt' fillll a,., a whole. TaIHT(·di i" .~olllt'what 1"I'lIIilli,,(,t'lIt of JlIlit'lI Son·l ill 'I'lw Hf,(j (/w/ tIll'
IJ/al"k. 011 11\1' CIlIt' llUlld. \\Tilt·s DOlllillil'k La{ :apnl. "hi,., illlll'r. privatI' s"'f is l·ll·\·alt·(1. poelic·. ";I'0lltalll·oll";. pa.~,.,iOlIUIt'. idl"tli,.,ti('.
('\"1'11
t'xlllwl'-
all"" Oil tilt' otllt'r IWlld. "his IIHlllllt'r i" ("aklllatillg. a lit I il Opt'rall'''' "lll·(·wdly to aC'hi('\t' worldly "lIt·I"(',.,"; alld pllblic aC'dailll. "liB TIH' diffl'l"t'IIt'I' i,., thal WIIt'I"t'ib .I1l1il·1I i,., a IIHIII "CIII tilt' makt· ... TallCTt·di i,., lIH'n'ly Iryillg to :-,('1'11)"(' what lit' takt·" Wilhollt a dOlld of doultl 1o Iit' his lIalllral ri~III". This alllHt,;I dlildlikl' altility to ('oll";lalltl~ dWII!!t· hi,., 0\\"11 horizoll of I'XpI·t"lUlioll alld 10 forgc'l aholll lilt' \'it'''''' IH' Ill'ld ollly a linll' "hill' ltt'fun' 1l1i1kc'" lli,., upport 11 11 i,.,1I I ap!'I'ar allllo,.,t dlilrlllill~. \\llI'n·a,.; TmItT.. di·" portrayal i" IIUlhillg if lIot niliC"al. IIH1t uf lilt' (,rillt'c' i.~ Clllil" lilt' oI'IHI-.ilt·. and till'
THE
HI~()Il(.I'It:"T() I-II.\I~
'I, )
with hi~ poilll uf vi!'w, Thi~ dkcl i~ furliH'r sI n'II~"wJl!'d I)y lilt' cnwial tht'II\t'~ of till' lilm Il('iJl~ t'itlwr t',\pouJlded by him (t',!!" ill the cOllversatioll with (:hnallt·y, as iJl tilt' book), or lTystallizt'd iJl him alld his rdal iUII!:>hip with Taucredi, lit· is all t'mbodillleJlt of allthal i~ supposedly good ill tilt' aristoeracy, alld iJl his ligun' this class is n·d(·t·lIlt'd ill tilt' hi~wricall't'rspt'ctiw thal is "('iJl!! 1'"1 forward ill tilt' lilm - or iJlti('l'(1. as thi" fillll, \\'hilt' Iht' history ('vol\"l''' as a dialt'ctic Ill'twt't'JI I'haJl~l'!:> Ihal to a !!reat ('xlt'JlI an' illusory awl perJllallt'lwI' Ihal is ~Iowly Iwill!! t'rodl,d, tilt' prillcl' t'III'lHllltt'fS tilt' ultimat!' '1lJ(·~tiolls of tellll'oralily iJl hi~ OWII prinHe sl'ht·rt·. 1I1' is au o(,serVt'r alii I 11111 a l'articipaJlI. 1101 ollly IIt'Call"I' of hi~ ~llt"ial s\aJldill!! bllt al~o IlI'nlll:'e of his agt': Ill' i~ awan' of hi" OWII apl'roadlillll dt'ath alld pn'IHlre" for his "'1I1'I'I·ssioll ill TawT(·ui. Ill' ,.,oars hi!!h aboH' alllhat is ,.,ordid aJl(1 dc('n'pil ahollt his class alld socit·ty. alld ill tilt' la,;t illstHllt'e it i,., hi,., approadlill!! death. ratlll'r thaJl hH\'iJl~ 10 accl'l't a dOli (:alo!!t'n, ur a (:010111'1 Palhl\"icillo iuto hi;,!!1 "'llt"il'(Y' that add::- a touch of sorrow to tilt' St'lbt' of ilTt't rit'\al,'" loss. The deatll "t'I'IIt' of lilt' "rillt'l' has IIt't'JI olllitt"d frolll till' lillll allll tilt' Hlt'ditatiOlb 011 d!'ath llIadt' sllOrtt·r. 1.111 tilt' portrayal of havill~ to ('Oillt' to terub with till' tillillldt, of lif" i" 110 II'ss al'l'an·1I1. III till' film alld till' book alikt'. the l'rilll'I' is wt,1I t'll'lil'l'l'd to SIII'I'I·I·d ill this. Ilis illt('n'st iJl aSlwuOlIlY is Hol ollly a lIlt'tHl'llOr for hi" alooflle,.,s 1,,11 also for his awart'Jlt'S" of tilt' I'a""illl! of t illlt' alld tilt' trallsit'llt't' of IIlIIItall I'lIfSllih alld COIICt~rtl". III \likw·1 Ellckt'lI' swords: "Th!' dt,,.,t·t'llI Ita,., lwguJl alld call Iit' an't'l'lt'd with sorrow a" Ill' kuows Ihal tllt'rt' an' lo\"('d sw'ct'sson; as wt·1I a" admired I'n't1!'t't·,.,,,ors. Thi,., ill"i!!h\. which ill\'ites hlllllility. al~o !!i\"l's II:' tilt' capacity to I'efct'in' WitllOUt ulIsurpa"sablt' hitlt'rJH';,s tilt' limits of our OWII t·xi,.,tt'w·e alld faclllti,·!'i.""" 11i,.,loP.-. Hi('(lt'lIr ha,., ",aid. i" "COIIst rtH'lt·d Oil I hI' fnll'llI n' lillt, 1Jt'1 Wt~I'1I pht'llollwllol0l-!ical t illw allt! a,.,troIlolllind. physical.. alld I,iolol-!it'al tilllt· ... ·'" 011 Ih!' o lit , halld. tlWrt· is tt'lllporalily as ,.,III,jt't·ti\ity: Oil tilt' other halld. tllt'rt' i" tilt' ilwxoral,lt' lIlarl'i1 of ol'jt'('li,,' (illlt'. BOlh fa('llIal alld lit·titioll'" atTOllllts of history lI1t'diate (,I'IW"('II tilt' two. \arrati\t's afe Oil tilt' wholt' allt'llIpts to lIlap Ollt tilt' t'"'II''' of tilt' I'a,.,t ill Iheir filII I1111 lIal1 ,.,il-!lIilinuH't'. Tlwy alT fOl'llh of ,'xplaillill;! alld IlIldt·rslalldill;!. ways of lIlakill!! :Wlbt' of tilt' ('\'idt'IIIT It·ft I'Will tilt' pas\. I3l1t whiJt. allllarrali,,'s "X lid" a St'IISt' of I will!! a ,.,1 nwlun·d lait- alltJlII till' pa"t. ill t'illt'lIla thi,., feat lire is t'ollll,illt'd with a slWII;! ft't'lill!! of alldiovi,.,lIal n·IJI·t·,.,t·lItalioll alway,., Iwillg ill tilt' I'n·";t'lIt It·II,.,". I'rt '"t' 11 I ill;! 11,., with tilt' "t'lI"atioll of all illllllt'dialt' \'it·w of a dit'I-!('li,' n'alilY, III 'I'lli' /,l'lJj)(lf'{/. tilt' rii'll It'\ltln' of tilt' alulio\'isllal n'collslnwliolll'ro\ id.,,, lilt' ,!!rotllld f"r n'l'n'''''Jllill!! it ("'('(Hill killd of Iwill!!-ill-tllt·-\\"orld.
\ I:-;U):\II
lill' illt·.'\orahly tl'lIIporal dlaraeter of which is lIIade appart'lIt ill tht· prillcl:" awakl'lIill~ illto awarellt·s" of hoth trallsit'III'I' alld conlillllity. tht' dlla I lIa III 1'1' of t illlt' a" tilt' crl'a 101' Hlld dt>YOIIJ't'r of li It' phcllolllcllal world. This ilbil..d1l ,·lIal,II·,., hilll to 1'01111' 10 It·nll:. wilh Ihe hi~IOril'al process that 1'01."III1I1·S and tarlli,.;lws I'\'erythillg Iit' hilll"elf repretil'lltti, tht' world that Ill' so flllly 1·IIII,odie,.;. as wI·ll as with his approaching death. Hi,; final addn'''''' to tilt' "tar til>"; together tllt',;e litelllt',;, bllt the yeJ'y lasl s('elle" with TalllTt'di, ,-\lIgl'linl. alld dOli Calogt'ro discussillg ill a dt'tal'hed manller thl' t>x"cutioll of Caribaldi's nlt'll. is a relllillder of th,' hUlllall costs CIIwill'd ill till' crl'Ulioll of tht' Ill'\\" historicalcircuJlIstHllt't>s. Ollt' of t hI' rt'lbOlb for the ptiycholugil'al rl'"OnaW'I' of Tlu' Leopard i" IIl1dollbtl·dh, till' fact that tlH'rt> is "0 1I1111'h of \'isconti hilll::it'lf ill both dOli Fal,rizio alld TUllt'I't'di: 011 I hI' Olll' halld, lilt'rt, is tilt' aristocrat vil'willg ""H'i"ty with a I't'rtaill detachllll'nt: 011 tilt' otlwr halld. till' allllosl 1111"1"'lIplllou,~ pOIt'lItial fast·is!. It is also illtert't-ling to notil'!' thal thollgh tht' fihll call Iit' "1"'11 to rdlt>l·t cI'naill social alld l'colltllllic ('OIlCl'nlS of the I'ar!,, 1I)()()S," , tllt'rt' art' hardlv, all\', ,.,t·lf-I·OIISCioll" rt.fen'IH't>" to tilt' flltllre frolll tht' poillt of "it'\\' of the lictiollal en'II(;;, sllch as Franz',; "i"ion of tilt' (k,.,1 rtlt'tioll of tilt' .-\Ibtriall t'lIIpirt' tuward till' ('lid of Sellso. \\'(' 1IH1)' "I't> ill nll'iol"" detail,; "iglls of the bottolll"',.,'; IlIirt' of cOlllprollli"e,., and opponllllislll illlo which tilt' Italiall killgdolll will ,.,tart 10 ,.,illk illllllt'diatt'ly aftl'r ih I,inll. 11111 alllOlIg the chaml'tl'r.., ollly tilt' prilH't' i,; t'\'t'n \'aguely aWHn' of tilt' illllsory dHlntcter of tilt' n~\'ollll iOI\ takill~ place . .111,,1 a,., ill .'iN/SO, althou~h aehit'H'd by a slightly differellt cillelllatic styit-. tilt' dialt,(·tic Iwt\\'t'(,1I idl'lltilicatioll ulld outside pt~r,.,pt'cti\'t' IIwtliatt'" IH'I\\t'I'1I tllt' I'a,;t dt'piClt'd ill tilt' filw awl 0111' OWII tilllt'. Tllt'n' is l'olbidt'ral,lt' alll'\'iatioll of tilt' irollic "taIlCt'. alld tilt' audit'IlI't' i,., ClIl'd to a,.,tilllllt' a far It',.,,.; 1IIIt'qUi\"Jt'ul attitude loward the cltaraclt'r,.,. Tilt, charal'lt'r,., an' 1I0t cb illclillt'd to 1Ilt'lodralllutic I!l',;tllrt''' a" ill tilt' t'arlit'r Hisorl!illlt'lIto fihll. alld thlls tilt' Vil'WIT is 1101 ill\'itt'd to idt'lIlify quitt' as stroll~ly wilh tllt'ir '·lIlOtiolls. ;\01' an' the diameter" dt'l'i('\t'd frolll dif1'1'1'1'111 1"'r"lw"lin''; or ill difft'rellt IIIlHlt'S. III"tead, tht'~ an' sho\\'1I li\'illg their lin'''' ill ,,,,If-'';lIffieil'IIl'Y alld t'\'t'1I call1l. eOIl"idl'rillg tilt' pt'rlllrhilll! ('\'I'llh takillg pla('" ill Iht' bal·kWOlllld. Thollgh tllt'rt' an' 10l\g ,;llOt/n'\'I'rst,-,.,IIOI ""''1II1'IH'''''', tllt'y do 1I0t particularly draw tilt' "1H'l'lator illltl tilt' dil'W'lil' "pan', \,·\,I·rtht'II·",,,,, tilt' dit'gt'lic span' "ppI'ar,; to l'Olltillllt' illdt'fillill'ly Ilt'yolld allY fra III i Ill!, alld this. log"tllt'r with tilt' J't·lutiw 1"lIgth of tilt' ,.,hoh. Iit'll'''' 10 t'I't'ah' Cl Sl'lhatioll of tll".,t'l'\'ill~ tilt' "\'t'lIh 1'1'0111 a ,.,Iight di,.,tall(·.·. TIlt' \'i,.,lIal ,.,1\,11' i" dO,"'I·h, J't'la!t'd 10 tilt' fat'1 thal tlwn' i~ 11/1 ';,,1" '>!tll
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deyeloplllt'lIt. which ill turn COlTt'~pol}(l,; to it rt'sigllt'd t'lt'~iac attitudt, toward history, :\ot ollly was tht'n' It,ss 1H't'd to lIIake a political poillt thall at liH' tilllt, of lIIakill~ ,";eIl.W, hilt "iscollti apparelltly di~co\'t'red IIIw'h of his I)WII nitical attiLllde toward RisorgillH'lIto ill the hook, \'t'ry little rt'ligurillg uf the plot or rt't hillkillg of tht' dWnll'It'I< lIIot iws wt'n' Heedt't!. All he had to do ",a~ n-foclIs ~onH' :o.t't'llt's alld slightly challgt' the eIllphasis, III tilt' earli('r Risorgilllellto /ilm, tlH' tunt~ ill tht' historical draill of ,'V(,lIts had iIllllwdiat" t'fft'cts Oil tilt' dwraclt'rs allt! tht'ir d"t'isiolls, without thelll n'ally IlI'illg aid" \0 ulld,'rstalld the "itllatioll" or truly exploit tht'1II to their advalltage - with the partial exn'ptioll of (:OIUII St'rpit'ri, of ('ourst', :\ow lIIajor t'\'t'II(;, art' takillg plact' ill till' hat'kgrolllld a" if autolllatically. and mallY of tlH' characlt'r" silllply It'l tlH'lIht,h-,'''; Ill' carried hy tilt' ri:-;ill~ tidt', III Ishaghpollr's won/,.,; "Pt'oplt' do not rt'\'('al tilt' wurld thruu~h tlwir actiolls allY lIIon': it is tlH' world ",hidl t'xplaill" the pa,.;sivity uf t1lt'ir existellt'(',""~ 1111' Leopard is all illlpol1allt milestolle ill \'ist'Ollli·,.; cart't'r. For tilt' first tillle. a llIon' or It'ss IOJlely. frustrated youllg mall is n'plan'd I,y a IOllely. r{'siglled ('Iderly llIall as tilt' lIIale lead. AI"o tilt' portrayal of till' falllily is of t'tJllsiderablt' illlt're:;t from tilt' poillt of vit'''' of \'is('ollti's eillt'matic O('UH(' as a wholl'. Though thi" family tllrtl,.; out to Iit' fairly hollow. it is lIe\'l~l1helt's" a factor that ket'ps P('oplt- alld tilt' "ocit'ty togt'tllt'L Problem" with tht' family Wt'n' tTlwial ItJ \'iscollti'" p,'rsollality, alld Iit' idt'alizt'd hi" OWII family alld yuuth dt'spilt, lilt' kllowJI facts. ,\1though Iit' t'xl'rt',.,,,ly dellied it. e\'ell 11U' Lt'()lmrd is a killd of id,'alizt'd \'er~ioll uf his 0"'11 family. The tt'lIlporal di,,\aIH'" t'lIabled him to gin' it all aura of IlOstalgia, III all hi:-; film::. ill ('Olltt~lIIllOrary sl'ltillg~ apart frolll Bt'IIissill/u. the ralllilie" an' ill a state of disilltegratiol\.
The Family and Moderl' Italian Soeiety
VlSCOi\TI'S TWO FA:\lIUES LlIdlillo \'i,;('ollti wa" born Oil '\o\"l'mllt'r~, 19()h. tilt' fourth child of (:a.-la Erlm alld Ciu';PPIIt' \'i,;('ollti. dukt, of \lodl'OlIp, TIlt' \'i~colltis \\"I'/'(' di"talltly related to the IIwdi,'\'al dllk,'" of .\Iibll. Thl'OlIldl this ,'011lwctioll. IIwir lill,'ag!' ('all 1)(' tra(,,'d to Dt',;id('rills. tilt' la,.;t 1'II1,'r of the I..:illp:dolll of LOlllbardy ami tilt' fatlwr-ill-Iaw ofCharl,'magllt'.11I tilt' pie\,Pllth ",'lItury tllP family acquin·d tht' Iwn'ditary titlt· of \'is('olllll. which (,\"I'lIll1illl\. IIt'C'tllllt' tilt' lIalllt' of IIw familY ih,·If. Craduall\' tilt' \'i~nllllis . , t'xpalldt'd t1lt'ir domaill ulllil it ('owJ'('d lIIost of 1l0rtilt'J'Il Italy. It is illdicatin' of tllt'ir lllight Ihat Pop" .101111 \\11 ('x('omlllullintt"d tllPm alld prpadlt'd of tilt' Ilt'C(',;"ily uf a crll"ade a/!aillst Ihem, I TIlt' llIalt- lillt' uf tilt' \'i"('ullti,, "lId,·d ill tlIP liflp{,lIlh ("{,HllIr\'. bUI tlll'OlI/!h t1lt'ir fpmal,' 1Ilt'llIll('r" tilt' family IwC'tllllt' rplated 10
"Oillt'
of Ihe
IIlo"t illlportarll royal hOll",'" ill Ell 1'01'1': Ihe \'aloi", tllP Ilapsbllr/!s. alld tilt' TlIdor,.;, III tilt' lIillt'le{,lIth ("t'lItllr\', a di"talll Itnllwh of thp fami'". a,.;"llIllt'd tlw IHIIIW alld tTe,,1 of tilt' \'i"(,Ollli". TIlt' title of dllk,' of .\lodl'Ollt' wa" grarll,'d by "apult'oll. alld gradllally tilt' family ""('Im'd it,; I'O"ilioll allloll,!.( tilt' I,'adillg lIobll' falllili,'s ill Italy. III .\Iililll the lit'\\' \'i"(,Ollti,, IlIailltaillPd tllt'ir high statu" IJY Iw('omill!! pat roll" of Ihl' arh. parlil'lllarly opna, LlwhillU \' i"COllt i'" pan'lIh, dOli Cill"I'plw alld dOlllla Cm·la, ht'101lgt'd to tilt' ('ird(, of I..:ill!! \'i('lor ErllllHllllwl III alld (,)IIt'1'1I 11e"'11. DOli Cill"l'pP" IWl'
'IIIE 1-.\:\111.\
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10\'1'. admiratioll. ilioll'. till' la,1 illll'0~~ib'" 10,,'" III arl~ ,'a,,' tI,,· I'alllih- 1111..1,·", ""'lIh 10 Ill" "'I'~ illll'orlalll. .\11 0111' way of I",ill!!. of li\ ill!!. d,'ri\I" frOlIl tllI'('(·. frolll till' illh''I'ilalll'" Wt· I'arn \\ itll 11" frolll Ihl' hal'l'illt", or IlIlhal'l'illl''' of 0111' I'hildhood, Eadl of II~ i, till' 1'1'1 " hil'I of tlli, "llIall",1 "wial ",,11. I,,·fon· Iwill!! till' I'ro,hll'l of .""'i"I\', «H"'II all IlIwhall1!"abl,' prodlll'l. or ,'al'abl,' of IIlodilil'alioll, olll~ wilh !!n'al diftil'ldl\. :-io till' falllil~ n'l'n'~"III~ a killd of fal,'. of d'·~lill\. illll'0~.,il,lo· 10 ,'llItl,·. TIll' rdalioll,IIiI'" till' ,'olllra,h. till' illlrirll'·.,. riit' "1'IIt'a\ab willtill riit' falllih al\\a\, illto·n·,1 1111' 1J1,,~i'Jllal,'h."
TIlt' pl'llld"11I of tilt' ralllil~ tlllb ('olll',·i\I·" i... ill"\lri('ald~ ('011111'('1".1 wilh tilt' Il'w... liolh of till' illdi\idllal'" n'laliIJlbhil' wilh 11'lIlpIJralily alld IradiliIJII: \likw'l Lilt'kl'll \\Til'· ... : Ladl :':"llI'ralioll n'l"'al, tilt' fal,· alld 111001../, of "adi,'r :':"III'I'alioll'" alld i, 1"'"1101 I.. tllI'llI I,~ 1110111\ al'l,;,n'llI a 1101 1.\ ;Ill ""'11 "ro'
lOO
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ob~t'nalioll,
IIl11dt' rqwalt'dly Ihrolll,(lltllll lilt' "t'llIlIri,'~, w(' SllIbbOnlly s('t'k III foq.!"1. 110\\1'\"'" Iwhilld lilt' fairly I 1"111 1ol'an'lII \eil~ of diff,'n'l)('t'" w(' ('all n'('ol,(lIiz,' IIlu~,' allci"1I1 1I1t',,1P~ 011 whi('h w(' ha\"(' IW"II ablt' 10 bllild our t'xi"telH'I' alld of whil'h ollr li\,'~ are ollly \ arial iOlb, Failhfllhlt·,,~ and t(,lIt\t'rI\('S" - wl\('1I IIlt'y dOlllillal'· - appear 10 I,(in' to Ihi~ Iwr~pt't'l iw 011 lwilll,( .11'1'1 h alld ~ellst' of 1H'lolIl,(ill;.!. Ilall' alld ddiallt't· brilll,( 0111 - whell Ihey illlllrn tuk,' o\'('r - sOlllt'thinl! IIl1d"lIiahly bill Ihillly '"li'lIlt', III Ihi~ '·I .... llal ami '"lrt'~oh'ahlc ,'olllli"l WI' look for IIl1ldt'I., whi .. h ('0111.1 show,,,, a way 0111 of Ihi, dile",,,,a of rqll'tiliulI, faithflllll"~' alld d('fialH will for n'lIt'wal.~
Ilow('\('r IIl1lt'h \'i~(,ollti Illight ha\'(' idoliz(,d hi,.; OWII falllily. Iw wOlllJ ,,"rely haw agreed with Clwkho\"" ,il'w: "H(,IIH'IllIH'r that ill 0111' day I'v('r\'. cultlln,d III a 11 , "YI'II th,' llIost Ilt'allll\', is 1II0"t ilTital.J .. ill hi,., own , hOlllt, alld alllong hi,.; OWII falllily, II ('('all,.,t' tlH' di,.,cord 11I'1WI'(,1I the pn',.,ellt alld lilt' I'a,~t is first of all apparellt ill the faJllily,"/1 CraJualh'. \'is('ollti was aolt' to ,.;tlld, tilt' fatllih' . . ill,..titutioll also a,.; all ollbider, After havillg a(Teptl'd hi,; hOlllosexual orit:'lItatiun. Iit' IIII1"t lu\\'I' 111'1'11 awan' that I\(' would I\('\'('r fatht'r a famil,. He 1I1O\'t~d frolll 0111' IOH' affair to allotlll'r spelldilll-( allllo,.,t as IIl1wh t'lwrgy 011 dU'1II a,; ill tilt' makillg of hi" filllls, 011 the otllt'r halld. 1I1t',.,(' n'latioll!'illips al,.,o serwd as a ,,0111'1'" of ilhl'iratioll alld int't'1I1 i\'t:'. \lally of 11 Will. "ay", St'r,adio. had a ,;t roll!! sadolllaso('hi"lic (,lelllt'lIl: \' i"COllti ('llllld hUllliliulP hi" lover,; alltl/ or 11'1 tllt'III hUllliliate hilll." Ilowl'\er. \'i"COlllj',., ullllo,.;t lifl,-loIIg frielld alld collahoralor. Su,;o Ce('chi D' :\lIIico. dlillks SeJ'\·adio·,.; imag" is \\T01I1-(. She delli('" dral Lllt'hillO wa,.; IIIUso('hi,;1i ... although Iit' ('(J11ld I,.. ('I'uel. III Iwr Ol'illioll. \'i,.,C,1I11i driflt'd illlO hOIlIOS('.\IIUliIY allllo"l wiIlIOIllIlOlit'illg. III IIIl' IIWIlllt'r of a Hl.'lIai,.;,.,alll'l' print'('. Iit' dlOu~1t1 IH' could abo Iruv!' bo~,., alld wa", 1101 aware Ihal hi~ iJlll'I'I',.,1 gradllally (,,,"It'I'I'd t'xl'ilbin'ly 011 1I1t'1I. 1" Bill ,.,111'('1',.,,; brollght wilh il a circle of friellds alld JuvI'r" who I'roJmbly \\('1'1' a killd of suJ)slitu1(' fur falllily rl'ialiOlbhip". III allY ('a"e. a prill('I'ly (,Ollrt of 0pp0r1I111i,.,.". petty Ihit'\e". alld IIIt'dio""t, pt'r,;Ulh !!radllally fOl'llll,d arolllld \·i,.,('ollt i. 11" W,,,", t1wir idol for Iit' appt'al'l,d \0 ('olllbillt' "'If('('(·~,., "illt a "Olll('IIII'I for social r(,slrit'lioll~ alld 1101'11 It>. TIIOII!!1r \'i,.,"Ollli \\a,., otllt'r"i,.,t· quilt' ""'\'('1'1' alld palriar..i1H1. Iit' apparelltly \\cI,., illIri!!llI'd Ily Ihi,., !!I'OUp of IIli,.,li.". 11 .. "a" of It'll slalldt'I'I,d Iw('uI"''' of hi,., ",("\u
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uow; ah~eIlCl> of fatlH'rs. TIH' ollly truly positiw fatlwr fi~lIn' appl'ar~ ill Bl:'lIissil/UI. awl eH'1I IH' has a fairly ,.;mall /'(lIt'. Tllt'n' i,.; till' prillce of Salina. of ('ours,'. hut Ill' prt'ft'r~ his IwplH'w to tilt' poillt of nt'~lect ill~ hi~ OWII childn'll. In La lel"ra 1'"I:'IlIa. tilt' father is dead alld till' ~randfatlH'r has a considerably slllaller roll' thall ill \"t'r~a's lIowl. III The J)al/lIl1'd. l\.ollstHIItill has no t'olllH'ction with his SOli Ciinther. rt'pn'sellb tilt' \\'or~t ei"lllellh ill sot"il'ty (or t'\"I'1I ill IllIlIIHnity). ami is hrutally killed. Crandfather .Ioachilll i:, lllurdl'n'd early ill tilt' fillll. and his SOli. fatlwr of till' celltntl dwractt'r. :\Iartin. is aln'ady dt'ad wllt'lI the story Iwgin:-i. In 11w /I/I/O(,l:'ul. tilt' author Filipl'0 tL\rhorio i,.; tilt' biolo~ical fathn of tilt' bahy horll durin~ tht' IiIllI. hilt hi,.; roll' i~ mar~inal. and Iit' dil'~ Iwfort, dw hirth of tilt' child. Tullio. till' pro1U~olli~t of tilt' tillll - who~t' fatlwr is dl'ad as"lIlllI':o. patt'rnity. blll ollly to kill tht' ··intrudt'r." 12 In /{o("("o um/ llis HroI IIl'I"s. SUf/(/m. alld LlIdll'ig. till' fatlH'r,.; of tlH' n'lati\'t'ly yOIIl.~ prota~oni"h Iwn' dit'd Iwfon' tilt' film" Iw!!ill. III tlH' COIlI'/!I"suliou I)i('('('. tilt' OIll' real father IIIelltiOlwd nt'\'t'r appear,.;; tlw yOIllI~,.;ter" hm't' dearly 111'COil It' totally alil'lIalt'd froIII hill!. alld the I'roft's~or' S attt'llIpt to pose as a father end~ ill patlwtic failurt'. \Iother" n't'l'iw ollly sli~htly Ilt'ttt'l' tn'allllt'll\. III /Jellissillla alld /(0("('(1. lon.hle hut on'ITarin~ IIlOtlll'r" alIllost "uppn's:o. tht'ir childrell by "in('t'l't' attt'llIpts to secure their "lIt't'I'''''' ill life. III :-;([//(/1"0. tilt' lIIotlwr i~ Sl'\'t'rely dist IIrhl'd alld hatl's ha dlildn'll. III The Jhlfflflt'd. t ht' illflllt'IWt' of Sophit, 011 her ~Oll \Iartill ~ro\\'~ illto 1I101I,.,troll" proportiolls alld dlt' fillll eIH(,., ill lllatricide. SIlt' is cOllllterhalaw'l'd by Elizalwth. till' 100'ill~ IIlOtlwr of two lit tit' ~irb. but tllt'y alll'erish in tilt' powl'r stru~;,dt' Iwtwt'l'lI difft'n'lIt :\azi factiolls that ~Ulllt' of tlw otllt'l' family lIu'llllwl's n'pn'~t'lIt. III /.II(/lI'ip;. lilt' II10ther of tilt' ytlllll~ kill~ appears to IH' illten·"It'd ollly ill tilt' polit ic'al role his ~ollIIa" to play. :\eitllt'r dOI'~ the II1utllt'r ill tilt' COIII'('r,wlioll !lien' appcar to Ill' partic'ularly i.I\t'rt'~lt'd ill Iwr l'hildrt'll's act i\'it ic,.;. Fillully. two It'lIdt'r I1IollH'r~ appear ill Tlw IIIIIOCI'III. but their relatioll"hip with tllt'ir t'hildn'lI i" 1I0t at a nilit'al sla~t', III allY t·ast'. Cilllialla lost',., Ilt'r I,al,y will. ill luolHI." of hi" birll!. alld Tullio'" p~ydlOlo~i('al "roblt'lIh an' all ol"ioll" illdicatioll of IIl1n'~o"I'd childhood prol,II'III". TIlt' IhydlOlo~ic'al illlpliC'atioll" of tilt' al,s('lIn' of falllt'r~ frolll \i,,t'ollti'" lilm" lIlay Ill' c'olllwt'!t'd 1I0t ollly \\"ill. I.i" 1'1 '1':0.0 lIa1 hi"tory IHIt. 1I1on' illft'n,,,till~I~, with lilt' 1Ilt'lodralllatic' IlIodl' of 1·:\I"·t',,~itll. ill \\ hid. lilt' din'ctor ,,0 oftt'lI illdlllgt'~. Throll!!h ih IOllg history. IllC'lodrallIa ha,.. 111'1'11 IlIaill". a t'OII"t'n'ati,c 1'01'111 of art; ih fllllctioll ha~ 1I~lIalh-· IWt'1I to
\0:2
\ IS(.O:\TI
ib puw('r ,;Inu'tun'. III this ('Olllt'XI.. il uV('/"t'mphasizt',.; tilt' illlt'l'IIal rt'lalioll" of Iht' falllily. whidl COlllt'" to n~pn''';t'lIt sociely illlllldt'II";. TIIP :;wry oft('1I c1imax(',; ill till' r('~toratioll of famil, ullity alld the 1II0ral order it rqlrt':;t'lIh. 110\\T,·('r. 11101"(' perc"pti\l' writer,; cOllld ill\l'rt tilt' t'lItir!' patlI'nl. III Balzac. family rt'latioll"hip:; 1t'lId 10 lit' I,a" .. d 011 t'Xploitatioll .. \ h01l1t' I'n'"enled al fir"I ill all idyllic light IurtI~ 0111 to Iit' distorled by illl'~rIIalll'l),;iolb alld n'prt':;:;"d c(ml/iet:;. Tlwl"(' ,,0011 t'merg",; all illl"rplay of fon','".
,.;tlllIt'
ullifyillg alld other,.; It'ari/lg tilt' family apart. TIlt' family
i" I'n'''('1I1,'d a" a din'el oUlgrowth of tilt' ctIIltliliolh Ihal culture alld ";0eiel y iJllpo,;t' 0/1 illdi,idual". Yi"conli got'''; ('\"1'/1 Ilt'yond Ualzac ill dt'piclillg tilt' falllily a"
/11\'/1
i/l hi" libl),; C
holit, /lllItilly agaill"t "'lI'ieIY Ily ol'l'o"illg their falher,.; I,('('au:;e tht'Y are a"lIo,,1 alway:; dead. Thu" tllt'y ('lid up oppo"illg tilt' /lOnll" of "ot'i"ty as a whul ... BUI wh"ft'a" ill lradiliollalll)('lodra/lla tilt' rellt'lIiOlh of tilt' youllg IIIt'II an' of It'll m,'n' rile!"! of pas!"!aw' tltal t'lId ill tilt' rt'storatioll of the palriardHlI ordt'r. Ihe alltago/li,,/II i/l Yi"COllli·" filllb i/l\'ariallly /IIO\"('S Iwyo/ld I'\'(·o/lciliatio/l. Ollly tilt' ,·tJllfonlli:;b "uryi\" and pro"pt'!". But Ilt'itllt'r do('" dlt' indi,·iduali";l ,.;talld up a" a IllOdt'1 of ,·irtu('. TIlt' pri,'t' to Iit' paid for n'llOullci/lg patriarchy i" SIIOWII 10 lIt' tilt' 10";"; of illlt'grity. 10\1'. fri"lId"hip. "olidarily. alld hollt,,.;ty - hoth to\\·anl ot/)('r", alltl (1I1t'"t,11". AI ib 1110,,1 ,'xln'IIH'. the n,lwllioll i" di"Iort"d illto I','r\,'p,ily. In :"jwulra. Cialllli·" illt'l'"IU(lIb lo\t' ha,., ob\iously hilld,'rt'd hi" n,lalioJl;ihi" with tlte n',,1 of tilt' world. "hi'" ill The /)Ollllwri. \\artill·:; dl,,,tnlt'lin'lIt''';''' lIIaJli-
ft."", il"df a" Iwdophilia. IlIotllt'r illn'sl. alld "adi,,1I1.
JU)('('{)
.L\/)
II/S HIfO],IIL"US
Prodw,tion and ("t'llsorship III Ho("("() (/fulllis Hmllwrs. '·i"C(lIlli addn'''''''d all ('""Io"i\(' "ocial i",.,l/I': tilt' ilIa"" IlIi~Talioll frUlI1 Iht' pour "olllh 10 tilt' "ro"I','roll" 1I0rth. It IlInlt'd till I 10 Ill' 011(' of hi,., 1110,,1 difficlllt alld tI('an',,1 I'roj("·"". Trolll"" IH'~all al tilt' .~ltoolill!! "Ia~,' ill tilt' "I'rill!! of I ()(lO. TIlt' IIll1rtl,'r al tilt' "lid of lilt' fillll "a" "'IIPI'O""" 10 Ia I... (' I'lac(' al Idro,.,('alo. alar!!!' rt"')",'aliollill an'a 011 lilt' olll"l...ir.,., of \Iilall. "IIt,)"(, a yOllllg I'nhlillll" had n'("'lItly 111'1'11 1IIIIrd,,)'(',1. S(',('ral IWl"lIIih \\(T" al'l'li,'d for alld ~ralll"tl. Inll jll,,1 \\ ltI'll lilt' ,.,IIUUlill!! \\it,., alHllI1 10 ,.,tart. ('i,·il ,,('nallh fmlll lilt' I'rmilH"ial adlllilli"lrali'lIl allllllllll'·"" IIlal
tllt',.", W(T('
ill""fti,·i"III.\ Iit'\\ appli"dlillll
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TilE /' ,\ \111.\
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iliad". ("ompl('(I' with tilt' n'(pw,.,tt'd ('.\I"('rpt frolll tilt' "nipt. III tilt' /'lId. perlllis"ioll wa" 1I0t ;,!ralll('d 011 tilt' ;,!rollll(b of "illopport Illlt' n's('lIlblall(,(' to rt'ality" of tilt' S(,t'lI(' to 1)(' ,.,hot. This n'f,'n'lIct' to tilt' Idros('alo IlIlIrder wa,., oh\'iollsly all ,'.\CIIS" - IIl1\lI~ tilllls had IH"'II shot ill thi,., an'a. alld 110 Ollt' had ('01111' a",kill~ ahollt p('J'mih. Tht' IlIO,.,t lik!'ly n'WiOIl was the wi,.,h to hilld('r lilt, activiti,'''' of tilt' politi(,ally alld lllorally Sll"'p,'('t din'('tor. 1-1 A ,.,('alldal t'fIIpt,'d, The .bsol'ialt'd Fillll (:ritics of ~liIall prott'stl'd alld dailllt'd that the provillcial adlllillist rat iOIl'" dl'cisioll was all 1I1l('Olht it lIIiollal act din'ct"" a~aillst lilt' fn,,'dOlIl of t'.\p!'I',.,sioll. Blit tilt' ofti('ial" also ;,!urn"!'t'd slIpport. ,\ \\,t'lI-kllowlI Ilt'o-fu,;cist ('oll;,!I'HIlrlatt'd tilt' provilll'iul adlllilli,.,t nil iOIl alltl said ht, hopt'd IH' \\'OIdd lIot hm',' to ""t' all~ lIH1fl'/iIIll" alHHII "prostitlltl'" alltl bil'yd,' thi,'\'""." \\'hil,' th .. d"'liIt" ('011tillllt'd, Yi"l'ollti ('OIl1p"'tt'd till' "hoot ill;,! at a lo('atioll Ilt'ar Lakl' Fo;,!liallo that 1't'''''lllld,'d Idl'Osl'alo,I,-,
Hili the tillllill;,! prohlt'lIh did IlOt ,'nd tllt'!'I', Cardillal Tanlilli !'I'(plt'"lt'd drat orti('ial" takl' Hctioll a;,!aill"t "I't'rtaill d"stnH'ti\'t~ tilllls." illld \Iilall'" pllblic pro",'('utor. (:tlllllllt'lIdatol't' (:anllt'lo Spa~lllwlo, wa;, ('llt'ollI'H;,!,'d to vit'w /{o('('o with a ~roul' of poli('t' offict'r,; alld lawy('r,." Tlwy d"lllalld"d that 1'0111' "'I't'III'S Iw CIII or tht, film wOllld Iit' ('ollli,,('alt'd alld tilt' prodll(,t'r Coffredo LOIllhardo proS('('lItt'd for "di",,,,"lllillatill;,! all 01."1"'111' olljl'ct." :\rll'r Ilt';,!ot iat iOIlS, LOlllilardo a;,!rt,t'd to dark"1l tilt' nit ind ,,( Tilt'S \\itll tiltt'r", Thi" ill turn promptl'd lilt' ('('[bor" ill HOlllt, to d('llIalld that two of tilt' darkt'llI'd ,,(,t'llI',., Ill" olllillt,d "lItin,I\', I..
It WWi \'isnHlli'" tllrll to Sp('k lilt' prolt,(,tioll of' tilt' law, 11,' slII'I'""d(·d ill ~('''ill~ thl' !'adit'r d,' .. i"itlll IIl1l1ifi"d hy a I,';,!al d,'daratioll sp"('ifyill;,! that a tilm i" a work of art that ('allllot Iit' illfrill;,!t'd UpOIl - alltl sill('/' hy thi" tilllt' tilt' \'t'lIi('(' Fillll h,,.,tinrl jllry had award,'d tilt' fillll a "I",cial prizt" it had al I",bt illtli"plltahly rt'adlt'd tilt' statu" of art. TIlt' dd/'II'd S,','lIp" WI'I'(' !'I'storl'd to No('('(). hilt 011 tilt' lar;!,'r frollt thl' halt It, ,'olltillllt'd, Appart'llIly tilt' d"('isioll had ,.,(HIlt' ild\'l'rs" t'fft'l'h 011 /ut,'r films, It is illdicati\'l' of tilt' prt'\'ailill;! paralloia at tilt' till\l' tllilt to;,!,'IIlt'r with U()('('o. which at It'a,.,t l'O[lIaillS til'r .. ,'''' viol"lIt "1'1'11(',." tilms as illllOt'I'lIt as 1;I'llilIi's La du/Cf' /'ila (l')(}O) alld :\lItolliolli',; ""(//'/'('11111/'(/ (1()()()) rail illto (!'IlIIbl .. , Thl' whol,' IJw,,,tioll of fn'l-dolll of SIIt"'I'" ill a t'olls('nati,,' alld dl'rintli"tic s(wi"ty \\,IS at is,,II,', III tilt' II1I('k;,!l'OlIlld tlW!'l' IO(IIIlt'd political IJlw"tiol'" ['oolt'd ill tilt' id,'oIo;,!ical ol'po,;itiIH'" of t"l' ('old wur as \\TIl as ill tI\I' politi('al ,.,illlatioll ill Italy, Thl' (:t'lItral-Bi;!ht ('oalitioll ;,!1)\,(,1'I1111"Il( Wits ill ni,.,i,;, partl~ IlI'nlllSl' tI\I' So('iali,~t party had adHIIlI'I'd I'oll"id,'r,.1.)" ill 11 .. , 1'C)I\ .. 1""lion, SIII'i,,1 alld (Holiti.',,1 It'IlSiOll'; had hllrst illto
ltH
\ I:-.C()\ll
Iwatt'd ideologi(,ul Ikhatt'. /luc('U t'\"(~1I Iw('allle tilt' "ubject of a parliaIIlt'lItan debate H~ "Wilt' Chri"t iall Dt'llIocrat ic and lIt'o-Fas('ist lIlt'mlwr,. asked wily a lilll! slalltit'ring th(' t'lIligrallts from tilt' sOllth was allowed tt) II(' distrihllted. TIlt' leftist inwllt'ctuals :-itW the c('nsorillg of films as yt't fllrther e\"idt'llt't' that tilt' Christian Dt'lI!olTatic gOH'I"I11llent was merely tilt' :-1I1·,·t':-,.;or of till' old Fa"ci,.;t J"t'ginw. All (hi!:> as";lIrt·d Ilocco of tremendOlls IlUx-unit"!· ";11I'(·t',.;,.;. I"
Sodal and litt>rary hat'kground Hoc("o Iwcallll' tilt' ligurt'llI'ad ill tilt' battle for tilt' frt'eti()1ll of expression largely 1H'l"1. III Betwt't'lI tilt' years 1951 alld 196 L abollt 1.?;) million people. that is . about 10 pern'lIt of the populatioll of the south. emigrated. III the 1960s tilt' lIux eV1'1I illlTeased. Some IIIoved abroad . bUl 1Il(J~t of theIII found tlll'ir way 10 the illdw;trial centers of the lIurth. which were SOOIl surrOlllHkd lly grl'y housing an'as deprived evert of Lasic sel'yices. III lIlallY places thl' iIIIllligrallts lived ill shallt)10wns. BUI despite tht' oftell appallilll-! ('olldiliolls. tilt' peoplt' did lIot wallt to rt'tum to their former hOllle,.;. To IIIakt' multer,.; \\'01''';1', they ellcoulltered prejudice ami wt're U('Clbt'd of l'ausill~ all po,.;sible social probleIlls. They were thought to cOII~titlllt' a threat to the value!:> of tht' 1I0rth . wht'n"a:, ill fa('t tht·\' were IlIo"t !'ul-!t'r to illlt'gratt' a/l(l to IwnlllH' part of urball society. I" TIll' facl that 1II0"t iIllIlli~rallt,.; had 110 wi"h to retllrll ,.;urprised al"o \·i,.;('ollti alld SIl~O C('cchi {i':\micu ill their illterviews of southenwl"" who had IIH)\'t,d to i\lilall . ..\m()lI~ tho"e tlll'y spoke to was lhl' famous H()~aria '1' .. all illlllli~rallt IlIotiwr who. by s'IlIattilll-! alld haras,;illg ci\'il st'r\'allb . had ,;1I1,(",t~dl'd ill acquirillg basil' st'(,lIrity fur her family. SIIt':-u dl'li~hted Vi"('ollti that I... Illtldt'lt'd illIIllIllllWd till' llIotllt'l' ill hi~ him "t'lI": .... "
TilE F.\ \111.)\:\
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III additioll 10 Ihis ill-dpplh illw,.,li/-!atiulI of social rpality. sl'Y\'rallill'''ary sOllrcps illlllH'III'l'd thl' makill/-! of 1l()('C(). '1'111' lIallW of till' lilm i" a cOlllhinatioll of the title of Thoma,., ~lallll':; luseph (/11(1 his Uro/lwrs (19:3:3) alld tlw nalll!' of Hucco Scotellaro. a plwt who~I' worb I'xpn'ss"d the fl'l'lillt!s of the pI'lballh of t he soul h. Pa /'t iClllarly his ( 'oll/adilli del swl (Pea:;allls of till' ,.,0111 h) ilbl'in'd thl' ,.,('J'I'I'II\\Tiler:; of Ilo('('o. as did cl'rtaill otill'r worb relatl'd to tilt' :;outh. SllI'h a" Carlo Ll'\'i·,.; ('ris/o si (~./i'''''/(l/o (/ El)()li (Chri~t ,.,topP"d al Eboli).~1 Thl'y fOlllld mon' dirp,'tly IIsI'fUllll1llt'rial ill Cionllllli Te"tori·,., 1'01Ierlioll of ,.,loril',.,.III)()II/e del/a (,'/,i.w(lil (Thl' brid/-!I' of Chi"olfa. 19;)X) .. \hh()lI~d. Tt'stori',., Catholic faith a!H1 illlt'n'st ill spiritllal qlw,.,tioll:-i \\·1 ...(' llot particularly diN' 10 \'iscollti's Iwart. '1\,,.,tori',., illlaW' of till' IIr1WII j1ll1t!II' Ihat had t!J'OWII lip ill \liIall IlIadl' hilll "'1.'1' his lIatin'city with III'W I'~l'''',~~ Thl' l'oll('('lillll was till' fin,t pari ofTI'.~tori·s sl'rit,,, I sep:re/i di .Ifi/w/() ('1'111' S('ITl'ts of \litall). IIt'piClill/-! 1111' world of londy WOIIWII. pro,.,litutl's. buddillt! artis"'. alld di"illllsiolll'd bowr,.,. III one of tilt' ,.;toril's. Cu,w/ai, .";ill(//r(/~ tht'n' is a scelll' Iwt\\T('1\ two brotlwrs alld a prostitllte who I'ar/il'r "lwloll;,?:I,d to" 1111' ddI'/' hrotlwr. TllI'sl' charaell'r,.; Iwca1l1t' tht' IlIO(it,ls for SilllOIlI'. HOITo, alld 'iadia ill till' fillll. Tile relatiul\"hip l)('tw('t'l\ RuCI'o alld Sill1011l' aJ"o pandl,'\"; tllat 111'IWI'I'II Prince \lyshkill alltl Hu~ozill ill Do,.,toy,'\sky's Tlw Idio/ (1Sh8). Just a,., \Iyshkill alltl Ho~ozinlHJth fall ill Ion' witll 'iasta"ya Filil'po\'lwya. both brothl'r,; fall for 'iadia. For her. RO('I'o rppresl'lIh goodllt'ss and raitll in life. in tlw 111<111111'1' of lilt' al1ll0st saillt'" \I\·shkill. \\'I)t'rt'a" SiIlIUIII' I'YeJIllwlly make,., Ilt'r SU('I'lllllb to hl'l' llIi"eraIJ\(' "I'lf-illla~('. III bolh ,.,Iori('s thl' WOlllall illadH'rll'lltly leads tilt' 1111'11 10 ('ollll)('\(' for 11t'r. wllid. ill tI)t' t'lld drh·es all thret' illt() 1I1i,.,l·n. . TIll' \\'OIlIl'1\ al"o die ill 11)(' satl)(, \\'11\'. . ~1,JJbl'd hy tilt' 11101'1' \'joll'lIt of tllt'ir two lon'r" . .\lId ill IJtJth l'a,.,I'" tI)(' t\\'o 1IIt'll lIH'e! afll'r Jilt' Illurd('r alltl an' joilwd ill a broJiwrllOod of pain IIH1t is lwyond raliullal lllldl'r"taJldill~ . ./Ibl Iwfort, Hucco. \'isCOJlli had din'l'tl,d .\rthur \lill(,,:,.,.1 111'1I'./i'O/l/ 11t(, /Jridp:p (}<);).')) for 1111' T('atro Eli";I'o ill HOllll'. 111 till' play. two hrorlwrs IllO\'(' from Sicily to 'iew York. They. too. are driYl'll to \·ioll"lI'e by j,'alOu,.,y, hut all elJually importallt riit'llit' i,., tilt' ('ollflil't 1)('IWI'I'1I tI)(' \II'di1('ITUI)('all l'OIlt't'l'tiollS of hOllor alld ju"tin' alld tI)(' capitalist urdl'r of Jilt' :\('\\' \\orld. 111 tilt' Iwgillllill1! of lilt play. 11)(' la\\'y('r AIJil'ri tell,., of Jilt' illlllli~rallh' "uspil'iollS ahout hilll: "I ol'tl'lI 1I1illk Ihat bl'\tilld that su,.,pil'iou,.; littlt' 1I0d of thl'ir" li(' tltn't' tllou""II,,1 yt'ars of di,.;lntst. A lawyl'l' 11)('(\1"" 1111' la\\'. alld ill Sicily. from where tllt'ir fati)('r,., I·HIIII'. thl' la\\ Itas 1I0t 1)('('11 it fril'lld" idl'a SillCI' Ji)(' Cn'I'!"" Wt'('t' l)('alt'II."~:\ Tlti" 1)('1'111111' (lilt' "I' tilt' """it' ('oltflil'''' ill tilt' dnllllafif' "fnlt'f1II't' of /(0(,(,0.
I () f)
\ (::;(0:\ 11
The uri!:!inal (reatnlt'nl wa~ wurked Ollt 11)" \'i~('onli lo!:!elht'r wilh Cel'chi tf Alnico alld
tilt' nowlisl "asco Pratolini. \Vh('1l asked wlwther Ihe
s(Tipt had !:!"IIt' Ihrough allY major challges. Cel'l'hi d' Amieo replied: F,."III till' \I',.Y Ilt'gillllillg I,lwhilltl was sllrt' aboUI Clllt' Ihill~: Thai Ill' warll('d il uf a Illotlw,. \\"ilh lin' ~Olls. Likl' tllC' lill~('r~ of a halld. So I kepi sayillg. blll why li\('~ Wc' dOIl't kllow allY thing. r1lt'rt' lIIay Lit' foul'. thn't'. six, :\0, tlu'rl' must he li\"t' .... Blit Wt' didn' t 1I1akt' so lIIallY dlalll!l's. TllI'rt, wa~ the 1)('~il!lling in thl' ~ollth. hilt it was IIt'\'er shot bet'albt' tilt' pit'tllrt, was tuo lOll/! .... \\'1' thought it W1I' Iht'll's~ to ~hoot il [alld that] it was l'vt'1! bew'r to slan with the arrival in \Iilall. '\Ild Ihl'l't' was alwther. longer chapter un tht' hoy [Lut'a] ... , BUI 110. That' Wt'n' 110 big. hig t'!tange~.~· ~Iury
It mllst han' ";0011 Iwcanlt' ohvious that IlOt all tillw'r~ of tllt' halld wert' to be ,'qually promint'llt. As the snipt was ullder I'rt'l'aratiulI tllt' triangle drallla of Rol't'o. Silllolle, alld Nadia
WWi
wadually hroll!:!h. tu thl' fore-
WOlllld \vhill' t hI' nlOre epit' malt'rial of the tin' brother~ trying to adapt 10 their IIt'W IIrhan t'llVirollllwnt Ill'caIllt'lt'ss promillent. Perhaps. as :\ow('II-Smith has SIl!:!gt'Stt·11. this bl to "dlUll!:!t's .. , ill tilt' stnlCllIn' of the film which Yisl'ollt i did Ilot full\' fort'st't' alld which Iit' wOllld 1101 lIt'l'l'Ssarily rel'ogllizt' as havillg takt'n pial'l'. ":!,-, The "workillg diary" does illdt,(,d !:!iw tilt· illll'n's~ioll that tholl~dl tht' IIIl'lodralllatic dell It'll t was aln'ady presellt ill the first treatmt'nt. all sorts of challW's did take place. Alld eVt'1l ill the last instalH't'. of cOllrst'. Yiscollti ('xen~i!'it'd his tTealive p()Wt'r,~ dllrill!:! t hI' al't lIal shoot ill!:!. Ilot only ill the cOlllposition alld or-
gallizalioll of illlagt's bllt also Ily dell'lillg (,I'rtaill ~CI'IIt'S and adding alld IIlOdifyill!:! otllt'rs.:!h :\lallY ,.;tTI't'II\\Tilt'r,.; IIPlpt'd "rc'pare \'ariolls parts or "chal'tt'rs" of tilt' film. TIlt' SilllOlIt' dlUpl,'r wa~ wrillt'1I by tl':\JIIit'o. tllP \'illn'lIzo alld BOITo dlapt',,,,, a:; wt,lI as tlH' IlIlrealizl'd proluglll' by Pa"tjlHlIt' Festa (:alllpallilt, alld Frallciosa. and lhe Ciro dlal'lt'r by Emit'o \It'dioli. T 0111' lIIigltl tltillk Iltal
,,111'11 all approach wOllld I'rodu('t, 1II1t'\'t'lI n'"ults. 11111
\kdioli i" probably ri!:!hl ill slatill!:!: "I dOIl't Ihillk the alldil'lWt' f'('alizl''; Iltat dillt'lTllt ItHIIl/" It'''I' bl'l'lI workillg Oil tilt' ~CTipt. BI',;idl'''. tilt' Ollc' wlto (TI'alt'" tilt' ullit\ i" tilt' din'ctor.":!:: ,-\1101' /{u('cu·,.; four "t'n'I'II\\Titer" lta\'I' (Ill dilll"-I'1I1 tw('u"iOIl" "lIll'ltlbizl'd tilt' (Tt'ali'I' rolc' \'i"collti played ill tilt' ".... il'l-\\ritillg "tag". ,\('t'lIrdillg
III
FI'"la (:allll'allill' alld Fnll1t'io"a:
TIlt' Ihill!! dWI "lrtwk It- ri!!hl frulll lilt' I"'gillllill;! W.h lite' 1110,,1 illl..Jlif!"1I1 di,,ITI'liOIl wilh Wllil'il \"i"t'Ollti illdinllc'd 1IlC' 1'0illl" ill lite' "Iory ,,!tic·h had ill"pin'd hill\. Iltl' wa~ Iit' kllc'" ItIlW III ill\ c'lIl \\itlllllll \\n, .. kill;! whal Ilad aln'ady bC'('1l
TilE I \\111.'
\ '\Il \ltllJl,H\ 11.\1.1,\.'\
:-()I
11,1'
10-:'
a .. hit'\t,d alld to /!lIidt, lilt' collt't'liw ,'ffort: a~ did ~II~O Cct't,hi tr.\lIli,',,'~ illll'lIigelll alld [lIodl'rll abilily 10 I'n'al,' lilt' oVl'nllI ~lnlt'lIl1"', ,'olllbillt'd willt 11 '[lIil'k alltl anllt' talt'lIl for ill\"'lllioll,C
Apart frolll \il'ola Badaltll't'o, wlto ,\'olll'd 011 '1'l1f' /)(111111('(/ alld IJr'(l11I Yi~(,ollti did 1101 11';1' oth .... StTt'I'lIwTit,'r,; durillg tilt' r .. "t of his can'er, Ili,.; 10llg workillg relalioll"hip wilh (:I'cchi d',\lIIil'o alld \It'dioli, ill particlllar. whidl wa" Ila"I,d 011 .11'1'1' IIlltlllal r .. "pt'Cl. was a major fat,tor ill tilt' evalllatioll of hi" l'illl'llIali,' ,,1\,/1', ,\1 till' ';HlIII' lillW, tht,\,, ha\',' bOlh , elllplwsiZl'd tilt' creali\t' rok Yi,;t'lHlli played ill tilt' ,;tTipt-writillg "Iag", awl tllt'\', "0011 It'al"lll'd whal Ill' walll"d, ,\t variolls lillw" Iht'y' h
ill I ('/lin',
Fivt· altt'rnatiws for five brotlwrs J(()('('o i,; di,idl'd illto liw ",'ltapll'!'S" lIallll'd aftl'r the tiw III'otlll'r.~,
Actllally. tht' dwplt'r" an' 1I0t a,.; di"tilll't ill tl'I"IIIS of 1'101 dl'\l'loPIlIl'III a" art' Iht' phasl'" ill La Ter.,.(/ In'lIw, bUI tllI'y do 1'0rrt'~pOlld rollghly to till' slralegies tht' l'anHldi hrothl'r" art' St't'1I to adopt ill rt'''POII''t' 10 tllI'ir /H'" t'1I,irolllllellt. A,.; I'al'h brotllt'r Iril'''; 10 It'am frolll tilt' IlIi~lakl''' of tllt'ir t,ltlt'rs, tht' tillll lTt'alt's a "trollg ('Il11ll1laliw df.. l't. YillCt'lIZO (Spiros Foca,.;), who ha,.; "t,ltJt.d dowlllwfon' Iht' otlll'rs arriw, has k"pl a low proliltbOlh wilh rt'"pect 10 falllily tit·s alld Ihe IIt'W COllllllllllily Ill' i" gradllally illlewalillg illto, Althollgh Iit' call1lOl ('scapI' tilt' I'olltlicb LWlw1'1'1I till' IWo worlds, Iit' t'\'t'llIually SIII'ct,t,d" ill ,.,Iarlillg a Iltllllt' with tilt" petit-hourgl'ois C illt'tla, SilllOlIl' (Ht'lIalO Salvalori), IIl1illlpn'Sst'd by Ihis ,.,01'101' lift', ,.;t'eb ad''I'llIlIr(' allt! glalllollr, Ht' b"colllt,~ a IlIlxl'r awlll"t,s hi~ ";I'X appt'allo gt'l WOIIII'II 10 fll"s on'r him, Ilis physical abilili .. " brillg Itilll "IItTt'SS, bUI otllt'rwist' he i" wl'ak, \\hell t!'Oublt'''' ('IIIt·rgt·, Iit' quickly IWt'olllt's dissolUll' ali(I 1'I',.;orls to theft alld \'iol"IIIT, HO('I'o (Alaill 01,/(11) follow" Si11 10 lit' ,S t'art't'r a" if 10 lIIak" Up for tilt' way Ihl' old('r brother Itas 11'1 t'n'[~'tlllt' dowlI, lie ('lids lip willt a "wTI's"flll t'an't'r ill IIIIXillg, a :;(101'1 Ihal WiI" Im"indly alit'lI 10 hi" lIalUI'I' awllhal Iit' luok lip jusl a" a forlll of I'xt'f'('i"t', (:iro (\Iax Carlit'l') worb Iti" way "l'. "It'p Ily SIt:'P, lu Iwt'olllt' a .~killt'd workt'r al ,\Ifa /{OIlIt'O, Cradually Iit' ";t'\t'rs his lil's wilh tilt' pasl alld partly abo wilh tilt' falllily alld "IIITt't'd" ill illlt'grafillg illlo Iti" IIt'W t'll\irolllllt'lIl.!\ Pt'rhap'" il /'I'lIwillS for Lllt'a (HtHTO \'idolazzi), tilt' YOIIIII!t',,1 brotllt'l'. 10 n'adl a IWllt'r l'alillll't'IIt'IW(,t'lI I hI' pa,,1. tilt' PI'I'''I'1I1. alld tilt' fill lire, I It-, loo, IIW\ Iw aldt' 10 can't' 0111 a fill 111'1' for ltilll"t,lf. bUI
\ l:O;U'\11
witholll Ita\'illl,( 10 ITlIOllIll'e the past. falllily tradition, alld tilt' ,.,Olllh, En'n his ltallle slIl,(gests Ihal perhaps tI\(' tit's to thl'ir native Lllcania do nol haV!' 10 Ill' rl'lillqlli;.llI'd cOlllpll'tl'ly,
'1'111' IIwjor slnwtllral OPPOSilioll ill tilt' fillll is Ihat Iwtwt'l'lI Silllone and HO(TO, Tllt'y hOlh starl out al lIIuch tilt' saillt' poinl and haw "illlilar early cart't'r", hUI tllt'lI they "tal1 catalyzing t'ach otllt'r's spirilllal dt'velopllIt'1lt loward uppo"ilt, poll'" Oil tht' 1II0ral "call', At the bl'ginning of tilt' film tllt'y an' both "illlplt- cOlllltry lads, hilt their ways uf copillg with tilt' po1t'lIlially ('OITIlPlilll,( illtilll'lH't' of tilt' l,i/! city are almust diall\t'tri('ully oppo,.,t'tl. Wllt'n'a,., Sill1011t' wallt;; to lit' a ,;I\('('('",s, Hocco fillds hilllself ullablt' 10 tit'sin' tilt' sOI'l of thilll,(" (Jilt' is slIpl'o,.,t'd to stri\(, for ill tht' lIorth, .-\hm'(' all. Ho('('o lacks tilt' aggn's,.,in',lt',.;s that allllust lIIakt,,, SiIllOIlt:' a
('\"('11
t'halllpioll, It is II(JI t hal hoxill;,! as "'llt'h wOllld 1)(' 1Il1plea"alll for Ro('co, it ht'('(J11It'" a III ora I I'rohlt'lII for hilll wllt'lI Iit' learn" to dirt'ct his I,itlt'nlt',.,,., agaill,.;t hi", cOlllpetitor:;, A,.; ill "0 IIIUll\, (Jf \'i",collti',.; films, tllt'n' i" a ,~olid lillk ht'tweell /lIoney.
11111
alld IlI\t', This i,., iliadI' lIIanifest Ilot (Jllly ill tilt' figlln' of :\adia (.-\II11it' Cirardot), a prostilllte who 011(' t'vellillg ,.;lOnll;; illto the Parulldis' fin;t IlOlIIt' ill \Iilall 10 .. :;cape the allg('r of ht'r father (or
,,0
she "ay,.,), but alsu
ill tilt' way SilllOll(' alld Ho('c(J for their "t'/wratt' rt'a";OIl" hm't' to ,,1'11 their botiit'" ill unlt'r tu at'hit,\"(, whal the". d('",ire, Ill' il a womall or fami'", IIl1it\', . \' illn'llzo'" forlllt'r :;lltTes,.; a" u l)Oxt'r allll :\adia'" coaxillg - tilt' idt'a is that SLW('t'","; will brill/! with il "exllal fa ,'ors - lIlake SiIllOIlt' take lip IH)xillg s('riollsly, Ili" pn,\\'(',.,,, is SOOIl Ilolicl'd, alld he is aITt'l'lt'd illto "pt'cial traillillg, lit, wilb Illatdlt's alld he will'" ,'\adia, !-:n'rything appears to ht' arrallgL'd for hilll, bllt this I,el'ulllt's prt'ci"t'ly Ihe CHlbt' of hi", dowllfall. I It- IWH'r has a chalice to develop the "t'lbe of re"pollsibility alHllOlIglllless thal an' n'(l'lin'd (,oth ill the rill/-! allll ill reallif(" Ea"y Hlld casual relaliow; wilh WOIlIt'II tlll'll 0111 to Iw eqllally fatal. SOOIl SiIIlOIlt' begill;, to dett'riorale bOlh phy,.;i" ..dly alld Illorally alld ('\TIIIIJUlly Iw;t's t'\'t'rylhill/-! Iit' ha,.; gaillt'd, WIIt'II Iit' gi\t,,; :\atlia a pien· of "tolt'lI jl'wt'/ry, ,,111' lean'''' him, \ cOlll'lt, of year" lal('r. HO(TO IlIt't't,.; :\adia by ('halHT ju,;t aft,'r siit' has ('t'('1I n·I("h('d fro 11 I pri,.,(Hl - wlll'rt, sill' sl'f'\t'd a St'lIt('IIt't' for prostilutioll,
11(' "U(T(",(b ill n·killdlillg Iwr failh ill lif(" alld tlwy fall ill low':l:! By Ihi" lilllt', SilllOllt' i,., aln'ady 011 tilt' tI('I'lillt', \\'llt'n'a~ Ho('co',; Iw,xillg talt'lIl Iwgills III ;.:aill all"llIioll aftt'r Iit' i" S('\'II "'parrillg wilh SilllOlle, The t·ldt'r brotllt'r'" fllry fon,,.,IHldow,; tlwir I,ill"r tiglll al Ihe \lI/'Ilillg I'oilll of Iht' fillll '-;0011 10 fullow, ,Hlt'r Sill1011t' 10,,('" all illll'ortalll IlIatdL hi" Illalwg,'r d('lllalld" thal \{(ItTO I'WIII','II,.,al(' for tilt' lillHllt'ial los",',., SilllOllt' ha" I'
TilE F.\ '11 L \
.\ '\
I)
'I () I) L H \
I 1.\ 1.1 .\.'\
~
() 11 L l \
defeat when he Ilt'ars that his littl,' brothel' is ~oill;! out with hi~ fortlll'r girlfri"lJ(l. lit, find" out wllt'J't, tllI'y an' to 1I11"'\. interrupt:-; tllI'ir try~t. alld while his chuJlls hold Hot'cO hack, Iit' rapt''' :\adia. Althou~h the rapp SCpllt' i" 1I0t t'xplicit, it ha" a sllOckill~ I'ITel't as it convey,., forcefully the spiritual destrtll'tin'ness of physical Violt'II1'I', 1111mediately afterward. tilt' two pl'Ota!!oni"t:-; an' s('ell in a 1"lwI'rful ('11/11position: SilllOllt' stands in tilt' h,]('k~),()ulld with his back toward tI](' call1era: HOl'('o. in the fOl'el!roulld, also faCt'S away, with till' wt'l'pill~ Nadia betweell the two. lIt'ither of whoJII call 0111'1' her a I!l'lIuilll' altt'rnati\'t,. The bnttal and selfi,;/I SiJllollt, call 0111". dt'>itro". all that i,., IWHutiful and IIleallilll!ful for lwI': tilt' martyr-likl' ROlTo dol''' lIot haw tilt' "tn'lI!!th to r{',.,ist e,·il and hast'llt'ss. A,.; :\adia trud~I'''; away. the allllosplll''''' ,,;lIddellly dWIIgt,,,. Tlw poiglHlIlt JllII~ic that has a"('OJIIIHlllied :\adia·,.; W(,t'Ping i" illteITUIJlt'd. alld only di('!!I,til' sOlllld,; an' lu'ard dllrill!! SilllOllt: s alltl Hoceo'" dialoglw. Thi,.; j" thl' tllmilll! poillt of tlw t'lItin' fillll, ROl'('o says that SilllOlw di";I!""(s hill!. SilllOl1t' i" (!r'in'lI illto 11 IH'W rag", Ill' sa\'a;!ely IwalS his little brotlll'r. who reluctantly retul'lls hi" 1110w,;. TIH' sn'llt' i" pl'OlOIll!t'(1. alltl it;; iIH'J','asill!!ly I'xpn's,;iolli!>tic on'nOlll'S bq.dll to re\'('J'lwratt' a,.; the III'otlwr" C()lItilllle strikillg each other ill tlu' dark. dt,,,olalt' city. In allowillg hillbt'lf to Ill' hUlIliliatt'd in thi,., way. Ho('('o S"I'lIb a \Iy,.;hkin-like "holy idiot": ht' refust',., to t'olHleJIIll SiIlWIU'. aCt'I'plS hi,; c1ailll to ~adia. alld a,,";Ulllt'S all guilt. Ill' IIll't'(,., \adia at till' top of \Iilall (:atlll'drat allll tell" her to n'lllnl to SiIllOIl". who "callllot Illalla!!t' without Ilt'r." SIit' doe" ,.,t). hlll 0111, to acn'kralt' his - a,., \n'lI as 111'1' OWII - dowllfall. Hocl'o',; attitudt' ,;tl'llI,., partly from hi,.; "ell,.,t' of !!lIilt. partly frolll a d"I'pseat,'d a,.;,.,ociatioll with tilt' role 1Il0tlt'l,.; of tlw ,.;ollth, Ili,., appan'lIt I!oodnt's,.; tun", 0111 to Iit' d",.,tnll'ti,·,' for tilt' tlIH'" of thl'lIl. By pl'rslIadilll! '\adia to returJI to Simolll'. Ill' ,.,anifi"I's tllt'lII all 011 tilt' altar of allacllrolli,.,tic t radit iOI"'. :\adia i" a" IIll1dl a ,·il,tilll (If tilt' tra~t'dy a,.; ,.,ht' is ih cataly"t. Whell ,,11t' fir,." ap!,par" ill tilt' "tory. siit' is a .,;hn'wd slIn·inlr. SltI' i:-; "yllind alld !!"anJ" Ilt'r illtiqlt'lUj..III'I' j,'alously. \VlwlI 1t'lIilll! SilllOllt' allllut Ilt'r childhood. ,,11t' a, "id" I!i,·illl! too 11I11t'1r of 111'1'..",11' by IlIakilll! Ill' ct'rtaill dI'tails. Ollh HO"I'o·" idl'ali"llI alld faith ill 1IIIIIIall illlt'ractioll lIIak .. ,., Iwr 1'0111" out of 111'1' slwll. "lIahlilll! Iwr to n'l'('in' alld to ,'xPJ't's,.; t"III/{'I'II1'.';";. :\adia·" id,'ali,.,1II i. . ,.,ltort-lin'd. ItO\\"'!'r. as it c1a"lw,.; Ilt'ad 011 with SiIIlOIll:'" 1111"'l'ilt'""I~ "I!0i"lic 1"1",,,,,',,,,i,TIII'S.,,,. It 1111\\· Iras a ,.,Ilattt'rill~ df""t 011 Iwr. for it IItlerly dl'",u'oy" Iwr ability to tilld jlly alld 1111111'. For t11I1' hrid·III11I1I"IIt. !. .l- 01,1· .• ,. '·'1 " ... i"IIO''' "''''Il,'.hill n llf 'rIl", :d,1I' '1'111' rl'tllrn I" 111'1' old
11 u
\I:-;t:o:\rl
lift' sigllab Ilt'r elltry illto a spirilllul \'al'UIIII\' :'\iow :;111' :;til'b pw\'ocatin-Iy 10 Sill1011l' alld Sl'ttlt-" dowlI ill till' hOllsc of his 1II0ther, Hosaria (Katillu Paxillou), TIH' motllt'r-whort' oppositioll i:; tlllI~ brought under the same roof. Hu~aria does 1I0t dare throw tlH' girl Ollt as sht' fears losin~ SimolH', :\adia filial", It'a\t,~ aftt'r Simolle makes all utter IIIt'SS of his life bv, stealillg fwm ~(orilli, Ihe boxilll! mallager. The SilllOlH'-\(urilli n'laliollship has ~adolllasot'histit' O\'ertones a~ well. WIlt'II they hrst 1IH'I'1. "Iorilli cxalllillt'S SiIllOIlt' as if he were all allimal. .\ lit tit' latt'r. \Iorilli loob illtt'lIt",, at SilllOlll' awl Hol'cO as tht'y. an' having a sIIOWI'r. Toward tht, t'lId of the film, Silllont' cOllies to beg for 1I101H'y from him, bill hm"illg lost hi~ mon' ("hanllillg lIIasculilw appeal. till' rapidly dl'leriorat illg boxl'r i~ IIl1abll' III pI'rsllaoe tilt' rich lIlall to ht'lp hilll. The ~l't'Ilt'. shul ill a dark room, i" gi\t'1I a ~urn'al 101ll'h by the tt'll'visioll ill tlH' ba("kgrolllul. whit'h i~ ~howillg iIllU~t'" of divillities by Ihe Ht'IIUi";sUIH't' paillter. 11 Ciorgiont" The ollly ~olllld 10 Ill' heard is till' quiet., ~I rangt' lI11bit' float illg frum the Idevisiull. TIlt' t'on\'el"sat iOIl 111'1 Wt't'lI :\101"illi alld SilllOlll' t'ould allllost 1)(' a comllll'lltary 011 tilt' program: "Whell I first saw YOII. you wen' like Apollo. a n'al Apullo," ~ay~ \Iorilli. Ill' goes 4111 to It'll SilllOllt' how IlIut'h Iit' 1I0W de,.;pise~ him, The de"perate boxer 1H'I'omt'~ aggn',.;"ivt'. klllwks him dowlI, and sll'als 1I100lt'y from hilll.'u To ~IOp \(orilli from goillg to till' pulin'. HOtTO ofl"t-rs to cOllll'ellSalt' for e\t'rytllillg. hilI 10 do ,,0 he has to sigil a tt'lI-year t'olltracl. Ju~t a" HOITO i:; prel'arillg for his fir,.,t inlt'matiollal lIIatdl. SilllOlle lH'ar~ Ihal :\adia i,.. rccei\'illg cliellts ill a park area Oil tilt' outskirl" uf the WWII, Ill' gll('" 10 1IH't'1 her. but "llI'." too. ~ays silt, 1I0W dt'spist'~ him. Slie IIHlke~ a I"'il,r ulIellll't 10 I'~t'upe - HIIl"-o is "eell ill till' rillg, SilllOl\l' i:; 1I0W I.. "ill!! hi,.. l'olllut'I wilh lift' u:; il IIII'/IS 0111 thal :\adia 110 IOIl~l'r ha:; tlw will 10 lin', .\,.; if ill a dn'ulIl. they yield to tlwir fatl', Their bodie:; lllllllwlllarily f.. nll a l'ro,,~ as :\adia lift:; her anI.", a" if to pilI tllI'lll a roll lid
SillllllH' - HOITO kllo .. ks dowlI hi" OppOIlI'IIt. III a d,'atltly t'lllbrat't'. SilllOllI' alld :\adia 1'lIga!!I' ill :-;adollla~ol'hi,;tic wrilhill!! Oil Ihl' Illlld of Ihl' ri\'I'r Ilallk, I\(' n'lH'al,'dly .~Iri\.;l'~ 111'1' hody with hi" kllifl',"· SIll' fillally dil'~,
,b
alld SiIlIOI\(' 1'''I'apI'''' - tI\(' alldil'llI'l' arolllld tI\(' rill!! ,..ITI'alll" l'I'';lalit'ally, TI\(' pantll,·1 ,1I'Iioll 11('1\\"1'1'11 tI\I' IlIllrdl'r alld tI\I' IlIal..!1 i" 1'I'lIlilli"I'I'1I1 or tilt' filial "'1'1'111' of BiZt'I'" ('(/"'1/1'11, ill \\llidl .I0~I: "Iahs CanlH'1I jll,..1 ,b !-:"I'alllill .. Irilllllph,.. ill tI\I' 1IIlllrillg, H.. hdil' I'olllpal'l'" tI\(' l'u,.."a!!I' willt tI \(' I'l'l h,,- ... 1I1 ill!! pa It 1'1'1 b of tI\(' la,..t -Ill i 11 11 \(' 1'1',..1 'Ill' I'a",..agl',.. or I radi I iOlla I IIwlodrallla, TI\(' irollY or il i,.., or 1'11111'''''. Ihal ill I hi,.. l'a,..I' tI\I'l'I' i,.. 110 hop\' or a hl,..l-lllillllll' 1'1'''1'111', TI\(' I\('ro i,.. 1101 ollly IIlla\\"an' of :\adia',; lH'ril. 11111 till' \\",(\ Ili,.. 1.1,,\\,.. ill tI\(' I'ill~' .11'1' ... 110' ;11101 illll'l"'1\1 "itll ~illlolll"'"
blows to Ilt'r body actually ,.;u~~(·st:-. his (,o/llpli"ity: ht'. too. i:-. all a~"lIt of her d(·ath.:/~· Paradoxinllly, Hoc('o':, sailltlill('ss ,.;t,·/II:-. ill part frolll hi:-. allility to discharge his ag~n'ssiolls ill t Iit' ring, Hatp has iliadI' him a ('halllpioll and iliadI' hilll oh:,;pssivply pllrsu,· family ullity, It is hi" :;piritual ('ent(·r. IHlt it also implips all illability to al'('(>pt the fa(,ts of lif... to 1l1U\'t' ahead to what might Iit' a I"s:; I'lt'asant hut at lea,.;t a f"a"illlt' future, III thl' party arrallw>d to celt·bratp hi" vi('tory. he ~iv,'''; a I'oigllallt sllt'l'clt ahout tI\(' south - with the falllily photograph Ilt'hind hilll. of cour",· - which lIIak(',.; tht' otllt'rs, who ill tlwir Iwarts ha\"(' betray(·d tilt' sout h, look allllo"t ,'111barrassed, Ho,'('o's all-t'lIIltral'ill~ ('ravill~ for IIl1ity f'('al'lws it" dimax wllt'lI SimOlw n·tunb to tI\(' family as a IIlIlrderl'r, Ho('l'o wants to Iit'll' alld prott'(,t him. to (Iut family ti,'s h"fore thl' 1111mb of tilt' social "11\ irOllllWl1t tlwy lin' ill, \\'h"1I II(' n'aliz,',,; whal has hal'l"'II("1. Ill' alld SiIllOII", brotllt'r,.; ullit('d hy a paill that (IiI'IT!'''; tlwir I'lItirt' Ilt'ill~, "/IIhnll'!' ill a statio of 1I\,,.;tl'ria,/h There is atl illlt·n·,,fillg allalo~y III'IWI'(,II Ho('co alld tI\(' I'rota~olli"t of Mallll':,joSt'ph (11/(/lIis Hml/wrs, although it oc('urs throu~h all illwr,.;ioll. Wllt'rt'as ill tilt' lIowl the hrotl\('rs ",·11 .I("""ph to get rid of hilll. thll"; illadwJ'It'IIt1y ,.;t'r\'ill~ a di\illt' plall, in tilt' fillll Hocco's a,'t of ,.;e1f-,.;acrifin· for till' IWllelit of the fa/llily i,.; flltil,' alld d"slnwtiw, TIlt' point i,.; lIot ju"t that Josel'h live" ill a world ~tI\"nl('d hy divillt, Pro\'id"IIf"', wll('l't'as ill the lIIodem urball world Cod would lit' dead or :;illll'ly ,.;il'·IIt. [\Ianll'" .Ios"l'h has a l't'lllarkabk ability to liw in the 1'1't·:;t'1I1. to ltav!' 110 rp~I't'ts uf tht' past. alltl to n·,lt'h toward the futuft· st,'1' hy step, Bpillg illlllllillated by God. Iit' i,.; ahl(· to cUlu'pin' of tilll" I'a"sillg lIIaj,'sti('ally OWl' sillglllar p\'('lIts alld illdividual liw". includillg hi" OWl I. lie i,.; ab'" to (,IIt'Ollllt,'r tillw ullproblpmatiealiy, 11,' is, ill Kierkq!Uardiall terlll:-., a dlild of hot h time aJl(I (·t,·rtIity, TIll' 1t>lIder. "iml'l,' Hoct'o i,; 1I0t a lIIall of su('h spirit: Iit' is a lIIall of tilt' pas!. lie 11a" tilt' illnOC"IH't' of a purl' fool. but ht, is at dlt' IIlt'rt'y of tilllp, I It' ('all brill~ lIlolllt'lltary t'llIIsolatioll to :'Iiadia. hut Ilt'n\ll~" ..;he ypants for a pt'nllallt'1It drall~" ill Ilt'r lif.. , a diff"""lIt kiwi of futlll't" dH' t1 .. ,·till~ 1II01l1l'IIt of hop,' alld happillt·~s with hilll It'ad:-. 111'1' to 1'\1'1' d""Ilt'r "piritual d"slwratioll alld dt'~tnJ('tioll, 011 thl' "epic" It'wl of tilt' fillll, whilt' hi,; p,bsiOllalt> dd,·/' brotltt'rs havl' IWl'1I ti~hlill~ ,heir way thro\l~h lift', Ciro has 1Jt't'olllt' a :;killt'd lallon'r al :\Ifa HOIIII'o factori",;, SilllOllt, sinks illto a crimillallif,' alld puts all that Ciro ha~ adli,~\'t·d illto jt'0l'anly, Wllt'ft'a:; Ho,'('o ('lIIltra('t's SiIIlOIlt' ill (',',,1,lIil' for~i\t'llt's", Ciro nl"hes Ollt to :;a\'(' tilt' falllily by d"II01l1lt'illg hilll, 11 .. 1'11041"'" tll "",,1'01'111 to sO"i"ty illsl,'ad of p ... ·", ...\ill~ falllily ,.,olidarity,
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lit' ITalizt's how dallgt'rous SilllOne 1'(111 lit' ill all t"1I,iroIllIWllt ill which 1111' II10ml ('ode i" detpflllilH'd Iw,.,it'all, h, law ami order instead of the ,alues of the sOlllh. The :,;LonllY trianglt' has Iwen n'~olwd tragically. and a calrll alld "UIIIIY t'oda follows. with a prollli,.,e of hope alld lit'\\' life. Ciro (It'fellds hill"'t,lf to tlw slbl'it'iOlb LlIl'a. Ht' tt'lIs tlw little hoy that it wa" SilllOIW who tau/;dll hilll that therp \v,." 110 rt'tllmill~ to their old life. In tlw "outh t1lt'Y were at the lIIen'y of the local landlord,.,. but now tlwy will haw to kam to shoulder tlwir respolI"ibilitit,s and to demand tlwir rights. It i,., as if SilllOm' had beell diseased alld 'HI:> dost' to .'olltaminatillg them all. Ciro a('kllowledges Boel'o"'; :;aillllillt'ss 11111 poillls Ollt that ill a malllIlade socit,,, IIwn' i,., 110 room for saillts. Ciro Iw" started a falllil, alld forllled a cirde of frit'III\"'. That his hrotlH'r ha~ IlIl'1wd out to Iw a lIlurdt'rer willl'mbahly 1I0t jeopardizt, hi" positioll Wi this is o/'f:;{'( hy tlw illtel'llatiollal SUtTt'SS of the other "mtller. III the words of lilt' director. Ciro might lwt'ollle "a Iwtit bourgeois. perha!," .'\'('11 a haut!' bourW'ois. ";1':- His life will 1)(' 1Il0re even ami boring than Hoct'o' s alld Simolle' s. bllt at It'ast lIP i" as"ured of "Ollle kind of family l'OlIlillUity. At the wry elld of the film. Luca shoub to hilll. inviting hilll to ,i"it IIlPir old IIIHlIt>. The cOllllict Iwtweell old and lIew is not elltirely alltagonistit'. Whereas tilt' Iivps of t he three 1111'11 arc used to explore the differellt st ratt'git,,; of adaptatioll. the two lIIaill female characters. 1lI0tl}('r Rosaria awl j\adia. ellllHldy the dangers of the past allll tlw prt',.,ellt. respectively. SOllle scholar" view the two as destructive forces.;ul It would be lIIore
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Iwr SOilS' 1Il'l'Ib or 1111' tt'lIIplatiollS till' lit'\\" ('II\·irOllllll'lIt offt'r~ tllI'lI\' Th"s at tilt' elld of the day sill' is .'olllpl.,tely 1'(I\\"erll''',~ ill lilt' fal'l'of the tratwdy that thrt'atells 1111' falllily. SIit' rejoices at Ill'r "011< ;;11('1'1''';''; a,.; boxers without 1I11l1t'r"talldilll! how sllOrt-lin,d alld ('ostly SlIl'h \'il'toril''' an'. \",t thallk,.; to tllt' lIIant'lou,.; perfortllHIH'I' of Katilla Paxilloll. sill' abo llas a hllIllOI'OII" ~idt'. I kr wOlldt'rflllly ,(lIaillt attitlldt'~ IlIakt, nl'lIll1'r 1'.,\I,t'~,.;i\'t' 1II0tht'rlilll'ss al'l't'ar ill a posit in' lil!ht. \\'lwlI '"illl't'IIZ0 trit,s to t'xl'laill to his bridl' lilt' traditiollallllalt' allti ft'11I1I1t, roles of tilt' ~ollth a,.; tallght to hilll by his 1II01ht'1'. sIll' slaps hilll 011
Ihl' fact'. Cillt'tta is a falllily girl alld prt'I'
llOlI~t'wift'. bill 11111 al allY pril't'. SIll'. too. ha,., alll'xaspt'ralillgly s"l'l'0rtin' family. who will 1101 allow her slalldard of li\illg to ,.,illk loo low IWI'alh"
of Illarriagl', \'il\('eIlZII i" all 11111 a\\'an' of tllt' ""Olltllllil' prt'rl''1"i:;ill'~ of IIHIITiagt' ill \liIall. Ht' ha~ left boxillg. A,.; tllt' fillll 1110\('''; 011. Ill' gradllally IWI"lHlwS illtt'grated illto tilt' IIr1H1I1 ,.")('i,,ty throllgh a 11101"1' "OIlVt'llIiollal lif",.,tyl". Ill' ~IIl'I"I't'IJ" al"o ill allotlll'r n'sp,'ct ill which SilllOll1' fails: aftt'r Ho~aria has IIlOn" or I,''';''; O\l'n'01l1l' Ilt'r di",lik,' of Cillt'tta. Iit' i,., abl,' 10 mailltaill his positiw n'latioll,.;hip wilh hi" mothl'r alld his brother,.;. TllOlIl!h \'isl'ollti's attillldt' toward till' cham('t,'r,., ill his fillll,., with ,'011tt'mporary settillg" i" 11111 Oil tlll' whoft' irollical ill tht, way it wa~ ill .'ieIlS() , Iit' brooks Iwitlwr lIIH"riril'al 1I0,.,talgia 1I0r lItopiallislll ill tilt' ",ol'ial or ill the pri\'aH' sphere. l·lH'ritil'alllOp",,; alld IlIon' or k",,; (klilH'falt, igllOrillg of I're"elll facrs are ,.,1\(l\\'1I to he dl,~tnll'ti\'e desl'itt, the 11(''';\ of illlt'lItiolls. Hocl'o'" adhen'l\('l' to till' traditiollal \'alllt''; of the ,.,olllh is 1.latallth dis('onlallt with the ,.;itllatioll~ that d"\I'lop ill tlll' lIorth Iwt\\"t'I'JI SiIllOIII'. :\adia, alld hilll. \'I't \"i";l'IlIlti is h~ 110 1II,'allS IIl1sYlIIl'atlll'lil' IowaI'd frill\, 011 the contrary. a,.; Sam Hohdic ha~ ~lIggt'~tt"1. this SI'Ihl' of IIostalgia for a I'a~t way of lift> mildll Iit' Ollt' of tlte major poillts of l'Olltw't \'i,.,collti pt'r~OIlally had with tilt' I'lIIigrallh of tilt' poor ,.,outh. Alld 0111'1' agaill Iit' ,..11I""t'('dl'd ill cOlllbilling his al',.,tlwti(' ",('llSibiliIY with his "ocial cOllllllit1111'111. articlllalillg Ilis I'rtwial tllI'IIII'S by IIwall" of alldimisllalllarratioll. TIlt' /t'lIIl'oral ,.,1 n11'111 n' of f{()("("() cOlltra,.,ts sharply with tltat of. ,..ay, Tht' 1-t'II/)(lre!, \\"llI'n',h ill till' ",('.'olld Bisorgillll'lIto lilm till' SI'IIS(' of lillll' pa",.,illg i~ "Oll\"y"d ill (:llI'khO\iall fa,.,lrioll. hy a fn\" long SCt'llt'S ill which till' t'~Sl'llt'l' of u p,'riod ill lillll' i" (Tyslalliz,'d III.th Oil tilt' illdi\'idllal alld 011 tilt' s(wial h'\1'1 to a particlIlarly n'n'alilll! 111011 11'11 t ill tillll'. 111'1"1' till' ,.,tory IIW\'t',.; alolll! ";IIIIII,\dlat IWl'ti,'ally ill fairly ~hort SI'(,I\I'''' (ill \'is("ollli',., \t'mb. tlrat is), whidl follow "Ill' allotllt'r oftI'll withollt IIIll1'h illtiicalioll a:i III how IOllg a "tl"l'ldl of tillll' ~I'para/t'", tllt'lIl. Thi", 111,11'''' to ("rl'at" a "'I'lb(, (If riit' IWlIt (If till' IlIod.'nl .·ity, TIH' ",,,"st' of tillw pas,ill!! i~ ('n'ult'd
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by Ihl' dlall/-!I's Ihal lakt' plan' ill pt'0I'It:,., rl'lalion~hip~ alld social slalU~ - Ihl' IIlarriu/-!I'" of \"illt'l'IIZ0 awl Ciro. tilt' l'un'I'rs of Ciro alltl Hocco. '1'111' I'olllra"h ill li/-!hlin:.: ill Ihi!i black-aml-whill' film an' cOIl~idera}'II'. In wry :.:t'l It'ra I It'rlll!i. il I'all Iit' ::;aid I hal thl' lil", proWt'S!it'!i from dark 1I0ctumal "n'IlI'S to bri:.:ht sUlllit (JIlt'!i. Whell the falllily arri\'t's at :\-1ilallo'" railway "talioll. till' cliiaros(,lIf'O tTt'atl'd I,y thl' ::;lIlt1kt' and 1'0:': increa"t',., Ilw sel"'t' of hell'lt'''''''III'!i!i of Ihl' falllily. III contrast. tilt' film t'nds ill full ,.,ullli:.:11l aflt'r 1II0s1 of the falllily 1I1t'1II1lt'rs ha\,(' fOlllld a place ill their new t'lIvirOIlIllt'IIt. For SiIllOlIt'. the lightillp: 1II0\'t'S ill the 0l'l'0,.,itt' direction. III tilt' ('ady I'arh of tilt' fillll Iit' i" quite Oftt'1I SI'PII ill bri:.:ht light. hut his later :;(,(~lIe::; IIt't'llllll' illtTPasill:.:ly dark. Tlw dialogul,lwtwel'lI hilll alld \IOI'illi is !ihllt with wry little light. 011 the olher halld. the sCI'nt' that follow" with (:iro alld J{o,.,,,,·ia is almo:;t 1,lindillp:. '10:;1 (Jf the !ihOh ill thl' lIat the family ha::; been able to St'Cllff' an' al::;o faidy I"'il-d It . Particularly toward tht' t'lId. thi" al'l'l'ars \0 rell('ct tiro's illll'ro\'('d 1'1'O"llt'ct" ill lift'. Also :\illo HOla' s 1I1l1"il' ha:; a tllt'llIatic fUlll'tioll. DlIrillg the cn,dit !ieq"l'lIn'. till' illslrUllu'Jltal "",aill tht'IIIt''' is lirst heard Lrit'lly ill a dark, fort'ilOdillp: modt'o followl'd by the I'0igmlllt folk lIlelody P([('se lIIio. At the elld of till' lil",. the latter i" a:;soeiah'd with Luca alltl Ihe 1'0~siLility of hi~ n't 11 millg 10 tilt' ::;tllI th. The Ii nil t ram ride tlf t ht' family i!i act'tlllll'allied I,y jazzy 11Il1,.;il' dtanlctt'rizl'd by pizzicato 011 tilt' dUlIblt, La,.;:;. The "tralll" tlwlllt' i" Iward a few lilllt'S durillg til(' fir"t half of the film alld i:; rdated to tilt' I'rollli,.,('s I he big cil y al'pears to offt'r - 0111' of thelll b('illp: ~adia. Folk IIlt'lodic" an' Ilt'ard whell refefl'IICt's an' IlH.ItIt'. SOIlIl'tilllt'S ollly brielly. 10 tilt' 1'1ht ill tilt' sOlllh alld all it stalld::; for. Hut whal IIwh'", Ihe ""t' of IIHbic ill this fillll dill/'rellt from 111(.,.,1 uther fillll" i,., Ihe allllosl Wa:':llt'riaJl USI~ of thl' lIIaill thl'lIlt'. \\'agllt'riall IIIH so IIHIt'II ill tl'l'IIb of Iwnlltllly alld ordlt'stratillll. 11111 ill thl' hi:-.dtly "'0l'hislinllt'd Ibl' of Lt'illllolif tt'dllliqUt,. That is. it i::; 11tH IIsl,d ill the blullt Ilollywood fa"hioll of sillll'ly I'qllal ill~ a tlwllle with a character. 1II00d. or situalioll. 1'lIt ill tilt' "'I'lIse tlf dt'\'t'ltll'ill~ a motif ill COITt'SI'Olldt'IIt'I' wilh the dramalic "illlaliOIlS alld with tilt' dlal'actl'r,., alld tllt'ir rt'latitllhhil's, III otlwr "onk IIt,tll tilt' tllt'lIlt' alld i", fllll(·tioll,., \ary ""IItly Ihro,,~houl tilt' film. TIlt' lir,.,t I'art of tilt' tllt'lIlt' apl'l'ar,., ill two \arialitllb . Ollt' dark. tilt' tltllt'r li/-!ht. 1'111"'1''';1 ,,"ltlillg I'OII:-.dtly to Sillll 11 It' alld HOITU. rt''''llt'ctin'ly. TIlt' fOl'llll'r i,., Iir::;1 Ilt'ard I,riel" 011 IWo Ol'!·U,.,itllb. wllt'lI Simollt' i" "1'1'11 "II'alill).! itl'm,., al tilt' lalllldry. Tht' "I'I'IIIld parI of tlw tllt'III('. II10n' IIlt'lodit'. lir:--I al'l'l'ars \\ht'II \adia n'lunb ItI BOITo Ihl' Slol('II j"\\Tlry ,.,hl' ha" 1'1>t't'in'd frolll SilllOIIt'. '1'111' tlll'IIIt' al'l'l·ar,., ill 1',,11 for Ihe lir,.,( lilllt' ill tlll' IIt'XI "1'1'111'. ill which Silllflllt' alld HII(TtI an' lalkillg ahtllll \ildiil. Ih hI'
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the musl illlportallt IlJa11 ift'"'tat iOIl of tilt' tlH'lIlt' is Ilt'ard whell \adia alld Hocco talk aflt'r ,~IH' has Iwt'lI rt'it'ast'd frolll pri",oll: tilt' lirst half appt'ars in ib li~htt'r wrsioll. aftt'r which tilt' IIIwiic St't'lIh to ;!t'IIt1y slwkt, off it;. chains alld he('ollle all ('xpressioll of hopt" This Ii~ht n'rsion !'t'a!,p!'ar,; wht'1I Iht' nt'w cOllpll' in lo\'t' an' Sl't'lI t nl\'din;! wgetllt'r on a Iralll throll;!h \Iilan. and it i", d"xtt'nlll~ly cOlllhillt'd with the jazzy HUll' jll"'t 1II!'ntiOllt'd, :\ liltle latpl'. tilt' dark wr",ioll n'tlll'll" awl is wO''I'n into tilt' telhioll-hllildillg lIIu~i(' to ",U;!W'st SiIIlOlIt" s lIIali('p a" he crt'Pps toward tilt' lon"r"" Aftt'r Iit' has rapt'd ,l\adiLI. tilt' tllt'lIlt' 1'1'tunls in it,.; t'nlirt'ty. now iufiuitt·ly sad: tilt' 1I11ISic of hop(' Iw", bt'('oml' a poigllallt !'xpressioll of hOl't' lo;"t. The tht'lIlt' i~ heard a couplt' of tilllt's ill tlris IIHHIt· alld fllllClioll. most dralllatinllly wllt'lI Hoct'o rpjt'('\;; \adia al tilt' top of the \ Iilall Ca t Iredral. \\ Iit'll SimOl It' 1I1t'('\;; Ilt'r at Idroscalo. tI It' light wrsioll is Ireard dlallgill~ illto tilt' dark Ollt'. Hilt! fillally it "Ian's fort It ill it;. most maguific"lIt alld tragic rt'lIditioll, just as sht' "ll('cllml,s to his knife - only to disHppt'ar with IIH' ('ut 10 tilt' ho.xillg rill;!. The tllt'lIle i", heard for the last tilllt' wht'1I (;iro 1'1 1",1 It'S off \0 rq,ort SimOlIt' to tilt' polict', Despitt, it;; audiovisual n'finl'lIwllt. it;; ca"I of illtl'matiollal "'tars alld all it:; melodramatic qualitit's. H()('('() (llId lIis Umtlwf's SU;!;!I'"'It'd a killd of rt,tUI'II to [It'oreali,,lII. TIlt' way ill which tilt' shoot ill;! (ill black alld white) capllll't'd the n'latiollship IwtwI,t'1I lilt' characft'rs alld IIlt'ir "ocial ell\'inllUlwllt was remilli"ct'lIt of tilt' 1-!rt'at postwar Italiall cillt'matic traditioll, Almost all uf Ihe t'OIJ1radi(,tions of JH'on'alism call also II(' found in it. In some quartt'rs Ihe film wa" praised for it,; accurate d('pictioll of social realily: ill othel's il was dt'llollllcI'd for doing tilt' very oppo"ilt" There w('n' thost' who ",aw ill H(J('c() "i;!lIi1inlllt "ocial criticism alld all t'xpn'"sioll of clas" stnl;!!-dt,: olllt'rs "aw in il a 1I1t'I't' triallgl!' drallla tlrat was all ill"ult to Ih .. workl'rs who had t'lIIip'atc'd frolll tile' ,.,OIlth,:;·' TIlt' difl'cl't'/It't'S uf opilliolJ W!'/'t' clost'ly ('011111'1'\('<1 with the tJlw:-tioll of tilt' l't'latiollship lJt'twI'ell IIl1'lodrallla alld n'alisllI. till' kl'ystolll' of \'i!it'ollti'" ITI'at ivt' Ollt pilI.
Mdodrama as nostalgia and a sO('ial ('olllnU'ntar)' ,\"' \O\\'t'll-SlIIith SII;!~I'''h. tilt' I'xt't-'pliollally lOll;! tillle sp('1I1 ill writill;! tilt' stTipl for /{oc('o (TI'all'd a distTI'parwy IwtwI,t'1I tilt' t'pic alld tilt' tragic t,lt'lIIt'lIl;; of tilt' filtH: .. /{()('('() olld lIis llrolhef's is 1I0t all 1'lItir..I~ sati,.,factory film, I1 is rt'ally Iwo fillll:; ill 0I1t'. all t'/,ic alld a drallla. , , , A,; IIt'n It'S, HOITo alld (:iro an' ill 110 way cOlllparal,It-, Tllt'y ,.,'alld for tilt' two \\'a\'~ ill which dll' lillll has 1"'1'11 illtt'l'l'n'tt'(1. tilt' drallla alld tilt' 'nlt't."
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(:iru'" fUllctioll ill the ,;ton·. a" :\uwdl-Slllith is of cOllr",' aware, is "to I'UI H.(H'co·" tragedy illto pnspectiv,'" alld "till' epic and till' drama art· ddilwnltt'ly cOlllIII·rpoiIlted.·· What Ill' i,; worried abollt is that "it is not IHI,.,,,il,I,· to "1'1' tilt' contliet or its resulution as dirt'ctly or exclusively rel're"entatin' of Yisconti' s cOl/sciulls il/I(,I/liull.~·· (italit's addt·d). Furtl\l'J'Illort,. in his tillw; "in the hnal realization llostal/-da I'rt'vails 0\('1' 1'1'0gn'",.,." Tht' rea::>un for all thi" \owt'II-SllIith trace::> to Viseonti'", "illll'II,'cllwl Iwlil'f in the ('ause of progre"s and all elllotional Ilostalgia for tilt' I'a,.,t that is beillg d,·stroy(·d."~o H(' poiIlts out that iIl the director's 01 'U\,!,' , as a whole. Ilo"talgia O\',')'('onlt's progre",., since all thos(' who try to ri,.,(' up against history an~ def('ated: ·:\tolli. H.occo. Franz. don Fabrizio. awl CiUlllli ill S([f/('f'(I.~l It i" tnlt' that the iWT,·a,.;ing "lIlpha"i" Oil the Ilo"talgic d(,lIlellt in ViscOllti'" late works indicate" a shift frolll I'/'I'dominalltly social to more psyl'iwlogical and "xi"telltial issues. But although tilt' character:; of his latt' lilnls are ('xt'ejJliollal and aliellated frolll their cOlllnlunity. ill Ollt· way or allotl)('r tllt'y fUlll'tiulI as lIletaphors for that conllnunity and for ib spirilual state at a given IIlUIIlt'nt ill Iri"tory . .\ ('('Iwial f.. aturt· of Yisconti's anthropolllorphic cillt'lIla was his chartillg of the dialt'(,tical relationship bet\\'('('ll cUI individual and Iris or Irer (·II\·ironnll'lIl. which was an attt'mpt III crystallize tilt' t's"elll't' uf a given :-,ocial siluation intu tilt' "tory uf a ft'w illdividual dlal'ac!t·r". The IIIdodralnatic a,.,pt'('(S of hi" sty'" han~ \0 Iit' rdalt·d to thi". Yi"collti wa" heir to tilt' llillt''''elllh-et'lItltry Italian operalic traditioll. \\ hich ill its curious ways has 1)('1'11 a COlbistellt feature of Italian culture alld pf)liti('~. Yel. says Cllid" .\ristarco. tilt' IIwiodralllati(' a"lw('h of \'is('ollti'" lillll" do lIot uvprwllt'llIl the Ilt'cd to lIIakt· a ~ol'ial ~tatell)(,lIt sillc(' "art is hurtlt' out of a lIal iOllal clllt lire. :\lId [Italy',,] lIat iOllal nlltun~ is IlIelodralllatil'. :\ot melodramatic ill the Ilt'gati\'(' sellse of tI)(' word. But it i" a cultUft· characIt·rizt·d Ily tilt' works of th .. great Venli. lIot of tht' I'loh [of tlw opt·ra,;] bill of tilt' I!n'at illspiral iOIl he pro,·id'·d ... ~~ :\" Hohdit' has al,.;o poilltt·d 0111. "il wa" all l'xtraordillary at'('olllpli"hIllt'lIt to ha\'(' takt'1I tilt' Iw.~t of hourgt'oi" (,lilt un' alld trall"late it ~UCl't·,;,., fully to the ,,(,(,('('11. 1I0t ollly fur lIIa"s diffusioll. 11111 particularly to "ocial groul'" r .. lati\'(·ly aliell to what was tI)(,1I n·l!al'lh·d a" clllllln· ... In fllt'1. it wa,., till' "opt'ratil''' or "lIwlodralllatic" ljllalili(''; Ihat IlIadt· tlH' fillll "" p0l'lIlar: .. It was "mllll!. rhythlll. lIIelody. tOllt·. ('oloul'. \'01 11 IIH'. illt"II"ity. dallt't'. rOlllallt'l·. passioll: that is. it W"1I1 to tilt' Ilody. 1I0t tilt' h('ad."~·l 'I'll(' IIH'lodralllatic straill ill \'i""ollli'" lillll,; ,It'rin'" 1'1'0111 1'II1OIiollal alld n.i~I'·lIlild ,'\tn·lIlt·s that 1"lId If)!!f) 1,,'\, "lid tilt' ';fH'ially
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a,; heyond tilt' ratiollal facility of tilt' illdi"idllal. SOIIll'thillg t'lllt'rgt'~ that ('anllot Iw uI1iclllutl'd by ::;Ylllholit' IIIt'UII~ ~lIch as lallgllugl" ~ollwthillg that lIIallifp~t:; ihdf ill th(' illll'lI:-il', of t'lIlOtioll" alld that l'a~ih, It'ads 10 gt'~t lIrt',; allt! act iOIl" 1Il1iW('I'ptal,1e hotll to ,.;ocit't y alld oft I'll al~o to 0I1t'sdI'. By depicting sllt'h tn\ll~grt'""iOlb alld 1111' ~itW.lliOlb 1'1'0111 whidl alld to which the)" lead. \'is(,(II\1i'~ filllb rnl'al all I'lItire ~Iwial ::;itllutioll. witlt it~ 1I0rlllS aIlllrt'strictioll" ill all tlwil' 0pl'l'(,!i~i\l,IIt,,,~, Otllt'l' din'>I'tol's. too. slIch as \'ilwelltl' \lillIlt'lIi and DOII;,,da,, Sil'k, Itan' 111'1'11 altll' to IISI' 1I1t'1odraIllatil' lIIean" to repl'e,;ellt l'oIlll'lex I'sydlOlogi,'al cOllditiolb and 1'1'latiull"hil''' ill a way that lIIigllt Ill' difficlllt to captllrt' I,y otlll'l' I'o 1'111 S of expressioIl, For exalllple. ThoIIIWi EI"a('';::;I'1' appear
10
1101 .. ",
tlH' way all dwnll'lI'l'"
Ill' \"ictillls lIH'all" tlWI
lilt' ('rili'l'''' - lilt' '1IH'''lioll'' of "I','il." of n'''polI"i''iliIY - i" finlll~ pla('t'd 011 a ,.ocial alld nj"It'lItial 1t'\I'1. away frlllll IIH' arl'itrary alld fillally O"llhl' lo;!i .. of pri\a\t' III0ti\,'''' and illdi, idll
Hocco.
III his
a gn'at I'X\t'I1t a(,.,o to \'i,,('oIltiall 1I1t'Iodnlllla, abm'" all to
allal~si"
of thi" fihll. SaIIl Hohdi,' 1'llIpha"izl'" thal 1I11'10-
draIlla addn'ssl'''' o"lI'rwi",' ("1 wially or / hydlUlogi(,ally) rt'Il\'('~~l'd liOlb:
'I11t':-;-
\klodrallla. hy tI,,'atri,'ali~ill;! rl'alilY, n',,'a'" il ,,!ril., at till' "all'" tilllt' re"11101 ion" it I"all" Ill" ,'xc"Vt withill IIIt'lodnllllil - tlrat i". 1101 ill lif,' Ill" ill art. TIll' 11\ ,'rlwat,'d lictioll of IIwllldmllla 11("'oln"~ "jlllultalll'oll"ly rc'\I'latitlll of till' n'al. proll"t "l!ailht it. and "a"alillll frolll it. tilt' plat'!' "I ... rc' till' ,'alllt" dC'lIic'd h~ n'ality. or dd'c'at,'d h, n'alil~, nlll "till "lIn'in', , , ' \/dodrallla i., tilt' IIl1'all, for IlIakill!! n'ality "1 It'a k , for IIlakill;! I,i"tory "Ollll' alin'. for ;!i"ill;! id .. ol,,;!y ib "h 11 11 "'" , .. 1'"y,'lri""'lh",·" H'alill~ tlte illlpo""ibility, till' IIl1li\ahility of the
Tlli" "lall'II\('lIt glw~ quill' far ill ('IIIj.tIil"izillg till' IIlt'lodralllali(' 'Iuality of Huccu. alld it i,., tI\(' C'OrJIlT";\OIW of \{oluli,:" 1'llIirt, argulllt'lIt n'garclillg t hi~ fillll. III hi~ ,oil'\\". "till' "XI"'"" of f"t,lillg,.; i" sigllilil't/ ill till' fillll. 1101 by lallguagt'. 11111 by g"SlIll'",;. or by grtlllh, ",'n'alll:->. glHbhillg of 1"1'111. ,n,1\ Lwyolld tI\(' I'rtNli(' reality Iwillg I'n'''''III,'cI,'' \ 10\"1'11 11'1 It,., an' ntn'fully ·'('ltort'ognll'lwd'" Iit' gOI'" 011 to "ay, alld "dlara(,ll'r i" 1'.\l'n'''''l'd 11101'1' a" ('illl'llIali(', t/Yllalllil' quality tlliIlI a~ u p";'Tholo!!i('ul 011", or ratlwr, allcl
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IIIOJ'l' pn'ci"e1}. the p~ychic illsidt' of tilt' charactl:'rs is tnln::;lateJ to tilt· ollhidt,. To the ~Iidt, alld S\\t't'p of tllt'ir IHldit's. to the Ilt'sitancies uf glalln's . to tilt' iJllt'nsity afl(lllI)wt'r of tllt'ir ~t'stllrt's"'~h '·i"collti dot,S ind(,t'd USt' music. (·olur. alld lightillg to COIIVt'Y and I:'IJIplwsizt, t'lIlOtiollS. to make tilt' spt'ctator sympathize ami idt'ntify with tilt' characters. But tlwf"t, i" al"o allotlwr critical alld distancing element. On the It'wl uf tilt' plot. the characters might Iwhaw melodramatically - give th"mst'I\"t,~ up to tllt'ir t'lllOtioll~. refllse to Ht't't'pt fact;:; - bllt ill addition to idt'lItifyillg with thl'm. tilt' Sp('('tator i" also iIl\'it"d to \'it'w theIll and tllt'ir actions af(aillst a hi"torically d"tennined social backgwulld. Altlloul-dl tilt' Illt'lodralllatit' triallgle ill Hu('('o occllpie" the foregroulld fur a cOII"idl'rable part of tilt' film. tilt' oldt'st brotlH'r. '·illt'(,lIzo. alld tilt' two youllg('r 011('". 1,uca alltl (:iro. thuugh appart'lItly Idt ,.,olllewhat marginal. do hmt' all important fllllt'tion ill displaying one by ont' difft,ft'llt ways of adapting to their IWW t'lIvirolllllt'lIt. Their t"lHltrihutioll i" e"st'lItial ill providillg the "pie. or ratllt'r. the thiel.: and rich 1I00elistie tl:'xlIm' from which the nll'lodralllH arise" ami gaills ib filII siglliticaw'e. Bm tllt'r!:' are also other n'aSOlIS why tilt' brothers should Ilot Ill' cun"idert'd ml:'rt' adjullcts or tilt' ('tHltillUity from 0111' brother to anotllt'r. or "a hallguvcr fro III the litt'l'an ,.;tl'll('tllrt' with which "i"eollti start .. t!.·' as \owell-Slllith alld. ill slightly differt'llt words. Holltlit' sugW'st. .. 7 ,\,., ha,., alrt'ady 11t'1:'1I pointl:'d Ollt.. ,. isconti' s characters art' - jllst as Lul.:Ucs expt'('(('d of tilt' character::; of a lIovel - types rather than a\'erage Iwrsollalilit,,;. III Christoplwr Prelldergast' sword". tht' "charaett'ristic or '''"S('1I1 iar ft'al un',., of tht' social proCI'S"; art' picl.:t'd Ollt and gathered into a ,.,ill/.,de t'xpressivt' 1JI00ltellt of a peculiarly imt'lIse and t'OIH't'lItralt'd l.:illd"·~1I 011 tilt' olher hand. as was t'XPOIIIHIt'd ill t'oIllH,t'tion with IH'On~ali"lJI (:\ rislotle abl) lIIadt' tilt' salJl!' poillt abollt t ra,!,wdy). ill this k illt! of ae,.,tlwtics. al It'ast. it is .IIP plot ratiwr than the dtaractt'r~ that ha" to Iit' typical or 1'I'III't':;t'lIlaliYt,; tilt' plol IIni\'t'rsalizt,s tllf' dlarat'lt'rs. To ,.,llt'd li~ht 011 a ,.,o!'ial ,.,illlatioll. a worl.: II111S1 t'llI .. r~e from tlte wt',dth of detail,., of pnlt'tieallift, alltllllal.:t' a statl'lIH'lIt by IIIt'H1b of -10 Iht' Palll Hicueur' S 11:'1'1 liS - IIlt'tapllOrical ('o/(tipII'iIlK of past t'\Tllh. hy IIII'al)" of t'lIIplotllll'llt. III IIIHlly of Iti,., filllls ,'is!'ollti sun't'eds ill el'l'at ill~ a happy lIlarriagt' Iwtwt't'lI tlH'S!' two narrati,,' prillt"iplt-,.,. Ilis pf"t'ot't'upalioll with (n')cn'atill~ ill t'.\t't',.,,,ivt' detail tilt' t'll\irOIllIIt'lIt of hi,., dtarae\t'rs i~ IlOt all t''\Hlllplt- of Ilwn' ,.,url'
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whaft'Vt'r Ill(' ~ocial clas" Iit' port ra yt'( L \" i,,;collli ,,;(w(,(,t'dl'd ill ('apt 1I ri Ilg cOllyillt'illgly tll(' social p:estlls or th(' ~atlt'nb of Il('havior of people 11('IOIl~illg to a particular cla,.;s. Everylhillg his dwra('t('l'" say or do edHws the cOlltradictiolls all4l tell"iollS of tll('ir social ('II\"inlllllu'IlL of IIlt'il' ('0111lIIullal as wt'lI as persollal history. Thus t'H'1I a sillgular eWllt dt'pict(·d cUlIlw recoglliz('d as a (,(lIIli~lIratioll of various factors that structure huUlall ilt'huyiOl': gt'lwralizatioll is, ~)t'r1Hlps soml'what paradoxically, achiewd by (,(/IIlt'xt ualizillg the illdiyidual. The social IJackgruulld tlt'\'t'1' disapp,'ars ill Ho('('o, 1101' is it r('l('gat,'d to a lIIt'n' backdrop of tilt' lIIe1odrallla, 'I'll!' dlaracter!' 1'IIlt'rg(' a,.; illdividual" alld 1I0t a" ,.;tock typt'S of Ilwlodrallla Ilt'cathl' th(,y art' SI'I'1l as 111'10llgillg tu alld lll'illg cOllditiollt'd by their l'IIVirollJllt'lIt. a "ocially dYllaJllic COIIIIIIUllity, The) art' gin'lI ('('rtaill opporlUllitit's alld live ulldt'r ct'rtaill restrictioll~, Dqlt'lIdillg Oil their p('rsollal hi,.;tory, their illlllwdiat(' COllcenlS awl (!J'in's, ami t1l!'ir futun' aspiratiolls, tilt' t'haracl('l's an' - or art' 1I0t.. a" tht' ca~t' lIIay I,l' - abl(, to ('xl'loit tll('s(' Oppol'tulliti('s, TIH') lIIa\' Lw ('J'u~ht'tl I,," t1H'ir I'('strictioll", tht'y. III m". I('anl to li\(' with Ihl'lII" . . alld a ft'w might just Lw ai,'" to on'I,(,OIlW t1H'1II - if ollly to l'tU'OUlllt'1' IH'W OIlt'S, "Illhi" is the lIo\"t'listic or ('pi(' asp(,(·t of till' lillll" W\tat tilt' dramatic a"peet do('s ill Hoc('o i,.. to brillg fonh tlu' ulliYI'r"al dillH'lbioll ill tilt' ('VI'II'" that tak(' pla('(' ill thi,.; particular ('lI\il'OII1Il('1l1. tlli:-. da",," thi,.. poillt ill Italiall hi"tory a~ I't'PI'(,,,t'IIIt'd ill thi,.; lilm. Thall\';'; to all t hi", /(()('('u i" IIl'it h('1' all al),.;t raI'l tllI'"i" tllU t call Ill' 1'01lowed wilhout t'lllOliollal illvoln'llu'1l1 lIor a IIl1'lodrallla wilhoul social alld hUlllall J't'It'Y!IIH'e, III SOliit' wm" Ihe ('('lItrullllt'lodruma" with i", basically good but \\"('ak pt'ol'lt, "illkitlg illlu till' ul'ball s('wag('. i,.; l't'milli";('('llt of tltt' popular 1I0vels of tlH' lIilll'lt'('lIth (·t'lItury. IlIlt with tilt' lIIoralizilll! tOIlt' expurgatt'd alld replaced by a ITitintl ,.;ocial lH'rspl·(·tiYt" Without IwcOlllillg ulopiall. thi" provid(,s
Tht' story and tilt' c.'hanwtc.'rs \\hill' \ i.~C()1I1 i wa,.. "I ill ~houl ill/! TIlt' IA'IJ/mrd. rralll'o ( :ri~taldi off....!·,! I" !'!"Odllf'P hi~ 114"1 lillll 011 tI((' !'(lIl1lilillll Ihat till' IIlaill roll,lH' gin'lI
L!O
\ t:-;co-'ll
10 (:Ialldia (:ardillak. ;\lIollwr ,.,larl illg poinl wa,., d' Amico'" alld \" iSCOllti'" idpa of localing
IIIe
story in lilt' Twwan .'ity of Yolterra.
TIH'
film was to
Iwa killd of IIlOd.-nl f}('c/ra. alld ill"It-<1I1 of 1111' Trojan War. tht' collcctiw trallma O\(-r~hadowillg
1111' drama
wa~ to Ill'
lilt' archetypal horror of ollr
cI'lItury. (he COIWl'lItratioll camps, TIlt' plot mechanism is hast't\ esst'lIlially
011
ambiguity rl'ganlillg lilt' l-n-lI1s of the pasl. Salldra (Cardinalt')
SIlSPI-ctS Iwr mt/lllt'r (l\Iarit' Bell) alld till' motlu-r'!-l lowr Cilanlilli (ReIlzo Ricci) of hetntyill;! l1t'r .Jl'wi,.,h fat".-r to
1111' \azis. Cilanlini. who has
sllbst'IJllt'lIl1y IIwrrit-d tilt' lIlother. in lurll HlTlISt'S Sandra awl his brodwr Ciarllli (.It'all SOH'I) of ill('t-~l. \eillH'r suspicion i:. giYl'II much sllb;;tanee. not
10
spl'ak of e1etl'nllillillg till' dt'grt-p of guilt or complicity. Perhaps the
mlllual distru"t ha!"> "illlply Iliad .. ('\(-ryol\t- illlt-rprt'l t'\-t'ryont' .. Ist'·,; motivation" and action,.; ill lilt' wor,;1 po,.;"ihlt- ,,-ay, Sawlra'" husballd .\lIdrt'w (:\lidIHl-I Craig). who is Pllcollntl-ring thl- (ht of dlt' falllily and all its i III I'rnal
1'01111 i('b
for the !irst t illlt'. oh:. .. r\"l's
11 It' fami"- with amaZt-IIIelll.
"'hill' tilt' film wa:. !-ltillllllell-r pl'lldlwtion '-i"conti COIIUIlt'lItl'd:
_\11 11\1' ('hanll'lI"" an' alubi,!!uOlh I'X('I'III ;\IHln'w. 11., \\ olllcl like 10 tilld a logical I'Xplallalioll I., t-\'t'ryrl I ill,!!. ilbl('ael of whil'h Ill' lilllb hillh.,If· ill a world domillaled by tlll' 1110,.,1 prol'ollllll. ('olllraclit·tory. alii I illt'xpli('able pa,siolb ... _1.-"alulIglht' ,.,a 11 It' lilll" a, dlll,.,e dlriller,., ill whi('h t'\t'ryl hillg appt'ar,., \l'ry dl'ar al tilt' IJI'gilllIill,!! ,\lIcI \lTy olh"lIn' I,~ 11 ... ('1Ie1. a.-; alway,., happell' wh.'1I lH'opl(' all"lIlpl tI ... eliflinlh Ia,.,k .,1' 1I1IelI'l'sIallelillg tI ... ir O\\"ll n"lI'lillll~. f"..Jillf,: ah,.,ollllt'ly ~\ln' they ha,,' nlllhillg to I,'anl hilt "lIdill!! Ill' fan' III fan' wilh aglJnizing l'.\i';\t'lIlial prob1(-lIb,<" III tilt' precrt'dil ';I'ql(('Ilt'('. Salldra i,., hO~lillg a cocktail party. \\'hell her atll'lIt iOIl is :o;uddellly capt urpd by th .. piallist play ill;.! Ct-sar Frallck' ~ Prel11(11'.
('//Ow/t' alld Fllp:lle, '1'111' 1II1l:o;ic carrit,s ht'r hack into all ahys~ of
IIII'1IIoril'';. a:. i~ dearly t'vid(-1I1 fro 11 I thl' piece Ilt'ill~ heard \\'hile the cn'dits apl'l'ar on-r illla~I-~ of roads II-adill;.! to Yo!terra. Salldra alld :\lIdn-\\' ;.!O to \'o!tt-ITa to alll'llIl a ('t'\'t'1II01lY that will tum pari of tilt' gardell"; of Ilt'r a1lt'I-,.;tral hOlllt' illto a pnl,lic park dl,dicalt,d 10 tilt' IIwlIIory of h .. r falllt'r. \\1111 dil'd ill _\u"l'\lwiIZ. Salld .... ha!-l appan'lltly "I rtlt'lIlret/ Ilt'r lIIost dwri"lll'd dlildhood lllt'lllllrit,s aroulld lilt' illlaW' of hl'r fa tI II'r. Durill;.! IIl1'ir fir,;1 lli;.!ht ill Yoilt'[Ta. ,.,1 It' ;'::01'-; 10 IIl1' ;.!urdt'lI
10
"I'" his "Ialtlt'. \"hidl
is 10 Iit' UII\I-ikd durill;.! lilt' cl'n'lIIollY. SIll' l'llIlmwl''' il ardt'lltly. JIISIII\('lI. Ilt'r I,rollwr Cial\lli lIIakl''; hi" tir,,1 al'pl'antlll't' ill lilt' tillll, Lall-r Sallt/m gOl's 10 :'I't' Ilt'r [1101111'1' ill a llll'lIWI I\()1I It'. alld IIwn' lilt' IIlt'allill;.! of Fralll'k'" piallo pi('I'" lH'colllt',., 1'\-iell'lll: lilt' 1I111111t'r Il!-lt,d 10 Ill'
T
Il~.
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() I. I F I '
I :! I
a concerl piani:;1 ami dIP piece wa,. onn' in Iwr n·lwrtoire. Salldra t'lIlt'r~ her room jll~t as sill' finisht',; playillg it. SII(' al'plll"'ntly st't':-' her dallghl"r ellter bllt Iwgills to play it again. Sht' ~rows ('onfllsed and t'llIb by "an~int: tilt' keys of tht' piano in iliad desl'"nttion. (;ialllli's interest in hi,; :;i:-.ter is IlIIdollbledl\·. ,'rolicallv. ("()Iored. I It- ha:. written a LlOok titled "(JK/W slel/I' de/fOr.HI. afkr a poeJll hy Leopanli. I1 is based on hi:; childhood IIIt'JIlori,'s and apl'an'ntly illl',':;1 100111:; large in it, Lilt perhaps Iw i:-. jusl 0111 to shock people? Sandra ha:. great affection for her brotlH'r and hope:; to t'nlist hiJll as an ally against those she thinks are tlwir enemies. Blit are tiwfI' am· real elwlllies? 011 0111' level. internal colltlicls hm'e simply distorted till' relation:-.hips withill till' family and deslroyed all possihility of COllllllllnicatiol1. In thl' Iw('kgrollnrl is the 1'0111plex (!'w:.tion of the aClllalpl'nw(,lItion of ,kw,.; and tll(' paranoia which il ha" lTt'att' wiry her fatlll'r was IlInred ill to tire :\azi". AlI"ehwitz reprt'sellls till' ahys::. of history dlilllra::. (,1I~lIlfed illlllllllerable live" alld tilal ~lill St'rH'~ as a remilldl'r of c.rimes p!'opll' have comllli ttI'd agaillst Oil!' allotl II'f. Yel t ht' 1III'IIIOri,':; (If the ('.011<"1'111 ratioll call1p~ are already ~illkill~ to till' d"pths of people -s Sill )('ollsciOIlSllt'SS. ollly to Iw trall~lIIittt'J illlo feelill!!s of guilt awl rl'vellge. En'ryolle ill tllrn plays the role of tht' aecll~er alld the accllsed.;>" hi die "lid the dlUraeters art' IIl1able to COllllllllllit'lltt' (,v,'1l with thos!' they cOllsider to Iit' their allies. R"gardle:." of whelher tire lIlotlll'f alld Cilardilli han' delHHllIced thl' father. Ihey han'lost tollch with other 1"'0pit'. till' lIIolher lH'nlll~" "lre losl h!'r grip Oil reality allll Cilardilli Iwcallse Iit' 111'("(1111(' linllly "Iltfellcill'd ill hi:. positioll ['('twe"1l the III ut her alld till' dlildn'll. \n'ordillg to Salldra . Cilardilli ke('pS brill~ill~ "l' Cialllli-s alt(,lIIpll'd ,,"icide. [)y which I... an)ided Iwillg S,'1I1 10 boardillg school. Salldra 1'1It:- !!n'at I'lIlpha:.is Oil this "\"l'1I1 for she :.I'I'S il a~ all alll'lIIl't I,y dl<' 1II0lher alld Cilartlilli 10 k,'"p Ilt'r alld Cialllli apart. Hn fnrid,'s" alld po""ibly IIl1follllded allillld" lillally It'ads 11<'1' 10 to ~ay 10 Alldr!'w. a" Ill'
\1:'1.()\11
i,; ka\illg tilt' hl)u~I' ill t'xasptTatioll: "1 dOIl't wallt to Iw forgi\ellllt'calJ~t' I wOII'1 forgin' aJlyolw."· Yet siit' is n,fl'nill!! to ";UIIWlhillg that acconlill!! to Iwr i~ III1TI' slalld('l" agaillst Ilt'r alld Cialllli. Alldn'w lo\'es Iwr alld t ril'~ to 1Il1dl'r~talld 11t'r. IIlIt he lack!-i tilt' St'lhitivity alld till' Ilt'lIrotic IWlld of IlIilld rt'ttllin'd to ';1'1' what is goillg 011 ht' dot'''' 1I0t f'VI'1I lIotit'e that his wife i" ill tt'ar~ jll,;t aflt'r tllt'y have arrived at tilt' falllily palan'. lit- i" a "olwr lIIall of tilt' lIIodem world alld rt'presellh for Salldra ,11' opportllllity to hreak lu'r til''; \\'ith her past. But tilt, way Iit' play,., with hi" callwra I'arly ill tilt' hllll !->uggt'Sh that Iit' is able to capturt' oldy tilt' ,~lIrface of thillg" - ill t·olltra,.;t to Cialllli. \\,ho has writtt'lI a book Ihal i,.; appan'"t1y full of n,f(,rt'IICt',; 10 ntitllre alld tilt' pa,.;t. Thi" illlpn'""ioll is stn'lI!!tllt'lwd by pop IIl1bic Iward from the trall"i"tor radio ill tlw ntllll'ra SCl'lIt'. 111 tilt' tirsl ,.,hot of Sawlra t hrollgh Alldrew' s viewfilldt'r. ,.,Iw i,; SI'I'II "1 IITOII III !t,d h\" a black frallle - whit'h forllls a vi:",al parallel wilh till' tir,.,1 shol of Cialllli.~eell throllp:h Ihe grid of tilt' gardt'lI !!att'. Salldra·,., IlIlI'a,.,illt',;s alltil'ipatl's Iwr "lIbselllll'lIt III1WillillP:IIt'SS 10 Il'l Alldn'w forlll all ol'jl'I,ti\'t' \il'W of Ilt'r pasl alld IIIt'diall' a recolwiliatioll III'IW('I'II Iwr alld IlI'r ,.,lIpp0,.,I,d ellt'lIIie". It i" a~ if Salldra WIT(' 1I0t truly willillg 10 ban' Ihillg" recorth,d with allY dl'Wet' of objl,t'li\'ity. as if she fean,d Ihat tilt' "'1I"pil'iolb "Iit' pn'f,'rs to /'lItl'11ailllllight 1I0t Iw cOlltinlled. III 011(' way or allotilt'r. il appear" to Iit' ill 1'\"t'ryOllt'·,.; illtl'/'t':;t 1I0t to haw Ihe old di"plltes ft'ally ,;ortt'd out. This 1Il'l,d to mailltaill alllbiguity i,.; I,dlllt'd ill the ""IIt1) ,'lIipticalllarratiw styit- of tilt' tillll ibl,lf. It is It'ft l"wlt-ar how IIl1lt'h tilt' charactl'r" kllow ahout ollt' allotllt'r at allY gin"lI poillt ill the liltll, \\1' are 1101. for exalllplt'. privy to what CiJardilli tell:; A"drew ahollt what Iit' thi"k" has happt'lIed IJI'tw1'1'1I tilt' sihlillp:s. bllt this is IlIadl' apl'an'lIt loward till' elld of tilt' tillll. \\hilt, tilt' t'tllltlit'(s IlI'twt'('1I tilt' dJanlt'lt'r,., fllrtlwr t'olllplicate t1wir rclatioll~ltip~ witholll brilll!illl! allY clarity to tht' ,~il\la(ioll. /'itllt-'r for 1IWill or tilt' "Iwt'talor,~. illll'ft',.,t fot'lI:;I''; 011 tilt' way Salldra alld Cialllli atlt'llIpl to ('0P" with tilt' pa,,1. whil'h tllrll" Ollt to Iit' det't'ptioll of ,'ariol'" kiJld~. Cialllli iHTlI';I',., Salldra of dri"illp: their IlIotlwr Iliad tlll'OlI!!h Iwr 01,';t',.,~i()1I with tilt' 11 It'll It,..\" of dlt'ir fatill'r. E\t'1I ,b ,.,11t-' ('olltiIlW'" to alTU~t' tllt'ir 1II0tilt'r of Itt'lrayill!! tllt'ir fatllt'r. "hl' Ilt'r,.,df 1lt'(,I""I'~ t'IIII1I""llt,d ill dt'n'ptioll . .\.,., a dlild. "Iit' alld Cialllli Itad fortllt'd all aJliallt'I" lI!!ailb( tllt'ir IlIotiwr alld Cilardilli. IHIl Iltat rt,laliollSltip \\a,., ht'lra~ I,d. Iit' fl'pls. wllt'lI "ltl' IIl1lrrit'd .\11.11'1'\\. III a ~I'I""I'. botlt IIIt'II 1'01111)(,(1' for Ilt'r a" a WOlllall, IHIl lIIon' illlportalll to tilt' tillll"" di"I'olll''''I' i, wlrat tilt'~ "'~'1I11JOlize for Iwr. TIlt' rdatiollsirip wilh Cialllli "igllitil'''' a pIlll'miaJly rt'!!n',.,,,i\'(' tllmill!! to tilt' 1'<1,,1, Oil dw p""·It,,I"'.d"
tile atWlllpl to n'~ton' lilt, pmit) if lIot till' t'lIlirc ullity of tht' idyll of tllI'ir childhood. 011 tilt' I'nll"t i("al InTI. it wlluld 1I1t',1I1 rct IImillg to a dl'adhwk frolll which siit' has allllll"t "IHTl't,d"d ill t'xtri("atilll! IlI'r"I'11". Alldn'w. 011 the other halld. rl'l'n'sl'lIb till' fllllln'. :\gaill alld agaill Ill' tries to help Salldra forIII a ratiollal rl'latiollshi" with IlI'r past. Cialllli does his III',..t to "lIbn'rt thi" "'Tort throllgh IIli"ll'adillg illlllwlldos. For exalll!''''. Iit' illlrodllt'I'''' .\lIdn'w tu Pil,tro. Salltlra'" fir"t lo\"(' alld the lIIotiwr'" I'n'''t'llI do("tor. "lIgg""tillg that Salldra'" n,latiolbhil' with Pi"tro had IWt'1I JIlort' "igllili("all t t hall it n'ally \\·a". E, ,'11 IlIon' t hall .\ IIdr!'w. Pil'tro is a IIWI'(' obst'r"I'/". Ill' lIIiglll wI,1I kllllW Iwtlt'r thall allyolw 1'1,,1' what Ita;; J't'ally !!0I\t' 1111 ill IIH' faJllily. 11tH Iit' ha" oll\ioll"ly It'anlt'd to kel'l' hi" distaJlt'" froJll thi" lorlJlt'llIl,d faIllily .. \" :\o\\TII-Smith I'oill'" Ollt:
Ht' i" 1I0t ,,0 IIItWIt afo"'t' a, Iwlow tilt' " .. tioll. till" Ita I' I,·", ,i"lilll of Sa'ltlra alld Cia'II,i', ,'ollll'lit"ily,\,ltln'w'" j,'al"II"Y. Cilanlilli·., ,"i.,ln',1 alld till' IIlotlll'r'" ral!"" Ili" rol,' i, ill fa .. , tilt' ,':\a,·t 01,\",.,(, of .\11.11'1'" ',. Pit'lro "itltdraw, ,dll'n' Alldn'\\ rll"It(,,, ill. \\llI'n' A'lIln'" It" ... po",,,, willaOllt IlIld",."lalldilll!. I'iplro Ia,b IlIldt'r ... lalldilll! bill 110 pOWt'r.·d For ,!lIilt, "OJll!' tillll' ..\lIdn'w dOl'" IItll 1'\"t'1I al'l'l'ar to Ill' flllly aWHn' that JIli~dlt hm,' to ;;tJ'lt1!glt' to k,"'" Salldra. 't't aln'ady dllrillg thl'ir fir,..t lIight ill thl' l'ala("I'. "llI' t"II,., :\lIdn',,- that ,,11t' i" goillg to ,,It'''1' ill Ilt'r old room alld latt'J" Oil Ilwk" thl' door 10 k,'t'1' hiJll (alld/or Ciallllir) Ollt. .\I,ollt
Ill'
midway throllgh tilt' film. Salldra "hows :\lIdn'w all tilt' I'la("('" wllt'n' siit' allll Cialllli 'bl'd to hidl' m"",;ag"'" Th!'y di"t'o\"t'r a lIolt' hidd"1I ill 11 do("k dt'('orat"d with it statllt' of :\mur alld Psydlt', By IlI'ill!! as",wialt,d with thl' illtimalt' rd1llioll,;hil' of Salltira alld Cialllli. tlli" n'I'I't'''''lItatioll of fori,idd('1I 100t' that lill'rally ('(11 11 lot Iwar tilt' li!!ht of day "lIggl'sh that tllI'rl' ha" Iw,'1I all t,l,'lIlt'lIt of In'''I,a""ill!! ill tilt' n,latiolbhip of the "i"lillg" a" wdl.·'C! Pt,rltalh al.~o si!!lIifi("allt i" IIl1' fa,'t lltat till' dOt'k is at 1111' "ott 011 I of tilt' falllih lall\Tilllll. lltat i". ill tilt' IlI'dl"lllllll of IIW IIlotlll'r.-·:\ Salldra al'l','ar" to Iwlil"-" tltat tilt' 11 It'""a!!t , II,b 11t"'II ill tilt' do("k "illt"l, Ilt'r dlildllood alld jokt,,; abolll 110\\ l"t,I""" tilt' won),., "lIIost illll'Orlall" III,,,t IIr!!"IIt" ha\t' tllnlt'd 0111 10 Iit'. Blit aftt'r h,1\ ill!! di't'rlt,d .\lIdn'\\-" ... allt'lIlioll. "ht, !!'w... to lilt' IIWt,tillg pla'T IlIt'lIliollt'd ill tilt' 1I0t,'. all alwit'llt t'i"ftTII. alld filld ... Lialllli tllt'n'. OlltT agaill. \\ idl tilt' IlI'n'llIlial ,'hilllillg of 1'11111'1'11 Iit'll" ill dlt, Iltl,·kgl'olllld. IIt'I' l'a,,1 ,'Ollrh Iwl' I'n'~"III. TIlt' ,'Olltra"" Ilt't\\"t'lI lighl tllld darkll,''''' an' at dwir IlIt,,1 "1I1,,lt, ill dli" Italllllill!! "t't'lIt'. Cialllli· ... allt'lI,!'1 10 IlIakt, S'lIulra 1"lld hilll IIt'I' \\"ddill!.!; rin!.!; Iri!.!;!.!;'T . . a 11a"ltI,a.-i, "I' dlt'ir III0lllt'I' .. allill!! Ilt'r dlildn'lI 111011-
\ (:-,(.()'\ TI
~It'r~.-·~ TIlt' I'hysicall'l"Oxilllily of IlI'r brolhl'l" inlhis sCt'ne alltl the thought of t he I'0s~ihlt' rt'H'lat ions in hi,; book 11111 kt' Sa ndra increasingly uneasy and afraid. SIlt' ft'ars that till' book lIIil-dll giw "tlwir t'nemies" reaSOll \0 \It'liew that ~onH'thing untoward has actuaily tak('n place between them. CiaJllli lIlakes ir dear that Iit' is Iwt prcpan,d to as"i~t Salldra ill her bat lit' again~t tllt'ir lIlotill'r awl Cilardini. '1'111' ~ct'ne is \"i"lIaily OUt' of the Illo..,t aSlollnding in the ('lIlin' lillll. It end~ with a shot in which the sihlings art' St't'lI as a rt,tketion in Iht' wait'!" with Salltlra l('aving and walking up 11 spiral slailTasl' - bill ,.,inn' slit' i,; st't'n a,; a rellt't·lion. she appears to be IIIm'in!! dowllward. Finally tilt' canll'ra ZOOlll~ in on tilt' n'l\t'ction of Gianlli',; fan' in Iht, WaI('\". whidl lIIakt'~ hilll apl't'ar to Ill' fading illto dark IIt'';S. :\ndn'w arranges a dillllt'r parly in ordt'r to IIchi('\'t, a rt'collciliatioll IlI'lwel'lI Sandra alltl Cilardini. The attl'lII!'t end~ in disaster wllt'lI Cilardini tl'lIs the ~lltlt'kt'd siblin!!~ that tllt'ir 1II0ther inlt'lltl,., to attt'nd tht, dt'diciltion c('n'IIItHlY. :\ quarrel t'nSIW" in which Cilanlini tinally opt'lIly atTUSI'" Ihe Iwo of iIW(',.,t. \\"hen Gianni do('~ 11t)( den\" it. :\lIdrl'w lIit's inlo a ra!!e. III a 1T11t'1 IHlrsl of anger. Ill' Irit's 10 squL'I'ze tilt' truth Ollt uf the bml hel". whu t'~cal't'''' ollly wit h his si,.,\t'I:,., help. Ht'alizing that tilt' book alit'lWlt's Sandra frolll hilll. Ciallni ill dt'slwration IHlrwi the lIIilIlU,.,tTipt. Thlls what ha" perhaps Ileen a "illt"l'rt, attt'lIIpl III co III I' to h'rms with the pa"t t'llI('" lip in lIalllt',.;. It is as if Iit' Wt'n' /"t,lin'lllishillg all hopl' of COlIlIIl11l1inLlin!! hi" inllt'rmost feelin!!s to anyone. :\kall\yhilt- Sandra trit's to /wr"uade Ilt'r hllsband Ihat her rt'lationship with IIt'I" hrolilt'r is bast,d ~i)([Jlly on a t'lIl11nll)l\ lo\t~ for Iheir fatlll'r and 1111 Iwlongin!! to thl' SUlIlt' ract'. :\t'V('rtllt'lt''''''', ,.,11t' al,;1I It,ll,., hilll Iltat ,;ht' i~ !!"in~ III stay ill \',,!terra for tilt' liml' Iwill!! . .\lId ,.,0 :\udrt'w "'
'011 hil'" hidd"1I nlllr 1"lId''''III''''~ 10" ilnlllll" I ... hilld a ,.,a<.,.ili,.jalllla~l... YOII ha,',' ''''''ill"d il 11 IIIra I 1"1"1,, for Y"lIr",If. witll which YOII ha\l' ~i"'1I yOllr~..tf Ihl' ri1-:i1l 10 IlI'r~""IIIt' iI I....... ~i .. k ""lIlall allll a !,"lly Ihid. ,\11.1 I... nllht· of Ihi~ 1I0bl,' ~oal ~"II ha,,' 1"1 ~"lIr I,,'ill~ hll~llalld go .... 1 llla~ I... a "~lIi,·.,. IIwdi .. ,.,." ... ,ft.pnl\l'd ... hilI ill It'a~l I alii '·,,!'ill.I,· of 0111" ~I'~III"".
lit' lakt'''' a IHllt/t' tlf I'lIi,.,1I1I frolll a .Ira\\t'r IllItil'r tilt' .\lIIl1r all.I P,.,ydlt' ,.,Ialll,'. lit· Iri,'''' III Idacklltail Sall.Ira I.y Iltn'al"lIill!! ICI t"tllIlIllil ,.,ui .. i.It'.
TilL I \\111.)
\'>1) \loIH,le\ IT,\I,I \:\
:o-()(
11,,1)
LUI ,.,JI(' crII,.;hc!'i him wilh Ilt'r 1"1'' ;1 11 11 I";t': "To IlIe you art' alrt'ady dt'atl. Gialllli,' ' Salldra 11a,., all tilt' whilt, IlI't'lI 011 till' Itrillk of dt'("'i\'ill?! ,\lItln'w It~ falling illlo Ilt'r Itnttllt'r'" a 1'111"; , III Ihe t'1H1. ,,11t' IWlray,.. Itolh Cialllli alld
the ('Ill in' falllily by 1101 "Ioppillg hi" !'iuiciclt, alll'lIlpl. '1'111." ,.,11t' 1111\'"
a~aiJl
betray" her~it'If. by ('oIllmitlill!! a \Time aJlaI0!!0I1"; 10 tilt' Ollt' ,,11t' ,.;1 ill lay,.; al Ilt'r 11 lOt her'" dour. Salldra ha,., IlI'rforlllt'd a killd ofloltolOlllY 011 I\('rsel f.
It IIIi!!hl han' IW"II lIt'Ct'",.;ary to ,.,an' tilt' patit'III'S life, Itlll illa,.,llIlH'h a,., tilt' ridlllt,,,,, of IIII 11 la 11 lift, call ollly "prill~ frolll her future
1I0W
0I1t""
Iwrsollal hi"tory,
prollli,.,es to Iit' f'lIlOliollally alld illl,'lIl'clually IJHrJ'f~II,
III tilt" la"I S('t'IIl' tltn't' lell,'r,.; alT Ilt'ard ill \Oi(T-on..-s It\ tllt'ir wril,'r,., as Salldra \\a"he" hl'r:>!,lf alld pr",tan'" for tilt' dt,dicHtioll ('t'n'IIIOIIY, III lh,' lir,.;1. ,\lItlr!'w a";SUIT,., Salltlra of hi" Iml' alld a"k~ her 10 n'Iul"II 10 hill\. III Iht' ";l'colld, which siit' do,'''; 1101 read, Cialllli issllt,,., a la"I d""IWf"HIl' cry for 1\('11" \\'hilt, Salldra i,.. prqtarillg for tilt' \"t'rt'IIIOIlY, Cialllli, J'f'alizill~ too lalt' Ihal she is 1101 cOlllillg
10
IT,.,t'IIt' hill!. "ufk!",., all agollizill~ d,'ath,
:\,., Salldra dre,.,,.;e,., - ill whilt' -
\\T
IlI'ar Ilt'r lt'IIer 10 :\lIdrl'w, ill \\'hidl siit'
!'ia",; Ihal ,.;hl' will rl'IUfII 10 hill\. Cialllli di,''';
011
tilt' 11001' of tI\('ir IlIotlll'l'-"
Ledroolll"-'" \\"111'11 Salldra arrin's al tilt' park, Ihl' Ct'J'f'1II0IlY 11a" aln'ad~ ,.,Iarll'd, The ral)I,i J'f'CiIC,., I,.,aiah :2tJ: 19: "Th~ dt'ad 1I1t'II ,.,hall liw, 11I~('tllt'r wilh lily dcad hody shall Ihl'y ari"e, :\wak(' alld Sill!!, Y" Ihal d\\cll ill tilt' dlbl: for Ih, dew i,., as tilt' tIt'\\ of tilt' Ilt'rI,,,, alld tI\(' ('ar'lh "hall ca,.,I 0111 tilt' dl'atl'"
Style and tiwllles ::)(Il1dra epilOlllizp" ;i01l1t' of YiS("Ollli'" 1110,,1 ('olblalll ('OI)("('I"IIS, TI\('
pi'" I al'pt'ar" lIIort' illlllti!!1I0lh alld "IISI'('('1. Ihl' falllily 11101'1' illll'rnally dt'''"'II\'lin~ Ihall ill all\ of hi,.; ('adit'r lilllls, \\"ork,.; of al'l an' u,,(,d IIIOIT
s(,lf-coII,.;ciollsly alld su).!).!t'"Iin,ly a" rcfcn'llI'c poill'" alld IIlI'litpllllr" Ihall allndwn' cl";f' ill hi" cillt'lIlalic (WUHt', TI\(' crtll'ial i",..IIC is Iwilher hi,.;lon', , I\or ,.;(wiaJ or \'collollli(' dialecli('s ill rdalioll 10 the illdi\'idual.
bill ratl\('r
tilt' qlH'Slioll of it Iwr,.,oll Iryill).! 10 CllPf' wilh 11\'1' OWII ,.;ollll'whal '>X('('I'liollall'asl. Thlh tilt' lillll lllark" a IlIrll ill \'i,.,COllli'" ntn'C(" 10\\"<1/"(1 a 1II0nilllt'l"iorizt,tl. exislt'1I1 ial din'ctioll, 'I'll!' hllll i~ struclured 10 a I!rt'itl (',\1t'1I1 aroulld IIll1sical. lill'rary, \'i~'''lal. alld ('\1'11 I!I'o~raphi('allllt'Iaphor",-'" 'I'll!' "'I,ltill~, tilt' cily of \'oltnra, ha" a ddillilt' lIH'taphorical fUIIClioll, altllOlI).!" ,,01111' of ib a"I)t'('b an' lik('ly 10 (,,,("('II!' a \,ic\\"('r ullfallliliar wilh tll!' rt'It'\'alll ndlllral or hi"lorind dl--
\ 1:-<'0\ II
laib. \'OlielTlI i,., lontl.·d 011 rill' silt· of all Elrw;call .. it\, built aroulld i)Ou IU:. TIlt' cily ,.;lalU/'" 011 a slowly "nlllillg- ,.;101"" The un .. il'lIt ""lTopoli" £11101 a pari of tilt' El r",;call ,,'all haw aln'ady di,.,al'peared. and the Chri~liaJl IllOlw,.,lt·n·. i" IIOW dost, to riit' al"s". Thlls Iht' cil\'. itself call be ~e(,1l a" it . Illt'laphor for tilt' Irallsi.·lw., of 1.0111 lIalur(' alld culltlrt·. Itl the film. thi,.
Inm"it'III'!' ",'r",·,.; a" a 1II"laphor for th(' lWI'd to ""tll" ac('oullis wilh lIu' pasl Iwfml' fallill;! 1H'lplt'""ly illto tilt' abys" of 1IH'lIlOri.,s. P,'rhaps ('\'I'll 111<11'\' sYlllbolically ,.,ig-lIifinllll an' Iwo work" of art. Cia1'01110 L"ol"ll'di' s I ll~//I' sII'llI' dl'lI'( ),..Hl. lakell from hi" .. olJ..Clioll /lieordu,,:;,e (H'·IIIt'mbratll'('s. I H:2()). alld (:,;sar FnuH'k·,., Pr('/w/t'. ('''orale aud FIl~1l1'
(Wa-t). Fmlll'k's late rOlllalltic pi.·ct' for Ihl' piallo is oftt'1I said to n·fle .. 1 1111' lra;!i .. "tl'llgglt·lwl,,'e'·1I Cod alld hUIIHlllily. spiritualqllt'st. allll rill' I,altll' IH'lw.·.·1I darklll'''~ a III I lig-ht.-· 7 TIll',," Ih"llle" .. all n'adily Le a",,(H'iat"d "'ilh the fillll. bllt Ihe lIH'mol'it·" Ihat tilt:' pi"n' ,.,t·t'lIb to e\,uk., ill Salldra·,., lIlilld art' far IIIon' si;!llifinllll. ,\llIlo"t lilt' "lIlin' Pn·llldt' is IH'ard at rlH' 0p"lIill~ of tlH' film. fir::;t a,., dil'l!t'lic alld tlH'1I a,.. l)Uckgroulld IIII1,.;i .. dllrillg- till' 1T,·dib. Sub,..eqlwlltly. Ihl' Pn·lllde alld Ih .. I,bl s"clioll of tilt' Fllg-ut' (frolll ('Olllf' Will ('(u/('I/:;,a ollward) an' Iward a,.; Salldra Iwt'uIIII'" illlllll'r"l'd ill till' IIIt'IIIori,'s of her yOllt h durillg- tilt' vi"il to IlI'r alH't'st ral hOllle. parlicularly 10 Iwl' 1Il0tlH'r\ empty J'\)OIl"'. III tllt·s.· ,~C"Ilt'S tht' I11lhi .. Ill'ighlt~lb tI ... ""'lIse of ,.;illkillg illto h,·1' 1II1'IIIOri,'''' a lit I could "\"'11 I", Ihou;!hl of as "ubjt'('lin' di.·g.>tic IIl1bic. Ext ra .. ", frolll 1111' Pn'lude alld I ht' filial ".·('t iOIl of till' Fugue art' abo IlI'ard durill;! tlH' lOll;! "(,,'111',, that "how tilt' siblillg" tugt'ther or thal ('"ok,' tllt'ir 1II1'IIIori.·" of childhood. '1'111' ,'xtme'" are Ufll'Il quill' 101lg- alld ill tilt' l'i,,11'l'1I ,.,I'I·IH' rill' "lIlin' Pn'lud., i~ lH'ard. Silllilarly. durillg- rllt' la"t. "io11'1I1 ,'IICOIIIII"r Iwtw('1'1I Salldm awl Cialllli. all l'xtracl frolll till' Fug-w' is Iward ,.;tanillg frolll ('om!' /lflll ('udt'/Iz11 alHll'lIdillg. "i~lIificalllly. with rllt' work'" filial ('hord". III all "adin ";('1'111'. ill whi('h (;ialllli wa,.,llI's hillb('lf ill frolll of SUIItira alld .\lIdn'\\'. alld lalk~ aboul dOllalill~ rill' ~ardl'lI10 rlH' 1I11l11i,'ipalily awl I"'rhap~ ".·Ilillg- riit' "111 in' hOlls(·. rlw IH'~iIlIlillg- of till' (:IlOralt' i,., h .. ard. It i" IlI'ard a;!aill loward riit' "lId of th,· fillll wlH'1I SaIldra i" prl'parillg- for th .. d"di,'a I iOIl 1'I'!'I'III,IIIY alld (; iaIllli i" dyi II~. Thi" ntnH'1 frolll d 11' ( :horail' i" IlIlIgl'r rltall dw pn'\ioll" 0111' (Ill' 10 lIu' IJoco l/"t'~ro) alld also ('O\'('r,., dw dl'dical iOIl (,l'n'lIIoIlY ih..tf. TIll' filial ('hord" of du' FII~11t' an' fir,,1 Iward WIIl'II Salldra arri",'" 10 ,., •.•. It .. r 1II0tlll'r 1111.1 fir,,1 add ... ,,;,;,·,; Iwr. l'p 10 Ihi" poilll il app"ar" Ihal till' I1l1bi(' dllriIl~ rill' ,,"I'll" ha" 1""'11 I111I1di"l!,·til'. bIll IIO\\' il "uddt·"ly 11t'(,IIIIW" dislill('rly dil'l!"li,' a" il IIlrll" 11111 Ihal IIw II10tlwr i- I"",ill!! tI ... "i,"'" - "1'11011'1'111" "'IT :111.1 11\,'1' n~"ill.
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The tillal chord~ are heard agaill wht'1I Salldra ,.,peak,., her la~l word" 10 Gialllli. They appear a Ihird alld filial lillw al tlw wry I'l\(l of Ihe fillll. whell Salldra fillally IlInl"; Ilt'r hack 011 tilt' pa,,!. alld Ilt'r fatlll'r n'c('iVt's his lasl hOllors dllrillg tht' dedicalioll (·I'n'lIllmy.~·1\ Thlls Fralll'k \.; IIII1~il' is Ibed 10 rellel'l whal is goillg 011 ill Salldra' s lIIilld. Tht, Pn,llId" alld till' Fllgllt, ";1'('111 10 draw Iwr illto hl'r IIIl'lIIori('s. except for the filial chord,., of till' FlIgllt' (alld of till' pil'C'(' as a whole). which elllphasize Ihe ";I'elll'~ ill which ,.,111' turlls away fmlll tIll' Ihree 1111'111her,., of hl'r falllil\".
111 cOlltra"t 10 till' Fnuwk pil·cI'. pop IIl1biC". IIl1'tollYlllil'ally l'OIl11eC"II,d with ..\ 11 drew. is a ("('millder of Ihe ('\,t'ryday 1II0dl'l"II world. TIlI'sI' l'i'~I"'''; are 1'lItin,ly dil'gelic. (':\1"'1'1 Ihat ill till' lIight ";\'.1' lit' ill th,' gardell. tilt' sOlllld of till' radio - with the word,.; "Let'!,> go" n'llI'all'd agaill alld agaill - carrit's ullrealistically far. This. logl'lhl'r wilh tllt' ,.,OIl11d of tilt' willd. giw,., tilt' gardl'lI ";I'elll' a ,.;Iightly \11I1'alllly quality, Thi,., i,., whell Cialllli first appear,.; ill tht' fillll. just as tllt' ,.,illgl'r rl'adlt's Ihe wonk "1 wallt YOII to {"Olllt' back." The church 1)('11,., hm't' a sOlllewhat diH"n'lIt flllll't iOlI. TIIt'\. too. "1'1"\(' as a relllillder of tlll' "rl'ar' world - particlllarly as tlwy an' Iward twin' throllgh di"gl'tic pop II111Sil' - hilt of I'our,.,(' tllI'y also ",'rn' as a "ymhol of tillleles,..III''''''' They are fir~t heard at lIight. wht'1I Alldrl'w COIIII'''; to till' gardell wllt'J"1' Salldra alld Cialllli ha\l' jllst 1111'1 alld "llIllI"Ilt'ed ill a SOIlIt'what slIggestin' lllallll,'r. TIll' Iwlb pt'al agaill wll('1I Alldn'w alld Cialllli n'turtl from their 1I0clurllal sights("'illg tOllr. whell Salldra locks IlI'r door. alld whl'lI ('ach is S(','II Iyillg alolll' alld awak,' ill hed. '1'111' hll,.,llt'd words of a ";Ollg an' 1I0W abo Ilt'ard ill till' hackgrolllld: "10 dlt' 11011 ,in) ";"lIza It," (I who nlllllot lin' wi tlltlll I YOII), Alld agaill tilt' IIIl1"ic 1101 1III1'qlli,ocally di"gl'tintlly 1II0Iinlt",\. Fillally, at tllt' 1'/11101' tilt' filII!. tlw dlilllillg bl'lI,., un'olllpallY Salllh'a',., "pllrifil'
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d"Ulh, Thi" tlIt'lIlt' i:-; particularly nid"lIt ill tilt' poelll Supra il rilmllu dl 1111(1 Iwl/(t dOll/w. Ii('ulpilu 1If'1 IIWllllfIIf'II/U lif'fJulcra df'lIa IIwdesillUl (AIHlut a portrail of a beautiful WOlllall carVt'd on a sepulchre. lSJ5;. ill"pired by tilt' illw;lratiolls ill Giu:-;eppt' \licali's Sturia dl'{{li (lllticliipupuli il(t/i(tlli (The hi"wry of tllP ancient people of Italy, lSJ~). III one uf tilt' illustratiolls. the ant!el of d,'ath appears illlhe fonn of a young WOlllaIl. an ElrU,,('all La"a,'."" Sandra',~ plaited hair in tilt' S(','II(' ill tilt' a/wiellt HOlllan und,'r~'To\lIld cistef'll n'"elllble" t hat of the klllult, tit!III'es ill die Etrusean frescOt's of 1'1 11 It'ral rill''; ill Tarquillia.''' Thus 10 Cialllli "Iit' looks like a Lasat', all ullattaillaht., object of 10\"1' ,,-ho leads IIt'I" wooer tu "'piritual destrtlt'tioll ami dt'1lth. Leopardi';, po('try, whi('h Gianni at 0[1t' point recites. rdle('", 1I0t only tilt' poet' s illfatuatioll with the past but also his OWII. his intoxinllioll with his lIIellloril'''; and hi,.; f'OllIallti(' (,,,cape frolll dlt' pre;,e/II aud ih cOlllplexitie" alltl n'spo/lSihiliti,'". Thus Leopardi'" poetry a('''' as a ,;ymllol of Cianlli's wish to lo,.;t' hillls..tf in the "hadows of tilt' past. just a" Fm/wk's piallo pit'n' appear" to draw Salldra and tllt'ir llIother toward IIlt'lIlt1rie,; ,,0 paillful al\ll ladell with guilt that tllt'y ha\"l> tIlt' power to drive Oil" iliad. The a""o('iatioll" af'Ou;,t'd hy tilt' llIu"ic amI tilt' poelll. ("(Jlllitilled with the po""ibility of iw'e,;t. all pn'st'nt a IlIrrtillg inward, away frolll tilt' world. ill to a "Iwlr('n'd nook of ullt'o/bcious fallta"y ill the depths of prilllal family ullity. TIlt' \'i"ual realizat iOIl. bot h ill terllls uf llIi,,('-t'II-";C('/1t' a lit I Call1t'fU work. l'nridlt'" this tiglu'at i\t' progn':-isioll. The fillll i" "hot ill hlack alld whit", 01'11'11 with l'xtn'lIIl' cOlltra:-i\s bt'lw,'en light and darkness. III :\ow... ll-Slllitlt·" apl expre;."ioll. "The light dazzle~ alld the darklles~ oLscun's. TIIt'/'I' i" 110 middle tenll. 110 po:-isihilil y of IlltalH'e ill ass('~~illt! Iht' "Cl' 11 l' . ",,2 TIH' pull of the pa:;\ is repeatedly JIIallife;.ted whl'llt'n'r Salldra ,'lIter,; the dark roOllb (If 11t'r 1Il0tllt'r'" apartmt'llt. ill mw,\ t'lIl'Olllltl'rS with Cia/llli arolllld their childhood Itolllt'. a lit I ubmt' all ill Ilt'r desc(,llt illtu tlH' ,,-olllblik,' ci,.,t,,1'II wlwn' site is to ml't't him. '1'11('",' an' all ,;ltadm\"\. "'TIIt'S_ al\\"a\s . ac('ollll'allinl hy Fralwk'" ""oculi\'(, III1\"ic. In ('Olltra,,\. Salldra alltl :\11dn'w ""Iwlly 1IH"'t ill \\'t'II-lit "lIlTOlllldillt!,.;. III 1-!t'IH'ral. tilt> tillll /II0H'S 1'1'0111 darkll""''' to lit!lt\. frolll a "illkillg illto IIwlllori('" to tilt' n',.;olult' tit'nial of tlto",' 1Il1'1I10ri,'''; alld all tltal tI)(',- Ita"(' "tuod for. TI\(' cOlltrasl Iwtw"I'1I tiarkl\('"" alld lit!ltt i" partit'ltiarly t'vidl'lIl ill IWo of tlte hllll'" IIIOSI "Irikilll-! ,.;110(,;, OIH' of tilt'"" ,.;ltows Salldra I!oilll-! to lite park for tilt' fir,;t I ill\(-', Whitt' c10tlt ('O\Tr,-; Ihe ,,;talllt' of Ilt'r fa tI H'r ulld tilt' tn','" around il an,lit frolllllt'lo\\. It i,~ lIil-!hltilllt'. T(I~,(t'tllt'r wilh tI\(' ,,,'"lIId Ira('k. tilt' illlil!!(' ('("('alt'" a "trail!!!' allllo"I'I\('/'(" TI\(' otlWI' "hot 111 Ih,' "lid
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of the him, shows the sallle plal't~ durillg: dlt' daytill)(, alld ill fllll sUlllighl. but with I he pt'oplt- hiddl'lI alllollg I he shadows lIlId('r I hI' I n·I''';, Pnhap!"> because of the cOlHrasl with the earlier. IlOctllnwl shot. Ihis illwlo(l" loo, has a dist urbillg quality, TIlt' colltrast betweell black alld white also app,'ars ill the r\olllillg Salldra alld her lIIother wear, At tillH"S, the "aY Salldra dn'sses dOl'S Ilot lit tilt' situalioll, At the diplolllati,' ren'ptioll she al'pl'ar~ 10 Ill" tilt" ollly WOIIHlIl ill black, III lIlosl of Ihe film silt' \\Tar!"> a 1,lack-alld-whiu' dn'ss topl't'd witll a wide brinllllt'd 1,lack hal Ihat oft"1I leaws her fan' ill shadow, III",ide the palace siit' oft!'1I wraps a large white shawl aroulld her sllOlIld,'rs, easily associall'd wit h t he dot h co\'t'rillg her fa tI It'r' s stalllt", The shawl gaills in sigllificallc,' as Cialllli n'llt'aledly fOlldles it. III tlu' dillllt'r scelle Sawlra is agaill drt's"I'd ill Llack, whereas ill riit' dt'dicalioll cerelllollY, as if to demollstrate her lIew resolutioll (abolll which 110 Oil(' prest'lIt kllows allylhillg), sill' Wt'ars white whereas l'verYOIH' el,.", is ill black, III SUI/(/,.a Viscollti elllploys cillematic devict's such as the zoo III ill a mon' prolloullct'd way thall ill allY of his other films, The zoom, ,.,ays SlIzalllle Lialldrat-Guigues, alllltlsl sel'IIIS to r!'pn'selll tilll!,: "TIlt' ::'OIJfII 'Iraces' a ,'!'('tor of telllporalizalioll allll gives a ,.,ellsible dq>lh to Ihe shot. It millll's all illh'rior jOUI'IlI'Y through a thil,kllt',.,s of tilllt',"":l Thi,., applies parI icularly to Ih!' crucial ZOOIll hack wlll'lI Salldra !'lIlers tht' roOIllS ill \\'hich her 1II0ther uSl'd to live ami to the two zooms to the Alllor alld Psydle sWIUt', AI",o. the quiet zoom to Gialllli alld lilt' ,.,uddl'lI. slrikillg zoom away from hiJll whell Iit' first rl'H'als he i~ writ iug a hook basl,d 011 his childhood JIleJllories (awl is fondling Sandra',; shawl) sugg!'s(,.; Ihl' gravilational pull of Ih" past. r!'1 Liandrat-Guigut';;·,; ClCcOUIlt is sonlt'what unsatisf'twtory ill t'xplailling at least OIle of the most prolllin('1I1 lI,.,t'S of thi,.. devil't'. llanlt'ly, till' six ZOOllb Lack and forth within the singl!' ,.,hot showillg Salldra pUllillg oul the light;, alld lockillg ilt'r door to k,'ep Alldrl'w out. If allythillg, this SI'I'IIIS to exprl'ss Sandra's IIlln'rlaillty about Ilt'r ft't'lillgs for ,·\ndrew (alld 1'('1'haps for hoth IIII'n) ..-\ liltit' laft'r. tilt' nwkillg 1l10H'1Il!'llt conlillllt'S ill tilt' Ihn'l' shots of tilt' three characlers lying awake ill tllt'ir I1t'1Is: luward AIIdr!'w. awa\' frolll Cialllli. IowaI'd Sandra. l!t'rt' Ihe ZOO/ll ,.,,'I'IIlS III ('ITalt' IlIllh a parallel alld a t'Olllrast III'IWI'I'II the two JIlt'n ill Salldra·" IlIilld. Thuo. tilt' dt'vi('1' i", tbI'd throughollt tilt' film for various t'xl'rt'ssiv,' pllrpose,." IIlClinly cOllllt'clt'd wilh character ,.,uIJjt'ctivily. 11tH always \,'itll a ('ou,.,idl'ral,\t, degree of alllhiguity,
1:)()
illlt ... pn'till~ ,..,'wu/m, Tlw ralllifyillg 1'IIltllral 1'1,1','1'1'111'"" thinly buried UIId,'r ih ';lIrfac!' poillt to sllppn's"l'd psychological pmhlems. patholo~ical hllmall n'lations. auel the inability to 1'01111' to tpnns with till' past. BUI all ill all. till' fillll i" ~o packl'd with \'a~II"l'lIltllral n-l'l'rl'llI't's that tllf' Ill'tworl. tllI'y fOl'ln i" IllOn' "ignitil'llllt a" a wholl' than art' tilt' individllal n,f,'rellt't" a" ""I'h. Lialldrat-ClIigll,',; ha" aptly I'olllpan,d Ihis to Piern' BOlllez·,. w'stllt'tic: "'1'111' slllwrilllpo"itioll" an' at ,','rtaill nWlllI'lIb ,,0 d"w;p that th,'y allllihilate "ach other and prodlll"t, a global illllll·t'"sion.""" Liandrat-Clligllt,,, 111'" ""ggl',,ted that tilt' key to SUfI(/m i" till' nOliull of "",'illtillatioll." Thi" tl'rtll l'ill'tlll't'" till' idt·a,.; of "lllOditil'atioll uf intell"ity or IlIllIillO"ity. Ji,.;tatll',' traYt,It-J ml'r \'aryill~ Iwriod" of tillll'. appl'arall"c alld ol,litt'ralion. tilt' illt"I'\'allwtwl't'lI t'lIlis"ioll alld pen'pption. tilt' ';"Il,.,atioll of ";OIllt'thillg aln'ady di,.;appt'an'd. sllch a", tht' pt'rl't'ptioll of tilt' li;,,dlt of stars aln'ady IIt'ad.""~' IlIdel'd. it captlln'" pnft'l'tly the tollt' of thl' lillll alld twilit'" tilt' IIIl1ltiplicity of ih IIlt'laphor,.,: showing how truly diffi ... dt it i" to d('tenllillt' to what ".\\t'lIt the di~tallt past illtlu,'II('t's tilt' pn',;t'llI: alld to n"'ogllize tilt' va!!lIt'IIt',.;,.; allll tilt' rl'lati\'ity that elll too 01'11'11 limit hlllllall pt'n"'ptioll alld IIl1d,'rstalldill!!.
TilL' 111'1'('11 Ut R.\EIJ ,ILII J; ,\I'l,'r Safl(/ra. \'isl'ollti had lllallY idca:-; for otllt'r lilllls. amOIl!! them all adaptation of Holwrt \11I,.;il's JOIl/IP: Tiirlt'ss. Howt'\,,!'. hi,., Ilt'xt work for th,' ";1'1'1'1'11 was all I'pisode ill thl' fillll Lp stl'Pp:ht' (TIlt' witdlt's. 19()(»). TIll' din,,'tors of tilt' ot hl'r I'pisod!'s w,'n' \lalll'O Bologllini. Pit'r Paolo Pasolilli. Franl'l'sco Hosi. alld \'ittorio De Sil'a. \'i",'ollti',; Le ,~tl'PW' bf'llcia/u l'il'(J i" abollt a film star. Cloria (Sil\'ana \Iallgallo). \\'ho \i"ih Ilt'r frit'lld \'alt'ria at tilt' ,\lIstriall holiday n',.;orl ~itzl,iihl. Tllt'rl' ,,111' al,.,o lIIt't~h \'alt'ria' s hllsballd. Paolo. alii I sOllle gtll'sh. III rill' c\'cllillg Cloria dn's"t's ill a glillerillg gowll Ihal J't'''''lIlblt's g()ldl'lI arlllOI'. Th .. ,'all H'ra adorillgly follows Cloria'" "edllcti \'t' dallce 1111lil "Iit' ,,"ddl'lIh raillh, TIlt' Wlllllt'lI withdraw. LllIria i" fn't,d from ht'r arlllo!'. alld it IlIrt'" 0111 that ,,1 ... i,., I'n'gllallt. Cloria i,., "llIliIlSi,"'li,'. bill wllt'lI ,.,he ",lis 111'1' I'rodll('t'r hllsballd tilt' IIt'WS ill a lrallsatlullti,' 11'ic-1'11I1l1l' l'oll\'l'rsatiOlI. lit, n'milld~ Ilt'r that siit' i,., ",'Iwtilllt'd t() makl' a film SOOIl. SIit' tries to P()stl'0lll' tilt' ,.,llOOlill!! ,,0 that ,,1 It' !'all ha\(' tilt' haby, Blit Iit' n.fu"t',.;. alld Clol'ia gi\'t's ill. 0111 of Iwr anllllr, "I ... i-.; :, "·lIllIall. hili IlII'" "hl' '-l'lIh it Oil" a!lain ;''l'' I'!"'III:I"
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(/It' role or a diva. The lIt'xt 1I1OJ"lling. ';III"1"OIIlIlIl,d by a H'lI'k of jOlll"llali"h.
Gloria lea\'t'~ Oil a IlI'licopl,'r. Ikillg a di\·a IIl1'allS Iwing a part of a highly orgalliz"d as""lIIbly lill,'. At a party ill tilt' t'\(,lIillg. all old illdlblriali,;1 "ays 10 lwI': ··YOII ar(' a prodllct. A "III,lilllt' prodllct. I'xlraordillary "'lIrt'ly. 11111 a product. ... If you dOIl·t lIIailltaill YOllr qllality. havt' till' saillt' lIavol'. th(' salll!' calori,'s. YOII
hav(' a tnw alld a pr0I'I'r di,.,a.~II'r Oil YOllr llallll" .... III lily I'alllll,d
lIIeat I al"ay~ Ibl' tilt' "allll' illgn'dit'lIh. I alii n'ry ~l'I'lIl'ulolls. Il"lw aS~lIn' yOIl. 0111' 1II11"III·t jl'opardizl' all illdllslry.·· Lat('1'. Iit' adds: ··YolI arli,.,b are a p,'ndiar brallch of illdll"try ... prl'cariolls. IIl1lik,'ly. all il lak"" I" a drafl or a 10\"1' affair alld all tht' capital gol'''; lip ill "lIIok(' .. ·..'·
011 o lit' halld. \Ioninl St irlillg sllggl'"b I hal \. i,.,,·Ollti "1'1'" tlw "1'1"1'1'11 actress a" lIot jw;t an erolic sYlllbol. bill as a killd of wilch who call inlllll'llt'l' Iwople by playing 011 thl'ir "IIIOlioIlS. Alld lik" a witdl "h,' I'isb, losillg her SOli I. ,,~ Oil till' ot her ha lid. IJt' sI n'~(/ IIaS 111'1'11 S,','II as ,. i~,'oll t i·" ('OIllIll('lIt
011
tilt' roll' of WOIIII'II ill
,,0, 'it'l v
a" a whole: .h \" is, 'Ollt i· s fril'lId
S'hO Ct"Thi IrAmico ha" 1I01I,d: ··Ollt' Ihillg whidl ollly a ft'w kllow alld which hardly aIlYOIII' IHI,; Imlllghl Ill' i" that Lllt'hillu· S COIII'I'pt of tlw family w·as cOlllpl"tely patriarchal.·· '·isI"tHlti him,.,,'''· ha" J"t'IIH1l'kt,d: ,\ \\0111<111 calliit' all ani,.,1 -I allllalkilll! abolll a "·01111111 "lIdl,'-' (:alla,.,. a pailll"!". all alldlor. or otlll'r I!n'al ani,,1 - bill al "11111"1110111,'111 "Ill' I"\'aliz,'" sill' i" 'Ollll'lhilll! (·1".,. a WOlllall. Ihal i". tilt' I!lIanliall of till' fallrily.·\, "IH' wa" ori;.!illally. \\"111111'11 1I""tI 10 ha\"l' a 1I0hl" alld all irn'plan'ahl,' rol" ill tI",
11011'"
Ihal
110 Oil"
wOllld
tln'alll of di"l'aragilll!.""
Al"t'ordillg to '·i,.,collli. 1111'11 alld WOIlIt'II 110 101lg,'r han' a d,'arly dl'filll'd role ill th(' IIIII",,'hold. That i" \\ hy falllili,''; 1'\nywllt'l"I' an' di,illl"gralillg alld "hy "'H'i"ty ha" 111"'11 "lIglllf"d ill chao". Blit "hal"\I'(" Opillioll \i,,,'ollli IlIiglll hay!' had alH'lI1 tilt' 1'01" of "OIlH'11. il ,.,hollld Iit' 1I0t"d tlHlI tilt' WOIIII'II ill hi" filII'" "ddolll ,..'HT"t'd ill IlIailllaillillg tlwir lradiliollal nd",... \01 ,'\·,'11 tilt' "Irtlllg""t III0lllt'r of all. H'haria. i.~ al,l,' 101'1"1'\"111 Iwr falllil~ frolll fallillg al'arl. Bill "hal i" 1'"r1lap" ,'\·"11 1110("(' 1I01,'worthy i" thal \·i",'Ollli lH'illlt'r id"aliz,'d lIor di"parag"d tilt' \\0111"11 Iit' '''"pict,'d illl~
11101"1' Ihilll Iit' ft.1I illto tilt' Irap of otll'rillg ,..illll'li"lic "olutioll" for ",It'ial or ".\i"ll'lIliall'rold"lIh. TIII'I"\' al'l' ,','naill alllol,i"gral'hind ,'I"IIIt'UI~ ill lA' sln',!.!,i/(' I,orll fro 11 I ~i"alla \lall;Lallo·" alld \ i",'Ollli·" "id". I1 \\a, ill l\:itzl,iild. ill 1I);I-f. tllill \i,,"Ollli 111"1 11"111<1 \\iIHli,..dl-(;riilz. till' ollh w Olllall Ill' i"
"\,'1"
kllO\\l1 I..
ha\ "I'rol"h"d 10. TIll' 1"\,lali'"hlail' 111'1\\""11 riit' Iilru "tar alld tilt' prodll'·'T ill 1111"11 \a~II"" ("t'Il,..-I,'d tllal 11t'1\\""1I \lan~i"lO alld Ilt'r h""I",,"1. tilt'
\
I~(.O\
1I
tibll' ~ producer. Dillo Dc Laurt'lIt ii~. She WWi close to Vis('onti" s idea of all ideal dint in that her familv life was ~tabl(' and ~11t' ww; "dedicated to her falllily alltl an ele~anl. austere profes~ional. who shunned publieit)''' .'." TIlt' probh~1Il wa,., her husband. He demanded that the episode lit" ~horlC'lH'd cOII~idt·rabl\'. \nwll Yiseollti refused to do so. Laurelltiis had it edited to his s~lI'('itil'atiolls. YisnHlti disowned tilt' n'sulting tilm.70
(,O.\TJ:'/l..,'A TJO.\' PIt.;Ct; .I11"t Iwfon' Ludu'ig (1<.173) was completed, Yist'ollli had a heart attack, I ... 11t'\'I'r really recO\t'red. amI after being released frum the hospital. Iit' found it difficult to move aLout. His earlier plans. all Oil a grallJ s('ale., had to Lw put 011 hold. This slate of affairs led Enril'o \Iedioli., Suso Cpcl'hi 1l'.\lIIico. awl Yiscollti to dt'velop all idea that had struck ~Iedioli wllt'lI n'adill~ \Iario Praz' s book. COIl/'l!rsalioll Piece. The rid.· refers to a t,'nll "Ihed ill Ellglalld for paiming,.,. usually Ilot of large dimensiolls. whiclt repn'sPllt tW(I or more idelltitiable people ill att itudes implying that t1wy an' cO/lVl'r~ing or cOllllllullicating with each otllt'r informally. against a bat'k~round n'produl't'd ill detail." -I III thl' ('arly 1()'?Os. Italy "xlwrieIH'ed ont' of ib \\-orst cri"es sillce the war. .\lany ('_\tn'lIIisl woup'" f.. d 11(1 with parliamentary d'·lIIolTaL·Y. had 11l'~1I11 n·sorting to tt'rrorislll. TIlt' trouble started wltell right-will~.'rs reactl'd to tilt' :-.llIdent riob of I <)()B. When riit' riob failed tu al'hie\t' their ubjl·ctin·. till' Idl-willger" lalllldwd their OWII attarks. ~Ially ullemployed alltl fon'igll work,·r,., w(,re easily rt'tTlIiwd to tight tilt' ,'slahlishIlWIIl. Some of tbelll had fatllt'rs \\'110 had lWI'll IIlt·mller:. of the resistallce and they 1l0W kll dwy wI'n' fat'illg a similar task. For SOl 11.' tillle. the terrori"t" had IJl,it., a f.·w ~ylllpathizen; alltl a good deal of mOlwy at t1wir t1ispo,.,al.~2 Tell day" 111'1'01'1' the "houtillg uf COlIl'ersatioll Piece was dllt· 10 "e~ll. tilt' 11t'0-Fa~t'i"t group Ordillt' ~ero (Black Order) thn'w a homb illto tit .. llliddl., of a d(,llloll~tratioll held ill Bn'st'ia that killed si_\ alld wOlllld.,d lIint'ly. Thn't' \\'('1'1.:,; after th .. lilm \\a" ('olllpll,It,(1. a hOllll, I'lallled by tilt' "allW ~1'II1l1' Oil a lraill IlI't\\'(,I'1I Flun'llt't' alld Bolo~lIa kilh·d tw('h-e awl Wtllllltlt·d fortY-"il"dl!. AltllOlIgh tilt' I'olin' \\Tn' ~i\'t'1l ('x!t'lIdt'd 1'0\\'1'1"". thi" did Illlt Iit'll' nil'" tilt' \ iolelll"', Th .. n· were ','Olhtilllt rtllllUr" uf a I'0,,~i"ft. ('0111'_ alld ill D,,('t'lllllt'r I ()':'O PrilH'" \'alt-riu Bor~llt'"t·. kill'" 11 a" tilt' "Bhll'k Prill('t· ... had at'lllally SIII'I·I·.,dl·d ill ol,(,lll'yill~ tilt' .\Iilli"try of tilt' Illl.'rior for a ~hort whilt-. Tht'~I' 1~\'I'lIh ol)\'ioll~h- ",·n .. d a" t1w llwd..J for tilt' polilical illtri,!!lIl'~ n·r.... n·" 10 ill till' lilll"-'
TilL I \\111.\
\'\1) :QOI)LH'\ IT \1.1.\'\ :0-0(11.1\
I ;\;)
Perhaps I)('('aust' Viscollti had ~reat difliclllty 1I10yill~ a roll lid 1I0W. tilt' style of nUllt'ra work ami (,Ollst'tplt'lIt Iy also of the t'ditill~ ill ('olll'ersaliul/ Piec(' was sOlllt'what differellt frolll that ill his ut her lilm", That ilia\, also be why he avoided coml-'licatnl shob. and why tllt'J't' an' 110 particlllarly IOllg takes. 110 lIarratiH'-audiuvi"ual IOIlf' de jiJl'Ct's of the killd featun,d in sOllle of his earlier lilms, The (,OIlVl'rsatiollS are oftI'll capt 11 red ill st'rit,,, of fairly short dOt-t'-up::,. The film ('ollsist::, of alJtJut ??O "hOb. while ill LudU'ig. which is twice as IOIl~. then' an' ollly ahout ()()() shot,;.-:-~ Blit agaill the sets an' luxurious. tllt'ir wealth of detail is alHllldullt. alld tilt' sense of time alld its pa:;sill~ is n'lIIarkallly captlln'tl. The tilm is ahout all old pruft's"o)' li"illl-! almlt' ill his bi~ house alld a group of people. a family of a kiJl(I. who relit all apartlllt'IJI ill hi" alli('. The central tellsion ill the lillll is IHlilt arolllld tilt' cultural orit'lltatioll of the professor (ht' is Ilt'wr giwlI a lIalllt') alld the n,latioll"hip with tilt' pa"t this illvolws. 011 the 0111' halld. alld tilt' illtt'lIsiVt, "Iivillg-ill-tlwprest'lIt" of his tt'llallb. TIlt' profe""or had liSI'd culture - primarily hi:-i art collection alld his library - to huild a LHlrricatie a~aillSt tilt' exlt'mal world. Tht' youlI!!er gellt'ratioll of th .. falllily lin' ollly ill the pn'sellt. alld their opiniow; ahout society alld tI\t'ir gt'lIt'ral philo"ophy an' as trelldy as those of the terrori,,1 group,.; of the 19?()s. TIlt' gently pe""illlistic tOllt' of the lilm derives frol\l tilt' faillln' of tilt' profes::.or to pre:-it'lIl Ill'W per"pcct ive", to the YOllllgstt'r", Tllt'y "t't' ill hilll only a tlllaillt uld t'olkctor of cllltllral objt'Cb of little si~lIili(,H1)(:t'lleyolld thcir decorative \·alU(~. Iluwt'vc!'. ont' of the:-w yUIIII~ peol'lt" I\:ullrad. Ita~ beell all 1111 stlldent and is abl(~ to llIakt, I'ercel'tin' t'UIIIIIH'lIh abollt pailltill)!:-i alld da:-.sical IIII1~it'. Blit hi:-; kllowlet!~t' i:-i sllperli"ial allt! ha:-i Vt'ry liltle aHt'I,tin' t'xteJ1:-iioll. althollgh irollically f'IIlHl~h I\:ollrad i" ablt' to corr" ... tilt' professor 011 a point of fat't ,'olll"cl'llillg a paillt illg. An vilJHlIt's illtl'n"i\'eiy ill tilt' lIIilld of the profl's"OI'.llIIt Iw hib Ipt il h('f'ollle a tilllelt's:-; :-.lIb"tillltt' for real life. As the lilm pJ't)!!I't'~:-f'''. tlw "falllily" 1)(' ha:-. 1'1'111(,talltly at't'epted as hi::. tt'IIU1It:; ,!!radllally plllls hilll hack illto tI)(' t'xa"lwralillg tlllx of tillle - .. tart in)! with a dr(lsti(' rdllrbishillg of the lIal tltt'Y Itaw J'('lltt't!. Blit ill the libt illstallt'!'. it i~ Ihe p ro "":-i ,,0 r' s OWIl 101l)!ill)! thal ('01111'1'1" hilll to ill It '1'111' t wilh tilt' YOIIllgslt'r:-. Tilllt' 1IIt'I'l'ilt'~sly Im'ak .. throll!!1t tltt' wall,-; Iif' ha" hllilt arolllld Itilllst'!f. Dllrill)! tilt' lilm. tilt' proft',.,,,or (Bllrl 1.alll'i1:-itt')') gnltlllally )!t't" to kllow Si)!llora Biallt'a BrulllUllti (Sil"alla \Iallgallo): Iwr dall)!htt'['. l.it'lIa (Clalldia \Iat'"alli): Liella'" liall"t:. SIt'fallo (Stl'fallo Patrizi):. allt! Biallt'a':-i kepI hoyfri"lId. I\:omat! (11,,1111111 B.'rgn). Tlw t'l'1It'ial rl'latioll"llip ill tilt' lillIl 1111'1 .... ollt 10 Iit' tllill IlI't,n'('11 tI)(' profp~,.,or all./ I\ollrat!. partly b"('all,," al
\I~C()\TI
ollt' poillt tlwy IWITl'in' the othel's as their o!,pollellt~, Hilt tllt'ir eolltaet i~. ill the last illstaJH'(', as insuhstalltial a,., tilt' ~illlilaritie~ that the lI·rrori,.,,,, saw Ilt't\\"('('1I tlwir OWII aeti\'itit's allll the hattlt' fou~ht hy the resistance, TIlt' profe",.,or - who Oil his 11 IOtI 11' r' s side is Italiall. alld 011 his father' ~ ,'\lIlt'ricall - ('alll(' to Italy with till' l ,S, Army dllrill~ till' Sl'colld World \\"ar. For hi" parI. I\:ollrad was ill\'oln,d ill the 19()o riots ill HI·r!ill, Lik(, Franz ill "";('/1 so , I\:ollrad ,,(,11,.; him""lf to a WOlllall alld hate,.; hillls(,lf for doin~ ,,0, The ,,;!,('cial n'latioll:ihip betwt'('1I him and lhe professor i~ ,.;i~lIaJt.d by a "Ii~ht ZOOIll toward hi:i fan' whell he tirst appear,.;, For a pw,,.,ill1! 1110111,'111. tilt' profl':i"or allll I\:ollrad art' Oil till' brillk of lIIakill~ I"IIIltact. Till' youlI~ lIIall SW'I,(·(·d" ill illll'n·",.;ill~ thl' oIJ(~r with hi~ kl1o\\'lt'd~t' of art alld IIl1hil' alld tilt' oldl'r 0111' 11ll" a chance to take care of the youlI/!('r "Iit'll Ollt' lIi~lll hI' i~ I watl'lI in tilt' Hat. The prot't-";:ior takt~~ him illto a ,.,lIlall. ,.;e('J'et. willdowJt."s roOIll ill which the profl's"or'" mother 011('(' oH"J't,d a"yllllll 10 parti"alb allll.l,'",,; dmin1! tilt' war - il is a" if the profl',.,,.,or, a,.,,,ulllill1! till' roll' of a fatht·J'. w,." takill/! tht, boy 10 till' "afety of U IIwtlwr'" womb, Th!'y ha\,(' bolh "ufferl'd di"ilhbitlllllll'lIt as tilt' ~reat batlie" tllt'y participalt·" ill did 1101 kad to a h,·ltn world - they ha\'!' hOI h I''xpnielll't'd t ht' t mS/OI'l/li.HIIO of tllI'ir time" - 11tH I ha I i,.; when' the silllilarity 1'1I1b. I\:ollrad ha" IlI','om(' all I'g:oislic cy"ic, "hilt, tilt' I'rofe""or ha" at II'a"t n'lIIailwd I'olbidl'ralt' alld "Ylllpatlwtic - IIlIt 1111'11 of ('oursI', Ill' "a,.; horll illto a l'Ia"" that off!'n,d him tht' I'olllfort" of lift' "ithout "t ru~!.dl· alld I'1lIl1promist', I\:ollrad fori ,id" till' prof,',;"or 10 J't'port till' IWUlill1! to the polic(', ar1!lIill~ that tllt'\' would 1101 bt' illl!'J't'"h,d, ill his ('a~e, Ill' abo feel" hUllliliatt'd alld do('~ 1101 walll 1lllYOIII' to kllow whal IUb hal'pt'IH·'1. .\ltholltth Ihe nil 1";1' Illay han' Ilet'lI 1!alllj,lill~ (It,/,.", Ih Lil>tta alld SIt·fallo say, I\:ollrad al II'a,,1 Iril'" 10 ~i\'t, ti)(' iIllI'J'I',.;,.;iolllhat the lH'alill~ had a IIlt1n' illlportallt. P('rIlal''' I'olilit'al. COllll{'CliulI, III allY t'us(', tilt' n'a"OIl for Ihe IIlUg~ill1! i" 11t'\'t'r IlIadl' dl'ar l'itiH'J' to titl' prof,>,;sor or 10 tilt' audit'lIt't" Dt',;pil" Ihl''';I' "Iril,t lillli.", tilt' pro 1'1',.,,.,111: ,; n'lalioll,.;!Jil' wilh I\:ollrad offer" hilll it 1'11<1111,(, 10 t''xllI'ri''lIt'" al'l alld IlI'alllY a" a lIH'a.", of n'llt'hilltt tlul 10 itllotilt'r 1IIIIIIall Iwill1! ratllt'r Ihall a" it wall 10 kl"'1' tilt'llI al a di"lalll'I', ,\1 Iht' ,.,allll' lilllt', Iit' i" 110\\' tilOrolltthly at't'lhlOlllt'ti 10 ('lIjoyillg t':\I'I ... il'III,(," 1I1t'dialt'd I,~ art ratiJ('r Ihall Ihroll~h din'l'l ":\llI'rit'Ilt"" \\'11t'1I tlJ(' youllg"lt'r,; 1!0 olll "ailill1!' IJ(' i" 1I10llwlllarily takl'lI I,y tilt' idea of tilt' "I'a; "TIlt' "I'a i" al\\ a\" 10\'1·1\·, colollr,. of Iht' ,,('a, \oin'" tlf tilt' ,~t'a, , , , I , t'llIIlIt'Yt'r ulldl'r"lllIId ho" rlJ(' (;n'I,k arli"h t'ollld l'Olll'l'lIlrall' till "rt'alill!! "tI IIlallY "tllldt'r,~ \\ Iit'll tllt'~ had IwftlJ't, tllt'ir I'yl'" al"ay" Ihal halllllill1! "lwt'lIIl'it', fa~t'illalill1!' "I'dll.illdill!!," TIlt' ~·OllIH!,.,It'J'''' ill\ il" Itilll 10 "Oillt' ,
T 11 F F.\ \11 J.)
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\10 I H. H '\ I I \I 1\.'\
~
() ( I L 1\
sailillg with 1I1t·1I1. bUI Iit' pn·fl'r~ 10 r('maill alllollg till' wOIIt!t'rs ill"pirt'd Ly tilt' sea" "You lin' amollg pl'opl,·; you IIlllsl Ihillk abolll I"'ople ills!t'ad of their work", 10 LH""OIlIt" ill\'oln'd, 10 ""f!",-r Iwt'atbl' of IIwlII'" tilt' professor explaill", "alld Iwsid(',,_ as SOIlIt'IlIlt' "aid, crows fly ill lIock~_ tI ... eagl,' Sllar" aIO£ ... '" I\:ullrad aIbWI'r~ hilll by 1I'IOIillg lilt' Bil,lc; ,'\rol' 10 him dIal is alullt' whell Iit' falletll, for Iit' hath 1101 1I11otlwr III Ilt'lp him Up,""7-. AIIJ so dlt· crow,.; lIy away alld dH' I'agll' n'llIaillS alol'" ollt"t' agaill, Tlw ('olll'erslllioll Piect' is
\"('1"\
IlIIlCh abolll soliltldt', al IlIII'(' COIII-
fortillg alld \('ITifyillg, TIlt' profe"sllr ha" II-al"llt-d 10 COP" widl 1llllt'lillt'ss, bUI the slIddt'lI pt'Ilt'lntlioll of Iris lifl' by dlt' YOllllgs!t'r" il"'lills ill him the hope thal Iit' lIIi;.d1l still ....I·atl· arollnd hilll tilt' falllily of whidl lifl' alld hi" OWII draracH'r haw d"pf"iwd him, ,\hhough Iht' wi"h ("('lIIail'" IIl1fultilh·d, il awakt'l(,; ill hill! a "l'lbili\'ily Ihal al lea,,1 IIwlaphorically lwcolIH's Ihe ca liSt' of his deadl. This i" foreshadow,''! ill d .... ·1' III'it·f f1ashhacks rt'Pf"l'st'lllillg a ft'w of tilt' 1I10"t 1"("lIcial mOIlIt'1l1s of his lift·, Wt' "t'e hi" lirst visil. a,.; a "mall boy wilh his motllt'r, 10 dlt' old hOIl"e ill HUlllt' tlrat is now hi,.; p"nlHlllt'llI ("(-,.;id'·III't', TIlt' st'colld lIashh ..wk, cOII,.;istillg of jll"t thn't' "hob, "hU\v" hi" wih·d hridl' arrivillg al thal ho II";\, , tht'lI cllmplaillillg abollt tlwif" illahility to COllllllllllinlle wilh Ollt· allodler. Thi" Il"bhhack - frallH'd hy pailltt'r1y imagps of tilt' proft-ssor ill his bed listt'lIillg to \Iozart'" E lIat major Sillfollia COIH't·rtalllt· - i~ illtt'rruptt'd by tht' YOlIllg"tt'rs playillg tilt' hit tilllt', "La Illia "olitlldillt' st'i tll" (You art' Ill\" solitude), III the dlird Ilashhack, prt'st'll!t'd as a dn·alll. lilt' proft'"sor Iwars hi" JllOdH'r say: "YOII arell't at all lIice 10 YOllr grarlllfalllt'r. lit- i~ so happy 10 have lb hert', He'~ alOlIt' so 1111(("11. It's lenil,le to lit" It-fl alOlIt', Whell \"011 are almlt" alld ill." The lIa,.;hhack tllnts 0111 to fit" a fall Ia,.;\", ill whidl , tht" ~roft-";so(" is tlt-ft-Ildillg 1I0t hi,.; pn-sellt life bllt Ili" Iwhavior a,.; a liltle IJOy: ":\Iolle( lie's 1I0t alolle, I It- ha~ a cook. a maid, 11t'",.; ('\"t-II got a cal.
I dOIl't han- 11 cal." Agaill, hi,.; n-milli"ct'l1t"e i:; illtt-rrlll'lt-d by IIl1l::>ic beillg I'laYt'd hy tlw yOllll~slt-r~ alld I,y Lietta'~ phOlIt' call illVilill~ him to 1'0llW IIJhtair;;, \0I1t' of tilt' thn-I" f1""hlwl'k;; show,.; tilt' profe,.;,.;ur. alld thus il takt-" ,,01111" dfort (alld (It"riwps also rt'lwated \it'willgs) 10 grasp who tilt' otlll"r dwracters an- alld how they an- t'ollllt'('ted 10 the I'rol",-,.;,.;ol". \\"lrat i,.; olwiOlb, IWWt·\"("r. i~ Ihat tllrollgllOllt his lif,- Iit' has Iwt'lI drawlI 10 ;;oli t ude, Thl" I'roft'~sor'" rdal iOIl,.,lrip;; wil h I ho~t- otlH'1" tlrall I\:ollrad n-Illaill "hallow, III Irer arro~allt"l- alld ilwl,ililY to takl" illto I"ollsidt'ralioll other Jwopl,-, BiulH"a i,~, aflt'r Sophil" of Tlte /)wlII/I'd. tlw 1110,.;1 q!otTlltril' \'''111;)11 ill \'i"'Pllli', "iIWIIl,lIi,' ''''11\'''1" III ifs I'n ... lt\, IIw "o("lrait i,., of tilt'
\ l:-i (. () \1 1
,.,allll' cia,.,,., a,., Proust' s illlU~('''; of Pari,.;iall "i~" soci(,ty, Biallca' s rdatioll"hip with I\:ourad i,.; t'xtrplIII'ly illtplISt', but lIt'H'rtlwlt-ss shallow: it i" a lon'-hatl' n'latiollship colored by furious j('alousy, I\:ollrad has to ket'I' Iyin~ 10 Ilt'r j u"t to ~I'I a IIIOIllt'nt'" pt'an' froIII h .. r, I'vell if tilese lie,. illt'vilal.,,· lead to t'H'r lit'\\' dralllas, Li(,lta has all aLmndalll't' of youthflll charm, IHII it i" ollly of IIIoderate appeal to tilt' prof('",sol'. Pt'rhaps Lit'lIa's lIlotllt'r [('minds hilll too much of whal chanuill~ ~irls lIli~ht IlIm into, or Iwrhap,; Iit' simply ha" tunlt'd away ('omplt'\('ly from lIlale-ft'male n'lalion,.,hips aflt'r hi,., ulIslII'ce,;,.;1'1l1 mHlTiaw', Lit'" a n'prl'sl'u", lilwnt It'd St'IISUOlbIWS", Ii\'i U~ illllOCt'ut Iy fur the plt'a"lIr(' of tht' 1II01lH'lIb, \\'11t'1l tilt' prof('s"or di:-icon'rs tilt' tlirt'(' yOlln~,.;tl'rs t'lI~a~I'd ill a "lIIall orgy, "hI' rt'cilp" \\" H, .\lIdl'II',.; poem: "Whell YOII Sl't' a fair 1'01'111/ (:hmw it/ .\lId if po,.;siblt' eml.ract' it/ Be it a girl or a boy/ DOII'I lit' Il(Ishful. Iit' brash, Iit' fresh/ Lifl' i,.; short. "u enjoy/ \\'halt'\Tr I'olltat't HHlr 111~,.;h/ \Ia\' at tilt' 1l101Ill'lIt tTa\'e/ Tllt'fe is 110 :'iex , ill the ~ran'," Li(,tta I'ropOSI'" a ki,.;,.; for tht' PWfe,.,SOf, bllt Iit' a"k,.;: "Do YOII thillk of lilt' a" 0I1t' of Iho,.;(' characlers ill a cOlllic ul't'ra, till' old lIlan who is lIl(wk .. d alld Iwtra\, .. d~ Tht' 0111\, love slun, that would sllit a IIIall of IIIy age i,., I\:ill~ L('ar's, I,y his 10\1' for his childrell." St,'fallu'" fatilt'r is all illdll,.;lriali"t. who"t' wOfk .. r,., an' 011 ,,1 rikl', Stt'fatlo'" flluclion ill tlw ,.,tury i", llIaiuly 1o brill~ Ollt qlle,.,liolls aboul I\:onnul's oll,,('IIJ'(' aCli\'ilil'''' a lit I mak(' t'qllally allllliglloll:i alld unn'liable political r .. fen'IIt'!'s, \\'11t'1I tilt' dillllt'r toward Ihe t'lId of Ihe film, to which tilt' proft,,,,.,or has illvitf'd the t'lIlire "family," t'lItis ill a quarrel. Stefallo al first tril's to ndlll t'\t'ryolle tioWlI, Hilt soon ht'lWI'olllt's agitated himself awl aCt'lht'S I\:ollrad of hypocrisy, of (,Olldelllllilll! tilt' ~ocit,ty that ~lIables hilll to lin' ill 1II,\IIl~, I\:omad dpfelHI,; himself by dailllin~ tltatthe people alllOIl~ whom Biullt'll alltl her IllIsballtl 1110\'" an' 11 11 Irti .. J't'rs plallJlin~ a ('0111" I It- t('lIs Bialll'a to ask Slefano ahollt tltis, a!HI t1w exprl'~~iolls 011 his fan' ";1I1!1!('SI that tht'n' lIIight lw ,;()IIIl' truth ill thi,., - WI' 11t'\'t'r ~t't to kno\\' how IIl1l1'h, awl tilt' Hn'usatiollS f't'lIIuill as ob"cul't, as ill :·;llIH/,.ll, In allY (',""", Stl'l'allo alh\\,,,r,., I\:ollrad ill allgl~' tOlle", HCt'usilll! hilll of heillg all illforlllt'l' alld a "Ialldt'f't'r, I\:ollfati hau~hlily adlllits this to I... Inw, TIlt' t\\'O ,.,Iart fi!.dllilll!' TIlt' t'xa"I'('ratpd profe""of tri,'" to illlt'rVI'l .. ', Finally, . l\:olll'Hd IIlarcllt·,., awa\', , Alld so ('lid" tilt' profl'''''''OI:,., allt'JIIpt 10 IlIlild a fallJily uJ'Oulld hillbt'lf. to plan' hilll"df withill hi" OWII COIJ\'I'r"alioll pi('cc: a family of ;,trallgt'rs far loo r(,,,tlt-,.;,.; to Iit' t'olltaiJl(,d withill a fixt'd illJaw', J It- "'Ullllllarizt's tilt' ('\TIIIS Ihat ha\'(' IIOW lakell plan' alld thl' eITITI it Ita" had 011 his lift':
TilL 1.\ \Ill \
\ '\ D \1 (11)1-.
I{ '\
IT.\ 1.1 \ '\ :-. ()( ILl \
If ('v,'r a lalldlord had diflicuh tt·IIHllb. I h,·li,,\,·1 had.
'1'(
I foulld 111\'.,,·11' thillk-
ing. it.- Lit·lta OIW,' ~aid. thut YOII f'('ally ha\'e 1... ,,11 lily fall\ily. " falllily that tunlt'd out wt'lI or badly. ub~olllldy diff, ... t'1I1. ~ill"" I lo\'t· thi" \\,[,I'td ... d falllily. I wallt to do whal I "all for it. a~ il Ullawan', ha, dOIlt' ,011l"lhill!! 10 Ill". TI ... f'(· is a wrilt'l' wh()~(' book" I k,"'p by lily Iwd alld n'wl frolll lill'" 1o lilllt'. 11,' t,·II.; of 11 1t'lIa 11 I who lllO\,·" 'Ieallhily 1o tilt' apartlw'lIl abm,·. TIlt' wril"r h"ap, tilt· 1"lIalll IIlm'ill!! aho\,('. walkill!! - alld "uddt'liI\' ht' "·'·IW; 10 \·alli,h. For a 101l1-! lilllt' Iit' i~ 1101 heard a!!aill. BUI ht' ('011\,', huck. Cradually hi,; ab~"II"t' 1Jt"'olw'''' IWII',' ran'. hi,.; presl'lwI' IIlOn' ,·Olblall!. lit'"" d,·atll. tilt' a\\an'I\I',,, tllilt [tilt' \\Tilnj ha, rt'ad ... d tilt' t'lId of hi" life. anlloulI,·,·d 10 hilll ill 011" of d"alh'" "("c"ilful di,,!!ui,,'''. YOllr Jlre~"lw,' abm ,. lilt' ha ... 11I,'alll jll,t tilt' oJlP,,,ilt' 10 lilt'. alld I dOIl't beli,'\'t' I ha\,· bt't'1I d ..... ·i\·,·d. YOII ha\'" awak,·w·d IW' fro 11 I a "I<-,'p a" 1'1'01'01111.1 alld a, ill,"IIsiliH ...• h d"ath iht'lf.
TIlt' "pt't'l'h i, iliad .. ,.;"I)fly I'Jlft'hill!! II~' Bllrl Lall,·'],.;It'I:" fill,'. ,t'lI,ili\t' Iwrfol'lllHllt't' alld Frallt'o \\allllillo', di,,·I't,,'tly .';t·lIlilllt'lItalllll",it'. Dllrilll-( thc la";l ",·IIII·Ift',''';. tilt' ,'alllt'l'a pall." ill a I-(i'an-flll HIT 0\'1'1' till' pailllill!!, 011 tilt' \\'all. "lIdill!! ,0 Ihal tilt' prof,·,.;,or t'all IH' S,','II ill ('rolll of a willdow wilh hi" Iwl't,; IowaI'd tilt' I'allwra. Thi" i" aln'ady tilt' IH'I-(illllill!! of tilt' IWX I SI '('lit'. \ 1I1t'",a!!,' HITi\'t'" 1'1'0111 J.. : 011 rad. a ,illlpll' fa 1'1,\\",11. ,;i!!lwd: "Yollr ,Oil. J...:ollrad." .\11 I'xplo~ioll i,; Ilt'ard. TIlt' proft·,;"or rll ... IIt',; to tilt' aparllllt'lIl alld tilld" tilt' 1I1lt'OIl,.;cioll" Iwrhap,; aln'ady dead. J...:ollrad. III tilt' la,,1 S,'CIIt' tilt' proI'1',.;,,01' i" ,,1'1'11 Iyill!! ill a Iwd. alladlt'd 10 a cardio!!nlph. Biallca alld Lil'lIa ,'0111(' 10 \'i,il hilll. Biallca Iwlin't'" Ihat J...:ollmd t'01llllIill,'d ."Ilicidt·. SIit' tllillt,;" Iit' did il 1)('1'<11"'" Ill' "alllt·d 10 hm,' tI)(' la,,1 word. Bill "h,' al"o ar)!Ilt''' thal Iit' wa,; doolllt,d to failllt'nll"'" "p;rief i." a" pn"'arioll" ,b allylhillg "I",· ... Lit'lIa. ho\\,,'\·,·1'. I hillt,;, Ihal J...:ollrad \\,a" liqllidal'·'1. I kr Opillioll i" ,1I11";lallliall'd Ily tile' fat'1 Ihal wllt'lI Iit' dit'd J...:ollrad had ill hi,; I-(ra"p SIt'fallo', ",·art'.\t'tl'r tilt' WOlllt'lI I,·a\l'. I hI' pro1'"",01' Iwar,; tilt' "Ollllt! of "II'P" 1'1'0111 allll\" alld collap""", SOillt' lilllt' Iwfun' tilt' tillll W,'" '·Olllpll'll'd. \'i""Ollli i,,,IWd a stall'lI)(,1I1 ill \\ /rii'll Iit' "olllplaillt'd abolll tilt' \\'01'1.1 "h""Olllill!! 11101'1' alld IIl11rt· ali"IIalt·d. ('1'I1t'1 alld ntlJOlb. IlIlp .. ~"ildl' I.. !!"'I'I'II .. \11.1 ill Ilaly I hill!!" al'l' goillp; \\'01'",' Ihall ,·I",'"Ilt'n·. Ilah· . i~ a ,'ollllln. \\·Iwrt, tllt'\·. ('all'l ,'\'1'11 1'01'111 a ,·allilH'I."-" Hd,'n'If(','" 10 p .. lili('al lift, ill Italy an' 11 .. 1 I.... ('I,'ar ill ('UII('er.SIIliulI JJil'l't'. hili Ihi" \pry \'a)!""IH'''''' 'T,'all'" tilt' "t'lI,t· Iltal tlf(' "olllllr~ ha, 1111 polilical or itll'olo/!intl. 1101 III 1I1t'II1iOll 'pirilllal. 1'1'111,,1' .. \1.0\'" all. tlf(' "falllily" tlf(' 1'1'.. 1"'''''01' 1I101l1t'lIlarily ""(jI,in'" "t'I'IIIS 10 1'llIllolly tlH' din"'lor'" k(,lillg" aholll tilt' di"" .. llIli .. lI .. f tlH' fatllily a,.. all ill"lillllioll alld abolll tilt' I'rt'I'ariOIl~Il""" of 1"'1' alld fri"lId."llip. B(T,""'" \·i",·Ullli·." 0\\,11
\ bCl) ."\11
lift' - particularly with rl:'tilw('1 10 falllily - ill mallY ways ('xl:'lIIplitit's tllt'!>t' lend"twit's, t h(' tilm al'l't'ars tu be all attempt lu sort out sOllle of tilt' cOlllradiction,.; of his Iwrsonalily, III "S,;I'W'I', the profes"ur appears tu be an imap:l' of tilt' filllllllak,'r hiJll"elf. a" till' londy carrit'r of traditiun alld hip:h ntllllH' - ntillll't' nul ju,,1 a" worb of art Sllt'h as t11t':;e thal buth tht' I'rof"",;or a lit I Yi",cUJlli "lIlTOIlIllled t!tell."dv,~ti with, bUI as an intt'rnalized codt' of Ilt'ha\"ioJ' alltl a cl.'rtaill way of lif,', Thi" project iUJl i" probably thl' n'asoJl for tilt' ahnosl uub"arable cunlrast Iwtw('t'1I tilt' :;Ylllpatlll'tic pmfn;",ur alltl tht' cntd(, and ('1'111'1 caril'lltuJ'1' of the falllily he is p:iH'l1, It i~ a" if \"ist'tlllti waIl1l'd 10 ,,!tow that family life i" J't'ally 1I0t tlH' right airt'rlIaliv(' for a lIIall of ('ultUI'!' dt'dicaled to IIt'aut\' alltl art.
Viseonti a •• d Germany
\,Iscovrl. TIIO\IAS ,\1:\1'1:\, :\:\1) TWO ASPECTS OF El1HOPE \'is("ollti lik,'" to boa"l altoUI hi" "OIlIIt','liOIl Wilh Cl'nllall ("uhun,lt' dailllilll! lhal I\(' had I'artl~ (;"l"IlIall alll't',.,lry - aflt'r all. tilt' \'i"("Olllis of lhl' \Iiddl,' ,\I!""' had he"1I LlIIl!oltank HUI tlulIll!h (;,'nllaIlY alway:; fascillal"d hilll. ill hi;; ,(}uth he wa" drawlI 11101'1' to Fnllll't', Ili" lif" ill Pari;; illlhe thirtit,S had had a deci:;in' illI\UI'IIC1' Oil his dt'\"('lol'lIwllt Itot h as a 1"'1'''011 alld all artist. Yet of all hi:" lilIII:,. ollly The ,""mllger j:,.l,ast'd 011 a Fn'lI('h suhj"("t. III (,Olltra,,!. lhrt'e ('olbel'luive lilll." were 1I0t ollh', s,'l ill (;l'rlllallY, bUI w,'n' al"o do"ely" tit,d 10 tilt' hi,.;IOr\ allll cult un' of lhal coulltry, - tllt',,1' lillllo, Ila,,' oftI'll bet'1I called "i,,;collti's (;"l"IlIall trilol!Y' TIlt' 1'011I1t'"tioll with C,'nllallY i,.; also a "il!lIilinlllt factor ill tilt' epi""dl' lillll nit' Job, To "io,l'tlllti (;I'nllall\ IIIt'allt al,()\"e all I'Idtun': tilt' work,.; of e,wtllt', Tholllas alld I it-illrich \Iallll, alld Hid",rd Wal!lIl'1": al~() tilt' ,\ustriall variety of (;,-nllall clllture - Custa\' \Iald!'r alld tilt' ,'y,watioll" of tilt' dyilll! Au"tro-lllIlIl!uriall ElIll'ire hy Frallz \\",'rld, St""all ZW"ig, alld Holwrt \Iu"il. Headilll! ~arl ~rau",.; alld .Iw;t'l'h Hoth I'roktbly helpl'd give all "dl!" to thi" 1I0stalgia, But Iikt· a ,.,hadow Iwhilld this illtl'n'st ill C,'nllall cultllrt, \Hb "isl'tlllli's fa"cillatioll with it;, llt'l!atioll, ib 1'IIIIIgl' illto rtllhIt,,.,,.; Iwrbari","l. .-\ftt'r s!'izilll! I'"w,'r ill \9:U, till' \azi,., Iwgall illtrodllCill1! a III'W ord"r of tllI'ir ""11 lIlakilll!' \'i,.,("ollti decided to I!o alld ",',' what \\"ib hal'l"'lIilll! with his OWII "y""', I III laltT lift, "i,,;collti ,.,,,Idolll "I'okt, of thi" jourlley, 11" \\"as I'rolwhly ,.,lIl1wwhat i."hallll'd Iwcall,.,,' at that tilllt' Iit' had to SOIllt' ,'xh'lIt adlllin'd tilt' \azi", TIlt' f'-atun',., of tI\(' III'W onlt'r that fa"("illat,,d hilll illl'articular ("ould al"o Ill' foulld ill hi" OWII I','r"ollalily: ord,'r1ill""", d,-l'-rtllillalioll, alld !'flit'it'Ilf'\ 11 .. ,.,a\\" 1,!'lIi Hi!'ff'II";lald',., t'('ldtral,-d lillll, Tht' 'i'rillllll)h
tiU
(If lilt'
\l~I()\II
11 ill ( 19:33). and could 1I0t help admirillg 1I0t ollly its arti,.;tic allli
technical quality but also its idt'alizatioll of youth. health. pow!'r. allll order. Oil a fl'w occasions Visconti wl'nt to S!'I' lIitler's magllificl'llt ui",play~ in frolll of l'xubt'rallt ntas~es. Quilt' prol,ahly.lw was also fascillated by tilt' halJ(bonH' blollde young llIen ill dwir menacillg black uniforms.'! Soon aftt'r tht' yi,.,il 10 Cermany. \'iscouti got to kuow HOl"st. who ht'llwd him both HtTl'pt hi~ OWII hOlllo,.,t·.\uality aud bn'ak away from tit!' I'IH.. halllllleul of \azi";llI. III tlw t'Yl'S of till' \azi" aut! Ihe Fascists alike. 1..- was 1I0W a pent·rt: ill Paris, he Iwcatlle U socialite, :\bout this tilllr IWWS of tilt' terror alltl perst't'utiulI practict'd by the \azis was spr!'adillg to till' \\t·~l. a lit I \'i~collti's IIlIillfortllt'd adIlliratioll began to turn iUlo rt·ullsioll. E \"l'1l ~o, a ioui'll of illadn'rtt'uI adlllirat iOIl for tilt' \uzi,., rt'mailll'd with hilll throughout his lift·, \'ist'onti's two dost'st CeJ'Iuall friend", II000st and thl' ('OIllPOSt'I" Ilall;; W(·rtler 111·uzl'. thought Ihat he did not J't'ally IlIldt'r~tand Ct'rtIHlllY and \azislll and Ihat Ill' It·ndt·d tOlllythify tht'lII. Ht'llze strongly disapproved of the lrl'Ulnwnt of tilt· rist' of \azislIl PI"t'St'lllt'd ill TIlt' iJalllllf'd (19{)9), Ilors! did not go to ,.;t't' th .. film at aII.:\ Iu till' 19(IOs \iscouli grl'w IIIOrt· aud llIore aiieuatt'd frollllhe (:ontemporary political "trugglt', \either \tan nor Cnull,.;chi st't'llIed able 10 properly l'Xplaiu I hI' allarchy and lerrorislll I ha! follo\\'t,d tht' 19()H riOh-;, Whal Ill' fOllnd 1'~l't'cially discollct'rling alllllll tilt' nt'w silualion wa:; that it rt'minded him of lh .. yt'an; inllllt'dialeiy I'ft'l'ediug tilt' Fa,.,cist ('ra, I-It' Iwgau 10 idt'lllify 1II0n' aud lIIort' with Tholllas \Iaun. wholll Iit' ,.,aw as lIIW of till' la,~l prolt'clors of hUlllalli,,1II al a poill! wlH'1I Ct'nn
"I S (. (J
\
T 1 .\' DeL H \\ \ \ \
I -t I
delll Geis/e der JIllsik (TIlt' hirll. of I mg!'dy froIII the ~pirit of lIIu~i('. 1871). Nit'lz~('ht' pits Dionysian. c'('stati(' s!'nsualilY against AI'0llonian rationall'onlrol ami tilt' ideal of cla,.;"i('al ullity. \Ianll stro,,{' to rt'concilt' these opposite,.; - just as hl' sought to lind a lIIiddle' path ill lIIosl ideological isslles - but Iit' IWH'r ('c'ast'd 10 Iit' su:-.piciow; ahout la/ini/as. or Diou),siall abandon. for that IIIaW'!". III \Iarlll',; oeuyrt'. t he south. the ~lediteITaIH'all. and Italy in particular radiate :-.t'II';UOUSI\t'';S that call only too ea"ily throw tIlt' calm nortllt'ru IIIillll off halmlCt'. It lIIay st'n't' as a source of artistic expression. Ollt inaslllu('h as it does so. it abm illlplit',.; that art and life callnot he rt'cOIlt'iled. It is 110 ('oin('idellt'e that Adriall Lewrkiillll in /Jol.-tor Fall.~/Ils em'ounters lilt' dt'\'il 011 his joul'lwy to Italy. Durillg the First World War. \Ianll felt that only Gerlllall cult un' could sa\'e European culture. Ollly gradually. particularly aftt'r lilt' Cerlllall deft'at. he hecalllt' aware of the ('ontradil'tiow; and tensions that dlreatened the t'oulltry and if,., culture from withill. III The J/agir JloulI/(/ifl (19~i) awl Doc/or FaIlS/liS (19-t 7). the two t raditiolls and 1lH'lltalit it's are pitted agaill:-.t ea('h otllt'r tllrough the opposition of n'IJI'esentatiye charaett'rs (S!'\1l'lIIhrini wr"lb :\aphta and Zeithlolll \'!'rsus L!'v!'rkiihll. n'spectiwly) ill ordc'r to l'xplon'lIwir l'onlpIC'IIH'lItarities. III the latter work. ill particular. \lanll hopt's to arliculate his OWII thoughts. his d!',.;penttion and w!'akll\,,.,s ill tilt' fact' of what Gt'l'Il1allY alii I Gt'rmall cult un' had h(,COlII(, ill Ihe tt);{Os. \rhilt' ill a st'nsl' paying rt'spe('t to mockruity in art. Mann ill dft'l't 0I'IHI"I's it to niltur!'. For him. the Cerlllall tragt'dy was thal tht' I'oulltry had forgollt'lI alld distOl'lt'd ib I'rofoulld I'ultuntlllt'ritap:l'. To ~Olllt' l'xll'llt. thi~ seellwd inevitahle to him in all t'ra of worllout form,.; . .\ccordill!-( 10 J)Olllillil'k La( :apra: "Cl'rlllall hi"tory ha:-. for ~Iallll p!'rhal's tilt' mo~t C'OIlI't'lItralt'd a lit I fort't'ful eXl'rt's,;ioll of tlte problelll:; alltl paradoxes of IIlOdl'rll I'i\'ilizatioll - till' paradoxil'al "wl'lin~ of the besl and tilt' wor" ...... \'i,,(,Ollli no doubt Idt a dost' assol'iation with Thomas .\Iallll IWl'aww of \Iallll',; po,.;ition as a"lak-I'olll\'r." all t's,.,c'nlially I'ollsen'aliv!~ alld far from anlllt-!!ardt, aUlhor. who had mHlly tit's to thl' pn~\'t'dillg niltural ent. Yi:-.I'onli might wl'lI ha\'\' :-.t't'lI himself. wilh his Ct'l'Inanil' afliliatiolls. a", all Italiall t'tJlllllt'rl'art to tilt' Cc'mulIl arti,.;1 haulltl'd hy his ::'l'arl'dy "ul'llI·c',.,:-.c'd Lalin Il'allillg,.;. TIlt' dil'fc'n'nct' l)('twl'l'n Italian and (;1'1'111<111 nilllln's i" reflected ill all intert',.,lin!! way ill Ihl' difft,J't'IIl forlll,; thal I'Omalllici';lIl a"sullu,d ill tllt',.,t' Iwo t'lJlllllril''';. After tltl' IX I;) n',.,toration Italy devt'lopl'd it:-. OWII bralld of romanlit·i,,1I1. III partil'ular. il ",lIt't'n,d at tilt' c'lnphasi,; 011 tilt' "fanw"lic" Ihat Wit,.; th",,~!ht 10 Ill' 1\'l'ic':1I of (;!'l'Inall I'ullllrt, alld at tilt' 11,.,1' of IlIytll-
\l~(.()"ll
(llogical tlWIIW:'. IlIstead. italiall artists cOlln'lltrated UII historical su1.jects. which were well suited to the Iweds of a people - or rather. all asct'ndant social class - that was slriving tu achieve Ilational unity. Tht, 11 i'/Ischlll{'/":; typl' of wlllallticism had little appeal for tilt' Italian educated classes eitllt'r. Tilt, rule of the artist was to expn'ss the deepest feelings and aspirations of the nalion. TIlt's!' trelld,.. found their musl powerful expre,,si on in the tield of opera. particularly in Ihe works of Ciuseppe Verdi.' Yiscunli fell ri:dll into step with Italy's great opt'ratic tradition for hi" melodralllas an' deeply rooted ill a cOlll't'IHioll of social and historical reality. Although the illtt'rIIalizatioll of his late worb delillitely rdleets a CenrwlI influt'm·l'. tlw tOIlt' deriws frolll TllOlIIa::-. \Iallll. ,,-ho was aligned with Ihe nillt,te,'nlh-ct'nturv realistic tradition illlilt'raturt' ratlwr than the fantastic or IIlYlhological romanticism epitomized in till' opl'ras of Karl .'\laria VOII \\elwr alld Hidwrd \\-agller. respectiwly. Y i::-.nml i- s tirst adaptation of .'\lallIl was a \Jallet -fanta"y ba""d un the IlOwll<J J/(lrio III/(/ der /.allber/'r (\lario and tilt' IlHlgiciall. 11):30). Franco .'\lallllillo wrole tilt' IIllbic. After st'veral postponemellh. Ihe work had it:; prelllit'IT in ]1);)0. ullder the Iitle .lJllrio e it 1II11f:(U. Thl' magician of the lIowl i" 11 hypllotist awl a (',wjurer who i" abll' to lIIanipulate people ill his lIutiit'IlCt's to nlUk(, tlW11I act against their principlt'" alld lIalllral patterns of Ill'hayior. Tlw 1I0v,'lIa was obyiou:,ly allti-Fa"ci::-.l. alld it appl'ared ill Italy ollly afl(~r Ihe war. AC('ordillg to .'\lil'l:ielll~. Yisconti gave \lalln's texI a very I'xpli,-it n'lIderillg. ex("'pt that when' \larlIl lb,'d ,-ariolJs metaphor~ to ,>xplon' I'I'0pl,;" ,,"l wOlIscious 1lI0tives. Y ist"t III Ii "lIlphasized the n~ali,.;lil- ,'I('IIIt'lIh alld sCII~lIality of Ihe characters. Whereas ill \hulJI liL('ratioll frolll tilt' powcr of tilt' ma!!iciall sigllitied tlw n'storalioll of r{'aSOIl, in Yi"eollli it appean'd mort' like till' vietory of the pow,'r of (;/1l1I ("ita/. II III additioll to till' two din~et adaptatiolls - the secoIld Lt'jllg Velllh ill I i'lIict' - :\lalln',; illfilll'lIce "all Ill' set'1I pal1inrlarly ill H()cc() lllld I lis Brothers. "hie" wa" ill"pired ill part by Joseph olld /lis /Jrothe/:~ ( 19:3:3-t:n awl ill 'l'lU' /)Illllllt'ri. which ill ';Olllt' respcc!:; r{,,,t'IIlble,., B,uidf'll/mmks (1 <)01). Blit Iwriral's ,',-,'11 IlIore' illll'orlalll are~ tilt' parallels alld ("ontrash Iwtweell Italy awl C'TlllaIlY tlral ap)l"lIr Ihroughollt \·i~collti·,.; O,'UH,' - allllO,,1 a~ if to sugW'sl a killd of a!t'Tllalin- way of Iwing a Ellrtll't'arl.
(
'I'llt'./u/) is \'iscollli's t"tHllriillllioll 10 rill' t'l'i,;,ltJt.lillll UUCCllcciIJ -~() I()()~\_ I1 i" aboul tilt' dnll:!laln of a ridl Ct'r11IUII illdllstrinli-t 11:1111'-.1 I
_
\ b t: u '\ T I \.'\ D (, t H \1.\ '\ ,
Pllpe (Romy Sclllwider). She is marr'it'd to all Italian ('ount (ToJllas :\1i1ian) just dis('ow'f(,d hy the tabloids to Lit' involw'd with prostitutf's. ~ot only does this min his repulatioll. hilt it pllb a fn"'ze 011 his ballk aceounb. which. for taxation purposes. have been set lip in Switzt'r/and in the countess's name. As the COllllt'S lawyers remind him. he is "omplewly depeJl(lent Oil his wife hnaneially. I kr father. tholl~h apl'an'ntly plt'ased with the prestige the marriagt' ha:; broll~ht 10 him. would now likt' his daughter to divofl~(, the peBnilt·,.,s 1'011111 and keeps telephoning 1\1'1' from Cennany 10 see how things are progres:;ing. Pupe say:; silt' has always known that theirs was just a marriaw' of COnH'nielH'e. bllt she has growlI tired of Iwing nothing mon' thall highclass IIWrl'halldise and wants to 1J('('ome linalll'ially independent. She has decided to slIpport herself hy going Ollt to work alld has I'ven made a het with her father that she is capable of doing so. TIlt' l'OIlIIl "tl'Ongly ohjects to the idea and tries to talk Pllpe Ollt of it by ha\·illg a ~t'rvant h'lI Iwr how horing ordinary work can be. 1'111'(' has to admit siit' dlH'S not kllow how to do anything that she could Iit' paid for. SIlt' say~ ,,111' n'slwcts money. hut apparently she is so tht·d to it that it ha" Iw\'('r O(,CIIITI'd to her that actually eal'llill~ it might he a prohlenl. She is also illllo('enlly dependent on her servants Ilrin~ing Ilt'r whah·\'t'r siit' haplwl'" to desire. Pupe prepares to have a shower and inadv,'rtt'ntly ulldn'sses in a provocative fashion. As she is drying l\I'rself the I'Ollnt loob at her and is o\'t'rtakell by dt'sin' for IH'r - perhaps tilt' fear of losin~ Iwr has lIIadt' hilll set' hel' with ht'w eyes. lit' Illight huvt' hud hi~ t':-;eapadt>s alld she might be hurt. but they are ~till hl'U1l1iflll people uttl"acted to t'ach olher. It is ollly a IluestiuII of time Iwfort' tllt'y will reach "Olllt' :;011 of rt'l'orleiliut iOll - as the sernUlts. who obviou"ly kllow their masters bt'tll'r thall tlwy do thl'lIIselw". are well awart'. Pupc realizes that tllt're is a professioll slH' can take up: the same olle pral'til't'd hy tht' Wlllllt'lI Iwr hllsballd recelltiy "employed." By enterillg illto a similar arrallg"lIwnt with Pllpe. the COUllt will lIot have to pay "\ladame" 1III0la allY mon·. At first. the COllllt is takell back by this proposal hilt lllt'n tillds tilt' illt'a quilt, appealillg. Then' is y,'t allotlwr t,'lt'phorlt' ('all fWIII Pupt" s father. but silt' refuses to takt' it Oil the t'XCUSl' that sIll' is jllst ahout to start ill her lIew job. She has WOII Iwr bet. bllt it is a sad victory. This de('cl.Hin'ly drarmillg. hiltt'r~we('t fillll elll/:.; with the di:-;cOlll't·l·tillg illlage of a husband approul'hillg his wift: s bed with a dWI·k ill his halld. Thi,,; fillll has ~Olllt' alllobiogl'aphi"al el"lIwllts. the 1II0,.,t ohvious of whidl i" the l'olmless '" Iwt lIallle. Pupe. which \'iscollti had liSt'" for tilt' low of hi,., YOllth. Irllla \\'iIldisl'h-Criitz. Thell. too. tilt' 1'0tlllt is ill part
l-H
\ (:oiU)YII
an iwni.' ~elf-p()rtrait of \'i~('onti as a young mat I., while lhe effons of Pupe's father to control t~\'ents from afar parallel those of h-ma's father_ who did whatever Iit' cOllld to prevent her relation::;hip with the Italian aristocrat from Jt'\'t'lopill~ into a serious affair, \'i::;conti ha::; even ::;aid that the Austrian Homy Schneidt'l" bore a slight rest'mblance to the real Pupt' of his youth. The lilm is wry much a vehicle for Sdllwider; poor Milian ha;; little ('hanct' of matching the performance of his exuberallt leading lady. III hi" ('ustomarY fa;;hion. Visl'tlJlti ('rl'ated a luxurious milit'u down tu the slIlalle"t glamorous detail. The film's producer wa~ Carlo Ponti. who pointed out that although the epi;;ode was shot in a single al'al1ment, it was the most eXpt'lbin> epi"ode of the entire lillll. Tht, "Inuptuous setting furnishes the Ilt'rfect contt'xt for S('hneider' ~ llt'lightful. glittering. champagne-like pt'rformance. All the action takt,;; plal'l' in the count's palace. in which Pupe has built her uwn feminine i~laIHI. Whereas the ('ount's enonuous dogs ruam aruund the other pan::; of the palace. Pupe'" roums are inhahited uy inuumeraule eab. PUP(" s entire existt,JIt'e appears to be tied to the objl'('ts around her. for she is newr seen anywhere el~e and all tilt' elllphasis is on Iwr ft'line ahility to t'lljOy the comforts that slllTounu allll dominate her. The idea of having to reliulluish tllt'St' wouderful objects is a threat to her very Lwiug. She ha;; to own in ordt'r to exist be('au~e she ('an only ('xi~t in high awl glamorou~ stylt· - and to do that. she needs an aristocratic hl",l,alHl. A~ in most of \' iscollti';; Iilms. sexuulit y and lllaterial flOs~e"sions are depicted ill a hopele~~ tangle, a:; they are. for example ill the relationship betwet'lI Allgelil'll alltl TawTt"di in 71U:' Leopard. But thi~ tillle even the illusion of love i:; shattered. perhaps because Pupe has almost al'citielltally fallen ollt of love. Her lIlH'ontrolled laughter toward the end of the film is tellinw at ~Ollle It'vd she has groWll aware that her life is shallow alltl that her /uwlt'-bulIIgt'uis lllarriage is ba~etl 011 petty bOllrgt·ois cOlllmercial valul·s. 1'111" (,OUllt has 110 ;;ul'h problem::;. Since all that he wallt~ is what mont>y nlll buy. he has lIothing tu lo~e excel't his illt'ome frolll hi~ father-ill law.
THE JJ,UJAf-'JJ
The inverse side of Germany After tIlt' Seeolld \Vodd War. Thomas dt'lt'l'ioration in Cermar1\':
~Iallll
iallll'ult·d the "piritllal
\ IS (: () :\ T I .\:\ ()
l.~,
H \1.\ :\ ,
There an' 1101 two Ct'rlllallil's. a good alld all ('viI. hilt ollly a ~illgll' Ollt'. whil'h tufllt'd it~ hest hy dt"'ilry illto bad, Evil (~enllally, thal is the good whil'h has festered. the ~oO(I ill misfnrtlllll'. ill gllilt Hlld declille, For Ihis n'asoll il is so impossible for a Ct'rtIllln-bortl milld 10 disowlI tilt' evil. gllilt -Iadell C"rtllaIlY alld to dedare: "1 am the goo.!. the lIohle. the righlt'olls CermallY ill whilt'. the I'vill lean' to YOllr t'xtt'rtllillatioll'" :\othillg of that which 1 han said to YOII abolll GermallY or tried 1It'I·tillgly to poillt 0111. I'alllt' frolll kllmdt·d!!I' dissol'ialt'.1. 1'001 or IIl1illHllwd: 1 have it also ill mt', I hav.' expI'ri(,llf'ed it ill my OWII hody,"
The nmllict that \Iann knt'w so well both ill hilllself awl in Cennullv ill gt'lwral was fallliliar to \"isl'ollti. too: it was a dl'eply Idt uwJt.rstulldilll! of the destructiw force,.; that un' part alld parcel of I,oth the hUlllallmilld and society as a whole. n/(' /)alllllcd is a descriptioll Ilot ollly of a diabolical power ,.;tnlggl!' bllt also of the lIli,;appJ'Opriatioll alld utter 1lt'l!atioll of Cerlllan cllltllre. The /)(llIIlIed was prodlwl'd by the Itallloleggio. a "tatl' al!l'IH'y (Teat!'d III dw 1'lixtil's to distribute films with limited release possibilities. III thi" casl'. it had to resort to internatiollal cOopl'Httion. Agaillst Yi~colltj"s wishes. thl' fillll was giwll the English title nu' /)ulIlIlI'd I,,'(,(Ill:;t' the Allwricall producers thought that it would attract a wider audil'I"'!' thall TIll:' Tll'ilif{hl (~fllll' Gods. III any cmit'. The Ihlll/lled IlI'collle both a critical alld a poplllar "lilT!':;";. alld it i:; tilt' ollly '·i"(,OIl1i film that I'veI' Iliad\' a ~igllifi('allt profit. It broke box-offin' 1'I','ords ill IIHlIly lIIajor Italiall cities alld also I'lIjoyt'd considl'rabl" "IWI't',,:; ill the l·lIitt'd Statl'S, TIlt' l't'USOIlS wt're ol"·iou,,ly 1I0t ollly art i"t ic, Thl' 11I1I1lt'rOlls IIlllrdt'r,;. tilt' at lIIosl'hl'l't, of I't'rn:'r"ity. uud tilt' ,,"{'Ill' of tlH' lIight of tilt' IOllg klliVf's attral'tt'd a large alldi .. IH't'. alld the film was followed I.y a waYI' of films abollt :\azi,,1I1. III '\hell "isl'ollti wu" asked whv Iit' wallll'd alld 1I0t ahout Fascism Iit' Hlhwl'r.. d:
to
make a 111111 ahollt \azislll
Iknllht' or tilt' diffl'I'('III'I' hl't\\""1I tral!t'dy alld t'Olllt'dy, Of l'OIIl'~" Fa:;('i,,1I1
W<J"
a I rag,'dy ill lIIil1ly. lIIallY I'as,'" ... 11111 a_ till' IlI'rf"1'1 ardll'1 HlI' of a gin'lI his-
toril'al "illlalillll thal I.'ad" 10 a I'l'naill typ .. IIf lTilllillalit~. \azi~;nl ""l'lIl1'd to 1111' trag,'d~ that. lik .. a hid,'ollS blood"taill. "'qll'd .w.'r till' whok world .... 0111' ,'olrld IlIakl' thol/".tlld" of film" abollt Italiau Fa"d"lu, , ,ahollt \Iatteolli , , , \11I ..;solilli·s H"llItI.li,' of Salt., , . th .. d,'ath or (;ralll",'i ... hilt \azislIl St'I'lIb to nit' to n'VI'al mol'(' abollt a historil'al rl'\('r.;al or ,·allfl'';, I1
III I... 11101'1' ,'\(',uplary -11I','all".' it wa" a
.\ltllOlIgh Suso CI'cchi ,i'.\mico had ollly a ,;nudl halld ill till' lIIakillg of tilt' (: .. rlllall trilo!!y. ,.,11t' h,'lp,'d /'Ol'llllllall' the idea of TlU' /)wlIIlI'd:
[t h'i/!illully,] \w wallted to lIlake u ~ort of Mw·beflt. placed illllloJefll times. Thefe was at the time the Profumo ,;(·.allJal ill Ellglalld. and that gave us the milieu fOf tlu' story hased 011 :Hacbetlt. And wht'll we wert' wfiting it ... [I saw] in a magazine a hi!! article with Iwautiful photo~ about the Krupp family. And so I called Ludlillo to ~ay that 1 thou!!ht it offered a mw·1t bettef milit'u thun the one we had thou/!ht about. :\1111 so he ,.,tU/wrl to fead abollt the Krupp family. I~
!\evertlu,\e,.,,.,. something of till' origillal idea remained. The story of Alfred l..:rupp mt'n'ly illlt'llsilied tht'st" traits in the snipt allll gan' tllt'lII tilt' perfect setting. llilll'r had placed tlw e('ollomic organization of the war in Krupp' s hawk. allll he was the olle who masterminded the IIse of forced labO/" ill IIIillly of his OWII a,.; well as ill otller factories. The youngest of these pri,.,oner,.; were six-year-old children. It is said that toward the end of his life l..:rupp - like Macbeth - suffered frightful hallucinations. 1;1 Yi,.,t'ollti "Totl' tilt' script together with :\icoia Badaluceo and Enrieo l\letiioli. He had for some time toyed with the idea of filming a family chrollide alollg the liues of ~talln's Bllddel/brooks. Originally. he had plamlt'd to St't it ill !\Iilau. but thi,.; would probably have brought the subject too dost, to home. Ill' also begall to feel that the subjeet was more do,.;ely t'ollul'cted with Gl'l"lIlauy. It was as if he wallled to treat till' lovehate rdation,.,hip both ill his family background and in Cermany iu the sallle film. Ju,.;t as Hllddenbrooks is dearly about \Iallll"s family. The [)wllIled rellt'l't,.; certain featul"l'''' of Yiscontj",.; owu family bal'kgrouwJ as if Sl.'t'U through a grotes'Ilwly distorting lIlirror. In addition to Shakespeare aud \Iallll. the illtiucllt'e of Dostoye\"sky, MusiL and \\"agller call be detel'leu iu Ihis film. Yi"collli also reau lIlas,.;es of literallll"(, about Ihe :\azi leadt'r,;. Ihe ,'·jtumwbtt'ilulIg (SA). and the Scliiit;;staj}i'1 (SS). \\'illialll L. Shirer's The Rist! awl Fall oI the Third ReiI'll tunlt'd out to be a particularly important stllll"ce of iuformation. as ujd Lorrain l..:t'lIIp"ki·,.; 11O\"('!. 71U' Sight oI the LOllg J... llil'l's. I~ Yi,.,collti det'ided to I'OI\('l'utratl' Oil the phast' iu which the :\azi,., ,.,eiz('d ('olllrol of the gOH'fIImt'llIal in,.,titutiuns of Cermauy. Thl' lilm bq~ill:. on Februar'y '27. 1!);~:3. wht'u the Heichstag buildiug bumI'd down in BI'rliu. The Nazi,.; Ibed t hi,., t'n'ut a,; a propaganda w('apolI aud all eXl'use for tht' pt'r,.,(,t'ulioll of tilt' COlllmuui,.,t,;. Durillg Iht' saillt' ""riug. tllt'y pllq.wd tilt' Ct'nUall gowrtlnlellt awl ,.,twit,ty of atlti-:\azi group,., awl liquidalt't! all delllOtTal il' and dt'CI'IHralizing insl it ul iou!i. Tht' lir!'il cOllet'nl ra I ion call1ps ,nTe fouuded. I.-, \ow lwgan Iht, lasl gn'al illtl'rual ,.,Iruggle for tilt' I'tllllrol of thl' :\azi puny. Thl' wen' two maiu factioll". 0111' of Ihl',.,e was Ihl' S.\. whil'h wa,; fOUlltlt,t! ill 1<1'20 alld ('oll"i,.,lt,d "f,.,,,ldit"'~, \"I'lt'ralb. alld hOllli'!;III!'i. TIlt'
\ISC()\TI .\\/) (.LH\I\\\
SA was till' nlllst important faclion of IIw Nazi party ill lilt' I,arly ~ta~es of it~ rise. SuhsPtl'lt'ntly. howt,wr. lIitlt'r dt'cided Ihat SA It'ad"r Ernst Riihlll was nol sticking dosp ellOu~h 10 tilt' official party linl·. and Iit' ereatt,d for his own protection a III'W ditto corl's. tilt' SS. :\ It'lII I11'1";; WI·rt· can·fully pickt·d for thpir racial purity a lit I prollolllwed loyalty to Ilitlp!". 11. By thl' tinw the :\azis had seized control OWl' tilt' natioll. till' SA had bt'conlt' a serious prohlelll for the party Ipadt·rship ill that it wanlt'd to attack all the institutiolls COllllt'CtPtl with tilt' old pstablislllllt'lIt. Alth()u~h they had d01l1' lIIost of tlw dirty work. tilt' SA lIIellllwrs gradually realizl·d that they were as poor and as t'xcludpd from political powI'r as tllt'y had alway" beell. \Ieanwhile Ilitlpr ,;ought to ,;t'curt' his cOlltrol oyer tilt' lIatioll by Illakill~ pacb with illdu~try allll the military. In fact. tlwrp was 1I0t nlllt'h lWI'd to t·Xt·rt pressun' Oil illdustry as it was already prepared to cOllpt'rate. The SA leat/t'rs wUlltl·d dleir squadrolls to a",sumt' tilt' duties of tlw HI'IIIV. awl to create a IIt'W kind of military. institlllioll. This did 1I0t suit Hitler's plalls. allt! so Iit' probably lIIadt' a deal with tilt' military: if Iit' did away with tilt' SA alld It't tilt' lIlilitary mailllaill its positioll. ill retllnt it would support him aftt'r Ihe dl'alh of Pn'~idellt Paul 'Oil Ililldellhurg. I~ The SA troops had beell ordered to go Oil holiday ill July 1<);3-+. Hiihm himsl'lf hapl'l"lt'd to Iit' "om'ales('illg in th.· Bavariall Alps. A ~rolll' of Si\ leaders wI'n' already arrt'swd 011 tilt' lIi~ht of .111111' ~(): Riihm alld his do"est 1111'11 were al'pr('ht'w/t'd the followin~ mornillg. SOIlIt' wI'n' shot 011 tilt' spot. others the IleXt day. III HI·dill. SA leadl·r,.; wI'n' roulHletl up ill barracks alld shot ill ~rollI'S by SS firill~ ",quads dllrill~ tilt' IIt'xt day alld lIi~ht. III additioll. IIlHlly kllllWII allli-:\azis WI'f(' assassillalt'd sumlllarily. The whole opt'ratioll was carri('d oul quickly alld ,·fft'ctivt'ly. Tllt'rp was ~Olllt' pallic amI ulI('t'rtaillty. hUI lIlallY Cerlllalls ollly gradually rt'alizt~d what had happt·lJt·d. \'i~t·OIl1i. who \\'a~ ill Ct'rlllallY at tht' tilllt'. was 1I1H1Wa ... · of tllt'~I' eH'lIb. altllOlI;.dl Iit' did ~t'lbe thl' IJlllillOUS allllOspht'n' Ihat pn·vailed aftl'r "Iht' lIi/!ht of the 10llg klliw~." Ililldl~II"lIrp; dit,d 011 _\lI~lIst ~. 19:3-1. allt! Hitler took owr tilt' ofli.·!,s of the chancI'lIor (prilllP lIIillistt'I') al\(l of tilt' pn'sidl'lIt allll assullwd tilt' SlIpn'lIIe cUJlllllalld of the aJ'\lwd forel's. \ow Iit' had full dictatorial power and was rt'ferret! to silllply a~ cia fiihr/.'r (tilt' "'atit'r).w \'ist'ollti originally thought of usill~ pholo~raphs alld dO"ulllt'lIlaril'~ ill order tll I'Ollw'Ct tilt' I'Yellts of his fillll with historical f(·ality. Ill' al",o I'oll,.,idl'rt'd dividillg it illto fOllr dislilll't "al'ts." The historieal n,fl'n'lH't's would have I'royidpd 11 ,'olllrast with the lIIelodralllatil'ally ('olored fil'lioll. ,·Plltl'f/·d aroulld Ihe "'Iadwlhs." Friedril'h alld Sophi,'. Tllt'ir dl'ath
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would have pl"Ovid(,d a cathartic eliding: With the death of the devil-like protagonist;,. cult ure would have had a new chalice. I') Thi~ endin~ would obviou~ly not haw l"Oincided with the historical evt'nt~ (unll'ss tht' tinlt' spall was I'xtend(,d to till' ('nd of the war). Bm Viseonti's intt'rt'st wa" now shiftin~ frolll Fri('drich awl Sophie to the latll'r\; SOIL \Iartin. This chang(' tran::,pin,d because nlOn' elllphasis wa,. 1I0W Iwillg I'lal'ed 011 the Freudian aspt'ct;, of the fillll: \lartill's abuse of his yIJUII~ l"Uusill ami the litlk ~irl li\'ill~ Ill'xt Joor to the room ht' ha,. nmt!'d. as well as his oedipal rdatiollship with hi" mother. As the characlt'rs ilHTeasin~ly IIt'calllf' lIletaphors for the historical and political situatioll. till' \be uf doc\ul\l'lItaJ'y material ::wt'llIed supt'rtluous.:!o AI;;o. many of tilt' historical reft'n'nces had faded illto the background. so that in tht' end the story was ('('lItl'red on the struggle \\'ithill tht' Essenlwck falllily owr tilt' I"IlIltrol of till' :;\t,('lworb. 1Il0dt'l('d now on till' struggle withill tlw :\azi party. Vi::,eollti statt'd that nw UlIIfl/wd was 1I0t a historical fillll. but a descriptioll of the family dynamics s('ell against a eertaill historind Ilaekgroulld: Tht' political allllo"plwrt' is a nlUill faclor in tht' l':""('lIlwck< ru"h tmHlrJ ('fimf'. It is IlOt 11\. chan,·\' that the lillll ~tarh ill 19:ti: that wa~ a deeisin v('ar for . CerJlHlIIY .... TIlt' \r"illlar Hl'/lllbli .. dil'd and tht' .bsa",in Slat!' wa,; "om. The Cl'nllall middle .-la,;" \\"a, lillislwd. whilt' tlw aristot·I.... ·~ of capital alld of industry gan' up t1lt'ir I'0w('r" tll tilt' lit'\\" arrinlb or tried to share it with Ilitl,'r: a Ht'W leadillg ..la", of .... imillab. of I't'I'\·(,rt('d 1111'11. \\'a~ "Orll.~1
A dt'sc.,t'ut to h.... 1 Tht' falllily rt'laliollshil's ill '/'lie /)alllllf'd art' t'xln'IIIt'ly nHl11'Iicated alld quilt' difticult 10 work O\ll evell after J't'peatt'd \·it'\\·ill~. Part of tilt' diffit'ulty i, thal lIli.lIIy of the characters rq)rest'lIt sOIlH'what srht'lIIatit'ally certaill illlt'I'('SI groups alltl rt'Het'1 tilt' power stnt~glt' ill Ct'l'Il1allY. B.'fort' the fillll hq.dll:;. the ,011 of Baroll ,Ioaehilll (Alltreeht St'hollhals). tilt' head of tht' Es"t'IIlJl't'k falltih alltl slt'('lworks. has died ill tilt' First World War. The war h('1'tI alld hi" wife. Sophi., (1lIgrid Thulill). haw had a ,OIL \lartill (1-11'1111111 Bl'r~ .. r). who i, now ,I .. achim'" sole heir. ,Ioat'hilll', S('('Olld SOIL KOlIstalltill (Ht'llI: Kulllt,\ItIH). all SA leader. is al"o a widow('r alld Ita" a SOli. CiilltlH'r (Ht'ltaud \'('r1l'y). Otlwr 1I1t'IIIllt'rs of the falllily illdude Joal'itilll' S lIie(·('. Elizallt'lh (Charlotte Halllplillg): Ilt'r politically lilH'ral husballd. Ilt'rbert Tltallllallll (llltlll'J'Io Or:-.illi): alld tllt'ir daugbt('rs. Thild(, alltl Erika. AIlJoug regular \'isitors \0 tilt' lIIagllilic('lIt Ess('1I1H'ek villa are Sophie's (·ou"ill. SS captaill "tll\\"..(lt'llbad. (t klllll.1 (;ri"1Il \ alld Frit'd-
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rich Bruckmunn (Dirk Bo~anle). who is the vice president uf cllt' stet'lworks and Sophie' s lover. A shadow of dlt' ori::!inal idea of cllt' 1'0111" "al'''''' ft'maill", in that clw action moves throug;h four fairly dislilll,t phmH's. ddilH'd hy the challges in the balallce of powe!' Ilt'tweell the .. haractl'!'s awl cllt' groups that they !'eprl'sent. TIlt' first phase is a brilliandy constnwted t'Xposition during whieh tilt' audience is aet11lUintl'd with the charactl'rs. tht'ir IlIl1tual ft'lationships, alii I their political stallds. But :iOon ellou~h riit' plot is dri\'t'1I forward with tn'mt'JIllous power, 111 the be~inning cllt' falllily i" ahollt to havt' all annllal dill/JPr wgetllt'r to l'I'lebrate ,1ouchilll' shirt hday: KOIIstanrill is having a bath. assisted by hi" nllt'1. who Idl" him what the other members of the family art' doing: Ciilltlw!' i:; prat'ticing 011 hi" cello. and Thilde COllie" to see him in I'agt'r ant icipat ion of t lit' part y: cllt' Baron is sel'n kissing a photograph of his son: Heriwrt grulllhll's 10 Elizalwth about Joaehim' s wt'akne"s under political pressllres: ill a car 011 tllt'ir way to the "ilia. Brucklllann awl ,\scilt'nbaeh disl'Uss the future of CITIIHlIl\", the steelwork". and ('ertain key people. Each of the:-w SCI'Ilt''' introduces different aSl'l'cts of cllt' complicaled paltel'll. ill a family tllt'ater, the littlt, girls ft'cite ptwtry. Ciillthl'r plays Bad .. awl ~Iartin- the last of tilt' major ('haraclt'J's to appear - "luH'ks tlll' family with a \larll'lll' Dit~trich parody in drag, Ili" pl'donnant'l' is illtt'rruplt'd whell IlI'WS is hrought that tilt' Ht'iehsta;! in BI'dill i" on lire, Politieal tt'nsioll mOUllb after the llIt'al wht'1I Joaehilll atlllOllllCl'S thal Ill' willnallll' KOlIslalltin clw new IIHllla;!t'r of the :;tt't,lworks - ill u,,;;ulIll'd cOlllplialH't' with Ihe wisht's of "a ('('rtaill lit-IT Ilitlt, ... " I krlwrt is illfuriat('d alld llIardl!'s 0111 in protest. Aftt'r tilt' IIIt'al. ;\"dwllllUch i;; SI'I'II ilH'itill~ Sopitit' awl Bnwklllallll to take actioll in order 10 ,,('('un' tllt'il' positioll ill the Ieadt'rship of tht' slt't'lwOl'ks: ill parallt·1. WI' S,'t' \Iartill playill~ hidl'-alldst't'k with tite Titalmalln ;!irls alld Ilt'rlH'rt pr"llHrill~ for au ('scapI', Thl' first pita;;t' I'('udlt's it" clilllax wlll'lI it i" diseon'n'd that ,1oH('him ha:; 1)(:,t'1I shot. Ht'l'bt,rt Titalmallll has bl'l'lI frallll'd for tilt' a"S
\I~I.()"\II
Th" third "ha,.,e 1H'~ill:-; aftt'r \lartill'!> approaches haw drivell Li"a (0 "uicide alld I\.ollstalltin starts to blackmail him ill order to gain contrul of the stet'hvorb. To preH'lIt this. Friedrich anu Sophie seek the help IIf VOII AsclwlIllach. It is uppart'lIt that though Sophie alld Brucklllann think they are ill 1'0lltl"OIof tilt' silllatioll. almost without lIoticing it. they haw lJeeam(' lIIen' pUp(ll'h of tilt' SS. In the night of tilt' IOllg kniH's. SA troop". takt~n by surprise after their drunkI'll alld partly hOlllos('xual orgy. are quickly alltl effectively blltdwrt'd by tile SS. 13rt1Cklllallll is forceu to participate Ily killing I\.onstantin with his OWII hand. Bntckmann anu Sophil' have turned out to be fur too attached to their personal alllbition to be rt'iiablf' partllers for the SS. And so Aschenbadl dt'cides he must destroy thent. Thi" he will accolllpli"h \It'atly Ily transforJlling \Iartill'" lIIother fixatioll illto n'lIOIllOUS hatred. The last phas(' fontb a parallel with tlte tirst 0111'. a" it begins with a falllily nlt'al at tilt' sallle tablt· ft'atllred in the fir,.;t phase. Agaill the llIeal ellds in a row. lIIoll\t'lItarily illterrupted by the inexplicable appt'aralll'e of HerlJt'rt. I le says that Elizabeth ha,.; died ill tlH' cOIH't'lItratioll caJllP at Dadlall. wlll'rt, "Iit' "lld,," lip with tltt'ir daughters Oil their way to exile. ~ow he has cOllie to give hiJllself Ill' tll the Cestapo ill t'xcllallge for the liberatioll of his daughters. He thell disappt'ars as suddellly as he apIlt'ared. \lanill tell::- the rest of what has happl'lIt'd alld his vit'w of ill; illlplicat ion" to Ciilltllt'r. alld :\scht'nhadl completes tilt' brainwa"hing: With the collapst' of all values. ('\'I'll the g('IIt11' Ciinther is tran,.,fortllt'd into a ~azi. As all tilt' underlyillg traullla,., :-.urface alld tak(' IIt'W forllls. l\lartill rapes his lIIother; tlwlI she alld Friedrieh lIIarry. ollly to takt· poiSOli illlllwdiately aftt'rward.:!·l TI\f' tilm ellds with :\Iartill raisillg his antI ill the ~azi-"alutt' alld with aJl illlage of the furnace of the ,;teelworb sllperiJllposnl Oil him. Frolll tilt' poillt of yiew of Jlarratiw strategy. 71/1' /JUlllllf!d o('l'upies a special po"itioll alllollg \'iscollti's tilms. )" t~oJltrast to The Leupard alld Llldll'ig. ill particular. it;; structurt' alld "tratl'gy of repn'se'tliug a period of history an' draJllatic rather thau uovel-like:. ill coutmst to the \'erdiau melodraJllatic" of ,'''el/So. it is Shakespeareall ill tOIlt': as opP(N'd to the slices of lift' iu /)t'oth ill I ('lIic!' or ('v('u The IlI/wcl'lIl. it pr('seltts a torrelltial fll/x of (,Vt'lIb i" which thl' c1laraeters despt'J'at,'ly try to pursllt' t1lt'ir aJIIllitiolb or ,.,iJllply to JIIa::-!t'r the eUllr"e of their liY('~. TIH're an' 11Ia"y dt,taib n'lIIilli,.,n'Jtt of Shakespean'. Sophit' alld Frit'drich an' tilt' UJllhitiulb \ladJt'ths. with Sophit' goadillg HrtJckJllallJl: "Ewu if) willut'ver kuow Ilow (0 pu"h you ellou~dJ. go. go. alld go tu tlte liJllit!" III thi" ",'It"II\t'. thdU'lIb"d, ha,.. tilt' 1'01" of tlte tltn't' witd\f'''', ",ho ~t,,"d
\ 1:-; C () " T I .\" D to t H \I .\ " \
for fate - ill this case. the fah' of (;ermuIIY. which fall" hdplt·""ly illto tilt' hands of the Nazis. Thi,s is paralleled by tlw triall~le of Sophie, Frietirich. and Martin. prt'~wllted in almo,;t too obviously Frelldian tenlls. which resembles the situation IlI'twet'll Ilamlet.. his mother. alld his Illlele - althou~h the character of Martill has been inspired by i'iikolay Stavrogill of Dostoye"sky' s TlU' Pusse.w,d. Finally. there is lIeriwrt' s ~llOstlikt- appearance durill~ the last IIwal. on rill' eH' of the hllal battle. Bllt allOW all- and ill strong ('ontra"t with all ViS(,Olltj'" otlwr tihl!;,the narratiH' structure. with its parallel lint's of devdopmt'lIt. is n'lIlini,,cent of Shakespeare's historical aud HOlllan plays. The dramatic elt~uwllt in The Dumfled t'IIIallates from the tight illterrelatioll:-ihips hetweell the characters a:-i fUllctiolls of the plot. This is made mallifest 1I0t ollly ill tilt' multiple ways in which they act as foils to 0111' allot her. but also in tilt' lIarratiH' strawg)·. which cOII~talltly forms contrasts and parallels Iwtwet'll 1'\'1'111 sand ('haractt'rs as the plot lIIon's frolll 0111' thread of the stOl"Y to allother. For exalllple. Sop hie ",ays she will throw a bait to l\lartill. alld then \lartin is seell playillg with Thilde: Elizalwtll alld tilt' girls leaw' to hnd what they errolleously think is liberty. allll ill the nt'xt shot the little feet swinging gelltly ill tht, air n'wal that Lisa ha", killed Iwrself. But the analogy "llOllld 1I0t 1)1' pusllt'd too far. Then' art' crucial differellces in tht' dramaturgy of theater awl him. It has oftt'lI heen poilltt'd out that cinema is much 1'10,"1'1' to the novel than to drama as a narrati\'!, genre. Ct'org Lukucs has compared tht' lIature of Shakt'slwure'" tragedie::i 10 the tradit iUII of the lIillel et'lIth -Cl'WIlI'\' 1I0n,l: Shakt'slwan'l'orlrays in dlt' rl'lalion~ of Ll'ar and hi~ dauglllt·rs. (;lo~lf'r [sit') awl his "Olb. dlt' gn'al IYl'ical. hUlIlan nlorallllOn'nlt'nlS and In-nd". whi .. h spring in all I'XIl'I'lIll'ly III-ighh'llt'd form frolll Ihl' problt'maticahlt'~" allll break-up of dll' fl'udal family .... Thi~ p"ydllllogi .. al ridlllt's~ of dlt' COIl1t'llIlillg .-Ilanll'll'r;; grollpt-tJ arollnd dlt' .. ollisioll. Ihl' t'xhall"liH' WlalilY wilh whidl. "olllpll'lw'lIling 0111' an01h.-r. dlt'y r<'lll't'( all till' p,,,,,ibililil's of Ihi~ .. olli~ion, produl'l'" 1111' "lotalilY of 1II0n'IIlI'nl" ill tilt' play. Wha1. huwt'vl'r. i;; flut indudt'd Ilt'n" TIlt" "Ill in' lif,' ~U1TOllllllillg pan'lIlS awl .. hildl'l'u i~ lIli~"ing. Onl' nl'l'd only .. olllpart· Ihi~ play wilh thl' gr{'at falllily I'0rIraib depi .. ting dlt' "problt'IIIati,:' of d\l' family ill all "pie ilia III 11'1' -I'.g. Thollla;; \Iallll' ~ Hllddeflbrouks. Corky'" /lOWIl' (!(lm/ulwl'. Whal brl'adth alld abulldalwt' hl'rl' of the real cir"lIIll"UIIICt·" of family life. whal g"III'ralizalion dll'rl' of tilt' purely hUlllall lIloral '1ualitil'''. till' wilb whidl nlll IU' broughl illlU .. olli~ioll."·
Then' l'el1aillly is llOt as IIIlIdl "Im~udth alltl ubulldallt'l' Ilt'rt, of tilt' 1'1· .. 1 l'iITlIII.,..tant't'~ of falllily life" ill TIlt' /)(lff//I/'(/ as tllt'n~ i,;. ,.;ay. ill Lu 1'1'''''(1
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/lis I/rulhef"l;. or
nu:' IA'ojJllnl.
Yet already tht' quality of tll<' I1lm lIIedium - ib capacity to ~how rich and detailed illla~e~ exploited 10 tilt' full ill the recoll:;tructioll of a way of life in a eel'tain hi,,Iorical situation that ill \"ariout> ways dt'termillt's the dtal'Uctt'rs, their aspiratiolls. alld pos"ibilities - ~iVl'~ a dimt'n"ion to lilt' film that could Le de~lTilu'd a,; IlIJ\TIi"tic ill tilt' SI'IlSI' Lukucs ulldl'r"tood it. So although the historit"all'H'llb. the diadlrollic dinlt'nsioll. art' pre"t'IIIt'd Illt'lHphorieally - ill Riroeur' s illwrprt'tatioll of lIIil//{'sis - Ily lIIealb of tilt' tightly kllit lragi,' plot. lilt' :-;Ylldtnmic dillll'lbioll of the fillll illt'\itaLly brillgs no\"eli:-;Iic ft'atlln'" illto play. Thi" llalTat in' ~dlt'lIlt'. thi" LalullCl' lH't WI~I'II dralllat ic awlllUvel-like elelllelll;,. allows for all t'xtfaonlillarily powerful preselltatioll of ce!1aill ~"Ill'l"al faclors or I n~lId" as Iltallifl,~tl'd ill (,l'I"taill illstallees. The plot c1osel\" follo\\-s tht' historical eWIII;, of the rist, alld illtemal ,;trife withill the \azi parly, till' lighl for the s\('I,lworks ('ollllt'ctillg the historical public alld tht' ticliollal private sphere. III Ihe Sl'elll'S ill which rllt' ('olltrol of the "lel,I"-ork,, i" di~I'u:;"t'd. tlu' cOII\"l'rsatiollost'illatl'" cOII!-lallth'l)('twl~t'lI the difft'rt'lIt COlllpt'tillg factiolls - SA. SS. till' army - alld Ihe draractt'r" who I'lIIluuly or 0PPO"I' tllt'lI\' Whill' tilt' hi"torical de\'t'loplllt'lIt pnH't'('d" I)y it,.; OWIl weight. it appt'ars to IH' gnHllltit-'d ill a swalllP of rtItltlessllt'ss. pt'r\er"ioll. alld igIlOfalll'(' of spirilllal. cultllral. alld all 1IIIIlHIII \'aitw". ext'lIIplifit'd hy the dwmcters allll their n'latiollships. 11 is lIot as if \'i"collti were ('xplaillillg riit' ri~t' of \azi,,1l1 ill \('I'IIIS of St'xlHtl pen-ersiulb. as Ill' wa,; accused of doill~ wllt'lI thl' fillll opellt'd alld t'WII latl'r.~:' Hather. Iit' i" u"ill~ tilt' hi~lorical ('Olllt'xt as alll'Xillllpll' of a ~illlatioll that has Ihl' power to rt'\'I'althl' lIIu"t horrific asp('('''' of 1llllllallilY. TIll' n,latioll"hip" bl'twl't-'1I tilt' private alltl the public ~plll'rl'~ an' alsu lIIadt, lIIalliresl ill lIIallY figurative way". Tllt'sl' an~ CI'lIlerl'd Oil the Shakt'spean'an 1'11'1111'11"': thl' ··:\lacllt,tlls" alld tilt' ··llallllt,t triallgle." Tllt'se ('ollfiguntliol'" do lIot stalld for actllulllistoril'al factiolls. but the pl'rn'rSiOlb IIlt'y IIwllifl',,1 grow illlO a IIl1'taphor fur tilt' pn'\'ailillg "pirituaJ "tatl'. Tllt'rt' is a killd of Oedipal drallla ill opel"atioll . .-b ill allllo,,1 all \'i"nHlli'" 111111". thl' fatllt'r i" dead. \Iartill'" fathn Ita" died Oil tilt' battJl'tit-,ld ill tlte Gn'at \\ar. Iwt Ihl' IlIlIrdt'r of hi:-. gmlldfatlll'r. the Baroll Joadlilll \"011 Esst~lIl)('ck. stallds for Ihe dl'stl'llt'tioll lIot ollly of tilt' \\'I'illlar HqJIIIJlic hut of patriarchy ill gt'llt'ral..\1I tllt'"t'hil\t, gllaralllt'l'd all onit'r-huwt'\'t'r rt'prt'""ivt' alld 1'1'1'(('111 io,,,, - ",hii'll ha" al kast ollt'red tilt' po""ibility of It I'ivilizt'd alld culllln'd life. Ili"lorically. that ordt'r \\,a" rt-'plat'ed by a far IlIon' oPJlrt'ssin' 0111'. bllt wh;11 j,; :11 i",,11t' 111'1'1'. of ('Ollr~f' j, tilt' IIIt't,,Irel/Ill, Uo('('()
\ 1se (1:\ T 1 .\:\ Il L L H \1 \.\ \
piIorical annihilation of all moral order. This begill~ "ith ··tllt' ~Iadwths" killiug the old ruler. which ('oillcide~ with Martill abusillg Thildl'. coutiuues with the I'IHII,'ss chaill of 1I111rders aJl(1 .\Iarlill s,'dllcillg the littll' .Iewi8h girl alld driviug her to sl1icide. alld cullllillat"s iu \Iartiu rapillg his mother allll leadiug her awl Friedrich to their dt'aths immediately after their ,,",,ddillg. Meauwhile. the hest of Europt'all lilt'ratllrt' is Iwing IHlrtled ou a hOIlfire. alld the mo~t illlprt'ssiw victory of SS ol"lin'r Asclwllhach is the COIlver"ioll of Kouslcllllill's s/'llsitiVt' SOIl. the cellist Ciilltllt'r. illto all illstntlllt'lIt of hate .. \scilt'llhach is likl' a diaholical puppett'l'r. altho11gh he usually ollly has to gin' a slight impetlls to his "ictillls to lIIakl' thelll act ill a way that ~·;t'rws the purposes of tIlt' :\azis . .\scllt'llbH('h is HI"o the telllpter. who I!'adw;; pt'oplc uot to he afraid of tilt· ('viI illside t ht'lII aud to realize their potelltial for it to tilt.' full. This. Iit' ellll'hasizt·s. IIlIl!it he dOlle for the Lt'ue/it of the Rl'idl. Ill' dt'stro\'s "itllOlll Ill'sitatioll all thost· who do lIot suhmil to his cOlllro\. who ~it'ek their OWII advalltagt' alld lIot that of tilt' stah'. The plot CtHlfiguratiolls togt'tlwr with the ult'lodramalit' t11rt1" of I'H'II'" n-peatedly n'lIlilld Ollt' Ihat tilt' fillll is lIot to Ill' illlerpn·!t't! too lIluch ill tt'nlls of reali;;lic lIIoti,·atioll. althollgh tilt' wealth of vi~ual dt·tails. the ;;l1l11pt 1I0lb seHill!!;;. the n'cOIlStru('tioll of all era. cOllstalltly tl'lIIpt 0111' ill that din't·tioll. TIlt' illlplausibility of IIHllly of tlte twists of tilt' plot Brllckmallll's participatioll ill tilt' uight of tht' 10llg kllives aJl(1 Ht'r1wrt"s ghostlike appearatlt·(·. iu particular - I'lIIplta,.,izt' tilt' IIl1l'n'dinability of the tortuous lIow of en'ulS allt! the t'xt'{'l'lioual uat un' of the hi"torical COlItI'Xt. \Iaw'ice Jarn" ~ music 2h alld the at tilllt's t'xprt'ssionislic use of colors sen't' the ~anw purl'0~t'. In IlHlIIy ;;!'t·IIt'" tilt' intt'lbity of tilt' colors. particularly tilt' glowing oralll!" - the maill ('olor both ill the homt' tllt'ater and at tht' steelworks - gin' elllphasis to tilt' towering amhition a\H1 pt'rverted desin's of tilt' main t"harat'l(·r;;. But '·'·t'ntually tllt'y fall quietly into the icy embrace of {'itht'r pale shades of bltll' or the blackness of tht' SS ullifonll;;. Yisual slylizatioll reaellt's its Iwak in tlw grotl'squP w(·ddillg scene. ill which Sophip' s face is like a lillen-white mask through which her t~"es stan' ill iualle wondpr. The weird ('olors alolll! with the cau\t'm work Iwll' to
\1:i«()\II
"tntclurt' of tl\(' fillll. witlt its mallY paralld story lines. This camera ~lyle is fully apparent for tI\(' first time when CiintlH'r is playing tilt' Bach ~011J piee/' (t he Sarabande from the (>minor cello suite): tht' camera mow" calmly from 0111' character to anotller. as if to show them all in their loneiillt'ss. Here. as in mallY similar SI'elll'S. the camera does not alway~ distingui"h IH'tw('t'lI the situatiolls of tht, characters during the particular t'vent lwing shown. For t'xalllple. whell .Ioachilll make,; his HllllOuneement after hi:i llirthday nH'al. the camera has time tu glide over the little Thalmaml girl~. slIl'ely ignorallt of tI\(' implications allll ;;igniticance of the JIlessage. with the salllt' steady speed with which it passes all those whu know that tI\('ir Ii\'t's Illight d"JwIHJ on what he is about to say. This i" lIot the "on of 1Il1invoJ\'t'd gazing into the fictional worlJ from a slight dislUlIl'/' tllat we find in nit! Leopard and later in L/uill'ig. I le re the audit~IH'e i" brought 1I11wh dost'r to tI\(' Iwat of tl1(' evt'nh.:!; It is eS:;('lIt ial that tht, motivatiolls of the characters not lle Ullder:ilOoJ as all (''xl'lallatioll of tl\(' historical chain of ('vellts. Rather. Iho~e t'vent:; SllOllld he ""t'lI as a mallifestatioll of nwre gt'llt'ral and deeply buried traits of the human mind and We;;tt~rtI civilization. III a sense. The Dalllned is 1II0rt' thall a purely historical analysis of the evellts that led to the rise of tht, Third Reich. The way the fictional and historicallt'wls are illterwoven ellSll/'t'S that tilt' film is not ('onfillt'd to ib setting. the sl'('citic circulJlstances in Ct'l'Il1allY in the t 9:Ws. and suggests that the force:; that preI'ipitated the rise of tilt' ,\'azi party can he lllllea~hed 3nytime and allywllt'rt,. TIlt' crucial cOlltrast l)('twt't~1I Lel'lllan culture and its negation is at its 1II0st poillted ill the !Jonlire seelle. where works by the maloters of European literature are Ikdan,d decadent amI Jestroyed: "Thomas and Heillrich ~IHIIII. Ht'IIIHnIUt'. Stdan and Arnold Zweig. CidI'. Keller. London, Shaw. Zola. Proust.'· Thi:; contrast is appan'llt throughout the film. particulad\' ill the I'onlliet hetween tilt' oafish KOllstwlIin awl his sellsitive and nrltu/'t,d SOIl. Ciilllher. TII(' other major polarity is that Ilt'tweell Giilltllt'r alld \\artill. a" i:; st't'n in what they perform ill the family tlwater at the lH'gillning of tht, film. :\either of them i:-. intl'resh,d in tilt' steelworks or politi,·s. IHIt during thl' film they Iluth gradually becullle i\azis. Giinther has gut a long way to go. and his cOll\','rsioll - howeH'r weakly motivated ill terms or charal'lI'r psychology - "tands as a metaphor for the collapse of all elltire ('\IItUI'l'. Tlw society is 1II0rally dead. 110 firm ethical points of /'t,fert'llt'e remain.' l 'pholdillg c('rtaill cultural stallllard" i,.; not ellough - in this the .\azi n'gime. ill its OWll limitt,d WCl\·. sW'I't"'d,,d I'emarkahlv \\1'11 It i" Illf':tll-
\ 1s (
() \1
1\ \ /) (, L H \1\ \ \
iuglt'ss without a :;piritual cort', Products of nllturt' call /"(,11 "1' t allt! d,·velop :;piritllal stalldard:; but t Iwy calli lOt support t1H'1II 011 t1wir OWII 1b they are always ill dallg"r of Iwillg rl'dw,,'d to "lIwn:' art. III Yis,'ollt i' S film, tilt' bOil/ire rt'l'n'st'lIts illtolt'rarH't' und thus barbari"JII at tlH' dt't'I'",~t lewl within a cult lire " which at till' sam,' t illll' holds Ill' till' loft it'st of cultural tradition::., Ciillther might \\"(,11 play his Bach with IIt'W enthllsiasm as a :\azi. Iwaring it a,., hi,; filial ,'ictory OWl' his IIIH'ivilized fatlll'r, alltl ,was spectator:; might "a"ily shart' hi,.; cOlllplit'ity in ddt',.;tillg tlH' father and adJlliring the Bach, A lot has to bl' k"pt 0111 of till' lIIind to play allllli:;h'n to sonll'thing Iikt' Bach"s ("(·110 slIitf·s J"t'ally wt'II.:!B Thr wry ae,.;t1wtic IJlIality of TIll' /)([fllllt'd slIgg,'sts this painful paradox, TIll' JIIost bl'autiful and pun' - tlH' Thallllallll falllily - an' Hlllollg tlH' fin,t to Iwrish, And though Konstantill might look fat alld ugly, till' majority of thl' S,\ Jll,'n butl'ill'n'd dmillg till' nil-dlt of till' IOllg klliw,.; an' hand,.,ollle young 1lI"1I iliad" to look alnlO"t dlildlikt' and \lIllII'rahl,' ill t1wir lIakt'dlH~"" alld total iw'olllpn'llI'tbioll ill ,.;udd,'nly wakillg to tllI'ir death,.;, Of ('ourse. thl' "Slwk""IH'art'all" character,.; are Iwautiflll too. a" is Asdll'lIllUch alld tht' n·,.,t of tilt' SS 1111'11 ill their "hining 1.lw'k ullifonll"; allll with their illlpt'ccably COIT,·('t IJI'ha\"ior. Thl'l"l' i" a great ,,(,Ib" of a cult of beauty awl dealh, Iwrhap" ,'\"('11 of id"alizing racial pllrity ill this, all of which furtiH'r rt'illforce,.; tlH' di"ltlrbillg IJllality of till' fillll, '1'111' suhj'·"t. it ",'I'IlIS, i,.; illlpo",,,ibl,· to tacklt- withollt ,.;harillg ill till' ('olTllptioll, It is not ,.;illlply a IJlIl'stioll of a dire(,tor \'i"itill!! (;,'nIHIIIY jllst wh"1l till' '\azi" seized pow,'r alld adlllirill!! llIon' or I,·"" ill\ollllltarily till' ord"r alld d,·tt'nuillation di::.plaYl'd by till' W'W n'giull', till' ntlt of YOllth aud pow,'r, or till' hallll"ollH' blolld IIIt'II ill bla('k lIlI i fOJ"l 11" , Hatlll'r. it i,.; tlw dift-it"lllt \ fur tht' speclator of rt'sislillg the ,.,illi,.;ter Iwallty of thi,.; fillll,
Adap(in~ Mann and Mahlt'r
Thallk" to it" IIlt'tit"llloll"; n','ol"'tl"llt"ti(J1l of a l'y!!OIIl' ,·nl. ih ".\'1"i,~it,· cilll'mato;,!raphy, alld tilt' ,·olbid,'n·d 11",' of (;1I"tm' \lald"r'", III1",if". \'i","(Jllti'" adaptatioll "fTh""",,, \Iallll'" 1I11\,·lIa, /)('11111 ;111(,11;("(, (\1)\\), i", by !-!"IIt'ral ,'OIl""lIt all "\lrallrdillarily IlI'alltiflll liltll, :\1'\t'rtllt'l,'",,~, at tillW", il I",,, aJ"o t!i"'1I ri",' tll all allll(l,~t "a\'lI!!" diatrillt', :\,·il Sillyanllta" pillllt'd dOWII tilt· ""lIlral dil"lIl1l1a 1'" 1',,11,,\\,..: Tlte" !illll of /J,'a/It ill Il'lIin' (11): I) 1'1'1""''''111,.. a 1lte""lill!! or IlIillll,.. of tltn'" ;.! ... ·al E" ... '1"',11' "rr i-l- of tI It' t ""'111 i"ril ""Ill '"'V: \\Tilt· .. TItOIlI"'" \la,"I.. "01111'0";('" (;",,1<1 \
\ISUI"TI
.\Iahler. and filnllnakt'f" Llwhino Yisnlllti. The conjullCtioll is almo:;t too rich. a well-nil-!h indil-!I'stible cultural pudding fwm a wriler who. ill D. H. Lawn'llCt", phra~e. 'feds val-!lwly that he has ill him sOllwthing filler thall c'wr physical life reHalt'cL frolll a compo:;c'r who felt hc' was cafl~'inp; tht' whole history of llIu"ic Oil hi, ~1Jl)uldl'rs: alld from a ma""ive!y cultured ali(I aristocratic director seekilll-! to ntakt, tlw ultimate art movie in all industry given o\"«'r 10 (·OIllIlIl'ITP. COllselJuently. Wt· ha\"\' a movit, allllost insulTerahlt' in its st'lf-importallt:e, top-heavy with signifinln,·c'. which sOlllehow ('OJlllwls n's!,t,,·t clllll attelltion because the arti"ts imol\Td haw tilt' w'niu" to ju"tify thi" llIa""ive prt'tl'llsion.~·J Sillyard also aptly /lotes dlat the tilm imol\'t's ""tilt' killd of artistic interdla/l~t, that was. ill fact. 0111' of the 1II0s1 /!:Iorious aspects of the prt'-Firsl
World \rar arts. alld Ihat. ill Vist'ollli's words. saw a 'whole complex of t'llittlral chall/!:t' alltl re\"oltllioll alld that om' 1I1l1,;1 1I11derslalld 10 follow otlr OWII history', "":\1) \owt'II-SlIlith. howt'n'r, treats the qtleslioll of how
tilt' tilrll rt'lalt's \"icioll,;I\':
10
c'"lal,li"llt'd worb of art 11101'(' ullkiIUIh-. lIot to say
Culture is Jlrt·'l'nl. particularly III tlw f1ashha(·k .... hilt it i" not "c't'n prohlematically. only a, a 1"",i\Tly m;silnilatt'd ""valut'." By ahuli"hing tll«' structured discour" .. of th .. novcolla. with its twin foci ill tit«> mind of ,hdwnhach alld in :\laJlJl's ,'UlllnH'nlarv on his cultural alld st'xual dilelllma, Yisconti has in a sellSI' Lroul-!ht tI ... "Iory oul of the ..loud., awl dowll to earth and expo"ed Iht' materia\. or rad ... r dlt, pst,"do-oJllol0l-!ical. COIII .. nl of AschI'Jlhach'" oh"c's~ioll .... Tlw rea"Oll wlt~ \Iallll',; disI'ourse a" oppo,;ed 10 thal of SOliI«' (Jllter write'r should be import aliI alld worth n'IJI'odul'illl-! i~ 101al1~ ami irn'Yocahly 10,,1. Tht' film lrade~ UpOII. awl hd,," to I'(·rl',·watt' .... ·sl't·CI for tlH' ,'allies of art ",hilt, offerillg 110 rcoasoll wit,'. Ilti~ :\1'1 should Ill' rakt'l1 c','ell ... ·lIlOldY. .~t'rioll~h." , \'iscollti bad illdeed set hilllself a funnidaLle task, alld he had to pay for it. Elalloratill~ 011 Sillyanl'" observatioll, Ollt' lIIi/!:hl "ay that Iit' was a giallt dilllllillg 011 tht, shouldt'r" of two other ~iallts. \Iailllailling l,alalH'C' 1I1I'IIt,d 0111 to Iw well-lIi/!:h illlpo,;:;iltle. although tlte \Iahler ,'OIlIIectioll aClually dt'J'in';, fro 11 I \Iallll hilll,.;t'If. Ill' had set'lI ill Ihe cOIIII'0,;er tht' ctlittlrallwrtl of tlw c'arh-, lIillt'tet'lIth \'t'lltur\'. . While \Iallll was 011 \,acatioll ill BriOlI ill Dallllatia logether with hi" wift" I..:atja. allLlhis brothel'. lleillrich. Iit' follO\\'C'd the daily llll'dical reports Oil tilt' cOllllllbel:'" physical cOlldilioll. \\'lwlI \lahJt.r dit,d 011 \Iay lB, 1911. \laJlII I'tlt Ollt alld kept
tilt' IIt'W"palH'r ilt'lIl alllltHIIH'illg tbis, That sallle wet,k tlwy 1II0\'l'd to \'c'lIin', /)/,(/1" ill Il'lIicl' wa" ill"l'ired by thi" Irip. alld t1w lIIai/l chanH'tt't'. Cll~la\' HIli :hdtt'IlIHldl. wa,.; giH'1I IlIallY of \Iahl .... ';, I'cr"ollal traits.:\~
By IlIakillg tlw pl'Otagolli,,1 of hi" 11 0\«,11 a all audlOt'. \\;11111 apparclldy "',lI1lt,d 10 nll11wct d ... "tor\' ",idl hi" OWII c',,(wric'III""" 1,"t1 ... '" it 11IHII :tll"
an artist. Lodging in the hotel ill which he stayed ill Venire was a Poli"h faUlily with a thirtt>t'lI-year-old hoy, often dn·ssl·tJ ill a blue sailor's suit. ManIl could lIot 11I'lp but adlllin' tlH' boy's ,,1'/"I'11t' Iwauty, TIlt' :\Iarllls also visited Bolzallo, allll wh .. 1I tht'\', n'tunlt'd th .. Polish falllily. wa,; ,;till ill tilt' hotel. and tilt' author found hilll"eU followillg tht' youth with hi" eYI'''' Ont> t'\"plling all "obscI'IIt'" :\eapolilall sillgt'r with a yellow, It'erillg fan' enlert·d tilt' groull(ls of tlH' hO\l'1 allll caused SOlllt' confu"ioll. Tlwr.. wt'n' rUlIlors of cholera. and a derk al Cook',., tran·1 agt'IH'y nTonlllwndl·d that th .. y It'an' Vellin', :\ 1I11l1l1 ... r of Iwople had aln'ady died, Iit' said, although tilt' lIlunicipal ofticial" preferr.. d to r(,lIIaill silent ahout it. TIIt'"t· alld IIWIlY otht'r detail" of th .. \Ialllls' "tay, ill "I'lIic!' found their wa,', illlO tht' 110vdla:!:! In ilia m' ways, ,,\sdlt'lIbach's charactt'r COIlIIt'I't,., with \Iarlll hilw.,I·If.
Tire tiClitiolls auLilOr n'sl'lIIhlt's \Iarlll''; portrait,; of Schill .... allll La FOIItaillt" awl hi" work" an' \Iallll's OWII projects, SOIll!' of tilt' COllllllt'II'" abollt :bdlt'lIlwch'", works ('cho \Imlll's statt'lIwllts ahout his OWII output. A hillt of hi" "l'xlIal Orit'lItatioll al"o t'1I1t'fgt'S ill tilt· 1I0n'I. \Iallll uckllowlt'dgt'd his ill1ert'st ill prepubertal hoy" ill his diarit's, lit· was ulldouhll'dly fa""'illated hy discovt'rillg this trait ill Irilllsdf. alld to sOllle 1'.\II'IIt it stillltdated hb ""I'utiw work, Oil tlH' oth!'r ha lld, ht' lIIitdll haw "xagg"ratl,d thi" trait jll"t as Iit' ,'xaggt'ratt·d his llIillOr physind aillllt'lIts,!~ \Iallll ,;aw tilt' arti"t as all I'xc('ptiollal illdi\'idual. all "'(,lTipl' 1'1'\,....sl'lItatin' of hi,; nlhun', who i" al,lt' to cn'at!' "olllt'thilll! IH'W hilt ha" to pay a high price for it. .\ hourgt·ois arti,.,t. ill part icular is IlIwhlt- to d .. tadl hillht'lf frolll his "Iwial backgroulld, yt·t i,., hopei('s,;ly ali(,lIalt'd frolll it. IlI-cal"'!' of this dilt'lIlllla, Iit' is tillable to tilld pt·rsollalhappilH·"'S alld hi" arti"tic achit'\"t'lIIellb an' silllply its poor ,.,uh,.,titlltl'~, OftI'll thl' arti"tic illll'Ul"t' 1IH1"ks alld t'\('1I "'l'rill~" frolll a weak lit'S'; or a ,.;i .. knl':-'''; l'allsl'd I,y ~ume kiwi of ~I'iritllal or phy,.,i .. al contalllinatioll, TIlt' 1lOl,lt'st qllaliti,'" ill lIIall nlllllOt Ill' ~wparalt'd frolll hi" 1t'lIdt>w'y toward ('ornlptioll, III IJeath ill li'lIice \Iallll sOllght to darify his n'latiollshil' with 1'1'0,., awl !'tho,." tilt' SI'nSIlOU" awl th .. spiritllal. art alld lifl', TIll' 11O\'ella is allllllt tire difticlllty of rl'collt'ilill~ tllI',.,t' oppo,.,itiolls, It is abollt all arti"t "I'iZt,d by till' will to di(', a I'ldtivatt,d 1IIIIIIalliwillg tryillg to mailltaillltis digllity ill tilt' fact' of illt'\'itabll' physical dt'cay, DI'ath appear" to hilll ill thl' 1'01'111 of illlllloral alld ,.; .. dlll'tin· Ion', :\11 adVl'lItllr!' that ddit'''; bOllrgt>ois 1110rality, all attl'mpt to adlieH' a IIl1ity of till' spirit alld th .. SI' list·,.;, ollly Ilt'igl",'n" th .. cOlltradit,tiulI of lift' allll spirit ill Iris lIIilld, :\nerth..tl'ss, tit!' nilllt, of art i" "twlIgly cOlltinrH'd, ,\.Tordillg to Hog!'r Wil'lw, the n'lItral tllt'lIl1' "1','111,, to Ill' that ",-\"dll'lIhadl a,.; all artist IIII1,.,t Ill' iliadI'
\ I ~L () \11
to [t·ly IIU lon~l.'r 011 balm we. harlllony. ami control: he IlIUS( be challell~t'd l,y tht' implllse toward chaotic pll·nitude and. ill surrt'IHlerill~ to that impube. Ill' n·-illtq.!rated as all artist with the IInderstandillg that ani"tic illusioll:-- art' painful yet correcti\'!' alJlllH'ct's~ary for humall survivaL",;:' :hchl.'lIbach· s arti"lil' de\'t'lopnH'lIt. lhl.' lIarralOr sugge:;ts., has helped A"c/lt'lIbuch at'hit~\'t' "all almost ('xaggeralt'd sellSI' of I,eallty. a lofty purity. "yllllllt'tl~'. allll :"implicity. which gan- his pro
WIIt'II lilt' fallta~\' relllnlti toward the \Try e/ld of :\~l'helll,ach' ~ lift'. the sllrpwd Socrates takl's tlte role of a pot'\. a mall who"p "returll to detachmCllt alld to 1'01'111" i~ sure tu "Iead to iJltoxicatioJl aJld dcsire." This way is surI' to t'lId iJl lilt' pil. but wllat i~ tlte aiterJlatin' for "IIS who are poets - who I,y 0111' IHlllIn'''; are prU/le /lot to excellence bllt to eX("'~s"(I" Thi" lall"r falllasy a/lll lilt' dt·speralt' attempt to /'I'gaill youth IJY coslIIet it' IIlt'atb an' I' ... ·(·(·dt'd I,y a "iolt'lIt DioJlysiaJl lIigllllllarc: the slIPprt'~";l'd "Strauger Cod" has relllrtlt'd with \,engealh'!' ill tht' gui",' of a beautiful youth. :\:; expn'ssioJl~ of .\.:;cheJlbach·" IJlt·lllaluJlin·rsp. lilt' Socratic famasy mill the lIightlllan' n·pn·"t·1Il tilt' oppo"ill' poll''' of da""il'al ordt'r alld chaotic dt·lirilllll. re,;pt·,·tin·ly. Y,'I. as the Socrates of lIi,; lJIilld poill'" Ollt to him, tlw forlller lIIay ,·asily lead to lhe latte/'. the Platollil' adoratioll of Iwall!\' to S,'I\:;IIOII"III':;" alld "I'illldoll. I'n'~t'l\ti\l:!
""'Ill"'" ,"
\ he () \ Tl ,\ \ D (. L H \1 \ \ \
as the ollly Inlt' way toward fllltilluH'lIt. III lilt' tin,t iIlSIHUct', hi~ illlt'n',,1 in the boy llIay well Iit' plln'ly at'stllt'liI', hilt flllldaml'lIlUlly it is lIt'vertheless desire a('srheliciz('(1. This allows tilt' erotic impulst' SlIfrl'pl itiously to lake OH'r his ordert'd milld, 11Idulgillg ill lilt' Socratic falllU;,y leads Asehenbach inevitably lu thl' dt'strtlctioll of Ihe balanct' Iw has al'hipvt'd through his t'scape into his aestht'lic spllt'n's, 11 .. ('nd:; up foolishly imagining Ihal whal ("('ally belollgs "only" 10 Ih .. reallll of Ih .. spirit call actually be elH'uunlt'rt'd ill flesh, After "uch a llIisslt,p, Ihl' pursllil of till' fullilllllt'lIt Call only It'ad to tilt' lIothillglll'SS of death, ~1U1111' s /)eath ifl ,'cfli("c is firsl hand ,'vid"III'e of tilt' cult llral ami spiritual :;itualioll ill Ellrllp" IlI'fon' Ihl' Fir:;t \\'orld War, AI till' tum of tilt' cenlury, European arl and inlt'lIe,'luallif,' wert' 1ll0Villg toward IIt'W ,'onct'plious, ranging frolll sohri"ly allll con;,lraint 10 exct'ss alHllhe radicalizalioll of .. xpressiH' lIIt'alb: Iht'rt' wa:; ,\mold ScllolllJl'rg's atonality alld Igor Slravin:;ky's revolulioll of rhYlhm in IIIl1"i,': Yasili Kalldinsky's abstntctiollism, Paul Kle,:,; expressionism, alltl Pablo Pinbso',; and Ceorgt's Braqlll"s cuhism in paintillg: the various Iheatrical ,'xperilllt'nb allll tht'orizalions of Edward Gortioll (:raig. :\dolpht' Appia, \r~t'volod !\I,'y('rhold, alld lIIallY others, Wilh "illellla IIIm'ing al tn'lIH'lIdous :-.p",'d 10 OC('IIPY vasl areas of lilt' field of lIarralive arl and t'IIIt'rlailllllt'lIt. till' avalll ganie ill lileratufI' allll tlwatt'r, reli,'wd of tilt' burd"1I of lIaluralislII, Iwgall to explore more stylized and abstract lIIeans of l~xpn'SSiOll. All Ihis 1lI0re or less coillcided with philosophical and scielltific developlllt'nts such as Ludwig Wiltgt'IISlt'ill's philo,",ophy of lalll!ual!l'. AlIlI'rt Einsl"ill's I Iwory of J'I'lativity, ami Sigmund Freud's psychoallalysis: sot'ial prol!n'~s ill tilt' fOrIlI of Ihe rist' of the work,'rs' llIovenrelll: the illlpellllill!! cataslrophl' huilt into riit' sYSlt'1ll of llalion-statl'S organized inlo hlocks with ullpn'cedenlt'd dl'slrtlctiv,' power al tllI'ir disposal. Then' was pit-lily of ulopiallislll ahout. t'lIlhusia::>1ll aboullhl' IIt'W vista" Ihal ,.,cit'lItific all(ltl,dlJlical d"\'I'loPIII"1I1 appeared 10 opell for 11l1ll1U1I pursuits: hili tlWJ'I' was al,.,o Ihl' ft'ar of Ihl' t1e:-.lnJctioll of ntitllre, tilt' n'r\' 1'
\I~L()\'II
preft·r 10 iIHIIIIW' ill ~('I"'"01b yt'anrill~ aIHllhe hope of t:aillillg immediate protit. J't·~p(·etivdy. Ila\'ill~ t'~labli~ll('d this COIlIt·X1. !\la 11 11 fO(,lIst's 011 th .. illability of tilt' hourgeois artists to Irllly cOllfront lift' alld Ihe illdissolubl.. mixt IIn' of ill IOxi('at illt: illlltH'dial'y alii I ,'prl i~illom; trallsi Iorjllt'ss. c\,,dl('lIbadl IlUs n'adl('d what tll(' lIarralor ('ails tht' ""'ullder der wicder~('bon·IH·1t
llllJl'fall~eltllt'it." LaCapra ha,.; allalyzt'd dlis cOIH't'IJI a"
follows:
{lIbt:/illlP:t'lIlwil i~ a tloul.ty IIq!alin' 11'1'111. ( 11 dt'~i~llall'~ a la .. k or all aUst·ul't'. LJljilllp:ellllt'il ,.;igllitit·~ t·Olblraillt. ~t'lf-t'OI."l'ioll,"e,;s. alltl al~o I' ... ·judi('t,. I would "lIgp:t'''1 dWI I he word ( lIiJl'jilllp:ell/ieil dot" 1101 n'fl'r 10 a Ito,l origillal iIlIlOt'(,Ilt'l' bill 10 all ah"t'llI't' of t'Olblrailll or of ~df-t'OIl"l'iolbllt'~S iIlUl i,.; (/('/ii"l'l'd and alway" ,ubjt'!,1 10 dlall"I'W' or lo"~. I1 i" a "l'olllalleilY dt·ri,,·tl illl'aradoxit'al fashioll ill alltllhrollgh ndllll't· alltl art. Alld wht·ther Ollt' jlltlgt'" du' tJlIt'~1 for illol)(' yel allolht'r illll~ioll or a hi~llI'r-ordt'r llaiH'\t: will affect 0111""; n,,,;pollst' 10 \Iann ill !!t'llI'ral. i1 Thi,.; ('Ollt't'IJI i" a lIlallif('slalioll of thl' J'OlIlalllic idt'al of all artist. able 10 !Tt'alt· "1'(lIIlallt'ollsly alld effOJ11t's"ly. carried
011
tilt' will~" of tJ'Utli-
tiolt alld hi" OWII ~ellills. :\0\ ali" Wl'Olt' abouI what he ('alled "illtelltiollally ralldolll tTI'atiYity." for "what app,~ar" to
1)1' ill"pin'd by the
11101111'111. t'xtl'llIport'. ";lIddt'lI alld forlllitol"'. is ... the protillCt of the hi~hl·"t. t·tllI"l'ioll"; i1rli"tic illlt'IIt."~~ This idt'al hallllted ('OII11t1t'SS artisls.
:\lallll 110 d01l1,1 al"o ''''pin'd 10 tilt' cOllditioll of all ani,.;t fret' of tilt'
,'011-
slraillh of ,'oll"cio,,,,"(·S,.., Ullt Ill' li\'(·d ill all I'ra illcl'I'a"ingly ho"lile to whal Sdlilkr ('1IIIt·d lIain', a" 0pl'0s"d 10 SeJltilllelltal. arli"h, The forlII!'r an' th'h" who ('xllI'rit'lIt'l' 110 di"isillll 1)('IW('t'lI tlWllbt'ht·" alld tlwit' COIIIJllllllity alld to wholll arl is lIatural s(·lf-(·xl"·",,!'ioll: Ihe lalter are Iho,;t' who an' illclIrably alieJlated, to wholll art is a lIH'alb of ('I'ili('iziJl~ life allll t'OllllllllJlilY a" il is knowlI to ,'xist and i" a way of articulatillg yt'al'llillg for a losl IIl1ity. Mallll -
11
"elllillH'IIWI arti,.;1. if allyllll" - \\a" /'t'l\el'tilll!
011
a poilll ill
l'uiturallli"tOl'Y throll~h \\hich Iit' had hillh"'f li\l'd alld that Ill' had tilt' alldal'it y a" \\,,11 a" cOIlt-.itkrahlt' jllst ilical iOIl to Ihillk Iit' \\11"; act lIally fOl'lllill~ hilll,,('If. Bill hi,.; palh to Ihi" "Iatll" had littlt, to do wilh 1II0dt'l'Il-
"'i1"
1101 ill hilll to II(' all <1\ alII ganli"l: Ill' had tilt' 1'tI1t' iSIIl ill Ihl' art,.;. It of a la\(',·ollll'l'. Ili" ~rl'alt·"t ~ift - al Il'a,,1 frolll tilt' poillt of "i,'\\' of till' 1'('('';(,111 ar)!:lIlIH'1I1 -lay ill Il('ill~ awart' of thi" IHbitiolll"lIl1billed with tilt' abilit" to d,'ri\'(' fl'tllll thi" conllict IlIlth till' "OIlIl'lIt alld Ih .. forlll of ,,0111,' of his lIlajor work". Alltl Ihus, t1l1'tl\l~h "..Jf-ill"P"('lioll alld t'xalllillatioll of hi,; OWIl rol .. ill tilt' ('lIlllIral hi"torit,,,I ... illlatioll. \Iallll hi lIl ... d I' ;... ",.dh
\I~COYII
.\\1) I.LH\I\\\
Itd
succeeded in reachillf! a kiwi of "mintdt' of n'f!ailll'd dClal'llllll'III" Of "rt'hofll UIICOIblraillf.·' It al'l'('al"l'd 10 him ill till' ollly po"siblt' gllise Ihal the sitllatioll allow('d, Ihal of illlricate irollY, whi('h Ill' ellll'loys ill I'lIltinf! his story allll tI WII It'S, hilll"df alld hi" sitllatioll. illlO Iwrsl'l'('li\"l'. Askillf! whether .\hulIl "slH'C('ed[,,] ill when' Asl'lwnbal'lt St't'lIlS 10 faiL" LaCapra COliit'S to tht' t'OIH"lu"ioll that irollic allt! parodic' ~t'~IU("I'S S,','IIl dos,' to 'Il,\\ittill~ tht'IIl"t'ht'~ awl "u~gt,,,tillg a reborlluw'oll,[raillt that i, 1I0t a lIai,,' ("I'tunt to ""IIlt' ori~illal ,Iatl' but a cultural achint·HII'IIt. ... TIlt' It'xt of V('(/Ih ill 1('lIicl' do,'~ 1I0t totally tralls("('lId till' prob1"IllS it t'xplon',;. but IlI'itlwr dOt·" it rqtiicatt' tll4'IIl in a fully "Ylltl'tolllati(" IIIUIIIII'I". III a doubl,· 1I10H'lIIt'Ut it ,'IUWh cl'rtaill liIllilill~ I'0ssibiliti,'s allcl bt'colllt's a ,'0'"1leragt'ut or autitiolt· to tht'lIl, for it ,IIOW" how a '·'lIIlplt·X US(' of irollY and parody lIlay both toudl t'Xtr,'IIWS awlllot Iit' alto~t'lIH'r "ollsullwd by 11"'111. III thi" "'~II"', iruIIY awl parody art' lIt'ith"r thl' ligurl's of ubsolut,· illlpas,..,· lIor 1It'/.!ativt' cultural itt'lIl" to Iit' trallscl'IHI"d ill a n·foulld iuuo('('III"" or "talt· of ,ahatioll. l'st'd iu a t'\·rtaill wm'. the\ Il\a\'. h"wl'\"r probl"Il\,lIically, Iit' par'" of a "n·b"nl UIII"OIl~trailll. ···u
Transforming literary into audim'isual splendor LJpath i/l I ('/licf', th .. film, "hollld olJ\iollsh· Ill' takell abov(' all a:; \' i"COIll i' S OWII Slal,'lllt'llI al" nil lift', arl. alld deal h ill tilt' lIIak i Ilf! of whidl Iht' 1I0Hlla awl \lallll'" at'"rlwti(' alld philosophy ill f!('Ilt'rallul\('1I01 bet'll II\(' only importallt sOlln'e of lIlal,'rial alld illspiralioll. COlhidt'rillf! rill' cultural slat us of lbe 1l00dla, Ihi.~ is 1I0t ,'as\", ,\t'\'('nlH'le.~s, il is ,,(H1H'wllat slIrpri"illg lital I'\"ell 10 "Olllt' highly ~opiti,;lil'ated t'ollllllt'tllalors tilt' I'rob1t'1II with \'iscollli',; tillll appear,; 10 han' b""1l Ibe trallsforlllalion of thi~ pal1icular lilerary lexl to all Hudim·i:.ual di"c'lIIfSl' as su('h, H~ if tilt' 110wlla had "Olllt' di\·illl' ri~11I to Iit' Ide ill ih Vl'r/wl-philllsophit'ul t'X(,I'lIt'IH't'. :\o\\'dl-Smil h. Oil Iht' ,11 ht'r balld, t bill\,:,; \. iSCOll1 i was nlplu n,d hy tilt' ('xl't'lIl'llI'(' of Ibe 1l00·e1la 10 Iht' poillt wlwn' it I'rl'\'I'III(·d him from alIl'lIlplill~ any dis('our",' of hi" 0\\"11. For lIIany crilics. themaiIlProl.lelllofthl.filllli.;do~(.ly(.olllwl.l •. d wilh I h(' fact I hal Tadzio ha,; had 10 Iit' vi"lIalized alld tllIb partindariz"d ill"lead uf appearillf! 1l1lJ/'t' or It'"" jlbl a" 11 pwj"('lion of Aschelllweh's milld. Vi"uulizUlioll ha" bl'OlIghl with illltlll'r prol,II'III~, In Cl'offrl'Y \\'uf!ner ~ 0PIlIIOIl:
Th,' n'al diflintl" i" Ihl' aI'P,·arallt·(, of Bogardt'. I"okill~ likt' all ab"('llt-lllilltJt.d proft',.,~or who b ill r('alit~ a 1(·t·IIt' .... II~ fag .... Thi" haI'P"lb Ilt'eall~(' \'i~t'ollti ira., 110 lilllt' to ill"illllatl' Tadzio illto .\"dwllbaeh'" eOIl"cio,,,,,w,,s a" dt'ftl\' alld ddi1'111(,1,
\1~('O.'fI
ami qllllling Paul Zilllllwrrllallll. "lle [.\~dlt'lIhachl and Iht' Loy ex .. hall~e I.'ngl hy glanct's. who~.' t'xl'li('ilnf's~ wrns Asdwnhaeh illto a fuolish diny old lllaIL anti Ihe hoy inlo a "rclty little 1.'a~l'''·H
Joy COli Id BOYIIIII more or le,,;:; agrees with this bllt i~ e\'('n 1II0l'e disturlwd by Tadzio',; andro~ynolls appearall('e awl find his ~Ian('es haek at ..hdH'llbal'h ··!:'>O 1IIH'IJlIi \'ocal that it':. impo,,~ihlt' to read t1WIII (as we mil!lu ill tht' IIl1wlla) as a fllnction of .\sclH'nLal'h·~ imagination"'~'-> As NO\wUSmith ha,.; also ~uggest('d with 1II(,l'cilt's~ irony: "\layLe this tNchy old lIIall has a m(,lItal alltl fanlasy lift~ richer and 11101"1' intelligiLle than call he d.'duel'd frolll IIIt'r('ly watching hilll Iech aft('r a plIIJt'sl'elll Loy ill a pru\'ol'll! in' bathing cost UlIIl'. "~ .. SOIll/'Olll' reading slll'h COIllIlIt'lIt:. before st't'illg the film and thus expecting to sel' a "foolish dirty old man" "Iech after a puLescent boy ill a pro"ol'ative I'ostullle'" ·'a pretty little tease'" would sun'ly Iw sU'l'rised. The \'igor of these attacks awl tlwir moralizill/! tOlle ~uggest that Vi:.1'0111 i' s fillll ha:; at lea:;! lWI'll profoulldly disturbillg. But tllt'se writer,. makl' lill It, IIlt"lIt ion of tlw ~plendid audiovisual realizatioll of the tilm. and n011t' of thelll discus~ tilt' extraordinary use of 'Iahler'" music. First of all. it should Iit' noted that the rich audiovisual n'l'on~tnH·tioll has Illt'rit ill ibelf. \'iscollti was ('ollsciou"ly rl'creatillg sl'ellt'rie" alld situat iOlls from his OWII youth. wllt'lI hi:; family used to spelld their holidays at tht' I -ido. 11., was. ill effect. 0111'1' agaill doillg ill audiovisual tt'rIlIS what Marc!'1 Proust had dOli I' ill words: gi\'ill/! the peoplt, alld t'1I\'irOIlIlH'nts of his past a IIt'W least' 011 lift' ill a work of art. Ami altholl/!h in the space of a sillglt, lillll - or evell a ft'\\' fillll'; - \" isCOllli ('ould lIot po:;sihly achieve the lIlollulllt'lItality alld tht' wealth of the telllporal cross-relations of La rf'dlt'I'dlt'. tlH' \"alut' of the shear alltlH'lIticitv of the audioyi"ual renm:;tnlctioll call ollly 1)(' III'gll'cll'd from a puritall YiewlJOillt that IIIt'asures I'll It ural achieH'llwII(;; :-iolet" . ill terms of literary, \"allles. It should abo Iw 1I0tl'd that ('yell audiU\'isualizatioll a~ S\H·h i,.; lik .. l\· to ha\"!' philo"ophical implieutiollS. Despitt, till' :;plemlor of tilt' film. paradoxically. at It'a~t ill Ollt' illlportallt S .. I.".'. cOllsidi'rahl .. ft'straillt ha,., 1It'I'II f'xercis('d: there is wry little illdulging ill tilt' pictllrt',;qlll' aspI'c(;; of \"1'11ict'. Ilardly allY of i", distillgui~ht'd mOIlUlllellts an' ";1'1'11 dllrilll! the tilm. III"tt'ad. \'1'lIin' is llIrIwd illto a IIlt'taphor for \\· .. "tl'm cultUrt' at tilt' tllm of tilt' cI'IJtury. Its glorious alld ";I'IISUOIIS arti,.,tic adli.,\'t'mt'II'" hast'd on rutltlt'~s IIlUtt'rialislIl an' hllllllemorie~ of tilt' past. a lit I tilt' city is rt'legated to a glorious leisure re:.tll'l. I", labyrillth" are exhaustillg. alltl it appears to Iit' dyillg of its OWIl lilth: y.'t it is \dwn' earth. "I'a. alld ';1111 Ilw.'t to
\ 1S (. () .'\ Tt \ '\
J)
1.1 H 'I \.'\ \
Itd
form a uniquely intoxicatin/-! mixlure - all this splendidly ('aplul"I'd Ily Pasqualillo Dt, Santis"s ,'xqui"itl' l'Ullwra work, In addilion, the filIIIl'ontains its OWII \\"I't. of cullllrul J't'fl,I't'IH'I'S, lar~wly independenl of Ihl' lIowl bUI ill a ITucial way related 10 i\. TIlt' prola/-!onis" S cOlllwcl ions hOlh wilh cerlain ~Iallnian lict in' chanH'tl'rs a,., w,'1I as wilh \Iahll'r are IlIad" fairly evidl'lIl in lIint' lIashba('ks. alt IlOu~h apprel'ialill~ Ihe"e allusions does n'(Juin' ('llII,..id,'rablP back/-!rolllld knowled~e. The \Iannian Ihenlt's 1'lIwr~I' maillly in tilt' ~;t'cond. Ihird. fourth, and fifth lIashbacks. whilt, Iht' lir,,\. fiflh. and lIilllh lIa,~hbacks rI'fer 10 the ITi"t,,, \lahler t'Xlwri,'n, 'I,d in his Iif(, al'tlllIlIl 1()O? .. ~ Jlis ddt'/' dall/-!h Ier died of scarlel fewr alllllw hiJllsl'lf was dia~w"",'d 10 hme a \\Tak heart. After prolrat'll'd lJuarrels alld displllt',.;. Iit' 10,.;1 hi,.; POSilioll a,., tilt' dil'el'lOI' of' Iht' Vit'nlla Slall' Opera, AI tilt' sanlt' lilllt'. fJubli,' rt'co/-!lIilion ('ollliIllWd to elude him as a "01111.)('''''1'. Pcrhaps IIIort' so thall allY olher "IIIIlPO",'/'. \lahll'l' Iltarkpd till' 1>lIdillg poilll uf a certain chaplel' ill tilt' history of W,'slpfII mu,.,ic, Ill' llrou/-!hl lhl' c1assical-rolllalllic SYlllpllllllic lradilioll 10 i", Iwak ill 11'1'111,., of /-!ralldeur of I'll 1'111 , hanllollY. awl Ol'dWSIHllioll, III duill/-! so, Iit' provided hi,., sll/dl'lIh wilh Cl slUrtill/-! poilll 1'1'11111 which 10 totally n'lww Ihal lradilioll, Thi" WWi a,'coIllplisllt'd lIIaillly by ,\l'IIold Sdli;lIlwrg alld hi,., ,.,111111'111,., AIlIOII Welwl'Il alJ(l AIlIUII BI'r~. SchIISIIl',·d n'cOllf'ilialioll. III public. \lahlt,1' al\\'ays dl'fl'IHI,'d tilt' wi,it'ly d,'spised Schiilllwl'g. although ill pl'ivalt' Ill' adlllill('d Ihal Iit' did 1101 always IIl1dn,.,land hi,., 11Ilhlt' , IlIa,.,lIIu('h as tilt' prllla/-!olli,,1 of till' lillll is w .. "ucialed wilh \Iah"'", il i,., uiffil'lliI 1101 10 Sl'p his I'Olll'a/-!11l' Alfred a,.; a r('lkl'lioll of Sdliillllt'r/-!, alt1101I/-!h \'i,.,,'ollli ,'xl'l'I'ssly dl>lIit'd till' "OIlIIt"'lioll alld "IIII'''asizl'd I"al Alfn'd ,.,llOuld Ill' IhOIl/-!hl of ~illlply as .·\sdll'lIl,Ht'h·~ alll'r "go.~:: Allt! 11'111' "llOlI?!h. ,\I fret!· ,., diat rilli'''; cJI'arly art il'ltial (' .\";I'''''III'a('h' S OWII dOllb", alld ft.ar~. Fllrtllt'l'Il10rl'. Ihl' ('olln""liol"" III'IW"('II tllt' l'I'al-lit't- "OIIlI"IS('rS alld tllt' dlanwl,'r,., ill tllt' lillll an' IIll1ddll'd 11\ till' ,'011\ ,'r,.,alioll'" ,\.~dll'lIbadl a III I .\lfn'd "av(' ('ollc('ruillg al'l alld IIllbil', TIll' dialo?!lll' 11<.,., 111'1'11 pal1t'l'Il1'd 10 a gn'al ('xl"1I1 aftl'r pa",.,aw's ill \Iallll·,., /Ju('/o/' fllllSllIs (1 "~of:'). TIlt' lIIaill clwnl('lt'I' "I' Ih,' 110\1'1. .\driall LI,\t'I'kii"lI. i,.,. ill l.illn \Iic"idll;'", word,.,. likl' "all ;\,.,1'111'111,,1(''' "'lll·yi\,'d." \\·h",.,(, al'l "a~ illvollllllarik 111','0111(' all l'xl'l'I''''SiOIl of tilt' dt'llIOllil', fOl'lllill),! a I'urious I'a ntl It> I wilh (;"J'III
lId
\1:-i1.()\Jj
- tlw book t'\(,1I t'Olldllde" willl all ackllowlt'dgllll'lIt of this, SclIiinlwrr was infuriuh'd. III the film. IIowt'\'el". Alfred i" the spokt'slllan of till' dt'monic iu an: alld :hc/ll'lllluelI. lilt' ~Ialder l'IIamctt'l". i~ the propollelll of pun~ spirituality, Alfn'd al.'I'l."I''; him of sterility iu IIis p"r;;"it of "pun> oeauty. alJ;;ollll!' st'H>rity, purit y uf form. perfl-etioll. tile ab"t raetion of tile se'be"." '., l ~llfortull"lely. tllOlIgh this miglll ulIICt'i\'allly Iit' said about Schollberg"" IIlllsic. it ab"ollllt-Iy dOI-"; Ilot apply to \lahlt'I:". lit' ('ollld he intoxicated by tilt' IlI'auty alld c/lUrtll of uatun-.. blll Iit' wa~ al"o aware of it,.; comical. wotesqul'. and terrifyillg aspects - alld all this he ~ollght to expre~s ill hi" lIlusic. III hi" Third SymphollY his ailll wa" to captun- Bt-illg in all it" lIlultiplicity. to "ellllml('l' the wholt- world." Accordillg 10 his OWIl state1l1t'1It.. the I"ir~t nlOVelllt'Jlt t'xpn's~es till' panic horror of a mid,;ulIllller nooll that had struck him ill hi,; solitude ill tlw stillJless of a :-ollJlIlIlt'r's day. The fourth 1Il0VI'IIIt'nt. st'! to Friedrick i\it,tzsche' s text and kllowlI a" Zara/hus/m:~ Sigh/SUI/g. is about wakelling into humanity .• 10wl:'\"t'r. \Iahler was abll' to I'xercist, Apollolliall re';t'I"\·t'. \00. PI'rlIaP" 1\1' could not alway" be botllt'red 10 do so. but it is t'('rtainly apparellt ill thl' :\dagil'lIo of the Fifth SYlllphony. It has ol"'iou"ly ht't'1I IWCI's"ary 10 di"WIIl't' tilt' protagolli,,1 from the I"I-al \lalIJt.r ill mdl'r tOlllaintaill Ihe basil' pat tent of tile 1I0\"l'lIa. :\11 erotic rt'action I'n>cipitilrl'd II~ the al'"tht'tic COlllt'llIplalioll of tilt' Ilt'auty of a young boy cOllfust''; :hdll'llbal'h. who al'pan-Iltly IIa" lIl'n'r ht'l'll aLII' to n'collciJt. "I'iritllality alld sl~llslIality. Ilis dl'ci"ion 10 It'a\"t~ Veil ice is followed by a lia"hllHck in which .\Ifn·d "IITII"e;i hilll of IIt'illg alil'lIated aJld lackillf! ft'l'lill~";. A('I'tmlilll! to till' yOllllg clIlIl>aglll'. Iwaltl .. particularly that of till' "I'iril. i" dry alld sterile. Ht'ferrillg to "l'irilllality ill art. A~ dlt'lIbach "ay" tlIal "J"t'ality ollly dislracts ami dewade" u,," allll that "the tT('atioll of Ileauty is a spiritual al·t." Bill Alfred £1",,111'1''; hilll that "beallty belollf!s 1I0t to tlw ';t'lIse. only to till' sellst',.,." To hilll. art i,.; ba"ically delllonic. III Iryilll! to n'al'h ,,01111' 1'.\1/"I'llIt' pllrily. art lo"e" it" cOlllact with J"I'ulfifl' alld III'('ollll''' ,,(,If-sufticit'lIf. :\lId at "'ast ill hi" o\\"n J"t-collt'ctioJls. :hc/lI'lllnlt"h'" alll'llIpl to COIIVI'Y "piritllal Ilt'allty to hi,., alldit'llI'l" ha:; fa i Jt.d , III till' prt'''I'1I1 of thl' fillll. hi" old illt-als appl'ar lit-ad 10 hilll. Ihl'y flUVl' II'd hiJII to all illll'as"t'. Thi" faillln' 11a" IWt'1I ('ollll'll'lIl1"lItl,d IIY thl' dealh of hi" dall~htl'r alld apl'an'lIt1y ,,1,,001' hi" "ifl-. The t'tlll\l'r"alitllh abollt al,,,t1wlic,, 111'1\\1'1'11 :\"c/lt'lIllHch alld Alfred art' al lillH'''; allllo,,1 t'"lharra""illl!ly 1'J"t'lt'lItioth alld facik. III Ihi" tht'y art' ill ill"cord wilh tht' 1I0tiOIl\"dwIIIJHd .. till' allthor. IIlakt'" ill tilt' 110\1'1 aftt'r illdlllgillg ill al',.;tlwli(' "11I'1'lIlalioll" whilt- hm"ill!! hi" fir"l dillllt'r al tllf"
\1:;<:OY11 .\:\1) (.lH\I\:\\
1() ,)
hotel. Ill' soon (,OIlIl'S to the cOlll'lusiOll Ilwt "what seemed to him fresh Ih()ught~ Wt' ft· like tilt' tlattt'rill~ in\"t'lllioll~ of a dream, which the wakill~ sense prows worlhless and insull~tanlial.";'1 "i;;collli has stated that he attempted to rend!'r Iht' ironie low's of ~Ialln' s Ilowlla Ihrou~h Ihe excessively t'Ilhivated and illtcllectual tOIlt'S of tht'S{' conVt'rsations,;':! l ;11fortunateh', . this intention doe,.; not ft'all,'. cOllie across in the lillll as tilt' flashbacks might all loo t'asily Iit' taken as a pathetic attt'mpl to t'reat!' a lofty cultural discourse, But what Ihe tilm Jot's sUl!gesl quitt' dearly i:; that the lia"hbacks nel'd Ilot Iit' tlrou~ht of a:; oLjt'cti\"(' renderiug;; of past evellt:;. Lut rather as ,hchenbach·,.; intTea;;ill~ly t\istorlt'd memories, Thu,.; ullder,.;tood, platitudt·,; ;.udl as "it i~ only by tilt' \.'olllplt,tt' dOlllillatioll of the senses that you call t'wr achie\"(' wi"dom. truth and human di~llity," or. in allswer to this, ··geuiu;. i" a di\'ilw ~ift , , , or uo , , , a diyillt' amicliou, a cYllicalmorbid tlash of nat ural gifts." could lit' thought of as vagiit' recollection,.; of wlral might han' Iwt'll Illlwlr IllOrt' ~ubstaulial ar~Ulllt'llts or t'veu fallw"ies of dd)Hh'" t Irat Irave Ilt'\'er act ually takl'll pial"'. Howevt'r. the \lahler COllllel'tioll ih a cultural rdt,rt~llt'e a,.; ";llCh i" not it:; most relenlllt aspt'(,t. It is by far more si~nitinUlt tlrat tilt' back~roulld JllIlSil' i~ takt'll frOlu tilt' :\da~it'tto Illmt'mt'nt of hi,.. Fifth SYlllphouy and tilt' :\i~ht;;ollg of tilt' Third Sympholly, TIlt' ,\dagit,tto t'xpn's,.;t's al tilt' 1II0St din'ct It'y,,1 11 yt'anlill~ for a uuity of 'iI'renity awl S,'II"IIOI"'III''';,;, hilt what make" it,.. U~t' ill thi~ tillll spt"'ial is that it i" heard in 1'0111' t'xn'ptiollally long :;tretches durin~ which rdati\'t'ly littll' b said, TIlt' film eyohe" as a It'isurt'ly ;.pt'clad,' i'l\'itiu~ the spt't'tator to ,'Ilter illto a Illodl' of reL'eptioll ill which tilt' alldim'i"ual quality of tilt' tilm 1'lIwrgt's as a major tlll'lIIt' ill ihelf. thlb gi\'ill~ this adaptatioll it,.; IIWIl IIniqllt' quality iudept'ndt'Bt of tilt' literary "ourn', The opl'uillg IIIl1sic star'" IH'fol'l' Ihe 1T"dib alii I l'olltilllU'" IIntil the boat nllTyill~ ..\:;cht.'llbadl III \'(,Bin' lallds and aJ,ollt thn't'-lifths of tilt' IlIO\'emt'lIt Ira" ht't'1l Ilt'ard. TIlt' "t'cOlld st r(,tch Iwgill" whell .hdlt'lIbadl. just about 10 It'an' \'ellict'. t'III'OUlltt'!'S Tadzio. :\part frolll a "hort illtt'rrllptioll at tilt' railway statioll, till' 1I111"it' clllllilllW,.. through hi,.; l'I'tUI'll alii I "ell lill~ dowlI ill tht' h01l'1 agaill righl illto till' Ila"hl,ack with hilll alld his falllily, TIll' tla"ldJiu'k IH'gill" Ill'autiflllly at till' p"illt wlll'l'I' all al'fll'ggio 1111 tht' harp allllllllllt'l'" till' n'turll Ill' till' llrain tI 11'11 11', ,\ltogt'tllI'r. ahollt four-lifth" IIf Ihe 1110\ "III1'lIt i" IlI'unl. It i" ""1111 follo\\(,d hy tilt' \i~ht"ollg, which ('llIlIilllll'''' alllll\l halfway Ihl'llll~h. Thl' third ~tn'tdl of till' ,\dugi(,tlO I wgiu~ witll tilt' Ila~hl'ack of t hI' dallght('r' ~ coni 11 aud ,'out illlll'''; through rill' "1'1'111' at tilt' harlwl:" alld tilt' 10llg walk wilh ,\.~dll'lIllal'h fIlIlO\\'ill!! tI ... 1'"li,l! f;"llih tlll'flll,!h "t"li,'" TI!i, lillll' rI ... 11141\ "llIl'lIt
I tl ()
\1:-1"0\11
readlt's its climax in a shot showing Ascllt'lIhach retitwed to hysterical laughter: the music is suddellly interrupted by the f1ashl)ack ill which lilt' closing chord of a pit'ct' !hdlt'lIhadl is t:Onducting is heard. Finally. the Adagit'tlo is I'layt'd at the elld of the film. stanillg from the poillt whe ...... Aseilt'nlIHdl is following Tadzio with his eyes for the last tilllt'. The l1lu"il' contillues oyer the filial nedits until the rt'tufll of dIP maill theme.:;:1 :\ot ollly an' tilt' mllsical stretches t'xceplionally long. but there arc fiH~ long s('q"ellces that are almost wordless or that ('olllain only wonh; ill a foreign lallgllag(' (Polish. Frl'llch). which AsdwllLIHch presumably dot's Ilot IInderstand amI/or which are llarratiH'ly alld thematically irrelevallt:
1. Asdwnlwch "t'nle" dowll to his hotel room (1.5 minllles). watches the Polish fall1ily in t1u~ luunge (S millutes) and gOt'" awltakt's a scat in tilt' dilling room (1 llIilllll(') (total almost 11 minutes). ~. Aschellvach hears that his luggage has gOIlt' astray at tilt' railway station and retul'lls to the hott'! (5 minutes). goes 10 till' beach agaill (0 millutt's). alld lish'ns tu Tadzio play till' piano (1 Illinlltt') (total oYer 1 ~ Illillllte;,. ill addition to which the "hort illlt·r1ocution at tilt' railway station is pn·('cdt·d by a 1.5 minuh' 100lg wordless sn'lIe). :3. AscllenllHch's tirst "chase" aftt'r tht' Polish family through tilt' "trecb of \'t'nice lasts :3 milllltt's. pn·c(·ded by a 0.5 milllll(' long wordless S(,('Ilt' ill tI lI' ca t hedral. -to The s('cond "('hase" lasts? milllW'S (inlt'ITllptt'd only by tilt' gowrness callillg for Tadzio) and is follow(·d by the cOllcert flashhack. which got's 011 for al"HII 1 lIlinute vdore Alfred spl'aks. S. The wordl(·"" "fillalt'" at till' Ilt'adl lasts for 1Il0re thall 10 Illinut .. ". SelJlI('Ilt'" :2 i,; accumpallied throughout firsl by thl' Adagit'tto alld thell by tilt' :\ighhllng. S"quellel' -t hy the Adagiettu. and;) fir,,1 by .\llIs"lIrgsky's .\1'1110 alld then by tilt' AJagil'\lo. Already th('"'' alllollllt 10 threeqllart .... s of all hOIlr. ill additioll 10 which tlwn' a ... ·. of cOllr,.;c'. lllallY other rei a I in·ly IOllg wordlc'"'' S(,('III'". All this is hardly cOlllltt'rl"datu'ed hy tlH' wordy flash hack,.. with Alfred. Thll,., till' plln,ly alldio,i"lIal quality of tilt' film. tilt' Atiagi('\lo oftI'll fIlJ'lli";\ling the only ol)\'ioll'; unifying (·It'IlIl·Ilt. i" ;;trollgly fort'grt HII lilt-d. Mu;,ic i,; also .b(·d 10 ilia!,..· t',Twin I'Oillh. OIl,·C· di"!!t,ti .. Illlbic i" .bed a,., a hridg(' frotll o/lt· s('elle alld dieget ic !t-,'('I 10 allotlu'r - a,., ",lwlI .\,.,dH'lllwdl hear" Tadzio Iry BC·C·tllIl\'·Il·" Fii,. /jis/' Oil tilt' piano alld this It'ad,., 10 a tla"hback in ",hidl Iit' gOt'" 10 lIlt'c'l a I'ro,.;lillllC· play ill!! thal "anll' pi .. t'l' - lilt' 1I11l,.;i., t'olltill1"'~ "'illtollt illll'lTlllltioll .•. \'t'1I tll'JlI~1t
\ I:;(;()\II \ \ D I. U{\I.\\ \
hefore tllP actual lIashhack we SI'I' that Tadzio has alreaJv Idl. This i~. in a sense. just a ('onw'lIliollal "nlt' for a flashback . ·· hut it also serve~ to create a lIIetonYlIIie cOlllleclion hetwt'ell Tadzio awl tllP prostitute alld thus tu elllphasize the pn't'ariousness of Asclwnbach's ft't'iings toward the boy. Si lice Iwitlwr "piallist" plays particularly well aud ,hclwllhach i,; ill at ease with buth of them. thl' St't'llt' also sug1!t'sb Iht' feeblent'ss of his passion. Bl'~it1es. the similarity ollly frames a dint'n'IICt': while tilt' t'lIcOUllter with tlw prustitute loob almost likt' a wt'ak attempt to he('olllt' "cuntaminated" and thus to lIIakl' lIlun' carllal cOlltact with the world. tht' relationship with Tadzio n'I"'t'senb all atll'm(ll to O\'\'tTOlllt' camality and contamillatioll alld thus to li\"\' alld lo\"\' in the spirit ollly. '\sdlPllbach ends up failill~ hoth ill the sphnt' of IIt'sh allt! uf the spiril.;d The diegetic music ill two other lIa~hhacks has a III on' reft'n'lItial lllealling. Alfred plays 011 tilt' piallo fin;t all t'xtract from IIIP Ada1!ietto alld latt-r Oil a thellle from \tahler' s Fourth SymphollY. sayillg 10 Asdlt'lIoach: "Thi~ is your music ~ .. IIt'n' tilt' Adagit'tt 0 accompanit's Ascllt'lIoach' s hourglass lIlollOlogut'. whil'h ellds: "To our "yt'S it appt'ars that the sawl nllls out ollly at the t'lId. l'lItil it dot'S il i,.; lItH worth thinkillg aboul. The lasl 1II0mt'nl. whell tllt're is 110 nlOn' lime ... no mon' tinlt' lefl tu think aboul it. .. -.... The wry oppo,;itt- of the sen'nity of the Adagi"ttu is heard in the Illlhit' of tht' ~tn't't playt'r~. Led by a grotl'''que figun' of a singer. tllt'y visit the balcony of tilt' hotel. Tllt'ir racy pt'rformalll't' mocks the dt'('oru1I1 of tilt' fine ~lIe~h. nut to speak of .-\seheniJach·,.; n'filled ~I'll,.;ibiliti{'~. ;b Tadzio. slalldillg lIt'ar him. appears to rt'a!'t ,.;illlilarly. tht'n' i:; a faittl suggestion of a 1I1ulllt'IIIary connection betwel'll tllt'lll. \tort' w'nerally. :\sd1l'III,ach ',.; attitude toward the boy is contrastt'd with his elH'Ollllters with various olllillOUS 1I11'n. lit, is able to admin' the ),o\,'s V onlv . chaste IIt'll ut . . from a distanl't'. whert'w; ewry 1I0W alltllhell he is pathetically ullable to kt"'p away from Iht'sl' rather ulIpll'asant IW0l'lt-. Tht'y vary from grotesque allt! illtrusiw (the old lIlall Oil Iht' boat awl tht' sln't't singer) to haughty and lllanipulali\'e (lhe gondolier alld lhe hotel manager). \\'11t'1I t'lIl'oullteriug them .. \scilt'lIba!'h allt'mplS to display strt'ugth aud detl'rtlliuation bUI always ('n(b "l' al'pt'arin~ ratilt'r silly. The CallH'ra work is ),a~;t'd Oil IOllg takt's that ('OllStantiy I'rt'alt' /'t'lalioll~hip,; Iwtwt'('n 1'('01'11' looking aud I'eoplt' beillg lookt'd at. Caz(~s al'!,('al' 10 have lht' powl'r to 1I1ake Ihe nlllsic sOlllld. as whl'll tilt' Adagit·tto llt'gilb the 11111111e11t Tadzio' s a11d .\sc/It'llllach· s t'yt'S 1I11'et as they puss eacll otlWI'. Looks ~t't thin~s going awl It'ad to lIashbacks. The Illlt·usy !Wlllf' Ill' !'''i'f'~ l,..t\\'I't'll .-\"..t ... llhadl alld Tadzio. ill I'artintlar. is Ollt' of
\ISCO"TI
the crucial elellH:'lIts of tlte film. It is tnw that the loob they ex('hall1!t' are Illuch more explicit than tllt'y are made to appear in tlw novella. mainly for the obvious reason of being realized in a visual medium. !\Ieveftlwlt'ss. t'\"t'1I ill su('h all extremely slowly paced film as Death in Venice. thing" 1I1l1st PW('t>t'd quickly enough to prewllt tlte film from deseellding into tll(' languor of some of the mort' extreme avant gardc works. Thes{' glallces an' 1I0t qllite as illt/'llsivc as some critics ha\'(:, claimed. For t>xample. ",llt'n the ooy alld the man pass each other in tilt' nocturnal scelle, Asciwnbach hardly stops. Tadzio slows down ollly slightly. and the glance they exchallgc is hilt a lieeting Ollt'. 011 tilt' whole. Tadzio certainly does not app('ar to be a "pretty little tew;e," Ewry now alltl tht>n he simply turns tu fa('e the gaze he realize:; has lWI'll fixed 011 him for SOliif' time. The ollly poillt at which Iw looks at Asclwllhach in the film. but 1I0t ill tilt' IlOwlla. is wlll'lI I... It'aH's the lift fairly ('ady on. In the film. he st'ems to Iit' starillg directly at :\schelloach: in thc lIon~lIa. he leaves "with his eH' cast dowlI ... ~,,) From :\scllenbach's poill1 of view, it is apparent that looking is not so Illllch leching as it is a sad ackllo",ledgnlt'nt of the distance that must remain oetweell his desire alltl ih object. of his inability allt! perhaps evell fundamelltalunwillillgIit'S" to OH'I'COIlIt' his dt·tadlmt'lIt alld his aliellatioll. He is doomed to experiell('(' the tantalizing ecstasy of forbidden, impossible. and unre({lli lI'd IOH' . \101'1' generally. tilt' canlt'ra work has a subtle role in expressing charackr sllbjectivity. The ,.,cene in the lounge uefore the first meal after Ascht'lIbal'h has arriH,d is a tOllr de force of call1era work producing an illtriguing play of poillts of view. Pasqllalino de Santis's pall-and-zoom style of shooting is at i." most elaborate and expre;;~ive. First the camera pans extrt'lIwly "Iowly 1'1'0111 right to left. reaching AschenlJach ahout midway ali(I following him to the extreme left and then agaill acl'Oss the lounge to the right. after which the camt'm stops 011 hilll for a brief moment. The same take contilllw" with a slight zoom backward and a movemellt toward the left. III the second shut. A,.;ehelliJach·!:i gaze catches the Polish falllil\,. . alld ill the third tilt· ('alllera mow,.; frolll olle farnilv. member to another alld ('nd" on Tadzio. Thi" shot can be tak"1I a" !:iubjt,(,tivt'. that is. from tilt' point of view of ..\~chellhach. as it is frallled by shots of Aschellhach looking. There is a shot of the !:ialoll urchestra alltl a IH'W shot of Aschenbach. He interrupts his readillg. and his gaze wanders IIntil it is fixed on the Polish family again. Tlw next shot beg ills from Tadzio. alld at first it appears to r('preSt'lIl :\schelliJach'" visual point of view. hut n~ till' call1PnI pall~ ;rl'llt"· it ",,01, "l' ~ho\\'in!! hilll. Still /;d;l'! i !!,. '::.1'
\bCO"]] \\J) CEH\J.\'\\
sceue. there is a ~hot that agaiu al'pt'Hrs to Iit' frolll hi~ I'oiut of view. IllIt the slow ZOOIll (possibly ('olllbillt,d with trackillg) back n'wal" ..bcllt'I1bal'h frolll hehiutl uIItil it is Lwyoutl what ('au be properly ('ousitlen~d all aetualpoiut -of-,'it~w shot . ..\1 poillt:; ill Iht' loullgl' scem'. it appear:,; as if the dl'grl'e of :"lIbjet'livity of the shots depellded 011 how altelltiw ..\:;chellhach hal'l't'lI" to Iit'. TIlt' ohjel'livitY/:';lIhjet"tivity of the "hob b at tillles left ambiguous. so that tilt' poillts of view of tht' "pectator alld of :brllt'I1badl I'oall':;(,(' alltl :"eparatt' seamll'""ly. This ambiguity extellds to the It"'dof on-rail lIarratioll. As already I'0intt't\ out. it i,; 1I0t e1t'ur whl'ther tilt' Ila:,;hba('k,; show t'Vt'lIh frolll "\"cilt:'lIlmch' s life "as it rt'ally hal'l't'JIt'tl.·· or wlwtllt'r tilt' lla"hbat·b an' at lea"t to SOliit' UIlddilll'd dl'!,~rt't' dislortt,d 1I1t'1II0rit'';. Silllilar allll)iguily appear,; whl'lI a clerk al a tran'l agt'lH'y It'lIs .\st'hl'lIIHlt'h about tilt' epidelllic aJltll1t' i,; "t'l'lI wamillg till' Polish falllily. TIlt' sPt'('wtor lIIight at libt a,..:-oullle thal thi" is "n'ally" takillg 1'1111"1'. hut a III'W shot of :bchellba('h back at the trawl agellcy rt~'Tals thal Iit.' has ollly Iwt'lI illlal!iuiug what his uext at't lIIight be. The most tiiscoucertiug fea t ure about all a udiovisuul adapt a I iOll of lJeath ill I ellice is that a story aboul lookill,!! allll rell('t'liou illl"'itably lWl'OIll{,,, IIII1t'h 1II0re a discourse OIl lookillg Ihall 011 n'lll't'tioll. Tht' attentioll of the literan'. :hclwlIbadl t'Olbtallt ".. ost'illatt~s lll't \\'('(~lI hi" \"t'tlectious 011 beauly. lIIoralilY. or whalt'\'I'r. 011 thl' o lit , halld. alld Iwillg aware of hi" iIlllllt'diate SlIITOlllldiugs alltl tilt' Ollt' objt,t't t1lt'rt' thal rt'ally iuspin'" hilll. OIl tilt' other. III"tt'ad. tilt:' visualized .\sdlt'lIbadl. till' COIIIp0,;er. beiIlg Sl'eIl iu hi,; physical t'u\'irolllllt'ul appI'ars IIIllt'h lIIon' tit~d dowll to t'arth. Ulllcil lIt'an'r to the objel't of his d""irt'. This bl't'oltlt's t'oll,;pil'uOUS ill the ,;CI'III'S iIl which .\sdlt'ubadl follows Tat!zio aut! his family thrull~h thl' \'euetiall labyrillth with all lit" passim} aut! elll'rgy Iit' ha~ It'ft ill him. Fillally. . Iit' is oVt'rwhellllt'd by. t'Xhallstioll. lIIixed witlt a growillg awarelles~ of the IOwu ';lIffot'atillg ill dirt. TIlt' t'xperit'lIce of the ~plelld()r of Ihe glitterillg ,;ea ali(I tilt' I'olorful lift, 011 the Iwal'h havt' 111'('01111' illextri('ably illtt'rtwiIlt'd with Ihl' ('olt! allt! lII1l1alllral hitit' alld whilt' hut'" of the ,;In'et,; alltl ('haullt'l,; of \·euin'.-'-
'1'111' rallge frolll splt'I1dor to "'1"alor "eh tilt' Io lit , for :\,;eilt'I1bat"lt· s allra('lillll toward Tadzio. It is wlllal.tit'lolIgiug for sOllwthiIl~ sufiit"ielltiy idealized uud alllhiguOlb as Iw,'t'r 10 IIt' 1'01l';llIlIl'd. 1I0t (,\t'lI ill fall Ia"y. BUI tilt' ('lIl11billatioll of "pirilllal alld phy,;ind I'xhaustioll has \t·ft .\sdWllhadl loo weak to ('Opt' with (,VI'II a "park of ,;polllaut'iIY. It killtllt'" a lin' ill hilll tltat at first lIIakt,s hilll glow a lit I thell t"Olhlllllt'~ hilll .. \11 ;1111'1111'1 to t'';'-''I'" "". illi"il illll'"I,,'
III
1",1\"- ,"'ni'·t'.
fnil~ alIlIO,,1
by dt'-
I-:'U
\ IS(:O:\-II
sigil - a "happy:' 1lI311il'ulated Coillcidellce - alld Aschenbach is left with all ('XC use to stay dose to his temptation, But internalized codes of morality rapidly !:Itart corrodin~ tilt' attempt at pun' contemplation of th ... object of forbiddt'JI lo\"t~, :hdlt'llbadl is destroyed by the mere temptation of shakillg off his constraints. In tilt' st'qllt'nce aecolllpaJlit'd by ZUIU/llIlslm's Si!{h! SUflg,JH the musk ('reat('s all almost magical eH...ct as it emerges t'ver so gradually from tll ... sou lids of tilt' lJt'ach. It is full of that :,aJlw exasperated sensuality that the late sl'xual reawakening together with tilt' s;rarc() wind has induced in AM'hellbadl. There is a shift to tilt' limits of consciou"nt'SS where perceptiolls and sen;.ations he come inseparablt' from dream" and meJllOries, On this I('\"I'L the boy ft'preseIlt" desires and Ileeds bcyolld the erotic allu evell the aesthetic, SOlllewhat like the professor ill CUfll'enm!iull Piece. Aschenbadl trit's to awaken from a det'p sle,'p that is alienating him from thc world and his fellow mcn. And very Illuch likt' tilt' proft'ssor. Asehenbaeh di:;con'rs that he has been awakl'llt'd by all angel of death in the form of a IJeaUliful youth. Tatizio stirs in Aschenbadl ct'l1ain ::.piritual aJld sensuous processes that lead him to all abyss. on the other side of which all that is worth pursuillg appt'ar~ to Ill' locatl,d. Toward the t'lId. AsdwlIbach It,ts Itim~elf bt· made up to look young. but he ollly limb. himself t'H'r more poinlt'(lIy incapabl(' of [hrowill~ himself illto the stn'am of life . .-\" the barber inudwrtently aptly ,;ay~. "In the eno we are jllst as old a~ our milld alld heart feel tlte), are:' Once more, Asdlt'nilal'il follow:; the Poli~h family through the stn'ets of Yt·nice . but eVt'lItually Iit' fall" down by a foulltail1 ill helpless. almost hysterical laughtt'r. '1'111'1'1' follows the last tlashback . which is really a dream. a nightmare. which stands for Doth the lIightmare and the soliloquy on eras awl ethos in tilt' novel. A ('ol1('crt Asehenhat'h has jllst ('(JIldllt'ted l'lIds in whistling and booing, Ila\-ing sur\'iwd tilt' aIHlit'lIt't"s howl,.;. Iit' is illl1lll'dialt,Iy attacked by Alfred allnoullcing him tilt' t'lId of "wi"dom. truth, humall dignity" alld tt'lIing hil11 that "now then' i,; 110 reaSOll why you shouldn't go to your grave with your lllll,.;it','· Aftt'J" wakillg "I' (JlH't' l11ort'. still ulleasily tJ"yin~ to keep UJl his new appt'arallt't', :\"c1l1'lIbach rt'tul'll~ 10 tht' desolat(' Iwadl. There Iit' sl'es a gro"p of H"",.;iall tourist,.;. Ollt' of tlWI11 singillg \lw;,.;or~sky·" ,Vel/ia. a nadlt' sOllg. :\"t'llt'nbach's arrival is seell from high lip. from an "i11l(lossihk" allglt' to whidl the ('allleJ"a n'tunts ill tilt' wry I,ht :;hol of tIlt' film, Ilere tilt' pn'tt'II;'I' behilld :\sciwlIiJat'h' S IIt'W app,'arallt'e Iw,'ol11es (,\·t'n mort' evident than in tilt' llOn,lIa. TIlt' sln'am of blat'k dyt' rUllnillg dowlI
1-:"1
Aseht'lIbach's dlt'«,k 011 the hot beach is likt' plltrefied blood: it's all a~ onizin~ illlagt' of the life force fillally expiring. In his finalmolllt'llh. ;hehellhach tuntS his atlt'lltioll to Tadzio allll his frielld. who have a fallillg Ollt alld hegill to fight. Fillally. Tadzio sW'Ct'('ds iu gettillg rid of hi:; friend and. rl'fllsill~ a gest lire of rt'cOIlciliatioll, walb into the ~t'll. The :;hocked .\sdlt'llhach st'!':; him just as a distant figure amid the «'Iements. raisillg his arm toward the SIIII. Like a stiff PUPIH'L Asdlt'nbadl n'lH'ats his w'stlll'e bllt thell collapses. \tany COIllIIH'ntaturs haw bet'1l rl'milHll'd of a poem by .\lIgust yon Platen. lillt's that \hulI\ oftell IIst,d to quote: "Who has obst'rwd Iwallt)" «'yt' to t·y«·/ Is aln'ady dt'dicatt'd to death:'-;" YOllssef I~haghpour \\Tift's: Thi~ alladllllt'lIt to thl' \i~iblt·. to tilt' st·/lsiblt· apl't'arallt't'. to tilt' I'hy~ical ~1.tt·lI dOli I' of lift' which Jot's /ltll lillll cOlllplt'\t'lIe"s ill lift' itself. «'a~ily briug" about a ,wparatioll belWt'(,1I lift' awl forlll . .-\~ the lit' lJt'tw«'t'lI apl'eanlllC't' alld id«'a. 11{'t\\'t't'lI body allll "oul. "Ilt'auty" readl!" Wi through tilt' "t'lbt'~ but i" not ~ol('ly "'lbUUlb. ;\,.; tht' ft'lIlinillt' n'lIIailb ti«'d 10 tilt' rl'l'rotiuctioll of t'Xi"lt'lIn', "10\'1''' of beauty 1"'t'OIlIl':; guilty ill n'''I't't·t of lif". ,,;olllt'thillg Ibdt,~". :il,'ril«'. IIHlllrllflll: till'. tilt' ill\t'r\'01\"t'1I1t'1I1 (If I'ro~ a/lt I deat h ill I'a,~ioll. dOIll ilia I"S \' iseoll Ii'" ,It'U Ht' . .-\IIJ evil. illllllorality. ,kat!.. attadlt'd to Ihi" I'a,,~ioll for Iwalll),. call 1I0t 1)(' [1'dt't'IIIt'd ('Xl't'pt by bl'auly ibt'lf. ~atTaliLt'd by tilt' I"'t' for work~ whidl ha\'!' bl'colllt' a lit'\\" n'ligioll: art a" olht'r thall life ill tlu' t'xi~tt'IICI' of a bOllrgt'oi" arli"t. alltl art ill Ihl' lift' of tilt' dt't'adc'lIt. COlll'c'r,mlioll PiI'Ct,. /)I'u/h ill I f'llicl'. Llldll'if{ "«'lIt«'r t'lIlirt'ly roulld tht' r..ru~al-n't'tlgllilioll of htllllo~l'xual dl'~in' allll ih relatiollship 10 arl: tht' \\ay of d,·ath.""
AschellLach projects 011 the ohjpct of his visioll ... what ~ T.II' ollly cut' the filll\ provides i~ the Adagiettu. It is si~Jlifil'allt that tht' thrl't' lOll!! strt'tche:; of tilt' Adagit,tto that 1H'~ill whilt' tilt' story is aln'ady ulld"r way art' COIIJlt'cted with a fart'well: as AsdwIILach eUCOlllllI~rs Tadzio. just whl'1I prt'parin~ to lean' \'Pllin': with tilt' lIa"hback of tilt' cof/ill of his dau~hlt'r: whell he se«'s Tadzio !!t,ltiJlg iJlvolwd iJl tilt' light awl SIWCllIllbs to death. III all tilt's!' illstallces. it is a~ if the IlIllsic broughl cOllsolatioll at a 1Il0ll\ellt of satllle~s awll'aiu. ht'lped to IIwk«'lif«> appear worth livillg (it'''pitt' the iUl'vitaLle los"e,; awl frustratiou,;. '>\'l'1I d('spitt· tilt' tntllsit'II(,(> of lift' itself. The lIoIldieg"tic music. thallks to the ('olllleetioll ,'stahlisht'd with tilt' prutagolli:;(. al tht' 1I111111t'1I1 of his tll'ath Iwcolllt's a "YllIhol of tlw trallst'l'lldt'lIIal puwer of art. If olle takt's illto lU,(,Ollllt tilt' audiovisual llIerits of Iltl' film. "tartillg from tht' cOllsidered use of tilt' \Iahler Adagielto - itself 1111 t'pitolllt' of Ihis l\Iiraclt' of rehurll II/II"III"lraillt if allY alld madt' "llIpllHtic hy Iht,
\"",)
\ Iseo" TI
lIIillimal IWITat in' tt'lI~ioll" which creates the ~ellse of attemptillg to stop time, O\'en'ollle dt'atII alld old age by slt'ppillg Ollt of time illto the ett'mal spheres of bea IIty uf furms - /)!'ath ill I el/ice does indeed achieve a kind of spuntalleity of t'xpn'~sioll "deriwd ill paradoxil'al fashiulI in and throllgh cull lire alld art." Then' is a truly Apollolliall halalll'e ill the way the Diollysiall st'Ihllality i~ illdulg(·d ill while Iwillg cOllstantly kept in c11t'ck by till' presell('e of death alld (It'cay, The gelluille achievements of dw spirit throllgh tilt' lTt'atioll of beallty an' coullterlwlanced by the decadelH't' that ~et'ms to 1)(' eroding the ba~is of the ci\'ilizatioll that Ita,; produl'l'd it, Blit \\'hiJt. t he ~pirit may l'ulltillue to exi~t ill wurks of art. biological ami social corl'llptioll illl'\'itai)ly takl"' their toll. Tht' cOlltrast Iwtwl't'n the tragt·dy of Asl'iIt'lIhuch' s illability to accept this alld tht' way his story i~ relldert·d through the sl'n'w' alld selhUOIlS splelldor of the film hecomes a metaphor for the basil' paradoxt,,; of 0111' relatiollship to art alld tu life: iIU1SIIIuch a,. art call IH' a way of trall~ct'lIdillg the cOlltillgencies of life alld e\7('1I O\t'I'('omillg its fundalllt'lItal tJ"all"iellce. illasmuch as art call be a path toward re"igllatioll. it al~() rull~ tlte ri~k of becoIllillg alit'1I to life. Art a,., till' I'un'~t a III I trllest lIIallife~tatioll of tilt' humall ~pirit call1lot be s"Ilarated from the t'xploitatioll of art as all t'scal'e. withdrawal. illusion,
L (1) "-/G
The battle for LlIllu';g \"i~collti
first got the idt'a of lIIakillg a film allOlIt LlIdwig 11. King of Banu'ia. whell Iit' wa" hUlltillg for locatiolls for The /)wllllt'd. III 19?1 all t'\'I'1I I!J"aIllier project lIe wa~ workillg 011., adaptillg RellIt'II/Orall"!' of Thillgs IJlIst for the ~creeIl. was postpolled for fiIlallcial reasolls. aIld \'i:;conti thought tlH' timt' was ripe for Llldtrig. Both tiw \\ittt'lsbachs. the UIlt'iellt rulilll! hOlls!' of Bavaria. alld tht' Ba\'ariall civil sen'ict' lIlrIlt'd out to Iit' wry Ilt'lpflll. Ht, got I't'rmis~ioll to ~h()ot ill all tilt' royal palaces Iit' wun(('d alld to uS(' tlw falllily trt'a,;un'~ to neatt' tilt' ril!ht ~t>ttillg. But after the shootillg of Lwltrig had lWI'll t'oIllpleted oIl July:!? 19?:!. \'isI'Ollti SlIfft'rt,d a ~t'\'l'rt' Iwart attack whilt' Iit' was dillilll! witII (:el'l'hi tL\.mico aIllI a nHlplt' of prodlln'rs ill a n'"taurallt ill Home ..,1 Durillg hi~ cOllvalt'scellce. Visl'ollti was ~l'lIt to KaIltoll,;sl'ital ill Zurich. tilt' samt' hospital wlwre Thomas \Iallll had died 011 JlIIlt' 1:!. 1 <);)5. Thi" CUlIIH'ctioll rekilldled a dormant idea of adaptillg \Iallll' ~ .l/agic .l/UllflllIill (1<):!-t). I Jp abo thou!!ht of \\'orkill~ 011 1I110t\wr lIowl hy \lallll, 1.;'-
na
\'\s(()\11
\'\1) LEH\I.\\\
w(ih//e (The holy ~illller. 1951). which was llUsed Oil a l'ut'JII by tI\(' 1lH'dieval pOt't IlartJllaIlIl VOIl :\\It.. Together with (:('C('hi D' AlIlico. Vis('ollti also developed sumt' other idea". but 1I01lt' of thelll Wt·\'t' realized. Ilis greatest (,OIu'em at this rimt'. howt'\'t·r. was tilt' lWI'd to !'tllllplt'tt' Llldll'if{, TIlt' production company. \le!!a Film. had just siglled a ('oIltract with MCM stipulatiIlg that tlw fillll was 1I0t to rUII IOllger thall two holll's. This was abullt half the It'IIgth V isl'tmli had I'laJlJlt'd.'·~ :\ccordill!! to Ct'(Thi Ir :\JlIic\): If Luchillo had b"t'lI ill good Ilt'allh. Iit' would lit"",!, ha\!' a'''-''pl,'d. 11("','1'. I Itwas "twh a ~lrollg dlanlClt'r. Ill' IIf'H'r walltl'd 10 "e"/Au/wig as it wm. dislriblll("1. Blit allhollgh Iit' madl.' the 1II0Illag" with I{lIggit· .... \lastroialllli ulld,'r tilt' obligatioll for il 10 I'('maill Wilhill two hour". Ilt' ,,1H,(,,'('dt'd ill makillg it about two allll a half hour~ IOllg .... :\f1t'r h,' had di,'d I n'ad ill tilt' pap!'rs Ihat they w,'n' ~('llillg tilt' malerial at all auclioll. I "ullt'd to tilt' I'l'opll' who had work"d Wilh him [aJllollg others \Iario Carbuglia. Fralll'o \Iallllillo. :\nllalldo \alllluzzi. Pino To"i] allt! so \\t' Wl'1It 10 lhl' ofiil'l' alld bought it. I W"lll lir"t 10 dw('k wllt'tllt'r th('y hud kepI all Iht, mall'rial. Th,'y had allll ,,0 WI' boughl il allll n'"lon'd till' fillll. ",I
The prodllt't'r'" altitud(, is pt'rhal''' lIItdt·n;talldal,"'. if HOI forgivahl," whell tilt' (,.\t't's"i\'(·w'"" of Vi",'Ollti's "OIJ('t>Jl1iOIl i" ('ollsidt'['('d. :\('tuall~. thl' director him"l'lf had aln'ady I'ut "n'I\('" durillg the "hootillg: a SITIIt' ill which Ludwig'" t'abillt't "t'tTt'tary fiHd" \\'agllt'r alld halld" hilll tilt' royal gift of a I'IIl,y riug: Ludwi~ list,'uiu~ to a privatI' pl'rfoJ'lllalll'l' of Trill/all lIIul I,wlde: \\'a~IIt'r's death ill Vellin' alii I his I'll IIt'ra I cortl'W' throll!!h \Iullich. a(,l'olllllHllied hy tilt' f'"H'rallllarcilt's frollt Bt'cthov('II'Oi i:i'oic(l alld \\'agllt'r's OWII Til'iLigh/ (~(tlll' (,'ods: a sn'JIl' ill w/lich Elizabeth hear" ahout Llldwig's dt'ath alld ('rit':;: '-Tllt'y han' kill,·d hilll! Traitors! .\"S<"'Silb~··h~ But 1I0W lltall\' "et'IH',., that had IWI'II shot had 10 h(' shortt'llI'd or l'tHIII'IeIt'ly dell,tt'tl. TIlt' l'IIdill~ Vist'ollli ori!!illally cOllt't'iwd 'Ha" I,asl'd 011 a 1'1111101' that hadlH't'1I spread after Llld\\i~'" li('ath, a('('ordillg to which SOIllI'OW' lrad ",'t'lI a hullt't hole ill till' kill~''; I'oat alld his dotilt's had diOial'pean,d al1II0"t iUllllt'dialt"ly after Ilt' hadllt't'lI dra~gt'd Ollt 1'1'0111 till' lake ill wltidl Iw had drowlled. /11 tltt' filial set'llt' of th .. snipt. all old ,.,t'lTallt It,ll" 11 YOllIIgt'r o lit' that ht' kllo\\'Oi tilt' kill~ was I11 11 rd.'n'd. 1H't'allsc Iit' saw a hullet holt' ill tht' killg'" ('oat. This \\'a,; sltot. hut it was Idt out t'\'I'1I frollt tht' rt'cIJIl"tnwtl'd versioll. Ct'I'cili lr Alllil'o did IlOt t hillk it was "good 10 ('lid likt' that. ... SOIllt'OIlt' lakl'" a ('loth that Iwlollged to Ludwig. alld tltt'y ,.1',' that tiwn' i" a hol". But Ihi,., ';1'('11" wOllld h1l\l' llt'(,(It'd "OIlIt't1lillg 1II0n'. I dOIl't kilO\\, what. I dOIl't tltillk that Llldlillo wllllld h
1-:'-t
\" I S (,() '\ 11
put it illto dw tilm.·· ..· • 0111' shot that was left out although Vis('onti had inc!uJ,'d it in dw first v,'rsion was an illlage of tlH' dead Empn~s~ ElizaL"th undpr a white \'Pi I following till' S,'PIII' ill whi('h Elizaheth. aftt'r the premiere of TrisfufI. It,ll,.; Llldwig that I\(' must i)('ha\'P likp a king and that olle of tilt' I'ri\'i"'~,',,; of killg~ alld qlW('lb is tlrat tlH'y might lIP murdered. C,'c('hi IL\llli('o tholl~dlt that this 0111' t1ashforward did lIot add allythill~ to the tilm alld Ihal it would "imply 1I0t hav,· b,'ell ulld,'r,;tood. 10
A film about Ludwig 11 III \'i"COllli'" tilm tlH' "tory of Llld\\ig 11 0,,(,111''; lH'twl"'1I the wallillg of CpI'Inall romanticislII allti tile formation alld impl"IIIt'ntation of Bi~ marck's Hpa/po/ilik. Llldwig' s IlIO,;t eherisiteJ dreams are nushed by a politi('al 1't'<.t1ity that sllbsllnws everything ullder a single goal: the unification of Germany into a sillgle 1lI0derll natioll-statt'. III 1HOh I\apoleon declared the ancit'nt principality of Bavaria a kingdum. His aim was 10 create a buffer ~tate to protect Frallce from Austria. Aft,·1' hi" downfall. Bavaria's rulillg hOlbt'. tilt' \\'iuei,.;IJacits . was abl,' to ,.,how its 1'1'''1)('('1 10 its trut' idols. till' BOllrhOlb. TIlt' ,.,ecolltl king of Ba\aria was lramed after Llldwig IX of Fran('t'. and his grandson was given thi,., numl' ill iWlIlagl' 10 Ludwig \VI."<> Till' yuung Llldwi~ r(,(,l'iwd a good I raining ill tI\(' arb bUI 11111 ill admini,.,trali\'e dllli,''''. Thi::; was partly Iw('alls,' Iit' was tTIJwlwd al the age of nillt'tt"'1I whpn his educalillll had not yet ht'"u cllmpil'lt'd. :\01' was he nHlluJ'(' "1I01l1.dl to a,.,,,UIIII' hi" duli,''';. Ili" hparl wa" more in Ihe romanti('ized (;"l"IlIall \Iiddlt· :\~",., tlrall ill tilt' Europe of the a~t' uf Rt'a/IJUlitik. Ludwi~'" ,"il'\\""; of lift, alld art w,'('t' illllu(,IICt'd to a ~('('at ,'xlt'ut by the work,.. of Hidrard \\'a~I\t'r. 1.ll(lwi~· s Ilt'raldic animal was the swall. alld aftt'r s"l'ill~ \\a~lH'r's /,oht'fI~ril/ (W-t8) he idt'lltifi,'d with tilt' klli~ht iu ,.;hillill~ whil" a 1"1 1101' alld with hi,.; 101 It'li 111':;";. Llldwi~'" altt'llIf'h to act like a Inlt' nrl,'1' Wilhill tIlt' 11
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ministers. lit' tillally had 10 f!:iw dIe order to mobilize lIlt' Bavariall troop:-.. He did il in French awl siglll'd Iht' denee usillg tIll' Fn'ndl form of hi" name, Louis."/! The king was needed. ho\\,e\'('1'. \\'111"11 CerIllan unifil'atioll was fillally achieved ill the ft'rvor Ihal followed tlw victory OH'r Frallce. Bbllaarck wanted tu consolidalt' Prussiall leadnship. alld dw Iwst way to do so, Ill' thollf!:ht, wa~ to I.H·rsuade Iht' kinf!: of the largest Ct'n'lIanie si all'. lIamely Lw/wig. to illvite the Prussiall killg 10 lWl'onJe dIe t'mpemr of CerIlI
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ullhappy. dt'''pis('d. and torturt'd Bavaria:' III the last statt'ment von Cuddell n'latt's his !inal asst'SSIlWllt: the killg is unfit to rule. The statemeJl(:; haw beell "llOt as dose-lips of the witllesses looking more or less straight into tilt' call1t'ra. The backgroulld is dark. ami the little that is seen of their clut he:; mak,'s clear the hi"torical p"riod they rt'pres('nt. At time:. tllt're an' "Iow track-ins toward slightly closer framings. alld some are lit hy a strong sidelight. Thus they form a dear eOlltrast with !lte otherwi,,{' full-blown historieal n~const ruet ion. The statellH'nts eon;;ist of more or les!> oilj('ctive facts about Ludwig"!> life. prest·ntt·d. howe\"l'r. from di/Ierellt points of view and ohviously sele(·led. if not actualh' dbtorted. to the bellefit of tilt' variou!> interests of tlw wiuH'S;;t's. Through them. the sad end to I.udwig" s aspirations, the collapst' of the world of romantic illusiolls. is preselll right from the begillnillg. e\"l'n before the coronation scene. This makes the film appear less tragic and emphasizes its melalldlOly amI elegiac elemellts.-:O~ Furthennore. the colllrast between the two narratiw lewls gradually reveals Ludwig's alienation froJlI political and social reality. History proceeds on its ilH'vital,le marcll and is given a voice through till' lIlouths of lIlt'ssengers. as if ill a Greek tragecly. A IIt'W political order is beillg forged in Europe - a system that will almost de!>troy tllt' world alld culture Ludwig has cht'risllt'd and patrollized. TIll' film Iw~ins with a scene in which Ludwill (1ldmut Berger) confesses to the family priest his detenllinatioll to make his court a center for till' art~ and scient'es. This seellt· introducl's one of the leading motifs of tilt' film. namely. Ludwig's relationship to n'lillion (awl tht· church). the ~talt·. and his OWll responsibilitit's. The first statement is followed by the coronation ,.;ce/II', filled with all the pomp that ean be lIlustered by both mU/Himlt' alld spiritual institutions. It is 0111' of "isconti's most splendid recolIstruetiolls of a historical era. A new statelllt'lIt opells a sequence showing the rdatioll,.;hip between Ludwig awi Elizallt'th (Romy Schneider) de\'elopillg ill the wintery landscape of Bad Ischl. Ludwig's youthful. I"Omalllic ~t'II"itivity is immediately eolltrasted with Elizabeth's mature sell se of resl'0llsibility. thillly disguised untier a veil of gentle irony alld hUlllor. A search for a politically opportullt' spouse for Ludwi~ continues. but Minister Pforz-:O:l states that at It'ast the meeting with the Russiall tsarilla did not help to make lhe king forgt·t hi", dear \\·agner. The next s('e/ll~ confirms Pforz's aenlsatiolls: Wagner appears totally unsefupulous in exploitillg both tbe king ami the young conductor Ilans VOII Biilow. whost, wife Cosima is aln'at\\" \'""~~I"T'~ \(lwr (,\lfl\\"i~, ill \II\' \Wa\,illll'. trk" ill
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vain to elicit iu Elizabt,th SOIIII' l'utllllsiasllI for \Va~lIer·:; art. !lut .~Ilt' grows 1II0re ami more distallt frolll hilll and t'lldeavors to illterest hilll ill her little si;;lt'r So tie . The kill~ prefers to :.t'ek cOlllfort ill ar!. Acc()rdill~ 10 the /lext statl'lIlI'll1. the premiere of Tris/al/ II//(/ /.w/de cost the state a fort lint'. Llldwi~ colltiuut':; \0 try 10 win Elizabeth OWl' to tilt' splt'lIdors of opera. ano ElizaLeth to COIl\·illt"t' Luowig of tilt' lIIadlless of \\' a~llt'l: s projt'ct. She understulltls that the solt- purpose of the royalty is to parad,' Iwfort, the pllhlic alld that their attt'mpt:; to illterfere ill :;tate affair~ mi~ht \\1,11 lead to tlwir a:;:;a:;sillatioll. BUI Llldwig still dill~s to his romauti(' idt'als ahout the role of the kill~. \Vagller alld Cosillla do IHlt hl'siwtl' to ask for evell greater ;;UIIIS frolll Ludwi~ ill ordl'r to tillaJlt"t' their SUlllpt 1I0llS way of life. Ouly wllt'll Ludwi/ ~ polict' bl"iu~ him a host of evidellt"t' a~aiu"t \\·agut'1" awl the Blilow,.; dot':; he Cl'lbt' to hetray hilwwlf alld siglls till' order to expell thelll frolll !\lulli('h. Durillg tlw war of 18bb. Ludwig "tays ill !wclusioll ill the castle of BI'rg. refu;;ing to ren'in' allY mt'ssa~t'S from the I,attldields. Ht' agrees to ,.,1'1' ollly hi,., dear brother Otto. bllt I'WII Iit' fai\'" to Iwrsuade Llldwig to all 1'11.1 to hi" killgly dutit':'. :\flt'r this ('OIlH'rsation. Ill' goe" out for a IIIlt'tunwl walk alld l'Il(,OUIlIt'r,., hi,.; nliet setTt't1y takill~ a ;;willl. Ill' i,., lIaked. alld thi:. appt'ar" to makt' Ludwi~ 1II1t'a:.y. Aftt'r the \alt-t has gOIIl'. Ill' prays: "Help 1111'. help 1IIl'~·· There follows a IOllg COIIH'rsatioll with his tru~ted (:0101\('1 Diirkllt'illl. alld tht'1I a s(·.ellt' in which Ludwig tt'lls hi" 1Il0tllt'r that he illtt'lIds 10 lIIalTY Sophil'. Tht' motllt'r imlllediatt'ly starts tht"It'('essary preparatiolls. The falllilit'S of t Iit' bride alltl the groolll art' .Sl't'lI ill a IIIt't,tillg ill whi('h ElizaLI'lh abo part i('ipatt's. stealill~ tilt' show from hl'r si"t('r., as it \H'n'. Later. ill a short alltl otllt'rwisl' wonile:.s s('ellt'. Sophit, is at tilt' piallo. h('r yOlln~ ,·oice stllmblill~ lhrou~t. Eisa· s aria. "Einsalll ill triilwlI Tag('"·· (Lollt,ly ill troubled days) from LO/II'IIW·ill. Llldwig·s tortun,d fan' illtli('alt's that lht' chasm \'l't\\"('t'lI reality alltl id!'aJ" in his mind i" dI'I'Pl'lIill~. The Iwxt statelllt'lIt is about the Irt'lIIt'lIdous ""St of buildillg thl' killp:·" castles alltl a patllt'tit' aUt'lIIpt to illstntt:t Ludwig ill t raditiollal ht'tt'rtJ"t'xllal Iwhavior. Ludwig ol,,·iOlbly tilltl,.; thi" arraugt'd 1Ilt't'tinp: with a ,,(wit'ty prostitutt' repubivl'. aud"o tilt' pro"Pt'l't,., for thl' union with Sophit' Iwgill to look t'\"t'1I worsI'. Ludwig introdw·('tj Ilt'r 10 Wa~lIer alltl dai"", that ;;Iw like" to "illg his lIIu"ic. Thi" i:. a ITIII'I irony. and the rdatioll"hip ht'twt't'lI Llldwig alld Wagllt'r "ppt'ar,.; to II(' IIl1lt'h warmt'r thall that IwtWt't'U Lutiwig £lilt I Sophit'. Tht' nt'xt S(,('III' with tht' valet, Homig. illll'lit'" 1I,at 1 IId"i:.:: i,.. i\ltT('""ill!!h ,,(,('kill!.! tilt' l'olllpallY of lIIt'lI.
\bLO'\fI
Suphie ('olllplains to Elizalwth abuut Ludwig·s illdifferellce. out lhe litd!' advict' she call give ('miles too late and would probably have heen of nu IIse anyway. In the Ilext seClle, Ludwig anllounces ill his eonfes~ion t hat Ill' will nut marry Sophie. As we hear the elld of tl1l' eOllfessiUlL Ludwig is seell clltering a room wlwre Homig is sleeping. Ludwig ki""e" him. The III'Xt statelllt'lIt is about till' hreakillg of tilt' !'Ilgagelllellt, the in('urahll' lJIental illllt'ss of OUo. aml the Queen ~Iother· s embracing of lht' Catholic faith. '1'111' war agaillst Frallce i~ reaehillg its eml. alHl Ludwig. Ull lhe eXl'use of havillg a toothadlt'. 011(,1' agaill withdraws illto seelusiun. Count von Holllsteill intrudl'!> alld demands that he sign a letter addressed to the killg of Prussia askillg him to hecollle the eml'l'ror of the unified GeflllallY. An allllost hysterical I .udwig tries to refu~e. but Ill' must yidd to hit; fatl'. He visib Otto. now a radng malliac. ill a mental institutiun alld SII(TI'I'ds ill cUllllillg him dowlI. As a cOlltrast to tire sad meeting of the brolht'rs. tire lIext sct'lIe shows Wagller bestowing a Christmas present 011 Cosillla. who Iras by this time become his wife: tire Siegfried Idyll, played by a filII orchestra on the stairs of Wahnfrit'd. their new home. The lIext two statl'lIIellts relate to the expenses incurred in building the castles and tire gifts that Ludwig has bestowed on beautiful valets and artists. TIll' actor Kainz is Ludwig" s Ilt'west protege. The sequellCt' showillg their relatiulIshil' is olle of the most eudlalltin~ ill Visconti's entire cinematic output: LuJwi~ glides in his ,;wan boal throu~h the "Venu,; Grotto'· at I Ire palm'I' of Lilldt'rhof accolllpauied Ily Wolfram· s soug for the I'wlliug star from \Vagner· s TUflllhiiusa; the castle its.,1f is magnificent. with its vasl Lwdroollls allll tables that siuk through the tloor and dowu tu tilt' baselllt'llt so servants can dear and refill them: then' is a magical sleigh ride throll~h the wintery laudscape: the enchantillg noctllfllal tran'l ,;eellls eudles,;. TIll' sequence is followed by t wo further statements. tire first of which reports what ,;ubsel/uelltly happt'lIed to Kaiuz; the second is oun' again abuut buildillg tht' castles. III the next se,!ul'nCl' Elizabeth is "t't~II I'xamiuillg the palaces Ludwig has had llllilt. startillg with the nwoco-stylt' Lintierho!". cOlltilllling to tire Versaille:,-likt' 11t'ITelldlielllsl'I'. and finally elldillg at the mock-medieval :\eu,;chwalbtl'ill wlwn' Ludwig rt'sides. 011 tilt' eXI"b.' of illlless, he refuses to 1IIt'I't her. But tlH' pain that tuflllt'I1ts him i", not primarily physical. In yet allot her stalt'men\.. Ollt' of thl' st'rnllllS tells Ib titut Ill' heard dre kiug wet'piug behiJld a itwkl'd door awl f'('IH'utiug the IHUlI(' of Elizabeth. Till' "n'IIe ellds with a shot of Elizalll'th drivillg away ill lu'r curriagt'. :\11
t'IIlOtioll"liy ,,\rod,; jll!!
1"1/1
I.'ads to a ~hot of IlId,,·j!!
!lOW
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dett'rioratillg, with a ball(lagt' owr hi~ ey('~. fooling around ill a Bavarian illll. TIlt' S('t'IIt' impli('s OIwe again that Iit' is giving ill to his hOlllosexual tendt'lIcit's (the sl't'II" i~ dbturbingly n'mini!'>('t'ltt of tilt' SA rn'('lry in t1w The /Jelllllwd). ~lt'allwhile the gownlllH'1It is aln'ady plarlllillg to deIH)~t' him. and their represt'lltatiws are ";t~ell asking !'rillC(' Luitl'0ld to act as regent. Tlw last statellH'nt follows. Proft'!'>,;or VOIl Cuddt'n'!,> lillal diagnosis that Ludwig is suffering from illcurable paranoia alld is tlIllit to rllle. The last seqlll'lwe relatt~!'i most of what is actllally kllown about Llldwig's last day alld night: <:010111'1 Diirkheim' ~ vain attt'lIlpt,.; to Iwrslladt' him to saw himself alld his positioll: hi!'> aITt'sl a 1111 arrind ill Ht'rg: hi,; departllre for tilt' walk with Proft'~sor Cuddl'll. Whell il lH'cOIIIt's Hl'pan'lll that tht'Y have beell away for too IOllg. a "wardl party is st'llt Ollt. III till' darkllt't>" and raill, twu bodies an' fOllnd tloatillg ill tilt' lakt'. <:Ollllt VOII HolWHt'ill allIlOUIll'e,; whal is to lit' the ofliciall'xplallalioll of tllt'ir tit'ath. alld the film ('llIls with a shot of LuJwig Iyillg 011 tilt' \wl ground.
Th("lIlatit-' ('oncerns and narrative strudur(" Youssef Ishaghpollr has callt'd Ludu.ig "Ollt' of Ihe ft'W cillt'malic e\'t'r prodIlCt't!.7" This is to a great t'Xll'ul all eHt,(,t of the uarrativ(' structure. The statt'Ult'llts do llot mark allY particularly importaut poillts of uarrativt' developmeut or till' perimeters of dearly ddiul'd st'qllellct~s. Instead. they forlll fairly coherellt S{'ttuell('('S togetlwr with the actllal seeues, The fact that the lIaITatioll is somewhat ellipticaL ill that tilt' Sl'quelle!:'s COllllet't with each other fairly loosely, t'llricllt':i the psychological portrait of Ludwig alld prevellts the film from fallillg illto th!:' (rap of trivial p"ydlOlogizillg. Some actuall'H'lIts taken from the lift, of tllP real king. are pre~!:'llted: allll the way they follow 0111' another suggt'sts tlrat th,'re ilia\" Iit' COlllleetioll~ L"twt'ell thelll. Ilo\\,l~n'r. 110 claims an' madt> abollt the t>trellgth uf these I'0~sible callsal lillks. If tilt' illfol'lllatioll givt'1I ill the statt'lltellts had bet'I1 J"t'JI(kred by voict'overs. they would han' n'~t'lIIbll'd tilt' ollllliscit'lIl narrator of a Balzac 110\'1'1. III stead. the stalt'lIwllts al'pt'ar allllo!'>t suhol'dillalt' to the I'llaclt,d part of the narratioll. Though their factuality is lIot questiolll'd, tlwy an' :;howll to he r"ducti'I' and igllontnt of or illdiffert'lIt to the hUlllall trag(,dy as wt'1l as the C1lltural alld spiritual valtlt's at is,,llt'. 011 thl' otllt'r halld. dIP "tatelllt'lIh reciprocally put tilt' lIarrati\t, illlO fonts. a~ tllt'y n'l1lilld tllP audil'w'e of th!:' politit'al alld !'Iocial l'OIbtraillb that ultilllately dt,tt'rmille tire king'" fate. Thu~ the crucial tht'ml' of tilt' lilm is actually huilt illlO il~ lliIlT:lli\t' ,~tnwturt'. I.fulll'll.!: is a "ton alHHIt all illdi\'itillal \\'ho~t' uo\'t'I~'"
IHO
\hU)\TI
kingly ,.;Ialll"; makt>s it po~,.;iblt> 10 magllify Ollt of all propoJ'tion ('('rtain idiosnlCral i!' traits ami to realize ('('rtain ex('t'ssiw ideas, But it i::. al,.., ahollt a SPlIsitiw and artistic personality made distraught by an oppre,,sin' cllltllre alld soci(,t\', As tlH' Ilarrator of Thomas Mallll's f)octor FuusIllS oilst>J'\'('S abollt tilt> real killg: of I'(lyal ('xi:;ll'lIt'l', "hie-h i~ ,"'('n'i~1I allll ';111'1'111111111'(/ by greal a lar~!' t'Xlell1 rn'l" froJll ('J'ilit'i~1II alltl 1'f',;puII,;ibility. the display of nohle ,Wtll, ha, Itt't'OIll!' a ,tylt, IIlIlilt' allythill~ t'\'1'1I Ihe ridll'st privatI' per,oll t'UII illdlllgt, in - royalty ~iv!'s tilt' w'rnHIS dl':;irl':; ami alllipalhy of ils I)('arl'f ct'rlain 1I"Tra~t', tilt' pl'OlId alld t'(JIllplt,It, ('xploitalioll of which lIIay easily appear lilt' lIIatillt"S,'C, Bill Iu till'
1'01'111
re~pl'l'l. 10
Lndwig i,.. fn'(' of the ('OIlStraillb Ihat ordinar\' illdi,'idual,.; fact' ill their dail\', live:-., Ordinary, mortal:; IIse these cOIbtrainls as all ('XI;U:-.(' for not tryillg to n'aliz(' their aspiratiolls, At fir:-.!. Llldwig's royal status deludes him illto thillkillg that Iit' ('all fill/ill his dreams - but Iit' quickly discovers the limils sl'l I,y politi('ialls, ci"il sernlllb, alld IIlLilllately by Bismarck':; Rf'(I/po/ilik, illlplelllPllted with tilt' aid of inm alld hlood, Wheft'as in Sf'IlSO tilt' story of a fl'w illdi"iduals sern-d as all allegory of historical eWlIts, 1l0W tllP ,.,wry of tllP king llecolllt's a lIlallif(,~tation of tilt> ahy,.;:; between havillg to liw ill historical tillle, withill tlH' sl'n'n' ('ollstraillts of the real world, alld tilt' diftintlty of experiellt'illg lif(, w; sOlllt'thillg lIleallillgfuL mailltaillillg faith ill the dignity awl "altH, of hUlllall aetivity, IlIstead of lIlelodrama, the pn'domillallt lIIode of t'xpn'ssioll i" IIOW ('olllt~mplatioll awl illlt'riorizatiotl. TIlt' /!tI\'Prllillg tlIt'IIW of /,wbl'ip: - the perverse oppo:-.itioll of life awl art - cOllfol'llb witll the historical situatioll well (~lIou!!h for tlw tht>lIIt' to servt' 1I0t jll"t a,.; a gt'lIeralized metaphor but also as a eOllllllt'nt 011 a spe!'iJic cultural alld historical situatioll depicted through the fate of all extraordillary illdi,idllal ill a hi~hly privile~t'd positioll, ~o otlWf t'haraclt'r rise,., to play a tTuciall'Ole ill Llldwig's draJlla, This n'lIe!'\'; the kill!!' S \'l'lItral probl('m: 1\1' i" ullable to illleract with otllt'r Iwopll', 1I0t to IIWlllioll tlw world at largt', To hilll the reality rt'prl'"ellted by his lIIi 11 i"tl'r,.;, ci,il S('lTalll,.., alld ordillary peopJt. al large i,., allchorl'll ill ('Yllil'islII allll I,anality, Ye1. for all his ('fforh to t'scap" to a 11101'1' beautiful n'ality. by builditlg fabulolh t'il"tie" alld "lIb"idizillg art of IIl1pn'l'l,dt'lIted proport iOIlS, Iit' is unable 10 realize hi" deqwsl dl',.,ire", jllst ,b Iit' i,., IIl1abl(' to kt'('p "l' hi:-. pllbli(' rol(', To (tchil've tilt' forlller. Iit' wOllld hU\'e 10 illtt'nH't wilil his fellow 1111'11: to aciti('\'l' tilt' latler, Iit' wOllld han' 10 submit to tilt'
Ig I
\'I:;COYII .\\0 (,I',H\L\\\
Ludwig is doolllt'd Ilt'wr 10 IIIUIIII'I', Ill' dings dt'slwralt'ly 10 his ide£ll" and bl'COIIII'S illlTt'£Isingly alil'llalt'd frolll realily, IIl1lillh£ll l"I'ality rl'fllsl'" to tolt'rate him anymore, 1_ll(lwig's SlIppI'I'ssed hOlllost'xllal dri\'es appear
10
I", a parlial causl'
of his idealizt'd lo\'f' for Elizalll'lh, " is a sarI' 10\'1' for Ludwig, whit'h grows ~Irollgt'r Ihl' more impo~"ihk il is, For a IOIlI! lime. Iit' is afraid of his hOlllot'l'Otic It'ndencies, alld till' 1'lIgagellll'lIt wilh Sophi,' i~ oh\'iou"ly an Htlt'lIIpl to d"ny Ihem, Bill. ill 0111' way or allolher. all WOlllt'1I disappOill1 Ihe kill/!, Ilis 1'I·lalioll,;hip wilh hi,; IIlOtllt'r i:-. cold alld dl'ladll'd, Elizahelh is hopelessly IIl1a\'ailal,It" and Sophit· hy far loo muilublt" I_udwig yt'ams for idealized, rallH'r thall rl'al. relalioll:-.hips wilh WOIIH'II. Homot'l'Olicism offl'rs Ludwig all 1'\'1'11 IWlII'r ol'porlllllily 10 slIhlimatl' his dt·:-.ires, 10 realizl' al "'a:-.I parlially his rolllalllit' dream,.; hy spolIsoring all, Hi,; rt'latiollships wilh \\'agnt'r alld Kaillz art' paralll·led hy his 1'1·1£1tioll"hips with Elizalwlh alld Sophie. /'t'sllI't'liH'ly, Bill e\'I'1I with IIH':->I' IIIt'lI he is 1101 illlt'rl'sted so lIIuI'h ill Ihe li\'illl! I'I'rsoll:-> as ill Iht' differelll mylhical figures Ihey (TI'all' alld, ill Iheir dif'fel'l'lIl. IIltilllUll·ly ullsalisfactory ways, elllbody, 11It'\'ilably, Ihey, Wo, disappoilll him, bul £11 It'a,,1 tlll':->t' rt'laliollship:-; It'ad to till' production of wOllderfll1 art. LlIIlwi/!'s lall'r relation"hips wilh slablt, hoy:-; alltl ntlt'ts appear 10 subdllt' till' frll"lraliolls eallst'd bOlh Ln, st'XualilY, and its slIblilllaliOlI. Forhiddt'1I a" Ihest' affairs are, Iht'y abo Iwcollle a prolesl a!!aillsl 1111' prt'nlilill!! 1101'11"" of socil'ly and tht' :ilrail!hljackel Ihal royalty WritS oUI 10 Ill', Bill Ludwig is ullahll' to shake off thost' 11 01'111 S. ami tilt'\' . 1'\l'lIluallv, I'I'II:->h hilll. Ludwi/ s IlI'an'sl altl'mpl 10 0\'('1'('01111' his illl'lillal iOIl" alld 10 Iwar his rt'"polIsibili Iit's as u k ill!! follows a CO 11 H'/'"u I iOIl with (:010111'1 Dii rk IlI'i III £II'll'/, tht' ts(){) war, ,\ st'rnllll Il'lIs his k illW 'Iy Lord Ihillh hl' has mad,' a hra\'!' dlOit't" 1'(,('II'lIlb 10 hilll~t'U'lhal Iit' t'all lilld hal'pilll'ss olllsiOt' Ill(' mllTOW I'lIlt's illll'o"t'd 011 1111'11. lit, who !'I'ally Ion'" lift', YUlll' \\ajl'''IY, ha" 10 t'Xl'I't'isl' Ih!' !!1'l'alt'~1 t'an', Also a IllOlIal't'h, Thl' IllOlIan'h's ~I'l'al I'0\\t'r i" lilllill,t\ alway" I,y riit' 1IIIIIIall t'OllllllllllilY 10 whit'h Iit' hilllsdf lH'lolI!!" , , ' 1)0l'"II'1 a ~J('rsoll who ha.; life Ilt'fon,hilll \\alll 10 lilld for his I'Xi"lt'lIt't' SOliit' Olht'l' 1'"l'l'tbl'( A hllllllll!', l'xaSpt'ralill!! I"II'I'0SI', ill a I'l'al t'OIl1l11l1l1ilY allltlllg sillll'lt, Ilt'tll'''' - ho\\t'\'t'l' IIII,diot ...I', 11 dt'IIHllld., gn'uI t'tHlnt!!t' fl'OIH .'01111'Ollt' who h'b !!I'l'al a~pil'aliolh \\ hidl an' 1101 frollllhi" world 10 an'l'pl 1II1't\iot'riIY, I kllow it. HlII il i" riit' ollly \\ay 10 "a\t' OIlt'SI'U' of a lilrll~ solilUdl',
Tht' "1'1'111' i~ 0111' of rill' 1II0~1 lIlovillg ill till' 1'lIlifl~ hllll, awl il forlll:-> 0111' of il:" illlponalll IIl/,llill!! poillts, 1I is followl'd by till' ;;1'11'1('111'1' ill whit'h
I IIdwi!! Iril'"
to
"";Slllllf' hi" n'sl'''llsiloililit,,, alld 1II'I't,"I1'''; l'II!!"gl,d 10 So-
1 0V·) _
\I:-oCU:\11
phie. The ".",(lWIll'.· ell
rt''',
The dinen'lIet' ill the register of these two speeches is 1I0t dIU' simply to Diirkllt'im's greatt'r tact. The sexual uature of the problem has become iucreasiugly ol)\'ious, although it is stillu(1t addressed directly, The COllfessioll scelle is illlt'rruptt'd hy a chrollologically obscure illsert. which shows the king approaching the sleeping lloruig - it could be a Ilashback, a tlashforwanl or just fantasy - and the scene ends in all image of the king and HOl'llig kissing, Also the Illention of Wagner in this connection is siglliticallt as a sign of ot/Wrlle"s Ihat cannot be allowed, TIlt' ollly remaining I'0~sibility for Ludwig is to yield to the inevitable. This becomes appan'lIl in the SetjlH'llce following the conft's"ioll in which Ludwig finally siglls t Iit' appeal to Killg Willwlm, As if ill ('(·\'.·ngt'. he gives way to his homoerotie desires and gradually gathers round him a princdy court of youllg Illen. 11 .. becOIW'S even 1lI0re exeessiw ill his spt'Jlding, SOtlJl the problelll is lIot just Dill' of bourgeois llIoralit y: it lwcoJlws a llt'('essity of state to disl'0s.' of him. Because Ludwig has r(-'mained popular. he must be illlpri"ont'd surreptitiously, But Ludwig ha::- aln'ady Iwcome utterly frustrated in his attt'lllpts to forge a new world - or hi" killl!dom. at least - in acctlnlam'!' with hb OWII image. For him. art awlmYlh have now ceased to he a IIlt'ans of cOllllllunicating and l'lItering into a reialion"hip with tilt' world ami other peopl,', Insll'ad, they bel'olllt' a IIWaIb of n~tn'atiJlg 1'1'0111 tilt' world. a way illto all elldless night of melancholy >iolitudt,. Trisfwllllu//suld ... Ihat e.'stati., celebratioll
of night. is t'lIIiJlelltly suited to portray this lIoctuntallllelltality. this turning away from the world - a COllllect iOIl lIIade earlier by Thomas ~lallll in his famous essay. TIlt' SorrulN and Grwu/t:'ur (~r Ridwrd /JclgTlt:'r . ill which Iit' compares tilt' romalltic thought anti st>nsihility. so well I'pitolllized in Trislwl. with Lindt'rho/'. Lu Because the killg prefer:-. to live for sOlllethillg Iwlter thall historical reality. tlH' tl"l'lIIt'IHJolls politit'al t'Wllt that is takilll! plan', tilt' formatioll of the German Empire, is dl'lIit'd t hp Sl'lIse of buntillg imlllt'diacy, or e\'l'lI of glorificatiun: there are no hattle :-.(,('lIes. vit,tory L'elt'hratiolls. or ('\'1'11 lengthy dialo!!ues or medilatiolls on the historicalpl"O(,('ss Ihal is takillg place. The tone is somlwr alld reflects a tolal disillusiollmelll with lIationalistic fen'ur. with any kind of polilit'al activity, in fact. This allows this story of a singular individual 10 grow into a IIlt'taphor for the psydlOpalhulogicalcollditiow; of Europ"1.I11 ci\"ilization, III Visconti"s ('arlit'r film TIt(' U(lIllTlt:'d. the gap betwel'II cultural aspiratiolls alld political r('ality led to a total perversion of spiritual \"alu('s. '-w/lI'ig retnH'es ow' critical phase ill the de\"e1opment of Europeall culllln' that h'd to that situatiun, By heill!! relieved of the petty w'cessities of everyday lift' . a killg is granted Ihe power to completely substitule art for n'ality alld ignon' the necessily of transforlllin!! aSl'iratiollS 10 aClioll. It'SI they Iw r('s bllilt in which 110 Ollt' will t'wr liw: his lift, i~ the t'l'itolllt' of rolllalltit' ilJt.ais alld for tlrat \"t'ry ("('.bOll alil'lIatt's hilll frolll reality allll it;; l'olltillgelll'it,s. III "agller Ill' sllbsidiZt's Ollt' of tilt' lIIost 1''1"i\"ontl and "ontradictioll-ridd"1I artists of all tilllt'S, a lIIall who pO:;I'!") as a proplH'1 of higher spiriluallrllth~ alltl whost' art will hallllt alld illspire tilt' domillallt figures of Ct'rIIlUllclllture and politics frolll Tholllas ~hlllll 10 Adolf Hitler. Indeed. the elllin' conlradiction i:; elllhodit,tJ ill tilt' lIlelldaciolls and avariciolls Wa!!ner. wholll tilt' kin!! illsish Oil appreciating in tt'rIIlS of hi;; al'l - the slIblimity of which is n'ndel"t'd in the 111.11'1.:grollnd lIIu~ic - illstt>ad of set'illg thal ht', too. is "inlo\erablt, alld despicable:' jllst likt' tht' rest of Ihe world tilt' killg so hatt'~, Wagllt'r' ~ arl ;;ets the \ollt' of tilt' film. IHII withoul tll(' ironical twi,.,1 that tht, n'ft~n'llI't' to t1H' ar1 of \'I'nli - ill Ili~ n'\ollltiollary phww - gi\t's 10 SewiO. Trislall
ll/ullsolclt, (W3)9. first perfonmtllce IH()5) i:; characterizt'd oy the pe""ilIlistie I'hilo:;ophy of SdlOpellhaut'r alld i:; 11 II\OVt' away from historical timt'. :;et in the tinlelt',,;; spht'res of lIlyth. Although till' tilm can Lw :;aid to n'tlect till' di",illu:;ionment of the tim..of its mukillg (1 <)?;~). and particularly that of ils dirt'ctor . it £11:;0 affirm" amI embodit'" I he continui,,'. and "italit\'. of t he cult ural tradition it dt·piCb, In hi" two film,; imlllt'diately prect'ding Ludu'ig (The DOllllled and Death ill I (·II;n). Yi",'ollli had already "Iwwn that Iit' wa:; profoundly awl painfully awan' uf what tilt' fUlllrt, had iu ,.,Iore for th,· culturt~ Ludwi~ ",pon",ored alltl for till' :;ystem of Ilatioll-",tate;; that BismaJ'ck. among otht'rs. neall'tl. TIlt' formation uf anotlll'r slatt'. Italy. had furnished the settings for Viscollti'" two eadit·J' historicalfilllls. Creatt'd o\"t'r almost three decadt,s. the",e work,.. tli",play a cballg" of altilllde. if not of oasit: analysi",. The t1lt'lllt' of ot'trayal ami the ironic !Utll'h in depicting it that l'haracterizt,d Sellsu recede:; to the bat'kgruulld while pt's"imism ami re:;ignation ('olllpetl' for prt'dolllinallt'(' in 1'l1t' Leopard awl Ludll'ig.
Audiovisual style TIlt' dOJllinallt ,'ulor of Llld/rig is 1,lue. tht' killg'", fan,ritl' color, a symhol of rtJIllalltil'islIl ami.. togetllt'r with whitt', the l'olor of the Bavariall Hag, COlllbilled with the cOlbtalltly foggy and raillY latltl"cape", the blue makes the world tilt' king inhabit:; al'pt'ar cold, however IlIIwh it is contrasted with tilt' "plelldid gold and "ell,.,UOWi rt'd of lIIany of the illlerior :;cellt'S, \'i""llllti ha" by IWllIt'allS exploited to tilt' full the po;;sibilities for "Iwetaclt, dlUt I.udwig's ea"tlt',., have oHt'red, Tit" "tylt' of the fillll is JIlore like chaJIIlwr lI11bit' titall symphollY or opt'nl. A,., ill The Leopard. tilt' eUIIlt'ra :;tyle is slightly di"tallt'ed alld ohj,'ctive, !\Iolltage i,., Ici,.;urdy USl'd, alld Vist'onti oft('n I'alb alld ZOlJllb ilblt'ad of ,'ultillg, ;\arratioll i", seldom deeply focused 011 allY of the dlara('ters, though dlt' framillg alld camera mOW'IlIl'lIt;; ha\'e 1H'l'1l "t nlt't un'cI aroulld the citaral'll'r" roughly alollg the lillt's of classical l'illt'lIll.1, St't'IIt'" oftI'll start Iwfol't, all """lIt awl ,;ometinlt's cOlltillllt, for quitt' "Oillt' time after. COITe"l'ont!illgly, II1111ly "hoh ,'ontillut' Iwyond the need,., of telling a "tury, Thi:; LW(,UIlIt'" illt'n'asingly l'\'idl'lIt toward Ihe end of tilt' Jilm with the IUllg, alnw"t word"'",., ",t'quellt'('s with fir"t tht' actor i-.:ainz aud thell Empress Elizalwdl gazing ill wowler at Ludwig'" palace" and thl' Yeuus gmtto at LilltlerllOf. Finally, the detaillillg of the king. his "tay in the palm't' of Berg. the filial walk with Proft'"sur Cudd"11. alld thl' search fur thl' bodi,'''; makt, up a ,'ollsidt'J'al,le part of tilt' film, although tilt' nUllllwr of (,\,,'lIh is rt'lati'Th ~Illall '1'1111:',1\" ill Thl' 1./'(lf"ln! till' ,I;trr:lli\'(' t"IIII'O
\" 1S C () \ 11\ \ \) (. E H \1\'\ \
I ~.)
becomes illCreasill~ly slow toward till' t'!HL thou~h perhaps wilh sli~htly less justihcatioll. Tn~ether with tilt' colnr schelllt'. this lTt'ates a sOllwwhat chilly owrall t'/"fect. especially in cOIllparisoll with tilt' Siciliall tilm. TIlt' mllsic is mainly Waglwr. and it is lIsed in a suhtle lIIallller. avoiding excessiwly gralld gt'stures. TIlt' most important extract is an illstrumental adaptation hy Franco MarmillO of the LieoeslI(lcilf (:\i~ht of loVl') from the st'cond act of Trislan 111/(1 Isoldl>. Iwginning from (where t ht' words wOllld 1)1') "So stiirben wir 11111 IIngetrt'llnt" - echoing Isolde\; Liebesfodl (LoH' dt'ath) at the ('nd of the opera. It is first Ilt'ard as Wt' are introollct'd to Wa~ner a!Hllearn uf his interest ill mOllt'y. The COllllt'ction with riit' shameless pursuit of self-inteft'st alld deception ar.. furtllt'r stren~tllt'llt'd whell the ordH'strallllusic fadt's away allo '"Oil Biilow plays another extracl from Ihe Lielw.HI(lchl 011 tilt' piano. whilt' furtlwr away his wife. (:osima. lells Wagner Ihal ~Iw is pregllallt again - with hi;, child. though the point i;, 1I0t made explicit ill the film. III immediate COlllraSI to all thi;,. a particularly long ~Irl'tch of tilt' '_iebesfl(lclil IlIllsic a('colIIpallie~ Ludwi~ alii I Elizaheth Oil their nocturnal rid ... As tilt' film ullfolds. the music becolllt's ever 11101'1' associated with the gradual shaltt'rill~ of Ludwig' s illusions as a killg. a patron of th .. arls. and a man. The Iwgilllling of the on'rture of Lo/wflgrifl abo COIllIt'cts ",:ith disillusiOlIllWIlt. particularly ill reft'rt'IH't' to Wa~lH'r. and as if hy illversioll of Sophie. It is hrst Iward wht'II Llldwig. in his hrsl royal a('1. dt'lIIalld~ that his lIIinist\'r ~eareh for Wagner alltl brin~ hilll to \hlllich. It is heard again much latt'r whell I.uowig talks 10 Wa~llt'r abollt postponing his wedding with Sophie. He has bl:'ell trying to project the illlage of ',oheflp..,.i,,· s EIsa 011 Ihe poor girl. and the disparily has 1)('1'11 iliadI:' mallifest both to tilt' Kill~ and to the spectators as till' poor prill\'('!"i,., lIIakes a patlwt it' altelllpl tu sill~ Elsa's aria. "Eillsalll ill triibell TaW'II." ill all otllt'l"wisf' wordh·ss scent'. "0 tlu lIIeill holde::. Abelllj,.,lenl." \\olfralll's ~ollg for the eVPllillg star from TWIT/hauser. is heard at tillws. lIIaillly as diegt'til' music. Whell OUo visit!> Ludwi~ dllring till' 1X{){) war. tlw nlll~ic issues fOl1h 1'1'0111 a 11](>challical IIIl1sic llOx. whilt, allot her dt'vice proj('cts tilt' lIighl sky 011 Iht' ct'ilill~. AI tilt' end of the film. Ludwig lislt'lIS for a mOlllent to I he sallle musical box. The Iherne is also heard. a~ain ill all illstruIIH'ntal adaptatioll. when first Kaillz allll thell Elizabeth visit the VellllS ~rotto al Linderhof. Here till' lIIusic is quasi diegt,tic. the orcheslra is not ~;t'ell bill presumal,ly tilt' cham('ters do hear it. ,7 The thellle is heard also as I.udwig and Kainz travel 011 a sleigh Ihroll~h Ihe dark. snowy lal\(jsl"alll''';. In this ,,('t'llI' IIIl1sic i,.. oh, iou-" lllllldil'!!,'ri,', This alllhi~!llity IwlWt'('1I dil'~t'lit'
"11'
\
I~(.O.'
n
and 1I00Hliegt'tic lIIusic fon'shadows tilt' way the Liebesll(lcit/-mu"ic CUlltinues over a statemt'nt Ly 0111' of tlw \'al('(:; whell Ludwig refuses to Illeet Elizabeth. who has (,Olllt' tu see him at ;\;t'uschwanstein. III this iustaw:(C". the way the lIIusic lwcollles manifestly ill dependent of the different dit'getic levels prodlll'('s a particularly strong t'motional effect - only to ht· shockingly contrasted with tht' trallsitioll to tilt' drunken revel. Durillg tilt' lTt'di.". the spectator Iwars a ran' unpublisllt'd pieee. reputed tu 1)(' a ('olllpositioll dedicated by Wagner to Cosima,7!l1t moVt's in the harmonic :;plll'!'t, of Tris/wl alld it appean; at times on the piano. at limes a:; an ordle"tral adaptatioll by Frauco \Iaunino (who has also eOIldUl'ted all the orcliestral music). Durillg the film it is first heard when Wagller re(Tiw:-< the killg's ktter expressing his n'grPl for havillg to exile him frolll \Iunich, :\ext il is hrielly heard iu its orchestral Vt'rsion when Ludwig aliums Sophie with some of Ihe crown jewels. Toward the elld uf tilt' film. the piece is heard. a1'1l'r Colouei Durkheim has made his la" .. u"dess. dfort to san' his king, Finally. il appears in the lasl scene as the Lodies are n~trit'ved fwm the lake. and from here on the lIlusic contiuue" uninterruptl'd unl il the final lTedits. during which it changes from the piano to Ihe orclw"tnti \"I'l'sioll. The poignancy of this Illusic s('1S Ihe tone fol' the emire film. One mure (lien' by \fagner is heard, lIamely. Siep,fi'ied /(6-11. which Wagller prl'sl'nts as a gift to Cosima alld their baLy SOIL Siegfrit'd. played hy a strillg ordwslra to awakell them 011 Chri:--tmas morllillg. Sc1lumaJlII' s ki,ulers::,ellell is first lu-anL presumably as diegetil' music. early Oil ill Ihl' film. when Elizalwth is practi(:illg riJillg. The association betwel'1I the Illu,.,ic alld Iu-r is emphasized by a ,.,traiglll I'ut from Ludwig's face awl Ihe Luhellgrill overture to her aud her llIusic. Later. tilt' kinders:;t'fII'lI ullbic appears in other scenes in which silt' is al the center of evellb - again there is a seamless 1ll0Vemellt toward Ihe nondiel!(·lic. The tone of tilt' music in this contpxt is not too st'rious. alltl thus it has the effect of nllll'killl! Ludwig:' s passiml for Elizalwlh - parlicularly whell it i:i heard just a,., a dlallllll'f1naid 1I'IIs him that Elizabeth will not go fur a ride with him. The :--c('nt' witll the pro:ititule i,., hack I'd by Offenbach' s on'rlure tu La periclwle. awl in ullolher scellt' \Vagner plays all extract from an operetta Ly the :;aBIt' ('ompos('r, La ['it' purisieflfw. The securely Cennan composer "ays in dbgusl: 'Thi~ i,., what the Cennans likt'. not lily music." In addition to these brit"!' passage". then' is SOllll' diegelil' BUbi\.' sUl'h a" bold bras:; music ill the ('orollalioll :--('elH' and folk mu:--i\.· ill Ihe !'t'\el scene,
\ ISCOYll\ \ D C ElOI.\.\ \
Lluhl'if.{ hu:; lWI'll ac('u:;l,d of lH'ill~ a cnld fillll la('kill~ ('1t~Hr illlt,lIl'ctllal structure, a vi:;ioll of hi~tOl'Y. alld l'lIlOtiollal drin'.-" It ha~ also beell ;;1'1'11 a;; a symptom of auto"io~raphi('al I'xistplltial ('J'i~i",.XO 1'111'''''' a,.,,.,t',.,sIJIt'lIh havf' b('ell made 011 tilt' basis of the ~hort \"er~ioll of the film. which dOt'~ not COIIH'y \"iscollti·,., historical. ,.,ocial. cultllral. awl psychological ideas. xl There are so few stateIllI'lIts ill this \"ersionlhat thl'" do not stalld out ill dear COlllltt'qHlillt to the J"t'st of the fillll. TIlt'y do not e\"t'lI properly guide the "'pectator through till' lIarratiw. Either ('OIlIplt,tt'ly Jlli,;,.,in~ or sf'\"erdy IIlut ilated are ;;uch tTucial :;t't'III';; as Diirk Iwim' ~ alld tilt' prit,t·,., sp,~eche~ to Ludwi~. a scellt' J"t'colllltin~ tilt' t'Vpnb that han' takell placl' within tht' royal family. alld the IIlt't~tillg Iwtwet'lI Luitpold. Diirkheim. and certain lllini~ters of state, There is t'\'t'n sOIllt'what les,., music than ill the four-hollr wrsion. alld it i,., liSI'd ill a differt'llI way, TIlt' "So :-il iirlu'n wir" theIlle is not hl'ard at all. and it is rt'placed by a IIllll'h more lyrical - alltl ill this cOlltext It'ss t'ffectin- - extract frolll tilt' '.ielJf'slI(tchllllllsic. There is also all extrelllely intt're~tillg dit'fI'J'('IIt't' IwtW('I'1l H'r~iOIl~ dubbed ill different lallguages, III the :;hort EII~lish lall~ua~1' n-rsion. (lllasi-"forei~II" acct'nts rl'~;ult ill tilt' typically silly effect this practict' ~o easily produces. whereas in at It'ast the Italian four-hour versioll tilt' language is beautiful alld IIl1l'rett'ntiolls. ,\Ild what is qllitt' sta~~wrillg i,., tilt' differel\('l' Iwtw!'t'1l IlellIlllt Bl'rger spl'akillg hi!-> own lilles ill EIl~lish aJl(I Giallcarlo GiaJlllilli ~i\"illg Ludwi~ his Iwalltiful Italiall voiel'. TIlt' form!'r lllakes tilt' killg al'pI'ar bickt'rillg alld IInsyml'atlwt i(': tilt' la Iter',., interprt'tatioll make" Ludwig sound It'llth'r alld vlllllerablt:'. The difff'n>Ill't' Iwtwl't'll the short wr~ioll~ alld th!' ('olllpl!'tl' film t'lIler~es abo ill tilt' t'dilillg alld rhythm. TIll' ~ht/rt \t'rsioll~ an' j'~rky alld Illleyell. allt! tilt' t1a"hbat'k ~trllctllrt· ollly muddl!',.; tilt' t,'mlloral orgallizatioll of the fillll: tilt' 10llg ",'rsi"'ll!'h tilt' two-tif'r:-;tnll'tllJ"t'lIllfoldcalnlly alld Illajestically, :\gaill. tilt' 1'<1 rt'fllI choin' of It'i~lIrl'ly I"'ol\'illg ;;('ellt's ('reates tilt' ";1'1)';1' of a long stretch of tillle pa,;,.;ill!-(. which i~ IIsl'd 11t'J'(' JIlort' to draw a pictun' of p,;ydlOlo!!ical dt"t'!OPIlll'llt thall to d"pict historical challgt' 11"; ";lIch, Ollly ill thi,., forlll ('all 'Au/lI'if,{ Iit' apl'l"t'('iatt'd Wi all illtellt'cwally alii I I'll lOt it/Ilally ,.,a I i~fa('1 ory work ill which Llldwi!-(':-; sillglllar destillY is IIlli\ersalized awl dnatl'd into thl' :-;1'1lt'J"t, of art.
Viseonti as an Interpreter of Europeal. Literature
EX PE HIE 1\ C Il'i GUT EH A'IT H E AN [) Cl N E MA
Vis('ollti's litl'rary ideals Throu~I\Out
hi" lift~ Vi!icollti wa" all avid reader. lli" !irst weat love was Shakt,,,pean:" aud having read ill The Tell/pest Pro"pero's word;; to l\1iralltla. "TWelH' war" sillce. \Iiralltla. wa~ ,\our father duke uf ~Iilall."· , Iw wOlltiered wllt'tiler she lIIight han' Iwt'n Ollt' of hi,; allct·,;tor,;. The next great oL'jt,(·t of adllliral iOIl was Sll'lIdhal. followt'd "oou by PI"OU"t alld hi~ .~ /(( I"1'c!wI"cllI' dll tt'lI/pS pel"dll. Proust'" 1lI0llUIIWUI al work became a lift·lollg sourct' of iuspiratioll for \i"COllli. For y('ar" Iw plalllwd 10 adapt il for tilt' ";IT('t'll. alld it dearh, illtlut'Ilt't'd lIIall\. of hi~ tilnh. Evell aftt'r lo"illg all llOpt' of realizillg his dn'alll, \'isl'(l/Iti foulld gn'at cOlllfort ill Proust dmillg hi" ilhlt',.;,.; ill the la:;1 year" uf his lift·. 1 Like the Ilarrator of the IIO"t·1. Iit' lIIight have thought: "Lift' a~ it plhSt'" i~ but Tillle lo:;t: but a11call 1)(' tl"Uu,,/igllrt'd. fOUlld agaill. "n':;t'/llt·d ullder tilt' aspt'ct of eterIlity. which i,; dlat of art."' ~ Alld what Alldr{> \\allrois ha" writteu ahout ProU,,1 applie" equally \\"t·1I to Viscollti: "Proll,.;t 10\"l'd 10 "tudy ... the hi"torical forlllatioll of variou" social t'llvin)[IJIH'llh. awl tilt' way ill which they gro\\' old alld WOl"lIl-ea(('11. IIl1til al last they brt'ak dowu altogNher.": 1 Blit tlltTt' is 11 10 n' 10 tilt' lilerary hackgrouud of \'i"l"ollli"" ae"lhetic" thall ju"t Prou,,(. III (;uido ,-\ri"tan'o's view_ Vi,.,('Ollti i:; tilt' ollly 1illllllHlker who ha" Irllly "IlI'('('t,dt'd ill ptTl)('luat illg litt'rary Iradit iOIl of the t'igh[(,t'lIth aud uillt'lt,t'ulh ('t'lIll1ri(''', For \'i"t'Ollli, il \HI" to a ~n'al t'xtt'llI a questioll of adlit'\illg it ('erlaill kiwi of /'t'uli,,1I1. TIlt' lIillt'(('('IIt1I-('('lIll1ry 110\'1'1 offt.n,d a II10dl'I for workillg Ollt plo'" ill 1('l'Ilb of I hI' lIIotinllioll" of tilt' ('ham('t('r" ('ollditiollt'd I,y lIulllral. "twial. idl'ologinti, alld p"ydlologintl fa('tor", :\('('()J"dillg 10 F, \\ . .I. I It'll 1I11iII!!":
I" T EHI' H 1,1 L H () F El H () P E ,\ ,\ I. IT L H ,\ Tt H L
:\ feelillg for hi"lOry, ill its broadesl st'llSt', is a fet'lillg for tilt' ..!Iallgt'" that tilllt' brings about: and for thost' who. likl' Slt'lIdhal. had ht'l'lI honlt' 011 tlu' 1'\1' of tilt' Frellch RI'\olulion alld Wt'l"t' in IIliddlt' agt' wllt'lI tilt' rolllall1ic rnolutioll W,h subvt'rtillg alltltl' old li1erary callolls. 1I0thillg was II10n' t'\'idt'lIt 1hall that t'vt'ryIhillg wa" subjcct 10 l'hallgl'. A "t'lI"t' of tht' t'lIlirdy I'rovisiollal lIalllrt' of law", custom". alld sllt"ial illstilutiolb. of tilt' imptTIIHIlIt'Ilt'(' of nH'II's 1110,,1 dlt'risllt'd belit'f" allt! mo,,1 st'ttled cOllvil·tioll". IlIarkt'd Ihe rolllalllic gt'lltTalioll as il had 110 previous olle. i Tht' llillt'tl't,llth-('t'llIlIrY realisl aUlhor could Ihillk of hilllst,lf as a t"ollst'rvatiollisl. \\'Illltill/-! to presprn' somt'lhillg of the lift' of Iht' t"ol/lI1/uI/ity threalt'lIed with PXlil/l'lioll. From thi" arose lilt' lilO/'(' cnlt'ial I"t-allln' of the way realism was IIIltll'r"wod. IItll us imiwl iOl/ of n'alily as "llt'h. hut as so('iulcriticislII.
Of Iht' grt'ul aUlhors of Ihl' I/illl'I(,t'llIh t'I'I/tllry. J)ostoYt'\'"ky prohubly IlUd Iht' lIIos1 ill/lUl'IICe 01/ \'ist'ol/ti's arti"tit" ith'uls - altholl/-!h of all his worb \'is\'ollli udal'tt'd ollly tilt' 11 0\'\'11 a 11 hi/(' .Yip;ltls. TIll'/'(' is aI/ I'I/ormOll'; lensiuII ill tilt' olltl'lIt of this artist. a n'\,olutiollary tUI"IH'd t"tHls('rYati"p. sU,;lwllded Llt'tw!'t'1I tilt' t11'"in' 10 dlUI//-!<' ('wrylhill~ al/t1 tilt' th't'ply felt 1It'l'd 10 han' t'H'rylhillf! /'('lIlaill tilt' Salllt', This COl/flit'! wa" familiar 10 \'i,;t·ollli. allhou~h Iit' arriwd at il from tilt' complt'lely opposilt' din't"tioll. Thl' lIilll'tt'l'IIth-ct'IIIUrY Hussiall author "aw thl' IIl1in'rst' as ordailH'd 1)\, . Cod: tilt' twel/lit,th-celltun. Italial/ lil"\lllukt'/" al/ahzt'd ."oci(,t\ . ill (t'rIlb of hi"tory - hUI of history appt'arill;,! al lim('s ull/lOsl likt' faIt' or a \'t'II;,!t'flll god. III allY ca,,('. thl' worb of Iwth tllt,,,t' artis'" a/'(' illlllllillatl'd I,y tllI'ir faith ill tilt' ability of the hlllllall lIIilld to f!ntsp. articulal('. alld perhup" ill "ome way 1'\('11 lrallsl'!'lld tilt' 11I11I1UI/ cOl/ditioll. a faith lIIallift'"h'd ill rh!' \'('I'y persuasin'lles~ of th.,,,(, work" 1III'I/"'t'I\'('s. TIlt'
IIIt'1IIb
\'isl'ollti liSI'd ill hi:-- lillll~ to 'Tt'alt' a ridl portrayal of ill-
dividllals. "ol'it'lies. and Iht' /Ilultifarioll" illlerCOllllt'l'tiO/b IWI\\I'I'II ttll'lIl resl'IIII,I.,,, Do:;toyt'\'sky' s achi.'n'lIlt'nt ill his nO\pl.~. Thl' idt'olo~intl slall' of sOl'ietit':-- i" "Hl/lift'Sh,d by pill ill!! chararter~ a!!ain"t 0111' anotht'/"' a" well as by dl'piclill!! tlwir illlt'/"IIal t'ollllit'ts. III I)o"toyn'"ky. tilt' III ora I a/lll I'"ychologit'al world i" oftl'll t't'lIll'rl'd arolllld a 1'1'01,11'111 to whit"h tilt' I'rotagollisl. as if by a leap. f!aill:-- a ITllcial illsi!!hl that l'lIli;.dlle/lS hi" t'lItire exisu'IH'I'. SOIllt'thill!! silllilar call Iit' "t','1I ill tilt' uwan"llt'ss Lillo at'lJllirt'~ ill ()ss('ssiulU'. ':\wlli ill I,alerm 11"1'11/(/. \laddalt'lw ill IJellissill/(/, and Frallz ill Sellso,,-' BUI
1II0n"
"if!lliliralltly. ycry Illlwh likt' till' lIIain dwnwtt'r:-- of tilt'
I{,,,,-
siall Illlh(t'r - ('ad, of wholll ha" his or 111'1' ob"t'ssioll (lliltili,,1I1. I)('ill~
I Ill)
\ I:-.(.()" TI
,.,upenllHll. lu"t' or hate. whatev,~r). which lead~ him or Iter to a~ollizill~ ;,olitlld". inability to COllllllUllicate with fellow Itumall Ilt'illgs - IlIU1IY of tit(' charact{'rs ill \,iscollti'~ filllls. particularly ill tilt' late OIlt'S. bec()lU~ vict im~ of tlwir OW1l :,ellsitivitv alld ideals awlthu,.; :-iuccumb to lonl'ii1l6,.. uli"lHltioll. awl finally 10 death. III botlt ,·ww,.,. the ideals may lit' lofty or d"gradeJ. truly ideali,.,tic or decadt'IIL hut in (heir ~hal1ldess sllLjt'l'(i\il~ they an' illdicatiw of a rt'fusal or all illability to {'nter illto genuine dialoglll' and interactioll. ;'I,;('\'('rtltel,,:,s. tltl'rl' i" often a S{,IIS" of the upbeat because of the way. cOlltinuitv. i:; nHlIIift'slt'd ill th,' itH'rt'a,.,ed uuJerstallJiug of tht' ;,ocial awl psydlOlogintl illlplicatiulb uf tit(' events that ha\f' occurred. This at It'a:,t sllgge,.,ts tit(' pos!-iibility of dewl0l'lIlent and maturing l)I)th for tilt' illdividual awl the ('ollllllullity. Of all the major lIinl'\{'t'lItlt-n'lIt ury writers. Slelldhal i!-i probably lilt:' one wlto would 1110,.,1 closely lIlalch Yisl'ollti in charactt'r allJ backgroulld. Likt, him. ,'i!-icollti haJ the wurldvit'w of a pulitical revolutionary but Wib all ari,.,tocral by l'haractt'r and aesthetic orielllation." .\S tillle passed, both hegan t'lIIphasizillg their ari,.,tocratic heritage. although by 110 means llllcrit ically. baiah Bt'r!iu' ~ COllllllI'uh 011 ('t'rtaill major niuett'I'lIth-cellt ury illtell,'ctual!-i applie!-i al~o to thelll:
tlll'y bdllJlg,'d \0 thl' da,.,,., of tho,;e who an' hy hirlh ari~lIJ<'ralil'. but wllU the Ill"dvt's go 0\1'1' 10 ,.,0 lilt' fn'er allJ lIlort' radical Illude of though I alld of aClioll. There is ";OIllt'lhillg ~illglllarly attraclive almll1 1111'11 whu relailled. throughoul tiu'ir lift,. tilt' mallfll'r". Ih,' texlllrt' of Iwilll,!. Ih,' hahih allll slyle of a civilizl'd alld reJilll'd lIIili"11. ~udl 1111'11 ,'xt'rcist, a peculiar killd of persollal frl't'dulll which cOlllhilll'''' "'plllllalll'ily wilh dislilWlioll. Their lIlilul~ SI'I' lar~(I' allll g"III'rous horiZOll~. alld. abo\"!' all. n'V!'al a ulIilllll' illlell('('lUal gail'ly of a killd Ihal ari~to('ralic educaliulI It'lI,b to producl'. At 1111' sa Ill" time, the) are illldlt'ctually 011 the sidl' of I'\\'rylhillg Ihal i~ III'W, progrt's~i\'e. rdwllious. YUUIlI,!. ulltrit'd. of Ihal which is aboul 10 \'01111' illto Lwilll,!. of till' opell sl'a whether or 1101 Ihl'fI' i~ la11d Ihat lies Ilt'yolltl. To Ihis Iype belong Ihose inl,'nlledialt' tigufI''; ... whllliH' Ilt'ar till' fruntit'r Ihal di, id", old from lI"W. I)I'IWI"'II Ihe dUIlCl'ur de /(1 I'il' whidl is aboul tu pass and tilt' 11Illlalizillg fUluft,. tilt' dallgerous III'W ag" Ihat Ihey Iht'llb..I\"!'S do lIluch 10 brillg illlo Iwing. 7 ""llIt"I\\'clual ~ai"ty" ,'ould allllU!-it Ill' used to t\{'snilw ,. i!-icoI\I j'!-i uwlogllIali,' relaliouship witb \lurxi~lIl. To billl it wa~ a tool of allalysis. which baJ to ill' adaptt'd 'TI'atiwly allll iutegrated with om::, cultural allll hi~ toricallwritag". :\ltlwlIglt ill his lall' lillll~ Iit' I'OlIlilll'd hillbl'lf 10 de"iclillg tlte IIp,,t'l' da";!-i(''';. II(' lIeY!'r lo:,t hi" critical ,,!'r"pI"'li,,' of tllI'lIl. I h' was I'lIuvillced that tllI'Y WI'('t' doolltl'd 10 pt'J'i,.,h IWI'lllbe hy tllt'ir \I'ry lIalllrl' tilt"· wI'n' IIllal,l,' to dJall!!t' Ili~ llthlah!'i,' f,',·lill!!" .. bnllt till' Wllllill!! ,."wial
ord .. r did 1I0t hlilld hilll to ib iniquitil's. TIlt' n'sult was oftt'1I sOIlwthill~ that cOllld 1)(> d.. scrilwd a~ a critical ('/('K". In his all it lid.. toward society as wdl as ill tilt' way II(' tJt.pit'I\'d it. ViscoIlti calliI' dost' to Bulzac. particularly as St't'lI hy Ct'or~ Lllkucs: The ba~i, of Balz",: ~ J't'ali,,1Il is the way Iit' cOllstalltly J't'\'('ab sociallwillg as tilt' basis of all sol'ialcolI,;t'iolblle~s: t'~pecially ill allt! throllgh all t1111~t' l'olltratlit'liOIl~ that illt'vitably takt' plan'lwtwt't'JI tilt' social beillg alld l'oIlSl'iOllSIlt'S~ withilll'Hl'h soeial class. Thlls BalzHc is flllly jllstili,'d ill stalillg ill his IImd lA'S pay.Hllls: "TI'II me what YOll OWII and I will tl'1I YOll ,,"hat you thillk." K
Lik .. Ba1zac. \"iscomi was able to ""rillg out t11t~ specifically illdi,"iduul and the c1a~s-boulld typical feat un's of every sill~le dwral'\t'r:' awl siIlItIltalll'oll~ly to focu:, 011 the "capitalist COllllllllllity. which lIIallift,:,ts itself ill
Balza(' alltl Yis('ollli have ill ('Il/1I111011 1101 0111\- rllt'ir n'ali"ti("lwlIl lllll also their ('tHlsid,'rt'd liSt' of lIIelodralllatic .. IPIIU'lIlS. BUI Ihe wa\" tilt'\' wurk Ollt I his t'1t'1IIt'lIt differs sli~htly. The allt'lIIpt 10 capture rt'ality ('all also Iit' "t't'lI as a way of prtlt't'ssillg ct'rtaill SUIWOIbCious cOItligllratiolls . .-\c('ordilll-! to (:hristol'llt',. Pn'lIdt'r~ast. BalzH(,' s ('ulllhJit' Illul/Clil/t' proj('('t ('all Iit' St'(,1l us all allelllpl 10 st'('urt'lht, trillily ofCod-Fatlll'r-:\rli~1. Alllht'st' rolt·~ art· about go\"t'ntill~ by word ill all atlt'lIIl-'t to dt'tl'rtllilll' what rt'ality is. Frolll thi,; poillt of ,·it'w. the artisl is tht' rlller of riit' rt'allll of IIIt'allillg,;: "Lord alld ma,lt',. of illlt'lli~ibilily. tilt' urtist i,; tilt' tigurt' who trallSHt'!S 1I01hill~ It's,, IhulI 'rt'alit\"' ihl'lf 10 riit' reader.'"I III Ihis st'lI't'. Jllilllt~si". lllldpr,lood us riit' imitatioll of rt'ality. is illdiculiw of all allt'lIIpl to "alisfy all illfalltilt, IlI'l'd to (,Olltrol. BUI lIlt'lI a~aill. all alll'llIp"" 10 illlilalt' n'ality a" Wt'l/ as tilt' \ .. n~l)("ial ("(lIlslrt\t'lioll of rt'alil~ its!'I" la/.;I' plan' Wilhill a lraditioll alld
\I:-;(.()\fl
an' tlwrt,fon' hi!'>turicallv dctentlilled. Ilelll·t' tIlt' realist artist is 1I1urt' or ll's~ ullwittill~ly kw'elillg before a hitdwr authority. Perhaps the only way for an anist to a\"(lid it 1'\"('11 in part is to rejcct conventional realislII. Balzuc achin"~ thi,., by llll'lodramatic 1I1eallS. by introducing "a margin of excess. tlte .. ICllll'ltt of the 1IIleXlll'cl"ll. tlH' implausible. the int'xplicaLle. di~lod~illl! till' ·father.· ulldernlillill~ the du.m. :;ubH'rtillg the official hi,..tory. challen!-.!;illl! thc l"OllH'nliow; of represelltalioll allll intelligibility pu,,il .. d b," till' 1nl il!'>df."I~ :b poillted oul l'arlit'r ill COIIIH'ctioll wilh .'·;l:'flSU. IIwiodrama ill Yi,,('oJlli'" fillll" i" lIot aholll coillcidt'IIl'f' or olher lIarralive dC\'in'!'> that would ('0111111'" tilt' ail11 of l'0nrayill~ charactcrs a,.; hi"torically ami socially de1t'l'IIlilll'd illdi\'idllak Ht· did 1101 ,.;t·ek to "('hall/'nw' thl' ('oIl\TlItion;, of rCl're"{'lltatioll awl illt('lIi~ihility"; lit' was w'n'r illlt'I'l'sled ill followiu/! tlte "In'alll" of Ihe ilHlIlt ganle. Whilc ,kall-Lw' (;odanl ,.;oul:dll 10 shatter lraditiollal illu,.;ionist form~ of cillt'lItalic l'l'pn,,.,t·lIlalioll a!'> a lllallifestatioll of hOllrgt'oi" idl"ology by radically IIt'W cillt'lllalic IlteallS. \'i:;('ollli adhered 10 IlliIlU";,.,i.'; alld cillelllatic H'ri..;illlilillldt'. I It- walllt·d 10 I'cl'J){'tuate the \\'estel'll Iwrrati\'(' traditioll - all t'l11l'ltalically Illillletic lraditioll - in tht, IIIO"t ,.,pll'lIdid fashioll cOllceivable. a III I ill "OIllt' rl"";I',·('I". al 11',.".1. thi:-ilw\'ililbly I11l"alll IlUldillg fa:--t to cenaill anJltin'd fOl'1n,., of repn·selllatioll. \\·a..; Ihi,.; adllt'rt'llI'l' to lllillle:;is alltl refllsal 10 addn',.,,; Ihe LJ"e:;tiolls of l'!'pn's,'lltat iOIl ill work:; of art Ih,'m,.,eh",'" all iwlicat iOll of sW"'III11Ling to till' "fatllt'r'" \oin''':- Did tilt' ti~lIn' of ti ... fatl ... r. which Yi:;collti had so careflllly t'radicall,d frol11 allllo,.;t all of his fillll,." hold il~ OWIl by IIt't'oming Ihoroll~ltly illl"ntaliz('d illlo tilt· di,,('our~.·::b Ihl' on'rtly ,,(It'ial e1I'IIWlll ill Yi:;(,Ollti'" lilllb n·('I·dl'd. il wa" replaced by a 11101'1' illlt'rlluliz"d 1IIldt'rstallllin~ of growing old awl of the transilorine,.;,., of all Ilt'illgs. TIlt' l11ain characters of tilt' last fOllr fill11,; are all 101 ... 1Y 1111'11. who ill t ht'ir variolls \\"ay~ an' "ll1l'hatically lIOt. or are no 101l~"r. fatilt'r". Illa"lIlllcil a,.; tlwil' alt"l11l'ts to gaill or 10 Illailllaill the slalll"; of tilt' fatl ... r fail or have fail,·.!. Yist'ollti i!'l al!'>o qUI":itiollillg patriarchy alld till' "ultllrl' il ho;.t:;. Thll:i althollgh Ileither tilt' Irillity of CodFatlwr-:\rti,.,t 1101' Ihl' "a,.,it' faith ill tilt' pO:i!'lihilily of rl'pn'"elllillg realily is ulldel'lllillt'd Oil tilt' 1('\"1,1 of di,.,('our,.,e or I'xl're",.,ioll. at !t·a,.,t Ihe power uf Ihl' fatl ... r i" dtallellged as if frolll withill. Like \'i,,"Ollli hill.,.,(,If. Ihe l11ale dtarat'II'rs of hi" films do 1101 fail a" falh"I',,; a" a 1'1111' thn fail ill ht'COlllillg fa tI 11'1',.,. Likl' ('hildn'll. they "'I'ek comfort hy l'';''apillg illlo the spllt'n'" uf art or Illad {'.\ag~eratioll of tilt' I'go. a" if It) n'gaill al I.. ast ';Yl11l101ically thl' ~rolllld tilt'y hm'" 1.".,1. .\,., a 1"I'"ull. tilt·\" "IIIt'r illto all ('\'('1' dl'qH'1' solitude.
1:\ T EH P H r·1 L H
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1 El H (J P E.\ '\ LITE H.\ Tt HI.
The prolJlt.'lIls of adapting John Ellis has delined adaptatioll as ··a proep~~ of redlll'in~ a prpexi:;teJlt piece of writill~ to a st'rit's of fllnctioll:;: citaraett·rs. loeatiolls. costtllllt'S. actiolls allll strin~~ of lIarrati\"l· .. ·I:1 Obviously. a lilnary work in which these fllllctiolls or a~ent:; are set Ollt fairly clearly. that i:;. a work that could Lw cla!'isitit'd as a classical realistic tt'xt. is llIon' sllsct'ptiblt· to adaptatioll than a Ilovel ill which literHl~· dt'vict's are foregroullded. Thi~ kind of maillstrealll adaptillg i,.; gon'l"Ilt'd to a cOllsidl'rablt' exlt'lIt hy el"OIlOlIIic aJl(I social cOllstraints .. \ filmmaker is likt·1v to Ill' nllll'h 11101"1' dl'pelldt'nt 011 his audiellce and t Iit' goodwill of a producer in gett illg his ideas I't'alizt,d thall all artist working in almost any other sl'llt'rt·. This has its int'vitable eOllsequelll'es. (:aroIYII :\lIderson. writillg ahollt tilt' relalioll:;hips betwcen literalllre alld film. das,;ities the typical change:; that oCl'ur wlH'n fiction is adapted to fillll Wi a "colldt'nsatioll of plot ami charaeft'r: clllphasi:; 011 dialogue 1·111<1 actiOlt: attelltioll to emotioll rarlll'r than rellet·tioll: a IU'il,dllelling of Ion' inten'st: a pull toward [a] happy ('ndin~. and so forth."' H But adapting literary dassin; might ,n·lI han' at least slightly differcllt aim:; alld reslllts, c\"I'n though the deei:;ioll to adapt ill the first place IIll1y Le iliadI' becau:;e it offer:; the I'hallcl' to "rpplicate ill allotllt'r work of art ,. some of the qualitit':; that an·olllltt'd for tlli' gn'atllt'ss of tilt' origillal work. As Jay GOllld BoyulII argUt'S, olle IIIIISI take illto cOllsidt·nttioll tllt' quality of the readillg ",Iit'll a:;:;e,;sing adaptations, Furtherlllon', ·'in tllt' cast' of a cla,;sic literary work. at I('a~t. then' ~t'ellls to lJt' sOlllethillg elst' at ~take: that an adaptation willlw con:;idcred faithful to the t'xtellt that its interpretation remaill~colIsislt.lltwiththoseputforthbytlwilllt>rpn.tiw comlllunity: with the interpretation (or possihlt' illteqm'tatiolls) of that cla:;sic work, tlJ('II, that iliadI' it a c1a~sic ill tilt' fir:;t place."I.-, But a valid readillg of a text "will gt'lJ('rally tClld to Ill' olle that it:;('lf has a ('ohen'IIC1' alld illller COIlsistclII'Y. "1<> Though BoyulII clillg~ 10 thl' t·OIlCt·pt of liddity, ~he ackllowlt'dge!i that an adaptation IIII1:;t a('hieve a killd of aesthetic autonolllY ill order to Ill' ,nll,thy of tilt' origillal. howt'ver gn'at it~ prestige or popularity might Ill'. III his Filll/i1/f{ Literature. "t'il Sillyard got's ('\"ell further to slIggt':;t that IH'l'aw;e film adaptatioll in(,vitably illvolves a proce:;:; of selel·tioll and t·lIIl'hasi:-.. it is illlplicitly a form of literary criticism. At it~ hest. all adaptatioll illvolves stressillg what is Iwlieved to be the maill t1U'Illl' of a ~iyen tt'xt. :;electillg ('('rlain t'pisodes alld t'Xcllldill~ otiters, offt'ring pl·t'r''I"I"I'" al!"I'lHlti,·p,.;. rCII'II~il1g 011 sp,·,·ific a"l'lI"; of du' ori!!illal. p'(pandillg
\ ISCO_' TI
and ('OIl1racting d(,tail,;, having illlagirwti\'(' lIit.dIl'; ahout SOillt' charactn:.. Through thi:,; I"'()('('ss. nt'w light is shed on tht' originaL 17 Adaptation can t'Vt'II/lt'l'Olllt' a 1'01'111 of idt'ological nitidsm. Paying tribute to the original work of art in adaptillg it do('" not n'quirt' literal lidt'lity - in tt'rIlb uf plot. dwntctl'r lIIot i,-atioll. dialogw' - ur ewn assllmed spiritual fidelilY. as nllu'h as it doe" the ability to t' .... ploit the potential of the neW medium to rearticlIlalt' what are ,;I'CII as tht' salil'lIt ft'atures of tht' original iu respect of new "t'Jbihilitit's alld intt'lIt'cllwll'OIl1'enls. Bela Baluzs writes ill hi" 71/t'ul)" u/ tIll' Fillll about how ill tilt' east' of adaptations it is possible that "whilt, the subjcc1. or story. of hoth worb is identical. t1 ... ir COlltl'llt i,; IIt'VI'11he1e",., diffl'rt'lIt. " I l l I le IIwlltions as an example Friedrich Ill'b/)l'r splay" bast'd ()Jl the .\ivdlll/W'Il.'iaga, pointillg out that though I h·blwl kt'lll tI\I' mythical fOlllldatioll a,., tlw ,.,keletoll of tilt' ,;tory. Ill' gave it a different iJltt'rvn'tatioll: The at'liOIlS allll ('\"I'lIb n'JIIairll'J laq.(l'ly 1111' "alllt'. bIll wn,' ?!i\t'1I olher IllUli\"e~ alltl eXl'iallaliolls. Thus lilt' ~alll" ('\('111. L('illg ?!in'lI ,(uite t!it'ft'n'lll t'lIIl'ha"i,; wa" \Unlet! illlu a ,lill('n'IlI tllt'III(' .... TIll' sallle eXI('rllal aclioll ha" quilt· dit'fn('1II illllcr llIotives. awl it is thl',,(' illlll'r 1lI01iH's which Ihrow li?!ht oil lilt' IlI'arts of tilt' characters awl t!l'lt'nllillt, tilt' "OIlIt'1II whidl dett'rlllillt,,, the 1'01'111_ Th" lIlall'rial. that is tht' external ,'V('lIb. ,,('1"\" IIIl'rt'ly a,., dllt,,,. allt! dill'S call h,' illt('q)fl'ted ill lIlany \\.ay~. III
Baluzs tiliJlb that "uch n'illtt'rpretatioll of lIlotiws awl illlwr "talt's is at arti~tit'Ully st'riotb adapting. It is a killd of rt'ligllring that llIakl's adapting a forlll uf (,[Iituntl regeneratioll. Familiar situations are l'o/btantly rqwalt'(1. n'intl'rprl'led. aJld rd'a,;hiuJlt'd through adaptatiun. Thus JI('W lillb are forged with the past and all the experieJlees it can offl'r. awllJ('w insights an' sllgge,;ted to the rdated attitudes and patterIls of bl'ha,-iol'. Such rept'titioll i,.; lIot redulldallcy: it i~ whut make" the,;e pattl'rn,., rt',.,IHl1l1lt alld resoundillg. A c1a,;"i/ieatioll that take", illto at't'OUIlI 1110,.;1 of thl' observalions I'rest'Jlted a/HI\"(' alld 0IWIIS up a whole gamut of tilt' art of adaptillg call Ill' found ill Dudky .-\Iulrew',., ('()IICt'IJts ill FillII Tlwo,-y . .-\lIdrew In'ah adal'tatioll as or ... of tilt' k('y ('OJl('('Pts tltat helps ducidate till' role of art in soeit,ty. :\('('OI'dillg to ,-\lIdrt'w. "TIlt' Illatdling of till' eilll'llIHlic ,.;igll systelll to prior a('hit'\"t'lIwJlt ill "Olll\' otilt'r sy,.;telll. call Ill' "IIOWll to be di,;tiJlctivt' of all n i IH',;('rllatiollal eiJll'lIla." Thi,., i" lll'(,
tilt' Ilt'art of all
1:\ T E H P H El L H () F El H () P E.\ '\ LIT F H.\ Tt Hr
\1) .)
tl'xt is foregroundI'd. sOIlIl,tinws 10 tlw exlplIl that till' IWW work canllol
Lw propt·r/y apprecialed wilhout
SOliit' kllowlt'dg(' of tilt' previous Oil" alld its ('ultural statlls. ,\ndn'w di\'id,'''; adaptatiolls illto thret' calpl!0J'it~s, ac-
cording to tlwir rt'latioll:->hip with their lIIotkb: l)()rroll'ill~. illterSl'ctill~. and ./idelit), uf traflsf(}","ill~.:!o Borrowillg is IIl1douhtt'dly tht' III 0"; t
('0111111011 1'01'111
of adaplalion. III
this catt'l!0ry. "tlw arti,.;1 t'IIIploys. mort' or le,.;,.; t'xlt·lI,.;i\('ly. Ihl' lIIaterial. idea or 1'01'111 of all ear/it'''' ge/It'rally :->W'Ct's,,; I'll I It'XI.·· TIlt' d{'lillit iOIl is hroad alld illdlldt~"; cast'S :.Iwh a,.; :->YlIIl'hOlli(' IHWlIIs. ill which till' lish'llt'r is illvited to ellhanct' thl' listt'lIilll! eXl'l'rit'llI'p I.y "baskilll! ill a (·t'rtaill pre-e:->Iablisllt'd prl'sew·t· ... III SOIIl(' (·a,.;('s a 1'£111('1'11 ratlwr Ihall a ddillitt' 1)/'PC('(\I'lIt ('all Iw p('I'Ct'in'd ill thi,; prt·S('IH'(,.:!1 The ('ollcept of illtersectillg 1'0\'('1'''; all tllO,,(' adaptatiolls ill which "lIl1iquellp:,s of thl' origillal text is prp:-.t'J'n,d 10 ';lIch all extelll thal il i,.; illh~lItionally le 1'1 lIIH1ssimilatl'd ill adapt al ion:' .\ IIdrew 1I11'lIt iOlls as all example Bn's:-,oll' S adaptalion of B('I'I HI 110< ~ Iwn·1 /)iwy (~( ({ (·Ullllt,.y Prie.~t. which ill :\1H1f't~ Bazill',; WOi'll,.; pn',.;t'lIl,.; Bertlallo,,; "as ,.;t'l'lI by tilt' Cillt'IIHI." hi other word,.;. till' din'ctor ha,.;. ill a S"II";('. "n,flls(,d 10 adapt"
and pre~('rYl'd tilt' disti/H'ti\l'lws~ of the oril!illal. tllt'J't'by. at'Cordilll! to Alldrew. "illitiating a dialt·(·tical illlt'rplay Iwtwt'('1I th,' al'stlll'tic forllls of Ollt' ppriot! with cillpmatic forms of 0111' OWII IlI'riod:' TIlt' sllldy of ";llI'h adaptatiolls I'e'luire,.; gi\'illg "all('lItioll to th .. sl)('('iji('i~l' of tilt' origillal wilhill till' spl'cijici~l' of ciw'lIIa. ":!:! Fillally. jidf'lity (if trall.~/(JI'IlIiflg illlpli('''; "till' rqlf'(Hluctioll of ";olllt'thilll! I's";{,lItial about all origillal It'xt.":!:! III addilioll to tht' eklllell\"; Elli" lish - c\wracl{'rs. lo(,atiolls. (·O"tllIlIt'S. aClioll~. and ,.;trillgs of narrati\"(' - .\lIdr('w poillts 0111 that 1II0ti\·atioIlS. cOIlSt'qlll'nct's. COIlIt'XI. \·iewpoilll. imaw'ry. and otlll'r "Iwh dt,tails call Ill' prodllct'd ('qllally ill two worb. Thlls "if a 1I0W(' ~ story i~ jlldgt'd ill ";01lH' way ('oIllIHlrablt' to ih lillllic adaptatioll. tllI'lI tlH' ";Irictly ~"IlUratl' hUI t'quintlellt I'I'O('('"S('S of illlpli('atioll which prodllt'l'd tlJ(' lIarrative ullits of that "tory throllgh word~ alld Hudio-yi"lIal "i~lh. n'''IH'{·tin'ly. 11 III "t Ill' studi(·d."2< III
\IS(,O:\II
drew· s dassificat iOIl of adaptatiowi can he St'ell as a form of (,olltillllill~ and tfansformillg tradition, takin~ part ill a game of ·'sedimelllation" and illllO,·atiull that rdlecb and enham'es challges in social, politicaL ideulugical. alld ,.;pirilllal clilllates - the adaptatiulI of the community tu t'H'r lIew sitllation,.;. The illtell'lay of sameness and difference between !lit' adaptation alltl the original opells up IIt'W illterpretative possibilitie!> regardin/! both tilt' ori~dllal work alld lift' ill gt~lI('ral. From this point of view . adaptations can Ill' thought of as standillg in a nlt'tapirorical reaction to tilt' ori!-!;illal - altholl/!h this poillt nUl ol"·ioll,,ly lie fully apl'rt'ciatI'd ollly by those aequaillled with the work that has lwell adapted. The aim of adaptiJlg. thell. is to lind and justify an ··alternate statemelll.·· TIll' artist ha,.; to face traditioll with a combination of reverence and radicalislll.. take illto pos,.;essioll his or her cultural heritage. and engage in a dialu~lIe with it in order to IH' able to rearticulatt' it cunvincingly ill his or her own tenus. In Ceorge Steiller·" words: "TIlt' 'abler sour of the great pn'ct'dellt. tilt' proximity of the rival version. the existence, at once hurdt'll"omt' allClliberating. of a plllllie traditioll, n'lease" the writer from tilt' trap of solipsism .. \ truly origillal thillker or artist i" simply 0111' who repays hi" debts. ill e.we"". ··2<> Cuido .\ristarco has elllphasized that 0111' of the crucial characteristics of \"iscollt j" s art i" t he wa~ he was able to ('olllhilH' ·'cultural t'xperiellce"' with ·'urip:illal ('xpl'rielll"e.·' that Iit' had the al)ility to imt'gralt' illspiration gll~ltill~ forth fro III cultural history. 011 tht' olle hUlld. alld life and the pruhlt'nb of l'xi"l\'Ill'e. UII the other.~7 Auotlwr italian lillll ~dlUlar. Giall Pit'm 13nlllt'tla. has relllarked about the inferiority cOlllplexe" lilnllllakers SOIllt'tiIlU'" appear to han' in resJlt~ct of literary autllOrs: ··It was totally difft'l"l'llt with "i"nlllti. All alllhor~, whos(' works Iit' adapted frolll '·t>rga to Prol"'t alld \Imlll. wt're a part of hilllself. It was a killd of cultllral l'OJIIIIIUllioll. His adaptations wert' trallsf()nuatioll~ of th ... origillal iuto a lit'" llH'diulII in tilt' spirit of the ori~illal.·'~H Silllilarly. it has IWt'1I pointt>d Ollt that. to '·i"collti. ·'10 adap"· was alllw~t ~yllollylllOlb with ··lOadopl.'· Ill' wOllld take tilt' tex'" Ill' was workillg 011 illto hi:; IHI"se"sion in ordt'r to produce a di"eollr"., that ,nb hi" OWl I. worked out ill properly t'illl'lIIatic IIlt'al"'. alld that wOllld Iran' ih OWIl "t·ollt'n'lIct' awl illlu'r cOlbislt'nn'" (BoyulII). Adaptatioll \\a~ for "ist'ollti. ill YOII""ef /"lwghpour·s words, ··silllltltallt'olbh- a labour of illH'lltioll alld I·OII\·t'rsioll.··~" \Io"t of '·i"I"Ollti·" fillll., an' IIlOn' or It',,,; I,,\..,t,d 011 11l)'T/", 11I1\·ellas, or play" - "'Ollll'tillll'" IlIon' thall 0111' of tllI'lII. a" i" thl' ca".' ill /(u("("u and /lis Hrul/w/"s (Jl)()O). J)qwlldillg 011 tlte ta."\;. al halld. tilt' d"gn'" of fidelity
1YI EHI' H L 1 I. H ().. Lt H () I' L .\ \
I. IT ~_ H A Tl H I.
to the high dt'gn'e of fidelity tlf TIlt' '.eopUf"(r III adapting a 1II0df'm t'las"ie ~u('h as ~lallll- s /Jeallt ill I {,lIice. Yiscollti cOllld pursue what Andrew called intersectillg, reproducing tht' '-specijici(l' of the origillal wit hin the specijici(l' of cinema'" While this adherence to traditioll alld the pa"t may Iit' set'lI a" SIICcumvillg to patriarchal vallles. it lIIust also Lw apprcciated from exactly the oppo~ite (.willl of vi!'w. Reworkillg traditioll is. after all, doing it for the future, with the illlt'lItioll of lTeatillg a lillk ill a !'haill from tilt' pa"t tu the futurt'. It is thus a qut'stioll of acknow/t'dl.!ing tht, fact that en'ative activity call OItl~ Iit' ba~jt'd 011 I'n'exi,.,ting sigllifyillg ,.;ys(t'lIIs. :\ccurdillg tu Mikael Ellchll: COlllrary to whal WI' ill proi!n's"in' d..liriuJIl JIlay iJllagillt·. traditioll dOl'" uol meall ,tifflll'"'' allll ulladaptabilit~: ill fat·t it gi\l''' Ib i!uidt'lilll·S. path'ms alld alternatin' forJllation pll"sibilitil'''' TIll' illll'ortaJU'I' that th" traditiollal way" of thillking attribllll' to.t1lt' IHI"t and to id,·as. lilwrate" till' individual froJll thl' UIIliJllited nlpt ivil y ill hilll".. lf and ill his OWII pl·rspel·t in'. alld thus t raditioll st iJll' ulatl's illl'rl'iI"t·d lIlohilitv:'"
In I 95u Yiscollti startt'd I'lanllillg allot her film. fully aware that after Sellsu he 1I0W had tht' J'I'lHtlatioll alllOlIg producers of lJt'illg all extravagant spt'lIder. Thus the IIt'W lilm was to bt' iliadI' 011 a small scale. The idea to adapt Dostllyevsk y' s 1I11n~lIa. Illtilt' .\ighls_ I'alllt' frolll Su,.,o Cel'chi I)' :\mieo' ~ fatlll'r. Emilio (:,·cchi. Sillt't' it was not I'0,.,sihle to do the shootillg ill SI. Peter"burg - or Leningrad. as it was ('allt,d at tilt' timt' - \ist'ullti decided to s,'t thl.' film in LivtlrtltI. Blit tht'1I it IwnlllH' apparellt that productioll t'o~b wuuld Iit' lower illsidt' a "tuditl. alld a ,.,tyliz"d Livurntl wa~ vuilt ill the Cillt'l'itta studills. I-:n'lI ,.,0. tilt' "lIsb were far I,('volld aJIYUlIt"S estilllates. allll \i"t'ollti'~ colillalll'it·r:-. wl'n' horrified by his J'I·(,kI,·,.,sllt'"" ill fillalll'iallllattt'r~. lit· thought Iit' was beillg {'areful. but ill fa(,t Iit' wa" h"I't'It·,.,,.;ly illlpnll'til·al. 11,' apl't'an'" 10 have all illtuitiH' talt'nt for t'hotl"ill~ tilt' 1II0,.,t eXIII'II"in' malt·rials.: lI Forlllllatl'ly. tht' film WOII till' Silver Lioll at till' \·l'lIin· film ft'slival ill 19;)7 - otllt'rwist· \ist'onti IIW\, ntll ha\!' IlI't'lI ablt· to lilld fillalll'ing for his lint fillll. Uoc("(J (/1/(/ lIis I/rol /ters. For lIH1ny nitil'''. 11 hile .\~U/tls \Hh tilt' lillalnidl'lwl' tltat \'ist'onti Itad for""kt'lI 1I1·lIn·ali"lIl. \llbt latl'" I·Wlllllt'lItatOl""'. Itow,'\"'" I·on,.,idl· ... ·d tilt' fillll a dlanllill!! illtl'rilld,' ill till' di ... ·,·tll .. ·" ""1'1'1 .... 12 Tnlt' '·II11l1gh.1I /tilt'
IlJg
\ bCO\ TI
Sights is an extreme point ill Vi,;wnti",; cinematic ot'uvre. It laeks all tho.... historicaL ~t'ographicaL awl social dt'terminants that define the charat'ten; in most of his films. Everything takes place. even more than in tht' noveL in a pe(·tdiarly oW'ide sf'ttill~. The geographical center of the film',; world is the bridge on which Mario (:\larcello Mastroianlli) finds Natalia (Maria Sei JP 11 ) weepillg at the opt'ning of the film. The bridge divides tht' city into two parts. one representing Natalia' s private and timeless world actualized in her dreams and memories . the other the public and temporal. eOlllTete. and disillusioned world.: ' ;) Thus ~lario and Natalia qu.ite obviously stand for the worlds of reality ami of dreams. respectively. The ewnts lIuct uate constantly between these two worlds corresponding to very suhtlt· modulations of feeling. The film has a theatrical quality iu that the charaeter:; stand out froll1 the self-cowwiously stylized sets. At the sanw time. sOJlle of the st'('olldary eharacter:; seem almost a pa11 of tht' sets. They lurk in the shadows. eIllerging mOIllt'lItarily now and thell to elll'oullter \lario and :\atalia. AlthtJu~h the slO"y line has bet'll changed but little. Yisnmti's audiovisual reneation of course rellt'cts his own tiIlles and IIIores. The main difft'rencl' Iwtwt'l'n Dostoyevsky' s novella awl Viscomi" s adaptatiun is the setting. Tht' gt'ntlt' Iyricislll of the northem white sUlllmer ni~dlts has been transformed into tilt' darkness of l\lediterrant'an winter nights. where only the occasiunal fog and snow are white. In the novella, the milieus are not made spt'ciJic \H' leam only that the events take place in St. Pett'rsburg ill tht' SUIl\IlIt'r. wht'n peoplt' have It'ft for their "illa:- ill the coumryside. The lonely dreanlt'r-narratur walks through the strt't'(:, in tilt' hope of liIl(iillg ,,01llt'01l(, Ill' might kllow at least by sight. The Iloctumal wurld of the lillll is !:!ubtly styliz,'d ,,0 that eVt'1l tht' apparelltly "natural"' eiellleIlti; have sVlIlbolic fUIICtioll:-. Alessalldro Bencivelllli has writtt'n about "the fog which ol,fu:;calt's all relatiollships betweell the prota~lJllists: the rain which accompanies i\atalia's tears. the willu which underline:; ~Iario's exasperation: tlw SIlOW whieh appears to dress up tht' city for a feast. t'mpha"izillg tilt' illusioll of hUl'pillt'ss of tlw protagonist. ":H Tht' lIarrator of tilt' IIIJ\ella i" a pathetic. dn'amy rUlllantil' who:-t, lIlain problt'1Il al'l't'ap; 10 1)1' that Iit' lal'ks "t·!f-contidt"lI"t'. TlltJroll~ltly illvolved with her OWII fel'lill~s a.~ silt' j". l\a:-,tt'nka is drawll to him only becaust' :;he is IIlIal,lt' to l't'n'C'in' that tilt' dreHlIlt'r is paillfully ill low with her. Iler 10H'. like that of her lillllil' 1'11I11l1t'rl'arl. i!"i thoruugltly lIan'i"sistie: siit' "et'!"i ot her IWOI'll' ollly in It'rllb of Iter OWII f"t'lillg"', Both girls illIlOcently exploit their adlllin'r,,' "JI\otion" - tlte,· an' illllOt"t'lIt in that they
probably are genuinely unaware of tilt' pain they are intlietillg Ilt'nlww they are hlind to all other Ion' hili tlwir OWII. The literary dreamer is far nlOre willing to throw himself into romallti(' iIIusiolls than is the ~Iario of the fillll. This trait elHlblt's hilll tu enter into a relationship with \astenka. bllt ollly OIl Ilt'r tertllS. TIlt' dreamt'r is doollwd to frtltltration. TIlt' illusory IJuality of love b furtlH'r highlighted by the eon:;pieuous ai.:;enl'e of the tl'nanl. whost' ('harn('t('r is filtt'n,d entin'ly through the enammed ('onsciolltlness of \aslt'nka. In the film. Iit' is at least :;{'t'n in a f1a:;hhack and is heard talking. He see illS quite forward ill his manllers. but jean 'Iarais' s tacit Iwrfortllance t'lbun's that Iit' retain:; his mystic aura. Ilis appearance on the hridge at the t'nd of the tilm suggests a kind of fate ligurt·. Mario lives in a real. banal litt le world. Ill' is a ('Ierk of some sort. IH' catdles a cold. argues with his landlady. Ill' is a sympatllt'tic. bon~d. unhappy. petty hourgeois ullable to dis('over how he might become happier - except by finding a swet,thearl. \adia appears to open lip new possibilities for him. but he wants Ion' in the real world - ill great contrast to Dostoyevsky· s ··hero.'· \Iario tillds \atalia· s story absurd and trit's to convince her that it is silly to expect tilt' It'nallt III rNurn. The different·e lH'tween \atalia alld "ario is t'mphasizt'd in the SCI'IIes ill whi('h they an' not togethl'r: \atalia':; reminiscence:; and \Iarill' s lIIomillgs ill the boardinghow;e. When \atalia tells \Iario about the tellallt alld how "lIP fell ill Ion' with him. a series of dreamlike flashbacks take pla('p ~lIggl'stillg that Iwr f"t'lings arp geulIiut'. if uot all that strollgly related to reality. The illterchaugeahility of dif'ferput levels of reality ill Iwr lIIiud is iliadI' lIIanifest by the tirst flashback. which begins with a shot that transcends tillle and space by panning fWIII the ~trt't'l to the gralltinlOther·s carppt sen·icl'. !\lall\. of the t1ashhacks also {,rI'ate a Sl'lbe of Illlrealitv . IJI'calltlp. in contrast with thp rest of the film. they batlw in light alld becall::.e l\atlia dop~ lIot utter a word in them. ller voiee is heard ollly as a voice-oVt'r. as she rdatl''; tht' ewut:; to \Iario. Ollly tilt' last lille of tlw lIashhaeb. a~ \atalia tell,.; how :;he met the tenallt for the latlt tillle. appt'ars to be uttered in the pa~t. But the ,.;hot that at tirst appears to Lwlollg to the flashback tllrns Ollt to 1Jt'long to the present: she seems to be t1ingillg herself illto tilt' arms of th(' It'lIanl. 11tH in fact tllt're is only "ario. \atalia' s fairy-talp-like grandlllother patdw~ oriental carpet~. of whidl tllt're art' piles ill their littlt, workshop. Crandlllotlwr has ht'r Sll:ipiciolls ahollt handsollle tt'IHlIIts hilt is O\·(,I·joyed wllt'lI Iit' takes Ilt'r alld
:2Ut)
\tS(.()\11
i\atalia to ~ee Ro~~ini' s The nurlJlY u/S(,l'ille. She evell ,;ings a few phra"e" from Ho~ina·,.; aria. "l ina voce POl'O fa. ", in which ~llt' ~ays she can chan!!,· from a gentle Iiltlt' girl into an asp that will think of a hunured trick" ratllt'r than yidd against llt'r will. Pt'rhap~ this i~ indicative of the grandIllot her' s id,'a of how wonlt'n should treat men. III Do~toyt'''sky's non'Ha. too. tIlt' tt'lIant takt~,,; tilt' WOIIH'1l to see TIlt' Barbl:'r 0/:-;1,,,;111:'. Tlwn' is a channing paraHd with tilt' plot of the opera alld till' t'Wllts of the lIowlla whell the narrator realizt,~ Ill' has inadwrtt'lItly played the pan of Figaro by ~uggt'sting that till' girl should write a letter to Iwr lwlllwd. only. to disco"er that ~he ha,,; already. done thi". TIlt' poilll i" not lost on the character". In the film the parallel i~ iliadI' appan:'Jlt ollly in that tilt' (Pliant alld tilt' ladies are seen in the opera hOllse just a" tlH~ (lerfonnanl't' i" reaching this puint.;l~• .-\ far more ('rueial diff{'rem'\' i::. that the film's \-Iario allgrily tcars up the kltt'r i\atalia has left for him to d,'liwr. The lIext day. :\lario rather ('olJlically pn'tcl\(J,; to hilJlself that he ha~ no pallgs of ,'ons('it'IIC1'. That evening he see" i\adia a" he wander,,; through the town. tries weakly to e~('ape. but I'mb up a(,l'olllpanyin!! her, supposedly until it is time for Ilt'r to go and n\(','t her beloved. ,.;umlJloned to the J,ridgt' by tilt' lellt'r. i\ow the night at till' opera is l'ontra,.;ted with a sccne ill a bar that :\atalia allll \Iariu t'nter. Soon they are drawlI iuto dancillg to Bill Haley·,.; Thirkell 1101111'11. Tht' opposition IlI'twcen high art and popular cult ure is a part of thc symholic struc! lire of the tilm.:lo but it ai::.o offers a lIew point of ,'it'W illto tilt' ('onflict lH'twt'l'1I dreallls and reality. TIlt' daIH'" i~ like their relationship ill miniature: at tilllt's it fliIl~s thelll apart toward tilt' otllt'r dall('er:;: at tillles it throw,.; thl'lII illto each otiH'r·,.; arms. ,\t first Mario draws La('k, frightelled by the vigor of the youllg mall leading the dallce. But IH' plucks up hi,.; ('ourage. dallce~ an irresistibly silly solo. and appears to will ]\atalia for himself. A,; they cOlltinut' to dallce a slow piece. theft' appear,; to Ill' a genuilll' possibility for a n:,lat iOlbhip 1It'twe,'n tllt'llI. Both the merrymaking and tlH' tenderness are "polltlUIt'OU'" allll g,'nuillt'. borll on tht' ,.;pur of the JII0mt'IIt, l\lario alld :\atalia han' shared a mOllwnt of illllOl'l'lIt hal'pilles::. with t'ach other. ill a real world - or as real a" it ('ould pos,;ibly ill' for tllt'1I1. But sudd,'nh-, tlw t~n('halltlllellt i,., Imlkell bv" a ballaln\' fWIlI the strt'et illdi('atillg how lat" it is. :\atalia realizt's she i::. latt~ allll rushes to meet IH'r Iwlowt!. Ill' i" 1I0t tlwre. of cou!'"e. and ~atalia is di"traught. 1I0t only ht'Cathe the Iwlo\,l'tI has tlllt arrived but al,.;o Iw('m"'t' "/H' has in 111'1' own tt'nns been ullfaithful to him, l\lario follow~, blll she tell,., him to go away. \tario is IIIwhlt' tn hreak tlH' '~Jl .. 1I "I' '\alalia'" Ion', !1I1t Ihert' i- 1111
aitl'matiw m'ailablp to hilll ill tilt' forlll of a ravell-likt, pro"tilllte ( :Iara Calalllai). ~Iw already IWppt'lIpd to pass by Oil tilt' tir~t lIi~ht. just as Mario fir"t SUnTt'! It,d ill makill~ ('011 1<11" t with :\adia. ~he appear" I'vt'J'y folll' eH'lIill~s ill which the actioll take~ placl'. earh time lIIakillg further COIItact with \Iario umil tillally. aftpr IWYing Iwell n'jt'ctpd by :\atalia. Ill' becomes Hushed with fmstratioll alld JIIake~ all allellll't to go with 111'1'. But befon~ allythillg happl'lIs. Ill' ('hall~es his lIlilld alld the WOlllall screallls ill pathet it' disappoilltlllt'lIt. \11'11 suddellly appt'ar alld !\Iario tillt!" hilllst'lf illvolwd ill a stn'pt brawl. The cOlltrast IwtWt,t'1I tlw two WOIIWII i:; a J'(,llectioll of tilt' \'irgill-whure didlotOIIlY. alld :\Iario wallts ollly the \irgill. E\ell at the 1I101l1t'IIt of hi", gn'ah,,,t fnlstratioll Iit' ('''llIIot rpdlH't~ hi" a"'piratiun,.; to 1111'1'1' ~e.\ual desire. III hi" OWII everyday sort of way. hp yearn:; for pure. idt'alizl'd loyt'. This is ill accord with the lIo\t,lIa. ill which ,.,px as :;Ucll plays 110 par·1. III both ca";I'". albeit ill quite diffl'n'lIt way",. sublimatioll brill!!" out till' IIIt'Challi"ms of IOH'; that is to "ay. sexuality is brackt,tl·d ill mdt'" to facilitate cOIH'l'lItratioll Oil tilt' workill~:; of fedill!! alld idealizatioll. TIlt' reality-fanta:;y oppositioll is e.xplorcd maillly from the poillt of view of ~Iario. To hilll :\atalia is all objt'ct of idt'alized low. :;olllt'thillg that by ddillitiOlI could Ilt'wr work uut ill real life. Tearillg \atalia's kltt'r up is all allp(l\pt to "hatter a dt'ccptiyp illu",ioll. hilt of course it i~ al" .. St,If-"'l'rvill!! in Ihat it kt'pps Iwr alld the tellalll apart. '1'1111:; \Iario accepts the po:;sihility that tilt' tl'lIalltllli!!ht actually ha\'c be!'1I serioll:; ill ('ourtill!! :\atalia. alld thi,.; thou!!11I obviously !!IHIWS at hilll. Blit ht' is passive. Just lwfore Iit' IIlt'eb .\atalia UII the la:;t en'lIill!!. a \t'ry attractive WOlllall offt~rs hilll a challet' to make her a('qllaintarlt't'. but Iit' t'lHls Ill' with \atalia. It i" :\alalia's IlIrJ1 to be fm,.;trated by lo\'{'. ~larill i~ willill~ to exploit tilt' opportullity that appears tll 01'('11 lip for him. and Iit' is ~uddl'lIly wry "'illil\~ to elltertaill t1i~hb of fantasy. :\atalia. iliadI' at It'ast 1II01ll1'IItarily a bit 11101'1' wise by her disappoilltllWIlt. yit'ld,.; sli~htly. 11111 shl' "till has her reservatioll". :\ow she talks ubollt kttill~ tilllP IHbs 111'1'01'1' they start allythill~ toget her. :\ewrthdt,ss. "Iit' Un'('pb his invitatioll to ~o 011 a boat trip Oil the callal with hilll. as if ill all attelllpt to J't'('OIH'ile n'ality alld Jrt'alll~. \lario trit's to po,,!, a" a rOlllalltic 10nT. III tIlt' boat. as sno", falls 011 tht'lIl. a" tllt'y ~Iidt' through tht' charllwlthat st'panlles Mario':; rt'ality allLl :\atalia'" fairy tale world. tlwy are literally betweell two world~. Tlw) n'joict' at tilt' sllddell :;lIowl'all alld hardly 1I0tice the hOllleles8 by tIlt' I,allk" of tilt' challlwl. shiwrill!! ill the cold. \I()nrill~ dawlI" a lit I 111'11,., rill!! as they ~et Iwck to tilt' stn'(·t. TIlt'y play alld walk ill till' ~IlOW. IIl1til suddt'lIly i'latalia Ilt'ars IIt'I' tnlt' "df ('allill~
:!o:!
\IS!.!)\II
her in the figure of the tt'uaut, who has suddenly appeared ou tht hridge. For Mario. ideals aud reality have shown themselves to be Iwprlessly separated. They eau interact and enrich each other, but only b~ remaining separate. :\atalia can ue hen;elf and the object of Mario's Ion' ouly by remainiug on her side of the ('hannel. Thus. in keeping with Lht." logic of t1w story. t1w tt'nant must return alllI \Iario must remain alone. He must be sati:-,fil~d with the company of the lit tlt' stray dog he met al the hegiuniug of the film. It i:-, a:; if everything that has happened is but a dream. TIlt' swr) euds with ~Iario':; words: "1 hle:;s you for the momelll of happiue:;:-, you ga\'l' Ult' .... It is not little eYeIl fur a whole lifetime:··l tu
TilE ,"TR.·L\'GEIl
Being Freneh in Algc.·ria Alhert (:aIllus' ~ roots were deep ill till' soil of Freuch Algeria. Hi~ childhood mt'lIIories were inextricahh'. ('ollllected witlt this counln-. . scorcht'd by the nll'rcill':;sly blazillg sun. f"('freshed by the hlue \Iediterranean. Better than IllO:;t of his compatriots of Europeau extraction, 1)(' uIltlerstood how explosi\'l' die "ituation in Algeria wa:-, ill the 1<)-tOs. He had already dt'malllled social rdOrIlb in the 19;~Os and wa:; well aware of the squalor in which the Arab populatioll liwd. The:;e theme:; are crucial in L 'hr(lfl~('r (The :;tranger 19-t:!). his most celehrated lIovel. But it also ('OI1\'t'Y:; the feeling uf all existential vacuum. of a consciousness thrown into a world tbat has no Cod or any other absolute point of reference. TIlt' only "meaningful"' goal appears to he to try to regain unity with Being. \kursault. the protagonist. is characterized ahon' all by indifference. lIi~ couditiou is apparelll right from the begiuniug. iu hi~ reactiou to hi" ulOther',; death and her fUlleral. He has 1I0t Leell in touch with her fur sOllle time awl treats the event as if il did not reallv cOlleem him. Mt'ur~Hlllt gl'l:i Oil well with hi;; fellow men. hUI Ilt'calbt' lit' lacks Ihe capacily 10 1)(' gl'lllIillely illterestl'd ill thelll IU' i:; unablt, to fathom their motives. Ill' kt'!,ps Oil lIIakiu~ weak attelllpts to lllldn:;talld why things are as they an' or happeu as Ihey do. I it· lIIight lelllb that he uuderstands ~OllleOlle else-" poinl of view. too. bllt Ihis appears to be ouly because he never becollles n'ally t~lIgagl·d in the kind of heated sit uutiolls iu which most p('opk art' left st lick with their own limited poilll of ,·il'w. \loreoHr, Mt'ursault "illlply nil 11 lOt Ill' bothen·d to thillk out the reusolI:-,. not to speak of t h!' moral illlplit'at iOlts of why people al't as tllt'y do. If Ill' is a"ked for Iwlp Iit' uSllall~' lIt'(llIit'St'I':; IWt'HlISI' n'fu-ill:!: WOllld n'qllin'1I10n'
I " T E H Pin, T E H () F Lt H () P E\.'\ 1.1 T F H \ Tl H E
effort and involH' more complications; "A~ I usually do witI'll I wallt tu get rid of SOIllt'Olle wllO"e ('ollyersatioll bores 1111'. I pretended to agree," he te/h; us wllt'n destTibing his illterrogation by tilt' magistrate.: 11l Because of his aliellatioll. l\1eursauit is Imable to resort to th()~e sten~ olypil'al reactions that usually guide Iwople's behavior. and oftt'n thinking. and makt, thelll COliform to expectations of tht, I'OllllllUllity and society at large. lie lIlust act accordillg to sOllle motivation or another. hut to him the t'stablislwd patterns of Iwhm'ior and t'xpectt,d t~mot iOllal re~ponses an' lIlerely conwntions to which he is ill no way personally attaclwd. When \Iarie asks him abollt love or marriagt'. for t'xample. he lIutes: \Iarie I'allll' thal eWlling alld ask!'d lilt' if I'd nHIITy Iwr. I ~aid I didll'l milld: if she was kt't'1I on it. w("o get lIIarried. Then "he a~kt'd lilt' agaill if I loved ht'!'. I ft'plit'd, IIHII'h as IJI'foft" Ihat ht'f tllll'"lioll lIIealll lIothiflg Of IIt'xl 10 lIolhing - hilI I "uPPO"t' I didn·t.""
The story i" kept in mution mainly by agents otllt'r than \It'lIrsalllt. lie merely drifts with the lIow of t'\'I'nts and his own haphazard ~:wnsations and displays neither initiatiw lIor im'ohelllt'nt. Ill' suffers alii I enjoys without inhibition all the selbations stirred up by his natural ellvinHlment. the resplt'llIlent alld ('xa:;peratill!-( \leditt'ITallt'all. A series of disconnected eH'lIts follow that lead to MI'\II'"ault·" t'X(,(,IItion. He elltl:; "l' killing all Arab as a result of lIIounting cin'ulIIstallces a~ well as psychological alld physiological factors that Iit' i:; ullahlt, to keep in check IWl'ause Iit' is ,.,0 ulldelTellt'arsed ill thillkillg Ollt the COIIsequellc('s of things. He kills the :\raL ill a statp of exhallstioll becallse the .\rab is his competitor in the pursuit of illdifference alld IIl1ity with Bt~ing. because they haw elided lip 011 riit' opposite sides in a conllit't with whidl he thinks hI' has lIothing to do. Iweallse the Arab appears to Lit' betwet'lI hilll and the refreshillg brook. becalhe tIlPre happens to Iw a gUll in hi:; pocket. awl fillally ht'cause at tlw falallllOlIlI'nt "a "haft of ligln" shoots frolll the knife the Arab is holdillg. ami \It'lIr~allh fet'/"; "a:i if a 101lg. thill bladt, [had] tnlll"lixed [his] ftln'ht'ad."~" Ili:i l'a1ll"ltaekle fralllt'work of telllporal pt'rsp,'ctin':i collaps!'s. Iit' i" al tilt' Ilwn'Y of a IIIOIlIt'lIt'S iIllP"Ist'. his gl'ip cll""'~ on the ""\,01\,1'1'. Blit tilt' fat't Ihat .\It-lIrsallh ha:; killt-d a Ilatiw is 1I0t thl' importallt que"tion fur the Fn'lH'h ,'ourt of ju:;tict'. It i!i hi" illdifft,rt'IH't' to t'~tabli~llt'd !iot'ial \'alllt':i that is tilt' trllt' l'J'illle agaillst thi,., ~ot'it'ty. his illability to e\'l'lI prptl'lId that ht' "t'I'S thelll a" absolllte. :\t'\'I'nhelt-,,!'i. ill the l'Olll'troom. s{'lI,.,illg tilt' hale of all tllt)"t' aroulld hilll. 1'\'1'11 \It'lIrS
:.!U-t
\bUJ'\ 11
In prisou. waitiug to Ill' ,'xeclIted. :\1I-lIrsallh i:; abll'
to vil'w hi:, life iu
ib eutirl'ty. Fiually. significantly ellough after an exhau:;ting I'IlCOUlIll'r with a pri,'st during which hI' as:;erb his 10V(' of earthly life. he i:; finally abll' to recollcilt' his strollg bodily urge to lin' with the inevitability of death: ··It wa:, a:, if that great ru:;h of anger had washed me clean, emptied 1lIt' of hope. awl. gazing up at the dark sky spangled with its signs alld sHw;. for tllt' first time. the first. I laid my heart opt'u to the benign illdiHt'n'uCl' of tht' ulliH'rsl'.··~:! At till' very end. he can only hope that the pt'ople gatlwrt>d tu watch hi:; executiou will greet him with "howls of execration.
Till' ''''/rtlllgl'r as film and litt'raturt" \\hen L ',s,nlllger wa:, rel,'ased in Juue 19-t:!. it wa:; first :,een as a rather pe:;simi~tic type of rt'alisllI. a" a study of tllt' 1II0ral dt'cadl'uce of France III)(kr till' Vichy regillle. It was I'H'U seeu a~ a J"I'voh against a sOl~it't y that preven led people fWIll looking aht'r t11t'ir 1II0t her~ properly. A few years later it was "uggcstt'd that \leursallh Wib a schizophrt'nicY Siuct' t1wn. tilt' lIovel has Iwen Set'It. with \"ariuus dt'gn'cs of emphasis. as all exislt'lItialist stHlt'Ult'lIt awl a COlllllWUt 0/1 till' "ilUatioll of tIlt' French ill Algeria. Frolll all exi"wlI!ialist Ilt'r"p('ctin~. \ll>ursauh'" altillldl' call Ill'colIsidered a nitiq,H' uf European bourgeois 1IIt'lItality. of exi"tt'JI('(' Cllllfint'd by ('ouvt'utiou. The olll\" wa\" to Iit' trll(, to ol1l'",>lf is to "hakl' off t1H' shackles illll'0,.,ed uy "ol·il'ty. the empty cUStolll~. aJld tilt' leanlt'd pattl'nb of Lwha\"iur. It is a path marked hy sulitllde. ill the course uf which Ollt~ IIIl1st ualalll't' IlIcidiry ami ,.,plf-dt'celllion. and. as T('rry Kel'fe ob"erves. "fac(' lip sqllan'ly aIllI 11Ilt'!jui\'oeally to ollr metaphysical state and sOIllt'how . . . COIIH' to tl'nllS with it. mtlwr thall try to ('vadt' it or ('O\'('r it lip in somt' lIHIIIlIt'r." This pllrsllit call1lot but l~lId ill isolatioJl Iw('all!'>t' "u,:iety aw.i all that it stam\" for rl'pn'sl:lIl ib \Try oppo"itt'. :\" Kt'l'ft' poillt,., Ollt, Meursalllt'" ··trlllhfllllll'",., ha" lillll' 10 du wilh a dl'sire to COllllllllllicale the right thillg" 10 otlll'r 1'1'01''''. "H Vis('ollti fir"t r('ad nil' .'ilrall!!1'r IlOt 10Ilg aft.'r it WU" pllbli"llt'd. ill 19-t:!. Lall'r. ill I <)u;). Ill' Ilt'scrilwd till' l'xpl'rit'IICl': I .-ould hun' IIl11d,· a lillll Olll of il aln'ad~ tllt'lI. /'UI I would ha\,' dOlI<' it Vt'l'~ differt'llth. frolll tl1l' wa\. I will do it IIOW. III 1<)-+2 w,' Wt'I'l' ill tl1l' dawlI of ":l.i~1t'lltiali"lIl: peol'l,' ulld uni"", ",'rt' illt(,lIt Oil a"kill/-! ab,,"t tilt' n'''SOIb for tllt'ir destillY. alld CUIlIll~ \HI" 0Ilt' of till' lir"I 10 provide a I'n'.-is,' "1I,,""r. lIt' illdi"ut,'d Ihat it is pos~i"lt' 10 live oUbid" onlt-n'd "odt,ty. avoid i", law". 10 lo.-k olH'",'lf Ill' illlO illdifft'n·IIt't'. to '-0111111<' oll,'sl'lf illlO ab,untit\'. This wa" tll<' lilt" ... ::! •. ·1 1/1"
1:\ T EHI' H I_n_ H () I- El H () I' L _\ \
LlI L H\ TI H L
Slmll/
That Yisl'ollli illtt'lIded to adapt nil' SlmllKer had aln'ady het'n allnoulICt·d ill 19b~. At fir:.\. ht' talk,·d about rl'maillill~ faithful to tlu' ori~ inal work. ahout wanting "to ha\'t' Ihe book ill lily halld ulld ;;hoot it as il's wrilll'lI.""" But he did 1101 actually Ilt'gill workill~ 011 this film ulltil after Le s/n'Klle wa::i t"omplt'ted in 19hh. :\ow he ,wo!'f,·d al his original ideas. To~etllt'r with <:t·t't'hi 1Y.\mi,'o. Ill' pn'part'd a snipt ill whidl they took ';0111,' lin'lIst' with tilt' IJoY"!. But <:alllu< s widow n'jl't'ted it alld d"malll"'d "triet fil!t·lin· ... - \-ist'ollli latl'r n'markt'd 011 tilt' l'OIbtraillts this
''r,·alt·d: Th .. wrilt"1I page is ollly a "Iarlill/! I'oilll. _\lId il i" lIo,,,,'IIS" 10 a"k a dire('lor of a lillll 10 he failhflll 10 11 lilt'rary 1nl. H,'ally. I I'ref"r till' alllhor~ 10 1.1' llt'ad ill onlt'r 10 avoid "'lIll1icb. _\lId I hol'" ill allY ca"I' IIwt their falllili," an' a~ sllIall a" 1'0""il>ll'. \\'11t'1I tilt' alllhors an' gOlw.IIJt· widow-" n'lIlaill! ·/'//I' ...'lr(/l//«·rl ......1I11t' a liib"O 1......III"t· .\lIt1'rt (:allllb' widow d,·IIIi1IItI,·d oltj .. cti\ ... al>"lIrd liddily. III onlt-r to hOllollr 01/1' (,'lIltra('t I wa" fon"'d to rt·1I01lIW,· tilt' fillll I had alwa\s Willlt,·dIO do alld 10 "'lIdiw' 1I1\",·lf ,lri"lh. to 11 ... I"XI-I" .
\'ist'ollli had otlll'r prol ,It'll 1:'. loo. I It- ,;till illl,·lId .. d 10 "('t'lIdl'!' 'lIallif.. ,;t. 10 \·i,.,lIaliz,· rill' 1',~ydlOl0I!Y of rllt' I'rotal!0lli,;t. 10 I!i,,' a fa('I' 10 wltal for L.lIllII;; is ahon' all all id"a alld a I'roll·st.""" ()ri~illally. tilt' fan' was 10 han' Iwt'lI lliat of Alaill DI'lolI. Thi" ltol'(' wa,., da,;llI'd owilll! 10 a ~I'ri,'''' of mi"ulldl'r"'lalldillg~ alld di"'I'"It·,., al,ollt n·lIl1l1l1'ralioll. III riit' "11.1. \(al'("'IIo \Iaslroialllli wa,., l!i"'1I riit' IIlaill wit'. It wa_~ al'l!lIi1hly 1I0t a I.ad dtoil'I' hili illnilal,ly l,rolll-rllI a difTI'n'lIl 10111' 10 riit' film. l-lIal,I" to r..ll·as,·!tilll"t·lf from hi,; COlllnlt'1 wirll riit' prodllct'/'. Dillo DI' Laul't·lItii",. \-is('ollli fOIl"d hillbt'II'makilll! a film Iltal Iit' I,ot"d 1101 sltal'" 10 Iti,., likilll!. Th(' ....;,/'III/W·r was a partit'l"arly difficlllt 1 10 adapl fairllfllll~ 111'nllb,' ih illlll'nllosl qllality alld l'xI't'III',wI' an' i'h'·paral,lt· 1'1'0111 riit' lil"ral'Y dl'yin''; ""1'.1 10 n'lIdl'r riit' slory. III riit' wonl", of Bnlt'I' .\10l'I'i"s,·III·:
,,11\..
'1'1 ... "010111,1 .. I" .. I' PrOlb!. lilt· li ..... llid,·lIil'ti,·al fir,,1 1' .... "111 .. I' \I"III''''i1111t ill (:a11111,', t "."lnll/,!!'-'·" (,..·illf.. r... ·" I,~ 11 ... ,y~II·lllali .. Ib'·. ill 1-''''·II.-1I. .. f Ih,· I'a,,{ ,'''111I""'; I.. fJ'iI,!!ln"III d"",n""nlalitlll of lill"'-:
_. Ih,' 11111 al";!\,, al'l'al'l'lIl fill'!. lir.~1
:!()o
\'ISCO:-'11
enuucialt'd by Sartre, that every novt'listic wdllliyue implies a metaphysical attitude on the part of the author. The choice of nan-ative mode. far from being a mert' "formal" feat ure of liction. conditions its who If' structure and determine, to a great extellt tht, receptive stallce alltl aesthetic illvoln'ment of the reader.~.u
Proust \, and Call1us' s narrative Illodes are not easily transposed into the means and narraliw strategies available 10 the filmmaker. Meursauk s inability to Iwrceiw coherence in tlw world is rendered to a great extent by literary devices themselves, mainly by the use of free indirect speech with its vagueness ('oneernin~ whost' point of view is being presented. Tenses are used to the same effect. says Palrick McCarthy: Camus does not use the simple past - "1 did" - which is tht' usual tellse of the French now\. The simple past depicts a succt'"sion of {'Yents and implies that they have 11 cohert'Ill"t' which the lIarrator call perceiv{', Calli us IbCS the perfect tt'lISt' - "1 hay!' dOIH'" which links 1i1l' experit'IH'I' IIIore direclly to tht' narrator hut doe" 1101 orgallizt, it.~>1
l\evet1hele"s. to express the experieIH't' of IlIt'aninglesslless and lack of IlIotivation, Call1u,, IIIl!;,t ('all 011 a structur!' in which molivatioll and IlIeanill~ would normally he important. namely, the narrative. According 10 McCarthy. all three of (:allllls' S 1I0W\" appear to be "allelllpls to tell a story while it'aving out an t'sst'ntial part of it.'· In The Strwlf(er ht' succeeds in "writing from Ihe viewpoillt of this emptiness instead of merely writillg about it. "~>:! It was obviously lIaiv!' to a"sunlt' that the excellelll'e of Ihe novel ('ould be translated to allot her medium by adheriug faithfully to ib -'characters, locations. l'ostLIlUes. al'tiolls . and string~ of narratin'," YiSl'Ollti l'ould not help but lu:;e tilt' eiu"ive e"senl'e of the original becaust' he was uuable to explore ('iul'matic equivalents that would have had the same .. ffel'ts as the literary dl'vices used by (:amus. Yet it is diftil'uh to envisage pre('isely how Iit' would han' tackled the philosophintl a:-,pe('h of th .. novel evell if he had had the liberty to proceed as he "··i,,hl'd, llis cilwlIlatic style i~ charal'tt'rized by objel'tivity. a kind of olllui,,"i"JII narration that is almost tOlally l'ulltraJ'Y to the iJllplil'ations of CaJllll~'" IImeL partit'ularly ill it,; lir~t half. which paved the way for Ihe flOllI'('(1/( mlllall of .-\Iaiu Hobhe-Crill('t. :\lidll'l Butor, C1aude SiJllolI. and other;,. Thl' idt'a of doing away wilh Ihl' killd of literalurt' Ihat sought to reject tilt' COIIH'lIliollal a,.,pt't'b of the novel foulld its cinelllatic equivalent ill thl' IiIJll~ of kau- Lilt' Codard . .-\1aill He~lIai~. alld etu-is \Iarker, 10 mention bUI a few. 011 lilt' 01 her halld. 011 t hl' t'\'t' of 'tay 19()~ adapting
I ~ T I:: H Pin. T E H () F El H () P E.\:\ LITE H.\ Tt HE
The Stmflgl!r was not exactly a rt'volutionary choice - tllt' young radicals thought of Call1us as an --illlpostor" and a "blt'ating boy scout"' - but Visconti might haw i'dt all affinity with Cal/lIls's illsistellce that It'ft-willg utopias ollly too Oftl'lI serve as prt'It'Xb for bloodslwd.'-;;l In any case. beillg forced to copy tilt' nO\'I'1. Viscollti was Iph with very little scope to ,'xplort' new llIodes of adaptil/g, As "isconti's :.tatl'llwnt about giving a face to Call1us' s creation suggt'stt',L tilt' fillll is about till' fatt' of all individual ratllt'/" than about an existential condition as such. l\IastroianIli as :\Ieursault is as sYlllpathetic as ('\'er. tenderly nH'landlOly and lovablt' t'ven in his indifference. His fate is touching and sad: something irretrievably valuable is lost when this illliividual is eXl'cutt'd. The audience is dellied the luxun', of detachlllent. Also. the wa\' Mastroiallni ::.peaks his in!l'malmonologut's suggests that his condition is lIluch more of a problelll for hilll than it is for his literary cOlllltt'rpart. And wht'rt'as the wa\, that the \-Ieursault of tilt' book rendt'rs tilt' court SI'I'III' is full of subtle irony. in tilt' film the oVl'rdont' gestures and statenll'lIts by the judge and thl' melllbers of the court an' se('n as if from IIn objt'ctivt' point of \;ew and appear excessively melodramatic ami grotesqul', One could. of course. clailll that this scene is rendered frolll \Ieursaul'-s point of view, but it is nut cut'd to be so, !lather. every now and then tht' camera also oLsl'rves his reactiolls by quickly zooming to his face. Meursault would appear to fit quilt' well the gallel~' of characters ill Yiscollti" s films. From ()ssessiuTle's Gillo to Tullio in Th(' IIlIW(,(,llt, Viscontl's maill characters are in one way or allother 10llely wolves, "kt'epers of dis\alll'es'" to use Alfn'tJ's admonitioll to A::.chellbach ill Death ill J'ellire. ~It'ursault is all t'xtremt' case, however, ill that on the psydlOlogieal level he allllost succeeds ill tearing himsdf from tilt' collt'l'tive cOlIseiousIless of his sol'it't)'. Lllfortunately. tht' lilm dot'S not quite succeed ill portraying the benigll existelltial detachment that .\Ieursuult of the Look assuJIles in the face of death. '\leursault's ponderings ill the film appear unt'ollvillcillg in their assumt'd illdifferelll't'. Takell simply as a film in its OWII right. TI/{' Slrallgl!l" can be st'en as a fairly suLtle, sellsuous. alld ullpretentious fillll. Its controlled beauty. the mainly ~n'y-blue. white. and browll-I't'd color !'!chemt', the atmosphere of tortuous tt'lJsion (Tt'ated by Piero Picl'ioni' s lIIusic. the opposition 1)('twet'1J the "uffocatillg blaze of the SUI) and the rt'freshmt'nt offl'red by water - thl' brook and thl' sea - (Teait' the settillg ill which \It'ursault lives alld elljoys lift,. sWI·ats. and t'xhHust~ himself. All this I",comes a vihrant mHnift'stalioll of a certain experil'lIce of life. of a lift' that has to ,
\t~CU\
11
t>lId Llt'caw;c of Cl chance at'culIlulatioll of uw'ollw'cted cau~e~: thert' i" Cl ~cn~t> of tragedy awl lo~~ in tilt' 1iIIIl, tilt' absellce of which was n'all~ the gi~t of tht' nOH'I.~>-t
1it.:.lIEMIJIIA.W'L' OF TIII,HJS PAST In the prefal't' tu the prillted snipt for Relllelllbrance v/Things Pusl, Cccdli O'AlIli('() rt'call~ dlUt Yis('(mti u"t'd to say that adapting Lu rechcrcllt' for tilt' S(Tet'n would he hi,; last tillll project. According to her. the director wa" haUlllt'd by all allllo~t superstitious fear of this project. ViSCOllti",; otlH'r I'rill('ipal s('l't'enwriter, ElIri('o \Iedioli, ap't't's,. hut thin\,;", it was also a qllt'stioll of lIIH'ertaillt y: Su~o
lit' kllt'W \t'ry Wl'lI, that Ollt' I'ollltlllot l'0""ibly Illakl' Proll"t illlo a fillll, Becau~t', ImeaJl, 1I1I1,'~s YOlllllakl' thirrt't'lI or hft{'(,1I t'pisodf's, , , . E\t'1I a lillll of 1'0111' hour, wouldll't ('orrespolld to the \ollllllt's of Lu r('cherche, YOII wouldn't have the lefllJls perdll. whidl i" so fa"t'illatilll-( ill thl' 110\1-1: ~Oll M't' tht' charadeI' YOII ha\(' nlt't at th(' Ilt'l-(illllin~ "lIl1ll'l(,tt'ly tralhfonn .. d by (illlf' at the I'lId of this work:"·" Vi~t'ollt i' s
dn'alll of lIlaking his Proll~t tihu canll' dosest to realizat ion ill 1{)71. TIll' righh Iwlonged to lhe Fren('h product'r \i('olt> St(:phane, She originally Walllt'l! He/lt~ (:Ielllt'llt to direct it. hut Yiscomi slll'ceeded in persuadillg Ilt'r that Iit' awl no Ollt' else should direct Proust's colossal work, (:en'hi 0' AlIlico prepared the snipt that had liwd in their minds fur long, \'iseollti spent weeks hulltillg for locatiow; in Paris alld in ;\;ol'lnandy, The prospectiw ('a~t was breathtaking: Silvana Mangano as Oriane de Cllermalllt·,,: Alaill Oeloin or Oustin Hofi'man as \lal'ceL the narrator; llellllut B('r~('l' a,; !\Ion-\; Charlotte Ramp ling as Alhel'tilH': ~larie B('II as la Benna: ~Iarlon Brando or Luurcnce Olivier as Charlus; Simolle Signoret or Allni(' Cirardot as Madallle V(-nlllrin, Ac('ording to tilt> 1I10St excit illg l'IllllOr. Crt'ta Carbo, thirt y years after ha \'in~ left tilt> ';lTel'n, had ('onsidert>d a('Ct~ptillg tlte part of th(' queell of :\aples, \lany actors were l'nthusia"li(' about tlte idea of participating in tilt' filtn, awl sumI' e\'ell cOlllacted Vis('onri 10 o/'fer their s('r\"i('('~,~'" But then trouLh' Iwgan, \rllt'n the filial budget tIIrtled out 10 Lt' ellOrmous, Stephalll' asked Visconti to postpow' the shooting for four 1ll001lhs so that she could find lllore 1ll00H'Y' Blit tilt' impatit'ut Yi';('Ollli had to start working Oil something, So, to allow hilll"df to do Llld/rip; tirs!. he deI'1;\I\,It,d that tilt' Prousl p .. oj('t't should Iit' ptHIHIIl(-d ('\'('1) I'I1 .. tllI'l'. S((;-
1\ T l H I' H L 11-. H () F El H () I' L.\ \
LIT L H.\ It Hr
:.!1I(j
phane Iholl~hl Vis(,(lIlli had It'l IlI'r dowlI alld slIed him. III Ilt'r fllry. she ordered a III'W ~tTipl from Ilarold Pilller ami illvill'd Joseph Lose;.' to direct it. To lIlake lIIaller~ wor~e. ViscolIl i' ~ heart altack aft('r tilt' shool illg of the LlI(/lI'i!! left him ilH"apablt· of a~~lIIl1ill~ lask,.; Oil this scale. 13111 for various re'bOIlS. I,osey did 1I0t gt'l to do his film. I·illte!". Tllt're was still not ellouglt 1II01lt'y for tlw I'\"t'r 1II0re /'xpI'llSin' projl·ct. tllt'n' W(·!"t' illllllmerable per"ollalily cOlltlich. SI~pltatH' had dOllbls abollt Pilltl'r' s script. Losey wOllld haw din·l·tt'd ill Ellglish.-·: \'iSCllllli wOllld haw ~tarll·d his fillll from the ~I'colld \"01 11 lilt' of tilt' lIovel. :t /'ulIlbrp des jell/It's filiI'S cfljll'lIrS alld madl' SIJdo1ll1' 1'1 Goltlorrhe the Ilodal poillt. In this scheme. tilt' total length wold haw hl'('1l ahollt four hOllrs. Accordillg to \'i"collti himself. Ire "'allied 10 adapt ProuSI as if he were Balzal'. to treal Ihe challge" ill Fn'lIdl soci,·ty l)I:'fol"l' Ihe Fir:,1 "'orld \\"ar alld lean' Ihe questions of rilll!' alld m('lIIory ill tlw backgrollnd. A,; lIIallY critics haw' poillted Ollt. it is qllt'~tionable whelher slll'h a tillll cOllld have heell callt'd a tnw Prollst adaptatioll.,-·II P('rhaps Viseonti would han' SIII'('t'eded in Itamessing this slIbject 10 serve his OWII arti:,tic and philosophical vi"iOlL This might have hapP('lwd ht'callse of rhe dt'ep affilialioulll' ft·" with tllt' alllhor. III all (':;~ay focllsillg mainlY 011 TIlt' /flflucPIII. \likat'1 Ellchll "Titt',;: ~lIfferilll! and onllalilY as pft·I"t'lJlIi"ilt'~ for 11'll(ll'l"Iu'';'' alltl Yl'arllillg t'OIlIIlTh Vi"collti'" ol'lI,;uality to that of Proust'" .... Vis,'ollti alld Prol"l dislilll!ui"h a fealure whit'h tlwy set' ao Iypical of tlwir IlIaill dlUrat't .. rs· ("t'laliollships \0 till' bdov.-J alld III lift' ill 1!I'Iwral. lIalllely their 101'1 IIn~d alld I in'less '111t',,1 fOI'I't'rf"t'1 ~aft'ty. to !!"<1rJ Iht'lIbl·h-,·~ frolll tht' dalll!l'r of l'lldilll! lip ill IOllt·lillt,,.;,.;, alld tilt' t''1ually IIl1avoid,,"I,' result of thi,.; '1UI',,1. lIIisf0l111l1t'. ill lo\"(' b .... all"'· of j('aloll~y alltl ill Iifl' Ilt't'alb(' of deaf h.""
The basjl' cOllcelJl of Pi liteI" s ~t'ript IS almost the exat't opposite of Cecchi D' AlJlico' s. \rIlereas the laller pro('t'eds prilllarily lilwarly. the 1'01'mt'r is IItterly fra~mented. with tilt' lIarratioll 1Il()\ill~ t'oll~talltly back ami forth ill tillw alld assot'iation" of ,'aryillg stl't'lll!til t'OIlII/'I'tillg the differellt le\'(·b, The fillll wOllld han' 1~lIdl'd with a 1'1'1111"11 10 the Opt'lIillg st'ent' alld the word,... "It was lime to hel!ill." TIlt' film wOllld IIl1dollhtedly haw beell fa;;t'illatillg. bllt probably also I'xtrelllely diffit'lIlt to follow withollt prior kllowledge of Iht' 1I0wI. Proll:,t·;., lIarration proceed,.. ill IOllg selllellt'l'S that crealt' wI·I,,.; of a,,~ot'i atioll". remilli,,('t·III'es. alld fOI"l'shadowill~s, But behind this. the maill lille of tht' story pl"Ot't'('ds majt'stit'ally. TIlt' I'u"sillg of limt' Iwt'ollJt's al'parellt Il\ainly Ihrough till' slIrpri";I'''; tilt' lIarrator "xlwrit'lIt'l':; ill 1I1t'1'lillg his old
\ ISCO:,\TI
acquaintances again alld realizing how they have changed. The!>e eocmUlters give the impet us to the workings of his Illemory. hO The crucial idea of the novel is really a literary device: that is . the fin.l persoll narrator is simultaneously ~larcel experiencing these events and Mareel relating these ('vents with the advantage of hindsight. He is !>eeJl experiencing life in all its intoxicating. frustrating inuneiliaey, Lut ib meaning is rI'waled to him only in retrospect. Proust uses the distance Detweell tlH'SI' two poillts of view to work out a Lalance between the spontaneous reactions of the protagonist and to focus on thelll from a distance. Finally these two .. r' s join when the novel comes to its end. () 1 This fusioll signifies the regailling of time. for just as Man'e1matures and is aLout tu begin his work, the narrator is finishing his. Time has been conquered a" the past is seen in all its richness from the point of view of the present. when menlOries have been harnessed to serve art. when death has Leen overcome hy taking OIW' s life fully into possession. The two Proust scripts differed Iwt only in their Lasic approaches and narrative structures but also to !>ome extent in their handling of tht' characters. Because Cecchi O'Amico' s script does uot Legiu until the second part of the 1I0vel. Charle!> Swauu. Odette. aud their daughter Gilberte remain fairly marginal characters ... 2 Along with them. a great many of \larcel' s childhood memories and his youthful love for Gilbertc are left aside. Iustead. Morel and his homosexual relation!>hip with Baron de Charlw; is fluite prominent. The script euds with a scene at the time of the First World \\' ar. ill which ~lorel. llOW a descl1er. is sent Dack to the front Iillt'. After this . ~larcl'l he~ills to write his book. and childhood lIIemories retllrtl to him. A yisit to the Prillcl'ss de CUertnallte!"J. which Pintcr ust's as a frame in his yersion. is absent. The scrip\!' are so differellt that IJOth could haw had a plaC!' ill film history. III fact. the), would have complemented. explained. and enriched each othl'r. Illasllludl as the interplay of time aIHlmclllories would have heell realized in Pinter' s version, (:ecehi I)" Amieo' s snipt would have enabled \'iSl'ullti once again to recreate a by~olle era; to dramatize people's fixity in time. plan~. class. historical and social situation: awl show them ill tlH' I't'lwtratillg yet tender light of crilical llostalgia. The two takcll togelher would ha\'!' created a kind of analogy with the tensiOll between Proust's two ··r·s. Although \' i!"Jcollti llt','er made his Proust film. there are mallY traces of the French author ill his worb. The hall scent' in The Leopard. heach life in Death ill I ellice. alld the COIII'(,11:; ill TIll' 1"'lUcellt probably give s011le idea of what \'is"ulIti',; I,a recherche would haw het'll lik". Oil 11.1'
I:\TERPRETER OF El ROPE.\\ L1TER.-\Tl RE
:! t I
whole, perhaps ewn more than allY of the f'arlier tilms. his la:;t work. 1111.' In"ocenl .. i:; a similar nostalgic hut critical evocation of things past. as i:;
Prou:;t's masterpi,·ce.
THE I:\"XUCE.\T
D'Annunzio and Visconti as decadents In 1973. after haying colllpleted ('olll'ersalioll Piece. Visconti. (:eechi D' Amico. and ~ledioli ::.tarted to explore the po:;:;ibilitil's of adapting one of CaLriele I)" Anuunzio \; noyels for till' scn·ell. Beea lIse tilt' rights for
11 piacere had already Iwen sold. they began working 011 I. 'iIlIlOCefll('. Gabriele I)" AlIllullzio (ISh:3-1 <);38) was 0I1t' of the key tigmes of decadenti:;lII. This turn-of-the-century tn'ud wa:; an outgrowth of romanticism and carrit'd certain of its featurt·s to and past their hreakillg poillt. lloweyer. the word "ot'I'adent" can be used in two ways, On the one ham!. it is a fairly neutral term reft'rrillg to a ('t'rtain postromalltie trelld in the arts running parallel and partly coverillg styles rallging frolll PreRaphaditism to symbolism. expressionism. surn'alislll. alul so 011. alld including arti:-;ts such as Charles Baudelaire . .Im'is Huysmans. Paul VerlainI'. Arthm Rimhalld. and Stfphane ~lallarlllP in France. Oscar WildI' and \\"illiam Butler Yeats in Britain, Ct'rhard llauptmalln and Stefan Ct'orgt' in Cennany. and I)"Annunzio and Luigi Piranddlo in Italy. Sometimes the tenll has heen t'xtl'Jl(jt'd to illdudt' eH'1I Prou:;t. ~lanil. and .lames Joyce, On the other hand. tilt' word "decadencl'" has jwjorative Cllllllotations. Thus work:-; cOllsidered to lIe decadt'llt can ollly too easily. be cllllsidered to actually prolllote the excesses tlwy depict in such loving detail. And true t'nough. at its most ('XI'f'ssiw. decadt'lItism could lead to illllulgence in shault'less sulljecti"ity alld sensuality. a wallowing in thf' forbidden and the perverse. morbid intert'st ill sickness alld death. a Haullting of moral and sucial vaitlt's. fierce antireligiouslH'sS ami arrogallt faith ill the rights alld possiililities of men supposedly del't 11t'1'ause of racial or cult IIral superiority and threalt'ncd ouly by IIl1deciplwrahlf' and IWl'Ilicious wOIuen. III all\" ca"e. del'adt'llI'f' in the arts ohviously I'allnot be st'parated from its so('ial conlt'xt: bourgt'oi,; socit'ty Iwading toward a crisis at the turll of the celltury. From this poillt of vit'w. denldentism I~all ilt, st't'n as a symptolll of all ovt'f('ultivated \'ivilization with a rt'latiwly narrow ..tll~~ hasi,; tn·ill!! tll 1,Iock Ollt awan'IIt'S" of tlw IlIw,'oidahlt' illl'rt'
\bU):\lI
social dynamism hy escapill~ into illteriority alld overretiued ~eu~iJ.,ili(~. DecadentisIll was also a real'tioll against nineteenth-eeutury positi\"bl ideology alld its manifestation ill the arts. naturalism and verisUl. Cuuwrsely. this illterpretation has been used maillly by old-style marxi,,( critics. to lahel almo,;t all works lIaullting the codes of classical reaJi;'1ll as decadell1.":! D' AJlJlllllzio. iw;tead of depictill~ the geo~raphical and social envirullmelll of poor people. a,; the \"I'rist,; did, preferred to descrihe the prewlItious. shallow. alld boring way of life and mentality of the Italian upper class. This he did with accuracy but without much irolli(~ distance. Ewu when he appears to be cOlldemning the lifestyle aud ideals of his protal!(mists. this does not cOIl\·ince the readt'r because he, in the disguise of the narrator. so ohviousl, idt'ntifies himself with and idulizes his character". [n a style that could he de~('rilH'd as naturalism turned decadent. he evokes with his stitlin~ verbal luxuriance the innermu~t feelings and the subtlest slladt's of S('lIsations of his characters. w;ually at the cost uf p~y chological dl'l.Jth. ,,~ D· Anllunzio was not always ori~iual. but he was capable of fusillg various soul"Ces alld giviug t1WJIl new force. ~Ially of the provocative elemem" in his works t\('rivt' from certaiu features of late romantic literature. Fur example. erotic low between siblings hecame a pupular dwme ill ninetet'nth-centlln· ~ellsat ional literature. D· Allllllnzio· s heroes often desire their sisters of project orotherly feelings 011 their wiws. Mario Pratz has (It'tilled D· Allnunziu a;; a parl'eTW who~e st'mibarbaric ~wnsllality providt,d a fruitful ~rOlIlI(I for the dt'cudellt profaning uf all COllllllllltal values. Pratz sUllunarizes his view ill the ~talt'lIlent: ··D· Anllllllzio is a barharian ami at the sallle time a decadt'lIt. allu there is lackin~ in him the temperate zOlle which. in the presellt period of culture. is labeled 'humanity.' ·'h.-, In lIlany of his works this leads to a lack of critical perspective ami to the idea of a supenuall. The feelill~ of racial. cultural. alltl pity;;ical prowess ('onvinces his characters of their ri~ht to fllltilltheir d('sire~ irrt'spectin' of all limits allllmakes them scurn customs and institutiulls that they think bd()lI~ only to the ma~:;e~, Such a character can aln'ady Ill' fuund in I)" Anllullzio·:; lir;;t lIo\el. 11 pi(lct'l"e (1889). and in a IIIon' fully d(·wloped wrsiulI ill L'iTlTluceTlte. which appeared tlu'et· years later. hh The ITlTluel'll! is writ It'll ill tilt' forlll of a cOllfessioll. Tullio Ilt'nnill IIe~ins his story by rewalillg that he has ('OIllmil1ed a crillw. that Iit' has killed ··a poor creature·· ··wilh IlPrfect clarity of mind. with I'I't'cisiou ami IIIHXillllll1l ~t'('lII"ily"·"- Thi.., ha,.; tuk('1I pla('(' a Y"ur (·adin. alld HOW 'I'ul-
I \ T E H PH L I L H 0 F El H () I' L\ \
1.1 T FlU Tt H L
lio is askiIlg himself whelher Iit' should COIlf('ss t'vt'rythillg to Ihe judge. He d('cides thal he ("allIlol alld willllot. becallsP IlO IriLunal OIl Ihe earth wOllld know how 10 judge him. Thll"; he ha" 10 a(TIISe himself. Ht' has 10 reveal his secrel to SOllleOlIe, bUI to whom ~ The implied aIls,,"!'r is. of eourse. to the reader. Through tilt' nowl Tullio descriLes in d('lail his iUIlerUlost feelings aIld the wealth of his sensations. whilt, the extenml reality is rnealed only inasmuch as it directly afft'cts him. His love for his wife Giuliana is lIlt'toIlYllIiealh. . marked I",. inCl'st for she has I)('en takt'n into the famil" almost as a substilute for Tullio' s sister. who died at the age of nine. By adopting a brotherly attitude toward his wife, he has been able to recOIHluer his "primitiw libeny with Ciulialla' s ('onsellt. without hypocrisy. without subtt'rfuge. without dt'grading lit's. " ..I! Ill' thinks that ,,1It' re('()gnizes the superiority of his iIltt'lIigPIICe: "Thus she too -I thought - understands that Ilt'ing different from otlwrs and having a difft'rt'nt conceptioIl of lift'. 1 ('(Ill justitiably shirk tilt' dutit's that olhers would impose 011 me., I can jllstifiably despise the opinions of ot/It'r peoph' and Iivt' ill the ahso/utt' sincerity of lily ('It'("ted nature:'"'' Tllt'se thoughts have been pn's('nted ill tilt' past lellst'. and at tirst a IllOdt'rJ) readt'r. at least, could easily aSSllllle that tilt' aim is to Ihrow criti(,al li~.d11 on them. Howt'H'r. the lIIild self-inmy that Ollt' lIIi~.d11 sell se in Tullio'" narration dot's not suftice to pllt his ideas into It lTilical I H'rsllt'ctivt'. III tilt' lasl instance. the fUllctioll of any st,lf-rellt'I,tion appears 10 lw to provt' that Tullio i:; gelluilll'ly capable of a~s('ssing himst'lf alld his JIIotivatiolls. Ilis states of mind. his st'nsations. ami ft't'lill!!s are d('scrilll'd thoroughly and (,olorfully. and ,,0 ill hi,; OWII It'rub I)' Anllunzio dOt'S slwceed ill making his attitudes awl /H'havior appt'ar IIl1derstamlabl,'. But this is ('ollll\('red by tht' killillg of all iunoct'nl IT('aturt'. the baby Cillliana has had with allot her mall. :\t tilt' t'lld. Tllllio is gt'lluillely horrifi('d hy his de(,d: IW\'t'rtheles;;. Iw do('s 1Iot J'('pellt it. In his OWII vil'w. Iit' ('ould not han' acted otherwise. Be('Uus(' he is ('ompl(,tt'ly illlprisOIlt'd by thoroughly illlt'J'llalized codes of IWHor. traditioll. alld 10\,1'. as w(,1I as bv his t'Xt'l'ssivt' S('II"uality. thi" call ill a sellSt' Iw a(,t'eplt'd a,; tht' truth. :h the 110\'1'1 pron'l',k a chaill of as"ociatiolb i" bllilt l)('tw(,t'lI dt'pravity. sick nI'S". alld Ciuliana's baby. Tullio appcars 10 haw ft'('lillgs for his wife ollly wlwn siit' is ill alld weak. \\'11t'1I siit' J'('('()\'('rs. Iwr husballd 10,,('" his inlt'rest and rt'llIfIIS to hi" lon'r. \\'11t'1I after giving I,irth Ciulialla dOt's 1I0t appear to rl'gaill Iwr strellgth. Tllllio Iwlieves tilt' wry exi"t('III'I' of tilt' child eon,.;titlltl'S a threat to her lifl' alld COlIII'S to tht' cOlwlu"ioll that his low for his wife cOlllpeb hilll 10 kill tilt' child, Tullio tells how Iit' ('0111I,:ill,·t\ tlw crillle. t'xjlosinl! till' illlllWt'lIt to tilt' \\'illd,~ of willtl'r, ill cold
2li
V ISCO:\Tl
consideration, even feeling relieved of his earlier feelings of repulsion for the child. Apparently he receives no other punishment but his OW11 ft'elings of guilt. which he almost appears to hoast about. There were crit.ics who thought that adapting this novel by the archdecadeJlt D'Allnunzio was a logical ending for Yisconti's career. His late works. sometimes starting as early as Suudra, have often been labeled decadcJlt. These tilms have heen seen as an expression of an aging director's morbid fascination with the themes of sickness. decay. and death. On the whole, howt'\,er, it has not always been dear whether the label of decadence is a reference to the subject matter. the style, or both, or whether it is used simply as a pejorative term. Guido Aristarco sought to de tine the Ilature of Viseonti's decadenee in his article Critic or Poet uf LJt>cadellce~ There i~ in him "a ~;ense of the d.·dine of culture and of a profound crisis," the awareness of "tillding himself at lhe cone/us ion of a historical cycle and approaclling the end of a civili;wtion" and a profound "sense of death."' ... Is it not true that beginning from The Leupurd he showed ~ympathy for "ultra-refined and t"xhau~ted old times" and that the "sensation of being at a turning point"' was aeeolllpanied by "a profound lament"· and that death truly became "romantically desired"r'''
Yiscollli made TIlt> /rl/lUcelll at the time he was facing his own death (he died 011 March 17, 1976 . just when the film was in its editing stag!'). III it. Yiscollli reconstrtlcted Ihe era and the class into which he had lwt'lI hom - as he had already £lOBt' in Death ill T"enice. Adapting D'Allllullzio' s IIOVel implied a retum to something familiar, remembered with bitter nostalgia and detachmellt. with all awart'ness of its weaknesses and evell depravity. So whereas D'A1I111l1lzio epitomized the transition from v"rism to decadentisrn, with The IllIwceflt Viseonti 1"011nded out his career in the cinema by completing his own trajectory from JI('on'alislll to his OWII critical brand of d!'t"adentislll. which really serves a,.; a vehicle for giving expression to certain psychological COIl("ems. Accurding to Enckt'lI: The Illl/ocellt" ~ fa"adt' i~ dominated hy erotic compli.. ations, triangle patterns in a painfully heavy. brutal and at the same time on'r-cuhi,"ated, baro4ue-like frame. The mort> t.he spectator goes into the film and into hi~/her OWIl cOlllplelIlelltary reactions 10 it. the more obvious it hel"0I1H's that Visconti" s last work is rather an expres~ioll of deep sorrow than thost· t'venb which appear to dominate its surface. 71
I i\ T E It P It E T E H 0 F El It 0 I' L\:\ Ll T E It .\ Tl It E
The power of adapting During the opening credits, Visconti"s OWII hand is seen tuming the pages of O'Annunzio's L'iruwzellte. A beautiful society woman, Teresa Raffo (JeIUlifer O'Neill), it; blackmailing Tullio (Giancarlo GiallIlilli) ill order to persuade him to t;how more attelltioll to her ami to igllore his wife. He decides to give in and openly tells his wife, Giuliana (Lama Antollelli), that he is going to do so. SOOIl after, Ciuliana meets the author O'Arborio (Marc Porel) at a small dinner party arranged by Tullio"s brother. Federico (Oidier Haudepill). Later they notice each other at a concert just as a soprano is singillg the aria "Che faro senza Euridice:' from Cluck's opera Olfeo ed Euridice. a song about the pain of losing a beloved through death. Tullio appears but does not realize what is going on for his only cone en} is to attract Ciuliana's attentioll to fulminate about Teresa's infidelity. Against this background. Giuliana's adultery can be seen as a justified attempt to claim for herself the sallle rights that her husband has assumed. Tullio begins to suspect that something has happeued when he hean; Ciuliana sing "Che faro seuza Euritiice." He happens to sec a book by D'Arborio 011 her table with a dedieation to her. A casual conversation about his literary talents appears 10 lead Tullio's thoughts in the right direction. But it is uot until Teresa mildly mocks Tullio about the affair his wife is having that he actually faees the fact. He meets D' Arborio in a fencing hall and they eugage in a match - olle of the ever-occurriug "duels" in this film. His discovery of the affair It'ads Tullio to leave Ten'sa alld return to Giuliana. She has retreated to the countryside, to her mother-in-law's villa. and Tullio follows her - there is a striking cut here from luscious red, black, and gold to wOlult'rful green alld white. Nothiug illcites Tullio's love as ulUch as the fear of losing the object of his love to someOlw else. Now he calls Ciuliana "my wife. my sister. my lover." She invents an excuse as to why they should have separate rooms, but whell her husband begins his attempts to rekinJlc her love she finds it difficult to resist his approaches. But we Bever really know at which point her possibly renewed love becomes a strategy with which to protect hen;e\f allJ the child she is earryiug. Antonclli" s acting is loo subtle to permit allY simple interpretations. Finally, Tullio' smother ren-als to him that Ciulialla is pregnallt. I11Iwever much he pretends to allow his wife the same liberties he enjoys himself. he seems to have all almost illfantile fear of oeing left alone. heing I'xdutied fmlll till' splwf(, of love alld caring. This fear is actually justified
:.!10
\1~Cll\ll
and illl'reasl'd hy his own inability to n:perielll'e such fedin~s toward others. Perhaps it is tilt' idea of a IIlOther's love for her baby. doubly alieD to the lIIan who has furced his wif,' to seek low and earin~ from allutlwr lIIall . that lIIakl's Tullio s(,t' the bahy a,.; his archenemy. This fear gr1l1l"~ illto hatt'. which has the effect of makillg the objects of passion and IOH~ truly IIllapproadlahle. Tullio is IInahle to lIIeet his belu\"t~d 011 e411al terms alld tellds tu experie'H"e hlllllan relatiollships as I"IlIlfwlltatiolls. Ill' projects his uwn auxietil~s 011 otlwrs. ;\t Ollt' point. whell dis("lls"illg the situatioll with Ciulialla. he sllddenly Ilt'ars a Hlice dralll'nging him to another match. lie Will,. aruulld and tu his 11111'1' alllazt'lIlt'llt sees a man in a white fellcing "lIit with a visor owr his face - jllst likt' I)" Arhorio wheu Tullio first laid eyt'!' on him. But it is not Cillliana' s knight ill "hinillg white armur. it is Tullio'" brother. FI~dt'ri("o. They have a lIIatch. which pillS Tullio in a state uf ra~w. as if hl' werl' l'ugagt'd iu actual cOlllbat. Both I)" Arhorio aud Federieo are Tllllio'" eOlllpetitors ill love. the Ollt' ill n'lation to hi" wife. the other to his IllOtilt'r - and 1t'lIin~.dy enOllgh. wllt'n the lath'r appear" at the gym. Tullio IUllge,; furiously at FI,derico. as if 111' W{'!'t' tighting for his life. Ellckell sllgp:t'st;; that "till' lIIasked alltagollist is not ollly a livillg rival. Ire is in this. \·i,.,conti·:. last lilm. also a ';\"lnLol of death. that vietoriou" cUlllpetitor who o\'el"l'ollles lb all allll forever deprives us of all that we dlt'rish. "7~ I)'ArLorio dies of a fever before Tullio has had a dlalH"t' to exact his rewnge. When Gilllialla dot's not yield to his atheistic It>mptations to ··cancd tht' results of our errors. be independt'nl of Ihe condition" of our existence. of the uncertainty. caused by. anxiety. alld Ill""es:' wlll'n she refuses to ~t't rid of the ··illtruder . ·• Tullio is left alOlle. The only course Iit' sl'es for himself i,., to destroy the enemy thal appears to take his place in tilt' splwre of lo"p. \\"Ilile the others are attenwng tht' (:hristmas mass in the family dlHpel. Tullio exposes tile child to the willtPr air. Tht' parallel with the (:hri:.t child is made Plllphatic and poignant by the parallel editing alld till' music of the sl'rvice being carried to till' room wlll're Tullio is waitillg for tilt' baby to catch his death. But killing the innocent lIIerely seals Tullio·,.; fatl': expulsion. Ciulialla linally renoulII','S the "holy"' sacramf'lIt of lIIarriuge that ha,.; hound thelll: :\01 for a 111011 It· 11 I - li"It'1I "ardully - did I wallt 10 ht' fn'" of il [th .. ("hild]. \ut ill onler to follow tilt' rtIl,'~ of lily "oll~("iou~II"~~ hilI 1,..("111",' I Im'I'd it. 111\ poor little ("r('ullll·p. wholll I dplli .. d a Iholl~alld lillll''' ill lily word,.;. Ht'~I)f'("1 for tilt" laws "I' rdi!!ioll and 1\lllrnlilY which 1 III1W ,'lIrs" !, "" hrollghl 1II1·I.ad, III "11" '1'\,.
I" T E R P R L I I·. H () I· Lt H () I' L.\" I 1rI-. H \ It HE
:!! .
sacrament of marriagt'. What holines.-; ,'all thne be in tilt' disgllstiIlI-! tit'~ that hm" kept us tog!'ther dllrilll-! these last f('w lIlollth",? I cannot explain it. Yet it ha" happeIled IlI'causl' of that salTanwnl. lit-nil',,!, .. fit I hU\(, slIfft'ret\ allll ,'ailSI'd pain .... What folly ... what folly!
Later. Tullio cOllft'sses to Ten'sa Haffo what Iw has done. ('lIdillg his slll/"y with the words with which his litl'l"ary counterpart Iwgills. dailllillg that no trihunal 011 tlw earth would know how to judgt' him. Ten'sa fails to be impn'sse,l. howevt'r. and poillf:.i Ollt that throllgh death Tullio's 01'ponellts ha\'!' now become truly inviw·ible. Finally. sIit' says: "On the day whell I could convillce myself of beilll! the only judgt' of lily life. I would like to be worth it. Lt'1 mt' go'" Having killed Ihe iIllIOCt'1I1 ITt'aIII n'. Tullio ha~ pro\l'd to himself that he really is ahle to lin' up to his total amorality. He calli lot but fact' the spirilllal void Iit' has lTeated for hilJls,·lf. By posinl! as Ihe sole judge of his morality alld t'thical eonducl. by ("("('ating his owll solitary spher(' of right and \\Tong. lo\'(' and hatt'. he has excludt·d him:'it'lf frolll the ('0111pany of his ft'lIow human beings. Human Iif(' is esst'lltially about illteraction with other people. and ha"illl! deprived hi IIIsel f of il. Tullio J"t'aliz('s he has no future. Ht' ends hi:; lift' withoul much funllt'r ado. although lIot withoul a IIwlodramatic gesture: he dot'S il ill Teresa's pn'sell('t'. III a sense. this feawn' makes it. as Viscollti poillled oul. a truly I)" Allllllllzian additioll to the book. The a('lllal plot has heell altered ill many ways partly he("all~t' of narrative el..'onomy. For example. the early SI..'t'Ilt' ill the hook dealillg with Gilllialla":; illne:;s has been olllitwd. alld the relatiollship between the couple is reudered ill a cOllvt'rsatioll ill which Tullio delllHllds Giulialla'~ cUllIplicity against tilt' society that would cOlldellln hi:; relationship with thl' oeallliful Teresa Rafl'o. Blit by far more important is the J"t·thillkillg of tlH' 1Il0tivalioll~ of tlw character ill the seWit' that Balazs ddilled as tlw (>ss('lltial fealurt' of good adapting. Tht' very audiovisualizinl! of the litt'rary te.xt as sllch poinls tlH' way to this. First of all. Tultio has lost his POSilioll a:-, the Ilarralor - IH' is not e\"l'll l!iwll the IWIle/it of prt':;('lItilll! his owll views through voic('o\"er lIarralioll. B('caus(' all the dlaractt'r~ are actually S('('II hy till' SIIl'I'tator. their appearanct's alld lH'havior an' 11111 cOlllilled to Tullio' s poilll of ,·it'w. They hay(' l"'('ollle full. roulld".! ('hal"<\("\(>rs. alld corr('spolldilll!ly Tullio' s sl'irilual void is lIIad(' lIIon' explicit. IL-\rborio is not tlw ullpleasallt lIIall Ihal tilt' Tullio of 1111' book dt'';(Til)('~. Il\It a sYlllpalhetic. 'Iuit'\. alld la,'1t'1I1 i"dividllal who is ('ollsid"I"a\(' of ollH'r p'·"plt'. Ciulialla i~ no
:!IH
\ISCO\fI
more the weak inane creaturt' of Tullio· s description. who says "he is prepared to commit suicide to sa VI' Tullio from shame. In D'Annunzio·~ world, a WOlllall who ha" gone astray is taintetL whereas a malllIlay enjoy promiscuity as his natural right. In the film. Giuliana's transgression i" madt' to appear a It'gitimate demand for her rights as a woman living with a blatalltly unfaithful husband. She pretends to acquiesce to Tullio·" ideas and to hatt' her baby only to protect it. She also has the courage tu refuse to haw all abortioll - in the book the ahortioll is not carried Out for medical feasons. III a senst'. the relationship hetween the literary original and the filmic adaptation has beell rt'vt'rsed: D' Annunzio and his shallow narrator offer only a surface view. whereas Viscollti· s characters are interiorized. GiuIiana. in part ieular. develops and changes as the narratiH' proceeds. Thus this tilm. more than any other of Visconti" s adaptations. can be seen at> a form of literary criticism in the way l\eil Sinyard has suggested. And whereas Death ill I Pllice. because of the difference in the two media, could not explore thl' ,;ame range of thought and sensibility as the novella, the film made on the basi::; of IY Annunzio· s novel penetrates right into ib moral and intellt'crual core and turns it upside down. Thus the novel a" well as the period, society. and culture it reflects are put into a critical pt'rspective. A new. remarkable "coherence and inner consistency·' is imposed on the diegetic material as it is rt'!igured in term!i of the motivation of the characters and the point of view from which it is told. The innocent is one of Visconti" s most beautiful tilms. Its peacefully evolving plot awl the gentle mOIltage create a quiet and degiac atmo!ipllt're. TIlt' eault'ra work is designed tu show as much as possible of the sumptuous settings. hut Viseonti does not hesitate to cut and even to zoom to close-ups. The eolor scheme has an importaIlt role in giving accents to the milieu. Intensive red and luscious gold. together with some black and whitt" dominate most of the interiors in which the high society of Rome residt's. In colltrast. Ciuliana':; boudoir, as well as Federico· s apartment.. have delicate pastl'll"Olon; awl shades. The villas in the countl:·side. amid their greenery. are mainly creaIllY yellow and pure white. In each case the colors corn'~p()11I1 to tilt' sen;;itivity of the person to whom the place is principally related. In addition to the lIlusic in the concerts - wheft· so Illany in the audience., as ill lilt' lIIusil'al "oir~es Proust describes, cannot Le bothered hy llIusit: - three killd!i of IlUckgroulld m\l~ic by Franco Mannino are ht'ard. Quiet, poignant lIlusic mainly on tilt' piano aecolllpanil's tilt' scenes with TlIllio awl (;iulianH tll~t't1\t'r. It i:-; gradually 1"\'"lacl'
J:\TI:.HPH~,
ILH OF El HOI'L.\:\ I.ITEH \T[ HE
the strings, which is increasingly associated with loneliness and sorrow caused by the sense of loss, It is also heard in a scene in which Tullio tries to rekindle Giuliana' s love and in a sct'ne in which she has apparently just refused to have an ab0l1ion. awl again when they discuss the situation, From the latter scene the music continues as two shots of D' Arborio's memorial vitrines are seen, Most tellingly, this thenlt' is heard whell Ciuliana goes to see her baby, It is interrupted violelltly whell Tullio discovers her as she is leaving the room and slaps her on the face, Howev(~r. it soon continues as Giuliana tells him how :-ihe hates t11(' child - the tenderne:-is of the music suggesting that she is not beillg hoUt'st with her husiJaIHI. A third, tormented theme for piano and strings accompanies St'elJe" in whit'h Tullio faces his most painful inner conflicts, It is fir:-it heard as Federico asks him to come fencing. then durillg Tullio's atlwistic "credo" with the piano music heard ever so faintly through it. In later SCt'lH'S the themes mix t'ver more, as they do when Giuliana is givillg birth and wht'lI Tullio exposes the baby to the outside elements, On the whole the music i:-i used quite differently from tilt' way it functions in,senso, Swu/ru, Death ill Venice. or even The Leopard, in that it remaills more constantly il' the backgroulld and does not enH'rge as an almost autonomous level of meaning. But the beauty of the film does not imply merc indulging in :-icnsuality, as in D'Aununzio's novel. Instead, it functions as a represelllation of an aeiSthetisized way of life. devoid of spiritual substance. !\jot only are tilt' eoncertgoers indifferent to the llIusic, but pure beauty on the whole has become such all ahundant commodity ill this society that it is accepted as self-evident. not as an achievelllt'nt reiawd to tradition, culture. history. and society at largt', Both the diachronic and thl' sy"eimlllic dimensions of culture are ignored, thu,.; permittillg till' outgrowth of solipsism awl imllloral hedonisllI, Wht'1I Tullio n'lIoum'es Cod, he is ill fact rt'nouncing all responsibility in the fan' of anyolle elSt' eXCI'pt himself. Ht' is the very opposite of the other protagollists of \'isnlllti's late tilms: he Hallllts their tOflUt'lItillg spiritual
\ I ~ (. \I " "I t
of this plot of cnwlty and anguish. ITt'att' all alJllo~phere of sorrow ami loss inextricably linked to what it is to lw a human being. yt'aming fur tilt' lIIu'lI\ulitiollal love that Ullly. all idealized mother can offer her baL,. . The inabilitv to come to terllls with tilt' ille,itablt, frustrations uf life cau become a de"tnll'tive force. all the mort· frightening when it stems from tht· basil' hUlllan traullla uf having tu grow indepenuent from that ba"il" ;;t·I'urity. Bdlilluthe mask of tilt' del'riwd supennan. there is somethill~ dt'l'ply tou(,hing ill Tullio' s I'hildlih panil' at tilt' thought of beillg left alolle alld ulllon·d. \likael ElIl'kt'1l - a psydlUunalyst by profe"",ioll - suggests that th., ('l'ucial f('allll't~s of Thl' IlIIw(,(,1I1 I'allllot Ilt' separated frolll tilt' fact that VbnJllti wa" dying wllt'n he lIlade thi!'> film. Once agaill. Iit' wal-i urawin?! a sdf-portrait. As in Thl:' Ll:'ol)(lrel. ill which the prince of Salina and Tancn·di together mirror Visconti's per"onal history. tile autobiographi(,altrait ill this lilm i" built aroulld tilt' joint fat'~ of Tullio alld the baby. '1'1\1' I.'n~ll1,., depicted in the lilm can Lw assullleu to take place at the time of l.uchillO·'" birth. a III I wllt'reas Tullio' s dlaraeter Lall be said to represelll Visl'onti',., awareness of tht~ dt'l'adelwe of his own "ocial class, the baby call be considered a protest 011 behalf of illllUl.'t'nCt·. The lIluruer cOlllmit\t·d by Tullio i" iI "elf-dc"tructiH' act to which the suieidt· is ollly a logical follow-up. En·rytllillg he doe" can bt' judgt·d from tilt' point of view uf this decision. The S''1wrlllall tUrrt~ out to be Iht' 1IH1~t pitiable of all people. I Ip is like a child who ill hi" ab~olutt· sdf-ct'lItt'l'I·dlll's~ olllv warUs to haw his dt'sin'''' fulfilled alld to Iit' 10H'd by pwryorll' - or at lea"t by all womell. lit· i~ a tragic 1i~lIn' who. after 11 \"iolellt I-itrllg~le. ~lIdJellly capitulate!'> wht'll he n'alizl'''' hI' has dt'","·oyt·d eVl'rything worth lightill~ for. The 1IIIlUI'I:'1I1 wOllld Iit' a ~Iotlllly end for Yi,.,ctlllti·~ cart'l.'r WI'I'I' it not - thallk~ to ih beauty. IlIWIIl't'. alld psydlolo~ical IWlIl'tratioll - "udl a pt'rfel't work of art. It i,., a Illallift'statioll of till' po~,.,ibility of finding at till' t'xtrPIlII' IIlOlllt'llt Ill' all~lIish iI way of n'colll'ilill~ lift. illltl dl'ath ill and t It rough art"
Notes
IVI'HODlCTlOI\ I. Prou~1. /{('lIlI'mh,.IIIU·t' (~( 111illfIs Pust. p. oIl. 2. ElIckdl. "Slut~ah'-lI av \'i~t'lIl1ti~ n'k,·it'III.·· Puhli~ht'd ill the t'OlI,'ctillll L'ko or/t (ltt'/'.~k('II. p. 52. Tnlll~latillll~ frolll thi~ a~ wt'll as bH'kdr~ other l'~~ays are by tht' prl'st'llt author. 3. Ishaghpour. I i'scollli. p. 20 . .... Ibid .. p. HS. S. Ellck,-II. "Slutsabt'1l a\ \'ist'Ollti',; n-k\it'III." p. H;'j. o. \Iallll. Sc!lOpt'lIlulIIe,.. p. 1h. Tran~lati()1l by tilt' pn-~t'lIt author.
CIIAPTEH 1, "V1S(:OI\TI
A~U
I\EOHEALlS!\I"
I. HOlldulillo. I is(,(}lIti. pp .......-h: S.. r\"clill. Lw'hillo I i.H·Ollti. pp. -t()-:3 . .) St'nadio. L/lchillo I iscollli. pp . .')h-H. :3. Durl!lIalll. Jeall HerlOi,.. 1'. (ll). -t. Ht'lIoir. il~l' Liji' alld J~\' Film.\'. 1'. F·)-t. ;) .. \ndrew . .tJisl.~ of Hewel. p. 20(). h. Rt'lI11ir. .I~\· Liji- aTld J~\' Films. pp. ISh-:'. '7 HOlldolillo. I i'snJIIli. 1" .'>5. H. St-r\adio. L/lchillo I is(,(lfIli. PI" :-):.!-:3. l) Ihid .. 1'1" (d -:3. 10. HOlldolino. li's(,(JIIli. PI'. h:.!--t. 11. Ihid .. pp. :'()-:.!. I:.!. Bt'ne dt' Ct'ccalty. Introduction to I.ndlillo \'i~t'onti'~ .llIfIe!. pp. x - xi. Lt Stirlilll! .. 1 Scr('t'lI (~( Time. pp. -t -: -H: St-n"dio. I-I[('hino I is(,()lIti. PI" IJ ...-:-). l-t. StirliIl~ .. ·1 Screen (l Till/('. 1'1'. "'H-IJ. );'). S,-rn,dio. [,/lcftino I is/'(J/Ili. pp. h:' -IJ. lb. Ihid .. I" hl): DUfl!lIant. }1'1II1 Ht'TlOi,.. p. :.! \:-). I? S .. r\adill. L/ll'hillo I i'sCtlflli. PI'. hH-'). 18. Clark. Jlor!t'f'lI Ilufl'. 1'. :.!-th. I I). BOlldalll'lIa. [Ialiall Cilll'f1ltl. 1'1'. I:.!- U.
Hay. Puplllar Film ('ul/urt' in Fascis/ I/a(\". pp. ~-+5-o. The lenll "" luu ,,'Iepholl" lihw;' is J!'I'ind from American him,; ~udl as Cecil B. De \IiUr'~ ,l/a/e alld Fl'male (1 <) 19) in whidl while lel"plumes appear as 0111' of Uwsymbul:; of a leisurely upl't'r-da~s slyle of life (Liehm. Passion (Jnd Dejiullu. 1'. ~1. fll. :ill). Ilay. Puplllar Film ('Ill/un' ill Fascis/ I/a()·. 1'1" ? I-~. Quoled ill .\1"1111'';. Paths uj.\"l'ort'tliism. p. ;")0. Ibid .. p. :i I. Bt'lIciwlllli. Luchillo I i"scollti. p. ~O. Car~anil!a. "Realism ill Italy." Quoled ill Owriwy. ,"Ij)f'illgtillw ill ba()' (illtrodul"Iion). p. 19. ~6. Pacilid. The .Ilodl'rtI Italiall .vuce/. pp. H-\~: WhittieIJ.·1 :::,'hor/ His/ory 0/ Italiall Litem/lire. pp. ~++-:'i. \"is("onti. ··Tmdi::.iollt, t'd illl'C'II::.iollt,." ··Slile." \lilallo. vu\. \'11, imen ... 19-+ 1. Puhli~hed ill .\ristarco. 811 IisctJllti. pp. 115-18. T ranslatiolls frutU Ihb work by the pn'~elll author. ~8. HOlldolillo. I i"SC()lIt i. p. 10-+. ~9. Ht'v!'\. Oil Proust. PI'. li2-:J. :30. "iSl'Ollti. "11 cinema alltropumorlico." Cillema prima serie. Homa. a. VUL 11. 173--+. ~;:, ~ettelltlJl't·-~:'i ottobre t; and bt't'anw a I.attldield for tllI'lII alltl tlH' Allit's. Cinecitta's as well as Centro Spl'rilllt'lIlalt, di (:iJlt'lIIutograliu' S I"qllil'nH'1IT was nll.\"d 10 Certnany or tu Vt'nict'. wherl"' tlH' Fascists started a IIt'W film sludio callt-d (:ilw\illal!gio ~O.
n.
40.
4 I.
i2.
i:i.
-H.
is. -th. i7. -tS.
(Film village). a~ opposed 10 Ihe CiIlt't"illa (Film IOWII, ill HOllw). TwellIYoue films wt're made. mainly Oil Ihe li/ll'~ of the "while lelephollt' films." Only one has au pxplit"itly fascisl mt'~sage (iLid.). It could hardly haw Leen otlwrwise. According to De Saulis: "AI Foudi Ihl' donkey aud till' hicyele ~Iill prnailed: the roads \Wrt' uo wider Ihau a couple of ditdws: of iusuranl't' we only kllt'w Ihe Ollt' gheu Ly a haudshakt' belwt't'u buyers amI st'lIers: vagmuh were allowl'd 10 circulate ouly Oil Ihe occasiou of the annual fair: <md. finally. postIlleu did lIot kllock on auy door uor could they bt' expet'tt'd to ring u()n-eXi~ll'ut doorbells so that il was t'on~idt'red a greal privilege if Ihey peeked iu your wiudow 10 call you aloud." (De Saulis. "Vis(,{}llti"s Interpretaliou of Cain's Selling iu OSSt'SSiOfll'."· p. 27.) This. apparently. was llIll' of the changes \'iM'outi IlIadI' to the origiual saipt. According to .\Iil'ata. Spagnuolo was to hm'e bet'n "a p",;itin' hero." "IU' should have ht,t'u the t'fitit'aII'on:;ciou~nt'sS of the film." (Quott'd ill Bal(it'lIi. liscofl/i. p. 1:~0.) WiIIialll van Watson calls the way Visl'onli chauged whal was to havt' bt'en a socialist positive hero into a hOlllo:;exual "au exquisile move of suLlillll' !Jt'n·t'rsity" ("The l'nderda:;s as Objecl of (Homosexual) Desire in Vi:;l'outj"~ ()ssess;oftt> aud St'flSO·'). ;\ paper at Couvt'gno iUleruaziouale di ~tudi Vbcontiani 19(H. Publi~l\t'd as "11 sOlloprolelario c'ollle oggetto del de~idel'io" in Bfllui and Pranldelli. Slud; I/'scofll;llfl;. pp. 100-1. Van Watson ha~ argllt'd Ihat Ihe whole Sl't'lll' is shot as if the two wt,rt'lovt'rs preparing for a kiss rather thau a list fight (Watsou, "11 sottoprolt,tario ('Oillt' aggetto del desiderio." p. <) I). I am uot elltirely conviucl'd. but Watsou i~ l'ight in plliutillg out that lllallY time, the way the two are shot paralleb the way Gino and Giovallna are ,hot. a~ in the scene of Giuo and Spagllllolo by the river bank. or Lino aUll Giovallua 011 tilt' roadside ouly a hit latel'. The plot fuuctioll of tht, illsurance is eOlllplt'ldy tliffen'lIt ill tht, 110\,\,1 alld the two Alllt'rieau adaptatiOlb. In Ihe 110\'\'1. Katz. a crafty lawyt'J'. d('vist's a complicated arrangelllellt betwt'ell two illSUranl'e cOlllpallit,~ with Ihe result that ollly (:ora is st'ntent'ed for lIlan~la\lghlt'l' and let out on I'rohalioll Frank is lIlade to appear an innocent victim. This Illt'ans that she I'
-tt). Liw'l'ppt' Dt' Sallti~. "Yi"t"tlllti'~ 11It('rpn'tatioll of (:aiJl'~ Settillg ill (J1i:WSsi(mt'.·' p. :Hl. 50. I\lit'cidlt;. fisc-ullli (' i!1I/'urt'al/slI/o. pp. h 1-:3, h7. 51. Delt>lIzt'. Cilll'lI/u :!. p. -t. This nlll he ,('ell as a realist it' effed IT(>ated o~ ttar so-(~alled t"tHle of t'xtrallt'OIl" dt,tail. St'l'. t'.g ...'\lIdrt'w. Conct'pts ill FiLII/ Tilt>ury. pp. u-t-3. 32. I am takillg a slight risk with this statelllellt ill that tilt' cupies I have on'l! abll' to stlldy an' ~Iightly "hortt'r thall tilt' replltl'tlly IOllgt',,;t t'xtallt eopit". :>:3. ()uoted ill :\nllt'~. Paltems u/Realism. pp. bh-7. Fllrtht'r f('ferenl:l>: Film und Filll/ill~. April 19:)(). :>-t. I ,ucia Bulult' write" ill her illtrotillction to Cillseppe De Salltis's article. "Yi,cOllt i'" Interpretation of Cain'" Sett illg ill {)ssl'ssi(Jllf"': "111 a curiolls way. tilt' "ilellt'!' illlpo,t'd by the makt'rs of Ossessiont' over fach kllOWIl to the pllhli.· of t 9-t2. nalllely till' ddt'ats of tilt' fascist armies ill Albania. Africa. aud Hus"ia - a ghostly sil!'nce OH'r crucial. conlt'mporar~ t'vt'nts which the protagonisb set'ollt! - is a "ilellt't' that is O\enleterlllillt'd alld hodes revolt.-· I lind lIothing "l'lIriolls" ill tht, lack of rdt'I'('III'e" to contt'lIIporary evelll, iu Italiall fOff'ign policy. III addition to tht'problem of ct'lIs.,rship - which Bohllt· ackllO\dt'dgt,s - it just is lIot that killd of film. Ollt' of tht' libt'fties fictioll t'lIjoys is to r.. iit'vt' itself of tht' burdl'n uf rdt'relu't> according to its OWII strllclllff' of relt'vant'l>. SS. ()uotl'd in (ht'rlwy. ,"prill{!lilllf' ill It(j~l·. p. :!9. ;)h. BOlldalldla. ItaLiulI Cirtelf/a ji'ulII .\"f'urt'al/slIl tu thl' Prl'sf'lIt. p. :3;:). ;)7. Set'. t'.g .. \owdi-Slllith. Lllchino Iisc()lIli. 1" J2. 5H. (:hiarini. "Tradisn' il lIeorealismo." ('int'rtlu nU()l"(). ,,);). \Iart'h 25, 1955. PlliJli"lwd a~ "\t'o-Ht'ali~1lI Betrayt'd'-' in Overl..wy. Sprin{!timt' in Ita~r. p. :!OH. :le). Ibid .. 1" 201). hO. Zantttilli. "A The"i~ 011 :\t'o-Healislll." Published ill O\erhey. Sprillgtime in It{/~)". p. : I. ot. (:hiarini. "J)i"cO!"sn slIllIt'orealislllo.-' Hiwlc() f' lIau. XII, Juiy :, I!);) t. Pubibiwd a~ .. A Discollrs(' on 1\1'0- HeaiislII.-' in Overhey. :)pringtifllf' ill Ita(r, p. 1-+3. o:!. \Iorlioll. "i.t' ha,i hiosolieilt' dt'llIcort'aiislllo eillt'matogralit'o italiaw I." PuLli"lwd as 'Tht' Philo~ophit'ul Basis of :\eo-HeaiislII'-' ill th-t'rbl'y. Springtirtlf' ill I/((~\·. 1" I:! 1. It ~hould lit' Hoted that whell .\lorliun >-il't'uks of "a magic willdow whit'h 01"'IIS to tilt' n'al." he is. of t'ourst'. spt>akillg IIl!'taphorieally. The nit it's 1.11' realisnl in f"int'1I1a huw olliy too oftt'1I pickt,d 011 sUl'h phrast's to t'oll~tnlt"t an t'asy targt't for tilt'ir t'ritici,lII. t>:3. Bazill. 11 hat I,~ Cillf'IIIU? \01. 11. p. 1)7. h-t. Bazin. "William \\"ylt'f. or tilt' JallSl'lIisl of Inist' I'll ,d'lIe.-· PublislH'd III Willialll, (l'd.).Il,'((Ii.~1II ulld thl' ('illl'lI/(/ p. -t-t. ()S. Ibid .. 1" :! I. ho. Bazill. "Dt' Sit'a t't Ho~,t'lIilli'-' PlIbli~llt'd in i3azin. VII ','s/-n' 1/"1' le cillema? vol. 1\'. p. II-t.
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07. Al"l'ordinp: to Ilf'ofol"malist tl'rminolop:y. the ~pe("tator may justify a p:iwlI tl'xtllal 1>lt'lIlt'lIt ill tl'fllIS of f01l1" ("ah'p:orit's of lIIutil'utioIlS: n>levun('c in tl'I"IIIS of story IIl'l"c~,ity is (,()lIIpositiolllllmotivatioll: plau,ibility. a(,(,OI"duIII'/' with one's I"ont"t'ption of till' real world. is rl'lltisti(' motivatioll: n'l'op:llitioll of a typical way of pn'S('ntatiou snch a~ p:elln' 1"0nventi()lI~ is trllllste.1·tllalmotivatioll: aud artistic motivation ill turn justilies tilt' forq.(fOlludillp: of SOIllI' I"omponent of the work of art for its own sake (Bordwcl!. '\"llrratioll ill llll' Fiction Film. p. :3b). oS. Rinwur. Tillll' and .\"urmtire. p. h7. 69. Ricoeur. Thl' HILII' o/Metaphor. p. :N. 70. III the s('miulop:y of C. S. PI'inT. a ~igll is I>itlwr all imll (it rt'sl'lIIble~ tllf' objt'ct it refers to). all i,ull'.r (it has SOIlW killd of existt'lItial l'OIlIH,(,tioll with the oLje,·t: e.p: .. tht' photop:raphi,' imag,> has a photodwmical (,Ollllt,(·tioll with tlte obje('t). or a S,Hflbo/ (it refers 10 sOlllt,thing through ('stablished ("011\1'11tiou). The~t' ("ut"gories an' usulllly lIot cOllsidcred to 1)(' mutually exdu~iw (Peirct' was somewhat ambigllous 011 this point). but their n'leHIIl(,('. say. for the study of I'inema migln vary uI'nmiillg to tilt' poiIlt of view. III Peter Wollt'n' S opinioll ... It is this uwan'lI(,ss of owrlapping which 1'lIabll'\'I1I1I remarh about photo)!raphy" (SiKflS (/fuJ Jll'llflillf{ if/ tIll' Cif/efT/a. p. 12J). 71. The Lwauty of this interprt'tatioll of the mimetic proc('~s (Ricol'ur\ scheIIle Iwillg' naturally far mort' elaborate thall what has been pn'sl'lIted here) is that it i('gitimatt'ly subvt'rts the knotty ,\uestioll of n>ali~m ill its full philosophi('al depth: thl> fot"lb is 011 pitlill)! diffl'f"('llt di"cours/,s or Ilarratin'" against olle allolhel". not 011 tht' questioll of tll/' (,xislt>I\('e of all ohj,,("tiH f('ality alld its kllowability. VI" it could be argut'd Ihat thl'"e are implied ill the faith ill moddill!! hUlllall eX~H'riellt'e as a nH'anillg'ful activity. De Sallti" alld Alicala. ·'\'I'rila /'IHw~ia: Vt'rga I' ill'illeJlla italiallo." ('i"I'''/(I. 127. October to. PHI. PublislH'd as '"Truth alld Pot>try: \"erga a III I till' Italiufl Ciflefllu:' in OverlIl'Y. Sj)rifl,!!tiffle iflltfl(I·. ('I" I:H-:!. 7:~. Rondolino. I lscoflti. pp. t~):!-;"): Senadio. LW'hifl/) I i~l"Uflti.pp. 1ll-t-.): S .. hifallo. liscoftti. p. 2:~()- 1. 7i. Servatiio. Luchiflo I i·sl"Uflti. pp. lOb-7: Schifallo. I (,~("(iflti. pp. :!:)7--l0. 7;). Stir/illg'. :1 S("("eeft 0/ Time. p. hi. III ('Ollllt'('tioll with the HeIllill/!way ('fOdllt"lioll. \"i~collti IlI'calll/' acquaillted with Suso (;I'lThi IfAmico. who hilt! trallslated the play illto Italiall. SIll' was to work Oil the st'fipts for almost all of \'is("ollti's "uhseqllellt films. allll t111'~ benlllll' lifelollg' fril'llIk (:a,;lello. "Lllt'hillll \"ist"Ollti:' p. IS."). SI·hifallo. Luchifto I (s(,(Jflti. PI'. :!S:!-i. 78. Baldelli. Luchi,/() I (scoflti . pp. 1h-18. 79. Stirlillg .. t SenTfl 4 Ti"lI'. 1'. 7:!. 80. Doniol- \'allToze 6.: DOlllarchi. "Elltn'tit'll a\I'(" LlI("hillo \"is("(lllli:' p. 7: Villiell. I (scoflti. 1" ;)h. BaSt'd 011 a ~talt'lllt'llt II~ :\lllOlliIlO An·idia("olli. who playt'd tilt' part of ·\tolli.
81. Allalyzed with his customary thoroughlless by :\Iicdche. I iscollli t' iJ flt'Qrt'ali.wlO. pp. 155-bO. 8:!. IlIter\iew with [lIrieo Dt'aglio. "Rilurno ad Aeitrezza," September 1. 19W. For an accoullt of the llIethod of producing the language and its fUllctiUIL including tht' voict'-uver comllleIllary. see Parigi. Stef'ania: "1\ dllalismo linguistico. 8:~. Baldelli. Luc/tillo liscollti. pp. 91-:!. 8t. Parigi. Stefania: "11 dualisnlO lilll!uistico." Publi~hed in \Iieciehe, La Il'ml trnll(( di Lucilillo I iscoflti. pp. 1... :!-8. 85. Doniol- \'akrozt' & Domarchi. "[Illrelit'n awl' Luchillo VisC()(Iti. ,. p. 7. Zeftirelli himself claims to haw coached the actors while Vis('onti was nOI watching (Zeffirelli. Tht' AUlobio!{f"llp;'y of F'mllco bffirt'IIi. p. 85). So. Annes. Patterns o/Hl'alislIl. p. 110: Baldelli. I iscollti. pp. 9:~-1 00. The synopsis of the original script was published in Hiw/co e rwro XII, Iln. 2.;t febbraio-lIIarzo 1951. A H'rsiulI of the synoptiis can also be found in l\licciche. La term trl'lf/(I cli Lllchil/o I iscollti. undc'r Ihe title. "Quoando gli episodi t'rallo tre: scaletta dt'! proge110. ,. This work, with its many excellelll anides. frame elllargeJlll'nlti. drawn sketches and written drafb relating to various aspects of tht, film. is invaluabll' for allY future study of this tilm. The scellt" in which the \lalia shoot at tll!' peasaIl1s was based on a real incident. A group of bandits led by Sah'atort' Cillliano started. possibly accidentalh-. . a lIlas"alTt' at Portella dt'lla Giuestra Oil \Iav. 1. 19t7. The i.1lcident fl'a1Hrt'~ both in Rosi'sSaJI'£ltore Giuliww (19b:!) and ~Iit'hael Cilllino'~ The Siciliall (1<)87). 87. \Iieciche. "Yerso La tt'lTa trcIIIa.'· pllhli~ht'J in \licciehe (ed.). La terra trenw di Luc;'i,w I iscouti. pp. 38-t 1 (Rosi quotation ill fn.b. p. 59). III thi" artidt' \liccich{> makt's a thorough examination of the various drafts of the project. 88. Man·us. Fillllmakill{{ by the Book. p. 37. 89. Lino \Iieciche ha~ pointed 0111. as an example of the perfenioll of Viseonti'" design. that the storlll seenI' is not only narrativt'iy bllt also fonnally the ('t'IlIer of the lilm: it is pl't'eedeJ and followed by .58 sequences. the former consisting of:!;) 1 shots and lasting for about 1 hour. 10 minutes. the latter cOllsisting of 258 shots and lasting 1 hour., 25 milllllt's - the scelle itself lasb fur abollt ;) minutes (\Iiccil'lle. I'iSf'Oflti I' il fll'orealismo. p. 10:3). <)0. Yiscullti. "11 Cinema anthropologico.'· Originally published ill Cinema, prima ~erit'. Roma. a. \,111. 1lIl. 17:3-t. 25 settelllbrc~25 ottobre 19...3, pp. 108-1}. Pul.li"hed also ill AriSlarco. S/l li·scouli. p. lib. 91. Ibid .. pp. 119-21. 92. "Implied author" j, usc,d here to distinguish Iwtwt't'n the actual hi"torical author alld thl' melltal C'Olbtruct 0111' might form of tht' allthor of a work of art 011 tilt' ha"i" of that worK only. 9;3. Verga. I J/a/ul'Oglia. p. I'm. DOll !\lidit'll' is the chic'/' of the lontl customs offiCI'. f) .... Ihid .. p. 11)f).
95. Ibid., p. 1n.
90. Miel'ich{>. I (sCUllli t' illlt'ort'a/isfllu. PI" 175-7. 97. Briall Iielldersoll has disclI~~ed the lJlle~ti()n of the pseudo-itt'rativt' incin-
98. IJIJ.
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ema in his I'ssay. ··Tellst'. Mood. alld \'oke ill Film (:\otes after Gt'Ilt'l1e )." nlm Quarll'r~l'. XXXVI. 110 .... (Summer 1(83). pp. 1 1-12. ~Iarsha Killder has further developed the idea in her artide. "Th!:' Subversive Potelltial of the Pseudo-Iteratiw," FilfII Quarlt'r~l·. XXXXlll. 110. :2 (Winter 1989-90). pp. 2-10. Marl'u~. Filllllllakillg by Ihe Buok. pp .... 1-2. VilIien. I (scollti. pp. ()O-1. Villien 1lll'lItion~ also an inscription Oil a rock: "W il re" (Long live the killg). a rdt'I't'llt'l, to the 19-+0 refl'rclldulll con('ernillg the Conn of goverllment. It has lIever caught my eye. In the 1I0vel. it is ':\toni who has 1I0t got the courage to stay ill ,\ri Trczza. alld it is left for the grandfather to stay and light for the slIn'ival of thl' family. !\Iiel'ichr. I iseullli t' i/St'UI'I'ldislllo. pp, 12:!-3. Vt'rga. I Malw·u!{lia. p. 28. The director of photography was C. R. Aldo (Altlo (~mzialli). who after the war brought wide-allgll' awl deep-focus It'chllilJllt's to Italy. Ilis brilliallt care!:'r was cut ~hort by a car accident whill' Iit' wa~ ~hooting Viscolltj'~ Sellsu. :\Iarcus. FilfllTllakillg b.\·lht' Huuk. p. :39. E.g" Balddli. I (scollli. pp. 81-2. Baldelli thillks the elllire seent' is WIltrived both in lt'nllS of l'olllent and realization. According to :\ristarl'o. Dario :\atoli \\'I'1It as far a~ comparillg the film 1ll01't' preci~ely with TlI(' Battleship Pult'mkill (1925) ("Cinema t' Illt'zzogiofllO." ('mlll/cll(' Meridiullali. lIuova serie.l\apoli. a VIII. 11. h. din'mbre J!)tJl). Ishaghpouf. I iscullli. p. :!:!. Aristan·o .. 'Esperiellza <,ult llralt' I'd I"periellza originale in /.lIchillo I (:jcof/li." Pllblishl'd originally as an introdlll·tion tn the script of Hocco t' i SllOi frate"i. subsetluelltly ill Ari~tarco. Su I i:jcollli. p. 2(). Ibid" p. 2:. :\Iarcus. Filllllllakiflg b.1·lht' Houk. p, 2:. \lit'cich~. I i'scuflli (' il lIt'or('ali.ww. pp. 108. 1'11. 8:t 180. :\owell-Smilh writl'~ "I' thl' U"I' of the IWO 11'\'1' Is: "Collsidl'rt'd ~imply as a tedllli'lut' till' juxtapositioll of till' two le\'els is 1I0t necessarily all aid to reali~1II at all. It dot'~ lIothilll! to soln' thl' problem of contl'lIL whether "I' thl' illla~l':; or of the tl'XI. 1I0r dot'~ it prescrillt' allY Ilt'cessary relation 11t'IWI'l'n thl' tw,," (:\owell-Smitll. I (:jcunli. p. SO). BecalN' I dOllot sl'e f('ali~nl a~ lwing an issue in tilt' jll.\lapo,ilion. fail to sl'e allY prohl,'m of 1'''llIenl to IJI' "ol\'l'd. anti "1'1' Ihe Iwo In'l'ls a~ illtricately interwoven. I ('ollld 1I0t di~ agree 111"1'1'. \lar('us. howl'vI'1'. dOI's agn'e with :\()wdl-Slllitia: "This intru~iH'. alJlil'int'lIIatic devin' [Ihl' voice-over] ~I'n'I" to frallle and nllllaill till' !ilm. di~tant'illl! I " froJII il" dOI'IIIIlI'nlary illllJlI'diat'y awl allllOul ... ilJ~
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all allthorial pn's('lw\' that pat(,l'IIali~ti('ally lIIalliflllla\l'~ the rqlr(,~t'lllalioft frolll abo\t' alld pn'"lIIlH" to illtl'l'prt'l it for u~·· (\\urclIs. Filll//llllkilll£ In the /lU(}k. p. ~(»). Agaill. why illtrusiv('. why allticillelllatic. and aho\\.' all. why alltireali~tic (a" \\urcu" also lahels it) ( Though the dl'vice dot's de\ ialt' from tllP 1II0st lIain' idt'ab of III'ort'ali~1I1 (or of what Bill :"IiidlOls has called obsl'rnlt iOllal 111(11 le of dOl'III11t'lItary film). i.e .. the id/'a of capturillg reah[~ ulllllI'diat('d hy all authorial ~IILj/·ct. tilt' liSt' of \oin'-on'r COIIIIIIl'ntar: .." such call hardl~ Iit' uec('pt('d a~ a nitt'l'ioll of rt'ali"lIl. \Iic·(·idl':. LII lam In'/llIl di LIlCliill(} I is('(mli. p. 'H. :\ow('II-SlIlith ~,'C'S thi~ i"~lI/' diff,'n'lltly. if Ilot ('xactly till' otht'l' \\ a\ arolllld. Ill' thillk,.; the "lyrical ('xaltatioll" dot'S \iol('IWt, 10 the .. dc ...·u11I('llIary" a"pt'Ch \"iM'ollti \\a" illitially aftt'r: "lli~ inilial ,,('ellarios ha\r all idc·ological darity awl purity abollt Iht'1II \\ hidl i" tht'1l "ystl'lIIaticall~ betrayed ill the lillal t'laboratioll" (lisc()lIti. p. --to). Thl' n'sulting hlmal'l' illdl"'d c·lahoraled ill 1'1'''1)('('1 of the origillal ,,('('Ilarios. but I do Ilul ".. t· thc·ir darity Iwillg bt,trayed C'X\'\'pl illa"mudl a" the process of dul,oratioll brillg" illto fon!:; thl' w,'akllt·",.;('''; of till' original cmwt'pt. I\eilh.. r do I ",'t· what :\owl'lI-SlIlitll "all" thc' "colH·t'JJllwl" (tlu' voice-over comIIH'lItary) alld riit' "PIII't'" (pictorio-lIll1,.;ic·al) .. It·IIU'lIb to h(' in all\' wa, ill cOlllli ... witll t'adl othl'/'. J"hagpou/'. I is(,(lIIti. p . .'):!. Zdlin·lli. Illlouiogmpliy. p. HH. J3nllli. Ihl\·id. "La forllllla nitica d .. 1 fillll" lall a'Tollllt of tht' tTitical 1'('('('ptioll of till' fillll lip to tht' \)(),,). Pllblisllt'd ill \Iiedd •.:. La /t'rru IrclI/(J (11 LI/(·hillo I is(,()lIli. p. 17: HOlldolillo. \"i,,·ollti. pp. ~ 19-:W. \"iscollli. "Sul lIIodo di II1t'1It'f(' ill ,,(,('IHI IIlIa cOlllt,dia di Shakt·"peun· ... llillllscitll. din'lIlhn' 1\)i3. <)uolt'd in HOlldolillo. I iscollli. p. :.!ilt Tml"latioll II~ tilt' pn'''t'llI alltho/'. Ibid .. 1', :.!.-).'). Ihid .. pp. :t~\}-i:!: Stirlilll-!. 1_lIchillu I is('()ftli. pp. 11 :)-1 tJ. Tlri~ prodllC'lioll i" cli~t·II."'t·cI fllrthc ... ill chapll'r i. "\'i~C'()lIli. Thollla, \Iallll alld two U~P{'C'l' of I-:llrul',· ... BCllldalwlla. Ilaliaft ('iIlC'IIIf1. pp. Kh-:. <)1101\'.1 ill Onrlwy . ."',JI'iftglilllt, ill II(/~\'. p. :.!(). Li..IlIlI. Passioft /l1Il1 LJt:/illlln'. pp. \):.!-:~. HOllclallt'lIa. Ilu/tlllt ('iIlC'IIIU. p. :r? Lidllll. Pussiult (/Itd IJt/illlln'. 1'. I i:.!. ~Iirlillg. I :-in-f'C'1I 4 Till/t'. p. K;'). Balcl..Ili. l./lchillU lisl'flllli. 1'1" 1 I I-I:.!. III tilt' origillal tn'alIllt·1I1. ~parti"'O wa~ 10 ha\c' Iwt'll a p"til IHlllrl-!t'oi, wat.-lllllak('r IIIIl "lIclt-dllp Iwillg a workt'l' of 11Iliclt'lItilit,cI "kilJ" (\Iic-c-ic-h':. I i.~(,ulI(i f' it ,\f'cII'C'lllisl/lU. 1'. JlJ(»). DOlliol- \alnoLc' ~ DOIllardli. "Elltn·tit·1I a\t·,· I.lldlillo \'i"'·()(lli." p. h. Tnlll"latioll hy 1111' pn'~"11l alllhor. \Cl\\ c'II-~lIlitll. I.lldtill(/ I isc/ll/li. p. ():l.
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Crall~!'r' s perfurIll' wt'ak. AITonlill1! to \lar("lls: "Crallg('r is 1It1!'rly IIlll'OIl\'il\t"iul1 as tht' illspin'r of a pa~sioll f!rt'at t'lIough to destroy the virtllous Livia" (ltali(lll Film ill/Iit' Light o/,y,,()f"t'(llism. p. 1()()). Hilt, slIrt'ly. Livia is not \"irtuuu~. Hi~ht from tilt' Iwgillllillg ,Iit' is weak alltl ob\"iously ft'e1s tilt' greal lIt't'O (0 t'xperi"Jl('e all tilt' ('Jllotions thal (with!'r her JIIarriag!' to tht' old Serpieri nof IlPr d"alillgs with Ihe illealist l'ssoni call offl·r. PaJ1ritigt'. in turn. writ .. ~; "llis pt'rformalll't' is static. 1I0t rippling: hi" stiff posture" alld "till body suggest sllIbborll - almost puritanical - l'OIblraint, 1I0t th!' ntalllJeo ferocity ..f "educt iw Ilt'donisJII" (......t'IISO. p. 1<1-+). I "1I~pl'l't thal "rippling sensuality" (which Part rid~1' dot's lint! in Yalli's IJI'rformalH't') alld "manned fero('i(~ .. would han' workt'tI again"'l "01111' of tilt' nlosI inlt'restin~ strains in Visl'uJlli'~ fillll. Ollt' of which i" thl' tt'n~ioll b!'twt't'1I Frallz' S l"Hlicism allt! his IIltilllalt' \ulllerabi IiI y. 22. Candlaro (I'tI.). St'IISO. pp. ::3--+. 2:3. Hot 1I 11 110 rt'lIlaillt'd Y i"I'Olll i" S main l"int'matographer UIII il The Slml/ga ( 19()?). 2-t. (;a\"allaro (t'II.), :-jeflS(), PI'. 202-:3. :2:"). DOlliol- YaltTozt' Il.: Domarchi. "Ellln'lit'1I an'l' LlIchino Yisconti.·· p. 10. 2(). Ibid.: Hallnlllo . .l/(ls/I'rpit'l"t' liS J/iflt'./it'ld. TIlt' I'XI'Clltioll was shot at the Ca"Iello Sail Angelo ill Home bl'caw,e it would 1I0t han' been practit-al 10 return to Y(,fOlla wilh alltht' t'lJui(llllelll. :n. Candlaro (I'd.). Seflsu. pp. 19?-201. 2B. Lisi. l"mberto. "Pallra della storia." ("il/I'm(l IIIWI'O. IW ..")2. 21). \Iack Smilh. I ir/()I' Ell/WHit'/. C(l/'{J/lI'l/fld /11t' Risol'gilllen/o. I>' :32:2. :~(). Taylo\'. Tilt' I/upsbw'{!: ,1/ofwI'chy 1809-l'nB. p. I:!? :~ I. \Iack Smilh. I idol'l./IU/f//II'I. ('uI'UU1', (Ind thl' Ri,~U1:l!;imefl/o. p. 30;). :{2. \Iack Smilh. II(I~\·. pp. 79-80. :{;.3. Ihid .. PI'. 80-2. :{-t. Ihid .. pp. H1-2. :l:i. \Ial,k SlIlit h. I idol' DI//JIIIIf·I. ('I//'(JUI', /Il/(l the /(i,wI'giml'fI/o. 1'1'. :~22-:~:j. :Hl. For ~t'nt'ral informal ion aholll tilt' difft'n'llI factor" Ihal shapt·d Iht' Ri"orgiI1lt·1I10. ~t't' \I,tt'k Smilh. I/(f~\·. pp. 2-9. :P. DOlliol- \. alt-l'ozl' Il.: [)olllan'hi. "Elllrt'I it'll a\"I'I' Lllchino Yi~l·ollli." p. 10. Tran~lalion 1)\ Iht' aulllO\'. :JB. Schifallo alld Tont'lli t'llIl'lta"izl' tilt' "illlilarilil's wilh tilt' lraulllatic dt'ft'al in CaI'OI'(,IIO dlll'illl! tilt' Fir"I World \\·a\'. Tlli.,. 1t0\\I'\"I'''' \\·a~ a I'al,blropht, of quilt, ditT('J"I'nl proporlion, frolll Ihal al (:lhloza: -to.()()() kilJt.d. !)1.000 \\01111111'11. 2():U)()() 1'lll'1lIn'II. alld tilt' n'~1 of tlw anllY n'Irt'aling in cOlllplt'tt, dial.,... Bill. "I' ,·ollr,t'. t'\"('1I 011 Ihi~ o(,I'a,ion 1111" Italiall, nlanagt'd in tilt' l'llll 10 101' oil tilt' ,idl' of tilt' willw'r" (Sdlifano. I ist'lJII/i. pp. t)t)-100: Tonelti. I.lIdlillO I is(,()lIfi. 1'. ()H). :N. J..:ogan. I Poli/imlllis/UI:\' 41ft/11". PI'. 2:J--t. -to. Clark. J/ot/(·/'II I/(J~\' 18: 1- PJH2. PI'. J2-+-:l. -t I .. \ri~lan·o. inll'l"\"i.,\\· \\ ilh tlu' Hllllto ...
:21. I alii Idt sOlllewhat Iwrpl!'x!'d by l"t'rtaill .-ritil's who lillo III a IH"t' 10
\ OT l
~
-t~. (;ecchi IY.\lIlico. illtl'rvi('w with tlw allthor. -t3. CavaUaro (I'd.). SI'''SO. PI" 17:)-7. :\ccordill!! !O Ari~tiHt·O. dw ".·.·11'· had a pre('is(' historical n'ft'l'ellt ill all "pis",I.· ft·lated by (:arollti ill his :H"f/wri" anu reported by Cralll~chi ill hi~ lIote~ abollt tht' Ri~or!!illlt'lItO. (:arollti had lIlet with ,;ucl:e"s ill the 18-t8 ul'ri~ill!! agaillst tlu' .\u~triall~ alld ill H~()h forllled a compally of \'(11 11 lit el'r" to do SO agaill. Ilis Off"f of hell' wa" rdllsl'u by the PiedlllOllt"se lIIillislt'f Ballio with the words: .. It i~ usel""" to arm yourselH's. as the regulaf arlllY is stroll!! "wHI!!h to rullt thl' "W'IIlV" (.-histarm.:-ill Ii'scollli. p. -t-t). -t-t. Lisi. "Paura deUa ,..toria." -t3. Ham·alltl. .Ilasll'rpil'cl' us .lJifll'..til'lrI. I hm.· lWI'll fortllllat.· "lIoll!!h to ha\"(' seen and "t lit lied what an' probahly the IOIl!!!,,,t "xi"tillg ,·opit·". -th. \"is(,Ollli ha" stated that the character of Livia wa, illlltwlI("('d 11\' la ~all~"\ erilla in ~1t'lIdhars Till' Ch(/rll'rhuIIsI' Id"Parllla (IB:~I)) (Dolliol-\"al ....oze & DUlllardli. "Elltretit'lI an'/' Luchillo \·i".-onti." 1" .')). -t? Tht' date twing 'lay 27. 18hh. awl tilt' film ('mlillg in tilt' IIIOmill!! aftt'r tlw bailie of CllslOza. i.,· ... Jllnt' ~7. 18()(). the t~\"t'llb of the filmtak,' plan> withill a I\lOlllh. Boito i" 1I0t as I'rt·cj",· bill "OIlH'YS tilt' iIlIl'n'~sioll of a IOIl!!et" tilllt' pas"ing. iu additioIl to which the Ilarratiw fraIlIt' extelld" the tillle span to 188:2. -t8. Codefroy. The Dramalic (;!c'lIiIlS of I "rdi. vol. I. p. ~:H). -t4. \Iarnt". Ilalillll Fillll ill Ihl' Li!!hl I~/.\"{'urt'(lli.ml. p. 181. ;)0. It lllay 1)1' difficult for us. illfe.·tt'd by I'lblI110Ut·mislII. Ilot to ~l't' tilt' ,'olllrast betweell the situatiolls of the elld of A.-t III ami tilt' lJt'gillllill!! of .-\(·t IV of 11 11'0 I'(lIu ("(' as profoundly ironical. For tilt' "ontelllporary awJjeIH'" with ib rolllallt ic s{>J1sibilitit's (t'n~1l if uf all Italiall mriet y). this ope fa cOlllpll'ted in 1852. with tilt' defeats of the 18-t8 IIpri~ill!! still fr('~h illlll(,lIlOry. was prohably a pow('rful ~ymbol of oPl'ressioll o\"l'reOlllill~ eveIl the bravest of mt'lI. 51. Thauks to tlw cillelllutic rl'alizatioll. th .. spectator ("all !!rasp tht> parallel ('veIl without kllowill!! Of bl'iIl!! abl .. to follow tlw word" ~ht' i~ ~ill~illg; . .')2. Cavallaro (I'd.). SCNSU. p. 10'1. ;")3. Ibid .. p. 171. .')-t. Ishaghpour. I i"scullli. 1'. 7-t. bhaghl'ollr b I'Ullllill!! with tht' mt'allill~~ "color" alltl "f1a\or" in tlw Fn'lIch word ('ullll'lIf'. lit' ('\('11 go.. s so far a~ to claim that "LlIl'lIillO Ii'scuflli n'lIIaill" ill tht' Ili~torv of .-int'ma a" tilt' ('('{'ator of colour film: befofe thefe wel'l' ollly 'mlouft'd' lilllls" (p. 7;)) . .),,). Ca\"aUafo (I'd.). Senso. p. 121. .')h. \ajdt'''' Zdzi~law. "Jo""ph (;0111'1\(1' s Ihe ~t'tTt't .\gt>lIt or tht' l\\t·lodrallla of Reality." Prilltt'd in Ct'rottld ( •.• 1.) . .HdtJIlmlllll. p. 1110.
5:.lbid .. pp.l:;>-b. ;)8. Bl'rtnl'l. ,\IIJt'ft. "Where '1 .. lodrallla 'I('t·ts Fan·.· ... P ..illlt·d ill Ct'rould (t·d.). J/elodmlllli. p. 17 -t. ;")4. bha!!hpour. I i'sl'ullli. p. 7(J, 00. Dalle \"a.-dll'. ill ha Tht' /J()I(\' ill lilt' Jlif'rof'. dt·1Il01l~I ..atl's tI ... illflllt·llt·t· of tilt' /JIIIIII' I~/ (·lIslo::.a (l8':b-l)) alld .·tTtaill otl ..... pailltill!!s by (~iovalllli
o I.
h:!.
b;{. h ....
()5. bh.
h7. bH. ()I).
70.
71. 7:!. 73.
7 .... 7':>.
Fallori 011 dll' way dlt' hal dp ~n>lII> ha~ heell sho\. Tilt> illt\uelll'e is nol I'lIrd~ visllal hilI ill\"olVt's also Ihe way people in dleir different tasks arc l'aptured ill tlw illlages (TIlt' JJl)(~I' ill Ihe Mirmr. pp. 103-12). Viscollti him"elf ha" t'xpre"sly d"lIied havillg copied the pailltillgs and suggt'sts that similarillt'~ arise frolll a l'01ll1ll01l pursuit of tfllth (Oouiol- \'alcrozt' 6: Domarehi. "[11' tr('lit'1I awe Luehillo \'isrollli," p, ... ), 11IIIuelll't' might takt' place ullinlt'lIIiOllally, of ,'ourse, \Iit'cil'ile also ml'utitllb several other "rd'crellccs" to pailllings by Francesl'o Hayez, SilH'~lro Lega. Tdelllaco Signorini (Luchill'-' I is(,(JIIli, p, 8 ... ), AI tinlt'~, \'ist'ollti 1ake~ the risk of hm illg 0I1t' of hi" characters adually "1)1'11 out the moral of the ~lOry: ':\IOlli', ""I'eel'h" {() the little girl at thc end uf La lerm 11'1'111((. Ciro'" self-justifinllioll al tlw (,lid of Ruc('u. don Fabriziu'", pOllderillgs in TIlt' Lcopard, awl ,,0 011. They art' usually sawd from appt>arilll! o\'('rtly dida,'li., oel'au"e the idt'a ha" b""n worked mll amI elaborated lIalTali\"t'h, in it \\'11\, Ihal is far ridlt'r tlWII tilt' "laU'lIIenb IIlt'lIlselves all.1 thus il "ern'" 10 ('olltextllalizt' Ihem - 1101 lIel't'ssarih ,,0 as 10 make thelll appear rt'ali~til' bill ralher hy prt'selllinl! Ihelll ju"t as threads ill a compln \\'t'" of lIIeallilll!'" A" poillwd oul (·arliel'. the roll' was already redul'ed befon' the film wa", r'·[bun·,t \'ist'tHlti has slalt·d: "I alwap pn·ft·r to Idl about (It·feats, to describe lilt' \ietillb, destilli,'s tTlIsllt'd hy ['t~alily" (illler\"i,'w with \'iseollli, ill \Iit'l'ichf, ;\Jurlt' a It'Ilt'zia. p. I:! ... ). Aristarl'o. illlt'['\'iew widl the author. Marl'us. Ilaliall Fillll ill Ihf' Li!{hl uj'.\eurt'alislIl. pp. 17:!-;{. Ma.-k SllIilh. Illl(r. pp. H-9, I;~- H. ILid .. pp. W-:!O, ;N-t:!. o1.r-7. Ibid .. pp. 5 .... 71-;~. Clark. :liodern /106'1.')7'1-11)..,2. pp. W. :!I): \la .. 1.: SlIIilh. Italy. pp. :!-t. KOl!all .. 1 Pu/ilimlllisluI)' ()f llu~r. pp. 1;P_I). Ihid .. p. J:U. Thib i~ a d,·batable i~~IIt'. COlllparill1! I il'll /'IllI/ill to earlier film" f"alurilll! Garibaldi. Jose Luis Cllarnier tllillk~ ,ha I Bo~"ellilli has demy~tili .. d hi~ figun' (Cllamier. Roberlo j{usst'lIi"i. p. !) I). Stirlilll! .. 1 .slTt''''' u/ Tilllt'. pp. lld-.... Bt'[lt'ivt'lIl1i. !,uchiIlU I iSClIllli. p. So: Slirlilll!.1 :)(.,.('('11 (d·hlllt'. 1'. Ill;). Stirlilll! .. 1 Scrf''''' o/Ti11l«'. pp. 170. 177. Pio Bald .. lli ha" crilicizt'd tilt' '"p)lo~ed r .. ali,,1I1 of the film Oil lit .. groun"~ Ihal \'i"COllli. a~ oppos,>" to LamIwdll~a. Ita~ 1101 takt'1I illto a'-COlllIl tilt' "habl.ill .. ss of Ihe Sit'iliall pro\'indal ari"IOtTa,'y (Balddli. 1,lU'ltillu liscullli. p. :!:!I)). S,·nadio. l,u('hiIlO I iscullli. p. I7H. Vlloled ill Hohdi ... "Tlw :\lIglo-Saxon B"SI'"lht' III /I !{lIl/uplln/u." PuLli,hed as ,," gilldizzio dt·lla critica anglo"as","I!'." ill \Iicchidlf. /I f!al/upardu, p. ~ I H. l'lIfort IIl1alt'ly. tlli" pit"'" uf sdlOlar,hip dedical .. d (0 Ihis single film did not app,~ar ulltil aft"r I had l',J11lpl .. h·d lily mallll"ITipt. Theft·fort> I was unable to makt' full u"e of il. apart 1'1'0111 Bohdi,::; artid ... Ih .. ElIl!lish \1'['SiOIl of whi,'1t I happt'[wd to recei\'e ill
h i~ 01'1<'11 1101 appn'<'ialed ho\\ IlIlIdl dubbill;': <'all alll,,·t 111\1: ~ apl'reciatioll of a film. Ol\l:, illlpn',sioll of tI\I' l ... tillg. alld how ~lIbtll'til's ~I ... h a, social bad,!!rOllllll. n';,:i'I<'r. alld tOl\l' an' I·OIl\I'Y"'1. :(). St'rvadio. LlIchil/o 'isClJIIli. p. 17a. 77. Thi" i" particularly elllphatic ill thl' .\Illt'rinlll \I'r,ioll. III tilt' haliall \{'rsiol\. TalltTeJi play, a rol .. ill !!l'llill;': tilt' I'rilln' alld his train throll;,:h. :H. Thi~ i, partly hlTall,1' ill thl' fillll Iit' ,ay, lllallY thill!!' to dOll Pirrollt' thal ill till' Look an' jll,t prl',"llIed as hi, tholl;,:hts or a~ COlllllll'llts of the Ilarrator. Don FaLrizio'" superiority is I'lIIl'ha,iz,'d by lJIakill;': dOll Calo;.:cru allllo,t a dO\\"I\. :'1. TIlt' 110\1,1 <'Olllailb n'ft>n'nn'" to till' fUllln' IIt-;,:radatioll of tI\I' Sal ilia falllily. ~I ... h as WIWII the falllily anin', at Donnafll;.:aw: "For 1\I'\I'r Iwfon' wOllld 1\1' haw is,,lwd so cordial all illdwtion: alld frolll that 1ll0llll'Ill. illvisibly. bqwlI till' dl'dilll' of hi, pn'~ti;,:I'-- (TOlIl
i:J). HO. h i, a part of tI\I' art of llli, .. -t'II-~ .. i'Il" to lu' abl,' to Illakl' 'lIdl poinb. alldiovi,ual Ill,'taphor, wilhill tilt' dil';,:"ti,' world nl'att'd for tilt' filII\, For a per"I'plin' a(','ouIII of tilt' IIlt'tapllOrical u," of Illirrors awl pailllill;':s ill Till' Leopard. st'e \lillilTllt \lan'u<, Fill/ll/lakil/~ l~l'llIe LJook. 1'1'. S()-() 1. Ht. Lub.I·'. Tile 1Ji.~/ori('(//.\"(),.el. p. t'::. H:!. bhaghpour. I is('ol/Ii. 1'. :li. ~tl. TIlt' proportiollalll'lI;,:th of thl' hall ""'1ut'lIce ill tilt' :\lIl1'ri('all \'('J'sioll appI'ar, to han' escaped tilt' attl'lltioll of SOillt' "dlolar". \lillin'llI \Iarl'lls. for ,'xampl," writt's that ill tilt' lilllI', oril-!illal wr,illll tilt' sn'lIt' wlJllld ha\'!' Iiht,'d for a full hour of tilt' totallell!!th of IKi lIIiIlUIt',;. Ihu, ('olllpri"illl-! ollt'-thinl of tilt' whol .. (\Iarcus. Filllllllakirt,1! by lilt, Book. p. ;'):l ami I'll. :la). 1'\1"111'1'1. howl'wr. Ihat Ihe ball SI',\III'III'1' la,,,'d for a filII hOllr ollly ill th,' wry first \'('J'sioll. whidl was :!05 Illilllltl" lOll;':. III \'i"'Ollli' s OWII filial 1'111 (I HS lIlinll"'''), Ih.. hall ,('I'll" is shortn. y"1 il appears !,,'rfel'tly balalll'ed alld sali~fi\l'lory, III th .. .\.lIlt'ril'all \"I'rsiolllht' St''1IH.'IH·(' is ~llOrt,'r. hUI 1I0t as llIudl as 0111' would Ihillk. 10 jlld;,:" hy sOllll' t'Ollllllt'lItator~, What is Illurt' ~I'riolls is Ihal thl' order of ~Ollll' SI'I'III'S has appart'lltly bl'l'lI dlllllW'd for SOIllI' oh~(,lln~
rf"asolls.
Hi. C"IWIl,' . .\"arm/it't' Discollrs,'. p. t):!. H:i. \ow,'II-SllIilh. LIICilillo 'is('()l/li. 1'. 11 (J. ab. TOllla,o di Lalllpedu~a. TIlt' Leupard. p. 1Sol. H:. R.. IHli". --Th .. AlIglo-SaxolI Ht'SPOlh" 10 J/ ~a/lupanlo.-- Puhli~lH'd as "11 ;,:iutlizzio ddla ITitit-a all!!lo~assol\l"-- ill \licdlidH~. J/ Wt/lupan/o. p. :!:!:!. HH. LaCapra. lIisIUT:", Pulilics. (l1Il/11I" .\"ure/. p. :! I. Ht). ElIl'k,'11. -- 'Citizt'1I t..:all'" alld P,ydlOallalysi".-- p. :~;~. EtH'kdl"olldudl'~ hi~ an id" wilh a rl'ft'J'{'III'" to TIlt' Leupard. 1)0. Bico,'ur. 7i'1I1f' (tlld ,\""rm/ice, \'01. Ill. p. 95. 91. Sorlill. The Film il/llisltJ'~'. pp. I:U-7. ():!. bha;,:hpllllr. I is('(jl/li, p. ():!.
"Oil.:"
CHAPTEH ;~, "TilE FAMIL \" AND MODEHl\ ITAUAN SOClET\""
I. Stirlill;.! . . 1""(,("I'I'fI u/Tillll'. pp. 7. q: L'1/{:n'lup,'dia Hrilwlllica. S.\'. ··Viscollli.'· :!. Sernlt!io. LI/chiflu liscuflli. 1'1'.0. :!:!: tll(\'c!opt'dill Hrilllflllica. S.\'. ··Vi~· ('ollli.·· 0/ Time. pp. 7-9 . .... SernH!io. LIIl"hiT/() liscullli. pp. Ib-P. :!:). :l7. At least 011 tllI'st' maiu puim". Servadio' ~ atTOUIJt i~ ill a.-('ord with rhat of HOIIJolillo alld S('hifano . .). bhu!!hpollr. I is("(Jflli. p. 1:!9. 0. All ill\('ni('\\ with Lietla TOl'llabuolli ill L ·/-';lll'Ojll'o. :\pril 10. 190Q. Quolt·d ill S.'rvadio. 1,/I('hi'lf) I is(,(JIIli. p. 17. '7 Ellckdl. "SllItsahl'lI av ,'iscollti, rt'bit'IIl." Published ill EIIl'kt'!L Eko Ut·k illerskt'll. p. 7:i. X. Chl'khm', 1"1\1'1' to \("Yt'rhold. ()1I0\('t! ill Tullodl. ('/wkhul'. p. 108. <). Ser\'adio. LIIl"hi'/(J I iSl"oflli. p. 1;):J. 1(1. BnllwlIl'. illtt'I'view with SUSO CI,t'chi IL\lIIil'O. I I. St'rnldio. LIIl"hiflo I iSl"ullli. p. 15:3: Brullette. illten i,'w with Su,t) Cet't'hi n' Ami ..... pp. :) ...-:). I:!. \or i, Tullio till' fa t hIT of two oldl'r dliltln'lI. a, is tlu' prota~oJlist of D' AJlllllllzio' ~ 1I0n'1. u. Rohdit'. Huc('/) flI/(llIi.~ IJrul/wrs. p. :;:l. H. Stirlill;.!.1 Sl"r!'!'1I u/Tilllt'. pp. H7-B. IS. (bid .. pp. I ... X-;')I. t h. Quoted ill Hohdit'. Hucm I/l/cI lIis Bmlhas. p. 7L Origillally froJII Guitlo Gl'rosa ... L' odis~I'a .-t'lboria." Scherllli. 110. :!8. D,,('t'lIIlwr 1/)00. 17. Hondolillo. I i.H·Ullli. pp. :-l91-:l: Stirlill~. :\ StTI't'1I of Time. 1'1'. I:) I-:!. W. Clark . .\/udl'I'II 11116' J ~ 7' I-I!.),.,:!. pp. :3S7-9: Kugall .. 1 Pulilicul His/Of)' u/ 111.1 (l·. 1'. XO. P). Clark . .l/lIde/'lllla(\· 1~7'/-IIJ~:!. pp. :1h()-:!. :!O. SIirlillf!.1 S('("I'I'1/ I!( Till/I'. pp. I ... O-:!. :!1. Ari"tart'1I & (:arall.-illi. Ilocco I' i slIoij;·(l/I'/li. 1' .... 7: HUllti"lillo. I is(,(JIIli. p.
:3. Stirlillf!. 1 ""'T"I'II
:l()/J.
Stirlill;.!. 1 ,"'(,f'I'I'1I oI Till/t'. p. I-tO. \liIlt'r. ('olll'I'll'd P/(ly,~. p. :P(). (:('l't·hi I)' :\lIIit·o. illlt'f\"ie\\ with tilt' auth"r. It ,ltlluld Ill' lIo\t'd. how/'\"t'/". tltat this ,talt'IIIt'lIt "·a, ;!i\t'lI allll",t 11 qllartl'r of a "I'lItl1ry after tilt' (,\(,IIt. The pro!";!l1t' - tilt' titlt' "I' which \\ollld hm(' 111'1'11 "Jllotlwr" - \\·'!IIld ha\(' ,1t0WIl thl' fad,,· .. ', 1'lIrial at ,"a. th .. tuilllf IIlakill~ 11 li\ill;! ill tilt' sOllth. alld Ihe 1II0tlll'r !!idll!! Ilt'r n',bOIlS for tilt' 1'lIIif!ralillll (.\ri,tllrn) & (:araJlt"illi [,'d~.l. HOITU I' i Sl/ui./;·((iI'lIi. pp ..'):-h I). TIlt' I'rolof!l1t' wOl1lt1l'rolJably haw I'aralldl'd 1.11 "".,.11 11'1'11111 - \"i,cOllti ltilllSt,lf thOlI;.!ltt "I' /{()CCU a, dlt, Ilt'\/'r rt'alizl'd ,en,"tI ('l'i""lt' of Iltal filtll (ibid .. p. S:!). TIlt' t'ollll'uri,oll witlt tlw Ii\t' fillf!I'r~ of tlte Italld "pl't'ar, ill \'t'r;.!a·, 1.l/(I/III'Og/ill.
:.Ui . .\owt'll-SlIIilh. LIIChillu lisc()lIli. p. I();~. :!oh. :\ri~tar("() ~ Carallcilli. Il()('("() 1'1 i suoi Full'/li. pp. -i:. -i;). ;);~. "2? Ibid .. p. -it>. 2::1. \Iedioli. illtl'rvit'w with tilt' aUlhur. Collaboralioll IWIWI"'1l ,('veral
~tTC'I'II
writ('r~.
29. :Hl. :~ 1.
:t!.
:~:~. :~i.
:ti. :~().
wilh 11101"(' or I.·~~ all of tllt'lII ..... ·dill'd. i~ a fairly .·0111111011 pra .. lin· ill haly. wllt'r('as ill Ilollywood for ,·.\alllpl ... tllt'rt· i~ a It'II(I''lIe~ to en·dit ollly '1I1t.· or IWO ~""""II\\Til"r, al till' 1II0~t. irn·'I,,·elivt· of tilt' IHIIIl"t'r of .. ollahorators ..\ceordill~ to (:n·.·hi n· :\III ieo. il do.·s 1101 ilia"' ... if Ollt· of till' wrill'r, has cOlllrillllled 1II0n' Ihall tilt' OIht'rs. for wilhin till' illduolry ~lIt'h thillg' an' fairly ..0111111011 k lIowl.·d~l'. :\ristar.. o ~ Carallcilli. Hocco t'I i SIluiji·u/l'l/i. p. i;). SI't'. e.~ .. Ce ... ·hi 1)";\lIIi.. o. iIlH·n·it'w wilh Ihl' pn'~"1I1 aUlhur. Ori/!illally. Ciro wa, 10 haw had alllu .. h hig:,!!'r role. As a lradc' ulliolli,t. Iit' wOllld havt' r"ltrt·"·Iil.·d a ,oeialisl vil'w alld a I""il in' das, 1'01l~.·ioIlSIIt'SS. At SOIll(, ~Iag.· of writ ill).! tilt' "Tipt. il \\·a~ plallllt'd thal Iit' would h"cI/III(' all t'lItn·pn·lIt·ur alld sIart trallsportill~ oli,·.· oil frulll LunUlia 10 \liIall (Ari.,tarco ~ Ca nll ... ilIi. Hocco 1'1 i slIoi ji"tlle/li. p. ill: .\ow .. Il-SIlIilh. LII('ltilll/ liscullli. p. I(H: illlt'rvil'w wilh \"i".·Ollli ill '-;c/lI'r11li. 1)""(,IIII)('r 2tl. )<)hO. pp. :l:H -S. ,plOIl'd ill TOllt'lIi. Lllchi,w I (smflli. p. S;»). Rohdie pOilll~ 01I1 Ihat. ,illt't~ Ho.·l'o has jU~1 ,C'1I1 all hi, IIIOIIt·y 10 IlIolhc'r HlI~aria . .\adia pay~ for tllt'ir earria~.· ridc' allt! Iheir .. off,·t·. Ihu, re't'r,ill~ her rolt' as a pro,tilllle. Ther.. is added irollY ill Ihis. a, SilllOllt' ha., Iwt'lI g.·nill!! hilll".·II· ill tl'OlIhl.· ill ord.. r to ··afford·· .\adia (Hohdit·. Ho ..("/) and IIis Bmlhl'rs. p. :H). III tilt' ~tTipl publbllt'd by Cappelli. I hi" "n'w' i" lIIi"ill!! alld ill,lc'ad tllI'rt· is a lIluch "horter s,·ellt.· ill \Iorilli·" nlr. III EIl/!lalltllhis ,Cellt' wa~ ,·,·lIsurecl. wilh till' rt'~ult Ihal SiIIIOIIC' i, M"'II ,I ri\..ill~ her only OIlC'·. A.... ordill~ tu .\owdl-Smilh. I hi, only 111'11" 10 lIIak .. till' nlllrtil'r app"ar prt'lIIt'ditalt'd and .·olt!-bloudt·d (.\ow .. II-Smilh.l.ut"hinll I (Seunli. p. l:S). Hohdie. Hoc('() (/fulllis Brothers. pp. :ti-(). III th,' ,,("ripl ,;Ial-('·' Hu("("o had IWo other alt .. rHati,.·~ . .\ITordillg 10 OH" ~ •. ,,lIario. Ill' would hm·,· di .. d iH a lIIal.-lIIH"·1Iu,,· hi, phy,i.·al,·olblillllioll would UOI ha,.' IH'l'u suiled 10 J.tJXiHI-( .. \('('onliHf! 10 Ihe otl 11' r. Ilt' wa, 10 havl' ht't'u iml'ri"olll'd ilhll'ad uf hi,; brotlll'r. \"is.'OHli Ihouf!llI tilt' forlllt'r wa,., loo 1Ilt'1odramalic·. tilt' lalll'(" loo IIll'dwllind (ArislarCtl ~ (:anllll'iui. Hucc/) 1'1 i slIoi
FUlelli. " ..):~).
:r:,. Baldelli. I.llclti,/() I is("()"li. p. :.!U t). :W. TOlIl'lIi. Lllchinu I is(,(Jflli. p. t)O: A~ n'f!anb .\adia. al,o .\ow..JI-Smilh. 1.11chiflu I i.H·o"li. p. 1:h. :N. Bald,·Hi. Lllchi,w I is('()nli. pp. Itn-h. iU . .\owl'lI-Smilh. Lllclti,w lisco"li. p. IT:. S"ac·.· doc's uul allow lilt' 10"111.·(" iUlo an "xl"udt'd crili .. i'UI of Ih,'''' ,i.·w,: ,unic·1' il to ~ay Ihat. from a nll'lhpoiul of ,i.·w. I do nol Ihink tilt" 'l'w,liou of aUlhorial inl,·llIiou,., i, of prilllan ,.,i~uifinllH"(· iu a""·,,iuf! tilt' fiual" .... " ...... \\"hil.· tilt' .·hara,·II-r,.,
odolo~i.·al
llIa~ 1)(' m·,·rwhelllwd by III1~talgia. thi~ .. allllot automati .. ally Ill' takell l"\eD as riit' impli"d author' ~ stalld 011 this i,sue. 1I0t to ~peak of that of tilt' hi~ tori .. al author. :'iow,·II-Smith wrote this as all early propollellt of dill-structuralism. alld this prooably led him to put illordinate empha~i~ un allthorial illtt·lltiOlb. -+ 1. Ibid .. pp. 170-1. III the s"coll(l etiitiollof this work. tilt' treatrrlt'nt is extelld.. d to cO\"l'r /)I'al" ill II'flicl'. -+~. Aristarco. illtl'n'i,'w with the author. Also Pio Halddli thillb Uo("co is a \ allIaolt· nlllt rihllt iOIl to the t raditioll of Italiall 11It·lodrallla illaslIluch as it i~ all illstallt·,· IIf all origillally bourgeoi, cultural Ilt'ritagl' havillg found all 1".\pre,.;sioll iu a workillg-eias, cOlltext. III Balddli's opillion. tilt' film is at it~ weak(·,t whell it does Ilot stick to cOllcise melodnllllatic "vmbolism but lillgers ill lIalllruli,ti .. depictioll of till' t'IlVirolllllt'lIt (Baldt·lIi. LIIChillo Viscullti. pp. :'!OO-~O~). -+;t Hohdie. Hu("("/) alld lIis Hrol"!'rs. p. Sh. -+-+. Elsa!'sst'r. Tales o/Sowul amI FIll)'. Published ill \i.-ilOk .I/m·il's and Mt'fh-
oc/s . \"O/. 11. 1" 1H:>. -+.). Hohdil'. HI/cm (ll/(ll1is Hrolht'/'s. pp. ~;~--+. -+h. Ibid .. 1" :-)9. Hohdil' "ees this alld se\"l'ral oth!'r ft·aturt·" as Iwillg modded 1111 "\'erdiall opl'm.·· The audiovisual richlless"f Huccu - as well as that of mallY
otht'r \"i"COllli's films. or mall v other Italiall films. for that matter - call. ill a very. very gelleral s,'II,e. 1)1' nlllt·d "operatic" ill that it "ollveys to 1II0't fJt'opl,' tilt' idea of a "tyle dlllfactnized h~ l'x,·e"s. But spt'dfyillg it as oeillg \""nliall i" tlltally p"illtl""". \\'hat i" \""rdiall about tilt' grullts, s('("eams. alltJ the "ordlt'"trutt"J" u"e of otlH'r "OUlHb l' \Iu"i .. tlwatt'r of thl' 19()Os would Ill' a Illon' plau"il,f,· "'Hllpari~OlI. \'or dol''' tht' id"a that the "chapter,," ~hould Ill' cull,·d "ans" oecuu"t' they ··.·orn·"polld to tilt' li\"t· UCh of Italian grand opera. tht' trul' soun't' of Roccu.'· bt'ar critical ~tTutilly. Cra",1 opera with i., live i" a Frl'llt'h gelln·. and though Italiall ""lnpO~t'r" wrote them anti even had a major i"lIl1"w'!' in tilt' tlt'wlopmt'llt of the whule gt'lIre. they did ~o Illaillly for thl' Paris Opt:ra. rutllt'r thall tilt' stagt·" of thl'ir humt' ,·olllltry. The tiw-aL'l fonllat j,. a rarity amollg Italian opt'J'a. It i~ illdicati\t' that. when \'erdi wrote all Italiall nrsioll of his /)011 Carlu. Iit' r".tllt·t·t! it to four a,·.". (I writt' this a.' all irritatl'd oJlt'ra historiall. Ilot as a film scholar prl'tl'lldillg: to '·llgUgt· ill ~t'l'iou~ deltatt'.) \owl'lI-Slllith. LW'hillo I i'.~collli, p. 171. Prl'llti,·rga,," TIlt' On/er {!/·Jlifllt'sis. p. :t!. <)lIot('1I ill Stirlillg .. 1 ''''·cr(,I'1I o/Tifllt'. p. IHO. Origillal ~"""",, 1l0t nlt'lItiolled. \'iscollti n'l't-rrl'd t" illn~"t ,h tilt· la"t taboll ill IWltl.'m ,,,,·i.,t\. The tilt'lIle appl'arl'd al~o ill lltilt'r Italiall lilll" .. f that tim ... ~I/I'h as De Sica'" I st'questrali clillloll(J ('1'111' ,· .. ".1"111/11'.1 .. I' .\It .. WI. I qh~). Bt'rt .. lll .... i·~ Prifll(l dl'l/a ril'olu::.i(lflt' (Bd.. n· t hI' ft'volt" i.. lI. JI)()-+). alld B.. Il .... hi .. · s I /J/lglli ill I(ls('(/ (Fist ill hi,; po.. ket. JI)hl» (S.. hifall ... I is(,(JIIli. 1'1" :iH,)-(»). Lallrelln' Sehifallo ~1Ig:g:t'~"" that thi~ patt,'m IIlight ha\!' 1.... ·11 illlllll'llI'ed h~
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Arthllr ~Iiller'~ .Vier tIll' Fal/. whieh VbnHlli din"'lt'd lilt' "alii" y.. ar a~ ,';([11dm (S .. hifallo. I i.mJIIli. p. :~81). :\O\\'t'Il-SlIlill"/A(('lIillo lis(,(JIIli. p. I-H. III Creek IIlyllwlol!Y Psydw wa~ a IIt'Ulllifullllaid"1I lov,'d b~ Ero~ (:\lIIor ill HOIllall IIlylllOl0I!~)' lilt' adopl .. d SOil of ,\phrtHlill" B""aus,'11t' was imlllOrlal. he could nol allow her 10 ~t't' him and lhw; visill'd ht'r (Jllly by lIigh!. SIit'. IlOwnt'r. fearing lIWl her lonr lIIighl Le an 1I1,dy IIlOllsler. on,' nil!hl lil a lalllp ,0 a~ 10 ga;tt' al him a, he was ,It,t'ping, A drop of hOl oil dropp .. d Oil him and h,' tIed ill It'rror. For a lOll)! lillle P~yt'he look,'d for Ilt'r IlI'loved ill vain. 11I't'iIllSI' .\phrodilt' did 11tH apl'ro\'\' of Ilt'r alld lhwart,'d Ilt'r ,;,'an·l .. Fillallv. . howl'n'r. lilt'\'. wt're n'lIllilt'd ali
l..1i=.a/lt'llItIIl Plays) . SIIZilllIH' Liandral-Cui)!lws ha" POilll"d oul (Ll's illlllf!t'S dllll'lI/fJs. p. i:»). il i, difli .. llh 10 pla .. e (;ialllli', dl'alh 'Int)!)!I,' l'xa"lIy ill 11 ... dil')!l'lil' I ill 11' ,dll'IIIt'. It is fair 10 a"~III1H' tlliIl Iit' di,'d ill 1111' pn'\ioll~ 1'\ I'll ill)!. III allY I'a,,". whal IIlallt'rs is lh .. jllxlapo~ilillll "I' Ihi, wilh ~alltlra', 1II1'1Iill)! 111'1' hw'k hOlh 011 hilll alld 011 IIlt'ir 1I1111llal pa~l. .)(1. Th .. ,t' Itaw lWI'1I paill~lakilll!ly dtarl"d hy SIIZallIlI' Lialldral-Clligll"s ill IIt'I' Lt's illlap:I's till 1,'II//iS. ahholl)!h ,Iit' prd,'r, 10 lalk aholll n'fen'lIn's "11011" of whi('h 11a" lilt' roll' t'itllt'r of a ,Ylllhol or a IIl1'lal,hol''' (I" HP). 11 .. 1' book apl','art'll Ollly wlll'lI I \\a, aln'ady al'l'madlill)! tilt' 1'01111'/1'1 iOIl of lily OWII sllld~. allll ,o'l'an' dOl" 1101 a 110\\' 1111' 10 "1I11'r illlo 1'1111 t!ialo)!1I1' wilh 11t'r. I will. 1t0wI'n'r. illll'odw',' Ilt'low ,Oillt' or 111'1' 1I01ioll, lhal I han' fOllwlparlit'lIlarly 1','rlillt'II1 alld lhal Ita\,' 1It'II','d 1111' 10 d",,'lol' lily OWII \il'\\', ,-):, ~,'ill,'r. It'Xl 10 :\ldo (:ic"olilli', ('t"'ordill)!, ;)a. For a d"laill'.! allal~ ,i, of lilt' "'1' of tilt' 11I1I,i ... "'I' till' .-Ital'lI'r "L',:\idl'IIII'III" ill Lialldnll-Cllil!"'<' L,'s ill/alI"s rill 1"III/iS. Lia IIdral-Clligll,', "llIl'ha"iz .. , till' l,'nlar~ ,"'II"tun', "I' tilt' I'i,"'" a' I... ill)! l'andl,'l willl till' \ariOlh lriall)!lIlar pall"nl, 1"'IW""1I tilt' dtara,'I,'r,. I d" 1101 lilld tlli, "1I1ir"'~ ,'oll\·i,Willg a, tilt' \I'nlan '1\"It'I,'n'., "I' tilt' IIl1hi,' an' 1101 l'I'al" ",·id,'1I1 ill tilt' lillll alld. . h).
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abovl' all. are ill 110 way mappeo 011 tilt' trian~ular ~tructllfl'S of the ~t,,~ pallt'rtls. For t hi~ lalll'r oJ,~l'r\at ion I am. again ~ratt'ful to Liandrat-Guigu ..". whose ~ollrn' is II~radi\('. Fraw"e"ls, texte etablL traollit. comlllt'lJh~ par \\an'('1 (:0111'111'. coli. Epimethce. Pt:F. 19H6, p.:,n O. Athens is Oil the :iHth northl'rn latitude. a location wht'rt' part of l:rsa Major does actuall~ go lido\\" tlw horizon. Further north. it remains higher. Similar celestial gt'olllt'try It I'Plit'". of cour,,!'. to otht-r t'OIlStellatiolls as well.. but Ursa \lajor is tht- 1lI0st prominent and wt'll known (source: Astronomical Socit"ly L·r,.;a. IId,;inki). Car~aniga. Le()pllrdi. pp. I~ .... 9. 100 . \Oh. Schifallo. I iscollli. p. ;iH:l. Liandrat-Guigues points Ollt Ihat it also corn" spond" to l,aLdla' ~ coiHllrt' in D'AllllUllzio' s FursI' q"e si furs!' que no. p. 1Sh (Lt'S illla~es du tefllps, p. IH:!). ~owdl-Slllilh. Lllchi,w I i'sconti. p. 155. Liandral-ClliglWS. Les imuges £ill te",ps. p. :! ... 1. Translation by the author. ()ri~inally from Boult'z'" illlcrview. "Par I'u/untt> et par hazard." Entretien awe (:{>Il'stin Deligt;. Bd dll Sl'uil. 197:;. p. 0 .... Liandrat-Cuil!l's. '·\.o sl'intillo" in ""aghe ,.;tellt' delI"orsa .... " Publishctiiu Hrulli and Pravadt'llL Stl/di lisculltia"i. p. I:! 1. Villietl. I ism"ti. pp. 17:!-:i. Stirlillg. A Scrt't'f/ of Time. p. IHb. Baldt'lli. Lllchi,w 1I.5CUllti. pp. :!5 ...-;"i. Translation by the pre"t'nt author. St'rvadio. LI/chi"o I Iscoflli. p. IS7. Ikn('iwlllli. L/lchi,/() lisClJfl/i. p. {):'i. \Iario Praz. ('ofll'<'rsaliofl Piec('.~ (Lolldon II)? 1). s. :tt Vuoll'd ill TOlleni. LI/chi,/() liscoflti. p. 17:!. Praz is u ~dlOlar t'lIIillt'tltly ~uitt'd to illspire Vis· cotlli. :\'Tording tll Ale~sandro Betlcivt'nni: "With his charat'teri"tic diabolical It'vity Praz poillls Ollt mallY lillH'S the subtle and ll\orbid lit'~ that run Ilt'twt','n till' Soul (Anima) and its anagram. \Iania" (Hl'nl'ivt'Jlni. LlIChiflu I is(,(III/i. 1" (Ih) . Clark. ,\lodt''''' Ita~~' I., ~ 1- II} .,2. pp. :3B5-u: !..:ogall .. -1 Pulitical /lis/ory of 1111(\'. pp. :!:~(I- ... O. (:Iark. ,1J()i/afl lttl~~' /., ~ /-/1)"2. p. :3S;): !":ogun . . I/Ju/ilil'l/lllistory o/lta(I·. 1'. :!HB. This ('(-fl'r~. of ,·our~t'. to tlH' \I'rsion ('('ston-d aft.-r Yi,.,t·otlli·" dt-alh. E("d,-~ia"II-","': 1O. I, ",iu'IIIW(), \11\ '-IIII)('r:! I. It}? .... '111011'«1 ill Bald,'Hi. LI/rhiflo I iscoflli.p. :!(H. CIIAPTEH 4, "HSCOi\T\ :\:\\) (;1-:101.\:\\"
I. ~el'\adio. :!. H,id .. PI'. :L Ihid .. pp. .... S('hifallo.
l"lchiflll I i.~r()flti. pp .... S-... h. "'Il-? 110. P}:{. PI/) . I is(,(}fI/i. 1'1'. -tOO-... O 1.
S. Ibid .. p. ib. Originally in Ob.m"l"t'r. July 30. liP:.!. b. La Capra. /lislory, Pulilics, (I//(llh .. .vol'd !Jp. \09-70. 7. KiIllhell. I i'reli ill Ihl' ·IKI' (~(lI(lIi(/f1 /(oltlwllicislII. pp. 9-\,'). 8. ~Iiccih~. "\"i~conti t' It, ~lJ(' ragioni." Introdwtion to the puhlisllt'd ~tTipt of MoriI' u I ellt':;ia. PI" J3-S. 9. ThoIllas \laIllI \ spt'ech. "Ct'rmany and tilt' Ct'J"llIans." at tilt' LS. Library of Congrt'~s. \\"ashiugwn. D.C" \Iay :.!9. \9i5. Quott',1 iu Hamiltou, Tht' Brolhers J/wl1I. p. :3:i:.!. 10. St'f\adio. LllChillo fi·scollli. pp. PH. IlIb. 11. Stirling .. 1 :';crl't'Il of Tillll'. p. 191. I:.!. Ct'cchi D·.\lIIieo. iutervi,'w with tht' allthor. 13. Sehifauo. liscollli. pp. i08-9. H. Stirliug. A Scrl'l'fI uf Tillll'. pp. 19:.!-:t 15. Dill. Gt'f"II/(lIIY. pp. ;~ii-7. lb. Ibid .. pp. :.!9f). :i\u-17. 17. Ibid ... pp. :3i8-9. 18. Stirliug .. 1 Scre!'1l uf Tiltll'. p. Ill:.!; Dill. (,'''1"11/(/11.1'' pp. :H9-51. 11). Balddli. Luchiflo J[scollli. pp. :.!0:.!-:3. :.!O. Ibid .. pp. :!6i-5; HOlldolino. I i,~COllli. P!J. i8i-S. :! 1. .\n iIllt'rview with Lietta Tournabuoni. L·[uropt'o. April. 10. 1909. <,>lIoh'd iu St'rvadio. Luchirw liscullli. pp. i7-8. :!:!. Tht' !'wub cOllllt'eted with tht, littlt' girl are almo~t tht' ~aIll" as in \ik.,lai Sta\Togin'~ ("ollfes,;ioll in Dostoyt'vsky's The Pus.~ess ..d - ill a chapter that during it'> tillle was I'elbored iu Russia. Blit wherea~ Tihon. to wholll Stavrogiu I'ouft'sse" his ("riult'. n'prt'seuh at I,'ast ~onlt' kind of possibility of salvation . .\scht'nbach . with whom \Iartiu dist'lI~se" tht' t'ons!"IIlt'Ilt't'" of the dt'ath of the little girl. leads his \it'tiIII into a frt'e fall iuto the hell of ;\azi atrtJt'ities. :!:t Tht' way they have beeu ~hot. with SOp hie staring ahead and UnIl'kIllan lifeless ou the coul'h. corresponds to a dt'"cription of Eva Bralln ant! Ilitlt'r after they had wlIIlllitted "lIicide aftt'r their wedding (S,·hifarlO. I is("(mli. p. i07: TOlletti. Lucitillo li·scullli. p. U"7). :.!i. Lllkucs. Tit/' JIi.~loriCllI .\(}I'd pp. lOb-"7. :.!5. \lic('icIll;. for t'xample, writes: "the \azi sett in/!. ratilt'r thaIl detl'f1niniIlg the dimate of the family disiIltegration Ll('("()Ill(,~ a proi,'ction of it: all iIl all. rather than proposiIlg a historicizatioll of psychology it proposes a p~)Thol ogization of history" (\Iicl"i('he. "Visl'oIlti t' le sut' ragioni.·' puhlisllt'd iIl \Ii('ei('hf. priIltt'd bcript of Jforle 11 f i'lIe:;iu. ". 5i). :.!h. \"iscoIlti', original intention had IlI't'Il to liS" \Iahl,'r. .Ial"!"!' wa" forced OIl \'is(,OIlti by the produ!·er:;. aIld he was IlOt very happy abollt it: "Uruckmilnn tht' [,,,enbel'ks and .\"'henilach haw llothing to dn with [Doctor) Zhinlgo:' hI' said to Franco \Iallnino. "and .lane',; music pnw"t'ds t'xdllsivdy on thos,' line~." \Iannino. I i"scollli e /a fIIusic(J. 1'. i:l. :!7. IIa1lnll Salllli ha~ poilltl'd Ollt that oW' of the ways iIl which a film is ('odl'd to Iit' hi,toril'al i, through tht, liSt' of lOll/! ,hoh that n'n'al "id" laIld,,·alll".
\(111'
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:P. :18.
:N. -to. -t 1. -t2.
11l1!!" ~"t~. "r lIIa~~,'~ of p""l'le - tilt' Ilt'rot'~. the hi~tori,'al actur,. are tI..-n pick,'" out ill clo~e-lIp~ (Sahlli. Hokumja his/oria. pp. 225-h). It is lI()tahl~ that ill The l)wlIIlI'(/ Yis('onti ha, 10 a ~n'at exlt'1I1 relin4ui~hcd ~udl ~I>t".· la(,lIlar d"IIIt'lIb. C('org" Slt'ilwr ha" addre,,,,,d thi~ qllt,~tioll ill the t('lcvisioll program "\\ilh Care alld D,'sp,'ration" (produced hy :\OS-llolland): "What happens is tllI~: The cry of I\:illg LeaI' becolll"" louder alld lIlon' real allllmlll'(' importalll tllall till' cry ill the sln','t. If your hraill. your lIer\"ous ~ysteIll. your imagination. your ~ell"ibility. your prof"",iollal skills art' (,ompletely alld deeply in\"l'~tt'd ill tilt' gn'at art~ of the illlagillatioll alld ill ahstrw,t thought. "peculatioll. ill"tead of Lwt'ollling IlIon' hUlllllll. youlllay. uIII""s you an' terribly carrful. h.. COIIIl' le,,, hUlllall .... l'III"s, w,' filld a wa\" to traill tilt' heart -I dOIl't kilO'" how eis,' to put thi~ - to hUlIlanize the Iwart also. we lIlay han' this paradox of Hry hi!!h ci\"ilizatioll. which is feedillg illside itself th,' hUllger for barhari"llI 011 the Oil" halld awl the illtliff,,)"t'IIt'e to barbarislII 011 the other. So 11)('gall tryillg to ullder"tand how a lIlall who tortured ill a (;"stapo cellar ill till' aftenlOoll or 1lt'II't'd 10 filii :\u"dlwitz or BetsI'll. <'ould play \"ery beautiful Schubert ill tilt' e\cllillg. Alld the liberal altswer that ht' did 1I0t play well i~ a li,'. a lilwral li,'! I It- played it wry. wry well. How a lIIalt could weep over Hilke. alld tht'y did. Kllow Elegies hy heart and 11 IUS'; acre a ghetto." Sillyanl. Fillllillg Litem/ure. p. 12b. 0.11. Lawn'lwe quotation from "Thoilia" \Iallll." HIliI' Heriell' (July IlJ 1:1). Published ill Se/erteel Litera,.y C,.i/icislll (1I"il)('mallll Edut'atiollal Boob. 19b:). p. 2()S. Sinyanl. Filmil/l{ I.ifl'm/llre. p. IJO. \'is('ollli quotaliulI from S,'rvadio, LIIchiI/O I is("(Jllti. p. 211. !\owt'II-~llIith. 1.lIchll/o I iSC(}l/ti. pp. 2U2-:t This wa. wrillt'll ill I (P;3. In a foolllotl'. :\m\"t'II-SllIith \\Tilt's: "111 gl'lIt' ralI would arf!ut' (also for a hundred alld 0111' otl ... r rt'a.ollS 1I0t f!0 lit , illto ill this book) that th,' ~Iarxist artist. to be (,OIhi~tt'lIt. ha, 10 remove hilll"clf at "Ollle di,tallct' frolll the ~pllt're of n'alislIl. hO\\"l'\",'r ·tTiti,~al.· ill order to establish and \0 clarify his relationship with rt'ality" (ibid .. ". 20S). Sillt'!' tllt'lI. ~owt'II-SlIlith ha" (,(Hlfe,,!'d 10 bl'illg "a gn'at adminT of \"is"OIl1i's late filllls" (p,'r",l1al (,Ollllllllllil'atioll at the (:oll\el!llo illt,'rnaziol1al!' di ,t udi visrollt iani ill IlJ9-t). HOlldolillo. liscol/ti. p. -t9+ Hamiltoll . TIlt' Hrotllt'rs J/cll/I/. p. l-t:. HUllli!toll. Tht' Hrothers .lIar/l/. pp. H 7-8. \rilblull. TlwfII(ls .lIarlll. 1'1'. 2()s' 27:3--t. \ridH'. "Of Art alld I)('ath." 1" 2 to. !\Iallll. I)/'(/tll il/ I ('I/ice. ". 1O. Ibid .. ". :m. Ibid .. p. :{t). Ihid .. ". ():1. LaCapra. lIistmy, JJuli/ies. (If/(I the .\ord p. lIB. Ibid .. p. 11-t. Bordllllt,yt'r. Richard 11 aWHT. ". -t').
\OTL~
-t:~.
LaCapra. /lis/ory, Polilics. ({lid /he .Yo/'el. p. 1:.!o. -H. Waglll'r. Till' So/'('I ([m/lhl' Cillell/({. p. :H:~. i.').
it>. -t:.
-tB. -t!). .')0.
:l I. j:.!.
;')3.
;>i.
Boyum. DOl/bIt' f.:lj)()slIrc. pp. IBo-7. Hoger E. \ri,'11t" ,'xpres"t·,; a ~iJllilar view ill his anidt,. "Of .\rt alld Dt'alh: Film alld FiClioll Vt'r"ioll" of /)(>(llh ill I t'lIict'." p. :.! I:.!. :\m\.'t'II"Slllilll. Lllehi,/O I iscoII/i. p. 1')!). \Iiceidlt; lisls IIIt',,1' ill hi" t·x ... ·1I .. 1I1 illlrodlll'liolllo lilt" publi~llt'd "nip!. "Vi,,I'ollli e It' SUI' ragiolli." alltl adds as a lIilllh lilt' liasl'o al IIH' ,'OI ... t·rl halllhal i" fo/low"d by .\lfreJ·" iIlH·I'li\'('. Thi" i" a killd of lIighllllarish "ulmillalioll of holll lilt' \\alllliall alld lilt, \\ah\t'I'iall IIwlllt's. \'iscollli's illl"f\'iI'W ill lilt, puhlisht'd s.... ipl of /)('lIlh ill /1'lIicl'. p. I:.!I. Mallll. /)octor Fllllsllls. pp. t<>t-:! . Tht' di~('f't'pa1lt·y i" 1101 all('vialt·cJ by Ih(' facI 11 HI I a fraglllt'lIl of Oil" of .\,,dlt'lIha .. h·s lIIbWt'I'S 10 Alfrt'd is lak"1I ,lin'I'IIv from Oil" of \Iahl('r', "'"t'r" to hi" wift'. Alllla ~\aria ("Somt'lilllt'" I Ihillk Ihal arlisb an' lik,' 11I1I1I .. rs aillling in lilt' dark ... "). From lilt' pOill1 of vil'W of para lids 1lt'IWI'('1I dif .. ft'n'1I1 lil'liliou" .. harael,'r" awl n'al 111'1'''011''. il shoulJ be nOll'd thal ill IIH' 110\,·1 il i" tilt" Fau"liall chantl'lI'r .\driall LI'H'l'kiillll who t'XIHlIlIlds id,'a" abolll ,1t'"tlH'li,'s alld theology alltl who i" fa,cinall'd widl lilt' hanllollie sy.,II'm as a "ystt'lII of math .. nHttical ,'ombillaliolls (\\allll. /)oclor FIIIIS/IIS. pp. -to-7 H.). In Ih,' film. Ihi~ pOill1 is mad.. by .\11'1'1'01. Thi~ makl''' St'lbe. bill il furrllt'r "llIl'hasizt's Ihl' di"Tl'(HII"'y in having him at't'lI!:;t' .\sdH'nbadl of beillg "a kt'",,..r of di"laW't's." III tilt' 1I00d. it i" .\drian who has a "dislast .. for thl' 100 gn'al physieallleam,'"s of Iwopl,· ... lIe is "ill lil!' n'al "t'II,," of th" word a llIall of cJi"illdillalioll. a\oidall''l'. re",'r\'l'. aloofw'",," (ibid .. p. :.!:.!()). \Ianll. Dealh ill Vl'lIin'. p, :.!t), \'b"Ollli's illlt'nit,\\ ill th .. publislwd s .. ript. p. 1 H. \Ion' pn'ci",'ly. dlt, idl'a mighl han' bt· .. n 10 imilale a Iitt'rary eH,.,'1 Ihal LaCapnt dt·It,,·1S in /)oc/or F(llIs/lls. whi .. h Iit' st','S lb "writlt'lI ill ill It'll I iOllal parody of a 1"lInpolI';. stllffy. academic ~Iylt, 1101 lip to Ih .. t'Wllts il n'lalt'S alltl lilt' problt'm~ il In'ah" (LaCapm. /lis I1)/') '. Pu/i/il-s, wul/11t' Sord p. 1S.')). Sillyard ha" crilicizt'd Ihe lI~t· of lilt, Adagil'lIo. which ill hi~ Opillioll "1101 ollly ... lo,.,t'(~) much frollllwillg \\Tt'lIl'hl'd 0111 "I' il~ "Olllt'xl. ""t'lIIillg 1I100't' ,t'lIlilllt'1I1a1 allJ t'art'wt)fJ1 IImll il at'wally is wht'1I heard ill tilt' fu/l "),111pholli" arglllllt'IlI.·· lit' al~o Ihillks tllal "Ihl' Fiftll SymphollY ilS,'lf .. harl~ a 1II00I'II11'IIt frolll lrag"dy 10 Irilllllph. frolll darkllt,ss to Iighl. whi .. h 011" '-011 Id argllt' i" ,'xat'lly Iht' fl'\'t'rM' of whal haPI"'lb ill /)1'1l11i in I i'nice." Thi,.,. Sin .. yard dlillk,.,. is '-'Tippling 10 lilm dWI prides ih"'f Oil its cllhllralrt'iillt'lIIt'lIl" (hlmi,,!! Li/em/lln'. pp. 1:'!8-<)). \( ,-ollld. howt'\t,f, Ill' argut'd thal tilt' hlllt. lOo. i~ abouI a progn'''''' IowaI'd liglu. lighl as "OIl"lIl11illg a" tilt' appt'aralH'I' of Zt'lb 10 Sellll'lt,. TIlt' IHllllt' of tht' prO"lilUlt' (a" ,,"'I a" of tilt' ,.,hip 011 which ,\"dll'lIhadl arriv\',.; ill Vellin'). E"'IIH'ralda. rd,'r, 10 a "illlilar "'larat'lt'r ill /)uc/ur f(/IIs/lIs (PI" H:.!. l:l-t-()).
:),) ..-\dapt{,d frolll tile Dn'il" S slwt'dl to Adriall Lewfkiillll ill \Iallll' ~ Due/or FallstllS. p. :!:!"7. 5u. \Iallll. f)l'o/h ill Il'lIicl'. ". :!(). One wOlldl'f~ Will'ti](,f these views might ha\ .. he('1I illfiut'II("1'd by till' Pl'Odllctioll stills. which gin' a wholly diffefellt idt'a of tlU' r/t'gn'(' of explicilllt'ss of th{> gazt'~ l'xchalllZf'd betweell Aschenbach al\ll Tadzio thall the fillll ibclf dot's. Thi, efft'ct could ha\"{' heell stff'll!!:thelled by tilt' ubiquitOlbllt'ss of tilt' pictllf(' of :\sdlt'llbach alld Tadzio passing t'ach otlwr. the fOfllwr with his back toward tilt' audil'IIt'e and the lattef lookillg illtl'lIl1y at A"c/lt'lIhadl. It apl't'ars. for examplt'. 011 the cover of the second editioll of \ow{,II-Smith', book on \"iscollti. ;};. At 0I1t' poillt. :\sdwnhach follows Tadzio',; family along a law' hy a c1.alllll"l thilt aI'P"ar" to be tilt' sallu' Oil{' Sl'ell ill 81'IISO, alollg which Frallz pur,ue, Livia. Tlw diffen'lIce bl'twet'lI tilt' t'rotic simlllt~rinlZ in that film and the pallor of IJl'ath ill I ('lIicl' is disturbillg. ;)8. Sill('t, :hdlt'nhach. ,,0011 after th .. llI'ginllillg of thi" "equ/'Iwt'. mows to pellcil sOIlH'thing 011 papt'L it has Iwell sugge,tt'd that lit' ha, cOII<'pived the mu"i .. WI' Ilt'ar ill his milld alld 11I'oct'pd" 10 write it dowlI. Thi, parall('1s the Iwrtl of the IHlvl'lIa. wllt'lI hI' "uddellly feels the ur/!,' to wrift, all articlt' "011 a qUt,,,tioll of aft alld taste" (Mallll. Dell/h ill 1('lIicl'. p. is). ;)9. \Iallll.lIlWls/ mll Platell. Pllblislwd ill \IUIIII. Leidl'fI 1111(1 G,.OSSI' del" Meis/1'''. p. 1;3S. Trallslatioll by tht' Pft'';1'1It author. AIIIOllg Ihe COllllllelltatofs of \" isconti" s film,. \/iccicilc. I'Of 0111'. has ust'd tilt' 4uotation. uO. Isilaghpollr. I iscolI/i. p. I;)i. b 1. St'fvadio. Lllchi//(J I iscuII/i.pp. :!OS-(): Stirlillg. :1.'i("f"t'I'1I v/Tim/'. pp. :!2-l-5.
:!:P. b:!. HOlldoliuo. I isc()lI/i. p. ;):!O: Stirlillg. _-I .'i("f"I't'1I 0/ Tilllt'. PI" :!:m-i 1. 1):3. (:t,.-.. hi O' Ami.-o. illll'ni .. w wilh the author. ()-t. Slirlillg .. -1 Scrt't'lI v/Ti/l/I'. p. :!-ti. 6;). (:I'('chi D' .\mico. iUIt'fVit'w with the author. bb. \lI'IT{'. Llu/wig 1/. pp. 10- I:!. :!:!-7. 3i. ();. Ibid .. pp. ;)1). tJ;)-{). b9-?S. Sb-S. ha. Of Pm"",ia' ~ t'ut'lIIies. AlI,tria was ~\J(TI'ssful 011 il~ odlt'r frolll. m its war agaillsl Italy. Sell.w rt'ft'fs to rhe,,!' ('venls from Ihe Italiau side. h9. Dill. (.'",./1/(///.1'. PI" 139. 1-t5: I-Ien·t'. /,Ildwi!! 1/. pp. :! 19: :!:!J--t. 70. Ht'lTe. LI/(III'(u; 11. pp. :!?O-:!. :!IJ:!-:I. 21);. ;{;")5-9. ~ih:!-;{. 71. ibid .. pp. :P5-o. ;PIJ. 7:!. The ~hortt'r \t'r~ious COli lain proportiollally fewer "tatl'llIt'lI'" thau the rt'('ollstflwtt'd \'{'r,iou aud tht' iml'ortalll ol'euillg slall'lIl1'lIt. for I'xalllpl('. is lIIi""iug. lu"h""1. after the nmmatioll. Ihen' j" a ,n'u(' ill which Ludwig's ,,'n'allt COIllt'S 10 :\eu"ellwalbteiu wilh Ihe ult's"agt' Ihat pt'oplt, an' cOllliug to aIT{',t duo kiu!!. This is so abo ill duo prillted s.-ript (I" 7:!). bUI ill tilt' rt'cOIlSlflw\('d \"t'rsioll Iili" ,,"{'II{' is phwt'd iu chrollological S{'qlll'IWI'. 7:l. Thl' uumes of tilt' willlt'''~I''' at tilt' illtllw"t an' 1101 gin'lI. bUI "01111' of tlu'lII iutroduce tlu-Ub""-{'" alld ~ t'l otlwr" ,'all IH' id{'lItifit'd ,b dlt'y appear ill tilt' st
\()TL::-
bhaghpouf. I iSCUllli. p. HO. \1.11111. /)oc/ur F(lllSlu,~. p .... 30. \lallIl. "The Sorr()w~ alld Cralldt'lIr of Hidwnl Wagllt'r." Prillll'd ill .1/(//111, Pro alld ('olllra 11 awwr. p. 1:!,,). ..,.., Mu~it' wa~ playt'd ill lilt' grollo ill Llldwig', liml'. hili lilt' at'ClIl,lic, WtTt.' appallillg. :11. Phillip~ n't'Ol'tlillg uf Ihl' \Iusit' for LlId/l'ip;. III hi~ hook. I is(,(JIIli I' lalllll,~ica. Frallco \Iallllillo says Iit' heard ahout tht,,,t' thirtt't'lI bars for piallo from To"l'aJlilli ill 19... ;). who had di"t'O\en'd 1Ilt'1II wht'1I 1)(' had n'qllt',tl'd to Sl't' the origillallllallllscripl of Parsiji,t iu Bayrl'ulll. \Iallllillo had sOllle prohll'lIIs iu gt'lIillg hold of lhe llIu,k ill timl'. but at'l'onliug to hi, fahllloll~ atTOUU!. il turlll'd oul dWI Suso Ct'tThi I)' Amit'o'" husbaud. Fpdt,ll' I)' Alllit'o. Iwppt'upd to ha\'e a photograph of lilt' "hct't wilh ib thirtt't'u bars (pp. "'()-:)()). TOIlt'lIi. Lllchi(1O I is('ullli. p. \;')9. HOllllotillo. I isconli. p. :)OH. Se\t'ral H'J'~iOIl" of this lIIutilah'd lillll are ill cirt'ulatioll. at Il'asl Ollt' ill Ct'flllall (UO llIinu\t',,). alld UIIl' ill Ellglish (1:)0 IIlilllll('~). TIIt'~ an' badly "Irut'tured. havl' 110 rh\'lhlll. alld art' I'H'II sOlllt'wlwl diftil'uh 10 follow. CHAPTEH .'i. "\,ISCO:\TI .\S A:\ II\TEHI'HETEH OF ELHOPE.\:\ LlTEHATl'HE" 1. Stirling ...j Sef'l't'lI v/ Time. p. 3(). :!. \Iaurois. TIlt' ()lIesl/iJ{' Proust. p.
W().
:3. Ibid .. p. oH . .... Ilellllnillg". "Hl'alislII aud IIH' :\O\t'l: Tht' Eiglllt'/,lIlh (:l'lIll1ry Bt'gillllillg"." Prilltl'd ill 1Il'III111illgs (1'<1.). Tht' .·Ip;f' o/Ilt'lllislll. p ....:3. S. Hl'Il:li. tilt' publi"lwd ,nipI of Lt' (wlli hiw/CIII'. ". 17. h. \Iay. Stl'udhal allll lilt' Al!t, of :\al'olt'oll. p. h .... ..., Berlill. ":\It'xaJltler lIer:lell." Published ill Ber/ill. Ullssiwl Thinkers. ". I W). S. Lukut's. Habf/(' /IIu/ lIt'r /inllzosisdlf' ll('u/isfll/Is. p .... 1. TraJl,lalioJls 1'1'0111 this work I,,· lilt' author. () lI,id .. 1'. "':!. 10. Ibid .. 1" :):3. 11. Prt:'lIder~a:;l. nll/zll/'. pp. 1HO-I. I:!. 'bid .. p. Ht~. 1:3. Elli,. "Tht' LillTary .\daptatioll." 1" J. 1.... ,\lIdt')'~ou. CaroIYJI. "Fillll alltl Lilt'raluJ't' ... III Edgt>rloll. Filfll /lm/ Ihl' Iris if/ ''''\fllhiosis. 1'. 1)1). \.'). Ihid .. ". "7"7. I h. 'bid .. 1'. 7:{. 17. Sillyanl. Filmif/p; Litl'mllln'. p. It:. I H. Bahi:ls. T!1<'()ry t{11t1' Filfll. p. :!00. 11). Ibid .. 1'. :!h .... :!U .. \lIdrt'w. ('Of/CI'/JIS ift fi'lfll T/W(),.y. 1'1'. ()()-g.
:2-H :.!l. Ibid .. pp.
27.
:29.
:m 31.
:):.!.
:t3. ;~S.
:W. :N. -+0. -+ I.
-+:2. -+:3.
-+-+.
()~P).
Ibid .. pp. 99-100. Ibid._ p. 100. Ibid .. p. J O:t Ibid .. p. 105. Stl'illt'L ..ljit'T Babel. p. -+00 . .-\ristarco. SII I i,H'Oflti_ p. 2:2. BrlllH'lIa. iutt'l-vi('W with the aUlho ... Isha!!hpou ... I iscollti. pp. -+J-S (rl'ferriug particularly to a ~ta(('JlIellt by .\utonioni). Ellckdl. .. -Citiz('u I>.:ane· and PsydlUanaly~is'-' p. ;33. (:ecchi I)" .-\mico. inlerview with Ihe author: Stirling_ .1 Scrt't'lI u/ Tilllt', pp. I Jo-7. Stirlin!!_ .1 Sat'!'1I 0/ Tillle. p. U-+. Ihid .. pp. I :2:3_ US. B.'nl"ivt'J1ni. LW'hill/) iis("(Jflti. 1'. -+ I. The l't'rfonnallCt' is Iwant lJt'ginlling fronl HosiJla' ~ lillt': .. :\ow Ii~Ien. huw collld I !!,'I a IIlt's~a!!e throll!!h 10 Lindoro'-' .-\ slight hllrsI of lallghler at Ihe eml of tilt' (filmic) ,.·,'ne indinl1t'~ thal Hosilla ha~ taken Ollt th .. leH!'r sht' has wrill,'n. The line '1lIotl'd ill thl.' non,lIa occllr~ jllst befort' thi:;. :\ow,'II-Smith. LIIChillo I iscollti. p. 1:!7. It is illlt,ft'~ling to comparl' \" i"conlj' ~ interpretalion to Brl.'s"on· s adaplation of tilt' If hite .Yights. (hwtre fluits du 1111 rt'I'!'lIIlr (1 (71) is placed in modem Pari" and ih "Iyit- i" plain and ~lI!!!-(l'~IiH'. Till' I!irl. nalll!'d :\larlhe. i:; y"iel and ~tahlt· in l'olllpari"on with :\atalia. Thl' "llIaJIII'"'''' of I\('r lovl' lies in hl'r stubbortlllt',,, ralhl'r Ihall in rumanti,' illu~ions. \'i' hen ~hl' rl'encounters the tt'nant and forsake, Jat'ljues. the effl't't. in ils .'n-rydaYIH'''s. i~ It,,;s poignant than in \" i"cont i' ~ version. Jat'yw':; b nlOre willlllrawn aJl(llllore of a drealll!'r Ihan \!ario. III Bres~oll- ~ film. fe('linl! I'mergl's throll!!h an extraordinarily lacitunl and IhllS super/Jly ~en:;itiw slyll' of actin!!_ It I('an-" a lot of scope for Iht' 'p.-clator to a"sI'S, till' ,illlaliun and to project hi:; or her own feelings iIllo it. \\'hil" \ist'olili tak,'s hold of Do~tlJyl'v~ky' s ~tory by fantastic :;tylization_ Brt's~OII dOI'~ ,,0 Ihrollgh restraint. Canllb. nit' Strwlw'r. p. 9(). Ihid .. pp. S2-:~. Ihid .. pp. :.)-tl. III till' ft'al Fn'lwh :\I!!l'ria. il b ulllik,'ly thal a Europ"an would han' 111'1'11 ~t'lItt'lw,'d \0 dealh for killill!! all Arah. particularly a" il I'ollld han' IW"II .'xpJailll'd a wa y a, ".-If-,lt-f.'lbt'. (\It-Carthy. Calli 11 s. 1" \()o: Thody . .. l/b!'rt C(lIIIIIS. p. -+ 1). (;alllu,;_ The ...,·trangt'/'. p. J:>-+. \It-CartlIY. ("WUIlS. p. :0: Thody_ .tllwrt CII III liS .. PII. W-J<J. The opiniolls "xpn's~l'd aft'. rt'sl't,,·ti\l'ly. from lA' Fiw,ru IJillhnire . .Il1ly 17. 19-+:2; .\"UII1'1'111' /let'IIt' Fnll/("lIisl'. (ktol ..... 11)-+:2: alld IJ '\n-lw 19-+-+. I>.:l'de. Frellch Ldstl'lltialist Fictiun. I'p. :~:2. 78.
-+S. I, ·tsjJrl'ssIJ. '\oVt'lIllwr 7. JI)():i. <)lIolt·d in \"illiell. I iscoII/i. p. 177. tnllbl(l-
-+0.
-+7.
-+8.
-+t). SO. SI. :i~.
S;t ;j-+.
;).).
:it). ;)7.
S8. :il).
tion by the pre~l'nt author. Pi/od r/Oir. or "black foot:' i~ a nickname the Arah~ gave to the Frellch. ('uhiers dll (·i'lI'ma. 110. 171. <,hlOted ill \"illiell. lisCtlllti. p. 177. Baldelli. LIIChi1lu lis('Ullti. p. ~S7: Stirling .. 1 Scre ..1I uf 1'illll'. pp. 187-8. According to Stirling. \"isCtJllti intended tu tell the stol~' as reflected throllgh the Algerian war and by IIsing as additional material (:allllls' s article" of thl' II)SU~. thlls takin/! illto (,(H1sideration that tllt'y w,'n' lIIakinl! a film for an ilIlI\ielll'" tllilt was aware of how thing~ had develuped ill .\Iw'ria aftt'r (:aIIII1S'S death. AI:-.o. BClldelli elllphasizes the idl'a of taking into accoullt the chan!!e in tilt' historical awan'IIt'~". awl \Iict·idle. in hi:-. LIIChi1lo I Iscontil'n prolilo (Titico, 1II,'nt ion.' tlli~ a" \' i"I'onti'" pronoun(·,'d init ial intention (p. 37). According to C('IThi D·.\lIlico. howt'H~r, "Iit' awl Visl'onti "I\t'wr planlled to IIse Camus' articies. or to add [reft'ren!'t's to the) political situation. as n'lalt'd to the .-\ll!erian war." The freedolll they wanted was n·lated mainly to th,' fact that they were primarily making a film for tilt' Italian audielll't' and that \Ia"troiallni \\'olrld play Ih(' part of \I'·lIr"alllt. Tllt'y al~o wallted. for I'xample. to opell tilt' film with tilt' trial ~",'IH' and to put "a strong aCI'(,11I on \It'ursalllt'" bdla\iollr a" ,,('t'n by thl' jlldg('. tilt' prie~t '·tl· ... l'lIfortunatt'ly tilt' first draft for tilt' s('fipt i" lo"t (a It·ttl'r in n'ply to tilt' author. JaIllHII~·I). II)I)()). I ... "10 11 de. February I~. 1'17 I. <)lIot,'d ill \' illit'll. I i.mlll/i. pp. 177-8. '1'1'1111"lation from Italian 11\' Ihe alllhor. ('iru!TIIl1to!{ruplll'. 11. 10:-1. "ettt'IIII)J'('-ottobrl' II)~H. <')lIoted ill \'illi"11. p. 178. \Ion'i"sette . .\'01'1'1 (l1Id Film. p. 108. \kCarthy. ('(/f1lIlS. p. 1SIl. Ihid .. pp. 15:t I.S.S. Ibid .. pp. ;,t!?-8. The lilm has its lIotablt, admirers. thollgh. III his .\lII/·ie IITld I idco (;/lidl' (1l)1)()). Leollard :\Ialtill ~iH''' The "';/ruflg..r a ratill~ of thrl'I' alld a half ~tar" (tlf{' maximllm is fOllr) alld wrilt,,,, "Ex('('IIPllt adaptatioll of ;\Illt'rt (:alllll~' exiSh'lItial lIon'l abollt a lIIall who f"t,l" ('oml"t't,'I~ i""latt·d frollt society. \Ia~troiarllli i~ (It'rfe('tly ('ast ill It'ad.-- :-;h'\"('1I 11. Sdll'llt'r llIakt" a ,illlilar a~Sl',,~mt'nt in his I!lIitll'. Both pall I.lu/wig. hilt Ilt'itllt'r ha., S,"'II thl' n,,,ton'd \'t'r,ion. \It'dillli. illlerview wilh tilt' alllhor. rillielL / is('ofl/i. (I. ~Ol): Rondolillo. / ist'tIflti. 1" -+:X. TIlt' infllrmatioll ahollt tilt' ('a"I diffl'r~ slightly in tilt' \"arillll~ ~OIIlTt',. Ct'('dli D'Ami('o. illter\"iew with tilt' allthor: S,'nadio. L/lchi,w I is(,(lTIli. pp. ~OO-~()1. For Llbt'Y'S sid!' of tilt' affair. ,,',. Call1t'. j()sl'ph t(}.w:\·. I'p. TP-+~. The a"(,Ollllls difft'r Oil ~('\,'ral millor tlt·tai"'E.~ .. HOllllolino. I iscoflti. p. -+7:i. ElIl'k .. 11. "SIII"'at"'1I a\" \'is(,(lIIti, Hebit'IIL" Pllhli,lwd ill Er ... kdL f},.-o lIrk dterskl'fI. p. ;) I. Trall~lati"II' fronl thi" work an' fly tilt' allthor.
Filmography
The stawlard Engli~h naml' i:; ~i\"f'1I after tht' original titlt' if tlw film ha:; 111'1'11 I'ollllllerciallv di~triLlltt'd ill (;n'at Britaill or tlw [-nitt'd Stall's. TIlt' duration given is that of the longe~t known standard n'rsioll. Whell tilt' duration of the version availahle for this sllIdy i, slltJrtt,,,, it is indical!'d in pan'IIt1lt's,'". The main source: Rondolino. I i"s('oTlli.
l XE PAllTlJ:: [)E (,AJIPAG.\E / A HA Y IN THE COllNTR\' fJirl'clor: Jean R"lIoir Assislalll IJireclurs: )'\'Cs AII~gn't. Jal''1w's Bt'l'ker. .lal''1I11'" B. Brullius. 11t'lIri
Cartier-Bres"on. Llu·hino \'isl'onti SUllrce: Cuy cll' \Iaupassant' S IlOn'lIa. I 'fll' /)(Irlie lil' calli/mwit' ,";crip/: Jean Rl'noir Uirl'clor of Pholography: (:Jautif' HellOi ... jean BOllrgoill Edilor: \largut'rilt> Houlc-Renoir. \larillt'lIe Catiix COSIIIIIII'S:
LUl'hino \'isl'omi
,\lusie: Jost'ph 1\:0sIIIa Prudllctiofl ('OTllPUflY: PalldlC;lHl PruciuCI'r: Pierre Braunlwrg Actors: Syh-ia Batailll' (I klll'il'lIe). CI'orges Sailll-Sai'lIs [C,'or/.(I':; Darnollx
1
(lIf'nri). Jal'yuI's Boft,l [JanJllt's B. Bfllllius 1(Rodolpllt'). JealllW \larkl'lI ('Iadalll(, Dllfllur). CaLriello (\Ionsil'ur Oufour). Paul Telllps (:\lIalole) First Pt'TjiJrTIIlllu'l': Francl'. \lay H. II)'H) Leflglh: I.:.!:t! III IJuratiofl: -to lIlin lA TOSC,J IJirl'ctor: ].-all Helloir. (:arl h:ol'il ().lwhiIlO \'i"t'ollti) SO/lrn': \'il'turien Sanlou' s pia\'.
fAI
Tu,w'u
IlL \1 () C H _\ I' 11 \
:';;cripl: .Jeall Ht'lloir, Carl Kot'h, LuchiIlo \'i,;eollli IJire('/ur u/Phllto!4nt/J/iy: l'baldo Arala Edilur: Cillo 8ft'loll\' ,HIlSic: CiHl'UIIIO Puct'illi: Adaplalioll: l'lIIlwrto ~lalldIli Per.1ill'lllI'l's: \Iafalda Fan'rn, Ft'lTllccio Ta;..:li,-illi Productiun ('lIfllpllny: Scall'ra Fillll :lelors: IlIIpt'rio :\r/!t'llliIla (To,;ca), \lidlt'l Sillltlll (Snll'pia), Ro,;saIlo Braai
(Ca ,aratiozzi), Carla Calldilli, J lIaIl Caivo,\driallo Hillloldi. :\icholas Pt'rchit'ol Firsl Pl'rjimnllfll'I': Pari~, ,\II;":II~l :W, IIH:!
Direclor; LllchiIlo ri~('tJIIli .hsistllflf lJireclors: Cill~t'ppt' Dt' Santis. :\IItoIlio Pit'tralll!eii JaJllt'~
.'lUll rcI':
Script:
L.
\1. (:aill',; IIme!. The Poslnl/lfI A/II'(I,I'S ilifl!4s TlI'ice
ri~('OIlli,
\Iario :\lieala,
C;ill~t'Plw
De Salllis, Gialllli Pllt't'illi
lJirec/or (~( P/wl0!4,.,lph.I': Aldo TOllli. Domt'lIico Scala D/ilor: \Iario St'ralldrd S('('nt'f~ ':
Lillo h'illlzi
C()slllflllis: \Iaria Dt' \Iallt'i~ J/(lkellp~
.\lIwrlo Dt' Ro~~i
J/llsic: Cillseppt'Rosali PI'rj'onnprs: Ft'l'Ilalldo Previlali. bar' ~ SymphollY OJ't'he~lra Prodll('(ion C()fllp(lny: IIItllI~lri{' Cillt'uHiwgraliclil' ltaliallt' (ICl) Producer: LilJt'w Sularoli -I('(ors: {:Iara (:alalllai (CiO\lIllIla Bra;..:ana). \Iassilllo (;irolli (Lino ( :osta). Juan
De La1111a (CillSt'PIIt' Bral!ana), Dhia Crisliani (Allila). Elio \Iart'u~o (LoSpagIllltllo). r i llorio Du,,(' (pia indol hes polit'emall). Midlt'll' HiccartliIli (don ReIII i;..: 0 )~ \lidlt'lt, Sahara, Firsl PerjiJrrtIIlfU'I': Ft-rrara. ltal~. \lay 1,?, Il)i:j Lenglh: ':~,I):!:3 Dum/iun:
III
t:G lIIill (I:!i lIIill)
(;IOII..YI [)J GLOmI (IH \'S OF GLOHY) If'elmica/ ('lIun/irmliuu: \lario Serant.in'i, Ciusl'Plw
De
SilIIli~
Directors: \lan't'lIo Pa;..:lil'\'O (Fo,,,e .\rt.it'aliIle). LlIt'hillo ri,collli (Ihe IYIIchin;..:
of earn-tla alltl tilt' trial alltl (-XI'ClltiOIl of Caruso) l'llIiwrlo (:alo,so, l'miwrto Bad.ar". ('ofllfllenl(//~': l'lIllwrto (:alo~~o IJirec/or (~/P//()I()~TI/phy: Dt'lIa ralll'. Of' \\'(', .. Di Yt'lHtlIZ" . .Iallllan'lIi, La,lri('ofllff/eflt(/f~' 1'1',1'/:
FII.\\(H.H.\PII ,
cati, ;\lavaI'm. Pllcci. Heed. Terz1.I1I0. Yelltillli/!li1.l. \\t>rdit'J". Yittoriallo. \11.I1IIio. {:aloz allo the tedlllicalpt'rsolllwl of tht, !\lilall CL:\" I,'ditor: 'tario St'J'alldrei. (:a.-lo Allwr\o (:hil'sa Music: Costalltillo FelTi Production ('ompany: TitallllS Producer: Fllhio Hieci First Pt'fi0rtl/w/ce: Italy. (kto!!t'r 19-t,) I,ength: l.1J;)() III
LA. TEHll.t TII1--]IA. / THE EARTH TREMBLES 1Jirt'ctur: LIIChillo Y i~collti Assistant /Jirectors: Frall(,l'~('O RIl~i. Frallt'o Zl'ffirelli Suurce: Ciovalllli rl'rl!a'~ IImt'!. I,HIl/lIl'ogli(l Script: LIIChillo \" is('olll i Commentary Ti:'.J:t: Luchillo Yi~collti. Alltollio Pit,tl'aIl;!..Ji ('ommt'lIlary: \lario PislI /Jirt'clor of P/wtownpliy: c. H. Aldo [.\Ido Craziati] Editor: \Iario St'ralldrei Coordinatiun (d'J/u.~il': Luchillo Y is('Ollt i. \\. ill~ Ft'ITI'rO Production (·ompan.,·: l'llin'rsalia Producer: Salvo D' AIl/!elo Acturs: Thl' Iwol'le of A('i T n'zza First Pt'fiOrtlUlIICt': reil in' Ft"tint!. Italy. SI'ptl'lIliH'r l. 19-tB Lt'n{!lh: -t.5:2:~ III /Juration: 1<>0 mill
/Jirt'ctur: LuchillO Yis("(lIlti .4ssisl(/lIl/Jirt'clors: FralH'l'sco Ho~i. Frallco Z.'ffirdli Script: SII~O Ce('chi D'Amit'o. Fralln'~co Hosi. Llldlillo ri~collli /Jin'ctor o/P/lOlogmphy: Pi.'ro POrlalllppi. Palll HOllald Editur: \lario Seralldrl'i SceTlery Cialllli Polidori ('oslumt's: Piero Tosi J/akeup: Alberto De Hos,i Music: Frallco \Iallllillo 011 till' tlWIIl(''; of I, 'LIisir d~4f11()r(' bv Caetano DOlliz('1I i PI'rformers: Frallco Ferrara alld till' SymphollY Ordwstra of tilt' HOI/I(' Opera Ilou~l' IOgt,thl'r with tlH' ordll',tra alld choir of HAI Producti()TI CompaTlY: Film Bt'!lis~illla Product'r: Saho LY AII;!t'lo .-telors: :\lIlIa \la;!lIalli (\Iaddalella (:t>t·('Olli). \\·altt'r(:hi1.lri (.\lIwrto.\llllonlzzi).
:2 .) ()
Ft L \\ () CH.\ P 11 \
Tilla Al'icdla (\Iaria Cl'ccolli). :\It>s~andro Hla~I'lIi (a~ himself). (;a~lOlIl' H.'n· zl'lIi (Spartaco Ct'CI'uni). Tee/a Scarallo (actiug teacher), Lola Bracl'i.lli .tilt' wife of the photographer) ..\rturo Bragaglia (photographer). Lillda Sini (\bm· IIl1'tta). \'ittorio Clori (as hilll~elf), Iris (Liliana \Ianicini). GI'O TapllCelli la" himself). \Iario Chiari (as himself). Filipl'o \It>n'ati (a,; him,;eJf). :\ora lUn·l. Vittorio Bell\('lIuti. Ciu~l'lla \Iollaldi. ;\malia Pellegrilli. Teresa Battagli. Ludana Hicd, Ciusepl'illH Arena First PerfOl'lIlIl1//'I': Italy. Dt'ct'mber 28. 1931 Lellgth: :3.1 ():! III Dumtioll: II;{ mill DO('l .tIE \TO .tIE,\SILE .V. 2. APPt·.H1 .'It . I :V Ft TTU DJ ('/IO.\:.4C4 (1\IO!\TIILY REPOHT I\.~, :\OTES 0:\ ..\ ;'totjEWS ITE1\I)
Director: LIIt·hiuo \'i~collli ('omflU'lltwy: \'a~ ..o Prawlini Produc!'r: \ial'l'o Fl'rn-ri. Hiccardo Chiollt> First Pe,fum,wu'l': Itak 1951 .'iIAJJ() Do.\~\·E ! WE TilE W01\lEI\,
t'p. "\Nl\A 1\I..\G1\..\1\I Distrihuted in the LTnitl'd Statt-S as all additioll to the lilm (jul'sta Lift- ami Low Dirl'ctor: Luchillo \'iscollti Assistaflt Directur: Frallco !\last'lIi Script: Su~o (:t'c('hi IL\mico. Cl'sare Zavattilli Directur (!f Phutogmphy: Gahor Pogany Editor: \Jario St>randn-i Music: :\1l'S~alldro (~icogllini Productioll ('UfllPllflY: Titanus Producer: .\Ifr.. do CUHrilli Actors: :\IIIW \Iagnani (a~ ht'rsl'lf) First Pl'rjom/(IfICt>: Italy. Octoi)!'r }<):):{ Lellgth: :!.?tH m Dumtioll: 1X mill
8E\SU / TilE WA1\TOl\ CO:'llTESS..\
IJirl'c(or: LIIt·hillo \'is(,(llIti Uirecfurs: Frallt'l'st'o Hosi.
.Issi.~tllflt
[-'WilCO
Z.. flirl'lIi
I'
/a ('ita! Of
FII.\I()(;H.\I'IIY
SO/lrcl': Camillo Boito· s nO\'l'lIa. Sellsu Script: Su~() Ct'cchi IYAmico, Luchino Vi~t")llti: Collaborator,;: Carlo .\liant'II ... Ciorgio Bassllni. Ciorgio Prospt'ri: Part of tlw dialogue: Paul Bow!.'s. Tennt's~l.'t· Williams lJirl'ctur ofPhutugruphy: c. H. :\Ido [Aldo CraziatiJ. Hobt'rt KraskPr taitor: ~Jario S'·fl.ll1drt'i Scenery: Ottavio Scotti Costumes: ~larl"d Est"Oflit·r. PieftJ To,i Mukeup: Alberto Dt' Hossi iHusic: AnIon Brucknt'r: VII SymphollY. 1:;t and 2d :\lm·t'mt·nh Pt'Tformers: F rallen Ferrara alld Ihe HAI Symphony Ordlt'stra Production Company: Lux Film Producer: Claudio Forges Davallzati Aelurs: Alida Valli (COlUltess Livia Serpieri). Far/t'y Crallgt'r (Lit'utt'lIallt Frallz !\Jahler). \Iassimo Girotti (\lar'luist' Holwllo l·ssolli). Hilla ~lon·lli (Lallra). Marcella ~Iarialli (Clam), Ht'illz :\loog (toUIlt Serpit'ri). Chri~tiall !\Iar'luand (officer), Sergio Famoni (Lw'a). Tino Bial'llhi (\tewTi). Ern,t :\adht'fIly (Tht' COIllmander of Verona). TOllio Se/wart (cololld). \\arialllla Leibl (wife of a Gt'fIlUIII gent'ral). Chrisloforo De lIartungt'1l (Ihe COIlIllIandt'r of ,. t'nil't'). (;0liarda Sapit'11Z11 (landlady) First Pt'ffomulf/ce: Vt'nin' Ft',li\ al. Italy. St'l'lt'mllt'r ::L 11).'i-t Lellgth: :3,2.')0 m [Juration: It;) mill (Finnish Film Ardli\l' copy 122 mill)
LE
xorn H1A!H'IIE / WIIITE NlGIITS
Director: Luchino Vis('ollti :issist(lIIt Directors: Feruando Cict'ftJ .. \Ihino COtTO Source: Dosloyevsky·s no,e/la. II/'ite Sights Script: Suso Ct'cchi O·Ami('o Directur u/Photuf{mphy: Litlseppt' Hotunno Editor: \lario Serallllrei SCellel)·: \Iario Chiari. \Iario CarlJllglia C()stllllles: Pit'm To~i .\Iakl'lIp: .\IIH'rto De Ho~~i .l/lIsic: :\illtJ Hota Pelforlller: Franco Ferrara S()II~S (lI'ilh Pt,,/iJl"ll/('rs): ··St'lhaJni·· (Cololllho-\lal"1!fIIli-PerrolH'). (:illi.·o .\11g,·lilli·~ ()rche~tra. ··(r Call~a., .. iro·· (\acilllt'lllo). I.uiz '" (;ralld.'", Ordlt',tra. ··Thirtt·f·IJ Wonll·II·· (Tholllpson-Cadtla-I.itlianni). Billllal,'y alld lIb (:Olllt'ts Productioll (./11/1/)(/11.\.: Yid .. ,. HOIllt' / Illtt'1"II10Il
FlI. \1 () t. H A I' H \
C't·lla HOH'lIa (laIHllady of lilt· lJOardillgllUu~e). \hll'ia Zanolli (maid), lIeua Fancera (lIu' ca~hier). Fenlinando Cucrra (\Iario' s frit'IHJ), LeonilJe \Iollle,i (his wife), Anna Filippini (tlwir dall~hter), HomHnl) Barbieri (their ~()n), Salldro \lort'lIi (youllg hooligan), Salldra Verani, Lanfrauco Ceecarelli, Allgdo (;ala~si. Ht'/wto Tt'rra First PerjiJrIl/IlfICl': Yt'nice Fe~ti,al. Italy, Allgllst ll. 1957 Ll'Ilgth: ~.'H() m IJII rat iOIl: t 07 mill IW('('() El ,';( 01 FH41'f;LLI / HOCCO A!\l) illS BHOTIIERS /hr('ctur: Lllchiuo Yi,collti :t~sist(lllt IJin'l"/urs:
Hillaldo Bin'i. Jt'/TY \Iacc idea t\eHloped by 1.IWhillo \'i~I·O/lIi. \'asl'o Pratolilli. allll SIISO CI'(,l'hi D' Amico 011 the basis of Cio\'a/llli T.·,;tori· s collel·tion uf sturies. Jl pUlltt' dl'I/II (;hi,m(/i, Script: Susu (:""l,hi O·:\.mi,'o. Pa'l(lIalt· Ft'sta (:u/IIpallill'. \Iassi/llo Fralleio~a. Ell/'ico \\t·dioli. L\Il'hi/1O Yi,collti /Jin'l·tor Il P/IIJtO!!/'(//lh.l': Cit""!'I'" Hot 1IIIllO f_llitor: :\Iurio SeralHln·i S('t'IIf'ry: \Iurio Curbugliu SUllrcl':
.\11
('().~tllll/(,.:
Pi"m T."i
.l/lIk"IIP: Cilh"PIIl' Halldlt'lli
:111I.ic: \illo Hota Po}ill'lll('r: Fralwo Ft'rrara
(with Pt'ljilf'lll"rs): .. \-: \I'm" (\i,a Billdi). "Tilltarella di IUlla" (Dt' Filippi\Iiblia,·ci). "Calyp,,, ill th .. Haiu" (Lllltazzi). "III1H1n:' (Pu~lieSt·- Yiall). "La pitl fwlla lid /IIollth' (\Iarilli). "pae".. mio" ProdllCtioll ('OIl/PllfI,)': Titalll". Home / Les Filllb \tan'eal\. Pari" Prodllt'"r: (;"ffn·,lc,l.clIllbarcli .Iclun: Alaill D.·lolI (Hocl'O). Hellato Sal,aton' (Si/llo/w) .. \llIlie Cirardot (~a dial. Katilla Pa.xi/1011 (Ho"aria. lilt' motllt'r). Hog"r lIalliu (\Imilli). Paolo SlOppa (C.·.. dli). SIIZY D.·lair (1.IIi"a). Claudia Cardillalt' (ei/lt'lIa). Spiro, Fonl" (Yillcc'lIzo). (:Iaudio \Iori (!!irl at t/rl' dl'y-dl'allt'/:~). :\I"''''lllllra Pallaro (Frail ... /. Ciro'~ liarwc, .. ). Corraclo Palli (ho). \lax Cani.'r (Ciro). Hc)!'1'CI Viclc'olazzi (1.1 ... a). B""kc'r \Ia~c "'1'0 (\aclia'" lllotllt'r). Fralwa Yall'/'i (tlIC' widow) . .\clrialla .\,ti. EllzCI Fil'/'lllClIlt". \illo (:a~tdlluCl\o. H'''ario Bon,lli. Hellato Tt'/Ta First PI',jill'lllI///I'C': \ "lIic'" Fc'sti, al. Italy. Sq'lc'lllilC'r h. 1()()O c'l'()IIKS
(n
IA'"Kth: -+.1(':\11/ /Jllrlltioll: IXO Illin
I· 11. \10 t, H.\ I' 11 \
BUCCACC/o ''';'0, ep. 11. IAJ'OHO/ 80CCACCIO '7(),
("p. THE J08 lJirec/or: Luchillo Yi,(,(H1ti ,"iollrcl': Guy Ill' !\Iallpas~allt'" nonlla. :111 {}()nl dll lit Scni)t: Suso Crcchi O' Amil'o. Ltwhino \'i"l'Ollli iJirt'ctur uf P}wlu/4ruphy: Ciu"eppe HoltlllJlO Editor: I\larill Srralldn'i Scellery: \Jario GarblJglia .Hllsic: :\iuo Hota Prudllctioft COlllpafty: (:OIlt'unlia (:ompagnia (:inellHllogratinl. (:ilH'riz. Hoollla / FralH'illl'x. Cra\"-Fil",". Pariisi Prudllcf'r: Carlo POllli. AIIlOnio Ceni ,lcturs: HOIllY SdllH'iti,'r (Pllpe). Toma" \liliall (Collnt Ollavio). Paolo Stoppa (.\\toflH'y Alcamu). HOlllolo Yalli (.-\l1orrwy Tal'chi) .. \medo Cirard First Pf'fiumulfIcl': Fehruary 1. t<)()~ IA·ft/4th: ;).-t 1~ m Dllratioft: -tb mill
/L (;..1 '/"I'OP..1HlJO / TilE I.EOPARD
Director: Lllchino Yj"nHlti Direclurs: Hillalllo Hied. AlI,ino CO('('O SUl/rce: Giu"t'pP" TOllla~o di Lamp"du"a'" nO\'t'1. 11 (;att()pardo Script: Suso Ceccili O' Amico. Pa'lJuale F(·sw Campanile. 1\1assilllo Frallt'iosa. Enrico \Iedioli. Luchino \'isl'onti iJireclor uf P}wtuW'aphy: l;ilJ",'I'I'{' HO\tIJIIIO Dlitor: \Iario Srranorl'i SCf'nery: \Iario GarLuglia Costumes: Piero Tosi: Collaborator,,: Yt'm II,larzol. Bin' BridH'tlo .Hakf'up: AILt'no Ot' Hossi .\Jllsie: :\illo Hota (and his arrangt'llIents from Yenli's tu Trlll·iata. as wl'lI as dance music including a pn'\'iously unknown waltz by \"rrdi as dit'getic lIlusic) Pe/forlller: Franco Ft'rrara Pruductioft Company: Titanll". HUlllt' / S.:\. Padle Cin':ma. S.G.C .. Paris Pruducl'r: (;offn't!o Lumhardo ktors: Burt Latlt'a"tt'r (Print'(' Fahrizio Salilla) .. \Iaill Ddoll (Tal\('rt'di Fal('Ont'ri). (:lalldia (:anlillalt' (:\ngdica St'lIara). Paulo Stoppa (doll (:ol{'~t'ro St'dara). Hina \lon'lIi (\taria Stdla. Prin('('~" of Salina). HOlllolo Valli (Father Pirrolle). L{'"lie Fn'lwh (Cht'\allt'Y)' Carralli (Colollt'l Pallavit'illo). St'q~t' Ht'~giani (dOli Cict'io Tuml'o). Lu('illa \Ioriact'ili (Collt'l'tta). \Iurio Cil'Otti (ri~t'oulII Ca\riaghi). Pierre Clt'lIu'lIli (b-an('(',,(·o Paolo). Ciuliallo Ct'lIIlIla (.\ Caribaldiall (;t'lIl'ral). Ida Calli (Carolilla). Ol1a\ia Piccolo (Calt'rilla). Carlo .·t~sistafll
"0
HL\I()(,H.\I'II\
,',t1C'llzallo (Paolo). Bnll'k Fllllt'r (a Priw'(') .. \[llla \Iaria Buttilli (\Ii~~ DOIII' "rellil. t hI' gO\(-,rII"~")' Lola Bru .. cilli (dolllla \larl!llt'rita). \larillO \Ia,,;· (lilt' t"adlt'r), Ilo"anl :\1·IMlII Rubiell (doli Diego). Tilla Lattunzi. \larl"l-'lIa Huwlla. Hilla DI' l.igllro. Cim
/Jirt>l'Iur: 1.llI'hillo ,'isl'ollti .·Issi.~/(//I/ /Jirl'c/ur:
Rillaldo Hin'i
S('f'ip/: SII~O C\'cl'hi IL\lIIi,·o. Ellri .. o \ledioli. LlIdlillo \'i"t'Ollti /Jin'('/or (!( Pltu/{)~/'(/plt.\ ': Anll
SCI'I/('/Y: \Jario Carhllglia Co.~/IlII/('s:
Bi,'C' Brit'ht'tto
J/llkt'up: \lidit'll' Trilllarchi J/IJ,~i(':
(:{'"ar Fmllck: Prelude. ('/wrlllt>
Ill/(/
Fugut>
PI'/j'urllll'r: .\lIgll"to O'Ottavi (piallo)
SOllgs (dit'gt'tie) (with P'·rf(Jrlll.. r~): "10 che nOli VI\"O sellza te" (DollaggioPallavi/>ino: ed. Act'orJo), "I'lIa rotunda "ullllare" (\ligliacci-Falelli: ed. La BlI~ola), "E ~e dOlllalli .. ," (;iorgio Calabrese alii I Carlo Alberto /{os"i). "Strip (:illt'lIla" (PillO Calvi). "Let'" Co" and "If Yuu DOII't Wallt" (Le Tigri) Prurluc/ioll ('UIII/JlIII.I·: \'ide~ Prot/I/c('r: Frallco (:rbtaldi .Ie/urs: Clalltlia Cardillak (Sulldra), kall Sort'! (Cianlli). \lidlael Craig (AIItin',,). Ht'llzo Hi, ... i (Alltollio Giraldilli). \Iari .. (mother). Amalia Troiani (Fos"'I). Frl'd \\illiallh (Pil'tl'O Fomar·i). "ittorio \Iallfrillll. Hellato \loretti. Cio\'1l11l1i Hodlli. Paola P .. "cilli. I"a ... ·o Politi Firs/ Pe/j'umlllllc,': ,'{,lIi,'" Fe"tiyal. Italy. S"ptt'mlwr:t 19/).') Lell~/!t: :Ur7lllll /Jum/ioll: 100 mill
13,·"
L~'
";'I'JIH;IIL "p. LA 811I£'G.·. IJIIl 'CH 1~. 'JJ A / TIlE WITCIIES. t'p. TilE WITCH 8LHM:U ALIVE
Direc/or: Luchillo Sourn' Ill/d Scrip/:
\"i~t'ollti (;ill~"ppt'
PatrOlit' (;rifti: (:ollai.ont'or: (:'·,al'l· Zayattilli
F 11. \I 0 (; H \ P 11 \
_.J.)
lJirf'ctor of Photography: Ciw;"ppt' HutullllO Editor: Mariti S('randrei .'lcerwr:r: \-Iarin Carhuglia. Pi"m Polt·tto Costu111 f'S: Pif'ro Tnsi .Hllkeup: (;offrf'do Hi(Tht·tti .1111Sic: Pi('ro Picl'iolli Productioll CompallY: Dillo De Laun'lItii~ Cilu·IIHJtograiica. HOIut· / Lt·,., Productions Artistt'~ :hsocies. Paris Producf'f": Dillo Dt· Laun'lItii" .-ktors: Silvalla \Iallgauo (Gloria). Allllit' Ciranlot (\·alt·ria). Frallcisco Habal (Valt'ria\ husband). \!a",.,illlo Cirotti (a ,.,porhlllan). EI"a Alhalli (frif'lId). Clara Calamai (I'X -at"lress). VcWlliljUt· V('1101'11 (young gUI'"t). Lt·,.,lil' Frt'lIdl (indw.;triali,.,t). :\ora Hicd (Cloria', ,.,ecn·tary). Brullo Filippilli (,.,illgt'r). Dino \Ide (1st waitn·ss). \Iarilll Tolo (~tI waitn·,.,,.,). lit·lmllt Stt'illlwrgher First Pl'lform(/lIcf': Fehruary :W. 19tJ 7 /_ellgt": :t 050 III Duratioll: :r: mill
LO 8TllA.\H:.'RO / TilE STR:\l\GEH Dirf'ctor: LUl'hillo Viseonti .-1ssistallt LJirectors: Hillaldo Hied. :\Ihillo Cued Source: AII'l'rt Call1us's novel. 11w Slnlllgt'r Script: SlISO Ceeehi D' Ami('o. Ct'orgl's (:olll'holl. Lu('hino Vi,,('ollti: Collaborator: Ellllllanuel Rt,hbles Diredor of Photograph)': Cillsqlpe Hot,","n Editor: RuggefO \Iastroialllli Scellf',)': \lario CarlJllglia ('OStlilllf'S: Piero Tosi: (:ollahnrators: (:t·,.,arl' Hovatti. Ciulialla Snallo J/akf'up: Gillsl'ppl' Balldwlli .Husic: PiI'm Pit-cioni Performer: Brullo :\icolai Productioll COlllpallY: Dillo Ik l.aun·lItiis Cillelllatograiit·a. HOIlIt'. Hastt'r Fil", . ROillt' / \tariallllt' Prodw'tioll. Pal+';. ill collahoratioll with CasLah Fil",. Alw·ria Producf'f": Dillo DI' Laurt'lItiis .Idll/'s: \1arcdlo 'Ia~troialllli (\leursalllt) .. \lIl1a Kurilla C\larit· (:anlolla). (;c'orgl's Wilsoll (t'xalllillillg lIIagistratt·). Ht'manl Blier (l)Pft'lIst' COllllcil) . .Iw·tl'(('''' IIt·rlill (t1in'ctor of the hOIllt' for tilt' ddt·,·ly). Ct'orgt''; Ct'n·t (Haylllt 1IIt!) ..It-allPit'lT!' Zola (t·",ployt·r). Pit'm' Bt'rtill (jlldW·). BrllllO en'nll'r (I'rit'~t) .. \lfn·d Adalll (Pro~l'clltor). AlIgt'la Llln' (\1rs. ,\las~oll). \lilllIllO Pallllara ('\Ia~~o,,). Villoria DIIS(' (Iawyt'f). \tart' Lamellt (EIIIUlllldt·). J"'it'ph \larhhal (Salailia 110 ). \lohanlt'd (:llt'ritel ( 1~I AmI.). SOlatia Hahlt'lII (:!tI Arah). Brahilll I latljatlj (:~d Arah). Paolo Ilt'rzl (<:uanl) . .I'''''I'II'~ .\Iollod. LaI!'lIlillfl \lat'chi
:!.) 0
I· 1L \10 L H .\ I'If \
Firsl Pt·'.1;JrII/wwe: \" t'lIict' Ft·~t i\aL Italy. St'ptemher h. 1907 Length: ;t UO m /)um/ion: 11 () mill
Lt C.WI T·j /)L"(;UIJL1 I (~()·ITERO.hl~U:RLJNG I TilE OAMl\EO Director: I.udlillo \i~t'OIl\i :18Sisllll/1 /)irt'clors: Albiuo (:on·i. Fauu\" \\"t'~sliug Scripl: \it'Ola Balhllllt'cO. Eurit'o \Iedioli. L\JI'hillo \"iscollti Dire('/ors (d' Plwlograplty: Arll1audo \anullzzi. Pa,l(llalt' Dt' Saulis Editor: Hllggt'ro \Ia,\l'oialUli ScenPf:I': Pasl(llalt' Romauo ('(lslt/lIlI's: Pit·ro To,i. \'na \Iarzot .Hak(·lIp: \Iallro Ca\"uzzi J/lIsic: ~Iallri,'" JUlTe Pt"jcJ/.",t".: \Iallrin' JalTt' Pmc/lll'lioll COfllpW/.I·: Praesideus Film. Ziiridl / Pt·ga"o. Italuoleggio. HOll1e /
Eichllt'rg Film. \1iiucheu Producers: .\lfft·d l.evy. [\t'r Ilaggiag .Iclors: Dirk Bogarde (Frit·drich Bruckmallll). lllgrid Thlllill (Sofia
HlII Essellheck). Ilelmut Criem (Asdlt·llhach). I-lellllllt Berger (\Iartiu \011 Esseubeek). Rellalld \"erley (Ciinther VOIl Esselllwck). l'1l11lt'rto Orsini (lIerberl ThalmUlln). H('n~ Kollh·hoff (Kollstalllill \"on Essell1)1'ck). Albrecht SclltillhaIs (Baroll Jouchin \till E,~t'lll)(,l'k). Florilltla Bolkan (OIga). \ora RiI'd (goveme,;~). Charlotte Halllpling (Elisallt'th Thallllallll). Irilla Vanka (Li"a Keller). Karin \Iittendorf (Thildt· Thalmaull). \' alentina Hicd (Erika ThallllaIlIl). \'folfgang llillillgt'r (police in"pt·(·tor). I IowaI'd \t'lsoll Hllhit'1l (headmaster). Wenll'r Ila"selmallu (Cestapo officer). Peter OaIH' (deft'k al lht' foundry). \lark Sahage (polic(' inspector). Karl Otto AILerly (1st arlllY officer). John Fraicb. (:!d army of/icer). Richard Beach (:ld army of/ieer). C1aus Ilohnf' (Ist SA onicer). E['Jl~1 Kiihr (2d S.\ of/in·r). Wolfgallg Ehrlil'h (SA soldier). Esterilia Carlolli (bt waitrebs). Alltonielta Fiorita (2d waim·ss). jessica Dublill (nurst' ) Firsl Pelj;m//(/(/I'(': (ktll"er I (). 19()9
Lenglh: i.:!()() 11l IJuraliun: I:iO mill
JIUIITE A
J1~·.\EZIA
/ DEATH 1:\ VE:\ICE
Direclur: Luchillll Yi""ollli .Is:;isl(l(/I f)irectur: Albillo (:o('ci S()url'e: Thomas \lalln', 110\('11 ... /J(,1l11t in Il'lIi('('
/)irectur o/PlwtuW'uphy: Pasqualt· De Santis fditur: Hu~g('ro '\tast roianni Sceflery: Ft>nlinllnt!o Scar/iott i ('ustumes: Pit'm Tosi Assistallt: Gabrit·la Pt's('u('t"i .1Iakeup: :'.Iario Di Salvio. 'laul'O CaH'zzi: Sihana 'Iangallo' t- makt·up: Coffrl'do Hoccht>ui ,\Jusic: Clbta,' 'Iahh-r' S III SymphollY. -ttll ,\lo\(·lIIt·lI1. alld \' Symphony. -tt 11 ,to\'(' llleIlt Performers: Frallco '\Iallllillo and tht' Orciwslra of tilt' :\nldelllY of Santa (:t>cilia. Lucrt>tia \\'I'sl (colltralto) Pruduction Company: Alfa CilwllIatogralinl. ROlllt' / Produt'tion Editions Cinematographi'lut>s Frall('aj,(,s. Paris Pmc/llc('/': \Iario Callo .lctors: Dirk BogarJe (Custav \011 :\"d\('lIoa('h). Romolo \' alii (llIanaW'r of tl1(' hotd). :\ora Ricci (Tadzio'~ govel'llt'ss). Bjiil'll Antlers('1I (Tadzio). Silvalla Mallgallo (Tadzio's 1I10thl'r). 'lark Bul'lls (.\lfrl'd). \Iarisa Ikn'nsoll (.\sdl('nbach's wif(')' Carolt· AIIJrr (Et-1I1t·rt'lda). L('~lie Frt'nch (derk of the trawl agl'lIcy). St'f/.!io Carfaglloli (Ja~t"ill). Ciro Cristofolt·tti (dl'rk at tll(' hotd). '\11IOllio .\pin·lIa (tramp). RrllllO Rosct'tti (dt'rk of tilt· railway station). Fnuwo Faorizi (barlwr). Luigi Rallaglia (old mall 011 tile hoat). DomillilJul' Darn·1 (tht' ElIglish tourisl). 'lirella Pompili (customer al tht' ooartiillghousl'). '\Ia"ha Per.lit (a Russian lourist) First Perj'orlllw/cf': Londoll. l·. K.. \Iart'h 1. Iq? 1 L{'T/glh: :U)88 m /Jum/iofl: 1:35 mill
IIVWIG /)in'('lor: I.uchillo \'iscollti :tssistuflt IJirectur: Albino Cot't'i ....·('('ipt: Enrico \It>dioli. Lllcllillo \' i~(,ollt i: (:ollaborator: :-iu,"o (:(·t·dti I)' AlIIit'o /)irf'ctor u/Plwtu!{mphy: ArlllalHlo :\allllllzzi Editur: Buggero \Iastroialllli Scellt"~': \tario Chiari. '\Iario St'i"t"i Costumes: PiI'm Tosi: Collaborator,,: Cahrida Pl'~nlt't"i. '\tarill Farlt'lIi ,1I(lkt'llp: .\Iberto D" Hossi J/usic: Rol>!'rt SdlUlllalll1. Richal'd \\'agnn ..hlt'qllt'" Offt'lIhadl PI'I/imllers: Franco :\Iannillo and tI\(' ()rdlt'~t ra of tilt' At'adt'IIIY of Sallta (:t't'ilia: Piallo ~olo: Frant'o "allIlillo Pruductioll ('OIl/f)(lIlY: !\11'~a Fillll. BUlIlt' / (:illt:lel. Pari" / Dietl'r (;t'i~~It'r Fillllproduction. Di\illa-FiIJII. \liillt'llI'll .-leturs: Ilt·hllllt Bt'r!!t'r (1.1111\\ i!!). Trnor Ilowanl (Bidtard \\a!!lwr). Sihalla !\lan!!allo ( :osillla \011 Biilow). Cnl Frul ... (Falllt'r Ilofflllall). I Id 111 11 I Crit'llI
0) -
u
F 1 L'\I () C IU I' 11 \
_·)0
(Diirkht'im). lsalwlla T(-Iellzynsleill (lilt' ()Ut'('1I \lolher), l'mllt'rto Or~illi (Couut \"011 IloIIISIt'ill). Jolm \Ioulder BrowII (Prillct' (110), Souia PelfO\'I1U (Sophie). Folker BoluH't (Joseph ~aillZ), Ileiuz ~loog (Professor Gudden) .. \driana ASli (Lib \"011 Buliowski). :\Iarc Pore! (Richard Homig). ~ora Ricl'i (Collllle~s Ida Ft-n-nczy). \Iark BUflls (Ilans von Biilow), Maurizio Bonuglia (\Iayer). Homy Schneider (Elizaot'lit of Allt>lria). Alexander A1lersou. Ben Bloch. \Iallrret! Ftm;1. ~1II'1 Cros,kurl. :\ulla \Iaria Ilallsdtek. Cerhanl Hefler. .Ian Liuharl. earla \laucini. GefllOf \lohuer. C1ara \loustawcesky. Alain :\aya. :\lessantiro p(-....('lIa. ~arl Ilt'illz Peters. Wolfram Schat-rf. Hennig Schliiter. I klmut Stl'fll. E\"a Tavazzi. Louise Viucent. CUIlnar Warner. Karl Heillz WilHlllOr,,1. Rayka Y urit First Pe/jimllllflce: SOllll. Fednal HepuLlic of Cermany. Jauuary W. 1973 Lellf.ilh: 5.1?() m /Juratiun: :!-t.) mill WICPPU /)J n.lIl{;L1A I.V I
~V 1.\"1'1:-11.\0
I COl\V[HSATI()l'j
PIECE /)irl'rlur: Luchino Vit>l'onti /)irl'c/or: ;\ILino Cocci Source: Ellrio-o ~II-dioli' S origillal idt-a "';crip!: Suso Ce('Citi O' .\mico. Euril'o \ledioli. Luchillo VisculIli Director o/Plw!of{raphy: Pastlualc De Santis Editor: Ruggl'ro \lastroiallni: Collaborators: Lea \lazzot".-ili. .-\lfl"t'tlo \lellchilli Scene/y: \Iario Carbuglia Costumes: Vt-ra \larzot: Silvalla \lallgallo's costunws: Piertl Tosi :l1akl'llp: .\\I)('rto Ot- Hossi. Eligio Trani Jlusic: Franco \Iunllillo; alw Wolfgang Amadt-us \lozarl. "Vorn-i spit'garvi, 0 Diu!" allt! Sinfonia COllcertallle. E Flat \lajof. 2d \loHulelll Pe/jormers: Fralwo 'lanJliuo; \lozarl exlra('b: Emilia Havaglia (soprauo). Prahall (:hamlwr Ort'hl'~1 ra. JosefSuk (\"iolill). Josei' Kodout>ek (viola) Productioll ('(Jf1Il)(III.\~ Hu~coni Film. ROIllI'I GaumOlIl Inlefllational. Paris Producer: Cio\"allJli Bt-rtolu("t'i ,·ktl)f·s: Bur. Launt~ter (profe~sllr). Sil\"Hna \lallgallll (Bial\('a BruIIIolll), I kllllut Serger (~"nrad). C1audia \larsaui (Li(·tta). Stt'fallo Patrizi (Stefallu). Elvira Cortest- (Enninia). Philil'pt- lierst'nl. Luy Trejan . ./t-all-PieITe Zola. 1'1lI1wrto Haho. Ellzo Fienllont,-. ROlllolo \'alli (lawyer). Ct-urge Clatot. \'alelllino \lac('hi. Vittorio Falltolli. Lon-Ilz Pialli. \largherita Hurowitz First Pt'/jiJl"lll(/IICt': D(-"t'llIlwr 1O. 1()?-+ Lellf{th: :l.:l;{() III Durati()n: 1:!() mill .Is.~istant
L n:VOCI:.ATt' / THE INNOCENT / THEINTRUIlER
Direl'/or: Luehillo \'i~conli Assislallt LJirectors: Albillo Cocci, Cior~io Tn'H'~ Sourre: Cabrit'lt' D' :\lIl1tlllzio\ lIon'l. t'illlloCt'lIte ScniJI: Suso Ct'c('hi I)' Amico, Enrico \It-dioli, Lucliillo \' iSCOlI1 i Dirf'ctur of Photo!!raph.\~ Pasyualt' Dt' Sallti~ DJitor: Hug~t'ro \Ia~troialllli: .\';sislallls: Lt'a \lazZIll'chi. Alfredo \It'lwiIilli SCt'"e/~': Mario Carhllglia Costumf's: Pit'ro To"i Mllkf'up: Coff'rt'do Rocdll'tti, Cilbl'rlo Pro\'t'lIghi, Llligi Esposito Musir: Franco \Iannino: Frl'dl'ric Chupin: "Bern'lIst'" alld "\"alzt''': \volfgall~ Amadt'us \lozaI1:"Turkish \Iardl": Frans Liszl: "Ciochi d'acqua a \'illa trEstt''': Chrisloph WiIIiliald \'011 Cluck: "UIl' farl) st'lIza Euridict''' from (hji'o I'd Eilridicf' Pe/j'urmers: F ralll'O \lal1l1illo and tilt' Orcht'sl ra of tilt' Academy of Santa (:t'l'ilia: piano accompanilllt'lIt and solos: Franco \Iullnino. Bt'llt'detta Pt,,·hioli (soprano) Pmductioll ('ompaIlY: Rizzoli Film. Homt'/l.e,., Film" .lac'lut'~ l.t'ilit'IIIIt', Paris / Societe Imp. Ex. Ci" \icl' / Franl'llriz Productioll. Paris Pmducf'/~ Cioyalllli Bt'rt.olllcd Artors: Giallcario Ciallllilli (Tullio IIt'rmil). Laura :\lItollt'lIi (;iulialla). kllllift'r O'\t'ill (Tert'sa Raffo). Rilla \lort'lIi (Tullio·,., motllt'r), \lassimo Cirotti ( :OUIII SIt'fano Egallo). Ditlier Haudt'pill (Ft'deril'O IIt'flllil). '1urit' Dllhois (prillt·t'",s). HllbeI1a Paladini (\lrs. Ehirt'tta). Uaud,' \Iallll (Prill('t,). \Iar(' Pon,l (Filippo IL\rborio): Philippt' IIl'rst'lIl. E!vira Corle"t', Siria Bt,tti, Ellzo 1\1u~'''1I''l'i Crel'l), Alessandra (:onsorti. Filippo Pt'n'~o, \largllt'rila Ilo/'OwilZ, Ricl'Urdo Sattu First Pl'lji)m/w/('(': (:alllll's Film F,',.,linll. FralH't', 'lay I.'), lInt> LI'II~IIt: ;3.:')iJ III /)umlioll: 1~H) JIIill
Stage Produetiol's
For fuller (Tedib. "'1' Calt'rilla If :\mico dt· (:analho (ed.) IIlIIiu It'alro - LIlChillu 1iscullli. or HOlldolillu. 1i.w·ullli
TIIE:\TEH ('lIritIIIllOlldw/(l. Ciallllino .\lIlona Tra\,t'J'''o IJirt'c/or:
H. (:alt', and H. SilllOlIi
St'/s (If/(I ('US/IlIIII'S: LIWhillo Yi"t'ollli Tilllt'
(/1/(/
11 dolCl'
PiaCl': <:omo. T"al ro Social,·.
I
IIlot' / SII'('t'/llot's . .Jay \Iallory (Joyn' (:an'Y)
Director:
H. Calt', alltl H. Simoni
S('/.~ IIl1d ('US/Wilt'S:
LlIt:hillo Yis"ollli
Tilll(, IInd Placl': \liIall. Tealro \Iallzolli. I <J:~()
1/ I'i(l~~iu /
LI' 1'I~I'tIW'. IIeIlfY B(,fIl"lt~ill
Sets Illld ('usllw//,s: LlIchino Yi"'''llli Tillle
(///(1
PI(/CI': Sail Iklllo. T"alro
del (:a"ill() \llIlIil'ipalo-. I ();~g
PureTlli I f:'rrihili / LI's !J(I/'I'TlIS laribles . .kall (:0,'1"1111 IJirectur: LIIChillo Yiscollli :';t'/s (lTld ('OSIII/lII'.5: LIIChillo Yiscollli Tillle alld Place: HOIllt'. Teal .... E1i~eo.
I
()lIilll(l culuTllla / Th(' nlih (·Ullllllll. Enlt"l I Io-lIlilli!way IJirt'c/or: LlIl'hillo \·i".-Ollli Tilllt' uTld Plllce: HOIlIt'. Tt'alm ()lIirillo. !.ll II/(II'('lIill(/ da
.5('1';1','1'1' /
I ().+.) (tihl l' .... f .. nllaJ ... t· ill
La IIII/chillt, 'I "'Tir" . .10-0111
Ital~)
(:, ..-It·a u
IJir('clor: LW'hillo Yi"'OIl1i
.';('/$ (If/(I COS/III11I'S: Llldtill .. Yi"'''llli Tillll' I/I/(! I'll/Cl': B.. IIlt'. T"alro Eli"l·o. JlI-+.-, (lir'l paf"f'IIlilll"" ill Italy)
:-. T ,\ (;~. I' H () [)[ C Tl 0 '\ :-
,-1l1ligUIW, Jeau Auouilh Direrlur: Luchiuo Visconti Tillle alld Place: Rome. Teatro Eliseo. t q~5 (first pt'rfonnanee ill Italy) Jllli,~ c/os, ]eaIl-Paul Sartrt~ Directur: llll'hino VisnlJlti Tillle aI/cl Piace: Teat ro Eliseo. IIH5 (first performauCl' ill Italy)
.4 poriI' chillSI' /
Adulllu / Ac/alTl, \lalTt'1 Achard Direclor: LuchiIlo Vis('onti Sets alld Custumes: Lllchino Vi"coIlti Tillll' al/d Place: ROIlle. Teatro QlliriIlo. 1q~5 (first perfonnanct' in Italy)
La I'iu de/lobacco / Tobacco Road, Johll Kirkland after Erskinl' CaldwcIrs nonl IJirf'clor: I ,lIchiuo Visl'tJIlti Ti,,/(' al/d Pluet,: \liIau. T t'atro Olimpia. 19~5 IImulrimollio di Fi{{llru / Lt' mariuge de Fig([ru, Pi,'rre A. CaroIl dt' Beaumarehai" Dirf'ctor: l,Ul'iliuo \' i:;comi Tillle ufld Place: ROIllt'. Teatro Qlliriuo. 1q~o Delillo f' casligo / Crime 1'1 c/Illlillleflt, Gaston Baty after DostmI'Ysb" s novel Directur: LIIl'hinll ViscoIlti Ti,,//, ([1/(/ P/([ce: Homt'. TealI'u Elist'll. 19iO ZU(J di I'dro / Tlte Glass ,Heflllgerie, Te1l1ll'''''t'I' \rilliallls /)ireclur: Luf'iliuo ViscoIlti Time ami Place: Homt'. Teatro Eliseo. IlHo (Iirst perforI1IaIll't' ill haly)
I it(l cuI puc/re / Lt};· 11 ilh Falher, Howard LiIllj"ay and Hu,"s"1I (:rouse after C1ar"III'e Day'" 110\,(,1 IJire('/(Jr: Gl'I'aldu ClIl'rriri: Viscollti slIp,'ni,,'d tilt' I'flIdul'tioll Ti,,/(' (Il/(l Plu('t,: HOIlIt'. Teat ro Eli"eo. 1()i: '_'''rydiet, / DII~·di('('. kall :\lIouilh Vireclor: I.uchillll \'i"'ollti Time (lml Pllln': Fin'lIz,', T,'alrtl La P"q!Olll. t
Irfllll cllt' si C"ifllllll dt'sideri" /
,I .'i/""t'l/'flr ,\fllllt'd I ),'si,.", T"IIIIt''''''' \\ illialll'
Director: Luchiuo \' iscollt i Time and Place: ROlllt'. Teatro Elist'o. JI)-t9 ()re.~te.
Vittorio .\lIit·ri. adal'lt'd Ly LIWhillo \'iscollti
Director: Luchiutl Vis(,(lJIti Time and Place: ROllll'. Tt'at ro <)lIirillo. 1<)-t9 Troilo e Cressida I Troilus and ('r!'ssirill. Willialll Shakespt'are Director: LUl'hillll Visl'ollti Time and Place: Firt'llzt'. (;ianlillo Ji Hoboli. 19-tq (first pt'rformalln' ill Italy) .Horte di /lfl comlllesso riaKKillture I [)eath ola Salesmlln, Arthllr \Iillt'r Dirl:'ctor: LUl'hillo \'iscollti Time and PLllce: ROlllt'. Teatro Elisl'O. 1qs 1 (first I't'rfofllHllIt't' ill Italy) ( 'f/ tmm cllt' si chiwuII dl:'sit/aiu 1.1 Streetc((r .Yarued 1)I'si,.", 1't'lIIlt'sst'(' Williallls Director: Luchillo Vis('ollti Time and Place: \Iilall. Teatro \uovo. 1<);) 1
/l sedllllore. J)it'~O Fabbri Diredor: LllI'hillo \'bl'ollti Time (If/d PlaCl': \'t'llice. Tt'at .... La Ft·uin'. 19;) 1 (fir~t I't'rfonllaucl' ill Italy) La I()cwuliera, Carlo Goldolli Directur: Llll'hiuo Visl'ollli ,',ets and Costllmes: LllChillo ViSCOIlti. Pit'm Tosi Time (lml Place: Venict'. Teatro La Ft'llice. 19;)2 1'1'1:' soreLll'1 1;'i se.~try. :\1ll01l C1lt'khm Directur: LUl'hillll \' iscon ti Time and PLace: HOIllt'. Teatm Elist'o.
I'I:>~
IItabm'co la male 10 I'redt! t()baka. Allton Clwkhllv Director: Luchillo Viscollti Time and Place: \liIan. Tl'atro di via .\laIlZllIli. 195;~ J/ede((, Euripides Director: LlIChillo ri~('(lJIti Time al/(l Plan': \liIaIl, Teatro di "ia \Iunzolli. 1'1.=,:~ Festiral. Ag/', Fllrio Scarl'dli. Dillo V('rdt'. awl Orio Vergani Consllltant: LlIt'hillo V ist'tJll t i Til1le ((1/(/ Plan'; \Iilall. Teatro \llOHI.I<)S-t
COllie 1t'./i)f{lit'. Cillseppe Ciat'Osa Director: LlI('hino Visconti Time and Pluce: \Iilan. Teatro Olimpia, 195-+ 11 crof{iuulu / Tlw Crucible. Arthur Miller Directur: Llwhino Viseonti Sets and Costumt's: LlIchino Visnlllti Time alld Plan': Rume . Teatro <)uirino. 19;")5 (Iirsl performan(,e in Italy) Ziu I unja / Djada I !lIIja. Anton (:hekhm IJirector: LlIchino Y is('unli Time and Place: Home . Teatro Eliseo. 195;") Contessinu giulia / Frokell }lI/ie. August Strindberg Directur: Luehino Viscollli :3ets and Cost/lilies: Lllehino Visconti Time wul Place: Rome. Tealro delle .-\ni, 1957 L 'impresariu del/e slllime. Carlo Colduni Directur: Lucilino Yiscomi Sets IInd Costllmes: Luchino \'isl'onti Time and Plact': \·enice. Teatro La Feniee. 1957 I ;no sguurdo dal pOlite /..t lietrfrolll the Bridge. Anhllr \Iiller Directur: Luchino Visconti Time al/d Place: Rome. Teatro Eli"eo. 1958 Immagini I' tempi di Deal/ora Dust'. Ceranlo Gllerrieri Director: Lllchino Visconti Time alld Place: Rome, Teatru <)uirino. 1958 I t-glia la mia casa / Luok Humell'ard, Allgel, Ketti Frings. after Thomas \roUe's novel Directur: LIIChillo Y ist'Oll1 i Time (lml Plan': ROIlIt'. Tt'atm <)uirinu. 1958 Dell.!' slIr lu balallcuir/' / Twu for tIlt' Seeswr. \rilliam Cibsoll Director: Luchillo \"is('ollti Sets and CUS/IIITIt'S: Lucilino Yis('ollli Time und Place: Paris. Tht~atre AmbassaJellr. 1958 (hrsl performance m Frant't') I rugazzi del/a sigllum Gibbolls / .lll's. Gibbulls '/Juys. Will Glicklllan and Joseph Stein
:!o.)
STALE PHO[H t.TIU\S
Director: Luchiuo ViSCUIlli Time ami Place: RUllIt'. Tt'alro Elist'o. 1l);)X Figli cI'arte, Dit'go Fabbri LJirector: Luchino \'i~couli Tillle and Place: ROIllt'. Tt'alro Elispo. 11):)1)
L : 1ri(l I
/I tredicesilllu albl'l,() / Le trei=.ieflw arbre, :\ndre CidI' Direclor: LlIl'hiuo \"ist'OIlti Tillle /IIul Place: Spolt'lo. Tealro (:aio \ldis~o .Ipn>s la ChillI' /4jier Ihe Fall. Arthllr \Iiller lJireclur: LlIChillo \'i~(,ouli Tillll' and Place: Paris. Th.;all't' dll (;\I1II11IS.·. 19():) I giardinu (!t'i ciliegi / I i.~IIt·;I:lj Sad, :\U\OII (:I1t'khov Dirl'c/or: Ludliuo \'iSl'Ollli Sels al/d Coslullles: LlIchiuo \·i~couli. Fndillautio ~t'arliOl\i Tillle and Plan': HUllH'. Tt'alm Vallt'. 11)();j L'glllol/I, Johanll "'olfgallg \OU Cot'lhl' J)ireclur: LlIChillo \'isconli Tillle m/(! Place: Flnn'w',', iuuer ('ollrl vanl of Palazzo Pill i. IlJb? La IIIOl/w'a cli IIIUIl=.a. Cio\"allui Tt'~lori /)irec/or: LlIchiuo ViSCOll1 i Tillll' alld Place: Cesaua. Tt'al .... BOII"i, ICJ(); (tir~1 I't'rfol'Jll
(!ir~1
I'I·rfonllall.'l' ill Italy)
::iT.\(;~.
PHot)! LTIO\:'
OPERA AND BALLET La I estale Librello: EtiCllfit, JOlly Music: Gaspare Spolltini COl/ductur: Alltonino Votto Director: l.ul'i1ino \'i~('ollti Time and Place: \Iilan. T~atro alia Scala, \95-+ La SOl/nail/lw/a Ubrell(): Fdin' ROlllalli J/usic: Vincenzo Bellini Condllclur: Lcollard Bern~tein Direclor: LUl'hillll Vi~collti Time and Place: \liIalL Teat ro alia Scala. 1953 La Trul'iala Libretto: Fnllu'('sl'O \\aria Piaw J/usic: Ciu~t'ppt' Verdi CUI/duclor: (:arlo Maria Ciulini Director: LlIChillo Vi~collti Tillll' al/d Place: \Iilall, Teat ro alia Scala. 1935 .lJario E J/ J/ago (a chort'ographic work after Thollla~ \lallII' s novel) Music: Franco :Vlannillo Cunduclur: Luciallo Rll~allJa Director: Luchillo Vi~conti Ti/lle wu/ Place: \Iilan. T t'atrll alia Scala. 1950 (Iir~t ))('rfoflnanct') Bu/el/a Libretto: Felict' ROlllalli J/usic: Cut'tallo Doniz"tt i CUl/ductur: Cianulldrl'u Cavuzzt'lli Director: ).Iwhillo Vi~('onti Time wu/ Pluce: \Iilall, T,'atm alia Scala. 195?
AfIf/(!
{Iip:enia ('1/ Tu u rid,' Libretlo: :\ictJla,,-Fralwui~ (;uillard Mmic: Chri~tophl' \\'illiLaIJ Cluck CUI/duclor: \illo Sanzogno Director: I.Udlillll Vi",'ollli Tilt/(' (11/(/ Plal'l': \liIan. T,'atm alia Scala. ) ();'): J/aral()l/u Di /)(/I/:;u /,iliretl(): LlIl'hillo \"isl'ollli
:-iT.\CE I'HUOI cTlO:\S
JllIsic: Hans W"fIl,'r 11t>llzt> COTlductor: Richard I\:rall~ /)irecto,.: Lw'hino Viscon!i Tillle afl(l Ploce: Wesl Berlin. Sliidli~dlt' Oper. 1957 (tirsl peri'of'lnallt't') DOli Carlo Lib,.pllo: Josl'ph :\It;ry ami (;amill,' dll Lode Jlusic: Ciuseppe Verdi COTlducto,.: Carlo Maria (;illlilli Dirpctor: Lu .. hino Vi,;collli Tinw af/d Place: London. Hoyal Op,'ra I lOlls,'. (;on'nl Carden. 1958 Jlacbt'lh
Lib,.ello: Frances .. o :\Iaria Pian J1usic: Giuseppe V,'rdi COf/ducto,.: Thomas Schippt'r,; Di,.ecto,.: Lllchino \'is,'onli Tillle alld P/uce: Spolt'lO. Tealro
:\\10\0.
1<);)8
11 Dum IFt/ba Lib,.etto: ElIgt>llt' Snihe ,\Il1sic: (;aelano Donizelti Conductor: Thomas Schippl'n; Director: Luchino \'i'I'Ollli Time afl(l Pluce: Spolt'!\). Tt'alro
:\\10\0,
III,St)
:\110\0,
19b 1
Sa/ollle
Libretto: Hedwi/! Lahmann Jhuil': Ri,~hard SlrallS'; ('oTlductor: Thomas Schippt'n; Director: LIIChillo Viscolll i Tim/' (lfI(l PI(lce: Spolelo. Tealro
11 Diul'% ill Giaf'(lif/o (a hi,lOrit'al pa:-.roral I'ollll'dy hy Lllt'hino Visconli. Filippo Sanj liS\. and Enrit'O :\It'dioli) .1I11sic: Fnllll'o \Iallnillo ('of/dllcto,.: Fran('o :\Iallnino Di,.pc(o,.: Lllchino \"i,,('onl i Time ullli Plllce: Palt'rlllo. Teali'll :\Ia,;,illlll, II)();J La T"(/I'iola Librett(): Fratll'I'';('O :\Iaria Pimp :lIl1sic: CiIN'PIlt' \"t'nli COf/dllct()r: Hol,..rl La \\ar('hilla
:-1.\(;1-. PHODI I.TlO:\:-
lJir/'c/or: LIIChillo \'iSt'llllti Tilllc ul/d Plllre: Spoll'to. Teat 1'0 :\ UOHI. ll)ll:l Lt' Su;:;;:;e di Fi~(/ro Librettu: Lon'uzo da POlite MlIsic: \\"olfl!uIII! .\Illad,'u~ \\ozurt ('umlll('/or: Carlo \\aria Ciulilli lJin'('/or: 1.1II·hillo \"ist'ollli Tillll' ul/d PIIl(,(': HOIlIt'. Trutro
dell" Opt'nt. I ()hi
JI Trol'lllurt' Libretto: Sahaton' (:allllllarIl1l0 .\Il1sic: Ciu~''Plw \"l'rdi ('of/(llIctur: Ciallalldrl'a C",azzt'lIi /)irc('/or: 1.lIdlillo \'ist'ollti Tillll' (Jlld Pla('(': \Io,,('o\\,. Bolshoi ThrHtrr. 19tH
JI Trul'llture Libretto: Salvaton' (:allllllaraIlO :HlIsir: Cillsrppe \""rdi COIlt/llctor: Carlo \Iaria Liulilli iJirt'clor: LIWhillo \"ist'ollti Tillle Ill/d Plllcc: LOIllJolI. Ho~ al Opf'nt I JOII"l'. (:OHllt Cardl'll. 19(H IJOI/ Curlo.~
Librt'llu: .Io"l'ph \Icry alld Call1ille du Lod,' .Ilusic: Lil""ppt' \'('J'(li COl/dllctor: Carlo \\aria Ciulilli /)irl'clur: Lllt'hillo \"i~t'ollti 1i'1IIt' (IIul Plllct': BOlllt'. Tt'alro dt'JrOpera. 1<}()5 Falsl(~tr
Libretto: Arrip:o Boilo Mllsic: Cillsepp" \'l'rdi ('Olldllclur: I."ollanl Bl'l'Il>i!t'in /)irt'clor: Ludlillo \'ist'ollli Tillll' uf/(I Plllct': \\it'll Slaabopt'L ll)()() /)cr flust'II/.;III'IlIit'r Librettu: Ilul!o VOII Ilohllall"lahl J/llsic: Hidwl'Il Strall"" COl/ducfor: Ct>or/! Solt i /)irpclor: Lllt'hillo \"i"COllli Time af/(I Pluce: I.OIlLioIl. Hoyal 01"'l'a 1101hl', (:OHIII (;al'lll'll, 1t)hh
1.11 Tml'ia(u /-ibreflo: Fl'allt't'st'o ~Iaria Pian' J/u$ic: Gillst'ppe \'rnli COllductur: (:arlo ~laria (;illlilli Directur: LlIChillo \'iscoIlti Time alld Place: LOlldoll, Royal ()pt'nt
Iloll~t',
(:OH'1l1 Can It'll, t CJ()7
:';imoll iluccclllt'gru Librl'flu: FralH't'~l'o ~Ial'ia Pian' .1Iusic: Gill~t'ppt' \' ....di CUllductur: Jost·f l\.rip,; Direc/or: Luchillo \'isl'ollti Time alld Plllce: Wit'11. StaabolH'r. t 9()9 .l1wWII LI'$('ulI/ Ubreflu: \larco Prago. DOlllt'lIil'o Oli\'a, Ciulio Hil'Oftli, alld Llligi lIIinl J/llsic: Ciat'CIlllo PIIl'Cilli ('onduc/or: T"ollla,; St'''iplH'rs Director: Llldlillo \'ist'ollli Time ulld Pluce: SpOlt'l0. TI'all'o :\110\0. t <1':':1
Unrealized Film Projeets
This list ir ... ludt·s only tho~r projech that ~ot as far as ~omr "nipt sta~t'. Tht' ~ ears arr approximations aud rrfer maiuly to the time wht'n Ihe project was iniliated. In ca~t's ill whidr tht, proj.,(·t 'HI>- cOlllplf·!t·d by anllt/wr diret'tor. Ihl' ~cript might 1101 havf' been the O/lt· reft'rn~d 10 herr. \Iaiu "ourct': Roudolillo. I i,R'Ollti. L 'wllaflle di W'allliWIII (Gram(U:fUl S Lo/'er. I<)-I:!)
;\fter Ciovauui \'f'rga' ~ slory. Dirt't"ted by Carlo Lizzaui in 1l)()9. The 2ud and Ihe :3rd episodes for LI TElllU TRElIA (Tilt' /:;{/rlll Trt'mbles. 19-17). Peflsiollt' OllrefTlart' (Buardiflf{lwIIse ()ltrt'fTlare. 1<)-11))
Story La~t'd war.
Oil
lite I'xpt'riellces of \'isconli ami certain lltitt'rs at till' end of till'
('f'UfUlClie di pu/,..,.i (/flUlflti (Tilt' Slory about Poor LOl'er8. 11)-19)
Free adaptations of \' wwo di Pratoliui'" lIowl. Din'clt'd by (:arlo Lizzaui ill 19.'):3. La ('arozza di slIfllissilllO sacrafllefllo (TIlt' ('arriaf{/:' of Ihe .Hosl Sacred fIIelll. 19-19)
:)UCf'll-
Adaptatioll of Pro~per \It'rime.:,, slory. If realizt·'\.lhis would have been till' first Italian color fillll. 11 wa~ tlin'.'tt'tI by Jeau Reuoir ill ]952 ulltlt'r Ihe I idt, La Caf'Uzzll d 'um (Tht' Goldell Cuuch) . .Har=io fwziall' (The 11 eddiflp: Jlarch. /9jO)
Storirs about diffl'l't'lI1 kiuds of lIlarrit·tI t'ollplt·';. t't>ulf'I't'd place in Ihr Ill'girl/lin~. Based 011 a /lt'WS ilt·lIl. 11 ballo del COfltl' [HJrp:di (Collfll Ofp,('/'. /Jail. 196:1)
\I"1.'r Ranllond Badi!!lwI'"
110'
1'1.
011
a suiddt, Ihat lakt's
.)-.)
l '\ H E .\ 1.I L E [) F 11. '\1 I' H () j E « T ~
La conll'sslI '/'lIl"I/olI"skll (( 'OIwlt!ss '/'u"'/Ull'ska, /9(5) :\ long-term plan based 011 a famous incident.
11 {(iol'w/t' Torit'ss (J UIIfI{( After Rohert
'Iu~ir,
Torlt!s,~,
/96.5)
1I0vel.
I ila di Puccini (Puccini's Liji·, /9(9) :\ project ('onct'iwd in ('oIllJectioll with J)t!alh in li'lliCl!. Presulllably it would not han~ Iwell a cOIIH'lItional "Liopie.'·
..t /a recherche puur/a II'fllps padu (Remembrance of Thiflgs Pasl) After 'la reel Proust' S lIovel. A 1971.
lon~-terlll
plan that callle dose to realization in
La 1II01llagl/u illcul/lalu (The .l/lIgic J/Ollflluill, 197'2) After 1'llOllla:; \Iallll' sHovel.
Bibliography
FILM THEORY Al'I.iD IIISTOI{Y Audn'\\'. Dudln
COllcepts ill Fil1ll Theory. Oxford l
uin'r~il' Pre~s,
Oxfurd.
I <)IH . .llists of /legret - Cllltllre (Il/(l Sellsihili'.)· ill Classic Frt'lIrh Film. Prilll'eloll: PriUl't'lou l'uiwrsil\ Pn'ss. 199:). :\ri~larl'o. Cuido SII I i.H·Ollti - lII(ltl'riali per 1111(/ ([f/(/Ii.~i eritica. HOllla: La Zallera di BaLdt, ~rl.. 1986. Anll{,~. Boy Patterns of /ll'tIiiSII/ -.1 Stl/(~)' (!(Ituli/ll/ .\eo-Realist ('ille1lla. Loudou: Tami\"\" Pr{'~~. 197 I, Balaze,;. Bt-Ia TlIf'OI)' of the Fillll - ('//(Inletl'r alld Gmlrth of a .\"ell' .Irt. Trau~ laled Lv J::dilh Bone. :\ew York: DOn'r Publicaliou~. 1970, Balddli, Piu LW'hillo I isc01lti. 'Iilano: CaLride \lazzolla editon'. 1''H:2. Baziu. Alldrl- QIl '('st-a 80-7). Brtlni. Oa, id &: Pra,adt'lli. \','wlliea (I" k) Stl/di I iscolltialli. \" "llt"zia: 'bll·ilill l't!itori. 1997. <:a~tdlo. Cilllio Cl'~an' ··Llll·hillo \"iscllllli." S(i!ht /Il/(l SOl/lid. \111. :2;'). 110. -+ (~prillg tl);')(»). pp. 18"i-1)0. :!:W. <:ault'. Da,id joseph Lo.H:)· - .1 /{/'I't'IIf.{<' 011 I.(ji'. LOlldoll: Faher alld Fallt'1". 1(1)"i .
H I B 1.1 0 L H _\ P 11 \
Ihlle Vac('ile. Augt·la The Bu(~\' ill /he .Hirror - Sha/Jt's uf lIis/uf)' ill l/aliwl Cillema. Princeton: Priucetou lllliwrsity Pres!>. 1992. Dt·aglio. Enrico "Ritorno ad Acitn'zza - Luchino e le sorelIe." La Stampa. Septeml.)t'r 1. 1990. Deleuze. Gilles ('if/ema:! - The Time lfT/af{/'. Trallslated by Hugh TOIllIiIlSOIl allll RoLt'rt Caleta. Londoll: Athlolle Pres". 19H9. De Santis, Ciu!>t'ppt' "Vi"conti's Interpretation of Caill's Setting ill ()s,~essiune'" Translated by I.ueialla Bohllc. Film ('ri/icism, "(11. IX. 110. 3 (Spring
19H5). DOlliol- "alt-ruzc & Domarchi. JI'all "Emrt'tit'n avec LIIChillo Visconti:' Cahiers du Cifll'ma, nu. 9:l (\Iarch 1(57). pp. 1-10. Durgllant. RaYllIOlld Jean Relluir. Berkeley: l'niwrsity of California Press,
197i. Edgerton. Gary R. (I'd.) Film aT/d Ihe :lrts ift .~\'fl/biusis - .4 Resuurce Guide. :\ew York: Greeuwood Press, 1988. EHis ..lolUl "The Literary Adaptation - An Introductioll." Screefl. vol. 23. UO. 1 (~Iay/Julle 1(82). pp. :3-5. Enckell. Mikat'1 .. 'Citizen Kane' alld Psydloanalysis" - Film alltl Psychoanalysis (Ill). The SC(Jf/(lillociaft Psyl'iw(lfla(}'lic Rel'iell'. vul. 8. no. 1 (1985). pp. 17-~H. Eko oc//(llerskeft. Ekt'nas: Sijderstrillll & C: o. 1979. Spe[!elskrift. Ekt'nas: Sodt'rstrolll & C: o. 198i Cllaruier. ,Ios~ Luis Rolwrlo /lossellilli. Tran,;laled by Elisabeth Call1l'rlln. :\ew York: Praeger. 1970. Ilay. Janws The Passillg oItl/(' /lex - Poplllar Film Cllllure ift 11(/(\' ift Ihe Fascisl tra. BloolllillgWII: IlIdialla l;niversilY Press. 1987. I~haghpollr. You"sef I i'scollli - Le seflS 1'1 riff/age. Paris: Ediliolls de la differellet'. 198i. Kinder. Marsha 'The Subwrsive Potelllial of the Pseudo-Iteratin'." Film Quur/er(r. \'01. i:t 110. 2 (Willter 1989-40). pp. ~1-16. Lialldral-Cuigue,. :-lUZalllle Le,~ Im(l[!t~s dll tefllps darts Vaghe SIdle dl'IrOn;a de l,ucltiflU Ils('uflli. Pari,: I"'
_-..
.)
)
Asso<'iaziollt' Philip \Iorris Progt·lto Ciut'IIIa. Cl'lItro Sl-'t'fiUlt'llIale di Cillf'matogratia & Cinell'ca l'Iiaziollait·. II)t)J. fi's('oflti I' il neoreaLisf1lo - Ossessione, La term trema. Bellissima. Vellezia: Marsilio t'dilOri. 1990. :\lorrisst·lIe. Brul't' .\'01'1'1 (/1/(/ FillII - Essays in Tu'u Genres. Ulliversity of Chicago Press. (:hicago. 198:>. :\iehok Bill (cd.) MOI'ies and J/etlwds. \'01. 11. London: l :lIi\'ersity of (:alifornia Press. 198;:). :\owell-Smith. Ceoffre\" LltchiflO I i.H·onti. :\orwicil: Seeker .\: Warburg/13Ft 1973.
Overbey. David (I'd.) Spriflgtime in /ta(r: A Reader on ;\'eu-Reu/islll. Lowloll: Talisman Books, 1(n8. Partridge. Colin Senso - 1isconti:~ Film and Soitu's .\"ul'elLa -.1 Case StlU(Y in tlte ReLation betu'eefl Literature ami Fi/m. Lewiston: Edwill Mellt'lI Pre~s. 19() 1. Ranvaud. Don "Senso: :\Iastt'rpien' as \Iindidd." J/oflth(r Fi/III /Julletin (;\pril 198:~).
Renoir. Jeau .I~\' Life (lnd J~\' Films. Transhtlt·d by :\onnan Dt'nny. London: C:oliins. 1
Salmi. Hanuu Hukum ja historia. 1Ie1"inki: Painatuskeskus Oy. 199;). Schifano. Laurenel' Luchifw I i'scunti - Les fe/u: de La passiun. FlalllIllarioll. (1987) I11S11.
Ser\'adio. Caia Luchiflo I i'scoflti - A Biography. l,ondou: \Ioudadori. 198~. Siuyard. :\eil Filmiflg Litemtllre - The Art of Screefl Adaptatiun. London: CroOln llelm. 1Q8h. Sorlin. Pierre The Film iflllistory- Restagiflg thl' Past. Oxford: Basil Blackwdl. 1980. Stirling, :\Ionica .. \ Screefl u/ Tiffl/, - .'\ StlU(l' of Lllchino liscunti. l\ew York: lIarcourt Brace Jovano\"ich. 1979. TOIlt'l1i. Clara Ll1chillO lis('onti. Londtlll: Cohlllloia Books. 1987. "illiell. Brullo I iSC()flti. Translated into Italian by Saverio Esposito. \Iilano: Vallardi. 1987. Wagllt'/', Ct'uffrt·y The .\"ol't'l alld thl' Ciflt'ftUl. Londoll: Tantivy Press. 197:>. Wieht'. Rogt'f E. "Of Art and Deatit: Film and Fiction V('r~iolls of Ut'llth ill I enice." Litt'ratllrelFilfII (jwlrt"r(L vol. 1h. no. :J (1988). pp. ~ 10-1 S. Williallls. Christoplwr (ed.) He(lli.~ffl and the Cint'ftlll. LOllllolI: ROlltlt'dW' & Kt'gan Paul. 1980. "·indder. Robt·rt Burt Lancuster. LOJl(\oll: (:Olllt·1. 1<>8-+. "·ollell. Pt'h'r Signs am/.Ht'w/ing ifl the (·illema. I ,olldoll: St'ckt'r awl Warburl!. ill a;;~ociation with Briti"it Film III~titute. ( 1t)6<)) 1(J7~. Zeflirdli. Fralll'o The Autobiography o/Fmlll'O Zej]irelli. Londoll: \\"t'idt'ltlddt & :\il'o),,)I1. 1
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L1TERATlIRE. HISTORY. AND CLJLTLJRAL IIISTORY Bt'rlill. Isaiah Ilussiall l1/1'lIkers, I janllolllbwllrth: Penguin Books. (1 (79) 198-1. Borchlllcyer. Diett'r aidUlrd lIawwr - Theory llful Theatre. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1991. Branca. \'ittol'!' (I'lL) iJiziofUlrio eritieu della lettemtllm italiww. Torino:
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(;iOHlIllli Leopardi. Edinburf.(h: Edillbllrf.(h l'lIi\'cr~it y Pn·~s. 1977, Clark. \Iartin J/odt'rnha(r f'oJ71-19~:!. LOlldoll: LOIlf.(llIan. 198-1. Dill. Marshall. Jr. Germany:.4 Modl'm History. Ann Arbor: t 'Ili\'ersity of \lichif.(an PI'!'ss. 1()h 1. Lt'lIcttt'. Lt'ranl ,Varmlirt' Discuurse -..In Essay in J/ethoc/. Trallslated by Jallc E. Lewill. Ithat'a. :\.'1'.: COl'lldll'lIivl'rsity Press. (1980) 1490. (~I·rould. Danit'l ("d,) .Heluc/mllla. :\I'W York: :\ew York Lit"rary Forulll. 1980. Lodt'froy. Vin('('lIt l1w Jjrwlltltic Genills 0/ I en/i - Studies o/'-;ele('tl'd (Jp('f'as. \'01. I. LOlldoll: Victor Gullallcz. 1975. Hallliltoll. :\igl·1 nit' Brothers ,Hwlf/. :\ew Ha\'('II. COIIll.: Yair l'lIi\,ersity Pn'ss. 1 ()79. Ilt'lIlJlJillf.(s. F, \\' . .I. (t't!.) The :If(e u/Realism. Ilarlllolldswonh: Pellguill Books. 197-1, Ilern·. Franz Llldtrif( 11. SlIl\lgart: Deutsl'he \'erlaf.(s-Anstalt. 19Sb. Kt't:fe. Terry French Et'isteT/tialist Fiefiun: CharlKinf( Moml Perspeetil'es. LOIldOli: (:rooltl 111·!rn. 1()Sb. Killlbell. Davit! H, B. ladi in the ,Ige u/llalianlluflUlfIlicism. (:alllbridf.(e: Calllbridf.(t· l :niwrsity Press. 1981. KOf.(an. :\ornl
The / IisloriCllI,VuI'el. Translated hy Ilannah alld Stanley \Iitchell. Ilarlllondsworth: PeHguill Books. 1969. "lack Smith. D"Hi" h(l(\·. ..t J/udem Pre~~. 19;)1),
II'clol' t'/lIlfllll'l.
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('(11'0111' alU/ lite /(isurp:illll'III(J. LUlldoll: Oxford l'lIi"'rsily 197 \. \lallll. Thomas Pro (l1U/ ('olltm 11 tlWlI'r, Trull"latt'd by :\lIall Buddt'lI. I.Olldoll: Fallt'r alld Falwr. I Cm;). Leidt'II 1If/(1 Griissl' dt'" .Heister. Badell Bad,·Il. 197-1. Sclwpelllullwr. Stockholm: BermaIlII-Fiseht'r \·erla/;!. 19;:W. \Iaurois. ,\llIln; The (jllest .fiJl· ProllSt. Trallslated hy Lerard Ilopkilb. Ilar1ll()JIII~wortll: PI'II/;!uill Books. (19;)0) ]I)b2.
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SlI'l/(lIwl alld the.~ge of.Yapuit'oll. :\pw Ymk: (;ollllllbia l'lIiwr~il~ 1977. ~Iay('r. Halls Thomas J/wul. Frankflll1 alii \Iain: SlIhrkalllpf V .... lag. 1930. \Id~anh\". Palrick COl/illS. London: I la III i,.,h Ilalllillon. 193:2. Paeitici. Sf'rgio The Modem ituliclII ,Vol'el/;"Of1l Capwuw to To;;;;;. Carbolldal/': SUlllhern IlIiIlois l:ni\"er~ily Pn'ss. 197~1. Pilcher. Ilarwy The ('hekho/' Play - .,1 .Yell" illte'l)f·etlll;oll. Berkt'lpy: llliwrsil y of Califurnia Press. 1973. Praz. \Iario The llulIlclIItir AgolI.)·. Tran,.,laled by :\nglls Davidson. LOlldoll: Fonlana Library (19:1:3) II)()h. Prendergast. Chrislupher Ra/zar. Fietioll (/1/(1 J/dodrwllo. :\"\\" York: Ilollllt', and \Ieier. 1973. The Order of Mimesis - ilal;;uc. ,'jtt'lIdhal. .\"er/'o/. F/cwber/. :\t'w York: Calllbridge LlliversilY Press. 193(). Revel. kan-Francois Oil ProllSt. Tramlall'd by \Iartin TllflH'll. I,Olldoll: Ilalllish Ilallliltoll. 197'2. Hicoeur. Paul The RillI' o/Jletllplwr- Jlulti-disniJlillwyStuciies (~(the ('relltiulI 01 Jleallillt{ il/ Lal/gu(/t{e. Translall'd by Hollt'rt Cz('rny with I\:alhleell \lcLaughlill alld Johll Coslello. S.J. Londoll: l :niversily of Torollto Press. 1473. Time al/d .,"arm/i/·e. Trall,.,laled by I\:alhlt'ef) \kLallghlill allll Davit! p,'lIallt'''' Chicago: l'nin'rsily of Chicago Pre,,:;. vol. I. 193:3: vol. 11. I WH: \"01. Ill. 198.3. Seiler. Jacl(lIt's TexI to .-\Ido Cicl'OliIli'" rt'cordillg of C~sar F rallck' s Prelllde. Chorale III/d Fugllt'. E\I/ C O()9- 10755. Shallllck. Hoger Proust. London: FonlaIla/Collins. 197.... Sta"sinopololls. :\sianna .1/ari(/ Callas - The 11 O/l/all behilld the Legend. :\ew York: Silllon aJl(I Sdlll,II'''' 1981. Sleint' ... Georgt' . 1ft er Babel- ,1.~/)I'c/'~ of /,(/Ill{lIage alld Trallsllltioll. LOlldon: Oxford l'lIiYl'rsil\' Pn',.,s. ]I)"!;). TayloL .-\. J. P. The J/absbllrl{ ,Hullarch.,· I ~UCJ-ICj I..,. LOlldoll. (]lJ-t8) lI)b 1. Thotly. Philip .-llbert ('CUIIIIS. London: \lal'lIIiliall. 1f)39. Tuliol'h. John Cheklwl': .-1 Struc/uralist StIlC~l'. LOlldoll: Mal'lIlillall., 1980. Whillield . .I. H. .-I Shurt Histury oII/llliwl Literatllre. London. 19bO. WiIlSIOIl. Richard ThuIIIIII; .HWIII. The J/akiflg uI all .,Ir/is/ /') is-If) 1i. ;\I'W York: I\:1I0pf. IllSl, \1ay. Gila
Prp~s.
EDlTIO:\S OF THE 'OVELS. SHORT STORIES. AM) SCREENPLHS :\ri~tar('tJ.
C. ja Caralwilli. C. ("d.) .. dilll('f', II)'B.
I/o('('()
I'
i sllOi ./;·(ltel/i. Holo)!lIa: Cal'llI'lIi
Cain, James \1. The Fipe Great ,VOI,e!S of jallles M. Cain. London: Picador. (1981) 1985. Cavallaro, C. B. (ed.) Senso. Bologna: Cappelli editore, 1977. Cecchi D'Amit-o, Suso. &, ViSCOllli, Luehillo A la recherche du temps perdll scenario d'apres /'a'lll"re de JlarceL Proust. Editions Persona, 1984. Call1us, Albert The Strunger. Translated by Stuart Gilbert. New York: Vintage Books. 195-+. D'Annunzio, Gabrit'le L ·/lIflOzente. \lilano: Arnuldo Mondaduri editore, 1986. Doswyevsky. Feotior Stories. Hhite Sights. Translated by Olga Shartse. Moscow: Radllga Publishers. (1971) 19K~. DlInn, Esther C10udman Eight Famolls t1izabethan PLays. i\ew York: Modem Library. 1932. Ferrara. Ciorgio (I'd.) Lm/wig. Bologna: Cappelli Editore, 1973. Mann. Thomas Death in J/>1/ice and Other Stories. London: A Landmark Edition. 198;3 (1'>71) 1<)82. Doctor Fwtstm. Translated by 11. T. Lowt'-Purter. London: Seeker &, Warburg, (19i9) 1909. Miller.. Arthur ('ollected PLays. London: Seeker &, Warburg. (19.">8) 197i. Miceiche, Lino (ed.) [I,jorle a rellezia. Bologna: Cappelli Editore. 1971. Pimer. Ilarold The Proust Screellplay. London: Eyre Methuen. 1978. ProwsL Mared Remembrance of Things Pa.~l. Translated by C. K. Scott MOIlcrieff and Tef(~Il('e Kilmartin. Vol. I. New York: Vintage Books, 1982. Renzi, Renzo (ed.) Lt' .\'oui Bianche. Bologna: Cappelli Editore. 1957. Tomaso Di LaIllpedusa. Ciuseppe The Leopard. Translated by Archibald Colquholln. Lonr/on: Han·ill. (1988) 1993. Vl'rga. Ciovanni / MaLal'ogLia (7111' house by Ihe medlar Iree). Translated by Judith Landry. Sawtry: Dedalus. (IQ8."» lY91. Viseonti. Luchino AngeLo. Edited by Rene de Ceccatty. Rome: Editori Riuniti, 199;~.
INTERVIEWS Ari"tarl'u. Guido Ilelsillki. Octuber 5. 1988. In Italian. Interpretation by Elina Suolahti. Brulletta . Cian Pit'ro Ilelsillki. Ft'hruary i. 199:!. In English. PublisheJ in Filmilwllll ;V9:!. Cen~hi D' '\mieo. Su~() Home, Septemher H. 1988. In ElIglbh. Published ill Fillllihullll 2!S1). Mt'dioli. Emit'O Or\,it·to. Septt'mber \:!. \4H8. III ElIgli~h. Published ill Fdmihllllll 2/89.
Index
A.. hard. Mar.... !. :H .4dagietto (!\Iahln Fifth Symphony). l()i.... 7. 171. 2Hn5;\ .4da",u.3 .. After tilt' Full. 2371150 4idu.02 Albaeh-Rt·tty. Rtl.emarie ("seud. Romy Sehut'idcr). 33. H;~-i, 176 Aldu. C. R.. see Graziati. Aldu AJdrich. Robert. 85 Allieri. Vitlorio. 52 .\lialldlo. Carlo. 65 Alicata. Mario. H ....5. :\1. 86 Allies Psycholo~it-al Warfare I:lnllll'h. ;12 A I'ombrp des jeulle. filles ell/imrs. 209 Altellburg .. r. Alida ..taria (pseud. Alida \"alii) .... 58. 00. 70 Amure e Psicllf' gia ..ellti. 257u53 AlIdcrsou . CarolYIl. 193 AJldnolli. Giuli~. 2h AJldrc\\. Dudley .......5. 19+-.'). 197 AlIgelo.8 alllhropoJllurphit' l'iut'lIla. () I. 03. 116 IUlti-fa.dst/allli-fascism. 8. 2;;'. ;~2. 09 .... 70 AntnJldli. 1.allra .... 215 AllIonioni. Michelangelo. 10--2. 20. :33 ... 9 Appia. A.1olphe. 159 ApPllllt; SII /iII f"lIu d; lTOIHW". 00 Ar.-idia('oni ...\Illollio. 225n80 Aristar('o. (;lIitio .... 47. 70. 81. Bt>. Ilh. HlB. 190. 2H. 227nl07. 2:l0n ..:i Ari.lollt·. ;lO. liB Arme •. Ro\,. 5 Am ... Tho;ll1h. :; I 4s JUII l.ik,· It . .-, I Alld .. n. \\\slall }llIgh. 1;10 .-\ue, Hartlllalln \·'HI. 17:i .4n·e"(llrtl. I,'. 103 Ba.. h. Johall St·[,a,liall. H9. 15 ......;) 13adalut't·o. \i .... la. I U7. I .. t> B.uloglio. Piel ro. ;32
Balazs. B~la. 1'1 ... 217 Balddli. Pio. :15. 2321173. 2".Jn .. 7 hall.·!. .')1 .... 2. H2 Balzat·. Hontlrr .1.-. 102. 179. 191 .... 2.20'1 BarhareUi. (;ior/-.';o (!,s{,lId. Ciurgiune). 110 Barbaro. l·mberto. 11,5:1 Barber uf Se/·ille, The. 200 Ba,sani. Giorgiu. h+-;'). 8 .. Buul.. "fCllslo;:u. 2:i2noO Ballleship Polelllikill. 227nl 05 Balldclaire, Charles. 211 Bazin. Andre. 27. 29. 195 Bealllllarehais. PielTl'-Augllslill Caroll dc, :H Bct'lhuven. Ludwi!( van. 10h B.{01'l' the Re/'ulllt;OIl. 2:1(1JI .. 9 Hellissillla. 5i....5 . .')7 ....B. 00, 97.101. 189 Bd!. Mane. 120. 208 Bdlon:io. !\tan'u, 2:1011 .. 9 Benziwlllli. Alessantlro, 191:\. 2:l811b9 Bt'rg. Alhall. Ib:l B.·rger. 1It>IlIIut.", I::\:i. 17h. 187. 2UH B"rglllall, IlIgrid. 58. bb. 1.. 8 B"r1ill. Isaiah, I tjo Benne!. Albert. 78 Bt'nuUlos. Gcorges. 195 B,·rnsteill. HellT\'. h B,·rlOhll'ci. Bern:'rt!n. 2Jbll .. tJ B'·yl... "Iari.. -Henri (pseud. SWlIIlhul). hO. IHtJ. 190. 2:lll1 .. h Hiwu'u (' "('rv, 10, 27 Ili,:n·l., 11/i,j. The, 27 .... 1:\ Bislllurk. 0110 \nll. 17 ......5. 1110 . IH .. Bixiu. (; .. rolulllo. h8 Bizt·l. (; .....p',. 1 10 l:Ui.J;-,t'lti~ AIt·S!"lallUru. :!:!. r)~-5. 57 IJor('","';" 70. H2 BClgurd.·. Dirk. HI). thl BClhmlulII1. Ilursl Paul (p"·U(1. 11111',( 1'. HO"I). u. HO Huil0. ArriJ-to. hi BuilO. (:allliIlCl. h-+ .... "' BCllogllilli. \1auro. J:lO
I:\OE\.
B.. nilpartt>. :\al'olt'oll. riu (Black I'rill(,('). J;~:! Buull'z. Pinr... l:lO Bowles. Paul. hh BmTe. Willialll. :; I BU~Ulll. Ja\ (;ould. I h:!. 111:\. I'J() Br~ndu. \I~r1ulI. t>fl. :!03
Uru<Jllt".
(;t'or~I':'.
1;;9
Bntllll. Eva. :!::l'JII:!:\ Bre"u,\. Hol ... ". PI:). :!-+-+II:r: Brook. 1'•. , ..... :!-+flllfl:! Bn ... kllt"r. AlltOIl. " Bnllll'tta. Ciilll Pi.,ro. -+. I')t) Hw/dl'llbrooks. H:!. 1-+(>. 131 Btlljud. Lui,. () Butur. \\i.·h .. L :!Oh Cain. Janll·'. H. I b . 14;;. :!:!:~II-+:) (:ilhi ...., du (:i",'lIlil. :Ih Calill/lai. Clara. 13. :!O I t:alclw .. 11. Erskint". :H (:alla,. \Iaria. ():~. 1:11 Call1ll,. AII ... r1. :!():!. :!O.')-':'. :!-+.'i1l-+7 (:al/llls. Fr.u ... i' .... :!O;; (:allalt·tto. :\IItollia. :!:1711.'):\ (:apnl. hallk. 11 (:apIlHna. Llli;.d. I:! (:ardinaJ.·. (:llIlIdia. 3'J. I:!O Car.. y. Jo~ct" (1"l'1I01. \Iallury Jay). <) (tuilu lII(J/ltlwlll. <J CUrt/It'll. I 10 Caru~. \Ia",·d. 11 (:arr.. tta. DOllalU. :1:1 (:an·ii'rl'. kall-( :taudl'. :!-+(lIlb:! Carsalli!!a. (:.\1.. I:! Carti,'r. \Iax. 10':' (:a,,,·Ualli. H.·IIat ....-,tr-: (:a, our. (:alllill.,. 3:! (:.·.· .. hi. Etuili ... I'): C,·.·d,i. Ir.\lIli .. u. S'bU. -+. flO. fl-+-.-). :0. lOO. IIH. I Ofl-:. I :!O. ):\ I. H5. I::!. 17:\-+. I'J:. :!O.'. :!()/I-IIJ. :!:!31175. :!:I.)II:!II. :!-+:\II71l. :!-+.'II-+' CI'UO ,uitt·. (:-lIliIlOr (Ba .. h). 15-+ (:,,"tro Slwrilllt"llIalt· (:ill.'lllalOl(rali .. o. 10. ;,:1. :!:!:!,.:I'J Cha, ... 1. Cal>ridlt' (Co .... ). lJ. (:hal'i ..... 11'·IIri. fl:! Charit'llla)!II'·. 1111 (·harl,·'-/wus,' u( Partlla. n",. :!:II 11-+11 Challllall. St"·I;"'U ... 'I. :1') Chl'khm. Alii 011. flO-:!. :'1. lOO Ch .... al. Pi'·IT!·. 1-+. :!:!:!II:1:1 Chiarilli. Lui)!i. 10. :!,-11. II:! ('hi"'''''1I .-\1''' l,ouk;II.1! (/1 { .'. 1/11'. :!:I Chri,tiall D"IIlotTali .. Parf\. :!h-: . .'i I. .-,:1. h'J70. 10-+ (·hr;.,1 .'ilul'I"''' U",/i. 10;,
a'
(:illlaro"L I)ollwlli .. u. hO (:imillo. I\lichat"1. :!:!ollllh Cinl'cilliL I\, 5-+. 5;:-)-(). 197. :!:!:!II:N Cillt'lIIa.9. I\. H-5. :I\. :1:3 C;/lt'lIIa lUllmpul/wrjicu, 11. 1-+. :lO. ;)1 Clark. \\artill. 10 Ut-Illell'- Ht'lIe. :!Oll COI'II''''I. Jt'a, .. O. :H CU/l"'d;,, hl/lI/u;/lt'. P) I CUllllllunist Par,,'. :3-+-:;. h'l-70 Co//(I('II/III'c/ uj-tiIOIW.
n .... :!:~(",-+IJ
t'olltil(urill)!/collfiI(IIratitlll. :10. I HI (',,"lwl;lI; slid. 10;, CUIll'ers(/lioll P;n' .. (I}raz). ):\:! COlll'l'rsul;UIl P;('c(' (Vis...",!i). \0 \. t:1:!-:1. 133.137.170-1 ('0.", fili, .~·;/Ullm." HI;') (:rai)!. Euwanl (;onloll. 159 Crai)!. \\it'ha,'1. 1:!0 Cri:-,pi. FraJ1t·t·~(·o. h: (:ri,taldi. Frallt'o. 11 <J ('1';1;(' ur Po," of /),,('(ul"IICt,. :! 1-+
""I
Dali. Salvad .. r. :i I I)' .\lIIi..... F('dd,·. :!-+:lll 711 1)'.\lIIi,'''. SiI\'O ..,:! /)(/1111 ...". Th('. \o1-:!. 107. t:~5. HO. I-+:!. 1-+.-,-0. HIl. I;;O-\. 15-+-5. I':!. 17'l. 11l:1-4 D' Allg"I". Saku ..')-+ DWli,:Ii. bUlIlll ..,)Il IL\lIl1ullzio. Cabri..!e. :! 11- \.,. :! IIl-I'l. :!:~Illl() I l)a.'·;1l lIlt' COl/llln·• .-t. K H /)mlh ill 1"Il;n' (\Iallll). 15;;--:'. 1511. IIlI. Ih9 0('(/111 ill Il'llin' (\'i,'·Ollti). 107. I-+:!. \.,0. 1,-,5. lo\' IIlK 171-:!. IIl-+. )117. :W:. :!\O. :!I-+. :!11l. :!-+III;-':1. :!-+:!1I57 /),,(/Ih ura Jml .\Iall. nll'.9:! t1 .... ad,·,;.·,·/d .... at1.·II'- hI. IJ:!. \''i-+. 1:;9. 1-:'1:!. :!O-+. :!II-:!.:!H D,' Ca'l'i,·ri. :\kitl,'. 70 D,' Lallfl·lItii,. Dillo. I:I:!. :!O;, D,'It'IIz('. (;i1II',. :!:~ D.,loII. Alaill. 'JO. 10:. :!O.). :!Oll D.· \\illl·. C,'dl BoO :!:!:!II:!O /)"mier IUIlr/HIIII. L". H. :!:!:!II:lJ D.. H"b.,rto. F"d"ri ..... 3., D.. Sallti,. (;i .. ".'I'I"·' 10. I:!. 1-+-:;. :!:!. :11. :!:!:!,dh. :!:!JII-+O 1>'- :-iallli,. i'a''1"alillu. I 0:1. I hll D,· Sica. \i"ori ... :!7 ..,):1. hO. 1:10. :!;loII-+'J D,·sid .. ri,,,. 'Ill 1)"I'I1's f,;II'O\·.,. I'll.,. 11 Dia~hilt·\ _ S"'rgl'i \'011. j:.! /);w" III (/ (·()/IIIII,. Pr;"sl. 1'1.; Di,·,;·i .. il. \Iarlt'/Il': u. H'I 1)11('101' /-',1/1.\111.\. 1-+ I. I t.:l. 1110. :!-+ I 11:;-+
L\DE\
Dolet· I'illl. La. Htl Do" Curlu.•. b:!-:l. :!;I(m'HI DOlliz,·tti. (;al'tallo. 5i Do,ton·Ysky. F\"Odor. I OS. I i(1. I:> I. HN . . 11)7~.iO(). 231)1122 Due Foscari. I. 02 Durl!"ant. RaymolHL 7 D\I\"iyi.. r. Juliell. H
Eill,;lI·in. AlIlI'n. J:i9 Eis~nst~in. Sergei. b. i7 /:J,·clra. I:W /:Jisir d·ol1wI"I·. L '. 5+-:> ElIis. Johu. 19:1 [bacsser. Thoma.. 1 17 Ellck,.l!. \likae!. I. 95. 99. 1'17. :!Ol). :! H. 219 Ent .. \aziollal .. Irlllustrie Ciut'mato!!ralidll'lI.· (E\Ie). 10 Erha \'isconti di \lodrone. Carla. 85, 98--1) Eroica. 17:-1 EsperlmPlllo. or lire. 8 ""isll~utialism/t'"i,tl'lltial. 20. 2:1-i. ~12. Iltr 7. I:W. 125. Ul. 187. 2(}2. 2(H. 207
Chioll<'. Ric,·urdo. 00 Ciallllllona. A/l:IIt·,,·. :15 Ciullnilli. Ciallcurlo. liP. :! 13 G idl', Alldr". 15i Giocofl([o. L". hi Gior~oJIt'. set.' Gior,.do Burharelli Glomi di Clona. ;12-:1 Cirardot Alllli.,. 103. 2011 Cirotti. \Ia",imo. 15 Ciuliano. Sulvator... ;)0 Cluck. Christoph Willibald. :! (.') Codllrd. J,·all-I.u<". 192. 20h Cod .. frov. \"in<'l'II!. 72 COl·tlll'. :Iohallll \\"olfgall!!. I iO Corky. \laxim. 1.') 1 Cram,,·hi. Alllllllio. h9. Ill. HO. 2:1 I lIi:1 Grolld IIIl1sioll, 71,,'. 9
Crallg.·r. Farl~y. i. hh. :h. 2311112 I Grayt'\". F.-malld. 22211:i:-l Grazi~ti. Aldo (pst'ud. C. R. Aldo). Oh. 2:.!'?IIIO;l (;reuzI·. J"lIn BaptistI'. 92 Gri,·m. Hdmut. H8 Cuarilli. Alfredo. :n. ;,11 (;udd~lI. VOII (prof,-ssor). 17;;
Falstaff. oi. Foeismlfasebt. 0-7. 10-1. 2:>-7. :l:l-i. i:l. 53-i. h8--70. 81. lOi. H5. 222u:-I9. 22iu5i Fattori. Giovauni. 2:12nhO Ft·lIini. F.. d .. rico. 10:3 hltrint'lli. Cian~ria('Omo. IH hm·ri. \lar('O. 60 F..rr.. TU. \\" ilh. i8 F..sto Campa·uil,.. Pasquale. IOh Fifth CO[UI1/I/. The. :n Fifth .~l""phuII.l· (\Iahler). lhi-:>. 2i 1n5:3 Fisl ill His Puckd. 23hni9 Foreas. Spiros. 107 Furs,' '1ue si forsI' '111/' 110. :!:18nh I Ford. john (playwright). 237n5i Ford. Johu (lilm dirt'''tor). 11 FUllr Sights uf a Drl'''lIIl'r. 2iin:17 1'0111" Steps ill Ifl·w·I'II. 22 J/JUrth Spllp}WII.1' (Mahlcr). Ih7 Francioliui. Giaulli. 58 Fralll'iosa. \lassilllo. IOh. Franl"k. C':,ar. I. 120. 120-1:1. :!:17n5:1 Fn·lId. Si!!mUIIII. 1S9 J11 r i:1ISl., 1hh
idiol. The, \05
(;ar"o. Cr .. tu. 208 Garhu!!lia. \Iario. 17::1 Carfi,.ld. JollII. 222n33 Carihaldi. l;iIlSt·ppe. 08-1). 82-5. 88. 'Ii. 'Ih Cuml'l!. Ta,'. 22:!n2:3. 22;ln45 Gerburl der' Tru!!odie "US dem G..IS/I· dt'/" .HII.fik. liO Cent'tw. (;,·ranl. i:!. 91 C,·or!!... St .. fall. 211
Industri .. CiIlt'lIIl1tograliclll' Italian.- (I. C. I.). 15 Ingrao. Pi.·t ro. 10 hIlWCI'II/. Tht'. 101. 1.,0.207. :!09-12. 2H. 211)-2() hlllOl'''II/'·. L·. 211-1:! III/emll/iollal, 711t'. ;H /0 ("he /lOll [';1'0 St'IlZt, 'f', 1:!: bhllghpour. You",.f. 2. W . .-,1. 77. 79. '11. 97.1)9.171. 17'1. 19h. :!:I1 n;,h
Hall'\". Hill. 200 lIaud~pill. Didi .. r. 2 I;) Haul'tmllnn. Cerhllrd. 211 Hawks. Howard. SS Hay. James. 11. Hllwz. Frwlt:t'.cu. 2:1211hO Ilehhel. Friedrich. PH Ht'ill!'. Hl'illrieJl. 7i Ht'mingwuy. Emt'st, :l:l. 22;'1175 Hl'llIming •. F. W. J., 188 Ht'nz.·. I{an,; W'·rller. HO lIt'raditus. 12"7. 2:1111159 Ilintlt'nIHlg. Paul VOII Bt'IIl'ekendorf ulld VOII. H7 Hit)'· ... Adolf. HO. H7-8. H9, 18:1, 2;19n2:1 H"ffmilll. Dustill. 208 Hull' .-;illller. The. 172 IIn~s!. Horst P.• see Bohnllllllll. Horst Paul Hous" 0f.4mIUIW/·. 151 House I '"d"r /hl' Medial" Tree. The. :35. :3119. 23ill2i Huysmuns. Joyis. 211
I:\DEX Jam'. '-Iauri ... ·. I ;:;:t :!:l
I~:!
Kandin,I<\. \·a,ili. 1:;11 Kt·.·ft·. T,·~n·. :!Oi Kdl.·r. HeI.:,1. I:;~ K'·lIIl'ski. I.orrain. Hh KiJltI"T, \lllr,lw. i~ Ai"da"='·I/t·II. I Hh KIe.·. Paul. I:;l) Ko .. h. (:arl. <) Koch. I'il'lru. :lJ Koltlerhol'f. H."It'. Ha Kra,kt'r. Hol ... n. ht> Kmu,. Karl. LW KruI'P' Alfn·d. Ht> LaCapm. DUlllilli,·k. q~. I i I. 1;,4-1 La FOlllaillt' . .lean d.,. 1:;"7 L .. gIIY ...lid,,·!.·. :;t> Lann.,I.·r. H"rt. HI>. n:1. I T:O l..aU~t· . .It·~:,inL :!:!~1l3:l
I.anuada ..\Ib,·no. :!() Lawn·II.·t'. D.II .. 1;)1> Lt·ga. Si,,"',1 nI. ~;I~II()O L,'op""'/, TIlt' (Toma,t) di Lall'llt·du,a). Hi Lt'''p,,,.,I. TI.,. (\"i,,'Ollli). h:!. H;I. K)-h. <)()-;I. l),')-7. 11:1. Ill). IH. I:;n. 1;'2, 15~. IH~. )11"7. :!IO. :!H. :!I'I-:!O L ..opardi. Cio,·olllo. 1:!1. I~h--H. ~3:!llhl I... vi. Carlo. hO. lOi Lialltlral-(;"ig'w,. S"zallllt·. I:!'J-;W. :!;PII.)t>. :!;I":'n:;H. :!:IHIl34. :!3l\nh I Lit'/wSII(lchl. I H:i. I H7 /.it'II .. IH:; Lifa ... S,·rg... h LoIIt'IIWi". 17~. IKi Lollohrigida. Cina. ;-li LOlllhartlo. (;offrl'do. 10:1 I.olldoll ..Iack. I.-li Lurt'n. Solia. lif'" Sdcolollt·. Solia Lo,ey. Jo"·ph. :!Ol) Loui, IX. 17i L"Hi, .\\"1. 17i L"chain·. (:ori"II". :2:2:211:3:1 tm/wip;. IO\. t:l:!-:I. 1;-)0. I:;i. 171-;1. 17;'. 17'1-HO. IH:I---+. :!OH-tl. ~i;)II;)" Llldwig 11. 1":':!-5 Luill'0ld.17:; Lukae,. C.'orf!. ;10. i 7-H. () I. 1\.,. '10. I;' I.
,,',,"I.
1'1\
Lux Fillll. h;1. hl>-7. ":' I .H"p;ic .IIUllllluill. \la~lIalli.
nil'. I i I. 17:!
AIIIlH. ;-)-l. :l?-t)
.\Iahl,'r. (;U,I",·. (.")(,. I h:!-;'. I ()"7. :2;I'III:!h. :2iO,,:;O
F"m"I,'. ~~~II:!O 'Iallarrne. Slrphan!'. :! 11 !\Iallory. Jlly. SI'I' .Io)"cc Cllrcy !\ialtill. L.. ollard. ~~5n54 Mallcini. Liliana. 57 Mangallu. Silvana. no-I. I;n ;\Ianll. H.. inrich. 1;:1'1. 15~. 150 ;\Iallll. Kalja. 15h 'Iallll. ThU"H.,. ~. ;,~. 10.,. 11 I. LI'I--i~. IH-(). lih. \;,1. \')i-7. 151J-()1. Ib;J. Ib5 . 171-2. IHO, IH;J, l'Jb. 197, :!II .\tauuiuo. Fra/lt"o. 5:!. (;~7. Ii:!. 17::1. 185-0. :!18. ~i;III":'H 'Iarai,. J,·all. 1'1'1 'Iareu,. !\liili .. "nr. 5. ;~H. i:!. ib. i'l. :!~71111~. :!;WII~ I ~;J;IIlH;1 .l/flr;" flllt! Ihe .I/a!(;('iwl. :;~. H~ .llar;" ,. if .Illlgo. Ii~ Mark,-r. Chrb. :!Oh .l/flrri,,!(,· of Fi!(llru. 111t'. ;H 'Iar,alli. (:IUllllia. I;H 'Ian. Karl. I ~o 'Ias-illt'. L",mid ... :;:2 \la,lroiauni. 'larn-lIo. I '1!l. ~05. :207.
.lIu/I' Will
rn.
:!~2u;l:;
.\la:-,troiHnlli. HIll-'~(-'ro. 1-;;i. :!~:!IlJ;)
'Iallt·oui. Gia("tllllo. I i5 'Iaupassall!, (;uy ,I<-. lq5 'Iaumi, . ..\",1,,'. 18H !'-Id :arlh\,. I'alrick. 20t> !'-I,·dioli. Ellri..... ~. 1Ot;-"7. \3~. lib. ~OH ;\I"ga Film. 1"7;.\ 1II,·lo,rrallla. 1:!-I:;. ~:2---+. ~7. ~'1. :15. 51. hl-:!. 7H-HI. 101-:!. IOh. 115-1'1. I'I~
'I,-Iru-( ;oldw\"ll-'I", .. r. I ":';~ '1.,yt-rhol.1. \··SI'mlnd. 159 .Ilia sulilllllilll' sl'i Ill, La. 1:.13 'lical ... (;iu,,,PI't'. 1~8 'lieci"h,'. Lillo. i-5. :! I. :!;I. ;P. ~ll. 44-3. i7. :;0. Ii~. 2illl-+7. 2~511~7 ;\liliau. Thumas. I ~;.I .. lill,·r . ..\nhur. 1O~). :!;PII;'j() lIIiUlI'si,. ;IO-~. 15:!. 191-~ \Iilllwlli. \"ill,·,-ult'. 117 \Iirullda. ba. SI'" Saml'it'lro. 111," 'lim. Jt'atl. :!H 'Ior~via .. \IIlt'rto. Ii. hO 'Iort-ili. Hilla. 'Iort!'\', Thomas. ;, I 'lorli;1I1. Fdix .\.. :2'1 'Iorri""tt,·. Rn" .... :!();j 'Iomr!. \rolfgallg ..\lIIad,-"s. ()O. 1:15 'I"IVI'\'. Lauru. :! I 'l"rn~'1. F. \\" .. i7 'hbil. Hollt'rr. \:10. 1:11). lill 'lu" .. lilli. Ht'lIilO. 'I. 10. :12. i:1. \i.-, 'lu""lilli. \"inorio. \0-11. I;)-Itl \llI . . . . nnT . . k" \1.111.· ... ,. l()h. I'""'()
J:\DE'\
Natoli. Dario. L!7n 105 Ilatttralism. nat ItrHli,ti". :31. -+7. (l1.'). 212 "'ajder. Zdzislaw. 78 Nannuzzi. :\rmanuo. 17:3 .\"I'I,ia. 10h. 170 lIeo-fas('ist. \U3-f. J:32 neurealism. 11. 2:>-:H. -+7. 52. S:3-f. 81-:3. 21-+ .Yibdullf!,"fI :jaga. 19-+ \it·hols. Bill. 228111 12 :\il'hols. Jack. 222n3:3 .\ighl uf tilt' LUllf!, A·lIi,·".,. '111<'. 1-+0 :\i.. tz,eh ... F riedrieh. I-+Il- 1. 1 h-+ .\"u £,·il.:-3-+ no""Ii,ti .. qualities ill films. 30. 40. 152. 179 \owell-Smith. (;,·offrn. ;;5. lIS-Ill. 1111. 123.128. L;b. ·lhl-2. 227n112. 228n 11 8. 2:35n3i. 2:3oniO. :HOIl:31. 2i2n50 Offl'IlLa..tl. Jal"qu"" 181l Oli\"ier. LaurenCt'. 2011 IJ""'"il. Jellllifer. 215 opera. "pI'rati... 0:3. 7'1. 1111 Or('sl,'. ;)2 (Jiff'U I'd f·uridin'. 21:; Or,ini. I mb ... no. I-+ll Oss('.<siolle. ll. 1-+-11l. 20-i. 21>. :11. J:3. ;):1. 7i. 189.207. 22:3n-+:3. 22in.;-+ 0/('1/0 (\·enli). h-+ Otto.17S Our 11 umm. 51l Paest'mio.ll-+
P"u,i.27 Par.. /Ils laribl('s. i.es. 3J-f Pari!!i. StefaHia. :~() Panri
I'rt'lldergast. (:hristuph"r. I Ill. 11) I Primipialli.lh pnwesso c1i "'Iaria Tllrtlowska. 11. :n Prosperi. Giorl(iu. uS Proust. l\larl't'1. I. n. /l;'), 1)1-2. nb. 15i . 102. Illll. 19h, 20;>. ~Wu. :!08-1 I. 211l PSI .. /t,;. 2:1'711;-):1 pII .... illi. Dano. I;, Pu .... illi. Gianni. \0. 12, H-I;) Pllt!o\,kill. \',,,\,010<1, o. :;:\ Pllft·e11. Ilemy. 51 Hafa .. ls()J1. Hoh. 22211:13 Hamplilll(. CharloHl·. Hll. lOll Hay. \Ian. SI'" Emmlllll",1 Hu,lnitsky reali.mireali,ti ... 7. 12-I:t lb. 22. 2:3. 21>. :!8-32. -+7. i4. 52. 1l0. 1l5. I/\. 11.;. 188-'1. I'JI-:t 212. 22inb2. 2:!:!n7:1 r .. alpolitik. 1l0. 17i. IllO H..d lIlId tll<' Hluck. Tilt'. '1-+ H"d Ril'"r, TIlt'. 5.; Ht'manllH·. Erich "'Iarill. I Si H"IIIf'fllbmlll"l' of T/tillg~ I"M/. I. I) I, I h2. 172. IllR 201l. 210 H.-noir. Jt'IIn. :-9. i I. 1<)5 r",i,I/IIII"', :12. :0 Hesnai,. Alaill. 20h He",,1. Jt·all-Franco;'. 1:3. Hicci. H.-lIw. 120 Hi ...... ur. Paul. :lU-1. 91. <J:;. 118. 152. :!:!;)II"?1 Hicordllll:;('. I .... 12h HI{!,o/f'l/o. 2.i Hi .. f.. ustahl. 1,l'ni. 1:\'1 Himbaud. Arthur. 211 His,' ,,(tll<' Tllird /("i,./t, Ti,t'. Ho rboriilllt·nw. h-+-.i, h:-:O.IlI-;). 'H, 'Itl-: Hohbt·-Grilh-t. Alaill. 20h /10 ...." lJml Jli., /lmfl...rs. 10 1-10. 11:l. 11 S. 11:-1). H2. 152. I <J(l-7. 2:j2nhl. 2:3iIl2-+. 2:\tm-+h Hol"li .. , S,1I11. ILl. Iltl-1\. 2:\;-'1.:32. 2:3tlll-+h /{Olllt'. (/1"'11
Ci(\'. 27
HOllduliulI. (;iallui ..'):!
H",aria T. IIH H..,ati. (;i'h"I'I)I'. 2-+ H..,i. Frlllln·,,·o. :17. I :HJ. 22tlll81> HO'"t'illilli. H"b,'rl ... 2:l. 27. ;-,:t :;11. hh. 11:1. 2:121170 HO~:"'Iini. CiiU'OIlIO :!OO H.. la. \ill". '10. I H H"tll. ,1""'1'11. Ll'I H"IUIIU ... (;i,h'·I'I .... hh H"dllihl.,. blln,allllt'l 11""lId. \1,,11 Ha~). h Hiihlll. E,.,hl. 1-+: ~(dllli.
111I1I1l1I.
:!;~qll:.!"?
,""(llrll/oH' f,'illliullo. :.!~hllah
~ah tlfori. Ht'lIatu.
I O~
I:\OEX Salllpi'·lro. It ...s (p,,·IIC!. Miralld" ba). :3:,\. 51l Salldra. I. IOI-:!. I:!:;. I:!C). 130. 1;\1.1. :!ti. :!IIJ Sal'ln" kall·Palll. :li S,·a~Ill·lIi. Aid ... I h S.·h.. IL Maria. I till Sdlt'IIt'r. Swn·lI. :!i;",5i Seltill,'r. j .. hallll ChrislOph Fri.,.iridl \'011, 1;)7 S.·hir..... Willia/ll L.. I ih S.·hliiJldorf. \" olkl'r. :!itmh:! S.. hu .. id.,r. HU/ll\'. s .... Hoot'/IIarit' AU,aeh· Hell" ' Sehop"lIha;I('r, Anltllr. lIli Sdllllllallll. Ho1)('rl. lilt) Sdlollherg. Arnokl. 15t1. lu:3-+ Sehiinhals. Alliredn. HIl S.. ieolou.·. Sulia (p"t'II.1. Suphia Lon'II), ~Ji S.·tI1 .. lIaro. HIX·.·o. 105 S('W"'i tli .\lil",lO. 105 S.'lha. :\Iario. :!h S"nsu (Boilo). t>i-i SI'IISU (\"isl'ouli). b:!-i. hh-:. t>'1-:' I. 7:3. :h. 71l.1l1-:!.1l5-7.1l'1. %-7. 1:3-+,150. IllO. 1Il:\, IIl'l. J!I:!. Illt,...7. :!J!/. :!:!7111O;3. :!i:!II:;7 a",i hll S,·mlldr.. i. :\\ario. ).;. :{:!. :!:!:!II:\:; S.. rvadio. Caia, ht>. 9'1. 100. HO S.,,·,'lIlh .~\·lIIpllO".\' (Bnlt'kllt'r). 77 Shak.·'Ilt'm·... Willialll •.) I-:!. tih. 1:;0--1. IIlIl Slta\\,. (;,'orgt' B,'mard. 15i Sltir.... , Willialll L. Hh Si('gfri"d Ic~rll. 18h Si1-{lIon·t. SllllOIlt'. :!UH Sigllorilli. T.,le",a(' ... :!:\:!lIhO Si 111011. Cia II.!C , :!()h
r
SilllUII B{J("(,lllU't{ra.
h:!
Sill/olli" COllcalw,ll'. Ljl"l I/I"jo,. (~Iozal'l).
):3;; Sill\ard. :'IieiL I'-,:;-h. 19:3. :! I Il. :!i 11153 Sirk. DUlIgI",. 11 '7 S",IIIIII Will (,'olllormh. 8;; Sodl"".' ('I (;III1W,.rlW. :!OIJ SlIpru il ,.ill'll/lo tli 111/(/ bellt, dOIll/(/ sell/pito "'" 11/01111/""1110 sl'Po/,.r"/t' della IIIt·d,'sill/(/. I:!II Surd, j,·all. I:!O ....,'()rn/ll's find (;'rUIlt/('IlUr of HichllrtJ 11 (l!!"pr. Thl',IIl;\ Sl'al(lIl1olo. Canll..i .. , IO:! SpOlllilli. Ca'l'a,..·, Id SIt'ill., ... C.'or~.·. l'lh, :!iOIl:!1l Stt'",lltal. SI'" Bnlt'. \Iarit··llt'lIri St .. pl"",,,. :\il'ol.:. :!Oll-", :!ihllh:! Stirlillg, :\Iolliea, 'Ill. L!1. :!i.;lIi7 Slo,.i" degli (1IIIi,'hi po/w/i il,,/i(lIIi. I:!ll Slmll/!.'..r. Th" (Call1l1'). :!O:!. :!Oi-: Slmllf.f,t'r. Th" (\"b.· ..... i). I:!IJ. :!07. 2i,-",.',i ~..;,!.I\;II·I.~
I.~or. t,-)()
Slr!'('I<''''' ,\'''"1<'<1 /) ...
i"
Taltllltiiuser. pa. 185 Tardilli, IL 10;3 TI·lltpI'SI. TIlt'. laa Terru In'IIUI. La. n. :!S. :H-2, :\()-7. 39-+1. H. i8-51. .,):3-+.151. tIl9. :!:32Ilbl, :!3ill:!i T .. ,lUri. CiOV8J1lli. 10;) 11lir" '~:\'IlIpl/()"y (\Iahlt'r), ItJi-5 Tltirlt't'1t "'oIltt'II. :!OO Tltrel' Sistt'rs. bO--I Thlllin. Ingrid. I i8 Timt's. TIlt'. 116 Tis Pill' sit" 's a "hun·. :!:P n:;i Titam;s. 85 1'u/,,,(,("u Hoad. :3i Togliatti. Palmiru. :H. :; I. Bb Toma,i ,Ii Lamp,'dnsa. (;iust'pp". Ili-;;. 1l7, 91 TUlli, Il. il Tus('a. Lu. I). li To'l'anilli. Anuw. :!i:3n71l Tosi. Pi.. tro. 173 Tra"i::.illltt' illl·t'lI::.iollt'. \:\. ;\ll. i" Trawr,i. (;ialluillo Antolla. I) Trw·i"la. L". 25. t>:3 Trislw, ultd I.
1''
( III/'erl" /). :!II. 5;\, bO ( '"d!' I(/{II '(/. 71) llu/er the' ,"Ult 11/ }lolIIl'. 3t> la!!ht' sl..tlt' ""'{,Orsa. 1:!1. l:!h-7 "alii. Ali,la. see AItt'Ili.llrf(er. Aliua :\Iaria Venin' Film Ft-sti\'al. 10, 51. 10:\ ",'nli. (;il" .. """, :!5. bOo b:!-i, 7:!. lIb. li2. 11l:1. :!Jt>niu Vt·r!!a. (;im'amli. :-Il. I:!. 1;\. :H. :3;;-+1. ii. it>. ill. Il;;. 10 I. 1%. :!:!3in:!i ' .. ri,m. IL;l1. :!I:!. :!Ii " .. rlant'. I'alll. :! 11 ".,rI.,\. H.·lIallt!. I ia ',·slai,·. La. t>:l \'iet"r EII1IIHlIlllt·llIl. 'nl Vidulazzi. Hu.'('". 107 "idor. I\:illl(. I I I i,' !'uri.si!'",,,'. La. I Xh I i('/I' (mill Ill<' /lri.l.. 1 I tI~)
I:\DEX
\"iSl'Ullti. (;ill,,·pl .... 85. (Ill-I I \·i'COllli. Lu('hillo aristocratil' hacki!J'OIIIIIL h-8. ;:; I. () I. :h. 8S. 190.227117 hOlllosexualit\'. h. :H. :; I. lOO manist ollll ..;.k. 10. :H. 5(1--1. (r I. :h. 1'1(1-I. 229117. 2-+01l:1I 111'11 /'Ilutiu. 8:1.2:\211:0 \\ 'a;:lIl'r, (;,·of'fr.. ~. I I) I \\agllt·r. Hid.anl. n'l. 1-+2. I-+h. 17:-1-+. 18:1.18;~)
\\Ub'JIl. \"all. 21. 22:111-+1 alltl-+2 W,·a,o·r. William. \\ .·I ... r. (:arl \Iaria nlll. 1.. 2 \\..i'l'm. :\111011. Ill:! /I '·"dilllf, .Hwrh. (Stroh .. im). hO /I ,·dclillg :Hurch. hi D·:\mic.. \·i,,·ollli). h-+ \\ t·iL 1\111'1. h W.'rft·L Fralls. I:N /llIile .\i"hl.\· (Doswy",·,ky). 111<). JlI:.
n,.. n ... ( :.·....
2HII:P
/I hi/,· ,\ilf.ltl,' (\"i"·"'lIi). 11): Wielol'. Hog ..... 1:;7 W i Itle. Oscar. 2 I I Wilh..Jm I. 17;,. 1112 Willi"m,. '1'''1111''''''1'. ,,2. hI>. 22'1111 11 Willlli, .. h'(;ratl. 11'11111 (1'111"')' ]:I I. 1-+:1 11 ilch Hun"," Ali,.... 11,(,. 1:1(1--1 /I II('/It's, Th ... 1:\0-1. 205 \\·itf~f'lbteill. I~,ulwig. 1;,() W\,I .. r. Willialll. 11. 29
hab. William BlltI"r. 211
IUI1II" Tor/,·ss. 1:10 Zalllp". Lui;:i. "Il Zural"u"lm's .\i,,"1 SOIlIf.. I h-+-h. 1:0 ~
Za\'attilli. C",art'. 211. :;-+. 5S. 112 Zenir"'li. Frail ..... :\5. :P. " I Zillllllt'rlllallll. Paul. Ih2 Zola. Elllilt'. 1:;-+. JlI" Zw,'i;: . .:\1'110101. /;,-+ bwii!.Stdall. 1:\11. 1:;-+
